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University  of  California. 

FROM    THK    UJ8RARY    OF 

DR.    FRANCIS     L  I  E  B  E  R  r 

Professor  <.f  History  and  Law  in  Columbia  College,  New  York. 


THK   GIFT   OF 

MICHAEL    REESE, 

Of  San  Francisco, 
1B73. 


MANUAL 

MODERN 
GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY. 


BY 

WILHELM  PUTZ, 

PRINCIPAL     TUTOR     AT     THE     GYMNASIUM     OF     DUREN, 

AUTHOR    OF 

"MANUAL  OF  ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY,"  ETC. 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  GERMAN  BY  THE 

REV.  R.   B.  PAUL,   M.A., 

TICAR  OK  ST.  AUGUSTINE'S,  BRISTOL,  AND  LATE  FELLOW  OF  EXETER  COLLEGE, 
OXFORD. 


FIRST     AMERICAN, 
REVISED    AND    CORRECTED   FROM   THE    LONDON   EDITION. 


NEW-YORK : 
D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY,  200  BROADWAY. 

PHILADELPHIA  '. 
GEO.  S.  APPLETON,  164  CHESNUT-ST. 

1851. 


-02-8? 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1851,  by 
D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Southern  District  of  New- 
York. 


PREFACE. 


THE  present  volume  completes  the  series  of  Professor 
Piitz's  Manuals  of  Ancient,  Mediaeval,  and  Modern 
Geography  and  History.  Its  adaptation  to  the  wants  of 
the  student  will  be  found  to  be  no  less  complete  than  was 
to  be  expected  from  the  former  Parts,  which  have  been 
highly  approved  by  the  public,  and  have  been  translated 
into  several  languages  besides  the  English.  The  difficulty 
of  compressing  within  the  limits  of  a  single  volume  the 
vast  amount  of  historical  material  furnished  by  the  pro- 
gress of  modern  states  and  nations  in  power,  wealth,  sci- 
ence, and  literature,  will  be  evident  to  all  on  reflection ; 
and  they  will  find  occasion  to  admire  the  skill  and  per- 
spicacity of  the  Author  of  this  Manual,  not  only  in  the 
arrangement,  but  also  in  the  facts  and  statements  which 
he  has  adopted. 

In  the  American  edition  several  improvements  have 
been  made  ;  the  sections  relating  to  America  and  the 
United  States  have  been  almost  entirely  re-written,  and 
materially  enlarged  and  improved,  as  seemed  on  every 
account  necessary  and  proper  in  a  work  intended  for  gen- 
eral use  in  this  country ;  on  several  occasions  it  has  been 


IV  PREFACE. 

thought  advisable  to  make  certain  verbal  corrections  and 
emendations  ;  the  facts  and  dates  have  been  verified,  and  a 
number  of  explanatory  notes  have  been  introduced.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  improvements  alluded  to  will  be  found  to 
add  to  the  value  of  the  present  Manual. 

J.  A.  S. 
BURLINGTON  COLLEGE,  Jan.  2,  1861. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE. 

1.  The  conquest  of  the  Byzantine  empire  by  the  Turks    .  1 

2.  The  application  of  gunpowder  to  purposes  of  war,  and 

the  establishment  of  standing  armies             .            .  ib. 

3.  The  invention  of  printing                   ...  2 

4.  The  revival  of  the  arts  and  sciences        .            .  ib. 

5.  The  discovery  of  the  New  World,  and  of  a  passage 

by  sea  to  the  East  Indies               .            .            .  ib. 

6.  The  Reformation               .            .            .            .  ib. 

7.  Political  equipoise       .....  ib. 

FIRST  PERIOD.— FROM  THE  DISCOVERY  or  AMERICA  TO  THE 
PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA.     1492—1648. 

§  1.     Discoveries,  conquests,  and  colonies  of  the  Europeans 

in  other  quarters  of  the  globe             .            .            .  ib. 

2.  The  Reformation         .....  7 

1.  In  Germany              .            .            .            .            .  ib. 

2.  In  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms               .            .  14 

3.  In  Switzerland          .            .            .            .  ib. 

4.  In  other  countries           ....  15 

3.  Germany  under  Maximilian  I.  and  Charles  V.,  1493 — 

1556 .17 

1.  Maximilian  I.,  1493—1519  ib 

2.  Charles  V.,  1519— 1556        .  .  .  .23 

4.  Spain     .......  28 

1.  The  marriage  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  and  Isa- 

bella of  Castille  .            .           .           .           .  ib. 

2.  Charles  I.            .....  29 

3.  Philip  II.  .  .  .  .  .30 

4.  Philip  III.— Philip  IV 31 

5.  The  Netherlands               .....  32 

6.  Portugal 36 

A.  The  illegitimate  Burgundian  line    .            .            .  ib. 

B.  As  a  Spanish  province    ....  37 

7.  France       .                       .            .           .           .           .  ib. 

A.  Under  the  house  of  Valois  ib. 


V  CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

8.  Louis  XII.      .  .  .  .  .  .37 

9.  Francis!.              .....  ib. 

10.  Henry  II. 39 

11.  Francis  II.             .  ib. 

12.  Charles  IX 40 

13.  Henry  III. 41 

B.  Under  the  house  of  Bourbon        .  .  .42 

1.  Henry  IV.              .....  ib, 

2.  Louis  XIII 43 

§  8.  England  and  Ireland  under  the  house  of  Tudor        .  44 

1.  Henry  VII. ib. 

2.  Henry  VIII 46 

•     3.  Edward  VI.    .            .            .            .            .  ib. 

4.  Mary  Tudor          .....  47 

6.  Elizabeth        ......  ib. 

9.  Scotland  under  the  Stuarts     ....  49 

Mary  Stuart        ......  ib. 

James  VI.      .            .            .            .            .            .  60 

10.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  under  the  two  first  Stuarts, 

1603-1649 ib. 

1.  James  I.                .....  ib. 

2.  Charles  I ib. 

11.  Italy                  62 

1.  The  Spanish  possessions       .            .            .  ib. 

2.  The  Duchies         .....  ib. 

3.  The  Republics           .....  i*. 

4.  Tuscany                .....  63 
6.  The  states  of  the  Church      .            .            .  ib. 

12.  Germany,   from  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.  to  the 

peace  of  Westphalia,  1656—1648            .            .  ib. 

3.  Ferdinand  I.               .            .            .            .            .  ib. 

4.  Maximilian  II.      .....  54 

5.  Rudolph  II. ib. 

6.  Matthias               .            .            .  S»     .            .  65 

A.  Bohemian- Palatine  period            .            .  ib. 

7.  Ferdinand  II.        .....  ib. 

B.  Danish  period        .  .  .  .  .66 

C.  Swedish  period  .  .  .  .68 

D.  Swedish-French  period    .  .  .  .61 

8.  Ferdinand  III 62 

13.  Prussia       .......  64 

14.  Scandinavia      ......  ib. 

1.  Denmark        .            .                        .            .  ib. 

2.  Sweden  under  the  house  of  Vasa            .            .  65 
Gustavus  I.                  .            .                        .  ib. 
Gustavus  III.  (Adolphus)             ...  66 

15.  Poland       .            .            .                        .            .  67 

A.  Under  the  Jagellones  ib. 

B.  Poland  an  elective  monarchy       .           .  ib. 

16.  Russia              ......  ib. 


CONTENTS.  Vil 

PAGE. 

$  17.  The  Ottoman  empire      .  .  . .  .68 

18.  Religion,  arts,  sciences,  &c.,  during  the  First  Period        69 

1.  The  Church  (Romish)     ....  ib. 

2.  Political  constitution  .  .  .  .71 

3.  Legislation  .....  ib. 

4.  War 72 

5.  The  Sciences        .....  ib. 

6.  Literature       ......        76 

7.  Art 76 

8.  Commerce  and  manufactures  .  .  .77 


SECOND  PERIOD. — FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA  TO  THE 
FRENCH  REVOLUTION.     1648—1789. 

1.  To  the  Spanish  war  of  succession,  the  northern 
war,  and    the    elevation  of  Prussia  into  a 

kingdom           .....  79 

19.  France  under  Louis  XIV.  .  .  .  .id. 

A.  Louis    XIV.    under  the    guardianship    of 

Mazarin     .....  ib. 

B.  Preponderance,  of  France  in  Europe  during 

the  administration  of  Louis  XIV.     .            .  80 
First  war  of  spoliation  against  the  Spanish  Neth- 
erlands    .            .            .            .            .            .82 

Second  war  of  spoliation  against  Holland      .            .  ib. 

The  Reunions          .....  84 

20.  Germany              ......  85 

21.  Brandenburg  and  Prussia  to  1701     ...  87 

1.  Frederick  William               ....  ib. 

2.  Frederick  III 89 

22.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland           .            .            .  ib. 

1.  Under  the  parliament    ....  ib. 
Cromwell                   .....  90 

2.  Under  the  protectorate  of  Oliver  Cromwell    .  ib. 

B.  Under  the  last  two  Stuarts          .  91 
Charles  II.               .            .            .            .            .  ib. 

James  II.                        .            .            .            .  ib. 

C.  The  house  of  Orange             ...  94 

23.  The  republic  of  Holland             ....  ib. 

24.  The  north-east  of  Europe     ....  95 

II.  To  the  French  Revolution          .  .  .99 

25.  War  of  the  Spanish  succession            .            .  ib. 

A.  Struggles  in  Italy  and  Germany             .            .  100 

1.  In  Italy ib. 

2.  In  Germany              .            .            .            .  ib. 
Joseph  I.        ......  101 

B.  Struggle- in  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  and  Italy, 

for  the  united  Spanish  monarchy       .            .  ib. 

1.  In  Spain              .            .            .            .  ib. 

2.  In  the  Netherlands  and  Italy          .  .  .102 


Till  CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

C.    Reverse  of  fortune.     Peace  concluded  at 

Utrecht,  Rastadt,  and  Baden       .            .  103 

$26.  The  northern  war  .  .  .  .  .104 

Causes  of  the  war               .            ?            .            .  ib. 

1.  The  Danish  war       .            .            .            .  ib. 

2.  The  Russian-Saxon  war             .            .            .  105 

3.  Russian  war  to  1709             ....  id. 

4.  Charles  XII.  in  Turkey              ...  106 

5.  Invasion  of  Norway  and  death  of  Charles  XII.     .  107 

6.  Treaties  concluded  separately               .            .  ib. 

27.  The  Emperor  Charles  VI.             ....  108 

1.  War  of  the  Turks  against  Venice  and  Austria  ib. 

2.  The  quadruple  alliance        .            .            .  ib. 

3.  The  pragmatic  sanction             .            .            .  109 

4.  War  of  the  Polish  succession          .            .  ib. 

5.  War  of  the  Turks  against  Russia  and  Austria  110 

28.  Prussia  under  her  two  first  kings             .            .            .  112 

1.  Frederick  I ib. 

2.  Frederick  William  I.                                                 .  ib. 

29.  War  of  the  Austrian  succession,  and  the  two  first 

Silesian  wars        .            .            .            .            .  113 

The  first  Silesian  war               ....  114 

The  second  Silesian  war     ....  ib. 

30.  The  third  Silesian  or  seven  years' war    .            .            .  115 

The  year  1756 116 

The  year  1757 ib. 

The  year  1759         .            .            .            .            .  119 

The  commencement  of  the  year  1760             .            .  120 

The  commencement  of  the  year  1761        .            .  121 

The  years  1762  and  1763         .            .            .  ib. 

31.  The  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  1765—1790.    Frederick  the 

Great  after  the  seven  years'  war            .            .  122 

1.  The  first  partition  of  Poland  .  .  .123 

2.  Disputed  succession  in  Bavaria             .            .  if). 

3.  Joseph  II.  sole  emperor            .                    .            .  ib. 

4.  The  administration  and  death  of  Frederick  II.  125 

5.  The  last  years  of  Joseph  II.             .            .            .  126 

32.  France              ......  ib. 

33.  Great  Britain         .  .  .  .  .  .129 

The  house  of  Hanover       ....  ib. 

George  III 130 

The  North  American  war               .            .            .  ib. 
War  in  the  East  Indies            .            .            .            .133 

34.  Spain  under  the  Bourbons,  from  1701            ,            .  134 

35.  Portugal  under  the  house  of  Braganza,  from  1640         .  135 

36.  Italy                 136 

1.  Possessions  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg       .            .  ib. 

2.  The  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies           .            .  ib. 

3.  The  Duchies            .            .            .            .            .  ib. 

4.  The  Republics               ....  137 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PAGE. 

5.  The  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany         .            .            .  137 

6.  The  states  of  the  Church     "...  ib. 
§37.  Denmark               ......  ib. 

38.  Sweden  from  the  termination  of  the  northern  war    .  138 

39.  Russia                    ......  140 

40.  The  houses  of  Romanow  and  Holstein-Gottorp,  in 

.    Russia                  .            .            .            ........  141 

Elizabeth          ......  142 

House  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  1762  ...  ib. 

41.  The  Osmanic  Empire                   ....  145 

THIRD  PERIOD — I.  FROM  THE  OUTBREAK  OF  THE  FRENCH  REVOLU- 
TION  TO  THE   PRESENT  TIME,    1789—1848. 

42.  Causes  and  immediate  occasion  of  the  Revolution        .  145 

I.  Chief  causes        .....  ib. 
II.  The  impossibility  of  avoiding  a  national  bank- 
ruptcy             .            .            .            .            .146 

43.  The  constituent  National  Assembly              .            .  147 

A.  At  Versailles      .....  i^. 

B.  In  Paris        .....  149 

44.  The  Legislative  Assembly  .  .  .  .151 

II.    The   Republic. 

45.  The  National  Convention        ....  152 

1.  Trial  and  execution  of  the  king                 .            .  ib. 

2.  Overthrow  of  the  Gironde        .             .            .  153 

3.  The  reign  of  terror  after  the  fall  of  the  Gironde  154 

4.  The  re-action           .....  156 

46.  The  first  coalition  against  France      .            .            .  157 

1.  Commencement  of  the  war  with  Austria  and 

Prussia     ......  ib. 

2.  War  against  the  grand  coalition,  to  the  peace 

of  Basle 158 

3.  Continuation  of  the  war  against  Austria,  the 

German  empire,  England,  Naples,  and  Sar- 
dinia        ....            .            .  159 

47.  Eastern  Europe           .....  163 

1.  Fall  of  Poland ib. 

2.  Prussia.— Frederick  William  II.            .            .  165 

48.  The  French  Directory      ...  ib. 

Bonaparte's  expedition  against  Egypt  and  Syria  . 

Establishment  of  new  republics          .            .            .  168 

Dissolution  of  the  Directory  ib. 

49.  War  of  the  second  coalition  against  France       .  .169 

1.  The  war  in  Italy             ....  171 

2.  The  war  in  Germany  and  Switzerland       .            .  172 

3.  The  war  with  England               ...  174 

50.  The  consular  government  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte         .  ib. 


X  CONTENTS. 

PjLOK. 

HI.    The    Empire. 

§51.  The  third  coalition  against  France     .            .            .  176 

1.  The  war  in  Germany           ....  177 

2.  The  maritime  war  with  England          .            .  178 

52.  The  fourth  coalition  against  France       .            .            .  179 

53.  The  war  in  Portugal  and  Spain          .            .            .  181 

54.  Suppression  of  the  temporal  authority  of  the  pope      .  184 

65.  War  of  Austria  against  Napoleon      ...  ib. 

56.  Napoleon  at  the  summit  of  his  power    .            .            .  186 

57.  Napoleon's  Russian  campaign            .            .            .  188 

58.  The  war  of  liberation                   ....  190 

Campaign  in  the  Spring  of  1813               .            .  ib. 

Resumption  of  the  war  after  the  armistice                .  191 

Invasion  of  France  by  the  allies                .            .  193 

Escape  of  Napoleon  from  Elba. — The  hundred  days    .  197 

Death  of  Murat      .....  ib. 
The  last  battle  of  the  allies     .            .            .            .198 

60.  France.— A.  The  restoration  under  the  Bourbons    .  199 

Charles  X 201 

Revolution  of  July             ....  ib. 

B.  Under  the  house  of  Orleans     .            .            .  202 

C.  Second  French  Republic     ...  206 

61.  Holland  and  Belgium                   ....  207 

62.  Great  Britain               .....  210 

George  IV ib. 

William  IV ib. 

Victoria             .            ...            .            .  ib. 

63.  Germany          ......  ib. 

A.  Germany,  a  confederacy  of  states        .            .  ib. 

B.  Germany,  a  federal  state     .            .            .  214 
Foundation  of  a  federal  state              .            .            .220 

64.  Russia 221 

The  Russian-Persian  war         .  .  .  .222 

The  Russian-Turkish  war              ...  ib. 
The  Russian-Polish  war           .            .            .            .223 

66.  The  Osmanic  empire  and  Greece       .            .            .  224 

Greek  war  of  liberation           ....  ib. 

Abdul  Medschid                                                   :  227 

66.  Italy ib. 

67.  Switzerland      ......  229 

68.  Spain          .......  230 

69.  Portugal 232 

King  John  VI.  .            .            .            .            .  ib. 

Donna  Maria  da  Gloria      ....  ib. 

70.  Sweden 233 

Gustavus  IV.            .....  ib. 

The  house  of  Bernadotte  since  1818               .            .  ib. 

71.  Denmark          .            .            .  "         .            .            .  ib. 

72.  The  American  States 236 

1.  The  United  States  of  North  America              .  ib. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

2.  Hayti  .  .  .  .  .  .242 

3.  Spanish  America            ....  ib. 
War  with  the  United  States                .            .            .  244 

4.  Brazil                   .....  245 
$73.  Religion,  arts,  sciences.  &c.,  during  the  Third  Period  ib. 

1.  Religion                    .            .            .            .  ib. 

2.  Constitutional  history  of  the  period     .            .  246 

3.  Science,  literature,  and  art              .             .             .  247 

a.  Philosophy            ....  ib. 

b.  Philology        .            .            .            .  ib. 

c.  Historical  investigations               .            .  248 

d.  Geography                  .            .            .            .  ib. 

e.  Natural  science    ....  249 

f.  Poetry             .....  ib. 

g.  Oratory       .....  251 
h.  Fine  arts         .            .            .            .  ib. 
\.  Music         .....  252 

4.  Trade,  manufacturing  industry,  agriculture          .  253 


HANDBOOK 


OF 


GEOGKAPHY  AND  HISTORY. 


PART  III— MODERN  HISTORY.1 


INTRODUCTION. 

(1.)  THE  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  and  commence- 
ment of  the  sixteenth  century,  witnessed  the  occurrence 
of  events  which  produced  a  change,  and  in  some  instances 
a  complete  revolution,  in  the  relations  of  European  so- 
ciety. Of  these  events  the  most  remarkable  were, 

1.  The    conquest    of    the    Byzantine    empire 
by  the    Turks,  under    Mohammed    II.    A.    D. 
1453. 

2.  The    application    of    gunpowder    to    pur- 
poses    of     war,     and     the     establishment     of 
standing    armies. 

(2.)  The  use  of  firearms  seems  to  have  been  learnt 
from  the  Spanish  Moors,  in  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  by  the  inhabitants  of  Flanders,  who  taught 
it  to  the  English  during  the  war  in  which  the  two  nations 

1  The  History  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  Modern  History  cannot 
be  accurately  divided.  It  is  usual  to  consider  the  latter  as  com- 
mencing from  the  last  invasion  of  the  barbarians  (the  Ottoman 
Turks),  and  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  A.  D.  1458.  On  the  whole 
this  division  may  be  most  conveniently  adopted.— S. 


2  MODERN   HISTORY.  [3.    §  1. 

were  engaged  together  against  France  ;  but  we  hear  noth- 
ing of  an  organized  system  until  the  reigns  of  Louis  XI. 
of  France  and  Maximilian  I.  of  Germany.  As  this 
change  in  the  mode  of  warfare  made  the  event  of  a  battle 
less  dependent  on  acts  of  personal  bravery,  and  dimin- 
ished the  superiority  of  cavalry  over  infantry,  it  became 
necessary  to  teach  large  bodies  of  men  such  manoauvres 
as  would  render  their  combined  movements  most  effective, 
and  give  them  the  full  advantage  of  the  'newly-invented 
weapon.  Hence  the  establishment  of  standing  armies, 
especially  in  France,  under  Charles  VII. 

3.  The"  invention    of   printing    (about  A.    D. 
1440). 

4.  The    revival    of   the    arts    (especially  paint- 
ing) and   sciences,  comprehending  philology,  a  taste  for 
which  was  introduced  into  Italy  by  the  Greek  exiles,  who 
sought  an  asylum  in  thot  country  after  the  capture  of 
Byzantium  by  the  Turks  ;  and  natural  philosophy r,  which 
began  again  to  be  cultivated  in  Western  Europe. 

5.  The    discovery   of    the    New    World,   and 
of     a     passage     by    sea     to    the    East    Indies, 
which  occasioned  the  general  substitution  of  maritime  for 
overland  trade. 

6.  The    Reformation,    the  effects  of  which  were 
experienced  in  almost  every  country  of  Europe. 

•    7.  The  gradual  development  of  a  system  of   politi- 
cal   equipoise    (or  balance  of  power). 


FIRST  PERIOD. 

From  the  discovery  of  America  to  the  peace  of  Westphalia. 
1492—1648. 

1.  Discoveries,  Conquests,  and    Colonies  of  the  Ei&ro- 
peans  in  other  Quarters  of  the  Globe. 

>)     IN  the  hope  of  putting  an  end  to  the  monopoly 
e  East  Indian  trade  enjoyed  by  the  free  states  of 


(3. 

of  the 


4 6.    $  1.]          DISCOVERIES,    CONQUESTS,    ETC.  3 

Italy,  especially  by  the  Venetians,  voyages  of  discovery 
were  undertaken  by  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  in  op- 
posite directions,  the  former  steering  westward  and  the 
latter  eastward,  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  a  passage 
by  sea  to  the  East  Indies. 

(4.)     1.  Discoveries  and  conquests  of  the  Spaniards. 

(5.)  a.  Christopher  Columbus  (or  Colombo), 
a  native  of  Genoa,  having  been  unsuccessful  in  his  appli- 
cations to  the  Portuguese  government  and  the  authorities 
of  his  own  city,  submitted  to  the  court  of  Spain  a  plan 
for  the  discovery  of  a  western  passage  to  India,  and  after 
eighteen  years  of  fruitless  solicitation,  obtained  at  last 
from  Isabella,  Queen  of  Castille,  an  assurance  of  support, 
and  the  promise  of  a  reward  if  he  succeeded  in  his  un- 
dertaking (comp.  §  4).  On  the  3d  of  August,  1492,  Co- 
lumbus sailed  with  three  caravels  or  ships  from  Palos,  a 
small  seaport  of  Andalusia,  landed  October  12th  (October 
2 1st,  new  style)  on  the  island  of  Gruanahani,  which  he 
named  S.  Salvador,  and  discovered  the  islands  of  Cuba 
and  Hayti.  In  his  second  voyage  (1493-96)  he  discov- 
ered several  of  the  smaller  Antilles  and  Jamaica  ;  and  in 
the  third  (1498 — 1500)  Trinidad,  and  the  continent  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  :  but  soon  afterwards  he  was 
recalled,  and  conveyed  back  to  Spain  in  chains  by  Don 
Francisco  de  Bobadilla,  a  Spanish  knight,  who  had  been 
sent  out  in  pursuit  of  him.  After  his  liberation  he  un- 
dertook a  fourth  voyage  (1502 — 1504),  in  which  he  made 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  discover  a  passage  into  the 
South  Sea,  and  died  at  Yalladolid,  of  disappointment  and 
mortification,  May  20th,  1506.  The  chains  which  he  had 
worn  on  his  return  from  his  third  voyage  were  buried 
with  him.  The  recently-discovered  continent  received 
the  name  of  America  from  Amerigo  Vespucci 
(t  1512),  a  Florentine,  who  accompanied  Columbus  on  his 
third  voyage,  and  published  a  description  of  the  new 
world.  Florida  was  soon  afterwards  discovered  by  the 
Spaniards  (1512). 

(6.)  b.  In  the  year  1519,  Hernando  (or  Ferdinand) 
Cortez  landed  from  Cuba  on  the  coast  of  Mexico,  ad- 
vanced without  opposition  to  the  capital,  and  took  the  king, 
Montezuma,  prisoner :  but  the  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards  soon 


4  MODERN   HISTORY.  [7 9.    $  1. 

rendered  them  so  odious  to  the  inhabitants,  that  Cortez  was 
obliged  to  evacuate  the  city.  Having  a  second  time  (1521) 
made  himself  master  of  it,  he  was  nominated  by  Charles  V. 
governor  of  Mexico,  which  they  now  called  New  Spain. 
A  few  years  later,  Cortez  appeared  before  the  king  for  the 
purpose  of  defending  himself  against  the  accusations  of 
his  enemies,  but  notwithstanding  his  honorable  reception 
at  court,  the  only  office  of  trust  which  he  was  permitted 
to  retain,  was  the  command  of  the  army  in  the  new  colony. 
After  discovering  the  peninsula  of  California  (1536),  he 
returned  to  Spain,  where  he  died  of  a  broken  heart  (at 
Seville,  in  .1547). 

(7.)  c.  Meanwhile  Ferdinand  Magellan,  a  Portuguese 
officer  in  the  Spanish  service,  had  discovered  (1520)  a  pas- 
sage, through  the  narrow  channel  called  from  him  the 
Strait  of  Magellan,  into  the  South  Sea,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  crew  of  his  ship,  after 
the  assassination  of  their  commander  on  one  of  the  Philip- 
pine islands,  completed  the  first  circumnavigation  of  tfie 
globe  (1522). 

(8.)  d.  Francis  Pizarro  (with  Alinagro  and  Luque) 
discovered  and  conquered  the  rich  country  of  Peru, 
which  fell  into  his  hands  the  more  easily,  in  consequence 
of  a  disputed  succession  between  two  brothers  (Huaskar 
and  Atahualpa).  The  foundation  of  a  new  capital,  named 
Lima,  was  laid  by  the  conqueror.  Almagro  (who  had  un- 
dertaken the  conquest  of  Chili)  having  quarrelled  with 
Pizarro  respecting  the  possession  of  Cuzco,  the  ancient 
capital,  was  executed  at  Lima;  and  soon  afterwards 
Pizarro  himself  fell  a  victim  to  a  conspiracy  of  the  friends 
of  Almagro,  to  whom  he  had  refused  a  share  of  the  con- 
quered territory. 

(9.)  e.  Conquest  of  Terra  Firma  and  New  Granada. 

The  government  of  these  provinces  was  intrusted  to 
"  a  Council  of  the  Indies,"  which  sat  at  Madrid,  and  to 
two,  and  at  a  later  period  three,  viceroys  (of  Mexico,  Peru, 
and  New  G-ranada).  Civilization  was  promoted,  a.  By 
building  cities,  at  first  on  the  coast,  and  subsequently  in 
the  interior,  b.  By  the  formation  of  missions,  i.  e.  com- 
munities of  converted  Indians,  under  the  superintendence 
of  a  priest.  The  grand  obstacles  to  their  success  were  the 
stupidity  of  the  Indians  and  their  hatred  of  the  Euro- 


10 13.    $  1.]       DISCOVERIES,    CONQUESTS,    ETC.  5 

peans.  c.  By  the  establishment  of  convents,  bishoprics, 
and  universities  (at  Mexico  and  Lima).  The  advantage 
derived  from  these  settlements  was  limited  at  first  to  the 
acquisition  of  the  precious  metals  by  means  of  numerous 
mining  establishments,  which  were  worked  (through  the 
influence  of  the  Dominican  monk,  Las  Casas,  the  great 
protector  of  the  aborigines)  by  negro  slaves  purchased  in 
Africa.  The  colonists  were  required  to  transmit  the  pro- 
duce of  these  mines  exclusively  to  Spain,  and  to  import 
articles  of  European  merchandise  from  the  port  of  Seville 
alone.  Disputes  with  Portugal  were  avoided  by  the  estab- 
lishment (by  Popes  Sixtus  IV.  and  Alexander  VI.)  of  a 
boundary  line  drawn,  in  the  first  instance,  through  the 
20th,  and  subsequently  through  the  70th  degree  of  West 
longitude,  reckoned  from  the  island  of  Ferro. 

(10.)  2.  Discoveries  and  settlements  of  the  Portuguese. 
After  the  discovery  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  Bartho- 
lomew Diaz,  fresh  attempts  were  made  by  King  Emanuel 
the  Great  to  find  a  passage  by  sea  to  the  East  Indies.  In 
the  year  1498,  this  passage  was  discovered  byVasco  de 
Gam  a,  who  landed  at  Calicut,  on  the  coast  of  Malabar. 

(11.)  The  Portuguese  supremacy  was  maintained  in 
the  East  Indies  (in  spite  of  the  Arabians,  who  were  sup- 
ported by  the  Venetians)  by  the  erection  of  a  chain  of 
fortresses  and  factories  extending  from  the  eastern  coast 
of  Africa  to  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  and  the  Moluccas. 
These  establishments  (of  which  Goa  was  the  central  point) 
were  chiefly  planned  by  the  viceroys  Francisco  de  Almeida 
(1505-1509)  and  Alfonso  Albuquerque  (1509-1515). 

(12.)  Brazil,  which  had  been  discovered  by  Cabral 
on  his  voyage  to  the  East  Indies,  was  not  colonized  until 
the  year  1550.  Advantages  still  more  important  were 
secured  to  the  Portuguese  by  commercial  treaties  with 
China  and  (since  the  mission  of  Francis  Xavier)  with 
Japan. 

(13.)  3.  Settlements  and  conquests  of  the  Dutch  com- 
panies. The  Spaniards,  who  had  become  masters  of  the 
Portuguese  Netherlands  by  the  conquest  of  Portugal  in 
1580,  having  deprived  the  rebellious  Dutch  of  the  East 
Indian  trade,  which  they  had  hitherto  carried  on  from  the 
port  of  Lisbon,  the  latter  undertook  an  expedition  to  In- 
dia on  their  own  account,  drove  the  Portuguese  from  thQ 


6  MODERN    HISTORY.  [14,   15.    §  1. 

Indian  seas  (from  1663),  and  left  them  only  an  insignifi- 
cant remnant  of  their  former  power.  An  East  India 
company,  incorporated,  with  the  sanction  of  the  States 
General,  in  1602,  enjoyed  by  the  terms  of  its  charter  a 
monopoly  of  the  Dutch  trade  beyond  the  Cape  and  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  and  was  invested  with  sovereign  au- 
thority over  all  future  settlements  in  India.  These  set- 
tlements were,  for  the  most  part,  on  the  Moluccas,  or 
Spice  Islands,  and  the  isles  of  Sunda,2  The  seat  of  gov- 
ernment and  central  emporium  of  Indian  and  European 
commerce  was  the  city  of  Batavia,  which  had  been  recently 
built  on  the  island  of  Java.  The  West  Indian  trade  was 
also  in  the  hands  of  a  company  (1621),  which  made,  but 
was  unable  to  retain,  some  important  conquests  in  Brazil. 

(14.)  4.  The  discovery  of  a  north-western  passage  to 
India  was  attempted  by  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  his  voyage 
round  the  world  (1577-80),  and  that  of  a  north-eastern  by- 
Hudson,  but  in  both  cases  without  success.  During  the 
whole  of  this  period  the  possessions  of  the  English  East 
India  Company  (chartered  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1600) 
consisted  merely  of  a  few  factories  in  India,  the  island  of 
St.  Helena,  and  some  agricultural  establishments  in  North 
America  and  the  West  Indies.3 

(15.)  5.  The  French  began  to  form  settlements  in 
several  of  the  West  India  islands.  ' 

a  Sumatra,  Java,  &c. 

3  During-  this  period  (1492—1648)  various  voyages,  discoveries, 
and  settlements  were  made  in  America.  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot 
first  reached  the  continent  on  the  coast  of  Labrador  (1497) ;  they 
sailed  under  the  patronage  of  Henry  VII.  of  England.  In  1513 
Balboa  first  saw  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  De  Ayllon  visited  Carolina  in 
1520.  Verrazani  coasted  along  New  Jersey  and  New- York  in  1524 ; 
Cartier  entered  the  St.  Lawrence  in  1535;  and  De  Soto  crossed 
the  Mississippi  in  1540.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  made  vigorous  efforts 
towards  colonization  in  Carolina,  1584—1590.  James  I.,  in  1606, 
chartered  the  Plymouth  and  London  Companies  to  operate  in  Vir- 
ginia :  Jamestown  was  the  first  English  settlement  in  America  (St. 
Augustine,  in  Florida,  was  founded  by  the  Spaniards  in  1565  and 
is  the  oldest  town  in  the  United  States).  Henry  Hudson,  in  1609, 
discovered  the  Hudson  river,  while  in  the  employ  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company,  and  the  island  of  Manhattan  (New- York)  was 
occupied  by  the  Dutch  for  purposes  of  trade,  in  1613.  On  the  21st 
of  December,  1620,  the  "pilgrim  fathers"  landed  at  Plymouth, 
Massachusetts.  Boston  was  founded  in  1630. — S. 


16 18.    $2.]  THE    REFORMATION. 


§  2.     The  Reformation. 

(16.)  .The  rapid  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  the 
sixteenth  century  must  be  attributed  mainly  to  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  Church,  both  in  discipline  and  doctrine, 
and  the  general  conviction  that  the  time  was  come  for  the 
eradication  of  those  abuses  by  which  the  Christian  com- 
munity was  daily  scandalized. 

(17.)  Ever  since  the  thirteenth  century,  and  espe- 
cially since  the  removal  of  the  papal  residence  to  Avignon, 
the  character  of  the  heads  of  the  Romish  Church  had  been 
losing  ground  in  public  estimation,  through  their  extor- 
tionate practices,  the  collation  of  ignorant  and  vicious  men 
to  important  benefices,  the  exercise  of  ecclesiastical  autho- 
rity for  secular  objects,  and,  more  than  all,  the  personal 
unworthiness  of  some  of  the  popes  themselves  (Alexander 
VI.  and  Julius  II.).  All  these  abuses  had  produced, 
especially  in  Germany,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  a  feeling  of  bitter  hostility  to  the  papal  see.  To 
these  causes  we  may  add  the  ignorance  and  worldliness  of 
most  of  the  bishops,  as  well  as  of  the  inferior  clergy,  the 
decline  of  monastic  discipline,  and  corrupt  practices  of 
various  sorts. 

(18)  1.  InGermany.  The  immediate  cause  of  the 
German  Reformation  was  the  scandalous  trade  in  indul- 
gences carried  on  by  one  John  Tetzel,  a  Dominican 
monk,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Wittenberg.  This  sys- 
tem, which  had  been  sanctioned  by  Pope  Leo  X.  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  funds  for  the  erection  of  St.  Peter's 
church  at  Rome,  was  vehemently  opposed  by  Martin 
Luther  (born  in  Eisleben -in  1483),  an  Augustin  monk, 
and  professor  at  the  recently-established  university  of 
Wittenberg,  who  affixed  to  the  door  of  the  principal 
church  in  that  city  (on  the  31st  October,  1517)  a  paper 
containing  ninety-five  theses  (principally  against  the  abuse 
of  indulgences),  and  pledged  himself  to  defend  his  propo- 
sitions against  all  opponents.  Soon  afterwards  he  pub- 
lished several  German  treatises,  in  which  he  maintained 
the  doctrine  of  Justification  by  Faith  only.  In  conse- 
quence of  these  proceedings  the  Pope  summoned  Luther 


8  MODERN   HISTORY.  [18.    $2. 

to  appear  before  him  at  Home  within  sixty  days,  and  give 
an  account  of  his  doctrine ;  but,  at  the  request  of  the  Elec- 
tor Frederick  the  Wise,  of  Saxony,  and  the  University  of 
Wittenberg,  permission  was  granted  to  the  Reformer  to 
discuss  the  question  with  the  Pope's  plenipotentiary,  Car- 
dinal Cajetan,  before  the  diet  which  was  then  assembled 
at  Augsburg  (1588).  At  this  conference  the  Cardinal  de- 
manded unconditional  submission,  which  Luther  refused ; 
and  even  the  papal  chamberlain,  Charles  von  Miltitz,  who 
was  afterwards  appointed  to  act  as  the  Pope's  representa- 
tive, could  only  obtain  from  him  a  conditional  promise, 
that  he  would  abstain  from  controversial  writing  if  his 
opponents  would  do  the  same.  A  disputation  which  Dr. 
Eck,  professor  of  theology  at  Ingolstadt,  held  with  Luther 
and  his  colleague,  Carlstadt,  at  Leipzig,  having  produced 
no  result  except  the  confirmation  of  the  Reformer  in  his 
own  opinions,  a  bull  was  published,  condemning  as  heretical 
forty-one  propositions  extracted  from  the  writings4  of 
Luther,  and  threatening  him  with  excommunication  unless 
he  retracted  them  within  sixty  days.  This  bull,  with  the 
books  of  canon  law  and  some  of  Eck's  writings,  was  pub- 
licly burnt  by  Luther  before  the  Elster  gate  of  Witten- 
berg, on  the  10th  December,  1520.  Hereupon  sentence 
of  excommunication  was  passed  on  Luther  and  his  fol- 
lowers. In  the  year  1521,  he  appeared  before  the  first 
diet  of  Charles  V.,  assembled  at  Worms,  and  having  re- 
fused either  to  retract  his  assertions  or  submit  to  the 
decision  of  a  general  council,  was  placed  under  the  bann 
of  the  empire :  but  this  sentence,  called  the  "  Edict  of 
Worms,"  was  not  published  until  his  safe  arrival  at  the 
Wartburg,  near  Eisenach,  where  he  translated  the  Bible 
into  German. 

4  In  a  treatise  published  in  1520,  with  the  title,  :<  A  letter  to 
his  Imperial  Majesty  and  the  Christian  nobility  of  the  German 
nation,  touching  the  improvement  of  the  Christian  estate,"  Luther 
repudiates  both  the  ecclesiastical  and  secular  authority  of  the 
pope,  and  condemns  monastic  vows,  celibacy,  and  the  whole  of  the 
canon  law.  In  a  second  publication  he  combats  the  doctrine  of  the 
"Sacrifice  of  the  Mass;"  and  in  the  third,  intituled  "  Concerning 
the  Babylonish  captivity,"  he  rejects  four  of  the  five  Romish  sacra- 
ments, viz.  confirmation,  orders,  matrimony,  and  extreme  unction, 
retaining  only  penance. 


19 21.    $2.]  THE   REFORMATION.  9 

(19.)  The  reformed  doctrines  found  an  able  defender 
in  Philip  Melancthon5  (in  his  Loci  Communes  Rerum 
Theolog.),  and  stout  opponents  in  Henry  VIII.,  King  of 
England,  and  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  and  were  already 
gaining  a  firm  footing  in  Hesse  and  other  places,  particu- 
larly in  Prussia,  where  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  a  personal  friend  of  Luther's,  embraced  the  re- 
formed religion,  and  at  the  same  time  married  a  daughter 
of  Frederick,  King  of  Denmark,  and  by  the  convention  of 
Cracow,  in  1525,  converted  his  territory,  with  the  consent 
of  the  crown  of  Poland,  into  a  temporal  dvtchy.  Luther 
himself  quitted  the  cloister,  and  married  a  nun  named 
Catherine  of  Bora.  Meanwhile  the  oppressive  cruelty  of 
the  nobles,  and  the  misinterpretation  of  Luther's  doc- 
trines concerning  Christian  liberty,  occasioned  the  P  e  a- 
s ants'  War,  which  broke  out  in  Swabia,  in  1525,  and 
spread  rapid  destruction  over  the  Rhineland  and  Franco- 
ma,  as  far  as  Saxony  and  Thuringia.  A  few  of  the  nobles 
were  compelled  to  join  the  insurgent  peasants  (i.  e.  Grotz 
von  Berlichingen6),  but  the  undisciplined  masses  were 
soon  scattered  in  all  directions,  and  a  subsequent  attempt 
of  Thomas  Miinzer,  the  Anabaptist,  was  rendered  equally 
abortive  by  the  victory  of  Frankenhausen. 

(20.)  In  their  so-called  twelve  articles,  the  peasants 
demanded  freedom  of  hunting,  fishing,  and  woodcutting, 
abolition  of  serfdom,  and  the  abrogation  of  various  penal 
ordinances.  To  these  demands  were  added  others  of  a 
more  visionary  character.  They  would  no  longer  be  vas- 
sals, because  Christ  had  redeemed  them  with  his  blood. 
They  refused  to  pay  tithes,  except  of  wheat,  for  this  was 
the  only  tithe  recognized  in  the  Old  Testament.  They 
chose  to  elect  their  own  preachers,  that  they  might  be 
instructed  in  the  true  faith. 

(21.)  At  the  diet  assembled  at  Spires,  in  1529,  by 
Charles  V.,  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  church, affairs, 
as  well  as  of  obtaining  means  for  carrying  on  a  war  against 
the  Turks,  it  was  resolved,  that  those  communities  which 

6  A  Greek  translation  of  his  German  name  Schwarzerd,  "  Black 
earth." 

8  "  The  knight  with  the  iron  hand,"  the  hero  of  one  of  Goethe's 
dramas. 

1* 


10  MODERN   HISTORY.  [22.    §2. 

had  hitherto  followed  the  edict  of  Worms,  should  still 
abide  by  it,  but  that  wherever  the  new  doctrines  had  been 
embraced,  the  authorities  should  be  required  to  abstain 
from  the  introduction  of  further  novelties  until  the  sitting 
of  the  next  general  council,  and  in  nowise  be  permitted  to 
molest  or  obstruct  the  professors  of  the  ancient  faith. 
Against  this  prohibition  the  Reformers  entered  a  formal 
ptotest,  from  which,  at  a  later  period,  they  obtained  the 
name  of  Protestants. 

(22.)  In  the  hope  of  bringing  about  a  reconciliation 
between  the  two  parties,  the  Emperor,  in  the  year  1530, 
assembled  a  diet  at  Augsburg,  where  the  reformers 
handed  in  a  confession  of  faith  drawn  up  by  Melancthon, 
and  signed  by  the  Protestant  princes  and  cities.  This 
document,  which  contained  twenty-eight  articles,  was  af- 
terwards named  "  the  Confession  of  Augsburg."  As  all 
attempts  to  effect  a  reconciliation  were  fruitless,  an  impe- 
rial edict  was  issued,  commanding  the  withdrawal  of  all 
novelties,  and  an  unconditional  return  to  the  doctrines 
and  practices  of  the  Romish  Church,  until  a  general  diet 
of  the  empire  could  be  assembled.  A  league  was 
then  formed  at  Schmalkalde  (1531),  to  which  all  the 
Protestant  princes  and  imperial  cities  were  parties,  each 
pledging  himself  to  protect  his  brethren,  and  to  refuse  all 
aid  to  the  Emperor  against  the  Turks,  as  long  as  the  im- 
perial edict  remained  in  force.  This  determined  resist- 
ance compelled  the  Emperor  to  withdraw  his  edict,  and 
to  conclude  the  so-called  religious  peace  at 
Niirnberg  (1532).  by  the  terms  of  which  a  general 
truce  was  established  until  the  next  council  or  diet,  it  be- 
ing distinctly  understood,  that  in  the  mean  time  no  party 
should  oppress  or  disquiet  another  on  the  ground  of  his 
religious  belief.  The  calm,  however,  was  soon  disturbed 
by  the  revival  of  the  Anabaptist  heresy.  This  sect, 
which  kad  appeared  before  the  commencement  of  the 
Reformation,  not  only  taught  the  necessity  of  a  second 
baptism  in  the  case  of  adults,  but  threatened  to  shake 
society  to  its  foundation  by  its  wild  doctrines  respecting 
the  reign  of  the  saints  upon  earth.7  Both  Romanists 

7  It  was  against  these  heretics  that  the  Church  of  England 
maintained,  in  her  thirty-eighth  article,  that  "the  riches  and  goods 


23.    §2.]  THE    REFORMATION.  11 

and  Protestants  had  then  united  to  crush  tne  promulga- 
tors  of  these  dangerous  theories,  and  the  sect  seemed  to 
have  expired  with  the  death  of  its  apostle  Thomas  Mun- 
zer,  when  it  suddenly  reappeared  in  Miinster. 

(23.)  A  crazy  enthusiast,  named  Jan  Matthys,  a  ba- 
ker of  Harlem,  accompanied  by  one  Jan  Bockelson  (orig- 
inally a  tailor  at  Leyden,  and  afterwards  an  innkeeper  and 
poet),  came  to  Minister  (1534),  where  the  Protestants 
had,  a  short  time  before,  obtained  the  upper  hand,  and 
having  collected  a  prodigious  crowd  of  followers,  and  de- 
posed the  magistrates,  proceeded  to  establish  themselves 
as  irresponsible  rulers  of  the  city,  which  they  soon  filled 
with  violence  and  bloodshed.  Matthys  having  fallen  in  a 
desperate  sally  against  the  army  of  the  Bishop,  which 
closely  blockaded  the  city,  his  lieutenant,  Bockelson,  was 
proclaimed  king  of  the  New  Zion.  His  first  act  was  to 
send  apostles  to  different  countries,  and  in  addition  to 
the  original  Anabaptist  doctrine  of  community  of  goods, 
to  permit  a  plurality  of  wives.  At  length  the  Bishop, 
supported  by  several  temporal  princes,  stormed  the  city, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  were  suffering  grievously  from 
want  of  provisions,  put  Bockelson  and  his  coadjutors, 
Knipperdolling  and  Heftig,  to  death  by  the  most  cruel 
tortures,  and  re-established  the  Roman  Catholic  religion. 
After  several  fruitless  conferences  between  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  two  parties,  the  Council  of  Trent 
was  at  last  opened  in  the  year  1545,  a  short  time  before 
the  death  of  Martin  Luther  (f  1546).  But  the  Protest- 
ants, acting  under  the  advice  of  Luther,  refused  to  appear 
before  an  assembly  the  majority  of  which  they  knew  to 
be  unfavorable  to  their  doctrines,  and  demanded  that  a 
council  of  the  German  nation  should  be  convened.  All 
hope  of  accommodation  being  now  at  an  end,  the  Empe- 
ror threatened  the  Protestants  with  war,  a  menace  which 
occasioned  the  withdrawal  of  several  of  their  leaders  from 
the  Schmalkaldian  league  ;  but  their  great  supporters,  the 
Elector  of  Saxony  (John  Frederick)  and  the  Landgrave, 

of  Christians  are  not  common,  as  certain  Anabaptists  do  falsely 
boast.  The  Book  of  Common  Prayer  of  the  American  Episcopal 
Church  contains  the  same  article;  and  all  the  orthodox  denomina- 
tions agree  in  sentiment  and  practice  on  this  point.— S. 


12  MODERN   HISTORY.  [24,25.    §2. 

Philip  of  Hesse,  made  every  preparation  for  a  determined 
resistance,  and  were  in  consequence  placed  under  the  bann 
of  the  empire. 

(24.)  The  Schmalkaldian  war,  as  it  is  called, 
commenced  in  1546.  Charles,  who  was  unprepared  for 
so  sudden  a  declaration  of  hostilities,  might  have  been 
easily  surprised  ;  but  the  delay  occasioned  by  the  indeci- 
sion of  the  allies  and  their  want  of  unanimity,  enabled 
him  to  assemble  troops  from  Italy,  Hungary,  and  the 
Netherlands,  and  to  defeat  the  Schmalkaldian  confede- 
rates in  Southern  Germany,  whilst  at  the  same  time  Duke 
Maurice  of  Saxony  (who,  although  a  Protestant,  had  ta- 
ken part  with  the  Emperor)  invaded  the  territories  of  the 
Elector  of  Saxony. 

(25.)  The  Elector,  it  is  true,  re-conquered  his  pos- 
sessions, but  soon  afterwards  he  was  defeated  by  the  Em- 
peror near  Muhlberg  (24th  April,  1547),  taken  pris- 
oner, and  compelled  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  Duke  Mau- 
rice. The  electoral  dignity  was  thus  transferred  for  ever 
from  the  Ernestine  to  the  Albertine  line.8  The  Land- 
grave of  Hesse  threw  himself  at  the  Emperor's  feet,  and 
recovered  his  lands,  but  was  sompelled,  like  the  Elector, 
to  follow  the  imperial  court  as  a  prisoner.  The  council  of 
Trent  having  adjourned  to  Bologna  in  consequence  of  a 
pestilence  which  had  broken  out  at  the  former  city,  a  de- 
cree was  issued  by  the  Emperor  (called  the  Interim),  pro- 
fessing to  regulate  the  affairs  of  the  Church  until  the  re- 
assembling of  the  council  at  Trent.  But  this  arrange- 
ment pleased  neither  the  Pope  nor  the  Protestants,  the 
former  considering  it  an  unwarrantable  interference  on 
the  part  of  a  layman  in  matters  purely  spiritual ;  the  lat- 
ter believing  it  to  be  merely  an  attempt  to  re-establish 
Romanism.  The  city  of  Magdeburg,  which  had  distin- 

8  Frederick  II.,  Elector,  1428—1464. 
Ernest,  Elector,  f  I486.  Albert,  f  1510. 

Frederick  the  Wise,  John,  Ge'orge.  Henry. 

Elector,  f  1525.        Elector,  1 1532. 

John  Frederick,  Maurice, 

Elector,  deposed  1547.         Elector,  1547—1553. 


26.    §2.]  THE    REFORMATION.  13 

guished  itself  by  its  determined  opposition  to  the  Empe- 
ror's decree,  was  taken  by  Maurice,  after  a  siege  of  thir- 
teen months,  and  compelled  to  accept  the  "  interim."  A 
change  in  the  aspect  of  affairs  was  occasioned  at  this 
time  by  the  defection  of  Duke  Maurice,  wh6  went  over  to 
the  Protestants,  pleading  as  an  excuse  for  this  treacher- 
ous course,  the  refusal  of  the  Emperor  to-  liberate  his 
father-in-law,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse.  In  conjunction 
with  several  G-erman  princes,. and  with  Henry  II.,  King 
of  France,  who  took  possession  of  the  imperial  cities  of 
Metz,  Toul,  and  Yerdun,  Maurice  declared  war  against 
the  Emperor,  who  was  then  at  Innpsruck,  and  compelled 
him  to  fly  for  safety  to  Villach  in  Carinthia.  On  the 
22d  August,  1552,  a  convention  was  concluded  at  Pas- 
sau,  on  terms  sufficiently  favorable  to  the  Protestants, 
who  were  allowed  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  until 
the  meeting  of  a  general  diet.  At  the  same  time  the 
Landgrave  of  Hesse  was  set  at  liberty,  and  the  Elector, 
who  had  been  freed  from  arrest  on  the  departure  of  the 
Emperor  from  Innspruck,  was  re-instated  in  his  dignities 
as  a  prince  of  the  empire,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  Land- 
grave of  Thuringia  and  Meissen.  An  attempt  of  the 
Emperor  to  retake  Metz  was  unsuccessful.  The  Mar- 
grave Albert  of  Brandenburg,  who  refused  to  recognize 
the  convention  of  Passau,  was  defeated  at  Sievershausen, 
in  1553,  by  Maurice,  who  was  himself  mortally  wounded 
in  the  battle.  The  promised  diet  was  at  length  opened  at 
Augsburg,  in  1555,  by  the  Roman  King  Ferdinand, 
brother  of  Charles  V.  The  free  exercise  of  their  religion 
was  secured  alike  to  Romanists  and  Protestants  by  a 
convention  termed  the  Religious  Peace  of  Augs- 
burg, the  only  subject  of  dispute  being  a  demand  of  the 
Romanists,  that  a  clause  should  be  inserted  (reservatum 
ecclesiasticum),  depriving  of  their  temporal  rank  and  priv- 
ileges all  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  who  should  embrace 
the  Protestant  faith. 

(26.)  The  council  of  Trent  (1545—1563). 
Since  the  year  1536,  several  unsuccessful  attempts  had 
been  made  by  the  Popes  to  convene  a  general  council  for 
the  solemn  discussion  of  the  religious  questions  which 
agitated  Europe.  At  length,  on  the  13th  December, 


14  MODERN    HISTORY.  [27,28.    $2. 

1545,  the  council  of  Trent  opened  its  session,  which  con- 
tinued, with  two  interruptions,  for  eighteen  years.  A 
reconciliation  between  the  Protestants  and  the  Church  of 
Rome  was  now  hopeless  ;  the  council  therefore  directed 
its  chief  attention  to  the  removal  of  abuses,  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  definite  and  unmistakeable  rule  of  faith. 

(27.)  2.  'In  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms  Lu- 
theranism  was  adopted  as  the  state  religion  by  the  Kings 
of  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Sweden ;  whose  treasuries 
were  replenished  by  the  confiscation  of  Church  property. 
The  profligacy  and  ignorance  of  the  clergy,  in  those  re- 
mote countries,  had  long  since  rendered  the  people  dis- 
contented with  the  ancient  clergy. 

(28.)  3.  In  Switzerland,  Ulric  Zwingli  (born  in 
1484,  at  Wildhaus,  in  the  county  of  Toggenburg).  preacher 
at  Einsiedeln  and  subsequently  at  Zurich,  opposed  the  sale 
of  indulgences  by  Bernardin  Sampson  ;  and  soon  after- 
wards attacked  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  the  mass,  and 
the  use  of  images  in  churches.  Zwingli's  reformation  was 
of  a  more  sweeping  character  than  that  of  Luther,  who 
was  willing  to  retain  all  practices  not  expressly  forbidden 
by  Holy  Scripture,  whilst  the  Swiss  reformer  endeavored 
to  restore  the  Church  to  a  condition  (as  he  believed)  of 
primitive  simplicity,  by  rejecting  every  thing  for  which  he 
was  unable  to  find  scriptural  authority.  But  the  grand 
subject  of  dispute  between  the  two  reformers,  was  the  doc- 
trine of  Christ's  presence  in  the  Eucharist ;  Luther  main- 
taining the  real  [consubstantiated]  presence  of  our  Blessed 
Lord  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper ;  and  Zwingli, 
on  the  contrary,  contending  that  the  bread  and  wine  were 
merely  signs  or  symbols  of  his  body  and  blood.  The  doc- 
trine of  Zwingli  was  embraced  by  Zurich,  and  the  northern 
cantons,  but  the  forest  cantons  (Schwyz,  Uri,  Unterwalden, 
and  Lucerne)  with  Zug,  continued  firmly  attached  to  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  offered  every  opposition  in  their 
power  to  the  progress  of  the  Reformation.  After  several 
skirmishes  between  the  five  Romanist  cantons  and  the 
Protestants,  the  inhabitants  of  Zurich  sustained  a  defeat 
in  1531,  near  Cappel,  where  Zwingli  himself  was  left  dead 
on  the  field  of  battle.  The  immediate  result  of  this  vic- 
tory was  the  extermination  of  Protestantism  in  many  dis- 


29 33.    §3.]  GERMANY.  15 

tricts  where  it  had  begun  to  take  root.  The  canton  of 
Berne  having  wrested  the  Pays  de  Vaud  from  the  Duke  of 
Savoy,  the  whole  of  French  Switzerland  became  Protestant, 
and  the  head-quarters  of  the  reformed  belief  were  estab- 
lished at  Greneva,  by 

(29.)  John  Calvin  (Jean  Caulvin),  born  in  1509,  at 
Noyon  in  Picardy.  This  Reformer,  who  had  abandoned 
his  profession  as  a  jurist  for  the  study  of  theology,  was 
driven  from  France  by  the  persecutions  to  which  the  Prot- 
estants were  exposed  in  that  country,  and  sought  an  asy- 
lum at  Basle,  in  Switzerland,  where  he  published  his 
Christianas  Religionis  Institutio,  in  1535,  and  was  subse- 
quently appointed  preacher  and  theological  professor  at 
Geneva.  Here  his  doctrine  was  embraced  by  the  citizens, 
who  passed  a  resolution  depriving  all  recusants  of  their 
civil  rights.  An  opposition  was  organized  which  drove 
Calvin  from  the  city,  but  after  a  time  he  returned,  and 
preached,  with  great  zeal,  the  doctrines  which  are  supposed 
to  distinguish  his  system  from  those  of  Luther  and  Zwingli 
(predestination,  the  spiritual  refreshment  of  the  believer's 
soul,  by  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  in  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, &c.).  The  presbyterian  form  of  Church  government 
was  also  established  and  introduced  into  other  countries, 
by  means  of  the  disciples  whom  the  fame  of  Calvin's 
learning  attracted  to  Geneva  from  France,  Germany,  the 
Netherlands,  and  England.  Calvin  died  in  1564. 

(30.)  4.  In  other  countries.  The  teaching  of 
Calvin  spread  from  Geneva  into  France,  where  the  Prot- 
estants (termed  Huguenots)  formed  a  powerful  party  in 
the  reigns  of  Francis  II.  and  Charles  IX. 

(31.)  TheNetherlands,  which  their  situation,  and 
extensive  commercial  relations,  rendered  peculiarly  acces- 
sible to  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  were  visited  by 
Anabaptists  from  Germany,  and  large  bodies  of  Calvinists 
from  France. 

(32.)  The  severe  measures  adopted  'by  Philip  II.  for 
the  extermination  of  Protestantism,  occasioned  the  separa- 
tion of  the  seven  northern  provinces  from  the  Spanish 
dominions. 

(33.)    In  all  these  provinces  Calvinism  became  the  es- 


16  MODERN    HISTORY.  [34 — 36.    §2. 

tablished  religion,  the  Southern  Netherlands  still  adhering 
to  the  faith  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

(34.)  In  England,  Henry  VIII., at  an  earlier  period, 
one  of  the  most  determined  opponents  of  Luther's  doc- 
trine, quarrelled  with  the  Pope  because  he  refused  to 
sanction  his  divorce  from  Queen  Catherine,  and,  breaking 
off  all  connection  with  Rome,  proclaimed  himself  the  head 
of  the  Anglican  Church.  This  assumption  of  supremacy 
was  recognized  by  Parliament  and  a  vast  majority  of  the 
clergy.  The  recusants  were  either  delivered  over  to  the 
executioner,  banished  to  foreign  lands,  or  thrown  into 
prison,  where  many  of  them  perished  miserably.  All  the 
English  monasteries  (500)  were  suppressed,  and  their 
revenues  confiscated  to  the  king's  use.  In  most  other  re- 
spects, Henry  remained  a  Romanist.  The  Reformation 
in  England  was  principally  effected  by  the  labors  of  the 
learned  Thomas  Cranmer,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
during  the  minority  of  Edward  VI.  His  successor, 
Mary,  re-established  the  connection  with  Rome,  and 
treated  the  Protestants  with  great  cruelty.  In  this  reign, 
Archbishop  Cranmer,  and  several  other  bishops,  were 
burnt  at  the  stake,  for  their  adherence  to  the  reformed 
faith.  Elizabeth  renounced  the  papal  domination  in 
England,  and  adopted  such  measures  as  served  to  estab- 
lish the  Reformation.  The  constitution  of  the  Church 
in  its  government  by  bishops  was  retained,  but  this 
arrangement  was  vehemently  opposed  by  an  ultra-Calvin- 
istic  party,  who  recognized  only  Presbyters  ; — whence 
they  were  called  Presbyterians,  in  contradistinction  to 
Episcopalians.  Another  sect,  termed  Independents,  sprang 
up  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  These  schismatics  asserted 
the  right  of  all  Christians  to  interpret  Scripture  according 
to  their  own  conscience,  without  the  intervention  of  con- 
fessions of  faith. 

(35.)  In  Scotland,  the  preachers  of  the  new  doc- 
trines were  successful,  in  proportion  to  the  corruption  of 
the  Church  in  that  country.  The  most  vehement  oppo- 
nent of  the  Church  of  Rome  was  John  Knox,  a  friend  of 
Calvin's. 

(36.)  All  attempts  of  the  English  government  to  con- 
vert the  Irish  to  Protestantism  were  unsuccessful,  until 


37 — 39.  §  3.]  GERMANY.  17 

the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I.,  when  the  confisca- 
tion of  large  Irish  estates,  and  the  establishment  of  Eng- 
lish colonies  in  Ireland,  were  deemed  the  most  effectual 
modes  of  exterminating  Romanism;  but  the  natives,  in 
spite  of  persecution,  remained,  for  the  most  part,  firm  in 
their  adherence  to  the  Church  of  Home. 

(37.)  From  Germany  the  Reformation  extended 
into  Poland,  Livonia,  Courland,  Hungary,  and 
Transylvania. 

§  3.   Germany  under  Maximilian  I.  and  Charles  K, 
H93_1556. 

1.  Maximilian  I,  1493— 1519. 

(38.)  1.  The  constitution.  The  estates  of  the 
realm  having  demanded,  as  a  condition  of  their  granting  a 
subsidy  for  the  Italian  war  (against  Charles  VIII.),  that 
peace  and  order  should  be  established  on  a  firm  footing 
throughout  the  empire,  Maximilian,  at  a  diet  held  at 
"Worms  in  1495,  abolished  the  Faustrecht9  (right  of  the 
nobles  to  make  war  on  their  own  account),  and  instituted 
an  Imperial  Chamber  as  the  supreme  court  of  justice, 
with  authority  to  publish  the  bann  of  the  empire  against 
all  transgressors  of  the  laws.  The  president  of  this  court 
was  nominated  by  the  Emperor,  but  all  the  other  members 
were  elected  by  the  estates.  The  chamber,  instead  of 
migrating  with  the  imperial  court,  as  had  formerly  been 
the  case,  held  its  sittings  in  one  place — at  first  at  Worms, 
then  at  Spires,  and  lastly  at  Wetzlar  (1689—1806).  For 
the  better  maintenance  of  peace,  the  whole  empire  was 
divided  (at  a  diet  held  at  Cologne  in  1512)  into  ten 
Circles,  viz.  the  Austrian,  Bavarian,  Swabian,  Fran- 
conian,  Tipper  Rhenish,  Lower  (or  Electoral)  Rhenish, 
Westphalian,  Upper  Saxon,  Lower  Saxon,  and  Burgun- 
dian.  In  each  circle  chief  officers  were  appointed  for 
carrying  into  execution  the  decrees  of  the  imperial 
chamber. 

Of  the  ten  circles, 

(39.)     1.    The  Austrian  (the  largest  of  all)  comprised 

9  Lit.  FisJ-right,  i.  e.  right  of  the  strong  hand. 


18  MODERN   HISTORY.  [40 46.    §  3. 

Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Carniola,  the  Tyrol,  and  some 
possessions  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg  on  the  Upper 
Rhine,  and  in  Swabia. 

(40.)  2.  The  Bavarian.  The  duchy  of  Bavaria,  the 
Upper  Palatinate,  the  principality  of  Neuburg.  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Salzburg,  and  several  smaller  spiritual  and 
temporal  seignories. 

(41.)  3.  T/ie  Swabian.  The*duchy  of  Wurtemberg, 
the  Margravate  of  Baden,  the  county  of  Hohenzollern, 
the  county  of  Furstenberg,  the  bishopric  of  Augsburg, 
&c.,  altogether,  90  spiritual  and  temporal  estates. 

(42.)  4.  The  Franconian.  The  Brandenburg  mar- 
gravates  of  Culmbach  (Baireuth)  and  Onolzbach  (Ans- 
pach),  the  Teutonic  Order,  which  after  the  secularization 
of  Prussia  established  itself  at  Mergentheim  as  the  seat 
of  government,  the  bishoprics  of  Bamberg,  Wurzburg, 
and  Eichstadt,  the  imperial  city  of  Nfirnberg,  &c. 

(43.)  5.  The  Ujiper  Rhenish  circle  was  intermixed 
with  the  Electoral  Rhenish.  Its  two  principal  portions 
were  Lorraine  on  the  left,  and  Hesse  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rhine.  Since  the  year  1619,  the  latter  of  these  por- 
tions had  comprised  only  Darmstadt  and  Cassel,  the 
two  other  lines  of  Marburg  and  Rheinfels  having  become 
extinct,  and  their  territories  having  been  annexed  to 
Cassel. 

(44.)  6.  The  Electoral  or  Lower  Rhenish  compre- 
hended the  three  spiritual  electorates  of  Mainz  (Mayence), 
Trier  (Treves),  and  Kb'ln  (Cologne),  with  a  portion  of  the 
territories  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  which  were  divided 
into  four  circles. 

(45)  7.  The  Burgundian,  which  since  the  year  1536 
had  belonged  to  the  Spanish  branch  of  the  Habsburg 
family,  and  consequently  was  no  longer,  strictly  speaking, 
a  portion  of  the  empire,  comprehended  Holland,  Belgium, 
and  a  part  of  the  north  of  France,  omitting  Luttich 
(Liege). 

(46.)  8.  The  Westphalian  circle,  between  the  Mass 
(Meuse)  and  the  Weser,  comprised  the  duchies  of  Cleves, 
Julich.  Berg,  the  county  of  Marie,  the  six  bishoprics  of 
Liege,  Minister,  Paderborn,  Minden,  Verden,  and  Os- 
nabruck  (Osnaburgh),  with  East  Friesland,  Oldenburg, 


47 51.    §3.]  GERMANY.  19 

the  imperial  cities  of  Cologne,  Aachen  (Aix-la-Chapelle), 
Dortmund,  &c. 

(47.)  9.  The  Lower  Saxon — the  archbishoprics  of 
Magdeburg  and  Bremen,  the  bishoprics  of  Halberstadt, 
Hildesheim  and  Lubeck,  the  duchies  of  Braunschweig 
(Brunswick)  and  Luneburg,  Saxe-Lauenburg,  Holstein, 
Mecklenburg,  six  imperial  cities,  &c. 

(48.)  10.  The  Upper  Saxon — the  two  electorates  of 
Saxony  and  Brandenburg,  the  two  Pomeranian  duchies 
(Stettin  and  Wolgast),  the  principality  of  Anhalt,  the 
landgravate  of  Thuringia,  &c. 

(49.)  These  ten  circles  comprehended  more  than  250 
states  ;  but  as  the  smaller  voted  in  groups,  scarcely  more 
than  100  members  appeared  at  the  diet.  Bohemia  (with 
its  provinces  of  Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Lusatia),  together 
with  the  Prussian  and  Livonian  states,  was  entirely  ex- 
cluded from  this  arrangement ;  Switzerland  was  also  ex- 
empted (by  Maximilian  in  1508)  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  chamber  and  the  necessity  of  furnishing  its  contin- 
gent of  troops  and  money.  Italy  was  hardly  even  in 
name  a  portion  of  the  empire.  The  kingdom  of  Aries 
had  been  annexed  piecemeal  to  France. 

(50.)  2.  Italian  wars  respecting  Milan  and 
Naples. 

a.  Occupation  for  a  short  time  of  Naples  by  the 
French  (1495).  Charles  VIII.,  who  had  inherited,  as 
heir  of  the  house  of  Anjou,  the  claims  of  his  father  to 
the  Neapolitan  throne,  obtained  possession  of  Naples. 
But  the  facility  with  which  the  conquest  was  achieved 
rendered  the  French  so  insolent,  that  a  league  was  formed 
between  Venice,  the  Pope,  the  King  of  Arragon,  the  Em- 
peror, and  the  Duke  of  Milan,  for  the  restoration  of  Fer- 
dinand II.,  who  returned  to  his  kingdom,  supported  by 
troops  from  Arragon,  and  compelled  the  feeble  garrisons 
left  by  Charles  to  capitulate,  on  condition  of  being  per- 
mitted to  depart  unmolested. 

(51.)  b.  Conquest  of  Milan  by  the  French  in  1499. 
— Louis  XII.,  the  successor  of  Charles  VIII.,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Venice,  conquered  the  duchy  of  Milan,  which 
he  claimed  in  right  of  his  grandmother,  Valentina  Vis- 
conti  (see  genealogical  table,  $  7).  The  French  were 


20  MODERN   HISTORY.  [52 54.    $  3. 

soon  afterwards  expelled  by  Ludovico  Moro,  who  in  his 
turn  was  betrayed  by  his  Swiss  mercenaries,  and  died  in 
a  French  prison. 

(52.)  c.  Conquest  of  Naples  by  the  French  and 
Spaniards  in  1501. — Louis  XII.,  whose  power  had  been 
greatly  augmented  by  the  acquisition  of  Milan,  formed 
an  alliance  with  Ferdinand  of  Arragon  (the  Catholic)  for 
the  re-conquest  of  Naples.  The  reigning  sovereign, 
Frederick  II, ,  was  conveyed  a  prisoner  to  France,  and 
continued  a  pensioner  of  the  French  crown  until  his 
death  ;  but  the  French  and  Spaniards  having  quarrelled 
respecting  the  division  of  the  booty,  the  Spanish  general, 
G-onsalvo  de  Cordova,  defeated  the  French,  and  compelled 
Louis  XII.  to  relinquish  his  claims. 

(53.)  d.  War  against  Venice  (1508-9).— Although 
Louis  was  indebted  to  the  Venetians  for  the  acquisition 
of  Milan,  and  depended  mainly  on  their  friendship  for  the 
secure  possession  of  his  conquest,  he  was  nevertheless 
weak  enough  to  enter  into  a  confederacy  with  the  Pope 
(Julius  II.),  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  and  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic,  for  the  ruin  of  Venice.  By  this  treaty,  termed 
the  league  of  Cambray,  it  was  agreed  that  the 
Venetians  should  be  compelled  to  restore  all  the  territory 
which  they  had  wrested  from  any  of  the  allies.  But 
scarcely  had  the  war  commenced  (with  a  battle  near  Ag- 
nadello,  in  which  the  Venetians  were  defeated),  when  the 
confederacy  was  broken  up,  the  Venetians  acquiescing  in 
all  the  demands  of  the  Pope  and  Ferdinand,  and  forming 
with  those  two  powers 

(54.)  e.  The  Holy  League  (1511)  for  the  expulsion 
of  the  French  from  Italy.  The  French  lost  Milan,  which 
was  recovered  by  the  successor  of  Louis,  Francis  I.,  in  a 
brilliant  victory  over  the  Swiss  at  Marignano  (1515). 
The  French  gained  at  first  some  advantage  over  the  allies 
(near  Ravenna) ;  but  their  brave  leader,  Graston  de  Foix, 
having  fallen  in  the  battle,  the  Swiss  garrisoned  Milan 
for  Maximilian  Sforza  ;  and  although  the  city  was  taken, 
for  the  third  time,  by  the  French  (after  the  dissolution  of 
the  league),  they  were  compelled  at  last  to  abandon  it 
(after  their  defeat  at  Novara),  and  about  the  same  time 
were  overthrown  (at  Gruinegate)  by  the  English  and  the 


55.    §  3.]  GERMANY.  21 

Emperor  Maximilian.  Milan  was  taken,  for  the  fourth 
time,  by  Francis  I.  (in  conjunction  with  the  Venetians), 
after  his  victory  over  the  divided  Swiss  at  Marignano 
in  1515.  Maximilian  Sforza  became  a  pensioner  of 
France,  and  was  compelled  to  reside  in  that  country. 

(55.)  3.  Acquisitions  of  territory. — Maxi- 
milian married  his  son  Philip  to  Joanna,  daughter  of 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic  (who  became  heiress  to  the  Span- 
ish throne  by  the  death  of  all  the  nearer  claimants),  and 
effected  a  marriage  between  his  second  grandson  Ferdi- 
nand, and  Anne,  sister  of  Louis  II.,  the  last  king  of 
Bohemia  and  Hungary.  Maximilian,  who  was  unable 
to  proceed  farther  than  Trent,  on  his  journey  to  Rome  to 
receive  the  imperial  crown  (the  passes  being  beset  by  the 
Venetians),  adopted  the  title  of  Self-elected  Roman  Em- 
peror (f  1519).  All  his  successors,  with  one  exception, 
assumed  the  imperial  dignity  immediately  after  their  cor- 
onation at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 


22 


MODERN   HISTORY. 


[56.  §3. 


57 — 59.  $3.]  GERMANY.  23 


2.  Charles  V.,  1519—1556. 

(57.)  After  the  death  of  Maximilian,  two  candidates 
for  the  imperial  dignity  appeared  in  the  persons  of  his 
grandson,  Charles  I.,  King  of  Spain  and  Naples,  and 
Francis  I.,  King  of  France,  the  latter  of  whom  relied  for 
success  on  the  friendship  of  the  Pope,  and  the  liberality 
with  which  he  had  distributed  among  the  electors  presents, 
and  promises  of  assistance  against  the  Turks.  Austria, 
on  her  part,  was  equally  active,  and  the  result  was  the 
unanimous  election  of  Charles,  who  was  required  to  sign 
an  instrument,  by  which  the  rights  of  the  electors  and  of 
the  empire  were  secured.  By  this  union  of  the  German 
and  Spanish  crowns,  France  was  surrounded  on  three 
sides  by  the  territories  of  one  gigaritic  power.  It  was  not 
until  the  year  1530,  that  Charles  V.  received,  at  Bologna, 
the  imperial  and  Italian  crowns  from  the  hands  of  the  Pope. 
(For  the  diet  of  Worms,  see  page  7.) 

Wars  of  Charles  V. 

(58.)  First  war  with  Francis  /,  1521—1526.  The 
immediate  occasion  of  a  war  between  Charles  and  Francis, 
the  two  most  powerful  sovereigns  of  Europe,  was  the  sim- 
ultaneous refusal  of  Francis  to  restore  the  duchy  of 
Burgundy  (which  had  been  wrested  by  Louis  XI.  from 
Charles's  grandmother),  and  of  Charles  to  cede  to  France 
the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  which  had  been  conquered  by 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  A  fatal  error  on  the  part  of  the 
French  leader,  Lautrec,  in  permitting  the  junction  of  the 
imperial  and  papal  armies,  occasioned  the  loss  of  Milan, 
which  was  conferred  on  Duke  Francis  Sforza.  During 
the  preparation  of  Francis  I.  for  its  re-capture,  his  near 
relation,  the  Constable  Charles  de  Bourbon  (who  had  been 
deprived  of  the  government  of  Milan  and  the  command- 
in-chief  of  the  army,  on  account  of  some  insult  offered  by 
him  to  the  Queen  Mother),  went  over  to  the  imperialists. 
A  portion  of  the  duchy  of  Milan  was  reconquered,  but  the 
French  were  soon  compelled  to  commence  a  retreat,  in 
which  Bayard  (the  "  chevalier  sans  peur  et  sans  reproche") 
lost  his  life. 

(59.)     The  imperialists  having  made  an  unsuccessful 


24  MODERN   HISTORY.  [59.    §  3. 

incursion  into  the  South  of  France,  Francis  availed  him- 
self of  this  opportunity  for  a  last  attempt  on  Milan,  and 
entering  Italy,  reconquered,  almost  without  opposition, 
the  greater  part  of  the  duchy.  Then  he  sat  down  before 
the  fortified  city  of  Pavia,  after  dispatching  a  division  of 
his  army  to  Naples  for  the  reconquest  of  that  kingdom. 
Meanwhile  an  imperial  army,  commanded  by  Pescara,  had 
marched  to  the  relief  of  Pavia,  where  the  French  were 
utterly  defeated  in  1525.  In  this  battle  Francis  I.  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  compelled  to  purchase  his  liberation 
by  renouncing  (in  the  Convention  of  Madrid,  1526) 
all  claims  to  Italy  and  Burgundy,  and  delivering  up  his 
sons  as  hostages.  No  sooner,  however,  had  he  regained 
his  freedom,  than  he  refused  to  fulfil  the  conditions,  which, 
as  he  asserted,  had  been  violently  imposed  on  him,  and 
were  contrary  to  his  coronation  oath.  Hence  the  second 
war,  1527 — 1529.  The  Pope  (Clement  VII.)  having  quar- 
relled with  the  emperor  (who  had  refused  to  support  him 
in  his  claims  on  Ferrara),  and  formed  an  alliance  with 
Francis  I.  and  the  republic  of  Venice,  a  war  again  broke  out 
between  the  two  great  European  powers.  George  Frunds- 
berg  entered  Italy  at  the  head  of  an  imperial  army,  joined 
the  Constable  Charles  de  Bourbon,  and  soon  afterwards 
died.  The  Constable  then  marched  without  opposition  to 
Rome,  but  lost  his  life  during  the  storming  of  the  city, 
which  was  taken  and  plundered  by  his  troops.  The  Pope, 
who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  was  re- 
leased by  the  Emperor  after  promising  to  summon  a  gen- 
eral council  for  the  reunion  and  reformation  of  the 
Church,  and  to  oppose  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII.  of 
England  from  Catherine  (Charles's  aunt).  In  the  year 
1528,  a  French  army  (under  Lautrec)  conquered  Naples, 
with  the  exception  of  the  capital,  which  was  saved  by  An- 
drew Doria,  a  noble  Genoese,  who  had  gone  over  to  the 
Emperor  in  consequence  of  insults  received  from  the 
French.  The  French  besieging  army  was  almost  exter- 
minated by  pestilence.  In  the  following  year  a  peace 
(called  the  Ladies'  Peace,  because  it  was  negotiated  by 
Louisa  of  Savoy,  mother  of  Francis,  and  Margaret  of 
Austria,  Charles's  aunt)  was  concluded  at  Cambray, 
Francis  retaining  Burgundy,  but  agreeing  to  pay  a  ran- 


60,61.    §3.]  GERMANY.  25 

som  of  two  millions  of  crowns  for  the  liberation  of  his 
sons,  and  renouncing  all  claims  to  Flanders  and  Italy. 

(60.)  War  with  the  Turks,  1526 — 1532.  Solyman 
II.  had  entered  Hungary  (in  consequence  of  a  summons 
dispatched  from  Madrid  by  Francis  I.),  and  had  defeated 
and  slain  the  Hungarian  King  Lewis,  in  the  battle  of 
Mohacz  (1526).  Lewis  was  succeeded  in  both  kingdoms 
by  his  brother-in-law,  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  (brother 
of  Charles  V.),  the  powerful  Waiwode  of  Transylvania 
(John  Zapolya)  being  at  the  same  time  elected  King  of 
Hungary  by  another  party.  Meanwhile  Solyman  II.  had 
renewed  the  war  (previously  to  the  conclusion  of  peace  at 
Cambray  in  1529),  and  taken  Zapolya  under  his  protec- 
tion, marched,  almost  without  opposition,  to  the  gates  of 
Vienna,  but  withdrew  his  forces  after  besieging  the  city 
for  three  weeks,  in  consequence  of  a  report  that  an  army 
was  advancing  to  its  relief.  Zapolya,  who  had  received 
the  so-called  holy  crown  from  the  hands  of  the  infidels, 
remained  sovereign  of  Hungary  (or  rather  a  vassal  of  the 
Sultan),  his  rival  Ferdinand  being  too  poor  to  prosecute 
his  claims.  Solyman,  who  had  never  altogether  abandoned 
his  favorite  project  of  universal  conquest,  was  encouraged 
by  the  distracted  state  of  Christendom  to  enter  Hungary 
a  second  time  (in  1532)  with  250,000  men;  but  the  Em- 
peror had  in  the  mean  time  effected  a  reconciliation  with 
the  Protestants,  and  immediately  after  the  conclusion  of 
peace  at  Niirnberg  was  enabled  to  take  the  field  at  the 
head  of  80,000  men.  This  unexpected  opposition,  the 
checks  which  he  had  already  received  before  several  unim- 
portant places,  and  the  intelligence  of  Doria's  victories  in 
the  Ionian  Seas,  were  deemed  by  Solyman  sufficient  rea- 
sons for  a  hasty  retreat. 

(For  an  account  of  the  diets  of  Spires  and  Augsburg , 
see  page  9.) 

(61.)  Expedition  against  Tunis,  1535.  Muley  Has- 
san, King  of  Tunis,  was  deposed  by  Hayraddin  Barba- 
rossa,  a  vassal  of  Solyman  II.,  and  chief  of  a  band  of 
corsairs,  who  had  established  himself  in  Algiers  a  short 
time  before.  The  coasts  of  Spain  and  Southern  Italy 
having  been  ravaged  by  these  pirates,  in  defiance  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John  (to  whom  Charles  at  his  coronation, 
2 


26  MODERN   HISTORY.  [62 64.    $  3. 

in  1530,  had  granted  Malta,  Gozzo,  and  Tripoli,  as  fiefs, 
on  condition  of  their  waging  perpetual  war  against  unbe- 
lievers and  pirates),  a  Spanish-Italian  fleet  of  420  sail  was 
fitted  out  by  the  Emperor,  who  stormed  the  fortress  of 
Goletta,  defeated  the  army  of  Hayraddin  before  Tunis,  took 
the  city,  and  set  at  liberty  a  large  body  of  Christian 
slaves  (22,000)  who  were  confined  in  its  prisons.  The 
whole  of  the  conquered  territory,  except  Goletta  and  the 
coast,  was  restored  to  Muley  Hassan  by  the  Emperor. 

(62.)  Third  war  with  Francis  I.,  1536— 1538.  Francis 
Sforza,  of  Milan,  having  died  without  issue,  and  bequeath- 
ed his  possessions  to  the  Emperor,  an  attempt  was  made 
by  Francis  I.  to  regain  possession  of  the  duchy.  Alter 
demanding  from  the  Duke  of  Savoy  (brother-in-law  of 
Charles  V.)  a  free  passage  through  his  territories,  as  well 
as  the  cession  of  a  portion  of  the  duchy  (which  he  claimed 
in  right  of  his  descent  from  Philip  of  Savoy,  his  mater- 
nal grandfather),  Francis  suddenly  entered  Savoy  and 
Piedmont,  declared  war  against  the  Emperor,  and  formed 
an  alliance  with  the  Turkish  Sultan.  At  the  same  time 
Charles  V.  invaded  France,  but  was  compelled  by  want  of 
provisions  to  follow  the  advice  of  the  Constable  Montmo- 
rency  and  retire,  after  laying  waste  the  whole  of  Provence. 
In  1538,  an  armistice  was  concluded  at  Nice,  each  party 
retaining  the  places  which  he  had  taken  during  the  war. 
Milan  was  given  to  Philip,  Charles's  son. 

(63.)  Charles's  Expedition  against  Algiers,  1541,  was 
occasioned  by  the  terrible  depredations  of  the  Algerine 
corsairs  on  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  Italy.  An  army  was 
landed  on  the  African  coast,  but  its  operations  were  frus- 
trated by  continual  rains,  and  a  second  storm  destroyed 
the  greater  part  of  the  fleet. 

(64.)  Fourth  war  against  Francis  Z,  1542 — 1544. 
The  disaster  which  had  befallen  the  Emperor  before  Al- 
giers, and  the  advance  of  a  Turkish  army  into  Upper 
Hungary,  seemed  to  afford  a  favorable  opportunity  for  the 
reassertion  of  those  claims  which  had  never  been  entirely 
abandoned  by  Francis  I.  The  assassination  of  two  (so- 
called)  French  ambassadors  by  some  Spanish  troops, 
served  as  a  pretext  for  hostilities,  which  were  recom- 


65 — 67.  $  3.]  GERMANY.  27 

menced  by  Francis  in  conjunction  with  his  allies  the 
Turks,  Danes,  Swedes,  and  the  Duke  of  Cleves. 

(65.)  The  Turks  took  possession  (after  the  death  of 
Zapolya)  of  all  that  remained  of  Christian  Hungary,  and 
the  French,  with  an  army  composed  of  Danes  and  subjects 
of  the  Duke  of  Cleves,  invaded  the  Netherlands,  whilst  the 
united  fleets  of  France  and  Turkey  scoured  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  stormed  Nice.  The  Duke  of  Cleves,  who  had 
trusted  to  the  strength  of  his  fortresses  (all  of  which 
capitulated  after  the  capture  of  the  previously  impreg- 
nable stronghold  of  Duren),  was  the  first  of  his  ene- 
mies defeated  by  Charles  V.  Having  received  assistance 
from  the  states  of  the  empire  (including  even  the  Protes- 
tant powers)  and  concluded  an  alliance  with  England,  the 
Emperor  then  marched  through  Champagne,  as  far  as 
Soissons,  on  his  way  to  Paris.  This  movement  hastened 
the  peace  of  Crespy,  which  was  concluded  in  1544,  the 
two  sovereigns  pledging  themselves  to  assist  each  other 
against  the  Turks,  and  to  strain  every  nerve  for  the  resto- 
ration of  the  ancient  religion.  At  the  same  time  Francis 
renounced  his  claims  to  Naples,  Milan,  and  Flanders. 

(For  the  Schmalkaldian  war,  and  the  war  with 
"Maurice  of  Saxony,  see  page  10.) 

(66)  War  with  Henry  II.  of  France  (1552).     Avail- 
ing himself  of  the  distracted  state  of  Germany,  Henry 
II.,   by   dint   of  liberal   promises   of  assistance   to   the 
Protestants,   obtained   possession   of    the   bishoprics    of 
Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun.      An  unsuccessful  attempt  of 
Charles  V.  to  reconquer  those  cities  was  followed  by  an 
armistice  for  five  years. 

(67)  Abdication  of  Charles  V.     The  elevation 
of  Paul  IV.  to  the  papal  throne  threatening  a  revival 
of   the   old  contests   between   the   Pope   and    Emperor, 
Charles  V.,  whose  strength  had  been  for  a  long  time  de- 
clining, resigned  the  sovereignty  of  Naples,  Milan,  and 
the  Netherlands,  in  1555,  and  the  crown  of  Spain  in  the 
following  year,  to  his  son  Philip ;  and  having  abdicated 
the  imperial  dignity  in  favor  of  his  brother  Ferdinand, 
retired   to   Spain,  where  he  established  himself   in    the 
Hieronymite  monastery  of  St.   Just,  near  Placentia.     In 
this  retirement  his  time  was  divided  between  the  duties 


28  MODERN   HISTORY.  [68.    $4. 

of  religion,  music,  gardening,  and  the  manufacture  of 
wooden  clocks.  After  celebrating  his  own  obsequies, 
he  died  on  the  21st  of  September  1558,  in  the  fifty-sixth 
year  of  his  age. 

§  4.  Spain. 

(68)  1.  The  marriage  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic 
(1479—1516)  and  Isabella  of  Castille  (1474—1504) 
laid  the  foundation  of  a  union  between  the  kingdoms 
of  Arragon  (to  which  Sicily  and  Sardinia  also  be- 
longed) and  Castille.  To  these  possessions  were 
added  (by  Ximenes)  the  kingdom  of  Grenada,  Naples 
(1534),  and  the  conquests  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa 
(Oran,  1509).  The  anxious  desire  of  the  two  sovereigns 
was  to  render  the  monarchy  as  far  as  possible  independ- 
ent of  the  nobility  and  the  higher  order  of  clergy.  With 
this  view  the  grand-masterships  of  the  three  orders  of 
chivalry  (St.  James,  Alcantara,  and  Calatrava)  were  an- 
nexed to  the  crown,  which  in  consequence  exercised  un- 
limited control  over  the  estates,  finances,  and  military 
resources  of  the  orders.  Encouragement  was  also  given 
to  the  leagues  (Hermandades)  of  cities  against  the  tyran- 
ny of  the  nobles.  The  newly  established  inquisition  was 
employed  for  the  ruin  of  those  who  had  rendered  them- 
selves obnoxious  to  the  court,  as  well  as  for  the  extirpa- 
tion of  heresy,  and  the  persecution  of  the  Jews,  whose 
expulsion  from  the  kingdom  on  account  of  their  apostasy 
from  a  religion  to  which  they  had  been  converted  by 
force,  secured  to  the  crown  the  possession  of  their  for- 
feited property.  •  A  lustre  was  thrown  over  the  reign  of 
Ferdinand10  by  the  discovery  of  America,  the  admirable 

10  The  principal  part  of  the  glory  of  this  reign  must  be  at- 
tributed to  queen  Isabella.  She  evinced  the  greatest  courage 
during  the  vicissitudes  of  her  youth.  When  Ferdinand  fled  from 
Segovia,  she  undauntedly  remained  there.  She  would  guard  the 
Alhama,  at  the  gates  of  Grenada,  when  her  most  valiant  officers 
proposed  a  retreat.  She  consented  reluctantly  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Inquisition.  She  loved  literature,  and  aided  its  ad- 
vancement. She  understood  Latin ;  while  Ferdinand  could  scarce- 
ly sign  his  name.  Notwithstanding  the  objections  of  Ferdinand, 
she  armed  the  fleet  which  discovered  America.  She  defended  the 


69,  70.]  SPAIN.  29 

administration  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  and  the  reputation 
acquired  by  the  Spanish  warriors  in  the  conquest  of 
Grenada  and  Naples  under  their  renowned  leader  Gon- 
zalvo  de  Cordova.  Isabella  was  succeeded  in  the  sov- 
ereignty of  Castille  by  her  daughter  Joanna  and  her 
husband  Philip  I.,  son  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  who 
conquered  Navarre  as  far  as  the  Pyrenees.  Two  years 
after  his  succession  Philip  died  (1506),  and  his  widow 
having  fallen  into  a  state  of  imbecility,  Ximenes  per- 
suaded the  estates  of  Castille  to  confer  the  sovereignty 
on  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  who  was  succeeded  in  both 
his  kingdoms  by  Philip's  son, 

(69)  2.  Charles  I.  (1516—1556),  who  commenced  his 
reign   under   the    guardianship    of    Cardinal    Ximenes ; 
but  on  his  arrival  in  Spain  from  the  Netherlands,  the 
minister  was  disgraced,  and  died  soon  afterwards  of  vexa- 
tion.     Cardinal   Adrian,  a   native   of  the  Netherlands, 
having  been  appointed  regent  of  the  kingdom  during  the 
absence  of  Charles  in  Germany,  the  cities  of  Castille, 
irritated    at    the    oppressive    and    increasing    taxation, 
formed  themselves  into  a  confederacy  called  the  "  Holy 
Junta,"  and  sent  an  army  into  the  field  under  the  com- 
mand of  Don  Juan  Padilla,  who  was  defeated  near  Villa- 
lar  (1521),  taken  prisoner,  and  executed.     On  his  return 
Charles   proclaimed  a  general  amnesty;    but  the  privi- 
leges of  the  Castilian  crown  were  still  maintained  at  the 
expense  of  the  people's  freedom,  and  the  Cortes,  although 
it  continued  its  sessions,  had  become  powerless  and  con- 
temptible. 

(70)  But  it  was  not  merely  by  the  extension  of  his 
prerogative  that  Charles  upheld  and  augmented  the  dig- 
nity of  the  Spanish  crown.      From  his  ancestors  he  had 
inherited  the  whole  of  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  the  Aus- 
trian states  (with  the  exception  of  Bohemia  and  Hun- 
gary), Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Naples,  the  recently  discovered 
West  India  islands,  the  colonies  on  the  north  coast  of 
Africa,  and  the  Canary  islands.     To  these  he  had  added 
the  kingdom  of  Germany,  the  duchy  of  Milan,  the  prov- 


accused  Columbus ;   consoled  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova  in  his  dis- 
grace ;  and  gave  liberty  to  the  unhappy  Americans. — Mickelet.  (S.) 


30  MODERN   HISTORY.  [71,72.    $4. 

inces  of  Utrecht,  Oberyssel,  and  Grroeningen,  and  the 
rich  transatlantic  countries  of  Mexico,  Peru,  Chili,  Quito, 
and  New  Granada.  The  whole  of  this  enormous  mass 
of  territory,  with  the  exception  of  Germany  and  the 
Austrian  states,  he  delivered  over  (in  1556)  to  his  only 
son, 

(71)  3.  Philip  II.  1556—1598,  husband  of  Mary, 
Queen  of  England,  whose  gloomy,  reserved,  and  haughty 
behavior  disgusted  his  Spanish  subjects,  whilst  his  undis- 
guised preference  for  Spain  rendered  him  equally  unpopu- 
lar in  the  Netherlands.  The  war  with  France,  which  he 
had  inherited  from  his  father,  was  carried  on  with  the 
assistance  of  England,  and  terminated,  after  the  battle  of 
St.  Quintin,1  and  another  victory  gained  by  Count  Eg- 
mont,  near  Grravelines,  by  the  peace  of  Chateau  Cam- 
bresis  (1559),  the  French  consenting  to  restore  all  the 
territory  which  they  had  acquired  by  conquest  in  Italy. 
In  this  reign  the  royal  residence  was  transferred  from 
Valladolid  to  Madrid.  Spain  had  now  reached  the  sum- 
mit of  her  glory,  from  which  she  began  rapidly  to  decline. 
The  persecution  of  the  Moors,  commenced  by  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic,  and  renewed  by  Charles  V.,  was  carried  on 
with  increased  severity  by  Philip,  who  compelled  them 
to  renounce  not  only  their  faith,  but  even  their  customs, 
dress,  and  language.  This  occasioned  a  civil  war,  which 
lasted  two  years,  and  was  infamous  for  the  acts  of  revolt- 
ing cruelty  perpetrated  by  both  parties.  The  naval  power 
of  the  Turks  (who  had  sanctioned  the  pillage  of  the 
Italian  and  Spanish  coasts  by  the  corsair  states  of  Africa) 
was  annihilated  in  the  battle  of  Lepanto  (1571)  by 
the  combined  imperial,  Venetian  and  papal  fleets,  under 
the  command  of  Philip's  natural  brother,  Don  John  of 
Austria  ;  but  the  advantages  of  this  victory  were  neutral- 
ized by  Philip's  jealousy  of  his  brother. 

(72.)    The  heaviest  loss  sustained  by  Spain  at  this 
period   was   the    defection    of    the    seven    united 


1  It  was  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  made  during  this  battle  that 
Philip  built  the  Escurial,  a  royal  palace  of  Spain,  about  twenty- 
two  miles  from  Madrid,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  which  divide 
the  two  Castilles.  (S.) 


73,  74.  §4.]  SPAIN.  31 

provinces  of  the  Netherlands  (see  $  5).  On  the 
other  hand,  Portugal,  to  which  Philip  had  some  claim 
by  his  mother's  side  (as  grandson  of  Emanuel  the  Great), 
was  annexed  to  the  Spanish  crown  by  the  Duke  of  Alva, 
after  the  extinction  of  the  Burgundian  line  in  that  coun- 
try (1580).  As  the  Protestant  Queen  of  England, 
Elizabeth,  supported  the  United  Netherlands  in  their 
resistance  to  Spain,  and  at  the  same  time  attacked  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  America,  Philip,  relying  on  the  sup- 
port of  the  Romanists  in  England,  fitted  out  a  fleet  of 
150  sail  (called  tlw  Invincible  Armada),  which  was 
beaten  by  the  English  off  Dunkirk,  and  almost  annihi- 
lated by  a  storm,  in  1588.  From  this  blow  the  power 
of  Spain  never  rallied.  Philip  sank  into  the  grave  with 
the  melancholy  consciousness  that  all  his  plans  had  ended 
in  disappointment  and  disgrace.  His  son,  Don  Carlos, 
a  feeble-minded  youth,  whose  violence  bordered  on  in- 
sanity, was  arrested,  not  on  account  of  his  love  for  his 
stepmother,2  but  in  consequence  of  his  treasonable  pro- 
jects, and  died  in  prison,  probably  from  natural  causes,  in 
1568. 

(73.)  4.  Philip  III.  (1598—1621).  The  narrow- 
minded  policy  of  this  monarch,  and  his  incapable  min- 
ister the  Duke  of  Lerma,  in  expelling  all  the  Moriscos 
(baptized  Moors),  hastened  the  downfall  of  Spain  by  de- 
priving her  of  the  most  intelligent  and  industrious 
portion  of  her  population.  In  the  year  1609,  Philip 
was  obliged  to  conclude  an  armistice  for  twelve  years  with 
the  Netherlands.  The  ruin  of  Spain  was  still  further  ac- 
celerated by  his  son, 

(74.)  Philip  IV.  (1621—1665),  who  abandoned  the 
government  of  Spain  to  his  minister,  the  Count  Olivarez. 
The  folly  of  this  man  in  seeking  to  restore  prosperity  by 
the  introduction  of  a  uniform  system  of  administration 
rather  than  by  a  rigid  economy  in  the  expenditure  of  the 
court,  occasioned  an  insurrection  of  the  Catalonians,  who 
resisted  for  twelve  years  the  attempt  of  Olivarez  to  de- 
prive their  province  of  its  peculiar  privileges.  For  the 
defection  of  Portugal,  see  $  6.  In  consequence  of  these 

a  As  represented  by  Schiller,  in  his  tragedy  of  Don  Carlos. 


32  MODERN   HISTORY.  [75.    §5. 

miscarriages  Olivarez  was  removed,  but  the  administra- 
tion of  his  successor,  Luis  do  Haro,  seems  to  have  been 
scarcely  more  judicious.  Great  discontent  was  excited 
in  the  provinces  by  immoderate  taxation  and  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  none  but  Spaniards  to  offices  of  trust  and 
honor.  The  imposition  of  a  fresh  tax  occasioned  an 
insurrection  at  Naples  (1647),  headed  by  a  fisherman 
named  Tommaso  Aniello  (generally  contracted  into  Mas- 
aniello),  who  compelled  the  Spanish  viceroy  to  grant  all 
his  demands.  The  assassination  of  this  patriot  by  his 
enemies  occasioned  a  fresh  outbreak,  which  was  quelled 
by  the  appearance  of  a  Spanish  fleet  off  the  harbor. 
The  independence  of  the  United  Netherlands  was 
fully  recognized  by  Spain  in  the  peace  of  Westphalia 
(1648). 

§  5.   TJie  Netherlands. 

(75.)  At  the  commencement  of  the  mediaeval  period, 
the  Netherlands  belonged  to  France,  after  the  partition 
of  that  kingdom,  to  Lorraine,  and  subsequently  to  the 
duchy  of  Lower  Lorraine.  They  were  gradually  split 
into  a  number  of  small  duchies  and  counties,  all  of 
which,  either  by  conquest,  marriage,  or  purchase,  became 
the  property  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy.  Charles  the 
Bold  possessed  fourteen  Netherlandish  provinces  (viz., 
the  four  duchies,  Brabant,  Limburg,  Luxemburg,  and 
G-eldern ;  the  counties  of  Flanders,  Artois,  Hennegau, 
Namur,  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Ziitphen,  the  margravate 
of  Antwerp,  and  the  seigniories  of  Mechlin  and  Fries- 
land),  which  were  annexed  to  Austria  by  the  marriage  of 
Maximilian  I.  with  Mary  of  Burgundy.  To  these  were 
added  the  three  provinces  of  Utrecht,  Oberyssel,  and 
Groeningen,  by  Charles  V.  Under  the  Dukes  of  Bur- 
gundy the  Netherlandish  States,  as  they  were  called,  ob- 
tained several  important  privileges,  such  as  the  right  of 
self-taxation  and  levying  their  own  contingent  of  troops, 
which  Philip  II.  on  two  occasions  (in  1549  and  1555), 
solemnly  swore  to  respect  and  defend.  After  the  peace 
of  Chateau  Cambresis,  Philip  quitted  the  Netherlands, 
leaving  as  his  representative  his  natural  sister,  Marga- 


75.  §  5.]  THE  NETHERLANDS.  33 

ret  of  Parma,  who  was  assisted  by  Granvella,  Bishop 
of  Arras.  Offices  of  the  highest  trust  and  importance 
were  also  conferred  on  the  great  native  nobles,  William 
of  Nassau,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Lamoral,  Count 
Egmont ;  and  the  Count  Yan  Hoorn  was  appointed  ad- 
miral of  the  Netherlandish  fleet.  But  these  popular 
measures  were  neutralized  by  the  appointment  of  foreign- 
ers to  the  other  great  offices  of  state,  the  quartering  of  a 
Spanish  force  (3000  men)  in  the  Netherlands,  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  fourteen  new  bishoprics  and  three  arch- 
bishoprics, the  chief  of  which,  Mechlin,  was  conferred  on 
Granvella,  who  soon  afterwards  obtained  a  cardinal's  hat. 
The  discontent  excited  by  these  proceedings  was  aggra- 
vated by  a  persecution  of  the  Protestants,  and  at  last 
reached  such  a  height,  that  Grranvella  deemed  it  most 
prudent  to  quit  the  Netherlands.  After  the  publication 
of  the  articles  agreed  on  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  a  pro- 
test against  the  Spanish  inquisition  and  the  severity  of 
the  ecclesiastical  laws  was  presented  to  the  Duchess-Re- 
gent at  Brussels,  by  a  confederacy  of  250  noblemen  (ori- 
gin of  the  faction  called  "  les  gueux")3.  As  no  decisive 
answer  was  given  to  this  petition,  the  populace  became 
furious,  and  commenced  a  general  attack  on  the  churches, 
which  so  terrified  Margaret,  that  she  consented  to  the 
suppression  of  the  inquisition  in  the  Netherlands,  and 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  commanding  uniformity  of  be- 
lief and  worship.  Egmont  was  satisfied  with  these  con- 
cessions, and  promised  to  support  the  government ;  but 
the  Prince  of  Orange  still  continued  his  opposition,  and 
finding  his  party  too  feeble  for  an  open  demonstration, 
fled  for  safety  into  Germany,  an  example  which  was  spee- 
dily followed  by  most  of  the  Protestants.  In  the  year 
1567,  the  Duke  of  Alva  appeared  in  the  Netherlands  with 
an  army  of  20,000  men,  and  assumed  the  principal  direc- 
tion of  the  government  ;  but  the  arrest  of  Egmont, 

*  As  the  members  of  the  confederacy  approached  the  palace, 
walking  two  and  two  in  solemn  procession,  the  Duke  of  Barlai- 
mont  cried  out  contemptuously,  "  Ce  n'est  qu'un  tas  de  gueux"  (it 
is  only  a  heap  of  beggars)— a  designation  which  was  thenceforth 
adopted  by  all  the  Netherlandish  patriots. — Wolfgang  Menzel's 
GeschicJite  der  Deutscken,  cap.  422. 
2* 


34  MODERN   HISTORY.  [76.    $5. 

Hoorn,  and  other  nobles,  without  the  sanction  of  his  co- 
regent,  so  disgusted  Margaret,  that  she  resigned  her  office 
and  retired  to  Italy,  where  she  remained  until  her  death. 
Alva,  now  sole  governor,  immediately  established  a  com- 
mission of  inquiry  (called  by  the  people  tlie  bloody  court), 
which  commenced  proceedings  against  the  Prince  of  Or- 
ange and  all  who  had  either  signed  the  protestation  or  ta- 
ken any  part  in  acts  of  sacrilege.  Those  who  refused  to 
appear  were  outlawed,  and  their  goods  confiscated.  Eg- 
mont,  Hoorn,  and  several  other  noblemen,  were  executed 
at  Brussels  as  conspirators  against  the  state  (1568).4 

(76.)  The  Prince  of  Orange,  on  receiving  intelligence 
of  the  confiscation  of  his  estates,  immediately  made  ar- 
rangements for  an  invasion  of  the  Netherlands,  in  con- 
junction with  his  brother  Lewis  of  Nassau ;  but  Lewis 
was  defeated  by  Alva  near  Jemmingen  on  the  Ems,  and 
the  prince  himself  compelled  to  retreat  almost  as  soon  as 
he  had  crossed  the  frontier.  Even  those  Netherlanders 
who  had  hitherto  remained  faithful  to  Alva,  were  now 
disgusted  by  the  imposition  of  a  new  tax  (one  per  cent, 
on  all  property,  and  five  per  cent  on  the  sale  of  immova- 
ble, and  ten  per  cent,  of  movable  merchandise),  and 
placed  themselves  under  the  command  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  who  was  -elected  royal  stattholder  of  Holland, 
Zealand,  Friesland,  and  Utrecht,  at  a  general  meeting  of 
deputies  of  the  insurgent  states  held  at  Dort  in  1572. 
In  the  following  year  Alva  was  dismissed  at  his  own  re- 
quest, and  succeeded  in  the  government  of  the  Nether- 
lands by  Don  Luis  de  Zuniga  y  Requesens  (1573 — 
1576),  who  dissolved  the  "  bloody  court,"  and  after  a  vic- 
tory gained  by  the  Spaniards  on  the  banks  of  the  Maas, 
and  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on  Leyden  (1575),  endeav- 
ored fruitlessly  to  negotiate  a  peace,  and  died  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  A  confederation  of  Netherlandish  provin- 
ces was  formed  at  Grhent  for  mutual  defence  against  the 
Spanish  troops,  who  were  liquidating  their  long  arrears  of 
pay  by  the  plunder  of  Maestricht,  Antwerp,  and  other 


4  The  Duke  of  Alva  made  it  a  boast,  on  his  return  to  Spain, 
that  he  had  put  to  death  with  the  sword  more  than  18,000  men  in 
the  Netherlands.— S. 


77,  78.    $  5.]  THE    NETHERLANDS.  35 

rich  cities.  On  receiving  intelligence  of  this  movement, 
Philip  II.  appointed  his  half-brother,  Don  Juan  of 
Austria  (a  natural  son  of  Charles  V.),  governor  of  the 
Netherlands  (1576—1578),  and  after  his  death  (at  the 
end  of  two  years)  conferred  the  office  on  an  experienced 
warrior  and  statesman  named  Alexander  Farnese, 
of  Parma  (son  of  the  late  Regent  Margaret;  1578 — 
1592),  who  conciliated  the  southern  or  Walloon  provinces 
(which  had  remained  faithful  to  the  Church  of  Rome),  by 
securing  to  them  the  enjoyment  of  their  ancient  privile- 
ges. 

(77.)  On  the  other  hand,  the  seven  northern 
provinces,  Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Grelderland, 
Groeningen,  Friesland,  and  Oberyssel,  all  of  which  had 
embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  formed  a  un- 
ion at  Utrecht  (in  1579),  formally  renounced  their 
allegiance  to  Philip  in  1581,  and  were  on  the  eve  of  con- 
ferring the  hereditary  countship  of  the  Netherlands  on 
William  of  Orange,  when  he  fell  by  the  hand  of  an  assas- 
sin (1584.)  The  government  of  the  seven  united  provin- 
ces was  then  committed  to  his  brave  son,  Maurice  of 
Nassau-Orange  (1584 — 1625). 

(78.)  In  the  mean  time,  Alexander  of  Parma  having 
obtained  possession  of  Ghent,  Brussels,  Mechlin,  Nime- 
guen,  and  lastly  of  Antwerp  (after  a  siege  in  which  both 
sides  greatly  distinguished  themselves,  1585),  the  states- 
general  applied  for  assistance  to  Elizabeth  Queen  of  Eng- 
land, and  consented  to  appoint  the  Earl  of  Leicester  gen- 
eral stattholder  ;  but  the  interference  of  Maurice  of  Or- 
ange and  Oldenbarneveld  (pensionary  of  Rotterdam)  so 
crippled  his  operations,  that  he  soon  resigned  his  appoint- 
ment (1587).  Notwithstanding,  however,  this  untoward 
occurrence,  friendly  relations  were  still  maintained  be- 
tween the  Netherlands  and  England  ;  and  in  consequence, 
Philip  II.  fitted  out  his  invincible  Armada,  hoping,  after 
he  had  subdued  England,  to  find  the  Netherlands  an  easy 
prey.  After  the  destruction  of  this  fleet,  Alexander  of 
Parma,  so  far  from  making  any  further  aggressions  on  the 
independence  of  the  northern  provinces,  was  scarcely  able 
to  maintain  his  authority  in  the  south.  The  united  prov- 
inces, aided  by  France,  continued  to  carry  on  war  against 


36  MODERN   HISTORY.  [79,  80.    $  6. 

Alexander  and  his  feeble  successors  with  such  success 
(notwithstanding  the  capture  of  Ostend  by  the  Spanish 
"general  Spinola),  that  they  obtained,  in  the  year  1609,  an 
armistice  for  twelve  years,  and  subsequently,  at 
the  peace  of  Westphalia,  a  distinct  recognition  of 
their  independence  by  the  Spanish  government. 

(79.)  The  Dutch  Protestants  were  divided  about  this 
time  into  two  parties,  Arminians,  or  remonstrants,  who 
rejected,  and  G-omarists,  or  Counter-Remonstrants,  who 
held  Calvin's  favorite  tenet  of  predestination.  The  Ar- 
minians, after  the  condemnation  of  their  doctrine  by  the 
Synod  of  Dort  in  1618,  were  cruelly  persecuted  by  their 
opponents,  who  put  Oldenbarneveld  to  death,  and  con- 
demned Hugo  G-rotius  and  others  to  perpetual  imprison- 
ment. 


§  6.    Portugal. 

(80.)  A.  The  illegitimate  Burgundian  line 
(1383—1580). 

The  most  prosperous  days  of  Portugal  were  under  her 
rulers  of  the  illegitimate  Burgundian  house,  especially 
Emanuel  the  Great  (1495 — 152 1)5,  when  the  discovery  of 
a  new  passage  by  sea  to  India,  and  the  conquests  and  set- 
tlements of  the  Portuguese  in  Asia,  rendered  Lisbon  the 
first  commercial  city  of  Europe. 

After  the  defeat  and  death  (?)  of  King  Sebastian  at 
Alkassar  in  1578  (in  a  war  against  Fez  and  Morocco),  and 
the  short  reign  of  his  great  uncle,  the  Cardinal  Henry 


6  Emanuel  the  Great,  f  1521. 


John  III.              Isabella."        L< 
1  1557. 

jwis.         Henry,         Edward. 
Cardinal,              | 
King,         Catherine, 
tonio,        f  1580.        mar.  John 
ior.                           of  Braganza. 

Theodosius. 

John  IV. 
King,  1640, 

John,      Mary,      Philip  II.      An 
+  1554       -        -^-         -  *-_          Pr 

Sebastian. 
fl578. 

83,  84.  $  7.]  FRANCE.  37 

(1578 — 1580),  Portugal  became  a  Spanish  province,  re- 
taining, however,  her  own  constitution. 

B.  As  a  Spanish  province,  158 1 — 1640.  A  report 
being  widely  circulated  that  King  Sebastian  was  still  alive, 
three  pretenders  claimed  the  crown  in  succession,  but  were 
speedily  arrested  and  executed.  It  is  uncertain  whether 
the  fourth  claimant  was  also  an  impostor,  or  the  real  King 
Sebastian  who  had  escaped  with  life  after  the  battle  of 
Alkassar.  Under  Spanish  domination,  Portugal  not  only 
lost  most  of  her  foreign  possessions,  but  was  even  deprived 
of  those  privileges  which  Philip  II.  had  sworn  to  respect 
and  maintain.  All  the  public  offices  were  filled  with 
Spaniards,  commerce  was  crippled  by  vexatious  restric- 
tions and  heavy  imposts,  the  crown  lands  alienated,  and 
the  fortresses  dismantled.  This  state  of  slavery  was  ter- 
minated, almost  without  bloodshed,  by  a  revolution  which 
raised  to  the  throne  (in  1640)  Duke  John  ofBraganza 
(descended  from  a  natural  son  of  John  I.),  and  established 
the  independence  of  Portugal  in  spite  of  repeated  attempts 
on  the  part  of  Spain  to  reconquer  her  ancient  province. 


§  7.  France. 
A.  Under  the  House  of  Valois  (1328)— 1589. 

83.  8.  6  Louis  XII.  (1498—1515)  (Duke  of  Orleans) 
succeeded  his  cousin  Charles  VIII.  on  the  throne  of 
France,  which  comprehended  at  that  period  a  much  less 
extensive  territory  than  at  present  (Flanders,  Artois,  Lor- 
raine, Franche-comte  and  Alsace  having  been  since  added), 
but  which,  nevertheless,  occupied  a  distinguished  position 
in  Europe  on  account  of  the  compact  union  of  its  different 
provinces,  its  admirable  military  organization,  and  the 
firmly  established  authority  of  the  crown.  For  the  French 
wars  in  Italy,  see  $  3.  He  was  succeeded  by  hie  son-in- 
law. 

(84.)    9.  Francis  I.  (1515— 1547)  (Count  of  Angou- 

6  See  Handbook  of  Mediaeval  Geography  and  History,  p.  143. 


38  MODERN   HISTORY.  [84.    $  7. 

I6me 7  and  Duke  of  Valois)  disgusted  most  of  his  subjects 
by  the  wanton  extravagance  with  which  he  lavished  the 
revenues  of  the  crown  on  his  mistresses  and  unworthy  fa- 
vorites. The  first  act  of  his  reign  was  the  revival  of  his 
wife's  claim  to  the  duchy  of  Milan,  which  he  recovered 
after  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Swiss  at  Marignano  in 
1515  (see  page  20).  For  his  unsuccessful  attempt  to  ob- 
tain the  imperial  crown,  see  page  24.  His  four  wars  with 
Charles  V.  all  of  which  were  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of 
his  kingdom)  terminated  in  the  loss  of  Milan  through  the 
insufficiency  of  the  previous  preparations,  and  the  incapa- 
city of  Francis  either  to  arrange  any  connected  system  of 
military  operations,  or  to  carry  out  with  perseverance  even 
his  own  imperfect  plans.  This  disaster  occasioned  the 
imposition  of  still  heavier  taxes,  and  the  establishment  of 
a  system  of  plunder  in  Provence,  Champagne,  and  Picar- 
dy.  His  ambitious  projects  at  home  were  attended  with 
better  success.  The  duchy  of  Britany  was  annexed  by 
marriage  to  the  crown  of  France,  the  most  powerful  vas- 
sals rendered  dependent  on  the  throne  by  their  appoint- 
ment to  offices  at  court,  the  choice  of  bishops  and  abbots 
vested  in  the  crown  by  virtue  of  a  concordat  with  the 
Pope,  and  the  parliament  of  Paris,  which  had  refused  to 
register  these  and  other  arbitrary  acts,  humbled  by  the 

7  Charles  V. 


Charles  VI.  Louis  of  Orleans, 

mar.  Valentina  Visconti. 


Charles  VII.  Charles  of  Orleans.    John  of  Angouldme. 

Louis  XI.  Louis  XII.      Charles  of  Angoul6me. 

I  / * *  I 

Charles  VIII.  Claudia.  Francis  I. 


Henry  II. 
mar.  Catherine  de'  Medici. 


Francis  II.      Elizabeth,  Charles  IX.  Henry  III.  Francis    Margaret 

mar.  mar.  (Duke  of  Duke  of       mar. 

Mary  Stuart.  Philip  H.  Anjou,       Alen^on.  Henry  IV. 

King  of 
Poland.) 


85 — 87.  $7.]  PRANCE.  39 

withdrawal  of  its  privileges.  The  establishment  of  a 
national  infantry  enabled  him  to  discharge  his  foreign 
mercenaries,  and  thus  rendered  him  less  dependent  on 
other  countries.  Legislation  was,  for  the  most  part,  in- 
trusted to  the  Chancellors  of  France.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  Francis  merited  his  title  of  Pere  des 
lettres,  by  the  encouragement  which  he  gave  to  science, 
literature,  and  the  fine  arts.  His  son 

(85.)  10.  Henry  II.  (1547 — 1559)  was  completely 
under  the  influence  of  his  mistress,  Diana  of  Poitiers,  the 
Guises8  (Francis,  Duke  of  G-uise,  and  Charles,  Cardinal 
of  Lorraine,  a  branch  of  the  house  of  Lorraine),  and  the 
Constable  Montmorency.  As  an  ally  of  Maurice  of  Sax- 
ony, Henry  renewed  the  war  with  Charles  V.  ostensibly 
for  the  benefit  of  the  German  Protestants,  although  he 
tortured  and  murdered  their  brethren  in  France.  Metz, 
Toul,  and  Yerdun  were  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the 
French.  Francis  of  Guise  distinguished  himself  by  his 
defence  of  Metz  against  Charles  V.  The  French,  who 
had  recommenced  hostilities  on  the  accession  of  Philip, 
Charles's  son,  were  defeated  at  St.  Quentin  by  the  Span- 
iards, assisted  by  an  English  force  obtained  from  Philip's 
consort,  Mary  Queen  of  England. 

(86.)  At  the  peace  of  Chateau  Cambresis,  concluded 
m  1559,  after  the  defeat  of  their  forces  by  Count- Egmont 
near  Gravelines,  all  the  places  recently  taken  by  the 
French  were  restored,  with  the  exception  of  Calais,  which 
had  been  recaptured  from  the  English  by  Francis  of 
Guise,  and  again  contained  a  French  population. 

(87.)  11.  Francis  II.  (1559—1560)  husband  of 
Mary  Stuart.  The  mental  as  well  as  bodily  imbecility  of 


8  Claude  de  Guise. 

Francis.  Duke, 
t  1563. 

Mary,  wife  of 
James  V. 
of  Scotland. 

f  A  ^ 

Mary  Stuart, 

Charles,  Cardinal  of 
Lorraine. 

Henry, 
1  1488. 

Charles  of 
Mayenne, 
1  1611. 

Louis,  Cardinal. 
1  1588. 

40  MODERN    HISTORY.  [88,  89.    $  7. 

this  sovereign,  who  was  only  sixteen  when  he  ascended  the 
throne,  rendered  the  regency  an  object  of  ambition  to  a, 
Catherine  de'  Medici,  his  mother,  b.  The  Bourbons,9 
descendants  of  the  youngest  son  of  Louis  IX.  (Antony, 
King  of  Navarre,  in  right  of  his  wife,  and  Louis  of  Conde), 
who  claimed  the  office  as  princes  of  the  blood  royal  near- 
est in  succession  to  the  crown,  c.  The  Cruises,  who 
claimed  as  uncles  of  the  King's  wife.  The  Guises  having 
triumphed  over  their  opponents,  Francis  of  Guise  under- 
took the  military,  and  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  the  civil 
administration  of  the  kingdom.  Under  his  brother 

(88.)  12.  Charles  IX.  (1560— 1574),  who  ascended 
the  throne  at  eleven  years  of  age,  the  Guises  lost  all  their 
influence.  The  Queen  mother  now  undertook  the  regency, 
the  King  of  Navarre  was  appointed  lieutenant  of  the 
kingdom,  and  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  without  the 
walls  of  the  city  was  granted  to  the  Huguenots.  The 
murder  of  a  number  of  Protestants  in  a  barn  at  Vassy  on 
the  one  part,  and  various  acts  of  violence  committed  by  the 
Protestants,  especially  in  the  south  of  France,  on  the 
other,  occasioned  the  first  of  those  religious  wars  by 
which  France  was  distracted  for  more  than  thirty  years. 

(89.)  In  the  first  three  the  Huguenots,  commanded  by 
the  Condes,  and  at  a  later  period  by  Admiral  Coligny 
and  Henry  of  Navarre,  were  defeated  in  every  battle  (at 
Dreux  1562,  St.  Denys  1567,  Jarnac  and  Moncontour 
1569),  but  at  the  peace  which  followed  each  of  these  re- 
verses (at  Amboise  in  1563,  Lonjumeau,  1568,  and  St.  Ger- 
main en  Laye  1570)  they  obtained,  in  consequence  of  the 
exhausted  condition  of  their  enemies,  complete  religious 
freedom,  and  eventually  the  right  of  admission  to  offices 
of  state,  and  the  possession  of  four  fortresses,  which  they 
were  permitted  to  occupy  with  garrisons  of  their  own. 
The  marriage  of  Henry  of  Navarre  to  Margaret  the  king's 

9  Charles,  Duke  of  Vend6me. 


Antony,  King  of  Navarre.          Charles,  Cardinal. 
Henry  IV. 

Louis  I. 
of  Cond& 

Henry  I. 
of  Cond6, 

90.    $7.]  FRANCE.  41 

sister,  and  the  invitation  to  court  of  Admiral  Coligny  and 
other  distinguished  Huguenots,  seemed  to  augur  well  for 
the  continuance  of  peace.  Under  these  circumstanees 
many  thousands  of  Protestants  were  induced  to  visit 
Paris,  where  they  were  all  massacred,  with  the  exception 
of  Coligny,  on  the  night  of  the  24th  of  August,  1572 
(the  eve  of  St.  Bartholomew).  This  atrocious 
act  was  planned  by  the  Queen  mother,  Catherine  de'  Med- 
ici, her  third  son,  Henry  of  Anjou,  and  the  princes  of 
Guise  (sons  of  Duke  Francis  of  Guise,  who  was  murdered 
before  Orleans),  with  the  consent  of  the  feeble-minded 
king.  At  the  same  time  orders  were  issued  for  the  mur- 
der of  all  the  Huguenots  in  the  provinces ;  but  these 
bloody  edicts  were  in  some  instances  disobeyed  by  the 
provincial  governors.  Their  fortresses  were  also  taken 
from  the  Protestants.  These  atrocities  occasioned  the 
fourth  religious  war,  in  which  La  Rochelle,  one  of  the 
strongholds  of  the  Huguenots,  was  besieged  by  Henry  of 
Anjou  ;  but  on  the  elevation  of  this  prince  to  the  throne 
of  Poland,  peace  was  concluded,  and  freedom  of  religious 
worship  granted  to  the  Protestants  in  certain  districts. 
On  the  death  of  Charles  IX.  his  brother  was  recalled 
from  Poland,  and  ascended  the  throne  of  France  as 

^  (90.)  13.  Henry  III.  (1574— 1589),  a  contemptible 
prince,  whose  time  was  divided  between  the  most  licen- 
tious gratifications  and  acts  of  superstitious  devotion. 
Under  the  influence  of  his  profligate  favorites,  he  pursued 
a  system  of  extravagance  which  completely  exhausted  the 
exchequer.  The  discontent  occasioned  by  his  concessions 
to  the  Huguenots  emboldened  Duke  Henry  of  Guise  to 
form  a  Catholic  league,  ostensibly  for  the  re^establish- 
ment  and  maintenance  of  Romanism,  but  in  reality  as  the 
best  means  of  forwarding  those  claims  to  the  throne 
which  he  was  determined  to  advance  (at  all  events  after 
the  extinction  of  the  house  of  Yalois)  as  the  lineal  de- 
scendant of  Charlemagne.  The  king,  through  mere  ter- 
ror, placed  himself  at  the  he'ad  of  the  league,  and  issued 
an  edict  forbidding  the  public  profession  of  Protestant- 
ism— hence  a  fresh  war  (called  "  the  war  of  the  three 
Henrys")  with  the  Huguenots  under  Henry  of  Navarre. 
Whilst  the  issue  of  this  war  was  yet  doubtful,  a  fresh 


42  MODERN   HISTORY.  [91.    $7. 

league  was  formed,  called  "  the  league  of  the  sixteen"  the 
object  of  which  was  the  elevation  of  Guise  to  the  throne 
of  France.  The  king  fled  from  Paris  (on  "  the  day  of 
the  Barricades"),  but  procured  the  assassination  (1588) 
of  Henry  of  Guise,  and  his  brother  the  Cardinal  Louis. 
The  league,  which  was  now  headed  by  the  Duke  of  May- 
enne,  brother  of  the  murdered  Guise,  was  goaded  to  des- 
peration by  this  atrocious  act,  and  Henry,  to  escape  their 
fury,  placed  himself  under  the  protection  of  Henry  of  Na- 
varre, and  in  conjunction  with  his  new  ally  besieged  Pa- 
ris, but  was  assassinated  in  his  camp  by  a  Dominican 
monk  named  Jacob  Clement.  On  his  death-bed  he  recom- 
mended the  Bourbon  prince,  Henry  of  Navarre,  as  his 
successor. 

(91.)  B.  Under  the  house  of  Bourbon',  1589 
(—1792). 

1.  Henry  IV.,  1589— 1610,  after  a  five  years' strug- 
gle with  the  leaguists  (supported  by  the  Spaniards),  and 
two  victories,  at  Arques  and  Ivry,  embraced  Romanism 
(in  1593),  and  entering  Paris  for  the  first  time  since  his 
accession,  was  gradually  recognized  as  king  by  the  whole 
nation. 

