A manual of the Mollusca; a treatise on recent and fossil shells

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MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA:

A TREATISE

OF

RECENT AND FOSSIL SHELLS.

BY

Dr. S. P. WOODWARD, A.L8.,

TATE ASSISTANT-PALAONTOLOGIST IN- THE BRITISH .MUSEUM.

Second nition,

WITH AN APPENDIX OF RECENT AND FOSSIL CONCHOLOGICAL
DISCOVERIES TO THE PRESENT TIME,

By RALPH TATE, A.LS., F.GS.

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS,

By A. N. WATERHOUSE anv J. W. LOWRY. |

St LONDON: | |
WIRTUE & CO., 26. IVY LANE.
NEW YORK: VIRTUE AND YORSTON.

1368.

PREFACH.

Tris Manual, which for six years occupied the Author’s
unceasing attention, was intended as a companion to Gen.
Portlock’s Geology ; and the desire to make it worthy of that
association led to an amount of labour and expense which
only a-very extended circulation will repay.

The plan and title were taken from the ‘‘ Manuel des
Mollusques”’ of M. Sander Rang, incomparably the best
work of its kind—for an acquaintance with which the author
was indebted to his friend and master, Wirrram LonspsaLE—
the founder of the ‘‘ Devonian System” in Geology.

On the subject of classification and nomenclature the Author
followed the advice and example of his former colleague in
the Geological Society, the late Prof. Epwarp JF orsEs ;
without whose approval he seldom added to, or deviated
from, the practice and plan of the ‘‘ History of British
Mollusca.” |

That he was right in taking this course, has been sanctioned
by the highest authority in this country ;—since the same
scheme has been employed by Prof. Owey in the Hunterian
Lectures and Catalogue. It has also been adopted by Dr. E.
Barrourin the Madras Museum; by the Rey. Prof. Henstow,
in his Report to the British Association on the Formation of
Typical Collections; and by Prof. Morrrs in his Catalogue of
British Fossils.

It was the writer’s desire, by abstaining from the intro-

iv PREFACE.

duction of personal and peculiar views, and by adhering to
whatever was well established and sanctioned by the best
examples, to make the work suitable for the use of Natural
History Classes in the Universities.

To facilitate reference, and meet the most general require-
ments, the number of large groups and genera of shells has
been restricted as much as possible, and those less me
or less understood, have been treated as ‘‘sub-genera.”” A
great many- duplicate and unnecessary names have been men-
tioned only, as will be seen by a glance at the Index, where
they are printed i ¢talics ; the writer’s own wishes coincide
with those of the distinguished botanist Sir J. E. Surru, that
‘‘the system should not be encumbered with such names ;”
but they have been admitted in deference to custom at
general opinion.*

The rules of the British Association, intended to secure
uniformity, have called into existence a few active opponents,
seeking to distinguish themselves by the employment of pre-
Linnean and MS. names, on the pretence of carrying out the
“law of priority’ (p. 48). But this folly has reached its
height, and will fall into contempt when it has lost its
novelty.

The investigation of dates is the most disheartening work
upon which the time of an author can be employed; it is
never safe to take them second-hand, and even reference to
the original works is not always satisfactory.t

Those portions of the work have been treated in most
detail which throw light on particular branches of anatomy
and physiology ; or on great natural history problems, such

* All the blundering and bad spelling of English and French genus-makers will be
found carefully recorded in the “‘ Index Generum Malacozoorum,” by the accurate and
\amented Dr. Herrmannsen, a work indispensable to every writer on Conchology.

; One example will suffice. In an “ Athenzum”’ report, by Prof. E. Forbes, the
name “ Lottia fulva” was misprinted ‘‘ Jothia fulva;” but although immediately
corrected, the erratum was formally installed as a ‘new genus,” in the works of
Gray, Philippi, Catlow, Adams, and other conchologisis !

t The dates on the title pages of Journals and Transactions of Scientific Societies,
are not usually dates of publication, but refer to the years for which they are issued to
the subscribers. It is almost impossible afterwards to correct these false dates.

3 sii

PREFACE. Vv

asthe value of species and genera, and the laws of gcoera-

phical and geological distribution. Itis in these departments

that the affinity of natural science to the highest kinds of

human knowledge is most distinctly seen; and in them the

richest and noblest results are to be obtained. For to the

thoughtful and earnest investigator, nature ever discloses

indications of harmony and order, and reflects the attributes
of the Maker.

The recreations of the young seldom fail to exercise a
serious influence on after life; and the utility of their pur-
suits must greatly depend on the spirit in which they are

- followed. If wisely chosen and conscientiously prosecuted,
they may help to form habits of exact observation ; they may
train the eye and mind to seize upon characteristic facts, and

to discern their real import; to discriminate between the
essential and the accidental, and to detect the relations of
phenomena, however widely separated and apparently unlike.

In this way ‘‘la belle Science”? (as Mr. Gaskoin calls Con-

chology !) may acquire the influence of pursuits more usually
resorted to for mental development and discipline. :

The wood-cuts have been principally executed by Miss
A. N. Waterhouse, of Marlborough House, from original
drawings by the Author; and although printed from stereo-
types, they have the advantage of accurately representing
what was wished to be shown.

The engravings of Mr. Wilson Lowry speak for themselves ;
many of the figures are from the specimens in his cabinet ;
and the interest he has taken in the work will be seen in the
eare with which the technical characters of the shells are
expressed.

The above paragraphs, forming the principal portion of the
Preface to the first edition of this work, will suffice to show the
objects which the late Author had in view. A few additional

Vi PREFACE.

words are required in order to indicate in what respects this edi-
tion differs from its predecessor. In the first edition the work
consisted of three parts, in this it consists of two. In Part I.
is comprised the general remarks on the structure, distribution,
&c., of the Mollusca, while Part II. is devoted to the Sy-
nopsis of the Genera. The chapter on Tunicata has been
omitted, since they are more nearly allied to the Polyzoa
than to the Mollusca proper, and since the treatment of the
Molluscoidan group would have made the work inconveniently
bulky. It seemed preferable, therefore, to devote a future
volume of the series to the Molluscoida (embracing both the
Tunicata and the Polyzoa) than to describe them in the
present work. The book has been subjected to a complete
revisal, and numerous alterations and additions have been
made; but the reviser has interfered as little as possible
with the Author’s original classification and systematic
arrangement.

A. ht.
Sept., 1866.

CONTENTS.

PART TI.

CHAPTER LI.
: PAGE
On tHe Position oF THE Moziiusca InN THE ANIMAL KincDom. ©
—Characters of the five primary groups, or sub-kingdoms :—
Vertebrata— Mollusca—Annulosa— Coelenterata— Protozoa.
MWEIE ANTIQUILY 2.6.60 ssicee es SehionooSs Breen cent:

Ciasses oF Mozivscea.—l. Cephalopoda.—2. Gasteropoda.—
8. Pteropoda.—4. Brachiopoda.—. Lamellibranchiata ... 3—7

Hasits AND Economy oF THE Moiiusca.—Sedentary tribes, their
mode of attachment; locomotive tribes, their means of pro-
gression; situations frequented by shell-fishF ood: vege-
table, infusorial, and animal feeders.—Use of shell-fish to
other animals for food; use of shells for ornamental and
other purposes; prices of shells.—Longevity of molluscous
animals; tenacity of life; fecundity; oviposition ...... 7—15

STRUCTURE AND PuystoLoGy or THE Mozivusca.— Nervous
system; organs of sense.— Muscular system.—Digestive
system; linoual teeth; secretions.—Circulating system ;
aquiferous canals.—Respiratory system.—The shell, its
composition and structure; nacreous, fibrous, and porcele
lanous shells; epidermis; erosion of fresh-water shells.—
Formation and growth of the shell; adult characters; de-
collated shells; monstrosities; colours; the operculum ;
homologies.—Temperature and hybernation.—Reproduction :
of lost parts; by gemmation; viviparous; alternate; ovipa-
eee IC VCLOPINOM G4. sie cieucibieseus ses echny coceda car's 15—45

OLAssiFicaTion.—Affinities; analogies; species; genera; families;
the quinary system; synonyms; authorities; types; abbre-
BGMASMI Gc aie loidig iw wine Gua e-have Sido ciel ciclo sont creiet al s\eieyniareich nee ee

1—3

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER II.

PAGE

GEOGRAPHICAL Distrinution.—Land provinces; marine pro-

vinces.—Specific areas; specific centres.—Generic areas;
sub-generic areas.—Boundaries; influence of climate.—Origin

OL GPrOVINCES | fin'e4 5 ac oes og ss ie. See Wel ee ee eee
Marine Provinces.—Arctic genera; tropical genera; cosmopo-—
TUGAN: SPECIES” 2.5. os 5,5 eoie oan sues 8 os sl cee ee eee
i. Arctic Province. 142 8.0ste5-b eee eee
II. Boreal Province: Norway, New England ........
ti.. Celtic Province: Britain, Denmark s-56-5 Soe
ITV. Lusitanian Province: Portugal, Canaries, Madeira,
Azores, Mediterranean, Black Sea ............
Wi. -Aralo=Caspian. Province Gia. soe cee eee
VI. West-African Province ...... Sa OS ee Beets cea Soeus
Vii. South-Atrican Province ee aero eee eee ee ee

VIIT. Indo-Pacific Province: Red Sea, Persian Gulf ....
IX. Australo-Zelandic Province: New South Wales,

Pasmania, «iNew Zicalatmd amine eth, seme ttc. aie

Xs) ssaponic de rovanee so meete eee eee Na aoe et ee

xa Alentian! Provances Ochotsk, Sitka. cae cea ss
Provinces on the Western Coast of America ...........0+---
XII. Californian Province ..... eae ere eters rae es
XG. + Panamic Province "Galapacoss 4 ae toe aos ee
XY. Peravaam Province: WIeAens cise ime tcote och aia
XV. Magellanic Province: Falkland Islands ..........
OV sie Mela fae onicm tenO Vice! seat eh ee terateledey Sicha tabele falece. sie
MOVIL. “Caribbean Province’. 22 2. Jute. REE aie
EG alee reams ailamigiC worO valle yt. tce lates ein aje te elele nels ,aee
Lanp Recions.—Distribution of land and fresh-water shells ;
genera of the Old and New World; arctic regions ........
AG Crmiamie ACO IOM: WUDELIA macie cle ees clays « oels oe dls eee

2, Lusitanian Region: Mediterranean Islands; Madeira,
Azores, Canaries, Cape de Verdes, Ascension ....
S.biclena ol righan d Acuna... 2.70 0 since aes ene tee
PACH CAT ARCCOUOI 55 aig stapes ii ejaic else eyelets Wiehesiste = nels ee

3.
Ae) MS AVE ARCO UOT coe) \c0aie oo) tr etie eco a's ast) alate Mpeialinrs 6 nie lare) int
5. Yemen—Madagascar: Comoro Islands, Seychelles,

Mauritius, Bourbon, Rodriguez ...........+..+:
6. Indian Region: (Ceylon of 5.5 oss seks eee te oa
i.) Whigs and Japan <..02 ccs week seine ee en ee eee
8. Philippine Islands 1.0... ccc eeee eee rect ee ce cea
Do ANE. Meets Dats: = oo ne oat eaten gd erent afer Sig chek Ba Aag3:
0

CONTENTS. ix

PAGE

11. Papua and New Ireland ....... Retvlepstae stelle oisaaiere LOG
eS ECAN ATI INCOLOM, ¢ Wisc ssmisie'eelcye Geslewacelaves dis 103
fe eSouth Australia and Tasmania ..........sc++ses. 104
Me ee eAN IN te sind cia ain are alee mele Gf siath ate eaS eTOa

15. Polynesian Region: Salomons, New Hebrides, New
Caledonia, Feejees; Friendly, Navigator’s, Society
Islands; Low Coral Islands; Sandwich Islands 104

ie. Canadian Regions ; New-England ................ 106
RPP TLIC SAL OSS 6.5.5), 0 afci 8 aiejausieie e ties. io eviecwlr ewe stow «6 107
Per ORETORUCH IN PeCOTOI SLs 4 Stas Woe, ater barashee dtc gen of aod 108
nee Oremom and: Californias 6s 1boeceeale 1G delaw ono ee oats 109
ume EVCOTO Mah tras tac ava's doesn cbse hoitepioneisyn cote, b oleper ah 109
21 ANID ee SEARING Ae gelesen eng We aed Satpal 110
2yeeColumbian, Reston: Galapagos... is anc afb 20s s Te
Pea aT IC STON, bel a eon ew ce de ae ores fa tea hh ull oh nar 112
Ammer EUR At, HeOVONMT. Seca. wiciae valeurs cine wk Ces ie is ee 113
PONE SCMLIMC MCOTOD, Fate wee bene ses we eee a eer ee 114
pone Owiiam tesion - Juan Permanden’ iy. calcd ese aes 2 114
27. Patagonian Region: Fuegia, Falklands ............ 115

CHAPTER, It.

DistrizuTIon oF THE Morivsca In Time.—Geological Table;
distribution of Species in the Strata; of Genera; table of
Characteristic genera; table showing range of genera; range
of families; numerical development in time.— Order of appear-
ance of groups of shells; order of succession.—Migration of
species and diffusion of Genera in former times.—Method of
Geological investigation.—Tertiary Age.—Secondary Age.—
Paleozoic Age.—Numerical estimate: living and fo8sil

SRLS Mesias ais! a0 04 0) ad SPwietelate. diem vere Snares tai dUOFs)' Asanti s ney;
CHAPTER IV.

On Cortectinc Sueiis.—Land-shells; elevation on mountains,
—Fresh-water shells.—Sea-shells, littoral species; floating:
mollusca: the towing-net; trawling; kettle-nets; deep-sea
fishery ; trapping whelks; dredging...........sesessseres 186

Dredging papers, by M‘Andrew and Barrett, Norway.......... 144
Wredeine papers, by Forbes, Aigean .......scceesbeceens 148

Zones of depth: littoral; laminarian; coralline; deep-sea coral
EES. € cp die Eee CIC Rc ae OR oP era Oe 151

Preservation of Molluscous animals for examination ....+ece.ceece Lud

x CONTENTS. |

PARTY: Tf.
SYNOPSIS OF THE GENERA.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE
Crass I. CePHALOPODA. ORDER I. DIBRANCHIATA ..........+. 155
SECTION As. . OCTOPODA._. cians seme eee meee jaltatisauendcn anteetors 158
Fam,I. Argonautide.—Argonauta.. 2.06 ne desc ow ce codes» 161

Fam. II. Octopodide.—Octopus, Pinnoctopus, Eledone, Cir-
roteuthis, Philonexis, Sceeurgus, Boliteena .............- 163
SECPION 45, DECAPODA, (0 dee ks cee PR elie ene tne ran" 166

Fam. III. TZeuthide.—Loligo, Gonatus, Sepioteuthis,
Beloteuthis, Geoteuthis, Leptoteuthis, Cranchia, Sepiola,
Loligopsis, Cheiroteuthis, Histioteuthis, Onychoteuthis,
Enoploteuthis, Ommastrephes, Thysanoteuthis, Loliolus,
Plesioteuthis, Dosidieus (20.0... .<.: . ob. 6oe eee

Fam. IV. Belemnitide.—Belemnites, Belemnitella, Xipho-
teuthis, Acanthoteuthis, Belemnoteuthis, Conoteuthis ....

Fam, VY. Sepiade.—Sepia, Spirulirostra, Beloptera, Belem-
mosis; Helicerus. S2 iiss is Roles ee ee eee

Ram. VI. ° Sporulide.—Spirula 3.20202 eee ee see

Orpen 11> TErRamRANGHIATA | 4-u.ce 6s Gee oe se oe

Fam. I. Nautiliide.—Nautilus, Lituites, Trochoceras, .Cly-
PUMOTATS, 64 sisi la ale si opal cae ea RE eee aie Be Rn Sao

Fam. Il. Orthoceratide.—Orthoceras, Gomphoceras, Onco-
ceras, Phragmoceras, Cyrtoceras, Gyroceras, Thoracoceras,
INO GRO CERAS Heme ratty cable etlane seme eee inte ies ie as Ee

Fam. III. Ammonitide.—Goniatites, Rhabdoceras, Bactrites,
Ceratites, Ammonites, Crioceras, Toxoceras, Ancyloceras,
Scaphites, Helicoceras, Turrilites, Hamites, Ptychoceras,
JEUNE pelea mene a Mus eet ea Mean OE char errant =, AL APE 2 0 0S ee Eo oe

CHAPTER IL.
Cras die CART EROPODA thie: Sree see Eee ee Ghani
Griore a. vie ROSOBR AN CHIATA (ott t ta cee tee Riek oe ee

DEOTION AL CTEHONOSTOMATA 62 or fe onl wpe ee wis a eg Cah cave cues

Fam. I. Stromiide.—Strombus, Pteroceras, Rostellaria,
Seraphs eeose ee ee eeoeeeeeesee eereeeeeceonse eeseececee eeeeed

167
173
176
17?

178

185

190

195

209
209

CONTENTS.

X1

PAGE

Fam. II. Muricide.—Murex, Typhis, Pisania, Ranella, Triton,
Fasciolaria, Turbinella, Cancellaria, Dibaphus, Tricho-
Semeapeicrem by U ct. EVTSUIS, ve/ay0 s leaeses eels eph 9 89 a6. siala pes 9,6 we, ss

Fam. JIT. Buccinide.— Buccinum, Pseudoliva, Anolax,
Halia, Terebra, Eburna, Nassa, Phos, Ringicula ?, Purpura,
Purpurina, Rhizochilus, Monoceros, Pedicularia, Ricinula,
Planaxis, Magilus, Cassis, Oniscia, Cassidaria, Pachyba-
thron, Dolium, Harpa, Columbella, Oliva, Ancillaria ....

Fam. 1V. Conide.—Conus, Pleurotoma, Cithara ..........

Fam. V. Volutide.—Voluta, Cymba, Mitra, Volvaria, Mar-

mEeTION Bb. HIOnLOSTOMATA if .0 020... SEAGIG ROIS oueie tect sri 3
Fam. JI. WNaticide.—Natica, Deshayesia, Naticella, Sigaretus,
Lamellaria, Narica, Velutina, Cryptocella ..............
Fam. Il. Pyramidellide.—Pyramidella, Odostomia, Chem-
nitzia, Kulima, Monoptigma, Aclis, Styloptygma, Myonia,
Leucotina, Stilifer, Loxonema, Macrocheilus ............
Fam. III. Cerithiade.—Cerithium, Potamides, Nerinza,
Wasiweiella, Aporrhais, Struthiolaria .....c.00% .s00casees
‘Fam. IV. Melaniade.—Melania, Paludomus, Melanopsis
Fam. V. Yurritellide.—Turritella, Ceecum, Vermetus, Sili-
RUATIA OCHIATION Ss 6s nse 0's ba digaysitelspctecn eamer pa atm 5, alasag ens
Fam. VI. JLittorinide.—Littorina, Solarium, Phorus, Lacuna,
Litiopa, Rissoa, Skenea, Truncatella ?, Lithoglyphus ....
Fam. VII. Paludinide.—Paludina, Ampullaria; Amphibola,
“TESTER I) ots RN ge he Aer aie ete eS
Fam. VII. WNeritide.—Nerita, Pileolus, Neritina, Navicella
Fam. TX. TZurbinide.—Turbo, Phasianella, Imperator, Tro-
- chus, Rotella, Monodonta, Delphinula, Adeorbis, Euom-
pHalusocomatella, Broderiplay \\. ss «6s si ose Seve blo ae oe ee
Fam. X. Haliot’s—Haliotis, Stomatia, Teinotis, Scissurella,
Pleurotomaria, Murchisonia, 'Trochotoma, Cirrus, Ianthina
Fam. XI. Sissureilide.—Fissurella, Puncturella, Rimula,
mg emma, PACMOPMOLUS lee hese ss eis o a0 «stk s oyetem ms
Fam. XII. Calyptreide.—Calyptrea, Crepidula, Pileopsis,
BE OLIV Ge Pin o's Bj ure ere cise o apa uie pale olive we aetna ears Be
Fam. XIII. Pateliide.—Patella, Acmea, Gadinia, Siphonaria
iam SOY. Dentaliade.—Dentalium, ..,....0c.e0ceuscnes
apie a OL icomdce.——CIGOM-,..... as «so a. spots co alee «> 2 +

ae

Xi CONTENTS.
PAGE
C.a:s II. Gastsropopa. Orper II. PuLMONIFERA.......+.0++ 285
WECTIONUA, » ENMOPHROULATAY (faz uso G ait e cuveu we a ee 285
Fam. I. Helicide.—Helix, Vitrina, Succinea, Bulimus,
Achatina, Pupa, Cylindrella, Balea, Tornatellina, Paxillus,
CHIC TIO STU Heat RI MER RIOR UIA Mr iis Aes ae oF Novae etenee ete 288
Fam. II. Limacide.—Limax, Anadenus, Incilaria, Arion,
Parmacella, Janella, Aneitea, Parmarion, Triboniopherus,

Waiguesnelia, Mesfacella. ov. 20... ws ee hemes eee eee ee 295
Fam. III. Oncidiade.—Oncidium, Vaginulus ............ 299
Fam. 1V. Limneide.—Limnea, Chilinia, Physa, Ancylus,
DE LaMON DIS eae seen eyete sje ease es 0 gina nse wheat EERE ENE 3800
Fam. V. Awriculide.—Auricula, Conovulus, Carychium
(Siphonaria) hice... Seog seo uRodar eos shedogsgmensicte ta ater: 303
SECTIONS, OPE RCUMADA “seca craxalesuh e osiele bia bvicin saath entillehet ons aera 3805
Fam. VI. Cyclostomide.—Cyclostoma, Ferussina?, Cyclo-
phorus, Pupina, Eleliema; Shoastomar 1; .t./nctouelels.. hia 306
Fam. VII. Aciculide.—Acicula, Geomelania .............+. 310
_ OnveR TIT. OPisTHO-BRANCHIATA ....... oso! alin ae Meier 311
Sorin Ay | Eecri-peawemiaTs |. 120 0),2 >. 220 SS eee

Fam. I. Zornatelide.—Tornatella, Cinulia, Ringicula, Glo-
biconcha, Varigera, Tylostoma, Pterodonta ?, Tornatina?.. 312
Fam. II. Buillide.—Bulla, Acera, Cylichna, Kleinella?,
Amphisphyra, Buccinulus, Aplustrum, Scaphander, Phi-
line, Doridium, Gastropteron, Physema ................. 315
Fam. III. Aplysiade.—Aplysia, Dolabella, Stylocheilus,
Dolabrifera, Siphonopyge, Notarchus, Icarus, Lobiger .... 320
Fam. IV. Pleuwrobranchide. — Pleurobranchus, Postero-
brancheea, Runcina, Neda, Susaria, Umbrella, Tylodina .. 322
Fam. V. Phillidiade.—Phyllidia, Fryeria, Hypobranchiea,
BByy ov aa AU ECOL es Mag et eet aid Fes b/s eh Aor a ra i 324

Section B. NvpIBRANCHIATA ..... Bel Rnb waaNepE et IA eee sehinyors ehe> coonaa 325
Fam. VI. Doride.—Doris, Heptabranchus, Hexabranchus,
Atagema, Actinocyclus, Chromodoris, Asteronotus, Glos-
sodoris, Goniodoris, Triopa, Augirus, Thecacera, Polycera,
Idalia, Ancula, Ceratosoma, Trevelyana, Crimora, Pelagella,

Gymnodoris, Acanthodoris, Casella, Brachychlamis ...... 328
Fam. VII. Tritontade.—Tritonia, Scyllea, Tethys, Bornella,
- Dendronotus, Doto, Gellina, Meliboea, Lomanotus ...... 332

Fam. VIII. olide.—olis, Glaucus, Fiona, Embletonia,
Calma, Favorinus, Galvina, Cuthonia, Filurus, Proctonotus,
Antiopa, Hermza, Alderia, Chiorera ...cscscseceeseves 335

CONTENTS. m1}

Fam. IX. Phyllirhoide,—Phyllirhoe .........eccececee.. 338
Fam. X. Hlysiade.—Elysia, Acteonia, Cenia, Limapontia,

CPL TLE SS AT Ta Rs i te et ca 339

Weper PV. NUCLEOBRANCHIATA ............00 008 a Ai ae 340

Fam. I. rolide.—Firola, Carinaria, Cardiapoda ........ 342
Fam. II. Aélantide. Atlanta, Porcellia, Bellerophon, Cyr-

poles. -Mackurea: 20)... Pace ves 08 Sapiens in ihvcate cused 343

See eH OP ODA’ |, .s.. si sie cw ce eat ane) selec wekte belo ks 846

Selene LETH COSOMATA % co. cscs crn aye aorneTse mee Be Cen cuateinh 348

Fam. I. Hyaleide—Hyalea, Cleodora, Cuvieria, Theca,
terotheca, Conularia, Hurybia, Cymbulia, Tiedemannia. .
Fam. UW. Limacinide.—Limacina, Spirialis, Cheletropis, Mac-
FADE SUT a oa as ais =F help sskiege apes a. ni'5/Salofonalodbwepebslsohe cee ooo:

Some NCNM OSOMATA« «2.0 si sus avec. e-cloncd 60 coc eos cosllaceue: Yetsleces

LSE 5 LG UE Apr a Ce a tT 7 aR eet en

CHAPTER III.

ee ENE ACU TOPODAL 3)... oc ae adie win glace Sd welnmpeld a lamee sl gle
Fam. I. Terebratulide.—Terebratula, Terebratella, Argiope,
Pabecinpn SLEINSOCEPhalus ~~)... eats ects we ches wirelen «
Fam. II. Spiriferide.—Spirifera, Athyris, Retzia, Uncites. .
Fam. Jl. Rhynchonellide.—Rhynchonella, Pentamerus,
SES DEY 1) Re RD ei See ere cn tr gee oS an aty AORN
Fam. IV. Orthide.—Orthis, Strophomena, Davidsonia, Cal-
ON MIMS ENE oe ie Zina Nagin + 0) 6 WD 'opeltana ahcced Shadere Sot pees
Fam. V. Productide.—Productus, Strophalosia, Chonetes ..
Ham. Vi. Craniade:--Crania, .... 00. bce ens lobes ee cena
Fam. VII. Discinide.—Discina, Siphonotreta ..........4
Fam. VIII. Linguiide.—Lingula, Obolus............6.) a

CHAPTER IV.

PECAN Me ONC EUDEEIUA | 81551 5 3.) Gpamepoder a ehaleteteve colts aril aicinnleleegalevars o ¢
eget UNGER TTONDDA |), .\s sfeiecteingie ao ala wt ee re ee abd lalahare oie y alex
Fam. 1. Ostreide.—Ostrea, Anomia, Placuna, Pecten, Lima,
Spenevluce Piicabula, oF. he ac wees cnet eee ees aoe

Fam. II. Aviculide.—Avicula, Posidonomya, Aviculo-pecten,
Gervillia, Perna, Inoceramus, Pinna,........seeeeeeeees

Fam. III. Mytilide.—Mytilus, Myalina, Modiola, Hippomya,
Dreissena evsn0e007e2 Dee eee 02888 HF BFF Fe 8 oe eooeoev eevee 07080

420

wy
.

XIV “CONTENTS.
PAGE
Fam. ITV. Arcade.—Arca, Cucullea, Pectunculus, ame
Nucula, Isoarca, Leda, Solenella, Solemya........4..... 424
Fam. V. Trigoniade.—Trigonia, Myophoria, Axinus, Cur-
tonotus, Pseuddxinus, liyrodesma...\5... 2) see ee 430 ~
Fam. VI. Unionide.—Unio, Castalia, Anodon, Iridina,
Myecetopus, -Autherta, Mulleria (oo. ..\c-sce. ee eee 432
Section B. SrHonrwa: Integro-pallialia ...........0ce0eseee 436
Fam. VII. Chamide.—Chama, Diceras, Requienia ........ 437
Fam. VIII. Hippuritide.—Qippurites, Radiolites, Capri
mello, ‘Caprina.“Caprotima. -.'.s22 5 <2 teas. case hee ene 440
mam, 1,” “Pridacnde.-_Uridacna® . ou. aeons ea poe 451
Fam. X. Cardiade.—Cardium, Conocardium........,..... 453

Fam. XI. Lucinide.—Lucina, Corbis, Tancredia, Diplo-

and

donta, Ungulina, Kellia, Montacuta, Lepton, Galeomma 455

Fam. XII. Cycladide.—Cyclas, Cyrena, Cyrenoides ...... 461
Fam. XIII. Cyprinide.—Cyprina, Circe, Astarte, Gouldia,
Crassatella, Isocardia, Cypricardia, Pleurophorus, Cardilia,
Megalodon, Pachydomus, Pachyrisma, Opis, Cardinia.

Myoconcha; Cardita, Verticordia ... -.27..)).0 ee eee 463

Section ©.. SrewonmaA;sSmu-palliala ...2...0--8 - aoe: 472

Fam. XIV. Veneride.-Venus, Cytherea, Meroe, Trigona,
Artemis, Lucinopsis, Tapes, Venerupis, Petricola, Glau-

COMAY A es oistos tee Pere ran PS ers SR oa. aes ube i 472
Fam. XV. WMactride.—Mactra, Harvella, Gnathodon, Lu-
tratia, Amapinella ie Ji 00 2 Dae acetic ice leroy ene 477

Fam. XVI. TZellinide.—Tellina, Gastrana, Capsula, oud:
stedtia, Psammobia, Sanguinolaria, oe Mesodesma, -

mryilia. onax Galatea eeettan cae sere = ee c's ene 479.
Fam. XVII. Solenide.—Solen, Cultellus, Solecurtus...... 486

Fam. XVIII. Myacide.—Mya, Corbula, Nezra, Thetis,
Panopred, (Giliy GUMEIIS po .uioncm Fhe cies eter em sero amar 489

Fam. XIX. <Anatinide.—Anatina, Ribeiria, Thracia, Phola-
domya, Myacites, Ceromya, Cardiomorpha, Edmondia,
Lyonsia, Pandora, Myadora, Myochama, Chamostrea .... 494

Fam. XX. Gastrochenide.—Gastrochena, Saxicava, Clava-

eella, Asperoal lain, (aim pNTe Ia: Ae ie ya csle.. «in i helen gece 500
Fam. XXI. Pholalide.—Pholas, Pholadidea, Xylophaga,
Teredo..... SE Ey TNT ron Om ee Siac he scheme > 5038

A

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

P&T elie

P , CHAPTER I.

THE POSITION OF THE MOLLUSCA IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

Att known animals are constructed upon five different types,
and constitute as many natural divisions or sub-kingdoms.

1. The highest of these groups is separated from the next
below it by a sharp line of distinction. In it the main mass of
the nervous system is placed on the dorsal side of the body, and is
in no instance pierced by the alimentary canal. It is separated
from the alimentary canal by a partition, which in most cases
is bony, and divided into separate parts, known as vertebre ;
while in a few it is cartilaginous, and not divided into distinct
parts. Vertebrze are a common feature amongst the Vertebrata,
as this sub-kingdom is called; but they do not form an essential
characteristic, as the name might seem to imply. Distinct
organs are devoted to the functions of respiration and circu-
lation; the sexes are generally distinct; each individual is
generally developed from a single egg. Blood red.

2. In the second sub-kingdom, or Mollusca, which is well
exemplified by the common garden snail, the nautilus, and the
oyster, the soft parts are in most cases protected by an external
shell, which is harder than the bones of the vertebrates, and the
covering of the crab and lobster. It consists almost entirely of
carbonate of lime, while the bones of the vertebrates contain a
large proportion of phosphate of lime. The shells of many of
the Brachiopoda, such as Lingula, and of a few of the Pteropoda,

B

2 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

such as Conularia, are rich in the phosphate of lime. The
digestive cavity is completely separated from the walls of the
body. The nervous system consists of three pairs of ganglia,
except in the Brachiopoda, and these nervous centres are very
much scattered. Hence Professor Owen has proposed the term
Heterogangliata for the great group of Mollusca. The end of
the alimentary canal nearest the mouth is surrounded by the
gangla which supply the foot and head.

3. The various tribes of insects, spiders, crabs, starfishes,

echinoderms, entozoa, and worms, have no internal skeleton; —

but to compensate for it, their outer integument is sufficiently
hard to serve at once as a support, a covering, and a defence
for the soft parts. This external armature, like the bodies and
limbs which it covers, is divided into segments or joints, which
well distinguishes the members of this group from the others.
The propriety of arranging worms with insects will be seen, if
it be remembered that even the butterfly and bee commence
existence in a very worm-like form. This division of jointed
animals bears the name of the Annulosa. The neryous system
consists of ganglia arranged in pairs in the middle line of the
body. From this equal lateral development-ef the nervous
centres Professor Owen calls the group Homogungliata. The
nervous system is traversed by the alimentary canal. The
radiated animals form a part of this sub-kingdom.

4. The next sub-kingdom comprises most of the polypes,
such as sea-anemones, the fresh-water hydra, and corals, in
which the general cavity of the body communicates freely with
that of the digestive apparatus, on which account they are
called Coelenterata. The soft parts forming the body wall are
composed of two distinct membranes; there is no heart; no
apparent special respiratory organ; and in most cases very ~
slight traces of a nervous system.

5, All the animals not combined in the above groups, such as

the sponges, the foraminifera, and a large proportion of the _

microscopic animalcules, form the last sub-kingdom, named
Protozoa. They are characterised by a general absence of any
special organ.

There seems to be a much closer relationship between the
molluscan and the protozoic sub-kingdoms than between the
molluscan and any of the others. It is always easier to pass
from the highest part of a sub-kingdom downwards in the scale
of nature than to pass upwards. Thus we can step from one
form to another without meeting with any marked distinction
from the Cephalopods to the Brachiopods, and from them to the

CLASSES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 3

Protozoa. In the same way we can pass from the highest of the
Annulosa to the Protozoa. But we cannot find any continuous
succession of adult forms which will connect the Annulosa with
the Mollusca, or the Mollusca with the Vertebrata.

Much use is made of the terms high and low in speaking of
animals; and it is important to bear in mind that they are by
no means intended to imply that there is any difference in the
degree of perfection, or that one animal is less fitted to subserve
the purposes of life than another. By an animal of a low
organisation is simply meant one in which all the functions
of life are carried on by means of a few organs. The greater
the number of organs that are set apart to perform special
functions the higher is the animal said to be.

The evidence afforded by geological researches seems to show
that the leading types of animal structure have existed from a
comparatively early period in the history of the globe; and that
all forms which haye left any indications of their existence
belong to one or other of these types. The oldest fossils known
at the present time belong to the Protozoa; but next to them
come the Mollusca.

By adding to the living population of the world, those forms
which peopled it in times long past, we may arrive at some
dim conception of the great scheme of the animal kingdom.
And if at present we see not the limits of the temple of nature,
nor fully comprehend its design,—at least we can feel sure that
there is a boundary to this present order of things; and that
there has been a plan, such as we, from our mental constitu-
tion, are able to appreciate, and to study with ever-increasing
admiration.

CLASSES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

This sub-kingdom consists of two great groups, viz., the —
mollusca proper and the molluscoida. The mollusca are animals
with soft bodies, enveloped in a muscular skin, and usually
protected by a univalve or bivalve shell. That part of their
integument which contains the viscera and secretes the shell, is
termed the mantle ;.in the univalves it takes the form of a sac,
with an opening in front, from which the head and locomotive
organs project: in the bivalves it is divided into two lobes.

The univalye mollusca are encephalous, or furnished with a
distinct head; they have eyes and tentacula, and the mouth is
armed either with jaws or with tooth straps.*» Cuvier has

* One of the drawbacks to the study of mollusca is the prevalence of such terms as

jaws, arms, feet, &c. The reader must not suppose that the parts so designated are
B2

4 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

divided them into three classes, founded on the modifications of
their feet, or principal locomotive organs.
1. The cuttle-fishes constitute the first class, and are termed

Fig. 1.* Oral aspect of a Cephalopod.

Cephalopoda,+ because their feet, or more properly arms, are
so attached to the head as to form a circle round the mouth.
2. In the Gasteropoda,{ or snails, the under side of the body

Fig. 2. A Gasteropod.§ Fig. 3. A Pteropod.]

forms a single muscular foot, on which the animals creep or
glide.

homologous in the vertebrata and in the mollusca. When applied to the latter, the
terms are vague and indefinite in meaning.

* Fig. 1. Loligo vulgaris, Lam.}. From a specimen taken off Tenby, by J. S.
Bowerbank, Esq. The mandibles are seen in the centre, surrounded by the circular
lip, the buccal membrane (with two rows of small cups on its lobes), the eight sessile
arms, and the long pedunculated tentacles (¢), with their enlarged extremities or clubs
(e). The dorsal arms are lettered d, the funnel f-

+ From cephale, the head, and poda, feet. See the frontispiece and pl. I.

+ Gaster, the under side of the body.

§ Fig. 2. Helix desertorum, Forskal. From a living specimen in the British Museum,
March, 1850. ;

| Fig. 3. Hyalea tridentata, Lam., from Quoy and Gaimard,

CLASSES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 5

3. The Pteropoda * inhabit the sea only, and swim with a pair
of fins, extending outwards from the sides of the head.

The other mollusca are acephalous, or destitute of any distinct
head; they are all aquatic, and most of them are attached, or
haye no means of moving from place to place. They are divided
into three classes, characterised by modifications in their breath-
ing-organ and shell.

4. The Brachiopoda + are bivalves, haying one shell placed on
the back of the animal, and the other in front; they take their
name from two long ciliated arms, developed from the sides of

Figs. 4,5, 6. Brachiopoda.{

the mouth, with which they create currents that bring them
food. These arms were formerly supposed to take the place of
the feet in the previously-mentioned classes. They are, how-
ever, essentially breathing organs, and consequently the term
Brachionobranchia (arm-breathers) has been proposed for the
erroneous one of Brachiopoda (arm-footed).

5. The Lamellibranchiata,§ or ordinary bivalves (like the
oyster), breathe by two pairs of gills, in the form of flat mem-
branous plates, attached to the mantle; one valve is applied to
the right, the other to the left side of the body. This class is
sometimes called Conchifera.

The Tunicata have no shell, but are protected by an elastic,
gelatinous tunic, with two orifices; the breathing organ takes
the form of an inner tunic, or of a riband stretched across the
internal cavity. These together with the Polyzoa, and perhaps

* Pteron, a wing.

+ Brachion, an arm.

t Fig. 4. (3.) Rhynchonella psittacea, Chem. sp., dorsal valve, with the animal
(after Owen). 5,6, Zerebratula australis, Quoy. From specimens collected by Mr.
Jukes. (2.) Ideal side view of both valves (7, the cardinal muscles, by which the valves
are opened). (1.) Dorsal valve. These woodcuts have been kindly lent by Mr. J. E.
Gray.

§ ee eaitrasichinta, plate-gilled.

6 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

the Brachiopoda, form the sub-class of Molluscoida. In the
first edition the Tunicata were described in detail, but they are
omitted in this for reasons stated in the preface.

Five of these modifications of the molluscan type of organi-
sation were known to Linnzeus, who referred the animals of all
his genera of shell-fish to one or other of them;* but unfortu-
nately he did not himself adopt the truth which he was the
first to see; and here, as in his botany, employed an artificial,
in preference to a natural method.

The systematic arrangement of natural objects ought not,
however, to be guided by convenience, nor ‘‘ framed merely for
the purposes of easy remembrance and communication.” The

Fig. 7. A Bivalve.+ Fig. 8. A Tunicary.}

true method must be suggested by the objects themselves, by
their qualities and relations ;—it may not be easy to learn,—it
may require perpetual modification and adjustment,—but inas-
much as it represents the existing state of knowledge it will aid

* The Linnean types were—Sepia, Limax, Clio, Anomia, Ascidia. Terebratula
was included with Anomia, its organisation being unknown.

+ Mya truncata, L. 3. From Forbes and Hanley.

+ Ascidia mentula, Miill. Ideal representation ; from a specimen dredged by Mr.
Bowerbank, off Tenby. ;

HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOLLUSOA. 7

in the UNDERSTANDING of the subject, whereas a “‘ dead and
arbitrary arrangement”’ is a perpetual bar to advancement,
*‘containing in itself no principle of progression.” (Coleridge.)

HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOLLUSOA.

Every living creature has a history of its own; each has
characteristics by which it may be known from its relatives;
each has its own territory, its appropriate food, and its duties
to perform in the economy of nature. Our present purpose,
however, is to point out those circumstances, and trace the
progress of those changes which are not peculiar to individuals
or to species, but have a wider application, and form the history
of a great class.

In their infancy the molluscous animals are more alike, both
in appearance and habits, than in after life; and the fry of the
aquatic races are almost as different from their parents as the
caterpillar from the butterfly. The analogy, however, is reversed
in one respect ; for whereas the adult shell-fish are often seden-
tary, or ambulatory, the young are all swimmers; so that by
means of their fins and the ocean-currents, they ial to long
distances, and thus diffuse their race as far as a suitable climate
and conditions are found. Myriads of these little voyagers
drift from the shores into the open sea and there perish; their
tiny and fragile shells become part of a deposit constantly
accumulating, even in the deepest parts of the sea.

Some of these little creatures shelter themselves beneath the
shell of their parent for a time, and many can spin silken
threads with which to moor themselves, and avoid being drifted
away. They all have a protecting shell, and even the young
bivalves have eyes at this period of their lives, to aid them in
choosing an appropriate locality.

After a few days, or even less, of this Se eeienca, the
sedentary tribes settle in the place they intend to occupy fan ing
the remainder of their lives. The tunicary cements itself to
rock or sea-weed ; the ship-worm adheres to timber, and the
pholas and lithodomus to limestone rocks, in which they soon
excavate a chamber which renders their first means of anchorage
unnecessary. -The mya and razor-fish burrow in sand or mud;
the mussel and pinna spin a byssus; the oyster and spondylus
attach themselves by spines or leafy expansions of their shell;
the brachiopoda are all fixed by similar means, and even some
of the gasteropods become voluntary prisoners, as the hipponyx —
and vermetus.

8 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Other tribes retain the power of travelling at will, and shift
their quarters periodically, or in search of food; the river-
mussel drags itself slowly along by protruding and contracting
its flexible foot; the cockle and trigonia have the foot bent,
enabling them to make short leaps; the scallop (pecten opercu-
laris) swims rapidly by opening and shutting its tinted valves.
Nearly all the gasteropods creep like the snail, though some are
much more active than others; the pond-snails can glide along
the surface of the water, shell downwards; the nucleobranchs
and pteropods swim in the open sea. The cuttle-fish have a
strange mode of walking, head downwards, on their outspread
arms; they can also swim with their fins, or with their webbed
arms, or by expelling the water forcibly from their branchial
chamber; the calamary can even strike the surface of the sea
with its tail, and dart into the air like the flying-fish.—( Owen.)

By these means the mollusca have spread themselves over
every part of the habitable globe; every region has its tribe;
every situation its appropriate species; the land-snails frequent
moist places, woods, sunny banks and rocks, climb trees, or
burrow in the ground. ‘The air-breathing limneids live in
fresh-water, only coming occasionally to the surface; and the
auriculas live on the sea-shore, or in salt-marshes. In the sea
each zone of depth has its molluscous fauna. The limpet and
periwinkle live between tide-marks, where they are left dry
twice a day; the trochi and purpure are found at low water,
amongst the sea-weed; the mussel affects muddy shores, the
cockle rejoices in extensive sandy flats. Most of the finely-
coloured shells of the tropics are found in shallow water, or
amongst the breakers. Oyster-banks are usually in four or
five fathoms water; scallop-banks at twenty fathoms. The
terebratule are found at still greater depths, commonly at fifty
fathoms, and sometimes at one hundred fathoms, even in Polar
seas. The fairy-like pteropoda, the oceanic snail, and multi-
tudes of other floating molluscs, pass their lives on the open
sea, for ever out of sight of land; whilst the litiopa and scyllea
follow the gulf-weed in its voyages, and feed upon the green
delusive banks.

The food of the mollusca is either vegetable, infusorial, or
animal. All the land-snails are vegetable-feeders, and their
depredations are but too well known to the gardener and
farmer ; many a crop of winter corn and spring tares has been
wasted by the ravages of the ‘‘small grey slug.”” They have
their likings, too, for particular plants, most of the pea-tribe
_ and cabbage-tribe are favourites, bnt they hold white mustard

HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 9

in abhorrence, and fast or shift their quarters while that crop is
onthe ground.* Some, like the ‘‘ cellar-snail,” feed on crypto-
gamic vegetation, or on decaying leaves; and the slugs are
attracted by fungi, or any odorous substances. The round-
mouthed sea-snails are nearly all vegetarians, and consequently
limited to the shore and the shallow waters in which sea-weeds
grow. Beyond fifteen fathoms, almost the only vegetable pro-
duction is the nullipore; but here corals and horny zoophytes
take the place of alge, and afford a more nutritious diet.

The whole of the bivalves, and other headless molluscs live
on infusoria, or on microscopic plants, brought to them by the
current which their ciliary apparatus perpetually excites; such,
too, must be the sustenance of the magilus, sunk in its coral
bed, and of the calyptreea, fettered to its birth-place by its cal-
careous foot.

The carnivorous tribes prey chiefly on other shell-fish, or on
zoophytes; since, with the exception of the cuttle-fishes, their
organisation scarcely adapts them for pursuing and destroying
other classes of animals. One remarkable exception is formed
by the stilifer, which:lives parasitically on the star-fish and sea-
urchin; and another by the testacella, which preys on the
common earth-worm, following it in its burrow, and wearing
a buckler, which protects it in the rear.

Most of the siphonated univalyes are animal-feeders; the
carrion-eating stromb and whelk consume the fishes and other
creatures, whose remains are always plentiful on rough and
rocky coasts. Many wage war on their own relatives, and
take them by assault; the bivalves may close, and the oper-
culated nerite retire into his home, but the enemy, with rasp-
like tongue, armed with siliceous teeth, files a hole through
the shell,—vain shield where instinct guides the attack! Of
the myriads of small shells which the sea heaps up in every
sheltered ‘‘ ness,” a large proportion will be found thus bored
by the whelks and purples; and in fossil shell-beds, such as
that in the Touraine, nearly half the bivalves and sea-snails
are perforated,—the relics of antediluyian banquets.

This is on the shore, or on the bed of the sea; far away from
land the carinaria and firola pursue the floating acalephe ; and
the argonaut, with his relative the spirula, both carnivorous,
are found in the ‘‘ high seas,” in almost every quarter of the
globe. The most active and rapacious of all are the calamaries

* Dilute lime-water and very weak alkaline solutions are more fatal to snails than
even salt.
B 3

10 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

and cuttles, who vindicate their high position in the naturalists’
‘‘system,” by preying even on fishes.

As the shell-fish are great eaters, so in their turn they afford
food to many other creatures; fulfilling the universal law of
eating and being eaten. Civilised man still swallows the
oyster, although snails are no longer reckoned ‘‘a dainty dish;”
mussel, cockles, and periwinkles are in great esteem with
children and the other unsophisticated classes of society ; and
so are scallops and the haliotis, where they can be obtained.
Two kinds of whelk are brought to the London market in great
quantities; and the arms of the cuttle-fish are eaten by the
Neapolitans, and also by the East Indians and Malays. In
seasons of scarcity, vast quantities of shell-fish are consumed
by the poor inhabitants of the Scotch and Irish coasts.* Still
more are regularly collected for bait; the calamary is much
used in the cod-fishery, off Newfoundland, and the limpet and
whelk on our own coasts.

Many wild animals feed on shell-fish; the rat and the raccoon
seek for them on the sea-shore when pressed by hunger; the
South American otter, and the crab-eating opossum constantly
resort to salt-marshes, and the sea, in order to prey on the
mollusca ; the great whale lives habitually on the small floating
pteropods ; sea-fowl search for the littoral species at every
ebbing tide; whilst, in their own element, the marine kind
are perpetually devoured by fishes. The haddock is a “‘ great
conchologist ;”’ and some rare northern sea-shells have been
rescued, unbroken, from the stomach of the cod; whilst even
the strong valves of the cyprina are not proof against the teeth
of the cat-fish (anarhicas).

They even fall a prey to animals much their inferiors in
sagacity ; the star-fish swallows the small bivalve entire, and
dissolves the animal out of its shell; and the bubble-shell
(philine), itself predacious, is eaten both by star-fish and sea-
anemone (actinia).

The land-snails afford food to many birds, especially to the
thrush tribe; and to some insects, for the luminous larva of
the glow-worm lives on them, and some of the large predacious
beetles (e.g., carabus violaceus and goerius olens), occasionally
kill siugs.

The greatest enemies of the mollusca, however, are those of

* See Hugh Miller’s “Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland.” The Ajok-
kenmodings, or kitchen refuse-heaps, which have been found so abundantly in Den-
mark, Scotland, New Zealand, and elsewhere, are sometimes hundreds of yards in
length, and composed almost entirely of shells.

HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOLLUSCA, 11

their own nation. Scarcely one-half the shelly tribes graze
peacefully on sea-weed, or subsist on the nutrient particles
which the sea itself brings to their mouths; the rest browse
on liying zoophytes, or prey upon the vegetable-feeders.

Yet in no class is the instinct of ‘‘ self-preservation”’ stronger,
nor the means of defence more adequate; their shells seem
expressly given to compensate for the slowness of their move-
ment, and the dimness of their senses. The cuttle-fish escapes
from attack by swimming backwards and beclouding the water
with an inky discharge; and the sea-hare (ap/ysia) pours out,
when irritated, a copious purple fluid, formerly held to be
poisonous. Others rely on passive resistance, or on conceal-
- ment, for their safety. It has been frequently remarked that
molluscs resemble the hue and appearance of the situation they
frequent; thus, the limpet is commonly overgrown with balan
and sea-weed, and the ascidian with zoophytes, which form an
effectual disguise; the dima and modiola spin together a screen
of grotto-work. One ascidian (a. cochligera) coats itself with
shell-sand, and the carrier-trochus cements shells and corals to
the margin of its habitation, or so loads it with pebbles, that
it looks like a little heap of stones.

‘It must be confessed that the instincts of the shell-fish are
of a low order, beg almost limited to self-preservation, the
escape from danger, and the choice of food. An instance of
something like social feeling has been observed in a Roman
snail (helix pomatia), who, after escaping from a garden, re-
turned to it in quest of his fellow-prisoner;—but the accom-
plished naturalist who witnessed the circumstance hesitated to
record a thing so unexampled. The limpet, too, we learn from
the observations of Mr. George Roberts, of Lyme Regis, is fond
of home, or at least possesses a knowledge of “nog goer be and
returns to the same roost after an excursion with each tide.
Professor Forbes has immortalised the sagacity of the razor-
fish, who submits to be salted in his hole, rather than expose
eae to be caught, after finding that the enemy is lying in
wait for him. On one other hand, Mr. Bowerbank has a curious
example of ‘‘instinct at fault,’ in the fossil spine of a sea-
urchin, which appears to haye been drilled by a carnivorous
gasteropod.

We have spoken of shell-fish as articles of food. but they have
other uses, even to man; they are the toys of children, who
hear in them the roaring of the sea; they are the pride of
‘* collectors ’’—whose wealth is in a cone or ‘‘ wentle-trap ;” *

* The extravagant prices that have been given for rare shells are less to be regretted,

12 MANUAL OF 1HE MOLLUSCA.

and they are the ornaments of barbarous tribes. The Friendly-
Islander wears the orange-cowry as a mark of chieftainship
(Stutchbury), and the New Zealander polishes the elenchus into
an ornament more brilliant than the “pearl ear-drop” of
_Classical or modern times. (Clarke.) . One of the most beautiful
substances in nature is the shell-opal, formed of the remains of
the ammonite. The forms and colours of shells (as of all other
natural objects), answer some particular purpose, or obey some
general law; but besides this, there is much that seems specially
intended for our study, and calculated to call forth enlightened
admiration. Thus the tints of many shells are concealed during
life by a dull external coat, and the pearly halls of the nautilus
are seen by no other eyes than ours. Or descending to mere
‘‘ utility,” how many tracts of coast are destitute of limestone,
but abound in shell-banks which may be burned into lime; or
in shell-sand, for the use of farmers.*

Not much is known respecting the individual duration of the
shell-fish, though their length of life must be very variable.
Many of the aquatic species are annuals, fulfilling the cycle of
their existence in a single year; whole races are entombed in
the wintry tide of mud that grows from year to year in the beds
of rivers, and lakes, and seas; thus, in the Wealden clay we
find layer above layer of small river-snails, alternating with
thin strata of sediment, the index of immeasurably distant
years. Dredgers find that whilst the adults of some shell-fish
can be taken at all seasons, others can be obtained late in the
-autumn or winter only; those caught in spring and summer
being young, or half-grown; and it is a common remark that
dead shells (of some species) can be obtained of a larger size
than any that we find alive, because they obtain their full
growth at a season when our researches are suspended. Some
species require part of two years for their full development ;
the young of the doris and eolis are born in the summer time,
in the warm shallows, near the shore; on the approach of

because they have induced voyagers to collect. Mere shell-collecting, however, is no
more scientific than pigeon-fancying, or the study of old china. For educational pur-
poses the best shells are the types of genera, or species which illustrate particular
points of structure ; and, fortunately for students, the prices have been much diminished
of late years. A Carinaria, once “ worth 100 guineas”? (Sowerby), is now worth ls.
only ; a wentle-trap which fetched 40 guineas in 1701 (Rumphius) was worth only
20 guineas in 1753, and may now be had for 5s. The Conus gloria-maris has fetched
£50 more than once, and Cynrea umbilicata has been sold for £30.

* Shell-sand is only beneficial on peaty soils, or heavy clay land. It sometimes
hardens into limestone, as on the coast of Devon; and af Guadaloupe, where it con-
tains littoral shells and human skeletons of recent date.

HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 13

winter they retire to deeper water, and in the following spring
return to the tidal rocks, attain their full growth early in the
summer, and after spawning-time disappear.

The land-snails are mostly biennial; hatched in the summer
and autumn, they are half-grown by the winter time, and
acquire their full growth in the following spring or summer.
In confinement, a garden-snail will live for six or eight years;
but in their natural state it is probable that a great many die
in their second winter, for clusters of empty shells may be
found, adhering to one another, under ivied walls, and in other
sheltered situations; the animals having perished in their
hybernation. Some of the spiral sea-shells live a great many
years, and tell their age in a very plain and interesting man-
ner, by the number of fringes (varices) on their whorls; the
contour of the ranelia and murex depends on the regular re-
currence of these ornaments which occur after the same inter-
vals in well-fed individuals, as in their less fortunate kindred.
The ammonites appear by their varices, or periodic mouths
(Pl. IIL., fig. 3), to have lived and continued growing for many
years.

Many of the bivalves, like the mussel and cockle, attain their
full growth in a year. The oyster continues enlarging his shell
by annual “ shoots,”’ for four or five years, and then ceases to
grow outwards; but very aged specimens may be found, espe-
cially in a fossil state, with shells an inch or two in thickness.
The giant-clam (tridacna), which attains so large a size that
poets and sculptors have made it the cradle of the sea-goddess,
must enjoy an unusual longevity; living in the sheltered
lagoons of coral islands, and not discursive in its habits, the
corals grow up around until it is often nearly buried by them ;
but although there seems to be no limit to its life (though it may
live a century for all that we know), yet the time will probably
come when it will be overgrown by its neighbours, or choked
with sediment.

The fresh-water molluscs of cold climates bury themselves
during winter in the mud of ponds and rivers; and the land-
snails hide themselves in the ground, or beneath moss and
dead leaves. In warm climates they become torpid during the
hottest and driest part of the year.

Those genera. and species which are most subject to this
‘summer sleep” are remarkable for their tenacity of life; and
numerous instances haye been recorded of their importation
from distant countries in a living state. In June, 1880, a
living pond-mussel was sent to Mr. Gray from Australia, which

14 } MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

had been more than a year out of water.* The pond-snails
(ampullarie) have been found alive in logs of mahogany from
Honduras (Mr. Pickering) ; \; and M. Caillaud carried some from
Egypt to Paris packed in saw-dust. Indeed, it is not easy to
ascertain the limit of their endurance; for Mr. Laidlay having
placed a number in a drawer for this purpose, found them alive
after five years, although in the warm climate of Calcutta. The
cyclostomas, which are also operculated, are well known to survive
imprisonmenis of many months; but in the ordinary land-
snails such cases are more remarkable. Some of the large
tropical bulimi, brought by Lieutenant Graves from Valparaiso,
revived after being packed, some for thirteen, others for twenty
months. In 1849 Mr. Pickering received from Mr. Wollaston
a, basket-full of Madeira snails (of twenty or thirty different
species), three-fourths of which proved to be alive after several
months’ confinement, including a sea voyage. Mr. Wollaston
has himself told us that specimens of two Madeira snails (helix
paptlio and tectiformis) survived a fast and imprisonment in
pill-boxes of two years and a half, and that a large number of
the small helix turricula, brought to England at the same time,
were all living after haying been enclosed in a dry bag for a
year and a half.

But the most interesting example of resuscitation occurred to
a specimen of the Desert snail, from Egypt, chronicled by Dr.
Baird.t This individual was fixed to a tablet in the British
Museum on the 25th of March, 1846; and on the 7th of March,
1850, it was observed that he must have come out of his shell
in the interval (as the paper had been discoloured, apparently
in his attempt to get away) ; but finding escape impossible, had
again retired, closing his aperture with the usual glistening
film; this led to his immersion in tepid water and marvellous ©
recovery. Advantage was taken of this circumstance for making
a sketch of the living animal (Fig. 2).

The permanency of the shell-bearing races is effectually pro-
vided for by their extreme fecundity; and though exposed to a
hundred dangers in their early life enough survive to re-people
the land and sea abundantly. The spawn of a single doris may
contain 600,000 eggs (Darwin); a river-mussel has been esti-
mated to produce 300,000 young in one season, and the oyster
cannot be much less prolific. The land-snails cae fewer enemies,
and lay fewer eggs.

* «Tt was alive 498 days after it was taken from the pond; and im the interim
had been only twice for a few hours in water, to see if it was alive."—Rev. W. O
Newnham. + Ann. Nat. Hist. 1850.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 15

Lastly, the mollusca exhibit the same instinctive care with
insects and the higher animals in placing their eggs in situations
where they will be safe from injury, or open to the influences
of air and heat, or surrounded by the food which the young
will require. The tropical bulimi cement leaves together to
protect and conceal their large bird-like eggs; the slugs bury
theirs in the ground; the oceanic-snail attaches them to a
floating raft; and the argonaut carries them in her frail boat.

Fig. 9. Ianthina with its raft.

The horny capsules of the whelk are clustered in groups, with
spaces pervading the interior for the free passage of sea water ;
and the nidamental ribbon of the doris and eolis is attached to a
rock or some solid surface from which it will not be detached by
the waves. The river-mussel and cyclas carry their parental
care still further, and nurse their young in their own mantle,
or in a special marsupium, designed lke that of the opossum,
to protect them until they are strong enough to shift for
themselves.

If any one imbued with the spirit of Paley or Chateaubriand,
should study these phenomena, he might discover more than
the ‘‘ barren facts’ which alone appear without. significance to
the unspiritual eye; he would see at every step fresh proofs of
the wisdom and goodness of God, who thus manifests His great-
ness by displaying the same care for the maintenance ot His
feeblest creatures as for the well-being of man and the stability
of the world.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Molluscous animals possess a distinct nervous system, instru-
ments appropriated to the five senses, and muscles by which
they execute a variety of movements. They have organs, by
which food is procured and digested; a heart, with arteries
and veins, through which their colourless fluids circulate; a

16 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

breathing-organ; and, in most instances, a protecting shell.
They produce eggs, and the young generally pass through
one preparatory, or larval, stage.

The nervous system, upon which sensation and the exercise of
muscular motion depend, consists of a brain or principal centre,
and of various nerves possessing distinct properties: the optic
nerves are only sensible of light and colours; the auditory
nerves convey impressions of sound; the olfactory, of odours;
the gustatory, of flavours ; whilst the nerves of touch or feeling
are widely diffused, and indicate in a more general way the
presence of external objects. The nerves by which motion is
produced are distinct from these, but so accompany them as to
appear lke parts of the same cords. Both kinds of nerves
cease to act when their connection with the centre is interrupted
or destroyed. There is reason to believe that most of the move-
ments of the lower animals result from the reflection of external
stimulants (like the process of breathing in man), without the
intervention of the will.*

In the mollusca, the principal part of the nervous system is a
ring surrounding the throat (esophagus), and giving off nerves
to different parts of the body. The points from which the
nerves radiate are enlargements termed centres (ganglia), those
on the sides and upper part of the ring represent the brain, and
supply nerves to the eyes, tentacles, and mouth; other centres,
connected with the lower side of the cesophageal ring, send
nerves to the foot, viscera, and respiratory organ. In the
bivalves the branchial centre is the most conspicuous, and is
situated on the posterior adductor muscle. In the tunicaries
the corresponding nervous centre may be seen between the two
orifices in the muscular tunic. This scattered condition of. the
nervous centres is eminently characteristic of the entire sub-
kingdom.

Organs of special sense.—Sight. The eyes are two in number,
placed on the front or sides of the head; sometimes they are
sessile, in others stalked, or placed on long pedicels (ommatophora).
The eyes of the cuttle-fishes resemble those of fishes in their
large size and complicated structure. Each consists of a strong
fibrous globe (sclerotic), transparent in front (cornea), with the
opposite internal surface (retina) covered by a dark pigment
which receives the rays of light. This chamber is occupied by
an aqueous humour, a crystalline lens, and a vitreous humour,
as in the human eye. In the strombide, the eye is not less
highly organised, but in most of the gasteropoda it has a more

* See ‘Miiller’s Elements of Physiology,” edited by Dr. Baly.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 17

simple structure, and perhaps only possesses sensibility of light
without the power of distinct vision. The larval bivalves have
also a pair of eyes in the normal position (Fig. 30) near the
mouth ; but their development is not continued, and the adults
are either eyeless, or possess merely rudimentary organs of
vision, in the form of black dots (ocell7) along the margin of the
mantle.* These supposed eyes have been detected in a great

many bivalves, but they are most conspicuous in the scallop,
which has received the name of argus from Poli on this account
(Fig. 10).

In the tunicaries similar ocelli are placed between the tentacles
which surround the orifices.

Sense of Hearing. In the highest cephalopods, this organ
consists of two cavities in the rudimentary cranium which pro-
tects the brain ; a small calcareous body or otolithe is suspended

ese

Fig. 11. Tentacle of a Nudibranch.}

in each, as in the vestibular cavities of fishes. Similar auditory
capsules occur near the base of the tentacles in the gasteropoda,
and they have been detected, by the vibration of the otolithes,
in many bivalves and brachiopods. With the exception of

* “Bach possesses a cornea, lens, choroid, and nerve; they are, without doubt,
organs of vision.” (Garner.) The same conclusion is arrived at by Duvernoy ina
paper in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for 1852.

} Pecten varius, L., from a specimen dredged by Mr. Bowerbank, off Tenby ;
m, the pallial curtains; br, the branchiz.

¢ Fig. 11. Tentacle of Eolis coronata, Forbes, from Alder and Hancock.

18 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

tritonia and eolis, none of the mollusca have been observed to
‘emit sounds. (Grant.)

Sense of Smell. This faculty is evidently possessed by the
cuttle-fishes and gasteropods; snails discriminate their food by
it, slugs are attracted by offensive odours, and many of the
marine zoophaga may be taken with animal baits. In the pearly
nautilus there is a hollow plicated process beneath each eye,
which M. Valenciennes regards as the organ of smell.* Messrs.
Hancock and Embleton attribute the same function to the
lamellated tentacles of the nudibranchs, and compare them with
the olfactory organs of fishes.

The labial tentacles of the bivalves are considered to be
organs for discriminating food, but in what way is unknown
(Fig. 18, 7, ¢). The sense of taste is also indicated rather by the
habits of the animals and their choice of food than by the
structure of a special organ. The acephala appear to exercise
little discrimination in selecting food, and swallow anything
that is small enough to enter their mouths, including living
animalcules, and even the sharp spicula of sponges. In some
instances, however, the oral orifice is well guarded, as in pecten
(Fig. 10). In the Hncephala the tongue is armed with spines,
employed in the comminution of the food, and cannot possess a
very delicate sense. The more ordinary and diffused sense of
touch is possessed by all the
mollusca ; it is exercised by the
skin, which is everywhere soft
and lubricous, and in a higher
degree by the fringes of the bi-
valves (Fig. 12), and by the fila-
ments and tentacles (vibracula)
of the gasteropods; the eye-—
pedicels of the snail are evidently
endowed with great sensitiveness in this respect. That shell-fish
are not very sensible of pain, we may well believe, on account
of their tenacity of life, and the extent to which they have the
power of reproducing lost parts.

Muscular System. The muscles of the mollusca are principally
connected with the skin, which is exceedingly contractile in
every part. The snail affords a remarkable, though familiar
instance, when it draws in its eve: stalls by a process like the

Fig. 12. Lepton squamosum.}

* Mr. Owen regards the membranous upelle between the oral tentacles and ds
front of the mouth, as the seat of the olfactory sense. See Fig. 51.

t Fig. 12. Lepton squamosum, Mont., from a drawing by Mr. Alder, in the British
Mollusca ; copied by permission of Mr. Van Voorst.

STRUCTURE AND FHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA, 19

inversion of a glove-finger; the branching gills of some of
the sea-slugs, and the tentacles of the cuttle-fishes are also
eminently contractile.*

The inner tunic of the ascidians (Fig. 8, t) presents a beautiful
example of muscular tissue, the crossing fibres having much
the appearance of basket-work; in the transparent salpians,
these fibres are grouped in flat bands, and arranged in charac-
teristic patterns. In this class (tunicata) they act only as
sphincters (or circular muscles), and by their sudden contraction
expel the water from the branchial cavity. The muscular foot
of the bivalves is extremely flexible, having layers of circular
fibres for its protrusion (Fig. 18, /), and longitudinal bands for
its retraction (Fig. 30 *); its structure and mobility has been
compared to that of the human tongue.
In the burrowing shell-fish (such as
solen), it is very large and powerful, and
in the boring species, its surface 1s
studded with siliceous particles (spicula),
which renders it a very efficient instru-
ment for the enlargement of their cells.
(Hancock). In the attached bivalves it
is not developed, or exists only inarudi- Fig. 15. Dreissena.}
mentary state, and is subsidiary to a gland which secretes the
material of those threads with which the mussel and pinna
attach themselves (Fig. 13). These threads are termed the
byssus ; the plug of the anomia and the pedicel of terebratula —
are modifications of the byssus.

In the cuttle-fishes alone we find muscles attached to internal
cartilages which represent the bones of vertebrate animals; the
muscles of the arms are inserted in a cranial cartilage, and those
of the fins in the lateral cartilages.

Muscles of a third kind are attached to the shell. The valves
of the oyster (and other mono-myaries) are connected by a
single muscle; those of the cytherea (and other di-myaries), by
two; the contraction of which brings the valves together.
They are hence named adductors; and the part of the shell

* The muscular fibres of molluscs frequently present the transverse stripes which
characterise voluntary muscles in the higher animals. Striped muscular fibre has been
-observed in Salpa (Huzley); and in Waldheimia australis by Hancock; a strict search
was made by that able anatomist for the purpose of discovering such fibre amongst the
hingeless brachiopods, but without success. Striped fibres have been seen in the
gasteropods.

+ Fig. 13. Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas sp.), from the Swrey timber-docks.
Ff, foot ; 6, byssus,

20 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

to which they are attached is always indicated by scars
(Fig. 14, a, a’).

The border of the mantle is also muscular, and the place of
its attachment is marked in the shell by a line called the pallial
impression (p); the presence of a bay, or sinus (s), in this line,
shows that the animal had retractile siphons; the foot of the
animal is withdrawn by retractor muscles also attached to the

Fig. 14. Left valve of Cytherea chione.*

shell, and leaving small scars near those of the adductors
(Fig 30*).

The gasteropods withdraw into their shells when alarmed, by
a shell-muscle, which passes into the foot, or is attached to the
operculum ; its impression is horse-shoe-shaped in the limpet,
as also in navicella, concholepas, and the nautilus; it becomes
deeper with age. In the spiral univalves, the scar is less con-
spicuous, being situated on the columella, and sometimes divided,
forming two spots. It corresponds to the posterior retractors in
the bivalves.

Digestive System. This part of the animal economy is all-
important in the radiate classes, and scarcely of less consequence
in the mollusca. In those bivalves, which have a large foot, the
digestive organs are concealed in the upper part of that organ ;
the mouth is unarmed, except by two pairs of soft membranous

* Fig. 14. Cytherea chione, L., coast of Devon (original); A, the hinge ligament;
u, the umbo; J, the lunule; c. cardinal tooth; ¢ ¢’, lateral teeth; a, anterior adductor ;
a’, posterior adductor; p, pallial impression; s, sinus, occupied by retractor of the ©
siphons.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 21

palpi, which look like accessory gills (Fig. 18, 7, ¢). The
ciliated arms of the brachiopods occupy a similar position
(Figs. 4, 5, 6). The encephalous mollusca are frequently armed
with horny jaws, working vertically like the mandibles of a
bird ; in the land-snails, the upper jaw is opposed only by the
denticulated tongue, whilst the limneids have two additional
horny jaws, acting laterally. The tongue is muscular and
armed with recurved spines (or lingual teeth), arranged in a
great variety of patterns, which are eminently characteristic of
the genera.* Their teeth are amber-coloured, glossy, and
translucent; and being siliceous (they are insoluble in acid),
they can be used like a file for the abrasion of very hard sub-
stances. With them the limpet rasps the stony nullipore, the
whelk bores holes in other shells, and the cuttle-fish doubtless
uses its tongue in the same manner as the cat. The tongue, or
linguai ribbon, usually forms a triple band, of which the central
part is called the rachis, and the lateral tracts plewre, the
rachidian teeth sometimes form a single series, overlapping

KA

B

Fig. 15. Lingual Teeth of Mollusca, —

each other, or there are lateral teeth on each side of a median
series. The teeth on the pleure are termed wuncini; they
are extremely numerous in the plant-eating gasteropods (Fig.
15, A).

Sometimes the tongue forms a short semicircular ridge, con-

* The preparation of the lingual ribbon as a permanent microscopic object, requires
some nicety of manipulation, but the arrangement of the teeth may be seen by merely
compressing part of the animal between two pieces of glass.

7 Fig. 15. A, lingual teeth of trochus cinerarius (after Lovén). Only the median
tooth, and the (5) lateral teeth, and (90) wnczni of one side of a single row are repre-
sented. B, one row of the lingual teeth of cyprea europea; consisting of a median
tooth and three uncini on each side of it.

2 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

tained between the jaws; at others, it isextremely elongated, and
its folds extend backwards to the stomach. The lingual ribbon of
the limpet is longer than the whole animal; the tongue of the
whelk has 100 rows of teeth; and.the great slug has 160 rows,
with 180 teeth in each row.

The front of the tongue is frequently curved, or bent quite
over ; it is the part of the instrument in use, and its teeth are
often broken or blunted. The posterior part of the lingual

bir cra in
Fig. 16. Tongue of the Whelk:*

ribbon usually has its margins rolled together and united, form-
ing a tube, which is presumed to open gradually. The new
teeth are developed from behind forwards, and are brought
successively into use, as in the sharks and rays amongst fishes.
In the bullide the rachis of the tongue is unarmed, and the
business of comminuting the food is transferred to an organ
which resembles the gizzard of a fowl, and is often paved with
calcareous plates, so large and strong
as to crush the small shell-fish which
are swallowed entire. In the aplysia,
which is avegetable-feeder, the gizzard
is armed with numerous small plates
and spines. The stomach of some
bivalves contains an instrument called

Fig. 17. Guzzard of Bulla.t the « erystalline stylet,” which is con-
jectured to have a similar use. In the cephalopods there is a
crop in which the food may accumulate, as well as a gizzard for
its trituration.

The liver is always large in the mollusca (Fig. 10); its secre-
tion is derived from arterial blood, and is poured either into the
stomach or the commencement of the intestine. In the nudi-

* Fig. 16. Lingual ribbon of buccinum undatum (original), from a preparation
communicated by W. Thomson, Esq., of King’s College. a, anterior; p, posterior;
Z, lateral; r, rachidian.

+ Fig. 17. Gizzard of bulla lignaria (original). Front and side view of a half-
growr specimen, with the part nearest the head of the animal downwards; in the
front view the plates are in contact. The cardiac orifice is in the centre, in front; the
pyloric orifice is on the posterior dorsal side, near the small transverse plate.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 23

branchs, whose stomachs are often remarkably branched, the
liver accompanies all the gastric ramifications, and even enters
the respiratory papille on the backs of the eolids. The exist-
ence of a renal organ has been ascertained in most classes; in
the bivalves it was detected by the presence of uric acid. The
intestine is more convoluted in the herbivorous than in the
carnivorous tribes: in the bivalves and in haliotis it passes
through the ventricle of the heart; its termination is always
near the respiratory aperture (or the excurrent orifice, where
there are two*), and the excrements are carried away by the
water which has already passed over the gills.

Besides the organs already mentioned, the encephalous
molluscs are always furnished with well-developed salivary
glands, and some have a rudimentary pancreas ; many have also
special glands for the secretion of coloured fluids, such as the
purple of the murex, the violet liquid of ianthina and aplysia,
the yellow of the bullide, the milky fluid of eolis and the inky
secretion of the cuttle-fishes. The gland that secretes this
fluid is situated on the mantle. It consists of a thin layer of
elongated cells, and is to be found in most gasteropods. The
fluid produced appears to haye different properties in different
species. Thus in aplysia and some snails it possesses colour at
the moment of being secreted; but in others it is colourless, as,
for instance, in turbo littoralis and trochus cinerarius. In murex
and purpura also it is colourless when secreted; but on being
exposed to the sun it becomes first yellowish and ultimately
violet, after having passed through various intermediate tints
formed by the mixture of yellow, blue, and red. According to
M. Lacaze Duthiers it is probable that the Romans obtained
their purple dye from three or four species of mollusc, such as
murex trunculus, and brandaris, and purpura hemastoma. A
few molluscs exhale peculiar odours, like the garlic-snail (helix
alliaria) and eledone moschata. Many are phosphorescent, espe-
cially the floating tunicaries (salpa and pyrosoma), and bivalves
which inhabit holes (pholadide). Some of the cuttle-fishes are
slightly luminous; and one land-slug, the phosphoraa, takes its
name from the same property.

Circulating system. The mollusca have no distinct absorbent
system, but the product of digestion (chyle) passes into the
general abdominal cavity, and thence into the larger veins;

* In most of the gasteropods the intestine returns upon itself, and terminates on the
right side, near the head. Occasionally it ends in a perforation more or less removed
from the margin of the aperture, as in trochotoma, fissurella, macrochisma, and
dentalium, In chiton the intestine is straight, and terminates posteriorly.

24 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

which are perforated with numerous round apertures. The
circulating organs are the heart, arteries, and veins; the blood
is colourless, or pale bluish white. The heart consists of an
auricle (sometimes divided into two), which receives the blood
from the gills; and a muscular ventricle which propels it into
the arteries of the body. From the capillary extremities of the
arteries it collects again into the veins, circulates a second time
through the respiratory organ, and returns to the heart as
arterial blood. Besides this systemic heart, the circulation is
- aided by two additional branchial hearts in the cuttle-fishes. _
Mr. Alder has counted from 60 to 80 pulsations per minute in
the nudibranchs, and 120 per minute in a vitrina. Both the
arteries and veins form occasionally wide spaces, or sinuses ; in
the cuttle-fishes the cesophagus is partly or entirely surrounded
by a venous stnus ; and in the acephala the visceral cavity itself —
forms part of the circulating system.

Aquiferous system. Recent anatomical researches by Messrs.
Hancock, Rolleston, Robertson, Williams, and others have
thrown considerable doubt upon the existence of any aquiferous
system in the mollusca. There are certainly a number of pores
which open to the external water; these are situated either in
the centre of the creeping disc, as In cypreea, conus, and ancil-
laria ; or at its margin, as in haliotis, doris, and aplysia. In
the cuttle-fishes they are variously placed, on the sides of the
head, or at the bases of the arms; some of them conduct to the
large sub-orbital pouches, into which the tentacles are retracted.
According to Messrs. Rolleston and Robertson* there is no con-
nection between the blood vascular and the aquiferous systems;
and the foot in the lamellibranchiates is distended by means of the
aquiferous canals, which they regard as a rudimentary kidney.
Agassiz and Lacaze Duthiers, on the other hand, assert that there -
is a connection between the two systems. The proof relied on
by the former observers was that when a coloured injection was
forced in through a vein, and an injection of a different colour
was sent into the aquiferous canals, two coloured systems of
ramification were formed, which the microscope showed to be
distinct up to the furthest extremities. Agassiz also used a
coloured injection ; he states that when it was injected through
the large pore in the pedal surface of some species of pyrula,
not only was the system of canals in the foot filled, but also the
whole of the circulatory system. He also states that when a
mactra is taken out of the water it discharges a quantity of
fluid from the foot, which consists of salt water, in which floats

* Philosophical Transactwns, 1862.

®

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 25

a large number of blood corpuscles. This he regards as a proof
of the mixture of blood and sea water within the body of the
animal.

Respiratory system. The respiratory process consists in the
exposure of the blood to the influence of air, or water contain-
ing air; during which oxygen is absorbed and carbonic acid
liberated. It is a process essential to animal life, and is never
entirely suspended, even during hybernation. Those air-
breathers that inhabit water are obliged to visit the surface
frequently; and stale water is so inimical to the water-breathers,
that they soon attempt to escape from the confinement of a glass
or basin, unless the water is frequently renewed. In general,
fresh water is immediately fatal to marine species, and salt
water to those which properly inhabit fresh ; but there are some
which affect brackish water, and many which endure it to a
limited extent. The depth at which shell-fish live is probably
influenced by the quantity of oxygen which they require; the
most active and energetic races live only in shallow water, or
near the surface ; those found
in very deep water are the
lowest in their instincts, and
are ‘specially organised for
their situation. Some water-
breathers require only moist _
sea air, and a bi-diurnal visit
from the tide—like the peri-
winkle, limpet, and kellia ;
whilst many air - breathers
live entirely in the water or
in damp places by the water-
side. In fact, the nature of
the repiratory process is the same, whether it be aquatic or
aérial, and it is essential in each case that the surface of the
breathing-organ should be preserved moist. The process is
more complete in proportion to the extent and minute sub-
division of the vessels, in which the circulating fluid is exposed
to the revivifying influence.

The land-snails (pulmontfera) have a lung or air-chamber,
formed by the folding of the mantle, over the interior of which
the pulmonary yessels are distributed; this chamber has a

Fig. 18. TZrigonza pectinata.*

* Trigonia pectinata, Lam. (original). Brought from Australia by the late Captain
Owen Stanley. The gills are seen in the centre through the transparent mantle.
0, mouth; Zt, labial tentacles ; 7, foot; v, vent.

Cc

26 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

round orifice, on the right side of the animal, which opens and
closes at irregular intervals. The air in this cavity seems to
renew itself with sufficient rapidity (by the law of diffusion),
without any special mechanism.

In the aquatic shell-fish respiration is performed by the
mantle, or by a portion of it specialised, and forming a gill
(branchia). It is affected by the arms in all the brachiopoda,
while the mantle seryes as an auxiliary. In the ordinary
bivalves the gills form two membranous plates on each side of
the body; the muscular mantle is still sometimes united, form-
ing a chamber with two orifices, into one of which the water
flows, whilst it escapes from the other; there is a third opening
in front for the foot, but this in no wise influences the branchial
circulation. Sometimes the orifices are drawn out into long
tubes or siphons, especially in those shell-fish which burrow in
sand (Figs. 19 and 7).

Fig. 19. Bivalve with long siphons.*

Those bivalves which have no siphons, and even those in
which the mantle is divided into two lobes, are provided with
valyes or folds which render the respiratory channels just as
complete in effect. These currents are not in any way connected
with the opening and closing of the valves, which is only done
im moying, or in efforts to expel irritating particles.t

In some of the gasteropoda the respiratory organs form tufts,
exposed on the back and sides (as in the nudibranchs), or pro-
tected by a fold of the mantle (as in the inferobranchs and
tectibranchs of Cuvier).{ But in most the mantle is inflected,

* Fig. 19. Psammobia vespertina, Chemn. after Poli, reduced one-half. The arrows
indicate the direction of the current; 7 s, respiratory siphon ; e s, excurrent siphon;
, foot.
i } If ariver-mussel be placed in a glass of water, and fine sand let fall gently over
its respiratory orifices, the particles will be seen to rebound from the vicinity of the
upper aperture, whilst they enter the lower one rapidJy. But as this kind of food is
not palatable, the creature will soon give a plunge with its foot, and closing its valves,
spirt the water (and with it the sand) from both orifices; the motion of the foot is, of
course, intended to change its position.
t Mr. Collingwood (Annals of Nat. Hist. for 1861), in itunes what function these
tufts or papille perform, concludes that morphologically and physiologically they are
not branchie.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 27:

and forms a vaulted chamber over the back of the neck, in
which are contained the pectinated or plume-like gills (Fig. 68).
In the carnivorous gasteropods (siphonostomata) the water
passes into this chamber through a siphon, formed by a pro-
longation of the upper margin of the mantle, and protected by
the canal of the shell; after traversing the length of the gill, it
returns and escapes through a posterior siphon, generally less
developed, but very long in ovulum volva, and forming a tubular
spine in typhis.

In the plant-eating sea-snails (holostomata) there is no true
siphon, but one of the ‘‘ neck-lappets”’ is sometimes curled up
and performs the same office, as in paludina and ampullaria
(Fig. 109). The in-coming and out-going currents in the
branchial chamber are kept apart by a valve-like fringe, con-
tinued from the neck-lappet. The out-current is still more
effectually isolated in fissurella, haliotis, and dentalium, where
it escapes by a hole in the shell, far removed from the point at
which it entered. Near this outlet are the anal, renal, and
generative orifices.

The cephalopods have two or four plume-like gills, sym-
metrically placed in a branchial chamber, situated on the under-
side of the body; the opening is in front, and occupied by a
funnel, which, in. the nautilus, closely resembles the siphon of
the paludina, but has its edges united in the cuttle-fishes. The
free edge of the mantle is so adapted that it allows the water to
enter the branchial chamber on each side of the funnel: its
muscular walls then contract and force the water through the
funnel, an arrangement chiefly subservient to locomotion.*
Mr. Bowerbank has observed that the eledone makes twenty
respiraticns per minute when resting quietly in a basin of water.

In most instances, the water on the surface of the gills is
changed by ciliary action alone; in the cephalopods and. salpians
it is renewed by the alternate expansion and contraction of the
respiratory chamber, as in the vertebrate animals.

The respiratory system is of the highest importance in the
economy of the mollusca, and its modifications afford most
valuable characters in classification. It will be observed that
the Cuvierian classes are based on a variety of particulars, and
are very unequal in importance; but the orders are characterised
by their respiratory conditions, and are of much more nearly
equal value.

* A very efficient means of locomotion in the slender pointed calamaries, which
dart backwards with the recoil, like rockets.

c2

98 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

ORDERS, CLASSES.

Dibranchiata. Owen.

Tetrabranchiata. Owen.

Nucleobranchiata. Bl.
ENCEPHALA .-. .» « «4 Prosobranchiata. M. Edw.

; CEPHALOPODA,

Pulmonifera. Cuv. GASTEROPODA.

Opisthobranchiata. M, Edw.

Aporobranchiata, BI. PTEROPODA.

Palliobranchiata. Bl. BRACHIOPODA,
ACEPHALA.... . .< Lamellibranchiata. Bl. CoNCHIFERA.

Heterobranchiata. Bl. TUNICATA,

The Shell. The relation of the shell to the breathing-organ is
very intimate: indeed, it may be regarded as a pnewmo-skeleton,
being essentially a calcified portion of the mantle, of which the
breathing-organ is at most a specialised part.*

The shell is so characteristic of the mollusca that they have
been commonly called ‘‘testacea”’ (from ¢esta, ‘‘a shell”) in
scientific books; and the popular name of ‘‘shell-fish,” though
not quite accurate, cannot be replaced by any other epithet in
common use. In one whole class, however, and in several
families, there is nothing that would be popularly recognised as
a shell.

Shells are said to be external when the animal is contained in

them, and internal when they are concealed in the mantle; the
latter, as well as the shell-less species, being called naked
molluscs.
_ Three-fourths of the mollusca are univalve, or have but one
shell; the others are mostly bivalve, or have two shells; the
pholads have accessory plates, and the shell of chiton consists of
eight pieces. Most of the multivalves of old authors were
articulate animals (cirripedes), erroneously included with the
mollusca, which they resemble only in outward appearance.

All, except the argonaut, acquire a rudimental shell before
they are hatched, which becomes the nucleus of the adult shell ;
it is often differently shaped and coloured from the rest of the
shell, and hence the fry are apt to be mistaken for pee
species from their parents.

In cymba (Fig. 20) the nucleus is large and irregular; ee

* Tn its most reduced form the shell is only a hollow cone, or plate, protecting the
breathing organ and heart, as in limaz, testacella, carinaria. Its peculiar features
always relate to the condition of the breathing-organ; and in terebratula and
pelonaia it becomes identified with the gill. In the nudibranchs the vascular mantle
performs wholly or in part the respiratory office. In the cephalopods the shell becomes
complicated by.the addition of a distinct, internal, chambered portion (phragmocone),
which is properly a visceral skeleton ; in spirula the shell is reduced to this ner,

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 29

Jfusus antiquus it is cylindrical; in the pyramidellide it is
oblique ; and it is spiral in carinaria, atlanta, and many limpets,
which are symmetrical when adult.

The rudimentary shell of the nudibranchs is shed at an early
age, and never replaced. In this respect the molluscan shell
differs entirely from the shell of the crab
and other articulate animals, which is
periodically cast off and renewed.

In the bivalves the embryonic shell forms
the wmbo of each valve; it is often very un-
like the after-growth, as in unio pictorwm,
cyclas henslowiana, and wecten pusio. In
attached shells, like the oyster and anomia,
the umbo frequently presents an exact imita-
tion of the surface to which the young shell
orignally adhered.

Shells are composed of carbonate of lime,
with a small proportion of animal matter.
The source of this lime is to be looked for in
their food. Modern inquiries into organic —
chemistry have shown that vegetables derive
their elements from the mineral kingdom
(air, water, and the soil), and animals theirs
from the vegetable. The sea-weed filters the salt water, and
separates lime as well as organic elements; and lime is one of
the most abundant mineral matters in land plants. From this
source the mollusca obtain lime in abundance, and, indeed,
we find frequent instances of shells becoming unnaturally
thickened through the superabundance of this earth in their
systems. On the other hand, instances occur of thin and
delicate-shelled varieties in still, deep water, or on clay bottoms;
whilst in those districts which are wholly destitute of lime,
hike the Lizard in Cornwall, and similar tracts of magnesian-
silicate in Asia Minor, there are no mollusca.—( Forbes.)

The texture of shells is various and characteristic. Some,
when broken, present a dull lustre like marble or china, and
are termed porcel/anous ; others are pearly or nacreous; some
have a fibrous structure ; some are horny, and others glassy and
translucent.

The nacreous shells are formed by alternate layers of very
thin membrane and carbonate of lime, but this alone does not

Fig. 20. Cymba.*

* Fig. 20. Cymba proboscidalis, Lam., from a very young specimen in the cabinet
of Hugh Cuming, Esq., from Western Africa.

30 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

give the pearly iustre, which appears to depend on minute
undulations of the layers, represented in Fig. 23. This lustre
has been successfully imitated on engraved steel buttons.
Nacreous shells, when polished, form ‘mother of pearl ;”’
when digested in weak acid they leave a membraneous residue
which retains the original form of the shell. This is the most
easily destructible of shell-textures, and in some geological
formations we find only casts of the nacreous shells, whilst
those of fibrous texture are completely preserved.

Pearls are produced by many bivalves, especially by the
Oriental pearl-mussel (avicula margaritifera), and one of the
British river mussels (unio margaritiferus). They are also found
occasionally in the common oyster, in anodonta cygnea, pinna
nobilis, mytilus edulis, or common mussel, and in spondylus
gederopus. In these they are generally of a green or rose
colour. The pearls found in arca noe are violet, and in anomia
cepa purple. They are similar in structure to the shell, and,
like it, consist of three layers; but what is the innermost layer
in the shell is placed on the outside in the pearl. The iridescence
is due to light falling upon the out-cropping edges of partially
transparent corrugated plates. The thinner and more trans-
parent the plates the more beautiful is the iridescent lustre ;
and this is said to be the reason why sea pearls excel those
obtained from fresh-water molluscs. Besides the furrows
formed by the corrugated surface there are a number of fine
dark lines (+55 inch apart), which may add to the lustrous
effect. In some pearls these lines run from pole to pole like
the longitudes on the globe; in others they run in various
directions; and in a few the lines on the same pearl have
different directions, so that they cross each other. The nucleus
frequently consists of a fragment of a brownish-yellow organic
substance, which behaves in the same way as epidermis when
treated with certain chemical re-agents. Sand is generally said
to be the nucleus; but this is simply a conjecture which has
gradually become regarded as a fact; it is quite the exception
for sand to be the nucleus; as a general rule it is some organic
substance. In some districts one kind of nucleus seems to be
more common than another; at least, this is how the different
results obtained by observers in different localities may be
explained. Filippi (Sull’ origine delle Perle. Translated in
Miller’s Archiv. 1856) found distoma to be the nucleus in many
cases; Kuchenmeister found that the pearls were most abundant
in the molluses living in the still parts of the river Elster, where
the water-mites (limnochares anodonte) existed most nume-

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA, él

rously. The most generally prevalent nucleus appears to be
the bodies or eggs of minute internal parasites, such as filaria,
distoma, buchephalus, &c.* Completely spherical pearls can
only be formed loose in the muscles, or other soft parts of the
animal. The Chinese obtain them artificially by imtroducing
into the living mussel foreign substances, such as pieces of
mother-of-pearl fixed to wires, which thus become coated with
a more brilliant material.

7

\ 7 Ss

aN e. \
Ny)

\ VV \\)
RR
SWRA YS
@ WAS CANN Ye :
Fig. 21. Pinna. Fig. 22. TZerebratula. Fig. 23. Pearl.¢

Similar prominences and concretions—pearls which are not
pearly—are formed inside porcellanous shells; these are as
variable in colour as the surfaces on which they are formed.

The jibrous shells consist of successive layers of prismatic
cells containing translucent carbonate of lime; and the cells of
each successive layer correspond, so that the shell, especially
when very thick (as in the fossil inoceramus and trichites), will
break up vertically into fragments, exhibiting on their edges a
structure lke arragonite, or satin-spar. Horizontal sections
exhibit a cellular network, with here and there a dark cell,
which is empty (Fig. 21).

The oyster has a laminated structure, owing to the irregular
accumulation of the cells in its successive layers, and breaks
up into horizontal plates. =

‘In the boring-shells (pholadide) the carbonate of lime has an
atomic arrangement like arragonite, which is considerably
harder than calcareous spar; in other cases the difference
in hardness depends on the proportion of animal matter and the
manner in which the layers are aggregated.§

* Drs. Mobius and Kelaart, Annals of Nat. Hist., i., 1858, p. 81.

{ Figs. 21, 22, 23.- sMagnified sections of shells, from Dr. Carpenter. Fragments of
shell ground very thin, and cemented to glass slides with Canada balsam, are easily
prepared, and form curious microscopic objects.

{ They are pink in turbinellus and strombus; white in estrea; white or glassy,
purple or black, in mytilus ; rose-coloured and translucent in penna.—( Gray.)

§ The specific gravity of floating shells (such as argonauta and ianthina) is lower
than that of any others.—(De la Beche.)

32 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

In many bivalve shells there occurs a minute tubular struc-
ture, which is very conspicuous in some sections of pinna and
oyster-shell. This tubular structure is frequently occasioned
by the growth of a confervoid sponge, hence great care is
required in determining whether the perforations are an
essential part of the shell.

The brachiopoda exhibit a characteristic structure by which
the smallest fragment of their shells may be determined ; it
consists of elongated and curved cells matted together, and
often perforated by circular holes, arranged in quincunx order
(Fig. 22).

But the most complex shell-structure is presented by the
porcellanous gasteropoda. These consist of three strata which
readily separate in fossil shells, on account of the remoyal of
their animal cement. In Fig.

7D ch& 24, a represents the outer, b
EES iN the middle, and c the inner

fi)

UM
Z

stratum ; they may be seen
also in Fig. 25. Hach of
these three strata is com-
posed of very numerous ver-
tical plates, like cards placed
on edge; and the direction
of the plates is sometimes
transyerse in the central
stratum, and lengthwise in the outer and inner (as in cyprea,
cassis, ampullaria, and bulimus), or longitudinal in the middle
layer and transverse in the others (e. g. conus, pyrula, oliva, and
voluta).

Each plate, too, is composed of a series of prismatic cells,
arranged obliquely (45°), and their direction being changed in
the successive plates, they cross each other at right angles.
Tertiary fossils best exhibit this structure, either at their broken
edge, or in polished sections.—(Bowerbank. )+

The argonaut-shell and the bone of the cuttle-fish have a
peculiar structure; and the Hippurite is distinguished by a

qs

\\

ll

DVM UL

2

Fig. 24. Sections of a Cone.*

* Sections of Conus ponderosus, Brug., from the Miocene of the Touraine, A,
longitudinal section of a fragment; B, complete horizontal section ; a, outer layer; 6,
middle ; c, inner layer; d, e, f, lines of growth.

+ It is necessary to bear in mind that fossil shells are often pseudomorphous, or mere
casts, in spar or chalcedony, of cavities once occupied by shells; such are the fossils
found at Blackdown, and many of the London clay fossils at Barton. The Paleozoic
fossils are often metamorphic, or.have undergone a re-arrangement of their particles,
like the rocks in which they occur.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 30

cancellated texture, unlike any other shell, except perhars
some of the cardiacee and chamacee.

Epidermis. All shells have an outer coat of animal matter
called the ‘‘epidermis”’ (or periostracum), sometimes thin and
transparent, at others thick and opaque. It is thick and olive-
coloured in all fresh-water shells and in many arctic sea-shells
(e. g. cyprina and astarte); the colours of the land-shells often
depend on it ; sometimes it is silky as in helia sericea, or fringed
with hairs as in ¢richotropis ; in the whelk and some species of
triton and conus it is thick and rough, like coarse cloth, and in
some modiolas it is drawn out into long beard-like filaments.

In the cowry and other molluscs with large mantle lobes the
epidermis is more or less covered up by an additional layer of
shell deposited externally.

The epidermis has life, but not sensation, like the inne
scarf-skin 3 and it protects the shell against the influence of the
weather and chemical agents ; it soon fades or is destroyed after
the death of the animal in situations where, whilst living, it
would have undergone no change. In the bivalves it is
organically connected with the margin of the mantle.

It is most developed in shells which frequent damp situations,
amongst decaying leaves, and in fresh-water shells. All fresh
waters are more or less saturated with carbonic-acid gas, and
in limestone countries hold so much lime in solution as to
deposit it in the form of tufa on the mussels and other shells.*
But in the absence of lime to neutralise the acid the water acts
on the shells, and would dissqlve them entirely if it were not
for their protecting epidermis. As it is, we can often recognise
fresh-water shells by the erosion of those parts where the
epidermis was thinnest, namely, the points of the spiral shells
and the umbones of the bivalves, those being also the parts
longest exposed. Specimens of melanopsis and bithynia become
truncated again and again in the course of their growth, until
the adults are sometimes only half the length they should be,
and the discoidal planorbis sometimes becomes perforated by
the removal of its inner whorls; im these cases the animal
closes the break in its shell with new layers. Some of the
unios thicken their umbones enormously, and form a layer of
animal matter with each new layer of shell, so that the river
action is arrested at a succession of steps.

* As at Tisbury, in Wiltshire, where remarkable specimens of anodons were
obtained by the late Miss Benett.

C3

34 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

FORMATION AND GROWTH OF THE SHELL.

The shell, as before stated, is formed by the mantle ; indeed,
each layer of it was once a portion of the mantle, either in the
form of a simple membrane or as a layer of cells; and each
layer was successively calcified (or hardened with carbonate of
lime) and thrown off by the mantle to unite with those pre-
viously formed. Being extravascular it has no inherent power
of repair.—(Carpenter.)

The epidermis and cellular structures are formed by the
margin (or collar) of the mantle; the membranous and nacreous
layers, by the thin and transparent portion which contains the
viscera ; hence we find the pearly texture only as a lining
inside the shell, as in the nautilus, and all the aviculide and
turbinidee.

If the margin of a shell is fractured during the lifetime of
the animal, the injury will be completely repaired by the re-
production both of the epidermis and of the outer layer of shell.
with its proper colour. But if the apex is destroyed, or a hole
made at a distance from the aperture, it will merely be closed
with the material secreted by the visceral mantle. Such inroads
are often made by boring worms and shell, and even by a sponge
(cliona), which completely mines the most solid shells. In Dr.
Gray’s cabinet is the section of a cone, in whose apex a colony

Fig. 25. Shetion! oi a ane neonatal by Lithodomi.

of lithodomi had settled, compelling the animal to contract
itself faster than it could form shell to fill up the void.

Lines of growth. So long as the animal continues growing
each new layer of shell extends beyond the one formed before
it; and, in consequence, the external surface becomes marked
with lines of growth. During winter, or the season of rest

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 35

which corresponds to it, shells cease to grow ; and these periodic
resting-places are often indicated by interruptions of the other-
wise regular lines of growth and colour, or by still more obvious
signs. It is probable that this pause, or cessation from growth,
extends into the breeding season; otherwise there would be
two periods of growth and two of rest in each year. In many
shells the growth is uniform; but in others each stage is
finished by the development of a fringe, or ridge (varix), or of a
row of spines, as in tridacna and murex.—(Owen, Grant.)

Adult characters. The attainment of the full growth proper
to each species is usually marked ——
by changes in the shell.

Some bivalves, like the oyster
and gryphea (Fig. 26), continue
to increase in thickness long after
they have ceased to grow out-
wards; the greatest addition is
made to the lower valve, espe-
cially near the umbo; and in the ie
spondylus some partsofthe mantle 78 76 Section hswehent
secrete more than others, so that cavities, filled with fluid,
are’left in the substance of the shell.

The adult teredo and fistulana close the end of their burrows ;
the pholadidea fills up the great pedal opening of its valves ;
and the aspergillwm forms the porous disc from
which it takes its name. Sculptured shells,
particularly ammonites, and species of rostel-
laria and fusus, often become plain in the last
part of their growth. But the most charac-
teristic change is the thickening and contrac-
tion of the aperture in the univalves. The
young cowry (Fig. 27) has a thin, sharp lip, -
which becomes curled inwards, and enormously
thickened and toothed in the adult; the ptero-
ceras (Pl. 4, fig. 3) develops its scorpion-like
claws only when full-grown; and the land-
snails form a thickened lip, or narrow their
aperture with projecting processes, so that it rig. 27. Young
is a marvel how they pass in and out, and how SORE ei
they can exclude their eggs (e.g. Pl. 12, fig. 4, anastoma; and
Fig. 5, helix hirsuta).

* Fig. 26. Sectian of gryphea incurva, Sby. Lias, Dorset (original; diminished
one-half) ; the upper valve is not much thickened ; the interior is filled with lias,
{ Cyprea testudinaria, L., young.

36 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Yet at this time they would seem to require more space -
and accommodation in their houses than before, and there are
several curious ways in which this is obtained. The neritide
and auriculide dissolve all the internal spiral column * of their
shells; the cone (Fig. 24, B) removes all but a paper-like
portion of its immer whorls; the cowry goes still further, and
continues removing the internal layers of its shell-wall, and
depositing new layers externally with its overlapping mantle
(Fig. 93), until, in some cases, all resemblance to the young
shell is lost in the adult.

The power which molluscs possess of dissolving portions of
their own shells is also exhibited by the murices in removing
those spines from their whorls which interfere with their growth;
and by the purpure and others in wearing away the wall of.
their aperture. The agency in these cases is supposed to be
chemical. Some support is given to this view by the composi-
tion of the saliva of doliwm galea (closely allied to the purpure),
which has been examined by Professor Troschel. A chemical -
analysis showed that it contained a minute proportion only of
organic matter, and consisted of 94 per cent. of water, the
remainder being almost entirely muriatic and sulphuric acids,
and the sulphates of magnesia, potash, and soda. The secretion
is apparently not used to assist digestion, since minute cal-
careous shells were found in the stomach uninjured. It is not
used for perforating stones; and what its function is remains
uncertain. We mention these facts here to show that dilute
acids are secreted, which in some cases may be used for dis-
solving away the shell. The saliva, however, has no effect on
the inside of the shell of the doliwm; indeed, it is said to be
unalterable by strong acids. (Monatsberichte der Academie in
Berlin, 1854, p. 486).

Decollated shells. It frequently happens that as spiral shells
become adult they cease to occupy the upper part of their
cavity; the space thus vacated is sometimes filled with solid
shell, asin magilus; or it is partitioned off, as in vermetus,
euomphalus, turritella, and triton (Fig. 62). The deserted apex
is sometimes very thin, and becoming dead and brittle, it
breaks away, leaving the shell truncated or decollated. This
happens constantly with the truncatelle, cylindrelle, and bulimus
decollatus ; amongst the fresh-water shells it depends upon
local circumstances, but is very common with pirena and
cerithidea.

Forms of shells. These will be described particularly under

* This is sometimes done by the hermit-crab to the shell it occupies,

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. or.

each class; enough has been said to show that in the molluscan
shell (as in the vertebrate skeleton) indications are afforded of
_ many of the leading affinities and structural peculiarities of the
animal. It may sometimes be difficult to determine the genus
of a shell, especially when its form is very simple; but this
results more from the imperfection of our technicalities and
systems than from any want of co-ordination in the animal
and its shell.

Monstrosities. The whorls of spiral shells are sometimes
separated by the interference of foreign substances, which.
adhere to them when young; the garden-snail has been found
in this condition, and less complete instances are common
amongst sea-shells. Discoidal shells occasionally become spiral
(as in specimens of planorbis found at Rochdale), or irregular
in their growth, owing to an unhealthy condition. The discoidal
ammonites sometimes show a slight tendency to become spiral,
and more rarely become unsymmetrical, and have the keel on
one side instead of in the middle.

All attached shells are liable to interference in their growth,
and malformations consequent on their situation in cavities, or
from coming in contact with rocks. The dreissena polymorpha
distorts the other fresh-water mussels by fastening their valves
with its byssus ; and balani sometimes produce strange protu-
berances on the back of the cowry, to which they have attached
themselves when young.*

In the miocene tertiaries of Asia Minor, Professor Forbes
discovered whole races of neritina, paludina, and melanopsie,
with whorls ribbed or keeled, as if through the unhealthy in-
fluence of brackish water. The fossil periwinkles of the
Norwich Crag are similarly distorted, probably by the access of
fresh water; parallel cases occur at the present day in the
Baltic.

Reversed shells. Left-handed or reversed varieties of spiral
shells haye been met with in some of the very common species,
like the whelk and garden-snail. Buljmus citrinus is as often
sinistral as dextral; and a reversed yariety of fusus antiquus.
Was more common than the normal form in the pliocene sea.
Other shells are constantly reversed, as pyrula perversa, many
species of pupa, and the entire genera, clausilia, physa, and
triforis. Bivalyes less distinctly exhibit variations of this

* In the British Museum there is a helix terrestris (Chemn.) with a small stick
passing through it, and projecting from the apex and umbilicus. Mr. Pickering has,
in his collection, a heliz hortensis which got entangled in a nut-shell when young, and
gtowing too large to escape, had to endure the incubus to the end of its days.

88 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

kind; but the attached valve of chama has its umbo turned to
the right or left indifferently ; and of two specimens of lucina
childrent in the British Museum, one has the right, the other
the left valve flat.

The colours of shells are usually confined to the surface beneath
the epidermis, and are secreted by the border of the mantle,
which often exhibits similar tints and patterns (e.g. voluta
undulata, Fig. 89). Occasionally the inner strata of porcel-
lanous shells are differently coloured from the exterior, and the
makers of shell-cameos avail themselves of this difference to
produce white or rose-coloured figures on a dark ground.*

The secretion of colour by the mantle depends greatly on the
action of light; shallow-water shells are, as a class, warmer
and brighter coloured than those from deep water; and bivalves
which are habitually fixed or stationary (like spondylus and
pecten pleuronectes) have the upper valve richly tinted, whilst
the lower one is colourless. The backs of most spiral shells
are darker than the under sides; but in danthina the base of
the shell is habitually turned upwards, and is deeply dyed with
violet. Some colours are more permanent than others; the red
spots on the naticas and nerites are commonly preserved in
tertiary and oolitic fossils, and even in one example (of n. sub-
costata, Schl.) from Devonian limestone. Terebratula hastata,
and some pectens of the car-
boniferous period, retain their
markings; the orthoceras angu-
liferus of the Devonian beds has
zig-zag bands of colour; anda
terebratula of the same age,
from Arctic North America, is
= ornamented with several rows
of dark red spots.

The operculum. Most spiral
shells have an operculum, or lid, with which to close the aper-
ture when they withdraw for shelter (See GASTEROPODA). It is
developed on a particular lobe at the posterior part of the foot,

Fig. 28. Trochus ziziphinus.f

* Cameos, in the British Museum, carved on the shell of cassis cornuta, are white
on an orange ground ; one. tuberosa, and madagascariensis, white upon dark claret-
colour; on c. rufa, pale salmon-colour on orange; and on strombus gigas, yellow on
pink. By filing some of the olives (e.g. oliva utriculus) they may be made into very
different-coloured shells,

+ Trochus ziziphinus, from the original, taken in Pegwell Bay abundantly. This
species exhibits small tentacular processes, neck-lappets, side-lappets, tentacular
filaments, and an operculigerous lobe.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 39

and consists of horny layers, sometimes hardened with shelly
matter (Fig. 28).

It has been considered by Adanson, and more recently by
Dr. Gray, as the equivalent of the dextral valve of the conchi-
fera; but however similar in appearance, its anatomical relations
are altogether different. In position it represents the byssus of
the bivalves (Lovén); and in function it is like the plug with
which unattached specimens of bysso-arca close their aperture.
—(Forbes).

Homologies of the shell.* The shell is so simple a structure
that its modifications present few points for comparison; but
even these are not wholly understood, or free from doubt. The
bivalve shell may be compared to the outer tunic of the ascidian,
cut open and converted into separable valves. In the conchifera
this division of the mantle is vertical, and the valves are right
and left. In the brachiopoda the separation is horizontal, and
the valves are dorsal and ventral. The mornomyarian bivalves
lie habitually on one side (like the plewronectide among fishes) ;
and their shells, though really right and left, are termed
‘‘upper” and ‘‘lower”’ valves. The univalve shell is the
equivalent of both valves of the bivalve. In the pteropoda it
consists of dorsal and ventral plates, comparable with the
valves of terebratula. In the gasteropoda it is equivalent to
both valves of the conchifera united above.¢ The nautilus shell
corresponds to that of the gasteropod; but whilst its chambers
are shadowed forth in many spiral shells, the siphuncle is some-
thing additional; and the entire shell of the cuttle-fish and
argonaut t have no known equivalent or parallel in the other
molluscous classes. The student might imagine a resemblance
in the shell of the orthoceras to a back- bone. The phragmocone
is the representative of the calcareous axis (or splanchno-skeleton)
of a coral, such as amplexus or siphonophyllia. —

Temperature and hybernation. Observations on the tempera-
ture of the mollusca are still wanted; it is known, however, to
vary with the medium in which they live, and to be sometimes
a degree or two higher or lower than the external temperature ;

* Parts which correspond in their real nature—(their origin and development)—
are termed homologous ; those which agree merely in appearance, or office, are said to
be analogous.

t+ Compare /fissurella or trochus (Fig. 28) with lepton squamosum (Fig. 12). The
disk of hipponyz is analogous to the ventral plate of hyalea and terebratula.

t The argonaut shell is compared by Mr. Adams to the nidamental capsules of the
whelk ; a better analogue would have been found in the raft of the zanthina, which is
secreted by the foot of the animal, and serves to /ioat the egg-capsules.

40 -MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

with snails (in cool weather) it is generally a degree or two
higher. :
- The mollusca of temperate and cold climates are subject to
hybernation ; during which state the heart ceases to beat,
respiration is nearly suspended, and injuries are not healed.
They also cestivate, or fall into a summer sleep when the heat is
great; but in this the animal functions are much less inter-
rupted.—( Miller.) i

Reproduction of lost parts. It appears from the experiments.
of Spallanzani, that snails, whose ocular tentacles have been
destroyed, reproduce them completely in a few weeks; others
have repeated the trial with a like result. But there is some
doubt whether the renewal takes place if the brain of the animal
be removed as well as its horns. Madame Power has made
similar observations upon various marine snails, and has found
that portions of the foot, mantle, and tentacles, were renewed.
Mr. Hancock states that the species of eolis are apt to make a
meal off each other’s papille, and that, if confined in stale
water, they become sickly and lose those organs; in both cases
they are quickly renewed under favourable circumstances.

Viviparous reproduction. This happens in a few species of
gasteropods, through the retention of the eggs in the oviduct,
until the young have attained a considerable growth. It also
appears to take place in the acephalans, because their eggs gene-
rally remain within some part of the shell of the parent until
hatched.

Oviparous reproduction. The sexes are distinct in the most
highly organised (or diecious) mollusea ; they are united in the
(monecious) land-snails, pteropods, opisthobranchs, and in some
of the conchifers. The prosobranchs pair; but in the dicecious
acephalans, the spermatozoa are merely discharged into the
water, and are inhaled with the respiratory currents by the
other sex. The moneecious land-snails require reciprocal
union; the lmneids unite in succession, forming floating
chains.

The eggs of the land-snails are separate, and protected by a
shell, which is sometimes albuminous and flexible, at others
calcareous and brittle ; those of the fresh-water species are soft,
mucous, and transparent. The spawn of the sea-snails consists
of large numbers of eggs, adhering together in masses, or spread
out in the shape of a strap or ribbon, in which the eggs are
arranged in rows; this nidamental ribbon is sometimes coiled
up spirally, like a watch-spring, and attached by one of its
edges. The eggs of the carnivorous gasteropods are enclosed

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 41

in tough albuminous capsules, each containing numerous germs;
these are deposited singly, or in rows, or agglutinated in groups,
equalling the parent ani-
mal in bulk (Fig. 83). The f
nidamental capsules of the yy y vee ha
cuttle-fish are clustered \
like grapes, each con-
taining but one embryo;
those of the calamary are
grouped in radiating
masses, each elongated
capsule containing 30 or
40 ova. The material
with which the eggs are
thus cemented together, or
enveloped, is secreted by
the nidamental gland, an organ largely developed in the female
gasteropods and cephalopods (Fig. 50, n).

Development. The molluscan ovum consists of a coloured
yolk (vitellus), surrounded by albumen. On one side of the
yolk is a pellucid spot, termed the germinal vesicle, having a
spot. or nucleus on its surface. This germinal vesicle is a
nucleated cell, capable of producing other cells like itself; it is
the essential part of the egg, from which the embryo is formed ;
but it undergoes no change without the influence of the sperma-
tozoa.t After impregnation, the germinal vesicle, which then
subsides into the centre of the yolk, divides spontaneously into
two; and these again divide and subdivide into smaller and still
smaller globules, each with its pellucid centre or nucleus, until
the whole presents a uniform granular appearance. The next
step is the formation of a ciliated epithelium on the surface of
the embryonic mass; movements in the albumen become per-
ceptible in the vicinity of the cilia, and they increase in strength,
until the embryo begins to revolve in the surrounding fluid.t

Fig. 29. Spawh of Doris.*

* Nidamentai ribbon of Doris Johnstont. (Alder and Hancock.)

} No instance of ‘‘partheno-genesis’? is known among the mollusca; the most
“equivocal” case on record is that related by Mr. Gaskoin. A specimen of helix
lactea, Mull., from the South of Europe, after being two years in his cabinet, was dis-
covered to be still living; and on being removed to a plant-case it revived, and six
weeks afterwards had produced twenty young ones!

{ According to the observations of Professor Lovén (on nae bivalve mollusca),
the ova are excluded immediately after the inhalation of the spermatozoa, and
apparently from their influence ; but impregnation does not take place within the
ovary itself. The spermatozoa of cardium pygmeum were distinctly seen to penstrate,
in succession the outer envelopes of the ova, and arrive at the vitellns, when they dis-
appeared. With respect to the “germinal vesicle ;” according to Barry, it first.

42 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSOA.

Up to this point nearly the same appearances are presented
by the eggs of all classes of animals,—they manifest, so far, a
complete ‘‘ unity of organisation.” In the next stage, the
development of an organ, fringed with stronger cilia, and sery-
ing both for locomotion and respiration, shows that the embryo
is a molluscous animal ; and the changes which follow soon point
out the particular class to which it belongs. The rudimentary
head is early distinguishable by the black eye-specks; and the
heart by its pulsations. The digestive and other organs are
first ‘‘ sketched out,” then become more distinct, and are seen.
to be covered with a transparent shell. By this time the em-
bryo is able to move by its own muscular contractions, and to
swallow food; it is therefore ‘‘ hatched,” or escapes from the
egg.
Very little is known respecting the development of Brachio-
pods. F. Muller has described * an embryo which, it is thought,
may belong to Crania. It possessed two roundish valves of un-
equal size, the dorsal being the larger. At the part where the
hinge is placed in the adult was a small oval plate. Five pairs
of stiff seteze projected from the mantle, and four of them origi-
nated from the ventral half. The edge of the mantle in the dorsal -
valve was beset with numerous finer setz, which curved over
upon the outside of the ventral valve. The alimentary canal
filled the posterior half of the space between the valves. There
were two auditory capsules and twoeyes. The anterior half was
occupied by four pairs of cylindrical arms, surrounding a round
knob, at the summit of which was the mouth. Locomotion
was effected by means of the cilia enveloping the arms, which
impelled the animal through the water with the mouth fore-
most. No circulatory or reproductive organs could be detected.

The young bivalves are hatched before they leave their parent. -
(See page 393) The forms they pass through present distinct
differences in several families, so that even in the present state of
embryological knowledge, some five or six types of development
are known. Even in the same family there may bea great dis-

approaches the inner surface of the vitelline’ membrane, in order to receive the
influence of the spermatozoa ; it then retires to the centre of the yolk, and undergoes
a series of spontaneous subdivisions. In M. Lovén’s account it is said to ‘‘ burst” and
partially dissolve, whilst the egg remains in the ovary, and before impregnation; it
then passes to the centre of the yolk, and undergoes the changes described by Barry,
along with the yolk, whilst the nucleus of the germinal vesicle, or some body exactly
resembling it, is seen occupying a small prominence on the surface of the vitelline
membrane, until the metamorphosis of the yolk is completed, when it disappears, in
some unobserved manner, without fulfilling any recognised purpose.

* Archiv fiir Anatomie und Physiologie, 1860, p. 72; see also Annals of Nat. Hist.
for 1860.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 43

similarity, as in the case of the marine and fresh-water forms
of the mytilide. The following account refers to the type to
which the young of Crenella belong. At first they have a
swimming disk, fringed with long cilia, and armed with a slen-
der tentacular filament (flagellum). Ata later period this disk

disappears progressively as the labial palpi are
developed; and they acquire a foot, and with it
the power of spinning a byssus. They now have
a pair of eyes situated near the labial tentacles
(Fig. 30* e), which are lost at a further stage, or
replaced by numerous rudimentary organs placed
more fayourably for vision, on the border of the
mantle. The development of the young has
been noticed in many of the genera of Pteropods.
They are divisible into two groups: those in

Fig. 30.*

which the body is surrounded with one or more rings of cilia,

‘and those in which these rings are absent,

Fig, 30*. Fry of the Mussel.+

Most of the aquatic gasteropoda are very minute when

* Fig. 30. Very young fry of crenella marmorata, Forbes, highly magnified;
d, disk, bordered with cilia ; J, flagellum ; vv, valves; m, ciliated mantle. -
7 Fig. 80*. Fry of mytilus edulis, after Lovén. e, eye; e’, auditory capsule; 7 t,

44 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

hatched, and they enter life under the same form,—that which
has been already referred to as permanently characteristic of
the pteropoda. (Fig. 69.)

The Pulmonifera and Cepha'cpoda produce large eggs, con-
taining sufficient nutriment to support the embryo until it has
attained considerable size and development ; thus, the newly-
born cuttle-fish has a shell half an inch
long, consisting of several layers, and the
bulimus ovatus has a shell an inch in
length when hatched. (Fig. 31.) These
are said to undergo no transformation,
because their larval stage is concealed in
the egg.

The researches of John Hunter + into
the embryonic condition of animals, led
him to the conclusion that each stage in
the development of the highest animals
corresponded to the permanent form of
some one of the inferior orders. This
grand generalisation has since been more exactly defined and
established by a larger induction of facts, some of which we
have already described, and may now be stated thus :—

In the earliest period of existence all animals display one
uniform condition; but after the first appearance of special
deveiopment, uniformity is only met with amongst the mem-
bers of the same primary division, and with each succeeding
step it is more and more restricted. From that first step, the
members of each primary group assume forms and pass through
phases which have no parallels, except in the division to which
each belongs. The mammal exhibits no likeness, at any period, .
to the adult mollusc, the insect, or the star-fish; but only to
the ovarian stage of the invertebrata, and to more advanced
stages of the classes formed upon its own type. And so also
with the highest organised mollusca ; after their first stage they

Fig. 31.*

labial tentacles; s s/, the stomach ; b, branchie ; h, heart ; v, vent; J, liver; 7, renal
organ ; a, anterior adductor; a’, posterior adductor ; 7, foot. The arrows indicate the
incurrent and excurrent openings; between which the margins of the mantle are
united in the fry.

* Ego and young of bulimus ovatus, Miill, sp., Brazil, from specimens in the collec-
tion of Hugh Cuming, Esq.

{ “In his printed works the finest elements of system seem evermore to flit before
him, twice or thrice only to have been seized, and after a momentary detention to
have been again suffered to escape. At length, in the astonishing preparations for his
museum, he constructed it, for the scientific apprehension, out of the unspoken
alphabet of nature.” — Coleridge.

CLASSIFICATION. 45

resemble the simpler orders of their own sub-kingdom, but not
those of any other group.

These are the views of Professor Owen—the successor of
Hunter—by whom it has been most clearly shown and stead-
fastly maintained, that the ‘‘ unity of organisation” manifested
by the animal world results from the design of a Supreme In-
telligence, and cannot be ascribed to the operation of a mechani-
cal “law.”

CLASSIFICATION.

The objects of classification are, first, the convenient and in-
telligible arrangement of the species ;* and, secondly, to afford
& summary, or condensed exposition, of all that is known re-
specting their structure and relations.

In studying the shell-fish we find resemblances of two kinds.
First, agreements of structure, form, and habits; and, secondly,
resemblances of form and habits without agreement of struc-
ture. The first are termed relations of affinity ; the second, of
analogy.

Affinities may be near, or remote. There is some amount of
affinity common to all animals; but, like relationships amongst
men, they are recognised only when tolerably close. Resem-
blances of structure which subsist from a very early age are
presumed to imply original relationship ; they have been termed
genetic (or histological), and are of the highest importance. Those
which are superinduced at a later period are of less consequence.

Analogies. Modifications relating only to peculiar habits are
called adaptive; or teleological, from their relation to final
causes.t A second class of analogical resemblances are purely
external and illusive; they have been termed mimetic (Strick-
land), and, by their frequency, almost justify the notion that a
certain set of forms and colours are repeated, or represented in
every class and family. In all artificial arrangements, these
mimetic resemblances have led to the association of widely dif-
ferent animals in the same groups.{ Particular forms are also
represented geographically§ and geologically,|| as well as sys-
tematically.

* At least 20,000 recent, and 16,000 fossil species of molluscous animals are known.

{ For example, the paper nautilus, from its resemblance to carinarza, was long sup-
posed to be the shell of a nucleobranch, parasitically occupied by the “‘ ocythoe.”

te. g. Aporrhais with strombus, and ancylus with patella.

§ Monoceros imbricatum and buccinum antarcticum take the place, in South
America, of our common whelk and purple, and solen gladiolus and solen americanus
of our solen siligua and ensvs.

| The frequent recurrence of similar species in successive strata may lead beginners

to attribute too much to the influence of time and external circumstances; but such
impressions disappear with further experience.

46 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

In all attempts to characterise groups of animals, we find
that in advancing from the smaller to the larger combinations,
many of the most obvious external features become of less avail,
and we are compelled to seek for more constant and comprehen-
sive signs in the phases of embryonic development, and the
condition of the circulating, respiratory, and neryous systems.

Species. All the specimens, or individuals, which are so
much alike that we may reasonably believe them to have
descended from a common stock, constitute a species. It isa
particular provision for preventing the blending of species, that
hybrids are always barren; and it is certain, in the case of shells,
that a great many kinds have not changed in form from the
tertiary period to the present day,—a lapse of many thousand
years,—and through countless generations. When individuals
of the same brood differ in any respect, they are termed varieties ;
for example, one may be more exposed to the light, and become
brighter coloured; or it may find more abundant food, and
grow larger than the rest. Should these peculiarities become
permanent at any place or period,—should all the specimens on
a particular island or mountain, or in one sea, or geological
formation, differ from those found elsewhere,—such permanent
variety is termed a race ; Just as in the human species there are
white and coloured races. The species of some genera are less
subject to variation than others; the nucule, for example,
although very numerous, are always distinguishable by good
characters. Other genera, like ammonites, terebratula, and tel-
lina, present a most perplexing amount of variation, resulting
from age, sex, supply of food, variety of depth, and of saltness
in the water. And further, whilst in some genera every pos-
sible variety of form seems to have been called into existence, in
others only a few, strikingly distinct forms, are known. .

Genera are groups of species, related by community of struc-
ture in all essential respects. The genera of bivalves have been
characterised by the number and position of their hinge teeth;
those of the spiral univalves, by the form of their apertures;
but these technical characters are only valuable so far as they
indicate differences in the animals themselves.

Families are groups of genera, which agree in some more
general characters than those which unite species into genera.
Those which we have employed are mostly modifications of the
artificial families framed by Lamarck, a plan which seemed
more desirable, in the present state of our knowledge, than a
subdivision into very numerous families, without assignable,
characters.

CLASSIFICATION. 47

The orders and classes of mollusca have already been referred
to; those now in use are in most cases natural.

It has been sometimes asserted that these groups are only
scientific contrivances, and do not really exist in nature but
this is a false as well as a degrading view of the matter. 'The
labours of the most eminent systematists have been directed to
the discovery of the subordinate value of the characters deriy-
able from eyery part of the animal organisation ; and, as far as
their information enabled them, they have made their systems
expressive ‘‘of all the highest facts or generalisations in
natural history.” —( Owen.

M. Milne Edwards has remarked, that the actual appearance
of the animal kingdom is not like a well-regulated army, but
like the starry heavens, over which constellations of various —
magnitude are scattered, with here and there a solitary star
which cannot be included in any neighbouring group.

This is exceedingly true; we cannot expect our systematic
groups to have equal numerical yalues,* but they ought to be
of equal structural importance; and they will thus possess a
symmetry of order, which is superior to mere numerical regu-
larity.

All the most philosophic naturalists have entertained a belief
that the development of animal forms has proceeded upon some
regular plan, and have directed their researches to the discovery
of that ‘‘reflection of the Diyine mind.” Some haye fancied
that they have discovered it in a mystic number, and have ac-
cordingly converted all the groups into fives.t We do not
undervalue these speculations, yet we think it better to describe
things so far only as we know them.

Great difficulty has always been found in placing ‘groups
according to their affinities. This cannot be effected in—-the
way in which we are compelled to describe them—a single
series; for each group is related to all the rest; and if we
extend the representation of the affinities to very small groups,
any arrangement on a plane surface would fail, for the
affinities radiate in all directions, and the ‘‘ network”’ to which
Fabricius likened them, is as insufficient a comparison as the
“‘ chain” of older writers.t

* The numerical development of groups is inversely proportional to the bulk of the
tudividuals composing them.—( Waterhouse.)

+ The quinarians make out five molluscous classes by excluding the tunzcata ; the
same end would be attained in a more satisfactory manner by reducing the pteropods
to the rank of an order, which might be placed next to the opistho-branchs.

t The quinary arrangement of the molluscous classes reminds us of the eastern

48 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

NOMENCLATURE.

The practice of using two names—generic and specific—for
each animal, or plant, originated with Linnzus; therefore no
scientific names date further back than his works. In the con-
struction of these names the Greek and Latin languages are
preferred by the common consent of all countries.

Synonyms. It often happens that a species is named, or a
genus established, by more than one person, at different times,
and in ignorance of each other’s labours. Such duplicate names
are called synonyms ; they have multiplied amazingly of late,
and are a stumbling-block and an opprobrium in all branches
of natural history.*

One very common estuary shell rejoices in the following
variety of titles :—

Scrobicularia piperata (Gmelin sp.).
Trigonella plana (Da Costa).
Mactra Listeri (Avuct.).

Mya Hispanica (Chemnitz).

Venus borealis (Pennant).

Lutraria compressa (Lamarck).
Arenaria plana (Megerle).

As regards specific names, the earliest ought certainly to be
adopted, with, however, the following exceptions :—
1. MS. names; which are admitted by courtesy.
2. Names given by writers antecedent to Linnzeus.
3. Names unaccompanied by a description or figure.
4. Barbarisms ; or names inyolying error or absurdity.t
It is also very desirable that names having a general (HKuro-
pean) acceptation should not be changed on the discovery, of
earlier names in obscure publications.

emblem of eternity—the serpent holding its tail in its mouth. The following diagram
is offered as an improved circular system :—

[ FISHES. ]
Di-branchiata,

Nucleo- Tetra-
Opistho- Proso-
Aporo- Pulmo-

Pallio- Lamelli-

Hetero-branchiata.
[ZOOPBYTES. }

* In Pfeiffe~’s Monograph of the Helicide, a family containing seventeen genera,
no less than 330 generic synonyms are enumerated ; to this list Dr. Albers, of Berlin,
has added another hundred of his own invention!

+ This subject was investigated and reported upon by a committee of the British
Association in 1842,

ABBREVIATIONS. 49

_ With respect to genera, those who believe in their real exist-
ence as ‘‘ ideas of the creating mind,” will be disposed to set

‘aside many random appellations given to particular shells
without any clear enunciation of their characters ; and to adopt
later names, if bestowed with an accurate perception of the
grounds which entitle them to generic distinction.*

Authority for specific names. The multiplication of synonyms
haying made it desirable to place the authority after each name,
another source of evil has arisen ; for several naturalists (fancy-
ing that the genus maker, and not the species maker, should
enjoy this privilege) have altered or divided almost every genus,
and placed their signatures as authorities for names given half
a century or a century before by Linnzeus or Bruguiere. The
majority of naturalists have disowned this practice, and agreed
to distinguish by the addition of ‘“‘sp.” the authorities fcr
those specific names whose generic appellations have been
altered. The type of a genus should be the species which best
exhibits the characters of the group, but it is not always easy
to follow out this rule; and consequently the first on the list is
often put forward as the type.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Litym., etymology; Syn., synomym; Distr., distribution ;
MS., unpublished ; Sp., species; B. M., in the British Museum.

Distr., Norway—New Zealand; including all intermediate
seas.

Foss., Lias-chalk: implies that the genus existed in these
and all intermediate strata. Chalk—; means that the genus has
existed from the chalk up to the present time.

Depth—s50 fins. implies that the genus is found at all depths
between low-water mark and 50 fathoms. A fathom = 6 feet.
4, one-fourth real size; #, magnified four times.

Lat., breadth; Long., length; Alt., height or thickness.
Unc., an inch; Lin., a line or ~; of an inch; Mill., a milli-
metre or +; of an inch.

* Several bad practices—against which there is, unhappily, no law—should be
strongly discountenanced. First, the employment of names already in familiar use
for other objects ; such as cidaris (the title of a well-known genus of sea-urchins) for
@ group of spiral shells; and arenaria (a property of the botanists) for a bivalve.
Secondly, the conversion of specific into generic titles, a process which has caused
endless confusion ; it has arisen out of the vain desire of giving new designations to
old and familiar objects, and thus obtaining a questionable sort of fame,

50 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

CHAPTER II.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE MOLLUSCA.

It is one of the most familiar facts in Natural History that
many countries possess a distinct Fauna and Flora, or assem-
blages of animals and plants peculiar to themselves; and it is
equally true, though less generally understood, that the sea
also has its provinces of animal and vegetable life.

The most important or best known of these provinces are
indicated on the accompanying map; different names, in some
instances, and different letters and numbers, being employed to
distinguish the marine from the terrestrial regions.*

The division of the surface of the globe into natural history
provinces ought to be framed upon the widest possible basis.
The geographical distribution of every class of animals and
plants should be considered in order to arrive at a theory of
universal application.

The most philosophical division of the globe into natural
provinces has been by Swainson in 1835, and by Dr. Sclater in
1857. The last has been adopted by several naturalists. It was
based upon a consideration of the distribution of birds, and has
been extended to fishes and amphibia by Dr. Gunther. It
might be extended to mollusca. In Dr. Sclater’s scheme the
world is divided into six regions, viz. (1) Paleearctic region:
this comprises Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor, Persia, Asia
north of the Himalayas, North China, and Japan; (2) Ethiopian
or Western Palzeotropical region, includes Africa south of the
Atlas, Madagascar, Mascarene, Arabia; (3) Indian or Middle
Paleeotropical region, including Asia south of the Himalayas,
Ceylon, Burmah, Malacca, Southern China, Philippines, Borneo,
Java, Sumatra, and adjacent islands; (4) Australian or Western
Palezeotropical region: Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand,
and the Pacific Islands ; (5) Nearctic or North American region:
Greenland, and North America as far as the centre of Mexico;

* The author regrets that, on account of the expense, this map appears without the
advantage of colours. He would recommend those who are sufficiently interested in
the subject to colour their own copies, distinguishing the shores of the marine provinces
by the following tints :—

Blue. 1. Arctic province; 15. Magellanic.

Green, 2. Boreal; 11. Aleutian; 5. Aralo-Caspian.

Oranye. 3. Celtic.

Purple. 4. Lusitanian; 10. Japonic; 12. Californian; 18. Trans-Atlantic.

Yellow. 6. W. African; 8. Indo-Pacific ; 13. Panamic; 17. Caribbean.
Lake. 7%. S. African; 9. Australo-Zealandic; 14. Peruvian; 16. Patagonian.

ten
lwotmeris
joltenia
Lvonsia.
te. 5

Gill. .

is

0G Gonatus.
Natica piplarta
largarita_—---"\ SUT
Ttmahida Feet 5

— dora.
peas llra' rs

ini yp | arctic
i}

Be

I

2 |

pina » Spoialia
ee Pyne TAS 5 Ret oF
ernie é y :

Patel
atella
au | Aleutian tndzw|

Saatdornas

pap dane
)Lellina
Donam §

Titoviria__/

Pete

= 4 fala tis

12 Californian

| Platyoden >
i

4 NS

((Siguretus ~

V Comes Ohi

I cptauila 5

N25,
‘%,
6

bs.

Eel
aiBezna

dacna
aan

agerfigia

Terebra.

0. |
6 Sona
t TTT.

5S
A

LN
Arg nodosa.

8, Inido-Pag

Ony ch
Ary argo ~1 pf

Atlantis
Cuvtora.
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VF Gitene
¢ Tetaria

acum

leit, 7
LOVE

g,

oe
oa

Julian.

Meleagrina

Pteroceras
Steumibnis

Tpraicuro
Triton 2

Tirat of adrift Tew

15 Magellanic ~\

et Modinta:
Ma. | Bucciraum
= 1D Voluta,

1 to 27 Land Provinces \\

bs
Atrican
Ommnastrephes —*

Queyia 2!

IP ek

G has ella

MOLLUSCAN PROVINCES

enaninen
°

ee

|

018 Marine Proviuees — Crante Garrents. --Mountains

Ter.

Australian 2p pul”

» Patella,

0 q 2/0

alo

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 51

|(6) Neotropical or South American region: West India Islands,
South Mexico, Central and South America, Galapagos, and
|Falkland Isles. These divisions apply to the land, but it is
| probable that they will help to throw light on the boundaries of
the natural marine provinces.

As will be seen, each of the above regions includes several of
the provinces adopted in this work.

The Land Provinces hitherto proposed have been chiefly
founded on botanical grounds, but the evidence afforded. by
insects and the higher classes of animals contirms the existence

of these divisions.

| The Marine Provinces have also been investigated by botanists ;
and the striking peculiarities of the fisheries have been taken
into account as well as the distribution of shell-fish and corals.

In order to constitute a distinct province it is considered
necessary that at least one-half the species should be peculiar, a
rule which applies equally to plants and animals. Some genera
i‘ and sub- -genera are limited to each province, but the propgwan
‘is different in each class of animals and in plants.*

Specific areas. Species vary extremely in their range, some
being limited to small areas, while others, more widely diffused,
unite the local populations into fewer and larger groups.
‘Those species which characterise particular regions are termed
“endemic ;” they mostly require peculiar circumstances, or
possess small means of migrating. The others, sometimes
called ‘‘ sporadic,” possess great facilities for diffusion, like the
lower orders of plants propagated by spores, and more easily
meet with suitable conditions. The space over which a species
is distributed is called a ‘‘ centre,” or, more properly, a specific
area. The areas of one-half the species are smaller (usually
much smaller) than a single province.

In each specific area there is frequently one spot’ where indi-
viduals are more abundant than elsewhere; this has been called
the ‘‘ metropolis” of the species. Some species which appear to
be nowhere common can be shown to have abounded formerly ;
and many probably seem rare only because their head-quarters
are at present unknown.—(forbes.)

Specific centres are the points at which the particular species
are supposed to have been created, according to those who
believe that each has originated from a common stock (p. 46) ;

* The genera of plants amount to 20,000, and consist on an average of only four
Species apiece! The genera of shells commonly admitted are only 400 in number, and
average forty species each. It follows that the areas of the molluscan genera (ceteris

_ paribus) ought to be ten times as great as those of plants.

52 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

these can‘ only be known approximately in any case. The
doctrine that each species originated from a single individual,
or pair, created once only, and at one place, derives strong con-
firmation from the fact that so ‘‘many animals and plants are
indigenous only in determinate spots, while a thousand others
might have supported them as well.’”’*

Generic areas. Natural groups of species, whether called
genera, families, or orders, are distributed much in the same
manner as species; + not for the same reason, since their con-
stituents are not related by descent, but apparently from the
intention of the Creator.

Sub-generic areas are usually smaller than generic; and the
areas of orders and families are, as a matter of course, larger
than those of the included genera. But it is unecessary to
remember that groups of the same denomination are not always
of equal value ; and since species vary in range it often happens
that specific areas of one class or family are larger than generic
areas of another. The smallest areas are usually those of the
forms termed aberrant; the typical groups and species are
most widely distributed.—( Waterhouse.)

‘‘When a generic area includes a considerable number of
species, there may be found within it a point of maximum
(metropolis), around which the number of species becomes less
and less. A- genus may have more centres than one. It may
have had unbroken extension at one period, and yet in the
course of time and change, may have its centre so broken up

* Mrs. Somerville’s Physical Geography, li. 95.

+ “‘ What we call class, order, family, genus, are all only so many names for genera
of various degrees of extent. Technically a genus is a group to which a name (as
Ribes) is applied: but essentially, Hxogens, Ranunculacee, Ranunculus, are genera of
different degrees.

“One of the chief arguments in favour of the naturalness of genera (or groups), is
that derived from the fact that many genera can be shown to be centralised in definite
geographical areas (Erica, for example); z.e. we find the species gathered all, or
mostly, within an area, which has some one point where the maximum number of
species is developed.

“ But, in geographical space, we not unfrequently find that the same genus may have
two or more areas, within each of which this phenomenon of a point of mazimum
number of species is seen, with fewer and fewer species radiating, as it were, from it.

“ In time, however (or, in other words, in geological distribution), so far as we know,
each generic type has had an unique and continuous range. When once a generic
type has ceased it never re-appears.

“A genus is an abstraction, a divine idea. The very fact of the centralisation of
groups of allied species, z.e. of genera, in space and time, is sufficient proof of this.
Doubtless we make many so-called genera that are artificial; but a true genus is
natural; and, as such, is not dependent on man’s will.’—. Forbes. (See An. Nat.
Hist. July, 1852, and Jan., 1855, p. 45.)

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 538

that there shall appear to be out-lying points. When, how-
eyer, the history of a natural genus shall have been traced
equally through its extension in time and space, it is not
impossible that the area, considered in the abstract, will be
found to be necessarily unique.” —(Forbves.)

To illustrate the doctrine of the unity of generic areas Professor
Forbes has given several examples, showing that some of the
most exceptional cases admit of explanation and confirm the
rule. One of these relates to the genus Mitra, of which there
are 420 species; it has its metropolis in the Philippine Islands,
and extends by the Red Sea to the Mediterranean and West
Africa, the species becoming few, small, and obscure. Far
away from the rest a single species is found on the coast of
Greenland. But this very shell occurs fossil in Ireland along
with another mitra now living in the Mediterranean. Another
case is presented by the genus Panopeea, of which the eleven
living species are widely separated. Of this genus above 100
fossil species are known, distributed over many places within
the wide area, on whose margin the relics of this ancient form
of life seem to linger lke the last ripple of a circling wave.*

According to this view the specific centres are scattered
thickly over the whole surface of the globe ; those of the genera
more thinly distributed ; and the points of origin of the large
groups become fewer in succession, until we have to estimate
the probable position or scene of creation of the primary
divisions themselves; and are led to speculate whether there
may not have been some common focus—the centre of centres
—from which the first and greatest types of life have emanated.
Boundaries of Natural History Provinces. The land provinces
are separated by lofty mountains, deserts, seas, and climates;
whilst the seas are divided by continents and influenced by the
physical character of coast-lines, by climates and currents.
‘These ‘‘natural barriers,” as they were called by Buffon,

retard or altogether prevent the migrations of species in
particular directions.

Influence of Climate. Diversity of climate has been the
popular explanation of most of the phenomena of geographical
distribution, because it is so well known that some species
require a'tropical amount of warmth, whilst others can endure

a great variety of temperature, and some only thrive amidst
the rigours of the arctic regions. The character of the vegeta-
tion of the zones of latitude has been sketched by Baron Hum-

* The most striking and conclusive instances may be met with in the distribution of
the highest classes of vertebrate animals,

54 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

boldt ; Fabricius and Latreille have divided the world into)
climatal Insect-provinces; and Professor EH. Forbes has con-
structed a map of the homoitozoic belts or zones of marine life.
To all these the remark of Mr. Kirby is applicable—that any
division of the globe into provinces, by means of equivalent’
parallels and meridians, wears the appearance of an artificial
and arbitrary system, rather than of one according to nature.
Professor Forbes has been careful to point out that although
the ‘‘ Faunas of regions under similar physical conditions bear
a striking resemblance to each other’—this resemblance is
produced, ‘‘not by identity of species, or even of genera, but |
by representation”? (p. 45). :

Origin of the Natural History Provinces. Mr. Kirby appears
to have been the first to recognise the truth that physical
conditions were not the primary causes of the zoological pro-
vinces, which he ‘“‘ regarded as fixed by the will of the Creator,
rather than as regulated by isothermal lines.” * Mr. Swainson
also has shown that the ‘‘ circumstances connected with tem- |
perature, food, situation, and foes, are totally insufficient to
account for the phenomena of animal geography,” which he
attributes to the operation of unknown laws.t

The most important contribution towards a knowledge of
these ‘‘ unknown laws” has been made by Professor E. Forbes,
who was perhaps the first naturalist ever in a position to avail
himself of the great storehouse of facts accumulated by geolo-
gists, respecting the distribution of organic life in ‘‘ the former
world.” This subject will be referred to again in connection
with the subject of Fossil Shells; meanwhile it may be stated
that, according to this evidence, the Faunas of the Provinces
are of various ages, and that their origin is connected . with
former (often very remote) geological changes, and a different
distribution of land and water over the surface of the globe.

MARINE PROVINCES.

Amongst the genera of marine shells there are some which
have been considered particularly indicative of climate. From
the Arctic list the following may be taken as examples of the
shells of high latitudes; those marked * being found in the
southern as well as in the northern hemisphere :— :

* Introduction to Entomology.
} Treatise on Geography and Classification of Animals, Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclo-
pzedia,

MARINE PROVINCES. 55

Buccinum. Velutina. *Crenella.
*Chrysodomus. Lacuna. *Yoldia.
*Trophon. *Margarita. *Astarte.

Admete. — Cyprina.
*Trivhotropis. *Rhynchonella. Glycimeris.

The following have been thought peculiar to the warmer re-
gions of the sea:

Nautilus. Conus. Columbella. Perna.
Rostellaria, Harpa. Cyprzea, Vulsella,
Triton. Oliva. Nerita. Tridacna.
Cancellaria, Voluta. Spondylus. Crassatella.
Terebra. Marginella. Plicatula. Sanguinolar a.

But it must not be inferred that these genera were always
characteristic of extreme climates. On the contrary, the whole
of them have existed in the British seas at no very remote geo-
logical period. LRhynchonella and Astarte were formerly ‘‘ tropi-
cal shells ;” and since the period of the English chalk-formation
there have been living Nautili in the North Sea, and Cones and
Olives in the ‘‘ London basin.” It is not true that the same
species have been at one time tropical, at another temperate, but
the genera have in many instances enjoyed a much wider range
than, they exhibit now. - Some of the ‘‘tropical”’ forms are
more abundant and extend farther in the Southern hemisphere ;
several large Volutes range to the extremity of South America,
and the largest of all inhabits New Zealand.

The tropical and sub-tropical provinces might be naturally
grouped in three principal divisions, viz., the Atlantic, the
Indo-Pacific, and the West-American,—divisions which are
bounded by meridians of longitude, not by parallels of latitude.
The Arctic province is comparatively small and exceptional ;
and the three most southern Faunas of America, Africa, and
Australia differ extremely, but not on account of climate.

If only a small extent of sea-coast is examined, the character
of its mollusca will be found to depend very much upon the
nature of the shore, the tides, depth, and local circumstances,
which will be referred to again in,another page. But these
peculiarities will disappear when the survey is extended to a
region sufficiently large to include eyery ordinary variety of
condition.

It has been stated that each Fauna consists of a number ot
peculiar species, properly, more than half;'and of a smaller
number which are common to some other provinces. By ascer-
taining the direction of the tides and currents, and the circum-
stances under which the species occur, it may be possible to
determine to which province these more widely diffused mollusca

56 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

originally belonged. And when species occur both recent and
fossil it is easy to perceive the direction in which their migra-
tions have taken place.

The Fauna of the Mediterranean has been critically examined
by Prof. Forbes and M. Philippi, with this result,—that a large
proportion of its population has migrated into it from the At.
lantic, and a smaller number from the Red Sea, and that the
supposed peculiar species are diminishing so rapidly with every
new research in the Atlantic, that it can no longer rank as a
province distinct from the Lusitanian.

When the Faunas of the other regions have been tested in
the same manner, and disentangled, the result will probably be
the establishment of a much greater number of provinces than
we have ventured at present to indicate on the map.

It may be desirable to notice here the extraordinary range
attributed to some of the marine species. These statements
must be received with great hesitation; for when sufficiently
investigated, it has usually proved that some of the localities
were false, or that more than one species was included. The
following are given by Dr. Krauss in his excellent monograph
of the South African Mollusca :—

Ranella granifera : Red Sea, Natal, India, China, Philippines,
New Zealand.

Triton olearius : Brazil, Mediterranean, Natal, Pacific.

Purpura lapillus: Greenland, (Senegal, Cape).

Venus verrucosa: (W. Indies), Brit. Senegal, Canaries,
Mediterranean, Red Sea, Cape (Australia).

Octopus vulgaris: Antilles, Brazil, Europe, Natal, Mauritius,
India.

Argonauta argo: (Antilles), Medit., Red Sea, Cape.

Lucina divaricata is said to be ‘‘ found on the shores of Europe,
India, Africa, America, and Australia.” (Gray.) In this case
several species are confounded. The rock-boring Saxicava has
been carried to all parts of the world in ballast, and it remains
yet to be ascertained whether the same species occurs in a living
state beyond the Arctic Seas and North Atlantic.

Lastly, the money cowry is always catalogued as a shell of the
Mediterranean and Cape, although its home is in the Pacific,
and it has no other origin in the Atlantic than the occasional
wreck of one of the ships in which such vast quantities of the
little shell are annually brought to this country to be exported
again to Africa.

ARCTIC PROVINCE. 57

I. ARcriIc PROVINCE.

The North Polar Seas contain but one assemblage of Mollusca,
whose Southern limit is formed by the Aleutian Islands in the
Pacific, but in the North Atlantic is determined chiefly by the
boundary of floating ice, descending as low as Newfoundland
on the West, and thence rising rapidly to Iceland and the North
Cape. A very complete general account of the Arctic Mollusca
is given by Dr. Middendorff;* those of Greenland have been
catalogued and described by Otho Fabricius and Moller ;+ and
more recently by Moérch ;{ 158 species are enumerated by
Middendorff, and 202 by Mérch. Scattered notices occur in
the Annals of Natural History,§ and the Supplements to the
Narratives of the Arctic Voyagers,—Phipps, Scoresby, Franklin,
Back, Ross, Parry, and Richardson. The existence of the same
marine animals in the Kamtchatka Sea and Baffin’s Bay was
long since held to prove at least a former North-West passage ;
but the occurrence of recent sea-shelis in banks far inland
rendered it probable that even recent elevation of the land in
Arctic America might have much reduced the passage. During
the ‘‘ Glacial period,” this Arctic Sea, with the same fauna, ex-
tended over Britain ; over Northern Europe, as far as the Alps
and Carpathians; and over Siberia, and a considerable part of
North America. The shells now living in the Arctic Seas, are
found fossil in the deposits of ‘‘ Northern Drift,” over all these
countries ; and a few of the species yet linger within the bounds
of the two next provinces, especially in tracts of unusual depth.
The Arctic shells have mostly a thick greenish epidermis (p. 33);
they occur in very great abundance, and are remarkably subject
to variation of form, a circumstance attributed by Professor E.
Forbes to the influence of the mixture of fresh water produced
by the melting of great bodies of snow and ice.

ARCTIC SHELL-FISH.

R. Russian Lapland. F. Finmark. I. Iceland. G. Greenland. D. Davis Straits (west
coast). B. Behring’s Straits. O. Ochotsk. * British species (living). ** British
species (fossil),

Octopus granulatus. G. | amcena. G.

Cirroteuthis Miilleri. G. “Qainnasng thax todarus. F. Newf.

Rossia palpebrosa. G. P. Regent Inlet.

Onychoteuthis Bergii. F. B. Limacina arctica, G. O.
os Fabricii. G.

* Malaco-zoologia Rossica; Mem. del’ Acad. Imp. des Sc. Petersb. T. 6, pt. 2, 1849.
+ Index Molluscorum Groenlandiz. Hafn. 1842.
} Fortegnelse over Grénlands Bliéddyr in H. Rink: Grénland geographisk og statise
tisk beskrevet, ii. Bind. 1857.
§ Hancock, An. Nat. Hist. vol. 18, p. 823, pl. 5.
Ds

58 MANUAL OF
Spirialis stenogyra. F.
5) balea. G.
*Clio borealis. N. Zemia. G.
*Nassa incrassata. F.
*Buccinum undatum, var. Kara. O.

eo hydrophanum, D. Prince
Regent Inlet.
+ tenebrosum. R, G. B.
* 5 Humphreysianum, R. G.

em + cyaneum. F. D. G. Icy
C. St. Lawrence.

a glaciale. Kava, O. C. Parry.
G. Spitzbergen.

Buecinum angulosum. N. Zemla. Icy

C. Spitz.
5 tenue. N. Zemla. G.
9 Groenlandicum. D.
a undulatum. G.
on scalariforme. G.
es ciliatum. G.

5 boreale (Leach). Baffin’sB.
9 sericatum. D. P. Refuge.
ehh ss Hollbéllii (Mangelia, Mol.)
G. F.
= Dalei. R. B.
Pipurctoria, 13sp. G.
*Fusus antiquus. N. Zemla. B.

** ,, carinatus. G.

* 4, contrarius. R. O.
», Geformis. R. Spitz.

** ., despectus. G. Spitz.
»» heros. C, Perry.
» latericeus. G.

#* ,, Sabini. D. Mass.
» pellucidus. D.

» Kroyeri. G. Spitz.

» Gdecemcostatus. B. Newf.
* ,, Berniciensis. R. B.

» Spitzbergensis. Spitz.
* ,, Islandicus. F.
* gracilis. F. R. G. B.
#*'Trophon clathratus. R. G. B.
EK
OE
ed

> Gunner. F. G.
» craticulatus. R. I. G.
* » Barvicensis. F.
» harpularius. F. U.S.
oe 5 truncatus.
*Purpura lapillus. R. G. B.
Mangelia, 9 sp. G.
i decussata. D.
*Bela turricula. F. G.
( DR aiticig it ane Cre
**Mitra Groenlandica. G.
**Admete viridula. R. Spitz. G. 8.

» scalariformis. Spitz. Newt. B.

THE MOLLUSCA.

+ *Trichotropis borealis. F. G. B. Prince

Regent Inlet.
43 conica. G.
5 insignis. B.
55 bicarinata. B.

*Natica helicoides. R. G. B.
** ,, clausa, F. N. Zemla. G. Mele
ville Id. P. Regent Inlet. B.
» pallida. R. O.
» flava. N. Zemla. B. Newf.
* 4, pusilla (groenlandica). G. Norway.
Spitz.
>» nana. G.

*Velutina levigata. RB.

* , flexilis. F.

** , # ##=\wzonata. R. G.

» lanigera. G.
Lamellaria prodita. F.
6 Greenlandica. G. B.

**Scalaria Groenlandica. F. G. B&B.

** ,, borealis (Eschrichti), G.
Amaura candida. G.
Chemnitzia albula. G.

**Mesalia lactea. G.

**Turritella polaris. G.
Aporrhais occidentalis.
*Littorina obtusata. R.
auaaert tenebrosa. N.Zemla. D.,

4 Grenlandica. G. F.

by palliata (arctica). G.

MS limata. F.

*Lacuna vincta. R. Newf. G.

» labiosa. F. BP. Refuge.

Labrador.

= crassior. R.
» @ilacialis. G.
* 4, #«jpallidula. G.
* ,, puteolus. EF. Newf.

Ay 9 Reet TaKTEN. 18
» Ssolidula. F.
Hydrobia castanea. R. G.

Rissoa scrobiculata. G.
» @globulus. G.
» saxatilis. G.

*Skenea planorbis. G. F.
**Margarita cinerea. F. U.S.
Foe undulata. R. G,.

* 5 alabastrum. F.

* 5 helicina. G. White Sea. Spitz.
x sordida. R. Spitz. G. B.
35 umbilicalis. D, B.
oe Harrisoni. D.
a glauca. G.
¥9 Vahlii. G.
* an costulata. G,
*Puncturella Noachina. F. G.

*Acmea testudinalis. R. Iceland. G.

ARCTIC SHELL-FISH.

**Lepeta ceca. G. F. Spitz. C. Eden.
Pilidium rubellum, F. G. D.
Patella, 4 sp. G.

*Chiton ruber. F. G. Spitz.

Peo albus: bs Ge
Dentalium entale. Spitz.

_ Bulla Reinhardi. G.
» subangulata. G.
*Cylichna alba. G. F. Spitz.
= turrita. G.
*Philine scabra. Norway. G.
ns punctata (Moll.) G.
Doris liturata. G.
acutiuscula. G.

» obvelata. G.
*Dendronotus arborescens. F. G.
Kolis bodocensis. G.
Tergipesrupium. G.
Euplocaraus Holbollii. G.

99

*Terebratulina caput-serpentis. Spitz. F.
Mass. Medit.
*Waldheimia cranium. F.
on septigera. F.
Terebratella Spitzbergensis. Sp.
a Labradorensis. Labr.
**Rhynchonella psittacea, R. Baffin’s Bay,
76° N. Melville, I. B.
*Crania anomala. Spitz.

*Anomia squamula. R.
* » aculeata. R.
**Pecten Islandicus. F. N. Zemla. Spitz.
G. B. St. Lawrence.
vitreus. F. Arctic America.
» Groenlandicus. R. Spitz. D.
Limatula sulcata. G. F.
*Mytilus edulis. R. G. B.
*Modiola modiolus. R. B.
*Crenella discors (levigata). G. D. N.
Zemla.

rh}

* » decussata. R. G.
* 4, nigra. N. Zemla, R. G. D.
sll » faba. G.

vitrea. G.

39
Arca glacialis. P. Regent Inlet.
Nucula corticata. G.
» inflata. G. D.
Leda buccata. G.
macilenta. G.
Tostrata (pernula). F. Spitz. Arctic
America.

”
Bk 0

59

**TLeda minuta (Fabr.) F. Spitz. G. D.

**® ,, lucida, F. (= navicularis? Spitz.)
* ,, pygmea. G. F. Siberia,
**Yoldia arctica Gr. (myalis). G. U.S.
Spitzbergen.
**® ,, lanceolata (arctica B.& 8.) Icy
Cape.
» limatula. F. U.S. Kamt.
“0 hyperborea. Spitz.
** ,, thracieformis (angularis). @G.
Mass.
RE

truncata, Br. (Portlandica, Hit.)
P. Refuge. Arctic America.
** Astarte borealis (arctica). F. Iceland. G.

** ,, semisulcata (corrugata). Kara
Sea. N. Zemla. Spitz. P.
Regent Inlet. C. Parry. Icy
Cape.
* 4, elliptica. F. G. Spitz.
* , sulcata. R. N. Zemla. O.
** ., crebricosta. F. Spitz. Newf.
» crenata. P. Regent Inlet.
» Warhami. Davis Str.
» globosa. G.
«

compressa. N. Zemla. G.

», Banksii. Spitz. Baffin’s Bay.
*Cardium edule var. rusticum. R,
Islandicum. N. Zemla. G.
Groenlandicum. Kara. Spitz,

C. Parry. St. Lawrence, ~
4 elegantulum. G.
*Cryptodon flexuosus. G. F.
*Turtonia minuta. G. F.
*Cyprina Islandica. R. Labrador.
** Cardita borealis. Mass. O.
**Tellina calcarea. F. G. B.

99

“dod RSop

** 4, Groenlandica, (= Balthica, L.)
N. Zemla. Spitz. F. G. B.
** ., edentula. B.
*Mya truncata. R. Spitz. G..C. Parry. B.
** ., Uddevallensis. St. Lawrence. D.
P. Regent Inlet. Melville I.
% arenaria. N. Zemla. G. O.

99

**Saxicava rugosa (arctica). N. Zemla.
Spitz. G. C. Parry. B.
(Panopzea) Norvegica. White

Sea. O.
Machera costata. Labrador. O.
Glycimeris siliqua. C. Parry. Newt.
*Lyonsia Norvegica. F. O
er) arenosa. G. D. P. Refuge.
«**Thracia myopsis. G.
Pandora glacialis. Spitz. Baff. (Leach).

* 399

60 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA..

II. BorREAL PROVINCE.

The Boreal Province extends across the Atlantic from Nova
Scotia and Massachusetts to Iceland, the Faeroe and Shetland
Islands, and along the coast of Norway from North Cape to the
Naze.

Of the 289 Scandinavian shells catalogued by Dr. Lovén,*
217, or 75 per cent. are common to Britain, and 137 range as
far as the North coast of Spain.

The boreal shells of America are described by Dr. Gould.¢
From these lists it appears that out of 270 sea-shells found on
the coast of Massachusetts north of Cape Cod, more than half
are common to Northern Europe.

Many of the species, it is believed, could only have extended
their range so distantly by means of continuous lines of con-
necting coast, now no longer in existence.

BOREAL SHELLS COMMON TO EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA.
* British Species.

*Teredo navalis. *Lucina borealis.
*Pholas crispata. ? ,, divaricata.
*Solen ensis. *Cryptodon flexuosus.
* (Panopeea) Norvegica. *Astarte borealis.
*Mya arenaria. * ;, triangularis? (quadrans, G.)
* ,, truncata. *Cyprina Islandica.
*Thracia phaseolina (Conradi, Couth). ? (Cardium Islandicum, U.S.—N. Zemla).
Mactra ponderosa (ovalis, G,) Yoldia limatula.
? Montacuta bidentata. » arctica, Gr. (= myalis).
*Turtonia minuta. *Leda pygmea.
? Kellia rubra. * 4, caudata.
? Lepton nitidum (fabagella, Conr. ?) ? ,, navicularis (lucida, Lovén ?)
*Saxicava rugosa (arctica). *Nucula tenuis.
Tellina solidula, var. (fusca, Say). *Mytilus edulis.
* 4, calcarea (sordida, Couth). *Modiola modiolus.

* Index Molluscorum Scandinavie; extracted from the “ Ofversigt ‘af K. Vet.
Akad. Forh.”’ 1846. The climate of Finmark is much less severe than Russian Lap-
land ; Hammerfest has an open harbour all the year.

+ Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts. 1841.

ft Forbes, Memoirs of the Geol. Survey, i. p. 379. Sir John Richardson, when
speaking of the cod-tribe and turbot-tribe, says:— Most of the fish of this order feed
on or near the bottom, and a very considerable number of the species are common to
both sides of the Atlantic, particularly in the higher latitudes, where they abound. It
does not appear that their general diffusion ought to be attributed to migration from
their native haunts, but rather that in this respect they are analogous to the owls,
which, though mostly stationary birds, yet include a greater proportion of species
common to the old and new worlds than even the most migratory families. Several of
the Scomberoidee (Mackerel-tribe) which feed on the surface, have been previously
voted as traversing many degrees of longitude in the Atlantic: but the existence of
the ground-feeding Gadoidee in very distant localities must be attributed to a different
Cause, as it is not probable that any of them wander out of soundings or ever approach
the mid-seas.”—Report Zool. N. America, p. 218.

BOREAL PROVINCE. 61

*Crenella nigra. *Margarita undulata, ‘ ,
= .. .. discors, 1. * i alabastrum (= occidentalis ?)
* ., decussata (glandula, Tot.) Littorina greenlandica.
Pecten Islandicus. * », tenebrosa (vestita).
? Ostrea edulis (borealis, Lam. ?) » palliata?
* Anomia, ephippium. *Lacuna vincta (divaricata).
* 5 aculeata. * ,, puteolus (Montagui),
» squamula? *Skenea planorbis.
*Velutina levigata.
*Terebratulina caput-serpentis. An zonata.
*Rhynchonella psittacea, *TLamellaria perspicua.
*Natica helicoides.
*Dendronotus arborescens. op clausa.
Polycera Lessonii ? * ,, pusilla.
? Amphisphyra hyalina (debilis ?) *Scalaria grenlandica.
Cylichna alba (triticea, C.) (Janthina communis).
>» obtusa (pertenuis). Odostomia producta. mv
*Philine quadrata (formosa, St.) Cancellaria (admete) viridula,
*Trichotropis borealis.
*Chiton cinereus. *Fusus antiquus (tornatus).
*® 4, marmoreus. * 4, island.cus.
Messe eCUDEL: * ,, propinquus.
* ,, levis. » Prosaceus.
* ,, asellus. *Trophon muricatus.
* ~,,° albus. * ,, clathratus.
*Dentalium (entale, L, ?) » scalariformis.
P Lepeta czeca (candida, C.) »» harpularius.
*Acmea testudinalis (amoena, S.) *Purpura lapillus.
*Puncturella Noachina. *Buccinum. undatum.
* Adeorbis divisus (= Skeneaserpuloides). | * —_» (Cominella) Dalei.
Margarita cinerea. *Bela turricula.
* » costulata ? (Skenea). * ,, Trevelyana,
* 5 helicina. * ,, rufa (Vahlii) ?

*Ommastrephes sagittatus is also common to both sides of the
North Atlantic. The genera,

Machera, Glycimeris, Cardita, and
Solemya, Mesodesma (deauratum), Crepidula,
are peculiar to the American side of the Boreal Province.
Several other species now living on the coast of the U. States
occur fossil in England: e. g. T’rophon cinereus, Say., is believed
to be the Fusus Forbesi, Strickland, of the Isle of Man; others
are marked in the Aretio list.

Ill. CrExutic PROVINCE.

The Celtic province, as described by Prof. H. Forbes, includes
the British island coasts, Denmark, Southern Sweden, and the
Baltic.* The fauna of this region (which includes the principal

* The great work of Messrs. Forbes and Hanley is the standard text book on
British Zestacea. A new work on British Mollusca is now being prepared by Mr. J.

62 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

herring-fisheries) is essentially Atlantic; many of the species
are of ancient origin, and occur fossil in the Pliocene.

The British mollusca described by Forbes and Hanley amount
to 682, viz. :—

14 (15) Cephalopoda. 100 Pulmonifera. 175 (172) Acephala.
220 (254) Marine Univalves. 4 (5) Pteropoda. 73 (73) Tunicata.
91 (100) Nudibranchiata. 5 (7) Brachiopoda.

Of this number two-thirds of the Nudibranchia, 55 marine uni-
valves, and 7 bivalve shell-fish, are, at present, only known in
British seas; but as most of these are minute or ‘‘critical’’
species, it is considered they will yet be met with elsewhere.
In 1857, Mr. M‘Andrew was acquainted with 626 marine mol-
luses, as indicated by the figures in brackets in the summary
just given.

A few of the species belong to the Lusitanian province, whose
northern limits include the Channel Islands, and just impinge
upon our coast.

Phasianella pullus, Murex corallinus. Cytherea chione.

Haliotis tuberculata. Avicula Tarentina, Petricola lithophaga. -
Truncatella Montagui. Galeomma Turtoni. Venerupis irus.

Oncidium celticum. Pandora rostrata. Cardium rusticum, L. (tuber-
Bulla hydatis. Ervilia castanea. culatum).

Volva patula. : Mactra helvacea.

Of the Gasteropoda 54 are common to the seas both north and
south of Britain; 52 range farther south, but are not found
northward of these islands ; and 34 which find here their south-
ern limit occur not only in Northern Europe, but most of them
in Boreal America. Nearly half of the bivalves range both
north and south of Britain; 40 extend southward only, and
about as many more are found in Scandinavia, 27 of them being -
common to N. America. (forbes.)

In the lists of Arctic and Boreal shells the British species are
distinguished by an asterisk.

According to Mr. M‘Andrew’s estimate in 1850, 406 British
shell-bearing mollusca were then known, of which

217 or 53 per cent. were common to Scandinavia.

246 or 61 a $5 North of Spain.
227 or 56 55 a S. Spain and Medit.
97 or 24 i xf Canary Islands.

G. Jeffreys. The Nudibranchiata alone have been more fully described in the
publications of the Ray Society, by Messrs. Alder and Hancock. For the marine
zoology of the coasts of Denmark the “ Zoologia Danica” of O. F. Miiller is still the
most important work.

LUSITANIAN PROVINCE, 63

The following are at present peculiar to Britain :—

Assiminea, sp. Odostomia, 19 sp. ? Montacuta ferruginosa.
Jeffreysia, sp. Buccinum fusiforme, Argiope cistellula.
Otina oiis. Fusus Berniciensis. Pecten niveus.

Rissoa, sp. » Lurtoni. Syndosmya tenuis.
Stylifer turtoni. Natica Kingii, Thracia villosiuscula.

The most common edible species are :—

Ostrea edulis, Mytilus edulis. Fusus antiquus.
Pecten maximus. Cardium edule. Littorina littorea.
» Opercularis, Buccinum undatum,

Amongst the species characteristic of the Celtic province—or
most abundant in it—are the following :—

Trophon muricatus, Littorina littoralis. Venus striatula.
Nassa reticulata. Trochus Montagui. » casina.
Natica Montagui, >» millegranus, Donax anatinus,

» Imonilifera, » tumidus, Solen ensis.

» nitida. Patella vulgata. Pholas candida.
Velutina levigata. » pellucida, Mactra elliptica.
Turritella communis. Acmea virginea, » solida
Aporrhais pes-pelecani. Chiton cinereus. Periploma pretenuis.
Rissoa cingillus. Scaphander lignarius. Thracia distorta.
Scalaria Trevelyana. Tellina crassa, Syndosmya prismatica.

The wide expanse of the Baltic affords no shell-fish unknown
to the coasts of Britain and Sweden. The water is brackish,
becoming less salt northward, till only estuary shells are met
with, and the Littorine and Limnzans are found living to-
gether, as in many of our own marshes. This scanty list is
taken from the Memoirs of Dr. Middendorff and M. Boll.

Buccinum undatum. Neritina fluviatilis. Tellina Balthica.
Purpura lapillus. Limnza auricularia. » tenuis.

Nassa reticulata. >» ovata. Scrobicularia piperata.
Littorina littorea. Mytilus edulis. Mya arenaria.

Patella (tarentina). Donax (trunculus). », truncata.
Hydrobia muricata. Cardium edule var.

Meyer and Mobius collected the following species at Kiel :—
Chiton cinereus. Rissoa parva. Cerithium reticulatum.
Acmea testudinalis. Littorina littorea. Nassa reticulata.
Rissoa labiosa. Bs littoralis. Buccinum undatum.

> inconspicua, 50 tenebrosa. Fusus antiquus.

» ulve. Lacuna vincta.

» ventrosa. » pallidula.

IV. LUSITANIAN PROVINCE.

The shores of the Bay of Biscay, Portugal, the Mediterranean,
and N. W. Africa, as far as Cape Juby, form one important
province, extending westward in the Atlantic as far as the Gulf-

64 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

weed bank, so as to include Madeira, the Azores, and Canary
Islands.*

In the Atlantic portion of the province occur the following
genera, not met with in the Celtic and Boreal seas, although
two of them, Mitra and Mesalia, occur on the coast of Green-

land :—

Argonauta. Cancellaria. Auricula, —_
Philonexis. Sigaretus. Pedipes. Spondylus.
Chiroteuthis. Crepidula. Ringicula, Avicula,
_—_ Mesalia. Umbrella, Solemya.
Conus. Vermetus. Glaucus. Chama.
Pleurotoma. Fossarus. — Crassatella.
Marginella, Planaxis. Carinaria. Lithodomus.
Cymba. Litiopa. Firola. Ungulina,
Mitra. ‘Truncatella. Atlanta, Galeomma,
Terebra. Solarium. Oxygyrus. Cardita.
Columbella. Bifrontia. — Cytherea.
Pisania. Turbo. Cleodora. Petricola.
Dolium. Monodonta, Cuvieria. Venerupis.
Cassis. Haliotis. Creseis, Mesodesma.
Triton. Gadinia. — Ervilia.
Ranella. Siphonaria. Megerlia, Panopzea.

Spain and Portugal.

The coast of Spain and Portugal is less known than any other
part of the province, but the facilities for exploration are in
some respects greater than in the Mediterranean, on account of
the tides. Shell-fish are more in demand as an article of food
here than with us, and the Lisbon market afforded to Mr.
M‘Andrew the first indication that the genus Cymba ranged so
far north.