The  religious  wars,  which  had  lasted  with  little  inter- 
mission for  thirty-eight  years,  were  terminated  by  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  by  which  entire  religious  liberty, 
and  admission  to  all  offices  of  state,  were  secured  to  the 
Protestants.  This  period  of  tranquillity  was  employed  by 
Henry  in  the  restoration  of  prosperity  to  France  by 
means  of  an  extensive  financial  reform,  conducted  by  his 
friend  and  minister  Sully.  Under  his  able  administra- 
tion trade  revived,  cities  and  villages  were  rebuilt,  &c.  ; 
but  scarcely  were  the  wounds  of  the  nation  in  some  de- 
gree healed,  when  Henry  announced  his  intention  of  fol- 
lowing out  the  plans  of  his  predecessors  for  the  ruin  of 
the  house  of  Hapsburg,  in  the  hope  of  finding  sufficient 
employment  in  foreign  wars  for  the  restless  ambition  and 
energy  of  his  subjects.  With  the  view  of  wresting  from 
Spain  her  provinces  in  Italy  and  Belgium,  and  at  the 
same  time  destroying  the  power  of  Austria  in  Germany, 
Henry  devised  the  plan  of  a  universal  Christian  Euro- 
pean republic,  to  be  composed  of  fifteen  states  of  equal 


93.  $7.]  PRANCE.  43 

influence  but  dissimilar  constitutions  (six  hereditary  and 
five  elective  monarchies,  and  four  republics).  Perpetual 
peace  was  to  be  the  result  of  this  combination.  The  exe- 
cution of  this  project  was  interrupted  by  the  death  of 
Henry,  who  was  assassinated  by  Ravaillac  during  a  pro- 
gress through  Paris,  in  1610.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son, 

(93.)  2.  Louis  XIII.  (1610—1643),  a  minor,  who 
commenced  his  reign  under  the  guardianship  of  his 
mother,  Mary  de'  Medici.  Sully  having  been  dis- 
missed from  the  administration,  the  Queen  mother,  under 
the  direction  of  an  Italian  named  Concini  (Marquis 
d'Ancre),  pursued  a  course  of  the  most  ruinous  extrava- 
gance, which  was  only  checked  by  her  banishment  from 
court,  and  the  execution  of  Concini  (through  the  influ- 
ence of  a  favorite  of  the  king  named  Luynes).  A  war 
between  the  king  and  his  mother  was  averted  by  Jean 
Armand  du  Plessis,  afterwards  Cardinal  and  Duke  of 
Richelieu,  whose  sagacious  and  energetic  measures 
imparted  new  life  to  the  state,  and  defeated  all  the  trea- 
sonable attempts  of  the  Queen  mother  (who  soon  after- 
wards fled  from  France,  and  died  at  Cologne)  and  her 
brother  Gaston  of  Orleans.  The  grand  objects  of  his  ad- 
ministration, during  a  period  of  eighteen  years,  were,  a. 
the  augmentation  of  tJie  royal  authority  at  home,  which 
he  effected  by  depriving  the  Huguenots  (after  a  protract- 
ed siege)  of  their  stronghold,  la  Rochelle,  and  reducing 
them  to  the  condition  of  a  mere  religious  sect ;  refusing 
to  convoke  the  estates  of  the  realm,  restricting  the  privi- 
lege of  exemption  from  taxation  hitherto  enjoyed  by  the* 
clergy,  &c. ;  b.  the  extension  of  tJie  political  influence  of 
France  abroad.  This  policy  was  successfully  adopted  in 
Sweden,  Italy  (where  the  Mantuan  war  of  succession  was 
terminated  by  the  elevation  of  the  Duke  of  Nevers  to  the 
throne),  the  Netherlands,  and  Germany,  where  he  carried 
out  with  success  the  plans  of  Henry  IV.  for  diminishing 
the  influence  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg  both  in  that  coun- 
try and  in  Spain.  The  last  of  these  measures  was  ren- 
dered imperative  by  the  circumstance  of  France  being  so 
nearly  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  Spanish  provinces, 
as  to  require  a  strong  force  on  almost  every  frontier,  in 


44  MODERN   HISTORY.  [94.    $8. 

the  event  of  a  war  with  Spain.  With  this  object  in  view, 
Richelieu  supported  the  enemies  of  Hapsburg  (the  Neth- 
erlands, and  German  Protestants),  and  favored  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  Catalonians  and  Portuguese  from  Spain. 
His  vigorous  foreign  policy  raised  France  to  the  influen- 
tial position  which  had  been  occupied  by  the  Pope  in  the 
middle  ages,  and  even  during  the  Reformation,  whilst  at 
the  same  time  comprehensive  plans  were  devised  for  the 
extension  of  commerce,  the  augmentation  of  the  naval 
force,  the  protection  of  the  colonies,  the  construction  of 
canals,  and  the  embellishment  of  Paris,  which  was  in- 
debted to  him  for  the  establishment  of  the  Academic 
Franchise,  in  1635.  A  few  months  after  Richelieu's 
death  (4th  December,  1642),  Louis  XIII.  also  died  (14th 
May,  1643),  leaving  his  kingdom  to  his  son  Louis  XIV., 
a  child  of  five  years  old. 


§  8.  England  and  Ireland  under  the  house  of  Tudor, 
1485—1603. 

(94.)  1.  Henry  VII.  (1485—1509)  put  an  end  to 
the  long  war  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster 
by  the  victory  of  Bosworth  Field  (1485),  and  by  his  sa- 
gacity, vigilance,  and  firmness  defeated  all  the  subsequent 
machinations  of  the  Yorkists.  The  English  nobility  hav- 
ing been  almost  exterminated  during  the  civil  wars,  Hen- 
ry experienced  little  opposition  to  his  authority,  which  he 
exercised  as  absolutely  as  any  English  king  since  the 
signing  of  Magna  Charta.  He  increased  the  influence 
of  the  crown,  secured  to  his  subjects  the  protection  of 
wise  laws,  encouraged  trade  and  industry,  took  part  in 
the  new  discoveries  (Newfoundland,  &c.)5  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  England's  naval  supremacy. 


9,5.  §8.] 


ENGLAND   AND   ICELAND. 


45 


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refill 


e  G 
554  ;  m 
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umbe 


46  .    MODERN   HISTORY.  [96,  97.    $  8. 

(96.)  2.  Henry  VIII.  (1509—1547)  married  Oath 
erine  of  Arragon,  his  brother's  widow,  and  soon  expended 
the  treasure  bequeathed  to  him  by  his  father  in  court  pa- 
geants and  wars  with  France,  carried  on  in  conjunction 
with  his  father-in-law,  Ferdinand,  and  at  a  later  period 
with  Charles  V.  Leaving  the  management  of  public  af- 
fairs (for  seventeen  years)  to  Cardinal  Wolsey,  Henry  oc- 
cupied himself  in  theological  studies,  and  published  a 
reply  to  Luther's  treatise  concerning  the  Sacraments, 
which  obtained  for  him  from  the  Pope  the  title  of  "  De- 
fensor  fidei."  After  a  time,  however,  he  quarrelled  with 
the  Pope,  to  whom  he  had  addressed  an  unsuccessful  pe- 
tition for  a  divorce  from  his  wife  on  the  plea  of  his  mar- 
riage being  uncanonical.  The  king,  exasperated  by  the 
vexatious  delays  on  the  part  of  the  Pope  in  pronouncing 
a  decision,  determined  to  take  the  matter  into  his  own 
hands,  and  was  privately  married  to  Anna  Boleyn  (1532), 
by  whom  he  had  a  daughter,  the  future  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Henry  now  broke  off  all  communication  with  Rome,  and 
declared  himself  the  supreme  head  of  the  Anglican 
Church.  Many  persons  who  resisted  this  claim  were  put 
to  death  by  the  advice  of  Thomas  Cromwell,  who  had 
succeeded  Wolsey  in  his  office  of  Chancellor.  Anna  Bo- 
leyn, whose  lively  demeanor  had  excited  the  tyrant's  jeal- 
ousy, ended  her  days  on  the  scaffold.  The  very  day  after 
her  death  he  married  one  of  her  maids  of  honor,  named 
Jane  Seymour,  who  died  soon  after  the  birth  of  Edward 
VI.  The  obsequious  parliament  was  now  required  to  de- 
clare both  his  former  marriages  illegal,  and  consequently 
to  bastardize  Mary  and  Elizabeth.  From  his  fourth  wife 
(Anne,  sister  of  the  Duke  of  Cleves)  he  was  soon  di- 
vorced ;  his  fifth  (Catherine  Howard)  was  beheaded  for 
acts  of  unchastity  committed  before  her  marriage ;  and 
the  sixth  (Catherine  Parr)  was  condemned  to  death  for 
claiming  to  differ  from  the  King  on  religious  subjects,  but 
obtained  a  remission  of  her  sentence.  His  son 

(97.)  3.  Edward  VI.  (1547— 1553),  a  boy  of  nine 
years  old,  was  placed  at  first  under  the  protectorate  of 
his  maternal  uncle,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Somerset.  After  the  death  of  Somerset  (who  was  execu- 
ted on  a  charge  of  attempting  to  dethrone  the  King),  the 


98,  99.    $8.]  ENGLAND    AND   IRELAND.  47 

administration  of  public  affairs  was  committed  to  the 
Duke  of  Northumberland,  who  persuaded  the  King  to 
declare  the  Lady  Jane  Grey  (Northumberland's  daughter- 
in-law)  heiress  to  the  crown.  After  Edward's  death,  and 
before  the  parliament  could  confirm  this  change  in  the 
succession,  Jane  Grey  was  persuaded  to  assume  the 
crown,  which  she  resigned  at  the  end  of  nine  days  in  fa- 
vor of  the  eldest  daughter  and  rightful  heiress  of  Henry 
VIII., 

(98.)  4.  Mary  Tudor  (1553— 1558),  who  soon  af- 
terwards married  Philip  II.,  at  that  time  King  of  Naples 
and  Duke  of  Milan.  Northumberland,  who  had  been 
chiefly  instrumental  in  interrupting  the  regular  succes- 
sion to  the  throne,  was  convicted  of  high  treason  and  exe- 
cuted :  Jane  Grey  and  her  husband  were  also  condemned 
to  death ;  but  the  sentence  was  not  carried  into  execution 
until  it  was  rendered  necessary,  as  the  government  al- 
leged, by  the  breaking  out  of  fresh  disturbances.  The 
re-establishment  of  Romanism  in  England  was  the  signal 
for  a  fierce  persecution  of  the  Protestants,  which  contin- 
ued until  the  death  of  the  Queen.  Cranmer,  Ridley,  Lat- 
imer,  Hooper,  and  other  fathers  of  the  Reformed  Church, 
with  many  persons  of  inferior  note,  were  cruelly  burnt  at 
the  stake  :  others  fled  to  the  continent.  Mary  seems  in 
this,  as  well  as  other  passages  of  her  reign,  to  have  acted 
under  the  influence  of  her  husband,  Philip  II.,  by  whose 
persuasion  she  also  engaged  in  a  war  with  France,  and 
lost  Calais,  the  last  of  the  English  possessions  in  that 
country.  After  her  death,  the  title  of  Queen  of  England 
was  assumed  by  Mary  Stuart,  Dauphiness  of  France  ;  but 
her  party  was  too  insignificant  to  resist  successfully  the 
claims  of 

(99.)  5.  Elizabeth  (1558—1603),  a  sovereign 
whose  character  seems  to  have  been  a  union  of  opposite 
qualities.  Possessing  extraordinary  talents  for  govern- 
ment, she  was  at  the  same  time  eminently  successful  in 
the  cultivation  of  classical  literature  ;  her  severity  and 
caprice  were  tempered  by  gentleness  and  magnanimity ; 
her  vanity  was  willingly  pardoned  by  those  who  witnessed 
her  courageous  patriotism.  She  restored  the  Anglican 
Episcopal  Church,  and  was  recognized  by  parliament  as 


48  MODERN   HISTORY.  [99.    $8. 

its  supreme  head. '  °  The  wise  administration  of  her  min- 
isters (Nicholas  Bacon,  Lord  High  Chancellor,  and  Wil- 
liam Cecil,  Lord  Burghley, -chief  Secretary  of  State)  and 
the  long  peace,  insured  the  prosperity  of  agriculture  and 
domestic  trade  ;  the  operations  of  manufacturing  indus- 
try were  extended  by  the  invention  of  the  stocking-loom, 
and  the  ingenuity  of  fugitives  from  the  Netherlands ;  and 
foreign  commerce  was  promoted  by  voyages  of  discovery 
(see  page  6),  the  establishment  of  colonies  in  North 
America,  and  the  incorporation  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. The  assistance  rendered  by  Elizabeth  to  the  re- 
volted provinces  in  the  Netherlands,  the  execution  of 
Mary  Stuart  (see  §  9),  the  capture  of  a  hundred  Spanish 
merchantmen  on  the  high  seas,  and  the  destruction  of  a 
Spanish  fleet  in  the  harbor  of  Cadiz  (both  by  Sir  Francis 
Drake),  provoked  Philip  to  send  out  (after  five  years  of 
preparation)  "  the  Invincible  Armada,"  under  the  Duke 
of  Medina  Sidonia ;  but  before  the  fleet  could  form  a 
junction,  as  it  had  been  proposed,  with  a  squadron  from 
the  Netherlands  under  Alexander  Farnese,  it  was  at- 
tacked by  the  English  under  Howard,  and  soon  after- 
wards was  scattered  and  almost  annihilated  by  storms 
(1588).  This  victory  was  followed  by  the  building  of  an 
English  fleet  of  forty-two  ships  of  war,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a  colonial  power  in  North  America  (Virginia). 
Towards  the  end  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  Ireland,  which 
(with  the  exception  of  the  eastern  third)  had  been,  espe- 
cially since  the  Reformation,  scarcely  more  than  a  nomi- 
nal province  of  England,  was  more  closely  united  to  the 
English  crown.  The  free  exercise  of  their  religion  had 
been  guaranteed  to  the  Irish  (under  the  Earl  of  Tyrone) 
by  the  Queen's  favorite,  the  Earl  of  Essex,  perhaps  in 
the  hope  of  obtaining  for  himself  the  Irish  crown ;  but 
after  his  fall,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  who  had 
landed  on  the  coast,  the  Irish  were  compelled  to  submit 
unconditionally  to  the  authority  of  England.  Whilst  all 
the  other  nations  of  Europe  were  becoming  daily  more 
enfeebled  and  insignificant,  England,  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Queen  Elizabeth,  gradually  raised  herself  to  the 

w  See  Article  XXXVH.  of  the  Church  of  England. 


100,   101.    $9.]  SCOTLAND.  49 

rank  of  a  first-rate  power.  By  her  last  ordinance  (re- 
specting the  succession)  Scotland  was  united  to  England 
and  Ireland. 

§  9.  Scotland  under  the  Stuarts. 

(100.)  Scotland  since  the  year  1371  had  been  gov- 
erned by  princes  of  the  house  of  Stuart,  the  most  un- 
fortunate royal  family  in  Europe.  Of  five  kings  named 
James,  two  were  murdered  by  their  subjects,  two  slain  in 
wars  with  England,  and  the  last,  James  V.,  was  driven 
mad  by  the  treason  of  his  discontented  vassals,  and  died 
in  1542,  leaving  one  daughter,  an  infant  of  eight  days' 
old. 

(101.)  Mary  Stuart  (1542—1568  [f  1587]), whilst 
her  mother,  Mary  of  Guise,  governed  Scotland  as  regent, 
was  educated  in  France,  where  she  married  the  Dauphin 
(afterwards  Francis  II.).  After  the  death  of  Mary  Tu- 
dor, she  assumed  the  title  of  Queen  of  England,  but  was 
unable  to  prevent  the  accession  of  Elizabeth.  The  pre- 
rogative of  the  Queen  of  Scotland  was  vigorously  defended 
by  the  regent  at  the  commencement  of  John  Knox's 
Reformation  in  Scotland,  and  after  the  death  of  her 
mother  and  her  husband,  Mary  returned  to  her  native 
country,  and  herself  undertook  the  government  (1561). 
Soon  after  her  arrival  she  married  her  cousin  Darnley, 
who  (after  the  murder  of  her  confidential  secretary  Riz- 
zio)  was  blown  up  with  the  house  in  which  he  lay  sick. 
The  marriage  of  Mary  with  Bothwell  (believed  by  the 
people  to  be  the  murderer  of  Darnley)  occasioned  an  in- 
surrection of  the  nobles,  who  compelled  Mary  to  abdicate, 
drove  Bothwell  out  of  Scotland,  and  placed  the  crown  on 
the  head  of  Mary's  son  James,  a  child  of  a  year  old,  and 
appointed  her  brother  Murray  regent  of  the  kingdom, 
Mary  effected  her  escape  from  confinement ;  but  being  de^ 
feated  in  a  struggle  to  regain  the  crown,  she  fled  to  Eng- 
land, where  she  was  detained  in  prison  for  eighteen  years, 
partly  on  the  ground  of  her  having  been  pronounced  by 
the  English  courts  an  accomplice  in  the  murder  of  Darn?- 
ley,  and  partly  because  she  refused  compliance  with  the 
demands  of  Elizabethj  to  renounce  her  pretensions  to  the 
3 


50  MODERN   HISTORY.         [102 104.    $  10. 

English  crown,  and  break  off  all  communication  with  the 
Romanist  party  in  that  country  as  well  as  with  the  court 
of  Spain,  to  punish  the  murderers  of  Darnley,  never  to 
marry  without  the  consent  of  Elizabeth,  and  to  permit 
her  son  to  be  educated  in  England.  In  the  year  1587 
she  was  beheaded,  in  consequence  of  her  alleged  partici- 
pation in  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  Elizabeth.  Dur- 
ing the  minority  of  her  son, 

(102.)  James  VI.  (1567—1603,  in  Scotland  alone), 
who  succeeded  his  mother  in  1567,  Scotland  was  governed 
by  four  regents  in  succession,  all  of  whom,  with  one  ex- 
ception, died  a  violent  death.  During  his  own  feeble  ad- 
ministration the  Presbyterians  triumphed  over  the  Epis- 
copalians, notwithstanding  the  preference  of  the  King  for 
episcopacy.  James,  as  the  next  heir-male  to  the  English 
crown,  was  nominated  to  the  succession  by  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  consequently  was  the  first  sovereign  who  bore 
the  title  of  King  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The 
complete  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  (with  one  parliament) 
was  not  effected  until  the  year  1707. 

$  10.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  under  the  first  two  Stu- 
arts, 1603—1649. 

(103.)  I.James  I.  (1603— 1625).  The  unfortu- 
nate personal  peculiarities  of  this  sovereign,  his  prefer- 
ence for  the  Scotch,  his  blind  affection  for  unworthy  fa- 
vorites, such  as  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  and  the  desire 
which  he  manifested  to  exercise  an  authority  over  the 
parliament  as  absolute  as  that  of  the  mighty  Tudors,  ex- 
cited the  disgust  of  his  English  subjects  ;  whilst  his  in- 
tolerant treatment  of  the  Romanists  provoked  several 
members  of  that  communion  to  engage  in  the  Grun pow- 
der Plot,  the  object  of  which  was  to  blow  up  the  King 
and  parliament.  Happily  for  the  nation,  this  conspiracy 
was  betrayed  by  an  accomplice,  and  the  machinations  of 
the  traitors  defeated. 

(104.)  2.  Charles  I.  (1625— 1649)  quarrelled  with 
his  parliament  respecting  the  imposition  of  taxes,  the 
toleration  granted  to  the  Romanists,  and  the  retention  in 
office  of  his  father's  unpopular  minister  the  Duke  of 


104.    §  10.]        GREAT   BRITAIN    AND    IRELAND.  .  51 

Buckingham.  After  two  dissolutions,  Charles,  in  order 
to  procure  funds  for  carrying  on  the  war  (in  defence  of 
the  continental  Protestants)  against  Austria,  France,  and 
Spain,  was  compelled  to  summon  a  third  parliament,  and 
give  his  assent  to  the  "  petition  of  right,"  which  provided 
that  no  taxes  should  be  levied  without  the  consent  of  par- 
liament, and  secured  personal  liberty  to  the  King's  sub- 
jects. But  as  neither  this  concession  nor  the  assassina- 
tion of  Buckingham  satisfied  the  malcontents,  the  King 
dissolved  his  third  parliament,  and  did  not  call  another 
for  eleven  years.  After  the  conclusion  of  peace  with 
France  and  Spain,  Charles,  in  direct  contravention  of  the 
"  petition  of  right,"  levied  throughout  the  kingdom,  on 
his  own  authority,  a  tax  called  ship-money,  professedly  to 
meet  the  expenses  of  fitting  out  a  fleet.  In  Scotland,  in 
consequence  of  an  attempt  to  enforce  the  use  of  the  An- 
glican ritual,  "  a  solemn  league  and  covenant"  was  formed, 
the  avowed  object  of  which  was  a  general  resistance  to 
the  King's  proclamation.  The  intelligence  of  their  prep- 
arations so  alarmed  Charles,  that  he  immediately  sum- 
moned the  so-called  "  long  parliament,"  and  demanded  a 
vote  of  money  for  carrying  on  war  against  the  rebels. 
The  parliament  now  required  the  dismissal  of  the  King's 
ministers  (Laud  and  Strafford,  both  of  whom  were  after- 
wards executed),  assumed  the  royal  prerogative,  expelled 
the  Bishops  from  the  Upper  House,  and  joined  the  Scotch 
in  their  rebellion.  The  parliament  army  (in  which  Oli- 
ver Cromwell  soon  distinguished  himself)  obtained 
two  victories  over  the  ill-disciplined  forces  of  the  King, 
who  sought  an  asylum  among  the  Scotch,  and  was  deliv- 
ered up  by  them  to  the  English  parliament  on  his  refusal 
to  embrace  puritanism.  About  this  time  (1647)  began 
the  disputes  between  the  Puritans,  who  were  most  in- 
fluential in  parliament,  and  the  Independents,  who 
governed  the  army.  The  latter  having  obtained  posses- 
sion of  the  King's  person,  their  leader,  Cromwell,  defeat- 
ed the  Scotch,  who  had  invaded  England  for  the  purpose 
of  rescuing  him.  It  was  now  resolved  to  bring  Charles 
to  trial,  and. the  Presbyterian  members  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  who  opposed  this  treasonable  proceeding,  were 
all  expelled  ;  those  who  remained  were  called  in  derision 


52  MODERN   HISTORY.        [105 107.    §11. 

the  "  Rump-parliament."  Disregarding  the  protest  of 
the  Upper  House,  this  remnant  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons nominated  a  high  court  of  justice  (including  Crom- 
well among  its  members),  which  condemned  Charles  I.  to 
suffer  death,  as  a  "  tyrant,  murderer,  traitor,  and  cause  of 
all  the  blood  that  had  been  shed."  On  the  30th  Jan. 
1649,  this  sentence  was  carried  into  execution  in  front  of 
Whitehall  palace. 

§11.  Italy. 

(105.)  1.  The  Spanish  Possessions. — The  political 
equipoise  which  had  been  established  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury between  the  different  states  of  Italy,  was  destroyed 
in  the  sixteenth  by  the  preponderance  obtained  by  Spain 
through  her  Italian  conquests.  To  Sicily  and  Sar- 
dinia, which  already  belonged  to  Arragon,  Naples  was 
added  in  1504  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  ;  and  after  the 
extinction  of  the  house  of  Sforza,  Milan  was  granted  as 
a  fief  by  Charles  V.  to  his  son  Philip  II. 

(106.)  2.  The  Duchies,  a.  Savoy  with  Nice  and 
Piedmont  (Geneva  also  until  1536).  b.  Mantua  (ori- 
ginally a  marquisate  (1432 — 1530),  then  raised  to  the  rank 
of  a  duchy,  and  (1536)  augmented  by  the  addition  of 
Montferrat  after  the  extinction  of  its  marquisate)  was 
governed  by  the  house  of  Gronzaga,  and  after  the  extinc- 
tion of  that  line,  and  a  war  of  succession  which  had  lasted 
four  years,  was  settled  on  Duke  Charles  of  Nevers  by  the 
peace  of  Chierasco.  c.  Modena,  with  Reggio  and  Fer- 
rara,  under  the  house  of  Este  (1288 — 1796).  Ferrara, 
on  the  extinction  of  the  legitimate  line  of  Este,  lapsed 
to  its  feudal  sovereign  the  Pope.  d.  Parma  and  Pia- 
cenza,  which  belonged  sometimes  to  France,  sometimes 
to  the  states  of  the  Church,  were  subject  at  a  later  period 
(1545)  to  the  house  of  Farnese. 

(107.)  3.  The  Republics,  a.  Venice  (which  pos- 
sessed also  the.  whole  northeastern  side  of  Upper  Italy  as 
far  as  the  Adda  (terra  firma),  Istria,  the  coasts  of  Dalma- 
tia  and  Albania,  several  Neapolitan  ports,  the  Ionian  and 
many  of  the  Greek  islands,  Candia  and  Cyprus)  occupied 
during  this  period  a  prominent  position  among  the  states 


108—111.    §12.]  GERMANY.  53 

of  Italy ;  but  her  supremacy  in  the  Adriatic  and  Med- 
iterranean occasioned  jealousies,  and  involved  her  in  wars 
with  the  southern  powers  of  Italy,  which  terminated  in 
the  loss  of  most  of  her  continental  possessions.  Several 
of  the  Greek  islands  and  Cyprus  were  also  wrested  from 
her  by  the  Turks  ;  and  lastly,  her  commerce  was  ruined 
by  the  discovery  of  a  passage  by  sea  to  the  East  Indies, 
and  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  Turks,  b.  G-enoa, 
which  belonged  at  first  to  Milan,  and  was  twice  conquered, 
together  with  that  duchy,  by  the  French,  obtained  her 
independence  by  means  of  a  revolution  effected  with  sur- 
prising suddenness  by  Andrew  Doria.  An  aristocratic 
form  of  government  was  established,  which  lasted  until 
the  year  1797.  A  conspiracy,  set  on  foot  by  Fiesco, 
Count  of  Lavagna,  for  the  ruin  of  the  Doria  family  and 
the  overthrow  of  this  constitution,  miscarried  in  conse- 
quence of  the  sudden  death  of  Fiesco,  who  was  drowned 
in  the  harbor  of  Genoa,  c.  Lucca. 

(108.)  4.  Tuscany  remained  subject  to  the  house  of 
Medici,  at  first  as  a  republic,  then  as  a  duchy  (1531 — • 
1574),  and  finally  as  a  grand  duchy  (1574—1737). 

(109.)  5.  The  states  of  the  Church  were  enlarged 
by  the  conquest  of  the  republic  of  Bologna  and  the  mark 
(margraviate)  of  Ancona,  and  the  annexation  of  Ferrara. 

$  1 2.   Germany,  from  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.  to  the 
peace  of  Westphalia,  1556—1648  (comp.  §  3). 

(110.)    3.    Ferdinand  I.     (1556—1564), 

King  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary  in  right  of  his  wife  (see 
page  21),  and  Roman  King  since  1531,  was  elected  Empe- 
ror without  a  dissenting  voice,  it  being  merely  required 
that  he  should  swear  to  respect  the  resolutions  passed  by 
tho  diet  of  Augsburg.  He  reigned  with  prudence  and 
moderation ;  but  was  unable  to  recover  from  France  the 
three  bishoprics  in  Lorraine,  and  was  obliged,  as  the  con- 
dition of  an  armistice  with  the  Turks,  to  abandon  to  them 
all  the  territory  of  which  they  had  taken  possession  in 
Hungary. 

(111.)  The  disappointment  occasioned  by  the  failure  of 
these  attempts,  and  of  his  plan  for  the  reconciliation  of  the 


54  MODERN  HISTORY.         [112 — 114.    $12. 

two  confessions,  by  conceding  to  the  laity  the  use  of  the  cup 
in  the  Holy  Eucharist,  and  permitting  the  marriage  of 
priests,  probably  hastened  his  death.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son 

(112.)     4.  Maximilian  II.  (1564—1576), 

a  mild  and  sagacious  prince,  who  was  persuaded  by  Zapo- 
lya's  son  to  engage  in  a  fresh  Turkish  war,  which  was  ter- 
minated by  an  armistice,  after  the  death  of  Solyman  II. 
before  the  fortress  of  Sigeth  (defended  by  Zriny).  Wil- 
liam of  Grrumbach,  who  had  murdered  the  Bishop  of  Wiirz- 
burg,  was  put  to  death  by  the  Emperor  with  most  of  his 
followers.  Maximilian  was  succeeded  by  his  eon 

(113.)    5.  Rudolph  II.  (1576— 1612), 

a  feeble-minded  sovereign,  whose  reign  was  distracted  by 
the  disputes  of  the  Romanists,  Lutherans,  and  Calvinists. 
The  religious  peace  of  Augsburg  had  failed  to  reconcile  the 
contending  parties,  who  were  still  further  estranged  by 
the  decision  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  by  various  un- 
toward circumstances,  such  as  the  expulsion  of  the  Pro- 
testants from  Aix-la-Chapelle,  where  they  had  seized  on 
the  reins  of  government;  the  excommunication  by  the 
Pope  of  Grebhard,  Elector  of  Cologne,  who  had  gone  over 
to  Calvinism,  and  married  the  Countess  Agnes  of  Mans- 
feld;  the  expulsion  of  a  Protestant  Bishop  from  Stras- 
burg;  and  the  placing  the  Protestant  city  of  Donauwerth 
under  the  bann  of  the  empire  for  obstructing  the  Romish 
worship.  By  the  advice  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  Frede- 
rick IV.,  several  of  the  Protestant  princes  formed  a  U  n  i  on 
(1608),  the  professed  object  of  which  was  mutual  protec- 
tion. 

(114.)  To  this  "Union"  the  Romanist  princes  opposed 
a  "League,"  headed  by  Duke  Maximilian  of  Bavaria 
(1609);  consequently,  the  representatives  of  the  two 
branches  of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach  were  opposed  to  one 
another  as  leaders  of  the  antagonist  parties, — the  elder  or 
Palatine  line  supporting  the  Union,  and  the  younger  or 
Bavarian  the  League.  In  Bohemia,  where  most  of  the 


115 118.    $12.]  GERMANY.  55 

Utraquists l  had  joined  the  Lutheran  communion,  the  Pro- 
testants compelled  the  Emperor  to  publish  a  Letter  of 
Majesty,  by  which  religious  freedom  was  secured  to  the 
three  estates  of  nobles,  knights,  and  royal  cities,  with  their 
vassals. 

(115.)  The  death  (without  issue)  of  John  William, 
Duke  of  Julich  (Juliers),  Cleves,  and  Berg,  was  followed 
byawarofsuccession  between  the  descendants  of  his 
sisters,  the  Elector  John  Sigismund,  of  Brandenburg,  and 
the  Count  Palatine  Wolfgang  of  Neuburg  (1609).  After 
raging  eighteen  years,  this  war  was  terminated  by  the 
convention  of  Diisseldorf,  by  which  the  territories  of  the 
late  Duke  were  equally  divided  between  the  two  claimants, 
Brandenburg  receiving  for  his  share  Cleves  and  the  coun- 
ties of  Mark  and  Ravensberg,  and  Neuburg  obtaining 
Julich,  Berg,  and  the  seignory  of  Ravenstein.  In  the 
reign  of  Rudolph's  brother  and  successor 

(116.)     6.  Matthias  (1612—1619) 

began  the  thirty  years'  war  (1618 — 1648),  the  com- 
mencement of  which  may  be  dated  from  an  insurrection 
at  Prague,  occasioned  by  disputes  respecting  the  erection 
of  Utraquist  churches,  when  two  of  the  royal  counsellors 
(Martinitz  and  Slavata)  were  thrown  out  of  the  windows 
of  the  senate-house  by  a  tumultuous  assemblage  headed 
by  Count  Thurn. 

A.  Bohemian-Palatine  period.    1618 — 1623. 

(117.)  The  Bohemian  Protestants,  supported  by  the 
Union  with  an  army  under  Count  Ernest  of  Mansfeld,  had 
already  made  themselves  masters  of  the  greater  part  of 
Bohemia,  when  Matthias  died,  and  was  succeeded  (after 
the  repulse  of  Count  Thurn  from  Austria)  by 

(118.)     7.  Ferdinand  II.,  (1619—1637), 

a  grandson  of  Ferdinand  I.  Although  this  prince  had 
already  been  two  years  King  of  Bohemia,  the  Protestant 

1  The  Hussites,  or  Bohemian  Brethren,  called  Utraquists  be- 
cause they  partook  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  "sub  utraque  forma"  (in 
both  kinds). 


56  MODERN   HISTORY.  [119.    §12. 

estates  refused  to  recognize  his  election,  and  placed  on  the 
throne  the  Elector  Palatine  Frederick  V.,  head  of 
the  Union  and  of  the  Calvinistic  party  in  Germany.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  disliked  the 
spread  of  Calvinism  in  Bohemia,  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Emperor,  whilst  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  (commander- 
in-chief  of  the  League),  after  compelling  the  Protestant 
estates  of  Lower  Austria  to  return  to  their  allegiance,  en- 
tered Bohemia,  and  utterly  routed  the  army  of  Frederick 
(which  was  exhausted  by  a  night-march)  on  the  White 
Mountain,  near  Prague  (8th  November,  1620).  Fre- 
derick, who  had  fled  to  Holland,  was  placed  under  the 
bann  of  the  empire,  and  all  his  estates  confiscated,  Bohe- 
mia was  subdued,  the  Letter  of  Majesty  torn  in  pieces,  the 
Protestants  deprived  of  all  their  civil  privileges,  and  their 
preachers  banished.2  The  bann  of  the  empire  was  carried 
into  effect  by  the  League,  whose  general,  Tilly  (an  officer 
of  Maximilian's),  took  possession  of  the  territories  of  the 
exiled  Elector  on  the  Danube  and  Rhine,  after  defeating 
Ernest  of  Mansfeld  and  Christian  of  Brunswick.  The 
vacant  electorate  was  conferred  on  Maximilian  (whose  ap- 
pointment gave  the  Romanists  a  majority  in  the  electoral 
college),  and  Lusace  on  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  The  Union 
had  been  dissolved  since  the  year  1621.  The  valuable 
library  collected  by  the  Elector  Palatine  at  Heidelberg, 
was  presented  by  Maximilian  to  the  Pope.3 

B.     Danish  period,  1625 — 1629. 

(119.)  Hostilities  were  recommenced  by  Christian 
IV.,  King  of  Denmark,  who  came  forward  as  defender  of 
his  brother-in-law,  Frederick  V.,  and  the  Protestant  cause, 
at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army,  which  he  had  levied  in 
conjunction  with  England,  Holland,  and  France.  Mean- 
while the  Emperor,  whose  jealousy  of  Maximilian  became 
daily  more  apparent,  had  found  .an  able  supporter  in  Al- 

2  It  is  calculated  that  no  less  than  30.000  families  were  forced 
to  leave  Bohemia  at  this  time.    They  resorted,  for  the  most  part, 
to  Saxony  and  Brandenburg. — S. 

3  This  library,  at  the  intercession  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
and  the  King  of  Prussia,  was  restored  to  Heidelberg,  in  the  year 
1815.— S. 


120.    $  12.]  GERMANY.  57 

bert  of  Waldstein,  orWallenstein,  Prince,  and  after- 
wards Duke,  of  Friedland,  in  Bohemia,  who  raised  an  army 
at  his  own  expense,  defeated  Count  Mansfeld  at  the  bridge 
of  Dessau,  and  followed  him  into  Hungary.  At  the  same 
time  the  arms  of  the  League  were  victorious  under  Tilly, 
who  defeated  (1626)  the  Danish  and  Lower  Saxon  army  com- 
manded by  Christian  IV.,  near  Lutter  on  the  Baren- 
berg,  in  the  territory  of  Brunswick,  and  effected  a  junc- 
tion with  Wallenstein  on  his  return  from  Hungary,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  a  combined  attack  on  the  territories 
of  the  King  of  Denmark.  Holstein  was  conquered  by  the 
united  forces  of  the  two  generals,  and  Schleswig  and  Jut- 
land by  Wallenstein  alone :  the  two  Dukes  of  Mecklen- 
burg were  expelled  from  their  dominions  for  promising 
aid  to  the  Danes,  and  the  Duke  of  Pomerania  forced  to 
place  his  hitherto  peaceful  country  at  the  disposal  of  Wal- 
leDstein.  The  strong  fortress  of  Stralsund  alone  refused 
to  receive  an  imperial  garrison,  and,  with  the  assistance  of 
Denmark  and  Sweden,  repulsed  the  besiegers.  In  order 
to  prevent  a  junction  of  the  Swedes  and  Danes,  a  peace 
was  concluded  at  .Ltibeck  (1629)  between  the  Emperor 
and  the  King  of  Denmark,  on  terms  exceedingly  favorable 
to  the  latter,  who  received  back  all  the  territories  of  which 
he  had  been  deprived  by  Wallenstein  and  Tilly,  on  pledg- 
ing himself  never  to  become  a  party  to  any  confederacy, 
against  the  Emperor. 

(120.)  As  a  compensation  for  the  expenses  incurred 
in  the  war,  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  received  the  Upper 
Palatinate,  and  Wallenstein  the  duchy  of  Mecklenburg. 
The  Emperor,  who  considered  this  a  favorable  opportu- 
nity for  the  re-establishment  of  Romanism,  at  first  in  his 
hereditary  dominions,  and  then  throughout  the  empire, 
demanded  (at  the  instance  of  the  papal  nuncio,  and  with 
the  Consent  of  the  four  Romanist  Electors)  the  restoration 
of  all  ecclesiastical  endowments  which  had  been  appropri- 
ated by  the  Protestants  since  the  convention  of  Passau, 
(1552),  viz.  two  archbishoprics  (Magdeburg  and  Bremen), 
twelve  bishoprics,  and  almost  all  the  abbeys  and  monaste- 
ries of  Northern  Germany.  At  the  same  time  he  issued 
a  decree  that  no  sectaries  should  in  future  be  tolerated 
except  those  who  recognized  the  Confession  of  Augsburg. 
3* 


58  MODERN   HISTORY.  [121.    §  12. 

This  edict  was  carried  into  effect  with  great  severity  by 
Wallenstein,  in  conjunction  with  the  troops  of  the  League. 
The  discontent  excited  by  these  proceedings  was  express- 
ed by  the  estates  of  the  empire,  and  especially  by  Maxi- 
milian (at  a  diet  held  by  Ferdinand  at  Ratisbon,  for  the 
purpose  of  procuring  the  election  of  his  eldest  son  as  Ro- 
man King),  so  loudly  and  unequivocally  as  to  compel  the 
Emperor  to  dismiss  Wallenstein  from  his  service  (Sep- 
tember, 1630). 

C.  Swedish  period,  1630 — 1635. 

(121.)  The  divided  state  of  the  Romanist  party,  and 
the  vacillation  of  the  Emperor,  who  still  suspended  the 
execution  of  the  Restitution  Edict,  had  given  fresh  cou- 
rage to  the  Protestants,  especially  since  the  accession  to 
their  cause  ofGustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden, 
with  whom  they  had  formerly  entered  into  negotiations, 
and  who  was  now  ready  to  declare  war  against  the  Empe- 
ror, partly  out  of  zeal  for  the  Lutheran  faith,  and  partly 
for  reasons  independent  of  his  religious  opinions  ;  the  ex- 
pulsion, for  instance,  of  his  relatives,  the  Dukes  of  Meck- 
lenburg, and  the  rejection  of  his  mediation  at  the  peace  of 
Liibeck.  Having  formed  an  alliance  with  France,  Gusta- 
vus  Adolphus  yielded  to  the  solicitations  of  the  German 
Protestants,  and  in  the  summer  of  1630  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Pomerania,  drove  the  Austrians  out  of  that  coun- 
try, and  advanced  as  far  as  the  March  of  Brandenburg. 
Meanwhile  Tilly  (now  commander-in-chief  of  the  imperial 
forces),  in  conjunction  with  Pappenheim,  invested  the  city 
of  Magdeburg,  which  had  made  common  cause  with  the 
Swedes.  Gustavus  Adolphus  advanced  to  its  relief,  but 
before  he  could  cross  the  Elbe  Magdeburg-was  taken, 
sacked,  and  almost  levelled  with  the  ground  (May  20, 
163 1).4  Tilly  now  determined  to  secure  Electoral  Saxony, 
as  the  most  likely  means  of  arresting  the  progress  of  the 
Swedes ;  and  the  Electors,  who  had  hitherto  stood  aloof, 

4  The  savage  and  monstrous  cruelty  and  outrage  of  the  soldiery 
under  Tilly,  almost  surpass  belief.  From  this  date  all  glory  and 
good  fortune  deserted  him,  and  his  name  was  never  pronounced 
without  a  malediction. — S. 


122.    §  12.]  GERMANY.  59 

placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus.  On  the  7th  September,  1631,  Tilly  was  defeated 
by  the  united  Swedish  and  Saxon  army  on  the  great  plain 
near  Leipzic.  This  victory  annihilated  the  two  formida- 
ble armies  of  the  Imperialists  and  Leaguists,  and  neutral- 
ized at  one  blow  all  the  advantages  which  the  Emperor 
had  obtained  during  the  whole  war,  whilst  to  the  mind  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus  it  suggested  the  ambitious  design  of 
proclaiming  himself,  under  some  form  or  other,  head  of 
the  German  empire,  or  at  least  of  the  Protestant  portion 
of  it.  A  plan  of  operations  was  now  settled  between  the 
Conqueror  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  was  to  attack 
the  Emperor  in  his  hereditary  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  whilst 
Gustavus  Adolphus  overran  Western  and  Southern  Ger- 
many, and  destroyed  the  remnant  of  the  League.  In  pur- 
suance of  this  plan,  Gustavus  traversed  Thuringia  and 
Franconia  as  far  as  Mainz  (Mayence),  and  then  advanced 
on  Bavaria,  leaving  his  generals,  with  Duke  Bernard  of 
Saxe  Weimar  at  their  head,  to  complete  his  conquests  on 
the  Rhine. 

(122.)  On  the  frontier  of  Bavaria  the  passage  of  the 
Lech  was  contested  by  Tilly,  who  fell  in  the  engagement.5 
Gustavus  Adolphus  then  marched  without  interruption  to 
Munich,  having  overrun  the  whole  of  the  German  empire 
except  the  hereditary  dominions  of  the  Emperor  in  Aus- 
tria. Meanwhile  Wallenstein  had  been  persuaded  to  raise 
a  fresh  army  of  40,000  men,  with  which  he  drove  the  Sax- 
ons out  of  Bohemia.  Then  he  joined  the  Elector  of  Ba- 
varia, and  marched  to  Number g,  where  the  Swedish 
and  Imperialist  armies  remained  opposite  one  another  for 
eleven  weeks,  each  party  hoping  that  the  other  would  be 
compelled  by  want  of  provisions  to  abandon  his  position. 
At  last  Gustavus  Adolphus,  after  an  unsuccessful  attack 
on  Wallenstein's  camp,  returned  to  Bavaria,  hoping  that 
the  enemy  would  follow  him.  Wallenstein  also  broke  up 
his  encampment ;  but,  instead  of  proceeding  southwards, 
he  marched  into  Saxony,  for  the  purpose  of  compelling  the 
Elector  to  renounce  his  alliance  with  the  Swedes,  and  in 
the  following  spring  of  cutting  off  the  retreat  of  the  Swe- 

6  He  died  twenty-five  days  after  the  battle.— S. 


60  MODERN   HISTORY.  [123.    §12. 

dish  army  by  reconquering  northern  G-ermany,  especially 
Mecklenburg.  On  receiving  intelligence  of  this  move- 
ment, Grustavus,  at  the  earnest  entreaty  of  the  Elector, 
returned  by  forced  marches  to  Saxony,  and  finding  that 
Wallenstein's  troops  were  now  dispersed  in  winter  quar- 
ters, and  that  a  detachment  under  Pappenheim  had  been 
sent  to  the  Rhine,  he  compelled  the  Imperialists  to  give 
him  battle  at  Liitzen  (Nov.  16,  1632).  In  this  engage- 
ment Grustavus  Adolphus  lost  his  life,6  and  the  Swedish 
troops  were  already  beginning  to  waver,  when  the  intelli- 
gence of  their  King's  death  goaded  them  to  such  exertions 
as  secured  the  victory,  notwithstanding  the  arrival  of  re- 
inforcements under  Pappenheim,  who  was  borne  from  the 
field  mortally  wounded.  The  prosecution  of  the  war  was 
then  undertaken  by  the  Swedish  Chancellor  Axel  Oxen- 
stiern,  in  conjunction  with  Cardinal  Richelieu,  whose  sole 
object  was  the  humiliation  of  Austria  and  the  acquisition 
of  the  territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Thus  the 
war  assumed  every  day  more  unequivocally  the  character 
of  a  mere  political  rather  than  a  religious  contest. 

(123.)  Whilst  Bernard  of  Saxe  Weimar,  who 
had  taken  the  command  of  the  Swedish  army  after  the 
death  of  Grustavus  Adolphus,  employed  himself  in  the 
conquest  of  Franconia,  which  had  been  granted  him  as  a 
fief  of  the  Swedish  crown;  and  Grustavus  Horn,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  pupils  of  the  deceased  King,  made 
himself  master  of  the  greater  part  of  Alsace,  Wallenstein, 
instead  of  profiting  by  the  confusion  caused  by  the  death 
of  Grustavus  Adolphus,  remained  inactive,  and  entered  into 
negotiations  with  France  for  the  crown  of  Bohemia.  This 
conduct  was  the  result,  it  would  seem,  of  a  conviction  that 
the  watchful  jealousy  of  his  enemies  would  prevent  his 
receiving  the  grant  of  an  hereditary  principality  from  the 
Emperor.  The  apparent  inconsistency  of  the  policy  pur- 
sued towards  the  German  Protestants  and  Sweden,  with 
whom  he  was  sometimes  at  war,  and  sometimes  engaged 
in  negotiation  (for  the  purpose,  as  he  pretended,  of  pre- 
venting a  junction  of  their  forces),  his  backwardness  in 

6  Not  without  suspicion  of  treachery  at  the  hands  of  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Lauenburg.  See  Schiller's  "  Tidrly  Years'  War"—S. 


124.    §  12.]  GERMANY.  61 

marching  to  the  rescue  of  Bavaria,  the  negotiation  with 
France,  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  and,  lastly,  the  pre- 
tended conspiracy  of  Pilsen,  furnished  his  enemies  at  the 
imperial  court  (among  whom  the  Bavarian  ambassador  was 
the  most  conspicuous)  with  sufficient  grounds  of  accusa- 
tion. Without  affording  him  an  opportunity  of  being 
heard  in  his  own  defence,  the  Emperor  removed  Wallen- 
stein  from  his  command,  and  on  the  25th  February,  1634, 
he  was  assassinated  at  Eger  by  some  of  his  own  officers.7 
Wallenstein  was  succeeded  in  the  command  of  the  imperial 
forces  by  the  Emperor's  eldest  son,  Ferdinand,  King  of 
Hungary  and  Bohemia,  with  Grallas  as  his  lieutenant.  In 
conjunction  with  the  Bavarian  army  under  John  von 
Werth,  the  new  commander-in-chief  ascended  the  Danube, 
and  defeated  the  two  Swedish  generals  at  Nordlingen 
in  Swabia.  Bernard  fled  to  the  Rhine,  Horn  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  Swabia,  Franconia,  and  the  Palatine  were 
occupied  by  detachments  of  the  imperial  army.  As  little 
assistance  could  now  be  expected  from  their  Swedish  allies, 
the  Protestants  of  south-western  Germany  were  compelled 
to  purchase  the  protection  of  France  by  the  sacrifice  of 
Upper  Alsace. 

D.   Swedish  French  Period  (1634—1648). 

(124.)  Before  the  French  could  cross  the  Rhine  (for 
the  purpose  of  relieving  Heidelberg,  which  was  besieged 
by  John  von  Werth),  the  condition  of  discreditable  de- 
pendence on  a  foreign  power  in  which  the  Protestants  of 
Germany  now  found  themselves,  was  fully  recognized  by 
the  Elector  of  Saxony,  who,  in  the  spirit  of  a  true  patriot, 
set  on  foot  such  negotiations  as  terminated  in  the  peace 
of  Prague  (1635).  By  the  terms  of  this  peace  (which 
were  gradually  subscribed  by  all  the  Protestant  princes, 
except  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel),  the  operation  of 
the  Restitution  Edict  was  defered  for  forty  years,  and  the 
Elector  obtained  possession  of  Lusace.  In  the  following 
year,  however  (1636),  the  Saxons  joined  the  Imperialists 

7  The  question  of  Wallensteinrs  guilt  or  innocence  is  well  dis- 
cussed by  Schiller.  There  is  no  proof  of  his  treason,  though  great 
mystery  covers  the  closing  career  of  this  wonderful  mail.— S. 


62  MODERN   HISTORY.  [125.    §12. 

under  Count  Hatzfeld,  for  the  purpose  of  attacking  B  an  e  r, 
commander  of  the  Swedish  forces  in  central  and  northern 
Germany,  and  were  utterly  defeated  by  that  general  near 
Wittstock  in  Brandenburg. 

Ferdinand  III.   (1637—1657.) 

(125.)  The  passages  of  the  Rhine  having  been  left  un- 
defended by  the  removal  of  Gallas,  who  had  been  sent 
against  Baner  by  the  new  Emperor,  Bernard  of  Saxe 
Weimar  recrossed  the  river  from  Alsace,  and,  after  gain- 
ing a  victory  at  Rheinfelden  (where  John  von  Werth  was 
taken  prisoner),  obtained  possession  of  several  places  on 
the  right  bank,  all  of  which  (after  his  death  in  1639) 
again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French,  together  with  his 
army,  the  leaders  of  which  had  been  corrupted  by  French 
gold.  After  Baner's  death,  the  command  in  chief  of  the 
Swedish  forces  devolved  on  Torstenson,  a  brave  but 
inferior  general,  who  entered  Silesia- and  Moravia  in  1642, 
and,  after  permitting  his  lieutenant  Wrangel  to  advance 
almost  to  the  walls  of  Vienna,  retraced  his  steps  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  reinforcements,  and  defeated  the 
Imperialists  near  Leipzic.  The  breaking  out  of  a  war 
between  Denmark  and  Sweden  recalled  Torstenson  from 
Germany ;  but  after  a  short  absence  he  re-entered  the 
hereditary  dominions  of  the  Emperor,  obtained  a  victory 
at  Jankau  in  Bohemia  (1645),  and  advanced  a  second 
time  to  Vienna,  where  he  sustained  so  heavy  a  loss  as 
compelled  him  to  abandon  all  hopes  of  following  up  his 
victory.  Soon  after  this  reverse,  his  increasing  infirmity 
compelled  him  to  resign  the  command.  Meanwhile  the 
war  was  carried  on,  with  various  success,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine,  by  the  united  forces  of  France  and  Protestant 
Germany  on  the  one  side,  and  a  Bavarian  army  on  the 
other.  Wrangel,  who  succeeded  Torstenson  in  the  com- 
mand, twice  joined  Turenne,  for  the  purpose  of  attacking 
Bavaria,  but  never  advanced  farther  than  Augsburg, 
where  Konigsmark  quitted  the  main  army,  and  marched 
into  Bohemia.  He  had  already  made  an  impression  on 
Prague,  when  the  peace  of  Westphalia^  after  negotiations 
which  had  been  protracted  for  five  years,  was  concluded  at 


126,  127.  §  12:]  GERMANY.  63 

Minister  and  Osnabriick  (Osnaburg)  on  the  24th  October, 
1648.  The  conditions  of  this  peace,  (which  terminated  the 
thirty  years'  war)  were, 

(126.)  (a.)  With  respect  to  ecclesiastical  matters,  the 
confirmation  of  the  Convention  of  Passau,and  the  Religious 
Peace  of  Augsburg,  and  the  extension  of  their  provisions 
to  the  Calvinist  or  "  Reformed "  Protestants.  Ecclesi- 
astical property  to  remain  in  the  same  hands  as  in  the 
year  1624,  and  both  parties  to  enjoy  equal  political 
rights. 

(127.)  Political  matters.  1.  France  obtained  as  an 
indemnification  the  Austrian  possessions  in  Alsace,  the 
confirmation  of  her  sovereignty  over  the  bishoprics  and 
cities  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  and  the  right  of  garri- 
soning Philipsburg.  2.  Sweden  received  a  considerable 
portion  of  Pomerania  (with  the  island  of  Riigen),  Wismar, 
the  secularized  bishoprics  of  Bremen  and  Verden,  and  five 
millions  of  thalers  (dollars),  as  an  indemnification  for  ex- 
penses incurred  in  the  war.  3.  Brandenburg  was  recom- 
pensed for  her  sacrifices  in  Pomerania  by  being  permitted 
to  hold  the  secularized  bishoprics  of  Magdeburg,  Halber- 
stadt,  Minden,  and  Camin,  as  four  temporal  principalities. 
4.  Mecklenburg  received  the  bishoprics  of  Schwerin  and 
Ratzeburg  (on  the  same  terms),  as  an  indemnification  for 
the  loss  of  Wismar.  5.  Hesse-Cassel,  for  the  assistance 
rendered  by  her  to  Sweden  during  the  war,  obtained  seve- 
ral places  in  Westphalia,  and  600,000  thalers.  6.  The 
son  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  Frederick  V.,  received  the 
Lower  Palatinate,  with  an  understanding  that  the  Upper 
Palatinate  also  should  revert  to  the  electoral  line  on  the 
extinction  of  the  Bavarian  house.  At  the  same  time  an 
eighth  electorate  was  founded  expressly  for  his  benefit. 
For  all  other  immovable  property  lost  during  the  war,  a 
general  system  of  restitution  was  arranged.  The  inde- 
pendence of  Switzerland  and  the  united  Netherlands  was 
fully  recognized  by, the  German  empire.  With  regard  to 
political  rights,  no  measures  of  legislation,  war  and  peace, 
taxation,  expenditure,  defence,  or  alliance  with  foreign 
powers,  were  to  be  adopted  by  the  Emperor  without  a 
vote  of  the  princes  of  the  empire  assembled  at  a  diet ; 
the  sovereignty  of  the  princes  within  their  own  terri- 


64  MODERN   HISTORY.       [128 130.    §  13,   14. 

tories  was  secured  to  them ;  and  they  were  allowed  to 
conclude  treaties  of  alliance  with  one  another  and  with 
foreign  powers,  provided  always  that  nothing  were  done 
against  the'Emperor  and  empire,  the  intestine  tranquillity 
of  G-ermany,  or  the  peace  of  Westphalia. 

§  13.  Prussia. 

(128.)  The  Teutonic  Order,  which  had  governed 
Prussia  since  the  year  1283,  was  entirely  suppressed  in 
that  country,  when  the  Grand  Master,  Albert  of  Branden- 
burg Anspach,8  became  a  Lutheran,  and  received,  at  the 
diet  of  Cracow,  in  1525,  Eastern  Prussia  as  a  temporal 
duchy,  to  be  held  as  a  fief  of  Poland. 

(129.)  On  the  accession  of  his  imbecile  son  Albert 
Frederick  (1508—1618),  the  Electors  of  Brandenburg 
obtained  first  the  co-investiture  of  Prussia,  then  the  guard- 
ianship of  the  idiot  Duke ;  and  finally,  the  Elector,  John 
Sigismund,  after  the  death  of  his  father-in-law  (Al- 
bert Frederick),  annexed  the  duchy  to  Brandenburg  (in 

$  14.  Scandinavia. 

(130.)  Since  the  Union  of  Calmar,  in  the  year 
1397,  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden  had  formed  one 

8  1.  Frederick  I.,  first  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  of  the  line  of 
Hohenzollern,  1 1440. 


2.  Frederick  II.,  1 1471.  3.  Albert  Achilles,  f  I486. 

4.  John  Cicero,  f  1499.  Frederick,  Margrave  of  Anspach  and 

5.  Joachim  I.,  f  1535.  Baireuth. 

6.  Joachim  II.,  1 1571.  •       , * N 

7.  John  George,  f  1598.  Albert,  Grand  master        George, 

8.  Joachim  Frederick,  of  the  Teutonic  Order,    Margrave  of 

f  1608.  Adminis-  -         Duke  of  Prussia  in         Anspach. 

trator  in  Prussia,  1525. 

1605.  , * , 

9.  John  Sigisinund,  Albert  Frederick  (of  weak  intellect), 

Administrator,  mar.  Mar}7  Eleanor,  daughter  of  the 

and  (in  1618)  Duke  of  Jiilich,  Cleves,  and  Berg. 

Duke  of  Prus-  , * N 

sia,  mar.  Ann,  Ann,  mar.  John  Sigismund. 
heiress  of  Jiilich, 
Cleves,  and  Berg. 


131,   132.    §  14.]  SCANDINAVIA.  65 

kingdom ;  but  the  kings  chosen  by  the  Danes  from  the 
house  of  Oldenburg  were  not  acknowledged  in  Sweden 
until  Christian  II.  enforced  their  recognition  in  1520,  and 
endeavored  to  confirm  his  authority  by  a  cruel  slaughter 
of  his  enemies  at  Stockholm.  Gustavus  Vasa,  who  had 
escaped  this  massacre,  placed  himself,  after  a  succession 
of  romantic  adventures,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  Dale- 
carlians,  declared  war  against  the  Danes,  was  elected  Ad- 
ministrator, and  afterwards  King  (in  1523),  and  delivered 
Sweden  from  the  Danish  yoke. 

(131.)  1.  The  unbridled  ambition  of  the  house  of  Old- 
enburg occasioned  also  the  loss  of  Denmark9  (which  in- 
cluded Norway,  the  South  of  Sweden,  Gothland  [until 
1645],  and  Iceland),  to  the  Duke  of  Holstein  and 
Schleswig  (Frederick  I.).  For  the  introduction  of  the 
Keformation,  see  p.  14.  For  Christian's  part  in  the  thirty 
years'  war,  p.  56. 

2.  Sweden  under  the  house  of  Vasa,  1523 — 1654. 

(132.)  G-ustavus  I.  (Vasa)  introduced  the  Reforma- 
tion into  Sweden  with  considerable  tact  and  circumspec- 
tion ;  but  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  change  was  accompanied 
by  acts  of  unjust  severity,  especially  towards  the  clergy, 
whose  immense  wealth  was  confiscated  to  supply  the  de- 
ficiencies of  the  royal  exchequer.  The  repeated  declara- 
tions of  the  King  that  he  wished  to  abdicate,  induced  the 
estates  to  grant  all  his  demands,  and  even  to  settle  the 
crown  upon  himself  and  his  descendants.  Gustavus  cre- 
ated the  nucleus  of  a  naval  force,  and  encouraged  the 
extension  of  Swedish  commerce.  Both  these  objects  were 
still  further  promoted  by  his  successor  Eric  XIV.  This 
sovereign  was  subject  to  periodical  fits  of  insanity,  on  ac- 
count of  which  he  was  placed  under  restraint  by  his 
brothers,  deposed,  with  consent  of  the  estates  of  his  king- 
dom, and  poisoned  in  prison.  His  next  descendant  but 
one,  Sigismund,  King  of  Poland,  was  educated  in  the  faith 
of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  in  consequence  was  deposed 

9  Danish  Kings :  Christian  II.  deposed  in  1523.  Frederick  I. 
1523—1533.  Christian  III.  1533—1559.  Frederick  II.  1559—1588. 
Christian  IV.  1588—1648. 


66  MODERN   HISTORY.  [133.    §14. 

soon  after  his  coronation,  through  the  intrigues  of  his 
uncle,  Charles,  Duke  of  Sudermania,  who  was  appointed 
Administrator  of  the  kingdom,  and,  after  completing  the 
work  of  the  Reformation  in  Sweden,  ascended  the  throne 
as  Charles  IX.  His  son, 

(133.)    GustavusII.  (Adolphus),  1611—1632, 

found  his  kingdom  distracted  by  intestine  commotions, 
and  involved  in  three  foreign  wars  (with  Denmark,  Po- 
land, and  Russia).  A  peace  was  concluded  with  the 
Danes,  who  restored  all  the  territory  taken  from  Sweden 
in  the  war,  Gustavus  on  his  part  consenting  to  pay  an  in- 
demnification of  a  million  thalers.  Russia,  after  one  cam- 
paign, was  driven  from  the  Baltic.  For  his  German  ex- 
pedition and  death  at  Lutzen,  see  p.  60.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  daughter  Christina,  who  commenced  her  reign 
under  the  guardianship  of  the  Chancellor  Axel  Oxenstiern 
and  the  Council  of  State.  Whilst  the  young  queen,  who 
possessed  extraordinary  abilities,  was  receiving  a  learned 
education  in  obedience  to  her  father's  injunctions,  the  war 
was  continued  in  Germany,  and  hostilities  were  recom- 
menced against  the  Danes,  who  had  manifested  consider- 
able jealousy  of  Sweden  on  account  of  her  recent  successes. 
Both  these  wars  were  terminated,  as  soon  as  Christina 
herself  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  under  circum- 
stances very  advantageous  to  Sweden.  The  period  of 
tranquillity  which  ensued  was  favorable  to  the  extension  of 
commerce  and  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sciences ; 
but  the  literary  tastes  of  the  Queen  were  soon  found  to 
be  inconsistent  with  the  conscientious  discharge  of  her 
political  duties ;  and  complaints  of  the  time  and  treasure 
squandered  on  unworthy  favorites  became  so  general,  that 
Christina,  in  1654,  abdicated  in  favor  of  her  cousin 
Charles  Gustavus,  Count  Palatine  of  Zweibrucken. 
After  her  abdication,  Christina  became  a  Romanist, 
and  resided  generally  t  at  Rome.  She  made  an  inef- 
fectual attempt  to  resume  her  crown  after  the  death 
of  her  cousin,  and  twice  revisited  Sweden  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  also  became  a  candidate  for  the  crown  of 
Poland,  but  with  no  better  success.  She  died  at  Rome 
in  1689. 


134 — 136.  §  15,  16.]    POLAND — RUSSIA.  67 

$  15.  Poland. 
A.   Under  the  Jagellones. 

(134.)  Under  the  last  Jagellones,  Poland,  with  Lithu- 
ania and  Western  Prussia,  became  the  most  important 
state  of  Eastern  Europe,  and,  by  the  addition  of  Masovia 
and  Livonia,  extended  its  limits  from  the  Baltic  to  the 
Black  Sea,  and  almost  from  the  Oder  to  the  Don.  But, 
amidst  all  this  apparent  prosperity,  there  existed  an  ele- 
ment of  dissolution  in  the  ambition  of  the  nobles,  who  con- 
tinued to  encroach  on  the  prerogatives  of  the  King  as  well 
as  the  rights  of  the  citizens  and  peasants,  until  at  length 
they  extorted  from  the  last  of  the  Jagellones  the  privilege 
of  electing  their  King,  and  imposing  conditions  on  him 
(pacta  conventa). 

B.  Poland  an  elective  monarchy  (1572 — 1791). 

(135.)  After  the  extinction  of  the  Jagellones,  the 
nobles,  now  the  only  powerful  body  in  the  state,  elected 
Henry  of  Anjou,  who  quitted  Poland  in  the  following 
year  for  the  purpose  of  ascending  the  throne  of  France, 
vacant  by  the  death  of  his  brother  Charles  IX.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Stephen  Bathori,  Prince  of  Transylvania, 
who  was  followed  by  three  kings  of  the  house  of  Vasa 
(1587—1669),  Sigismund  III.  of  Sweden,  Wladislaw  IV., 
and  John  (II.)  Casimir,  whose  elevation  to  the  throne  of 
Poland,  instead  of  uniting,  as  was  intended,  the  two  great 
northern  kingdoms,  involved  the  country  in  a  long  war 
with  Sweden,  which  was  terminated  in  1660  by  the  peace 
of  Oliva,  by  which  Livonia  was  ceded  to  Sweden,  and 
Prussia  recognized  as  a  sovereign  power.  The  nominal 
supremacy  of  Poland  over  the  Moldau  had  been  lost  since 
the  year  1616. 

$  16  Russia. 

(136.)  After  her  liberation  from  the  Mongolic  yoke, 
Russia  advanced  rapidly  in  power  and  civilization  under 
the  last  rulers  of  the  house  of  R  u  r  i  c.  Casan,  the  kingdom 
of  Astrachan,  and  the  countries  of  the  Caucasus  and  Sibe- 
ria were  added  to  her  territories  by  conquest;  German 


68  MODERN   HISTORY.  [137.    $17. 

handicraftsmen,  miners,  artists,  and  learned  men  were  in- 
troduced ;  the  corps  of  tirailleurs  (Strelitzes)  established, 
and  a  commercial  treaty  concluded  with  England.  But, 
after  the  extinction  of  the  race  of  Ruric  in  1598,  the  coun- 
try was  distracted  by  a  disputed  succession  which  lasted 
fifteen  years,  and  by  foreign  wars,  in  which  Poland  and 
Sweden  reconquered  many  of  the  territories  which  they 
had  formerly  lost.  In  the  year  1613,  the  throne  became 
hereditary  in  the  family  of  Romanow  (a  branch  of  the 
house  of  Ruric),  who  reigned  with  absolute  authority. 
Peace  with  Poland  and  Sweden  was  purchased  by  the  re- 
nunciation of  all  the  claims  of  Russia  to  Courland,  Livo- 
nia, and  Esthonia. 

§  17.   The  Ottoman  or  Osmanic  Empire. 

(137.)  Extent  of  the  empire  in  1500.— All  the 
continent,  from  the  Ionian  Sea  to  the  Euphrates,  in  the 
north  to  the  Danube,  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  Danube 
Bessarabia;  some  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  and  the 
southern  coast  of  the  Crimea.  To  this  territory,  Selim  I,, 
during  his  short  reign  (1512—1520),  added  by  conquest 
Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  Palestine,  and  Egypt,  But  the 
Turkish  power  attained  its  highest  elevation  under  So  ly- 
nx an  II.  (1520 — 1566),  surnamed  the  Magnificent,  the 
most  distinguished  of  all  the  Osmanic  sultans,  whose  fleets 
and  armies  were  indebted  for  their  victories  to  the  reck- 
less courage  rather  than  the  skill  of  their  commanders. 
Their  first  conquest  was  the  island  of  Rhodes,  which  was 
garrisoned  by  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  who  capitulated 
after  an  obstinate  defence,  during  which  40,000  Turks 
were  killed,  and  the  town  itself  was  laid  in  ashes.  The 
Knights  then  retired  to  Malta,  which  was  placed  at  their 
disposal  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  Solyman  visited 
Hungary  six  times:  1.  For  the  sake  of  conquest  and 
plunder.  After  the  defeat  and  death  of  King  Lewis  at 
Mohacz,  the  whole  of  Hungary  seemed  to  be  at  the  dispo- 
sal of  the  conqueror,  when  he  was  suddenly  recalled  by  the 
intelligence  of  an  outbreak  in  his  Asiatic  provinces.  Sec- 
ond and  third  times  as  an  ally  of  Zapolya  (comp.  page  25). 
Siege  of  Vienna ;  loss  of  80,000  men.  4.  On  the  fourth 


138.    §  18.]      RELIGION,   ARTS,   SCIENCES,   ETC.  69 

occasion  Solyman  compelled  King  Ferdinand  to  cede  a 
portion  of  Hungary  and  pay  a  yearly  tribute.  Fifth  and 
sixth  times,  as  an  ally  of  Zapolya's  son  (John  Sigismund), 
prince  of  Transylvania.  In  his  sixth  campaign,  Solyman 
died  during  the  siege  of  Sigeth.  Between  these  several 
campaigns  occurred,  1.  The  conquest  of  Algiers,  Tunis, 
and  Tripoli,  by  the  Corsair  Hayraddin  Barbarossa.  Tunis 
was  afterwards  recaptured  by  Charles  V.  (see  page  26). 
2.  The  seizure  of  the  Venetian  possessions  in  the  Morea, 
and  of  most  of  their  settlements  in  the  Archipelago.  3. 
The  conquest  of  Yemen  in  Southern  Arabia.  4.  Two  wars 
with  Persia,  which  ended  •  in  the  conquest  of  Georgia. 
5.  Descents  on  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  Italy,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  weakening  the  power  of  Charles  V.  during  the  war 
with  France.  6.  An  unsuccessful  attack  on  Malta.  By  such 
means  as  these,  Solyman  extended  his  empire  from  Al- 
giers and  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the  country  beyond  the  Tigris 
(with  the  exception  of  a  few  islands),  and  from  the  Carpa- 
thian Mountains,  the  Dniester,  and  the  mouth  of  the  Don, 
to  Southern  Egypt  and  Arabia.  The  unwearied  energy 
of  his  character  was  displayed  in  peace  no  less  than  in 
war :  order  and  security  were  re-established  throughout 
his  dominions,  the  courts  of  justice  again  placed  on  a  re- 
spectable footing,  military  discipline  improved,  a  system 
of  finance  introduced,  and  even  the  arts  and  sciences  pro- 
tected and  encouraged.  The  heterogeneous  elements  of 
which  the  empire  was  composed  were  again  disunited  un- 
der his  successors,  whose  effeminacy  rendered  them  mere 
puppets  in  the  hands  of  the  Janissaries.  Cyprus,  it  is 
true,  was  wrested  from  the  Venetians ;  but  the  naval  pow- 
er of  Turkey  was  annihilated  in  1571  in  the  battle  of 
Lepanto;  most  of  their  strongholds  in  Hungary  were 
lost,  and  an  almost  perpetual,  though  not  disastrous,  war 
with  Persia,  prevented  any  further  military  operations  in 
Europe. 

§  18.  Religion,  Arts,  Sciences,  SfC.,  during  the  First 
Period. 

(138.)    1.  The  Church  (Romish). 
a.  The  credit  of  propagating  Christianity  among  the 
heathen  during  this  period,  especially  in  Hindostan,  Thi- 


70  MODERN   HISTORY.  [139,  140.    §  18. 

bet,  China,  Japan,  and  the  newly-discovered  continent  of 
America,  is  chiefly  due  to  the  religious  orders ;  among 
whom  the  Jesuits  (Francis  Xavier  and  others)  were  the 
most  conspicuous  for  their  zeal,  courage,  and  self-denial. 
For  the  promotion  of  such  missions,  Pope  Gregory  XY. 
established  at  Rome,  in  1622,  the  "  Congregation  for  the 
propagation  of  the  Faith,"  to  which  Urban  VIII.  united 
the  "  Collegium  de  propaganda  Fide,"  where  missionaries 
were  educated  for  all  parts  of  the  globe.  Among  the 
American  missions,  we  may  especially  notice  the  state 
of  Paraguay,  which  was  founded  and  governed  by  the 
Jesuits. l 

(139.)  b.  T}ie  establishment  of  new  orders  and  congre- 
gations (the  Theatines,  Capuchins,  Ursulines,  &c.),  and 
the  partial  reformation  of  those  which  already  existed, 
were  productive  of  some  benefit,  as  regarded  the  improve- 
ment of  monastic  discipline,  but  could  not  check  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Reformation,  or  restore  to  the  Church  of 
Rome  the  influence  which  she  had  lost.  To  attain  this 
object,  a  Spanish  nobleman,  named  Ignatius  Loyola, 
founded,  in  1540  (in  Guipuscoa),  a  brotherhood,  called 
the  SocietyofJesus,  under  the  sanction  of  Pope  Paul 
III.,  who  conferred  several  important  privileges  on  the 
order.  In  addition  to  the  three  usual  vows  of  poverty, 
chastity,  and  obedience,  the  Jesuits  promised  to  undertake 
the  work  of  conversion  in  any  country  to  which  the  Pope 
might  think  fit  to  send  them  as  missionaries.  They  were 
also  employed  as  preachers,  catechists,  and  especially  as 
instructors  of  youth. 

(140.)  The  principal  or  "  General"  of  the  order,  who 
resided  at  Rome,  was  chosen  for  life,  and  exercised  uncon- 
trolled authority  over  the  members.  In  spite  of  opposi- 
tion, this  order  spread  (until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century)  over  all  the  Romanist  countries  of  Europe,  as 
well  as  over  Spanish  America,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and 
China,  and  eventually  comprehended  thirty-nine  "Pro- 
vinces." 


1  The  efforts  of  Protestants  in  the  great  missionary  field,  "the 
world,"  are,  with  slight  and  unimportant  exceptions,  subsequent 
to  the  period  here  spoken  of.— S. 


141 145.    §18.]     RELIGION,    ARTS,    SCIENCES,    ETC.  71 

( 1 4 1 .)  c.  Dogmatic  disputes  were  occasioned  by  the  publi- 
cation (by  Jansenius,  a  professor  of  Louvain)  of  five  theses 
on  the  subject  of  grace.  These  doctrines  were  defended 
by  the  disciples  of  Jansenius,  and  condemned  by  the  Pope 
as  heretical. 

(142.)  2.  Political  constitution.  In  the  Ger- 
manic kingdoms  the  development  of  absolute  mon- 
archy and  the  fall  of  the  aristocracy. 

(143.)  a.  In  France  this  result  was  produced  by  the 
appropriation  of  the  crown  fiefs,  the  dissolution  of  the 
general  assembly  (etats-generaux),  and  the  grant  of  unli- 
mited powers  to  the  ministers  of  the  crown,  b.  In  Spain, 
by  the  Inquisition,  the  assumption  by  the  crown  of  the 
grand  mastership  of  the  three  orders  of  chivalry,  the  trea- 
sures of  the  new  world,  the  dismissal  of  the  general  Cortes, 
and  the  despotism  of  Philip  II.  c.  In  Germany  we  must 
ascribe  the  establishment  of  absolutism,  not  to  the  Empe- 
ror, whose  powers  were  limited  by  the  compact  entered 
into  at  his  election,  but  to  individual  princes,  whose  su- 
premacy within  their  own  territories  was  secured  to  them 
by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  d.  In  most  of  the  Protestant 
countries  the  sovereigns  were  rendered  independent  of 
their  subjects  by  the  possession  of  property  which  had 
formerly  belonged  to  the  Church.  In  England,  Denmark, 
and  Sweden,  great  additional  powers  were  given  to  the 
sovereign  by  the  union  in  his  person  of  the  supreme  eccle- 
siastical and  civil  authorities.  In  Sweden,  moreover,  the 
cause  of  absolutism  was  promoted  by  the  establishment  of 
an  hereditary  instead  of  an  elective  monarchy,  and  gene- 
rally throughout  Europe  by  the  introduction  of  standing 
armies,  a  regular  system  of  taxation,  and  legislation  with- 
out the  sanction  or  advice  of  the  nobles. 

(144.)  In  Poland  alone,  since  the  establishment  of  an 
elective  monarchy,  the  nobles  exercised  a  power  similar  to 
that  possessed  in  England  by  the  House  of  Commons  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.  In  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  the 
Netherlands,  there  existed  republican  constitutions ;  in 
Hungary  the  system  was  representative,  and  in  Russia 
and  Turkey  the  government  was  an  unmixed  despotism. 

(145.)  3.  Legislation.  Since  the  abolition  of  the 
Faustrecht  (right  of  the  strong  hand),  a  more  regular  sys- 


72  MODERN   HISTORY.         [146 — 148.    $  18. 

tern  of  legislation  had  been  introduced;  but  except  in 
England,  which  retained  its  ancient  institution  of  trial  by 
jury,  the  laws  were  administered,  not  by  the  community, 
but  by  lawyers  nominated  by  the  sovereign.  The  pro- 
ceedings were  always  in  writing,  and  the  punishments  in- 
flicted were  ferociously  severe.  The  foundation  of  most 
of  their  codes  was  the  Roman  law.  The  Spanish  In- 
quisition, and  the  prosecutions  for  witchcraft,  carried  on 
in  Germany  by  virtue  of  a  penal  ordinance  called  the 
"  Witch-hammer,"  delivered  over  thousands  of  innocent 
persons  to  torture  or  the  stake. 

(146.)  4.  War.  The  system  of  warfare  was  consider- 
ably modified  by  the  introduction  of  standing  armies,  the 
use  of  muskets  and  heavy  ordnance  (which  had  become 
more  and  more  general,  especially  since  the  days  of  Grus- . 
tavus  Adolphus),  the  construction  of  regular  fortifications, 
particularly  in  the  Netherlands,  the  establishment  of  light 
cavalry,  the  introduction  of  an  extended  instead  of  a  deep 
order  of  battle,  and  the  formation  in  many  countries  of  a 
formidable  marine. 

(147.)  5.  In  the  sciences  a  system  of  more  pro- 
found, as  well  as  more  active  investigation,  was  created 
by  the  rapid  spread  of  the  art  of  printing,  the  continual 
establishment  of  new  universities  (in  G-ermany,  Witten- 
berg, Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  Marburg,  Konigsberg,  Jena, 
Helmstadt,  Griessen,  and  Strasburg),  and  schools  (the 
Jesuit  colleges,  schools  established  by  princes,  &c.),  and 
the  inquiries  set  on  foot  by  the  Reformers  and  their 
opponents. 

(148.)  a.  The  groundwork  of  a  learned  education  was 
the  study  of  classical  literature,  which  imparted  its  tone, 
more  or  less,  to  all  the  sciences.  This  study,  which  had 
been  revived  in  Italy  during  the  preceding  period,  ex- 
tended first  to  France,  where  it  was  cultivated,  partly  as 
an  independent  science  (by  the  able  critic  and  interpreter 
Lambinus  (J1572) ;  the  distinguished  Latin  scholar  Mu- 
retus  (1585);  the  learned  printers,  Robert  and  his  son 
Henry  Stephanus  [Etienne,  Ang.  Stephens'}  (Thesau- 
rus Linguae  G-rascae) ;  the  philosopher  Julius  Caesar 
Scaliger,  and  his  son,  the  chronologist  and  philologist, 
Jos.  Scaliger  (fl609) ;  the  profound  critic  and  translator 


149,   150.    $  18.]       RELIGION,    ARTS,    SCIENCES,    ETC.  73 

Casaubon  (|1614) ;  the  great  linguist  Salmasius  (f!653), 
and  many  others,  partly  as  the  handmaid  of  theology  and 
jurisprudence.  It  was  not  without  influence  on  the  na- 
tional literature,  especially  on  tragical  composition.  In 
G-ermany,  the  most  renowned  "  Humanists"  were  Reuch- 
lin  (J1522),  who  revived  the  study  of  Hebrew  literature  ; 
Erasmus  of  Rotterdam  (f!536),  and  a  distinguished  Greek 
scholar;  Melancthon  (fl560);  Freinsheim  (fl660),  &c. 
But  the  great  seat  of  classical  learning  was  Holland, 
where  Justus  Lipsius  (|1606),  Hugo  G-rotius  (1645),  Gerh. 
Vossius  (f!649),  Daniel  Heinsius  (f!655),  and  his  son 
Nic.  Heinsius  (f!681)  distinguished  themselves  as  ety- 
mologists, grammarians,  and  critics. 

(149.)  b.  This  revival  of  the  study  of  classical  anti- 
quity had  an  influence  also  on  philosophy,  which  was  now 
elevated  from  the  rank  of  a  mere  handmaid  of  theology, 
to  its  proper  station  as  an  independent  science.  The 
scholastic  philosophy  of  the  middle  ages  was,  in  a  great 
measure,  supplanted  by  the  study  of  Plato,  and  especially 
of  Aristotle,  which  had  been  recently  revived,  and  by  the 
mystic  philosophy,  the  chief  professor  of  which  was  the 
celebrated  physician  and  chemist  Philip  Bombast  von 
Hohenheim  (f!541),  who  calls  himself  in  his  (theosophic) 
writings  Theophrastus  Paracelsus.  The  struggle 
was  maintained  during  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  produced  three  new  schools. — 1.  Those  who 
believed,  with  the  English  philosopher,  Francis  Bacon, 
Lord  Verulam  (f!626),  that  the  source  of  all  philosophy 
was  to  be  found  in  experience  (de  Dignitate  et  Augmentis 
Scientiarurn ;  Novum  Organum) ;  or,  2,  in  the  intellect, 
as  Descartes  (Cartesius,  fl650 — cogito,  ergo  sum);  or, 
3,  in  divine  revelation,  general  or  particular,  confirmed  by 
signs  and  miracles.  This  was  the  doctrine  of  the  Theo- 
sophists,  who  thought  that  they  received  direct  illumina- 
tion from  the  Almighty.  Their  leader  was  a  cobbler  of 
G-drlitz,  named  Jacob  Bohme  (f!624). 

(150.)  c.  The  physical  sciences  underwent  a  great  re- 
volution. Nicholas  Copernicus  (of  Thorn,  f!543)  dis- 
covered that  the  sun  remained  immovable  in  the  centre 
of  the  planetary  system,  the  earth  revolving  round  it  and 
round  its  own  axis.  John  Keppler  (f!630)  discovered 


74  MODERN   HISTORY.  [151,152.    $  18. 

the  laws  which  regulate  the  revolutions  of  the  planets, 
and  the  relations  which  their  respective  distances  bear  to 
the  time  occupied  in  their  course  round  the  sun.  His 
contemporary  Galileo  Galilei  (of  Pisa,  f!642)  dis- 
covered the  laws  of  gravitation  and  of  the  pendulum,  im- 
proved the  telescope,  which  had  been  invented  some  years 
before  in  Holland  (by  Jansen  ?  or  Lippersey  ?)  defended 
the  Copernican  system,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  new 
system  of  natural  philosophy.  His  pupil  Torricelli  (f  1647) 
invented  the  barometer.  Botany,  zoology,  and  physiology 
began  also  to  be  studied.  Mathematics  were  the  ground- 
work of  the  physical  sciences.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  un- 
dertook the  reformation  of  the  Julian  calendar,  which,  by 
erroneously  making  the  year  consist  of  365  days  and  six 
entire  hours,  had  caused  a  difference  of  ten  days  between 
the  vulgar  reckoning  and  the  actual  position  of  the  sun. ' 

(151.)  d.  Political  science  found  able  expounders  in 
Nic.  Macchiavelli  (1527,  Principe),  Hugo  Grotius  {de 
Jure  Belli  et  Pacis),  and  Thomas  Hobbes  (f!679,  de  Give, 
Leviathan). 

(152.)  e.  History.  Whilst  the  method  of  treating 
universal  history  remained  still  in  its  infancy,  on  account 
of  the  singular  practice  which  prevailed  for  more  than  a 
century  of  dividing  its  subject-matter  according  to  the 
four  great  monarchies — the  Assyrian,  Persian,  Grecian, 
and  Romano-German — much  had  been  effected  in  the 
department  of  particular  history  by  Macchiavelli  (Storie 
Florentine),  Paolo  Sarpi  (Storia  del  Concilio  Tridentino), 
Johannes  Sleidanus  (de  Statu  Religionis  et  Reipublicse 
sub  Carolo  V.),  de  Thou  (Historia  sui  Temporis).  Me- 
moirs also  began  to  be  written  during  this  period  (de 
Commines,  Sully),  and  political  journals  to  be  published 
(the  earliest  at  Venice,  in  manuscript  in  1536) ;  the  Eng- 
lish Mercury  (the  first  printed  newspaper)  in  1588;  the 
Frankfort  Journal  in  1615;  the  Gazette  de  France  in 
1631.  The  foundation  of  liter  a?  y  history  was  laid  by 

1  He  had  observed  that  the  vernal  equinox,  which  in  the  year 
325  was  on  the  21st  March,  was  now  ten  days  earlier.  This  altera- 
tion of  the  style  was  not  adopted  in  England  until  the  year  1752, 
when  eleven  days  were  left  out  between  the  2nd  and  14th  Sep- 
tember. 


153.    §  18.]       RELIGION,    ARTS,    SCIENCES,    ETC.  75 

Conrad  G-essner  (Biblioth.  Univ.),  of  chronology  by  Jos. 
Scaliger  (de  Emendatione  Temporum),  and  of  numisma- 
tics by  the  two  Stradas. 

(153.)  6.  Literature.  Poetry  was  cultivated  dur- 
ing this  period  most  successfully  in  Southern  Europe. 
In  Italy,  where  princes  and  popes  vied  with  one  another 
in  their  patronage  of  genius,  Epic  poetry  appeared  in  its 
most  perfect  form  in  the  fantastic  "  Orlando  Furioso"  of 
Ariosto  (f!533),  and  the  romantic  "  Gerusalemme  Lib- 
erata"  ofTorquato  Tasso  (f!595).  Extraordinary 
richness  of  imagination  is  displayed  in  the  great  Epic 
(Os  Lusiadas)  of  the  Portuguese  poet,  Luis  de  Camoens 
(|1579),  on  the  subject  of  Vasco  de  Gama's  voyage.  In 
Spain  we  find  Miguel  de  Cervantes  Saavedra  (11616), 
who  produced  the  famous  romance  of  "  Don  Quixote  de 
la  Mancha,"  a  burlesque  representation  of  the  worn-out 
chivalry  of  that  country;  Lope  de  Vega  (f  1636),  the 
most  prolific  of  dramatic  writers,  and  his  more  polished 
successor  C  alder  on  de  la  Barca  (f  1687),  the  author  of 
a  great  number  of  pieces  composed  for  the  feast  of  Cor- 
pus Christi,  and  of  several  comedies.  In  France,  Fran- 
^ois  Rabelais  (f!553)  exhibited  in  his  half-philosophi- 
cal, half-satirical  romance  of  "  G-argantua  and  Pantagruel," 
a  masterly  caricature  of  his  own  times;  and  Malherbe 
(|1628)  prepared  the  way,  by  his  lyrical  compositions, 
for  the  transition  from  the  romantic  to  the  modern  clas- 
sical school  of  poetry.  England  produced,  in  the  person 
of  William  Shakspeare  (1564 — 1616),  the  greatest 
dramatic  poet  that  the  world  ever  saw.  In  Germany  the 
Epic  was  almost  entirely  lost;  for  we  find  nothing  in 
that  class  of  poetry  except  a  sort  of  "  Beast-Epic"  in- 
troduced, for  the  second  time,  at  the  commencement  of 
this  period,  in  the  form  of  a  Low  German  translation  of 
"  Reineke  Fuchs"  (Reynard  the  Fox).  The  drama  was 
more  successfully  cultivated  by  a  shoemaker  of  Ntirn- 
berg  [Nuremberg]  named  Hans  Sachs  (1494 — 1576). 
During  this  period  the  popular  ballad  (Vokslied)  at- 
tained its  highest  degree  of  excellence,  and  gradually 
declined.  The  most  remarkable  novelties  in  German  lit- 
erature were :  a.  The  introduction  by  Luther  of  the 
Evangelical  Church  Songs.  b.  Comic  and  satirical 


76  MODERN   HISTORY.          [154 156.    $  18. 

poetry,  in  an  epic  as  well  as  a  didactic  form  (Brandt's 
"  Ship  of  Fools,"  and  many  other  pieces  of  the  same 
character),  c.  The  creation  by  Luther  in  his  prose  works, 
especially  his  translation  of  the  Bible,  of  anew  High 
German  language,  compounded  of  the  various  High 
German  dialects  previously  in  use.  With  the  establish- 
ment of  the  first  Silesian  poetical  school  (by 
Opitz),  1624,  began  the  corruption  of  the  language  by 
the  introduction  of  foreign  words, — a  practice  which 
continued,  especially  in  poetry,  for  more  than  a  century 
(1624—1730).  To  Opitz,  however,  belongs  the  credit  of 
having  invented  a  regular  system  of  prosody. 

(154.)  7.  Art.  a.  Ever  since  the  15th  century  the 
modern  school  of  architecture  in  Italy  had  been  engaged 
in  restoring  the  ancient  Roman  style,  from  the  speci- 
mens which  still  existed,  or  from  the  descriptions  of  Vi- 
truvius.  The  two  earliest  schools  of  architecture,  the 
Florentine  and  Venetian,  had  been  chiefly  employed  in 
the  erection  of  palaces  ;  but  when  Rome  became  the 
centre  of  Italian  architecture,  church-building  assumed 
a  prominent  position.  The  most  distinguished  profes- 
sors were  Bramante  (f!514),  who  commenced  the 
building  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  Michael  Angelo 
Buonarotti  (J1563),  who  revived  Bramante's  plan  of 
an  immense  cupola  over  a  Greek  cross.  He  was  also 
celebrated  as  a  sculptor,  and  chief  of  the  Florentine 
school  of  painting.  From  Italy  the  Italian  style  found 
its  way  into  other  countries,  and  gradually  displaced  the 
*  Gothic. 

(155.)  b.  The  most  distinguished  sculptors  were 
found  at  Florence  and  Venice,  where  the  classical  mod- 
els of  antiquity  were  diligently  studied  and  copied 
with  great  success.  Naples  was  also  celebrated  as  a 
school  of  sculpture.  Benvenuto  Cellini  was  re- 
nowned as  a  worker  in  metals  (f!572). 

(156.)  c.  Painting  attained  its  highest  degree  of  ex- 
cellence during  this  period,  aa.  In  Italy,  where  the 
most  distinguished  professors  were  chiefs  of  the  schools : 
viz.  Raphael  Sanzio  d'Urbino  (1483—1520)  of  the  Ro- 
man; Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti  of  the  Florentine; 
Tiziano  [Titian]  (1477— 1576)  of  the  Venetian;  Alle- 


157,   158.    §  18.]       RELIGION,    ARTS,    SCIENCES,    ETC.  77 

gri  da  Corregio  (f!534)  of  the  Lombard,  which  was 
first  brought  into  notice  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci 
(f!519).  To  these  names  we  may  add  G-iulio  Romano, 
Paolo  Veronese,  the  three  Caracci,  Gruido  Reni,  and  Do- 
menichino.  bb.  In  Germany  we  have  Albert  Diirer 
(f!528),  Lucas  Kranach  (|1553),  and  Hans  Holbein 
(f!554).  cc.  In  the  Netherlands,  especially  in  Brabant, 
Peter  Paul  Rubens  (born  at  Cologne.  1577,  fat  Ant- 
werp, 1640),  and  his  pupil  Antony  van  Dyk  [Vandyke] 
(J1611). 

(157.)  d.  Music.  The  Flemish  school,  which  flour- 
ished at  the  commencement  of  this  period,  was  thrown 
into  the  shade  by  Palestrina,  the  inventor  of  a  new 
style  of  Church  music.  The  Roman  school  of  which  he 
was  the  founder,  produced  also  Allegri  (composer  of  the 
famous  "  Miserere")  and  Carissimi.  The  establishment 
of  an  opera  at  Florence  in  the  16th  century  contributed 
to  the  formation  of  a  better  style  of  vocal  as  well  as  in- 
strumental music. 

(158.)  8.  Commerce  and  manufactures.  The 
discovery  of  America,  and  of  a  passage  by  sea  to  the 
East  Indies,  occasioned  a  complete  revolution  in  the 
commerce  of  the  world,  which  became  maritime  instead 
of  overland.  Its  great  highway  was  now  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  ;  and  one  consequence  of  this  change  was,  that  the 
countries  of  Western  Europe, — Spain  and  Portugal  in 
the  first  instance,  then  England  and  Holland,  and  lastly 
France, — established  a  trade  at  the  expense  of  the  Vene- 
tians and  of  the  German  Hansa,  which  gradually  fell  into 
decay,  and  in  the  year  1630  dissolved  itself,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  three  towns.  The  establishment  of  colonies 
greatly  facilitated  the  operations  of  commercial  enter- 
prise. Europe  now  exported  largely  to  the  East  and 
West  Indies,  and  to  America,  receiving  in  return  the 
products  of  those  countries.  The  East  Indian  trade 
was  at  first  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  Portuguese, 
partly  in  the  shape  of  an  agency  or  commission  business 
in  India  itself,  partly  as  a  direct  trade  between  that 
country  and  Portugal.  Lisbon  became  the  grand  depot 
for  Indian  produce  (pepper  and  other  spices,  woollen  and 
silk  wares,  pearls,  &c.).  By  the  union  of  Portugal  with 


78  MODERN   HISTORY.  [159,  160.    §  18. 

Spain,  the  latter  country  became  possessed  of  the  foreign 
and  colonial  trade  of  both  hemispheres,  which  was  soon 
shared  by  the  Dutch  commercial  companies.  Amster- 
dam now  raised  itself  to  the  position  of  the  first  com- 
mercial city  in  the  world ;  whilst  at  the  same  time  the 
Dutch  wrested  from  the  Hanse  towns  the  privilege  which 
they  had  hitherto  monopolized  of  conducting  the  com- 
mission trade  of  Europe.  The  herring  and  whale  fish- 
eries also  employed  nearly  half  a  million  of  men. 

(159.)  Circumstances  favorable  to  trade.  The  open- 
ing of  fairs  at  Leipzic,  Brunswick,  &c.  :  the  establish- 
ment of  Assurances  (the  first  at  Florence) ;  construction 
of  canals  and  chaussees  (first  in  France) ;  Exchanges  (at 
Antwerp,  London  and  Amsterdam),  and  Banks  ;  regula- 
tion of  the  post-offices  (in  Germany  by  the  family  of  Tour 
and  Taxis) ;  commercial  treaties  (between  Russia  and 
England).  New  products: — tobacco,  potatoes,  coffee, 
tea,  porcelain.  New  trade,  in  negro  slaves. 

(160.)  Manufacturing  industry.  The  silk  and  cloth 
manufactures  flourished  in  Spain  until  the  expulsion  of 
the  Moors  in  the  reign  of  Philip  III. — Cloth  and  linen 
manufactures  in  the  Netherlands. —  Commencement  of 
silk-weaving  at  Tours  and  Lyons,  afterwards  (about 
1625)  in  England.— Lace-making  in  the  Saxon  Erzge- 
birge. — Invention  of  watches  (Nuremberg  eggs  as  they 
were  called)  by  Peter  Hele  of  Nuremberg ;  of  the  spin- 
ning-wheel by  Jorgens  of  Brunswick,  and  of  the  stock- 
ing-loom by  William  Lee  of  Cambridge. 


161.    $  19-]  FRANCE    UNDER    LOUIS    XIV.  79 


SECOND  PERIOD. 

From  the  peace  of  Westphalia  to  the  French  Revolution. 
1648—1789. 

1.  To  the  Spanish  war  of  succession,  the 
northern  war,  and  the  elevation  of  Prussia  into 
a  kingdom. 

§  19.  France  under  Louis  XIV. 

A.  Louis  XIY.  under  the  guardianship  of 
Mazarin,  1643—1661. 

(161.)  THE  guardianship  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  was  only 
five  years  old  when  his  father  died,  was  conferred  by  the 
parliament  of  France  on  his  mother  Anne  of  Spain  ;  but 
the  actual  functions  of  government  were  discharged  by 
Cardinal  Mazarin,  a  minister  recommended  by  Riche- 
lieu. The  unpopularity  of  this  minister,  who  from  the 
first  had  been  disliked  as  a  foreigner,  was  increased  by  a 
dispute  with  the  parliament  respecting  the  imposition  of 
some  fresh  taxes  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  the  war 
with  Germany  and  Spain  (victories  of  the  young  Conde, 
Duke  of  Enghien,  at  Rocroi  and  Lens),  by  which  he 
hoped  to  withdraw  public  attention  from  the  defects  of  his 
domestic  administration.  The  parliament  having  rendered 
itself  obnoxious  to  the  court  by  the  pertinacity  with  which 
it  demanded  a  constitution,  many  members  were  arrested 
by  command  of  the  Queen,  who  was  encouraged  to  this 
act  by  the  intelligence  of  a  fresh  victory  gained  by  Conde 
near  Lens.  But  before  he  could  reach  Paris  the  populace 
(whose  favor  the  parliament  had  conciliated)  had  raised 
barricades  in  the  streets  (1648),  liberated  the  prisoners, 
established  the  Fronde  (as  the  party  opposed  to  the 
court  was  called),  and,  headed  by  the  coadjutor  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  afterwards  Cardinal  Retz,  had  de- 
clared war  against  the  Queen  Mother  and  Mazarin,  who 
quitted  Paris,  but  returned  on  the  re-establishment  of 
4* 


80  MODERN    HISTORY.         [162 166.    $  19. 

peace  by  the  Prince  of  Conde.  The  systematic  attempts 
of  this  general  to  concentrate  in  his  own  person  all  the 
functions  of  government,  occasioned  his  arrest  by  Mazarin, 
who  was  soon  compelled  by  the  populace  to  liberate  his 
prisoner,  and  himself  seek  safety  in  exile. 

(162.)  Conde  now  formed  an  alliance  with  the  King 
of  Spain,  and  declared  war  against  his  master,  who  had 
recently  attained  his  majority.  After  a  bloody  but  inde- 
cisive skirmish  in  the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine,  between 
Conde  and  the  royal  troops  commanded  by  Turenne,  the 
former  quitted  Paris,  was  placed  under  the  bann  of  the 
kingdom,  and  sought  an  asylum  in  Spain,  whilst  Maza- 
rin returned  to  France  and  resumed  his  functions  as 
minister. 

(163.)  For  an  account  of  the  termination  of  the  war  by 
the  peace  of  Westphalia,  and  the  territories  acquired  by 
the  different  powers,  see  page  53. 

(164.)  The  war  with  Spain,  which  had  broken  out 
during  the  period  of  the  thirty  years'  war,  was  terminated 
(after  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  army  under  Conde  by 
Turenne  at  Dunkirk  in  1658),  by  the  peace  of  the 
Pyrenees,  negotiated  by  Mazarin  himself.  By  this 
peace  France  acquired  the  country  of  Rousillon,  the  Bel- 
gian district  of  Artois,  and  several  cities  with  their  terri- 
tories in  Flanders,  Hennegau,  and  Luxembourg.  Conde 
was  re-established  in  the  enjoyment  of  his  estates 
and  dignities,  and  Louis  XIV.  married  Philip  the 
Fourth's  eldest  daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  who  formally 
renounced  for  herself  and  heirs  all  claims  to  the  Spanish 
crown. 

(165.)  Mazarin  died  in  1661,  leaving  behind  him 
an  enormous  property  (forty  millions  of  livres),  and 
Louis  XIV.  at  once  declared  his  intention  of  carry- 
ing on  the  government  without  the  assistance  of  a 
minister. 

B.  Preponderance  of  France  in  Europe 
during  the  administration  of  Louis  XIV., 
1661—1715. 

(166.)    The  attempts  of  Louis  were  directed,  1.  To 


166.    §19.]  FRANCE   UNDER    LOUIS   XIV.  81 

the  establishment  of  absolute  sovereignty  at  home  (1'etat 
c'est  moi).  In  pursuance  of  this  object  he  governed 
without  a  prime  minister  for  fifty-four  years,  never  con- 
voked either  the  estates  of  the  kingdom  or  the  provincial 
estates  (except  in  the  frontier  provinces  of  Languedoc 
and  Britany),  allowed  the  highest  offices  of  state  to  remain 
vacant  (Prime  Minister,  Constable,  Grand  Admiral),  or 
placed  them  in  commission,  and  attached  the  nobles  to 
his  person  by  conferring  on  them  profitable  offices,  or 
titles  and  orders,  to  which  the  rigid  etiquette  of  the  court 
attached  the  highest  importance.  Even  in  ecclesiastical 
matters  he  endeavored  to  establish  an  authority  inde- 
pendent of  the  Pope,  by  the  publication  of  the  four  Arti- 
cles of  the  Gallican  Church,  which,  however,  fell  into  dis- 
use before  the  expiration  of  ten  years.  2.  To  the  mainte- 
nance of  his  rank  as  the  first  sovereign  of  Europe,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  sort  of  dictatorship  throughout  that 
quarter  of  tJie  globe.  This  end  was  attained,  a.  through 
the  weakness  of  the  neighboring  states,  and  the  decline  of 
the  house  of  Hapsburg  since  the  peace  of  Westphalia  and 
of  the  Pyrenees.  Although  his  endeavors  to  obtain  the 
imperial  crown  were  unsuccessful,  he  was  enabled,  by 
means  of  the  so-called  Rhenish  confederacy,  which  was 
often  renewed,  to  exercise  his  authority  as  protector  over 
a  great  part  of  Germany,  b.  By  the  influence  of  French 
civilization.  c.  By  the  administration  of  the  great 
Colbert,  who  had  been  appointed,  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  Mazarin,  Controller-General  of  the  Finances, 
which  had  been  in  a  disordered  state  since  the  dismissal 
of  Sully  (1661 — 1683).  Notwithstanding  the  expensive 
wars  in  which  Louis  engaged,  and  the  sums  squandered  on 
buildings,  fetes,  mistresses,  &c.,  the  condition  of  the  ex- 
chequer improved  under  Colbert's  administration ;  indus- 
try was  aroused  and  encouraged ;  existing  colonies  were 
treated  with  consideration ;  new  settlements  established, 
and  commercial  companies  formed  for  the  East  and  West 
India  trade.  But  this  improvement  was  in  a  great 
measure  effected  by  the  imposition  of  fresh  taxes,  by  mo- 
nopolies, and  by  the  so-called  "commercial  system"  of 
Colbert ;  and  the  sums  thus  raised  were  expended  for  the 
most  part  in  the  gratification  of  the  King's  ambition. 

4* 


82  MODERN   HISTORY..  [167,  168    $  19. 

Colbert  constructed  the  canal  of  Languedoc,  embellished 
Paris,  founded  several  academies  for  the  arts  and  sciences, 
patronized  distinguished  scholars,  placed  the  courts  of 
justice  and  the  police  on  a  more  efficient  footing,  and, 
during  the  period  of  his  service  as  minister  of  marine,  es- 
tablished a  respectable  navy.  d.  By  the  good  fortune 
which  attended  the  arms  of  France  under  a  succession  of 
distinguished  commanders  (Turenne,  Conde,  Luxembourg, 
Catinat,  Villars,  Venddme,  Vauban),  and  under  the  direc- 
tion of  such  an  able  minister  of  war  as  Louvois  (fl691), 
who  involved  the  King  in  several  aggressive  wars,  for  the 
purpose  of  proving,  as  it  would  seem,  how  indispensable 
his  services  were. 

(167.)  First  war  of  spoliation  against  the  Spanish 
Netherlands  (1666 — 1668).  After  the  death  of  his  father- 
in-law,  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  Louis  XIV.,  as  a  set-off 
against  his  wife's  renunciation  of  her  claims  to  the  Span- 
ish crown,  brought  forward  a  law  which  existed  in  some 
of  the  Belgian  provinces,  by  which  the  daughters  of  the 
first  marriage  inherited,  to  the  exclusion  of  sons  of  the 
second  marriage,  and  on  the  strength  of  this  law  laid  claim 
to  the  Netherlands,  conquered  Flanders  and  Hennegau, 
and  took  possession  of  the  free  country  of  Burgundy. 
Meanwhile,  however,  England  and  Holland,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  Netherlands  becoming  a  province  of  France, 
had  formed,  in  conjunction  with  Sweden,  and  by  the  in- 
tervention of  the  Dutch  pensionary1  de  Witt,  a  triple 
alliance,  which  compelled  Louis  XIV.  to  conclude  the 
peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1668,  and  to  content  himself 
with  retaining  the  places  which  he  had  already  conquered 
in  Flanders. 

(168.)  Second  war  of  spoliation  against  Holland 
(1672 — 1678).  In  order  to  avenge  himself  on  the  Dutch 
for  the  share  which  they  had  taken  in  the  formation  of 
the  triple  alliance,  and  at  the  same  time  to  extort  from 
them  a  reversal  of  the  decree  by  which  the  importation  of 
French  merchandise  into  Holland  was  prohibited,  Louis 


1  This  was  the  title  of  the  Prime  Minister  of  Holland.  He 
held  office  for  the  term  of  five  years,  and  was  capable  of  re- 
election.— S. 


168.    §19.]  FRANCE   UNDER   LOUIS    XIV.  83 

gained  over  their  allies  the  English  and  Swedes  (as  well 
as  Cologne  and  Munster,  for  the  purpose  of  annoying  the 
Dutch  on  their  eastern  frontier),  invaded  Holland,  which 
at  that  time  was  distracted  by  party  struggles,  and  was 
only  restrained  from  conquering  the  whole  country  by  the 
opening  of  the  sluices  and  the  consequent  submersion  of 
the  land,  whilst  at  the  same  time  a  tremendous  storm,  ac- 
companied with  an  extraordinary  ebb  tide,  prevented  the 
English  and  French  sailors  (after  a  victory  at  sea)  from 
reaching  the  shore.  Assistance  was  now  promised  to  the 
Dutch  republic  by  the  great  Elector,  Frederick  William 
of  Brandenburg  (through  the  influence  of  his  nephew,  the 
Prince  of  Orange),  who  concluded  an  alliance  with  the 
Emperor,  and  subsequently  with  Spain;  so  that  France 
was  compelled  to  maintain  a  war  on  three  of  her  frontiers 
at  once.  The  King  of  England,  paving  obtained  the  ele- 
vation of  his  nephew  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  the  dignity 
of  Stattholder  of  Holland,  and  being  unable  to  obtain  any 
more  subsidies  from  his  parliament,  concluded  a  separate 
peace  with  the  Netherlands  (as  well  as  with  Cologne  and 
Munster).  Louis  XIV.  was  now  forced  to  act  on  the  de- 
fensive :  a  battle  was  fought  (near  Senef),  without  any 
decisive  result,  between  the  French  army  under  Conde 
and  William  III.  of  Orange,  whilst  Turenne,  who  had 
manfully  opposed  the  imperial  general  Montecuculi  on  the 
Upper  Rhine,  was  slain  in  the  battle  of  Sasbach.  An  at- 
tempt on  the  part  of  the  Swedes  to  effect  a  diversion,  by 
invading  the  territories  of  the  great  Elector  from  the  side 
of  Pomerania,  was  successful,  in  so  far  as  it  compelled  his 
return  from  the  Upper  Rhine ;  but  on  the  18th  June, 
1675,  they  were  defeated  at  Fehrbellin,  and  lost  Pome- 
rania. About  the  same  time  the  French  fleet  was  defeated 
by  the  united  fleets  of  Holland  and  Spain  under  de  Ruy- 
ter.  These  disasters  compelle'd  Louis  to  conclude  the 
•peace  of  Nimeguen  in  1678,  by  which  France  restored 
to  Holland  all  the  places  which  she  had  taken  in  the  war, 
receiving  in  return  fourteen  partly  fortified  places  in 
Flanders,  with  Hennegau  and  the  free  country  of  Bur- 
gundy (Franche-comte,  which  had  been  hitherto  occupied 
by  Spain  as  a  part  of  the  Burgundian  circle  under  Ger- 
man supremacy),  and  of  the  German  empire  Freiburg  and 


84  MODERN   HISTORY.  [169,   170.    $  19. 

Haningen.  The  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  being  now  aban- 
doned by  his  allies,  and  threatened  by  the  French  with 
the  loss  of  his  Rhenish  and  Westphalian  territories,  was 
compelled  to  conclude  with  France  and  Sweden  the  peace 
of  St.  Germain-en-Laye  in  1679,  and  to  surrender  all 
his  conquests  except  a  narrow  strip  of  land  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Oder. 

^  (169.)  The  Reunions,  1680-81.  During  a  period  of 
thirty  years,  France,  now  at  the  summit  of  her  glory  un- 
der Colbert's  administration,  had  considerably  augmented 
her  territories  by  four  treaties  of  peace  ;  but,  as  the  am- 
bitious cravings  of  Louis  XIV.  were  not  yet  satisfied, 
Reunion-chambers  were  established  (at  Metz,  Tournay 
(Doornik),  Breisach,  and  Besan^on),  for  the  purpose  of 
ascertaining  what  places  had  at  any  time  belonged  to  the 
territories  ceded  to  France.  The  result  of  this  inquiry 
was,  the  re-annexation  of  several  districts,  and  the  occu- 
pation by  the  French  of  the  fortresses  of  Strasburg  and 
Luxembourg.  The  Emperor,  who  was  at  this  time  en- 
gaged in  a  war  with  the  Turks,  was  forced  to  conclude  an 
armistice  with  Louis  for  twenty  years,  and  to  leave  him 
in  undisturbed  enjoyment  of  his  new  possessions.  Dur- 
ing this  armistice,  Louis  XI V.,  chiefly  at  the  instigation 
of  his  second  wife,  Madame  de  Maintenon,  widow  of  the 
comic  poet  Scarron,  revoked  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  1685, 
forbade  the  public  profession  of  Protestantism,  and  com- 
manded that  the  children  of  Protestant  parents  should  be 
brought  up  in  the  Romish  faith.  Although  the  emigra- 
tion of  Protestants  was  forbidden  under  the  severest  pen- 
alties, and  all  the  frontiers  were  strictly  watched,  50.000 
Protestant  families  escaped  into  the  neighboring  states 
and  into  Brandenburg. 

(170.)  Third  war  of  spoliation,  1688-97.  The  im- 
perial generals  having  driven  the  Turks  out  of  Hungary, 
and  stormed  the  important  Turkish  fortress  of  Belgrade, 
Louis  XIV.,  under  the  most  frivolous  pretexts,  violated 
the  armstice,  and  without  any  previous  declaration  of  war 
took  possession  of  the  capitals  of  the  three  spiritual  elec- 
tors (Mainz,  Treyes,  and  Bonn).  This  breach  of  the  law 
of  nations  was  speedily  followed  by  the  devastation  of  the 
Palatinate,  notwithstanding  the  readiness  with  which  the 


171,   172.    §20.]  GERMANY.  85 

inhabitants  yielded  to  the  most  unreasonable  demands  of 
the  French.  Heidelberg,  Mannheim,  and  all  the  towns 
as  far  as  the  frontier  of  Alsace,  with  the  imperial  cities 
of  Spires  and  Worms,  were  reduced  to  ashes. 

(171.)  William  of  Orange  having  ascended  the  Eng- 
lish throne,  an  alliance  offensive  and  defensive  was  formed 
between  England  and  Holland  against  France,  which  had 
afforded  an  asylum  to  the  exiled  King,  James  II.  The 
war  by  sea  commenced  with  the  invasion  of  Ireland  by  a 
French  force,  for  the  purpose  of  replacing  James  on  the 
throne,  and  concluded  with  the  destruction  of  their  fleet 
off  Cape  la  Hogue.  By  land  their  arms  were  more  suc- 
cessful :  three  brilliant  victories  were  gained  by  Luxem- 
bourg;  over  the  Dutch  at  Fleurus,  and  over  William 
III.  at  Steenkirk  and  Neerwinden;  and  Savoy,  the 
Duke  of  which  had  joined  the  alliance  against  France, 
was  conquered  by  a  French  army  under  General  Catinat. 
The  exhausted  state  of  his  finances,  and  the  diversion  of 
the  ambitious  plans  of  Louis  XIV.  into  a  new  channel  by 
the  immediate  prospect  of  the  death  without  issue  of 
Charles  II.  of  Spain,  on  the  one  side,  and  the  mutual 
mistrust  of  the  allies  on  the  other,  hastened  the  conclu- 
sion of  peace  at  Ryswick  (a  village  near  the  Hague) 
in  1697.  By  the  terms  of  this  peace  Louis  restored  all 
his  conquests,  and  all  the  re-united  territories,  except 
Alsace,  to  their  legitimate  possessors  (Freiburg  and  Brei- 
sach  to  the  house  of  Austria),  and  recognized  William  III. 
as  King  of  G-reat  Britain,  retaining  eighty-two  places 
taken  from  the  Spaniards  in  Belgium,  and  a  part  of  the 
island  of  St.  Domingo. 

$  20.    Germany. 

(172.)  Ferdinand  III.  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Leopold  I.,  1658 — 1705,  King  of  Hungary  and  Bo- 
hemia, who  was  obliged,  at  his  election,  to  submit  to  still 
further  limitations  of  the  imperial  authority.  The  Em- 
peror was  now  compelled  to  govern  in  conjunction  with 
the  estates  of  the  empire,  the  number  of  which,  although 
the  limits  of  the  empire  were  contracted,  had  been  increas- 
ed, by  the  elevation  of  inferior  nobles,  to  240,  and  after 


86  MODERN   HISTORY.  [173,   174.     $  20 

the  peace  of  Westphalia  had  been  divided,  with  reference 
to  religion,  into  two  distinct  corporations,  viz.,  Corpus 
Catholicorum  and  Corpus  Evangelicorum.  The  diei  now 
sat  perpetually  (since  1663),  and,  instead  of  being  visited 
by  the  Emperor  in  person,  and  the  great  body  of  the 
nobles,  consisted  of  a  congress  of  deputies.  The  German 
empire  at  this  period  of  our  history  was  reduced  to  the 
condition  of  a  powerless  confederation,  by  the  religious 
and  political  divisions  of  its  princes  and  estates. 

(173.)  Turkish  war,  1683—1699.  Whilst  Louis 
XIV.  was  conquering  Alsace  in  the  west,  the  Turks  re- 
appeared in  formidable  strength  on  the  eastern  frontier 
of  the  empire.  A  system  of  oppressive  taxation  and  re- 
ligious persecution  had  produced  an  insurrection  of  the" 
Hungarians,  headed  by  the  Protestant  count,  Emmerich 
Tokely,  and  at  their  instigation,  seconded  by  the  persua- 
sions of  Louis  XIV.j  the  Sultan  had  declared  war  against 
Austria. 

(174.)  The  Turks  advanced  without  opposition  (un- 
der the  grand  vizier,  Kara  Mustapha,)  as  far  as  Vienna 
(1683),  which  was  abandoned  by  the  Emperor,  who  fled 
to  Passau.  His  capital,  which  was  heroically  defended 
by  Count  Stahrenberg,  with  10,000  men,  against  the  daily 
assaults  of  270,000  Turks,  was  chiefly  indebted  for  its 
preservation  to  John  Sobieski,  King  of  Poland,  who,  in 
conjunction  with  the  imperialists  under  Duke  Charles  (V.) 
of  Lorraine,  defeated  the  besieging  army,  and  saved  not 
only  Austria,  but  the  whole  German  empire.  The  war 
with  Turkey  was  now  carried  on  so  successfully,  that 
after  the  capture  of  their  principal  fortress,  Belgrade,  the 
question  of  a  partition  of  the  Turkish  provinces  was  agi- 
tated ;  but  the  policy  pursued  by  France,  and  the  third 
war  of  spoliation  undertaken  by  Louis  XIV.,  prevented 
the  expulsion  of  the  Turks  from  Europe.  After  the  death 
of  Charles  of  Lorraine,  Prince  Lewis  of  Baden  gained  the 
victory  of  Salenkemen ;  but  it  was  not  until  Prince  Eu- 
gene of  Savoy  had  also  been  victorious  at  Zentha  (1697)^ 
that  negotiations  were  commenced  for  the  establishment 
of  peace,  which  was  concluded  at  Carlowitz  in  1699, 
By  this  treaty  Transylvania  and  the  country  between  the 
Danube  and  Theiss  were  assigned  to  Austria,  and  the 


175 179.    §21.]    BRANDENBURG   AND    PRUSSIA.  87 

Morea,  with  several  places  in  Dalmatia,  to  Venice,  for  the 
assistance  which  she  had  rendered  during  the  war. 

(175.)  Hungary,  hitherto  an  electoral  kingdom,  was 
created  an  hereditary  monarchy  at  the  diet  of  Presburg  in 
1687,  and  settled  on  the  male  line  of  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria. The  Tyrol  had  belonged  to  the  Emperor  (by  in- 
heritance) since  the  year  1665,  and  Transylvania  by  treaty 
since  1699.  For  the  wars  with  France,  see  §  19.  Eleva- 
tion of  German  princes — 

1.  The  Romanist  line  of  Pfalz  Neuburg  having  suc- 
ceeded to  the  Electorate  of  the  Palatinate,  the  Protest- 
ants were  now  in  a  minority  in  the  electoral  college.  To 
restore  the  balance  of  power,  Hanover  was  erected  into  a 
ninth  electorate  in  1692. 

(176.)  2.  -After  the  death  of  John  Sobieski,  the  Elec- 
tor of  Saxony  was  chosen  King  of  Poland,  under  the 
name  of  Augustus  II.  (1697),  having  previously  qualified 
himself  by  going  over  to  the  Church  of  Rome. 

(177.)  3.  The  elevation  of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg 
to  the  rank  of  King  of  Prussia,  1701. 

§  21.    Brandenburg  and  Prussia  to  1701. 

(178.)  1.  Frederick  William,  the  Great  Elec- 
tor, 1640 — 1688.  Out  of  the  scattered  provinces  be- 
tween the  Nieinen  and  the  Rhine,  which  hitherto  had 
had  no  bond  of  union,  except  their  common  subserviency 
to  the  same  master,  Frederick  William  formed  a  state, 
which  was  raised  by  his  son  to  a  high  rank  among  Ger- 
man governments,  and  under  his  great-grandson  became 
a  first-rate  European  power.  This  eminent  position  was 
attained  partly  by  the  interference  of  Frederick  the 
Great  in  the  politics  of  north-eastern  Europe,  and  in  an 
inferior  degree  in  those  of  the  west,  and  partly  by  the 
consummate  skill  with  which  he  administered  the  inter- 
nal affairs  of  his  kingdom. 

(179.)  a.  Participation  in  the  Swedo- Polish  war 
(1655-60).  The  possession  of  the  Swedish  throne  was 
contested  by  the  line  of  Vasa  (at  that  time  reigning  in 
Poland)  with  Charles  Gustavus  ^of  Zweibrucken  (Charles 
X.),  who  had  succeeded  on  the  abdication  of  Christina, 


88  MODERN   HISTORY.          [180 185.    §21. 

( 1 80.)  In  the  war  which  followed,  between  Sweden  and 
Poland,  both  parties  appealed  to  the  Elector,  who  availed 
hhriself  of  this  circumstance  to  throw  off  his  feudal  al- 
legiance to  Poland.  The  conquest  of  Poland,  and  inva- 
sion of  eastern  Prussia,  by  Charles  X.  having  compelled 
the  Elector  to  form  an  alliance  with  Sweden,  the  united 
armies  engaged  the  Poles  near  Warsaw  in  1656,  and  de- 
feated them,  after  a  battle  which  lasted  tnree  days.  In 
the  following  year,  the  King  of  Poland  (by  the  conven- 
tion of  Welau)  recognized  the  independence  ofPrus- 
si  a,  which  was  finally  established  by  the  peace  of  Oliva, 
near  Dantzic,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the 
Prussian  nobles,  who  were  adverse  to  the  measure,  partly 
because  they  had  not  been  consulted,  and  partly  because 
the  grand  object  of  the  Elector  was  to  emancipate  him- 
self from  their  authority,  especially  as  regarded  their 
right  of  voting,  or  refusing  the  imposition  of  taxes. 

For  the  war  with  France  and  Sweden,  see  page  82. 

(181.)  b.  Internal  administration.  The  foundation 
of  all  Prussia's  greatness  for  the  next  century  and  half, 
in  her  army,  finances,  agriculture,  commerce,  manufac- 
tures, arts  and  sciences,  was  laid  by  the  Great  Elector. 

(182.)  aa.  Immediately  after  his  accession,  he  formed 
the  nucleus  of  a  standing  army,  which  was  gradually  in- 
creased to  24,000  (?)  men,  who  were  strictly  disciplined 
and  exercised  in  the  use  of  different  weapons.  For  the 
support  of  this  force  he  introduced, 

(183.)  bb.  In  addition  to  the  ancient  taxes  and  du- 
ties, the  excise  on  various  articles  of  food  and  clothing, 
as  an  extraordinary  impost,  which  eventually  became 
perpetual,  and  extended  over  the  whole  country.  At  the 
same  time  he  endeavored  to  reform  the  financial  ad- 
ministration, by  a  more  judicious  system  of  expendi- 
ture, and  a  better  management  of  the  electoral  estates. 

(184.)  cc.  Foreigners  and  discharged  soldiers  were 
encouraged,  by  immunity  from  taxation  for  several  years, 
to  colonize  those  portions  of  his  dominions  which  had 
been  devastated  by  the  thirty  years'  war. 

(185.)  dd.  In  order  to  facilitate  inland  commu- 
nication, he  united  the  Oder  with  the  Spree,  and  also 
with  the  Havel  and  Elbe  by  the  Frederick  William  Ca- 


186 188.    $22.]    GREAT    BRITAIN    AND    IRELAND.  89 

nal  (three  miles  in  length).  Encouragement  was  also 
given  to  the  formation  of  a  commercial  marine.  The 
settlements  on  the  coast  of  Guinea  disappointed  the 
expectation  of  their  founders.  The  improvement  in 
manufactures  was  rather  the  result  of  the  influx  of 
French  artisans  into  Germany,  after  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes,  than  of  the  stringent  -prohibitory 
laws  passed  for  the  protection,  as  it  was  supposed,  of  na- 
tive industry. 

(186.)  ee.  He  founded  the  University  of  Duisburg, 
and  the  Royal  Library  at  Berlin. 

(187.)  2.  Frederick  III,  as  Elector,  1688—1701, 
assisted  the  Austrians  against  the  French  (whom  he  de- 
feated near  Neuss)  and  the  Turks.  In  return  for  these 
services,  the  Emperor  agreed  to  recognize  the  independ- 
ence of  Prussia.  Berlin  was  enlarged  and  embellished 
by  the  addition  of  the  'Friedrichsstadt,  the  University 
of  Halle--  founded  (1694),  and  academies  of  sciences 
(1701),  of  sculpture,  and  of  painting,  established  at  Ber- 
lin. With  consent  of  the  Emperor,  who  was  anxious, 
now  that  the  crown  of  Spain  was  vacant,  to  conciliate 
the  most  powerful  princes  of  the  empire,  Frederick  pro- 
claimed himself  King  of  Prussia,  and  on  the  18th  of 
January,  1701,  placed  the  crown  on  his  own  head,  and 
that  of  his  consort,  at  Konigsberg,  and  founded  the  or- 
der of  the  Black  Eagle,  in  commemoration  of  the  event. 

$  22.    Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

(188.)  1.  Under  the  parliament,  1649-53.  After  the 
execution  of  Charles  I.,  the  upper  house  of  parliament 
was  dissolved,  monarchy  abolished,  England  proclaimed  a 
republic  by  the  lower  house,  and  the  government  placed 
in  the  hands  of  a  council  of  state  consisting  of  forty-one 
members.  The  son  of  the  murdered  king  having  been 
proclaimed  as  Charles  II.,  in  Ireland  as  well  as  in  Scot- 
land, Cromwell  reduced  the  Irish  to  submission,  and  then 
marched  into  Scotland,  where  the  King  was  residing,  de- 
feated the  Scotch  near  Dunbar,  and  penetrated  into  the 
Highlands.  Meanwhile  Charles,  availing  himself  of  Crom- 
well's absence,  attempted  to  surprise  England,  but  was 


90  MODERN   HISTORY.          [189 191.    §22. 

soon  followed  by  the  usurper,  and  compelled,  after  his  de- 
feat at  Worcester,  to  wander  in  disguise,  until  at  length, 
after  a  series  of  romantic  adventures,  he  landed  in  safety 
on  the  coast  of  Normandy. 

(189.)  The  new  Commonwealth  avenged  itself  on  Hol- 
land for  the  murder  of  its  ambassador,  by  passing  the 
Navigation  Act,  which  restricted  foreign  nations  to 
the  importation  of  their  own  produce  in  their  own  vessels, 
and  thus  annihilated  the  principal  carrying  trade  of 
Holland. 

(190.)  Cromwell,  reckoning  with  certainty  on  the 
support  of  the  army,  now  dissolved  the  Rump  Parliament 
by  force,  and  assembled  another,  called,  in  mockery,  from 
a  fanatic  leather-seller  who  played  a  principal  part  in  its 
proceedings,  "  Barebone's  Parliament."  After  dissolv- 
ing this  parliament  also,  Cromwell  was  nominated  by  his 
officers  Protector  of  the  three  realms. 

(191.)  2.  Under  the  Protectorate  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well, 1653 — 1658.  The  executive  authority  was  vested 
in  Cromwell  and  the  legislative  in  the  parliament,  which 
was  called  together  every  three  years.  The  management 
of  the  army  was  divided  between  them.  The  new  navi- 
gation act  occasioned  a  war  between  England  aijd  the 
united  Netherlands,  whose  carrying  trade  was,  as  we  have 
mentioned,  nearly  annihilated  by  that  measure.  No 
sooner  was  this  war  happily  concluded,  than  a  demand  on 
the  part  of  Cromwell  of  a  free  trade  to  the  Spanish  colo- 
nies produced  a  war  with  Spain,  in  which  Jamaica  and 
Dunkirk  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  The  question 
of  offering  the  crown  to  the  Protector,  for  which  the  par- 
liament had  been  gradually  and  cautiously  prepared,  was 
at  length  brought  forward,  and  through  the  exertions  of 
his  friends  carried  in  the  affirmative ;  but  Cromwell  was 
compelled  by  circumstances  to  refuse  to  accept  the  title 
of  King.  The  anxiety  occasioned  by  repeated  conspira- 
cies and  attempts  on  his  life  embittered  the  latter  days 
of  the  usurper,  and  hastened  his  death,  which  took  place 
on  the  3d  September,  1658.  Cromwell  was  succeeded 
in  the  Protectorate  by  his  feeble-minded  son  Richard, 
who  was  compelled  by  the  army  to  dissolve  the  parliament, 
and  after  a  reign  of  eight  months  retired  into  private  life 


192,   193.    §22.]    GREAT    BRITAIN    AND    IRELAND.  91 

(1659).  The  state  of  anarchy  which  followed  his  resig- 
nation was  terminated  by  General  Monk,  commander-in- 
chief  in  Scotland,  who  returned  to  London,  and  estab- 
lished a  parliament,  consisting  of  an  Upper  and  Lower 
House,  which  recalled  Charles  II.  in  1660. 