On the coasts of the Asturias and Gallicia, especially in Vigo
Bay, Mr. M‘Andrew obtained, by dredging, 212 species, of a

* Tn the northern part of the Lusitanian province are the Pilchard fisheries; in the
Mediterranean, the Tunny, Coral, and Sponge fisheries.

The Gulf-weed banks (represented in the map) extend from 19° to 479 in the
middle of the North Atlantic, covering a space almost seven times greater than the
area of France. Columbus, who first met with the sargasso about one hundred miles
west of the Azores, was apprehensive that his ships would run upon a shoal. (Hum-
boldt.) The banks are supposed by Professor E. Forbes to indicate an ancient coast-
line of the Lusitanian land-province, on which the weed originated. Dr. Harvey states
that species of Sargassum abound along the shores of tropical countries, but none
exactly correspond with the Gulf-weed (S. bacciferum). It never produces fructifica-
tion—the “berries” being air-vesicles, not fruit—but yet continues to grow and
flourish in its present situation, being propagated by breakage. It may be an abnormal
condition of S. vulgare, similar to the varieties of Fucus nudosus (Mackayi) and
F. vesiculosus which often occur in immense strata; the one on muddy sea-shores, the
other in salt marshes, in which situations they have never been found in fructification.
(Manual of British Alge, Inir. 16, 17 -)

LUSITANIAN PROVINCE. 65

somewhat northern character, 50 per cent. of them being com-
mon to Norway, and 86 per cent. common to the south of Spain.

On the southern coast of the Peninsula 353 species were
obtained, of which only 28 per cent. are common to Norway and
51 per cent. to Britain.

The identical species are chiefly amongst the shells dredged
from a considerable depth (35—50 fathoms) ; the littoral species
have a much more distinct aspect.

The shells of the coast of Mogador are generally identical
with those of the Mediterranean and Southern Peninsula. _

Canary Islands. The shells of the Canaries collected by MM.
Webb and Berthelot,* and described by M. D’Orbigny, amount
to 124, to which Mr. M‘Andrew has added above 170. Of the
300 species 17 per cent. are common to Norway, 32 per cent. to
Britain, and 63 per cent. to the coasts of Spain and the Medi-
terranean. Two only are W. Indian shells, Neritina viridis and
Columbella cribaria. Of the African shells found here, and not
met with in more northern localities, the most remarkable are :—

Crassatella divaricata. Ranella levigata. Cymba proboscidalis.
Cardium costatum. Cassis flammea, Conus betulinus.
~Lucina Adansoni. > testiculus. >», Prometheus.
Cerithium nodulosum. Cymba Neptuni. » Guinaicus.
Murox saxatilis. FA porcina, » papilionaceus.

Madeira. Mr. M‘Andrew obtained 156 species at Madeira, of
which 44 per cent. are British, 70 per cent. common to the
Mediterranean, and 83 to the Canaries. Amongst the latter
are the two W. Indian shells before mentioned, and the follow-
ing African shells :—

Pedipes. Mitra fusca.- Patella crenata.
Littorina striata. » zebrina. » guttata.
Solarium. Marginella guancha, » Lowei.
Scalaria cochlea. Cancellaria. » Candei. — 4
Natica porcellana. Monodonta Bertheloti. | Pecten corallinoides.

Azores. Amongst the littoral shells which range to the
Azores, are Pedipes, Littorina striata, Mitra fusca, and Ervilia
castanea; the other species obtained there are Lusitanian.
(M‘Andrew.)

The Mediterranean fauna is known by the researches of Poli,
Delle Chiaje, Philippi, Verany, Milne-Edwards, Professor E.
Forbes, and Deshayes. In its western part it is identical with
that of the adjacent Atlantic coasts; the number of species
diminishes eastward, although reinforced by a considerable

* Hist. Naturelle des Mes Canaries; the list of shells is reprinted, with the additions
made by Mr. M‘Andrew, as one of the Catalogues of the British Museum.

66 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

number of new forms as yet only known in the Mediterranean ;
and a few accessions (about 30) of a different character from the
Red Sea. The total number of shell-bearing species is esti-
mated at 600, viz. :—
Cephalopoda ........s..e.00 1 Nucleobranchiata... 6 | Lamellibranchiata ...... 200
PteropOda ..rreccossereesree 13 Gasteropoda ......... 370 Brachiopoda ........see0ree 10
On the coast of Sicily, M. Philippi has found altogether 619
marine mollusca, viz. :—

IBIVAIVES! cescccscccveccscseoss 188 Pteropoda ..creccecree 13 Gasteropoda...... eabigswowes 319
Brachiopoda ......cccccceee 10 Nudibranchs ......... 54 Cephalopoda........cseeere: 15

Of the 522 which are provided with shells, 162 have not been
found fossil, and are presumed to be of post-tertiary origin, so
far as concerns their presence in the Mediterranean. The re-
maining 360 occur fossil in the newer tertiary strata, along with
nearly 200 others which are either extinct or not known living
on those coasts ; a few of them are living in the warmer regions
of Senegal, the Red Sea, and the West Indies :—

Senegal. Antilles. Fed Sea.
Lucina columbella. Lucina pennsylvanica. Argonauta hians.
Cardium hians. Vermetus intortus. Dentalium elephantinum,
Terebra fusca. Terebra duplicata.
Morocco. Phorus agglutinans.
Trochus strigosus. Niso terebellum,
Pecten medius.
Diplodonta apicalis.

Most of them, however, are of northern origin, such as :—

Saxicava rugosa Tellina crassa. Rhbynchonella psittacea.
(Panopeea) Norvegica. Cyprina Islandica. Patella vulgata.

Mya truncata, Leda pygmea. Eulimella Scille.
Periploma prztenuis. Limopsis pygmza. Buccinum undatum,
Lutraria solenoides. Ostrea edulis. Fusus contrarius.

Of the 522 Sicilian testacea, about 35 (including 10 oceanic

species) are common to the West Indies—if the species haye
been correctly determined ; 28 are stated, with more probability,
to be common to West Africa, including Murex Brandaris and
other common species; 74, including Murex trunculus, are com-
mon to the Red Sea; Crania ringens cannot be distinguished
from the species found in New South Wales (Davidson); and
Columbella corniculum ranges from the north coast of Spain to
Australia, the specimens from these distant localities being only
distinguishable as geographical varieties. (Gaskoin.) Six other
species are included in Menke’s Australian Catalogue, but res
quire verification.

The following genera, nine of which are naked molluscs, are

LUSITANIAN PROVINCE. 67

supposed to benow peculiar to the Mediterranean ; the small
number of species show they are aberrant or expiring forms.
Cassidaria, and Thecidiwm are ancient, widely-distributed
genera, and the Mediterranean Thecidiwm occurs fossil in
Britiany and the Canaries.

Thysanoteuthis, 2 sp. Sczeurgus, 1. Morrisia, 2.
Verania, 1. Pleurobranchea, 1. Thecidium, 1.
Dosidicus, 1. Tethys, 1. Scacchia, 2.
Doridium, 1. Cassidaria, 6 :
Icarus, 1. Pedicularia, 1.

The genera Fasciolaria, Siliquaria, Tylodina, Notarchus, Verti-
cordia 2 Clavagella, and Crania, occur only in this portion of the
Lusitanian province.

Amongst the peculiar species are :—

Nassa semistriata. Argiope cuneata. Artemis lupinus.
Fusus crispus. Clavigella angulata. Trigona nitidula.
Tylodina Rafinesquii. Spondylus Gussonii, Lucinopsis decussata.
Crania rostrata. Astarte bipartita.

Agean Sea. Prof. H. Forbes obtained 450 species of mollusca
in the Aigean, belonging to the following orders :—

Cephalopoda ...........++6 4 Nudibranchs ..... woe 15 = Brachiopoda ...:.....0c000. 8
PLELOPOGA, ce. ecc<.cssenee 8 Opisthobranchs...... 28 Lamellibranchs ......... 143
Nucleobranchs ............ Uf Prosobranchs ......... 217 UNICALAersareeedssoreetes 22

Of these 71 were new species, but several have since been
found in the Atlantic, and even in Scotland.* Theonly marine
air-breather met with was Auricula myosotis.

Black Sea. In the northern part a few Aralo-Caspian shells
are found, otherwise the Black Sea only differs from the Medi-
terranean in the paucity of its species; Dr. Middendorff enume-
rates 68 only. The water is less salt, and there is no tide, but
a current flows constantly through the Dardanelles to the
Mediterranean.t+

Lorenz{ found 178 molluscs at Quarnero, of which 75 were
bivalves, and 88 univalves; 75 of them extended their range
into the Aigean Sea, 58 into the Boreal province. Few only
appeared to be peculiar to the Adriatic.

* Trans. Brit. Assoc. (for 1243), 1844, p. 130.

7 A current from the Atlantic sets in perpetually through the Straits of Gibraltar,
and there is scarcely any tide ; it only amounts to one-foot at Naples and the Euripus,
two feet at Messina, and five at Venice and the Bay of Tunis.

¢ Physikalische Verhaltnisse und Vertheilung der Organismen im Quarnerischen
Golfe. Wien, 1863.

65 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

V. ARALO-CASPIAN PROVINCE.

The only inland salt-seas that contain peculiar shell-fish are
the Araland Caspian. ‘The shells chiefly consist of a remarkable
group of Cockles which burrow in the mud (see fig. 213, p.402).
No explorations have been made with the dredge, but other
species, probably still existing in these seas, have been found in
the beds of horizontal limestone which form their banks and
extend in all directions far over the steppes. This limestone is
of brackish water origin, being sometimes composed of myriads
of Cyclades, or the shells of Dreissena and Cardiwm, as in the
islets near Astrakhan. It is believed to indicate the former
existence of a great inland sea, of which the Aral and Caspian
are remnants, but which was larger than the present Mediter-
ranean at an age previous to that of the Mammoth and Siberian
Rhinoceros. The present level of the Caspian is 83 feet below
that of the Black Sea; that of the Aral has been stated to be
117 feet higher than the Caspian, but is probably not very
different; their waters are only brackish, and in some parts
drinkable. The steppe limestone rises to a level of 200—300
feet above the Caspian; it spreads eastward to the mountains
of the Hindoo Kush and Chinese Tartary, southward over
Daghestan and the low region E. of Tiflis, and westward to the
northern shores of the Black Sea. The extent to which it has
been traced is represented by oblique lines on the map.*
Some of the Caspian shells still exist in the Sea of Azof and the
estuaries of the Dnieper and Dniester. Our information upon
this seldom-visited region is derived from the works of Pallas,
Eichwald,+ Krynicki,{ Middendorff, and Sir Roderick Mur-
chison.

Aralo-Caspian Shells.
A, Aral; C, Caspian ; B, Black Sea.
The Species marked * are found also in the Steppe limestone.
*Cardium edule, L. C. (very small) B. Baltic.
» edule, var. (rusticum, Chemn.) A. C. B. Icy Sea.
*Didacna trigonoides, Pal. C. (Azof. M. Hommaire).
» Hichwaldi, Kryn. (crassa, Eich.) C.B. (Nikolaieff).
Monodacna Caspia, Eich. C.
5, pseudo-cardium, Desh. (pontica, Eich.) B.
Adacna leviuscula, Eich. C,.
vitrea, Eich. C. A.

99

* From a sketch kindly prepared by Professor Ramsay.

+ Geogr. des Kaspischen Meeres, des Kaukasus und des Siidlichen Russlands. Berlin,
1630. Fauna Caspio-Caucasica, 1841.

¢ Bull. des Nat. Moscow, 1837,

WEST AFRICAN PROVINCE. 69

*Adacna edentula, Pallas. C.
, plicata, Eich. C. B. (Dniester, Akerman, Odessa).
» colorata, Eich. C. B. (Azof, Dnieper).
*Mytilus edulis, L. C. C. (not in Middendorff’s list).
>» latus,Chemn. B.
*Dreissena polymorpha, Pal. ©. B
Paludinella stagnalis, L. (pusilla Eich.) C. B. (Odessa) Ochotsk.
* 4, variabilis, Eich. C.
*Neritina liturata, Eich. C. on sea-weed.
*Rissoa Caspia, Eich. C.
» Oblonga, Desm. B.
» ¢ylindracea, Kryn. B.*

The following species are described by Eichwald, from the
steppe limestone. (Murchison, Russia, p. 297.)

Donax priscus.

‘6 Paludina ” Triton.

55 exigua. Mactra Caspia. Monodacna propinqua.
Ri: soa conus. » Karagana. a intermedia.
>, dimidiatus. Cyclas Ustuertensis. 3 Catillus.
Bullina Ustuertensis. Mytilus rostriformis. Adacna prostrata.

No other inland bodies of salt water are known to have
peculiar marine shells; those of the modern deposits, in Meso-
potamia (at Sinkra and Warka), collected by Mr. W. K. Loftus,
are species still abounding in the Persian Gulf.+

VI. West AFRICAN PROVINCE.

The tropical coast of Western Africa is rich in conchological
treasures, and far from being wholly explored. The researches
of Adanson,} Cranch (the naturalist to the Congo expedition$),
and the officers of the Niger expedition, have left much tu be
done. Dr. Dunker has described 149 Ges in his Index Moll.

Guinee, coll. Tams. Cassel, 1853.

At St. Helena, Mr. Cuming collected 16 species of sea-shells,
7 of them new. Littorina Helene is found on the shore of St.
Helena, and ZL. miliaris and Nerita Ascensionis, at Ascension.

* The Velutina (Limneria) Caspiensis. A. Ad. was founded on a specimen of
Limnea Gebleri, Midd. (1851), from Bernaoul, Siberia.

J A species of coral (Porites elongata, Lam.), now living at the Seychelles, has been
said to be found in the Dead Sea (v. Humboldt’s Views of Nature, Bohn ed. p. 260);
also Melania costata and M. Jordanica, according to M. Schubert.

¢ Hist. Nat. de Senegal, 4to. Paris, 1757. This able but eccentric naturalist
destroyed the utility of his own writings by refusing to adopt the bi-nomial nomen-
clature of LINN.£Us, and employing instead the most barbarous chance-combinations
of Jetters he could invent.

§ Appendix to Captain Tuckey’s Narrative (1818), by Dr. Leach.

—
a

70

Onychoteuthis, 3 sp.
Cranchia, 2 sp.
Strombus rusaceus.
Triton ficoides.
Ranella quercina.
Dolium tessellatum.
Harpa rosea.
Oliva hiatula.
Pusionella.-
Nassa Pfeifferi.
Desmoulinsia.
Purpura nodosa.
Rapana bezoar.
Murex vitulinus.

» angularis.

> megaceros.

> rosarius.

» duplex.

>, cornutus.
Clavella? filosa.

on GUBINS
Lagena nassa.
Terebra striatula.

$5 ferruginea.
? Halia priamus.
Mitra nigra.

Cymba.

MANUAL OF THE

MOLLUSCA.

West’ African Shells.

Marginella.
Persicula.

Pleurotoma mitriformis.

Tomella lineata.
Clavatula mitra.

BS coronata.

2p bimarginata.

35 virginea.
Conus papilionaceus.

» genuinus.

,, testudinarius.

,, achatinus.

5, monachus.
Natica fulmines.
Cypreea stercoraria.

5 picta.
Vermetus lumbricalis.
Cerithium Adansonii.
Turritella torulosa.
Mesalia.

Littorina punctata.
Collonia.
Clanculus villanus.
Haliotis virginea.

Ss coccinea.
Nerita Senegalensis.

55 Ascensionis.

Pecten - bbus.
Arca vn © COSa.
» senilis.

Cardium ringens.

25 costatum.
Lucina columbel'a.
Ungulina rubra.
Diplodonta rosea.

_Cardita ajar.

Artemis africana.
> torrida.
Cyclina Adansonii.

Trigcna bicolor.

a tiplals
Cytherea tumens.

a africana.
Venus plicata.
Tellina.
Strigilla Senegalensis.
Gastrana polygona.
Mactra depressa.

» rugosa,

mistake,
Pholas clausa.
Tugonia anatina.

Discina radiosa.

VII. Sourn AFRICAN PROVINCE.

The fauna of South Africa, beyond the tropic, possesses few
characters in common with that of the western coast, and is
more like the Indian Ocean fauna, as might be expected from
the direction of the currents. But, together with these it has a
large assemblage of marine animals found nowhere else, and the
‘‘Cape of Storms” forms a barrier between the populations of
the two great oceans, scarcely less complete than the far-pro-
jecting promontory of South America. The coast is generally
rocky, and there are no coral-reefs ; accumulations of sand are
frequent, and sometimes very extensive, like the Agulhas Bank.
The few deep-sea shells which have been obtained off these
banks possess considerable interest, but explorations in boats
are said to be difficult, and often impossible on account of the
surf. Shells from the Cape are too frequently dead and water-
worn specimens picked up on the beach. The shell-fish of South
Africa have been collected and described by Owen Stanley,
Hinds, A. Adams, and especially by Dr. Krauss, who has

INDO-PACIFIC PROVINCE. 71

published a very complete monograph.* Of 400 sea-shells
recorded in this work, above 200 are peculiar, and most of these
belong to a few littoral genera. Only 11 species are common
to the coast of Senegal, whilst 18 are found in the Red Sea; 15
species are said to be found in Europe; all the others, not pecu-
liar, exist on the E. coast of Africa.

South African Shells.

Panopea natalensis.

Solen marginatus.

Macira spengleri.

Gastrana ventricosa.

Nucula pulchra, Hinds.

(L’Agullias bank, 70 fm.)

Pectunculus Belcheri, 120
fm.

Modiola Capensis.

» pelagica, Forbes.
Septifer Kraussi.
Terebratulina abyssicola,

132 fm.
Terebratella (Kraussia).

6 rubra.

9 cognata.

By pisum.

- Deshayesii,
120 fm.

Chiton, 16 sp.
Patella, 20 sp.

»» cochlea,

9» compressa.

Patella apicina.

», longicosta,

» pectinata, &c,
Siphonaria, 5 sp.
Pupillia (aperta).
Fissurella, 10 sp.
Crepidula, 4 sp.
Haliotis sanguinea.
Delphinula granulosa.

ap cancellata.
Trochus, 22 sp.
Turbo sarmaticus.
Littorina Africana 7 sp.
Phasianella, 6 sp.
Bankivia varians.
Turritella, 4 sp.
Pleurotoma, 6 sp.
Clionello (sinuata).
Typhis arcuatus.
Triton dolarius.

»» fictilis, 50-60 fm.
Harpa crassa.
Cominella ligata.

op lagenaria.
op limbosa.

Cominella tigrina.
Bullia leevissima,

» achatina.

» natalensis.
Nassa plicosa.

+ capensis.
Cyclonassa Kraussi.
Eburna papillaris.
Columbella, 5 sp.
Ancillaria obtusa.
Mitra, 5 sp.

Imbricaria carbonacea.
Voluta armata.

» Scapha.

», abyssicola, 182 fm.
Marginella rosea.
Trivia ovulata.

Cypreea, 22 sp.
Luponia algoénsis.
Cyprovulum (capense).
Conus, 8 sp.

Octopus argus.

Sepia, 4 sp.

The following are stated to be common to the Cape and Huro-

pean seas.t

Saxicava (arctica?) Greenland, Medit.

Tellina fabula, Brit. Medit.

Chama gryphoides, Medit. Red Sea.

Pecten pusio, Brit.

Lucina lactea, Medit. Red Sea.

» fragilis, Medit.

Canaries, Red Sea, Australia ?

Tapes pullastra, North Sea.
» geographica, Medit.
Arca lactea, Medit.

Diphyllidia (lineata?) N. Brit. Medit.
Venus verrucosa, W. Indies ? Brit. Senegal, Eulima nitida, Medit.

Purpura lapillus ?? (not in Medit.)

Nassa marginulata.
Octopus vulgaris? Brit.
Argonauta argo, Medit.

VIII. Inpo-PactFic PROVINCE.
This is by far the most extensive area over which similar

shell-fish and other marine animals are distributed. It extends
from Australia to Japan, and from the Red Sea and east coast

* Die Siidafrikanischen Mollusken, 4to. Stutt. 1848.
7 Marks of doubt are added to some of the species, and others are omitted.

72 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

of Africa to Easter Island in the Pacific, embracing three-fifths
of the circumference of the globe and 45° of latitude. This
great region might, indeed, be subdivided into a number of
smaller provinces, each having a particular association of species
and some peculiar shells, such as the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf,
Madagascar, &c.; but a considerable number of species are
found throughout the province, and their general character is
the same.* Mr. Cuming obtained more than 100 species of
shells from the eastern coast of Africa, identical with those
collected by himself at the Philippines, and in the eastern coral
islands of the Pacific.t This is pre-eminently the region of
coral reefs, and of such shell-fish as affect their shelter. The
number of species inhabiting it must amount to several thou-
sands. The Philippine Islands have afforded the greatest
variety, but their apparent superiority is due, in a measure, to
the researches of Mr. Cuming; no other portion of the province
has been so thoroughly explored.t+

Amongst the genera most characteristic of the Indo-Facific,
those marked (*) are wholly wanting on the coasts of the At-
lantic, but half of them occur fossil in the older tertiaries of

Europe. Those in italics are also found on the west coast of
America.

*Nautilus. 4Magilus. Stomatella. Hemicardium.
™Pteroceras. *Melo. Gena. *Cypricardia.
*Rimella. Mitra. *Broderipia. *Cardilia.
*Rostellaria, *Cylindra. *Rimula. * Verticordia.
*Seraphs. *Imbricaria. *Neritopsis. *Pythina.
Conus. Ovulum. *Scutellina. Circe.
Fleurotoma. * Pyrula (type). *Linteria. *Clementia.
*Cithara. *Monoptygma. *Dolabella. *Glaucomya.

* Clavella. Phorus. *Hemipecten. *Meroe.
*Turbinella (typ.) Siliquaria. *Placuna. Anatinella.
Cyllene. *Quoyia. *Malleus. Cultellus.
Eburna. *Tectaria. *Vulsella. *Anatina.
Phos. Imperator. *Pedum. *Chena.
Dolium. Monodonta. * Septifer. *Aspergillum.
Harpa. Delphinula. *Cucullea, *Jouannetia.
*Ancillaria. Liotia. *Hippopus. *Lingula.
&Ricinuia. *Stomatia. *Tridacna. Discina.

The strictly littoral species vary on each ereat line of coast :
for example, Littorina intermedia and Tectaria pagodus occur on

* See Mrs. Somerville’s Physical Geography, il. p. 233.

+ Journal Geol. Soc. 1846, vol. ii. p. 268.

t Mr. Cuming collected 2,500 species of sea-shells at the Philippines, and estimates

the total number at 1,000 more.

The genera most developed are Conus, 120 sp.;

Pieurotoma, 100; Mitra, 250; Golumbella, 40; Cyprea, 50; Natica, 50; Chiton, 30;

Zellina, 50.

INDO-PACIFIC PROVINCE. 73

the east coast of Africa; Littorina conica and melanostoma, in
the Bay of Bengal; Littorina sinensis and castanea, and Haliotis
venusta, on the coast of China; Littorina scabra and H. squamata,
in N. Australia; H. asinina, New Guinea; and ZL. picta, at the
Sandwich Islands.

Red Sea (Krythreean).

Of the 408 mollusca of the Red Sea, collected by Ehrenberg
and Hemprich, 74 are common to the Medit., from which it
would seem that these seas have communicated since the first
appearance of some existing shelis. Of the species common to
the two seas 40 are Atlantic shells which have migrated into the
Red Sea by way of the Medit., probably during the newer
pliocene period; the others are Indo-Pacific shells which ex-
tended their range to the Mediterranean at an earlier age.

The genera wanting in the Medit. but existing in the Red
Sea, show most strikingly their diversity of character, and the
affinity of the latter to the Indian fauna.

Pteroceras. Ancillaria. Siphonaria. Limopsis.
Strombus, 8 sp. Harpa. Placuna. Tridacna.
Rostellaria. Ricinula. Plicatula. Crassatella.
Turbinella, Magilus. Pedum. Trigona.
Terebra. Pyramidella. Malleus. Sanguinolaria.
Eburna. Parmophorus. Vulsella. Anatina.
Oliva. Nerita. Perna. Aspergillum.

Other genera become abundant, suchas Oonus, of which there
are 19 species in the Red Sea, Cypreea 16, Mitra 10, Cerithium
17, Pinna 10, Chama 5, Circe 10.

Persian Gulf.

The marine zoology of the Persian Gulf and adjoining coast
has not been yet explored.* The following shells were picked
up on the beach at Kurrachee by Major Baker, with many
others evidently new, but not in a satisfactory state for descrip-

tion. (1850.)

Rostellaria-curta. Purpura persica. Sigaretus sp.
Murex tentispina var. » carinifera. Odostomia sp.
Pisania spiralis. Columbella blanda. Phorus corrugatus.
Ranella tuberculata. Oliva subulata. Planaxis sulcata.

» Spinosa. » Indusica. Imperator Sauliz.

a crumena. >» ancillaroides. Monodonta sp.
Triton lampas. ; Cyprea Lamarckii. Haliotis sp.
Bullia sp. an ocellata. Stomatella imbricata.
Eburna spirata. Natica pellis-tigrina. 6 sulcifera.

.* The “Brindled Cowry” (Cyprea princeps), from the Persian Gulf, was valued
at £50. :
_&&

74 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Fissurolla Ruppellii.
a Indusica.
on salebrosa.
p dactylosa.
% funiculata.

Pileopsis tricarinatus.
Nerita ustulata.

Dentalium octangulatum.

Ringicula sp.
Bulla ampulla.
Anomia acheus.

5 enigmatica.
Pecten sp.
Spondylus sp.
Plicatula depressa.
Mytilus canaliculatus.
Arca obliquata.

5 sculptilis, &c.
Chama sp.
Lucina sp.
Cardium fimbriatum,

y latum.

Cardium impolitum.
1) pallidum.
55 assimile.

Venns pinguis.

99 COL.

>, purpurata.
Meroé Solandri.

» effossa.
Trigona trigonella ?
Artemis angulosa.

op exasperata,

55 subrosea?
Venerupis sp.
Petricola sp.

Tapes sulcosa.
» Malabarica.
Cypricardia vellicata.

Cardita crassicostata? |

», calyculata.

» Lankervillii.
Mactra Agyptica, &c.
Tellina angulata.

Tellina capsoides. ;

Mesodesma Horsfieldii,

Psammobia sp.

Syndosmya sp.

Semele sp.

Solen sp.

Solecurtus politus.

Donax scortum.

» scalpellum.

Sanguinolaria diphos.
o violacea.
a sinuata.

Corbula sp.

Diplodonta sp.

Anatina rostrata.

Pandora sp.

Martesia sp.

Pholas australis.

5, Bakeri, Desh.
5 orientalis.
(Meleagrina v. p.416).

At the Cargados or St. Brandon shoals, north of Mauritius,
Voluta costata, Conus verrucosus, Pleurotoma virgo, and T'urbinella
Belcheri have been obtained by dredging.

Collections of marine shells have been made at Madagascar
and the Mascarene Islands by Sganzin, and at the Seychelles by
Dufo. The number obtained at the latter place was 263, of
which 220 were univalves. Two of the univalves, viz., Dolium
galea and Cypreea heivela, and two of the bivalves, are found in
the Mediterranean.

1X. AUSTRALO-ZELANDIC PROVINCE.

Most remote from the Celtic seas, this province is also most
unlike them in its fauna, containing many genera wholly un-
known in Europe, either living or fossil, and some which occur
fossil in rocks of a remote period. The province includes New
Zealand, Tasmania, and extra-tropical Australia, from Sandy
Cape, on the-east, to the Swan River. The shells, which are
nearly all peculiar, have been catalogued by Gray,* Menke,+
and Forbes.t{ Of the following genera some are peculiar (*),
others attain here their greatest development :—

* Travels in New Zealand, by Dr. E. Dieffenbach. 8vo., London, 184%.

+ Moll. Nov. Hollandiz, 1843.

t Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, 1846-50, by J. Macgillivray,
applement by Professor E. Forbes.

JAPONIC PROVINCE. 75

*Pinnoctopus. * Maccillivraia. Cypricardia. Imperator.
*Struthiolaria. * Amphibola. Mesodesma. Monoptygma.
Phasianella. *Trigonia. Terebratella. Siphonaria.
Elenchus,. #Chamostrea, Spirula, Pandora.
Bankivia. *Myadora. Oliva. Anatinella.
Rotella. * Myochama. Conus. Clavagella.
*Macroschisma,. Crassatella. Voluta. Placunomia.
Parmophorus. Cardita. Terebra. Waldheimia.
Risella. Circe. Fasciolaria. Crania.

Some of the genera of this province are only met with else-
~ where at a considerable distance :—

Solenella—Chili. Bankivia—Cape. Rhynchonella—Arctic seas.
Panopzea—Japan. Kraussia—Cape. Trophon—Fuegia; _,,
Monoceros—Patagonia. Solemya—Medit. Assiminea—India; Brit.

Amongst the littoral shells of South Australia are Haliotis
elegans, H. rubicunda, and Littorina rugosa. Haliotis iris and
Littorina squalida are found on the shores of N. Zealand; and
Cyprovula umbilicata in Tasmania.

Mr. Gray’s New Zealand list amounts to 104 marine species,
among which are three volutes, including V. magnifica, the
_largest of its genus; Strombus troglodytes, Ranella argus, the
great Triton variegatus ; 6 Cones (all doubtful), Oliva erythros-
toma, Cyprea caput-serpentis, Ancillaria australis, Imperater
heliotropium, Chiton monticularis, &c. .

Venus Stutchburyt and Modiolarca trapezina have been found
at Kerguelen’s Id. and Patella illuminata at the Auckland Ids.

X. JAPONIC PROVINCE.

The Japanese Islands and Corea represent tha Japonic pro-
vince. Our knowledge of its molluscan fauna ie still scanty,
notwithstanding the successful researches of Mr. Adams. Up-
wards of 130 species were collected in the harbour of Decima,
by Dr. Nuhn, of which 113 were Prosobranchiates.

Octopus areolatus.
Sepia chrysopthalma.
Sepioia Japonica.
Conus Sieboldi.
Pleurotoma Coreanica.
Terebra serotina,

" stylata.
Eburna Japonica.
Cassis Japonica.
Murex eurypterus.

» rorifluus.
Ay plorator.
a Burneti.

Purpura, 5 sp.
Fusus.
Cancellaria nodulifera.
Mitra.
Strombus corrugatus, _
Cypreea fimbriata.

by miliaris,
Mangelia, 4 sp.
Triforis, 5 sp.
Natica, 5 sp.
Trochus, 15 sp.
Radius birostris.
Cerithium longicaudatum.
Imperator Guilfordiz.

E 2

Haliqtis Japonica.

3, discus.

» gigantea.
Bulla Coreanica.
Siphonaria Coreanica.
Pecten asperulatus.

> <daponicus.
Spondylus Cumingii.
Nucula mirabilis.

» daponica.
Cardium Bechei.

Crassatella compressa.

Diplodonta alata.

or Coreanica.

76

Isocardia Moltkiana.

MANUAL OF THE

Artemis Sieboldi.

MOLLUSCA.

- Panopeea Japonica.

Venus Japonica. 53 Japonica, Terebratulina Japonica,

Cyclina orientalis. Circe Stutzeri. + angusta.

Cytherea petechialis. Tapes Japonica. Waldheimia Grayi.

Artemis sericea. Petricola radiata. Terebratella Coreanica.
» bilunata. Solen albidus. a rubella.

XI. ALEUTIAN PROVINCE.

The Boreal province is represented on the northern coasts of
the Pacific, where, according to Dr. Middendorff, the same
genera and many identical species are found. In addition to
those indicated in the Arctic list (p. 57), the following speeies
occur at the Shantar Ids. in the Sea of Ochotsk (O), Saghalien,
the Kuriles (K), Aleutians and Sitka (8).

Patella (scurra). S. Fusus Behringii.
Acmea, 3sp. S. Ay BRKT yi \
Pilidium commodum. OQ. » Juridus. -S.
Paludinella. 3sp. O. Buccinum undatum var. Schantaricum.
Littorina, 6 sp. O. K.S. ss simplex. O.
Turritella Eschrichtii. O. 9 Ochotense.
Margarita suleata. A. 6 cancellatum. A.
Trochus,6sp. S. a ovoides. O.
Scalaria Ochotensis. Pisania scabra. A.
Crepidula-Sitchana. Bullia ampullacea. O.
> . minuta: “Ss: Onychoteuthis Kamtschatica.
3 grandis. A.
Fissurella violacea. S. Terebratella frontalis. O.
a aspera. S. Placunomia macroschisma. O.
Haliotis Kamtschatica. Pecten rubidus. S.

aa aquatilis. K. Crenella vernicosa. O.
Velutina coriacea. K. 55 cultellus. Kamt.

» cryptospira. O. Nucula castrensis. S.
Trichotropis inermis. S. Pectunculus septentrionalis. A.
Purpura decemcostata. (Mid.) S. Cardita borealis. O.

o> Freycineti. O.S. Cardium Nuttalli. S.

33 septentrionalis. S. ~ Californicum, S.
Pleurotoma Schantarica. Saxidomus Petiti. S.

53 simplex. O. 5 giganteus. S.
Murex monodon. S. Petricola cylindracea. S.

5 Jactuca. S- = gibba. S.

Fusus (Chrysodomus) Sitchensis. Tellina lutea. A. nasuta. S. r
decemcostatus. A. >» edentula. A.

99

Schantaricus. Lutraria maxima. S.

39

The influence of the Asiatic coast-current is shown in the
‘presence of two species of Haliotis, whilst affinity with the fauna
of W. America is strongly indicated by the occurrence of Patella
(scurra), three species of Crepidula, two of Fisswrella, and species
of Bullia, Placunomia, Cardita, Saxidomus, and Petricola, which
are more abundant, and range farther north than their allies in
the Atlantic.

ALEUTIAN PROVINCE. 67

Additional information on the fauna of this province has been
recently supplied by Mr. Lord, the naturalist to the British
North American Boundary Commission Expedition, and by Dr.
Kennerley, the naturalist to the American North-west Boundary
Hixploring Expedition. The results obtained are discussed by
Dr. P. P. 'Carpenter.*

Provinces on the Western Coast of America.

”

The mollusca of the Western coast of America are equally
distinct from those of the Atlantic and those inhabiting the
central parts of the Pacific.

Mr. Darwin states in his Journal (p. 391) that ‘‘ not one single
sea-shell is known to be common to the Islands’of the Pacific
and to the west coast of America,’”’ and he adds that ‘‘ after the
comparison by Messrs. Cuming and Hinds of about 2000 shells
from the Eastern and Western coasts of America, only one
single shell was found in common, namely the Purpura patula,
which inhabitsthe West Indies, the coast of Panama, and the Gal-
lapagos.” ven this single identification has since been doubted.
Mr. Cuming, who resided many years at Valparaiso, did not
discover any West India specimens on that coast, and M.
D’Orbigny makes the same observation. On the other hand
M. Morch, of Copenhagen, says he has received Tellina opercu-
lata and Mactra alata from the west coast and also from Brazil ;
and M. Deshayes gives the following extraordinary ranges in
his ‘‘ Catalogue of Veneride in the British Museum ”’:—

Artemis angulosa, Philippines—Chili.
Cytherea umbonella, Red Sea—Brazil.

Br maculata, W. Indies—Philippines, Sandwich.
on circinata, W. Indies—West coast America.

In these instances there is doubtless some mistake, either
about the locality or the shell. As regards the last, Mr. Carrick
Moore has shown that the error has arisen from confounding
the Cytherea alternata of Broderip with C. circinata of Born,
M. D’Orbigny collected 628 species on the coast of S. America,
—180 from the eastern side, and 447 from the Pacific coast, be-
sides the Siphonaria Lessonii which ranges from Valparaiso in
Chili to Maldonado on the coast of Uruguay.t These shells
belong to 110 genera, of which 55 are common to both coasts,

* British Association Report for 1863.

+ The dispersion of this coast shell may perhaps have taken place at the time when
the channel of the river S. Cruz formed a strait, joining the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans, like that of Magellan. (Darwin, p. 181.) Mr. Couthouy makes 3 sp. — Siphonaria
Lessonti, nearly smooth, Atlantic coast; S. antarctica, ribbed, Pacific coast; aud 8,
lateralis, thin, oblique, Fuegia.

78 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

while 34 are peculiar to the Pacific, and 21 to the Atlantic side
of S. America; an extraordinary amount of diversity, attribut-
able partly to the different character of the two coasts—the
eastern low, sandy or muddy; the western rocky, with deep
water near the shore.*

- The comparison of the shells of Eastern and Western America
is of considerable interest to geologists; for if 1t is true that
any number of living species are common to the Pacific and
Atlantic shores, it becomes probable that some portion of the
Isthmus of Darien has been submerged since the Eocene Ter-
tiary period. Any opening in this barrier would allow the
Equatorial current to pass through into the Pacific—there
would be no more Gulf stream—and the climate of Britain
might, from this cause alone, become lke that of Newfoundland
at the present day.

Although geological researches seem to show that not only
the Isthmus of Darien, but even the Rocky Mountains, were
sufficiently submerged during the Miocene Epoch to allow of
the free intermingling of the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific,
yet the special temperate molluscan fauna of KE. and W. America
are very dissimilar. There are no grounds for believing a single
species to be identical. There are, however, a large number of
species (upwards of 50) living on both sides of the northern por-
tion of the continent, and the majority of these exist in the
British seas.

XII. CALIFORNIAN PROVINCE.

The shells of Oregon and California have been collected and
described by Mr. Hinds,+ Mr. Nuttall,f Mr. Couthouy, natu-
ralist of the American Exploring Expedition ;§ Mr. Cooper,
Dr. Gould, Mr. Binney,|| Dr. Kennerley, Colonel Jewitt, and
others. 4

Shells common to U. California and Sitka. (Middendorff.)

Littorina modesta. Tyochus ater. Trochus euryomphalus.
me aspera. » meestus. Petricola cylindracea.
Fissurella violacea. » okkesii. Lutraria maxima,
3 aspera.

* Voyage dans |’ Amérique Mérdionale. 1847, t. v. p. v.

+ Voyage of H.M.S. Sulphur ; Zoology by R. B. Hinds, 4to. 1844.

t Described by T. A. Conrad, Journ. Acad. N. S. Philadelphia, 1834.

§ Gould in Bost. Nat. Hist, Soc. Proceedings, 1846; and U.S. Exploring Exped.
(Commander Wilkes), vol. xii, Mollusca, with Atlas. 4to. Philad. 1852.

|| Explorations for a railroad route from the Mississippi to the Pacific Ocean. 1856.

j P. P. Carpenter on Mollysca of West Coast of North America. British Association
Report for 1863.

PANAMIC PROVINCE. 79

Scarcely any species are common to this province (extending
_ from Puget Sound to the peninsula) and the Bay of California,
which belongs to the Panamic province. The most important
genera are Chiton, 18 species; Acmeea, 11 species; Fissurella,
6 species; Haliotis, 6 species; Trochus, 15 species; Purpura,
9 species. The following list probably contains some shells
which should be referred to the Panamic province.

Fusus Oregonensis. Chiton scrobiculatus, &c. Saxidomus giganteus.
Murex Nuttalli. Cleodora exacuta. Venerupis cordieri.
Monoceros unicarinatus. — Petricola mirabilis.

$ punctatus. Waldheimia Californica. Mactra, 2. Donax, 1.
Cancellaria urceolata. Discina Evausii. Tellina Bodegensis.
Trivia Californica. — » secta, &c.
Natica herculea. Anomia pernoides. Semele decisa.

9 Lewisii. Placunomia cepa. Cumingia Californica.
Calyptreea fastigiata. Hinnites giganteus. Sanguinolaria Nuttalli.
Crepidula exuviata. Perna, 1. Pinna, 2. Lutraria Nuttalli.

Ae navicelloides. Mytilus, 1. Pecten, 2. Platyodon cancellatus.

“ solida, &c. Mytilimeria Nuttalli. Amphichena Kindermanni.
Imperator Buschii. Modiola eapax. Lyonsia, 1. Thracia, 1.
Haliotis Cracherodii. Chama lobata. Pandora, 1. Saxicava, 2.

» fulgens. Cardita ventricosa. Cyathodonta undulata.

» corrugata. Cardium, 4. Sphenia Californica.
Fissurella crenulata. Lucina, 3. Periploma argentaria.

os cucullata. Chironia Laperousii. Solecurtus subteres.
Puncturella, 2 sp. Solecardia eburnea. Machaera lucida.
Dentalium politum. Venus Californiensis. 35 maxima.
Patella, 15 sp. >» callosa. Mya truncata.
Acmeea scabra. Artemis ponderosa. Panopea generosa.

3 pintadina. Saxidomus Petiti. Pholas Californica.
Chiton Mertensii. of Nuttalli. » concamerata.

XIII. PANAMIC PROVINCE.

The Western coast of America, from the Gulf of California to
Payta in Peru, forms one of the largest and most distinct pro-
vinces. The shells of Mazatlan and the Gulf have been imper-
fectly catalogued by Menke. The Mazatlan mollusks have
been examined by Mr. P. P. Carpenter, who enumerates 654
species. The total number of marine shells known belonging
to this province is 1,341. Amongst these are,included 27
Chitonide, 13 Acmeide, 18 Fissurellide, 64 Trochoide, 28
Calyptreidee, 69 Pyramidellide, 59 Buccinidee, and 90 Muri-
cide. The gulf of California, together with the adjacent coast
as far as Mazatlan and St. Blas, has yielded 768 shells (502 uni-
valves and 266 bivalves), of which 439 also occur in the Gulf of
Panama, while 117 extend into S. America; 635 species are
known from the Gulf of Panama; of these, 266 are peculiar to

80 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

the district, and 163 also occur in 8. America. The fauna of
the Panama province is remarkably distinct from the other W.
American provinces, and especially the Caribbean. At one
time it was thought that it did not possess a single species
identical with any occurring in the West Indies or the east side
of America. Dr. P. Carpenter, however, has shown that 36
marine shells (15 univalves and 20 bivalves) occur on both sides
of the Isthmus of Darien, and this number has been lately
increased.

A few of the species even extend as far as W. Africa accord-
ing to Dr. Carpenter; he mentions 15, and among them the
following :—Crepidula unguiformis, C. aculeata, Hipponyx anti-
quatus, Bankivia varians, Natica maroccana, Marginella ceerules-
cens, Nitidella guttata, Purpura pansa. Five species are common
to Mazatlan and the British coasts, vyiz., Kellia suborbicularis,
Lasea rubra, Saxicava arctica, Cytherea Dione, Hydrobia ulve.
Still more remarkable is the absence of resemblance between
the faunas of Panama and those of the Indo-Pacific area, there
being only seven forms common to the two. Thus, Cytherea
petichialis occurs in Japan; Nassa acuta, in Australia; and
Oliva Duclosii, Natica maroccana, Nitidella cribaria, Hipponyx
barbatus, H. Grayanus, are scattered over the Pacific ocean.

The river-openings of this coast are bordered by mangroves,
amongst which are found Potamides, Arcas, Cyrenas, Potamo-
myas, Auriculas, and Purpuras, whilst Littorince climb the trees
and are found upon their leaves. The ordinary tide at Panama
amounts to 16 or 20 feet, the extreme to 28 feet, so that once a
fortnight a lower zone of beach may be examined and other
shells collected. soe beach is of fine sand, with reefs of rocks
in the bay.

Gallapagos Teh —Out of 111 sea-shells collected here by
Mr. Cuming, 43 are unknown elsewhere; 25 occurin Mazatlan,
22 in Central America, 38 in Panama, but only 11 in South
America.

®

Littoral shells common to Panama and the Gallapagos (C.B. Adams. }

Cypreea rubescens. Columbella nigricans. Turbinella cerata.

Mitra tristis. Ricinula reeviana. Pleurotoma eccentrica.

Planaxis planicostatus. Cassis coarctata. Hipponyx radiata.

Purpura carolinensis. Oniscia tuberculosa. Fissurella macrotrema.

Columbella atramentaria. | Conus brunneus. os nigro-punctata.
x bicanalifera. po MUX. Sipkonaria gigas.

> hemastoma. Strombus granulatus.

Strembus gracilior.
Murex erythrostomus.

» regius.
» imperialis.
Dome Racloxe

» brassica.

» Mmonoceros, &c.
Rapana muricata.

» Kiosquiformis,
Myristica patula.
Ricinula clathrata.
Purpura, many sp.
Monoceros, many sp.

os brevidentattis.
% cingulatus.
Clayella? distorta.
Qliva porphyria.
» splendidula, &c.
Northia pristis.
Harpa crenata.
.Malea ringeng.
Mitra Inca, &c.
Terebra luctuosa, &c.
Conus regularis, &c.
Pleurotoma, many sp.
Cancellaria goniostema.
5 cassidiformis.
oA chrysostoma,
Columbella, many sp.

PERUVIAN PROVINCE. 81

Panama shells.

Columbella strombiformis.
Marginella curta.
Cypreea nigro-punctata.

Pecten magenificus.
Arca lithodomus, &c.
Pectunculus tessellatus, &¢.

Trivia. Nucula exigua.
Pyrula ventricosa. Leda, 5 sp.

Natica glatca. Cardium senticosum.
Pileopsis hungaricoides. >» maculosum.

Crucibulum auriculatum, &c. Cardita laticosta.
Trochita mamillaris. Gouldia Pacifica.
Crepidula arcuata, &c. Cytherea, mary sp.
Littoring, pulchra. Venus gnidia,
Turritella Californica. » histrionica.
Truncatella, 2 sp. Artemis Dunkeri.
Ceecum, § sp. Trigona crassatelloides.
Imperator unguis, &c. Cyclina subquadrata.
Trochus pellis serpentis. Venerupis foliacea,
Vitrinella, 12 sp. Petricola Californica, &c.
Nerita ornata. Tellina Burneti.
Patella maxima. Cumingia coarctata.
Semele, 7 sp.

Saxicava purpurascens,
Gastrocheena.
Solecurtus lucidus.
Lyonsia brevifrons.
Pandora arcuata, &c.
Pholas melanura, &c.
Parapholas.
Jouannetia pectinata.

Discitia strigata.

59 Cumingii.
Lingula semen.

» albida.

» audebardi.
Placunomia foliacea,
Ostrea eequatorialis.
Spondylus princeps.

XIV. Peruvian Province.

The coast of Peru and Chili, from Callao to Valparaiso, affords —

a large and characteristic assemblage of shells, of which only.a
small part have been catalogued, although the district has been
well explored, especially by D’Orbigny, Cuming, and Philipp.
M. D’Orbigny collected 160 species, one-half of which are
common to Peru and Chili, whilst only one species (Siphonaria
Lessonit) found at Callao was also met with at Payta, a little -
beyond the boundary of the region. _Mr. Cuming obtained 222

species on the coast of Peru, and 172 in Chili. Hupé has
described 201 species in Gay’s work on Chili. The island of |
Juan Fernandez is included within this province. Only a few

of the Peruvian mollusks can be here enumerated.

Onychoteuthis-peraptoptera.
AMolis Inca.
Doris Peruviana.

Chiton, many sp.
Patella scurra.
Acmeza scutum,
Crucibulum lignarium,

Diphyllidia Cuvieri.
Posterobranchea.
Aplysia Inca.
Tornatella venusta.

E93

82 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

Trochita radians, Oliva Peruviana. Solen gladiolts.
Crepidula dilatata. Rapana labiosa. Solecurtus Dombeyi.
Fisstirella, many sp, Mouoceros giganteus, Mactra Byronensis.
Liotia Cobijensis. :; crassilabris. Mesodesma Chilensis.
Gadinia Peruviana, r acuminatus. Cumingia lamellosa.
Littorina Peruviana. Purpura chocolata. Semele rosea, &c.

~ araucana, Concholepas. Petricola, many sp.
Rissoina Inca, Mitra maura. Saxidomus opacus, &&.
Cancellaria buccinoides, —— Cyclina Kroyeri.
Sigarettis cymba. Terebratella Fontainei. Venus thaca.
Fusus Fontainei. a Chilensis. Crassatella gibbosa.
Murex horridus. Discina lamellosa. Nucula, many sp.
Ranella ventricosa. » levis. Leda, many sp.
Triton scaber. — Solenella Norrisii.
Nassa dentifera. Pholas subtruncata, &c. Lithodomus Peruvianus.
Columbella sordida, Lyonsia cuneata, Saxicava solida,.

XV. MAGELLANIC PROVINCE.

This region includes the coasts of Tierra del Fuego, the Falk-
land Islands (Malvinas), and the mainland of South America,
from P. Melo, on the east coast, to Concepcion, on the west. It
is described by M. D’Orbigny and Mr. Darwin (Journal, p. 177
et seq.). Philippi also has given attention to it; he assigns 88
species to the district near the Straits of Magellan. Only 16
species are known from the Malvinas, and 11 of these have not
been met with elsewhere. The southern and western coasts are
amongst the wildest and stormiest in the world; glaciers in
many places descend into the sea, and the passage round Cape
Horn has often to be made amidst icebergs floating from the
south polar continent. The greatest tides in the straits amount —
to 50 feet. ‘‘In T. del Fuego the giant sea-weed (Macrocystis
pyrifera) grows on every rock from low-water mark to 45
fathoms, both on the outer coast and within the channels; it
not only reaches up to the surface, but spreads over many
fathoms and shelters multitudes of marine animals, including
beautiful compound Ascidians, various patelliform shells, Trochi,
naked mollusca, cuttle-fish, and attached bivalves. The rocks,
at low water, also abound with shell-fish which are very dif-
ferent in their character from those of corresponding northern
latitudes, and even when the genera are identical the species are
of much larger size and more vigorous growth.’’*

Shells of the Magellanic Province (* Falkland Islands).

Buccinum antarcticum. Monoceros imbricatus. Trophon Magellanicus.
5) Donovani? “5 glabratus. Voluta Magellanica.
Bullia cochlidium. 5 calcar. » ancilla.

* Shell-fish are here the chief support of the natives as well as of the wild animals.
At Low’s harbour a sea-otter was killed in the act of carrying to its hole a large
Volute, and in T. del Fuego one was seen eating a cuttle-fish.— Darwin.

PATAGONIAN PROVINCE. 83

Natica limbata. *Patella barbara. Pecten corneus.
Lamellaria antarctica. * 5 zebrina. Mytilus Magellanicus,
Littorina caliginosa. Siphonaria lateralis. *Modiolarea trapezina,
Chemnitzia Americana. Chiton setiger. Leda sulculata.
*Scalaria brevis. Doris luteola. -*Cardita Thouarsii.
*Trochita pileolus. ZHolis Patagonica. *Astarte longirostris.
Crepidula Patagonica, *Spongiobranchea, *Venus exalbida.
Trochus Patagonicus. Spiralis? cucullata, 66° S. *Cyamium antarcticum.
*Margarita Malvine. —_— Mactra edulis.
*Scissurella conica. Terebratella crenulata. *Lyonsia Malvinensis.
*Fissureila radiosa. * ,, Magellanica,many' Pandora cistula.
Puncturella conica. varieties. Saxicava antarctica.
Nacella cymbularia, Waldheimia dilatata. Octopus megalocyathus.
*Patella deaurata. Pecten Patagonicus.

XVI. PATAGONIAN PROVINCE.

From S. Catharina, south of the Tropic, to P. Melo. This
coast-line has shifted considerably since the era of its present
fauna. M. D’Orbigny and Mr. Darwin observed banks of recent
shells, especially Potamomya labiata, in the valley of La Plata
and the Pampas around Bahia Blanca. Mr. Cuming also met
with Voluta Brasiliana, and other living shells, in banks 50
miles inland. Of 79 shells obtained by M. D’Orbigny on the
coast of N. Patagonia, 51 were peculiar, 1 common to the Falk-
land Ids., and 27 to Maldonado and Brazil. At Maldonada 37
species were found, 8 being special. 10 common to N. Patagonia,
2 to Rio, and 17 to Brazil. Of the latter 8 range as far as the
Antilles ; viz. :

Crepidula aculeata. Mactra fragilis. Modiola viator.
» protea. Venus flexuosa.* Plicatula Barbadensis.
Pholas costata. Lucina semi-reticulata.

At Bahia Blanca, in lat. 39° S., the most abundant shells
observed by Mr. Darwin (p. 243) were

Oliva auricularia. Oliva tehuelchana. Voluta angulata,
», puelchana. Voluta Brasiliana. Terebra Patagonica.

M. D’Orbigny’s list also includes the following genera and
species :—

Octopus tehuelchus. AKolis. Leda.
Columbella sertularium. Paludestrina. Cytherea.
Bullia plobulosa. Scalaria. Petricola.
Pleurotoma Patagonica. Natica, Corbula.
Fissurellideea megatrema. Chiton, Pinna.
Panopzea abbreviata. Solen. Mytilus.
Periploma compressa. Lutraria. Lithodomus.
Lyonsia Patagonica. Donacilla. Pecten.
Solecurtus Platensis. Nucula. Ostrea.

* The variety of Venus fleruosa found at Rio can be distinguished from the West
Indian shell, which is the Venus punctifera of Gray.

84

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

XVII. CARIBBEAN PROVINCE.

The Gulf of Mexico, the West Indian Islands, and the eastern
coast of South America, as far as Rio, form the fourth great

tropical region of marine life.
mated by Prof. C. B. Adams at not less than 1500 species.

The number of shells is esti-

Of

these 500 are described by M. D’Orbigny in Ramon de la Sagra’s
History of Cuba, and a small number of the Brazilian species

in the same author’s Travels in South America.

A list of the

Barbadoes shells has been given by Sir R. Schomburgk.

The coasts of the Antilles, Bermuda, and Brazil, are fringed
with coral reefs, and there are considerable banks of gulf-weed
at some distance from the coast of the Antilles.

West India Shells.

Argonauta. Ommastrephes. Cleodora.
Octopus. Sepioteuthis. Creseis.
Philonexis, Sepia. Cuvieria.
Loligo. Spirula. Atlanta.
Cranchia. Hyalea. Oxyeryus.
Onychoteuthis.

Strombus gigas.

Pr pugilis.
Murex calcitrapa.
Pisania articulata.

» turbinella.
Triton pilearis.

a CULAGeUSs.
Fusus morio.
Fasciolaria tulipa.
Lagena ocellata.
Cancellaria reticulata.
Fulgur aruanum.
Terebra acicularis.
Myristica melongena.
Purpura patula.

as deltoidea.
Oniscia oniscus.
Cassis tuberosa.

> fammea.

» Madagascariensis.
Columbeila mercatoria.

$5 nitida, &c.
Voluta vespertilio.

3) MUSICA.

Oliva brasiliensis.
» angulata.
jaspidea,
» oryzae, &c.
Ancillaria glabrata.
Conus varius, &c.

”>

Clavatula zebra.
Marginella.
Erato Maugerie.
Cypreea mus.

» exanthema.
» Sspurca, &c.
Trivia pediculus.

Ovulum gibbosum.
Natica caurena.
Pyramidella dolabrata.
Planaxis nucleus.
Littorina zic-zac.

3 flava.

Ay lineolata.
Tectaria muricata.
Modulus lenticularis.
Fossarus.

Truncatella caribbea.
Torinia cylindracea.
Turritella exoleta.

3 imbricata.
Trochus pica.
Imperator tuber.

5 calcar.
Fissurella Listeri.

y nodosa.

+ Barbadensis.
Nerita.

Neritina.
Hemitoma 8 radiata.

Cheletropis.
Tanthina.
Glaucus.
Notarchus Plei.
Aplysia.

Hipponyx mitrula.
Pileopsis militaris.
Calyptrea equestris.
Crepidula aculeata.
Patella leucopleura,
Chiton squamosus.
Hydatina physis.
Bouchardia tulipa.
Discina antillarum.
Placunomia foliata,
Plicatula cristata.
Lima scabra.
Mytilus exustus.
Lithodomus dactylus.
Arca Americana.
Yoldia tellinoides.
Chama arcinella.

3, macrophylla.
Cardium levigatum.
Lucina tigrina.

» Pennsylvanica.

5, Jamaicensis.
Corbis fimbriata.
Coralliophaga.
CrassateHa.

Gouldia parva.
Venus paphia.

» dysera.

TRANS-ATLANTIC PROVINCE. 85

Venus crenulata, Artemis concentrica. Strigilla carnaria,
» cancellata. pe lucinalis, Sernele reticulata.
» vViolacea. Cyclina saccata. » Vvariegata,
Cytherea dione. Trigona, mactroides. Cumingia.
» Circinata. Petricola lapicida. Iphigenia Brasiliensis.
as maculata, Capsula coccinea. Lutraria lineata,
a gigantea. Tellina Braziliana, Periploma inzequivalvis.
5 flexuosa. » bimaculata. Pholadomya candida,

XVIII TRANS-ATLANTIC PROVINCE.

The Atlantic coast of the United States was supposed by Prof.
H. Forbes to consist of two provinces: (1) the Virginian, from C.
Cod to C. Hatteras, and (2) the Carolinian, extending to Florida;
but no data were supplied for such a division. The total num-
ber of mollusca is only 230, and 60 of these range farther north,
15 being moreoyer common to Europe. These two regions are
- sometimes treated of together as the Pennsylvanian province.

Dr. Gould describes 110 shells from the coast of Massachusetts
south of Cape Cod, of which 50 are not found to the northward,
but form the commencement of the proper American type. The
‘shells of New York and the southern Atlantic States are de-

scribed by De Kay, in the State Natural History of New York;
this list supplies 120 additional species, of which at least a few
are stragelers from the Caribbean province; e.g. Chama arcinella,
Iphigenia levigata, Capsula deflorata.*

M. Massachusetts. Y. New York. SC. South Carolina. F. Florida.

Conus mus. F, Cerithium ferrugineum, F.
Fusus cinereus. M. SC. “5 4sp. M.
Nassa obsoleta. M. F. (Mex.) Triforis nigro-cinctus. M,

», trivittata. M. SC. : Odostomia, 6 sp. M. Y.

» Vibex. M. F. (Mexico). Turritella interrupta.. M.-Y.
Purpura Floridana. (Mex.) 36 concava. SC.

Terebra dislocata. Y. SC. (Vermetus lumbricalis. M. 2)
Pyrula? papyracea. F. Calyptreea striata. Y.
Fulgur carica. M. SC, Crepidula convexa. M. Y.

» canaliculatum. M. SC. » fornicata. M. F. (Mex).
Oliva literata. SC. Littorina irrorata. Y.
Marginella carnea. F. Fissurella alternata. (Say) ?
Fasciolaria distans. SC. (Mex.) ’ Chiton apiculatus. M. SC.
Columbella avara. M. Y. Tornatella puncto-striata. M. Y.
Ranella caudata. M. Y. Bulla insculpta. M. Y.

Natica duplicata. Y. SC.
Sigaretus perspectivus. Q. SC. Ostrea equestris. SC. F.
Scalaria lineata. M. SC. Pecten irradians (scallop).
a multistriata. M. Y. Avicula Atlantica. F.
sn tusbinaallNC. ™ Mytilus leucophantus. SC.

_-—————.

* The sea-shells, of the United States have also been collected and described by
Say, Le Sueur, Conrad, and Couthouy.

86 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Modiola Carolinensis. Mactra similis. SC. M.
as) Ditcatula, AV Ns », solidissima, M. Y.
Pinna muricata. SC. » lateralis, M. Y.
Arca ponderosa. SC, Lutraria lineata. F.
» pexata. M.F. » canaliculata, Y. F.
», incongrua., SC. Mesodesma arctata. M. Y.
», transversa. M. Y. Tellina tenta. M. SC.
Solemya veltm. M. Y. Pecisits “SORE
» borealis. M. Semele equalis. SC.
Cardium ventricosum. SC. Cumingia tellinoides. M.
55 Mortoni. M. Y. Donax fossar. Y.
Lucina contracta, Y. » variabilis. G. F.
Astarte Mortoni. Y. Solecurtus fragilis. M. SC.
» Dilundlata. F. a caribbeus. M. F.
Carditaincrassata. F. Corbula contracta. M. F.
Venus mercenaria. M. SC. Periploma Leana. M. Y.
3 Mortoni. SC. F. ” papyracea. M. Y.
» gemma, M. Y. Lyonsia hyalina. Y.
Artemis discus. SC. Pandora trilineata. M. F.
Petricola dactylus. M. SC. Pholas costata. SC. F.
99 pholadiformis. Y.. » semicostata. SC.

LAND REGIONS.
Distribution of Land and Fresh-water Shelis.

The boundaries of the Natural-history land-regions are more
distinctly marked, and have been more fully investigated, than
their counterparts in the sea. Almost every large island has its
own fauna and flora; almost every river system its peculiar
fresh-water fish and shells; and mountain-chains like the Andes
appear to present impassable barriers to the ‘‘ nations” of
animals and plants of either side. Exceptions, however, occur
which show that beyond this first generalisation there exists a
higher law. The British Channel is not a barrier between two.
provinces, nor is the Mediterranean ; and the desert of Sahara
separates only two portions of the same zoological region. In
these and other similar instances the ‘‘ barrier”’ is of later date
than the surrounding fauna and flora.

It has been often remarked that the northern part of the map
of the world presents the appearance of vastly-extended, conti-
nental plains, much of which is, geologically speaking, new
land. In the southern hemisphere the continents taper off into
promontories and peninsulas, or have long since broken up into
islands. Connected with this is the remarkable fact that only
around the shores of the Arctic Sea are the same animals and
plants found through every meridian ; aud that in passing south-
ward, along the three principal lines of land, specific identities

LAND REGIONS. 87

give way to mere identity of genera; these are replaced by family
resemblances, and at last even the families of animals and plants
become in great measure distinct, not only on the great conti-
nents, but on the islands, till every little rock in the ocean has
its peculiar inhabitants—the survivors, seemingly, of tribes
which the sea has swallowed up. (Waterhouse.)

The two largest genera, or principal types of the land and
fresh-water shells, Helix and Unio, have an almost universal
range, but admit of many geographical subdivisions.* Amongst
the land-snails are several species to which a nearly world-wide
range has been assigned, sometimes erroneously, as when Helix
cicatricosa is attributed to Senegal and China, or Helix similaris
Fér. to Brazil and India; and often correctly, but only because
they have been carried to distant localities by human ageney.
Land-snails are in favour with Portuguese sailors, as “‘ live sea
stock ;” and they have naturalised the common garden-snail of
Europe (Helix aspersa) in Algeria, the Azores, and Brazil; and
Helix lactea at Teneriffe and Mte. Video. <Achatina fiulica has
_ been taken from Africa to the Mauritius, and thence to Calcutta,
where it has been established by a living naturalist; and Helix
hortensis has been carried from the old country to America, and
naturalised on the coast of New England and the banks of the
St. Lawrence. Bulimus Goodalli, indigenous to the West Indies
and S. America, has been introduced into English pineries and
to Mauritius. Helix pulchella, one of the small species found in
moss and decayed leaves, inhabits Europe, the Caucasus,
Madeira, the Cape (introduced), and N. America as far as the
Missouri. Helix cellaria inhabits Europe and the Northern
States of America, and has been carried abroad with the roots
of plants, or attached to water-casks, and naturalised at the
_ Cape and New Zealand. Testacella maugei has been transported
from the Canary Islands to England.

The fresh-water Pulmonifera—Limnea, Physa, Planorbis,
Ancylus—and the amphibious Succinea, have a, nearly world-
wade range ; and like aquatic plants and insects, often re-appear,
even at the antipodes, under familiar forms. The range of the
gill-breathing fresh-water shells is more restricted.

The Old World and America may be regarded as provinces of
paramount importance, haying no species in common (except a

* In cataloguing Unionide, the river and country of each species should be stated.
American authors are too often contented with recording such localities as ‘‘ Nash-
ville” and “Smithville,” which are quite unintelligible. Almost as uncertain in their
meaning are S. Vincent, 8. Cruz, S. Thomas, Prince’s Id, ; whilst the latinised names
of places often defy all attempts at re-translation.

88

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

few in the extreme north), and each possessing many charac-

teristic genera.

America. Oid World. America. Old World.
Anastoma, Zonites. Choanopema. Pomatias.
Yridopsis. Nanina. Chondropoma. ,Otopoma.
Sagda. Vitrina. Cistula, Craspedopoma.
Stenopus. Helicolimax. Trochatella. Diplommatina,
Proserpina, Daudebardia. Alcadia, Aulopoma.
Bulimus. Achatina. Stoastoma. Pupina.
Odontostomus. Achatinella. Geomelania. Acicula.
Liguus. Clausilia. — —
Glandina. Paxillus, Hemisinus. Vibex.
Cylindrella. Pupa. Melafusus. Pirena.
Megaspira. os Ceriphasia. Melanopsis.
Simpulopsis. Testacella. Ancuiotus. Paludomus.
Amphibulima, Parmacella, Melatoma. Lithoglyphus.
Omalonyx. Limax. Amnicola. Navicella,

— Arion. — —
Philomycus, Phosphorax. Miilleria. Attheria,
Peltella. Incilaria. Mycetopus. Tridina.

— Oncidium. Castalia. Galatea.
Chilinia. _— Monocondylea. Cyrenoides.
Gundlachia. Latia. Gnathodon. Glaucomya.

The Land Provinces represented on the map are the principal
Botanical Regions of Prof. Schouw, as given in the Physical
Atlas of Berghaus; and it is proposed to inquire how far these
divisions are confirmed by the land and fresh-water shells, more
especially by the land-snails (Helicide, Limacide, and Cyclosto-
mide), which haye been so elaborately catalogued by Dr. L.
Pfeiffer. * a

The first Botanical region—that of Saxifrages and Mosses—
has not been numbered on the map, although its boundary is
given by the line of northern limit of trees. This line nearly
coincides with the Isotherm of 32°, or permanent ground-frost ;
but in Siberia the pine-forests extend 15° farther, owing to the
absence of winter rains and the bright clear air.

In this region shells are very rare; Dr. Middendorff found
Physa hypnorum in Arctic Siberia, and Limneea geisericola (Beck)
inhabits the warm springs of Iceland. The few species dis-
covered by Miller in Greenland are supposed to be peculiar :—

Limneea Holbollii.
Planorbis arcticus.
Cyclas Steenbuchii.

Succinea Greenlandica.
Limmea Vabhlii.
Pingelii.

Helix Fabricii.
Pupa Hoppii.
Vitrina angelice. « »

* The distribution of the Cycladide is taken from the British Museum Catalogue,
by M. Deshayes.

GERMANIC REGION. 89

1. GERMANIC REGION.

The whole of Northern Europe and Asia bounded by the
| Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, and Altai, constitutes
but one province, with a fauna by no means proportioned in
richness to its extent. *

| The land-snails amount to more than 200, but nearly all (or
)at least five-sixths) are common to the Lusitanian region. +

ACHING ei Secacecaties’ os SI) TRAN, Acsoeddonboodendondtie 44. Cyclostoma ..........0. 1
Bulimulus............... 10 Wlausilitay Barccoseonts 52 ACICUIA/ J ccveetasescosece 1
RL cectccopabeceneaie’ AAO AOOE Hy panodcaredconeee 5 Thimax: seiieeecesseses 9
PATOGAY ccccarcecssieesses f 5 SUGEINE dimer esses -ic 5 ATION, .c) hi gaccodcneeaeute a
GiONelbaienccudesescse IRGICa ca atoseectcsessses 1 Carychiuml > 7.-%.-+... 1

The fresh-water shells belong to these genera and sub
)genera :—

MAMAN GEA... cece scien a ranavO MGW CTIA cacmssssateesesess 1 Unio, sp. and vars. ... 20
Amphipeplea ......... 2 Neritina, vars. ......... 3 Anodon, vars. ......... 20
TLV RE podtbodt enoaRmaenener 5 Paludina and Bithynia 23 Alasmodon ............ 3
ATIOR OY fecameacune'enease's 1 WWiallweitavaes saeccekis-telsscs 5 @yClasr schevacvescomure: 6
IPTAMOLDISS wencscilsastseie 16 Conovulus (Alexia)... 3 JEW GRITEEN © Séqodecobedonsc 11
PATYCVUS te vesinniceieies(desies 7 DTICSSENA . 2... .0000 IL

According to Reeve, there are 199 British molluscs, of which
176 dwell on the land and 23 in the water. Of the species for-
merly thought pecuhar, Pupa anglica and Helix fusca have been
\found in France, and Helix lamellata in Holstein. Helix excavata
(Bean) is still unknown upon the Continent; and Geomalacus
maculosus and Limnea involuta have only been met with in
‘the south-west of Ireland, but are possibly Lusitanian species.
| Dreisena polymorpha has heen permanently naturalised in canals
(. 424), and Testacella Maugei and haliotidea in gardens; Bu-
lamus decollatus and Goodalli have been often established in
‘greenhouses. Some species are now very scarce in England

that were formerly abundant, as :—

Clausilia plicatula. Vertigo Venetzii. Succinea oblonga.
Vertigo minutissima. Helix lamellata Acicula fusca.

_ Others, which occur in the newer tertiary deposits, have
become quite extinct in England, such as :—

| * The mean temperature of the winter and summer months averages 36°—57°; in
‘Western Europe autumn rains prevail, and summer rains in Eastern Europe and
‘Siberia.

7 It was the opinion of Professor E. Forbes that ail the species of the Post-pliocene
land of Northern Europe and Asia had originated beyond the bounds of that region.

90 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Helix fruticum, living in France and Sweden.

as TUGEFALAS. «css .cc0tsescek Germany.

», labyrinthica (Eocene) New England.
Paludina marginata ......... France.
Corbicula consobrina ......... Egypt and India.
Wniowittoralis.s-c-eesseese ere France and Spain.

On the other hand, some of the commonest living species
have not been found fossil; e.g. Heliw aspersa, pomatia, and
eantiana. Several genera only occur fossil in the older ter-
tiaries, viz. :—

Glandina. Cyclotus. Nematura.
Proserpina, Megalomastoma, Melania.
Cylindrella, Craspedopoma. Melanopsis.

The following estimates haye been made of the number
of air-breathing molluscs inhabiting the various countries of
Europe :—

France, 202 (176 land, 26 fresh-water), Moguin Tandon.

Dalmatia, 202(197 ,, 5 a5 ), Bellottz.

Denmark, 95 (72 ,, 23 a ), Morch.

Norway, 52(36 ,, 16 ss ), Martens and Friele.

Finland, 41(23 ,, 26 3 ), Nylander and Nordenskjold.
Hapland, 16 (10 —,. 46 a ), Wallenberg. '

This table seems to show that the Pulmonifera are most
numerous in the warmest parts of Europe, and that their
numbers decline, as far as species are concerned, as we ap-
proach the Polar regions. Thus, in the Mediterranean area
there are 800 species, in Germany 200, in Norway 50, in Lap-
land 16. Hitherto, only 23 species have been obtained from
European countries north of the Arctic circle. The most
northerly species are Limnca palustris, Physa fontinalis, Physa
hypnorum, and Succinea putris.

Dr. Middendorff gives the following list of Siberian shells in
his Sibirische Reise (Band II. th. 1. Petersb. 1851) :—

Helix carthusiana, Irkutsk. Limnea stagnalis, Bernaul, Irkutsk,
» Schrenkii, M. Tunguska, 58°. 55 palustris, es 3
» hispida, Beresov. Bernaul. x9 truncatula, ,, Tomsk,
», ruderata, Stanowoj Mtn. AA leucostoma, Irkutsk.
5» pura, A Physa hypnorum, Bernaul; Taimyrlance
s» Ssub-personata, ,,; Ochotsk. Planorbis corneus, Bernaul; Beresov;
Pupa muscorum, Bernaul. Kirgisensteppe, Altai.
Zua lubrica, 35 Planorbis complanatus, Altai,
Succinea putris, 3+; Irkutsk. 95 albus, Bernaul, ,,
Limnza Gebleri, M. Bernaul. “5 contortus, 4,
4 auricularia, Nertschinsk. = vortex, 33
+ ovata, Bernaul. + leucostoma, ,,

a Kamtschatica, Mid. a nitidus, Irkutsk.
+ peregra, Bernaul, Beresov. Bithynia tentaculata, Bernaul.

LUSITANIAN REGION. 91

_ Bithynia Kickxii, R. Ami, Altai. Anodon anatinus, Tunguska.
Valvata cristata, var. Sibirica, Bernaul, a cellensis var. Beringiana, Kamt-
Beresov ; Kamtschatka. schatka,
55 piscinalis, R. Ami. Cyclas calyculata, Bernaul, R. Lena, R.
Unio complanatus Kamtschatka, Ami, 8S. Kamts.
», Dahusicus, Mid. Schilka. Pisidium fontinale, Beresov.
» Mongolicus, M. Gorbitza, Dauria. 55 obliquum, Bernaul, Tomsk.

Anodon herculeus, M. Scharanai.

2. LUSITANIAN REGION.

The countries bordering the Mediterranean, with Switzerland,
Austria, and Hungary, the Crimea (Taurida), and Caucasus,
form a great province (or rather cluster of provinces) to which
Professor H. Forbes applied the term Lusitanian. The Canaries,
Azores, and Madeira are outlying fragments of the same region.*

In Southern Europe about 600 land-snails are found, of
which above 100 are also spread over the Germanic region and
Siberia; and 20 or 30 are common to Northern Africa. Besides
these 60 others are found in Algeria and Egypt, 100 in Asia
Minor and Syria, and 135 in the Atlantic Islands, making a
‘total of nearly 900 species of Helicidce.+

Of the 12 species of Zonites (proper) 10 are peculiar to
Lusitania.

The species of Bulimus, Achatina, and Pupa are small and
minute, belonging to the sub-genera Bulimulus, Cionella, Zua,
Azeca, Vertigo, &c.; 4 (of which 2 are Algerian) have been
referred to Glandina. |

In this region are also found 22 species of Cyclostomidee and
44 Limacidee :—

AELOLIX eecasahiscacsces ess « 392 Waiting) oe. chsenecccees 11 @ryptellasetneeetecssse 1
BS UNTINIUS eeneaeeeesy -lesee= 80 Daudebardia............ 3 Cyclostoma ............ 5
DUGCIM EG Aimee nt encevecs 8 Helicolimax ............ 3 Craspedopoma ......... 3
Achatina ............... 25 PBiMAK ae castdsecaeee: 28 Pomatias .............. 10
Tornatellina ............ 3 ATION (eone Citeriecaeceee- ee 7 PN GIG), cchoacanccosabccce 4
MB ACA a sissnce secs saelsses 4 Phosphorax ............ 1 ae

IPDS cncescmasccsccsetar ss 120 Mestacellaleeeacerctses 2 Carychium ....... gecce: | 8
Clausiliang it shies.-scce 247 Parmacella (2s......-+. 5

The fresh-water are shells of the same genera as in the Ger-
manic province, and the numbers about the same; with the addi-
tion of several species of Melania, Melanopsis, Lithoglyphus, and
Cyrena. Melanopsis buccinoides is found in Spain, Algeria, and

* In the South of Europe rain seldom falls in summer, but is frequent at other
seasons, especially in winter. The mean temperature is 549°—72°.

7 The writer is greatly indebted to W. H. Benson, Esq., for information respecting
the land-shells of the Lusitanian province, Africa, and the remote islands.

+ Many of these cannot be considered species, in the sense here understood, but only
as races, or geographical varieties.

92 MANUAL OF THE MOLZUSOA.

Syria, having become extinct in the intervening countries. Two
species of Lithoglyphus inhabit the Danube; Cyrena (Corbicula)
Panormitana is found in Sicily, two others in the Huphrates,
and C. consobrina in the Alexandrian Canal.

The Lusitanian province includes numerous minor regions,.
the islands and mountain tracts especially being centres or foct
where a number of peculiar species are associated with those
living around. Thus, of species not as yet recorded from other
localities, Switzerland has 28, the Austrian Alps 46, Carpa-
thians 28, North Italy and Dalmatia 100, Roumelia 20, Greeee
and its Archipelago 90, Anatolia 50, Caucasia 20, Syria 30,
Lower Egypt and Algeria 60, Spain 26, and Portugal 15
Helicide and 9 Limacide.

Mediterranean Islands.

Corfu, Cyprus, Rhodes, Syra, Candia, and Crete, have each a
few peculiar land-snails, amounting to 40 species altogether.

Balearic Isles.—Helix Graellsiana, hispanica (var. balerica),
nyellii, minoricensis ; and Cyclostoma ferrugineum, common to
Spain and Algeria.

Corsica.—Helix Raspaili, tristis, Clausilia 4 sp.

Sardinia.—Hehx Sardiensis, meda, tenui-costata, Pupa 2,
Clausilia 1.

Malta has 2 peculiar species of Helix, and a Clausilia (scalaris).

Sicila ly has 40 peculiar species of Helices and 3 Limaces. This
island is connected with North Africa by a winding shoal with
deep water on each side.

Madeira Group.

These ancient volcanic islands, 660 miles south-west of Por--
tugal, consist of Madeira, with Fora and three other islets called
Dezertas, and Porto Santo, 26 miles to the north-east, with the
rocky islets Ferro, Baxo, and Cima.* The land-snails have
been described by the Rey. R. T. Lowe,}+ and form the sub-
ject of a monograph by Dr. Albers.{ The investigations of
Mr. Vernon Wollaston have nearly doubled the number of
known species, which now amount to 134. The Vitrine belong

* These islands, and also the Canaries and Azores, contain marine formations
(volcanic grits and tufas) with Miocene Tertiary shells. The islet of Baxo is quarried
for lime.

} Primitiz et novitize Faune et Flore Madere et Portus Sancti. 12mo. Lond., 1851+
Descriptive list of all the species, by same author, Zool. Proc. for 1854, p. 161. The
statements and numbers given above are taken from this last monograph, corrected by
2d, Wollaston.

{ Malacographia Maderensis, 4to. Berlin, 1854, with figures of all the specics.

LUSITANIAN REGION. 93

to the section Helico-limax, the Cyclostomas to the sub-genus
Craspedopoma, and half the Pupas to Vertigo.

FATION ...--s000cstees SWIMS) Ceres. se 2 Cionella ..... spon) LagbaahTES), asec 1
PTIMNAXS Fie ssceses 4 Glandina......... WONT EAR Oe once teste ers Zo PAM GY IISieenesee sane aKk
Testacella ......... OF VAWEC Ay Sto. ea ss Sul alee eens ¥ ‘@onovalus 4-2--.-- 3
SUATTING, |. cccetsce-<: 8 Tornatellina ..... NOC laste weeer esse 3 Pedipes (afra.)... 1
VGTING Gs vesevesss MOMAZUA ce secesccesoe 2 Cyclostoma...... 2

Of the 92 found in Madeira or the Dezertas, 70 are peculiar ;
54, of which 39 are peculiar, inhabit Porto Santo and its islets;
11 others, of which 4 are widely diffused, are common to,Madeira
and Porto Santo. One species is peculiar to the Dezerta Grande;
1 species and 1 variety to the southern Dezerta (Bugio); 1 to
the northern (Cho); 1 variety to Ferro. Seven species are
common to the Dezertas; 1 to the great and northern Dezertas;
5 to Madeira and Dezerta Grande; and 3 to Madeira, Porto
Santo, and the Dezertas. Of those species which inhabit more
than one island, the specimens from each locality are recog-
nisable as distinct races or geographichal varieties. Helix sub-
plicata and papilio are found on the Ilheo Baxo; H. turricula on
Cima. Of the total number (134) 112 species are peculiar to the
Madeira group; 5 are common to the Canaries; 4 to the Azores,
and one to the Guinea coast; 11 are common to Southern Europe,
besides 2 Limneids and 7 slugs, which may have been recently
introduced, viz. :-—

Arion empiricorum. Helix cellaria. Zua lubrica, var.
Limax variegatus. 5 cerystallina. » folliculus.
» antiquorum., 5 pisana. Bulimus decollatus.
> agrestis. 5, pulchella, oa ventrosus, Fer.
>» gagates. » lenticula. Balea perversa (p. 293).
Testacella Maugei. (,, lapicida, fossil). Limnea truncatula.
a haliotidea. — . Cionella acicula. Ancylus fluviatilis.

Great quantities of dead shells of the land-snails-are found in
ancient sand-dunes near Canical, at the eastern extremity of
Madeira, and in Porto Santo, including 64 of the’ living species
and 13 which have not been.found alive. As the fossil examples
of several species are larger than their living descendants, it
is possible that some of those reputed to be extinct have only
degenerated. It is a remarkable fact that some of the com-
monest living species are not found fossil, whilst others, now
extremely scarce, occur abundantly as fossils.*

* Heliz tarella, W. and B., was supposed to be extinct, but in 1855 Mr. Wollaston
detected it alive in two almost inaccessible spots on the north coast of Madeira: it is
not a native of the Canaries.

94 _ MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Extinct Land-snails of Madeira,

Helix delphinula, Lowe. M.
5 arcinella, Lowe. P.
» coronula, Lowe. S. Deserta.
vermetiformis, Lowe. P.
Lowei, Fer. (porto-sanctana, var.?). P.
fluctuosa, Lowe (= chrysomela, Lowe). P.
»» psammophora, Lowe (phlebophora var. ?). P.
Bowdichiana, Fer. (punctulata, major ?), M. P.
Gavan cylichna, Lowe. P. Santo.
Cionella eulima, Lowe. P.
Pupa linearis, Lowe. M. (= minutissima, Hartm ?).
e >, abbreviata, Lowe. M.

The problem of the colonisation of these islands receives ad-
ditional light from the circumstances noticed at other oceanic
islands, especially the Canaries and St. Helena. There is evi-
dence that this mountain group has not arisen newly from the
sea, and great probability that it has become insulated by
the subsidence of the surrounding land.* The character and
arrangement of its fauna is probably nearly the same now as
when it formed part of a continent, and the diminution of its
land-shells in variety and size may be the result of a modern
change of physical conditions brought about by human agency,
as at St. Helena. The annual fall of rain is now 29°82 inches,
whereas it was remarked by Columbus, three hundred and fifty
years ago, ‘‘that, formerly, the quantity of rain was as great in
Madeira, the Canaries, and the Azores, as in Jamaica, but since
the trees which shaded the ground had been cut down, rain had
become much more rare.t

The Azores are a group of 9 volcanic islands, 800 miles west
of Lisbon, the loftiest being Pico, 7,613 feet. The number of
land-shells have been recently increased to 68 by Morelet and
others,—including Limax 4, Arion 3, Testacella 1, Vitrina 7,
Helix 30, Bulimus 10, Zua 1, Pupa 8, Balea 1, Auricula 3. Of
these 28 are found in Europe, 7 in Madeira, 4 in the Canary
Islands, and the remaining 29 are peculiar.

The Canary Islands are sixty miles west of Africa, with a
temperature of 60°—66° in the coolest half year, and 78°—87°
in the hottest. The land-snails are about 80 in number, in-
cluding Heliz 50, Nanina 1, Vitrina 3, Bulimus 16, Achatina 3,
Pupa 56, Limax 1, Phosphorax 1, Testacella 2, Cryptella1, and

* See the observations of Mr. James Smith, and of Sir C. Lyell and Mr. Hartung
(Geol. Jour. 1854),

7 Cosmos, ii. 660, Bohn ed. It seems likely that Jamaica itself has since undergone
a similar change; the fall of rain is stated to be 49:12, whilst in the neighbouring
islands it exceeds 100 inches,

LUSITANIAN REGION: 95

4 Cyclostomide. Of these, 60 are peculiar, 12 are common to
Southern Europe, and 4 to the West Indies? 1 to Morocco, 1 to

————————_ —

Algeria (also European), and 1 to Egypt. The fresh-water
shells are Physa 2, Ancylus 1.

Heliz ustulata and McAndrei are peculiar to the rocky islets
known as the “‘Salvages,”’ north of the Canaries.

The absence of Western African land-shells, and the presence

of West Indian species may be explained by the currents which

come from the Antilles, as shown on the map.* Some of the
European species may have been introduced (e.g., Helix lactea,
pisana, cellaria); but the presence of 20 Lusitanian species, in a

total of 80, is too remarkable to be accidental.

The Cape de Verde Islands, although much farther to the south,
are also much farther from the continent, being 320 miles west
of Cape de Verde; the mean temperature is 65°—70°, and the
vegetation, as Dr. Christian Smith remarked, is more like that
of the Mediterranean coast than West Africa. Of the 12 land-
shells, two are common to the Canaries and Azores.

Lusitanian Species of Wide Distribution.

Helix amanda, Sicily—Palma.

» Planata, Morocco—Canaries.

, lenticula, S. Europe—Muadeira—Canaries.

» rozeti, Sicily, Morea—Algeria—C. de Verde—Canaries.

», lanuginosa, Majorca—Algeria—Palma.

» simulata, Syria—Egypt—Lancerotte.

» Michaudi, summit of Porto Santo—Teneriffe ?

» eyclodon, Azores—Canaries—C. de Verdes.

», advena, (= erubescens Lowe), Madeira—Azores—St. Vincent.

pliearia and planorbella, Canartes—Porto Rico?

Baten subdiaphanus, Canaries—Azores—C. de Verdes.

. 5 beeticatus and badiosus, Canaries—St. Thomas ?

Ascension.—This barren volcanic island, in the midst of the

_ Atlantic Ocean, is not known to possess any terrestrial Pulmoni-
| fera beside a slug, the Limax Ascensionis. Mr. Benson thinks
that some Helicide might possibly be found on the Green

Mountain, 2,840 feet high, where the garrison have their gar-
dens. Mr. Darwin remarks ‘‘ we may feel sure that at some
former epoch, the climate and productions of Ascension were
very different from what they now are.”

St. Helena (No. 28 of Map).
The island of St. Helena is 800 miles S.E. of Ascension, and
1200 from the nearest African coast of Benguela. It is entirely

* Long before the discovery of America it was observed that the westerly gales

washed ashore stems of bamboos, trunks of pines, and even diving men im canoes.—
Humboldt, ii. p. 462.

96 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

volcanic. The indigenous plants are all peculiar, and not more
related to those of Western Africa than to Brazil.* The land
shells are also peculiar ; 13 species have been described, viz. -—
Helix, “ sp, Bulimus 5, Achatina 2, Pupa 1, Succinea (Helisiga)
2. As many more have been met with only in the condition of
dead shells, rarely retaining their colour and translucency.
They are found beneath the surface-soil in the sides of ravines
worn by the heavy rains, at a height of 1,200 to 1,700 feet.
‘Their extinction has probably been caused by the entire de-
struction of the woods, and the consequent loss of food and
shelter, which occurred during the early part of last century.”
(Darwin’s Journal, p. 488.) A living Bulimus, related to the
extinct B. Blofieldi, is found feeding on the cabbage-trees, only
on the highest points of the island.

Extinct Land-shells of St. Helena.+

Bulimus auris vulpinus. Bulimus relegatus.
» Darwini. Helix bilamellata.
3 Blofteldi. » polyodon.
oo Sealei. » spurca.
5 subplicatus. 3» biplicata.
xD terebellum. 5,5 Alexandri.
ss fossilis. Succinea Bensoni.

The large Bulimus, (fig. 123, p. 291), has no living analogue in
Africa, but is a member of a group characteristic of tropical
America (to which the names Plecochilus, Pachyotis and Caprella
have been given), including B. signatus, B. bilabiatus, B. goni-
ostomus, and especially B. sulcatus (Chilonopsis, Fischer) of St.
Iago.{ The four next species belong to the same type, but are
smaller and slenderer. ‘‘ The marine mollusks of the coast of
St. Helena would lead us to infer the very ancient isolation of
that island, whilst at the same time a pre-existing closer
geographical relationship between the African and the American

* “Tt might perhaps have been expected that the examination of the vicinity of the
Congo would have thrown some light on the origin, if I may so express myself, of the
Flora of St. Helena. This, however, has not proved to be the case; for neither has a
single indigenous species, nor have any of the principal genera characterising the ©
vegetation of that island, been found either on the banks of the Congo, or on any other
part of this coast of Africa.”—R. Brown, Appendix to Captain Tuckey’s Narrative of
the Congo Expedition (p. 476). 1818.

+ G. Sowerby in Darwin's “ Volcanic Islands,’”’ p. 73. Forbes, Journ. Geol. Soc.
1852, p. 197.—Benson, An. Nat. Hist. 1851, vii. 263.

f~ As Dr. Pfeiffer includes this (with a sign of doubt) amongst the synonyms of
B. auris-vulpinus, he must have suspected that the specimens came from St. Helena
and not from St. Iago. The only other group of Bulimi resembling the St. Helena
sheils occurs in the Pacific Islands:—Bulimus Caledonicus at Mulgrave I., B. auris
zovine at the Solomons, and B. shongi in New Zealand.

CAPE REGION. 97

continents than now maintains is dimly indicated. The infor-
mation we haye obtained respecting the extinct and existing
terrestrial mollusks would seem to point in the samo direction,
and assuredly to indicate a closer geographical alliance between
St. Helena and the east coast of S. America than now holds.”’
(Forbes.)

Tristan d Acunha (No. 29 of Map).

Two peculiar species of Balea (Tristensis and ventricosus) are
found on this remote and lofty island, which attains an eleva-
tion of 8,236 feet.

3. AFRICAN REGION.

Tropical western Africa, with its hot swampy coasts and river
valleys is the region of the great Achatine and Achatina-like
Bulimi, the largest of all living land-snails. In 1863 the
numbers known were—Vitrina 4 sp., Streptaxis 7, Helix 30,
Pupa 5, Bulimus 50, Achatina 54, Succinea 3, and Perideris 18.
Streptaxis Recluziana inhabits the Guinea Islands. Helix Folini,
Bulimus numidicus and fastigiatus, Pupa crystallum and sorghum,
Achatina columna, striatella, and lotophaga are found on Princes
Island ; Pupa putilla on Goree Island ; Bulémus (Pseudachatina)
Downesi, Achatina iostoma and Glandina cerea at Fernando Po.
The reversed river-snail (Zanistes) is generally diffused in the
fresh waters of Africa; several species of Potamides and Vibex
are found in the embouchures of the western rivers and Pedipes
on the sea-shore. The fresh-water bivalves of Senegal are
similar to those of the Nile :—

Pisidium parasiticum, Egypt. Iridina exotica, Senegal.

Cyrenoides Duponti, Senegal. a rubens “5

Corbicula, 4 sp. Egypt. Pleiodon ovatus de

Tridina nilotica % Attheria semilunata ,, Nile.
or aegyptiaca ») Galatea radiata 35

4, CAPE REGION.

Dr. Krauss describes 41 species of land-snail from South
Africa, and Mr. Benson has furnished a list contaiming 22
others; these are all peculiar, except a Succinea, which appears
to be only a variety of the European S. putris, and two Huro-
pean Helices (H. cellaria and pulchella) probably imported to the
environs of the Cape. In 1863 they had raised the number to
about 90. There are also 3 slugs, 9 freshwater Pulmonifera, 7
marine Pulmonifera, 5 freshwater bivalves, and 5 univalves,

F

98 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The species found at the Cape, Algoa Bay, Natal, &c., are for
the most part different—Potamides decollatus, Clionella sinuata,
and an Assiminea inhabit brackish waters.

Limax 4 — —

ATION cc csceceasteonssees | Wonca] Daa V0: 31: eRpaNapeela 1 Paludina ......200-sssce 3
— IPiySaiesscccceeseeesiest nee NETitina.........cescecses 1

Witrinaieesssasecesscse. cs 4 PHYSOPSIS .......c0-0-008 1 —

MT G]IX Kereesyeetassse Tete Bon MAMGYIUSia..-.c.ccceraeste 1 Corbicula .......0..s0000 1

SUCCGINEA .......cceer00e 4 Planorbis .......c.cccwe 8 Cy Clasiis-ssseccssssesees 1

IBS UMIMIUS eecccersccces.-e Le — Pisidiuti) Ceesecessseeses 1

PUDAUes emcees coerce? 1G) 8) = VAPINUIUS Hrs esseresscot aL Wil1OWacssseeceateeee eer 1

EMBOESRITEY “so00c0 conoon | 7h Oncidiumeeersees--0-2- TACHI, seessecseesonsen 1

CyclostOMa ..eccccccrve 6 AULICUIA ......c0ceccee. 6

5. YEMEN—MADAGASCAR.

The S. W. Highlands of Arabia (Yemen) form a distinct
Botanical province isolated by rainless deserts to the north.
The land snails consist of a few species of Helix and Bulimus,
Cyclostoma lithidion, and 3 species of the section Otopoma, a
group also found in Madagascar. ‘Two species are common to
the island of Socotra (No. 30), which also has a species (of Pupd)
common to Madagascar. Bulimus guillaini, Cyclostoma gratum,
modestum and Souleyeti are found on the island of Abd-el-Gouri.

Very few land shells have been collected on the mainland of
Eastern Africa, although it is a rainy region, and well wooded
in the southern part; 5 species only are recorded from Moga-
doxa and Ibu, belonging to the genera Helix, Bulimulus, Acha-
tina, Pupa, and Otopoma. Onthe Island of Zanzibar are found
Achatina Rodatzt and allisa, Cyclostoma Creplini and Zangue-
barica ; Pupa cerea is common to Zanzibar and Madagascar.

Madagascar itself is rich in land shells; Dr. Pfeiffer enume-
rates— Helix 28 sp., Bulimus 6, Succinea 14, Pupa 1, Achatina 4
(one of which, eximia, is allied to A. Columna, of W. Africa),
and 32 Cyclostomide, chiefly of the section with spiral ridges
(Tropidophora), 3 of the division Otopoma. Cyclostoma carini-
ferum and Cuvieri are found on the Island of Nosse Be; Helix
guillaint on S. Maria I. Amongst the fresh-water shells are
Melania amarula, Melanatria fuminea, and Neritina corona.

The land shells of the Mascurene Islands are nearly all pecu-
liar; we are indebted to Mr. W. H. Benson for most of the
information existing in respect to them.

Comoro Islands.

Helix russeola and Achatina simpularia are found in Mayotte ;
Cyclostoma pyrostoma in Mayotte and Madagascar.

INDIAN REGION. 99

Seychelles (No. 31 of Map).

Parmacella Dussumieri. Bulimus ornatus.
Helix unidentata. és fulvicans.
>> studeri. Cyclostoma insulare.
»> souleyeti. 9 pulchrum,
5, Tranquebarica. Cyclotus conoideus.

Streptaxis Souleyeti.
Mauritius (32).

Parmacella perlucida. Helix Barclayi. Pupa Largillierti.
” Rangii. » odontina. Cyclostoma Barclayi.
oe mauritii. Vitrina angularis. 35 Michaudi.
Helix philyrina. Tornatellina cernica, op carinatum,
» inversicolor. Gibbus Antoni. A undulatum.
9» Stylodon. » Lyonneti. 5 insulare? -
» mauritiana. Succinea sp. Cyclotus conoideus ?
»» Mauritianella. Bulimus clavulinus. Otopoma Listeri,
» rawsoni. 5 Mauritianus. 1 hemastoma.
» semicerina. Pupa pagoda. Realia rubens.
» mucronata. » fusus. » aurantiaca.
» Hitella, » sulcata. » wmultilirata.
ae) Dulas » Clavulata. » expansilabris.
3) Similaris. »» Modiolus. » globosa.
» suifulta. » tfunicula. Megalomastoma croceum.
», albidens. ») versipolis.

Two large species of Achatina (fulica and panthera) abounding
in the coffee plantations, are believed to have been introduced.
The annual fall of rain in Mauritius is 35°25 inches.

Bourbon (No. 33).

Helix ceelatura. Helix tortula.
» etecta. » SBrandiana.
»9 delibata ? Pupa Largillierti—Mauritius.
Rodriguez.
Cyclostoma articulatum, Madagascar ? Streptaxis—pyriformis.

No. 34. Kerguelen’s Land. Welix Hookeri was collected at
this island when visited by the Antarctic Expedition.

6. INDIAN REGION.

Proceeding eastward, in Asia, the species of Achatina, Pupa,
Clausilia, Physa, Limax, and Oyclostoma rapidly diminish or
quite disappear. Helices of the section Nanina become plenti-
ful, amounting to 150 species, and Bulimulus and Cyclophorus
attain their maximum. Leptopoma, and Pupina are peculiar to
the Asiatic Islands.

_ Our catalogue of Indian land shells must be very imperfect,
including only about 180 Helicidee and 50 Cyclostomide. A very
F 2

100 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

few of the Indian species are common to China and the Asiatic
Islands, or even to Ceylon. The shells of northern India
resemble those of the Lusitanian region; in the south they
approximate more to the large and vividly coloured species of
the AsiaticIslands. In the Himalaya land shells are numerous,
and ascend as high as the region of Junipers and Rhododen-
drons, 4,000—10,000 feet above the sea.

TLC LiKe esveseatinces cess 83 Pipaieceeeresstccscesseas 7 Cyclopliorus .........06- 26.
IN AMINE Pee seeseseee te caee 46 Clausiliay vecarsceesceeces otk Leptopoma ............ IL
Ariophanta ........ ... 8 WARIO): decancsad eaeeacce 9 IPLeTOCY CLUS se.-a2 seers 10
SIME PIARIS)-ecsrares-ore<e 3 SUCCINGAlEac-esesstee tse 7 Cy Clots) ‘esses; cssrene sue
SS UNI Stee ecen erste ness 45 Parmacella: wee. caress. 2 Megalomastoma ...... 4
Achatina ............... 16 Cyclostoma, ........0.4 3 Diplommatina ......... 3

Parmacella and Vaginulus are found in India, and the typical
fresh-water species of Oncidiwm. Ordinary forms of Limnea
and Planorbis are abundant, and there is one species of Ancylus.
Physa occurs only in a fossil state, or is represented by the
singular Camptoceras of Benson. Hypostoma Boysis, Auricula
Jude, and Polydonta scarabeus are also Indian forms.

The gill-breathing fresh-water shells of India are very
numerous, especially the Melanias and Melanatrias, and species
of Pirena, Paludomus, Hemimitra (retusa), Ampullaria, Paludina,
Bithynia, Nematura (delte), Assiminea (fasciata), Neritina (par-
ticularly crepidularia and Smithii) and Navicella (tessellata).

The brackish-water species of Cerithidium, Terebralia, and
Pyrazus are mostly common to India and North Australia.

The fresh-water bivalves are a few ordinary forms of Unio,
3 species of Cyrena, a Corbicula (of which 6 species have been
made), Cyclas Indica, Arca scaphula, Glaucomya cerea, and Nova-
culina gangetica.

Ceylon. The land-shells of Ceylon have been investigated by
Mr. Benson ; they most resemble those of the Neilgherry hills,
but are nearly all specifically distinct, and even some of the
genera are peculiar. It seems entitled to rank as a province.
Helix Waltoni and Skinneri, are examples of the most charac-
teristic form of Helices; the Vitrini-form type (Nanina) is also
common. WH. iemastoma, one of the most conspicuous species,
found on trees at P. Galle, is common to the Nicobar Islands.
The Achatinas belong to a distinct section (Leptinaria, Beck),
also represented on the Continent. Some of the Bulimi approach
the Philippine forms.

WG )iXG ee cees. Ae ee tee 46 SUCGING Resi deedie tas 1 Plerocyclusicses--tee 5
INAMINGA ieetececsccocscssee 9 BUPA Wcstsoteccdescecsecce 3 AulOpoMa,......ec000-08 4
Vitti ieceteslmeccaseness 3 ZAGER RICE Be Sanco ceero 8 Leptopoma, .......ses0 5

Streptaxis ....ccccsceceee 2 Cyclophorus ...... s... 12 Catanlug eesscceecsserse 10

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 101

The fresh-water shells belong to the genera Limnza, Physa,
2 species (not found on the Continent); Planorbis, Melania,
Tanalia 10 (peculiar), Paludomus, Bithynia, Ampullaria, Neri-
tina, Navicella, Unio, and Cyrena.

At the Nicobar Islands are found—Cataulus tortuosus, Heli-
eina Nicobarica and Pupina Nicobarica. Helix castanea is from
Sumatra. (Beck.)

7. CHINA AND JAPAN.

The few land-snails known from China are of Indian and
_Lusitanian types; viz.—Helix 20, Nanina 10, Streptaxis 1,
_({Cochin-China), Bulimus 5, Achatina 2, Pupa 1, Clausilia 11,
Succinea 1, Helicarion 6, Cyclophorus 1, Cyclotus 1, Otopoma 1.
In the Island of Chusan Dr. Cantor discovered the genera
Lampania and Incilaria. The most characteristic bivalves are
Glaucomya Sinensis, and Symphynota plicata ; 3 species (or
varieties) of Cyrena and 9 Corbiculas are described by Deshayes,
and a Planorbis by Dunker.

In the Japanese and Loo-choo Islands only 9 species of Helix,
2 of Nanina, 2 of Clausilia, and 2 of Helicarion have been
hitherto obtained.

8. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.

The extraordinary richness of these islands has been developed
| mainly by the researches of Mr. Cuming. The Helicide (above
300) are inferior in number only to those of Lusitania and the
Antilles, and vastly superior in size and beauty of colouring.
‘The Cyclostomide (55) are not much fewer than in India. Nearly
all the species are confined to particular islands, and the repeti-
tion of forms makes it probable that many of them are geogra-
phical varieties. The climate is equable, with a temperature
like that of South China (66°—84°), woods are prevalent and
the rains heavy—all circumstances fayourable to the individual
abundance of land-snails.

gla cea 160); « Clausilia, |..s..0. 2055. Typ. Cyelotus’ ic..a-copeveure 6
) NATOMAS oo odedd cask ee 40 ViItTINE Cee seccssssenee 18 Megalomastoma ...... 1
EVENMCATION PS. .5s.c00%% 3 Cyclop.0rus ..........6. 15 IBUPINAMeeere severe oes 9
alice 105 Leptopoma ............ Gye) Elelicinay “svceae. cance 7

The Helices belong in great part to the section Callicochlias
(Ag.) and Helicostyla (mirabilis) Fér. Some with sharply-keeled
whorls have been called Geotrochi (Iberus of Albers). The
Bulimi are chiefly of the section Orthostylus (Beck), large and

102 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

highly coloured, with a hydrophanous epidermis, the bands be-
coming translucent when wetted; others, like the well-known
B. perversus, represent the typical Brazilian forms. To these
islands belong most of the helicina-shaped Cyclophori (Lepto-
poma.

The fresh-water shells are numerous; above 100 were obtained
by Mr. Cuming, including many species of Melania (54 ?), Navi-
cella lineata, and suborbicularis, 5 species of Glaucomya, Unio
verecundus, a Corbicula, and 11 sp. (?) of Cyrena.

Celebes and Moluccas. From these islands we haye on record,
at present, 16 species of Helix, Nanina 19, Bulimus 3, Vitrina
2 (viridis and flammulata, Quoy), Cyclophorus 1. In the
fresh-water ponds and rivulets Mr. A. Adams found species of
Melania, Assiminea, Ampullaria, and Navicella; Auricula
subulata and Conovulus leucodon. Neritina sulcata was found
on the foliage of trees several hundred yards from the water.

9. JAVA.

The Java group, including Floris and Timor, have been par-
tially explored from the head-quarters of the Dutch settlement
at Batavia. The land and fresh-water shells are nearly all
peculiar, a few only being common to the Philippines and North
Australia; they have been described and figured by M. Albert
Mousson (8vo. Zurich, 1849, 22 plates).

WG1IK pcaccecscceseccsssses 15 Platycloster? ......... 3 INAVIGE lay ecceseciec sae
Nanina ..........00.00006 8 Meghimatium ......... 2 —
Ariophanta ............ 1 — Winio and Wiss. s.8
SR TINTS eee eee iae-'sonis- LOWS CMAN ea esses ene tae 1 Symphynota......... t 4
Clausilia ..............6 6 ATIVIGUIAN gee eerpeess secs’ 2 Alasmodon .........06 2
Cyclophorus ............ 4 — ATIGM ON so sceceessers secs 1
@yclotus .-..--5s--<6 2.) SMelanianisecceccer-cs By mn VON ceveccsesmeseacee 7
Leptopoma ............ 1 Ampullaria ............ 1 Corbicula .......... betee nek
Parmacella .......... 3 ING WLR ececeocascas3006 2

10. BoRNEO.

The land shells of this great island are almost unknown, and
the only reason for mentioning it separately is the doubt whether
it should be considered part of the Javanese Province, or asso-
ciated with the Moluccas and Philippines.

VC]IX ; cscs cease scscacenee 12 IPAXOUS).ccscscccsescces 1 Leptopoma .........00. 3
INATINA pevccceeeccesceets 8 Succinea ............... 2 Cy Clottsy eoncsesstcee =< 1
PB OMNISeeeeeeene se ects ae 1 Cyclophorus ..........+. 2 IPLCTOGY CUS peeeeeeeee eee 2

The fresh-water bivalves are Glaucomya rostralis, Corbicula
tumida, and Cyrena triangularis. Pholas rivicola was found

AUSTRALIAN REGION. 103

|. burrowing in floating logs used as landing places, 12 miles from
the sea, up the Pantai river. The mangrove swamps abound
_ with Cerithidium, Terebralia Telescopium, Potamides palustris,
and Quoyia; Auricula Midae and Polydonta scarabeeus inhabit
_ the damp woods.

11. Papua AND NEW IRELAND.

The land shells of New Guinea are nearly all distinct from
_ those of the Philippines and Moluccas, and include some related
to the Polynesian types. The Louisiade Islands to the south-
east and New Ireland on the north of New Guinea are included
with it.

13 (olnb.ct ca ae AS Sane 30 Partularcsceveseccneosee 3 Leptopoma, ............ 1
INATING. ..c0cccs00se600. i IPUPIN Ge cce.se-vescecees 3 Cy clotus) js.c2es-.0s-ce- 1
ISTHMUS, cc. sco saccsesesss 2 Otopomay c.e-cseseeeee a IVC CING Se. eewenniceses 2

Cyrene are numerous in this region. Cyclostoma australe is
common to the Australian Islands and New Ireland; C. Massence
~to Australia and New Guinea, and C. Vitreum to New Ireland,
New Guinea, the Philippines, and India.

12. AUSTRALIAN REGION.

Both fauna and flora of Tropical Australia are distinct from
those of New South Wales and Tasmania, the principal barrier
being the desert character of the interior; but the localities of
the land shells have not been defined with sufficient accuracy to
show whether they are equally distinct. The most complete list
is given by Prof. EH. Forbes, in the Appendix to McGillivray’s
Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake (1846-50) ; it
specifies 48 Helices (of which H. pomum is the most conspicuous),
10 Bulimi, an Achatina, 6 Vitrinas (Helicarion) belonging to the
mainland, and one from the Lizard Islands, and a dextral Balea
(australis). Pupa and Helicina (Gouldiana) are only found on
the islets off the north-east coast, and Pupina (bilinguis) at Cape
York and the adjacent islets; a portion of the province which is
densely wooded, and lies within the rain region of the Asiatic
Islands. Cyclostoma bilabre of Menke’s Catalogue is probably
West Indian. The fresh-water shells of Australia are Planorbis
Gilberti, Iridinae ? (Victoria R.), Unio auratus, cucwmoides, super-
bus (Hyridella), australis, Corbicula 4 species, Cyrena 3, Cyclas
egregia (Hunter R.), Pisidiwm semen and australe, the last common
to Timor.

_More recently Cox has described 178 species, belonging prin-

104 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. —

cipally to East Australia. He notices, Helix 133, Vitrina 17,
Succinea, 12, Bulimus 17, Pupa 6, Balea 1, and others belonging
to genera Triboniophorus, Limax, and Planorbis.

13. SoutH AUSTRALIA AND TASMANIA.

From extra-tropical Australia we have the following :—
Helix 9, Helicarion 2, Bulimus 2, Succinea 1 (common to Swan
River and Tasmania), Limax olivaceus, and one Ancylus. Two
of the largest land snails, Helia Cunninghami and Falconeri, are
found in New South Wales. The coasts of this region are
thinly wooded, but much of it is rendered desert by want of
rain; in New South Wales droughts recur at intervals of twelve
years, and sometimes last three years, during which time scarcely
any rain falls.

14. NEw ZEALAND.

The moist and equable climate of these islands (which have a
mean temperature of 61°—63°) is favourable to the existence of
numerous land-snails. Nearly 100 species of land and fresh-
water shells are already determined, and are all peculiar; the
genus Helix musters 60 species, some of which, including the
great H. Busbyi, resemble in shape the European Helicellae ;
Bulimus 3, Balea (peregrina), Vitrina 2 of peculiar form, Tor-
natellina 1, Cyclophorus cytora, and Omphalotropis egea.
There are two slugs, Limax antipodarum and Janella bitenta-
culata ; two fresh-water pulmonifera, Physa variabilis and Latia
neritoides ; several marine air-breathers,—Oncidium (Peronia) 2,
Siphonaria 3, Amphibola 1 (avellana). The other fresh-water -
shells are Melanopsis trifasciatus (a Lusitanian type), Assiminea
antipodarum and Zelandize, Amnicola ? corolla, Cyclas Zelandia,
and Unio Menziesii and Aucklandicus.

Vitrina zebra is found at the Auckland Islands.

15. POLYNESIAN REGION.

The Pacific Islands are partly the volcanic summits of sub-
merged mountain ranges, usually fringed or surrounded with
coral reefs; and partly atolls or lagoon islands, scarcely rising
above the sea, and presenting no vestige of the rock on which
they are based. The low coral islands form a long stream of
archipelagos, commencing in the west with the Pelews, Caro-
lines, Radack, Gilbert, and Ellice groups, then scattered over a
wider space, and ending eastwards in the Low Archipelago:

POLYNESIAN REGION. 105

they are chiefly, perhaps entirely, colonised by drift from the
other islands.

The volcanic groups are the Ladrones, Sandwich Islands, and
Marquesas, to the north of the low coral zone; and to the south
of it, the Salomons, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and Feejees
—the Friendly Islands, Navigator’s and Cook’s Islands—Society
and Austral Islands, ending with Pitcairn’s and Elizabeth
Island. Many of these are very lofty. Their molluscan fauna
is entirely peculiar, but it has most affinity with those of New
Zealand and the Asiatic Islands, and great analogy with those
of St. Helena, Brazil, and the West Indies.

Salomons—New Hebrides—New Caledonia—Feejees.

_ The most remarkable land-shells of these islands are the great
auriculoid, Bulimi (e.g. B. auris-bovine and B. miltochlius of
the Salomons). Acicula striata and 2 sp. of Cyrena are found
at Vanicoro; and Physa sinuata, Peronia acinosa and corpulenta,
_and several Neritinas and coronated Melanias, have been ob-
tained at the Feejees.*

Mehisxc Jdsu: gs bch. gs 4. 1S Fey BniINUS i 25.6). 3 copious es 10 Cyclopharus ............ 2
NAMI: Ree sod sche Soe 2 Parti Aiecees seek ceeee 6 Omphalotropis ......... 1
NTEEIITA Hr eseeee soetise sec ue 6 INGGTIEY Gee srobocospeue 1 18 GIGI ie enor tacodde 6

Friendly Islands— Navigator’ s—Society Islands.

The principal lofty and rocky islands of the southern Pacific,
at which land shells have been obtained, are Tonga, Samoa,
Upolu, and Manua; Tahiti, Oheteroa, and Opara; Pitcairn’s
Island and Elizabeth Island. Each appears to have some pecu-
‘liar species and some common to other islands; the little raised
eoral islet Aurora (Metia), north-east of Tahiti, 250 feet in ele-
vation, has four land-snails which have been found nowhere
else— Helix pertenuis, dedalea, Partula pusilla, Helicina trochlea.
‘‘Samoa and the Friendly Islands must have intimate geo-
logical relations; the same forms, and many of the same species
of land shells, occur on both groups; not a single Feejeean
species was collected on either.” (Gould.)

PERCHA Gs tree estes otecasis 13 Tornatellina ............ 6 Cyclophorus ..........+ 5
INANINA LSS. ks. icc. 18 Pipa ys Muses Mdieksbikss 3 Omphalotropis ......... 6
PESO See seiscn hs Sutstes ie 1 SUuCCINEAN. czdessnet ees: 12 TC ICIM as a eeseeds oseeee 13
PAPUA shee aacbece cs sac'sce 15 HLCCHING) <...crenccee 1

The fluviatile shells are species of Physa, Melania, Assiminea

* The Feejees (Viti) are more nearly allied fo the westward islands, such as the
New Hebrides, than the Friendly Islands. Succinea and FPartula, so plentiful at the
latter, are not found at the Feejees. (Gould, U.S. Exploring Expedition).

F3

106 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

(Taheitana\) Neritina, and Navicella; the two last being often
littoral, or even marine, in their habit.

Low Coral Islands.

The Atolls, or lagoon-islands, are less prolific: 2 Helices and
2 Partule are found at Oualan, in the Caroline Archipelago ;
and from Chain Island (Annaa), the centre of commerce in the
eastern Archipelago, have been obtained—AHelix 2 sp., Nanina 1,
Partula 1, Tornatellina 1, Cyclophorus 1, and Melampus mucro-
Matus.

Sandwich Islands.

The land shells of these islands exceed 200, and are all, or
nearly all, peculiar: there is one Zimaz ; and in the fresh waters
are found Limneea volutatrix, Physa reticulata (Gould), Neritopsis ?
Neritina Nuttalli and undata, and Unio contradens (Lea).

In the I. Kaui, two species of Achatina have been found:
the Achatinelle are elongated (Leptachatina, G.) and the Helices
planorboid and multispiral. In Molokai the Achatinelle are
large and coloured. In Maui and Oahu the Helices are small
and glabrous, or hispid, ribbed, and toothed. In Hawaii, Suc-
cineas prevail, and Achatinellae are rare. (Gould.) The large
number of Achatinellae is partly due to this group haying been
specially studied by Judge Cooper of America.

PET OS, <8 5 fekeea eet eases 20)7 srAichatina Re.seseeeee- 5 PUPS ccoddevsestaseenccuae 2
INaninay.o..seceeseecess« 5 Achatinella ............204 Witting foc. -.atorae meee
BuLIMUS.,<.. 20200000206 5 Tornatellina............ 3 Succinea .......0c.. LO
PALMA seer serescasecces 4 Balea.scheccecsnastetanaes 1 Helicina ..icseeseesseee 6

The Island.of Guam, Ladrones, has 3 sp. of Partula, 2 of
Achatinella, and 1 Omphalotropis. At the Marquesas have been
found 3 sp. of Nanina, 1 Partula, and 1 Helicina.

NEW WORLD.
16. CANADIAN REGION.

The country drained by the Great Lakes and the river St.
Lawrence possesses very few peculiar shells, and these mostly
of fresh-water genera. It is chiefly remarkable for the presence
of afew European species, which strengthen the evidence before
alluded to (p. 60) of a land-way across the north Atlantic
haying remained till after the epoch of the existing animals and
plants.*

* For example, the common Heather ( Calluna vulgaris), one of the most abundant
social plants of Europe, characteristic of the moorland zone, and seldom rising above

ATLANTIC STATES, 107

Helix hortensis (imported), coast of New England and banks of St. Lawrence.
» pulchella (smooth var. only), Boston, Ohio, Missouri.
Helicella cellaria (glaphyra, Say ?), N. E. and middle pune.
» pura, nitida, and fulva?
Zua lubrica, North West Territory.
Succinea amphibia (= campestris, Say ?).
Limax agrestis (= tunicatus, G.), Mass.
» Havus, New York, introduced,
Vitrina pellucida (= Americana?) Limnea palustris (= elodes, Say ?).
Arion hortensis, New York (Dekay.) y» truncatula (= desidiosa?),
Aplexa hypnorum (= elongata, Say ?).
Auricula deticulata, Mont., New York Harbour.
Alasmodon margaritiferus (= arcuatus, Barnes).
Anodon cygneus (= fluviatilis, Lea ?).

The shells proper to Canada, or derived from the adjoining
States, are only 6 sp. of Helix, 2 Succineas, and 1 Pupa; 8 sp.
of Cyclas have been obtained from the region of Lake Superior.

The following species occur in New England :—

PTOI Rev ceeictyeosistics USy ABH Saicciascecsssoescssess She AUMIGL Re iosvestsccsses noon
NUGCINER neces eden <> Ab PIaNOLpis| ¢......s0s-26 . 11 ~~ Alasmodon ............ 2
FEUD: aacckwesesscscsccrcos 7 BaluGing. ...cc.sevesenen de | pAMOM ONES qecessertacaac 2
MMN BA. yn .scccpsonses 7 IVAW ALAN Sco ccse cence one 2 Cyclasm savnsiccscsecstoss 6
ANCYLUS..........00c000e Mey eR MULICUIA) ccs 6c3 ce ocaes 1 Pisidium ...........006 1

Carychium exiguum, Say, is found in Vermont, and Limnea
(Acella) gracilis in Lake Champlain; Valvata tricarinata and
Paludina decisa are characteristic forms.

The genera Clausilia and Cyclostoma are entirely wanting in
Canada and the Northern States. The Zimacide are represented.
by Philomycus, of which there are 9 reputed species, ranging
from Massachusetts to Kentucky and South Carolina.

17, ATLANTIC STATES,

The parallel of 36° N. lat. forms the boundary-line of two
botanical regions in the United States; but the evidence of the
fresh-water shells, in which they are particularly rich, seems
to favour a division into two hydrographical provinces—the
region of the Atlantic streams and the basin of the Mississippi.
About 50 fresh-water Pulmonifera, 150 pectinibranchiata, and
250 bivalves, are reputed to be found in the States, and it is
supposed that only a few species are common to both sides of
the Alleghanies. Cyclas mirabilis, Pisidium Virginicum, Cyrena
3,000 feet on the mountains of Scotland. (Watson.) According to Pallas it abounds
on the western flanks of the Ural Mountains, but disappears on their eastern side, and
is not found in Siberia. In the Pliocene period it appears to haye spread itself north-

ward and westward to Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland, where it still grows,
the only heath indigenous to the New World. (Humboidt.)

108 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Carolinensis, and Unio complanatus and radiatus, are character-
‘istic of the eastern rivers; Melania depygis is said to be the
only member of that large genus found eastward of the Hudson
River. Of the American land-snails, 29 sp. of Helix, 6 Suc-
cineas, and 13 Pupas are enumerated from the Atlantic States.
In Florida the propinquity of the West Indian fauna is strongly
indicated by the occurrence of the great Glandina truncata, by
species of Cylindrella, and a Helicina. A Cuban species of
Chondropoma (C. dentatum) is also said to occur in Florida, and
Ampullaria depressa in Florida and Georgia.

The Pulmonifera of North America haye been carefully exa-
mined by Messrs. Binney,* Bland,+ and others. The following
summary of North American Pulmoniferais given by Mr. Binney,
The area is nearly co-extensive with our regions, Nos. 16
and 17.

PATON ope ssee se ees ce seenss 2), PBUMUSE vetseeveetmones 21 ~ Melampus...........0.0. 11
MIMAKI een cnceacen sates 3 ACHAUNA cece eeeeeree 5 Cary chium i2css-ces-2¢ 1
Philomycus ............ 2 LEATIOE) iedetioanesicnctsa=s 2) ni ea eee ss seacesee 34
SVAUTIM ctype r eee censcnen ce 2 WVIELLISO) Seen ceotekecrccs 4 IPRYSaiis ecsctedestosse 19
PSTOKEGNEEY HosgasbGousb5ec 18 Cylindrella ............ 4 Planorpis’ s2scccccscecees 21
Glandinas Vereen. .cs20 Gy VieronICellayecs.. saree LY WAM Cylusies.ceeee cee 10
Jalalb:<.55- doanoncoosnan Jas0e 13]

There are also found in the fresh waters of this district Mela-
niade 380, Paludinide 58, Cycladide 44, Unionide 552.

18. AMERICAN REGION. 7

The mass of American land and fresh-water shells are found
in the central and southern States, the country drained by the
Mississippi and its tributaries. The Helicide are.not more re-
markable for size and colour than those of northern Europe ;
the most characteristic forms belong to the sub-genus Polygyra.
(or Tridopsis, Raf.), such as Helix tridentata, albolabris, hirsuta,
and septemvolvis. The truly North American forms all belong
to three genera, viz.—Helix 43, Succinea 8, Pupa 3 species.
In the Southern States are also found 5 species of Bulimus,
3 Cylindrellas, 2 Glandinas, and 5 Helicine, genera whose

metropolis is in the Antilles or in tropical America.

The fresh-water univalves include above 100 species of Mela-
niade belonging to the genera Certphasia, Melafusus, Anculotus,
Melatoma, and Ammnicola, 15 Paludine, some keeled, and one.

* In several papers.in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1857, and subsequent years.
+ Remarks on the Classification of N. Am. Helices. Annals of Lyceum of Nat. Hist.,
New York. 1863.

MEXICAN REGION. 109

muricated (P. magnifica); and species of Valvata, Limnwea, Physa
(15), Planorbis, and Ancylus (5).

The fresh-water bivalves are also extremely numerous: the
Unionide are unequalled for their ponderous solidity, the rich
tinting of their interiors, and the variety of their external forms.*
Gnathodon cuneatus, Cyrena floridana, 16 species of Cyclas, and
Pisidium altile, belong to this region.

19. OREGON AND CALIFORNIA.

The Fauna of the region beyond the Rocky Mountains is
believed to be almost entirely distinct from that of the United
States. Arion (foliolatus) and Zimax (Columbianus), genera not
indigenous to eastern America, were found near Puget Sound.
(Gould). We have no information respecting the land and
fresh-water shells of Russian America, but from analogy we
“may expect to find a few there identical with those already
mentioned as occurring in Siberia. +
- The shells of Oregon and California are principally known by
the researches of Nuttall, Couthouy, and Binney.

ETC Necuesncgaavecr casa Fok) YS seeccccasaceenss seven Q — CYTONE wesseeresseneeeeee 2
PPB ULMMUS!s..cer ann <0 peed ONAN CVINIS nc nccssc neces ocen 4 Cyclas -.6.---coseennan 1
Achatina ..........0. ‘staat lANOEDIS! (lececces-seos 2 LUMO. cessscueseeseacnee i
Succinea .........0000. 4 WPeLAMN IAL AS. Sodesvcees ee 2 Alasmodon ............ 1
Limnea.......cescceeeees 12 Potamides...........++0. 2 ANOGON,..40:.088-00 see 3

Limnea fragilis, a Canadian species, is said to range westward
to the Pacific; and L. jugularis to be common to Michigan, the
North-west territory, and Oregon. (De Kay.) Limnea umbrosa,
Say ? and Planorbis corpulentus, Say, are found in the Columbia
River.
20. Mexican REGION.

The lowlands of the northern half of Tropical America con-
stitute only one botanical region, extending from the Rio Grande
del Norte to the Amazon; but on zoological grounds it may be
divided into two smaller areas. The Mexican province, including
Central America, itself comprises three physical regions: the

comparatively rainless and treeless districts of the west; the
mountains or high table-lands with their peculiar flora; and

* The private cabinet of Mr. Jay contains above 200 species of North American
Unionide, and very many varieties.

+ The affinity between the Mammalia of the Old and New Worlds is greatest in
| eastern Asia and north-west America, and diminishes with distance from those

regions. ( Waterhouse, in Johnston’s Physical Atlas, No. 28.)

110 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

the rainy wooded region that borders the Caribbean Sea. Tho
land snails of Central America resemble those of the Antilles
in the prevalence of some characteristic genera— Glandina,
Cylindrella and Helicina,—of which very few species are found
on the northern Coast of the Gulf of Mexico. The Bulimi are
numerous, but chiefly thin, translucent species.

FETC ]IK enews sce edesee 33 Glandina& ...........0006 25 WISH aiiaescacesasmeeeeoe eo
Proserpina ..........6. 1 Tornatellina ............ 1 Cyclophorus ..........+. 3
J SUITS pooncoascnodepon0c SOV EAMP pal tye.t:. seteceesc tees 1 Chondropoma. ......... 3
NUGCINCA) ea-reeceenesses 6 Cylindrella ............ 20 Megaloma........ nscnote 2
Achatina (Spiraxis) .. 35 Oyclotus ....cscceveree BE Heli cinariitcc-nneoe

Amongst the fresh-water shells are Neritina picta, Cyclas
maculata, Corbicula convexa, and 7 species of Cyrena. From
Mazatlan, Mr. Carpenter describes Cyrena olivacea and Memicana,
Gnathodon trigonus, Anodon ciconia (allied to the Brazilian
A. anserina), Physa aurantia and elata, Planorbis sp. Melampus
olivaceus. Two brackish-water species, Cerithidium varicosum
and Montagne, are common to South America.

21. ANTILLES.

The West Indian Islands have supplied nearly 500 species of
Helicide, a larger number than any province except the Lusi-
tanian ; and above 260 Cyclostomide, or nearly three times as
many as India. They are also richest in generic forms, and
the climate is highly favourable to the multiplication of indi-
viduals. The mean temperature of the Antilles is 59°—78°,
and the annual fall of rain exceeds 100 inches in most of the
islands.

MET CA eardieesceckenss 200 SSPUPA eevccsessencosenoet 26 Cyclophorus ........... 1
Stenopus ...........0006 2 Cylindrella ............ 73 Cy Clotus :-.-c.cecese- es 14
psHkez eh oseeonoccnpoounaace CA) GIEATSITES “soodcccecmnosa5 1 Megaloma............. mo
Proserpina.......... Reon. “MAIC A sles cons Seunessesees Ls elicina, ccs basceas 43
PS WITIUSsecceeres ce cusses 53 Succinenyespscccsceteerer 16 ATGAIay «.c..-sesssessnens 1T
A Chatina i. ineccdosvere<s 27 Chondropoma ......... 15 Trochatella ..........0: 16
Glandina ........ aeTd6 Choanopoma............ 53 Foucidellay). Kc. si.e.esens 6
SpiraxXis............ nae Adamsiella ...........- 10 Stoastoma ........00- wee 20
Tornatellina ............ 1 @IStul a, Pee yeccsencecenes 36 Geomelania ............ 21

Probably every island has some peculiar species, and those
of the great islands like Cuba and Jamaica are nearly all dis-
tinct. To Jamaica belong the species of Stoastoma, Sagda, and
Geomelania, the small sub-genus Lucidella, the Alcadias and the
mass of beautiful Cyclostomas with a decollated spire and
fringed lip (Choanopoma, Adamsiella, Jamaica, Chondropoma,

COLUMBIAN REGION. 111

part, and Cistula, part.)* The solitary Clausilia is found in Porto
Rico, the Balea in Haiti, and the Tornatellina in Cuba; Stenopus
is peculiar to St. Vincent’s. Bermuda has 4 Helices, of which one
is common to Texas and one to Cuba. The Chondropomas are
found in Cuba and Haiti.

The West Indian Achatine belong to the sub-genera Glandina,
Liguus and Spirawxis ; the Bulimi are sharp-lipped and mostly
small and slender (Subulina, Orthalicus). Heliw (Sagda) epis-
tylium, H. Carocolla, and Succinea (Amphibulima) patula are
characteristic forms.

Although connected with Florida by the chain of the Bahamas,
and with Trinidad by the lesser Antilles, very few species are
common to the mainland of either North or South America;
the relation is generic chiefly. |

The Limacide are represented by Vaginulus (Sloanei) ; and in
the fresh waters there are species of Physa (3), Planorbis (8),
Ancylus, and the pecular Gundlachia, Valvata pygmea, Am-
pullaria (fasciata), Paludestrina (minute species), Hemisinus, and
2 species of Pisidiwm.

In the brackish waters are Cerithidium, Neritina (e.g. melea-
pris, pupa, virginea, viridis), Melampus (coniformis), and Pedipes
quadridens,

22. CoLUMBIAN REGION.+

The tract shaded in the map comprehends several minor
regions; 1, the rainy and wooded states of New Granada and
_ Ecuador; 2, the elevated and nearly rainless province of Vene-
_ guela, with a flora like that of the higher regions of the Andes;
_ 8, the Guianas, including the Valley of the Amazon, where the
_ forests are most luxuriant, and rain falls almost daily (amount-
_ ing to 100 or eyen 200 inches in the year). Most of the low
lands, like those of the Mexican Province, belong to the ‘‘ Cactus
Region” of botanists, and have a mean temperature of 68°—84°.
_ Land shells are abundant in the forests and underwood of the
_ lower zone of the mountains, where the temperature is 10°
less and the rains more copious. Bulimi are the predominant
forms, especially the succinea-shaped species, (e.g. B. succinoides).

* A magnificent collection of Jamaica land shells has been presented to the British
Museum by the Hon. E. Chittty, whose researches were conducted with the late
Professor C. B. Adams.

{ In 1821 the States of New Granada, Venezuela, and Ecuador united to form the
* Columbian Republic,” but dissolved again in 1831.

112 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

DD RIED. casas arene res 49 PUPA town indenarenvens 7. Gistalal sasse. Fedentacsens)
Streptaxis ..........0006 3 MOLAUSILIA Wencsnaecsaeeee 40) ) SBourcieral.ies sents oaryek
Bulamus ..........0000. 200 Cylindrella ............ We CV CLOUISH (oe saseeeacenes tine
SUCCINEB weseeseeseeeeee Qa Vatiri na aeeateseccstausee 1 Adamsiella ..........6 1
Tornatellina............ 1 EAM AK! (45. 52.uedessdeneer 1 Helicinal Wesih..-epens: 6
PACHOEIN GD ssceecsesesse« 10 Choanopoma............ 2 Trochatella .........006 1
Glandina .......c.cseeee 5 Cyclophorus ............ 2

The presence of several species of the old-world genera
Clausilia and Streptaxis—both wanting in North America—be-
comes a significant fact when taken in connection with the
affinities of the higher animals of South America and Africa.
These imply a land-way across the Atlantic (at some very remote
period), more direct than would be afforded by the continent
which is believed to have united the boreal regions at the close
of the Miocene age.*

Corbicula cuneate and 8 species of Cyrena are found in the
Orinoco and smaller rivers; and the remarkable genus Miilleria,
representing the African theria, inhabits the Rio Magdalena.
A species of Ancylus is recorded from Venezuela.

Galapagos Islands (No. 35).

The fauna and flora of these islands are peculiar, but related to
tropical South America. The only known land-shells are 17
small and obscure species of Bulimus, of which the most remark-
able is B. achatinellinus. Some of them are peculiar to par-
ticular islands, like the birds and reptiles, viz. :—Chatham
Island 2, Charles Island 3, Jacob Island 2, James Island 1.
“The Archipelago is a little world within itself, or rather a
satellite attached to America, whence it has derived a few stray
colonists, and has received the general character of its indigenous
productions.” (Darwin’s Journal, p. 377.)

23. BRAZILIAN REGION.

The ‘‘ region of Palms and Melastomas,”’ extending from the
Amazon to the southern tropic, is one of the richest zoological
provinces. Itincludes Bolivia, and the largest portion of Peru,
all that lies to the east of the Andes. The greater part of the
region is mountainous and rainy and densely wooded, but inter-
sected by extensive plains (Llanos), some grassy and fertile,

* In Lieut. Maury’s physical map of the Atlantic, the contour of this former land is
partly shown by the 2,000 fathom line, extending beyond the Canaries and Madeira,
and sending out a promonotory to the Azores. Clausilie are found in Eocene strata;
perhaps even in the coal measures (p. 295). Principal Dawson has recently described
Pupa from the coal measures of Nova Scotia, which may be the same shell alluded
to here.

PERUVIAN REGION. 113

others dry, rocky and rainless, especially in the south; it is
watered by numerous streams—the affluents of the Amazon and
Plata. The hydrograpvhical areas of these two great rivers have
been represented on the map, but the southern boundary of the
Brazilian’ Proyince extends beyond the line of watershed to
the tropic, including the head-waters of the Plata, in which the
same remarkable fresh-water bivalves are found as in the
Bolivian streams. (D’Orbigny). The mountains around the
Lake Titicaca are the highest in the New World, and there
M. D’Orbigny found severai species of Helix up to the elevation
of 14,000 feet; Bulimus Tupaici ranges to 9,000 feet. The large
and typical species of Bulimus belong to this province; B. ovatus
and oblongus are found near the coast (p. 291), and B. maximus
farther inland. The auriculoid Bulimi (Otostomus, and Pachy-
otis, Beck), those with an angular mouth (Goniostomus, Beck),
and the pupiform species, with a toothed aperture, (Odonto-
stomus), are characteristic of this region, and also some of the
most elongated forms (Obeliscus). The lamp snails (Anastoma)
and Megaspira, genera inhabiting France during the Hocene
period, are now peculiar to Brazil; Simpulopsis is also peculiar,
and Streptaais attains its maximum there. The Oyclostomide are
few, and the other West Indian forms have almost disappeared.

HTL CUIKG icp e's ossens ses peeph Lo) Glandina ..... paccentes 1 Cyclophorus ,.,......... 2
ULE PLARIS) a .-es se ere agomnidlal Tornatellina ...,........ 1 Cy Clotusi ers tes seeder 1
AnastOMa ........00000 Oy WAGE AN See 6 opacosetsce 5 Cistula ..... Se(9pN0G8.99400 1
’ Bulimus.................. 250 Omalonyx.............06 1 Hemeimaye vansehp sce dele 12
Megaspira..........ss0 2 Simpulopsis ..... bacchds 5

The land slugs are Peltella palliolum, Vaginulus solea, and
Limax andicolus. The fresh-waters of the interior are rich in

PAY Sar eneesesneccs-. sono, at Ampullaria ....,....... 2 AWinniO ec seceesacsenss seta 4

Ancylus............ aeo0e JL. (Glaygayiouiles, Gooscoosenbonce 2) (OWING scdogsaosoe02 2088 if
Planorbis ......... ede 4 Pisidium ....... Bpnpeloe 1 TED VAEIE) soochooacosonbenoeds 1
PAIMOeSEN Asters) 2) | ATOGON <2... crc.9¢-neaase 1 Castalia...... peangesoenos 2
Marisa ............ Sdeaae 1 Mbonocondylea......... 1 Mycetopus .....s..00 3
Succinea ..........0605- 27

24, PERUVIAN REGION.

The long and narrow tract between the Andes and Pacific,
extending from the equator to 25° S. lat. forms a distinct,
though comparatively unproductive province, including the coast
of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. It is warm and almost rainless ;

_* The American Expedition explored forty Brazilian streams, and found only one
| Ampullaria, one Melania, and one Planorbis. (Gould.)

114 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

the clouds discharge themselves on the east side of the Andes,
and rain is so rare on the west coast that in some parts it only
falls two or three times in acentury. In Peru, during great
part of the year, a vapour rises in the morning, called the
‘‘garua;”’ it disappears soon after midday, and is followed by
heavy dews at night. .

Mr. Cuming collected 46 species of land snails in Peru; and
Dr. Pfeiffer enumerates 100, but perhaps half the latter were
from the eastern side of the Andes, belonging to the Brazilian
Province. They are mostly Bulimi, and are smaller and less
richly coloured than those of Bolivia and Brazil; B. Denicket,
solutus, and turritus are peculiar forms. Cistula Delatreana is
the only operculated land snail, and Vaginulus limayanus the
only slug.

PTCLISG .. o.Seteods cote ee ast 5 12 ID UPBhtes. sncseosecersses os 1 ANCYL1US........0ceesseeeee 1
BULMUSH A sae seep oases 79 Baleay dis idesscesce ues cast 1 Ampullaria ............ 1
Succinea, ..,......,.0.+- 5 Cistula win... sche R ieee 1 Paludestrina............ 2
Glandina ,..,.........+. ]- PhYSa........:.....---002-0% 1 Cyrena. ....-...:.2..08n00 3
Tornatellina ............ 1 Planorbis ..........0006 3 ANOGON re sccsescccresase 1

25. ARGENTINE REGION.

The ‘‘ region of arborescent Compositee”’ has afforded scarcely
any land snails; only 7 species of Bulimus, and 3 Helices are
recorded, but some others may have been included with those
of Brazil and Chili. From Bolivia this province is separated
by the wide plains of the Great Desert, or northern prolonga-
tion of the Pampas; and all the eastern part has been submerged
at a recent (geological) period; so that the only promising
districts are Paraguay and the eastern declivities of the Chilian
Andes. The fresh-water shells of the La Plata and its tribu-
taries are more remarkable.

Chilinia..........,. races 7 Cyclas ....... eeeeeteees 1 Byssoanodon ......... i bey
Planorbis ...........006 11 JEEHGERENAA EoShq05c0000000 1 Monocondylea......... 6
PANGCYIUS) coe sesccsesecesce 44 Corbicula) <ccccesces-s0se ee Mycetopus .......0..0 il
Ampullaria ............ 7 RIMIO! cde ceccsseeesess ok Us Castaliayee.scese-cessnceee 1
IASOLENC A: 2 tsiesccce ness 1 ANOGON .......ecececeeees 10 MriGING feeccesesseecsecse 1
Paludestrina...... ..... 7

Ampullaria (Marisa) cornu-arietis is a characteristic shell ;
Paludestrina lapidum has a claw-like (non-spiral) operculum,
' and appears to belong to the Melaniade.

26. CHILIAN REGION.

The northern part of Chili belongs to the same physical region
. with Peru, consisting of dry and rainless plains. Here theland

PATAGONIAN REGION. 115

_Bnails are few and small, and only seen after the dews. At
Valparaiso rain is abundant during the three winter months,
and the southern coasts are luxuriantly wooded, and extremely
wet. The characteristic pulmonifera are the fresh-water
Chilinias. The genus Buchanania is doubtful. There are
31 species of Bulimus (including B. Chilensis, Plectostylus) and
22 of Helix; Succinea Chiloensis, Ancylus Gayanus (Valparaiso),
Planorbis fuscus, Paludestrina sp. Unio Chilensis, Pisidiwm
Chilense (Valdivia). Helix Binneyana is found on the island of
Chiloé. |

The Island of Juan Fernandez (36) has at least 20 species of
land shells, all peculiar to it :—

Helix quadrata. Omalonyx Gayana. Tornatellina minuta.
» arctispira. Achatina diaphana. He trochiformis.
» pusio, < splendida. Succinea Cumingi.
» tessellata. + bulirnoides. 55 mamillata.
3» ceroides., : conifera. » tragilis.
» marmorella. » acuminata? Parmacella Cumingi.
» helicophantoides. Spiraxis consimilis.

In the adjoining island, Masafuera, are found—

Tornatellina Recluzii. Succinea semiglobosa.
Succinea rubicunda, 4 pinguis.

27. PATAGONIAN REGION.

The Pampas, or great plains of Patagonia, are dry and rain-
less nearly all the year; the vegetation which springs up
during the light summer rains becomes converted into natural
hay for the support of the wild animals. In Fuegia the mean
temperature is 833°—50°, and there is rain and snow. through-
out the year; yet the bases of the mountains are clothed with
forests of evergreen beech.* Bulimus sporadicus is found on the
banks of the River Negro, and B. lutescens at the Straits of
Magellan; Helix lyrata (costellata, D’Orbigny ?) and H. saxa-
tilis inhabit Fuegia. Succinea magellanica is also found at the
Straits, and Chilinia fluminea, Limnea viatrix, a Paludestrina,
Anodon puelchanus, and Unio Patagonicus in the River Negro.
Peronia marginata and Potamides ccelatus were discovered in
Fuegia by Mr. Couthouy.

The Falkland Islands are 300 miles east of Patagonia, and the
only recorded shells are two species of Paludestrina. There is

* Humming-birds are seen fluttering about delicate flowers, and parrots feeding
amidst the ever-green woods. (Darwin, p. 251.)

116 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

zoological evidence that these islands were united to the main-
land of South America at no very distant geological period.
The flora consists of characteristic plants of Fuegia and Pata-
gonia, mingled, and overspreading the whole surface; few
species are peculiar. (J. D. Hooker.)*

* Dr. Hooker has suggested that not only the Falkland Islands, but the far distant
Tristan d’Acunha (p. 97) and Kerguelen’s-land (p. 99), may be mountain-tops of a
Sontinent which has been submerged since the epoch of their existing flora. ‘There
are five detached groups of islands between Fuegia and Kerguelen’s-land (a region
extending 5,000 miles), all partaking of the botanical peculiarities of the southern
extremity of the S. American continent. Some of these detached spots are much
€loser to the African and Australian continents, whose vegetation they do not assume,
than to the American; aud they are situated in latitudes and under circumstances
eminently unfavourable to the migration of species.”

“The botany of Tristan d’Acunha (which is only 1,000 miles distant from the Cape of
Good Hope, but 3;000 from the Straits of Magellan) is far more intimately allied to that
of Fuegia than Africa. Of twenty-eight flowering plants, seven are natives of Fuegia,
or typical of S. American botany.

“The flora of Kerguelen’s-land is similar to, and many of the species identical with,
those of the American continent. (Its geological structure) would bespeak an antiquity
for the flora of this isolated speck on the surface of our globe far beyond our power of
calculation. We may regard it as the remains of some far more extended body of
land.” (Botany of Antarctic Voyage, i, pt. 2, 1847).

DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA IN TIME. 117

CHAPTER III.
ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE MOLLUSCA IN TIME.

THE historian of modern geology, Sir Charles Lyell, has taught
us to regard the stratified rocks as so many monuments, record-
ing the physical condition and living inhabitants of the earth in
past ages.

Each formation consists of a similar and more or less qpndiys
series of limestones, sandstones, clay, coal, and other strata,
representing the deep and shallow seas, the fresh-waters, and
the terrestrial portions of the surface of the globe, at one par-
ticular period of time.*

The organic remains found in the strata exhibit no such
repetitions, but are changed gradually and regularly, from the
. earliest to the latest formations; so that the mass of species in
each period must have been peculiar and distinctive.

The important theory, that strata may be identified by fossils,
was taught by William Smith, early in the present century, and is
thus expressed in his Stratigraphical System:—‘‘ Organised fossils
are to the naturalist as coins to the antiquary; they are the
antiquities of the earth; and very distinctly show its gradual,
regular formation, with the various changes of inhabitants in
the watery element.’”—‘‘ They are chiefly submarine, and as
they vary generally from the present inhabitants of the sea, so at
separate periods of the earth’s formation they vary as much
from each other; insomuch that each layer of these fossil
organised bodies must be considered as a separate creation ;
or how could the earth be formed, stratum super stratum, and
each abundantly stored with a different race of animals and
plants.” +

The ‘‘ Prodrome”’ of M. D’Orbigny is a catalogue of the shells
(and radiate animals) of each formation, from which it appears
that the mass of the living population of the globe has been
changed twenty times since the close of the First or Palzeozoic
Age; and although the fossils of the older rocks have not been
generally classified with the same minuteness, yet enough is

* The coal-measures and chalk of England cannot indeed be called similar, but the
Cretaceous formations of the whole world afford mineral types, corresponding to, per-
haps, every variety of Carboniferous rock.

' ¥ Stratigraphical System of Organised Fossils, 4to., Lond. 1817.

118 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

known to show that at least ten great changes had taken place
before the Secondary epoch.

In the following Table, the first column gives the names of
the Formations or Periods; the second contains those by which
the principal strata are known.

I. GEOLOGICAL TABLE.

FORMATIONS OR

NAMES OF STRATA.

PERIODS.
Longmynd slate. (Bangor, Wicklow.)
( 1, Tremadocian Lingula flags = Primordial group. (Barrande.)
T Tremadoc slate. Potsdam sandstone.
° ; : Llandeilo flags Bala or Coniston
a “p SL OuAIp ues { Caradoc sandstone group.
< § 3. Wenlock May-hill sandstone = Clinton group.
iS) II. : si { Woolhope and Dudley limestones.
54+ 4, Ludlow ......... L. Ludlow, Aymestry lime., U. Ludlow.
8 5. Hercynian ... | Spirifer sandstone ; Rhine. ) Devonian and
a III. 6. Eifelian......... Plymouth limestone. Old Red
a 7, Clymenian ... | Petherwin limestone. Sandstone.
ay | IV 8. Bernician...... Carboniferous limestone (shale and coal.)
; 9. Demetian...... Coal-measures. (Millstone-grit, coal, &c.)
\ V. 10. Permian ...... Magnesian lime = Zechstein. (Perm. )
{ . New Red sandstone = nee
VI ; 11. Conchylian .. { (Muschel-kalk = Ceratite limestone).
12. Saliferous...... Red marls = Keuper. Lias bone-bed.
13. Liassic ........ L. Lias = Sinemurien and Liasien.
14 .Toarcian ...... Marlstone, Alum-shale. (Thouars.)
| VIL. ja Bajocian ...... | Inf. Oolite, Ser se (Bayeux.)
- | - Great Oolite. (Stonesfield slate ; G. Ool.
Es 16. Bathonian ... |) Bradford cl. Forest m. Cornbrash.)
< : “Kelloway rock = Callovien, D’Orb.
s T7-,Oxiordianieos: { Oxford clay. (White Jura.)
A VIII. + 18. Corallian ...... Coral-rag and Calcareous grit.
ra) 19. Kimmeridgian | Kimmeridge clay. (Dorsetshire.)
a 20. Portlandian... | Portland stone and Purbeck beds.
° = fem Wealden ...... Hastings sand and Weald clay.
: : Speeton clay? (Neuchatel).
na
22. Neocomian .. \ TREE Green-sand, and Aptien, D’Orb.
23. Albian ......... Gault. (District of the Aube, or Albe.)
24, Cenomanian Upper Green-sand. (Maris, Cenomanum.)
X. ~ 25. Hippuritic ... | Chalk-marl and L. Chalk = Turonien.
2 Chalk with flints = Baculite limestone.
lip SEED NE coco. {iMaeeihcht chalk = Danien, D’Orb.
oe Londinian...... Thanet sands, Plastic clay, outon clay.
XI. or: Bracklesham ; Barton; I. Wight; = Parisien.
a Fe. 1 ERIS a ieee Fontainblean ; = Tongrien.
ee XII. 29. Falunian ...... Faluns of Touraine ; Bordeaux, Vienna.
a XIII. 30. Icenian......... Crag of E. Co. = Sub-apennin, D’Orb.

It must be observed that the number and magnitude of the
‘‘ Formations’ was determined by accident in the first instance,
and afterwards modified to suit the requirements of theory, and
to make them more nearly equal in value.*

* The names of formations are in great measure provisional, and open to criticism.
Some of them were given by Brongniart and O. D’Halloy; others have been more

DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA IN TIME. 119

According to MM. Agassiz and D’Orbigny, all, or nearly all
the fossils of each formation are peculiar; very few species
being supposed to have survived from one period to another.
Sudden and entire changes of this kind only take place when
the nature of the deposit is completely altered—as when sands
or clays rest upon chalk—and in these instances there is usually
evidence (in the form of beds of shingle, or a change of dip) that
an interval must have elapsed between the completion of the
lower stratum and the commencement of the upper.

Professor Ramsay* has discussed this subject at considerable
length. He endeavours to prove that where we have a com-
plete succession of rocks the species die out and appear
gradually and almost imperceptiby; that where there is any
sudden change in the fauna, it is always accompanied by an
unconformity in the rocks—that is, the rocks do not lie evenly
on one another, but the lower one shows an eroded surface, or
its stratifications are not parallel with those of the upper rock.
A break in the current of animal life is believed to be always

-accompanied by a break in the succession of rocks. Hach break
marks a lapse of time during which no deposition of mud, &c.,
took place on the area marked by the break. As it is assumed
that the change of specific forms has proceeded at a uniform
rate throughout geological time, it is argued that the greater the
difference in the fauna, the longer was the time indicated by the
break. ‘‘I cannot resist the general inference that in cases of
superposition, in proportion as the species are more or less con-
tinuous—that is to say, as the break of lifeis partial or complete,
first in the species, but more importantly in the loss of old and
the appearance of new allied or unallied genera—so was the
interval of time shorter or longer that elapsed between the close
of the lower and the commencement of the upper formation ;
and so it often happens that strata a few yards in thickness, or,

recently applied by D’Orbigny, Sedgwick, Murchison, and Barrande ; and some are
adopted from popular usage. Geographical names, and those derived from charac-
teristic fossils have been found the best, but no complete scheme of zoological nomen-
clature has been framed.

The epithet “Turonien” (25) is rejected, because it conveys the same meaning
with “Falunian” (29), or Middle Tertiary, the type of which was taken from
Touraine.

The term /cenian is proposed for the Pliocene strata because their order of succes-
sion was first determined by Mr. Charlesworth, in the eastern counties of England, the
country of the IcENI. We have left the table as it stood in the first edition of this
work; but we should mention here that one formation should be placed at the head,
viz., the Laurentian, and the beds deposited during and since the glacial epoch at the
foot.

* Anniversary Addresses, Q. J. Geol. Soc., vols. xix. and xx. 1863 and 1864.

120 _ . MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

more notably still, the absence of these strata, may serve to
indicate a period of time as great as the vast accumulations of the
whole Silurian series.”’ The lapse of time is in most cases further
marked by extensive denudations of strata. During the Palzo-
zoic age ten physical breaks are known, six of which occur
before we reach the Devonian formation. In every case but
one (and in that the rocks are almost entirely devoid of animal
remains), there is an entire change in the species and a consider-
able change in the genera. The breaks in the Secondary period
are less marked and less numerous, amounting to about four ;
and they are still less marked in the Tertiary period. .

We have seen that distinct faunas may be separated by narrow
barriers in existing seas; and differences almost as great may
occur on the same coast-line without the interposition of any
barrier, merely in passing from a sea-bed of rock and weed to
one of sand or mud, or to a zone of different depth. It would
be unreasonable to expect the same fossils in a limestone as in a
sandstone ; and even in comparing similar strata we must con-
sider the probability of their having been formed at different.
depths, or in distinct zoological provinces.

~The most careful observations hitherto made, under the most

favourable circumstances, tend to show that all sudden altera-
tions have been local, and that the law of change over the whole
globe and through all time has been gradual and uniform.
The hypothesis of Sir C. Lyell, that species have been created,
and have died out, one by one, agrees far better with facts, than
the doctrine of periodic and general extinctions and creations.

As regards the zoological value of the ‘‘ formations,” we shall
be within the truth if we assume that those already established
correspond in importance with geographical provinces; for at
least half the species are peculiar, the remainder being common
to the previous or succeeding strata. This will give to each:
Geological period a length equal to three times the average
duration of the species of marine shells.*

The Distribution of the Species in the Strata (or in Time) is like
their distribution in space. Each is most abundant in one
horizon, and becomes gradually less frequent in the beds above

* The exact value of these periods cannot be ascertained, but some notion of their
length may be obtained by considering that the deposits in the valley of the Mississippi,
estimated to represent 100,000 years, have been accumulated since the era of many
existing shells. The same may be said of the elevation cf Mont Blanc, the formation
of the Mediterranean Sea, and other grand physical ‘vents. The great cities of anti-
quity—Rome, Corinth, and Egyptian Thebes—stand npoR raised sea-beds, or alluvial
dep 5 ts, containing recent shells.

DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA IN TIME. 12t

and below; the locality of the newest rock in which it occurs
being often far removed from that of the oldest.*

That species should be created at a single spot, and gradually
multiply and diffuse themselves, is gufitiently intelligible. That,
after attaining a certain climax of development, they should
decline and disappear, is a fact involved in mystery. But even
if it depends on physical causes, and is not a law of all Being, its
operation is equally certain, and does not appear to vary beyond
moderate limits.

The deep-sea shells (such as Rhynchonella, Terebratula, and
Yoldia) enjoy a longer range in time, as well as in space, than
the littoral species; whilst the land and fresh-water shelis are
most remarkable for specific longevity.+

In each stratum there are some fossils which characterise
small subdivisions of rock, just as there are living species of
very limited range.

When species once die out they never reappear; one evidence
of their having become extinct consisting in their replacement
by other species, which fulfilled their functions, and are found
in deposits formed under similar conditions. (Forbes.)

The total number of species is greater in the newest forma-
tions than in those of older date; but the ratio of increase has
not been ascertained.f{

Distribution of Genera in Time.—The doctrine of the Identi-
fication of strata by fossils derives its chief value from the fact
that the development and distribution of genera is as much sub-
ject to law as the distribution of species; and, so far as we know,
follows a similar law.

Groups of strata, lke the zoological provinces, may be of
various magnitudes; and whilst the smaller divisions are cha-
racterised by peculiar species, the larger groups have distinc*
sub-genera, genera, and families, according to their size and
importance.

William Smith himself observed that ‘‘three principal families
of organised fossils occupy nearly three equal parts of Britain.”

* M. Agassiz and Professor E. Forbes have represented, diagrammatically, the
distribution of genera in time, by making the horizontal lines (such as in p. 124) swell
out in proportion to the development of the genera. Those whose commencement,
climax, and end are ascertained may be represented by a line of this kind —=_3>—
Genera which attain their mazima in the present seas are thus expressed ——=a@y

7 Land and fresh-water shells of existing species are found with the fossil bones of
the Mastodon and Megalonyr, in N. America. (Lyell.)

} The number in each formation depends on the extent to which it has been investi-
gated, and on the opinions entertained as to the strata referable to it. Professor

Phillips has discussed this subject in his work on Devonian fossils (p. 165), and in the
“Guide to Geology.”

G

122 MANUAL O# THE MOLLUSCA.

‘* Echini are most common in the superior strata ;

“* Ammonites to those beneath ;

‘* Producti, with numerous Encrini, to the lowest.”
This kind of generalisation has justly been considered by Pro-
fessor E. Forbes of higher importance than the identification of
strata by species—a method only applicable to moderate areas,
and becoming less available with distance. Indeed it might be
assumed that strata geographically distant, yet containing some
identical species, must differ in age by the time required for the
migration of those species from one locality to the other.

A table of the characteristic species of the English strata is of
little use in America or India, except to show how few and
doubtful are the identical fossils. Whereas the characteristic
genera and order of succession of the larger groups are the
same at the most distant localities; and whatever value there
may be in the assumption that particular systems of rocks con-
tain most workable coal, lead, or rock-salt, is not lessened by
the circumstance that the species of fossils in those rocks are
not everywhere the same, since the genera alone are sufficient
to identify them.

Genera, like species, have a commencement, a climax, and a
period of decline; the smallest usually range through several
formations, and many of the typical genera equal the families
in duration.

Groups of formations are called Systems, and these again are
combined in three principal series :—Paleeozoic, Secondary, and
Tertiary.

Thirteen geological systems, each having a number of peculiar
genera, are shown in the accompanying table. (No. II.) Some
of the genera cited have a wider range, like Belemnites, but are
mentioned because of their abundance in one particular system.
The names in italics are existing genera.*

The third table contains the names of some of the larger —
genera, arranged according to the order of their appearance.
This diagram conyeys the impression that the series of fossili-
ferous strata is not completely known; or that the beginning of
many groups of fossils has been obliterated in the universal
metamorphism of the oldest stratified rocks. t

* The Pliocene strata contain no extinct genera, and represent only the commence-
ment of the present order of things. All the deposits now taking place will not consti-
tute én additional “* Formation,’’ much less a ‘‘ Quaternary System.”

+ It was on this account that Professor Sedgwick proposed the term “ Paleozoic,’
rather than “ Protozoic,” for the oldest fossiliferous rocks.

| TABLE OF CHARACTERISTIC GENERA. 123

II. TABLH OF CHARACTERISTIC GENERA.

—$—

SYSTEMS. GENERA AND SUB-GENERA.

Camaroceras, Endoceras, Gonioceras, Pterotheca.
1. CAMBRIAN, or Maclurea, Raphistoma, Holopea, Platyceras.

Lower Silurian ..... Orthisina, Platystrophia, Porambonites, Pseudo-crania.
Ambonychia, Modiolopsis, Lyrodesma.

Actinoceras, Phr:gmoceras, Trochoceras, Ascoceras.
Ba STLWREAN) scvcessecaes j theca Holopella, Murchisonia, Atrypa, Retzia.

Cardiola, Clidophorus, Goniophorus, Grammysia.

| Bactrites, Gyroceras, Clymenia, Apioceras, Serpularia.
8.. DEVONIAN .......0008+ ~ Spirifera, Uncites, Merista, Davidsonia, Calceola.
Stringocephalus, Megalodon, Orthonota, Pterinea.

4, CARBONIFEROUS Naticopsis, Platyschisma, Metoptoma, Productus.

Aviculo-pecten, Anthracosia, Conocardium, Sedgwickia.

Camarophoria, Aulosteges, Strophalosia.
Myalina, Bakewellia, Axinus, Edinondia.

Denn ecer ae: Discites, Goniatites, Porcellia.

Fa PERMIAN, .f.+.0-02. :

Ceratites, Naticella, Platystoma, Koninckia, Cyrtia.
Monotis, Myophoria, Pleurophorus, Opis.

‘Belemnites, Beloteuthis, Geoteuthis, Ammonites.
Alaria, Trochotoms, Rimula, Pileolus, Cylindrites.
Waldheimia, Thecidium, Spiriferina, Ceromya.
Gryphea, Hippopodium, Cardinia, Mycconcha.

Coccoteuthis, Leptoteuthis, Nautilus.
Spinigera, Purpurina, Nerinzea, Neritoma.
Pteroperna, Trichites, Hypotrema, Diceras.
lrigonia, Pachyrisma, Sowerbia, Tancredia.

eooccesece

8. U. JURASSIC........ 5

Crioceras, Toxoceras, Hamulina, Baculina.
Requienia, Caprinella, Sphera, Thetis.

Belemnitella, Conoteuthis, Turrilites, Ptychoceras.
Hamites, Scaphites, Pterodonta, Cinulia, Tylostoma.
Acteonella, Globiconcha, Trigonosemus, Magas, Lyra.
Neithea, Inoceramus, Hippurites, Caprina, Caprotina.

9, L. CRETACEOUS ...

10. U. CRETACEOUS...

Beloptera, Lychnus, Megaspira, Glundina, Typhis.
Volutilithes, Clavella, Pseudoliva, Seraphs, Rimella.
Conorbis, Strepsidura, Globulus, Phorus, Velates.
Chilostoma, Volvaria, Lithocardium, Teredina.

Spirulirostra, Aturia, Vaginella, Ferussina.
Halia, Proto, Deshayesia, Niso, Cassidaria, Carolia.
Grateloupia, Artemis, Tapes, Jouannetia.

TISSEOCENE <.ccccscsceees
1

12. MIOCENE .essessoeeee

Argonauta, Strombus, Purpura, Trophon.
Yoldia, Tridacna, Circe, Verticordia.
a

13. PLIOCENE............

saa SRN ET ae ee ee a eae
a
In
q
q
ty
bh
mn
La
Q

124 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

III. RANGE OF GENERA IN TIME.

Order of Appearance.

Cambrian

Silurian
Devonian
Carbonif.
Permian.
L. Jura.
U. Jura.
L. Cret.
U. Cret.
Eocene.
Miocene.
Pliocene

Trias.

bs
oH
s.
oe
x
io}
in
at
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5
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lon
2,
(=
mn

|| |

| |

Gomphoceras, Bellerophon, Pentamerus | — —
Orthis, Conularia, Murchisonia................ | —— —— —
spiitera, Athyris, Posidonomya ..-... 0... hese eee

|
Genera, arranged in their ; a ¢
MSOAILCA cana de [oee- ctor cess esiaiceecsais ster vaca docdan| (ere ee eee |e

Werebratula, PinnaCyprinaiss. 00cm nee ph ea) Seen
ATG ATV Egy oe beets satigan seme secant se el
GervilliaViyoconcltap-sss.-s-qo-ceeeee eee —|——— — —
Ammonites, Naticella, Opis .........c...0006+ —-—
Trigonia, Isocardia, Thecidium
Cerithiumy Plicatulay @andita is. semua tall’ giytipvcena ull’) Wee eye wee

es ecccrece

eercesccccae

Seecccsece

Cec ceseeserecs

The genera of the older rocks are believed to be nearly all
extinct; for although the names of many recent forms appear
in the catalogues of Paleeozoic fossils, it must be understood
that they are only employed in default of more exact infor-
mation. Buccinum, Melania, and Mya have been long since
expunged; and Modiola, Nucula, and Natica, are only retained
until the characters which distinguish them are better under-
stoad.

RANGE OF FAMILIES IN TIME. 125

IV. RANGE OF FAMILIES IN TIME.

Setter tee Babec
oat aq SaS8 SS i 5 Ses
of Strata. qGes 3 Ge eas 2288
= S oO “ot 4 Os) =|
62a Se|AH45u5 |B am
FAD GOWAN EG Ce (occ noccaecececnasisleasselroseinstel a
Teuthidee—Sepiadee ...........ssesceceeneee Bain eh pede ||) ke eS
HEE CMMI 2 Na wctctee ts ceinie < aonssict ines sols seielasln:» pa Bite eee
PNGHIEIT COM meee to ees cchccecstere dest cesses ee a i ee ae aa
PANIIT TATA ce ees iese on iewsls xcaiescinssiccelsiaacice ce BN eee Fes eee pes
OetHOCERACCEG 20......25..0-222ceeeeeneeree |= —— 2
Atlantidze—Hyaleide ..........ss00eee088. | = —— — — | —— — —— | —-—— —
Strombidee—Buccinide@ ...........000606- ara sae een id
COMI —VIGNHIG oils ececaccesesteweons oh: le eats
Naticidee—Calyptreeidee ...............06 Sees || ee Sees a eee
Pyrenean ee). ...<--2s.cccssennascucesecsee P| — | —— Be Ae
Cerithiadee—Littorinidze.:......000000058 | 0 eye See Ne
Turbinidee—Ianthinidee .................. | —— — — — | — — — — — ae ee
Fissurellidee—Tornatellide..............5 ee aS RD eee on
Neritidee—Patellidae .:.......0-csecseceeerss | ASR See, eee ee
WD eriiealr rm oemeee ne secc cok ccswesescdebecsiee cece See | ele ee | eae
GHIEONIE | ec eocccckccsccccrccecccccecceeeses | —— — | |] SS —
PETE eee ac seas sae oeaen ooeeeccueeanas ery eee 2) |) Bere oe Te
Helicidze—Lim acide .............000+006. cease ae
armePiGce—MlClANIAGe: calecedcceceoussse | ee eee
Auriculide—Cyclostomide............... —|-——-—
ERETEDEADUM Gee maa ccmieneslacciels scicaiy smicciel see Se SS
TDS LOVEE. cy ss soncs Seer ESE SHOE Se S|) ee |
SHUge ree OLUNICce! sects scsesescesseess | —
Productidiey....i25.-ctsdesssdeceessecs ees |
Craniide: —lumnpulide ...:.......---------. | =— = = — | — = — — — |
CU iRIME soe es... auch fa Tehiiee sae seeciese'e comeees ee ee —
agi enibighee—WEy ENNIO cone eee nese ecccpan sce Pe
A Pop Fee EES TIGRE )ege sy cepseo dn eos eee | aes
Dina anan Loree mein setae iat cic hisiers ria Mareis ots clgeie isis —————————
Chamide—Myade.............++ utr Maen ai. A umeaiiet Sil lates jaa dest tesd SEE ye ee
PENG UMMA CE toe «ne ote se-eeeciee nce evens ———
MUTAGEN CED ees sack arias se escekeecsctiomsioeties =
@ardiads2— ACTING. oo... cs 2.0 ee eeeeer ee |) He SS
CHG RICE Soacosdoanrse ssucnonebouaaucEaseoTee ee |] SS
Cire Ueki ned es eaeeneeecn eb eapds || = use) hee.
VAStartiec.....ccccccccccccceccsccsccscsescececee fo | ee |
Veneridae— Lellinid2, ..c.2c..-.e0e0se'sere% Be cE Fe, ee et
Vievee lel cee sean ce iaceGted scewaascuases «cscs =) (a
Oe ee ete hae. tactic coca ssa ceaseasueeorens [ego an) l) Ames eee) Ek |
Gastrocheenide-—Pholadide ........... | =| ————|---

Distribution of Families of Shells in Time.—Employing the term
‘“‘families” for natural groups of genera, and adopting the
smallest possible number of them, we find that sixteen, or
nearly one-fifth, range through all the geological systems. Only
seven have become extinct, viz. :—

Belemnitide. Spiriferide. Hippuritidee,
Ammonitide. Orithide.

Orthoceratide. Productide.

126 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Three others are nearly extinct :—
Nautilide. Rhynchonellide. Trigoniade.

And several have passed their maximum, and become less varied
and abundant than formerly, e.g.—

Tornatellide. Cyprinide. Anatinide.
The extinct families and geriera appear to have attained thei.
maxima more rapidly than their minima; continuing to exist,
under obscure forms, and in remote localities, long after the
period in which they flourished.

The introduction of new forms, also, is more rapid than the
process of extinction. If four Paleozoic families disappear,
twenty-six others replace them in the Secondary series; and
three of the latter are succeeded by fifteen shell-bearing families
in the Tertiary and existing seas.

In consequence of this circumstance, the number of types is
three times greater in the newer Tertiary than it was at the
Silurian period; and since there is no evidence or indication
that the earth was ever destitute of life, either wholly or in
part, it follows almost as a matter of necessity that the early
types must have been more widely distributed and individually
developed, than those of the present day.

From the following Table it will be seen that the number of
genera and families increases with an amount of regularity
which cannot be accidental. Moreover, the relation of these
numbers is not liable to be much altered by the progress of
discovery or the caprice of opinion. The discovery of new types
is not likely to be frequent; the imposition of new names, in
place of the old, will not increase the number of Paleozoic ~
genera; and the establishment of fresh and arbitrary distinc-
tions will affect all the groups in due proportion.

If the number of groups called ‘‘Systems”’ were reduced to
seven (viz., three Palzeozoic, three Secondary, and one Tertiary,
as shown in the following Table}, then the average duration of a
genus of shells would be equal to a System of Formations.

The duration of the smallest well-defined Families of shells
is about equal to one of the three great Geological Divisions,
or Ages.

DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA IN TIME. ~ 127

DEVELOPMENT OF FAMILIES, GENERA, AND
SPECIES, IN TIME.

eI os
is) So 3
GEOLOGICAL sig 2 2 & || N en of | 3
SYSTEMS. Genera.| 3 ‘3 |g Species Pra
a # | = |\@’Orbigny).| 3
o m (e)
o A|o
ENyeie WyCamnbrian.<..2.0....+...: 11 362 | 18
< pisabummamys \S20Gisscecs. 13 3l7 20
O82 EV OMIAN .2.....cvcese ones 20 1035 24 $32
3 § Carboniferous ............ 23 835 30
a WBS ra AT 3d eld a ced 20 74 30
Lol ae 31 713. | 35)
ui I LiF SUTAISICN.. cee. ctees 48 1502 42
B U. Jurassic .............. 50 1266 49 57
S| 6 id Cretaceous ............ 53 7184 52
g U. Cretaceous............ 59 2147 56
n oan pe ses) |e Pewee Lda
a IBGOBOS soc sadoesoscoscarcoc 72, 2636 60
a jd Miocene’ ¢...-..........0.. 16 2249 60
ae PaTOcanenttds:: ict 437 62 (78
= MRS COM bissereaccscecesse ies 16,000 78
BH seeeeee
Recent & Fossil......... 520 56 |280 | 34 |150 30,000 85

Order of Appearance of the Groups of Shells.—The first and most
important point shown in the preceding Tables, is the co-
existence of the four principal classes of testacea from the earliest
period. The highest and the lowest groups were most abundant
in the paleozoic age; the ordinary bivalves and univalves
attain their climax in existing seas. If there be any meaning
in this order of appearance it is connected with the general
scheme of creation, and cannot be inquired into separately ; but
it may be observed that the last-developed groups are also the
most typical, or characteristic o7 their class (p. 49).

The Cephalopoda exhibit amongst themselves unmistakable
evidence of order in their appearance and succession. The
tetrabranchiate group comes earliest, and culminates about the
period of the first appearance of the more highly-organised cuttle-
fishes.+ The families of each division which are least unlike

* Those genera are estimated.as belonging to each system which occur in the strata
both above and below, as well as *hose actually found in it. We have left this table as
it stood in the first edition, as we are unable to correctallthe figures. This, however,
is not of much importance, since the main points, such as the gradual increase in the
number of families, would not be affected. 7

+ The Paleoteuthis of Bronn (not D’Orb.) appears to be a fish-bone, from the equ'vae
ent of the Old Red sandstone in the Eifel.

128 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

(Orthoceratide and Belemnitidee) were respectively the first de-
veloped.

Amongst the Brachiopoda the hingeless genera attained their
maximum in the palzeozoic age, and only three now survive
(Lingula, Discina, Crania,)—the representatives of as many
distinct families. Of the genera with articulated valves, those
provided with spiral arms appeared first and attained their
maximum while the Verebratulide were still few in number. -
The subdivision with calcareous spires disappeared with the
Liassic period, whereas the genus Rhynchonella still exists.
Lastly, the typical group, Terebratulide, attained its maximum
in the chalk period, and is scarcely yet on the decline. The
number of sub-genera (as well as genera) in each system is
stated in the preceding table, because this group shows a ten-
dency to ‘‘ polarity,” or excessive development at the ends of
the series. *

The genera of ordinary bivalves (Conchifera) are seven times
more numerous in the newer tertiary than in the oldest geo-
logical system. The palzeozoic formations contain numerous
genera of all the families with an open mantle; Cyprinide,
Anatinide, and the anomalous genus Conocardium. The mass
of siphonated bivalves do not appear till the middle of the
secondary age, and are only now at their maximum.

The Gasteropoda are represented in the paleeozoic strata by
several genera closely allied to the diminutive Atlanta and Scissu-
rella, and by others perhaps related to Janthina. The Naticidce
and Calyptreeide are plentiful, and there are several genera of
elongated spiral shells referred to the Pyramidellide. In the
secondary strata, holostomatous shells become plentiful; and in
a few peculiar localities (especially Southern India) the genera
of siphonated univalves make their appearance in strata of
Cretaceous age. Fresh-water Pulmonifera of the recent genus
Physa occur in the Purbeck strata, but the marine air-breathers
and land-snails have not certainly been found in strata older
than the Hocene tertiary.

Order of Succession of Groups of Shells.—It has been already
pointed out that animals which are closely allied in structure

* See the anniversary address of Professor E. Forbes to the Geological Society of
London, Feb., 1854, p. 63. The hypothesis seems to have arisen out of an. exclusive
regard to the poverty of the Permian and Triassic strata in England, where they
separate, like a desert, the paleeozoic from the ‘‘ neozoic”? formations. The ** Permian”
should never have been esteemed more than a division of the carboniferous
system, and is poor in species, rather than in types. The Trias must be studied in
Germany, or in the collection of Dr. Klipstein (in the British Museum) to be properly
appreciated.

4 DISTRIBUTION OF THE MOLLUSCA IN TIME, 129

and habit rarely live together, but occupy distinct areas, and
are termed ‘‘ representative species.”” The same thing has been
observed in the distribution of fossils; the species of successive
strata are mostly representative.

At wider intervals of time and space, the representation is
only generic, and the relative proportions of the larger groups
are also changed.

The succession of forms is often so regular as to mislead a
superficial observer; whilst it affords, if properly investigated,
a valuable clue to the affinities of problematic fossils.

It is now generally admitted that the earlier forms of life,
strange as many of them seem to us, were really less meta-
morphosed—or departed less widely from their ideal archetypes
—than those of later periods and of the present day.* The
types first developed are most like the embryonic forms of their
respective groups, and the progression observed is from these
general types to forms more highly specialised. (Owen.)

Migration of Species and diffusion of Genera in Former Times.—
Having adopted the doctrine of the continuity of specific and
generic areas, it remains to be shown that such groups as are
now widely scattered can have been diffused from common
centres, and that the barriers which now divide them have not
always existed.

In the first place it will be noticed that the mass of the
stratified rocks are of marine origin, a circumstance, not to be
wondered at, since the area of the sea is twice as great as the
land, and probably has always been so; for the average depth
of the sea is much greater than the general elevation of the
land.+

The mineral changes in the strata may sometimes be accounted
for by changes in the depth of the sea, or an altered direction
of the currents. But in many instances the sea-bed has been
elevated so as to become dry land, in the interval between the
formation of two distinct marine strata; and these alterations
are believed to occur (at least) once in each formation.

If every part of what is now dry land has (on the average)

* Mr. Darwin has pointed out that the sessile Cirripedes, which are more highly
metamorphosed than the Lepadide, were the last to appear. The fossil mammalia
afford, however, the most remarkable examples of thislaw. At the present day such
an animal as the three-toed horse (Hippotherium) of the Miocene Tertiary would be
deemed a lusus nature, but in truth the ordinary horse is far more wonderful. Un-
fortunately, a new “ vulgar error” has arisen from the terms in which extinct animals
have sometimes been described, as if they had been constructed upon several distinct
types, and combined the character of several classes.

{ The enormous thickness of the older rocks in all parts of the world has been held

to indicate the prevalence of deep water in the primeval seas.
9

Go

130 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

been thirty times submerged, and has formed part of the sea-
bed during two-thirds of all the past geological time,—there
will be no difficulty in accounting for the migration of sea-shells,
or the diffusion of marine genera.

On the other hand, it may be inferred that every part of the
present sea has been dry land many different times; on an
average not less than thirty times,—amounting to one-third
of the whole interval since the Cambrian epoch.

The average duration of the marine species has been assumed.
at only one-third the length of a geological period, and this
harmonises with the fact that so few (either living or extinct)
have a world-wide distribution.

The life of the land-snails and of the fresh-water shells has
been of longer average extent, enabling them to acquire a wide
range, notwithstanding their tardy migrations.

But when we compare the estimated rate of change in physical
geography with the duration of genera and families of shells, we
not only find ample time for their diffusion by land or sea over
large portions of the world, but we may perceive that such
transferences of the scene of creation must have become in-
evitable.

Method of Geological Investigation.—In whatever way geo-
logical history is written, its original investigators have only
one method of proceeding—from the known to the unknown—
or backwards in the course of time.

The newest and most superficial deposits contain the remains
of man and his works, and the animals he has introduced.

Those of pre-historic date, but still very modern, contain
shells, &c., of recent species, but in proportions different from
those which now prevail (pp. 89, 90,93). Some of the species
may be extinct in the immediate neighbourhood of the deposits,
but still living at a distance.

In the harbour of New Bedford are colonies of dead shells of
the Pholas costata, a species living on the coast of the Southern
States. At Bracklesham, Sussex, there is a raised sea-bed
containing 35 species of sea-shells living on the same coast,
and 2 no longer living there, yiz.—Pecten polymorphus, a Medi-
terranean shell; and Lutraria rugosa, still found on the coasts
of Portugal aud Mogador.

Tertiary hile —If any distinction is to be made between
“Tertiary” and ‘‘ Post-tertiary”’ strata, the former term should
be restricted to those deposits which contain some extinct species.
And the newest of these, in Britain, contain an assemblage of
Northern shells. Professor Forbes has published a list of 124

DISTRIBUTION OF THE MOLLUSCA IN TIME. 181

species of shells from these ‘‘ cies beds,” nearly all of which
are now existing in British seas.*

In most of the localities for glacial shells, the species are all
recent; but at Bridlington, Yorkshire, and in the Norwich
Crag, a few extinct species.are found (e.g. Nucula Cobboldice,
Pl. 17, f. 18). At Chiliesford, Suffolk, Yoldia arctica and myalis
occur of large size and in excellent preservation, with numerous
specimens of Mya truncata, erect as they lived, in the muddy
-sea-bed. TZrophon scalariforme, Admete viridula, Scalaria gron-
landica, and Nativa grenlandica, also occur in the Norwich Crag ;
and Astarte borealis, with several arctic forms of Tellina, are
amongst the commonest shells, and frequently occur in pairs,
or with their ligament preserved; the deposit is extensively
quarried for shell-sand.

Raised sea-beds with Arctic shells at Uddevalla, in Sweden,
have been repeatedly noticed ever since the time of Linnzus.
Captain Bayfield discovered similar beds near Quebec, 50—200
feet above the River St. Lawrence, containing an assemblage of
shells entirely Arctic in character ; whereas in the present gulf
he obtained an admixture of the American representatives of
Lusitanian types, Mesodesma, Periploma, Petricola, Crepidula.

The glacial deposits of the northern hemisphere extend about
15° south of the line of ‘‘ northern limit of trees;’’ but this
comparatively recent extension of the Arctic ocean does not
appear to have much influenced, if it ever invaded, the inland
basin of the Aralo-Caspian, which contains only, one species
common to the White Sea, Cardium edule, var. rusticum.+

The older pliocene period is represented in England by the
Coralline Crag, a deposit containing 340 species of shells. Of
these 73 are living British species, but (with two or three ex-
ceptions) they are such as range south of Britain. (Forbes.)
The remainder are extinct, or living only to the south, especially
in the Lusitanian province: e.g. Fossarus sulcatus, Lucinopsis
Lajonkairii, Chama gryphoides, and species of Cassidaria, Cleo-
dora, Sigaretus, Terebra, Columbella, and Pyramidella. It also
contains a few forms belonging to an earlier age—a Pholadomya,
a true Pyrula, a Lingula, and a large Voluta, resembling the
Magellanic species.

* The species which have retired farther north are marked (**) in the preceding
Arctic List, pp. 57, 58.

+ Mr. Wm. Hopkins, of Cambridge, has investigated the causes which may have
produced a temporary extension of the Arctic phenomena in Europe; and considers
the most efficient and probable cause would be a diversion of the Gulf-stream, which
he supposes to have flowed up what is now the valley of the Mississippi. (Geological
Journal).

132 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The shells of the newer tertiaries are always identical, at least
generically, with those of the nearest coasts. Thus, in Pata-
gonia are found species of Trophon, Crepidula, Monoceros,
Pseudoliva, Voluta, Oliva, Crassatella, and Solenellu. The ter-
tiaries of the United States contain species of Fulgur, Mercenaria,
and Gnathodon. The miocene shells of St. Domingo appear at
first sight to be all of recent species, but on comparison prove
to be mostly distinct.

The proportion of extinct species in the Pliocene tertiary
varies from 1—d0 per cent. If a deposit contains more than
50 per cent. of extinct species it is referred to the Miocene
period; and this test is particularly valuable since the modern
deposits are often isolated, and frequently no assistance can be
derived from superposition, or even from identity of species.

In the Eocene tertiaries we perceive the “dawn” of the present
order of things. All, or very nearly all, the species are different,
but a large proportion of the genera are still existing, though
not always in the seas nearest to the localities where they occur
fossil.

Thus in the London clay are found—Rostellaria, Oliva, Ancil-
laria, and Vulsella, genera still living in the Red Sea; and many
species of Nautilus, Rimella, Seraphs, Conus, Mitra, Pyrula,
Phorus, Liotia, Cardilia—genera characteristic of the Indian
Ocean; Cyprovula, Typhis, and Voiutilithes, now living at the
Cape ; Clavella, at the Marquesas, and Pseudoliva, Trochita, and
species of Murex, whose recent analogues are found on the
western shores of South America.

The freshwater shells of this period are Old World forms:
Melanopsis, Potamides, Lampania, Melanatria, and Nematura ;
whilst the land-shells form a group quite American in character
—large species of Glandina and Bulimus (with reflected lip)
Megalomastoma (mumia), a Cyclotus (with its operculum) like C.
Jamaicensis, and the little Helix labyrinthicus.

Secondary Age.—In none of the older strata do we find indica-
tions of a warmer climate having prevailed, in the latitude of
England, than that which marks the period of the London clay. |
And this is not more than can be accounted for by such a cause
as the flow of an equatorial current from the direction of the
Red Sea, until arrested by a continent to the south-west, as
supposed by Mr. Prestwich, in the region of the Azores.

Some indications exist of a more moderate climate having
obtained in the north polar regions; for remains of the Ichthyo-
saurus were found at Exmouth Island, the farthest point reached
by Sir E. Belcher’s expedition.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE MOLILUSCA IN TIME. 138

The peculiar physical conditions of the Chalk period are
represented at the present day, not so much by the Coral Sea,
as by the Aigean, where calcareous mud, derived from the waste
of the scaglia regions, is being rapidly deposited in deep water.
(Lorbes.)

The Wealden period was styled the ‘‘ Age of Reptiles” by Dr.
Mantell, who compared the state of England at that time with
the present condition of the Galapagos Islands.

The Oolitic period finds its parallel in Australia, as long since
pointed out by Professor Phillips, and the comparison holds
good to some extent, both for the Marine and Terrestrial
Faunas.

The Trias, with its foot-prints of gigantic wingless birds, has
been compared with the state of the Mascarene Islands only a
few centuries ago, and with the New Zealand Fauna, where
birds are still the highest aboriginal inhabitants.*

Paleozoic Age.—It has lately been shown by Professor Ramsay
_ that signs of glacial action may be traced in some of the trappean
- conglomerates of the Permian and of the Devonian or Old Red
Sandstone period in England ; and Mr. Page has endeavoured
to apply the same interpretation to phenomena of a similar cha-
racter in the Old Red sandstone of Scotland.+ Geologists gene-
rally have abandoned the notion, once very prevalent, of a
universal high temperature in the earliest periods; a notion
which they had derived from the occurrence of certain fossil
plants, corals, and shells in high latitudes.

The absence of remains of mammalia in the paleeozoic forma-
tions, is at present a remarkable fact, but it is completely
paralleled in the great modern zoological province of the Pacific
Islands. :

Baron Humboldt has speculated on the possibility of some land
being yet discovered, where gigantic lichens and arborescent
mosses may be the princes of the vegetable kingdom.{ If such
exist, to shadow the Paleozoic age, its appropriate inhabitants
would be like the cavern-haunting Proteus, and the Silures
which find an asylum even in the craters of the Andes.

What, then, is it which has chiefly determined the character
of the present zoological provinces ? What law, more powerful
than climate, more influential than soil, and food, and shelter ;

* In a paper read before the British Association, on the subject of the great extinct
wingless birds of New Zealand, Professor Owen suggested the notion of land having
been propagated like a wave throughout the vast interval between Connecticut and New
Zealand, since the Triassic period.

+ See also the Rev. J. G. Cumming’s “Isle Of Man” (1849), p. 89.
£ Views of Nature, p. 221. Bohn’s ed.

134 — MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

nay, often seemingly producing results opposed to @ priort
probability, and at variance with the suitableness of con-
ditions ?*

The answer is, that each fauna bears, above all things, the
impress of the age to which it belongs. Hach has undergone a
series of vicissitudes up to the time when its barriers became
fixed, and after its isolation it has known no further change,
but decline. :

The number of living and fossil species of each genus of
mollusca will be stated in the following pages, so far as they can
be ascertained. With some modifications, these numbers give the
following totals, by which the relative numerical development
of the orders and families will be seen.

Recent. Fossil. Recent. Fossil.
CEPHALOPODA. Dibranchiata. INEriti Geer its. snectee ees 428 103
Argonautide ..........,. 4 2 Patellidse ..........0.00. 368 104
Octopodida@........1.+,.+- 63 _ Dentaligdze...... is... 40 125
Meuthidcec ts es.eokeror st 104 31 Chitonidve spans 250 37
Belemnitide ............ — 140 —— =
Sepiade ........ccceee 30 16 ( 8,465 5,819
Spirulide..........s.000 3 = _ aR ee
ahi Rom Hrelicid sae reeasseeseeeres 4750 316
204 189 Limacide ediadtvetess 93 4
Tetrabranchiata. Limneidze ASR ees ee 185
Nautilidg .........00000 6 ae (MArine)...0. esseseeeeee ee 37
Orthoceratidee .,,...... i (Ditto, shell-less) ...... 36 —
Ammonitide ............ — 1600 5.404 “542
ae RA Operculated Pulmonifera.
6 2193 Cyclostomide............ 903 45
GASTEROPODA. Prpsobranchiata, ACICULIGE .cececcecececee 28 feet
Strombideyt ............ 87 393 — _—-
MUTICIDE WV, 5..2200.00 +e 993 703 931 46
Buccinide «.....1.0+ 1,144 352 Tecti-branchiata.
Conide ....... PEyL Chee 856 462 Tornatellide ............ 62 166
Volutidae: 2. -L.utsa8. «sade 686 210 Bullidee ....eseerereeee 168 88
Cypracidae ......2.:.::--- 227 97 Aplysiadee ............. 84 4
Naticidee meme teeta. 268 340 Pleurobranchide ...... 28 5
Pyramidellide ......... 216 304 Phyllidiad@ «1.15... 14 —
Cerithiadse ............... 192 610 "356 963
Melaniade ............... 424 50 Nair achat
See aca BoP O) ey PO dy wanoridiih oy JURE In 160 =
Littorinide ............... 410 220 Thine 38 ce
Paludinidee .............6+ 217 110 PSOne eter ale 101 =
Calyptreeide ... ........ 160 10] Phyllirhoidee ...... rh.) 6 poe.
Turbinidee S500 00059000900 855 906 Elysiadze abe maa Vinde Wi. . 13 a
Haliotide ............... 104 136 eS
Fissurellidz ............ 201 76 318
* Burchell, in Darwin’s Journal, p. 87. } Including Aporrhais

t With Scalaria.

NUMERICAL ESTIMATE.

Recent. Fossil.

Nucleobranchiata.
MITOGEN eccceensecsc ss cice 33
Atlantidge ..........0000. 22

55
PTEROPODA.

Hyaleid® ...........000+ 52
Limacinide «........... 19
QUIGHINE inns cxweveiesenses 14
85

BRACHIOPODA.
Terebratulide ......... 67
Spiriferide ............64. _
Rhynchonellide ...... 4
Orthidee eh. dadevscae sees _—
Productide&............... _
Cranlad dey. ceases os sacle 5
Miscimidser .0..ckse-003 10
Lingulidse ............06 16
102

135

Recent. Fossil.

CONCHIFERA.

OStTCIADE .....ss0cceseree 426
AVIGUIICGEY cesccsscceresee 94
Mytilidee ...........seeecee 217
IAN CAUSSE etecosscevsnsstes 360
TrigoniadZ.......eecccee 3
Unionid@ wrecorecerosece 549
C@laimidceyeccnesss--see0s 50
Hippuritide ..........06 _
Mridacnidss:...ccesccoes se 8
@ardiad ices eesce state 200
IUCIMIDEE ss seen coves salto 178
Cycladid@ ....00.2.0.0000 176
Cyprinde .......00.0-000 176
IVETIETICse!) rece sescceres 600
IMiaC bri dae)t sete es -selees 147
MeNimi dee). sase-ces<h-om soe 560
Solenidaeyeesicesencccasccsts 63
MYyacid® ....ccecece- ceeree 121
Anatinide ......csscecses 246
Gastrochenide ......... 40
Pholadidee 2.00 ceccevees 81
4,295

GENERAL SUMMARY.

Recent. Fossil.

Dibranchiata .....ssecvecsee 204
Tetrabranchiata& .........000 6
Prosobranchiata ........0.0 8,465

Inoperculated Pulmonifera 5,404
Operculated Pulmonifera.. 931
Tectibranchiata ............ 356
Nudibranchiata............... 318

189
2,193
5,819

542

46 .

263

Recent. Fossil.

Nucleobranchiata... .... aS 55
PteropOda, ...secccscececressees 85
BrachiopOda ....sccccsesseees aeO2
Conchifera ....cccce seccrccesce 4,295

20,502

169
95
1842
7,419

18,568

136 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

CHAPTER IV.
ON COLLECTING SHELLS.

The circumstances under which shells are found is a subject
so intimately connected with the methods of collecting them, as
to make it undesirable to treat of them separately.

Naturalists distinguish between the habitats, or geographical
localities of species, and the stations or circumstances In which
they are found: to the latter subject only slight allusion has
been hitherto made (p. 7).

Land-shells are most abundant on calcareous soils (p. 29), and
in warm and moist climates. The British species are collected
with adyantage in autumn, when full-grown, and showing
themselves freely in the dews of morning and evening. Some
species, like Bulimus acutus, are found only near the sea; Bulimus
Lackhamensis ascends beech trees on the Chalk downs and Cots-
wolds; Pupa Junipert and Helix umbilicata occur chiefly on
rocks and stone walls. The moss-frequenting Clausilie may be
obtained even in mild winter weather at the roots of trees; the
small species of Pupa (or Vertigo) are sometimes taken abundantly
when sweeping wet grass with an insect net ; Acicula fusca lives
at the roots of grass; Ctonella acicula is found in old bones
(such as occur in Danish burial-grounds !), and occasionally in
moying garden-bulbs; Helix aculeata has been met with on the
under sides of leaves (e.g. the sycamore), a few feet from the
earth.

In tropical countries a large number of the land snails are
arboreal in their habits. The West Indian palms (such as
Oreodoxa regia) are the chosen abode of many species of Heli-
cide. M. Couthouy found Bulimus auris leporis on the orange
and myrtle-trees near Rio, and Partule and Helicine, on the
Draczenas and Bananas of the Polynesian Islands; and the
sailors of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, in Captain Owen Stanley’s
expedition, became expert in collecting Geotrochi in the trees of
the Australian islands.

The great tropical Bulimi and Achatine will sometimes lay
their eggs in captivity.*

* Such giants require to be collected in a basket, while the small land-shells of
open and rocky countries may be put in a cotton bag, hung on a coat button.

ON COLLECTING SHELLS. 137

The following are examples of the elevations at which land-
snails haye been found. (pp. 289, 294.)

Helix pomatia, 5,000 feet—Alps. (Jeffreys.)
» rupestris, 1,200—5,000 ft.
»» bursatella, Gould, 2,000—5,000 ft. Taheiti.
Bulimus vibex, 7,000 ft. India. (Benson.)
bs nivicola and ornatus, 14,000 ft. op
on Lamarckianus, 8,000 ft. New Granada.
Achatina latebricola, 4—7,000 ft. Landour.
Pupa Halleriana, 1,200—2,500 ft. Alps.
» tantilla, 2,000 ft. Taheiti.
Clausilia Idzea, 5,500 ft. Mt. Ida.
Vitrina glacialis, Forbes, 8,000 ft. Monte Rosa.
5, annularis, 2,000—3,000 ft. Burgos. (M‘Andrew.)
» Teneriffe, 2,000 —6,210 ft. Madeira.
Helicina occidentalis, Guilding, 2,000 ft. St. Vincent’s.
(Limnza Hookeri, 18,000 ft. Thibet.)

The land-snails of warm and dry regions remain dormant for
long periods (p. 14), and require no attention for many months
after being collected.*

Freshwater shells are collected with an insect net or ‘‘ landing
net’ of strength suited to the work of raising masses of weed.
The strongly rooted flags and rushes may be pulled up witha
boat-hook; and Cyclades, as well as univalves, may be obtained
by shaking aquatic plants over the net. For getting up the
pearl mussels, the most efficient instrument is a tin bowl, per-
forated like a sieve, and fitted on the end of a staff, or jointed
rod. (Pickering.)

In some situations the fresh-water shells are all much eroded
(p. 33,), or coated with a ferruginous deposit. It may be
desirable to find out the localities where the specimens are
in best condition before collecting extensively. The opercula
should always be preserved with the shells to which they
belong; those of the Oyclostomide and Melaniade are particu-
larly interesting,

The Auriculide are especially met with in damp places by the
sea; IN mangrove-swamps, and creeks and river-banks where
the water becomes brackish. <Amphibola and Assiminea are
found in salt-marshes, Siphonaria and Peronia on the shore,
between tide-marks.

Collecting Sea- shells.—The following remarks are from the pen

* Land and fresh-water snails may be killed instantaneously with boiling water, if a
few are done at a time; and cooled by removal to cold water. Every collector finds
expedients for removing the animals more or less completely from their shells ; those
which, like Clausilia, retire beyond the reach of a bent pin may be drowned in tepid
water.

138 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

of an experienced conchologist, Mr. W. J. Broderip :—‘‘ When
the tide is at the lowest, the collector should wade among the
rocks and pools near the shore, and search under overhanging
ledges of rock as far as his arms can reach. An iron rake,
with long close-set teeth, will be a useful implement on such
occasions. He should turn over all loose stones and growing
sea-weeds, taking care to protect his hands with gloves, and his
feet with shoes and stockings, against the sharp spines of Echini,
the back-fins of sting-fishes, and the stings of Meduse. In
detaching chitons and limpets, which are all to be sought for
on rocky coasts, the spatula or case-knife will prove a valuable
assistant. Those who have paid particular attention to pre-
serving chitons have found it necessary to suffer them to die
under pressure between two boards. Ormers (Haliotides) may
be removed from the rocks to which they adhere by throwing a
little warm water over them, and then giving them a sharp
push with the foot sideways, when mere violence would be of
no avail without injuring the shell. Rolled madrepores and loose
fragments of rock should be turned over; cowries and other
shell-fish frequently harbour under them, Numbers of shell-
fish are generally to be found about coral-reefs.”” In coral regions
the services of natives should be obtained, as they may render
much assistance by diving or wading.

Advantage may be taken of spring-tides, especially at the
equinoxes, to examine lower tracts of sea-shore than are ordi-
narily accessible. Many bivalves bury in sand and mud at
extreme low-water, and may be obtained alive by digging with
a spade or fork; others may be found boring in piles and rocks,
and require the hammer and chisel for their extraction.*

Mr. Joshua Alder remarks that ‘‘in collecting among rocks
the principal thing is to look close, particularly in crevices and
under stones. Minute species inhabiting sea-weed are best
obtained by gathering the weed and immersing it for some time
in a basin of sea-water, when the little mollusks will generally
creep out. If the shells only are wanted, the surer and more
ready way is to plunge the weed into freshwater, when the
animals immediately fall to the bottom.”

The floating mollusca of the open sea, especially in tropical
latitudes, are comparatively little known. Good drawings, and
descriptions made from the life, are most valuable. ‘‘Of the
animal of the Spirula, entire specimens are greatly wanted. If

* Bivalves may be boiled, and their soft parts removed when the shells gape. Care
should be taken not to injure the ligament, or hinge, especially in the genera (like the
Anatinid) provided with an ossicle.

ON COLLECTING SHELLS. 139

captured alive, its movements should be watched in a vessel of
sea-water, to see whether it has the power of rising and sinking
at will; its mode of swimming, and position during these move-
ments, and when at rest. The chambered sheil should be opened
under water, to ascertain if it contain a gas, the nature of wh‘ch
should, if possible, be made out. The pearly nautilus requires
the same observations, which would be attended with more
precision and facility from its larger size.” (Owen.)*

The towing-net used by Mr. McGillivray ‘‘ consisted of a bag
of bunting (used for flags) 2 feet deep, the mouth of which was
sewn round a wooden hoop 14 inches in diameter; three pieces
of cord, 13 foot long, were secured to the hoop at equal inter-
vals and had their ends tied together. When in use, the net
was towed astern, clear of the ship’s wake, by a stout cord
secured to one of the quarter-boats, or held in the hand. The
scope of the line required was regulated by the speed of the vessel
at the time, and the amount of strain caused by the partially
submerged net.” +

Trawling.—Mr. John W. Woodall,of Scarbro’, has kindly fur-

%,

~ = Y, Fomsere
ES oe So

>

»,

= Sl _— SSE
4 OSS x |
EQ SOS é
SSN SOX SANS
A |

EX
xO
eT ot i

Fig. 32. A Trawl-net. A. Side view; B. Net in op ration; C. Plan.

nished the following sketches and particulars :—‘‘ B, Fig. 32, is
intended to represent a trawl-net at work on the bottom of the sea.

* Admiralty Manual of Scientific Inquiry. 8vo. Lond. 1849.
t Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, vol i. p. 27.

140 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The side frames are of iron, the upper beam of wood, and the lower
edge of the net is kept down to the ground by means of a chain,
which is wolded or wrapped round with old rope. The beam is
generally from 40 to 50 feet in length, and about § inches square.
The net is about 30 yards in depth, and has a couple of pockets
inside. The end is untied when the net is hauled on board for
the purpose of taking the fish out. These nets can only be
worked where the bottom of the sea is free from rocks. They
are used by boats of 35 to 60 tons, manned by crews of from four
to six men and two to three or four boys. In the vicinity of
Scarbro’ they fish between the shore-reefs and the off rock, which
is 4 to 10 miles from land; the bottom is sand or clay, with 4 to 15
fathom water on the land side, and 17 to 25 fathoms on the off
side.” Immense quantities of crustacea and shell-fish are taken
with the trawl, as well as ground-fish.

Kettle-nets.—On the flat, sandy coast of Kent and Sussex, the
mackerel-tishery is pursued by setting up stakes 10 or 15 feet
high, at distances of 10 feet apart, in limes running outwards
from the shore at high-water, to low-water neap tides, where
they are turned in the direction of the tide. To these
stakes nets are attached, and leaded, which remain as long as
the fish are on the coast. Cuttle-fish are frequently taken in
these nets.

Deep-sea Fishery.—In North Britain an extensive ground-
fishery is conducted by means of long lines—often a mile in
length—with hooks and baits every few yards. These lines
are laid out at night near the coast, and taken up the next
morning. When used out at sea, the boats lay by for a few
hours, and then take up the lines. The carnivorous whelks -
adhere to the baits (which have not been seized by fishes), and
sometimes a bushel of them are taken in this way from a single
line. Lhynchonella psittacea, Panopea Norvegica, Velutine, and
some of the scarce Fusi, have been obtained from these lines,
the bivalves having been entangled accidentally by the hooks.

For trapping whelks on rocky ground a net may be made such
as is used for crabs and lobsters, by attaching a loose bag to an
iron ring of a yard across. This is fastened to a rope by three
equal strings, baited with dead fish, and let down from a vessel
at anchor, or, still better, from a buoy. It 1s put down over-—
night, and hauled up gently in the morning.

Mr. D’ Urban informs us that Natica Aldert and monilifera
are frequently found in the lobster-pots at Bognor, Sussex,
which they enter to feed upon the bait.

Dredging. —The dredges used in the oyster and whelk-

ON COLLECTING SHELLS. 141

fisheries are so- rudely made as to injure the more delicate
marine animals, and suffer all the minute things to escape. It
is thereforé necessary to have instruments specially adapted for
the naturalist’s work.

Fig. 33 is a plan, and Fig. 34 a side-
view, of a small dredge, belonging to Mr.
J. 8S. Bowerbank, and suited for such
- work as a private collector might do on
the English coast. It is made of wrought
iron, with movable joints, so as to fold
up and carryin the hand. The bag attached
to the dredge is formed of two pieces of
raw hide (A, h), connected at the ends
and bottom by net (n) made of cod-line,
to allow the water to escape; and is
fastened to the frame with copper wire,
through the eyelet-holes. The towing-
rope is attached to the rings (r, 7), and
when thrown overboard it scrapes with
one or other of the cutting edges (e, e’).
The opening is made narrow, to prevent
the admission of large and heavy stones.

Dredging should not be attempted in a
rowing-boat, unless near the shore, in
smooth water, and with a depth not ex-
ceeding 5 or 10 fathoms. It may bey
managed in a light boat by two persons ;
one rowing, the other holding the rope of
the dredge which is passed overboard near
the stern.

The whelk and oyster-dredgers employ
a decked sailing-vessel, and work several
dredges simultaneously, each requiring a person to manage it,

142 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The dredges are put overboard on the weather-side, and the
ropes made fast to a bulwark or thwart; each dredger holds
the rope in his hand, after giving it a single turn round a thwart
r ‘‘belaying pin,” to regulate the strain by means of the
spare line. When a sufficient distance has been traversed, or
the ropes strain with the weight of mud and stones, the vessel
is brought to, and the dredges hauled up and emptied.*

The length of line required is about double the depth of the
water. If the line is too short, the dredge will only skim the
bottom ; if too long, it will be in danger of getting fast. When
the bottom is loose sand or soft mud, the line must be short-
ened, or the vessel have more way, or else the dredge will be
apt to get buried.

The strength of the line ought to be sufficient to anchor the
vessel in smooth water,—though not, of course, when there is
much way on her,—so that if the dredge gets foul it is necessary
to let out the spare line and relieve the strain while the vessel
is brought round. The dredge will then usually capsize, and
may be hauled up.

If the bottom is at all rocky, a small strong dredge is best.
The line must be shortened, and some additional precautions
may be taken, such as fastening the rope to one ring of the
dredge, and tying the other with spun yarn, which will break
under a sudden and dangerous strain, and release one end of
the dredge.

In dredging on coral-ground, Mr. Cuming employed a 3-inch
hawser, and had a patent buoy attached to the dredge by a
1$-inchrope. More than once the hawser parted, and the dredge
was left down all night, but recovered the next day.

Mr. McAndrew’s researches on the coast of Norway were
conducted in the Naiad, a yacht of 70 tons, and extended from
the shore to 250 fathom water. The dredge employed was at
least twice as strong and heavy as the one we have represented,
and all forged in one piece, instead of folding up. The bag was
fastened on the frame with thongs cut from the hide. Before
using, it requires to be towed astern for a couple of hours, to
soften it. In three months’ work only two cow-hides were used,
and one of those was torn by accident on sharp rocks. Several
spare dredges were on board, in case of emergency, but not used.

Dredging in deep water (50 to 300 fathoms) can only be done

* The collector may go out with the fishermen and superintend his own dredge
almost any time of the year, although oyster catching is illegalinthe summer. The
scallop-banks off Brighton are in 15 fms. water, and nearly out of sight of land. It is
not always possible to work over them and return the same night.

ON COLLECTING SHELLS. 1438

_ in calm weather, with a light breeze. The yacht is brought to

_ the wind (by putting up the helm), the foresheet hauled to
windward, mainsail hauled up, and mizen taken in; the gaff
topsail also hauled up; she then drifts to leeward, and the
dredge is thrown overboard to windward, with the line made
fast amidships; the spare line being coiled up so as to be given
out readily. When the dredge is to be hauled in, the rope is
passed through a movable block, fixed to the shrouds, and the
whole strength of the crew (fifteen hands) called into requisition,
if necessary. When the depth does oot exceed 50 fathoms, the
boat, with three men and the two dredgers, is used.

If the dredge gets fouled, the rope is passed into the boat,
brought over the dredge, and hauled up. In very deep water
(150 fathoms) the line is carried forward and made fast to the
bows, and the yacht itself hauled up till right over the dredge,
which is then recovered without difficulty.

The contents of the dredge are washed, and sifted with two
sieves, one ‘‘4-inch,” the other very fine. They are made of

- copper wire, and one fits into the other. The dredge is emptied
into the coarse sieve and washed in the sea from the boat, or if
in the yacht, they are placed in an iron frame, over the side
of the vessel, and buckets of water poured on. The sediment
retained in the fine sieve may be dried and examined at leisure,
for minute shells. :

The following ‘‘dredging-papers,” kept on the plan recom-
mended by Professor E. Forbes, have been selected by Mr.
Barrett, to illustrate the kind of shells found at various zones
of depth.

The shell-fish obtained by dredging should be at once boiled,
and the animals removed, unless wanted for examination (p. 153).
The bivalves gape, and require to be tied with cotton; the
opercula of the univalyes should be secured in their apertures
with wool. The small univalyes may be put up in spirit, or
glycerine, to save time. In warm climates the flies and ants
assist In remoylng any remains of the animals left in spiral
shells, and chloride of lime may be necessary to deodorise them.

M. Petit de la Saussaye has given very full instructions for
collecting and preserving shells, in the Journal de Conchyliologie
for 1850, p. 215, and 1851, pp. 102, 226.

It is stated that both the form and colour of molluscous
animals may be preserved in a saturated solution of hydro-
chlorate of ammonia (10 parts) and corrosive sublimate (1 part
—first dissolved in alcohol), but the preparation is expensive
and dangerous.

144 MANUAL OF

THE

MOLLUSCA.

DREDGING PAPERS, AND RECORDS OF RESEARCHES
ON THE COAST OF NORWAY.

By R.. McAnDREW, Esa., AND Lucas BARRETT, Esaq., F.G.S.

Date
Locality 550
ID en uliaye eso ale-ciaecs

Ground ae. Rock and sand.
| Number Number
Species. | of living of dead
specimens. | specimens.

Mya truncata... ... 6 Many.

Tellina incarnata ... ... ws Many. Many.
Astarte compressa... ... ... 1 0

» borealis Aaailieac 3 Many.'"*

Cardium edule... ... ose Many. Many.
Crenelladisconsi es) yeas) ses) utes: Many. 0
Acmeza testudinalis ... .. Many. 0
Margarita undulata aes 6 0
ae helicina Ee 8 0
Littorina littorea ... ... ... Many. 0
. rudis Det gation tans Many. 0
Lacunavincta... ... ... 2 0
Natica pusilla... ... 22. ws 2h NPA 0
ea CLAUS Amis tinsel ore! toes Many. 0

Purpura lapillus ... ... ... Many. Many.
Buccinum undatum ... ... Many. 0
A GYAaANeUnW) eee) ese Many. 0
Belathurricnlay. yee. dees less 10 0
Doris Johnstoni ... ... ... 8 0

TL;

July 1st, 1855.

Tromsoé (Nordland).
Between tide marks.

|
Observations.

In sand.
In sand.
On sand.
On sand.

In sand.
Covering the under
sides of stones.
On rock.

On weed.

On weed.

On rock.

On rock.

On weed.

On sand.

On rock.

On rock.

On rock and sand.
On rock.

On rock.

(NOTE.) Nospecimens of Trochus or Patella vulgata occurred.

Date’ 2.
_ Locality

Depths. Sieesy ree \uset

Distance from shore ..
Ground...

eve

TT.
July

5th, 1855.

Near Hammerfest (Finmarken).
7 to 20 fathoms.

Close to shore.
Nullipore and sand.

Saxicava arctica ... so. see vee
Mya truncata ... 11. 2. soe vee
Thracia CONVeXa ... .. se
Tellina proxima ... 1. ..
IMactEATellipiGh jrect cco) lites. wes
Venus ovata ...0 20. sen see cee
5 UELREENRTIES "565° G00
Cyprina Islandica... ...
Astarte COMpressa... ... se.
Cardium fasciatum ... ...
Modiola Modiolus ... ... ws. sae
29 phaseolina

9
BCookoue

once

* The accented numbers im the column of “ dead specimens” refer to disunited

valves of Conchifera and Brachiopoda.

DISTRIBUTION IN DEPTH. ; 145

Number Number
Species. of living of dead Observations.
specimens, | specimens,

MGGwGaAUdAtace Voss lscel) wee ees 2 1
Pecten Islandicus ... 0 2!
Chiton asellus... 2 0
>> marmoreus... 200 2 0
ACGME VIFGINEA 20. see ses wee 3 2
FS testudinaria ... ... ... 0 1
Patella pellucida Scoot eee 6 0

Dentaliumentale’... 0... f25 se. 4 PPS oat

Trochus tumidus ... ... ... ... Many Many.
POeEMECIUNCTATIISS.. sys. xt: ces 1 0
Margarita helicina... ... ... ... 12 0
oo ROTC ATA ee ee) ene | elas Many.

- cinerea ... 6 2
Velutina leevigata ... 0 1
Buccinum undatum ... ... ... 0 3
Trophon clathratus ... ... ... 1 0
35 Gunner ee eeee 1 0
Bela rufa oomsecceilinics 1 0
BS UULNIGUIALO.) ces. Ws. 0 4
Mangelia nana ... ... 2 0

III:

DatCmescaiiess) vets sould Ulyrord, 155,

Locality ... ... ... Island of Arnde (Finmarken)..
Depth es) s-. "ast ee 40to 22 fathoms.

Distance from shore ... Half a mile.

Ground... ... ... ... Laminaria and red weed.
Saxicava arctica 25 00 3 Many.’
PUHTAGINCONVERA ces. cs5 se ase 1 0
Venus ovata doo da i 3!
Cyprina Islandica ... ... ... 2 Many.’
Astarte crebricostata ... ... ... Many. Many.
>» elliptica see pea 12 Many
RRCOMMDECSS Ay) cecnticcen fore Many. Many.
Cardium fasciatum ... ... ... Many. Many.
Cryptodon flexuosus ... ... ... 1 6'
Modiola modiolus.., ... ... ... 1 Many.’
Crenelladecussata... ... ... ... Many. Many.
Heda permula, 0°... «0 He Many. Many.
Pecten Islandicus... ... ... ... 3 Fragments. Young.
Anomia Ephippium ... ... ... Many. 0
PCHICALD, ae sa. oss cae Many. 0
Chiton marmoreus... ... ... ... 4 0
Dentalium entale ... ... ... ... 4 Many.
PETOCHUSMUMIGUS “Seo fas, sey oes Many. Many.
SC INGLATIUS cee tee ses) | cee Many. Many.
Margarita cinerea... ... 2.2 os Many. Many.
AM MINOW aca eee ese eee Many. Many.
el EMCI eee Weary. eae Many. Many.
MiACUMAVANGtare chs See Lose 8 oes Many. Many.
Hattorina littoralis.... $.:, 0... .:. 3 0
RISSOAMPALVA cco) ace, seen sos. ose Many. 0
Natica clausa ... ‘ 4 0
SsmDUSI Area | es 0 1
Velutina levigata ... Bo Ne 3 0
EP MOXAIS | 2 ees Sk 1 0
H

146

TTT [aEnEnEEEEEEEEETT EE

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA

Number Number
Species. of living of dead Observations.
specimens. | specimens. |
ih reels rte a2. 5 op Na eB Le eae
Trichotropis borealis 3 0 |
Nassa incrassata 1 0 |
Mangelia nana 8 0 :
Bela turricula... Many. 0
Trophon Gunneri ... 12 0
» clathratus... 3 0
IV.
Date... July, 1856.
Locality ... Vigten Island (N. Drontheim).
Distance from shore... Quarter of a mile.
Depth ... 30 fathoms.
Ground... Coral-bank.

Arca nodulosa...
Leda caudata...
Yoldia lucida ...
Astarte succata :
Pecten Islandicus ...
Lima excavata
Lucina Sarsii ...
- Cryptodon flexuosus
Modiola phaseolina
Anomia ephippium
Venus ovata
Terebratulina caput-serpentis
Cluton aselluss.-9... 22. |...
Puncturella noachina :
Emarginula fissura
ae crassa...
Margarita cinerea... ...
3 alabastrum ...
Trophon barvicensis

Matey Zachos) | tls

Locality Omnaesée ( Nordland).
Depth ... ... 080 to 50 fathoms.
Distance from shore... Half a mile.
Ground... Stones and sand.
No. of hauls Four.
a a a
Saxicava arctica ... ... .- «. 6 2
Tellina proxima ... .-. ww. + 0 1
Venus ovata . Ba sis oa 2 0 Small.
Cyprina Islandica .. 2 Many.
Astarte elliptica 4 0
COMPTeSSa... ose 6 0
Cardium fasciatum Bo hae 2 0
A SUCCICUM.:. <2. «00 5 4!
Modiola phaseolina — see 200 f Many. Large.
Crenella nigra... .-- 00 ss. 0 1 Large.
Nucula nucleus «2. aa. se 0 | 5
Fy) LE DUIS|s061) tour iaasl eens 4 | Many.
Leda caudata... .2. see ues «+s 2 0
Arca pectuncu.oi idea hecgertes m=. 12 | 10' Large.

3 5)
2 0
3 0
3 4!
0 9!
0 IY |
0 1
2 0
10 0
Many 0
2
20 Many.
4 0
2 0
1 2
0 1
1 0
1 0
1 0
We

June 23rd, 1855.

Date ...
Locality
Depth ...

bao

Distance from shore ..

Ground...

eon

No. of Hauls

Cyprina Islandica ... ...
Newra cuspidata ... ...
Leda caudata... .. ...
Woldialucida <4. ss
Pecten Islandicus ...

Se SUQUIS ee eva
Arca pectunculoides B00
Syndosmya prismatica...
Cryptodon flexuosus
Mactra elliptica ... ...
Cardium fasciatum ...

SSUCCIGUIO cs.
Astarte sulcata
Anomia ephippium 500
Crenella decussata,..

SSN eTUL eee
Terebratula cranium
Rhynchonella psittacea...
Dentalium entule ..
Puncturella noachina ,.,
Lepeta coeca ... ... 4.
Pleurotoma nivalis ..

edo

bee

July 20th, 1856.

147

Observations.

Large and Recent.

i Many stones had on
them the attached

Large.

Carinated Var.

Young.

DISTRIBUTION IN DEPTH.
~ Number Number
Species, of living of dead
specimens. | specimens.

Pecten striatus... uae 2 0
PMMDIOTINUS! 4h) ise} ccae) cok 3 6
PEMPUSTIUTTS is cee | saeh) ans vou 1 0

PEISIAACIGUS <6. Ach gus) ant v) l' |
Terebratula cranium ... .. 4. 80 10

Terebratulina caput-ser pentis a 1 0 |
‘Craniaanomala ... ... wo 12 0

valve,
Chiton Hanleyi ... 4. wn 3 0
MIE NCLATCUE CAs oye bu ace on 4 0
Acmea virginea ... ... ws 10 6
Pilidium fulvum ™ bc bad Many. 4
Puncturella noachina Rae RAG 2 1
Trochus millegranus ... .. 2 0
aalma polita... ssc ese us 1 0
Natica nitida ... ... BS 3 2
» helicoides ... a 0 1
SepUSUars.- se. ais 0 1
Veiutina levigata .. se 1 0
Tr ichotropis borealis eye as 6 3
Nassa incrassata ... ... il 0
-Fusus antiquus ... ... .. 0 2
Trophon clathratus... ... . 0 1
Mangelia twricula... ... ... 1 0
Tornatella fasciata ... ... 0 2
Buccinum undatum ... .., 6 0
Pleurotoma nivalis... ... ... 10 16
VI.

North of Rolphsoe (Finmarken),

180 to 180 fathoms.

Half a mile.
Sand.
Two.
0 3
0 2!
0 3!
1 2!
) Many
0 1
1 0
0 1
0 1
0 Q"6!
0 2
0 3
1 0
Many. 0
2 Many.
0 2!
3 0
1 2
Many Many.
Many. 0
2 0
1 2

Small.

148 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Number Number
Species. of living of dead Observations.
specimens. | specimens. ay
Fusus? sp... 0 Fry.
Buccinum Humphreysianum 0 1
Belaturricula... . = 2 0
Margarita cinerea. 3 4
5 undulata 0 2
alabastrum .. 0 1
VII.
Date een. sa ..mOUly 2th leap.
Locality ... ... ... Off the Island of Arnée (Finmarken).
Depth ... ... ... ... 200 fathoms.
Distance from shore... Four miles.
Grounds :i--- -- --. suds

Pecten similis...
Cryptodon flexuosus
Neera cuspidata
Arca pectunculoides
Nucula tenuis ...
Yoldia lucida .. :
Modiola phaseolina
Cardiura suecicum...
Crenella decussata...
Astarte crebricostata
Terebratula cranium
Dentalium are Asis

os

‘is quinguangidare (Forbes)
Eulima bilineata ...
Eulimella Scillee
Mangelia trevelliana
Bela rufa... . es
Philine quadrata spc

SCOOCOCONFRRFOCOFPNNRNYK- ORO
PrrPwnhbooanwhhkooonaowrorns

DREDGING PAPERS, OR RECORDS OF RESEARCHES —
IN THE AAGEAN SEA.

By PrRoFessor FE. FORBES.

I.

Date ... ... -o «. May 29th, 1841.
Locality ... ... ... Nousa Bay, Paros.
Distance from shore... Within the Bay.
Depth ... ... ... ... 65 to 6 fathoms.

Ground... ... ... ... Mud and sandy mud.
Pinna squamosa ... .. ose 0 1
Modiola tulipa... ... os. 1 0 In sandy mud,
Pecten polymorphus 4 6'
» hyalinus ‘ 1 0
Nucula margaritacea ... ... ... 0 40' In dark mud.
Cytherea chione ... ... ... «.. 0 1
an venetiana 200 1 3-5!
a5 apicalis .. 1 2-12!

DISTRIBUTION IN

DEPTH.

149

ee

Species.

Number
of living

specimens.

Number
of dead

_ Artemis lincta

Tapes virginea
Venus verrucosa
Tellina donacina

> balaustina...
Syndosmya alba
Lucina lactea... ...

» squamosa ...

» rotundata ...
Cardium rusticum ...

a exiguum ...
Cardita sulcata obs sts
Patella scutellaris ... ...

Calyptreea Sinensis 000 G00

Bulla hydatis ...
Turritella 3 plicata...
Trochus canaliculatus ..

Cerithium lima... ... SX

us vulgatum
Murex fistulosus :
Aplysia depilans ... ... ...
Ostrea plicatula ... ... ...

Date
Locality
Depth ...

Distance from shore ...

Ground...

—

oo
ok

—
OrrFmwmwooooo coowoooooococo
ire

COCO wWrRH rb

—

a.

Sept. 14th, 1842

Gulf of Smyrna.

26 fathoms.

Two miles and a half,
Fine brown mud.

specimens.

Observations.

_

A strong valve.

Washed in from,
shore.

In dark mud.

Full grown, adhering

to each other.

Small.

New.

New.

New.
New.

Avicula Tarentina... ... 3 3
Saxicava arctica ... 2. os 4 0
III.
~ ate August 5th, 1841.
Locality Off northern extremity of Paros.
Depth . .. .» 40 fathoms. Lae
Tigunnes coe Sion 5. Three miles and a half.
Ground... area
Pecten pusio ... ... 5 4
»> oOpercularis... 0 iL
Nucula margaritacea 0 ah
Cytherea apicalis ... 0 | 1!
Cardita squamosa ... 1 1
Cardium papillosum 0 2
Fusus fasciolaroides 1 0
Murex brandaris 0 =)
Vermetus gigas 0 1
+ corneus... ... 3 0
Trochus exiguus ... .,. 8 2
Turbo rugosus... ... 1 0
Pleurobranchus sordidus 1 0
Doris tenerrina ... ... se 2
Fr) gracilis .. 000, ) 050 a 2
= coccinea is 1

Ascidium, four species bic
Aplidium, two species

150

—

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

IV.

Sept. 16th, 1841.

Off Ananas Rocks.

105 fathoms.

Nullipore.

From Rocks three miles, from Milo ten milsa.

DDALOM peschiteces less
Mocalitiva yess) ee
IDXSOUIEL o60 | Goo ca 406
Grounds.) <2. a.
Distance from shore ...

Number Number
Species. of living of dead Observations.
specimens. | specimens.
Terebratula vitrea ... ... ... ... 0 2! Dead and worn.
Megerlia truncata... ... 30 100-20' Of all ages.
Argiope decollata ... ... .. 100 400-6’ Of all ages.
i seminulum ... ... ... 18 10-8'
Morrisia anomioides ... ... ... 1 0 Adhering to T. vitrea.
New.
Craniaringens ... ... 0 6'
Lima elongata 0 5! New.
Pecten concentricus 0 12 New.
» fenestratus... 0 Ws New.
Spondylus Gussoni... 1 WW
Arca lactea , 1 ie
3, scabra 0 a
Neera cuspidata 0 1!
» attenuata 0 j 1’ New.
Fusus echinatus 0 2
Pleurotoma crispata 0 2 Hitherto known only
fossil.
on Fae A oe 0 2 New.
abyssicola .. 0 4 New
Mitra ‘philippiana Sue 0 4 New.
Cerithium lima 0 8
Trochus tinei .. 0 6
35 exiguus .. 1 9
Turbo sanguineus ... 0 24 Hitherto known only.
fossil in the Medi-
terranean basin.
Rissoa reticulata 4 ll
Emarginula elongata 0 8
Pileopsis Hungaricus 0 1 Small.
Acmea unicolor 1 24 New.
Atlanta Peronii 0 2 Incrusted with nul-
lipore, and thus
rendered solid.
Hyalea gibbosa 0 Vv
Cleodora pyramjdata 0 3
Criseis clava ... ... 0 7
» Spinifera ... 0 10
Mi:
Date >... sa. .-. «. Nov. 25th, 18412
Locality... S. extremity of Gulf of Macri.
Depths.) ae. 230 fathoms.

Distuiiee froma shore.
Ground... ...

Terebratula vitrea ... ... .0. a
Syndosmya profundissima 500
Arca imbricata

Dentalium quinquangulare ..
Hyalea gibbosa ... ... ...
Cleodora pyramidata

Criseis spinifera ...

ooorrce

9!
3!
]’
0
1
8
5

One mile (shore steep).
Fine yellowish mud.

DISTRIBUTION IN DEPTH. 151

The distribution of the Mollusca in Depth has been investigated
by MM. Audouin and Milne-Edwards, M. Sars, and Professor
E. Forbes. By these observers the sea-bed is divided into four
principal regions :—

1. The Littoral zone, or tract between tide marks.

2. The Laminarian zone, from low water to 15 fathoms.
3. The Coralline zone, from 15 to 50 fathoms.

4. The deep-sea coral zone, 50 to 100 fathoms or more.

1. The Littoral zone depends for its depth on the rise and fall
of the tide, and for its extent on the form of the shore. The
shells of this zone are more limited in their range than those
which are protected from the vicissitudes of climate by living
at some depth in the sea.* In Europe the characteristic genera
of rocky shores are Littorina, Patella, and Purpura; of sandy
beaches, Cardium, Tellina, Solen; gravelly shores, Mytilus ;
and on muddy shores, Zutraria and Pullastra. On rocky coasts
are also found many species of Haliotis, Siphonaria, Fissurella,
and Trochus; they occur at various levels, some only at the
high-water line, others in a middle zone, or at the verge of
low-water. Cypreea and Conus shelter under coral-blocks, and
Cerithium, Terebra, Natica, and Pyramidella bury in sand at low
water, but may be found by tracing the marks of their long
burrows. (Macgillivray.)

2. Laminarian zone.—In this region, when rocky, the tangle
(Laminaria) and other sea-weeds form miniature forests, the
resort of the vegetable feeding mollusks— Lacuna, Rissoa, Nacella,
Trochus, Aplysia, and various Nudibranchiata. On soft sea-beds
bivalvesabound and form the prey of Buccinum, Nassa, and Natica.
From low-water to the depth of one or two fathoms on muddy
and sandy shores, there are often great meadows of grass-wrack
(Zostera) which afford shelter to numerous shell-fish, and are
the haunt of the cuttle-fish and calamary. In tropical seas, the
reef-building corals often take the place of sea-weeds, and
extend their operations to a depth of about 25 fathoms. They
coyer the bottom with living verdure, on which many of the
carnivorous mollusks feed, while some, like Ovulum and Purpura,
browse on the flexible Gorgonice. To this zone belong the
oyster-banks of our seas, and the pearl- -fisheries of the south ;
it is richer than any other in animal life, and affords uae most
highly coloured shells.

Some of the littoral shells, like Purpura lapillus and Littorina rudis, have no
free-swimming larval condition, but commre life as crawlers, with a well-developed
shell. Their habits are sluggish, and tneir diffusion by ordinary means must be
exceedingly slow.

152 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

3. Coralline zone.—In northern seas the belt of sea-weed that
fringes the coast is succeeded by a zone where horny zoophytes
abound, and the chief vegetable growth consists of Nuilipore,
which covers rocks and shells with its stony-looking incrusta-
tions. This zone extends from 15 or 25, to 35 or 50 fathoms,
and is inhabited by many of the predacious genera—Buccinum,
Fusus, Pleurotoma, Natica, Aporrhais, Philine, Velutina ; and by
vegetable feeders, such as Pissurella, Hmarginula, Pileopsis,
Eulima, and Chemnitzia. The great banks of scallops belong
to the shallower part of this region, and many bivalves of the
genera Lima, Arca, Nucula, Astarte, Venus, Artemis, and Corbula.

4. Deep-sea Coral-zone.—From 50 to 100 fathoms the Nudllipore
still abounds, and small branching corals to which the Tere-
bratula adhere. In northern seas the largest corals (Oculina
and Primnoa) are found in this zone, and shells are relatively
more abundant, owing to the uniformity of temperature at these
depths. These deep-water shells are mostly small and destitute
of bright colours ; but interesting from the circumstances under
which they are found, their wide range, and high antiquity.
Amongst the characteristic genera are Crania, Thetis, Necra,
Cryptodon, Yoldia, Dentalium, and Scissurella. In the mud
brought up from deep water may be often found the shells of
Pteropoda, and other mollusca which live at the surface of the
sea. In the Aigean Sea there is deep-water within one or two
miles of the coast ; but in the British Channel the depth seldom
amounts to more than 20—40 fathoms.

When registering the results of dredging operations, it is
important to distinguish between dead and living shells, as in the
preceding Tables; for almost every species is met with, in the
- condition of dead shells, at depths far greater than those in which
it actually lives. On precipitous coasts the littoral shells fall
into deep water, and are mingled with the inhabitants of other
zones; currents also may transport dead shells to some distance
over the bed of the sea. But the principal agents by which so
many decayed and broken shells are scattered over the bed
of the deep-sea, must be the mollusk-eating fishes. Of 270
species of boreal shells described by Dr. Gould (p. 60) more
than half were obtained from the maws of fishes, in Boston
market. Cod-fish do not swallow the large whelk-shells, but
some idea of the number they consume may be derived from
the fact that Mr. Warington has obtained the muscular foot
and operculum of above 100 whelks, of large size, besides
quantities of crustacea, from the maws of three cod-fish procured
in the London market. Bivyalve shells, like the Solens, and the

DISTRIBUTION IN DEPTH - 153

rare Panopea Norvegica are swallowed, and ejected again with
eroded surfaces. The haddock swallows shells still more indis-
criminately, and Mr. M‘Andrew has found great numbers of
rare Pectens in them, but generally spoiled. The cat-fish and
skate break up the strongest shell-fish with their teeth—account-
ing for the many angular fragments met with in the dredge,
and in recent deposits.

The following are examples of shells obtained from great
depths :—

Norway. (M‘Andrew.) Aigean, (Fotbes.)

Living sheils. Living. Dead.
Fathoms, | Murex vaginatus......... 150
Cerithium metula .occssccesceeeee 20—150 | Fusus muricatus ......... 80—95 150
Margarita Cinervead ..essssssseseeeeee 10130 | Nassaintermedia....... os 45=—185
Dentalium entale ....s::.ssecce0es ; 200 | Cerithium lima...... Raabe 8-80 140
Limea sarsii............ ASBDO= IORG0E : 120 | Chemnitzia fasciata ... 110—150
Leda pygraea .......... Mecuan'sa ie a 200 | Eulima distorta ...... ne 69—140
Yoldrs tiriicttula) ‘ojstciavecss ee. Me 120 | Scalaria helleriica ...... 110
MMCHS IEGTENT Eis suk s snc csee sees »» 40100 | Rissoa reticulata......... 55 185
Cryptodon flexuosus ..........0. & 200 | Trochus exasperatus ... 10—105 165
Scissurella plicata ...... 70O—150
Of the Cape. (Belcher:) Acmea unicolor ......... 60—105 150
Buccitium ? clathratum ....... aes 136 | Dentaliam quinquangulare 150—230
Volutilithes abyssicola ..........6 132 | Bulla utriculus ......... es 40—140

Pectunculus Belcheri...........5.05 120 | Spondylus Gussonii ... 105
Pecten Hoskynsii .... 185—200

Eigean, (Forbes) Arca imbrivata ..........55 90-230

Living, Dead. | Nezra cuspidata ......... 12-185
Terebratula vitrea ..,.::....,. 100 250 | Thetis anatinoides ...,.. 40—150
Argiope decollata .....,...... 100 110 | Kellia abyssicola .. ..,,.. T0180 200
Craitia ringens).......4.....0.. » §0 150° Syndosmya profundissima 80—185

Preserving molluscous animals for examination.

When shell-fish are killed by sudden immersion in hot water
or strong spirit, great and unequal contraction is caused, d.s-
torting the muscular parts and rupturing the membranes.

Experiments have yet to be made for the discovery of means
whereby these and other marine animals may be paralysed and
killed, without altering the ordinary condition of their organs.*

Glycerine is the best medium for preserving such objects as
the univalve shell-fish, intended for the examination of their

* The brittle=stars.(Ophiccoma) are killed by sudden immersion in fresh-water; and
the Actinie may be stupified by adding fresh-water drop by drop until they lose the
power of retfacting their tentacles. But the bivalves (stich as Phofas) may be kept in
stale water till their valves fall off with incipient decomposition, and yet the muscular
siphons retain their irritability, and contract slowly and completely, when placed in
spirit.

H 3

154 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA

lingual teeth; for if put up in strong spirit they become so
hard that it is almost impossible to make good preparations from
them, and in weak spirit they will not keep for any length of
time.

Alcohol.—The cheapest alcohol for preserving natural history
objects, at home, is sold as ‘‘ methylated spirit ;” it contains ten
per cent. of ordinary wood spirit, and being undrinkable, is free
of duty. When many specimens are put up together the spirit ~
becomes much diluted, and should bechanged. The soft tissues _
of bivalves, and spiral bodies of the univalves soon decompose
in weak spirit. But for permanent use, in Museums, proof
spirit may be diluted with an equal bulk of water. Cotton wool
may be put with the specimens in spirit, especially with cuttle-
fish, to preserve them from distortion by pressure.

Goadby’s solution is prepared by dissolving 4 lb. of bay salt,
20 grains of arsenious acid, or white oxide of arsenic, and 2
grains of corrosive sublimate, in 1 quart of boiling rain-water.

Burnet’s solution (chloride of zinc), largely diluted, is now
used at the British Museum for the preservation of fishes and
other objects, in glass jars. It has several advantages over
spirit; being undrinkable, and not inflammable, and the con
centrated solution (sold by all druggists) is much less bulky.

Muriate of Ammonia is recommended by Mr. Gaskoin, for
removing any unpleasant odours which may arise from prepara-
tions when taken out of spirit for examination. (See p. 143.)

A solution of Chloride of Calcium has been employed by
General Totten, United States Engineers, for preserving the
flexibility of the epidermis in various shells. The solution of
this deliquescent salt (which any one can make. by saturating
hydrochloric acid with marble) keeps the object which has been
steeped in it permanently moist, without injuring its colour or
texture; while its antiseptic properties will aid in the preserva-
tion of matters liable to decay. (Professor J. W. Bailey, in
Silliman’s Journal, July, 1854.)

PART II.

SYNOPSIS OF THE GENERA.

CHAPTER I.
OLASS I.—CEPHALOPODA.

THE cephalopoda are represented by the common squid, the
nautilus, and the ammonite; forms with which most of us are
more or less familiar. They possess a more complicated struc-
ture than any other group of the mollusca; but in this respect
they are much inferior to the vertebrate animals, in whom
the setting apart of particular organs for the performance of
distinct functions is developed to so high a degree. We cannot
trace a series of gradational forms between the highest cepha-
lopod and the lowest vertebrate; but we can descend from the
more to the less specialised forms of mollusca, which ultimately
merge in one direction in such creatures as Fasciola, among
entozoa; and in another direction, to forms like Vorticella,
through the intermediate genera — Pedicellina, among the
Bryozoa, and Perophora among the Ascidians. It is conse-
quently much easier to define the higher than the lower
boundaries of a great primary group. The points of analogy
between the cephalopods and the vertebrates are the internal
skeleton, the similarity in the form of the blood corpuscles, and
in the capillary structure of the portion of the circulatory
system situated between the arteries and veins.

The cephalopods move partly by means of a series of long
muscular arms arranged round the mouth, partly by means of
fins, or flaps, attached on each side of the body, and partly by
the forcible expulsion of water through a tube or siphon.

Unlike most of the mollusca, they are symmetrical animals,
having their right and left sides equally developed. Their shell
is usually straight, or coiled in a vertical plane. The nautilus
and argonaut alone (of the living tribes) have external shells ;
the rest are termed ‘‘ naked cephalopods,” because the shell is
internal. They have powerful jaws, acting vertically, like the

156 MANUAL OF "HE MOLLUSCA. a

mandibles of birds. The tongue is large and fleshy; part of its
surface is sentient, whilst the rest is armed with recurved spines ;
their eyes are large, and placed on the sides of the head. Inall
probability they possess the faculty both of smelling and hearing.
All are carnivorous, and live in the sea.

The nervous system is more concentrated than in the other
mollusca, and the brain is protected bya cartilage. The respira-
tory organs consist of two or four plume-like gills, placed
symmetrically on the sides of the body, in a large branchial
cavity, opening forwards on the under* side of the head: in the
middle of this opening is placed the siphon or funnel. The sexes
are always distinct. The cephalopoda are divided into two

orders, the names of which are derived from the number of the
branchic.

ORDER I.—DIBRANCHIATA, Owen.

Animal swimming; naked. Head distinct. yes sessile,
prominent. Mandibles horny (Pl. I., fig. 2). Arms eight or
ten, provided with suckers. Body round or elongated, usually
with a pair of jins; branchie two, furnished with muscular
ventricles; ink-gland always present ; funnel a complete tube.

Shell internal (except in argonauta), horny or shelly, with or
without air-chambers. The shell of the argonaut does not
correspond with the ordinary shell of mollusks. (See p. 39.)

The typical forms of the cuttle-fishes were well described by
Aristotle, and have been repeatedly examined by modern
naturalists; yet, until Professor Owen demonstrated the exist-
ence of a second order of cephalopods, departing from all the
above-mentioned characters, it was not clearly understood how
inseparably the organisation of the cuttle-fishes was connected
with their condition as swimming mollusca, breathing by two
gills. There are two types of lung structure among the dibran-
chiates. Thus, in Octopus and Sepia the gills form a cylinder,
while in Loligo and other genera they form a half cylinder.

The characters which co-exist with the two gills, are the
internal rudimentary shell, and the substitution of other means
of escape and defence, than those which an external shell would
have afforded ; viz., powerful arms, furnished with suckers ; the

* According to the established usage, we designate that the wnder or ventral side of
the body, on which the funnel is placed. But if the cuttle fishes are compared with
the nucleobranchs, or the nautilus with the holostomatous gasteropods, their external
analogies seem to favour an opposite conclusion, There are many terms in use which

are apt to mislead, such as_fins, arms, &c.; they have a definite meaning when applied
to the vertebrata, but not so when applied to the invertebrata.

CEPHALOPODA. 157

secretion of an inky fluid, with which to cloud the water and
conceal retreat ; more perfect organs of vision; and superadded
branchial hearts, which render the circulation more vigorous.

The suckers (antlia or acetabula) form a single or double series
on the inner surface of the arms. From the margin of each
cup, the muscular fibres converge to the centre, where they
leave a circular cavity, occupied by a soft carwnele, rising from
it like the piston of a syringe, and capable of retraction when
the sucker is applied to any surface. So perfect is this mechanism
for effecting adhesion, that while the muscular fibres continue
retracted, it is easier to tear away the limb than to detach it
from its hold.* In the decapods, the base of the piston is sur-
rounded by a horny dentated hoop; which in the uncinated
calamaries is folded, and produced into a long sharp claw.

The ink-bag (Fig. 40) is tough and fibrous, with a thinsil very
outer coat; it discharges its contents through a duct which
opens near the base of the funnel. The ink was formerly used
for writing (Cicero), and in the preparation of sepia,t and from
-its indestructible nature, is often found in a fossil state.

The skin of the naked cephalopods is remarkable for its
variously coloured vesicles, or pigment-cells. In sepia they
are black and brown; in the calamary, yellow, red, and brown ;
and in the argonaut, and some octopods, there are blue cells
besides. These cells alternately contract and expand, by which
the colouring matter is condensed or dispersed, or perhaps
driven into the deeper part of theskin. The colour accumulates,
like a blush, when the skin is irritated, even several hours after
separation from the body. During life these changes are under
the control of the animal, and give it the power of changing its
hue, like the chameleon. In fresh specimens, the sclerotic plates
of the eyes have a pearly lustre; they are sometimes preserved
in a fossil state.

The aquiferous pores are situated on the back and sides of the
head, on the arms (brachial), or at their bases (buccal pores).

The mantle is usually connected with the back of the head by
a broad (‘‘ nuchal”) muscular band; but its margin is some-

* «The complex, irritable mechanism of all these suckers is under the complete
control of the animal. Mr. Broderip informs me that he has attempted, with a hand-
net, to catch an octopus that was floating by, with its long and flexible arms entwined
round a fish, which it was tearing with its sharp hawk’s bill; it allowed the net to
approach within a short distance before it relinquished its prey, when, in an instant, it
relaxed its thousand suckers, exploded its inky ammunition, and rapidly retreated,
under cover of the cloud which it had occasioned, by rapid and vigorous strokes of its
circular web.” — Owen.

{ Indian ink and sepia are now made of lamp-smoke, or of prepared charcoal.

158 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

times free all round, and it is supported only by cartilaginous
ridges, fitting into corresponding grooves, and allowing con-
siderable freedom of motion.

The cuttle-fishes are generally nocturnal, or crepuscular
animals, concealing themselves during the day, or retiring to a
lower region of the water. They inhabit every zone, and are
met with near the shore, as well as in the open sea, hundreds of

miles from land. They attain occasionally a much greater size.

than any other mollusca. MM. Quoy and Gaimard found a dead
cuttle-fish in the Atlantic, under the equator, which must have
weighed 2 cwt. when perfect; 1t was floating on the surface,
and was partly devoured by birds. Banks and Solander also
met with one under similar circumstances in the Pacific, which
was estimated to have measured six feet in length. (Owen.)
The arms of the octopods are sometimes two fest long.* From
their habits, it is difficult to capture some species alive, but
they are frequently obtained, uninjured, from the stomachs of
dolphins and other cetaceans which prey upon them.

Section A.—OcToPoDA.

Arms, eight; suckers sessile. Hyes fixed, incapable of rotation.
Body united to the head by a broad cervical band. Branchial
chamber divided longitudinally by a muscular partition. Oviduct
double; no distinct nidamental gland. _ Shell internal and
rudimentary.

The Octopods differ from the typical cuttle-fishes in haying
only eight arms, without the addition of tentacles ; their bodies
are round, and they seldom have fins.

The males and females have a general resemblance to ae

other; although the form and appearance of the sexes are very
distinctive. But until recently our knowledge on the subject
has been confused. In all male cuttle-fishes one of the eight
arms presents a peculiar appearance and undergoes a special
development, fitting it for the purpose of helping forward the
work of reproduction of the species. In many cases it is so
altered as to be incapable of acting as a locomotive organ.

ae

According to Dr. Miller, the arm is detached, after it has been —

filled with semen, and is fixed on to the female. The arm, or
whatever it may be that is so attached, was formerly mistaken

* Denys Montfort, having represented a “ kraken octopod,” in the act of scuttling a
three-master, told M. Defrance that if this were “ swallowed,” he would in his next

edition represent the monster embracing the Straits of Gibraltar, or capsizing a whole —

squadron of ships. (D’Orbigny).

CEPHALOPODA, 159

for a parasitic worm; and more recently it has been regarded.
as the spermatophore by some, and as the entire male animal
by other naturalists, under the name of hectocotylus. The
hectocotyle of tremoctopus is shown in Fig. 8, Pl. J. The body
is worm-like, with two rows of suckers on the ventral surface,
and an oval appendage at the posterior end. The anterior part
of the back is fringed with a double series of branchial fila=
ments (250 on each side). Between the filaments are two rows
of brown or violet spots, like the pigment cells of the ¢tremoctopus.
The suckers (40 on each side) closely resemble those of the
tremoctopus, 12 miniature. Between the suckers are four or
five series of pores, the openings of minute canals, passing into
the interior part of the body. There is an artery and yein on
each side, giving branches to the branchial filaments, while
a nerve runs down the centre. The ovul sac encloses a small but
very long convoluted tube, ending in a muscular sac containing
spermatozoa.

The hectocotyle of the argonaut was discovered by Chiaje, who
~ considered it a parasitic worm, and described it under the name
of trichocephalus acetabularis ; it was again described by Costa,*
who regarded it as ‘‘a spermatophore of singular shape;” and
lastly by Dr. Kolliker.f

It is similar in form to the others, but is only seyen lines in
length, and has a fiiform appendage in front, six lines long.
It has two rows of alternate suckers, 45 on each side; but no
branchice ; the skin contains numerous changeable spots of red
or violet, like that of the argonaut.t (K6lliker.)

It would seem strange how former observers could have
overlooked so marked a feature as the metamorphosed or hecto-
cotylised arm of cuttle fishes. Aristotle not only gives a clear
description of the peculiarity, but even shows that he was aware
of the function the arm performed. Subsequent writers appear
to have misunderstood Aristotle; at any rate they refer to the
colourless arm as a monstrosity, or in some cases they have
used it as one of the distinctive characters of a species. There
are numerous instances in which the male has formed one, and
the female another species in the naturalist’s catalogue. Now
that the hectocotylus is known to be only a portion of the male,
their relation is more clearly seen. They present an analogous
phenomenon to what occurs in some species of spiders, in which

_ * An, Sc, Nat., 2nd series, 7, p. 173.

_ + Lin. Trans., vol. 20, pt. 1, p. 9; and in his own zootomical Berichte, where it is

figured.
t An. Sc. Nat., 2nd series, vol. 16, p. 185.

160 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

certain parts of the palpi of the males are developed into spoon=
shaped organs which perform the same office as the hecto-
cotylus. Semething similar also occurs in Polydesma.

Madame Power appears to have made her observations on
an hectocotylus when she asserted that the young argonaut has
no shell. M. Duvernoy has shown that the embryo argonaut
has acquired a shell before it has been excluded from the egg.

The most important memoir on the development of Cepha--

lopods is that by Kélliker.* ‘‘ The process of yolk division is
partial, and the development of the embryo takes place within
a distinct germinal area, whence a distinct yolk sao is formed.
This. is proportionally very large in Sepia (Fig. 35), and
Loligo, very small in Argonauta (Fig. 36), and therefore while
the embryo is flattened and extended in the former genera, in
the latter it more resembles the embryo of an ordinary gas-
teropod. Development commences by the separation of the

Fig. 35. Development of the Cuttle-fish. (KUlliker).

A, Embryo two lines in diameter; m, mantle; 0, branchial processes; 5s, siphonal __

processes; a, mouth; e, eyes; 1—64, rudimentary arms.

B, Side view of the embryo, when more developed.

C, Front view, at a later period.

D, Young cuttle-fish, still attached to the yolk-sac, with the tentacular aris (2)
longer than the rest. —~

embryo into mantle and body (foot). The part of the body in
front of the mantle becomes the head; that behind it the
branchio-anal surface. The latero-posterior margins of the

body are produced into four or five processes on each side, ~

which become the arms. On each side of the mantle, between

it and the head and arms, a ridge is formed upon the body.

These ridges (s s, Fig. 35, A), represent the epipodiuwm; their
* Entwickelungs-geschichte der Cephalopoden. Zurich, 1844.

|
3

CEPHALOPODA. 161

anterior ends are continuous and attached; the posterior ends
are at first free, but eventually uniting they form the funnel
Ds. The rudimentary gills b appear between the epipodium
and mantle. The alimentary canal is at first straight; (the
mouth being at a, the vent at b, in Fig. 35 A). The embryo
now grows faster in a vertical than in a longitudinal direction,
so that it takes on the cephalopodic
form. The intestine, as a consequence,
becomes bent upon itself; and the and
terior pair of arms grow over in front
of the head, and unite, so as eventually
to throw the mouth nearly into the
centre of the arms.” (Huxley.) At a
later period of development (Fig. 35, D),
the respiratory movements are per-
formed by the alternate dilatation and
contraction of the mantle; and the ink-
bag is conspicuous by the colour of its
contents. At the period of exclusion ae
from the nidimental capsule, fine layers

of the shell of the young cuttle-fish m. wee
have been formed; but except the

nucleus, which is calcified, they are Fig. 36. 2 ae embryo
horny and transparent. The lateral eee

fins are broader than in the mature animal. The embryo of .
the Argonaut, as described by Kolliker, has simple conical
arms (1—4, Fig. 36); and indications of the funnel appear as
a ridge, p, on each side of the body; vis the yolk sac; o the
position of the future mouth; e the eye; 0 the gill; and m the
mantle.

Famity I.—ARGONAUTIDA.

Dorsal arms (of the female) webbed at the extremity, secreting
asymmetrical involuted shell. Third left arm in male hecto-
cotylised ; deciduous, colourless, developed in a sac. Female
polyandrous. Mantle supported in front by a single ridge on
the funnel. . /

Genus ArconauTa, Lin. Argonaut, or paper sailor.

Etymology, argonautai, sailors of the ship Argo.
Synonyms, ocythoé (Rafinesque). Nautilus (Aristotle and
Pliny).

162 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Example, A. hians, Soland. Pl. II., Fig. 1. China.

The shell of the argonaut is thin and translucent; it is not
moulded on the body of the animal, nor is it attached by shell-
muscles; and the unoccupied hollow of the spire serves as a
receptacle for the minute clustered eggs. The shell is believed
to be peculiar to the female. Its special function is for protec-

S
Argonauta argo L. swimming.*

tion and incubation of the eggs. It is not homologous with
the chambered or internal rudimental shells of other cephalo-
pods, but may be compared with the cocoon of the leech, or the
float of Ianthina. The argonaut sits in its boat with its siphon
turned towards the keel,+ and its sail-shaped (dorsal) arms
closely applied to the sides of the shell, as in Fig. 37, where,
however, they are represented as partially withdrawn, in order
to show the margin of the aperture. It swims by ejecting
water from its funnel, and crawls in a reversed position, carry-
ing its shell over its back like a snail. (Madame Power and
M. Rang.)
The male argonauts are one inch in length, and possess no
shell; their dorsal arms are pointed, not expanded. The testis is
large, and like that of the Octopus in structure and situation; -
it contains spermatozoa of different degrees of development,
and the excretory duct probably debouches into the Hecto-
cotylus. The sac in which the Hectocotylus is developed is
cleft by the movements of the Hectocotylus in extending
itself, while the sac becomes inverted, and forms the violet
coloured capsule on its back. ‘The sac never contains more
than one Hectocotylus, which is attached by its base, whilst

* From a copy of Rang’s figure, in Charlesworth’s Magazine; one-fourth the
natural size ; the small arrow indicates the current from the funne/, the large arrow
the direction in which the “sailor” is driven by the recoil.

+ Poli has represented it sitting the opposite way; the writer had once an argonaut
shell with the nucleus reversed, implying that the animal had turned quite round in its
shiell, and remained in that position. The specimen is now in the York Museum.

CEPHALOPODA 163

the rest is free and coiled up. It has no enlargement Jike that
of the Tremoctopus (Pl. I., Fig. 3); the filiform appendage
proceeds from the smaller extremity, and sometimes remains
entangled in the coloured cyst near the base of the outer side
of the Hectocotylus. It has a chain of neryous ganglia in its
axis.

It was the nautilus (primus) of Aristotle, who described it as
floating on the surface of the sea, in fine weather, and holding
out its sail-shaped arms to the breeze. It does not use its arms
as sails, but it sometimes uses them as oars when it wishes to
progress slowly, while floating on the surface of the sea.

Distribution : 4 species of argonaut are known; they inhabit
the open sea throughout the warmer parts of the world, and
are most active during the night. Captain King took several
from the stomach of a dolphin caught upwards of 600 leagues
from land.

Fossil, 2 species, Tertiary. A. hians is found in the sub-
apennine tertiaries of Piedmont. This species is still living in
‘the Chinese seas, but not in the Mediterranean.

Famity II].—OcToPoDpiIpZ.

Arms similar, elongated, united at the base by a web. Shell
represented by two short styles, encysted in the substance of
the mantle. (Owen.)

Octopus, Cuvier... Poulpe.

Etymology, octo, eight, pous (poda), feet.

Synonyms, cistopus. (Gray.)

Example, O. tuberculatus, Bl., Pl. I., Figs. 1 and 2 (man
dibles).

Body oval, warty or cirrose, without fins ; arms long, un-
equal; suckers in two rows; mantle supported in front by the
branchial septum.

The octopods are the ‘‘polypi” of Homer and Aristotle;
they are solitary animals, frequenting rocky shores, and are
very active and yoracious; the females oviposit on sea-weeds,
or in the cayities of empty shells. In the markets of Smyrna
and Naples, and the bazaars of India, they are regularly ex-
posed for sale. ‘‘ Although common (at St. Jago) in the pools
of water left by the retiring tide, they are not very easily caught.
By means of their long arms and suckers they can drag their
bodies into very narrow crevices, and when thus fixed it re-

164 MANUAL OF THE MUJLLUSCA.

quires great force to remove them. At other times they dart
tail first, with the rapidity of an arrow, from one side of the
pool to the other, at the same instant discolouring the water
with a dark chesnut-brown ink. They also escape detection
by varying their tints, according to the nature of the ground
over which they pass. In the
dark they are slightly phospho-
rescent.’? (Darwin.)* Professor.
EK. Forbes has observed that
the octopus, when resting, coils
its ventral arms over its back,
and seems to shadow forth the
argonaut’s shell.

In the male octopus, the third
right arm is more developed than
the corresponding arm on the
left side, and terminates in an
oval-shaped plate (Fig. 38, c),.
marked with numerous trans-
verse ridges, between which are
pits. A muscular fold of skin
passes from this plate down the
dorsal margin of the arm to
the web at its base; the mar-
gin is rolled up, and forms a
covered passage through which
the spermatophore is probably
transmitted tothe terminal plate.
The arm is permanently at-
tached, and is developed in a
free state from a cyst, A.

Distribution: universally

Mie found on the coasts of the tem-
Pearce Yaw showing cyst in place of perate and tropical zones; 46

B, Ventral side of an individual more species are known; when
developed, with the Hectocotylus C. Pal they vary a length from
1 inch to more than 2 feet, according to the species.

Fig. 38. Octopus carena ¢, Ver.

Sub-genus. Tremoctopus (Chiaje), Pl. I., Fig. 3.

Name from two large aquiferous pores (tremata) on the back
of the head.

* « Journal of a Voyage round the World.” The most fascinating volume of
travels published since Defoe’s fiction.

CEPHALOPODA. 165

Arms longer than the body ; the two dorsal pairs the longest,
and webbed half-way up, and sometimes to the extremities.
Arms not webbed in male. 4 aquiferous (?) openings, two be-
tween the eyes, and two below; sometimes there are small
openings on the sides; suckers in awe rows; third right arm
hectocotylised.

Distribution, 3 species. T'. quoyanus, violaceus, and. velifer.
Atlantic and Mediterranean.

Pinnocrorus, D’Orb. Finned octopus.

Body with lateral fins, united behind.

The only known species, P. cordiformis, was discovered by
MM. Quoy and Gaimard, on the coast of New Zealand; it
exceeds 3 feet in length

ELEDONE. (Aristotle.) Leach.

Type, Ki. octopodia, L.

Suckers forming a single series on each arm; length 6 to 18
inches. EH. Moschata emits a musky smell. Third right arm
hectocotylised ; permanently attached ; developed free.

Distribution, 2 species. Coasts of Norway, Britain, and the
Mediterranean.

CIRROTEUTHIS. Eschricht. 1836.

Synonyms, Sciadephorus (Reinh and Prosch); Bostrycho-
teuthis (Ag.)

Etymology, cirrus, a filament, and teuthis, a cuttle-fish.

Body with two transverse fins ; arms united by a web, nearly
to their tips; suckers in a single row, alternating with cirri.
Length 10 inches. Colour violet. The only species (C. Miilleri,
Esch.) inhabits the coast of Greenland.

PHILONEXIS, D’Orb.

Etymology, philos, an adept in nexis, swimming.

Type, P. atlanticus, D’Orb.

Arms free; suckers in two rows; mantle supported by two
ridges on the funnel; eyes large and prominent. Total length,
1 to 3 inches.

Distribution, 6 species. Atlantic and Mediterranean. Gre-
garious in the open sea; feeding on floating mollusca.

ScaHureus. Troschel. 1857.
Body oval, without fins ; wider than the head; arms short;

166 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

suckers in two rows; the third left arm nectocotylised at the
apex.
Distribution, 2 species. Mediterranean.

Bouirana. Strp. 1868.

Similar to Eledone, but more gelatinous, and with small
suckers. 1 species living.

SECTION B.—DECAPODA.

Arms 8. Tentacles 2, elongated, cylindrical, with expanded
ends. Suckers pedunculated, armed with a horny ring. Mouth
surrounded by a buccal membrane, sometimes lobed and fur-
nished with suckers. Hyes movable in their orbits. Body
oblong or elongated, always provided with a pair of fins. Hunnel
usually furnished with an internal valve. Oviduct single. Nida-
mental gland largely developed. Shell internal; lodged loosely
in the middle of the dorsal aspect of the mantle. |

The arms of the decapods are comparatively shorter than
those of the octopods; the dorsal pair is usually shortest, the
ventral longest. The tentacles originate within the circle of
the arms, between the third and fourth pairs; they are usually
much longer than the arms, and in cheiroteuthis are six times
as long as the animal itself. They are completely retractile
into large subocular pouches in sepia, sepiola, and rossia ; partly ~
retractile in loligo and sepioteuthis ; non-retractile in cheiroteuthis.
They serve to seize prey which may be beyond the reach of the
ordinary arms, or to moor the animal in safety during the
agitation of a stormy sea.

The lingual dentition of the cuttle-fishes somewhat resembles
that of the pterovoda. The central teeth are simple in sepia and

Fig. 39. Lingual teeth of Sepia officinalis (Cocken).

sepiola, tricuspid in loligo, and denticulated in eledone. The
lateral teeth or uncini are three on each side, and mostly simple
and claw-like. There were fifty rows of teeth in one specimen
of sepia, the ribbon increasing in breadth from before to behind.

CEPHALOPODA. 167

( The shell of the living decapods is either a horny ‘“‘ pen”’
(gladius) or a calcareous ‘‘ bone” (sepion) ; not attached to the
animal by muscles, but so loose as to fall out when the cyst
which contains it is opened. In the genus spirulaitisa delicate
spiral tube divided into air-chambers by partitions (septa). In
the fossil genus spirultrostra a similar shell forms the apex of
a cuttle-bone; in the fossil conoteuthis a chambered shell is
combined with a pen; and the belemnite unites all these
modifications.

The decapods chiefly frequent the open sea, appearing periodi-
cally like fishes, in great shoals, on the coastsand banks. (Owen,
D’Orbigny. )

Famity II].—TEvuTHIDA. CALAMARIES, OR SQUIDS.

Body elongated ; fins short, broad, and mostly terminal.

Shell (gladius or pen) horny, consisting of three parts,—a shaft,
and two lateral expansions or wings.

Sub-family A. Myopside, D’Orbigny. yes covered by the
skin.

Lorieo. (Pliny) Lamarck. Calamary.

Synonym, teuthis (Aristotle), Gray. |
' Type, Lu. vulgaris (sepia loligo, L.). Fig. 1. Pl. I., fig. 6
(pen).

Pen lanceolate, with the shaft produced in front; it is multi-
plied by age, several being found packed closely, one behind
another, in old specimens. (Owen.)

Body tapering behind, much elongated in the males. ins
terminal, united, rhombic. Mantle supported by a cervical
ridge, and by two grooves in the base of the funnel. Suckers in
two rows, with horny, dentated hoops. Tentacular club with
four rows of suckers. Length (excluding tentacles) from 3
inches to 23 feet. Fourth left arm in male metamorphosed at
its extremity. Steenstrup* says two species are confounded
under the name of L. vulgaris. The variety occurring in the
Atlantic, and not in the Mediterranean, is a distinct species (L.
Forbesii, Stp.). In it the fourth left arm has twenty-three pairs
of suckers well developed, five less developed, while the arm
beyond the twenty-eighth pair is occupied by forty pairs of
conical elongated papille, which correspond to forty pairs of
suckers.. Steenstrup recognises only seven living species of
Loligo, all the others so called being only varieties of these.

* Annals of Natural History, 1857.

168 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The calamaries are good swimmers; they also crawl, head.
downwards, on their oral disk. The common species is used for
bait, by fishermen, on the Cornish coast. (Couch.) Shells have
been found in its stomach, and more rarely sea-weed. (Dr.
Johnston.) Their egg-clusters have been estimated to contain
nearly 40,000 eggs. (Bohadsch.)

Distribution, 24 species, in all seas. Norway—New Zealand.

Fossil, 1 species. Lias.

Sub-genus. Teudopsis, Deslongchamps, 1835.
Etymology, teuthis, a calamary, and opsis, like.
Type, T. Bunelli, Desl.
Pen like loligo, but dilated and spatulate behind.
Fossil, 5 species. Upper Lias, Oolite; France and Wurtemberg.

GoNnaATUS, Gray.

Animal and pen like loligo in most respects. Arms with four
series of cups; tentacular club with numerous small cups, and a
single large sessile cup armed with a hook; funnel valveless.

Distribution, a single species (G. ameena, Miller sp.) is found
on the coast of Greenland.

SEPIOTEUTHIS, Blainville.

Synonyms, (?) Loliolus (Steenstrup); Chondrosepia (Leuckart).

Type, S. sepioidea, Bl. Animal like loligo; fins lateral, as
long as the body. Length from 4 inches to 3 feet. Fourth left
arm hectocotylised at the apex.

Distribution, 13 species. West Indies, Cape, Red Sea, Java,
Australia, Mediterranean. hanes

BELOTEUTHIS, Minster.

Etymology, belos, a dart, and teuthis.

Type, B. subcostata, Minster. Pl. II., fig. 8., Upper Lias,
Wurtemberg.

Pen horny, lanceolate; with a very broad shaft, pointed at
each end, and small lateral wings.

Distribution, 6 species described by Minster, considered
varieties of one only (differing in age and sex) by M. D’Orbigny.

GEOTEUTHIS, Minster.

Etymology, ge, the earth (i. e. fossil), and teuthis.

Synonyms, belemnosepia (Agassiz), belopeltis (YVoltz), loligo-
sepia (Quenstedt), Coccoteuthis, Owen (part)

Type, Loligo Aalensis (Schubler).

CEPHALOPODA. | 169

Pen broad, pointed behind; shaft broad, truncated in front;
lateral wings shorter than the shaft.

Fossil, 9 species. Upper lias, Wurtemberg; Calvados;
Lyme Regis. Several undescribed species in the Oxford clay,
Chippenham.

Besides the pens of this calamary, the ink-bag, the muscular
mantle, and the bases of the arms, are preserved in the Oxford
clay. Some of the ink-bags found in the Lias are nearly a foot
in length, and. are invested with a brilliant nacreous layer; the
ink forms excellent sepia. It is difficult to understand how
these were preserved, as the recent calamaries ‘‘ spill their ink”
on the slightest alarm. (Buckland.) This genus may probably
turn out to belong to the Belemnitide.

LEPTOTEUTHIS, Meyer.

Etymology, Leptos, thin, and teuthis.

Type, L. gigas, Meyer, Oxford clay, Solenhofen.

Pen very broad and rounded in front, pointed behind; with
obscure diverging ribs.

CRANCHIA, Leach, 1817.

Named in honour of Mr. J. Cranch, naturalist to the Congo
expedition.

_ Synonym, Owenia, Prosch.

Type, C. scabra, Leach.

Body large, ventricose ; fins small, terminal ; mantle supported
in front by a branchial septum. Length two inches. Head very
small. Hyes fixed. Buccal membrane large, 8-lobed.. Arms
short, suckers in two rows. Tentacular clubs finned behind,
cups in four rows. Funnel valved.

Pen long and narrow.

Distribution, 3 species. West Africa; in the open sea.

This genus makes the nearest approach to the octopods.

SEPIOLA. (Rondelet) Leach, 1817.

Example, 8. atlantica (D’Orbigny). PI. I., fig. 4.

Body short, purse-like ; mantle supported by a broad cervical
band, and a ridge fitting a groove in the funnel. ins dorsal,
rounded, contracted at the base. Suckers in two rows, or
crowded, on the arms, in four rows on the tentacles. Length
two to four inches. First left arm hectocotylised.

Pen half as long as the back. 8. Stenodactyla (sepioloidea,
D’Orbigny) has no pen.

I

170 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

Distribution, 7 species. Coasts of Norway, Britain, Mediter-
ranean, Mauritius, Japan, Australia.
- Sub-genus. Rossia, Owen (R. palpebrosa). Synonym, Hetero-
teuthis (Gray). Mantle, supported by a ceryical ridge and
groove. Suckers in two rows on the tentacles. First left arm
hectocotylized throughout its length, and the corresponding
right one in the middle. Length three to five inches. .

Distribution, 6 species. Regent Inlet, Britain, Mediterranean,
Manilla.

Sub-family B. Oigopside, D’Orbigny.

Eyes naked. Fins always terminal, and united, forming a
rhomb.

LoLigopsis, Lam. 1812.

Etymology, loligo, and opsis, like.

Synonyms, Leachia, Les., 1821; Perotis, Eschscholtz, 1827;
Taonius, Steenstrup, 1861.

Type, Li. pavo (Lesueur).

Body elongated, mantle supported in front by a branchial
septum. Arms short. Cups in two rows. Tentacles slender,
often mutilated. Funnel valveless.

Pen slender, with a minute conical appendix. Length from
six to twelve inches.

Distribution, pelagic, 8 species. North Sea, Atlantic, Medi-
terranean, India, Japan, South Sea.

CHEIROTEUTHIS, D’Orbigny.

Etymology, cheir, the hand, and teuthis.

Type, C. veranu, Fér.

Mantle supported in front by ridges. Funnel valveless. Ven-
tral arms very long. Tentacles extremely elongated, slender, —
with distant sessile cups on the peduncles, and four rows of
pedunculated claws on their expanded ends. .

Pen slender, slightly winged at each end. Length of the body
two inches; to the tips of the arms eight inches; to the ends of
the tentacles three feet.

Distribution, 2 species. Atlantic, Mediterranean; on gulf-
‘weed in the open sea.

HISTIOTEUTHIS, D’Orbigny.

Etymology, nistion, a veil, and teuthis.
Vype, H. bonelliana, Fér. Length 16 inches.
Body short. Fins terminal, rounded. Mantle supported in

CEPHALOPODA. 171

front by ridges and grooves. Buccal membrane 6-lobed. Arms
(except the ventral pair) webbed high up. Tentacles long, out-
side the web, with six rows of dentated cups on their ends.

Pen short and broad.

Distribution, 2 species. Mediterranean; in the open sea,

ONYCHOTEUTHIS, Lichtenstein. Uncinated calamary.

Hiymology, onyx, a claw, and teuthis.

Type, O. banks, Leach (— bartlingi ?). Pl. I., fig. 7 and
fig. 8 (pen).

Synonyms, ancistroteuthis (Gray). Onychia (Lesueur).

Pen narrow, with hollow, conical apex. :

Arms with two rows of suckers. Tentacles long and powerful,
armed with a double series of hooks; and usually having a
small group of suckers at the base of each club, which they are
supposed to unite, and thus use their tentacles in conjunction.*
Length four inches to two feet.

The uncinated calamaries are solitary animals, frequenting
the open sea, and especially the banks of gulf-weed (sargasso).
O. banksit ranges from Norway to the Cape and Indian. Ocean ;
the rest are confined to warm seas. O. dusswmieri has been taken
Swimming in the open sea, 200 leagues north of the Mauritius.

Distribution, 8 species. Atlantic, Indian Ocean, Pacific.

ENOPLOTEUTHIS, D’Orbigny. Armed calamary.

Etymology, enoplos, armed, and teuthis.

Type, HE. smithu, Leach.

Synonyms, ancistrochirus and abralia (Gray), octopodoteuthis
(Ruppell), verania (Krohn).

Pen lanceolate. Arms provided with a double series of horny
hooks, concealed by retractile webs. Tentacles long and feeble,
with small hooks at the end. Length (excluding the tentacles)
from two inches to one foot; but some species attain a larger
size. In the-museum of the College of Surgeons there is an
arm of the specimen of H. unguiculata, found by Banks and
Solander in Cook’s first voyage (mentioned at p. 158), sup-
posed to have been 6 feet long when perfect. The natives of
the Polynesian Islands, who dive for shell-fish, have a well-,
founded dread of these formidable creatures. (Owen.)

Distribution, 10 species. Mediterranean, Pacific.

Fossil, 1 species. Oolite.

* The obstetric forceps of Professor Simpson were suggested by the suckers of the
calamary.
12

lv2 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

OMMASTREPHES, D’Orbigny. Sagittated calamary.

Etymology, omma, the eyes, and strepho, to turn.

Synonym, Hyaloteuthis (Gray).

Type, O. sagittatus, Lam.

Body cylindrical; terminal fins large and rhombic. Arms
with two rows of suckers, and sometimes an internal mem-
branous fringe. Tentacles short and strong, with four rows of
cups.

Pen consisting of a shaft with three diverging ribs, and a
hollow conical appendix. Length from one inch to nearly four
feet.

The sagittated calamaries are gregarious, and frequent the
open sea in all climates. They are extensively used in the cod-
fishery off Newfoundland, and are the principal food of the ~
dolphins and cachalots, as well as of the albatross and larger
petrels. The sailors call them “ sea-arrows,” or “‘ flying squids,”
from their habit of leaping out of the water, often to such a
height as to fall on the decks of vessels. They leave their eggs
in long clusters floating at the surface.

Distribution, 14 recent species; similar pens (4 species) have
been found fossil in the Oxford clay, Solenhofen ; it may, how-
ever, be doubted whether they are generically identical. There
is 1 tertiary species.

THYSANOTEUTHIS, Troschel. ° 1857.

Etymology, thysanos, a fringe.

Arms sessile and webbed, but without hooks. Tentacles fur-
nished with cups. in long. Pen sagittate. Two recent
species, 7’. rhombus, T. elegans. Mediterranean.

Loiouvs, Stp. 1856.

Pen horny, broad, with the shaft sharp-keeled; no muscular
bands to the funnel; suckers with a raised band. Left fourth ©
arm hectocotylised. #4

Distribution, 2 species. Indian Ocean.

PLESIOTEUTHIS, Wagner. 1860.

Pen slender, with a central and two side ridges. Point
arrow-shaped. Arms with hooks.
Distribution, 2 species. Lias. Solenhofen slate.

CEPHALOPODA. . 173

Dostrpicus, Stp. 1856.

Somewhat like Ommastrephes. Lower portion of arms with
large suckers, and the extremity with numerous small suckers.
Tentacles with four or five hooks.

Distribution, 1 species. Mediterranean.

Famity LVY.—BELEMNITIDA.

Shell consisting of a pen, terminating posteriorly in a cham-
bered cone, sometimes invested with a fibrous guard. The air-
cells of the phragmocone are connected by a siphuncle, close to
the ventral side.

BELEMNITES, Lamarck. 1801. ea

Hiymology, belemnon, a dart.*

Example, B. puzosianus, Pl. II., Fig. 5.

Phragmocone horny, slightly nacreous, with a minute globular
nucleus at its apex; divided internally by numerous concaye
septa. Pen represented by two nacreous bands on the dorsal
side of the phragmocone, and produced beyond its rim, in the
form of sword-shaped processes (Pl. II., Fig. 5).¢ Guard
fibrous, often elongated and cylindiical ; becoming very thin in
front, where it invests the phragmocone.{ Swckers provided
with horny hooks.

More than 100 species of belemnites have been found in a
fossil state, ranging from the has to the chalk, and distributed
over all Hurope. A few species have been found in the chalk

* The termination ztes (from lithos, a stone) was formerly given to all fossil genera.

} Five specimens were at one time in Dr. Mantell’s cabinet, and others are in the
British Museum ; they were obtained by William Buy in the Oxford clay of Christian
Malford, Wilts. A still finer specimen, in Mr. Montefiore’s collection, was recently
obtained from the lias of Dorsetshire by Mr. Day. The last chamber of a lias
belemnite in the British Museum is 6 inches long, and 2} inches across at the smaller
end ; a fracture near the siphuncle shows the ink-bag. The phragmocone of a specimen
corresponding to this in size measures 73 inches in length.

{ The specific gravity of the guard is identical with that of the shell of the recent
pinna, and its structure is the same. Parkinson and others have supposed that it was
originally a light and porous structure, like the cuttle bone; but the mucro of the
sepiostaire, with which alone it is homologous, is quite as dense as the belemnite. We
are indebted to Mr. Alex. Williams, M.R.C.S., for the following specific gravities of
recent and fossil shells, compared with water as 1,000 :—

Belemnites puzosianus, Oxford clay ... ... ... .o. 2,674
Belemnitella mucronata, chalk B00 | IGGO) DCE NeaO CHALIT!
Pinna, recent, from the Mediterranean ... ... ... 2,607
Trichites plottji, from the inferior oolite ... ... ... 2,670
Conus monile, recent con’ 600, ceo) ed ood foo. coo) 2S)

Conus ponderosus, Miocene, Touraine ... ... .. «. 2,718

174 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

of Southern India, and a few more in the Jurassic formation of
the Himalayas. The phragmocone of the belemnite, which re-
presents the terminal appendix of the calamaries, is divided into
air-chambers, connected by a small tube (siphuncle), like the
shell of the pearly nautilus. It is exceedingly delicate, and
usually owes its preservation to the infiltration of calcareous
spar: specimens frequently occur in the lias, with the meniscus-
shaped casts of the air-chambers loose, like a pile of watch-
glasses. It is usually eccentric, its apex being nearest to the
ventral side of the guard. The guard is very variable in its
proportions, being sometimes only half an inch longer than the
phragmocone, at others one or two feet in length. These
variations probably depend to some extent on age and sex;
M. D’Orbigny believes that the shells of the males are always
(comparatively) long and slender; those of the females are at
. first short, but afterwards growing only at the points, they
become as long in proportion as the others. The guard always
exhibits (internally) concentric lines of growth ; in B. irregularis
its apex is hollow. Our knowledge of this genus now extends
to the form and proportions of the body, arms, the hooks, ink-
bag, one type of pro-ostracum and beak. The belemnites have
been divided into groups by the presence and position of furrows
on the surface of the guard. A

Section I. Aca#xi (Bronn.), without dorsal or ventral grooves.

Sub-section 1. Acwarii, without lateral furrows, but often
channelled at the extreme point.

Type, B. acuarius. 20 species. Lias—Neocomian.

Sub-section 2. Clavati, with lateral furrows.

Type, B. clavatus. 3 species. Lias.

Section II. Gasrrocaxt (D’Orb.), ventral groove distinct.

Sub-section 1. Oanaliculati, no lateral furrows.

Type, B. canaliculatus. 5 species. Inferior oolite—Great
oolite.

Sub-section 2. Hastati, lateral furrows distinct.
Type, B. hastatus. 19 species. Upper lias—Gault.

Szotion III. Norocatzi (D’Orb.), with a dorsal groove,
and furrowed on each side.
Type, B. dilatatus. 9 species. Neocomian.
The belemnites appear to have been gregarious, from the
exceeding abundance of their remains in many localities) as in

CEPHALOPODA. 175

some of the marlstone quarries of the central counties, and the
' has cliffs of Dorsetshire. It is also probable that they lived in
a moderate depth of water, and preferred a muddy bottom to
rocks or coral-reefs, with which they would be apt to come in
perilous collision. Belemnites injured in the lifetime of the
animal haye been frequently noticed.

BELEMNITELLA, D’Orb.

Synonym, Actinocamax, Miller (founded on a mistake.)

Type, B. mucronata, Sby. Pl. I., Fig. 6.

Distribution, Europe; North America. 6 species. Upper
greensand and chalk.

The guard of the belemnitella has a straight fissure on the
ventral! side of its alveolar border ; its surface exhibits distinct
vascular impressions. The phragmocone is never preserved, but
casts of the alveolus show that it was chambered, that it had ©
a single dorsal ridge, a ventral process passing into the fissure
of the guard, and an apical nucleus.

XIPHOTEUTHIS, Hux. (1864).

Shell with a long phragmocone enveloped in a calcareous
sheath.
Fossil. ispecies. Lias. England.

ACANTHOTEUTHIS (Wagner), Minster.

Etymology, acantha, a spine, and teuthis.

Synonyms, Kalzeno (Minster). Belemnoteuthis ?

Type, A. prisca, Ruppell.

Founded on the fossil hooks of a calamary, preserved in the
Oxford clay of Solenhofen. These show that the animal had
ten nearly equal arms, all furnished with a double series of
horny claws, throughout their length. A pen like that of the
ommastrephes has been hypothetically ascribed to these arms,
which may, however, have belonged to the belemnite or the
belemnoteuthis.

Fossil. 17 species. Oolite.

BELEMNOTEUTHIS (Miller, Pearce, 1842).

Type, B. antiquus (Cunnington), Fig. 40.

Shell consisting of a phragmocone, like that of the belemnite ;
a horny dorsal pen with obscure lateral bands; and a thin
fibrous guard, with two diverging ridges on the dorsal side.

176 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Animal provided with arms wal tentacles of nearly equal
length, furnished with a double
alternating series of horny hooks,
from 20 to 40 pairs on each arm;
mantle free all round; jins large,
medio-dorsal (much larger than in
Fig. 40).

Fossil in the Oxford clay of
Chippenham. Similar horny claws
have been found in the has of
Watchett, and a guard equally thin
is figured in Buckland’s Bridge-
water Treatise, t. 44, Fig. 14.

In the fossil calamary of Chip-
penham the shell is preserved along
with the muscular mantle, fins,
ink-bag, funnel, eyes, and tentacles
with their horny hooks. All the
specimens were discovered, and de-
veloped with unexampled skill, by
William Buy, of Sutton, near Chip-
penham.

CoNOTEUTHIS, D’Orb.

Type, ©. Dupinianus, D’Orb.
Pl. I1., Fig. 9. Neocomian, France ;
Gault, England.

Phragmocone slightly curved. Pen elongated, very slender.

This shell, which is like the pen of an ommastrephe, with a
chambered cone, connects the ordinary calamaries with the
belemnites.

Fig. 40. Belemnoteuthis.*

Famity V.—SEPIADA.

Shell (cuttle-bone, or sepiostaire) calcareous ; consisting of a
broad laminated plate, terminating behind in a hollow, =

* Fig. 40. Belemnoteuthis antiquus, %, ventral side, from a specimen in the cabinet
of William Cunnington, Esq., of Devizes. The last chamber of the phragmocone is
preserved in this specimen. a, represents the dorsal side of an uncompressed phrag-
mocone from the Kelloway rock, in the cabinet of J. G. Lowe, Esq.; c, is an ideal
section of the same. Since this woodcut was executed a more complete specimen has
been obtained for the British Museum ; the tentacles are not longer than the ordinary
arms, owing, perhaps, to their partial retraction; this specimen is figured in Dr,
Mantell’s “« Petrifactions and their Teachings.”’ d, is a single hook, natural size. The
specimens belonging to Mr. Cunnington and the late Mr. C. Pearce show the large
acetabular bases of the hooks.

CEPHALOPODA. 177

fectly chambered apex (mucro). Animal with elongated ten-
tacles, expanded at their ends.

SEpra (Pliny), Linnzeus.

Type, 8. officinalis, L. Pl. I1., Fig. 6.

Synonyms, Belosepia, Voltz. (B. sepioidea, Pl. IL., Fig. 3,
mucro only.) Paloteuthis, Roem.

Body oblong, with lateral fins as long as itself. Ayms with
four rows of suckers, .Wantle supported by tubercles fitting into
sockets on the neck and funnel. Length 3 to 28 inches.

Shell as wide and long as the body; very thick in front,
concave internally behind ; terminating in a prominent mucro.
The thickened part is composed of numerous plates, separated
by vertical fibres, which render it very light and porous. S.
Orbignyana, Pl. II., Fig. 2.

The cuttle-bone was formerly employed as an antacid by
apothecaries; it is now only used as ‘“‘ pounce,” or in casting
counterfeits. The bone of a Chinese species attains the length
of 14 foot. (Adams.)

The cuttle-fishes live near shore, and the mucro of their shell
seems intended to protect them in the frequent collisions they
are exposed to in swimming backwards. (D’Orbigny.)

Distribution, 80 species. World-wide; 2 British.

Fossil, 10 species. Oxford clay, Solenhofen. Several species
have been founded on mucrones from the Eocene of London and
Paris. Pl. II., Fig. 3. 8. ungula occurs fossil in Texas,

SPIRULIROSTRA, D’Orb.
Type, 8. Bellardii (D’Orb.). Pl. II., Fig. 4. Miocene,
Turin.
Shell, mucro only known; chambered internally; chambers
connected by a ventral siphuncle ; external spathose layer pro-
duced beyond the phragmocone into a long pointed beak.

BELOPTERA (Blainville), Deshayes.

Etymology, belos, a dart, and pteron, a wing.

Type, B. belemnitoides, Blainville. Pl. IL, Fig. 7,

Shell, mucro (only known) chambered and siphuncled ; winged
externally.

Fossil, 4 species. Eocene. Paris; Bracklesham.

BELEMNOSIS, Edwards.

Type, B. anomalus, Sby. species. Eocene. Highgate feenitae):
138

178 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

- Shell, mucro chambered and siphuncled ; without lateral va
or elongated beak.

seers Dana.

Example, H. Fugiensis. Only species known.

Shell like a belemnite, half-inch in diameter; guard thick,
sub-cylindrical, fibrous; phragmocone slender, terminating in a
fusiform spiral nucleus. In slate rock, Cape Horn.

Famity VI.—SprruLipz.

Shell entirely nacreous ; discoidal ; whorls separate, chambered
.(polythalamous), with a ventral siphuncle.

SPIRULA, Lam., 1801.

Synonym, Lituus, Gray.

Example, S. levis (Gray). Pl. 1., Fig. 9

Body oblong, with minute terminal fins. Mantle supported
by a cervical and two ventral ridges and grooves. Arms with
six rows of very minute cups. Tentacles elongated. Funnel
valved. ,

_ Shell placed vertically in the posterior part of the body, with
the involute spire towards the ventral side. The last chamber
is not larger in proportion than the rest; its margin is organically
connected ; it contains the ink-bag.

The delicate shell of the spirula is scattered by thousands on
the shores of New Zealand; it abounds on the Atlantic coasts,
and a few specimens are yearly brought by the Gulf-stream,
and strewed upon the shores of Devon and Cornwall. But the
animal is only known by a few fragments, and one perfect
specimen, obtained by Mr. Percy Earl on the coast of New
Zealand.

_ Distribution, 3 species. All the warmer seas.

ORDER IJ.—TETRABRANCHIATA.

Animal creeping ; protected by an external shell.

Head retractile within the mantle. Hyespedunculated. Man-
dibles calcareous. Arms very numerous. Body attached to the
shell by adductor muscles, and by a continuous horny girdle.
Branchie four. Funnel formed by the union of two lobes, which
do not form a complete tube.

Shell external, camerated (polythalamous) and siphuncled ; the
inner layers and septa nacreous ; outer layers porcellanous.*

* The Chinese carve a variety of patterns in the outer opaque layer of the nautilus
shell, relieved by the pearly ground beneath.

CEPHALOPODA. 179

It was long ago remarked by Dillwyn, that shells of the car-
nivorous gasteropods were almost, or altogether, wanting in the
palzeozoic and secondary strata; and that the office of these
animals appeared to have been performed, in the ancient seas,
by an order of cephalopods, now nearly extinct. Above 2,000
fossil species belonging to this order are now known by their
shells; whilst their only living representatives are a few species
of nautili.* ;

The shell of the tetrabranchiate cephalopods is an extremely
elongated cone, and is either straight, or variously folded, or
coiled.

Itisstraightin . é . orthoceras ._ baculites.
bent on ttselfin . . ascoceras . ptychoceras.
curved in. : . cyrtoceras . toxoceras.
spiralin sy ; . trochoceras ._ turrilites.
discoidal in . : . gyroceras . crioceras.
discoidal and producedin lituites . ancyloceras.
involute in . : nautilus . ammonites.

Internally, the shell is divided into cells or chambers, by a
series of partitions (septa), connected by a tube or siphuncle. The
last chamber only is occupied by the animal. The others are

Fig. 41. Suture of an ammonite.+

probably occupied in succession. They are empty during life,
but in fossil specimens they are often filled with spar. When
the outer shell is removed (as often happens to fossils), the edges
of the septa are seen (as in Pl. III., Figs, 1, 2). Sometimes they
form curved lines, as in nautilus and orthoceras, or they are
zigzag, as in goniatites (Fig. 60), or foliaceous, as in the ammonite
(Fig. 41).

' * The frontispiece, copied from Professor Owen’s Memoir, represents the animal of
the first nautilus, captured off the New Hebrides, and brought to England by Mr.
Bennett; it is drawn as if lying in the section of a shell, without concealing any part
of it. The woodcut, Fig. 50, is taken from a more perfect specimen, subsequently
acquired by the British Museum, in which the relation of the animal to its shell is
accurately shown. j

+ A. heterophyllus, Sby., from the lias, Lyme Regis. British Museum. Only one
side is represented ; the arrow indicates the dorsal saddle. oe

180 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The outlines of the septa are termed sutures ;* when they are
folded the elevations are called saddles, and the intervening de-
pressions lobes. In ceratites (Fig. 61) the saddles are round, the
lobes dentated ; in ammonites both lobes and saddles are extremely
complicated. Broken fossils show that the septa are nearly flat
in the middle, and folded round the edge (like a shirt-frill),
where they abut against the outer shell-wall (Fig. 44).

The siphuncle of the recent nautilus is a membranous tube, -
with a very thin nacreous investment; in most of the fossils it
consists of a succession of funnel-shaped, or bead-like tubes.
In some of the oldest fossil genera, actinoceras, gyroceras, and
phragmoceras, the siphuncle is large, and contains in its centre a
smaller tube, the space between the two being filled up with
radiating plates, like the lamellze of a coral. The position of the
siphuncle is very variable; in the ammonitide it is external, or
close to the outer margin of the shell (Fig. 44). In the nautilide
it is usually central (Fig. 42), or internal (Fig. 48).

Fig. 42. Nautilus. Fig. 43. Clymenia. Fig. 44. Hamites,f

The air-chambers of the recent nautilus are lined by a very
thin, living membrane; those of the fossil orthocerata retain
indications of a thick vascular lining, connected with the animal
by spaces between the beads of the siphuncle.t}

The body-chamber is always very capacious; in the recent
nautilus its cavity is twice as large as the whole series of air-
cells; in the goniatite (Fig. 46) it occupies a whole whorl, and
has a considerable lateral extension ; and in ammonites communis
it occupies more than a whorl.

The margin of the aperture is quite simple in the recent nautilus,

* From their resemblance to the sutures of the skull.

j Fig. 42. Nautilus Pompilius,L. Fig. 438. Clymenia striata, Miinst., see Pl. II-,
Fig. 16. Fig. 44. Hamites cylindraceus, Defr., see Fig. 65.

+ Most of the so-called spongaria are detached septa of an orthoceras, from the
Upper Ludlow rock, in which the vascular markings distinctly radiate from the
siphuncle. Mr. Jones, Warden of Clun Hospital, has several of these in apposition.

CEPHALOPODA. TRL.,

.

and affords no clue to the many curious modifications observable
in the fossil forms. In the ammonites we frequently find a dorsal

Fig. 45. Ammonites, Fig. 46. Goniatites.*

process, or lateral projections, developed periodically, or only in
the adult (Fig. 62, and Pl. III., Fig. 5).

In phragmoceras and gomphoceras (Figs. 47, 48) the aperture is
so much contracted that it is obvious the animal could not have
withdrawn its head into the shell like the nautilus.

Fig. 47. Gomphoceras Fig. 48. Phragmoceras.j

M. Barrande, from whose great work on the Silurian Forma-
tions of Bohemia these figures are taken, suggests that the lower
part of the aperture (ss), which is almost isolated, may have

* Fig. 45. Section of Ammonites obtusus, Sby. lias, Lyme Regis ; from a very young
specimen. Fig. 46. Section of goniatites sphericus, Sby. carb. limestene, Bolland (in
the cabinet of Mr. Tennant). The dotted lines indicate the /ateral extent of the
body-chamber. :

} Fig. 47. Gomphoceras Bohemicum (Barrande), reduced view of the aperture; s,
the siphonal opening. Fig. 48. Phragmoceras callistoma (Barr.), both from the U.
Silurian, Bohemia,

182 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. J

served for the passage of the funnel, whilst the upper and larger
space (cc) was occupied by the neck ; the lobes probably indicate
the position of the external arms.

The aperture of the pearly nautilus is closed by a disk or hood
(Fig. 50, 2), formed by the union of the two dorsal arms, which
correspond to the shell-secreting. arms of the argonaut.

In the extinct ammonites we have evidence that the aperture
was guarded still more effectively by a horny or shelly operculum,
secreted, in all probability, by these dorsal arms. In one group
(arietes), the operculum consists of a single
piece, and is horny and flexible.* In the
round-backed aramonites the operculum is
shelly, and divided into two plates by a
straight median suture (Fig. 49). They were
described in 1811, by Parkinson, who called
them trigonellites, and pointed out the re-
semblance of their internal structure to the
cancellated tissue of bones. Their external
surface is smooth or sculptured; the imner
side is marked by lines of growth. Forty-five kinds are enume-
rated by Bronn; they occur in all the strata in which ammonites
arefound, and a singlespecimen has been figured by M. D’Archiac,
from the Devonian rocks of the Eifel, where it was associated
with goniatites.}

Calcareous mandibles, or rhyncholites (F'. Biguet), have been
obtained from all the strata in which nauwtili occur; and from
their rarity, their large size, and close resemblance to the man-
dibles of the recent nautilus, it is probable that they belonged
only to that genus.§ In the Muschelkalk of Bavaria one

Fig. 49.7

* This form was discovered by the late Miss Mary Anning, the indefatigable collector
of the lias fossils of Lyme Regis, and described by Mr. Strickland, Geol. Journal, vol.i.,
p. 232. Also by M. Voltz, Mem. de 1’Institut, 1837, p. 48.

+ Trigonellites lamellosus, Park. _ Oxford clay, Solenhofen (and Chippenham),
associated with ammonites lingulatus, Quenstedt. (= A. Brightii, Pratt). From a
specimen in the cabinet of Charles Stckes, Esq.

t The triyonellites have been described by Meyer as bivalve shells, cine: the generic
name of aptychus ; by Deslongchamps under the name of Munsteria. M. D’Orbigny
regards them as cirripedes! M. Deshayes believes them to be gizzards of the
ammonites. M.Coquand compares them with teudopsis; an analogy evidently sug-
gested by some of the membranous and elongated forms, such as JZ. sanguinolarius,
found with am. depressus, in the lias of Boll. Ruppell, Voltz, Quenstedt, and Ziéten,
regard the trigonellites as the opercula of ammonites, an opinion also entertained by
many of the most experienced fossil collectors in England. Some of them have been
described by Rolle (1862) as Cyclidia and Scaphamidia.

§ M. D’Orbigny has manufactured two genera of calamaries out of these nautilus
beaks (rhynchoteuthis and paleoteuthis). In the innumerable sections of ammonites
which have been made, no traces of the mandibles have ever been discovered.

CEPHALOPODA. 183 °

nautilus (WN. arietis, Reinecke, —N. bidorsatus, Schlotheim), is
found, and two kinds of rhyncholite; one sort, corresponding
with the upper mandible of the recent nautilus, has been called
‘‘rhyncholites hirundo” (Pl. II., Fig. 11); the other, which
appears to be only the lower mandible of the same species, has
been described under the name of ‘‘conchorhynchus avirostris.’’*
They also occur in the belemnite beds of the middle lias of
Dorsetshire ; these latter are very different in form from those
of nautili in the lower lias, and may probably belong to
belemnites.

In studying the fossil tetrabranchiata, it is necessary to take
into consideration the varying circumstances under which they
have been preserved. In some strata (as the lias of Watchett)
the outer layer of the shell has disappeared, whilst the inner
nacreous layer is preserved. More frequently only the outer
layer remains ;.and in the chalk formation the whole shell has
perished. In the calcareous grit of Berkshire and Wiltshire the
ammonites haye lost their shells; but perfect casts of the
chambers, formed of calcareous spar, remain. +

Fossil orthocerata and ammonites are evidently in many
instances dead shells, being overgrown with corals, serpule, or
oysters; every cabinet affords such examples. In others the
animal has apparently occupied its shell, and prevented the
ingress of mud, which has hardened all around it; after this it
has decomposed, and contributed to form those phosphates and
sulphides commonly present in the body-chamber of fossil shells,
and by which the sediment around them is so often formed into
a hard concretion.{ In this state they are permeated by mineral
water, which slowly deposits calcarecus spar, in crystals, on
their walls; or by acidulous water, which removes every trace
of the shell, leaving a cavity, which at some future time may
again become filled with spar, having the form of the shell but
not its structure. In some sections of orthocerata it is evident
that the mud. has gained access to the air-cells; but the cham-
bers are not entirely filled, because their lining membrane has
contracted, leaving a space between itself and certain portions
of the walls, which correspond in each chamber.

The tetrabranchs could undoubtedly swim, by their respira-
tory jets; but the discoidal nautili and ammonites are not well

* Lepas avirostris (Schlotheim), described by Blainville as the beak of a brachiopod!

+ Called spondylolites by old writers.

t In he alum-shale of Whitby innumerable concretions are found, which, when
struck with the hammer, split open and disclose an ammonite. See Dr. Mantell’s
“Thoughts on a Pebble,” p. 21. rhe

184 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

calculated, by their forms, for swimming; and the straight-
shelled orthocerata and baculites must have held a nearly vertical
position, head downwards, on accotint of the buoyancy of their
shells. The use of the air-chambers is to render the whole
animal (and shell) of nearly the same specific gravity with the
water.* The object of the numerous partitions is not so much
to sustain the pressure of the water, as to guard against the
collisions to which the shell is exposed. They are most compli-
cated in the ammonites, whose general form possesses least
strength.t The purpose of the siphuncle (as suggested by Mr.
Searles Wood) is to maintain the vitality of the shell during the
long life which these animals certainly enjoyed. Mr. Forbes
has suggested that the inner course of the hamites broke off as
the outer ones were formed. But this was not the case with the
orthocerata, whose long straight shells were particularly exposed
to danger; in these the preservation of the shell was provided
for by the increased size and strength of the siphuncle, and
its increased vascularity. In endoceras we find the siphuncle
thickened by internal deposits, until in some of the very cylin-
drical species it forms an almost solid axis.

The nucleus of the sheli is rather large in the nautili, and
causes an opening to remain through the shell, until the umbilicus
is filled up with a callous deposit; several fossil species have
always a hole through the centre.

In the ammonites, the nucleus is exceedneyy small, and the
whorls compact from the first.

It has been stated that the septa are formed periodically; but
it must not be supposed that the shell-muscles ever become
detached, or that the animal moves the distance of a chamber ~
all at once. It is most likely that the adductors grow only in
front, and that a constant waste takes place behind, so that they
are always moving onward, except when a new septum is to be
formed; the septa indicate periodic rests. .

The consideration of this fact, that the nautilus must so
frequently have an air-cavity between it and its shell, is alone
sufficient to convince us that the chambered cephalopods could

* A nautilus pompilius (in the cabinet of Mr. Morris) weighs 1lb., and when the
siphuncle is secured, it floats with a 3lb. weight in its aperture. The animal would
have displaced two pints (= 23lbs.) of water, and therefore, if it weighed 3lbs., the
specific gravity of the animal and shell would scarcely exceed that of salt water.

+ The siphuncle and loved septa did not hold the animal in its shell, as Von Buch
imagined: that was secured by the shell-muscles. The complicated sutures perhaps
indicate lobed ovaries; they occur in genera which must have produced very small

eggs.

CEPHALOPODA. 185

not exist in very deep water. They were probably limited to
a depth of 20 or 30 fathoms at the utmost.*

It is certain that the sexes were distinct in the tetrabranchiata.
M. D’Orbigny, noticing that there were two varieties of almost
every kind of ammonite—one compressed, the other inflated
—naturally assumed that the first were the shells of male indi-
viduals (3), the second of females (?). Dr. Melville has made
a similar suggestion with respect to the nautili; namely, that
the umbilicated specimens are the males, the imperforated shells,
females. Professor Van der Hoeven has described the difference
in the shells of the two sexes; + but these are trivial as com-
pared with those presented by the animals. The most marked
is that while the female has twelve retractile tentacles, the male
has only eight, while the other four tentacles are coalesced
together to form an organ called the spadiz.

In 1865, M. Barrande published the plates to his second
volume on the Cephalopods of Bohemia. We have not been
able to see this work : butit contains 107 plates, with figures of
200 species of cephalopods, belonging to the genera Goniatites,
Nothoceras, Trochoceras, Hercoceras, Lituites, Phragmoceras, Gom-
phoceras, and Ascoceras.

Faminy I.—NAUTILIDA.

Shell. Body-chamber capacious. Aperture simple. Sutures
simple. Siphuncle central or internal. (Figs. 50, 51.)

NAUTILUS, Breynius, 17382.

Shell involute or discoidal, few-whorled. Siphuncle central or
sub-central.

In the recent nautili, the shell is smooth, but in many fossil
species it is corrugated, like the patent iron-roofing, so remark-
able for its strength and lightness. (Buckland.) See Pl. I1.,
Fig. 10.

The wmbilicus is small or obsolete in the typical nautili, and
the whorls enlarge rapidly. In the palzeozoic species, the
whorls increase slowly, and are sometimes scarcely in contact.

The last air-cell is frequently shallower in proportion than the
rest.
v

* By deep water, naturalists and dredgers seldom mean more than 25 fathoms, a
comparatively small depth, only found near coasts and islands. At 100 fathoms the
pressure exceeds 265lbs. to the square inch. Empty bottles, securely corked, and sunk
with weights beyond 100 fathoms, are always crushed. If filled with liquid, the cork
is driven in, and the liquid replaced by salt water; and in drawing the bottle up again
the cork is returned to the neck of the bottle, generally in a reversed position, (Sir F.
Beaufort. )

{ Annals of Natural History, vol. xix. 1857.

186 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Animal. In the recent nautilus, the mandibles are horny,
but calcified to a considerable extent; they are surrounded by
a circular fleshy lip, external to which are four groups of labial
tentacles, twelve or thirteen in each group ; they appear to answer

y
j

Me
yf
P,

SSS

S

Fig. 50. Nautilus pompilius in its shell.*

to the buccal membrane of the calamary (Fig. 1). Beyond these,
on each side of the head, is a double series of arms, or brachial
tentacles, thirty-six in number; the dorsal pair are expanded,
and united to form the hood, which closes the aperture of the
shell, except for a small space on each side, which is filled by
the second pair of arms. The tentacles are lamellated on their
inner surface, and are retractile within sheaths, or “ digita-
tions,” which correspond to the eight ordinary arms of the

* This woodcut and eighteen others illustrating the tetrabranchiata, are the property
of Dr. Gray, to whom we are indebted for their use. Fig. 50 represents the recent
nautilus, as it appears on the removal of part of the outer shell-wall (from the
specimen in the British Museum). The eye is seen in the centre, covered by the hood
(h); t, tentacles, nearly concealed in their sheaths; 7, funnel; m, margin of the
mantle, very much contracted; n, nidamental gland; a,c, air-cells and siphuncle; s,
portion of the shell; a, shell-muscie. The internal organs are indicated by dotted
lines; 6, branchie ; h, heart and renal glands; ¢, crop; g, gizzard; J, liver; 0, ovary.

CEPHALOPODA. 187

cuttle-fishes; their superiority in number being indicative of a
lower grade of organisation. Besides these there are four ocular
tentacles, one behind and one in front of each eye; they seem
to be instruments of sensation, and resemble the tentacles of
doris and aplysia. (Owen.) On the side of each eye is a hollow
plicated process, which is not tentaculiferous. This process
bears the external ears. The cavity leads to the auditory cap-
sule, along a passage lined with a glandular membrane. The
respiratory funnel is formed by the folding of a very thick
muscular lobe, which is prolonged laterally on each:side of the
head, with its free edge directed backwards into the branchial
cavity ; behind the hood it is directed forwards, forming a lobe
which lies against the black-stained spire of the shell (Fig. 50 s).*
Tnside the funnel is a valve-like fold (Fig. 51s). The margin
of the mantle is entire, and extends as far as the edge of the
shell: its substance is firm and muscular as far back as the
line of the shell-muscles and horny girdle, beyond which it is
thin and transparent. The shell/-muscles are united by a narrow
tract across the hollow-occupied by the inyolute spire of the
_ shell: and are thus rendered horse-shoe shaped. The siphuncle
is vascular; it opens into the cavity containing the heart (peri-
cardiwm), and is most probably filled with fluid from that
cavity (Owen).

Respecting the habits of the nautilus very little is known:
the specimen dissected by Professor Owen had its crop filled
with fragments of a small crab, and its mandibles seem well
adapted for breaking shells. The statement that it visits
the surface of the sea of its own accord is, at present, uncon-
firmed on observation, although the air-cells would doubtless
enable the animal to rise by a very small ainount of muscular
exertion. al

Professor Owen gives the following passage, from the old
Dutch naturalist, Rumphius, who wrote, in 1705, an account of
the rarities of Amboyna. ‘‘ When the nautilus floats on the
water. he puts out his head and all his tentacles, and spreads
them upon the water, with the poop of the shell above water ;

* The funnel is considered to be the homologue of the foot of the gasteropods by Loven,
a conclusion with which we cannot agree. The cephalopods ought to be compared with
the /arval gasteropods, in which the foot only serves to support an operculum; or with
the floating tribes in which the foot is obsolete, or serves only to secrete a nidamental
raft (1anthina). However, on examining the nautilus preserved in the British Museum,
and finding that the funnel was only part of a muscular collar, which extends ail round
the neck of the animal, we could not avoid noticing its resemblance to the siphonal
lappets of paludina, and to that series of lappets (including the operculiyerous lobe)
which surrounds the trochus (Fig. 114).

188 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

but at the bottom he creeps in the reverse position, with his
boat above him, and with his head and tentacles upon the
ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself
chiefly upon the ground, creeping also sometimes into the nets
of the fishermen; but after a storm, as the weather becomes
calm, they are seen in troops, floating on the water, being driven
up by the agitation of the waves. This sailing, however, is not of
long continuance; for having taken in all their tentacles, they
upset their boat, and so return to the bottom.”

Fig. 51. Nautilus expanded.*

Distribution, 3 or 4 species. Chinese seas, Indian Ocean,
Persian Gulf.

Fossil, about 188 species. In all strata, South and North
America (Chili). Europe. §8. India.

There are two types of ornamentation in nautili—the smooth
and the longitudinally striated; the latter are almost exclu-
sively oolitic, and at present only 1 species is known in Indian
cretaceous rocks; the smooth type is almost exclusively cre-
taceous, and is abundantly represented in India. D’Orbigny

* Tdeal representation of the nautilus, when expanded, by Professor Lovén, who
appears to have taken the details from M. Valenciennes’ Memoir in the Archives du
Museum, vol. ii., p. 257. h, hood; s, siphon. It is just possible that when the
nautilus issues from its shell, the gas contained in the last, incomplete, air-chamber
may expand ; but this could not happen under any great pressure of water.

CEPHALOPODA. 189

has taken advantage of these characters for dividing the nautili

into three groups, viz., 1. Levigati. Nautili with smooth shells
ranging from the Permian epoch to the present time; 2. Radiati.
Shelis ornamented with transverse ribs, mainly cretaceous ;
and 3. Sériati. Shells ornamented with longitudinal strie.
These are confined to the oolite in Kurope. In India a few
species occur in the lower chalk.

Sub-genus. Aturia (Bronn). = Megasiphonia, D’Orb.

Type, N. zic-zac, Sby. Pl. II., Fig. 12, London Clay,
Highgate.

Shell, sutures with a deep lateral lobe; siphuncle nearly
internal, large, continuous, resembling a succession of funnels.

Fossil, 4 species. Hocune; North America, Europe, India.

Sub-genus 2 Discites, McCoy. Whorls all exposed; the last
chamber sometimes produced.

Fossil, 5 species. Lower Silurian.—Carb. limestone.

Temnocheilus, McCoy. Founded on the carinated species of
the carb. limestone, of which 5 are known.

Cryptoceras, D’Orb. Ascoceras, Barr. Founded on WN. dor-
salis, Phil., and one other species, in which the siphuncle is
nearly external.

Fossil, 16 species. Upper Silurian—Carb.

Lirvires, Breynius.

Etymology, lituus, a trumpet.

Synonyms, Hortolus, Montf. (whorls separate). _Trocholites,
Conrad.

Example, L. conyolvans, Schl. IL. lituus, Hisinger.

Shell, discoidal ; whorls close or separate ; last chamber pro-
duced in a straight line; siphuncle central or sub-central.

Fossil, 18 species. Silurian ; North America, Europe.

TROCHO6CERAS, Barrande, 1848.

Example, T. trochoides, Bar.

Shell nautiloid, spiral, depressed.

fossil, 44 species. Upper Silurian ; Bohemia.

Some of the species are nearly flat, and, having the last
chamber produced, would formerly have been considered
Lituites.

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Cot, , ep |

Fig. 52. Clymenia striata, Munst.* Fig. 53. C. linearis, Munst.

CLYMENIA, Munster, 1832.

Etymology, Clymene, a sea-nymph.

Synonyms, Endosiphonites, Ansted. Sub-clymenia, D’Orb.

Example, C. striata, Pl. IT., Fig. 16 (Mus. Tennant).

Shell discoidal; septa simple or slightly lobed; siphuncle
internal.

Fossil, 45 species. Upper Silurian—Mount. Limestone.
North America, Kurope. .

Famity Il.—ORTHOCERATIDA.

Shell straight, curved, or discoidal; body chamber small;
aperture contracted, sometimes extremely narrow (Figs. 48,
49); siphuncle complicated.

It seems probable that the cephalopods of this family were
not able to withdraw themselves completely into their shells,
like the pearly nautilus; this was certainly the case with some
of them, as M. Barrande has stated, for the siphonal aperture
is almost isolated from the cephalicopening. The shell appears
to have been often less calcified, but connected with more
vascular parts than in the nautilus; and the siphuncle often
attains an enormous development. In all this, there is nothing
to suggest a doubt of their being tetrabranchiate ; and the chevron-
shaped coloured bands preserved on the orthoceras anguliferus,t 5s
sufficiently prove that the shell was essentially external.

ORTHOCERAS, Breyn.

Etymology, orthos, straight, and ceras, a horn.
Yynonyms, Cycloceras, McCoy. Gonioceras, Hall.t Conoceras,

Brom.

Example, O. Ludense (diagram of a longitudinal section)
Hee UD, Davos 1M

Shell straight; siphuncle central; aperture sometimes con-
tracted.

Fossil, 240 species. Lower Silurian—Lias; North America,
Australia, and Europe.

* Figs. 52,53. Sutures of two species of Clymenia from Phillips’ Pal. Fos., Devon-
shire. — { Figured by D’Archiac and Verneuil, Geol. Trans.

t Zheca and Tentaculites are provisionally placed with the Pteropoda; they pro-
bably belong here.

CEPHALOPODA. | 191

The orthocerata are the most abundant and wide-spread shells
of the old rocks, and attained a larger size than any other fossil
shell. A fragment of an orthoceras, in the collection of Mr.
Tate of Alnwick, is a yard long, and 1 foot in diameter, its
original length must have beén 6 feet. Other species, 2 feet in
length, are only 1 inch in diameter at the aperture.

Sub-genus. 1. Cameroceras, Conrad (= melia and thoracoceras,
Fischer ?),

Siphuncle lateral, sometimes very large (simple ?).

Casts of these large siphuncles were called hyolites by Hichwald.

27 species. Lower Silurian—Trias? North America and
Europe. }

1
ete
<<

SENN, ae

Fig. 54. Actinoceras.* Fig. 55. Ormoceras. |

2. Actinoceras (Bronn), Stokes. Siphuncle very large, in-
flated between the chambers, and connected with a slender
central tube by radiating plates: 6species. Lower Silurian—
Carb. ; North America, Baltic, and Brit.

8. Ormoceras, Stokes. Siphuncular beads constricted in the
middle (making the septa appear as if united to the centre of
each). 3 species. Lower Silurian—Deyon; North America.
This sub-genus very much resembles, if it is not identical with,
the last mentioned.

4. Huronia, Stokes. Shell extremely thin, membranous or
horny? Siphuncle very large, central, the upper part of each
- joint inflated, connected with a small central tube by radiating
plates. 3species. Lower Silurian. Drummond Island, Lake
Huron.

Numerous examples of this curious fossil were collected by Dr.
Bigsby (in 1822), and by the officers of the regiments formerly

* Fig. 54. Actinoceras Richardsoni, Stokes. Lake Winipeg. (Diagram reduced 4.)

Fig. 55. Crmoceras Bayfield, Stokes. Drummond Island. (From Mr. Stokes’ paper,
Geol. Trans.)

192 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

stationed on Drummond Island. Specimens have also been
brought home by the officers of many of the Arctic expeditions.
But with the exception of one formerly in the possession of

\ i Ti are
an

NR

dl Wy Di

Fig. 56. Huronia vertebralis.*

Lieutenant Gibson, and another in the cabinet of Mr. Stokes,
the siphuncle only is preserved, und not a trace remains of septa
or shell wall. Some of those seen by Dr. Bigsby in the lime-
stone cliffs were 6 feet in length.

5. Endoceras, Hall (Conotubularia, Troost). Shell extremely
elongated, cylindrical. Siphuncle very large, cylindrical, lateral ;
thickened internally by repeated layers of shell, or partitioned
off by funnel-shaped diaphragms. 12 species. Lower Silurian,
New York. ;

Shell perforated by two distinct siphuncles? O. bisipho-

natum Sby, Caradoc sandstone, Brit.
_ QOrthocerata with two siphuncles have been observed, but
there has always appeared something doubtful about them.
In the present instance, however, this structure cannot be
questioned.” (J. Sowerby.)

Small orthocerata of various species are frequently found in
the body chamber and open siphuncle of large specimens.+ The
endoceras gemelliparum and proteiforme of Hall, appear to be
examples of this kind.

6. Tritoceras= Diploceras, Salter. The shell is supposed to

* Fig. 56. Huroniu vertebralis, Stokes. afrom a specimen in the British Museum
presented by Dr. Bigsby. The septa are added from Dr. Bigsby’s drawing; they were
only indicated in the specimen by “ colourless lines on the brown limestone.” .6 repre-
sents a weathered section, presented to the British Museum by Captain Kellett and
Lieutenant Wood, of H.M.S. Pandora. The figures are reduced 3. ;

Tt Shells of Bellerophon and Murchisonia are found under the same circumstances.

CEPHALOPODA. 193

have resembled G'ontoceras, and the external tube to be a simple
cavity, formed by the approximation of the lateral angles.

Discosorus (conoideus) Hall, 1852. Pal. New York. This
fossil appears to be a siphuncle similar to those figured by Dr.
Bigsby in 1824 (Geol. Trs. I., Pl. 30, f. 6), and which have been
correctly referred to the orthocerata by Quenstedt.

GoMPHOCERAS, J. Sby. 1839.

Etymology, gomphos, a club; and ceras, a horn.

Synonyms, Apioceras (Fischer). Poterioceras (McCoy).

Tyne, G. pyriforme, Sby., Fig. 58, and G. Bohemicum, Bar.
Fig, 47.

Fig. 57. Endzoceras.* Fig. 58. Gomphoceras.t}
Shell, fusiform or globular, with a tapering apex; apertura
contracted in the middle; siphuncle moniliform, sub-central.
Distribution, 27 species. Lower Silurian—Carb. North
America, Europe, Brit. Barrande figures 70 species in Vol. IT.
of his ‘‘Systéme Silurien,”’ 1865, nearly all of which are believed
to be new.

ONCOCERAS, Hall.

Etymology, oncos, a protuberance.
Type, O. constrictum, Hall. Trenton limestone.
* Fig. 57. Diagram of an endoceras (after Hall). a, shell-wall; 5, wall of siphuncle ’
tcc, diaphragms (‘‘embryo-tubes ”’ of Hall).
+ Fig. 58. Gomphoceras pyriforme. L. Ludlow rock, Mocktree Hill, Herefordshire.
(From Murchison’s Silurian Syst. reduced 3.) s, beaded siphuncle.
K

194 - MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Shell, like a curved gomphoceras ; siphuncle external.
Distribution, 3 species. Silurian, New York.

PHRAGMOCERAS, Broderip.

Etymology, phragmos, a partition, and ceras, a horn.

Type, P. veutricosum (Steiminger species), Pl. II., Fig. 15.

Shell curved, laterally compressed; aperture contracted in the
middle; siphuncle, ventral, radiated. Example, P. callistoma,
Bar., Fig. 48.

Distribution, 15 species. Lower Silurian—Carb.; Brit.,
Germany.

CYRTOCERAS, Goldf., 1832.

Etymology, curtos, curved, ceras, horn.

Synonyms, Campulites, Desh., 1832 (including gyroceras).
Aploceras, D’Orbigny. Campyloceras and trigonoceras, McCoy.
Gyroceras, D’Orbigny. |

Example, C. hybridum, Volborthi, and Beaumonti (Barrande).

Shell curved ; stphuncle small, internal, or sub-central.

Fossil, 84 species. Lower Silurian—Carb.; North and South
America and Europe.

Fig. 59.*

GYROCERAS, Meyer, 1829.
Etymology, gyros, a circle, and ceras.
Synonym, Nautiloceras, D’Orbigny.
Example, G. eifeliense, D’Arch. (PI. II., Fig. 13), Devonian;
Eifel.

* Fig. 59. Gyroceras Goldfussii. (= ornatitm Goldf.). 5, siphuncle of G. depressum,
Goldf. sp. Devonian. Eifel. From MM, D’Archiac and Verneuil.

CEPHALOPODA. 195

Shell nautiloid ; whorls separate ; siphuncle excentric, radiated.
Fossil, 17 species. Upper Silurian—Trias? North America
and Europe.

THORACOCERAS, Fischer, 1844.
Synonym, Melia, Fischer (not L.).
Type, T. vestitum.
Shell straight, elongated, conical, with a small lateral straight
siphuncle.

Fossil, 20 species. Lower Silurian—Carb. United States
and Hurope.

NotTHocERAS, Barrande, 1856.
Shell nautiloid, slightly inyolute ; septa slightly arched, with-
out lobes.
Fossil, 1 species. Upper Silurian.

Famity III.—AMMONITIDA.

Shell. Body-chamber elongated ; aperture guarded by processes,
and closed by an operculum; swtwres angulated, or lobed and
foliated ; siphuncle external (dorsal, as regards the shell).

The shell of the ammonitide has essentially the same structure
as that of the nautilus. Itconsistsof an external porcellanous*
layer, formed by the collar of the mantle only and of an internal
nacreous lining, deposited by the whole extent of its visceral
surface. There is an ammonite in the British Museum, evidently
broken and repaired during the life of the animal,t which shows
that the shell was deposited from within. In some species of
ammonites the collar of the mantle forms prominent spines on
- the shell, which are too deep for the visceral mantle to enter ;
they are therefore partitioned off (as in A. armatus, Lias) from
the body whorl and air cells, and not exhibited in casts.

The baculites and ammonites of the section cristati acquire,
when adult, a process projecting from the outer margin of their
shell. Certain other ammonites (the ornati, coronati, &c.) form
two lateral processes before they cease to grow (PI. III., Fig. 4).
As these processes are often developed in very small specimens,
it has been supposed that they are formed repeatedly in the life
of the animal (at each periodic rest) and are again removed when
growth recommences. These small specimens, however, may
be only dwarfs. In one ammonite, from the inferior oolite of
Normandy, the ends of these lateral processes meet, ‘‘ forming

* Its microscopic structure has not been satisfactorily examined; Professor Forbes
detected a punctate structure in one species.
1 A. serpentinus, Schloth, U. Lias, Wellingboro. Rev, A. W. Griesbach.
K 2

196 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

an arch over the aperture and dividing it into two outlets, one
corresponding with that above the hood of the nautilus, which
gives passage to the dorsal fold of the mantle; the other witk.
that below the hood, whence issue the tentacles, mouth, and
funnel; such a modification, we may presume, could not take
place before the termination of the growth of the individual.”’*
(Owen.) |

M. D’Orbigny has figured several examples of doformed |

ammonites, in which one side of the shell is scarcely developed,
and the keel is consequently lateral. Such specimens probably
indicate the partial atrophy of the branchizw on one side. In
the British Museum there are deformed specimens of A. obtusus,
amaltheus, and tuberculatus.

Fig. 60.t

GONIATITES, De Haan.

Etymology, gonia angles, (should be written gonialites ?).

Synonym, aganides, D’Orbigny (not Montf— Aturia zic-zac).

Examples, G. Henslowi (Pl. III., Fig. 1), G. sphericus (Figs.
60 and 46). i

Shell discoidal ; sutures lobed ; siphuncle dorsal.

Distribution, 197 species. Upper Silurian—Trias. Europe.

RHABDOCERAS, Hauer, 1860.

Shell straight, orthoceratoid, with bold sculpture. Septa
with rounded lobes.
Distribution, 1 species. Trias. Germany.

* This unique and abnormal specimen is in the cabinet of S. P. Pratt, Esq.

+ Fig. 60. Goniatites sphericus, Sby. Front and side views of a specimen from the
carb. limestone of Derbyshire, in the cabinet of Mr. J. Tennant; the body-chamber
and shell-wall have been removed artificially.

oe

CEPHALOPODA. 197

BactRITES, Sandberger (=stenoceras, D’Orbigny ?).

Shell straight ; sutures lobed.
Type, B. subconicus, Sbger.
Distribution, 8 species. Devonian, Germany.

edo YY a WW

Fig. 61.*
CERATITES, De Haan.

Type, C. nodosus (Pl. III., Fig. 2).

Shell discoidal; sutures lobed, the lobes crenulated (Fig. 61).
Distribution, 29 species. Devonian—Chalk. Europe, India.
M. D’Orbigny describes five shells from the gault and Upper
greensand as ceratites ; but many ammonites have equally simple
sutures, when young.

Fig. 62.+

AMMONITES, Bruguiere.

Etymology, ammon, a name of Jupiter, worshipped in Libya
under the form ofaram. The ammonite isthe cornu ammonis of -
old authors.

Synonyms, Orbulites, Lam. Planulites, Montf.

Shell discoidal ; inner whorls more or less concealed; septa
undulated; sutures lobed and foliated ; siphuncle dorsal.

* Fio. 61. Suture of ceratites nodosus (Brug). The arrow in the dorsal lobe points
towards the aperture.

1 Fig. 62. Ammonites rostratus (Sby.) From the U. greensand of Devizes, in the
cabinet of W. Cunnington, Esq. 6, front view of one of its partitions.

198 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Distribution, about 700 species. Trias—Chalk. Coast of
Chili (D’Orbigny), Santa Fé de Bogota (Hopkins), New Jersey,
Europe, South India, and New Zealand.

In this, as in almost every case, the figures represent the
number of species which have been described, and which gene-
rally pass current as species. It is very probable that when all
the forms have been thoroughly examined many may turn out
to be nothing more than variations of the same species, due to
differences of age, &c. Thus, according to Mr. Seeley, the Am-
monites splendens from the greensand of Cambridge, comprises
not only the form so-named, but fourteen others occurring in
the same bed, and which have received distinctive specific names;
A. planulatus is made up of five so-called species. Looked at
from this point of view the 700 would be replaced by a much
smaller number.

Captain Alexander Gerard discovered ammonites similar to
our L. oolitic species, in the high passes of the Himalaya, 16,200
feet above the sea.

Section A. Back with an entire keel.

1. Arietes, L. oolites, A. bifrons (Pl. III., Fig. 6), bisul-
catus (Pl. III., Fig.-7).

2. Falciferi, L. oolites, A. serpentinus, radians, hecticus.

3. Cristati, cretaceous, A. cristatus, rostratus (Fig. 62),
varians,

B. Back crenated.

4. Amalthet, ool. A.amaltheus, cordatus, excavatus.
. Rothomagenses, cret. A, rothomagensis, from Rothoma-
gum, Rouen (Pl. ITT., Fig. 4).

Or

C. Back sharp.
6. Disci, oolitic, A. discus, clypeiformis,
D. Back channelled.

cret. A. dentatus, lautus.

7, Dentatt, Ha A. Parkinsoni, anguliferus.

EK. Back squared.

8. Armati, L. ool. A. armatus, athletus, perarmatus.
9. Capricorni, L. ool. A. capricornus, planicostatus.
10. Ornati, ool. A. Duncani, spinosus (Pl. IIL,

Fig. 5).

fg
}
\
|

CEPHALOPODA. 199

F. Back round, convex.

11. Heterophylli, IL. ool. A. heterophyllus (Fig. 41).
12. Ligati, cret. A. planulatus (Pl. HII., Fig. 3),

Fig. 63. Ammonites coronatus.*

13. Annulati, ool. A. annulatus, biplex, giganteus.
14. Coronati, ool. A. coronatus (Fig. 63), subleevis.
15. Fimbriati, ool. A. fimbriatus, lineatus, hircinus.

16. Cassiani, 36 species of very variable form, and remarkable

for the number and complexity of their lobes. Trias, Austrian
Alps. -

Fig. 64.4
Examples, A. Maximiliani (Fig. 64), A. Metternichii-

CRIOCERAS, Leveille.

Etymology, krios, a ram, and ceras, a horn.

Synonym, Tropeeum, Sby.

Example, C. cristatum, D’Orbigny (Pl. III., Fig. 8).
Shell discoidal; whorls separate.

Distribution, 13 species. Neocomian— Upper greensand.
Britain, France.

* Fig. 63. Profile of Ammonites ‘coronatus (Brug.). (Reduced 3 from D’Orbigny.)
Kelloway Rock, France. d/, dorsal lobe; ss, dorsal saddles; 2’ /' lateral lobes; s' s',
lateral saddles ; accessory and ventral lobes. The number of accessory lobes increases
with age.

{ Fig. 64. Am. Marimiliani, Klipstein. (= A. bicarinatus, Miinst.) Trias, Hallstadt
(copied from Quenstedt). A, profile, showing the numerous lobes and saddles; B,
suture of one side; v, dorsal saddle.

200 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

ToxocEeras, D’Orbigny.
Etymology, toxon, a bow, ceras, a horn.
Example, T. annulare, D’Orbigny (Pl. III., Fig. 12).
Shell bow-shaped ; like an ammonite uncoiled.
Distribution, 20 species. Neocomian, Between this and crio-
ceras and ancyloceras there are numerous intermediate forms.

ANCYLOCERAS, D’Orbigny.

Etymology, anculos, incuryed.

Synonym, Anisoceras, Pictet.

Example, A. spinigerum (Pl. ITI., Fig. 10).

Sheil at first discoidal, with separate whorls; afterwards pro-
duced at a tangent and bent back again, like a hook or crosier.

Distribution, 38 species. Inferior oolite—chalk. South America
(Chili and Bogota), Europe.

ScAPHITES, Parkinson.

E’ymology, scaphe, a boat.

Example, S. equalis (Pl. IIL, Fig. 9).

Shell at first discoidal, with close whorls; last chamber detached
and recurved.

Distvibution, 19 species. Oolite—Chalk. Europe, India.

HE.IcocErAs, D’Orbigny.

Etymology, helix (helicos), a spiral, and ceras, a horn.

Example, H. rotundum, Sby. species (Pl. III., Fig. 11—
diagram).

Shell spiral, sinistral ; whorls separate.

Distribution, 11 species. Inferior oolite ?—Chalk. Europe,
India.

TURRILITES, Lam.

Etymology, turris, a tower, and lithos, a stone.

Shell spiral, sinistral; aperture often irregular.

Distribution, 37 species. Gault—Chalk. Europe.

The turrilite was perhaps dibranchiate by the atrophy of the
respiratory organs of one side. M. D’Orbigny includes in this
genus particular specimens of certain Lias ammonites which are
very slightly unsymmetrical; the same species occur with both
sides alike. He also makesa genus (heteroceras) of two turrilites,
in which the last chamber is somewhat produced and recurved.

T’. reflecus (Quenstedt, T. 20, Fig. 16) has its apex inflected and
concealed.

CEPHALOPODA, 201

HAmiITES, Parkinson.

Etymology, hamus, a hook,

Example, H. attenuatus (PI. III., Fig. 15).

Shell hook-shaped, or bent upon itself more than once, the
courses separate.

Distribution, 58 species, Neocomian—Chalk. South America
(Tierra del Fuego), Europe, India.
b
|
.

a
Fig. 65. Sutures of Hamites cylindraceus, Defr.*

The inner courses of this shell probably break away, or are
** decollated,” in the progress of its growth. (Forbes.) M.
D’Orbigny has proposed a new genus, hamulina, for the twenty
neocomian species.

PrycHocERas, D’Orbigny.

Bipuolgy. ptyche, a fold.

Example, P. emericianum, D’Orbigny (Pl. III., Fig. 14).

Shell bent once upon itself; the two straight portions in
contact.

Distribution, 8 species. Neocomian—Chalk. Britain, France,
India.

Bacunites, Lamarck.

Etymology, baculus, a staff.

Example, B. anceps (Pl. IlI., Fig. 13).

Shell straight, elongated; aperture guarded by a dorsal process.

Distribution, 17 species. Neocomian—Chalk. Europe, South
America (Chili), India,

Baculina, D’Orbigny, 2 species. B. Rouyana. Neocomian.
France. Sutures not foliated.

The chalk of Normandy has received the name of baculite lime-
stone, from the abundance of this fossil.

* Fig. 65. Space between two consecutive sutures of the right side, from a specimen
in the British Museum. a, dorsul line; 6, ventral. Baculite limestone, Fresville.
K 3

202 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

CHAPTER II.
CLASS II.—GASTEROPODA.

The gasteropods, including land-snails, sea-snails, whelks,
limpets, and the like, are the types of the mollusca ; that is to
say, they present all the leading features of molluscous organisa-
tion in the most prominent degree, and make less approach to
the appearance and condition of fishes than the cephalopods, and
less to the crustaceans and zoophytes than the bivalves.

Their ordinary and characteristic mode of locomotion is
exemplified by the common garden-snail, which creeps by the
successive expansion and contraction of its broad muscular foot.
These muscular movements may be seen following each other in
rapid waves when a snail is climbing a pane of glass.

The nucleobranchs are ‘‘aberrant” gasteropods, having the
foot thin and vertical; they swim near the surface of the sea in
a reversed position, or adhere to floating sea-weed.

Fig. 66. A nucleobranch.*

The gasteropods are nearly all ursymmetrical, the body being
coiled up spirally, and the respiratery organs of the left side
being usually atrophied. In chiton and dentalium the branchie
and reproductive organs are repeated on each side.

A few species of cymba, littorina, paludina, and helix, are yivi-
‘parous ; the rest are oviparous.

When first hatched the young are always provided with a
shell, though in many families it becomes concealed by a fold of
the mantle, or it is speedily and wholly lost.+

The gasteropods form two natural groups; one breathing air

* Fig. 66. Carinaria cymbium, Desh. = C. cristata, L. sp. (after Blainville), Medi-=
terranean. p, proboscis; t, tentacles ; 6, branchie; s, shell; f, foot; d, disk.

+t M. Lovén believes that the embryo shell of the nudibranchs falls off at the time
they acquire a locomotive foot.

GASTEROPODA. 203

(pulmonifera), the other water (branchifera). The water-breathers
have at first a small nautiloid shell, capable of concealing them
entirely, and closed by an operculum. Instead of creeping, they
swim with a pair of ciliated fins springing from the sides of the
} ead; and by this means are often more widely
disper-ed than we should be led to expect from
their adult habits ; thus some sedentary species
of calyptrea and chiton have a greater range
than the ‘‘paper-sailor,” or the ever-drifting
oceanic-snail.

At this stage, which may fairly be compared
with the larval condition of insects, there is eal): 3
scarcely any difference between the young of Fig. 67.
eolis and aplysia, or buccinum and vermetus. (M. Edwards.)

The development of the branchiferous gasteropods may be
observed with much facility in the common river-snails (palu-
dina); which are viviparous, and whose oviducts in early summer
contain young in all stages of growth, some being a quarter of
an inch in diameter.

Fig. 68. Paludina vivipara.}

Embryos scarcely visible to the naked eye have a well-formed
shell, ornamented with epidermal fringes ; a foot and operculum;
and the head has long delicate tentacula, and very distinct black
eyes. |

The development of the pulmoniferous embryo is best seen in
the transparent eggs of the fresh-water limneids; these are not
hatched until the young have passed the larval condition, and
their ciliated head-lobes (or veil) are superseded by the creeping
disk, or foot.

* Figo. 67. Fry of Holis (from Alder and Hancock). 0, the operculum; the original
is not larger than the letter o.

i Fig. 68. Paludina vivipara, L. (original); the internal organs are represented as
if seen through the shell. The ovary, distended with eggs and embryos, occupies the
right side of the body whorl; the gill is seen on the left; and between them the
termination of the alimentary canal. Surrey Docks, June, 1850.

204 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The development of the air-breathers goes on within the shell,
and has been traced by Van Beneden, Gegenbaur, and others
in Limax, Veronicella, Vitrina, Bulimus, and Helix.

The sia of the gasteropods is usually spiral, and univalve ; ;
more rarely tubular, or conical, and in one genus it is multivalve.
The following are its principal modifications :—

A. Regularly spiral,

a. elongated or turreted; terebra, turritella.
b. cylindrical; megaspira, pupa.
c. Short; buccinwm.
d. globular; natica, helia.
e. depressed ; solarium.
j. discoidal ; planorbis.
. convolute; aperture as long as the shell; cyprea, bulla.
. fusiform; tapering to each end, like fusus.
. trochiform ; conical, with a flat base, like trochus.
. turbinated ; conical, with a round base, like turbo.
. few-whorled ; Helix hemastoma. Pl. XII., Fig. 1.
. many-whorled ; Helix polygyrata. Pl. XII., Fig. 2
. ear-shaped; haliotis.
B. Irregularly spiral; siliquaria, vermetus.
C. Tubular; dentalium.
1), Shield-shaped ; umbrella, parmophorus.
i. Boat-shaped; navicella.
F. Conical or limpet-shaped ; patella.
G. Multivalve and imbricated ; chiton.

The only symmetrical shells are those of carinaria, aa
dentalium, and the limpets.*

Nearly all the spiral shells are dextral, or right-handed; a
few are constantly sinistral, like clausilia ; reversed varieties of
many shells, both dextral and sinistral, have been met with.

The cavity of the shell is a single conical or spiral chamber;
no gasteropod has a multilocular shell like the nautilus, but
spurious chambers are formed by particular species, such as
Lriton corrugatus (Fig. 69), and Huomphalus pentangulatus ; or
under special circumstances, as when the upper part of the spire
is destroyed.

Some spiral shells are complete tubes, with the whorls sepa-
rate, or scarcely in contact, as scalaria, cyclostoma, and valvata ;

3s eS es

* The curve of the spiral shells and their opercula and also of the Nautilus, is a
logarithmic spiral; so that to each particular species may be annexed a number
indicating the ratio of the geometrical progression of the dimensions of its whorls
Rev. H. Moseley, “On geometrical Forms of Turbinated and Discoid Shells.”—Phil.
Trans, Lond. 1838. Pt. 2, p. 351.

GASTEROPODA. 206

but more commonly the inner side of the spiral tube is formed
by the pre-existing whorls (Fig. 69).

The axis of the shell, around which the whorls are coiled, is
sometimes open or hollow; in which case the shell is said to be
perforated, or uwmbilicated (e.g. solarium). The perforation may
be a mere chink, or fissure (rima), as in lacuna; or it may be
filled up by a shelly deposit, as in many naticas. In other shells,
like the triton, the whorls are closely coiled, leaving only a
pillar of shell, or columella, in the centre: such shells are said
to be imperforate.

ee ee

outer lip
4 of the

aperture.

/ _.....__.-.../ anterior canal.

Fig. 69. Section of a spiral univalve.*

The apex of the shell presents important characters, as it
was the nucleus or part formed in the egg; it is sinistral in
the pyramidellide, oblique and spiral in the nucleobranchs and
emarginule, and mammillated in Turbinella pyrum and Fusus
antiquus.

The apex is directed backwards in all except some of the
patellide, in which it is turned forwards, over the animal’s head.

* Fig. 69. Longitudinal section of Triton corrugatus, Lam., from a specimen in the
cabinet of Mr. Gray. The upper part of the spire has been partitioned off many times
successively.

906 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

In the adult condition of some shells the apex is always truncated
(or decollated) as in cylindrella and Bulimus decollatus ; in others
it is only truncated when the animals have lived in acidulous
waters (e.g. cerithidea and pirena), and specimens may be
obtained from more favourable situations with the poimts
perfect.

The line of channel formed by the junction of the whorls is
termed the suture.

The last turn of the shell, or body-whorl, is usually very

capacious; in the females of some species the whorls enlarge
more rapidly than in the males (e.g. Buccinum undatum). The
‘‘base”’ of the shell is the opposite end to the apex, and is
usually the front of the aperture.

The aperture is entire in most of the vegetable feeders (holos-
tomata), but notched or produced into a canal, in the carnivorous
families (stghonostomata); this canal, or siphon, is respiratory in
its office, and does not necessarily indicate the nature of the
food. Sometimes there is a posterior channel or canal, which
is excurrent, or anal, in its function (e.g. strombide and ovulum
volva); it is represented by the slit in scisswrella, the tube of
typhis, the perforation in fissurella, and the series of holes in
haliotis.

The margin of the aperture is termed the peristome; sometimes
it is continuous (cyclostoma), or becomes continuous in the adult
(carocoila) ; very frequently it is ‘‘ interrupted,” the left side of
the aperture being formed only by the body-whorl. The right
side of the aperture is formed by the outer lip (labrum), the
left side by the inner or columellar lip (labiwm), or partly

by the body-whorl (termed the ‘‘wall of the aperture,” by

Pfeiffer).

The outer lip is usually thin and sharp in immature shells, and
in some adults (e.g. helicella and bulimulus) ; but more frequently
it is thickened ; or reflected; or curled inwards (inflected), as in
cyprea ; or expanded, as in pteroceras ; or fringed with spines, as
in murex. When these fringes or expansions of the outer lip
are formed periodically, they are termed varices.

Lines of colour, or sculpture, running from the apex to the
aperture are spiral or longitudinal, and others which coincide
with the lines of growth are ‘‘ transverse,” as regards the whorls;
but stripes of colour extending from the apex across the whorls
are often described as ‘‘longitudinal” or ‘“‘radiating,” with
respect to the entire shell.

Shells which are always concealed by the mantle are colourless,
like limaw and parmophorus ; and those which are covered by the

|
|
:

GASTEROPODA. 907

mantle-lobes when the animal expands, acquire a glazed or
enamelled surface, like the cowries; when the shell is deeply
immersed in the foot of the animal it becomes partly glazed, as
in cymba. In all other shells there is an epidermis, an it
is sometimes very thin and transparent.

In the interior of the shell the muscular impression is horse-
shoe shaped, or divided into two scars; the horns of the crescent
are turned towards the head of the aemeel

The operculum with which many of the gasteropods close the
aperture of their shells, presents modifications of structure which
are so characteristic of the sub-genera as to be worthy of particular
notice. It consists of a horny layer, sometimes strengthened by
the addition of calcareous matter on its exterior, and in its mode
of growth it presents some resemblance to the shell itself. Its
inner surface is marked by a muscular scar, whose lines bear no
relation to the external lines of growth, and its form is unlike
the muscular scar in the shell. It is developed in the embryo,
within the egg, and the point from which it commences is termed
the nucleus; many of the spiral and concentric forms fit the
aperture of the shell with accuracy, the cthers only close the
entrance partially, and in many genera, especially those with
large apertures (e.g. dolium, cassidaria, harpa, navicella), it is
quite rudimentary or obsolete.

Fig. 70. Fig. 72.

Fig. 74.

The operculum is described as—

Concentric, when it increases equally all round, and the nucleus
is central or sub-central, as in paludina and ampullaria (Pl. IX.,
Fig. 26).

Imbricated, or lamellar (Fig. 71), when it grows only on one
side, and the nucleus is marginal, as in purpura, phorus, and
paludomus.

Claw-shaped, or unguiculate (Fig. 70), with the nucleus apical
or in front, as in turbinella and fusus; it is claw-shaped and -
serrated in strombus (Fig. 76).

Spiral, when it grows only on-one edge, and revolves as it
grows; it is always sinistral in dextral shells.

Paucispiral, or few-whorled (Fig. 73), as in littorina.

208 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Sub--spiral, or scarcely spiral, in melania (Pl. VIII., Fig. 25*).

Multispiral, or many-whorled (Fig. 72), as in Pope. where
they sometimes amount to twenty; the number of turns which
the operculum makes is not determined by the number of whorls
in the shell, but by the curvature of the opening, and the neces=
sity that the operculum should revolve fast enough to fit it
constantly. (Moseley.)

It is said to be articulated when it has a projection, asin nerita
(Fig. 74).

Too much importance, however, must not be attached to this
very variable plate, as an aid to classification; it is present in
some species of voluta, oliva, conus, mitra, and cancellaria, but
absent in others; it is (indifferently) horny or shelly in the
species of ampullaria and natica ; in paludina it is concentric, in
paludomus lamellar, in valvata spiral ; in solariwm and cerithium,
it is multispiral or paucispiral.

The researches of Dr. Lovén* have led to many attempts being
made to remodel the arrangement of the Gasteropoda by the aid
of peculiarities in their dentition. Whatever improvements may
be thus obtained, it does not appear desirable to introduce a new
terminology for divisions long since well aaa and already
over-burdened with classical names.t

The patterns, or types of lingual dentition, are on the whole
remarkably constant; but their systematic value is not uniform.
It must be remembered that the teeth are essentially epithelian
cells, and like other superficial organs liable to be modified in
accordance with the wants and habits of the creatures. The
instruments with which animals obtain their food are of all
others most subject to these adaptive modifications, and can
never form the basis of a philosophical system. {

* Ofversiot af Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Forhandl. 1847.

+ The following names were proposed by Troschel (in Wiegman’s Handbuch der
Zoologie, 1848) and Gray (An. Nat. Hist.) for the principal types of lingual dentition :—

a. Tzenioglossa, teeth 3. 1.3; Littoriua, Natica, Triton.

6. Toxoglossa, teeth 1. 0. 1; Conus, Terebra?

c. Hamiglossa, teeth 1. 1. 1; Murex, Buccinum.

d. Rachiglossa, teeth 0. 1.0; Voluta, Mitra?

e. Gymnoglossa, teeth 0; Pyramidella, Cancellaria, Solarium?

f. Rhipidoglossa, teeth 00, 1.00; Nerita, Trochus.

t The carnivorous opossums have teeth adapted for eating flesh, but are not on that
account to be classified with the placental carnivora. The lingual teeth, like the
operculum, usually have a structure characteristic of the genera or sub-genera. Somes
times they have a general uniform character throughout a whole family or group
of families. In many cases they present minute differences which promise to be
valuable aids for distinguishing closely allied species. For example, Patella athletica
may be distinguished from the common limpet (P, vulgata) by its teeth.