B.    Under  the  last  two  Stuarts,  1660 — 1688. 

( 192. )  Charles  II.  ( 1 660 — 1 685)  proclaimed  an  almost 
universal  amnesty,  appointed  the  wise  Earl  of  Clarendon 
his  prime  minister,  and  re-established  episcopacy  in  Scot- 
land as  well  as  in  England.  But  the  profligacy  of  his 
manners,  and  the  recklessness  with  which  he  squandered 
the  public  money,  soon  disgusted  the  people,  who  wit- 
nessed with  indignation  the  sale  of  Dunkirk  to  France ; 
the  disgraceful  termination  of  two  wars  with  Holland, 
which  had  been  begun  on  the  most  frivolous  pretences ; 
the  dismissal  and  banishment  of  Clarendon  (whose  place 
was  supplied  by  the  CABAL1  ministry),  and  the  fre- 
quent prorogations  of  parliament.  An  act  of  toleration, 
which  he  had  published  on  his  own  responsibility,  was  an- 
nulled by  parliament,  who  then  passed  the  test-act  (by 
which  Dissenters  and  Romanists  were  excluded  from  pub- 
lic employments,  and  the  latter  also  from  parliament),  and 
the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  by  which  the  King's  subjects 
were  secured  from  vexatious  arrest.  The  debates  respect- 
ing the  settlement  of  the  succession  brought  the  Whig  or 
opposition  party  into  collision  with  the  Tory  or  court 
party.  During  the  last  years  of  his  reign,  Charles  gov- 
erned without  a  parliament,  and  steadily  opposed  the  ex- 
clusion of  his  Romanist  brother  James  from  the  suc- 
cession. 

(193.)  James  II.  (1685— 1688),  who  ascended  the 
throne  without  opposition,  pursued  with  the  most  blind 
and  reckless  eagerness  his  two  favorite  plans,  of  rendering 
the  authority  of  the  crown  absolute,  and  re-establishing 
Romanism.  The  appointment  of  Romanists  to  important 
civil  and  military  oflices,  the  attempt  to  abolish  the  test- 

1  So  called  from  the  first  letters  of  the  names  of  its  members, — 
Clifford,  Ashley,  Buckingham,  Arlington,  and  Lauderdale. 


92  MODERN   HISTORY.  [193.    $22. 

act,  and  in  Scotland  to  repeal  all  the  laws  against  Ro- 
manism, and  the  arrest  of  the  seven  bishops  who  ventured 
to  resist  his  arbitrary  proceedings,  occasioned  discontents, 
which  terminated  (on  the  exclusion  from  the  succession  of 
his  Protestant  daughters,  Mary  and  Anne,  by  the  birth  of 
a  prince)  in  the  English  Revolution  of  1688. 


194.  §22.] 
(194.) 


GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND. 


93 


94  MODERN   HISTORY.         [195 197.    $23. 

(195.)  On  the  approach  towards  the  capital  of 
William  of  Orange,  the  King's  son-in-law,  who  had 
been  invited  over  from  Holland  by  the  malcontents, 
James  II.  fled  to  France,  and  the  throne  was  immediately 
declared  vacant  by  the  parliament.  In  the  year  1689, 
Mary  and  her  husband  William  III.  were  proclaimed 
King  and  Queen  of  England,  the  authority  of  the  crown 
being  at  the  same  time  limited  by  the  "  Bill  of  Rights." 
In  the  event  of  their  dying  without  issue,  it  was  settled 
that  the  Princess  Anne  should  succeed  them  on  the 
throne. 

C.  The  house  of  Orange,  1689—1702. 

(196.)  The  hopes  which  the  exiled  King  entertained 
of  recovering  his  throne  by  the  aid  of  the  French  were 
annihilated  by  William  III.,  who  gained  two  decisive 
victories  (at  the  river  Boyne  in  Ireland  and  la  Hogue), 
and  punished  the  Irish  for  their  support  of  James  by 
another  confiscation  of  their  estates.  In  Scotland,  the 
King  and  Queen  were  recognized,  and  peace  in  some 
measure  restored  by  the  abolition  of  episcopacy.  Im- 
provements were  effected  in  the  constitution  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  ministerial  responsibility,  greater  freedom  of 
the  press,  and  the  independence  of  the  judges.  William 
was  permitted  to  retain  his  hereditary  dignity  of  Statt- 
holder  in  the  republic  of  Holland,  and  during  the  Spanish 
war  of  succession  exerted  himself  to  maintain  the  balance 
of  power  in  Europe. 

§  23.   The  republic  of  Holland. 

(197.)  The  republic  of  Holland,  or  seven  United  Pro- 
vinces of  the  Netherlands,  had  reached  its  highest  state 
of  prosperity  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  its  independence  was  secured  by  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia :  its  commerce  extended  over  the  face  of  the  globe, 
and  every  sea  was  covered  with  its  fleets ;  its  herring 
fisheries  were  an  unfailing  source  of  wealth,  and  the  car- 
rying trade  of  almost  every  nation  in  Europe  was  in  the 
hands  of  its  merchants.  But  the  naval  supremacy  of  the 
republic  was  soon  contested  by  Crownwell,  whose  Naviga- 


198,  199.  §  24.]     THE  NORTH-EAST  OF  EUROPE.  95 

tion  Act  inflicted  a  death-blow  on  its  carrying  trade  ;  and 
the  result  of  two  wars  with  England  (in  which  the  Ad- 
mirals Van  Tromp  and  de  Ruyter  distinguished  them- 
selves) was  only  a  very  slight  relaxation  of  the  act.  To 
these  causes  of  decay  were  added  the  domestic  troubles 
occasioned  by  the  resistance  of  the  Anti-Orange  party 
under  the  Pensionary,  John  de  Witt,  to  the  ambitious 
designs  of  William  II.,  whose  death  was  the  signal  for  the 
abolition  of  the  Stattholdership  in  five  provinces, 
Friesland  and  Groningen  had  their  own  Stattholder  (Count 
William  of  Nassau).  During  the  war  with  Louis  XIV. 
(occasioned  by  the  anger  of  the  French  King  on  account 
of  the  triple  alliance),  the  Stattholdership  was  re- 
established, at  first  in  two,  and  subsequently  in  all  the 
five  provinces,  and  the  dignity  conferred  for  life  on  Wil- 
liam III.  of  Orange,  in  whose  family  it  soon  afterwards 
became  hereditary.  The  two  brothers,  John  and  Cor- 
nelius de  Witt,  who  had  resisted  this  arrangement,  were 
assassinated  by  the  mob  at  the  instigation  of  the  Orange 
party. 

(198.)  The  marriage  of  William  III.  with  the  Prin- 
cess Mary,  and  his  consequent  elevation  to  the  English 
throne,  enabled  the  two  great  naval  powers  of  Europe  to 
act  in  concert  against  the  ambitious  plans  of  Louis  XIV. ; 
but  this  advantage  was  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the 
additional  restrictions  imposed  on  the  trade  of  Holland 
by  her  powerful  ally.  This  circumstance,  and  the  con- 
tinued residence  of  William  in  England,  considerably 
weakened  the  attachment  of  his  Dutch  subjects.  After 
his  death  (without  issue)  in  1702,  the  Stattholdership  re- 
mained vacant  in  the  five  provinces  until  the  year  1747, 
when  the  invasion  of  the  Dutch  territory  by  the  French, 
towards  the  end  of  the  Spanish  war  of  succession,  occa- 
sioned the  restoration  (in  all  the  provinces)  of  the  he- 
reditary dignity  of  the  house  of  Orange.  In  the  inter- 
val between  the  Spanish  and  Austrian  war  of  succession, 
the  republic  observed  strict  neutrality  in  all  its  foreign 
relations. 

§  24.   The  north-east  of  Europe. 
(199.)     Under  the  first  three  Kings  of  the  house  of 


96  MODERN   HISTORY.  [200.    §  24. 

Zweibrucken,  Sweden  occupied  in  northern  Europe 
a  position  similar  to  that  of  France  in  the  south  and 
west,  the  possession  of  all  the  best  harbors  in  the  Baltic 
having  placed  her  in  the  rank  of  a  first-rate  power  from 
the  time  of  the  thirty  years'  war. 

(200.)  The  claims  which  the  house  of  Yasa  advanced 
to  the  throne  of  Sweden  afforded  the  ambitious  Charles 
(1654 — 1660)  a  welcome  pretext  for  declaring  war  against 
Poland.  The  rapidity  with  which  his  plan  of  invasion 
was  executed  placed  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom  at 
his  disposal,  and  compelled  the  reigning  sovereign  (John 
Casimir)  to  take  refuge  in  Silesia,  whilst  Charles,  in  con- 
junction with  his  ally,  the  Great  Elector,  defeated  the 
Poles  in  the  battle  of  Warsaw,  after  three  days  of 
hard  fighting  (1656).  A  confederation  having  been 
formed  about  this  time  for  the  maintenance  of  the  bal- 
ance of  power  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  war  declared 
against  Sweden  by  the  King  of  Denmark,  Charles  X. 
withdrew  his  forces  from  Poland,  and,  after  rapidly  over- 
running the  Danish  continent,  crossed  the  frozen  Belt, 
and  subdued  the  islands  also.  A  peace  was  now  conclud- 
ed (at  Roeskild,  in  1658),  by  which  the  independence  of 
Bornholm  and  the  southern  -provinces  of  Sweden  was 
recognized.  But  Charles  soon  repented  of  the  facility 
with  which  he  had  acceded  to  these  conditions,  and,  land- 
ing unexpectedly  on  the  coast  of  Zealand,  laid  siege  to 
Copenhagen,  which  was  enabled,  by  the  assistance  of  a 
Dutch  fleet,  to  resist  successfully  all  the  attacks  of  the 
Swedes.  The  death  of  the  King,  and  the  minority  of  his 
son  Charles  XI.  (1660 — 1697),  induced  the  Swedish  gov- 
ernment to  conclude  a  peace  with  Poland  and  her  allies 
at  Oliva  in  1660  (John  Casimir  renouncing  his  claims  to 
the  Swedish  throne,  and  giving  up  Esthonia,  Orsel,  and 
the  greater  part  of  Livonia),  and  with  Denmark  at 
Copenhagen.  The  conditions  of  the  peace  of  Roeskild 
were  confirmed  by  the  peace  of  Copenhagen,  except  as  re- 
garded Drontheim  and  Bornholm,  which  were  restored  to 
Denmark.  The  participation  of  the  Swedes  in  the  war  of 
Louis  XIY.  against  Holland  and  Brandenburg  occasioned 
the  loss  of  their  G-erman  possessions  (after  the  battle  of 
Fehrbellin,  in  1675),  but  most  of  these  were  afterwards 


201.  §24.]     THE  NORTH-EAST  OF  EUROPE.  97 

restored  (in  1679)  by  the  peace  of  S.  Germain-en-Laye. 
During  the  minority  of  Charles  XL,  his  ministers  had 
governed  with  absolute  authority,  and  most  of  the  estates 
of  the  crown  had  been  appropriated  by  the  higher  nobility ; 
but  the  unlimited  powers  conferred  on  him  by  the  estates 
of  the  kingdom,  after  he  had  obtained  full  age,  enabled 
him  to  recover  the  royal  demesnes,  which  had  been  sold, 
or  otherwise  alienated,  by  his  predecessors.  By  this  ac- 
cession of  revenue,  he  was  enabled  to  place  the  finances, 
army  and  navy,  on  a  new  and  more  efficient  footing,  and 
to  bequeath  to  his  son,  Charles  XII.  (1697—1718),  a 
flourishing  kingdom  and  well-filled  exchequer;  but  the 
fool-hardy  and  romantic  projects  of  the  new  monarch  soon 
reduced  Sweden  to  her  original  state  of  poverty.  In 
Denmark  (under  Frederick  III.,  1648—1670,  and 
Christian  V.,  1670—1699),  the  utter  exhaustion  of  her 
resources:  occasioned  by  the  war  with  Sweden  and  the 
loss  of  territory  at  the  peace  of  Koeskild  and  Copenhagen, 
was  followed  by  a  change  in  the  constitution  ;  the  clergy 
and  commons,  who  were  disgusted  at  the  tyranny  of  the 
nobles,  declaring  the  monarchy  hereditary  (in  the  female 
as  well  as  the  male  line),  and  compelling  the  nobles  to 
recognize  the  King  as  an  absolute  hereditary  sovereign 
(1660).  In  a  fresh  war  with  Sweden,  undertaken  by  the 
Danes  as  allies  of  the  Great  Elector,  some  conquests  were 
made,  which  were  afterwards  relinquished  at  the  peace  of 
Lund. 

(201.)  Poland,  at  this  time  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant empires  of  Europe,  had  exhibited  a  wretched  pic- 
ture of  aristocratic  tyranny  since  the  establishment  of  an 
elective  government,  which  placed  the  supreme  authority 
in  the  hands  of  deputies  chosen  by  all  the  nobles  who  had 
attained  full  age, — a  power  being  given  to  each  individual 
to  annul  the  resolutions  of  the  rest  by  his  "  liberum  veto." 
The  last  of  the  three  kings  of  the  house  of  Vasa,  John 
Casimir,  was  so  disgusted  at  the  turbulent  state  of  his 
kingdom,  and  his  unsuccessful  wars  with  Sweden  and 
Russia  (cession  of  Smolensk,  Kiev,  and  the  Ukraine  be- 
yond the  Dnieper),  that  he  resigned  his  crown  and  retired 
to  France,  where  the  revenues  of  two  abbeys  were  settled 
on  him  by  Louis  XIV.  His  next  successor  but  one,  the 
5 


98  MODERN   HISTORY.  [201.    §24. 

brave  John  Sobieski  (1673 — 1695),  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  the  Emperor  against  the  Turks  (by  whom 
Austria  and  Poland  were  equally  threatened),  and  com- 
pelled them  to  raise  the  siege  of  Vienna  (1683) ;  but  the 
Turkish  war  was  not  terminated  until  the  reign  of  his 
successor  Augustus  II.  (1697 — 1733),  Elector  of 
Saxony,  who  concluded  a  peace  at  Carlowitz  (1699),  by 
which  Poland,  through  the  intervention  of  Austria,  re- 
covered Podolia  and  the  Ukraine.  Russia,  under  the 
able  and  energetic  Czars  of  the  house  of  Romanow,  had 
risen  from  an  Asiatic  into  a  European  state.  Not  only 
had  the  frontier  of  the  empire  been  extended  on  the  side 
of  Poland  by  Alexei,  but  the  way  had  been  prepared  for 
the  introduction  of  European  civilization  (posts,  manufac- 
tures, &c).  Under  his  son  (Feodor  III.)  the  Ukraine  was 
wrested  from  the  Turks.  After  his  death,  his  two  sons — 
Ivan,  who  was  of  weak  intellect  and  almost  blind  ;  and 
Peter,  a  prince  of  extraordinary  ability — were  raised  to- 
gether to  the  throne  by  the  Strelitzes,1  under  the  guardi- 
anship of  their  elder  sister,  Sophia  (1682).  The  treacher- 
ous policy  of  this  princess,  in  suffering  her  brother  Peter 
to  receive  a  foreign  education  for  the  purpose  of  render- 
ing him  unpopular  among  his  subjects,  laid  the  foundation 
of  his  future  glory.  Sophia,  who  had  excited  an  insur- 
rection of  the  Strelitzes  against  her  younger  brother,  was 
sent  to  pass  the  rest  of  her  days  in  a  convent,  whilst 
Peter,  leaving  to  his  brother  Ivan  the  empty  title  of 
Czar  (1689 — 1725),  assumed  the  authority  of  sole  mon- 
arch (under  the  guidance  of  a  Genevese  named  Lefort),  and 
commenced  a  complete  revolution  in  the  empire.  The 
army  was  remodelled  after  the  European  pattern,  and 
preparations  were  made  for  the  creation  of  a  navy.  Azov, 
the  key  of  the  Bla'ck  Sea,  was  wrested  from  the  Turks. 
For  the  purpose  at  once  of  satisfying  his  curiosity,  and  of 
acquiring  a  knowledge  of  European  civilization,  Peter, 
after  sending  before  him  an  embassy  headed  by  Lefort, 
travelled  through  Germany  into  Holland  (1697),  where  he 


1  The  Russian  strelitzy  were  a  large  and  powerful  body  of  sol- 
diers, who,  like  the  Turkish  janizaries,  continually  interfered  with 
the  government. — S. 


202.    ^  25.]       WAR    OP    THE    SPANISH    SUCCESSION.  99 

worked  in  the  dockyard  at  Saardam  as  a  common  ship- 
wright. Then  he  visited  William.  III.  in  England,  and 
on  his  return  through  G-ermany  was  on  the  eve  of  enter- 
ing Italy,  when  a  fresh  insurrection  of  the  Strelitzes,  for 
the  purpose  of  resisting  his  innovations,  recalled  him  to 
Moscow.  After  punishing  the  guilty  with  barbarous 
severity,  and  disbanding  the  corps  of  Strelitzes,  Peter 
established  an  army  officered  exclusively  by  foreigners, 
founded  schools,  introduced  foreign  manners  (the  German 
style  of  dress,  &c.),  and,  having  abolished  the  office  of 
Patriarch,  united  in  his  own  person  the  supreme  spiritual 
as  well  as  temporal  authority.2  His  project  of  extending 
the  boundaries  of  Russia  to  the  shore  of  the  Baltic,  at  the 
expense  of  Sweden,  involved  him  in  the  great  northern 
war  (see  $  26). 


II.    To  the  French  Revolution. 
§  25.    War  of  the  Spanish  succession,  1701 — 1714. 

(202.)  No  sooner  was  it  known  that  Charles  II.,  King 
of  Spain,  son  of  Philip  IV.,  and  the  last  male  descendant 
of  the  Spanish- Austrian  house,  was  likely  to  die  without 
issue,  than  several  princes  claimed  the  succession  to  the 
Spanish  throne.  1.  Louis  XIV.  (as  husband  of  the  King's 
eldest  sister),  on  behalf  of  his  grandson,  Philip,  Duke  of 
Anjou.  In  bringing  forward  this  claim,  Louis  declared 
his  consort's  renunciation  (see  page  80)  null  and  void  as 
regarded  her  descendants.  2.  Leopold  I.,  as  husband  of 
the  younger  sister  of  the  King  of  Spain  (who  had  never 
renounced  her  claim  to  the  Spanish  crown),  for  his  younger 
son  Charles.  3.  The  Elector  of  Ba^saria,  as  immediate 
descendant  of  Charles's  younger  sister.  With  the  view  of 
anticipating  a  partition  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  as  con- 
templated by  France  and  the  maritime,  powers,  Charles, 
by  will,  declared  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  and  (on  his  sud- 
den demise,  during  the  lifetime  of  the  testator)  the 
Dauphin's  second  son,  Philip  of  Anjou,  universal  heir  to 

2  His  supremacy  over  the  Church  was  much  the  same  as  that 
exercised  by  the  king  or  queen  of  England.— S. 


100  MODERN    HISTORY.  [203,204. 

all  his  dominions.  On  the  1st  November,  1700,  soon 
after  the  death  of  Charles  II.,  the  Duke  of  Anjou  assumed 
the  title  of  Philip  V.,  King  of  Spain.  To  punish  France 
for  this  violation  of  the  partition-treaty,  the  maritime 
powers  (or  rather  William  III.)  concluded  with  the  Em- 
peror the  so-called  Grand  Alliance,  pledging  themselves 
to  recover  for  the  house  of  Austria  the  Spanish  posses- 
sions in  the  Netherlands  and  Italy,  and  never  to  permit 
the  union  of  the  French  and  Spanish  crowns.  The  first 
of  the  German  princes  who  joined  this  alliance  was  the 
King  of  Prussia.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Electors  of 
Bavaria  and  Cologne  sided  with  their  nephew,  Philip 
of  Anjou. 

A.  Struggles  in  Italy  and  Germany,   1701 — 
1704. 

(203.)  1.  In  Italy.  The  Emperor,  supported  by 
the  two  German  princes,  who  were  indebted  to  him  for 
their  elevation  to  a  higher  rank  (the  King  of  Prussia  and 
the  Elector  of  Hanover),  despatched  one  army,  under 
Prince  Lewis  of  Baden,  to  dispute  the  passage  of  the 
Rhine  with  the  French,  and  another  under  Prince 
Eugene  of  Savoy  (who  had  distinguished  himself  at 
the  raising  of  the  siege  of  Vienna,  and  in  the  subsequent 
Turkish  wars,  as  well  as  in  three  wars  with  France)  into 
Italy,  which  had  been  already  entered  by  a  French  army 
under  General  Catinat.  Eugene  crossed  the  Tyrolese 
Alps,  defeated  Catinat  at  Carpi,  and  took  Villeroi  (the 
King's  incapable  favorite)  prisoner  at  Chiari,  but  was 
compelled  to  retire,  after  an  indecisive  engagement  at 
Luzzara,  before  the  overwhelming  force  of  the  Duke  of 
Vendome. 

(204.)  2.  In  Germany.  Louis  XI Y.  having  recog- 
nized the  son  of  James  II.  as  King  of  England,  in  the 
hope  of  sowing  the  seeds  of  dissension  in  that  country, 
supplies  were  granted  to  William  III.  by  his  parliament, 
for  the  purpose  of  commencing  a  war  in  the  Spanish  Ne- 
therlands and  the  Electorate  of  Cologne,  under  the  Earl 
(afterwards  Duke)  of  M  a  r  1  b  o  r  o  u  g  h.  At  the  same  time 
Portugal  and  Savoy  joined  the  Grand  Alliance.  Mean- 


205,206.    §25.]  WAR  OF  THE  SPANISH  SUCCESSION.      101 

while  the  French,  under  Villars,  had  circumvented  the 
German  army  on  the  Rhine,  and  effected  a  junction  with 
the  Elector  of  Bavaria.  The  Elector's  plan  of  entering 
the  Tyrol,  and  uniting  his  forces  with  the  army  of  Ville- 
roi  on  its  return  from  Italy,  was  rendered  abortive  by  the 
bravery  of  the  Tyrolese  (under  Martin  Sterzinger),  and 
both  armies  were  forced  to  retreat. 

(205.)  In  the  year  1704,  Marlborough  unexpectedly 
effected  a  junction  with  Eugene  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing a  combined  assault  on  the  Bavarian-French  army. 
Eugene  covered  the  Rhine,  whilst  Marlborough  (with  the 
Margrave  of  Baden)  defeated  the  Bavarians  on  the  Schel- 
lenberg  near  Donauwerth ;  but,  being  unable  to  hinder  the 
passage  of  the  Rhine  by  a  fresh  detachment  of  French 
troops  (under  Tallard),  he  rejoined  Marlborough,  and  in 
conjunction  with  him  defeated  the  Bavarians  and  French 
near  Hochstadt  and  Blenheim  with  such  terrible  slaugh- 
ter, that  of  an  army  of  60,000  men  scarcely  one-third 
reached  the  Rhine  after  the  engagement.  The  whole  of 
Bavaria  was  overrun  by  the  conquerors,  who  treated  the 
inhabitants  with  the-  utmost  severity ;  the  Electors  of  Ba- 
varia and  Cologne  were  set  aside  and  placed  under  the  bann 
of  the  empire  by  the  Emperor, 

Joseph  I.  (1705—1711), 

and  the  Upper  Palatinate  was  restored  to  the  Elector 
Palatine. 

B.  Struggle  in  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  and  Ita- 
ly, for  the  united  Spanish  monarchy,  1704 — 1710. 

(206.)  1.  In  Spain  itself  the  war  began  in  1704,  on 
the  landing  of  the  Archduke  Charles  on  the  coast  of  Por- 
tugal with  a  body  of  English  and  Dutch  soldiers.  The 
only  important  event  of  the  first  year  was  the  re-capture  of 
Gibraltar  from  the  English  ;  but  no  sooner  had  four  prov- 
inces (Catalonia,  Valencia,  Arragon,  and  Navarre)  de- 
clared for  Charles  III.,  than  a  civil  war  began,  the  horrors 
of  which  are  almost  without  a  parallel  in  history.  Philip 
V.  was  driven  from  his  capital,  but  soon  afterwards  re- 


102  MODERN   HISTORY.  [207.    $25. 

turned,  on  finding  that  Charles  had  neglected  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  his  flight.  The  war,  however,  still  continued, 
fostered  by  national  hatred,  between  the  Castilians  and 
A.rragonese ;  the  latter,  after  defeating  the  allies  near  Al- 
manza,  ravaged  the  province  of  Valencia.  A  reinforce- 
ment of  German  troops  under  the  brave  Stahremberg,  and 
fche  exhausted  condition  of  France,  enabled  Charles  III. 
i  second  time  to  drive  Philip  V.  out  of  Madrid ;  but, 
within  two  months  from  the  period  of  his  triumphal  entry 
into  his  capital,  the  arrival  of  Venddme  in  Spain  com- 
pelled him  again  to  seek  safety  in  flight,  and  return  (after 
the  death  of  his  brother,  Joseph  I.,  in  1711)  to  Germany. 
(207.)  2.  In  the  Netherlands  and  Italy.  After 
the  battle  of  Hochstadt,  Eugene  and  Marlborough  had 
again  parted  company,  the  former  returning  to  Italy,  and 
the  latter  to  the  Netherlands.  The  efforts  of  both  gen- 
erals were  crowned  with  unexpected  success.  Bavaria, 
as  before,  surrendered  after  a  single  battle,  and  the  most 
important  Spanish  provinces  in  the  Netherlands  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  allies.  Marlborough,  whose  qualifica- 
tions as  a  subtle  diplomatist  and  accomplished  courtier  had 
stood  him  in  good  stead  in  his  negotiations  with  the  courts 
of  Vienna  and  Berlin,  again  took  the  field  against  the 
French,  who  were  projecting  the  invasion  of  Holland,  de- 
feated near  Ramillies  an  army  of  60,000  men  under 
Villeroi  (1706),  subdued  Brabant,  Flanders,  and  a  part  of 
Hennegau,  and  compelled  those  provinces  to  swear  allegi- 
ance to  Charles  III.  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year, 
Eugene,  assisted  by  the  Prussians  under  Leopold  of  Des- 
sau, defeated  a  French  army  of  80,000  men  which  was  be- 
sieging Turin,  and  obtained  an  enormous  amount  of 
booty.  After  their  defeat  the  French  evacuated  Lom- 
bardy  ;  and  Eugene,  who  had  been  nominated  Viceroy  of 
Milan  by  Joseph  I.,  compelled  the  principal  inhabitants 
of  that  province  to  swear  allegiance  to  Charles  III.  An 
army,  which  he  had  despatched  to  Naples  under  the  com- 
mand of  Count  Daun,  was  received  with  every  demonstra- 
tion of  joy  by  the  Neapolitans.  In  the  year  1708  the 
English  took  possession  of  Sardinia  ;  so  that  of  all  her  Eu- 
ropean provinces  there  now  remained  to  Spain  only  the 
island  of  Sicily.  After  the  termination  of  the  war  in  It- 


208.   §25.]  THE    PEACE    OF    UTRECHT.  103 

aly,  Eugene  re-entered  Flanders,  and  in  conjunction  with 
Marlborough  defeated  the  French  atOudenardeon  the 
Scheldt  (1708),  and  stormed  the  fortress  of  Ryssel  (Lille), 
the  chef-d'oauvre  of  the  celebrated  engineer  Yauban,  which 
had  been  always  considered  impregnable.  Meanwhile, 
Louis  XIV.,  dispirited  by  such  a  series  of  disasters,  and 
deprived  of  the  resources  necessary  for  a  fresh  campaign 
by  an  unusually  severe  winter,  was  negotiating  a  peace  (at 
the  Hague),  and  had  already  consented  to  relinquish  the 
pretensions  of  his  family  to  the  Spanish  crown,  and  to 
cede  Alsace  with  certain  fortresses  on  the  frontier  of  Sa- 
voy, when  the  allies,  rendered  insolent  by  success,  de- 
manded that  he  should  send  an  army  into  Spain  for  the 
purpose  of  deposing  his  own  grandson.  On  receiving 
this  insult,  Louis  at  once  broke  off  the  negotiations,  and 
by  extraordinary  exertions  raised  another  army  (under 
Villars),  which  was  defeated  in  1 709  by  Eugene  and  Marl- 
borough  at  Malplaquet.  The  negotiations  for  peace 
were  then  renewed,  and  Louis  had  already  declared  himself 
ready  to  furnish  a  considerable  portion  of  the  funds  ne- 
cessary for  the  expulsion  of  his  grandson,  when  the  sim- 
ultaneous occurrence  of  three  important  events  entirely 
changed  the  aspect  of  affairs. 

C.  Reverse  of  fortune.     Peace  concluded  at 

Utrecht,  Rastadt,  and  Baden,  1711—1714. 
(208.)  1.  Tliefall  of  Marlborough  (leader  of  the 
Whig  party  in  England),  and  the  change  of  policy  conse- 
quent on  the  formation  of  a  Tory  cabinet  by  Queen  Anne. 
2.  The  death  of  the  Emperor  Joseph,  who  was  succeeded 
on  the  imperial  throne  by  the  Archduke  Charles  ;  and  3. 
The  victories  of  the  Duke  of  Vendome  in  Spain,  which  en- 
abled Louis,  towards  the  end  of  his  life,  to  conclude  a 
peace  on  terms  unexpectedly  favorable  to  France.  In  the 
first  place  he  concluded  with  the  maritime  powers,  who 
were  opposed  to  the  re-union  of  Austria  with  the  Spanish 
monarchy, the  peace  of  Utrecht  (1713),  by  which  Philip 
V.  was  recognized  as  King  of  Spain  and  her  transalantic 
colonies,  it  being  at  the  same  time  stipulated  that  no  re- 
union of  the  French  and  Spanish  crowns  should  ever  take 
place. 


104  MODERN    HISTORY.          [209 211.    §26. 

(209.)  In  this  peace  England  obtained  from  France 
the  recognition  of  the  Protestant  succession,  and  posses- 
sion of  Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia,  andHudson's  Bay ;  and 
from  Spain  the  island  of  Minorca  and  Gibraltar,  with  the 
privilege  of  trading  in  slaves  to  Spanish  America.  Prus- 
sia obtained  Upper  Guelderland,  and  the  universal  recog- 
nition of  her  recently  established  monarchy  ;  and  Savoy 
the  island  of  Sicily,  which  she  soon  afterwards  exchanged 
for  Sardinia.  In  the  year  1714  a  treaty  was  concluded 
at  Rastad  t  between  Charles  VI.  and  the  sovereigns  who 
had  been  parties  to  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  the  Emperor 
receiving  the  Spanish  provinces,  viz.  the  Netherlands,  Na- 
ples, Milan,  and  Sardinia  (with  the  exception  of  Mantua  and 
the  Tuscan  sea-ports),  and  the  Electors  of  Bavaria  and 
Cologne  being  reinstated  in  their  dignities.  This  treaty, 
which  had  been  negotiated  between  Eugene  and  Villars, 
was  fully  recognized  at  the  peace  of  Baden,  by  which 
the  German  empire  obtained  merely  the  confirmation  of 
the  treaties  concluded  at  Miinster,  Nimeguen,  and  Rys- 
wick. 

$  26.   The  northern  war,  1700—1721. 

(210.)  Causes  of  the  war.  1.  The  desire  of  Peter 
the  Great  to  re-conquer  those  provinces  on  the  shores  of 
the  Baltic  which  had  been  wrested  from  Russia  by  the 
Swedes.  2.  The  anxiety  of  Augustus  II.,  Elector  of  Sax- 
ony and  King  of  Poland,  to  recover  Esthonia  and  Livonia, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  repress  domestic  discontent  by 
employing  his  disaffected  subjects  in  a  foreign  war.  3. 
The  designs  of  the  King  of  Denmark  (Frederick  IV.)  on 
the  portion  of  Holstein  at  that  time  possessed  by  the  Duke 
of  Holstein  Gottorp,  brother-in-law  of  Charles  XII.,  and 
his  wish  to  recover  the  provinces  which  had  been  ceded  to 
Sweden  by  the  peace  of  Copenhagen.  At  the  instance  of 
Augustus  II.,  a  league  was  formed  between  Russia  and 
Denmark,  the  object  of  which  was  to  take  advantage  of 
the  youth  of  Charles  XII.,  and  compel  him  to  restore  the 
provinces  which  had  been  wrested  by  his  ancestors  from 
Russia,  Poland,  and  Denmark. 

(211.)    1.  The  Danish  war,  1700,  began  with  the 


212,213.   $26.  THE    NORTHERN    WAR.  105 

invasion  of  Holstein  Gottorp  by  the  Danes,  and  of  Livo- 
nia by  the  Saxons.  Addressing  himself  to  the  danger 
which  seemed  the  most  imminent,  the  young  King  landed 
on  the  island  of  Zealand,  and  advancing  to  the  capital 
compelled  Frederick  IV.  (in  a  separate  peace  concluded 
at  Travendal  in  1700)  to  renounce  his  alliance  with  Rus- 
sia, and  restore  to  the  Duke  of  Holstein  Gottorp  all  the 
territory  of  which  he  had  been  deprived  by  the  Danes. 

(212.)  2.  The  Russian-Saxon  war,  1700—1706. 
The  Czar,  Peter,  having  marched  at  the  head  of  an  enor- 
mous force  to  the  assistance  of  his  ally  the  King  of  Po- 
land, Charles  XII.,  after  forcing  him  (1700)  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Narva,  drove  the  Russians  and  Saxons  out  of 
Livonia,  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Lithuania,  and,  en- 
tering Poland  in  triumph,  compelled  the  Poles  to  depose 
Augustus  II.,  and  elect  in  his  room  the  Waiwode  of  Po- 
sen,  Stanislaus  Lesczinsky  (1704), whose  general  re- 
cognition was  the  result  of  fresh  victories  over  the  Saxons, 
and  the  invasion  of  Lithuania  by  the  Swedes.  Leaving 
his  most  dangerous  enemy,  the  Czar,  to  extend  his  con- 
quests on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  and  found  a  new  capital 
within  the  frontiers  of  Sweden  herself  (1703),  Charles  XII. 
invaded  Saxony,  and  compelled^Augustus  II.  (in  the  peace 
of  Altranstadt,  1706)  to  recognize  Stanislaus  Lesczinsky 
as  King  of  Poland,  renounce  his  alliance  with  the  Czar, 
and  deliver  up  the  Russian  ambassador  Patkul  (the  insti- 
gator of  the  war),  who  was  broken  on  the  wheel  by  com- 
mand of  the  conqueror. 

(213.)  3.  Russian  war  to  1709.    Reverse  of  fortune. 

All  the  fruits  of  these  brilliant  successes  were 
lost  through  the  obstinacy  and  fool-hardiness  of  Charles. 
Having  received  intelligence  that  the  Czar  had  entered 
Poland  for  the  purpose  of  wueaking  vengeance  on  Stanis- 
laus and  the  Swedish  party  in  that  country,  he  quitted 
Saxony,  and,  advancing  by  forced  marches,  drove  the 
Russians  out  of  the  Polish  territories.  Elated  at  his  suc- 
cess, Charles  now  conceived  the  design  of  dethroning  the 
Czarr  whose  innovations  and  cruelties  had  rendered  him 
odious,  and  J^ad  already  forced  his  way  through  forests 
and  morasses  to  the  banks  of  the  Dnieper,  and  crossed  that 
river,  when  the  Hetinan  of  the  Cossacks,  Mazeppa,  per- 
5* 


106  MODERN   HISTORY.  [214.  §26. 

suaded  him  (instead  of  advancing  at  once  on  Moscow,  after 
effecting  a  junction  with  General  Lowenhaupt)  to  adopt 
a  circuitous  route  through  the  Ukraine  for  the  purpose  of 
joining  his  new  ally.  Although  he  found  the  Cossack 
leader  abandoned  by  his  own  troops,  Charles  obstinately 
persisted  in  advancing,  notwithstanding  the  severity  of  the 
weather,  and  engaging  with  the  miserable  remnant  of  his 
army  (15,000  men)  50.000  Russians  at  Pultawa,  where 
he  was  so  utterly  defeated,  that  he  was  compelled  to  cross 
the  Dnieper  with  a  few  attendants,  and  take  refuge  in  the 
Turkish  city  of  Bender. 

(214.)  4.  Charles  XII.  in  Turkey,  1709—1714. 
The  flight  of  Charles  XII. ,  and  his  five  years'  residence 
in  Turkey,  afforded  the  Poles  and  Danes  an  opportunity 
of  violating  the  conditions  of  peace  which  he  had  com- 
pelled them  to  subscribe.  Augustus  II.  declared  his  ex- 
torted abdication  null  and  void,  and  having  expelled  Stan- 
islaus from  his  dominions,  re-ascended  the  Polish  throne, 
whilst  the  Danes  invaded  the  southern  provinces  of  Swe- 
den, where  they  sustained  two  disgraceful  defeats,  but 
succeeded  in  wresting  Schleswig  from  the  Duke  of  Hoi- 
stein  Grottorp.  Meanwhile  Peter,  availing  himself  of  the 
absence  of  his  enemy,  conquered  the  Swedish  provinces  of 
Livonia,  Esthonia,  and  Finland,  and  at  the  same  time  pro- 
ceeded with  his  plans  for  the  civilization  of  the  Russian 
people.  After  various  negotiations  and  intrigues,  Charles 
at  length  persuaded  the  Sultan  to  declare  war  against 
Russia ;  and  Peter,  who  had  endeavored  to  anticipate  the 
« attack  of  the  Turks,  was  surrounded  by  them  on  the 
banks  of  the  Pruth,  and  only  escaped  through  the  exer- 
tions of  his  wife,  Catherine,  who  bribed  the  Grand  Vizier 
to  grant  a  peace,  by  which  the  Russians  were  excluded 
from  the  Black  Sea.  Charley,  who  still  lingered  at  Ben- 
der in  the  hope  of  persuading  the  Turks  to  renew  hostili- 
ties, was  at  length  required  to  quit  the  Turkish  territory, 
and  on  his  refusal  was  attacked  in  his  fortified  house,  and 
after  an  obstinate  defence  was  compelled  to  yield  himself 
a  prisoner.  In  the  year  1714,  after  a  succession  of  ro- 
mantic adventures,  Charles  returned  to  Sweden. 


215,216.   §26.]         THE    NORTHERN   WAR.  107 

5.  Ivasion  of  Norway  and  death  of  Charles  XII. 

(215.)  Meanwhile  Frederick  William  I. ,  King  of  Prus- 
sia, and  G-eorge  I.,  Elector  of  Hanover  and  King  of  Eng- 
land, had  joined  the  enemies  of  Sweden,  which  now  lost 
the  last  of  her  possessions  in  Germany  (Stralsund  and 
Wismar).  Whilst  Peter  I.  was  kept  in  play  by  Count 
von  Grorz,  who  amused  him  with  the  prospect  of  obtaining 
the  Swedish  Baltic  provinces  by  negotiation,  Charles  took 
advantage  of  the  fresh  courage  with  which  his  arrival  had 
inspired  the  Swedes,  and  prepared  to  invade  Norway,  in 
the  hope  of  recompensing  himself  for  all  his  other  losses 
by  wresting  that  country  from  the  Danes.  The  first  cam- 
paign (17 16)  was  a  failure  in  consequence  of  the  severity 
of  the  weather,  and  in  the  third  Charles  fell  in  the  trenches, 
before  the  fortress  of  Friedrickshall,  probably  by  the  hand 
of  an  assassin,  and  the  victim  of  a  conspiracy  (1718,  in 
his  thirty-sixth  year).  Passing  over  the  nephew  of  the 
late  sovereign,  the  Duke  of  Holstein  Gottorp,  the  conspir- 
ators raised  to  the  throne  his  younger  sister,  Ulrica 
Eleanor  a,  wife  of  the  hereditary  prince  of  Hesse-Cassel, 
who  had  declared  herself  ready  to  renounce  all  claim  to 
the  succession  in  the  female  line,  and  to  recognize  the 
right  of  the  senate  to  enact  laws,  impose  taxes,  and  settle 
questions  of  war  and  peace.  At  a  later  period  (1720)  the 
Queen  resigned  the  reins  of  government  into  the  hands  of 
her  husband,  who  consented  to  make  still  further  conces- 
sions in  order  to  secure  the  recognition  of  his  title  by  the 
estates  of  the  realm. 

(216.)  6.  The  war  was  terminated  by  treaties  con- 
cluded separately  with  the  enemies  of  Sweden.  1. 
Hanover  obtained  Bremen  and  Verden  in  return  for  a 
payment  of  one  million  of  thalers.  2.  Prussia  had  the 
whole  of  Pomerania  between  the  Oder  and  Peene,  with 
Stettin  and  the  islands  of  Usedom  and  Wollin  (for  two 
million  thalers).  3.  Denmark  received  a  portion  of 
Schleswig.  4.  The  Russians,  by  repeated  descents  on  the 
coast  of  Sweden,  compelled  the  Swedes  (in  the  peace  of 
Nystadt,  1721)  to  cede  to  them  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Inger- 
manland,  and  a  part  of  Carelia  (with  the  island  of  Oesel) 
in  return  for  the  restoration  of  Finland.  Thus  Sweden 


108  MODERN   HISTORY.  [217,218. 

lost  her  preponderance  in  the  north  of  Europe,  which  was 
now  assumed  by  Russia.  Stanislaus  Lesczinsky,  who  had 
found  an  asylum  in  France,  was  permitted  to  retain  the 
title  of  King  by  virtue  of  a  convention  between  Sweden 
and  Saxony. 

§  27.    The  Emperor  Charles  VI.     1711—1740. 

1.   War  of  the  Turks  against  Venice  and  Austria 
(17H_1718). 

(217.)  Scarcely  had  the  Turks  concluded  the  Russian 
war  by  the  peaee  of  the  Pruth,  when  they  availed  them- 
selves of  a  paltry  pretext  for  wresting  from  the  Venetians 
the  peninsula  of  the  Morea,  which  had  been  ceded  to  them 
Tby  the  peace  of  Carlo witz.  On  learning  that  the  Emperor 
Charles  VI.  was  preparing  to  assist  the  Venetians,  they 
declared  war  against  him  also,  and  advanced  towards  the 
Danube ;  but  in  spite  of  their  overwhelming  force,  they 
were  utterly  routed  by  Prince  Eugene  near  Peterwar- 
dein  (1716),  with  the  loss  of  their  Grand  Vizier,  camp, 
and  military  chest.  Eugene  then  conquered  the  Banate 
and  a  great  portion  of  Wallachia,  obtained  a  brilliant  vic- 
tory near  Belgrade,  and  made  himself  master  of  that  im- 
portant fortress.  The  Emperor,  whose  Italian  possessions 
were  assailed  by  Spain,  was  now  anxious  to  conclude  a 
peace  with  the  Turks,  the  conditions  of  which  (signed  at 
Passarowitz  in  1718)  were  as  follows:  That  he  should  re- 
tain all  the  territories  wrested  from  the  Turks  during  the 
war  (the  Banate,  Servia,  and  a  portion  of  Wallachia,  Bos- 
nia, and  Croatia),  the  Turks,  on  their  part,  retaining  the 
Morea,  which  Charles  had  fruitlessly  endeavored  to  recover 
tor  Venice. 

2.  The  quadruple  alliance  (1718). 

(218.)  No  arrangement  had  yet  been  effected  between 
the  two  principal  claimants  of  the  Spanish  succession ; 
Charles  VI.  still  refusing  to  recognize  Philip  V.  as  King 
of  Spain,  whilst  on  the  other  hand  the  Spanish  minister, 
Cardinal  Alberoni,  devised  a  plan  for  re-annexing  the 
Italian  provinces  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  and,  availing 


219,220.  §27.]    THE    EMPEROR    CHARLES    VI.  109 

himself  of  the  diversion  caused  by  the  Turkish  war,  took 
possession  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia.  France  and  England 
(with  a  provision  for  the  subsequent  accession  of  Holland 
to  the  treaty)  concluded  with  the  Emperor  a  quadruple 
alliance  for  the  maintenance  of  the  peace  of  Utrecht ;  and 
after  a  short  war  compelled  Philip  (after  the  dismissal  of 
Alberoni)  to  restore  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  and  renounce  all 
claim  to  the  Spanish  provinces  in  Italy,  the  Emperor,  on 
his  part,  consenting  to  recognize  his  title  as  King  of 
Spain.  Savoy  received  Sicily  from  the  Emperor  in  ex- 
change for  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia. 

3.  The  pragmatic  sanction. 
(219.)  In  order  to  prevent  a  war  of  succession  after 
his  decease,  Charles  VI.,  who  had  no  male  issue,  published 
an  edict  (which  was  confirmed  by  the  diet  of  the  empire, 
and  received  the  name  of  the  pragmatic  sanction), 
declaring  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa  sole  heiress  of  all 
the  Austrian  states.  During  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
the  grand  object  of  his  government  was  to  obtain  from 
foreign  powers,  as  well  as  from  his  own  subjects,  the  com- 
plete recognition  of  this  decree. 

4.  War  of  the  Polish  succession  (1733—1738). 
(220.)  After  the  death  of  Augustus  II.  King  of  Po- 
land, a  majority  of  the  Polish  nobles  were  persuaded  by 
Louis  XY.  to  restore  his  father-in-law,  Stanislaus  Lesczin- 
sky,  whilst  at  the  same  time  another  party,  supported  by 
Russia  and  the  Emperor,  chose  Augustus,  Elector  of  Sax- 
ony and  son  of  the  deceased  King.  Stanislaus  having 
been  expelled  by  the  Russians,  Louis  XV.,  and  his  rela- 
tives the  Kings  of  Spain  and  Sardinia,  declared  war 
against  the  Emperor.  Lorraine  (the  Duke  of  which  coun- 
try, Francis  Stephen,  was  a  candidate  for  the  hand  of 
Maria  Theresa),  Austria,  Lombardy,  Naples,  and  Sicily, 
were  occupied  by  the  allies  until  the  year  1738,  when  a 
peace  was  at  last  concluded  at  Vienna,  after  a  long  period 
spent  in  negotiation.  Stanislaus  renounced  his  claim  to 
the  crown  of  Poland,  receiving  as  an  indemnification  for 
this  sacrifice  the  dukedoms  of  Lorraine  and  Bar,  with  an 
understanding  that  after  his  death  they  would  revert  to 


110  MODERN   HISTORY.  [221.    §27. 

France  as  the  hereditary  possessions  of  his  daughter. 
Francis  Stephen,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  obtained  the  grand 
duchy  of  Tuscany,  at  that  time  vacant  by  the  extinction 
of  the  house  of  Medici  (1737),  and  the  crown  of  the  two 
Sicilies  was  bestowed  on  the  Spanish  Infant  Don  Carlos, 
who  relinquished  to  the  Emperor  the  duchies  of  Parma 
and  Piacenza. 

5.  War    of  the    Turks    against   Russia   and 
Austria  (1736—1739). 

(221.)  Availing  herself  of  the  opportunity  afforded 
by  the  breaking  out  of  a  war  between  the  Turks  and  Per- 
sians, the  Empress  Anne  took  possession  of  Azov,  which 
had  been  ceded  to  the  Turks  by  Peter  the  Great  at  the 
peace  of  the  Pruth. 


222.  $  27.]     THE  EMPEROR  CHARLES  VI. 


Ill 


tony 


, 

An 


112  MODERN   HISTORY.          [223 226.   §28. 

(223.)  Her  ally,  the  Emperor  Charles,  was  less  for- 
tunate,,his  armies  (which  since  the  death  of  Prince  Eu- 
gene [f!736]  had  been  commanded  by  incapable  generals) 
being  defeated  in  three  several  engagements  by  the  Turks, 
who  recovered  (at  the  peace  of  Belgrade,  1739)  most 
of  the  territory  which  had  been  wrested  from  them  in  for- 
mer wars  (the  Austrian  portion  of  Servia  and  Wallachia, 
with  Belgrade).  The  Empress  Anne  was  also  compelled 
to  relinquish  all  her  conquests,  and  content  herself  with 
the  recognition  of  her  title  by  the  Sublime  Porte. 

§  28.  Prussia  under  her  first  two  Kings,  1701 — 1740. 

(224.)  1.  Frederick!.,  1701— 1713.  For  his  elevation 
to  the  rank  of  King,  see  page  89 ;  for  the  part  taken  by 
him  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  see  page  100. 
By  the  death  without  issue  of  William  III.,  King  of  Eng- 
land, Frederick,  as  grandson  of  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
Frederick  Henry,  became  possessed  of  the  countries  of 
Lingen  and  Meurs,  and  after  the  extinction  of  the  house 
of  Orleans,  LoYigueville  was  recognized  by  the  estates  of 
the  principalities  of  Neuenburg  and  Valendis  (Neufchatel 
and  Valengin)  as  rightful  heir  of  the  house  of  Nassau- 
Chalons-Orange  (1707). 

(225.)  2.  Frederick  William  I,  1713—1740.  This 
prince,  who  was  frugal,  moderate  in  his  desires,  and  strict 
even  to  severity,  entirely  banished  from  his  court  the  lux- 
ury which  had  reigned  there  during  the  lifetime  of  his 
father,  the  only  expensive  amusement  in  which  he  indulged 
being  the  collection  from  different  countries  of  a  regiment 
of  giants. 

(226.)  Frederick  William  amassed  a  considerable 
treasure  (more  than  eight  millions  of  thalers),  established 
a  new  system  of  finance  and  justice,  and  at  his  death  left 
to  his  successor  a  well  disciplined  army  of  72.000  men. 
The  population  was  increased  by  the  protection  afforded 
to  foreign  settlers,  new  cities  were  built,  and  those  which 
already  existed,  especially  Berlin  and  Potsdam,  were  en- 
larged and  beautified.  At  the  peace  of  Utrecht  he  re- 
ceived Upper  Gruelderland  as  an  indemnification  for  his 
resignation  of  the  principality  of  Orange,  and  at  the  peace 
of  Stockholm  (at  the  close  of  the  northern  war,  in  which 


227,  228.  §  29.]  WAR  OF  AUSTRIAN  SUCCESSION.  113 

he  took  part  w.ith  the  enemies  of  Sweden),  Pomerania,  as 
far  as  the  Peene,  with  Stettin  and  the  islands  of  Usedom 
and  Wollin.  For  many  years  he  lived  on  bad  terms  with 
his  son  Frederick,  whose  early  passion  for  music  and  po- 
etry so  disgusted  his  father,  that  he  threatened  to  exclude 
him  from  the  succession.  A  plan  laid  by  Frederick  (dur- 
ing a  royal  progress,  in  which  he  accompanied  his  father) 
for  escaping  from  Wesel  to  England,  having  been  betrayed 
by  his  enemies,  the  unfortunate  Prince  was  placed  under 
close  arrest  at  Klistrin,  his  accomplice  Katte  executed 
before  his  face,  and  himself  only  rescued  from  a  disgrace- 
ful death  by  the  intercession  of  some  of  the  most  distin- 
guished officers  and  the  remonstrances  of  several  foreign 
courts.  Soon  afterwards,  however,  he  was  reconciled  to 
his  father  in  consequence  of  his  marriage  with  the  Prin- 
cess of  Brunswick-Bevern  (Elizabeth  Christina),  and  re- 
ceived from  him  the  county  of  Ruppin  and  the  little  town 
of  Rheinsberg,  where  he  resided  in  the  midst  of  a  circle 
of  scientific  and  learned  men  until  his  accession  in  1740. 
His  favorite  associate  (for  a  time)  was  the  philosopher 
Voltaire,  under  whose  direction  he  cultivated  French  lit- 
erature with  considerable  success. 

§  29.  War  of  tJie  Austrian  succession,  1740 — 1748,  and 
the  two  first  Silesian  wars,  1740 — 1745. 

(227.)  On  the  accession  of  Maria  Theresa  (1740— 
1780)  to  the  thrones  of  Austria,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia, 
the  Electors,  Charles  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  and  Augus- 
tus III.  of  Saxony  (who  claimed  the  Austrian  crown  as 
sons-in-law  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  I.),  were  supported 
by  France  and  Spain,  notwithstanding  the  pragmatic 
sanction. 

(228.)  Frederick  II.  (the  Great)  availed  himself  of 
this  opportunity  for  reviving  the  ancient  claims  of  Bran- 
denburg to  the  Silesian  duchies  of  Brieg,  Liegnitz, 
and  Wohlau  (which  had  belonged  to  her,  by  virtue 
of  a  compact,  since  the  extinction  of  the  Piast  line 
in  1675,  but  had  been  taken  possession  of  by  the  Em- 
peror), and  to  the  principality  of  Jagerndorf  (which 
had  belonged  to  the  Margrave  of  Anspach,  and  been 


114  MODERN   HISTORY.  [230.    $29. 

seized  by  Austria  in  1623).    The  refusal  of  Maria  Theresa 
to  recognize  these  claims,  occasioned 

The  first  Silesian  war,   1740—1742. 

(229.)  This  war  began  with  the  rapid  conquest  of  Sile- 
sia and  a  victory  gained  by  the  Prussian  troops  near 
Molwitz  (at  Brieg,  April  10,  1741),  through  the  skill 
and  valor  of  Field-marshal  Schwerin,  who  continued  the 
engagement  after  Frederick  had  abandoned  all  hope  of 
success.  In  the  following  year  Frederick  overran  Mora- 
via and  Bohemia,  gained  a  second  victory  at  Czaslau,  and 
obtained  (at  the  peace  of  Breslau)  almost  the  whole 
of  Silesia  (except  Teschen,  Troppau,  and  Jagerndorf), 
with  the  fortress  of  Grlatz.  By  these  concessions  the 
Empress  separated  Frederick  from  her  other  enemies. 
Meanwhile  Charles  Albert,  supported  by  a  French  army, 
had  entered  Austria,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
Archduke  of  that  country  at  Linz,  and  crowned  King  of 
Bohemia  at  Prague,  and  Emperor  (Charles  VII.)  at 
Frankfort  (1742—1745).  The  Saxons  had  entered  Bo- 
hemia and  taken  possession  of  Prague ;  but  Maria  Theresa, 
who  had  received  supplies  of  monev  from  England  and 
Holland,  so  inspirited  the  Hungarians  by  appearing  in 
person  at  the  diet  of  Presburg,  that  they  equipped  two 
armies  simultaneously,  and  recovered  possession  of  Bo- 
hemia and  Upper  Austria.  Charles,  VII.  was  driven  out 
of  Bavaria  by  the  Austrians,  and  Maria  Theresa  pro- 
claimed at  Munich,  whilst  at  the  same  time  Charles's 
allies,  the  French,  were  defeated  by  the  so-called  pragmatic 
army  (composed  of  English,  Hanoverians,  and  Hessians, 
and  commanded  by  George  II.  King  of  England)  at 
Dettengen  on  the  Main.  These  events  produced  a  fresh 
alliance  between  France,  the  Emperor  Charles,  and 
Frederick  II.,  the  last  joining  the  confederacy  because 
he  dreaded  the  success  of  the  Austrian  arms,  and 
commencing 

The   second   Silesian  war,    1744,    1745, 

(230)  with  the  invasion  of  Bohemia  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  80,000  men,  whom  he  called  "  imperial  auxilia- 


231.    $30.]  THE    THIRD    SILESIAN    WAR.  115 

ries,"  whilst  at  the  same  time  the  imperialists  regained 
possession  of  Bavaria.  On  the  death  of  Charles  VII., 
soon  after  his  return  (which  was  accomplished  by  the  aid 
of  his  French  allies),  his  son  Maximilian  Joseph  re- 
nounced all  claim  to  the  Austrian  succession  (at  the 
peace  of  Fiissen  in  1745),  and  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany (husband  of  Maria  Theresa)  ascended  the  imperial 
throne  as  Francis  I.,  1745 — 1765.  England  was  com- 
pelled to  withdraw  her  troops  from  the  continent  to  op- 
pose the  advance  of  the  Pretender,  who  had  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Scotland,  and  overrun  the  greater  part  of  that 
country.  Meanwhile,  however,  Austria  had  found  a  new 
ally  in  Saxony  ;  and  the  Austrian  general,  Prince  Charles 
of  Lorraine,  had  not  only  driven  the  Prussians  out  of 
Bohemia,  but  even  advanced  into  Upper  Silesia,  where  he 
was  defeated  (1745)  near  Hohenfriedberg  by  Frederick, 
who  followed  him  into  Bohemia,  and  a  second  time  over- 
threw him  at  Sorr.  A  plan  for  invading  the  King's  ter- 
ritories in  conjunction  with  the  Saxons  was  also  rendered 
abortive  by  a  victory  gained  by  the  veteran  Dessau  near 
Kesselsdorf ;  and  the  peace  of  Dresden  confirmed 
Frederick  in  the  possession  of  Silesia  and  Grlatz.  Mean- 
while the  French,  under  the  command  of  Marshal  Saxe,  a 
natural  son  of  Augustus  II.,  King  of  Poland,  had  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  whole  of  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands, except  Luxembourg,  Limburg,  and  Greldern.  The 
French  and  Spanish  armies  also  prosecuted  the  war  in 
Italy,  but  without  any  permanent  results.  In  the  year 
1748,  a  Russian  army  of  30.000  men  was  despatched  to 
the  Rhine  by  the  Empress  Elizabeth,  and  soon  afterwards 
peace  was  concluded  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  French 
relinquishing  all  their  conquests  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  Austria  ceding  Parma  and  Piacenza  to  the  Spanish 
Infant,  Don  Philip. 

§  30.   The  third  Silesian  or  seven  years1  war. 

(231.)  After  the  peace  of  Dresden,  Maria  Theresa,  by 
advice  of  her  minister  Count  Kaunitz,  employed  all  the 
arts  of  diplomacy  for  the  purpose  of  embroiling  the  King 
of  Prussia  with  the  other  European  courts.  During  the 


116  MODERN   HISTORY.  [232, 233.    §  30. 

war,  she  had  represented  to  the  Empress  of  Eussia  the 
danger  to  be  apprehended  even  by  first-rate  powers  from 
the  ambitious  character  of  Frederick,  and  his  intimate 
connection  with  France;  and  in  the  year  1746  a  secret 
treaty  was  concluded  between  the  two  Empresses,  who 
pledged  themselves,  supposing  Frederick  to  violate  the 
conditions  settled  at  the  peace  of  Dresden,  to  strain  every 
nerve  for  the  re-conquest  of  Silesia  and  the  abasement  of 
Prussia.  The  Saxon  court,  where  Count  Briihl,  the  per- 
sonal enemy  of  Frederick,  ruled  with  absolute  authority, 
seems  to  have  been  also  a  party  to  this  treaty.  Mean- 
while, a  dispute  respecting  the  boundaries  of  their  re- 
spective possessions  in  America  had  occasioned  a  war  be- 
tween England  and  France ;  and  the  former  country, 
anxious  to  secure  her  German  territories  (Hanover) 
against  invasion,  had  concluded  an  alliance  with  Frede- 
rick of  Prussia.  On  the  other  hand,  France  allied  herself 
with  Austria,  in  the  hope  of  securing  the  neutrality  of 
that  power  during  the  maritime  war  between  herself 
and  England. 

The    year    1756. 

(232.)  Frederick,  who  was  well  aware  of  the  machina- 
tions of  his  enemies,  and  the  preparations  which  they  were 
making  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  anticipated  their  move- 
ments by  suddenly  entering  Saxony  at  the  head  of 
60,000  men,  laying  siege  to  Dresden,  and  blockading  a 
hastily-levied  Saxon  army  of  17,000  men  in  their  fortified 
camp  between  Pirna  and  Konigstein.  On  the  advance  of 
an  Austrian  army  (under  Brown)  to  the  assistance  of  the 
Saxons,  Frederick  divided  his  forces,  and  with  only  half 
his  army  defeated  the  enemy  near  Lowositz  (Oct.  1). 
After  this  victory  he  returned  into  Saxony,  where  he 
passed  the  winter,  after  compelling  the  Saxon  soldiers, 
who  were  blockaded  at  Pirna,  to  surrender  as  prisoners 
of  war. 

The    year    1757. 

(233.)  The  invasion  of  Saxony  by  Frederick  com- 
pelled the  French,  however  unwillingly,  as  parties  to  the 


233.    $30.]  THE   THIRD    SILESTAN   WAR.  117 

peace  of  Westphalia,  to  conclude  an  alliance,  offensive  and 
defensive,  against  Prussia,  with  Austria,  Russia,  and  the 
German  empire.  To  this  treaty  Sweden  also  became  a 
party,  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  possession  of  Prussian 
Pomerania.  Leaving  to  his  by  no  means  numerous  al- 
lies (England,  Hesse-Cassel,  Brunswick,  and  Gotha)  the 
duty  of  keeping  the  French  at  bay,  Frederick,  after  send- 
ing a  detachment  to  meet  the  Russians  and  Swedes,  ad- 
vanced at  the  head  of  his  grand  army  against  his  bitter 
enemies  the  Ajustrians,  who  prosecuted  the  war  with  more 
rancorous  pertinacity  than  the  other  powers,  to  most  of 
whom,  especially  the  Protestant  Princes,  the  aggrandize- 
ment of  Austria  was  by  no  means  a  desirable  event ;  nor 
was  a  very  determined  opposition  to  be  expected  from  the 
King  of  Sweden,  who  was  Frederick's  own  brother-in-law. 
His  enemies  brought  altogether  431,000  men  into  the 
field,  the  Prussians  and  their  allies  200,000.  All  the 
troops  quartered  in  Saxony  advanced  into  Bohemia  in 
four  divisions,  and,  uniting  before  Prague,  defeated  the 
Austrian  generals,  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine  and  Brown, 
in  the  famous  battle  of  Prague  (May  6),  where  Field- 
marshal  Schwerin  lost  his  life  after  rallying  the  wavering 
Prussians  for  a  final  charge.  The  greater  part  of  the  de- 
feated army  took  refuge  in  Prague,  where  they  were  be- 
sieged by  the  Prussian  army ;  but  on  the  advance  of  Field- 
marshal  Daun  to  the  relief  of  the  city,  Frederick  attacked 
him  in  his  strongly-fortified  position  at  Kollin  (June 
18),  and  was  for  the  first  time  defeated.  This  check, 
which  compelled  him  to  raise  the  siege  and  retire  into 
Saxony,  encouraged  the  hitherto  inactive  allies  of  Austria 
to  attempt  a  decisive  stroke.  The  French  (100,000  men), 
who  had  already  taken  possession  of  the  Prussian  terri- 
tories on  the  Rhine,  now  advanced  as  far  as  the  Weser 
(under  the  command  of  Marshal  d'Estrees),  and  defeated 
the  allies  of  Frederick  (40,000  men,  under  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland)  at  Hastenbeck,  in  the  territory  of 
Hameln  (July  26) ;  but  instead  of  availing  themselves 
fully  of  the  advantage  thus  gained,  they  were  satisfied 
with  levying  contributions  in  Hanover.  The  Russians 
(104,000  men),  under  Apraxin,  marched  into  Eastern 
Prussia,  and  defeated  Field-marshal  Lehwald  near  Gross- 


118  MODERN   HISTORY.  [234.    §30. 

jagerndorf  (August  30),  but  were  unexpectedly  recalled. 
On  receiving  intelligence  that  the  imperial  army  (under 
the  Prince  of  Hildburghausen),  and  (at  the  earnest  so- 
licitation of  Austria)  a  second  French  army  (under  Sou- 
bise,  a  favorite  of  Madame  de  Pompadour)  were  advancing 
to  the  relief  of  Saxony,  Frederick,  leaving  the  Duke  of 
Bevern  with  43,000  men  in  Lusace,  advanced  with 
22,000  men  to  meet  the  combined  imperial  and  French 
troops  (64,000  strong),  and  completely  routed  the  ill- 
assorted  and  badly-officered  masses  at  Rossbach,  on 
the  Saale  (5th  November)).  For  this  victory  Frederick 
was  mainly  indebted  to  a  desperate  charge  made  by 
Seidlitz  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry.  Having  thus  secured 
Saxony,  the  King  advanced  by  forced  marches  into  Si- 
lesia, in  order  to  effect  a  junction  with  the  Duke  of 
Bevern,  who  had  retreated  into  that  country.  To  pre- 
vent this,  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine  attacked  the  Duke 
near  Breslau  (22nd  November),  and  routed  his  army. 
The  Duke  himself  was  taken  prisoner,  and  soon  after- 
wards the  fortresses  of  Schweidnitz  and  Breslau  surren- 
dered to  the  conqueror.  Frederick,  who  was  resolved  to 
relieve  Silesia  at  all  hazards,  now  collected  an  army  of 
33,000  men,1  composed  of  the  remnant  of  Severn's  army, 
and  his  own  heroes  of  Rossbach,  to  whom  he  addressed  a 
spirited  harangue.  With  this  force  he  defeated,  near 
Leu  then,  5th  December  (after  an  engagement  which 
lasted  only  three  hours),  the  Austrian  army,  80.000 
strong,  under  Charles  of  Lorraine  and  General  Daun, 
and  regained  possession  of  Silesia.  During  the  winter, 
several  unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  by  the  King 
to  negotiate  a  peace.  The  campaign  of  1758  was  carried 
on  in  the  east  by  the  King  in  person,  against  the  Aus- 
trians  and  Russians  (whose  union  he  effectually  pre- 
vented), and  in  the  west  by  his  allies,  under  Duke  Ferdi- 
nand of  Brunswick,  against  the  French.  The  latter 
general  opened  the  campaign  by  driving  back  the  French 
from  the  Elbe  to  the  Rhine,  and  defeating  them  near 
Cref eld  (23rd  June). 

(234.)    This  disaster,  as  well  as  all  the  other  failures 

1  Called  by  the  Austrians,  in  derision,  "the  Potsdam  parade." 


235.  §  30.  WAR    OF    AUSTRIAN    SUCCESSION.  119 

of  the  French,  may  be  attributed  partly  to  the  incapacity 
and  petty  jealousies  of  their  generals ;  and  partly  to  the 
policy  of  Louis  XV.,  who  was  unwilling  either  that  the 
power  of  Austria  should  be  increased,  or  Prussia  be  too 
much  weakened.  Meanwhile  Sehweidnitz,  the  last  Silesian 
fortress  in  the  occupation  of  the  Austrians,  had  surrendered 
to  Frederick,  who  now  marched  into  Moravia,  for  the 
purpose  of  withdrawing  the  Austrians  as  far  as  possible 
from  the  Russians ;  but  an  irruption  of  the  Russians  into 
Pomerania  compelled  him  to  return  to  Silesia.  On  the 
25th  August,  he  attacked  a  superior  Russian  force  (at 
Zorndorf,  near  Kustrin),  which  had  set  fire  to  the  city 
of  Kiistrin,  and  defeated  them,  after  a  hard-fought  and 
bloody  engagement,  in  which  his  own  loss  was  very  con- 
siderable. For  this  victory,  also,  Frederick  was  mainly 
indebted  to  General  Seidlitz.  On  his  march  to  relieve 
his  brother  Henry,  who  was  closely  pressed  by  General 
Daun,  in  Saxony,  Frederick  was  surrounded,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  night  (in  an  unfavorable  position  near  Hoch- 
kirch),  by  a  superior  Austrian  force,  and  compelled 
to  retreat,  after  sustaining  a  heavy  loss.  But  this 
disaster  produced  no  further  results,  for  Frederick 
soon  afterwards  turned  Daun's  position;  and,  after  ex- 
pelling the  enemy  first  from  Silesia,  and  then  from 
Saxony,  had,  before  the  end  of  the  year,  recovered  all  his 
possessions  except  Prussia,  which  was  still  occupied  by 
the  Russians. 

(235.)  The  year  1759  was  the  most  disastrous  in 
the  whole  war  for  Frederick.  His  resources  were  gradu- 
ally becoming  exhausted,  for  it  was  impossible  that  raw 
recruits,  or  soldiers  collected  in  haste  from  different 
parts  of  his  dominions,  could  supply  the  places  of  the 
veterans  who  had  fallen  in  the  war ;  and  this  difficulty 
was  increased  by  the  necessity  of  distributing  his  forces 
over  a  great  extent  of  ground.  Under  these  unfavorable 
circumstances,  the  King  was  obliged  to  confine  himself  to 
a  defensive  war.  An  attempt  was  again  made  to  prevent 
the  union  of  the  Russians  and  Austrians ;  but  the  Rus- 
sian army  under  Soltikow,  consisting  of  70,000  men, 
advanced  to  the  Oder,  and  defeated  (at  Kay,  near  Ziilli- 
chau),  General  Weddell,  who  had  been  nominated  dictator, 


120  MODERN   HISTORY.  [236.    $30. 

and  then  effected  a  junction  with  the  Austrians  under 
Laudon.  On  the  12th  of  August,  Frederick  attacked  the 
Russians  at  Kunersdorf,  near  Frankfort  on  the  Oder, 
and  had  already  gained  a  considerable  advantage,  which 
he  persisted  in  following  up,  notwithstanding  the  weari- 
ness and  reluctance  of  his  soldiers,  when  Laudon,  who 
had  hitherto  remained  inactive,  suddenly  charged  the  ex- 
hausted Prussians,  and  changed  the  fortune  of  the  day. 
Eighteen  thousand  Prussians,  among  whom  was  Ewald 
von  Kleist,  the  poet  of  the  "  Spring,"  were  left  dead  on 
the  field.  Had  the  conqueror  listened  to  the  advice  of 
Laudon,  and  marched  at  once  to  Berlin,  the  ruin  of  Prus- 
sia would  have  been  accomplished ;  but  it  seems  probable 
that  he  had  received  secret  instructions  which  prevented 
his  adopting  this  course.  The  prosecution  of  the  war 
was  also  retarded  by  disputes  between  Soltikow  on  the 
one  side,  and  Laudon  and  Daun  on  the  other  ;  and  at  last 
the  removal  of  the  Russians  into  winter  quarters  beyond 
the  Vistula  and  the  Warth,  relieved  Frederick  from  all 
apprehension  of  an  attack  on  his  eastern  frontier.  In 
Saxony,  however,  all  the  fortresses,  including  Dresden 
itself,  were  surrendered  to  General  Daun  ;  and  Fink,  who 
had  endeavored  to  intercept  the  passes,  and  cut  off  Daun's 
army  from  Bohemia,  was  himself  blockaded  near  Maxen, 
by  an  overwhelming  body  of  Austrians,  and  compelled  to 
surrender  himself  a  prisoner  with  13,000  men.  The  al- 
lies of  Frederick,  under  the  command  of  Duke  Ferdinand 
of  Brunswick,  were  also  unfortunate  at  the  commencement 
of  the  campaign,  having  been  defeated  by  the  French  at 
Bergen,  near  Frankfort  on  the  Main.  But  this  disgrace 
was  afterwards  (August  1)  obliterated  by  the  brilliant  vic- 
tory of  Mind  en. 

(236.)  The  commencement  of  the  year  1760 
was  also  disastrous  for  Frederick.  The  Russians,  it  is 
true,  although  Austria  had  promised  them  East  Prussia 
as  an  indemnification  for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  were  in- 
clined to  relax  in  their  exertions  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand. 
General  Foque,  whom  the  King  had  stationed  at  Land- 
shut  with  9000  men,  for  the  defence  of  Silesia,  was  at- 
tacked at  three  several  points  by  a  French  army  three 
times  as  numerous  as  his  own,  and,  after  an  obstinate  re- 


237,238.  §  30.J  WAR  OP  AUSTRIAN  SUCCESSION.  121 

sistance,  was  taken  prisoner,  with  half  his  troops.  The 
King,  after  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  reduce  Dresden,  and 
the  surrender  of  the  fortress  of  Grlatz  to  the  Austrians, 
marched  into  Silesia,  and  encamped,  with  30,000  men,  at 
Liegnitz,  on  the  Katzbach.  The  advance  of  the  Rus- 
sian army,  and  the  scarcity  of  provisions,  having  com- 
pelled him  secretly  to  shift  his  quarters,  he  engaged  and 
defeated  Laudon's  army  on  the  heights  of  Pfaffendorf 
(15th  August),  and  by  the  promptitude  with  which  he  fol- 
lowed up  this  advantage,  was  enabled  again  to  prevent  the 
junction  of  the  Austrians  and  Russians  (who  had  been 
plundering  Dresden  for  several  days),  and  thus  to  rescue 
Silesia.  After  a  victory  (for  which  he  was  in  a  great 
measure  indebted  to  General  Ziethen)  over  the  second 
Austrian  army,  commanded  by  General  Daun,  at  T organ, 
on  the  3d  November,  Frederick  regained  possession  of 
the  whole  of  Saxony,  except  Dresden,  and  compelled  the 
Russians  to  retire  into  winter  quarters  in  Poland.  In 
the  west,  the  war  was  prosecuted  without  any  important 
results,  and  merely,  as  it  would  seem,  for  the  sake  of 
appearances. 

(237.)  The  hopes  of  peace,  which  were  entertained  at 
the  commencement  of  the  year  1761,  were  destroyed  by 
the  rejection,  on  the  part  of  Austria,  of  the  proposals  of 
Prussia  and  England,  and  the  conclusion  of  her  long- 
desired  alliance  with  Russia  for  the  re-conquest  of  Silesia ; 
but  the  disagreement  of  their  generals  (Bulturlin  and 
Laudon),  having  prevented  a  combined  attack  on  Freder- 
ick's strongly-intrenched  position  at  Bunzelwitz  (near 
Schweidnitz),  the  two  armies  soon  separated.  Scarcely,  how- 
ever, had  the  King  escaped  this  danger,  when  the  loss  of 
the  fortresses  of  Schweidnitz  and  Kolberg  (the  former  to 
Laudon,  the  latter  to  the  Russians),  deprived  him  of  the 
half  of  Silesia  and  Pomerania.  In  the  west,  the  French 
appeared  in  imposing  force,  but  no  battle  was  fought,  nor 
any  important  undertaking  attempted. 

The  years   1762  and  1763. 

(238.)  Frederick,  who  had  been  deserted  even  by 
England,  was  unexpectedly  extricated  from  his  difficulties 


122  MODERN    HISTORY.  [239.    $31. 

by  the  death  of  the  Empress  Elizabeth  (5th  January) 
and  the  accession  of  his  enthusiastic  admirer.  Peter  II., 
who  not  only  concluded  a  peace  with  Prussia,  but  even 
commanded  the  Russian  corps,  which  had  hitherto  acted 
with  the  Austrians,  to  join  the  Prussian  army  in  Silesia. 
After  reigning  six  months,  the  Emperor  was  assassinated, 
and  his  successor,  Catherine  II.,  immediately  recalled  the 
army  of  Silesia ;  but  not  until  Frederick  had  availed  him- 
self of  its  presence  at  the  battle  of  Burkersdorf,  near 
Reichenbach  (2 1  st  July),  where  Daun  was  defeated.  After 
the  re-taking  of  Schweidnitz  by  Frederick,  the  defeat  of 
the  imperial  troops,  near  Freiberg, by  his  brother  Henry 
(assisted  by  General  Seidlitz),  and  the  surrender  of  Cassel 
to  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  peace  was  concluded  at  Hu- 
bertsburg,  a  Saxon  hunting  seat,  on  the  15th  February, 
1763,  between  Prussia,  Austria,  and  Saxony,  each  party 
being  replaced  in  the  position  which  it  had  occupied  before 
the  war ;  and  the  rank  of  Prussia  being  established  as  one 
of  the  five  great  European  powers. 

§  31.     The  Emperor  Joseph  II,  1765—1790.     Frederick 
the  Great  after  tlie  seven  years'  war. 

(239.)  1.  The  first  partition  of  Poland,  1772. 
After  the  death  of  Augustus  III.  (1763),  the  Empress 
Catherine  II.,  supported  by  Frederick  of  Prussia,  pre- 
vailed on  the  Poles  to  elect,  as  their  King,  her  favorite, 
Count  Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  and  to  grant  to  the  co- 
religionists of  the  two  monarchs  (Protestants  and  mem- 
bers of  the  Greek  Church)  equal  rights  with  the  members 
of  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  immediate  effect  of  these 
concessions  was  a  terrible  civil  war  between  a  confedera- 
tion of  malcontents  assembled  at  Bar,  in  Podolia,  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  new  King  (who  was  supported  by  Rus- 
sia) on  the  other.  Soon  after  the  occurrence  of  these 
events,  a  war  broke  out  between  the  Russians  and  Turks, 
in  which  the  former  greatly  distinguished  themselves, 
both  by  sea  and  land,  and  obtained  several  important 
advantages  (independence  of  the  Crimea,  free  navigation 
of  the  Turkish  seas,  cession  of  Azov,  &c.).  This  fresh 
aggrandizement  of  a  power  already  sufficiently  formidable, 


240 242.   §31.]    THE    EMPEROR    JOSEPH    IT.  123 

having  awakened  the  jealousy  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  tne 
former  sent  an  army  into  Poland  (which  was  completely 
governed  by  Russian  influence),  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
deeming the  province  of  Zips,  which  had  been  pledged  by 
Hungary  to  Poland  in  1402;  an  example  which  was  soon 
followed  by  Prussia,  under  pretence  of  establishing  a  san-] 
itary  cordon  against  the  plague.  In  order,  however,  to ; 
preserve  the  balance  of  .power,  it  was  at  last  agreed  that 
Poland  should  be  divided  between  Russia,  Prussia,  and 
Austria. 

(240.)  In  this  first  partition  of  Poland  (5th 
August,  1772),  Austria,  in  addition  to  the  province  of 
Zips,  received  Galicia  and  Lodomiria;  Russia,  the  eastern 
part  of  Lithuania  (as  far  as  the  Diina  and  the  Dnieper), 
and  Prussia  recovered  West  Prussia  (with  the  exception 
of  Dantzic  and  Thorn),  which  had  been  ceded  to  Poland 
at  the  peace  of  Thorn  in  1466.  The  King  and  diet  were 
thus  compelled  formally  to  relinquish  their  right  to  a 
third  of  the  kingdom. 

(241.)  2.  Disputed  succession  in  Bavaria, 
1778,  1779.  After  the  death  (30th  December,  1777,)  of 
Maximilian  Joseph,  the  last  Elector  of  Bavaria,  of  the 
younger  line  of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach,  Charles  Theo- 
dore, Elector  Palatine,  as  head  of  the  elder  line,  took  pos- 
session of  the  Bavarian  dominions,  in  virtue  of  his  feudal 
right,  and  of  certain  family  arrangements.  To  a  portion 
of  this  territory  Austria  had  long  ago  advanced  a  claim, 
which  the  Emperor  Joseph  now  persuaded  the  Elector  to 
recognize ;  but  to  this  convention  the  Duke  of  Zweibriicken 
(heir  presumptive  to  the  Bavarian  electorate),  acting  on 
the  advice  of  Frederick  II.,  refused  to  become  a  party. 
The  invasion  of  Bohemia  by  Prussian  troops,  and  the 
threats  of  the  Empress  of  Russia  to  support  Frederick, 
induced  the  Emperor,  at  the  peace  of  Teschen  (in  Aus- 
trian Silesia),  in  1779,  to  withdraw  his  claims  on  Bavaria, 
retaining  only  the  "  the  quarter  of  the  Inn,"  i.  e.  the  coun- 
try between  the  Inn,  the  Danube,  and  the  Salza,  by  the 
annexation  of  which  Austria  obtained  an  uninterrupted 
communication  with  the  Tyrol. 

(242.)  3.  Joseph  II.  sole  Emperor,  1780—1790. 
The  Empress  Maria  Theresa,  whose  character  was  a  happy 


124  MODERN   HISTORY.  [242.    §31. 

union  of  mildness  and  dignity,  had  shared  her  throne,  first 
with  her  husband,  and  subsequently  with  her  son,  Joseph 
II.,  but  the  reins  of  government  had  virtually  remained 
altogether  in  her  own  hands.  To  this  sovereign  Austria 
was  indebted  for  the  simplification  of  her  legal  code,  the 
regulation  of  her  financial  system,  the  abolition  of  torture, 
and  a  considerable  improvement  in  the  social  condition  of 
the  serf.  By  the  courage  and  perseverance  of  Maria  The- 
resa, she  was  also  enabled  to  maintain  her  position  among 
the  European  powers,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  her 
enemies,  who,  at  the  commencement  of  this  reign,  were  ex- 
ceedingly numerous.  It  was  only  after  his  mother's  death 
that  Joseph  II.,  who,  like  Peter  III.,  was  an  enthusiastic 
admirer  of  Frederick  of  Prussia,  was  enabled  to  bring  for- 
ward his  daring  projects  of  reform.  His  understanding, 
naturally  acute,  had  been  improved  by  study  and  extensive 
foreign  travel,  which  had  given  him  an  elevated  opinion  of 
the  dignity  of  human  nature ;  but  the  unreflecting  eager- 
ness with  which  he  sought  to  carry  out  his  plans  for  the 
improvement  of  his  own  dominions,  in  most  instances,  in- 
sured their  failure.  For  example,  his  attempt  to  intro- 
duce, without  any  previous  preparation,  the  same  form  of 
constitution  and  administration  into  every  province  from 
Belgium  to  Transylvania,  occasioned  excessive  discontent 
among  the  people,  whose  local  privileges  were  thus  rudely 
violated ;  and  his  toleration  of  every  religious  sect,  and 
the  admission  of  the  Jews  to  the  Enjoyment  of  political 
rights,  produced  disturbances  in  various  quarters  ;  whilst 
the  suppression  of  several  monasteries,  and  other  sweep- 
ing ecclesiastical  reforms,  involved  him  in  a  quarrel  with 
Pope  Pius  VI.  The  personal  remonstrances  of  this  pon- 
tiff, during  a  visit  which  he  made  to  the  Emperor  at 
Vienna,  in  the  .  hope  of  persuading  him  to  abandon  his 
project,  were  treated  with  the  most  mortifying  contempt, 
although,- after  his  departure,  the  plan  was  considerably 
modified.  In  order  to  carry  into  effect  his  favorite  scheme 
of  annexing  Bavaria  to  the  empire,  he  proposed  (by  ad- 
vice of  his  minister  Kaunitz),  to  the  Elector,  Charles 
Theodore,  an  exchange  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands  for 
that  country,  promising,  at  the  same  time,  to  confer  on 
the  Elector  the  title  of  King  of  Burgundy.  This  pro- 


243.    $31.]       ADMINISTRATION    OF    FREDERICK    II.  125 

posal,  which  was  readily  embraced  by  Charles  Theodore, 
was  rejected  by  his  heir  presumptive,  the  Duke  of  Zwei- 
brucken,  who  immediately  applied  for  assistance  to  Fred- 
erick II.  A  confederation  was  then  formed  (in  1785), 
under  the  auspices  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  consisting  of 
the  three  Electors  of  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  and  Han- 
over, for  the  conservation  of  the  actual  territorial  condi- 
tion of  the  German  empire.  This  confederation,  which 
was  called  the  League  of  the  G-erman  princes,  was 
afterwards  augmented  by  the  accession  of  other  princes  of 
the  empire. 

(243.)  4.  The  administration  and  death  of 
Frederick  II.  The  commanding  abilities  of  Frederick 
were  displayed  no  less  in  the  maintenance  of  peace  for 
twenty-three  years,  than  in  his  previous  long  and  success- 
ful wars.  Believing,  as  he  did,  that  the  most  effectual 
mode  of  securing  to  Prussia  the  uninterrupted  enjoyment 
of  the  rank  which  she  had  so  recently  assumed  among  the 
nations  of  Europe,  was  to  render  her  formidable  to  her 
enemies,  his  first  care  was  to  keep  on  foot  a  well-disci- 
plined army.  For  the  support  of  this  force  a  large  sum 
was  raised  by  a  stricter  exaction  of  the  indirect  taxes,  and 
by  several  royal  monopolies.  At  the  same  time  he  endea- 
vored, by  shortening  the  proceedings  in  the  courts  of 
justice,  and  by  the  compilation  of  a  new  civil  code  (which 
was  not  completed  during  his  lifetime),  to  insure  to  his 
subjects  a  speedy  and  impartial  administration  of  the 
laws.  The  welfare  of  his  people  was  also  promoted  by 
the  encouragement  afforded  to  agriculture,  and  the  eager- 
ness with  which  he  set  on  foot  plans  for  the  introduction 
and  improvement  of  various  manufactures.  The  unwearied 
activity  of  the  King,  who  reserved  to  himself  the  right  of 
ultimate  decision  on  all  questions  of  state  ;  the  mental 
energy  which  distinguished  him  above  all  the  other  mon- 
archs  of  that  period ;  his  honest  zeal  for  the  welfare  of 
his  people  ;  the  prudence  invariably  displayed  in.  the  for- 
mation of  his  plans ;  and  the  firmness  with  which  he  ad- 
hered to  a  resolution  once  adopted  ;  these  qualities  never 
abandoned  him  during  the  whole  of  his  long  reign  of  forty- 
six  years,  although  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the 
means  employed  for  the  attainment  of  his  objects  were 


126  MODERN    HISTORY.  [244 246.  §32. 

not  in  all  instances  the  most  unexceptionable,  nor  the  re- 
sults always  such  as  he  had  expected.  But  his  greatest 
protection  was  the  extraordinary  penetration  with  which 
he  discovered,  and  the  tact  with  which  he  directed,  the 
political  movements  of  other  governments.  Disdaining 
the  enjoyments  of  domestic  life,  Frederick  passed  his  lei- 
sure hours  either  in  the  society  of  men  of  science  and 
distinguished  talent,  or  in  the  cultivation  of  his  poetical 
and  musical  taste,  and  the  study  of  philosophy  and  his- 
tory. His  preference  of  the  French  language  will  scarcely 
surprise  us,  if  we-  remember  the  wretched  state  of  German 
literature  at  that  period. 

(244.)  Frederick  died  on  the  17th  August,  1786, 
leaving  to  his  nephew,  Frederick  William  II.  (1786 — 
1797),  a  kingdom  which  he  had  augmented  by  the  annexa- 
tion of  Silesia,  the  country  of  East  Friesland  (after 
the  death  of  the  last  Count,  in  1744),  and  West  Prus- 
sia, with  six  millions  of  subjects,  an  exchequer  containing 
seventy- two  millions  of  thalers,  and  an  army  of  200,000 
men.  Since  the  annexation  of  West  Prussia  he  had  ex- 
changed the  title  of  "  King  in  Prussia,"  for  that  of  "  King 
of  Prussia." 

(245.)  5.  The  last  years  of  Joseph  II.  Joseph's 
ecclesiastical  and  political  reforms,  which  were  vehemently 
opposed  by  the  Belgians,  headed  by  an  advocate  named 
Van  der  Noot,  occasioned  the  separation  of  the  Romanist 
Netherlands  from  Austria,  in  1790  ;  but  in  the  following 
year  (on  the  accession  of  Leopold  II.,  1790 — 1792,  who 
restored  all  their  privileges),  the  revolted  provinces  re- 
turned to  their  allegiance.  A  Turkish  war,  which  had 
been  undertaken  by  Joseph  II.,  in  conjunction  with  Cath- 
erine II.,  and  carried  on  wiCh  very  indifferent  success, 
was  terminated  by  Leopold  II.,  who  consented  to  restore 
all  the  territory  which  his  predecessor  had  wrested  from 
the  Turks. 

§  32.  Prance. 

(246.)  Louis  XIV.,  whose  long  wars  had  saddled  the 
country  with  a  debt  of  300  millions  of  livres  ($60,000,000), 
and  compelled  him  to  mortgage  the  revenue  for  two  years, 
was  succeeded  by  his  third  great-grandson. 


247,248.  J  32.]  FRANCE.  127 

(247.)  Louis  XV,  1715 — 1774,  who  commenced  his 
reign  under  the  guardianship  of  the  talented,  but  profli- 
gate, Duke  (Philip)  of  Orleans.  By  the  advice  of  his 
tutor  and  minister,  the  Abbe  (afterwards  Cardinal)  Dubois, 
and  a  Scotchman  named  Law,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
diminish  the  public  burdens,  by  the  establishment  of  a 
bank  of  issue,  and  a  joint  stock  Mississippi  company  (to 
which  the  King  made  a  grant  of  Louisiana) ;  but  the  issue 
of  6000  million  of  bank  notes  and  actions  [shares]  occa- 
sioned, as  might  have  been  expected,  the  bankruptcy  of 
the  whole  concern,  notwithstanding  the  ingenious  precau- 
tions adopted  to  avert  such  a  calamity. 

For  an  account  of  the  quadruple  alliance  with  Eng- 
land, the  Emperor  and  Holland,  see  page  108. 

(248.)  After  the  deaths  of  Cardinal  Dubois  and  the 
Duke  of  Orleans,  which  happened  about  the  same  time 
(ft  1723),  Louis  assumed  the  reins  of  government,  and 
married  Mary,  daughter  of  the  dethroned  sovereign,  Stan- 
islaus Lesczinsky.  The  management  of  affairs  was  soon 
left  almost  entirely  to  the  King's  tutor,  Cardinal  Fleury, 
(1726 — 1743),  whose  rigid  economy  and  love  of  peace,  in 
a  great  measure,  relieved  the  country  from  the  embarrass- 
ments in  which  it  had  been  involved  by  the  long  wars  of 
Louis  XIV.  It  was  with  difficulty  that  his  sanction  could 
be  obtained  to  the  participation  of  France  in  the  Polish 
war  (see  page  109),  and  the  Austrian  war  of  succession. 
The  first  of  these  wars  ended  in  the  acquisition  of  the 
duchies  of  Lorraine  and  Bar  for  Lesczinsky ;  the  other 
commenced  inauspiciously,  in  consequence  of  the  niggard- 
liness of  Fleury  ;  but,  after  his  death,  all  losses  were  re- 
paired by  the  brilliant  victories  of  Marshal  Saxe  (see  page 
115).  The  weak  monarch  was  now  governed  entirely  by 
his  mistresses  :  first,  by  the  Marquise  de  Pompadour,  who 
exercised  unlimited  control  over  the  exchequer  and  the 
patronage  of  the  crown,  whilst  she  amused  the  King  with 
every  sort  of  diversion  (in  the  pare  aux  cerfs),  and  sensual 
gratification.  A  complete  change  was  now  effected  in  the 
system  of  French  politics,  by  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty 
with  the  court  of  Vienna,  through  the  influence  of  Kaunitz 
with  Madame  de  Pompadour.  Through  this  alliance, 
France  was  involved  in  an  expensive,  but  fruitless,  war  of 


128  MODERN    HISTORY.  [249.    §32. 

seven  years's  duration  (see  page  116),  in  addition  to  her 
maritime  war  with  England,  which  also  lasted  seven  years, 
and  terminated  in  the  loss  of  almost  all  the  French  colo- 
nies. Effects  still  more  deplorable  were  produced  by  the 
King's  utter  want  of  principle,  and  the  general  deprava- 
tion of  morals,  and  contempt  of  religion,  introduced  by 
the  so-called  school  of  philosophers,  headed  by  Voltaire, 
J.  J.  Rousseau,  d'Alembert,  and  Diderot.  Their  grand 
object,  the  subversion  of  religion  and  monarchy,  and  the 
establishment,  in  their  places,  of  infidelity  and  republican 
equality,  was  steadily  advanced  by  the  publication  of 
works,  in  which  all  that  had  been  hitherto  esteemed  sacred 
was  held  up  to  ridicule,  and  by  the  influence  which  they 
acquired  (generally  through  the  most  unworthy  moans), 
at  court,  among  the  ministers,  and  in  various  educational 
establishments.  In  conjunction  with  the  Jansenists,  these 
philosophers  were  also  called  encyclopedist*,  obtained  from 
the  King  and  his  parliament  an  ordonnance  for  the  sup- 
pression of  the  order  of  Jesuits  in  France,  their  statutes 
being  declared  to  be  incompatible  with  the  constitution  of 
the  kingdom  (1764).  Corsica  ceded  to  France  by  Genoa 
(1768),  see  §  36.  4.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  Louis 
was  entirely  under  the  control  of  a  low-born  mistress, 
whom  he  created  Comtesse  du  Barry.  The  expenditure 
of  this  profligate  woman  on  herself  and  her  favorites 
(amounting  in  five  years  to  180  millions  of  francs),  had 
brought  the  nation  to  the  verge  of  bankruptcy,  notwith- 
standing the  imposition  of  heavy  taxes,  when  the  wretched 
King  died,  to  the  great  delight  of  his  oppressed  subjects, 
who  greeted  his  grandson  and  successor, 

(249.)  Louis  XVI.,  1774—1792,  with  the  surname 
of  Le  Desire.  The  good  humour  and  straightforward 
honesty  of  this  monarch  were  but  an  indifferent  substitute 
for  the  ability  and  firmness  required  at  such  a  crisis.  The 
constant  changes  of  administration  (Turgot,  Necker,  Ca- 
lonne,  Brienne,  Necker) ;  the  lavish  expenditure  of  the 
Queen  Marie  Antoinette  ;  and  the  assistance  rendered  to 
the  revolted  British  colonies  in  North  America,  in  the 
hope  of  recovering  at  least  a  portion  of  the  territory  lost 
by  France  during  the  seven  years'  war,  had  occasioned  an 
irremediable  deficit  (140  millions  of  livres  annually)  in 


250,  251.    $33.]  GREAT    BRITAIN.  129 

the  public  accounts.  To  the  discontent  produced  by  these 
causes,  the  writings  of  the  infidel  philosophers,  and  the 
republican  and  revolutionary  notions  imported  from  Amer- 
ica by  the  soldiers  who  had  served  in  that  quarter  of  the 
globe,  may  be  attributed  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Re- 
volution. 

$  33.    Great  Britain. 

(250.)  William  III.  was  succeeded  by  his  sister-in- 
law,  Queen  Anne  (1702 — 1714),  whose  policy  was  dic- 
tated, during  the  greater  part  of  her  reign,  by  the  Whig 
party,  especially  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  and  his 
Duchess.  Through  the  influence  of  these  ministers,  a 
union  was  accomplished  between  England  and  Scotland, 
which  thenceforth  had  one  parliament ;  an  equal  system 
of  taxation ;  and  similar  laws,  in  so  far  as  this  could  be 
effected  without  trenching  on  private  rights,  or  altering 
her  ecclesiastical  constitution.  For  the  participation  of 
England  in  the  Spanish  war  of  succession,  by  which  her 
colonial  possessions,  trade,  and  influence,  were  extended, 
see  §  25.  The  attempts  of  Anne,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Tories  (after  the  disgrace  of  Marlborough),  to  obtain  the 
settlement  of  the  crown  on  her  step-brother,  the  Pretend- 
er, James  (III.),  were  frustrated  by  the  Whigs,  who  in- 
sisted on  maintaining  the  Protestant  succession,  and,  after 
the  death  of  the  Queen,  raised  to  the  throne 

The  House  of  Hanover  (1714), 

(251.)  Commencing  with  George  I.  (1714 — 1727), 
Elector  of  Hanover,  and  grandson  of  James  I.,  on  the 
mother's  side.  Under  the  guidance  of  his  minister,  Wai- 
pole,  this  sovereign  frustrated  the  repeated  attempts  made 
during  his  reign  to  bring  back  the  Pretender  ;  took  part 
in  the  northern  war ;  and  joined  the  quadruple  alliance. 
His  son,  George  II.  (1727 — 1760),  retained  the  services 
of  his  father's  minister.  Walpole.  His  participation  in 
the  Austrian  war  of  succession  (see  page  114),  having  oc- 
casioned a  misunderstanding  between  the  crown  and  the 
parliament,  France  availed  herself  of  this  opportunity  for 
a  last  attempt  to  restore  the  exiled  Stuarts;  but  the  com- 
6* 


130  MODERN    HISTORY.  [252,253.    §33. 

plete  overthrow.  (1746),  of  the  Pretender  (son  of  James 
III.),  on  the  moor  of  Culloden,  near  Inverness,  in  Scot- 
land (the  last  "battle  fought  on  British  ground),  destroyed 
for  ever  the  hopes  of  the  Jacobites.  As  an  ally  of  Fred- 
erick II.,  George  II.  sent  an  army  into  Germany,  for  the 
protection  of  his  hereditary  dominions  of  Hanover  against 
the  French ;  whilst,  at  the  same  time,  England  carried  on 
the  seven  years'  war  against  France,  1756 — 1763.  This 
war,  which  had  broken  out,  in  the  first  instance,  in  North 
America,  in  consequence  of  .a  dispute  between  the  two 
nations  respecting  the  boundary  line  of  their  respective 
colonies,  soon  extended  to  the  other  three  quarters  of  the 
globe.  The  first  enterprises  of  the  English  were  unsuc- 
cessful ;  but  the  superiority  of  their  arms  was  restored  by 
Pitt  (the  elder),  whose  wise  policy  in  the  re-organization 
of  the  army  and  fleet,  the  selection  of  competent  com- 
manders, and  the  preparation  of  a  well-considered  plan  of 
operations,  ^produced  the  most  brilliant  results  (defeat  of 
the  French  at  Quebec,  by  General  Wolf,  &c. ).  A  treaty  was 
concluded  between  the  Bourbon  courts  of  Spain,  Naples, 
and  Parma,  by  which  they  pledged  themselves  to  make 
common  cause  with  France ;  and,  in  consequence  of  the 
refusal  of 

(252.)  George  III.  (1760—1820),  to  sanction  Pitt's 
plans  for  an  attack  on  Spain  whilst  that  power  was  unpre- 
pared for  the  war,  the  prime  minister  resigned  his  office. 
Notwithstanding  this  untoward  circumstance,  however, 
success  still  attended  the  British  arms ;  and,  in  the  peace 
of  Paris,  in  1763,  Spain  surrendered  Florida  to  England, 
and  France  the  whole  of  Canada,  her  settlements  on  the 
river  Senegal,  and  several  of  her  colonies  in  the  West  In- 
dies. By  this  accession  of  territory,  and  the  acquisition, 
about  the  same  time,  of  several  important  provinces  in  the 
East  Indies,  England  was  placed  in  the  elevated  position 
which  she  still  occupies. 

The  North   American  War    (the    Revolution), 

1775_1783. 

(253.)  The  wars  carried  on  by  Great  Britain  on  the 
Continent  had  involved  her  very  deeply  in  debt  (the  na- 
tional debt  at  this  date  was  about  $700,000,000).  The 


253.    §33.]  GREAT    BRITAIN.  131 

Colonies  in  America  had,  of  course,  been  partakers  in  the 
disputes  of  England  and  France,  and  they  had  contributed 
largely  both  money  and  men  towards  bringing  to  a  suc- 
cessful issue  that  war  which  rendered  England  predomi- 
nant in  North  America  (30,000  colonial  soldiers  had  fallen ; 
more  than  $16,000,000  had  been  expended,  of  which  Par- 
liament had  reimbursed  about  $5,000,000).  The  mother 
country  had  always  exercised  more  or  less  control  (though 
not  without  protest)  in  regulating  the  trade,  &c.,  of  the 
Colonies ;  but  she  had  never  ventured  upon  that  course 
which  her  pecuniary  necessities  now  impelled  her  to  adopt. 
She  now  claimed  the  right  to  levy  taxes  and  collect  reve- 
nue in  the  Colonies,  and  accordingly  the  stamp  act  was 
passed  and  attempted  to  be  put  in  force  in  America  (1765). 
The  Colonists,  with  one  voice,  declared  that  they  never 
would  submit,  as  freemen,  to  any  such  measures  ;  for  taxa- 
tion without  representation  was  virtually  to  make  them 
slaves.  The  act  was  denounced  as  unconstitutional,  and 
steadily  resisted  ;  reluctantly  and  ungraciously  parliament 
the  next  year  repealed  the  stamp  duties.  On  the  failure 
of  this  plan,  a  duty  was  imposed  on  tea  (and,  in  the  first 
instance,  on  glass,  paper,  and  colors,  1767).  This  was 
strenuously  resisted  by  the  Colonists,  a  party  of  whom, 
disguised  as  Indians,  boarded  three  ships  laden  with  tea, 
broke  open  342  chests,  and  emptied  their  contents  into 
Boston  harbor.  The  stringent  measures  adopted  by  Eng- 
land, in  consequence  of  this  act  (Boston  Port  Bill,  subver- 
sion of  the  ancient  charter  of  Massachusetts,  &c.)5 
aroused  the  Colonies,  and  a  congress  assembled  at  Phila- 
delphia in  September,  1774,  who  passed  a  resolution  that 
all  commercial  intercourse  with  the  mother  country  should 
be  broken  off  The  British  government  now  determined 
to  employ  force,  and  hostilities  having  commenced  with 
the  battle  of  Lexington  (ten  miles  north-west  of  Boston), 
April  19th,  1775,  and  soon  after  (June  17th),  the  battle 
of  Bunker's  (Breed's)  Hill,  the  thirteen  United  States 
(New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecti- 
cut, New-York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware, 
Virginia,  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia),  declared  themselves  independent  of 
England,  July  4th,  1776.  The  defective  discipline  of 


132  MODERN    HISTORY.  [254.    $  33. 

the  American  army  was,  in  a  great  measure,  counterbal- 
anced by  the  extraordinary  military  talents  of  George 
Washington,  an  officer  who  had  already  distinguished 
himself  in  the  French  war.  A  defensive  and  commercial 
league  was  soon  concluded  (by  the  exertions  of  Benjamin 
Franklin)  between  France  and  America  (1778),  to  which 
Spain  and  Holland  afterwards  became  parties ;  whilst,  at 
the  same  time,  the  northern  powers  were  persuaded  by 
Russia  to  unite  for  the  maintenance  of  an  "  armed  neu- 
trality" (in  which  they  were  supported  by  Joseph  II.,  Por- 
tugal, and  Sicily),  for  the  protection  of  the  commerce  of 
neutral  powers  against  the  belligerents. 

(254.)  In  consequence  of  these  movements,  the  war 
was  carried  into  the  East  and  West  Indies  ;  and  the  Ameri- 
cans, emboldened  by  the  encouragement  and  (to  some  ex- 
tent) support  afforded  by  their  allies,  refused  to  listen  to 
the  proposals  of  the  English  government  for  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  peace  (1778),  although  the  terms  offered  were 
of  so  favorable  a  character,  that  two  years  before  they 
would  have  been  readily  embraced  (representation  in  par- 
liament, extension  of  privileges  of  trade,  &c.) ;  nothing 
short  of  entire  independence  was  now  deemed  satisfactory. 
After  twenty-one,  for  the  most  part  indecisive,  engagements, 
the  English  remained  masters  of  the  sea,  the  Spanish  navy 
having  been  nearly  annihilated  in  a  battle  off  Cape  St. 
Vincent ;  and  the  French,  after  several  successful  encoun- 
ters, sustaining  a  total  defeat  off  the  island  of  Guadaloupe 
(1782).  The  attempts  of  the  Spaniards  and  French  to 
re-take  Gibraltar,  by  means  of  floating  batteries,  were 
frustrated  by  the  brave  defence  of  General  Elliot,  who 
fired  red-hot  balls  on  the  enemy's  vessels.  Only  Minorca 
and  West  Florida  were  taken  by  the  English.  By  land, 
Washington,  in  conjunction  with  General  Lafayette, de- 
cided the  event  of  the  war  by  surrounding  and  taking  pri- 
soners a  body  of  English  troops,  under  Lord  Cornwallis 
(Oct.  17th,  1781);  and  at  the  peace  of  Versailles 
(Jan.  20th,  1783),  England  was  compelled  not  only  to  re- 
cognize the  independence  of  the  thirteen  United  States,  but 
to  restore  Florida  and  Minorca  to  Spain,  and  Tobago  to 
France.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Dutch,  who  at  last  found 
themselves  fighting  single-handed  against  the  English, 


255.   $33.]  GREAT    BRITAIN.  133 

were  compelled  to  purchase  peace  by  the  sacrifice  of  a  por- 
tion of  their  East  Indian  possessions  (September,  1783). 
At  the  close  of  the  war,  the  United  States  found  themselves 
very  "deeply  in  debt  (to  foreign  creditors  $8,000,000 ;  to 
citizens  and  the  army  more  than  $30,000,000),  and  placed 
in  embarrassing  circumstances  in  regard  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  new  government.  The  various  difficulties 
were  happily  surmounted  by  the  wisdom  and  patriotism 
of  the  noble  men  of  those  days,  and,  in  September,  1787, 
the  Federal  Constitution  was  elaborated  and  submitted  to 
the  respective  States  for  their  adoption.  Between  Decem- 
ber, 1787,  and  July,  1788,  eleven  States  acceded  to  the  new 
Constitution,  and  it  accordingly  went  into  force  after  this 
date.  The  Constitution  made  provision  for  the  legislative, 
judicial,  and  executive  authority ;  the  first  was  vested  in 
Congress,  consisting  of  the  Senate  (two  from  each  State) 
and  the  House  of  Representatives  (the  number  of  repre- 
sentatives in  proportion  to  the  population  of  the  State) ; 
the  second  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  and 
Circuit  or  District  Courts  for  specific  purposes  ;  and  the 
third  in  the  President  (aided  by  a  cabinet  and  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate  in  certain  cases).  General 
Washington  was  unanimously  elected  the  first  President 
(1789 — 1797),  and  inaugurated  on  the  30th  April,  1789, 
in  the  city  of  New-York. 

War  in  the  East  Indies  (1767—1784). 

(255.)  Since  the  dismemberment  of  the  empire  of  the 
Great  Mogul,  through  the  defection  of  the  Nabobs  (1739), 
several  attempts  had  been  made  by  European  nations  (the 
French  in  the  first  instance,  and  then  the  English)  to  turn 
the  disputes  of  those  petty  sovereigns  to  their  own  advan- 
tage. By  the  victories  and  conquests  of  Lord  Clive,  Eng- 
land had  not  only  been  placed  in  an  advantageous  position, 
as  regarded  her  rival,  but  had  obtained  possession  of  Ben- 
gal from  the  (titular)  Great  Mogul.  In  order  to  check  the 
progress  of  the  British  arms,  a  union  was  formed  (not 
without  suspicion  of  French  influence)  between  Hyder 
AH,  Sultan  of  Mysore,  the  Marattas,  and  the  Nizam  of  Gol- 
conda,  whilst,  at  precisely  the  same  moment,  the  French 


134  MODERN    HISTORY.  [256,257.    $34. 

concluded  an  alliance  with  the  revolted  British  colonies  in 
North  America.  In  this  critical  state  of  affairs,  the  su- 
premacy of  the  East  India  Company  was  maintained, 
through  the  prudent  as  well  as  energetic  policy  of  the  go- 
vernor-general, Warren  Hastings.  The  conclusion  of  a 
separate  peace  with  the  Marattas  and  the  re-establishment 
of  friendly  relations  with  France  having  deprived  Tippoo 
Sahib,  son  and  successor  of  Hyder  AH  (f!782),  of  all  his 
allies,  that  sovereign  -was  compelled  to  purchase  peace 
(1784)  by  the  sacrifice  of  his  former  conquests. 

(256.)  The  attention  of  the  British  government  hav- 
ing been  directed  to  the  rapidly  increasing  power  of  the 
East  India  Company,  a  bill  (called  the  East  India  Bill) 
was  brought  in  by  the  younger  Pitt  (minister,  1783 — 1801), 
which  provided  that  thenceforward  all  the  military,  finan- 
cial, and  political  business  of  India  should  be  transacted 
by  a  commission  nominated  by  the  Crown,  the  company 
still  retaining  its  direction  of  commercial  affairs.  An  ad- 
dition was  made  to  the  colonial  possessions  of  England 
by  the  discoveries  of  Captain  James  Cook  (1768 — 1780), 
who  thrice  circumnavigated  the  globe.  In  his  first  voy- 
age, he  visited  the  dangeFous  eastern  coast  of  New  Hol- 
land ;  in  the  second,  he  discovered  several  islands  in  the 
South  Sea,  but  was  disappointed  in  his  expectation  of  find- 
ing a  southern  continent,  although  he  penetrated  to  the 
71st  degree  of  south  latitude;  and  in  the  third,  he  sur- 
veyed Behring's  Straits,  and  was  slain  by  the  natives  of 
Owyhee,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

$  34.   Spain  under  tlie  Bourbons,  from  1701. 

(257.)  At  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  Spain  had  been  com- 
pelled to  cede  Naples,  Sardinia,  Milan,  and  the  Nether- 
lands to  Austria,  and  Sicily  to  Savoy.  The  attempts  of 
Cardinal  Alberoni  to  regain  these  possessions  were  frus- 
tated  by  the  quadruple  alliance  (see  p.  108) ;  but  at  the 
close  of  the  Polish  war  of  succession  the  two  Sicilies  re- 
verted to  the  Infant  Don  ""Carlos,  and  after  the  Austrian 
war  of  succession  Parma  was  settled  on  the  Infant  Don 
Philip.  Under  Philip  V.  (1701—1746)  the  nation  (with 
the  exception  of  Navarre  and  Biscay)  lost  all  its  constitu- 


258,259.  $35.]      HOUSE  OF  BRAGANZA.  135 

tional  privileges.  Charles  III.  (1759 — 1788),  who  had 
been  involved  in  the  seven  years'  war  between  France  and 
England,  by  the  Bourbon  family  compact,  and  been  un- 
successful against  Portugal  by  land,  and  England  by  sea, 
was  compelled,  at  the  peace  of  Paris,  to  cede  Florida  to 
England  ;  but  at  the  peace  of  Versailles  he  recovered 
both  that  province  and  Minorca.  Two  attacks  on  Algiers, 
and  an  attempt  to  reconquer  Gibraltar,  produced  only  dis- 
appointment and  disgrace.  In  the  year  1767  an  ordon- 
nance  was  issued  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  the 
Spanish  dominions,  an  insurrection  of  the  common  people 
at  Madrid  having  been  attributed  to  their  machinations. 

$  35.  Portugal  under  the  House  of  Braganza,  from  1640. 

(258.)  Under  the  first  kings  of  the  House  of  Bra- 
ganza,  Portugal  had  not  only  maintained  her  independence 
against  Spain,  but  had  recovered  (at  first  by  successful 
wars,  and  subsequently  by  conventions)  the  colonies  of 
which  she  had  been  deprived  by  the  Dutch  (e.  g.  Brazil). 
But  the  country,  fettered  by  a  commercial  league  with 
England,  and  bankrupted  by  the  extravagance  of  the  court 
of  John  V.,  notwithstanding  its  rich  gold  and  diamond 
mines  of  Brazil,  was  on  the  verge  of  utter  ruin,  when  a 
complete  revolution  in  the  commercial  system  was  effected 
by  the  energetic  measures  of  Carvalho,  Marquis  of 
Pombal,  minister  of  Joseph  I.  (1750 — 1777). 

(259.)  In  the  prosecution  of  his  plan  for  rendering 
Portugal  independent  of  other  countries  for  her  supplies 
of  food,  Pombal  destroyed  several  vineyards  in  order  to 
promote  the  cultivation  of  wheat  on  a  more  extensive 
scale  ;  whilst,  at  the  same  time,  protection  was  afforded 
to  native  industry  by  the  imposition  of  prohibitory  duties 
on  foreign  produce.  The  western  quarter  of  Lisbon,  which 
had  been  destroyed  by  a  terrible  earthquake  on  the  1st  of 
November,  1755,  when  30,000  persons  perished,  was  re- 
built with  greater  magnificence  and  regularity.  To  meet 
this  and  other  expenses,  considerable  sums  were  raised  by 
the  confiscation  of  estates  in  America,  which  had  been 
granted  to  the  nobility  at  an  earlier  period.  An  attempt 
on  the  king's  life  afforded  the  minister  an  excuse  for  rid* 


136  MODERN    HISTORY.          [260 262.    $  36. 

ding  himself  of  his  most  active  opponents,  the  Jesuits, 
who  were  condemned  as  instigators  of  this  treasonable 
plot,  and  banished  the  country  by  a  royal  ordonnance  in 
1759.  On  the  accession  of  Maria  I.  (daughter  of  Joseph 
I.),  Pombal  was  removed  from  his  office,  brought  to  trial, 
and  condemned  to  suffer  death  as  a  traitor,  but  was  sub- 
sequently pardoned.  Almost  all  the  ordonnances  issued 
during  his  administration  were  repealed,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  decree  for  the  banishment  of  the  Jesuits,  which 
remained  in  force,  notwithstanding  repeated  attempts  on 
the  part  of  the  order  to  obtain  its  reversal. 

$  36.  Italy. 

(260.)  1.  Possessions  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg. — 
Naples,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Milan  continued  to  be  de- 
pendencies of  Spain  as  long  as  the  throne  of  that  country 
was  occupied  by  the  family  of  Hapsburg ;  but  on  the  ac- 
cession of  the  Bourbons,  they  were  ceded,  together  with 
Mantua,  to  Austria  (at  the  peace  of  Utrecht).  Sicily,  in 
the  first  instance,  was  given  to  Savoy,  and  soon  afterwards 
exchanged  for  Sardinia  (1720). 

(261.)  At  the  termination  of  the  war  of  the  Polish 
succession. 

2.  Tke  kingdom  of  tJie  two  Sicilies  regained  its  inde- 
pendence under  a  collateral  branch  of  the  Spanish  Bour- 
bon family  (1738).  An  earthquake  in  Calabria  and  Sicily, 
Feb.  5th,  1783. 

(262.)  3.  The  Duchies. — a.  Savoy,  which  had  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  the  French  in  Louis  Fourteenth's  third 
war  of  spoliation,  and  again  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  obtained  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  at  the  peace  of 
Utrecht ;  but  was  soon  afterwards  ( 1 720)  compelled  to 
exchange  it  for  Sardinia.  The  territories  of  the  duchy 
were  afterwards  augmented  by  the  addition  of  Montferrat 
and  the  annexation,  at  three  several  periods  (in  the  Span- 
ish, Polish,  and  Austrian  wars  of  succession),  of  portions 
of  the  duchy  of  Milan,  b.  Mantua,  after  the  extinction 
of  the  house  of  Nevers  (1707),  became  a  province  of  Aus- 
tria, c.  Mo  den  a  remained  subject  to  the  house  of  Este. 
d.  Parma  and  Piacenza,  after  the  extinction  of  the 


263—266.  §37.]  DENMARK.  137 

house  of  Farnese,  were  settled  on  the  Spanish  Infant  Don 
Carlos  ;  and  after  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  the  two 
Sicilies,  were  annexed  to  Austria,  which  restored  the  two 
duchies  to  a  Spanish. Infant  (Don  Philip)  at  the  peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle. 

(263.)  4.  The  Republics. — a.  Venice  was  deprived 
of  Candia  by  the  Turks  ;  but  at  the  peace  of  Carlowitz 
she  obtained  from  them  a  great  part  of  Dalmatia  and  the 
peninsula  of  the  Morea,  which  last  was  soon  afterwards 
again  wrested  from  her  (compare  page  108).  b.  Genoa, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  French,  suppressed  an  insurrec- 
tion of  the  ill-treated  Corsicans,  headed  by  Baron  Theo- 
dore von  Neuhof,  a  Westphalian,  who  had  been  nominated 
King  of  Corsica.  Neuhof  fled  to  London,  where  he  died 
in  extreme  poverty  in  1756.  A  fresh  insurrection,  of  a 
still  more  formidable  character,  having  broken  out,  under 
the  brave  Paoli,  the  Genoese  senate  sold  the  island  of  Cor- 
sica to  the  French  in  1768.  This  transfer  was  vehemently 
opposed  by  the  Corsicans  ;  but  in  the  following  year  they 
were  compelled  to  submit,  and  Paoli,  like  his  predecessor, 
sought  an  asylum  in  England,  which,  at  a  later  period, 
aided  him  in  an  attempt  to  deliver  his  country  from  the 
French  yoke. 

(264.)  5.  The  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany,  after  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  Medici  family  (1737)  descended  to  Duke 
Francis  of  Lorraine,  and  on  his  elevation  to  the  imperial 
throne,  became  a  possession  of  the  house  of  Austria. 
When  Joseph  II.  was  elected  Roman  king,  the  grand 
duchy  was  settled  on  his  brother  Leopold  and  his  descend- 
ants as  the  patrimony  of  the  second  sons  of  that  house. 

(265.)  6.  The  states  of  the  Church  recovered  Bene- 
vento  and  Corvo  from  Naples. 

§  37.  Denmark, 

(266.)  Denmark,  with  Norway  and  Iceland,  tcf  which, 
after  the  northern  war,  Schleswig  was  annexed  by  treaty, 
and  Greenland  fey  colonization,  enjoyed,  after  the  termina- 
tion of  this  war,  uninterrupted  peace  during  a  period  of 
eighty  years  (under  Frederick  IV.,  Christian  IV,  Frede- 
rick V.,  and  Christian  VII.) ;  and,  under  the  admirable 


138  MODERN   HISTORY.  [267.    $38. 

administration  of  Count  Bernstorf,  the  Elder,  became  a 
flourishing  kingdom.  But  in  the  reign  of  the  feeble- 
minded Christian  VII.  this  able  minister  was  supplanted 
by  the  royal  physician,  Struensee,  a  favorite  of  the 
Queen,  who  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  count  and  privy 
counsellor,  and  exercised  almost  arbitrary  authority,  al- 
though profoundly  ignorant  of  the  Danish  laws,  constitu- 
tion and  language.  His  ill-considered  and  violent  inno- 
vations occasioned  universal  discontent,  and  at  the  expira- 
tion of  two  years  the  minister  (with  his  friend  Brandt) 
ended  his  life  on  the  scaffold  (1772).  The  disputes  be- 
tween Denmark  and  the  ducal  line  of  G-ottorp  were  ter- 
minated by  the  cession  of  Oldenburg,  which  was  erected 
into  a  duchy  and  settled  on  the  junior  line  of  Gottorp,  the 
elder  having  been  raised  to  the  Russian  throne.  At  the 
same  time  Holstein  was  annexed  to  Denmark. 

$  38.  Sweden  from  ilie  termination  oftJie  Northern  War. 

(267.)  Sweden  had  not  only  lost  her  fairest  provinces 
in  the  northern  war,  but  had  sunk  lower  and  lower  during 
the  disputes  of  the  aristocrats,  who  had  governed  the 
kingdom  since  the  accession  of  Ulrica  Eleanora,  and  were 
divided  into  the  factions  of  the  "  caps"  and  "  hats ;"  the 
former  being  in  the  interest  of  Russia,  the  latter  of  France. 
A  precipitate  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  "  hats"  (at  the 
instigation  of  France)  to  recover  the  provinces  wrested 
from  Sweden  by  the  Russians,  occasioned  the  loss  (in  the 

O 

discreditable  peace  of  Abo1,  1743)  of  a  portion  of  Finland 
(as  far  as  the  river  Kymene),  and  the  elevation  to  the 
Swedish  throne  of  a  collateral  branch  of  the  house  of 
Holstein  G-ottorp  (1751 — 1818).  Under  the  first  king 
of  this  house  (Adolphus  Frederick,  formerly  Bishop  of 
Liibeck)  the  disputes  of  the  nobles  continued,  and  the 
power  of  the  crown  was  still  further  restricted  by  certain 
additions  to  the  constitution  of  1720.  The  exchequer 
was  also  drained  by  the  expenditure  incurred  in  conse- 
quence of  the  participation  of  Sweden  in  the  seven  years' 
war.  But  this  aristocratic  tyranny  was  successfully  re- 

1  Pronounced  "  Aubo." 


268.  §38.  SWEDEN.  139 

sisted  by  his  brave  and  ambitious  son,  Grustavus  III. 
1771 — 1792),  who  effected  a  complete  but  bloodless  revo- 
lution by  the  aid  of  the  military.  The  executive  author- 
ity was  now  vested  in  the  king,  but  without  the  power  of 
levying  taxes  or  engaging  in  aggressive  wars  without  the 
consent  of  the  estates  of  his  realm,  who  possessed  also 
the  legislative  authority.  His  voluntary  renunciation  of 
absolute  power,  the  affability  of  his  manners,  the  improved 
administration  of  justice,  the  general  revival  of  national 
prosperity,  and  the  encouragement  given  to  trade  and  man- 
ufactures, as  well  as  to  the  arts  and  sciences  (establish- 
ment of  an  academy  of  science),  rendered  this  sovereign 
exceedingly  popular.  The  nobles  alone  persisted  in  their 
opposition,  which  had  already  assumed  a  distinct  and  dan- 
gerous character,  when  the  king  renewed  ( 1 789)  the  alli- 
ance with  the  Porte,  and,  in  defiance  of  the  constitution, 
took  part  with  the  Turks  in  the  war  against  the  Russians 
(see  page  108)  without  consulting  the  estates  of  his  king- 
dom. Probably  his  motive  for  this  irregular  proceeding 
was  a  desire  to  re-conquer  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Baltic, 
and  to  gain  for  Sweden  a  military  reputation  which  might 
increase  her  political  influence  among  the  powers  of 
Europe. 

(268.)  On  the  refusal  of  the  generals  of  his  army  to 
obey  this  unconstitutional  order,  Grustavus,  notwithstand- 
ing the  vehement  opposition  of  the  nobles,  persuaded  a 
Diet  to  pass  an  act,  empowering  the  king  to  engage  in  an 
offensive  war  without  the  consent  of  the  estates.  Mean- 
while Russia  had  gained  time  for  preparation :  and  the 
war,  both  by  land  and  sea,  terminated  ingloriously  for 
Sweden,  whose  public  burdens  were  greatly  increased  by 
the  expense  of  carrying  it  on.  The  king  now  lost  the  af- 
fection and  confidence  of  his  people,  and  before  he  could 
execute  his  plan  for  the  re-establishment  of  Louis  XVI. 
in  the  rights  of  which  he  had  been  deprived  by  the  revo- 
lutionists, fell  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin,  named  Anker- 
strom,  who  had  formerly  been  arrested  on  an  unjust  charge, 
and  now  avenged  himself  by  shooting  the  king  at  a 
masqued  ball  in  the  opera-house  at  Stockholm. 


140  MODERN    HISTORY.  [269.   §39. 

§  39.  Russia. 

(269.)  During  the  northern  war  P e t e r  the  Great 
had  made  considerable  progress  in  the  civilization  of  his 
subjects,  and  had  built  the  city  of  St.  Petersburg,  which 
was  peopled  by  a  forced  immigration,  and  elevated  to  the 
rank  of  the  second  capital  of  the  Russian  empire  (1703). 
He  had  also  travelled  a  second  time  through  most  of  the 
countries  of  Europe.  But  on  this,  as  on  a  former  occasion, 
the  enemies  of  reform  availed  themselves  of  his  absence 
for  a  demonstration  in  favor  of  the  ancient  Russian  insti- 
tutions. At  the  head  of  this  party  was  his  own  son 
Alexei,  who  was  condemned  to  death  by  a  court  assembled 
soon  after  his  father's  return,  and  executed  within  a  few 
hours.  After  the  war,  Peter  assumed  the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  all  the  Russias,  and  by  a  law  passed  in  1 722,  se- 
cured to  the  reigning  sovereign  the  right  of  nominating 
his  successor  without  any  regard  to  the  claims  of  blood. 
He  died,  the  victim  of  his  excesses,  in  the  year  1725. 
The  short  reigns  of  his  wife,  Catherine  I.,  who  was  gov- 
erned by  her  favorite,  Menzikoff  (1725 — 1727),  and  of  his 
grandson,  Peter  II.  (1727 — 1730),  were  followed  by  the 
succession  of  a  daughter  of  Ivan,  elder  brother  of  Peter 
the  Great.  Anne  (Ivanovna  [daughter  of  Ivan]  1730 — 
1740),  under  the  guidance  of  her  ministers,  Mimnich  and 
Ostermann,  and  her  favorite  Biron,  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  influence  of  Russia  in  Poland  by  her  successful  oppo- 
sition to  the  restoration  of  Stanislaus  Lesczinsky  (see 
page  110).  Then  she  joined  Austria  in  a  war  against  the 
Turks  (see  page  110) ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  superior- 
ity of  the  Russian  arms  under  Field-marshal  Miinnich 
(the  "  Eugene  of  the  North"),  nothing  was  gained  (in  con- 
sequence of  the  hasty  conclusion  of  a  separate  peace  by 
Austria)  beyond  the  recognition  by  the  Porte  of  the  Em- 
press's title.  The  nephew  and  successor  of  Anne  (Ivan 
III.)  was  set  aside,  after  reigning  one  year,  in  favor  of 
the  youngest  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great. 