——————

GASTEROPODA. 209

Some of the gasteropoda can suspend themselves by glutinous
threads, like litiopa and Rissoa parva, which anchor themselves
to sea-weeds (Gray), and cerithidae (Fig. 75),
which frequently leaves its proper element,
and is found hanging in the air. (Adams.) A
West India land-snail (cyclostoma suspensum)
also suspends itself. (Guilding.) The origin
€ these threads has not been explained ; but
some of the limaces lower themselves to the
ground by a thread which is not secreted by
any particular gland, but derived from the
exudation over the general surface of the body.
(Lister, D’Orbigny.)

The division of this extensive class into
orders and families has engaged the attention
of many naturalists, and a variety of methods
have been proposed. Cuyier’s classification was Fig. 75.
the first that possessed much merit, and several of his orders
have since been united with advantage.

System of Cuvier. System now adopted.

Class. GASTEROPODA,
Order 1. Pectinibranchiata

- a ae Ord. Prosobranchiata, M. Edw.
4, Tubulibranchiata
5. Pulmonata Ord. Pulmonifera.
6. Tectibranchiata
7. Inferobranchiata i Ord. Opisthobranchiata, M. Edw.
8. Nudibranchiata.

Class. HETEROPODA. Ord. Nucleobranchiata, Bl.

ORDER I. PROSOBRANCHIATA.

Abdomen well developed and protected by a shell, into which
the whole animal can usually retire. Mantle forming a vaulted
chamber over the back of the head, in which are placed the
excretory orifices, and in which the branchie are almost always
lodged. Branchie pectinated, or plume-like, situated (proson)
in advance of the heart. Sees distinct. (M. Edwards.)

Section A. SrIPHONOSTOMATA. Carnivorous Gasteropods.

Shell spiral, usually imperforate; aperture notched or produced
into a canal in front. Operculum horny, lamellar.

210 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Animal provided with a retractile proboscis ; eye-pedicels con-
nate with the tentacles ; margin of the mantle prolonged into a
siphon, by which water is conveyed into the branchiai: chamber ;
gills one or two, comb-like, placed obliquely over the back,
Species all marine.

FAMILY J.—StTrompip#. Wing-shells.

Shell with an expanded lip, deeply notched near the canal.
Operculum claw-shaped, serrated on the outer edge.

Animal furnished with large eyes, placed on thick pedicels ;.
tentacles slender, rising from the middle of the eye-pedicels.
Foot narrow, ill-adapted for creeping. Lingual teeth single;
uncini, three on each side.

The strombs are carrion feeders, and, for molluscous animals,
very active; they progress by a sort of leaping movement, turn-
ing their heavy shell from side to side. Their eyes are more
perfect than those of the other gasteropods, or of many fishes.

AN 2
ZF

XS
LS "SWRA WE,
FE REMY SS

Fig. 76.¥

Stromsus, L. Stromb.
Htymology, strombos, a top.
Type, 8. pugilis (Pl. IV., Fig. 1).
Shell rather ventricose, tubercuiar or spiny; spire short;
aperture long, with a short canal above and truncated below;
outer lip expanded, lobed above, and sinuated near the notch of

* Fig. 76. Strombus auris- Diane, L. (after Quoy and Gaimard), Amboyna. 7p, pro-
boscis, between the eye-pedicels ; f, foot, folded up; 0, operculum; m, border of the
mantle; s, respiratory siphon.

GASTEROPODA. pd; |

the anterior canal. Lingual teeth (S. floridus) 7 cusped ; uncini,
1 tri-dentate, 2, 3 claw-shaped, simple (Fig. 77).*

Fig. 77. Strombus. (Wilton).

Strombus (floridus) is described by Lovén as having a non-
retractile, produced muzzle, like Aporrhais. 8. gibberulus is
represented by Dr. Bergh with all the uncini denticulated.

Distribution, 65 species. West Indies, Mediterranean, Red
Sea, India, Mauritius, China, New Zealand, Pacific, West
America. On reefs, at low water, and ranging to 10 fathoms.

Fossil, 5 cretaceous species; 3 species Miocene—. South
Europe. There is a group of small shells in the eocene tertiary
strata of England and France, nearly related to the living
S. fissurellus, L., some of which have been placed with rostel-
laria, because the notch in the outer lip is small or obsolete.
They probably constitute a sub-genus, to which the name
Rimella Ag., might be applied. Hxample, S. Bartonensis. Pl.
DY; Pie. 2.

The fountain-shell of the West Indies, S. gigas, L., is one of
the largest living shells, weighing sometimes four or five pounds;
its apex and spines are filled up with solid shell as it becomes
old. Immense quantities are annually imported from the
Bahamas for the manufacture of cameos, and for the porcelain
works; 300,000 were brought to Liverpool alone in the year
1850. (Mr. Archer.)

PTEROCERAS, Lam. Scorpion shell.

Litymology, pteron, a wing, and ceras, a horn.

Type ek. Vamibis. Plo 1 V 3: Big.) 33

Shell like strombus when young ; outer lip of the adult pro-
duced into several lang claws, one of them close to the spire,
and forming a posterior canal.

Distribution, 12 species. India, China.
_ *® The lingua] dentition of strombus resembles that of @porrhazs, and is unlike that

of the whelks; but it is more probable that aporrhats is the representative of strombus

than that it is very closely allied.

912 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Fossil, nearly 100 species are enumerated by D’Orbigny,
ranging from the lias to the upper chalk; many of them are
more nearly related to aporrhais (cerithiade).

ROSTELLARIA, Lam.

Etymology, rostellum, a little beak.

Synonym, Fusus, Humphreys.

Example, R. curta. Pl. IV., Fig. 4.

Shell with an elongated spire; whorls numerous, flat; canals
long, the posterior one running up the spire; outer lip more or
less expanded, with only one sinus, and that close to the beak.

Distribution, 8 species. Red Sea, India, Borneo, China.
Range, 30 fathoms.

Fossil, 80 species. Neocomian—chalk (= aporrhais?). 6 species.
Eocene—. Britain, France, &c.

The old tertiary species have the outer lip enormously ex-
panded, and smooth-edged; they constitute the section hippo-
chrenes of Montfort (e.g., Rost. ampla, Solander. London
clay).

Sub-genus 2 Spinigera, D’Orbigny. 1847. Shell like rostel-
laria ; whorls keeled ; keel developed into a slender spine on the
outer lip, and two on each whorl, forming lateral fringes, as in
ranella. Fossil, 5 species. Inf. oolite—chalk. Britain, France.

SrRAPHS, Montfort. (Terebellum, Lam.)

Etymology, diminutive of terebra, an auger.

- Shell smooth, sub-cylindrical ; spire short or none; aperture
long and narrow, truncated below; outer lip thin.

Distribution, 1 species. China. Philippines, 8 fathoms.
(Cuming. )

Fossil, 5 species. ocene—. London, Paris.

The animal of terebellum has an operculum like strombus ; its
eye-pedicels are simple, without tentacles. (Adams.) In one
fossil species, 7’. fusiforme, there is a short posterior canal, as in
rostellaria.

FAmIty I1.—MuvRiIcipz.

Shell with a straight anterior canal; aperture entire behind.

Animal with a broad foot; eyes sessile on the tentacles, cr at
their base; branchial plumes two. Lingual ribbon long, linear ;
rachis armed with a single series of dentated teeth; wuncini,
single. Predatory on other mollusca. The two species belong-
ing to the genus Cheletropis, Forbes —Sinusigera, D’Orbigny,

GASTEROPODA, 9138

aro now known to have no affinity with the Atlantidx, but to
be the larva form of species belonging to the Muricide.

|

|

Fig. 78. Murex tenuispina. (Wilton.)
MovrREX (Pliny), L.

Types, M. palma-rose, Pl. IV., Fig. 10. M. tenuispina, Pl.
iV., Fig. 9. M. haustellum, Pl. IV., Fig. 8. M. radix,
olnnatus. ’

Shell ornamented with three or more continuous longitudinal
varices ; aperture rounded ; beak often very long; canal partly
closed ; operculum concentric, nucleus sup-apical (Pl. LV., Fig.
10); lingual dentition (M. erinaceus), teeth single, three
srested ; uncini single, curved. For dentition of M. tenwispina
see Fig. 78.

Distribution, 220 species. World-wide; most abundant on
the West Coast of tropical America, in the Chinese Sea, West
Coast of Africa, West Indies; ranging from low water to 25
fathoms, rarely at 60 fathoms.

Fossil, 164 species. Eocene—. Britain, France, Java, &ce.

A few of the species usually referred to this genus belong to
pisania and trophon.

The murices appear to form only one-third of a whorl
annually, ending in a varix; some species form intermediate
varices of less extent. M. erinaceus, a very abundant species on
the coasts of the channel, is called ‘‘ sting-winkle” by fisher-
men, who say it makes round holes in the other shell-fish with
its beak. (See p. 21.) The ancients obtained their purple dye
from species of murex ; the small shells wexe bruised in mortars,
the animals of the larger ones taken out. (F. Col.) Heaps
of broken shells of the WM. trunculus and caldron-shaped holes
in the rocks may still be seen on the Tyrian shore. (Wilde.) On
the coast of the Morea there is similar evidence of the employ-
ment of M. brandaris for the same purpose. (M. Boblaye.)

Typuis, Montfort.
Etymology, typhos, smoke.

214 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. -

Type, T..pungens. » Pl. IV., Fre. 11.

Shell like murex; but having tubular spines between the
varices, of which the last is open, and occupied by the excurrent
canal.

Distribution, 9 species. Mediterranean, West Africa, Cape,
India, Western America. ~—d0 fathoms.

Fossil, 8 species. Hocene—. London, Paris.

PISANIA, Bivon, 1832.

Etymology, a native of (the coast near) Pisa, in Tuscany.

Synonyms, Pollia, Enzina, and Huthria (Gray).

Types, P. maculosa. Pl. 1V., Fig. 14 (Hnzina), zonati. Pl.
5 Ae tea

Shell with numerous indistinct varices, or smooth and spirally
striated ; canal short; inner lip wrinkled ; outer lip crenulated.
Operculum ovate, acute: nucleus apical.

The pisanie have been usually confounded with stele.
murex, and ricinula.

Distribution, about 120 species. West Indies, Africa, India,
Philippines, South Seas, Western America.

Fossil, Pspecies. Hocene—Britain, France, &c.

RANELLA, Lam. Frog-shell.

Synonym, Apollon (Montfort and Gray).

Types, R. granifera, PI. IV., Fig. 12. R. spinosa.

Shell with two rows of continuous varices, one on each side.

. Operculum ovate, nucleus lateral.

Distribution, 58 species. Mediterranean, Cape, India, China,
Australia, Pacific, Western America. Jiange, low-water to 20
fathoms.

Fossil, 23 species. Hocene—.

Triton, Lam.

Etymology, Triton, a sea-deity.

Synonym, Persona (Montfort, Gray).

Type, T. tritonis, L. species. Pl. IV., Fig. 13.

Shell with disconnected varices; canal prominent; lips denti-
culated.

Operculum ovate, sub-concentric.

Distribution, 100 species. West Indies, Mediterranean,
Africa, India, China, Pacific, Western America. Ranging from

GASTBROPODA. 915

low water to 10 or 20 fathoms; one minute species has been
dredged at 50 fathoms.

Fig. 79. One of the buccal pla es of Triton, 4% (Wilton.)

Fossil, 45 species. Eocene—. Britain, France, &c. Chili.

The great triton (7. tritonis) is the conch b'own by the
Australian and Polynesian Islandeis. A very similar species
(7. nodiferus) is found in the Medi.erranean, and a t1.rd in the

Fig. 80. Teeth of Tritor, 24°. (Wilton.)

West Indies. The buccal plates and teeth of Triton are shown
in Figs. 79, 80. :

FASCIOLARIA, Lam.

Htymology, fasciola, a band.

Pea talina, Pl. Vi, Fie» 1 ee ")

Shell fusiform, elongated ; whorls |‘ iy, m i
round or angular; canal open; Aw
columellar lip tortuous, with several Nal yl! ;
oblique folds. Operculum claw-
shaped. +. gigantea of the South
Seas attains a length of nearly two Fig. 81. Fe ae
feet. The teoth of Fasciolaria re-

semble those of Fusus Islandicus. In Buccinwm undatum, the
_ median tooth has fiye, or rarely six denticles ; and Mr. Wilton

916 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

has observed that B. limbosum, ¢ has the teeth seven cusped,
while in the females they are six cusped.
Distribution, 108 species. West Indies, Mediterranean, West
Africa, India, Australia, South Pacific, Western America.
Fosstl, 30 species, U. chalk—. France.

TURBINELLA, Lam.

Etymology, diminutive of turbo, a top.

Type, T. pyrum. Pl. V., Fig. 2.

Shell thick; spire short; columella with several transverse
folds. Operculum claw-shaped. Fig. 70. The chank-shell
(7. pyrum) is carved by the Cingalese, and reversed varieties of
it, from which the priests administer medicine, are held sacred.

Distribution, 70 species. West Indies, South America, Africa,
Ceylon, Philippines, Pacific, Western America.

Fossil, 20 species. Muiocene—.

Sub-genera, Cynodonta (Schum.), T. cornigera. Pl. V., Fig. 3.

Latirus (Montfort), T. gilbula. Pl. V., Fig. 4.

Lagena (Schum.), T. Smaragdula, L. species. Northern
Australia.

CANCELLARIA, Lam.

Etymology, cancellatus, cross-barred.

Type, C. reticulata. Pl. V., Fig. 6.

Shell cancellated ; aperture chanelled in front; columella with
several strong oblique folds; no operculum. ‘The animals are
vegetable feeders. (Desh.)*

Distribution, 71 species. West Indies, Mediterranean, West
Africa, India, China, California.

Fossil, 60 species. Up. Chalk—. Britain, France, &c.

Admete (viridula) is a boreal form of Cancellaria, without
plaits.

DIBAPHUS, Phi.

Synonym, conohelix edentulus. (Sw.) Shell subcylindrical,
spire acute; aperture narrow, linear, edentulous, excised at the
base; lip thickened, rectilinear, rounded and abbreviated below.

TRICHOTROPIS, Broderip, 1829.
Etymology, Thria (trichos), hair, and tropis, keel.
Type, T. borealis, Pl. VI., Fig. 8. (=? Admete, Phil., no
operculum).

* Cancellaria and trichotropis form a small naturalfamily connected with cerithiade
and strombide.

GASTEROPODA. S14

Shell thin, umbilicated ; spirally furrowed; the ridges with
epidermal fringes; columella obliquely truncated ; eae
lamellar, nucleus external.

Animal with a short broad head; tentacles distant, with eyes
on the middle; proboscis long, retractile.

Lingual nition similar to velutina; teeth single, hamate,
denticulated ; wncini 3: 1 denticulate, 2 and 3 simple (Fig. 82).

——_

Fig. 82. Trichotropis borealis. (Warrington).

Lovén places Trichotropis in the same family with Velutina ;
Cancellaria is very closely allied, though it wants both teeth
and operculum. Mr. Couthouy describes T'richotropis cancellata
as having a muzzle like Littorina.

Distribution, 14 species. Northern seas. United States, Green-
land, Melville Island, Behring’s Straits, North Britain. 15—80
fathoms. 1 species from Japanese seas (A. Adams).

Fossil, 1 species. Miocene—. Britain.

Pyruna, Lam. Fig-shell.

Etymology, diminutive of pyrus, a pear.

_ Synonyms, Ficula, Sw. Sycotypus, Br., Cassidula, Humph.
Cochlidium, Gray.

Type, P. ficus. Pl. V., Fig. 6.

Shell pear-shaped; spire short; outer lip thin; columella
smooth; canal long, open. No operculum in the typical
species. re

Distribution, 39 species. West Indies, Ceylon, Australia,
China, Western America.

Fossil, 32 species. Neocomian—. Europe, India, Chili, Java.

Pyrula ficus has a broad foot, truncated and horned in front ;
the mantle forms lobes on the sides, which nearly meet over the
back of the shell. Chinese seas, in 17—35 fathoms water.
(Adams.)

Sub-genera, Fulgur, Montfort P. Beers (= Pyrella, Sw.
P. spirillus.)

Rapana, Schum. P. bezoar, shell pocicated Operculum
lamellar, nucleus external. This appears to be a Purpura.

Myristica. Sw. P. melongena. Pl. V., Fig. 7. Operculum
pointed, curved.

218 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Fusus, Lam. Spindle-shell.

Synonyms, Colus, Humph. Leiostoma (bulbiformis). Sw.
Strepsidura, Sw.

Type, F. colus. Pl. Y., Fig. 8.

Shell fusiform; spire many-whorled; canal straight, long;
operculum ovate, curved, nucleus apical. Pl. V., Fig. 9*.

Distribution, 184 species. World-wide. The typical species
are sub-tropical. Australia, New Zealand, China, Senegal,
United States, Western America, Pacific.

Fossil, 320 species. Bath oolite? Gault—Hocene—. Britain, &e.

Sub-genera, Trophon, Montfort. F. magellanicus, Pl. IV.,
Fig. 16. 38 species. Antarctic and Northern seas. British
coast. 5—70 fathoms. Jossi/, Chili, Britain.

Clavella, Sw. (Cyrtulus, Hinds), body-whorl ventricose, sud-
denly contracted in front ; canal long and straight. Resembling
a turbinella, without plaits. 2 species. Marquesas, Panama.
Fossil, Hocene. F'. longzevus (Solander), Barton, &c.

Chrysodomus, Sw. F. antiquus (var.). Pl. V., Fig.-9. Canal
short; apex papillary; lingual dentition like buccinum, 12
species. Spitzbergen, Davis’s Straits, Britain, Mediterranean,
Kamtschatka, Oregon. Low-water to 100 fathoms. Jossitl,
Pliocene. Britain, Sicily.

Pusionella, Gray. F. pusio, L. species (= F. nifat, Lam.),
columella keeled. Operculum, nucleus internal. 7 species;
Africa, India. Fossil, Tertiary. France.

Fusus colosseus and proboscidalis, Lam., are two of the
largest living gasteropods. Fusus (chrysodomus) antiquus, called
the red-whelk on the coasts of the Channel, and ‘‘ buckie”’ in
Scotland, is extensively dredged for the markets, beimg more
esteemed than the buccinuwm. It is the ‘“‘roaring buckie,” in
which the sound of the sea may always be heard. In the
Zetland cottages it is suspended horizontally, and used for a
lamp; the cavity containing the oil, and the canal the wick.
(Fleming.) The reversed variety (I. contrarius, Sby.) is found
in the Mediterranean, and on the coast of Spain; it abounds in
the pliocene tertiary (crag) of Essex. The fusus deformis, a
similar species, found off Spitzbergen, is always reversed.

Famity III.—Buccrnipz.

Shell notched in front; or with the canal abruptly reflected,
producing a kind of varix on the front of the shell.
Animal similar to murex; lingual ribbon long and linear

GASTEROPODA. 219

(Fig. 16), rachidian teeth single, transverse, dentated in front ;
uncini single. Carnivorous.

Buccinum, L. Whelk.

Etymology, buccina, a trumpet, or triton’s-shell.

Type, B. undatum. Pl. V., Fig. 10.

Shell few whorled; whorls ventricose; aperture large; canal
very short, reflected; operculum lamellar, nucleus external.
(See Pisania. )

Distribution, 48 species. Northern and Antarctic seas. Low
water to 100 fathoms. (Forbes.) (B.? clathratum, 186 fathoms,
off Cape). South Australia.

Fossil, 130 species, including Pisania, &c. Gault ?—Miocene—
Britain, France,

ees

Fig. 83. Nidamental capsules of the Whelk.#

The whelk is dredged for the market, or used as bait by
fishermen; it may be taken in baskets, baited with dead fish.
Its nidamental capsules are aggregated in roundish masses,
which when thrown ashore, and drifted by the wind resemble
corallines. Hach capsule contains five or six young, which,
when hatched, are like Fig. 83, 0: a represents the inner side
of a single capsule, showing the round hole from which the fry
have escaped.

Sub-genus, Cominella, Gray. Hz. B. limbosum, purpura
maculosa, &c. Operculum asin fusus. About 12 species.

PSEUDOLIVA, Swainson.

Etymology, named from its resemblance to oliva, in form.
Synonyms, Sulco-buccinum, D’Orbigny. Gastridium (Gray)
G. Sowerby.

* Fig. 83, From a small specimen, on an oyster-shell, in the cabinet of Albany Han-
cock, Esq. The line at 6 represents the length of the young shell,

Ey

920 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Type, P. plumbea. PI. V., Fig. 12.

Shell globular, thick ; with a deep spiral furrow near the
front of the body- whorl, forming, as in monoceros, a small tooth
on the outer lip; spire short, acute; suture channelled; inner
lip callous; aperture notched in front; operculum? Animal
unknown.

Distribution, 6 species. Africa and California.

Fossil, 5 species. Eocene. Britain, France, Chili.

P ANOLAX (Roissy), Conrad, Lea.

Etymology, an aulax, without furrow.

Synonyms, Buccinanops, D’Orpigny. Leiodomus, Sw. Bullia,
Gray.

Types, A. gigantea, Lea. Buc. levigatum. 3B. semiplicata,
PlOY., Big. 14:

Shell variable ; like buccinum, pseudoliva, or terebra; sutures
enamelled ; inner lip callous.

Animal without eyes; foot very broad; tentacles long and
slender ; operculum pointed, nucleus apical.

Distribution 26 species. Brazil, West Africa, Ceylon, Pacific,
Western America.

Fossil, 3 species. Hocene—. North America, France.

iy Hatta, Risso.

Etymology, halios, marine.

Synonym, Priamus, Beck.

Types, bulla helicoides (Brocchi). Miocene, Italy. Helix
priamus (Meuschen). Coast of Guinea ?

Shell like achatina ; ventricose, smooth ; apex regular, obtuse,
operculum? ‘The fossil species occurs with marine shells, and
sometimes coated by a polyzoon (/epralia).

TEREBRA, Lamarck. Auger-shell.

Synonyms, Acus, Humph. Subula, Bl. Dorsanum, Gray.

Type, T. maculata. Pl. V., Fig. 13.

Shell long, pointed, many-whorled; aperture small; canal
short; operculum pointed, nucleus apical.
_ Animal blind, or with eyes near the summit of minute
tentacles.

Distribution, 109 species, mostly tropical. Mediterranean
(1 species). India, China, Western America.

Fossil, 24 species. Eocene—. Britain, France, Chili.

as Fee

GASTEROPODA. 221

Esurna, Lamarck. Ivory-shell.

Etymology, ebur, ivory.

Synonym, Latrunculus, Gray.

Type, HK. spirata. Pl. V., Fig. 11.

Shell umbilicated when young; inner lip callous, spreading
and covering the umbilicus of the adult; operculum pointed.
nucleus apical. |

Distribution, 9 species. Red Sea, India, Cape, Japan, China,
Australia. Solid, smooth shells, which have usually lost their
epidermis, and are pure white, spotted with dark red; the
animal! is spotted like the shell. 14 fathoms. (Adams.)

Nassa, Lam. Dog-whelk.

Etymology, nassa, a basket used for catching fish.

Synonyms, Desmoulinsia and Northia, Gray.

Type, N. arcularia. Pl. V., Fig. 15.

Shell like buccinum; columellar lip callons, expanded, form-
ing a tooth-like projection near the anterior canal. Operculum
ovate, nucleus apical. Lingual teeth arched, pectinated ; uncini,
with a basal tooth.

The animal has a broad foot, with diverging horns in front,
and two little tails behind. WN. obsoleta (Say) lives within the
influence of fresh water and becomes eroded. W. reticulata, L.,
is common on the English shores at low water, and is called the
dog-whelk by fishermen.

Distribution, 210 species. Low water—50 fathoms. World-
wide. Arctic, Tropical, and Antarctic Seas.

Fossil, 19 species. Eocene—. Britain, &c. North America.

Sub-genus, Cyllene, Gray. ©. Oweni, Pl. V., Fig. 17. Outer
lip with a slight sinus near the canal; sutures channelled.
West Africa, Sooloo Islands, Borneo. Fossil, Miocene, Touraine.

Cyclonassa, Swainson. C. neritea, Pl. V., Fig. 16.

PuHos, Montfort.

Etymology, phos, light.

Synonym, Rhinodomus, Sw.

Type, P. senticosus, Pl. V., Fig. 18.

Shell like nassa; cancellated ; outer lip striated internally,
with a slight sinus near the canal; columella obliquely grooved.

The animal has slender tentacles, with the eyes near their
tips.

Distribution, 30 species. (Cuming.) Red Sea, Ceylon, Philip-
pines, Australia, West America.

Hehe MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

? RrneicuLa, Deshayes.

Etymology, diminutive of ringens, from ringo, to grin.

Type, R. ringens, Pl. V., Fig. 21.

Shell minute, ventricose, with a small spire ; aperture notched,
columella callous, deeply plaited; outer lip thickened and
reflected.

Distribution, 7 species? Mediterranean, India, Philippines,
Gallapagos.

Fossil, 9 species. Miocene—. Britain, France. Ringicula
is placed with nassa by Dr. Gray and Mr. 8. Wood; it appears
to us very nearly allied to cinulia = avellana, D’Orbigny) in
tornatellide.

Purpura (Adans.), Lam. Purple.

Type, P. persica, Pl. VI., Fig. 1.

Shell striated, imbricated, or tuberculated; spire short;
aperture large, slightly notched in front; upper lip much worn
and flattened. Operculum lamellar, nucleus external. Pl. VL,
Fig. 2. Lingual dentition like murex erinaceus; teeth trans-
verse, three crested ; uncini small, simple.

Many of the purpure produce a fluid which gives a dull
crimson dye; it may be obtained by pressing on the operculum.
P. lapilius abounds on the British coast at low water, amongst
sea-weed; it is very destructive to mussel-beds. (Fleming.)

Distribution, 140 species. West Indies, Britain, Africa, India,
New Zealand, Pacific, Chili, California, Kamtschatka. From
low water—25 fathoms.

Fossil, 40 species. Tertiary—. Britain, France, &c,

Concholepas, Favan. C. lepas (Gmelin species) Pl. VI, Fig. 3.
Peru. The only species differs from purpura in the size of its
aperture and smallness of the spire.

Cuma (Humphrey) P. angulifera, inner lip with a single
prominent fold.

P PURPURINA (Lycett, 1847), D’Orbigny.

Shell ventricose, coronated; spire short; aperture large,
scarcely notched in front.

Fossil, 9 species. Bath-oolite. Britain, France. The type
P. rugosa, somewhat resembles purpura chocolatum (Duclos), but
the genus probably belongs to an extinct group.

RHIZOCHILUS, Stp. 1850.
\ recip te R. antipathum. Founded on a s:ocies of Purpura?

ee eee

rr hr hh

GASTEROPODA. 223

which lives on the antipathes ericoides. When adult they attach
themselves, singly or in groups, to the branches of the coral, or
to each other, by a solid extension of the lips of the shell. The
aperture becomes closed, with the exception of the respiratory
canal,

Monoceros, Lam.

Etymology, monos, one; ceras, a horn.

Synonyms, Acanthina, Fischer. Chorus, Gray.

Type, M. imbricatum. Pl. VI., Fig. 4. (Buc. monoceros,
Chemn.)

Shell like purpura; with a spiral groove on the whorls, end-
ing in a prominent spine on the outer lip. This genus is retained
on account of its geographical curiosity ; it consists of species
of purpura, lagena, turbinella, pseudoliva, &e.

Distribution, 18 species. West coast of America.

‘Fossil, Tertiary. Chili.

M. giganteus (chorus) has the canal produced like fusus. M.
cingulatum is a turbinella, and several species belong more pro-
perly to lagena.

PEDICULARIA, Swainson.
fypetsicula, Pl. VI., Pig. 5. (Thyreus, Phil.)
Shell very small, limpet-like; with a large aperture, channelled
in front, and a minute, lateral spire. Lingual dentition peculiar ;
teeth single, hooked, denticulated ; uncini, 3; 1 four-cusped, 2,

3, elongated, three-spined.

Distribution, 1 species. Sicily, adhering to corals. Closely
allied to purpura madreporarum, Sby. Chinese Sea.

RICINULA, Lam.

Etymology, diminutive of ricinus, the (fruit of the) castor-oil
plant. j }
Example, R. arachnoides. Pl. VI., Fig. 9 (= murex ricinus, L.).

Shell thick, tuberculated, or spiny; aperture contracted by
callous projections on the lips. Operculum as in purpura.

Distribution, 34 species. India, China, Philippines, Australia,
Pacific.

Fossil, 3 species. Miocene—. France.

PLANAXIS, Lam.

Type, P. sulcata. Pl. VI., Fig. 6.
Synonyms, Quoyia and Leucostoma.
Shell, turbinated ; aperture notched in front; inner lip callous,

224 ' MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

channelled behind; operculum subspiral (quoyia) or semi-oyate.
Pl. VI., Fig. 7.

Distribution, 27 species. West Indies, Red Sea, Bourbon,
India, Pacific, and Peru.

Fossil, Miocene ?

Small coast shells, resembling periwinkles, with which
Lamarck placed them. This genus is now generally placed
among the Littorinidee.

Maaiuus, Montfort, 1810.

Synonyms, Campulote, Guettard, 1759. Leptoconchus, Riippell.

Type, M. antiquus. PI. V., Figs. 19, 20.

Shell, when young, spiral, ie aperture channelled in front ;
adult, prolonged into an irregular tube, solid behind; operculum
lamellar.

Distribution, 4 species. Red Sea, Mauritius.

The magili live fixed amongst corals, and grow upwards with
the growth of the zoophytes in which they become immersed ;
they fill the cavity of the tube with solid shell as they advance.

Cassis, Lam. Helmet-shell.

Synonyms, Bezoardica, Schum. Leyenia, Gray. Cypreecassis,
Stutch.

Type, C. flammea. Pl. VI., Fig. 14.

Shell ventricose, with irregular varices; spire
short ; aperture long, outer lip reflected, denticu-
lated; inner lip spread over the body-whorl ;
canal sharply recurved. Operculum small, elon-
gated; nucleus in the middle of the straight

in Fig. 85.
The spiny buccal plates of Cassis have been
mistaken by Gray and Adams for the teeth, which
Fig. 84. Opere. i :
of Cassis. in this genus, andalsoin Triton, are very minute
and transparent. .

Fig. 85. Cassis saburon. (Original).

Distribution, 87 species. Tropical seas; in shallow water.
West Indies, Mediterranean, Africa, China, Japan, Australia,
New Zealand, Pacific, Mexico.

inner edge (Fig. 84). Lingual teeth 3, 1, 3, as

GASTEROPODA. 225

Fossil, 36 species. Eocene—. Chili, France.

The queen-conch (C. madagascariensis) and other large
_ Species are used in the manufacture of shell cameos, p. 38. The
periodic mouths (varices) which are very prominent, are not
absorbed internally as the animal grows.

Oniscia, Sowerby.

itymology, oniscus, a wood-louse.

Synonym, Morum, Bolten.

Type, O. oniscus; O. cancellata. Pl. VIL, Fig. 16.

Shell with a short spire and a long narrow aperture, slightly
truncated in front; outer lip thickened, denticulated ; inner lip
granulated.

Distribution, 9 species. West Indies, China, Gallapagos,
United States. (20 fathoms).

Fossil, 8 species. Miocene. United States, Domingo.

CASSIDARIA, Lam,

_ Etymology, cassida, a helmet.
Synonyms, Morio, Montfort. Sconsia, Gray.
- Type, C. echinophora. Pl. VI., Fig. 13.
Shell ventricose ; canal produced, rather bent. No operculum.
Distribution, 6 species. Mediterranean.
Fossil, 10 species, Hocene—. Britain, France, &o,

BACHYBATHRON, Gaskoin.

Shell small, oblong, striated with lines of growth; spire
small, depressed, with channelled suture; aperture with callous
denticulated lips, ike Cyprea,

Distribution, 3 species.

Fig. 86. Dolium perdiz. (Original).

Douium, Lam. The Tun.

Type, D. palea. Pl. VIL, Fig. 12.

Shell ventricose, spirally furrowed; spire small; aperture
very large; outer lip crenated. No operculum. Teeth 8, 1, 3.
Fig. 86. The genus Macgillivrayia, formerly assigned to the
Atlantidz, belongs here. It comprises the larva forms of several.
species of Dolium.

L3

226 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Distribution, 14 species. Mediterranean, Ceylon, China, Aus-
tralia, Pacific.

Fig. 87.*

Fossil, 7 species. (? Chalk. Britain), Tertiary. South Europo.
Sub-genus, Malea, Valenc. (D. personatum), outer lip
thickened and denticulated; inner lip with callous prominences.

Harpa, Lam. MHarp-shell.

Type, H. ventricosa. Pl. VI., Fig. 11. (= Buc. harpa, L.)

Shell ventricose, with numerous ribs, at regular intervals;
spire small; aperture large, notched in front. No operculum.

The animal has a very large foot, with the front crescent-
shaped, and divided by deep lateral fissures from the posterior
part, which is said to separate spontaneously when the animal
is irritated. Mostly obtained from deep water and soft bottoms.

Distribution, 12 species. Mauritius, Ceylon, Philippines.
Pacific.

Fossil, 4 species. Eocene—. France.

CoLUMBELLA, Lam.

Etymology, diminutive of columba, a dove.

Type, OC. mercatoria. Pl. VI., Fig. 10.

Shell small, with a long narrow aperture ; outer lip thickened
(especially in the middle), dentated; inner lip crenulated.
Operculum very small, lamellar.

Distribution, 206 species. Sub-tropical. ‘West Indies, Medi-
terranean, India, Gallapagos, California. Small, prettily-

* D. perdiz, L. species. 4 natural size (after Quoy). Vanicoro, Pacific. The
} roboscis is exserted, and the siphon recurved over the front of the shell.

GASTEROPODA. 297

marked shells; living in shallow water, on sandy flats, or
congregating about stones. (Adams.)
Fossil, 8 species. Tertiary. (The British species are pisaniw.)
Sub-genus, Columbellina, D’Orbigny. 4 species. Cretaceous,
France, India.

Oriva, Lam. Olive, rice-shell.

Type, O. porphyria. Pl. VI., Fig. 16.

Synonym, Strephona, Brown.

Shell cylindrical, polished; spire very short, suture channelled;
aper.ure long, narrow, notched in front; columella callous,
striated obliguely; body-whorl furrowed near the base. No
operculum in the typical species.

Animal with a very large foot, in which the shell is half
immersed; mantle lobes large, meeting over the back of the
shell, and giving off filaments which lie in the suture and furrow.
The eyes are placed near the tips of the tentacles.

The olives are very active animals, and can turn over, when
laid on their back; near low water they may be seen gliding
about or burying in the sands as the tide retires; they may be
taken with animal baits attached to lines. They range down-
wards to 25 fathoms.

Distribution, 120 species. Sub-tropical, West and East
America. West Africa, India, China, Pacific.

Fossil, 20 species. Eocene—. Britain, France, &c.

Sub-genera. Olivella, Sw. O. jaspidea, Pl. VI., Fig. 19.

Animal with small, acute frontal lobes. Operculum
nucleus sub-apical.
Scaphula, Sw. == Olivancillaria, D’Orbigny, Pl. VI.,
Fig, 18,
Frontal lobes large, rounded, operculate.
Agaronia, Gray. O. hiatula, Pl. VI., Fig. 17.
No eyes or tentacles. Frontal lobes moderate, acute.

ANCILLARIA, Lam. -

Etymology, ancilla, a maiden.

Types, A. subulata, Pl. VI., Fig. 20. A. glabrata, Pl. VI,
Fig. 21.

Shell like oliva; spire produced, and entirely covered with
shining enamel. Operculum minute, thin, pointed. Lingual.
teeth pectinated. Uncini simple, hooked.

Animal like oliva; said to use its mantle-lobes for swimming.
(D’Orbigny.) In A. glabrata, a space resembling an umbilicus,
is left between the callous inner lip and the body-whorl.

228 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Distribution, 23 species. Red Sea, India, Madagascar, Ause
tralia, Pacific.
Fossil, 21 species. Hocene—. Britain, France, &c.

Famity TVY.—Conipm, Cones.

Shell inversely conical; aperture long and
narrow; outer lip notched at or near the suture;
operculum minute, lamellar. .

Animal foot oblong, truncated in front; with a

conspicuous (aquiferous ?) pore in the middle. Head

produced. ‘Tentacles far apart. Eyes on the ten-

tacles. Gills 2. Lingual teeth (uncini ?) in pairs,
Fig. 88.* elongate, subulate, or hastate.

Conus, L. Cone-shell

Types, C. marmoreus, Pl. VII., Fig. 1. C. geographicus,
antediluyvianus, &c.

Sheli conical, tapering regularly ; spire short, many-whorled ;
columella smooth, truncated in front; outer lip notched at the
suture; operculum pointed, nucleus apical.

Distribution, 371 species. All tropical seas.

Fossil, 84 species. Chalk—. Britain, France, India, Java, &c.

The cones range northward as far as the Mediterranean, and
southward to the Cape; but are most abundant and varied in
equatorial seas. They inhabit fissures and holes of rocks, and
the warm and shallow pools inside coral-reefs, ranging from
low water to 30 and 40 fathoms; they move slowly, and some-
times (C. aulicus) bite when handled; they are all predatory. |
(Adams.)

Sub-genus Conorbis, Sw. C. dormitor, Pl. VII., Fig. 2.
EKocene—. Britain, France.

PLEUROTOMA, Lam.

Etymology, pleura, the side, and toma, a notch.

Synonym, Turris, Humphrey.

Popes. se. Babylonica, Pl VL ies 2. ceed &e.

Shell fusiform, spire elevated ; onal long and straight ; outer
lip with a deep slit near the suture. Operculum pointed, nucleus
apical.

Distribution, 480 species. World-wide. Greenland, Britain,
17; Mediterranean, 19; Africa, 15; Red Sea and India, 6;
China, 90; Australia, 15; Pacific, 0? West America, 52; West

———)

* Fig. 88. Lingual teeth of Bela turricula (after Lovén).

GASTEROPODA. 229

Indies and Brazil, 20. The typical species about 20 (China, 16;
West America, 4). Low water to 100 fathoms.

Fossil, 878 species. Chalk—. Britain, France, &c. Chili.

Sub-genera, Drillia, Gray. D. umbilicata, canal short.

Clavatula, Lam., canal short, operculum pointed, nucleus in
the middle of the inner edge. C. mitra, Pl. VII., Fig. 4.

Tomella, Sw., canal long; inner lip callous near suture. T,
lineata.

2 Clionella, Gray. C. sinuata, Born species. (= P. buccinoides),
freshwaters, Africa.

Mangelia, Leach (not Reeve). Apertural slit at the suture;
no operculum, M. teeniata, Pl. VIL, Fig. 5. Greenland, Britain,
Mediterranean.

Bela, Leach. Operculum nucleus apical. B. turricula, Pl.
VIL., Fig. 6.

Defrancia, Millet,* no operculum. OD, linearis, Pl. VIL,
Fie, 7.

# Lachesis, Risso, L. minima, Pl. VII., Fig. 8, apex mam-
millated ; operculum claw-shaped. Mediterranean, South
Britain, Japan. In shallow water.

Daphnella, Hinds. D. marmorata, New Guinea. (Bue.
junceum. IL. clay).

Borsonia, Edwards. 2 species recent; tropical seas. fossil,
6 species. Tertiary. Europe.

CiTHARA, Schumacher.

Etymology, cithara, a guitar.

Synonym, Mangelia, Reeve (not Leach).

Type, cancellaria citharella, Lam. (cithara striata, Schum.).

Shell fusiform, polished, ornamented with regular longitudinal
ribs; aperture linear, truncated in front, slightly notched
behind; outer lip margined, denticulated within; inner lip
finely striated. Operculum.

Distribution, above 50 species of this pretty little genus were
discovered by Mr. Cuming in the Philippine Islands.

Famity V.—VoLvurTip”.

_ Shell turreted, or convolute; aperture notched in front;
columella obliquely plaited. No operculum.
Animal with a recurved siphon ; foot very large, partly hiding
the shell; mantle often lobed and reflected over the shell; eyes

* According to Mr. S. Hanley, Defrancia is synonymous with Mangelia.

230 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

on the tentacles, or near their base. Lingual ribbon linear;
rachis, toothed ; pleurw, unarmed.

Fig. 89.*

Votuta. L. Volute.

Type, V. musica, Pl. VII., Fig. 9.

Synonyms, Cymbiola, Harpula, Sw. Volutella, D’Orbigny.
Scapha, &c., Gray.

Shell yentricose, thick; spire short, apex mammillated ;
aperture large, deeply notched in front; colu-
mella with several plaits. V. musica and a few
others have a small operculum.

Animal eyes on lobes at the base of the ten-
tacles; siphon with a lobe on each side, at its
base ; lingual teeth 3-cusped (Fig. 90).

V. vespertilio and hebrea fill the nuclei of
their spires with solid shell. V. brasiliana
forms nidamental capsules 3 inches long.
(D’Orbigny.) In V. angulata the mantle is
- produced into a lobe on the left side, and over-
Fig.90. Voluta laps the shell. |
(Wilton). Distribution, 70 species. West Indies, Cape
Horn, West Africa, Australia, Java, Chili.

Fossil, 80 species. Chalk—. India, Britain, France, &c.

Sub-genera, Volutilithes, Sw. Spire pointed, many-whorled,
columella plaits indistinct. V. spinosus, Pl. VII., Fig. 10.

Living, 1 species (V. abyssicola), dredged at 132 fathoms; off
the Cape. (Adams.)

Fossil, Eocene. Britain, Paris.

Scaphetla, Sw. Fusiform, smooth.
Example, V. magellanica.

* Fig. 89. V. undulata, Lam. } Australia, (From Quoy and Gaimard.)

GASTEROPODA. 231

Fossil, V. Lamberti, Crag, Suffolk.

Melo, Brod. Large, oval; spire short.
Type, M. diadema, Pl. VII., Fig. 11. New Guinea, 8 species,

Cympa, Broderip. Boat-shell.

Synonym, Yetus (Adans.), Gray.

Type, C. proboscidalis, Pl. VII, Fig. 12,
and Fig, 91 (== V. cymbium, L.).

Shell like voluta; nucleus large and
globular; whorls few, angular, forming a
flat ledge round the nucleus.

The foot of the animal is very large, and
deposits a thin enamel over the under side
of the shell. It is ovo-viviparous, and
the young animal is very large when born ;
the nucleus becomes partly concealed by the
growth of the shell.

Distribution, 10 species. West Africa,
Lisbon. .

Fig. 91. Cymba.

Mitra, Lam. Mitre-shell.

Synonyms, Turris, Montfort. Zierliana, Gray. Tiara, Sw.

_ Types, M. episcopalis, Pl. VII., Fig. 13. M. vulpecula
Fig. 14.

Shell fusiform, thick; spire elevated, acute; aperture small,
notched in front; columella obliquely plaited ; operculum very
small.

The animal has a very long proboscis; it emits a purple
liquid, having a nauseous odour, when irritated. The eyes are
placed on the tentacles, or at their base. Range, from low
water to 15 fathoms, more rarely in 15—80 fathoms.

Distribution, 420 species. Philippines, India, Red Sea,
Mediterranean, West Africa, Greenland (1 species), Pacific,
West America. The extra-tropical species are minute. MM.
Greenlandica and M. Cornea (Mediterranean species) are found
together in the latest British Tertiaries. (Forbes.)

Fossil, 90 species. Chalk—. India, Britain, France, &c.

Sub-genera. Imbricaria, Schum, (concelix, Sw.)

Shell cone-shaped. I. conica, Pl. VIL., Fig. 16.

Cylindra, Schum. (Mitrella, Sw.)

Shell olive-shaped. C. crenulata, Pl. VII., Fig. 16.

232 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

VOLVARIA, Lam.

Etymology, vowa, a wrapper.

Type, V. bulloides, Pl. VII., Fig. 17.

Shell cylindrical, conyolute : spire minute; aperture long and
narrow; columella with three oblique plaits in front.

Distribution, 29 species, tropical seas.

Fossil, 6? species. Eocene. Britain, France.

MARGINELLA, Lam.

Etymology, diminutive of margo, a rim.

Synonyms, Porcellana (Adans.), Gray. Persicula, Schum.

Types, M. nubeculata, Pl. VIL, Fig. 18. M. persicula,
Fig. 19.

Shell smooth, bright; spire short or concealed; aperture

truncated in front; columella plaited; outer lip (of adult) with

a thickened margin.
Animal similar to cypreea.
. Distribution, 189 species. ‘Tropical, West Indies, Brazil,
Mediterranean (1 small species), West Africa, China, Australia.
Fossil, 30 species. Eocene—. France, &c.
Sub-genus, Hyalina, Schum. Outer lip scarcely thickened.
Type, voluta pallida, Montfort, West Indies.
&

FamiIty VI.—Cypraipm. Cowries.

Shell convolute, enamelled; spire concealed ; aperture narrow,
channelled at each end ; ee lip (of adult) thickened, inflected.
No operculum.

Animal with a broad foot, truncated in front ; mantle sscbyadlenel
on each side, forming lobes, which meet over the back of the
shell; these lobes are usually ornamented with tentacular fila-
ments; eyes on the middle of the tentacles or near their base;
branchial plume single. Lingual ribbon long, partly contained
in the visceral cavity; rachis 1 toothed; uncini 8. In Ovulum
the teeth are 2. 1. 2. the outermost broad, with pectinated
margins. Lovén describes the Cypreeidee as having a short, non-
retractile muzzle, and places them between the Naticide and
Lamellaria. The cowries inhabit shallow TS near shore,
feeding on zoophytes.

Cyprama, L. Cowry.

Etymology, Cypris, a name of Venus.
Types, C. tigris, C. mauritiana Pl. VII., Fig. 20.

oe =

GASTEROPODA. 233°

Shell ventricose, convolute, covered with shining enamel;
spire concealed; aperture long and
narrow, with a short canal at each |
end; inner lip crenulated; outer lip
inflected and crenulated (lingual
uncint similar). Bip 8

The young shell has a thin and fe :
sharp outer lip, a prominent spire, a
and is covered with a thin epidermis |
(Fig. 92). When full-grown the {*
mantle lobes expand on each side,
and deposit a shining enamel oyer
the whole shell, by which the spire
is entirely concealed. There is usually

Fig. 92. Cyprea, & line of paler colour, which indicates

young.* where the mantle lobes met. Cypreea
annulus is used by the Asiatic Islanders to adorn their Fig. 93.
dress, to weight their fishing-nets, and for barter. 771

-Specimens of it were found by Dr. Layard in the ruins of
_ Nimroud. The money-cowry (C. moneta) is also a native of the
Pacific and Hastern seas; many tons weight of this little shell
are annually imported into this country, and again exported
for barter with the native tribes of Western Africa ; in the year
1848 sixty tons of the money-cowry were imported into Liver-
_pool. Mr. Adams observed the pteropodous fry of C. annulus,
at Singapore, adhering in masses to the mantle of the parent,
or swimming in rapid gyrations, or with abrupt jerking movye-
ments by means of their cephalic fins.

Distribution, 150 species. In all warm seas (except east
coast South America ?), but most abundant in those of the old
world. On reefs and under rocks at low water.

Fossil, 84 species. Chalk—. India, Britain, France, &c.

le chocra: OCyprovula, Gray. C. Capensis, PIS VALS ies 2
Apertural plaits continued regularly over the margin of the
canal.

LIuponia, Gray. OC. algoénsis, Pl. VII., Fig. 22. Inner lip
irregularly plaited in front.

Trivia, Gray. CO. europea, Pl. VII., Fig. 23; Fig. 98, and
15, B. Small shells with stris extending over the back.
(Uncint: 1st denticulate, 2, 3, simple,)

* Fig 92. Cyprea testudinaria, L., young, China.
+ Fig. 93. Trivia Europea, Mont. From the “ British Mollusca,” by Messrs. Forbes
and Hanley.

234 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Distribution, 30 species. Greenland, Britain, West Indies,
Cape, Australia, Pacific, West America.

ERATO, Risso.

Htymology, Erato, the muse of loye-songs and mimicry.

Type, K. levis, Pl. VII., Fig. 24.

Shell minute ; like marginella ; lips minutely crenulated.

Animal like trivia.

Distribution, 11 species. Britain, Mediterranean, West Indies,
China.

Fossil, 2 species. Miocene—. France, Britain (Crag).

OvuLum, Lam.

Etymology, diminutive of ovwm, an egg.

Synonym, Amphiceras, Gronoy.

Types, O. Ovum, Pl. VII., Fig. 25. O. gibbosa and verrucosa.

Shell like cyprea ; mner lip smooth.

Distribution, 36 species. Warm seas. West Indies, Britain,
Mediterranean, China, West America.

Fossil, 11 species. ocene—. France, &c.

Sub-genus. Calpurna, Leach. O. volva (‘‘ the weaver’s
shuttle”). Aperture produced into a long canal at each end.
Foot narrow, adapted for walking on the round stems of the
gorgonice, &c., on which it feeds. C. patula inhabits the south
coast of Britain, it is very thin, and has a sharp outer lip.

Calpurnus, Montfort (name) = Ovyulum verrucosum.

Volva (Fleming) = Ovulum patulum (Calpurna, Leach).

Radius (Montfort) Schum. — Ovulum volva

SEcTIoN B. HotostomaATA. Sea-Snails.

Shell spiral or limpet-shaped; rarely tubular or multivalve:
margin of the aperture entire; operculum, horny or ome
usually spiral.

Animal with a short non-retractile muzzle ; respiratory siphon
wanting, or formed by a lobe developed from the neck (Fig. 68),
gills pectinated or plume-like, placed obliquely across the back,
or attached to the right side of the neck; neck and sides fre-
quently ornamented with lappets and tentacular filaments.
Marine or fresh-water. Mostly phytophagous.*

* These “sections” are not very satisfactory, but they are better than any others
yet proposed, and they are convenient on account of the great extent of the order
proso-branchiata. Natica and scalaria have a retractile proboscis. Pirena has a
notched aperture, and aporrhais, a canal.

GASTEROPODA. 9395

Faminy I.—NATICIDA.

Shell globular, few-whorled ; spire, small, obtuse; aperture
semi-lunar; lip acute; pillar often callous.

Fig. 94. Natica monilifera (Wilton).

Anim with a long retractile proboscis ; lingual ribbon linear ;
rachis 1 toothed; wnceini 3 (as in Fig. 94); foot very large;.
mautle-lobes largely developed, hiding more or less of the shell.
Species all marine. -

Natica (Adans.), Lamarck.

Synonym, Mamilla, Schm. Cepatia, Gray. Nacca, Risso.

Type, N. canrena, Pl. VIIL., Fig. 1.

Shell thick, smooth ; inner lip callous; umbilicus large, with
a spiral callus; epidermis thin, polished ; operculum sub-spiral.

Animal blind; tentacles connate
with a head veil; front of the large
foot provided with a fold (mentm),
reflected uponand protecting the head;
operculigerous lobe large, covering
part of the shell ; jaws horny; lingual Fig. 95. Natica.*
ribbon short; branchial plume single.

The coloured markings of the naticze are very indestructible ;
they are frequently preserved on fossils. The natice frequent
sandy and gravelly bottoms, ranging from low water to 90,
fathoms (Forbes). They are carnivorous, feeding on the smaller
bivalves (Gould), and are themselves devoured by the cod and
haddock. Their eggs are agglutinated into a broad and short
spiral band, very slightly attached, and resting free on the
sands.

Distribution, 197 species. Arctic seas, Britain, Mediterranean,
Caspian, Tdi, Australia, China, Ermey West Indies.

Fossil, 260 species. Devonian, South America, North
America, Europe, India.

Sub-genera. Naticopsis, M‘Coy, N. Phillipsii. Shell imper-
forate; imner lip yery thick, spreading; operculum shelly
(British Museum), Carb. limestone, 7 species.

* Fig. 95. Natica Alderi, Forbes. From an original drawing, communicated by
Joshua Alder, Esq

236 MANUAL OF THE MOLTUSCA.

Operculum, horny.

Neverita, Risso. N. Alderi. Fig. 98.

Lunatia, Gray. N. Ampullaria. Perforation simple; epider-
mis dull, olivaceous. Northern seas.

Globulus, J. Sby. (Ampulina, Deshayes not Bl.) N. Sigaretina.
Pl. VIIL., Fig. 2. Umbilicus narrow (rimate), lined by a thin
callus.

Fossil, Hocene. Britain, Paris.

Polinices, Montfort (naticella, Guild.), N. mammilla. Shell
oblong ; callus very large, filling the umbilicus.

Cernina, Gray, N. fluctuata. Pl. VIII., Fig. 3. Globular,
imperforate ; inner lip callous, covering part of the body-whorl.

Naticella, Miller. 19 species,

Fossil, Trias, S. Cassian.

DESHAYESIA, Raulin

Miocene, France. Some additional species have been found
with a similar oblique aperture and corrugated inner lip.
Baron Ryckholt has described a species (D. Raulini), from the
Devonian, Belgium. The relation of the genus is uncertain.

NATICELLA, Minster.

This genus, abounding in the Trias of St. Cassian, has been
referred to Natica by D’Orbigny. A characteristic species
occurs in the green-sand of Blackdown, and has been named
Natica carinata, J. Sby. (Narica, D’Orbigny.) It is exactly
intermediate between Narica (p. 237) and Lossarus (p. 253), and
appears to form with them a little group nearly related to
Lacuna (p. 255).

SIGARETUS (Adans.), Lamarck.

Synonyms, Cryptostoma, Bl. Stomatia, Browne.

Type, S. haliotoides. Pl. VIII., Fig. 4.

Shell striated ; ear-shaped ; spire minute: aperture very wide,
oblique (not pearly) ; operculum minute, horny, sub-spiral.

The flat species are entirely concealed by the mantle when
living; the convex shells only partially, and they have a
yellowish epidermis. The anterior foot lobe (mentum) is enor-
mously developed.

Distribution, 31 species. West Indies, India, China, Peru.

Fossil, 10 species. Eocene—. Britain, France, South America.

Sub-genus. Naticina, Gray. N. papilla, Pl. VIII, Fig. 3.
Shell ventricose, thin, perforated. West Indies, Red Sea, China,
North Australia, Tasmania. Hocene, Paris.

GASTEROPODA. 237

LAMELLARIA, Montagu.

Etymology, lamella, a thin plate.

Synonyms, Marsenia, Leach. Coriocella, BI.

Type, L. perspicua. Pl. VIII., Fig. 6.

Shell ear-shaped ; thin, pellucid, fragile; spire very small;
aperture large, patulous; inner lip receding. No operculum.

Animal much larger than the shell, which is entirely con-
cealed by the reflected margins of the mantle; mantle non-
retractile, notched in front; eyes at the outer bases of the
tentacles. Lingual wncini 3, similar; or one very large.

Distribution, 10 species. Norway, Britain, Mediterranean,
New Zealand, Philippines.

Fossil, 2 species. Pliocene—. Britain (Crag).

Narica, Recluz.

Synonyms, Vanicoro, Quoy. Merria, Gray. Leucotis, Sw.

Type, N. cancellata. Pl. VIII., Fig. 8.

Shell thin, white, with a velvety epidermis ; ribbed irregularly
and spirally striated ; axis perforated; operculum very small,
thin.

Animal eyes at the outer base of the tentacles; foot with
wing-like lobes.

Distribution, 26 species. West Indies, Nicobar, Vanikoro,
Pacific.

Fossil. 4 species, Gault—. (D’Orbigny.) Britain, France.

VELUTINA, Fleming.

Hiymology, velutinus, velvety (from vellus, a fleece).
Type, V. levigata. Pl. VIII., Fig. 7.

SOR

Fig. 96. Velutina levigata (Warington).

Shell thin, with a velvety epidermis; spire small: suture
deep; aperture very large, rounded; peristome continuous,
thin. No operculum.

Animal with a large oblong foot; margin of tne mantle
developed all round, and more or less reflected over the shell :
gills 2; head broad ; tentacles subulate, blunt, far apart; eyes
on prominences at their outer bases. Carnivorous. Lingual
dentition (Fig. 96). It resembles that of trivia (Fig. 15, B).

238 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

Distribution, 4 species. Britain, Norway, North America,
Icy Sea to Kamtschatka. |

Fossil, 3 species. Pliocene—. Britain.

Sub-genus. Otina (Gray). V. otis.

Shell minute, ear-shaped.

Animal with a simple mantle, and very short tentacles.
West and south-west British coast ; inhabiting chinks of rocks,
between tide-marks. (Forbes. )

Velutina inhabits the laminarian zone, and ranges to 40
fathoms. V. levigata is sometimes brought in on the fishermen’s
lines (off Northumberland), generally adhering to Alcyoniwm
digitatum (Alder). Dr. Gould obtained it from the stomach of
fishes.

CRYPTOCELLA. H. and A. Adams, 1853.
Shell thin, pellucid, caleareous; spire small; aperture large.

FAmMILty IJ.—PYRAMIDELLIDA.

Shell spiral turreted; nucleus minute, sinistral; aperture
small; columella sometimes with one or more prominent plaits;
operculum horny, imbricated, nucleus internal.

Animal with broad, ear-shaped tentacles, often connate;
eyes behind the tentacles at their bases; proboscis retractile ;
foot truncated in front; tongue unarmed. Species all marine.
They are very numerous in the Japanese seas.

Several genera of fossil shells are provisionally placed in
this order, from their resemblance to eulima and chemnitzia.*
Tornatella, usually placed in or near this family, is opistho-
branchiate.

PYRAMIDELLA, Lam.

Etymology, diminutive of pyramis, a pyramid.

Synonyms, Obeliscus. Humphrey. (P. dolabrata. Pl. VIII,
Fig. 11.) Syrnola, Adams, 1860.

Type, P. auris-cati. Pl. VIII., Fig. 10.

Shell slender, pointed, with numerous plaited or level whorls ;
’ apex sinistral; columella with several plaits; lip sometimes
furrowed internally ; operculum indented on the inner side to
adapt it to the columellar plaits. The shell of the typical
pyramidelle bears some resemblance to cancellaria.

* “The Pyramidellide present subjects of much interest to the student of extinct
mollusca; numerous forms, bearing all the aspect of being members of this family,
occur among the fossils of even the oldest stratified rocks, Many of them are gigantic
compared with existing species, and the group, as a whole, may be regarded rather as
appertaining to past ages than the present epoch.”—orves,

GASTEROPODA. 239

Distribution, 111 species. West Indies, Mauritius, Australia.
Fossil, 12 species. Chalk—. France, Britain.

OposToMIA, Fleming, 1824.

Etymology, odous, a tooth, and>stoma, mouth.

Type, O. plicata. Pl. VIIT., Fig. 12.

Shell subulate or ovate, smooth; apex sinistral; aperture
ovate; peristome “not continuous; columella with a single
tooth-like fold; lip thin; operculum horny, indented on the
inner side.

Distribution, Pspecies. Britain, Mediterranean, Red Sea,
Australia.

Fossil, 15 species? Eocene—. Britain, France.

Very minute and smooth shells, having the habit of rissoe,
and like them sometimes found in brackish water. They range
from low water to 40 fathoms. The animal is undistinguishable
from chemnitzia.

CHEMNITZIA, D’Orbigny.

Etymology, named in honour of Chemnitz, a distinguished
conchologist of Nuremburg, who published seven volumes in
continuation of Martini’s ‘‘ Conchylien-cabinet,” 1780-95.

Synonyms, Turbonilla, Risso. Parthenia, Lowe. Pyramis and
Jaminea, Br. Monoptigma, Lea, part. Amoura, Moller.

Type, C.elegantissima. Pl. VIII., Fig. 13.

Shell slender, elongated, many-whorled ; whorls plaited ;
apex sinistral; aperture simple; ovate; peristome incomplete ;
operculum horny, sub-spiral. :

Animal head very short, furnished with a long, retractile
proboscis; tentacles triangular; eyes immersed at the inner
angles of the tentacles; foot truncated in front, with a distinct
mentum.

Distribution, 32 species. Britain (4 species), Norway, Medi-
terranean. Probably world-wide. Range from low water to
90 fathoms.

Fossil, 240 species. Silurian—. Britain, France, &c.

The ‘‘melaniz” of the secondary rocks are provisionally
referred to this genus. Those of the paleozoic strata to
loxonema.

* Sub-genera. Hulimelia, Forbes. EH. scillee, Scacchi. 4 British
species. Shell smooth and polished; columella simple; apex
sinistral.

Stylopsis (Adams, 1860) much resembles and is probably
synonymous with this sub-genus.

940 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

EULIMA, Risso, 1826.

Etymology, eulimia, ravenous Banece

Synonym, Pasithea, Lea.

Type, Ki. polita. Pl. VIIL., Fig. 14.

Shell small, white, and polished; slender, elongated with
numerous level whorls; obscurely marked on one side by a
series of periodic mouths, which form prominent ribs internally ;
apex acute; aperture oval, pointed above; outer lip thickened
internally ; inner lip reflected over the pillar; operculum
horny, sub-spiral.

Animal tentacles subulate, close, with the eyes immersed at
their posterior bases; proboscis long, retractile; foot truncated
in front, mentum bilobed; operculum lobe winged on each
side; branchial plume single; mantle with a rudimentary
siphonal fold.

The eulimee creep with the foot much in advance of the head,
which is usually concealed within the aperture, the tentacles
only protruding. (Forbes.)

Distribution, 49 species. Britain, Mediterranean, India,
Australia, Pacific. In 5—90 fathoms water.

Fossil, 40 species. Carb. ?—. Britain, France, &c.

Sub-genus. Niso, Risso (= Bonellia, Deshayes). N. tere-
bellatus, Lam. species. Axis perforated.

Fossil, 3 species. Eocene—. Paris.

Distribution, 5 species. China, West America. (Cuming.)

MonorrtiemA, Lea.

Synonyms, Melanioides, Lea = M. striata, Gray (name only).

Shell like Chemnitzia, rather fusiform, spirally grooved ;
columella slightly folded, with a sinus at the base.

Distribution, 12 species. Indo-Pacific.

Menestho, Moller (Turbo albulus, Fabr. Greenland) vy.
Chemnitzia.

Acuis, Lovén.

Elymology, A, without, kleis, a projection.

Synonym, Alvania, Leach (not Risso).

Type, A. supranitida. Wood. A. ascaris, Turt. Pl. IX.,
Fig. 4. !

Shell minute, like turritella ; spirally striated ; aperture oval ;
outer lip prominent; axis slightly rimate; operculate; apex
sinistral.

GASTEROPODA. 241

Animal with a long retractile proboscis; tentacles close
together, slender, inflated at the tips; eyes immersed at the
bases of the tentacles; operculum lobe ample, unsymmetrical ;
foot truncated in front. Ranges to 80 fathoms water. 5 British
species, Norway.

Fossil. Pspecies. Pliocene—. Britain (Crag).

StyLopryemMA, Adams. 1860.

Shell pupiform, semi-transparent; with slightly convex whorls.
Aperture sub-quadrate.

MyontA, Adams. —

Shell ovate, turreted; white, thin, with slightly convex
whorls. Aperture oblong.

LEvucoTInA, Adams.

Shell like last, but with last whorl ventricose; with minute
dots.

STILIFER, Brod.

Exampie, S. astericola. Pl. VIII., Fig. 15.

Synonym, Stylina, Fleming.

Shell hyaline, globular or subulate, apex tapering, styliform,
nucleus sinistral.

Animal with slender, cylindrical tentacles, and small sessile
eyes at their outer bases; mantle thick, reflected over the last
whorls of the shell; foot large, with a frontal lobe. Branchial
plume single. Attached to the spines of sea-urchins, or immersed.
in living star-fishes and corals.

Distribution, 16 species. West Indies, Britain, Philippines,
Gallapagos, Pacific.

LoxonEMA, Phillips.

Etymology, lowos, oblique, and nema, thread; in allusion to
the striated surface of many species.
Type, L. sinuata, U. Devonian, Petherwin.
Shell elongated, many-whorled ; aperture simple, attenuated
above, effused below, with a sigmoidal edge to the outer lip.
Fossil, 75 species. L. silurian—Trias. North America, Europe.

MAcROcHEILUS, Phillips,

Etymology, macros, long, and cheilos, lip.

Synonym, Polyphemopsis, Portlock.

Shell thick, ventricose, buccinoid; aperture simple, effuse
M

242 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSOCA.

‘below; outer lip thin, inner lip wanting, columella callous,
slightly tortuous.

Type, M. arculatus, Schlotheim species. Devonian. Hifel.

Distribution, 1 species (M. Japonicus), Korea Straits.

Fossil, 12 species. Devonian— Carboniferous. Britain,
Belgium.

Famity IJ].—CERITHIADA. Cerites.

Shell spiral, elongated, many-whorled, frequently varicose ;
aperture channeled in front, with a less distinct posterior canal ;
lip generally expanded in the adult; operculum horny and
spiral. . |

Animal with a short muzzle, not retractile ; tentacles distant,
slender; eyes on short pedicels, connate with the tentacles ;
mantle-margin with a rudimentary siphonal fold; tongue
armed with a single series of median teeth, and three laterals
or uncini. Mr. Wilton has examined the dentition of four
Cerithiade ; the teeth are broad, as in Melaniade, with incurvyed
and dentated summits. In Cerithidiwm the median teeth are
slender with minute hooks. Habitat. Marine, estuary, or fresh
water.

CERITHIUM (Adans.), Bruguiere.

Etymology, ceration, a small horn.

Type, C. nodulosum. Pl. VIII., Fig. 16.

Shell turreted, many-whorled, with indistinct varices; aper-
ture small, with a tortuous canal in front; outer lip expanded ;
inner lip thickened; operculum horny, paucispiral. Pl. VIII.,
Fig. 16.*

Distribution, 186 species. World-wide, the typical species
tropical. Norway, Britain, Mediterranean, West Indies, India,
Australia, China, Pacific, Gallapagos.

Fossil, 460 species.. Trias—. Britain, France, United
States, &c. i

Sub-genera. Rhinoclavis, Sw. OC. vertagus. Canal long,
bent abruptly ; operculum, sub-spiral.

Bittiwm, Leach. C. reticulatum, Pl. VIII., Fig. 17. Small
northern species, ranging from low water to 80 fathoms.

Triforis, Deshayes. ©. perversum, Pl. VIII., Fig. 18. 30
species. Norway—Austvralia.

Fossil, Hocene—. Britain, France.

Shell sinistral; anterior and posterior canals tubular. The
third canal is only accidentally present, forming part of a
~ Varlx.

Cerithiopsis, Forbes. OC. tuberculare, Britain.

GASTEROPODA. _ 243

Shell like bittiwm ; proboscis retractile ; oper euiar pointed,
nucleus apical. Femes 4—40 fathoms.

PoTAMIDES, Brongniart. Fresh-water Cerites.

Etymology, potamos, a river, and ides, patronymic termination.

Type, P. Lamarcku, Brong.- (= Cerit. tuberculatum,
Brard.)

Example, P. mixtus. Pl. VIII., Fig. 19.

Synonyms, Tympanotomus, Klein, ©. fuscatum, Africa.
Pirenella, Risso, C. mammillatum, Pl. VIII,

Shell like cerithium, but without varices in
the very numerous typical fossil species; epi- //\
dermisthick, olivebrown; operculumorbicular,
many-whorled.

Distribution, 41 species. California, Africa,
India. In the mud of the Indus they are
mixed with species of ampullaria, venus,
purpura, ostrea, &. (Major W. H. Baker.)

Fossil (species included with cerithiwm),
Eocene—. Europe.

Sub-genera, Cerithidea, Sw., C. decollata,
Pl. VIII., Fig. 24. Aperture rounded; lip
expanded, flattened. Inhabit salt marshes,
mangrove swamps, and the mouths of rivers;
they are so commonly out of the water as to have been taken for
land-shells. Mr. Adams noticed them in the fresh waters of
the interior of Borneo, creeping on pontederia and sedges; they
often suspend themselves by glutinous threads (Fig. 97).

Distribution, India, Ceylon, Singapore, Borneo, Philippines,
Port Essington.

Terebralia, Sw. Cerith. telescopium, ‘Pl. VILL. Wig. 21.

Shell pyramidal; columella with a prominent fold, more or
less continuous towards the apex; and a second, less Heine. on
the basal front of the whorls (as in nerinea (Fig. 98). India,
North Australia.

I’. telescopiwm is so abundant near Calcutta as to be used for
barning into lime ; great heaps of it are first exposed to the sun,
to kill the animals. They have been brought alive to England.
(Benson. )

Pyrazus, Montfort. Cerit. palustre, Pl. VIII., Fig. 20.

Shell with numerous indistinct varices ; canal ‘st aight, often
tubular; outer lip expanded. India, North Australia,

* C. obtusa, Lam. sp. copied from Adams.
M 2

Fig. 97. Cerithidea,*

944 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Cerith. radulum and granulatum of the West African rivers
approach very near the fossil potamides, but they have numerous
varices.

Lampania, Gray (batillaria, Cantor). Cerith. zonale. Pl.
Ville ies 23;

Shell without varices, canal straight. Chusan.

The fossil potamides decussatus, Brug., of the Paris bain,
resembles this section, and retains its spiral red bands.

NeErinZA, Defrance.

Etymology, nereis, a sea-nymph.

Example, N. trachea. Fig. 98.

Shell elongated; many-whorled, nearly cylindrical ;
aperture channeled in front; interior with continuous
ridges on the columella and whorls.

Fossil, 150 species. Inf. oolite—U. chalk. Britain,
France, Germany, Spain, and Portugal. They are
most abundant, and attain the largest size to the
south ; and usually occur in calcareous strata, asso-
ciated with shallow-water shells. (Sharpe.)

Sub-genera. 1. Nerinea. Folds simple: 2—3 on
the columella ; 1—2 on the outer wall; columella solid,
or perforated. Above 50 species.

2. Nerinella (Sharpe), columella solid; folds simple ;
columellar, 0—1; outer wall, 1.

f 3. Trochalia (Sharpe), columella perforated, with

74, one fold; outer wall simple, or thickened, or with one
Gy, fold; folds simple.

JJ 4. Ptygmatis (Sharpe), columella solid or perforated,
Fig. 93,.* usually with 3 folds; outer wall with 1—3 folds, some
of them complicated in form.

=
Se

P FASTIGIELLA, Reeve.

Type, F'. carinata, Reeve.

Shelé like turritella; aperture with a short canal in front
(Cuming Museum, and British Museum).

Fossil, Eocene. Paris (Cerithium rugosum, Lam.).

AporRHAIS, Aldrovandus.

Etymology, aporrhais (Aristotle), ‘‘ spout-shell,” from aporrheo,
to flow away.

* Fig. 98. Nerimea trachea, Desl., partly ground down to show the form of the
interior. Bath oolite, Ranville. Communicated by John Morris, Esq.

GASTEROPODA. 945

Synonym, Chenopus, Philippi.

Type, A. pes-pelecani. Pl. IV., Fig. 7, and Fig. 99.

Shell with an elongated spire ; whorls numerous, tuberculated;
aperture narrow, with a short canal in front; outer lip of the
adult expanded and lobed o1 digitated; operculum pointed,
lamellar.

Animal with a short broad muzzle; tentacles cylindrical,
bearing the eyes on prominences near their bases, outside;
foot short, angular in front; branchial plume single, long;

Fig. 99.*

lingual ribbon linear; teeth single, hooked, denticulated ;
uncini 3, the first transverse, 2 and 3 claw-shaped (Fig. 100).
The dentition of Aporrhais is most like Strombus and Carinaria ;
and quite unlike the Cerithiade with which it has been placed,

Fig. 100. Aporrhais pes-pelecani. (Warington.)

in accordance with the views of Professor Forbes. The animal
is carnivorous.

Distribution, 4 species. Labrador, Norway, Britain, Mediter-
ranear, West Africa. Range 100 fathoms.

Fossil; see Pteroceras and Rostellaria; above 200 species,
ranging from the lias to the chalk, probably belong to this
genus, or to genera not yet constituted.

* Fig. 99. Aporrhais pes-pelcant, L., from a drawing by Joshua Alder, Esq.,in the
“ British Mollusca.”

246 ' -MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

STRUTHIOLARIA, Lam.

Etymology, struthio, an ostrich (-foot), from the form of its
aperture.

Type, S. straminea, Pl. IYV., Fig. 6.

Shell turreted ; whorls angular; aperture truncated in front ;
columella very oblique; outer lip prominent in
the middle, reflected and thickened in the adult;
inner lip callous, expanded; operculum claw-
shaped, curved inwards, with a projection from
the outer, concave edge (Fig. 101).

Animal with an elongated muzzle? tentacles
cylindrical; eye-pedicels short, adnate with the
tentacles, externally; foot broad and_ short.

Fig. 101. ;
Operculum of (Kiener.)

Strutholaria. Distribution, 5 species. Australia and New
Zealand, where alone it occurs sub-fossil.

Famity [V.—MELANIADA.

Shell spiral, turreted ; with a thick, dark epidermis ; aperture
often channeled, or notched in front; outer lip acute ; operculum
horny, spiral. The spire is often extensively eroded by the
acidity of the water in which the animals live.

Animal with a broad non-retractile muzzle ; tentacles distant,
subulate; eyes on short stalks, united to the outer sides of the
tentacles ; foot broad and short, angulated in front; mantle-
margin fringed; tongue long and linear, with a median and 3
lateral series of hooked multi-cuspid teeth. Often viviparous.
Inhabiting fresh-water lakes and rivers throughout the warmer
parts of the world.

MELANIA, Lam.

Etymology, melania, blackness (from melas).

Type, M. amarula. Pl. VIII., Fig. 25.

Synonyms, Thiara, Megerle. Pyrgula, Crist.

Shell turreted, apex acute (unless eroded); whorls orna-
mented with strize or spines; aperture oval, pointed above;
outer lip sharp, sinuous; operculum subspiral. Pl. VIII.,
Fig. 25.*

Distribution, 861 species. South Europe, India, Philippines,
Pacific Islands. Distinct groups in the southern States of
North America.

GASTEROPODA. 247

Fossil, 25 species. Wealden—. Hurope (v. chemnitzia).

Sub-genera. Melandtria, Bowdich. M. fluminea.* Pl. VIII.,
Fig. 26. Aperture somewhat produced in front; operculum
with rather numerous whorls. This section includes some of
the largest species of the genus, and is well typified by the
fossil, M. Sowerbii (cerit. melanoides, Sby.), of the Woolwich
sands. Old World, India, Philippines.

Vibex, Oken, V. fuscatus, Pl. VIII., Fig. 29. V. auritus.
West Africa. Whorls spirally ridged, or muricated; aperture
broadly channeled in front.

Ceriphasia, Sw., C. suleata. North America. Aperture like
vibex; slightly notched near the suture.

Hemisinus, Sw., H. lineolatus. West Indies. Aperture
channeled in front.

Melafusus, Sw, (Io, Lea. Glottella, Gray.) M. fluviatilis.
Pl. VITI,, Fig. 27. United States. Aperture produced into a
spout in front.

Melatoma, Anthony (not Sw.) M. altilis.

Shell like anculotus; with a deep slit at the suture. United
States.

Anculotus, Say. A. premorsus. Pl. VIII., Fig. 28.

Shell globular ; spire very short; outer lip produced. United
States.

Ammnicola, G. and H. A.isogona. Pl. IX., Fig. 23. United
States; inhabits the fresh waters of New England, gregarious
on stones and submerged plants.

Chilostoma, Desh. M. marginaia, Eocene. Paris. Peristome
thickened externally, all round.

Clea, Bens. C.annesleyi. South India.

PALUDOMUS, Swainson. ~

Litymology, palus, a marsh, and domus, home.

Synonyms, Tanalia, Gray. Hemimitra, Sw.

Type, P. aculeatus, Gm. species. Pl. [X., Fig. 34.

Shell turbinated, smooth, or coronated; outer lip crenulated ;
olivaceous with dark brown spiral lines.

Distribution, 25 species. Ceylon (Himalaya?) in the moun-
tain-streams, sometimes at an elevation of 6,000 feet. The
Himalayan species (melania conica, Gray, hemimitra retusa, Sw.,
and several others), referred to this genus, have a concentric
operculum, hke paludina.

* This is a good section of melania, but Mr. Gray’s type does not well represent it,
being more like a prena in the form of its aperture.

24§ MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

MELANopPSIS, Lam.

Types, M. buccinoides, M. costata. Pl. VIII., Fig. 30.

Shell body-whorl elongated; spire short and pointed; aper-
ture distinctly notched in front; inner lp callous; operculum
sub-spiral.

Distribution, 21 species. Spain, Asia Minor, New Zealand.

Fossil, 25 species. Eocene—. Hurope.

Sub-genus. Pirena, Lam, (faunus, Montfort) P. atra. Pl.
VIII., Fig. 31. Spire elongated, many-whorled ; outer lip of

Fig. 102. Pirena atra. (Wilton,)
the adult produced. Teeth 3. 1. 3, asin Fig. 102.

Distribution, 4 species? South Africa, Madagascar, Ceylon,
Philippines.

FAMILY V.—TURRITELLIDA.

Shell tubular, or spiral; upper part partitioned off; aperture
simple; operculum horny, many-whorled.

Animal with a short muzzle; eyes immersed, at the outer
bases of the tentacles ; mantle-margin fringed ; foot very short;
branchial plume single; tongue armed; dentition 3. 1. 3.

TURRITELLA, Lam.

Etymology, diminutive of turris, a tower.

Synonyms, Terebellum, Torcula, Zaria, and Eglisia (Gray.)

Type, T. imbricata. Pl. TX., Fig. 1.

Shell elongated, many-whorled, spirally striated; aperture
rounded, margin thin; operculum horny, many-whorled, with
a fimbriated margin.

Animal with long, subulate tentacles; eyes slightly promi-
nent; foot truncated in front, rounded behind, grooved beneath;
branchial plume very long; lingual ribbon minute; median
teeth hooked, denticulated ; uncini 3, serrulated. Carnivorous ?

Distribution, 73 species. World-wide. Ranging from the
Laminarian Zone to 100 fathoms. West Indies, United States,
Britain (1 species), Iceland, Mediterranean, West Africa, China,
Australia, West America.

Fossil, 172 species. Neocomian—. Britain, &c., South
America, Australia, Java.

GASTERGPODA. 249

Sub-genera. Proto, Defr., P. cathedralis, Pl. IX., Fig. 3,
aperture truncated below.

Mesalia, Gray, M. sulcata (var.), Pl. [X., Fig. 2. Greenland
—South Africa.

fossil, Eocene. Britain, France.

Cacum, Fleming.

Synonyms, Corniculina, Minster. Brochus, Bronn. Odonti-
dium, Phil. d

Type, C, trachea, Pl. [X., Fig. 5. Young species, Fig. 6.

Shell at first discoidal, becoming decollated when adult;
tubular, cylindrical, arched; aperture round, entire; apex
closed by a mammillated septum. Operculum horny, many-
whorled. Lingual teeth, 0; uncini, 2, the mner broad and
serrulated.

Distribution, Britain, 11 species, 10 fathoms. Mediterranean.

Fossil, 4 species. Hocene—. Britain, Castelarquato.

Vermetvs, Adanson. Worm-shell.

Synonyms, Siphonium, Gray. Serpuloides, Sassi.

Types, V. lumbricalis, Pl. [X., Fig. 7.

Shell tubular, attached; sometimes regularly spiral when
young; always irregular in its adult prowth; tube repeatedly
partitioned off; aperture round; operculum circular, concave
externally.

Distribution, 81 species. Portugal, Mediterranean, Africa,
India.

Fossil, 12 species. Neocomian—. Britain, France, &c.

2 Sub-genus. Spiroglyphus, Daud. 8. spirorbis Dillwyn species,
irregularly tubular; attached to other shells,and half buried
in a furrow which it makes as it grows. Perhaps an annelide P

Petaloconchus, sculpturatus, Lea, 1843.

“Miocene, United States, St. Domingo, South Europe.

Shell with two internal ridges running spirally along the

columella, becoming obsolete near the apex and aperture.

SILIQUARIA, Brug.

Ktymology, siliqua, a pod.

Typo, S, anguina, Pl. [X., Fig. 8.

Shell tubular; spiral at first, irregular afterwards; tube with
a continuous longitudinal shit.

Distribution, 8 species. Mediterranean, North Australia.
Found in sponges.

Fossil, 10 species. Hocene—. France, &c.

iad

N »

850 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

ScALARIA, Lam. Wentle-trap.

Etymology, scalaris, like a ladder.

Type, 8. pretiosa, Pl. [X., Fig. 9. (= T. scalaris, L.)

Shell mostly pure white and lustrous; turreted; many-
whorled; whorls round, sometimes separate, ornamented with
numerous transverse ribs; aperture round; peristome con-
tinuous; operculum horny, few-whorled,

Animal with a retractile proboscis-like mouth; tentacles
close together, long and pointed, with the eyes near their outer
bases ; mantle-margin simple, with a rudimentary siphonal
fold; foot obtusely triangular, with a fold (mentum) in front.
Lingual dentition nearly as in bulla; teeth 0; uncini nume-
rous, simple; sexes distinct; predacious? Range from low
water to 80 fathoms, The animal exudes a purple fluid when
molested.

Distribution, 104 species. Mostly tropical. Greenland,
Norway, Britain, Mediterranean, West Indies, China, Australia,
Pacific, West America.

Fossil, nearly 100 species. Coral-rag—. Britain, North
America, Chili, India.

FamiIty VI.—LiItTtTorinipA.

Shell spiral, turbinated or depressed, never pearly; aperture
rounded; peristome entire; operculum horny, pauci-spiral.

Animal with a muzzle-shaped head, and eyes sessile at the
outer bases of the tentacles ; tongue long, armed with a median
series of broad, hooked teeth, and 3 oblong, hooked uncini.
Branchial plume single. Foot with a linear duplication in
front, and a groove along the sole. Mantle with a rudimentary
siphonal canal; operculum lobe appendaged.

The species inhabit the sea, or brackish water, and are mostly
littoral, feeding on alge. }

Lirrorina, Férussac. Periwinkle.

Hiymology, littoralis, belonging to the sea-shore.
Type, Li. littorea, Pl. [X., Fig. 10.
Shell turbinated, thick, pointed, few-whorled;
| aperture rounded, outer lp acute, columella rather
=) ' flattened, imperforate, operculum pauci-spiral, Fig.
LI” 103. Lingual teeth hooked and trilobed; uncini
Fig 103. hooked and dentated (Fig. 104).
Distribution, 131 species. The periwinkles are found on the
sea-shore in all parts of the world. In the Baltic they live

GASTEROPODA. 251

within the influence of fresh water, and frequently become dis-
torted ; similar monstrosities are found in the Norwich crag.

Wire

Fig. 104, Littorina littorea. (Warington.)

The common species (LZ. littorea) is oviparous ; it inhabits the
lowest zones of sea-weed between tide-marks. An allied species

7, rostrum or muzzle.

&, buccal mass.

g, Nervous ganglia
(reproductive orifice, on
the right side).

S, Salivary gland.

@, cesophagus,

Z, lingual coil.

m, shell-miuscle,

é, branchia or gill,

c, heart.

n, aortas

e, stomach,

J, liver.

A, biliary canal,

f, intestine,

a, anus,

0, ovary.

d, oviduct.

u, uterus.

o', ovarian orifice.

z, renal organ.

y, mucus gland,

Fig. 105. Littorina littorals 9 + (after Sotileyet), Animal removed from its shell;
branchial cavity and back laid open.

(Z. rudis) frequents a higher region, where it is scarcely reached
hy the tide; itis viviparous, and the young have a hard shell

252 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

before their birth, in consequence of which the species is not
eaten. The tongue of the periwinkle is two inches long; its
foot is divided by a longitudinal line, and in walking the sides
_adyance alternately. The periwinkle and trochus are the food
of the thrush, in the Hebrides, during winter. The lingual canal
of the periwinkle passes from the back of the mouth under the
cesophagus for a short distance, then turns up on the right
side, and terminates in a coil (like spare rope) resting on the
plaited portion of the gullet. It is 24 inches long, and contains
about 600 rows of teeth; the part in use, arming the tongue,
comprises about 24 rows.* The dental ribbon of Risella is above
2 inches long, and coiled as in Littorina. (Wilton.)

Fossil, 10 species? Miocene—. Britain, &c. It is probable
that a large proportion of the oolite and cretaceous shells

Fig. 106. Operculum and teeth of Risella. (Wilton.) The central tooth should be
pointed, not blunt as in the figure.

referred to turbo belong to this genus, and especially to the

section tectaria.

Sub-genera. Tectaria, Cuvier, 1817 (= Pagodella, Sw.), L.:
pagodus, Pl. IX., Fig. 11.

Shell muricated or granulated ; sometimes with an umbilical
fissure ; operculum with a broad, membranous border. West
Indies, Zanzibar, Pacific.

Modulus, Gray. M. Tectum, Pl. IX., Fig. 13.

Shell trochiform or naticoid; porcellanous; columella per-
forated ; inner lip worn or toothed; operculum horny, few-
whot1led.

* JT. Fig. 105 is shown the manner in which a gasteropod may be !aid out for
exan. ination, under water ; the body requires to be fixed, and the cut edges of the
mantle to be kept open with needle points. A convenient trough may be made of a
plain earthenware soap-dish, by cutting a piece of sheet-cork (such as bootmakers use)
to fit the bottom, and fixing it to a piece of sheet-lead of the same size with a couple
of india rubber bands. The instruments required for dissecting are simply a pair of

fine-pointed scissors, a few broken needles, a penknife, or scalpel, and a pair of forceps
with fine curved points,

GASTEROPODA, 258

Distribution, Philippines, West America.

Fossarus (Adans.), Philippi. F. sulcatus, Pl. TX., Fig. 12.

Synonym, Phasianema, Wood.

Shell perforated; inner lip thin; operculum not spiral.

Distribution, Mediterranean.

Fossil, 3 species. Miocene—. Britain, Mediterranean.

Risella, Gray. Lit., melanostoma, Pl. [X., Fig. 14.

Shell trochiform, with a flat or concave base; whorls keeled ;
aperture rhombic, dark or variegated, operculum pauci-spiral.

Distribution, New Zealand.

Conradia, Adams. Aperture circular. 3 species, Japanese seas,

Couthouyia, Adams. Shell ovate, with an acute spine; aper-
ture semi-oyal. 1 species, Japanese seas.

SoLARIuM, Lam. Stair-case shell.

Htymology, solarium, a dial.

Synonyms, architectoma, Bolten. Philippia, Gray. Helico-
eryptus, D’Orbigny ?

Type, S. perspectivum, Pl. IX., Fig. 15.

Shell orbicular, depressed; umbilicus wide and deep; aper-
ture rhombic; peristome thin; operculum horny, sub-spiral.

The spiral edges of the whorls, seen in the umbilicus, have
been fancifully compared to a winding stair-case.

Distribution, 25 species. Tropical seas.’ Mediterranean, Hast
Africa, India, China, Japan, Australia, Pacific, West America.

Fossil, 56 species. Hocene—. Britain, &e. 26 other species
(oolites—chalk) are provisionally referred to this genus; the
cretaceous species are nacreous (v. trochus).

Sub-genera. Torinia, Gray. T. cylindracea, oper-
culum conical, multi-spiral, with projecting edges,

Fig. 107. Living, New Ireland. uf

Fossil, Hocene. Britain, Paris.

Bifrontia, Desh. (Omalaxis, Desh.) S. bifrons,
discoidal, the last whorl disengaged. 1 recent
‘ species. Madeira. Fig. 107.

Fossil, 6 species. Eocene. Paris, Britain.

2 Orbis, Lea. Discoidal, whorls quadrate.

Fossii, Hocene. America.

Discohelia (calculiformis) Dunker, 1851. Las, Gottingen.
This name was proposed for the depressed Huomphali of the
Lower Oolites, of which there are several species in Normandy
and England.

* Operculum of S. patulum, Lam. 2, from Deshayes.

954 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Shell usually sinistral, flat, or concave above; aperture
quadrangular.

Platystoma (Suessi) Hornes, 1855. Trias, Hallstadt.

Shell discoidal, sinistral? sculptured; peristome suddenly
expanded, plain; aperture with an inner rim, circular, and
deflected (upwards) at right angles to the plane of the shell.
Several examples have occurred.

Philippia (lutea) Gray, has a multi-spiral operculum, and
the animal is like J'rochus. (Philippi.)

Paludestrina (lapidum) D’Orbigny part. Fresh waters of
South America.

Shell conic, few-whorled, epidermis green ; aperture oblique,
peristome abruptly reflected; opereulum claw-like. The typical
species appear to be Melaniade, but some small shells like
Hydrobia have been included in the genus.

PHorvs, Montfort. Carrier-shell.

Etymology, phoreus, a carrier.

Synonyms, Onustus, Humph., Xenophorus, Fischer.

Examples, P. conchyliophorus, Born. P. corrugatus, Pl. X.,
Fig. 1.

Shell trochiform, concave beneath; whorls flat,
with foliaceous or stellated margins, to which shells,
A stones, &c., are usually affixed; aperture very

J oblique, not pearly; outer lp thin, much produced
F above, receding far beneath; operculum horny, im-
_ bricated, nucleus external, as in purpura and palu-
domus, with the transverse scar seen through it, Fig.
108. (Museum Cuming.)

Animel with an elongated (non-retractile?) proboscis; ten=
tacles long and slender, with sessile eyes at their outer bases;
sides plain ; foot narrow, elongated behind.—Adams. Related
to scalaria 2

Most of the phori attach foreign substances to the margins of
their shells as they grow, particular species affecting stones,
whilst others prefer shells or corals. They are called ‘‘ mineral-
ogists” and ‘ conchologists,” by collectors; . solaris and
P. indicus are nearly or quite free from these, disguises. They
are said to frequent rough bottoms, and to‘scramble over the
ground, like the strombs, rather than glide evenly.

Distribution, 9 species. West Indies, India, Malacca, Philip-
pines, China, and West America. ©.

Fossil, 15 species. Chalk ?—Hocene—. Britain and France.

GASTEROPODA. 956

Shells extremely like the recent phorus, are met with even in
the carb. limestone and lias.

Lacuna, Turton.

Etymology, lacuna, a fissure.

Type, L. pallidula (Pl. [X., Fig. 16).

Synonym, Medoria, Gray.

Shell turbinated, thin; aperture semi-lunar; columella fiat-
tened, with an umbilical fissure; operculum pauci-spiral.

Animal ; operculigerous lobe furnished with lateral wings and
tentacular filaments. Teeth 5 cusped; uncini 1, 2, dentated,
8 simple. Spawn (ootheca) vermiform, thick, semi-circular.
Range, low water—é0 fathoms.

Distribution, 16 species. Northcrn shores, Norway, Britain,
Spain.

Fossil, 1 species. Glacial beds, Scotland.

Liriopa, Rang.

Etymology, litos, simple, ope, aperture.

Type, Li. bombyx (Pl. TX., Fig. 24).

Shell minute, pointed; aperture slightly notched in front ;
outer lip simple, thin ; inner lp reflected; operculum spiral.

Distribution, 6 species. Atlantic and Mediterranean, on float-
ing sea-weed, to which they adhere by threads.

Fossil, 1 species. Pliocene (Crag).

Rissoa, Frémenville.

Etymology, named after Risso,* a French zoologist.

Type, R. labiosa (Pl. IX., Fig. 17).

Synonym, Cingula, Flem.

Shell minute, white or horny; conical, pointed, many-whorled;
smooth, ribbed, or cancellated; aperture rounded; peristome
entire, continuous; outer lip slightly expanded and thickened ;
operculum sub-spiral.

The animal has long, slender tentacles, with eyes on small
prominences near their outer bases; the foot is pointed behind ;
the operculigerous lobe has a wing-like process and a filament
(cirrus) on each side. Lingual teeth single, sub-quadrate,
hcoked, dentat:d; uncini 3; 1 dentated, 2, 3, claw-shaped.
They range from high-water to 100 fathoms, but abound most
in shallow water, near shore, on beds of fucus and zostera.

Distribution, about 70 species. Universally distributed, but

* It is much to be regretted that some modern naturalists have tried to find out and

bring ‘nt: us: the obscure genera of Risso, and the worthless fabrications of Montfort
and Rafinesque, which had better have remained unknown.

956 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

most abundant in the north temperate zone. North America,
West Indies, Norway, Britain, Mediterranean, Caspian, India,
&c. LRissoa parva adheres to sea-weeds by threads, like litiopa.
(Gray. )

Fossil, 100 species. Permian—. Britain, France, &c.

Sub-genera. Rissoina, D’Orbigny. Aperture channeled in
front. 66 living species. Fossil (10 species Bath ovlite.—
Britain.)= Tuba, Lea ? America.

Hydrobia, Hartm. (= Paludinella, Loyén.) Shell smooth ; foot
rounded behind; operculigerous lobe without filament. Type,
littorina ulvee (Pl. [X., Fig. 18). Distribution, 50 species. Lossil,
10 species. Wealden—. Britain, &c.

Syncera, Gray (Assiminea, Leach). 8. hepatica. Shell like
Hydrobia ; tentacles connate with the eye pedicels, which equal
them in length. Teeth 5—7 cusped; uncini 1, 2, dentated, 3
rounded. Distribution, 2 species, brackish water. Britain and
India.

Nematura, Benson. N. delte (Pl. [X., Fig. 21.) - Aperture
contracted; peristome entire; operculum pauci-spiral. Jossil,
Eocene. Isle of Wight.

Jeffreysia, Alder (—Rissoélla, Gray, MS.), J. diaphana. Sheil
minute, translucent ; operculum semilunar, imbricated, with a
projection from the straight, inner side (Pl. IX., Fig. 19).
Head elongated, deeply cleft, and produced into two tentacular
processes; mouth armed with denticulated jaws, and a spinous
tongue ; tentacles linear, eyes far behind, prominent, only visible
through the shell; foot bi-lobed in front. 6 species. Britain.
On sea-weed, near low-water. (Alder.) There are eight other
species in the Japanese seas. .

SKENEA, Fleming.

Etymology, named after Dr. Skene, of Aberdeen, a contem-
porary of Linneeus.

Synonym, Delphinoidea, Brown.

Type, S. planorbis (Pl. [X., Fig. 20).

Shell minute orbicular, depressed, few-whorled; peristome
continuous, entire, round ; operculum pauci-spiral. Animal like
rissoa, foot rounded behind. Found under stones at low-water,
and amongst the roots of corallina officinalis.

Distribution, ? species. Northern seas, Norway, and Britain.
S. cornuella, Straits of Korea (Adams).

P TRUNOATELLA, Risso. Looping-snail.
Type, T. truncatula (Pl. [X., Fig. 25). (Mus., Hanley )

GASTEROPODA. 257

She mnute, cylindrical, truncated; whorls striated trans-
versely; aperture oval, entire; peristome continuous; operculum
sub-spiral !

Animal with short, diverging triangular tentacles; eyes
centrally behind; head bi-lobed; foot short, rounded at each
end. (Forbes.)

The truncatellce are found on stones and sea-weeds between
tide-marks, and survive many weeks out of the water. (Lowe.)
They walk by contracting the space between their lips and foot,
like the geometric caterpillars. (Gray.) They are found semi-
fossil along with the human skeletons in the modern limestone
of Guadaloupe.

Distribution, 15 species. West Indies, Britain, Mediterranean,
Rio, Cape, Mauritius, Philippines, Australia, Pacific. (Cuming.)

? LITHOGLYPHUS, Megerle.

Type, Li. fuscus (Pl. [X., Fig. 22).

Shell naticoid, often eroded; whorls few, smooth; aperture
large, entire; peristome continuous, outer lne sharp, inner lip
callous; umbilicus rimate; epidermis olivaceous; operculum
pauci-spiral.

Distribution, 5 species. Europe and Oregon.

Famity VII.—PALUDINIDA.

Shell conical or globular, witha thick, olive-green epidermis ;
aperture rounded; peristome continuous, entire; operculum
horny or shelly, normally concentric.

Ammal with a broad muzzle; tentacles long and slender;
eyes on short pedicels, outside the tentacles. Inhabiting fresh
waters in all parts of the world.

PALUDINA, Lam. River-snail.

Etymology, palus (paludis), a marsh.

Synonym, Viviparus, Gray.

Type, P. Listeri (Pl. [X., Fig. 26). (P. vivipara, Fig. 68.)

Shell tarbinated, with round whorls; aperture slightly angular
behind; peristome continuous, entire; operculum horny, con-
centric. Animal with a long muzzle, and very short eye-
pedicels ; neck with a small lappet on the left side, and a larger
on the right, folded to form arespiratory siphon ; gill comb-like,
single; tongue short; teeth single, oval, slightly hooked and
denticulated ; uncini 3, oblong, denticulated. The paludine are

258 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

viviparous; the shells of the young are ornamented with spiral
rows of epidermal cirri.

Distribution, 60 species. Rivers and lakes throughout the
northern hemisphere ; Black Sea, Caspian.

Fossil, 53 species. Wealden—. Britain, &c.

Sub-genus. Bithynia (Prideaux), Gray. 3B. tentaculata’
(Pl. IX., Fig. 27). Shell small; operculum shelly. Animal
oviparous; with only one neck-lappet, on the right side. The
bithynia oviposit on stones and aquatic plants; the female lays
from 30 to 70 eggs in a band of three rows, cleaning the surface
as she proceeds; the young are hatched in three or four weeks,
and attain their full growth in the second year. (Bouchard.)

AMPULLARIA, Lam, Apple-snail, or idol-shell.

Hiymology, ampulla, a globular flask.

Example, A. globosa (Pl. [X., Fig. 30).

Synonym, Pachylabra, Sw.

Shell globular, with a small spire, and a large ventricose body-
whorl; peristome thickened and slightly reflected ; operculum
shelly.

Animal with a long incurrent siphon, formed by the left neck-

lappet; left gill developed, but much smaller than the right ;t+
muzzle produced into two long tentacular processes; tentacles

* Fig. 109. Ampullaria canaliculata, Lam. (from D’Orb). South America. The
branchial siphon (s) is seen projecting from the left side; 0, operculum.

} The ampullaria is said to have a pulmonic sac in addition to its gills (Gray, Owen),
but we have not met with specimens. sufficiently well preserved to exlfibit it. It would
be very desirable to examine the amp. cornu-arietis, in which, probably, the gills are
symmetrical, as in the cephalopods,

GASTEROPODA. 259

extremely elongated, slender. Inhabits lakes and rivers
throughout the warmer parts of the world, retiring deep into the
mud in the dry season, and capable of surviving a drought, or
removal from the water for many years. In the lake Mareotis,
aud at the mouth of the Indus, ampullariz are abundant, mixed
w th marine shells. Their eggs are large, enclosed in capsules,

Fig. 110. Ampullaria globosa. (Wilton.)

and aggregated in globular masses. The dentition of A. globosa
is shown in Fig. 110.

Distribution, 1386 species. South America, West Indies, Africa,
India.

Sub-genera. Pomus, Humph. A. ampullacea. Operculum
horny.

Marisa, Gray (ceratodes, Guilding). A. cornu-arietes (Pl. IX.,
Fig. 31). Operculum horny. Shell discoidal.

Asolene, D’Orbigny. A. plate. Animal without a respiratory
siphon; operculum shelly. Distribution, South America.

Lanistes, Montf. <A. bolteniana, L. (Pl. IX., Fig. 82). Sheil
reversed, umbilicated, peristome thin; operculum horny. Dis-
tribution, West Africa, Zanzibar, Nile.

Meladomus, Sw. Paludina olivacea, Sby. Shell reversed,
imperforate ; peristone thin; operculum horny.

? AMPHIBOLA, Schumacher.

Synonyms, Ampullacera, Quoy. Thallicera, Sw.

Type, A. australis (Pl. [X., Fig. 33).

Shell globular, with an uneven, battered surface ; columella
fissured ; outer lip channeled near the suture ; operculum horny,
sub-spiral. Animal without tentacles; eyes placed on round
lobes; air-breathing; respiratory cavity closed, except a small
valvular opening on the right side; a large gland occupies the
position of the gill of paludina; sexes united. (Quoy.) Mr.
Gray places this genus amongst the true pulmonifera.

Distribution, 3 species. Shores of New Zealand and the Pacific
Islands. The living shells sometimes have serpule attached to
them. (Cuming.) They are eaten by the New Zealanders.

260 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

VALVATA, Miiller. Valve-shell.

Types, V. piscinalis (Pl. [X., Fig. 28). V. cristata (Pl. IX.,
Hig. 29).

Shell turbinated, or discoidal, umbilicated; whorls round or
keeled; aperture not modified by the last whorl; peristome
entire; operculum horny, multi-spiral.

Animal with a produced muzzle; tentacles long and slender,
eyes at their outer bases; foot bi-lobed in front; branchial
plume long, pectinated, partially exserted on the right side,
when the animal is walking. Lingual teeth broad; uncini 3,
lanceolate; all hooked and denticulated.

Distribution, 18 species. Britain and North America.

Fossil, 19 species. Wealden—. Britain, Belgium, &c.

Famity VIIIT.—NERITID&.

Shell thick, semi-globose ; spire very small; cavity simple,
from the abscrption of the internal portions of the whorls ; aper-_
ture semi-lunate ; columellar side expanded and flattened ; outer

Fig. 111.*

lip acute; operculum shelly, sub-spiral, articulated.

At each end of the columella there is an oblong muscular im-
pression, connected on the outer side by a ridge, on which the
operculum rests; within this ridge the inner layers of the shell
are absorbed.

Animal with a broad, short muzzle, and long slender tentacles;
eyes on prominent pedicels, at the outer bases of the tentacles ;
foot oblong, triangular. Lingual dentition similar to the tur-
binide. Teeth 7; uncini very numerous.

NeriTa, L. Nerite.

Etymology, Nerites, a sea-snail, from nere%s.
Type, N. ustulata (Pl. IX., Fig. 35),

* Fig. 111. Werita polita, L. (from Quoy and Gaimard), New Irelaad.

GASTEROPODA. 261

Shell thick, smooth or spirally grooved; epidermis a
outer lip thickened and sometimes denticulated
within; columella broad and flat, with its inner
edge straight and toothed; operculum shelly,
Fig. 112.

Distribution, 178 species. Nearly all warm seas.

West Indies, Red Sea, Zanzibar, Philippines, Fig. 112.*
Australia, Pacific, West America. (Cuming.) Many of the
American species dwell in the streams; one species at the
Philippines sometimes climbs up trees.

Fossil, 60 species. Lias—. Britain, &c. The paleeozoic nerites
are referred by D’Orbigny to turbo, natica, &c. N. haliotis is a
pileopsis.

Sub-genera. Neritoma, Morris, 1849. N. sinuosa, Sby.
Portland stone, Swindon. (Mus., Lowe.) Shell ventricose,
thick; apex eroded; aperture with a notch in the middle of the
outer lip. Casts of this shell are common, and exhibit the
condition of the interior characteristic of all the nerites ; 1t was
_ probably fresh water.

Neritopsis, Grateloup. N. radula (Pl. VIII., Fig. 9). Shell
like nerita ; inner lip with a single notch in the centre.

Distribution, 1 species. Pacific.

Fossil, 20 species. Trias? Britain, France, &c.

Velates, Montf. N. perversa, Gm. (Pl. [X., Fig. 36). Inner
lip very thick and callous; outer lip prolonged behind, and par-
tially enveloping the spire.

PILEOLvs (Cookson), J. Sowerby.

Etymology, pileolus, a little cap.

Type, P. plicatus (Pl. [X., Figs. 37, 38).

Shell limpet-like above, with a sub-central apex; concave
beneath, with a small semi-lunar aperture, and a columellar
disc, surrounded by a broad, continuous peristome.

Distribution, marine; only known as fossils of the Bath oolite,
Ancliffe, and Minchinhampton, 3 species, PP. neritoides is a
neritind.

NERITINA, Lam. Fresh-water nerite.
Examples, N. zebra (Pl. IX., Fig. 39), N. crepidularia
(Pl. IX., Fig. 40).
Shell rather thick at the aperture, but extensively absorbed
inside; outer lip acute ; inner straight, denticulated ; operculum

* Fig. 112. Operculum of WV. peloronta. West Indies.

962 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

shelly, with a flexible border; slightly toothed on its straight
edge.

Animal like nerita ; lingual teeth ; median, minute; laterals
3, 1 large, sub-triangular 2, 3 minute; uncini about 60, first
very large, hooked, denticulated ; the rest equal, narrow, hooked,
denticulated.

The neritinze are small globular shells, ornamented with a
great variety of black or purple bands and spots, covered with a
polished horny epidermis. They are mostly confined to the fresh
waters of warm regions. One species (N. fluviatilis) is found in
British rivers, and in the brackish water of the Baltic. Another
extends its range into the brackish waters of the North American
rivers; and the West Indian UW. viridis and meleagris are found
in the sea.

‘N. crepidularia has a continuous peristome, and approaches
navicella in form; itis found in the brackish waters of India.
N. corona (Madagascar) is ornamented with a series of long
tubular spines.

Distribution, 111 species. West Indies, Norway, Britain,
Black Sea, Caspian, India, Philippines, Pacific, West America.

Fossil, 20 species. HEocene—. Britain, France, &c.

NAVICELLA, Lam.

Etymology, navicella, a small boat.

Type, N. porcellana. Pl. [X., Fig. 41.

Shell, oblong, smooth, ae -like; with a posterior, ie
marginal apex; aperture as large as the shell, with a smal

es =
ATI eR POETS

Fig. 113. Mavicella. (Wilton.)

columellar shelf, and elongated lateral muscular scars; oper-
cultim very small, shelly.

Distribution, 33 species. India, Mauritius, Moluccas, Aus-
tralia, Pacific.

Navicella inhabits fresh waters, adhering to stones aad plants.

Median tooth small; laterals 3, first large, trapeziform, 2, 3,
minute; uncini numerous, first large, strong, and opaque, the
rest slender, translucent, with denticulate hooks (Fig. 118).

GASTEROPODA. 263

Faminy [X.—TvuRBINID&.

Shell spiral, turbinated or pyramidal, nacreous inside; oper-
culum calcareous and pauci-spiral, or horny and multi-spiral.

Animal with a short muzzle; eyes pedunculated at the outer
bases of the long and slender tentacles; head and sides orna-
mented with fringed lobes and tentacular filaments (cirr‘) ;
branchial plume single; lingual ribbon long and linear, chiefly
contained in the visceral cavity ; median teeth broad; laterals
5, denticulated ; uncini very numerous (sometimes nearly 100),
slender, with hooked points (Fig. 15, A).

Marine, feeding on sea-weeds (alge).

The shells of nearly all the turbinide are brilliantly pearly
when the epidermis and outer layer of shell are removed ; many
of them are used in this state for ornamental purposes.

Turso, L. Top-shell.

fitymology, turbo, a whipping-top.

Synonyms, Batillus, Marmorostoma, Callopoma, &c.—Gray.

Type, T. marmoratus. Pl. X., Fig. 2.

Shell turbinated, solid; whorls convex, often grooved or
tuberculated; aperture large, rounded, slightly produced in
front ; operculum shelly and solid, callous outside, and smooth,
or yariously grooved and mammillated, internally horny and
pauci-spiral. In 7’. sarmaticus the exterior of the operculum is
botryoidal, like some of the tufaceous deposits of petrifying
wells.

Animal with pectinated head-lobes.

Distribution, 60 species. Tropical seas, West Indies, Medi-
terranean, Ozpe, India, China, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific,
“Peru.

Fossil, 360 species (including littorina) L. Silurian—.
Universal.

PHASIANELLA, Lam. Pheasant-shell.

Synonyms, Eutropia (Humphrey), Gray. ‘Tricolea, Risso.

Type, P. australis, Pl. X., Fig. 3.

Shell elongated, polished, richly coloured; whorls convex;
aperture oval, not pearly ; inner lip callous, outer thin; oper-
culum shelly, callous outside, sub-spiral inside.

Animal with long ciliated tentacles; head-lobes pectinated,
wanting in the minute species; neck-lobes fringed; sides
ornamented with three cirri; branchial plume long, partly
free ; foot rounded in front, pointed behind; its sides moved
alternately in walking; lingual teeth eyen-edged; laterals 5,

264 us MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

hooked, denticulated; uncini about 70, gradually diminishing |
outwards, hooked and denticulated.

Distribution, 25 species. Australia, large species; India,
Philippmes, small species; Mediterranean, Britain, West
Indies, very small species.

Fossil, 70 species. Devonian (?). Europe.

The similarity of the existing Australian fauna to that of the
European oolites strengthens the probability that some, at
least, of these fossil shells are rightly referred to Phasianella.

Fig. 114.*

ImMPERATOR, Montfort.

Type, I. imperialis. Pl. X., Fig. 4.

Synonym, Calcar.

Shell trochiform, thick, with a flat or concave base; whorls
keeled or stellated; aperture angulated outside, brilliantly
pearly ; operculum shelly.

Distribution, 20 species? South Africa, India, Australia,
New Zealand.

Trocuus, L.

Etymology, trochus, a hoop.

Synonyms, Cardinalia, Tegula, and Livona, Gray. Infundi-
bulum, Montfort. Chlorostoma, Sw. Trochiscus, Sby. Monilea,
Sw.

Types, T. niloticus. Pl. X., Fig. 5. T. zizyphinus. Fig. 114.

Shell pyramidal, with nearly a flat base; whorls numerous,
flat, variously striated; aperture oblique, rhombic,
pearly inside; columella twisted, slightly trun-
cated; outer lip thin; operculum horny, multi-
spiral, Fig. 115 (T. pica).

Animal with 2 small or obsolete head-lobes be-
tween the tentacles; neck-lappets large; sides
ornamented with lobes, and 3—5 cirri; gill very
cong, linear; lingual teeth 11, denticulated; uncini — 90,
diminishing outwards.

* Fig. 114. Zrochus zizyphinus, L., Pegwell Bay, Kent.

Fig. 115.

GASTEROPODA. 265

Distribution, 200 species. World-wide. Low water to 15
fathoms ; the smaller species range nearly to 100 fathoms.

Fossil, 361 species. Devonian—. Europe, North America,
Chili.

Sub-genera. Pyramis, Chemn., Tr. obeliscus. Pl. X., Fig. 6.
Columella contorted, forming a slight canal.

Gibbula, Leach. Tr. magus, Britain.

Shell depressed, widely umbilicated ; whorls tumid. Head-
lobes largely developed ; lateral cirri, 3.

Enida, Adams. 3 species, Japan.

Margarita, Leach. Tr. helicinus. Pl. X., Fig. 7.

Shell thin ; cirri, 5 on each side.

Distribution, 17 species. Greenland, Britain, Falkland
Islands. Near low water, under stones and sea-weed.

Elenchus, Humphrey (= Canthiridus, Montfort) EH. iris. Pl.
X., Fig. 8. Smooth, thin, imperforate, with a prominent base.
Australia, New Zealand. F. Jris scarcely differs in form from
Tr. zizyphinus; &. badius is like a pearly phasianella; and .
E. varians (bankivia, Menke) would be called a chemmnitzia, if
fossilised. Pl. X., Fig. 9.

Alcynus, Adams. 2 species, Japan.

Minolia, Adams. 1 species, Japan.

Turcica, Adams. 1854.

Vitrinella, C. B. Adams, 1850. Shell minute, hyaline,
turbiniform, umbilicated; aperture large, orbicular.

Distribution, 18 species. West Indies (5), Panama.

Photinula, H. and A. Adams, 1855. Shell heliciform ; spire
somewhat acute.

RoTeLLA, Lamarck.

Etymology, diminutive of rota, a wheel.

Synonym, Helicina, Gray. :

Type, R. vestiaria. Pl. X., Fig. 10.

Shell lenticular, polished; spire depressed; base callous;
lingual teeth 13; uncini numerous, sub-equal.

Distribution, 15 species. India, Philippines, China, New
Zealand.

MonopontTA, Lam.

Etymology, monos, one, and odous (odontos), a tooth.
Synonyms, Labio, Oken. Clanculus. Montfort, Olivia, Risso.
Types, M. labeo. Pl. X., Fig. 21. M. pharaonis. Pl. X.,
Big, 12.
Shell turbinated, few-whorled ; whorls spirally grooyed and
N

266 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

granulated ; lip thickened internally, and grooved; columella —
toothed, more or less prominently and irregularly ; operculum
horny, many-whorled.

Distribution, 13 species? West Africa, Red Sea, India,
Australia.

Fossil (included with trochus), Devonian—. LHifel.

DELPHINULA (Roissy), Lam.

Etymology, diminutive of delphinus, a dolphin. (= Cyclostoma,
Gray !) |
Type, D. laciniata. Pl. X., Fig. 13. (= T. delphinus, L.)

Shell orbicular, depressed ; whorls few, angulated, rugose, or
spiny; aperture round, pearly; peristome continuous; um-_
bilicus open; operculum horny, many-whorled. On reefs at
low water.

Animal without head-lobes; sides lobed and cirrated.

Distribution, 70 species. Red Sea, India, Philippines, China,
Australia.

Fossil, 30 species? Trias ?—Miocene—. THurope.

Sub-genera. Liotia, Gray. L. gervilli. Pl. X., Fig. 14.
Aperture pearly, with a regular, expanded border; operculuin
multi-spiral, calcareous.

Distribution, 6 species. Cape, India, Philippines, Australia.

Fossil, Hocene—. Britain, France.

Collonia, Gray, 1850. C. marginata. Pl. X., Fig. 13.
Peristome simple; operculum calcareous, with a spiral rib on
the outer side.

Distribution, Africa.

Fossil, Hocene—. Paris.

Oyclostrema, Marryat. C. cancellata, Pl. X., Fig. 16. A

Shell nearly discoidal, cancellated, not pearly ; aperture round,
simple; umbilicus wide ; operculum, spiral, caicareous.

Distribution, 12 species. ‘Cape, India, Philippines, Australia,
Peru. In 5—17 fathoms.

Serpularia, Roemer, has the whorls smooth and disunited.

Type, Huomphalus Serpula, Kon. Carb. Belgium.

Crossostoma, Morris and Lycett. Columella toothed when
young, concealed by callus in the adult. 2 species, Great
oolite.

ADEORBIS, Searles Wood.

Type, A. sub-carinatus. Pl. X., Fig. 17.
Shell minute, not nacreous, depressed, few-whorled, deeply
umbilicated ; peristome entire, nearly continuous, situated in

GASTEROPODA. 267

its inner side, and slightly so externally; operculum shelly,
multi-spiral.

Distribution, 6 species. West Indies—China. Low water to
60 fathoms.

Fossil, 5 species. Tertiary—. Britain.

_ EvompHauus, Sowerby.

Etymology, eu, wide, and omphalos, umbilicus.

Synonyms, Schizostoma, Bronn. Straparollus, D’Orbigny.
Ophileta, Vanuxem. Platyschisma, M‘Coy.

Type, EK. pentagonalis. Pl. X., Fig. 18.

Shell depressed or discoidal; whorls angular or coronated ;
aperture polygonal; umbilicus very large; operculum shelly,
round, multi-spiral. (Salter.)

Fossil, 80 species, Li. silurian—Trias. North America, Europe,
Australia.

Sub-genus. Phanerotinus, J. Sby. 1840, E. cristatus, Phil.
Carb. limestone. Britain.

Shell discoidal; whorls separate; outer margin sometimes
foliaceous.

STOMATELLA, Lam.

Etymology, diminutive of stoma, the aperture.

Type, S. imbricata. Pl. X., Fig. 19.

Shell ear-shaped, regular; spire small; aperture oblong, very
large and oblique, nacreous; lip thin, even-edged; operculum
circular, horny, multi-spiral. On reefs and under stones at
ow water.

Distribution, 38 species. Cape, India, North Australia,
China, Japan, Philippines.

Sub-genus? Gena, Gray. Spire minute, marginal; no
operculum. 16 species. Red Sea, India, Seychelles, Swan
River, Philippines. (Adams.)

Niphonia, Adams. 1 species, Japan.

BRODERIPIA, Gray.

Etymology, named in honour of W. J. Broderip, Hsq., the
distinguished conckologist.

Type, B. rosea. Pl. X., Fig. 20.

Shell minute, limpet-shaped, with a posterior sub-marginal
apex ; aperture oval, as large as the shell, brilliantly nacreous.

Distribution, 3 species. Philippines; Grimwood’s Island,
South Seas. (Cuming.)

aan Nie

268 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

FAMILY X.—HALIOTIDA.

Shell spiral, ear-shaped or trochiform; aperture large,
nacreous; outer lip notched or perforated. No operculum.

Animal with a short muzzle and subulate tentacles; eyes on
pedicels at the outer bases of the tentacles; branchial plumes
2; mantle-margin with a posterior (anal) fold or siphon,
occupying the slit or perforation in the shell; operculum lobe
rudimentary ; lingual dentition similar to trochus.

In addition to the true haliotids, we have retained in this -
group such of the trochiform shells as have a notched or per-
forated aperture.

HattotTis, L. Ear-shell.

Etymology, halios, marine, and ous (otos), an ear.

Type, H. tuberculata, Pl. X., Fig. 21.

Shell ear-shaped, with a small flat spire; aperture very wide,
iridescent ; exterior striated, dull; outer angle perforated by a
series of holes, those of the spire progressively closed. Mus-
cular impression horse-shoe shaped, the left branch greatly .
dilated in front. In Z. tricostals (padollus, Montfort) the shell
is furrowed parallel with the line of perforations.

Animal with fimbriated head-lobes; side-lobes fimbriated and
cirrated; foot very large, rounded. Lingual teeth, median
small; laterals single, beam-like; uncini about 70, with
denticulated hooks, the first 4 very large.

The haliotis abounds on the shores of the Channel Islands,
where it is called the ormer, and is cooked after being well
beaten to make it tender. (Hanley.) It is also eaten in Japan.
It is said to adhere very firmly to the rocks with its large foot,
like the limpet. The shell is much used for inlaying and other
ornamental purposes.

Distribution, 75 species. Britain, Canaries, Cape, India.
China, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific, California.

Fossil, 4 species. Miocene—. Malta, &c.

Sub-genus 2 Deridobranchus, Ehrenberg, D. argus, Red Sea.

Shell large and thick, like haliotis, but entirely covered by the
thick, hard, plaited mantle of the animal.

SToMATIA (Helblin), Lamarck.
Etymology, stoma, the aperture. ;
Type, 8. phymotis, Pl. X., Fig. 22.
Sheil like haliotis, but without perforations, their place being
occupied by a simple furrow; surface rugose, spirally ridged;

GASTEROPODA. ‘ 269

spire small, prominent; aperture large, oblong, outer margin
irregular.

Distribution, 12 species. Java, Philippines, Torres Straits,
Pacific. Under stones at low water. (Cuming.)

Fossil, M. D’Orbigny refers to this genus 18 species, ranging
from the L. Silurian to the chalk. North America, Hurope.

TEINOTIS, H. and A. Adams, 1854.

Shell depressed, elongated, ear-shaped; spire small, and
placed posteriorly; hinder part of the foot in the animal
stretches far over the shell.

Distribution, 2 species. Hast India.

ScISSURELLA, D’Orbigny.

Etymology, diminutive of scissus, slit.

Type, S. crispata, Pl. X., Fig. 23.

Synonyms, Anatomus, Montfort ; Woodwardia, Fischer.

Shell minute, thin, not pearly; body-whorl large; spire
small; surface striated; aperture rounded, with a slit in the
margin of the outer ip; operculate. The young have no slit.

Animal like Margarita ; tentacles long, pectinated, with the
eyes at their base; foot with two
pointed lappets and two long slender
pectinated cirri on each side; oper-
culum ovate, very thin, with an
obscure sub-spiral nucleus.

No part of the animal was external
to the shell. The only living example
occurred at Hammerfest, in 40—80
fathoms water; when placed in a
glass of sea-water it crawled up the
side and scraped the glass with its
tongue. It was pale and translucent when living, but turned
inky black after immersion in alcohol. (Barrett, An. Nat. Hist.,
Qnd ser. vol. 17, p. 206.)

Mr. Jeffreys found S. elegans (D’Orbigny) plentifuity alive in
sea-weed on the coast of Piedmont. It has a multi-spiral
operculum, like Margarita. In this species, as noticed by Mr.
G. Sowerby, the slit in the peristome of the young shell is
converted into a foramen in the adult, as in the Jurassic
Trochotoma.

Distribution, 5 species. Norway, Britain, Mediterranean. In

‘Fig. 116. Scissurella. 2.

270 “MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

7 fathoms water off the Orkneys, and in deep water east of th
Zetland Isles.
Fossil, 4 species. Tertiary—. Britain Sicily.

PLEUROTOMARIA, Defrance

Etymology, pleura, side, and tome, notch.

Type, P. anglica, Pl. X., Fig. 24.

Shell trochiform, solid, few-whorled, with the surface variously
ornamented; aperture sub-quadrate, with a deep slit in its
outer margin. The part of the slit which has been progressively
filled up forms a band round the whorls.

Distribution, 2 species. One occurs in deep water in West
Indian seas.

Fossil, 400 species. Lower Silurian—Chalk. North America,
Europe, Australia. Specimens from clay strata retain their
nacreous inner layers; those from the chalk and limestones
have lost them, or they are replaced by crystalline spar.
Pleurotomarize with wavy bands of colour have been obtained
in the carb. limestone of Lancashire. In this extensive group
there are some species which rival the living turbines in magni-
tude and solidity, whilst others are as frail as ianthina.

Sub-genera. Scalites, Conrad, lL. Silurian, New York.

Shell thin ; whorls angular, flat above (tabulated), 8 species.
L. Silurian—Carb.

Polytremaria, D’Orbigny, is founded on P. catenata
(Koninck),in which the margins of the slit are wavy, converting
it into a series of perforations.

Catantostoma (clathratum) Sandberger, 1842. Shell like
Pleurotomaria; last whorl deflected, peristome incomplete,
slightly varicose, irregular. fossil, Devonian, Eifel.

Raphistoma (angulata), Hall. LL. Silurian, United States,
Canada. Shelli depressed, outer lip sinuated. In R. compacta
(Salter) the spire is sunk and basin-shaped, the umbilical side
flat, and the last whorl a little disunited.

MurcuHisoniA, D’Archiac.

Etymology, named in honour of Sir Roderick I. Murchison.

Type, M. bilineata, Pl. X., Fig. 25.

Shell elongated, many- awhile whorls vanianele sculptured,
and zoned like plewrotomaria ; aperture slightly channeled in
front; outer lp deeply notched.

The murchisonie are characteristic fossils of the palaeozoic

GASTEROPODA. 271

rocks; they have been compared to elongated plewrotomarie,
or to cerithia with notched apertures; the first suggestion is
most probably correct.

Fossil, 50 species. L. Silurian—Permian. North America,
Europe.

TrRocHOTOMA, Lycett.

Etymology, Trochus, and tome, a notch.

Synonym, Ditremaria, D’Orbigny.

Type, T. conuloides, Pl. X., Fig. 26.

Shell trochiform, slightly concave beneath; whorls flat,
spirally striated, rounded at the outer angles; lip with a single
perforation near the margin.

Fossil, 10 species. Lias—Coral Rag. Britain, France, &c.

? CIRRUS, Sowerby.

Etymology, cirrus, a curl.

Type, C. nodosus, Sby. Min. Con. t. 141 and 219.

Shell sinistral, trochiform, base level; last whorl enlarging
rather more rapidly, somewhat irregular.

Fossil, 2 species. Inf. oolite, Bath oolite. Britain, France.

This genus was founded on a pleurotomaria, a ewomphalus,
and C. nodosus. (vy. Min. Con.) It is still doubtful what
species may be referred to it.

Fig. 117.*

TANTHINA, Lam. Voiolet-snail.

Etymology, ianthina, violet-coloured.

Type, helix ianthina, L. (I. fragilis, Lam.) Pl. X., Fig. 27.

Shell thin, translucent, trochiform; nucleus minute, styliform;
sinistral ; whorls few, rather ventricose; aperture four-sided ;
columella tortuous; lip thin, notched at the outer angle. Base
of the shell deep violet, spire nearly white.

Animal head large, muzzle-shaped, with a tentacle and eye-

* Fig, 117. Janthina fragilis, Lam. (from Quoy and Gaimard). Atlantic. a, raft,
6, egg capsules; c, gills; d, tentacles and eye-stalks.

972 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

pedicel on each side, but no eyes; foot small, secreting a float
composed of numerous cartilaginous air-vesicles, to the under
surface of which the ovarian capsules are attached. Lingual
ribbon, rachis unarmed ; uncini numerous, simple (like scalaria).
Branchial plumes 2. Sexes separate.

Distribution, 10 species. Atlantic, Coral sea.

The ianthine, or oceanic-snails, are gregarious in the open
sea, where they are found in myriads, and are said to feed on
the small blue acelephe (velella). They are frequently drifted
to the southern and western British shores, especially when the
wind continues long from the south-west ; in Swansea Bay the
animals have been found quite fresh. When handled they
exude a violet fluid from beneath the margin of themantle. In
rough weather they are driven about and their floats broken, or
detached, in which state they are often met with. The capsules
beneath the farther end of the raft have been observed to be
empty, at a time when those in the middle contained young with
fully formed shells, and those near the animal were filled with
eges. They have no power of sinking and rising in the water.
The raft, which is much too large to be withdrawn into the shell,
is generally thought to be an extreme modification of the oper-
culum; but M. Lucaze-Duthiers, who has seen the raft formed,
denies this. Itis built up from glutinous matter secreted by
the foot.*

2 Holopea (symmetrica), Hall. 1847. Outer lip sinuated
near the base. L. Silurian, New York.

FAMILY XI.—FISSURELLIDZA.

Shell conical, limpet-shaped ; apex recurved ; nucleus spiral,
often disappearing in the course of growth; anterior margin
notched or apex perforated; muscular impression horse-shoe
shaped, open in front.

Animal with a well-developed head, a short muzzle, subulate
tentacles, and eyes on rudimentary pedicels at their outer bases;
sides ornamented with short cirri; branchial plumes 2, sym-
metrical; anal siphon occupying the anterior notch or perforated

summit of the shell. Lingual dentition similar to trochus.t
FISSURELLA, Lam. Key-hole limpet.

Etymology, diminutive of fissura, a slit.
Type, F. Listeri, Pl. XI., Fig. 1.

* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1865.

+ Fissurella is the best gasteropod for comparison with the bivalves; its large gills,
placed one on each side, and its symmetrical shell, pierced with a median orifice for the
escape of the out-going branchial current, are unmistakable indications of homologies
with the lamelli-branchiata. See p. 39.

GASTEROPODA. 273

Shell oval, conical, depressed, with the apex in front of the
centre, and perforated ; surface radiated or cancellated; muscular
impression with the points incurved.

In very young shells the apex is entire and sub-spiral; but as
the perforation increases in size, it encroaches on the summit
and gradually removes it. The key-hole limpets are locomotive ;

Fig. 118. Fissurelia. (Wilton.)

they chiefly inhabit the laminarian zone, but range downwards
to 50 fathoms. For dentition see Fig. 118.

Distribution, 182 gpecies. America, Britain, South Africa,
India, China, Australia, Upper California, Cape Horn.

Fossil, 830 species. Carb.; oolites—. Britain and France.

Sub-genera. Pupillia, Gray. I’. apertura, Born. (=hiantula,
Lam.) Shell smooth, surrounded by a sharp white edge; per-
foration very large. Distribution, South Africa. isswrellidea,
D’Orbigny. F. hiantula, Lam. (=megatrema, D’Orbigny.).
Shell cancellated ; covered by the mantle of the animal. 3
species. Cape and Tasmania.

(Macroschisma, Sw.) F. macroschisma, Pl. XI., Fig. 2.
Anal aperture close to the posterior margin of the shell. The
animal is so much larger than its shell as to be compared toe the
testacelle by Mr. Cuming.

Distribution, Philippines and Swan River.

Lucapina, Gray. F. elegans, Gray (=aperta, Sby.). Shell
white, cancellated, margin crenulated ; covered by the reflected
mantle. 3 species. California,

PUNCTURELLA, Lowe.

Synonyms, Cemoria, Leach. Diadora, Gray.

Type, P. noachina, Pl. XI., Fig. 3.

Shell conical, eleyated, with the apex recurved ; perforation in
front of the apex, with a raised border internally; surface
cancellated. .

Distribution, 6 (Ff) species. Greenland, Boreal America,

3

974 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSOA.

Norway, North Britain, Tierra-del-Fuego. In 20—i0 fathoms
water.

Fossil, in the glacial formations of North Britain.

Rimv.a, Defrance.

Etymology, diminutive of rima, a fissure.

Synonym, Rimularia.

Recent type, R. Blainvillu, Pl. XI., Fig. 4.

Shell thin and cancellated, with a perforation near the anterior
margin.

Distribution, several species found on sandy mud at low water,
or dredged in from 10—26 fathoms. Philippines (Cuming).

Fossil, 8 species. Bath oolite—coral rag. Britain and France.

EMARGINULA, Lam.

Etymology, diminutive of emarginata, notched.

Type, HK. reticuila, Pl. XT., Figs. 6 and 6.

Shell oval, conical, elevated, with the apex recurved ; surface
cancellated; anterior margin notched. Muscular impression
with recurved points. The nucleus (or shell of the fry) is spiral,
and resembles scisswreila. The anterior slit is very variable in
extent. The animal of emarginula (and also of punctureila) has
an isolated cirrus on the back of the foot, perhaps representing
the operculigerous lobe. (Forbes.) Lingual dentition, median
teeth sub-quadrate; laterals 4, oblong, imbricated ; unctmi about
60, the first large and thick, with a lobed hook, the rest linear,
with serrulated hooks. (Lovén.)

Distribution, 40 species. West Indies, Britain, Norway,
Philippines, Australia. Range from low water to 90 fathoms. ~

Fossil, 40 species. Trias—. Britain and France.

Sub-genus. Hemitoma, Sw.

Type, H. octoradiata (EK. rugosa, Pl. XI., Figs. 7 and 8).

Shell depressed, anterior margin slightly channeled.

PaRMOPHORUS, Blainville. Duck’s-bill limpet.

Etymology, parme, a shield, and phoreus, a bearer.

Type, P. australis, Pl. XI., Fig. 9.

Synonym, Scutus, Montf.

Shell lengthened-oblong, depressed; apex posterior; front
margin arched. Muscular impression horse-shoe shaped, elon-
gated. The shell is smooth and white, and permanently covered
by the reflected borders of the mantle. The animal is black,
and very large compared with the shell; its sides are fringed
with short cirri, and its eyes sessile on the outer bases of thick

GASTEROPODA. 275

tentacles; it is found in shallow water, and walks freely.
(Cuming. )

Distribution, 15 species. New Zealand, Australia, Philippines,
Singapore, Red Sea, Cape.

Fossil, 3 species. Hocene?—. Paris Basin.

Famity XIJ.—CALyYPTRa&ID&. Bonnet-limpet.

Shell limpet-like, with the apex more or less spiral; interior
simple, or divided by a shelly process, variously shaped, to
which the adductor muscles are attached.

Animal with a distinct head; muzzle lengthened ; eyes on the
external bases of the tentacles; branchial plume single. Lin-
gual teeth singie, uncini 3, as in Fig. 119, which shows dentition

Fig. 119. Crepidula. (Wilton.)

of crepidula. The rostrum is prominent and split, but non-
retractile; the median tooth hooked and dentate; the first, or
first and second laterals serrated, the third claw-shaped and
simple. Lovén places this family next to the Velutinide.

The bonnet-limpets are found adhering to stones and shells;
most of them appear never to quit the spot on which they first
settle, as the margins of their shells become adapted to the
surface beneath, whilst some wear away the space beneath their
foot, and others secrete a shelly base. Both their form and
colour depend on the situation in which they grow ; those found
in the cavities of dead shells are nearly flat, or even concave
above, and colourless. They are presumed to feed on the sea-
weed growing round, them, or on animalcules; a calyptrea,
which Professor Forbes kept in a glass, ate a small sea slug
(gontodoris) which was confined with it. Both calyptrea and
pileopsis sometimes cover and hatch their spawn in front of their
foot. (Alder and Clarke.)

Dr. Gray arranges the bonnet-limpets next after the verme-
tidze ; their lingual dentition is like velutina.

276 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

CALYPTRMA, Lam. Cup-and-saucer limpet.

Etymology, calyptra, a (lady’s) cap.

Synonym, Tithedaphus, Owen.

Types, C. equestris, Pl. XI., Fig. 10. C. Dillwynnii, Fig. 11.

Shell conical; limpet-shaped; apex posterior, with a minute,
spiral nucleus; margin irregular; interior with a half-cup
shaped process on the posterior side, attached to the apex, and
open in front. Surface rugose or cancellated.

Animal with a broad muzzle; tentacles rather short; lanceo-
late; eyes on bulgings at the outer bases of the tentacles ;
mantle-margin simple, sides plain. Found under stones, be-
tween tide-marks, and in shallow water. (Cuming.)

Distribution, 50 species. West Indies, Honduras, Britain,
Mediterranean, Africa, India, Philippines, China, Japan, New
Zealand, Gallapagos, Chili.

Fossil, 31 species. Carb. ? chalk—. Britain, France, &c.

Sub-genera. Crucibulum, Schum. (Dispoteea. Say., Calypeopsis,
Less.)

Example, C. rudis, Pl. XI., Fig. 12.

Shell spinulose; internal cup entire; attached by one of its
sides.

Distribution, West America, Japan, West Indies. Found on
shells, with its base worn, or smoothed by a shelly deposit.
(Gray.) Between this section and the next there are several
intermediate forms.

Trochita, Schum. (Infundibulum, J. Sby., Galerus, Humph,
Trochatella and Siphopatella, Lesson.) TT. radians, Pl. XI.,
Figs. 13, 14. (Patella trochoides, Dillw.). TT. sinensis,
Pix Mie, 15. ;

Shell circular, more or less distinctly spiral; apex central;
interior with a more or less complete sub-spiral partition.

Distribution, chiefly tropical, but ranges from Britain to New.
Zealand.

T. prisca (McCoy) is found in the carb. limestone in Ireland ;
and several large species occur in the London clay and Paris
basin. The recent C. sinensis—the ‘‘Chinaman’s hat” of
collectors—is found on the southern shores of England, and in
the Mediterranean, in 5—10 fathoms water. (Forbes.) Its
lingual dentition is given by Lovén; median teeth broad,
hooked, denticulatcd ; uncini 3, the first hooked and serrated,
2, 3, claw-shaped, simple.

CREPIDULA, Lam.
Etymology, crepidula, a small sandal.

GASTEROPODA. 277

Type, C. fornicata, Pl. XI., Fig. 16.

Synonym, Crypta, Humph.

Shell oval, limpet-like; with a posterior, oblique, marginal
apex; interior polished, with a shelly partition covering its
posterior half.

The crepidule resemble the fresh-water navicelle in form ;
but the internal ledge which mimics the columella of the nerite,
is here the basis of the adductor muscles.

They are sedentary on stones and shells, in shallow water, and
are sometimes found adhering to one another in groups of many
successive generations. The specimens or species which live
inside empty spiral shells are very thin, nearly flat, and
colourless.

Distribution, 54 species. West Indies, Honduras, Mediter-
ranean, West Africa, Cape, India, Australia, West America.

Fossil, 14 species. Eocene—. France, North America, and
Patagonia.

PILEOPSIS, Lam. SBonnet-limpet.

Etymology, piles, a cap, and opsis, like.

Synonyms, Capulus, Montf. Brocchia, Bronn.

type, ©. hanearicus, Pl. XI.,,Fig. 17, P. miltaris, Pl. XT.,
Fig. 18.

Shell conical; apex posterior, spirally recurved; aperture
rounded ; muscular impression horse-shoe shaped.

Animal with a fringed mantle-margin; lingual teeth like
calyptrea.

P. hungaricus (the Hungarian-bonnet) is found on oysters in
5 to 15 fathoms water ; more rarely as deep as 80 fathoms, and
then very small. P. militaris is extremely like a velutina.

Distribution, 8 species. West Indies, Norway, Britain,
Mediterranean, India, Australia, California.

Fossil, 20 species. Lias—. Europe.

Sub-genus. Amathina, Gray. A. tricarinata, Pl. XT., Fig. 19.

Shell depressed, oblong; apex posterior, not spiral, with
three strong ribs diverging from it to the anterior margin.

Platyceras, Conrad (acroculia, Phil.). P. vetustus. Carb.,
limestone. Britain.

Fossil, 20 species. Devonian—Trias. America, Europe.

Metoptoma, Phillips. M. Pileus, Ph.

Shell limpet-like, side beneath the apex truncated, resembling
the posterior valve of a chiton. 7 species. Carb. limestone.
Britain.

278 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Hiprponyx, Defrance.

Etymology, hippos, a horse, and onyx, a hoof.

Type, H. cornucopia, Pl. XT., Figs. 20, 21. |

Shell thick, obliquely conical, apex posterior; base shelly,
with a horse-shoe shaped impression, corresponding to that of
the adductor muscle.

Distribution, 13 species. West Indies, Persian Gulf, Philiy -
pines, Australia, Pacific, West America.

Fossil, 10 sp. U. chalk—. Britain, France, North America.

Sub-genus. Amalthea, Schum. <A. conica. Like hipponyx,
but forming no shelly base; surface of attachment worn and
marked with a cresent-shaped impression. Often occurs on
living shells, such as the large turbines and turbinelle of the
Eastern seas.

FamMiILty XIII.—PATELLIDA. Limpets.

Shell conical, with the apex turned forwards; muscular im-
pression horse-shoe shaped, open in front. __

Animal with a distinct head, furnished with tentacles, bear-
ing eyes at their outer bases; foot as large as the margin of the
shell; mantle plain or fringed. Respiratory organ in the form
of one or two branchial plumes, lodged in a cervical cavity; or
of a series of lamellee surrounding the animal between its foot
and mantle. Mouth armed with horny upper jaw, and a long
ribbon-like tongue, furnished with numerous teeth, each con-
sisting of a pellucid base and an opaque hooked apex.

The order cyclo-branchiata of Cuvier included the chitons and
the limpets, and was characterised by the circular arrangement
of the branchiz. At a comparatively recent period it was ascer-
tained that some of the patellee (acmea) had a free, cervical
gill; whilst the chitons exhibited too many peculiarities to
admit of being associated so closely with them. Professor
Forbes has very happily suggested that the cyclo-branchiate
gill of patella is, in reality, a single, long branchial plume,
originating on the left side of the neck, coiled backwards round
the foot, and attached throughout its length. This view is con-
firmed by the circumstance that the gill of the sea-weed limpets
(nacelle) does not form a complete circle, but ends without
passing in front of the animal’s head.

PATELLA, L. Rock limpet.

Etymology, patella, a dish.
Synonyms, Helcion Montfort ; Cymba, Adams.

GASTEROPODA. 979

Example, P. longicostata. Pl. XI., Fig. 22.

Shell oval, with a sub-central apex; surface smooth, or
ornamented with radiating strize or ribs;
margin even or spiny ; interior smooth.

Animal with a continuous series of bran-
chial lamellz ; mantle-margin fringed ; eyes
sessile, externally, on the swollen bases of
the tentacles; mouth notched below. Lingual
teeth 6, of which 4 are central, and 2 lateral;
uncini 3. Fig. 120 shows the teeth, but not
the uncini of P. vulgata. The Cape limpets
(e.g. P. denticulata) have a minute central
tooth, which is wanting in any other species
hitherto examined. (Wilton.) vulgata.

The dental canal of the common British (Orginal, Wilton.)
limpet. (P. vulgata) is rather longer than its shell; it has 160
rows of teeth, with 12 teeth in each row, or 1,920 in all.
(Forbes.) The limpets live on rocky coasts, between tide~
marks, and are consequently left dry twice every day; they
adhere very firmly by atmospheric pressure (15 lbs. per square
inch), and the difficulty of detaching them is increased by the
form of the shell. On soft calcareous rocks, like the chalk of
the coast of Thanet, they live in pits half an inch deep, pro-
bably formed by the carbonic acid disengaged in respiration ; on
hard limestones only the aged specimens are found to have worn
the rock beneath, and the margin of their shell is often accom-
modated to the inequalities of the surrounding surface. These
circumstances would seem to imply that the limpets are
sedentary, and live on the sea-weed within reach of their
tongues, or else that they return to the same spot to roost. On
the coast of Northumberland we have seen them sheltering
themselves in the crevices of rocks, whose broad surfaces, over~
grown with nullipores, were covered with irregular tracks,
apparently Te by the limpets in their between tides
excursions.*

The limpet is mucn used by fishermen for bait; on the coast
of Berwickshire nearly 12,000,000 have been collected yearly,
until their numbers are so decreased that collecting them has
become tedious. (Dr. Johnston.) In the north of Ireland
they are used for human food, especially in seasons of scarcity ;

Fig. 120. Patella

* If limpets are placed in stale water, or little pools exposed to the hot sun, they
creep out more quickly than one would expect; the tracks they leave are very
peculiar, and not likely to be mistaken when once seen.

280 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

many tons weight are collected annually near the town of ;
Larne alone. (R. Patterson.)

On the western coast of South America there is a iit
which attains the diameter of a foot, and is used by the natives
asa basin. (Cuming.)

The common limpet makes oval pits in timber as well as in
chalk. Small individuals sometimes roost habitually on larger
specimens, and make an oval furrow on the shell. The surface
on which limpets roost, and some space around it, is often
covered with radiating strize not parallel like those produced by
their teeth on niullipore. Mr. Gaskom has a _ limpet-shell
encrusted with nullipore, which other limpets have rasped all
over. In M. D’Orbigny’s collection of Cuban shells there is a
group of oysters (0. cornucopie), with a colony of the Hipponyx
mitrula sheltered in their interstices; these limpets have not
only fed on the nullipore with which the oysters are encrusted,
but have extensively eroded the epidermal layer of shell
beneath.*

As to the Calyptreide generally, although furnished wita
lingual teeth (Fig. 96) like those of the animal-feeding Velutina,
and themselves manifesting carnivorous propensities (p. 275), it
is difficult to understand how they can travel in quest of food.

The shape of some species of limpet is believed to vary with
the nature of the surface on which they habitually live. Thus
the British Nucella pellucida is found on the fronds of the
tangle, and assumes the form called NV. levis, when in lives on
their stalks. (Forbes.) The Acmea testudinalis becomes
laterally compressed and is called A. alvea when it grows on the
blades of the Zostera (Gould); and Patella miniata of the Cape
becomes a new ‘‘ genus” (Cymba, Adams, not Broderip) when it
roosts on the round stems of sea-weed, and takes the form
called P. compressa. (Gray.)

Distribution, 144 species. Britain, Norway, &c. Wellington
Channel. World-wide.

Fossil, above 100 species of patellidee, including acme, L.
Silurian—. North America, Europe.

Sub-genera. Nacella, Schum. (= patina, Leach).

Hxunvple, P. pellucida. Pl. XI., Fig. 23.

Shell thin; apex nearly marginal.

Animal with the mouth entire below. Branchiz not con-

* A similar circumstance has been noticed in the fresh-water Paludine and Am-
pullaria, by Dr. Bland and Mr. R. Swift; in the absence of other food they devour the
green vegetable matter incrusting one another’s shells, and in doing this remove the
epidermis, or even make holes in the shell.

GASTEROPODA. 281

tinued in front of the head. Found on the fronds and stalks of
sea-weeds. Britain, Cape, Cape Horn.

Scutellina, Gray. S. crenulata. Shell with a broad margin
internally. 7 species. Red Sea, Philippines, Pacific, Panama.
(Cuming. )

AcmzA, Eschscholtz.

Hiymology, acme, a

Synonyms, Tectura, M. Edw. Lottia and Scurria, Gray.
Patelloida, Quoy.

Type, A. testudinalis. PI. XI., Fig. 24.

Shell like patella. Animal with a single pectinated gill;
lodged in-a cervical cavity, and exserted from the right side
of the neck when the creature walks. Lingual teeth 3 on
each side of the median line. Low water to 30 fathoms.
(Forbes. )

Distribution, 61 species. Norway, Britain, Australia, Pacific,
West America.

Sub-genera. Lepeta, Gray = pro-pilidium, Forbes). Patella
ceeca, Miller.

Sheil minute, apex posterior. Animal blind. Britain. 30—90
fathoms.

Pilidium, Forbes. P. fulva, Miller. Britain. 20—80 fathoms
water.

Shell small, apex anterior. Animal blind; gills 2, not
projecting; mantle even-edged. Both lepeta and pilidium
have large single median teeth, with trilobed hooks; and 2
hooked uncini on each side.

GaDINIA (Adanson), Gray.

Type, G. peruviana. Pl. XI., Fig. 26.

Synonym, Mouretia, Sby.

Shell conical; muscular impression horse-shoe-shaped, the
right side shortest, terminating at the siphonal groove.

Animal with a single cervical gill; tentacles expanded,
funnel-shaped.

Distribution, 8 species. Mediterranean, Red Sea, Africa, Pert.

Fossil, 1 species. Sicily.

SIPHONARIA, Sowerby.

Type, 8. sipho. Pl. XI., Fig. 25.
Shell like patella; apex sub-central, posterior; muscular
impression horse-shoe shaped, divided on the right side by a

282 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

deep siphonal groove, which produces a slight projection on the
margin.

Animal with a broad head, destitute of tentacles; eyes sessile
on prominent rounded lobes; gill? single. The siphonarize
are found between tide-marks, like limpets; Dr. Gray places
them with the pulmonifera, between the auriculide and cyclos- |
tomide.

Distribution, 41 species. Cape, India, Philippines, Australia,
New Zealand, Pacitic, Gallapagos, Peru, Cape Horn. (Cuming.}

Fossil, 3 species. Miocene—. France.

FAMILY XITV.—DENTALIAD&. Tooth-shells.
DENTALIUM, L.

Type, D. elephantinum. Pl. XI., Fig. 27.

Shell tubular, symmetrical, curved, open at each end,
attenuated posteriorly; surface smooth or longitudinally
striated ; aperture circular, not constricted.*

Animal attached to its shell near the posterior anal orifice ;
head rudimentary, eyes 0, tentacles 0; oral orifice fringed ;
foot pointed, conical, with symmetrical side-lobes, and an
attenuated base, in which is a hollow communicating with the
stomach. Branchiz 2, symmetrical, posterior to the heart;
blood red (Clarke); sexes united? Lingual ribbon wide,
ovate; rachis 1-toothed; uncini single, flanked by single
unarmed plates.

The tooth-shells are animal-feeders, devouring foraminifera
and minute bivalves; they are found on sand, or mud, in which
they often bury themselves. The British species range from 10:
—100 fathoms. . (Forbes.)

Distribution, 50 species. West Indies, Norway, Britain,
Mediterranean, India.

Fossil, 125 species. Devonian—. Hurope, Chili.

FAMILY X V.—CHITONIDA.
CuiTon, L.

Etymology, chiton, a coat of mail.
Examples, C. squamosus, spinosus, fascicularis, fasciatus. Pl.
XI., Figs. 28—31.

* D. gadus of Montagu is an annelid, belonging to the genus ditrupa.

GASTEROPODA. 283

Shell composed of eight transverse imbricating plates, lodged
in a coriaceous mantle, which forms an expanded margin round
the body, The first seven plates have posterior apices; the
eighth has its apex nearly in front. The six middle plates are
each divided by lines of sculpturing into a dorsal and two
lateral areas. All are inserted into the mantle of the animal
by processes (apophyses) from their front margins. The
posterior plate is considered homologous with the limpet-shell
by Dr. Gray; the other plates appear like portions of its
anterior slope, successively detached. The border of the mantle
is either bare or covered with minute plates, hairs, or spines.

Animal with a broad creeping disk like the limpet; proboscis
armed with cartilaginous jaws, and a long linear tongue;
lingual teeth 3; median small, laterals large, with dentated
hooks; uncini 5, trapezoidal, one of them erect and hooked.
No eyes or tentacles. Branchize forming a series of lamelle
between the foot and the mantle, round the posterior part of
the body. The heart is central, and elongated like the dorsal
vessel of the annelides; the sexes are united; the re-productive
organs are symmetrically repeated on each side, and have two
orifices; the intestine is straight, and the anal orifice posterior
and median,

Distribution. More than 250 species are known; they occur
in all climates throughout the world; most abuadant on rocks
at low water, but frequently obtained by dredging in 10—25
fathoms. Some of the small British species range as deep as
100 fathoms. (Forbes.) West Indies, Europe, South Africa,
Australia, and New Zealand, California to Chiloé.

Fossil, 37 species. Silurian—. Britain, Belgium, &c.

Sub-genera.* Chiton. Synonyms, Lophurus, Poli. Radsia,
Callo-chiton, Ischno-chiton, and Lepto-chiton. (Gray.)

Example, OC. squamosus. Pl. XI., Fig. 28. Border tessel-
lated.

Distribution, Brazil, West Indies, Newfoundland, Greenland,
Britain, Mediterranean, Cape, Philippines, Australia, New
Zealand, West America.

Tonicia, Gray. C. elegans. Margin bare.

Distribution, Greenland, Cape Horn, New Zealand, Valparaiso.

Acanthopleura, Guilding. C. spinosus. Pl. XI., Fig. 29.
Margin covered with spines, or elongated scales.

* The sub-genera of Dr. Gray are founded on the form of the plates of insertion ;
they are described in detail in the proceedings of the Zcological Society. Dr.
Middendorf employs the number of the branchial lamine for distinguishing the
sections.

284 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Synonyms, Schizo-chiton, Corephium, Plaxiphora, Onycho-
chiton, Enople-chiton, Gray.

Distribution, West Indies, Cape Horn, Falklands, Africa,
Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, Valparaiso.

Mopalia, Gray. ©. Hindsii. Border hairy.

Distribution, West America, Falkland Islands.

Katharina, Gray. OC. tunicatus. Mantle covering all but
the centre of the plates.

Distribution, New Zealand, West America.

Cryptochiton, Gray, ‘‘Saw-dust chiton.” C. amicuiatus.
Valves covered with scaly epidermis.

Synonyms, Oryptoconchus, Sw. Amicula, Gray.

Distribution, California, New Zealand.

Acanthochites, Leach. OC. fascicularis. Pl. XI.. Fig. 30.
Border ornamented with tufts of slender spines, opposite the
plates.

Distribution, Britain, Mediterranean, New Zealand.

Chitonellus, Lam. O. fasciatus, Quoy. Pl. XI., Fig. 31.
Border velvety ; exposed portion of the plates small, distant;
apophyses clese together. The dentition of chitonellus is repre-
sented in Fig. 121.

Distribution, 10 species. West Indies, West Africa, Philip-
pines, Australia, Pacific, Panama. ‘The chitonelle are found in
fissures of coral rock. (Cuming.)

Fossil, Carb. Scotland.

Gryphochiton, Gray. C. nervicanus.

Helminthochiton, Salter, 1847. H. Griffithu, Salter, Geological

He Ny

Fig. 121. Chitonellus. Tasmania. (Wilton.)

Journal. Plates sub-quadrate, not covered by the mantle:
apophyses widely separated.

Fossil, Silurian. . Ireland.

Brownia, Candei, D’Orbigny, 18538. A minute discoidal
shell, associated with Helicophleyma in the first instance, but
distinguished by the serrated keels on its whorls, and lateral
notches to tke aperture. Cuba. |

Calcarella, spinosa, Souleyet, 1850.

Shell sub-globose, dextrally spiral, horny, pellucid, with three
acutely serrated keels; aperture thickened, entire. Lateral 3

GASTEROPODA. 285

lines. South Seas (= Echinospira, Krohn and Jasonilla-
Maed).

Recluzia, Petit, 1853. R. Jehennei, Red Sea. R. Rollandiana,
Atlantic, and Mazatlan.

Animal pelagic, resembling ianthina; one inch leng.

Shell paludiniform, thin, with a brown epidermis; whorls
ventricose; aperture ovate-oblique, slightly effused at the base,
margins disunited; inner lip oblique, rather sinuated in the
middle; outer lip acute, entire.

These so-called genera, formerly thought to belong to the
Atlantidze, are, for the most part, composed of prosobranchiate
larvee ; but the genera to which they belong has not yet been
ascertained.

ORDER II.—PULMONIFERA.

THis order embraces all the land-snails and other mollusca
which breathe air. They are normal gasteropods, haying a
broad foot, and usually a large spiral shell; their breathing-
organ is the simplest form of ae and is like the branchial
chamber of the sea-snails, but Aiea with a network of
respiratory vessels. One ieee division of the land-snails is
furnished with an operculated shell; the rest are in-operculate,
and sometimes shell-less.

The pulmonifera are closely related to the plant-eating sea-
snails (holostomata), through Cyclostoma, and to the nudebranchs
by Oncidiwum. As a group, they are generally inferior to the
sea-snails, on account of the comparative imperfection of their
senses, and the union of the functions a both sexes in each
individual.

SEcTION A.—IN-OPERCULATA. -

The typical pulmonifera vary much in appearance and habits,
but agree essentially in structure. Most of them have suffi-
ciently large shells; in the slugs, however, the shell is small
and concealed, or rarely quite wanting. Snail-shells contain a
larger proportion of animal matter than sea-shells, and their
structure is less distinctly stratified (p. 32). In form these
shells represent many marine genera. The greater part are
terrestrial, only some of the smaller families inhabit fresh
waters or damp places near the sea. The respiratory orifice is
small and valve-like,* to prevent too rapid desiccation in the
land-snails, and to guard against the entry of water in the

* Hence they are called Adelo-pneumona (concealed-lunged) by Gray.

286 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

aquatic tribes. Land-snails are universally distributed; but
the necessity for moist air, and the vegetable nature of their
food, favour their multiplication in warm and humid regions:
they are especially abundant in islands, whilst mm hot and
desert countries they appear only in the season of rain or dews.
Their geological history is less complete than that of the purely
marine orders; but their antiquity might be inferred from the
distribution of peculiar genera in remote islands, associated with
the living representatives of the ancient fauna of Hurope.
Fresh-water snails (Limneide) occur in the English Weald,
but fossil land-snails have not been found in strata older than
the tertiary in Europe, and then under forms generically, and
eyen in one instance specifically, identical with lhving types of
the New World (Megaspira, Proserpina, Glandina, and Helix
labyrinthica). In the coal-strata of Nova Scotia Sir Charles
Lyell has discovered a single specimen of a reversed and striated
shell, apparently a Clausilia.

The lingual dentition of the pulmonifera confirms, in a re-
markable manner, those views respecting the affinities of the
order, and its zoological value, which have been deduced from
the more obyious characters afforded by the animal and shell.
The operculated land-snails have seven-ranked teeth, lke
Paludina and Littorina. The im-operculated air-breathers
have, without known exception, rows of very numerous, similar
teeth, with broad bases, resembling tessellated pavement. Their
crowns are recurved, and either aculeate or dentated. The
lingual ribbon is very broad, often nearly as wide as it is long;
and the number of teeth in a row (though usually a third less)
is sometimes as great, or even greater, than the number of
rows. The rows of teeth are straight or curved or angulated ;
when the rows are straight the teeth are similar in shape ; curves
indicate gradual changes, and angles accompany sudden altera-
tions of form. |

viviulyly! |ylolulyl lalate!
viuiviviul jul vigivicieluivly

Fig. 122. Lingual teeth of Achatina.*

The absolute number of teeth is only a specific character, and
is usually greatest in the larger species; but the Helicedle have
fewer teeth in proportion than the AHelices, and Velletia has

* Fragment of the lingual membrane of Achatina fulica, with central and lateral
teeth more enlarged, from a specimen communicated by J. W. Laidlay, Esq.

GASTEROPODA. 287

fewer than Ancylus. The anomalous genus Amphibola (p. 139)
is said to have a tongue, armed with teeth similar to those
of the slug. 3

About one-third the lingual membrane is spread over the
tongue; the rest has its margins rolled together, and is lodged
in a sac or dental canal, which diverges downwards from the
posterior part of the mouth, and terminates outside the buccal
mass of muscles.*

The mode in which the tongue is used, may be seen by placing
a Limnea or Planorbis ina glass of water, inside which the green
conferva has begun to grow; they will be observed: incessantly
cleaning off this film. The upper lip with its mandible is raised,
the lower lip—which is horse-shoe shaped—expands, the tongue
is protruded and applied to the surface for an instant, and then
withdrawn ; its teeth glitter lke glass-paper, and in Limneea it
is so flexible, that frequently it will catch against projecting
points, and be drawn out of shape slightly as it vibrates over
the surface.

‘““The development of the (in-operculate) Pulmonifera has
been worked out by Van Beneden and Windischmann, + by Oscar
Schmidt,fand by Gegenbaur ;§ the memoir by the last-named
author, contains full information respecting Limawz and Clausilia,
and some important notices with regard to Helia.

_ “The yelk undergoes complete division. The first stage of

development consists in the separation of the embryo into
“mantle and foot. The anterior part of the body, in front of the
mantle, dilates and forms a contractile sac—the homologue of
the velwm of marine gasteropods—which in Doris, Polycera, and
_ Afolis, has been seen to exhibit similar contractions. (Gegen-
baur.) To this contractile vesicle the name of Yelk-sac was
given by Van Beneden and Windischmann, but it is a very
different organ from the true Yelk-sac, which exists in the
Cephalopoda alone among molluscs.

“A similar contractile dilatation exists at the end of the foot
—and the contractions of this ‘caudal’ vesicle and of the
‘vitellary ’ vesicle alternate, so as to produce a kind of circula-
tion before the development of the heart.

‘<The oral tentacles and parts about the mouth are the last to
be completed.

‘** A peculiar gland exists during the embryonic period, at-

* Thomson, An. Nat. Hist. Feb. 1851.

t Recherches sur l’embryogenie des Limaces. Miiller’s Archiv. 1841.

~ Ueber die Entwickelung von Limaz agrestis. Miiller’s Archiv. 1851.

§ Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Land-gasteropoden. Siebold ani
KG: liker’s Zeitschrift, 1852.

288 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

tached to the parietes of the ‘ vitellary’ vesicle, which Gegenbaur
and Schinidt compare to a Wolffian body.

‘‘Gegenbaur draws attention to the fact, that the first rudi-
ment of the shell in Limawx, Clausilia, and probably Helix, is not
secreted on the exterior of the mantle, as in other gasteropode ;
but is deposited, in the form of calcareous granules, within its
substance.

‘¢ Besides, therefore, the possession of Wolffian bodies, and of
especial contractile organs, which subserve respiration and cir-
culation during embryonic life—-the terrestrial gasteropoda are
further distinguished by the peculiar mode’ of development of
their shells—if the observations upon Clausilia and Helix may
be extended to the rest. The first development of the shell
within the substance of the mantle (a relation found hitherto
only in the Cephalopoda) is up to the present time a solitary
fact, without parallel among the other gasteropodous families.”
(Huxley.)

Famity J.—HeELIcIpz.* lLand-snails.

Sheil external, usually well developed, and capable of con-
taining the entire animal; aperture closed by an epiphrag:n
during hybernation.t
- Animal with a short retractile head, with four cylindrical,
retractile tentacles, the upper pair longest and bearing eye-
specks at their summits. Body spiral, distinct from the foot;
respiratory orifice on the right side, beneath the margin of the
shell; reproductive orifice near the base of the right ocular
tentacle ; mouth armed with a horny, dentated, crescent-shaped
upper mandible ; lingual membrane oblong, central teeth in-
Sopepicuons, laterals numerous, similar.

Her,’ Tif

Type, H. pomatia, L., Roman snail.

Etymology, Helix, a coil.

Shell umbilicated, perforated or imperforate; discoidal,
globosely-depressed or conoidal; aperture transverse, oblique,
lunar, or roundish; margins distinct, remote, or united by
callus.

Animal with a long foot, pointed behind ; lingual teeth ol
in straight rows, edge-teeth dentated.

* The account of this family is chiefly taken from Dr. L. Pfeiffer’s Monographia
Heliceorum.
+ The epiphragm is a layer of hardened mucus, sometimes strengthened with car.

bonate of lime; it is always minutely perfora'ed opposite the respiratory orifice.
¢ The synonomy of the genus would fill several pages. See p. 48,

GASTEROPODA. 289

Distribution, including the sub-genera, above 1,600 species
(several hundred species are undescribed). World-wide ; rang-.
ing northward as far as the limit of trees, and southward to
Tierra-del-Fuego, but most abundant by far in warm and humid
climates. M. D’Orbigny observed 6 species at elevations ex-
ceeding 11,000 feet in South America, and Layard found ZH.
gardeneri at the height of 8,000 feet in Ceylon. ‘The species of
tropical and southern islands are mostly peculiar. Several of
the smaller British species, and even the large garden-snail (ZH.
aspersa), have been naturalised in the most remote colonies.
The Neapolitans and Brazilians eat snails.

Fossil species about 200. Hocene—. Hurope.
Sections: Acavus, Montf. Shell imperforate. H. hemastoma,
PE ORE, Wie 1.

Geotrochus (lonchostoma) Hasselt, Trochiform, flat beneath.

Polygyra, Say. Depressed, many-whorled. H. polygyrata,
Pl. XIIL., Fig. 2.

Tredopsis, Raf. Aperture contracted by tooth-like projections.
H. Hirsuta, Pl. XI1., Fig. 5

Carocolla, Lam. Peristome continuous. H. lapicida, Pl. XIT.,
Mg. 8.

Sub-genera. Anastoma, Fischer. (Tomigerus, Spix.) H.
globulosa, Pl. XII., Fig. 4. Aperture of adult turned up-
wards, ringent; 4 species. Brazi..

Hypostoma (Boysii), Albers, is a minute Indian snail, in which
the aperture is similarly distorted.

Lychnus (Matheroni, Req.) has a similar shell, butno apertural
teeth ; 3 species occur in the Eocene Tertiary of South France.

sponta: Gray. H.contusa, Pl. XII., Fig.6. Sub-globose,
lower whorls receding from the axis of the upper; 34 species.
Brazil, West Africa, Mascarene Islands, South Asia:

Sagda, Beck. H. epistylium, Pl. XII., Fig. 7. Imperforate,
globosely conoid, close-whorled, aperture lamellate within, lip
sharp; 3 species. Jamaica.

Prosérpina (nitida), Guilding. Shel’ depressed, shining,
callous beneath ; aperture toothed inside; peristome sharp.

Distribution, 6 species. Jamaica, Cuba, Mexico.

Fossil, Kocene—. Isle of Wight. (EF. Edwards.)

Helicelia, Lam.* Type, H. cellaria, Pl. XII., Fig. 8. Shell
thin, depressed ; peristome sharp, not reflected. Lingual edge-
teeth aculeate. 110 species.

Stenopus (cruentatus), Guild.

* For this group Dr. Gray formerly employed the name Zonites, given originally by

Montfort to Helix Algira ; in his later works he adopts Z/elicella.
O

290 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Synonyms, Nanina (citrina), Gray; Ariophanta (levipes,
Pl. XIT., Fig. 9), Desm.

Shell thin, polished ; peristome thin, not reflected.

Animal with the tail truncated and glandular, like Arion ;
mantle-margin produced, partly covering the shell.

Distribution, 295 species. South Asia and Islands, New Zea-
land, Pacific Islands, West Indies.

Tanystoma (tubiferum), Benson, 1856. Shell like Anastoma,
minute, umbilicated; aperture disengaged, trumpet-like, ©
toothed. Banks of the Irawadi, above Prome.

Pfeifferia (micans), Gray, is a Nanina without the mucus-pore
at the tail. Philippines.

VirrinA, Draparnaud. Glass-snail

Type, V. Draparnaldi, Pl. XII., Fig. 28.

Synonym, Helicohmax, Fer.

Shell imperforate, very thin, depressed ; spire short, last whor
large; aperture large, lunate or rounded, colnme lle mara
slightly inflected, peristome often membranous.

Animal elongated, too large for complete retraction into the
shell; tail very short; mantle reflected over the shell-margin,
and furnished with a posterior lobe on the right side. Lingual
teeth (of type) 100 rows of 75 each ; marginal teeth with a single
loug, recurved apex. (Thomson.) Occasionally animal-feeders,
like the slugs.

V. Cuviert and Freycineti (Helicarion, Fer.), tail longer, more
abruptly truncated, with a caudal gland like arion, mantle more
developed.

Distribution, 87 species. Most abundant in north part of the
Old World. wok:

Sub-genera. Duudebardia, Hartm. (Helicophanta, Fér.) Y.
brevipes, Pl. XII., Fig. 29.

_ Shell pertomded, horizontally inyolute; aperture oblique,
ample. 8 species. Central Kurope.

Simpulopsis (sulculosa), Beck.

Shell succinea-shaped. d species. Brazil.

SuccinEA, Draparnaud, Amber- sane
Type, 8. putris, Pl. XII., Fig. 23.
Synonyms, Cochlohydra, Feér.; ; Helisiga (S. Helenz), Less. ;
Amphibulima (patula), Beck ; Pelta (Cumingi), Beck.
Shell imperforate, thin, ovate or oblong ; spire small ; aperture
large, obliquely oval; columella and peristome simple, acute.
- Animal large, tentacles short and thick, foot broad; lingual

GASTEROPODA. 291

teeth like helix; S. putris has 50 rows of 65 teeth each.
(Thomson.) Inhabits damp places, but rarely enters the water.

Distribution, 155 species. World-wide.

Fossil, 7 species. Eocene. Britain.

Sub-genus. Omalonyx, D’Orbigny. O. unguis, Pl. XII.,
Fig. 24.

Shell oval, convex, translucent, spire nearly obsolete, margins
sharp.

Animal large, slug-like; shell placed on the middle of the
back, with the mantle slightly reflected upon it all round.

Distribution, 2 species. Bolivia, Juan Fernandez.

Butiuus, Scopoli.

Etymology? Boulimos, extreme hunger (in allusion to its
voracity !).

Synonym, Bulinus, Brod. (not Adans).

Type, B. oblongus, Pl. XII., Fig. 10.

Shell oblong or turreted; aperture with the longitudinal
margins unequal, toothless or dentate ; columella entire, revolute
externally or nearly simple; peristome simple or expanded

Animal like Helix. JB. ovatus attains a length of six inches,
and is sold im the market of Rio; it
oviposits amongst dead leaves, the eggs
have a brittle shell, and the young when
hatched are an inch long. (See p. 44,
Fig. 31.)

Sections. Odontostomus(gargantuus), 4a)
Beck, aperture toothed. 13 species. fii] Logee tie
Brazil. Walt oa

Pachyotis, Beck (Caprella, Guild.),
Fig. 123.*

Portulo,. Kéer.—+-P+ faba, Pl. , XUL.,
Fig. 13, Tahiti. 26 species. Asiatic,
Australian, and Pacific Islands, South
America. The animal is ovoviviparous.

Gibbus (Lyonnetianus) Montf.

Sheli hump-backed. Mauritius, 2
species. Fig. 123.

Bulimulus, Leach. B. decollatus, Pl. XII., Figs. 11 and 12.

Shell small, lip acute. Above 300 species. England, 3 species.

* Fig. 123. Bulimus auris-vu’pina, Chemn. The great extinct land-snail of St.
Helena; from a specimen pri sented by Chas. Darwin, Esq. See “Journal of a Voyage
rout the World.”

0 2

292 ; MANUAL OF THE MOLIUSCA.

Zua, Leach. Z. lubrica, Pl. XII., Fig. 14

Shell polished, columella slightly truncated. 6 species.

Azeca, Leach. A. tridens, Pl. XII., Fig. 15.

Shell polished, peristome thickened and toothed. 4 ling
species.

Distribution, 1,120 species. Universally distributed.

Fossil, 30 species. ocene—. Europe, St. Helena, Austraiia,
West Indies.

B. Guadalupensis occurs in modern limestone, with human
remains.

AcCHATINA, Lamarck. Agate-shell.

Type, A. variegata, Pl. XII., Fig. 22.

Synonyms, Cochlitoma, Fér. Columna, Perry. Subulina
(octona), Beck. Liguus(virgineus), Montf. Cionella (acicula),
Jeffreys.

Shell imperforate, bulimiform; columella twisted, and trun-
cated in front; aperture oval, angular above ; peristome simple,
acute.

Animal snail-like. The great African Achatinze are the
largest of all land-snails, attaining a length of eight inches;
their eggs exceed an inch in length, and have a calcareous
shell.

Distribution, 870 species. Europe, Africa, Asia, and tropical
America,

Fossil, 19 species. ocene—. Hurope and St. Helena.

Sub-genera. Glandina (voluta), Schum. (Oleacina, Bolten ;
Polyphemus, Montf.)

Shell oblong, fusiform ; aperture narrow, elliptical. .

Animal twice as long as the shell; eye tentacles deflected at
the tips, beyond the eyes ; vibracula much shorter, also deflected;
lips elongated, tentacular. Frequents low and moist situations ;
in confinement one refused vegetable food, but ate another
snail. (Say.) 186 species. West Indies, Central America,
Mexico, Florida.

Fossil. Eocene—. Glandina costellata. Isle of Wight. (F.
Edwards.)

Achatinella (vulpina), Sw. (Helicteres, Fér.) Columella
twisted into a strong, tooth-like fold. Sandwich Islands 25,
Mariannes 2, Ceylon 1.

Pura, Lamarck. Chrysalis-shell.

Type, P. uva. Pl. XII., Fig. 16. "
Synonym, Torquilla (juniperi), Studer.

GASTEROPODA. 293

Shell rimate or perforate, cylindrical or oblong; aperture

_ rounded, often toothed ;* margins distant, mostly united by a

callous lamina.

Animal with a short foot, pointed behind; lower tentacles
short.

Distribution, 236 species. Greenland, Europe, Africa, India,
Pacific Islands, North and South America.

Fossil, 40 species. Carb. America. (Dawson.) Hocene—.
Europe.

Sub-genus. Vertigo, Mill. V. Venetzii, Pl. XII., Fig. 17.

Shell minute, sometimes sinistral.

Animal with the oral tentacles rudimentary or obsolete. 12
species. Old World.

Spiraxis, C. B. Adams, 1850.

Type, Achatina anomala, Pfeiffer.

Shell ovate-oblong, fusiform, or cylindrical; last whorl
attenuated; aperture narrow, right margin usually inflected,
columella more or less contorted, base scarcely truncated, fur-
nished with a deeply-entering callous lamina.

Distribution, 30 species. West Indies, Mexico, Juan Fer-
nandez.

Stenogyra, Shuttleworth, 1854. Shell elongated, turreted,
many-whorled, semi-transparent, and blunt at the apex; peri-
stome simple; shell frequently decollated.

Animal somewhat like Bulimus; middle rachidian teeth small.

Distribution, 50 species. Tropical America.

UYLINDRELLA, L. Pfeiffer. Cylinder-snail.

digpe, ©. eylmdrus, Pl. X1I,, Fig, 20:7

Synonyms, Brachypus, Guild. Siphonostoma,.Sw

Shell cylindrical or pupiform, sometimes sinistral, many-
whorled, apex of the adult truncated, aperture round, peristome
continuous, expanded.

Animal similar to clausilia ; foot short, oral tentacles minute.

Distribution, 143 species. West Indies, Mexico, Texas, South
America.

BALEA, Prideaux

Type, B. perversa. Pl. XII., Fig. 21.
Synonym, Fusulus, Fitz.

* Dr. Pfeiffer terms those teeth parietal which are situated on the body-whorl, these
on the outer lip palatal, and on the inner lip columellar.

t The figure is taken from a specimen in Mr. Cuming’s cabinet, in which the
empty apex, usually decollated, remains attached to the adult shell.

294 MANUAL OF THE MOILLUSCA.

Shell slender, usually sinistral, fusiform, multispiral, aperture
ovate; peristome acute, margins unequal, wall of the aperture
with one single plait; columella simple.

Animal snail-like ; teeth 20.20; rows 130. (Thomson.)

Distribution, 8 species. Norway, Hungary, New Granada,
Tristan d’Acunha. The British species is found, very rarely, in
Porto Santo, only on the highest peak, at an elevation of 1,668
feet. (Wollaston.)

Fossil, 1 species. Hocene.

Sub-genus. Megaspira (elatior), Lea, Pl. XII., Fig. 18.

Shell dextral, with the columella transversely plaited.

Distribution, 1 species. Brazil.

Fossil, 1 species. EHocene—. Rheims.

TORNATELLINA, Beck. ,

Etymology, diminutive (or patronymic termination) of torna-
tella.

Type, T. bilamellata, Ant.

Synonyms, Strobilus, Anton. Elasmatina, Petit,

Shell imperforate, ovate or elongated; aperture semi-lunar,
margins unequal, disunited; columella twisted, truncated ;
inner lip 1-plaited.

Distribution, 27 species. Cuba, South America, Juan Fer-
nandez, Pacific Islands, New Zealand.

Paxinius, A. Adams,

Type, P. adversus, Ad. Borneo.

Shell small, pupiform, sinistral, rimate; spire pointed; aper-
ture semi-ovate, ascending on the body-whorl; inner lp
spreading, 1-plaited, outer lip expanded, notched in front.

CLAUSILIA, Draparnaud.

Etymology, Diminutive of clauswm, a closed place,

Synonym, Cochlodina, Fér. ;

Example, C. plicatula, Draparnaud (=C. Rolphi, Leach),
Pip de, wae.) 19:

Shell fusiform, sinistral; aperture elliptical or pyriform, con-
tracted by lamellz, and closed when adult by a movable shelly
plate (clawsiwm) in the neck.

Animal with a short, obtuse foot ; upper tentacles short, lower
very small. C. bidens has 120 rows of 50 teeth; C. nigricans
90 rows of 40 teeth each.

Distribution, 386 species. Europe, Asia, Africa, and South
America.

GASTEROPODA. 295

Fossil, 20 species. Hocene—. Britain and France. Coal-
strata, Nova Scotia. (Lyell.)
CO. maxima, Grat., Miocene, Dax, is two inches in length.

Famizty I1.—Limacipm. Slugs.

Sheil small or rudimentary, usually internal, or partly con-
cealed by the mantle, and placed over the respiratory cavity.

Animal elongated ; body not distinct from the foot ; head and
tentacles retractile ; tentacles 4, cylindrical, the upper pair sup-
porting eyes; mantle small, shield-shaped; respiratory and
excretory orifices on the right side.

Fig. 124. Limaz Sowerbu, Fér. Brit.

Limax, L. Slug.

Type Li. maximus. Pl. XII., Fig. 25. (Li. cinereus, Miller.)

Shell internal, oblong, flat, or slightly concave beneath,
nucleus posterior; margin membranous; epidermis distinct.

Animal, foot poimted and keeled behind; mantle shield-
shaped on the front of the back, granulated or marked with
concentric strize ; respiratory orifice on the right side, near the
posterior margin of the mantle; reproductive orifice near the
base of the right ocular tentacle; lingual teeth tricuspid, those
near the margin simple, aculeate.

The slugs are connected with the snails by Vitrina; their teeth
are similar, but have more elongated cusps. The creeping-disk or
sole of the foot, extends the whole length of the animal; but they
frequently lift up their heads like the snails, and move their ten-
tacles in search of objects above them. They often climb trees, and
some can lower themselves to the ground by a mucous thread.
When alarmed they withdraw their heads beneath the mantie,
as in Fig. 124. Slugs feed chiefly on decaying vegetable
and animal substances; they oviposit at any time of the spring
and summer when the weather is moist, and bury themselvesin
drought and frost. Lima noctilucus, Fér. (Phosphorax, Webb),
found in Teneriffe, has a luminous pore in the posterior border
of the mantle.

296 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Distribution, 51 species. Hurope, Canaries, Sandwich Islands,
Austraha.

Fossil, Kocene—. Britain. The Ancylus? latus, Edw., of
the Isle of Wight, appears to be a Limax.

Sub-genus. Geomalacus (maculosus) Allman. Ireland.

Shell unguiform. Animal with a mucus-gland at the
extremity of the tail; respiratory orifice near the right anterior
border of the mantle.

ANADENUS, Heynemann, 1863.

Shell round, calcareous, nucleus posterior; mantle large and
rough; respiratory orifice on the right side and near the
middle of the mantle; generative orifice distant from it behind
the right tentacle. Dorsal surface not ridgel; tail without a
mucus-gland, and pointed.

Distribution, 2 species. Himalayas.

InctuaARIA, Benson.

Type I. bilimeata, Cantor, Chusan.

Synonym? Meghimatium, Hasselt.

Animal elongated, tapering behind, entirely covered by a
mantle; tentacles 4, the upper bearing eyes; the lower entire ;
respiratory orifice on the right side, near the front of the mantle.
Longitude 15 inches. 6 species. North America, China.

Philomycus (Raf.) Fér. = Tebennophorus, Binney, 1842,
Boston Society’s Journal (Helix Carolinensis, Bosc) is also a
slug with a long mantle.

Arion, Férussac. Land-sole.

Type, A. empiricorum, Fér.

Synonym, Limacella, Brard.

Shell oval, concave; or represented by numerous irregular
calcareous granules.

Animal, slug-like; respiratory orifice on the right side,
towards the front of the mantle; reproductive orifice imme-
diately below it; tail rounded, shghtly truncated, terminated
by a mucus-gland. Lingual teeth, as in imax; A. empiricorum
has 160 rows of 101 teeth each. The land-soles occasionally
devour animal substances, such as dead worms or injured
individuals of their own species. They lay 70-100 eggs between
May and September, are 26-40 days hatching, and attain their
full growth in a year; they begin to oviposit a month or two
before that period. The eggs of A. hortensis are very phos-
phorescent for the first fifteen days. (Bouchard.)

GASTEROPODA. 997

Distribution, 20 species. Europe. Norway, Britain, Spain,
South Africa.

Fossil. Newer Pliocene, Maidstone. (Morris.)

Plectrophorus (corninus, Bosc) Fér. 6 species. Teneriffe ;
represented as having a small conical shell on the tail ; probably
an erroneous observation.

PARMACELLA, Cuvier.

Type, P. Olivieri, Cuvier.

Etymology, parma, a small shield,

Synonym ? Peltella (Americana), Van Beneden.

Shell concealed; oblong, nearly flat, apex sub-spiral.

Animal vitrina-like, with an ample foot, pointed behind, and
furnished with a mucus-pore; mantle small, shield-like in the
middle of the back, partly or entirely concealing the shell.

P. calyculata, Sby. (Cryptella, Webb), Pl. XII., Fig. 27, is
pateliform, with an exposed papillary spire.

Distribution, 7 species. South Europe, Canary Islands, North
India.

JANELLA, Gray, 1850 (not Grat. 1826),

Synonym, Athoracophorus (!), Gould.

Type, Limax bitentaculatus, Quoy. Elongate, limaciform,
covered by a mantle with free margins ; back grooved ; tentacles
2, retractile, rising within the edge of the mantle; respiratory
orifice to the right of the dorsal groove, reproductive orifice
below it and beneath the mantle.

Distribution, New Zealand, on leaves.

ANEITEA, Gray, 1860.

Mantle small and triangular, tooth strap with a single median
tooth. eo:

Distribution, 1 species. A. Macdonaldii. New Hebrides, New
Caledonia.

PARMARION, Fischer. 1856.

Shell shallow, partly external; mantle large, with a free
margin anteriorly, but covered by the shell posteriorly ; genera-
tive orifice behind the right tentacle.

Distribution, 4 species. India.

TRIBONIOPHORUS, Humbert, 1863.

Iantle small, triangular, back with an almost imperceptible
furrow ; teeth with wavy edges.
Distribution, 3 species. New South Wales.

9

Ov

238 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

VIQUESNELIA, Deshayes, 1857.

Shell internal, rudimentary, oval, suborbicular, siightly con~
cave below, and thickened at the edges; summit sub-central.

Fig. 125. Testacella haliotoides, Fer.*

TESTACELLA, Cuvier.

Shell small, ear-shaped ; situated on the posterior extremity
of the body.

Animal, slug-like, elongated and tapering towards the head ;
back with two principal lateral furrows, from which numerous
vein-like grooves ramify; mantle not larger than the shell;
respiratory orifice on the right side, beneath sub-spiral apex of
the shell; reproductive orifice behind the right tentacle. The
Testacella is subterranean in its habits, feeding on earth-worms,
and visiting the surface only at night. Its lingual membrane
is very large and wide, with about 50 rows of 20.20 teeth,
which diminish rapidly in size towards the centre; each tooth
is slender, barbed at the point, and slightly thickened at the
base, and furnished with a projection on the middle of the
ada side.

SN VA, MZ yes
= SQ WV / tg
<— ~~ Si a EE

SSS vat it ll

a ig. 126.7
During winter and dry weather the Testacella forms a sort
of cocoon in the ground by the exudation
_ of its mucus, If this cell is broken, the
S32, animal may be seen completely shrouded
=< in its thin opaque white mantle, which
Z rapidly contracts until it extends but a
little way beyond the margin of the shell.
Fig, 127 represents T. Maugei (lately

* Back view of a half-grown individual; side view of shell on the tail, and front
view of the head. From specimens communicated by Arthur Mackie, Eso,, of Norwich.

7 Part of the lingual membrane of 7. haliotoides, from a preparation by Fisher
Cocken, Esq., of Botesdale. The dentition resembles that of Janthina.

Fig. 127. Testacella.

GASTEROPODA. 299

found by Mr. Cunnington, in fields near Devizes), just dis-
turbed from its sleep; s, the shell; m, the contracted
mantle.

Distribution, 8 species. South Europe, Canary Islands,
Britain (introduced).

Fossil, 2 species. Tertiary.

FaAmity II[.—OncripraDz&.

Ammal, slug-like, destitute of any shell, completely covered
by a coriaceous mantle; tentacles cylindrical, retractile, with
eyes at their extremeties ; foot much narrower than the mantle,

Oncrpium, Buchanan.

Type, O. Typhe, Buch.

Etymology, diminutive of onkos, a tubercle.

Animal oblong, convex, usually tuberculated; head with 2
retractile tentacles, bearing the eyes; mouth covered by a
notched yeil; no horny jaws; tongue broad, with above 70
rows of lingual teeth (in O. celticwm), teeth 54.1.54;* the
central teeth minute, triangular, with a single obtuse spine;
laterals slightly curved; heart opistho-branchiate; respiratory
orifice posterior, distinct from the vent; sexes combined, ¢ organ
under the right tentacle, 9 at the posterior extremity of the
body.

Distribution, 16 species. Britain, Mediterranean, Red Sea,
Mauritius, Australia, Pacific.

The typical Oncidia live on aquatic plants in the marshes of
the warmer parts of the Old World. Those which frequent
sea-shores have been separated under the name Peronia, BI.
(Onchis, Fér). One species (0. celéicum) is found on the coast
of Cornwall, congregated in little groups, about a foot or two
from the margin of the sea, where the waves break over them.
They ascend and descend, so as to maintain their distance as the
tides rise and fall; but they will not bear long immersion in
sea-water. (Couch.)

? Buchanania (oncidioides), Lesson. Named after Dr. F.
Hamilton (Buchanan), the zoologist of India.

Animal oval, entirely covered by asimple mantle; respiratory
orifice in the centre of the back ; head with 4 tentacles, retractile

* This is a convenient mode of stating the number of lin ual teeth in each row; it
means that there is a sngle (symmetrical) tooth in the centre, and 54 lateral (un-
symmetrical) teeth on each side. If the numb r of rows of teeth on the dental mem-
brane is known, it may be added below, thi s—Peronia Mauritiana, 802,80

300 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

beneath the mantle; foot oval. much smaller than the mantle;
length 3$ inches. Coast of Chili. (Requires confirmation.)

VAGINULUS, Férussac.

Type, V. Taunaisii, Férussac.

Synonym, Veronicella, Bl.

Animal elongated, slug-like, entirely covered by a thick
coriaceous mantle, smooth or granulated; head retractile under
mantle; tentacles 4, upper pair slender, cylindrical, inflated at
the tips and bearing eyes, lower pair short, bifid; foot linear,
pointed behind; sexes united; ¢ orifice behind the right ten-
tacle, 9 midway on the right side, beneath the mantle;
respiratory and excretory orifices at posterior extremity between
mantle and foot. Inhabits forests, in decayed wood and under
leaves.

Distribution, 20 species. West Indies, South America, India,
Philippines.

Famity [V.—LIMNzIDzA.

Shell thin, horn-coloured; capable of containing the whole
animal when retracted ; aperture simple, lip sharp; apex some-
times eroded.

Animal with a short dilated muzzle; tentacles 2, eyes sessile
at their inner bases; mouth armed with an upper mandible,
tongue with teeth similar to Helix. The Limnezids inhabit
fresh waters in all parts of the world; they feed chiefly on
decaying leaves, and deposit their spawn in the form of oblong
transparent masses on aquatic plants and stones. They fre-
quently glide beneath the surface of the water, shell downwards,
and hybernate or estivate in the mud.

The fresh-water snails (and also Neritina) can lower them-
selves from aquatic plants by a mucous thread, and re-ascend
by the same ; a Physa can be lifted out of the water by its thread.

Limna,* Lamarck. Pond-snail.

tymology, Limnaios, marshy.

Type, L. stagnalis, Fig. 128. Pl. XIT., Fig. 30.

Shell spiral, more or less elongated, thin, translucent; body=
whorl large, aperture rounded in front; columella obliquely
twisted.

Animal with a short, broad head; tentacles triangular, com-
pressed; lingual teeth (ZL. stagnalis) 55.1.55, about 110 rows,
central teeth minute, laterals bicuspid, the inner cusp largest.

* Adjectives employed as names for shells should have the feminine termitiation.

GASTEROPODA | 3801

I. peregra feeds on the green fresh-water algae; L. stagnalis
prefers animal substances.

Fig. 128, L, stagnalis.

Distribution, 90 species. Europe, Madeira, India, China,
North America.

Fossil, 70 species. Wealden—. Britain, France.

Sub-genus. Amphipeplea, Nilsson. A glutinosa, Pl. XII.,
Fig. 31.

Shell globular, hyaline.

Animal with a lobed mantle, capable of expansion over the
shell. 5 species. Europe; Philippines

Fig. 129. C. pulchra.

Curntnta, Gray. Chilian-snail. —

_ Example, C. pulchra, D’Orbigny, Fig. 129

Synonym, Dombeya, D’Orbigny.

Shell oval, thin, ornamented with dark spots or wavy bands;
columella thickened, with one or two strong prominent folds.

Distribution, 18 species. South America; in clear running
streams.

Fossil, 1 species. Miocene, Rio Negro, Patagonia. (D’Orb.)

Puysa, Draparnaud.

Type, P. fontinalis, Pl. XII., Fig. 32.
Etymology, Physa, a pouch.
Synonyms, Bulin, Adans. Rivicola, Fitz. Isidora, Ehr.

an? MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Shell ovate, sinistrally spiral, thin, polished ; aperture rounded
in front.

Animal with long slender tentacles; the eyes at their bases ;
mantle margin expanded and fringed with long filaments.

P. hypnorum (Aplexa, Fleming) has an elongated spire, and
the mantle margin is plain.

Physopsis, Krauss, South Africa, has the base of the columella
truncated.

Camptoceras (terebras), Benson, India, has the whorls dis-
united, and the peristome continuous. '

Distribution, 20 species. North America, Europe, South
Africa, India, Philippines.

Fossil, 43 species. Wealden—. Britain, France. The largest
living species (P. Maugerce, Ecuador ?) is 15 lines in length. A
fossil species found at Grighon measures 26 lines, and another
equally large occurs in India.

Ancyuus, Geoffroy. River-limpet.

Etymology, Ancylus (agkulos) a small round shield.

Type, A. fluviatilis, Miller. Pl. XII, Fig. 33 (Patella
lacustris, L.).

Shell conical, limpet-shaped, thin; apex posterior, sinistral ;
interior with a sub-spiral muscular scar.

Animal like Limnzea; tentacles triangular, with eyes at their
bases; lingual teeth 37.1.37, in 120 rows, centrals small, laterals
with long recurved hooks.

Distribution, 49 species. North and South America, Europe
Madeira. On stones and aquatic plants in running streams.

Fossil, 8 species. Eocene, Belgium,

Sub-genera. Velletia (oblonga, Lightfoot), Gray. (Acroloxus,
Beck.

ee and Animal dextral; hngual teeth 40, in 75 rews. 3
species. West Indies, Europe.

Fossil, 2 species. ocene. Britain, France.

Latia, neritoides, Gray; shell lmpet-like, interior with a
transverse plate, turned up and notched on one side. 2 species.
New Zealand.

PLANORBIS, Miller.

Synonym, ‘‘ Coret,” Adans.

Type, P. corneus, Pl. XII., Fig. 34.

Shell discoidal, dextral, many-whorled; aperture crescentic,
peristome thin, incomplete, upper margin projecting.

Animal with a short, round foot; head short, tentacles

GASTEROPODA. 3803

slender, the eyes at their inner bases; lingual teeth sub-
quadrate, cetitral and marginal bicuspid, laterals tricuspid ;
excretory orifices on left side of the neck.

Some species of Planorbis have the suturesand spire deeply sunk,
and the umbilicus flattened; specimens occur with
the spire elevated (Fig. 130*). P contortus, a minute
species, has above 6,000 teeth. (Cocken.) P. corneus
secretes a purple fluid. (Lister.) P. lacustris (Seg-
mentina, Fleming) has the whorls contracted inter-
nally by periodic septa, 3 in a whorl, with triradiate
openings. P. armigenus (Planorbula, Haldeman) Fig. 399.
has 6 teeth in the aperture which nearly close the passage.

Distribution, 145 species. North America, Europe, India,
China.

Fossil, 69 species. Wealden—. Britain, France.

Gundlachia, ancyliformis, Pfeiffer, 1850. Fresh waters. Cuba.

Shell thin, obliquely conic; apex inclined posteriorly; base .
closed for two-thirds by a flat, horizontal plate; aperture semi-
circular.

Famity V.—AURICULIDA.

Shell spiral, covered with horny epidermis, spire skort, body-
whorl large ; aperture elongated, denticulated ; internal septum
progressively absorbed.

Animal with a broad and short muzzle, tentacles, 2, cylin-
drical, the eyes sessile behind them ; mantle-margin thickened 5
orifices as in the snails; foot oblong; sexes united; mouth
with a horny upper jaw; lingual teeth numerous, central series
distinct, hooked, tricuspid. A. livida has about 31 laterals.
-(Loyén); another species examined by Mr. Wilton has 11
large laterals and about 100 smaller (yncini)on each side,
gradually diminishing towards the edge (Fig. 131): ¢, central
teeth; /, laterals.

PPPDpy tt
Dy t
PUPA AM
| Wp wy AN
Dipl /PP ASS
La
u Z e Fea / uw

p
Fig. 131,

The Auricule frequent salt-marshes, damp hollows, and
places overflowed by the sea; they were long regarded as
marine animals, and their shells confused with those of
Tornatella and Ringicula.

* P, marginatus, vat. Rochdale, commuticated by J. 8. Gaskoin, Esq.

304 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

AURICULA, Lamarck.

Type, A. Jude. Pl. XII., Fig. 35.

Etymology, Auricula, a little ear.

Synonyms, Cassidula, Fér. (not Lam.). Marinula (pepita}
King. Geovula, Sw.

Shell oblong, with thick, dark epidermis ; spire obtuse ; aper-
ture long, narrow, rounded in front, with 2 or 3 strong folds on
the inner lip; outer lip expanded and thickened.

Distribution, 94 species. Philippines, Celebes, Feejees, Aus-
tralia, Peru.

Fossil, 28 species. ? Neocomian—. France.

Fig. 132. A. auris-felis. (From Eyd. and Stl.)

A. Jude has truncated tentacles; the typical species are met
with in the brackish-water swamps of tropical islands, on the
roots of mangroves, and by small streams within the influ-
ence of the tide. One species has been observed by Mr. Adams
in nearly 2 fathoms water.

Sub-genera, Polydonta, Fischer, P. scarabceus, Pl. XIL., Fig.
36. (Scarabus imbrium, Montfort).

Shell oval, compressed; spire pointed, many-whorled, with

lateral varices ; aperture toothed on both sides.

Distribution, 34 species. India, Borneo, Celebes, Pacific.
Islands. Inhabits moist spots in woods near the sea, and is
wholly terrestrial, feeding on decayed vegetables. (Adams.)
1 Tertiary species.

Pedipes (afra), Adans.

Shell ovate, spirally striated, aperture denticulated on both
sides; the animal loops im walking, like truncatella.

Distribution, West Indies, Africa, Philippines, Pacific Islands.
Under stones on the sea-shore.

Fossil, 5 species. Eocene—. Britain, France.

ConovuLus, Lamarck.

Type, C. coniformis, Brug. Pl. XII., Fig. 37. (= Voluta
cofiea, L. ?) .
Synonyins, Melampus, Montfort. Rhodostoma, Sw.

GASTEROPODA. 805

Shell obtusely cone-shaped, smooth ; spire short, flat-whorled ;
aperture long, narrow; lip sharp, denticulated within; colu-
mella twisted in front; wall of the aperture with 1 or 2 spiral

laits.
Animal with short, tapering, and rather compressed tentacles ;
foot divided transversely into two portions, advanced successively
in walking.

Distribution, 56 species. West Indies, Europe. In salt-
marshes and on the sea-shore. The British species have thir
ovate shells, with the spire moderately produced, and the aper-
ture oval. They form the sub-genus Alexia (denticulata),
Leach. .

Fossil, Kocene. Britain, France.

CARYCHIUM, Miller.

Type, C. minimum, Pl. XII., Fig. 39.

Synonym, Auricella, Hartm.

Shell minute, oblong, finely striated transversely; aperture
oval, toothed, margin thickened, united by callus.

Animal, with 2 blunt, cylindrical tentacles; eyes black,
sessile, near together, behind the tentacles.

Distribution, 9 species. Europe; North America. At the
roots of grass in damp places, especially near the sea.

Fossil, 3 species. Miocene—. Hurope.

The genus Siphonaria, described at p. 281, is supposed to be
pulmoniferous, and to bear somewhat the same relation to
Auricula that Ancylus does to Limnaea. The lingual dentition
is similar to Auricula; the centre teeth are distinct, the laterals
numerous and hooked.

2 ooh
yy
., “ny inci aN RUAN eee

yD NNNI NOON ROE
-amyMMNNn gee ARERR
Fig. 133.*

SEcTION B.—OPERCULATA.+

The Operculated land-snails are exceedingly like periwinkles

* Siphonaria species from the Cape; three rows of teeth, c central, Z laterals, from a
preparation by J. W. Wilton, Esq., of Gloucester.

+ Phanera-pneumona (open-lunged), Gray. The account of this group is chiefly
taken from the catalogue prepared by my friend Dr. Baird.

306 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

(littorine), and chiefly differ from them in the situations they
inhabit, and the medium respired. They have a long truncated
muzzle, 2 slender contractile tentacles, and the eyes are sessile
on the sides of the head.* The mantle-margin is simple, and
the pulmonary cavity is situated on the back of the neck, and
quite open in front. Lingual ribbon narrow; teeth 7-ranked.

ARE

Siar ae

Fig. 134. Lingual teeth of Cyclophorus.t

The sexes are distinct; the shell is spiral, and closed by an
operculum, presenting many beautiful modifications of structure
characteristic of the smaller groups, which are often peculiar
to limited regions, as in the Helicide. The oldest fossil species
are found in the Kocene Tertiary.

Famity VI.—CYcLosToMIDz.

Shell spiral, rarely much elongated, often depressed, spirally
striated ; aperture nearly circular; peristome simple. Oper-
culum distinctly spiral.

Animal with the eyes on slight prominences at the outer
bases of the tentacles; tentacles contractile only; foot rather
elongated.

CycLosTomMA, Lamarck.

Etymology, Cyclos, circle, stoma, mouth.

Type, C. elegans, Pl. XIT., Fig. 40.

Synonym, Leonia (mammillaris) and Lithidion, Gray.

Shell turbinated, thin, axis perforated: aperture oval;
peristome continuous, simple, straight or expanded; epidermis
very thin. Operculum shelly, pauci-spiral.

* The tentacles of the helicide are retractile by inversion (p. 18), those of the
cyclostomide are contractile only.

+ C. aquilum, Sby. (original). From a specimen gathered by J, W. Laidlay, Esq.,
on the steps of the great idol-temple of Moulmein, Birmah.

GASTEROPODA. 307

Animal with clavate tentacles; sole of the foot divided by a
longitudinal groove, the side moved, alternately in walking;
the end of the long muzzle is also frequently applied, as by the
looping-snails (Truncatellz), and used to assist in climbing.

Fig. 135. Cyclostoma elegans, from Charlton, Kent.

Distribution, above 160 species. South Europe; Africa,
Madagascar. The only British species, C. elegans, is found on
calcareous soils; it ranges to the Canaries and Algeria, and
occurs fossil in the newer Tertiaries. Nearly half the species
have the whorls spirally keeled, and have been distinguished
under the name Tropidophora by Troschel. They are found
in Madagascar and the adjacent islands and coast of Africa.

Fossil, 40 species. Hocene, EKurope.

Sub-genera. Otopoma, foliaceum, Gray. Shell sub-globose,
umbilicated ; peristome with an ear-like process covering part
of the perforation. Distribution, 15 species. Arabia, Mada-
gascar, China, New Ireland.

Choanopoma, lincina, Pfeiffer. Shell often a little decollated ;
peristome usually double, the outer edge angularly expanded.
Lincina (labeo), Br., has the last whorl produced. Jamaica
(anomala), C. B. Adams, has the operculum convex. Distribution,
70 species. West Indies, and a few in Tropical America.

Cistula (fascia), Gray. = Tudora, megacheila, Gray. Shell
ovate or elongated, apex usually decollated, peristome free ;
operculum with a thin shelly outer coat. Chondropoma, semi-
labre, Pfr., differs in the operculum being “ sub-cartilaginous.”
Distribution, about 70 species. West Indies; Tropical America,
8 species.

Realia, hieroglyphica, Gray. = Hydroceena (part) Parreyss,
Omphalotropis, Pfr. Liarea (Egea), Gray. Bourciera, helicine-
formis, Pfr. Shell turreted or turbinate, perforated; peristome
simple, straight or expanded; operculum pauci-spiral, horny.
Distribution, 17 species. Canaries, ? Mauritius, Pacific Islands.
(Ecuador, Bourciera.)

Pomatias, maculatum, Studer. Shell slender, transversely
striated ; peristome reflected; operculum cartilaginous, con-

308 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

camerated within. Distribution, 18 species. South ye eae ;
Corfu, India.

Adamsiella (mirabilis) Pfeiffer, 1851 — Choanopoma, Pfr.
(part) 1847. ‘‘ Operculum thin, rather cartilaginous.” Distribu-
tion, 12 species. Jamaica, Demerara. Named after the late
Professor C. B. Adams, of Amherst, Massachusetts.

Cyclotopsis, Blanford. Asia.

? FERUSSINA, Grateloup.

Etymology, named in honour of Baron Ferussac.

Type, F. anastomeeformis, Gr.

Synonym, Strophostoma, Desh.

Shell rounded, depressed, umbilicated ; whorls transversely
striated above, spirally keeled below ; aperture turned obliquely
upwards, peristome simple. Operculum. ?

Fossil, 5 species. Miocene—. Dax; Turin.

CyYcLoPHoRUS, Montfort.

Litymology, Cyclos, circle, phoreus, bearer.

Type, C. involutus, Pl. XII., Fig. 41.

Shell depressed, openly umbilicated; aperture circular;
peristome continuous, straight or expanded; epidermis thick ;
operculum horny, many-whorled.

Animal with long, slender pointed tentacles; foot broadly
expanded, not grooved.

Distribution, about 150 species. India, Philippines, New
Zealand, Pacific Islands, Tropical America. CC. gibbus, Fér.
(Alycaeus, Gray), has the last whorl distorted. C. cornu-vena-
torium, Sby. (Aulopoma, Troschel), Ceylon, has the peristome
free when adult; the operculum is larger than the aperture,
and reflected over it.

Sub-genera. Pterocyclos (rupestris), Benson. Myxostoma and
Steganostoma, Troschel. Shell depressed, nearly discoidal,
widely umbilicated ; peristome expanded, produced into a little
wing at the suture; ‘operculum sub-cartilaginous, spirally
lamellated. Distribution, 16 species. India, Ceylon, Birmah,
Borneo ?

Cyclotus (fuscescens), Guilding (Aperostoma, Troschel). Sheli
depressed, widely salt aie onl operculum shelly, whorls
numerous, with raised margins. Distribution, 44 species. West
Indies, Tropical America, India, Asiatic Islands. Fossil, Hocene,
Isle of Wight. (F. Edwards).

Leptopoma (perlucidum), Pfeiffer. Shell turbinated, peristome
siuple, reflected; operculum membranous. Distribution, 20

GASTEROPODA. 309

species. Philippines, India, New Guinea, New Zealand, Pacific
Islands. |

Lomastoma* (cylindraceum), Guild. (Farcimen, Trosehel.)
Shell oblong or. pupa-shaped, scarcely perforated, aperture
circular; operculum thin, horny, many-whorled, flat. Distri-
bution, 19 species. West Indies, Tropical America, Canaries,
India, Mauritius. fossil, Kocene—. Paris and Isle of Wight.
(i. Forbes.)

Craspedopome (lucidum), Pfr. Shel/ turbinate, rimate, a little
contracted near the aperture; operculum round, horny, many-
whorled. Distribution, 3 species. Madeira, Palma. Fossil,
Hocene—. Isle of Wight, Madeira.

Cataulus (tortuosus), Pfr.. Shell pupa-shaped, with the base
keeled, producing a channel in the front of the aperture ; oper-
culum circular, horny, the whorls easily separable. Distribu-
tion, 6 species. Oeceylon.

Diplommatina (folliculus), Benson. Shell minute (1 species
sinistral), conical, with costulated whorls; peristome double;
operculum horny, multi-spiral. Distribution, 3 species. India.

Opisthophorus, Benson, 1855. O. biciliatus, Mouss. Shell
like Pterocyclos ; operculum double, margin grooved, interior
concamerated. Distribution, 4 species. Singapore, Borneo,
Java. ;

Hybocystis, Benson, 1859. Shell distortedly ovate; aperture
circular, interior peristome deeply notched. -Operculum shelly,
thick, multi-spiral.

Pupina, Vignard.

Type, P. bicanaliculata, Sby. Pl. XII., Fig. 42. Australian
Islands.

Shell sub-cylindrical, usually polished; aperture circular,
peristome thickened, notched in front and at the suture; oper-
culum membranous, narrow-whorled. P. grandis, Forbes, has
a dull epidermis.

Distribution, 17 species. Philippines, New Guinea, New Ire-
land, Louisiades.

Sub-genus, Rhegostoma (nunezii), Hasselt. Aperture with a
narrow channel in the middle of the columellar side. 6 species.
Philippines, Nicobar. In R. Lubricum (Callia, Gray) the sinus
is obsolete. &. pupiniforme (Pupinella, Gray) is perforated,
and has a dull epidermis.

* Abridged from Megaloma-stoma; Swainson, who judiciously cnrtailed severa:
preposterously long names, allowed this to remain.

310 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA

HeEticina, Lamarck.

Type, H. Neritella, Lam.

Synonyms, Oligyra, Say. Pachytoma, Sw. Bee Bl.
Pitonillus, Montfort.

Shell globose, depressed or keeled, callous beneath; aperture
squarish or semi-lunar; columella flattened; peristome simple,
expanded ; operculum shelly or membranous, squarish or semi-
ovate, lamellar.

Animal like Cyclophorus ; lingual teeth 3.1.3. (Gray.)

Distribution, 162 species. West Indies, Tropical America,
Pacific Islands, Australian Islands, Philippines.

Sub-genera. Lucidella (aureola), Gray. Peristome more or
less toothed internally. 8 species. West Indies, Tropical
America.

Trochatella (pulchella), Sw. Shell not callous beneath; peri-
stome simple, expanded. West Indies 20 species, Venezuela 1.

Alcadia, Gray. A. Brownei, Pl. XII., Fig. 43. Jamaica.
Shell helix-shaped, often velvety, callous beneath; columella
flattened, straight; peristome slit in front; operculum shelly,
semi-ovate, with a tooth-like process adapted to the slit in the
peristome. Distribution, 17 species. Cuba, Jamaica, and Hayti.

Stoastoma, C. B. Adams.

Etymology, stoa, pillared, stoma, mouth.

Type, 8. pisum, Ad.

Shell minute, globose-conic or depressed, spirally striated ;
aperture semi-oyal; peristome continuous; inner margin
straight, forming a small spiral keel en the umbilicus ;
operculum shelly, lamellar. .

Distribution, 19 species. Jamaica. S. succinewm (Hlectrina,
Gray) has smooth whorls. I. Opara, Polynesia. 60 new species
haye been added by the Hon. EH. Chitty, who divides them
among several new genera.

Famity VII.—AcIcULIDz.

Shell elongated, cylindrical ; operculum thin, sub-spiral.

Animal with the muzzle rather produced, slender and trun-
cated ; eyes sessile on the upper part of the head, behind the
base of the slender tentacles; foot oblong, short, pointed
behind.

AcicuLA, Hartmann.
Type, A. fusca, Pl. XII., Fig. 44.

GASTEROPODA. 311

Synonym, Acme and Acmaea, Hartmann.*

Shell minute, slender, nearly imperforate; peristome slightly
thickened, margins sub-parallel, joined by a thin callus; oper-
culum hyaline.

Distribution, 7 species. Britain, Germany, France; Vanicoro
(on leayes). A. fusca is found in low, marshy situations, at the
roots of grass; it occurs fossil in the Newer Pliocene of Essex.
(J. Brown.)

GEOMELANIA, Pfeiffer.

Type, G. Jamaicensis, Pfeiffer.

Htymology, Ge, the ground (i.e. terrestrial).

Shell imperforate, turreted; aperture entire, effused; peri-
stome simple, expanded; margins joined, basal produced into a
tongue-shaped process; operculum oval, pellucid, whorls few,
rapidly enlarging.

Distribution, 21 species. Jamaica.

ORDER III.—OPISTHO-BRANCHIATA.

Shell rudimentary or wanting. Branchice arborescent or
fasciculated, not contained in a special cavity, but more or less
completely exposed on the back and sides, towards the rear
(opisthen) of the body. Sexes united. (M. Edwards.)

The molluscs of this order may be termed sea-slugs, since
the shell, when it exists, is usually small and thin, and wholly
or partially concealed by the animal. When alarmed or
removed from their native element, they retract their gills and
tentacles, and present such a questionable shape that the inex-
perienced naturalist will be likely enough to return them, with
the refuse of the dredge, into the sea. Their internal structure
presents many points of interest; in some the gizzard is armed
with horny spines, or large shelly plates; in others the stomach
is extremely complicated, its ramifications and those of the
liver being prolonged into the papille, which are said to be
branches of the respiratory organ. The tongue is always armed,
but the number and arrangement of the lingual teeth is ex-
ceedingly variable, even in the same family ; usually the dental
membrame is broad and short, with many similar teeth in each
row.

The lingual dentition is extremely varied in the Bullide. In

* All given in the same year, 1821, the name Acmaea having been employed by

Eschscholtz for a genus of limpets; Acicula has been retained by Pfeiffer and Gray
for this land-shell.

312 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Philine aperta there is no central tooth; and the laterals, which
increase rapidly in size backwards, have a finely denticulated
membranous inner edge.

In Tornatella and Bulla (physis) the rachis is unarmed, and
the lateral teeth are nume-
rous and similar; in Acera,
Cylichna, and Amphisphyra
there is a minute central
tooth.

The alimentary canal ter-
minates more in the rear of
the body than in the other
univalve shell-fish.* The
gills are bebind the heart,
and the auricle behind the
ventricle; conditions which
characterise the embryonic

Fig. 1386. Philine aperta. (Wilton.)

state of the mollusca generally.

Comparatively little is known of the geographical distribution
of these animals; they have been found wherever the requisite
search has been made, and are probably much more numerous
than at present estimated. Considerable additions, however,
haye been made to our knowledge on this subject by the
researches of Kelaart in Ceylon and A. Adams in the Chinese
seas. The shell-bearing genera flourished in the period when
the secondary strata were deposited. The living species are
chiefly animal-feeders, preying on other shell-fish and on
zoophytes.

SECTION A.—TECTI-BRANCHIATA.}

Animal usually provided with a shell, both in the larval and
adult state; branchize covered by the shell or mantle; sexes
united.

Famity I.—ToRNATELLIDA.

Shell external, solid, spiral or convoluted ; sub-cylindrical ;

* In the cuttle-fishes and pteropods it is bent upon itself ventrally, in the sea-snails
dorsally, terminating in front, near its origin; the vascular system partakes of this
flexure, and the gills are in advance of the heart. (Huxley.)

+ Mono-pleuro-branchiata. Bl. Pomato-branchia, (from poma, a lid). Wiegm.
The order Tecti-branchiata of Cuvier included only the family Bullide ; it is here
made to comprise the /nfero-branchs also ; no object being gained by the multiplica-
tion of descriptive epithets.

GASTEROPODA. 3138

aperture long and arrow; columella plaited; sometimes
operculated.

Animal with a flattened, disk-like head, and broad obtuse
tentacles ; foot ample, furnished with lateral and operculigerous
lobes.

The shells of this family are chiefly extinct, ranging from the
period of the coal strata, and attaining their greatest develop-
ment in the cretaceous age. Tornatella is essentially related to
Bulla, but presents some resemblance to the Pyramidellide in
its plaited and operculated aperture; in Tornatina the nucleus,
or apex, is sinistral. The spiral striae which ornament many
of the species are punctate, as in the Bullide; and the outer
lip often remarkably thickened, as in Auricula.

TORNATELLA, Lamarck.

Type, T. tornatilis, Pl. XIV., Fig. 1.

Synonyms, Actzeon, Montf. (not Oken), Dactylus (solidulus),
Schum. ? Monoptygma (elegans), Lea.

Shell solid, ovate, with a conical, many-whorled spire;

Fig. 187.

spirally grooved or punctate-striate ; aperture long, narrow,
rounded in front; outer lip sharp; columella with a strong,
tortuous fold; operculum horny, elliptical, lamellar.

Animal white; head truncated and slightly notched in front,
furnished posteriorly with recumbent tentacular lobes, and
small eyes near their inner bases; foot oblong, lateral lobes
slightly reflected on the shell. Lingual teeth 12.12, similar,
with long simple hooks.

Distribution, 16 species. United States, Britain, Senegal,
Red Sea, Philippines, Japan, Peru. 7’. tornatilis inhabits deep
water—60 fathoms. (Forbes.)

Fossil, 70 species. Trias—Lias—. North America, Europe,
South India.

Sub-genera. Cylindrites (Llhwyd), Lycett. OC. acutus, Sby.
Pl. XIV., Fig. 2. (A.) Shell smooth, slender, sub-cylindrical,
spire small, aperture long and narrow, columella rounded,

P

814 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

twisted, and directed slightly outwards. (B.) Shell oval, spire
sunk, whorls with acute margins. Bath Oolite, Britain.

Acteonina, D’Orbigny. ‘Tornatelle ‘‘ without columella
plaits,” 30 species. Carb.—Portlandian (including Cylindrites).

Acteonella, D’Orbigny. A. Renauxiana, Pl. XIV., Fig. 3.
Shell thick, cone-like or conyoluted, spire short or concealed,
aperture long and narrow, columella with 3 strong and regular
spiral plaits in front. Distribution, 18 species. Chalk; Britain,
France.

Acteon Cabanetiana, D’Orbigny. (Ztieria, Matheron, 1842),
Coral-rag, France, belongs to the genus Nerinea (D’Orbigny),
p. 244.

CINULIA, Gray.

Type, O. avellana, Pl. XIV., Fig. 4.

Synonyms, Avellana and Ringinella, D’Orbigny.

Shell globular, thick, spirally grooved and punctate, spire
small; aperture narrow, rounded and sinuated in front; outer
lip thickened and reflected; crenulated inside, columella with
several tooth-lke folds.

Fossil, 21 species. Neocomian—Chalk. Britain, France.

RINGICULA, V. p. 222, Pl. V., Fig. 21.
GLopiconcHA, D’Orbigny.
Type, G. rotundata, D’Orbigny.
Fossil, 6 species. Chalk. France.

Shell ventricose, smooth, aperture crescent-shaped, simple, |
not toothed or thickened on the columellar side.

VARIGERA, D’Orbigny. 1850.*

Type, V. Guerangi, D’Orbigny.
Fossil, 8 species. Neoc:—. Chalk. France.
Shell like Globiconcha, but with lateral varices.

TYLOSTOMA, Sharp. 1849.

Type, T. Torrubiz, Sharp.

Etymology, Tulos, a callosity, stoma, mouth,

Shell ventricose, smooth or punctate-striate, spire moderate,
aperture ovate-lunate, pointed above, rounded in front; outer
lip periodically (once or twice in a whorl) thickened inside and
expanded, rising slightly ; inner lip callous, spread over body-
whorl. ,

Distribution, 4 species. Li. Cretaceous rocks, Portugal.

* The dates of M. D’Orbigny’s genera, given in the Prodrome de Paleontologie, are

dates of invention ; the names were not published, in many instances, until years
afterwards,

GASTEROPODA. 315

P PreRropontTa, D’Orbigny.

Type, P. inflata, D’Orbigny.

Fossil, 8 species. Chalk. France.

Shell oblong, ventricose, spire elongated ; aperture oval, lip
slightly expanded, notched in front, and with a tooth-like ridge
internally, remote from the margin.

P ToRNATINA, A. Adams.

Type, T. voluta. Pl. XIV., Fig. 5.

Shell cylindrical or fusiform, spire conspicuous, apex sinistral,
suture channeled, columella callous, 1-plaited.

Animal with a broad, trigonal head, rounded in front; ten-
tacular lobes triangular, with eyes at their outer bases; foot
short, truncated in front.

Distribution, 24 species. West Indies, United States, Medi-
terranean, Philippines, China, Australia. On sandy bottoms,
ranging to 35 fathoms. (Adams.)

Fossil, 13 species. Tertiary.

Volvula, Adams (Bulla acuminata, Brug.), is a small con-
voluted shell, with the spire concealed, and the columella
obsoletely folded; it is referred to Cylichna by Lovén, to
Ovulum by Forbes. Distribution, 12 species. Britain, Medi-
terranean, Asia. fossil, Pliocene—. Suffolk.

Famiuy I1.—BuLLIDA.

Shell globular or cylindrical, convoluted, thin, often punctate-
striated ; spire small or concealed; aperture long, rounded and
sinuated in front; lip sharp. No operculum.

Animal more or less investing the shell; head a flattened
disk,* with tentacular lobes, often united ; eyes immersed in the
centre of the disk, or wanting; foot oblong, furnished with a
posterior lobe (meta-podiwm), and side-lobes (epipodia) ; gill
single on the right side of the back, covered by the shell;
mantle-margin simple or expanded, and enveloping the shell.
Lingual dentition very various; central teeth often wanting,
laterals single or numerous. Gizzard armed with calcareous
plates. Sexes united.

* The cephalic expansion of the Bullide is formed by the fusion of the dorsal and
oral tentacles. (Cuvier.) The tentacular lobes, or posterior part of the disk, is sup-
plied with nerves from the olfactory ganglia; the anterior portion of the disk receives
branches from the labial nerve, which comes from the front margin of the cerebroid.
( Hancock.)

P2

315 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The Bullide are animal feeders; they are said to use their
lateral lobes for swimming. About 150 recent species have
been described by Mr. A. Adams in Sowerby’s Thesaurus Con-
chyliorum. Fossil species date from the lower Oolites; one is
found in the Aralo-Caspian formation.

Buia, Lamarck. Bubble-shell.

Type, B. ampulla, Pl. XIV., Fig. 6.

Synonym, Haminea (hydatis), Leach.

Sheil oval, ventricose, convoluted, external or only partially
invested by the animal; apex perforated; aperture longer than
the shell, rounded at each end; lip sharp.

Animal with a large cephalic disk, truncated in front, bilobed
behind, the lobes laminated beneath; eyes sub-central, immersed
or wanting; lateral lobes very large, reflected on the sides of
the shell, posterior lobe covering the spire; foot quadrate ;
gizzard furnished with 3 chiton-like plates; teeth. ?

Bulla naucum (Atys, Montf. Alicula, Ehr. Roxania, Leach).
Pl. XIV., Fig. 7; has the columella twisted, and the spire
entirely concealed.

Distribution, 50 species. In all temperate and tropical seas,
especially on sandy bottoms, ranging from low water to 25 or 30
fathoms.

Fossil, 70 species. Oolite—. South America, United States,
Europe.

Sub-genera 2 Crypt-opthalmus (smaragdinus), Ehr. Red Sea.
Shell scarcely conyolute, fragile, oval, convex, without spire or
columella. Animal semi-cylindrical, head with short tentacular
lobes, eyes small, concealed under the lateral margins of the
head, mantle and lateral lobes enveloping the shell. |

Phaneropthalmus, A. Adams. (Xanthonella, Gray) B. lutea,
Quoy, New Guinea. Shell oval, convex, poited behind,
columella margin with a curved process. Animal long, cylin-
drical, head with short tentacular lobes, eyes in middle of disk,
lateral lobes enveloping.

Linteria, A. Adams (Glauconella, Gray; Smaragdinella, A.
Adams), Bulla viridis, Rang. Pl. XIV., Fig. 8. Shell oval,
widely open, showing the rudimentary internal spire. Animal
with a squarish, disk-like head, eyes sessile in the centre;
mantle not investing; a posterior lobe; lateral lobes envelop-
ing.

‘ AcERA, Miiller.

Type, A. bullata, Pl. XIV., Fig. 9.

Etymology, Akeros, hornless.

GASTEROPODA. 317

Shell thin, flexible, globosely-cylindrical, spire truncated,
whorls channeled ; aperture long, expanded and deeply sinuated
in front, outer margin disunited at the suture; columella open,
exposing the whorls.

Animal with a short and simple head-lobe, truncated in front
and eyeless; lateral lobes nearly concealing the shell; lingual
teeth hooked and serrulate, laterals about 40, narrow, claw-
shaped ; gizzard armed with horny teeth.

Distribution, 7 species. Greenland, Britain, Mediterranean,
Zanzibar, India, New Zealand.

A. bullata is found amongst weed, in 1—15 fathoms water.
(Forbes. )

CYLICHNA, Lovén.

Type, C. cylindracea, Pl. XIV., Fig. 10.

Synonym, Bullina, Risso.

Shell strong, cylindrical, smooth or punctate-striate; spire
minute or truncated; aperture narrow, rounded in front;
columella callous, with one plait.

Animal short and broad, not investing the shell; head
flattened, truncated in front, with sub-centrally immersed eyes,
tentacular lobes more or less united; foot oblong, posterior and
lateral lobes not much developed ; gizzard armed; l:ngual teeth
squarish, recuryed and serrated, with 1 large and 5 or 6 small
hooked laterals.

Distribution, 40 species. United States, Greenland, Britain,
Red Sea, Australia.

Fossil, Tertiary—. Britain.

? KLEINELLA, A. Adams.

Shell thin, dotted, striated, columella smooth, spire obtuse.
Distribution, 1 species. Japan.

AMPHISPHYRA, Loyén.

Type, A. pellucida, Johnst. (Amphi-sphyra, double hammer)

Synonyms, Utriculus (part), Brown. Rhizorus, Montfort.
Diaphana, Brown.

Shell small, thin, ovate, truncated, spire minute papillary,
aperture long.

Animal entirely retractile into its shell; head wide, short,
with lateral triangular tentacles ; the eyes behind them minute,
immersed; muzzle bilobed in front; foot oblong, truncated in
front, notched behind ; teeth 1.1.1, central quadrate, serrulate ;
laterals broad, hooked.

318 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Distribution, 7 species. United States, Norway, Britain,
Borneo, Mexico.

Buccinuuvus, Blanchard.

Shell thick ; columella with two plaits; aperture small, entire
in front.
Distribution, 10 species. South Seas.

APLUSTRUM, Schumacher.

Type, Bulla aplustre, Pl. XIV., Fig. 11.
- Etymology, aplustre, a ship’s flag.

Synonyms, Bullina, Fér. Hydatina (physis), Schum. Bullinula
(scabra), Beck.

Shell oval, ventricose, highly coloured ; spire wide, depressed ;
aperture truncated in front; outer lip sharp.

Animal with a very large foot, extending beyond the shell all
round, and capable of enveloping it; a posterior lobe reflected
on the spire; mantle not investing ; tentacular lobes large, oval,
ear-shaped; labial tentacles four; eyes small, black, sessile at
the inner bases of the tentacles; lingual teeth (B. physis)
-13.0.13, serrated.

Distribution, 10 species. United States, West Indies, Mauri-
tius, Ceylon, China, Australia.

ScAPHANDER, Montfort.

Type, S. lignarius, Pl. XIV., Fig. 12.

Etymology, scaphe, boat, aner, man.

Shell oblong, conyolute; spirally striated; aperture much
expanded in front; spire concealed; epidermis thick ; lingual
teeth 1.0.1, crested.

Animal with a large oblong head, destitute of eyes; foot
short and broad ; lateral lobes reflected, but not enveloping the
shell; gizzard with two large trigonal plates and a small narrow
transverse plate (Fig. 17). It feeds on Dentaliwm entale.

Distribution, 13 species. United States, Norway, Britain,
Mediterranean on sandy ground; 50 fathoms.

Fossil, 8 species. Hocene—. Britain, France.

PHILINE (Ascanius, 1762).

Type, B. aperta, Pl. XIV., Fig. 13.

Synonym. Bulleea. Lamarck.

Shell internal, white, translucent, oval, slightly convoluted,
spire rudimentary.

Animal pale, slug-like; mantle investing the shell; head

GASTEROPODA. ; 319

oblong; eyeless; foot broad; lateral lobes large, but not
enveloping; tongue with two or four series of sickle-shaped
uncini ; gizzard with three longitudinal shelly plates. Hgg

Fig. 138. Philine aperta.*

capsules ovate, in single series on a long spiral thread; fry
with, a ciliated head-veil and an operculated, spiral shell.
(Loyén.)

Distribution, 16 species. West Indies, Greenland, Norway,
Britain, Mediterranean, Corea, Borneo.

Fossil, 7 species. Hocene—. France.

Sub-genus. Chelidonura, A. Adams, (Hirundella, Gray) B.
hirundinaria, Quoy, Mauritius. Shell concealed; outer lip
produced posteriorly into a spur; columellar border inflected.
Animal with enveloping side-lobes ; mantle with two appendages
behind, like the lateral processes of Hyalaea.

Doripium, Meckel.

Etymology, diminutive of Doris.

Synonym, Acera, Cuvier. Hidothea, Risso.

Type, D. membranaceum, Meck. Mediterranean.

Distribution, 3 species. South Europe.

Animal oblong, truncated behind, the angles produced and
dilated or filiform; head ovate-oblong, retuse in front; side-
lobes expanded, wing-lke; mantle investing a rudimentary,
membranous shell.

GASTROPTERON, Meckel.

Type, G. Meckelu, Bl. (Clio amate, Chiaje) Mediterranean.

Animal shell-less, oval, with side-lobes developed into wing-
like expansions, meeting and uniting behind; cephalic disk
triangular, obtuse in front, pointed behind, eyes centrally
immersed; lingual teeth 5.1.5; mantle? branchial plume
exposed on the right side; reproductive orifice in front of the

* From a specimen dredged at Folkestone; 0, mouth; c, head, or cephalic disc,

1, side-lobes of the foot; m, mantle. The shell s, and gizzard g, are indistinctly seen
through the translucent integuments.

320 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

gill, excretory opening behind it.: Longitude 1, latitude 2 inches.
2 species.

PuysEemA, A. Adams.

Shell glassy, globular, contracted in the middle and drawn
out to a point in front.
Distribution, 1 species. West coast of North America.

Sormetus Adansonii, Bl., is described as semi-cylindrical, with sides grooved, head
indistinct ; shell unguiform, thin, and transparent.

Atlas (Peroni, Bl.), Lesueur. Head with two small tentacular lobes; body con-
tracted in the middle; foot dilated circularly, and fringed at the margin

Famity II1.—APiLysIaApDm.

Shell wanting, or rudimentary and covered by the mantle,
oblong, trigonal, or slightly convoluted.

Animal slug-like, with distinct head, tentacles, and eyes;
foot long, drawn out into a tail behind; sides with extensive
lobes, reflected over the back and shell; branchial plume con-
cealed. Sexes united.

APLYSIA, Gmelin. Sea Hare.

Type, A. depilans, Pl. XIV., Fig. 14.

Synonym, Siphonotus (geographicus) Ad.

Shell oblong, convex, flexible, and translucent, with a pos-
terior shightly incurved apex.

Animal oval, with a long neck and prominent back; head
with four tentacles, dorsal pair ear-like with eyes at anterior
lateral bases; mouth proboscidiform, with horny jaws, lingual
teeth 13.1.13, hooked and serrated, about 30 rows; gizzard
armed with horny spines; sides with ample lobes folding over
the back, and capable of being used for swimming; gill in the
middle of the back, covered by the shell and by a lobe of the
mantle, which is folded posteriorly to form an excretory siphon.

Distribution, 42 species. West Indies, Norway, Britain,
Mediterranean, Mauritius, China.

The Sea-hares are mixed feeders, living chiefly on sea-weed,
but also deyouring animal substances; they inhabit the
laminarian zone, and oviposit amongst the weed in spring, at
which time they are frequently gregarious. (Forbes.) They
are perfectly harmless animals, and may be handled with
impunity. When molested they discharge a violet fluid from
the edge of the internal surface of the mantle, which does rot
injure the skin, has but a faint smell, and changes to wine-red.

GASTEROPODA, o21

(Goodsir.) In old times they were objects of superstitious
dread, on account of their grotesque forms, and the imaginary
properties of their fluid, which was held to be poisonous and to
produce indelible stains. *

Fossil, one or two shells of the newest tertiary in Sicily have
been doubtfully referred to this genus.

Sub-genus. Aclesia (dolabrifera), Rang. Shell trapeziform.
Side-lobes closely enveloping the body, leaving only a small
dorsal respiratery opening, surface ornament with filaments.
9 species, Hast Indies.

DOLABELLA, Lamarck.

tape. Rumphu, Pl, XTV., Fig. 15,

Etymology, dolabella, a small hatchet.

Shell hard, calcareous, trigonal, with a curved and callous
apex.

Animal like Aplysia, with gill near posterior extremity of the
body and lateral crests closely appressed, leaving only a narrow
opening; ornamented with branching filaments.

Distribution, 12 species. Mediterranean, Mauritius, Ceylon,
Society Islands, Sandwich Islands.

STYLOCHEILUS, Gould, 1841.

Synonym, Aplysia longicauda Q. and G.

Animal limaciform, cirrigerous, dilated at the sides, attenuated
behind; neck distinct; tentacles 4, long, linear, papillose, far
apart; lips dilated laterally into tentacular processes,

Distribution, 3 species. New Guinea, on uci.

DoLABRIFERA, Grube.
Shell trapezoidal ; side-lobes not used for swimming.
Distribution, 4 species. Indian Ocean, West America.
SIPHONOPYGE, Brown.

Shell truncated in front ; foot-lobes spread out for swimming;
posterior part extended beyond the siphon.
Distribution, 6 species. West America, Chinese Sea.

NoTarcuvus, Cuvier.
Type, N. Cuvieri, Bl.
Htymology, notos, the back, archos, vent.
Synonym, Busiris (griseus), Risso, P Bursatella (Leachii), Bl.

* Aplysia (from @ and pluo) un-washable: the Aplysia of the Greek fishermen
were sponges unfit for washing.
Pd

$22 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Animal shell-less, ornamented with filaments, sometimes
dendritic, foot narrow, lateral crests united, leaving only a
narrow branchial slit ; gills not covered by an opercular mautle
lobe.

Distribution, 7 species. Mediterranean, Red Sea.

Icarus, Forbes, 1843. |

Type, I. Gravesi, F.

Synonym, Lophocercus (Sieboldtii) Krohn, 1847.

Shell like Bullea: convoluted, thin, ovate, covered with
epidermis, outer lip separated at the suture, posterior angle
inflected and rounded.

Animal slender, papillose; tentacles 2, ear-shaped; eyes
sessile on sides of head; side-lobes reflected and partly covering
the shell, united behind; tail long and pointed.

LosicEerR, Krohn.

Type, I. Philipp, Pl. XIV., Fig. 16. Sicily.

Shell oval, transparent, flexible, slightly convoluted; covered
with epidermis.

Animal slender, papillose, with two flattened, oval tentacles,
and minute sessile eyes on the sides of the head; shell exposed
on the middle of the back, covering the leone ia gill; sides
with two pairs of rounded, dilated lobes, or natatory appendagés,
foot linear, tail long and slender.

Distribution, 4 species. Atlantic; South Europe.

Famity 1[V.—PLEUROBRANCHIDA.

Shell limpet-like or concealed, rarely wanting; mantle or
shell covering the back of the animal; gill lateral, between the
mantle-margin and foot; food vegetable, stomach extremely _
complicated.

PLEUROBRANCHUS, Cuvier.

Example, P. membranaceus, Play .,) Pigs 1%,

Etymology, pleura, side, branchia, gill.

Synonyms, Berthella (plumula), Bl. Oscanius (membr.), Gin

Shell internal, large, oblong, flexible, slightly convex.
lamellar, with a posterior, sub-spiral nucleus.

Animal oblong, convex; mantle covering the back and sides,
papillated, containing spicula; foot large, separated from the
mantle by a groove; gill single, free at the end, placed on the
right side between the mantle and foot; orifices near the

GASTEROPODA. 823

base of the gill; head with two grooved tentacles, eyes at their
outer bases; mouth armed with horny jaws and covered by a
broad veil with tentacular lobes.

Distribution, 22 species. South America, Norway, Britain,
Mediterranean, Red Sea, Ceylon.

Sub-genus 2? Pleurobranchwa, Meckel; P. Meckellii, Leve,
Mediterranean. Synonym, Pleurobranchidium (maculatum),
Quoy, South Australia, Mantle-margin yery narrow, not
concealing the gill; dorsal tentacles ear-like, oral veil tentacu-
liform.

POSTEROBRANCHEA, D’Orbigny.

Type, P. maculata, D’Orbigny. Coast of Chili.

Animal shell-less; oval, depressed, covered by a mantle
broader than the foot; foot oblong, bilobed behind ; branchial
plume on the left side, projecting posteriorly; reproductive
orifice in front of gill, excretory behind; proboscis covered by
a broad bilobed veil; no dorsal tentacles.

RuncinA, (Forbes) Hancock.

Type, R. Hancocki, Forbes.

Synonym, ? Pelta, Quatr. (not Beck).

Animal minute, slug-like, with a distinct mantle; eyes
sessile on the front part of the mantle; no tentacles; gills 3,
slightly plumose, placed with the vent on the right side, at the
hinder part of the back, beneath the mantle; gizzard armed;
reproductive organs on the right side.

Distribution on Confervee near high-water mark, Torbay.

Nepa, H. and A. Adams.

Animal shell-less ; mouth terminating a proboscis, which is
long and thin; oral veil half-moon shaped, with two lateral
recurved tentacles.

Distribution, 1 species. South Hurope.

SUSARIA, Griibe.

Shell small; mantle tuberculated, extending well over both
head and foot; notched in front.
Distribution, 1 species. South Hurope.

UMBRELLA, Chemnitz. Chinese-umbrella shell.

Type, U. umbellata, Pl. XTV., Fig. 18.
Synonym, Acardo, Lam. Gastroplax, Bl.
Shell, limpet-like, orbicular, depressed, marked by concentric

824 MANUAL OF ThE MOLLUSCA.

lines of growth; apex sub-central, oblique, scarcely raised ;:
margins acute; imner surface with a central coloured and
striated disk, surrounded by a continuous irregular muscular
impression. It has a minute sinistral nucleus.

Animal with a very large tuberculated foot, deeply notched
in front; mouth small, proboscidiform, retractile into the pedal
notch, covered by a small-lobed veil; dorsal tentacles ear-
shaped, with large plicated cavities at their bases ; eyes small,
sessile between the tentacles; mantle not extending beyond the |
shell; gill forming a series of plumes beneath the shell in front
and on the right side; reproductive organ in front of the dorsal
tentacles; excretory orifice posterior, tubular.

Distribution, 6 species. Canaries, Mediterranean, India, China,
Sandwich Islands.

Fossil, 4 species. Oolite—. United States, Sicily, Asia.

TYLODINA, Rafinesque.

Q

Type, T. punctulata, Raf. (= citrina, Joamnis). 3 species.
Mediterranean, Norway.

Fossil, 1 species. Tertiary.

Shell limpet-like, depressed, apex sub-central, with a minute
spiral nucleus.

Animal oblong, foot truncated in front, rather pointed
behind; dorsal tentacles ear-like, with eyes sessile at their
inner bases; oral tentacles broad; branchial plume projecting
posteriorly on the right side.

FAMILY V.—PHYLLIDIADA.

Animal shell-less, covered by a mantle, branchial laminz
arranged in series on both sides of the body, between the foot —
and mantle. Sexes united.

PHYLLIDIA, Cuvier.

Type, P. pustulosa, Cuvier.
Htymology, diminutive of phyllon, a leaf.
| Animal oblong, covered with a coriaceous tuberculated

mantle; dorsal tentacles clavate, retractile into cavities near
the front of the mantle; mouth with two tentacles; foot
broadly oval; gills forming a series of laminz extending the
entire length of both sides; excretory orifice in the middle
line, near the posterior end of the back, or between the mantle
and foot; ‘reproductive organs on the right side; stomach
simple, membranous.

Distribution, 5 species. Mediterranean, Red Sea, India.

GASTEROPODA. 325

FRYERIA, Grube,

Excretory orifice on the side of the foot under the mantle,
which is leathery and warty; 6 gills entire length of both
sides.

Distribution, 1 species. South Sea, Hast Africa.

HYpoBRANCHIZ@A, A. Adams.

Mantle cuticular; gills limited to the hinder part of the
body; excretory orifices at the side, under the mantle.
Distribution, 1 species. Japan.

DIPHYLLIDIA, Cuvier.

Type, D. Brugmansii, Cuvier.

Synonym, Pleurophyllidia, Chiaje. Linguella, BI.

Animal oblong, fleshy; mantle ample; gills limited to the
hinder two-thirds of the body ; head with minute tentacles and.
a lobe-like veil ; vent at the right side, behind the reproductive
orifices; lingual teeth 30.1.30.

Distribution, 9 species. Norway, Britain (D. lineata, Otto),
Mediterranean, India.

SEcTION B.—NUDIBRANCHIATA.

Animal destitute of a shell except in the embryo state ;
branchize always external, on the back or sides of the body.
Sexes united. .

The Nudibranchiate sea-slugs are found on all coasts where
the bottom is firm or rocky, from between tide-marks to a
depth of 50 fathoms; a few species are pelagic, crawling on the
stems and fronds of floating sea-weed. They have been found
by Middendorff, in the Icy Sea, at Sitka, and in the sea of
Ochotsk ; in the tropical and southern seas they are abundant.
No satisfactory account, however, has been published of any
except the European, and especially the British species, which
form the subject of an admirable monograph by Messrs. Alder
and Hancock, in the publications of the Ray Society. They
require to be watched and drawn whilst living and active, since
after Immersion in spirits they lose both their form and colour.
In some the back is covered with a cloak or mantle (?), which con-
tains calcareous spicula of various forms, sometimes so abun-
dant as to form a hard shield-like crust.* The dorsal tentacles
and gills pass through holes in the cloak somewhat like the
‘“key-hole” in Fissurella. In others there is no trace of a

* According to Mr. Huxley, the ‘cloak ” of the Dorids is not the equivalent of the
mantle, but “has more relation to the epipodium ”

326 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

mantle whatever. The eyes appear as minute black dots,
immersed in the skin, behind the tentacles; they are well
organised and conspicuous in the young, but often invisible in
the adult. The dorsal tentacles are laminated, like the antennze
of many insects (Fig. 11, p.17); they are never used as
organs of touch, and are supplied with nerves from the olfactory
ganglia, The nervous centres are often conspicuous by their
bright orange colour; they are concentrated above the
cesophagus ; three pairs are larger than the rest, the cerebroid
in front, the branchial behind, and ‘the pedal ganglia at the
sides. The cerebroid supplies nerves to the tentacles, mouth,
and lips.

The olfactory ganglia are sessile on the front of the cerebroid
(in Doris), or situated at the base of the tentacles (in Holis).
The optic ganglia are placed on the posterior border of the
cerebroid; the auditory capsules are sessile on the cerebroid,
immediately behind the eyes, they contain an agglomeration of
minute otolites, which are continually oscillating.* The buccal
ganglia are below the cesophagus, united to the cerebroid by
commissures, forming a ring; anterior to this a small ring is
sometimes formed by the union of the fifth pair of nerves. The
pedal ganglia (properly infra-cesophageal) are united laterally
to the cerebroid and rarely meet below, but are united by com-
missures which form (together with those of the branchial
centres) the third ring, or great nervous collar. The branchial
ganelia are united behind to. the cerebroid, and sometimes
blend with them; they supply the skin of the back, the rudi-
mentary mantle, and the gills; beneath and sessile on their
front border is the single visceral ganglion. Besides this excito- _
motory system (which includes the great centres, or brain, and
the nerves of sensation and voluntary motion), the nudibranchs
possess a sympathetic system, consisting of innumerable minute
ganglia, dotted over all the viscera, united by nerves forming
plexuses, and connected in front with the buccal and branchial
centres. .

The digestive organs of the Nudibranchs present two remark-
able modifications: in Doris and Tritonia the liver is compact

* The atditory capsules of other Mollusca (excepting the Nucleobranchs) are
attached to the posterior side of the pedal (sub-cesophageal) ganglia,

+ The sympathetic system supplies nerves to the heart and other organs which are
independent of the will, and not ordinarily susceptible of pain; they are called
“organic” nerves, as all the vegetative functions depend on them, Its existence in the
Mollusca was first clearly demonstrated by MM. Hancock and Embleton. The excito=
motory system of the Mollusca corresponds with the cerebro-spinal system of tae
vertebrata.

GASTEROPODA. 327

and the stomach a simple membranous sac; whilst in olis
the liver is disintegrated, and its canals so large that the
process of digestion must be chiefly carried on in them, and
they are regarded as coecal prolongations of the stomach; the
coeca extend into a series of gill-like processes, arranged upon

a Via

Fig. 189. Dendronotus arborescens.

the back of the animal, which also contain part or the whole of
the true liver; the gastric ramifications yary exceedingly in
amount of complexity. The Doridide are distinguished by
having a short and wide lingual membrane with numerous
similar teeth ; the Alolids have a narrow ribbon with a single
series of larger teeth. In Dendronotus a large central tooth is
flanked by a few small denticulated teeth. (Alder and Hancock,
Pi EL Eis, 8.)

The only Nudibranch with a solid upper jaw, is “girus
punctilucens (A. and H., Pl. XVII., Fig. 15). In other instances
the two halves are articulated and act as lateral jaws. In
Agirus the mouth is also furnished with membranous fringes
(A. and H., Pl. XVII., Fig. 14). Ancula cristata has a for-
midable spinous collar (Pl. XVII., Fig. 7).

Fig. 140. a, Mouth of girus punctilucens.
6, Horny upper mandible detached,
c, Prehensile collar of Ancula.

a, mantle; z, dental sac; 6, insertion-plate of mandible ; c, passage of mouth.

The vascular system and circulation of the nudibranchiate
molluscs is incomplete. In Doris veins can be traced only in
the liver and skin; the greater part of the blood from the
arteries escapes into the visceral sinus and into a network of

328 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

sinuses in the skin, from which it returns to the auricle by two
lateral veins, without having circulated through the gills. The
heart is contained in a pericardium to which is attached a small
ventricle, or portal heart, for impelling blood to the liver; the
hepatic veins run side by side with the arteries and open into a
circular vein, surrounding the vent, and supplying the gills,
Only hepatic blood, therefore, circulates through the gills. In
Holis there are no special gills, but the gastro-hepatic papille
are accompanied by veins which transmit blood to the auricle.
The skin acts as an accessory breathing-organ; it performs the
function entirely in the Hlysiade, and in the other families, when
by accident the branchiz are destroyed. The water on the gills
is renewed by ciliary action. The fry is provided with a trans-
parent, nautiloid shell, closed by an operculum, and swims with
a lobed head-veil fringed with cilia, like the young of most
other gasteropods. (Hancock and Embleton, Phil. Trans. 1852.
An, Nat. Hist. 1843.)

Famity VI.—Dorips@.* Sea-lemons.

Animal oblong; gills plume-like, placed in a circle on the
middle of the back; tentacles two; eye-specks immersed,
behind the tentacles, not always visible in the adult; lingual
membrane usually with numerous lateral teeth, rachis often
edentulous; stomach simple; liver compact; skin strengthened
with spicula, more or less definitely arranged.

Doris, L.

Etymology, doris, a sea-nymph.

Example, D. Johnstoni, Pl. XIII., Fig. 1.

Synonyms, Dendrodoris, Eb. Hemidoris, Strp.

Animal oval, depressed; mantle large, simple, covering the head
and foot; dorsal tentacles 2, clavate or conical, lamellated, retrac=-
tile within cavities; gills surrounding the vent on the posterior
part of the back, retractile into a cavity; head with an oral
veil, sometimes produced into labial tentacles; mouth with a
lower mandible, consisting of two horny plates, wnited near
the front, and having 2 projecting points; lingual teeth nume-
rous, central small, laterals similar, hooked and sometimes
serrated, 24-68 rows; 37-141 in a row; nidamental ribbon
rather wide, forming a spiral coil of few vyolutions (p. 41,
Fig. 29).

* Contracted from Doridide ; as the Greeks used Deucalides for Deucaliontiades,

Ehrenberg divided the genus Doris into sections by the number and form of the gills,
characters of only specific importance,

GASTEROPODA. | 329

Sub-genus. Oncidoris (Bl?). D. bilamellata, Johnst. Back
elevated, tuberculose; gills non-retractile; oral tentacles fused
into a veil; buccal mass with a gizzard-like appendage; lingual
teeth 2 in each row. (A. and H.)

D. scutigera (Villiersia), D’Orbigny, Rochelle ; has the mantle
more than usually strengthened with calcareous spicula.

Distribution, 100 species.

The Dorids vary in length from 3 lines to more than 3 inches;
they feed on zoophytes and sponges, and are most plentiful on
rocky coasts, near low water, but range as low as 25 fathoms.
They occur in all seas, from Norway to the Pacific.

HEPTABRANCHUS, A. Adams.
Mantle without a longitudinal ridge on the back; 7 gills
arranged in a semicircle; oral tentacles star-shaped.
HEXABRANCHUS, Ehrenberg.

Same as last, but with 6 gills arranged in a cross on the hinder
part of the body; oral tentacles notched.

ATAGEMA, Grube.
Mantle with longitudinal ridge on the back; tentacles clavate,

retractile; gills very small.
Distribution, 1 species. New Zealand.

Actinocycuus, Ehrenberg.

Animal ovate; back naked; gills very plumose.
Distribution, 7 species. East Africa and South Europe.

CHROMODORIS.

Animal almost quadrangular; back naked; feathery gills
arranged lineally.
Distribution, 1 species. Hast India.

ASTERONOTUS, Ehrenberg,
Animal ovate: the apertures for the gills and tentacles almost
closed.
Distribution, 2 species. Hast Africa and South Europe.

GLossoDoRIs, Ehrenberg.

Synonym, Pterodoris, Eb. |

Tentacles retractile; back covered with unequal cylindrical
processes ; a thread-like process on each side of the fore part of
the foot.

Distribution, 7 species. Hast India and West America,

Cc

530 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

GONIODORIS, Forbes.

Etymology, gonia, an angle.

Type, G. nodosa, Pl. XIII., Fig. 2.

Animal oblong; tentacles clavate, laminated, non-retractile ;
mantle small, simple, exposing the head and foot. Spawn
coiled irregularly.

Distribution, 26 species. Norway, Britain (2 species), Medi-
terranean, China. Between tide-marks.

TRIOPA, Johnston.

Type, T. claviger, Pl. XIII., Fig. 3.

Synonym, Psiloceros, Menke.

Animal oblong; tentacles clavate, retractile within sheaths;
mantle margined with filaments; gills few, pinnate, around or
in front of the dorsal vent. (A. and H.) Lingual teeth 8.1.8,
or 8.0.8.

Distribution, 3 species. Norway and Britain. Low water—
20 fathoms.

AHGIRUS, Lovén.

Type, Ai. punctilucens, Pl. XIII., Fig. 4

Etymology, ? aix (aigos), a goat.

Animal oblong or elongated, covered with very large tubercles;
no distinct mantle ; tentacles linear, retractile within prominent
lobed sheaths; gills dendritic, placed around the dorsal vent.
(A. and H.) Lingual teeth 17.0.17.

Distribution, 3 species. Norway, Britain (2 species), France.
Littoral zone.

THECACERA, Fleming.

Etymology, theke, a sheath, ceras, a horn.

Type, T. pennigerum, Mont.

Animal oblong, smooth; tentacles clavate, laminated, re- —
tractile within sheaths; head with a simple frontal -veil; gills
pinnate, placed round the dorsal vent, and surrounded by a row
of tubercles. (A. and H.)

Distribution, Britain, 2 species. Length, 4—3 inch. Found
at low water.

PoLYcERA, Cuvier.

Etymology, potycera, many horns.

Type, P. quadrilineata, Pl. XIII., Fig. 5.

Animal oblong or elongated; tentacles laminated, non-
retractile, sheathless; head-veil bordered with tubercles or

GASTEROPODA. 331

tentacular processes ; gills with 2 or more lateral appendages.
(A. and H.)

Distribution, Norway (8 species), Britain, Red Sea. Within
tide-marks and in deep water on corallines. The spawn is strap-
shaped, and coiled on stones, in July and August: P. ocellata
(Plocamophorus, Riippell) has the cephalic tentacles branched.

IpAiA, Leuckart.

Htymology, Idalia, Venus, from Mount Idalium, in Cyprus.

Synonyms, Huplocamus, Phil. Peplidium (Maderee), Lowe.

Example, I. aspersa, Pl. XIII., Fig. 6. Coralline zone.

Animal broadly oblong, nearly smooth, tentacles clavate or
linear, with filaments at their base; head slightly lobed at the
sides; mantle very small, aemennae with filaments; lingual
teeth 2.0.2.

Distribution, 14 species. Norway, Britain (4 species), Medi-
terranean, Madeira, Japan.

ANcULA, Lovén.

Synonym, Miranda, A. and H.

Type, A. cristata, Alder.

Animal slender, elongated; mantle entirely adnate, orna-
mented with simple filaments; tentacles clavate, laminated ;
with filiform appendages at their base ; labial veil produced on
each side.

Distribution, 2 species. Norway and Britain. Length, 4 inch.

CERATOSOMA (Gray), A. Adams.

Etymology, ceratois, horned, soma, body.

Type, C. cornigerum, Ad.

Animal oblong, narrow, with two large and prominent horn-
like processes on the posterior part of the back, behind the gills;
gills 5, bipinnate; dorsal tentacles clavate, laminated, rising
from rounded tubercles, non-retractile ; head with short lateral
processes ; foot narrow.

Distribution, 2 species. Sooloo Sea. (A. Adams.)

_ TREVELYANA, Kelaart. 1888.

Body without a cloak. Two dorsal tentacles, without sheaths ;
non-retractile. Mouth in front of head, without tentacles.
Branchiz in a circular disk on the back, non-retractile.

Distribution, 1 species (T, Ceylonica), Ceylon.

332 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Crimora, A. and H.

Body limaciform. Cloak nearly obsolete, forming a veil with
branched appendages over the head, and a papillated ridge on
the sides of the back. Dorsal tentacles laminated, retractile
within sheaths; oral tentacles tubercular. Branchize plumose,
non-retractile. Lingual teeth 26.0.26.

PELAGELLA, Grube.

Animal oblong ; tentacles sheathless; head-veil without pro-
cesses; ridge along the middle of the back, and two lateral ones;
8 feathery gills arranged in a circle.

Distribution, 1 species. South Europe.

GYMNODORIS, Steenstrup.

Animal oblong; tentacles sheathless; gills, with lateral pro-
cesses, dendritic, 2 or more in number.
Distribution, 1 species. Japan.

ACANTHODORIS, Grube.

Animal oblong; tentacles sheathless; retractile within a
cavity in the mantle; several fleshy processes on the back; 8
feathery non-retractile gills.

Distribution, 2 species. North Sea.

CASELLA, H. and A. Adams.

Tentacles retractile within sheaths; gills laminated, with 6
lobes.
Distribution, 1 species. Hast India.

BRACHYCHLAMIS, Ehrenberg.

Mantle long, angular ; tentacles in front of the edge of mautle.
Distribution, 1 species. East Africa.

Famity VII.—TRITONIADA.

Animal with laminated, plumose, or papillose gills, arranged
along the sides of the back; tentacles retractile into sheaths;
lingual membrane with 1 central and numerous lateral teeth;
orifices on the right side.

TRITONIA, Cuvier.

Example, T. plebeia, Pl. XIII., Fig. 7.
Animal elongated ; tentacles with branched filaments; veil
tuberculated or digitated; gills in single series on a ridge down

GASTEROPODA. 3380

each side of the back; mouth armed with horny jaws; stomach
simple, liver compact.

Distribution, 13 species. Norway and Britain. Under stones
at low water,—25 fathoms. 7. Hombergii, Cuvier, found on
the scallop-banks, attains a length exceeding 6 inches.

ScyLtiaa, L.

Type, S. pelagica, Pl. XIII, Fig. 8.

Hiymology, scyllaea, a sea-nymph.

Animal elongated, compressed ; foot long, narrow, and chan-
neled, adapted for clasping sea-weed; back with 2 pairs of
wing-like lateral lobes, bearing small tufted branchize on their
inner surfaces; tentacles dorsal, slender, with lamellated tips,
retractile into long sheaths; lingual teeth 24.1.24, denticulated ;
gizzard armed with horny, knife-like plates; orifices on the
right side.

Distribution, 7 species. Atlantic, South Britain, Mediter-
ranean. On floating sea-weed.

Nerea (punctata), Lesson, New Guinea; 10 lines long, with
ear-shaped tentacles, and 3 pairs of dorsal lobes.

TETHYS, L.

Ltymology, tethys, the sea (personified).

Synonym, Fimbria, Bohadsch.

Type, T. fimbriata, L., Pl. XIII, Fig. 9.

Animal elliptical, depressed ; head covered by a broadly ex-
panded, fringed disk, with 2 conical tentacles, retractile into
foliaceous sheaths; gills slightly branched, a single row down
each side of the back; reproductive orifices behind first gills,
vent on right side, behind second gill; stomach simple.

Distribution, 1 species. Mediterranean. Attains a foot in
length, and feeds on other molluscs and crustaceans. (Cuvier.)

? BORNELLA (Gray), A. Adams.

Type, A. Adamsii, Gray. Length, 4 inches.

Animal elongated ; dorsal tentacles retractile into branched
sheaths; head with stellate processes; back with two rows of
cylindrical, branched, gastric processes, to which small dendritic
gills are attached ;* foot very narrow.

Distribution, 3 species. Straits of Sunda, on floating weed;
Borneo.

* This observation deserves further inquiry.

$34 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

? DEnDRONOTUS, A. and H.*

Etymology, dendron, a tree, notos, the back.

Type, D. arborescens, Pl. XTII., Fig. 10.

Animal elongated; tentacles laminated; front of the head
with branched appendages; gills arborescent, in single series
down each side of the back ; foot narrow ; lingual teeth 10.1.10;
stomach and liver ramified.

Distribution, 3 species. Norway and Britain. On sea-weed
and corallines; low water—coralline zone.

? Doro, Oken.

Etymology, doto, a sea-nymph.

Haxample, D. coronata, Pl. XITI., Fig. 11.

Animal slender, elongated; tentacles linear, retractile into
trumpet-shaped sheaths; veil small, simple; gills ovate, muri-
cated, in single series down each side of the back; lingual
membrane slender, with above 100 recurved, denticulated teeth,
in single series; foot very narrow.

The stomach is ramified, and the liver is entirely contained in
the dorsal processes, which fall off readily when the animal is
handled, and are soon renewed.

Distribution, 4 species. Norway and Britain. On corallines
in deep water—50 fathoms.

GELLINA, Gray.

Head simple ; papille or gills smooth.
Distribution, 1 species. North Sea.

? MELIB@A, Rang.

Type, M. rosea, Rang; on floating weed, off the Cape.

Animal elongated, with a narrow, channeled foot and long,
slender tail; sides of the back with 6 pairs of tuberculated lobes,
easily deciduous; tentacles cylindrical, retractile into long
trumpet-shaped. sheaths; head covered by a lobe-like veil;
sexual orifices behind right tentacle, excretory behind first gil
on the right side.

Distribution, 3 species. South Sea and South Africa.

? LOMANOTUS, Verany.

Example, L. marmoratus, Pl. XIII, Fig. 12.
Synonym, Eumenis, A. and H.
* This and the following genera are placed by Alder and Hancock in the family

Holide; they have a ramified stomach, but their external (zoological) characte.s
agree better with Zritonia than olis.

GASTEROPODA. 835

Animal elongated, smooth ; head covered with a veil; tentacles
clavate, laminated, retractile into sheaths; gills filamentose,
arranged along the sides of the back, on the wavy margins of
the mantle; foot narrow, with tentacular processes in front;
stomach ramified.

Distribution, 3 species. Britain and Mediterranean. On
corallines.

Faminy VIII.—AoxLipz.

Animal with papillose gills (?), arranged along the sides of the
back ; tentacles sheathless, non-retractile ; lingual teeth 0.1.0;
ramifications of the stomach and liver extending into the dorsal
papillee; excretory orifices on the right side; skin smooth, with-
out spicula ; no distinct mantle.

ASOLIS, Cuvier.

Synonyms, Psiloceros, Menke. Eubranchus, Forbes. Ampho-
rina, Quatref.

. Type, AX. papillosa, L.

Hiymology, dfolis, daughter of Atolus.

Animal ovate; dorsal tentacles smooth, oval, slender ; papillze
simple, cylindrical, numerous, depressed, andimbricated ; mouth
with a horny upper jaw, consisting of two lateral plates, united
above by a ligament; foot narrow; tongue with a single series
of curyed, pectinated teeth ; spawn of numerous waved coils.

Sub-genera. Flabellina, Cuvier. (Phyllodesmium, Ehr.) Body
slender; dorsal tentacles laminated, buccal long; papillee
clustered ; spawn multi-spiral. Haample, H. Coronata, Pl.
XITL., Fig. 13 (also Fig. 11, p. 17).

Cavolina, Brug. (Montagua, Flem.), C. peregrina. Body lan-
ceolate ; tentacles smooth or wrinkled; papille in transverse,
rather distant rows; spawn of 1 or 2 coils.

Facelina, Griibe. Like Flabellina, but with the foot small,
and the two front angular portions drawn out to a point.

Distribution, 5 species. Sitka, North Sea.

Coryphella, Landsborough. Like Cavolina, but with papilles
arranged in groups. 4 species.

Tergipes, Ouvier, T. lacinulata. Body linear; tentacles
smooth; papilla in a single row on each side; spawn kidney-
shaped.

Distribution, Norway, Britain (33 species). United States,
Mediterranean, South Atlantic, Pacific. Found amongst rocks at
low water ; they are active animals, moving their tentacles con-
tinually, and extending and contracting their papille; they swim

336 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

readily at the surface, inverted. They feed chiefly on sertularian
zoophytes, and if kept fasting will devour each other; when
irritated they discharge a milky fluid from their papille, which
are very liable to fall off.

Guavucus, Forster.

Etymology, glaucus, a sea-deity.

Synonyms, Laniogerus, Bl. Pleuropus, Raf.

Example, G. Atlanticus, Pl. XIII., Fig. 14.

Animal elongated, slender ; foot linear, channeled; tentacles
4, conical; jaws horny; teeth in single series, arched and
pectinated ; gills slender, cylindrical, supported on 3 pairs of
lateral lobes; stomach giving off large cceca to the tail and
side lobes; liver contained in the papillze; sexual orifice
beneath first dextral papilla, vent behind second papilla;
spawn in a close spiral coil.

Distribution, 7 species. Atlantic, Pacific. Found on floating
sea-weed; devours small sea-jellies, Porpite and Velelle.
(Bennet.)

Fiona, Alder and Hancock.

Type, F. nobilis, A. and H.

Synonym, Oithona, A. and H. (not Baird).

Animal elongated; oral and dorsal tentacles linear; mouth
armed with horny jaws; gills (?) papillary, clothing irregularly
a sub-pallial expansion on the sides of the back, each with a
membranous fringe running down its inner side.

Distribution, 8 species. Falmouth. Under stones at low
water. (Dr. Cocks.)

EMBLETONIA, A. and H.

Etymology, dedicated to Dr. Embleton, of Newcastle.
Synonyms, Pterochilus, A. and H. ? Cloelia (formosa), Lovén.
Type, H. pulchra, Pl. XTII., Fig. 15.

Animal slender ; tentacles 2, simple; head produced into a
flat lobe on each side; papille simple, sub-cylindrical, in a
single row down each side of the back. |

Distribution, 4 species. Scotland (2 species). In the littoral
and laminarian zones.

Calliopea, (bellula), D’Orbigny. Brest ; has 2 rows of papillze
down each side of the back; cephalic lobes subulate; vent
dextral. Lon. 3 lines.

GASTEROPODA. 837

Catma, Alder and Hancock.

Animal sharply angular in front; foot broad; papillee simple
and supported on cylindrical bases ; tentacles small.
Distribution, 1 species. North Sea.

FAVORINUS, Griibe.

Animal with slender cephalic tentacles knobbed at the
extremity; oral tentacles 2 pair; papille arranged in several
oblique rows.

Distribution, 1 species. North Sea.

GaALyina, Alder and Hancock.

Animal with papille in transverse rows; oral tentacles short
and tapering; rounded in front.
Distribution, 2 species. North Sea.

CutHontA, Alder and Hancock.

Animal with head naked and expanded ; papille clavate and
arranged in thick-set rows.
Distribution, 1 species. North Sea.

Fiturus, Dekker.

Foot stunted ; body slender; tentacles 2; mouth on a loose
fringe of skin with 2 small oral feelers; papille in 2 long rows
down the back. 1 species.

Procronotus, A. and H.

Type, P. mucroniferus, Pl. XIII., Fig. 16. Dublin, shallow
water. ;

Synonyms, Venilia. A.and H. Zephrina, Quatref.
_ Animal oblong, depressed, pointed behind; dorsal tentacles
2; linear, simple, with eyes at their base, behind ; oral tentacles
‘short; head covered by a small semi-lunar veil; mouth with
horny jaws; papille on ridges down the sides of the back and
round the head in front; vent dorsal.
Distribution, 3 species. North Atlantic.

ANTIOPA, A. and H.

Type, A. splendida, A. and H.
Synonym, Janus, Verany.
Animal ovate-oblong, pointed behind ; dorsal tentacles lamel-
lated, united at the base by an arched crest; head with a small
ga .

338 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

veil and two labial tentacles; papillee ovate, placed along the
lateral ridges of the back and continuous above the head; vent
central, posterior, sexual orifice at the right side; lingual teeth
numerous. ? ;

Distribution, 3 species. Britain, Mediterranean.

HERMZ#A, Lovén.

Type, H. bifida, Pl. XIII., Fig. 17. Norway, Britain.

Animal elongated, tentacles folded longitudinally; papillee
mumerous, arranged down the sides of the back ; sexual orifice
below right tentacles; vent dorsal, or sub-lateral, anterior.

ALDERIA, Allman.

Htymology, named after Joshua Alder, one of the authors of
the ‘‘ Monograph on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca.”

Type, A. modesta, Pl. XIII., Fig. 18. 3 species. Norway,
South Ireland, and South Wales.

Animal oblong, without tentacles; head lobed at the sides;
papillz arranged down the sides of the back; vent dorsal,
posterior.

? Stiliger (ornatus), Ehrenberg; Red Sea. Vent dorsal,
anterior.

CHIORZRA, Gould, 1855.

Animal oblong; head large, peduneulated and provided with
oral cirri; papille foliaceous and arranged in two lateral rows;
generative organs on the right side. C. leonina, Puget Sound.

Famity 1X.—PHYLLIRHOIDA.

Animal pelagic, foot-less (apodal), compressed, swimming
freely with a fin-like tail; tentacles 2, dorsal; lingual teeth in
a single series ; stomach furnished with elongated cceca ; orifices —
on the right side; sexes united.

PHYLLIRHOE, Péron and Lesueur.

Etymology, phyllon, a leaf, rhoé, the wave.

Synonym, Eurydice, Esch.

Type, P. bucephala, Péron.

Distribution, 6 species. Mediterranean, Moluccas, Pacific.

Animal translucent, fusiform, with a lobed tail; muzzle
round, truncated; jaws horny; lingual teeth 3.0.3; tentacles
long and slender, with short sheaths; intromittent organ long, —
bifid. Ҥ

GASTEROPODA. O39

FAMILY X.—ELYSIADA;

Animal shell-less, limaciform, with no distinct mantle or
breathing-organ ; respiration performed by the ciliated surface
of the body ; mouth armed with a single series of lingual teeth;
stomach central, vent median, sub-central; hepatic organs
branched, extending the length of the body and opening into
the sides of the stomach; sexes united; male and ovarian
orifices below the right eye; female orifice in the middle of the
right side; heart with an auricle behind, and traces of an arterial
and venous system, eyes sessile on the sides of the head,
tentacles simple or obsolete.*

EystIA, Risso.

Type, Hi. viridis, Pl. XIII., Fig. 19.

Synonym, Actzeon, Oken.

Ammal elliptical, depressed, with wing-lke lateral expan-
sions; tentacles simple, with sessile eyes behind them; foot
narrow.

Distribution, 8 species. Britain, Mediterranean. On Zostera
and sea-weed, in the laminarian zone. Placo-branchus (ocellatus,
Rang.) Hasselt, Java; described as 2 inches long, with four
small tentacles; the lateral expansions much deyeloped and
meeting behind, the upper surface longitudinally plaited, and
forming, when the side-lobes are rolled together, a sort of
branchial chamber.

ACTEONIA, Quatrefages.

Example, A. corrugata, Pl. XTII., Fig. 20. British Channel.

Animal minute, leech-like; head obtuse, with lateral crests
proceeding from two short conical tentacles, behind which are
the eyes. 2 species.

Centra, Alder and Hancock.

iypeseeeceksi, Pl. XTT., Big. 21;
Etymology, cenia, Falmouth.
Synonym? Fucola (rubra) (Quoy).

* Order Dermi-branchiata, Quatref. (Pelli-branchiata, A. and H.) M. Quatre-
fages erroneously described the Elysiade as wanting both heart and blood-vessels, like
the Ascidian zoophytes ; with them he associated the family Holide, which he described
as having a heart and arteries, but no veins, their office being performed by lacune of
the areolar tissue. In both families the product of digestion (chyle) was supposed to
be aérated in the gastric ramifications, by the direct influence of the surrounding
water. To this group, which has been since abandoned, he applied the name Phleben-
- terata (philebs, a vein, entera, the intestines).

Q 2

3840 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Animal limaciform, back elevated, head slightly angulated,
bearing two linear dorsal tentacles, with eyes at their outer
bases behind.

LIMAPONTIA, Johnston.

Aaype, lu, nigra, Pl. KM wie, 22.

Synonyms, Chalidis, Qu. Pontolimax, Cr.

Animal minute, leech-like; head truncated in front, with
arched lateral ridges on which are the eyes; foot linear.

Distribution, Norway, England, and Bane, between half-
tide and Hela ten feeding on Conferve, in the spring and
summer; spawn in small pear-shaped masses, each with 40-
150 eggs; fry with a transparent nautiloid shell, closed by an
operculum.

Ruovope#, Koélliker, 1847.

Example, R. Veranii.

Animal minute, similar to Limapontia ? worm-shaped, rather
convex above, flat beneath ; without mantle, gills, or tentacles.
Upon algze, Messina.

ORDER IV.—NUCLEOBRANOHIATA. Bu.*

The present order consists entirely of pelagic animals, which
swim at the surface, instead of creeping on the bed of the sea.
Their rank and affinities entitle them to the first place in the
class; but their extremely aberrant form, and unusual mode of
progression, have caused us to postpone their description till
after that of the ordinary and typical gasteropoda.

There are two families of nucleobranchiate molluscs; the
firolas and carinarias, with large bodies and small or no shells,
and the Atlantas, which can retire into their shells and close
them with an operculum. Both animal and shell are sym- —
metrical, or nearly so’ the nucleus of the shell is minute and —
dextrally spiral.

The nucleobranchs swim rapidly by the vigorous moyements
of their fin-like tails, or by a fan-shaped ventral fin; and
adhere to sea-weed by a small sucker placed on the margin of
the latter. Mr. Huxley has shown that these organs repre-
sent the three essential parts of the foot in the most highly-
developed sea-snails. The sucker represents the central part of
the foot, or creeping disk (meso-podiwm) of the snail and whelk;
the ventral fin is homologous with the anterior division of the

* So called because the respiratory and digestive organs form a sort of nucleus on
the posterior part of the back. See Fig. 141, s, 6, and Pl. XIV., Fig. 24.

GASTEROPODA. 3-41

foot (pro-podiwm), which is very distinct in Natica (p. 235), and
in Harpa and Oliva; but is only marked by a groove in
Paludina and Doliwm (Fig. 87). The terminal fin (or tail of
Carinaria), which carries the operculum of Atlanta, is the
equivalent of the operculigerous lobe (meta-podiwm) of the ordi-
nary gasteropods, such as Strombus (Fig. 76).

The abdomen, or visceral mass, is small, whilst the anterior
part of the body (or cephalo-therax, M. Edwards) is enormously
developed. The proboscis is large and cylindrical, and the
tongue armed with recurved spines. The alimentary canal of
Firola is bent up at a right angle posteriorly on the dorsal side ;
in Atlanta it is recurved, and ends in the branchial chamber.
The heart is proso-branchiate, although in Firola the auricle is
rather above than in front of the ventricle, owing to the small
amount of-the dorsal flexure.

The nucleobranchs, and especially those without shells,
‘afford the most complete ocular demonstration of the truth
of Milne Edwards’s views with regard to the nature of the cir-
culation in the mollusca. ‘Their transparency allows the blood-
corpuscles to be seen floating in the general cavity of the body
—between the viscera and the outer integument—and drifting
backwards to the heart; having reached the wall of the auricle
they make their way through its meshes as they best can,
sometimes getting entangled therein, if the force of the heart
has become feeble. From the auricle they may be followed
to’ the ventricle, and thence to the aorta and pedal artery,
through wkose open ends they pour into the tissues of the head
and fin.” (Huxley.)

Such delicate and transparent creatures would hardly seem to
need any special breathing-organ, and, in fact, it_is present or
absent in species of the same genus, and even in specimens of
the same species. Oarinaria has fully-formed branchiz; in *
Ailanta they are sometimes distinct, and wanting in others; in
Firoloides they are only indicated by a ciliated sub-spiral band.
The larve are furnished with a shell, and with ciliated vela.
(Gegenbaur.)

The nucleobranchs are diccious ; some individuals (of Firola)
have a leaf-like appendage, others a long slender egg-tube
depending from the oviduct, and regularly annulated.* The
larvee are furnished with a shell and with ciliated vela. (Gegen-
baur.

= nervous system is remarkable for the wide separation of

* We can only call to mind one other example of a segmented organ in the mcllusca,
viz., the penniform styles of Teredo bipalmulata.

042 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

the centres. The buccal ganglia are situated considerably in
front of the cephalic, and the pedal gangliuw are far behind, so
that the commissures which unite them are nearly parallel with
the csophagus. The branchial ganglia are at the posterior —
extremity of the body, as in the bivalves. The eyes are hour-
glass shaped, and very perfectly organised; the auditory
vesicles are placed behind, and connected with the cephalic
ganglia, they each contain a round otolite, which sometimes
seems to oscillate. (Huxley.)

FAMILY J.—FIROLIDA.

Animal elongated, cylindrical, translucent, furnished with a
ventral fin, and a tail-fin used in swimming; gill exposed on
the posterior part of the back, or covered by a small hyaline
shell. Mouth with a circular lip; lingual membrane with few
rows of teeth; central teeth transversely elongated, with 3
recurved cusps; laterals 3 on each side, the first a transverse
plate with a hooked apex, 2 and 3 sickle-shaped.*

FIRoLA, Peron and Lesueur.

Type, ¥. Coronata, Forsk. Mediterranean.

Synonym, Pterotrachea, Forsk.

Animal fusiform, elongated, with a long, slender, proboscidi-
form head; fin narrowed at the base, furnished with a small
sucker ; tail elongated, keeled, sometimes pinnate; nucleus
prominent; branchial processes numerous, conical, slender;
tentacles 4, short and conical; eyes black and distinct, protected
by a rudimentary eyelid; lingual ribbon oblong. The female —
jirole have a long moniliform oviduct. <Anops Peronti,
* D’Orbigny, described and figured as haying no head (!), was
probably a mutilated Firola. ‘‘Such specimens are very
common, and seem just as lively as the rest.” (Huxley.)

Distribution, 14 species. Atlantic, Mediterranean, Pacific.

Sub-genus. Firoloides, Lesueur. (Cerophora, )’Orbigny). F.
Desmarestii, Les. Body cylindrical; head tapering, furnished
with two slender tentacles; nucleus at the posterior extremity
of the body, with or without small branchial filaments; egg-
tube regularly annulated; tail-fin small and slender, ventral
fin without a sucker. Distribution, 6 species. Atlantic ; Medi-
terranean.

* The genus Sagitta, Q. and G., scmetimes referred to this family, is an articulate
animal (Huxley.)

GASTEROPODA.. 343

CARINARIA, Lamarck.

Fir 141.*

Etymology, carina, a keel (or keeled vessel).

Type, C. cymbium, Desh. = C. cristatus, L., Fig. 141, Pl.
Orv, Bas. 19.

Shell hyaline, symmetrical, limpet-shaped, with a posterior
sub-spiral apex and a fimbriated dorsal keel: nucleus minute,
dextrally spiral,

Animal large, translucent, granulated; head thick, cylin-
drical; lingual ribbon triangular, teeth increasing rapidly in
size, from the front backwards ; tentacles long and slender, eyes
near their base; ventral fin rounded, broadly attached, with a
small marginal sucker ; tail large, laterally compressed ; nucleus
pedunculated, covered by the shell, gills numerous, pinnate,
projecting from beneath the shell.

Distribution, 8 species. Mediterranean and warmer parts of
the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. They feed on small Acalephee,
and probably on the pteropoda; Mr. Wilton found in the
stomach of a Carinaria two fragments of quartz rock, weighing
together nearly 3 grains.

Fossil, 1 species. Miocene. Turin.

CARDIAPODA, D’Orbigny.

Ezample, C. placenta, Pl. XIV., Fig. 20.

Hitymology, cardia, heart, pous, foot.

Synonym, Carinaroides, Eyd. and Souleyet.

Animal like Carinaria.

Distribution, 5 species. Atlantic.

Shell minute, cartilaginous ; peristome expanded and bi-lobed
in front, enveloping the spire behind.

Faminy II].—ATLANTID&.
Animal furnished with a well-developed shell, into which it
* Fig. 141. p, proboscis ; ¢, tentacles ; 0, branchiz; s, shell; 7, foot; d, dise.

b44 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

can retire; gills contained in a dorsal mantle cavity; lingual
teeth similar to Carinaria.

Shell symmetrical, discoidal, sometimes closed by an oper-
culum.

ATLANTA, Lesueur.
Type, A. Peroni, Pl. XIV., Figs. 21-23.

Synonym, steira, Esch.

Shell minute, glassy, compressed and prominently keeled; .

nucleus dextrally spiral; aperture narrow, deeply notched at
the keel; operculum ovate, pointed, lamellar, with a minute,
apical, dextrally spiral nucleus.

Animal 8-lobed; head large, sub-cylindrical; tentacles
conical, with conspicuous eyes behind them; ventral fin
flattened, fan-shaped, furnished with a small fringed sucker ;
tail pointed, operculigerous.

Distribution, 18 species. Warmer parts. of the Atlantic,
Canary Islands.

Sub-genus. Oxygyrus, Benson. Synonyms, Ladas, Cantraine ;
Helico-phlegma, D’Orbigny. O. Keraudrenu, Pl. XIII., Figs.
24, 25. Shell milky, narrowly umbilicated on both sides;
nucleus not visible; back rounded, keeled only near the aper-
ture; body whorl, near the aperture, and keel cartilaginous ;
no apertural slit; operculum trigonal, lamellar. 4 species.
Atlantic, Mediterranean.

The Atlanta was discovered by Lamanoh, who supposed it to
be the living analogue of the Ammonite. The operculum of
Oxygyrus (Pl. XIII., Fig. 25) is singularly like the Trigonellites
(p. 182); that of Atlanta (Fig. 22) is the only example of a
dextral operculum to a dextral shell (p. 207).

PoRcELLIA, Lévéille.
Example, P. Puzosi, Pl. XIV., Fig. 29.
Shell discoidal, many-whorled ; whorls keeled or coronated ;
nucleus spiral; aperture with a narrow dorsal slit.
Fossil, 10 species. Upper Silurian — Trias. Britain, Bel-
gium.
BELLEROPHON, Montfort.

Example, B. bi-carinatus, Lévy. Pl. XTYV., Fig. 27.

Synonym, Huphemus, M‘Coy.

Shell symmetrically convoluted, globular, or discoidal, strong,
few-whorled ; whorls often sculptured; dorsally keeled; aper-
ture sinuated and deeply notched on the dorsal side.

GASTEROPODA. 345

Fossil, 128 species. Lower Silurian—Carb. North America,
Hurope, Australia, India. The name Bucania was given by
Hall to the species with exposed whorls; in B. expansus, Pl.
XIYV., Fig. 28, the aperture of the adult shell is much expanded,
and the dorsal slit filled up. (Salter.)

Bellerophina, D’Orbigny (not Forbes), is founded on the
Nautilus minutus. Sby. Pl. XIV., Fig. 26, a small globular
shell, spirally striated, and devoid of Bia. It is found in the
gault of England and France.

CYRTOLITES, Conrad.

Type, O. ornatus, Pl. XIV., Fig. 30.

Litymology, kurtos, curved, lithos, stone.

Shell thin, symmetrical, horn-shaped or discoidal, with whorls
more or less separate, keeled, and sculptured.

Fossil, 13 species. Lower Silurian—Carb. North America,
Europe.

? Heculiomphalus (Bucklandi), Portlock, Pl. XIV., Fig. 31.
Lower Silurian, Britain, United States. Shell thin, curved, or
discoidal with few widely separate whorls, slightly unsym-
metrical, keeled.

Fig, 142. Maclurea Logani (Salter), L. Silurian, Canada.

f MAcLUREA, Lesueur.

Named after William Maclure, the first American geologist.

Shell discoidal, few-whorled, longitudinally grooved at the
back, and slightly rugose with lines of growth; dextral side
convex, deeply and narrowly perforated ; left side flat, exposing
the inner whorls; operculum sinistrally sub-spiral, solid with
two internal projections (¢ ¢), one of them beneath the nucleus,
very thick and rugose.

Fossil, 5 species. Lower Silurian. North America ; Scotland
(Ayrshire, M‘Coy).
_ This singular shell abounds in the ‘‘ Chazy” limestone of
the United States and Canada; sections of it may be seea
eyen in the pavement of New York; but specimens are vely
difficult to obtain. We are indebted to Sir W. E. Logan,
of the Geological Survey, Canada, for the opportunity of

a3

046 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

examining a large series of silicified specimens, and of figuring
a perfect shell, with its operculum in situ. It has more the
aspect of a bivalve, such as Requienia Lonsdalic (Pl. XVIIL.,
Fig. 12) than of a spiral univalve, but has no hinge. Many of
the specimens are overgrown with a zoophyte, generally on the
convex side only, rarely on both sides.

The Maclurea has been described as sinistral ; but its oper-
culum is that of a dextral shell; so that the spire must be
regarded as deeply sunk and the umbilicus expanded, as in
certain species of planorbis; unless it is a case conversely
parallel to Atlanta, in which both shell and operculum have
dextral nuclei. The affinities of Maclurea can only be deter-
mined by careful examination and comparison with allied, but
less abnermal forms, associated with it in the oldest fossiliferous
rocks; its relation to Huomphalus (p. 267) is not supported by
the evidence of Sir W. Logan’s specimens.

CLASS III.—PTEROPODA.

Tuts little group consists of animals whose entire life is
passed in the open sea, far away from any shelter, save what is
afforded by the floating gulf-weed, and whose organisation is
specially adapted to that sphere of existence. In appearance
and habits they strikingly resemble the fry of the ordinary sea-
snails, swimming like them by the vigorous flapping of a pair
of fins. To the naturalist ashore they are almost unknown;
but the voyager on the great ocean meets with them where
there is little else to arrest his attention, and marvels at their
delicate forms and almost incredible numbers. They swarm
in the tropics, and no less in Arctic seas, where by their
myriads the water is discoloured for leagues. (Scoresby.) They
are seen swimming at the surface in the heat of the day, as well
as in the cool of the evening. Some of the larger kinds have
prehensile tentacles, and their mouths armed with lingual teeth,
so that, fragile as they are, they probably feed upon still
smaller and feebler creatures (e.g. entomostraca). In high
latitudes they are the principal food of the whale, and of many
sea-birds. Their shells are rarely drifted on shore, but abound
in the fine sediment brought up by the dredge from great
depths. A few species occur in the tertiary strata of England

“and the Continent; in the older rocks they are unknown, uuless
some comparatively gigantic forms (conwlaria and theca) have
been rightly referred to this order.

PTEROPODA. B47

In structure, the Pteropoda are most nearly related to the
marine univalyes, but much inferior to them. Their nervous
ganglia are concentrated into a mass below the esophagus; they
have auditory vesicles, containing otolites; and are sensible of
light and heat, and probably of odours, although at most they
possess very imperfect eyes and tentacles. The true foot is
small or obsolete; in cleodora it is combined with the fins, but
in Clio it is sufficiently distinct, and consists of two elements ;
in Spirialis the posterior portion of the foot supports an oper-
culum. The fins are developed from the sides of the mouth or
neck, and are the equivalents of the side-lappets (epipodia) of
the sea-snails. The mouth of Pnewmodermon is furnished with
two tentacles supporting miniature suckers; these organs have
been compared with the dorsal arms of the cuttle-fishes, but it
is doubtful whether their nature is the same.* A more certain
point of resemblance is the ventral flexure of the alimentary
canal, which terminates on the under surface, near the right
side of the neck. The pteropods havea muscular gizzard, armed
with gastric teeth; a liver; a pyloric cecum ; and a contractile
renal organ opening into the cavity of the mantle. The heart
consists of an auricle and a ventricle, and is essentially opistho-
branchiate, although sometimes affected by the general flexure
of the body. The venous system is extremely incomplete. The
respiratory organ, which is little more than a ciliated surface, is
either situated at the extremity of the body and unprotected by
a mantle, or included in a branchial chamber with an opening
in front. The shell, when present, is symmetrical, glassy, and
translucent, consisting of a dorsal and a ventral plate united,
with an anterior opening for the head, lateral slits for long fili-
form processes of the mantle, and terminated behind in one or
three points; in other cases it is conical, or spirally coiled or
closed by a spiral operculum. The sexes are united, and the
orifices situated on the right side of the neck. According to
Vogt, the embryo Pteropod has deciduous vela, like the sea-
snails, before the proper locomotive organs are developed.
(Huxley-)

From this it would appear that while the Pteropoda present
some analogical resemblances to the Cephalopoda, and perma-
nently represent the larval stage of the sea-snails, they are
developed on a type sufficiently peculiar to entitle them to rank

* The figures of Eydonx and Souleyet represent them as being supplied with nerves
from the cephalic ganglia ; whereas the arms of the cuttle-fish, and all other parts or
modifications of the foot in the mollusca, derive their nerves from the pedal ganglia,
(Huxley.)

345 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

sa distinct group ; not indeed of equal value with the Gastero-
POR but with one of its orders.

This group, the lowest of the univalye or encephalous orders,
makes no approach towards the bivalves or acephala. Forskahl
and Lamarck indeed compared Hyalea with Terebratula ; bat
they made the ventral plate of one answer to the dorsal valve of
the other, and the anterior cephalic orifice of the pteropodcus

shell correspond with the posterior, byssal foramen of the

bivalve !
Section A.—THECOSOMATA, BI.*

Animal furnished with an external shell; head indistinct ;
foot and tentacles rudimentary, combined with the fins; mouth
situated in a cavity formed by the union of the locomotive
organs; respiratory organ contained within a mantle cavity.

Famity I.—HYALEIDz. ,

Shell straight or curved, globular or needle-shaped, sym-
metrical.

Animal with two large fins, attached by a columellar muscle
passing from the apex of the shell to the base of the fins; body
enclosed in a mantle; gill represented by a transversely plaited
and ciliated surface, within the mantle cavity, on the ventral
side; lingual teeth (of Hyalea) 1.1.1, each with a strong recuryéed
hook. :

HYALEA, Lamarck

Etymology, hyaléos, glassy.

Synonym, Cavolina, Gioeni, not Brug.
- Type, H. tridentata, Fig. 143. Pl. XIV., Fig. 32.

Shell globular, translucent; dorsal plate rather flat, produced -

into a hood; aperture contracted, with a slit on each side;
posterior extremity tridentate. In
H. trispinosa (Diacria, Gray) the
lateral shts open into the cervical
aperture.

Animal with long appendages to the
mantle, passing through the lateral
slits of the shell ; tentacles indistinct ;
fins united by a semicircular ventral
lobe, the equivalent of the posterior

Fig. 143, H.tridentataa | element of the foot.

Distribution, 19 species. Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indian
_'cean. :

Fossil, 5 species. Miocene—. Sicily, Turin, Dax.

* Theke, & case, soma, a body ; several of the genera have no shells.

.

PTEROPODA. 849

CLEODORA, Peron and Lesueur.

Synonyms, Clio, L. (part) not Miler. Balantium, Leach MS.

Type, C. pyramidata, Pl. XIV., Fig. 38. |

Shell pyramidal, three-sided, striated transversely; ventral
side flat, dorsal keeled; aperture simple, triangular, with the
angles produced; apex acute.

Animal with rudimentary eyes; tentacles obsolete; mantle-
margin with a siphonal (?) process; fins ample, united ventrally
by a rounded lobe; lingual teeth 1.1.1. The transverse bars of
the gills, the heart, and other organs are visible through the
pellucid shell. In C. curvata and pellucida (Pleuropus, Esch.)
the mantle is furnished with two long filaments on each side.

Distribution, 12 species. Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indian
Ocean, Pacific, Cape Horn.

Fossil, 4 species. Miocene—. Britain. (C. infundibulum,
Crag.)

Sub-genus. Oreseis, Rang. (Styliola, Lesueur.) C. aciculata,
Pl. XTV., Fig. 34. Slender, conical, pointed, straight, or curved.
Fins rather narrow, truncate, with small tentacles projecting
from their dorsal edges, and rudiments of the mesopodiwm on,
their surface ; mantle-margin with a spiral process on the left
side. M. Rang states that he has seen these pteropods clustering
round floating seaweed.

Distribution, 6 species (like Cleodora).

CUVIERIA, Rang.*

Dedicated to Baron Cuvier.

Type, ©. columnella, Rang, Pl. XIV., Fig. 35.

Shell cylindrical, transparent; aperture simple, transversely
ovate ; apex acute in the young, afterwards partitioned off, and
usually deciduous.

Animal with simple narrow fins, united ventrally by two small
lobes ; lingual teeth 1.1.1.

Distribution, 4 species. Atlantic, India, Australia.

Fossil, 1 species. (C. astesana, Rang.) Pliocene, Turin.

Sub-genus. Vaginella, Daud. V. depressa, Pl. XIV., Fig. 36.
Sheil. oblong, with a pointed apex; aperture contracted, trans-
verse. Fossil, 4 species. Miocene. Bordeaux, Turin.

THECA, Morris. 1845.
Type, T. lanceolata.

* Under the name of “ triptére,” MM. Quoy and Caimard described the fragment
of a pterop d, since ascertained to have been a Cuvzeria.

350 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Synonyms, Oreseis, Forbes.* Pugiunculus, Barr.

Shell straight, conical, tapering to a point, back flattened,
aperture trigonal. Length, 1-8 inches.

Fossil, 40 species. Paleozoic. North America, Britain, New
South Wales, ? Permian,

PTEROTHEGA, Salter,

Type, P. transversa, Portlock. 8 species, Lower Silurian ;
Ireland, Wales, Canada.

Shell bi-lobed, transversely oval, with a dorsal keel projecting
slightly at each end; ventral plate small triangular.

? CoONULARIA, Miller.

Etymology, conulus, a little cone.

Type, C. quadrisuleata, Fig. 144.

Shell four-sided, straight, and tapering, the angles
’ grooved, sides striated transversely, apex partitioned
off.

Fossil, 40 species. Silurian—Carb. North America,
Europe, Australia.

Sub-genus. Coleoprion (gracilis), Sandberger ;
Deyonian. Germany. Shell round, tapering, sides
obliquely striated, strie alternating along the dorsal
aS line.

Fig 144.4 EurRYBIA, Rang, 1827.}

Etymology, Hurybia, a sea-nymph.

Synonym, Theceurybia, Bronn.

Haxample, EK. Gaudichaudi, Pl. XIV., Fig. 37 (after Huxley).

Animal globular ; fins narrow, truncated, and notched at the |
ends, united ventrally by a small lobe (metapodium); mouth
with two elongated tentacles, behind which are minute eye-
peduncles and a two-lobed rudimentary foot (mesopodium) ; body
enclosed ina cartilaginous integument, with a cleft in front,
into which the locomotive organs can be retracted. Lingual
teeth, 1.0.1.

The animal has no proper gill, but Mr. Huxley has observed
two ciliated circles surrounding the body, as in the larva of
I’newmodermon.

Distribution, 4 species. Atlantic and Pacific.

Sub-genus. Psyche, Rang. (Halopsyche, Bronn.) P. globulosa,

* Creseis Sedgwicki, Forbes, is an orthoceras with very thin septa, belonging to the:

same group with (Conularia) teres, Sby. Tentaculites, Schl. is annellidous. (Salter.)
} Carboniferous limestone, Brit. Belgium.

£ This name had been previously employed for four different genera of plants and
animals.

PTEROPODA, 851

Pl. XTV., Fig., 38. Animal globular, with two simple oval fins.
Distribution, 1 species. Off Newfoundland

CYMBULIA, Peron and Lesueur.

Etymology, diminutive of cymba, a boat.

Type, C. proboscidea, Pl. XIV., Fig. 39 (after Adams).

Shell cartilaginous, slipper-shaped, pointed in front, trun-
cated posteriorly ; aperture elongated, ventral.

Animal with large rounded fins connected ventrally by an
elongated lobe ; mouth furnished with minute tentacles; lingual
teeth 1.1.1; stomach muscular, armed with two sharp plates.

Distribution, 3 species. Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indian
Ocean.

TIEDEMANNIA, Chiaje.

Type, T. Neapolitana, Pl. XTV., Fig. 40.

Named after Fr. Tiedemann.

Animal naked, transparent, fins united, forming a large
rounded disk; mouth central; tentacles elongated, connate ;
eye-tubercles minute. Larva shell-bearing,

Distribution, 3 species. Mediterranean, Australia,

Faminy I].—LIMAcINIDA.

Shell minute, spiral, sometimes operculate.

Animal with fins attached to the sides of the mouth, and
united ventrally by an operculigerous lobe; mantle-cavity
opening dorsally ; excretory orifices on the right side,

The shells of the true limacinide are sinistral, by which they
may be known from the fry of Atlanta, Carinaria, and most
other Gasteropods. .

Limacina, Cuvier

Etymology, limacina, snail-like.

Synonym, Spiratella, Bl.

Example, L. antarctica (drawn by Dr. Joseph Hooker),
Fl. XIV., Fig. 41.

Shell sub-globose, sinistrally spiral, umbilicated; whorls
transversely striated ; umbilicus margined ; no operculum.

Animal with expanded fins, notched on their ventral margins; -
operculum lobe divided ; lingual teeth 1.1.1.

Distribution, 2 species. Arctic and Antarctic Seas; gre-
garious.

SPIRIALIS, Hydoux and Souleyet.
Example, §. bulimoides, Pl. XTV., Fig. 42.

O02 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Synonyms, Heterofusus, Fleming. Heliconoides, D’Orbigny.
Peracle, Forbes. Seaea, Ph.

Shell minute, hyaline, sinistrally spiral, globose or turreted,
smooth or reticulated; operculum thin, glassy, semilunar,
slightly spiral, with a central muscular scar.

Animal with narrow, simple fins, united by a simple, trans-
verse operculigerous lobe ; mouth central, with prominent lips.
Distribution, 12 species. Greenland and Norway to Cape
Horn, Indian Ocean, Pacific.

? CHELETROPIS, Forbes.

Etymology, chele, a claw, and tropis, a keel.

Synonym, Sinusigera, D’Orbigny.

Type, OC. Huxleyi, Pl. XTYV., Fig. 43.

Shell dextrally spiral, imperforate, double- keeled; nucleus
sinistral ; aperture channelled in front; peristome thickened,
reflected, with two claw-like lobes.

Animal gregarious in the open sea.

The species comprised in this and the following genus are
young gasteropods. (See pp. 212, 225.)

Distribution, 2 species. South America and South-east
Australia.

Another minute spiral shell may be noticed here :—

MACGILLIVRAYIA, Forbes.

Named after its discoverer, the ape ea to H.M.S. Rattle-
snake.

Type, M. pelagica, Pl. XIV., Fig. 44. — -

Shell minute, dextrally spiral, globular, imperforate, thin, ~
horny, translucent; spire obtuse; aperture oblong, entire ;
peristome thin, incomplete; operculum thin, horny, concentric,
nucleus sub-external.

Animal with 4 long tentacles, mantle with a siphonal process ;
foot expanded, truncated in front, furnished with a float after the
manner of Janthina; lingual dentition closely resembling
Jeffreysia.

Distribution, 3 species. Taken in the towing-net off Cape
Byron, East coast of Australia, 15 miles from shore, floating,
andapparently gregarious. (J. Macgillivray.) Mindoro, North
Atlantic. (Adams.)

PTEROPODA.

Section B.—GyMNOSOMATA, Bl.

Animal naked, without mantle or shell; head distinct; fins
attached to the sides of the neck; gill indistinct.

Famity III.—Curimwz.

Body fusiform ; head with tentacles often supporting suckers;
foot small, but distinct, consisting of a central and posterior
lobe ; heart opistho-branchiate; excretory orifices distant, on the
right side; lingual teeth (in Clio) 12.1.12, central wide, denti- .
culated, uncini strongly hooked and recurved.

Cuto (L.),* Muller.

Etymology, Clio, a sea-nymph.

Synonym, Clione, Pallas.

Type, C. borealis, Pl. XIV., Fig. 45. (C. caudata; L., part.) ©

Head with 2 eye tubercles and 2 simple tentacula; mouth
with lateral lobes, each supporting 3 conical retractile processes,
furnished with numerous microscopic suckers; fins ovate; foot
lobed. In swimming, the Clio brings the ends of its fins almost
in cortact, first above and then below. (Scoresby.)

Distribution, 4 species. Arctic and Antarctic Seas, Norway,
India.

Sub-genus ? Cliodita (fusiformis), Quoy and Gaimard. Head
supported on a narrow neck; tentacles indistinct. 4 species.
Cape, Amboyna.

PNEUMODERMON, Cuvier.

Etymology, Pneumon, lung (or gill), derma, skin.

Type, P. violaceum, Pl. XIV., Fig. 47.

Body fusiform ; head furnished with ocular tentacles; lingual
teeth 4.0.4; mouth covered by a large hood supporting two
small, simple, and two large acetabuliferous tentacles, suckers
numerous, pedicillate, neck rather contracted; fins rounded;
foot oval, with a pointed posterior lobe; excretory orifice
situated near the posterior extremity of the body, which has
small branchial processes, and a minute rudimentary shell

* This name was employed by Linnzeus for all the Pteropoda then known; his
definition is most suited to the “northern clio,” probably the only species with which
he was personally acquainted.. The first species enumerated in the Syst. Nat. is
C. caudata, and reference is made to an indeterminable figure in Brown’s Jamaica,

and to Marten’s account of the Spitzbergen mollusc (C. borealis). In cases like this
the rule is to adopt the practice of the next succeeding naturalist who defines the

limits of the group more exactly.

O04 MANUAL OF THE MOLTUSCA.

In the fry of Pnewmodermon the end of the body is encircled
with ciliated bands. (Miiller.)

Distribution, 4 species. Atlantic, India, Pacific Ocean.

Sub-genus? Spongiobranchea, D’Orbigny. 8S. Australis, Pl.
XIV., Fig. 46. Gill (?) forming a spongy ring at the end
of the body; tentacles each with 6 rather large suckers. Distri-
bution, 2 species. South Atlantic (Fry of Pnewmodermon ?).
Trichocyclus, Eschscholtz, T. Dumerilu, Pl. XIV., Fig. 48.
Animal without acetabuliferous tentacles ? mouth probosidi-—
form; front of the head surrounded with a circle of cilia, and
two others round the body.

? PELAGIA, Quoy and Gaimard.

Etymology, Pelagus, the deep sea (not = Pelagia, Peron and
Les.).

Type, P. alba, Pl. XIV., Fig. 49. Amboyna.

Animal fusiform, truncated im front, rough; neck slightly
contracted ; fins small, fan-shaped.

CyrmopocrA, D’Orbigny.

Etymology, Kwmodoke, a Nereid.

Type, C. diaphana, Pl. XIV., Fig. 50.

Animal fusiform, truncated in front, pointed behind; neek
slightly contracted; fins 2 on each side, first pair large and
rounded, lower pair ligulate ; foot elongated; mouth probosei-
diform.

Distribution, 1 species. Atlantic.

CHAPTER III.

CLASS IV.—BRACHIOPODA, Cuvier, 1805.

(= Order Pallio-branchiata, Blainville, Prodr. 1814.)

THE Brachiopoda are bivalve shell-fish which differ from the
ordinary mussels, cockles, &c., in being always equal-sided, and
never quite eguivalve. Their forms are symmetrical, and so
commonly resemble antique lamps, that they were called
lampades, or ‘‘lamp-shells,”’ by the old naturalists (Meuschen,
1787, Humphreys, 1797); the hole which in a lamp admits the
wick serves in the lamp-shell for the passage of the pedicle by
which it is attached to submarine objects.*

* The principal modifications of external form presented by these shells are given in
Piate 15; the internal structure of each genus is illustrated in the woodcuts, which are

BRACHIOPODA. 350

The yalves of the Brachiopoda are respectively dorsal and
ventral; the ventral valve is usually largest, and has a pro-
minent beak, by which it is attached, or through which the
organ of adhesion passes. It is sometimes perforated, as in the
Terebratulide. The dorsal, or smaller valve, is always free
and imperforate. The valves are articulated by two curved
teeth, developed from the margin of the ventral valve, and
received by sockets in the other; this hinge is so complete that
the valves cannot be separated without injury.* A few genera
have no hinge; in Crania and Discina the lower valve is flat,
the upper like a limpet; the valves of Lingula are nearly
equal, and have been compared to a duck’s bill. (Petiver.)

Ventral valve.

Dorsal valve.

Fig. 145. Muscular system of Terebratula.t

@ a, adductor-muscles; 7, cardinal-muscles; x, accessory cardinals; p, ventral
pedicle-muscles; p', dorsal pedicle-muscles ; z, capsular-muscles; 9, mouth; v, vent:
1, loop; ¢, dental socket.

This and several other points of difference seem to show the
propriety of adopting the proposal made by Deshayes in 1836
of dividing the Brachiopods into two great groups, the one
haying articulated, the other non-articulated valves. In the
first, moreover, the valves are opened by muscles acting on the
cardinal process of the dorsal valve, while in the latter the valves
are opened by the pressure of the fluid in the perivisceral cavity.
This difference is accompanied by a striking variation in the
the same with those in Mr. Davidson’s Introduction, and in the British Museum
Catalogue. They are from original studies by the author, unless otherwise stated.

* The largest recent Terebratula cannot be opened more than + of an inch, except
by applying force.

1 Waidheimia Australis, Quoy. =. From a drawing by Albany Hancock, Esq.

856 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

arrangement of the muscles. The articulated group possess an
anal aperture; the unarticulated none. (Hancock.)* —

The valves are both opened and closed by muscles; those |
which open the shell (cardinales) originate on each side the
centre of the ventral valve, and converge towards the hinge-
margin of*the free valve, behind the dental sockets, where
there is usually a prominent cardinal process. The teeth form
the fulcrum on which the dorsal valye turns. The adductor
muscles are four in number, and quite distinct in Crania and
Discina ; in Lingula the posterior pair are combined, and in
Terebratula the four muscles are separate at their dorsal
terminations, but united at their insertion in the centre of the
larger valve. The pedicle is fixed by a pair of muscles (each
doubly-attached) to the dorsal hinge-plate, and by another
pair to the ventral valve, outside the cardinal muscles. +

In the Terebratulidze and the other Brachiopods having
articulated valves the muscular system consists of 3 pairs of
muscles which act directly on the valves, and of 3 pairs which
connect the shell, and adjust it with respect to the peduncle.
In the unarticulated Brachiopods, such as Lingula, the
muscles are more complicated than in the former group; three
pairs of protractor muscles keep the valves together, and thus
compensate for the absence of the hinge and condyles, which
help to form this function in the articulated group; they are so
arranged as to co-operate in preventing any displacement of
the valves in any direction. Hence the term sliding-muscles
which they haye received is inappropriate, since they prevent
any sliding action. In the Lamellibranchs the sliding of the
valves is admirably guarded against by means of hinges with
teeth and sockets ; in Brachiopods the same end is apparently
obtained by means of muscles. It has, therefore, been pro-
posed to substitute the term adjustor for protractor, and retractor
for sliding as applied to these muscles. The following table
shows the names in general use, and those proposed by Mr.

~ Hancock :—
Names in use. Names proposed. Homologous muséles in
Unarticulated brachiopods, articulated brachiopods.
Ant. retractors. Ant. occlusors. Ant. occlusors.
Ant. adductors. IPOSiomenss Post. occlusors.
Post. BS Divaricators. Accessory divaricators.

* Philosophical Transactions. 1858.
+ The muscular system of Terebratula presents a considerable amount of resem-~
-blance to that of Modiola (Fig. 214); the anterior and posterior pedal muscles may be

compared to the dcrsal and ventral pedicle muscles.

BRACHIOPODA. 3857

_ Names in use. Names proposed. Homologous muscles in
Unarticulated brachiopods. articulated brachiopods.
Cent. protractors. Cent. ica aha , |
Bee a mea 9 Vent. adjustors.
Post. retractors. Post. 5s Dorsal 55
Capsular. Peduneular. Peduncular.

Ant. parietals.
Post parietals.

The muscles are remarkably glistening and tendinous, except
at their expanded ends, which are soft and fleshy. They are,
with few exceptions, non-striated. In the posterior adductors
of Waldheimia transverse striations are well displayed. Their
impressions are often deep, and always characteristic ; but diffi-
cult of interpretation from their complexity, their change of
position, and the occasional suppression of some and combina-
tion of others.* There may be considerable changes in arrange-
ment of muscles without any important change in the internal
structure. Thus in Waldheimia cranium there are six muscular
impressions in the dorsal valve; in W. australis there are only
four, the other two muscles being attached to the hinge-plate,
not to the valve. The valve and hinge-plate are never found
together, and it is, therefore, probable that in the fossil species,
the shells of which are found without hinge-plates, the muscles
may have been arranged asin W. cranium.

On separating the valves of a recent Terebratula, the diges-
tive organs and muscles are seen to occupy only a very small
space near the beak of the shell, partitioned off from the general
cavity by a strong membrane, in the centre of which is placed
the animal’s mouth. The large cavity is occupied by the
fringed arms, which have been already alluded to (p. 5) as
the characteristic organs of the class. Their nature will be
better understood by comparing them with the lips and labial
.tentacles of the ordinary bivalves (pp. 18, 21, and Fig. 208, p,p) ;
they are, in fact, lateral prolongations of the lips supported
on muscular stalks, and are so long as to require being folded
or coiled up. In Rhynchonella and Lingula the arms are spiral
and separate; in Terebratula and Discina they are only spiral
at the tips, and are united together by a membrane, so as to
form a lobed disk. It has been conjectured that the living
animals have the power of protruding their arms in search of
food; but this supposition is unlikely, since in many genera
they are supported by a brittle skeleton of shell, while the

* Professor King has shown that the compound nature of a muscular impression is

often indicated by the mode in which the vascular markings proceed from it (as in
Figs. 176, 181).

898 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

food is obtained by means of currents created by cilia,
Lingula may have the power of slightly extending the arms.
The internal skeleton consists of two spiral processes in the
Spiriferide (Fig. 168), whilst in Terebratula and Thecidium it
takes the form of a loop, which supports the brachial mem-
brane, but does not strictly follow the course of the arms. The
mode in which the arms are folded is highly characteristic of
the genera of Brachiopoda; the extent to which they are sup-
ported by a calcareous skeleton is of less importance, and
lable to be modified by age. That margin of the oral arms
which answers to the lower lip of an ordinary bivalve, is
fringed with long filaments (cirri), as may be seen even in dry
specimens of recent Jerebratule. In some fossil examples the
cirri themselves were supported by slender processes of shell ; *
they cannot, therefore, be vibratile organs, but are probably
themselves covered with microscopic cilia, like the oral ten-
tacles of the ascidian polypes (cilio-brachiata of Farre). The
anterior lip and inner margin of the oral arms is plain, and
forms a narrow gutter along which the particles collected by
the ciliary currents may be conveyed to the mouth. The object
of the folding of the arms is obviously to give increased surface
for the disposition of the cirri.

The mouth conducts by a narrow cesophagus to a simple
stomach, which is surrounded by the large and granulated
liver; the intestine of Zingula is reflected dorsally, slightly
convoluted, and terminates between the mantle lobes on the
right side (Fig. 202). In Orbicula it is reflected ventrally, and
passes straight to the right, ending as in Lingula. In Terebra-
tula, Rhynchonella, and probably all the articulated Brachiopoda,
the intestine is simple and reflected ventrally, passing through
a notch or foramen in the hinge-plate, and ending behind the
ventral insertion of the adductor muscle (Fig. 145, y.)+ a

The circulatory system is far less complex than was formerly
supposed, and does not differ greatly from the same system in
the Tunicata. The heart is placed on the dorsal surface of the
stomach, and consists of a simple, unilocular, pyriform vesicle
without any auricle. From it the blood is propelled through

* Spirifera rostrata and Terebratula pectunculoides, in the British Museum.

+ The position at which the intestine terminates in the Terebratule and Rhyn-
chonelle, seems to necessitate the escape of the feces by the umbonal opening; in
these extinct genera which have the foramen closed at an early age, there is still an
opening between the valves (e. g. in Uncites) which has been mistaken for a byssal
notch. Mr. Hancock has carefully dissected several species of these genera without
detecting any anal aperture. Filling the intestines with injections was tried, but no
outlet could be discovered.

BRACHIOPODA: 859

four channels to the organs of reproduction and to the mantle ;

and its flow is probably assisted by a number of subsidiary
pulsatile vesicles situated on the main arterial trunks. It then
courses through the plexus of lacunes in the pallial sinuses and
lobes ; turns back through the lacunes of the parietes into the
system of visceral lacunes. It probably enters the liver, and
ultimately finds its way back into the heart through the
branchio-systemic vein. There is; however, another and more
important blood current, which traverses the whole length of
the brachial canal, and penetrates to the extremities of the
cirri, before it joins the current returning from the visceral
lacunes and fiows with it into the branchio-systemic vein.
The blood which has passed through the brachial canal is
far more highly oxygenated than the blood which has flowed
through -the pallial membranes. There seems to be strong
evidence that the so-called arms are really the gills or respira-
tory organs of the mollusc. ‘They also serve to bring food
to the creature’s mouth by the means before noticed. The
mantle is an accessory breathing-organ. It attains its highest
development as such in Lingula, but even in this genus the
brachial apparatus performs the chief part in oxygenating the
blood.

There is another system of canals which take their rise from
the visceral cavity. What its function is has not been deter-
mined; it is not the blood system as was formerly imagined,
and has no connection with it. The perivisceral cavity and the
visceral lacunes which diverge from it may, it is thought, be
homologous to the water-vascular system in Polyzoa, the
function of which is probably to evacuate the effete nitro-
genised products which have been eliminated from the blood.
- Consequently it would perform the offices both of the kidney
and the renal organs.

The generative organs occupy the great pallial sinuses, and
probably both sexes are combined in one individual. In the
articulated Brachiopods the ovaries and testes are placed in the
mantle; but in Lingula and Discina they occur in the peri-
visceral chamber. The ova escape into the oviducts (regarded
by Cuvier and others as hearts), which open externally, and.
haye nothing to do with the vascular system. In Rhynchonella
there are four oviducts, but in most, if not all the other
Brachiopods, there are only two. In Terebratulide they are
divided into two portions, called the auricle and ventricle by
Professor Owen. Mature eggs have been found in large numbers

in the perivisceral chamber and in the oviducts. Recent

060 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Discine often have minute fry attached to their valves, and Mr.
Suess, of Vienna, has noticed a specimen of the fossil Stringo-
cephalus, which contained numerous embryo shells.

As yet we know little respecting the development of the
Brachiopoda, but there can be no doubt that in their first stage
they are free and able to swim about until they meet with a
suitable position. It is probable that in the second stage they
all adhere by a byssus, which in most instances becomes con-
solidated, and forms a permanent organ of attachment. Some
of the extinct genera (e.g. Spirifera and Strophomena) appear
to have become free when adult, or to have fixed themselves by
some other means. Four genera, belonging to very distinct
families, cement themselves to foreign objects by the substance
of the ventral valve.

The nervous system exhibits a state of development but little
superior to what is found in Ascidians. No special organs
of sense have been detected. The red spots in the mantle, sup-
posed by some. to be rudimentary eyes and ears, are probably
the glands situated at the base of the setze.

The Lamp-shells are all natives of the sea. They are found
hanging from the branches of corals, the under sides of shelving
rocks, and the cavities of other shells. Specimens obtained
from rocky situations are frequently distorted, and those from
stony and gravelly beds, where there is motion in the waters,
have the beak worn, the foramen large, and the ornamental
sculpturing of the valves less sharply finished. On clay beds, as
in the deep clay strata, they are seldom found; but where the
bottom consists of calcareous mud they appear to be very
abundant, mooring themselves to every hard substance on the
sea-bed, and clustering one upon the other.

Some of the Brachiopoda appear to attain their full growth in —
a single season, and all probably live many years after becoming
adult. The growth of the valves takes place chiefly at the
margin ; adult shells are more globular than the young, and
aged specimens still more so. The shell is also thickened by the
deposit of internal layers, which sometimes entirely fill the
beak, and every portion of the cavity of the interior which is
not occupied by the animal, suggesting the notion that the
creature must have died from the plethoric exercise of the cal-
cifying function, converting its shell into a mausoleum, like
many of the ascidian zoophytes.

The intimate structure of the shell of the Brachiopoda has
been investigated by Mr. Morris, Professor King, and more
recently by Dr. Carpenter; according to this last observer,

BRACHIOPODA. 361

it consists of flattened prisms of considerable length, arranged
parallel to each other with great regularity, and obliqtely
to the surfaces of the shell, the interior of which is imbricated
by their out-crop (Fig. 146). This struc-
ture is found only in the Rhynchonellide; NX
but in most—perhaps all the other : WE
Brachiopoda*—the shell is traversed by
canals from one surface to the other,
nearly vertically, and regularly, the dis-
tance and size of the perforations varying
with the species. Their external orifices
are trumpet-shaped, the inner often very
small; sometimes they bifurcate towards
the exterior, andin Craniathey become aborescent. The canals
are occupied by ccecal processes of the outer mantle-layer,t
and are covered externally by a thickening of the epidermis.
Mr. Huxley has suggested that these cceca are analogous to
the yascular processes by which in many ascidians the tunic
adheres to the test; the extent of which adhesion varies in
closely allied genera. The large tubular spines of the Produc-
tide must have been also lined by prolongations of the mantle;
but their development was more probably related to the main-
tenance of the shell in a fixed position, than to the internal
economy of the animal. (King.) Dr. Carpenter states that
the shell of the Brachiopoda generally contains less animal
matter than other bivalves ; but that Discina and Lingula con-
sist almost entirely of a horny animal substance, which is
laminar, and penetrated by oblique tubuli of extreme minute-
ness. He has also shown that there is not in these shells that
distinction between the outer and inner layers, either in struc-
ture or mode of growth, which prevails among the ordinary
bivalves; the inner layers only differ in the minute size of the
perforations, and the whole thickness corresponds with the
outer layer only in the Lamellibranchiata. The loop, or
brachial processes, are always impunctate. Mr. Hancock’s
researches would tend to show that these conclusions are gene-
rally correct, but not entirely so. ‘‘ When the shell is dissolved

Fig. 146. Terebratula.

* The fossil shells of the older rocks are so generally pseudomorphous, or partake of
the metamorphic character of the rock itself, that it is difficult to obtain specimens in
a state fit for microscopic examination.

+ Called the ‘“‘lining membrane of the shell,” by Dr. Carpenter. (Davidson Intr.
Mon. Brach.) M. Queckett states that the perforations are closed externally by disks,
surrounded by radiating lines, supposed to indicate the existence of vibratile cilia in
the living specimens.

R

362 ~ MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

in acid the free border [of the mantle] which projects beyond the
marginal fold, and which is applied to the extreme edge of the
shell, can be examined with advantage. The pallial cceca are
then completely exposed appended to the membrane in yarious
stages of development, and the spaces between them are found
studded all over with rather large, clear, oval, cell-like spots, which
are arranged with considerable regularity in rows, so that those
in the approximate rows alternate. These spots apparently
correspond to the bases of the prismatic columns of the shell;
and if it be allowed that they represent spaces in which cal-
careous granules had been accumulated, it is easy to understand
how the fibrous or columnar structure is formed. A succession
of layers of such accumulated granules deposited one after the
other would result in the peculiar shell formation of the
Brachiopoda.”” The extremities of the prisms are not visible
on the external surface, but in the young individual of some
species, as Terebratula caput-serpentis, there is a thin layer of
calcareous matter, which seems to show that in some Brachio-
pods the sheil is composed of two layers of shell, having a
different structure, as in the case of the Conchifera.

Of all mollusca the Brachiopoda enjoy the greatest range both
of climate, and depth, and time; they are found in tropical
and polar seas, in pools left by the ebbing tide, and at the
greatest depths hitherto explored by the dredge. At present —
only 84 recent species are known; but many more will probably
be found in the deep sea, which these shells mostly inhabit.
The number of living species is already greater than has been
discovered in any secondary stratum, but the vast abundance of

_ Fossil specimens hasmade them seem more importantthan the living
types, which are still rare in the cabinets of collectors, though
far from being so in the sea. Above 1,800 extinct species of
Brachiopoda have been described, of which more than half are
found in England. They are distributed throughout all the
sedimentary rocks of marine origin from the Cambrian strata
upwards, and appear to have attained their maximum of specific
development in the Silurian age.* Some species (like Atrypa
reticularis) extend through a whole ‘‘system” of rocks, and
abound equally in both hemispheres; others (like Spirifera
striata) range from the Cordillera to the Ural mountains. One
recent Terebratula (caput-serpentis) made its appearance in the ~
Miocene Tertiary ; whilst others, scarcely distinguishable from

* The number of Silurian species amounts to 690; but these were not all living at
one time, they were obtained from a whole series of deposits, representing a succession
of periods.

BRACHIOPODA. 863

it, are found in the Upper Oolite and throughout the Chalk
series and London Clay.*

FamiIty I.—TEREBRATULIDA.

Shell minutely punctate; usually round or oval, smooth or
striated ; ventral valve with a prominent beak and two curved
hinge-teeth ; dorsal valve with a depressed umbo, a promi-
nent cardinal process between the dental sockets, and a slender
shelly loop.

Animal attached by a pedicle, or by the ventral alse: oral
arms united to each other by a membrane, variously folded ;
sometimes spiral at their extremities.

Fig. 147. Terebratula vitrea, Born.

TEREBRATULA, (Lilhwyd.) Brug. Lamp-shell.

Etymology, diminutive of terebratus, perforated.
Synonyms, Lampas, Humph. Gryphus, Muhlfeldt. Epithyris,
Phil.

Types, T. maxillata, Pl. XV., Fig. 1. (= Ter. minor-sub-
rubra, Llhwyd. Anomia terebratula, L.) T. vitrea, Fig. 47.

Shell smooth, convex; beak truncated and _ perforated ;
foramen circular; deltidium of two pieces frequently blended ;
loop very short, simple, attached by its crura to the hinge-plate
(Fig. 147, A).

Animal attached by a pedicle; brachial disk tri-lobed, centre
lobe elongated and spirally convoluted (Fig. 147, B). The
young of 7’. diphya (Pygope of Link) has bi-lobed valves
(Pl. XV., Fig. 2); when adult the lobes unite, leaving a round
hole Fogee the centre of the shell.

* The author has to acknowledge his obligation to Mr. Davidson for the use of
the notes, drawings, and specimens, assembled during the preparation of his great
work on the “ British Fossil Brachiopoda,” printed for the Paleontographical
Society ; to which work the student is referred for more copious descriptions and
illustrations.

R2

364 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.
Distribution, 3 species.
nullipore mud.
Fossil, 126 species.

Mediterranean 90—250 fathoms on
(Forbes.) Vigo Bay; Falkland Islands.
Devonian—. World-wide.

Sub-genera. Terebratulina (caput-serpentis), D’Orbigny. (PI.
RaVen Pies d.) Wiew was.

Shell finely striated, auriculate,

) ad
é

rll

x

|

|

My

Y

VU,
Yi

Fig. 148. Dorsal valve.

Animal, 2.

deltidium usually rudimental; foramen incomplete; loop
short, rendered annular in the adult by the union of the oral
processes. Distribution, 6 species. United States, Norway,
Cape, Japan. 10—120 fathoms. Fossil, 22 species. Oxfordian—.
United States. Europe.

Waldheimia (australis), King. Pl. XV., Fig. 4 (p. 5, Figs.
5, 6), Figs. 145, 149, 150. |

Fig. 149. Dorsal valve.

Fig. 150. Ventral valve.
Fig. 149. 7, cardinal process; z', dental sockets; p, hinge-plate; s, septum ; c, crura
of the loop; /, reflected portion of the loop ; m, quadruple abductor-impression.

Fig. 150. f, foramen; d, deltidium; ¢, teeth; a, single abductor impression; r, car-

dinal muscles; z, accessory muscles; p, pedicle muscles ; v, position of the vent; z,
attachment of pedicle-sheath.

Shell smooth or plaited, dorsal valve frequently impressed ;
foramen complete ; loop elongated and reflected; septum (s) of
smaller valve elongated. Distribution, 9 species. Norway,
Java, Australia, California, Cape Horn. Low water — 100

BRACHIOPODA. 365

fathoms. Fossil, 90 species. Carb—. South America, Europe.
Hudesia (cardium), King, includes 1 recent and 6 fossil species
which are sharply plaited. 7. impressa (Pl. XV., Fig. 5) is
the type of a group which has the external shape of T'erebratella.
_ Meganteris, Suess, 1856. Terebratula Archiaci, Vern. Devo-
nian, Asturias. Shell with a long, reflected, internal loop.

TEREBRATELLA, D’Orbigny.

Type, T. dersata, Gmel. (= Magel-
lanica, Chemn.) Pl. XV., Fig. 7. Fig. 1651.

Shell smooth or radiately plaited ; dorsal
valve longitudinally impressed; hinge-
line straight, or not much curved; beak
with a flattened area on each side of the
deltidium ; foramen large; deltidium in-
complete; loop attached to the septum (s).

Animal like Terebratula ; the spiral lobe
of the brachial disk becomes very
diminutive in some species, and is
obseletein Morrisiaand LT. Cumingii.
Distribution, excluding sub-genera, | \
25 species. Cape Horn, Valparaiso (7\4
(90 fathoms), New Zealand, Japan, x
Ochotsk, Spitzbergen, Labrador.
Fossil, 16 species. Lias—. United Fig. 152. Ter. Evansii, Dav.
States, Europe. In Z. crenulata and Hvansii (Fig. 152) the
dorsal septum sometimes projects so far as to touch the oppo-
site valve, but in other examples it remains undeveloped.
(Davidson. )

Sub-genera. Trigonosemus (elegans), Kénig. Synonyms, Del-
thyrideea (pectiniformis), M‘Coy. [Fissirostra, D’Orbigny.
Example, T. Palissii, Pl. XV., Fig. 8. Shell finely plaited,
beak prominent, curved, with a narrow apical foramen ; cardinal
area large, triangular; deltidium solid, flat; cardinal process
very prominent. Distribution, 5 species. Chalk, Europe.

Lyra (Meadi), Cumberland, Min. Con. 1816. Pl. XV., Fig. 6.
Synonyms, Terebrirostra, D’Orbigny. Rhynchora, Dalman.*

* The name Rhynchora was given by Dalman to the Ter. costata, Wahl. = T.
pectinata, L.) on the supposition that it was identical with Sowerby’s 7. Lyra; and
as no specimen could be found with a long beak, an artificial one was manufactured
for it, of which there is a cast in the British Museum. The second species of “ Rhyn-
chora,” Ter. spatulata, Wahl., has no beak whatever: in shape it is like an Argzope.
but measures an inch each way. The ventral valve is a simple bent plate with the
teeth at the angles ; the dorsal valve is flat, with a very wide hinge-plate, and sockets

at the angles, whilst a single septum projects from the centre, with portions of a lonp
attacned,

Fig. 151. Terehratella.

&S6 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Shell ornamented with rounded ribs; beak very long, divided
lengthwise internally by the dental plates; loop doubly
attached ? Distribution, 4 species cretaceous. Hurope. Three
species of similar form are found in the Trias of St. Cassian.
Magas (pumila), Sby. Fig. 153.
S Shell smooth, conspicuously punc-
\\2 tate, dorsal valve impressed, fora-
men angular, deltidium rudimen-
tary; mnternal septum (s) prominent,
touching the ventral valve; reflected
portions of the loop disunited (().
Fig. 153. M. Pumila.2 3 species. U. Green-sand—Chalk.
Europe. Distribution, 2 species.
New Zealand; Canaries. The recent Ter. Oumingii, of New
Zealand, resembles Bouchardia externally, but has the
diverging processes of the loop as in Magas.

me)

Fig. 154. B. Tulipa, Bl.* .
Bouchardia (tulipa), Davidson, Fig. 154. Beak prominent,
with a minute apical foramen (/f); deltidium blended with the

Animai. 4° Fig. 155. Dorsal valve.}

shell (d); apophysis anchor-shaped, the septum (s) being fur-

* The muscular impressions in Bouchardia have been compared with those of Jer.
Cumingii, of which the animal is known. The large impressions (r) in the disk of the
ventral valve appear to be formed by the cardinal muscles; a, by the adductor ; p, by
the pedicle muscles.

+ Fig. 155. c, loop; f, pedicle notch; 0, the ovaries. From the originals in Mr.
Davidson's collection ; magnified ten diameters.

BRACHIOPODA. 867

nished with two short lamelle. Distribution, 3 species. Brazil,
13 fathoms. New Zealand, South Australia.

Morrisia (anomioides, Scacchi), Davidson. Fig. 155. Shell
minute, conspicuously punctate; foramen large, encroaching
equally on both valves; hinge area small, straight; loop not
reflected, attached to a small forked process in the centre of the
valye. Animal with sigmoid arms, destitute of spiral termina-
tions; cirri in pairs. Distribution, 3 species. Mediterranean.
95 fathoms. (Forbes.) Fossil, 4 species. Chalk—. Europe.

Fig. 156. Dorsal valve with animal.2 Fig. 157. Dorsal valve.

Kraussia (rubra), Dav. Cape. Fig. 157. K. Lamarckiana,
Day. Australia. Fig. 156. Shell transversely oblong; hinge-
line nearly straight; beak truncated, laterally keeled; area
flat; foramen large, deltidium rudimentary; dorsal valve
longitudinally impressed, furnished inside with a forked pro-
cess rising nearly centrally from the septum; interior often
strongly tuberculated. The apophysis is sometimes a little
branched, indicating a tendency towards the form it attains in
Fig. 158. Animal with rather small oral arms, the spiral lobe
very diminutive. Distribution, 6 species. South Africa, Sydney,
New Zealand; low water to 120 fathoms.

\
HL IN
<4 sy 55 333)

Animal. Fig. 158. Dorsal valve.

? Megerlia (truncata), King, 1850. Pl. XV., Fig. 9. Fig.
158. Loop trebly attached ; te the hinge-plate by its crura, and
to the septum by processes from the diverging and reflected
portions of the loop. Distribution, 3 species. Mediterranean,
Philippines. These species belong to the same natural group
with Kraussia. Fossil, 7 species. Chalk—.

3868 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. |

? Kingena (lima), Day. Cretaceous, Europe, Guadaloupe.
Valves spinulose ; loop trebly attached.

Fig. 159. Ter. (Kingena) lima, (after Davidson.)

£, dental sockets ; /, cardinal process; c, crura; d, diverging processes of loop, 7, ré-
flected portion ; e, third attachment of loop; s, dorsal septum.

? Ismenia (pectunculus), King. Coral rag, Europe. Valves
ornamented with corresponding ribs; loop trebly attached.

? Waltonia (Valenciennei), Dav., New Zealand. Perhaps
the fry of Ter. rubicunda, with the reflected part of the loop
wanting.

Zellania (Davidsoni), Moore, 1855. (Etymology, Zella, a lady’s
name’) Shell minute, orthi-form; texture fibrous; hinge-
area short, foramen angular, encroaching on both valves; interior
of dorsal valve as in Thecidiwm, with a single central septum
and broad margin. fossil. Lias—Great Oolite. 3 species.
Britain.

Fig. 160. Argiope decollata. + Fig. 161. A. Neapolitana, Se.* 2

ARGIOPE, Eudes Deslongchamps.
Etymology, Argiope, a nymph.
Synonym, Megathyris, D’Orbigny.
Type, A. decollata, Pl. XV., Fig. 10. Fig. 160, 162.
Shell minute, transversely oblong or semi-oyate, smooth or
* Interior of dorsal valves magnified, from the originals in Coll. Davidson.

BRACHIOPODA. 3869

with corresponding ribs; hinge-line wide and straight, with a
narrow area to each valve; foramen large, deltidium rudi-
mentary; interior of dorsal valve with one or more prominent,
sub-marginal septa; loop two or four-lobed, adhering to the
septa, and more or less confluent with the valve

= CE, uy wu i Shue |
SSA

. ? Jey

y Dy yp oS 6 i SS Q ‘4 v\ ys

a AATF AN

ls, ys \ \ yr vs y

Ci); Peon iN a oN oe Vy
A i] >

tiny)

h \
(hie
Fig. 162. A. decollata, *° ; dorsal valve with the animal, from a specimen dredged
by Professor Forbes in the Aigean. The oral aperture is seen in the centre of the
disk.

a=
eS

Animal with oral arms, folded into two or four lobes, united
by membrane, forming a brachial disk fringed with long cirri;
mantle extending to the margins of the valves, closely adherent.

Distribution, 5 species. North Britain, Madeira, Canaries,
Mediterranean. 380—106 fathoms.

Fussil, 19 species. Oolte—. Europe.

Fig. 163. Z. radians. Fig. 164. T. Mediterraneum.* :

THECIDIUM, Defrance.
Etymology, Thekidion, a small pouch.
Type, T. radians, Pl. XV., Fig. 11.
Shell small, thick, punctate, attached by the beak; hinze-

* Dorsal valve with the animal, magnified. Coll. Davidson.

870 MANUAL OF TITE MOLLUSCA.

area (h) flat; deltidium (d) triangular, indistinct; dorsal valve
(Fig. 163) rounded, depressed; interior with a broad granulated
margin; cardinal process prominent, between the dental sockets ;
oral processes united, forming a
bridge over the small and deep
visceral cavity; disk grooved for
the reception of the loop, the
grooves separated by branches from
a central septum; loop often un-
4w\ symmetrical, lobed, and united more
(J/\ or less intimately with the sides of
the grooves; ventral valve (Fig. 165)
deeply excavated, hinge-teeth pro-
minent; cavities for the adductor
(a) and pedicle muscles (p) small ;
‘ry disk occupied by two large smooth
impressions of the cardinal muscles,
bordered by a vascular line.

Fig. 165. T.radians. 4, Animal (Fig. 164) with elongated
oral arms, folded on themselves and fringed with long curi;
mantle extending to the margin of the valves and closely ad-
herent: epidermis distinct.

T. radians is the only unattached species, it is supposed to be
fixed by a pedicle when young. (D’Orbigny.)

p

Dorsal valve. Fig. 166. Profile.*
a, adductor; c, crura; /, loop: J, cardinal process; p, hinge-plate; s, dorsal septum ;
v S$, ventral septum; ¢, dental sockets.

T. hieroglyphicum, Pl. XV., Fig. 12, has a very complicated
* Tho loop (which was discovered by Professor King) has a distinct suture in the

BEACHIOPODA. 371

interior; whilst in several others there are but two brachial
lobes. The Liassic species form the subject of a monograph by
M. Eudes Deslongchamps; they are often minute, and attached
in numbers to sea-urchins, corals, and terebratulee.
Distribution, 1 species. Mediterranean.
Fossil, 34. species. Trias—. Europe.

? STRINGOCEPHALUS, Defrance.

Etymology, Strinx (stringos), an owl, cephale, the head.*

Type, S. Burtini, Pl. XV., Fig. 13. Figs. 166, 167. Devonian,
‘Europe.

Shell punctate; sub-orbicular, with a prominent beak; ventral
valve with a longitudinal septum (vs) in the middle; hinge-
area distinct ; foramen large and angular in
the young shell, gradually surrounded by
the deltidium, and rendered small and oval
in the adult; deltidium composed of three
elements ; teeth prominent; dorsal valve
depressed, cardinal process (j) very promi- Fig. 167.4
nent, sometimes touching the opposite valve, its extremity
forked to receive the ventral septum (vs); hinge-plate (p) sup-
porting @ shelly loop, after the manner of Argiope.

FAmIty II.—SPIRIFERIDZ.

Shell farnished internally with two calcareous spiral processes
(apophyses) directed outwards towards the sides of the shell, and
destined for the support of the oral arms, which must have
been fixed immovably; the spiral lamellze are sometimes
spinulose, indicating the existence of rigid cirri, especially on
the front of the whorls; yalves articulated by teeth and
sockets.

SPIRIFERA, Sowerby.

Type, 8. striata, Sby., Fig. 168.
Synonyms, Trigonotreta. Kénig. Choristites, Fischer. Del-
thyris, Dalman. Martinia, &c., M‘Coy.

middle; the dotted lines proceeding from its inner edge are added from a drawing by
M. Suess, and represent what he regards as shelly processes for supporting a mein-
branous disk. They may be portions of spirals, whose outer whorls are confluent.

* Internal casts of Productus giganteus are called “ owl-heads” by quarrymen in
the North of Eng and. (Sowerby.)

+ Fig. 167. Young shell, magnified four diameters; h, hinge area; 6, deltidium;
p, pseudo-deltidium.

372 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Shell impunctate,* transversely oval er elongated, tri-lobed,
beaked, bi-convex, with a dorsal ridge and ventral furrow ;
hinge-line wide and straight; area moderate, striated across;
foramen angular, open in the young, afterwards progressively

Dorsal valve. Fig. 168. Ventral valve.

closed; ventral valve with prominent hinge-teeth, and a central
muscular scar,. consisting of the single adductor flanked by two
cardinal impressions ; dersal valve with a small cardinal process,
a divided hinge-plate, and two conical spires directed outwards
and nearly filling the cavity of the shell; crura united by an
oral loop. The shell and spires are sometimes silicified in lime-
stone, and may be developed by means of acid. In S. mosquensis
the dental plates are prolonged nearly to the front of the ventral
valve.

Distribution, 220 species. Lower Silurian—Trias. Arctic
America—Chili, Falkland Islands, Europe, China, Thibet,
Australia, Tasmania. In China these and. other fossils are used
as medicine.

Sub-genera. Spiriferina, D’Orbigny. S. Walcotti, Pl. XV.,
Fig. 14. Shell punctate, external surface spinulose ; foramen
covered by a pseudo-deltidium ; interior of ventral valve with a
prominent septum, rising from the adductor scar. Distribution,
29 species. Carb.—Lower Oolites. Britain, France, Germany,
South America.

Cyrtia, Dalman. (C. exporrecta, Pl. XV., Fig. 15. Shell
impunctate, pyramidal, beak prominent, area equiangular,
deltidium with a small tubular foramen. Fossil, 10 species.
Silurian—Trias. Europe. In C. buchii, heteroclyta, calceola,
&c., the shell is punctate.

Suessia (imbricata), Eudes Deslongchamps, 1855. (Dedicated
to M. Suess). Shell like Spirifera ; texture fibrous; hinge area
wide as the shell; foramen deltoid; large valve with two
cardinal septa, and a prominent central septum, supporting a
little plate ; small valve with a tri-lobed cardinal process, and

* Professor King attributes this to metamorphism; S. Demarlzi, Bouch., from the
Devonian limestone, is punctate. (Carpenter. )

BRACHIOPODA, Bs)

a broad 4-partite hinge-plate, with processes from the outer
angles of the dental sockets; crura of the spires united by a
transverse band supportiny a small process. ossil, 2 species.
Upper Lias, Normandy.

ATHYRIS, M‘Coy.

Litymelogy, a, without, thuris, a door* (i.e. deltidium).

Synonyms, Spirigera, D’Orbigny. OCleiothyris, King (not
Phil.),

Types, A. concentrica, Buch. <A. Roissyi, Figs. 169, 170.
A. lamellosa, Pl. XV., Fig. 16.

Shell impunctate, transversely oval, or sub-orbicular, bi-
convex, smooth, or ornamented with squamose lines of growth,
sometimes developed into wing-like expansions (Fig. 170);

Fig. 169. Interior of dorsal valve. Fig. 170. Specimen with fringe.

hinge-line curved, area obsolete, foramen round, truncating the
beak, deltidium obsolete ; hinge-plate of dorsal valve with four
muscular cavities, perforated by a small round foramen, and
supporting a small complicated loop (?) between the spires;
spires directed outwards, crura united by a prominent oral
loop.

The foramen in the hinge-plate occupies the situation of the
notch through which the intestine passes in the recent Rhyn-
chonelle ; in A. concentrica a slender curved tube is sometimes
attached to the foramen, beneath the hinge-plate. A. tumida
has the hinge-plate merely grooved, and the byssal foramen is
angular. 5

Fossil, about 70 species. Silurian—Lias. North and South
America and Hurope.

* Sometimes employed, zncorrectly, in the sense of a door-way ot for men.
+ The spurious genus Actinoconchus (M‘Coy) was founded on this character; similar
expansions are formed by species of Atrypa, Camaropheria, and Producta,

874 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Sub-genus? Merista, Suess. Ter. scalprum, Roemer. (A.
cassidea, Quenst. Sp. plebeia, Ph.) Silurian
—Devonian. Europe. Shell impunctate,
dental plates (v) and dorsal septum (d) sup-
ported by arched plates (‘‘ shoe-lifter ”
processes, of King) which readily detach,
leaving cavities (as in Fig. 171); spiral arms
Fig, 171. Merista. haye been observed in all the species.

RETzIA, King.

Dedicated to the distinguished Swedish naturalist, Bisietas..

Type, Ter. Adrieni, Vern.

Example, R. serpentina, Carb. L., Belgium, Fig. 172.

Shell punctate, terebratula-shaped; beak truncated by a
round foramen, rendered complete by a distinct deltidium ;
hinge-area small, triangular, sharply defined; interior with
diverging shelly spires.

Fossil, about 50 species. Silurian—Trias. South America,
United States, Europe.

Professor King first pointed out the existence of calcareous
spires in several Terebratule of the older rocks, and others have
been discovered by MM. Quenstedt, De Koninck, and Barrande.
In form they resemble Terebratulina, Hudesia, and Lyra.

Fig. 172. Retzva serpentina, D. K. Fig. 173.. Uncites gryphus.

UncitEs, Defrance.

Type, U. gryphus, Pl. XV., Fig. 17. Fig. 173.

Fossil, Devonian. Hurope.

Shell impunctate; oval, bi-convex, with a long incurved
beak ; foramen apical, clase at an early age; deltidium large,
concave; spiral processes directed outwards; no hinge-area,

The large, concave deltidium of Uncites so much resembles
the channel formed by the dental plates of Pentamcrus, that

BRACHIOPODAe 875

Dalman mistook the shell fora member of that genus. The
discovery of internal spires, by Professor Beyrich, shows that it
only differs from Retzia in being impunctate and destitute of
hinge-area. Some of the specimens have corresponding depres-
sions in the sides of the valyes (Fig. 173, »), forming pouches
which do not communicate with the interior.

Faminy JIJ.—RHAYNCHONELLIDZ.

Shell impunctate, oblong, or trigonal, beaked ; ‘hinge-line
curved; no area; valves articulated, convex, often sharply
plaited; foramen beneath the beak, usually completed by a

SS

== | WW

Fig. 174. R. nigricans, Ventral. Fig. 175. Dorsal.

Fig. 174. Dorsal valve with the animal; a, adductor muscles ; i, intestine. -

Fig. 175. R. psittacea, interiors. s, septum ; f, foramen; d, deltidium; ¢, teeth; 7’,
sockets; ¢, oral lamelle ; a, adductor impressions ; 7, cardinal; p, pedicle muscles; 0,
ovarian spaces,

deltidium, sometimes concealed; hinge-teeth supported by
dental plates; hinge-plate deeply divided, supporting oral
lamelle, rarely provided with spiral processes; muscular im-
pressions grouped as in Terebratula; vascular impressions
consisting of two principal trunks in each valve, narrow,
dichotomising, angular, the principal posterior branches inelos-
ing ovarian s ‘aces.