270.  §40. 


RUSSIA, 


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142  MODERN   HISTORY.          [271 273.  $  40. 

(271.)  Elizabeth  (1741—1762)  who  banished  Mun- 
nich  and  others  to  Siberia,  and  placed  herself  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Vice-Chancellor  Bestuchef,  until  the  year 
1758,  when  he  was  also  sent  into  exile.  At  the  peace  of 

Abo,  which  terminated  the  war  with  Sweden,  Elizabeth 
added  the  eastern  portion  of  Finland  to  her  territories, 
and  exhibited  Russia  for  the  first  time  in  the  character  of 
an  influential  European  power,  by  sending  an  army  to  the 
Rhine  to  resist  her  ally  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa,  a 
measure  which  hastened  the  conclusion  of  peace  at  Aix- 
la-Chapelle.  The  bonds  of  this  union  with  Austria  were 
strengthened  during  the  seven  years'  war,  by  her  personal 
dislike  of  Frederick  the  Great.  Elizabeth  nominated  as 
her  successor  her  sister's  son  Peter,  duke  of  Holstein- 
Grottorp. 

House  of  Holstein-G-ottorp,  1762. 

(272.)  Peter  III.  (1762),  a  personal  friend  of  Frede- 
rick the  Great,  concluded  an  alliance  with  Prussia,  and 
commenced  his  reign  with  several  important  reforms  (the 
abolition  of  torture,  organization  of  the  army  after  the 
Prussian  model,  &c.) ;  but  six  months  had  scarcely  expired, 
when  he  fell  a  victim  to  a  conspiracy,  headed  by  his  own 
wife,  whom  he  had  threatened  with  imprisonment  in  a  con- 
vent. He  was  succeeded  by  his  widow, 

(273.)  Catherine  II.  (1762— 1796),  who  followed  in 
the  footsteps  of  Peter  the  Great,  endeavoring  by  a  display 
of  external  magnificence  to  obtain  for  her  empire  (the 
most  extensive  in  the  world)  an  influential  position  among 
the  kingdoms  of  Europe.  Poland,  which  was  distracted 
by  the  struggles  of  opposing  factions,  was  treated  as  a 
Russian  province  by  Catherine,  who  placed  her  favorite 
Stanislaus  Poniatowski  on  the  throne,  prevented  any  im- 
provement in  the  constitution,  and,  under  pretence  of  pro- 
tecting the  rights  of  the  dissidents,  excited  a  cruel  civil 
war  between  the  confederation  of  Bar  and  the  king,  who 
was  supported  hy  the  Russians.  Of  all  the  European 
powers,  the  Porte  alone  acknowledged  its  apprehensions  of 
danger  from  the  encroachments  of  Russia,  and  met  the 


274,275.  §40.  RUSSIA.  143 

refusal  of  Catherine  to  withdraw  her  troops  from  Poland 
with  a  prompt  declaration  of  war. 

(274.)  In  this  first  Russian-Turkish  war  (1768 — 
1774)  the  Russians  were  for  the  most  part  superior  to  the 
more  numerous  but  badly  officered  and  imperfectly  disci- 
plined troops  of  the  Sultan  ;  and  the  whole  Turkish  fleet 
was  defeated  off  Scio,  and  burnt  by  a  Russian  squadron, 
which  had  been  dispatched  to  the  Archipelago.  In  conse- 
quence of  these  disasters,  the  Porte  was  compelled  to  seek 
the  intervention  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  through 
their  mediation  an  armistice  was  concluded  between  the 
Turks  and  Russians ;  but  no  sooner  were  the  two  medi- 
ating powers  pacified  by  the  first  partition  of  Poland 
( 1 772),  than  the  war  broke  out  afresh.  At  first  the  Rus- 
sians were  unsuccessful  against  the  Turks,  whilst  at  the 
same  time  their  own  country  was  distracted  by  a  civil  war 
(which  lasted  two  years),  occasioned  by  the  rebellion  of  a 
Cossack  named  Pugatschew,  who  gave  himself  out  as  Pe- 
ter III. ;  but  the  blockade  of  the  Grand  Vizier  in  Schumla, 
enabled  them  at  length  to  negotiate  a  peace,  which  was 
concluded  at  Kutschukkainardge,  in  1774,  on  conditions 
exceedingly  favorable  to  Russia,  the  Turks  conceding  to 
that  power  the  free  navigation  of  their  waters,  and  the  in- 
dependence of  the  Tartars  in  the  Crimea.  In  Poland  also, 
after  the  first  partition  of  that  kingdom,  Catherine  exerted 
herself  for  the  conservation  of  their  ancient  usages  (an 
elective  monarchy,  liberum  veto,  serfdom,  &c.).  Among 
the  avowed  favorites  of  Catherine,  was  a  man  of  coarse 
manners  and  debauched  character,  named  Potemkin,  who 
had  been  promoted  from  the  rank  of  sergeant-major  in  the 
imperial  guard  to  that  of  minister  of  war,  and  been  cre- 
ated a  prince  of  the  German  empire  by  Joseph  II.  For 
sixteen  years  (until  his  death  in  1791)  this  unworthy  fa- 
vorite continued  to  exercise  the  most  despotic  authority, 
treating  the  nobles,  and  even  his  imperial  mistress  herself, 
with  insolence,  squandering  the  public  treasure,  and  put- 
ting his  fellow-subjects  to  death  without  the  slightest 
compunction. 

(275.)  Two  magnificent  projects  occupied  the  atten- 
tion of  Catherine  after  the  first  Turkish  war,  1.  The 
establishment  of  an  uninterrupted  intercourse  between 


144  MODERN   HISTORY.  [276,  277.    §  40. 

different  nations,  even  in  time  of  war.  With  this  view 
she  instituted  a  system  of  armed  neutrality,  to  which  the 
two  northern  powers,  as  well  as  the  Emperor,  Prussia, 
and"  Portugal,  became  parties.  2.  Tlie  expulsion  of  the 
Turks  from  Europe,  and  the  establishment  of  a  new  Greek 
or  eastern  empire.  The  first  step  taken  by  Potemkin  to- 
wards the  accomplishment  of  this  plan  (devised  by  Miin- 
nich  during  his  twenty  years'  banishment  in  Siberia),  was 
the  incorporation  into  the  Russian  empire  of  the  Crimea, 
which  had  been  independent  since  the  last  peace.  During 
a  progress  of  the  Empress  through  southern  Russia,  Po- 
temkin persuaded  her  that  this  country,  which  he  had 
ruined  and  well-nigh  depopulated,  was  in  a  nourishing 
condition  ;  a  deception  which  obtained  for  its  author  the 
nickname  of  "  the  Taurian"  (from  the  ancient  name  of  the 
Crimea — Taurica  Chersonesus).  It  was  during  this 
progress  that  Catherine  and  the  Emperor  Joseph  II. 
met  at  Cherson,  a  circumstance  which  excited  the  sus- 
picion of  the  Sultan,  who  imagined  that  a  partition  of  the 
Turkish  empire  had  been  arranged  between  the  two  mon- 
archs.  Relying  on  the  support  of  England,  Prussia, 
and  Sweden,  the  Porte  immediately  declared  war  against 
Russia. 

(276.)  In  this  second  Russian-Turkish  war  (1787 — 
1792)  the  Turks,  who  had  at  first  obtained  some  advan- 
tage, were  defeated  in  two  great  battles  by  Potemkin  and 
his  lieutenant  Suwarrow,  supported  by  an  Austrian  force 
under  the  command  of  the  Emperor  himself ;  but  after 
the  death  of  Joseph  II.  a  peace  was  concluded  between 
Austria  and  the  Porte  (with  which  Prussia  had  already 
formed  an  alliance),  and  Grustavus  III.  of  Sweden  invaded 
Russian  Finland.  The  war  was  continued  by  Catherine, 
notwithstanding  the  threats  of  England  and  Prussia, 
but  after  the  death  of  Potemkin,  she  was  compelled 
by  the  exhausted  state  of  her  exchequer  to  conclude 
a  peace  (at  Jassy)  with  the  Porte,  and  content  herself 
with  the  territory  between  the  Bug  and  Dniester.  For 
an  account  of  the  defensive  war  against  Sweden,  see  page 
140. 

(277.)  The  measures  of  domestic  improvement  com- 
menced by  Peter  I.  were  carried  out  by  Catherine  with 


278,279.  §41.]  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  145 

the  same  spirit  which  she  had  displayed  in  her  intercourse 
with  foreign  powers.  She  divided  the  empire  into  smaller 
and  more  manageable  governments  ;  limited  the  authority 
of  the  governors  (by  intrusting  the  administration  of  the 
laws  and  the  collection  of  the  revenue  to  commissioners 
expressly  appointed  for  that  purpose,  and  commanding 
that  no  Russian  subject  should  be  tried  except  by  his 
peers) ;  and  improved  the  condition  of  the  serf.  The 
number  of  the  middle  classes  was  increased  by  the  settle- 
ment of  foreigners  (principally  Germans),  in  cities  built 
expressly  for  that  purpose  ;  agriculture  and  manufacturing 
industry  were  encouraged,  the  trade  of  the  south  of 
Europe  thrown  open  by  the  first  peace  with  Turkey, 
arrangements  made  for  the  education  of  all  ranks,  an 
academy  of  sciences  founded,  the  navy  placed  on  a 
respectable  footing,  and  toleration  granted  to  all  religious 
sects. 

$  41.   Tfie  Ottoman^  or  Osmanic  Empire. 

(278.)  The  inferiority  of  the  Turks  to  their  neighbors 
in  the  arts  of  war  as  well  as  of  peace,  the  weakness  of 
their  Sultans,  who  passed  their  lives  in  the  Seraglio,  leav- 
ing the  administration  of  public  affairs  to  unprincipled 
viziers  and  favorites,  and  the  wars  with  Russia  and  other 
powers,  in  which  they  were  almost  invariably  unsuccessful, 
notwithstanding  their  numbers  and  personal  bravery — all 
these  causes  must  necessarily  have  sapped  the  founda- 
tions of  the  Osmanic  empire,  had  it  not  been  sustained 
by  the  jealousy  with  which  the  European  powers  regarded 
one  another. 


THIRD  PERIOD. 

From  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  to  the  present  time. 

1789—1848, 

$  42.    Causes  and  immediate  occasion  of  the  Revolution. 

(279.)    I.   Chief  causes.     1.    The  enormous  public 
debt,  contracted  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  augmented 


146  MODERN   HISTORY.          [280 283.    §42. 

to  a  fearful  extent  by  the  wars  of  Louis  XY.  and  the 
profligacy  of  his  mistresses,  and  still  further  increased 
under  Louis  XVI.  by  the  extravagance  of  Marie  An- 
toinette, and  the  expenses  incurred  in  the  American 
war. 

(280.)  2.  The  unequal  distribution  of  the  public 
burdens,  which  were  borne  almost  exclusively  by  the 
citizens  and  peasants  ;  the  clergy  and  nobility,  notwith- 
standing their  possession  of  the  highest  and  most  lucra- 
tive offices,  immense  wealth  and  important  privileges, 
scarcely  contributing  any  thing  to  the  public  purse. 

(281.)  3.  The  persevering  endeavors  of  the  so-called 
philosophers,  or  Encyclopaedists,  to  overthrow  both  Church 
and  State.  (Comp.  page  128.) 

(282.)  4.  The  tyrannical  and  capricious  government 
of  the  kings  and  t)ie  ministers  since  the  time  of  Louis 
XIV.,  especially  as  regarded  the  lettres-de-cachet  (or 
warrants  for  the  secret  arrest  of  persons  obnoxious  to  the 
court),  with  which  the  offices  even  of  the  inferior  function- 
aries of  the  state  were  abundantly  supplied. 

(283.)  II.  The  immediate  occasion  of  the  revolution- 
ary outbreak  was  the  impossibility  of  avoiding  a  national 
bankruptcy,  the  national  debt  having  been  greatly  aug- 
mented by  the  expenses  of  the  American  war  ;  during  the 
progress  of  which  the  French  soldiers  had  taken  up  the 
wildest  notions  of  liberty  and  equality.  To  meet  these 
difficulties,  Turgot,  Louis  Sixteenth's  first  minister  of 
finance,  proposed  the  establishment  of  free  trade  in  the 
interior,  the  removal  of  all  feudal  burdens,  a  more  equal 
and  just  system  of  taxation,  and  greater  economy  in  the 
expenditure  of  the  court ;  but  the  opposition  of  the  privi- 
leged classes  compelled  him  to  resign.  The  same  fate 
awaited  his  successor  Necker,  who  added  the  enormous 
sum  of  530  millions  to  the  national  debt.  In  the  year  1 787, 
Calonne,  finding  that  the  annual  deficit  now  amounted 
to  140  millions,  and  that  no  help  could  be  obtained  ex- 
cept from  the  privileged  classes,  called  together  the 
Notables,  an  assembly  composed  almost  entirely  of  no- 
bles and  the  superior  clergy,  and  laid  before  them  a  plan 
for  a  more  general  system  of  taxation,  in  which  the  privi- 
leged classes  were  included.  Through  the  influence  of 


284.  §43.]      THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  147 

the  Queen,  this  minister  also  was  removed  from  office, 
and  succeeded  by  the  Comte  de  Brienne,  Archbishop  of 
Thoulouse,  who  dismissed  the  intractable  Notables,  and 
summoned  a  parliament,  which  also  refused  to  sanction 
the  imposition  of  fresh  taxes,  the  right  of  taxation  being 
vested,  as  they  pretended,  exclusively  in  the  states  gene- 
ral. A  proposal  for  a  new  loan  having  been  equally  un- 
successful, and  the  embarrassments  of  the  government 
becoming  daily  more  alarming,  Brienne  was  dismissed, 
and  Necker  persuaded  a  second  time  to  accept  the  office 
of  minister  of  finance.  As  a  last  expedient,  the  states 
general,  which  had  not  met  since  the  year  1614,  were 
summoned  to  assemble  at  Versailles.  But  at  their 
very  first  meeting  a  dispute  arose  respecting  the  manner 
of  taking  the  votes  :  the  third  estate,  which  was  more  nu- 
merous than  the  other  two  together,1  contending  that  the 
voting  ought  to  be  by  numbers,  not  by  estates.  After 
several  fruitless  negotiations,  the  third  estate  (by  the  ad- 
vice of  the  Abbe  Sieves)  declared  itself  a  National 
Assembly  (June  17),  a  proceeding  which  may  be  con- 
sidered the  commencement  of  the  Revolution.  It  was  to 
no  purpose  that  the  King,  acting  by  the  advice  of  the 
other  two  estates,  called  on  this  assembly  to  dissolve 
itself.  The  president,  Bailly,  finding  their  usual  place  of 
meeting  beset  by  soldiers,  adjourned  the  assembly  to  a 
tennis-court,  and  persuaded  the  deputies  to  take  an  oath, 
that  they  would  not  separate  until  they  had  given  to 
France  a  permanent  constitution. 

$  43.    The  constituent  National  Assembly. 
From  June  17,  1789,  to  Sept.  21,  1791. 

(284.)  A.  At  Versailles.  Notwithstanding  the 
promises  made  by  the  King  in  a  "  royal  session "  (June 
23),  the  separation  of  the  estates  was  still  opposed  by  the 
tiers  etat,  who  were  soon  joined  by  a  majority  of  the 
clergy.  On  learning  this,  the  King  issued  a  proclama- 

1  There  were  308  deputies  of  the  clergy,  285  of  the  nobles,  and 
621  persons  of  the  third  estate.  The  twenty-two  representatives 
of  the  nobility  of  Brittany  did  not  appear. 


148  MODERN    HISTORY.  [285.    $43. 

tion  calling  on  the  two  first  chambers  to  unite  with  the 
third,  a  command  which  they  obeyed  with  evident  reluc- 
tance. The  attention  of  this  assembly  was  directed 
rather  to  the  formation  of  a  constitution  than  to  a  settle- 
ment of  the  financial  question.  The  assembling  of  a  large 
body  of  troops  (30,000  men)  between  Paris  and  Versailles, 
and  the  dismissal  of  Necker,  occasioned  a  rising  of  the 
Parisian  populace  (13th  and  14th  July)  who  were  excited 
by  the  most  inflammatory  speeches  delivered  by  Camille- 
Desmoulins,  Marat,  and  others  ;  a  movement  which  was 
speedily  followed  by  the  establishment  of  a  National 
G-uard  in  Paris,  and  the  storming  of  the  Bastille,  The 
troops  were  then  disbanded,  Necker  recalled,  Lafayette 
nominated  commandant  of  the  National  Gruard,  and  the 
fickle  populace  appeased  by  the  appearance  of  Louis  XVI. 
with  the  tri-colored  national  cockade,  at  the  Hdtel  de 
Ville.  In  the  first  panic  produced  by  this  "  insurrection," 
many  of  the  higher  nobility  emigrated.  The  King's 
second  brother,  the  Comte  d'Artois  (Charles  X.),  and 
many  others,  fled  to  Cologne,  Sardinia,  &c.,  and  assem- 
bled a  force  on  the  frontiers  for  the  invasion  of  France 
and  restoration  of  the  ancient  order  of  things.  The  na- 
tional assembly  commenced  their  proceedings  by  the  abo- 
lition of  the  feudal  system  (4th  and  5th  August),  and 
all  other  privileges  of  the  nobles  and  clergy,  without 
granting  them  any  indemnification.  Then  followed  a 
declaration  of  the  rights  of  man,  as  a  preliminary 
to  the  formation  of  a  constitution.  They  next  voted 
themselves  &  permanent  body,  the  assembly,  consisting  of 
only  one  chamber,  to  be  renewed  every  two  years,  and  a 
veto  to  be  allowed  to  the  King,  the  effect  of  which  would 
be  the  postponement  of  any  decision  for  four  years  (two 
sessions).  To  all  these  resolutions  they  demanded  the 
assent  of  the  King. 

(285.)  Reports  of  a  re-actionary  movement  on  the  part 
of  the  court,  combined  with  the  refusal  of  Louis  XVI.  to 
ratify,  without  modification,  several  articles  of  the  consti- 
tution, occasioned  fresh  discontents,  which  were  aggra- 
vated by  the  scarcity  of  food,  and  burst  forth  on  Oct.  5, 
when  a  tumultuous  mob  of  8000  fishwomen  proceeded  to 
Versailles,  and  attacked  the  palace  (Oct.  6,)  although  the 


286.   §43.]  THE    FRENCH    REVOLUTION.  149 

King  had  supplied  the  capital  with  provisions,  and  signi- 
fied his  readiness  to  accept  the  disputed  articles.  By  the 
exertions  of  Lafayette,  the  King  and  Marie  Antoinette 
(whose  danger  was  the  most  imminent)  were  rescued  from 
the  fury  of  the  rabble ;  but  the  royal  family  were  com- 
pelled to  follow  the  women  to  Paris,  whither  the  national 
assembly  adjourned  its  session,  after  the  defection  of  more 
than  200  of  its  members. 

(286.)  B.  In  Paris.  The  questions  which  next  oc- 
cupied the  attention  of  the  assembly  (the  members  of 
which  were  now  divided,  according  to  the  part  of  the 
chamber  in  which  they  sat,  into  the  right  and  left  parties) 
were  the  representation  of  the  people  and  the 
government  of  the  country.  The  result  of  their 
deliberations  was  the  division  of  France  into  eighty-three 
departments  (subdivided  into  districts  and  cantons,  with 
orographical  and  hydrographical  boundaries,  in  place  of 
the  old  provinces,  which  were  connected  in  various  ways 
with  the  crown,  and  enjoyed  peculiar  privileges.  The 
primary  elective  franchise  was  conferred  on  persons  of  a 
certain  age,  who  possessed  the  requisite  property  qualifi- 
cation ;  but  was  not  at  first  granted  to  the  Jews.  These 
"  active  citizens,"  as  they  were  called,  chose  electors,  who 
returned  745  representatives  to  the  legislative  assembly, 
and  acted  at  the  same  time  as  administrative  counsellors 
for  the  departments  and  districts.  The  municipal  au- 
thorities were  chosen  from  the  body  of  "  active  citizens." 
To  meet  their  pecuniary  difficulties,  it  was  resolved,  on 
the  motion  of  Talleyrand  (Bishop  of  Autun),  and  Mira- 
beau,  to  appropriate  all  ecclesiastical  property  (3000  mil- 
lions of  francs)  to  the  service  of  ttie  nation,  the  state  un- 
dertaking the  maintenance  of  the  clergy.  In  order  to 
hasten  the  sale  of  the  church  lands,  it  was  also  agreed,  on 
the  recommendation  of  Mirabeau,  to  issue  paper  money 
(assignats),  which  after  a  time  became  utterly  valueless,  in 
consequence  of  the  enormous  quantity  in  circulation 
(45,000  millions).  Acts  were  passed  forbidding  conventu- 
al vows,  and  suppressing  all  'monastic  orders,  except  those 
engaged  in  education  and  the  care  of  the  sick.  A  reform 
was  also  effected  in  the  administration  of  justice,  by  a 
separation  of  the  judicial  from  the  executive  authority, 


150  MODERN    HISTORY.  [287.    §43. 

and  the  establishment  of  trial  by  jury  in  criminal  cases. 
These  sweeping  measures  were  soon  followed  by  the  abo- 
lition of  hereditary  nobility  (with  their  titles,  coats  of 
arms,  and  liveries),  and  the  civil  constitution  oftke  clergy. 
The  King,  who  had  already  lost  almost  all  the  crown 
lands,  as  well  as  the  privilege  of  making  war  or  concluding 
peace  without  consulting  his  subjects,  was  now  required  to 
ratify  all  the  acts  of  the  assembly,  and  on  the  anniversary 
of  the  storming  of  the  Bastille,  at  a  grand  national  festival 
in  the  Champ  de  Mars,  took  an  oath  to  observe  the  new 
constitution.  Among  the  members  of  the  national  assem- 
bly were  formed  Clubs,  which  met  for  the  purpose  of 
preparing  resolutions  to  be  proposed  in  the  assembly. 
Of  these  the  most  important  was  the  club  of  the  Jaco- 
bins (so  called  from  their  place  of  meeting,  a  monastery 
belonging  to  the  suppressed  order  of  Jacobins  at  Paris), 
which  kept  up  a  regular  communication  with  the  patriotic 
clubs  in  the  provinces,  and  at  last  became  so  powerful  as 
not  merely  to  prepare  resolutions,  but  to  decide  before- 
hand what  propositions  should  be  adopted  by  the  great 
body  of  representatives.  After  the  resignation  of  Necker, 
in  consequence  of  a  popular  commotion,  the  "  right"  sus- 
tained a  series  of  defeats  in  the  chamber,  and  soon  after- 
wards the  republican  party,  released  from  all  restraint  by 
the  death  of  Mirabeau,  openly  proclaimed  its  intention  of 
overthrowing  the  monarchy. 

(287.)  The  King,  who  had  ratified  with  manifest  re 
luctance  some  recent  acts  of  the  national  assembly  (respect- 
ing the  ejection  of  such  of  the  clergy  as  refused  to  take 
the  civic  oath,  the  abolition  of  his  own  right  of  pardoning 
criminals,  &c.),  now  attempted  to  escape  to  an  encamp- 
ment on  the  frontier,  in  order  to  commence  a  counter- 
revolution ;  but  at  Varennes  he  was  recognized  by  the 
postmaster  (Drouet),  and  conveyed  a  prisoner  to  Paris. 
Meanwhile  the  royal  authority  was  suspended  ;  but  after 
a  long  discussion,  a  majority  of  the  left  side,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  moderate  party,  resolved  to  retain  a  consti- 
tutional monarchy,  and  replace  Louis  on  the  throne.  On 
this  occasion,  even  the  Jacobins  opposed  the  republican 
party.  The  national  assembly  terminated  its  labors  by  a 
second  revision  of  the  constitution,  and,  after  obtaining 


288,289.  $44.]  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  151 

the  assent  of  the  King  to  all  its  proceedings,  closed  the 
session  on  Sept.  30. 

§  44.   T/ie  Legislative  Assembly. 
From  Oct.  1,  1791,  to  Sept.  21,  1792. 

(288.)  In  the  new  legislative  assembly,  which  consisted 
of  one  chamber  and  745  deputies,  the  Peuillants,1  or  de- 
fenders of  constitutional  monarchy,  were  the  weaker,  and 
the  republican  Jacobins  the  stronger  party.  The  Gi- 
rondists (i.  e.  deputies  from  the  departments  of  the 
Garonne  and  Gironde)  composed  the  moderate  party, 
whilst  the  Cordeliers  (so  called  from  their  place  of  meet- 
ing in  the  church  of  the  barefooted  friars),  under  the 
direction  of  Danton,  Marat,  Camille-Desmoulins,  &o., 
disseminated  their  democratic  and  anarchical  notions, 
and  spoke  more  and  more  openly  of  a  republic.  The 
highest  places  in  the  municipality  and  courts  of  justice 
were  filled  with  Jacobins,  such  as  Petion,  Manuel,  Rob- 
espierre, Danton,  &c.  After  several  changes,  the  King  at 
last  formed  a  Girondist  administation  (Dumouriez,  Roland, 
&c.),  which  compelled  him  (in  consequence  of  the  demon- 
strations of  the  emigrants  on  the  German  frontier,  and 
the  appearance  of  an  Austrian  army  of  observation  in  Bel- 
gium,) to  declare  war  (in  conjunction  with  the  national 
assembly)  against  Francis  II.,  "  King  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia." 

(289.)  On  June  20,  1792,  the  King,  who  had  refused 
his  assent  to  two  acts  of  the  assembly  (for  the  banish- 
ment of  the  nonjuring  priests,  and  the  formation  of  a 
camp  in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris),  was  attacked  by  an 
infuriated  mob  (the  sans  culottes),  in  the  palace  of  the 
Tuileries.  The  rapid  advance  of  the  enemy,  and  the  pub- 
lication of  a  threatening  manifesto  by  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, so  alarmed  and  irritated  the  populace,  that  they 
besieged  the  King  a  second  time  (Aug.  10)  in  the  Tuil- 
eries, with  the  avowed  intention  of  compelling  him  to 
abdicate.  Louis  now  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of  the 

1  So  called  from  their  place  of  meeting,  the  convent  of  the 
Feuillants  at  Paris.  They  belonged  originally  to  the  Jacobin  club, 
from  which  they  receded  soon  after  the  return  of  the  King. 


152  MODERN    HISTORY.  [290.    §  45. 

national  assembly,  which  passed  a  decree  suspending 
the  royal  authority,  agreed  to  summon  a  national 
convention  for  the  settlement  of  the  future  constitu- 
tion, and  committed  the  King  and  his  family  to  the 
Temple.  Lafayette,  who  had  attempted  to  escape  from 
the  danger  which  threatened  him  in  consequence  of  his 
defence  of  the  constitution,  was  arrested  by  the  Austri- 
ans  on  the  frontier,  and  conveyed  to  Olmutz.  The  Jaco- 
bins, availing  themselves  of  the  discontents  occasioned 
by  the  surrender  of  Yerdun  to  the  Prussians,  persuaded 
the  rabble  to  rid  themselves  of  the  imprisoned  adherents 
of  the  old  regime  (principally  nobles  and  priests),  by  a  five 
days'  massacre  at  Paris,  Versailles,  Lyons,  &c.  (2nd  to 
7th  Sept.)  The  legislative  assembly,  which  had  witnessed 
these  horrors  in  silence,  now  dissolved  itself,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  national  convention,  consisting  of  749 
newly-elected  deputies. 


II.     The    Kepublic. 

$  45.   The  National  Convention. 
From  Sept.  21,  1792,  to  Oct.  26,  1795. 

(290.)    I.  Trial  and  execution  of  the  King. 

The  national  convention  was  distracted  by  the  strug- 
gles of  two  opposite  parties — the  moderate  party,  or 
Girondists,  and  the  Montagnards,  or  Jacobins,  led  by 
Robespierre,  Danton,  and  Marat.  From  the  very  com- 
mencement the  Jacobins  were  the  stronger  party,  not  so 
much  on  account  of  their  numbers,  as  their  courage,  una- 
nimity, and  unscrupulous  employment  of  the  most  despe- 
rate means  for  the  attainment  of  their  object.  In  the 
first  session  of  the  convention  the  monarchy  was 
abolished,  and  France  declared  a  republic,  "one  and 
indivisible."  In  spite  of  the  resistance  offered  by  the 
Girondists  to  the  treasonable  designs  of  the  Montagnards, 
Louis  Capet,  as  they  called  the  unhappy  King,  was  com- 
pelled to  appear  at  the  bar  of  the  national  convention, 
who  acted  at  once  as  judges  and  accusers.  Almost  all  the 


291,292.  §45.]  THE  REPUBLIC.  153 

acts  of  his  government,  from  the  suspension  of  the  na- 
tional assembly  on  the  20th  June,  1789,  being  represented 
as  criminal,  he  was  found  guilty  by  a  majority  of  683 
members  to  38,  of  "  conspiring  against  the  liberty  of  the 
nation,  and  endangering  the  public  safety."  Of  the  721 
deputies,  361  voted  unconditionally  for  a  sentence  of 
death.  The  remaining  360  were  divided — the  majority 
voting  for  imprisonment  or  banishment,  and  the  minority 
for  the  infliction  of  capital  punishment,  but  not  immedi- 
ately. The  application  of  the  King's  counsel  (Malesher- 
bes,  Deseze,  and  Tronchet)  for  an  appeal  to  the  people 
having  been  rejected,  the  sentence  was  carried  into  execu- 
tion on  the  Place  Louis  XV.,  January  21,  1793. 

(291.)  The  execution  of  the  King  excited  the  indig- 
nation of  foreign  countries,  as  well  as  of  a  large  party  at 
home.  England  and  Spain  having  recalled  their  ambas- 
sadors, the  republic  immediately  declared  war  against 
those  countries,  and  also  against  the  hereditary  Statthold- 
er  of  Holland,  as  an  ally  of  England.  At  the  same  time 
the  French  people  in  the  departments  south  of  the  Loire, 
particularly  in  La  Vendee,  were  so  irritated  at  a  con- 
scription, that  they  rose  en  masse  against  the  republican 
government,  and  for  a  long  time  made  head  against 
the  raw  troops  of  the  convention,  whom  they  were 
enabled  to  keep  at  bay  by  the  swampy  nature  of  the 
ground. 

(292.)  2.  Overthrow  of  the  Oironde.  The 
death  of  the  King  was  the  signal  for  a  deadly  struggle 
between  the  two  parties  in  the  national  convention,  viz., 
the  Montagnards,  or  mountain  party  (a  faction  composed 
of  Cordeliers  and  Jacobins),  and  the  Girondists.  The 
former  having  been  foiled  in  their  plan  of  nominating 
their  leader,  Philip,  Duke  of  Orleans  (now  called  Philip 
Egalite),  protector  of  the  republic,  the  convention  intrust- 
ed .the  entire  executive  authority  to  a  committee  of 
public  safety  (April  6).  The  Montagnards,  furious  at 
their  defeat,  now  armed  the  rnbblo  of  Paris,  who  besieged 
the  members  of  the  convention  in  their  chamber  (1st  and 
2nd  June),  and  compelled  them  to  issue  an  order  for  the 
arrest  of  thirty-four  Girondists.  Almost  all  the  rest  fled 
into  the  departments,  and  organized  a  widely-ramified  in- 
7* 


154  MODERN    HISTORY.  [293,294.    §45. 

insurrection   against   the   so-called  Reign   of  Terror 
which  had  just  commenced. 

3.  The  reign  of  terror  after  the  fall  of  the  Grironde. 
From  June  2,  1793,  to  July  24,  1794. 

(293.)  The  national  convention,  after  drawing  up  and 
circulating  in  the  departments  the  plan  of  a  purely  demo- 
cratic constitution,  now  occupied  itself  with  preparations 
for  the  suppression  of  the  insurrectionists  and  the  trial  of 
the  Girondist  prisoners,  as  well  as  the  few  other  members 
of  that  party  who  were  still  resident  at  Paris.  Meanwhile 
Marat  was  murdered  by  a  young  woman  named  Charlotte 
Corday. 

(294.)  At  this  period,  when  the  arms  of  the  republic 
were  almost  every  where  unsuccessful  both  at  home  and 
abroad,  it  was  proposed  by  Carnot,  immediately  after  his 
appointment  as  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public 
safety,  that  all  male  persons,  between  the  ages  of  eighteen 
and  twenty-five,  who  were  capable  of  bearing  arms,  should 
be  required  to  serve  as  soldiers.  So  promptly  was  this 
edict  carried  into  effect,  that  within  a  very  short  time 
fourteen  armies  (1,200,000  men)  were  ready  for  the  field. 
The  aspect  of  affairs  was  now  completely  changed  ;  Caen, 
Bordeaux,  and  Marseilles,  surrendered  after  a  feeble  re- 
sistance ;  Lyons  was  reduced  almost  to  a  heap  of  ruins ; 
and  Toulon,  after  a  fierce  struggle  (in  which  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  won  his  first  laurels),  was  re-conquered  from 
the  English.  In  La  Vendee  the  insurgents,  notwithstand- 
ing their  obstinate  courage,  were  several  times  defeated, 
the  prisoners  cruelly  murdered  (Carrier's  Noyades,  drown- 
ings),1  and  the  country  laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword  by 
the  twelve  infernal  columns,  as  they  were  called.  At  the 
same  time  the  republican  armies  on  the  frontiers,  under 
the  command  for  the  most  part  of  young  and  untried 
generals,  were  several  times  victorious  over  the  allies  (see 
§  41),  and  the  revolutionary  government  at  home  re- 

4  An  infamous  wretch,  named  Carrier,  massacred  in  cold  blood 
those  who  had  surrendered ;  he  sunk  in  the  sea  (at  Nantes)  boats 
filled  with  1500  men,  women,  and  children ;  tied  men  and  women 
together,  and  threw  them  into  the  Loire  ;  &c. — S. 


295.     §  45.]  THE    REPUBLIC.  155 

moved  its  most  active  opponents  by  numerous  and  hasty 
executions.  Among  the  earliest  victims  were  the 
Queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  the  (twenty)  Girondist  pris- 
oners, and  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  Even  of  those  Gi- 
rondists, who  had  escaped  from  Paris,  when  their  fellow- 
deputies  were  arrested,  the  majority  sooner  or  later  lost 
their  lives. 

(295.)  The  example  of  Paris  was  followed  by  the  de- 
partments, where  revolutionary  committees  were  formed, 
amounting  at  last  to  the  enormous  number  of  20,000,  and 
revolutionary  armies,  composed  of  thieves,  robbers,  and 
murderers,  marched  from  place  to  place,  carrying  with  them 
guillotines  for  the  execution  of  persons  condemned  by  the 
revolutionary  tribunals.  In  order  to  destroy  every  remi- 
niscence of  former  times,  a  new  republican  calendar 
was  introduced,  which  commenced  with  Sept.  22,  1792,  as 
the  first  day  of  the  republic,  and  contained  twelve  months, 
to  which  they  gave  the  names  of  Vendemaire,  Brumaire, 
Frimaire,  Nivose,  Ventose,  Pluviose,  Germinal,  Floreal, 
Prairial,  Messidor,  Thermidor,  and  Fructidor.  The 
churches  were  desecrated  and  plundered,  the  Christian 
religion  formally  abolished,  and  the  worship  of  the  god- 
dess of  reason  established  in  its  place.  At  the  same  time 
every  monument  of  art,  which  could  in  any  way  remind 
men  of  monarchy,  was  barbarously  demolished  ;  the  royal 
vaults  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Denys  were  destroyed,  and  the 
bodies  of  the  kings  mutilated  and  thrown  into  ditches.  A 
plan  of  Robespierre's  for  destroying  the  two  parties  op- 
posed to  his  policy,  by  a  collision  with  one  another,  was 
attended  with  complete  success,  nineteen  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Jacobin  party  being  condemned  and  executed  for 
taking  part  in  the  insurrection,  whilst  on  the  other  hand 
Danton  and  his  friends,  Desmoulins,  Lacroix,  &c.,  were 
guillotined  for  alleged  treasonable  practices  against  the 
republic.  By  thus  rendering  his  opponents  objects  of 
suspicion,  and  at  the  same  time  parading  his  own  virtue, 
unselfishness,  and  honesty,  before  the  eyes  of  the  French 
people,  Robespierre  became  dictator  of  France  (April  1 
to  July  27,  1794).  The  moderate  party  having  been  by 
these  means  annihilated,  the  convention  proceeded  to 
pass  a  law,  dispensing  with  the  evidence  of  witnesses  on 


156  MODERN   HISTORY.  [296.    $45. 

the  trials  of  persons  accused  of  treason  against  the  repub- 
lic. The  result  of  this  iniquitous  enactment  was  the  exe- 
cution of  1400  persons  in  the  forty-five  days  between  the 
passing  of  the  law  and  the  fall  of  Kobespierre.  At  length, 
the  discontent  caused  by  these  arbitrary  proceedings  burst 
forth  in  the  convention  itself  Robespierre  was  charged 
with  conspiring  against  the  republic,  arrested,  condemned 
without  being  heard  in  his  own  defence,  and  guillotined, 
with  twenty-two  of  his  adherents,  on  the  following  day 
(July  28). 

(296.)  4.  The  Re-action.  The  fall  of  the  Terror- 
ist chief  produced  an  immediate  re-actionary  movement. 
The  struggle  continued,  it  is  true,  for  a  time  between  the 
Moderates  (Thermidorians)  and  Terrorists  ;  but  after  the 
execution  of  Carrier,  and  the  institution  of  an  inquiry 
into  the  conduct  of  the  most  notorious  Terrorists,  the  mod- 
erate party  obtained  the  ascendency.  The  two  committees 
(of  public  welfare  and  public  safety)  were  now  entirely  in 
their  hands,  the  Jacobin  club  was  suppressed,  seventy- 
three  Girondists,  who  had  survived  the  massacre  of  their 
brethren,  were  recalled  into  the  convention,  freedom  of 
religious  belief  and  of  the  press  were  established,  and  a 
commission,  with  Sie'yes  at  the  head,  was  appointed  to 
draw  up  a  less  democratic  constitution.  The  Royalists, 
after  the  death  of  Louis  XVII.,  a  child  of  ten  years  old, 
who  died  in  the  Temple,  in  consequence  of  ill-treatment 
received  from  a  shoemaker  named  Simon,  had  conferred 
the  title  of  King  (Louis  XVIII.)  on  a  brother  of  Louis 
XVI.,  then  resident  at  Verona,  An  army  of  emigrants, 
which  had  landed  from  British  ships,  on  the  coast  of  Brit- 
tany, near  Quiberon,  and  joined  the  Chouans  in  La  Ven- 
dee, was  almost  annihilated  by  General  Hoche.  By  the 
new  (third)  constitution,  the  executive  power  was  lodged 
inadirectoryof  five,  and  the  legislative  in  two  cham- 
bers, viz.,  the  council  of  500  which  proposed  the  laws, 
and  the  council  of  (250)  Ancients,  who  examined  and 
confirmed  them.  The  members  of  the  council  of  An- 
cients were  required  to  be  at  least  forty  years  old.  In 
order  to  frustrate  the  attempts  made  by  the  royalists  to 
obtain  a  majority  in  the  legislative  and  executive 
bodies,  it  was  ordered  that  at  the  next  election  the  elec- 


297.   §46.]  THE    REPUBLIC.  157 

tors  should  return  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  present  mem- 
bers of  convention.  Some  attempts  were  again  made  by 
the  royalists  to  overthrow  the  republic,  but  their  forces 
were  defeated  by  a  detachment  of  troops  under  Napoleon 
Bonaparte.  The  councils  were  then  formed  without  oppo- 
sition on  the  plan  proposed  by  the  convention,  and  the  new 
constitution  established. 

$  46.   Tlw  first  Coalition  against  France  (1792—1797), 

(297.)  1.  Commencement  of  the  War  with 
Austria  and  Prussia  (1792). — A  declaration  of  their 
readiness  to  adopt  measures  for  the  emancipation  of  Louis 
XVI.  having  been  signed  at  Pillnitz,  by  Leopold  II.  and 
Frederick  William  II.,  and  speedily  followed  by  the  con- 
clusion of  a  formal  alliance  for  the  protection  of  the  Ger- 
man empire  against  the  encroachments  of  France  ;  the  un- 
happy French  monarch  was  compelled  by  his  rebellious 
subjects  to  declare  war  against  Francis  II.,  the  successor 
of  Leopold  on  the  imperial  throne  (see  page  151).  The 
whole  conduct  of  this  war  was  confided  to  his  ally,  Frede- 
rick William  II.,  by  the  Emperor,  who  promised  to  assist 
the  Pruslians  with  detachments  of  Austrian  troops. 
The  grand  army,  composed  entirely  of  Prussian  soldiers, 
advanced,  under  the  command  of  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Bruns- 
wick, along  the  left  bank  of  the  Moselle,  towards  Cham- 
pagne. After  the  capture  of  Longwy  and  Yerdun  by  the 
Prussians,  the  command  in  chief  of  the  French  army  was 
conferred  on  Duinouriez,  whose  vigorous  measures,  aided 
by  the  long-continued  rains,  and  the  sickliness  and  starva- 
tion of  the  Prussian  troops,  compelled  the  enemy  to  retire, 
after  unsuccessfully  attacking  the  French  at  Valmy.  The 
Prussians  having  retreated  across  the  Rhine,  Dumouriez 
next  attacked  the  Austrians  (who  had  entered  France  from 
Belgium,  and  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on  Lisle) ; 
and,  after  an  engagement  which  lasted  two  days,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Jemappes  (near  MODS),  the  French' 
army,  numbering,  it  is  said,  80,000  men  (against  14,000?), 
became  masters  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands  The  French 
then  penetrated  (by  Aix-la-Chapelle)  as  far  as  Roer. 
Meanwhile  another  French  force  had  conquered  Savoy  and 


158  MODERN    HISTORY.  [298,  299.    §  46. 

Nice  from  the  King  of  Sardinia  (who  had  joined  the  coa- 
lition), and  (under  Custine)  had  taken  the  fortified  city  of 
Mainz  (Mayence), 

(298.)  2.  War  against  the  grand  coalition,  to 
the  peace  of  Bale  (1793— 1795).— After  the  execution 
of  Louis  XVI.,  all  the  European  powers,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Sweden,  Denmark,  Turkey,  and  the  Swiss  confed- 
eration, formed  a  grand  coalition  against  France, 
headed  by  England  (under  the  administration  of  Pitt). 

(299.)  a.  The  war  in  Belgium,  on  the  Lower  Rhine 
and  in  Holland. — The  Austrians  opened  the  campaign  of 
1 793  with  the  re-conquest  of  Belgium.  Whilst  Dumouriez 
was  invading  Holland  from  Belgium,  the  Austrians  (under 
the  Prince  of  Coburg)  had  defeated  the  French  (who  had 
penetrated  as  far  as  Roer),  near  Aldenhoven  (March  1), 
and  driven  them  back  to  the  Maas.  Having  received  in-" 
telligence  from  Paris  of  this  movement,  Dumouriez  quitted 
Holland,  and  advanced  to  the  assistance  of  the  defeated 
army.  On  the  18th  of  March  he  lost  the  battle  of  No- 
erwinden,  and,  in  consequence,  the  whole  of  Belgium; 
whilst  the  Prussians  (under  Kalkreuth)  regained  posses- 
sion of  Mainz.  Dumouriez,  who  had  long  been  dissatis- 
fied with  the  proceedings  of  the  Mountain  pari^,  proposed 
to  his  army  the  restoration  of  monarchy  in  France,  and, 
on  their  refusing  to  follow  him,  went  over  to  the  Austri- 
ans, and  soon  afterwards  took  refuge  in  England.  The  ad- 
vantage which  the  French  derived  from  their  superior 
numbers  (in  consequence  of  the  conscription),  and  from 
the  revival  by  Carnot  of  the  old  system,  of  forming  in 
masses  instead  of  lines,  enabled  Jourdan,  after  twice  de- 
feating the  Austrians  at  Wattignies  (Oct.  15  and  16,  1793), 
and  once  at  F leu rus  (where  the  Austrian  position  was 
watched  from  an  air-balloon),  gradually  to  drive  the  Aus- 
trians out  of  the  Netherlands,  and  compel  them  to  recross 
the  Rhine.  Having  reached  the  Main,  the  Austrian  army 
halted,  gave  battle  to  Jourdan  (near  Hochst),  and  com- 
pelled him  to  return  across  the  Rhine  into  France.  From 
Belgium,  Pichegru,  taking  advantage  of  an  unusually  se- 
vere winter,  and  the  support  of  an  anti-Orange  party,  in- 
vaded Holland,  and,  after  the  flight  of  the  hereditary 
Stattholder,  established  (1795)  a  Batavian  Republic, 


300,301.    §46.]  THE    REPUBLIC.  159 

which  concluded  an  alliance  offensive  and  defensive  with 
France. 

(300.)  b.  In  the  war  on  the  Upper  and  Middle  Rhine 
the  French  were  at  first  unfortunate :  but  a  dispute  soon 
afterwards  arising  between  the  Austrians  and  Prussians, 
and  the  Prussian  army  being  weakened  by  the  sending 
several  detachments  into  Poland,  whilst,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  French  had  united  the  armies  of  the  Moselle 
and  Rhine,  the  allies  were  compelled,  notwithstanding 
some  advantages  gained  in  the  neighborhood  of  Kaiserlau- 
tern,  to  abandon  all  their  conquests  except  Luxemburg 
and  Mainz  (which  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Germans), 
and  recross  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Prussia  con- 
cluded a  separate  peace  (1795)  at  Bale,  and  consented  to 
leave  her  trans-Rhenish  provinces  in  the  hands  of  the 
French,  until  peace  was  proclaimed  between  France  and  the 
empire.  Tuscany  had  already  (Feb.  9)  concluded  a  peace 
with  the  republic  ;  and  was  followed  by  Spain,  on  the  ad- 
vance of  the  French  to  the  borders  of  Old  Castille.  The 
Spanish  government  not  only  consented  to  recognize  the 
French  republic  a  European  power,  but  was  mean  enough 
to  purchase  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  from 
Spain,  by  the  cession  of  the  Spanish  portion  of  St.  Do- 
mingo. For  his  services  in  negotiating  this  peace,  the 
King  conferred  on  his  favorite  Godoy,  the  title  of  "  Prince 
of  the  Peace"  ("  Principe  de  la  Paz").  In  the  naval  war 
alone,  which  began  with  the  capture  of  Toulon  by  an 
English  and  Spanish  fleet,  the  French  were  compelled  to 
acknowledge  the  superiority  of  the  English,  who  defeated 
a  French  fleet  off  Ushant,  and  wrested  from  the  republic 
most  of  its  colonies  in  the  East  and  West  Indies  (and,  for 
a  short  time,  Corsica). 

(301.)  3.  Continuation  of  the  war  against  Aus- 
tria, the  German  empire,  England,  Naples,  and 
Sardinia  (1796 — 1797). — In  order  to  compel  Austria 
and  the  empire  to  conclude  a  peace,  the  Directory  renewed 
the  war,  at  the  suggestion  of  Carnot,  with  a  threefold  at- 
tack on  Austria.  In  the  spring  of  1796,  two  armies 
marched  from  France  into  Germany ;  the  first  (the  army 
of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse),  under  Jour  dan,  from  the 
Lower  Rhine  into  Franconia  ;  the  second,  under  Moreau 


160  MODERN   HISTORY.  [302,  303.    §  46. 

(who  had  replaced  Pichegru,  in  consequence  of  the  sus- 
picious conduct  .of  the  latter  at  the  siege  of  Mainz),  across 
the  Upper  Rhine  through  Swabia  and  Bavaria ;  whilst  a 
third  (under  Napoleon  Bonaparte)  was  ordered  to  advance 
from  Italy  into  Austria,  through  the  Tyrol. 

(302.)  The  campaign  of  the  French  in  Germany  be- 
gan auspiciously,  the  two  armies  advancing  rapidly  as  far 
as  Bavaria;  but  here  the  Archduke  Charles  (brother 
of  the  Emperor  Francis  II.),  who  had  concentrated  his 
forces  by  judiciously  retreating  before  Jourdan,  as  far  as 
the  frontiers  of  Bohemia,  and  had  also  received. reinforce- 
ments from  the  interior,  assumed  the  offensive,  and  defeated 
Jourdan  at  Amburg  and  Wurzburg  so  decidedly,  that  the 
French  general  was  unable  to  rally  his  scattered  forces, 
until  he  reached  the  Sieg,  where  he  laid  down  the  command. 
The  Archduke  now  directed  his  march  against  Moreau, 
who  avoided  an  engagement  with  a  superior  force  by  a 
masterly  retreat  to  the  Upper  Rhine.  In  the  year  1797, 
Hoche  (near  Neuwied)  and  Moreau  again  crossed  the 
Rhine,  but  the  intelligence  of  the  armistice  concluded  by 
Napoleon  (see  page  163)  checked  their  further  advance. 

(303.)  In  Italy,  the  triumph  of  the  French  arms  was 
complete,  under  Napoleon  Bonaparte  (then  in  his 
twenty-seventh  year),  who  had  received  from  the  Director 
Barras  the  hand  of  the  widowed  Duchess  Josephine  Beau- 
harnais,  together  with  the  command  in  chief  of  the  Italian 
army.  At  the  head  of  an  army  of  40,000  men,  Napoleon 
entered  Italy  between  the  Alps  and  Apennines,  defeated 
a  more  numerous  and  better  appointed  Austrian  force  (un- 
der Beaulieu,  a  veteran  of  seventy-two),  at  Montenotte 
(April  12)  separated  by  the  victory  of  Millesimo  (a  col- 
lective name  for  the  battles  fought  between  April  13  and 
15)  the  Sardinian  from  the  Austrian  army,  and  compelled 
(after  the  victory  of  Mondovi)  the  King  of  Sardinia  (Vic- 
tor Amadeus)  to  cede  Savoy  and  Nice  to  the  republic,  and 
admit  French  garrisons  into  all  the  most  important  for- 
troFHea  of  Piedmont. 


304,305.  §46.]  THE  REPUBLIC. 


161 


(305.)  Napoleon  then  pursued  the  retreating  Austri- 
ans  across  the  Po,  stormed  the  bridge  of  Lodi,  and  entered 
Milan.  The  Dukes  of  Modena  and  Parma  purchased  an 
insecure  armistice  by  heavy  contributions,  and  the  sacri- 
fice of  several  treasures  of  art.  Having  driven  back  Beau- 
lieu  as  far  as  the  passes  of  the  Tyrol,  Napoleon  (during 
the  interval  which  must  elapse  before  he  could  procure  a 


162  MODERN  msTony.         [306,307.  §46. 

battering  train  sufficiently  strong  for  an  attack  on  Mantua, 
the  only  fortress  still  remaining  in  the  hands  of  the  Aus- 
trians)  marched  into  central  Italy,  a  movement  which  com- 
pelled the  court  of  Naples  to  declare  itself  neutral,  and 
forced  the  Pope,  who  was  threatened  with  an  attack  in  his 
own  capital,  to  purchase  the  forbearance  of  the  French,  by 
the  sacrifice  of  considerable  sums  of  money  and  treasures 
of  art,  together  with  the  cities  of  Ferrara  and  Bologna. 
The  Austrians  were  still  in  possession  of  Mantua,  which 
stands  in  the  midst  of  a  lake  formed  by  the  waters  of 
the  Mincio,  and  is  surrounded  by  extensive  marshes. 
After  four  ineffectual  attempts  had  been  made  to  raise  the 
siege,  General  Wurmser  deemed  further  resistance  useless, 
and  surrendered  the  city  to  the  French,  on  Feb,  2,  1797. 
The  first  of  these  attempts  were  made  by  the  veteran 
Wurmser,  who  quitted  Mantua,  in  order  to  form  a  junction 
with  Quosdanowich,  but  was  defeated  near  Castiglione, 
and  driven  back  to  the  valley  of  the  Etsch  ;  the  second 
by  Wurmser  and  Davidowich,  the  former  of  whom  was  de- 
feated at  B a  s s a n o,  the  latter  at  Hovered o.  Wurmser 
then  threw  himself  into  Mantua,  which  was  closely  invested 
by  the  French.  In  the  third  attempt,  the  armies  of  Al- 
vinzi  and  Davidowich  were  defeated  before  they  could  ef- 
fect a  junction;  the  first  at  A r cola  (where  Napoleon, 
with  a  standard  in  his  hand,  stormed  the  bridge  at  the 
head  of  his  grenadiers),  the  other  at  Rivoli.  After  the 
defeat  of  a  fourth  army  with  immense  loss,  in  a  second  en- 
gagement at  Rivoli,  the  garrison  of  Mantua  capitulated. 

(306.)  During  this  siege,  the  Duke  of  Modena  was 
accused  by  Napoleon  of  having  supplied  the  garrison  with 
provisions,  and  deprived  of  his  duchy,  which  now  formed, 
in  conjunction  with  the  two  papal  legations  of  Ferrara 
and  Bologna,  a  French  province,  called  the  Cispadane  Re- 
public. After  the  surrender  of  Mantua,  the  Pope,  who 
had  been  making  preparations  for  an  attack  on  the  French, 
was  compelled  to  purchase  an  inglorious  peace  (at  Tolen- 
tino),  by  the  sacrifice  of  Avignon  and  the  Ramagna,  and 
the  payment  of  fifteen  millions  of  livres. 

(307.)  Having  thus  secured  his  rear,  Napoleon  ad- 
vanced to  meet  the  Archduke  Charles,  who  retired  before 
him  through  Carinthia  and  Styria  to  Judenburg  (within 


308, 309.  §  47.]  THE  REPUBLIC,  163 

eighteen  G-erman  miles  of  Vienna) ;  but,  being  cut  off 
from  Italy  in  consequence  of  insurrections  in  the  Tyrol 
and  the  Venetian  states,  the  republican  general  concluded, 
first  an  armistice  (at  Leoben),  and  then,  after  long  negoti- 
ations, a  peace  with  Austria,  at  CampoFormio,  on  Oct. 
17,  1797.  The  Netherlands  were  given  up  to  the  French, 
and  Lombardy,  with  a  part  of  the  Venetian  territory,  Mo- 
dena,  and  the  three  legations, became  the  Cisalpine  Re- 
public, which  was  governed  by  a  board  of  five  directors. 
In  return  for  these  sacrifices  the  Emperor  received  the 
republican  city  of  Venice,  with  its '  continental  territory, 
ar  far  as  the  Etsch,  and  was  permitted  to  retain  Istria  and 
Dalmatia,  which  had  been  wrested  from  the  Venetians  by 
Austria  during  the  armistice. 

(308.)  The  Venetian  islands  on  the. coast  of  G-reece 
(Corfu,  Zante,  Cephalonia,  &c.)  were  ceded  to  France. 
The  Duke  of  Modena  received  the  Breisgau  from  Austria, 
as  a  compensation  for  the  loss  of  his  duchy.  It  was  also 
agreed  that  a  congress  should  be  held  at  Rastadt,  for  the 
conclusion  of  peace  between  France  and  the  German  em- 
pire. Genoa  was  compelled  to  receive  a  democratic  con- 
stitution, and  was  styled  the  Ligurian  Republic.  The 
war  with  England  was  carried  on  languidly,  in  consequence 
of  the  wretched  state  of  the  French  marine. 

§  47.  Eastern  Europe. 

(309.)  1.  Fall  of  Poland. — Russia,  being  engaged 
at  the  same  time  in  wars  with  Turkey  and  Sweden,  the 
Poles  deemed  this  a  favorable  opportunity  for  emancipat- 
ing themselves  from  the  Russian  yoke,  and  remedying  the 
defects  of  the  constitution,  which  had  been  guaranteed  to 
them  by  Russia.  Encouraged  by  the  promise  of  assist- 
ance from  Prussia,  the  Polish  nation  proclaimed,  on  May 
3,  1791,  a  new  constitution,  by  which  the  liberum  vetow&s 
abrogated,  and  the  throne  declared  hereditary;  but  no 
sooner  had  Russia  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Porte,  than 
the  Empress  instigated  the  enemies  of  Polish  independ- 
ence (Potocki  aud  others),  to  form  a  confederation  for  the 
restoration  of  the  ancient  constitution.  At  the  same 
time,  Poland  was  invaded  by  a  Russian  army,  to  which 


164  MODERN    HISTORY.  [310,311.    §47. 

the  undisciplined  troops  commanded  by  Joseph  Ponia- 
towski  (nephew  of  the  king),  and  Thaddaeus  Kosciuszko, 
offered  a  feeble  and  ineffectual  resistance.  Terrified  by 
these  hostile  demonstrations  on  the  part  of  Russia,  the 
King  became  a  party  to  the  confederation  of  Targowitz, 
forbade  any  further  resistance,  and  gave  his  assent  to  the 
abrogation  of  the  new  constitution. 

(310.)  Meanwhile  the  King  of  Prussia,  anxious  to 
avoid  a  war  with  Russia  and  France  at  the  same  time,  not 
only  refused  to  render  further  assistance  to  the  Poles,  but 
even  invaded  their  country,  with  the  avowed  object  of 
stemming  the  tide  of  Jacobinism,  and  issued  a  proclama- 
tion, stating  that  the  safety  of  his  dominions  required  the 
restriction  within  narrower  bounds  of  the  territory  of  the 
Polish  republic.  To  encourage  Prussia  in  her  resistance 
to  the  French  revolutionists,  and  prevent  her  entertaining 
any  further  thoughts  of  rendering  assistance  to  the  Poles, 
a  second  partition  of  Poland  was  arranged  between 
Russia  and  Prussia  (1793),  the  former  power  receiving  the 
half  of  Lithuania  (4000  sq.  [German]  miles),  and  the  lat- 
ter the  greater  part  of  Great  Poland  (southern  Prussia), 
with  the  cities  of  Dantzic  and  Thorn  (altogether  1 000  sq. 
miles). l  Early  in  the  following  spring,  the  Poles  again 
took  up  arms,  put  to  death  or  made  prisoners  the  Russian 
soldiers  who  composed  the  garrison  at  Warsaw,  and  chose 
Kosciuszko  to  be  their  leader. 

(311.)  On  receiving  intelligence  of  this  outbreak, 
Frederick  William  II.  immediately  entered  Poland  at  the 
head  of  a  Prussian  army,  defeated  Kosciuszko  and  stormed 
Cracow,  but  was  compelled  to  abandon  the  siege  of  War- 
saw, in  consequence  of  an  insurrection  in  Southern  Prussia. 
Meanwhile  Poland  was  invaded  by  a  considerable  Austri- 
an force  and  two  Russian  armies,  under  Fersen  and  Su- 
warrow.  To  prevent  the  junction  of  these  Russian  ar- 
mies,'Kosciuszko  attacked  General  Fersen,  at  Maciejowice, 
but  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  (f  in  Switzerland,  in 
1817).  The  city  of  Prague  was  stormed  by  Suwarrow, 
and  the  struggle  terminated  by  the  capitulation  of  War- 

1  The  German  mile  is  of  two  descriptions,  the  long  and  the  short : 
the  long  mile  is  equal  to  10,126  yards ;  the  short,  6,859  yards. — S. 


312—314.  §48.]       EASTERN  EUROPE.  165 

saw,  and  the  abdication  of  King  Stanislaus  Poniatowski 
(f  1798,  at  St.  Petersburg),  At  length,  after  protracted 
negotiations,  a  third  and  final  partition  of  Poland 
was  arranged  between  the  three  powers  (1795),  the  Vistula 
to  separate  Prussia  and  Austria ;  the  Bug,  Austria  and 
Russia  ;  and  the  Niemen,  Prussia  and  Russia.  Warsaw 
was  given  to  Prussia. 

(312.)  2.  Prussia. — Frederick  William  II. 
(1786 — 1797)  took  an  active  part  in  the  disastrous  war 
against  France  in  1792,  as  well  as  in  the  Polish  war  of 
1794.  The  former  cost  him  his  possessions  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine ;  whilst  in  the  latter  he  acquired,  be- 
sides the  cities  of  Dantzic  and  Thorn,  a  fresh  portion  of 
Poland,  out  of  which  were  formed  the  provinces  of  South- 
ern and  New  Prussia,  separated  from  one  another  by  the 
river  Vistula.  A  small  part  of  this  territory  was  added  to 
Silesia.  Frederick  became  possessor  also  of  the  princi- 
palities of  Anspach  and  Baireuth,  which  had  been  ceded 
to  the  electoral  line  by  the  last  Brandenburg-Franconian 
Margrave,  in  1 792.  Frederick  William  II.  was  succeeded, 
iu  1797,  by  his  son,  Frederick  William  III.,  who  en- 
deavored, by  the  maintenance  of  peace,  to  replenish  the 
exchequer,  which  had  been  exhausted  by  the  wars  of  his 
predecessor. 

(313.)  In  Russia,  Catherine  II.  was  succeeded  by 
her  son,  Paul  I.  (1796—1801) ;  and  in  Sweden,  G-usta- 
vus  III.  by  his  son,  Gustavus  IV.  (1792—1809). 

§  48.   The  French  Directory. 
(Oct.  27,  1795— Dec.  15,  1799.) 

(314.)  The  five  directors  (among  whom  were  Rewbel, 
Barras,  and  Carnot)  found  the  finances  of  the  republic 
completely  exhausted,  the  assignats  having  become  value- 
less since  the  termination  of  the  reign  of  terror.  To  meet 
this  difficulty,  a  new  description  of  paper  money  (territo- 
rial mandates,  i.  e.  bills  exchangeable  for  portions  of  the 
national  landed  property)  was  issued,  to  the  extent  of 
2400  millions.  But  the  public  had  long  since  abandoned 
all  confidence  in  paper  money,  and  after  a  few  months  the 
mandates  lost  even  the  slight  value  which  they  had  origi- 


166  MODERN   HISTORY.         [315 317.    §48. 

nally  possessed,  and  occasioned  a  second  time  the  ruin  of 
thousands. 

(315.)  The  failure  of  these  measures,  and  the  con- 
tempt in  which  the  directory  was  held,  on  account  of  its 
wavering  policy,  occasioned  the  formation,  in  the  councils 
of  the  Ancients  and  of  the  500,  of  a  royalist  opposition, 
composed  of  adherents  of  the  constitution  of  1791.  At 
the  same  time,  a  party  was  formed  in  the  directory  itself, 
by  Carnot  and  Barthelemy,  against  their  three  colleagues. 
After  a  long  and  violent  struggle  between  the  re-action 
party  and  the  republicans,  the  latter,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  army,  arrested  and  banished  all  their  adversaries 
(except  Carnot  and  Barthelemy,  who  saved  themselves  by 
flight),  and  annulled  several  of  the  acts  passed  by  the 
royalist  re-action  party. 

(316.)  Finding  it  necessary  to  engage  the  nation  in 
foreign  wars  in  order  to  withdraw  public  attention  from 
the  ruin  which  threatened  them  at  home,  the  directory 
broke  off  the  negotiations  which  it  had  commenced  with 
England,  and  voted  the  establishment  of  an  "  army  of 
England,"  under  General  Bonaparte,  whom  they  hoped  to 
withdraw  from  the  capital,  by  giving  him  a  distant  com- 
mand. Whilst  the  assemblage  of  troops  in  all  the  sea- 
port towns  of  the  northwest  of  France  seemed  to  indicate 
an  intention  of  invading  England,  Bonaparte  was  secretly 
making  preparations  in  the  southern  ports  for  an  expedi- 
tion against  Egypt,  intending,  after  subduing  and  coloniz- 
ing that  country,  to  attack  the  English  in  the  East  Indies, 
where  Tippoo  Sahib  had  renewed  the  war,  which  termi- 
nated (1799)  in  the  ruin  of  the  kingdom  of  Mysore,  and 
the  extension  of  the  British  dominions  in  India. 

Bonaparte's  Expedition  against  Egypt  and  Syria. 
(1798  and  1799.) 

(317.)  On- May  19,  1798,  Bonaparte,  at  the  head  of 
35,000  men,  the  flower  of  his  victorious  Italian  army, 
sailed  from  Toulon,  accompanied  by  his  brother  Louis, 
Generals  Berthier  and  Kleber  (who  were  afterwards  joined 
by  Dessaix),  and  a  host  of  distinguished  savants  and  art- 
ists. Notwithstanding  the  vigilance  of  Nelson,  the  French 


318.    $48.  EASTERN    EUROPE.  167 

fleet  was  joined  by  flotillas  from  Corsica  and  Civita  Vec- 
chia,  and  Bonaparte,  after  wresting  Malta  from  the  Knights 
of  St.  John,  landed  at  Alexandria  on  July  1,  and  stormed 
the  city.  After  enduring  many  fatigues  and  hardships  in 
crossing  the  desert,  the  French  army  reached  Cairo,  which 
they  occupied,  after  defeating,  in  the  battle  of  the  Pyr- 
amids, the  Mamelukes  (descendants  of  slaves  from  the 
Caucasus),  whose  twenty-three  Beys  governed  Egypt  as 
vassals  of  the  Porte.  Meanwhile  Dessaix  advanced  as  far 
as  the  southern  frontier  of  Egypt,  towards  Syene :  and 
Napoleon  was  already  occupied  in  the  organization  of  the 
conquered  territory,  when  intelligence  reached  him  that 
the  French  fleet  had  been  annihilated  by  Admiral  Nel- 
son, in  the  great  battle  of  Aboukir  (Aug.  1),  and  that  the 
French  army,  in  consequence  of  this  disaster,  was  cut  off 
from  all  communication  with  France.  About  the  same 
time  the  populace  of  Cairo,  irritated  beyond  endurance  by 
the  extortions  and  cruelties  of  the  French,  rose  en  masse 
against  their  oppressors,  but  were  defeated  with  terrible 
slaughter.  The  Porte  having  declared  war  against  France, 
in  consequence  of  these  proceedings,  Bonaparte,  anticipat- 
ing the  movements  of  Achmet  Djezzar,  the  blood-thirsty 
pasha  of  Syria  (who  was  making  preparations  for  an  in- 
vasion of  Egypt),  entered  that  country  (February,  J  799) 
and  stormed  Jaffa  (where  3200  Turkish  prisoners  were 
massacred),  but  was  foiled  in  his  attempts  on  Acre,  the 
key  of  Syria,  which  was  defended  by  the  English  Com- 
modore, Sir  Sydney  Smith,  and  two  French  engineers. 
After  eight  unsuccessful  attacks,  Bonaparte,  who  had  re- 
ceived intelligence  of  an  insurrection  in  Upper  Egypt,  and 
the  appearance  of  a  Turkish  fleet  on  the  coast,  withdrew 
his  army,  which  had  suffered  grievously  from  the  plague, 
and  returned  across  the  Syrian  desert  to  Egypt. 

(318.)  Having  defeated  the  Turkish  army,  which  had 
landed  at  Aboukir,  Bonaparte  quitted  Egypt  in  August, 
1799,  leaving  Kleber  in  command  of  the  army,  and,  after 
a  second  time  baffling  the  vigilance  of  the  British  admiral, 
arrived  in  France.  Kleber,  after  gaining  a  brilliant  vic- 
tory (with^lO^OO  men)  over  the  Grand  Vizier,  who  had 
advanced  from  Syria  as  far  as  Heliopolis,  at  the  head  of 
more  than  70,000  men,  was  assassinated  (on  the  day  of 


1 68  MODERN   HISTORY.  [393,  320.   $  48. 

the  battle  of  Marengo,  June  14,  1800),  by  a  fanatic  named 
Solyman,  of  Aleppo.  Meanwhile  Dessaix  had  returned 
to  France. 

(319.)  Establishment  of  new  republics. — The 
vielent  proceedings  of  the  directory  had  produced  a  fresh 
coalition  of  the  European  powers  against  France.  At 
Rome,  the  death  of  a  French  general  (Duphot),  during  a 
popular  insurrection  which  he  had  headed,  afforded  the  di- 
rectory a  welcome  pretext  for  sending  an  army,  under  Ber- 
thier,  to  occupy  the  States  of  the  Church  ;  and  establish- 
ing (with  the  consent,  as  they  pretended,  of  the  Roman 
people)  a  Roman  Republic,  governed,  after  the  French 
model,  by  six  consuls,  a  senate,  and  a  tribunate.  Soon 
after  this  revolution  the  Pope,  Pius  VI.,  was  removed  to 
Valence,  in  France,  where  he  died  in  1799.  Measures 
equally  unjustifiable  were  adopted  for  the  destruction  of 
the  Swiss  Confederation.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Pays  de  Vaud  were  encouraged  to  renounce  their  allegi- 
ance to  the  aristocratic  Canton  of  Berne  (the  capital  of 
which  was  occupied  by  a  French  garrison),  and  the  whole 
of  Switzerland  (with  the  exception  of  Geneva,  which  was 
incorporated  into  the  French  republic  as  the  department 
of  Lcman)  was  proclaimed  a  republic,  with  a  democratic 
government  of  directors,  a  senate,  and  a  grand  council. 
In  conformity  with  a  secret  article  introduced,  with  the 
consent  of  Austria,  into  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  the 
German  empire  was  deprived  of  all  its  possessions  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  Piedmont  was  taken  from 
the  King  of  Sardinia.  For  the  war  of  the  second 
Coalition  against  France,  see  &  49. 

(320.)  Dissolution  of  the  Directory. — Under 
the  administration,  at  once  feeble  and  despotic,  of  a  gov- 
ernment so  incapable  as  the  French  directory,  the  discon- 
tent produced  by  the  imposition  of  the  most  oppressive 
taxes,  as  well  as  by  the  insecurity  of  property,  the  stagna- 
tion of  their  home  trade,  the  corrupt  administration  of 
justice,  and  the  destruction  of  their  ecclesiastical  estab- 
lishment, had  rapidly  increased  during  the  absence  of  Bo- 
naparte in  Egypt.  On  the  arrival,  therefore,  of  that  gen- 
eral in  France,  the  nation  eagerly  welcomed  him  as  their 
deliverer,  and  empowered  him,  in  conjunction  with  Sieyes, 


321.   §49.  EASTERN    EUROPE.  169 

and  a  majority  of  the  council  of  Ancients,  to  effect  such 
a  change  in  the  constitution  as  should  place  the  supreme 
power  in  his  hands.  An  attempt,  which  was  discovered 
and  frustrated,  to  overthrow  the  new  constitution,  fur- 
nished the  two  councils  with  an  excuse  for  adjourning 
their  session  to  St.  Cloud,  which  was  guarded  by  a  mili- 
tary force  under  Bonaparte.  Of  the  five  directors,  two 
(Sieyes  and  Roger-Ducos)  supported  Bonaparte,  on  condi- 
tion of  their  being  appointed  consuls  ;  Barras  resigned  ; 
and  the  two  others  were  thrown  into  prison,  on  the  18th 
Brumaire  (Nov.  9,  1799).  On  the  following  day,  the  con- 
test between  the  republicans  and  Bonapartists  was  carried 
on  with  such  violence  in  the  assembly  of  Five  Hundred, 
of  which  Lucien  Bonaparte  was  president  (for  the  month 
Brumaire),  that  Napoleon  almost  despaired  of  success ; 
but,  by  the  exertions  of  himself  and  his  brother  Lucien 
(who  spread  a  report  that  the  republicans  intended  to  as- 
sassinate the  general),  the  co-operation  of  the  army  was 
secured,  and  Bonaparte,  at  the  head  of  a  large  force,  en- 
tered the  hall  in  which  the  Five  Hundred  were  assembled, 
and  compelled  them  to  terminate  their  session.  The  three 
directors  were  then  nominated  a  provisional  government 
by  their  adherents  in  the  two  councils,  and  a  commission 
was  appointed  to  prepare  a  new  (fourth)  constitution.  On 
Dec.  24,  Bonaparte  was  appointed  first  Consul  for 
ten  years,  with  two  colleagues,  Cambaceres  and  Lebrun, 
who  were  to  act  merely  as  his  advisers.  All  projects  of 
law  were  to  be  submitted  by  the  Consuls  to  a  tribunate 
of  100  members,  for  their  advice  ;  and  to  a  legislative 
corps  of  300,  for  confirmation  or  rejection  (without 
debate). 

$  49.    War  of  the  second  Coalition  against  France. 
(1799—1802.) 

(321.)  The  Emperor  had  ceded,  as  we  have  already  men- 
tioned, the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  secret  articles  in  the  treaty  of  Campo  For- 
mio,  Salzburg  and  a  considerable  portion  of  Bavaria  being 
promised  to  him  as  a  compensation.  An  imperial  deputa- 
tion, which  protested  against  |his  alienation  of  German 


170  MODERN    HISTORY.  [322.    $  49. 

territory  at  the  congress  of  Rastadt,  was  compelled  not 
only  to  acquiesce  in  the  decision  of  the  congress,  but  even 
to  sanction  the  secularization  of  all  the  ecclesiastical  seign- 
ories  of  Germany,  by  way  of  indemnification  to  the  impe- 
rial cities  and  princes  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine. 
Meanwhile  anew,  and,  in  some  respects,  unnatural  coali- 
tion had  been  formed  (during  the  absence  of  Bonaparte 
in  Syria  and  Egypt)  between  England,  the  Russian  Em- 
peror Paul  (on  whom  the  Knights  of  Malta  had  con- 
ferred the  grand  mastership  of  their  order  after  their  ex- 
pulsion from  the  island),  the  Porte  (in  consequence  of 
the  attack  on  Egypt),  Austria  (on  account  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  republics  in  the  States  of  the  Church  and  in 
Switzerland),  and  Naples.  In  consequence  of  the  forma- 
tion of  this  coalition,  the  negotiations  for  peace  were  bro- 
ken off",  and  the  Congress  of  Rastadt  terminated  with  the 
mysterious  assassination  of  the  French  plenipotentiaries 
(1799) — Bebret,  Bonnier,  and  Roberjot.  Most  of  the 
German  princes  of  the  empire,  especially  the  spiritual, 
who  saw  no  other  chance  of  reversing  the  secularization, 
determined  to  take  part  in  the  war,  whilst  the  northern 
sovereigns',  including  Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia, 
observed  a  strict  neutrality. 

(322.)  The  plan  of  the  allies  was  to  send  a  Russo- 
Austrian  army,  under  Suwarrow  and  Melas,  into  Italy; 
a  Russo-English,  under  the  Duke  of  York,  into  the  N  e- 
therlands;  and  an  Austrian,  under  the  Archduke 
Charles,  into  Southern  Germany  and  Switzerland; 
for  the  purpose  of  expelling  the  French  from  all  those 
countries.  The  Neapolitans  (under  Mack)  commenced  the 
war  with  an  invasion  of  the  Roman  republic,  from  which 
they  were  soon  compelled  to  retire.  On  the  advance  of 
the  French,  the  King  of  Naples  fled  to  Sicily,  leaving  his 
capital  in  the  hands  of  General  Championnet,  who  changed 
the  kingdom  into  a  Parthenopoean  Republic  (Jan.  25, 
1799).  The  directory  then  declared  war  against  the  allies, 
and  dispatched  an  army  to  the  Rhine,  under  Bernadotte  ; 
another  to  the  Danube,  under  Jourdan  (who  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  Moreau) ;  a  third  into  Italy,  under  Scherer ;  and 
a  fourth  into  Switzerland,  under  Massena,  who  wrested  the 
country  of  the  Grisons  from  Austria,  and  established  a 


323.    $  49.  EASTERN   EUROPE.  171 

communication  between  the  French  armies  in  Italy  and  in 
Southern  Germany.  Macdonald  was  also  stationed  at  Na- 
ples, and  Brune  in  Holland. 

(323.)  1.  The  War  in  Italy.— Before  the  arrival 
of  the  Russians,  the  Austrian  army,  under  General  Kray, 
had  defeated  Scherer,  who  was  endeavoring  to  force  the 
passage  of  the  Etsch,  and  were  in  the  act  of  attacking  his 
successor  Moreau,  near  Cassano,  when  the  arrival  of  Su- 
warrow  completed  the  discomfiture  of  the  French.  Lom- 
bardy  and  Piedmont  were  occupied  by  Russian  troops  ;  the 
Cisalpine  republic  abolished ;  and  a  French  army,  under 
Macdonald  (who  had  quitted  Naples,  in  the  hope  of  effect- 
ing a  junction  with  Moreau),  was  defeated  after  three  days' 
hard  fighting  on  the  banks  of  the  Trebia :  whereupon  the 
ancient  constitution  was  re-established  at  Naples,  and  soon 
afterwards  at  Rome  (under  Pius  VII. ),  and  in  Tuscany. 
After  defeating  a  French  army,  under  Joubert,  who  fell  in 
the  action,  Suwarrow  crossed  the  Alps,  for  the  purpose  of 
driving  the  French  out  of  Switzerland.  At  the  end  of  the 
year,  1799,  nothing  remained  to  the  French  of  their  Ital- 
ian conquests  except  Genoa ;  but  in  the  following  year 
Berthier,  assisted  by  Bonaparte  (in  the  famous  campaign 
of  forty  days),  led  an  army  of  reserve,  as  it  was  called,  in 
several  divisions  over  the  passes  of  the  two  St.  Bernards, 
the  Simplon  and  the  St.  Gothard,  into  Italy  (where  Mas- 
sena  was  blockaded  in  Genoa),  and  took  the  Austrians  in 
the  rear,  whilst  Bonaparte  entered  Milan,  and  re-estab- 
lished the  republic.  No  choice  therefore  remained  for 
Melas,  but  to  throw  himself  into  Genoa  (of  which  the  Aus- 
trians had  obtained  possession),  or  cut  his  way  through 
Bonaparte's  army.  Having  resolved  to  adopt  the  latter 
course,  he  engaged  the  French  at  Marengo,  near  Ales- 
sandria, and  had  already  repulsed  the  enemy,  when  the 
battle  was  renewed  by  Dessaix,  whose  death  served  only  to 
stimulate  his  soldiers  to  greater  exertions.  The  Austri- 
ans now  gave  way  in  their  turn,  and  their  discomfiture  was 
completed  by  the  arrival  of  Kellerman,  who  suffered  Melas 
to  withdraw  the  remains  of  his  army  from  the  field,  on 
condition  of  his  evacuating  all  the  fortresses  of  Piedmont, 
Genoa,  Lombardy,  and  the  Legations,  and  retiring  to 
Mantua.  Bonaparte  now  established  provisional  govern- 


172  MODERN    HISTORY.  [324,  325.    $  49. 

ments  in  Milan,  Turin,  and  Genoa,  and.  having  nominated 
Massena  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Italy,  returned 
to  Paris. 

(324.)  2.  The  War  in  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land.— Here,  also,  the  Austrians  were  at  first  victorious. 
The  Archduke  Charles  drove  the  army  of  the  Danube 
across  the  Rhine,  and  compelled  Massena,  who  had  entered 
the  country  of  the  Grisons,  to  retreat  beyond  Zurich. 
Meanwhile  Suwarrow,  after  several  obstinate  combats  with 
the  French  (in  the  valley  of  the  Reuss,  at  the  Devil's- 
bridge,  &c.),  had  entered  Switzerland  by  the  pass  of  St. 
Gothard;  but  finding  the  country  in  the  occupation  of 
Soult  and  Massena  (who  had  defeated  a  division  of  the 
Austrian  army  and  a  Russian  army  under  Korsakow),  he 
was  compelled,  after  a  succession  of  skirmishes  and  ha- 
rassing marches,  to  withdraw  his  exhausted  troops  into 
the  country  of  the  Grisons,  and  return  to  Russia  through 
Upper  Swabia.  In  the  year  1800,  Moreau  drove  the  Aus- 
trians (under  Kray)  back  to  the  Inn,  and  after  defeating 
the  Archduke  Charles  in  the  forest  of  Hohenlinden  (Dec. 
3),  advanced  to  within  twenty  German  miles  of  Vienna. 

(325.)  On  Feb.  9,  1801,  peace  was  concluded  at  Lu- 
neville,  the  Emperor,  on  the  part  of  Austria,  ratifying 
all  the  essential  conditions  of  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio, 
repeating  the  stipulations  entered  into  at  Rastadt,  and 
leaving  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  in  possession  of  the 
French.  A  deputation  of  eight  princes  (five  of  whom 
were  Electors),  appointed  to  consider  the  question  of  in- 
demnification to  those  princes  who  had  been  deprived  of 
their  dominions  during  the  war,  was  compelled,  after  two 
years  spent  in  negotiation,  to  accept  a  plan  proposed 
by  the  French  and  Russian  governments.  By  this 
arrangement  the  hereditary  princes  of  the  empire  were 
indemnified  for  their  losses,  partly  by  a  grant  of  secular- 
ized Church  lands,  and  partly  by  forty-two  mediatized l 
imperial  cities;  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  received 
Salzburg  as  a  compensation  for  the  cession  of  his  territory 

1  The  smaller  German  sovereignties  were  annexed  to  larger  con- 
tiguous states;  this  is  what  is  meant  by  mediatization.  They 
were  mediately  though  not  immediately  dependent  on  the  empire. 
— S. 


326.    $49.]  EASTERN    EUROPE.  173 

to  the  Duke  of  Parma,  and  the  Duke  of  Modena  obtained 
the  Breisgau.  In  this  division,  the  countries  most  favored 
were  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Baden,  and 
Wurtemberg.  For  the  two  last,  with  the  new  grand 
duchy  of  Salzburg  and  Hesse-Cassel,  four  new  electorates 
were  founded,  making  the  total  number  of  electors  ten 
(Cologne  and  Treves  having  been  deprived  of  the  dignity). 
The  unmediatized  cities  were  Hamburg,  Liibeck,  Bremen, 
Frankfort,  Niirnberg,  and  Augsburg. 

(326.)  1.  Prussia  received  the  bishoprics  of  Prader- 
born  and  Hildesheim,  the  portion  of  Thuringia  belonging 
to  Mainz,  a  part  of  Miinster,  several  abbeys  (Quedlinburg, 
Essen,  Werden,  &c.)  and  imperial  cities  (Muhhausen,  Nord- 
hausen,  Goslar,  &c.).  2.  Bavaria  in  return  for  the  pal- 
atinate (on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine),  and  the  duchies  of 
Julich  and  Zweibriicken,  obtained  the  bishoprics  of  Wiirz- 
burg,  Bamberg,  Freisingen,  and  Augsburg  (the  city  of 
Augsburg  remained  unmediatized).  3.  Hesse  shared 
with  Nassau  all  that  remained  of  the  archbishoprics  of 
Cologne,  Treves,  and  Mainz.  4.  Baden  was  indebted  to 
the  relationship  between  its  Grand  Duke  and  the  Emperor 
of  Russia  for  the  whole  of  the  palatinate  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  the  bishopric  of  Constance,  and  the 
remains  of  the  bishoprics  of  Spires,  Basle,  and  Stras- 
burg.  5.  Wurtemberg  was  more  than  indemnified 
for  her  losses  in  Alsace,  by  receiving  several  Swabian 
bishoprics  and  imperial  cities.  6.  Austria  obtained  the 
bishoprics  of  Trent  and  Brixen,  as  an  indemnification  for 
her  cession  of  the  Breisgau.  7.  The  Duke  of  Parma 
received  Tuscany,  with  the  title  of  King  of  Etruria, 
as  a  compensation  for  the  cession  of  his  hereditary  do- 
minions to  France.  8.  Naples  purchased  peace  by  the 
sacrifice  of  some  portion  of  her  territory,  and  consented 
to  close  her  ports  against  the  English,  and  admit  French 
garrisons  into  some  of  her  maritime  towns  (in  order  to  se- 
cure a  place  of  embarkation  for  Egypt).  Bonaparte  was 
appointed  president  of  the  Cisalpine  (now  called  the  Ital- 
ian) republic.  In  Switzerland,  six  new  cantons,  viz.,  the 
Orisons,  Aargau,  Vaud,  St.  Gall,  Thurgau,  and  Tessin  were 
added  to  the  thirteen  which  already  existed.  Vallais  was  an- 
nexed to  France,  on  account  of  the  road  across  the  Simplon. 


174  MODERN   HISTORY.  [327,  328.    §  50. 

(327.)  3.  The  War  with  England.— After  the 
establishment  of  the  Batavian  republic,  and  the  escape  of 
the  hereditary  Stattholder  to  England,  the  commerce  of 
Holland  had  been  grievously  crippled  by  the  English, 
whilst  at  the  same  time  the  country  itself  was  distracted 
by  the  contentions  of  the  republican  and  Orange  parties. 
At  this  crisis  an  English  fleet,  with  the  Prince  of  Orange 
on  board,  having  appeared  off  the  mouth  of  the  Helder,  the 
Batavian  fleet  immediately  joined  the  invaders  ;  but  the  in- 
capacity and  dilatoriness  of  the  Duke  of  York,  who  arrived 
soon  afterwards  with  an  Anglo-Russian  fleet,  occasioned 
the  failure  of  the  whole  undertaking.  The  supremacy  of 
England  in  the  Mediterranean  was  secured  by  the  con- 
quest of  Malta,  and  the  evacuation  of  Egypt  by  the  French, 
in  accordance  with  the  capitulation  concluded  by  Menou, 
in  1 80 1  ;  but  the  refusal  of  the  English  government  to  de- 
liver up  Malta  to  the  Emperor  Paul,  as  Grand  Master  of 
the  Order,  having  produced  a  rupture  with  Russia,  that 
power  immediately  revived  the  armed  maritime  neutrality 
(in  conjunction  with  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Prussia),  and 
England  avenged  herself  by  the  bombardment  of  Copen- 
hagen. The  sudden  death  of  the  Emperor  Paul  (who  was 
succeeded  by  Alexander  I.  1801 — 1825),  and  the  resigna- 
tion of  Pitt,  afforded  a  favorable  opportunity  for  the  ter- 
mination of  hostilities.  In  October,  1801,  peace  was  con- 
cluded by  Russia  with  France  and  England,  and  on  March 
25,  in  the  following  year,  the  English  government,  at  the 
peace  of  Amiens,  relinquished  (in  return  for  the  recog- 
nition by  France  of  the  republic  of  the  seven  Ionian  isles) 
all  her  conquests  except  Trinidad  and  the  Dutch  settle- 
ments in  Ceylon,  engaging,  at  the  same  time,  to  restore 
Malta  to  the  Order,  a  promise  which  was  never  fulfilled. 
To  this  treaty  the  Porte  became  also  a  party  on  June  25. 

§  50.   The  Consular  Government  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 
(From  Nov.  9,  1799,  to  May  18,  1804.) 

(328.)  After  securing  peace  with  foreign  powers  on 
terms  exceedingly  advantageous  and  honorable  to  France, 
the  first  Consul  next  directed  his  attention  to  the  restora- 
tion of  tranquillity  at  home,  and  endeavored  by  a  wise 


328.    $50.]  EASTERN    EUROPE.  175 

moderation  to  reconcile  the  various  parties  in  the  state. 
At  the  same  time,  however,  it  daily  became  more  apparent 
that  his  ultimate  object  was  to  establish  an  absolute  mon- 
archy. Libertyof  speech  and  writing  was  more  and  more 
restricted,  whilst  the  discovery  of  conspiracies,  such,  for 
instance,  as  the  attempt  of  the  Chouans  to  assassinate 
the  first  Consul  by  means  of  the  infernal  machine,  fur- 
nished him  with  a  pretext  for  the  banishment  of  130  re- 
publicans. The  tribunate  was  divided  into  three  sections, 
an  amnesty  proclaimed,  which  enabled  most  of  the  emi- 
grants (more  than  100,000)  to  return,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  worship  re-established  by  virtue  of  a  concordat 
with  Pope  Pius  VII.  An  improvement  was  effected  in 
the  education  of  the  higher  classes,  which  was  placed  un- 
der the  control  of  the  government,  a  new  statute-book  pub- 
lished, called  the  "  Code  Napoleon,"  public  credit  re-estab- 
lished by  means  of  a  sound  financial  system,  and  a  formi- 
dable army  kept  on  foot.  Measures  were  now  adopted  for 
gradually  changing  the  consulship  into  an  absolute  mon- 
archy. The  establishment  of  a  new  order  of  knighthood 
(the  legion  of  honor),  with  a  fixed  endowment,  prepared 
the  way  for  the  restoration  of  hereditary  nobility ;  and, 
immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  at  Amiens,  Na- 
poleon was  elected  Consul  for  life,  by  the  voices  of  three 
and  a  half  millions  of  the  peeple,  and  a  new  constitution 
(the  fifth)  proclaimed,  by  which  absolute  authority  was 
given  to  the  consul,  in  conjunction  with  a  senate,  of  which 
all  the  members  were  his  creatures.  At  the  same  time 
the  legislative  corps  and  tribunate  were  reduced  to  .insig- 
nificance, their  duties  being  restricted  to  the  settlement, 
without  debate,  of  questions  of  civil  law  and  taxation.  A 
conspiracy  set  on  foot  by  Pichegru  and  Georges  (who 
landed  from  English  ships  and  proceeded  to  Paris  by  un- 
frequented roads),  for  the  purpose  of  assassinating  the  first 
Consul,  furnished  an  excuse  for  still  more  daring  encroach- 
ments on  the  liberties  of  the  French  people.  The  con- 
spirators, whose  arrest  was  effected  with  difficulty,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  vagueness  of  the  information  furnished  to 
the  government,  were  brought  before  the  tribunal  of  the 
Seine,  the  trial  by  jury  being  suspended  in  all  cases  of  at- 
tempts on  the  life  of  the  first  Consul.  Piohegru  died  in 


176  MODERN    HISTORY.  [329,330.    $51. 

prison,  probably  by  his  own  hand  ;  Georges  was  executed, 
with  eleven  others;  and  the  sentence  on  Moreau,  who  had 
been  condemned  to  two  years'  imprisonment,  was  commuted 
to  banishment  to  America.  At  the  same  time  the  Duke 
d'Enghien  (the  last  Bourbon  Prince  of  the  line  of  Conde) 
who  had  been  arrested  on  a  charge  of  holding  treasonable 
communication  with  some  English  agents  at  Ettenheim, 
in  the  territory  of  Baden,  was  condemned  without  proof, 
and  shot  at  Vincennes.  Previously  to  these  trials,  the 
tribunate  (with  the  exception  of  Carnot)  and  the  senate 
had  conferred  the  title  of  hereditary  Emperor  of  the 
French  on  N  apoleon  Bonaparte,  who  was  anointed 
by  the  Pope  Dec.  2,  1804,  and  placed  the  imperial  crown 
on  his  own  head  and  that  of  his  consort.  The  constitu- 
tion was  so  modified  as  scarcely  to  deserve  the  name  of  a 
limited  monarchy,  although  a  shadow  of  the  representa- 
tive system  was  retained  in  the  legislative  corps  and  the 
tribunate,  which  was  divided  as  before  into  three  sections. 

III.    The  Empire  (1804— 1814  and  1815). 
§  51.   The  third  Coalition  against  France, 

(329.)  Mutual  complaints  of  the  non-fulfilment  of  the 
conditions  of  the  peace  of  Amiens  (especially  as  regarded 
the  surrender  of  Malta  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John)  pro- 
duced a  rupture  between  France  and  England,  in  the  year 
1803.  The  British  government  having  declared  war,  Bo- 
naparte immediately  took  possession  of  Hanover,  prohib- 
ited the  importation  of  British  manufactures  and  colonial 
produce  into  France  (commencement  of  the  continental 
system),  and  made  preparations  at  Boulogne  for  the  inva- 
sion of  England. 

(330.)  To  meet  this  danger,  Pitt  proposed  the  forma- 
tion of  a  fresh  coalition,  the  operations  of  which  were  fa- 
cilitated by  the  ambitious  policy  adopted  by  Napoleon 
himself;  who  established  an  hereditary  kingdom  of 
Italy,  in  place  of  the  Italian  republic,  and  placed  on  his 
own  head  the  iron  crown  of  Lombardy,  at  Milan,  in  the 
year  1805.  At  the  same  time  his  step-son,  Eugene  Beau- 
harnais,  was  nominated  Viceroy  of  Italy,  and  his  brother- 


331.    $51.]  THE    EMPIRE.  177 

in-law,  Bacciochi,  Duke  of  Lucca.  The  separate  govern- 
ments of  Parma  and  Piacenza  were  suppressed,  and  the 
Ligurian  republic  incorporated  with  France.  On  the 
formation  of  this  third  coalition  (to  which  England, 
Russia,  and,  at  a  later  period,  Austria,  were  parties)  Bo- 
naparte broke  up  his  camp  at  Boulogne,  and  proceeded  by 
forced  marches  to  the  Rhine,  where  he  was  joined  by  the 
Electors  of  Bavaria,  Baden,  and  Wurtemberg. 

(331.)  1.  The  War  in  Germany  (1805).— In  Aus- 
tria (where  the  measures  adopted  by  the  Archduke  Charles 
for  remodelling  the  army  were  still  incomplete,  and  the 
plan  of  the  Archduke  John  for  raising  an  enormous  militia 
force  was  unfavorably  received  by  the  nation)  two  armies 
were  raised,  the  larger  of  which  (120,000  men)  marched 
into  Italy,  under  the  command  of  the  Archduke  Charles, 
to  await  the  arrival  of  Napoleon,  whilst .  the  smaller  (80,- 
000  men),  under  the  incapable  Mack,  proceeded  through 
Bavaria,  towards  the  Black  Forest.  Having  dispatched 
Massena  into  Italy,  Napoleon  himself  took  the  command 
in  Germany,  and  concentrated  his  forces  on  the  Upper 
Danube,  where  he  was  joined  by  Bernadotte,  who  had 
inarched  from  Hanover  through  the  margravate  of  Ans- 
pach,  notwithstanding  the  neutrality  of  Prussia.  After 
a  succession  of  skirmishes,  the  French  entered  Bavaria, 
blockaded  Mack  in  Ulm,  and  compelled  him  to  surrender 
that  fortress,  with  its  garrison  of  30,000  men.  Napoleon 
now  entered  Austria  almost  without  opposition,  an&  Murat 
took  possession  of  Vienna,  whilst  the  scattered  remnants 
of  the  Austrian  army  were  endeavoring  to  effect  a  junc- 
tion with  the  Russians.  On  Dec.  2,  1805  (the  anniversary 
of  his  coronation),  Napoleon  defeated  the  united  forces 
of  the  Austrians  and  Russians,  in  the  so-called  battle  of 
the  three  Emperors,  at  Austerlitz;  and  soon  afterwards 
peace  was  concluded  at  Presburg,  the  Emperor  giving 
up  the  Venetian  territory  (which  had  been  awarded  to 
him  at  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio)  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  the  Tyrol  to  Bavaria,  and  his  possessions  in  Swabia 
to  the  Electors  of  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  and  Baden,  all 
of  whom  were  declared  independent  sovereigns,  the  two 
first  with  the  title  of  King.  Prussia,  which  had  joined  the 
coalition  conditionally,  and  threatened  France  with  a  de- 


178  MODERN   HISTORY.  [332.    §51. 

claration  of  war,  was  required  to  surrender  Anspach, 
Cleves,  and  Neufchatel,  in  exchange  for  Hanover.  The 
King  of  Naples,  who  had  permitted  a  Russian  and  Eng- 
lish army  to  land  during  the  war,  was  deprived  of  all  his 
dominions  (except  Sicily),  which  were  conferred,  together 
with  the  title  of  King,  on  Napoleon's  elder  brother  Jo- 
seph. The  papal  seignories  of  Benevento  and  Ponte- 
Corvo,  were  granted,  as  principalities,  to  Talleyrand  and 
Bernadotte.  The  Batavian  republic  was  named  the  king- 
dom of  Holland,  and  given  to  the  Emperor's  brother 
Louis,  the  duchies  of  Cleves  and  Berg  to  his  brother-in- 
law  Joachim  Murat,  and  the  principality  of  Neufchatel 
to  Marshal  Berthier.  On  July  12,  1806,  the  German 
empire  was  dismembered,  sixteen  princes  in  the  south 
and  west  of  Germany  (Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  the  electoral 
arch-chancellor  of  Mainz,  who  resided  at  Ratisbon,  the 
elector  of  Baden,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the 
Duke  of  Cleves-Berg,  the  Princes  of  Nassau,  &c.)  separa- 
ting themselves  from  the  empire,  and  forming  the  Rhen- 
ish confederacy,  of  which  Napoleon  declared  himself 
the  protector.  Each  of  these  princes  renounced  the  ti- 
tle which  indicated  his  connection  with  the  empire,  the 
arch-chancellor  being  thenceforth  styled  the  Prince  Pri- 
mate, the  Elector  of  Baden,  Grand  Duke,  &c.  The  busi- 
ness of  the  confederacy  was  to  be  transacted  at  a  meeting 
to  be  held  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maine,  under  the  presiden- 
cy of  the  Prince  Primate.  Each  of  the  confederates 
pledged  himself,  in  the  event  of  a  continental  war,  to  as- 
sist France  with  a  contingent  proportionate  to  the  extent 
of  his  dominions.  Francis  //.,  who  had  assumed,  in  the 
year  1804,  the  title  of  Francis  Z,  hereditary  Emperor  of 
Austria,  having  now  ceased  to  be  head  of  the  German  em- 
pire, the  imperial  chambers  at  Wetzlow  and  Vienna,  as 
well  as  the  imperial  diet  at  Ratisbon,  were  dissolved.  A 
number  of  hitherto  unmediatized  states  were  declared  me- 
diatized, and  subjected,  by  the  aid  of  French  troops,  to 
the  sovereignty  of  members  of  the  confederacy,  notwith- 
standing the  remonstrances  of  the  people  (the  bookseller 
Palm  shot). 

(332.)    2.    The  maritime  War  with  England. — 
The  combined  Spanish  and  French  fleets  were  enticed  out 


333.   §52.]  THE    EMPIRE.  179 

of  the  harbor  of  Cadiz,  and  utterly  destroyed  off  Cape 
Trafalgar,  by  Lord  Nelson,  who  lost  his  life  in  the  en- 
gagement. Napoleon  now  gave  up  all  thoughts  of  an  in- 
vasion of  England,  and  directed  his  attention  to  the 
annihilation  of  her  commerce,  by  closing  the  ports  of  the 
continent. 

§  52.   The  fourth  Coalition  against  France  (1806-7). 

.  (333.)  Prussia,  which  had  at  first  refused  to  ratify  the 
convention  signed  by  her  ambassador  Haugwitz,  at  Schon- 
brunn,  was  now  compelled  not  only  to  take  possession  of 
Hanover,  but  to  close  the  mouths  of  all  her  rivers  against 
the  English.  The  immediate  result  of  this  proceeding 
was  a  declaration  of  war  on  the  part  of  England,  and  the 
blockade  of  all  the  Prussian  ports  in  the  North  and  Bal- 
tic seas.  In  the  hope  of  still  further  widening  the  breach, 
Napoleon  entered  into  negotiations  for  a  peace  with  Eng- 
land, and  promised  to  guarantee  the  restoration  of  Hano- 
ver. The  Prussian  generals  were  now  unanimous  in  re- 
commending the  immediate  commencement  of  hostilities 
against  France  ;  but  the  delay  occasioned  by  the  vacillat- 
ing policy  of  the  King  enabled  Napoleon  to  concentrate 
on  the  Main  an  army  of  200,000  men,  which  marched 
through  the  valley  of  the  Saal,  and  (after  a  skirmish  near 
Saalfield,  in  which  Prince  Louis  Ferdinand  of  Prussia 
fell)  engaged  the  two  grand  divisions  of  the  Prussian  army 
(165,000  Prussians  and  20,000  Saxons),  at  Jena  and  An- 
erstadt,  on  Oct.  14.  The  Prince  of  Hohenlohe  was  de- 
feated by  Napoleon  at  Jena,  and  Duke  Ferdinand  of 
Brunswick  by  Marshal  Davoust,  at  Anerstadt.  The  Duke, 
a  veteran  of  seventy-two,  was  mortally  wounded  in  the 
battle,  and  died  soon  afterwards  at  Ottensen.  The  Elec- 
tor of  Saxony  obtained  peace,  and  the  title  of  King,  in 
return  for  his  own  adherence,  and  that  of  the  Saxon  Dukes, 
to  the  Rhenish  confederacy.  All  the  most  important 
Prussian  fortresses  (with  the  exception  of  Colberg,  which 
was  bravely  defended  by  Grneisenau,  Schill,  and  Nettelbeck, 
and  some  strong  places  in  Upper  Silesia),  were  surrendered 
to  the  French  after  a  very  feeble  resistance.  On  Oct.  27, 
Napoleon  entered  Berlin  in  triumph,  divided  the  conquered 


180  MODERN    HISTORY.  [334.    $52. 

Prussian  provinces,  as  far  as  the  Oder,  into  four  depart- 
ments, and  published  his  famous  Berlin  decree,  by  which 
all  commercial  intercourse  with  England  was  prohib- 
ited, and  the  British  ports  declared  to  be  in  a  state  of 
blockade. 

(334.)  As  the  French  troops  approached  the  Vistula, 
they  were  joined  by  the  Poles,  who  looked  to  Napoleon 
for  the  restoration  of  their  independence ;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  remains  of  the  Prussian  army  joined  the 
Russians,  who  were  "now,  through  French  influence,  in- 
volved in  a  war  with  Turkey.  After  several  obstinate  and 
sanguinary,  but  indecisive  engagements  (at  Pultusk,  Goly- 
min,  &c,),  the  two  armies  went  into  winter  quarters,  with 
the  exception  of  the  left  wing  of  the  French  army,  under 
Ney,  which  marched  from  the  Lower  Vistula  against  K6- 
nigsberg.  On  learning  the  intention  of  the  Russian  Gen- 
eral Benningsen  to  attack  this  division,  relieve  Graudenz 
and  Dantzic,  and  open  a  communication  with  Colberg,  Na- 
poleon broke  up  his  winter  encampment  at  Warsaw,  and 
engaged  Benningsen  at  Eglau  (Feb.  7  and  8).  The  bat- 
tle, though  protracted  and  sanguinary,  was  by  no  means 
decisive,  for  both  parties  abandoned  the  field,  and  retired 
again  into  winter  quarters.  After  an  armistice  of  four 
months,  during  which  Dantzic  and  Schweidnitz  capitulated, 
and  Napoleon  received  reinforcements  from  Poland,  the 
Rhenish  confederacy,  and  even  from  Spain,  the  war  was 
terminated  by  a  decisive  victory  gained  by  the  French  at 
Friedland  (June  14),  and  Napoleon,  after  a  personal  in- 
terview with  Alexander,  on  the  Niemen,  concluded  a  peace 
at  Tilsit,  with  Russia  on  July  7,  and  Prussia  on  the  9th. 
"  Out  of  especial  regard  for  the  Emperor  of  Russia,"  Na- 
poleon consented  to  restore  to  Prussia  all  her  provinces 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  on  condition  of  her  giving 
up — 1.  All  the  territory  formerly  belonging  to  the  king- 
dom of  Poland,  to  the  King  of  Saxony,  under  the  name 
of  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw  (Dantzic  with  its  territory  was 
declared  a  free  state  under  the  protection  of  Prussia  and 
Saxony).  2.  All  the  territory  between,the  Elbe  and  the 
Rhine,  which,  with  the  addition  of  Brunswick,  Hesse- 
Cassel,  and  a  part  of  Hanover,  formed  the  kingdom  of 
Westphalia  for  Jerome  Bonaparte,  the  Emperor's  young- 


335.   §53.]  THE    EMPIRE.  181 

est  brother.  3.  All  Prussian  ports  were  to  be  closed  against 
the  English.  The  restoration  of  the  Prussian  territory 
was  not  carried  into  effect  until  the  year  1808,  after  pay- 
ment of  a  contribution  of  140  millions  of  francs.  The 
Rhenish  confederacy  was  now  extended  to  Mecklenburg, 
and  comprehended  the  whole  of  the  ancient  German  em- 
pire, with  the  exception  of  Prussia  (including  the  marck  of 
Brandenburg,  Pomerania,  and  Silesia)  and  Holstein.  Rus- 
sia evacuated  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  and  concluded  an 
armistice  with  the  Porte.  Sweden,  as  a  member  of  the 
fourth  coalition,  was  obliged  to  surrender  to  France  the 
island  of  Riigen  and  Stralsund,  the  last  of  her  possessions 
in  Germany.  At  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  the  two  Emperors 
had  agreed  that  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Portugal,  should 
be  invited  to  co-operate  in  their  measures  against  England  ; 
taking,  therefore,  for  granted,  that  France  would  obtain 
possession  of  the  Danish  fleet,  the  British  government  re- 
solved to  anticipate  such  a  proceeding,  by  demanding  that 
it  should  be  delivered  up  to  them  as  a  pledge  of  neutral- 
ity, and,  on  the  refusal  of  the  Danes,  bombarded  Copen- 
hagen (2d — 5th  September),  and  carried  oiF  the  whole  fleet. 
In  consequence  of  this  violent  proceeding.  Russia  declared 
war  against  England,  and  Denmark  concluded  an  alliance 
with  France,  and  obtained  from  that  country  an  army  for 
the  defence  of  her  territory. 

§  53.   The  War  in  Portugal  and  Spain  (1808—1814). 

(335.)  Portugal,  in  consequence  of  her  refusal  to  close 
her  ports  against  the  English,  was  occupied  by  a  French 
army  under  Junot,  who  assumed  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Abrantes,  and  proclaimed  himself  regent  in  the  name  of 
the  French  Emperor,  after  the  departure  of  the  Portu- 
guese royal  family  for  Brazil.  In  pursuance  of  his  favor- 
ite object,  the  destruction  of  English  commerce,  Napoleon 
not  only  extended  his  continental  system  to  Portugal  and 
Italy  (as  far  as  the  latter  country  was  dependent  OD 
France),  but  even  formed  a  plan  for  the  subjugation  oi 
Spain;  and  under  pretence  of  protecting  that  country 
against  an  English  invasion,  crossed  the  Pyrenees  at  the 
head  of  100.000  men.  Charles  IV.,  who  a  short  time  be- 


182  MODERN   HISTORY.  [336,337.    $53. 

fore  (in  consequence  of  an  insurrection  against  his  con- 
temptible  favorite,  Godoy,  Prince  of  the  Peace)  had  re- 
signed his  crown  in  favor  of  his  son,  Ferdinand  VIL,  no 
sooner  witnessed  the  entry  of  the  French  into  Madrid, 
than  he  desired  to  recall  his  abdication.  Under  pretence 
of  settling  the  dispute,  Napoleon  invited  the  whole  party  to 
meet  him  at  Bayonne,  and  having  made  himself  master  of 
their  persons,  compelled  the  Bourbon  family  to  resign  the 
Spanish  crown,  and  placed  his  brother  Joseph  on  the 
throne.  The  vacant  kingdom  of  Naples  was  then  conferred 
on  Murat,  and  the  grand-duchy  of  Berg  destined  for  the 
Crown  Prince  of  Holland.  Against  the  sovereign  thus 
treacherously  imposed  on  them,  the  whole  Spanish  nation 
rose  as  one  man ;  and  Joseph,  after  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  conciliate  his  new  subjects  by  granting  them  a 
liberal  constitution,  was  compelled  to  quit  Madrid  and  re- 
tire to  Burgos. 

(336.)  An  English  army,  commanded  by  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley,  landed  in  Portugal,  and  drove  the  French  out 
of  that  country ;  the  means  of  returning  to  France  being 
secured  to  Junot  and  his  army  by  the  Convention  of  Cin- 
tra.  At  the  same  time,  another  French  army,  under  Du- 
pont,  was  surrounded  and  captured  in  the  south  of 
Spain.  The  French  had  already  fallen  back  on  the  Ebra, 
when  Napoleon  (to  whom  the  Emperor  Alexander,  in  a 
personal  interview  at  Erfurt,  had  promised  assistance  in 
the  event  of  a  war  with  Austria)  appeared  in  Spain  at  the 
head  of  335,000  men. 

(337.)  After  a  victorious  progress  from  the  Ebro,  the 
French  Emperor  entered  Madrid,  and  immediately  abol- 
ished the  inquisition,  the  feudal  system,  and  the  Council 
of  Castile  (which  had  recalled  its  consent  to  the  abdica- 
tion of  Charles  IV.),  and  reduced  the  number  of  convents 
to  one-third.  Having,  in  conjunction  with  Soult,  com- 
pelled the  English  to  evacuate  Portugal,  Napoleon  returned 
to  France  to  make  preparations  for  a  fresh  war  with  Aus- 
tria. On  the  21st  February,  1809,  the  fortress  of  Sara- 
gossa  (which  had  been  twice  heroically  defended  by  the 
Spanish  General  Palafox,  with  the  loss  of  53,000  men) 
surrendered  to  the  French ;  and  the  cause  of  Spanish  in- 
dependence seemed  utterly  ruined ;  for  the  brilliant  vie- 


338.    $53.]  THE    EMPIRE.  183 

tory  of  Talavera  (27th  and  28th  of  July),  obtained  by 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  l  over  King  Joseph,  was  neutralized 
by  the  defeat  of  an  army  recently  raised  by  the  Junta  of 
Seville,  which  was  almost  annihilated  by  Soult,  at  Ocano. 
(338.)  The  monks,  to  whose  influence  King  Joseph 
attributed  the  general  insurrection  of  the  Spanish  nation 
against  the  French,  were  punished  by  the  suppression  of 
all  the  monastic  orders.  Whilst  the  French,  although  per- 
petually harassed  by  swarms  of  irregular  troops,  called 
Guerillas,  were  still  advancing  steadily  towards  the  south, 
the  Junta  had  retired  to  Seville,  and  assembled  the 
Cortes  (1810),  which  drew  up  (and  proclaimed  in  1812) 
a  new  constitution,  by  which  the  monarchical  power  was 
greatly  restricted.  The  repeated  attempts  of  the  French 
(especially  under  Massena)  to  regain  a  footing  in  Portugal, 
were  as  unsuccessful  as  their  attacks  on  Cadiz,  which  was 
strongly  fortified  and  protected  by  a  combined  Spanish 
and  English  fleet.  In  the  year  1812,  the  French  force  in 
Spain  having  been  reduced  to  168.000  men,  by  the  with- 
drawal of  a  large  number  of  the  best  soldiers  and  gene- 
rals for  the  Russian  campaign,  the  whole  population  of 
several  provinces  were  encouraged  to  take  the  field,  and 
the  Guerillas  (under  Mina,  the  Curate  Merino,  Mendiza- 
bal,  &c.)  became  daily  more  numerous  and  daring.  The 
fortresses  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz  were  stormed 
by  Lord  Wellington,  who  separated  the  armies  of  Mar- 
mont  and  Soult,  defeated  the  former  near  Salamanca, 
compelled  Joseph  to  quit  Madrid,  and  then,  on  the'  ap- 
proach of  the  French,  retreated  to  the  Portuguese  fron- 
tier. Soult  having  been  recalled  from  Spain  by  Napoleon, 
after  his  disastrous  campaign  in  Russia,  the  English  gen- 
eral compelled  King  Joseph  a  second  time  to  abandon  his 
capital,  and  retire  to  the  Ebro,  and  in  the  year  1813  de- 
cided the  fate  of  Spain,  by  a  brilliant  victory  over  Jour- 
dan  at  Vittoria.  Joseph  escaped  being  taken  prisoner, 
by  a  precipitate  flight  into  France.  Soult,  who  had  re- 
entered  Spain  by  command  of  Napoleon,  was  compelled  to 
recross  the  Pyrenees  by  Lord  Wellington,  and  the  war  was 

1  Immediately  after  this  battle,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  was  cre- 
ated Lord  Wellington. 


184  MODERN   HISTORY.  [339,  340.    §  55. 

terminated  by  the  battle  of  Thoulouse,  in  April,  1814, 
the  Emperor  Napoleon  having  previously  abdicated,  and 
Ferdinand  VII.  being  released  from  his  imprisonment  at 
Valencay. 

§  54.  Suppression  of  the  temporal  authority  of  the  Pope 
(1809). 

(339.)  Soon  after  his  coronation,  Napoleon  had  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  depriving  the  Pope  of  his  temporal 
power,  and  transporting  him  to  Paris,  where  the  influence 
of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  might  be  advantageously  em- 
ployed for  the  promotion  of  his  own  ambitious  designs. 
After  a  succession  of  annoyances  and  threats,  Napoleon 
demanded  that  the  Pope  should  accede  to  the  continental 
system,  close  his  ports  against  the  English,  and  conclude 
an  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  with  France,  at  least 
against  the  Infidels,  by  which  title  he  designated  the 
Turks  and  all  the  Protestant  powers.  On  the  refusal  of 
the  Pope  to  entertain  this  proposal,  the  Emperor  took 
possession  of  Rome,  and  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy 
four  provinces  belonging  to  the  States  of  the  Church. 
These  measures  were  speedily  followed  by  the  publication 
of  a  decree  (dated  -from  Schonbrunn),  in  which  tlie  tempo- 
ral authority  of  t/ie  Pope  was  declared  to  be  at  an  end ; 
and  in  the  following  year  (1810)  the  rest  of  the  States  of 
the  Church  were  incorporated  into  the  French  empire. 
Pius  VII.,  who  had  excommunicated  the  originators  and 
perpetrators  of  these  acts  of  violence,  was  carried  off  by 
force  to  Grenoble,  and  thence  removed  to  Savona,  where 
he  remained  three  years  a  prisoner,  refusing  with  exem- 
plary firmness  to  resign  his  temporal  authority,  and  estab- 
lish his  residence  at  Paris.  In  the  summer  of  1812,  he 
was  removed  to  Fontainebleau,  for  the  purpose  of  negoti- 
ating a  fresh  concordat,  and  returned  to  Rome  after  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon,  in  1814. 

$  55.    War  of  Austria  against  Napoleon  (1809). 

(340.)    After  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  an  attempt  was  made 
by  the  Austrian  government  to  re-establish  its  political 


341.     $55.]  THE    EMPIRE.  185 

influence  in  Europe.  With  this  view  the  army  was  re- 
organized ;  and  when  Napoleon,  in  consequence  of  this 
movement,  called  on  the  members  of  the  Rhenish  Con- 
federacy to  hold  themselves  in  readiness,  the  Austrians 
resolved  to  anticipate  his  attack.  A  proclamation  was  ac- 
cordingly issued  by  the  Emperor's  brothers,  the  Arch- 
dukes Charles  and  John,  as  commanders-in-chief  of  the 
army  destined  to  act  in  Bavaria  and  Italy,  calling  on  the 
German  nation  to  co-operate  with  Austria  in  her  struggles 
for  the  liberty  of  their  common  fatherland ;  but  scarcely 
any  effect  was  produced  by  this  appeal.  The  army  command- 
ed by  the  Archduke  Charles,  which  had  entered  Bavaria, 
was  defeated  in  a  series  of  engagements,  which  lasted  from 
the  19th  to  the  23d  of  April  (at  Abensberg,  Landshut, 
Eckmuhl,  and  Ratisbon),  by  a  force  composed  almost  en- 
tirely of  Germans,  and  compelled,  after  sustaining  immense 
loss,  to  cross  the  Danube,  and  retreat  towards  Bohemia. 

(341.)  On  the  13th  of  May,  Vienna  was  a  second  time 
taken  by  the  French ;  Napoleon,  who  had  advanced  by 
forced  marches  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  relief  of 
Vienna  by  the  Archduke  Charles,  was  defeated  for  the 
first  time  (21st  and  22d  of  May),  near  the  villages  of 
Aspern  and  E  si  ing.  He  then  formed  a  junction  with 
the  Italian  army  under  Eugene  Beauharnais,  a  second 
time  crossed  the  Danube,  and  defeated  the  Archduke 
Charles  in  the  sanguinary  battle  of  W  a  gram  (5th  and 
6th  of  July).  The  two  armies  met  again  at  Znaim,  in 
Moravia,  and  victory  had  already  begun  to  incline  to  the 
side  of  the  French,  when  hostilities  were  suspended  by 
the  arrival  of  Prince  Lichtenstein,  who  was  empowered 
by  the  Emperor  to  arrange  the  terms  of.  an  armistice. 
After  this  battle,  and  an  unsuccessful  attempt  of  the  Eng- 
lish to  effect  a  diversion,  by  landing  on  the  island  of  Wal- 
cheren.  in  Holland,  the  Austrian  war  was  terminated  on 
the  14th  October  by  the  peace  of  Vienna.  By  this 
treaty  Austria  lost  2000  square  miles  of  territory,  with 
three  and  a  half  millions  of  inhabitants;  Salzburg  and 
several  neighboring  districts  being  ceded  to  Bavaria,  west- 
ern Galicia  to  the  duchy  of  Warsaw,  a  district  of  eastern 
Galicia  to  Russia,  and  her  possessions  along  the  Sau 
to  Napoleon,  as  King  of  Italy.  Out  of  this  last-mention- 


186  MODERN   HISTORY.  [342.    $56. 

ed  province,  with  Dalmatia,  Istria,  and  Ragusa  (which 
were  separated  from  Italy),  and  the  G-reek  islands  (ceded 
by  Russia  in  1807),  Napoleon  formed  the  new  state  of  the 
seven  I llyrian  provinces  (Carinthia,  Carniola,  Istria,  Dal- 
matia, Ragusa,  Civil  and  Military  Croatia),  of  which  Mar- 
mont  was  appointed  governor.  A  short  time  before  the 
breaking  out  of  this  war,  the  Tyrolese,  irritated  beyond 
endurance  by  the  extortion  and  oppression  of  the  Bava- 
rian government,  had  revolted  to  their  ancient  masters 
the  Austrians,  and  under  the  command  of  an  innkeeper 
named  Andrew  Hofer  (and  Speckbacher),  had  thrice 
cleared  their  country  of  the  French  and  Bavarian  troops 
(in  April,  May,  and  August).  But  after  the  conclusion 
of  peace  at  Vienna,  an  overwhelming  force  was  sent  into 
the  Tyrol :  and  Hofer,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  an  Alpine 
hut  near  Passeger,  was  betrayed  by  one  of  his  country- 
men, conveyed  a  prisoner  to  Mantua,  and  shot  by  sentence 
of  a  court-martial.  The  Tyrol  was  now  divided  into  three 
portions,  of  which  one  was  assigned  to  Bavaria,  another 
(the  southern)  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  a 
third  (the  eastern)  incoporated  with  Illyria.  As  an  in- 
demnification for  this  sacrifice  of  territory,  Bavaria 
received  Baireuth  and  Ratisbon ;  the  prince  primate 
(Charles  of  Dalberg)  of  Ratisbon,  being  created  Grand 
Duke  of  Frankfort  (a  sovereignty  formed  for  that  purpose 
out  of  Frankfort,  Fulda,  Hanau,  Wetzlau,  and  Aschaffen- 
burg),  with  a  stipulation  that  his  successor  should  be 
Eugene  Beauharnais,  the  viceroy  of  Italy.  Several  at- 
tempts were  made  by  individuals  to  arouse  the  dormant 
patriotism  of  the  G-erman  nation,  but  without  success.  A 
Prussian  major,  named  Schitt,  commander  of  a  volunteer 
corps  raised  by  him  in  1806,  marched  a  hussar  regiment 
of  600  men  out  of  Berlin,  under  pretence  of  exercising 
them,  and  proceeded  to  Stralsund,  where  he  was  slain  with 
most  of  his  soldiers.  Eleven  officers  were  taken  prisoners 
and  shot  by  the  French. 

§  56.  Napoleon  at  the  summit  of  his  power  (1810 — 1812). 

342.  In  the  hope  of  obtaining  an  heir  to  his  throne,  and 
of  imparting,  in  some  sort,  a  legitimate  character  to  his  dy- 


342.  ^  56.]  THE  EMPIRE.  187 

nasty,  Napoleon  repudiated  Josephine,  and  married  (2d  of 
April,  1810)  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Francis  of  Austria.  On  the  20th  of  March,  1811,  the 
new  Empress  was  delivered  of  a  son,  who  was  immediately 
created  King  of  Rome.  His  brother  Louis  having  de- 
clared his  readiness  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son,  rather 
than  ruin  Holland  by  enforcing  a  rigid  observance  to  the 
continental  system,  Napoleon  annexed  the  whole  of  that 
country  to  France.  Under  the  same  pretext,  and  in  the 
face  of  his  own  repeated  declarations,  that  he  wished  the 
Rhine  to  be  the  boundary  of  his  dominions,  the  Emperor 
incorporated  into  the  French  empire  the  maritime  pro- 
vinces of  northern  Germany,  a  great  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Westphalia,  the  Hanse  Towns,  the  grand  duchy  of 
Berg,  Oldenburg,  and  East  Fricsland :  as  he  had  already 
annexed  Tuscany,  the  States  of  the  Church,  and  the  Can- 
ton of  Yallais  (department  of  the  Simplon),  in  Switzer- 
land. The  empire  at  this  time  numbered  130  depart- 
ments, and  extended  along  the  coast  of  western  and 
southern  Europe,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  to  Trieste 
and  Corfu.  The  imperial  government  now  became  every 
day  more  absolute:  the  sittings  of  the  legislative  body, 
which  had  long  since  been  a  mere  farce,  were  suspended : 
the  duties  of  the  senate  were  confined  to  the  appearance 
of  its  members  on  great  occasions  in  the  suite  of  'the  Em- 
peror, and  the  passing  of  acts  confirmatory  of  his  decrees 
for  the  annexation  of  fresh  territory.  All  public  func- 
tionaries were  entirely  dependent  on  the  crown :  a  system 
of  espionage  was  established  in  every  part  of  the  empire, 
and  arrests  on  the  most  frivolous  pretexts  occurred  daily : 
liberty  of  the  press  was  annihilated  by  the  censorship  and 
other  restrictions,  the  population  of  half  France  remained 
uneducated,  notwithstanding  the  increase  in  the  number 
of  schools,  and  even  the  arts  were  cultivated  solely  -for  the 
purpose  of  imparting  additional  lustre  to  the  military 
glories  of  the  empire.  Meanwhile  the  continental  system 
was  ruining  commerce,  in  spite  of  the  encouragement  af- 
forded to  manufacturing  industry,  by  the  establishment 
of  prizes  and  institutions,  and  the  formation  of  roads  and 
canals,  and  Napoleon  at  last  found  himself  obliged  tp 
grant  licenses  for  the  importation,  in  certain  cases,  of 


188  MODERN   HISTORY.  [343.  §57. 

English  goods.  These  grievances,  in  conjunction  with  the 
unceasing  conscription,  were  rapidly  producing  discontent 
and  bitterness,  in  the  place  of  those  feelings  of  devoted 
affection  with  which  the  government  of  Napoleon  was  at 
first  regarded  by-  the  people,  as  well  as  the  cabinets  of 
many  European  nations. 

§57.  Napoleoris  Russian  Campaign  (1812). 