Animal (of Riynchonella) with elongated spiral arms, directed
inwards, towards the concavity of the dorsal valve; alimentary
canal terminating behind the insertion of the adductor in the
ventral valve; mantle not adhering, its margin fringed witi a
few short setze.

RHYNCHONELLA, Fischer.

Synonyms, Hypothyris, Phil. Hemithyris (psittacsa),
D’Orbigny. Acanthothyris (spinosa), D’Orbigny. Cyclothyri:;
(latissima), M‘Coy. Trigonella (part), Fischer (not L. nor Da
Costa).

376 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Types, R, acuta, Pl. XV., Fig. 18; furcillata, Fig. 19;
spinosa, Fig. 20; acuminata, Fig. 176; nigricans, Fig. 174;
psittacea, Fig. 175 (p. 5, Fig. 4).

\ x \ |
{ as he
i \e oY] 7)
( \ | & Cy

Ventral aspect. Umbonal aspest.
Fig. 176. Rh. acuminata, internal casts.
Fig. 176. Umbonal aspect, with the dorsal valve above (Goll. Professor King).
Ventral aspect (Coll. Professor Morris). A, adductor; R, cardinal; P, pedicle; V,
vascular ; O, ovarian impressions.

Shell trigonal, acutely beaked, usually plaited; dorsal valve
elevated in front, depressed at the sides; ventral valve flattened,
or hollowed along the centre, hinge- -plates suppor ting two slender
curved lamellz ; dental plates diverging.

The foramen is at first only an angular notch in the hinge-
line of the ventral valve, but the growth of the deltidium usually
renders it complete in the adult shell; in the cretaceous species
it is tubular. In R. acuminata and many other paleozoic
examples, the beak is so closely incurved as to allow no space
for a pedicle. Both the recent Rhynchonelle are black; R. octo-
plicata of the Chalk sometimes retains six dark spots.

Distribution, 4 species. R. psittacea, Labrador (low water *),
Hudson’s Bay (100 fathoms), Melville Island, Sitka, Icy Sea.
R. nigricans, New Zealand, 19 fathoms.

Fossil, 332 species. Lower Silurian—. North and South
America, Hurope, Thibet, China.

Sub-genera. ? Porambonites, Pander. P. eequirostris, Schl.
Shell impunctate; surface minutely pitted; each valve with a
minute hinge-area and indications of two septa ; foramen
angular, usually concealed. Distribution, 8 species. Lower
Silurian. Russia and Portugal.

Camarophoria, King. 'T. crumena, Martin (sp.). Figs. 177,
178. Ventral valve with converging dental plates (d) supported

BRACHIOPODA. | ath

on a low septal ridge (s); dorsal valve with a prominent septum
(s) supporting a spoon-shaped central process (v); oral lamelleo
long and slender (0). Foramen angular, cardinal process dis-
tinct (j). Fossil, 9 species. Carb.—Permian (Magnesian lime-
stone.) Germany and England.

Fig. 177. Internal cast.* Fig. 178. Section.

PENTAMERUS, Sowerby.

Etymology, pentameres, 5-partite.

Synonym, Gypidia (conchydium), Dalman.

Type; P. Kmehtu, Pl. XV., Fig. 22. Fig. 179.

Shell impunctate, ovate, ventricose, with a large incurved
beak ; valves usually plaited; foramen angular; no area or
deltidium ; dental plates (d) converging, trough-like, supported
on a prominent septum (s); dorsal yalve with two contiguous

SSS “f
=~ \\\) a) LE

Longitudinal, Fig. 179. Transverse section.

longitudinal septa (ss) opposed to the plates of the other

valve.
Oral lamellee have been detected by Mr. Salter in P. liratus ;

* Ventral side of cast, showing the V-shaped cavity of the dental plates, and the
impressicns of branchial veins, accompanied by arteries (after King),

378 - MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

in P. ? brevirostris (Devonian, Newton) the dorsal valve kes a
long trough-like process supported by a single low septum.

Fossil, 52 species. Upper Silurian— Devonian. Arctic
America, United States, Europe.

The relations of the animal to the shell in such a species as
P. Knightti can only be inferred by comparison with other
species in which the internal plates are less developed, and with
other genera, such as Cyrtia and Camarophoria. In Fig. 179,
the small central chamber (v) must have been occupied by the ~
digestive organs, the large lateral spaces (ds) by the spiral
arms; it is doubtful whether any muscles were attached to these
plates; in Porambonites the adductor impression is situated.
beyond the point to which the dental plates converge, and in
Camarophoriu the muscular impressions occupy the same position
as in Rhynchonella.

ATRYPA, Dalman.
Synonyms, Cleiothyris, Phillips. Spirigerina, D’Orbigny.*
Hipparionyx, Vanuxem.
Fype, A. reticularis, Pl. XV, Fic. 21. Figs. 180, 181,

Fig.180. Dorsal valve. Fig. 181. Ventral valve ; interiors.

p, hinge-plate; a, impressions of adductor muscle; c, cardinal muscle; p, pedicle
muscle; o, ovarian sinus ; d, deltidium.

Shell impunctate; oval, usually plaited and ornamented with
squamose lines of growth; dorsal valve gibbose; ventral
depressed in front; beak small, often closely incurved ; foramen
round, sometimes completed by a deltidium, often concealed ;
dorsal valve with a divided hinge-plate, supporting two broad
spirally coiled lamelle; spires vertical, closely appressed, and

* The term Atrypa, (a, without, trupa, foramen) is objectionable, like all Dalman’s

names; but M. D’Orbigny has made no improvement by proposing Spzrigerina, in
addition to Spirifera, Spirigera, and Spiriferina

BRACHIOPODA. 879

directed towards the centre of the valve; teeth and impressions
hike Rhynchonella.

The shells of this genus differ from Rhynchonella chiefly in
the calcification of the oral supports, a character of uncertain
value.

Fossil, 21 species. Lower Silurian—Trias. America (Wel-
lington Channel! Falkland Islands), Europe, Thibet.

Anoplotheca lamellosa, F. Sandberger, 1856, Devonian, Rhine,
is a species of Atrypa.

Famity 1V.—OrtTHIDz.*

Sheld transversely oblong, depressed, rarely foraminated ;
hinge-line wide and straight; beaks inconspicuous; Valves
plano-conyex, or concavo-conyex, each with a hinge-area (h)
notched in the centre ; ventral valve with prominent teeth (¢);
muscular impressions occupying a saucer-shaped cavity with a
raised margin; adductor (a) central; cardinal and pedicle
impressions (7) conjoined, lateral, fan-like; dorsal valve with a
tooth-like cardinal process between two curved brachial pro-
cesses (c); adductor impression (a) quadruple; vascular impres-
sions consisting of six principal trunks in the dorsal valve, two
in the ventral, the external branches turned outwards and back-
wards inclosing wide ovarian spaces (0). Indications have been

Le
Figs KS?
sa ilal » DS
By Nit
Zi AS
yg) My df pa ra
Z Sgy ; GTTIN WS | | /) es
| }) aS) ee be a
1 AO
INS ‘ Lyi (4 |
Dorsal valve. ' Ventral valve.

Fig. 182. Orthis striatula, Devonian, Eifel.

observed, in several genera, of horizontally-coiled spiral arms;
the space between the valves is often very small. The shell-
structure is punctate, except in a few instances, where the
original texture is probably obliterated.

* The names of the families are formed from those of the typical genera, by sub
stituting ide for the last syllable of the genitive case.

} From a specimen presented by M. De Koninck to the British Museum; internal
casts of this fossil were called hysterolites by old authors.

380 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

OrTHIS, Dalman.

Etymology, orthos, straight.

Type, O. rustica, Pl. XV., Fig. 23.

Synonyms, Diccelosia (biloba), King. Platystrophia (biforata),
King. Gonambonites (inflexa), Pander. Orthambonites (calli-
gramma), Pander.

Shell transversely oblong, radiately striated or plaited, bi-
convex, hinge-line narrower than the shell, cardinal process
simple, brachial processes tooth-like, prominent and curved.

Fossil, 154 species. Lower Silurian—Carb. Arctic America,
United States, South America, Falkland Islands, Europe,
Thibet.

? Sub-genera. Orthisina, D’Orbigny. O. anomala, Schl.
Fig. 183. oa yms, Pronites (ascendens) and Hemipronites,

: Pander. Shell impunctate ? widest at
the hinge-line; cardinal notch closed,
byssal notch ( fissure) covered by a
convex pseudo-deltidium, sometimes
perforated by a small round foramen.
Fossil, Lower Silurian, Europe.

O. pelargonatus (Streptorhynchus,
King), from the Magnesian limestone,
Bigs Wes, Ulucsnce O. senilis, Carb. limestone, and some
Devonian species, have the beak twisted, as if it had been
attached ; there is no foramen.

STROPHOMENA, Blainville.*

Etymology, strophos, bent, mene, crescent

Examples, 8. rhomboidalis, Pl. XV., Fig. 24. (—Productus
depressus, Sby.)

Synonyms, Lepteena (rugosa), Dalman. Leptagonia, M‘Coy.
Enteletes, Fischer.

Shell semicircular, widest at the hinge-line, concayo-conyex,
depressed, radiately striated ; area double; ventral valve with

an angular notch, progressively covered by a convex pseudo-.

deltidium ; umbo depressed, rarely (?) perforated, in young
shells, by a minute foramen (Fig. 184, e); muscular depressions
4, central pair narrow, formed by the adductor; external pair
(m) fan-like, left by the cardinal and pedicle muscles; dorsal

* The name Strophomena (rugosa) was originally given by Rafinesque to some un-
known or imaginary fossil; it has, however, been adopted both in America and
Europe for the group typified by S. alternata and planumbona,

BRACHIOPODA. 381

valve with a bi-lobed cardinal process, between the dental
sockets, and four depressions for the adductor muscles.

Ventral valve. Fig. 184. Dorsal valve.

Interior of 8. rhomboidalis, var. analoga, Carb. limestone (after King).
e, foramen ; ¢, teeth; 0, ovarian spaces; 0, brachial pits ?

There are no apparent brachial processes in the dorsal valve
of Strophomena, and it is possible that the spiral arms may have
been supported at some point near the centre of the shell (b) as
in Productus; S. rhomboidalis occasionally exhibits traces of
spiral arms, in the ventral valve. :
_ 8S. latissima, Bouch., has plain yea 1 ST
areas, ike Calceola. B wae

The valves of the Strophomenas Z1\\ =
are nearly flat until they approach
their full growth, they then bend
abruptly to one side; the dorsal
valve becomes concave in S. alter-
nata and rhomboidalis, whilst in
S. planumbona and euglypha it Th ieee
becomes convex; these distine- A, hinge-areas; v, ventral ; A interior
tions are not even sub-generic. of dorsal valve.

Fossil, 129 species. Lower Silurian——Carb. -North America,
Europe, Thibet.

S. demissa, Conr. (Stropheodonta, Hall), 8. Dutertrii, and
several other species have a denticulated hinge-line.

Sub-genera ? Leptena (part), Dalman. UL. transversalis,
Fig. 185. (Plectambonites, Pander.) Valves regularly curved;
dorsal concave, thickened, muscular impressions elongated.
Fossil, 41 species. Lower Silurian—Lias. North America and
Europe. The las Leptenas resemble Thecidia internally ; they
are free shells, with sometimes a minute foramen at the apex of
the triangular deltidium ; ZL. liassina, Pl. XV., Fig. 25.

Koninckia, Suess. Producta Leonhardi, Wissm. (P. alpina,
Schl.), Fig. 186. Trias, St. Cassian. Shell orbicular, concayo-
conyex, smooth ; valves articulated ? closely appressed ; ventral
valve convex, dorsal concaye; beak incurved, no hinge-area

Lit

382 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

nor foramen? interior of each valve furrowed by two spiral lines
of four volutions, directed inwards, and crossing the vascular
impressions; umbo with three diverging ridges. The small

\\
KY) vy f

"ACG
\)
AW

Ya \ AY
cd, Me \ y
AIS
“o> /
unas

Fig. 186. Produetus? Leonhardi, 2.*

spiral cavities, once occupied by the arms, and now filled with
spar, may be seen in specimens with both valves, by holding
them tothe light. M. Suess, of Vienna, states that he has found
traces of very slender spiral lamellee occupying the furrows. This
curious little shell most resembles the Triassic Leptena dubia
(Productus), Minster (= Crania Murchisoni, Klipst!).

DavipsontiA, Bouchard.

Dedicated to the author of the Monograph of British Fossil
Brachiopoda.
Type, D. Verneuili, Bouchard. Fig. 187. Devonian, Eifel.

Dorsal valve. Fig. 187. Ventral valve.2

Shell solid, attached by outer surface of the ventral valve to
rocks, shells, and corals; valves plain, articulated ; ventral
valve with a wide area (h); foramen angular, covered by a
convex deltidium (d); disk occupied by two conical elevations,
obscurely grooved by a spiral furrow of 5-6 volutions; dorsal
valve with two shallow lateral cavities; vascular impressions
consisting of two principal sub-marginal trunks, in each valve,

* A, translucent specimen; B, interior of dorsal valve.

af
E
‘

BRACHIOPODA, | 383

with diverging branches; cardinal and adductor impressions
distinct. The furrowed cones undoubtedly indicate the existence
of spiral arms, similar to those of Atrypa (Fig. 180), but desti-
tute of calcified supports. The upper valve sometimes exhibits
markings derived from the surface on which the shell has grown.
The mantle-lobes seem to have continued depositing shell
until the internal cavity was reduced to the smallest possible
limit.
Fossil, 3 species. Devonian—Trias.

Dorsal valve Fig. 188. Ventral valve,

CALCEOLA, Lamarck.

Htymology, calceola, a slipper.

Type, C. sandalina, Pl. XV., Fig. 26. Fig. 188.

Shell thick, triangular ; valves plain, not articulated ; ventral
valve pyramidal; area large, flat, triangular, with an obscure
central line; hinge-line straight, crenulated, dorsal valve flat,
semicircular, with a narrow area (), a small cardinal process
(7), and two lateral groups of small apophysary (?) mules (0) ;
internal surface punctate-striate.

Fossil, Devonian, Hifel, Britain.

The supposed dechome boone species (Hypodema, D. K.) is, per-
haps, related to Pileopsis. Calceola is shaped like Oyrtia, and
its hinge-area resembles that of some Strophomenas.

FAMILY V.—PRODUCTIDA,

Shell concayo-convex, with a straight hinge-line; valves
rarely articulated by teeth; closely appressed, furnished with
tubular spines; ventral valve convex ; dorsal concave; internal
surface dotted with conspicuous, funnel-shaped punctures;
dorsal valve with a prominent cardinal process; brachial pro-
cesses (?) sub-central; vascular markings lateral, broad, and
simple ; adductor impressions dendritic, separated by a narrow
central ridge ; ventral valve with a slightly notched hinge-line ;

o84 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

adductor scar central, near the umbo; cardinal impressions
lateral, striated.

LN Aliph in | At AM) \
vy |i i i ly a iy s
Seip NAl

|

A Rall. ]
HN iN ee
i) Ws an
HOON (iw

Fig. 189. Productus giganteus, 1 Carb. limestone.

A, interior of dorsal valve; B, interior of ventral vaive, with the umbo removed;
C, ideal section of both valves; D, hinge-line of A; 7, cardinal process; a, adductors
r, cardinal muscles; 4, oral processes?; s, hollows occupied by the spiral arms; v,
vascular impressions ; /, hinge-area.

PRoDUCTUS, Sowerby.

Types, P. giganteus, Martin. —Anomia producta, Martin.

Examples, P. horridus, Pl. XV., Fig. 27. P. proboscideus,
PINKY; Hig. 28:

Shell free, auriculate, beak large and rounded; spines scat-
tered; hinge-area in each valve linear, indistinct; no hinge-
teeth ; cardinal process lobed, striated; vascular impressions
simple, curved; ventral valve deep, with two rounded or sub-
spiral cavities in front. These shells may have been attached
by a pedicle when young, the impressions of the pedicle-muscle
blending with those of the hinge-muscles (c) in the ventral
valve. A few species appear to have been permanently fixed.
P. striatus is irregular in its growth, elongated and tapering
towards the beak, and occurs in numbers packed closely together.
P. proboscideus seems to have lived habitually in cayities, or
half-buried in mud, as suggested by M. D’Orbigny; its ventral
valve is prolonged seyeral inches beyond the other, and has its

BRACHIOPODA. 885

edges rolled together and united, forming a large permanently
open tube for the brachial currents. The large spines are most
usually situated on the ears of the ventral valve, and may have
seryed to moor the shell; being tubular they were permanently
susceptible of growth and repair. Although edentulous, the
dorsal valve must have turned on its long hinge-line with as
much precision as in those genera which are regularly articulated
by teeth.

Fossil, 81 species. Devonian—Permian. North and South
America, Europe, Spitzbergen, Thibet, Australia.

Exterior. Fig. 190. Interior.

Sub-genus. Aulosteges, Helmersen. A. Wangenheimii, Vern.,
Fig. 190. Permian, Russsia; Carb. Shell like Producta;
ventral valve with a large flat triangular hinge-area (i), with a
narrow convex pseudo-deltidium (d) in the centre; beak a little
distorted, as if attached when young; dorsal valve slightly
convex near the umbo; interior as in Productus (longi-spinus).

STROPHALOSIA, King.

Example, 8. Cancrini, De Vern., Fig.
Gite

Synonym, Orthothrix, Geinitz.

Shell attached by the umbo of the
ventral valve; sub-quadrate; covered
with long slender spines; valves arti-
culated, dorsal moderately concave,
ventral convex, each with a small area;
fissure covered; vascular impressions
conjoined, reniform.

Fossil, 8 species. Devonian—Carb. Fig. 191. 8. Cancrini.
Europe, Himalaya (Gezard).

3 s

’ ae oh ay ach \R\ \
os SY

aiii\he\\ Va We

386 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

CHONETES, Fischer.

Example, CO. striatella, Pl. XV., Fig. 29.

Etymology, chone, a cup.

Shell transversely oblong, with a wide and straight hinge-line;
area double; valves radiately striated, articulated; hinge-margin
of ventral valve with a series of tubular spines; fissure covered;
interior punctate-striate; vascular impressions (v) very small.
(Davidson. )

Fossil, 47 species. Silurian—Carboniferous. Europe, North
America, Falkland Islands.

Dorsal valve. Fig. 192. Ventral valve.*

Faminy VI.—CRANIADA.

Shell orbicular, calcareous, hinge-less ; attached by the umbo,
or whole breadth of the ventral valve, rarely free; dorsal valve
limpet-like ; interior of each valve with a broad granulated
border ; disk with four large muscular impressions, and digitated
Secular a impressions ; structure punctate.

Animal with free spiral arms, directed towards the concavity
of the dorsal valve, and supported by a nose-like prominence in ©
the middle of the lower valve; mantle extending to the edges
of the valves, and closely adhering; its margins plain. ©
(Fig. 195.)

CRANIA, Retzius.

Etymology, kraneia, capitate.

Type, Anomia craniolaris, L.

Examples, O. Ignabergensis, Pl. XV., Fig. 30. C. anomala,
Figs. 193—195.

Synonyms, Criopus, Poli. Orbicula (anomala), Cuvier,
=O. Norvegica, Lam.

* Interiors of two sp. of Chonetes, from Nehou and the Eifel, after Davidson: a,
adductor ; ¢, cardinals.

BRACHIOPODA. } 387

Shell smooth or radiately striated ; umbo of dorsal valve sub-
central ; of ventral valve sub-central, marginal, or prominent
and cap-like, with an obscure triangular area traversed by a
_ central line.

The large muscular impressions of the attached valve are

Fig. 193. Ventral valve. Fig. 194. Dorsal valve.
Crania anomala, Muller. | Zetland.
a, anterior adductors; a’, posterior adductors; c, posterior adjustors; c', cardinal
muscle ; 7, 0, central and external adjustors.

sometimes conyex, in other species deeply excavated; those of
the upper valve are usually convex, but in C. Parisiensis the
anterior (central) pair are developed as prominent diverging
apophyses. In C. tripartita, Minster, the nasal process divides
the fixed valve into three cells.* |

C. Ignabergensis is equivalve, and either quite free or very
slightly attached. C. anomala is gregarious on rocks and stones
in deep water, both in the North Sea and Mediterranean (40—90
fathoms, living ; 150 fathoms, dead ; Forbes); the animal is
orange-coloured, and its labial arms are thick, fringed with
cirri, and disposed in a few horizontal gyrations (Fig. 195).

Distribution, 5 species. Spitzbergen, Britain, Mediterranean,
India, New South Wales. —150 fathoms.

Fossil, 37 species. Lower Silurian—. Europe

C. antiquissima, Hichw. (Pseudo-crania, M‘Coy), is free, and
has the internal border of the valves smooth; the branchial
impressions blend in front. Spondylobolus craniolaris, M‘Coy,
is a small and obscure fossil, from the Lower Silurian shale of
Builth. The upper valve appears to have been like Orania, the
lower to have had a small grooved beak, with blunt, tooth-like
processes at the hinge-line.

* M. Quenstedt has placed the Oolitic Cranias in Siphonaria !

$2 ~

388 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

FAMILY VII.—DIscin1pZ&. ;

Shell attached by a pedicle, passing through a foramen in tho
ventral valve; valves not articulated ; minutely punctate.

Fig. 195. Crania.* Fig. 196. Discina.+

Animal with a highly vascular mantle, fringed with long
horny setze; oral arms curved backwards, returning upon them-~
selves, and ending in small spires directed downwards, towards
the ventral valve.

Disctna, Lamarck.

Synonyms, Orbicula, Sby. (not Cuviert). Orbiculoidea
(elliptica), D’Orbigny. Schizotreta, Kutorga.

Types, D. lamellosa, Pl. XV., Fig. 31. (=D. ostreoides,
Lamarck.) .

Shcli orbicular, horny ; upper valve limpet-like, smooth or
concentrically lamellose, apex behind the centre; lower valve
flat or conical, witha sunk and perforated disk on the posterior
side ; interior polished; lower valve with a central prominence
in front of the foramen.

Animal transparent ; mantle lobes distinct all round; labial
folds united, not extensile, ; alimentary canal simple, bent upon
itself ventrally, and terminating between the mantle-lobes on
the right side. There are four distinct adductor muscles as in

* Dorsal valve, with the animal, seen by removing the mantle.

+ The animal as seen on the removal of part of the lower mantle-lobe ; the extremities
of the labial arms are displaced forwards, in order to show their spiral terminations :
y is the expanded surface of the pedicle; the mouth is concealed by the overhanging
cirri. The mantle-fringe is not represented.

t The Orbicula of Cuvier was the Patella anomaila, mili (= Crania), as pointed out
by Dr. Fleming, in the ‘“‘ History of British Animals,” 1828..

BRACHIOPODA. 3889

‘Orania; and three pair of adjustor muscles for keeping the
valves opposed to each other. Some of these are probably
inserted in the pedicle. The oral cirri are extremely tender and
flexible, contrasting with th: stiff and brittle setze of the mantle,

wii

<ZAz-,.._| f=
“T ZZ Tt
Se }

f

oy Yj
Y OD ints fi
—T AM

f

YY \ mT \ | WW 2
WWW,
ARTETA

F.g. 197. Dorsal. Fig. 198. Ventral lobe.

Discina lamellosa, Brod. +

u,umbo; f, foramen; d, disk; a, anterior adductors; a’, posterior adductors ;

e, c', central and posterior adjustors ; 7, external adjustors. The maprtle-fringe is not
represented in Fig. 198.

which are themselves setose like the bristles of certain annelides
(e.g. the sea-mouse, Aphrodite). The relation of the animal to
the perforate and imperforate valves is shown to_ be the same as
in Terebratula, by the labial fringe; but the only process which
can possibly have afforded support to the oral arms is developed
from the centre of the ventral valve, as in Crania. Baron
Ryckholt has represented a Devonian fossil from Belgium, with
a fringed border; but if this shell is the Crania obsoleta of
Goldfuss, the fringe must belong to the shell, and not to the
mantle.

Distribution, 10 species. West Africa, Malacca, Peru, and
Panama.

Fossil, 64 species. Silurian—. Europe, United States,
Falkland Islands.

In some species the valves are equally convex, and the
foramen occupies the end of a narrow groove.

Sub-genus, Trematis, Sharpe. (=Orbicella, D’Orbigny.)
T. terminalis, Emmons. Valves convex, superficially punctate ;
dorsal valve with a thickened hinge-margin (and three diverg-
ing plates, indicated on casts.—Sharpe). fossil, 14 species,
Lower and Upper Silurian. North America and Europe.

4, j =

Z Lj Ae in ~ SS
ype) \ iS SS

Y J SS
Y ya \Ose « \

0990 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

SIPHONOTRETA, Verneuil.

Etymology, siphon, a tube, tretos, perforated.

Types, S. unguiculata, Hichw., Figs. 199, 201. §. verrucosa,
Fig. 200.

Shell oval, bi-convex, slightly beaked, conspicuously punctate,
or spiny ; beak perforated by a tubular foramen ; hinge-margins

Fig. 199. Fig. 200. Exterior. Fig. 201. Interior.

thickened; ventral valve with four close adductor scars sur-
rounding the foramen. The spines are tubular, and open into
the interior of the shell by prominent orifices. (Carpenter.)
S. anglica, Morris, has moniliform spines.

Fossil, 9 species. Lower and Upper Silurian. Britain,
Bohemia, Russia.

? Acrotreta (sub-conica), Kutorga. 3 species. Lower Silurian,
Russia. Shaped lke Cyrtia, with an apical foramen; no
hinge.

Famity VIII.—LINGULIDA.

Shell oblong or orbicular, sub-equivalve, attached by a pedicle
passing out between the valves; texture horny, minutely
tubular.

Animal ewith a highly vascular mantle, fringed with horny
setze ; oral arms thick, fleshy, spiral, the spires directed inwards,
towards each other.

Lincu.LA, Bruguiére.

Etymology, lingula, a little tongue.

Type, L. anatina, Pl. XV., Fig. 32.

Shell oblong, compressed, slightly gaping at each end, trun-
cated in front, rather pointed at the umbones; dorsal valve
rather shorter, with a thickened hinge-margin, and a raised
centrai ridge inside.

BRACHIOPODA. 391

‘Animal with the mantle-lobes firmly adhering to the shell,
and united to the epidermis, their margins distinct, and fringed
all round; branchial veins giving off numerous free, elongated,
narrow loops from their inner surfaces; visceral cavity occupy-

Lfanannne aN
Vy Tas
scZ cm,
S BZ fs

ot ey

fae S
RCT nu mu nA

a”

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»

Y

typ yy

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AK
MES;

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Za

SST

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——_

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Wiis at HHL
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A

Fig. 202. Dorsal.* Fig. 203, Ventral. Fig. 204. Ventral.
Lingula anatina, Lam. (original). Syn. Patella unguis, L. (part.)
aa, anterior adductors ; a', posterior adductor; p p, external adjustors ; p'p', central
adjustors; r 7, anterior retractors (the anterior occlusors of Hancock); 7’r'r', posterior
adjustors; c, capsule of pedicle; mm, visceral sheath; 0, cesophagus; s, stomach ,
1, liver ; 1,intestine; v, vent; 0, branchial vessels ; m', mantle margin ; m, inner lamina
of mantle margin retracted, showing bases oi setae; $, Sete.

<Yy

CTG,
nF rhe

Qy, if WN

Tir >

ing the posterior half of the shell, and surrounded by a strong
muscular sheath; pedicle elongated, thick ; stomach long and
straight, sustained by inflections of the visceral sheath ; intes-
tine convoluted dorsally, terminating between the mantle-lobes
on the right side, oral arms disposed in about six close whorls,
their cavities opening into the prolongation of the visceral
sheath in front of the adductors.

Observations on the living lingula are much wanted; the
oral arms probably extended as far as the margins of the shell ;
and the pedicle, which is often nine inches long in preserved
specimens, is doubtless much longer, and contractile when

* In Fig. 202 a small portion of the liver and visceral sheath have been removed, to
show the course of the stomach and intestine. In some specimens the whole of the
vis_era, except a portion of the liver, are concealed by the ovaries. In Fig. 204 the
front half of the ventral mantle-lobe is raised, to show the spiral arms; the black spot
in the centre is the mouth, with its upper and lower lips, one fringed, tlre other plain.
The manile-fringe has veen omitted in Figs. 202, 204.

392 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

alive. The shell is horny and flexible, and always of a greenish
colour.

Distribution, 16 species. India, Philippines, Moluccas, Aus-
tralia, Feejees, Sandwich Islands, West America.

Fossil, 91 species. Lower Silurian—. North America, Europe,
Thibet.

Lingule existed in the British seas as late as the period of the

Coralline Crag. The recent species have been found at small -

depths, and even at low water half buried in sand. L Davisit,
Lower Silurian, Tremadoe, has a pedicle-groove like Obolus,
Fig. 205. (Salter.) '

Fig. 205. Ventral valve. Fig. 206. Dorsal valve. .
Obolus Davidsoni. (Salter.) Wenlock limestone, Dudley.

A, posterior adductors; B, adjustors; C, anterior adductors.
The pedicle-scar in the centre of Fig. 168 has no letter.

Oxouus, Hichwald.

Synonyms, Ungula, Pander; Aulonotreta, Kutorga.

Etymology, obolus, a small Greek coin.

Type, O. Apollinis, Eichw.

Shell orbicular, caleareo-corneous, depressed, sub-equivalve,
smooth; hinge-margin thickened inside, and slightly grooved
in the ventral valve; posterior adductor impressions separate ;
anterior pair sub-central; impressions of adjustors lateral.
Fig. 205, 206. (After Davidson.)

Fossil, 8 species. Lower and Upper Silurian. Sweden,
Russia, England, United States.

CONCHIFERA. ood

CHAPTER IY.
CLASS V. CONCHIFERA, LAMARCK.

(Lamelli-branchiata, Blainville.)

The bivalve shell-fish, or Conchifera, are familiar to every
one, under the form of oysters, scallops, mussels, and cockles.*
They come next to the univalves (gasteropoda) in variety and
importance, and though less numerous specifically, are far more
abundant individually.t The bivalves are all aquatic, and
excepting a few widely-dispersed and prolific genera, are all
inhabitants of the sea; they are found on every coast, and in
every climate, ranging from low-water mark to a depth of more
than 200 fathoms.

In their native element the Oyster and Scallop lie on one side,
and the lower valve is deeper and more capacious than the
upper; in these the foot is wanting, or else small, and not used
for locomotion. Most other bivalves live in an erect position,
resting on the edges of their shells, which are of equal size.
Those which move about much, like the river-mussel, maintain
themselves nearly horizontally,{ and their keel-shaped foot is
adapted for ploughing through sand or mud. The position of
those bivalves which live half-buried in river-beds or at the
bottom of the sea, is often indicated by the darker colour of the
part exposed; or by deposits of tufa, or the growth of seaweed
on the projecting ends of the valves.

In Nucula and some others the foot is deeply cleft, and
capable of expanding into a disk, like that on which the snails
glide; whilsf in the mussel, pearl-oyster, and others which
habitually spin a byssus, the foot is finger-like and grooved.

The burrowing species have a strong and stout foot with
which they bore vertically into the sea-bed, often to a depth
far exceeding the length of their valves; these never volun-
tarily quit their abodes, and often become buried and fossilised
in them. They most usually burrow in soft ground, but also
in“coarse gravel, and firm sands and clays; one small modiola
makes its hole in the cellulose tunic of Ascidians, and another
in floating blubber.

* They are the Dithyra of Aristotle and Swainson, and constitute the second or
sub-typical group in the quinary system.

+ It has been stated that the predatory mollusca are more numerous than the
vegetable-feeders ; but it is not so with the individuals constituting the species.

¢ This is the position in which they are always figured in English books, being best
suited for the comparison of one shell with another.

s3

594 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The boring shell~fish have been distinguished from the mere
burrowers, perhaps without sufficient reason, for they are found
in substances of every degree of hardness, from soft mud to
compact limestone, and the method employed is probably the
same. * |

The means by which bivalves perforate stone and timber has
been the subject of much inquiry, both on account of its phy-
siological interest, and the desire to obtain some remedy for
the injuries done to ships, and piers, and breakwaters. The
ship-worm (éeredo) and some allied genera, perforate timber
only ; whilst the pholas bores into a variety of materials, such
as chalk, shale, clay, soft sandstone and sandy marl, and
decomposing gneiss ;+ it has also been found boring in the peat
of submarine forests, in wax, and in amber.t It is obvious
that these substances can only be perforated alike by mechanical
means; either by the foot or by the valves, or both together,
as inthe burrowing shellfish. The pholas shell is rough, like a
file, and sufficiently hard to abrade limestone; and the animal
is able to turn from side to side, or even quite round in its cell,
the interior of which is often annulated with furrows made by
the spines on the front of the valves. The foot of the pholas is
very large, filling the great anterior opening of the valves:
that of the ship-worm is smaller, but surrounded with a thick
collar, formed by the edges of the mantle, and both are armed
with a strong epithelium. The foot appears to be a more
efficient instrument than the shell in one respect, inasmuch as
its surface may be renewed as fast as it is worn awav.§ (Han-
cock. .

A mechanical explanation becomes more difficult in the
case of another set of shells, lithodomus, gastrochena, saxicava,
and wngulina, which bore only into calcareous rocks, and attack
the hardest marble, and still harder shells. (Fig. 25, p. 34).
In these the valves can render no assistance, as they are smooth,
and covered with epidermis; neither does the foot help, being
small and finger-like, and not applied to the end of the burrow.
Their power of movement also is extremely limited, their cells
not being cylindrical, whilst one of them, sawicava, is fixed in

* See the admirable memoir by Mr. Albany Hancock, in the An. Nat. Hist. for
October, 1848.

+ There is a specimen from the coast of France, in the Brit. Museum.

{ Highgate resin, in the cabinet of Mr. Bowerbank.

§ The final polish to some steel goods is said to be given by the hands of work-
women. In Carlisle Castle they point to the rude impress’on of a hand on the
dungeon wall, as the work of Fergus M‘Ivor, in the two years of his solitary im-
prisonment.

CONCHIFERA. 395

its crypt by abyssus. These shell fish have been supposed to
dissolve the ruck by chemical means (Deshayes), or else to
wear it away with the thickened anterior margins of the
mantle. (Hancock.)*

The holes of the lithodomi often serve to shelter other animals
after the death of the rightful owners ; species of Modiola, Arca,
Venerupis, and Ooralliophaga, both recent and fossil, have been
found in such situations, and mistaken for the real miners.+

The boring shell-fish have been called ‘‘ stone-eaters ”’
(lithophagi) and ‘‘ wood-eaters”’ (xylophagi), and some of them
at least are obliged to swallow the material produced by
their operations, although they may derive no sustenance from
it. The ship-worm is often filled with pulpy, impalpable
sawdust, of the colour of the timber in which it worked.
(Hancock.) No shell-fish deepens or enlarges its burrow after
attaining the full growth usual to its species (p. 35).

The bivalves live by filtering water through their gills.t
Whatever particles the current brings, whether organic or
inorganic, animal or vegetable, are collected on the surface
of the breathing-organ and conveyed to the mouth. In this
manner they help to remove the impurities of turbid water.§
The mechanism by which this is effected may be most conye-

* All attempts to detect the presence of an acid secretion have hitherto failed, as
might be expected; for the hypothesis of an acid solvent supposes only a very feeble
but continuous action, such as in nature always works out the greatest results in the
end. See Liebig’s Organic Chemistry, and Dumas and Boussingault on the “Balance
of Organic Nature.” Intimately connected with this question are several other
phenomena; the removal of portions of the interior of univalves, by the animal
itself, as in the genera Conus, Auricula, and Nerita (Fig. 24, p. 32); the perforation of
shells by the tongues of the carnivorous gasteropods, and the formation of holes in
wood and limestone by limpets. Some facts in surgery also illustrate this subject,
(1) dead bone is removed when granulations grow into contact with it: (2) if a hole is
bored in a bone, and an ivory peg driven into it, and covered up, so much of the peg as
is embedded in the bone will be removed. (Paget.) The “absorption” of the fangs
of milk-teeth, previous to shedding, is well known. In these cases the removal of the
bone earth is effected without the development of an acid, or other disturbance of the
neutral condition of the circulating fluid.

+ Fossil univalves (trochi) occupying the burrows of a pholas, were discovered by
Mr. Bensted in the Kentish-rag of Maidstone. See Mantell’s Medals of Creation.
M. Buvignier has found several species of Arca fossilised in the burrows of
lithodomt.

ft It seems scarcely necessary to remark that the bivalves do not feed upon prey
caught between their valves, Microscopists are well aware that sediment taken from
the alimentary canal of bivalve shellfish contains the skeletons of animalcules and
minute vegetable organisms, whose geometrical forms are remarkably varied and
beautiful ; they have also been obtained (in greater abundance than ordinary) from
mud filling the interior of fossil oyster-shells.

9 When placed in water coloured with indigo, they will in a short time render it
clear, by collecting the minute particles and condensing ‘hem into a solid form.

396 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

niently examined in a bivalye with a closed mantle, like the
great Mya (Fig. 207), which
lives in the mud of tidal rivers,
with only the ends of its long
combined siphons exposed at the
surface.* The siphons can be ex-
tended twice the length of the
shell, or drawn completely with-
in it; they are separated, in-
ternally, by a thick muscular
wall. The branchial siphon (s)
has its orifice surrounded by
a double fringe; the exhalent
siphon (s') has but a single row
of tentacles; these organs are
very sensitive, and if rudely
touched the orifices close and
the siphon itself is rapidly with-
drawn. Whenunmolested, acur-
rent flows steadily intothe orifice
of the branchial siphon, whilst
another current rises up from
the exhalent tube. There is no
other opening in the mantle ex-
cept a small slit in front (p)
through which the foot is pro-
truded. The body of the animal
occupies the centre of the shell
(6), and in front of it is the
mouth (0) furnished with an
upper and a lower lip, which are
ff prolonged on each side into a
pair of large membranous palpi
(t). The gills (7) are-placed two
on each side of the body, and
are attached along their upper,
or dorsal margins; behind the body they are united to each other

Fig. 207. Mya arenaria. ~

* Alder and Hancock on the branchial currents of Pholas and Mya. An. Nat.
Hist., Nov. 1851.

} Mya arenaria, L. (original, from specimens obtained at Southend, and commu-
nicated by Miss Hume). The left valve and mantle lobe and half the siphons are re-
moved. a, a', adductor muscles; 0, body; c, cloaca; f, foot; g,branchize; A, heart;
m, cut edge of the mantle; 0, mouth; s, s’, siphons; ¢, labial tentacles; v, vent. The
arrows indicate the direction of the currents; the four rows of dots at the base of the
gills are the orifices of the branchial tubes, opening into the dorsal channels.

CONCHIFERA. 397

and to the siphonal partition. Each gill is composed of two
laminze, divided internally into a series of parallel tubes, indicated
outside by transverse lines; these tubes open into longitudinal
channels at the base of the gills, which unite behind the posterior
adductor muscle at the commencement of the exhalent siphon (c).
Examined by the microscope, the gill laminze appear to be a
network of blood-vessels whose pores opening into the gill-tubes,
are fringed with vibratile cilia. These microscopic organs perform
most important offices; they create the currents of water, arrest
the floating particles, and mould them, mixed with the viscid
secretion of the surface, into threads, in the furrows of the gill,
and propel them along the grooved edge of its free margin, in
the direction of the mouth; they are then received between the
palpi in the form of rayelled threads. (Alder and Hancock.)

In Mya, therefore (and in other burrowers), the cavity of the
shell forms a closed branchial chamber, and the water which
enters it by the respiratory siphon can only escape by passing
through the gills into the dorsal channels, and so into the
exhalent siphon. In the river-mussel the gills are not united
to the body, but a slit is left by which water might pass into
the dorsal channel, were it not for the close apposition of the
parts under ordinary circumstances (Fig. 208 6). The gills of
the oyster are united throughout, by their bases, to each other
and to the mantle, completely separating the branchial cavity
from the cloaca. In Pecten the gills and mantle are free, but
the ‘fdorsalchannels” still exist,and carry out the filtered water.

In some genera the gills subserve a third purpose; the
oviducts open into the dorsal channels and the eggs are received
into the gill-tubes and retained there until they are hatched.
In the river-mussel the outer gills only receive the eggs,
with which they are completely distended in the winter months
(Fig. 208, 0, 0). In Cyclas the inner gills form the marsupium,
and only from 10 to 20 of the fry are found in them at one
time ; these remain until they are nearly a quarter the length of
the parent.* 4

The valves of the Conchifera are bound together by an elastic
ligament, and articulated by a hinge furnished with interlock-
ing teeth. The shell is closed by powerful adductor muscles,
but opens spontaneously by the action of the ligament, when the
animal relaxes, and after it is dead.

Kach valve is a hollow cone, with the apex turned more or

* Some other particulars respecting the organisation and development of bivalve
shell-fish are given in ChapterI. For an account of their vascular system see Milne-
Edwards, An. Sc. Nat. 1847, tom. viii. p. 77.

398 MANUAL OF TITE MOLLUSCA.

less to one side; the apex is the point from which the growth
of the valve commences, and is termed the beak, or wmbo (p. 29).
The beaks (wmbones) are near the hinge, because that side
grows least rapidly, sometimes they are quite marginal; but
they always tend to become wider apart with age. The beaks
are either straight, as in Pecten; curved, as in Venus; or spiral,
as in Isocardia and Diceras. In the latter case each valve is
like a spiral univalve, especially those with a large aperture
and small spire, such as Concholepas ; it is the left valve which
resembles the ordinary univalve, the right valve being a le/t-
handed spiral like the reversed gasteropods. When one valve
is spiral and the other flat, as in Chama ammonia (Fig. 224),

mute

Fig. 208, River-mussel. (Anodon cygneus 9). *

the resemblance to an operculated spiral univalve becomes very
striking.

The relation of the shell to the animal may be readily deter-
mined, in most instances, by the direction of the wmbones, and
the position of the ligament. The umbones are turned towards —
the front, and the ligament is posterior ; both are situated on
the back, or dorsal side of the shell. The length of a bivalve
is measured from the anterior to the posterior side, its breadth
from the dorsal margin to the base, and its thickness from the
centres of the closed valves.f

The Conchifera are mostly equivalve, the right and left valves

* The valves are forcibly opened and the foot (7) contracted; a, anterior adductor-
muscle, much stretched; py, p, palpi; g, inner gills; 0, o, outer gills distended with
spawn; 8, 4, a bristle passed through one of the dorsal channels.

+ Linneus and the naturalists of his school described the front of the shell as the
back, the left valve as the right, and vice versa. In those works which have been
compiled from “ original descriptions” (instead of specimens) sometimes one end,
sometimes the other, is called unterzor; and the length of the shell is sometimes
estimated in the direction of the length of the animal, but just as frequently in a line

at right angles to it.

CONCTIFERA. 899

being of the same size and shape, except in the Ostreide and
a few others. In Ostrea, Pandora, and Lyonsia, the right valve
is smallest; in Chamostrea and Corbula, the left; whilst the
Chamacee follow no rule in this respect.

The bivalves are all more or less inequilateral, the anterior

Dorsal Margin.

7) _\, Anterior

Posterior gSss? é
5 ie \ side.
|

side.

Ventral margin or base.

Fig. 209. Unio pictorum, L. (original), with the right valve and mantle-lobe removed ;
a, a, adductor muscles; p, p, pedal muscles; z, accessory pedal muscle; u, umboj
1, ligament ; 6, branchial orifice ; v, anal opening ; ,f, foot; o, mouth; Z, palpi.

being usually much shorter than the posterior side. Pectunculus
is nearly equilateral, and in Giycimeris and Solemya the anterior
is much longer than the posterior side. The front of the
smaller Pectens is shown by the byssal notch; but in the large
scallops, oysters and Spondyli, the only indication of the posi-
tion of the animal is afforded by the large internal muscular
impression, which is on the posterior side. The ligament is
sometimes between the umbones, but is never anterior to them.
The siphonal impression, inside the shell, is always posterior.

Bivalves are said to be close, when the valves fit accurately,
and gaping, when they cannot be completely shut. In Gastro-
chena (Pl. XXIII, Fig. 15), the opening is anterior, and serves
for the passage of the foot; in Mya it is posterior and siphonal;
in Solen and Glycimeris both ends are open. In Bysso-arca
(Pl. XVII., Fig. 13), there is a ventral opening formed by
corresponding notches in the margin of the valves, which serves
for the passage of the byssus; in Pecten, Avicula, and Anomia
(Fig. 211, s), the byssal notch (or sinus) is confined to the right
valve.

The surface of bivalve shells is often ornamented with ribs
which radiate from the umbones to the margin, or with con-
centric ridges, which coincide with the lines of growth. Some-
times the sculpturing is oblique, or wavy; in Tellina fabula
it is confined to the right valve. In many species of Pholas,

400 “MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Teredo, and Cardium, the surface is divided into two areas by
a transverse furrow, or by a change in the direction of the ribs.
The lunule (see Fig. 14, p. 20) is an oval space in front of the
beaks; it is deeply impressed in Cardium retusum, L. Astarte
excavata, and the’genus Opis. Whena similar impression exists
behind the beaks, it is termed the escutcheon.*

The ligament of the Conchifera forms a substitute for the
muscles by which the valves of the Brachiopoda are opened,
It consists of two parts, the ligament properly so called, and
the cartilage; they exist either combined or distinct, and some-
times one is developed and not the other. The external ligament
is a horny substance, similar to the epidermis which clothes the
valves; it is usually attached to ridges on the posterior hinge-
margins, behind the umbones, and is consequently stretched
by the closing of the valves. The ligament is large in the river-
mussels, and small in the Mactras and Myas, which have «
large internal cartilage; in Arca and Pectunculus the ligament
is spread oyer a flat, lozenge-shaped area, situated between the
umbones, and furrowed with cartilage grooves. In Chama and
Isocardia the ligament splits in front, and forms a spiral round
each umbo. The Pholades have no hgament, but the anterior
adductor is shifted to such a position on the hinge-margin that
it acts as a hinge-muscle. (Pl. XXIIL., Fig. 13.)

The internal ligament, or cartilage, is lodged in furrows
formed by the ligamental plates, or in pits along the hinge-
line; in Mya and Nucula it is contained in a spoon-shaped
process of one or both valves. It is composed of elastic fibres
placed perpendicularly to the surfaces between-which it is
contained, and is slightly iridescent when broken; it is com-
pressed by the closing of the valves, and tends forcibly to open
them as soon as the pressure of the muscles is removed. The ©
name Amphidesma (double ligament) was given to certain —
bivalves, on the supposition that the separation of the cartilage
from the ligament was peculiar to them. ‘The cartilage-pit of
many of the Anatinide is furnished internally with a movable
ossicle. )

The ligament is frequently preserved in fossil shells, such
as the great Cyprinas and Carditas of the London Clay, the
Unios of the Wealden and even in some lower Silurian bivalves.

All bivalves are clothed with an epidermis (v. p. 33) which
is organically connected with the margin of the mantle. It is
developed to a remarkable extent in Solemya and Glycimeris

* Only those technical terms which are used in a peculiar sense are here referred to;
fo1 the rest, any Dictionary may be consulted, especially Roberts’s “ Etymolcgical
Dictionary of Geology ” published by Longman and Co.

CONCHIFERA. 401

(Pl. XXII., Figs. 13, 17), and in Mya it is continued oyer the
siphons and closed mantle-lobes, making the shell appear
anuternal.

‘The interior of bivalves is inscribed with characters borrowed
directly from the shell-fish, and affording a surer clue to its
affinities than those which the exterior presents. The structure
of the hinge characterises both families and genera, whilst the
condition of the respiratory and locomotive organs may be to
some extent inferred from the muscular markings.

The margin of the shell on which the ligament and teeth
are situated, is termed the hinge-line. It is very long and
straight in Avicula and Arca, very short in Vulsella, and curved
in most genera. The locomotive bivalves have generally the
strongest hinges, but the most perfect examples are presented
by Arca and Spondylus. The central teeth, those immediately
beneath the wmbo, are called hinge (or cardinal) teeth; those
on each side are lateral teeth. Sometimes lateral teeth are
developed, and not cardinal teeth (Alasmodon ; Kellia): more
frequently the hinge-teeth alone are present. In young shells
the teeth are sharp and well-defined ; in aged specimens they
are often thickened, or even obliterated by irregular growth
(Hippopodium) or the encroachment of the hinge-line (Pectun-
culus). Many of the fixed and boring shells are edentulous.*

The muscular impressions are those of the adductors, the foot
and byssus, the siphons, and the mantle (see pp. 19, 20).

( Pecten v 1; tus.) Right valve.
a, a, adductor; p, pedal impression; m, palial line; 7, ligamental margin; c, c, cer-
tilage ; e, e, anterior ears ; 0, byssal sinus.

The adductor impressions are usually simple, although the

* The dentition of biyalve shells may be stated thus:—cardinal teeth, 2.3 or 2—
Meaning 2 in the right valve, 3 in the Jef ; lateral teeth 1—], 2-+2, or 1 anterior and 1
posterior in the right valve, 2 anterior ard 2 po:terior lateral teeth in the /ef¢ valve.

402 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

muscles themselves may be composed of two elements,* as
in Cytherea chione (Fig. 14, p. 20) and the common oyster.
The impression of the posterior adductor in Spondylus is double |
(Pl. XVI., Fig. 15). In Pecten varius (Fig. 210, a a), large
independent impressions are formed by the two portions of
the adductor, and in the /eft valve there is a third impression
(p) produced by the foot, which in the byssiferous pectens is a
simple conical muscle with a broad base.

In the left valve of Anomia there are four distinct muscular
impressions (Fig. 213). Of these, the small posterior spot alone
is produced by the adductor, and corresponds with the solitary

Fig. 211. Right valve. Fig. 212, Fig. 213. Left valve.t

impression in the right valve. The adductor itself (Fig. 212, a’)
is double. The large central impression (p) is produced by the
muscle of the plug (the equivalent of the byssal muscle in Pinna
and Modiola). The small impression within the umbo (w) and
the third impression in the disc (p’) (wanting in Placunomia) are
_ caused by the retractors of the foot.

The term monomyary, employed by Lamarck to distinguish
the bivalves with one adductor, applies only to the Ostreide,
part of the Aviculide, and to the genera Tridacna and Miilleria.

The dimyary bivalves have a second adductor, near the anterior
margin, which is small in Mytilus (Fig. 30), but large in Pinna.
The retractor muscles of the foot (already alluded to at p. 20)
have their fixed points near those of the adductors; the anterior
pair are attached within the umbones (Fig. 214, wu uw), or nearer
the adductor, as in Astarte and Unio (Fig. 209). The posterior
pair (p’p) are often close to the adductor, and leave no separate

* Compare the shell of modiola, Pl. XVII., Fig. 5, with the woodcut, Fig. 214.

1 Fig. 211. Right valve of Anomia ephippium, L. 1, ligamental process; s, sinus.
Fig 213. Left valve; J, ligament pit. Fig. 212. Muscular system, from a drawing
communicated by A. Hancock, Esq. 7, the foot; pl, the plug. The muscle p38
generaily described as a portion of the addyctor ; but it is certain, from a comparison
of tis shell with Carolia and Placuna, that a! represents the entire adductor, and p
the byssal muscle.

CONCHIFERA. 403

impression. The Unionide have two additional retractors of the
foot, attached laterally behind the anterior adductors; in Leda,
Solenella, and a few others, this lateral attachment forms a
line extending from the anterior adductor backwards into the
umbonal region of the shell. (See Pl. XVII., Figs. 21, 22.)

In those shellfish like Pinna and the mussel, which are per-
manently moored by a strong byssus, the foot (/) serves only to
mould and fix the threads of which it is formed. The fibres
of the foot-muscles pass chiefly to the byssus (6), and besides
these two additional muscles (pp) are developed. In Pinna,

Fig. 214. Muscles of Modiola. *

Modiola, and Dreissena the byssal muscles are equal to the great
adductors in size.

In a few rare instances the muscles are fixed to promi-
nent apophyses. The falciform processes of Pholas and Teredo
(Pl. XXIII., Figs. 19, 26) are developed for the attachment of
the foot-muscle; the posterior muscular ridge of Diceras and
Cardilia resembles a lateral tooth, and in the extimct genus
Radiolites both adductors were attached to large tooth-like pro-
cesses of the opercular valve; but, as a rule, the muscles deposit

* Fig. 214. Muscular system of Modiola modiolus, L., from a drawing ecommuni-
cated by A. Hane:ck, Esq. aa, anterior, a'a', posterior adductors ; wu and p'p’, pedai
muscles ; yp, byssal muscles ; 7, foot; &, byssus; m, pallial line.

404 MANUAL OF THE MOLITUSCA.

less shell than the mantle, and their impressions deepen with
age.

The pallial line (Fig. 214, m)1is produced by the muscular
fibres of the mantle-margin; it is broken up into irregular
spots in the monomyary bivalves, and in Sawxicava and Panopeu
Norvegica.

The siphonal impression, or pallial sinus (Fig. 14, p. 20), only
exists in those shells which have retractile siphons; its depth
is an index to their length. The large combined siphons of
Mya (Fig. 207) are much longer than the shell; and those of
some Tellinide three or four times its length, yet they are com-
pletely retractile. The small siphons of Cyclas and Dreissena
cause no inflection of the pallial line. The form of the sinus
is characteristic of genera and species.

In the wmbonal area (within the pallial line) there are some-
times furrows produced by the viscera, which may be distin-
guished from the muscular markings by absence of polish and
outline. (See Lucina, Pl. XIX., Fig. 6.)

Fossil bivalves are of constant occurrence in all sedimentary
rocks; they are somewhat rare in the older formations, but
increase steadily in number and variety through the secondary
and tertiary strata, and attain a maximum of development in
existing seas.

Some families, like the Cyprinide and Lucinide are more
abundant fossil than recent; whilst many genera, and one whole
family (the Wippuritide), have become extinct. The determi~
nation of the affinities of fossil bivalves is often exceedingly
difficult, owing to the conditions under which they occur.
Sometimes they are found in pairs, filled up with hard stone;
and frequently as casts, or moulds of the interior, giving no
trace of the hinge, and very obscure indications of the muscular
markings. Casts of single valves are more instructive, as they
afford impressions of the hinge.*

Another difficulty arises from the frequent destruction of the
nacreous or lamellar portion of the fossil bivalves, whilst the
cellular layers remain. The Aviculide of the chalk have entirely
lost their pearly interiors; the Spondyli, Chamas, and Radiolites
are in the same condition, their inner layers are gone and no
vacancy left, the whole interior being filled with chalk. As it |
is the inner layer alone which are the hinge, and alone
receives the impressions of the soft parts, the true characters of |

* These impressions may be conveniently moulded with gutta-percha. M. Agassiz
published a set of plaster-casts of the interiors of the genera of recent shells, which,
may be seen in the Brit. Museum. [MWemoire sur les moules des Mollusques, vivans et
Joussiles, par L. Agassiz, Mem. Soc. Sc. Nat. Neuchatel, t. 2.]

|

CONCHIFERA. 405

the shells could not be determined from such specimens. Our
knowledge of the extinct Radiolite is derived ftom natural
inoulds of the interior, formed before the dissolution of the
inner layer of shell, or from specimens in whieh this layer is
replaced by spar.

The necessities of geologists have compelled them to pay very
minute attention to the markings in the interior of shells, to
their microscopic texttire, and every other available source of
comparison and distinction. It must not, however, be expected
that the entire structure and affinities of molluscous animals
can be predicated from the examination of an internal mould or
a morsel of shell, any more than that the ferm and habits of an
extinct quadruped can be inferred from a sees tooth or the
fragment of a bone.*

The systematic arrangement of the bivalves now employed is
essentially that of Lamarck, modified, however, by many recent
observations. The families follow each other according to rele-
tionship, and not according to absolute rank; the Veneride are
the highest organised, and from this culminating point the
stream of affinities takes two courses, ohne towards the Myas,
the other in the direction of the oysters; groups analogically
related to the Tunicaries and Brachiopoda.

SECTION A. ASIPHONIDA.

a. Pallial line simple: Integro-pallialia.

Fam. 1. Ostreide. 4. Arcade.
2. Aviculidee. 5. Trigoniadee.
3. Mytilide. 6. Unionidee.

SECTION B. SIPHONIDA.

7. Chamide. | 114. Lucinide.

8. Hippuritide. 12. Oycladide.

9. Tridacnide. 13. Cyprinide.

10. Cardiadee.

b. Pallial line sinwated : Sinu-pallialia.

14, Veneride. 18. Myacide.

15. Mactride. 19. Anatinide.

16. Tellinidee. 20. Gastrochezenidee.
17. Solenidee. - 21. Pholadide.

The characters which have been most relied on for distin-

* Etudes Critiques sur les Mollusques Fossiles, par L. Agassiz, Neuchatel, 1840.

406 ) MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

guishing these groups and the genera of bivalves are the fol-
lowing, stated nearly in the order of their value :—
1. Extent to which the mantle-lobes are united.
2. Number and position of muscular impressions.
3. Presence or absence of a pallial sinus.
4, Form of the foot.
5. Structure of the branchie.
6. Microscopic structure of the shell. (v. p. 31.)
7. Position of the ligament, internal or external.
8. Dentition of the hinge.
9, Equality or inequality of the valves.
10. Regularity or irregularity of form.
11. Habit ;—free, burrowing or fixed.
12. Medium of respiration, fresh or salt water.

A few exceptions may be found, in which one or other of
these characters does not possess its usual yalue.* Such in-
stances serve to warn us against too implicit reliance on single
characters. Groups, to be natural, must be based on the con-
sideration of all these particulars—on ‘‘ the totality of the
animal organisation.” (Owen.)

SECTION A.—ASIPHONIDA.

Animal unprovided with respiratory siphons; mantle-lobes
free, or united at only one point which divides the branchial
from the exhalent chamber (cloaca); pallial impression simple.

Sheli usually pearly or sub-nacreous inside; cellular ex-
ternally ; pallial line simple or obsolete.

* 1. Cardita and Crassatella (Fam. 13) have the mantle more open, whilst in Fridina
(6), and especially in Drezssena (3) it is more closed than in the most nearly allied
genera.

2. Mulleria (6) and Tridacna (9) aré monomyary.

3. Leda (4) and Adacna (10) have a pallial sinus ; Anopa (16) has none.

4. The form of the foot is usually characteristic of the families; but sometimes it is
adaptively modified.

5. Dzuplodonta (11) has four gills.

6. Pearly structure is variable even in species of the same genus.

7. Crassatella (13) and Semele (16} have an internal ligament; in Solenella and
Isoarca (4) it is external.

8. Anodon (16), Adacna, Serripes (10), and Cryptodon (11) are edentulous.

9. Corbula (18) and Pandora (19) are more inequivalve than their allies; Chama
arcinella (7) is equivalve.

10. Hinnites (1), theria (6), Myochauma and Chamostrea (19) are irregular.

11. Pecten is free, byssiferous, or fixed: Arca free or byssiferous. This chegract
varies with age and locality in the same species. It does not always depend on the
form of the foot, as Lithodomus and Unyulina—boring shells—have the fyot like
Alytitus and Lucina.

12. Novaculina is a river Solen, and Scaphula a fresh-water Arca.

CONCHIFERA. 407

Faminy I,—OsTREIDA.

Shell inequivalve, slightly inequilateral, free or adherent,
resting on one valve; beaks central, straight; ligament in-
ternal; epidermis thin ; adductor impression single, behind the
centre; pallial line obscure; hinge usually edentulous.

Animal marine; mantle quite open; very slightly adherent
to the edge of the shell; foot small and byssiferous, or obsolete;
gills crescent-shaped, 2 on each side; adductor muscle composed
ef two elements, but representing only the posterior shell-muscle
of other bivalves.

The union of the Ostreide and Pectinide, as proposed by the
authors of the ‘‘ History of British Mollusca,” has not proved
satisfactory. The genus Ostrea stands quite alone, and distinct
from all the Pectinide in the structure of its gills, which are
like those of Avicula, and by resting on its left valve. The shell
also is more nacreous than that of the scallops

OsTREA, L.—OYSTER.

Synonyms, Amphidonta and Pycnodonta, Fischer. Peloris,
Poli.

Type, O. edulis, L.

Example, O. diluviana,. Pl. XVI., Fig. 1.

Shell irregular, attached by the left valve; upper valve flat
or concaye, often plain; lower convex, often plaited or
foliaceous, and with a prominent beak; ligamental cavity
triangular or elongated; hinge toothless; structure sub-
nacreous, buna aN prismatic cellular ose: between
the margins of the lamine.

Animal with the mantle-margin double, finely fringed; gills
nearly equal, united posteriorly to each other and the mantle-
lobes, forming a complete branchial chamber ; lips plain ; palpi
triangular, attached ; sexes distinct.*

Distribution, 70 species. Tropical and temperate seas. Norway,
Black Sea, &c.

Fossil, 200 species. Carb. —. United States, Europe, India.

The interior of recent oyster-shells has a slightly nacreous
lustre; in fossil specimens an irregular cellular structure is
often very apparent on decomposed or fractured surfaces. Fossil
oysters which have grown upon Ammonites, Trigonie, &c.,
frequently take the form of those shells.

In the ‘‘cock’s-comb” oysters both valves are plaited; O.
»diluviana sends out long root-like processes from its lower

* The course of the alimentary canal in the common oyster is incorrectly repre-
sented by Poli, and copied in the Crochard ed. of Cuvier.

408 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

valve. The ‘‘tree-oyster” (Dendrostrea, Sw.) grows on the
root of the mangrove. Oyster shells become very thick with
age, especially in rough water; the fossil oyster of the Tagus
(0. longirostris) attains a length of two feet. The greatest enemy
of oyster-banks is a sponge (Cliona), which eats into the valves,
both of dead and living shells; at first only small round holes,
at irregular intervals, and often disposed in regular patterns,
are visible; but ultimately the shell is completely mined and
falls to pieces. Natural oyster-banks usually occur in water
several fathoms deep; the oysters spawn in May and June, and
the fry (‘‘ spats”) are extensively collected and removed to
artificial grounds, or tanks, where the water is very shallow;
they are then called ‘‘ natives,” and do not attain their full
growth in less than five or seven years, whilst the ‘‘ sea-oysters ”
are full-grown in four yeais. Native oysters do not breed freely, —
and sometimes many die in the spawning season; they are also
liable to be killed by frost. The season isfrom August 4to May 12.
From 20,000 to 30,000 bushels of ‘‘ natives’? and 100,000 bushels
of sea-oysters are annually sent to the London market. Many ~
other species of ee are eaten in India, China, Australia, &c.
‘Green oysters” are those which ©
\ have fed on conferve in the tanks.
\ Sub-genera. Gryphea, Lamarck.
iG. incurva, Sby. (section), Fig.
} 215. Free, or very slightly at-
tached; left valve with a promi-
nent, incuryed umbo; right valve
—=S= small, concave. Sossil, 30 species.
Fig. 215. Gryphea. Lias — Chalk. Europe, India.
Exogyra, Sby. E. conica, Pl. XVI., Fig. 2. Shell chama-
shaped, attached by the left valve; umbones sub-spiral, turned _
to the posterior side (i.e. reversed); right valve opercular.
Fossil, 46 species. Lu. Oolite — Chalk. United States; Europe. |
Dimya (Deshayesana), Rouault, 1859. Mém. Soc. Géol.
b. ID. 471, t. 15..Fig. 3... Hocene, Paris. The figure is most
like an oyster, and the ‘‘ second adductor impression,” op.
account of which it is named Dimya, is rather like the small
anterior scar in Pecten (Fig. 210).
AwnomiA, L.

}

Etymology, anomios, unequal. i

Example, A. Acheeus, Pl. XVI., Fig. 3.

Synonyms, Fenestrella, Weiter: Goya, Humph. Aenigma
Koch.

Shell sub-orbicular, very variable, translucent, and slight

CONCHITFERA. 409

pearly within, attached by a plug passing through a hole or
_xotch in the right valve: upper valve convex, smooth, lamellar
or striate1; interior with a sub-marginal cartilage-pit, and ©
four iuscular impressions, 3 sub-central, and one in front of
the cartilage (see Fig. 213, p. 402): lower valve concave, with a
deep, rounded notch in front of the cartilage process; disk with
a single (adductor) impression.

Animal with the mantle open, its margins with a short double
fringe; lips membranous, elongated; palpi fixed, striated on
both sides; gills 20n each side, united posteriorly, the outer
laminee incomplete and free ; foot small, cylindrical, subsidiary
to a lamellar and more or less calcified byssal plug, attached to
the upper valve by three muscles; adductor muscle behind the
_byssal muscles, small, composed of two elements; sexes dis-
tinct ; ovary extending into the substance of the lower mantle-
lobe.
_ In A. pernoides, from California, there is an anterior (pedal)
muscular impression in both valves.

_ “There is no relationship of affinity between Anomia and
Terebratula, but only a resemblance through formal analogy ;
the parts which seem identical are not homologous.” (Forbes.)

The Anomiz are found attached to oysters and other shells,
and frequently acquire the form of the surfaces with which
their growing margins are in contact. They are not edible.

Distribution, 20 species. North America, Britain, Black Sea,
India, Australia, West America, Icy sea. Low water — 100
fathoms.

_ Fossil, 36 species. Oolite —. Chili, United States, Europe,
India.

_ Sub-genera. Placunomia (Cumingii), Broderip. Synonym,
Pododesmus, Phil. P. macroschisma, Pl. XVI., Fig. 4... Upper
valye with only two muscular impressions; the pedal scar
radiately striated; the byssal plug is often fixed in the lower
valve, and its muscle becomes (functionally) an adductor. Dis-
tribution, 13 species. West Indies, Britain (P. patelliformis),
New Zealand, California, Behring’s Sea, Ochotsk. — 60
fathoms.

Limanomia (Grayana), Bouchard. Shell eared like Lima.
Fossil, 4 species. Devonian; Boulonnais, China?

PrLaAcunA, Solander.—Window-Shell.
‘ Etymology, plakous, a thin cake.
Example, P. sella, Pl. XVI., Fig. 5
Shell suborbicular, compressed, translucent, free, resting on
i T e

410 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

the right valve; hinge area narrow and obscure; cartilage
supported by two diverging ridges in the right valve and cor-
responding grooves in the left; muscular impressions double,
the larger element round and central, the smaller distinct and
crescent shaped, in front of it.

The Placunee are very closely allied to Anomia; and many
intermediate forms may be traced. The shell of each consists
entirely of sub-nacreous, plicated laminee, peculiarly separable,
and occasionally penetrated by minute tubuli. (Carpenter.) P.
sella, called, from its shape, the ‘‘ saddle-oyster,” is remarkably
striated. In P. placenta, Pl. XVI., Fig. 6, the anterior carti-
lage ridge is only half as long as the other, which appears to be
connected with the economy of the shell when young; in speci-
mens 1 inch across, there is a pedal imvression below the
cartilage grooves of the upper valve, and a shallow sinus in the
margin of the lower valve, indicating a slight byssal attach-
ment at that age.

Placuna* is essentially like Anomia, having the generative
system attached to the right mantle-lobe, and the ventricle
exposed. The mantle-margin is cirrated, and furnished with a
curtain, as in Pecten; the foot is tubular and extensile, but has
no distinct muscles except the small one, whose existence in
P. placenta (Pl. XVI., Fig. 6) we had predicated from examina-
tion of the shell. + The small muscular impressions before
and in the rear of the adductor are produced by suspensors
of the gills.

Distribution, 4 species. Scinde, North Australia, China.

Sub-genera. Carolia, Cantraine, 1835 (after Prince Charles
Bonaparte). Synonym, Hemiplacuna, G. Sby. Type, C. placu-_
noides, Pl. XVI., Fig. 7. Shell like Placuna; hinge, when |
young, like Anomia, with a byssal plug passing through a |
small deep sinus in front of the cartilage process, which is closed ;
in theadult. Distribution, 3 species. (British Museum), Tertiary,
Egypt; America ? )

Placunopsis, Morris and Lycett. P. Jurensis, Roemer. Sub-
orbicular, upper valve convex, radiately striated, or taking th
form of the surface to which it adheres; lower valve flat; liga
mental groove sub-marginal, transverse; muscular impressio
large, sub-central. fossil 4 species. Lower Oolites, Europe.

Placenta, Retzius. Cartilage grooves slightly divergent, t
posterior one the longer of the two; muscular impression sub-
central.

* Original figures and descriptions will be found in the An. Nat. Hist. 1855, p. 2
+ This organ appears to represent the byssal-sheath of Anomia, rather than the fdot,
as there is no other opening for the passage of a byssus.

CONCHIFERA. 411

PxcTEN, O. F. Miller. Scallop.

Etymoloyy, pecten, a comb.

Type, P. maximus (Janira, Schum.)

Synonyms, Argus, Poli. Discites, Schl. Amusium, Muhlfeldt.

Shell sub-orbicular, regular, resting on the right valve,
usually ornamented with radiating ribs; beaks approximate,
eared; anterior ears most prominent; posterior side a little
oblique ; right valve most convex, with a notch below the front
ear; hinge-margins straight, united by a narrow ligament;
cartilage internal, in a central pit; adductor impression double,
obscure; pedal impression only in the left valve, or obsolete
(Fig. 210).

Animal with the mantle quite open, its margins double, the
inner pendent like a curtain
(m) finely fringed; at its
base a row of conspicuous
round black eyes (ocelli) sur-
rounded by tentacular fila-
ments; gills (br) exceed- ”
ingly delicate, crescent-
shaped, quite disconnected
posteriorly, having separate pas
excurrent canals; lips folia- EL Ee AEE
_ceous; palpi truncated, plain outside, striated within; foot
finger-like, grooved, byssiferous in the young.

The Scallop (P. maximus) and ‘‘quin” (P. opercularis) are
esteemed delicacies ; the latter covers extensive banks, especially
on the north and west of Ireland, in 15 to 25 fathoms water.
The scallop ranges from 3—40 fathoms; its bodyis bright orange,
or scarlet, the mantle fawn-colour, marbled with brown; the
shell is used for ‘‘ scalloping” oysters, formerly it was em-
ployed as a drinking-cup, and celebrated as such in Ossian’s
“‘hall of shells.” An allied species has received the name of
«St. James’s shell” (P. Jacobeus); it was worn by pilgrims
to the Holy Land, and became the badge of several orders of
knighthood.+

Most of the Pectens spin a byssus when young, and some,
like P. varius, do so habitually ; P. niveus moors itself to the
fronds of the tangle (Laminaria).

* The Pectens do not open so wide as here represented; their “ curtains”? remain
ix. contact at one point on the posterior side, separating the branchial from the exhalent
currents.

+ When the monks of the ninth century converted the fisherman of Gennesaret into
a Spanish warrior, they assigned him the scallop-shell for his “cognizance.” (Moule’s
* Feralury of Fish.’’)

T 2

412 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The Rey. D. Landsborough observed the fry of P. opercular’s,
when less than the size of asixpence, swimming in a pool of
sea-water left by the ebbing of the tide. ‘‘ Their motion was
rapid and zig-zag; they seemed, by the sudden opening and
closing of their valves, to have the power of darting like an
arrow through the water. One jerk carried them some yards,
and then by another sudden jerk they were off in a moment on
a different tack.”

The shell of Pecten and the succeeding genera consists almost
exclusively of membranous laminee, coarsely or finely corru-
gated. Itis composed of two very distinct layers, differing in
colour (and also in texture and destructibility), but having
essentially the same structure, Traces of cellularity are some-
times discoverable on the external surface; P. nobilis has a
distinct prismatic-cellular layer externally. (Carpenter.)

Sub-genera, Neithea, Drouet, Vola, Klein. P. quinque-
costatus and other fossil species with concayo-convex valves
and distinct hinge-teeth; the inner layers of these shells are
wanting in all specimens from the English chalk.

Pailium, Schum. P. plica, Pl. XVI., Fig.8. Hinge obscurely
toothed.

Hinnites (Cortesii) Defr. P. pusio, Pl. XVI., Fig. 10. Shell
regular and byssiferous when young; afterwards cementing its
lower valve and becoming more or less irregular.

Distribution, 2 species.

Fossil, Trias? Upper Greensand —, Europe.

Hemipecten, A. Adams. H. Forbesianus, Pl. XVI., Fig. 9.
Shell hyaline, posterior ears obsolete, anterior prominent;
right valve flat, byssal sinus deep; structure permeated by
microscopic tubuli, as in Lima.

Amusium, Klein. Shell nearly equivalved, gaping in front
and behind; smooth outside, generally marked with radiating
grooves inside. |

Distribution, 176 species. World-wide; Nova-Zembla—Cape
Horn ; — 200 fathoms.

Fossil, 450 species (including Ayiculo-pecten). Carb.—.
World-wide.

|

Lima, Bruguiere.

Etymology, lima, a file.

Example, Li. squamosa, Pl. XVI., Fig. 11. (Ostrea lima, L

Synonyms, Plagiostoma (Lluwyd), Sby. P. cardiuformé,
Pi oyih,, sites 2.

Shell equivalye, compressed, obliquely oval; anterior sife

CONCHIFERA. == 413

straight, gaping, posterior rounded, usually close; umbones
apart, eared; valves smooth, punctate-striate, or radiately
ribbed aud imbricated; hinge area triangular, cartilage pit
central; adductor impression lateral, large, double; pedal
scars 2, small.

Animal, mantle-margins separate, inner pendent, fringed
with long tentacular filaments, ocelli inconspicuous; foot
finger-like, grooved; lips with tentacular filaments, palpi
small, striated inside; gills equal on each side, distinct.

The shell is always white; its outer layer consists of coarsely-
plicated membranous lamelle ; the inner layer is perforated by
minute tubuli, forming a complete network. (Carpenter.)

The Limas are either free or spina byssus; some make an
artificial burrow when adult, by spinning together sand or coral-
fragments and shells, but the habit is not constant. (Forbes.)
The burrows of LZ. hians are several times longer than the shell,
and closed at each end. (Charlesworth.) ‘‘ This species is
pale or deep crimson, with an orange mantle; when taken out
of its nest it is one of the most beautiful marine animals to look
upon, it swims with great vigour, like the scallop, by opening
and closing its valves, so that it is impelled onwards or upwards
in a succession of jumps. The filaments of the fringe are
easily broken off, and seem to live many hours after they are
detached, twisting themselves like worms.” (Landsborough.)
L. spinosa has conspicuous ocelli, and short filaments.

Sub-generu, Limatula, 8. Wood. L. sub-auriculata, Pl. XVI.,
Fig. 18. Valves equilateral; 8 species. Greenland—bBritain.
Fossil, Miocene—. THurope.

Limea, Bronn. UL. strigilata, Pl. XVI. Fig. 14.* Hinge
minutely toothed.

Fossil, 4 species. Lias—Pliocene. The recent Limca ?
Sarsii (Lovén), Norway (=L. crassa of the #gean ?) has the
mantle-border plain. Some of the larger recent species have
obscure lateral teeth.

Distribution, 20 species. Norway, Britain, West. Indies,
Canaries, India, Australia; 1—150 fathoms. The largest living
species (L. excavata, Chemn.) is found on the coast of Norway.

Fossil, 200 species. Carb.? Trias—. United States, Europe,
India. The so-called Plagiostoma spinosum is a Spondylus.

SPONDYLUS (Pliny) L. Thorny-oyster.
Type, S. geedaropus, L.
Hxample, 8. princeps, Pl. XVI., Fig. 15

* After Bronn; the figure in Brocchi does not show the teeth.

414 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Synonyms, Dianchora, Sby. Podopsis, Lam. Pachytes, Defr. ©

Shell irregular, attached by the right valve, radiately ribbed,
spiny or foliaceous; umbones remote, eared; lower valve with
a triangular hinge-area, cartilage in a central groove, nearly or
quite covered; hinge of two curved interlocking teeth in each
valve; adductor impression double.

Animal, with the mantle open and gills separate, as in Pecten ;
lips fohaceous, palpi short; foot small, cylindrical, truncated.

In aged specimens the circular portion of the muscular scar
exhibits dendritic vascular markings. The lower valve is
always most spiny and least coloured ; in some species (like S.
imperialis) the shell is scarcely, if at all, attached by its beak
or spines. The inner shell-layer is very distinct from the outer,
and always wanting in fossil specimens from calcareous rocks,
then called Dianchore. Specimens from the Miocene of St.
Domingo, which have lost this layer, contain a loose mould of
the original interior. Water-cavities are common in the inner
layer, the border of the mantle having deposited shell more
rapidly than the umbonal portion. (Owen, Mag. Nat. Hist.
1838, p. 409.)

Distribution, 68 species. West Indies, Canaries, Mediter-
ranean, India, Torres Straits, Pacific, West America :—1065 ~
fathoms.

Fossil, 80 species. Carb—. Europe, United States, India.

Sub-genus, Pedum, Brug. P. spondyloides, Pl. XVL,
Fig. 16. Shell thin, smooth, compressed, attached by a byssus
passing through a deep notch in the right valve. Inhabits
coral-reefs, where it is found half-embedded; Red Sea, Indian
Ocean, Mauritius, Chinese Seas.

PLICATULA, Lamarck.

Etymology, plicatus, plaited.

Tape. we. cristaua, Pix VL Wie 17,

Shell irregular, attached by the umbo of the right valve
valve smooth or plaited; hinge-area obscure; cartilage qui
internal; hinge-teeth, two in each valve; adductor scar simpl¢.

Animal resembles spondylus.

Distribution, 9 species. West Indies, India, Philippine,
Australia, West America.

Fossil, 40 species. Trias—. United States, Hurope, Algeria,
India. |

P. Mantelli (Lea) Alabama, has the valves eared.

CONCHIFERA. 415

Famity IJ.—Avicunip#. Wing-shells.

Shell inequivalve, very oblique, resting on the smaller (right)
valve, and attached by a byssus; epidermis indistinct: outer
layer prismatic-cellular (Fig. 217), in-
terior nacreous; posterior muscular im-
pression large, sub-central, anterior small,
within the umbo ; pallial line, irregularly
dotted; hinge-line straight, elongated ;
umbones anterior, eared, the posterior
ear wing-like; cartilage contained in one
or several grooves; hinge edentulous, or
obscurely toothed.

Animal with the mantle-lobes free,
their margins fringed ; foot small, spinning a byssus; gills two
on each side, crescent-shaped, entirely free (Desh.) or united to
each other posteriorly, and to the mantle (as in the Oyster, and
not as in Pecten).

The wing-shells, or pearl-oysters, are natives of tropical and
temperate seas; there are no living species in northern latitudes,
where fossil forms are very numerous.

Fig. 217. Pinna.*

AvIcULA (Klein), Bruguiere.

Etymology, avicula, a little bird.

Type, A. hirundo, Pl. XVI., Fig. 18.

Shell obliquely oval, very imequiyalye; right valve with a
byssal sinus beneath the anterior ear; cartilage pit single,
oblique; hinge with one or two small cardinal teeth, and an
elongated posterior tooth, often obsolete; posterior muscular
impression (adductor and pedal) large, sub-central; anterior
(pedal scar) small, umbonal.

Animal (of meleagrina) with mantle-lobes united at one point
by the gills, their margins fringed and furnished with a pendent
curtain; curtains fringed in the branchial region, plain behind ;
foot finger-like, grooved; byssus often solid, cylindrical, with
an expanded termination; pedal muscles four, posterior large
in front of the adductor; adductor composed of two elements ;
retractors of the mantle forming a series of dots, and a large
spot near the adductor; lips simple; palpi truncated; gills
equal, crescentic, united behind the foot. (British Museum.)

* The cellular structure may be seen with a hand-lens, in the thin margin of the
shell, by holding it up to the light ; or on the edges of broken fragments.

416 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Distribution, 25 species. Mexico, South Britain, Mediter-
ranean, India, Pacific :—20 fathoms.

Fossil, 300 species. Lower Silurian —. World-wide.

Sub-genera Maleagrina, Lam. Margaritophora, Muhlfeldt.
M. margaritifera, Pl. XVI., Fig. 19. The ‘‘ pearl-oysters” are
less oblique than the other avicule, and their valves are flatter
and nearly equal; the posterior pedal impression is blended -
with that of the great adductor. They are found at Madagascar,
Ceylon, Swan River, Panama, &c. Manillais the chief port to
which they are taken. There are three principal kinds, which are
worth from £2 to £4 per cwt. :—1. The silver-lipped, from the
Society Islands, of which about twenty tons are annually im-
ported to Liverpool. 2. The black-lipped, from Manilla, of
which thirty tons were imported in 1851. 38. A smaller sort
from Panama, 200 tons of which are annually imported; in
1851 a single vessel brought 340 tons. (T.C. Archer.) These
shells afford the ‘‘ mother-o’-pearl” used for ornamental pur-
poses; and the ‘‘ oriental”’ pearls of commerce (p. 30, 31). Mr.
Hope’s pearl, said to be the largest known, measures 2 inches
long, 4 round, and weighs 1,800 grains. Pearl-oysters are found
in about 12 fathom water; the fisheries of the Persian Gulf and
Ceylon have been celebrated from the time of Pliny.

Malleus, Lam. M. vulgaris, Pl. XVI., Fig. 20. The ‘‘hammer-
oyster”? is remarkable for its form, which becomes extremely
elongated with age; both ears are long, and the umbones
central. When young it is lke an ordinary Avicula, with a
deep byssal notch in the right valve. 6 species. China,
Australia.

Vulsella, Lam. YV. lingulata, Pl. XVI, Fig. 21. Synonym,
Reniella, Sw. Shell, oblong, striated, sub-equivalve; umbones
straight, earless. Often found imbedded in living sponges.
Distribution, 7 species. Red Sea, India, Australia, Tasmania.
Fossil, 7 species. U. Chalk —. Britain, France.

Pteroperna, Lycett, 1852. P. costatula, Desl. Sell with a
long posterior wing; hinge-line bordered by a groove; anterior
teeth numerous, minute; posterior one or two, long, nearly
parallel with the hinge-margin. /ossi/,3 species. Bath oolite ;
Britain, France.

? Aucella (Pallasi1), 1846. Very inequivalye; left umbo pro-
minent, earless; right valve small and flat, with a deep sinu
beneath the small anterior ear. fossil, 4 species, Permian
Gault. Europe. ‘‘In A. cygnipes we find no trace of prismati
cellular structure or nacre, but the coarsely corrugated an
somewhat tubular structure of the Pectens.” (Carpenter.)

—_ =

i

CONCHIFERA. 417

Ambonychia (bellistriata), Hall, 1847. Nearly equivalve,
gibbose, oblique, obtusely winged. A. vetusta (Inoceramus,
Sby.) is concentrically furrowed; the right valve has a small
anterior ear (usually concealed) separated by a deep and narrow
sinus. fossil, 12 species. Lower Silurian — Carb. United
States, Hurope.

? Cardiola (interrupta), Broderip, 1844. Hquivalve, gibbose,
obliquely oval, radiately ribbed; beaks prominent; hinge-area
short and flat. Jossil, 17 species. Upper Silurian — Dev.
United States, Europe.

? Hurydesma (cordata), Morris; Devonian? New South Wales.
Shell equivalve, sub-orbicular, ventricose, very thick near the
beaks; ligimental area long, wide, sub-internal; byssal groove
close to the umbo; right valve with a large, blunt hinge-tooth;
adductor impression single, placed anteriorly; pallial line dotted.

Pterinea (levis), Goldf. 1832. Shell thick, rather inequivalve,
very oblique and broadly winged ; beaks anterior; sinus shallow;
hinge-area long, straight, narrow, striated lengthwise; ante-
rior teeth few, radiating; posterior teeth laminar, elongated ;
anterior (pedal) scar deep, posterior (adductor) impression large,
very eccentric. Jossil, 32 species. Lower Silurian — Carb.
United States, Hurope, Australia. Pteronites (angustatus)
M‘Coy, 1844, is thinner and has the teeth, &c., less developed.

Monotis, Bronn, 1830. M. Salinaria, Schl. Trias, Hallein.
Obliquely oval, compressed, radiated; anterior side short,
rounded ; posterior slightly eared.

Synonym, ? Halobia (salinarum) Br. 1830. Trias, Hallstadt.
Semi-oyal, radiated, compressed, with a shallow sinus in front ;
hinge-line long and straight.

PosipONoMYA, Bronn.

Synonym, Posidonia, Br. 1838 (not Konig). Poseidén, Neptune.

Type, P. Becheri, Pl. XVI., Fig. 22.

Shell thin, equivalve, compressed, earless, concentrically
furrowed; hinge-line short and straight, edentulous.

Fossil, 50 species. Lower Silurian — Trias. United States,
Eurcpe.

P AVicULO-PECTEN, M‘Coy, 1852.

Type, Pecten granosus, Sby. . Min. Con. t. 574.

Shell inequivalve, sub-orbicular, eared; hinge-areas flat, with
several long, narrow cartilage furrows, slightly oblique on each
side of the umbones ; right valve with a deep and narrow byssal
snus beneath the anterior ear; adductor impression large,

T 3

418 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

simple, sub-central; pedal scar small and deep, beneath the
umbo.

Fossil (see Pecten). Lower Silurian — Carb. Spitzbergen —
Australia.

GERVILLIA, Defrance.

Etymology, dedicated to M. Gerville, a French naturalist.

Example, G. anceps, Pl. XVIL., Fig. 1.

Sheil like Avicula; elongated; anterior ear small, posterior
wing-like; area long and flat, cartilage pits several, wide apart ;
hinge-teeth obscure, diverging posteriorly.

Fossil, 37 species. Carb. — Chalk. Europe.

Sub-genus? Bakewellia, King. B. ceratophaga, Schl. Fossil,
5 species. Permian, Britain, Germany, Russia. Shell small,
inequivalve, cartilage pits 2—d; hinge with anterior and pos-
terior teeth; anterior muscular impression and pallal line
distinct.

PERNA, Bruguiere.

Etymology, perna, a shell-fish (resembling a gammon), Pliny.

Synonyms, Melina, Retz. Isognomon, Klein. Pedalion,
Solander.

Type, P. ephippium, L. Pl. XVII, Fig. 2. |

Shell nearly equivalve, compressed, sub-quadrate; area wide, |
cartilage pits numerous, elongated, close-set ; right valve with
a Se sinus; muscular impression double.

The Pernas vary in form like the Avicule; some are very
obliqtie, some very inequivalve, and many fossil species have
the posterior side produced and wing-like. In some Tertiary
Pernas the pearly layer is an inch thick.

Distribution, 18 species. Tropical seas; West Indies — India
— West America.

Fossil, 30 species. Trias —. United States, Chili, Europe.

Sub-genera, Crenatula, Lamk. C. viridis, Pl. XVI., Fig. 24.
Shell thin, oblong, compressed ; byssal sinus obsolete; cartilage
pits shallow, crescent-shaped. Distribution, 8 species, North
Africa, Red Sea — China; in sponges. Jossi/, 4 species.

' Hypotrema, D’Orb, 1853. H. rupellensis (= ? Pulvinites
Adansonii, Defrance, 1826); Coral-rag, Rochelle. Shell oblong,
inequivalye; right valve flat or concave, with a round byssal
foramen near the hinge; left valve convex, with a muscular
impression near the umbo; hinge-margin broad, curved, wit
about twelve close-set transverse cartilage grooves.

; CONCHIFERA. 419

INOCERAMUS, Sowerby (1814).

Hiymology, ts (inos), fibre, keramos, shell.

Haxample, I. sulcatus, Pl. XVII., Fig. 3.

Synonym, Catillus, Brongn.

Shell inequivalve, ventricose, radiately or concentrically
furrowed, umbones prominent; hinge-line straight, elongated ;
cartilage pits transverse, numerous, close-set.

This genus differs from Perna chiefly in form. TJ. involutus
has the left valve spiral, the right opercular. J. Cuviert attains
the length of a yard. Large flat fragments are common both
in the chalk and flints, and are often perforated by the Cliona.
Hemispherical pearls have been found developed from their
inner surface, and spherical pearls of the same prismatic-cellular
structure occur detached, in the chalk. (Wetherell.) The Jno-
cerami of the gault are nacreous.

Fossil, 75 species. ? Silurian — Chalk. South America,
United States, Europe, Algeria, Thibet.

Pinna, L.

Etymology, pinna, a fin or wing.

Type, P. squamosa, Pl. XVI., Fig. 23.

Shell equivalve, wedge-shaped; umbones quite anterior;
posterior side truncated and gaping; ligamental groove linear,
elongated; hinge edentulous; anterior adductor scar apical,
posterior sub-central, large, ill-defined; pedal scar in front of
posterior adductor.

Animal with the mantle doubly fringed; foot elongated,
grooved, spinning a powerful byssus, attached by large triple
muscles to the centre of each valve; adductors both large; palpi
elongated; gills long.

Distribution, 80 species. United States, Britain, Mediter-
ranean, Australia, Pacific, Panama.

Fossil, 60 species. Devonian —. United States, Europe,
South India.

The shell of the Pinna attains a length of two feet; when
young it is thin, brittle, and translucent, consisting almost
entirely of prismatic cell-layers; the pearly lining is thin,
divided, and extends less than half-way from the beak. Some
fossil Pinnas crumble under the touch into their component
fibres. The living species range from extreme low water to
60 fathoms ; they are moored vertically, and often nearly buried
in sand, with knife-like edges erect. The byssus has sometimes
been mixed with silk, spun, and knitted into gloves, &c. (Brit.

420 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Mus.} A little crab which nestles in the mantle and gills of the
Pinna, was anciently believed to have formed an alliance with
the blind shell-fish, and received the name of Pinna-guardian
(Pinnoteres) from Aristotle; similar species infest the Mussels
and Anomic of the British coast.

Sub-genus, Trichites (Plott), Lycett. T. Plotti, Llhwyd.
(‘‘Pinnigene,” Saussure.) Shell thick, inequivalve, somewhat .
irregular, margins undulated. fossil, 5 species. Oolitic strata
of England and France. Fragments an inch or more in thick-
ness are common in the Cotteswold-hills; full-grown individuals
are supposed to have measured a yard across.

Faminy IIl.—Myritipm. Mussels.

Shell equivalve, oval or elongated, closed, umbones anterior,
epidermis thick and dark, often filamentose; ligament internal,
sub-marginal, very long; hinge edentulous; outer shell layer
obscurely prismatic-cellular ;* inner more or less nacreous;
pallial line simple; anterior muscular impression small and
narrow, posterior large, obscure. |

Animal marine or fluviatile, attached by a byssus; mantle-
lobes united between the siphonal openings; gills two on each |
side. elongated, and united behind to each other and to the |
' mantle, dorsal margins of the outer and innermost laminz free ;
foot cylindrical, grooved.

The members of this family exhibit a propensity for conceal-
ment, frequently spinning a nest of sand and shell-fragments,
burrowing in soft substances, or secreting themselves in the
burrows of other shells.

Mytinus, L. Sea-mussel.

Example, M. smaragdinus, Pl. XYVII., Fig. 4.

Shell wedge-shaped, rounded behind; umbones terminal,
pointed ; hinge-teeth minute or obsolete ; pedal muscular im-
pressions two in each valve, small, simple, close to the adductors.

Animal with the mantle-margins plain in the anal region,
and projecting slightly; branchial margins fringed; byssus
strong and coarse; gills nearly equal; palpi long and pointed,
free.

The common edible mussel frequents mud-banks which are
uncovered at low-water; the fry abound in water a few fathom
deep; they are full-grown in asingle year. From some un

* A thin layer of minute cells may frequently be detected immediately under
epidermis. (Carpenter.)

CONCHIFERA. 491

known cause they are at times extremely deleterious. The
consumption of mussels in Edinburgh and Leith is estimated
at 400 bushels (= 400,000 mussels) annually ; enormous quan-
tities are also used for bait, especially in the deep sea fishery,
for which purpose thirty or forty millions are collected yearly
in the Firth of Forth alone. (Dr. Knapp.) Mussels produce
small and inferior pearls. At Port Stanley, Falkland Islands,
Mr. Macgillivray noticed beds of mussels which were chiefly
dead, being frozen at low-water. UM. bilocularis (Septifer,
Recluz) has an umbonal shelf for the support of the anterior
adductor, like Dreissena ; it is found at Mauritius and Australia.
M. exustus (Brachydontes, Sw.) has the hinge-margin denti-
culated continuously.

Distribution, 65 species. World-wide. Ochotsk, Behring’s
Sea, Russian Ice-meer; Black Sea, Cape Horn, Cape, New
Zealand.

Fossil, 100 species. Silurian —. United States, Europe,
South India.

? Myaina, Koninck, 1842.

Types, M. Goldfussiana, Kon. Carb. M. acuminata, Sby.
Permian.

Shell equivalve, mytili-form; beaks nearly terminal, septi-
ferous internally; hinge-margin thickened, flat, with several
longitudinal cartilage-grooves; muscular impressions two;
pallial line simple.

Fossil, 6 species. Carb. — Permian. Hurope. The liga-
mental area resembles that of the recent Arca obliquata,
Chemn. India.

MopioLa, Lam. Horse-mussel.

itymology, modiolus, a small measure, or drinking-vessel.

Haample, M. tulipa, Pl. XVII., Fig. 5. M. modiolus, p. 403,
Fig. 214.

Shell oblong, inflated in front; umbones anterior, obtuse;
hinge toothless; pedal impressions three in each valve, the
central elongated; epidermis often produced into long beard-
like fringes. .

Animal with the mantle-margin simple, protruding in the
branchial region; byssus ample, fine; palpi triangular, pointed.

The Modiole are distinguished from the Mussels by their
habit of burrowing, or spinning a nest. Low water—100
fathoms.

492 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Distribution, 70 species, chiefly tropical; I. modiolus, Arctic
seas — Britain.

Fossil, 150 species. Silurian? Lias —. United States,
Europe, Thibet, South India. |

Sub-genera. Lithodomus, Cuy. M. lithophaga, Pl. XVIL.,
Fig. 7. Shell cylindrical, inflated in front, wedge-shaped behind;
epidermis thick and dark; interior nacreous.* Distribution,
40 species. West Indies — New Zealand. Fossil, 35 species.
Carb. —. Europe, United States. The ‘‘date-shell” bores
into corals, shells (Fig. 25, p. 84), and the hardest limestone
rocks ; its burrows are shaped like the shell, and do not admit
of free rotatory motion. The animal, which is eaten in the
Mediterranean, is like a common mussel; in L. patagonicus the
siphons are produced. Like other burrowing shell-fish, they
are luminous. Perforations of Lithodomi in limestone cliffs,
and in the columns of the Temple of Serapis at Puteoli, have
afforded conclusive evidence of changes in the level of sea-
coasts in modern times. (Lyell’s ‘‘ Principles of Geology.’’)

Crenella, Brown. OC. discors, Pl. XVII., Fig. 8. (Lanistes,
Sw. Modiolaria, Beck.) Shel/ short and tumid, partly smooth,
and partly ornamented with radiating strize; hinge-margin
crenulated behind the ligament; interior brilliantly nacreous.
Animal with the anal tube and branchial margins prominent.
Distribution, 24 species. Temperate and arctic seas; Nova
Zembla, Ochotsk, Britain, New Zealand. Low water — 40
fathoms. Spinning a nest, or hiding amongst the roots of sea-
weed and corallines. JM. marmorata, Forbes, burrows in the
test of Ascidia. fossil, 12 species. Upper Greensand —.
Europe.

Modiolarca (trapezina), Gray ; Falkland Islands — Kerguelen,
attached to floating sea-weed ; mantle-lobes united, pedal open- -
ing small, foot with an expanded sole, front adductor round.
M. ? pelagica, Pl. XVII., Fig. 6, is found burrowing in floating
blubber, off the Cape. (Forbes.) 2 living species.

? Mytilimeria (Nuttall), Conrad. Shell irregularly oval, thin,
edentulous, gaping posteriorly ; umbones sub-spiral; ligament
short, semi-internal. Distribution, California; animal gre-
garious, forming a nest.

Modiolopsis (mytiloides), Hall, 1847 ( — Cypricardites, part,
Conrad. Lyonsia, part, D’Orb.). Shell like modiola, thin and
smooth, front end somewhat lobed; anterior adductor scar

* The outer shell-layer has a tubular structure; the tttbes are excessively minut
seldom branching, oblique and parallel. Carpenter.)

CONCHIFERA. 493

large and oval. Fossil, 15 species. Silurian, United States,
Kurope.

? Orthonotus (pholadis), Conrad. Lower Silurian, New York.

Shell elongated, margins parallel, umbones anterior, back
plaited.* ;
- Myrina, Adams. Modiola pelagica, has the mantle open;
the shell is peculiar from the large size of the anterior muscular
impression; and the subcentral umbones distinguish it from
Modiolarca.

Hoplomytilus (crassus), Sdbgr. Devonian, Nassau. Shell with
a muscular plate in the umbo, like Septifer. The Mytilus
squamosus, Sby. Magnesian limestone, Brit., has a similar plate.

HIerpomMya. Salter.

Shell gibbous, with anterior inflated close beaks, a long
cardinal edge; anterior edge short, rounded, and separated by a
strong sinus from the inflated posterior ridge and slope.

Fossil, 1 species. Devonian.

DREISSENA, Van Beneden.

Etymology, dedicated to Dreyssen, a Belgian physician.

Synonyms, Mytilomya, Cantr. Congeria, Partsch. Ticho-
-gonia, Rossm.

Type, D. polymorpha, Pl. XVII., Fig. 9. (Mytilus Volge,
Chemn.)

Shell like Mytilus, without its pearly lining; inner layer com-
posed of large prismatic shells; um-
bones terminal; yalves obtusely keeled ;
right valve with a slight byssal sinus;
anterior adductor supported on a shelf
within the beak ; pedal impression single, * @,
posterior. r

Animal with the mantle closed ; byssal
orifice small; and siphon very small, coni-
cal, plain, branchial prominent, fringed _—‘Fig: 218. Dreissena.
inside; palpi small, triangular; foot-muscles short and thick,
close in front of the posterior adductor. ~

D. polymorpha is a native of the Aralo-Caspian rivers; in
1824 it was observed by Mr. J. Sowerby in the Surrey docks,

* Hall and Salter employ the name Orthonotus for such shells as Solen constrictus
Sandb. Devonian, Germany; Sanguinolites anguliferus, M’Coy, U. Silurian, Kendal ;
and Solenopsis minor. M’Coy, Carb. limestone, Ireland. M. D’Orbigny has mistaken
the plaits for teeth, and placed the genus with Mucula. The recent M. plicata, Lam.,
from Nicobar Islands, has the same long, straight back and plaited dorsal region.

494 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

to which it appears to have been brought with foreign timber,
in the holds of vessels. It has since spread into the canals,
docks, and rivers of many parts of England, France, and
Belgium, and has been noticed in the iron water-pipes of
London, incrusted with a ferruginous deposit. (Cunnington.)
Distribution, 15 species. Hurope, America, Africa.
Fossil, 13 species. Hocene—. Britain, Germany.

Famity 1V.—ARcADz.

Shell regular, equivalve, with strong epidermis; hinge with
a long row of similar, comb-like teeth; pallial line distinct ;
muscular impressions subequal. Structure corrugated, with
vertical tubuli in rays between the ribs or strize. (Carpenter.)

Animal with the mantle open; foot large, bent, and deeply
grooved; gills very oblique, united posteriorly to a membranous
septum.

. Arca, L.

ktymology, arca, a chest.

Type, A. Nox, Pl. XVII, Fig. 12.

Synonyms, Barbatia, Gray; Anomalocardia, Klein; Scapharca,
Gray; Scaphula, Benson.

Examples, A. granosa, Pl. XVIL., Fig. 10. A. pexata, Fig. 11.
A. zebra, Fig. 13.

Shell equivalve or nearly so, thick, sub-quadrate, ventricose,
strongly ribbed or cancellated; margins smooth or dentated,
close or sinuated ventrally; hinge straight, teeth very numerous,
transverse; umbones anterior, separated by a flat, iozenge-
shaped ligamental area, with numerous cartilage-grooves;
pallial line simple; posterior adductor impression double;
pedal scars 2, the posterior elongated. ;

Animal with a long pointed foot, heeled, and deeply groved ;
mantle furnished with ocelli; palpi 0; gills long, narrow, less
striated externally, continuous with the lips; hearts two, each
with an auricle.

The name Bysso-arca was chosen unfortunately by Swainson,
for the typical species of the genus, in which the byssal orifice
is sometimes very large (Pl. XVII., Fig. 13). The byssus is a
horny cone, composed of numerous thin plates, occasionally
becoming solid and calcareous ; it can be cast off and re-formed
with great rapidity. (Forbes.) ‘The Arcas with close valves
have the left valve a little larger than the right, and mor
ornate.

The Bysso-arks secrete themselves nder stones at low water,

CONCHIFERA. 495

in crevices of rocks, and the empty burrows of boring mollusks ;
they are often much worn and distorted. The genus Palearca
probably belongs here; we have not been able to ascertain the
generic characters ; but they may be found in the Memoirs of
the Geol. Surv., Canada, Vol. ITT., under the head Cyrtodonta.

Distribution, 140 species. World wide, most abundant in warm
seas; low water—230 fathoms (A. imbricata, Poli). Prince-
Regent Inlet (A. glacialis). A scaphula, Benson, 1s found in
the Ganges and its branches, from Calcutta to Humeerpoor on
the Jumna, 1,000 miles from the sea. A second species has
been found in the river Tenasserim, Birmah. The hinge is
edentulous in the centre, and the posterior teeth are laminar
and branched; the elements of the posterior muscular impres-
sion are distinct. |

Fossil, 400 species. Lower Silurian—. United States,
Europe, South India.

CucuLL@A, Lamarck.

Hiymology, cucullus, a cowl.

Type, C. concamerata, Pl. XVIT., Fig. 14.

Shell sub-quadrate, ventricose ; valves close, striated ; hinge-
teeth few and oblique, parallel with the hinge-line at each end ;
posterior muscular impression bounded by an elevated ridge.

Distribution, 2 species. Mauritius, Nicobar, China.

_ Fossil, 240 species. Lower Silurian. North America, Pata-
gonia, Kurope.

Sub-genus, Macrodon, Lycett. M. Hirsonensis, Pl. XVII.,
Fig. 15. Shell with a few oblique anterior teeth and one or
more long laminar posterior teeth. The Ark-shells of the
Paleozoic and secondary strata have their anterior teeth more
_or less oblique, like Arca, the posterior teeth parallel with the
hinge-line like Cucullea ; their valves are close or gaping below ;
their umbones frequently sub-spiral; and the hinge-area is
often very narrow, and in some species only the posterior moiety
is visible.

Parallelopipedum, Klein. The outermost hinge-teeth short,
and perpendicular to the hinge-line; teeth developed along
the whole length of the hinge.

PECTUNCULUS, Lam.
_ Type, P. pectinifermis, Pl. XVII., Fig. 16. (Arca pectun-
culus, L.)
Shellorbicular, nearly equilateral, smooth or radiately striated ;
umbones central, divided by a striated igamental area; hinge

426 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

with a semicircular row of transverse teeth; adductors sub-
equal; pallial line simple; margins crenated inside.

Animal with a large crescent-shaped foot, margins of the
sole undulated; mantle open, margins simple, with minute
ocelli; gills equal, lips continuous with the gills.

Distribution, 58 species. West Indies, Britain, India, New
Zealand, West America; ranging Sem 8 to 60, rarely 120
fathoms.

Fossil, 80 species. Neocomian—. United States, Europe
South India.

The teeth of Pectunculus and Arca increase in number with
age, by additions to each end of the hinge-line, but sometimes
the central seen are obliterated by encroachments of the liga-
ment.

Limopstis, Sassi, 1827.

Tape, Ma. anurite, el Xev ale abet ie

Synonym, Trigonocceia, Nyst. Pectunculina, D’Orb.

Shell orbicular, convex, shghtly oblique; hgamental area
with a trianguiar cartilage-pit in the centre; hinge with 2
equal, curved cee of transverse teeth. |

Distribution, 4 species. Red Sea (Nyst.), Japan, Britain.
Mr. M‘Andrew has dredged LZ. pygmea, living, on the coast
of Finmark; it isa fossil of the Pliocene of England, Belgium,
and Sicily.

Fessil, 36 species. Bath-oolite—. United States Hurope.

Nucuta, Lam.

Etymology, diminutive of nux, a nut.

Example, N. Cobboldiz, Pl. XVII., Fig. 18

Shell trigonal, with the umbones turned towards the short
posterior side; smooth or sculptured, epidermis olive, interior
pearly, margins crenulated; hinge with prominent internal
cartilage-pit, and a series of sharp teeth on each side; pallial
line simple.

Animal with the mantle open, its margins plain; foot large,
deeply fissured in front, forming when expanded a disk with
serrated margins; mouth and lips minute, palpi very large,
rounded, strongly plaited inside and furnished with a long con-
voluted appendage; gills small, plume-like, united behind the
foot to the branchial septum.

The Nucula uses its foot for burrowing, and Professor Forbes
has seen it creep up the side of a glass of sea-water. The labial
appendages protrude from the shell at the same time with th

CONCHIFERA. 497

foot. N. mirabilis, Adams, from Japan, is sculptured like the
extinct NV. Cobboldic.

Distribution, 70 species. United States, Norway, Cape,
Japan, Sitka, Chili. On coarse bottoms, from 5—100 fathoms.

Fossil, 177 species. Lower Silurian?—. Trias—. America,
Europe, India.

Sub-genera. Nuculina, D’Orb.* 1847. N. miharis, Pl. XVITI.,
Fig. 19. Shell minute; teeth few, in one series, with a posterior
lateral tooth. Hocene, France. Nucinella (ovalis), Searles-
Wood, 1850 (=Pleurodon, Wood, 1840), a minute shell from
the Coralline crag of Suffolk, is described as haying an external
ligament.

? Stalagmium (margaritaceum), Conrad, 1833—Myoparo cos-
tatus; Lea. Hocene; Alabama. ? S.Nysti7, Galeotti (Nucunella,
D’Orb.). ocene, Belgium. Shell like Limopsis; ligamental
area narrow, wholly posterior.

IsoArcA, Minster, 1842.

Type, 1. subspirata, M. Oxford Clay, France, Germany.

Synonym, Noetia, Gray.

Shell ventricose; beaks large, anterior, often sub-spiral;
ligament entirely external; hinge-line curved, with two series
of transverse teeth, smallest in the centre; pallial line simple.

I, Logani (Ctenodonta), Salter, Lower Silurian, Canada, 1s
3 inches long, and has the ligament preserved.

Fossti, 14 species. Lower Silurian—Chalk. North America.
Europe.

Sub-genera. Cucullella, M‘Coy. OC. antiqua, Sby. Upper
Silurian, Herefordshire. Shelli elliptical, with a strong rib
behind the anterior adductor impression.

Lunularca, Gray. Part anterior to the umbo toothless, with
a lunule.

LEDA, Schumacher.

Etymology, Leda, in Greek mythology, mother of Castor and
Pollux.

Synonym, Lembulus (Leach) Risso.

Euample, lL. caudata, Pl. XVII., Fig. 20.

Shell resembling Nucula ; oblong, rounded in front, produced
and pointed behind; margins even; pallial line with a snall
sinus; umbonal area with a linear impression joining the ante-
rior adductor.

Animal furnished with two partially-united, slender, unequil,

* WN. donaciformis, Parreyss, from the White Nile, is a crustacean! (Estheria.)

428 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

siphonal tubes (Forbes); gills narrow, plume-like, deeply
laminated, attached throughout; mantle-margin with small
_ ventral lobes forming by their apposition a third siphon.
Distribution, 80 species. Northern and Arctic Seas, 10—
180 fathoms. Siberia, Melville Island, Massachusetts, Britain,
Mediterranean, Cape, Japan, Australia.
Fossil, 190 species. United States, Europe, South India.
Sub-genus, Yoldia, Moller (dedicated to the Countess Yoldi).

Fig. 219. Yoldia n. sp. 3. Antarctic Expedition.

(From a drawing by Albany Hancock, Esq.) The internal organs are represented,
as seen through the mantle, on the removal of the right valve.

a, a, adductors ; p, p, pedal muscles; J, ligament; g, gills; s, siphons (much con-
tracted); ¢, c, labial palpi and appendages ; 7, intestine ; f, foot ; x, z, lateral muscles of
the foot ; m, pallial line.

Y.myalis, Pl. XVII., Fig. 21. Shell oblong, slightly attenuated
behind, compressed, smooth or obliquely sculptured, with dark
olive shining epidermis; external ligament slight; cartilage as
in Leda; pallial sinus deep. Animal with the branchial and
anal siphons united, retractile; palpi very large, appendiculate ;
gills narrow, posterior; foot slightly heeled, deeply grooved,
its margins crenulated ; intestine lying partly close to the right
side of the body, and producing an impression in the shell;
mantle-margiz plain in front, fringed behind; destitute of
ventral lobes. Distribution, Arctic and Antarctic Seas, Green-
land, Massachusetts, Brazil, Norway, Kamtschatka. Yoldia
limatula (Fig. 220) has been dredged, alive, by Mr. M‘Andrew,
on the coast of Finmark. Itis also found in Portland Harbour,
Massachusetts. The animal is very active, and leaps to an
astonishing height, exceeding in this faculty the scollop-shells.

CONCHIFERA. 429

(Dr. Mighels.) Fossil, Phocene—. (Crag and Glacial deposits.)
England, Belgium.

Fig. 220. Yoldia limatula (after Barrett).

SOLENELLA, Sowerby.

Type, S. Norrisii, Pl. XVII., Fig. 22. 8. ornata, Fig. 23.

Synonyms, Malletia, Desm. Ctenoconcha, Gray. Neilo,
Adams.

Shell oval, or ark-shaped, compressed, smooth or concentri-
cally furrowed, epidermis olive; ligament external, elongated,
prominent: hinge with an anterior and posterior series of fine
sharp teeth; interior sub-nacreous; pallial sinus large and
deep; anterior adductor giving off a long oblique pedal line.

Animal like Yoldia; mantle-margins slightly fringed and
furnished with ventral lobes; siphonal tubes united, long, and
slender, completely retractile; palpi appendiculated, convoluted,
as long as the shell; gills narrow, posterior ; foot deeply cleft ;
forming an oval disk, even-margined and striated across.

Distribution, 2 species. Valparaiso, New Zealand (shell like
S. ornata).

Fossil, 1 species. Miocene. Point Desire, Patagonia.

Pr SoLEMYA, Lamarck.

Type, 8. togata, Pl. XXII., Fig. 17.
~ Synonym, Solenomya, Menke.

Shell elongated, cylindrical, gaping at each end; epidermis
dark, horny, extending beyond the margins; ampones poste-
rior; hinge edentulous; ligament Epmecalede pallial line
obscute. Outer layer oO long prismatic cells, nearly parallel
with the surface, and mingled with dark cells, as in Pinna ;
inner layer also cellular.

Animal with the mantle lobes united behind, with a single
siphonal orifice, hour-glass shape, and cirrated ; foot probos-
cidiform, truncated and fringed at the end; gills forming a
single plume on each side, with the laminz free to the base ;
palpi long and narrow, nearly free.

430 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The shell resembles Glycimeris in the shortness of its posterior
side, and the extraordinary development of its epidermis; the
animal most resembles Leda in the structure of its foot and
gills,

Distribution, 4 species. United States, Canaries, West Africa
(Gaboon River), Mediterranean, Australia, New Zealand.
Burrowing in mud; 2 fathoms.

Fossil, 4 species. Carb. —. Britain, Belgium.

FAMILY V.—TRIGONIADZA.

Shell equivalve, close, trigonal, with the umbones directed
posteriorly; ligament external; interior nacreous; hinge-teeth
few, diverging; pallial line simple.

Animal with the mantle open; foot long and bent; gills two
on each side, recumbent; palpi simple.

TrRIGONIA, Bruguiere (not Aublet),

Etymology, Trigonos, three-angled.
Synonym, Lyriodon, G. Sowerby.
Example, T. Costata, Pl. XVII., Fig. 24. T. pectinata, Fig. -
221.
Shell thick, tuberculated, or ornamented with radiating or
ee Bde vt concentric ribs; posterior side
—— angular; ligament small and
prominent; hinge-teeth 2.3,
diverging, transversely stri-
\.----0 ated; centre tooth of left valve
\rc4? divided; pedal impressions in
\ASil--m front of the posterior adductor,
\c and one in the umbo of the
x left valve; anterior adductor
Iii pression close to the umbo.
Animal with a long and
pointed foot, bent sharply, heel
prominent, sole bordered by two crenulated ridges; palpi small
and pointed; gills ample, the outer smallest, united behind the .-
body to each other and to the mantle.
The shell of Trigonia is almost entirely nacreous, and usually
wanting or metamorphic in limestone strata; casts of the in-

* Fig. 221. From a specimen in alcohol; the gills slightly curled and contracted,
they should terminate near the margin, between the arrows which indicate the inhalent
and exhalent currents: a, a', adductors; AJ, ligament ; ¢, t’, dental sockets ; 0, mouth;
é t, labial tentacles or palpi; p, pallial line; m, margin ; f, foot; »v, cloaca.

CONCHIFERA. 431

terior are called ‘‘ horse-heads” by the Portland qtiarry-men ;*
they spoil the stone. Silicified casts have been found at Tisbury,
in which the animal itself, withits gills, was preserved.+ The
species with the posterior angle of the shell elongated, have a
siphonal ridge inside. The epidermal layer of the recent shell
consists of nucleated cells, forming a beautiful microscopic
object. A Trigonia placed by Mr. 8. Stutchbury on the gunwale
of his boat leapt overboard, clearing a ledge of four inches; they
are supposed to be migratory, as dredging for them is very
uncertain, though they abound in some parts of Sydney Harbour.

Distribution, 3 species (or varieties ’), Austraha.

Fossil, 100 species. Trias — Chalk (not known in Ter-
tiaries). Hurope, United States, Chili, Algeria, Cape, South
India. —

MyornortiA, Bronn, 1830.

Type, M. vulgaris, Schl.

Synonym, Cryptina (Kefersteinu), Boue.

Shell trigonal, umbones turned forwards ; obliquely keeled ;
smooth or sculptured; teeth 2.3, striated obscurely, centre
tooth of left valve simple, anterior of right valve prominent;
mould like Trigonia. M. decussata, Pl. XVII., Fig. 25, has
a lateral tooth at the dorsal angle of the left valve.

Fossil, 16 species. Trias: Germany, Tyrol.

AXINUS, Sowerby, 1821.

Type, A. obscurus, Sowerby.

Synonym, Schizodus, King (not Waterhouse).

Shell trigonal, rounded in front, attenuated behind ; rather
thin, smooth, with an obscure oblique ridge ; hgament external ;
_ hinge-teeth’ 2.3, smooth, rather small; anterior adductor
shghtly impressed, removed from the hinge, with a pedal scar
close to it; pallial line simple.

Fossil, 20 species. Upper Silurian — Muschelkalk. United
States, Hurope. Mactra trigonia, Goldf. Isocardia axiniformis.
Ph. Anatina attenuata and Dolabra securiformis, M‘Coy, pro-
bably belong to this genus. Dolabra equilateralis, Amphidesma
subtruncatum, with many others from the Paleozoic rocks, may
constitute a distinct genus, but their generic character has yet
to be discovered.

CURTONOTUS. Salter.

Thickened hinge-plate, with a single strong triangular central

* See Plott’s Oxfordshire, T. vii. Fig. 1.
} In the collection of the late Miss Benett of Warminster, now in Philadelphia,

432 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

tooth on each valve. Right valve plate with an obscure tooth
behind the central one. Anterior muscular scar deep; pallial
impression entire. ne

Fossil, 6 species. Devonian, Britain.

PSEUDAXINUS, Salter.

Type, P. (Anodontopsis) securiformis, M‘Coy, and P. trigonus.
Shell thin, edentulous, convex with prominent umbones, and
a strong posterior carinated edge; beaks anterior; no lunette.

LyRODESMA, Conrad, 1841.

Type, Li. plana, New York.

Synonym, Actinodonta, Phil. . :

Shell trigonia-shaped, rather elongated, with a striated pos-
terior area; hinge with several Gs) radiating teeth, striated
ACTOSS ; Hornet) external.

Fossil, 4 species. Lower Silurian: Canada, United States,
Britain. af

Famity VI.—UNIonNIDmA. Naides.

Shell usually regular, equivalve, closed; structure nacreous,
with a very thin prismatic-cellular layer beneath the epidermis ;
epidermis thick and dark; ligament external, large and pro-
minent; margins even; anterior hinge-teeth thick and striated,
posterior laminar, sometimes wanting ; adductor scars deculy
impressed ; aeial scars three, distinct, two behind the anterior
adductor, one in front of the posterior.

Animal with the mantle-margins united between the siphonal
orifices, and, rarely, in front of the branchial opening; anal
orifice plain, branchial fringed; foot very large, tongue-shaped,
compressed, byssiferous in the fry; gills elongated, sub-equal,
united posteriorly to each other and to the mantle, but not to
the body; palpi moderate, laterally attached, striated inside;
lips plain. Sexes distinct.

The river musselsare found in thepondsand streams of all parts
of the world. In Europe the species are few, though specimens
are abundant; in North America both species and individuals
abound. All the remarkable generic forms are peculiar to
South America and Africa. Two of these are fixed, and irre-
gular when adult, and have been placed with the chamas and
aise by the admirers of artificial systems; fortunately, how-
ever, M. D’Orbigny has ascertained that the Mulleria, which

CONCHIFERA. 435

is fixed and mono-myary when adult, is locomotive and di-myary
when young ! *

Like other fresh-water shells, the naids are often extensively
eroded by the carbonic acid dissolved in the water they inhabit
(p. 31). This condition of the umbones is conspicuous in the
great fossil Uniones of the Wealden, but cannot be detected in the
Cardinie,and some other fossils formerly referred to this family.

The outer gills of the female unionide are filled with spawn
in the winter and early spring; the fry spins a delicate, ravelled
byssus, and flaps its triangular valves with the posterior shell-
muscle, which is largely developed, whilst the other is yet
inconspicuous. The shells of the female river-mussels are rather
shorter and more ventricose than the others.

Unio, Retz. River-mussel.

Htymology, unio, a pearl (Pliny).

Haample, U. litoralis, Pl. XVITI., Fig. 1.

Shell oval or elongated, smooth, corrugated, or spiny, becom-
ing very solid with age; anterior teeth 1.2, or 2.2, short, irre-
gular; posterior teeth 1.2, elongated, laminar.

Animal with the mantle-margins only united between the
siphonal openings; palpi long, pointed, lateraliy attached.
(Fig. 209, p. 399.)

U. plicatus (Symphynota, Sw. Dipsas, Leach) has the valves
produced into a thin, elastic dorsal wing, as in Hyria.t In
the Pearl-mussel, U. Margaritiferus (Margaritana, Schum.
Alasmodon, Say, Baphia, Meusch.), the posterior teeth become
obsolete with age. This species, which afforded the once famous
British pearls, is found in the mountain streams of Britain,
Lapland, and Canada: it is used for bait in the Aberdeen Cod-
fishery. The Scotch pearl-fishery continued till the end of the
last century, especially in the river Tay, where the mussels
were collected by the peasantry before harvest time. The pearls

* In the synopsis at p. 406, it will be seen that each of the principal groups of bi-
valves contains members which are fixed and irregular, and others which are byssi-
ferous, or burrowing, or. locomotive.

{ Probably many of the organic acids, produced by the decay of vegetable matter,
assist in the process. It has been suggested that sulphuric acid may sometimes be set
free in river-water, by the decomposition of iron pyrites in the banks; but Prof. Boye
of Philadelphia, states that it has not been detected in any river of the United states
where the phenomenon of erosion is most notorious. °

} This is the species in which the Chinese produce artificial pearls by the introduc-
tion of shot, &c., between the mantle of the animal and its shell (p. 38); Mr. Gask im
has an example containing two strings of pearls, and another in the Brit. Mus. has a
number of little josses made of bell-metal, now completely coated with peazl, in its
interior.

U

434 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

were usually found in old and deformed specimens; round
pearls about the size of a pea, perfect in every respect, were
worth £3 or £4. (Dr. Knapp.) Anaccount of the Irish pearl-
fishery was given by Sir R. Redding, in the Phil. Trans., 1693.
The mussels were found set up im the sand of the river-beds with
their open side turned from the torrent ; about one ina hundred
might contain a pearl, and one pearl in a hundred might be
tolerably clear. (See p. 30).

Distribution, 420 species. North America, South America,
Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia.

Fossil, 50 species. Wealden —. Europe, India.

Sub-genera, Monocondylea, D’Orbigny. M. Paraguayana,
Pe OVE ieee

Shell with a single large, round, obtuse cardinal tooth in each
valve; no lateral teeth.

Distribution, 6 species. South America.

Hyria, Lam. H. syrmatophora, Pl. XVIIT., Fig. 3. Synonyms,
Pachyodon and Prisodon, Schum. Shell Arca-shaped, hinge-line
straight, with a dorsal wing on the posterior side; teeth elon-
gated, transversely striated. Distribution, 4 species. S. America.

CasTALTA, Lamarck.

Type, C. ambigua, Pl. XVIII., Fig. 4.

Synonym, Tetraplodon, Spix.

Shell ventricose; trigonal; umbones prominent, furrowed ;
hinge-teeth striated; anterior 2.1, short; posterior 1.2, elon-
gated.

Animal with mantle-lobes united behind, forming two distinct
siphonal orifices, the branchial cirrated.

Distribution, 3 species. Rivers of South America, Guiana, |
Brazil. |

Awnopon, Cuvier. Swan-mussel.

Type, A. cygneus, Fig.:208, p. 398.

Etymology, anodontos, edentulous.

Shell like unio, but edentulous; oval, smooth, rather thin,
compressed when young, becoming ventricose with age.

Animal like unio: the outer gills of a female have been com-
puted to contain 300,000 young shells. (Lea.) See p. 14.

_ Distribution, 100 species. North America, Europe, Siberia.

Fossil, 8 species. Hocene—. Hurope.

M. D’Orbigny relates that he found great quantities of small
Anodons (Bysso-anodonta Paraniensis, D’Orbigny) 4 lines in
length, attached by a byssus, in the River Parana, above
Corrientes. |

CONCHIFERA. 435

Iripina, Lamarck.

Synonyms, Mutela, Scop. Spatha, Lea (including Mycetopus).
Leila, Gray.

Type, 1. exotica, Pl. XVIII., Fig. 5.

Etymology, iris, the rainbow.

Shell oblong ; umbones depressed ; hinge-line long, straight,
attenuated towards the umbones, crenated by numerous unequal
teeth ; ligament long and narrow.

Animal with mantle-lobes united posteriorly, forming two
short siphons; mouth and lips small; palpi immense, oval; gills
united to the body.

Iridina ovata (Pleiodon, Conrad) has a broader hinge-line.

Distribution, 9 species. Rivers of Africa, Nile, Senegal.

Mycetorus, D’Orbigny.

Etymology, mukes, a mushroom, pous, the foot.

Type, M. soleniformis, Pl. XVIII., Fig. 6.

Shell elongated, sub-cylindrical, gaping in front; margins
sub-parallel, hinge edentulous.

Animal with an elongated, cylindrical foot, expanded into a
disk at the end ; mantle open; gills equal; palpi short.

Distribution, 3 species. River Parana, Corrientes; River
Amazon, Bolivia.

AMTHERIA, Lamarck.

Type, Ai. semilunata, Pl. XVITI., Fig. 7. (Aitherios, aérial.)

Shell irregular, mequivalve ; attached by the umbo, and
tubular processes of one of the valves, usually the left ; epidermis
thick, olive; interior pearly, blistered (as if with air-bubbles) ;
hinge edentulous; ligament external, with a conspicuous area
and groove in the fixed valve; two adductor impressions, the
anterior very long and irregular; pallial line simple.

Animal with the mantle-lobes open; body large, oblong, pro-
jecting backwards; no trace of a foot; palpi large, semi-oval ;
gills sub-equal, plaited, united posteriorly, and to the body and
mantle.

Distribution, 4 species. River Nile, from first cataracts to
Fazool;* River Senegal.

MULLERIA, Férussac. .
Dedicated to Otto Frid. Miller, author of the ‘‘ Zoologia
Danica.”
Type, M. lobata, Fér., Fig. 222.
Synonym, Acostea (Guaduasana), D’Orbigny.

* The “ fresh-water oysters ’’ discovered by Bruce.
U 2

436 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Shell when young free, equivalye, Anodon-shaped, with a long
and prominent ligament, and two adductor impressions ; adult
irregular, inequivalve, attached by the right valve; umboues
elongated, progressively filled up with shell, and forming an
irregular ‘‘ talon” in front of the fixed valve; epidermis thick;
ligament in a marginal groove; interior pearly, muscular

Fig. 222, Mulleria lobata, Fér. (Original.)

impressions single, posterior. Fig. 222 represents the left, or
attached valve, showing the single muscular impression, and
projecting spur with the nucleus, consisting of both valves of the
fry, united, and filled up with shell.*

Distribution, River Magdalena, near Bogota, New Granada.

Mr. Isaac Lea has determined the identity of Miilleria and
Acostea by examination of Férussac’s type, and the suite of
specimens, of different ages, in the collection of M. D’Orbigny.f

SECTION B.—SIPHONIDA.

Animal with respiratory siphons ; mantle-lobes more or less

united.
a. Siphons short, pallial line simple; Integro-pallialia.

* M. D’Orbigny very liberally placed his suite of specimens of this remarkable
genus in the British Museum. Oct., 1854.

+ The only specimen of Miilleriain England, prior to the acquisition of the D’Orbigny
collection, was purchased many years ago by Mr. Thomas Norris of Bury, for £20.

CONCHIFERA. 437

Famity VII.—CHAMIDA.

Shell inequivalve, thick, attached ; beaks sub-spiral ; ligament
external; hinge-teeth 2 in one valve, 1 in the other; adductor
impressions large, reticulated ; pallial line simple.

Animal with the mantle closed; pedal and siphonal orifices
small, sub-equal; foot very small; gills two on each side, very
unequal, united posteriorly. bad

CHAMA (Pliny), L.

Example, C. macrophylla, Pl. XVIII., Figs. 8, 9.

Synonym, Arcinella, Schum.

Shell attached usually by the Je/¢ umbo ;*valves foliaceous, the
upper smallest ; hinge-tooth of free valve thick, curved, received
between two teeth, in the other; adductor impressions large,
oblong, the anterior encroaching on the hinge-tooth.

Animal with the mantle-margins united by a curtain, with
two rows of tentacular filaments; siphonal orifices wide apart,
branchial shghtly prominent, fringed, anal with a simple valve;
foot bent, or heeled; liver occupying the umbo of the attached
valve only ; ovary extending into both mantle-lobes, as far as

aN
SE £Qz
=

S==

SS
i
z hj
Z tf
Ati
ANN
| a
|
iy
AN
x eee

Fig. 223. Right side. Fig. 224. Left side.
Fig. 223. Right side, with the umbonal portion of the mantle removed.
Fig. 224. Left side, showing the relative extent of the liver and ovarium.

a, a, adductors; m, pallial line; e, excurrent orifice; 6, branchial; 7, foot and
pedal orifice; p, posterior pedal muscle; ¢, palpi; g, gills (contracted) ; J, liver; o,
ovarium ; d, dental lobes.
the pallial line; lipssimple, palpi small and curled ; gills deeply
plaited, the outer pair much shorter and very narrow, furnished
with a free dorsal border, and united behind to each other, and
to the mantle ; adductors each composed of two elements.

438 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The shell of Chama consists of three layers; the external,
coloured layer is laminated by oblique lines of growth, with cor
rugations at right angles to the laminz; the foliaceous spines
contain reticulated tubuli; the middle layer is opaque white,
and consists of ill-defined vertical prisms or corrugated struc-
ture; the inner layer, which is translucent and membranous,
is penetrated-by scattered vertical tubuli; the minute processes
that occupy the tubuli give to the mantle (and to the casts of the
shell) a granular appearance (Fig. 224, J, m).

Some Chamas are attached indifferently by either valve ; when
fixed by the right valve the dentition is reversed, the left valve
having the single tooth. Chama arcinella, which is always
attached by the right umbo, has the normal dentition 1:2; it
is nearly regular and equivalve, and has a distinct lunule.

Distribution, 50 species. Tropical seas, especially amongst
coral reefs;—50 fathoms. West Indies, Canaries, Mediterranean,
India, China.

Fossil, 40 species. Green-sand—. United States, Europe.

Sub-genus? Monopleura; Matheron (= Dipilidia, Math.).
M. imbricata, Math. Fig. 226. Neocomian, Southern France.

Fig. 225. Bi-radiolites, 3- Fig 226. Monopleura, +.

p, point of attachment; /, ligamental groove ; a, a, corresponding areas.

Shell attached by the dextral umbo; valves alike in structure
and sculpturing ; fived valve straight, inversely conical, with a
long, straight lhgamental groove, and obscure hinge-area; oper-
cular valve flat or convex, with an oblique, sub-marginal umbo.
Fossil, 10 species. Neocomian—Chalk. France, Texas. They
are commonly found in groups, adhering laterally, or rising one
above the other; the casts of such as are known are quite simple
and chama-like,

CONCHIFERA. 439

DicEeRAs, Lamarck.

Type, D. arietinum, Pl. XVIII., Figs. 10 and 11, and Figs.
227 and 228.

Shell sub-equivalve, attached by either umbo; beaks very
prominent, spiral, furrowed externally by hgamental grooves ;
hinge very thick, teeth 2.1, prominent; muscular impressions
bounded by long spiral ridges, sometimes obsolete.

Distribution, 5 species. Middle oolite. Germany, Switzer-
land, France, Algeria.

Diceras differs from Chama in the great prominence of both
its wmbones, in haying constantly two hinge-teeth in the right

a aA
mr UL 5
Me | ites i fy

\ \K \

tel tly oy
UK Ql
\ \\\

Fig. 227. Diceras arietinum, $. Fig. 228. Requienia ammonia, +.

a, point of attachment ; 7, 7, ligamental grooves; t, posterior adductor inflection.
valve and one in the left, and in the prominent ridges bordering
the muscular impressions. Similar ridges exist in Cucullea,
Megalodon, Cardilia, and the Hippurite; they produce deep
spiral furrows on the casts, which are of common occurrence in
the Coral-oolite of the Alps. One or both the anterior furrows
(Fig. 229, t,t) are frequently obsolete. The dental pits are
much deeper than the teeth which they receive, and are sub-
spiral, giving rise to bifid projections (c,c) on the casts; the
single tooth in the left valve consists of two elements, and the
cavity (fosset) which receives it is divided at the bottom.

REQUIENIA, Matheron,

Dedicated to M. Requien, author of a Catalogue of Corsican
Mollusca.

Example, R. Lonsdalii, Pl. XVIII, Fig. 12 and Fig. 230.
R. ammonia, Fig. 189.

Shell thick, very inequivalve, attached by the /e/t umbo; liga-
ment external; teeth 2:1; left valve spiral, its cavity deep,

440 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

not camerated; free valve smaller, sub-spiral; posterior ad-

ductor bordered by a prominent sub-spiral ridge in each valve.
The shell structure of Requienia is like that of Chama. The

relative size of the valves is subject to much variation ; in R&.

Fig. 229. Diceras, 4. Fig. 230. Requienia, +
Internal casts; a, point of attachment; c, c', casts of dental pits; 7, ¢’, furrows
produced by spiral ridges. (Mus. Brit.)

Favri (Sharpe) they are nearly equal. The hinge-teeth are like
those of Diceras ; the cavity for the posterior tooth of the right
valve is very deep and sub-spiral (Fig. 230, ¢). The internal
muscular ridges are produced by duplicatures of the shell-wall,
and are indicated outside by grooves (Fig. 229, 7’). In R. sub-
equalis and Toucasiana there is a second parallel ridge, as in
Hippurites and Caprotina.

Fossil, 7 species. Neocomian — lL. Chalk. Britain, France,
Spain, Algeria, Texas.

Famity VIII.—HIPPurRitTip#,

(Order Rudistes, Lamarck.)

Shell inequivalve, unsymmetrical, thick, attached by the
right umbo; umbones frequently camerated; structure and
sculpturing of valves dissimilar; ligamentinternal ; hinge-teeth
1:2; adductor impressions 2, large, those of the left valve on
prominent apophyses; pallial line simple, sub-marginal.

The shells of this extinct family are characteristic of the
cretaceous strata, and abound in many parts of the Peninsula;
the Alps, and Kastern Europe, where the equivalent of the
Lower Chalk has received the name of ‘‘ Hippurite limestone.”
They occur also in Turkey and in Egypt, and Dr. F. Roemer has
found them in Texas and Guadaloupe. The structure of these
shells has been fully described in the Quarterly Journal of the

CONCHIFNRA: 441

Geological Society of London. In all the genera the shell con-
sists of three layers, but the outermost, which is thin and com-
pact, is often destroyed by the weathering of the specimens.
The principal layer in the lower valve of the Hippurite is not
really very different from the upper valve in structure; the
laminge are corrugated, leaving irregular pores, or tubes, parallel
with the long axis of the shell, and often visible on the rim.
The umbo of the upper valve of the Radiolite is marginal in the
young shell. (Q. J. Geol. Soc., vol. xi. p. 40.)

They are the most problematic of all fossils; there are no
recent shells which can be supposed to belong to the same
family; and the condition in which they usually occur has in-
volved them in greater obscurity.* The characters which
determine their position amongst the ordinary bivalves are the
folowing :—

1. The shell is composed of three distinct layers.

2. They are essentially unsymmetrical, and right-and-left
valved.

3. The sculpturing of the valves is dissimilar.

4. There is evidence of a large internal ligament.

5. The hinge-teeth are developed from the free valye.

6. The muscular impressions are 2 only.

7. There is a distinct pallial line.

The outer layer of shell in the Radiolite consists of prismatic
cellular structure (Fig. 232); the prisms are perpendicular to
the shell-laminz, and often minutely subdivided. The cells
appear to have been empty, like those of Ostrea (p. 407).+ The
inner layer, which forms the hinge and lines the umbones is
sub-nacreous, and very rarely preserved. It is usually replaced
by calcareous spar (Fig. 239), sometimes by mud or chalk, and
very often it is only indicated by a vacuity between the outer
shell and the internal mould (Fig. 244). The inner shell-layer

* 1, Buch regarded them as Corals. 1840, Leoni. and Bronn Jahrb, p. 573.
2. Desmoulins, as a combination of the Tiinicary and Sessile Cirripede.
3. Dr. Carpenter, as a “ group intermediate between the Conchifera and Cirripeda.”
An. Nat. Hist. XII. 390.
4, Prof. Steenstrup, of Copenhagen, as Annelids.
5. Mr. D. Sharpe refers Hippurites to the Balani; Caprineila to the Chamacee.
6. La Peyrouse considered the Hippurites Orthocerata; the Radiolites, Ostracea.
7. Goldfuss and D’Orbigny place them both with the Brachiopoda.
8. Lamarck and Rang, between the Brachiopoda and Ostracee.
9. Cuvier and Owen, with the Lamellibranchiate bivalves.
10. Deshavyes, in the same group with theria.
11. Quenstedt, between the Chamacee and Cardiacee.
+ This is very conspicuous in Radiolites from the chalk ; a formation in which other
prismatic-cellular fossils are solid.
vu 3

442 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

is seldom compact, its lamellz are extremely thin, and separated
by intervals like the water-chambers of Spondylus; similar
spaces occur in the deposit, filling the umbonal cavity of the
long-beaked oysters.*
The inner layer ceases at the pallial line, beyond which, on
the rim of the shell, the cellular structure is often apparent ;

Fig. 231. Section of a fragment of Ostrea Cornucopie.

obscure bifurcating impressions radiate from the pallial line ta
the outer margin (Fig. 232, v, v).
These have been compared to the vascular impressions of

45S

Crania (Figs. 193, 194), and constitute the only argument for
supposing the Ludistes to have been palliobranchiate ; but they

* The water-chambers in some of the cylindrical Hippurites are large and regular,
like those of the fossil corals Amplerus and Cyathophyllum. A section of Hippurites
bi-oculatus passing through only one of the dental sockets, resembles an Orthoceras
with a lateral siphuncle; whilst a Caprinella (Fig. 246), which has lost its outer layer,
mu; ht be mistaken for an Ammonite.

+ Traced from the original specimen in the Museum of the School of Mines. 48, is
the inner edge ; a, the outer edge; v, v, the dichotomous impressions; the horizontal
laminz are seen on the shaded side. Lower chalk; Sussex.

ra
CONCHIFERA. 4438

occur on the rim of the shell, and not on the disk, as in Crania.*
The chief peculiarity of the Hippuritide is the dissimilarity in
the structure of the valves, but even this is deprived of,much
significance by its inconstancy.t ‘The free valve of Hippurites
is perforated by radiating canals which open round its inner
margin, and communicate with the upper surface by numerous
pores, as if to supply the interior with filtered water ; possibly
they were closed by the epidermis. }

In the closely allied genus Radiolites there is no trace of such
canals, nor in Caprotina. Those which exist in the upper valve
. of Caprina, and in both valves of Caprinella, have no commu-
nication with the outer surface of the shell; they appear to be
only of the same character with the tubular ribs of Cardium
costatum (Pl. XITX,, Fig. 1), and it is highly improbable that
they were permanently occupied by processes from the margin
of the mantle.

The teeth of the left, or upper valve, are so prominent and
straight, that its movement must have been nearly vertical,
for which purpose the internal ligament appears to hawe been
exactly suited by its position and magnitude, but it is probable
that,.like other bivalves, they opened to a very small extent.

HIPPURITES, Lamarck.

Name, adopted from old writers, ‘‘ fossil Hippuris,” or
Horse-tail.

Types, H. bi-oculatus, Lamarck, and H. cornu-vaccinum,
Fig. 237.

Shell very inequivalve, inversely conical, or elongated and
cylindrical ; fixed valve striated or smooth, with three parallel
furrows (J, m, n) on the cardinal side, indicating duplicatures
_ of the outer shell layer; internal margin slightly plaited; pallial
line continuous ; umbonal cavity moderately deep, ligamental
inflection (/) with a small cartilage-pit on each side (c,c); dental
sockets sub-central, divided by an obsolete tooth; anterior
muscular impression (a) elongated, double; posterior (a)

* M. D’Orbigny considers they were produced by peculiar appendages to the
mantle-margin, which, in Aippurites, were prolonged into the canals of the upper
valve.

} The lower valves of some Spondyli are squamous or spiny, the upper plain; those
of many oysters, Pectens, andsome Tellens are diversely sculptured ; but in no instance
is the internal structure of the two valves different.. The inconstancy of the shell
structure in the Rudistes has a parallel in Rhynchonella and Terebratula (p. 360), and
in the condition of the hepatic organ in Zritonia and Dendronotus.

+ The valves of Crania are perforated by branching tubuli, but in that case they pass
vertically through every part of the shell, ar-1 allits layers (p. 361).

me,

444 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

small, very deep, bounded by the second duplicature(m); third
duplicature (7) projecting into the umbonal cavity: free valve

Fig. 233. Interior of lower valve, 3. Fig, 234. Upper valve (restored),

Hippurites radiosus,Desm. Lower chalk, St. Mamest, Dordogne.*
a, a, adductor impressions and processes; ¢, c, cartilage pits; t,t’, teeth and dental
sockets; «, umbonal cavity; p, orifices of canals; /, ligamental inflection; m mus-
cular, 2 siphonal inflection.

depressed. with a central umbo, and two grooves or pits cor-

ase > 772 :
AE I A
A >») >. 1 7

5S

Du

pc

Ih j

Fig. 235. H. Toucasianus, upper valve, 3.4 Fig. 236. Lower valve, with mould, 3.

i ligamental, m muscular, m siphonal inflections; -z, fracture, showing canals 3
c, cartilage ; u, left umbo; the arrows indicate the probable direction of the branchial
currents.

responding to the posterior ridges in the lower valve; surface

* From the original in the Brit. Mus. The inner layer of shell in this species has an
irregularly cellular structure, to which its preservation is due.

{ This internal mould, representing the form of the animal, was obtained by remov-
ing the upper valve piecemeal with the chisel; a plaster-cast taken from it represents
the interior of the upper valve, with the bases of the teeth and apophyses. See origi-
nals in Brit. Mus.

CONCHIFERA. 445

porous, the pores leading to canals in the outer shell-layer,
which open round the pallial line upon the imner margin;
anterior cartilage-pit deep and conical, posterior shallow;
umbonal cavity turned to the front (wv); teeth 2, straight, sub-
central, the anterior largest, each supporting a crooked muscular
apophysis, the first broad, the hinder prominent, tooth-like ;
inflections (m, n) surrounded by deep channels,
HA. cornu-vaccinum attains a length of more than a foot, and
is curved like a cow’s horn; the outer layer separates readily
from the core, which is furrowed longitudinally. The ligamental
inflection (/) is very deep and narrow, and the anterior tooth
farther removed from the side than in H. bi-oculatus and radiosus
(Figs. 233, 234) ; the posterior apophysis (a’) does not nearly fill
the corresponding cavity in the lower valve. In H. bi-oculatus
and some other species there is no ligamental ridge inside;
these, when they have lost their inner layer, present a cylin-
drical cavity with two parallel ridges, extending down one side.
The third inflection (n)is possibly a siphonal fold, such as exists
in the tube of Teredo, and sometimes in the valves of Pholas,
Clavagella, and the caudate species of Trigonia.
The development of processes from the upper valve, for the

Fig. 237. Longitudinal section ; upper half,+. Fig. 238. Transverse section, 4.
Hippurites cornu-vaczinum, Bronn. Salzburg,

1, m, n, duplicatures ; u, umbonal cavity of left valve; 7, of right valve; c, c', care
tilage-pits; ¢, t', teeth; a, a’, muscular apophyses; d, outer shell-layer. Fig. 257 is
taken in the line d 6 of Fig. 238, cutting only the base of the posterior tooth (¢’).
Fig. 238 is from a larger specimen, at about the ievel d 6 of Fig. 237, cutting the point
of the posterior apophysis (@'), and showing the peculiar shell-texture deposited by
the anterior adductor (a).

attachment of the adductor muscles harmonises with the other
peculiarities of the Hippurite. The equal growth of the margins

446 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

of the valves produces central umbones, and necessitates an
internal cartilage; this again causes the removal of the teeth
and adductors farther from the hinge-margin, to a position in
which the muscles must have been unusually long, unless sup-
ported in the manner described. Supposing the animal to have
had a small foot, like Chama, the mantle-opening for that organ
would have been completely obstructed by the adductor, but
that the muscular support was hook-shaped (Fig. 239, a). The
posterior adductor-process is similarly under-cut for the passage
of the rectum, which in all bivalves emerges between the hinge

c= BV S|
SN ef ao
re ' | a i \ A
— a: raga (|
CASTILE GI iy Z
cw \\\ he , iI | iF
Na Ta NE
Sl Iv NE

Fig. 239. Hippurites eornu-vaccinum. Fig. 240. Radiolites cylindraceus, +.
Longitudinal sections taken through the teeth (¢, ¢') and apophyses (a, a’).

@ outer, rv inner shell-layer ; 2, dental plate of lower valve; uw, umbonal cavity of upper
valves ; 2, intestinal channel. Originals in Brit, Mus.

and posterior adductor, winds round outside that muscle, and
terminates in the linetof the exhalent current. There is a groove
(sometimes an inch deep) round the second and third duplica-
tures in the upper valve, which seems intended to facilitate the
passage of the alimentary canal, and the flow of water from the
gills into the exhalent channel. The smallness of the space for
the branchize may have been compensated by deep plication of
those organs, as In Chama and Tridacna. .

Fossil, 30 species. Chalk. Bohemia, Tyrol, France, Spain,
Turkey, Syria, Algeria, Egypt.

RavDIoLITES, Lamarck, 1801.
Etymology, radius, a ray.
Synonym, Spheerulites, De la Metherie, 1805.
Shell inversely conical, bi-conic, or cylindrical; valves dis-
similar in structure; internal margins smooth or finely striated,
simple, continuous; ligamental inflection very narrow, dividing

CONCHIFERA. 447

the deep and rugose cartilage pits: lower valve with a thick outer
layer, often foliaceous; its cavity deep and straight, with two

Fig, 241. Interior of lower valve. Fig. 242. Interior of upper valve.

Radiolites mammillaris, Math. 3. L. Chalk. S. Mamest, Dordogne.
1, ligamental inflection; m, pallial line; c, c, cartilage pits; a, a, adductor impressions
and processes ; ¢, teeth and'dental sockets. :

dental sockets and lateral muscular impressions; upper valve
flat or conical, with a central umbo; outer layer thin, radiated ;

| Fig. 243. Side views of the upper valve of R. mammillaris; 1, ligamental inflection 4
t, teeth; a, a’, muscular processes.

umbonal cavity inclined towards the, ligament; teeth angular,
striated, supporting,curved and sub-equal muscular processes.

The upper yalve of #. flewriausus has an oblique umbo, with
a distinct ligamental groove. The’foliations of the lower valve
are frequently undulated; they are sometimes as thin as paper,
and several inches wide.

The umbonal cavity of the lower valve is partitioned off by
very delicate funnel-shaped laminz. Specimens frequently
occur in which the outer shell layer is preserved, whilst the
inner is wanting, and the mould (‘ birostrites”’”) remains loose
‘a the centre. The interior of the outer shell layer is deeply

448 MANUAL OF THE MGLLUSCA,.

grooved with lines of growth, and exhibits a distinct ligamental
ridge in each valve.

_ Im aged examples of R. calceoloides the ligamental inflection ~
1s concealed, the cartilage pits partially filled up and smoothed,

y)

=

—— 4,
/
Ys /

Fig. 244. Upper view. Fig. 245. Side view.
Internal mould of &. Heninghausii, Desm., 3. Chalk.

&, umbe of left valve; r, right umbo; J, ligamental groove; c,c, cartilage; a, anteriof
adductor muscle ; a’, posterior.

and the teeth and apophyses so firmly wedged into their re-
spective cavities, as to suggest the notion that the valves had
become fixed about a quarter of an inch apart, and ceased to
open and close at the will of the animal.

Fossil, 42 species. Neocomian—Chalk. Texas; Britain,
France, Bohemia, Saxony, Portugal, Algeria, Egypt.

Sub-genus 2 Bi-radiolites, D’Orbigny. R. canaliculatus
(Fig. 225, upper valve). Ligamental groove visible in one or
both valves, sometimes occupying the crest of a ridge, and
bordered by two similar areas (a, a). Fossil, 5 species. Chalk,
France.

CAPRINELLA, D’Orbigny.

Type, C. triangularis, Desm. (Fig. 246).

Synonym, Caprinula (Boissi), D’Orbigny.

Shell fixed by the apex of the right valve, or free; composed
of a thick layer of epen tubes, with a thin compact superficial
lamina; cartilage internal, contained in several deep pits;
umbones more or less camerated ; right valve conical or elon-
gated, with a hgamental furrow on its convex side, and furnished
with one strong hinge-tooth supported by an oblique plate: left

CONCHIFERA, 449

valve oblique or spiral, with two hinge teeth, the anterior

Fig. 246. Caprinella triangularis, Desm. U. Greensand, Rochelle, 2.

A, portion of the left valve, after D’Orbigny,* the shell-wall is removed by weather-
ing, exposing the camerated interior. B, mould of five of the water-chambers. C,
mould of the body-chamber; u, umbo of right valve; s, of left valve; ¢, dental groove;
a, surface from which the posterior lobe has been detached. From the originals in the
Brit. Mus., presented by S. P. Pratt, Esq.

supported by a plate which divides the umbonal cavity length-

wise.
In C. triangularis the umbonal cavity of the spiral valve is

Fig. 247. Straight valve. Fig. 248. Spiral valve.
Transverse sections of C. Boissiz, L. Chalk, Lisbon (Mr. Sharpe).
J, position of ligamental inflection ; t, teeth ; c, cartilage pits ; u, umbonal cavity.
Fig. 248 is from a weathered specimen, which has lost the outer layer. The tubes of
the shell-wall are filled with limestone containing small shells.

partitioned off at regular intervals (Fig. 246, A); the length of
the water chambers is sometimes 3% inches, and of the body-

* In M. D’Orbigny’s figure the smaller valve has been added from another speci-
men, and is turned towards the spire of the large valve, (Pal. Franc. pl. 542, fig. —
1). In Mr, fratt’s specimens, and those collected by Mr. Sharpe in Portugal, the
umbo of the smaller yalve is turned away with a sigmoid flexure. (Q. J. Geol. Soc,
VI. pl. 18.)

450 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

chamber from 2 to 7 diameters; specimens measuring a yard
across may be seen on the cavernous shores of the islets near
Rochelle.* (Pratt.)

Fossil, 6 species. Neocomian—Lower Chalk. France, Portugal,
Texas.

~ KH >
IN
Res,

oe
Se

ea

i yj

Fig. 249.C. Aguilloni, left valve. Fig. 250,.C. adversa (after D’Orb.).

a, a, position of adductors; /, ligament; u, umbonal cavity; t, tooth of fixed valve,
broken off and remaining in its socket ; c, original point of attachment,

Caprina, C. D’Orbigny.

itymology, caprina, pertaining to a goat.

Synonym, Plagioptychus, Matheron.

Type, O. Aguilloni, C. D’Orbigny. Lower Chalk, Tyrol
(= C. Partschii, Hauer).

Shell with dissimilar valves, cartilage internal; fixed valve
conical, marked only by lines of growth and a ligamental
groove; hinge-margin with several deep cartilage-pits ; and one
large and prominent tooth on the posterior side; free valve
oblique or spiral, thick, perforated by one or more rows of
flattened canals, radiating from the umbo and opening around
the inner margin; anterior tooth supported by a plate which
divides the umbonal cavity lengthwise, posterior tooth obscure;
hinge-margin much thickened, grooved for the cartilage.

In C. adversa (Fig. 250) the free valve is (6) sinistrally spiral ;
its cavity is partitioned off by numerous septa, and divided
longitudinally by the dental plate. When young it is attached
by the apex of the straight valve (c), but afterwards becomes
detached, as the large specimens are found imbedded with the
spire downwards. (Saemann.) The lower valve of C. Coquandiana
is sub-spiral.

* These singular fossils were called ichthyosarcolites by Desmarest, from their
resemblance to the flaky muscles of fishes,

CONCHIFERA. 451

Fossil, 10 species. Upper Greensand and Lower Chalk.
Bohemia, France, Texas.

Fig. 251. Internal mould of Caprotina quadripartita, D’Orb., $.
u, left umbo; 7, right umbo; J, ligamental inflection; c, cartilage ; ¢,¢', dental sockets
a, a', position of adductors; at e, a portion of the third lobe is broken away.* From a
specimen collected by Mr, Pratt.

CAPROTINA, D’Orbigny.

Type, C. semistriata, Pl. XIX., Figs. 13 and 14. Le Mans,
Sarthe.

Shell composed of two distinct layers; yvalves-alike in struc-
ture, dissimilar in sculpturing ; ligamental groove slight ;
cartilage internal ; right valve fixed, striated, or ribbed, with one
narrow tooth between two deep pits, cartilage pits several on
each side of the ligamental inflection, posterior adductor sup-
ported by a plate: free valve flat or convex, with a marginal
umbo; teeth 2, very prominent, supported by ridges (apophyses)
of the adductor muscles (a a’), the anterior tooth cannected with
a third plate (nm), which divides the umbonal cavity.

The smaller Caprotine occur in groups, attached to oyster-
shells; their muscular ridges are much less developed than in
the large species (Fig. 251). C. costata is like a little Radiolite.

Fossil, 10 species. Upper Greensand, France. (The rest are
Chamas, &c.)

FamiIty [X.—TRIDACNIDE.

Shell regular, equivalve, truncated in front; lgament
external; valves strongly ribbed, margins toothed; muscular
impressions blended, sub-central, obscure.

* The first and fourth lobes, those on each side of the ligamental inflection, appear

to be the two divisions of a great internal cartilage, like that of the Radiolite, (Figs
244, 244, c, c.)

452 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Animal attached by a byssus, or free ; mantle-lobe extensively
united; pedal opening large, anterior; siphonal orifices sur-
rounded by a thickened pallial border; branchial plain; anal
remote, with a tubular valve; shell-muscle single, large and
round, with a smaller pedal muscle close to it behind; foot
finger-like, with a byssal groove; gills 2 on each side, narrow,
strongly plaited, the outer pair composed of a single lamina, the
inner thick, with margins conspicuously grooved; palpi very
slender, pointed.

The shell of Tridacna is extremely hard, being calcified until
almost every trace of organic structure is obliterated. (Car-
penter.)

TrRIDACNA, Bruguiére. Clam-shell.

Etymology, tri, three, dakno, to bite; a kind of oyster.
(Pliny.)

Example, T. squamosa, Pl. XVIII,, Fig. 15.

Shell massive, trigonal, ornamented with radiating ribs and
imbricating foliations: margins deeply indented; byssal sinus

hii Sar

Y
So Ly,

Dy NN Z
yy N NOT

QU

Fig. 252. Tridacna Crocea, Lam. (Original. )

a, the single adductor muscle; y, pedal muscle, and pedal opening in mantle.
Ff, the small grooved foot; 6, byssus: t, labial tentacles; g, gills; J, the broad pailial
muscle; between g and 7 is the renal organ; m, the double mantle-margin; s, the
siphonal border; 72, inhalent orifice; e, valvular excurrent orifice. An. Nat. Hist.
1855, p. 190.
in each valve large, close to the umbo in front; hinge teeth
1.1, posterior laterals 2.1.

A pair of valves of 7’. gigas, weighing upwards of 500 Ibs. and
measuring about 2 feet across, are used as benitiers in the Church

CONCHIFERA, 453

of St. Sulpice, Paris. (Dillwyn.) Captain Cook states that
the animal of this species sometimes weighs 20 lbs. and is good
eating. *

Fig. 252 shows the animal of Tridacna, as seen on removing
the left valve and part of the mantle within the pallial line.

Distribution, 7 species. Indian Ocean, China Seas, Pacific.

Fossil, T. media. Miocene, Poland (Pusch). Tridacna and
Hippopus are found in the raised coral-reefs of Torres Straits.
(Macgillivray.)

Sub-genus. Hippopis, Lamarck. H. maculatus, Pl. XVIII,
Fig. 16. The ‘‘bear’s-paw clam” has close valves with two
hinge-teeth in each. It is found on the reefs in the Coral Sea.
The animal spins a small byssus.

FAMILY X.—CARDIADA,

Shell. regular, equivalye, free, cordate, ornamented with
radiating ribs; posterior slope sculptured differently from the
front and sides; cardinal teeth two, laterals 1.1 in each valve;
ligament external, short and prominent; pallial line simple or
slightly situated behind; muscular impressions sub-quadrate.

Animal with mantle open in front; siphons usually very
short, cirrated externally ; gills two on each side, thick, united
posteriorly ; palpi narrow and pointed ; foot large, sickle-shaped.

Carpium, L. Cockle.

Etymology, kardia, the heart.

Synonym, Papyridea, Sw.

Types, C. costatum, Pl. XIX., Fig.1. C. lyratum, Fig. 2.

Shell ventricose, close or gaping posteriorly ; umbones promi-
nent, sub-central; margins crenulated; pallial line more or
less sinuated.

Animal with the mantle-margins plaited; siphons clothed
with tentacular filaments anal orifice with a tubular valve;
branchial fringed; foot long, cylindrical, sickle-shaped, heeled.

The cockle (C. edule) frequents sandy bays, near low water; a
small variety liyes in the brackish waters of the river Thames,
as high as Gravesend; it ranges to the Baltic, and is found in
the Black Sea and Caspian. C. rusticwm extends from the Icy
Sea to the Mediterranean, Black Sea, Caspian, and Aral. On
the coast of Deyon the large prickly cockle (C. aculeatwm) is
eaten.

* “We stayed a long time in the lagoon (of Keeling Id.), examining the fields of
corel and the gigantic clam-shells, into which if a man were to put his hand, he would
not, as long as the animal lived, be able to withdraw it.” (Darwin’s Journal, p. 460.)

454 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Sub-genera. Hemicardium (Cardissa) Cuvier. C. hemicardium,
Pl. XIX... Fig. 3. Shell depressed, posterior slope flat, valves
prominently keeled.

Lithocardium ayiculare, Pl. XVIII., Fig. 17. Shell triangular,
keeled; anterior side very short; hinge-teeth 1.2, directed
backwards; posterior laterals 2.1; anterior muscular pit minute,
posterior impression large, remote from the hinge. ZL. cymbulare,
Lam,. exhibits slight indications of a byssal sinus in the front
margins of the valves. Fossil, Hocene, France. These shells
present considerable resemblance to T'ridacna.

Serripes (groenlandicus) Beck. Hinge edentulous. Arctic
Seas, from C. Parry to Sea of Kara; fossil in the Norwich Crag.

Fig. 253. C. leviusculum, Eichw. (after Middendorff),

Adacna, Hichwald. C. edentulum, Pl. XTX., Fig.4. (Acardo,
Sw. not Brug. Pholadomya, Ag. and Mid. not Sby.) Shell com-
pressed, gaping behind, thin, nearly edentulous; pallial line
sinuated. Animal with the foot (f/f) compressed; siphons (s)
elongated, united nearly to theend, plain. Distribution, 8 species.
Aral, Caspian, Azof, Black Sea, and the embouchures of the
Wolga, Dniester, Dnieper, and Don; burrowing in mud. C.
Caspicum (Monodacna, Hichw.) has a single hinge-tooth, and
C. trigonoides (Didacna, EH.) rudiments of two teeth. The
siphonal inflection varies in amount.

Distribution, 200 species. World-wide; from the sea-shore to
140 fathoms. Gregarious on sands and sandy mud.

' Fossil, 330 species. Upper Silurian —. Patagonia —
Southern India. ’

C. Hillanum, Sby. (Protocardium, Beyr.), is the type of a
small group in which the sides are concentrically furrowed, the
posterior slope radiately striated; the pallial line is slightly
sinuated. Jura — Chalk; Europe, India.

ConocARDIUM, Bronn.

Synonyms, Jiychas, Stein. Pleurorhynchus, Ph. Lunulo-
cardium, Minster.

CONCHIFERA. 455

Type, C. Hibernicum, Pl. XIX., Fig. 5. OC. aliforme,
Fig. 254. -

Shell, equivalve trigonal, conical and gaping infront, truncated
behind, with a long siphonal tube near the umbones ; anterior

Fig. 254. Conacardium aliforme, Sby. Carb., Ireland. (Mus. Tennant.)

Slope radiately, posterior obliquely striated; margins strongly
crenulated within; hinge with anterior and posterior laminar
teeth; ligament external.

The truncated end has usually been considered anterior, a con-
clusion which seems incompatible with the vertical position and
burrowing habits of most free and equivalve shells ; if compared
with Adacna (Fig. 253) the large gape (a) will be for the foot,
and the long tube (s) siphonal. (C. Hibernicum has an expanded
keel, like Hemicardiwm inversum. The shell-structure is pris-
matic-cellular, as first pointed out by Sowerby; but the cells
are cubical, and much larger than in any of the Aviculude. In
Cardium the outer layer is only corrugated or obscurely pris-
matic-cellular.

Fossil, 30 species. U. Silurian — Carb. North America,
Europe.

Faminry XI.—Lvcrnipa.

Shell orbicular, free, closed; hinge-teeth 1 or 2, laterals 1—1
or obsolete; interior dull, obliquely furrowed; pallial line
simple; muscular impressions 2, elongated, rugose; ligament
inconspicuous or sub-internal. |

Animal with mantle-lobes open below, and haying one or
two siphonal orifices behind; foot elongated, cylindrical, or
strap-shaped (ligulate), protruded at the base of the shell; gills
one (or two) on each side, large and thick, oval; mouth and
palpi usually minute.

The Lucinide are distributed chiefly in the tropical and
temperate seas, upon sandy and muddy bottoms, from the sea-
shore to the greatest habitable depths. The shell consists of two
distinct layers.

Fig. 255 represents the animal of a species of Diplodonta,

456 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

from the Philippines; as seen on removing the left valve, and
part of the mantle within the pallial line; b-c, the large pedal
é opening; the arrows indicate
the small plain incurrent orifice,
and the valvular excwrrent ori-
fice; 7, the foot, contracted in
spirit; pp, the large striated.
palpi; /, the liver; the outer
gill has a simple margin, the
inner is grooved and conducts
to the mouth. This genus has
higher claims than Kellia to be
regarded as the type of a
family.

Fig. 255. Diplodonta.

Lucina, Bruguiére.

Etymology, Lucina, a name of Juno.

Type, Li. Pennsylvanica, Pl. XTX., Fig. 6.

Shell orbicular, white; umbones depressed; lunule distinct; —
margins smooth or minutely crenulated; lgament oblique,
semi-internal; hinge-teeth 2.2, laterals 1—1 and 2—2, or obso-
lete; muscular impressions rugose, anterior elongated within
the pallial line, posterior oblong ; umbonal area with an oblique
furrow.

Animal with the mantle freely open below; siphonal orifices
simple; mouth minute, lips thin; gills single on each side, very
large and thick ; foot cylindrical, pointed, slightly heeled at the
base. i

The foot of Zucina is often twice as long as the animal, but is
usually folded back on itself and concealed between the gills ;
it is hollow throughout. L. lactea (Loripes, Poli.) has a long
contractile anal tube. JL. tigrina (Codakia, Scop.) has the liga-
ment concealed between the valves, its lateral teeth are obsolete.

Distribution, 70 species. West Indies, Norway, Black Sea,
New Zealand; 120 fathoms.

Fossil, 250 species. U. Silurian —. United States — T. del
Fuego; Hurope — Southern India. —

Sub-genera, Cryptodon, Turton. I. flexuosa, Pl. XIX.,
Fig. 7. Synonyms, Ptychina, Phil. Thyatira, Leach. Clausina
(ferruginosa) Jeffr. Shell thin, edentulous; ligament quite in-
ternal, oblique. Animal with a long anal tube. Distribution,
5 species. Norway — New Zealand. ossil, 2 species, Hocene —.
United States, Europe.

Psathura, Deshayes. Anterior adductor scar long, narrow;
hinge-teeth 2.2; umbones imperceptible.

CONCHIFERA. 457

CoRBIS, Cuvier,

Etymology, corbis, a basket.

Type, C. elegans. Pl. XIX., Fig. 8.

Synonyms, Fimbria, Muhl. not Bohadsch. ‘‘ Idotzea,’’ Schum.

Shell oval, ventricose, sub-equilateral, concentrically sculp-
tured ; margins denticulated within; hinge-teeth 2, laterals 2,
in each yalye ; pallialline simple ; umbonal area with an oblique
furrow, muscular impressions round and polished; pedal scars
close to adductors.

Animal with the mantle open below, doubly fringed; foot
long pointed; siphonal opening single, with a long retractile
tubular. valve ; lips narrow; palpi rudimentary ; gills single on
each side, thick, quadrangular, plaited, united behind.

Distribution, 5 species. India, China, North Australia, Pacific.

Fossil, 80 species (including sub-genera). Lias—. United
States, Europe.

In C. dubia (Semi-corbis) Desh., from the Hocene, Paris, the
lateral teeth are obsolete.

Sub-genera. Sphera (corrugata), Sby. Shell globular, con-
centrically furrowed and obscurely radiated; ligament promi-
nent; margins crenulated; hinge-teeth 2.2, obscure; laterals
obsolete. Fossil, Trias — Chalk. LHurope.

Sportella, Deshayes. Like Sphera, but with 2.1 hinge-teeth.

? Unicardium, D’Orb. (Mactromya, Ag. part.) = Corbula
cardioides, Sby. Shell thin, oval, ventricose, concentrically
striated ; hgamental plates elongated ; pallial line simple ; hinge
with an obscure tooth, or edentulous. Fossil, 40 species? Las
— Portlandian. Europe.

? TANCREDIA, Lycett, 1850-

‘Dedicated to Sir Thomas Tancred, Bart., founder of the
Cotteswold Naturalists’ Club.

Example, T. extensa, L. Pl. XXI., Fig. 22.

Synonym, Hettangia, Turquem.

Shell trigonal, smooth; anterior side usually longest; cardi-
nal teeth 2.2, one of them small; a posterior lateral tooth in
each valve; ligament external; muscular impressions oval ;
pallial line simple.

Fossil, 12 species. Lias — Bath Oolite. Britain, France.

458 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

DrIPLopontTa, Bronn.

Etymology, diplos, twin, odonta, teetn.

Synonym, Spheerella, Conrad.

Type, D. lupinus (Venus) Brocchi. Pl. XIX., Fig. 9.

Shell sub-orbicular, smooth; ligament double, rather long,
sub-marginal; hinge-teeth 2.2, of which the anterior in the -
left valve, and posterior in the right, are bifid; muscular im-
pressions polished, anterior elongated.

Animal with the mantle-margins nearly plain, united; pedal
opening large, ventral; foot pointed, hollow ; palpi large, free;
gills two on each side, distinct, the outer oval, inner broadest
in front, united behind; branchial orifice small, simple; anal
larger, with a plain valve.

Distribution, 40 species. West Indies, Rio, Britain, Medi-
terranean, Red Sea, West Africa, India, Corea, Australia, Cali-
fornia. D. diaphana (Felania, Recluz) burrows in sand.

Fossil, 30 species, Eocene —. United States, Europe.

? Scacchia, Philippi, 1844; Tellina elliptica, Sc. Shell minute,
ovate, posterior side shortest ; hinge-teeth 1 or 2, laterals obso-
lete; ligament minute; cartilage internal, in an oblong pit.
Animal with mantle widely open; siphonal orifice single ; foot
compressed, linguiform; palpi moderate, oblong. Distribution,
2 species. Mediterranean. fossil, 1 species. Pliocene, Sicily.

P Cyamium, Philippi, 1845. C. Antarcticum, Pl. XIX.,
Fig. 16. Shell oblong; hinge-teeth, 2.2; ligament double;
cartilage in a triangular groove behind the teeth in each valve.
Distribution, 3 species. Patagonia, Northern Europe. fossil,
1 species. Tertiary, Europe.

Uneutina, Daudin.

Etymology, ungulina, like a hoof.

Type, U. Oblonga. Pl. XITX., Fig. 10.

Shell sub-orbicular ; ligament very short; epidermis thick,
wrinkled, sometimes black; hinge-teeth 2.2; muscular im-
pressions long, rugose.

Animal with the mantle open below, fringed ; siphonal orifice
single; foot vermi-form, thickened at the end and perforated,
projecting from the base of the shell or folded up between the
gills, palpi pointed; gills two on each side, unequal, the
external narrower, with a free dorsal border, inner widest in
front.

Distribution, 4 species. Senegal, Philippines, excayating

winding galleries in coral.
ao

CONCHIFERA. 459

KEELE Pharun, tole. |

Etymology, named after Mr. O’Kelly, of Dublin.

Synonyms, Lasea (Leach), Br. 1827. Cycladina (Adansonii)
Cantr. Bornia (sub-orbicularis) Phil. Poronia (rubra), Recluz
(not Willd). Erycina (cycladiformis), Desh. (not Lam.)

Types, K. sub-orbicularis, Mont. K. rubra. Pl. XIX.,
Fig. 12.

Shell small, thin, sub-orbicular, closed ; beaks small ; margins
smooth; ligament internal, interrupting the margin (in K.
suborbicularis), or on the thickened margins (in K. rubra) ;
cardinal teeth 1 or 2, laterals 1—1 in each yalve.

Animal with the mantle prolonged in front into a respiratory
canal, either complete (in K. suborbicularis) or opening into the
pedal slit (in K. rubra); foot strap-shaped, grooved; gills large,
two on each side, united posteriorly, the external pair narrower
and prolonged dorsally ; palpi triangular; posterior siphonal
orifice single, exhalent.

The hinges of these lttle shells are subject to variations,
which are not constantly associated with the modifications of
the mantle-openings. They creep about freely, and fix them-
selves by a byssus at pleasure. K. rubra is found in creyices of
rocks at high-water mark, and often in situations only reached
by the spray, except at spring-tides; other species range as
deep as 200 fathoms. K. Laperousii (Chironia), Desh. Pl. XTX.,
Fig. 11, was obtained, burrowing in sandstone, from deep
water, at Monterey, California. vs

Distribution, 20 species. Norway— New Zealand— California.

Fossil, 20 species. Hocene—. United States, Europe.

Sub-genera. Turtonia (minuta), Hanley. Shell oblong, in-
equilateral, anterior side very short; ligament concealed
between the valves; hinge-teeth 2.2. Animal with the —
mantle open in front; foot large, heeled; siphon single,
slender, elongated, protruded from the long end of the shell.
Distribution, Greenland, Norway, Britain. In pools and cre-
vices of rocks between tide-marks, and in the roots of sea-
weeds and corallines. Mr. Thompson obtained them from the
stomachs of mullets taken on the north-east coast of Ireland.

Pythina (Deshayesiana), Hinds. (Myllita, D’Orb, and Recl.)
Shelli trigonal, divaricately sculptured ; ligament internal; right
valve with 2 lateral teeth, left with 1 cardinal and 2 laterals,
Distribution, 8 species, New Ireland, Australia, Philippines.
Fossil, 2 species, Hocene—, France, Jaya.

X 2

460 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Montacura, Turton.

Dedicated to Colonel George Montagu, the most distinguished
of the earlier English malacologists.
Type, M. substriata. Pl. XIX., Fig. 18.

Shell minute, thin, oblong, anterior side longest; hinge-line

notched ; ligament internal, between 2 laminar, diverging
teeth (with a minute ossicle. Loven.)

Animat with the mantle open in front; margins simple;
siphonal orifice single; foot large and broad, grooved.

The Montacutce moor themselves by a byssus, or walk freely ;
M. substriata has only been found attached to the spines of the
purple heart-urchin (Spatangus purpureus) in 5—90 fathoms.
M. bidentata burrows in the valves of dead oyster-shells.

Distribution, 3 species. United States, Norway, Britain,
Aigean.

Fossil, 2 species: Pliocene—. Britain.

LEptTon, Turton.

Etymology; lepton, a minute piece of money (from leptos, thin).
Synonym ? Solecardia (eburnea), Conrad, Lower California.
Type, L. squamosum. Pl. XIX., Fig. 14. Fig. 256,

Shell sub-orbicular, compressed, smooth, or shagreened, a
little opened at the ends and longest behind; hinge-teeth 0.1
or 1.1 in front of an angular
cartilage notch; lateral teeth
2.2 and 1.1.

Animal with the mantle (m)
open in front, extending beyond
the shell, and bearing a fringe
of filaments, of which one in
front (¢) is very large; siphon
(s) single, gills two on each side,
separate; foot (/) thick, tapering, heeled and grooved, form-
ing a sole or creeping disk. (Alder.)

Sub-genus. Scintilla (Cumingi), Desh. 1856. Small shells -

resembling Lepton; minutely punctate; ligament internal,
oblique; hinge-teeth 1. 2; posterior laterals 1. 2. Distribu-
tion, 37 species (?), Philippines, North Australia, Panama.
Distribution, 50 species. United States, Britain, Spain.
Laminarian and Coralline Zones.
fossil, 5 species. . Pliocene—. United States, Britain.

a

CONCHIFERA. 461

GALEoMMA, Turton.

Synonyms, Hiatella, Costa (not Daud,); Parthenopea, Scacchi
(not Fabr).

Type, G. Turtoni, Pl. XIX., Fig. 15. (Galee, weasel, omma,
eye.)

Shell thin, oval, equilateral, gaping widely below; invested
with a thick, fibrous epidermis; beaks minute; ligament
internal; teeth 0.1.

Animal with the mantle-lobes united behind and pierced
with one siphonal orifice, margins double, the inner with a row
of eye-like tubercles; gills large, sub-equal, united behind ;
lips large, palpi lanceolate, plaited; foot long, compressed,
with a narrow flat sole.

The Galeomma spins a byssus, but breaks from its mooring
at will and creeps about like a snail, spreading out its valves
nearly flat. (Clarke.)

Distribution, 14 species. Britain, Mediterranean, Mauritius,
Pacific.

Fossil, 1 species. Pliocene—. , Sicily.

Famity X1II.—CycLapDIp&.

Shell sub-orbicular, closed; ligament external; epidermis
thick, horny; umbones of aged shells eroded; hinge with car-
dinal and lateral teeth; pallial line simple, or with a very
small inflection.

Animal with mantle open in front, margins plain; siphons
(1 or 2) more or less united, orifices usually plain; gills 2 on
each side, large unequal, united posteriorly; palpi lanceolate;
foot large, tongue-shaped.

All the shells of this family were formerly included in the
_genus Cyclas, a name now retained for the small species inha-
biting the rivers of the north temperate zone; the Cyrene are
found in warmer regions, on the shores of creeks and in brackish
water, where they are gregarious, burying vertically in the
mud, and often associated with members of marine genera.

| Cycias, Bruguiére.
Htymology, kuklas, orbicular.
Type, C. Cornea, Pl. XIX., Fig. 17.
Synonyms, Spherium, Scop. Pisum, Muhlf. (not L.) Mus-
eulium, Link.

462 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Shell thin, ventricose, nearly equilateral; cardinal teeth 2.1,
minute, laterals 1—1: 2—2, elongated, compressed.

Animal ovo-viviparous; siphons partly united, anal skortest,
orifices plain, gills very large, the outer smallest, with a dorsal
flap; palpi small and pointed.

The fry of Cyclas are hatched in the internal branchie, they
are few in number and very unequal in size; a full-grown
C. cornea has about 6 in each gill; the largest being 4 to 4+ the
length of the parent. The young Cyclades and Pisidia are very
active, climbing about submerged plants and often suspending
themselves by byssal threads; the stziated gills and pulsating
heart are easily seen through the shell.

Fig. 257. Pisidium amnicum, %, with its foot protruded.

Sub-genera, Pisidium, Pfr. P. amnicum, Pl. XIX., Fig. 18.
Shell inequilateral, anterior side longest; teeth stronger than in
Cyclas. Animal with a single, small, excurrent siphon ; bran-
chial and pedal orifices confluent.

Distribution, 60 species. United States, South America,
Greenland, Norway, Sicily, Algeria, Cape, India, Caspian,
Britain.

Fossil, 38 species. Wealden—. Europe.

CyRENA, Lamarck.

Etymology, Cyrene, a nymph.

Type, C. cyprinoides, Pl. XIX., Fig. 20.

Shell oval, strong, covered with thick, rough epidermis;
ligament thick and prominent; hinge-teeth 3.3, laterals 1—1
in each valve; pallial line shghtly sinuated.

Animal (of type) with the mantle open in front and below,
margins plain; siphons short, orifices fringed; gills unequal,
square in front, plaited, inner lamina free at base; palpi lanceo-
late; foot strong, tongue-shaped.

Sub-genera, Corbicula, Muhblf. . C. consobrina, Pl. XIX.,
Fig. 21. Shell orbicular, concentrically furrowed, epiderrfis
polished ; lateral teeth elongated, striated across.

CONCHIFERA. 466

Batissa, Gray. Anterior lateral teeth short; under ones long.
Velorita, Gray. Anterior laterals thick and triangular.
Distribution, 130 species. Tropical America (eastern), Egypt,
India, China, Australia, Pacific Islands. In the mud of rivers,
and in mangrove swamps, usually near the coast. C. consobrina
ranges from Egypt to Cashmere and China, and is found fossil
in the Pliocene formations of England,* Belgium, and Sicily.
Fossil, 105 species. Wealden—. LHurove, United States.

? CYRENOIDES, Joannis.

Synonym, Cyrenella, Desh,

Type, C. Duponti, Pl. XTX., Fig. 19.

Shell orbicular, ventricose, thin, eroded at the beaks; epi-
dermis dark olive; ligament external, prominent, elongated ;
cardinal teeth 3.2, the central tooth of the right valve bifid;
muscular impressions long, narrow; palliai line simple.

Animal with the mantle open in front and below, margin
simple, siphons short, united; palpi moderate, narrow; gills
very unequal, narrow, united behind ; foot cylindrical elongated.

Distribution, 4 species. River Senegal. The marine species
are Diplodonte.

Fossil, 1 species. Europe.

Famity XIII.—Cyprinipz.

Shell regular, equivalve, oval or elongated; valves close,
solid; epidermis thick and dark; ligament external, conspicu-
ous; cardinal teeth 1—3 in each valve, and usually a posterior
lateral tooth ; pedal scars close to, or confluent with, the
adductors; pallial line simple.

Animal with the mantle-lobes united posteriorly by a curtain,
pierced with two siphonal orifices; foot thick, tongue-shaped ;
gills 2 on each side, large, unequal, united behind, forming a
complete partition; palpi moderate, lanceolate.

One half the genera of this family are extinct, and the rest
(excepting Circe) were more abundant in former periods than at
the present time, Cyprina and Astarte are boreal forms; Circe
and Cardita abound in the Southern seas.

Cyprina, Lamarck.

Etymology, Kuprinos (from Kupris), related to Venus.
Type, C. Islandica, Pl. XTX., Fig. 22.

* Associated with the bones of Elephas meridionalis, Rhinoceros leptorhinus,
Mastodon Arvernensis, Hippopotamus major, ec.

464 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Synonym, Arctica, Schum.

Shell oval, large and strong, with usually an oblique line or
angle on the posterior side of each yalve; epidermis thick and
dark; ligament prominent, umbones oblique; no lunule;
cardinal teeth 2.2, laterals 0—1, 1—0; muscular impressions
oval, polished; pallial sinus obsolete.

Animal with the mantle open in front and below, margins
plain; siphonal orifices close together, fringed, slightly pro-
jecting; outer giils semilunar, inner truncated in front.

The principal hinge-tooth in the right valve of Cyprina
represents the second and third in Venus and Cytherea; the
second tooth of the left valve is consequently obsolete.

Distribution, C. Islandica ranges from Greenland and the
United States to the Icy Sea, Norway, and England; in 5—80
fathoms water. It occurs fossil in Sicily and Piedmont, but not
alive in the Mediterranean.

Fossil, 90 species. (D’Orbigny.) Muschelkalk—. Europe.

CrrcE, Schumacher.

Etymology, in Greek mythology a celebrated enchantress.

Example, C. corrugata, Pl. XX., Fig. 2.

Synonym, Paphia (undulata), Lamarck.*

Sheil sub-orbicular, compressed, thick, often sculptured with
diverging strie; umbones flat; lunule distinct; ligament
nearly concealed; margins smooth; hinge-teeth 3:3; laterals
obscure; pallial line entire.

Animal (of C. minima) with the mantle open, margins denti-
culate, siphonal orifices close together, scarcely projecting,
feieed foot large, heeled ; palpi ORE and narrow, Ranges
from 8—50 fathoms. (Forbes. )

Distribution, 40 species. Australia, India, Red Sea, Canaries,
Britain.

AsTARTE, Sowerby, 1816.

Synonym, Crassina, Lamarck. Tridonta, Schum. Goodall,
Turton.

Example, A. sulcata, Pl. XX,, Fig. 1. A. borealis, Fig. 258.
‘(Astarte, the Syrian Venus.)

Sheld sub-orbicular, compressed, thick, smooth or concen-

_ * This name was employed by Bolten, in 1798, for sp. of Veneride, and by Lamarck,
in 1801, for Venus divaricata, Chemn. (= Circe divaricata and Crassatella contraria),
and Mesodesma glabratum. In 1808, Fabricius adopted the name for a group of butter-
flies, in which sense it is now widely employed, having been abandoned by Lamarck in
his later works, and by all succeeding malacologists.

CONCHIFERA. 465

trically furrowed; lunule impressed; ligament external; epi-
dermis dark; hinge-teeth 2.2, the anterior tooth of the right
valve large and thick; anterior pedal scar distinct; pallial line
simple.

Animal with mantle open; margins plain or slightly fringed ;
siphonal orifices simple; foot moderate, tongue-shaped; lips
large, palpi lanceolate; gills nearly equal, united behind, and
attached to the siphonal band.

The animal of Astarte borealis is shown in Fig. 258; mantle-
margins free, plain, slightly cirrated in the branchial region ;
united posteriorly by the branchial septum, forming a single
excurrent orifice ; pedal muscles (p y’), distinct from adductors ;
gills flat, finely striated, destitute of internal partitions; outer

Fig. 258. Astarte boreahs, var. semi-sulcata, Leach, 3. Wellington Channel.

pill narrow, elliptical, with a simple margin ; inner gill grooved,
conducting to the mouth. !

Distribution, 20 species. Behring’s Straits, Wellington Chan-
nel, Kara Sea, Ochotsk, United States, Norway, Britain,
Canaries, Aigean (80—112 fathoms).

Fossil, 285 species. Carb.—. North and South America,
Europe, Thibet.

? Digitaria, Wood; Tellina digitaria, Lower Mediterranean.

Fossil, Pliocene, Britain.

Govupra, C. B. Adams.

Shell minute, triangular, furrowed: hinge like Asturte, with
lateral teeth; pallial line simple.
Distribution, 7 species. Panama, West Indies.
x3

=

466 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCAs

CRASSATELLA, Lamarck.

Synonyms, Ptychomya, Ag, Paphia (Lamarck, part) Roissy.
Type, C. ponderosa, Pl. XXI., Fig. 4. C. pulchra, Fig, 259.
Etymology, crassus, thick.

Shell solid, ventricose, attenuated behind, smooth or con-
centrically furrowed; lunule distinct; ligament internal ;
margin smooth or denticulated; pallial line simple; hinge-
teeth 1.2, striated, in front of cartilage pit; lateral teeth O—1,
1—0; adductor impressions deep, rounded; pedal small,
distinct.

Animal with mantle-lobes united only by the branchial
septum; inhalent margins cirrated; foot moderate, compressed,
triangular grooved; gills smooth, unequal, outer semi-lunar
inner widest in front; palpi triangular.

Fig. 259. Crassatella pulchra. Sandy Cape, J. B. Jukes.
Animal as seen on the removal of right valve, and portion of the mantle.
In Crassatella pulchra the animal is like Astarte ; foot lingui-
form, slightly grooved ; palpi short and broad, few-plaited ;

outer gill narrower in front. Rishi
Distribution, 34 species. Australia, New Zealand, Philippines,

India, West Africa, Canaries, Brazil.
Fossil, 64 species. Neocomian —. Patagonia, United States,

Europe.

TsocarpiA, Lamarck. Heart-cockle.

| Etymology, isos, like, cardia, the heart.
Type, I. cor. Pl. XX., Fig. 3.

CONCHIFERA. AGT

Synonyms, Glossus, Poli; Bucardium, Muhlfeldt; Pecchiolia,
Meneghini.

Shell cordate, ventricese; umbones distant, sub-spiral;
ligament external; hinge-teeth 2.2 ; laterals 1—1 in each valve,
the anterior sometimes obsolete.

Animal with the mantle open in front; foot triangular,
pointed, compressed; siphonal orifices close together, fringed;
palpi long and narrow; gills very large, nearly equal.

Fig. 260 sfsocardza core

The heart-cockle burrows in sand, by means of its foot (/),
leaying only the siphonal openings exposed. (Bulwer.)

Distribution, 5 species. Britain, Mediterranean, China, Japan.

Fossil, 90 species. Trias —. United States, Hurope, South
India.

The Isocardia-shaped fossils of the old rocks belong to the
genera Cardiomorpha and Tso-arca ; many of those in the
Oolites to Ceromya. Casts of true Jsocardie have only two
transverse dental folds between the beaks, and no longitudinal
furrows.

CYPRICARDIA, Lamarck.

Example, C. obesa, Pl. XX., Fig. 4. OC. rostrata, Fig. 261.

Synonyms, Trapezium, Humph. Libitina, Sch.

Shell oblong, with an oblique posterior ridge; umbones
anterior depressed; ligament external, in deep and narrow
grooves; cardinal teeth 2.2, laterals 1—1 in each valve, some-
times obscure; muscular impressions oval (of two elements) ;
pallial line simple.

468 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Animal (of C. solenoides) with mantle-lobes united, cirratel
behind ; pedal opening moderate; foot small, compressed, with
a large byssal pore near the heel; siphons short, conical, unequal,
cirrated externally ; orifices fringed; palpi small; gills unequal,
the outer narrower and shorter, deeply lamellated, united
posteriorly, the inner prolonged between the palpi.

Animal of Cypricardia rostrata, Lamarck, Philippines (Fig.

and covered with wrinkled epi-
: dermis ; siphonal orifices fringed;
= \= gills deeply plicated, anterior

)) part of the outer gill united to
the inner ; dorsal border narrow,
plaited ; adductor muscles of two
elements,

Distribution, 13 species. Red Sea, India, and Australia. In
crevices of rock and coral. _ .

Fossil, 60 species. Lower Silurian —. North America and
Europe. {

? Sub-genera. Coralliophaga, Bl. C. coralliophaga, Lamarck.
Shell long, cylindrical, thin, slightly gaping behind; hinge-
teeth 2.2, and a laminar posterior tooth; pallial line with a wide
and shallow sinus. Distribution, 5 species, Mediterranean, in
the burrows of the Lithodomus ; sometimes two or three dead
shells are found one within the other, besides the original owner
of the cell; South Sea.

? Cypricardites, Conrad (part). An. Geol. Rep., 1841. (San-
guinolites, M‘Coy.) Employed for Cypricardia-shaped shells. of
the paleeozoic rocks; some of them are more nearly related to
Modiola (vy. Modiolopsis, p. 422), but they bear no resemblance
to Sanguinolaria. ;

Gontophora, Phillips, 1848. Cypricardia cymbeeformis, Sby,
Upper Silurian, Britain (Mytilide ?).

Fig. 261. Cypricardia.

PLEUROPHORUS, King, 1848.

Type, P. costatus, Brown. Permian, England. (Pal. Trans.,
1850. Pl. XV., Figs. 13—20.)

Synonyms ? Cleidophorus, Hall (cast only). Unionites, Wissm.
? Mzeonia, Dana.

Shell oblong ; dorsal area defined by a line, or keel; umbones
anterior, depressed; hinge-teeth 2.2; laterals 1.1; elongated
posterior; anterior adductor impression deep, with a small pedal
scar close to it, and bounded posteriorly by a strong rib from the
hinge; pallial line simple.

300), with mantle-lobes united, ~

———————

CONCHIFERA. 469

? Sub-genus. Redonia, Rouault, Bull Soc. Geol., 8, 862. Shell
oval, tumid; hinge with cardinal and posterior teeth ; anterior
adductor bounded bya ridge. /ossil, Lower Silurian, Brittany,
Portugal. (Sharpe.)

Fossil, 5 species. Lower Silurian—Trias. United States,
Hurope, New South Wales, Tasmania.

? CARDILIA, Deshayes.

Type, C. semisulcata, Pl. XVIII., Fig. 18.

Synonym, Hemicyclonosta, Deshayes.

Shell oblong, ventricose, cordate; beaks prominent, sub-
Spiral; hinge with a small tooth and dental pit in each valve;
ligament partly internal contained in a spoon-shaped inflection ;
anterior muscular scar long, with a pedal scar above; posterior
adductor impression on a prominent sub-spiral plate; pallial

line simple.
Distribution, 2 species. Chinese Sea, Moluccas.
Fossil, 2 species. Hocene—. France, Piedmont.

MzGALODON, J. Sowerby.

Type, M. cucullatus, Pl. XTX., Fig. 19. (Megas, large, odous,
tooth.)

Shell oblong, smooth or keeled; ligament external; hinge-
teeth 1.2, thick; laterals 1.1, posterior; anterior adductor
impression deep, with a raised margin, and a small pedal scar
behind it.

In the typical species the beaks are sub-spiral, the lateral
teeth obscure, and the posterior adductors bounded by prominent
ridges.

Fossil, 14 species. Upper Silurian—Devonian. United States,
Europe. .

Sub-genera. ? Goldfussia (nautiloides), Castlenau. Umbones
spiral; anterior side concentrically furrowed; posterior side
with two oblique ridges. Fossil, Silurian, United States.

Megaloma (Canadensis), Hall, 1852. Upper Silurian, Canada.
Umbones very thick, hinge-teeth rugged, almost obliterated
with age; posterior lateral teeth 1.1; no muscular ridges.

Pacuypbomus (Morris), J. Sowerby.

Etymology, pachus, thick, domes, house.
Synonyms, Astartila, Dana. ?Cleobis (grandis), Dana.
P Pyramus (ellipticus), D. =Notomya, M‘Coy.

470 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

Type, P. globosus (Megadesmus), J. Sowerby, in Mitchell’s
Australia.

Shell oval, ventricose, very thick; ligament large, external ;
lunette more or less distinct; hinge-line sunk; teeth 1 or 2 (?)
in each valve ; adductor impressions deep; anterior pedal scar
distinct; pallial line broad and simple, or with a very shallow
sinus.

Fossil, 5 speeies. Devonian? New South Wales, Tasmania.

PACHYRISMA, Morris and Lycett.

Etymology, pachus, thick, ereisma, support.

Type, P. grande, Morrisand Lycett. Great Oolite (Bathonian),
Minchinhampton.

Shell cordate, with large sub-spiral beaks; valves very thick
near the umbones, obliquely keeled; hinge with one thick
conical tooth (behind the dental pit, in the right valve), a small
lateral tooth close to the deep and oval anterior adductor, and a
posterior lateral-tooth (or muscular lamina ?); hgamental plates
short and deep.

Opts, Defrance.

Example, O. lunulata, Pl. XTX., Fig. 24. (Opis, a name of
Artemis.)

Shell strong, ventricose, cordiform, obliquely keeled; beaks
prominent, incuryed, or sub-spiral; cardinal teeth 1.1; lunule
distinct.

Fossil, 42 species. Trias—Chalk. Europe.

CARDINIA, Agassiz.

Etymology, cardo-inis, a hinge.

Type, OC. Listeri, Pl. XTX., Fig. 23.

Synonyms, Thalassides, Berger, 1833 (no description). Sine-
muria, Christol. Pachyodon, Stutch. (not Meyer nor Schum).
Pronoe, Agassiz.

Shell oval or oblong, attenuated posteriorly, compressed,
strong, not pearly, marked by lines of growth; ligament
external; cardinal teeth obscure, laterals 1—0, 0—1, remote,
prominent; adductor impressions deep ; pallial line simple.

Fossil, 71 species. Silurian—Inferior Oolite. Europe; along
with marine shells.

Sub-genus ? Anthracosia, King, 1844; Unio sub-constrictus,
Sowerby. (Carbonicola, M‘Coy, 1856.) Upper Silurian—Carb.
40 species. They occur in the valuable layers of clay-ironstone
called ‘‘mussel-bands,” associated with Nawtili, Discine, &c.

CONCHIFERA. 471

In Derbyshire the mussel-band is wrought, like marble, into
vases.

? Myoconcua, J. Sowerby.

Type, M. crassa, Pl. XIX., Fig. 25, (Mya, mussel, concha,
shell.)

Shell oblong, thick, with nearly terminal depressed umbones ;
ligament external, supported by long, narrow, appressed plates ;
hinge thick, with an oblique tooth in the right valve; anterior
muscular impression round and deep, with a small pedal scar
behind it; posterior impression large, single; palliak line
simple.

This shell, which is not nacreous inside, is distinguished from
any of the Mytilide by the form of its liigamental plates and
muscular impressions; the hinge-tooth is usually overgrown
and nearly obliterated by the hinge-margin, asin aged examples
of Cardita orbicularis and Cypricardia vellicata.

Fossil, 26 species. Permian—Miocene. (D’Orb.) Europe.

Sub-genus. ? Hippopodium (ponderosum, Sowerby), Coneybeare.
Tias, Hurope. Shell oblong, thick, yentricose ; umbones large ;
ligament external; ventral margin sinuated; hinge with one
thick, oblique tooth in each valve, sometimes nearly obsolete ;
pallial line simple; anterior muscular scar deep. This shell
appears to be a ponderous form of Cypricardia or Cardita ; it is
a characteristic fossil of the English Lias, but only very aged
examples have been found.

Carpira, Bruguiére.

Synonyms, Mytilicardia and Cardiocardita (ajar), Bl. Arcinella,
Oken.

Type, ©. calyculata, Pl. XX., Fig. 5.

Hiymology, cardia, the heart.

Shell oblong, radiately ribbed; ligament external; margins
toothed; hinge-teeth 1.2, and an elongated posterior tooth;
pallial line simple; anterior pedal scar close to adductor.

Animal with the mantle-lobes free, except between the
siphonal orifices; branchial margin with conspicuous cirri : foot
rounded and grooved, spinning a byssus; labial palpi short,
triangular, plaited ; gills rounded in front, tapering behind, and
united together, the outer pair narrowest.

C. pectunculus, Bruguiére, (Mytilicardia, Blainville), has an
anterior tooth. C. concamerata, Bruguiére, found at the Cape,
has a remarkable cup-like inflection of the ventral margin ot
each valve. .

472 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Sub-genus. Venericardia, Lamarck. VY. ajar, Pl. XX., Fig. 6
Shell cordate, ventricose ; hinge without lateral teeth. Animal
locomotive, with a sickle-shaped foot like the cockles.

Distribution, 54 species. Chiefly in tropical seas, on rocky
bottoms and in shallow water; the Venericardie on coarse sand
and sandy mud. West Indies, United States, West Africa,
Mediterranean, Red Sea, India, China, Australia, New Zealand, -
Pacific, West America. O. borealis, Conrad, inhabits the sea of
Ochotsk; C. abyssicola, Hinds, ranges to 100 fathoms; (.
sguamosa, to 150 fathoms.

Fossil, 170 species. Trias—. United States, Patagonia
Europe, Southern India.

P VERTICORDIA, Searles Wood, 1844.

Synonyms, Hippagus, Philippi, not Lea. Trigonulina, D’Orb.
(Verticordia, a name of Venus.)

Type, V. cardiiformis (Wood, in Sby. Min. Con,.), Pl. XVIL.,
Fig. 26.

Shell sub-orbicular, with radiating ribs; beaks sub-spiral;
margins denticulated; interior brilliantly pearly ; right valve
with 1 prominent cardinal tooth; adductor scars 2, faint;
pallial line simple; ligament internal, oblique; epidermis dark
brown.

Distribution, 2 species. China Sea (Adams); Mediterranean ?
(Forbes. }

Fossil, ‘2 species. Miocene—. Britain, Sicily.

Hippagus isocardioides, Lea, 1833, Hocene, Alabama, is eden-
tulous. Trigonulina ornata, D’Orbigny, Jamaica, has hinge-
teeth 2.2; right valve with along posterior tooth. Epidermis
of large nucleated cells, as in T'rigoniade, to which family it
undoubtedly belong

SECTION 6.—SINU-PALLIALIA.
Respiratory siphons long ; pallial line sinwated.

FAmMIty XIV.—VENERIDZ.

Shell regular, closed, sub-orbicular, or oblong; lgament
external; hinge with usually 3 diverging teeth in each valve;
muscular impressions oval, polished ; pallial line sinuated.

Animal free, locomotive, rarely byssiferous or burrowing;
mantle with a rather large anterior opening; siphons unequal,
united more or less; foot linguiform, compressed, sometimes
grooved; palpi moderate, triangular, pointed ; branchiz large,
sub-quadrate, united posteriorly.

CONCHIFERA, 473

The shells of this tribe are remarkable for the elegance of
their forms and colours; they are frequently ornamented with
cheyron-shaped lines. Their texture is very hard, all traces of
structure being usually obliterated. The Veneride appeared first
in the Oolitic period, and have attained their greatest develop-
ment at the present time; they are found in all seas, but most
abundantly in the tropics. .

Venus, L.

Synonyms, Merceneria, Antigone, and Anomalocardia (flexuosa)
Schum, Chione, Megerle (not Scop.). Erycina (carioides),
Lamarck, 1818.

Type. N.papma, l.° Pl. XX., Fig. 7.

Shell thick, ovate, smooth, sulcated, or cancellated ; margins
minutely crenulated; cardinal teeth 3—3; pallial sinus small,
angular; ligament prominent; lunule distinct.

Animal with mantle-margins fringed ; siphons unequal, more
or less separate; branchial orifice sometimes doubly fringed,
the outer pinnate; anal orifice with a simple fringe and
tubular valve; foot tongue-shaped; palpi small, lanceolate.

V. textilis, and other elongated species, have a deep pallial
sinus; V. gemma (Totten) has a very deep angular sinus, like
Artemis; V. reticulata has bifid teeth, like Tapes; V. tridac-
noides, a fossil of the United States, has massive valves, ribbed
like the clam-shell. The North American Indians used to
make coinage (wampum) of the sea-worn fragments of Venus
mercenaria, by perforating and stringing them on leather
thongs.

Distribution, 176 species. World-wide. Low water—140
fathoms. V. astartoides, Behrings’ Sea. V. verrucosa, Britain,
Mediterranean, Senegal, Cape, Red Sea: Australia ?

Fossil, 200 species. Oolites—. Patagonia, United States,
Europe, India.

? Volupia rugosa. (Defrance, 1829.) Shell minute, Isocardia-
shaped, concentrically rubbed, with a large lunule. ocene,
Hauteville.

Saxidomus (Nuttalli), Conrad. Oval, solid, with tumid um-
bones; lunule 0; teeth 3—4, unequal, the central bifid;
pallial sinus large.

Distribution, 8 species. India, Australia, West America,

CYTHEREA, Lam.
Etymology, Cytherea, from Cythera, an Adgean island,

474 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Synonyms, Meretrix, Gray. Dione, Megerle. Cryptogramma,
Morch.

Examples, C. dione, Pl. XX., Fig. 8. C. chione, Fig. 14,
p- 26.

Shell like Venus; margins simple; hinge with 3 cardinal
teeth and an antenioe tooth a the lunule; pallial sinus
moderate, angular.

Animal with plain sateen ; siphons united half-way.

Distribution, same as Venus, Recent 113 species,

Fossil, 80 species.

MEROE, Schum.

Etymology, Meroé, an island of the Nile.

Synonyms, Cuneus (part) Megerle (not Da Costa). Sunetta,
Link.

Type, M. picta (=Venus Meroé, L. Donax, Deshayes).
PT XcXe ie 9.

Shell oval, compressed ; anterior side rather longest; hinge
with 3 cardinal teeth, and a long narrow anterior tooth; lunule
lanceolate ; ligament in a deep escutcheon.

Distribution, 11 species. Senegal, India, Japan, Australia,

TRIGONA, Muhlfeldt.

Etymology, trigonos, three-cornered.

Type, T. tripla, Pl. XX.) Fig. 10.

Shell trigonal, wedge-shaped, sub-equilateral; ligament short,
prominent ; cardinal teeth 3—4, anterior # remote; pallial
sinus rounded, horizontal.

Distribution, 28 species. West Indies, Mediterranean, Senegal,
Cape, India, West America.

Fossil, Miocene—. Bordeaux.

T. crassatelloides attains a diameter of 5 inches, and is very
ponderous.

Sub-genus, Grateloupia, Desm. G. irregularis, Pl. XX.,
Fie iit

Shell sub-equilateral, rounded in front, attenuated behind;
hinge with 1 anterior tooth, 3 cardinal teeth, and several small
posterior teeth; pallial sinus deep, oblique. fossil, 4 species.
Eocene—Miocene. United States, France. )

ARTEMIS, Poli.

Etymology, Artemis, in Greek mythology Diana.
Type, A. exoleta, Pl. XX., Fig. 12,
Synonym, Dosinia, Scopoli.

CONCHIFERA. 475

Shell orbicular, compressed, concentrically striated, pale
ligament sunk; lunule deep; hinge lke Cytherea; margins
even; pallial sinus deep, angular, ascending.

Animal with a large hatchet-shaped foot, projecting from the
ventral margin of the shell; mantle-margins slightly plaited ;
siphons united to their ends; orifices simple; palpi narrow.

Distribution, 100 species. Boreal—Tropical seas; low water
80 fathoms.

Fossil, 13 species. Carb—. United States, Hurope, South
India.

Sub-genera, Cyclina, Desh. VY. Sinensis, Chemn. Orbicular,
ventricose, margins crenulated, no lunule, sinus deep and
angular. Distribution, 10 species, Senegal, India, China,
Japan, West America. fossil, 1 species. Miocene, Bordeaux.

Clementia (papyracea) Gray. Thin, oval, white; lgament
semi-internal; posterior teeth bifid, sinus deep and angular.
Animal with long, united siphons, and a large crescentic foot,
similar to Artemis, Distribution, 6 species. Australia, Philip-
pines.

Lucinorsis, Forbes.

Synonyms, Dosinia, Gray, 1847 (not Scop.). Mysia, Gray,

1851 (not Leach). Cyclina, Gray, 1853 (not Desh.).

Type, Venus undata, Pennant, Pl. XX., Fig, 13. (Lucina
and opsis like.)

Shell lenticular, rather thin; right valve with 2 laminar,
diverging teeth, left with 3 teeth, the central bifid; muscular
impressions oval, polished; pallial sinus very deep, ascending,

Animal with mantle-margins plain; pedal opening con-
tracted; foot pointed, basal; siphons longer than the shell,
separate, divergent, with fringed orifices. (Clark.)

The type of this genus having been erroneously placed in
Cyclina by M. Deshayes, he has proposed a new genus (Lajon-
kairia) for L. decussata, Philippines, a fossil of the English
Pliocene, but still living in the Mediterranean.

Distribution, 10 species. North America, Norway, Britain.

Fossil, 3 species. Pliocene. Britain, Belgium.

TAPES, Mihlfeldt.
Synonyms, Paphia, Bolten, 1798. Pullastra,G. Sby. Omalia,
Ryck, 1856.
Example, T. pullastra, Pl. XX., Fig. 14. (Tapes, tapestry.)
Shell oblong, umbones anterior, margins smooth; teeth 3 in
each valve, more or less bifid; pallial sinus deep, rounded,

476 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Animal spinning a byssus; foot thick, lanceolate, grooved 3
mantle plain or finely fringed; freely open in front; siphons
moderate, separate half-way or throughout, orifices fringed,
anal cirri simple, branchial ramose; palpi long, triangular.

Distribution, 78 species. Norway, Britain, Black Sea, Senegal,
Brazil, India, China, New Zealand. Low water—100 fathoms.
(Beechy.)

Fossil, 6 species. Pliocene—. Britain, France, Belgium,
Italy.

The animal is eaten on the continental coasts; it buries in
the sand at low water, or hides in the crevices of rocks, and
roots of sea-weed.

VENERUPIS, Lamarck.

Etymology, Venus, and rupes, a rock.

Synonym, Gastrana, Schum.

Hixample, V. exotica, Pl. XX., Fig. 15.

Shell oblong, a little gaping posteriorly, radiately striated.
and ornamented with concentric lamelle; three small teeth in
each valve; one of them bifid; pallial smus moderately deep,
angular.

Animal with the mantle closed in front, pedal opening mode-
rate; siphons united half-way, and with a simple fringe and
tubular valve, branchial siphon doubly fringed, imner cirri
branching; palpi small and pointed.

Distribution, 19 species. Britain—Crimea; Canaries, India,
Tasmania, Kamtschatka, Behring’s Straits—Peru. In crevices
of rocks.

Fossil, Miocene—. United States, Europe.

PETRICOLA, Lamarck.

Etymology, petra, stone, colo, to inhabit.

Synonyms, Rupellaria, Bellevue; Choristodon, Jonas; Na-
ranio, Gray.

Type, P. lithophaga, Pl. XX., Fig. 16. P. pholadiformis,
PL axes her i.

Shell oval or elongated, thin, tumid, anterior side short;
hinge with 3 teeth in each valve, the external often obsolete ;

pallial sinus deep.
Animal with the mantle closed in front, much thickened and
recurved over the edges of the shell; pedal opening small ;
foot small, pointed, lanceolate; siphons partially separate,
orifices fringed, anal with a valve and simple cirri, branchial
cirri pinnate ; palpi small, triangular,

CONCHIFERA. 477

Distribution, 80 species. United States, France, Red Sea,
India, New Zealand, Pacific, West America (Sitka—Peru),
Burrows in limestone and mud.

Fossil, 20 species. Hocene—. United States, Hurope.

GLAUCOMYA (Bronn), Gray.

Synonym, Glauconome, Gray, 1829 (not Goldfuss; 1826).

Type, G. Sinensis, Pl. XX., Fig. 18. (Glaucos, sea-green,
mya, mussel.)

Shell oblong, thin; epidermis dark, greenish; ligament ex-
ternal; hinge with 3 teeth in each valve, one of them bifid;
pallial sinus very deep and angular.

Animal with a rather small, linguiform foot; pedal opening
moderate; siphons yery long, united, projecting far into the
branchial cavity when retracted, their ends separate and diverg-
ing; palpi large, sickle-shaped; gills long, rounded in front,
the outer shortest. .

Sub-genus. Toarysiphon, Benson. Differs from Glaucomya
in haying the siphons united up to the end.

Distribution, 12 species. Hmbouchures of rivers; China,
Philippines, Borneo, India.

Fossil, 2 species. Tertiary. Hurope.

Famity XV.—MAcTRIDA.

Shell equivalve, trigonal, close, or slightly gaping; ligament
(cartilage) internal, sometimes external, contained in a deep
triangular pit; epidermis thick; hinge with 2 diverging car-
dinal teeth, and usually with anterior and posterior laterals ;
pallial sinus short, rounded.

Animal with the mantle more or less open in front; siphonal
tubes united, orifices frmged; foot compressed; gills not pro-
longed into the branchial siphon.

Sections of the shell exhibit an indistinct cellular layer on the
external surface and a distinct layer of elongated shell. (Car-
penter.)

Mactra, L.

Etymology, mactra, a kneading trough. :

Synonyms, Trigonella, Da Costa (not L.), Schizodesma
(Spengleri), Spisula (solida), Mulinia (lateralis), Gray.

Type, M. stultorum, Pl. XXI., Fig. 1.

Shell nearly equilateral; anterior hinge-tooth A-shaped, with

478 MANUAL OF THE MOLIUSCA.

sometimes a small laminar tooth close to it; lateral teeth
doubled in the right valve.

Animal with the mantle open as far as the siphons, its
margins fringed; siphons united, fringed with simple cirri,
anal orifice with a tubular valve; foot large, linguiform,
heeled; palpi triangular, long, and pointed; outer gills
shortest. ;

The Mactras inhabit sandy coasts, where they bury just
beneath the surface ; the foot can be stretched out considerably,
and moved about like a finger, it is also used for leaping.
They are eaten by the star-fishes and whelks, and in the Isle
of Arran MW. subtruncata is collected at low water to feed pigs.
(Alder. )

Distribution, 125 species. All seas, especially within the
tropics ;—35 fathoms.

Fossil, 30 species. Lias—. United States, Europe, India.

? Sub-genera. Sowerbya, D’Orb. Isodonta, Buy. S. crassa,
Oxfordian, France. Cartilage-pit simply grooved ; it receives
a tooth of the opposite valve ; lateral teeth very large.

HARVELLA, Gray.

Lateral teeth small; shell cordate; thin; truncated pos-
teriorly, and obliquely striated; ligament external, separated
from the cartilage in the inner pit by a ridge; hinge teeth
small. .

Sub-genus, Mactrella, Gray. Mactrinula, Gray. Shell cor-
date, abruptly truncated behind; lateral teeth short. .

GNATHODON, Gray.

Etymology, gnathos, a jaw-bone, odus, a tooth.

Synonym, Rangia, Desm.

Type, G. cuneatus, Pl. XXI., Fig. 2.

Shell oval, ventricose; valves thick, smooth, eroded; epider=
mis olive; cartilage-pit central; hinge-teeth 2; laterals doubled
in the right valve, elongated, striated transversely ; pallial sinus
moderate.

Animal with the mantle freely open in front; margins plain ;
siphons short, partly united; foot very thick, tongue-shaped,
pointed; gills unequal, the outer short and narrow; palpi
large, triangular, pointed.

Distribution, 1 species. New Orleans. (3 other species? Ma-
vatlan, California; Moreton B. Australia. Petit.)

Fossil, 3 species. Chalk—. Petersburg, Virginia.

CONCHIFERA, 479

G. cuneatus was formally eaten by the Indians. At Mobile,
on the Gulf of Mexico, it is found im colonies along with Cyrena
Carolinensis, burrowing 2 inches deep in banks of mud; the
‘water is only brackish, though there is a tide of 3 feet. Banks
of dead shells, 3 or 4 feet thick, are found 20 miles inland:
Mobile is built on one of these shell-banks. The road from
New Orleans to Lake Pont-chartrain (6 miles) is made of
Gnathodon shells procured from the east end of the lake, where
there is a mound of them a mile long, 15 feet high, and 20—60
yards wide; in some places it is 20 feet above the level of the
lake. (Lyell.)

LUTRARIA, Lamarck. Oitter’s-shell.

Type; L. oblonga, Gmel. Pl. XXI., Fig. 3. (= L. solenoides,
Lamarck).

Shell oblong, gaping at both ends; cartilage-plate prominent,
with 1 or 2 small teeth in front of it, in each valve; pallial
sinus deep, horizontal.

Animal with closed mantle-lobes ; pedal opening moderate ;
foot rather large, compressed; siphons united, elongated, in-
vested with epidermis; palpi rather narrow, their margins
plain ; gills tapering to the mouth.

Distribution, 18 species. United States, Brazil, Britain, Medi-
terranean, Senegal, Cape, India, New Zealand, Sitka.

Fossil, 25 species. Carb.-—. United States, Hurope.

Resembles Mya; burying vertically in sand or mud, especially
of estuaries; low water, 12 fathoms. JZ. rugosa, found living
on the coasts of Portugal and Mogador, is fossil on the coast
of Sussex. (Dixon.) |

Sub-genus, Vaganella, Gray. Mantle sinus, large, round;
interior ridges, of which two diverge from the hinge to the
ventral edge.

ANATINELLA, G. Sowerby.

Type, A. candida, (Mya) Chemn. Pl. XXIII., Fig. 6.

Shell ovate, rounded in front, attenuated and truncated be-
hind ; cartilage in a prominent spoon-shaped process, with 2
small teeth in front; muscular impressions irregular, the
anterior elongated ; pallial line slightly truncated behind.

Mstribution, 3 species. Ceylon, Philippines; sands at low
water.

Famity XVI.—TELLINIDZ.

Shell free, compressed, usually closed and equivalye ; cardinal
teeth 2 at most, laterals 1—1, sometimes obsolete; muscular

480 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA¢

impressions rounded, polished; pallial sinus very large; liga-
ment on shortest side of the shell, sometimes internal. Struc-
ture obscurely prismatic-cellular; prisms fusiform, nearly
parallel with surface, radiating from the hinge in the outer
layer, transverse in the inner.

Animal with the mantle widely open in front, its margins
fringed ; foot tongue-shaped, compressed; siphons separate,
very long and slender; palpi large, triangular; gills united
posteriorly, unequal, the outer pair sometimes directed dorsally.

The Tellens are found in all seas, chiefly in the littoral and
laminarian zones; they frequent sandy bottoms, or sandy mud,
burying beneath the surface; a few species inhabit estuaries
and rivers. Their valves are often richly coloured and orna-
mented with finely sculptured lines.

TELLINA, L. Tellen.

Litymology, Telline, the Greek name for a kind of mussel.

Synonyms, Peroneea (part) Poli. Phylloda (foliacea), Omala
(planata) Schumacher. Psammotea (solidula) Turt. Arco-
pagia (crassa) Leach. Tellinodora, Morch.

Examples, T. Engua-felis, Pl. XXI., Fig. 5. T. carnaria,
Fig. 6.

Shell slightly inequivalve, compressed, rounded in front,
angular and slightly folded posteriorly, umbones sub-central ;
teeth 2.2, laterals 1—1, most distinct in the right valve ; pallial
sinus very wide and deep; ligament external, prominent.

Animal with slender, diverging siphons, twice as long as the
shell, their orifices plain ; foot broad, pointed, compressed ;
palpi very large, triangular ; gills small, soft and very minutely
striated, the other rudimental and directed dorsally.

Tellinides, Lamarck. T. planissima, Pl. XX1., Fig. 7. Valves
with no posterior fold; lateral teeth wanting.

T. carnaria (Strigilla, Turt.) has the ae obliquely sculp-
tured; 7’. fabula, Gron., has the right valve striated, the other
plain. TZ. Burneti, California, has the right valve flat; 7’. lunu-
lata, Pliocene, South Carolina, much resembling it in shape, has
the left valve flat.

Distribution, above 300 species. In all seas, especially the
Indian Ocean; most abuudant and highly coloured in the
tropics. Low water — Coral zone, 50 fathoms. Wellington
Channel; Kara Sea; Behring’s Straits; Baltic; Black Sea.

Fossil, 170 species. Oolites—. United States, South America

(Chiloe), Europe.

CONCHIFERA. 481

GASTRANA, Schumacher.

Synonyms, Fragilia, Desh. Diodonta, F. and H., not Schu-
macher. .

Type, Tellina fragilis, L. ‘Pl. XXI., Fig. 8.

Shell, equivalye, conyex, with squamose lines of growth;
cardinal teeth 2 in right valve, 1 bifid tooth in left; pallial sinus
deep and rounded; umbonal area punctate; ligament external.

Animal with the mantle open in front, its margins fringed;
siphons elongated, slender, separate, unequal, orifices with cirri;
foot small, compressed, linguiform; palpi large, triangular;
gills unequal, soft, finely striated.

Gastrana inhabits shallow water, boring in mud and clay, and
not travelling about like the Tellens.

- Distribution, 3 species. Norway, Britain, Mediterranean,
Black Sea, Senegal, Cape.
Fossil, Miocene—. Britain, France, Belgium.

CapsuLs, Schumacher.

Etymology; Dimin. of capsa, a box.
Synonyms, Capsa (part), Brug. 1791. Sanguinolaria, Lamarck,
1818, not 1801.

Type, C. rugosa, Pl. XX., Fig. 19. (= Venus deflorata,
Gmel). |
Shell oblong, ventricose, slightly gaping at each end ; radiately
striated ; cardinal teeth 2 in each valve, one of them bifid; liga-

ment external, large, prominent; siphonal inflection short.

Animal like Psammobia ; foot moderate; gills deeply plaited,
attenuated in front, outer small, dorsal border wide, fixed;
siphons moderate.

Distribution, 4 species. West Indies, Red Sea, India, China,
Australia.

Fossil, 20 species. Carb. —. United States, Europe. (D’Orb.)

QUENSTEDTIA, Morris and Lycett.

Hinge in left valve with obtuse, oblong, transverse teeth ;
pallial sinus small; ligament in a narrow groove; cardinal
teeth 0.1.

PSAMMOBIA, Lamarck. ‘Sunset-shell.

Eiymolegy, psammos, sand, bio, to live.
Y

482 | MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Synonyms, Psammotea (zonalis) Lamarck. Psammocola, Bt.
Gari, Schumacher. :

Fig. 262. Psammobia vespertina, Chemn, 3. Brit.

Example, P. Ferroénsis, Pl. XXI., Fig. 9. P. squamosa,
Pl, XX, Fig. 10° P. pallida, Fig. 263. Ps yespernmasn
Fig. 262.

Shell oblong, compressed, slightly gaping at both ends; hinge-
teeth {; ligament external, prominent; siphonal inflection
deep, in contact with the pallial line; epidermis often dark.

Fig. 263. Psammobia pallida, Desh. Red Sea. Left valve, part of the mantle, and
retractor of the siphons removed. Siphons much contracted; a, a, adductors,

Pp, P, pedal muscles.

Animal, mantle open, fringed; siphons verylong, slender,
nearly equal, longitudinally ciliated, orifices with 6—8 cirri; foot
large, tongue-shaped; palpi long, tapering; gills unequal,
recumbent, few plaited.

Distribution, 50 species. Norway, Britain, India, New Zea-
land, Pacific. Littoral — coralline zone, 100 fathoms. P. gari

is eaten in India.
Fossil, 55 species. Oolite? Hocene—. United. States, -

Kurope.
SANGUINOLARIA, Lamarck.

Name, from the type, Solen sanguinolentus, Chemn.
Synonyms, Soletellina (diphos), Bl. Lobaria, Schumacher.

Aulus, Oken.

$ AS hig fie Fi, win few ©

CONCHIFERA. 483

Example, S. livida, Pl. XXII., Fig: 1. 8. diphos, Fig. 2.
S. orbiculata, Fig. 3.

Shell oval, compressed, rounded in front, attenuated and
slightly gaping behind ; hinge-teeth 2, small; siphonal inflec-
tion yery deep, connected with the pallial hne; hgament ex-
ternal, on very prominent fulcra.

Animal, mantle open, fringed; siphons very long, branchial
largest orifices fringed; foot large, broadly tongue-shaped,
compressed ; palpilong pointed; gills recumbent, inner laminze
free, dorsal border wide.

Distribution, 20 species. West Indies, Red Sea, India, Mada-
gascar, Japan; Australia, Tasmania, Peru.

Fossil, 30 species. Hocene—. United States, Hurope.

SEMELE, Schumacher, 1817.

Etymology, Semele, in Greek myth. the mother of Bacchus.

Synonym, Amphidesma, Lamarck, 1818.*

Type, S. reticulata, Pl. X-XI., Fig. 11.

Shell rounded, sub-equilateral, beaks turned forwards; pos-
terior side slightly folded; hinge-teeth 2.2, laterals elongated,
distinct in the right valve; external ligament short, cartilage
internal, long, oblique; pallial sinus deep, rounded.

Distribution, 60 species. West Indies, Brazil, India, China,
Australia, Peru.

Fossil, 30 species. Hocene—. United States, Europe.

Sub-genera. Cumingia, G. Sowerby. C. lamellosa, Pl. X XI,
Fig. 12. Shell slightly attenuated and gaping behind, lamel-
lated concentrically ; cartilage-process prominent; pallial sinus
very wide. Distribution, 10 species. In sponges, sand, and
the fissures of rocks, — 7 fathoms. West Indies, India, Aus-
tralia, West America. Fossil, Miocene—. Wilmington, North
Caroling. . ;

Syndosmya, Recluz. Synonyms, Abra, Leach MS. Erycina
(part), Lamarck, 1805.¢ Type, S. Alba, Pl. XXI., Fig. 13.
Shell small, oval, white and shining; posterior side shortest;
umbones directed backwards ; cartilage-process oblique; hinge-
teeth minute or obsolete, laterals distinct; pallial sinus wide
and shallow. Animal with the mantle open, fringed; siphons

* The name Amphi-desma, as employed by Lamarck, included species of Semele,
Loripes, Syndosmya, Mesodesmu, Thracia, Lyonsia, and Kellia ; in addition to which
it has since been applied to some Oolitic Myacites.

7 The name Arycina was originally applied by Lamarck to a number of minute
fossil shells, including sp. of Syndosmya, Venus, Lucina, Tellina, Astarte, and Kellia.
In 1808 Fabricius employed it for a well-known group of insects.

yw 2

484 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

\

long, slender, diverging, anal shortest, orifices plain; foot
large, tongue-shaped, pointed; palpi triangular, nearly as large
as the gills; branchiz unequal, triangular. Distribution,
Norway, Britain, Mediterranean, Black Sea, India. The species
are few, and mostly boreal, ranging from the laminarian zone
to 180 fathoms. (Forbes.) They lve buried in sand and mud,
but when confined are able to creep up the sides of the vessel
with their foot. (Bouchard.) fossil, 6 species. Hocene—.
Britain, France.

Scrobicularia, Schumacher. Synonyms, Trigonella (part), Costa
(not L.), Ligula (part), Mont. ‘‘Le Lavignon”’ (Reaumur),
Cuv. lListera, Turt. (not R. Brown). Liutricola, Bl. Mac-
tromya, D’Orbigny (not Ag.) Type, 8. piperata (Belon), Gmelin,
Pl. XXI., Fig. 14. (See p. 60.) Shell oval, compressed, thin ;
sub-equilateral ; ligament external, slight; cartilage-pit
shallow, triangular; hinge-teeth small, 1 or 2 in each valve,
laterals obsolete ; pallial sinus wide and deep.

Animal with the mantle open, margins denticulated ; siphons
very long, slender, separate, orifices plain; foot large, tongue-
shaped, compressed ; palpi very large, triangular, gills minutely
striated, the outer pair directed dorsally. Lives buried, verti-
cally, in the mud of tidal estuaries, five or six inches deep.
(Montagu.) The siphons can be extended to five or six times
the length of the shell. (Deshayes.) The animal has a
peppery taste, but is sometimes eaten on the coasts of the
Mediterranean.

Distribution, 20 species. Norway, Britain, Mediterranean,
Senegal.

Fossil, 4 species. Tertiary. Europe.

MesopEsMA, Deshayes.

Etymology, meso, middle, desma, ligament.

Synonyms, Eryx, Sw. (not Daud.). Paphia (part), Lamarck,
1799 (see p. 464, note). Erycina (part), Lamarck, 1818 (not
Lamarck, 1805, nor Fabr., sinh ‘* Donacille,”’? Lamarck, 1812
(not characterised)

Examples, M. glabratum, Pl. XXI., Fig. 15. M. donacium,
Fig. 16.

Shell trigonal, thick, compressed, closed ; ligament internal,
in a deep central pit; a minute anterior hinge-tooth, and 1—1
lateral teeth in each valve; muscular scars deep; pallial sinus
small.

Animal with mantle- margins plain ; siphons short, thick, and

CONCHIFERA. 485

separate, orifices cirrated, branchial cirri dendritic; foot com-
pressed, broadly lanceolate; gills large, unequal; palpi small.

Sub-genus. Anapa, Gray. A. Smithu, Pl. XXI., Fig. 17.
Umbones anterior, siphonal inflection obsolete.

Ceronia, Gray. Lateral teeth marked with coarse oblique
striee.

? Davila, Gray. Laterals unequal; anterior teeth small and
erect.

Distribution, 31 species. West Indies, Mediterranean, Crimea,
India, New Zealand, Chili; sands at low water.
_ Fossil, 7 species. Neocomian—. United States, Europe.
(Donacilla, D’ Orbigny.)

ERvILtA, Turton. Lentil-shell.

Etymology, ervilia, diminutive of ervwm, the bitter-vetch.

Type, KH. nitens, Pl, X X1., Fig. 18.

Shell minute, oval, close ; cartilage in a central pit; night
valve with a single prominent tooth in front and an obscure
tooth behind ; left valve with 2 obscure teeth; no lateral teeth;
pallial sinus deep.

Distribution, 2 species. West Indies, Britain, Canaries,
Mediterranean, Red Sea. —250 fathoms.

Donax, L. Wedge-shell.

Hxample, D. denticulatus, Pl. XXI., Fig. 19.

Ltymology, donax, a sea-fish. (Pliny.)

Synonyms, Chione, Scop. Cuneus, Da Costa. Capisterium,
Meuschen.* lLatona and Hecuba, Schum. LEHgeria, Lea (not
Roissy).

Sheli trigonal, wedge-like, closed; front produced, rounded ;
posterior side short, straight; margins usually crenulated ;
hinge-teeth 2.2; laterals 1—1 in each valve ; ligament external,
prominent; pallial sinus deep, horizontal.

Animal with the mantle fringed; siphons short and thick,
diverging, anal orifice denticulated, branchial with pinnate
cirri; foot very large, pointed, sharp-edged, projected quite in
front; gills ample, recumbent, outer shortest; palpi small,
pointed.

_ Distribution, 68 species. Norway, Baltic, — Black Sea, alk
tropical seas. In sands near low-water mark (—8 Lars)
buried an inch or two beneath the surface.

Fossil, 45 species. Carb.—. United States, Europe.

* Meuschen was a Dutch auctioneer; the names occur in his “sale catalogues.”
Adiste imposuere nomina absurda. Linneus.

486 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Sub-genera. ? Amphichena, Phil. A. Kindermanni, California.
Shell oblong, nearly equilateral, gaping at each end; teeth 3;
ligament external, pallial line sinuated.

Iphigenia, Schum. (Capsa, Lam., 1818, not 1891. Donacina,
Fér.) I. Brasiliensis, Pl. XXI., Fig. 20. Shell nearly equi-
lateral, smooth; hinge-teeth 2.2, one bifid, the other minute;
laterals remote, obsolete in the left valve; margins smooth.
Distribution, 5 species. West Indies, Brazil, West Africa, Pacific,
Central America. Inhabits estuaries. J. ventricose, Deshayes,
is rayed like Galatea, and has its beaks eroded.

? Isodonta (Deshayesii). Buy. Bull. Soc. Geol. Oolite.
France, England.

GALATEA, Bruguieére.

Synonyms, Egeria, Roissy. Potamophila, Sowerby. Mega-
desma, Bowdich.

Type, G. reclusa, Pl. XXI., Fig. 21.

Shell very thick, trigonal, wedge-shaped ; epidermis smooth,
olive ; umbones eroded ; hinge thick, teeth 1.2, laterals indis-
tinct; hgament external, prominent; pallial sinus distinct.

Animal with the mantle open in front; siphons moderate,
with 6—S lines of cilia, orifices fringed ; foot large, compressed ;
palpi long, triangular; gills unequal, united to the base of the
siphons, the external pair divided into two nearly equal areas
by a longitudinal furrow, indicating their line of attach-
ment. |

Distribution, 6 or 7 species? Nile, and rivers of West Africa.

Famity XVII.—SoLENIDz.

Shell elongated, gaping at the ends; lgament external;
hinge-teeth usually 2.3, compressed, the posterior bifid. External
shell layer with definite cell-structure, consisting of long prisms,
yery oblique to the surface, and exhibiting nuclei; inner layer
nearly homogeneous.

Animal with a very large and powerful foot, more or less
cylindrical ; siphons short and united (in the typical Solens, with
long shells) or longer and partly separate (in the shorter and
more compressed genera); gills narrow, prolonged into the
branchial siphon.

SoueEn (Aristotle), L. Razor-fish.

Type, S. siliqua, Pl. XXII., Fig. 4,

CONCHIFERA: 487

Synonyms, Hypogeea, Poli. Vagina, Megerle. Ensis, Schum.
Ensatella, Sw.

Shell very long’, sub-cylindrical, straight, or slightly recurved,
margins parallel, ends gaping; beaks terminal, or sub-central ;

Fig. 264. Solen siliqua, L. 4+; the valves forcibly opened, and mantle divided as far as
the ventral foramen, to show the foot.

hinge-teeth 2%; ligament long, external; anterior muscular
impression elongated; posterior oblong; pallial line extending
beyond the adductors; sinus short and square.

Animal with the mantle closed except at the front end, and a
minute ventral opening; siphons short, united, fringed; palpi
broadly triangular ; foot cylindrical, obtuse.

Distribution, 23 species. World-wide except Arctic seas ;—
100 fathoms.

Fossil, 40 species. Carb.—. United States, Europe.

The Razor-fishes live buried vertically in the sand, at extreme
low water, their position being only indicated by an orifice like
a key-hole; when the tide goes out they sink deeper, often
penetrating to a depth of one or two feet. They never volun-
tarily leave their burrows, but if taken out soon bury themselves
again. ‘They may be caught with a bent wire, and are excellent
articles of food when cooked. (Forbes.)

CULTELLUS, Schumacher.

Type, C. lacteus, Pl. XXII., Fig. 5.

Htymology, cultellus, a knife.

Shell elongated, compressed, rounded and gaping at the ends ;
hinge-teeth 2.3 ; beaks in front of the centre, supported inter-
nally by an oblique rib; pedal impression behind the umbonal
rib; posterior adductor trigonal; pallial line not prolonged behind
the posterior adductor; sinus short and square.

Animal (of C. Javanicus) with short, fringed siphons; gills
narrow, half as long as the shell, transversely plaited; palpi
large, angular, broadly attached; foot large, abruptly trun-
cated.

Distribution, 5 species. Africa, India, Nicobar.

Sub-genera. Ceratisolen, Forbes. (Polia, D’Orbigny. Pharus,

488 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Leach, MS. Solecurtoides, Desm.) OC. legumen, Pl. XXII,
Fig. 6. Shell narrow, sub-equilateral, anterior adductor impres-
sions elongated, a second pedal scar near the pallial sinus.
Animal with a long, truncated foot; siphons separate, diverg-
ing, fringed. Distribution, 1 species. Britain, Mediterranean,
Senegal, Red Sea. Jossil, 3 species. Pliocene—. Italy.

Machera, Gould. (Siliqua, Megerle. Leguminaria, Schum.)
M. polita, Pl. XXIT., Fig. 7. Shell smooth, oblong; epidermis
polished; umbonal rib extending across the interior of the
valve; pallial sinus short. The animal, figured by Middendorff,
is similar to Solecurtus. Distribution, India, China, Ochotsk,
Oregon, Sitka, Behring’s Sea, Newfoundland. WM. costata,
Say, is often obtained from the maw of the cod-fish. Fossil, 4
species. Upper Greensand—. Britain, France.

Pharella, Gray. Shell nearly cylindrical ; anterior muscular
impression elongated.

SoLEcuRTUS, Blainville.

Hiymology, solen and, curtus, short.

Synonyms, Psammosolen, Risso. Macha, Oken. Suliquaria,
Schum. Tagelus, Gray.

Examples, 8. strigilatus, Pl. XXII., Fig. 8. 8. Caribzeus,
Pl. XXII, Fig. 9.

Shell elongated, rather ventricose, with sub-central beaks ;
margins sub-parallel; ends truncated, gaping ; ligament promi-
nent ; hinge-teeth 2; pallial sinus very deep, rounded ; posterior
adductor rounded.

Animal very large and thick, not entirely retractile within the
shell; mantle closed below; pedal orifice and foot large; palpi
triangular, narrow, lamellated inside; gills long and narrow,
outer much the shortest; siphons separate at the ends, united
and forming a thick mass at their bases; anal orifices plain,
branchial fringed.

The Solecurti bury deeply in sand or mud, usually beyond
low water, and are difficult to obtain alive. P. Caribeus occurs
in countless myriads in the bars of American rivers, and on the
coast of New Jersey in sand exposed at low water; by removing
three or four inches of sand its burrows may be discovered ;
they are vertical cylindrical cavities, 13 inches in diameter and
12 or more deep; the animal holds fast by the expanded end of
its foot.

Distribution, 25 species. United States, Britain, Mediterranean,
West Africa, Madeira.

Fossil, 30 species. Neocomian—. United States, Hurope.

- CONCHIFERA. x 489

Sub-genus. Novaculina, Benson. N. gangetica, Pl. XXII,
Fig. 10. Shell oblong, plain; epidermis thick and dull; pallial
sinus rather small; anterior pedal scar linear. J)istribution,
India, China. In the mud of river-estuaries.

Famity XVITI.—Myacipz.

Shell thick, strong and opaque; gaping posteriorly; pallial
line sinuated; epidermis wrinkled. Structure more or less
distinctly cellular, with dark nuclei near the outer surface;
cartilage process composed of radiated cells.

Animal with the mantle almost entirely closed; pedal aper-
ture and foot small; siphons united, partly or wholly retractile ;
branchiz two on each side, elongated.

Fig. 265. Mya truncata, L. 4. Brit. (after Forbes.)

Mya, L. Gaper.

Hiymology, myac (-acis), a mussel. (Pliny.)

Synonym, Platyodon, Conrad.

Types, M. truncata, Pl. XXIII., Fig. 1. M. Arenaria,
Fig. 207, p. 396.

Shell oblong, inequivalve, gaping at the ends; left valve
smallest, with a large flattened cartilage process; pallial sinus
large.

Animal with a small straight linguiform foot; siphons com-
bined, covered with epidermis, partially retractile; orifices
fringed, the branchial opening with an inner series of large
tentacular filaments; gills not prolonged into the siphon; palpi
_ elongated, free.

M. anatina, Chemn. (Tugonia, Gray), West coast of Africa;
' posterior side extremely truncated ; similar cartilage-processes
in each valve. ossil, Miocene; Dax, and the Morea

Distribution, 10 species. Northern Seas, West Africa, Philip~
pines, Australia, California. The Myas frequent soft bottoms,
especially the sandy and gravelly mud of river-mouths; they
range from low water to 25 fathoms, rarely to 100 or 148

Y3

490 % MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

fathoms. Jf. arenaria burrows a foot deep; this speciesand 2,
- truncata are found throughout the northern and Arctic seas,
_ from Ochotsk and Sitka to the Russian Ice-meer, the Baltic,
and British coast; in the Mediterranean they are only found
fossil. They are eaten in Zetland and North America, and are
excellent articles of food. In Greenland they are sought after
by the walrus, the Arctic fox, and birds. (0. Fabricius.)

Fossil, 17 species. Pliocene—. United States, Britain, Sicily.
Most of the fossil ‘“Myas” have an external ligament, and are
related either to Panopea or Pholademya.

CorrRULA, Bruguiére.

Etymology, corbula, a little basket.

Type, C. sulcata, Pl. XXITI., Fig. 2.

Synonyms, Erodona, Daud. (=Pacyodon, Beck.) Agina,
Turt.

Shell thick, inequivalve, gibbose, closed, produced posteriorly ;
nght valve with a prominent tooth in front of the cartilage pit ;
left valve smaller, with a projecting cartilage process; pallial
sinus slight; pedal scars distinct from the adductor impressions.

Animal with very short, united siphons; orifices fringed ;
anal valye tubular; foot thick and pointed; palpi moderate ;
gills 2 on each side, obscurely striated. |

Distribution, 66 species. United States, Norway, Britain,
Mediterranean, West Africa, China. Inhabits sandy bottoms;
lower laminarian zone—80 fathoms.

Fossil, 120 species. Inferior Oolite—. United States, Hurope,
India.

The external shell-layer consists of fusiform cells; the inner’
is homogeneous and adheres so slightly to the outer layer, that
it is very frequently detached in fossil specimens. Corbulomya,
Nyst (C. complanata, Sby.), Crag., Britain.

Sub-genera, Potamomya, J. Sowerby. P. gregaria, Hocene,
Isle of Wight. Cartilage process broad and spatulate, received
between two obscure teeth in the right valve. The estuary
Oorbule differ very little from the marine species. P. labiata
(Azara, D’Orbigny), Pl. XXIII., Fig. 3, lives buried in the
mud of the River Plata, but not above Buenos Ayres, and con-
sequently in water which is very little influenced by the
superficial ebb of the river. The same species is found in banks
widely dispersed over the Pampas near San Pedro, and many’
places in the Argentine Republic, five yards above the river
Parana. (Darwin.)

Sphenia, Turt. §S. Binghami, Pl. XXIII., Fig. 4. Shell

CONCHIFERA. 491

oblong; right valve with a curved, conic tooth in front of the
oblique, sub-trigonal cartilage-pit. Animal with thick united
siphons, fringed at the end, anal valve conspicuous ; foot finger-
like, with a byssal groove. Distribution, 2 species. Britain, .
France. Burrowing in oyster-shells and limestone, in 10—25
fathoms. fossil, 20 species. Tertiary. Europe.

NERA, Gray.

Etymology, Necera, a Roman lady’s name.

Type, N. caspidata, Pl. XXTII., Fig. 5.

Synonym, Cuspidaria, Nardo.

Shell globular, attenuated, and gaping behind ; right valve a
little the smallest; umbones strengthened internally by a rib
on the posterior side; cartilage process spatulate, in each valve
(furnished with a movable ossicle,—Deshayes), with an obsolete
tooth in front, and a posterior lateral tooth; pallial sinus very
shallow.

Animal with the mantle closed ; foot lanceolate ; siphons short,

united, branchial largest, anal with a membranous valve, both
with a few long, lateral cirri.
_ Distribution, 22 species. Norway, Britain, Mediterranean,
Canaries, Madeira, China, Moluccas, New Guinea, Chili. From
12—200 fathoms.

Fossil, 14 species. Oolite—. Britain, Belgium, Italy.

Fig. 266. Thetis, minor, Sby. Neocomian, I. Wight.

THETIS, Sowerby.

Litymology, Thetis, in Greek mythology, a sea-nymph.

Synonyms, Poromya (anatinoides), Forbes. Embla (Korenii),
Lovén ? Inoceramus (impressus), D’Orb? Corbula (gigantea),
Sby.

Type, T. minor, Fig. 266. T. hyalina, Pl. XXTII., Fig. 11.

Shell sub-orbicular, ventricose, thin, translucent, surface
regularly granulated, interior slightly nacreous; ligament (/)

492 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

external; hinge-teeth 1 or 2; umbones strengthened inside by
a posterior lamina; adductor (a, a’) and pedal impressions (p)
separate, slightly impressed, posterior adductor bordered by a
ridge; pallial line nearly simple, sub-marginal.

Animal with short siphons, the branchial largest, surrounded
at their base by 18-20 tentacles, generally reflected on the
shell; mantle open in front; foot long, narrow, and slender.
(M‘Andrew.)

Distribution, 5 species. Norway, Britain, Mediterranean,
Madeira, Borneo, China. 40—150 fathoms.

Fossil, 17 species. Neocomian—. Britain, Belgium, France,
South India.

Sub-genus? Hucharis, Recluz; Corbula quadrata, Hinds,
Guadaloupe. Shell equivalve, obliquely keeled, gaping; beaks
anterior; hinge-teeth 1—1; ligament external; pallial line
simple; surface granulated.

PaNnopma, Menard de la Groye.

Etymology, Panope, a Nereid.

Example, P. Americana, Pl. XXII., Fig. 12.

Synonym? Pachymya (gigas), Sby. Upper Greensand.
Britain, France.

Type, P. glycimeris. Fig, 267.

Shell equivalve, thick, oblong, gaping at each end; ligament
external, on prominent ridges; 1 prominent tooth in each valve;
pallial sinus deep.

Animal with very long, united siphons, invested with thick,
wrinkled epidermis; pedal orifice small, foot short, thick, and
grooyed below; gills long and narrow, extending far into the
branchial siphon, the outer pair much narrower than the inner,
faintly pectinated ; palpi long, pointed, and striated.

In P. Norvegica the pallial line is broken up into a few
scattered spots, as m Sawicava; the animal itself is like a
gigantic Saxicaya. (Hancock.) This species ranges from
Ochotsk to the White Sea, Norway, and North Britain; it was
formerly an inhabitant of the Mediterranean, where it now
occurs fossil. (= P. Bivone, Philippi.) The British speci-
mens have been caught, accidentally, by the deep-water
fishing-hooks. P. Natalensis is found at Port Natal, buried
in the sand at low water; the projecting siphons first attracted
attention (doubtless by the strong jets of water they sent up
when molested), but the shells were only obtained by digging
to the depth of several feet. The Mediterranean ee: P.
g'ycimeris attains a length of 6 or 8 inches.

CONCHIFERA. 493

Fig. 267 represents the animal of Panopeea glycimeris, as
seen on the removal of the left valve and thin part of the

mantle. It was obtained on the
coast of Sicily, and presented to
the Gloucester Museum by Cap-
tain Guise.

Mantle and siphons covered
with thick, dark, wrinkled epi-
dermis; siphons united, thick,
contractile ; pedal orifice small,
in the middle of the anterior
gape; foot small (/), body oval
(0), with a prominent heel ;
pallial muscle (m) continuous ;
with aGeep siphonal inflection
(s); lips broad and plain, palpi
triangular, deeply plaited (¢);
gills unequal (much contracted
in spirit), reaching the com-
mencement of the siphons;
inner gills prolonged between
the palpi, plaits in pairs, each
lamina being composed of vas-
cular loops arranged side by
side; margin grooved, dorsal
border of inner lamina unat-
tached; outer gills shorter and
narrower, formed of a single
series of branchial loops placed
one behind the other, dorsal
border wide and fixed.

Distribution, 11 — species.
Northern Seas, Mediterranean,
Cape, Australia, New Zealand,
Patagonia. Low water — 90
fathoms.

Fossil, 140 species. Inferior
Oolite—. United States, Europe,
India.

Fig. 267. Panopea Glycumerss

The size of the original.
a, a’, adductor muscles; p, posterior pedal
muscle; 7, renal organ.

GLycIMERIS, Lamarck.

Etymology, glukus, sweet, meris, bitter.
Type, G. siliqua, Pl. XXII., Fig. 14 and Fig. 268.

Synonym, Cyrtodaria, Daud.

494 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCGA.

Shell oblong, gaping at each end; posterior side shortést;
ligament large and prominent; epidermis black, extending
beyond the margins; anterior muscular scar long, pallial im-
pression irregular, slightly sinuated.

Animal larger than its shell, sub-cylindrical ; mantle closed,
siphons united, protected by a thick envelope; orifices small ;

Mf

SQW

hy

Fig. 268. Glycimeris siliqua, Chemn. Newfoundland.
a a, adductor muscle; p, pedal muscle; s, siphonal muscle; f, foot; ¢, labial
tentacles ; g, gills, much contracted and crumpled.

pedal opening small anterior ; foot conical; palpi large, striated
inside, the posterior border plain; gills large, extending into
the branchial siphon.

Distribution, 2 species. Arctic Seas, Cape Parry, North
Western America, Newfoundland.

Fossil, Pliocene—. Britain, Belgium.

FAMILY X1X.—ANATINIDZ.

Shell often inequivalve, thin; interior nacreous; surface
granular; ligament external, thin; cartilage internal, placed
in corresponding pits and furnished with a free ossicle;
muscular impressions faint, the anterior elongated; pallia
line usually sinuated. !

Animal with mantle-margins united; siphons long, more or
less united, fringed; gills single on each side, the outer lamina
prolonged dorsally beyond the line of attachment.

Pholadomya and its fossil allies have an external ligament
only; has no ossicle. The external surface of these shells is
often rough with large calcareous cells, sometimes ranged in
lines, and covered by the epidermis; the outer layer consists of
polygonal cells, more or less sharply defined; the inner layer is
nacreous.

UONCHIFERA. 495

ANATINA, Lamarck. Lantern-shell.

_ Type, A. rostrata, Pl. XXIIT., Fig. 7. (Anatinus, pertain-
ing to a duck.)

Synonyms, Laternula, Bolten MS. Auriscalpium, Muhlf.
Osteodesma, Blainyille. Cyathodonta (undulata), Conrad ? West
America.

Shell oblong, ventricose, sub-equivalve, thin and translucent,
posterior side attenuated and gaping ; umbones fissured, directed
backwards, supported internally by an oblique plate; hinge
with a spoon-shaped cartilage process in each valve, furnished
in front with a transverse ossicle; pallial sinus wide and
shallow.

Animal with a closed mantle and long united siphons, clothed
with wrinkled epidermis; gills one on each side, thick, deeply
plaited ; palpi very long and narrow; pedal opening minute,
foot very small, compressed.

Distribution, 20 species. India, Philippines, New Zealand,
West America.

Fossil, 560 species. Devonian ?—Oolite—. United States,
Europe.

Sub-genera. Periploma (inequivalvis), Schum. ‘‘ Spoon-
hinge” of Petiver; oval, inequivalve, left valve deepest; pos-
terior side very short and contracted. Distrihutton, West Indies,
South America.

Cochlodesma, Couthouy. CO. preetenue, Pl. XXIII, Fig. 8.
(Bontia, Leach MS. Ligula, Mont., part.) Oblong, compressed,
thin, slightly inequivalve ; umbones fissured ; cartilage processes
prominent, ossicle minute; pallial sinus deep. Animal witha
broad, compressed foot; siphons long, slender, divided through-
out; gills one on each side, deeply plaited, divided by an oblique
furrow into two parts, the dorsal portion bemg narrower, com-
posed of a single lamina only, and attached by its whole inner
surface. (Hancock.) Distribution, 2 species. United States,
Britain, Mediterranean. fossil, Pliocene, Sicily.

Cercomya, Agassiz. C. undulata, Sowerby. (—Rhynchomya,
Agassiz.) Shell very thin, elongated, compressed, attenuated
posteriorly ; sides concentrically furrowed, umbones fissured,
posterior (cardinal) area more or less defined. fossil, 12 species.
Oolite—Neocomian. Europe.

Tract (Leach), Blainville.

Synonyms, Odoncinetus, Costa. Corimya, Agassiz. Rupiccla
(concentrica), Bellevue.

496 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA-

Type, T. pubescens, Pl. XXIII., Fig. 9.

Shell oblong, nearly equivalve, slightly compressed, attenuated
and gaping posteriorly, smooth, or minutely scabrous; cartilage
processes thick, not prominent, with a crescentic ossicle; pallial —
sinus shallow. Outer shell layer composed of distinct, nucleatza
cells.

Animal with the mantle closed; foot linguiform; siphons
rather long, separate, with fringed orifices; gills single, thick,
plaited; palpi narrow, pointed.

T. concentrica and J’. distorta, Mont., are found in the crevices
of rocks, and burrows of Saxicuva ; they have been mistaken
for boring-shells.

Distribution, 17 species. Greenland, United States, Norway,
Britain, Mediterranean, Canaries, China, Sooloo; 4—110
fathoms.

Fessil, 36 species. (Trias?) Lower Oolite—. United States,
Europe.

PHOLADOMYA, G. Sowerby.

Recent Type, P. candida. Pl. XXII., Fig. 15. - 1. Tortola.

Shell oblong, equivalve, veutricose, gaping behind; thin and
translucent, ornamented with radiating ribs on the sides; lga-
ment external; hinge with one obscure tooth in each valve;
pallial sinus large.

Animal with a single gill on each side, thick, finety plaited,
grooved along its free border, the outer lamina prolonged
dorsally ; mantle with a fourth (ventral) orifice. (Owen.)

Distribution, 1 species. Tropical Africa.

Fossil, 160 species. Lias—. United States, Kurope, Algeria, .
Thibet. |

Homomya (hortulana), Agassiz. Shell thick, concentrically
furrowed, without radiating ribs; 12 species. Oolites, Europe.

Tyleria, Adams. Cartilage inserted in a spoon-shaped hollow;
interior of shell with a layer of carbonate of lime between the
spoon-shaped hollow and the anterior edge.

Myacitss (Schlotheim), Bronn.

Synonyms, Myopsis (Jurassi), Agassiz. Pleuromya, Agassiz.
Arcomya (Helvetica), Agassiz. Mactromya (mactroides), Ag.
Anoplomya (lutraria), Krauss.

Example, M. sulcatus, Fleming. (Allorisma, King, Pal. Tr.,
1850, Pl. XX., Fig. 5.)

Shell oblong, ventricose, gaping, thin, often concentrically

CONCHIFERA. 497

furrowed; umbones anterior; surface granulated; ligament
external; hinge with an obscure tooth or edentulous; muscular
impressions faint; pallial line deeply sinuated.

Fossil, 50 species. Lower Silurian—Lower Chalk. United
States, Hurope, South Africa.

Sub-genera ? Goniomya, Agassiz. Mya literata, Pl. X-XIT.,
- Fig. 16. (Lysianassa, Minster, not M. Edwards.) Shell equi-
valve, thin, granulated; ligament external, short, prominent.
Fossil, 33 species. Upper Lias—Chalk, Hurope.

Tellinomya (nasuta), Hall; Silurian, United States, Hurope.
Not characterised.

? Grammysia, Verneuil. Nucula cingulata, His. Upper
Silurian, Europe. Valves with a strong transverse fold extend-
ing from the umbones to the middle of the ventral margin.

? Sedgwickia (corrugata), M‘Coy. = ? Leptodonus (senilis),
M‘Ooy.. Shell thin, ventricose, concentrically furrowed in
front ; escutcheon long and flat. Silurian—Carb. Hurope.

RIBEIRIA, Sharpe, 1853.

Sheli gaping at both ends; sub-ovate, rounded in front, elon-
gated and rather attenuated behind; punctate-striate ; casts of
interior with a large umbonal impression (caused by a cartilage-
plate, as in Lyonsia ?) and a notch in front of it.

fossil. Lower Silurian. Portugal.

CEROMYA, Agassiz.

tymology, keraos, horned, mya, mussel.

Type, C. concentrica (Isocardia) Sowerby, Min. Con. 491,
Hig. 1.

Shell Isocardia-shaped, slightly inequivalve? very thin,
granulated, often eccentrically furrowed; ligament external;
hinge edentulous; right valve with an internal lamina behind
the umbo ; pallial line scarcely sinuated ?

Fossil, 14 species. Inferior Oolite—-. Greensand? Hurore.

Sub-genus ? Gtresslya(sulcosa)Ag. (Amphidesma and Unio,
species, Philippi). Shell oval, rather compressed; umbones
anterior, incurved, not prominent; valves thin, close, smooth
or concentrically furrowed; pallial sinus deep. fossil, 50
species. Jias—Portlandian. Europe. The lamina within the
posterior hinge-margin of the right valve produces a furrow in
the casts, which are more common than specimens retaining the —

shell,

498 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

? CARDIOMORPHA, Koninck.

Type, C. oblonga (Isocardia), Sowerby (not Koninck). Car-
bonate of lime.

Shell Isocardia-shaped, smooth or concentrically furrowed,
umbones prominent, hinge edentulous; hinge-margin with a
narrow ligamental furrow, and an obscure internal cartilage
groove.

Fossil, 38 species. Lower Silurian—Carb. North America,
Europe.

EDMONDIA, KONINCK.

Example, HK. sulcata, Ph. (T. Pal. Soc. 1850, Pl. XX., Fig. 5.)
Carb. Britain.

Synonyms, Allorisma, King (part). Sanguinolites, M‘Coy
(part).

Shell oblong, equiyslve, thin, concentrically striated, close;
umbones anterior; lgamental grooves narrow, external ;
hinge-line thin, edentulous, furnished with large oblique
cartilage plates, placed beneath the umbones, and leaying space
for an ossicle? or the plate may be equivalent to the sub-um-
bonal blade in Pholas ; pallial line simple ?

Fossil, 4 species. tha. —Permian. Europe.

Sub-genus. Scaldia, Ryckholt, 1856. Carb. Tournay. Shell
like Edmondia, with a single cardinal tooth in each valve.

LyonstA, Turton, 1822 (not R. Brown).

Synonyms, Magdala, Leach, 1827. Myatella, Brown. Pan-
dorina, Scacchi.

Type, Li. Norvegica, Pl. XXIII., Fig. 10.

Shell nearly equivalve, left valve largest, thin, sub-nacreous,
close, truncated posteriorly; cartilage plates oblique, covered
by an oblong ossicle; pallial sinus obscure, angular. Struc-
ture intermediate between Pandora and Anatina ; outer layer
composed of definite polygonal cells. ,

Animal with the mantle closed; foot tongue-shaped, grooved,
byssiferous; siphons very short, united nearly throughout,
fringed; lips large, palpi narrow, triangular.

Distribution, 12 species. Greenland, North Sea, Norway,
West Indies, Madeira, India, Borneo, Philippines, Peru.

L. Norvegica ranges from Norway to the sea of Ochotsk; in
15—80 fathoms.

CONCHIFERA. 499

Fossil ? Miocene—. Europe. (100 species. Lower Silurian—.
D’Orbigny. )

? Entodesma (Chilensis), Phil. Shell thin, saxicava-shaped,
slightly inequivalve and gaping, covered with thick epidermis ;
hinge edentulous; each valve with a semicircular process con-
taining the cartilage.

PanporA (Solander), Bruguieére.

Type, P. rostrata, Pl, X-XII., Fig. 11. (Pandora, the Grecian
Hye.)

Shell inequivalve, thin, pearly inside; valves close, attenuated
behind; right valve flat, with a diverging ridge and cartilage
furrows; left valve convex, with two diverging grooves at the
hinge; pallial line slightly sinuated. Outer layer of regular,
vertical, prismatic cells, 250 times smaller than those of Pinna
(Fig. 217). (Carpenter.)

Animal with mantle closed, except a small opening for the
narrow, tongue-shaped foot; siphons very short, united nearly
throughout, ends diverging, fringed ; palpi triangular, narrow ;
gills plaited, one on each side, with a narrow dorsal border.

Distribution, 18 species. United States, Spitzbergen, Jersey,
Canaries, India, New Zealand, Panama; 4—110 fathoms, bur-
rowing in sand and mud.

Fossil, 14 species. Carb.—. United States, Britain.

MyYapora, Gray.

Type, M. brevis, Pl. X-XIII., Fig. 12.

Shell trigonal, rounded in front, attenuated and truncated
behind ; right valve convex, left flat; interior pearly ; cartilage
narrow, triangular, between two tooth-like ridges in the left
valve, with a free sickle-shaped ossicle; pallial line sinuated ;
structure like Anatina ; outer cells large, rather prismatic.

Distribution, 10 species. New Zealand, New South Wales,
Philippines.

Myocuama, Stutchbury.

Type, M. anomioides, Pl. XXIII., Fig. 13.

Shell inequivalve, attached by the dextral va.ve and modified
by form of surface of attachment; posterior side attenuated ;
left valve gibbose; cartilage internal, between two tooth-lke
projections in each valve, and furnished with a movable ossicle;
anterior muscular impression curved, posterior rounded, pallial
sinus small.

Animal with mantle-lobes united; pedal opening and siphons

506 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

surrounded by separate areas ; siphons distinct, unequal, small,
shightly fringed ; a minute fourth orifice close to the base of the
branchial siphon ; visceral mass large, foot small and conical ;
mouth rather large, upper lip hood-hke; palpi tapering, few-
plaited; gills one on each side, triangular, plaited, divided by
an oblique line into two portions; excurrent channe's four, two
at the base of the gills and two below the dorsal lamine.
(Hancock, An. Nat. Hist., 1853.)

Distribution, 5 species. New South Wales; attached to Crass-
atella and Trigonia, in 8 fathoms water; the fry (as indicated
by the umbones) is free, regular, and Myadora-shaped.

CHAMOSTREA, Roissy.

Type, C. albida, Pl. XXIII., Fig. 14.

Synonym, Cleidothzerus, Stutch.

Shell inequivalve, chama-shaped, solid, attached by the
anterior side of the deep and strongly-keeled dextral valve ;
umbones anterior, sub-spiral; left valve flat, with a conical
tooth in front of the cartilage ; cartilage internal, with an oblong,
curved ossicle; muscular impressions large and rugose, the
anterior very long and narrow; pallial line simple.

Animal with mantle-lobes united by their extreme edge
between the pedal orifice and siphons; pedal opening small,
with a minute ventral orifice behind it; siphons a little apart,
very short, denticulated; body oval, terminating in a small,
compressed foot; lips bilobed, palpi disunited, rather long and
obtusely pointed; gills one on each side, large, oval, deeply
plaited, prolonged in front between the palpi, united posteriorly;
each gill traversed by an oblique furrow, the dorsal portion con-
sisting of a single lamina with a free margin. (Hancock, An.
Nat. Hist., Feb., 1853.)

Distribution, 1 species. New South Wales.

FAMILY X X.—GASTROCHANIDA.

Shell equivalve, gaping; valves thin, edentulous, united by
a ligament, sometimes cemented to a shelly tube when adult;
adductor impressions 2, pallial line sinuated.

Animal elongated, truncated in front, produced behind into
two very long, united, contractile siphons, with cirrated orifices;
mantle-margins very thick in front, united, leaving a small
opening for the finger-like root; gills narrow, prolonged into
the branchial siphon.

The shell-fish of this family, the twhicalide of Lamarck, are

CONCHIFERA. 501

burrowet's in mud or stone: They are often gregarious, living
in myriads near low-water line, but are extracted from their
abodes with difficulty.

GASTROCHANA, Spengler, 1783.

Type, G. modiolina, Pl. XXIII., Fig. 15. (Guster, ventra',
cheena, gape.)

Shell regular, wedge-shaped, umbones anterior; gaping
widely in front, close behind; lgament narrow, external;
pallial sinus deep.

Animal with mantle closed, and thickened in front; foot
finger-like, grooved, sometimes byssiferous ; siphons long, sepa-
rate only at their extremities; lips simple, palpi sickle-shaped,
gills unequal, prolonged freely into the branchial siphon.

G. modiolina perforates shells and limestone; its holes are
regular, about 2 inches deep and 3 inch diameter ; the external
orifice is hour-glass shaped, and lined with a shelly layer which
projects slightly. When burrowing in oyster-shells it often
passes quite through into the ground below, and then completes
its abode by cementing such loose material as it finds into a
flask-shaped case, having its neck fixed in the oyster-shell; in
some fossil species the siphons were more separated, and the
flasks have two diverging necks. ‘The siphonal orifices are
rarely 4-lobed; Pl. XXIII., Fig. 15a.

Distribution, 10 species. West Indies, Britain, Canaries,
Mediterranean, Red Sea, India, Mauritius, Pacific Islands,
Gallapagos, Panama ;—30 fathoms.

Fossil, 20 species. Inf. Oolite—. United States, Europe.

Sub-genus. Cheena, Retz., 1788. C. mumia. Pl. XXIII.,
Fig. 16. (= Fistulana clava, Lam.), Shell. elongated, con-
- tained within a shelly tube; posterior adductor nearly central,
with a pedal scar in front; siphonal inflection angular, with
its apex joining the pallial line. Tube round, straight, taper-
ing upwards, transversely striated, closed at the lower end
when complete, and furnished with a perforated diaphragm
behind the valves. Distribution, 3 species. Madagascar,
India, Philippines, Australia; burrowing in sand or mu¢.
Fossil, Inf. Oolite—. United States, Europe, Southein
India.

SAXICAVA, Bellevue.

Etymology, saxwm, stone, cavo, to excavate. SS. rugoca,
PIOXXE., Fig. 13.

502 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Synonyms, Byssomya, Cuv. Rhomboides, Bl. Hiatella
(minuta), Daud., Biapholius, Leach. Arcinella (carinata), Phil.

Shell when young symmetrical, with 2 minute teeth in each
valve; adult rugose, toothless; oblong, equivalve, gaping,
ligament external; pallial line sinuated, not continuous.

Animal with mantle-lobes united and thickened in front ;
siphons large, united nearly to their ends, orifices fringed ;
pedal opening small, foot finger-like, with a byssal groove ;
palpi small, free; gills narrow, unequal, united behind and
prolonged into the branchial siphon.

Five genera and 15 species have been manufactured out of
varieties and conditions of this Protean shell. It is found in
crevices of rocks and corals, and amongst the roots of sea-weed,
or burrowing in limestone and shells; at Harwich it bores in
the cement stone (clay iron-stone), at Folkestone in the Kentish=
rag, and the Portland stone employed in the Plymouth Break-
water has been much wasted byit. Its crypts are sometimes
6 inches deep (Couch); they are not quite symmetrical, and
like those of the Lithedomus, are inclined at various angles, so
as to invade one another, the last comers cutting quite through
their neighbours; they are usually fixed by the byssus to a
small projection from the side of the cell. The Saxicava ranges
from low water to 140 fathoms; it is found in the Arctic
Seas, where it attains its largest size; in the Mediterranean,
at the Canaries, and the Cape. It occurs fossil in the Miocene
tertiary of Hurope and in the United States, and in all the
glacial deposits.

CLAVAGELLA, Lamarck.

Example, C. bacillaris, Pl. X XTIIL., Fig. 17.

Shell oblong, valves, flat, often irregular or rudimentary;
the left cemented to the side of the burrow, when adult, the
right always free; anterior muscular impression small, posterior
large, pallial line deeply sinuated. Tube cylindrical, more or
less elongated, sometimes divided by a longitudinal partition ;
often furnished with a succession of siphonal fringes above,
and terminating below in a disk, with a minute contral fissure,
and bordered with branching tubuli.

Animal with the mantle closed in front, except a minute slit
for the foot, and furnished with tentacular processes ;. palpi long
and slender; gills 2 on each side, elongated, narrow (floating
freely in the branchial siphon ?).

Some specimens of the recent C. aperta have 3 frills to their
tubes, C. bacillaris has twice that number occasionally. They

CONCHIFERA. 5038

are formed by the siphonal orifices when the animal continues
elongating, after having fixed its valve and ceased to burrow;
or perhaps, in some instances, when it is compelled to lengthen
its tubes upwards by the accumulation of sediment. Brocchi
mentions that on breaking the tube of the fossil C. echinata, he
sometimes found the shell of a Suwicava or Petricola beside the
loose valve of the Clavagella, into whose tube they.must have
entered after its death. 0. elongatw is found in coral; C.
australis lives at low tide, and spirts out water when alarmed.

Distribution, 6 species. Mediterranean, Australia, Pacific :—
11 fathoms.

Fossil, 14 species. U. Greensand—. Britain, Sicily,
Southern India.

ASPERGILLUM, Lam. Watering-pot shell.

Type, A. vaginiferum, Pl. X-XIII., Fig. 18.

Synonym, Clepsydra, Schum.

Shell small, equilateral, cemented to the lower end of a shelly
tube, the umbones alone visible externally; tube elongated,
closed below by a perforated disk with a minute central fissure ;
siphonal end plain or ornamented with (1—8) rufiles.

Animal elongated; mantle closed, thickened and fringed with
filaments in front; foot conical, anterior, opposed to a minute
slit in the mantle; palpi lanceolate; gills long, narrow, united
posteriorly, continued into and attached to the branchial siphon.

Distribution, 21 species. Red Sea, Java, Australia, New
Zealand ; in sand.

Fossil, 1 species. (A? Leognanum, Heening. Miocene, Bor-
deaux. )

HUMPHREYIA, Gray.

Shell developed in the substance of the siphons, which grow
with the ventral side uppermost.
Distribution, 1 species. South Sea.

Faminy X XI.—PHOLADIDA.

Shell gaping at both ends; thin, white, brittle, and exceedingly
hard; armed in front with rasp-like imbrications ; without hinge
or ligament, but often strengthened externally by accessory
valves; hinge-plate reflected over the umbones, and a long
curved muscular process beneath each; anterior muscular im-
pression on the hinge-plate; pallial sinus very deep.

Animal club-shaped, or worm-like; foot short and truncated ;

504 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

mantle closed in front, except the pedal orifice ; siphons large,
elongated, united nearly to their ends; orifices fringed; gills
narrow, prolonged into the exhalent siphon, attached through-
out, closing the branchial chamber; palpi long; anterior shell-
muscle acting as substitute for a hgament.

The Pholadide perforate all substances that are softer than
their own valves (p. 394) ;* the burrows of Pholas are vertical,
quite symmetrical, and seldom in contact. The ship-worms
(Teredines) also make symmetrical perforations, and however
tortuous and crowded never invade each other, guided either by
the sense of hearing or by the yielding of the wood. The burrow
has frequently a calcareous lining, within which the shell
remains free; Teredina cements its valves to this tube when
full-grown. The opening of the burrow, at first very minute,
may become enlarged progressively by the friction of the siphons,
Which are furnished with a rough epitheihum; but it usually
widens with much more rapidity by the wasting of the surface.
As the timber decomposes the shelly tubes of the Teredo project,
and as the beach wears away the pholas burrows deeper.

PHOLAS, L. Piddock. -

_ Hiymology, pholas, a.burrowing shell-fish, from pholeo, to
bore.

Synonyms, Dactylina, Gray. Barnea, Risso.

Type, P. dactylus, Fig. 269.

Example, P. Bakeri, Pl. XXIII., Fig. 19.

Shell elongated, cylindrical; dorsal margin protected by acces-
sory valves; pallial sinus reaching the centre of the shell.

Animal with a large truncated foot, filling the pedal opening;
body with a fin-like termination ; combined siphons large, cylin-
drical, with fringed orifices.

* M. Cailliaud has proved that these valves are quite equal to the work of boring in
limestone, by imitating the natural conditions as nearly as possible, and making such a
hole with them. Mr. Robertson also, has kept the living Pholades in blocks of chalk, by
the sea-side at Brighton, and has watched the progress of the work. They turn from
side to side, never going more than half round in their burrow, and cease to work ag
soon as the hole is deep enough to shelter them; the chalk powder is ejected at inter-
vals by spasmodic contractions from the branchial siphon, the space between the shell
and burrow being filled with this mud. (Journ. Conch., 1853, p. 311.) It is to be re-
marked that the condition of the Pholades is always related to the nature of the
material in which they are found burrowing; in soft sea-beds they attain the largest
size and greatest perfection; . whilst in hard, and especially gritty rock, they are
dwarted in size, and all prominent points and ridges appear worn by friction. No
notice has been taken of the hypothesis which ascribes the perforation of rocks, &c.,
to ciliary action, because, in fact, there is no current between the shell or siphons and
the wall of the tube.

————

CONCHIFERA. 505

The commun piddock is used for bait on the Deven coast; its
footis white and translucent when fresh, like a piece of ice; the
hyaline stylet (p. 22) lodged in it, is large and curious. P. costata
is sold in the market of Hayannah, where it is an article of
food.

P. dactylus has two accessory valves to protect the umbonal
muscle, with a small transverse plate behind; a long unsym-

Hie | 269. Pholas iene Chalk, Sussex Coast.
u, umbonal valves; p, post-umbonal valve; d, dorsal valve.

metrical plate fills up the space between the valves in the dorsal
region. P. candida and parva have a single umbonal shield,
and no dorsal plate; these differences are only of specific value.
In P. crispata, L. (Zirfeea, Leach), the umbonal shield is not dis-
tinctly calcified, but there is a small posterior plate; the surface
of the valves is divided into two areas by a transverse furrow

Distribution, 32 species. United States, Norway, Britain,
Western Africa, Mediterranean, Crimea, India, Australia, New
Zealand, Western America :—25 fathoms.

Fossil, 25 species.- (U. Lias—) Hocene—. United States,
Europe. The secondary species belong to the next group.

PHOLADIDEA, Turton, 1819.

Pype, P. papyracea, Pl. X XII1.; Fig. 20.

Shell globose-oblong, with a transverse furrow ; anterior gape
large, closed in the adult by a callous plate; 2 minute accessory
valves in front of the beaks.

Animal with a.fringed disk at the end of the combined siphons,
and a horny cup at their base.

Distribution, 7 species. Britain, New Zealand, Ecuador.
Low tides—10 fathoms.

Sub-genera, Martesia (Leach), Bl 1825. M. striata,
Pl. XXIII., Fig. 21. Valves lengthened behind, when full
grown, by a plain border; umbonal valves 1 or 2; dorsal and
ventral margins often with narrow accessory valves. 11 species.
West Indies, Africa, India. Jf. striata burrows in hard timber.

a

506 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

If. terediniformis was: found in cakes of floating wax on the
coast of Cuba. (G. B. Sby.) JZ. australis in (fossil F) resin, on
the coast of Austraha. JM. rivicola in timber twelve miles from
the sea, in Borneo. JM. scutata, Hocene, Paris, lines its burrow
with shell.

Jouannetia (semicaudata), Desm. (Pholadopsis, Conrad ;
Triomphalia, Sby.) Shell very short, sub-globose; right valve
longest behind; anterior opening closed by a callous plate deve-
loped from the left valve overlapping the margin of the right
valve, and fixed to the single unsymmetrical umbonal plate.
Distribution, 4 species. Philippines, Western America. /ossil,
Miocene —. France.

Parapholas, Conraé, P. bisulcata, Pl. XXTIT., Fig. 22. Valves
with 2 radiating furrows. Distribution, 4 species. Panama,
Torres Straits.

XYLOPHAGA, Turton.

Se, euion, wood, phago, to eat.

Types, X. incertae, Pl. XXII, Fig. 23; X. globosa, Sby.
Valparaiso. : .

Shell globular, with a transverse furrow; gaping in front,
closed behind; pedal processes short and curved; anterior
margins reflected, covered by 2 small accessory valves; burrow
oval, lined with shell.

Animal included within the valves, except the slerder con-
tractile siphons, which are furnished with pectinated oe and
divided at the end; foot thick, very extensile.

Distribution, 2 encemee. Norway, Britain, South ae
Bores an inch deep, and across the grain, in floating wood, and
timbers which are always covered by the sea.

TEREDO (Pliny), Adanson.

Type, 'T. Norvegica, Pl. XXIII., Figs. 26, 27.

Synonyms, Septaria, Lamarck. UHyperotis, Guettard. S

Shell, globular, open in front and behind, lodged at the inner
extremity of a burrow partly or entirely lined with shell; valves
3 lobed, concentrically striated, and with one transverse furrow ;
hinge-margins reflected in front marked by the anterior muscu-
lar impressions; umbonal cavity with a long curved muscular
process.

Animal worm-like ; mantle-lobes united, thickened in front,
with a minute pedal opening; foot sucker-like, with a foliaceous
border; viscera included in the valves, heart not pierced by the
intestine; mouth with palpi; gilly long, cord-like, extending

CONCHIFERA,. 507

into the siphonal tube; siphons very long, united nearly to the
end, attached at the bifurcation and furnished with 2 shelly
pallets or styles ; orifices fringed.

T. Navalis is ordinarily a foot long, sometimes 24 feet; it
destroys soft wood rapidly, and teak and oak do not escape; it

verry eV PEEP ay)

UE WAU pire ne
ncn!

LO yy RTL)

Fig. 270. Ship-worm, Teredo Worvegica, removed from its burrow.

always bores in the direction of the grain unless it meets the
tube of another Teredo, or a knot in the timber.* In 1731-2 it
did great damage to the piles in Holland, and caused still more
alarm ; metal sheathing and broad-headed iron nails haye been
found most effectual in protecting piers and ship-timbers. The
Teredo was first recognised as a bivalve mollusc by Sellius, who
wrote an elaborate treatise on the subject in 1733. (Forbes.)

T. corniformis, Lamarck, is found burrowing in the husks of
cocoa-nuts and other woody fruits floating in the tropical seas ;
its tubes are extremely crooked and contorted, for want of
space. The fossil wood and palm-fruits (Nipadites) of Sheppy
and Brabant are mined in the sameway. The tube of the giant
Teredo (7. arenaria, Rumph. Furcella, Lamarck) is often a yard
long and 2 inches in its greatest diameter; when broken across
it presents a radiating prismatic structure. The siphonal end
is divided lengthwise, and sometimes prolonged into two diverg-
ing tubes. 7’. Norvegica and 7. nana are divided longitudinally
and also concamerated by numerous, incomplete transverse
partitions at the posterior extremity.

T. palmulata (Xylotrya, Leach) has the siphonal pallets elon-
gated and penniform (Pl. XXIII., Fig. 28); a species with
similar styles occurs in the fossil wood of the Greensand of
Blackdown.

Distribution, 21 species. Norway, Britain, Black Sea; Tro-
pics :—119 fathoms.

Fossil, 24 species. LLias—. United States, Hurope.

Sub-genus. Teredina, Lamarck. T. personata, Pl. XXIIT.,
Figs. 24, 25. Eocene, Britain, France. Valves with an acces- '
sory plate in front of the umbones; free when young. The
tube is sometimes concamerated; its siphonal end is often
truncated ; and the opening contracted by a lining which makes
it hour-glass shaped, or six-lobed (Fig. 26 a.).

* The operations of the Teredo suggested to Mr. Brunel his method of tunnelling
the Thames,

INDEX.

The synonyms are printed in italics, and the pages where the genera are described ars

Abbreviations, 49.
Abra, 483.

Abralia, 171.
Acanthina, 223.
Acanthochites, *284.
Acanthodoris, 3 Bo2.
Acanthopleura, #283.
Acanthoteuthis, #175.
Acanthothyris, 375.
Acardo, 323, 454.
Acavus, *289.
Acephala, 5.

Acera, *316, 319.
Achatina, *292.
Achatinella, *292.
Acicula, *310.
Aciculide, *310.
Aclesia, *321.
Aclis, *240.
Acmea, #281.
_Acmaed, 311.
Acme, 3ll.

Acceli, *174.
_dcosted, 435.
_Acroculia, 277.
Acroloxus, 302.
_Acrotreta, #590.
Acte@on, 313, 339,
Acteonelia, *314,
Acteonia, *339.
Acteonina, #314,
Actinocamaz, 175.
Actinoceras, *191.
Actinoconchus, 373.
Actinocyclus, *329.
Actinodonta, 432.
Acuarii, #174.
Acus, 220.

Adacna, *454,
Adamsiella, #308.

Adductor impressions, 401.

Adelopneumona, 285.
Adeorbis, *266.
Admete, 55, *216.
Afgean Sea Shells, 67.
AMgirus, 327, *330,
AENIgMa, ae

Ev lide, *3

ZEolis, 328, —
ZEstivation, 13,
/Etheria, #435.
Affinities, 45.

indicated by an asterisk (*).

African region, 97.
Aganides, 196.
Agaronia, #227.
Agina, 490.
Alasmodon, 433.
Alcadia, #310.
Alcynus, 265.
Alderia, *338.
Aleutian province, 76.
Alexia, #305.
Alicula, 3516.
Allorisma, 496, 498.
Alvania, 240.
Amalthea, *278.
Amalthei, *193.
Amathina, *277.
Ambonychia, *417.
Amicula, 284.
Ammonites, 35, 37, *197.
Ammonitidee, #195.
Amnicola, *247.
Amoura, 239.
Amphibola, *259.
Amphibulima, 290.
Amphiceras, 234.
Amphichena, *486.

Amphidesma, 451, 483,

497.
Amphidonta, 407.
Amphipeplea, *301.
Amphisphyra, *317.
Amphorina, 335.
Ampulina, 236.
Ampullacera, 259.
Ampullaria, 14, 27, 52,

#208.

Ampuitina, 310.
Amusium, 411.
Amusium, #412.
Anadenus, *296.
Analogies, 45.
Anapa, *485.
Anastoma, *289.
Anatina, *495.

. Anatina, 431.

Anatinella, #479.
Anatinide, *494.

' Anatomus, 269.

Ancillaria, 24, *227.

Ancistrochirus, 171.

Ancistroteuthis, 171.
Ancula, 327, *331.

Anculotus, 247.
Ancyloceras, *200.
Ancylus, 287, #302.
Aneitea, *297.
Anisoceras, 200.
Annulati, *199.
Annulosa, 2.
Anodon, 30, *434.
Anolax, *220.
Anomalocardia, 424, 473.
Anomia, 19, *408.
Anoplomya, 496.
Anoplotheca, *379.
Anops, 342.
Anthracosia, *470.
Antigone, 473.
Antilles, shells of, 110.
Antiopa, *337.
Aperostoma, 308.
Aperture, 206.
Apex, 205.
Apnoceras, 193.
Apleza, 302.
Aploceras, 194.
Aplustrum, *318.
Aplysia, 11, 22, 23, 24,*320.
Aplysia, 321.
Aplysiadee, *3520.
Aporrhais, 211, *244.
Aptychus, 182.
Aquiferous system, 24.
Arabian shells, 98.
Aralo-Caspian prov., 68.
Arca, 80, 395, #424,
Arcadee, #424.
Architectoma, 253.
Arcinella, 437, 471, 502.
Arcomya, 497.
Arctica, 464,
Arctic province, 57—59.
Areopagia, 480.
Argentine region, 114.
Are ciope, *368.
Argonauta, 28, 31, 39, 56,
PGT oa
Argus, 411.
Arietes, *198.
Arion, #296.
Ariophanta, *290.
Armati, *198.
Artemis, *474.
Articulated operc., 208.

Ascoceras, 189.
Asiphonida, 406.
“Asolene, *259.
Aspergillum, 55, *503.
Assiminea, 256.
Astarte, 33, 55, *464,
_ Astartela, 469.
Asteronotus, *329.
Atagema, *329.
Athoracophorus, 297.
Athyris, *373.
Atlanta, 29, 341, *344.
Atlantide, *343.
Atlas, *320.
Atrypa, *378.
Aturia, *189.
Atys, 316.
Aucella, *416.
Aulonotreta, 392.
Aulopoma, 308.
_Aulosteges, #385.
Aulus, 482.
Auricelia, 805.
Auricula, *304.
Auriculide, 36, *303.
Auriscalpium, 495.
Australian region, 103.
Austraiian shells, 74,
Avellana, 314. =
Avicula, 80, *415.
Aviculide, *415.
Aviculo-pecten, *417,
Axinus, *431.
Axis of shell, 205.
Azara, 490..
Azeca, *292.
Azores, shells of the, 65, 94

Bachybathron, *225.
Bactrites, *197.
Baculites, *201.
Bakewellia, *418.
Balantium, 349.
Balea, *293.
Balearic Isles shells, 92,
Baphia, 433.
Barbatia, 424.
Barnea, 504.

Base of shell, 206.
Baiillus, 263.
Batissa, *463.
Bela, *229.
Belemnitella, *175.
Belemnites, *173.
Belemnitide, *173.
Belemnosepia, 168.
Belemnosis, *177.
Belemnoteuthis, *175,
Bellerophina, *345.
Bellerophon, *344,
Belopeltis, 168.
Beloptera, *177.
Belosepia, 177.
Beloteuthis, *168.
Berthella, 322.
Bezoardica, 224,
Biapholius, 502.
Bifrontia, *253.
Biradiolites, *448..

errr —

INDEX.

Birostrites, 447.
Bithynia, 33, *258.
Bittium, *242.
Black Sea shells, 67.
Body whorl, 206.
Bolitena, *166.
Bonellia, 240.
Bontia, 495.
Boreal province, 60, 61.
Boring, 394.
Bornean shells, 102.
Bornella, *333.
Bornia, 459.
Borsonia, *229.
Bostrychoteuthis, 165.
Bouchardia, *366.
Bourciera, 307.
Brachionobranchia, 5.
Brachiopoda, range in
time, 128
Brachiopoda shell, 32.
Brachychlamis, *332,
Brachydontes, 421.
Brachypus, 293.
Branchia, 26.
Brazil, shells of, 112.
Brocchia, 277.
Brochus, 249.
Broderipia, *267.
Brownia, *284,
Bucardium, 467.
Buccinanops, 220.
Buccinidee, *218.
Buccinulus, *318.
Buecinum, 55, *219.
Buchanania, *299,
Buckie, 218.
Bulimulus, *291.
Bulimus, 15, 32, 36, 37, 44,
111—118, *291.
Bulin, 301.
Bulinus, 291.
Bulla, *316.
Bulla, 315.
Bullea, 318,
Bullia, 220.
Bullide, *815.
Buillina, 317, 318.
Bullinula, 318.
Bursatella, 321.
Lusiris, *821.
T-ysso-anodonta, 434,
J'ysso-arca, 424,
Byssomya, 502. |
Byssus, 19,

Cecum, *249.

Calcar, 264.

Calearella, *284.
Calceola, *883.
Californian province, 78.
California, shells of, 109,
Callia, 309.

Calliopza, *336.
Callo-chiton, 283.
Callopoma, 263.

Calma, *337.

Calpurna, *234.
Calpurnus, 234,

Calypeopsis, *276,
Calyptreea, *276.
Calyptreeide, *275.
Camarophoria, *376.
Cameroceras, *191.
Camptoceras, *302.
Campulites, 194.
Campulote, 224,
Campyloceras, 194.
Canadian region, 106.
Canal, 206.
Canaliculati, *174.
Canary Isles shells. 65, 94
Cancellaria, 55, *216.
Canthiridus, 265.
Cape region, 97.
Cajyisterium, 485.
Caprella, 291.
Capricorni, *198.
Caprina, *450.
Caprinella, *448.
Caprinula, 448.
Caprotina, *451.
Capsa, 481, 486.
Capsula, *481.
Capulus, 277.
Carbonicola, 470.
Cardiade, *453.
Cardiapoda, *243.
Cardilia, *46y.
Cardinalia, 264.
Cardinal teeth, 401.
Cardiocardita, 471.
Cardinia, *470.
Cardiola, *417.
Cardiomorpha, 467, *498.
Cardissa, 454.
Cardita, *471.
Cardium, *453.
Carinaria, 9, 12, 29, 341,
*343,
Carinaroides, 343.
Carocolla, *289.
Carolia, *410.
Cartilage, 400.
Carychium, “308,
Casella, *332.
Cassiani, *199.
Cassidaria, *225.
‘assidula, 217, 304.
Cassis, 32, 38, *224.
Castalia, *434.
Catantostomata, *270.
Cataulus, *309.
Catillus, 419.
Cavolina, *335.
Cavolina, 348.
Celtic province, 61—63.
Cemoria, 274.
Cenia, *339.
Cepa, 408.
Cepatia, 285. .
Cephalopoda, 4, 27, 155.
Cephalopoda, range in
time, 127.
Ceratisolen, *487.
Ceratites, *197.
Ceratosoma, *331.
Cercomya, *495.

510

Ceriphasia, *247.
Cerithiadee, *242.
Cerithidea, 36, *243.
Cerithiopsis, *242
Cerithium, *242.
Cernina, *236.
Ceromya, 467, *497.
Ceronia, *485.
Cerophora, 342,
Ceylonese shells, 100.
Chena, *501.
Chalidis, 340.
Chama, 38, 131, *437.
Chamide, *437.
Chamostrea, *500.
Cheiroteuthis, *170.
Cheletropts, 212, 352.
Chelidonura, *319.
Chemnitzia, *239.
Chenopus, 245.
Chili, shells of, 114.
Chilinia, *3801.
Chilostoma, *247.
Chinese snails, 101.
Chione, 473, 485.
Chioreera, *338.
Chironia, 459.
Chiton, 23, 28, *282.
Chitonellus, *28+.
Chitonide, *282.
Chlorostoma, 264.
Choanopoma, *307, 308.
Chondropoma, 307.
Chondrosepia, 168.
Chonetes, *326.
Choristites, 371.
Choristodon, 476.
Chorus, 223.
Chromodoris, *329.
Chrysodomus, 55, *218.
Cilia, 42.
Cingula, 255.
Cinulia, *314.
Cionella, 292.
Circe, *464.
Circulatory system, Brach-
iopoda, 358.
Cirroteuthis, *165.
Cirrus, *271.
Cistopus, 163.
Cistula, *307.
Cithara, *229.
Clanculus, 265.
Classification, 45.
Clausilia, 37, 286, *294.
Clausina, 456.
Clavagella, *502.
Clavati, *174.
Clavatula, *229,
Clavella, *218.
Clea. 247.
Clerdophorus, 468.
Cleidotherus, 500.
Cleiothyris, 373, 378.
Clementia, *475.
Cleobis, 469.
Cleodora, 347, *349.
Clepsydra, 503.
Cliidze, *353.

INDEX.

Climate, inf. of,on dist.,53.
Clio, *353.
Clio, 349.
Cliodita, *353.
Cliona, 34.
Clone, 353.
Clionella, *229.
Clelia, 336.
Clymenia, *190.
Coccoteuthis, 168.
Cochkdium, 217.
Cochlitoma, 292.
Cochlodesma, *495.
Cochlodina, 294.
Cochlohydra, 290.
Codakia, 456.
Coelenterata, 2.
Coleoprion, *350.
Collar of mantle, 34.
Collecting shells, 136.
Collonia, *266.
Colour of shells, 38.
Columbella, 55, *226.
Colurhbian region, 111.
Columbinella, 227.
Columella, 205.
Columna, 292,
Colus, 218.
Cominella, 219.
Concentric operc., 207.
Conchifera, 5, 393.
Conchifera, range in time,
128.
Concholepas, *222.
Congeria, 423.
Conide, *228.
Conocardium, *454.
Conoceras, 190.
Conoheliz, 216.
Conorbis, 228.
Conoteuthis, *176.
Conotubularia, 192.
Conovulus, *304,
Conradia, *253.
Conularia, 2, 346, *350.
Conus, 12, 24, 32, 33, 36,
55, *228.
Coralline zone, 152.
Coralliophaga, *468.
Corbicula, *462.
Corbis, *457.
Corbula, 457, 490, 491.
Corbulomya, 490.
Corephium, 284.
Coret, 302.
Corimya, 495.
Coriocella, 237.
Corniculina, 249.
Coronati, *199.
Corsican snails, 92.
Coryphella, *335.
Couthouyia, *253.
Cranchia, *169.
Crania, 42, *386.
Craniadee, *386.
Craspedopoma, *309.
Crassatella, 55, *466,
Crassina, 464.
Crenatula, *418.

Crenella, 43, 55, *422.
Crepidula, *276.
Creseis, *349. -
Creseis, 350.
Crimora, *332.
Crioceras, *199.
Criopus, 386.
Cristati, *198.
Crossostoma, *266.
Crucibulum, *276.
Crypta, 277.
Cryptella, 297.
Cryptina, 431.
Cryptocella, *238,
Cryptoceras, *189.
Cryptochiton, 284.
Cryptoconchus, 284.
Cryptodon, *456.
Cryptogramma, 474.
Cryptophthalmus, *316.
Cryptostoma, 236.
Crystalline stylet, 22.
Ctenoconcha, 429.
Ctenodonta, 427.
Cucullea, *425.
Cucullella, *427,
Cultellus, *487.
Cuma, *222.
Cumingia, *483.
Cuneus, 474, 485.
Curtonotus, *431,
Curve of shells, 204.
Cuspidaria, 491.
Cuthonia, *337.
Cuittle fish, 8.
Cuvieria, *349.
Cyamium, *458.
Cyathodonta, 495.
Cycladide, *461.
Cycladina, 459.
Cyclas, 15, 29, 397, *461.
Cyclidia, 182.
Cyclina, *475.
Cycloceras, 190.
Cyclonassa, 221.
Cyclophorus, *308.
Cyclostoma, 266.
Cyclostoma, *306.
Cyctostomide, *306.
Cyclostrema, *266.
Cyclothyris, 375.
Cyclotopsis, 308.
Cyclotus, *308,
Cylichna, *317.
Cylindra, *231.
Cylindrella, 36,.*293.
Cylindrites, *313.
Cyllene, *221.
Cymba, 28, #231.
Cymba, 278.
Cymbiola, 230.
Cymbulia, *351.
Cymodocea, *354.
Cynodonta, 216.
Cypreea, 12, 24, 32; 55, 37,
55, *232.
Cyprecassis, 24a
Cypreeida, *23°.
Cypricardia, *463

Cypricardites, 422, 468.
Cyprina, 33, 55, *463.
Cyprinidee, *463.
Cyprovula, *233.
Cyrena, *462.
Cyrenella, 463.
Cyrenoides, *463.
Cyrtia, *372.
Cyrtoceras, *194,
Cyrtodaria, 493.
Cyrtolites, *345.
Cyrtulus, 218.
Cytherea, 473.

Dactylina, 504.
Dactylus, 313.
Daphnella, 229.
Daudebardia, *290.
-Dayidsonia, *382.
Davila, *485.
Decapoda, *166.
Decollated shells, 36, 206.
Defrancia, 229. ~
Delphinoidea, 256.
Delphinula, 266.
Delthyridea, 365.
Delthyris, 371.
Dendrodoris, 328.
Dendronotus, 827, *334.
Dendrostrea, 408.
Dentaliade, *282.
Dentalium, 27, *282.
Dentati, *198.
Dentition, 208.
Dentition formula, 401.
Deridobranchus, *268.
Dermi-branchiata, 339.
Deshayesia, *236.
Desmoulinsia, 221.
Development, 41, 287.
Diacria, 348.
Diadora, 274.
Dianchora, 414.
Diaphana, 317.
Dibaphus, *216.
Dibranchiata, *156.
Diceras, *439.
Dicelosia, 380.
Didacna, 454.
Digitaria, 465.
Dimya, 408.
Dimyary, 402.
Diodonta, 481.
Dione, 474.
Dicecious, 40. ‘
Diphyllidia, *325.
Dipilidia, 438.
Diploceras, 192.
Diplodonta, 455, *458.
Diplommatina, *309.
Disci, *198. 2
Discina, 357, *388,
Discinide, *388.
Discites, *189.
Disciées, 411.
Discohelix, 253.
Discosorus, *193.
Dispotea, 276.
Dithyra, 393.

INDEX.

Ditremaria, 271.
Dolabella, *321.
Dolabra, 431.
Dolabrifera, *521.
Dolium, 36, *225.
Dombeya, 301.
Donacilla, 485.
Donacina, 486.
Donax, *485.
Doride, *328.
Doridium, *319,
Doris, 14, 24, 327, *328.
Dorsanum., 220.
Dosidicus, *173.
Dosinia, 474, 475.
Doto, 334.
Dredging, 140.
Dressena, 37, *423,
Drillia, *229.

Eburna, *221.
Ecculiomphalus, *345.
Eichinospira, 285.
Edmondia, *498.
Hgeria, 485, 486.
Eggs, 40.

Eylusia, 248.
Fiidothea, 319.
fllasmatina, 294.
Electrina, 310.
Eledone, 27, *165.
Elenchus, 12, *265.
Elysia, *339.
Elysiade, *339.
Emarginula, *275.
Embla, 491.
Embletonia, *336.
Embryo, 44.
Encephala, 3.
Endemic species, 51.
Endoceras, *192.
Eindosiphonites, 190.
Enida, 265.
Enoplo-chiton, 284 .
Enoploteuthis, *171.
Ensatella, 487.
Ensis, 487.
Enieletes, 380.
Entodesma, *499.
Enzina, 214.

Eolis, 23, 40.
Epidermis, 33, 400.
Epiphragm, 288.

LH pithyris, 363.
Erato, *234.
Erodona, 490.
Ervilia, *485.
Erycina, 459, 473, 483, 484.
Eryx, 484.
Escutcheon, 400.
Fubranchus, 335.
Eucharis, *492.
Eudesia, 365.
Hulima, *240.
Eulimella, *239.
Foumenis, 334.
Euomphalus, 36, *267, 346.
FZuphemus, 344.
Euplocamus, 331.

Eurybia, *350.
Eurydesma, *417.
Eurydice, 338.
Huthria, 214.
Eutropia, 263.
Exogyra, *408.
Eyes, 16.

Facelina, *335.
Falciferi, *198.
Families, 46.
farcimen, 309.
Fasciolaria, *215.
Fastigiella, *244.
Faunus, 248.
Favorinus, *337.
Felania, 458.
Fenestrella, 408.
Ferussina, 308.
Fibrous shells, 31.
Ficula, 217.
Filurus, *387.
fimbria, 333, 457.
Fimbriati, *199.
Fiona, *336,
Firola, 9, 341, *342.
Firolidee, *342.
Firoloides, *342.
Fisstrostra, 365.

_ Fissurella, 27, *272.

Fissurellidee, *272.
Fissurellidxa, *273.
Fistulana, 35. 501.
Flabellina, *335.

Foed, 8, 9.

Formation of shells, 34,
Forms of shells, 36.
Fossarus, 131, *253
fragilia, 481.
Fryeria, *525.

Fucola, 339.

Fulgur, *217.

Funnel, 187.

Fusulus, 2938.

Fusus, 29, 35, 37, *218.
Frusus, 212.

Gadinia, *281.
Galapagos Islands, 112.
Galapagos Isles shells, £Q,
Galatea, *486.
Galeomma, *461.
Galerus, 276.
Galvina, *537.
Ganglia, 16.
Gari, 482.
Gasteropoda, 4.
Gasteropoda,
time, 128.
Gastrana, “481.
Gastrana, 476.
Gastridium, 219.
Gastrocheena, *501.
Gastrocheenidee, *5CC.
Gastroceeli, *174.
Gastroplaz, 323.
Gastropteron, *319
Gellina, 334
Gena, *267.

range in

512

Genera, 46, 52.
Generic areas, 52, 53.
Genetic aflinity, 45.
Geographical dist., 50.
Geological strata, 118.
Geomalacus, *296.
Geomelania, *311.
Geoteutisis, *168.
Geotrochus, *289.
Geovula, 304.
Germanic region, §9.
Gervillia, *418.
Gibbula, *265.
Gibbus, #291.
Gizzard, 22.
Glandina, 286, *292.
Glaucomya, *477.
Glauconella, 316.
Glauconome, 477.
Glaucus, *336.
Globiconcha, *314.
Globulus, #236.
Glossodoris, #329.
Glossus, 467.
Glottella, 247. ®
Glycimeris, 55, *493.
Gnathodon, *478.
Goldfussia, *469.
Gomphoceras, *195,.
Gonambonites, 380.
Gonatus, *168.
Goniatites, *196.
Gonioceras, 190.
Goniodoris, *3830.
Goniomya, *497.
Goniophora, 468.
Goodallia, 464.
Gouldia, *465.
Grammysia, *497.
Grateloupia, *474.
Gresslya, *497.
Growth of shell, 34.
Gryphea, 35, *408.
Gryphochiton, 284.
Gryphus, 363.
Guard, 173, 174.
Gulf-weed banks, 64.
Gundlachia, *303.
Gymnodoris, *332.
Gymnosomata, *333.
Gypidia, 377.

Halia, *220.
Haliotide, *268.
Haliotis, 24. 27, *268.
Halobia, 417.
Halopsyche, 350.
Haminea, 316.
Hamites, *201.
Hamulina, 201.
Harpa, 55, *226.
Tajpila, 230.
Harvella, *478.
Hastati, *174.

Head, 42.

Heart, 24, 42.
Hectocotyle, 159-163,
Flecuba, 485.
Heicion, 278.

INDEX.

Helicarion, 290.
Tielicella, *289.
Helicerus, *178.
Helicide, #288.
Helicina, *800.
FAlelicina, 265.
Helicoceras, *200.
Helicocryptus, 253.
Flelicolimar, 290.
Heliconoides, 352.
Helicophanta, 290.
ffelicophlegma, 344.
Hlelicteres, 292.
Ffelisiga, 290..
Helix, 11, 14, 33, 35, 37,
*288.
Helix distribution, 87.
Helminthochiton, 284.
Hemicardium, *454.
Hemicyclonosta, 469.
Hemidoris, 328.
Hemimitra, 247.
Hemipecten, *412.
Hemiplacuna, 410.
Hemipronites, 389.
Hemisinus, *247.
Hemithyris, 375.
Hemitoma, #274.
Heptabranchus, *329.
Hermea, 338.
Heteroceras, *200.
Heterofusus, 352.
Heterogangliata, 2,
Heterophylh, 199.
Heteroteuthis, 170.
Hettangia, 457.
Hexabranchus, *329.
Fiiantula, 273.
Fiatella, 461, 502.
Hinge line, 401.
Hinnites, #412.
Tippagus, 472.
Hipparionyz, 378.
Hiippochrenes, 212,
Hippomya, *425.
Hipponyx, 7, #278.
Hippopodium, *471.
Hippopus, *453.
Hippurites, 32, *443,
Hippuritidee, *440.
Fiirundinella, 319.
Histioteuthis, *170.
Holopea, *272.
Holostomata, *234,
Homoganegliata, 2.
Homoiozoic belts, 54.
Homologies of shell, 39.
Homomya, *496.
Hoplomytilus, *425.
Hortolus, 189.
Humphreyia, *503.
Huronia, *191.
Hyaleea, *348.
Hyaleidz, *348.
Hyalina, *252.
Hyaloteuthis, 172.
Hybernation, 39, 40.
Hybocystis, *509.
Hybrids, 46.

1 Hydatina, 318.

Hydrobia, *256.
Hydrocena, 307.
Hyolites, 191.
Fyperotis, 506.
Hypobranchea, *325.
HHypodema, 383.
Aypogea, 487.
Hypostoma, *289.
Hypothyris, 375.
Hypotrema, *418.
Hyria, *434.
Hysterolites, 379.

Tanthina 23, 31, *271.
Icarus, *322.
Ichthyosurcolites, 450.
Idalia, *331.

Idotaa, 457.
Imbricaria, *231.
Imbricated operc., 207.
Imperator, *264.
Imperforate shells, 205.
Impregnation of egg» 41.
Incilaria, *296.

Indian region, $9.
Indo-Pacific province, 71.
Infero-branchia, 312.
Infundibulum, 264, 276.
Thnk bag, 157, 173.
Tnoceramus, 31, #419.
Inoceramus, 491.
Inoperculata, 285.
Integro-pallialia, #436.
Io, 247.

Iphigenia, *486.
Ischnochiton, 283.
Isidora, 301.

Ismenia, *368.
Tsoarea, *427, 467.
Tsocardia, *466.
Isocardia, 431.
Isodonta, 478, 486.
Lsegnomon, 418.
Ttieria, 314.

Jamaica, shells of, 110.
Jamaicia, 307.
Jaminea, 239.
Janella, *297.

Janus, 337.
Japanese snails, 101.
Japonic province, 75.
Jasoniila, 285.
Javanese shells, 102,
Jeffreysia, *256.
Jouannetia, *o06

Kaleno, 175,
Katharina, #284.
Kellia, #459.
Kingena, *368.
Kleinella, *317.
Koninckia, *381.
Kraussia, *367.

Labio, 265.
Lachesis, *229,
} Lacuna, 55, *255.

Ladas, 344.
Levigati, *189.
Lagena, 216
Lajonkairtia, 475.
Lamellaria, *237.

Lamellibranchiata, 5, 393.

Laminarian zone, 151.
Lampania, *244,
Lanupas, 363.
Land provinces, 51.
Laniogerus, 336.
Thanistes, *259.
Lanistes, 422.
Lasea, 459.
Lateral teeth, 401.
Laternula, 495.
Latia, *302.
Latirus, 216.
Latona, 485.
Latrunculus, 221.
Leachia,170.
Leda, 427.
Leguminaria, 488.
Leila, 435.
Letodomus, 220.
Leiostoma, 218.
Lembulus, 427.
Leonia, 306.
Lepeta, *281.
Leptena, 380, 381.
Leptagonia, 380.
Lepto-chiton, 283.
Leptoconchus, 224.
Leptodonus, 497.
Lepton, *460.
Leptopoma, *308.
Leptoteuthis, *169.
Leucostoma, 223.
Leucotina, *241.
Leucotis, 237.
Levenia, 224,
Liarea, 307.
Libitina, 467. :
Ligament, 400.
Ligati, *199.
Ligula, 484, 495.
Liguus, 292.
Lima, 11, *412.
Limacella, 296.
Limacide, *295.
Limacina, *351.
Limacinide, *351.
Limeea, *413.
Limanomia, *409.
Limapontia, *340,
TLimatula, *413.
Limax, *295.
Limnea, *300.
Limneeidee, *300.
‘Limopsis, *426.
Lincina, 307.
Lines of growth, 34.
Lingual teeth, 21.
Linguella, 325.
Lingula, 1, 358, 359, *390.
Lingulide, *390,.
Linteria *316.
Liotia, *266.

Lips, 206.

INDEX.

Listera, 484.
Lithedaphus, 276.
Lithidion, 306.
Lithocardium, *454,
Lithodomus, 34, *422.
Lithoglyphus, *257.
Litiopa, 8, *255.
Littoral zone, 151.
Littorina, 37, *250, 286.
Littorinide, *250.
Lituites, *189,
Lituus, 174.

Liver, 22.

Livona, 264.
Lobaria, 482.
Lobiger, *322,
Loligo, “167.
Loligopsis, *170.
Laligosepia, 168.
Loliolus, 168, 172.
Lomanoius, *334.
Lomastoma, *309.
Lophocercus, 222.
Lophurus, 283.
Loripes, 456.

Lottia, 281.
T.oxonema, *241.
Lucapina, *273.
Lucidella, *310.
Lucina, 38, 56, *456.
Lucinidee, *455.
Lucinopsis, 131, *475.
Lunatia, *236.
Lunularea, *427.
Lanulocardium, 454.
Luponia, *233.

Lusitanian region, 91—97.

Lusitanian prov., 63, 67.
Lutraria, *479.
Lutricola, 484.

Lychas, 454.

Lychnus, *289.
Lyonsia, 422, 498,
Lyra, *365.

Lyriodon, 430.
Lyrodesma, *432.
Lysianassa, 497.

Macgillivrayia, 225, 352.
Macha, 488.
Machera. *488.
Maclurea, *345.
Macrocheilus, *241.
Macrodon, *425. |
Macroschisma, *273.
Mactra, 24, *477.
Mactra, 431.
Mactrella, *478.
Mactride, *477.
Mactrinula, 478.

Mactromya, 457, 484, 496.

Madagascar shells, 98.
Madeiran shells, 65, 92.
Meonva, 468.

Magas, *366.

Magdala, 498.
Magellanica, 365.
Magellanic province, 82.
Magilus, 36, *224.

Zo

Malea, *226,
Malletia, 429.
Malleus, *416.
Mamilla, 235.
Mangelia, *229,
Mangelia, 229.
Mantle, 34.
Margarita, 55, *265.
Margaritana, 433.
Margaritophora, 416.
Marginella, 55, *232.
Marine provinces, 51, 54
IMarinula, 304,
Marisa, *259.
Marmorostoma, 263.
Marsenia, 237.
Martesia, *505.
Martinia, 371.
Mauritius shells, 99.
Mediterranean shells, 65.
Medoria, 255.
legadesma, 486.
Megadesmus, 470.
Megalodon, *469.
Megaloma, *469.
Megalomastoma, 309.
Meganteris, *365.
Alegasiphonia, 189.
Megaspira, 286, *294.
Megathyris, 368.
iegatrema, 278,
Megerlia, *367.
Ifeghimatium, 296.
Meladomus, *259.
Melafusus, *247. °
Melampus, 804,
Melanatria, *247,
Melania, *246.
Melaniade, *246.
Melantotdes, 240.
Melanopsis, 338, 37, *248.
Melatoma, *247.
Meleagrina, *416.
Melia, 191, 195.
Melibcea, #334.
Melina, 418.
Melo,-231.

Menestho, 240.
Merceneria, 473.
Meretrix, 474.
Merista, *374,
Meroe, *474.

Merria, 237.
Mesalia, 249.
Mesodesma, *484.
Metoptoma, *277.
Metropolis, 52.
Mexico, shells of, 109.
Minolia, 265.
Ifiranda, 331.

Mitra, 53, *231.
Mitrella, 231.
Modiola, 11, 33, *421.
Modiolarea, *422.
Modiolaria, 422.
Modiolopsis, *422.
Modulus, *252.
Molluscoida, 5, 6.
Alonilea, 264.

o14

Monoceros, *223.
Monocondylea, *454.
Monodaena, 454.
Monodonta, *265.
Moneecious, 40.
Monomyary, 402.
Monopleura, *438.

Mono-pleuro-branchiata,

312.
Monoptigma, *240.
Monoptigma, 239.
Monoptygma, 313.
Monotis, *417.
Monstrosities, 37.
Montacuta,*460.
Montagua, 335.
Mopalia, 284.
Morio, 225.
Morrisia, *367.
Morum, 225.
Mouretia, 281.
Mulinia, 477.
Mulleria, 432, *435.
Multispiral operc., 208.
Munsteria, 182.
Murchisonia, *270.
Murex, 23, 35, 36, *213.
Muricide, *212.

Muscular system, 18, 355,

401.
Musculium, 461.
Mutela, 435.
Mya, *489.
Myacide, *489.
Myacites, *497.
Myadora, *499.
Myalina, *421.
Myatella, 498.
Mycetopus, *435.
Mycetopus, 435
Myochama, #499.
Myoconcha, *471.
Myonia, *241.
Myoparo, 427.
Myophoria, *431.
Ayopsis, 497.
Myrina, #423.
Myristica, *217.
MMysia, 475.
Myllita, 459.
Mytilicardia, 471.
Mytilide, *420.
Mytilimeria, *422.
Mytilomya, 425.
Mytilus, 30, 31, 45, *420.
Myxostoma, 308.

ANacca, 235.
Nacella, *280.
Nacreous shells, 29.
Nanina, 290.
Naranio, 476.
Narica, *237.
Nassa, *221.
Natica, 38, #23 35
Naticella, 23 36.
Naticide, *OB5.
Naticina, *236.
Naticopsis, *235,

INDEX.

Natural barriers, 55.

Naiural history provinces,

50—54.
Nautilide, *185.
WVautiloceras, 194.
Nautilus, 161.
Nautilus, 55, 185.
Navicella, *262.
Nezra, *491.

Neda, *323.

Nelo, 429.

Neithea, *412.
Nematura, *256.
Nerinza, *244, 314.
Nerinella, *244.
Nerita, 38, 55, *260.
Neritidz, 36, *260.
Neritina, 37, *261.
Neritoma, *261.
Neritopsis, *261.
Nervous system, 16.
Nets, 139.

_ Neverita, 236.
New Zealand shells, 104.

Nidamental ribbon, 40.
Niphonia, 267.

Niso, *240,

Noetia, 427.
Nomenclature, 48.
Northia 221.
Notarchus, *321.
Nothoceras, *195.
Notocceli, *174.
Notomya, 469.
Novaculina, *489.
Nucinella, 427.
WNucleobranchiata, 340,
Nucleus, 205.

“Nucula, *426.

Nucula, *497.
Nuculina, *427.
Nucunella, 427.
Nudibranchiata, *825.

Obeliscus, 238.
Obolus, *392.
Octopoda, *158.
Octopodoteuthis, 171.
Octopus, 56, *163.
Ocyzhoe, 161,
Odoneimetus, 495.
Odontidium, 249.
Odontostomus, *291.
Odostomia, *239.
Oleacina, 292
Oligyra, 310.

Oliva, 82, 55, *227.
Olivancillart 1A 22.
Olivella, *227.
Olivia, 265.

Omala, 480.
Omalazxis, 253.
Omalia, 475.
Omalonyx, *291.
Ommastrephes, *172.
Omphalotropis, 507.
Oncidiade, *299.
Oncidium, *299.
Oncidoris, *329.

Oncoceras, *193.
Oniscia, *225.
Onustus, 254.
Onychia, 171.
Cnychochi‘on, 284.
Oxychoteu his, *171.
Operculata, *305.
Operculum, 38, 182, 237.
Ophileta, 267.

Opis, *470.
Opistho-branchia, *311.
Opisthophorus, *309.
Orbicelia, 389.

Or bicula. 358, 386, 388.
Orbrculoidea, 388.
Orbis, *253.

Orbulites, 187.
Oregon, shells of, 109.
Ormoceras, *191.
Ornati, *198.
Orthambonites, 380.
Orthide, +379,
Grthis, #380.
Orthisina, *380.
Orthoceras, 38, *190.
Orthoceratidee, *190.
Orthona, 336.
Orthonotus, *423.
Orthothriz, 385.
Oscanius, 322.
Osteodesma, 495.
Ostrea, 31, *407.
Ostreidee, *407.

Otina, *238.

Otolithes, 17.

_ Otopoma, *307.

Oviducts, 359.
Oviparous repr., 40.
Ovulum, 27, *234.
Ovum, 41.

Owenia, 169.
Oxygyrus, *344.
Oyster shell, 31.

Pachydomus, *469.
Pachylabra, 258.
Pachymya, 492.
Pachyodon, 434, 470.
Pachyotis, 291.
Pachyrisma, *470,
FPachytes, 414.
Pachytoma, 310.
Pacyodon, 490.
Padoillus, 268.
Pagodella, 252.
Patleoteuthis, 177, 182.
Pallial impression, 20.
Pallial line, 404.
Pallial sinus, 404.
Pallio-branchiata, 354.
Pallium, *412.
Paludestrina, 254.

Paludina, 27,37, *257, 286.

Paludinella, 256.
Paludinide, *257.
Paludomus, *247.
Panama shells, 81.
Panamic province, 79.
Pancreas, 23.

Pandora, *499.
Pandorina, 498.
Panopeea, 53, *492.

Paphia, 464, 465, 475, 464.

Papuan shells, 103.
Papyridea, 453.
Parallelopipedum, *425.
Parapholas, *506.
Parmacella, *297.
Parmarion, *297.
Parmophorus, *274.
Parthenia, 239.
Parthenopea, 461.
Partula, 291.
Pasithea, 240.

Patagonian province, 83.
Patagonia, shells of, 115.

Patella, *278,

Patella, 391.
Patellidee, *278.
Patelloidea, 281.
Patina, 280.
Paucispiral operc., 207.
Paxillus, *294.

Pearls, 30, 433.
fecchiolia, 467.
Pecten, 8, 29, 38, *411.
Pectunculina, 426.
Pectunculus, *425.
Pedalion, 418.
Pedicularia, *223.
Pedipes, *304.

Pedum, #414.
Pelagella, *332.
Pelagia, *354.
Peilli-branchiata, 359.
Peloris, 407.

Peilta, 290, 323.
Peltella, 297.

Pen, 178.
Pentamerus, *377.
Peplidium, 331.
Feracle, 352.
Periostracum, 33,
Periploma, *495.
Peristome, 206.
Perna, 55, *418.
Peroneda, 480.
Perotis, 170.

Persian Gulf shells, 73.
Persicula, 232.
Persona, 214.

Peru, shells of, 113.
Peruvian province, 81..
Petal iconchus, *249.
Petricola, 476.
Pfeifferia, *290.

Phanera-pneumona, 305.
Phanerophthalmus, *316.

Phanerotinus, *267.
Pharella, *488.
Pharus, 487.
Phasianella, *263.
Phasianema, 253.
Philine, 10, *818.
Philippia, 253.

Philippine Island snails,

101.
Philomycus, 296.

INDEX.

Philonexis, *165.
Phlebenterata, 339.
Pholadidze, *503.
Pholadidea, 35, *505.
Fholadomya, 454.
Pholadomya, *496.
Pholadopsis, 506.
Pholas, 28, 102, *504.
Phorus, *254.

Phos, *221.
Phosphoraz, 23, 295.
Photinula, *265.
Phragmoceras, *194.
Phragmocone, 39, 173.
Phyllidia, #324.
Phyllidiade, *324.
Phyllirhoe, *338.
Phyllirhoide, *338.
Phylloda, 480.
Piyllodesmium, 335.
Physa, 387, *301.
Physema, *320.
Physiology, 15.
Physopsis, *302.
Pileolus, #261.
Pileopsis, *277.
Pilidium, #281.
Pinna, 30, 31, *419.
Pinnoctopus. *165.
Pirena, 36, *248.
Pireneila, 243.
Pisania, *214.
Pisidium, *462.
Pisum, 461.
Pitonillus, 310.
Placenta, *410.
Placo-branchus, 339.
Placuna, *409.
Placunomia, 409.
Placunopsis, *410.
Plagioptychus, 450.
Plagiostoma, 412.
Planaxis, #223.
Planorbis, *302.
Planorbula, 303.
Pranulites, 197.
Platyceras, 277,
Piatyodon, 489.
Platyschisma, 267.
Platystoma, *254.
Platystrophia, 380.
Plaxiphora, 284.
Plectambonites, 381.
Plectrophorus, 297.
Pleiodon, 435.
Plesioteuthis, *172.
Pleure, 21.
Pleurobrancheea, *323.
Pleurobranchide, *322.

Pleurobranchidium, 323.

Pleurobranchus, *822.
Pleurodon, 427.
Pleuromya, 497.
Pleurophorus, *468.
Pleurophyllidia, 325.
Pleuropus, 386, 349.
Pieurorhynchus, 454.
Pleurotoma, *228.
Pleurotomaria, *270.

licatula, 55. *414,
Plocamophorus, 331.

Pneumodermon, 347, *355

Pododesmus, 409.
Podopsts, 414,

Polia, 487.

Polinices, *236.
Pollia, 214.

Potycera, *330.
Polydonta, #304.
Polygyra, 289.
Polynesian recion, 104.
Polyphemopsis, 241.
Polyphemus, 292.
Polytremaria, *270.
Pomatias, *307.
Pomato-branchia, 312.
Pomus, 259.
Pontolimax, 340.
Porambonites, *376.
Porcellanous shells, 32.
Porcellarius, 232.
Porcellia, *344.
Poromya, 491.
Poronin, 459.
Portuguese shells, 64.
Posidonia, 417.
Posidonomya, *417.
Posterobrancheea, *322.
Potamides, *243.
Potamomya, *490,
Potamophila, 486,
Poterioceras, 193.
Priamus, 220.
Prisodon, 434.
Proctonotus, *337.
Productide, *383,
Productus, *384.
Pronites, 380.

J'ronoe, 470.

_Pro-pilidium, 281.

Proserpina, 286, *289.
Prosobranchiata, *209.
Proto, 249.
Protocurdium, 454.
Protozoa, 2.
Psammobia, *481.
Psammocola, 482.
Psammosolen, 488.
Psammotea, 480, 482.
Psathura, *456.
Pseudaxinus, #432.
Pseudo-crania, 387.
Pseudoliva, *219.
Psiloceros, 330, 335.
Psyche, *350.
Pteroceras, 35, *211.
Pteriza, *417.
Pterochilus, 336.
Pterocyclos, *308.
Pterodonta, *315.
Pterodoris, 329.
Pteronites, 417.
Pteroperna, *416.
Pteropoda, 346.
Pterotheca, *350.
Pterotrachea, 342.
Ptychina, 456. -
Ptychoceras, *201.

Cr

516

Ptychomya, 466.
Ptygmatis, *244,
Pugiunculus, 350.
Pullastra, 475.
Pulmonifera, 285.
Pulvinites, 418.
Puncturella, *273.
Pupa, 37, *292.
Pupillia, *273.

Pupina, *309.
Pupinella, 309.
Purpura, 23, 36, 56, *222.
Purpurina, *222.
Pusionella, *218.
Pycnodonta, 407.
Pygope, 363.
Pyramidella, *238.
Pyramidellide, *238.
Pyramis, 239.
Pyramis, *265.
Pyramnus, 469.
Pyraaus, *245,
Fyreila, 217.
Pyrgula, 246.
Pyrula, 24, 32, 37, *217
Pythina, *459.

Quenstedtia, *481.
Quin, 411.
Quoyia, 223.

Race, 46.

Rachis, 21.
Radiati, *189.
Radiolites, *446.
Radius, 234.
Radsia, 283.
Ranella, 56, *214.

Range of marine species,

56.
Rangia, 478.
Rapana, *217.
Raphistoma, *270.
Realia, *307.
Recluzia, *285.
Redonia, *469.
Red Sea shells, 73.
Reniella, 416.
Representative species, 54,
129.
Reproduction of lost parts,
40.
Requienia, 346, *439.
Respiration, 596.
Respiratory system, 25.
Retractors, 20, 402,
Retzia, *374.
Reversed shells, 37.
Rhabdoceras, *196.
Rhegostoma, *309.
Rhinoclavus, *242,
Rhinodomus, 221.
Rhizochilus, 222.
Fhizorus, 317.
Rhodope, *340.
Rhodostoma, 304.
Rhomboides, 502.
Rhyncholites, 182.
Rhynchomya, 495.

INDEX.

Rhynchonella, 308
~*310-
Rhynchonellide, *375.
Rhynchora, 365.
Rhynchoteuthis, 182.
Ribeiria, *497.
Ricinula, *223.
Rimella, 211.
Rimula, *274.
Rimularia, 275.
Ringicula, *222.
Ringine'la, 314.
Risella, *253.
Rissoa, *255.
Rissoella, 256.
Rissoina, *256.
Rivicola, 301.
Rossia, #170.
Rostellaria, 35, 55, *212.
Rotella, *265. ‘
Rothomagenses, *193.
Roxania, 316.
Rudistés, 440.
Runcina, *323.
Fupellaria, 476.
Fiupicola, 495.

5d5 ?

Sagda, *289.
Sagitta, 342.

St. Helena shells, 95.
Saliva, 36.

Salivary glands, 23.
Salpa, 19, 23.
Sanguinolaria, 55, *482.
Sanguinolaria, 481.
Sanguinolites, 468, 498.
Sardinian: snails, 92.
Saxicava, 56, *501.
Saxidomus, *473,
Scacchia, *458.
Sced, 352.
Sceeureus, “165.
Scalaria, *250.
Scaldia, *498.
Scalites, *270.
Scapha, 230.
Scaphander, *318.
Scaphaniadia, 182.
Scapharea, 424.
Scaphella, *230.
Scaphites, *20G.
Scaphula, *227.
Scaphula, 424.
Scarabus, 304.
Schizo-chiton, 284.
Schizodesma, 477.
Schizodus, 431.
Schizostoma, 267.
Schizotreta, 388.
Sciadephorus, 165.
Scintilla, *460.
Scissurella, *269.
Sconsia, 225.
Scrobicularia, *484.
Scurria,.281.
Scutus, 275,
Scyllea,. 8, *333.
Sedewickia, *497.
Segmentina, 303.

Semele, *483.
Semicorbis, 457.
Sepia, *177.
Sepiadee, *176.
Sepiola, *169.
Sepioteuthis, *168.
Septa, 184.
Septaria, 506.
Septifer, 421.
Seraphs, *212.
Serpularia, 266.
Serripes, *454.
Shell, 28, 204.
Sigaretus, *236,
Swliqua, 488,
Siliquaria, *249,
Siliquaria, 488.
Simpulopsis, 290. *
Sinemuria, 470.
Sinistral shells, 204,
Sinu-pallialia, *472. _
Sinus, 20.
Sinusigera, 212, 352.
Siphon, 26, 155.
Siphonal impression, 399,
404.
Siphonaria, *281, 305.
Siphonaria, 387.
Siphonida, *436.
Siphonopyge, #321.
Siphonostoma, 293.
Siphonostomata, *2&9.
Siphonotreta, #390.
Siphonotus, 320.
Siphopatellu, 276.
Siphuncle, 39,174,180, 184.
Skenea, *256.
Smaragdinella, 316.
Smell, 18.
Solarium, *253.
Solecardia, 460.
Solecurtoides, 488.
Solecurtus, *488.
Solemya, *429.
Solen, *486.
Solenella, *429.
Solenidee, *486.
Solenomya, 429.
Soletellina, 482.
Sormetus, *320. -
South African province,70.
Sowerbya, *478.
Spadix, 185.
Spanish shells, 64.
Spatha, 435.
Spawn, 40.
Species, 46.
Specific areas, 51.
Specific centres, 51.
Spheera, *457.
Spherella, 458.
Spherium, 461.
Spherulites, 446.
Sphenia, *490.
Spinigera, *212.
Spirigerina, 378.
Spiral operculum, 207.
Sptratella, 351.
Spirazis, 293,

Spirialis, 347, *351.
Spirifera, *371.
Spiriferidee, *371.
Spiriferina, *372.
Spirigera, 373.
Spiroglyphus, 249.
Spirula, 9, *178.
Spirulidee, *178.
Spirulirostra, *177.
Spisula, 477.
Sponsiylobolus, 387.
Spondylolites, 183.
Spondylus, 7, 30, 35, 38, 55,
*413.

Spongaria, 180.
- Spongiobrancheea, *354.
Sporadic species, 51.
Sportella, 457.
Stalagmium, 427.
Steganostoma, 308.
Stenoceras, 197.
Stenogyra, *293.
Stenopus, *289.
Stilifer, 9, *24%.
Stoastoma, *310.
Stomatella, *267.
Stomatia, *268.
Stomatia, 236.
Straparollus, 267.
Strephona, 227.
Strepsidura, 218.
Streptaxis, *289.
Streptorhynchus, 380.
Striati, *189.
Strigula, 480.
Strobilus, 294.
Strombidee, *210.
Strombus, 31, *210.
Strophalosia, *885.
Stropheodonta, 381.
Strophomena, *3880.
Strophostoma, 308.
Structure of shell, Brachi-
opoda, 360.
Struthiolaria, *246,
Stylina, 241.
Styliola, 349.
Stylocheilus, *821.
Stylopsis, *239.
Styloptygma, *241.
Sub-clymenia, 190.
Sub-generic area, 52.
Sub-spiral operc., 208.
Subula, 220.
Subulina, 292,
Succinea, *290.
Suessia, *372.
Sulco-buccinum, 219.
Sunetta, 474.
Susaria, *323.
Suture, 180, 206.
Sycotypus, 217.
Syncera, *256.
Syndosmya, *483.
Synonyms, 48.
Syrnola, 238.

Tagelus, 488.
Tanalia, 247.

INDEX.

Tancredia, *457.
Tanysiphon, *477.
Tanystoma, *290.
Taonius, 170.
Tapes, *475.
Taste, 18.
Tebennophorus, 296.
Tectaria, *252.
Tecti-branchiata, *312.
Tectura, 281.
Tegula, 264.
Teinotis, *269.
Tetlina, 458.
Teilina, *480.
Tellinide, #479.
Tellinides, *480.
Tellinodora, 480.
Tellinomya, *497.
Temnocheilus, 189.
Temperature, 39.
Tentaculites, *190.
Tentaculites, 350.
Terebellum, *212.
Terebellum, 248.
Terebra, 55, *220.
Terebralia, *243.
Terebratella, *365.
Terebratula, 19, 38, 3857,
358, *363.
Terebratulide, *363.
Terebratulina, *364.
Terebrirostra, 365.
Teredina, *507.
Teredo, 35, 341, *506.
Tergipes, *335.
Tertiary shelis, 130.
Testacella, 9, *298.
Tethys, *333.
Tetrabranchiata, *178.
Tetraplodon, 434.
Teudopsis, *168.
Teuthide, *167.
Teuthis, 167.
Texture of shells, 29.
Thalassides, 470.
Thallicera, 259.
Theea, 190, 346, *349.
Thecacera, *330.
Theceurybia, 350.
Thecidium, 358, *369.
Thecosomata, *348.
Thetis, *491.
Thiara, 246.
Thoracoceras, *191.
Thoracoceras, *195.
Thracia, *495.
Thyatira, 456.
Thysanoteuthis, *172.
Tiara, 231.
Tichogonia, *423.
Tiedemannia, *351.
Tomella, *229.
Tomigerus, 289.
Tongue, 287.
Tonicia, 283.
Torcula, 248.
Torinia, *253.
Tornatella, *313.
Tornatellide, *312,

517

Tornatellina, *294,
Tornatina, *315.
Torquilla, 292.
Toxoceras, *200.
Trans-Atlantic prov., 85.
Trapezium, 467.
Trawling, 139.
Tredopsis, *289,
Trematis, *389. s
Tremoctopus, 159, *164.
Trevelyana, #331.
Triboniophorus, *297.
Trichites, 31, *420.
Trichocyclus, *354.
Trichotropis, 33, 55, *216.
Tricolea, 263.
Tridacna, 13, 35, 55, *452.
Tridacnidee, *451.
Tridonta, 464.

Triforis, 37, *242.
Trigona, *474,
Trigonella, 375, 477, 484.
Trigonellites, 182.
Trigonia, *430.
Trigoniade, *430.
Trigonoceras, 194.
Trigonocelia, 426.
Trigonosemus, *365.
Trigonotreta, 371.
Trigonulina, 472.
Triomphalia, 506.
Triopa, *330.
Tritoceras, *192.
Triton, 33, 36, 55, 56, *214.
Tritonia, *332.
Tritoniade; *332.
Trivia, *233.

Trochalia, *244.
Trochatella, 276.
Trochatella, *310.
Trochiscus, 264.
Trochita, #276.
Trochoceras, *189.
Trocholites, 189.
Trochotoma, *271.
Trochus, 23, 38, *264.
Tropeum, 199.
Trophon, 55, *218.
Tropidophora, 307.
Truncatella, 36, #256.
Tuba, 256.

Tubular structure, 52.
Tudora, 307.

Tugonia, 489.

Tunicata, 5.

Turbinella, *216.
Turbinellus, 31.
Turbinide, *263.

Turbo, 23, *265.
Turbonilla, 239.
Turcica, 265.

Turrilites, *200.

Turris, 228, 231.
Turritella, 36, *248,
Turritellide, *248,
Turtonia, *459.

Tyleria, *496.

Tylodina, *324.
Tylostoma, *314,

518

Tympanotomus, 243.
Types, 49.
Typhis, 27, *213.

Umbo, 29, *398.
Umbonal area, 404.
Uncini, 21.

Uncites, *374.
Unguiculate operc., 207.
Ongula, 392.

Ungulina, *458.
Umbilicated shells, 205.
Umbrella, *323.
Unicardium, *457.

Unio, 29, 30, 33, 109, *433.

Unio, 497.

Unio, distribution, 87.
Unionide, *432.
OUnionites, 468.

United States shells, 85.
Otricuius, 317.

Vaganella, *479.
Vagina, 487.
Vaginella, *349.
Vaginulus, *300.
Valvata, *260.
Vanicoro, 237.
Varices, 135.

INDEX.

Varieties, 46.
Varigera, *314.
Varix, 35.
Velates, #261. ~
Velletia, 286, *302.
Velorita, *463.
Velutina, 55, *237.
Venericardia, *472.
Veneridze, *472.
Venerupis, *476.
Venilia, 337.
Venus, 56, *473.
Verania, 171.
Vermetus, 7, 36, *249.
Veronicella, *300.
Vertebrata, 1.
Verticordia, *472.
Vertigo, *293.
Vibex, *247.
Villiersia, 329.
Viquesnelia, *298.
Vitrina, #290.
Vitrinella, *265.
Viviparous repreduction,
40

Viviparus, 257.
Vola, 412.

Volupia, *473.
Voluta, 32, 55, *239.
Voluteila, 230.

Volutide, *229.
Volutilithes, #230,
Volva, 234.
Volvaria, *232.
Volvula, *315.
Vulsella, 55, #416.

Waldheimia, 19, 357, *364.
Waltonia, *368.

West African province, 69.
West American shells, 77.
West Indian shells, 84.
Woodwardia, 269.

Aanthonella, 316.
Xenophorus, 254.
Xiphoteuthis, *175.
Xylophaga, *506.
Xylotrya, *507.

Yetus, 231.
Yoldia, 55, *478.

Zaria, 248.
Zellania, *368.
Zephrina, 331.
Zierlania, 231.
Zirfed, 505.
Zonites, 289.
Zua, *252.

INDEX TO FIGURES.

Achatina, 286.

Actinoceras, 191.

ALCS, 327.

Ammonite, 179, 181, 197,
199

Ampullaria, 258, 259.
Ancula, 327.
Anodon, 398.
Anomia, 402.
Aporrhais, 245.
Argiope, 368, 359.
_Argonauta, 161, 162.
Ascidia, 6.
Astarte, 465.
Athyris, 373.
Atrypa, 378.
Aulosteges, 385.
Auricula, 503, 304.

Bela, 228.
Belemnoteuthis, 176.
Biradiolites, 438.
Bouchardia, 366.
Buccinum, 22, 219,
Bulimus, 44, 291.
Bulla, 22.

Calceola, 383.
Camarophoria, 377.
Caprinella, 449, 450.
Caprotina, 451.
Cardium, 454.
Carinaria, 202, 343.
Cassis, 224.
Ceratites, 197.
Cerithidea, 209, 245.
Chama, 437.
Chilinia, 301.
Chitonellus, 284,
Chonetes, 386.
Clymenia, 180, 199,
Conocardium, 455.
Conularia, 350.
Conus, 32, 34.
Crania, 387, 388.
Crassatella, 466.
Crenella, 43.
Crepidula, 275.
Cyclophorus, 306.
Cyclostoma, 307.
Cymba, 29, 251.
Cypreea, 21, 35, 233.
Cypricardia, 468.
Cytherea, 20.

Dendronotus, 327.
Diceras, 439, 440.
Diplodonta, 456.
Discina, 388, 389.
Dolium, 225, 226.
Doris, 41.

Dredge, 141.
Dreissena, 19, 423.

Endoceras, 193.
Eolis, 17, 208.

Fasciolaria, 215.
Fissurella, 273.

Glycimeris, 494.
Gomphoceras, 181.
Goniatites, 181, 193, 196.
Gryphea, 35, 408.
Gyroceras, 194,

Hamites, 180, 201.
Helix, 4.

Hippurites, 444, 445, 446.

Huronia, 192.

* Hyalea, 4, 348.

Tanthina, 6,271. —~
Isocardia, 467.

Kingena, 368.
Kraussia, 367.

Lepteena, 381.

Lepton, 18, 460.
Limax, 295.

Lingula, 391.
Littorina, 207, 250, 251.
Loligo, 4.

Lymneza, 301.

Maclurea, 345.
Magas, 366.
Merista, 374.
Modiola, 403.
Monopleura, 438.
Morrisia, 356.
Mulleria, 436.
Murex, 213.
Mya, 6, 3965 489.
Mytilus, 48.

Natica, 235.

Nautilus, 180, 186, 188.
Navicella, 262.

Nerita, 207, 260, 261.

Obolus, 392.
Octopus, 164.
Ormoceras, 191.
Orthis, 379.
Orthisina, 380.
Ostreea, 442.

Paludina, 203.
Panopeea, 493.
Patella, 279.

Pearl, 31.

Pecten, 17, 401, 411.
Pentamerus, 377.
Philine, 312, 319.
Pholas, 505.

Phorus, 254.
Phragmoceras, 181.
Pinna, 31, 415.
Pirena, 248.
Pisidium, 460.
Planorbis, 303.
Productus, 382, 384.
Psammobia, 26, 482.

Radiolites, 442, 446, 447,
448.

Requienia, 439, 440.

Retzia, 374.

Rhynchonella, 5, 374, 376.

Risella, 252.

Scissurella, 269.
Sepia, 160, 166,
Siphonaria, 305.
Siphonotreta, 390.
Solarium, 253.
Solen, 487.
Spirifera, 372.
Stringocephalus, 370, 371.
Strombus, 210, 211.
Strophalosia, 385.
Strophomena, 381.
Struthiolaria, 246.

Terebratella, 365.

Terebratula, 5, 31, 355, 361
363.

Terebratulina, 364.

Teredo, 507.

Testacella, 298.

Thecidium, 369, 370.

Thetis, 491.

Tornatella, 313.

Trawl net, 139.

Trichotropis, 217.

Tridacna, 452.

Trigonellites, 182.

Prigonia, 25, 430.

Triton, 205, 215.

Trivia, 233.

Trochus, 21, 38, 207, 264,

Uncites, 374
Unio, 399.

Velutina, 237.
Voluta, 230.

Waldheimia, 364.
Yoldia, 428, 429.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Tue principal specimens figured were kindly communicated by Mrs. J.
E. Gray, Mr. Hugh Cuming, Major W. E. Baker, Mr. Laidlay of Cal-
cutta, Mr. Pickering, Sir Charles Lyell, Mr. Sylvanus Hanley, Prof.

James Tennant, and Mr. Lovell Reeve.

The fractions show the number of times (or diameters) the figures

are reduced, or magnified.

PAE a
Octopodide.
Page
1. Octopus tuberculatus, Bl. 3. Mediterranean .......... Seite Oe
2. COMLLESESNe BEADS Ab AGN oI Ojo Os IgOD 66055520 156
8. Tremoctopus violaceus, ¢.' Chiaje. Messina .......... 159, 164
Teuthide.
4S Sepiola Atlantica; Orb. Atlantiécs .j2<c0. eae nee Cee 169
6. Loligo-yulgaris, Lam. (gladius). 4. Britaim........-5.-.--- 167
7. Onychoteuthis Bartlingii, Le Sueur. +. Indian Ocean....... Tei t
8 (GUMAUUS).. GR. casciae rate ejeis oaks Mais sama eye eee sly
Sepiada@.
5. Sepia oficimalis, EL. 2. ~Britaim ... 66/0. 2-242 oie ee age

Spirulide.

S Spirula laevis, Grays 2.) New Zealand As; 4.4 .csh sie eee ieee 178

HUN Nall }
AHN RHANG
ai

Sila Woodward. Fr WoLewry :

ates
ie

: os

He

a

mK

SP Vovodwarw.

iil Mi

=

ia

Hid
WA

a

DIMM ALS
AAA

LL.

MM _
SAT YY

Me

ITIL

a

CORI Samco

. Belemnitella mucronata, Sby. +. Upper Chalk, Norwich .. 175

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. ook

BATE: Lb,
Argonautide.
Page
Argonauta hians, Solander. 4. China ..... tee sinless : Nez
Leuthida.

. Beloteuthis subcostata, Munst. 3. Upper Lias, Wurtembere 168

Belemnitide.

, Belemnites Puzosianus, Orb. 1. Oxford Clay, Chippenham 173

. Conoteuthis Dupiniana, Orb. Neocomian, Frarce; Gault,

MRC ROMICH aia, we. ws Ss 0k wo hee e ros Pee AM Meter abyrr so ¢ 176

Sepiade.

2. SepiacOrbignyana, Fér. 4. Mediterranean .............. 177

3. —— (Belosepia) sepioidea, Bl. 4. Eocene, Sussex ........ Ayal)

4, Spirulirostra Bellardii, Orb. #. Miocene, Turin ....... Lr mund

¢. Beloptera belemnitoides, Bl. %. THocene, Sussex.......... Le

Nautilide.

10. Nautilus radiatus, Sby. 4. Neocomian, Rentity >is aaa 185
11. — —hidorsatus, Schl. (upper mandible = Rhynhcolites

hirundo, F. Biguet). #2. 'Muschelkalk, Bavaria 183

12: —{Aturia) zic-zac, Sby. Eocene, Highgate ........ 189

16. Clymenia striata, Minst. Devonian, S. Petherwin ........ 190

15.
13.

Orthoceratide.

. Orthoceras Ludense, Sby. (section). +. Ludlow Rock, Britain 190

Phragmoceras ventricosum, Stein. =.‘ L. Ludlow-rock, Salop 194

Gyroceras eifeliense, Arch. (section). 4. Devonian, Hifel .. 194

o2

2 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

PLATE IIT.

Aimmonitide.
Page
1. Goniatites Henslowi, Sby. 4. Carb. limestone, Isle of Man 196
2. Ceratites nodosus, Brug. +. Muschelkalk, Wiirtemberg .. 197
3. Ammonites planulatus, Sby. 4. Chalk-marl, Sussex ...... 199
4, rothomagensis, Brongn. 4. Chalk-marl, Sussex 198
5. —————— spinosus, Sby. 3. Oxford Clay, Caan 4 198
6. ——— bifrons, Bruce. 4. “Lias, sW bitbyeess. eee 198
7. bisulcatus, Brug. +. Lias, Lyme-Regis........ 198
8. Crioceras cristatum, Orb. #2. Gault, S. France............ 199
9. Scaphites equalis, Sby. 2. Chalk-marl, Sussex .......... 200
10. Ancyloceras spinigerum, Sby. 2. Gault, Folkestone ...... 200
11. Helicoceras rotundum, Sby. Gault, Folkestone............ 200
12. Toxoceras annulare, Orb. +. Neocomian, 8. France ...... 200
id Baculutes anceps, lam. 3.’ Chalk, Wiramce. 77)... ores 9 ere 201
14, Ptychoceras Emericianum, Orb. 2. Neocomian, 8. France 201
15. Hamites attenuatus, Sby. 4. Gault, Folkestone .......... 201
16. Turrilites costatus, Lam. 4. Chalk-marl, Sussex.......... 200.

SP Woedwerd.

SW. Lowry Je -

PLA.

ny

Blane NAN eM

f
|
LLP MVE PUEDE

a

_———

JP Woodward

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE LY.

Strombide.

Page

J, Strombus pugilis, Lb. 3}. W. Indies ...........e seve eee 210

pA ——- Bartonensis, Sby. Eocene, Hants .............. si:

eeucrmome lamps, U5. Chinad?.... sects see ce one PAU

APehosneiania cura. spy. +. Kurachee *)... 5. ca... cee 212

5. Seraphs terebellum, L. 2. Chima............ NER 212

6. Struthiolaria straminea, Gm. 4. New Zealand............ 246

7. Aporrhais pes-pelecani, L. %. Britain ...... ide ty See 245

Muricide.