(343.)  The  conviction  that  the  continental  system 
would  be  ruinous  to  her  commerce,  and  that  Napoleon 
would  never  rest  until  he  had  destroyed  her  influence  as 
a  first-rate  European  power,  was  soon  forced  on  Russia, 
which  had  wrested  Finland  from  Sweden  in  1808,  and  ex- 
tended her  dominions  to  the  Pruth,  by  the  peace  of  Bu- 
charest, concluded  in  1812,  after  a  six  years'  war  with  the 
Turks.  The  first  coolness  between  Alexander  and  Napo- 
leon was  occasioned  by  the  annexation  of  G-alicia  to  the 
duchy  of  Warsaw,  a  measure  which  was  regarded  with  sus- 
picion by  the  Russian  Emperor,  as  tending  towards  the 
re-establishment  of  Poland  as  a  kingdom.  Other  causes 
of  offence  followed  in  rapid  succession ;  on  the  one  side 
Napoleon,  who  had  already  annoyed  the  Emperor  by  de- 
priving the  Duke  of  Oldenburgh  (husband  of  Alexander's 
aunt  by  the  mother's  side)  of  his  dominions,  now  demanded 
the  rigid  enforcement  of  the  continental  system  by  Rus- 
sia ;  whilst,  on  the  other,  the  union  of  Warsaw  (as  a  pro- 
vince) with  Saxony,  and  the  evacuation  of  the  Prussian 
dominions,  were  strongly  urged  on  France  by  the  Russian 
government.  The  refusal  of  each  party  to  accede  to  the 
demands  of  the  other  at  length  produced  a  war,  which  was 
commenced  in  1812  by  Napoleon,  who  collected  an  army 
of  400,000,  or,  according  to  some  writers,  of  600,000  men, 
from  almost  every  country  in  south-western  Europe.  To 
oppose  this  formidable  armament,  the  Russians  assembled 
372,000  men.  With  his  accustomed  rapidity  of  move- 
ment, Napoleon  crossed  the  Niemen  into  Lithuania,  and 
advanced  by  forced  marches  to  Smolensk,  with  scarcely 
any  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Russians,  who  were  un- 
willing to  hazard  a  general  engagement  until  they  had 
formed  a  junction  with  the  troops  from  the  interior.  Af- 


343.    §58.]  THE   EMPIRE.  189 

ter  defeating  the  Russians  at  Smolensk,  and  again  at  Bo- 
rodino, on  the  Moskwa,  Napoleon  (on  the  14th  of  Septem- 
ber) entered  Moscow,  which  was  entirely  abandoned  by 
the  inhabitants  ;  and  soon  after  his  arrival  a  fire  broke  out 
(occasioned  probably  by  the  Russian  governor  Rostopchin), 
which  raged  six  days,  and  destroyed  nine-tenths  of  the 
city.  Notwithstanding  this  calamity,  Napoleon  lingered 
five  weeks  among  the  ruins  of  Moscow,  endeavoring  to  ne- 
gotiate a  peace ;  but  discovering  his  error  when  it  was 
too  late,  he  broke  up  his  quarters  on  the  18th  of  October, 
and  commenced  his  retreat  with  an  army  now  reduced  to 
104.000  men.  The  winter  had  already  set  in  with  a  seve- 
rity almost  unprecedented  at  that  early  season,  the  ther- 
mometer (Reaumur's)  steadily  indicating  18 — 20  degrees 
of  cold  ;*  and  the  whole  of  the  country  between  Moscow 
and  Beresina,  an  extent  of  150  (German)  miles,  presented 
the  appearance  of  a  desert,  the  inhabitants  of  the  villages 
having  removed  or  destroyed  all  their  agricultural  produce. 
At  length  the  army,  reduced  by  famine  and  the  unceasing 
attacks  of  the  Russians  and  Cossacks  to  30,000  men  capa- 
ble of  bearing  arms,  reached  the  Beresina,  where  the  pas- 
sage of  the  river  was  forced  by  Ney  and  Oudinot,  with 
8500  men,  in  the  face  of  25,000  Russians.  The  retreat 
now  became  a  flight,  in  consequence  of  the  intensity  of 
the  cold  (26 — 27  degrees),!  and  the  abandonment  of  his 
army  by  Napoleon,  who  had  placed  himself  in  a  sledge, 
when  all  was  lost,  and  proceeded  to  Paris  (arrived  18th 
December),  where  his  presence  was  rendered  necessary  by 
the  unsettled  state  of  public  affairs  (attempt  of  Mallet  to 
re-establish  the  republic).  General  Ney,  who  had  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  battle  of  the  Moskwa,  and  done 
good  service  by  the  masterly  manner  in  which  he  had  con- 
ducted the  retreat,  was  created  Prince  of  the  Moskwa. 
The  first  step  towards  the  emancipation  of  Prussia,  was 
the  conclusion  of  a  convention  of  neutrality  between  the 
Prussian  general  Diebitsch  and  General  York,  who  was 
sent  to  cover  the  retreat  of  the  left  wing  of  the  French 
army  under  Macdonald.  This  proceeding  on  the  part  of 

*  Equal  to  8£— 13^°  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit.— S. 
t       "       "  26^—29°  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit.— S. 


190  MODERN   HISTORY.          [344 346.  $  58. 

the  Prussian  general  was  stigmatized  by  Napoleon  as  an 
act  of  the  grossest  treachery,  and  the  chief  cause  of  his 
subsequent  misfortunes. 

§  58.     The  War  of  Liberation  (1813—1814). 

(344.)  Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia,  after  is- 
suing from  Breslau  a  manifesto,  in  which  he  called  on  his 
people  to  rise  and  defend  their  liberties  against  the  en- 
croachments of  the  French,  now  concluded  an  alliance 
with  Russia  for  the  re-establishment  of  the  Prussian  mo- 
narchy, and  having  been  subsequently  joined  by  Sweden 
and  England,  commenced  his  preparations  for  the  forma- 
tion of  a  national  militia  in  Prussia. 

Campaign  in  the  Spring  of  1813. 

(345.)  In  the  month  of  March,  the  Prussian  grand 
army  under  Bliicher,  marched  through  Silesia  to  Dresden, 
where  it  awaited  the  arrival  of  a  Russian  force  commanded 
by  Kalish.  A  second  Russo-Prussian  army  was  also  sent 
from  Berlin  to  join  the  two  other  corps.  The  allied  army, 
under  Wittgenstein,  now  numbered  85,000  men,  and 
that  of  the  French  120,000,  most  of  whom  were  raw  con- 
scripts. 

(346.)  Towards  the  end  of  April,  Napoleon  re-ap- 
peared in  Germany  and  advanced  to  Leipzic,  where  he  was 
compelled  to  engage  the  enemy  at  Grrossgorschen,  or, 
as  he  himself  named  the  battle,  at  L  ii  t  z  e  n,  on  the  2d  of 
May :  but  notwithstanding  the  disadvantage  under  which 
they  labored,  in  being  unprepared  for  the  attack,  and  the 
heavy  loss  which  they  sustained  in  the  battle,  the  French 
were  victorious :  and  the  allies  retreated  by  way  of  Dres- 
den into  Lusatia.  Sharnhorst  died  at  Prague  of  the 
wounds  which  he  had  received  in  the  battle.  Soon  after- 
wards Napoleon  appeared  at  Dresden,  and  compelled  the 
wavering  King  of  Saxony  to  place  the  resources  of  his 
kingdom  at  the  disposal  of  the  French.  On  the  20th  of 
May  Napoleon  attacked  the  allies  at  Bautzen, forced  the 
passage  of  the  Spree,  and  completed  his  victory  on  the 
following  day,  at  Wurschen,  where  he  sustained  a  consi- 


347.    §58.]  THE    EMPIRE.  191 

derable  loss  in  killed  and  wounded.  As  the  allies  directed 
their  retreat  towards  Silesia  instead  of  Berlin,  in  order  to 
effect  a  junction  with  the  Austrians,  the  conqueror,  who 
wished  to  prevent  a  meeting  of  the  three  powers,  as  well 
as  to  gain  time  for  fresh  levies,  consented  to  an  armistice 
(4th  of  June  to  10th  of  August),  in  the  hope  that  Austria 
would  eventually  join  the  French.  A  short  time  previously 
to  these  events,  the  city  of  Hamburgh,  which  had  been 
abandoned  by  the  French  officials  on  the  approach  of  a 
Russian  army,  under  Tetterborn,  was  retaken  by  Davoust, 
and  mercilessly  pillaged,  because  the  inhabitants  were 
unable  to  pay  a  forced  contribution  of  48  millions  of 
francs. 

Resumption  of  the  War  after  the  Armistice. 

(347.)  The  congress  of  Prague  having  terminated  unsa- 
tisfactorily, in  consequence  of  the  unreasonable  demands  of 
Austria,  and  the  unwillingness  of  England  to  become  a 
party  to  a  treaty  of  peace,  war  was  declared  by  the  Aus- 
trian government  against  Napoleon,  whose  subsequent 
overtures  were  treated  with  contempt.  The  allies  had 
made  the  best  use  of  the  breathing  time  allowed  them  by 
the  armistice.  A  subsidy  of  eleven  millions,  granted  by 
England,  enabled  them  to  equip  at  least  600,000  men,  who 
formed  three  divisions,  viz.,  1.  The  grand  army  of  Bohe- 
mia, under  Schwarzenberg,  in  whose  camp  were  the  three 
allied  monarchs  and  General  Moreau.  2.  The  army  of 
Silesia,  under  Blucher.  3.  The  army  of  the  North,  under 
the  Crown  Prince  of  Sweden,  Charles  John  Bernadotte. 
Against  this  enormous  force  Napoloon  brought  into  the 
field  about  350,000  men ;  and  notwithstanding  his  infe- 
riority in  point  of  numbers,  commenced  hostilities  with 
an  attack  on  the  army  of  Silesia,  which  retreated  beyond 
the  Katzbach.  Meanwhile,  however,  Schwarzenberg  had 
marched  upon  Dresden,  and  Napoleon  was  compelled  to 
proceed  by  forced  marches  to  that  city  (leaving  General 
Macdonald  in  Silesia).  On  the  26th  and  27th  of  August, 
Napoleon  gained  his  last  victory  (at  Dres  den),  on  Ger- 
man ground,  amidst  torrents  of  rain.  Moreau  was  mortally 
wounded  in  this  battle,  and  died  soon  afterwards.  This 


192  MODERN    HISTORY.  [347.    $58. 

advantage  gained  by  Napoleon,  was  however  almost  neu- 
tralized, by.  the  failure  of  the  other  divisions  of  the  French 
army.  1 .  0  u  d  i  n  o  t,  who  should  have  marched  on  Berlin, 
and  effected  a  junction  with  Davoust,  was  defeated  by 
Bliicher  at  G-rossbeeren,  on  the  23rd  of  August.  2. 
Macdonald  was  compelled  by  Blucher  to  re-cross  the 
Katzbach,  near  the  village  of  Wahlstatt,  on  the  26th  of 
August.  In  consequence  of  this  victory,  Blucher  obtained 
the  name  of  Marshal  "  Forwards,"  and  was  created  Prince 
of  Wahlstatt.  3.  Vandamme  (who  had  received  orders 
to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  army  of  Bohemia),  being  un- 
supported by  Napoleon,  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner, 
with  10,000  men,  by  the  Russian  guard  under  Ostermann, 
supported  by  an  unexpected  reinforcement  of  Prussians 
under  Kleist  (30th  of  August),  at  Kulm,  near  Toblitz. 
4.  Ney,  who  after  the  defeat  of  Oudinot  had  been  dis- 
patched against  the  army  of  the  north,  with  orders  to  take 
possession  of  Berlin,  was  himself  defeated  at  Dennewitz, 
on  the  6th  of  Sept.,  by  Bulow  and  Tauenzien.  The 
Silesian  and  northern  armies  having  crossed  the  Elbe 
(where  Bertrand  was  defeated  by  York,  near  Wartenberg,) 
in  order  to  effect,  if  possible,  a  junction  with  the  army 
of  Bohemia  in  Napoleon's  rear,  the  French  Emperor 
quitted  Dresden,  and  drew  'together  all  his  forces  at 
Leipzic,  where  the  great  "battle  of  ttie  nations"  was 
fought  on  the  16th,  17th,  and  18th  October.  Towards  the 
end  of  this  battle,  the  Saxons  and  Wiirtembergers  went 
over  to  the  allies.  On  the  first  day  Napoleon  engaged  the 
main  body  of  the  allies,  under  Schwarzenberg,  on  the  plain 
southwards  of  Leipzic,  near  Wachau,  but  without  any  de- 
cisive result ;  whilst  at  the  same  time  Blucher  defeated 
Marmont,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  city,  near  Mockern. 
'  On  the  17th  there  was  no  general  engagement,  Napoleon 
having  communicated  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria  his  will- 
ingness to  purchase  peace,  by  the  relinquishment  of  his 
sovereignty  over  Warsaw,  Illyria,  and  the  Rhineland,  and 
to  withdraw  his  troops  to  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine,  as 
soon  as  an  armistice  was  concluded.  Meanwhile,  however, 
a  reinforcement  of  more  than  100,000  men  had  joined  the 
allied  army,  which  now  numbered  300,000,  whilst  the 
French  had  scarcely  130,000.  Under  these  circumstances 


348.    $  58.]  THE    EMPIRE.  193 

the  battle  was  renewed  on  the  18th  October.  After  losing 
more  than  30,000  men  (including  Prince  Poniatowsky,  a 
nephew  of  the  last  King  of  Poland,  who  was  drowned  in 
the  Elster),  the  defeated  army,  which  still  numbered 
1 00,000  men,  commenced  its  retreat,  and  fought  its  way  to  the 
Rhine,  where  70,000  men  crossed  the  river  at  Mainz.  Dur- 
ing this  retreat,  the  French  were  attacked  on  thellnstrutby 
York,  and  at  Hanau  by  the  Bavarians,  under  Wrede, 
and  were  incessantly  harassed  by  bands  of  Cossacks.  The 
immediate  consequences  of  this  victory  were — 1.  The 
breaking  up  of  the  Rhenish  confederacy.  2.  The  dissolu- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  and  the  grand  duchies 
of  Frankfort  and  Berg.  3.  The  surrender  of  all  the 
French  garrisons  as  prisoners  of  war,  with  the  exception 
of  the  garrison  of  Hamburg,  which  held  out,  under  Da- 
voust,  until  the  26th  of  May,  1814.  4.  The  re-conquest, 
by  Biilow,  of  Holland,  where  the  people,  who  had  been 
more  forward  than  any  other  nation  in  their  resist- 
ance to  the  continental  system,  proclaimed  the  Prince  of 
Orange  sovereign  of  the  Netherlands.  5.  Denmark,  on 
account  of  its  alliance  with  Napoleon,  was  invaded  by  the 
Crown  Prince  of  Sweden,  and  compelled,  after  a  short 
winter  campaign,  to  cede  Norway  to  Sweden  in  exchange 
for  Swedish  Pomerania  and  Riigen.  6.  Illyria  and  the 
Tyrol  were  restored  to  Austria,  after  a  long  and  bloody 
struggle.  In  the  south,  Murat,  King  of  Naples,  the  Em- 
peror's brother-in-law,  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Aus- 
trians  for  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Italy,  the  Em- 
peror of  Austria  undertaking  to  guarantee  to  him  the  un- 
disturbed possession  of  his  dominions.  On  the  other 
hand,  Switzerland,  too  feeble  as  yet  to  throw  off  the  French 
yoke,  concluded  a  treaty  of  neutrality  with  Napoleon, 
who  deemed  this  the  best  mode  of  protecting  his  weakest 
frontier. 

Invasion  of  France  by  the  Allies  (1814). 

(348.)  Wellington,  being  now  prepared  to  enter  France 
from  Spain,  and  the  allied  army  from  the  Rhine,  Napole- 
on, who  had  rejected  the  offers  of  peace  made  to  him  by 
the  allies,  demanded  a  fresh  conscription  of  300,000  men, 
and  prorogued  the  legislative  assembly,  which  had  ven- 


194  MODERN    HISTORY.  [349.  $  58. 

tured  to  present  him  an  address  describing,  in  strong  lan- 
guage, the  misery  and  exhaustion  of  France.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  year  1814  the  allies  entered  France, 
the  grand  army  under  Schwarzenberg  traversing  a  portion 
of  neutral  Switzerland,  and  crossing  the  frontier  at  Basle, 
whilst  the  force  under  the  command  of  Bliicher  crossed 
the  Rhine,  on  new  year's  eve,  at  Mannheim,  Caub,  and 
Coblenz.  In  the  hope  of  preventing  a  junction,  Napole- 
on attacked  Bliicher  near  Brienne,  and  forced  him  to  re- 
treat ;  but,  in  spite  of  this  check,  the  united  armies  at- 
tacked the  French  at  la  Rothiere,  and  drove  them  across 
the  Aube.  The  two  corps  then  separated,  the  grand  army 
Tinder  Schwarzenberg  proceeding  along  the  banks  of  the 
Seine,  and  the  army  of  Silesia  along  the  Maine,  in  the  di- 
rection of  Paris.  No  sooner  was  Napoleon  aware  of  this 
separation,  than  he  several  times  (10th — 14th  of  February) 
attacked  the  army  of  Silesia,  and  compelled  it  to  retire 
northwards,  and  then  (18th  of  February)  defeated  the 
grand  army  at  Montereau.  A  congress  was  now  held  at 
Chatillon,  but  without  any  result  except  the  temporary 
suspension  of  hostilities.  In  order  to  prevent  Napoleon 
from  following  the  grand  army,  Blucher  continued  his 
march  on  Paris,  and  defeated  the  French  near  Laon. 
Then  Napoleon  attacked  the  grand  army  at  Arcis-sur- 
Aube,  and  being  compelled  to  retire  before  a  superior 
force,  conceived  the  desperate  design  of  leaving  the  road 
to  Paris  open,  attacking  the  enemy  in  the  rear  (from  Lor- 
raine), and  drawing  together  all  the  garrisons  of  the  east- 
ern fortresses  for  a  final  struggle.  With  equal  courage 
the  allies  continued  their  march  towards  the  capital,  and 
after  defeating  Marshals  Marmont  and  Mortier,  at  la  Fere 
Champenoise,  and  storming  the  heights  of  Montmartre, 
entered  Paris  (in  consequence  of  a  capitulation)  on  the 
31st  of  March,  with  the  Emperor  Alexander,  King  Fred- 
erick William,  and  Prince  Schwarzenberg,  at  their  head. 
No  sooner  had  the  capital  fallen,  than  the  senate  was  per- 
suaded by  Talleyrand  to  declare  the  throne  forfeited  by 
Napoleon  and  his  family ,  and  the  nation  absolved  from 
its  oath  of  allegiance. 

(349.)     Napoleon,  who  had  reached  Paris  a  few  hours 
too  late,  signed  his  abdication  on  the   1 1th  of  April,  at 


350,351.  §58.]  THE  EMPIRE.  195 

Fontainebleau,  renouncing  for  himself  and  heirs  all  claims 
to  the  throne  of  France,  Italy,  or  any  other  country  ;  the 
allies,  on  their  side,  engaging  to  confer  on  him  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  island  of  Elba,  with  a  pension  of  two  mil- 
lions of  francs,  to  grant  to  his  wife  the  duchies  of  Parma, 
Piacenza,  and  Gruastalla,  with  succession  to  her  son  and 
his  descendants,  and  to  provide  for  his  relations. 

(350.)  On  the  very  day  of  Napoleon's  landing  at  El- 
ba (14th  of  May),  Louis  XVIII.  entered  Paris,  replaced 
the  constitution  hastily  drawn  up  by  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment by  another  formed  on  the  English  model,  with 
two  chambers,  one  of  peers  and  one  of  deputies,  and  con- 
cluded with  the  allies  (30th  of  May)  the  peace  of 
Paris,  by  which  it  was  settled  that  the  boundaries  of 
France  should  be  the  same  as  they  were  before  the  Revo- 
lution, with  the  exception  of  some  unimportant  extensions 
towards  the  east  and  north-east. 

(351.)  For  the  definitive  settlement  of  European 
affairs,  especially  as  regarded  Germany,  a  Congress 
was  held  at  Vienna  (1st  of  November,  1814 — 9th  of 
June,  1815),  which  was  attended  by  the  Emperors  of 
Russia  and  Austria,  the  Kings  of  Prussia,  Denmark, 
and  Wiirtemberg,  and  several  other  princes,  statesmen, 
and  generals.  After  protracted  negotiations,  which 
were  only  brought  to  a  conclusion  by  the  intelligence 
of  Napoleon's  escape  from  Elba,  it  was  resolved: — 1. 
That  Austria  should  have  the  Illyrian  provinces,  and 
(in  addition  to  Milan,  which  had  belonged  to  her  before 
the  Revolution)  should  be  indemnified  for  the  cession  of 
Belgium  by  receiving  Venice,  Salzburg,  and  the  Tyrol. 
2.  To  Russia  was  assigned  the  greater  part  of  the  duchy 
of  Warsaw,  under  the  name  of  The  Kingdom  of  Poland — 
Cracow  was  declared  an  independent  state.  3.  Prussia 
obtained  a  portion  of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  (had  the  grand 
duchy  of  Posen),  with  Dantzic,  Swedish  Pomerania,  and 
Riigen  (in  exchange  for  Lauenburg),  the  restoration  of 
her  ancient  possessions  in  Westphalia  and  Neufchatel,  and 
as  an  indemnification  for  the  provinces  which  she  had  lost, 
the  grand  duchy  of  the  Lower  Rhine  and  a  part  of  Saxo- 
ny. 4.  England  had  Malta,  Heligoland,  a  portion  of  the 
colonies  which  she  had  conquered  in  the  war,  Hanover 


196  MODERN   HISTORY.  [351.    $58, 

(with  the  addition  of  East  Friesland)  as  a  German  king- 
dom, and  the  protectorate  of  the  republic  of  the  Ionian 
isles.  5.  Holland  was  re-united  to  Belgium,  the  Statt- 
holder  of  Holland  being  created  King  of  this  "  kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands?  with  the  title  of  William  I.  6.  A 
Germanic  confederation  was  substituted  for  the  German 
empire,  the  position  of  the  different  members  remaining 
in  all  essential  particulars  the  same  as  in  1806,  when  the 
empire  was  dissolved,  and  the  Rhenish  confederacy  estab- 
lished. The  number  of  states  was  limited  to  thirty-eight, 
each  of  which  was  required  to  send  representatives  to  a 
federal  diet,  which  held  a  permanent  session  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  for  the  settlement  of  all  questions  affecting 
the  general  interests  of  the  Confederation.  With  this  ex- 
ception, each  state  was  declared  to  be  sovereign  and  inde- 
pendent. Weimar,  Oldenburg,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
and  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  became  grand  duchies  :  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  Liibeck,  Hamburg,  and  Bremen  remained 
independent  cities.  To  the  German  confederacy  belonged 
also  two  foreign  sovereigns,  viz.,  the  King  of  the  Nether- 
lands (as  Grand  Duke  of  Luxemburg)  and  the  King  of  Den- 
mark (as  Duke  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg).  7.  Denmark 
received  Lauenburg  as  an  indemnification  for  the  cession 
of  Norway  to  Sweden.  An  attempt  on  the  part  of  the 
Norwegians  to  establish  an  independent  kingdom,  under 
a  Danish  prince,  was  resisted  by  all  the  European  pow- 
ers ;  but  a  separate  constitution  was  granted  to  Norway, 
in  consequence  of  the  movement.  Switzerland,  at  the 
conclusion  of  a  war  in  which  she  had  taken  no  part,  ob- 
tained (in  addition  to  the  nineteen  cantons  assigned  to 
her  by  the  Act  of  Mediation  of  1803)  the  Cantons  of  Ge- 
neva, Vallais,  and  Neufchatel.  The  Bourbon  dynasty  in 
Spain  (and  subsequently  in  Naples),  as  well  as  the  Pope, 
the  King  of  Sardinia  and  the  Duke  of  Modena  were  re- 
instated in  the  positions  which  they  had  respectively  oc- 
cupied before  the  war,  the  King  of  Sardinia  receiving,  in 
addition,  the  city  and  territory  of  Genoa.  Lucca  was 
given  to  the  Queen  Dowager  of  Etruria  and  her  son  Don 
Carlos ;  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Guastalla,  to  Maria  Lou- 
isa (consort  of  Napoleon),  for  her  life,  the  reversion  of 
the  three  duchies  being  secured  after  her  death  to  the  pos- 


352 — 354.  §59.]          THE  EMPIRE.  197 

sessor  of  Lucca ;  the  whole  eventually  to  be  annexed  to 
Tuscany. 

§  59.  Escape  of  Napoleon  from  Elba. — The  Hundred 
Days  (1815). 

(352.)  A  spirit  of  disaffection  had  already  begun  to 
manifest  itself  in  France,  in  consequence  of  the  mal-ad- 
ministration  of  the  government,  and  the  insolence  of  those 
classes  which  had  enjoyed  peculiar  privileges  before  the 
Revolution,  Encouraged  by  the  reports  which  he  received 
of  the  prevalence  of  discontent,  especially  among  the  sol- 
diers, and  the  difficulties  in  which  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
was  involved  by  the  Polish  and  Saxon  questions,  Napoleon 
escaped  from  Elba,  landed  with  2000  men  at  Cannes  on 
the  1st  of  March,  and  being  joined  by  all  the  troops  sent 
to  oppose  his  progress  and  by  Marshal  Ney,  entered  Paris 
on  the  20th,  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  people,  and 
immediately  established  his  head  quarters  at  the  Tuileries. 
Meanwhile  Louis  XVIII.  had  fled  to  Ghent. 

(353.)  Napoleon,  by  a  proclamation  dated  from  Lyons, 
had  already  summoned  the  electoral  colleges  of  the  empire 
to  hold  an  extraordinary  meeting  (Champ  de  Mai)  in 
Paris,  for  the  improvement  of  the  constitution  ;  but  the 
popularity  obtained  by  this  apparent  concession  to  the 
wishes  of  the  people,  was  in  a  great  measure  lost  in  conse- 
quence of  these  ameliorations  being  eventually  decreed  by 
the  emperor  himself,  without  the  intervention  of  a  repre- 
sentative body.  Notwithstanding  repeated  attempts  on 
the  part  of  Napoleon  to  re-open  negotiations  with  the  em- 
perors of  Austria  and  Russia,  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
proclaimed  him  an  outlawed  traitor  on  the  13th  of  March, 
renewed  their  alliance  for  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII., 
and  engaged  to  raise  a  force,  which  eventually  amounted 
to  900.000  men.  On  the  other  hand,  Napoleon  was  una- 
ble to  complete  the  number  which  he  had  intended  to 
bring  into  the  field  (560,000  men). 

(354.)  Death  of  Murat.  The  Bourbon  courts  hav- 
ing opposed  the  recognition  of  Murat's  title  by  the  con- 
gress of  Vienna,  a  proclamation  was  issued  by  that  sove- 
reign, soon  after  the  landing  of  Napoleon,  calling  on  the 


198  MODERN   HISTORY.  [355.  §59. 

people  of  Italy  to  unite  with  him  in  a  patriotic  struggle 
for  the  utter  extinction  of  foreign  domination  in  Italy. 
Murat  advanced  as  far  as  the  Po  ;  but  being  defeated  by 
the  Austrians  in  several  engagements  (especially  at  Tolen- 
tino),  he  fled  to  France,  leaving  his  throne  to  King  Fer- 
dinand. In  the  following  October  he  landed  in  Calabria, 
where  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  shot  by  sentence  of  a 
court-martial. 

The  last  battle  of  the  allies,  15—18  June,  1815. 

(355.)  Napoleon  now  determined  to  commence  hosti- 
lities by  attacking  simultaneously  the  allied  troops  (Eng- 
lish, Dutch,  Belgians,  Hanoverians,  Brunswickers,  Nas- 
sauers,  &c.),  which  were  dispersed  through  Belgium  under 
the  command  of  Wellington,  and  the  Prussians  under 
Blucher;  and  thus  preventing  a  junction  of  the  two 
armies.  The  Prussian  army,  which  had  not  yet  had  time 
to  concentrate  itself,  was  defeated  at  Ligny  ;  whilst  Ney 
meanwhile  marched  northwards  as  far  as  Quatrebras, 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  advance  of  Wellington 
to  relieve  the  Prussians.  Here  an  indecisive  battle  was 
fought,  in  which  Duke  William  of  Brunswick  lost  his  life. 
Instead  of  falling  back  on  Namur,  as  Napoleon  had  ex- 
pected, the  Prussians  now  endeavored  to  effect  a  junction 
with  Wellington  by  Wavre.  Having  dispatched  Marshal 
Grouchy  to  intercept  Blucher,  Napoleon  attacked  Wel- 
lington on  the  18th  of  June,  at  Mont  S.  Jean,  or  la 
belle  Alliance,1  where  the  English,  after  bravely 
fighting  throughout  the  day,  were  beginning  to  waver  to- 
wards evening,  when  Blucher  (who  had  left  Thielemann 
to  oppose  Grouchy  at  Wavre),  appeared  on  the  field,  and, 
in  conjunction  with  Wellington,  completely  routed  the 
French  army,  which  fled  in  disorder,  pursued  by  the  Prus- 
sians. After  a  succession  of  victorious  skirmishes,  Blucher 
arrived,  on  the  22d  of  June,  at  Paris,  where  Napoleon 
had  a  second  time  abdicated,  in  favor  of  his  son.  Napo- 
leon then  fled  to  Rochefort,  with  the  intention  of  embark- 
ing for  America  ;  but  finding  the  harbor  beset  by  English 

1  Better  known  to  English  readers  under  the  name  of  WA- 
TERLOO.— S. 

7* 


356 — 357.  §60.]  THE  EMPIRE.  199 

cruisers,  he  surrendered  himself  to  Capt.  Maitland,  of  the 
Bellerophon,  and  was  conveyed  a  prisoner  to  St.  Helena, 
where  he  died,  after  nearly  six  years'  suffering,  on  the  5th 
of  May,  1821. 

(356.)  The  allies,  accompanied  by  Louis  XVIII.,  a 
second  time  entered  Paris,  where  they  levied  a  contribu- 
tion of  100,000,000  of  francs,  by  way  of  indemnification 
for  the  expenses  incurred  in  the  war,  and  obtained  the 
restoration  of  those  treasures  of  art  which  had  been  stolen 
from  their  respective  capitals  by  Napoleon.  A  demand  was 
also  made  by  Prussia  for  the  cession  of  all  the  provinces 
which  had  formerly  belonged  to  Germany ;  but  this  claim 
was  set  aside  by  Talleyrand,  whose  successor  in  the  admi- 
nistration, Richelieu,  expedited  the  conclusion  of  the 
peace  of  Paris  (20th  November),  by  which  all  the  reso- 
lutions of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  were  confirmed,  and 
the  limits  of  the  kingdom  (as  settled  by  the  first  peace) 
considerably  contracted.  The  two  fortresses  of  Philippe- 
ville  and  Marienburg  on  the  northern  frontier,  with  the 
duchy  of  Bouillon,  were  ceded  by  France  to  the  Nether- 
lands, Saarlouis  to  Prussia,  Landau  (the  third  German 
fortress  in  point  of  importance)  to  Bavaria,  and  the  west- 
ern part  of  Savoy  to  Sardinia.  She  was  also  required  to 
pay  700,000,000  of  francs  for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and 
maintain  an  army  of  150.000  allied  troops,  under  Wel- 
lington, for  five  years  in  her  frontier  provinces  and  for- 
tresses. The  Bonaparte  family  were  banished  from  France, 
and  forbidden  to  return  thither,  on  pain  of  death.  The 
two  emperors  and  the  King  of  Prussia  then  concluded  a 
fraternal  league,  called  the  H  o  1  y  A 1 1  i  a  n  c  e,  by  which  they 
bound  themselves  to  support  each  other  on  all  occasions, 
and  in  the  administration  of  their  respective  governments, 
no  less  than  in  their  political  intercourse  with  foreign 
states,  to  be  guided  by  the  precepts  of  the  Christian  reli- 
gion, and  the  rules  of  justice,  charity,  and  peace,  rather 
than  by  the  dictates  of  worldly  policy. 

§  60.  France. — A.   The  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons. 
(1815—1830.) 

(357.)    Before  his   return   to   Paris,   Louis   XVIII. 


200  MODERN   HISTORY.  [358.    $  60. 

(1815 — 1824)  had  issued  a  proclamation  from  Cambray, 
granting  a  free  pardon  to  all  who  had  taken  part  in  the 
Revolution,  with  the  exception  of  its  chief  authors,  and 
constituted  a  liberal  administration  under  Talleyrand ; 
which,  however,  was  speedily  overthrown  by  the  court 
party,  headed  by  the  king's  brother,  the  Comte  d?  Artois. 
An  act  was  then  passed  by  the  ultra-royalist  majority  in 
the  chambers,  excluding  from  the  amnesty,  and  condemn- 
ing to  perpetual  banishment,  all  who  had  taken  part  in 
the  murder  of  Louis  XVI.  (rtgiddes). 

(358.)  Ney  was  arraigned  before  the  chamber  of  peers, 
found  guilty  of  high  treason  and  shot.  Louis  XVIII. 
having  been  persuaded  to  dissolve  the  chambers  (chambre 
introuvable),  some  projects  of  law,  of  a  more  liberal  cha- 
racter (respecting  elections,  liberty  of  the  press  and  per- 
son, &c.)  were  carried  through  the  new  chambers  by  the 
Due  de  Richelieu,  who  also  obtained  at  the  congress  of 
Aix  la  Chapelle,  1818,  the  withdrawal  of  the  army  of  occu- 
pation, and  a  remission  of  some  portion  of  the  debt  still 
due  from  France  to  the  allies.  In  return  for  these  con- 
cessions Louis  XVIII.  joined  the  holy  alliance.  Un- 
der the  two  succeeding  administrations,  the  liberal  party 
obtained  a  decided  majority  in  the  chamber  of  deputies, 
and  the  utter  defeat  of  the  ultra-royalists  seemed  inevi- 
table, when  the  assassination  of  the  Due  de  Berri  (second 
son  of  the  Comte  d' Artois)  by  a  saddler  named  Louvel, 
furnished  them  with  an  excuse  for  demanding  the  dismis- 
sal of  the  premier  (Decazes)  who  resigned  in  order  to 
escape  being  arraigned  as  an  accomplice.  Then  they  al- 
tered the  law  of  election  so  as  to  secure  the  ascendency  of 
their  party,  and  finally  compelled  the  king  to  form  an 
ultra-royalist  administration,  with  Villele  at  its  head. 
Notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  liberal  party,  and 
almost  in  defiance  of  the  king's  wishes,  and  the  remon- 
strances of  their  president,  the  new  ministry  carried  a  re- 
solution, that  France  should  undertake  the  re-establish- 
ment of  the  absolute  monarchy  in  Spain,  as  settled  at  the 
congress  of  Verona.  (See  $  68.)  Emboldened  by  their 
success  in  this  instance,  the  ultra-royalists  now  exerted 
themselves  to  obliterate  every  trace  of  the  Revolution,  and 
re-establish  the  privileged  classes  in  all  their  former  splen- 


359.    §60.]  THE    EMPIRE.  201 

dor  ;  a  plan  which  they  pursued  with  great  zeal  and  suc- 
cess under 

(359.)  Charles  X.  (1824— 1830).  But  the  indigna- 
tion of  the  people  was  at  length  excited  by  the  pertinacity 
with  which  they  endeavored  to  increase  the  influence  of 
the  priesthood,  and  by  their  granting  an  indemnification 
to  the  extent  of  1,000,000,000  of  francs  to  the  emigrants, 
whose  estates  had  been  confiscated  by  the  revolutionary 
government.  In  conjunction  with  these  unpopular  mea- 
sures, the  disbanding  of  the  national  guard,  which  had  de- 
clared itself  favorable  to  the  dismissal  of  Villele,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  censorship  of  the  press  produced  such 
an  effect  upon  the  elections,  that  Charles  X.  was  compelled 
to  dismiss  his  ministers.  The  next  administration  (Mar- 
tignac's)  sent  a  French  army  under  Maison,  to  clear  the 
Morea  of  Turkish  troops  ;  but  soon  afterwards  was  com- 
pelled to  resign  in  consequence  of  the  dissatisfaction  occa- 
sioned by  two  projects  of  law.  An  ultra-royalist  admi- 
nistration was  then  formed  by  Polignac,  all  the  mem- 
bers of  which  were  vehemently  opposed  to  the  constitu- 
tion. Public  discontent  was  now  at  its  height.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  chamber  of  1830  (221  deputies)  presented  an 
address  to  the  king,  in  which  they  declared  plainly,  that 
the  policy  pursued  by  the  government  was  utterly  at  va- 
riance with  the  wishes  of  the  nation.  An  attempt  was 
made  by  the  king  to  withdraw  the  attention  of  the  people 
from  domestic  politics,  by  sending  an  expedition  against 
the  Deyof  Algiers,  who  had  insulted  the  French  consul. 
At  the  same  time  the  chamber  was  dissolved,  and  a  new 
election  ordered.  But  these  measures  were  utterly  inef- 
fectual. The  intelligence  of  the  capture  of  Algiers 
by  Bouenwall  was  coldly  received  by  the  people,  and  207 
out  of  the  former  majority  of  221  opposition  deputies  were 
returned  in  defiance  of  an  open  warning  from  the  king. 
Finding  themselves  again  in  a  minority,  the  ministry  now 
persuaded  the  king  to  sign  the  fatal  Ordonnances.  of 
25th  of  July,  by  which  the  liberty'  of  the  press  was  sus- 
pended, the  recently  elected  chamber  dissolved,  the  number 
of  deputies  diminished,  and  the  mode  of  election  altered. 
This  open  violation  of  the  constitution  produced  the 

(360.)  Revolution  of  July— 27th  of  July— 7th  of 


202  MODERN   HISTORY.  [361.    $60. 

August,  1830. — Some  of  the  royal  troops  having  joined  the 
revolutionists,  and  the  remainder  been  driven  out  of  the 
city  after  three  days'  hard  fighting  (27th — 29th  of  July), 
Charles  X.  abdicated  at  Rambouillet  on  the  2nd  of  Au- 

fust,  in  favor  of  his  grandson,  the  Due  de  Bordeaux, 
everal  unsuccessful  attempts  had  already  been  made  to 
proclaim  a  republic :  and  on  the  30th  of  July  the  peers 
and  deputies,  who  happened  to  be  resident  at  Paris,  had 
met  and  nominated  as  regent  the  Duke  of  Orleans  (de- 
scendant of  a  brother  of  Louis  XI V.),  by  whose  represen- 
tations Charles  was  induced  to  quit  the  kingdom,  and  seek 
an  asylum  in  Scotland.  On  the  7th  of  August,  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  was  proclaimed  hereditary  "  King  of  the  French? 
by  the  chambers,  and  on  the  9th  swore  fidelity  to  the 
charter  of  1 830,  in  which  the  sovereignty  of  the  people 
was  fully  recognized.  The  national  guard  was  re-estab- 
lished and  placed  under  the  command  of  Lafayette.  The 
following  alterations  were  made  in  the  charter  of  Louis 
XVIII.  It  was  no  longer  recognized  as  a  royal  gift ;  nor 
was  the  king  permitted  to  dispense  with  any  of  its  provi- 
sions, to  release  others  from  observance  of  the  laws,  or  to 
take  foreign  troops  into  his  pay.  The  initiative  in  legis- 
lation was  given  to  the  chambers,  as  well  as  the  king,  and 
the  restoration  of  the  censorship  and  establishment  of  ex- 
traordinary tribunals,  strictly  prohibited. 

B.      Under  the  House  of  Orleans,  1830 — 1848. 

(361.)  The  first  care  of  Louis  Philippe  was  to 
obtain  the  recognition  of  his  title  by  foreign  powers ;  an 
object  which  was  effected  without  much  difficulty,  as  he 
founded  his  claim  on  his  legitimate  right  to  the  throne 
(the  elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons  having  abdicated)  rather 
than  the  choice  of  the  people.  But  this  disavowal  of  the 
principle  on  which  he  had  been  chosen  king  of  the  French, 
however  satisfactory  to  foreign  cabinets,  was  exceedingly 
distasteful  to  the  people,  and  the  cause  of  serious  disturb- 
ances. His  ministers,  who  were  repeatedly  changed,  were 
engaged  in  a  perpetual  contest  with  the  Republicans  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  adherents  of  the  ancient  dynasty  (Legi- 
timists or  Carlists)  on  the  other ;  and  in  the  chamber  of 


362,363.  $60.]  THE  EMPIRE.  203 

deputies  a  formidable  opposition,  specially  organized  for 
resistance  to  the  "juste  milieu"  system1  of  G-uizot,  intro- 
duced by  Casimer  Perier,  compelled  the  government  to 
consent  to  the  abolition  of  the  hereditary  peerage,  and 
the  diminution  (but  not  entire  removal)  of  the  electoral 
qualification. 

(362.)  The  CarUsts  or  Legitimists,  who  considered 
Henry  Y.  (the  Duke  of  Bordeaux)  the  rightful  sovereign 
of  France,  had  many  adherents,  especially  in  la  Vendee, 
where  the  Duchesse  de  Berri,  who  personally  exerted  her- 
self on  behalf  of  her  son,  was  arrested  and  banished  the 
country.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Republicans  endeavored 
to  effect  the  overthrow  of  the  ministry,  if  not  of  the  throne 
itself,  by  means  of  societies,  trades-unions,  conspiracies, 
and  emuetes  in  Paris,  Lyons,  and  other  cities.  Several  at- 
tempts were  also  made  to  assassinate  the  king  (Fieschi's 
infernal  machine,  Alibaud,  Meunier,  Hubert,  Darmes, 
Henry).  The  appearance  of  Louis  Napoleon  (a  son  of 
the  ex-king  of  Holland)  at  Strasburg,  in  1837,  and  at 
Boulogne  in  1840,  produced  no  important  results.  In 
order  to  preserve  peace  with  foreign  powers,  Louis  Phi- 
lippe adopted  a  system  of  non-intervention,  which  he  was 
compelled  to  violate  on  several  occasions  by  the  clamors 
of  the  opposition  party  (occupation  of  Ancona  as  a  coun- 
terpoise to  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  Austrians,  sending 
a  fleet  to  Lisbon,  support  afforded  on  two  occasions  to  the 
Belgians  against  Holland,  &c.). 

(363.)  The  manner  in  which  the  mediation  of  France 
was  employed  in  a  dispute  between  the  Pacha  of  Egypt 
and  the  Porte  afforded  Thiers  an  opportunity  of  attack- 
ing the  foreign  policy  of  the  government  so  fiercely,  that 
the  king  was  obliged  to  dismiss  his  advisers,  and  form  a 
liberal  administration  (1840),  which  well  nigh  involved 
France  in  a  war  with  the  four  great  powers,  on  account 
of  the  Eastern  question.  Louis  Philippe  then  formed  a 
new  administration  (Soult-Gruizot),  which  directed  all  its 
efforts  towards  the  maintenance  of  peace,  and  persuaded 
the  chambers  to  sanction  the  fortification  of  Paris. 

1  The  object  of  this  system  was  the  neutralization  of  the  two 
extreme  parties,  by  means  of  the  centre  or  moderate  party  (tiers- 
parti.) 


204  MODERN   HISTORY.         [364 — 366.    §60. 

(364.)  Considerable  additions  were  made  by  conquest 
to  the  new  colony  of  Algiers;  but  the  colonists  were 
perpetually  harassed  by  the  attacks  of  the  Bedouins  and 
Kabyles  ;  among  whom  the  most  conspicuous  was  Abd-el- 
Kader,  emir  of  the  Arabian  tribes  of  the  province  of 
Oran,  who  endeavored  to  effect  a  general  rising  of  all  the 
tribes,  from  the  borders  of  Morocco  to  the  city  of  Algiers. 
After  a  war,  which  was  carried  on  with  various  success 
for  three  years  (1834-37),  peace  was  concluded  on  terms 
very  favorable  to  the  emir,  the  whole  of  the  French  force 
(under  Bugeaud)  being  required  for  the  reduction  of  Con- 
stantina,  a  city  in  the  western  part  of  the  province.  Dur- 
ing this  period  preparations  were  made  by  Abd-el-Kader 
for  the  renewal  of  the  war,  which  took  place  in  1839,  on 
account  of  an  alleged  violation  of  his  territory  by  the 
French.  Tribe  after  tribe  was  subdued,  and  the  emir  him- 
self was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  the  territory  of  Mo- 
rocco, from  which  he  sallied  forth  from  time  to  time,  until 
(in  1847)  he  was  at  last  obliged  to  surrender  to  the  French, 
who  conveyed  him  a  prisoner  to  France. 

(365.)  The  support  afforded  to  Abd-el-Kader  by  the 
population  of  Morocco,  involved  the  sultan  of  that  state 
(Muley  Abderrahman)  in  a  war  with  France  in  the  year 
1844.  Tangier  and  Mogador  were  bombarded  by  a  French 
fleet,  commanded  by  the  Prince  de  Joinville,  and  a  vic- 
tory gained  by  a  land  force  under  Marshal  Bugeaud,  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Isly.  A  peace  was  then  concluded, 
the  sultan  engaging  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  any 
fresh  outbreaks;  but  in  the  following  year  (1845)  Abd-el- 
Kader  crossed  the  frontier,  and  gained  several  victories 
over  the  French. 

(366.)  The  attempts  of  Louis  Philippe  to  render  him- 
self independent  of  the  nation,  his  selfishness  with  regard 
to  the  Spanish  marriage,  and  the  closeness  of  his  political 
connection  with  the  absolute  European  powers,  had  ren- 
dered it  impossible  for  him  to  obtain  a  majority  in  the 
chambers,  except  by  bribery ;  and  as  this  could  only  be 
effected  as  long  as  the  number  of  electors  was  limited,  he 
resisted  with  his  usual  obstinacy  every  proposal  for  the 
extension  of  the  franchise.  This  policy  disgusted  all  who 
looked  to  a  reformed  system  of  election,  as  the  only  means 


367,368.  $60.]  THE  EMPIRE. 

of  improving  the  administration,  and  greatly  increased 
the  numbers  of  the  moderate  Republican  party. 

(367.)  Even  the  eyes  of  those  who  had  been  slow  to 
credit  the  corruption  of  the  government,  were  at  last 
opened  by  the  trial  of  two  ex-ministers  (Cubi^res  and 
Teste)  for  bribery,  and  the  desire  for  reform  became 
universal.  An  order  of  the  government  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  reform  dinners,  founded,  as  they  pretended,  on  a 
law  passed  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  revolution  (1790), 
and  especially  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  police,  to 
prevent  by  force  the  holding  of  a  reform  banquet  at  Paris, 
provoked  the  opposition  party  (headed  by  Odillon  Barrot) 
to  propose  the  impeachment  of  ministers,  a  motion  which 
was  carried  in  the  chamber  of  deputies  after  a  stormy  de- 
bate. The  national  guard  and  some  of  the  troops  of  the 
line,  having  refused  to  act  against  the  people  (who  had 
taken  up  arms  on  the  22d  of  February),  Louis  Philippe 
dismissed  the  Gruizot  ministry  on  the  23d,  and  tranquilli- 
ty seemed  to  be  completely  restored  ;  but  on  the  evening 
of  the  same  day  fresh  disturbances  broke  out,  in  conse- 
quence of  some  troops  stationed  in  front  of  the  foreign 
office  having  fired  on  the  unarmed  populace.  Throughout 
the  whole  of  that  night  the  inhabitants  of  Paris  were  oc- 
cupied in  constructing  barricades,  and  making  prepara- 
tions for  active  resistance  on  the  morrow.  Meanwhile, 
however,  the  king,  alarmed  at  the  increasing  disaffection 
of  his  troops,  and  fearing  an  attack  on  the  Tuileries,  had 
abdicated  in  favor  of  the  Comte  de  Paris,  and  quitted 
his  palace,  which  was  immediately  plundered  by  the 
populace. 

(368.)  The  Duchess  of  Orleans,  accompanied  by  her 
two  sons,  having  proceeded  to  the  chamber  of  deputies  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  their  recognition  of  the  Comte 
de  Paris  as  king,  and  herself  as  regent,  an  armed  multi- 
tude burst  into  the  hall,  and  compelled  the  deputies  to 
sanction  the  establishment  of  a  provisional  government, 
which  proclaimed  a  republic  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and 
again  on  the  Place  de  la  Bastille,  subject  to  the  approba- 
tion of  the  great  body  of  the  people. 


206  MODERrf  HISTORY.  [369,370.    $60. 

C.  Second  French  Kepublic  (1848). 

(369.)  The  provisional  government  commenced  its 
proceedings  by  calling  together  the  electoral  colleges  and 
a  constituent  assembly.  The  elective  franchise  was 
extended  to  all  Frenchmen  who  had  attained  their  twenty- 
first  year,  and  all  above  twenty-five  years  of  age  were  de- 
clared eligible  as  deputies,  of  whom  about  900  were  re- 
turned to  the  chamber.  The  constituent  assembly  having 
met  on  the  4th  of  May,  and  the  republic  having  been  again 
proclaimed,  the  provisional  government  dissolved  itself,  and 
was  succeeded  by  an  executive  commission  composed  of 
five  of  its  members  (Arago.  Grarnier,  Pages,  Marie,  Lamar- 
tine,  and  Ledru  Rullin).  The  most  formidable  opponents 
of  these  commissioners  were  the  workmen  (ouvriers),  and 
the  leaders  of  the  communists  (Barbes,  Blanqui,  Louis 
Blanc).  The  Revolutionists  of  February  had  pronounced 
it  to  be  the  duty  of  the  state  to  provide  employment  for 
its  citizens,  and  had  followed  up  this  declaration  by  the 
establishment  of  national  workshops,  with  a  view  to  the 
"  organization  of  labor."  The  failure  of  this  impractica- 
ble scheme  produced  great  discontent  among  the  workmen ; 
and  after  a  fruitless  attempt  (15th  of  May)  on  their  part 
to  overthrow  the  government,  and  extort  contributions 
from  the  wealthier  classes,  the  workshops  were  closed,  and 
the  men  sent  into  the  provinces.  A  sanguinary  struggle 
ensued,  in  the  course  of  which  the  Archbishop  of  Paris 
was  shot,  whilst  addressing  words  of  peace  to  the  insur- 
gents from  one  of  the  barricades.  After  four  days'  hard 
fighting  (23d — 26th  of  July),  the  malcontents  were  utterly 
defeated  by  General  C  a  vaignac,  formerly  governor  of 
Algiers.  The  city  of  Paris  was  then  declared  in  a  state 
of  siege,  and  the  powers  of  the  executive  commission  trans- 
ferred to  Cavaignac,  who  immediately  formed  an  admi- 
nistration, of  which  he  declared  himself  president.  More 
than  4000  of  the  insurgents  were  banished  to  the  French 
settlements  beyond  seas,  the  national  workshops  suppress- 
ed, and  the  public  clubs  placed  under  the  surveillance  of 
the  police. 

(370.)  By  the  new  Constitution,  France  was  de- 
clared to  be  a  democratic  republic,  one  and  indivisible. 


371.  §61.]  HOLLAND   AND   BELGIUM.  207 

The  legislative  authority  was  committed  to  a  single  as- 
sembly of  750  members,  elected  by  all  Frenchmen  who 
had  attained  their  twenty-first  year.  All  citizens  above 
twenty-five  years  of  age  were  eligible  as  representatives, 
with  the  exception  of  paid  government  functionaries.  The 
executive  authority  was  vested  in  a  "President  of 
the  Republic,"  who  was  required  by  the  constitution  to  be 
thirty  years  old,  and  a  native  of  France.  He  was  chosen 
for  four  years,  by  the  direct  suifrages  of  all  the  electors. 

§  61.  Holland  and  Belgium. 

(371.)  At  the  suggestion  of  the  English  government, 
it  had  been  settled  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  that  the 
Austrian  Netherlands  (Belgium),  and  the  Republic  of 
Holland,  should  form  together  the  Kingdom  of  the 
Nether  lands,  under  William  I.,  who  received  the  grand 
duchy  of  Luxemburg  as  an  indemnification  for  the  Ger- 
man territorf  ceded  by  the  house  of  Orange,  and  granted 
a  representative  constitution  to  the  united  kingdom.  But 
the  differences  in  character,  language,  and  manners  be- 
tween the  two  nations,  were  too  decided  to  admit  of  amal- 
gamation ;  and  the  difficulty  was  still  further  increased  by 
the  arrogance  of  the  Dutch,  and  the  ill-judged  attempts  of 
the  government  to  alter  the  laws  and  language  of  Bel- 
gium. After  fifteen  years  of  nominal  union,  during  which 
complaints  without  number  were  made  of  the  preference 
shown  to  natives  of  Holland,  and  the  interference  of  the 
government  in  Church  affairs,  the  Belgians,  at  length,  in- 
stigated by  the  example  of  the  French,  broke  out  into 
open  insurrection  on  the  25th  of  August,  1830,  and  de- 
manded a  separation  of  the  two  countries,  as  regarded 
laws  and  government.  No  sooner  was  this  demand  granted 
by  the  states-general,  than  the  Belgians  required  national 
independence ;  and,  finding  that  the  Dutch  were  concen- 
trating their  troops  in  Brussels  and  Antwerp,  again  raised 
the  standard  of  revolution  in  the  capital ;  and  established 
a  provisional  government ;  at  the  head  of  which  they 
placed  one  De  Potter,  a  political  writer,  who  had  been 
banished  by  the  government.  After  four  days'  hard  fight- 
ing (23d— 26th  Sept.),  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  had  en- 


208  MODERN    HISTORY.  [372,373.    §61. 

deavored  to  appease  the  revolutionists  by  several  important 
concessions,  was  compelled  to  quit  Brussels  and  retire  to 
Antwerp  The  insurrection  having  extended  itself  to  the 
whole  of  Belgium,  the  Dutch  garrisons  were  every  where 
forced  to  capitulate,  except  at  Antwerp,  where  General 
Chasse  retained  possession  of  the  citadel,  and  suppressed 
an  insurrection,  by  bombarding  the  city.  A  conference, 
consisting  of  plenipotentiaries  of  the  five  great  European 
powers,  then  assembled  in  London,  at  the  request  of  the 
King  of  the  Netherlands,  and,  having  persuaded  the  con- 
tending parties  to  conclude  an  armistice,  decided  that  the 
boundaries  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  should  be 
the  same  as  those  of  the  Dutch  republic  previously  to 
1790,  with  the  addition  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Luxem- 
burg. 

(372.)  Meanwhile  a  national  Congress,  which  had  as- 
sembled at  Brussels,  and  proclaimed  the  independence  of 
Belgium,  and  the  exclusion  of  the  house  of  Orange  from 
the  Belgian  throne,  had  framed  a  new  constitution,  and 
chosen  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe  Coburg  hereditary 
King  of  the  .Belgians  (1831).  Whilst  the  Conference 
of  London  was  occupied  in  fruitless  endeavors  to  settle 
the  boundary  question  between  the  two  nations,  the  King 
of  Holland  renewed  the  war,  but  was  prevented  from  car- 
rying his  plans  into  effect  by  the  appearance  of  a  French 
army  in  Belgium.  A  new  protocol  was  then  issued  by 
the  conference,  proposing  the  partition  of  Luxemburg 
and  Limburg  between  Holland  and  Belgium,  and  charging 
Belgium  with  a  share  of  the  Dutch  national  debt.  These 
conditions  being  rejected  by  the  King  of  Holland,  it  was 
resolved  to  have  recourse  to  coercive  measures :  and  in 
the  year  1832  Marshal  Gerard  re-entered  Belgium  at  the 
head  of  a  French  army,  and  compelled  Chasse,  after  a 
brave  defence,  to  surrender  the  citadel  of  Antwerp.  It 
was  not,  however,  until  the  year  1839,  that  a  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  between  the  two  nations.  Luxemburg 
and  Limburg  remained  divided. 

(373.)  In  the  Netherlands,  the  states-general  hav- 
ing demanded  a  full  statement  of  the  financial  condition 
of  the  country,  as  well  as  various  reforms  in  the  constitu- 
tion and  the  establishment  of  ministerial  responsibility, 


374 — 376.  §61.]   HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 

the  king  (who  was  unwilling  to  comply  with  these  requisi- 
tions, and  had  also  refused  to  dismiss  his  unpopular  mis- 
tress, the  Countess  d'Oultremont)  abdicated  in  1840,  in 
favor  of  his  son,  William  II.,1  and,  having  married  the 
countess,  retired  to  Berlin,  where  he  died  (as  Count  of 
Nassau),  in  1843.  On  his  accession,  the  new  king  issued 
a  proclamation  declaring  ministers  responsible  for  their 
public  acts  ;  and  sanctioned  the  imposition  of  a  property 
tax,  as  the  only  practicable  mode  of  improving  the  finan- 
cial affairs  of  the  nation,  which  were  In  a  state  of  alarm- 
ing depression. 

(374.)  In  the  year  1848,  the  government  presented  to 
the  chambers  the  plan  of  a  constitution,  by  which  a  direct 
election  of  representatives  was  substituted  for  the  many 
indirect  modes  previously  in  use.  The  property  qualifi- 
cation for  electors  was.  however,  still  retained. 

(375.)  Since  the  revolution  of  1831,  Belgium  has  en- 
joyed almost  uninterrupted  tranquillity,  notwithstanding 
the  struggle  for  ascendency  between  the  liberal  and  Ro- 
man Catholic  parties.  During  that  period,  several  great 
industrial  enterprises  have  been  successfully  carried  out, 
and  railways  constructed,  by  which  the  country  is  tra- 
versed in  every  direction.  The  French  revolution  of 
1848  produced  no  effect  on  Belgium. 

(376.)  The  chief  articles  of  the  Belgian  constitu- 
tion are  as  follows:  equality  of  all  Belgians  before  the 
law ;  abolition  of  hereditary  distinctions ;  the  right  of 
assembling  and  forming  associations ;  freedom  of  speech, 
of  education,  and  of  religious  worship ;  complete  separa- 
tion of  the  church  from  the  state  ;  hereditary  succession 
to  the  throne  in  the  male  line  ;  legislation  by  two  cham- 
bers, with  a  low  qualification  for  electors ;  publicity  of  ju- 

1  William  I.  (1815—1840.) 

f , A ^ 

William  II.                              .Frederick          Marianne 
, ^ >          f A N         m.  Prince 


William.  Alexander.  Henry.  Sophia.      Louisa.   Mary.    Albert  of 
|  t  1848-  Hereditary  Prussia. 

f * v  G.  Duchess 

William.  Maurice.  ofSaxe 

Weimar. 


210  MODERN    HISTORY.          [377 382.    $62. 

dicial  proceedings  ;  trial  by  jury  in  criminal  and  political 
cases,  and  in  all  prosecutions  of  the  press. 

§  62.    Great  Britain* 

(377.)  George  IY.  (1820—1830.)  George  Can- 
ning, prime  minister.  Recognition  of  the  free  States 
of  America.  Maintenance  by  the  English  Government  of 
the  Constitution  in  Portugal.  Election  of  O'Connell  to 
a  seat  in  parliament,  who,  though  a  Roman  Catholic, 
threatens  to  take  his  seat  in  defiance  of  the  Test  Act. 

(388.)  Act  for  the  Emancipation  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  carried  by  the  "Wellington  Administration, 
receives  the  royal  assent.  (1829.) 

^  (379.)  William  IV.  (brother  of  George  IV.)  A  whig 
ministry  formed  with  Earl  Grey  at  its  head.  Parliament 
dissolved,  and  the  Reform-Bill  twice  thrown  out  by  the 
House  of  Lords.  Reform  Act  receives  the  royal  assent. 
The  monopoly  hitherto  enjoyed  by  the  East  India  Com- 
pany is  abolished  by  Lord  Melbourne's  administration. 

(380.)  Victoria  (daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Kent; 
niece  of  George  IV.  and  William  IV.,  1837).  Marries 
Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg.  Hanover  (where  fe- 
males are  excluded  from  the  succession  by  the  Salique 
law)  separated  from  England,  and  made  an  independent 
kingdom  under  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  (Ernest  Augus- 
tus), brother  of  William  IV. 

(381.)  War  with  Persia  (1838—1843).  Two  wars 
with  China  (1840—1842  and  1846,  1847)  end  in  the  ces- 
sion of  Hong-Kong  to  the  British  government,  and  the 
admission  of  British  subjects  into  China. 

§  63.    Germany. 

A.  Germany,  a  confederacy  of  states. 
(1815—1848.) 

(382.)  Considerable  difference  of  opinion  had  arisen, 

1 1  have  thought  it  best  to  give  a  mere  chronological  outline  of 
this  part  of  English  history,  as  the  events  are,  perhaps,  too  recent, 
and  men's  opinions  too  divided  with  regard  to  their  nature  and 
character,  to  warrant  a  fuller  statement  in  a  book  intended  for 
young  persons.  R.  B.  P. 


382.  §63.]  GERMANY.  211 

during  the  session  of  the  Congress  at  Vienna,  respecting 
the  future  constitution  of  Germany,  the  smaller  princes 
desiring  the  restoration  of  the  empire  under  a  common 
head,  whilst  Austria  and  Prussia  advocated  the  establish- 
ment of  a  federal  union  of  independent  states.  The  un- 
expected return  of  Napoleon  compelled  the  German  states 
to  unite  for  mutual  defence,  but  no  assimilation  of  insti- 
tutions was  attempted.  In  Prussia,  where  the  prime 
minister,  Baron  von  Stein  (1807,  1808),  and  the  Chancel- 
lor Hardenberg  (1810 — 1812),  had  already  effected  several 
importartant  reforms  (abolition  of  hereditary  serfdom, 
equalization  of  taxes,  removal  of  all  restrictions  on  indus- 
try, &c.),  the  constitution  was  still  further  liberalized,  and 
preparations  were  made  for  the  establishment  of  a  repre- 
sentative government ;  whilst  in  Austria,  on  the  contrary, 
a  system  was  pursued  by  Prince  Metternich,  the  chief 
object  of  which  was  the  maintenance  of  the  imperial  pre- 
rogative. After  a  time,  this  system  was  also  adopted  by 
Prussia,  whilst  in  Baden,  Bavaria,  Wurtemburg,  and  sev- 
eral of  the  smaller  states,  the  tardiness  with  which  the 
governments  carried  into  effect  the  plans  of  constitutional 
reform  recommended  by  the  diet  of  the  confederation, 
excited  the  suspicions  of  the  liberal  party,  and  produced 
demonstrations  (at  the  Wartburg  festival,  in  1 8 1 7 — assassi- 
nation of  Kotzebue,1  by  a  student  named  George  Sand,  in 
1819),  which  compelled  their  rulers  to  adopt  a  reactionary 
policy.  A  conference  of  ministers  was  accordingly 
summoned  (1819),  by  Prince  Metternich,  to  meet  at 
Carlsbad,  where  resolutions  were  passed  condemnatory 
of  these  "  demagogue  attempts,"  and  a  plan  proposed  for 
establishing  a  surveillance  of  university  professors  and 
students  by  government  commissioners,  and  for  restricting 
the  liberty  of  the  press.  In  the  following  year  (1820),  a 
ministerial  Congress  assembled  at  Vienna,  and 
adopted  measures  of  a  still  more  arbitrary  character. 
Meanwhile  Hanover,  Brunswick,  and  Hesse-Darmstadt 
had  also  received  representative  constitutions.  In  Prussia, 
by  a  law  passed  during  the  Hardenberg  administration,  the 

1  A  dramatic  writer,  and  editor  of  a  political  journal,  in  which 
the  "  liberal"  party  were  held  up  to  public  contempt. 


212  MODERN   HISTORY.  [383,  384.   §  63. 

debt  of  180  millions  of  Prussian  dollars  was  declared  to 
be  balanced,  and  the  raising  of  fresh  loans  was  made  de- 
pendent on  the  consent  of  the  estates ;  but  after  the  death 
of  that  minister,  in  1823,  provincial  estates,  in  which  the 
influence  of  the  great  landed  proprietors  preponderated, 
were  substituted  for  those  of  the  kingdom.  For  a  period 
of  ten  years  the  German  nation  continued  to  enjoy  unin- 
terrupted tranquillity  both  at  home  and  abroad,  but  im- 
mediately after  the  Paris  revolution  of  July,  insurrection- 
ary movements  took  place  in  some  of  the  states.  In 
Brunswick,  the  Duke  (Charles),  whose  capricious  tyranny 
had  rendered  him  universally  odious,  was  deposed,  and 
his  brother  William  raised  to  the  throne :  in  the  kingdom 
of  Saxony,  as  well  as  in  Hesse-  Cassel  and  Hanover,  the 
sovereigns  were  compelled  to  grant  constitutions  ;  whilst, 
in  the  constitutional  states  of  the  south  of  Germany,  the 
restoration  of  the  liberty  of  the  press  was  demanded  by 
the  representatives  of  the  people. 

(383.)  As  long  as  the  result  of  the  French  outbreak 
seemed  uncertain,  and  the  territories  of  the  two  great  Ger- 
man powers  were  threatened  by  the  Poles,  the  confederation 
abstained  from  any  aggressive  movement ;  but  no  sooner 
was  intelligence  received  of  the  fall  of  Warsaw,  than  the 
diet  (1832),  at  the  suggestion  of  Austria,  adopted  a  series 
of  resolutions,  by  which  the  development  of  the  constitu- 
tional system  was  still  farther  restricted  (censorship  of  the 
press  ;  prohibition  of  political  unions,  and  public  meet- 
ings, &c.,  &c.).  The  only  effect  produced  by  these  political 
demonstrations  was  the  enactment  of  still  more  tyrannical 
laws  by  the  diet,  which  now  constituted  itself  a  court  of 
appeal  in  all  disputes  between  the  executive  and  represen- 
tative powers. 

(384).  How  little  security  the  people  possessed  for  the 
continuance  of  their  constitutional  governments  was  seen  in 
the  instance  of  Hanover,  where  King  Ernest  Augustus 
repudiated  the  law  of  1833,  on  the  ground  of  its  having 
been  passed  without  receiving  his  assent,  as  heir-pre- 
sumptive to  the  crown,  and  summoned  the  estates  to  form 
a  new  constitution  (founded  on  that  of  1819),  which  was 
at  last  voted,  after  a  severe  struggle  and  several  adjourn- 
ments. 


385, 386.  §  63.]  GERMANY.  213 

(385.)  In  Austria,  after  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Francis  I.,  the  absolute  system  was  rigidly  maintained  by 
his  son,  Ferdinand  I. ;  whilst  in  Prussia,  where  an  im- 
portant step  towards  the  establishment  of  German  unity 
had  been  taken  in  the  formation  (1833)  and  subsequent 
extension  of  the  Zollverein  (commercial  league),  several 
concessions  were  made  by  Frederick  William  IV.,  im- 
mediately after  his  accession  in  1840.  Among  these  we 
may  mention  as  the  most  important,  the  relaxation  of  the 
censorship,  the  summoning  of  provincial  diets  every  two 
(instead  of  every  three)  years,  publicity  of  courts  of  jus- 
tice (granted  in  1 846),  publication  of  an  edict  respecting 
religious  toleration,  and  lastly  (in  1847),  the  formation 
out  of  the  provincial  diets  of  a  "  united  national  diet," 
with  the  power  of  contracting  loans  and  imposing  taxes, 
but  with  only  the  power  of  advising  on  questions  of  legis- 
lation. 

(386.)  On  the  llth  of  April,  1847,  the  first  session  of 
the  "  united  national  diet"  was  opened  with  a  speech  from 
the  throne,  which  annihilated  the  hopes  of  those  who  had 
expected  some  intimation  of  the  king's  readiness  to  grant 
a  constitution.  In  the  following  year  (12th  of  Feb.  1848), 
a  proposal  (which  had  originally  been  brought  forward  in 
1814,  and  again  by  Welcher,  in  1831),  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  German  parliament  in  place  of  the  federal 
diet,  was  submitted  to  the  chamber  of  Baden,  and  de- 
nounced by  the  government  as  "  utterly  impracticable  ;" 
whilst  nearly  at  the  same  time  disturbances  took  place  at 
Munich,  in  consequence  of  an  order  for  the  suppression  of 
the  university,  which  the  King  of  Bavaria  had  been  per- 
suaded to  issue  by  his  mistress,  a  Spanish  dancer,  named 
Lola  Montes,  whom  he  had  created  Countess  of  Lansfeld, 
and  who  had  procured  the  dismissal  of  the  minister  Abel, 
in  1847.  After  a  struggle,  which  lasted  several  days,  the 
order  was  revoked,  and  Lola  Montes  was  compelled  to 
quit  the  country.  Whilst  the  political  affairs  of  Germany 
were  in  this  unsettled  state,  intelligence  arrived  of  the  third 
French  revolution,  and  the  overthrow  of  a  throne  which 
had  seemed  too  firmly  established  to  be  shaken  during  the 
lifetime  of  Louis  Philippe. 


214  MODERN   HISTORY.  [387.    §63. 

B.  Germany  a  federal  state(1848). 

(387.)  The  first  effects  of  this  intelligence  manifested 
themselves  in  the  frontier  states  of  Baden  and  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  where  the  chambers  were  assembled,  and 
freedom  of  the  press,  and  the  establishment  of  a  national 
guard,  were  granted  by  the  government,  in  consequence 
of  their  energetic  representatives.  A  body  of  fifty-one 
representatives,  from  the  south-western  states,  also  assem- 
bled at  Heidelberg,  for  the  purpose  of  inviting  the  attend- 
ance at  Frankfort  of  deputies  from  all  the  states  ;  whilst, 
at  the  same  time,  a  proposal  was  brought  forward  in  the 
chamber  at  Darmstadt,  by  Henry  von  Gragern,  for  the 
convocation  of  a  national  representative  assembly,  and  the 
nomination  of  a  head  of  the  confederacy.  In  W  ii  r  t  e  m- 
b  e  r  g  the  government  yielded  at  once,  and  unconditionally, 
to  the  wishes  of  the  people,  and  called  together  the  cham- 
bers (which  had  been  prorogued  a  short  time  before),  for 
the  purpose  of  submitting  to  them  the  plan  of  a  new  con- 
stitution. The  initiative  in  a  'project  for  relieving  the 
people  from  feudal  burdens,  was  taken  by  the  nobles  them- 
selves, the  chambers  undertaking  to  indemnify  them  for 
any  loss  which  they  might  sustain.  In  Bavaria  and 
Nassau  the  chambers  were  convoked,  and  extensive 
schemes  of  reform  submitted  to  them.  At  Munich,  fresh 
disturbances  having  taken  place,  in  consequence  of  a  report 
that  the  Countess  of  Lansfeld  (386)  had  returned  to  Ba- 
varia, the  king  was  induced  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son, 
Maximilian  II.,  who  immediately  opened  the  chambers, 
and  gave  his  assent  to  an  act  embodying  all  the  reforms 
which  had  been  promised  to  the  nation.  In  Hesse- 
C ass  el,  the  movement  commenced,  not  in  the  capital,  but 
in  that  portion  of  the  principality  which  lay  nearest  to  the 
disturbed  southern  states,  where  the  deman'ds  of  the  people 
were  granted,  in  consequence  of  the  representations  of  a 
deputation  from  Hanau.  In  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  most 
of  the  smaller  states,  the  transition  from  the  old  to  the 
new  state  of  things  was  accomplished  with  comparative 
facility,  whilst  in  Austria  and  Prussia  the  attempts  of  the 
reform  party  produced  the  most  fearful  convulsions  :  in 
Austria,  the  Hungarian  diet,  on  receiving  intelligence  of 


388.    §  63.]  GERMANY.  215 

the  French  revolution,  demanded,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Kossuth,  a  real  representative  system  for  all  parts  of  the 
empire,  and  a  separate  responsible  administration  for 
Hungary.  All  these  demands  were  granted  through  the 
influence  of  the  Archduke  Stephen.  Meanwhile  the 
students  of  Vienna,  supported  by  a  large  body  of  insur- 
gents, had  compelled  the  estates  of  Lower  Austria  (on  the 
day  of  their  assembling,  March  13th),  to  appoint  a  com- 
mittee for  the  purpose  of  communicating  the  wishes  of  the 
people  to  the  emperor  ;  but  their  demands  for  freedom  of 
the  press,  and  the  establishment  of  a  national  guard, 
were  not  granted,  until  several  deputations  had  been 
sent  by  the  university,  and  Metternich  had  resigned  his 
office. 

(388.)  A  progress  of  the  emperor  through  the  city, 
during  which  he  was  loudly  cheered  by  the  people,  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  distinct  promise  of  a  constitution  (15th  of 
March),  the  formation  of  a  responsible  administration 
(18th),  and  a  general  amnesty  for  all  political  offences 
(20th).  In  Hungary,  the  nobles  gave  up  their  privilege  of 
exemption  from  taxation,  and  other  feudal  rights.  Mean- 
while, however,  the  joy  occasioned  by  the  supposed  success 
of  this  almost  bloodless  revolution  was  well-nigh  changed 
into  despair,  by  the  appearance  of  a  government  scheme 
for  the  formation  of  a  single  chamber,  to  be  composed  ex- 
clusively of  nobles,  who  were  to  be  elected  by  persons  pos- 
sessing a  considerable  property  qualification.  After  con- 
senting (in  consequence  of  a  monster  petition  presented 
on  the  15th  of  May)  to  the  establishment  of  a  consti- 
tuent imperial  diet,  consisting  of  one  chamber,  and  a 
revision  of  the  law  of  election,  the  emperor  fled  to  the 
Tyrol,  in  the  hope  of  more  effectually  combating,  from  that 
distant  locality,  the  designs  of  the  revolutionary  party. 
The  diet  was  opened  by  the  Archduke  John,  on  the  22nd 
of  July,  and  soon  afterwards  the  emperor  returned  to  his 
capital.  Almost  contemporaneously  with  the  occurrence 
of  these  events  in  Austria,  an  attempt  was  made  by  the 
Milanese  to  throw  off  the  Austrian  yoke.  This  revolu- 
tionary movement  was  abetted  by  Charles  Albert,  King 
of  Sardinia,  who  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  insur- 
gent Lombards,  and  drove  back  the  imperial  troops  as  far 


216  MODERN   HISTORY.  [388.    §63. 

as  the  Adige.  Meanwhile  a,  republic  had  been  proclaimed 
at  Venice.  But  after  the  defeat  of  the  insurgents  by 
General  Radetzky  (at  Custozza,  between  Milan  and  Villa 
Franca),  and  the  recapture  of  Milan  by  the  Austrians,  an 
armistice  was  concluded  between  the  contending  parties. 


389.  §63.] 


GERMANY. 


217 


218  MODERN   HISTORY.  [390.    $63. 

(390.)  Whilst  this  contest  was  still  undecided,  a  strug- 
gle of  an  equally  determined  character  commenced  be- 
tween the  two  nations  whose  union  formed  the  kingdom 
of  Hungary,  the  Magyars  and  Slaves  (or  Sclavonians). 
The  latter  of  these  tribes,  considering  itself  aggrieved  by 
the  adoption  of  the  Magyar  language  at  the  Hungarian 
diet,  had  formed  a  plan  for  the  establishment  of  an  inde- 
pendent southern  Sclavonian  empire, '  which  they  deter- 
mined, in  case  of  necessity,  to  place  under  the  protection 
of  Russia :  but  a  different  direction  was  given  to  the 
movement  by  Jellachich,  Ban  of  Croatia,  who  proposed  a 
union  with  Austria,  for  the  purpose  of  depriving  the 
Magyars  of  their  hegemony  in  Hungary.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  revolution,  the  Ban  had  been  outlawed 
by  the  Austrian  government ;  but  the  struggles  of  the 
Magyars  for  complete  independence  had  now  become  so 
formidable,  that  the  emperor,  after  receiving  a  visit  from 
Jellachich,  at  Innsbruck,  agreed  to  nominate  him  com- 
mandertin-chief  in  Hungary,  and  issued  a  proclamation 
dissolving  the  Hungarian  diet.  This  alliance  with  the 
Slavish  nation  having  occasioned  a  fresh  revolution  at 
Vienna  (6th  of  October),  the  emperor,  after  the  march  of 
the  Imperial  troops  against  the  Hungarians  had  been 
opposed  by  the  national  guard,  and  the  minister  of  war 
(Latour)  sacrificed  to  the  fury  of  the  populace,  a  second 
time  quitted  his  capital,  and  fled  to  Olinutz.  The  com- 
mand in  chief  of  the  troops  in  all  the  imperial  states  was 
now  conferred  on  Prince  Windischgratz,  who  had  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  previous  June  by  the  suppression  of 
an  insurrection  at  Prague.  After  a  three  days'  bombard-  • 
ment,  and  an  ineffectual  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Hun- 
garians to  throw  themselves  between  Windisgratz  and 
Jellachich,  the  city  of  Vienna  surrendered  uncondition- 
ally (1st  of  November),  and  the  insurgent  leaders  (Mes- 
senhauser,  commandant  of  the  national  guard,  Robert 
Blum,  one  of  the  representatives  in  the  imperial  diet,  and 
several  other  persons)  were  put  to  death.  The  emperor 
now  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  nephew,  Francis  Joseph 
I.,  a  youth  of  eighteen.  Windischgratz  and  Jellachich 
united  their  forces  and  again  attacked  the  Hungarians. 


391,392.  $63.]  GERMANY.  219 

The  diet  was  prorogued,  and  its  place  of  meeting  changed 
to  Kremsier,  in  Moravia. 

(391.)  In  Prussia,  a  Committee  (unrecognized  by  a 
portion  of  the  representative  body)  was  busily  engaged  in 
preparing  the  project  of  a  new  criminal  law,  when  intelli- 
gence arrived  of  the  French  revolution,  and  the  success 
which  had  attended  the  movements  of  the  liberal  party  in 
all  the  countries  of  South-western  Germany.  Under  such 
circumstances,  the  consent  of  the  government  to  the  regu- 
lar convocation  of  the  united  diet,  under  certain  restric- 
tions, and  in  its  ancient  forni,  as  well  as  the  ambiguous 
terms  in  which  freedom  of  the  press  was  promised,  occa- 
sioned more  uneasiness  than  satisfaction.  Tumultuous 
meetings  were  held  in  the  capital,  and  dispersed  one  after 
another  by  the  military,  and  whilst  the  agitation  of  the 
popular  mind  was  at  its  greatest  height,  accounts  were  re- 
ceived of  insurrections  in  the  provinces,  and  the  triumph 
of  the  revolutionary  party  at  Vienna.  The  government 
now  deemed  it  the  most  prudent  course  to  make  several 
important  concessions  (18th  of  March),  which  were  re- 
ceived the  more  readily  by  the  people,  because  a  prospect 
was  held  out  to  them  of  obtaining  the  complete  re-organi- 
zation of  the  German  constitution,  and  the  establishment 
of  one  federal  state  in  the  place  of  a  confederacy  of  inde- 
pendent states ;  but  the  refusal  of  the  government  to 
withdraw  the  military  from  Berlin  soon  occasioned  a  fresh 
outbreak,  and  a  sanguinary  barricade  skirmish  took  place 
(18th,  19th  of  March),  in  the  streets  of  that  city,  which 
ended  in  the  removal  of  the  troops,  the  dismissal  of  the 
ministry,  the  establishment  of  a  national  guard,  and  a 
general  amnesty  for  all  political  offences.  These  conces- 
sions were  speedily  followed  by  the  appointment  of  a 
responsible  administration,  in  which  Camphausen,  Hanse- 
mann,  von  Auerswald,  and  the  Count  Yon-  Schwerin  (all 
leading  men  in  the  first  united  diet)  filled  the  most  im- 
portant offices. 

(392.)  The  second  united  diet,  which  lasted  only  from 
the  2nd  to  the  10th  of  April,  restricted  itself  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  a  few  indispensable  measures  of  finance,  and 
certain  details  of  the  proposed  new  constitution.  On  the 
22nd  of  May,  the  representative  assembly  opened  its  ses- 


220  MODERN   HISTORY.  [393,394.    §63. 

sion,  and  appointed  a  committee  to  frame  a  new  constitu- 
tion ;  the  plan  proposed  by  the  government  being  consider- 
ed unsatisfactory.  Scarcely,  however,  had  their  delibera- 
tions commenced,  when  the  session  was  adjourned  to  Bran- 
denburgh,  in  consequence  of  the  unsettled  state  of  the 
capital.  An  attempt  on  the  part  of  a  majority  of  the 
chamber  to  continue  the  session  at  Berlin  was  put  down 
by  force ;  but  the  result  of  this  dispute  between  the 
representative  body  and  the  government  was  the  attend- 
ance at  Brandenburg  of  a  very  small  number  of  members, 
and  the  dissolution  of  the  chamber  by  the  king,  who  him- 
self granted  a  constitution  (5th  of  December),  subject 
to  the  revision  of  two  chambers,  to  be  chosen  by  indirect 
election. 

(393.)  Foundation  of  a  federal  state. — Whilst 
such  changes  as  these  were  taking  place  in  individual  states, 
a  preliminary  parliament,  convened  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  deputies  assembled  at  Heidelberg  (31st 
of  March),  had  agreed  that  a  general  constituent  assembly 
should  be  held  at  Frankfort,  to  which  deputies  should  be 
sent  (one  for  every  50,000  inhabitants)  from  every  part  of 
Germany,  including  East  and  West  Prussia,  and  Schles- 
wig.  The  election  of  these  deputies  was  to  be  conducted 
according  to  a  plan  arranged  by  the  government  of  each 
state,  it  being  merely  stipulated  that  no  pecuniary  qualifi- 
cation should  be  required  for  electors.  Until  the  meeting 
of  this  assembly,  the  nation  was  to  be  represented  by  a 
committee  of  fifty  individuals.  At  the  suggestion  of  Prus- 
sia, a  portion  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Posen  was  included 
in  the  German  confederacy. 

(394.)  The  constituent  assembly  commenced  its 
session  in  the  church  of  St.  Paul,  at  Frankfort,  on  the  18th  of 
May,  and  immediately  passed  a  resolution  declaring  all  its 
acts  binding  on  every  state  of  Germany,  and  voted  a  sum. 
of  three  million  Prussian  dollars  for  the  formation  of  the 
"  nucleus  "  of  a  German  fleet.  Before  the  question  of  the 
constitution  was  brought  forward,  the  assembly  passed  an 
act  for  the  establishment  of  a  central  government  for  all 
Germany,  and  on  the  29th  of  June  elected  the  Archduke 
John  of  Austria  imperial  stattholder  of  Ger- 
many, and  the  diet  dissolved  itself,  after  engaging  in  the 


395.  §64.]  RUSSIA.  221 

names  of  the  different  states,  that  the  title  of  the  statt- 
holder  should  be  recognized  by  them  immediately  after 
his  election.  The  assembly,  under  the  direction  of  Henry 
von  G-agern,  then  occupied  itself  with  questions  affecting 
the  privileges  of  the  German  people,  and  the  discussion  of 
plans  for  the  establishment  of  a  constitution.  A  resolu- 
tion, carried  by  a  feeble  majority,  approving  the  conclusion 
of  an  armistice  by 'Prussia  with  Denmark,  in  the  name  of 
the  central  government,  occasioned  an  emeute  in  Frankfort 
(18th  of  September),  in  which  two  deputies  of  the  right 
(Prince  Lichnowsky  and  Colonel  von  Auerswald)  were 
murdered. 

§  64.  Russia* 

(395.)  During  the  reign  of  Alexander  I.  1801 — 
1825),  considerable  additions  were  made  to  the  Russian 
empire,  by  the  annexation  of  Finland  (1809),  Bessarabia, 
and  a  part  of  Moldavia  (at  the  peace  of  Bucharest,  in 
1812),  and  the  kingdom  of  Poland  (at  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  in  1815).  The  attention  of  the  emperor  was  also 
directed  to  measures  of  domestic  improvement,  during  the 
periods  of  comparative  tranquillity  which  preceded  and 
followed  the  great  war  with  Napoleon.  For  example,  pre- 
parations were  made  for  the  abolition  of  serfdom  through- 
out the  empire,  a  plan  which  was  actually  carried  into 
effect  on  the  estates  belonging  to  the  crown ;  universities 
were  founded  at  Dorpat,  Charhow,  Kasan,  Warsaw,  and 
St.  Petersburg ;  the  ancient  code  was  amended  and  new 
laws  enacted,  many  abuses  in  the  administration  were  re- 
moved, attempts  were  made  to  facilitate  the  maintenance 
of  a  large  standing  army  by  the  establishment  of  military 

*  PAUL,   t  1801. 

ALEXANDER,    Constantine,     Grand  Duchess        Queen       NICHOLAS.    Michael. 
t  I82o.  t  1831.  of  of  the 

Saxe  Weimar.    Netherlands. 

Alexander,     Grand      Crown      Constantine,      Nicholas.    Michael.      Cathe- 

I  Duchess  Princess  mar.  rine. 

of  of  Alexandra 

Leuchten-  Wurtem-      of  S:ixe- 
berg.  berg.       Altenberg. 

Alexandra.     Nicholas. 
Alexander.    Wladimir. 


222  MODERN  HISTORY.       [396 — 398.  $  64. 

colonies,  and  commerce  and  manufacturing  industry  were 
encouraged  in  various  ways.  The  emperor,  who  frequently 
visited  even  the  most  remote  provinces  of  his  empire,  was 
surprised  by  death  during  one  of  these  progresses  (at 
Taganrog),  and  succeeded  by  his  brother  Nicholas  I., 
his  brother  Constantino  having  previously  renounced  all 
claim  to  the  succession,  in  consequence  of  his  second  mar- 
riage with  a  lady  of  inferior  rank. 

(396.)  The  commencement  of  the  new  reign  (in  1825) 
was  signalized  by  the  suppression  of  a  military  conspiracy, 
set  on  foot  for  the  purposeof  replacing  Constantine  on  the 
throne,  and  establishing  a  constitutional  government. 
Through  the  unwearied  exertions  of  the  emperor,  many 
important  reforms  were  effected  in  the  administration  of 
public  affairs.  In  the  year  1833,  a  general  code  of  laws 
was  published,  under  the  auspices  of  Nicholas,  who  en- 
deavored to  excite  a  feeling  of  nationality  by  the  extension 
of  the  Russian  language,  and  the  Russo-Greek  church. 

(397.)  The  Russian- Persian  war  ( 1 826 —  1 828),  occasion- 
ed by  the  invasion  of  the  Russian  territory  by  the  Persian 
Crown  Prince  Abbas  Mirza,  for  the  purpose  of  reconquering 
some  tracts  of  country  which  had  formerly  been  ceded  to 
Russia,  was  terminated  by  Paskewitsch  (who  conquered 
Erivan  and  Taurus).  A  peace  was  concluded  on  terms 
exceedingly  favorable  to  Russia,  the  provinces  of  Eviran 
and  Nahitschewan  being  ceded  to  her,  and  united  under  the 
name  of  Armenia,  and  the  free  navigation  of  the  Caspian 
being  also  secured. 

(398.)  T/ie  Russian-Turkish  war  (1828,  1829).— The 
obstinate  refusal  of  the  Porte  to  fulfil  all  the  conditions  of 
the  peace  of  Bucharest,  and  the  subsequent  convention  of 
Akjerman  (by  which,  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  were  ren- 
dered almost  independent),  involved  that  power  in  a  fresh 
war  with  Russia,  at  a  time  when  the  destruction  of  the 
corps  of  Janizaries  had  deprived  Turkey  of  her  best  and 
bravest  soldiers.  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  were  occupied 
by  Wittgenstein,  who  was  compelled,  after  storming  Varna 
and  other  Turkish  fortresses,  to  raise  the  siege  of  Silis- 
tria,  and  retire  beyond  the  Danube  ;.  but  in  the  year  1829 
his  successor,  General  Diebitsch,  after  gaining  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  grand  vizier,  crossed  the  Balkan  (called 


399— 401.  §64.]  RUSSIA.  223 

by  the  Turks  Sabalkanski,  the  impassable),  and  advanced 
to  Adrianople ;  whilst  Paskewitsch,  after  the  capture  of 
Erzerum,  penetrated  farther  and  farther  into  the  heart  of 
Asia  Minor. 

(399.)  The  sultan  now  sued  for  peace,  which  was  concluded 
at  Adrianople,  in  1829.  It  was  agreed  that  the  Pruth 
and  Danabe  should  thenceforth  form  the  boundary  line 
between  the  two  nations ;  that  Russia  should  take  pos- 
session of  certain  fortresses  in  Asia,  and  enjoy  the  free 
navigation  of  the  Danube,  Black  Sea,  and  Straits ;  and 
that  Moldavia,  Wallachia,  and  Servia  should  still  pay  tri- 
bute to  the  Porte,  but  be  governed  by  princes  of  their  own, 
under  the  protection  of  Russia. 

(400..)  The  Russian-Polish  war  (1830,  1831).— The 
new  kingdom  of  Poland,  created  by  the  Congress  of  Vi- 
enna, in  1815.  had  received  from  the  Emperor  Alexander 
a  representative  constitution  and  a  government  of  its  own  ; 
but  the  Polish  nobles  still  yearned  after  national  inde- 
pendence, and  offered  -every  opposition  in  their  power  to 
the  government  of  the  Archduke  Constantino.  Under 
such  circumstances,  the  effects  of  the  July  revolution  soon 
manifested  themselves  in  Poland.  An  insurrectionary 
movement,  commenced  by  about  twenty  students  of  the 
military  school  of  Warsaw,  on  the  29th  of  November, 
1830,  rapidly  extended  itself  to  every  part  of  the  kingdom. 
The  Archduke  Constantino  narrowly  escaped  assassina- 
tion, the  house  of  Romanow  was  set  aside,  the  throne  of 
Poland  declared  vacant,  and  a  provisional  government  es- 
tablished under  the  presidency  of  Prince  Czartpryski. 

(401.)  In  the  following  February,  Greneral  Diebitsch, 
at  the  head  of  120,000  men,  crossed  the  Bug,  and  after 
sustaining  several  checks  (at  G-rochow,  Bialolenka,  &c.), 
and  being  cut  off7  from  all  communication  with  Russia,  by 
insurrections  in  Lithuania  and  Podolia,  at  length  defeated 
Skrzynecki,  in  the  battle  of  Ostrolenka  (26th  of  May, 
1831).  Two  days  after  this  victory,  Diebitsch  died  of  the 
cholera  (which  also  carried  off  the  Grand  Duke  Constan- 
tine)  ;  but  his  successor,  Paskewitsch,  crossed  the  Vistula, 
near  Thorn,  and  invested  Warsaw,  which  capitulated  on 
the  8th  of  September.  Of  the  Polish  insurgents,  some 
were  compelled  to  lay  down  their  arms  within  the  Prus- 


224  MODERN    HISTORY.          [402 404.    §65. 

sian  and  Austrian  frontiers,  whilst  others  fled  to  France 
and  England,  or  embarked,  for  America.  Poland  was  de- 
prived of  her  constitution,  and  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  a  Russian  province  (1832),  retaining,  however,  her  own 
code  of  laws,  which  was  administered  by  a  governor  nomi- 
nated by  the  emperor.  The  first  governor  was  Count 
Paskewitsch  Erivanski,  who  was  created  Prince  of  War- 
saw. A  subsequent  conspiracy  (1846),  the  ramifications 
of  which  extended  over  the  whole  of  Prussian  and  Aus- 
trian Poland,  was  discovered  before  the  plans  of  the  con- 
spirators were  fully  matured,  and  easily  crushed. 

(402.)  A  war  carried  on  by  Russia  against  the  moun- 
taineers of  the  Caucasus,  especially  the  Circassians,  pro- 
duced no  important  results.  The  republic  of  Cracow, 
being  too  weak  to  resist  the  political  attempts  of  the  Polish 
exiles,  was  incorporated  into  the  Austrian  empire,  with 
consent  of  the  three  great  northern  powers  (1846). 

$  65.    Ttie  Ottoman,  or  Osmanic  Empire  and  Greece. 

(403.)  The  Osmanic  empire,  which  had  been  gradu- 
ally declining  during  the  reign  of  Mahomet  II.  (1808 — 
1839),  was  indebted  for  its  preservation  from  utter  de- 
struction to  the  mutual  jealousies  of  the  great  European 
powers.  The  pashas,  especially  those  at  a  distance  (in 
Janina,  Aleppo,  and  Egypt),  set  at  nought  the  authority  of 
the  sultan,  and  governed  their  respective  pashalics  as  in- 
dependent princes. 

(404.)  Greek  War  of  liberation  (1821—1828).— 
In  the  year  1821,  Alexander  Ypsilanti,  son  of  a  ban- 
ished prince  of  Moldavia,  issued,  as  president  of  the  He- 
tseria  (originally  a  literary,  and  subsequently  a  political 
association),  a  proclamation  calling  on  the  Greeks  to  throw 
off  their  allegiance  to  the  Turkish  government,  which  waa 
at  that  time  occupied  in  putting  down  an  insurrectionary 
movement  headed  by  Ali,  pasha  of  Janina.  Unfortunate- 
ly, however,  for  the  success  of  the  Greek  cause,  assistance 
was  refused  by  the  Emperor  Alexander,  on  whose  co-oper- 
ation the  insurgents  had  confidently  reckoned.  The  pa- 
triot army  having  been  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks,  their  leader,  Ypsilanti,  fled  to  Vienna,  where  he 
died  in  1828. 


405.    §65.]  OSMANIC    EMPIRE.  225 

(405.)  Insurrections  in  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  were 
suppressed  at  the  same  time.  Notwithstanding  this  check, 
however,  the  Greek  patriots,  irritated  by  the  revolting  cru- 
elties practised  by  the  Turkish  government  even  on  these 
who  had  taken  no  part  in  the  movement  (hanging  of  the 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  his  bishops  over  the  prin- 
cipal door  of  their  cathedral),  again  raised  the  standard  of 
revolt  in  the  Morea,  Hellas,  Thessaly,  and  several  of  the 
islands  :  and  in  the  year  1822  a  national  Congress,  assem' 
bled  at  Epidaurus,  proclaimed  the  independence  of  Greece, 
and  polished  tJie  outline  of  a  constitution.  The  Greek 
patriots  were  soon  joined  by  large  bodies  of  Philhellenes 
from  every  part  of  Europe,  whilst,  on  the  other  -hand,  the 
Porte  was  assisted  (1825)  by  a  considerable  force  under 
the  command  of  Ibrahim  Pacha,  son  of  Mohammed  Ali, 
pasha  of  Egypt,  who  had  been  induced  to  send  this  rein- 
forcement by  the  fair  promises  of  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment. The  invader  soon,  overran  the  greater  part  of  the 
Morea;  and  in  the  following  year  (1826)  the  garrison  of 
Missolunghi  (commanded  by  Noto  Bozzaris)  was  com- 
pelled by  famine  to  surrender,  after  making  a  brave  de- 
fence, and  the  Acropolis  of  Athens  also  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy.  The  Greek  cause  now  seemed  utterly  ru- 
ined, when  a  convention  was  entered  into  in  London  (1827), 
by  George  IV.,  Nicholas  I.,  and  Charles  X.,  for  the  pacifi- 
cation of  Greece :  and  tranquillity  was  re-established  (for 
seven  years),  by  the  election  of  the  ex-minister  of  state, 
Count  Capo  d'lstrias,  to  the  office  of  president  of  Greece. 
The  mediation  of  the  three  great  powers  having  been  re- 
jected by  the  Porte,  a  combined  Russian,  French,  and  Eng- 
lish fleet  (under  Heyden,  de  Rigny,  and  Codrington)  was 
dispatched  to  the  Morea,  and  on  the  20th  of  October, 
1827,  the  Turco-Egyptian  fleet  was  utterly  destroyed  in 
the  battle  of  Navarino.  Soon  after  this  victory  a 
French  army,  under  Maison,  landed  in  the  Morea,  and 
compelled  Ibrahim  to  re-embark  his  troops,  and  return  to 
Egypt.  The  three  protecting  powers  then  declared 
Greece  an  independent  kingdom,  settled  its  north- 
ern boundary  along  a  line  drawn  from  the  gulf  of  Volo  to 
that  of  Arta,  and  offered  the  crown  to  Prince  Leopold  of 
Saxe-Coburg.  This  offer  being  rejected,  and  the  presi- 


226  MODERN   HISTORY.  [406.    $  65. 

dent,  Capo  d'Istrias  (whose  severity  had  rendered  him  ex- 
ceedingly unpopular),  having  fallen  by  the  hand  of  an  as- 
sassin, the  great  powers  nominated, as  hereditary  King 
of  Greece,  Prince  Otho  of  Bavaria  (1832),  who  was 
immediately  accepted  by  the  Greek  national  assembly,  and 
recognized  by  the  Porte  in  1834.  After  a  short  sojourn 
at  Nauplin,  the  new  sovereign  fixed  his  residence  at  Ath- 
ens. In  the  year  1835,  Otho  himself  assumed  the  reins 
of  government,  which  had  been  held  by  a  council  of  re- 
gency during  his  minority.  Meanwhile,  however,  the  ele- 
ments of  civil  discord  were  at  work.  Not  only  had  each 
of  the  three  protecting  powers  its  partisans  in  Grreece,  but 
the  whole  nation  was  also  split  into  two  great  parties  (the 
national  and  foreign),  in  consequence  of  the  hatred  with 
which  a  great  part  of  the  nation  regarded  the  German 
civil  and  military  functionaries.  Between  these  five  par- 
ties the  government  perpetually  vacillated  ;  and,  notwith- 
standing the  grant  of  a  new  constitution,  in  consequence 
of  an  insurrection  at  Athens,  in  1843,  the  struggle  still 
continued,  and  every  plan  for  the  welfare  of  the  country 
was  rendered  abortive,  by  the  emptiness  of  the  exchequer, 
and  the  universal  prevalence  of  anarchy  and  discontent. 
"Whilst  the  Porte  was  engaged  in  the  contest  with  Greece, 
the  resistance  of  the  corps  of  Janizaries  (the  flower,  of 
the  Turkish  infantry)  to  the  military  reforms  of  the  sul- 
tan occasioned  the  dissolution  and  partial  destruction  of 
that  force. 

(406.)  Scarcely  was  the  war  with  Russia  (see  $  64) 
ended,  when  revolts  occurred  in  several  provinces.  Among 
these,  the  most  formidable  was  that  of  the  Viceroy  of 
Egypt,  Mohammed  Ali  (1831 — 1833),  whose  son  Ibrahim 
conquered  Syria,  and,  after  defeating  the  grand  vizier  at 
Konieh,  was  advancing  on  Constantinople,  when  a  Russian 
force,  sent  by  the  Emperor  Nicholas  I.  to  the  assistance 
of  his  former  enemy,  landed  in  Asia  Minor,  and  prevented 
the  further  progress  of  the  Egyptian  army.  A  peace  was 
then  concluded  on  terms  very  favorable  to  Mohammed 
Ali,  who  was  permitted  to  retain  his  vice-royalty  of  Egypt 
and  Candia,  and  to  occupy  Syria,  on  payment  of  a  tri- 
bute. Relying  on  the  discontents  occasioned  by  the  ad- 
ministration of  Ibrahim  in  Syria,  the  sultan,  in  the  last 


407,408.  §66.]  ITALY.  227 

year  of  his  reign  (1839),  again  attempted  the  subjugation 
of  Mohammed  Ali ;  but  the  Turkish  army  was  utterly  de- 
feated at  Nisib,  and  in  the  following  year  Mohammed  Ali 
obtained  from  the  sultan  (1839), 

(407.)  Abdul  Medschid  (a  lad  of  sixteen),  a  grant 
of  the  hereditary  vice-royalty  of  Egypt.  His  demand 
that  all  the  territory  subject  to  his  control  should  be 
granted  to  him  on  the  same  terms  was  refused,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  armed  interference  of  the  three  great  powers 
(Syria  conquered  by  the  Austrians  and  English).  At  the 
court  of  the  young  sultan,  whose  excesses  soon  reduced 
.him  to  a  state  of  almost  hopeless  debility,  considerable  in- 
fluence was  acquired  by  a  liberal  party,  headed  by  Rescind 
Pasha,  who  carried  into  effect  several  important  reforms. 
Security  for  life,  property,  and  honor  was  guaranteed  to 
all  the  subjects  of  the  Porte,  without  regard  to  their  reli- 
gious creed  or  country,  an  equitable  system  of  taxation 
was  promised,  and  the  several  provinces  were  invited  to 
send  deputies  to  Constantinople,  for  the  purpose  of  delib- 
erating on  the  best  mode  of  carrying  the  plans  of  the  gov- 
ernment into  effect ;  but  the  apathy  and  ignorance  of  the 
people  rendered  these  liberal  measures  almost  nugatory. 
Repeated  but  unsuccessful  attempts  to  throw  off  the  Turk- 
ish yoke  were  made  by  the  Christian  population  in  the 
provinces  of  the  southern  Danube. 

§  66.   Italy. 

(408.)  Italy  was  indebted  to  the  French  for  several' 
important  legislative  and  constitutional  reforms,  all  of 
which  were  cancelled  on  the  return  of  her  former  rulers. 
Even  in  Sicily,  which  had  preserved  its  independence 
throughout  the  whole  period  of  the  French  usurpation,  a 
constitution  had  been  granted  by  the  king  in  1812,  at  the 
instance  of  the  English  government ;  but,  on  the  return 
of  Ferdinand  to  Naples,  this  concession  was  revoked.  In 
the  year  1820,  the  Carbonari,  a  political  society  whose  pro- 
fessed object  was  the  union  of  all  the  Italian  states  under 
one  constitutional  sovereign,  were  encouraged  by  the  ac- 
counts which  they  received  of  the  revolutionary  movement 
in  Spain  to  attempt  the  re-establishment  of  the  constitu- 


228  MODERN   HISTORY.  [409,410.    §66. 

tion  of  1812.  The  king  having  unwillingly  granted  their 
demands,  it  was  resolved,  on  the  motion  of  Prince  Metter- 
nich,  by  a  Congress  of  Sovereigns  (which  was  opened 
at  Troppau  and  adjourned  to  Laibach),  that  an  Austrian 
army  should  be  dispatched  to  Naples.  Immediately  after 
the  return  of  the  king  from  Laibach,  the  constitution  of 
1812  was  replaced  by  one  of  a  less  liberal  character,  with 
two  chambers,  the  members  of  which  were  nominated  by 
the  government.  Similar  insurrections  were  also  sup- 
pressed by  the  Austrians  in  Piedmont,  Modena,  Parma, 
and  the  States  of  the  Church,  in  which  seven  provinces 
had  renounced  their  allegiance  to  the  pope  (Gregory  XVI ). 

(409.)  Immediately  after  the  French  Revolution  of 
February,  1848,  the  absolute  system  was  broken  up  in  It- 
aly. The  first  step  in  this  direction  was  taken  by  Pope 
Pius  IX.  (elected  in  1846),  who  established  a  council  of 
state,  sanctioned  the  formation  of  a  national  guard,  and 
admitted  laymen  to  offices  in  the  administration. 

(410.)  At  Naples,  in  consequence  of  an  insurrection 
in  Sicily  (12th  of  January,  1848),  a  constitutional  govern- 
ment was  established  ;  an  example  which  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  Sardinia,  Tuscany,  and  Rome.  By  the  constitu- 
tions of  all  these  states  the  legislative  authority  is  vested 
in  two  chambers  ;  the  members  of  the  first  being  nomi- 
nated for  life  by  the  sovereign.  The  Sicilians  alone  de- 
manded a  separate  government  and  the  constitution  of 
1812;  but,  after  a  severe  (and,  at  one  time,  nearly  suc- 
cessful) struggle,  were  compelled  to  return  to  their  alle- 
giance. In  Parma,  where  the  Duke  of  Lucca  (who  had 
resigned  Lucca  to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany)  succeeded 
Maria  Louisa  in  1847 — and  in  Modena  the  sovereigns 
were  driven  from  their  thrones  in  consequence  of  their 
refusing  to  comply  with  the  demands  of  the  people. 
Meanwhile,  Lombardy  had  also  revolted  from  the  Aus- 
trians, and  the  city  of  Milan  had  expelled  the  Austrian 
garrison ;  but  after  a  three  months'  struggle,  Charles  Al- 
bert, King  of  Sardinia  (who  had  supported  the  insur- 
gents), was  defeated  by  the  Austrian  general,  Radetzky, 
at  Custozza,  near  Mantua  ;  Milan  capitulated,  and  the  ex- 
iled dukes  returned  to  their  dominions.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  pope,  in  consequence  of  an  emeute  at  Rome, 


411,412.  $67.J  SWITZERLAND.  229 

which  was  immediately  followed  by  the  assassination  of 
the  minister  Rossi,  was  compelled  to  nominate  an  admi- 
nistration recommended  by  the  republican  party  (Mamia- 
ni-Sterbini),  and  immediately  afterwards  quitted  the  papal 
states. l 

$  67.  Switzerland. 

(411.)  Since  the  year  1814  the  government  had  been 
almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  patricians ;  but 
here,  as  elsewhere,  the  French  revolution  of  July  occa- 
sioned the  general  establishment  of  democratic  constitu- 
tions, which  had  always  existed  in  the  three  original  can- 
tons (Uri,  Schwys,  and  Unterwalden).  In  the  canton  of 
Basle  a  civil  war  broke  out,  and  caused  the  separation  of 
the  city  from  the  country  (each  having  half  a  vote  at  the 
diet).  Fresh  disturbances  were  produced  on  the  one  side 
by  the  suppression  of  several  monastic  establishments  in 
the  canton  of  Aargau ;  and  on  the  other,  by  the  admission 
of  the  Jesuits  into  Lucerne.  Two  attacks  on  the  city  of 
Lucerne,  by  parties  of  exiles  and  adventurers  from  the 
neighboring  cantons,  for  the  purpose  of  compelling  the 
government  to  expel  the  Jesuits,  miscarried  in  conse- 
quence of  their  want  of  military  skill ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  "  Sonderbund"  ('  separate  confederacy'),  which 
Lucerne  had  formed  (1845)  with  the  three  original  can- 
tons of  Schwyz,  Uri,  and  Unterwalden,  as  well  as  with  the 
cantons  of  Zug,  Freiburg,  and  Yallais,  for  self-defence 
against  the  attacks  of  the  free  corps,  was  pronounced  by 
the  diet  to  be  unconstitutional,  and,  after  a  short  struggle, 
was  broken  up  (1847) ;  whereupon  the  Jesuits  were  ban- 
ished from  Switzerland. 

(412.)  In  the  year  1848  the  federal  constitution  was 
revised,  and  two  chambers  established  by  the  diet.  Ac- 
cording to  the  new  arrangement,  the  assembly  consists  of 
a  national  council  of  1 1 1  members  (one  for  every  20.000 
inhabitants),  and  a  council  composed  of  forty-four  depu- 
ties of  .cantons.  The  supreme  executive  authority  is 
vested  in  a  federal  council,  consisting  of  seven  members, 

1  He  returned  to  Rome,  in  1850,  after  the  city  had  been  stormed, 
and  for  a  long  time  occupied,  by  French  troops. 


230  MODERN   HISTORY.  [413,  414.    §  67. 

chosen  (for  three  years)  out  of  the  two  councils,  with  a 
president  elected  for  one  year  by  both  chambers.  This 
constitution  was  accepted  by  all  the  cantons  except  Uri, 
Uuterwalden,  Schwyz,  Appenzeil,  and  Basle  (country). 
The  sessions  of  the  federal  assembly  are  held  at  Berne. 

(413.)  The  connection  of  Neufchatel  with  Prussia  was 
dissolved. 

§  68.  Spain. 

(414.)  Ferdinand  VII.1  (1814—1833),  after  his  return 
from  France,  had  abolished  the  constitution,  re-established 
absolute  sovereignty,  and  crushed  all  attempts  of  the 
'  liberal'  party  with  the  most  unrelenting  severity.  After 
the  failure  of  a  series  of  isolated  insurrectionary  move- 
ments, a  revolution  broke  out  in  the  year  1820,  commenc- 
ing with  the  army  destined  to  reduce  the  revolted  pro- 
vinces in  South  America,  and  soon  extending  itself  to  the 
capital,  and  compelling  the  king  to  restore  the  constitu- 
tion of  1812  and  convoke  the  Cortes.  Whilst  Spain  was 
distracted  by  the  attempts  of  the  reactionary  party  to  re- 
establish absolutism,  and  of  the  ultra-liberals  to  introduce 
a  republic,  the  Congress  of  Sovereigns  at  Verona 
determined  to  reinstate  the  king  in  the  position  which  he 
had  occupied  before  the  revolution,  and  intrusted  the  ex- 
ecution of  their  design  to  the  King  of  France.  Almost 
without  opposition,  a  French  army,  under  the  command 
of  the  Due  d'Angouleme,  marched  through  Spain  to 
Cadiz,  whither  the  Cortes  had  forcibly  conveyed  the  king, 
and  compelled  that  body  to  dissolve  itself.  Absolutism 
was  then  re-established ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  promise 
of  an  amnesty,  many  of  the  liberal  leaders  were  executed, 

i  Charles  IV. 


Ferdinand  VII.,          Don  Carlos.  Francesco  de  Paula. 

mar.  secondly,               , * ^  f A s 

Christina  of  Naples.     Charles.    John.  Francis,    Henry.    Ferdi. 

, A N            Ferdinand.  mar.                      nand. 

Isabella  II.,     Louisa,  Isabella  II. 

mar.    .        mar. 
Francis,     the  Duke 

de  Montpensier. 


414.  §68.]  SPAIN.  231 

banished,  or  thrown  into  prison.  Fresh  discontents  were 
excited  by  the  abrogation  of  the  Salic  law  (intro- 
duced by  Philip  V.  in  1713,  with  consent  of  the  Cortes), 
a  measure  which  Ferdinand  was  persuaded  by  his  second 
wife  Christina  to  adopt,  without  consulting  either  the  heir 
presumptive  or  the. Cortes.  Ferdinand  died  in  1833,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  daughter  Isabella  II.  (a  child  of 
three  years  old),  who  commenced  her  reign  under  the 
guardianship  of  her  mother,  Maria  Christina.  Meanwhile, 
however,  her  uncle,  Don  Carlos,  had  assumed  the  title  of 
king,  and  been  recognized  by  the  Basque  provinces,  where 
great  irritation  prevailed  in  consequence  of  the  withdrawal 
of  many  of  the  privileges  (feuros)  which  they  had  enjoyed 
from  time  immemorial.  Under  these  circumstances,  a 
fearful  civil  war  commenced  (1833 — 1840),  in  which  the 
Christines  (under  Bodil,  Mina,  Cordova,  and  Espartero,) 
were  supported  by  English  and  French  volunteers,  but 
were  unable,  from  want  of  funds,  to  put  down  the  Car- 
lists  (under  Zumalacarreguy,  Villareal,  Moreno,  Cabrera, 
&c.)  until  the  year  1840,  when  Don  Carlos  and  his  parti- 
sans were  driven  across  the  frontier  into  France.  In  re- 
turn for  the  restoration  of  their  privileges  by  the  Cortes, 
the  Basque-Navarrese  provinces  recognized  Isabella  as 
queen.  In  1845,  Don  Carlos  abdicated  in  favor  of  his 
eldest  son,  the  Prince  of  Asturia.  Meanwhile,  the  queen- 
regent,  after  a  continued  struggle  with  the  '  liberal'  party, 
was  compelled,  in  consequence  of  a  mutiny  among  the 
troops  (1835),  to  receive  the  constitution  of  1812,  with 
certain  modifications  introduced  by  the  Cortes  (establish- 
ment of  a  second  chamber,  grant  of  an  unconditional  veto 
to  the  crown,  &c.)  ;  but  the  passing  of  an  unpopular  mu- 
nicipal law  occasioned  fresh  disturbances,  which  compelled 
the  regent  to  resign  her  office  in  1840.  After  the  short 
regency  of  General  Espartero,  who  was  supported  by  an 
unnatural  union  of  the  republicans  and  Carlists,  the 
Cortes  "(in  1843)  declared  the  queen  of  age  (in  her  thir- 
teenth year),  and  in  1845  granted  increased  powers  to  the 
crown  by  a  new  constitution.  In  the  following  year  (1846) 
the  queen  married  her  cousin,  the  Infant  Don  Francisco 
d'Assisi,  and  gave  her  sister  to  the  Due  de  Montpensier, 
son  of  Louis  Philippe,  king  of  the  French. 


232  MODERN   HISTORY.  [415,416.    §69. 

$  69.  Portugal. 

(415.)  King  John  VI.,1  who  had  remained  in  Brazil 
since  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Portugal,  leaving 
the  government  of  his  European  dominions  to  the  Pa- 
triarch of  Lisbon  and  Lord  Beresford,  was  induced,  in 
consequence  of  a  military  revolution  which  broke  out  at 
Oporlom  1820  (immediately  after  the  Spanish  revolution), 
to  return  to  Lisbon,  where  he  was  compelled  to  swear 
fidelity  to  a  constitution  of  a  still  more  democratic  char- 
acter than  that  which  had  been  established  in  Spain :  but 
this  oath  he  was  soon  persuaded  to  violate  by  the  court 
party,  headed  by  his  wife  and  his  second  son,  Don  Miguel. 
At  the  same  time,  his  eldest  son,  Don  Pedro,  wno  had 
been  left  behind  in  Brazil,  proclaimed  that  province  an 
independent  empire,  and  assumed  the  title  of*  Emperor  of 
Brazil  in  1822.  After  the  death  of  his  father  (1826)  he 
granted  a  new  and  tolerably  liberal  constitution  to  Por- 
tugal, and  then  resigned  the  crown  of  Portugal  in  favor 
of  his  daughter  (a  minor), 

(416.)  Donna  Maria  da  Gloria  (1826),  who  was  be- 
trothed to  her  uncle,  Don  Miguel.  After  setting  aside 
the  constitution  granted  by  his  brother,  Miguel  convoked 
the  so-called  ancient  Cortes  (of  Zamego),  which  proclaim- 
ed him  absolute  king  in  1828;  but  in  the  year  1833 
Don  Pedro,  who  had  resigned  the  crown  of  Brazil  in  favor 
of  his  son,  Don  Pedro  II.,  arrived  unexpectedly  in  Eu- 
rope, and  reconquered  Portugal  for  his  daughter.  The  con- 

1  John  VI.  f  1826. 

.V 

Pedro  I.  f  1834.  Maria,  Miguel, 

, A s  Regent          King  of  Portugal 

Maria  II.,          Pedro  II. ,  (1826—1828).       (1828—1834),. 

mar.  Emperor  of 

1.  Augustus  of       Brazil. 
Leuchtenberg. 

2.  Ferdinand  of 
Saxe-Coburg. 


Pedro,        Louis  Philippe,    John,        Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Duke  of        Duke  of 

Braganza.          Oporto.  Beja. 


417—419.    §71.]  DENMARK.  233 

stitution  of  1822  was  re-established,  and  remained  in 
force,  with  some  modifications  (a  chamber  of  peers,  royal 
voto,  &c.)  until  the  year  1842,  when  an  insurrection  at 
Oporto  compelled  the  government  to  restore  Don  Pedro's 
charter  (of  1826).  Another  attempt,  on  the  part  of  the 
Miguelites,  produced  a  fresh  civil  war  (1846,  1847),  which 
was  terminated  through  the  interference  of  England. 


§  70.    Sweden. 

(417.)  G-ustavus  IV.  (in  whose  reign  Finland  was  given 
up  by  Sweden  to  Russia)  was  compelled,  by  a  bloodless 
revolution  (in  1809),  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  uncle, 
Charles  XIII.^  (1809 — 1818.)  A  new  constitution  was 
published,  declaring  the  throne  hereditary  in  the  male  line : 
and,  after  the  sudden  death  of  the  crown  prince,  an  act 
was  passed  by  the  estates,  nominating,  as  the  king's  suc- 
cessor, Marshal  Bernadotte,  Prince  of  Montecorvo,  who 
had  been  favorably  known  during  the  period  of  his  com- 
mand in  the  north  of  Germany,  and  was  also  recommended 
by  his  family  connection  with  Napoleon. '  For  the  union 
of  Norway  with  Sweden,  with  a  constitution  of  its  own, 
see  p.  196. 


The  House  of  Bernadotte  since  1818. 

(418.)  Bernadotte,  who  had  assumed  the  name  of 
Charles  (John)  XI Y.  on  his  accession,  fully  justified 
the  choice  of  the  nation  by  the  wisdom  and  firmness  of  his 
government,  and  the  judicious  reforms  which  he  intro- 
duced into  every  branch  of  the  administration.  He  was 
succeeded  (in  1844)  by  his  son,  Oscar  I. 


§  71.     Denmark. 
(419.)  Denmark,  which  had  been  poorly  indemnified 

1  Bernadotte  had  married  a  sister  of  Joseph  Bonaparte's  wife. 


234  MODERN   HISTORY.  [419.    §71. 

for  the  loss  of  Norway  by  receiving  Lauenburg,1  enjoyed 
a  period  of  uninterrupted  tranquillity  from  the  year  1814 
to  the  end  of  Frederick  V.Ith's  reign  (1839),  and  was  di- 
vided into  four  provinces :  viz.,  the  Danish  Islands,  Jut- 
land, Schleswig,  and  Holstein  with  Lauenburg,  each  of 
which  returned  representatives  of  the  National  Council. 
Under  his  successor,  Christian  VIII.  (1839 — 1848),  a  pro- 
posal was  made  by  the  Danish  party,  at  the  provincial 
diet  of  Roeskild  (1844).  to  incorporate  the  duchies  of  Hol- 
stein and  Lauenburg  with  Denmark,  and  to  introduce  into 
those  countries  the  principle  of  succession  to  the  throne 
of  the  female  line,  which  had  existed  in  Denmark  since 
1660 :  whilst  the  German  provinces,  on  the  other  hand, 
demanded  a  complete  administrative  and  military  separa- 
tion from  Denmark.  A  declaration  on  the  part  of  the 
king  of  his  intention  to  sanction  the  proposed  alteration 
in  the  succession  produced  the  greatest  excitement  in  both 
duchies.  In  the  year  1848,  immediately  after  the  acces- 
sion of  Frederick  VII.,  a  general  assembly  having  been 
convoked  for  the  purpose  of  framing  a  constitution  for  the 
whole  Danish  empire,  the  movement  in  Holstein  com- 
menced with  the  establishment  of  a  provincial  government, 
which  was  recognized  by  the  assembly  of  the  Schleswig- 
Holstein  estates  as  well  as  by  the  German  diet,  and  ac- 
cepted a  proposal  for  the  admission  of  Schleswig  into  the 
German  confederacy.  At  the  suggestion  of  the  diet, 
Prussia  engaged  to  maintain  the  male  succession  in  the 


Frederick  V.,  f  1766. 


Christian  VII., 
1  1808. 

Frederick  VL, 
1  1839. 

Frederick, 
Hereditary  Prince,  f  1805. 

Christian  VIII., 
f!848. 

Frederick  VII. 

Charlotte,      Ferdinand, 
mar.  the    Crown  Prince. 
Landgrave 
William  of 

Caroline,  Wilhelmina,  t A x. 

mar.  the  mar.  Charles,         •        Frederick. 

Crown  Prince  Duke  of 

Ferdinand    Holstein-Glucksburg. 
of  Denmark. 


420,421.    $72.]  AMERICAN    STATES. 


235 


German  provinces,  and  the  union  of  Schleswig  with  Hoi- 
stein.  The  Prussian  and  other  G-erman  troops  having 
driven  back  the  Danish  troops  into  Jutland,  Denmark 
made  reprisals  by  blockading  the  ports  of  northern  Ger- 
many. An  armistice  for  seven  months  was  at  last  ar- 
ranged, and  a  provisional  government  (established  with 
the  consent  of  the  King  of  Denmark  on  the  one  part,  and 
the  German  central  administration  on  the  other),  under- 
took the  administration  of  the  two  duchies  (1848)  until  a 
definite  peace  could  be  concluded. 

$  72.    The  American  States. 

(420.)  1.  The  United  States  of  America  have 
increased  from  the  original  thirteen  to  thirty,  besides 
which  there  are  several  territories  and  one  federal  dis- 
trict (District  of  Columbia).  They  extend  from  the  Bri- 
tish possessions  on  the  line  of  the  great  lakes  on  the  north 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Mexico  on  the  south,  and  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  on  the  east  and  west,  thus 
ranging  through  26°  of  latitude  and  58°  of  longitude. 
The  frontier  line  has  an  extent  of  almost  10,000  miles, 
and  a  line  drawn  'from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  would  measure 
2,800  miles. 

(421.)  The  names  of  the  States  are  as  follows : 

MAINE,  .... 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE, 

VERMONT,       .... 

MASSACHUSETTS, 

RHODE  ISLAND, 

CONNECTICUT,  .  . 

NEW-YORK,     .... 

NEW-JERSEY,     .... 

PENNSYLVANIA, 

DELAWARE,         .... 

MARYLAND,     .... 

VIRGINIA,    .         .         .  * 

NORTH  CAROLINA,  . 

SOUTH  CAROLINA, 

GEORGIA,         .... 

FLORIDA, 

ALABAMA,        .... 

MISSISSIPPI,        .... 

LOUISIANA,      .... 

TEXAS, 


Eastern,  or  New  England 
States. 


Middle  States. 


Southern  States. 


236  MODERN   HISTORY.          [422 425.  $  72. 

OHIO, "| 

KENTUCKY,          .... 

TBNNESSEE • 

INDIANA. 

Western  States. 


MISSOURI, 
ARKANSAS, 
WISCONSIN, 
IOWA, 


(422.)  The  territories  are, 

MINNESOTA,  MISSOURI,  INDIAN,  OREGON,  together  with  NEW 
MEXICO  and  UPPER  CALIFORNIA. 

(423.)  The  United  States  have  been  increased  (since 
1783)  partly  by  voluntary  annexation  and  partly  by  pur- 
chase (Louisiana  from  France,  1803),  or  convention  (Flo- 
rida ceded  by  Spain  in  1819),  and  now  rank  next  to 
England  as  a  maritime  and  commercial  power.  In  the 
construction  of  steamboats  and  railways,  they  have  ad- 
vanced with  a  rapidity  unknown  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Old  World,  and  in  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and 
in  general  prosperity,  they  are  unequalled  throughout  the 
world  ;  on  the  other  hand,  negro  slavery,  though  abolished 
in  the  northern  and  western  States,  is  still  tenaciously  ad- 
hered to  by  the  southern  States.  After  obtaining  an  un: 
interrupted  communication  with  the  Pacific  (by  the  set- 
tlement of  the  Oregon  question  in  1843),  and  the  conse- 
quent prospect  of  a  direct  intercourse  with  China  and  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  the  United  States,  in  a  war  with 
Mexico,  added  to  its  already  vast  extent  of  territory,  Up- 
per California  and  New  Mexico,  with  .several  excellent 
harbors  in  the  Pacific  (1848). 

(424.)  A  brief  abstract  of  the  history  of  the  United 
States  since  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution,  is 
all  that  the  limits  of  the  present  manual  will  admit.  For 
fuller  information  the  student  will  of  course  consult  the 
larger  and  standard  histories  of  the  United  States. 

(425.)  George  Washington  entered  upon  the  du- 
ties of  President  of  the  United  States  on  the  30th  April, 
1789.  Various  and  important  questions  arose  and  had  to 
be  settled,  and  the  administration  was  encompassed  with 
difficulties  such  as  only  the  blessing  of  God  upon  the  wise 


425.    $72.]  AMERICAN    STATES.  237 

and  patriotic  efforts  of  the  Father  of  his  Country  could 
remove.  Alexander  Hamilton,  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
proposed  a  plan  to  Congress  for  maintaining  the  public 
credit ;  he  recommended  -that  the  foreign  and  domestic 
debt  (amounting  to  about  $80,000.000)  be  assumed  by  the 
United  States,  which  was  accordingly  done,  and  thereby  a 
great  impetus  afforded  to  activity  and  enterprise.  In 
1791,  after  vigorous  opposition,  the  first  Bank  of  the 
United  States  was  incorporated  by  act  of  Congress,  with 
a  capital  of  $10,000,000.  The  difficulties  with  the  In- 
dians on  the  northwestern  frontier  resulted,  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1 79 1 ,  in  the  disastrous  defeat  of  the  entire  force 
under  General  St.  Clair.  On  the  4th  March  1793, 
Washington  entered  upon  the  second  term  of  the  office  to 
which  he  had  been  unanimously  elected.  John  Adams 
was  also  again  elected  Vice-President.  This  year  France 
declared  war  against  England  and  Holland,  and  thereby 
created  new  and  very  vexatious  difficulties  for  the  govern- 
ment of  Washington.  The  French  Minister,  M.  Genet, 
presuming  upon  the  enthusiastic  feelings  entertained  to- 
ward France  for  her  aid  in  the  Revolution,  had  the  auda- 
city to  despise  the  proclamation  of  strict  neutrality,  issued 
by  Washington,  and  undertook  to  fit  out  privateers,  &c., 
in  American  ports.  The  President  insisted  upon  his  re- 
call, and  next  year  the  successor  of  M.  Genet  assured  the 
government  that  France  entirely  disapproved  of  Genet's 
conduct.  In  1794,  General  Wayne  defeated  the  In- 
dians, and  laid  waste  their  country.  A  naval  force  began 
to  be  raised,  and  difficulties  with  England  occurred,  which 
however  were  amicably  adjusted  by  the  efforts  of  John 
Jay,  the  negotiator  of  the  very  important  treaty  of  amity, 
commerce,  and  navigation,  with  Great  Britain,  which  was 
ratified  by  the  Senate  and  signed  by  the  President.  August 
14,  1795.  Treaties  were  also  made,  this  year,  with  Spain, 
with  Algiers,  and  with  the  Indians  in  the  west.  Wash- 
ington signified  his  determination  to  retire  from  public 
life  at  the  close  of  his  presidential  term,  and  took  occasion 
to  issue  his  Farewell  Address  to  his  countrymen,  an  ad- 
dress which  ought  to  be  studied  by  every  American  for  its 
profound  wisdom,  and  cherished  as  the  inestimable  legacy 
of  the  Father  of  his  Country.  Excepting  the  difficulties 


238  MODERN   HISTORY.  [426,  427.    §  72. 

with  France,  arising  out  of  the  pique  and  disappointment 
at  the  refusal  of  America  to  be  involved  in  European  wars 
and  politics,  and  the  unjustifiable  measures  adopted  by 
the  French,  the  country  was  in  a  very  prosperous  condi- 
tion at  the  close  of  Washington's  administration  ;  not  only 
was  public  and  private  credit  restored,  and  ample  provi- 
sion made  for  the  payment  of  the  public  debt,  but  trade  . 
had  gone  on  steadily  and  rapidly  increasing ;  the  exports 
were  trebled,  the  imports  about  the  same,  and  the  revenue 
from  imports  exceeded  the  most  sanguine  calculations. 
The  population  had  increased  from  three  and  a  half  to 
five  millions,  and  agriculture  and*  industrial  arts  generally 
were  in  a  flourishing  state. 

(426. )  On  the  4th  March,  1 797.  J  o h  n  A  d  a m  s  entered 
upon  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States.  The 
difficulties  with  France,  which  had  been  attempted  to  be 
settled  by  negotiation,  had  kept  on  increasing ;  constant 
spoliations  upon  American  commerce  were  made,  and  war 
seemed  to  be  the  inevitable  result.  Congress  took  vigo- 
rous measures  for  the  defence  of  the  country,  and  Wash- 
ington was  appointed  Commander-in-Chief  Several  en- 
figements  at  sea  took  place  ;  but  after  the  overthrow  of  the 
rench  Directory,  and  the  assumption  of  the  government 
by  Bonaparte,  negotiations  were  successful,  and  peace  was 
concluded  (Sept.  30th,  1800).  A  few  weeks  before  this  (Dec. 
14th,  1799),  Greorge  Washington  died,  after  a  short  illness  ; 
every  testimonial  of  affection  and  reverence  was  exhibited 
by  the  people,  and  the  whole  nation  to  a  man  was  plunged 
in  profound  grief.  His  memory  can  never  die ;  his  ex- 
ample never  lose  its  influence,  while  patriotism  shall  exist 
among  his  countrymen,  while  freedom  shall  be  loved,  and 
purity  and  goodness  be  reverenced  among  men.  During 
Mr.  Adams's  administration,  the  lines  of  party  began  to  be 
drawn  more  definitely  than  had  been  the  case  while  Wash- 
ington was  at  the  head  of  affairs.  Several  of  the  Presi- 
dent's measures  (alien  and  sedition  laws)  excited  strong 
opposition,  and  at  the  following  election  he  was  defeated, 
and  the  democratic  candidates  obtained  the  suffrage  of  the 
majority. 

(427.)    On  the  4th  March,  1801,  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son became  President  of  the  United  States,  and  Aaron 


428.    $72.]  AMERICAN    STATES.  239 

Burr,  Yice-President.  Louisiana  was  purchased  from 
France  for  $15.000,000,  and  possession  taken  in  Dec., 
1803.  Mr.  Jefferson  was  re-elected,  and  entered  upon  a 
second  term  of  office  (March  4th,  1805),  George  Clinton, 
of  New-York,  being  Vice-President.  During  this  year, 
the  war  with  Tripoli,  which  had  been  signalized  by  many 
gallant  exploits  of  our  navy,  was  brought  to  a  close. 
Aaron  Burr,  in  1806,  was  detected  in  designs  of  a  trea- 
sonable character,  which  had  for  their  object  the  founding 
a  new  empire,  west  of  the  Alleghany  range,  with  New 
Orleans  as  the  capital.  He  was  seized  and  brought  to 
trial,  but  was  discharged  for  want  of  evidence  to  convict 
him ;  nevertheless,  the1  general  sentiment  of  the  people 
was,  that  he  was  guilty,  and  he  was  ever  after  regarded 
with  feelings  of  contempt  and  indignation,  more  espe- 
cially as  General  Hamilton  had  fallen  by  his  hand  in  a 
duel,  July,  1804.  The  wars  in  Europe,  consequent  upon 
the  ambition  of  Napoleon,  led  to  various  measures  ope- 
rating very  injuriously  upon  the  commerce  of  the  United 
States,  who  maintained  a  strict  neutrality  between  the 
belligerent  powers.  In  1806,  England  declared  the  blockade 
of  all  the  ports  and  rivers  from  the  Elbe  to  Brest,  and  a 
number  of  American  vessels,  trading  to  that  coast,  were 
captured  and  condemned.  Bonaparte  retaliated  by  the 
famous  Berlin  decree,  which  declared  all  the  British  islands 
in  a  state  of  blockade.  These  and  similar  measures 
(orders  in  council,  Milan  decree,  1808)  were  seriously  hurt- 
ful to  American  trade  and  commerce,  and  the  country  be- 
gan to  demand  redress  for  these  outrages,  particularly  as 
the  independence  of  the  nation  had  been  insulted  by  an 
unprovoked  attack  upon  the  frigate  Chesapeake,  and  the 
taking  away  by  force  from  her  some  of  the  crew,  on  the 
ground  of  their  being  British  subjects.  In  December, 
1808,  Congress  decreed  an  embargo,  which,  not  having  ob- 
tained from  France  and  England  an  acknowledgment  of 
American  rights,  was  repealed  -(March  1st,  1809),  and  a 
law  was  passed  prohibiting  all  trade  and  intercourse  with 
those  countries. 

(428.)  James  Madison  succeeded  Mr.  Jefferson 
(March  4th,  1809).  The  difficulties  with  France  and  Eng- 
land still  continuing,  and  the  commerce  of  the  country  being 


240  MODERN   HISTORY.  [429,430.    $72. 

sadly  crippled  and  injured  (between  1803  and  1811,  it  is 
stated  900  vessels  had  been  captured),  other  measures 
were  deemed  advisable.  Bonaparte  having  revoked  the 
hostile  decrees,  intercourse  with  France  was  resumed  (Nov. 
1810)  ;  but  England,  persevering  in  her  course  of  hostility 
(in  June,  1812),  war  was  declared  against  Great  Britain. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  country  (mostly  those  of  the 
federal  party)  was  opposed  to  the  war,  and  denounced  it 
as  impolitic  and  wrong.  It  lasted  for  three  years  ;  on  land 
the  operations  of  the  army  were  frequently  unsuccessful ; 
but  at  sea,  the  navy  gained  imperishable  glory,  and  brought 
this  arm  of  the  service  into  general  favor.  The  particu- 
lars of  the  war  must  be  sought  for  in  larger  histories.  A 
treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  at  Ghent,  in  Dec.,  1814, 
and  ratified  by  the  President  and  Senate  (Feb.,  1815).  A 
Bank  of  the  United  States  was  chartered,  with  a  capital  of 
$35,000,000,  early  in  1816,  the  charter  to  continue  in 
force  twenty  years. 

(429.)  Mr.  Madison  was  succeeded  by  James  Mon- 
roe (March  4th,  1817).  The  state  of  the  country,  on  Mr. 
Monroe's  accession,  was  by  no  means  prosperous, — com- 
merce had  not  yet  revived,  and  the  manufacturing  inte- 
rests of  the  community  were  greatly  depressed  by  the 
influx  of  foreign  merchandise.  In  1818,  in  a  war  with 
the  Seminoles,  Gen.  Jackson  entirely  subdued  the  Indian 
territory.  In  1819,  Spain  ceded  to  the  United  States 
East  and  West  Florida,  and  the  adjacent  islands.  The 
admission  of  Missouri  into  the  Union  (1821)  aroused  the 
whole  country  on  the  subject  of  slavery ;  a  compromise 
was  finally  effected,  and  the  question  has  since  been  com- 
paratively at  rest.  Mr.  Monroe  was  re-elected  in  1821, 
and  in  1824,  Lafayette  revisited  the  United  States,  and 
received  everywhere  that  attention  and  regard  which  he 
so  deservedly  merited.  At  the  next  election  for  President 
no  one  of  the  four  candidates  received  a  majority  of  the 
electoral  votes.  The  choice  therefore  devolved  upon  the 
House  of  Representatives. 

(430.)  John  Quincy  Adams  was  inaugurated  Pre- 
sident of  the  United  States,  March  4th,  1825.  A  con- 
troversy with  Georgia,  respecting  certain  lands  held  by 
the  Cherokees  and  Creeks  in  that  State,  at  one  time  threat- 


431,432.  §72.]        AMERICAN  STATES.  241 

ened  serious  difficulties,  but  was  finally  settled  in  a  satis- 
factory manner.  Ex-Presidents  Adams  and  Jefferson 
died  July  4th,  1826.  As  the  time  for  a  new  election  ap- 
proached, everywhere  party  spirit  began  to  develop  itself, 
with  unusual  viruiency,  and  Mr.  Adams  was  defeated,  and 
G-eneral  Jackson  elected  by  a  large  majority. 

(431.)  Andrew  Jackson  entered  upon  the  duties 
of  his  office,  March  4th,  1829.  With  this  administration 
began  the  system  of  proscription  for  political-  opinions, 
and  removals  from  office  were  made  to  a  very  large  ex- 
tent. In  1832,  a  bill  for  the  re-charter  of  the  Bank  of 
the  United  States  passed  both  Houses,  but  was  vetoed  by 
the  President.  He  also  opposed  internal  improvements 
by  appropriations  of  the  public  money.  South  Carolina 
having  arrayed  herself  against  the  protective  tariff  mea- 
sures passed  by  Congress,  civil  war  was  at  one  time  feared, 
but  a  compromise  was  effected,  and  the  danger  avoided — 
the  firmness  of  the  Executive  was  deserving  of  all  praise. 
In  1833,  G-eneral  Jackson  removed  the  deposits  of  public 
money  in  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  and  placed  them 
in  several  of  the  State  banks ;  this  measure  was  se- 
verely censured  by  the  Senate  (June  9th,  1834).  The 
French  indemnity  appropriations  not  having  been  met, 
the  President  recommended  reprisals  upon  French  com- 
merce ;  a  war  was  feared  for  a  time,  but  happily  the  mat- 
ter was  settled,  by  the  French  government  the  next  year 
making  provision  to  fulfil  its  stipulations. 

(432.)  Martin  Van  Bur  en  succeeded  General  Jack-? 
son  (March  4th,  1837),  and  carried  out  the  same  line  of 
policy  as  his  predecessor.  At  the  commencement  of  his 
administration  the  whole  country  was  involved  in  unpre- 
cedented and  terrible  mercantile  distress.  In  the  city  of 
New- York  alone,  during  the  inonths  of  March  and  April, 
failures  took  place  to  the  astonishing  amount  of  nearly 
$100,000.000  ;  all  confidence  seemed  to  have  taken  flight, 
and  credit  was  at  an  end,  and  the  banks  almost  every- 
where suspended  specie  payments.  An  extra  session  of 
Congress  was  called,  and  various  measures  adopted  for- 
public  relief.  The  war  in  Florida,  with  the  SeminoleSj 
was  still  carried  on,  during  this  administration,  with  i\ft 
very  satisfactory  results,  In  1840,  the  independent 


. 


242  MODERN   HISTORY.          [433 438.   $  72. 

sury  bill,  the  great  financial  measure  of  this  administra- 
tion, was  passed  and  became  a  law.  The  election,  which 
took  place  this  year,  was  the  most  exciting  ever  known, 
and  both  parties  exerted  themselves  to  the  utmost — Mr. 
Van  Buren  was  defeated. 

(433.)  William  Henry  Harrison  was  inaugurated 
President,  March  4th,  1841.  Just  one  month  after  this 
he  died,  and  the  Vice-President,  according  to  the  pro- 
visions o£  the  constitution,  succeeded  him  in  his  high 
office. 

(434.)  John  Tyler's  administration  was  the  first 
during  which  a  man  not  elected  for  the  office  was  in- 
trusted with  its  high  powers  and  responsibilities.  The 
sub-treasury  bill  was  repealed,  and  a  general  bankrupt  law 
passed  in  1841.  The  north-eastern  boundary  treaty  was 
concluded  at  Washington,  September,  1842.  Disturb- 
ances occurred  in  Rhode  Island,  which  threatened  blood- 
shed, but  happily  they  were  repressed  without  this  dread  al- 
ternative, and  law  and  order  prevailed.  In  1844,  through 
the  influence  of  the  President,  Texas  was  annexed  to  the 
United  States. 

(435.)  James  K.  Polk  became  President,  March 
4th,  1845.  A  treaty  with  China  was  effected  this  year. 
In  1846,  war  with  Mexico  broke  out.  June  18th,  1846, 
the  Oregon  treaty  signed  at  London.  July  6th,  Commo- 
dore Sloat  took  possession  of  California.  Treaty  of  peace 
with  Mexico  signed  at  Guadaloupe  Hidalgo,  Feb.  22d, 
1848.  Emigration  from  Europe  this  year  (1848)  to  the 
United  States,  300,000. 

(436.)  Zachary  Taylor  was  inaugurated  Presi- 
dent, March  4th,  1849.  He  died  July  9th,  1850,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Mill^rd  Fillmore,  who  now  (1851) 
fills  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States.  ' 

(437.)  2.  Hayti,  or  St.  Domingo,  became  an  empire 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  French  in  1803,  and  finally  (in 
1820)  a  republic,  into  which  the  Spanish  portion  of  the 
island  was  incorporated  in  1822.  Souloque  elected  Pre- 
sident. March  2d  ;  proclaimed  Emperor  of  Hayti,  August 
24th,  1849. 

(438.)  3.  What  was  formerly  Spanish  America 
consisted  of  four  vice-royalties  :  viz.,  Mexico  or  New  Spain, 


438.    $  72.]  AMERICAN    STATES.  243 

New  G-ranada  or  Fe  de  Bogota,  Peru,  and  Buenos  Ayres 
or  Rio  de  la  Plata ;  and  five  general  captainates :  viz., 
Guatimala,  Venezuela,  Chili,  Havana  or  Cuba,  and  Porto- 
Rico.  The  people  of  Spanish  America  having  refused  to 
acknowledge  Joseph  Bonaparte  as  King  of  Spain,  or  re- 
ceive the  viceroy  sent  out  by  the  usurping  government, 
expected,  not  unreasonably,  that  at  the  restoration  the 
Cortes,  in  framing  a  constitution,  would  place  the  faithful 
inhabitants  of  their  colonies  on  the  same  footing  as  those 
of  the  mother  country.  This  expectation  having  been 
miserably  disappointed,  the  provinces  of  the  American 
continent  declared  themselves  independent,  and  established 
republican  governments.  The  resistance  of  Ferdinand 
VII.  to  these  revolutionary  proceedings  occasioned  the 
Great  American  War  of  Liberation  against 
Spain  (1811 — 1824),  which  was  carried  on  with  almost 
uniform  success  on  the  side  of  the  Americans,  especially 
those  under  the  command  of  Simon  Bolivar  (f  1830), 
and  ended  in  the  establishment  of  six  (afterwards  nine) 
republics  in  South  America. 

a.  Paraguay,  a  theocratic  state,  founded  by  the  Je- 
suits in  the  seventeenth  century,  declared  itself  indepen- 
dent in  1811,  and  chose  as  its  dictator  an  advocate  named 
Dr.  Francia  (f  1840),  who  governed  with  almost  absolute 
authority.     The  republic  now  has  a  president. 

b.  La  Plata,  or  the  Argentine  Republic  (1816). 

c.  C^(1818). 

d.  Colombia  (1818),  formed  by  the  union  of  Venezuela 
(or    Caraccas)   and   New   Granada,  under  the    President 
Bolivar.     This  republic  (to  which  Quito  was  annexed  in 
1821)  was  divided  in  1831  into  three  confederate  states: 
viz.,  Venezuela,  New  Granada,  and  Ecuador. 

e.  Peru  (1824),  where  the  Spaniards  maintained  their 
authority  longer  than  in  any  other  state,  was  at  length 
liberated  by  the  aid  of  Bolivar  ;  and  in  the  year  1825  was 
divided  into  two  republics  ;  the  six  provinces  which  com- 
pose Upper  Peru  having  separated  themselves  from  the 
others,  and  established  an  independent  republic  under  the 
name  of  Bolivia. 

f.  Uruguay  (1828),  which  formerly  belonged  to  the 
Spanish  vice-royalty  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  was  taken  pos- 


244  MODERN   HISTORY.  [439.  $  72. 

session  of  by  Brazil  in  1817,  but  declared  independent, 
through  the  intervention  of  England,  in  1839.  The  in- 
terference of  the  Argentine  republic  in  disputes  respect- 
ing the  election  of  a  president  in  Uruguay  occasioned  a 
war  (1839)  between  the  two  states,  which,  notwithstanding 
the  mediation  of  England,  is  not  yet  terminated. 

g.  In  Mexico  the  first  insurrectionary  movements  were 
suppressed  by  the  Spaniards,  but  the  revolution  in  the 
mother-country  encouraged  the  Mexicans  to  make  a  fresh 
attempt.  The  throne  of  Mexico,  as  an  independent  em- 
pire, was  at  first  offered  to  Ferdinand  VII.  for  himself  or 
one  of  the  younger  princes  ;  and,  on  his  refusal,  Colonel 
Augustin  Iturbide  was  proclaimed  hereditary  emperor ; 
but  he  had  scarcely  reigned  a  year,  when  the  opposition 
party,  headed  by  General  Santa  Anna,  compelled  him  to 
abdicate.  After  a  succession  of  party  struggles,  and  the 
expulsion  of  all  the  ancient  Spanish  families,  a  Mexican 
Union  was  established  (consisting  of  nineteen  states), 
which  has  ever  since  been  distracted  by  the  disputes  of 
the  two  parties  respecting  the  election  of  a  president. 
Texas  separated  itself  from  the  Mexican  Union  in  1836, 
and  was  annexed  to  the  United  States  in  1844. 

(439.)  War  with  the  United  States. — The  Uni- 
ted States  of  America,  between  which  country  and  Mex- 
ico friendly  relations  had  been  for  some  time  suspended 
in  consequence  of  various  acts  of  aggression  on  the  part 
of  the  Mexican  government,  had  not  only  recognized  the 
independence  of  Texas,  but  incorporated  that  state  into 
their  union.  Hostilities  commenced  in  consequence  of  a 
dispute  between  the  two  countries  respecting  the  boundary- 
line  of  Texas,  and  after  the  capture  of  the  Mexican  capi- 
tal peace  was  concluded  on  terms  exceedingly  favorable  to 
the  Americans,  the  Rio  Grande  del  Nord  being  fixed  as 
the  boundary  of  Texas,  and  Upper  California  and  New 
Mexico  given  up  to  the  United  States. 

h.  The  Jive  provinces  of  central  America  (Guatimala, 
Honduras,  San  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costarico.)  after 
remaining  faithful  to  the  mother-country  longer  than  any 
of  the  other  provinces,  at  length  declared  themselves  inde- 
pendent (in  1823),  and  established  the  republic  of  the 
United  States  of  Central  America.  Gruatimala 
(separated  itself  from  the  union  in  1847. 


440,  441.  §73.]  AMERICAN   STATES.  245 

(440.)  4.  In  Brazil  (the  only  monarchy  of  the  New 
World)  a  struggle  between  monarchy  and  democracy  com- 
menced soon  after  its  separation  from  Portugal.  In  the 
year  1831,  in  consequence  of  a  revolution  occasioned  by 
disputes  between  the  government  and  the  chambers,  Don 
Pedro  I.  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Don  Pedro  II., 
who  attained  his  majority  in  1840.  Notwithstanding, 
however,  this  arrangement,  several  of  the  provinces  con- 
tinued to  be  the  scene  of  revolutionary  movements. 

§  73.  Religion,  Arts,  Sciences,  fyc.,  during  the  Third 

Period. 

r  .    RELI  GION. 

(441.)  The  exertions  of  both  Protestants  and  Roman- 
ists for  the  propagation  of  the  Glospel  in  foreign  countries 
are  still  continued.  The  Church  of  England  has  now  di- 
vided her  immense  colonial  possessions  into  the  following 
dioceses  :  — 

Diocese.  Colony. 

f  Nova  Scotia. 
NOVA  SCOTIA      .    .     .      }  Cape  Breton. 

(  Prince  Edward's  Island. 
FREDERICTON     .     .     .         New  Brunswick. 
QUEBEC     .....         Canada  East. 
TORONTO  .....         Canada  West. 


T  Jamaica. 

JAMAICA    .....  {Bahamas. 

BARBADOS. 

ANTIGUA. 

GUIANA, 

CALCUTTA  .....  Bengal. 

MADRAS     .....  Madras. 

BOMBAY     .....  Bombay. 

COLOMBO       ....  Ceylon. 

~  (  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

CAPETOWN     .... 


SYDNEY     .....      ) 

NEWCASTLE    ....      >  New  South  Wales. 

MELBOURNE  .     .     .     .      ) 

{  South  Australia. 

ADELAIDE  .....      {Western  Australia. 
NEW  ZEALAND    .     .     .         New  Zealand. 
TASMANIA  .....         Van  Diemen's  Land. 

Seychelles. 
HONG  KoNG,1 
1  To  this  number  two  more  are  just  about  to  be  added:  1850. 


246  MODERN   HISTORY.         [442 445.    §73. 

(442.)  The  Church  in  these  dioceses  is  mainly  sup- 
ported by  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
in  Foreign  Parts  (incorporated  in  1701),  assisted  by  the 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge.  The 
Church  Missionary  Society  (founded  about  a -century 
later)  is  now  in  the  annual  receipt  of  a  vast  income  (above 
100,000/.),  and  does  not  confine  its  operations  to  the 
English  colonies. 

(443.)  The  Roman  Catholic  missions,  which  have 
spread  over  the  countries  of  the  Levant,  India,  China, 
America,  and  Australia,  are  under  the  direction  of  the 
Propaganda  at  Rome,  and  are  supported  in  a  great  measure 
by  religious  associations  in  France.  There  are  also  several 
Protestant  missionary  societies  (in  London,  Holland,  Bos- 
ton, New- York,  Basle,  Berlin,  and  Berne)  which  are  as- 
sisted in  their  labors  by  the  Bible  Societies :  their  opera- 
tions are  very  extensive. 

(444.)  The  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastical  constitution 
was  established  afresh  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  by  means 
of  concordats  concluded  by  the  several  temporal  sovereigns 
with  the  pope.  The  order  of  Jesuits,  which  had  been  re- 
established by  Pius  VII.,  and  expelled  from  Russia  about 
the  same  time,  was  admitted,  with  other  monastic  orders, 
into  several  Roman  Catholic  countries,  but  subsequently 
suppressed  in  Portugal,  Spain,  and  France.  A  union  of 
the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  (i.  e.  Calvinistic)  Commu- 
nions, under  the  name  of  the  Evangelical  Church^  was 
effected  in  Prussia  in  1817,  and  adopted  at  a  later  period 
in  other  German  states.  In  Russia,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  western  provinces  were  required  to  conform  to  the  es- 
tablished religion  (in  1836),  and  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
United  Greek  worship  were  suppressed  by  force. 

II.    Constitutional  History  of  the  Period. 

(445.)  In  no  period  of  modern  history  have  so  many 
changes  of  constitution  occurred  (in  Italy,  France,  Spain, 
and  Portugal.)  as  in  'the  present  century,  both  during  and 
since  the  revolutions.  In  some  states,  as  Austria,  Sardi- 
nia (in  part),  Sweden,  the  two  Mecklenburgs,  and  some  of 
the  smaller  German  states,  the  old  mediaeval  constitutions 


446,  447.  $  73.]  SCIENCE,  LITERATURE,  AND  ART.  247 

(of  estates)  have  been  retained ;  whilst  in  others,  such  as 
France,  the  Netherlands,  Poland  (until  1831),  Norway, 
Spain,  Portugal,  Switzerland,  most  of  the  German  states, 
Lucca,  Greece,  the  states  of  America  (after  the  example 
of  the  United  States  of  America),  a  representative  system 
has  been  established.  Prussia  and  Denmark  have  provin- 
cial councils.  Russia,  the  rest  of  the  Italian  states,  and 
three  of  the  smaller  German  states  (Oldenburg,  Schwarz- 
burg-Sondershausen,  and  Hesse-Homburg),  were  governed 
as  before,  without  constitutions.  The  most  remarkable 
effects  of  the  French  revolution,  not  only  in  France,  but 
to  a  certain  extent  in  other  countries,  were  : — a.  In  the 
financial  administration.  The  establishment  of  a  sys- 
tem of  equal  taxation,  the  right  of  self-taxation  by  the 
estates  (budgets,  civil  lists),  and  in  the  constitutional  states 
the  enormous  increase  of  their  national  debts,  b.  In  the 
administration  of  justice.  Equality  of  all  before  the  law, 
publicity  of  courts  of  justice,  adoption  by  several  German 
states  of  the  Code  Napoleon,  which,  however,  was  abol- 
ished after  the  Restoration  by  all  of  them  except  Rhenish 
Prussia,  Rhenish  Hesse,  and  Rhenish  Bavaria,  c.  In 
military  affairs.  The  establishment  (in  the  continental 
states)  of  national  guards,  communal  guards,  and  militias, 
(Landwehren),  together  with  the  standing  armies,  compul- 
sory service  of  all  citizens,  instead  of  the  old  system  of 
recruiting,  increase  in  the  number  of  the  troops  and  ar- 
tillery, improvements  in  strategy,  military  tactics,  and  the 
art  of  fortification. 

III.  Science,  Literature,  and  Art. 

(446.)  In  the  German  speculative  philosophy  (which  in 
modern  times  has  extended  its  influence  to  all  other  sci- 
ences), after  the  publication  of  Inimanuel  Kant's  Critique 
on  the  Intellect  (Yernunft- Critic,  1804),  commenced  a  re- 
volution, which  was  completed  by  J.  G.  Fichte  (f  1814). 
To  both  these  systems  Schelling  opposed  his  natural 
philosophy,  on  which  Hegel  (|  1831)  founded  an  absolute 
idealism.  In  England,  Coleridge;  in  France,  Cousin. 

(447.)  b.  Philology  also  flourished  during  this  pe- 
riod, especially  in  Germany,  where  Heyne  (f  1812),  F.  A. 


248  MODERN   HISTORY.  [448 450.   §73. 

Wolf  (f  1824),  G.  Hermann,  Buttmann  (f  1829),  Bek- 
ker,  Bockh,  Creuzer,  J.  H.  Voss  (f  1826),  R.  O.  Muller 
(t  1840),  and  several  others  distinguished  themselves  as 
critical  scholars.  In  England,  Porson,  Elmsley,  Do- 
bree,  Blomfield,  Gaisford,  Monk,  Clinton,  Thirl- 
wall,  Grote;  of  whom  all  but  the  three  first  are  still 
alive.  The  study  of  general  grammar  was  pursued  by 
W.  Von  Humboldt  (f  1835) ;  that  of  Oriental  literature  by 
Gesenius,  Von  Hammer,  Rodiger,  Ewald,  the  French 
writer  Sylvester  de  Sacy,  the  English  Professor  Lee,  and 
others.  Sanscrit  by  Bopp,  A.  W.  Von  Schlegel  (f  1845), 
Wilson,  Mill ;  ancient  German  literature  by  the  two  Ba- 
rons Von  Grimm,  Graff  (f  1841),  Lachmann,  &c. 

(448.)  Excellent  German  translations  of  the  best  for- 
eign authors  were  published  by  J.  H.  Voss,  Schleiermacher 
(f  1834)  who  was  equally  eminent  as  a  philologist  and  the- 
ologian, A.  W.  Von  Schlegel,  Gries,  Kannegiesser,  Riickert, 
Streckfuss,  Diez,  and  others.  The  principal  English  trans- 
lation, and  that  a  nearly  perfect  one,  is  Carey's 'Dante.' 
Very  important  effects  resulted  from  the  profound  study 
of  philology,  biblical  exegesis  (which  has  been,  however, 
in  Germany,  too  generally  conducted  in  a  rationalistic 
spirit),  and  jurisprudence  ;  that  of  jurisprudence  has  been 
cultivated  with  great  success  by  Savigny  and  others. 

(449.)  c.  Historical  investigations  were  pursued  with 
unwearied  industry  and  great  acuteness  by  Niebuhr 
(fl831),  Heeren  (f  1842),  Fr.  Von  Raunier,  Schlosser, 
Wilken  (1840),  Von  Hammer,  Hullmann,  Leo,  Eichhorn 
(f  1827),  Pfister  (f  1835),  Ranke,  Wachsmuth,K.  A.  Men- 
zel,  Voigt,  Luden,  Dahlmann,  Aschbach,  Lappenberg, 
Thirlwall,  Grote,  Arnold,  Prescott,  &c.  French  historical 
literature  was  cultivated  by  Guizot,  Thierry,  Sismondi, 
Michaud,  Lacretelle,  Thiers,  Capefigue  ;  English  history 
by  Lingard  (a  Roman  Catholic),  Hallam,  Lord  Mahon, 
Turner,  Arnold,  Macaulay ;  American  by  Grahame,  Ban- 
croft, Sparks,  Hildreth,  &c. ;  Italian  by  Botta  (f  1802) ; 
Swedish  by  Geijer  and  Lundblad ;  Polish  by  Lelewel ; 
and  Russian  by  Karamsin  (f  1826). 

(450.)  d.  Geography  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a 
distinct  science  by  C.  Ritter,  and  its  sphere  enlarged  by 


451 — 453.  $  73.  SCIENCE,  LITERATURE,  AND  ART.  249 

the  French  expedition  into  Eg^>t,  and  the  discoveries  of 
several  travellers. 

(451.)  The  most  important  travels  were  those  of 
Mungo  Park  (f  1811),  Clapperton  (f  1827),  the  brothers 
Lander  on  the  Niger,  A.  Von  Humboldt  in  the  equinoc- 
tial countries  of  America,  and  into  Siberia,  Burckhardt 
(f  1817)  in  Arabia  and  Nubia,  Gau  in  Nubia  and  Abys- 
sinia, de  Laborde  in  Arabia  and  Syria,  Prince  Max  of 
Neuwied,  in  Brazil  and  to  the  sources  of  the  Missouri. 
To  these  we  must  add  the  circumnavigations  of  the  globe 
by  Krusenstern  and  Kotzebue ;  the  expeditions  to  the 
North  Pole  of  Captains  Parry  and  Ross  ;  and  the  Ameri- 
can South  Sea  Exploring  Expedition,  and  Captain  Lynch's 
Dead  Sea  Expedition. 

(452.)  e.  Natural  science  was  greatly  promoted  by 
these  travels,  especially  those  of  A.  Yon  Humboldt  and 
the  Prince  of  Neuwied,  by  the  discovery  of  galvanism 
(by  Galvini,  an  Italian),  and  of  the  four  smaller  planets, 
and  by  the  annual  meetings  of  German  and  Swiss,  and  at 
a  later  period  of  English,  French,  and  Italian  naturalists. 
The  most  distinguished  naturalists  of  modern  times  were 
— the  Zoologist  Cuvier  (f  1832),  Dr.  Owen,  the  chemist 
B  e  r  z  e  1  i  u  s,  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  Faraday,  the  botanists 
A.  L.  de  Jussieu  and  Decandolle,  and  the  astronomer  La- 
place (f  1827).  Herschell,  Airy,  Adams.  ,  The  most  remark- 
able discoveries  in  medicine  were  Gall's  (f  1822)  craniology, 
and  Hahnemann's  homoeopathic  system.  Invention  of  gal- 
vano-plastic  by  Jacobi,  of  Dorpat. 

(453.)  f.  Poetry.—  In  Germany,  Schiller  (f  1805), 
and  Goethe  (f  1832),  during  their  ten  years'  residence 
together  at  Weimar  (1795 — 1805).  At  the  same  time 
there  arose,  in  opposition  to  the  sentimentality  of  lyric 
poetry  (revived  by  Matthison,  Salis,  and  Tiedge),  and  the 
dramas  of  real  life  of  Iffland  (f  1814),  and  Kotzebue 
(f  1819),  a  romantic  school,  founded  by  the  brothers 
Schlegel  (Aug.  William,  f  1845,  and  Frederick,  f  1829), 
and  Tieck,  who  adopted  as  their  model  the  romantic  po- 
etry of  the  middle  ages,  and  distinguished  themselves  by 
their  critical  productions  no  less  than  by  their  poetical 
works  and  translations.  The  patriotic  wars  in  which  Ger- 
many was  engaged  inspired  Korner  (f  1813),  Von  Schenk- 


250  MODERN   HISTORY.  [454.    $  73. 

endorf  (f  1817),  Arndt  anti  Ruckert  (Freimand  Reimar), 
whose  songs  of  war  and  victory  were  suggested  by  the 
events  of  those  stirring  times.  Patriotic  songs  were  also 
written  by  W.  Muller  (f  1827),  to  celebrate  the  Greek 
revolution.  Since  that  time  lyric  poetry  has  been  es- 
pecially employed  to  commemorate  the  events  of  the  day, 
by  Uhland,  Count  Platen  (f  1835),  Chamicso  (f  1838), 
Zedlitz,  and  Lenau;  and  during  the  last  ten  years  has  as- 
sumed a  polemical  character,  in  the  disgraceful  writings  of 
Heine,  Anastasius  Grim,  Hoffman  of  Fallersleben,  Freili- 
grath,  K.  Beck,  and  Herwegh.  In  epic  poetry,  German 
literature  has  been  much  less  fruitful  than  in  lyric.  Epic 
poems  of  considerable  length  have  been  attempted  by  E. 
Schulze  (f  1817),  Archbishop  Pyrker,  and  Lenau.  In  bal- 
lads and  romances,  the  Swabian  poetical  school  of  Uhland, 
G.  Schwab,  and  Kerner,  is  the  most  distinguished.  Dra- 
matic poetry,  which  had  attained  its  highest  degree  of  ex- 
cellence in  the  days  of  Schiller,  was  cultivated  with  dif- 
ferent success  by  his  successors,  H.  Von  Kleist  (f  1811), 
Z  Werner  (f  1823),  Mullner  (f  1828),  Grabbe  (f  1836), 
Immermann  (f  1840),  Raupach,  Zedlitz,  and  Gutzkow. 
Romances  and  novels  were  written  by  Jean  Paul  Frede- 
rick Richter  (f  1825),  L.  Tieck,  Immermann,  and  a  crowd 
of  authors  and  authoresses.  Several  translations  of  for- 
eign romances  were  also  published. 

(454.)  In  Prance,  a  host  of  poets,  following  the  ex- 
ample of  Chateaubriand,  threw  off  the  trammels  im- 
posed on  poetry  by  the  academy,  and  formed  a  "  modern 
romantic  school,"  in  opposition  to  the  old  classical  school, 
as  it  was  called.  Among  these  the  most  celebrated  is 
Victor  Hugo.  A.  de  Lamartine  has  distinguished 
himself  as  a  religious  lyric  poet,  and  Beranger  as  a 
writer  of  popular  songs.  An  attempt  to  unite  the  two 
schools  was  made  by  the  lyric  and  dramatic  poet  Cas. 
Delavigne.  Among  the  dramatic  poets,  the  most  pro- 
lific are  Scribe  and  Alex.  Dumas.  Of  the  numerous 
writers  of  romance,  Victor  Hugo,  Chateaubriand,  Mad- 
ame de  Stael  (f  1817),  Janin,  Nodier,  Balzac,  Madame  Du- 
devant  (George  Sand),  Paul  de  Kock,  and  Eugene  Sue, 
enjoy  the  highest  reputation,  though  the  works  of  the  last 
three  are  a  disgrace  to  the  nation  that  produces  and  toler- 
ates such  writings, 


455 — 457.  §  73.]  SCIENCE,  LITERATURE,  AND  ART.          251 

(455.)  In  England,  Lord  Byron  (fat  Missolonghi, 
in  1824)  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries  in  liveliness  of 
imagination  and  ardent  poetic  feeling.  Wordsworth, 
whose  loss  we  are  now  deploring  (1850),  is  a  far  sublimer, 
as  well  as  a  far  purer  poet,  than  Lord  Byron.  Coleridge 
was  equal,  if  not  in  some  respects  superior,  in  poetic  ge- 
nius ;  but  executed  comparatively  little.  Other  poets 
(omitted  by  Prof.  Putz)  are  Walter  Scott,  Southey, 
Tennyson,  Keble,  Mrs.  Hemans.  The  historical  ro- 
mances of  Sir  Walter  Scott  are  unrivalled  for  the  fidel- 
ity and  brilliancy  of  their  delineations.  English  domes- 
tic romance  has  been  revived  by  Sir  E.  L.  Bulwer,  and 
Charles  Dickens.  In  America.  Bryant,  Longfellow,  Hal- 
leek,  Dana,  Willis,  Mrs.  Sigourney,  and  others  have  done 
much  for  true  poetry.  Among  the  modern  poets  of  Italy, 
the  most  renowned,  as  lyric  and  tragic  writers,  are  Man- 
zoni  and  Silvio  Pelico.  In  Sweden,  Bishop  Tegner  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  an  epic,  and  in  Russia,  Puschkin 
(f  1 837),  as  a  lyric  poet.  The  American  writers,  Cooper 
and  Washington  Irving,  have  also  acquired  a  Euro- 
pean reputation. 

(456.)  g.  Oratory. — The  sphere  of  political  eloquence, 
which  before  the  revolution  was  limited  to  England,  has 
been  extended  since  the  introduction  of  the  representa- 
tive system  to  France  and  some  of  the  German  states. 
The  most  distinguished  orators  of  modern  times  are,  those 
of  England,  viz.,  the  younger  Pitt  (f  1806),  Fox  (f  1806), 
Brougham,  O'Connell.  Sir  Eobert  Peel,  &c. ;  next  to  them 
rank  the  orators  of 'France,  viz.,  Manuel  (1823),  Foy 
(f  1824),  Benj.  Constant  (f  1830),  Lamarque  (f  1832), 
Royer  Collard,  Casimir  Perier  (f  1832),  Chateaubriand, 
Guizot,  Dupin,  Odillon  Barrot,  Thiers,  Lamartine,  &c.  ; 
in  America,  Calhoun,  Clay,  Webster,  &c. 

(457.)  h.  In  the  fine  arts,  great  advances  were  made 
by  France  during  the  reign  of  Napoleon,  and  by  G-ermany 
and  Belgium  after  the  restoration  of  peace.  The  great 
architectural  works  with  which  Paris,  Berlin  (by  Schinkel), 
and  Munich  (by  Klenzi),  have  been  adorned,  indicate  the 
revival  of  a  study  of  the  antique,  which  has  been  greatly 
promoted  by  the  recent  examination  and  measurement  of 
the  monuments  of  Grecian  art,  and  the  introduction  into 


252  MODERN    HISTORY.  [458,  459.    §  73. 

the  museums  of  Europe  of  some  of  the  most  valuable 
treasures  of  Grecian  sculpture  (the  Elgin  marbles,  &c.). 
Others  have  endeavored  to  revive  the  Gothic  style  of  the 
middle  ages.  In  sculpture,  the  most  successful  imitators 
of  classical  models  have  been  the  Italian,  C  a  n  o  v  a  (f  1 822), 
and  (in  a  totally  different  style)  the  Dane  Thorwaldsen, 
(f  1841)  G.  Schadow,  Rauch,  Chr.  Tieck,  Schwanthaler, 
David,  a  Frenchman,  Chantrey  and  Gibson,  Englishmen, 
Powers  and  Greenough,  Americans. 

(458.)  Painting. — The  greatest  activity  has  been  mani- 
fested in  all  the  branches  of  this  art.  In  England, 
Turner,  Sir  T.  Lawrence,  and  others.  In  Germany,  we 
have  the  Munich  school,  with  P.  Von  Cornelius  (since 
resident  at  Berlin)  at  its  head,  and  that  of  Dusseldorf, 
under  W.  Schadow.  In  France,  Horace  Vernet,  P.  Dela- 
roche,  &c.,  are  distinguished  as  historical  painters.  Their 
great  aim  has  been  to  give  individuality  to  their  subjects, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  classical  style  of  J.  L.  David 
(t  1825),  and  his  pupil  Gerard  (f  1837).  In  Belgium, 
Wappers  and  de  Keyser  are  celebrated  as  historical 
painters,  and  Verboekhoven  as  a  painter  of  animals.  The 
study  of  the  fine  arts  was  promoted  by  the  establishment 
of  museums  (Musee  Napoleon  in  the  Louvre,  museums  at 
Berlin  and  Versailles),  and  the  erection  of  magnificent 
buildings  adorned  with  fresco  painting,  by  command  of 
Lewis  I.,  at  Munich.  A  taste, for  art  was  also  diffused 
far  and  wide  by  the  establishment,  in  almost  every  great 
European  city,  of  art-unions.  Lithography  was  invented 
by  Sennefelder,  of  Munich  (1796);  steel-engraving  by 
Heath,  in  England;  and  the  Daguerreotype  in  France, 
byDaguerre  (1839);  Photogenic  drawing  by  H.  F.  Talbot, 
in  England,  at  the  same  time.  A  great  improvement  in 
the  art  of  engraving  on  wood  was  also  effected  in  Hol- 
land. 

(459.)  i.  In  Music,  Germany  produced  the  most  illus- 
trious masters.  W.  A.  Mozart  (f  1791),  Jos.  Haydn 
(f  1809),  Ludw.  Von  Beethoven  (f  1827),  and  a  host  of 
other  composers,  such  as  C.  M.  Von  Weber  (f  1826), 
Spohr,  Bernard  Klein  (f  1832),  Felix  Mendelssohn-Bar- 
tholdy  (f  1848),  Ferd.  Hies  (f  1838),  Fesca  (f  1826),  A. 
Romberg  (f  1821),  Marschner,  Schneider,  Meyerbeer,  &c. 


460.    $73.]       SCIENCE,    LITERATURE,    AND    ART.  253 

In  France,  Cherubim,  Mehul  (f  1817),  Boyldieu  (f  1834), 
and  Auber.  In  Italy,  Rossini  and  Bellini,  both  cele- 
brated as  composers  of  operas.  Academies  of  singing 
are  established  in  Germany,  and  conservatories  of  music 
in  Paris  and  Prague.  Great  musical  festivals  are  held  in 
Germany  and  England,  and  societies  are  established  in 
Holland  for  the  advancement  of  musical  science.  The 
taste  for  operatic  representations  has  also  contributed  in 
no  small  degree  to  the  improvement  of  musical  compo- 
sition. 

IV.   Trade,  Manufacturing  Industry,  Agriculture. 

(460.)  The  colonial  trade  of  the  French,  Dutch,  and 
Spaniards,  was  transferred,  during  the  war,  to  England  or 
some  neutral  nation,  such  as  the  United  States,  which 
began  to  rival  Great  Britain  as  a  maritime  power.  Eng- 
land indemnified  herself  for  the  loss  of  her  trade  with 
the  European  continent,  consequent  on  the  introduction  of 
Napoleon's  continental  system,  by  extending  her  dominion 
in  India,  and  drawing  more  closely  the  bands  of  her  com- 
mercial intercourse  with  Brazil,  and  the  revolted  Spanish 
colonies  of  South  America.  A  brisk  trade  was  also  car- 
ried on  with  the  Spanish  peninsula,  during  the  period  of 
British  ascendency  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  peace  of 
Paris  restored  to  France  and  Holland  their  ancient  colo- 
nies, but  not  their  former  commercial  prosperity.  Manu- 
facturing industry  in  France,  the  Netherlands,  Germany, 
and  Russia,  was  encouraged  by  the  exclusion  of  English 
wares  under  the  continental  system,  and  subsequently  by 
enormous  import  duties :  but,  on  the  other  hand,  agri- 
culture in  the  north-east  of  Europe  and  Germany  was  al- 
most ruined  by  the  English  corn-laws.  The  circulation 
of  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory  notes,  and  the  trade 
in  government  securities,  were  carried  on  with  unprece- 
dented spirit.  The  resolution  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
for  the  abolition  of  slavery  was  gradually  carried  into 
execution.  The  interests  of  commerce  were  promoted  by — 
a.  greater  facilities  of  communication  by  means  of  canals, 
steamers  (Fulton,  on  the  Hudson  river,  first  succeeded  in 
applying  steam  to  the  propelling  of  vessels,  1807) ;  rail- 
ways (first  introduced  as  of  great  importance,  in  England, 


254  MODERN   HISTORY.  [460.    §73. 

1826-30  ;  in  the  United  States,  1827-35) ;  telegraphs  (in- 
vented by  Chappe,  a  Frenchman,  in  1793  ;  the  electric  tele- 
graph by  Professor  Morse,  1832,  patented  1837,  first 
practically  used,  1844;  Cooke  and  Wheatstone's  patent 
in  England,  1840  ;  b.  commercial  leagues  ;  c.  the  free 
navigation  of  the  German  rivers,  and  establishment  of  the 
great  German  commercial  league  (Zollverein).  England, 
on  the  other  hand,  has  adopted  the  opposite  principle, 
and  abolished  or  greatly  lessened  all  restrictive  duties, 
Abolition  of  the  Corn  Laws  by  Sir  Robert  Peel. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


FIRST  PERIOD. 

A.D. 

1492—1648.  FROM  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA  TO  THE  PEACE  OP 
WESTPHALIA. 

1492.  DISCOVERY  OP  AMERICA,  BY  CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS. 

1493 — 1519.  MAXIMILIAN  I.,  EMPEROR  OF  GERMANY. 

1493—1496.  Second  voyage  of  Columbus.  Discovery  of  the  An- 
tilles and  Jamaica. 

1495.  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  IMPERIAL  CHAMBER. 

Naples  occupied  for  a  short  time  by  the  French. 

1498.  DISCOVERY  OF  A  PASSAGE  BY  SEA  TO  THE  EAST  INDIES,  by 
Vasco  di  Gama. 

1498—1500.  Third  voyage  of  Columbus.  Discovery  of  Trinidad 
and  the  Continent  of  South  America.  Francisco  de  Boba- 
dilla. 

1498.  CONQUEST  OP  MILAN,  BY  Louis  XII. 

1500.  Cabral  discovers  Brazil. 

1501.  CONQUEST  OF  NAPLES,  BY  THE  FRENCH  AND  SPANIARDS.    THE 

CITY  REMAINS  IN  THE  OCCUPATION  OF  THE  LATTER. 
1502—1504.  Fourth  voyage  of  Columbus. 
1566.  Death  of  Columbus. 

1568,  1509.   War  of  the  league  of  Cambray  against  Venice. 
1509—1515.  Alfonso  Albuquerque,  Portuguese  Viceroy  in  the  East 

Indies. 
1509—1547.  Henry  VIII.,  King  of  England. 

1511.  Holy  league  for  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Italy. 

1512.  Germany  divided  into  ten  circles. 
1515 — 1547.  FRANCIS  I.,  KING  OF  FRANCE. 

1515.  Francis  I.  regains  Milan  by  the  victory  of  Marignano. 
1516—1556.  CHARLES  I.,  KING  OF  SPAIN. 

1517.  BEGINNING    OF    THE    REFORMATION.      Luther's    ninety-five 

theses. 

1518.  Diet  of  Augsburg.    Luther  appears  before  Cardinal  Caietan. 

1519.  Interregnum  in  Germany,  after  the  death  of  Maximilian. 

CORTEZ    CONQUERS    MEXICO. 

1519—1556.  CHARLES  V.,  EMPEROR  OF  GERMANY. 


256  CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


A.D. 

1520.  MAGELLAN  DISCOVERS  A  PASSAGE  INTO  THE  SOUTH  SEA. 
Luther  burns  the  Pope's  bull.     Massacre  of  Stockholm. 

1520—1556.  Solyman  II.,  Turkish  Sultan. 

1521.  Luther  appears  before  the  diet  of  Worms,  and  is  placed  under 

the  ban  of  the  empire. 

1521—1526.  First  war  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 
1523.  GUSTAVUS    VASA   SEPARATES   SWEDEN  FROM  THE  UNION   OF 

CALMAR. 
1525.  Peasants'  war  in  Germany.    They  are  defeated  at  Franken- 

hausen. 


Prussia,  a  temporal  Ducky. 

1525.  Francis  I.  taken  prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Pavia. 

1526.  Convention  of  Madrid. 

1526-1532.  War  of  Charles  V.  with  the  Turks. 

Battle  of  Mohacz. 

1527—1529.  Second  war  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.    Rome 
taken  and  plundered. 

1529.  Ladies'  peace  concluded  at  Cambray. 
Siege  of  Vienna  by  the  Turks. 

Diet  of  Spiers  (Protestants). 

1530.  Diet  of  Augsburg.     CONFESSION  OF  AUSGBURG. 

Charles  V.  gives  Malta,  Gozzo,  and  Tripoli,  to  the  Knights 
of  St.  John.     Last  coronation  of  an  Emperor  by  the  Pope. 

1531.  Schmalkaldian  league. 

Zwingli  falls  in  the  battle  of  Kappel. 

1532.  The  Turks  advance  a  second  time  against  Vienna. 
Religious  peace  at  Nurnberg. 

1535.   Sect  of  the  Anabaptists  suppressed  at  Munster. 

Successful  expedition  of  Charles  V.  against  Tunis. 
1536—1538.  Third  war  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 
1538.  An  armistice  concluded  at  Nice. 

1540.  SOCIETY  OF  JESUITS  FOUNDED  BY  IGNATIUS  LOYOLA. 

1541.  Unsuccessful  campaign  of  Charles  V.  against  Algiers. 
1542 — 1568.  Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scotland. 
1542—1544.  Fourth  war  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 

The  Duke  of  Cleves  subdued. 
1544.  Peace  of  Cressy. 
1545—1563.  COUNCIL  OF  TRENT. 

1546.  Death  of  Martin  Luther. 

Schmalkaldian  war  between  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and  the 
Schmalkaldian  league. 

1547.  The  Elector  of  Saxony  defeated  at  Miihlberg.    The  electoral 

dignity  transferred  from  the  Ernestine  to  the  Albertine 

line. 

Philip  of  Hesse  taken  prisoner  at  Halle. 
1552.  Maurice  attacks  the  Emperor  at  Innsbruck. 
CONVENTION  OF  PASSAU. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE.  257 


A.  D. 

1552—1556.  War  of  Charles  V.  with  Henry  II.  of  France.    The 

French  lose  Metz,  Toul.  and  Verdun. 
1555.  RELIGIOUS  PEACE  OF  AUGSBURG.    Reservatum  ecclesiasticum. 

1555.  Charles  V.  gives  up  Milan,  Naples,  and  the  Netherlands,  to 

his  son. 

1556.  Abdication  of  Charles  V. 
1556—1598.  PHILIP  II.,  King  of  Spain. 
1556—1564.  FERDINAND  L,  EMPEROR  OF  GERMANY. 
1558—1603.  ELIZABETH,  QUEEN  OF  ENGLAND. 

1559.  Long  war  between  Spain  and  France,  terminated  by  the 
peace  of  Ch£teau-Cambresis. 

1559—1567.  Margaret  of  Parma,  vice-sovereign  of  the  Netherlands. 

1560 — 1598.  RELIGIOUS  WARS  IN  FRANCE.  - 

1564—1576.  MAXIMILIAN  II.,  EMPEROR  OF  GERMANY. 

1566.  The  Turks  invade  Hungary.     Solyman  II.  dies  before  Sigeth. 

1567—1573.  The  Duke  of  ALVA  Governor  in  the  Netherlands. 
Execution  of  Egmont,  Hoorn,  &c.     Massacre. 

1571.  Don  Juan,  of  Austria,  defeats  the  Turks  at  Lepanto. 

1672.  POLAND  AN  ELECTORAL  KINGDOM. 

MASSACRE  OF  ST.  BARTHOLOMEW'S  EVE. 
William  of  Orange  nominated  royal  Stattholder  of  the  Neth- 
erlandish provinces. 

1573—1576.  Zuniga  y  Requesens,  Stattholder  in  the  Netherlands. 

1576—1578.  Don  Juan  d' Austria,  Stattholder. 

1578 — 1592.    Alexander  Farnese,   of  Parma,   Stattholder  of  the 
Netherlands. 

1579.  THE  SEVEN  NORTHERN  PROVINCES  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS  RE- 
NOUNCE  THEIR   ALLEGIANCE   TO   THE  SPANISH  CROWN  IN  THE 

UNION  OF  UTRECHT. 
1581 — 1646.  PORTUGAL  UNDER  THE  DOMINION  OF  SPAIN. 

1583.  The  Gregorian  Calendar. 

1584.  William  of  Orange  assassinated.    He  is  succeeded  by  his  son 

Maurice. 

1587.  Execution  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 

1588.  Destruction  of  the  Invincible  Armada. 


1589—1792.  THE  HOUSE  OF  BOURBON  IN  FRANCE. 

1589 — 1610.  HENRY  IV.,  KING  OF  FRANCE.    Sully. 
1598.  Edict  of  Nantes. 

Extinction  of  the  house  of  Ruric,  in  Russia. 
1600.  English  East  India  Company. 
1602.  Dutch  East  India  Company. 

1603 — 1649.   THE  HOUSE  OF  STUART  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND 
IRELAND. 

1605.  Discovery  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot. 

1608.  Union  of  the  Protestant  Princes  of  Germany. 


258  CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


A.  D. 

1609.  Letter  of  Majesty  for  the  Bohemian  and  Silesian  Protestants. 

Armistice  between  Spain  and  the  United  Netherlands. 
Romanist  league. 

1610.  Henry  IV.  assassinated  by  Ravaillac. 
1610—1643.  Louis  XIII.     Mary  de  Medici  Regent. 
1611—1632.  Gustavus  (II.)  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden. 
1612 — 1619.  MATTHIAS,  EMPEROR  OF  GERMANS'. 

1613 — 1762.   THE  HOUSE  OF  ROMANOW,  IN  RUSSIA. 
1618.  Prussia  united  to  Brandenburg. 

1618.  Disturbances  in  Prague  on  account  of  the  destruction  of  the 

Letter  of  Majesty. 

1618 — 1648.  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR  IN  GERMANY. 
1618 — 1623.   BOHEMIAN-PALATINE  PERIOD   OF   THE  THIRTY  YEARS' 

WAR. 

1619—1637.  Ferdinand  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1619.  The  Protestant  estates  of  Bohemia  choose  the  Elector  Pala- 

tine, Frederick  V.,  to  be  their  King. 

1620.  Frederick  defeated  on  the  White  Mountain.    Bohemia  sub- 

dued. 

1623.  The  electorate  of  the  Palatinate  (conquered  by  Tilly),  con- 
ferred on  Maximilian  of  Bavaria. 

1624 — 1642.  RICHELIEU,  Prime  Minister  in  France. 

1625—1629.  DANISH  PERIOD  of  the  thirty  years'  war. 

1626.  Wallenstein  defeats  Count  Mansfield  at  the  Bridge. of  Des- 

sau. Christian  IV.  defeated  by  Tilly  at  Lutter  on  the 
Barenberg. 

1627.  Conquest  of  Lower  Saxony.     Siege  of  Stralsund. 

1629.  Peace  concluded  with  Denmark  at  Lubeck.     RESTITUTION 

EDICT. 

1630.  Diet  of  Ratisbon.     Wallenstein  deprived  of  the  command-m- 

chief.     Dissolution  of  the  Hansa. 
1630 — 1634.  SWEDISH  PERIOD  of  the  thirty  years'  war. 

1630.  Gustavus  Adolphus  lands  in  Pomerania,  and  advances  as  far 

as  Brandenburg. 

1631.  Magdeburg  stormed  and  sacked  by  Tilly.    Gustavus  Adol- 

phus, with  a  reinforcement  of  Saxon  troops,  defeats  Tilly 
near  Leipzic,  and  advances  into  Western  and  Southern 
Germany. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  and  (Wallenstein  encamped  near  Niirn- 
berg. 

1632.  Battle  of  LUTZEN.    Death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Pap- 

penheim. 
1632—1654.  Christiria,  Queen  of  Sweden. 

1634.  Wallenstein  murdered  at  Eger.    The  Austrians  victorious  at 

Nordlinger  over  Bernard  of  Weimar  and  Gustavus  Horn. 
SWEDISH-FRENCH  PERIOD  of  the  thirty  years'  war. 

1635.  Peace  concluded  at  Prague  by  the  emperor  and  Saxony 

with  the  Protestant  estates  of  central  and  Northern  Ger- 
many. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE.  259 

A.  D. 

1636.  Baner  defeats  the  Saxons  at  Wittstock. 

1637 — 1657.  FERDINAND  III.,  EMPEROR  OF  GERMANY. 

1639.  After  the  death  of  Bernard  of  Weimar,  France  regains  pos- 

session of  his  conquests  on  the  Rhine. 
1640—1688.  Frederick  William  the  Great,  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 

1640.  Separation  of  Portugal  from  Spain.    The  house  of  Braganza 

raised  to  the  throne. 

1642.  Torstenson  defeats  the  imperialists  near  Leipzic. 
1643—1714.  Louis  XIV.,  KING  OP  FRANCE. 
1643—1661.  Mazarin  Prime  Minister  in  France  during  the  minority 

of  Louis  XIV. 

1645.  Torstenston  victorious  at  Zankau. 

1646.  1647.  Bavaria  twice  attacked  by  Wrangel  and  Turenne. 

1647.  Massaniello's  insurrection  at  Naples. 

1648.  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA. 

War  of  the  Fronde  against  the  court  of  Louis  XIII.  and 

Mazarin. 

1648—1789.  FROM   THE   PEACE   OF  WESTPHALIA  TO  THE  FRENCH 
REVOLUTION. 

1649.  Execution  of  Charles  I.,  King  of  England. 
1649—1660.  ENGLAND  A  REPUBLIC. 
1653—1658.  Oliver  Cromwell,  Protector  of  England. 
1654 — 1751.  The  house  of  Zweibrucken  reigns  in  Sweden. 
1655—1660.  Swedish-Polish  war ;  in  which  the  Great  Elector  takes 

part. 
1656.  Battle  of  Warsaw ;  the  Swedes,  assisted  by  the  Great  Elector, 

defeat  the  Poles. 
1658 — 1705.  LEOPOLD  I.,  EMPEROR  OF  GERMANY. 

1659.  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  between  France  and  Spain.    Richard 

Cromwell  resigns  the  Protectorate  at  the  end  of  eight 
months.     Charles  II.  brought  back  by  General  Monk. 
1660—1668.  England  under  the  two  last  Stuarts,  Charles  II.,  and 
James  II.     Act  of  toleration  (afterwards  repealed).    Test 
act.    Habeas  corpus. 

1660.  Sweden  concludes  a  peace  with  Poland  at  Oliva,  and  with 

Denmark  at  Copenhagen. 
Denmark  becomes  an  absolute  monarchy. 

1661—1683.  Colbert^  French  minister. 

1663.  The  German  diet  becomes  a  permanent  congress  of  deputies. 

1666—1668.  Louis  XlVth's  first  war  of  spoliation  against  the  Span- 
ish Netherlands.    Triple  alliance. 

1668.  Peace  concluded  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1672—1676.  Louis  XlVth's  second  war  of  spoliation  against  Hol- 
land.    Dissolution  of  the  triple  alliance. 

1675.  Frederick  William  of  Brandenburg  defeats  the  Swedes  at 
Fehrbellin. 

1678.  Peace  of  Nimeguen. 

1679.  The  Great  Elector  is  compelled  to  restore  almost  all  his  con- 

quests to  Sweden  at  the  peace  of  S.  Germain  en  Laye. 
1680—1684.  Louis  XlVth's  "  re-unions." 


260  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE. 

A.  D. 

1683.  The  last  siege  of  Vienna  by  the  Turks. 

1685.  Revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  The  Protestants  quit 
France  and  establish  themselves  in  other  countries,  espe- 
cially in  Brandenburg. 

1687.  Hungary  a  hereditary  kingdom. 

1688—1697.  Louis  XlVth's  third  war  of  spoliation.     The  Palati- 
nate ravaged. 
1688—1701.  Frederick  III.  last  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 

1688.  The  English  Revolution.     Expulsion  of  the  Stuarts. 
1789—1702.  The  house  of  Orange  in  England.    William  III. 
1690.  Marshal  Luxemburg  defeats  the  Dutch  at  Fleurus. 
1692.  Hanover  created  a  ninth  electorate. 

1697.  Prince  Eugene  defeats  the  Turks  at  Gentha. 

Saxony  and  Poland  united.    Peter  the  Great  visits  Holland 
and  England. 

Peace  of  Ryswick. 
1697—1718.  Charles  XII.,  King  of  Sweden. 

1699.  Peace  with  the  Turks  at  Carlowitz. 
1700—1721.  THE  NORTHERN  WAR. 

1700.  Denmark  compelled  to  conclude  a  peace  at  Travendal  in 

consequence  of  the  landing  of  Charles  XII.  on  the  island 
of  Zealand. 

Charles  XII.  defeats  the  Russians  at  Narva.    Extinction  of 
the  house  of  Hapsburg  in  Spain. 

1701.  The  Elector  of  Brandenburg  assumes  the  title  of  King  of 

Prussia. 

1701—1713.  FREDERICK  I.,  KING  OF  PRUSSIA. 
1701—1714.  War  of  the  Spanish  succession. 
1701.  War  in  Italy.    Attack  on  Milan. 
1702—1714.  Anne,  Queen  of  England. 

1703.  Peter  the  Great  lays  the  foundation  of  Petersburg. 

1704.  Stanislaus  Lesczinsky,  King  of  Poland. 
Gibraltar  taken  by  the  English. 

Eugene  and  Marlborough  defeat  the  French  at  Hochstadt 
1705—1711.  JOSEPH  I.,  EMPEROR  OF  GERMANY. 

1706.  Augustus  II.  resigns  the  crown  of  Poland  at  the  peace  of 

Altranstadt. 

Marlborough  victorious  at  Ramillies,  and  Eugene,  by  the  aid 
of  the  Russians,  at  Turin. 

1707.  Neuenburg  [Neufchatel]  and  Valendis  annexed  to  Prussia. 
England  and  Scotland  united,  with  one  parliament. 

1708.  Eugene  and  Marlborough  victorious  at  Oudenarde.    Nego- 

tiations for  peace. 

1709.  The  two  commanders  victorious  at  Malplaquet.     Charles 

XII.,  defeated  at  Pultowa,  takes  refuge  in  Turkey. 
1709—1714.  Residence  of  Charles  XII.  in  Turkey.     Conquest  of 

the  Swedish  Baltic  provinces  by  Peter.      The  Russian 

army  surrounded  by  the  Turks  on  the  banks  of  the  Pruth. 

Escape  of  Peter. 
1711 — 1740.  CHARLES  VI.,  EMPEROR  OF  GERMANY. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE.  261 

A.  D. 

1712.  Fall  of  the  Marlborough  administration. 
1713— 1740.  Frederick  William  1.,  King  of  Prussia. 

1713.  Peace  of  Utrecht.   Philip  V.  recognized  as  King  of  Spain  and 

her  foreign  possessions. 

1714.  Peace  concluded  at  Rastadt  and  Baden.     Charles  VI.  obtains 

the  Spanish  provinces  in  Europe.    THE  HOUSE  OF  HANO- 
VER  RAISED  TO   THE   ENGLISH   THRONE. 

Return  of  Charles  XII.  from  Turkey. 

1714—1716.  Three  campaigns  of  Charles  XII.  against  Norway. 

1614 — 1718.  War  of  the  Turks  against  Venice  and  Austria. 

1715—1774.  Louis  XV.,  King  of  France.  Regency  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans  under  the  management  of  Dubois. 

1716.  Prince  Eugene  victorious  at  Peterwardein. 

1718.  Charles  XII.  slain  at  the  siege  of  Friederichshall.  Quad- 
ruple alliance  for  maintenance  of  the  peace  of  Utrecht 
against  Philip  V.  Sardinia  given  to  Savoy  in  exchange 
for  Sicily. 

1721.  Peace  at  Nystadt  between  Russia  and  Sweden. 

1726 — 1743.  Cardinal  Fleury  at  the  head  of  the  administration  in 
France. 

1735.  The  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies  again  independent. 

1733—1738.  War  of  the  Polish  succession. 

1736—1739.  War  of  the  Turks  against  Russia  and  Austria. 

1737.  Extinction  of  the  house  of  Medici. 

1738.  Peace  concluded  at  Vienna.    Stanislaus  resigns  the  crown  of 

Poland,  and  receives  Lorraine  and  Bar  as  an  indemnifica- 
tion. 

1739.  Peace  of  Belgrade. 

1740 — 1780.  MARIA  THERESA  EMPRESS  OF  GERMANY  in  consequence 

of  the  pragmatic  sanction. 
1740—1788.  Frederick  (II.)  the  Great,  King  in  (afterwards  of) 

Prussia. 

1740 — 1748.  War  of  the  Austrian  succession. 
1740—1742.  First  Silesian  war. 
1741—1762.  Elizabeth  Empress  of  Russia. 
1742.  Frederick  victorious  at  Czaslau.     Peace  of  Breslau. 
1742—1745.   The  Emperor  Charles  VII.     Maria  Theresa  at  the 

diet  of  Presburg  receives  aid  from  Hungary.     Charles 

VII.  loses  Bavaria,    The  French  defeated  at  Dettingen. 

1744.  East  Friesland  annexed  to  Prussia. 
1744 — 1745.  Second  Silesian  war. 

1745.  After  the  death  of  Charles  VII.  his  son  relinquishes  his 

claims  to  the  Austrian  succession. 

1745—1806.  THE  HOUSE  OF  LORRAINE  IN  GERMANY  AND  AUSTRIA. 
1745—1765.  FRANCIS  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
1745—1764.  The  Marquise  de  Pompadour  governs  France. 
1745.    Frederick 'II.  victorious  at  Hohenfriedberg,  Sorr,  and  Kes- 

selsdorf.     Peace  concluded  at  Dresden  between  Austria 

and  Prussia. 


262  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE. 

A.D. 

1746.  Maria  Theresa  enters  into  an  alliance  with  Elizabeth  against 

Frederick  II. 

The  Pretender,  Charles  Edward,  defeated  at  Culloden. 
1748.  Peace  concluded  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  between  Austria  and 

France. 

1750—1777.  Administration  of  Pombal  in  Portugal. 
1751—1818.  The  house  of  Holstein-Gottorp  in  Sweden. 

1755.  Earthquake  at  Lisbon. 

1756 — 1763.  Third  Silesian,  or  seven  years'  war. 

1756—1763.  Maritime  war  between  France  and  England,  occa- 
sioned by  disputes  respecting  the  boundaries  of  their 
American  possessions. 

1756.  Frederick  invades  Saxony.     Occupation  of  Dresden.     Block- 

ade of  the  Saxon  army.    Victory  at  Lowositz,  in  Bohemia. 

1757.  Frederick  victorious  at  PRAGUE.'    Defeated  at  KOLLIN.    The 

French  defeated  at  Hastenbeck,  and  the  Russians  at  Gross- 
jagerndorf.  Defeat  of  the  French  and  imperial  troops  at 
ROSSBACH,  and  the  Austrians  at  LEUTHEN. 

1758.  The  French  defeated  at  CREFELD.  the  Russians  at  ZORN- 

DORF,  and  Frederick  at  HOCHKIRCH. 

1759.  The  Austrians  victorious  at  KUNERSDORF.     Fink  taken  pris- 

oner at  Maxen.  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  victorious  at 
Minden. 

1760.  Fougue  taken  prisoner  at  Landshut. 
Frederick  victorious  at  LIEGNITZ  and  Torgau. 

1761.  Frederick  encamped  at  Bunzelwitz. 

1762.  Elizabeth  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Russia  by  Peter  III., 

who  was  followed  at  the  end  of  six  months  by 
1762—1796.  Catherine  II. 

1762.  Frederick  victorious  at  Buckersdorf,  and  his  brother  Henry 

at  Freiberg. 

1763.  The  two  seven  years'  wars  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Hab- 

ertsburg  and  Paris. 
Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  King  of  Poland.     Confederation  at 

Bar  against  the  Russians. 

1765—1790.  JOSEPH  II.,  EMPEROR  OF  GERMANY. 
1767—1784.  War  of  the  English  in  the  East  Indies. 
1768—1780.  Three  voyages  of  Cook  round  the  world. 
1768—1774.  Russo-Turkish  war. 

1768.  Corsica  annexed  to  France. 

1769.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  born. 

1772.  First  partition  of  Poland  between  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prus- 

sia.   The  minister  Struensee  executed. 

1773.  Order  of  the  Jesuits  suppressed  by  Pope  Clement  XIV. 

1774.  Peace  at  Kutschuk-Kainardge  between  Russia  and  the  Porte. 
1774-1792.  Louis  XVL,  King  of  France. 

1775 — 1783.  NORTH  AMERICAN  WAR  OF  LIBERATION. 
1776.  Thirteen  North  American  provinces  declare  themselves  in- 
dependent of  England. 
1776—1791.  Potemkiu's  administration. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE.  263 

A.  D. 

1778.  France  takes  part  in  the  North  American  war.     Armed 

neutrality  of  the  northern  powers. 

1778—1779.   War  of  the  Bavarian  succession.     Frederick  II.  in- 
vades Bohemia,  and  compels  the  Emperor 

1779.  in  the  peace  of  Teschen  to  relinquish  all  claims  on  Bavaria. 
1780 — 1790.  Joseph  II.  introduces  several  reforms. 

1783.    Peace  concluded  at  Versailles  between  England  and  the 

North  American  states. 
1785.  Confederacy  of  the  German  Princes,  founded  by  Frederick 

II.,  against  the  ambitious  designs  of  Austria. 
1786—1797.  Frederick  William  II.,  King  of  Prussia. 
1787—1792.  War  of  the  Porte  with  Russia  and  Austria. 
1788—1790.  War  between  Sweden  and  Russia. 
1789.  Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America. 


THIRD  PERIOD. 

A.  D.  1789 — 1848.    FROM  THE  OUTBREAK  OF  THE  FRENCH  REVOLU- 
TION TO   THE   PRESENT  TIME. 

1789.  THE  STATES-GENERAL  ASSEMBLED  AT  VERSAILLES;  Dispute 
respecting  the  manner  of  taking  the  votes.  The  third 
estate  votes  itself  a  national  assembly,  and  directs  its  at- 
tention chiefly  to  the  drawing  up  of  a  constitution. 

1789 — 1791.  THE  CONSTITUENT  NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY.  Storming  of 
the  Bastille.  Abolition  of  the  feudal  system.  The  na- 
tional assembly  adjourns  from  Versailles  to  Paris.  New 
division  of  the  kingdom.  Assignats.  Suppression  of  the 
monastic  orders  and  the  hereditary  nobility.  Formation 
of  Clubs  (Jacobins).  Flight  of  the  King.  Completion  of 
the  first  constitution. 

1790—1792.  Leopold  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1792 — 1806.  FRANCBS  II.,  THE  LAST  GERMAN  EMPEROR. 

1792—1804.  FRANCE  A  REPUBLIC. 

1792 — 1795.  THE  NATIONAL  CONVENTION. 

1792.  Dumouriez  victorious  at  Jemappes.    He  conquers  the  whole 

of  Belgium. 

1793.  Execution  of  Louis  XVI.    Committee  of  public  safety.    Fall 

of  the  Gironde. 

1793—1797.  War  of  France  against  the  first  coalition. 

1793.  Battle  of  Neerwinden.  Belgium  reconquered  by  the  Aus- 
trians. 

1793—1794.  REION  OP  TERROR.  Second  constitution.  A  large 
force  raised  for  resistance  to  foreign  as  well  as  domestic 
enemies  (La  Vendee).  Public  worship  abolished.  Exe- 
cutions en  masse.  Fall  of  Robespierre. 

1793.  Second  partition  of  Poland  between  Prussia  and  Russia. 

1794.  The  French,  after  the  victory  of  Fleurus.  regain  possession 

of  Belgium. 
Re-action  against  the  Terrorists.    Third  constitution. 


264  CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE. 


A.  D. 

1795.  THIRD  PARTITION  OF  POLAND  between  Russia,  Prussia,  and 

Austria. 

Separate  peace  concluded  at  Basle  with  Prussia. 
1795—1806.  Holland  a  Batavian  republic. 
1795—1799.  Government  of  the  French  DIRECTORY. 

1796.  Jourdan  and  Moreau  defeated  by  the  Archduke  Charles. 
1796—1799.  NAPOLEON'S  CAMPAIGNS  IN  ITALY.    Victories  at  Mon- 

tenotte,  Millesimo,  Mondovi,  Lodi.    Mantua  taken.     Cis- 
padane  republic.     Peace  of  Campo  Formio.     Cisalpine 
and  Ligurian  republics. 
1797—1840.  Frederick  William  III.,  King  of  Prussia. 

1797,  1798.  Difficulties  between  the  United  States  and  the  French 

Directory.    Preparations  for  war. 

1798,  1799.   BONAPARTE'S    CAMPAIGN    IN   EGYPT  AND  SYRIA.    The 

French  take  Malta.  Battle  of  the  Pyramids.  The  French 
fleet  annihilated  by  Nelson  in  the  bay  of  Aboukir.  Storm- 
ing of  Jaffa.  Unsuccessful  siege  of  St.  Jean  d' Acre.  The 
Turkish  army  defeated  on  their  landing  at  Aboukir. 

1798.  Helvetic  and  Roman  republics. 

1799.  WASHINGTON  died,  Dec.  14th,  aged  68. 
1799—1802.  War  of  the  SECOND  COALITION  against  France. 

1799.  Fall  of  the  Directory.    Bonaparte  FIRST  CONSUL.     Fourth 

constitution. 

Naples  a  Parthenopcean  republic. 
Disastrous  war  of  the  French  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  and 

Italy. 

1800.  Napoleon  recovers  Upper  Italy,  by  the  victory  of  MARENGO. 
Moreau's  victory  at  Hohenlinden  occasions 

1801.  The  peace  of  LUNEVILLE  between  France  and  Austria. 
The  French  evacuate  Egypt. 

1801—1825.  Alexander  I.,  Emperor  of  Russia. 

1802.  Peace  of  Amiens  between  France  and  England. 
Napoleon  Consul  for  life. 

1804—1825.  NAPOLEON  HEREDITARY  EMPEROR  OF  THE  FRENCH. 

1805.  Napoleon  King  of  Italy.    Eugene  Beuharnais  Viceroy. 

THE   THIRD   COALITION    AGAINST   FRANCE. 

Mack  capitulates  in  Ulm.  Nelson  slain  in  the  battle  of  TRA- 
FALGAR. Murat  invests  Vienna.  Battle  of  the  three  Em- 
perors at  AUSTERLITZ.  Peace  concluded  at  Presburg. 
Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg  made  kingdoms.  Tyrol  annexed 
to  Bavaria. 

1806—1808.  Joseph  Bonaparte  King  of  Naples. 

1806—1810.  Louis  Bonaparte  King  of  Holland. 

1806.  DISSOLUTION  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE. 

1806—1813.    The  Rhenish  confederacy  under  the  protection  of 

Napoleon. 

1806—1835.  Francis  I.,  Emperor  of  Austria. 
1806.  The  FOURTH  COALITION  against  France. 

Defeat  of  the  Prussians  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt. 

Napoleon  begins  the  continental  system. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE.  265 

A.  D. 

1807.  Indecisive  engagement  at  Eylau. 

Commencement  of  the  reforms  in  Prussia,  under  Stem's  ad- 
ministration. 

The  Russians  defeated  at  FRTKDLAND.  Napoleon  concludes 
a  peace  at  TILSIT  with  Russia  and  Prussia.  Duchy  of 
Warsaw  annexed  to  Saxony. 

1807—1813.  Jerome  Bonaparte  King-  of  Westphalia. 

1807.  Portugal  invaded  by  the  French.    The  royal  family  fiy  to 
Brazil. 

1808—1814.    WAR  OF  THE  FRENCH  IN  SPAIN.     Joseph  Bonaparte 
King  of  Spain.     Murat  King  of  Naples. 

1809.  Saragossa  taken.     Wellesley  victorious  at  Talavera. 
AUSTRIAN  WAR  AGAINST  NAPOLEON.      Vienna  a  second  time 

taken.     Napoleon  defeated,  for  the  first  time,  at  Aspern 
and  Essling.     Victorious  at  WAGRAM.    Peace  of  Vienna. 
Suppression  of  the  Pope's  temporal  power. 

1809—1810.  Insurrection  of  the  Tyrolese.    Andrew  Hofer  shot  at 
Mantua. 

1810—1814.  Holland  united  to  France. 

1810.  Napoleon  divorces  Josephine,  and  marries  Maria  Louisa, 

Archduchess  of  Austria. 
1810—1822.  A  revolution  in  the  government  of  Prussia  effected  by 

the  Chancellor  Hardenberg. 

1810 — 1813.  Grea testae xtension  of  the  French  empire. 
1811—1824.  The  American  provinces  revolt  from  Spain. 
1812.  Declaration  of  war  by  the  United  States  against  England 

(June  4th). 

1812.  NAPOLEON'S  RUSSIAN  CAMPAIGN.    Victories  of  Smolensk  and 

Borodino.  Conflagration  of  Moscow.  Retreat  and  de- 
struction of  the  French  army.  Ney  and  Oudinot  force  the 
passage  of  the  Beresina. 

1813.  GRAND   CONFLICT  OF  THE   ALLIED  POWERS  WITH  NAPOLEON. 

Frederick  William  III.  issues  a  proclamation  to  his  people 
and  army.  Prussian  leve"e  en  masse  (Landwehr  und  Land- 
sturm).  Napoleon  defeats  the  Prussians  and  Russians  at 
Grossgorschen  or  Liitzen,  and  again  at  Bautzen  and 
Wurschen.  Armistice.  Austria  takes  part  in  the  war. 
Napoleon  victorious  at  Dresden.  His  generals  defeated, 
viz.,  Oudinot  at  Grossbeeren,  by  Billow.  Macdonald  at 
Wahlstatt,  by  Bliicher.  Vandamme  at  Culm,  and  Ney  at 
Dennewitz. 

DECISIVE    BATTLE     OF    THE    NATIONS,    AT    LEIPZIG.      Battle    of 

Hanau.    Wellington  defeats  the  French  at  Vittoria. 

1814.  The  allies  enter  France.     Bliicher  defeats  the  French  at 

la  Rothiere  and  Laon.    Paris  taken.    Napoleon  abdicates 

and  retires  to  Elba. 
First  peace  of  Paris. 
CONGRESS  of  Vienna. 
The  order  of  Jesuits  restored  by  Pius  VII. 


266  CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 


A.  D. 

1814.  Treaty  of  Peace  between  the  United  States  and  England 

(signed  at  Ghent,  Dec.  24th). 

1815.  Napoleon  returns  from  Elba.    The  hundred  days. 
LAST  CONFLICT  OP  THE  ALLIES  WITH  NAPOLEON. 

Blucher  defeated  at  Ligny.    Ney  victorious  at  Quatrebras. 
Wellington  and  Blucher  terminate  the  war  by  the  victory 
at  WATERLOO.     Second  abdication  of  Napoleon. 
1815—1830.  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons. 

THE  HOLY  ALLIANCE  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia. 
1815-  Second  peace  of  Paris. 
1817-  The  Prussian  evangelical  Church  formed  by  the  union  of  the 

Lutheran  and  Reformed  Communions. 
1818.  Congress  of  sovereigns  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.     It  is  resolved  to 

withdraw  the  army  of  occupation  from  France. 
Bernadotte  Crown  Prince  of  Sweden. 

18,20.  Military  revolutions  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy.  Con- 
gresses assembled,  in  consequence  of  these  movements,  at 
Troppau,  Laibach.  and  Verona  (1820—1823.) 

1821.  Napoleon  dies  at  St.  Helena. 

1821—1828.  THE  GREEKS  THROW  OFF  THE  TURKISH  YOKE. 

1822.  Brazil  revolts  from  Portugal. 
1827-  Battle  of  Navarino. 

1828—1829.  Russian-Turkish  war.    Peace  of  Adrianople. 

1829.  Emancipation  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  England. 

1830.  Algiers  taken  by  the  French.    REVOLUTION  OF  JULY  AT  PARIS. 

Louis  Philippe,  king  of  the  French. 
Separation  of  Belgium  from  Holland.    Leopold  I.,  King  of 

the  Belgians. 
1830—1831.  The  Polish  revolution. 

Disturbances  in  Brunswick,  Saxony,  Hesse-Cassel,  Hanover, 

and  Switzerland. 
1831—1833.  Mohammed  Ali  declares  himself  independent  of  the 

Porte. 

1832.  Otho  I.,  King  of  Greece. 

1832—1834.  Contest  between  Don  Pedro  and  Don  Miguel. 
1833—1840.  War  of  the  Spanish  succession. 

1834.  The  German  commercial  league  (Zollverem)  established. 

1835.  Ferdinand  I.,  Emperor  of  Austria. 
1837.  Hanover  separated  from  England. 

1839  —  1841.  Second  war  between  the  Porte  and  Mohammed  Ali. 
1840.  Frederick  William  IV.,  King  of  Prussia. 
1843.  Oregon  treaty. 

1845.  Don  Carlos  relinquishes  his  claim  to  the  Spanish  throne  in 
favor  of  his  eldest  son  the  Prince  of  Asturias. 

1845.  Texas  annexed  to  the  United  States. 

1846.  Pius  IX.  pope.     His  reforms. 
Cracow  annexed  to  Prussia. 

1847.  First  united  diet  in  Prussia. 

War  of  the  Swiss  diet  against  the  Sonderbund  of  the  seven 
Roman  Catholic  cantons. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE.  267 

A.  D. 

1847.  Parma,  after  the  death  of  Maria  Louisa,  subject  to  the  Duke 

of  Lucca. 
Abd-el-Kader  surrenders  to  General  Lamoriciere. 

1848.  (Jan.)  Insurrection  at  Palermo. 

(Feb.)  The  Mexican  union  cedes  Upper  California  and  New 
Mexico  to  the  United  States. 

A  constitution  given  to  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies. 

Constitution  for  Tuscany. 

Revolution  at  Paris.  Resignation  of  Guizot.  Flight 
of  Louis  Philippe.  Monarchy  abolished.  Provisional 
government.  PROCLAMATION  OF  THE  SECOND  FRENCH 

REPUBLIC. 

(March.)  Important  political  privileges  granted  to  the  people 
in  most  of  the  Germam  states. 

The  connection  of  Neufchatel  with  Prussia  dissolved. 

Meeting  of  the  fifty-one  at  Heidelberg  for  the  purpose 
of  convoking  a  German  national  representative  assembly. 

Petition  of  the  states  of  Lower  Austria  at  Vienna. 

RESIGNATION  OF  METTERNICH.     Concessions. 

A  constitution  granted  to  the  states  of  the  Church. 

Abolition  of  the  censorship  in  Prussia.  COMBAT  IN 
THE  STREETS  OF  BERLIN.  Further  concessions. 

Insurrection  at  Milan. 

Louis  I.,  of  Bavaria,  abdicates  in  favor  of  Maxi- 
milian II. 

Provisional  government  established  at  Venice. 

Hungary  obtains  a  ministry  of  its  own. 

The  preliminary  parliament  at  Frankfort. 
(April.)  Second  united  diet  in  Prussia. 

War  of  the  Austrians  against  the  Lombards  and  Sar- 
dinians. 

War  of  the  Danes  against  Schleswig-Holstein  and  its 
German  allies. 

The  province  of  Prussia  and  a  part  of  the  province  of 
Posen  admitted  into  the  German  confederacy. 
(May.)  Opening  of  the  Assemble  Nationale  at  Paris.     Elec- 
tion of  an  executive  commission. 

A  constitutional  diet,  with  ONE  chamber,  granted  to 
Austria. 

Opening    of  the    CONSTITUENT  l   GERMAN    NATIONAL 

ASSEMBLY  AT  FRANKFORT. 

(June.)  Opening  of  the  first  parliament  at  Rome. 

Disturbances  among  the  ouvriers  at  Paris.  The 
executive  authority  intrusted  to  General  Cavaignac. 

Resolution  of  the  German  national  assembly  respect- 
ing the  establishment  of  a  PROVISIONAL  CENTRAL  GOVERN- 
MENT FOR  GERMANY. 

The  ARCHDUKE  JOHN  of  Austria  elected  ADMINISTRA- 
TOR OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE. 

1  Verfassungsgebende ;  constitution-giving. 


268  CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 

A.  D. 

1848.  (July.)  Opening  of  the  diet  at  Vienna  (in  the  absence  of  the 

emperor)  by  the  Archduke  John. 

Radetzky  defeats  the  Sardinians  at  Custozza. 
(Aug.)  Milan  retaken  by  Radetzsky. 
(Sept..)  The  new  constitution  proclaimed  in  Switzerland. 

War  between  the  Croatians  and  Hungarians. 
(Oct.)  A  fresh  revolution  at  Vienna  accasioned  by  the  resist- 
ance offered  by  the  national  guard  to  the  march  of  the 
imperial  troops  against  the  Hungarians.     Flight  of  the 
emperor  to  Ohmitz. 

(Nov.)  Vienna  retaken  by  Windischgratz  and  Jellachich. 
The  diet  removed  to  Kremsier. 
A  new  constitution  for  Holland  proclaimed. 
The  Prussian  assembly  removed  from  Berlin  to  Bran- 
denburg. 

Flight  of  the  Pope  to  Gaeta. 

(Dec.)  Abdication  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I.  in  favor  of 
his  nephew  Francis  Joseph  I. 

Louis  NAPOLEON  ELECTED  PRESIDENT  OP  THE  FRENCH 
REPUBLIC.     (Dec.  10th.) 

1849.  Roman  Republic  proclaimed,  Feb.  9th. 
(July  3)  Rome  surrendered  to  the  French. 

1850.  (April.)  The  Pope  returns  to  Rome. 

1850.  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor,  President  of  the  United  States,  died 

July  9th. 

Louis  Philippe,  ex-king  of  the  French,  died,  Aug.  26th.,  in 
England. 


QUESTIONS. 


§  1.     Discoveries,  Conquests,  and  Colonies,  of  the  Europeans  in  other 
quarters  of  the  Globe. 

(3.)  BY  what  nations  were  voyages  of  discovery  undertaken 
towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  7  By  what  circumstance 
were  they  induced  to  undertake  these  voyages  1  What  object  did 
they  hope  to  attain  1  In  what  direction  did  they  respectively  steer  7 

(4.)  Enumerate  the  discoveries  and  conquests  of  the  Spaniards. 

(5.)  Who  was  Columbus  1  To  what  parties  did  he  apply  in  the 
first  instance  1  With  what  success  7  To  whom  did  he  then  address 
himself  1  What  encouragement  did  he  at  last  receive,  and  from 
whom  1  From  what  port  and  in  what  year  did  he  sail  1  What 
countries  did  he  discover  1  What  name  did  he  give  to  one  of  these 
islands  1  What  discoveries  did  he  make  in  his  second  and  third 
voyages  1  Under  what  circumstances  did  he  return  to  Spain  after 
his  third  voyage  1  What  discovery  did  he  attempt  in  his  fourth 
voyage,  and  with  what  success  1  Where  and  in  what  year  did  he 
die  1  From  whom  did  the  newly-discovered  continent  receive  its 
name  7  What  work  did  he  publish  7  What  country  was  soon 
afterwards  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  7 

(6.)  By  what  Spaniard  was  the  next  voyage  of  discovery  under- 
taken 1  From  what  island  did  he  sail,  and  where  did  he  land  1 
What  was  the  result  of  this  invasion  1  What  disaster  followed,  and 
by  what  circumstance  was  it  occasioned  1  What  dignity  was  con- 
ferred on  him,  and  by  whom  1  For  what  purpose  did  he  return 
to  Spain  7  How  was  he  received  by  the  king  1  What  office  was 
he  permitted  to  retain  1  What  discovery  did  he  make  1  Where 
and  of  what  disease  did  he  die  1 

(7.)  By  whom,  and  in  what  year  was  a  passage  into  the  South 
Sea  discovered  7  What  name  was  given  to  this  channel  7  What 
name  did  he  give  to  the  South  Sea  7  What  was  his  fate  7  What 
exploit  was  performed  by  his  crew  7 

(8.)  By  whom  was  Peru  discovered  7  Had  he  any  colleagues  7 
What  circumstance  facilitated  the  conquest  of  Peru  7  What  name 
was  given  to  the  new  capital  7  By  whom  was  the  conquest  of  Chili 
undertaken  7  What  circumstance  occasioned  his  execution  7  What 
WAS  the  fate  of  Pizarro  7 


270  QUESTIONS    TO   HANDBOOK  [9 18. 

(9.)  To  what  body  was  the  government  of  these  provinces  in- 
trusted 1  Where  did  they  sit  1  What  local  government  was  estab- 
lished'? By  what  measures  was  civilization  promoted'?  What 
were  the  chief  obstacles  to  their  success  1  What  benefit  was  de- 
rived from  these  settlements  1  By  whom  were  the  mines  worked  1 
At  whose  suggestion  ?  What  unjust  restrictions  were  imposed  on 
the  colonists  1  How  were  disputes  with  Portugal  avoided  1  By 
whom  was  this  boundary  established  1  Through  what  degrees  of 
longitude  was  it  drawn  1 

(10.)  By  whom  was  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  discovered?  By 
what  Portuguese  sovereign  were  fresh  attempts  made  to  find  a 
passage  by  sea  to  the  East  Indies  ?  By  whom,  and  in  what  year 
was  this  passage  discovered  1  Where  did  he  land  1 

(11.)  By  what  nations  was  the  supremacy  of  Portugal  in  the 
East  Indies  disputed?  How  was  this  supremacy  maintained? 
What  city  was  the  central  point  of  these  establishments  ?  By  whom 
were  they  chiefly  planned  ? 

(12.)  By  whom  was  Brazil  discovered,  and  in  what  year  was  it 
colonized  ?  With  what  countries  were  commercial  treaties  con- 
cluded by  Portugal  ? 

(13.)  By  what  circumstances  were  the  Dutch  induced  to  under- 
take an  expedition  to  India  ?  What  was  the  result  of  this  expedi- 
tion ?  In  what  year  did  this  event  occur  ?  In  what  year  was  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company  formed?  What  advantages  did  it 
enjoy  by  the  terms  of  its  charter  ?  Where  were  the  principal 
Dutch  settlements  ?  In  what  city  was  the  seat  of  government  estab- 
lished ?  On  what  island  was  it  situated  ?  In  what  year  was  the 
Dutch  West  India  Company  established  ?  What  conquests  did  it 
achieve  ?  Was  it  able  to  retain  these  conquests  ? 

(14.)  By  whom,  and  in  what  year  was  the  discovery  of  a  north- 
western passage  to  India  attempted  ?  Who  endeavored  to  discover 
a  north-eastern  passage  ?  Was  either  of  these  adventures  success- 
ful ?  By  what  sovereign,  and  in  what  year,  was  the  English  East 
India  Company  chartered  ?  What  territories  did  it  possess  ?  By 
what  other  nation  were  settlements  formed  in  the  West  India 
islands? 

§  2.    The  Reformation. 

(16.)  To  what  causes  do  you  mainly  attribute  the  rapid  prog- 
ress of  the  Reformation  in  the  sixteenth  century  ? 

(17.)  From  what  period  do  you  date  the  decline  of  the  papal 
influence  ?  Enumerate  the  causes  of  this  decline.  Which  of  the 
popes  were  particularly  disreputable  ?  In  what  country  was  the 
feeling  of  hostility  to  the  papal  see  most  bitter  ?  Can  you  mention 
any  other  causes  ? 

(18.)  What  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  Reformation  in  Ger- 
many ?  By  what  pope,  and  for  what  purpose,  was  this  system 
sanctioned  ?  By  whom  was  it  opposed  ?  Where,  and  in  what  year 
was  he  born  ?  'What  was  his  first  act  of  aggression  against  the 
papal  system  ?  Mention  the  date  of  this  event.  What  doctrine 
did  he  maintain  in  his  theological  treatises  ?  In  what  language 


19 23.]  OF    MODERN    HISTORY.  271 

were  they  written  t  What  measures  were  adopted  by  the  pope  in 
consequence  of  these  proceedings  1  What  indulgence  was  granted 
to  the  Reformer,  and  at  whose  request  7  With  whom  was  he  per- 
mitted to  discuss  the  question  7  At  what  diet  1  What  was  the 
result  of  this  conference  1  Who  was  afterwards  appointed  as  the 
pope's  representative  1  What  was  the  result  of  his  conference  with 
Luther  1  Where,  and  in  conjunction  with  whom,  did  Luther  hold 
a  disputation  with  Dr.  Eck7  What  bull  was  published  by  the 
pope  in  consequence  of  these  proceedings  1  How  was  this  bull 
treated  by  Luther  1  What  writings  shared  the  same  fate  7  What 
was  the  consequence  of  this  daring  act  1  In  what  year  did  Luther 
appear  before  the  diet  of  Worms  1  What  was  the  result  of  Luther's 
refusal  to  retract  his  assertions  1  By  what  name  was  this  sentence 
distinguished  1  Where  did  he  find  an  asylum  7  What  great  work 
was  completed  by  Luther  during  his  retirement  1 

(19.)  In  whom  did  the  reformed  doctrines  find  an  able  defender  7 
What  work  did  he  publish  7  Wh'o  were  the  most  distinguished 
opponents  of  the  Reformation  7  In  what  countries  did  the  reformed 
doctrines  first  gain  a  footing  1  To  what  circumstance  do  you  attri- 
bute' the  success  of  the  Reformers  in  Prussia  1  In  what  year  did 
this  event  take  place  7  Whom  did  the  new  Duke  marry  7  What 
bold  course  was  adopted  by  Luther  1  What  was  the  name  of  this 
lady  7  What  disastrous  result  was  produced  by  the  misinterpreta- 
tion  of  Luther's  doctrines  7  Was  there  no  other  cause  1  In  what 
country,  and  in  what  year,  did  this  war  break  out  7  Over  what 
countries  did  it  spread  7  Can  you  mention  any  distinguished  noble 
who  was  compelled  to  join  the  insurgents  1  What  was  the  result 
of  this  attempt  1  By  whom,  and  with  what  success  was  a  subse- 
quent attempt  made  7 

(20.)  What  demands  were  made  by  the  peasants  1  Were  there 
not  others  of  a  still  more  fanatical  character  1  On  what  did  they 
found  these  demands  1 

(21.)  In  what  year,  and  by  whom,  was  the  diet  of  Spires  assem- 
bled 1  For  the  discussion  of  what  subjects  1  What  resolutions 
did  it  adopt]  Fiom  what  circumstance  were  the  Reformers  called 
Protestants  1 

(22.)  With  what  view  did  the  emperor  assemble  the  diet  of 
Augsburg  1  In  what  year  1  What  important  document  was  read 
at  this  diet  1  By  whom  was  it  drawn  up  1  Who  signed  it  7  What 
imperial  edict  was  then  issued  1  What  was  the  result  of  this  pro- 
ceeding 1  Where,  and  in  what  year,  was  the  league  formed  1  Who 
were  parties  to  the  league  1  To  what  course  of  action  did  they 
pledge  themselves  1  What  effect  had  their  firmness  on  the  empe- 
ror'? What  were  the  terms  of  this  convention.  7  By  what  name 
was  it  known  7  By  whom  was  the  calm  disturbed  7  Where  did 
this  sect  re-appear  7 

(23.)  Who  were  the  leaders  7  In  what  year  did  Mattheys  visit 
Munster  7  What  was  his  fate,  and  by  whom  was  he  succeeded  7 
What  was  the  first  act  of  the  new  leader  7  What  was  his  fate  7 
Who  suffered  with  him  7  In  what  year  was  the  council  of  Trent 
opened  7  When  did  Martin  Luther  die  7  Why  did  the  Protest- 


I? 

272  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [24 29. 

ants  refuse  to  appear  before  the  council  7  What  demand  did  they 
make  1  What  effect  did  the  threats  of  the  emperor  produce  on 
some  of  the  Protestant  leaders  1  Who  were  their  principal  sup- 
porters 1  What  course  did  they  pursue  1  What  measures  were 
adopted  by  the  emperor  in  consequence  of  these  proceedings  1 

(24.)  In  what  year  did  the  Schmalkaldian  war  commence  1  To 
what  circumstance  was  Charles  indebted  for  his  escape  1  Where 
did  he  engage  the  Schmalkaldian  confederates,  and  with  what  suc- 
cess 1  By  whom  were  the  territories  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony 
invaded  7 

(25.)  Where  was  the  elector  defeated,  and  what  disastrous  con- 
sequences followed  1  In  whose  favor  was  he  compelled  to  abdi- 
cate 1  What  became  of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  1  To  what  place 
did  the  council  of  Trent  adjourn  1  What  decree  was  issued  by  the 
emperor  7  By  what  name  was  this  decree  known,  and  for  what 
reason  1  Why  was  this  arrangement  distasteful  both  to  the  Pope 
and  the  Protestants  1  What  city  distinguished  itself  by  its  opposi- 
tion to  the  emperor's  decree  1  By  whom  was  it  taken  1  What 
circumstance  occasioned  a  change  in  the  aspect  of  affairs  1  What 
excuse  did  he  make  for  this  act  of  treachery  7  By  what  sovereigns 
was  he  supported  1  What  act  of  aggression  was  committed  by  the 
King  of  France  1  Where  was  the  ernperor  at  this  time,  and  what 
course  was  he  forced  to  adopt  1  On  what  terms,  and  in  what  year, 
was  the  convention  of  Passau  concluded  1  What  became  of  the 
Landgrave  of  Hesse  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony  1  What  attempt 
was  made  by  the  emperor,  and  with  what  success  1  In  what  year, 
and  with  what  result,  was  the  battle  of  Sievershausen  fought  7 
What  celebrated  general  was  mortally  wounded  in  this  battle  7 
Where,  and  by  whom,  was  the  promised  diet  opened  'I  In  what 
year  1  On  what  terms  was  a  peace  concluded  1  By  what  name 
was  it  known  1  What  was  the  only  subject  of  dispute  1 

(26.)  How  many  years  did  the  session  of  the  council  of  Trent 
continue  1  To  what  objects  did  it  now  direct  its  attention  1 

(27.)  What  religion  was  adopted  by  the  sovereigns  of  the 
Scandinavian  kingdoms  1  What  advantage  did  they  gain  by  this 
change  1  By  what  abuses  were  the  inhabitants  of  the  North  of 
Europe  rendered  discontented  with  the  old  system  1 

(28.)  Who  was  Zwingli  1  Where,  and  in  what  year,  was  he 
born  1  What  irregular  practice  did  he  first  oppose  1  What  Rom- 
ish doctrines  did  he  afterwards  attack  1  Compare  the  Reforma- 
tions of  Luther  and  Zwingli  1  What  was  the  grand  subject  of  dis- 
pute between  the  two  Reformers  7  Mention  the  opinion  of  each 
of  them  respecting  the  Holy  Eucharist.  By  what  Swiss  cantons 
was  the  doctrine  of  Zwingli  embraced  1  What  cantons  rejected  it  1 
What  was  the  fate  of  Zwingli  7  What  was  the  immediate  result  of 
this  battle  7  To  what  circumstance  do  you  ascribe  the  establish- 
ment of  Protestantism  in  French-Switzerland?  Where  were  the 
head-quarters  of  the  reformed  belief  7 

(29.)  Who  was  Calvin?  Where,  and  in  what  year,  was  he 
born  7  What  was  his  original  profession  7  Where  did  he  seek  an 
asylum  7  What  important  work  did  he  publish  7  What  befell  him 


30 42.]  OF    MODERN    HISTORY.  273 

at  Geneva?  Mention  his  peculiar  doctrines'?  What  form  of 
Church  government  was  established  at  Geneva  1  Into  what  other 
countries,  and  by  whom,  was  it  introduced "? 

(30.)  Into  what  other  countries  did  the  teaching  of  Calvin 
spread  1  By  what  name  were  the  Protestants  distinguished  in 
France  1  In  whose  reigns  did  they  form  a  powerful  party  1 

(31.)  To  what  circumstance  do  you  attribute  the  rapid  progress 
of  the  Reformation  in  the  Netherlands  1 

(32.)  What  occasioned  the  separation  of  the  seven  northern 
provinces  from  Spain  ? 

(33.)  What  form  of  Protestantism  was  established  in  these 
provinces  1 

(34.)  Why  did  Henry  VIII.  quarrel  with  the  Pope  ?  What 
title  did  he  assume  1  What  punishments  were  inflicted  on  those 
who  refused  to  recognize  his  supremacy  1  What  sweeping  plans 
of  spoliation  were  carried  into  effect  in  England  1  By  whom,  and 
in  whose  reign,  were  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  first  intro- 
duced into  England  1  Who  re-established  the  connection  with 
Rome  1  What  cruelties  were  now  inflicted  on  the  Protestants  1 
What  was  the  fate  of  Archbishop  Cranmer'?  By  whom  was 
Protestantism  restored  1  What  was  the  constitution  of  the  re- 
formed Anglican  Church  1  By  what  party  was  this  arrangement 
opposed  1  Whence  did  they  derive  their  name  1  What  other 
sect  sprang  up  in  the  reign  of  Charles  1. 1  What  tenet  was  main- 
tained by  these  schismatics  ? 

(35.)  To  what  circumstance  do  you  attribute  the  success  of  the 
Reformers  in  Scotland  1  Who  was  the  most  vehement  opponent  of 
the  Church  of  Rome  in  that  country'? 

(36.)  What  attempts  were  made  to  establish  Protestantism  in 
Ireland  1  With  what  success  ? 

(37.)  Into  what  countries  did  the  Reformation  extend  from 
Germany ? 

§  3.    Germany  under  Maximilian  I.  and  Charles  V. 

(38.)  On  what  condition  did  the  estates  of  the  empire  grant  a 
subsidy  to  the  emperor  for  carrying  on  the  Italian  war  1  Where 
did  Maximilian  hold  a  diet,  and  what  important  change  was  made 
in  the  constitution  1  In  what  year  was  it  held  1  With  what  au- 
thority was  the  imperial  chamber  invested  1  By  whom  was  the 
president  of  this  court  nominated  1  By  whom  were  the  other 
members  elected  ?  Where  did  the  chamber  now  hold  its  sittings  1 
Was  the  place  of  its  meeting  ever  changed  1  In  what  year  was  it 
dissolved  1  What  measure  was  adopted  for  the  better  main- 
tenance of  peace?  At  what  diet,  and  in  what  year,  was  this 
arrangement  made  1  Name  the  ten  circles,  and  enumerate  the 
countries  comprehended  in  each. 

39.)  In  the  Austrian  circle. 

40.)  The  Bavarian. 

41.)  The  Swabian. 

42.)  The  Franconian. 


274  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [43 57. 


The  Upper  Rhenish. 

The  Electoral,  or  Lower  Rhenish. 

The  Burgundian. 

The  Westphalian. 

The  Lower  Saxon. 

The  Upper  Saxon. 


49.)  How  many  states  were  comprehended  in  these  circles  1 
"Was  the  attendance  of  members  at  the  diet  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  states  1  Why  not  7  What  countries  were  excluded 
from  this  arrangement  1  What  privileges  were  conferred  on 
Switzerland's  What  became  of  Italy  and  the  kingdom  of 
Aries  1 

(50.)  On  what  did  Charles  VIII.  of  France  found  his  claims  to 
the  Neapolitan  throne  7  In  what  year  did  he  obtain  possession  of 
Naples  1  What  circumstance  occasioned  the  formation  of  a 
league  against  him,  and  who  were  the  parties  to  that  league  1 
What  was  the  result  of  this  movement  1 

(51.)  By  what  French  king,  and  in  what  year,  was  Milan  con- 
quered 7  On  what  did  he  found  his  claims^  By  whom  were  the 
French  expelled  1  What  was  his  fate  7 

(52.)  With  whom,  and  for  what  purpose,  did  Louis  XII.  King 
of  France,  form  an  alliance  7  By  what  circumstance  had  his 
power  been  augmented  1  What  became  of  the  reigning  sovereign 
of  Naples  1  By  whom,  and  in  consequence  of  what  dispute,  was 
Louis  compelled  to  relinquish  his  claims  1 

(53.)  With  what  sovereigns,  and  for  what  purpose,  did  Louis 
XII.  enter  into  a  confederacy  in  the  year  1508 1  Why  do  you  con- 
sider this  a  proof  of  his  weakness  1  By  what  name  was  th'is  treaty 
known  7  What  were  its  provisions  1  Where,  and  with  what  re- 
sult, was  the  first  battle  fought  7  Under  what  circumstances  was 
the  confederacy  broken  up  1  With  what  powers  did  the  Vene- 
tians then  form  a  league  1  For  the  attainment  of  what  object  7 

(54.)  By  what  name  was  it  distinguished  1  What  heavy  loss 
was  sustained  by  the  French  1  In  what  year  1  What  celebrated 
French  general  fell  in  the  battle  of  Ravenna  7  By  whom  was 
Milan  then  garrisoned  7  By  whom,  and  where,  were  the  French 
defeated  soon  after  the  battle  of  Novara  1  By  whom  was  Milan 
taken  for  the  fourth  time  1  In  conjunction  with  what  allies  1 
After  what  victory  1  In  what  year  1  What  became  of  Maximilian 
Sforza  1 

(55.)  To  what  marriages  was  Maximilian  indebted  for  an  ac- 
cession of  territory  1  What  title  did  he  adopt  1  In  consequence 
of  what  circumstance  7  At  what  period  of  their  reign  did  his 
successors  assume  the  imperial  dignity  7  Was  there  no  ex- 
ception 7 

(56.)  Trace  the  pedigree  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg  in  Germany 
and  Spain  7 

(57.)  How  many  candidates  for  the  imperial  crown  presented 
themselves  after  the  death  of  Maximilian  7  On  what  favorable 
circumstances  did  Francis  rely  for  success  7  What  was  the  result  7 
What  instrument  was  the  newly  elected  emperor  required  to  sign  7 


58 62.]  OF    MODERN    HISTORY.  275 

How  was  France  affected  by  this  union  of  the  Spanish  and  German 
crowns  1  In  what  year,  and  from  whose  hands,  did  Charles  re- 
ceive the  imperial  and  Italian  crowns  7 

(58.)  What  was  the  immediate  occasion  of  a  war  between 
Charles  and  Francis  I.  7  From  what  princess,  and  by  whom,  had 
the  duchy  of  Burgundy  been  wrested  7  By  whom  had  the  king- 
dom of  Navarre  been  conquered  7  What  untoward  circumstance 
occasioned  the  loss  of  Milan  1  On  whom  was  it  conferred  1  What 
heavy  loss  was  sustained  by  Francis  during  his  preparations  for  its 
reception  7  To  what  circumstance  do  you  attribute  the  defection 
of  the  Constable  Charles  de  Bourbon  7  What  renowned  French 
general  lost  his  life  during  the  retreat  from  Milan  7 

(59.)  Of  what  opportunity  did  Francis  avail  himself  for  a  last 
attempt  at  Milan  7  What  advantage  did  he  gain  7  By  what  gen- 
eral were  the  imperialists  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Pavia  1 
What  was  the  issue  of  this  battle  7  In  what  year  was  it  fought  1 
What  became  of  Francis  I  7  By  what  concessions  did  he  purchase 
his  liberation  7  On  what  grounds  did  he  refuse  to  fulfil  these  con- 
ditions 7  What  consequences  followed  this  refusal  7  With  what 
powers  did  the  pope  form  an  alliance  7  By  whom  were  the  im- 
perial troops  commanded  7  What  was  his  fate  7  By  what  troops 
was  Rome  stormed  7  Who  was  their  general  7  What  was  his  fate  1 
In  what  fortress  did  the  pope  take  refuge  7  On  what  conditions 
was  he  released  7  By  whom,  and  in  what  year,  was  the  kingdom 
of  Naples  conquered  7  Who  was  Andrew  Doria,  and  what  service 
did  he  render  to  the  Neapolitans  7  What  misfortune  befell  the 
French  besieging  army  7  In  what  year  was  the  peace  of  Cambray 
concluded  7  By  what  name  was  it  known,  and  why  7  What  con- 
cessions were  made  by  Francis  7  What  territory  did  he  retain  7 

(60.)  By  whom  was  Solyman  II.  invited  to  enter  Hungary? 
What  battle  was  fought  in  that  country,  and  with  what  result  1 
By  whom  was  Lewis  King  of  Hungary  succeeded  7  Was  there  any 
other  candidate  for  the  Hungarian  crown  7  By  whom  was  he  pro- 
tected 7  What  city  did  Solyman  besiege,  and  why  did  he  with- 
draw his  army  7  Which  of  the  rivals  remained  King  of  Hungary  1 
To  what  circumstance  was  he  indebted  for  his  success  7  In  what 
year  did  Solyman  a  second  time  enter  Hungary  7  With  what 
force  7  What  unexpected  check  did  he  receive  7  Were  there  any 
other  reasons  for  his  retreat  7 

(61.)  Who  was  Hayraddin  Barbarossa  7  What  sovereign  had 
he  deposed,  and  where  had  he  established  himself  7  By  whom 
were  his  acts  of  piracy  unsuccessfully  resisted  7  What  fiefs  had 
been  granted  to  this  order  7  By  whom,  and  on  what  conditions! 
What  measures  were  adopted  by  the  emperor  for  the  reduction  of 
Tunis  7  With  what  success  7  To  whom  was  the  greater  part  of 
the  conquered  territory  restored  7 

(62.)  What  districts  were  excepted7  What  circumstance  en- 
couraged Francis  I.  to  attempt  the  re-conquest  of  Milan  7  In  what 
year  was  this  attempt  made  7  From  whom  did  Francis  demand  a 
free  passage  through  his  territories  7  What  provinces  did  he  now 
enter,  and  against  whom  did  he  declare  war  7  With  whom  did  he 


276  QUESTIONS   TO    HANDBOOK  [63 69. 

form  an  alliance  7  What  country  was  invaded  by  Charles  V.  7 
With  what  success  7  In  what  year,  and  at  what  place,  was  an  ar- 
mistice concluded  1  On  what  conditions  1 

(63.)  What  was  the  occasion  of  Charles's  expedition  against 
Algiers  1  In  what  year  was  it  undertaken  7  By  what  accident 
were  his  plans  frustrated  7 

(64.)  What  circumstances  seemed  favorable  for  the  re-assertion 
of  his  claims  by  Francis  1. 1  Of  what  pretext  did  he  avail  him- 
self 1  Who  were  his  allies  7 

(65.)  Into  whose  hands  did  Christian  Hungary  fall  after  the 
death  of  Zapolya  1  By  whom  were  the  Netherlands  invaded  7  In 
what  sea,  and  by  whom,  were  naval  operations  carried  on  7  Which 
of  his  enemies  was  first  defeated  by  Charles  V.  7  To  what  circum- 
stance do  you  ascribe  his  overthrow  7  From  what  powers  did  the 
empire  receive  assistance  7  By  what  movement  was  the  peace  of 
Crespy  hastened  7  In  what  year  was  it  concluded  7  To  what  con- 
ditions did  the  two  sovereigns  pledge  themselves  7  What  claims 
were  at  the  same  time  renounced  by  Francis  7 

(66.)  Of  what  German  cities  did  Henry  II.  obtain  possession  7 
By  what  means  7  By  whom,  and  with  what  result,  was  an  attempt 
made  to  re-conquer  those  cities  7 

(67.)  What  was  the  immediate  occasion  of  the  abdication  of 
Charles  V.  7  When,  and  to  whom,  did  he  resign  the  sovereignty 
of  Naples,  Milan,  the  Netherlands,  and  Spain  7  In  whose  favor 
did  he  abdicate  the  imperial  dignity  7  Whither  did  he  retire  7 
How  was  his  time  occupied  in  his  retirement  7  When  did  he 
die  7 

$  4.  Spain. 

(68.)  What  circumstances  laid  the  foundation  of  a  union  between 
the  kingdoms  of  Aragon  and  Castile  7  What  kingdoms  were  ad- 
ded to  these  possessions,  and  by  whom?  What  was  the  grand 
object  of  the  two  sovereigns  7  What  measures  were  adopted  for 
the  promotion  of  this  object  7  What  use  was  made  of  the  newly- 
established  inquisition  7  What  advantage  did  the  crown  obtain 
by  the  banishment  of  the  Jews  7  What  remarkable  events  hap- 
pened during  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  7  In  what  conquests,  and 
under  what  commander,  was  reputation  gained  by  the  warriors  of 
Spain  7  By  whom  was  Isabella  succeeded  in  the  sovereignty  of 
Castile  7  How  long  did  Philip  reign  7  What  happened  to  his 
widow  after  his  death  7  What  measure  was  adopted  by  Ximenes 
in  consequence  of  this  event  7 

(69)  By  whom  was  Ferdinand  succeeded  7  Under  whose 
guardianship  did  Charles  I.  commence  his  reign  7  What  was  the 
fate  of  this  minister  7  Who  was  appointed  regent  of  the  king- 
dom during  the  absence  of  Charles  7  What  measures  were  adopt- 
ed by  the  cities  of  Castile,  in  consequence  of  his  oppressive  con- 
duct 7  What  name  was  given  to  their  confederation  7  By  whom 
was  their  army  commanded  7  What  was  his  fate  7  What  mea- 
sures were  adopted  by  Charles  on  his  return  7  In  what  condition 
was  the  Cortes  7 


70 75.]  OF    MODERN    HISTORY.  277 

(70.)  What  dominions  had  Charles  inherited  from  his  ancestors  1 
What  addditions  had  he  made  to  these  possessions  1  To  whom  did 
he  resign  the  greater  part  of  this  territory  1  What  countries  were 
exceptcd  ] 

(71.)  Whom  did  Philip  II.  marry?  What  was  his  character  1 
What  circumstance  rendered  him  unpopular  in  the  Netherlands  1 
What  war  did  he  carry  on  1  By  whom  was  he  assisted,  and  how 
was  the  war  terminated  1  Where  was  peace  concluded,  and  on 
what  conditions  1  To  what  city  was  the  royal  residence  transfer- 
red in  this  reign  ?  What  was  the  political  state  of  Spain  at  this 
period  1  How  were  the  Moors  treated  by  Philip  1  What  was  the 
effect  of  this  treatment  1  Where,  and  by  what  nations  was  the 
naval  power  of  the  Turks  annihilated  1  By  whom  was  the  com- 
bined fleet  commanded  1 

(72.)  What  severe  loss  was  sustained  by  Spain  at  this  period  1 
What  province  was  annexed  to  the  Spanish  crown  1  Under  what 
circumstances  ?  By  what  aggressions  on  the  part  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth was  Philip  provoked  to  invade  England  1  What  name  was 
given  to  the  invading  fleet  ?  What  was  its  fate  1  What  effect  had 
this  disaster  on  the  power  of  Spain  1  What  became  of  Philip's  son, 
Don  Carlos  1 

(73.)  What  narrow-minded  policy  was  pursued  by  Philip  III., 
and  what  was  its  effect  ?  In  what  year,  and  for  how  long,  was  an 
armistice  concluded  with  the  Netherlands  1 

(74.)  By  what  sovereign  was  the  ruin  of  Spain  further  accele- 
rated ?  To  whom  did  he  abandon  the  government  of  the  country  1 
What  was  the  policy  of  this  minister,  and  what  was  its  effect  ? 
How  did  they  resist  1  By  whom  was  Olivarez  succeeded  1  By 
what  long  measures  were  fresh  discontents  occasioned  in  the  prov- 
inces ?  What  circumstance  occasioned  an  insurrection  at  Naples  1 
By  whom  was  it  headed,  and  what  was  his  fate  ?  What  was  the 
result  of  this  violence  1  In  what  peace  was  the  independence  of 
the  United  Netherlands  fully  recognized  by  Spain  1 

$  5.     The  Netherlands. 

(75.)  To  what  kingdom  did  the  Netherlands  belong  during  the 
mediaeval  period'?  After  the  partition  of  that  kingdom,  to  what 
country  were  they  annexed  1  Were  there  any  subsequent  changes  1 
Whose  property  did  they  eventually  become  ?  How  many  Nether- 
landish provinces  did  Charles  the  Bold  possess  1  By  what  mar- 
riage, and  in  whose  reign,  were  they  annexed  to  Austria  1  Were 
any  provinces  subequently  added  to  them  1  By  what  sovereign  1 
What  privileges  were  obtained  by  the  Netherlandish  States  1  What 
monarch  took  an  oath  to  respect  these  privileges  1  Whom  did 
Philip  leave  as  his  representative  when  he  quitted  the  Netherlands  1 
By  whom  was  she  assisted  1  On  what  native  nobles  were  impor- 
tant offices  conferred  1  How  were  these  popular  measures  neutral- 
ized 1  On  whom  was  the  archbishopric  of  Mechlin  conferred  1 
By  what  circumstance  was  the  discontent,  occasioned  by  these  pro- 
ceedings, aggravated  1  Against  what  laws  was  a  protest  presented 
to  the  duchess-regent  by  "  les  gueux  1"  Explain  the  meaning  of 


278  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [76 82. 

the  term  (note  10).  How  was  this  petition  received  ?  What  effects 
followed  the  popular  movement  1  Were  these  concessions  satisfac- 
tory to  all  1  What  became  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  and  his  adher- 
ents 1  Under  whose  commands,  and  in  what  year,  was  a  Spanish 
army  sent  into  the  Netherlands  1  What  circumstances  led  to  the 
resignation  of  the  Regent  Margaret  1  To  what  country  did  she 
retire  1  Who  was  then  appointed  sole  governor  of  the  Nether- 
lands ?  What  commission  did  he  establish,  and  against  whom  did 
it  commence  proceedings  1  What  punishment  was  inflicted  on 
Egmont  and  Hoorn  1 

(76.)  What  measures  were  now  adopted  by  the  Prince  of 
Orange  ?  By  whom  was  he  assisted  1  Was  this  attempt  success- 
ful 1  What  act  of  oppression  occasioned  a  fresh  insurrection  1  By 
whom  was  it  headed  1  What  title  was  conferred  on  him  1  By 
whom  was  Alva  succeeded  in  the  government  of  the  Netherlands  1 
What  was  the  policy  of  the  new  governor  1  Was  it  successful  7 
Where,  and  for  what  purpose,  was  a  confederation  of  the  Nether- 
landish provinces  formed  1  Who  was  then  appointed  governor  of 
the  Netherlands  ?  How  long  did  he  hold  the  office,  and  by  whom 
was  he  succeeded  1 

(77.)  What  doctrines  were  embraced  by  the  seven  northern 
provinces  1  Where  did  they  form  a  union, -and  in  what  year  ?  On 
whom  did  they  intend  to  confer  the  hereditary  counts  hip  of  the 
Netherlands  1  What  circumstance  prevented  the  execution  of  this 
plan  7  To  whom  was  the  government  of  the  Seven  United  Prov- 
inces then  committed  £ 

(78.)  Of  what  cities  did  Alexander  of  Parma  obtain  possession  7 
In  what  siege  did  both  parties  distinguish  themselves  1  To  what 
sovereign  did  the  states-general  apply  for  assistance  1  Who  was 
then  appointed  general  stattholder  ?  What  circumstance  occa- 
sioned his  resignation  1  By  whom,  and  with  what  intention,  was 
the  "Invincible  Armada"  fitted  out  1  By  what  power  were  the 
United  Provinces  assisted  1  What  town  was  taken  by  the  Spanish 
general,  Spinola  ?  What  was  the  result  of  their  continued  resist- 
ance ?  When,  and  under  what  circumstances,  was  their  independ- 
ence recognized  by'Spain  1 

(79.)  Into  how  many  parties  were  the  Dutch  Protestants 
divided  at  this  time  1  On  what  subject  did  they  differ  1  In  what 
year,  and  by  what  synod,  was  the  doctrine  of  the  Arminians  con- 
demned 1  What  treatment  did  they  receive  from  their  opponents  1 
Who  were  the  principal  sufferers  1 

§  6.     Portugal. 

(80.)  Under  what  rulers  was  Portugal  most  prosperous  1  To 
what  circumstances  do  you  chiefly  attribute  this  prosperity  1 

(81.)  In  what  battle  was  King  Sebastian  defeated  1  By  whom 
was  he  succeeded  7  In  what  year  did  Portugal  become  a  Spanish 
province  1  Was  she  permitted  to  retain  her  own  constitution  1 

(82.)  By  how  many  pretenders  was  the  crown  claimed  in  suc- 
cession 1  Is  it  certain  that  the  fourth  of  these  pretenders  was  an 
impostor  1  What  loss  did  Portugal  sustain  under  Spanish  domina- 


83 89.]  OF    MODERN   HISTORY.  279 

tion  1  Of  what  privileges  was  she  deprived  ?  Mention  some  of 
her  grievances  1  How  was  this  state  of  slavery  terminated  1  Who 
was  then  raised  to  the  throne  1  Were  any  attempts  made  on  the 
part  of  Spain  to  reconquer  Portugal  1 

$  7.     France. 

(83.)  Who  succeeded  Charles  VIII.  on  the  throne  of  France  1 
To  what  circumstances  do  you  attribute  the  important  position  at 
that  time  occupied  by  France  1  Was  her  territory  more  or  less 
extensive  at  that  time  than  it  is  at  present  1 

(84.)  What  was  the  character  of  Francis  1. 1  What  was  the 
first  act  of  his  reign  1  To  what  victory  was  he  indebted  for  the 
attainment  of  this  object  1  With  whom  was  he  engaged  in  four 
wars,  and  what  was  the  result  1  To  what  circumstances  do  you 
attribute  this  disaster  1  By  what  evils  was  it  followed  1  What 
advantages  did  he  gain  at  home  1  How  was  he  enabled  to  dis- 
charge his  foreign  mercenaries  1  To  whom  was  legislation  for  the 
most  part  intrusted  1  What  title  was  conferred  on  Francis  L,  and 
for  what  reason  1 

(85.)  By  whom  was  he  succeeded7?  By  what  favorites  was  the 
new  king  governed  1  What  war  did  he  renew,  and  on  what 

runds  1  What  was  the  ostensible  reason,  and  how  do  you  prove 
inconsistency  1  What  cities  were  betrayed  into  the  hands  of 
the  French  7  Who  distinguished  himself  by  his  defence  of  one  of 
of  these  cities  1  When  did  the  French  recommence  hostilities  1 
Where,  and  by  what  forces,  were  they  defeated  1 

(86.)  When,  and  where,  was  peace  concluded,  and'  on  what 
terms  1  What  town  was  retained  by  the  French  1  From  whom 
had  it  been  recaptured  1 

(87.)  How  old  was  Francis  II.  when  he  ascended  the  throne  1 
When  did  he  marry  7  What  was  his  character  1  To  what  parties 
was  the  regency  an  object  of  ambition  1  On  what  grounds  did 
each  of  these  parties  claim  the  office  1  Which  of  them  was  suc- 
cessful 1  By  whom  were  the  military  and  civil  administrations  of 
the  kingdom  successively  undertaken  1 

(88.)  By  whom  was  Francis  II.  succeeded*'?  How  old  was  the 
new  sovereign  when  he  ascended  the  throne  1  By  whom  was  the 
regency  now  undertaken  1  Who  was  appointed  lieutenant  of  the 
kingdom  1  What  privilege  was  granted  to  the  Huguenots  1  For 
how  many  years  was  France  distracted  by  religions  wars  1  By 
what  circumstances  was  the  first  of  these  wars  occasioned'? 

(89.)  What  success  attended  the  military  movements  of  the 
Huguenots  in  the  three  first  wars  1  By  whom  were  they  com- 
manded at  different  periods  1  By  what  peace  was  each  of  these 
wars  terminated  1  What  terms  were  obtained  by  the  Huguenots  7 
To  what  circumstance  do  you  ascribe  this  1  By  what  favorable  pros- 
pect were  the  Protestants  induced  to  visit  Paris  7  What  atrocious 
act  was  perpetrated  by  the  government  1  Who  escaped  this  mas- 
sacre 7  By  whom  was  it  planned  7  What  sanguinary  orders  were 
at  the  same  time  issued  1  Were  they  disobeyed  in  any  instance  7 
What  stronghold  of  the  Huguenots  was  besieged  in  the  fourth  re- 


280  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [90 93. 

ligious  war  1  When,  and  on  what  conditions,  was  peace  con- 
cluded*"? By  whom  was  Charles  IX.  succeeded  1  Of  what  country 
had  he  been  previously  king  1 

(90.)  What  was  the  character  of  this  prince  ?  By  whom  was 
he  influenced,  and  what  policy  did  he  pursue  1  To  what  circum- 
stance do  you  attribute  the  formation  of  the  Catholic  league  1  At 
whose  instigation  was  it  formed  1  What  was  the  ostensible,  and 
what  the  real,  object  of  this  league  1  By  whom  was  it  headed, 
and  what  was  his  motive?  What  act  of  tyranny  occasioned  a 
fresh  war  ?  By  whom  were  the  Huguenots  commanded  1  What 
was  the  object  of  the  league  which  was  now  formed,  and  by  what 
name  was  it  known  ?  What  became  of  Henry  of  Guise  1  Who 
shared  his  fate  ?  What  name  was  given  to  the  day  on  which  the 
king  fled  from  Paris  ?  What  line  of  policy  was  now  pursued  by 
Henry  III.  ?  What  was  his  fate  ?  Whom  did  he  recommend  as 
his  successor  ? 

(91.)  How  long  did  the  struggle  continue  between  the  league 
and  Henry  IV.  1  What  victories  did  he  gain  ?  What  change  took 
place  in  his  religious  profession  1  By  what  edict  were  the  re- 
ligious wars  terminated  1  How  long  had  they  lasted  ? 

(92.)  What  privileges  were  granted  to  the  Protestants  by  this 
edict  1  How  was  this  period  of  tranquillity  employed  by  Henry  ? 
By  whom  was  he  assisted  in  carrying  out  his  plans  1  What  policy 
was  now  adopted  by  Henry,  and  with  what  object  1  What  wild 
plan  did  he  devise  1  What  was  his  object  in  proposing  such  a 
plan?  Of  how  many  states  was  this  confederation  to  be  com- 
posed ?  What  result  was  expected  from  this  combination  ?  What 
was  the  fate  of  Henry  IV.  ? 

(93.)  By  whom  was  he  succeeded?  '  Under  whose  guardianship 
did  the  new  king  commence  his  reign  ?  What  minister  was  dis- 
missed? After  his  dismissal,  what  course  was  pursued  by  the 
Queen  Mother  ?  Under  whose  direction  ?  How  was  this  extrava- 
gant course  checked  ?  By  whose  interposition  was  a  war  between 
the  king  and  his  mother  averted  ?  What  was  the  policy  of  this 
minister  ?  What  became  of  the  Queen  Mother  ?  Mention  the 
grand  objects  of  Richelieu's  administration  ?  How  was  the  first  of 
these  objects  effected  ?  In  what  countries  were  his  political 
measures,  for  the  extension  of  French  influence,  most  successfully 
adopted  ?  By  what  circumstance  was  the  Mantuan  war  of  suc- 
cession terminated  ?  What  plans  were  successfully  carried  out  in 
Germany  ?  By  what  circumstance  was  the  last  of  these  measures 
rendered  imperative  ?  To  what  position  did  the  foreign  power  of 
Richelieu  raise  France  ?  What  plans  of  domestic  improvement 
were  devised  ?  For  the  establishment  of  what  institution  is 
France  indebted  to  him  ?  To  whom  did  Louis  XIII.  leave 
his  kingdom?  How  old  was  the  new  king  when  he  ascended 
the  throne  ? 


94 99.]  OF   MODERN   HISTORY.  281 


$  8.  England  and  Ireland  under  the  house  of  Tudor.    14.85 — 1603. 

(94.)  By  whom,  and  in  what  battle,  was  the  war  between  the 
houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  terminated  1  To  what  circum- 
stance do  you  attribute  the  feebleness  of  the  opposition  ex- 
perienced by  Henry  VII.  7  What  was  his  policy,  and  what 
important  measures  were  carried  into  effect  during  his  reign  1 

(95.)  Explain  the  genealogical  table  of  the  houses  of  Tudor 
and  Stuart  1 

(96.)  By  whom  was  Henry  VII.  succeeded'?  Whom  did  the 
new  king  marry  1  How  did  he  expend  the  treasures  bequeathed 
to  him  by  his  father.  1  To  whom  did  he  leave  the  management  of 
public  affairs  1  How  was  his  own  time  occupied  1  What  work 
did  he  publish,  and  -what  title  of  honor  did  he  receive  from  the 
pope  in  consequence  1  On  what  ground  did  he  quarrel  with  the 
pope  7  What  course  did  he  adopt,  as  soon  as  the  refusal  of  the 
pope  was  communicated  to  him'?  What  issue  had  he  by  this 
second  wife  1  What  title  did  he  now  assume  7  Who  was  pun- 
ished with  death  for  resisting  this  claim  7  What  became  of  Anna 
Boleyn  1  Whom  did  he  marry  immediately  after  her  death  1 
What  issue  had  he  by  his  third  wife"?  What  act  was  now 
passed  by  the  parliament  1  Who  was  Henry's  fourth  wife, 
and  what  became  of  her'?  Who  was  his  fifth,  and  on  what 
pretence  was  she  beheaded  1  Who  was  his  sixth  wife,  and  for 
what  offence  was  she  condemned  to  death  1  Was  this  sentence 
executed  7 

(97.)  By  whom  was  Henry  VIII.  succeeded  1  How  old  was  the 
new  king  when  he  ascended  the  throne  1  Who  was  his  guardian  7 
What  was  the  fate  of  Somerset,  and  to  whom  was  the  administra- 
tion of  public  affairs  committed  after  his  death  1  Whom  did  the 
king  declare  heiress  to  the  crown  7  Who  assumed  the  crown  im- 
mediately after  Edward's  death'7  How  long  did  she  retain  it,  and 
in  whose  favor  did  she  abdicate  1 

(98.)  Whom  did  the  new  sovereign  marry  7  What  punishment 
was  inflicted  on  Northumberland,  and  for  what  offence  7  What 
became  of  Jane  Grey  and  her  husband  1  What  circumstances  at- 
tended the  re-establishment  of  Romanism  in  England  1  Name 
some  of  the  most  distinguished  Protestants  who  suffered  death 
during  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary.  Under  whose  influence  did 
Mary  act  on  this  and  other  occasions  1  In  what  war  did  she 
engage  by  his  persuasion  1  What  English  possession  on  the  con- 
tinent did  she  lose  7  By  whom  was  the  title  of  Queen  of  England 
assumed  after  the  death  of  Mary  7 

(99.)  Who  actually  ascended  the  throne  1  What  was  the 
character  of  the  new  sovereign  7  By  whom  was  she  recognized  as 
supreme  head  of  the  Anglican  Church  7  What  do  you  understand 
by  this  title  7  (note  6.)  Who  were  her  ministers  7  To  what  cir- 
cumstances do  you  attribute  the  prosperous  condition  of  England 
during  her  reign  7  By  what  invention  were  the  operations  of 
manufacturing  industry  extended  7  How  was  foreign  commerce 


282  QUESTIONS    TO   HANDBOOK  [100 104. 

promoted  1  What  great  commercial  company  was  incorporated 
in  this  reign  1  What  circumstances  occasioned  the  sending  out  of 
the  Invincible  Armada  1  By  whom  was  this  fleet  commanded  ? 
With  what  squadron  was  it  proposed  that  this  fleet  should  form  a 
junction?  How  was  this  prevented  1  What  completed  the  de- 
struction of  the  Armada  1  What  measures  were  adopted  by  Eng- 
land immediately  after  this  victory?  What  country  was  more 
closely  united  to  England  than  before  1  What  portion  of  this 
country  had  previously  belonged  to  England  1  What  promise  was 
made  to  the  Irish  by  the  Earl  of  Essex  1  Was  this  promise  ful- 
filled 1  What  was  the  condition  of  England  at  this  period  of  her 
history  1  At  what  period  of  Elizabeth's  reign  was  Scotland  united 
to  England  and  Ireland  ? 

§  9.  Scotland  under  the  Stuarts. 

(100.)  By  what  family  had  Scotland  been  governed  since  the 
year  1371  ?  What  misfortunes  befell  the  five  kings  of  the  house  of 
Stuart  1 

(101.)  By  whom  was  James  V.  succeeded?  Where  was  the 
young  queen  educated  ?  By  whom  was  Scotland  governed  during 
her  absence  ?  What  title  did  Mary  Stuart  assume  after  the  death 
of  Mary,  Queen  of  England  ?  By  whom  was  the  Scotch  Reforma- 
tion commenced  ?  When  did  Mary  return  to  Scotland  ?  Whom 
did  she  marry,  and  what  was  his  fate  ?  Who  was  her  second  hus- 
band, and  what  were  the  results  of  this  marriage  ?  Who  was  ap- 
pointed regent  of  the  kingdom  ?  Whither  did  Mary  flee  ?  On 
what  grounds  was  she  deprived  of  liberty  by  Queen  Elizabeth  ? 
How  long  was  she  detained  in  prison  ?  What  was  her  fate  ?  In 
consequence  of  what  accusation  ?  By  whom  was  she  succeeded  on 
the  Scottish  throne  ? 

(102.)  By  how  many  regents  was  Scotland  governed  during  the 
minority  of  James  VI?  How  many  of  them  escaped  a  violent 
death  ?  What  triumph  was  obtained  by  the  Presbyterians  during 
his  reign  ?  What  title  was  assumed  by  James  after  the  death  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  ?  In  what  year  was  the  complete  union  of  the 
two  kingdoms  effected  ? 

§  10.  Great  Britain,  and  Ireland  under  the  two  first  Stuarts. 

(103.)  Mention  the  causes  of  James's  unpopularity  among  his 
English  subjects.  What  was  the  object  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot  ? 
How  was  this  conspiracy  discovered  ? 

(104.)  By  whom  was  James  I.  succeeded  ?  What  were  the 
grounds  of  his  quarrel  with  the  parliament?  What  important 
privileges  were  secured  by  the  "Petition  of  Right?"  For  how 
many  years  was  the  government  carried  on  without  a  parliament  ? 
What  became  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham?  How  did  the  king 
violate  the  "  Petition  of  Right  ?"  For  what  purpose  was  this  tax 
imposed  ?  What  occasioned  the  formation  of  the  "  Solemn  League 


105 112.]  OF    MODERN   HISTORY.  283 

and  Covenant "  in  Scotland,  and  what  was  its  object  1  What  meas- 
ures were  adopted  by  Charles  in  consequence  of  this  movement  1 
What  extravagant  demands  were  made  by  the  new  parliament  1 
Who  were  sacrificed  to  their  fury  1  What  officer  soon  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  parliament  army  1  How  often  did  they 
engage  the  royal  forces,  and  with  what  results  1  Where  did  the 
king  then  seek  an  asylum  1  On  what  pretence  was  he  delivered 
up  to  the  parliament  1  Between  what  parties  did  disputes  arise  at 
this  time  1  Which  of  these  parties  obtained  possession  of  the  king's 
person  1  By  whom  was  an  attempt  made  to  rescue  him  1  What 
name  was  given  to  the  parliament  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Pres- 
byterians 1  What  sentence  was  passed  on  Charles  1. 1  When  and 
where  was  it  executed  1  * 

§  11.   Italy. 

(105.)  How  was  the  political  equipoise,  established  in  the  fif- 
teenth century  between  the  different  states  of  Italy,  destroyed  in 
the  sixteenth  1  What  kingdom  was  added  to  Sicily  and  Sardinia 
by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  7  To  whom,  and  after  the  extinction 
of  what  house,  was  Milan  granted  as  a  fief  by  Charles  V. 

(106.)  What  changes  took  place  in  the  duchies  of  Savoy,  Man- 
tua, and  Modena  1  To  whom  did  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Pia- 
cenza  belong  at  different  periods  7 

(107.)  What  territories  were  possessed  by  the  republic  of  Ven- 
ice at  this  time  1  To  what  circumstance  do  you  attribute  her  wars 
with  the  Southern  Italian  powers,  and  what  was  the  result  of  those 
wars  1  What  injuries  were  inflicted  on  her  by  the  Turks  1  To 
what  do  you  attribute  the  ruin  of  her  commerce  7  To  what  nation 
did  Genoa  at  first  belong,  and  by  whom  was  it  twice  conquered  1 
How  did  the  republic  obtain  its  independence  1  What  form  of 
government  was  established,  and  how  long  did  it  last  1  What 
was  the  object  of  Fiesco's  conspiracy,  and  why  did  it  mis- 
carry 7 

(108.)  To  what  house  did  Tuscany  remain  subject!  Under 
what  forms  of  government  1 

(109.)  What  territories  were  added  to  the  States  of  the 
Church  1 

§  12.  Germany,  from  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.  to  the  peace  of 
Westphalia. 

(110.)  What  oath  was  required  from  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I. 
on  his  accession  1  What  was  his  character  1  What  success  at- 
tended his  wars  with  France  and  Turkey  1 

(111.)  To  what  do  you  attribute  his  death  1  How  did  he  pro- 
pose to  effect  a  reconciliation  of  the  two  confessions  1  By  whom 
was  he  succeeded  1 

(112.)  In  what  war  did  the  new  emperor  engage  1  How  was 
this  war  terminated  1  What  murderer  was  put  to  death  by  this 
emperor  7 


284  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [113 120. 

(113.)  By  whom  was  Maximilian  II.  succeeded!  What  was 
the  character  of  this  sovereign  1  By  what  disputes  was  his  reign 
distracted  1  Mention  the  circumstances  which  increased  the  es- 
trangement hetween  the"  two  parties  7  •  What  advice  was  given  to 
the  Protestant  princes  by  the  Elector  Palatine  1  What  was  the 
professed  object  of  this  union  ! 

(114.)  By  whom  was  the  Romanist  "League"  headed"?  To 
what  house  did  the  leaders  of  both  parties  belong  1  What  impor- 
tant privileges  were  granted  to  the  Protestants  in  Bohemia  1  What 
do  you  mean' by  the  term  "  Utraquists  V  (note  1.)  What  letter 
was  published  by  the  emperor  1 

(115.)  What  war  of  succession  broke  out  in  1609,  how  long  did 
it  rage,  and  by  what  convention  was  it  terminated  1  What  division 
was  made  of  the  territories  of  the  late  duke  1  In  whose  reign  did 
the  thirty  years'  war  begin  1 

(116.)  From  what  circumstance  do  you  date  its  commence- 
ment 1  By  what  disputes  was  this  insurrection  occasioned  1  What 
act  of  violence  was  committed  by  the  insurgents  1 

a.   Bohemian  Palatine  period.    1618—1623. 

(117.)  By  whom  were  the  Bohemian  Protestants  supported  1 
Who  commanded  this  army  1 

(118.)  By  whom  was  the  Emperdr  Matthias  succeeded  1  Whose 
grandson  was  he  7  By  whom  was  his  election  opposed,  and  whom 
did  they  place  on  the  throne  1  With  whom,  and  on  what  grounds, 
did  the  Elector  of  Saxony  form  an  alliance  1  By  whom,  and  where, 
were  the  forces  of  Frederick  routed  1  What  were  the  immediate 
consequences  of  this  victory  1  By  whom,  and  in  what  manner,  was 
the  ban  of  the  empire  against  Frederick  carried  into  effect  ? 
Whom  did  he  defeat  1  On  whom  was  the  vacant  electorate  con- 
ferred'? What  advantage  did  the  Romanists  derive  from  this  ap- 
pointment 1  What  reward  was  given  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony  1 
In  what  year  was  the  Union  dissolved  1  What  became  of  the  Elec- 
tor Palatine's  library  at  Heidelberg  1 

b.   Danish  period.    1625—1629. 

(119.)  By  whom  were  hostilities  recommenced  1  In  what  char- 
acter did  he  come  forward  1  By  whom  was  he  assisted  1  By  what 
private  individual  was  the  emperor  supported  ?  Whom  did  he 
defeat  1  Where,  and  over  whom,  did  Tilly  obtain  a  victory  ?  With 
whom  did  he  effect  a  junction  1  For  what  purpose  1  What  prov- 
inces were  conquered  by  the  two  generals  1  On  what  pretence 
were  the  Dukes  of  Mecklenburg  expelled  from  their  dominions  1 
What  fortress  refused  to  receive  an  imperial  garrison  1  By  whom 
were  they  assisted,  and  what  success  attended  their  resistance  1 
For  what  reason,  and  on  what  terms,  was  a  peace  concluded  at 
Lubeck  1  Between  what  parties  7  What  pledge  was  given  by  the 
King  of  Denmark  1 

(120.)  What  compensation  was  given  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria 


121 123.]  OF    MODERN   HISTORY.  285 

and  Wallenstein  1  What  demand  was  made  by  the  emperor  1  By 
whom  was  he  supported,  and  what  was  his  object  in  making  this 
demand  1  What  intolerant  decree  was  at  the  same  time  issued  1 
By  whom,  and  in  conjunction  with  what  troops,  was  this  decree 
carried  into  effect  1  What  was  the  result  of  these  proceedings  1 
By  whom  was  the  discontent  which  they  excited  most  loudly  ex- 
pressed 1 

c.  Swedish  period.    1630—1635. 

(121.)  By  what  favorable  circumstances  were  the  Protestants 
encouraged  7  Mention  some  of  the  causes  by  which  Gustavus 
Adolphus  was  induced  to  take  up  arms  against  the  emperor'? 
With  what  power  did  he  form  an  alliance  1  In  what  year  did  he 
land  in  Germany  1  On  what  part  of  the  coast  1  How  far  did  he 
advance  1  What  city  was  invested  by  Tilly  7  By  whom  was  he 
supported  1  What  was  its  fate  1  What  was  Tilly's  next  move- 
ment 1  Where,  and  by  whom,  was  he  defeated  1  What  ambitious 
design  did  this  success  suggest  to  the  mind  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  1 
What  plan  of  operations  was  now  arranged  between  Gustavus  and 
the  Elector  of  Saxony  1  How  was  this  plan  carried  into  execution  1 
Whom  did  Gustavus  leave  behind  him  when  he  advanced  into 
Bavaria  1 

(122.)  By  whom  was  the  passage  of  the  Lech  disputed,  and 
what  was  his  fate  1  Whither  did  Gustavus  Adolphus  then  march  1 
How  was  Wallenstein  engaged  at  this  time  7  What  success  at- 
tended his  operations  1  Before  what  place,  and  for  how  long  a 
time,  did  the  Swedish  and  Imperial  armies  remain  opposite  to  one 
another  1  Whither  did  Gustavus  Adolphus  return  1  In  what 
direction  did  Wallenstein  march  1  For  what  purpose!  What 
effect  had  the  intelligence  of  this  movement  on  the  plans  of  Gus- 
tavus 7  Where,  and  with  what  success,  did  the  Swedes  engage 
the  Imperialists  7  What  was  the  fate  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  1 
What  became  of  Pappenheim  1  By  whom  was  the  prosecution  of 
the  war  then  undertaken  7  In  conjunction  with  whom  1  What 
was  Richelieu's  object  in  thus  supporting  the  Protestant  party  1 
What  character  did  the  war  now  assume  1 

(123.)  By  whom  was  the  command  of  the  Swedish  army  as- 
sumed after  the  death  of  Gustavusl  How  did  he  employ  himself] 
Who  acted  as  his  second  in  command  1  How  was  Wallenstein  en- 
gaged at  this  time  1  Of  what  conviction  was  this  conduct  the 
result  7  With  what  grounds  of  accusation  were  his  enemies  fur- 
nished 1  What  punishment  was  inflicted  on  him  by  the  emperor  1 
What  was  his  fate  1  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  in  the  command 
of  the  Imperial  forces  1  Who  was  his  lieutenant  1  By  whom  was 
the  new  commander- in-chief  supported  !  Where,  and  with  what 
result,  did  he  engage  the  two  Swedish  generals  7  What  became  of 
Bernard  of  Saxe  Weimar  and  General  Horn  1  What  districts  were 
now  occupied  by  the  imperial  troops  7  By  what  sacrifice  were  the 
Protestants  of  South- Western  Germany  compelled  to  purchase  the 
protection  of  France  1 


286  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [124 — 130. 


d.  Swedish- Fi-ench  period.    1634—1648. 

(124.)  In  what  spirit  were  negotiations  set  on  foot  by  the  Elec- 
tor of  Saxony  1  What  was  the  result  of  those  negotiations  1  What 
were  the  terms  of  this  peace,  and  by  whom  were  they  sub- 
scribed? What  act  of  treachery  was  committed  by  the  Saxons 
in  the  following  year?  Where,  and  by  whom,  were  they  de- 
feated ? 

(125.)  What  circumstance  enabled  Bernard  of  Saxe  Weimar  to 
recross  the  Rhine  1  Where  was  he  victorious,  and  what  general 
fell  in  the  battle  1  What  became  of  his  conquests  after  his  death  1 
On  whom  did  the  command-in-chief  of  the  Swedish  army  de- 
volve after  his  death  1  What  was  the  character  of  this  general  1 
What  advantage  did  he  gain  over  the  Imperialists  1  What  cir- 
cumstance recalled  Torstenson  from  Germany  1  Where  did  he  ob- 
tain a  victory?  What  reverse  befell  him  before  the  walls  of 
Vienna  ?  Why  did  he  resign  his  command  ?  By  what  powers  was 
the  war  now  carried  on  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  1  With  what 
success  1  Who  succeeded  Torstenson  in  the  command  ?  With 
what  general  did  he  effect  a  junction  ?  For  what  purpose  1  How 
far  did  he  advance  ?  Where  was  the  peace  of  Westphalia  con- 
cluded 1 

(126.)  What  were  its  conditions  with  respect  to  ecclesiastical 
matters  ? 

(127.)  What  advantages  were  obtained  respectively,  by 
France,  Sweden,  Brandenburg,  Mecklenburg,  Hesse-Cassel,  and 
the  Elector  Palatine  1  For  whose  benefit  was  an  eighth  elector- 
ate founded  1  What  advantage  was  gained  by  Switzerland  and 
the  United  Netherlands'?  What  regulations  were  adopted  with 
regard  to  measures  of  legislation,  war  and  peace,  taxation,  &c.  1 
On  what  conditions  was  the  sovereignty  of  the  princes  secured  to 
them  1 

§  13.  Prussia. 

(128.)  How  long  had  the  Teutonic  Order  governed  Prussia,  and 
what  was  its  fate  1  By  whom,  and  at  what  diet,  was  Eastern 
Prussia  received  as  a  temporal  duchy  ?  Of  what  kingdom  was  it 
to  be  held  as  a  fief? 

(129.)  By  whom  was  he  succeeded?  In  what  year,  and  by 
whom,  was  the  duchy  annexed  to  Brandenburg  ? 

§  14.  Scandinavia. 

(130.)  Since  what  event  had  Denmark.  Norway,  and  Sweden 
formed  one  kingdom  ?  In  what  reign  were  the  kings  of  the  house 
of  Oldenburg  acknowledged  in  Sweden  ?  By  what  cruel  act  did  he 
endeavor  to  confirm  his  authority?  What  important  personage 
escaped  the  massacre  ?  By  whom  was  he  supported  in  his  resist' 


131 136.]  OF   MODERN   HISTORY.  287 

ance  to  the  Danes  1  What  success  attended  his  efforts  for  the 
liberation  of  Sweden  1 

(131.)  What  loss  was  occasioned  by  the  ambition  of  the  house 
of  Oldenburg  1  What  territories  did  the  kingdom  of  Denmark 
then  comprise  7  By  whom  were  they  seized  7 

(132.)  By  whom,  and  in  what  manner,  was  the  Reformation  in- 
troduced into  Sweden  7  By  what  acts  of  injustice  was  its  intro- 
duction accompanied  1  By  what  declarations,  on  the  part  of  the 
king,  were  the  estates  induced  to  grant  his  demands  1  What  was 
the  policy  of  Gustavus,  and  by  whom  was  it  fully  carried  out  1 
What  was  the  fate  of  this  sovereign  1  On  what  plea  was  Sigismund 
deposed  1  By  whom  was  he  succeeded,  and  what  great  work  did 
he  complete  1  By  whom  was  Charles  IX.  succeeded  7 

(133.)  In  what  condition  did  he  find  his  kingdom  1  With  what 
nation,  and  on  what  terms,  was  a  peace  concluded  7  By  whom  was 
he  succeeded  7  Under  whose  guardianship  did  she  commence  her 
reign  1  What  sort  of  education  did  the  young  queen  receive  1 
On  what  terms  was  the  peace  concluded  with  Germany  and  Den- 
mark 7  What  circumstances  occasioned  the  abdication  of  Christi- 
na 1  In  whose  favor  did  she  abdicate  1  What  religion  did  she  em- 
brace after  her  abdication'?  For  what  purpose  did  she  revisit 
Sweden  7  For  what  crown  did  she  become  a  candidate  7  Where 
did  she  die  7 

§  15.   Poland. 

(134.)  Under  what  dynasty  did  Poland  become  the  most  im- 
portant state  of  Eastern  Europe  7  What  provinces  were  annexed 
to  Poland,  and  what  were  now  the  limits  of  the  kingdom  7  What 
element  of  dissolution  existed  amidst  all  this  apparent  pros- 
perity 7  What  concessions  did  they  at  last  extort  from  the 
king  7 

(135.)  Whom  did  the  nobles  now  elect,  how  did  he  reign,  and 
for  what  purposes  did  he  quit  Poland  7  By  whom  was  he  succeed- 
ed 7  What  three  kings  followed  him  on  the  throne,  and  in  what 
war  did  they  involve  Poland  7  By  what  peace  was  it  terminated  7 
What  province  was  ceded  to  Sweden  by  this  peace  7  What  ad- 
vantage was  gained  by  Prussia  7  How  long  had  the  nominal  su- 
premacy of  Poland  over  the  Moldau  been  lost  7 

§  16.  Russia. 

(136.)  From  what  event  do  you  date  the  advancement  of  Rus- 
sia in  power  and  civilization  7  Under  what  rulers  7  What  pro- 
vinces were  added  to  her  territories  7  What  important  political 
and  military  improvements  were  effected  7  With  what  country 
was  a  commercial  treaty  concluded  7  By  what  events  "was  Rus- 
sia distracted  after  the  extinction  of  the  race  of  Ruric  7  What 
advantages  were  gained  by  Poland  and  Sweden  in  these  wars  7 
In  what  year,  and  in  what  family,  did  the  throne  become  heredi- 


288  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [137 — 144. 

tary  1    By  what  sacrifice  did  Russia  purchase  peace  with  Poland 
and  Sweden  1 

§  17.   The  Ottoman  or  Osmanic  Empire. 

(137.)  What  was  the  extent  of  the  empire  in  15007  What 
countries  were  added  to  this  territory  by  Selim  1. 1  Under  what 
sovereign  did  the  Turkish  power  attain  its  highest  elevation  1  To 
what  quality  of  their  commanders  were  his  fleets  and  armies  in- 
debted for  victory  1  What  was  their  first  conquest  1  By  whom 
was  the  island  garrisoned  1  What  was  the  amount  of  the  loss  sus- 
tained by  the  Turks  7  Where  did  the  knights  find  an  asylum  1 
How  many  times  did  Solyman  visit  Hungary  1  Describe  these  sev- 
eral expeditions  1  What  remarkable  events  occurred  between 
these  campaigns  1  What  were  the  limits  of  the  Osmanic  empire  in 
the  reign  of  Solyman  1  What  important  reforms  did  he  effect  7 
What  was  the  character  of  his  successors  1  By  whom  was  the 
kingdom  actually  governed  1  By  whom  was  Cyprus  wrested  from 
the  Turks  1  In  what  battle  was  the  naval  power  of  Turkey  anni- 
hilated 7  With  what  power  was  she  engaged  in  an  almost  perpet- 
ual war  1 

§18.  Religion,  Arts,  Sciences,  <f*c.,  during  the  First  Period. 

(138.)  To  whom  is  the  credit  chiefly  due  of  propagating  Chris- 
tianity among  the  heathen  during  this  period  7  In  what  countries 
were  they  principally  employed  7  Which  of  the  orders  was  most 
conspicuous  for  zeal,  courage,  and  self-denial  7  What  institutions 
were  founded  at  Rome  for  the  promotion  of  such  missions  7  By 
whom  were  they  established  7 

(139.)  What  American  state  was  founded  by  the  missionaries  7 
What  new  orders  and  congregations  were  established,  and  with 
what  result  7  By  whom,  for  the  attainment  of  what  object,  and  in 
what  year  was  the  Society  of  Jesus  founded  7  Under  the  sanction 
of  what  pope  7  What  additional  vow  was  taken  by  the  members 
of  this  order  7  What  were  their  especial  duties  7 

(140.)  Where  did  the  general  of  this  order  reside,  and  what 
were  his  powers  7  Over  what  countries  did  it  spread,  and  how 
many  countries  did  it  eventually  comprehend  7 

(141.)  On  what  subject  did  Jansenius  publish  five  theses  7  On 
what  ground  were  they  condemned  by  the  pope  7 

(142.)  What  remarkable  political  change  took  place  in  the  Ger- 
manic kingdoms  7 

(143.)  Describe  the  various  causes  by  which  this  effect  was 
produced  in  France  7  In  Spain  7  In  Germany  7  In  most  of  the 
Protestant  countries  7  What  additional  advantage  had  the  sover- 
eign in  England,  Denmark,  and  Sweden  7  Mention  another  cause 
of  absolutism  in  Sweden  7  By  what  means  was  the  change  effected 
generally  throughout  Europe  7 

(144.)  What  power  was  exercised  by  the  nobles  in  Poland  after 
the  establishment  of  an  elective  monarchy  7  What  form  of  govern- 


145 154.]  OF    MODERN    HISTORY. 

ment  existed  in  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  the  Netherlands  7  What 
was  the  system  in  Hungary,  Russia,  and  Turkey  7 

(145.)  By  whom  were  the  laws  administered  7  Was  this  the 
case  in  every  country  of  Europe  7  In  what  manner  were  the  pro- 
ceedings carried  on  7  On  what  law  were  most  of  their  codes 
founded  7  What  atrocious  cruelties  were  practised  in  Spain  and 
Germany  7 

(146.)  By  what  circumstances  was  the  system  of  warfare  con- 
siderably modified  7  To  what  do  you  attribute  the  more  profound, 
as  well  as  active,  scientific  investigations  of  this  period  7 

(147.)  In  what  places  were  universities  and  schools  established  7 

(148.)  What  study  was  considered  the  groundwork  of  a  learned 
education  7  In  what  country,  and  during  what  period,  had  this 
study  been  revived  7  In  what  country,  and  by  whom  was  it  culti- 
vated as  an  independent  science  7  Of  what  sciences  was  it  also 
considered  the  handmaid  7  Mention  the  most  renowned  "  Human- 
ists" of  Germany.  What  country  was  the  great  seat  of  classical 
learning  7  Name  its  most  distinguished  etymologists,  grammarians, 
and  critics. 

(149.)  What  influence  had  the  study  of  classical  antiquity  on 
philosophy  7  By  what  studies  was  the  scholastic  philosophy  of  the 
middle  ages  in  a  great  measure  supplanted  7  Who  was  the  chief 
professor  of  the  mystic  philosophy  7  By  what  name  does  he  call 
himself  7  How  long  did  the  struggle  continue,  and  how  many  new 
schools  did  it  produce  7  Describe  these  schools. 

(150.)  What  discoveries  were  made  by  Copernicus,  Keppler, 
and  Galileo  1  By  whom,  and  in  what  country,  was  the  telescope 
invented  7  What  were  the  inventions  of  Torricelli  7  What  study 
was  the  groundwork  of  the  physical  sciences  7  Describe  minutely 
the  principles  on  which  the  calendar  was  reformed  by  Pope  Greg- 
ory XIII.  In  what  year  was  this  alteration  of  the  style  adopted  in 
England  7  [See  note.] 

(151.)  Who  were  the  most  able  expounders  of  political  sci- 
ence 7 

(152.)  To  what  practice  do  you  attribute  the  imperfect  method 
of  treating  universal  history  which  prevailed  during  this  period  7 
Name  some  of  the  most  distinguished  writers  in  the  department  of 
particular  history.  By  whom  were  the  most  celebrated  memoirs 
written  7  Where,  and  in  what  year,  was  the  earliest  political  jour- 
nal published  7  Who  laid  the  foundation  of  literary  history,  of 
chronology,  and  of  numismatics  7 

(153.)  In  what  part  of  Europe  was  poetry  most  successfully 
cultivated  during  this  period  7  Mention  the  principal  epic  poems 
published  during  this  period  in  Italy  and  Portugal.  Name  the 
most  distinguished  romantic  and  dramatic  writers  in  Spain.  France, 
and  England.  What  sorts  of  poetry  were  most  successfully  culti- 
vated in  Germany  during  this  period  7  What  were  the  most  re- 
markable novelties  in  German  literature  7  By  whom  was  the  High 
German  language  created  7  To  what  school  do  you  attribute  the 
first  corruption  of  the  German  language  7 

(154.)   In  what  works  had  the  modern  Italian  school  of  archi- 


290  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [155 161. 

lecture  been  engaged  since  the  fifteenth  century  ?  What  models 
did  they  copy  1  At  what  period  did  church  building  assume  a 
prominent  position  1  Who  were  the  most  distinguished  profes- 
sors 1  What  style  of  architecture  was  gradually  displaced  by  the 
Italian  7 

(155.)  Where  were  the  most  distinguished  sculptors  found  1 
Who  was  the  most  renowned  worker  in  metals  7 

(156.)  Name  the  most  distinguished  Italian,  German,  and  Flem- 
ish painters. 

(157.)  By  what  great  composer  was  the  Flemish  school  thrown 
into  the  shade  1  Of  what  school  was  he  the  founder,  and  what 
celebrated  men  did  it  produce  7  To  what  circumstance  do  you 
ascribe  the  formation  of  a  better  style  of  vocal  and  instrumental 
music  7 

(158.)  What  great  revolution  was  effected  in  the  commerce  of 
the  world  by  the  discovery  of  America,  and  of  a  passage  by  sea  to 
the  East  Indies  1  What  great  commercial  states  fell  into  decay  in 
consequence  of  this  change  7  What  became  of  the  German 
Hansa  1  By  what  circumstance  were  the  operations  of  commerce 
greatly  facilitated  1  To  what  countries  did  Europe  now  export 
largely  1  In  whose  hands  was  the  East  India  trade  at  first  7  By 
what  union  did  Spain  become  possessed  of  the  trade  of  both  hemis- 
pheres 7  By  what  country  was  this  commerce  soon  shared  1  In 
what  extensive  undertakings  were  the  Dutch  engaged  1 

(159.)  Enumerate  the  circumstances  favorable  to  trade  during 
this  period.  Mention  the  new  products  ?  What  new  trade  was 
established  1 

(160.)  What  manufactures  flourished  in  Spain  1  Mention  some 
of  the  most  important  inventions. 


SECOND  PERIOD. 

A.  D.  1648 — 1789.  FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA  TO  THE  FRENCH 
REVOLUTION. 

$  19.  France  under  Louis  XIV. 

(161.)  How  old  was  Louis  XIV.  when  his  father  died  1  To 
whom  was  the  guardianship  of  the  young  king  intrusted  ?  By 
whom  were  the  actual  functions  of  government  discharged7?  By 
whom  was  this  minister  recommended  1  By  what  circumstances 
was  his  unpopularity  increased  1  What  was  his  object  in  engaging 
in  a  war  with  Germany  and  Spain  1  By  what  conduct  had' the 
parliament  rendered  itself  obnoxious  to  the  court  1  How  did  the 
queen  avenge  herself  1  By  what  circumstance  was  she  encouraged 
to  commit  this  act  of  violence  1  How  were  the  proceedings  of 
Cond6  arrested  1  What  do  you  mean  by  the  Fronde  1  By  whom 
was  this  party  headed  1  Against  whom  did  they  declare  war  1 
What  became  of  the  queen-mother  and  Mazarin  1  By  whom  was 
peace  re-established  1  What  conduct  on  the  part  of  this  general 


162 169.]  OP    MODHRN    HISTORY.  291 

occasioned  his  arrest  1  What  part  did  the  populace  take  in  this 
dispute  1  What  became  of  Mazarin  1 

(162.)  With  whom  did  Condd  now  form  an  alliance  1  Against 
whom  did  he  declare  war  1  By  whom  were  the  royal  troops  com- 
manded 1  Where  did  Condd  seek  an  asylum  7  What  became  of 
Mazarin  after  the  overthrow  of  Conde'  7 

(163.)  Give  an  account  of  the  termination  of  the' war  by  the 
peace  orWestphalia., 

(164.)  When  did  the  war  with  Spain  break  out  ?  After  what 
battle  was  it  terminated  1  By  what  peace  1  By  whom  was  this 
peace  negotiated  1  What  territories  did  France  acquire  by  this 
peace  1  What  honors  were  conferred  on  Conde"  7  Whom  did 
Louis  XIV.  marry  7  What  claims  did  she  renounce  for  herself  and 
heirs  1 

(165.)  What  declaration  was  made  by  Louis  XIV.  immediately 
after  the  death  of  Mazarin  1 

(166.)  To  what  objects  were  the  attempts  of  Louis  XIV.  di- 
rected 1  How  was  the  first  of  these  objects  effected  1  By  what 
means  did  he  endeavor  to  establish  an  independent  authority  in 
ecclesiastical  matters  1  How  was  his  second  object  attained  1  To 
what  office  was  Colbert  appointed  1  What  improvements  were  ef- 
fected under  his  administration  1  What  public  institutions  did  he 
found  1  How  was  his  third  object  achieved  1  Who  was  Louvois, 
and  what  was  his  policy  1 

(167.)  Against  what  country  was  the  first  war  of  spoliation  car- 
ried on  1  What  law  was  brought  forward  by  Louis  XIV.  after  the 
death  of  his  father-in-law  1  To  what  territories  did  he  lay  claim 
in  consequence  of  this  law  1  Between  what  powers  was  an  alliance 
formed  at  this  time  1  What  was  their  object  1  What  peace  was 
Louis  XIV.  compelled  to  conclude  1  On  what  terms  1 

(168.)  Against  what  country  was  his  second  war  of  spoliation 
undertaken  1  What  was  his  motive  for  undertaking  this  war  1 
Whom  did  Louis  XIV.  gain  over  7  How  was  he  restrained  from 
conquering  the  whole  of  Holland  1  By  what  circumstances  were 
the  French  and  English  prevented  from  landing  1  By  whom  was 
assistance  now  promised  to  the  Dutch  republic  1  Through  whose 
influence  1  With  what  powers  did  the  republic  conclude  an  alli- 
ance 1  What  embarrassment  did  this  occasion  to  France  1  With 
whom  did  the  King  of  England  conclude  a  peace  1  What  were 
*his  reasons  for  terminating  the  war  1  Where  and  with  what  result 
was  a  battle  fought  1  What  was  the  fate  of  Turenne  7  What  at- 
tempt was  made  by  the  Swedes,  and  how  far  did  it  succeed! 
Where  were  they  defeated,  and  what  loss  did  they  sustain  in  con- 
sequence of  this  defeat  1  By  what  admiral  was  the  French  fleet 
defeated  1  What  peace  was  now  concluded  by  Louis  1  On  what 
terms  1  Under  what  circumstances  was  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg 
compelled  to  conclude  peace  7  On  what  terms  was  the  peace  of 
St.  Germain-en-Laye  concluded  1 

(169.)  Under  whose  administration,  and  by  how  many  treaties 
had  France  considerably  augmented  her  territories!  For  what 
purpose  were  the  re-union  chambers  established  1  What  was  the 


292  QUESTIONS   TO    HANDBOOK  [170 177. 

result  of  this  inquiry  7  What  fortresses  were  occupied  by  the 
French  1  How  was  the  emperor  engaged  at  this  time  1  At  whose 
instigation  did  Louis  XIV.  revoke  the  edict  of  Nantes  1  What  was 
the  immediate  effect  of  this  measure  7 

(170.)  How  did  Louis  XIV.  commence  the  third  war  of  spolia- 
tion 1  What  Turkish  fortress  had  previously  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  the  Imperialists  1  Of  what  capitals  did  Louis  take  possession  7 
By  what  act  of  violence  was  this  violation  of  the  law  of  nations 
followed  7  Name  the  German  towns  which  were  destroyed  by  the 
French. 

(171.)  Who  was  King  of  England  at  this  time  7  With  whom 
and  against  what  power  did  England  form  an  alliance  1  On  what 
pretence  1  How  did  the  war  by  sea  commence  1  How  did  it  con- 
clude 1  Name  the  three  victories  gained  by  Luxembourg.  What 
advantage  was  obtained  by  General  Catinat  1  Mention  the  causes 
which  hastened  the  conclusion  of  peace  at  Ryswick.  On  what 
terms  was  this  peace  concluded  7 

$  20.  Germany. 

(172.)  By  whom  was  Ferdinand  III.  succeeded  7  Of  what 
countries  was  he  already  king  7  What  concessions  was  he  obliged 
to  make  7  Name  the  two  corporations  into  which  the  estates  of 
the  empire  had  been  divided  since  the  peace  of  Westphalia  7  What 
change  took  place  in  the  constitution  of  the  diet  7  To  what  con- 
dition was  the  German  empire  now  reduced  7  To  what  circum- 
stance do  you  attribute  this  change  7 

(173.)  In  what  manner  did  the  Turks  take  advantage  of  the  ab- 
sence of  Louis  XIV.  7  By  what  acts  of  cruelty  was  the  Hungarian 
insurrection  occasioned  7  By  whom  was  it  headed  7  At  whose  in- 
stigation had  the  sultan  declared  war  against  Austria  7 

(174.)  By  whom  were  the  Turks  commanded,  and  how  far  did 
they  advance  7  Where  was  the  emperor  at  this  time  7  By  whom 
was  the  capital  defended  7  What  number  of  men  had  he,  and  what 
was  the  amount  of  the  Turkish  force  7  To  whom  was  Vienna  chiefly 
indebted  for  its  preservation  7  What  question  was  agitated  after 
the  capture  of  Belgrade  7  What  circumstances  prevented  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Turks  from  Europe  7  In  consequence  of  what  victo- 
ries was  peace  concluded  7  What  were  the  conditions  of  this 
treaty  7  Why  was  Venice  rewarded  7 

(175.)  In  what  year  was  Hungary  made  an  hereditary  mon- 
archy 7  On  what  family  was  the  crown  settled  7  To  whom  did  the 
Tyrol  and  Transylvania  belong  7  For  what  reason  was  Hanover 
erected  into  a  ninth  electorate  7 

(176.)  What  dignity  was  conferred  on  the  Elector  of  Saxony  7 
In  what  manner  had  he  previously  qualified  himself  for  the  office  7 

(177.)  To  what  rank  was  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  elevated  7 


178 191.]  OF   MODERN   HISTORY.  293 


§21.   Brandenburg  and  Prussia  to  1701. 

(178.)  Out  of  what  provinces  did  the  great  elector  form  a  state  1 
By  whom  was  this  state  raised  to  a  high  rank  among  German  gov- 
ernments 1  Under  whom  did  it  become  a  first-rate  power  7  By 
what  means  was  this  eminent  position  attained  7 

(179.)  By  whom  was  the  possession  of  the  Swedish  throne  con- 
tested 1 

(180.)  To  whom  did  both  parties  appeal  1  What  advantage  did 
the  elector  take  of  this  circumstance  1  With  whom  did  he  form  an 
alliance  1  Where,  and  with  what  success,  did  the  united  armies 
engage  the  Poles  1  By  what  treaty  was  the  independence  of  Prus- 
sia finally  established  1  By  whom  was  this  recognition  opposed  1 
Why  were  they  adverse  to  the  measure  7 

(181.)  Who  laid  the  foundation  of  Prussia's  future  greatness  1 

(182.)  What  military  force  did  he  establish  1 

(183.)  In  what  manner  did  he  raise  funds  for  the  maintenance 
of  this  army  1  What  reform  did  he  effect  in  the  financial  adminis- 
tration 1 

(184.)  Describe  the  manner  in  which  he  established  military 
colonies. 

(185.)  How  was  inland  navigation  facilitated  7  Where  were 
settlements  established,  and  did  they  answer  the  expectation  of 
their  founders  1  To  what  cause  do  you  chiefly  attribute  the  im- 
provement in  manufactures  1 

(186.)  What  literary  institutions  did  he  establish  7 

(187.)  Against  whom  did  Frederick  III.  assist  the  Austrians  ? 
In  what  manner  did  the  emperor  recompense  those  services  1 
What  public  buildings  were  erected  in  this  reign,  at  Berlin  and 
elsewhere  7  What  consideration  induced  the  emperor  to  recog- 
nize Frederick  III.  as  king  of  Prussia  1  When  and  where  was  he 
crowned,  and  what  order  was  founded  in  commemoration  of  that 
event  1 

§  22.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

(188.)  What  changes  were  made  in  the  English  constitution  imme- 
diately after  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  1  Why  did  Cromwell  at- 
tack the  Irish  1  Was  the  title  of  Charles  II.  recognized  in  any  other 
part  of  the  British  dominions  1  Where  did  Cromwell  defeat  the 
Scotch  7  What  attempt  was  made  by  Charles  during  the  absence 
of  Cromwell  in  Scotland  1  Where  was  the  king  defeated,  and  what 
course  was  he  compelled  to  adopt  after  that  battle  7 

(189.)  In  what  manner,  and  for  what  offence,  did  the  new  Com- 
monwealth avenge  itself  on  Holland  7 

(190.)  What  measures  were  now  adopted  by  Cromwell?  On 
the  support  of  what  body  did  he  reckon  with  certainty  ?  From 
whom  did  the  parliament  derive  its  nickname  1  What  title  was 
now  given  to  Cromwell  by  his  officers  7 

(191.)  In  whom  was  the  executive  authority  vested  1  How 
often  was  the  parliament  called  together,  and  what  authority  did 


294  QUESTIONS    TO   HANDBOOK  [192 197. 

it  possess  1  To  whom  did  the  management  of  the  army  belong  7 
What  circumstance  occasioned  a  war  between  England  and  the 
united  Netherlands  1  What  proceeding  on  the  part  of  Cromwell 
produced  a  war  with  Spain  7  What  territories  were  acquired  by 
England  in  this  war  7  Describe  the  manner  in  which  parliament 
was  prepared  for  the  question  of  offering  the  crown  to  the  pro- 
tector 7  Was  the  offer  accepted  or  declined  1  When  did  Cromwell 
die  7  To  what  do  you  in  a  great  measure  attribute  his  death  1 
By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1  How  long  did  he  reign  1  What 
measure  was  he  compelled  to  adopt  7  By  whom  and  in  what  man- 
ner was  the  state  of  anarchy  terminated  1 

(192.)  What  measures  were  adopted  by  Charles  II.  on  his  ac- 
cession 1  Whom  did  he  appoint  prime  minister  1  How  did  he 
disgust  the  people  1  What  political  acts  especially  excited  the 
indignation  of  hiis  subjects  1  By  whom  was  Clarendon's  place 
supplied  1  What  do  you  mean  by  the  Cabal  7  [See  note.]  By 
whose  authority  was  an  act  of  toleration  passed  7  By  whom  was 
it  repealed  1  What  was  the  effect  of  the  Test  Act  1  What  privi- 
lege was  secured  to  the  king's  subjects  by  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  7 
By  what  circumstance  was  the  Whig  party  brought  into  collision 
with  the  Tories  7 

(193.)  In  what  manner  did  Charles  govern  during  the  last 
years  of  his  reign  1  Did  he  support  or  oppose  the  exclusion  of  his 
brother  from  the  succession  7  By  whom  was  Charles  II.  suc- 
ceeded 7  What  plans  did  he  eagerly  pursue  1  To  what  griev- 
ances do  you  ascribe  the  discontents  which  terminated  in  the 
English  Revolution  1  From  what  event  may  its  commencement  be 
dated  7 

(194.)  Explain  the  pedigree  of  the  houses  of  Stuart  and  Han- 
over. 

(195.)  Who  was  invited  over  by  the  malcontents  1  In  conse- 
quence of  what  proceeding  on  the  part  of  James  was  the  throne 
declared  vacant  1  In  what  year  were  the  new  king  and  queen  pro- 
claimed 1  By  what  act  was  the  authority  of  the  crown  limited  7 
Who  was  appointed  their  successor  in  the  event  of  their  dying 
without  issue  7 

(196.)  By  what  decisive  victories  were  the  hopes  of  James  II. 
annihilated  7  How  "were  the  Irish  punished  for  their  support  of 
James  7  By  what  measure  was  peace  in  some  degree  restored  in 
Scotland  7  What  im  pro vem  tots  were  effected  in  the  constitution  7 
What  dignity  was  William  permitted  to  retain  7  What  was  his 
policy  during  the  Spanish  war  of  succession  7 

§  23.  The  Republic  of  Holland. 

(197.)  By  what  name  was  the  republic  of  Holland  generally  dis- 
tinguished 7  At  what  period  had  it  reached  its  highest  state  of 
prosperity  7  By  what  peace  was  its  independence  secured  7  Men- 
tion the  chief  sources  of  its  wealth.  By  what  measure  was  its 
carrying  trade  ruined  7  What  was  the  result  of  two  wars  with 
England?  What  Dutch  admirals  distinguished  themselves  in 


198 201.]  OF    MODERN    HISTORY.  295 

these  wars  1  Were  there  any  other  causes  of  decay  7  What  im- 
portant office  was  abolished  immediately  after  the  death  of  Wil- 
liam II.  1  Did  any  of  the  provinces  retain  their  statth older  1 
When  was  the  office  re-established  1  On  whom  was  the  dignity 
conferred  1  For  how  long  a  period  1  Who  were  the  brothers 
de  Witt,  and  what  was  their  fate  1  At  whose  instigation  was  this 
atrocious  act  perpetrated  7 

(198.)  What  advantage  did  Holland  gain  by  the  marriage  of 
William  III.  with  an  English  princess  7  How  was  this  advantage 
neutralized  7  By  what  circumstances  was  the  affection  of  his 
Dutch  subjects  towards  William  considerably  weakened  7  What 
circumstance  occasioned  the  restoration  of  the  hereditary  statt- 
holdership  1  How  long  had  it  been  in  abeyance  1  What  was  the 
foreign  policy  of  the  republic  during  the  interval  between  the 
Spanish  and  Austrian  war  of  succession  1 

§  24.   The  north-east  of  Europe. 

(199.)  What  position  did  Sweden  occupy  in  northern  Europe 
under  the  three  first  kings  of  the  house  of  Sweibriicken  1  From 
what  period  do  you  date  her  elevation  to  the  rank  of  a  first-rate 
power  7 

(200.)  What  circumstance  afforded  Charles  a  pretext  for  de- 
claring war  against  Poland  1  In  what  battle  did  he  defeat  the 
Poles  7  Who  was  at  that  time  king  of  Poland,  and  what  became 
of  him  7  For  what  purpose  was  a  confederation  formed  about  this 
time  1  Against  what  power  did  the  King  of  Denmark  declare 
war  7  What  measures  were  adopted  by  Charles  X.  in  consequence 
of  this  declaration  1  What  were  the  conditions  of  the  peace  of 
Roeskild  7  By  whom  were  these  conditions  violated  1  What  city 
did  he  attack,  and  with  what  success  1  By  whom  were  the  Danes 
assisted  1  What  circumstances  induced  the  Swedish  government 
to  conclude  a  peace  with  Poland  1  What  were  the  conditions  of 
this  peace  1  Did  the  Swedes  conclude  a  peace  with  any  other 
power  1  Of  what  peace  did  it  confirm  the  conditions  1  What 
places  were  restored  to  Denmark  1  What  conduct  on  the  part  of 
the  Swedes  occasioned  the  loss  of  their  German  possessions  1  Af- 
ter what  battle  1  When  were  most  of  these  possessions  restored  to 
Sweden  7  What  vigorous  policy  was  adopted  by  Charles  XI. 
after  he  had  attained  full  age  1  How  did  he  employ  this  addi- 
tional revenue  7  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1  What  was  the 
result  of  the  new  sovereign's  policy  1  What  change  took  place  in 
the  Danish  constitution  1  By  whom,  and  in  what  year,  was 
this  change  effected  1  On  what  grounds  did  the  Danes  recom- 
mence hostilities  against  Sweden  7  Did  they  retain  their  con- 
quests 7 

(201.)  Describe  the  constitution  of  Poland  at  this  period  7> 
Who  was  the  last  king  of  the  house  of  Vasa,  and  why  did  he  re- 
sign his  crown  7  To  what  country  did  he  retire,  and  how  was  he 
supported  there  7  Who  was  John  Sobieski  7  With  whom,  and 
against  what  power,  did  he  form  an  alliance  7  What  siege  did  he 


296  QUESTIONS    TO   HANDBOOK  [202 205. 

compel  them  to  raise?  In  whose  reign  was  the  Turkish  war 
terminated  1  Where,  and  through  the  intervention  of  what  power, 
was  peace  concluded  1  Describe  the  progress  of  Russian  civiliza- 
tion under  the  house  of  Romanow.  By  whom  was  the  Ukraine 
wrested  from  the  Turks  1  Who  were  raised  together  to  the  throne 
after  his  death  1  What  was  the  character  of  each  of  these  princes  ? 
Under  whose  guardianship  were  they  placed  1  What  treacherous 
policy  was  pursued  by  this  princess  1  What  was  its  result7? 
What  punishment  was  inflicted  on  Sophia  1  What  authority  was 
assumed  by  Peter,  and  what  changes  did  he  effect  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  affairs  1  Who  enjoyed  the  title  of  czar  1  By  whom 
were  the  counsels  of  Peter  directed  1  What  improvements  were 
effected  in  the  organization  of  the  army  ?  What  important  sea- 
port was  wrested  from  the  Turks'?  What  countries  did  Peter 
visit,  and  for  what  purpose  1  What  occurrence  prevented  his 
visiting  Italy  1  Who  was  King  of  England  when  Peter  visited  that 
country  1  How  were  the  Strelitzes  punished  for  their  treason  ? 
On  what  footing  was  the  Russian  army  then  placed  1  What 
ecclesiastical  office  did  Peter  usurp  1  What  project  involved  him 
in  the  great  northern  war  1 

$  25.   War  of  the  Spanish  succession. 

(202.)  By  whom,  and  on  what  grounds  respectively,  was  the 
succession  to  the  Spanish  throne  claimed  7  Whom  had  Charles 
II.  declared  his  heir  ?  Who  was  nominated  on  the  decease  of  this 
prince1?  With  what  view  did  Charles  make  this  arrangement7? 
By  whom  was  the  title  of  King  of  Spain  assumed  soon  after 
Charles's  death  1  By  what  powers,  and  for  what  purpose,  was 
the  grand  alliance  concluded  1  To  what  conditions  did  they 
pledge  themselves  ?  Which  of  the  German  princes  was  the  first 
to  join  this  alliance  1  With  whom  did  the  Electors  of  Bavaria  and 
Cologne  take  part  1 

(203.)  By  what  German  princes  was  the  emperor  supported  1 
What  were  their  reasons  for  thus  supporting  him  ?  Under  whose 
command  did  he  dispatch  an  army  to  dispute  the  passage  of  the 
Rhine  with  the  French  1  Who  commanded  the  army  of  Italy  ? 
Where  had  he  already  distinguished  himself  1  By  what  French 
general  had  Italy  been  already  entered  1  Whom  did  Eugene  defeat, 
and  why  was  he  at  last  compelled  to  retire  1 

(204.)  By  what  conduct,  on  the  part  of  the  French  king,  was 
the  English  parliament  induced  to  grant  supplies  for  carrying  on  a 
war  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands  1  Who  commanded  the  English 
troops  1  By  what  powers  was  the  Grand  Alliance  joined  at  the 
same  time  1  What  successful  manoeuvre  had  been  carried  into 
effect  in  the  mean  time  by  the  French  army  on  the  Rhine  7  With 
whom  had  Villars  effected  a  junction  ? 

(205.)  By  whom  was  the  elector's  plan  of  entering  the  Tyrol 
frustrated  7  For  what  purpose  did  Marlborough  effect  a  junction 
with  Eugene  at  the  commencement  of  the  year  1704  7  What  sta- 
tions were  then  assigned  to  the  two  armies  respectively  1  By  what 


206 — 209.]  OF   MODERN   HISTORY.  297 

circumstance  was  Eugene  compelled  to  rejoin  Marlborough  7 
What  great  battle  was  fought  by  the  allies  1  Against  whom,  and 
with  what  success  %  How  were  the  inhabitants  of  Bavaria  treated 
by  the  conquerors  1  What  punishment  did  the  emperor  inflict  on 
the  electors  of  Bavaria  and  Cologne  1  How  was  the  Elector  Pala- 
tine rewarded  1 

(206.)  In  what  year  did  the  war  begin  in  Spain!  By  whom 
was  a  descent  made  on  the  coast  of  Portugal  1  What  important 
event  occurred  in  the  first  year  of  the  war  1  From  what  circum- 
stances do  you  date  the  commencement  of  the  Spanish  civil  war  1 
What  was  its  character!  Between  what  provinces  did  the  war 
continue  after  the  return  of  Philip  IV.  to  his  capital  1  What  ad- 
vantage was  gained  by  the  latter  ?  What  circumstances  enabled 
Charles  to  drive  Philip  out  of  Madrid  1  By  whom  was  Charles 
compelled  to  fly  1  To  what  country  did  he  return  1 

(207.)  How  had  Marlborough  and  Eugene  disposed  of  their 
forces  after  the  battle  of  Hochstadt ?  What  successes  attended  the 
operations  of  the  allies  in  Bavaria  and  the  Netherlands  1  At  what 
courts  had  Marlborough  distinguished  himself  as  a  diplomatist  1 
Where  did  he  defeat  the  French  1  By  whom  was  their  army  com- 
manded 1  What  provinces  did  he  subdue  1  To  whom  did  he  com- 
pel those  provinces  to  swear  allegiance  1  Where  did  Eugene  de- 
feat a  French  army  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  1  By  whom 
was  he  assisted!  What  was  the  amount  of  the  French  force? 
What  advantage  did  the  allies  gain  by  this  victory  ?  To  what  of- 
fice was  Eugene  nominated  by  the  Emperor,  and  what  use  did  he 
make  of  his  authority  ?  How  did  the  Neapolitans  receive  a  de- 
tachment of  the  allied  army  1  Of  what  island  did  the  English 
take  possession  in  1708  ?  What  now  remained  to  the  Spaniards  of 
all  their  European  possessions  ?  Whither  did  Eugene  march  after 
the  termination  of  the  war  in  Italy  ?  Where,  and  in  conjunction 
with  whom,  did  he  defeat  the  French  ?  What  fortress  did  he 
storm?  By  what  celebrated  engineer  had  it  been  constructed? 
What  circumstances  induced  Louis  XIV.  to  sue  for  peace  ?  What 
conditions  did  he  propose  ?  By  what  unreasonable  demand,  on 
the  part  of  the  allies,  were  the  negotiations  broken  off?  By  whom 
was  his  newly  raised  army  commanded  ?  Where,  and  by  whom, 
was  this  general  defeated  ? 

(208.)  By  the  occurrence  of  what  events  was  the  aspect  of  af- 
fairs entirely  changed  ?  On  what  terms  was  Louis  now  enabled  to 
conclude  peace  ?  With  whom  was  the  peace  of  Utrecht  concluded  ? 
Who  was  recognized  as  king  of  Spain  by  this  peace  ?  What  stipu- 
lation was  at  the  same  time  made  ? 

(209.)  What  important  concessions  did  England  obtain  from 
France  and  Spain  ?  What  was  gained  by  Prussia  ?  For  what 
island  did  Savoy  exchange  Sicily  ?  Between  what  parties,  and  in 
what  year,  was  the  treaty  of  Rastadt  concluded  ?  What  provinces 
did  the  emperor  receive  ?  What  princes  were  reinstated  in  their 
dignities  ?  Between  what  generals  had  this  treaty  been  negotiated  ? 
At  what  peace  was  it  fully  recognized  ?  What  treaties  were  con- 
firmed by  this  peace  ? 


298  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [210 216. 


§  26.     The  northern  war. 

(210.)  Enumerate  the  causes  of  this  war.  At  whose  instance 
was  a  league  formed  between  Russia  and  Denmark  1  What  was 
its  object  1 

(211.)  With  what  acts  of  aggression  did  the  Danish  war  begin  1 
What  advantages  were  gained  by  Charles  XII.  1  With  whom,  and 
where,  did  he  conclude  a  separate  peace  1  On  what  conditions  1 

(212.)  To  whose  assistance  had  the  Czar  Peter  marched  1 
What  siege  was  he  compelled  to  raise  by  Charles  XII.  1  What 
conquests  were  then  achieved  by  Charles  1  Whom  were  the  Poles 
compelled  to  elect  as  their  king  in  the  place  of  Augustus  II.  7  Of 
what  circumstances  was  his  general  recognition  the  result  1  What 
imprudent  act  was  committed  at  this  time  by  Charles  XII.  7  In 
what  year,  and  where,  did  Peter  found  his  new  capital  1  What 
were  the  conditions  of  the  peace  of  Altranstadt  1  What  punish- 
ment was  inflicted  on  the  instigator  of  the  war  7 

(213.)  Through  whose  obstinacy  were  the  fruits  of  these  bril- 
liant successes  lost  1  For  what  purpose  had  the  czar  entered  Po- 
land 1  What  design  was  conceived  by  Charles  XII.  after  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  czar  from  Poland  1  Who  was  Mazeppa,  and  what 
advice  did  he  give  to  Charles  1  What  force  did  Charles  bring 
into  the  field  at  Pultowa  7  What  was  the  amount  of  the  Russian 
force  1  What  was  the  result1?  In  what  city  did  Charles  take 
refuge  after  his  defeat  1 

(214.)  How  long  did  Charles  XII.  reside  at  Bender?  What 
opportunity  was  afforded  by  his  absence  to  the  Poles  and  Danes  7 
What  declaration  was  made  by  Augustus  II.,  and  how  was  it  fol- 
lowed up  1  What  advantage  was  gained  by  the  Danes  1  What 
conquests  were  achieved  by  Peter  during  the  absence  of  his  enemy  7 
With  what  plans  did  he  at  the  same  time  proceed  1  By  whom  was 
the  sultan  persuaded  to  declare  war  against  Peter  1  From  what 
danger  was  Peter  rescued  with  difficulty  1  On  what  conditions  did 
he  obtain  peace  1  What  happened  to  Charles  at  Bender  after  his 
refusal  to  quit  the  Turkish  territory  1  In  what  year  did  he  return 
to  Sweden  7 

(215.)  By  what  sovereigns  were  the  enemies  of  Sweden  now 
joined  7  What  loss  was  sustained  by  the  Swedes  7  How  was 
Peter  I.  employed  at  this  time  7  What  country  did  Charles  XII. 
now  invade  7  What  was  the  result  of  the  first  campaign  7  Where, 
and  in  what  manner,  did  Charles  XII.  lose  his  life  7  Who  suc- 
ceeded him  on  the  throne  7  What  concessions  were  made  by  this 
sovereign  7  Into  whose  hands  did  the  queen  afterwards  resign  the 
reins  of  government  7  With  what  view  were  further  concessions 
made  by  the  king  7 

(216.)  By  what  treaties  was  the  war  terminated  7  What  terri- 
tories were  acquired  respectively  by  Hanover,  Prussia,  Denmark, 
and  Russia  7  What  was  the  position  of  Sweden  at  this  time  7 
What  indulgence  was  granted  to  Stanislaus  Lesczinsky  7 


217 — 225.]  OF   MODERN   HISTORY.  299 


§  27.     The  Emperor  Charles  VI. 

(217.)  What  important  possession  was  wrested  from  Venice  by 
the  Turks  ?  Why  did  they  declare  war  against  Charles  VI.  1  By 
whom,  and  where,  were  they  defeated  1  What  great  Turkish 
officer  lost  his  life  7  What  advantages  were  gained  by  Eugene 
after  this  victory  1  What  were  the  conditions  of  the  peace  con- 
cluded between  the  emperor  and  the  Turks  1  What  province  had 
Charles  fruitlessly  endeavored  to  recover  for  Venice  1 

(218.)  What  was  the  state  of  affairs  in  Spain  at  this  time? 
What  plan  was  devised  by  Cardinal  Alberoni,  and  how  did  he 
attempt  to  carry  it  into  execution  1  Between  what  parties  was  the 
quadruple  alliance  concluded  1  What  was  its  chief  object  1  What 
concessions  did  it  extort  from  Philip  1  What  became  of  Alberoni  1 
How  was  Philip  in  some  degree  recompensed  for  these  concessions  1 
What  exchange  of  territory  was  effected  between  the  Emperor  and 
Savoy  1 

(219.)  Why  did  Charles  VI.  publish  the  pragmatic  sanction  ? 
Whom  did  he  declare  heiress  of  the  Austrian  states  1  What  was 
the  grand  object  of  his  government  during  the  remainder  of  his 
life'? 

(220.)  Who  persuaded  the  Polish  nobles  to  restore  Stanislaus 
Lesczinsky  1  By  whom  was  the  Elector  of  Saxony  supported  1 
What  became  of  Stanislaus  1  What  princes  declared  war  against 
the  emperor  in  consequence  of  his  expulsion  1  What  countries 
were  occupied  by  the  allies!  In  what  year,  and  where,  was  a 
peace  at  last  concluded  1  What  indemnification  did  Stanislaus  re- 
ceive for  the  renunciation  of  his  claims  to  the  crown  of  Poland  ? 
On  whom  was  the  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany  settled'?  By  the  ex- 
tinction of  what  house  had  it  become  vacant  7  On  whom  was  the 
crown  of  the  two  Sicilies  bestowed  1  What  territories  did  he  re- 
linquish to  the  emperor  1 

(221.)  Of  what  Turkish  province  did  the  Empress  Anne  take 
possession  1  By  whom  and  at  what  peace  had  it  been  ceded  to  the 
Turks  1 

(222.)  Explain  the  genealogical  table  of  the  house  of  Bourbon 
in  France,  Spain,  the  two  Sicilies,  and  Parma. 

(223.)  By  whom  and  in  how  many  engagements  were  the 
armies  of  the  Emperor  Charles  defeated  1  To  what  circumstance 
do  you  attribute  these  defeats  1  What  concessions  were  made  to 
the  Porte  at  the  peace  of  Belgrade  by  the  Austrians  and  the 
Empress  Anne  of  Russia  1 

$  28.     Prussia  under  her  two  First  Kings. 

(224.)  Of  what  territories  did  Frederick  I.  become  possessed 
after  the  death  of  William  III.  of  England  1  By  what  states,  and 
after  the  extinction  of  what  house,  was  he  recognized  as  heir  of 
the  house  of  Nassau-Chalons-Orange  1 

(225.)  What  was  the  character  of  Frederick  William  1. 1  What 
was  his  only  expensive  amusement. 


300  QUESTIONS    TO   HANDBOOK  [226 230. 

(226.)  What  amount  of  treasure  was  amassed  by  Frederick 
William  1  What  sort  of  an  army  did  he  leave  to  his  successor  1 
What  improvements  did  he  effect  1  What  indemnification  did  he 
receive  at  the  peace  of  Utrecht  1  For  what  sacrifice  1  What  ter- 
ritories did  he  acquire  by  the  peace  of  Stockholm  7  On  what 
terms  did  he  live  with  his  son  Frederick  1  For  what  offence  was 
Frederick  imprisoned  at  Kiistrin  1  What  punishment  was  inflicted 
on  his  accomplice  Katte  1  By  whose  intercession  was  Frederick 
himself  rescued  from  death  1  In  consequence  of  what  marriage 
was  he  reconciled  to  his  father  1  Where  did  he  reside  until  his 
accession  in  1740 1  Who  was  his  favorite  associate  1 

§  29.   War  of  the  Austrian  succession,  and  the  two  first  Silesian  wars. 

(227.)  By  whom  was  the  accession  of  Maria  Theresa  opposed  7 
On  what  grounds  1  By  whom  were  they  supported  7 

(228.)  What  ancient  claim  was  revived  by  Frederick  the  Great  7 
What  war  was  occasioned  by  the  refusal  of  Maria  Theresa  to  re- 
cognize these  claims  7 

(229.)  What  country  was  conquered  at  the  commencement  of 
the  war  7  In  what  battle  were  the  Prussian  troops  victorious  7 
Through  whose  skill  and  valor  7  What  countries  did  Frederick 
overrun  in  the  following  year  7  Where  did  he  gain  a  second  vic- 
tory 7  What  increase  of  territory  did  he  obtain  at  the  peace  of 
Breslau  7  What  advantage  did  the  empress  gain  by  these  conces- 
sions 7  By  whom  was  Charles  Albert  supported  ?  Of  what  coun- 
tries did  he  assume  the  sovereignty  7  What  assistance  did  Maria 
Theresa  receive  from  England  and  Holland  7  What  effect  was  pro- 
duced by  her  appearance  at  the  Hungarian  diet  7  Of  what  coun- 
tries did  they  recover  possession  7  Out  of  what  country  was 
Charles  VII.  driven  by  the  Austrians  7  Where  was  Maria  Theresa 
proclaimed  7  Of  what  nations  was  the  pragmatic  army  composed  7 
By  whom  was  it  commanded  7  In  what  battle  did  it  defeat  the 
French  7  What  fresh  alliance  was  produced  by  these  events  7 
Why  did  Frederick  II.  join  the  confederacy  7 

(230.)  What  country  did  Frederick  invade  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  second  Silesian  war  7  What  name  did  he  give  to  his 
troops  7  Of  what  country  did  the  Imperialists  regain  possession  at 
the  same  time  7  By  whom  was  Charles  VII.  succeeded  on  the  im- 
perial throne  7  Who  had  previously  renounced  all  claim  to  the 
Austrian  succession  7  For  what  purpose  was  England  compelled 
to  withdraw  her  troops  from  the  continent  7  Where  had  the  Pre- 
tender landed  7  In  what  power  did  Austria  find  a  new  ally  7 
What  advantage  had  been  gained  by  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine  7 
By  whom  and  where  was  he  afterwards  defeated  7  What  plan  was 
rendered  abortive  by  the  victory  of  Kesselsdorf7  What  advantage 
did  Frederick  gain  by  the  peace  of  Dresden  7  Of  what  country 
had  the  French  in  the  mean  time  obtained  possession  7  By  whom 
was  their  army  commanded  7  What  provinces  remained  uncon- 
quered  7  By  what  forces  was  the  war  in  Italy  prosecuted  7  With 
what  result  7  By  what  sovereign  was  an  army  dispatched  to  the 


231 234.]  OF    MODERN   HISTORY.  301 

Rhine  in  1748 1    On  what  terms  was  peace  concluded  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  1 

$  30.  The  Third  Silesian ;  or,  Seven  Years'  War. 

(231.)  What  was  the  policy  of  Maria  Theresa  after  the  peace 
of  Dresden  1  Who  was  her  adviser  1  What  representation  had  she 
made  to  the  Empress  of  Russia  7  What  was  the  substance  of  the 
secret  treaty  concluded  between  the  two  empresses'?  Was  any 
other  court  a  party  to  this  treaty  1  Who  was  prime  minister  at 
this  court  1  What  misunderstanding  occasioned  a  war  between 
England  and  France  1  Why  did  England  conclude  an  alliance  with 
Frederick  of  Prussia  1  With  what  power  did  Austria  ally  herself? 
What  was  her  object  in  forming  this  alliance  7 

(232.)  How  did  Frederick  anticipate  the  movements  of  his  ene- 
mies 1  To  what  city  did  he  lay  siege  7  Where  did  he  blockade 
the  Saxon  army  1  With  what  force  and  where  did  he  defeat  the 
enemy  7  Why  did  he  divide  his  forces  1  Where  did  he  pass  the 
winter  7  What  became  of  the  Saxon  troops  blockaded  at  Pirna  1 

(233.)  What  circumstance  compelled  the  French  to  conclude 
an  alliance  against  Prussia  1  With  what  powers  was  the  alliance 
concluded  1  Did  any  other  power  become  a  party  to  this  treaty  1 
With  what  view  1  To  whom  did  Frederick  now  leave  the  duty  of 
keeping  the  French  at  bay  1  Against  whom  did  he  advance  1 
What  support  did  Austria  receive  from  the  other  powers  1  What 
amount  of  force  was  brought  into  the  field  by  the  Austrians  and 
Prussians  respectively  1  What  generals  were  defeated  in  the  battle 
of  Prague  1  What  Prussian  officer  of  rank  lost  his  life  in  the  bat- 
tle 1  Where  did  the  greater  part  of  the  defeated  army  take 
refuge  7  Where  and  by  whom  was  Frederick  for  the  first  time  de- 
feated 1  What  course  did  this  check  compel  him  to  adopt  1  With 
whom  were  the  French  engaged  at  the  battle  of  Hastenbeck  7 
What  was  the  result  of  that  battle  1  Who  commanded  the  allies  of 
Frederick'?  Did  the  French  avail  themselves  of  the  advantage 
which  they  had  gained  1  Between  whom  and  with  what  result 
was  the  battle  of  Grossjagerndorf  fought  1  Which  party  was  vic- 
torious in  the  battle  of  Rossbach  1  To  whom  was  Frederick  mainly 
indebted  for  this  victory  7  How  was  he  prevented  from  forming  a 
junction  with  the  Duke  of  Bevern  7  What  fortresses  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  conqueror  7  With  what  amount  of  force  did  Freder- 
ick attempt  the  reconquest  of  Silesia  7  How  many  men  had  the 
Austrians  7  What  was  the  event  of  the  battle  of  Leuthen  7  What 
important  advantage  did  Frederick  gain  by  this  victory  7  How 
was  the  king  employed  during  the  winter  7  Against  whom  was  the 
campaign  of  1758  carried  on  in  the  east  and  west  7  Who  com- 
manded the  Prussians  and  their  allies  7  How  did  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick  open  the  campaign  7  Which  party  was  victorious  at  the 
battle  of  Crefeld  7 

(234.)  To  what  circumstance  do  you  attribute  this  disaster  as 
well  as  the  other  failures  of  the  French  7  What  important  fortress 
now  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Prussians  7  For  what  purpose  did 


302  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [235 — 239. 

Frederick  march  into  Moravia  1  Why  did  he  return  to  Silesia  ? 
Where  did  he  attack  the  Russians,  and  with  what  result7?  To 
whom  was  he  mainly  indebted  for  this  victory  7  What  disaster 
befell  Frederick  at  Hochkirch  1  Did  this  misfortune  produce  any 
further  results  1 

(235.)  Enumerate  the  circumstances  which  compelled  Frederick 
to  confine  himself  to  a  defensive  war  in  1759.  What  operations 
were  carried  on  by  the  Russians  on  the  bank  of  the  Oder  1  Where 
did  Frederick  attack  the  Russians,  and  with  what  success  1  Who 
changed  the  fortune  of  the  day  1  What  distinguished  poet  fell  in 
this  battle  7  What  advice  was  given  by  Laudon  to  the  conqueror  1 
What  reason  had  he  in  all  probability  for  not  adopting  this  course  ? 
By  what  disputes  was  the  prosecution  of  the  war  retarded  ?  How 
was  Frederick  relieved  from  all  apprehension  of  an  attack  on  his 
eastern  frontier  1  To  whom  were  the  fortresses  in  Saxony  surren- 
dered'? What  disaster  befell  General  Fink  7  By  whom  and 
where  was  Duke  Frederick  of  Brunswick  defeated  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  campaign  1  By  what  victory  was  this  disgrace 
afterwards  obliterated  1 

(236.)  What  misfortune  befell  the  Prussian  troops  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  year  1760?  What  city  did  Frederick  ineffec- 
tually attempt  to  reduce  7  What  fortress  did  he  surrender  to  the 
Austrians?  Where  did  he  encamp,  and  why  did  he  shift  his 

Siarters  1    Where  and  with  what  result  did  he  engage  Laudon  1 
ow  was  he  enabled  to  rescue  Silesia  7    To  whom  was  Frederick 
in  a  great  measure  indebted  for  his  victory  at  Torgau?    What 
were  the  consequences  of  this  victory  7     For  what  purpose  was  the 
war  prosecuted  in  the  west  7 

(237.)  By  what  events  were  the  hopes  of  peace  destroyed  in 
1761  7  What  heavy  loss  was  sustained  by  Frederick  at  this  time  1 
(238.)  By  what  event  was  Frederick  unexpectedly  extricated 
from  his  difficulties  1  What  assistance  did  he  receive  from  Peter  II.  1 
How  long  did  this  emperor  reign,  and  what  was  his  fate  7  By 
whom  was  he  succeeded'?  What  battle  was  fought  previously 
to  the  withdrawal  of  the  Russian  troops  from  Silesia  1  Who  was 
defeated  in  that  battle  7  What  important  event  occurred  between 
the  date  of  this  battle  and  the  conclusion  of  peace  7  Where,  be- 
tween what  parties,  and  on  what  terms  was  peace  concluded? 
What  rank  was  now  assigned  to  Prussia  7 

§  31.     The  Emperor  Joseph,  II.,  1765—1790.     Frederick"  the  Great 
after  the  Seven  Years'  War. 

(239.)  Who  succeeded  Augustus  III.  on  the  throne  of  Poland  7 
By  whom  was  he  elected,  and  at  whose  instigation  7  What  privi- 
leges were  granted  to  the  Protestants  and  members  of  the  Greek 
Church  7  By  whose  advice  7  What  was  the  immediate  effect  of 
these  concessions  7  Between  what  parties  was  this  civil  war  car- 
ried  on  7  Between  what  nations  did  a  war  break  out  soon  after- 
wards 7  Which  of  these  parties  was  generally  victorious  7  Men- 
tion :some  of  the  important  advantages  gained  by  them.  What 


240 — 245.]  OF   MODHRN   HISTORY.  303 

measures  were  adopted  by  Austria  in  consequence  of  this  aggran- 
dizement of  Russia  1  Under  what  pretence  was  this  example  fol- 
lowed by  Prussia  ?  What  plan  was  at  length  adopted  for  preserv- 
ing the  balance  of  power  7 

(240.)  Among  what  powers  was  Poland  divided,  and  what 
provinces-did  each  receive  1  "What  province  did  Prussia  recover  1 
Of  how  great  a  portion  of  the  kingdom  was  the  king  deprived  by 
this  arrangement  1 

(241.)  Who  took  possession  of  the  Bavarian  dominions  after  the 
death  of  the  last  elector  ?  On  what  were  his  claims  founded  1 
Whose  claims  to  a  portion  of  this  territory  were  allowed  by  the 
Elector  Palatine  1  By  whom  was  this  compact  disputed  7  On 
whose  advice  did  he  act  1  At  what  peace,  and  in  consequence  of 
what  circumstances,  did  the  emperor  withdraw  his  claim  on  Bava- 
ria 1  Did  he  retain  any  portion?  What  advantage  did  Austria 
gain  by  the  annexation  of  this  territory ? 

(242.)  What  was  the  character  of  Maria  Theresa  1  With  whom 
had  she  shared  her  throne  ?  In  whose  hands  had  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment virtually  remained  1  For  what  benefits  was  Austria  in- 
debted to  this  sovereign  1  How  was  she  enabled  to  maintain  her 
position  among  the  European  powers  ?  What  plans  were  brought 
forward  by  Joseph  II.  immediately  after  his  mother's  death  1  What 
was  the  character  of  this  new  monarch  1  To  what  cause  may  we 
attribute  the  failure  of  most  of  his  plans'?  Give  one  or  two  in- 
stances. What  was  the  ground  of  his  quarrel  with  Pope  Pius  VI.  1 
How  did  he  treat  the  remonstrances  of  the  pope1?  Were  his  plans 
afterwards  modified  ?  What  was  his  favorite  scheme,  and  what 
proposal  did  he  make  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  it  into  eifect  1 
By  whose  advice  was  this  proposal  made?  What  promise  was 
made  to  the  elector  ?  By  whom  was  this  proposal  rejected  1 
Under  whose  auspices  was  a  confederation  formed  in  1785,  and  of 
what  sovereigns  did  it  consist?  What  was  its  object?  What 
name  was  given  to  this  confederation  ?  Was  the  number  of  its 
members  ever  increased  ? 

(243.)  For  how  long  a  period  did  Frederick  II.  maintain  peace  ? 
What  measures  did  he  adopt  for  securing  to  Prussia  the  rank  which 
she  had  recently  assumed  among  European  nations  ?  How  was 
this  force  supported?  What  important  reforms  did  he  eifect? 
How  long  did  Frederick  reign?  Give  a  sketch  of  his  character. 
In  what  particulars* was  he  worthy  of  censure?  What  was  his 
greatest  protection  against  the  designs  of  other  governments? 
How  did  Frederick  pass  his  leisure  hours  ?  To  what  circumstance 
do  you  ascribe  his  preference  of  the  French  language  ? 

(244.)  When  did  Frederick  II.  die,  and  by  whom  was  he  suc- 
ceeded ?  What  provinces  had  he  annexed  to  Prussia  ?  What 
amount  of  treasure  did  he  leave  to  his  successor  ?  What  number 
of  soldiers  ?  What  title  had  he  assumed  since  the  annexation  of 
West  Prussia  ? 

(245.)  By  what  people  were  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  re- 
forms of  Joseph  II.  opposed  ?  By  whom  were  they  headed  ? 
What  was  the  result  of  this  opposition?  Under  what  circum- 


304  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [246 250. 

stances,  and  in  whose  reign  did  the  revolted  provinces  return  to 
their  allegiance  7  By  whom,  and  in  conjunction  with  what  ally, 
was  a  Turkish  war  undertaken  1  With  what  results'?  By  whom 
and  on  what  terms  was  peace  concluded  1 

$  32.  France. 

(246.)  In  what  sort  of  difficulties  was  France  involved  by  the 
wars  of  Louis  XIV  7 

(247.)  By  whom  was  he  succeeded?  Under  whose  guardian- 
ship did  he  commence  his  reign  1  By  whose  advice  was  a  bank  of 
issue  established  1  What  joint-stock  company  was  established  at 
the  same  time  7  What  grant  did  the  king  make  to  this  com- 
pany 7  What  circumstance  occasioned  the  bankruptcy  of  the 
company  1 

(248.)  In  what  year,  and  after  whose  death,  did  Louis  assume 
the  reins  of  government  1  Whom  did  he  marry  1  To  whom  did 
he  leave  the  entire  management  of  affairs  1  What  was  the  effect 
of  this  minister's  policy  7  How  did  the  first  Austrian  war  of  suc- 
cession end  7  To  what  do  you  ascribe  the  inauspicious  commence- 
ment of  the  second  war  7  How  were  these  losses  repaired  7  By 
what  favorite  was  the  king  now  governed  7  Through  whose  influ- 
ence was  a  treaty  concluded  with  the  court  of  Vienna,  and  what 
was  its  effect  on  French  politics  7  In  what  war  was  France  in- 
volved through  this  alliance  7  Was  she  engaged  in  any  other  war 
at  the  same  time  7  How  long  did  it  continue,  and  how  did  it 
terminate  7  Of  what  persons  was  the  so-called  school  of  philoso- 
phers composed  7  and  what  effect  had  their  teaching  on  the 
morals  of  the  French  people  7  What  was  their  grand  object,  and 
how  was  it  advanced  7  What  other  name  had  these  philosophers  7 
In  conjunction  with  whom  did  they  obtain  an  ordonnance  from 
the  king  7  For  the  suppression  of  what  order  7  On  what 
grounds  7  By  whom  was  Louis  governed  towards  the  close 
of  his  life  7  What  effect  had  her  extravagance  on  the  ex- 
chequer 7 

(249.)  By  whom  was  Louis  XV.  succeeded  7  What  was  the 
character  of  this  monarch  7  State  at  length  the  causes  to  which 
we  may  ascribe  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution.  To 
what  circumstances  do  you  attribute  the  large  annual  deficit  in 
the, public  accounts  7 

$  33.    Great  Britain. 

(250.)  By  whom  was  William  III.  succeeded  7  By  what  po- 
litical party  was  her  policy  dictated  during  the  greater  part  of 
her  reign  7  Who  were  her  most  influential  advisers  7  On  what 
terms  was  the  union  between  England  and  Scotland  accomplished  7 
By  whom  were  the  attempts  of  Anne  to  obtain  the  settlement  of 
the  crown  on  her  step-brother  frustrated  7  On  what  ground  did 
they  oppose  the  wishes  of  the  queen  7 


251 255.]  OF   MODERN   HISTORY.  305 

(251.)  What  family  did  they  place  on  the  throne  after  her 
death  7  Who  was  the  first  sovereign  of  this  dynasty  1  How  was 
he  related  to  the  house  of  Stuart  1  Who  was-  his  prime  minister  7 
Whom  did  George  II.  retain  as  his  prime  minister  7  Of  what  op- 
portunity did  France  avail  herself  for  a  last  attempt  to  restore  the 
Stuarts  1  Where  was  the  pretender  defeated  1  Why  did  George 
II.  send  an  army  into  Germany  1  What  war  was  at  the  same  time 
carried  on  by  England  1  Where  had  this  war  broken  out  in  the 
first  instance  1  In  consequence  of  what  dispute  7  By  whom  was 
the  superiority  of  the  British  arms  restored  1  Mention  one  of  the 
most  important  victories  gained  by  the  British  in  America.  Be- 
tween what  courts  was  a  treaty  concluded  1  For  what  purpose  7 
Who  succeeded  George  II.  1 

(252.)  Why  did  Pitt  resign  his  office  7  What  important  acces- 
sion of  territory  did  Great  Britain  obtain  at  the  peace  of  Paris  7 
Did  she  acquire  any  other  provinces  1 

(253.)  State  the  condition  of  England,  and  how  brought  about. 
What  part  had  the  colonies  in  the  matter  1  What  had  they  con- 
tributed, and  to  what  extent  1  What  control  had  the  mother 
country  exercised'?  What  new  claim  was  now  set  up  1  What 
measures  were  attempted  7  How  did  the  colonists  act  1  What 
other  duties  were  attempted  to  be  imposed  1  What  was  done  with 
the  cargoes  of  tea  7  What  did  England  do  7  Where  and  when  did 
the  first  Congress  assemble  7  When  and  where  did  hostilities 
commence  1  What  were  the  original  thirteen  United  States  1 
When  was  independence  declared  1  Who  commanded  the  Ame- 
rican troops  1  What  was  his  military  character  1  In  what  war 
had  he  already  distinguished  himself?  Through  whose  exertions 
was  an  alliance  concluded  between  France  and  America  1  What 
powers  afterwards  became  parties  to  this  league  1  At  whose  in- 
stigation, and  for  what  purpose,  did  the  northern  powers  form  a 
league  7  By  whom  were  they  supported  1 

(254.)  Into  what  quarters  of  the  world  was  the  war  carried  in 
consequence  of  these  movements  1  What  proposal  was  made  by 
the  English  government,  and  why  was  it  refused  1  How  many 
engagements  were  fought  1  What  great  naval  battles  were  fought, 
and  what  was  the  result  1  How  were  the  attempts  of  the  Spaniards 
and  French  to  retake  Gibraltar  frustrated  1  What  places  were 
taken  by  the  English  1  By  whom  and  in  what  battle  was  the 
event  of  the  American  war  decided  1  Where  and  in  what  year 
was  peace  concluded  1  To  what  terms  was  England  compelled  to 
submit  1  What  sacrifice  of  territory  was  made  by  the  Dutch  1 
What  was  the  condition  of  the  United  States  at  the  close  of  the 
war  1  When  was  the  Federal  Constitution  adopted  7  In  whom 
is  the  legislative  authority  vested  7  The  judicial  1  The  execu- 
tive 1  Who  was  the  first  president  7  When  and  where  inaugu- 
rated 1 

(255.)  What  attempts  were  made  by  European  nations  in 
India  7  From  what  events  do  you  date  the  commencement  of 
these  attempts  7  Of  what  province  had  England  obtained  posses- 
sion 7  Through  whose  victories  7  Between  what  Indian  powers 


306  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [256 — 260. 

was  a  league  formed  against  Great  Britain  7  With  whom  did  the 
French  conclude  an  alliance  at  the  same  time  1  Through  whose 
prudence  and  energy  was  the  supremacy  of  the  East  India 
Company  maintained  at  this  crisis  7  Who  was  Tippoo  Sahib  1 
Under  what  circumstances  was  he  compelled  to  purchase  peace  7 
By  what  sacrifices  7 

(256.)  Under  what  circumstances,  and  hy  whom  was  the  East 
India  bill  brought  forward  1  What  were  its  provisions  1  By  whose 
discoveries  was  an  addition  made  to  the  colonial  possessions  of 
England  1  How  often  did  he  sail  around  the  world  1  What  coast 
did  he  visit  in  his  first  voyage  7  What  countries  did  he  discover 
in  the  second  7  How  far  did  he  penetrate,  and  in  what  expecta- 
tion was  he  disappointed  7  What  straits  did  he  survey  in  his  third 
voyage,  and  what  was  his  fate  7 

§  34.  Spain  under  the  Bourbons,  from  1701. 

(257.)  What  possessions  were  given  up  hy  Spain  at  the  peace 
of  Utrecht  7  By  whom  were  attempts  made  to  recover  them  7 
How  were  these  attempts  frustrated  7  To  whom  did  the  two  Si- 
cilies revert  7  At  the  close  of  what  war  7  On  whom  was  Parma 
settled  7  Under  what  sovereign  was  the  nation  deprived  of  its 
constitutional  privileges  7  Were  any  provinces  excepted  7  In  what 
war  was  Charles  III.  involved  7  In  consequence  of  what  compact  7 
Against  what  powers  had  he  been  unsuccessful  7  What  province 
was  he  compelled  to  cede  at  the  peace  of  Paris  7  When  did  he 
recover  it  7  What  fortified  places  did  he  attack,  and  with  what 
success  7  Why  were  the  Jesuits  expelled  from  the  Spanish  do- 
minions 7 

§  35.  Portugal  under  the  house  of  Braganza,  from  1640. 

(258  )  What  was  the  condition  of  Portugal  under  the  first  kings 
of  the  house  of  Braganza  7  What  colonies  did  she  recover  7  To 
what  circumstance  do  you  attribute  her  decline  7  By  whom  was 
her  commercial  system  reformed  7 

(259.)  What  measures  did  he  adopt  for  the  protection  of  native 
industry  7  By  what  calamity  had  a  portion  of  Lisbon  been  de- 
stroyed 7  When  was  it  restored  7  How  was  money  raised  to  meet 
these  expenses  7  What  occurrence  afforded  the  minister  an  excuse 
for  banishing  the  Jesuits  7  By  whom  was  Joseph  I.  succeeded  7 
How  did  she  treat  Pombal  7  Which  of  the  ordonnances  issued 
during  his  administration  remained  in  force  7 

§36.  Italy. 

(260.)  What  countries  continued  to  be  dependencies  of  Spain 
as  long  as  the  throne  of  that  country  was  occupied  by  the  family 
of  Hapsburg  7  To  what  power  were  they  ceded  at  the  peace  of 
Utrecht  7  What  became  of  Sicily  7 


261 267.]  OF    MODERN   HISTORY.  307 

(261.)  When  and  under  whom  did  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Si- 
cilies regain  its  independence  1  What  calamity  befell  Calabria  and 
Sicily  in  1783  7 

(262.)  What  accession  of  territory  did  Savoy  obtain  at  the 
peace  of  Utrecht  7  For  what  island  was  she  compelled  to  exchange 
it  7  By  the  addition  of  what  provinces  were  her  territories  subse- 
quently augmented"?  Of  what  country  did  Austria  become  a 
province  7  To  what  family  did  Modena  remain  subject  1  On 
whom  were  Parma  and  Piacenza  settled  7  After  the  extinction  of 
what  family  7  To  what  country  were  they  afterwards  annexed  7 
To  whom  were  the  duchies  restored  at  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle  7 

(263.)  Of  what  island  was  Venice  deprived  by  the  Turks  7 
What  provinces  did  she  obtain  from  them  at  the  peace  of  Carlo- 
witz  7  What  insurrection  was  suppressed  by  Genoa  7  With  the 
assistance  of  what  power  7  By  whom  was  the  insurrection  headed  7 
What  became  of  him  7  By  whom  was  a  subsequent  insurrection 
headed  7  What  step  was  taken  by  the  Genoese  senate  in  conse 
quence  of  this  insurrection  7  What  became  of  Paoli  7  What 
attempt  did  he  make  at  a  later  period,  and  by  whom  was  he  as 
sisted  7 

(364.)  To  whom  did  the  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany  descend  after 
the  extinction  of  the  Medici  family  7  Of  what  family  did  it  after- 
wards become  a  possession  7  On  whom  was  the  grand  duchy  set- 
tled, when  Joseph  IT.  was  elected  Roman  king  7 

(265.)  What  provinces  were  recovered  by  the  states  of  the 
Church  7 

§37.  Denmark. 

(266.)  What  countries  belonged  to  Denmark  7  What  provinces 
were  subsequently  acquired  7  From  what  date,  and  during  how 
many  years,  did  Denmark  enjoy  peace  7  Under  what  sovereigns  7 
Under  whose  administration  did  Denmark  become  a  flourishing 
kingdom  7  By  whom,  and  in  what  reign,  was  this  minister  sup- 
planted 7  What  was  his  fate  7  By  what  arrangement  were  the 
disputes  terminated  between  Denmark  and  the  ducal  line  of  Got- 
torp  7  On  whom  was  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg  settled  7  What  prov- 
ince was  annexed  to  Denmark  at  the  same  time  7 


(267.)  What  was  the  condition  of  Sweden  at  the  close  of  the 
northern  war  7  By  what  names  were  the  factions  distinguished  7 
What  attempt  occasioned  the  loss  of  a  portion  of  Finland  7  Who 
was  the  first  king  of  the  house  of  Holstein-Gottorp  7  How  were 
the  powers  of  the  crown  restricted  in  his  reign  7  By  what  expen- 
diture was  the  exchequer  drained  7  By  whom  was  this  aristocratic 
tyranny  successfully  resisted  7  In  whom  was  the  executive  au- 
thority now  vested  7  How  were  his  powers  limited  7  To  what 
combination  of  favorable  circumstances  do  you  attribute  the  popu- 


308  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [268 274. 

larity  of  this  sovereign  7  By  whom  was  he  perseveringly  opposed  1 
What  alliance  did  he  renew  7  What  was  his  probable  motive  for 
this  irregular  proceeding  1 

(268.)  What  act  did  he  persuade  the  diet  to  pass  7  In  conse- 
quence of  what  opposition  1  How  did  the  war  terminate  7  What 
was  the  fate  of  Gustavus  III.  7 

§39.  Russia. 

(269.)  What  city  was  built  by  Peter  the  Great  during  the 
northern  war  1  How  was  it  peopled  1  To  what  rank  was  it  ele- 
vated 7  By  whom  were  his  reforms  resisted  7  Who  was  at  the 
head  of  this  movement  1  What  punishment  was  inflicted  on  him  1 
What  title  did  Peter  assume  after  the  war  1  What  law  was  passed 
in  1722  1  In  what  year  did  Peter  die  7  What  was  the  immediate 
cause  of  his  death  1  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  7  What  was  the 
name  of  her  favorite  1  Who  succeeded  her  7  By  whom  and  in 
what  manner  was  the  foundation  laid  of  Russian  influence  in  Po- 
land 1  Who  were  her  ministers  1  In  what  war  did  she  join  Aus- 
tria 7  Who  was  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Russian  forces, 
and  by  what  name  was  he  distinguished  7  To  what  circumstance 
do  you  ascribe  the  inglorious  termination  of  the  war  7  Was  any 
advantage  gained  by  Russia  7  By  whom  was  Anne  succeeded  7 
How  long  did  he  reign,  and  in  favor  of  whom  was  he  set  aside  7 


§  40.  The  houses  of  Romanow  and  Holstein-  Gottorp,  in  Russia. 

(270.)  Give  the  pedigree  of  these  houses. 

(271.)  What  punishment  did  Elizabeth  inflict  on  the  ministers 
of  the  late  sovereign  7  Under  whose  guidance  did  she  then  place 
herself  7  What  became  of  him  7  By  what  peace  was  the  war  with 
Sweden  terminated  7  What  accession  of  territory  did  Elizabeth 
obtain  by  this  peace  7  By  what  act  on  the  part  of  the  Russian 
government  was  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  hastened  7  By  what 
personal  feelings  were  the  bonds  of  Elizabeth's  union  with  Austria 
strengthened  during  the  seven  years'  war  7  Whom  did  Elizabeth 
nominate  as  her  successor  7 

(272.)  Of  what  monarch  was  Peter  III.  a  personal  friend  7  With 
what  power  did  he  conclude  an  alliance  7  With  what  reforms  did 
he  commence  his  reign  7  How  long  did  he  reign,  and  what  was  his 
fate  7 

(273.)  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  7  What  great  sovereign 
did  she  choose  as  her  model  7  Whom  did  she  place  on  the  throne 
of  Poland  7  Between  what  parties  did  her  policy  excite  a  civil 
war  7  By  whom  was  the  king  supported  7  Which  of  the  Euro- 
pean powers  declared  war  against  Catherine  7  On  what  grounds  7 

(274.)  Which  of  the  two  belligerents  was  for  the  most  part 
successful  in  this  war  7  From  what  cause  7  When  and  by  whom 
was  the  Turkish  fleet  destroyed  7  Through  whose  mediation  was 
an  armistice  concluded  7  What  circumstance  occasioned  a  re- 


275 — 283.]  OF  MODERN  HISTORY.  309 

newal  of  the  war  ?  By  what  troubles  was  the  Russian  empire  at 
this  time  distracted  1  Where  was  a  peace  concluded  7  What 
favorable  occurrence  enabled  the  Russians  to  negotiate  this 
peace  1  On  what  terms  was  it  concluded  1  What  benefits  did 
Catherine  confer  on  Poland  after  the  first  partition  of  that  king- 
dom 1  Who  was  the  principal  favorite  of  Catherine,  and  what  was 
his  character  7  To  what  rank  had  he  been  raised  by  Joseph  II.  1 
For  how  many  years  and  in  what  manner  did  he  exercise  his  au- 
thority 7 

(275.)  What  projects  occupied  the  attention  of  Catherine  after 
the  first  Turkish  war  1  How  was  the  first  of  these  projects  pro- 
moted ?  What  was  the  first  step  taken  by  Potemkin  towards  the 
,  accomplishment  of  the  second  plan  1  By  whom  had  it  been  de- 
'  vised  7  What  deception  did  Potemkin  practise,  and  by  what  nick- 
name was  he  distinguished  in  consequence  1  Between  what  sove- 
reigns did  a  meeting  take  place  during  this  progress  7  What  was 
the  immediate  consequence  of  this  meeting  1  By  what  powers  was 
the  Porte  supported  1 

(276.)  By  whom  and  in  how  many  battles  were  the  Turks  de- 
feated 1  After  what  event  was  peace  concluded  between  Austria 
and  the  Porte  1  What  country  had  already  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Turks  1  What  province  of  the  Russian  empire  was  in- 
vaded, and  by  whom  1  By  what  powers  was  Catherine  threatened  1 
After  whose  death,  and  in  consequence  of  what  circumstances,  was 
she  compelled  to  conclude  a  peace  1  With  what  territory  was  she 
now  obliged  to  content  herself? 

(277.)  By  whom  were  the  measures  of  improvement  com- 
menced by  Peter  I.  fully  carried  out  1  Give  an  account  of  her  re- 
forms. From  what  country  chiefly  were  colonists  brought  into 
Russia  7 

§41.   The  Osmanic  Empire. 

(278.)  To  what  causes  do  you  attribute  the  decay  of  the  Os- 
manic empire  7  How  was  its  utter  ruin  prevented  1 


$42.    Causes  and  immediate  occasion  of  the  French  Revolution. 

(279.)  In  what  reign  was  the  enormous  public  debt  contracted, 
and  how  was  it  augmented  1 

(280.)  By  what  classes  were  the  public  burdens  almost  exclu- 
sively borne  1 

(281.)  To  what  object  were  the  endeavors  of  the  Encyclopae- 
dists directed  1 

(282.)  What  do  you  mean  by  "lettres  de  cachet  V 

(283.)  What  was  the  immediate  occasion  of  the  revolutionary 
outbreak  1  What  notions  had  been  acquired  by  the  French  soj- 
diers  during  the  American  war  1  Who  was  first  minister  of  finance 
at  this  time,  and  what  plan  did  he  propose  1  By  whom  was  he 
succeeded,  and  what  was  the  result  of  his  policy  1  What  body 


310  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [284 286 

was  called  together  by  Calonne ,  and  what  plan  did  he  lay  before 
them  7  Of  what  classes  was  this  assembly  chiefly  composed  1 
Through  whose  influence  was  this  minister  removed  from  office  1 
By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1  What  body  did  he  call  together, 
and  what  was  the  result  1  Under  what  circumstances  was  Brienne 
dismissed,  and  by  whom  was  he  succeeded  1  What  body  was  now 
summoned  to  assemble  at  Versailles  7  What  dispute  arose  at  their 
first  meeting  1  What  extraordinary  proceeding  was  adopted  by 
the  third  estate  7  By  whose  advice  7  Of  what  great  movement  do 
you  consider  this  the  commencement  7  What  plan  was  adopted  by 
Bailly,  in  consequence  of  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  king  to 
prevent  the  meetings  of  this  assembly  7 


§  43.   The  constituent  National  Assembly. 

(284.)  By  which  of  the  estates  was  the  separation  still  opposed  1 
Were  they  joined  by  any  other  estate  7  What  proclamation  was 
issued  by  the  king  7  To  what  subject  was  the  attention  of  this  as- 
sembly chiefly  directed  7  What  circumstances  occasioned  an  in- 
surrection on  the  13th  and  14th  of  July  7  By  whom  were  the  in- 
surgents addressed  7  What  were  their  first  acts  7  What  measures 
were  then  adopted  by  the  government  7  By  what  concession  on 
the  part  of  Louis  XVI.  were  the  populace  appeased  7  What  course 
was  adopted  by  some  of  the  nobility  at  the  commencement  of  the 
Revolution  7  By  whom  was  an  army  assembled  on  the  frontier  7 
With  what  act  did  the  national  assembly  commence  their  proceed- 
ings 7  What  declaration  followed  7  What  further  resolution  did 
they  pass  7 

(285.)  By  what  circumstances  were  fresh  discontents  occa- 
sioned 7  What  act  of  violence  was  committed  on  the  6th  of 
October  7  By  whose  exertions  were  the  king  and  queen  rescued  7 
To  what  place  did  the  national  assembly  now  adjourn  its  session  7 

(286.)  What  questions  next  occupied  the  attention  of  the  as- 
sembly 7  Into  what  parties  were  the  members  divided  7  What 
was  the  result  of  their  deliberations  7  On  whom  was  the  primary 
elective  franchise  conferred  7  To  whom  was  it  at  first  refused  7 
By  what  name  were  these  primary  electors  known,  and  whom  did 
they  elect  7  What  number  of  representatives  was  returned  to  the 
national  assembly  7  By  whom  were  they  elected  7  Did  they  act 
in  any  other  capacity  7  From  what  body  were  the  municipal  au- 
thorities chosen  7  What  measure  of  finance  was  adopted  by  the 
assembly  7  At  whose  suggestion  7  What  attempt  was  made  to 
hasten  the  sale  of  Church  lands  7  Did  this  plan  succeed  7  What 
acts  were  passed  respecting  the  religious  orders  7  What  reform 
was  effected  in  the  administration  of  justice  7  What  acts  were 
passed  of  a  still  more  republican  character  7  What  concessions 
was  the  king  required  to  make  7  What  oath  did  he  take  7  What 
political  societies  were  formed  by  the  members  of  the  national  as- 
sembly 7  For  what  purpose  did  they  meet  7  Which  was  the  most 
important  of  these  societies  7  From  what  circumstance  did  they 


287 292.]  OF    MODERN   HISTORY.  311 

derive  their  name  1  "What  sort  of  influence  did  they  exercise  1 
What  occurrence  occasioned  the  resignation  of  Necker  1  What  was 
the  immediate  consequence  of  this  resignation  1  What  intention 
was  soon  afterwards  proclaimed  by  the  republicans  1  After  whose 
death  1 

(287.)  What  attempt  was  now  made  by  the  king  1  For  what 
purpose  1  How  was  this  attempt  frustrated  1  What  resolution  was 
passed  by  the  assembly,  after  the  return  of  the  king  to  Paris  1  By 
what  party  were  the  Republicans  opposed  on  this  occasion  7  With 
what  act  did  the  national  assembly  terminate  its  labors  1 

$  44.   The  Legislative  Assembly. 

(288.)  Of  how  many  deputies  did  the  new  legislative  assembly 
consist  1  Whence  did  the  Feuillants  derive  their  name  7  [See 
note.]  Which  was  the  strongest  party  in  the  assembly  1  Who 
composed  the  moderate  party  1  Who  were  the  Cordeliers,  whence 
did  they  derive  their  name,  and  who  were  their  leaders  1  By  whom 
were  some  of  the  highest  places  in  the  courts  of  justice  filled  1 
What  administration  was  at  last  formed  by  the  king,  and  what 
measures  was  he  compelled  to  adopt  7 

(269.)  To  what  acts  of. the  assembly  did  the  king  refuse  his  as- 
sent 1  What  was  the  immediate  consequence  of  this  refusal  1  What 
occasioned  the  second  attack  on  the  Tuileries  7  To  whom  did  Louis 
now  intrust  himself  1  What  decrees  were  passed  by  the  assembly  7 
How  did  they  treat  the  king  himself?  What  misfortune  befell  La- 
fayette 1  By  whom  and  under  what  circumstances  were  the  Pa- 
risian populace  persuaded  to  massacre  the  adherents  of  the  old 
regime  1  After  the  dissolution  of  the  legislative  assembly,  what 
was  the  form  of  government  1  Of  how  many  deputies  did  this 
convention  consist  1 

§45.   The  National  Convention. 

(290.)  By  what  parties  was  the  national  convention  distracted  7 
By  whom  were  the  Jacobins  headed  1  Which  of  these  parties  was 
the  stronger  1  To  what  circumstances  do  you  attribute  their  su- 
periority 1  What  change  in  the  form  of  government  was  proclaimed 
by  the  convention  in  their  first  session  1  By  what  party  was  an  at- 
tempt made  to  protect  the  king  1  On  what  charges  was  he  ar- 
raigned, and  what  was  the  result  of  his  trial  1  What  appeal  was 
rejected  7  When  and  where  was_the  sentence  of  the  court  carried 
into  execution  1 

(291.)  What  feeling  was  excited  by  this  act  of  treason  1  Against 
what  countries  did  the  republic  declare  war  7  In  what  part  of 
France  did  the  people  rise  against  the  government  7  By  what  act 
of  oppression  had  they  been  irritated  7 

(292.)  Between  what  parties  did  a  struggle  now  commence  7 
Under  what  circumstances  was  a  committee  of  public  safety  esta- 
blished 7  What  order  was  issued  by  the  assembly  7  By  whom  was 
it  compelled  to  issue  this  order  7  Whither  did  the  great  body  of 


312  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [293 299. 

Girondists  fly,  and  against  what  government  did  they  organize  an 
insurrection  7 

(293.)  What  plan  was  drawn  up  and  circulated  by  the  conven- 
tion 1  With  what  preparations  did  the  convention  then  occupy  it- 
self? What  was  the  fate  of  Marat  1 

(294.)  What  proposal  was  made  by  Carnot  at  this  time  1  How 
was  this  edict  carried  into  effect  1  What  cities  surrendered  to  the 
republican  forces  1  Where  did  Napoleon  win  his  first  laurels  1 
What  cruelties  were  practised  towards  the  insurgents  in  La  Ven- 
de'e  1  What  success  attended  the  operations  of  the  republican  ar- 
mies on  the  frontiers  1  What  distinguished  persons  were  put  to 
death  by  the  government  1  What  became  of  the  Girondists  who 
escaped  from  Paris  1 

(295.)  What  measures  were  adopted  in  the  departments  1  In 
what  manner  did  the  republican  government  endeavor  to  destroy 
all  reminiscences  of  former  times  1  What  acts  of  sacrilege  were 
committed  1  What  plan  of  Robespierre's  was  successfully  carried 
out  1  Who  were  guillotined  for  alleged  treason  against  the  Re- 
public 1  To  what  important  office  was  Robespierre  raised  7  What 
were  his  apparent  qualifications  for  this  office  1  What  law  was 
next  passed  by  the  convention  1  What  was  the  result  of  this  ini- 
quitous enactment  1  What  was  the  fate  of  Robespierre  7 

(296.)  What  effect  was  produced  by  his  death  1  In  whose 
hands  were  the  two  committees  at  this  time  1  What  acts  were 
passed  1  For  what  purpose  was  a  commission  appointed,  and  who 
was  placed  at  its  head  1  Where  and  how  did  Louis  XVII.  die  7 
On  whom  did  the  Royalists  confer  the  title  of  king  after  his 
death  7  Where  was  he  resident  at  that  time  7  Where  and  by 
whom  was  an  army  of  emigrants  almost  annihilated  7  In  what 
body  was  the  executive  power  lodged  by  the  new  constitution  7 
To  whom  was  the  legislative  authority  intrusted  7  What  was  the 
qualification  for  a  seat  in  the  council  of  ancients  7  What  attempts 
were  made  by  the  Royalists,  and  how  were  they  frustrated  7  By 
what  general  were  their  forces  defeated  7  On  what  plan  were  the 
councils  then  formed  7 

$  46.    The  first  coalition  against  France. 

(297.)  Against  whom  and  for  what  reasons  was  Louis  XVI. 
compelled  by  his  subjects  to  declare  war  7  To  whom  was  the  con- 
duct of  this  war  confided  by  the  emperor  7  Of  what  troops  was 
the  grand  army  entirely  composed  7  By  whom  was  it  commanded  7 
What  was  its  line  of  march  7  On  whom  was  the  command  in  chief 
of  the  French  army  conferred  7  By  what  circumstances  were  his 
operations  against  the  Prussians  aided  7  What  was  the  result  7 
Whom  did  he  next  attack  7  Where  was  a  battle  fought,  and  with 
what  result  7  What  advantages  were  gained  by  the  French  in  other 
parts  of  Europe  7 

(298.)  Of  what  European  powers  did  the  grand  coalition  con- 
sist 7  By  what  power  was  it  headed  7 

(299.)  With  what  achievement  did  the  Austrians  open  the  cam- 


300 305.]  OF    MODERN    HISTORY.  313 

paign  of  1793  1  How  was  Dumouriez  occupied  at  this  time ;  and 
why  did  he  quit  Holland  1  In  what  battle  was  he  defeated  1  Of 
what  fortified  town  did  the  Prussians  regain  possession  1  What 
step  was  taken  by  Dumouriez  in  consequence  of  the  refusal  of  his 
soldiers  to  follow  him  1  What  plan  had  he  proposed  to  them  1 
To  what  circumstances  do  you  chiefly  attribute  the  success  of 
Jourdan  1  What  victories  did  he  gain  1  Did  any  thing  remarkable 
occur  during  the  battle  of  Fleurus  1  What  battle  was  fought  after 
the  Austrians  had  re-crossed  the  Rhine  1  With  what  result  1 
What  country  did  Pichegru  invade  1  By  what  party  was  he  sup- 
ported 1  and  of  what  circumstance  did  he  take  advantage  1  What 
change  was  effected  in  the  form  of  government  ?  By  what  name 
was  the  new  commonwealth  distinguished  1 

(300.)  Under  what  circumstances  were  the  allies  compelled  to 
abandon  all  their  conquests  on  the  Upper  and  Middle  Rhine  1 
Between  what  powers  was  a  separate  peace  concluded  1  On  what 
terms'?  Did  any  other  governments  conclude  a  peace  with  the 
Republic  ?  What  concessions  were  made  by  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment 1  What  Spanish  statesman  took  an  active  part  in  the  nego- 
tiations 7  How  was  he  rewarded  1  In  what  war  were  the  French 
unsuccessful  ?  Where  and  by  the  ships  of  what  nation  were  they 
defeated  1  What  colonies  did  they  lose  1 

(301.)  Why  did  the  directory  renew  the  war?  What  nation 
did  they  first  attack  1  By  whom  were  the  three  French  armies 
respectively  commanded  ;  and  what  was  the  destination  of  each  1 

(302.)  Into  what  country  did  two  of  the  armies  advance  ?  By 
whom  was  the  offensive  now  assumed  1  Where  did  he  engage  the 
French,  and  with  what  result  1  Against  whom  did  the  archduke 
now  direct  his  march  1  How  did  Moreau  avoid  an  engagement  1 
What  French  generals  crossed  the  Rhine  in  1797  1  What  intelli- 
gence checked  their  farther  advance  1 

(303.)  By  what  general  was  the  French  army  in  Italy  com- 
manded 1  Whom  had  he  recently  married  ?  By  what  pass  did 
Napoleon  enter  Italy  1  Where  did  he  first  defeat  the  Austrians  1 
By  what  victories  did  he  separate  the  Sardinian  from  the  Austrian 
army  1  What  concessions  did  he  extort  from  the  King  of  Sar- 
dinia 1 

(304.)  Give  the  pedigree  of  the  Bonaparte  family. 

(305.)  What  bridge  did  Napoleon  storm,  and  what  city  did  he 
enter  7  By  what  sacrifices  did  the  Dukes  of  Modena  and  Parma 
purchase  an  armistice  1  How  did  Napoleon  employ  the  interval 
which  must  elapse  before  he  could  procure  a  battering  train  for  an 
attack  on  Mantua  1  What  effect  had  this  movement  on  the  coun- 
cils of  the  King  of  Naples  1  By  what  sacrifices  did  the  Pope  pur- 
chase the  forbearance  of  the  French  1  Of  what  city  were  the  Aus- 
trians still  in  possession  1  What  is  its  situation  1  By  whom  was 
the  garrison  commanded  1  How  many  attempts  were  made  to 
raise  the  siege  1  What  was  the  fate  of  the  city  at  last  ?  By  whom 
was  the  first  of  these  attempts  made,  why  did  he  quit  Mantua,  and 
where  was  he  defeated  1  By  whom  was  the  second  attempt  made  ? 
Where  were  they  defeated  1  What  other  victories  were  gained  by 


314  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [306 312. 

the  French  7    After  what  battle  did  the  garrison  of  Mantua  ca- 
pitulate 7 

"">.)  In  consequence  of  what  accusation  was  the  Duke  of  Mo- 


dena  deprived  of  his  duchy  7  Of  what  republic  did  it  form  a  part  7 
By  what  sacrifice  was  the  Pope  compelled  to  purchase  peace  after 
the  fall  of  Mantua  1 

(307.)  Into  what  countries  did  Napoleon  then  advance  1  With 
what  power  did  he  conclude  an  armistice  1  When  and  where  was 
a  peace  afterwards  concluded  7  What  countries  were  given  up 
to  the  French  1  Of  what  countries  was  the  Cisalpine  Republic 
composed  7  What  territory  did  the  emperor  receive  in  return 
for  these  sacrifices'?  What  provinces  was  he  permitted  to 
retain  1 

(308.)  What  islands  were  ceded  to  France  1  What  compensa- 
tion did  the  Duke  of  Modena  receive  for  the  loss  of  his  duchy  1 
For  what  purpose  was  a  congress  held  at  Rastadt  1  What  name 
was  given  to  Genoa  and  its  territory  1  What  was  the  condition  of 
the  French  marine  at  this  time  1 


$  47.   Eastern  Europe. 

(309.)  What  circumstances  encouraged  the  Poles  to  rise  against 
their  Russian  rulers  1  By  what  government  were  they  encouraged  1 
What  were  the  most  important  articles  of  their  new  constitution  7 
By  whom  and  at  whose  instigation  was  a  confederacy  formed  for 
the  restoration  of  the  ancient  constitution  7  By  what  troops  was 
Poland  at  the  same  time  invaded  7  Who  commanded  the  Polish 
army  7  What  concessions  were  made  by  the  king  in  consequence 
of  these  hostile  demonstrations  7 

(310.)  What  was  the  avowed  object  of  the  King  of  Prussia  in 
invading  Poland  7  What  was  the  purport  of  his  proclamation  1 
Between  what  powers,  and  with  what  motives,  was  a  second 
partition  of  Poland  arranged  7  What  portion  did  each  of 
those  powers  receive  7  Whom  did  the  Poles  choose  to  be  their 
leader  7 

(311.)  What  measures  were  adopted  by  William  II.  on  receiv- 
ing intelligence  of  this  outbreak  7  What  city  did  he  storm,  and 
why  did  he  abandon  the  siege  of  Warsaw  7  By  what  armies  was 
Poland  now  invaded  7  By  whom  was  an  attempt  made  to  prevent 
the  junction  of  these  armies  7  What  became  of  Kosciusko  7  What 
city  was  stormed  by  Suwarrow  7  With  the  capitulation  of  what 
city  did  the  strue-gle  terminate  7  What  became  of  King  Stanislaus 
Poniatowski7  Between  what  powers,  and  in  what  year,  was  a 
third  partition  of  Poland  arranged  7  What  were  now  the  bounda- 
ries of  those  countries  7 

(312.)  In  what  wars  did  Frederick  William  II.  take  an  active 
part  7  What  loss  did  he  sustain  in  the  first  of  these  wars,  and 
what  advantage  did  he  gain  in  the  second  7  What  provinces 
were  formed  out  of  his  newly-acquired  territory  7  By  what 
river  were  they  separated  from  one  another  7  Of  what  other 


313 319.]  OP   MODERN   HISTORY.  315 

territories  did  Frederick  become  possessor'?     By  whom  was  he 
succeeded  1    What  was  the  policy  of  the  new  monarch  1 

(313>  By  whom  were  Catherine  II.   and  Gustavus  III.  sue-  : 
ceeded  7 

§  48.     The  French  Directory. 

(314.)  In  what  condition  did  the  five  directors  find  the  finances  1 
How  did  they  endeavor  to  meet  this  difficulty'?  Did  this  plan 
succeed  1 

(315.)  What  circumstances  occasioned  the  formation  of  a  royal- 
ist opposition  1  By  whom  was  a  party  also  formed  in  the  directory 
itself?  Which  of  the  two  parties  triumphed  1  What  became  of 
Carnot  and  Barthelmy  1 

(316.)  Why  were  the  negotiations  with  England  broken  off  7 
Who  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  "  army  of  Eng- 
land V  How  was  Bonaparte  occupied  at  this  time  1  Had  he 
any  object  in  view  beyond  the  conquest  of  Egypt  7  By  whom 
was  the  Indian  war  renewed  7  In  what  year,  and  how  did  it 
terminate  1 

Bonaparte's  expedition  against  Egypt  and  Syria. 

(317.)  What  number  of  men  had  Bonaparte  under  his  com- 
mand 1  From  what  port  did  he  sail  1  By  what  generals  was  he 
accompanied  ?  By  whom  were  they  afterwards  joined  1  Were 
any  distinguished  civilians  attached  to  the  army  1  By  whom  was 
the  English  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean  commanded  at  this  time  1 
•What  island  did  Bonaparte  conquer  in  his  voyage  from  Toulon  to 
Egypt  7  At  what  Egyptian  sea-port  did  he  land  1  Who  were  the 
Mamelukes,  where  were  they  attacked  by  the  French,  and  what 
was  the  result  of  the  battle  7  In  what  direction  did  Dessaix 
advance  1  What  disastrous  intelligence  now  reached  Napoleon  7 
On  what  day  was  this  battle  fought  1  What  was  the  immediate 
effect  of  this  disaster  1  By  whom  were  the  French  attacked  at 
Cairo,  and  with  what  result  1  By  what  power  was  war  declared 
against  France  in  consequence  of  these  proceedings  1  What  coun- 
try did  Bonaparte  invade  7  By  whom  was  Acre  defended  7  What 
was  the  result  of  his  attempts  on  that  city  1  How  many  times  did 
he  attack  it  1  In  consequence  of  what  intelligence  did  he  withdraw 
his  army  1 

(318.)  Where  did  the  Turkish  army  land,  and  what  was  its 
fate  1  In  what  year  did  Bonaparte  return  to  France  7  Whom  did 
he  leave  in  command  of  the  army  1  What  victory  was  gained  by 
Kleber,  and  what  was  his  fate  1 

(319.)  What  effect  was  produced  by  the  violent  proceedings  of 
the  directory  1  What  pretext  was  afforded  them  for  sending  an 
army  into  the  States  of  the  Church  ?  What  form  of  government 
did  they  establish  at  Rome  1  What  became  of  Pope  Pius  VI.  1 
What  measures  were  adopted  for  the  destruction  of  the  Swiss 
Confederation  1  Under  what  name  was  Switzerland  incorporated 
into  the  French  republic?  What  secret  article  was  introduced 
7 


316  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [320 323. 

into  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  t    With  consent  of  what  power  ? 
What  was  its  effect  7 

(320.)  In  what  condition  did  Bonaparte  find  the  nation  on  his 
return  from  Egypt  7  What  powers  were  intrusted  to  him  7  Who 
was  appointed  his  coadjutor  7  What  event  furnished  the  councils 
with  an  excuse  for  withdrawing  to  St.  Cloud  7  How  many  of  the 
directors  supported  Bonaparte  7  On  what  condition  1  What  be- 
came of  the  others  1  By  whose  exertions  was  Bonaparte  enabled 
to  dissolve  the  assembly  of  Five  Hundred  1  What  sort  of  a  govern- 
ment was  then  established  7  What  title  was  conferred  on  Bona- 
parte 7  For  how  many  years  was  he  appointed  1  Who  were  his 
colleagues  7  To  what  bodies  were  the  consuls  required  to  submit 
all  projects  of  law  1 

§  49.     War  of  the  second  coalition  against  France. 

(321.)  What  territories  had  the  emperor  ceded  to  France  1  In 
accordance  with  the  terms  of  what  treaty  7  What  places  were 
promised  to  him  as  a  compensation  7  Who  protested  against  this 
alienation  of  German  territory  1  To  what  conditions  were  they 
forced  to  submit  7  Between  what  powers  had  a  new  coalition  been 
formed  7  Who  was  grand-master  of  the  Knights  of  Malta  at  this 
time  7  State  the  reasons  which  induced  the  Porte  and  Austria  to 
become  parties  to  this  alliance.  With  what  atrocious  act  was  the 
peace  of  Rastadt  terminated  7  Which  of  the  German  princes  took 
part  in  the  war  1  What  was  the  policy  of  the  northern  sovereigns  1 

(322.)  What  plan  of  military  operations  was  agreed  on  by  the 
allies  7  By  whom  were  these  armies  respectively  commanded  7 
For  what  purpose  were  they  sent  into  those  countries  7  How  did 
the  Neapolitans  commence  the  war  7  By  whom  were  they  com- 
manded 7  Was  the  attempt  successful  7  What  Italian  sovereign 
fled  on  the  approach  of  the  French  7  In  whose  hands  did  he  leave 
his  capital  7  What  new  name  was  given  to  his  dominions  7  Against 
whom  did  the  directory  then  declare  war  7  What  were  the  desti- 
nations of  their  four  armies,  and  by  whom  were  they  commanded  7 
What  success  attended  the  operations  of  Massena  in  Switzerland  7 
What  generals  were  stationed  at  Naples  and  in  Holland  7 

(323.)  By  whom  was  Scherer  defeated  7  Whose  arrival  com- 
pleted the  discomfiture  of  the  French  7  By  what  troops  were 
Lombardy  and  Piedmont  occupied  7  Between  what  parties,  and 
with  what  result,  was  a  battle  fought  on  the  banks  of  the  Trebia  7 
What  were  the  immediate  consequences  of  this  victory  7  What 
French  general  was  defeated  by  Suwarrow,  and  for  what  purpose 
did  he  cross  the  Alps  7  What  portion  of  their  Italian  possessions 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  French  at  the  close  of  the  year  1799  7 
By  whom  was  the  French  army  commanded  in  the  campaign  of  the 
following  year  7  How  long  did  this  campaign  last  7  By  what 
passes  did  they  cross  the  Alps  7  What  city  was  entered  by  Bona- 
parte 7  Where  did  General  Melas  engage  the  French  7  By  whom 
was  the  battle  renewed  7  What  was  his  fate  7  By  what  occur- 
rence was  the  discomfiture  of  the  Austrians  completed  7  On  what 


324 327.]  OF    MODERN    HISTORY.  317 

conditions  was  Melas  allowed  to  withdraw  the  remains  of  his  army 
from  the  field  1  In  what  cities  did  Bonaparte  now  establish  provi- 
sional governments  7  Whom  did  he  nominate  Commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  of  Italy  1 

(324.)  What  success  attended  the  operations  of  the  Archduke 
Charles  in  Germany  and  Switzerland  1  By  what  pass  did  Suwarrow 
enter  Switzerland  1  By  what  circumstance  was  he  compelled  to 
withdraw  his.  troops  into  the  country  of  the  Grisons  1  Through 
what  country  did  he  return  to  Russia'?  What  victories  were 
gained  by  Moreau  in  the  year  1800 1  How  near  to  Vienna  did  he 
advance  7 

(325.)  On  what  day,  and  where  was  peace  concluded'?  Be- 
tween what  parties,  and  on  what  conditions  1  For  what  purpose 
was  a  deputation  appointed,  and  what  was  the  result  of  their  labors  1 
In  what  manner  were  the  hereditary  princes  of  the  empire  indem- 
nified for  their  losses  7  What  compensation  did  the  Grand  Duke 
of  Tuscany  and  the  Duke  of  Modena  receive  1  What  countries 
were  most  favored  in  this  division  7  For  whom  were  new  elector- 
ates founded  1  What  was  now  the  total  number  of  electors  1 
What  princes  had  been  deprived  of  the  electoral  dignity  7  What 
cities  remained  unmediatized  7 

(326.)  What  territories  were  added  to  Prussia"?  What  did 
Bavaria  receive  7  What  territory  did  Hesse  share  with  Nassau  1 
What  portion  fell  to  the  lot  of  Baden  1  To  what  circumstance  was 
the  grand  duke  indebted  for  this  accession  of  territory  1  What 
compensation  did  Wiirtemberg  receive  for  her  losses  in  Alsace  1 
What  indemnification  was  received  by  Austria  for  her  cession  of 
the  Breisgau  1  What  sacrifice  had  been  made  by  the  Duke  of 
Parma,  and  what  compensation  did  he  receive  1  By  what  sacrifice 
did  Naples  purchase  peace  7  To  what  office  in  Italy  was  Bonaparte 
appointed  1  How  many  new  cantons  were  added  to  those  already 
existing  in  Switzerland  1  Which  of  the  Swiss  cantons  was  annexed 
to  France  1  For  what  reason  7 

(327.)  By  what  nation  was  the  commerce  of  Holland  crippled  7 
By  what  parties  was  the  country  itself  distracted  7  What  effect 
was  produced  by  the  appearance  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  off  the 
Helder  at  this  crisis  7  To  whose  incapacity  do  you  attribute  the 
failure  of  the  whole  undertaking  7  By  what  conquest  was  the 
supremacy  of  England  in  the  Mediterranean  secured  7  In  accord- 
ance with  what  capitulation  was  Egypt  evacuated  by  the  French  7 
What  refusal  on  the  part  of  England  produced  a  rupture  with  Rus- 
sia 7  In  conjunction  with  what  powers  did  Russia  revive  the  armed 
neutrality  7  How  did  England  avenge  herself 7  What  occur- 
rences afforded  a  favorable  opportunity  for  the  termination  of  hos- 
tilities 7  Who  succeeded  Paul  on  the  Russian  throne  7  In  what 
month  and  year  was  peace  concluded  7  Between  what  powers  7 
What  possessions  were  relinquished  by  England  at  the  peace  of 
Amiens  7  What  compensation  did  she  receive  for  this  sacrifice  7 
What  government  afterwards  became  a  party  to  this  treaty  7 


318  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [328 331. 

$  50.     The  consular  government  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

(328.)  To  what  objects  did  the  first  consul  now  direct  his  atten- 
tion ?  What  was  his  ultimate  design  1  What  proof  have  you  of 
this  7  What  conspiracy  was  discovered,  and  for  what  severe  meas- 
ure did  the  discovery  afford  a  pretext  1  Into  how  many  sections 
was  the  tribunate  divided  1  By  what  afct  on  the  part  of  the  French 
government  were  the  emigrants  enabled  to  return  to  France'? 
What  plan  was  adopted  by  Bonaparte  for  the  establishment  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  worship  1  What  improvement  was  effected  in  the 
education  of  the  middle  classes  1  What  was  the  "  Code  Napo- 
leon 7"  By  what  measure  was  public  credit  re-established  1  De- 
scribe the  manner  in  which  Bonaparte  prepared  the  way  for  the 
establishment  of  absolute  monarchy.  To  what  office  was  Napo- 
leon elected  immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  1  In  whom 
was  absolute  authority  vested  by  the  new  constitution  7  In  con- 
junction with  what  body  1  By  what  restrictions  were  the  legisla- 
tive corps  and  tribunate  reduced  to  insignificance  1  What  dis- 
covery furnished  an  excuse  for  still  further  encroachments  7  By 
what  court  were  the  conspirators  tried  1  Why  was  this  1  How- 
many  of  them  were  executed?  What  became  of  Pichegru  and 
Moreaul  On  what  charge  was  the  Duke  d'Enghien  arrested'? 
What  was  his  fate  1  What  title  was  conferred  on  Bonaparte  pre- 
viously to  these  trials  1  When  and  by  whom  was  he  anointed  1  In 
what  manner  was  the  constitution  modified  1  What  vestige  of  the 
representative  system  remained'? 

§  51.     The  third  coalition  against  France. 

(329.)  What  circumstances  produced  a  rupture  between  France 
and  England  in  1803  ?  Which  of  these  governments  declared  war  1 
What  British  possession  was  immediately  seized  by  Bonaparte'? 
What  do  you  mean  by  the  continental  system  1  What  prepara- 
tions were  made  at  Boulogne  1 

(330.)  In  what  manner  did  Pitt  meet  this  danger  7  By  what 
circumstance  were  the  operations  of  this  coalition  facilitated  1 
What  form  of  government  did  Bonaparte  substitute  for  the  Italian 
republic  1  Where  and  in  what  year  was  he  crowned  1  Who  was 
nominated  viceroy  of  Italy  1  What  dignity  was  conferred  on  his 
brother-in-law,  Bacciochi  1  What  republic  was  incorporated  with 
France  1  What  measures  were  adopted  by  Bonaparte  on  the  for- 
mation of  this  third  coalition  1  What  powers  were  parties  to  the 
coalition  1  By  whom  was  Bonaparte  joined  1 

(331.)  What  force  was  raised  by  Austria  in  1805  7  By  whom 
was  the  larger  army  commanded,  and  into  what  country  did  it 
march  1  Who  commanded  the  smaller  1  What  was  its  destina- 
tion 7  Whom  did  Napoleon  dispatch  into  Italy  1  In  what  country 
did  he  himself  take  the  command  of  the  army  1  Where  did  he 
concentrate  his  forces  1  By  what  general  was  he  joined  1  What 
country  was  entered  by  the  French,  and  what  fortress  did  they 
blockade  and  take  1  Who  commanded  the  garrison  1  What 


332 334.]  OF   MODERN    HISTORY.  319 

country  did  Napoleon  now  enter  7  Of  what  city  did  Murat  take 
possession  1  How  were  the  Austrians  employed  in  the  mean  time  1 
On  what  day  was  the  battle  of  Austerlitz  fought  1  By  what  name 
is  it  known  1  Who  were  defeated  in  that  battle  1  Between  what 
parties  was  the  peace  of  Presburg  concluded'?  What  sacrifices 
were  made  by  the  emperor  1  What  dignities  were  conferred  on 
the  electors  of  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg,  and  Baden  1  What  territo- 
ries were  surrendered  by  Prussia,  and  what  did  she  receive  in  ex- 
change 1  What  penalty  was  inflicted  on  the  King  of  Naples  1  How 
had  he  displeased  Napoleon  1  On  whom  was  the  kingdom  of  Na- 
ples conferred  1  To  whom  were  the  papal  seignories  of  Benevento 
and  Ponte-Corvo  granted  1  What  name  was  given  to  the  Batavian 
republic,  and  on  whom  was  the  sovereignty  conferred  1  To  whom 
did  Napoleon  give  Cleves,  Berg,  and  Neufchatel  1  In  what  month 
and  year  did  the  dismemberment  of  the  German  empire  take  place  1 
How  many  princes  separated  themselves  from  the  empire  1  What 
confederacy  did  they  form  1  Who  declared  himself  its  protector  1 
What  titles  did  these  princes  renounce  1  Where  was  the  business 
of  the  confederacy  to  be  transacted  1  Who  was  the  president  1 
To  what  did  each  of  the  confederates  pledge  himself  1  What  title 
had  Francis  II.  assumed  in  1804 1  What  imperial  institutions  were 
broken  up  when  Francis  ceased  to  be  head  of  the  German  empire  7 
What  arbitrary  policy  was  pursued  by  the  confederation  7  By 
what  troops  were  they  supported  7  Who  was  punished  with  death 
for  resistance  to  their  tyranny  1 

(332.)  By  whom  and  where  were  the  Spanish  and  French  fleets 
destroyed  1  Who  lost  his  life  in  the  engagement  1  To  what 
aggressive  measures  against  England  did  Napoleon  now  direct  his 
attention  ? 

fy  52.     The  fourth  coalition  against  France. 

(333.)  What  hostile  measures  was  Prussia  compelled  to  adopt 
against  England  1  What  was  the  immediate  result  of  this  proceed- 
ing 1  What  plan  did  Napoleon  adopt  in  the  hope  of  still  further 
widening  the  breach  1  What  measure  was  unanimously  recom- 
mended by  the  Prussian  generals'?  By  what  circumstance  was 
Napoleon  enabled  to  concentrate  a  force  on  the  Main  1  What  was 
the  amount  of  that  force  1  What  royal  personage  fell  in  a  skirmish 
near  Saalfeld  1  Where  did  Napoleon  engage  the  two  grand  divi- 
sions of  the  Prussian  army  1  Who  commanded  the  two  divisions  1 
By  whom  were  the  two  divisions  of  the  French  army  commanded  1 
What  was  the  event  of  both  these  battles  1  What  became  of  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick'?  How  was  the  Elector  of  Saxony  rewarded 
for  his  adherence  to  the  Rhenish  confederacy  1  To  whom  were  the 
Prussian  fortresses  surrendered  1  By  whom  were  some  of  them 
bravely  defended  ?  What  city  did  Napoleon  enter  in  triumph  1 
Into  how  many  departments  did  he  divide  the  conquered  Prussian 
provinces  7  What  decree  did  he  publish,  and  what  was  its  effect  1 

(334.)  By  whom  were  the  French  joined  as  they  approached 
the  Vistula  1  Whom  did  the  Prussians  join  1  In  what  war  were 
the  Russians  involved  at  that  time  1  Through  whose  influence  1 


320  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [335 337 

Against  what  city  did  Ney's  division  march  1  What  became  of  the 
rest  of  the  French  army?  What  intelligence  induced  Napoleon  to 
break  up  his  winter  encampment  at  Warsaw  1  What  Russian  gen- 
eral did  he  engage,  and  where  1  Was  the  battle  decisive  1  What 
cities  capitulated  during  the  armistice  ?  By  what  victory  was  the 
war  terminated  1  Where  and  between  what  parties  was  peace  con- 
cluded ?  What  reason  did  Napoleon  assign  for  restoring  to  Prus- 
sia all  her  provinces  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe  ?  What  con- 
cessions were  made  by  Prussia  in  return  for  this  indulgence  1  In 
what  year  was  the  restoration  of  the  Prussian  territory  carried  into 
effect  1  What  was  now  the  extent  of  the  Rhenish  confederacy,  and 
what  territories  did  it  comprehend  ?  What  countries  were  evacu- 
ated by  Russia?  What  possessions  were  surrendered  by  Sweden? 
What  agreement  had  been  made  between  the  two  emperors  at  the 
peace  of  Tilsit?  Why  did  the  English  government  demand  that 
the  Danish  fleet  should  be  delivered  up  to  England  ?  What  hap- 
pened in  consequence  of  the  refusal  of  Denmark  to  comply  with 
this  demand?  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  proceeding? 
From  what  power  did  Denmark  obtain  an  army  for  the  defence  of 
her  territory  ? 


§  53.    The  war  in  Portugal  and  Spain. 

(335.)  Why  was  Portugal  occupied  by  a  French  army?  By 
whom  was  it  commanded  ?  What  title  did  he  assume  ?  In  whose 
name  did  he  proclaim  himself  regent  ?  What  had  become  of  the 
Portuguese  royal  family?  To  what  countries  did  Napoleon  ex- 
tend his  continental  system  ?  For  the  subjugation  of  what  coun- 
try did  he  form  a  plan  ?  Under  what  pretence  did  he  cross  the 
Pyrenees  ?  With  what  force  ?  Who  was  at  that  time  King  of 
Spain  ?  Why  had  Charles  IV.  resigned  his  crown  ?  What  desire 
was  expressed  by  the  ex-king  in  consequence  of  the  entry  of  the 
French  into  Madrid?  Of  what  treacherous  act  was  Napoleon 
guilty  ?  Whom  did  he  place  on  the  throne  of  Spain  ?  On  whom 
was  the  kingdom  of  Naples  conferred  ?  For  whom  was  the  grand 
duchy  of  Berg  destined  ?  How  did  the  Spaniards  receive  their 
new  emperor  ?  What  attempt  did  Joseph  make  to  conciliate  his 
subjects  ?  Whither  did  he  retire  ? 

(336.)  What  government  sent  an  army  into  Portugal?  By 
whom  was  it  commanded  ?  What  success  attended  its  operations  ? 
Who  commanded  the  French  army  in  Portugal,  and  what  became 
of  him  ?  What  disaster  befell  the  French  army  in  Spain  ?  By 
whom  was  it  commanded  ?  Who  had  promised  assistance  to  Na- 
poleon ?  Where  had  the  two  sovereigns  met  ?  At  the  head  of 
what  force  did  Napoleon  appear  in  Spain  ? 

(337.)  What  city  did  Napoleon  enter,  and  what  changes  did  he 
effect  in  the  constitution  ?  By  whom  were  the  English  compelled 
to  evacuate  Portugal  ?  For  what  purpose  did  Napoleon  return  to 
France  ?  By  whom  was  the  fortress  of  Saragossa  defended  ?  To 
whom  did  it  surrender  ?  Over  whom  and  where  did  Sir  Arthur 


338 341.]  OF    MODERN    HISTORY.  321 

Wellesley  obtain  a  brilliant  victory  ?    By  what  disastrous  events 
was  this  victory  neutralized  1 

(338.)  How  had  the  monks  offended  King  Joseph,  and  in  what 
manner  were  they  punished  1  By  whom  were  the  French  troops 
perpetually  harassed?  To  what  place  had  the  Junta  retired? 
What  body  did  they  assemble,  and  what  sort  of  constitution  did 
they  draw  up  1  Under  what  general  did  the  French  make  re- 
peated attempts  to  regain  a  footing  in  Portugal  1  Were  they  suc- 
cessful 1  What  fortified  city  did  they  attack,  and  with  what  suc- 
cess 1  By  whom  was  it  protected  ?  For  what  purpose  did 
Napoleon  withdraw  his  best  soldiers  from  Spain  in  1812  ?  What 
effect  had  this  on  the  Spanish  population  1  Under  whom  did  they 
take  the  field  1  What  fortresses  were  stormed  by  Lord  Welling- 
ton 1  Whose  armies  did  he  separate  1  Which  of  these  generals 
did  he  defeat  ?  Where  was  the  battle  fought  1  In  what  direction 
did  Wellington  retreat  on  the  approach  of  the  French  ?  What 
general  was  recalled  from  Spain  by  Napoleon  1  In  consquence  of 
what  disasters  1  What  happened  in  consequence  of  the  recall  of 
Soult  1  In  what  year  and  by  what  battle  was  the  fate  of  Spain 
decided?  How  did  King  Joseph  escape  being  taken  prisoner? 
By  what  battle  was  the  war  terminated  ?  Was  Napoleon  still 
emperor  ?  What  became  of  Ferdinand  VII.  ? 

§  54.  Suppression  of  the  temporal  authority  of  the  Pope. 

(339.)  What  idea  had  Napoleon  conceived  soon  after  his  coro- 
nation ?  What  use  did  he  intend  to  make  of  the  Pope's  influence  ? 
What  demands  did  he  make  ?  On  the  refusal  of  the  Pope  to  en- 
tertain his  proposals,  what  further  measures  did  Napoleon  adopt  ? 
What  decree  was  soon  afterwards  published  ?  To  what  place  was 
the  Pope  carried  off?  Whither  was  he  then  removed,  and  how 
long  did  he  remain  a  prisoner  there?  To  what  place  was  he 
removed  in  1812  ?  For  what  purpose  ?  When  did  he  return 
to  Rome  ? 

§  55.    War  of  Austria  against  Napoleon. 

(340.)  What  attempt  was  made  by  the  Austrian  government 
after  the  peace  of  Tilsit?  What  effect  had  this  movement  on 
the  plans  of  Napoleon  ?  What  step  was  then  taken  by  Aus- 
tria ?  What  was  the  purport  of  the  proclamation  issued  by  the 
emperor's  brothers  ?  What  effect  -  was  produced  by  this  ap- 
peal ?  By  whom  and  in  what  engagements  was  the  Archduke 
Charles  defeated  ?  Towards  what  country  did  he  commence  his 
retreat  ? 

(341.)  What  city  was  a  second  time  taken  by  the  French  ? 
Where  and  by  whom  was  Napoleon  defeated  ?  With  whom  did  he 
then  form  a  junction  ?  Where  did  he  defeat  the  Archduke 
Charles?  Where  did  the  two  armies  again  meet?  By  whose 
arrival  were  hostilities  suspended  ?  What  attempt  was  made  by 
the  English  ?  Was  it  successful  ?  By  what  peace  was  the  Aus- 


322  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [342,343. 

trian  war  terminated  ?  What  extent  of  territory  did  Austria  lose 
by  the  peace  of  Vienna  1  What  provinces  was  she  compelled  to 
relinquish  1  To  what  powers  were  they  ceded  1  Out  of  what 
provinces  was  the  new  state  of  the  seven  Illyrian  provinces  formed  1 
Who  was  appointed  governor  of  these  states  ?  By  whom  was  the 
Tyrolese  insurrection  headed?  What  was  his  fate?  Into  how 
many  portions  was  the  Tyrol  now  divided?  To  what  king- 
doms or  provinces  were  they  annexed  ?  What  indemnification 
did  Bavaria  receive  for  this  sacrifice  of  territory  ?  Out  of  what 
provinces  was  the  new  grand  duchy  of  Frankfort  formed,  and  to 
whom  was  it  granted  ?  With  what  stipulation  ?  What  attempt 
was  made  by  Schill,  and  what  was  the  result  ? 

$  56.   Napoleon  at  the  summit  of  his  power. 

(342.)  Whom  did  Napoleon  marry  after  his  divorce  from 
Josephine  ?  What  title  was  conferred  on  the  empress's  infant  son  1 
Why  did  Napoleon  annex  the  whole  of  Holland  to  France  ?  What 
further  acts  of  aggression  did  he  commit?  How  many  depart- 
ments did  the  French  empire  number  at  this  time  ?  What  was  its 
extent  ?  What  was  now  the  policy  of  the  imperial  government  ? 
What  was  the  condition  of  France  at  this  time  ?  What  effect  had 
the  continental  system  on  commerce  ?  What  encouragement  did 
Napoleon  afford  to  native  industry  ?  In  what  particular  was  the 
strictness  of  the  continental  system  sometimes  relaxed  ?  What 
effect  did  these  grievances  produce  on  the  feelings  of  the  French 
people  ?  Was  discontent  excited  in  any  other  quarters  ? 

§  57.   Napoleon's  Russian  campaign. 

(343.)  What  conviction  was  soon  forced  on  Russia  ?  What  ad- 
ditional territory  had  she  acquired  by  the  peace  of  Bucharest  ? 
By  what  occurrence  was  the  first  coolness  occasioned  between 
Alexander  and  Napoleon  ?  Why  was  this  measure  regarded  with 
suspicion  by  Russia  ?  Mention  the  other  causes  of  offence.  By 
whom  and  in  what  year  was  the  Russian  war  commenced  ?  What 
number  of  men  did  he  bring  into  the  field  ?  What  was  the 
amount  of  the  Russian  force  ?  Where  did  Napoleon  first  defeat 
the  Russians  ?  Where  did  he  gain  a  second  victory  ?  On  what 
day  did  he  enter  Moscow  ?  What  fearful  calamity  occurred  soon 
after  his  arrival  ?  By  whom  was  it  probably  occasioned  ?  How 
long  did  Napoleon  remain  at  Moscow  ?  On  what  day  and  with 
how  many  men  did  he  commence  his  retreat  ?  What  was  the 
state  of  the  weather  at  this  time?  In  what  condition  was  the 
country  through  which  the  French  army  passed  ?  By  whom  were 
they  repeatedly  attacked  ?  By  whom  was  the  passage  of  the 
Beresina  forced  ?  Why  did  Napoleon  abandon  his  army  ?  What 
service  had  Ney  rendered,  and  how  was  he  rewarded  ?  What  was 
the  first  step  towards  the  emancipation  of  Prussia  ?  What  was 
Napoleon's  opinion  of  this  proceeding  ? 


344 348.]  OF   MODERN   HISTORY.  323 

$  58.    The  War  of  liberation. 

(344.)  From  what  place  did  Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia 
issue  a  manifesto  1  What  was  its  purport  7  With  what  power 
did  he  now  conclude  an  alliance?  By  what  powers  was  he 
afterwards  joined  1  What  new  military  force  did  he  organize  in 
Prussia  1 

(345.)  By  whom  was  the  Prussian  grand  army  commanded'? 
In  what  direction  did  it  march  1  Of  what  force  did  it  await  the 
arrival  1  By  whom  was  the  allied  army  commanded  1  What  were 
the  numbers  respectively  of  the  two  armies  1 

(346.)  When  did  Napoleon  re-appear  in  Germany  7  Towards 
what  place  did  he  advance  7  Where  was  he  compelled  to  engage 
the  enemy'?  Which  party  was  victorious  7  How  did  Napoleon 
treat  the  King  of  Saxony  1  What  was  the  result  of  the  battles  of 
Bautzen  and  Wurschen7  In  what  direction  did  the  allies  now 
march  1  Why  did  Napoleon  consent  to  an  armistice  7  By  whom 
had  Hamburg  been  abandoned,  and  by  whom  was  it  retaken  1  How 
did  he  treat  the  inhabitants  1  What  reason  did  he  give  for  these 
acts  of  cruelty  7 

(347.)  To  what  circumstances  do  you  attribute  the  unsatisfac- 
tory termination  of  the  congress  of  Prague  7  What  was  the 
amount  of  the  subsidy  granted  to  the  allies  1  By  what  power  was 
it  granted  7  What  force  did  they  equip  7  How  many  divisions 
did  they  form  7  By  what  general  was  each  of  these  armies  com- 
manded, and  what  was  its  destination  7  How  many  men  did  Na- 
poleon bring  into  the  field  7  When  and  where  did  Napoleon  gain 
his  last  victory  7  What  celebrated  general  was  mortally  wounded 
in  this  battle  7  By  what  untoward  occurrences  were  the  advan- 
tages gained  by  Napoleon  almost  neutralized  7  Where  and  by 
whom  were  Oudinot,  Macdonald,  Vandamme,  and  Ney  defeated  1 
What  name  did  Bliicher  obtain  in  consequence  of  his  victory  at 
Wahlstatt  7  What  honor  was  conferred  on  him  7  Why  did  Na- 
poleon quit  Dresden  7  Where  was  the  "  great  battle  of  the  na- 
tions" fought  7  How  long  did  it  continue  7  What  troops  went 
over  to  the  allies  towards  the  end  of  the  battle  7  Who  were 
engaged  on  the  first  day  7  Why  was  there  no  general  engagement 
on  the  second  day  7  What  reinforcement  joined  the  allied  army  1 
Under  what  circumstances  was  the  battle  renewed  on  the  18th  of 
October  7  What  important  personage  was  slain  in  the  battle  1 
In  what  direction  did  the  defeated  army  retreat  7  How  many  men 
crossed  the  Rhine  7  By  whom  were  the  French  attacked  during 
this  retreat  7  What  were  the  immediate  consequences  of  this 
victory  7  With  whom,  and  for  what  purpose,  did  Murat  form  an 
alliance  7  What  country  concluded  a  treaty  of  neutrality  with 
Napoleon  7 

(348.)  What  measures  were  now  adopted  by  Napoleon  for  the 
defence  of  his  empire  7  By  whom  was  it  threatened  7  Why  did 
he  prorogue  the  legislative  assembly  7  In  what  year  did  the 
allies  enter  France  7  Under  what  generals  7  Whom  did  Napo- 
leon attack,  and  with  what  result  7  Was  he  able  to  prevent  a 


324  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [349 — 354. 

junction  of  the  allied  armies  7  In  what  direction  did  each  of  the 
two  divisions  of  the  allied  army  march?  Where  did  Napoleon 
engage  the  grand  army,  and  with  what  success  1  Where  and  with 
what  result  was  a  congress  held  1  Where  were  the  French  de- 
feated by  Blucher7  What  desperate  design  did  Napoleon  con- 
ceive after  the  battle  of  Arcis-sur-Aube  1  What  French  marshals 
were  defeated  by  the  allies  1  What  heights  did  they  storm  2  On 
what  day  did  the  allies  enter  Paris  1  By  whom  were  they  headed  7 
What  declaration  was  now  made  by  the  senate  7  By  whose 
advice  7 

(349.)  On  what  day  and  where  did  Napoleon  sign  his  abdica- 
tion 1  What  sovereignty  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  allies  1 
What  territories  were  granted  to  his  wife  and  her  descendants  7 

(350.)  What  sort  of  constitution  did  Louis  XVIII.  establish  on 
his  return  to  Paris  7 

(351.)  Where  and  for  what  purpose  was  a  congress  held  1  How 
long  did  it  sit  1  By  what  sovereigns  was  it  attended  1  By  what 
intelligence  were  the  negotiations  brought  to  a  conclusion  1  What 
resolutions  were  adopted  with  regard  to  the  territory  to  be  as- 
signed to  Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  England  7  Of  what  new 
kingdom  was  the  stattholder  of  Holland  created  king  7  What  con- 
federacy was  substituted  for  the  German  empire  7  Of  how  many 
states  did  it  consist  7  Where  did  the  federal  diet  hold  its  session  7 
For  the  settlement  of  what  questions  7  What  new  grand  duchies 
were  created  7  What  cities  remained  independent  7  What  foreign 
sovereigns  belonged  to  the  German  confederacy  7  What  indemni- 
fication did  Denmark  receive  for  the  cession  of  Norway  7  What 
attempt  was  made  by  the  Norwegians  7  What  advantage  did  they 
gain  by  this  movement  7  How  many  new  cantons  did  Switzerland 
obtain  7  What  sovereigns  were  reinstated  in  the  positions  which 
they  had  respectively  occupied  before  the  war  7  What  addition 
was  made  to  the  territories  of  the  King  of  Sardinia  7  To  whom  was 
Lucca  given  7  What  duchies  were  settled  on  Maria  Louisa  7  To 
whom  was  the  reversion  of  those  duchies  secured  7  To  what  state 
were  they  to  be  eventually  annexed  7 

§59.  Escape  of  Napoleon  from  Elba.— The  hundred  days. 

(352.)  By  what  abuses  had  a  spirit  of  disaffection  been  excited 
in  France  7  By  what  intelligence  was  Napoleon  encouraged  to 
make  a  fresh  attempt  7  Where  did  he  land,  and  with  how  many 
men  7  By  whom  was  he  joined  7  On  what  day  did  he  enter  Paris  7 
Whither 'had  Louis  XVIII.  fled  in  the  mean  time  7 

(353.)  From  what  city  had  Napoleon  issued  a  proclamation  7 
What  was  its  purport  7  Why  was  not  this  arrangement  in  all  re- 
spects satisfactory  to  the  people  7  What  steps  were  taken  by  the 
congress  of  Vienna  in  consequence  of  the  return  of  Napoleon  7 
What  was  the  amount  of  force  raised  by  the  allies  7  How  many 
men  had  Napoleon  intended  to  bring  into  the  field  7  Was  he  able 
to  complete  the  number  7 

(354.)  What  proclamation  was  issued  by  Murat  7    How  far  did 


355 359.]  OP    MODERN    HISTORY.  325 

he  advance  1  By  whom  and  where  was  he  defeated  1  Whither  did 
he  fly  1  To  whom  did  he  leave  his  throne.?  What  attempt  did  he 
make  in  the  following;  year,  and  what  was  his  fate  ? 

(355.)  Of  what  nations  were  the  allied  army  composed  1  By 
whom  were  the  two  divisions  commanded  ?  When  and  with  what 
result  did  Napoleon  engage  the  Prussians  1  Who  lost  his  life  in 
the  battle  of  Quatrebras  1  What  attempt  was  now  made  by  the 
Prussians  1  For  what  purpose  was  Grouchy's  division  detached 
from  the  main  army?  When  and  where  did  Napoleon  attack 
Wellington  1  What  was  the  event  of  this  battle  1  By  whom  was 
the  French  army  pursued?  To  what  place  did  Napoleon  then 
fly  ?  With  what  intention  ?  To  whom  did  he  surrender  himself, 
and  to  what  place  was  he  conveyed  ?  When  and  where  did  he 
die? 

(356.)  What  contribution  was  levied  by  the  allies  immediately 
after  their  second  entry  into  Paris  ?  Of  what  treasures  did  they 
obtain  the  restoration?  What  demand  was  made  by  Prussia? 
By  whom  was  this  claim  set  aside  ?  Who  succeeded  Talleyrand  in 
the  administration  ?  On  what  terms  was  the  peace  of  Paris  con- 
cluded ?  What  important  fortresses  were  ceded  by  France  to  the 
Netherlands,  Prussia,  and  Bavaria  ?  To  what  power  was  the  west- 
ern part  of  Savoy  given  up  ?  What  indemnification  was  France 
required  to  pay  for  the  expenses  of  the  war  ?  For  how  many 
years  was  she  required  to  maintain  an  army  on  her  frontiers  ?  By 
whom  was  this  army  commanded  ?  What  became  of  the  Bona- 
parte family  ?  What  league  was  then  concluded  between  the  two 
emperors  and  the  King  of  Prussia  ?  To  what  did  they  pledge 
themselves  ? 

$60.  France. 
•  A.  The  Restoration  under  the  Bourbons. 

(357.)  What  proclamation  had  Louis  XVIII.  issued  previously 
to  his  return  to  Paris  ?  Under  whom  was  a  liberal  administration 
formed?  By  what  party  was  it  overthrown?  Who  headed  that 
party  ?  What  persons  were  excluded  from  the  amnesty  ? 

(358.)  What  punishment  was  inflicted  on  Ney  ?  What  projects 
of  law  were  carried  through  the  new  chamber  ?  By  what  minister  ? 
What  indulgence  did  he  obtain  from  the  congress  of  Aix-la-Cba- 
pelle  ?  What  return  did  Louis  XVIII.  make  for  these  concessions  ? 
What  disastrous  occurrence  furnished  the  ultra-royalists  with  an 
excuse  for  demanding  the  dismissal  of  the  premier  ?  What  altera- 
tion did  they  effect  in  the  law  of  election  ?  Who  was  at  the  head 
of  the  new  administration?  What  resolution  was  carried  by 
them  ?  By  whom  was  this  measure  opposed  ?  What  attempt  was 
now  made  by  the  ultra-royalists  ? 

(359.)  By  what  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  government  was  the 
indignation  of  the  French  people  excited  ?  What  effect  did  this 
feeling  produce  on  the  elections  ?  What  course  was  Charles  X. 
compelled  to  adopt  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  the  next  administra- 


326  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [360 — 367. 

tion  7  Under  whom  was  the  next  administration  formed,  and  what 
was  its  policy  1  On  what  subject  was  an  address  presented  to  the 
king  1  In  what  manner  did  the  king  attempt  to  withdraw  the  at- 
tention of  the  people  from  domestic  politics  ?  Was  this  expedition 
successful  7  How  did  the  people  receive  the  news  of  the  capture 
of  Algiers  1  What  fatal  course  was  now  adopted  by  the  ministers  1 
What  was  the  result  ? 

(360.)  In  favor  of  whom  did  Charles  X.  abdicate  1  Who  was 
nominated  regent  of  the  kingdom  1  What  dignity  was  afterwards 
conferred  on  him  1  Under  whose  command  was  the  national  guard 
placed  7  What  alterations  were  made  in  the  charter  of  Louis 
XVIII.  1 

B.    Under  the  House  of  Orleans. 

(361.)  What  was  the  first  care  of  Louis  Philippe  1  How  did  he 
effect  this  object  1  Were  his  people  also  satisfied  1  With  what 
parties  were  his  ministers  engaged  in  a  perpetual  contest  1  By 
whom  was  the  "juste  milieu"  system  of  Guizot  introduced  1  By 
whom  was  it  resisted,  and  what  was  the  consequence  of  this  oppo- 
sition 1 

(362.)  In  what  part  of  France  had  the  Carlists  the  greatest 
number  of  adherents  1  By  whom  were  they  encouraged  7  By 
what  means  did  the  republicans  endeavor  to  overthrow  the  min- 
istry "?  What  attempts  were  made  on  the  king's  life?  What 
prince  of  the  Bonaparte  family  attempted  to  overthrow  the  gov- 
ernment 1  What  was  the  result  of  these  attempts  1  What  sys- 
tem did  Louis  Philippe  adopt  in  order  to  preserve  peace  with  for- 
eign powers  1  On  what  occasions  was  he  compelled  to  violate  it  1 

(363.)  What  circumstance  afforded  Thiers  an  opportunity  of 
attacking  the  foreign  policy  of  the  government  7  What  was  the 
result  of  this  opposition  7  What  great  error  was  committed  ty 
the  liberal  administration  7  What  was  the  policy  of  the  Soult- 
Guizot  ministry  1 

(364.)  By  whom  were  the  colonists  in  the  new  colony  of  Algiers 
perpetually  harassed  1  How  long  did  the  war  last  1  On  what 
terms  was  peace  concluded  1  What  circumstance  compelled  the 
French  to  accept  these  conditions  1  When  and  by  whom  was  the 
war  renewed  1  Where  was  the  emir  compelled  to  take  refuge  1 
In  what  year  did  he  surrender  himself  a  prisoner,  and  whither  was 
he  conveyed  1 

(365.)  By  what  circumstance  was  the  Sultan  of  Morocco  in- 
volved in  a  war  with  France  7  What  cities  were  bombarded  by  a 
French  fleet  1  By  whom  was  the  fleet  commanded  1  Who  com- 
manded the  land  army  1  On  what  conditions  was  peace  concluded  1 
Were  they  observed  ? 

(366.)  To  what  circumstances  do  you  attribute  the  unpopu- 
larity of  Louis  Philippe  1  What  proposal  did  he  obstinately  re- 
ject 1  What  was  the  effect  of  this  refusal  1 

(367.)  By  what  occurrence  were  the  eyes  of  the  people  com- 
pletely opened  1  What  proceeding  on  the  part  of  the  government 


368 373.]  OF   MODERN   HISTORY.  327 

was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  revolution  7  By  whom  was  the 
opposition  headed  1  What  was  the  result  of  his  motion  1  Why 
did  Louis  Philippe  dismiss  the  Guizot  ministry  1  What  happened 
on  the  evening  of  the  23d  1  How  were  the  inhabitants  of  Paris 
employed  during  the  whole  of  that  night  1  What  course  was  now 
adopted  by  the  king  1  In  whose  favor  did  he  abdicate  1 

(368.)  What  bold  step  was  taken  by  the  Duchess  of  Orleans  1 
Was  it  successful?  By  whom  were  the  deputies  compelled  to 
appoint  a  provisional  government  1  What  form  of  government  did 
it  proclaim  1  Subject  to  whose  approbation  1 

C.  Second  French  Republic. 

(369.)  In  what  manner  did  the  provisional  government  com- 
mence its  proceedings  1  To  whom  was  the  elective  franchise  ex- 
tended 1  When  did  the  provisional  government  dissolve  itself, 
and  by  what  was  it  succeeded  1  Who  were  the  five  members  who 
composed  the  executive  commission  1  Who  were  the  most  formi- 
dable opponents  of  this  commission  1  What  had  the  revolutionists 
of  February  declared  to  be  the  duty  of  the  state,  with  regard  to 
the  employment  of  the  people,  and  what  scheme  was  formed  1 
What  were  the  consequences  of  the  failure  of  this  scheme  1  Who 
was  shot  during  the  struggle  which  ensued  1  By  whom  were  the 
malcontents  defeated  1  To  whom  were  the  powers  of  the  execu- 
tive commission  transferred,  and  what  were  his  first  acts  1 

(370.)  What  did  the  new  constitution  declare  France  to  be  7  To 
whom  was  the  legislative  authority  committed  1  Who  were  eligible 
as  representatives  1  What  exception  was  there  to  this  rule  1  In 
whom  was  the  executive  authority  vested  1  By  whom,  and  for  how 
long,  was  the  president  elected  1 

I 

$61.  Holland  and  Belgium. 

(371.)  Of  what  provinces  had  the  congress  of  Vienna  settled, 
that  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  should  be  formed  1  To  whom 
was  this  kingdom  given  1  How  long  did  the  union  last  1  When 
did  the  Belgians  break  out  into  open  insurrection  7  What  demand 
did  they  make  1  What  was  the  result  of  the  granting  of  this  de- 
mand 1  How  far  did  this  insurrection  extend  7  What  were  the 
results  of  it  7  Of  whom  wa's  the  conference  assembled  in  London 
composed  1  What  did  they  decide  with  regard  to  the  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands  7 

(372.)  What  had  the  national  congress  assembled  at  Brussels 
proclaimed  in  the  meanwhile  7  When  did  the  King  of  Holland 
renew  the  war  7  What  prevented  him  from  carrying  his  plans  into 
effect  7  What  did  the  conference  then  propose  7  What  were  the 
consequences  of  the  refusal  of  the  King  of  Holland  to  comply  with 
these  conditions  7  When  was  the  treaty  of  peace  signed  between 
the  two  nations  7 

(373.)  What  were  the  causes  of  the  abdication  of  the  king  in 


328  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [374 385. 

the  Netherlands  ?  In  favor  of  whom  did  he  abdicate,  and  to  what 
place  did  he  retire  7  What  proclamation  did  the  new  king  issue  on 
his  accession  1 

(374.)  What  plan  of  a  constitution  was  presented  by  the  gov- 
ernment to  the  chambers  in  1848  1 

(375.)  What  has  been  the  condition  of  Belgium  since  the  revo- 
lution of  1831  ]  Did  the  French  revolution  of  1848  produce  any 
effect  on  Belgium  1 

(376.)  What  is  the  character  of  the  Belgian  constitution  ?  What 
are  its  chief  articles'? 

§  62.     Great  Britain. 

(377.)  In  what  year  did  George  IV.  begin  his  reign  1  Who  was 
his  prime  minister  1  What  were  his  most  remarkable  measures  1 
In  defiance  of  whaj;  acts  did  O'Connell  threaten  to  take  his  seat  in 
the  house  of  commons  1 

(378.)  In  what  year  and  by  what  administration  was  the  Roman 
Catholic  Emancipation  carried  1 

(379.)  By  whom  was  George  IV.  succeeded  1  Who  was  at  the 
head  of  the  whig  administration  1  What  important  act  received 
the  royal  assent  in  this  reign  1  By  whose  administration  was  the 
monopoly  of  the  East  India  Company  abolished  1 

(380.)  Who  succeeded  William  IV.  1  Whom  did  she  marry  7 
Why  was  Hanover  separated  from  England  ?  Who  became  King 
of  Hanover  1 

(381.)  What  wars  have  been  carried  on  by  Great  Britain  in  this 
reign  1  With  what  results  1 

$  63.     Germany. 
A.    Germany,  a  confederacy  of  states.    (1815—1848.) 

(382.)  What  differences  of  opinion  arose  during  the  session  of 
the  congress  of  Vienna,  with  regard  to  the  future  constitution  of 
Germany  7  What  reforms  were  effected  in  Prussia  by  Baron  Von 
Stein  and  the  Chancellor  Hardenburg  1  What  was  the  aim  of  the 
system  pursued  in  Austria  by  Prince  Metternich  1  Was  this  sys- 
tem adopted  any  where  else  1  When  and  by  whom  was  Kotzebue 
assassinated  1  What  measures  did  Prince  Metternich  then  adopt  1 
For  how  long  did  the  German  nation  enjoy  tranquillity  1  What 
were  the  effects  of  the  Paris  revolution  of  July  1  What  events 
occurred  in  Brunswick  at  this  time  ?  In  what  states  were  the 
sovereigns  compelled  to  grant  constitutions  1  What  demands  did 
the  people  of  the  constitutional  states  of  the  south  of  Germany 
make  1 

(383.)  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  confederation  after  the  fall 
of  Warsaw  1 

(384.)  On  what  ground  did  King  Ernest  Augustus  repudiate  the 
law  of  1833,  in  Hanover'? 

(385.)  Who  succeeded  the  Emperor  Francis  I.  in  Austria  7  In 
what  year  did  Frederick  William  IV.  ascend  the  throne  1  What 
concessions  did  he  make  to  the  people  1 


386 — 395.]  OF  MODERN  HISTORY.  329 

(386.)  What  was  the  cause  of  the  disturbances  in  Munich  in 
1848 1  What  was  the  issue  of  the  struggle  7 

B.    Germany,  a  federal  state  (1848). 

(387.)  What  were  the  effects  of  the  intelligence  of  the  third 
French  revolution  1  What  report  occasioned  fresh  disturbances  in 
Munich  1  What  course  was  the  king  compelled  to  take  7  What 
was  the  first  act  of  the  new  king  7  What  demands  did  the  Hun- 
garian diet  make  1  Through  whose  influence  were  they  granted  7 
What  measures  did  the  students  of  Vienna  take  to  have  their  de- 
mands granted  7 

(388.)  What  results  followed  the  progress  of  the  emperor 
through  the  city  1  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  nobles  of  Hun- 
gary 7  What  were  the  consequences  of  the  government  scheme  for 
the  formation  of  a  single  chamber  1  When  did  the  emperor  return 
to  the  capital  7  Who  aided  the  Milanese  in  their  attempts  to  throw 
off  the  Austrian  yoke  1  What  was  the  result  of  this  insurrection  1 

(390.)  What  two  nations  formed  the  kingdom  of  Hungary  7 
What  was  the  cause  of  the  rupture  between  the  Magyars  and 
Sclavonians  1  Why  did  Jellachich  propose  a  union  with  Austria  1 
Whom  did  the  emperor  nominate  commander-in-chief  in  Hungary  7 
What  occasioned  the  second  flight  of  the  emperor  from  his  capital  1 
Who  was  Prince  Windischgratz  7  What  was  the  fate  of  the  insur- 
gents 1  When  did  the  emperor  abdicate  1  In  favor  of  whom  did 
he  abdicate  1  To  what  town  was  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  Hun- 
garian diet  changed  1 

(391.)  What  was  the  occupation  of  the  Prussian  government 
when  the  intelligence  of  the  French  revolution  arrived  1  What 
were  the  effects  of  this  intelligence  1  What  course  were  the  gov- 
ernment compelled  to  pursue  1  What  were  the  results  of  the  re- 
fusal to  withdraw  the  military  from  Berlin  7  Did  the  government 
at  last  comply  with  this  demand  7 

(392.)  When  did  the  representative  assembly  open  its  session  1 
What  was  the  first  act  of  this  assembly  1  Why  was  the  session  re- 
moved to  Brandenburg  1  What  dispute  arose  between  the  repre- 
sentative body  and  the  government  7  What  was  the  result  of  this 
dispute  1 

(393.)  Where  was  the  general  constituent  assembly  to  be  held  1 
How  was  the  number  of  the  deputies  to  be  arranged  1  From  what 
states  were  the  deputies  to  be  sent  7 

(394.)  When  did  the  constituent  assembly  commence  its  ses- 
sions 7  What  was  the  first  resolution  passed  by  the  assembly  7 
Who  was  elected  imperial  stattholder  of  Germany  7  Who  directed 
the  assembly  7  What  was  the  occasion  of  the  6mcute  of  the  18th 
of  September,  in  Frankfort  7  Who  were  murdered  during  this 
e*meute  7 

$  64.    Russia. 

(395.)  What  additions  were  made  to  the  Russian  empire  during 
the  reign  of  Alexander  I.  7  What  domestic  improvements  did  this 
emperor  effect  7  Where  did  death  surprise  the  emperor  7  By 


330  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [396 407. 

whom  was  he  succeeded  7  Why  did  not  his  brother  Constantino 
succeed  him  1 

(396.)  What  conspiracy  was  formed  early  in  this  reign  1  What 
measures  did  Nicholas  take  to  excite  a  feeling  of  nationality  1 

(397.)  What  was  the  occasion  of  the  Russian-Persian  war  1 
What  were  the  terms  of  the  peace  concluded  between  the  two 
nations  ? 

(398.)  What  was  the  occasion  of  the  Russian-Turkish  war? 
What  success  had  Wittgenstein  against  the  Turks  1  What  advan- 
tages did  Generals  Diebitsch  and  Paskewitsch  gain  1 

(399.)  What  were  the  conditions  of  the  peace  of  Adrianople  1 
What  was  the  occasion  of  the  Russian-Polish  war  1 

(400.)  By  whom  was  the  insurrection  in  Poland  commenced? 
What  were  the  results  of  this  insurrection'? 

(401.)  What  victory  did  Diebitsch  gain  over  Skrzynecki  ?  What 
occasioned  the  death  of  Diebitsch  1  Who  succeeded  him  in  the 
command  of  the  army  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  the  Polish  insur- 
gents 1  What  became  of  Poland  after  this  insurrection  1  What 
was  the  result  of  the  conspiracy  of  1846  ? 

(402.)  What  were  the  results  of  the  war  carried  on  with  the 
mountaineers  of  Caucasus  1 

$  65.     The  Osmanic  empire  and  Greece. 

(403.)  What  were  the  causes  of  the  decline  of  the  Osmanic  em- 
pire during  the  reign  of  Mahomet  II.  ? 

(404.)  Who  was  Alexander  Ypsilanti  1  What  proclamation  did 
he  issue  1  What  was  the  cause  of  the  failure  of  the  Greek  cause  1 
What  was  the  fate  of  Ypsilanti  1 

(405.)  What  other  insurrections  were  suppressed  at  the  same 
time  1  What  measures  induced  the  Greeks  to  rise  again  1  Where 
did  they  raise  the  standard  of  revolt  1  Who  joined  the  Greek 
patriots  1  By  whom  was  the  Porte  assisted  ?  Who  commanded 
the  garrison  of  Missolonghi  1  What  was  the  fate  of  this  garrison  1 
By  whose  intervention  was  tranquillity  re-established'?  Who  was 
elected  to  the  office  of  president  of  Greece  1  What  was  the  cause 
of  the  battle  of  Navarino  ?  Which  party  was  victorious  in  this 
battle  1  What  success  had  Maison  over  Ibrahim  Pacha  1  By  whom 
was  Greece  declared  to  be  an  independent  kingdom  ?  What  was  the 
northern  boundary  of  this  kingdom  1  To  whom  was  the  crown 
first  offered  1  What  was  the  fate  of  Capo  d'Istrias  1  Who  was 
nominated  hereditary  king  of  Greece  ?  When  was  he  nominated  1 
When  did  the  Porte  recognize  him  1  Where  did  he  fix  his  resi- 
dence 1  When  did  the  king  himself  assume  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment 1  What  were  the  new  causes  of  discontent  in  Greece  1  What 
occasioned  the  dissolution  of  the  Janissaries  1 

(406.)  Who  was  Mohammed  Ali  1  Who  aided  the  sultan 
against  him  ?  On  what  terms  was  peace  concluded  between  the 
sultan  and  Mohammed  Ali  1  What  were  the  results  of  the  second 
attempt  of  the  sultan  to  subjugate  Mohammed  Ali  1 

(407.)  What  grant  did  Mohammed  Ali  obtain  from  Abdul 


408 — 414.]  OF   MODERN   HISTORY.  331 

Meschid  7    What  reforms  were  effected  by  the  liberal  party  in  the 
reign  of  Abdul  Meschid  1    Who  headed  the  liberal  party  7 

§  66.    Italy. 

(408.)  For  what  benefits  was  Italy  indebted  to  France  1  When 
was  a  constitution  granted  to  Sicily  1  At  whose  instance  was  it 
granted  1  Who  were  the  Carbonari  7  What  did  they  attempt 
to  re-establish  7  Did  the  king  grant  their  demands  1  What  res- 
olution did  the  congress  of  sovereigns  pass  1  At  whose  motion 
was  it  passed  1  What  event  followed  the  return  of  the  king  from 
Laibach  1 

(409.)  When  was  the  absolute  system  broken  up  in  Italy1? 
When  was  Pope  Pius  IX.  elected  7  What  course  did  he  pursue  1 

(410.)  When  was  a  constitutional  government  established  at 
Naples  7  Where  was  this  example  followed  1  What  success  had 
the  Sicilians  in  their  attempts  to  emancipate  the  island  7  What 
events  passed  at  this  time  in  Parma  and  Modena  7  What  was  the 
result  of  the  revolt  of  Lombardy7  Where,  and  by  whom  was 
Charles  Albert  defeated  7  What  was  the  cause  of  the  departure 
of  the  Pope  from  the  papal  states  7 

$  67.     Switzerland. 

(411.)  In  whose  hands  had  the  government  been  since  18147 
What  were  the  consequences  of  the  French  revolution  of  July  7  In 
what  cantons  had  democratic  constitutions  always  existed  7  What 
were  the  consequences  of  the  civil  war  in  the  canton  of  Basle  7 
What  were  the  the  causes  of  the  disturbances  in  Aargau  and  Lu- 
cerne 7  What  success  attended  the  arms  of  the  insurgents  in  their 
attacks  on  Lucerne  7  What  was  the  Sonderbund  7  What  was  its 
fate  7 

(412.)  When  was  the  federal  constitution  revised  7  How  many 
chambers  were  established  by  the  diet  7  Of  how  many  members 
does  the  assembly  consist  7  In  whom  is  the  supreme  executive 
authority  vested  7  Was  this  constitution  accepted  by  all  the  can- 
tons 7  Where  are  the  sessions  of  the  federal  assembly  held  7 

§  68.     Spain. 

(414.)  What  were  the  first  acts  of  Ferdinand  VII.  after  his  re- 
turn from  France  7  Where  did  the  revolution  of  1820  commence  7 
Between  what  parties  was  Spain  distracted  at  this  time  7  What 
resolution  did  the  Congress  of  Sovereigns  pass  at  Verona  7  To 
whom  did  they  intrust  the  execution  of  their  design  7  Who  com- 
manded the  French  army  7  What  were  the  results  of  this  expedi- 
tion 7  What  was  the  fate  of  the  liberal  leaders  7  When  was  the 
Salic  law  introduced  7  Who  persuaded  Ferdinand  to  abrogate  this 
law  7  What  feelings  did  this  measure  excite  7  When  did  Ferdi- 
nand die  7  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  7  What  course  had  Don 
Carlos  in  the  meanwhile  pursued  7  What  were  the  consequences 
of  these  divisions  7  By  whom  were  the  Christines  commanded, 
and  who  assisted  them  7  By  whom  were  the  Carlists  commanded  7 
Which  party  was  victorious  7  On  what  conditions  did  the  Basque- 


332  QUESTIONS   TO    HANDBOOK  [415 419. 

Navarrese  recognize  Isabella  as  their  queen  7  When  and  in  favor 
of  whom  did  Don  Carlos  abdicate  1  What  concessions  was  the 
queen-regent  compelled  to  make  1  When  was  she  compelled  to 
resign  the  regency  1  Who  succeeded  her  in  the  regency  1  When 
was  the  queen  declared  to  be  of  age  1  When  and  whom  did  she 
marry  7  To  whom  did  the  queen  give  her  sister  1 

§69.  Portugal. 

(415.)  Where  had  John  VI.  remained  since  the  expulsion  of  the 
French  from  Portugal  1  To  whom  had  he  left  the  government  of 
his  European  dominions  7  When  was  he  forced  to  return  to  Lis- 
bon 1  What  oath  was  he  compelled  to  take  1  Did  he  keep  this 
oath  1  Which  of  his  sons  had  he  left  in  Brazil  1  What  was  the 
conduct  of  this  son  1  When  did  John  VI.  die  1  By  whom  was  he 
succeeded  1  What  line  of  policy  did  he  pursue  1  In  favor  of 
whom  did  he  resign  the  crown  of  Portugal  1 

(416.)  To  whom  was  Donna  Maria  betrothed  1  What  was  the 
conduct  of  Don  Miguel  1  By  whom  and  when  was  he  proclaimed 
absolute  king  1  How  did  he  lose  the  crown  1  In  favor  of  whom 
did  Don  Pedro  resign  the  crown  of  Brazil  1  For  how  long  did  the 
constitution  of  1822  remain  in  force  after  its  re-establishment  in 
1833  1  What  reason  compelled  the  government  to  restore  the 
charter  of  1826  7  Through  whose  interference  was  the  war  of 
1846-47  terminated  7  What  was  the  cause  of  this  war  1 

§70.  Sweden. 

(417.)  In  whose  reign  was  Finland  given  up  to  Russia  7  By 
what  means  was  Gustavus  IV.  compelled  to  abdicate  the  throne  1 
In  whose  favor  did  he  abdicate  1  What  new  constitution  was  pub- 
lished in  this  reign  1  What  act  was  passed  after  the  death  of  the 
crown  prince  7  What  connection  was  there  between  Napoleon  and 
Bernadotte  1 

The  House  of  Bernadotte  since  1818. 

(418.)  What  name  did  Bernadotte  assume  on  his  accession  1 
Did  he  justify  the  choice  of  the  nation  1  When  did  he  die,  and  by 
whom  was  he  succeeded  1 

§  71.  Denmark. 

(419.)  How  had  Denmark  been  indemnified  for  the  loss  of  Nor- 
way 1  For  how  long  a  period  did  this  country  enjoy  tranquillity  1 
Into  how  many  provinces  was  it  divided  1  What  proposal  was 
made  by  the  Danish  party  in  the  reign  of  Christian  VIII.  7  What 
proposal  did  the  German  provinces  make  on  the  other  hand  7 
Which  of  the  two  propositions  did  the  king  favor  7  What  events 
succeeded  the  accession  of  Frederick  VII.  7  What  engagement  did 
Prussia  make  7  At  whose  suggestion  was  it  made  7  Why  did 
Denmark  blockade  the  ports  of  Northern  Germany  7  For  how  long 
was  an  armistice  at  length  arranged  7  With  whose  consent  was  a 
provisional  government  established  7 


420 — 429.]  OP   MODERN   HISTORY.  333 

§  72.    The  American  States. 

(420.)  1.  What  is  the  number  of  the  United  States  of  North 
America  1  Name  the  extent  of  the  United  States.  Through  how 
many  degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude  do  they  range  1  What  is 
the  extent  of  sea-coast  1 

(421.)  Give  the  names  of  the  states  in  their  order. 

(422.)  Which  are  the  territories  1 

(423.)  How  have  the  United  States  increased  1  When  was 
Louisiana  purchased  7  When  was  Florida  ceded  to  the  United 
States  1  What  is  the  rank  of  the  United  States  as  a  maritime 
power  7  What  progress  has  been  made  in  railways,  steamboats, 
&c.  1  In  diffusion  of  knowledge  1  In  general  prosperity  1  Where 
is  slavery  retained  7  What  advantages  resulted  from  the  Oregon 
treaty  .1-  What  from  the  war  with  Mexico  1 

£424.)  What  is  said  of  American  history  1 

(425.)  Who  was  the  first  president  1  What  difficult  questions 
stood  in  his  way  from  the  first  7  [Financial  ones  particularly  ;  to 
various  sectional  interests,  &c.]  Who  was  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  7  What  plan  did  he  propose  1  What  effect  followed  1 
What  caused  difficulties  with  the  French?  Who  defeated  the 
Indians  1  What  important  treaty  was  concluded,  and  by  whom  1 
What  have  you  to  say  of  Washington's  Farewell  Address  1  What 
was  the  state  of  the  country  on  Washington's  retirement  1 

(426.)  Who  was  the  second  president  1  When  was  he  inaugu- 
rated 1  What  was  the  state  of  the  question  with  France  1  What 
measures  did  Congress  adopt  1  What  caused  a  change  in  the 
French  policy  1  When  did  Washington  die  7  What  was  the  effect 
on  the  people  1  State  in  few  words  his  character.  What  have  you 
to  say  of  party  during  this  administration  1  What  measures  ex- 
cited opposition  1 

(427.)  Who  was  the  next  president  1  When  did  he  enter  upon 
office  7  Who  was  vice-president  1  What  tract  of  country  was 
purchased  1  From  whom  1  What  did  the  navy  do,  and  where  1 
Give  an  account  of  the  conspiracy.  Why  was  Burr  not  convicted  7 
What  was  the  general  conviction  7  What  measures  of  European 
policy  led  to  serious  injury  and  difficulty  7  What  was  the  Berlin 
decree?  Orders  in  Council?  Milan  decree?  Give  the  dates. 
What  happened  in  the  case  of  the  Chesapeake  7  What  was  done 
in  1808  1  What  the  next  year  1 

(428.)  Who  was  the  fourth  president  1  When  inaugurated  7 
State  of  the  question  with  France  and  England  7  How  many  ves- 
sels lost  between  1803  and  1811 1  Which  country  resumed  inter- 
course first  1  At  what  date  7  What  resulted  in  case  of  England  1 
When  was  war  declared  1  Was  the  war  popular  1  What  party 
opposed  it  1  How  long  did  the  war  last  1  Operations  on  land  7 
On  sea  7  Date  of  treaty  of  peace  7  When  was  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States  chartered  7  For  how  long  7 

(429.)  Name  the  fifth  president.  When  inaugurated  7  State 
of  the  country  7  What  war  broke  out  in  1818  7  Name  the  gen- 
eral. What  country  ceded  to  the  United  States  7  By  whom  7 


334  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [430 438. 

When  1  Missouri  question,  what  1  Who  visited  the  United  States 
in  18247  How  many  candidates  for  president  1  Was  either 
elected  ? 

(430.)  Who  was  the  sixth  president  ?  Date  of  his  entrance 
upon  office?  What  was  the  controversy  with  Georgia?  How 
settled  ?  Who  died  on  4th  July,  1826  ?  What  was  the  state  of 
party  at  this  date  ?  Was  Mr.  Adams  re-elected  1 

(431.)  Name  the  seventh  president  ?  Date  1  What  policy  did 
the  new  president  introduce  ?  What  did  he  do  with  respect  to  the 
United  States  Bank  1  How  did  he  regard  internal  improvements  1 
What  happened  in  South  Carolina  1  How  did  the  executive  act  ? 
What  did  he  do  in  respect  to  the  "  deposits  ?"  What  was  the 
Senate's  action  1  State  why  trouble  occurred  with  France.  How 
was  the  matter  settled  1 

(432.)  Who  was  the  eighth  president  1  Date  of  his  inaugura- 
tion ?  What  was  his  policy  1  State  of  the  country  1  In  the  city  of 
New- York  how  many  failures  occurred  1  To  what  amount  1  What 
did  the  banks  do  1  What  did  the  extra  session  do  1  What  bill 
passed,  and  when  ?  What  great  excitement  arose  ?  Was  the  pre- 
sident re-elected  ? 

(433.)  Name  the  ninth  president.  Date  ?  How  long  did  he 
live  1  Who  succeeded  him  1 

(434.)  What  was  remarkable  in  this  administration  ?  What 
bill  was  repealed  ?  What  treaty  formed  ?  When  and  where  ? 
What  occurred  in  Rhode  Island  ?  What  was  done  in  regard  to 
Texas  1 

(435  )  Name  the  eleventh  president.  Treaty  made  with  whom  1 
War  with  whom  1  Treaty  signed,  where  and  when  1  California, 
when  taken  possession  of  1  By  whom  ?  When  was  peace  con- 
cluded ?  Amount  of  emigration  1 

(436.)  Who  was  the  twelfth  president  ?  Date  1  Died  when  1 
Who  succeeded  him  1  Who  is  president  now  (1851)  ? 

(437.)  2.  What  other  name  has  Hayti  1  When  did  this  island 
become  an  empire  ?  When  did  it  become  a  republic  ?  When  was 
the  Spanish  portion  of  the  island  incorporated  into  the  republic  ? 

(438.)  Of  what  provinces  did  Spanish  America  consist  ?  What 
did  the  people  of  Spanish  America  expect  after  their  refusal  to  ac- 
knowledge Joseph  Bonaparte  as  king  of  Spain  ?  What  measures 
did  they  adopt  when  their  expectations  were  disappointed  ?  What 
was  the  war  of  Liberation  ?  Which  was  the  successful  party  ? 
(a)  How  did  this  war  terminate  1  What  state  was  Paraguay  ?  By 
whom  and  when  was  it  founded  1  When  did  it  declare  itself  inde- 
pendent 1  Whom  did  it  choose  as  dictator  1  (b)  When  was  the 
republic  of  La  Plata  established  ?  (c)  When  was  the  republic  of 
Chili  established  ?  (d)  When  was  the  republic  of  Colombia  estab- 
lished 1  By  the  union  of  what  provinces  was  it  formed  1  When 
was  Quito  annexed  to  it  1  Into  what  states  was  it  divided  in  1831 1 
(e)  When  was  the  republic  of  Peru  established  1  By  whose  aid 
was  it  liberated  from  the  Spaniards  1  What  division  took  place  in 
1825  ?  (f )  To  whom  had  Uruguay  formerly  belonged  1  By  whom 
was  it  taken  possession  of  in  1817 1  Through  whose  intervention 


439 — 448.]  OF   MODERN   HISTORY.  335 

and  when  was  it  declared  independent  ?  What  was  the  occasion 
of  the  war  between  La  Plata  and  Uruguay  ]  (g)  What  induced 
the  Mexicans  to  make  fresh  attempts  after  their  first  insurrectionary 
movements  had  heen  suppressed  by  the  Spaniards  1  To  whom 
was  the  throne  of  Mexico  first  offered  1  Who  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror on  the  refusal  of  this  prince  1  How  long  did  he  reign  ?  Why 
was  he  compelled  to  abdicate  the  throne  1  What  was  the  result 
of  a  succession  of  party  struggles  1  When  did  Texas  separate 
itself  from  Mexico  1  To  what  state,  and  when  was  it  subsequently 
annexed  1 

(439.)  Why  had  friendly  relations  been  for  some  time  suspended 
between  Mexico  and  the  United  States  of  North  America  1  What 
was  the  cause  of  open  hostilities  1  When  was  peace  concluded  1 
On  what  terms  was  this  peace  concluded  1  (h)  What  are  the  five 
provinces  of  central  America  1  When  did  they  declare  themselves 
independent?  What  republic  did  they  establish?  When  did 
Guatimala  separate  itself  from  the  union  1 

(440.)  Which  is  the  only  monarchy  of  the  New  World  1  Why 
and  when  did  Don  Pedro  I.  abdicate  1  In  whose  favor  did  he 
abdicate  1 

§  73.  I.  Religion,  arts,  sciences,  fyc.,  during  the  Third  Period. 
I.  RELIGION. 

(441.)  Into  how  many  dioceses  has  England  divided  her  colonial 
possessions  1 

(442.)  By  what  Society  is  the  Church  in  those  dioceses  mainly 
supported  1 

(443.)  Over  what  countries  are  the  Roman  Catholic  missions 
spread  1  Under  whose  direction  are  they  1  Where  are  the  Protest- 
ant missions  established  1 

(444.)  By  what  means  was  the  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastical 
constitution  re-established  1  By  whom  had  the  order  of  Jesuits 
been  re-established  1  When  was  this  order  expelled  from  Russia  ? 
What  union  was  effected  in  Prussia  in  1817 1  What  worship  was 
suppressed  by  force  in  Russia  1 

II.  Constitutional  history  of  the  Period. 

T445.)  What  different  constitutions  have  been  established 
in  the  different  countries  of  Europe  during  this  period  1  What 
were  the  most  remarkable  effects  of  the  French  Revolution  1 

III.  Science,  literature  and  art. 

(446.)  What  was  the  effect  of  Kant's  Critique  on  the  Intel- 
lect? 

(447.)  b.  Who  distinguished  themselves  in  Philology  during 
this  period  ?  By  whom  was  the  study  of  general  grammar  pur- 
sued? By  whom  were  the  studies  of  Oriental,  Sanscrit,  and 
Ancient  German  literature  pursued  ? 

(448.)  By  whom  were  excellent  German  translations  of  the  best 
foreign  writers  made  ? 


336  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK,    ETC.         [449 460. 

(449.)  By  whom  were"  historical  investigations  pursued  in 
Germany,  France,  England,  Sweden,  Poland,  and  Russia  1 

(450.)  d.  What  progress  was  made  in  Geography  during  this 
period  7 

(451.)  Name  the  most  important  travels  of  this  period  1  By 
whom  were  expeditions  made  to  the  North  Pole  1 

(452.)  e.  In  what  manner  was  natural  science  promoted  hy 
these  travels!  Who  were  the  most  distinguished  naturalists 
of  modern  times  7  What  were  the  most  remarkable  discoveries  in 
medicine  7  By  whom  was  galvano-plastic  invented  7 

(453.)  f.  Who  were  the  greatest  poets  of  this  period  in  Ger- 
many 1  Mention  some  of  their  different  styles  7  Who  were  the 
most  celebrated  writers  of  romances  and  novels  7 

(454.)  Who  were  the  most  celebrated  French  poets  of  this 
period  1  Who  are  the  most  celebrated  writers  of  romance  7 

(455.)  Where  did  Lord  Byron  write"?  Who  were  the  most 
celebrated  English  writers  of  this  period  1  Who  are  the  most  re- 
nowned of  the  modern  Italian  poets  7  What  writers  distinguished 
themselves  in  Russia  and  Sweden  7  Who  are  the  most  celebrated 
North  American  romance  writers  7 

(456.)  g.  What  country  can  boast  the  most  distinguished 
modern  orators'?  Who  are  the  most  celebrated  French  ora- 
tors'? 

(457.)  h.  How  has  the  study  of  the  antique  been  promoted  7 
Who  have  been  the  most  successful  imitators  of  classical  models 
of  sculpture  7 

(458.)  What  schools  of  painting  have  we  in  Germany  7  Who 
were  at  the  head  of  these  schools  7  What  has  been  the  great  aim 
of  the  French  painters,  Horace  Vernet,  P.  Delaroche.  &c.  7  Who 
are  the  most  celebrated  painters  in  Belgium  7  How  has  the  study 
of  the  fine  arts  been  improved  7  By  whom  was  lithography  invent- 
ed 7  Who  was  the  inventor  of  steel  engraving  7  Where  was  the 
daguerreotype  invented  7 

(459.)  i.  Which  country  has  produced  the  most  illustrious 
masters  in  music  7  Who  were  the  most  celebrated  German  com- 
posers 7  Who  are  the  most  celebrated  French  composers  7  How 
and  where  have  Rossini  and  Bellini  distinguished  themselves  7 
By  what  means  has  the  musical  science  been  advanced  in 
Europe  7 

(460.)  To  whom  was  the  colonial  trade  of  the  French,  Dutch, 
and  Spaniards  transferred  during  the  war  7  How  did  England 
indemnify  herself  for  the  loss  of  her  trade  with  the  European 
continent  7  How  was  manufacturing  industry  encouraged  in 
France,  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  and  Russia  7  How  were 
the  interests  of  commerce  promoted  7  What  commercial  prin- 
ciple has  been  adopted  by  England  7  Mention  an  instance  of 
this. 

THE    END. 


MANUAL 

OF 

ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY. 

BY   WILHELM    PUTZ, 

PRINCIPAL   TUTOR    IN    THE    GYMNASIUM    OP    DUREN 

Translated  from  the  German. 
EDITED    BY   THE    REV.    THOMAS    K.    ARNOLD,  M    *.., 

AUTHOR   OP    A    SERIES    OP    "GREEK    AND    LATIN    TEXT-BOOKS." 

One  volume,  12mo.    $1. 

"  At  no  period  has  History  presented  such  strong  claims  upon  the  attention  of  the  learneil,  aa 
it  the  present  day  ;  and  to  no  people  were  its  lessons  of  such  value  as  to  those  of  the  United 
States.  With  no  past  of  our  own  to  revert  to,  the  great  masses  of  our  better  educated  are  tempted 
'o  overlook  a  science,  which  comprehends  all  others  in  its  grasp.  To  prepare  a  text-bcx>k,  which 
shall  present  a  full,  clear,  and  accurate  view  of  the  .ancient  world,  its  geography,  its  political, 
civil,  social,  religious  state,  must  be  the  result  only  of  vast  industry  and  learning.  Our  exami- 
nation of  the  present  volume  leads  us  to  believe,  that  as  a  text-book  on  Ancient  History,  for  Col- 
leges and  Academies,  it  is  the  best  compend  yet  published.  It  bears  marks  in  its  methodical 
arrangement,  and  condensation  of  materials,  of  the  untiring  patience  of  German  scholarship ;  and 
in  its  progress  through  the  English  and  American  press,  has  been  adapted  for  acceptable  use  in 
pur  best  institutions.  A  noticeable  feature  of  the  book,  is  its  pretty  complete  list  of  'sources  of 
information'  upon  the  nations  which  it  describes.  This  will  be  an  invaluable  aid  to  the  student 
in  his  future  course  of  reading." 

"  Wilhelm  PUtz,  the  author  of  this  '  Manual  of  Ancient  Geojraphy  and  History,'  is  Principa1 
Tutor  (Oberleher)  in  the  Gymnasium  of  Duren,  Germany.  His  book  exhibits  the  advantages  o 
the  German  method  of  treating  History,  in  its  arrangement,  its  classification,  and  its  rigid  analy- 
sis. The  Manual  is  what  it  purports  to  be,  '  a  clear  and  definite  outline  of  the  history  of  the 
principal  nations  of  antiquity,'  into  which  is  incorporated  a  concise  geography  of  each  country. 
The  work  is  a  text- book ;  to  be  studied,  and  not  merely  read.  It  is  to  form  the  groundwork  o/ 
subsequent  historical  investigation, — the  materials  of  which  are  pointed  out,  at  the  proper  places, 
in  the  Manual,  in  careful  references  to  the  works  which  treat  oi  the  subject  directly  under  con- 
sideration. The  list  of  references  (especially  as  regards  earlier  works)  is  quite  complete, — thua 
supplying  that  desideratum  in  Ancient  History  and  Geography,  which  has  been  supplied  so  fully 
by  Dr.  J.  C.  I.  Gieseler  in  Ecclesiastical  History. 

"  The  nations  whose  history  is  considered  in  the  Manual,  are :  in  Asia,  the  Israelites,  the  In- 
dians, the  Babylonians,  the  Assyrians,  the  Medea,  the  Persians,  the  Phoenicians,  the  States  of  Asia 
Minor ;  in  Africa,  the  Ethiopians,  the  Egyptians,  the  Carthaginians ;  in  Europe,  the  Greeks,  the 
Macedonians,  the  Kingdoms  which  arose  out  of  the  Macedonian  Monarchy,  tne  Romans.  The 
order  in  which  the  history  of  each  is  treated,  is  admirable.  To  the  whole  are  appended  a  '  Chro- 
nological Table,'  and  a  well-prepared  series  of  'Questions.'  The  pronunciation  of  proper 
names  is  indicated, — an  excellent  feature.  The  accents  are  given  with  remarkable  correctness. 
The  typographical  execution  of  the  American  edition  is  most  excellent." — S.  W. Baptist  Chronicle* 

"  Like  every  thing  which  proceeds  from  the  editorship  of  that  eminent  Instructor,  T.  K.  Arnold, 
this  Manual  appears  to  be  well  suited  to  the  design  with  which  it  was  prepared,  and  will,  un- 
doubtedly, secure  for  itself  a  place  among  the  text-books  of  schools  and  academies  thoughout  the 
country.  It  presents  an  outline  of  the  history  of  the  ancient  nations,  from  the  earliest  ages  to  the 
fall  of  "the  Western  Empire  in  the  sixth  century,  the  events  being  arranged  in  the  order  of  an 
accurate  chronology,  and  explained  by  accompanying  treatises  on  the  geography  of  the  several 
countries  in  which  "thev  transpired.  The  chief  feature  of  this  work,  and  this  is  a  very  important 
one,  is,  that  it  sets  forth  ancient  history  and  ancient  geography  in  their  connection  with  each 
other. 

"  It  was  originally  prepared  by  Wilhelm  Putz,  an  eminent  German  scholar,  and  translated  and 
edited  in  England  by  Rev.  T.  K.  Arnold,  and  is  now  revised  and  introduced  to  the  American 
public  in  a  well  written  prefac*,  by  Mr.  George  W.  Greene,  Teacher  of  Modem  Languages  in 
Brown  University."— Prov.  Journal. 

5 


HAND  BOOK 


OF 

MEDIEVAL   GEOGRAPHY  AND   HISTORY. 

BY 

WILHELM    PUTZ, 

PRINCIPAL  TUTOR  IN  THE  GYMNASIUM  OF  DUREN 

Translated  from  the  German  by 

REV,  R,  B,  PAUL,  M,  A,, 

Vicar  of  St.  Augustine's,  Bristol,  and  late  Fellow  of  Exeter  Collect,  Oxford. 
1  volume,  12mo.    75  cts. 
HEADS    OF    CONTENTS. 

I.  Germany  before  the  Migration*. 
II.  The  Migrations. 

THE    MIDDLE    AGES. 

FIRST  PERIOD.-  -From  the  Dissolution  of  the  Western  Empire  to  the  Accession  of  the 
gianb  and  Abbasides. 

SECOND  PERIOD.— From  the  Accession  of  the  Carlovingians  and  Abbasides  to  the  first  Crusade. 

THIRD  PERIOD.— Age  of  the  Crusades. 

FOURTH  PERIOD. — From  the  Termination  of  the  Crusades  to  the  Discovery  of  America. 

"  The  characteristics  of  this  volume  are :  precision,  condensation,  and  luminous  arrangement. 
It  is  precisely  what  it  pretends  to  be— a  manual,  a  sure  and  conscientious  guide  for  the  student 
through  the  crooks  ana  tangles  of  Mediasval  history.  *  *  All  the  great  principles  of  this 

extensi ••••&  Period  are  carefully  laid  down,  and  the  most  important  facts  skilfully  grouped  around 
them.  There  is  no  period  of'  History  for  which  it  is  more  difficult  to  prepare  a  work  like  this, 
an;l  none  for  which  it  is  so  much  needed.  The  leading  facts  are  well  established,  but  they  are 
scattered  over  an  immense  space ;  the  principles  are  ascertained,  but  their  development  was 
slow,  unequal,  and  interrupted.  There  is  a  general  .breaking  up  of  a  great  body,  and  a  parcelling 
of  it  out  among  small  tribes,  concerning  whom  we  have  only  a  few  general  data,  and  are  left  to 
analogy  and  conjecture  for  the  details.  "Then  come  successive  attempts  at  organization,  each 
more  or  less  independent,  and  all  very  imperfect.  At  last,  modern  Europe  begins  slowly  to 
emerge  from  the  chaos,  but  still  under  forms  which  the  most  diligent  historian  cannot  always 
comprehend.  To  reduoa  such  materials  to  a  clear  and  definite  form  is  a  task  of  no  small  diffi- 
culty, and  in  which  partial  success  deserves  great  praise.  It  is  not  too  much  to  Bay  that  '<;  has 
never  been  so  well  done  within  a  compass  so  easily  mastered,  as  in  the  little  volume  wh»~h  is 
now  offered  to  the  public." — Extract  from  American  Preface. 

"This  translation  of  a  foreign  schopl-b9ok  embraces  a  succinct  and  well  arranged  body  of 
facts  concerning  European  and  Asiatic  history  and  geography  during  the  middle  ages.  It  is 
furnished  with  printed  questions,  and  it  seems  to  bs  well  adapted  to  its  purpose,  in  all  respects, 
The  mediaeval  period  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  in  the  annals  of  the  world,  and  a  knowledge 
of  its  great  men,  and  of  its  progress  in  arts,  arms,  government  and  religion,  is  particularly  im- 
portant, since  this  period  is  the  basis  of  our  own  social  polity." — Commercial  Advertiser, 

"  This  is  an  immense  amount  of  research  condensed  into  a  moderately  sized  volume,  in  a  way 
which  no  one  has  patience  to  do  but  a  German  scholar.  The  beauty  of  the  work  is  its  luminous 
arrangement.  It  is  a  guide  to  the  student  amidst  the  intricacy  of  Mediaeval  History,  the  most 
difficult  period  of  the  world  to  understand,  when  the  Roman  Empire  was  breaking  up  and  par- 
celling out  into  smaller  kingdoms,  and  every  thing  was  in  a  transition  state.  It  was  a  period  of 
chaos  from  which  modem  Europe  was  at  length  to  arise. 

The  author  has  briefly  taken  up  the  principal  political  and  social  influences  whicl"  were 
acting  on  society,  and  shown  their  bearing  from  the  time  previous  to  the  migrations  of  the 
Northern  nations,  down  through  the  middle  ages  to  the  sixteenth  century.  The  notes  on  the 
crusades  are  particularly  valuable,  and  the  range  of  observation  embraces  not  only  Europe  but 
the  East.  To  the  student  it  will  be  a  most  valuable  Hand-book,  saving  him  a  world  of  trouble 
to  hunting  up  authorities  and  facts."-  -Rev.  Dr.  Kip,  in  Albany  State  Register, 


fnglistj. 
A  MANUAL 


OF 

GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

BY   DR.   E.    F.   BOJESEN, 

Professor  of  the  Greek  Language  and  Literature  in  the  University  of  Soro, 
Translated  from  the  German. 

EDITED,    WITH   NOTES    AND    A    COMPLETE    SERIES  JF  QUESTIONS,  BY    THB 

REV.  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  M.  A. 
REVISED  WITH  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS. 

One  neat  volume,  12mo.    Price  SI. 

The  present  Manual  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities  is  far  superior  to  any  thing  on  the 
same  topics  as  yet  offered  to  the  American  public  A  principal  Review  of  Germany  says  : — 
"  Small  SL.U  he  compass  of  it  is,  we  may  confidently  amrm  that  it  is  a  great  improvement  on  all 
preceding  worvs  of  the  kind.  We  no  longer  meet  with  the  wretched  old  method,  in  which  sub- 
jects essentially  distinct  are  herded  together,  and  connected  subjects  disconnected,  but  have  a 
simple,  systematic  arrangement,  by  which  the  reader  easily  receives  a  clear  representation  ol 
Roman  life.  We  ^  longer  stumble  against  countless  errors  in  detail,  which  though  long  ago 
assailed  and  extirpated  by  Niebuhrand  others,  have  found  their  last  place  of  refuge  in  our  Ma- 
nuals. The  recent  investigations  of  philologists  and  jurists  have  been  extensively,  but  carefully 
and  circumspectly  used.  The  conciseness  and  precision  which  the  author  has  every  where 
prescribed  to  himself,  prevents  the  superficial  observer  from  perceiving,  the  essential  superiority 
of  the  book  to  its  predecessors,  but  whoever  subjects  it  to  a  careful  examination  will  discover 
this  on  every  page." 

The  Editor  says :— "  I  fully  believe  that  the  pupil  will  receive  from  these  little  works  a 
correct  and  tolerably  complete  picture  of  Grecian  and  Roman  life;  what  I  may  call  the  POLI- 
TICAL portions — the  account  of  the  national  constitutions  and  their  effects — appear  to  me  to  be 
of  great  value;  and  the  very  moderate  extent  of  each  volume  admits  of  its  being  thoroughly 
mastered — of  it?  beins  GOT  UP  and  RETAINED." 

"  A  work  long  need  °d  in  our  schools  and  colleges^  The  manuals  of  Rennet,  Adam,  Potter, 
and  Robinson,  with  ..ie  more  recent  and  valuable  translation  of  Eschenburg,  were  entirely  too 
voluminous.  Here  is  nether  too  much,  nor  too  little.  The  arrangement  is  admirable — every 
subject  is  treated  of  in  its  proper  place.  We  have  the  general  Geography,  a  succinct  historical 
view  of  the  general  subject ;  the  chirography,  history,  laws,  manners,  customs,  and  religion  ol 
each  State,  as  well  i'^the  points  of  union  for  all,  beautifully  arranged.  We  regard  the  work  as 
the  very  best  adjurf  to  classical  study  for  youth  that  we  have  seen,  and  sincerely  hope  that 
teachers  may  be  bri  ^ht  to  regard  it  in  the  same  light.  The  whole  is  copiously  digested  into 
appropriate  questions."— -tf.  Lit.  Gazette. 

From  Professor  Lincoln,  of  Broion  University, 

"  I  found  on  my  table  after  a  short  absence  from  home,  your  edition  of  Bojeoen's  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities.  Pray  accept  my  acknowledgments  for  it.  I  am  agreeably  surprised  to 
find  on  examining  it,  that  within  so  very  narrow  a  compass  for  so  comprehensive  a  sutject,  the 
book  contains  so  much  valuable  matter ;  and,  indeed,  so  far  as  I  see,  omits  noticing  no  topics  es- 
sential. It  will  be  a  very  useful  book  in  Schools  and  Colleges,  and  it  is  fa»r  superior  to  any  thing 
that.  I  know  of  the  same  kind.  Besides  being  cheap  and  accessible  to  all  students,  it  has  tha 
great  merit  of  discussing  its  topics  in  a  consecutive  and  connected  manner." 

Extract  of  a  letter  from  Professor  Tyler,  of  Amherst  College. 

"  I  have  never  found  time  till  lately  to  look  over  Bojesen's  Antiquities,  of  which  you  were 
kind  enough  to  send  me  a  copy.  I  think  it  an  excellent  book;  learned,  accurate,  concise,  and 
perspicuous ;  well  adapted  for  use  in  the  Academy  or  the  Colleee,  and  comprehending  in  a 
roaall  compass,  more  that  ie  valuable  on  the  subject  than  many  extended  treatises." 

3 


COURSE  OF  MATHEMATICAL  WOBKS, 

BY  GEORGE  R.  PERKINS,  A.M., 
Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Principal  of  the  State  Normal.  School 

I.    PRIMARY  ARITHMETIC.    Price  21  cts. 

A  want,  with  young  pupils,  of  rapidity  and  accuracy  in  performing  operations  upon  written 
numbers  ;  a«  imperfect  knowledge  of  Numeration  ;  inadequate  conceptions  of  the  nature  and 
relations  of  Fractions,  and  a  lack  of  familiarity  with  the  principles  ol  Decimals,  have  induced 
the  author  to  prepare  the  PRIMARY  ARITHMETIC. 

The  first  part  is  devoted  to  MENTAL  EXERCISE/"  and  the  second  to  Exercises  on  the  Slate 
ttiid  Blackboard. 

While  the  minds  of  young  pupils  are  disciplined  by  mental  exercises  (if  not  wearisomely 
prolonged),  they  fail,  in  general,  in  trusting  to  "head-work"  for  their  calculations;  jid  in  re- 
sorting to  written  operations  to  solve  their  difficulties,  are  often  slow  and  inaccurate  fp.m  a  want 
of  early  familiarity  with  such  processes :  these  considerations  have  induced  the  Author  to  devote 
part  of  his  book  to  primary  written  exercises. 

It  has  been  received  with  more  popularity  than  any  Arithmetic  heretofore  issued. 

II.    ELEMENTARY  ARITHMETIC.     Price  42  cts. 

Has  recently  been  carefully  revised  and  enlarged.  It  will  be  found  concise,  yet  lucid.  It  reaches 
the  radical  relations  of  numbers,  and  presents  fundamental  principles  in  analysis  and  examples. 
It  leaves  nothing  obscure,  yet  it  does  not  embarrass  by  multiplied  processes,  nor  enfeeble  by 
minute  details. 

In  this  work  all  of  the  examples  or  problems  are  strictly  practical,  made  up  as  they  are  in  a 
great  measure  of  important  statistics  and  valuable  facjs  in  history  and  philosophy,  which  are 
thus  unconsciously  learned  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  Arithmetic. 

Fractions  are  placed  immediately  alter  Division  ;  Federal  Money  is  treated  as  and  with  De- 
cimal Fractions;  Proportion  is  placed  before  Fellowship,  Alligation,  and  such  rules  a.s  require 
its  application  in  their  solution.  Every  rule  is  marked  with  verity  and  simplicity.  The  an- 
swers to  all  of  the  examples  are  given. 

The  work  will  be  found  -to  be  an  improvement  on  mostr  if  not  all,  previous  elementary 
Arithmetics  in  the  treatment  of  Fractions,  Denominate  Numbers,  Rule  of  Three,  Interest,  Equa- 
tion of  Payments,  Extraction  of  Roots,  and  many  other  subjects. 

Wherever  this  work  is  presented,  the  publishers  have  heard  but  one  opinion  in  regard  to  it* 
merits,  and  that  most  favorable. 

III.     HIGHER  ARITHMETIC.     Price  84  cts. 

The  present  edition  has  been  revised,  many  subjects  rewritten,  and  much  new  matter  added  ; 
and  contain?  an  APPENDIX  of  about  60  pages,  in  which  the  philosophy  of  the  mure  diffict.it 
operations  and  interesting  properties  of  numbers  are  fully  discussed.  The  work  is  what  its  name 
purports,  a  Higher  Arithmetic,  and  will  be  found  to  contain  many  entirely  new  principles  which 
nave  never  before  appeared  in  any  Arithmetic.  It  has  received  the  strongest  recommendations 
from  hundreds  of  the  best  teachers  the  country  affords. 

IV.     ELEMENTS  OF  ALGEBRA.     Price  84  cts 

This  work  is  an  introduction  to  the  Author's  "  Treatise  on  Algebra,"  and  is  designed  eape 
ctally  for  the  use  of  Common  Schools,  and  universally  pronounced  '•  admirably  adapted  to  tb* 
purpose." 

V.    TREATISE  ON  ALGEBRA.      Price  SI  50. 

This  work  contains  the  higher  parts  of  Algebra  usually  taught  in  Colleges  ;  a  new  method 
of  cubic  and  higher  equation?  as  veil  as  the  THEOREM  OF  STURM,  by  which  we  may  at  onc« 
determine  the  number  of  real  roots  of  any  Algebraic  Equation,  wh.h  much  more  ease  than  by 
previously  discovered  method. 

In  the  present  revised  edition,  one  entire  chapter  on  the  subject  of  CONTINUBD  FRACTIONS 
hiw  been  added. 

VI.    ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMETRY,  WITH  PRACTICAL  APPLICATIONS.    SI. 

Tbe  author  has  added  throughout  the  entire  Work,  PRACTICAL  APPLICATIONS,  which,  in  the 
estimation  of  Teachers,  is  an  important  consideration. 

An  eminent  Professor  of  Mathematics,  in  speaking  of  this  work,  says :  "  We  have  adopted 
It,  because  it  follows  more  closely  the  best  model  of  pure  geometrical  reasoning,  which  ever  has 
been,  and  perhaps  ever  will  be  exhibited  ;  and  because  the  Author  has  condensed  some  of  the 
important  principles  of  the  great  master  of  Geometricians,  and  more  eepeciai./  has  shown  that 
his  theorems  are  not  mere  theory,  iy  many  practical  applications  :  a  quality  m  a  text-book  »' 
this  science  no  less  uncommon  than  it  is  important." 

6 


PKOF.  MANDEVILLE'S  READING  BOOKS. 

I.  PRIMARY,  OR  FIRST  READER.     Price  10  cents. 

II.  SECOND  READER.     Price  16  cents. 

These  two  Readers  are  formed  substantially  on  the  same  plan  ;  anc  the  second  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  first.  The  design  of  both  is,  to  combine  a  knowledge  of  the  meaning  and  pronuncia- 
tion of  words,  with  a  knowledge  of  their  grammatical  functions.  The  parts  of  speech  are  in- 
nv  uced  successively,  beginning  with  the  articles,  these  are  followed  by  the  Demonstrative  pro 
jwuns  ;  and  these  again  by  others,  class  after  class,  until  all  that  are  requisite  to  form  a  sentence 
Oive  been  separately  considered  ;  when  the  common  reading  lessons  begin. 

The  Second  Reader  reviews  the  ground  passed  over  in  the  Primary,  but  adds  largely  to  the 
•mount  of  information.  The  child  is  here  also  taught  to  read  writing  as  well  as  printed  matter; 
and  in  the  reading  lessons,  attention  is  constantly  directed  to  the  different  ways  in  whicb 
sentences  are  formed  and  connected,  and  of  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  each  of  them  is  deliv 
ered.  All  who  have  examined  these  books,  have  pronounced  them  a  decided  and  important  ad 
vaiKe  on  every  other  of  the  same  class  in  use. 

HI.  THIRD  READER.     Price  25  cents. 

IV.  FOURTH  READER.     Price  38  cents. 

Li  the  first  two  Readers,  the  main  object  is  to  make  the  pupil  acquainted  with  the  meaninj 
and  functions  of  words,  and  to  impart  facility  in  pronouncing  them  in  sentential  connection  :  thf 
leading  design  of  these,  is  to  form  a  natural,  flexible,  and  varied  delivery.  Accordingly,  th« 
Third  Reader  opens  with  a  series  of  exercises  on  articulation  and  modulation,  containing  numer- 
ous examples  for  practice  on  the  elementary  sounds  (including  errors  to  be  corrected)  and  on  tha 
different  movements  of  the  voice,  produced  by  sentential  structure,  by  emphasis,  and  by  the  pas- 
sions. The  habits  formed  by  these  exercises,  which  should  be  thoroughly,  as  they  can  be  easily 
mastered,  under  intelligent  instruction,  find  scope  for  improvement  and  confirmation  in  the 
reading  lessons  which  follow,  in  the  same  book  and  that  which  succeeds. 

These  lessons  have  been  selected  with  special  reference  to  the  following  peculiarities :  1st, 
Colloquial  character  ;  2d,  Variety  of  sentential  structure  ;  3d,  Variety  of  subject  matter ;  4th 
Adaptation  to  the  progressive  development  of  the  pupil's  mind ;  and,  as  far  as  possible,  5th, 
Tendency  to  excite  moral  and  religious  emotions.  Great  pains  have  been  taken  to  make  the 
books  in  these  respects,  which  are,  in  fact,  characteristic  of  the  whole  series,  superior  to  any 
Oihers  in  use  ;  with  what  success,  a  brief  comparison  will  readily  show. 

V    THE  FIFTH  READER;  OR,  COURSE  OF  READING.     Price  75  cents. 

VI    THE  ELEMENTS  OF  READING  AND  ORATORY.    Price  $1. 

These  books  are  designed  to  cultivate  the  literary  taste,  as  well  as  the  understanding  and  voca. 
powers  of  the  pupil. 

THE  COURSE  OF  READING  comprises  three  parts  ;  the  first  part  containing  a  more  elaborate 
description  of  elementary  sounds  and  the  parts  of  speech  grammatically  considered  than  was 
deemed  necessary  in  the  preceding  works;  nere  indispensable  :  part  second,  a  complete  classifi- 
cation and  description  of  every  sentence  to  be  found  in  the  English,  or  any  other  language;  ex- 
amples; of  which  in  every  degree  of  expansion,  from  a  few  words  to  the  half  of  an  octavo  page 
in  length,  are  adduced,  and  arranged  to  be  read  ;  and  as  each  species  has  its  peculiar  delivery  ai 
well  «u?  structure,  both  are  learned  at  the  same  time  ;  part  third,  paragraphs  ;  or  sentences  in 
their  conne-tion  unfolding  general  thoughts,  as  in  the  common  reading  books.  It  may  be  ob- 
served that  vie  selections  of  sentences  in  part  second,  and  of  paragraphs  in  part  third,  comprise 
aome  of  the  finest  gems  in  the  language  :  distinguished  alike  for  beauty  of  thought  and  facility 
of  diction.  If  not  found  in  a  school  book,  they  might  be  approprately  called  "  elegant  extracts  " 

The  ELEMENTS  OF  READING  AND  ORATORY  closes  the  series  with  an  exhibition  of  the  whole 
theory  and  art  of  Elocution  exclusive  of  gesture.  It  contains,  besides  the  classification  of  sen- 
tences already  referred  io,  but  here  presented  with  fuller  statement,  and  illustration,  the  laws  of 
punctuation  and  delivery  deduced  from  it :  the  whole  followed  by  carefully  selected  oieces  for 
sentential  analysis  and  vocal  practice. 

THE  RESULT. — The  student  who  acquaints  himself  thoroughly  with  the  contends  of  thia 
book,  will,  as  numerous  experiments  have  proved ;  1st,  Acquire  complete  knowledge  of  the 
structure  of  the  language  j  2d,  B  ?  able  to  designate  any  sentence  of  any  book  by  name  at  a 
glance ;  3d,  Be  able  to  declare  with  equal  rapidity  its  proper  punctuation ;  4th,  Be  able  to  delare, 
and  with  sufficient  practice  to  give  its  proper  delivery.  Sucn  are  a  few  of  the  general  character- 
istics of  the  series  of  school  books  which  the  publishers  now  offer  to  the  friends  and  patrons 
of  a  sound  common  school  and  academic  education.  For  more  particular  information,  reference 
is  respectfully  made  to  the  "  Hints,"  which  may  be  found  at  the  beginning  of  each  volume. 

N.  B.  The  punctuation  in  all  these  books  conforms,  in  the  main,  to  the  sense  and  proper  de- 
livery of  every  sentence,  and  is  a  guide  to  both.  \Vhen  a  departure  from  the  proper  punctuatiou 
occurs,  the  proper  delivery  is  indicated.  As  reading  books  are  usually  punctuated,  it  is  a  m«ttei 
of  surprise  that  children  should  learn  to  read  at  all. 

*  *  The  above  series  of  Reading  Books  are  already  very  extensively  introduced  and  com- 
mended by  tne  most  experienced  Teachers  in  the  country.  "  Prof.  Mandeville's  system  is  emi- 
nently  original,  scientific  and  practical,  and  destined  wherever  it  is  introduced  to  supersede  at 
once  all  others." 


THE  SHAKSPEARIAN  READER; 

&  COLLECTION  3F  THE  MOST  APPROVED  PLAY'S  OF 

SHAKSPEARE. 

Garerully  Revised,  with  Introductory  and  Explanatory  Notes,  and  a  Meraob 

o   the  Author.     Prepared  expressly  for  the  use  of  Classes, 

and  the  Family  Reading  Circle. 

BY   JOHN   W.  S.  HOWS, 

Professor  of  Elocution  in  Columbia  College. 

The  MAN,  whom  Nature's  self  hath  made 

To  mock  herself,  and  TRUTH  tr  imitate. — Spenser. 

One  Volume,  12mo,  $1  25. 

At  a  period  when  the  fame  of  Shakspeare  is  "  striding  the  world  like  a  co/ossus,"  and  tdl 
tionsof  his  works  are  multiplied  with  a  profusion  that  testifies  the  desire  awakened  in  all  c!a*«es 
of  society  to  read  and  study  his  imperishable  compositions, — there  needs,  perhaps",  but  little 
apology  for  the  following  selection  of  his  works,  prepared  expressly  to  render  them  unexcep- 
tionable for  the  use  of  Schools,  and  acceptable  for  Family  reading.  Apart  from  the  fact,  that 
Shakspeare  is  the  "well-spring"  from  which  may  be  traced  the  orisin  of  the  purest  poetry  in 
our  language, — a  long  course  of  professional  experience  has  satisfied  me  that  a  necessity  exists 
for  the  addition  of  a  w^rfc  like  the  present,  to  our  stock  of  Educational  Literature.  His  writings 
are  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  purposes  of  Elocutionary  exercise,  when  the  system  of  instruction 
pursued  by  the  Teacher  is  based  upon  the  true  principle  of  the  art,  viz. — a  careful  analysis  of 
the  structure  and  meaning  of  language,  rather  than  a  servile  adherence  to  the  arbitrary  and  me- 
chanical rules  of  Elocution. 

To  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil  that  words  are  the  exposition  of  thought,  and  that  in 
reading,  or  speaking,  every  shade  of  thought  and  feeling  has  its  appropriate  shade  of  modulated 
tone,  ought  to  be  the  especial  aim  of  every  Teacher;  and  an  author  like  Shakspeare,  whose 
every  line  embodies  a  volume  of  meaning,  should  surely  form  one  of  our  Elocutionary  Text 
Books.  *  *  Still,  in  preparing  a  selection  of  his  works  for  the  express  purpose  contem- 
plated in  my  design,  I  have  not  hesitated  to  exercise  a  severe  revision  of  his  language,  beyond 
that  adoptea  in  any  similar  undertaking — "  Bowdler's  Family  Shakspeare  "  not  even  excepted; — 
and  simply,  because  I  practically  know  the  impossibility  of  introducing  Shakspeare  as  a  Clan 
Book,  or  as  a  satisfactory  Reading  Book  for  Families  without  this  precautionary 
Extract  from  the  Preface. 


dtom'a  Sfshrriad 

(NEARLY  READY.) 

MANUAL  OF  THE  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY 

OF   THE 

MIDDLE     AGES. 

translated  from  the  French  of  M.  DES  MICHELS,  Rector  of  the  College  of  Rouen, 
with  Additions  and  Corrections. 

BY  G.  W.  GREENE, 

Professor  of  Modern  Languages  in  Brown  University. 

Accompanied  with  Numerous  Engravings  and  Maps.     One  Volume,  12m<x 
TO   BE  FOLLOWED  BY 

A  Manual  of  Modern  History,  down  to  the  French  Revolution. 
A  Manual  of  Ancient  History. 
A  History  c/  Rome. 

'  Great  pains  will  be  taken  to  adapt  these  books  to  the  practical  pnrpOMi  of  the  < 
and  for  th*  guidance  of  private  students. 

10 


A  MANUAL  OF  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  HISTORY, 

COMPRISING  : 

I.  ANCIENT  His  TORT,  containing  the  Political  History,  Geographical  Position,  and  Socia 
Btate  of  the  Principal  Nations  of  Antiquity,  carefully  digested  1'rom  the  Ancient  Writers,  and  il- 
lustrated by  the  discoveries  of  Modern  Travellers  and  Scholars. 

II.  M90ERN  His  TORV,  containing  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  principal  European  Nation*, 
their  Political  History,  and  the  changes  in  their  Social  Condition :  with  a  Histoiy  of  the  Colonies 
Founded  by  Europeans.  By  W.  COOKE  TAYLOR,  LL.D.,  cf Trinity  College,  Dublin.    Revised, 
with  Additions  on  A  rnerican  History,  by  C.  S.  Henry,  D.  D.,  Professor  of  History  in  the  Univer 
nty  of  N.  Y.,  and  Questions  adapted  for  the  Use  of  Schools  and  Colleges.     One  handsome  voL, 
frvo,  of  800  pages,  $:J,25 ;  Ancient  History  in  1  vol.  $1,25,  irlodern  History  in  1  vol.,  $1,50. 

The  ANCIENT  HISTORY  division  comprises  Eighteen  Chapters,  which  include  the  genera] 
outlines  of  the  History  of  Egypt — the  Ethiopians — Babylonia  and  Assyria — Western  Asia— Pal- 
estine— t'.ie  Empire  of  the  Medes  and  Persians — Phoenician  Colonies  in  Northern  Africa — Found, 
ation  and  History  of  the  Grecian  States — Greece — the  Macedonian  Kingdom  and  Empire — the 
States  that  arose  irom  the  dismemberment  of  the  Macedonian  Kingdom  and  Empire — Ancient 
Italy — Sicily — the  Roman  Republic — Geographical  and  Political  Condition  of  the  Roman  Emoire 
--History  of  the  Roman  Empire — and  India — with  an  Appendix  of  important  illustrative  articles, 

This  portion  is  one  of  the  best  Compends  of  Ancient  History  that  ever  yei  has  appeared.  It 
contains  a  complete  text  for  the  collegiate  lecturer ;  and  is  an  essential  hand-book  for  the  studem 
who  is  desirous  to  become  acquainted  with  all  that  is  memorable  in  general  secular  archaeology. 

The  MODERN  HISTORY  portion  is  divided  into  Fourteen  Chapters,  on  the  following  general 
subjects  : — Consequences  of  the  Fall  of  the  Western  Empire — Rise  and  Establishment  of  the 
Saracenic  Power — Restoration  of  the  Western  Empire — Growth  of  the  Papal  Power — RevivaJ 
of  Literature — Progress  of  Civilization  and  Invention — Reformation,  and  Commencement  of  the 
States  System  in  Europe— Augustan  Ages  of  England  and  France — Mercantile  and  Colonial  Sys- 
tem— Age  of  Revolutions — French  Empire — History  of  the  Peace — Colonization — China — the 
Jews— with  Chronological  and  Historical  Tables  and  other  Indexes.  Dr.  Henry  has  appended  a 
new  chapter  on  the  History  of  the  United  States. 

This  Manual  of  Modern  History,  by  Mr.  Taylor,  is  the  most  valuable  and  instructive  work 
concerning  the  general  subjects  which  rt  comprehends,  that  can  be  found  in  the  whole  department 
of  historical  literature.  Mi.  Taylor's  book  is  fast  superseding  all  other  compends,  and  is  already 
adopted  as  a  text-book  in  Harvard,  Columbia,  Yale,  New- York,  Pennsylvania  and  Brown  Uni- 
versities, and  several  leading  Academies. 


LECTURES 

ON 

MODERN    HISTORY. 

By  THOMAS  ARNOLD,  D.D., 

Regius  Professor  of  Modern  History  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  Head 
Master  of  Rugby  School. 

EDITED,    WITH    A    PRKFACE    AND    NOTES, 

By  HENRY  REED,  LL.D., 
Professor  of  English  Literature  in  the  University  of  Pa. 

One  volume,  12mo.     $1,25. 

Extract  from  the  American  Editor's  Preface. 

In  preparing  this  edition,  I  have  had  in  view  its  use,  not  only  for  the  general  reader,  but  also 
u  ^  text-book  in  education,  especially  in  our  college  course  of  study.  *  '  '  *  The  introduction  of 
th«*  work  as  a  text-book  I  regard  as  important,  because,  as  far  as  my  information  entitles  me  to 
speak,  there  is  no  book  better  calculated  to  inspire  an  interest  in  historical  study.  That  it  has 
this  power  over  the  minds  oisludeHts  I  can  say  from  experience,  which  enables  me  also  to  add, 
that  I  have  found  it  excelleltly  suited  to  a  course  of  college  instruction.  By  intelligent  and  en- 
terprisijij  members  of  a  class  especially,  it  is  studied  as  a  text-book  with  zeal  and  animation. 

11 


fttglisl 


HISTOEICAL 

AND 

MISCELLANEOUS    QUESTIONS. 

BY   RICHMALL   MANGNALL. 

Pirst  American,  from  the  Eighty-fourth  London  Edition.    With  large  Addition* 

Embracing  the  Elements  of  Mythology,  Astronomy,  Architecture, 

Heraldry,  &c.    Adapted  for  Schools  in  the  United  States 

BY  MRS.  JULIA  LAWRENCE. 

Illustrated  with  numerous  Engravings.     One  Vohune,  12mo.     $1. 

CONTENTS. 

A  Short  View  of  Scripture  History,  from  the  Creation  to  the  Return  of  the  Jews— Questions 
from  the  Early  Ages  to  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar — Miscellaneous  Questions  in  Grecian  History 
— Miscellaneous  Questions  in  General  History,  chiefly  Ancient — Questions  containing  a  Sketch 
of  the  most  remarkable  Events  from  the  Christian  Era  to  the  close  of  the  Eighteenth  Century- 
Miscellaneous  Questions  in  Roman  History — Questions  in  English  History,  from  the  Invasion  of 
Caesar  to  the  Reformation — Continuation  of  Questions  in  English  History,  from  the  Reformation 
to  the  Present  Time — Abstract  of  Early  British  History — Abstract  of  English  Reinns  from  the 
Conquest — Abstract  of  the  Scottish  Reigns — Abstract  of  the  French  Reigns,  from  Pharamand  to 
Philip  1 — Continuation  of  the  French  Reigns,  from  Louis  VI  to  Louis  Phillippe — Questions  Re- 
lating to  the  History  of  America,  from  its  Discovery  to  the  Present  Time — Abstract  of  Roman 
Kings  and  most  distinguished  Heroes— Abstract  of  the  most  celebrated  Grecians— Of  Heathen 
Mythology  in  general — Abstract  of  Heathen  Mythology — The  Elements  of  Astronomy— Expia- 
tion of  a  few  Astronomical  TeTms — List  of  Constellations — Questions  on  Common  Subjects — 
Questions  on  Architecture— Questions  on  Heraldry — Explanations  of  such  Latin  Words  and 
Phrases  as  are  seldom  Englished — Questions  on  the  History  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

"  This  is  an  admirable  work  to  aid  both  teachers  and  parents  in  instructing  children  and  youth, 
and  there  is  no  work  of  the  kind  that  we  have  seen  that  is  so  well  calculated  "  to  awaken  a  spirit 
Of  laudable  curiosity  in  young  minds,"  and  to  satisfy  that  curiosity  when  awakened." 


HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND, 

From  the  Invasion  of  Julius  Caesar  to  the  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria, 

BY    MRS.  MARKHAM. 
A  new  Edition,  with  Questions,  adapted  for  Schools  in  the  United  States. 

BY  ELIZA  ROBBINS, 

Author  of  "American  Popular  Lessons,"  "  Poetry  for  Schools,"  tfc. 

One  Volume,  12mo.     Price  75  cents. 

There  is  nothing  more  needed  in  our  schools  than  good  histories  ;  not  the  dry  compends  Ii 
present  use,  but  elementary  works  that  shall  suggest  the  moral  uses  of  history,  and  the  provj 
dence  of  God,  manifest  in  the  affairs  of  men. 

Mr.  Markham's  history  was  used  by  that  model  for  all  teachers,  the  late  Dr.  Arnold,  masfei 
ol  the  erreat  English  school  at  Rugby,  and  agrees  in  its  character  with  his  enlishfened  and  piou» 
view?  of  teaching  history.  It  is  now  several  years  since  I  adapted  this  history  to  the  form  and 
price  acceptable  in  the  schools  in  the  United  States.  I  have  recently  revised  it,  and  trust  that  i« 
Dmy  be  extensively  serviceable  in  education. 

The  principal  alterations  from  the  original  are  a  new  and  more  convenient  division  of  para 
graphs,  and  entire  omission  of  the  conversations  annexed  to  the  chapters.  In  the  place  of  these 
I  have  affixed  questions  to  every  page  that  may  at  once  facilitate  the  work  of  the  teacher  and 
the  pupil.  The  rational  and  moral  features  of  this  book  first  commended  it  to  me.  and  I  haw 
weed  it  successfully  with  my  own  scholars. — Extract  from  the  American  Editor'*  Preface. 


12 


THE 

FIRST    HISTORY    OF    ROME, 

WITH  QUESTIONS. 

BY    E.    M.    SEWELL, 

Author  of  Amy  Herbert.  &c.,  «fec.    One  vo!  ume,  IGrao.    50  eta. 
Extract  from  Editor's  Preface. 

•'  History  is  the  narrative  of  real  events  in  the  order  and  circumstances  in  which  they  oc 
curred  ;  and  of  all  histories,  that  of  Rome  comprises  a  series  of  events  more  interesting  and  in 
strur.tive  to  youthful  readers  than  any  other  :hat  has  ever  been  written. 

••Of  the  manner  in  which  Mrs.  Sewell  has  executed  this  work,  we  can  scarcely  speak  in 
tern's  of  approbation  too  strong.  Drawing  her  materials  from  the  best — that  is  to  say,  the  most 
reliable — sources,  she  has  incorporated  them  in  a  narrative  at  once  unostentatious,  perspicuous, 
and  graphic ;  manifestly  aiming  throughout  to  be  clearly;  understood  by  those  for  whom  she 
wrote,  and  to  impress  deeply  and  permanently  on  their  minds  what  she  wrote;  and  in  both  ol 
these  aims  we  think  she  has  been  eminently  successful." 

Norfolk  Acculemy,  Norfolk,   Va. 

I  must  thank  you  for  a  copy  of  "Miss  Sewell's  Roman  History."  Classical  teachers  have 
long  needed  just  such  a  work :  for  it  is  admitted  by  all  how  essential  to  a  proper  comprehension 
of  the  classics  is  a  knowledge  of  collateral  history.  Yet  most  pupils  are  construing  authors  be- 
fore reaching  an  age  to  put  into  their  hands  the  elaborate  works  we  have  heretofore  had  upon 
Ancient  History.  Miss  Sewell,  while  she  gives  the  most  important  facts,  has  clothed  them  in  a 
style  at  once  pleasing  and  comprehensible  to  the  most  youthful  mind. 

R.  B.  TSCHUDI, 

Prof,  of  Anc't  Languages. 


THE 

MYTHOLOGY  OF  ANCIENT  GREECE  AND  ITALY, 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS. 

BY;   THOMAS    KEIGHTLEY. 

One  vol.  ICmo.    42  cts. 

"  TMs  is  a  volume  well  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  prepared.  It  presents,  in  a 
very  compendious  and  convenient  form,  every  thing  relating  to  the  subject,  of  importance  to  the 
young  student." 


GENERAL 

HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION  IN  EUROPE, 

FROM  THE  FALL  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  TO  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 
BY    M.    G  U  I  ZOT. 

Eighth  American,  from  the  second  English  edition,  with  occasional  Notes,  by  C.  S.  HENRY,  D.D 
One  volume,  12mo.    75  cts. 

"M.  Guizot.  in  his  instructive  lectures,  ha^  given  us  an  epitome  of  modern  history,  distin 
guished  by  all  the  merit  which,  in  another  department,  renders  Blaokstone  a  subject  of  such 
peculiar  and  unbounded  praise.  A  work  closely  condensed,  including  nothing  useless,  omit- 
ting nothing  essential ;  written  with  grace,  and  conceived  end  arranged  with  consummate 
ability."— Boston  Traveller. 

{DC^"  This  work  is  used  in  Harvard  University,  Union  College,  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  New-  York  University,  ifc.  Sfc. 

13 


ENGLISH    SYNONYMES, 

CLASSIFIED  AND  EXPLAINED, 

WITH 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES. 

DESIGNED    FOR    SCHOOLS    AND    PRIVATE   TUITION. 
BY    G.    F.    GRAHAM, 

Author  of 'English,  or  the  Art  of  Composition,'  «fcc. 
WITH    AN    INTRODUCTION    AND    ILLUSTRATIVE    AUTHORITIES, 

BY    HENRY    REED,    L.L.D., 

Prof,  of  English  Literature  in  the  University  of  Penn. 

One  neat  Vol.   I2mo.  $1. 

CONTENTS. — SECTION  I.  Generic  and  Specific  Synonymes.  II.  Active 
and  Passive  Synonymes.  III.  Synonymes  of  Intensity.  IV.  Positive 
and  Negative  Synonymes.  V.  Miscellaneous  Synonymes.  Index  to 
Synonymes.  General  Index. 

Extract  from  American  Introduction. 

"  This  treatise  is  republished  and  edited  with  the  hope  that  it  will  be  found  useful  as  a  text 
booic  in  the  study  of  our  own  language.  As  a  subject  of  instruction,  the  study  of  the  English 
tongue  does  not  receive  that  amount  of  systematic  attention  which  is  due  to  it,  whether  ft  be 
combined  or  no  with  the  study  of  the  Greek  and  Latin.  In  the  usual  courses  of  education,  it  has 
no  larger  scope  than  the  study  of  some  rhetorical  principles  and  praciice,  and  of  grammatical 
rules,  which,  for  the  most  part,  are  not  adequate  to  the  composite  character  and  varied  idiom  of 
English  speech.  This  is  far  from  being  enough  to  give  the  needful  knowledge  of  what  is  the 
living  language,  both  of  our  English  literature  and  of  the  multiform  intercourse — oral  and  writ- 
ten— of  our  daily  lives.  The  language  deserves  better  care  and  more  sedulous  culture ;  it  needs 
much  more  to  preserve  its  purity,  and  to  guide  the  progress  of  its  life.  The  young,  instead  of 
havin<r  only  such  familiarity  with  their  native  speech  as  practice  without  method  or  theory  gives, 
should  be  so  taught  and  trained  as  to  acquire  a  habit  of  using  words — whether  with  the  voice  or 
the  pen— fitly  and  truly,  intelligently  and  conscientiously." 

'•  For  such  training,  this  book,  it  is  believed,  will  prove  serviceable.  The  '  Practical  Exer- 
cises,' attached  to  the  explanations  of  the  words,  are  conveniently  prepared  for  the  routine  of 
instruction.  The  value  of  a  course  of  this  kind,  reeularly  and  carefully  completed,  will  be  more 
than  the  amount  of  information  gained  respecting"the  words  that  are  explained.  It  will  tend  to 
produce  a  thoughtful  and  accurate  use  of  language,  and  thus  may  be  acquired,  almost  uncon- 
sciously, that  which  is  not  only  a  critical  but  a  moral  habit  of  mind — the  habit  of  giving  utter- 
ance to  truth  in  simple,  clear  and  precise  terms— of  telling  one's  thoughts  and  feelings  in  words 
that  express  nothing  more  and  nothing  less.  It  is  thus  that  we  may  learn  how  to  escape  the 
evils  of  vagueness,  obscurity  and  perplexity — the  manifold  mischiefs  of  words  used  thought- 
lessly and  at  random,  or  words  used  in  ignorance  and  confusion. 

"In  preparing  this  edition,  it  seemed  to  me  that  the  value  and  literary  interest  of  the  book 
might  be  increased  by  the  introduction  of  a  series  of  illustrative  authorities.  It  is  in  the  addi- 
tion of  these  authorities,  containea  within  brackets  under  each  title,  and  also  of  a  general  index 
to  facilitate  reference,  that  this  edition  differs  from  the  original  edition,  which  in  other  respects 
is  exactly  reprinted.  I  have  confined  my  choice  of  authorities  to  poetical  quotations,  chiefly  be- 
cause it  is  in  poetry  that  language  is  found  in  its  highest  purity  and  perfection.  The  selections 
have  been  made  from  three  of  the  English  poets — each  a  great  authority,  and  each  belonging  to 
a  different  period,  so  that  in  this  way  some  historical  illustration  of  the  language  is  given  at 
the  same  time.  The  quotations  from  Shakspeare  (born  A.  D.  1564,  died  1616)  may  be  considered 
as  illustrating  the  use  of  the  words  at  the  close  of  the  16th  and  beginning  of  the  17th  century; 
tlu.se  from  Milton  (born  1608,  died  1674)  the  succeeding  half  century,  or  middle  of  the  17ttt 
century ;  and  those  from  Wordsworth  (born  1770)  the  contemporary  use  in  the  19th  century. 


MB. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE, 

3fl3NTAININQ     THE    PRONUNCIATION,    ETYMOLOGY,    AND     EXPLANATION    OP    ALL    WORDS     AW 
THORIZED   BY   EMINENT   WRITERS  ; 

To  which  are  added,  a  Vocabulary  of  the  Roots  of  English  Words,  and  an  Accented 
List  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Scripture  Proper  Names 

BY  ALEXANDER  REID,  A.  M., 

Rector  of  the  Circus  School,  Edinburgh. 

With  a  Critical  Preface,  by  HENRY  REED,  Professor  of  English  Literature  in  the  University  0 

K!  ; 


Pennsylvania,  and  an  Appendix,  showing  the  Pronunciation  of  nearly  3000  of 
Meal  Names.     One  volume  " 
>und  in  Leather.     Price  $1 


the  most  important  Geographical  Names.     One  volume,  12mo. 
of  nearly  600  pages,  bov 


Among  the  wants  of  our  time  was  a  good  dictionary  of  our  own  language,  especially  adapted 
for  academies  and  schools.  The  books  which  have  long  been  in  use  were  of  little  value  to  the, 
junior  students,  being  too  concise  in  the  definitions,  and  unmethodical  in  the  arrangement 
Reid's  English  Dictionary  was  compiled  expressly  to  develop  the  precise  analogies  ana  various 
properties  of  the  authorized  words  in  general  use,  by  the  standard  authors  and  orators  who  use 
our  vernacular  tongue. 

Exclusive  of  the  large  number  of  proper  names  which  are  appended,  this  Dictionary  includes 
four  especial  improvements— and  when  their  essential  value  to  the  student  is  considered,  the 
sterling  character  of  the  work  as  a  hand-book  of  our  language  will  be  instantly  perceived. 

The  primitive  word  is  distinguished  by  a  larger  type  ;  and  when  there  are  any  derivatives 
from  it,  they  follow  in  alphabetical  order,  and  the  part  of  speech  is  appended,  thus  furnishing  a 
complete  classification  of  all  the  connected  analogous  words  of  the  same  species. 

With  this  facility  to  comprehend  accurately  the  determinate  meaning  ivf  the  English  word,  is 
conjoined  a  rich  illustration  for  the  linguist.  The  derivation  of  all  the  pi  imitive  words  is  dis- 
tuictly  given,  and  the  phrases  of  the  languages  whence  they  are  deduced,  whether  composite  or 
/simple ;  so  that  the  student  of  foreign  languages,  both  ancient  and  modern,  by  a  reference  to 
any  word,  can  ascertain  the  source  whence  it  has  been  adopted  into  our  own  form  of  speech. 
This  is  a  great  acquisition  to  the  person  who  is  anxious  to  use  words  in  their  utmost  clearness 
of  meaning. 

To  these  advantages  is  subjoined  a  Vocabulary  of  the  Roots  of  English  Words,  which  is  of 
peculiar  value  to  the  collegian.  The  fifty  pages  which  it  includes,  furnish  the  linguist  with  a 
wide-spread  field  of  research,  equally  amusing  and  instructive.  There  is  also  added  an  Ac- 
cented List,  to  the  number  of  fifteen  thousand,  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Scripture.  Proper  Names. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

REID'S  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language  is  an  admirable  book  for  the  use  of  schools. 
Its  plans  combine  a  greater  number  of  desirable  conditions  for  such  a  work,  than  any  with 
which  I  am  acquainted :  and  it  seems  to  me  to  be  executed  in  general  with  great  judgment, 
fidelity,  and  accuracy. 

C.  S.  HENRY, 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  History,  and  Belles  Lettrea, 

in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New- York. 

Reid's  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language  is  compiled  upon  sound  principles,  and  with 
judgment  and  accuracy.  It  has  the  merit,  too,  of  combining  much  more  than  is  usually  looked 
for  in  Dictionaries  of  small  size,  and  will,  I  believe,  be  found  excellent  as  a  convenient  manual, 
for  general  use  and  reference,  and  also  for  various  purposes  of  education. 

HENRY  REED, 

Professor  of  English  Literature  in  the   University  of  Pennsylvania. 

After  a  careful  examination,  I  am  convinced  that  Reid's  English  Dictionary  has  strong 
claims  upon  the  attention  of  teachers  generally.  It  is  of  convenient  size,  beautifully  executed, 
and  seems  well  adapted  to  the  use  of  scholars,  from  the  common  school  to  the  university. 

D.  H.  CHASE, 

Principal  of  Preparatory  School. 

MlDDLETOWN,  Ct. 

Af*er  a  thorough  examination  of"  Reid's  English  Dictionary,"  I  may  safely  say  that  I  con 
eider  it  superior  to  any  of  the  School  Dictionaries  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  Its  accurate 
and  concise  definitions,  and  a  vocabulary  of  the  roots  of  English  words,  drawn  from  an  authoi 
of  such  authority  as  Bosworth,  are  not  among  the  least  of  its  excellencies. 

M.  M.  PARKS, 
Chaplain  and  Professor  of  Ethics,  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  West  Point 

15 


anil  latin. 


ARNOLD'S    CLASSICAL    SERIES. 

I 

A  FIRST  AND  SECOND  LATIN  BOOK 

/LND  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR.     By  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  A.  M      Revised  and  caieftiUj 
Cc-irected,  by  J.  A.  Spencer.  A.  M.     One  vol.  12mo.,  75  as. 

II. 

LATIN  PROSE  COMPOSITION: 

A  Practical  Introduction  to  Latin  Prose  Composition.     By  THOMAS  K.  AI-.KOLD,  A..  M. 
Revised  and  Corrected  by  J.  A.  Spencer,  A"  M.     12rao.,  81. 

III. 

FIRST  GREEK  BOOK; 

Wllb  Easy  Exercise?  and  Vocabulary.     By  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  A.  M.     Rov.aeu  aud  Ow 
reeled  by  J.  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.     \2rno.,  63  cts. 

IV. 

GREEK  PROSE1  COMPOSITION: 

A  Practical  Introduction  to  Greek  Prose  Composition.    By  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  A.M. 
Revised  and  Corrected  by  J.  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.    One  vol.  12mo.,  75  eta. 

V. 

GREEK  READING  BOOK, 

For  the  L'se  of  Schools ;  containing  the  substance  of  the  Practical  Introduction  to  Greek  Con- 
struing, and  a  1  realise  on  the  Greek  Particles,  by  the  Rev.  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD, 
A.  M.,  and  also  a  Copious  Selection  from  Greek  Authors,  with  English 
Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory,  and  a  Lexicon,  by 
J.  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.     12mo.,  81  50 

VI. 

CORNELIUS  NEPOS; 

With  Practical  Questions  and  Answers,  and  an  Imitative   Exercise  on  each  Chapter.     By 

THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD.  A.  M.     Revised,  with  Additional  Notes,  by  Prof.  Johnson, 

Professor  of  the  Latin  Language  in  the  University  of  the  City  of 

New-York.     12mo.     A  new,  enlarged  edition,  wilh 

Lexicon,  Index,  <fcc.,  81. 

"ARNOID'S  GREEK  AND  LATIN  SERIES.— The  publication  of  this  valuable  collection  of 
classical  school  books  may  be  regarded  as  the  presage  of  better  things  in  respect  to  the  mode  ol 
teaching  and  acquiring  languages.  Heretofore  boys  have  been  condemned  to  the  drudgery  of 
going  over  Latin  and  Greek  Grammar  without  the  remotest  conception  of  the  value  of  What 
they  were  learning,  and  every  day  becoming  more  and  more  disgusted  with  ihe  dry  and  un- 
meaning task ;  but  now,  by  Mr.  Arnold's  admirable  method — substantially  the  same  with  that  of 
Ollendorff— the  moment  they  take  up  the  studv  of  Latin  or  Greek,  they  begin  to  learn  sentences. 
to  acquire  ideas,  to  see  how  the  Romans  and"  Greeks  expressed  themselves,  how  their  mode  of 
expression  differed  from  ours,  and  by  degrees  they  lay  up  a  stock  of  knowledge  vvhich  is  utterly 
astonishing  to  those  who  have  dragged  on  month  alter  month  in  the  old-fashioned,  dry,  and 
tedious  way  of  learning  languages. 

"Mr.  Arnold,  in  fact,  has  had  the  good  sense  to  adopt  the  system  of  nature.  A  child  learns 
his  own  language  by  imitating  what  he  hears,  and  constantly  repeating  it  till  it  is  fastene  J  in 
the  memory ;  in  the  same  way  Mr.  A.  puts  the  pupil  immediately  to  work  a'.  Exercises  in  Latin 
and  Greek,  involving  the  elementary  principles  of  the  language — words  are  supplied — the  mode 
of  putting  them  together  is  told  the  pupil — lie  is  shown  how  the  ancients  expressed  their  ideas ; 
and  then,  by  repeating  these  things  again  and  again — iu-rum  iterumque — the  docile  pupil  haa 
them  indelibly  impressed  upon  his  memory  and  rooted  in  his  understanding. 

"The  American  Editor  is  a  thorough  classical  scholar,  and  has  been  a  practical  teacher  fof 
years  in  this  city.  He  has  devoted  the  utmost  care  to  a  complete  revision  of  Mr.  Arnold's  works, 
has  corrected  several  errors  of  inadvertence  or  otherwise,  haa  rearranged  and  improved  various 
matters  in  the  early  volumes  of  the  series,  and  has  attended  most  diligently  to  the  accurate  print- 
ing and  mechanical  execution  of  the  whole.  We  anticipate  most  confidently  the  speedy  adoption 
of  these  works  in  our  schools  and  colleges." 

V  Arnold's  Scries  of  Classical  Works  has  attained  a  circulation  almost  unparalleled,  being 
Introduced  into  nearly  all  the  Colleges  and  leading  Educational  Institutions  in  the  United  Staves 


INITIAL  FINE  i  01  M»  .OBNT8 


S.V.NTH 


OVERDUE. 


— 


LD21-100m-12,'43  (8796s) 


VS  2  \  459 


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