Sete bamstellum, Ey. Se Chinas. hes oc cates iw Qiagen alas 213

9. fenuispma, Lam.» +.) Moluctastin 1 ade. eumeiad. 20S

10. palma-rasceydaam: +. Ceylon. tac whe Con sonpelan 213
10.* erimaceus, L. (operculum). Brita 2... 0.0.6 cass e ees 213
11. Typhis pungens, Soland. ocene, Barton .....° = ioe: nee 214
12. Ranella granifera, Lam. 2. N. Australia ........ Aise Eads. 214
13. Triton tritonis, L. 1. New Guineas Pace weevsey: das 214
14, Pisania striata, Gm. sp. Mediterranean ..........0000 0008 214
15. (Enzina) turbinella. Kiener. Ne Revco hs haveeee esa 214
16. Trophon Magellanicus, Gm. 4. Tierra-del-fuego ........ 218

524 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

PLATE ey:

Muricide.

Page

i: Basciolaria tulipa, ti.. /4. “W.. Undies®. |... sare) ete)
2. Lurpineila pyrum, 1. 2. sCeylongei.... > ay oes eee oe 216
3. ———— (Cynodonta) cornigera, Lam. 3. Moluccas ...... 216
4, — (Latirus) gilbula, Gm.sp. 4. Australia ...... BP AES
5. Cancellaria reticulata, Dillw. sp. W.Indies ............ els
GocPyruladious, Gam... Chima ye... a. <6 pane oe eer oe eigen
We (Myristica) melongena, L. 4. W. Indies ...... ceo, ae
Saebsus-colus, ia; 2. sey lOM 2). epi ac. be eee 218
9. —— (Chrysodomus) antiquus, Mull. (var. contrarius, Sby-)
oes (operculum). [Red Crag, Walton, Essex 218

Buccinide.
20. Buccinum undatum, i. e. Mibritam<., . 0. inert eee cee 219
i. Kburna, spirata; Ju. sp. 92. Ceylon.” ...5¢2 ee eee 221
12. Pseudoliva plumbea, Chemn. sp. . 2... Capes.cc.ee. ech ™ >. 220
3.” Lerebraamaculata, du.sp. i. . Moluccas)... eee emer 220
14, — (Builia) semiplicata, Gray. 8. Africa ........0..60. 220
15. Nassa arcularia, L.sp. 2%. Moluccas ...... Selah eke eee 221
16. —— (Cyclonassa) neritea, L. sp. Mediterranean .......... 221
7. ——. (Cyllene) Owen, Gray. “HK. Africa .2..020. Uae dates 221
18. Phos senticosus, L. sp. SV EN dAoistralia ‘iyi, Lee cee 221
19) Macilus-antiquus, Montf. 4. Red Seas... 00 See 224
20. == (do. young. — {LeEptaconchus) oe... sss sos oe eee ene 224
21. ? Ringicula ringens, Lam. 2. Tocene, Paris ..........,. 222

al

haan)

Ky WANG
RRS

SP Woodward.

\\

oN \

atl
SSX \ \
= <n

: q

YP
- W,
D0 ds

V,
a
TL.

PEATE Vac
Buceinde.

Page
feeeroercepersica, Ly. spi: -t. “Indias... ..<...4 0. eae wees ws 222
2. fapilius, i. sp. (operculum). -Britaits. 5.2.0. eee" 222,
38. ——— (Concholepas) lepas, Lam. 3. Peru ........ seen 222
4, Monoceros imbricatum, Lam. #. Cape Horn ............ 223
oe Pemembarit aieola, Ow. “DICILy © seis. l ee lessee sees vee ees 223
6, emcees nanleatia, ruc, sp. Indias 0. we... e cece eens cceees 223
i MEE (OMEFCULUTL) .., ssi eoes 24+ tvravgsedege 224
Suecopuamepisporealis, Brod. IN. Britain). .0.. 2... 20.05 3. 216
Omiemialaratacanoides, Lam. China ....... c.ccssccs ere ene 223
10. Columbella mercatoria, Gmel. sp. W. Indics.............. 226
Peeetemmavemmricosa, Lam. 3, ° Mauritius .........:::e8 sacs 226
i Dokumteeales, li.sp. +. Mediterranean .........05.cmee 225 *
13. Cassidaria echinophora, L. 3. Medit............... Regt to 205
ee rememernmnmer Ty, | OUDG 2. ue cc ee oe ts tev eenceescumes 224
ie Omsercancellata, Sby.. Chine 2... 2 oveds eee Ses Five AO
PeeOlyeporpinytide Li Fe PANAMA 6 6ccs see eee end ne eee se) PLO
17. -—— (Agaronia) hiatula, Gm. sp. 3 W. Africa .......... 227
18. —— (Scaphula) utriculus,Gm. sp. %. Africa ............ 224
19. —— (Olivella) jaspidea, Gm. sp. W. Indies .............. 227
20. Ancillaria subulata, Lam. #2. Eocene, Isle of Wight ...... pall
21 ——eidveaid, tsp. 5. Wesb Indies .........0200e 227

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 523

526 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

PLATE VII.

Conidae.

,-Conus marmoreus, Gm. “2@hewadpe. 25)... 3
— (Conorbis) dormitor, Solander. Eocene, Barton ......
Pleurotoma Babyloniea, Isp.” 2) @hina <.5: 2. Soa
Clavatula mitra, Gray. SW. Ames eerie. F- s e ee
. Mangelia taeniata, Desh. 2. Mediterrarean..... sno arene
swbela turricula, Mont. ep. dpritaime cee. tesa se ee eee
. Defrancia linearis, Bl. sp. 2. Medit. ..............00000.

. Lachesis minima, Mont. sp. 2. Britain..................

COM MD OO HH Co toe

92V oluta musica, L. 4, We Indies. ....-¢:. 5065 -beer ee
10. Volutilithes spinosus, L. sp. 2. Eocene, Barton ..........
11) Melo diadema, Lam. sp. 4. New Guinea) °,. . 2. ek cee
12. Cymba proboscidalis, Lam. sp. +. W. Africa ............
3

Mitra episcopalis, DPArg. 4. -Ceylom 2. .2<b.~..<0.- ane

o

14, —— -vulpecula, L. 2. . Singapore .f.2505-k.-=. --. see

19.-—— (imbricaria) conica, Schum. pean) Sees. cee ere:

(Cylindra) crenulata, Chemn. China ................
17. Volvaria bulloides, Lam. ocene, Grignon ..............
18. \Marseimella mubeculata, Taam. (20 (We plediGa, 5c, . ole or loi
—— (Persicuia) lineata, Lam. W. Africa...........+.

Cypreide.

20. Cypreea Mauritiana, L. 3. India—Pacific....... Sicarcme sire
(Cyprovula) capensis. Gray. #%. 8S. Africa ........

(Zuponia) algoénsis, Gray. S. Africa ..........-+--
23, 23* (Trivia) europea, Mont. Britain ....... eee
24. Erato levis, Donovan. Britain ........ Per 3 St cassie Stacey
25, Ovulum ovum, L. sp. 4. New Guinea ........ Seer eine 5

Page

228
228
228
229
229
229

aT
uy)

a
i

, Bp y

SP Woedward. SMW howe 76

ff MW ihe

%
aa

ho ee

i ae

Wah

SP Moedunand J. WLOuTy 1

OIA NA oD

we)

ee
DH oO

Go

aa
Oo

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

LATE VIII.

Naticide.

2

(Globus) sigaretina, Lam.

(Cernina) fluctuata, Sby.

. Sigaretus haliotoides, L. sp. 3.

1

ae

2
—

‘ye
2

aemeneamrena, I; spy 2. ChiNaies.cevesccceccea ssiwnend

Kocene, Paris ......

W. Indies: .

. Narica cancellata, Chemn. sp. Pacific....

Pyranidellide.

. Odostomia plicata, Mont. sp. 2.

. Kulima polita, L. - Britain .....

. Chemnitzia elegantissima, Mont. sp.

. Lamellaria perspicua, Mont. Mediterranean .
. Velutina levigata, L. sp. Britain....... Boa

. Neritopsis radula, L. sp. Sandwich Islands .

. Pyramidella auris-cati, Chem. sp. Mauritius .
. ———— (Obeliscus) dolabrata, Gmel. sp. W. Indies ....

Pnihimpimes . cs. toe a

@eeeee 8 se eee 2

— (Naticina) papilla, Chemn, sp. Africa............

Bratt, ne + ose cee ean cate

. Stilifer astericola, Brod. Philippines

Cerithiade.

16*. Cerithium nodulosum, Brug.

al

70

9

“a

Weymouth ......

oereee eee ese ee

IMPORT COS, wie -cusho aba aeas

(Bitiium) reticulatum, Da Costa. Britain ....

(Pyrazus) palustris, Brug. 3.
(Terebralia) telescopium, Brug. 4.

(Lampania) zonalis, Lam.

. Triforis perversum, L. sp. Mediterranean ...
. Potamides mixtus, Defr. Eocene, Paris .....

Chusan .
(Cerithidea) decollatus, L. sp. Cape.

Melaniade.
Madagascar

25*, Melania amarula, L. sp. 3.

1

(Melanatria) flaminea, Gm. sp. 4.

eee eee ec ee ee oe

= (Pirenella) mammillatus, Risso. sp. Mediterranean

eooeees ee ro ee 8 8

Madagascar

——— (WMelafusus) fluviatilis, Say. 2%. U. States
—— (Anculotus) preemorsa, Say. U. States ........

———— (Pirena) atra. L. sp.

2
Se

(Vibex) fuscata, Gm. sp. Africa.
. Melanopsis costata, Fér. Syria .....

as

528 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Pi

PLATE IX.

Turritellide.
‘ : Page
fe Turcdtella imbricatay lee WW. lindies 5 5. J scene te eee 248
2. ———— (WMesalia) sulcata, var. Lam. Tocene, Paris ...... 249
3. ———— (froto) cathedrals, Brongn. 4. Miocene, Bordeaux 249
4, Aclis supranitida, Wood. 2) MG MemSCy Fee rer 6 nla ae aes 240
9, Wecum trachea, Mont... (Brita 5. oer jes et. alee eee 249
6. (fry, magnified Bi) cece c ee cece tent e eee eee teens 249
7. Vermetus lumbricalis, Gm. sp. (young). W. Africa ........ 249
S.qeiliquaria ansuima, I. sp. 3.7, New Guinean ieee ane 249
O) Scalaria, pretiosa, Iham. 2. China 2.) so see ieee 250

Inttorinide.
UOeettoring, littoral, eb Eibalnl 2 . <6 22 emis eee fieseet 250
11. —-——— (Tectaria) pagodus, L. 3. Zanzibar ............ 252
12. (Fossarus) sulcatus, S. Wood. Mediterranean...... 253
13, —— (Modulus) tectum, Gm. sp. N. Australia.......... 252
14 (Risella) nana,’ Lam. sp. 3. Tasmania .2,....eee 253
15. Solarium perspectivum, L. sp. #2. China ....... be Ot act cueeenees
16. Lacuna pallidula; DarCosta:* butam je as500 «cee eee 255
We Rassoalabiosas Mont, Britains 26, Aaa eee eee 250
18 (Egorobia) ulvee, Penn.» Britain sea. s. eeeeeeee 256
19. —— (Jeffreysia) diaphana, Alder. (Operculum) Britain .... 256
20 (Skenea) planorbis, O. Fabr. Cr meh): Dritaid eo
21. Nematura delte, Bens. 2. STNG, Se ie 4 oe se vitae Sigs meee 256
22, Lathoolyphus ‘tuseus,,P ir: spa" Damube.. 2,» ...-teee tee
2d. Ammnicola, isogoud, Say. UW Stanes.: sa. >... eee 1 eee eee 247
24, Litiopa bombyx, Kiener. Mediterranean.................. 250
25. Truncatella subtruncata, Mont. sp. 2. Mediterranean .... 286

Paludinide.
9orPaludina ListermsHanley. 4, Norwich! nanos 4. 5 eee 257
27. (Bithynia) tentaculata, Mont. Norwich............ 258
25..Valvata piscmalis, Mull. - Norwich) .,...2... ens - = - ata 260
29 —— Cristaraeavulle, Norwich —.. d,s ete me iene 260
30:-Ampullariatelobosayew./ 4./2ndia 622... eee eee 258
31. ————— (Marisa) cornu-arietis, L. sp. Brazil .......... 259
32, —— (Lanistes) Bolteniana, Chemn. sp. 3, Nile .... 209
33. Amphibola australis. New Zealand ........ aye tte a ees 259
34, Paludomusaculeatus~Gmesp.: iCeylons 20. 2) Ae eee 247

Neritide.

S5eeN ertta usp late: gas. G WOCUNGE 6 Sites + «+ ass adele ee eee ele eae 260
36. (Velates) perversus, Gm. sp. Eocene, Soissons ...... 261
37, 88. Pileolus plicatus, J. Sby. Bath Oolite, Ancliff........ 261
38; Nerina zebras Brug. . Paeie 2:2... . «ase a Beare ee 261
40. crepidularia, Less. India ..........-- esses cerees 261
41. Navicella porcellana, Chemn. sp. Mauritius—Pacific ...... 262

SE Woodward TWLowry 7.

3 me awa;
r pea an
vee

HALO)

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

029

PLATE X.
Page
1. Phorus corrugatus, Reeve. 4. Kurachee, India .......... 204
Turbinide.

Seburmemmarmorazus, b. +. China... ..ciess scaces se nwas 263

3. Phasianella australis, Gm. sp. 3 “New Zealand .......... 963

4. Imperator imperialis, Chemn. sp. 4. New Zealand........ 264

ercocmus niloweus, Li. to “CMA Yee ae oo di ink «oS es ee 264

6. (Pyramis) obeliscus, Gm. sp. China ...... 265

7. —— (Margarita) helicinus, O. Fabr. Britain 265

8. ——— (Hlenchus) iris, Chemn. New Zealand ............ 265

S (Bankivia) varians, Gray. New Zealand ....... Fh eos

10; Rotella vestiaria, lu. sp. New Zealand .....c0e0ei. ce eee 265
i viGmodontatlabto, Wo sp. AV. Africa)... d kit tae tes 265
12. —————— (Clanculus) Pharaonis, L. sp. Red Sea ........ 265
13. Delphinula laciniata, Lam. China ........ btiin ard o, ceoleererste 266
14, — (Liotia) Gervillii, Defr. Eocene, Sussex ...... 266
15. ——_——_— (Cdllonia) marginata, Lam. 14. Eocene, Paris 266
16. —— (Cyclostrema) cancellata, Marryatt. Philippines... 266
17. Adeorbis sub-carinatus, Mont. sp, Britain ...........4...: 26€
18. Euomphalus pentangulatus, Sby. 4. Carb. limestone, Ireland 267
19. Stomatella imbricata, Lam. India ee en ear PDAS
20. (Broderipia) rosea, Brod. 2. 8. Seas ........0, 267

. Halotide.

21. Haliotis tuberculata, L. Guernsey .:...... parks ate Dyctearay ee 268
22 Sromanaspayanots, Evel blin. “Java... 22. .cc sae ses va ee oe 268
23. Scissurella crispata, Fleming. #. Britain ................ 269
24. Pleurotomaria Anglica, Sby.- 4. Dias, Gloucester ........ 270
25. Murchisonia bilineata, D’Arch. Devonian, Hifel .......... 270
26. Trochotoma conuloides, Desl. Bath oolite, Stroud.......... 271

. Ianthina fragilis, Lam. 2. W. Indies

—
BIG MODE eRe SSO COORDS io 9 OSI TE OY Oe 05.0

oe

2

Wa)

. Fissurella Listeri, Orb. “W. Indies ..... ‘

. Puncturella Noachina, L. sp. N. Britain
. Rimula Blainvillii, Defr. Philippines .

“I CV Be oo bo

0 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

PLATE XI.

Fissurellid@.

macrochisma, Humphr. Philippines.

6. Emarginula recticulata, Sby. Britain

8.

2°

Calyptreide.

10. Calyptreea equestris, L. sp. Philippines ........
AM: — .Dillwynnii, Gray. W. Indies ...:..
12. — (Crucibulum) radis, Brod. W. America,
73, 14. —— (Wrochita) radians, Lam. W. America

io 1o*. ————— Sinensis, L. Britain........
16. Crepidula fornicata, L. sp. W. Indies..... Ar

(Hemitoma) rugosa, Quoy. Tasmania,.
. Parmophorus australis, Bl. 4. New Zealand

ee es ee re 08

i Pdleopsis Gungaricns, U2) Torbay. aoe oe eee ee a
18. ———. militaris, 1... W. Indies 2...0... 2 2S
19. ——— (Amathina) tricarinata, Gray. 2. India ..........
20. Hipponyx cornucopie, Defr. 4. Eocene, Paris ..........
DN oe SCL hy Gdasie)icy ein Seven cio ceiee eee oe
Patellide.

22. Patella longicosta, Lam. 2 Cape TE WN ey
2306 (-Naceia), pellucida, Au. iriaun oe Aa ee
24. Acmea testudinalis, Mull. sp. Britain........0.......ven.
25. Siphonaria sipho. Kurachee, India gies ath ts eon
26. Gadinia peruviana, Gray. Peru

27.

. Chiten squamosus, L. 34. W. Indies

- ——— (Acanthochites) fascicularis, L. Britain
(Chitonellus) fasciatus, Quoy. 4. Philippines

Dentaliade.
Dentalium elephantinum, L. 3. Red Sea

Chitonide.

ee eee eee ee

eecereece rene

——— (Acanthopleura) spinosus, Brug. N. Australia ......

sD bo
ee)
Co bb

ho
ao
>

SS

Whowry 40

SL Woodward. :

SP Weedwarid.

JM Lowry fe.

£O DOT SrA G9 PO Es

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE XII.
Helicide.

..Helix (Acawus) heemastoma, L. 2. Ceylon ..sccseceeeee

— (Polygyra) polygyrata, Born. 3. Brazil ............
— (Carocolla) lapicida, L. Britain ..... ev oleleketeFotelene aisesers
—— (Anastoma) globulosa, Lam. Brazil ..............5.
—— *(Tridopsis) hirsuta, Sby. U. States ........0... 000.
—— (Streptaxis) contusa, Fér. Brazil ............ Be diate
——— (Sagda) epistylium, Mull. Jamaica ............66..
eee (Aehicelia) cellaria, MULL, Britain ... «60 eie4 es aeiee seins
—— (Stenopus) levipes, Mill. Malabar..... iarbaccmeneseos Os

. Bulimus oblongus, Mull. $. Guiana...,.. Sear ALe a Rhee ens
IT, 12.

decollatus, L. S. Europe......... Pe eR ny CeReeR
(Partula) faba, Martin. Tahiti ........0...s.ee0-
(Zua) lubricus, Mull. Britaim 1... sees eee ns
(Azeca) tridens, Pulteney. Britain ..............

. Pupa uva, L. sp. Guadaloupe .........ceeeeee reve eeeees

(Vertigo) Venetzii, Charp. 3. Pliocene, Essex ......

. Megaspira elatior, Spix sp. 3 Brazil ........ see eseevees
. Clausilia plicatula, Drap. Kent. ... 0... cc cece cee e cece eens
. Cylindrella cylindrus, Chem. sp. 3. Jamaica ........+4..
. Balsa perversa, L. sp. Britain ...... cc ceee eee e cece neve ne
. Achatina variegata, Fab. Col. 3. W. Africa ..........5%
SSmecmiea, puter tis. Britaits spci elt la a) 5 «je'% «athyebns! ojele opaser'e

(Omalonya) unguis, Orb. Paraguay ......... ee

Limacide.

. samax maximus, L. Britain ......... Manis Ia aera ieee

2

. Testacella haliotoides, Fér. +. Britain ......cceceeenees

. Parmacella (Cryptella) calyculata, Sby. Canaries ..........
. Vitrina Draparnaldi. Cuy. Britain .. .......ssseseeeee

(Daudebardia) brevipes, Drap. 2. AMSEC, <ja.c0 wiese

Limneide.

. Limnea stagnalis, L. sp. Britam.............: Peewee Hd Ane

(Amphipeplea) glutinosa, Mill. Britain............

Physa fontinalis, Mont. sp. Britain ........s.ees0- aviocintelteia
. Ancylus fluviatilis, Lister sp. Britain ..........00--+-+++:
. Planorbis corneus, L. sp. DDLTGALEIE Es sc ve ee clei «a= te share

Auriculide.

. Auricula Jude, L. 2. India 2... cccese sec e ence ee ee eens

scarabzeus, Gym. sp. Ceylon..........--eeeeeees
(Conovulus) coftea, L. W. Indies .....seeeeee ees
(Alexia) denticulata, Mont. sp. Britain ........ an
Carychium minimum, Drap. sp. 3. Brita, tie. .

Cyclostomide.

. Cyclophorus involvulus, Mull. sp. 3. India..............

. Helicina Brownii, Gray. 4. Jamaica........scseeeeeeees
. Acicula fusca, Walker, sp. +. Britaim ......+0..s-seee-

Dod MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

PLATE SE:
The real size of each species is indicated by the accompanying line.

Doridide.
Page
1. Doris Johnstoni, A. and H. Brit. (low water) ............ 328
Zcomodoris nodosa, Mont.ssp. sbriicis eee Lea eee 330
a. eeriopa claviger,* Mull. gps 5 Brit, -': 7.2 wae eke ne ee eae 330
Ay owus punctilucens, Orbs baie, .neere ae ee ee eee 330
5. Polycera quadrilineata, Mull. sp. Europe. (Laminarian zone) 330
6. Idalia aspersa, A. and H. Northumberland................ 331
Tritoniade.
7. Tritonia plebeia, Johnst. Brit. (Coralline zone) .......... 882
5. soyllea pelasica, IL: § Devon (pelapic) 227. case. eee 333
9. Tethyssimbriata, b.: * Mediti (pelagic) ao. ...25 seers. eee 333
10. Dendronotus arborescens, Mall. sp. Brit. 52.2 5.)eee eee 334°
11. Doto coronata, Gm.sp. -Brit......... hh io 2's sup telat ee eee 3384
12. Lomanotus marmoratus, A.and H. Devonshire coast ...... 304
Lolidide.
13. AXolis coronata, Forbes. Brit. (Laminarian zone) ....... . 835
14. Glaucus Atlanticus, Bl. Gulf-weed banks .........ssse00: 336
lometimbletonia pulchra, A; and. “ON. abit. sane ace sane. ae 336
16. Proctonotus mucroniferus, A. and H. Dublin Bay ........ 3875
17. Hermea bifida, Mont. Brit. Lit—lLaminarian zone ...... 338
18. Alderia modesta, Loven. Brit. Salt-marshes .........0+: 338
Elysiade.
19 milysia waridis. Mont gspsiptlib. sil. ahisnians « eileen eed eee 339
20. Acteonia corrugata (head), A.and H. Falmouth .......... 3389
21. Cenia Cocksii, A. and H. Falmouth....:...... aie as calegenene 339

229 LAMAPOUPIA NIPTA~d) OHNEta i oTAt. «1s « «i sioh ee sjopskn aves tqueeeneeene 340

————

PWoodward TWLewry fe.

Bases

is }
BY

va

tepuaest

SL dwviad .

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 533

PLATE XIV.

Opistho-branchiata. Page

1. Tornatella tornatilis, L. Brit. ....... cilepetaate bate Mes: are . 313
2. Cylindrites acutus, Sby. Bath Oolite, Po Cin vere 3138
3. Acteonella Renauxiana, Orb. 4." Tr Chale France . sreveuscare 314
4, Cinulia avellana, Brongn. U. Greensand, i eae eee 314
5. Tornatina voluta, BOY sp... 2. I. Guam, Acustrabiaiws oss, 0s 315
eee ampelia Wes. Pdi oi ee anes sje cava sed ade ater L
ae Migs) savuerm, 1, 5. Philippmes.... 63)... acs. ces » 316
8. Linteria viridis, Rane. i MoCaieia Nees eas. ss dee eee oes 316
’ 9. Acera bullata, Mill. Pri be aaah Seca ose PPR e eae eae oe 316
10; Cylichna:cylimdracea, Mont. Brit. ......cccueuee saeen dee 317
ih) -splostrum aplustre, L.sp. %.. Mauritius. .....0cecese weve 318
12, Seaphander lignarius, L.sp. 2. Brit......... Gia cltucan si stent ag
Raeeseteteraperta, Li Sp. DBYiba de oo) 4 0 a0 uci o cane nance aelnag . 318
14, Aplysia depilans (hybrida, Sby.). Brit. ..... 28S MRE 2€ 320
15. Dolabella scapula, Martyn, sp. 4. Mauritius ............ 321
fo. Mobicomemiippr, Krohm. Sicily oo iees cee tea des deta 322
17. Pleurobranchus membranaceus, Mont. Ted DEMON paar ie ae
18. Umbrella umbellata, Dillw. +. Mauritius............000. 323

Nucleobranchiata.

-19. Carinaria cymbium, L. 4. Medit. ...... hah aiipena Statens aces 343
20. Cardiapoda placenta, H. and 8. +. Atlantic.............. 343
21. Atlanta Peroni, Les. 22, operc. 23, fry. S. Atlantic ........ 344
24, Oxyeyrus Keraudrenii, Rang. 2, OPELCs. So Atlatibte 2S sr. 344
26. Bellerophina minuta, Sby. Gault, EET POSS ees ad arn ae 345
27. Bellerophon bi-carinatus, Léy. 4. Carb. Limestone, Torunay 344
28. ——————- expansus, Sby. 4. U. Silurian, Brit. ........ 345
29. Porcellia Puzosi, Lév. 3. Carb. Limestone, Belen waders 344
30. Cyrtolites ornatus, Conrad {cast) 2. lL. Silurian, U. States 345
81, Ecculiomphalus Bucklandi, Portl. 3. Silurian, Tyrone ... 345

Pieropoda.

. Hyalea tridentata, Gmel. Atlantic—Medit. ........0..++. 348

leaders, pyramidatas Ii.) Atlambicn.: .. ic. Stes cles +o smels be 349
. Creseis aciculata, Rang. Atlantic .............83 ee 349
» Suyienia, columnella, Rang. 8. Atlantic .... s024...+0s08 e049
. Vaginella depressa, Basterot. 3. Miocene, Bordeaux ...... 349
. Kurybia Gaudichaudi, Souleyet SS. Pacific (Huxley) ...... 350
paesyche elobulosa, Rang. Newfoundland... .. 0%. waiscae cows 351
mCymbulia proboseded,:-Perom: Medibe vy. fs es selena cled a scme 301
. Tiedemannia Neapolitana, Chiaje. Medit. ............000. 3501
. Limacina antarctica (J. Hooker). 8S. Polar Seas, 68°—46° .. 351
Spwiakts bulimoides, D’Orb..sp. Atlantic....i0.. cc 0k veel os dol
. Cheletropis Huxleyi, Forbes. = po) Hi. Anatradliaies <ecanre 0. O02
. Macgillivraia pelaciga, Forbes. 2. C. Byron, H. Anata! 352
SO hee Hokedbisy Dene -VAEELIGSCAS | n'2. 6s Foss ds cc ane danes 308
. Spongio-brancheea australis, D’Orb. 3. 8. Atlantic, Falk-

Me ett lae RIP GS ye cacie » t0'6i5 0 ¥ winetud « oes oid o Ra Ue O04
. Pneumodermon violaceum, D’ Orb. 8, §. Atlantic ........ 353
. Trichocyclus Dumerilii, Esch. 4°. South Sea............ 354
. Pelagia alba, Q. and G. Amboina...... dca ated sts ini Aeeeeeaina et « tape 304
pucymodecca-diaphana, D’Orb., Atlantic oc.k asses ae ee dees 304

A A,2

a4 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.
PLATE XY.
All, except those marked *, are dorsal views.
Terebratulide.
Page
1. Terebratula maxillata, Sby. 4. Bath Oolite, England...... 363
2. diphya, F.Col. “3. Alpenkalk,)"Dyrol ease 363
3. Terebratulina caput-serpentis, L. Norway—Medit......... 364
4, Waldheimia australis, Quoy. 2%. Port Jackson............ 364 -
5. —————— impressa, Buch. Oxford clay, England ........ 365
6. Lyra Meadi, Cumb. 1816. 3. U. Greensand, England .... 365
7. Terebratella Magellanica, Chemn. %. Cape Horn ........ 365
8. Trigonosemus Palissii, Woodw. Chalk, Belgium .......... 365
o_Meserlia ieuncata.aiamr2.*" edit. 70. cae. ai. eee 367
10. Argiope decollata, Chemn. 2. Medit. .................. 368
11. Thecidium radians, Brongn, Chalk, Belgium.:;........... 369
12. *————— hieroglyphicum, Defr. (interior). Chalk, Belgium 370
13. Stringocephalus Burtini, Defr. var. 4. Devonian, Hurope.. 371
Spiriferide.
14." Spiritera Walcottr, Sby.' 3. ias, Bath. 10-240 seen ee 372
15. Cyrtia exporrecta, Wahl. U. Silurian, Europe ............ 372
16. Athyris lamellosa, Lévy. 4%. Carb. limes. N. Amer.—Europe 373
17. Uncites gryphus, Schl. 4. Devonian, Belgium............ 374
Rhynchonellide.
18.*Rhynchonella acuta, Shy. 2.° Lias, Hurope .............- 376
19, ————_ furcillata;-Bueh?, iaas, Hurope. 22° eee 376 —
20, ————— spinosa, Schl. #2. Inf. Oolite, Europe ...... 3/76
21. Atrypa reticularis, L. sp. 3. Sil-Devon, N. Amer.—Europe 378
22. Pentamerus Knightii, Sby. 4. U. Silurian-.............. 317
Orthide.
2o-eOrthis rustica, J. Sby. 2. U. Silunan, Burope..o. «ese ee 380
24.*Strophomena rhomboidalis, Wahl. 2. U. Silurian, N. Amer.
== MIUTODE yf iets Ses oa ianeit ne bo pie tate taente Bt acme Sitar ieone ee 080
25. Lepteena liassina, Bouch. 2. Lias, Hurope: .cccca veer 381
26. Calceola sandalina, Lam. 4. Devonian, Kurope .......... 383
Productide.
27. Productus horridus, J. Sby. 3. Magn. limestone, Hurope.. 384
28.#*_——— proboscideus, Vern. 4. Carb. limestone, Belgium 384
29. Chonetes striatella, Dalm. U. Silurian, Hurope............ 386
Craniade.
30. Crania Ignabergensis, Retz. Chalk, Sweden ............-- 386
Discimde.
slaeDiscina lamelloga, Brod. 2. MCL eic.6 70 ecw ib iene nicmepooe
Lingulide.

Lingula anatina, Lam..4.° Philippines ...)0..0. sds soe 389

ELIT
SW Lowry AGe

Se II (yay Lire wa

“ ie ’
pee One

¥

SP Woedwarad. TW. Lowry Jo.

Ostreide.
Page
1, Ostrea diluviana, Gmelin. +. Chalk-marl, Brit. .......... 407
2, ——— (Exogyra) conica, Sby. |%. U. Greensand, Wilts .. 408
3. Anomia Achzeus, Gray. 2. Kurachee, Scinde ............ 408
4, Placunomia macroschisma, Desh. 4. California .......... 409
a erdacunay,sella, Gm. sp. “+. China, ss. .scee.. es Paria hae 409
6. placenta, L. (youne) QUN. Australia; 22. ..0c). dseds 410
7. Carolia placunoides, Cantr. (hinge). Tertiary, Egypt... .. 410
Grbcereumplica, Lia) S. .- Chima. . 5 228 hs. oye hate ialee tt Soave 412
9. — (Hemi-pecten) Forbesianus, Ad. 2. Sooloo Sea, 14 fms. 412
10. (en iiics) pusios Pew.ye sa Brit. *) tee ec ee 412
He traansquamoss,” Lara: *2.° China: iets. stg ees wees see a 412
12. (Plagiostoma) cardiformis, Sby. Bath Oolite, Brit. .... 412
13. —— (Limatula) sub-auriculata, Mont. Brit. .............. 413
14, —— (Limea) strigilata, Brocchi, sp. Pliocene, Italy ...... 413
15. Spondylus princeps, Gmel. 4. Sooloo Sea..........eeeeee 413
16. (Pedum) spondyloides, Gmel. 2. Red Sea...... 414
i aigtiedimlareristata, Lam: 21. We Indies. 35 « ties. F< ies 414
Aviculide.
eapeicmlapnirnmdo, W.'2.1 Medites,, § .civeste's selene se'e oes a e-is 415
iy (Meleagrina) margaritifera, L. sp. %. Ceylon...... 416
20. (Malleus) vulgaris, Lam. +. China .... er 416
21 (Vulselia) lingulata, Lam. 2, WERE: Sean aerials shee a. LG
22. Posidonomya Becheri, Bronn. Carb. Hesse, Brit........... 417
23. Pinna squamosa, Lam. 1. Medit....... ccc ee ee ee ee sees 419
24. Crenatula viridis, Lam. 4. Chinese Seas ..........ese00- 418

on
co
Gr

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE XVI.

a,@ adductor impressions.
p, pedal muscles.

g, Suspensors of the gills.
b, byssal foramen or notch.

536: MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,

PLATE XVII.

* The figures marked are left valves (interiors).

Aviculide.
Page
1. Gervillia anceps, Desh. 3. Neocomian, Brit. sssscesesse. £18 _
2. Perna ephippium, L. 3. W. Indies ..... a Sajuteiecajaijeleiaseitsle ulema
3. Inoceramus sulcatus, Park. 2. Gault, Brit. .............. 419
Mytilide.
4, Mytilus smaragdinus, Chemn. j{. India............ eddie 220
paMediola, halipa, am, 2... Brit... .\. cheats + einem ewer POP Pal
6. pelamica,. Horbes..)4. oS. Adlambie Vasaeiain, siete laieelor 422
ik lithophaga, L. 4. Medit...... Sone Me occas eats 422
SriCrenella aiscors, du. Brbsos . Sotleseriege ss: aps Me: apshcbopeebetaiegtes 422
9. Dreissena polymorpha, Pallas. #3. Brit............. ala See 422
Arcade.
10: Arca ordnosa,“L: ’ #.-> Australian un oes. i ieienke itn 424
11 PeKata, Say. saeco) Oo Warpling ).haras | sotreee ae wee ADA
12. —— (Bysso-area) Now, L. 3. Medit.....c..e.ssee eens napa ee
——————— zebra, Sw. 3. Australia ....... Bee en 494
14. Cucullza concamerata, Martini. 4. India...........en00. 425
15. Macrodon Hirsonensis, D’Arch. sp. 4. Bath Oolite, Brit... 425
16.*Pectunculus pectiniformis, Lam. 3. India................ A425
17.*Limopsis aurita, Broc..sp., Crag, Suffolles....ccignatisn 2 aoe 426
18. Nucula Cobboldiz, Sby. 4. Crag, Norwich.............. 426
19.*Nuculina miliaris, Desh. #. Hocene, Pamrigey. $e teh a sake aga ADT .
20.*Leda caudata, Donoy. Brit....... este Mea rem eee probe teestie ok
21.*—( Yoldia) myalis, Couthouy .2. Crag, Norwich ........ 498
22,*Solenella Norrisii, G. Sby. 3. Valparaiso............ By ee)
23. ——-ornata, G. Sby. sp. 3. Miocene, Patagonia...... 429
Trigoniade.
24: Triconia costata, Park. +.* Oolite; Brit. “issn meaner , 480

25. Myophoria decussata, Mimst. sp. ‘Trias, Tyrol ............ 431

26. Verticordia cardiiformis, Wood. 3. Crag, Suffolk ........ 472

io
it NA 1
Ih & y fi ng

ig MMi
AK wv

ASS
NS

3F Moedward TW Lowry fc.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 5387

PLATE XVIII.

* he figures marked are /eft valves.

Unionide.
a { Page
1 Umno hitorahs, Drap. +. Auvergne «.......:.... erefetiedteree 433
2. —— (Monocondylea) Paraguayanus, D’Orb. 4. S. America 434
seatana ambiena, Lam. +. RR: Amazon...i..2 woes sce es 434
4, Hyria syrmatophora, Gronovy. 3. 8S. Americaf .......... 434
a aodmmexcitca, Lam. ¢. Africa, RiNile....i.cc.. esses 435

6. Mycetopus soleniformis, D’'Orb. 2. 8. America, R. Parana 435

7. Adtheria semilunata, Lam. +. Senegal ......... bia «eens es ate - 435
Chamide.

8. Chama macrophylla, Chemn. 4. Antilles ..............0- 437

lef CGWOR re alate «cares Sacecitmant < 6 OGL 437

10. Diceras arietinum, Lam. 4. Coral Oolite, France ..... eae 439
11. — VOfE COVE 0 ta Woe ek Palate ee nteat ic ic Se 439
12. (Requienia) Lonsdalii, J. Sby. 4%. Neocomian, Spain _
—Brit. eoeeoee ee cee eee ee eeeoes ee eoeevneseeeoesee eeevvs0e 439

Hippuritide.

13. Caprotina striata, D’Orb. U. Greensand, France .......... 451
14, WEfEUGIVE™ 72. epee ss az, os stonnis Stuace Soocdbee 451
Tridacnide.

15. Tridacna squamosa, Chem. 3. Bombay............-.-.+. 452
16. Hippopus maculatus, Lam. 4. N. Australia........ eer 453

Cardiade (part).
17. Lithocardium aviculare, Lam. 4. Eocene, Paris.......... 454

Cyprinide (part).
se, Cardilia semi-suleaia, slam. ~ Amboima. ./ $<... iu.es ss: ose 469
19.*Megalodon cucullatus, J. Sby. 4. Devonian, Hifel........ 469

{ The animal of Hyria has two siphonal orifices.

538 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Cardiade.
Page -
i Gardium costatum, L.: (45. Clmap ak. -. 5. cen sens pee 453
2, ——— lyratum,G.Sby. 3. Madagascar..............+. 453
3. hemicardium, Bali ten. Chimnans.e%. jaebeaanar tees 454
4,* (Adacna) edentulum, Pallas. 3. Caspian ........ 454
5. Conocardium Hibernicum, Sby. 3. Carb. limestone, Kildare 455
LIucinide.
6.*Lucina Pennsylvanica, L. 2. W.Indies...... in ae etter ee
Te (Cryptodon) flexuosa, Mont. Brit................. .. 406
S$: ‘Corbis elecans, Desh. 932) "Chima... cauise sedis 056 sneer iets 457.
9. Diplodonta lupinus, Broce. sp. Miocene, Turin ,........... 458
10. Ungulina oblonga, Daud. 2. W. Africa oe ésiieatos
11 Kellia Gaperousi, Desh. Californias. <<...4- -chewtebigeeene 459
12 (Poronia) rubra, Mont. 4. Brit. ........... pee ee mii 459
13. Montacuta substriata, Mont. ca Brite. oo gee A satin sousrole peewee 460
14. Lepton squamosum, Mont. 4. Brit. .......... see eeeeee 460
15. Galeomma Turtoni, Sby. Brit....... TS TS Sry isi 3 461
16.*Cyamium antarcticum, Phil 2. Falkland Ids. .......... 458
Cyclacide.
A7ewCvelas cornea, i. “RR. Whames.... <2 1s... = 5 s+ - =jengeet © wie bose
18. = (Pisidium) amnica, Mull. 3. R. Thames .......... 462
19. Cyrenoides Dupontii, Joan. 3. ........0000e ere jae chorea 463
20. Cyrena cyprinoides, Quoy. 3. Ceylon .........sseeeneee 462
Dil (Corbicula) consobrina, Caillaud. Alexandrian Canal 462
Cyprinide.
22 Cy prinadslandica, Vs. Ns Brite os suse awl a eter ere onto 462
23. Cardinia Listeri, Sby. sp. 3. lias, Cheltenham .......... 470
94, Opis lunulata, Miller sp. Inf. Oolite, Bridport ............ 479

20.

PLATE XIX:

The figures marked are /eft valves.

Myoconcha crassa, Sby. 3. Inf. Oolite, Dundry .......... 471

EI ALS),

S

My lf il i
m

. 4 2

\\

Hii \"

iii, \
Anil

i
ii li é mil
“4 ST

‘PWeedward .

Es WY. Lowry Ic.

ry
uh ale

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 5389

PLATE) XX, *

(All the interiors are right valves.)

Cyprinide.
Page
I. Astarte suleata, Da Costa. Brit. ....... suarivers eae eherain Warente 464
2, Ciree corrugata, Chem. 4. Red Sea ........secerecseeee 464
eee OG. . a. - DLIbs .. Seca ds cuss so avanrale ae Gua eaes 466
4, Cypricardia obesa, Reeve. 34. India ...... OR te oe 467
5. Cardita calyculata, L. §. Africa ...... boi ete se 471
6. (Venericardia) ajar, Adans. W. Africa ............ 472
Veneride.
an marempranpiia, Ti.’ * W. Tndiegin Po. s cad He auth sa See 473
Come yencroa dione, Li: *-2.~ W. Indies’. 5 is oss. oe eieees 474
9. ———— (Meroe) picta, Schum. 2. Chima,..0....ci.see0s AT4
10. ———— (Trigona) tripla, L. 2. Wz. Africa .........cce0e 474
. ———— (Grateloupia) irregularis, Baster. 2. Miocene, Bor-
ROMA ah clio) ch aloe eL oneness «, © Sregene “whee ot we Ne SAE OSS 474
eee eceminsexOleta, Une 5. Britvey cc. ..t « 4 cee tm erane gen pale 474
13., lucinopsis undata, Pennant sp. Brit. ....)..-.0. e800 venees 475
ia weapes| pullasira; Wood. 2. ‘Brit. 5.0 cs0cssceecece veer Pees 475
15. Venerupis exotica, Lam. N.Australia................e005 476
ica Perecola lihophava, Retz.-" Medit.™ i... sis cee eee we eels wan 406
17. ———— pholadiformis, Lam. 2. New York ..........+. 476
18. Glauecomya Chinensis; Gray. Chima. .) 0.00. noeseceelee es 477
19. Capsula rugosa, Lam. sp. 3. N. Australia....cesseesees fie SOL

040

Mactride.
Page
i Macivarstultorum, i. yee. Writ... see oe Pre tice AERC E 477
2. Gnathodon cuneatus, Gray. 34. New Orleans ..... todas eats 478
3. Jautraria oblonga, Gmel, 74.) Brit. oy... «sees arias espana 479
4. Crassatella ponderosa, Gmel. sp. 4. Australia........... . 466
Tellinide.
o. Telling lingua-telisy i. S. Antilles). an.c om seem ee ee 480
6. earnaria, 1.\ Amtilles' (2s tone ssa sss «oie eer eee 480
We planissima, Anton. 3. India. (TZ. rosea, Sby.)...... 480
8) Gastrana fragilis, 1.2. “Galway. ..2..+2% ~. -ee eee eee 481
9. Psammebia Ferroénsis, Chemn. Brit. ....... ats 482
10. —— squamosa,; ame: -Bormediy os)... sae eee 482
118 Semele reticulata,,Chemmns + tAntilles*. 2 = a... ssaceeee eee 483
12 (Cumingia) lamellosa, G. Sby. Peru .............. 483
13. (Syndosmya) alba, Wood. Brit..........:.06e...2-: 4§
142 Scrobiculania piperata, Gm. sp. .4.- “Brit..¢-5 eee eee eee
15. Mesodesma glabratum, Lam. Ceylon ......... ci poke pag
16. —————— (Donacilla) Chilensis, D’Orb. 4. Peru ........ 484
17(: — (Anapa) Smithii, Gray. Tasmania ..,., aes 485 —
18. Ervilia nitens, Mont. Antilles .......... MEI ss S » 485
0; Donax denticulatus i: ~eAmtilles: 2a. .4\.2 5. <i cue eee 485
20 (Iphigenia) Brasiliensis, Lam. 3. Antilles :..,-.,. 486
21. Galatea reclusa, Born sp. 3. KR. Nile...... oie as velo fue Oeeronctege 486

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

PLATE XXI.

(All the interiors are right valves.)

. Tancredia extensa, Lycett. 3. Oolite, Brit. .......06..... 457

mi | Ke

FINA
1 iil (
rt

HT
Ab

FPS

Hrs:
{

SP. Woodward. IWlawry fe-

a

eee
=

SP Woodward: IW Lonrv Ze.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 541
*

PLATE XXIT.

* The figures marked are /eft valves (interiors).

Tellinide.
Be Page
1. Sanguinolaria livida, Lam. 3. N, Australia.........i..6. 483
2. diphos,; ChemmnigirssUmdiag ae ccs | oe ke 483
3, erpiculeta, “Wood. 2.)+Remane on anes 483
Solemde.
eOMCMES MICA Mi BUTE. Ss. 2s aiaiaeieckemeaiea b oeie eee aigopnienseone 486
5. Cultellus lacteus, Spengl. 4. Tranquebar,............00- 487
6. (Cerati-solen) legumen, L. 3. Brit...........0.5. 488
7 (Machera) politus, Wood. #. India ............ 488
8. Soelecurtus stricilatus, L. %. W. Africa.....cccdesscces ss 488
9, ~——— Caribeeus, Lam. 3%. U. States..........,...--02 488
10. -—-—— (WNovaculina) Gangeticus, Bens. Calcutta ........ 489
Myacide.
flpeietispiyalina..Sby.. 8p. F. - Chima |... cso. icta ss. oralevecsioldle ceanre 49]
12. Panopea Americana, Conrad. 4. Miocene, Maryland .... 492
13.*Saxicava rugosa, L. 3. Brit.—Kamtschatka........ osboKe 501

2

14. Glycimeris siliqua,Chemn. #2. Arctic America,........... 498

Anatinide, — i
15.*Pholadomya candida, Sby. +4. W. Indies.........6...0. . 496
16. Goniomya literata, Sby. 4. Oolite, Brit. .........ccceeee 497

|

17. Solemya togata, Polisp. 3. Medit.............005 si abeieieneie too

042 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

PLATE XXIII.

* The interiors marked are /eft valves.

Myacide.
Page
ie Miya truncata, Ib) s.; brit. “22... gerocalete ele oes See eerie ds 489
» Corbula sulcata,, Gam.:- OW . Atrica....¢ seviee sae eee ee 490
3. (Potamomya) labiata, Maton sp. 3. Buenos Ayres 490
4, (Sphena) Bingham, Tart. rile... eee ee 490
pa Necraicuspidata, Oliiva.. VBrite. i022 em eee eee 491
6. Anatinella candida, Chemn. 3. Ceylon.................. 479
: Anatinide
fo eAnatina|subrostivata, fuam. «24. Uindia, 2. ue 2. nee eee 495
8. Cochlodesma prastenue, Mont. Brits s2ok... cer. - see 495
9a Thraciaypubescens, Pult.~ =. Bribie. cn. se > acre 496
10: *Iiyonsia Norvesica,:Chemn. sp. °3,> Brit. 50. e ieee 498
112 Pandora rostrata, liam. . 3." Guernsey. 22.2002 cease 499
12. Myodora brevis, Stutch. New South Wales .............. 499
13. Myochama anomioides, Stutch. New South Wales ........ 499
14, Chamostrea albida, Lam. sp. 3. New South Wales ...... 500
Gastrochenide.
15. Gastrochzena modiolina, Lam. Galway .........-..-s+-0: 501
da. sp. siphonal orifices, in U. Greensand, Haldon,
Devonshire... Sete eicemes jo cies te ticles ota Vor ee 501
16. mumia, Spengl. 3, Ta, diy 5 See eee 501
17. Clavagella bacillaris, Desh. 4. Pliocene, Sicily ........ .- 602)
18. Aspergillum vaginiferum, Lam. §. Red Sea.............. 503 |
Pholadide. d
19. Pholas Bakeri, Desh. 4. India ..... Bs aay Saogoo 24 le
20. (Pholadidea) papyracea, Solr. 2. Brit. ............ 505
21. (Uariesia) striata, a, "We dndies=..../5.. 51> ee seid 505
22. (Parapholas) bisuleata, Conrad .........-..-.---- 506
23) Xylophaca dorsalis, urt. ip eBrit. 1°.) cles > -ielecee ee ee eee 506
24, 25. Teredina personata, Lam. London Clay, Bosnor, .veeee 507
25a. ——————- siphonal orifice........ é Thiele s eee CRORE ee
26.*Teredo Norvegica, Spengl. Brit. ...... ey aS i 3 - 506
27, -—_—_—__—————_ siphonal end of the tube, broken to show
ENE Fo5554 Ar jo MUAA SO NGO IOSD AOA Sods O.0075 552 506
28. palmulata; Tart. (styles). Brite. ~. - 2s eee 507

———— oo
VIRTUE AND CoO., PRINTERS, CITY ROAD, LONDON.

*2>d9> 55 WO

HE TE Lowri Je.

SIP Moedivuard

-

ae

APPENDIX

MANUAL OF MOLLUSCA,

OF S. P. WOODWARD, A.LS.,

CONTAINING SUCH

RECENT AND FOSSIL SHELLS

AS ARE NOT MENTIONED IN THE SECOND EDITION
OF THAT WORK.

By RALPH TATE, A.L.S., F.GS.

LONDON:
VIRTUE & CO, 26, IVY LANE.
NEW YORK: VIRTUE & YORSTON.
1868. ,

grande

9 “
i

if a ‘F ys ; ears) * k
e (tieakch “ 4a ah AY

CLASS I.—CHPHALOPODA.

ORDER J.—DIBRANCHIATA.

Famity II1.—TEvUTHIDé.

PHYLLOTEUTHIS, Meek and Hayden.

Type, P. subovatus. Cretaceous. Nebraska.

Pen corneous, thin, subovate, slightly concave below, and
conyex above. From behind the mid-
dle it narrows towards the front, the
outline of the lateral margins being
conyex, while the posterior end is more
or less obtusely angular. Apparently
related to Beloteuthis. and Teudopsis.
(See p. 168.)

Famity [V.—BELEMNITIDA.*

The Shell of Belemnites consists
fundamentally of :—

1. A hollow cone, the phragmocone,
Fig. 1, », with a thin shelly wall,
termed the conotheca, c, and which is
divided by transverse septa, concave
above and convex below, into cham-
bers or loculi; the septa are perforated
nearthe ventral margin bya siphuncle.

2. A guard or rostrum, g, more or
less extensively enveloping the apical
part of the phragmocone. ‘‘ The
phragmocone is not a chambered
body made to fit into a conical hollow
previously formed in the rostrum,
as some have conjectured, but both
rostrum and cone grew together; the
former was formed on the exterior of
a secretive surface, and the latter on
the interior of another secretive sur-
face.”? (Phillips.)

The rostrum is composed of calca- Fig. 1.
reous matter arranged in fibres per-
pendicularly to the planes of the lamine of growth. Pro-

* See p. 173.
B2 3

Dorsal aspect.

=

Ventral aspect.

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

fessor Owen describes the fibres, in specimens from Christian
Malford, as of a trihedral prismatic form, and zoooth of an inch
in diameter. These fibres are disposed concentrically around
an axis, a, the so-called apical line, which extends from the
extremity of the phragmocone to that of the rostrum. Indica-
tions of a thin capsule or formative membrane appear in some —
Belemnites investing the guard; in those of the Oxford clay
it is represented by a granular incrustation; in some hassic
species it appears in delicate plaits, like ridges or furrows; in
some specimens of Belemnitella mucronata from the upper chalk
of Antrim, it is in the form of a very thin nacreous layer.

3. A pro-ostracum, or anterior shell, which is a dorsal exten-
sion of the conotheca beyond the end where the guard disappears.
The surface of the conotheca is marked by lines of growth,
and, according to Voltz, it may be described in four principal
regions radiating from the apex: one dorsal, Fig. 2, a, with

See

ao

|

Zea

———S

Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
loop lines of growth advancing forward; two lateral, 6, separated
from the dorsal by a continuous straight or nearly straight line,
and covered with very obliquely arched strize in a hyperbolic
form, in part nearly parallel to the dorso-laterai boundary line,
and in part reflexed, so as to form lines in retiring curves across
the ventral portion nearly parallel to the edges of the septa.
ae

CEPHALOPODA.

There were at least three kinds of pro-ostracum in the
family Belemnitide.

A. Inmany Belemnites the extension of the conotheca seems
to run out in one simple broad plate, Fig. 3, as in B. hastatus
from Solenhofen.

B. In Belemnites Puzosianus, D’Orbigny, the pro-ostracum is
very thin, and apparently horny or imperfectly calcified in the
dorsal region, supported laterally by two long, narrow, parallel,
calcareous plates, Fig. 4, as in B. Puzosianus from the Oxford
clay. Professor Huxley considers this difference between the
pro-ostraca of generic importance.

C. The third kind of pro-ostracum is exhibited by Orthocera
elongata, De la Beche, the type of the genus Xiphoteuthis,
Huxley ; it is calcareous, and is composed of concentric lamelle,
each of which consists of fibres disposed perpendicularly to the
plane of the lamella; the phragmocone is very long and narrow,
and the guard cylindroidal.

“Professor Huxley suspects that a thoroughly well-preserved
specimen of Belemnoteuthis will some day demonstrate the exist-
ence of a fourth kind of pro-ostracum among the Belemnitide.

The genera in the family are:—1, Belemnites ; 2, Belemnitella ;
3, Aiphoteuthis ; 4, Belemnoteuthis ; 5, Plesiotewthis ; 6, Celceno ;
7, Beloptera ; 8, Belemnosis; 9, Conoteuthis; and ? Helicerus.

*‘The A anthoteuthes of Munster, so far as they are known
only by hooks and impressions of soft parts, may have been
either Belemnites, or Belemnoteuthis, or Plesioteuthes, or may have
belonged to the genus Celeno.”” (Huxley.)

The genus Belopeltts, Voltz, was founded on the pro-ostraca
_ of Belemnites, species of which were unknown.

The genus Actinocamax, Miller, was founded on the guard
of Belemnites and Belemnitella, the upper parts of which had
decayed, and thus presented no alveolar cavity.

OrDER II.—TETRABRANCHIATA.

Faminty J.—NAvUTILIDA
(including Famity I].—ORTHOCERATID#).

DIVISION a@.—AIR-CHAMBERS CONFINED TO ONE PART OF THE
SHELL.
ASCOCERAS, Barrande, 1846.*
Etymology, askos, a leathern bottle, and ceras.

* At p. 185 Mr. Woodward refers to M. Barrande’s second volume of the ‘‘ Cephalo-
pods of Bohemia.” The Ascoras, Glossoceras, and Aphragmites are here described.

a?)

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Type, A. Bohemicum, Barr., Fig. 5.

Shell flask-shaped, smooth, transversely or
longitudinally striated, or ornamented with
annular folds, or plicated. The terminal cham-
ber (r) occupying the space above the air-
chambers (s), and extending down one side of
nearly the whole length of the shell in the
form of a wide and deep cavity, which is
embraced by the decurrent edges of the in-
complete septa (four or fiveim number). This
cavity also communicates at its base with a
small siphuncle which traverses the minute
apical air-chambers. Aperture of shell simple.

The wide ventral cavity of Ascoceras is of
the same nature as the large lateral siphuncle
of Cameroceras.

Distribution, 16 species. Lower—Upper

Diagram of Ascoceras Q- = : i
( after Barvande). ieee B ohemia, Norway, England, Ca
nada.

GLOSSOCERAS, Barrande, 1865.

Etymology, glossa, a tongue, and ceras.

Type, G. gracile, Barrande. Upper Silurian. Bohemia.

Shell similar to that of Ascoceras, but the dorsal margin of the
aperture is extended in the form of a ligulate projection, sub-
triangularly rounded at the end, and recurved towards the inte-
rior of the shell.

This process gives rise to a distinct lobe on each side of the
opening, which is analogous to that which exists in Hercocerus,
Ophidioceras, and in certain species of Phragmoceras and Gom-
phoceras.

Distribution, 2 species. Middle and Upper Silurian. Anti-
costi; Bohemia.

APHRAGMITES, Barrande, 1865.

Etymology, a, without phragmos, a partition; and the usual
termination. ;
Type, Ascoceras Buchi, Barrande.
Shell, similar to that of Ascoceras, but the air-chambers are
ileciduous.
Distribution, 2 species. Upper Silurian. Bohemia.
g

CEPHALOPODA.

DIvIsiIon b.—AIR-CHAMBERS OCCUPYING THE WHOLE CAVITY
OF THE SHELL.

PILOCERAS, Salter, 1859.

Hiymology, pilos, a cap, and ceras, a horn.

Type, P. nvaginatum, Salter, Fig. 6.

Shell, broad, conical, sub-cylindrical, or com-

ressed, and slightly curved. Siphuncle and septa

combined as a series of conical concave septa, which
fit into each other sheathwise.

Distribution, 3 species. Lower Silurian. Scot-
land. Canada. Fig. 6. Diagram

oO1 Liweerus

ORTHOCERAS.* (after Salter).

Sub-genera :—
1. GonrIocERAS, Hall, 1847.

Etymology, gonios, an angle.

_ Type, G. anceps. Lower Silurian. United States.

Shell, having the general form and structure of Orthoceras,
flattened with extremely salient angles; septa sinuous; section
of shell, an extended ellipse with projecting angles; siphuncle
ventral.

2. ENDoOcERAS, Hall, see W. M., uu. p. 192.
3. TRETOCERAS, Salter, 1858 (Diploceras, Salter, 1856).

Etymology, tretos, pierced.

Type, Orthoceras bisiphonatum, Sowerby. Lower Silurian.
Wales.

Shell elongated ; septa pierced by a sub-central beaded
siphuncle, and also by a deep lateral cavity continuous with
the terminal chamber, and passing down side by side with
the siphuncle—the cavity affecting at least seven of the upper-
most septa, if not the whole.

CYRTOCERAS. tT

Sub-genera :-—

1. ONOCERAS, see W. M., ii. 193. ‘‘ The shells of this genus
and Cyrtoceras pass gradually into each other, but Onoceras may
be retained for those species which are much inflated in the ante-
rior half or two-thirds of the shell length” (Billings); and
‘‘ which have a more or less strangulated aperture” (Barrande),

* See p. 190. + See p. 194.

7

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

2. CYRTOCERINA,* Billings, 1866.

Type, ©. typica, Billings.

Shell having the general characters of Cyrtoceras, but differs
in the short, thick form, and in the large siphuncle on the
dorsal side.

Distribution, 2species. Silurian. Canada.

3. STREPTOCERAS, Billings, 1865.

Etymology, streptos, curved, and ceras.

Shell having the form of Onoceras, but with a trilobed aperture
like Phragmoceras.

Distribution, 2 species. Middle Silurian. Canada.

Litvuires, Breynius.t

Type, L. lituus, Hisinger.

Shell discoidal, whorls (2—5) close or separate; last chamber
produced in a straight, or nearly straight line, sometimes
slightly curved, in a direction contrary to that of the spire ;
lateral margins of the aperture extended and curved towards
the interivr of the shell; the aperture contracted thus presents
two distinct orifices, the smaller corresponding to the convex or
ventral side, the larger to the concave or dorsal side of the shell.

L. lituus is the only species in which the aperture has been
observed. 28 species from the Middle and Upper ? Silurian
rocks of Kurope and North America, belong here or to allied
genera.

Sub-genus :—OPHIDIOCERAS, Barrande, 1867.

Synonym, Ophioceras, Barrande, 1865.

Etymology, ophiodes, shaped like a serpent, and ceras.

Type, O. Nakholmensis, Kjerulf (Litwites).

Shell with the produced portion very short or wanting.

The shells of the Bohemian species are keeled on the convex
side.

Distribution, 7 species. Middle Silurian; Norway (1). Upper
Silurian, Bohemia (6).

LitvuuncuLvs, Barrande, 1867.
Shell as in Lituites, but with a simple aperture. No species
have been yet observed.
Sub-genus :—DiscocERas, Barrande, 1867.
Litymology, diskos, a quoit, and ceras.
Type, D. antiquissimus, Hichwald (Litwites).
5 * See p. 194. t See p. 189.

CEPHALOPODA.

Shell with the produced portion very short or wanting.

This sub-genus bears the same relation to Litwunculus (the
existence of which is supposed) that Ophidioceras does to
Lituites.

Distribution, 3 species. Middle Silurian. Russia, Germany,
Norway.

HERCOCERAS, Barrande, 1867.

Etymology, erkos, a wall, and ceras.

T'ype, H. mirum, Bar. Middle Silurian, Bohemia.

Shell usually involute, as in Nautilus, rarely with separated
whorls as in Gyroceras, or with a spire as in T'rochoceras. Body-
chamber with a diaphragm perpendicular to the axis of the shell,
the concavity of which is opposed to that of the last septum.
This disposition throws the aperture on the convex side of the
shell, which is deeply excavated. Siphuncle dorsal, cylindrical,
inflated between the chambers, separated from the shell.

Nautilus subtuberculatus, Sandberger, from the Devonian of
Nassau, may belong to this genus.

BATHMOCERAS, Barrande, 1867.

Hiymology, in allusion to the imbricated arrangement of the
partitions.

Type, B. complexum, Barr. (Orthoceras).

Sheli having the general appearance of Orthoceras. Part of
the body-chamber occupied by a series of imbricating plates,
which decrease in horizontal extension from below upwards.
Siphuncle composed of a series of superimposed funnel-shaped
tubes, the narrow end directed towards the aperture of the shell.

Distribution, 2 species. Middle Silurian, Bohemia.

AULACOCERAS, Hauer, 1860.

Hiymology, aulax, a furrow, and ceras.

Type, A. sulcatum, Hauer, Fig. 7.

Shell straight, like Orthoceras ; corrugated,
with two deep lateral furrows; siphon simple,
very small, marginal and dorsal, situated
between the longitudinal sulci. The test
increases rapidly in thickness towards the —
apex of the shell.

The genus is a transition form between

Fig. 7. Transverse sec-

the Nautilide and the Belemnitide. timotl -Adiacocer tes aid:
Distribution, 4 species. Upper Trias, catum.
Austria.

B3 9

‘MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

aot

[FamiIty GonraTip#. Barrande. |

Shell involute or straight; septa concave in their median
section ; sutures usually with angular lobes; septai tubes coni-
cal, more or less prolonged, but always directed backwards.
Siphuncle cylindrical, of small diameter, always marginal ;
siphonal investment not persistent; convexo-ventral margin of
the aperture sloped, lines of growth and ornamentation of the
shell with a corresponding sinuosity.

The genera enumerated in this family are Goniatites, Clymenia,
and Bactrites. Dr. Woodward includes the Goniatites and the
Bactrites (pp. 196, 197) with the Ammonitide ; and the Cly-
menia with the Nautilidee (p. 190).

Famity IJ1.—AMMONITIDA.

Shell various ; septa convex in their median section ; sutures
always lobed, ramified, or denticulated ; septal tube cylindrical
and always directed forwards. Siphuncle cylindroid of small
diameter, always marginal; siphonal investment more or less
solid and persistent. Convexo-ventral ? margin of the aperture
more or less prolonged, which determines a similar convexity
in the lines of growth and ornamentation of the test; there are
rare specific exceptions. 5

DIvIsion I.—SUTURES LOBED OR DENTICULATED AT THE BASE.
1. RHABDOCERAS (see p. 196).
2. Bacutina, D’Orbigny, 1850.

Example, B. Rouyana, D’Orb. Neocomian, France.

Shell like Baculites, but its lobes and saddles are not foliated,
there being between these forms a similar distinction to that
between Ceratites and Ammonites.

B. acuarius, Schlotheim, is from the Oxfordian strata of
Gammelshausen in Wurtemberg.

3. COCHLOCERAS, Hauer, 1860.

Etymology, cochlos, a snail-shell, and ceras.
Type, C. Fischeri, Hauer, Fig. 8.
Shell resembling that ae Turrilites, with the sutural lobes
simple, as in RLhabdoceras and Clydonites,
10

CEPHALOPODA.

Distribution, 3 species. Upper Triassic strata of Hallstadt,

Austria.

Fig. 8. Shell and sutural lobes of Cochloceras Fischeri.

4, CHORISTOCERAS, Hauer, 1865.

Type, C. Marshii, Hauer.
Shell somewhat similar in form to Crioceras, with the lobular

ornamentation characteristic of Ceratites.
Distribution, 4 species. Upper Trias, Austria.

5. CLYDONITES, Hauer, 1860.

|
!

I

rl
a AN |
a

ee Sk BOG ds

al

Fig. 9. Shell of Clydonites costatus, Hau. Figs. 10a, 10b. Shell and suturallobes of C.
delphinocephalus, Hau.

Etymology, kludon, the surge, with the usual termination.
Examples, Goniatites Eryx, Minst; Ammonites delphino-

cephalus, Hauer. Figs. 9, 10.
Shell, discoidal; sutures lobed; lobes entire, not crenulated

as in Ceratites.
Distribution, Upper Triassic strata, Hallstadt and St, Cassian,
in the Austrian Alps ; North-western Himalayas; 21 species.
Upper Cretaceous, 2 species described as Ceratites by D’Orbigny.
11

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.
6. CERATITES (see p. 197).
Division I1.—SUTURES FOLIATED

Including the genera Ammonites (p. 197), Toxoceras, Ancylo-
ceras,* Scaphites, Helicoceras, and Twurrilites (p. 200), Hamites,
Piychoceras, and Baculites (p. 201), and the following.

ANISOCERAS (see p. 200), Pictet, 1854.

iitymology, anisos, unequal; and ceras.

Hxample, Hamites armatus, Sowerby.

Shell at first growing in an open helicoid spire, afterwards
more or less prolonged and reflected; ornamented by trans-
verse ribs. Sutures of septa divided into 5 lobes and 5d saddles,
all bipartite ; the lateral saddles are the largest.

Fossil, 12 species. Gault—Upper Green Sand, Europe. Cre-
taceous, India. 1 species, Jurassic. North-west Himalayas.

Species of Helioceras founded on helicoid portions of shells
may belong to this genus.

HAMULINA (see p. 201), D’Orbigny, 1852.

Example, H. dissimilis, D’Orb.

Shell conical prolonged, having a portion of the body chamber
reflected, but not touching the other portion; section of the
shell round or laterally compressed; sutures of the septa
divided into six lobes, and as many saddles. |

Hamulina differs from Hamites in bemg only once reflected
instead of twice, and from Ptychoceras in haying the reflected
portion of the shell separate from the other, not close together.

Distribution, 15 species. Neocomian, France. Ootatoor
group (= ? Gault), India.

PELTARION, Deslongchamps, 1859.

Founded on the mandibular armature of tetrabranchiate
cephalopods

* Many of the forms considered to belong to Crioceras have been ascertained
by M. Astier to be only more or less incomplete individuals of species belonging to
Ancyloceras. That Crioceras must merge into Ancyloceras appears inevitable.

GASTEROPODA.

Ewample, P. bilobatum. Upper Lias, Normandy. Fig. 11.
Calcareous plates nearly circular or transversely oval ; ante-

Fig. 11.

rior border rounded, posterior produced and truncated ; concave
above and flattened below; the two faces have one-half smooth
and the other concentrically striated in an inverse direction
to each other.

fossil, 3 or 4 species. Up. Lias— Oor. Rag. England ;
Normandy ; Wurtemberg.

CLASS II.—GASTEROPODA.
ORDER I.—PROSOBRANCHIATA.
Famity I1.—MouRIcip& (see p. 212, &c.).

The genera included in this family are :—

Murex, TYPHIS, PISANIA, TROPHON, FASCIOLARIA, TURBI-
NELLA (Cynodonta, Latirus, Lagena), Eusus (Clavella, Chryso-
domus, Pusionella, Tritonidea), FULGUR, COMINELLA, MyRIs-
TICA, and LACHESIS

AwnaAcuHis, H. and A. Adams.

Type, Columbella scalarina, Sowerby.

Shell like Columbella; operculum elongated, unguiform,
nucleus terminal, having close analogies with Pisania.

Distribution, 27 species. Tropical America.

PTYCHATRACTUS, Stimpson, 1865.

Etymology, ptych, a fold; atractus, a spindle.
Type, Fasciolaria ligata, Mighels and Adams. Deep water;
United States.

13

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Shell fusiform, spirally striated ; aperture with a rather long
canal; columella plicated as in Fasciolaria; operculum like
that of Chrysodomus. Lingual dentition, resembles that of the
Purpuride, 1:1:1. | Rhachidian tooth, deeply arched, with
three denticles; lateral teeth versatile, elongated, simple, hook-
shaped, base swollen.

Buccrnopsis, Jeffreys, 1859.

Etymology, having the aspect of Buccinum.

Synonym, Liomesus, Stimpson, 1865.

Type, Buccinum Dalei, J. Sowerby, Britain.

Shell oval, spirally striated; epidermis filmy; spire short,
obtuse; outer lip smooth within; canal short and open; oper-
culum triangular; nucleus placed on the inner base of the
aperture.

The lingual dentition makes an approach to Maes and
consists of a single plain and slightly curved tooth on each side
of a thin non-denticulated plate.

The egg cases of Buccinopsis are separate.

Distribution, 3 species. German Ocean, North Atlantic, Spitz-
bergen, Behring’s Straits.

Fossil. B. Dalei occurs in the Red, Antwerp, and Coralline
Crags. England, Belgium.

Cheletropis is the fry of species belonging to the Muricide.
Adamsia, Dunker, resembles a sculptured Cominella without
the sutural construction of the whorls. 2 species. Australia.

Famity II1.—Bvuccmnipz.*

The enumerated genera are :—

BuccINuM, PSEUDOLIVA, BuLLIA, EspurNA, PHos, NAsSsA
(Oyllene, Northia, Cyclonassa), COLUMBELLA, TRUNCARIA, and
TEREBRA (Myurella), SUBULA (Huryta).

TruncARIA, A. Adams and Reeve, 1848.

Synonym, Buccinopsis, Deshayes.

Type, T. filosa (Buccinum). Adams and Reeve. China.

Shell oval, oblong; spire elongated; apex acute, often chan-
nelled at the suture; aperture oblong, dilated in front, angu-
lated, sometimes with a small canal behind; outer lip simple or
bordered; columella concave, abruptly truncated, and shorter
than the right lip.

* See p. 218, &e.
14

GASTEROPODA.

Species of this genus are Buccinums with a truncated colu<
mella.

Distribution, 5 species. China, Central Ameria, Vigo Bay.

Fossil, 3 species. Hocene. Paris basin.

[FAMILY PURPURIDZA]

Is composed of the following genera :—

PuRPURA, including Monoceros (of sectional value)* and the
sub-genera :—

Concholepas, Cuma, Rapana (see p. 217, under Pyrula),
Pinaxia, Adams.

lopas, H. and A. Adams, 1853. Shell bucciniform, with a
small canal in the posterior angle of the aperture. Fossil,
3 species. Eocene. Paris.

Vitularia, Swainson, 1840. YV. salebrosa. South and Central
America. Shell with irregular varices; operculum as in Purpura.

Nitidella, Swainson. Shell as Cylindra; spire sometimes
decollated; lip continuous or crenated; operculum elongate;
nucleus lateral.

RIcINULA, HARPA, RHIZOCHCHILUS (Coralliophila, Adams),
and MAGILUS, with the

Sub-genus Leptoconchus, Riippell.

Shell similar to that of Magilus; young shell only with an
operculum.

[FAMILY CASSIDZ. ]

The genera referred to this family are :—

RANELLA (p. 214), TRITON (p. 214), PyRULA (p. 217), Cassis
(p. 224), ONISCIA (p. 225), CASSIDARIA (p. 225), Dorium
(Malea) (p. 226), and

NassaRiA, Pfeiffer.

Animal analogous with that of Ranella, as regards the length
of the tentacles, position of the eyes, smallness of the head,
and by the form of the operculum, but is provided with a long
branchial siphon.

Shell sub-canaculated in front, and deeply notched.

[FamiIty OLIvipz]

Includes Oxiva (Olivella, Scaphula, Agaronia), ANCILLARIA
(Monoptygma, Lea).

* See p. 223, } See p. 227.
15

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

[FAMILY VOLUTIDZ]

Contains COLUMBELLINA (p. 227), Mirra (Imbricaria, Cylindra,
Strigatella, and Hyalina) (p. 231), VoLuTA (Volutilithes, Scaphella,
Volutomitra, and Melo) (p. 230), CymBA (p. 231), MARGINELLA ~
(p. 232), VOLVARIA (p. 232), and |

Lyris, Gray, 1847.

Synonyms, Harpella, Gray; Eneeta, Gray.

Types, Li. deliciosa, Montf.; L. harpa, Barnes.

Shell ovate oblong, mitriform, thick, sometimes longitudi-
nally costated ; aperture subovate, with a large number of
columellar plaits, the two anterior of these being the strongest ;
posterior portion of the inner lip provided with a large number
of short cross-plaits. Operculum ovate-clongate, thin ; corneous
nucleus at first nearly central, at a more advanced age sub-
apical.

Distribution, 14 species. Pacific Ocean, America, Madagascar,
Australia, Japan, New Caledonia, Antilles.

Fossil, 8 species. Cretaceous. India. The species in the
Tertiary strata have not been distinguished from Voluta.

Cystiscus, Stimpson, 1865.

Type, O. capensis, Cape of Good Hope.

Shell resembling that of Marginella; small, thin, ovate,
inflated, smooth, and polished; aperture narrow, columella
plaited.

Animal with an elongated foot, truncated in front; head ob-
long, depressed ; tentacles triangular, flattened, and horizontal ;
eyes at the lateral margins of the head, at the bases of the ten-
tacles. Lingual dentition, 0°1:0, resembling the rhachidian
teeth of Murex, thick and strong, with seven unequal conical
denticles.

[FAMILY OCYPREIDZE]

Includes Erato, Cyprma (Cyprovula, Luponia, and Trivia),
OvuLa (Volva and Radius), PACHYBATHRON, PEDICULARIA, and
DENTIORA, Pease, 1862.

Type, D. rubida, Sandwich Islands.
Shell differs from that of Pedicularia in the flat or excavated
columella, compressed, and toothed.
16

GASTEROPODA.

Faminy Conipz#

Contains Conus (Conarbis), DisAPHUS, PLEUROTOMA (Drillia,
Bela, Clionella, Daphnelia), CLAVATULA (Tomellia), MANGELIA
(Clathurella), LACHESIS, CITHARA, and

BorsontA, Bellardi, 1839.

Synonym, Cordieria, Ronault, 1848.

Shell like Pleurotoma, with oblique folds on the thick colu-
mella, and thus establishes a passage between Plewrotoma and
Turbinella.

Distribution, 4 species. Hast Indies.

Fossil, 23 species. Eocene—. France, Italy, England,

United States.

GOSAYVIA, Stoliczka, 1868.

Type, Voluta squamosa, Zekeli.

Shell similar to that of Conus; aperture narrow, elongated ;
base emarginate ; outer lips notched near the posterior suture ;
columella lip plicated, the anterior plaits being always the
strongest.

Fossil, 8 species. Cretaceous. — Hocene? Gosau; India.

[Faminty NATIcIDsé. |

The genera are—

NATICA, containing as sub-genera WNaticospis, Neverita,
Lunatia, Globulus, Globularia, Polinices, Cernina, and

Euspira (Agassiz), Morris and Lycett, 1850.

Spire more or less elevated ; whorls few, distinct, angulated,
or carinated.

Fossil, 6 species. Inferior Oolite—. Forest Marble. Eng-
land,

‘‘ Huspira presents considerable affinities to the Paleeozoic
genus, Scalites (Hall), in the lines of growth having the appear-
ance of a slight fissure, where the angle occurs in the volution.”
(Mor. and Lyc.)

SIGARETUS (and sub-genus Naticina).
LAMELLABIA (Oncidiopsis and Marsenia), VELUTINA.

AMAURA.

Type; A. candida, Moller. Greenland.
17

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

“Animal allied to Natica; foot small, compact without any
posterior lobe ; the front lobe deeply sinuated; eyes subcuta-
neous, situated at the internal base of the lobe; operculum
terminal, few-whorled, horny, thin.

“Shell ovate, imperforate, spire small, produced; mouth
reversed, pear-shaped, about half the length of the shell.” |
(Moller. )

Fossil, species. Cretaceous. Germany, Britain.

DESHAYESIA, Raulin, 1844 (see p. 236).

Dedicated to M. Deshayes, author of ‘‘ Description des Ani-
maux sans Vertébres dans le bassin de Paris,”’ &c.

Synonym, Naticella, Grateloup (non Minster).

Type, D. Parisiensis, Raulin.

Shell subglobose, thick, umbilicated; spire short; aperture
entire, semicircular, oblique ; columella oblique ; callosity den-
ticulated; umbilicus covered by the callosity; right lip acute,
smooth internally.

This genus presents a very remarkable combination of the
characters of Natica and Nerita, and appears to establish a pas-
sage between these two genera, types of distinct families.

Distribution, 2 species. Oligocene and Miocene. Paris and
Bordeaux Basins

PTycHOsToMA, Laube.

Fossil, 3 species. St. Cassian.

[FAMILY CANCELLARIDZ. |

The genera are—
CANCELLARIA (Admete, p. 216), TRIcHOTROPIS (p. 216),
? CERITHIOPSIS (p. 242), P SEPARATISTA, and

PurPurina,* D’Orbigny, 1850 (p. 222).
Type, Purpurina Bellona, D’Orbigny, Fig. 12.

* This genus has been the subject of careful research and revision by Messrs,
Eugene Deslongchamps and Piette ; and I think it advisable to replace the characters.
of this group, given in p. 222 of the Manual, by those emended by the authors above
wentioned,

18

GASTEROPODA.

Shell oval, elongated, -ventricose, thick ;
whorls rounded or rendered angular by the
upper portion being channelled ; last whorl
much developed. Ornamentation usually of :
large longitudinal ribs, crossed by numerous #¥
striz ; aperture large in the young state, fa
shghtly notched in front ; columella rounded ;
umbilical groove deep, narrow, but well de-
fined.

Fossil, 8 species. Inferior Oolite—Kelloway
Rock. England, France, Germany.

Fig, 12 Pdrpurina
Bellona.

TORELLIA (Loven), Jeffreys, 1867.

Dedicated to Dr. Otto Torell, of Norway.

Type, T. vestita, Jeffreys. Shetland and Norway.

Animal with the produced lips and lingual dentition of
Capulus.

Shell globose, covered with a velvety epidermis; spire very
short ; apex depressed ; aperture roundish ; pillar with a blunt
tubercle at its base; groove internal, scarcely perceptible ;
operculum like that of T'richotropis.

[FAMILY NERITOPSIDZ. ]

Genera :—NERITOPSIS and NARICA with Naticella as a sub-
genus (see p. 261).

[FAMILY PYRAMIDELLIDZ.*]

The following genera and sub-genera are additional :—

PYRAMIDELLA. Sub-genus Chrysallida, P. Carpenter, 1857.

Shell pupiform; peristone continuous; edge of lip thin;
columella-plait distinct, though hidden; operculum in the
typical species radiately corrugated.

Distribution, 25 species. EH. and W. Indies, Japan, Mazatlan.

OpostomIA. Some of the Mazatlan species have the peri-
stone continuous.

Sub-genera :—Auriculina, Gray.

Shell haying the general aspect of Odostomia, but presenting
no vestige of a plait. Mazatlan, 3 species.

Fossil, 4 species. Tertiary. United States.

Parthenia, Lowe (Hbalia, Adams). Surface sculptured ;
columella plaited.

Distribution, 10 species. Mazatlan, Japan.

* See p. 238.
19

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

ScALENOSTOMA, Deshayes, 1863.

Type, 8. carinatum, Isle of Bourbon.

Shell in form allied to Pyramidella and Niso, turriculated,
white, imperforate; columella not plicated; opening subtri-
angular, slightly bent in the direction of its length; margin
simple, notched near the suture.

CHEMNITZIA. Sub-genera :—Dunkeria, P. Carpenter (dedi-
cated to Professor W. Dunker). Aperture as in Chemnitzia,
but the whorls rounded as in Aclis; whorls cancellated.

Distribution, 7 species. Mazatlan, Japan.

Pseudomelania, Pictet and Campiche, 1864.

Hiymology, pseudo, false, and Melania, a generic name.

Shell turriculated, spire acute, test thick, imperforate,
without ornamentation. Aperture oval, rounded in front, more
or less angulated behind; columella thick, conforming to the
general curvature of the aperture; lip simple.

Distribution. Trias—Chalk. Europe, South Africa. The
cretaceous species are 14 in number. .

Hutima. Sub-genus :—Leiostraca, H. and A. Adams (Balcis,
Leach).

Shell with a slight varix on each side of the spire.

Distribution, 8 species. Mazatlan, Taboga.

ActouLiIna, Deshayes, 1864.

Shell small, aciculated; apex laterally inclined; whorls
numerous, convex, smooth; aperture entire, small, subqua-
drangular; columella straight, narrow, cylindrical, and simple.

Distvyibution, 6 species. Eocene. Paris basin.

MATHILDA, Semper, 1865.

Shell turriculated, apex revolute, abruptly turned from left to
right; whorls in the typical species transversely cingulated
and reticulated, longitudinally striated; aperture entire, subro-
tund, base sometimes subeffuse; lip acute; columella smooth,
not plicated.

Distribution. The type Turritella quadricarinatus, Brocchi,
is living in the Mediterranean, and is fossil in the Crag of
Anvers, and at Bologna.

Fossil, 13 species. Hocene—. Europe, United States.

SoLEniscus, Meek and Worthen, 1860.
Htymology, soleniskos, a little channel or gutter.
20

GASTEROPODA.

Type, 8. typicus. Upper Coal Measures. Springfield, Illinois.

| Shell fusiform, smooth, body whorls contracted below into a
| distinct straight canal, with an oblique plait on the columella.

Agrees with Macrocheilus in its smooth surface and columella

fold, but differs in its fusiform outline, narrow aperture, and

distinct canal. In its general appearance resembles Fasciolaria,

but has only one instead of two or three columella folds, and is
destitute of ornamentation, and its outer lip is smooth within.

KUCHRYSALIS, Lambe.

Fossil, 6 species. St. Cassian, Austria.

[FAMILY STILIFERIDZ. |

The genera are :—

STILIFER.—Dr. Fischer supposes that Stilifer, though living
like a parasite on the tegumentary system of the echinoderms or
their appendages, does not feed on their substance, as has been
supposed. Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys’s impression is that it feeds on
the excretions of the echinoderms.

STYLIFERINA, Adams.

Shell imperforated, ovate conical, thin, smooth; whorls many,
produced in a styliform spire; nucleus sinistral; aperture sub-
quadrate; lp simple, straight.

Distribution, 2 species. Japan.

M. Freyer, of Trieste, is of opinion that Entoconcha (L.
murabilis), which is parasitic on Synapta digitata, is the
embryonic condition of a species of Natica.

Famity IL1.—CERITHIADZ.*

Includes CERiITHIumM (LRhinoclavis and Bittiwm), TRIFORIS,
PoramipEs (Vicarya, Cerithidea, Terebralia, Pyrazus, and
Lampania), NERIN@HA, and the following additional genera
and sub-genera :—

CERITHIUM.—Sub-genus. Sandbergeria, Bosquet, 1860.
Dedicated to Professor Sandberger. Z'ype, Cerithium cancel-
lata, Nyst. sp. Shell short, like Cerithium, canal terminal,
very broad, and short. M. Bosquet describes the type as
haying an operculum as in Stenothyra; it is very questionable
as to whether the operculum belonged to the shell.

*® See p. 242, &c.
21

—

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Distribution, 29 species. Cretaceous; India. Eocene. France,
Netherlands.

Evstoma, Piette, 1855.

Type, HE. tuberculosa, Piette.

Shell in the young state resembling Cerithiwm ; in the adult,
the margins of the aperture are much expanded and posteriorly
united by an indistinct canal; canal elongated.

Fossil, 2 species. Great Oolite. Ardennes.

EXELISSA, Piette, 1861.

Litymology, exelisso, to unfold.

Synonym, Kilvertia, Lycett, 1863.

Type, Cerithium strangulatum, D’Archiac.

Shell small, elongated, subcylindrical, somewhat pupeeform,
many whorled, perpendicularly costated, tuberculated or spined ;
last whorl cylindrical, contracted at the base, with a tendency
to separate from the axis; aperture orbicular, entire, the lips
elevated, produced, and slightly thickened ; columella solid.

Fossil, 14 species. Mid. Lias—Kimmeridge Clay. England
and France. The shelly freestone of the Inferior Oolite, Glou-
cestershire, contains some undescribed species. Cretaceous, 1
sp. ? India.

FIBULA, Piette, 1857.

Example, Turritella Roissyi, D’Archiac.

Shell elongated, columella straight, with a rudimentary
groove near the base; outer lip arched, slightly notched at the
suture; base of the aperture forming a slight canal, or rounded
and entire, depending upon the exact period of growth at which —
the animal perished. 4

The species of this genus possess characters intermediate and
approximating them to Turritella and to Cerithium.

Fossil, 21 species. Triassic—Oretaceous. Europe, India. «

CRYPTOPLOCUS, Pictet and Campiche, 1854.

Litymology, cryptos, hidden ; ploce, a plait.

Example, Nerinzea monilifera, D’Orb.

Shell, as in Nerincea, without columella and labial plaits ; one
plait on the posterior face of the aperture, a disposition very
analogous to that in some Cerithiwms, such as C. nodulosum {
aperture rounds‘, not channeled in front; umbilicated or im-
perforate.

22

GASTEROPODA.

Distribution, 7 species. Jurassic and Cretaceous. France,
Switzerland, Germany.

PLANAXIS. M. Deshayes places this genus in Littorinide,
but Dr. Macdonald states that it is anatomically closely related
to Cerithium, the lingual teeth are similar, and that the audi-
tory sacs contain spherical otoliths.

QuoyiA, Deshayes, 1830.

Dedicated to the celebrated naturalist to the Astrolabe.

Synonyms, Fissilabria, Brown ; Leucostoma, Swainson.

Shell solid, elongated, conical, apex decollated; whorls flat,
the body whorl sub-angular at the base; aperture small, semi-
lunar, produced in front; columella thick, curved, truncated
anteriorly, with a spiral fold posteriorly, operculum horny,
paucispiral, nucleus lateral.

Distribution, 2 species. New Guinea, Cochin China.

Fossil. Hocene, Paris (1). Miocene, Dax (1).

The three following genera are provisionally referred to Cer-
thiade.

CERITELLA, Morris and Lycett, 1850.

Ltymology, diminutive of Cerithium.

Synonym, Tubifer (pars), Piette, 1856.

Type, Ceritella acuta, Mor. and Lyc.

Shell turreted, subulate, spire acute; whorls flat, margins
usually sulcated; last whorl large; aperture elongated and
narrow; canal short; columella smooth, rounded, and slightly
reflected at the base; outer lip thin.

Fossil, 17 species. Middle Jurassic strata. Hingland, France.

BRACHYTREMA, Morris and Lycett, 1850.

Etymology, brachyos, short, and tremos, a cut.

Examples, B. Buvignieri, Mor. and Lyc.,
R. Wrightii, Cotteau (Fig. 13).

Shell s small, turreted, turbinated; whorls either
costated, owimilesi. or cancellated; the last whorl
large and REE aOR: columella erin rounded, ¢ ‘
twisted near its base, and reflecting outwards, Ee
forming a short, oblique canal; aperture
moderately subovate, its length being usually
less than that of the spire.

Some species, as B. varicosa and B. pygymea, Fig. 1
acquired at certain arrests of growth thickened Brazhytroma
outer lips or varices, as in T’riton. ce

23

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Fossil, 16 species. The greater number belong to the Great
Oolite, others occur in the Kelloway Rock. England, France.

MesostomA, Deshayes, 1864.

Example, M. grata, Dh.

Shell elongated, turreted, scalariform; aperture nearly cir-
cular, dilated, obliquely cut, terminating in front by a semi<
canaliculated angle; columella slightly concave, cylindrical,
obliquely truncated, lip simple, and slightly expanded.

Fossil, 4 species. Hocene. Paris basin.

[Famity APORRHAIDA, Gray, 1856, |

Includes the genera APORRHAIS (see p. 244), PTERODONTA,
STRUTHIOLARIA (p. 246), and HALIA; also

ALARIA, Morris and Lycett, 1854.

Synonym, Tessarolax, Gabb, 1864.

Etymology, ala, a wing.

Examples, Alaria trifida, Phillips, sp.; A. cingulata, Pictet
and Roux, sp.

Shell turreted, fusiform, terminating anteriorly by a canal;
wing digitated or palmated, formed by the prolongation of the
free border of the last whorl, and which is applied against the
last whorl but one, but never adheres to the rest of the spire;
posterior canal wanting; right ip without a sinus.

Distribution, about 50 species. Jurassic. Hurope, Himalaya
Mountains, South Africa. Cretaceous, 9 species. England,
France, Germany.

The species of this genus have been referred to Rostellaria,
Pierocera, and Aporrhais.

DIARTHEMA, Piette.

Shell with continuous varices.
Distribution. Lower Oolites. France.

Pelicaria vernis, Adams, has a spiral shell; the spire of adult
covered with an enamel coat ; aperture ovate; outer lip sinuous,
sharp-edged.
? BULIMELLA, Hall, 1857.

Shell more or less fusiform; whorls convex, the last one much
enlarged; columella truncated; outer lip thin, with a slight
notch or sinus at the margin near its junction with the pillar.

Distribution, 3 species. Carboniferous. Indiana.

24

GASTEROPODA.

[FAMILY VERMETIDZ. |

The shells of species of this family are distinguished from
those of the Serpule by the presence of a spiral nucleus and of
concave smooth interior septa.

If the shell is formed of a solid matter strongly sculptured
with longitudinal grooves or scales, or of a brownish colour, it
is certainly formed by a Vermetus; but if the shell is of a soft
earthy matter, feebly longitudinally grooved, it is deubtful to
which it belongs.

The shells of the Serpulide have an anal opening (except
Cymospira), and appear only to be composed of two layers, the
Vermetide haying three.

The interior of several species contains very long lamellz,
generally regarded of generic value; but they are dissolved
with age, like the teeth of some species of Pupa.

All the Vermeti are viviparous, and the lamelle within the
tubes may serve for the retention of the fry.

The genera and sub-genera contained in this family are VER-
METUS (Petaloconchus, Serpulorbis) (p. 249), and SILIQUARIA
(p. 249).

[Faminy Cacrp&. |

Shell with a spiral nucleus; tubular, regular, sometimes
fixed aperture orbicular ; ; operculum horny, multispiral ; margin
sometimes fimbriated.

CzacumM, Fleming.*

Nuclear whorls orbicular, in the same plane as the adult, fre-
quently decollated; operculum concave or flattened.

Sections :—EHlephantulum. Comparatively of large size, tapering;
sculpture longitudinal.

Distribution, 9 species. Mazatlan (6), West Indies, Mauritius.

Fossil, 1 species (C. liratum), Carpenter. Cor. Crag. Sutton.

Anellum (typical Czeca). Adult shell annulated.
Distribution, 14 species. Europe, Matzatlan, Australia, Japan.
Fossil, 2 species. Hocene. Paris, Suffolk.

Fartulum. Smooth, cylindrical.

Distribution, 10 species. . Mazatlan, Teneriffe, Singapore,
Australia.

Fossil, C. mamillatum, 8. Wood. Cor. Crag. Sutton.

Sub-genera :—BROCHINA, Gray.

Type, Dentalium glabrum, Mont.

* See p. 249,
Cc

bo
Ou

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Shell like Coecum, smooth; aperture simple, acute; apex closod
by a mamillated plug; operculum, convex.
Distribution, 2 species. Europe, West Indies, Mazatlan.

MEIOCERAS, Carpenter.

Etymology, meion, rather small; ceras, horn.

Young shell spiral or flat; adult somewhat inflated; aperture
oblique; operculum spiral, scarcely concave.

Distribution, 3 species. West Indies.

STREBLOCERAS, Carpenter, 1858.

Etymology, streblos, twisted; ceras, horn.

Shell with the spire not decollated, no plug formed; nuclear
whorls orbicular, perpendicular to the plane of the adult; the
plane of growth is flat, asin Cecum, but some examples haye a
slight twist, forming an approach to Meioceras.

Fossil, 4 species. Hocene. Hampshire, Paris.

Faminty V.—TURRITELLIDZA*
Includes TURRITELLA, PROTO, MESALIA, and

CASSIOPE, Coquand, 1865.

Synonym, Omphalia, Zekeli, 1852 (non Omphalius, Philippi,
1847).

Example, Turritella Renauxiana, D’Orbigny.

Shell thicker, and with more rapidly increasing whorls than
in Turritella, often pupiform; aperture rounded, continuous;
outer lip notched or sinuated by an impressed furrow, which
winds round the last whorl; columella usually distinctly um-
bilicated.

Distribution, 32 species. Cretaceous. Europe, India, and

America.
_ [Faminy ScALARIADAT |

Includes ScALARIA and the sub-genera Lglisia, Pyrgiscus, and
Cirostrema, Morch.

Shell solid, varices irregular, whorls generally cancellated.

CocHLEARIA, Braun.
Synonym, Chilocyclus, Bronn.

* See p. 248, T See p. 250.
26

GASTEROPODA.

Shell turriculated, thick; aperture circular, continuous, with
a large expanded border.
Fossil, 2 species. Saint Cassian beds, Austria.

HOLOPELLA, McCoy, 1882.

Evample, H. gregaria, Sow. (Turritella), Sil. Syst. t. 3, f. 1.

Htymology, ’olos, entire, and ope, an aperture.

Shell elongated, slender, of numerous gradually increasing
whorls, generally crossed by slightly arched strize; mouth cir-
cular, with the peristome entire; base rounded, with or without
a minute umbilicus.

The shells of the species composing this genus differ from
those of .Turritella in the continuous peristome and definite
round margin to the aperture, thus approaching much nearer
to Scalaria.

Fossil, 12 species. Silurian—Trias. Europe, United States.

Famity [TV.—MELANIADZ.*

MELANIA.—Tentacles long, with eyes on the exterior side at
about a third of the length; margin of the mantle festooned.

Sub-genera, Vibex, Melanatria, Hemsinus, and

Philopotamis, Layard, P. sulcata, Reeve, sp. Operculum sub-
spiral; nucleus marginal. Shell solid, paludiniform. Distribu-
tion, 5 species. Ceylon. Habit of Tanalia.

PaLupomus (Type, P. conicus, Gray), as restricted by the
separation of Philopotamis and Tanaiia, is characterised by the
conceutric structure of the adult operculum resembling that of
Paludina, and a spiral nucleus situated about the middle of its
height, and nearest to the left margin.

Distribution, India, Burmah, Egypt, Kast Indian Archipelago,
Mauritius, Ceylon (2 species, reduced from 14). In tanks and
marshes.

Sub-genus, Tanalia, Gray.

Synonym, Ganga, Layard, founded upon certain monstrous
forms of TZ’. aculeata.

Type, T. aculeata Chemnitz.

Shell semiglobose, costate, nodulose; mouth very large, ovate;
operculum unguiculate; nucleus marginal.

Distribution, 2 species. Inhabiting mountain streams, ad-
hering to rocks, or crawling over sandy bottoms, Ceylon.

Fossil, 2 species. Upper Chalk. Gosau

* See p. 246, &c.
c2 27

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Io, Lea, 1831.

Synonyms, Melafusus and Ceriphasia, Swainson; Pleurocera
and Strepoma, Raf.; Trypanostoma, Lea; Telescopella, Gray.

Type, I. fluvialis, Say (Fusus).

Animal with the mantle margin plain; eyes at the base of
the tentacles, which are short; operculum subspiral.

Shell fusiform, inflated, conical or oval; aperture produced
into a more or less obvious canal in front.

Distribution, 100 species. North America.

Sub-genera, Lithasia, Haldeman, 1840. Synonyms, Angi-
trema, Haldeman ; Potodoma, Sw.; Glotella, Gray.

Columella callously thickened. above and below; base of
aperture notched. Distribution, 31 species. North Andover:

Strephobasis, ea, 1861 (Megara sp., A. and H. Adams).
Shell with a retorse canal at the base of the squarish aperture.

Distribution, 8 species. North America.

GYROTOMA, Shuttleworth, 1845.

Synonyms, Gontobasis, Lea, 1862; Huryccelon, Lea.

Shell solid, oval, oblong, or turreted ; many forms resemble
Paludomus; aperture subrhomboidal, subangular in front,
without a canal; columella frequently callously thickened
above; operculum subspiral, as in Melania.

Distribution, 289 species. United States.

Fossil, 8 species. Eocene. North America.

Sub-genera, Schizostoma, Lea, 1842 (Schizochilus, Lea; Mela-
toma carinifera, Anthony); aperture with a slit in the upper
part of the outer lip immediately under the suture. Distribu-
tion, 27 species. North America.

Meseschiza, Lea, 1864. Slit in the middle of the outer lip.
M. Grosvenorit. Indiana.

PALADILHEA, Bourguignat, 1865.

Dedicated to Dr. Paladilhe.

Shell somewhat resembling that of Acme; test thin, crystal-
line, extremely fragile; base of aperture produced in front;
peristome continuous, thin, truncated; outer lip with a slit
towards the suture.

Distribution, 3 species. Fresh-water deposits. Herault, One
of the species is living in the neighbourhood of Montpellier.

28

GASTEROPODA.

BucGzEsIA, Paladilhe, 1866.

Shell resembling somewhat a very small Cerithiwm or micro-
scopic Lithasia, but differing generically in having a wide,
compressed, not callous columella like that of Lacuna.

Distribution, B. Bourguignati. In washings of the River Lez,
Montpellier. .

ANcULOSA, Say, 1821.

Synonyms, Leptoxis, Rafinesque; Anculotus auctores.
Type, A. preemorsus.
Shell oval; aperture entire and rounded in front; columella

callously thickened above.
Distribution, 31 species. North America.

MELANOPSIS, including Pirena, see p. 248, W. M., u.

Famity VII.—PALUDINID.*

The genera contained in this family are—

PALUDINA, AMPULLARIA (Pomus, Marisa, Asolene), LANISTES,
MELADOMUS, BITHINIA, with the following sub-genera of the
last :—

Stenothyra (Nematura), Hydrobia, Syncera, Paludinella, Lit-
torinella, Amnicola, and

MoiITEssIERIA, Bourguignat, 1863.

Type, Paludina Simoniana, Charpentier.

Shell somewhat similar to that of Acme; test pitted; de-
pressions octagonal, tetragonal, and rounded according to their
position; peristome externally thickened; no operculum has
been observed.

Distribution, 1 species. Saline springs at Fouradade (Py-
renees).

Fossil, 3 species. Alluvium of the river Garonne, at Toulouse.

PoMATIopsis, Tyron, 1865.

Synonym, Chilocylus, Gill.

Shell elongated ; margin of aperture slightly expanded ; oper-
culum corneous, subspiral, without an internal process.

Animal like that of Hydrobia, but the foot is furnished with
lateral sinuses ; terrestrial or amphibious.

Distribution, species. America.

* See p. 257, &c.
29

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

[Faminy Risso]

Includes LiTiopa (p. 255), Rissorna (p. 256), Rissoa (p. 258),
and the following additional genera :—

DrastomaA, Deshayes, 1864.

Type, Melania costellata, Lamarck.

Shell elongated, turreted; whorls with varices; aperture very
oblique, semi-lunate, entire; base sinuated, smiitectiien: pos-
terior angle acute, detached from the penultimate whorl; lip
thin, curved; columella concave, depressed, narrow.

Fossil, 4 species. Eocene. Paris basin.

AMPHITHALAMUS, P. Carpenter, 1864.

Type, A. inclusus. West Coast of North America.

Sheli like Rissoa, nucleus large; aperture with a produced
lip, suddenly contracted in the adult.

This genus bears the same relation to Rissoa that Stoastoma
does to Helicina.

Kritostoma, Deshayes, 1848.

Type, Melania marginata, Lamk.

Shell elongated, turriculated, regularly conical; generally
striated transversely. Aperture entire, short, effuse at the base,
angulated posteriorly; columella short, callous; the peri-
stome entire, the left lip broad and thick, the right broadly
margined. .

Fossil, Hocene, 6 species; Paris basin. Belgium, England,
Punjaub. Cretaceous, 5 species; India, Gosau.

PTEROSTOMA, Deshayes, 1864.

Type, P. tuba. Eocene. Grignon, Paris.

Shell elongated, turriculated ; peristome continuous, circular,
very dilated and margined; columella very broad, expanded,
and continuous with the peristome.

ScaLioLa, Adams, 1860.

Type, 8. bella.

Animal with the rostrum elongated, Petrik annulated,
bifid at the end; tentacles filiform, eyes »rominent, black at
the outer base of the tentacles; foot short, ovate, posteriorly
sub-acuminate; operculum corneous, ovate, suhspiral; nucleus
subterminal.

jt

GASTEROPODA.

Shell turreted, umbilicated or rimose; aperture more or less
circular; peristome continuous; margin straight, acute.

The species have the habit of agglutinating grains of sand to
the surface of the shell.

Distribution, 4 species. Japan, Philippines, 2—70 fathoms.

Fossil, 1 species. Oligocene, Latdorf.

MicrostELMA, A. Adams, 1863.

Type, M. Deedala, Adams. Japan, 48 fathoms.

Shell turreted, ovate, rimose, somewhat resembling Pyrami-
della ; spire conical; whorls longitudinally plicated. Aperture
oblong, produced in front, sub-canaliculate; columella thick-
ened, straightish ; lip simple.

Fossil, 1 species. Sub-apennine formation. Asti, Italy.

BARLEEIA, Clark.

Named in honour of the late G. Barlee.
Type, Turbo ruber, Montagu. Britain, Mediterranean.
Animal and shell related to Rissoa ; mantle and opercular lobe
destitute of filaments; operculum solid, auriform, and gibbous,
nucleus excentric.
Distribution, 3 species. Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

[FAMILY SKENEIDZ |
Includes Skenea (p. 256), and

HomaALoGyRa, Jeffreys, 1867.

Synonyms, Omalogyra, Jeffreys; Spira, Brown; Ammoni-
cerina, Costa, 1861.

Etymology, a flat circle.

Tyve, H. atomus, Philippi (Skenea nitidissima, F. and H.).

Animal with a flattened body, no tentacles ; eyes sessile, and
placed behind the head.

Shell minute, forming a flat coil; spire involute; whorls
more or less angulated ; mouth clasping both sides of the peri-
phery ; operculum few-whorled, with a central nucleus.

The upper part of the body of H. atomus is partially ciliated.
The tongue has only a single row of teeth, resembling miniature
shark’s teeth.

Distribution, 2 species. In pools, and just beyond low water,
on sea-weeds and Zostera. Norway, Britain, France, shores of
the Mediterranean.

Fossil, upper tertiary deposits. .

31

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Faminty VI.—LItTToORINIDZ.*

The genera are—
Lirrormva, including Tectaria, Modulus, and Risella ;
LAcUNA, and

Fossarus, Philippi (p. 253).

Synonyms, Phasianema, Wood; Maravignia, Arados.

Shell perforated, sculptured ; inner lip thin; aperture semi-
lunate; operculum not spiral.

Animal with two frontal lobes between the tentacles.

Distribution, 43 species, including species of the sub-genera.
Mediterranean and tropical seas.

Fossil, 4 species. Miocene. Europe.

Sub-genera, Conradia, Couthouyia, Cithna, Gottoina.

Fossarina, Adams, differs from Fossarus in the curyed inner
lip and circular aperture. 2 species. Australia.

Isapis, H.and A. Adams. Columella with a plait; in J.
anomala it is almost obsolete. 4 species. Jamaica and Mazat-
lan.

LACUNELLA, Deshayes, 1864.

Etymology, diminutive of Lacuna (see p. 255).

Type, Li. depressa, Desh. Eocene. Paris.

Shell ovate, thin, pellucid, shining, very depressed; apex
obtuse; aperture large, dilated; outer lip thin, reflected; colu-
mella narrow, thin, concave, grooved, with the base perforated.

P RAULINIA, Mayer, 1864.

Dedicated to M. Raulin.

Type, Odostomia alligata, Deshayes. Eocene. Paris basin.

Shell turbinated, oval-oblong, moderately thick, spirally sul-
cated; whorls rapidly increasing, convex; last whorl very
large; aperture large, angulated posteriorly, expanded in front;
columella broad, arcuate, flattened, with a prominent tuber-
culous tooth.

Evucyctius, E, Deslongchamps, 1860.

Etymology, eu-kuklos, circling, in allusion to the numerous
plications or rings of the spire and base.
Examples, Turbo ornatus, Sow. ; T. capitaneus, Mist.

* See p. 250.
32

GASTEROPODA.

Synonym, Amberleya,* Morris and Lycett.
Shell very thin (without a nacreous layer?); spire elongated,
almost turriculated ; surface ornamented by longitudinal plica-

Fig. 14. Hucyelus goniatus, Desi..

tions and nodes; aperture oval, angular above; lip semi-
circular, thin; columella flattened, imperforated.

Fossil, 23 species. Upper Lias— Kelloway Rock. England,
France, Germany.

[FAMILY SOLARIDE |

Contains—

SOLARIUM (see p. 253).

Sub-genera, Torinia, Gray.

Philippia, Gray (p. 253). Shell trochiform ; umbilicus small.
Fossil, 3 species. Miocene. America.

Disculus, Deshayes. Shell discoid; umbilicus very narrow,
inferior angle of the aperture extended and oblique.

ADEORBIS (p. 266), Cirrus (p. 271), DIscoHELIXx (p. 253),
HKUOMPHALUS (pp. 267, 346), BIFRONTIA (p. 253), PLATYSTOMA
(p. 254), PHANEROTINUS (p. 267), MACLUREA (p. 345).

* This name was published in 1854, but the genus was insufficiently characterised.

c3 33

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

OPHILETA, Vanuxem (p. 267), was founded on species of
Maclurea, with very slender whorls. Mr. Billings regards them
as distinct, and distinguishes them as follows :—‘‘ In Maclurea
the aperture is entire, and the whorls usually large, but in
Ophileta it has a sinus below and a notch above, while the
whorls are usually more slender.

“In Maclurea crenulata (Billings) there isa sort of spiral band,
and also there are indications of a sinus in the lip on the flat
side, but they are only incipiently developed.” —(Billings.)

STROPHOSTYLUS, Hall.

Etymology, strepho, I turn, and stylus, columella.

Shell subglobose or ovoid ; spire small, body whorl large and
ventricose; outer lip thin; columella twisted or spirally grooved
within, not reflected; umbilicus wanting; aperture ovate or
transversely oval; apparently related to Platystoma.

Distribution, 10 species. Silurian. United States.

HEtiocryprus, D’Orbigny, 1850.

Shell depressed, orbicular; whorls embracing; umbilicated
on both sides; aperture vertical, oval transverse.

Distribution. H. pusillus, Coral Rag, France, Germany ;
A. radiatus, U.G.S. Blackdown, Mans.

[Famity JANTHINIDE ]
Includes—
JANTHINA and RECLUZIA (see p. 285).

FAMILY XII.—CALYPTREZIDA.*
PLATYCERAS, Conrad, 1840 (see p. 277).

Type, Pileopsis vetusta, Sowerby.

Synonyms, Acroculia, Phillips, 1841; Orthonychia, Hall, 1843.

Shell depressed, subglobose to oblique, subconical; spire
small; whorls few, free or contiguous; aperture more or less
expanded, often campanulated, entire or sinuous.

Many species show asinuosity of the striz, indicating a notch
in the margin of the aperture during the first stages of growth.
Mr. Hall has been unable to recognise the peculiar muscular
impressions which are characteristic of Pileopsis. Specimens of
some species show the expansion of the columellar lip, and its
partial or entire union with the volution, presenting all the

* See p. 278.
34

GASTEROPODA.

appearance of a thin columella with a deep umbilicus. P.
dwmosum is spiniferous ; P. swbrectwm is simply bent or arcuate.

Distribution, 46 species. Silurian—Carboniferous. Europe,
North America.

Famity [X.—TuRBINIDE*

Includes PHASIANELLA (p. 263), IMPERATOR (p. 264), TURBO
(p. 263), with the following sub-genera :—

Callopoma, Gray. Distinguished by the extreme complexity
of the operculum. ‘‘ The opercula of C. fluctuoswm, Gray (Turbo)
(Maz. ), are flat, and covered with a dark horny layer inside, dis-
playing about 6 whorls. Outside with a broad, central, spiral
callus, white and granular, concealing the umbilicus, with
extremely minute pustules over the surface, sometimes with a
few sharp prickles. A deeply cut groove surrounds the callus,
followed by a green, plaited, spiral frill prickly inside. Between
this and the outer margin are 4—6 fine emerald necklaces, sup-
ported on slender spiral ribs, with deeply channeled interspaces.
The operculum of C. sawoswm, inhabiting Panama, is formed on
a much coarser plan.” —(P. Carpenter.)

Uvanilla, Gray. Example, U. olivacea, Mexico.

Distinguished by the absence of an umbilicus, and the bi-
ridged operculum.

Distribution, 3 species. Mazatlan, Mexico.

PHASIANELLA.
Sub-genus, Hucosmia, P. Carpenter, 1864.
Hitymology, eu, well, and cosmia, adorned.
Shell solid, variegated as in Phasianella ; aperture and whorls
round ; axis wmbilicated.
Distribution, 4 species. Cape St. Lucas.

TROCHUS.
With the following sub-genera and sections :—

Margarita, Leach (p. 265). Example, T. helicinus, Fabr.
Shell small, pearly, and umbilicated ; lateral cirri, 3—7 in
British species. No typical Trochi appear to inhabit North-East
America, only those of this section. 3 species, Britain.

Gibbula, Leach (p. 265). Example, T. magus, Linné. Shell
low-spired and umbilicated ; lateral cirri, 3 on each side in the
British species.

Circulus, Jeffreys. Shell very small, nearly flat-spired, with
an exceedingly wide and open umbilicus. Example, Delphinula
* See p. 263.

35

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Duminyi,* Requien; lateral cirri, 8 on each side (sometimes 4
on one side, and 3 on the other.—Clarke). Fossil, in the Coral-
line Crag; Britain; Catania. Living, Britain; Mediterranean.

Trochocochlea, Klein. Spire moderately raised ; base, shightly
umbilicated in the adult, perforated in the young, pillar lip with
a strong tubercular tooth. Lateral appendages 3 to 4 on each
side. Example, T. lineatus, Da Costa. Britain, France, Spain, .
Mogador.

Ziziphinus, Leach. Spire pyramidal, base imperforated ;
pillar lip notched or angulated at the lower part. Haxample,
i. granulatus, Born. 7 species, Britain.

Omphalius, Philippi. Type, Trochus viridulus, Gmel.
Mazatlan.

Shell with a spiral ridge surrounding the umbilicus, ending
in one or more tubercles on the columella.

Distribution, 4 species. Mazatlan, China.

Pyramnis, Enida, kc.

ROTELLA (see p. 265).

Sub-genera. Jsanda (I. coronata), Adams. Shell orbicular,
conical, pillar edge crenated; whorls rounded; axis umbili-
cated ; operculum orbicular, of many whorls.

Chrysostoma, Gray. Turbo Nicobaricum, Gmel., related to
Isanda. Pillar edge callous; operculum horny, spiral.

Microthyca, Adams, differs from Isanda in its continuous peri-
stome and thickened outer lip. 1 species, Japan.

Umbonella, Adams. Shell porcellanous, smail, turbinated,
allied to Chrysostoma, but the aperture is circular, and the axis
imperforate. 1 species, Japan.

LEUCORHYNCHIA, Crosse, 1867.

Etymology, leucon, white; rhynchion, a beak.

Type, L. Caledonica, Crosse; inhabits under stones, New
Caledonia.

Shell depressed, sub-discoid, umbilicated, polished, of few
whorls; aperture rounded, not nacreous. <A thick callosity
arises from the front margin of the aperture and the columella
lip, and is continued as a free rostrated process over the um-
bilicus. Operculum corneous, rounded, multispiral; nucleus,
central.

* Adeorbis supranitida and A. tricarinata are varieties.

36

GASTEROPODA.

TEINOSTOMA, H. and A. Adams, 1858.

Type, T. politum.

Synonym, Oalceolina, A. Adams.

Sheli like Rotella, with a greatly produced mouth and callus.

Tt resembles Cyclops among the Nasside, and in the appear-
ance of the base Streptaxis and Anostoma among the Helicide.

Distribution, 9 species. Japan, Mazatlan, St. Helena, Jamaica.

Fossil, 10 species. Eocene. Paris basin.

ETHALiIA, H. and A. Adams.

Shell of the general aspect of Vitrinella, but agreeing with
Rotella in having a callous base, and differing from the typical
species of that genus in being frequently sculptured; in the
callus winding round, generally not covering, the umbilicus;
and in the outside of the callus not being glossy. The lip is
generally not reflected over the body whorl.

They appear to retain permanently the young state of Tei-
nostoma.

Distribution, 12 species, inhabiting deep water. Mazatlan,
Jamaica, Japan.

MONODONTA.

DELPHINULA (including Collonia, Liotia, Serpularia, and
Crossostoma).

CYCLOSTREMA, with Adeorbis and Vitrinella as sub-genera.

STOMATELLA, GENA, and BRODERIPIA.

FAMILY X.—HALIOTIDA.

Sub-family, HALIOTINA.

Genera—HALIorTis (p. 268), STOMATIA (p. 268), TEINOTIS
(p. 269).

Sub-family, ScissuRELLINA.

Genera—SCISSURELLA (p. 269), PLEUROTOMARIA (p. 270),
(Raphistoma and Scalites are merely sections of this genus),
MURCHISONIA (p. 270), CATANTOSTOMA (p. 270), TRocHOTOMA
(p. 271), with the following additional genera and sub-genera :—

PLEUROTOMARIA (see p. 270).

Sub-genera :—Leptomaria, KH. Deslongchamps, 1865. JL.
amena, Deslong., sp. Shell ike Plewrotomaria ; the respiratory
slit is narrow and elongated.

Distribution, Inferior oolite—Cretaceous.

Oryptenia, EH. Deslong., 1865. (Helicina, Sowerby) C. helicc-
formis, Deslong., sp. Shell of a rounded and compact form,

37

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

surface smooth or but slightly ornamented, slit excessively
short, sometimes reduced to a simple fold; the band occupies
the middle of the whorl, and is only visible on the body whorl.
Distribution. The species are numerous in the Carboniferous
system, and range to the Middle Lias.
In the typical Plewrotomaria the shit is large, and the band
is never concealed by the whorls of the spire.

ScHIsMoPE, Jeffreys, 1856.

Etymology, schisme, a slit, and ope, a hole.

Synonym, Woodwardia, Fischer, 1861.

Type, S. striatula, Ph. Mediterranean.

Shell like Scissurella, but the spire is laterally compressed, as
in Stomatia, and is not so trochiform. The slitin the peristome
of the young shell is converted into a foramen in the adult; it
does not commence until the animal is half grown.

S. striatula is a littoral species, whilst all the species of Scis-
surella inhabit deep water.

Fossil, 1 species, Miocene, Bordeaux.

Distribution, 4 species. Mediterranean, Japan.

Scissurella and Schismope are the analogues respectively to
Pleurotomaria and Trochotoma, differing only in size; but in the
two former genera the shell is translucent, not nacreous, as in
the two latter.

DITREMARIA* (pars, D’Orb.), T°. Deslongchamps, 1865.

Fig. 15. Ditremaria quinqueccncta.

a, Central tooth. 6, Callosity of the base. c, Tooth on the right. d, Tooth on the left. |

Type, D. quinquecincta, Ziet. sp. Coral Rag. Natheim, &c.
Shell trochiform ; in place of the respiratory slit of T'rocho-
toma, there are two elongated oval holes united by a transverse
fissure; the base of the shell presents a large callosity, the
umbilicus is deeply excavated, and a rounded tubercle arises

* See p. 271.
38

GASTEROPODA.

from it; the aperture is contracted, and the upper angle of
each lip bears a more or less distinct tooth.

Distribution, 2 species, Great Oolite and Coral Rag, France
and Germany.

Sub-family—BELLEROPHONTINZ.
Genera :—PORCELLIA (p. 344), BELLEROPHON (p. 344) (with
Bucania), and

TREMANOTUS, Hall, 1863:

Type, Bucania Chicagoensis, M‘Chesney.

Shell thick, aperture dilated; having the form of Bucania,
but with a row of isolated oval siphonal openings along the
middle of the dorsal side.

Fossil, 2 species. Upper Silurian, North America.

? CARINAROPSIS, Hall.

Shell having a patelloid aspect. Spire usually attenuated ;
body whorl expanded abruptly; cavity shallow, presenting a
kind of septum as in Crepidula.

Fossil, 2 species. Silurian, America.

Famity XI.—FISSURELLID#.
DESLONGCHAMPSIA, M‘Coy, 1850.

Dedicated to Dr. Hudes Deslongchamps, the renowned French
paleontologist.

Type, D. Kugenei, M‘Coy, Mor. and Lyc.

Shell patelliform, apex acute excentric ; with a wide longitu-
dinal anterior sulcus, produced into arounded lobe.

“This genus differs from Metoptoma in its ornamented surface,
and the front margin being produced downwards into a
rounded lobe. This latter structure would prevent the firm
adhesion of the shell.”’—(M‘Coy.)

Fossil, 3 species. Lower Oolites. England, Normandy,
Galicia.

Famity XIII.—PAtTEeLLipz.
HEtcton (Montfort, p. 278), Jeffreys.

Etymology, a breast-collar.
Synonyms, Nacella, Schumacher; Patina, Leach; Calyptra
(pars), Klein.
Example, H. pellucidum. (Patella pellucida, Linné),
Shell semioval, not resembling a peaked hat as in Patella ;
39

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

apex of embryonic shell slightly twisted; crown neyer pro-
minent, incurved, and nearly terminal, usually thin, with an
opalescent hue.

Animal. Mantle fringed at its edges with cirri; gills not so
numerous asin Patella, and forming a shorter plume, which is
interrupted over the head.

Helcion lives on Laminarie and sea-weeds of a similar kind,
and is therefore sublittoral.

Distribution. Species few, but having an extensive range.
Europe, West and South Africa, Cape Horn, and Australia.

Fossil, included in Patella.

LEPETA, Gray (p. 281).

Derivation, possibly from lepas, the ancient name et the
limpet.

Type, Patella ceeca, Miller.

Shell minute, apex posterior. Animal blind.

PROPILIDIUM, Forbes and Hanley (p. 281).

Derivation, from its affinity to the genus Pilidiwm.

Type, P. ancyloide, Forbes.

Shell similar to Lepeta, but differing in always having a dis-
tinctly spiral apex and a plate or septum inside the crown.

Animal blind, as Tectura fulva and Lepeta ceca of this family.

‘The tongue is very long, and the brown central spines con-

spicuous under the microscope resemble bramble-thorns in

miniature.”’—(Forbes and Hanley.)

Distribution, 1 species. _ Shores of Ireland, Scotland, eiellen.

Gomes (p. 281).

Sub-genus :—-Rowellia, Cooper. Animal with broad flat ten-
tacles, rounded and pectinated in front, projecting beyond the
shell; foot moderate, round. Shell asin Gadinia.

FAMILY XIV.—DENTALIADA.
Gabus, Rang, 1829.

Synonym, Helonyx, Stimpson, 1865.
Example, Dentalium clavatum, Gould.
Shell small, resembling that of Dentaliwm, contracted at the
anterior extremity, polished.
Animal with a greatly elongated cylindrical foot, obtuse at
40

GASTEROPODA.

the extremity; anal siphon longer than in Dentaliwm, not
fissured.

Distribution, 2 species. China; Atlantic.

Fossil, 7 species. Cretaceous-Miocene. Paris; United States.

ORDER IJ.—PULMONIFERA.*
Famity I.—HELIcIDz.+
SoOPHINA, Benson, 1859.

Type, S. schistostelis, Bens.
Shell like Helix ; columella callous, with a basal slit.
Distribution, 3 species. Moulmein.

CYLINDRELLA (p. 298).

Animal with no buccal plate; the lingual dentition varies
considerably in different species; in C. scceva, Guild., the for-

p25 2. 26

mula is eT ee the central plate is small, obtusely pointed,

the laterals are uncinated, joined two by two, upper edge
fringed.

“* O, Goldfusst possesses 4 lamellee on the outer wall of the
whorls. The axis of C. turris and of some other Mexican spe-
cies is a highly polished tube, the young shells of which must
haye a wide open umbilicus.” —(Bland. )

MAcROcERAMUS, Guilding.
The genus has affinities with Bulimus, Pupa, and Cylindrella.
Animal with an arcuate and striated buccal plate; lingual
dentition distinct from that of Cylindrella; in M. signatus,
5 Diedes Oi
Guild. ,—= Pane
tooth, laterals with one prominent tooth sup-

porting two denticles and a small one at the |)
base. i) 1H

, the central plate is narrow, with an obtuse

Shell with the axis simple as in Bulimus ;
in M. amplus a lamella revolves on the axis
within the lower whorls. Fig.16.
Distribution, 30 species. The genus belongs Central plate and
to the West Indian fauna, and has its greatest mw. signatus (Morse).
development in Cuba and Haiti.
ACHATINA.—Sub-genus, Ceostilbia, Crosse, 1867.
Type, G. Caledonica, Crosse. New Caledonica.
* See p. 280. T See p. 288.
4]

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Animal unknown ; habit subterranean.
Shell similar to that of Achatina acicula, but the columella is
not truncated, and the outer lip is thickened.

XANTHONYX, Crosse and Fischer, 1867.

Type, Vitrina Sumichrasti, Brot., Mexico.

Animal elongated, too large for complete retraction into the
shell; jaw like that of Arion; lingual dentition consisting of a
cous of uniform teeth, with a (road and subquadrangular base ;
the median tooth with a large central cusp and denticle on each
side; the laterals are bicuspid, the internal cusp long, the
external short 2nd obtuse, sometimes accompanied with the
rudiment ¢f a third; pulmonary orifice near the middle.

Skell imperforated, very thin, transparent, subdepressed,
intermediate in form between Vitrina and Simpulopsis.

Distribution, 3 species. Mexico.

Faminy IJ.—Limacimz.*
HyYALIMAx, H. and A. Adams.

Type, Limax perlucidus, Quoy.

Animal limaciform, mantle large, shield-shaped ; pulmonary
orifice medial and marginal; foot attenuated behind, no mucus
gland, separated below from the head by a distinct groove;
jaw analogous to that of Zonites with the support of Succinea ;
lingual dentition with a tricuspid median plate, laterals with a
large cusp, supporting two or three denticles.

Shell internal, rounded, thin, and slightly arched above.

Distribution, 2 species. Ponebon, Mauritius.

KRYNICEIA, Blainville, 1839.

Dedicated to the naturalist Krynicki.

Type, Limax megaspidus, Blainville.

Animal limaciform, but the anterior part of the mantle is free
and detached from the body as far as the pulmonary orifice,
which is situated far back.

Shell internal, flat, lamellose, elliptical, with no spiral
nucleus.

Distribution, 8 species. Crimea, Caucasus, North America
(1). Central America (1).

Puitomycus, Rafinesque (p. 296),

Type, Limax Carolinensis, .50sc.

* See p. 295.
42

GASTEROPODA.

Synonym, 'Tebennophorus, Binney.

Animal elongated, convex, tapermg behind, entirely covered
by a thin mantle; respiratory orifice near the head; jaw smooth.
No shell.

Distribution, 9 species. North America.

Sub-genus :—Meghimatium, Hasselt. Syn., Incilaria, Benson.
Body depressed, rounded at the end.

Distribution, 4 species. Java, Chusan.

Famity LY.-—LIMNZ#ID&.*
PoMPHOLYX, Lea, 1856.

Htymology, pompholux, lat. bulla.

Type, P. effusa, Lea. Sacramento river, California.

Shell gibbosely rounded, drawn back beneath, flattened
above, imperforate; spire depressed; aperture very large,
nearly round, effuse; outer lip acute, inner lip thickened,
flattened.

Animal with two long tentacles, bearing eyes, and a second
pair of eyes at the base on the inner side of the tentacles.

Distribution, 2 species. Western America.

PITHARELLA, Edwards, 1860. |

Type, P. Rickmani, Hd. ‘‘ Woolwich and Reading Series,”
Peckham and Dulwich, London.

Shell partaking of the characters of Limnceea and Chilinia,
subcylindrical; aperture oval, rounded in front, narrowed
behind ; columella straight, or very obliquely twisted, arched
anteriorly ; outer lip simple, acute ; inner lip thickened.

The species is associated with estuarine shells, remains of
mammals and terrestrial plants.

VALENCIENNESIA, Rosseau, 1842.

Dedicated to the late Professor Valenciennes of Paris.

Type, V. annulatus, Ros. ; associated with fresh-water shells
in a tertiary deposit, near Kertch, Crimea.

Shell resembles a gigantic Ancylus; apex much incurved ;
surface concentrically marked. A longitudinal plication
extends from the apex to the right border, and corresponds
with an internal channel; there is a second but less distinct
plication on the left side.

CAMPTONYX, Benson, 1858.

Type, ©. Theobaldi, Bens. Guzerat.

* See p. 300.
43

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Shell like Pileopsis, dextral as in Velletia, with a respiratory
channel on the right side.

‘‘Animal with the respiratory orifice on the edge of the mantle.
Hyes sessile at the middle of the hinder part of the base of the
tentacles, and are visible only from above; tentacles rather
conical than angular; upper mandible conspicuous, slightly
lobed; lingual ribbon broad, with 86 rows of teeth, 87 in a
row (43.1.43); they have simple obtuse hooks as in Ancylus ;
the central row only differs in being symmetrical; the laterals
diminish gradually from the 14th to the 48rd, and a second
cusp makes its appearance, and increases until the three near
the margin are regularly bicuspid.”’—( Woodward.)

The habits of C. Theobaldi are térrestrial.

This genus is doubtfully distinct from Valenciennesia.

PoEYIA, Bourguignat, 1860.

Dedicated to M. Poey of Havanna.

Type, P. Gundlachioides, Cuba.

Shell, above like Gundlachia, below like Ancylus; apex pos-
terior, dextral, somewhat compressed, very obtuse; aperture
large, peristome simple.

BRONDELIA, Bourguignat, 1860.

The two species Ancylus Drouetianus, Bourguignat, and
B. gibbosa, Bourg., are terrestrial Ancyli, living on humid
rocks in the forest. of Edough, Boué (Algeria).

ACROCHASMA, Reuss, 1860.

Type, A. tricarinatum, Reuss, from the fresh-water limestones
of Bohemia.

Shell trilateral, pyramidal, rounded below in its whole ampli-
tude, with one posterior concave, and two lateral slightly con-
vex planes, ending upwards in an acute reflected apex, beneath
with a longitudinal aperture through the shell, which in its
living state appears to have been covered with an epidermis. It
may be considered as a fresh-water repr BERNA S of the marine
genus [issurella.

CHOANOMPHALUS, Gerstfeldt, 1859.

Etymology, choanos, a funnel; omphalos, an umbilicus.
Type, OC. Maacki, Lake Baikal.
44

GASTEROPODA.

Shell related to certain Valvate, with an infundibuliform
umbilicus ; no operculum.
Distribution, 3 species. Lake Baikal, Siberia.

PHYSELLA, Pfeiffer, 1861.

Founded on P. Berendti, said to be a terrestrial shell from
Mirador, Mexico.

Shell like Bulla, spire minute; last whorl elongated; columella ~
simple, arched, not truncated; peristome simple, straight.

FAMILY V.—AURICULIDA*

Contains the following genera :—

AURICULA, Lamarck. (See p. 304.)

Sub-genera, Alexia (A. myosotis), Leach (p. 305); Leuconia
(A. bidentata), Gray.

PotyoponTA, Fischer (Pythia, Bolten) (p. 304).

Pepires, Adams (p. 304). -

Distribution, 6 species.

Sub-genus :—WMarinula, King. M. pepita. The animal has
not the transverse groove of the foot of Pedipes.

Shell more elongated and destitute of spiral striz; two con-
vergent parietal plaits, columellar plait smaller, oblique; peri-
stome rather simple.

Distribution, 10 species. Madeira, South America, Australia,
Philippines. ’

Metampus, Montfort (Ophicardelus, Beck; Talia, Gray;
Laimodonta, Nuttall; Pira, Tifata; Signia and Persa, Adams;
Cremnobates, Sw.) (p. 304).

Sub-genus, Cassidula, Ferussac (Rhodostoma, Sw.; Sidula,
Gray). Aperture banded.

PLECOTREMA, H. and A. Adams, 1853.

Type, P. typica, Adams.

Synonym, Lirator, Beck.

Shell ovate-conic, or rather fusiform, solid, spirally grooved ;
aperture oblong, contracted; columellar plait single, parietal
plaits two, the lower of which is bifid; peristome thickened,
sometimes terminating in a varix, bearing within two or rarely
three teeth ; axis imperforated or umbilicated.

® See p. 303.
46

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Distribution, 14 species. Australia, Borneo, Philippines, China,
Cuba.
BLAUNERIA, Shuttleworth, 1854.

Dedicated to M. Blauner.

Type, B. pellucida. Cuba, Jamaica, Florida, and Porto Rico.

Shell somewhat resembling Achatina, imperforate, oblong-
turreted, thin ; aperture narrow, elongated; body of the penul-
timate whorl bearing a single plait near the columella, which is
rather truncated; peristome simple, straight.

Animal showing the characters of the family of the Awriculide,
not of Helicide.

Distribution, 2 species. West Indies, Sandwich Islands.

STOLIDOMA, Deshayes, 1864.

Type, S. crassidens, Deshayes.

Shell oblong, turriculated, subcylindrical; apex obtuse,
smooth polished; aperture elongated, obliquely inflected,
narrowed behind, widened in front; columella straight, with
a large median plait, compressed, and slightly oblique.

Distribution, 3 species. Eocene. Paris basin.

The shells of this genus are Auricule, with a single columella-
plait, without teeth or plications on the right lip.

CARYCHIUM (see p. 305).
ZOSPEUM, Bourguignat, 1860.
Shell like Car ychium ; tentacles four; eyes absent.

Distribution, 11 species. Inhabiting the subterranean grottoes -

of Carniola. The animal is most active during the winter, at
which time they propagate.
OTINA (see p. 238).
This genus is the type of a sub-family which has nearly the

same relation to Auriculine as Ancylus to Limnea.
Distribution, 3 species. Britain, United States, Benguela.

Famity VI.—CycLostomipz.*
CYCLOSTOMA (see p. 306).

Sub-genus :—Cyclotopsis, Blanford, 1864.

Type, O. semistriatus, Sow.

Shell umbilicated, depressed, spirally striated; aperture
subcircular; operculum concentric, multispiral, internally
membranous, externally shelly ; margins of the whorls raised.

Distribution, 5 species. India, Seychelles, Mauritius.

* See p. 306.
- 46

GASTERGPODA.

CYCLOPHORUS (see p. 308).

Sub-genera :—Jerdonia, Blanford, 1861.

Type, J. trochlea, Benson sp. Nulgiri Hills, India.

Shell minute, umbilicated, pyramidal, horny, tricarinated ;
operculum concentric, arctispiral, with a marginal sulcus all
round; membranous internally, shelly externally; inner edge
of each whorl resting on the outer edge of the next,

Cyathopoma, Blanford, 1864.

Type, C. filocinctum, Benson sp.

Shell minute, umbilicated, turbinated, or somewhat depressed ;
epidermis thick, sometimes hispid, smooth, spirally striated,
or lirated ; operculum truncate, conoid, concentric, multispiral ;
internally membranous, externally shelly; external margins
of the whorls raised in the form of shelly plates, incurved ;
sometimes sculptured.

Animal white, with a short oval foot, undivided beneath ;
tentacles small, black, with eyes at the base.

Distribution, 5 species. India.

SPIRACULUM, Pearson.

Distinguished by the possession of a retroverted sutural tube
open at both ends, and by a modification of the form of the
mantle corresponding to the same.

Opisthoporus forms a sub-genus to Spiraculum.

CLOSTOPHIS, Benson, 1860.

Etymology, clostos, coiled, and ophis, a serpert.

Type, C. Sankeyi, Benson. Moulmein, Burmah.

Shell subconic; penultimate whorl the largest, last whorl
separate and descending, subaxial small ; aperture subcircular,
entire, toothed; margin expanded.

RuHIOsTOoMA, Benson, 1860.

Etymology, rhion, a promontory.

Type, R. Haughtoni, Benson.

Shell subdiscoidal, broadly umbilicated ; last whorl separate,
laterally descending ; aperture free, with an incision at the top,
and a subtubular prominence crowning the slit; operculum
multispiral.

Distr#+tion, 6 species. Burmah, Siam, Cochin China.

47

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

ANAULUS, Pfeiffer, 1855.

Type, A. bombycinus. Borneo.

Shell umbilicated, pupinzeform; peristome double, internal
continuous, external dilated, perforated at the margin by a
canal; canal sutural and internal, terminating anteriorly, and
embraced by the outer portion of the double peristome (it can
be traced externally along the last whorl), and reaching into
the concavity of the spire. Operculum yery thin, corneous;
narrow-whorled.

Distribution, 3 species. East Indian Archipelago.

‘The use of the sutural tube seems to be the preservation of
a communication with the external air when the aperture is
closed.”’—( Benson. )

OPISTHOSTOMA, Blanford, 1860.

Synonym, Plectostoma, Adams, 1865.

Type, O. Nilgirica, Blanford. The Nilgiris, India.

Shell pupiform, umbilicated, with a regular costulated orna-
mentation; apical whorls obliquely distorted; last whorl
strangulated, separated from the others, and applied to the
penultimate; peristome double, free portion prolonged back-
wards ; operculum horny (?)

O. De Crespigni, Adams (Plectostoma), has a conical spire, and
the apical whorls are not excentric to the axis of the lower
whorls, as they are in the ovate spire of O. Nilgirica.

Distribution, 5 species. India, Borneo, West Africa.

[FAMILY PROSERPINIDS®. |

Animal with a short annulated muzzle; tentacles two lateral,
subulate ; eyes subsessile on the outer side of the base of the
tentacles; sides simple; foot moderate, truncated in front,
acute, and keeled above behind, with a concavity in the front
part; lateral and central teeth large, irregular, lobed, or den-
tated ; operculum wanting.

Shell heliciform, shining, imperforated; base callous; the
septa between the upper whorls absorbed as in Helicina and
Stoastoma.

This family is most nearly related to Helicinidee.

CrrzEs, Gray, 1856.

Etymology, Ceres, the goddess of corn.
Type Carocolla eolina, Duclos.
48’

GASTEROPODA.

Shell carinated, upper surface rugose, epidermis thin; callous
beneath, shining; columella with one tooth or fold; lamelli-
ferous on both sides of the aperture ; peristome straight, slightly
thickened.

“The lingual membrane of C. Salleana, Cuming, is broad,
elongate, with numerous longitudinal series of teeth. Teeth
00°5°1°5-00; the central tooth (0, Fig. 17) oblong, distinct, with

Fig. 17.

a broad simple reflexed tip; the first and second lateral teeth
(1 and 2) rather broader than the central one, with a three-
toothed recurved tip; the third (8) narrow, elongate, with a
slightly recurved end; the fourth and fifth (4 and 5) much
larger, oblong, and irregular shaped; the fourth about half as
wide as the fifth, with three or four dentations on the inner side
of the upper edge; the fifth very large, broad, with a large
subcentral reflexed lobe; the lateral teeth are very numerous,
subequal, similar, compressed, transparent, with a recurved
tip, those of the inner teeth of the series being bifid.” —(Gray.)
Distribution, 2 species. Mexico.

PROSERPINA, Gray, 1840.*

Etymology, Proserpina, the daughter of Ceres.

Type, P. nitida, Gray. |

Synonym, Odontostoma, D’Orbigny.

Shell globose or depressed, smooth, shining; columella with
one fold; body of the penultimate whorl provided with one
or many spiral plaits, or wanting; aperture lunate, contracted
often by palatal lamine ; peristome thin, straight.

P. Swiftit has the columella fold only, and is the sole repre-
sentative of the family at present known to inhabit South
America.

Distribution, 7 species. Cuba, Jamaica, Venezuela.

* See p. 289.
D 419

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

PROSERPINELLA, Bland, 1865.

itymology, diminutive of Proserpina.

Type, P. Berendti, Bland.

Distribution, Mexico, 3000 to 4,000 feet.

Shell as in Proserpina ; columella fold absent; aperture mat
one parietal lamelliform plait.

[Faminty HELIcINIDE|
Contains :—

HEtLicina (Lucidella, Trochatella, Alcadia).

Schasicheila. Shell with very close, long, spiral, epidermal
fringes. Distribution, 5 species. Central America and the
Bahamas.

Perenna, Guppy, 1867; P. lamellosa, Guppy, Trinidad. Shell
like Helicina, depressed ; whorls lirate and carinate. Operculum
thin, suboval, concentrically striated; nucleus subcentral.
Animal like Helicina. Distribution, 2 species. Trinidad,
Yucatan.

BourctmRA, Pfeiffer, 1851.

Type, B. helicineeformis, Pf.

Shell like Helicina, dull, and without the columellar callosity ; ;
columella toothed peneathe aperture ovate; peristome spread-
ing. Lingual dentition agrees with that of Helicina. Oper-
culum ovate, horny, few-whorled.

Distribution, 2 species. South America.

STOASTOMA, and.

GEORISSA, Blanford, 1864.

Type, Hydrocena pyxis, Benson.

Animal furnished with hemispherical lobes in the place of
tentacles; eyes normal; foot short, rotund. Operculum semi-
oval, no spiral structure as in Helicina ; excentrically striated,
testaceous, transparent.

Shell resembling that of Hydrocena, imperforated, small,
~ conical, amber-, or reddish-coloured, spirally sulcated or striated.
Distribution, 6 species. Adhering to limestone rocks, India.

[Faminy ACICULIDA. |

The genera enumerated in this family are :—AcIcuLA, GEO- }
MELANIA, CHITTYA, and TRUNCATELLA, the last with the follow- |
ing

50

GASTEROPODA.

Sub-genus :—Taheitia, H. and A. Adams, 1863.

Type, Truncatella porrecta, Gould, Taheiti. Operculum
shelly, furnished with erect radiating lamelle. Aperture of shell
ovate ; last whorl separate; peristome continuous, expanded.

‘ORDER II1.—OPIsTHO-BRANCHIATA.
Famity I.—ToRNATELLIDA.
EiTALLONIA, Deshayes, 1864.

Dedicated to M. Etallon, a French paleontologist.

Type, KH. cytharella, Desh.

Sheil ovate, subfusiform, resembling certain small Mitres ;
spire short, conical, obtuse, few-whorled ; aperture elongated,
narrow, base onan subemarginate ; lip sEnle acute, arched ;
columella thick, cylindrical, twisted in the middle to resemble
an obtuse plait; acute anteriorly.

Distribution, 3 species. Eocene. Paris basin, Valognes.

ACTHONELLA.—Sub-genus, Volvulina, Stoliczka, 1865;
(Actzeonella part, Meek, 1863).

Type, Yolvaria levis, Sowerby.

Shell ovate, volvuliform, involute, more or less attenuate
above, widest below the middle, entirely without any traces of
a spire.

Fossil, 5 species. Cretaceous. Germany, Syria.

Faminty VI.—Dorivz&.
ANGASIELLA, Crosse, 1864.

Dedicated to Mr. G. F. Angas.

Type, A. Edwardsi, Port Jackson.

Animal elongated, rounded in front, attenuated and pointed
behind; mantle covering the head and foot; dorsal tentacles
two, clavate as in Doris; gills plumose, less numerous, and
placed in front of the anus as in Triopa, and occupying the
median part of the back, a more forward position than in others
of the Doride.

PLOCAMOPHORUS, Ruppell.

Example, P. Ceylonicus, Kelaart sp.
Synonym, Peplidia, Lowe; ? Gymnodoris, Stimpson.
Animal, similar to Polycera, but the tentacles are retractile
within sheaths.
Distribution, 3 species. Madeira, Australia, Ceylon.
p2 51

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Kauinea, Alder and Hancock, 1863.

Etymology, an old Indian name for Telinguna.

Type, K. ornata, Ald. and Han. Coromandel coast.

Animal with an obtusely rounded body; branchiz plumose,
non-retractile, surrounding the vent, but placed separately at a
httle distance Bein it on the posterior part of the back.

[Famity DormoprsipZ, Alder and Hancock, 1863. ]

Dorsal tentacles retractile within sheaths; no oral tentacles.
Tongue atrophied, buccal bulb modified into a delicate suctorial
retractile proboscis; mantle devoid of spicula.

Doripopsis, Alder and Hancock, 1863.

Body depressed, oval or elliptical; mantle covering the head
and foot, smooth, or with soft warty tubercles; dorsal tentacles
laminated ; head minute, generally produced into small lateral
lobes, without oral tentacles; branchize plumose, wholly or
partially surrounding the vent on the media-dorsal line, retrac-
tile within a common cayity.

Distribution, 10 species. Hast Indies, China, Madeira.

Faminy VII.—TRIToNIADz.*
Hero, Loven.

Example, H. formosa, Loy.

Animal with no mantle; tentacles two, linear, simple non-
retractile; veil plain, produced at the sides, gills branched or
umbellated. Tongue with a large central denticulated spine,
and two simple lateral spines. Jaws corneous.

[FamIty EoLmpipZ. |
PHIDIANA, Gray.

Example, P. Patagonica, D’Orbigny.

Animal with a stout body; dorsal tentacles clavate, laminated;
oyal tentacles very large; gills in close transverse rows; sides
of the foot rounded.
| [Faminy Hon. |

MADRELLA, Alder and Hancock, 1863.

Type, M. ferruginosa, Ald. and Han. India.

Animal ovate, depressed, with a distinet cloak. Dorsal ten-
tacles with the upper portion papillated: no oral tentacles. Head
broad, with a semilunar veil. Branchie papillose or linear,
placed in several rows round the margin of the cloak. Anus

* See p. 382.
52

BRACHIOPODA.

dateral. Tongue narrow, with three pectinated plates in each
row. Jaws large and strong, margins without denticulations.
This genus is closely related to Antiopa.

1 UWYLLOBRANCHUS, Alder and Hancock, 1863.

Type, Proctonotus orientalis, Kelaart. India.

Animal elongated, flattened on the back, angulated at the
sides, without a distinct cloak. Tentacles two, dorsal, longitudt-
nally folded, bifurcate above, non-retractile. Head produced
at the sides into angulated and folded expansions. Branchico
leaf-like, with distinct foot-stalks, arranged in several rows
along the sides of the back and round the head in front. Anus
lateral. The tongue resembles that of Hermea.

CLASS IV.—BRACHIOPODA.*
Faminy J.—TEREBRATULIDA.+F
TEREBRATULA (see p. 363).

Sub-genus, Rensseleria, Hall, 1859.

Dedicated to the late Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer.

Examples, R. ovoides, Hall, Fig. 18; Terebratula strigiceps,
Romer.

Shell ovoid or suborbicular, without mesial fold or sinus ;
beak prominent, acute, more or less
incurved; foramen terminal, some-
times concealed. Yentral valve with,
two diverging cardinal teeth supported.
by strong dental plates. Dorsal valve
with the dental sockets between the
shell and a strong process from which
the slender crura proceed, first in a
direct line, and then one division of
each, diverging into the centre of the
ventralvalve, terminate in acute points.
On the other side the divisions extend
nearly at right angles to the axis of
the shell into the cavity of the dorsal
valve; and thence bending abruptly
forward and gradually converging,

Fig. 18.
: The interior of the dorsal valve
terminate above the centre of the shell of #&. ovoides, showing the thick-

: : 5 ° ened processes at the beak, the
in a thin flattened or longitudinally crane ane loop, and the ee

concave plate. longitudinal plate.

* See p. 354, { See p. 363.
53

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Rensseleria, if not synonymous with, is closely related to,
Meganteris.

Fossil, 11 species. Silurian to Devonian. Europe, North
America.

CENTRONELLA, Billings, 1859.

Etymology, diminutive of kentron, a spur.

Type, Rhynchonella glans-fagea, Hall.

Shell having the general form of Terebratula. Dorsal valve
with a loop consisting of two riband-like lamelle, which were
united at an acute angle at the point of greatest extension,
whence they recurve in a thin vertical plate which is not
attached at either margin, approaching in some respects to
Waldheimia.

Distribution, 4 species. Devonian. North America.

Leproca iia, Hall, 1859. (Ccelospira, Hall).

Appears to differ from Centronella only in consisting of
species which have the surface ribbed instead of smooth.

Distribution, 9 species. Mid. Silurian—Devonian. Europe,
North America. No true Terebratule have been found in
beds older than the Devonian.

Faminty JI1.—SPrIrirERIDz.*

SYRINGOTHYRIS, Winchell, 1863.

Fig. 19. Section through the beak of the ventral valve of SS. typa (Winchell).
7, dental plates or lamelle ; ¢, tube incomplete ; 7, mesial ridge.

Examples, 8. typa, Winchell, Fig. 19; Spirifera distans, Sow.
Shell like that of Spirifera, with an elongated hinge-line.
Ventral valve with a broad mesial sinus, a very broad area, and
a narrow triangular fissure closed towards the apex by an
external convex pseudo-deltidium ; beneath which, and diverg-
ing from it, is another transverse plate connecting the vertical
dental lamellz, which are incurved so as to nearly join their
inferior edges, thus forming a fissured tube, which projects
beyond the limits of the plate from which it originates into the
interior of the shell. A low median ridge extends from the
See p. 271.
o4

BRACHIOPODA.

beak to the anterior part of the valve. Dorsal valve depressed
without an area, and with a distinct mesial fold. Shell-structure
punctate.
Fossil, 2 species. Carboniferous. United States, Ireland,
Belgium.
CyrtTina, Davidson, 1858.

Etymology, modified from the diminutive (Cyrtidium) of
Cyrtia. i

Examples, C. heteroclyta, C. Demar-
ln, and OC. septosa.

Shellresembling Spirifera, but with-
out the vertical shelly plates which
diverge from the extremity of the beak.
Interior of ventral valve with two con-
tiguous vertical septa, which coalesce
into one median plate, which extends
from the extremity of the beak to within
a short distance of the frontal margin,
and then diverges to form dental plates,
as in Pentamerus. The fissure is co-
vered by an arch-shaped deltidium ;
but in C. Demarlii the median septum is continued as far as
the under surface of the deltidium, and the dental plates are
fixed to the sides, instead of the upper edge, asin C. heteroclyta
and C’. septosa.

‘‘Spiral coils having the same position as in Spirifera, but
the two first coils are connected a little in front of the mid-
length by an apparatus somewhat hke that of Spirigera, but
not so complicated. A very slender process springs upwards
towards the ventral valve from each coil, and, at a height of
about one line, curves forwards. The two then unite and form
a single band, which extends forwards to about the front of ths
coil, and there ends in an obtuse point.’’—(Billings. )

Distribution, 9 species. .Devonian—Trias. Hurope and
North America.

MERISTELLA, Hall, 1860.

EHiymology, diminutive of Merista, an allied genus.

Examples, Atrypa tumida, Dal. ; Meristella levis, Hall.

Shell oval, ovoid, orbicular or transverse. Valves unequally
convex, with or without a median fold and sinus; beak appa-
rently imperforate, incurved; area none. Surface smooth or

00

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

concentrically striated. Dorsal valve with a longitudinal
septum; upper part of the ventral valve with a deep sub-
triangular muscular impression which unites with the rostral
cavity.

The species of this genus are Meriste without the peculiar
appendage of the ventral valve.

Distribution, 17 species. Silurian—Devonian. Europe, North
America.

The forms marked by plications on the mesial fold and sinus,
and sometimes with obscure or distinct plications on the lateral
portions of the shell, constitute the genus LEIORHYNCHUS, Hall.
4 species. Devonian. United States.

CHARIONELLA, Billings, 1861.

Synonym, Cryptonella, Hall, 1861.

Type, Athyris scitula.

Shell resembling Athyris, but more elongate-ovate or ap-
proaching to Terebratula in form. Internal spires as in Athyris
and Meristc, but the dorsal hinge-plate is either obsolete along
the middle, or anchylesed to the bottom of the valve. Foramen
terminal, bounded on the lower side by one or two deltidial
pieces, or by a portion of the shell. The mesial septum in the
dorsal valve is either absent or rudimentary.

Distribution, 15 species. Devonian. America, Spain.

NvucLEOSPIRA, Hall, 1859.

Htymology, nucleus, and spira.
Types, Spirifer pisum, Sowerby; Nucleospira ventricosa,
Hall, Figs. 21, 22, 23.

Fig. 21, Fig. 22. Fig 23.

WNucleospira ventricosa,

Fig. 21, interior of the dorsal valve. Fig. 22, interior of the ventral valve. Fig. 25,
interior of the dorsal valve, with a portion of the ventral valve attached.

f J, cardinal process ; ¢ c, crural processes; 6 6, dental pockets ; r, muscular impres-
sions; s, medio-longitudinal septum; ¢¢, teeth; 2,a flattened space or false area
beneath the beak. (#Hail.)

56

BRACHIOPODA.

Shell punctate; spheroidal; beaked; hinge line shorter than
the width of the shell; cardinal extremities rounded. Internal
spires as in Spirifera. Ventral valve with a flattened space or
false area beneath the beak, on each side of which, at the base,
is a strong tooth; a narrow medio-longitudinal septum extends
from the beak to the base. Dorsal valve furnished with a strong
spatulate cardinal process, which, rising vertically from the
cardinal margin, is closely grasped at its base by the cardinal
teeth of the other valve ; and thence bending abruptly upwards,
and expanding, is projected into the cavity of the opposite beak,
lying close upon the under side of the false area. Cardinal pro-
cess grooved to allow of the passage of the peduncle, for the
protrusion of which a minute foramen is sometimes observed in
the beak. The crural processes originate at the base of the
cardinal process. A medio-longitudinal septum as in the ventral
valve.

Surface of shell apparently smooth, under a lens punctate ;
when perfect, covered with minute hair-like spines.

The larger species of this genus present some analogy in
external appearance with Spirigera, and the presence of internal
spires increases the similarity. The cardinal teeth resemble those

of Spirigera and Merista. In form, and in the punctated test, it
simulates Magas; while the elongate cardinal process of the
dorsal valve resembles that structure in Thecidium.

Distribution, 7 species. Silurian. United States, England

TREMATOSPIRA, Hall, 1859.

Etymology, trema, a foramen, and spira.

Haample, T. multistriata, Hall.

Shell transverse, elliptical, or subrhomboidal, furnished with
internal spires (arranged as in Spirifera); hinge line shorter
than the width of the shell. Valves articulated by teeth and
sockets ; beak of ventral valve produced or incurved and trun-
cated by a small round perforation separated from the hinge
line by adeltidium. A deep triangular pit or foramen beneath
the beak, which is filled by the closely incurved beak of the dorsal
valve. False area sometimes defined.

Distribution, 7 species. Upper Silurian—Middle Devonian.
United States.

This genus and the next appear to be closely related to
itetzia.

D3 57

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

RHYNCHOSPIRA, Hall, 1889.

Kitymology, pvyxoc, a beak, and spira; in allusion to its
similarity in form to Rhynchonella, and haying internal spires.

Type, Waldheimia formosa, Hall.

Shell somewhat similar to Rhynchenella, but usually more
symmetrically rounded, and with less distinct mesial sinuosities ;
and in these characters they resemble Waldheimia.

Valves articulated by teeth and sockets, similar to hore of
Nucleospira; the crura supporting two conical spires. The
cardinal process of the dorsal valve is a broad emarginate plate ;
beak of the ventral valve largely perforated. Surface plicated
or striated.

Distribution, 7 species. Silurian—Devonian. United States,
Russia.

ATRYPA (see p. 378).

The internal appendages of Atrypa reticularis (see Fig. 24)
consist of a pair of spiral cones, placed side by side, with their
apices directed towards the cavity of the dorsal valve; the
lamellze have their origin on the socket-walls, and run parallel
with the inner margin of the valve.
‘<The spiral cones are connected by
an entire and continuous loop, which
is confined to the rostral part of the
shell. Thelooparisesfrom the posterior
portion of the first volutions of the
spires, and curves gently forward
and upward; the central or elevated
portion is situated between and be-
hind the cones, and forms a more or
less abrupt curve, or is prolonged
into a point directed towards the
dorsal valve. The existence and form of this loop have been
ascertained in several different varieties of A. reticularis, as
well as in A. spinosa, Hall.””—( Whitfield. )

Sub-genus, ZyGosPira, Hall, 1862.

Synonym, Stenocisma, Conrad, 1847. Spiral cones connected
by an entire and continuous loop in a very similar manner to
that shown to exist in Atrypa reticularis; but the loop haying
its connection with the spiral lamelle at a point relatively more
distant from their origin on the hinge plate, and passing over,
or in front of the spires.

58

Fig. 24.

BRACHIOPODA.

Faminty ITI.—RHYNCHONELLIDZ.*
Eatonta, Hall, 1859.

Dedicated to the late Professor Amos Eaton.

Examples, Atrypa peculiaris, Conrad ; A. singularis, Vanuxem.

Shell like that of Rhynchonella ; the tower half of the ventral
valve with a broad deep sinus. Valves articulating by means
of two teeth in the ventral valve, with corresponding sockets in
the dorsal valve, and a median septum embraced between the
deeply bifurcating cardinal process of the opposite one.

Dorsal valve with four crural processes; in the ventral valve
the dental plates are represented by elevated lamelle surround-
ing the muscular impression, which is much stronger and differs
in some respects from that of Rhynchonelia.

Fossil, 7 species. Upper Silurian. United States.

CAMERELLA, Billings, 1859.

Examples, C. Volborthi, Billings; Atrypa extans, Hall.

Synonym, Triplesia, Hall, 1859.

Ventral valve with a small triangular chamber beneath the
beak, supported by a short mesial septum as in Pentamerus.
Dorsal valve with a single mesial septum and two short lamella
for the support of the oral appendages, as in Ahynchonella.
Surface smooth or obscurely plicated.

' Distribution, 9 species. Lower Silurian. North America.

HICHWALDIA, Billings, 1858.

Dedicated to Professor Hichwald, the celebrated Russian
paleontologist.

Type, H. subtrigonalis, Lower Silurian. Canada.

Shell with the ventral valve perforated on the umbo for the
passage of a peduncle; the place of the foramen beneath the
beak being occupied by an imperforate concave plate; the in-
terior of each valve divided by a medio-longitudinal ridge, that
of the dorsal valve very prominent; hinge and teeth sockets
wanting.

The internal structure of the ventral valve somewhat resem-
bles that of Pentamerus or Camorophoria.

Distribution, 3 species. Silurian, Canada; England.

STRICKLANDINIA, Billings, 1863.
Dedicated to the late Professor H. E. Strickland.
Synonyms, Stricklandia, Billings, 1859 (non Buckman);
Rensseleeria (pars), Hall.
* See p. 375.

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Type, Pentamerus lens, Sowerby.

Sheil usually large, elongate-oval, &.; valves nearly equal,
never globose; a short mesial septum in the interior of the ven-
tral valve supporting a small triangular chamber beneath the
beak asin Pentamerus ; in the dorsal valve no longitudinal septa,
spires, or loop, the whole of the internal solid organs consisting
of two short or rudimentary dental plates, which in some spe-
cies bear prolonged calcified processes for the support of the
cirrated arms. A more or less developed area in the ventral valve.

In WS. levis and S. microcamerus the hinge line is straight and
much extended. In S. Arachne, Billings, the area of the ven-
tral valve is so much developed as to give the whole shell the
external appearance of an Orthis.

Distribution, 10 species. Middle Silurian, Europe, America.
S. elongata, Vanuxem, is the only species known in the Devonian
rocks.

Famity IV.— OnrtTHIDz.*
SKENIDIUM, Hall, 1861.

Htymology, skenidion, a little tent.

Type, Orthis insignis.

Shell having the general aspect of Orthis, except in the ex-
treme elevation of the ventral valve ; cardinal process prolonged
into a median septum, which extends to the base or front mar-
gin of the shell, and occasionally bifurcates at this lower ex-
tremity. Area large and triangular in the typical species.

Distribution, 3 species. Silurian, United States.

STREPTORHYNCHUS, King, 1850 (see p. 380).

Fig. 25. Fig. 26.
Streptorhynchus pelargonatus.

Fig. 25.—Interior of the ventral valve; t, teeth ; a, cardinal museular impressions.
Fig. 26.—lnterior of the dorsal valve; s, sockets ; v, cardinal process ; 7, adductor scar,

Etymology, strepto, I bend or twist; rhynchos, a beak.
Types, 8. pelargonatus, Schloth. sp.; S. Devonica, D’Orb. sp.

* See p. 379.
60

BRACHIOPODA.

Shell inequivalved, convex or concayo-convex, externally
striated ; hinge line rather shorter than the width of the shell ;
dorsal valve semicircular, with a small narrow area. Ventral
valve with a prolonged and oftentimes bent beak; area trian-
gular, with a fissure covered by a convex pseudo-deltidium. No
foramen is observable, but the cardinal process is at times seen
partially extending under the deltidium (Fig. 26).

Interior of ventral valve, with a strong hinge-work on either
side at the base of the fissure, supported by a dental plate
(Fig. 25, ¢); muscular scars two, elongated, oval, deeply exca-
vated, separated by a wide mesial ridge (Fig. 26, 7).

Interior of dorsal valve with a largely developed cardinal
process, composed of two projections, grooved or bidentated
towards the extremity of their outer surface; socket plates
large, and partly united to the lower portion of the cardinal
process; adductor scars quadruple, occupying more than a
third of the length of the valve, and arranged in pairs, divided
by a short rounded mesial ridge.

This genus is intermediate between Orthis and Strophomena.

Distribution, 6 species. Sil.—Perm. Europe, Asia, America,
and Australia.

TROPIDOLEPTUS, Hall, 1889.

Etymology, tropis, a keel, and leptos, thin; the carinated
ventral valve and shallow visceral cavity, in its analogy with
Lepteena. (See ‘‘ Reg. Rep.,”’ 1856, p. 3.)

Type, Strophomena carinata, Conrad.

Shell transversely oval, or longitudinally semi-elliptical,
articulating by teeth and sockets, hinge line about equal to the
breadth of the shell. Ventral valve convex, with a linear area
and triangular foramen in the margin of the area; from the inner
edges of this proceed the dental lamellae, which are separated
from the area by a narrow groove strongly crenulated on the
outer edge, and extending obliquely outwards, terminating ina
low ridge which partially surrounds the muscular impression ;
dorsal valye concave; cardinal process prominent, wedge-
shaped, supporting the bases of the crura; dental fossets crenu-
lated, surface plicated ; shell structure punctated.

Distribution, 2 species. Devonian. United States.

VitTunina, Hall, 1861.

Etymology, Vitula, a goddess.
Type, V. pustulosa. Devonian. New York.
61

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Shell resembles that of Tropidoleptus, but the dental processes
are not crenulated, nor distinctly separated from the area as in
that genus.

AMPHICLINA, Laube, 1865.

Hiymology, amphi, about, and clino, a slope.

Type, A. dubia, Minster (Producta).

Shell inequivalve circular, excavated, smooth; ventral valve
convex, beak short; perforated ; dorsal concave ; hinge line very
short and suboblique; area wanting; deltidium triangular, dis-
tinct; structure of the test fibrous, squamose; externally
Amphiclina resembles some Leptzene, the shell structure is very
similar.

Distribution, 2 species. St. Cassian, Austria.

Calceola. ‘‘ Within the last few years the researches of Pro-
fessors Suess and Lindstrém have thrown considerable doubt as
to this genus belonging to the Brachiopoda.” . . ‘‘Ifa bra-
chiopod it seems the most abnormal of all its genera.”’—Davyid-
son (1865).

Faminty VIII.—Linevurmz.*
LINGULELLA, Salter, 1866.

Etymology, diminutive of Lingula.

Type, Lingula Davyisu, M‘Coy.

‘“* Shell nearly equivalve, broad oblong, the ventral valve
pointed, with a distinct pedicle-groove. Muscular sears strong,
nearly as in Obolus, but the pair of anterior retractors are more
linear than in Obolus, and the sliding muscles small, and not:
quite external as in Obolus.”’—(Salter.)

Distribution, 3 species. Lower Silurian. Ireland, Wales, ,
Norway.

LINGULEPIS, Hall, 1863.

Etymology, lingula, a little tongue ; lepis, a scale.

Type, Lingula pinniformis, Owen.

Shell thin, suboyate, or subtrigonal ; composition and struc-
ture asin Lingula. Ventral or larger valve with beak more or
less produced and pointed ; visceral scar trilobed, with a longi-
tudinal raised mesial line or septum—lateral divisions diverging,
and usually longer than the middle one; dorsal or smaller valve
with the beak less produced than that of the other; visceral
scar flabelliform.

Distribution, 4 species. “Silurian, America.

~ ™ee p. 390.
62

PTEROPODA.

TRIMERELLA, Billings, 1863.

Shell allied to that of Obolus, from which it differs in the pos-
session in the interior of each valve of three longitudinal septa
of variable length, which support a horizontal or concave plate.

Distribution, 2 species. Silurian. Canada.

OBOLELLA, Billings, 1861.

Etymology, diminutive of Obolus.

Synonym, (?) Keyserlingia, Pander.

Type, Obolella chromatica, Billings.

“* Shell ovate, circular or subquadrate, convex or plano-con-
vex; ventral valve with a false area, which is sometimes minute,
and usually grooved for the passage of the peduncle; dorsal
valve either with or without an area; muscular scars in the
ventral valve, four; one pair in front of the beak near the
middle, or in the upper half of the shell, and the others situated
one on each side near the cardinal edge; shell calcareous; sur-
face concentrically striated, sometimes with thin extended lamel-
lose edges.”

“In general form these small shells somewhat resemble
Obolus, but the arrangement of the muscular impressions is
different. In Obolus the two central scars have their smaller
extremities directed downwards, converging towards each other ;
but in this genus the arrangement is exactly the reverse.”—
(Billings. )

Distribution, 12 species. Lower Silurian. United States,
Canada, England, Spain.

CLASS PTEROPODA.*

HERMICERATITES, Hichwald, 1840.

Shell cylindrical or semi-cylindrical, elongated, straight, with
a dark brown corneous epidermis, furnished with a straight,
median siphuncle, which does not traverse any chambers.
Fossil, 3 species. Middle Silurian. Russia.

SALTERELLA, Billings, 1861.

Dedicated to Mr. J. W. Salter, late Palzeontologist to the
Geological Survey of Great Britain. !
Shell small, slender, conical, straight, consisting of many

* See p. 346.
63

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

cones placed one within the other; the transverse section of the
tubes is circular or subtriangular ; the surface is transyereey)
or longitudinally striated.

Fossil, 3 species. Lower Silurian. Canada.

PHRAGMOTHECA, Barrande, 1867.

Type, P. Bohemica. Upper Silurian. Bohemia.
Shell like that of Pterotheca, but chambered.

CLASS CONCHIFERA.*

[FamMILy ANOMIADZ. |

The genera included are: ANomIA (Limanomia) (p. 408),
PLACUNOMIA (p. 409), Puacuna (p. 409), CAROLIA (p. 410),
PLACUNOPSIS (p. 410), and PLACENTA (p. 410).

Faminy I.—OstrEID&.+
The genera enumerated are OSTREA (Gryphea, Hxogyra) and

PERNOSTR@A, Munier-Chalmas, 1864.

Derivation from Perna and Ostrea.

Example, Ostrea Luciensis, D’Orbigny.

Shell more or less thick, adherent by the left valve, sub-
circular, squarish, or trapezoidal, nearly equilateral, inequi-
valve; test foliaceous, subnacreous, resembling that of Ostrea,
no fibrous cortical layers; umbones obsolete; hinge line di-
verging more or less broad, with 4 to 8 vertical lgamental
furrows, some long and deep, others short and rudimentary.
Muscular impression subcircular or semilunar, deeper in the
fixed valve than in the other.

The species of this genus, with the exception of the liga-
mental pits, have nearly all the characters of Ostrea ; they serve
to link the families Ostreide and Aviculide.

Distribution, 7 species. Middle Lias—, Forest Marble.
France, Kngland.

[FAMILY PECTINIDZ. |

The genera are Pecren (Neithea, Palliwm), HEMIPECTEN
(p. 412), Hunnrres (p. 412), Lita (p. 412), SponpyLus (p. 413), —
Prepoum (p. 414), PLicaTuLa (p. 414), and the following addi-
tional genera and sub-genera :— |

* See p. 393. t See p. 407.
64

CONCHIFERA.

PERNOPECTEN, Winchell, 1865.

Derivation, Perna and Pecten, from a combination of some of
the characters of the two genera.

Type, Aviculopecten limeeformis, White and Whitfield.

Shell subequivalve, inequilateral, auriculated; hinge line
straight, with a central triangular cartilage pit and a transverse
plate, with smaller lateral cartilage pits diminishing in size and
depth from the centre outwards.

Pernopecten agrees with Amusium in its subsymmetrical ears,
cardinal cartilage pit, and in the absence of radiating ridges,
but differs in its straight hinge line and lateral cartilage pits.

Fossil,.7 species. Carboniferous limestone. Michigan, Bel-
sium, Nassau. Probably others referred to Avicula, Pterinea,
and more especially to Aviculopecten, Amustuwm, and Pecten.

AVICULOPECTEN (p. 417) does not possess the prismatic of the
Aviculide, but the peculiar corrugated tubular structure of the
Pectinidee (Meek). It bears the same relations to existing
Pectens as Pterinea does to existing Aviculas.

PLICATULA (see p. 414).

Sub-genus, Harpax (Parkinson, 1811), Deslongchamps, 1858.

Example, Harpax Parkinsoni, Brown.

Hinge of attached valve consisting of a flattened triangular
plate, traversed by a central more or less perpendicular liga-
mental furrow, exterior to which are slightly marked diverging
sulci to receive the elevated borders of the ligamental groove
in the other valve; the outer borders of the plate form length-
ened and elevated dental processes. Hinge plate of free valve
traversed mesially by the ligamental groove, the borders to
which are elevated and but slightly diverging; exterior to
these are strongly impressed grooves to receive the dental pro-
cesses of the other valve.

Fossil, 16 species. Lias and Lower Oolites. France and
ingland,

| TERQUEMIA, Tate, 1867.

Dedicated to M. O. Terquem, an eminent paleontologist.

Example, T. Heberti, Terquem, Mem. Soc. Géol. de Fr., vol.
yu. p. 106, t. 18, f. 1—3, 1865.

Synonym, Carpenteria, EK. Deslongchamps, 1858 (non Gray,
1856.

Shell inequivalve, subequilateral, attached by the umbonal
portion of the right valve; the left valve slightly concave,

65 .

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

smooth, and ornamented posteriorly, as also the free portion
of the right valve, by concentric plications or radiating ribs.
Hinge area triangular, transverse, striated in the same
direction, edentulous, sometimes produced in the middle line;
ligamental furrow median, longitudinal, straight, rather nar-
row. Muscular scar near the posterior margin; pallial line
wanting. Externally the shells of this genus resemble those _
of Hinnites and Ostrea.

Fossil, 5 species. LLower— Upper Lias. France, Germany,
Great Britain.

Faminy IJ.—AvicuLipz.*

Sub-family 1.—PTERINEINe. Cartilage contained in a
series of linear furrows nearly parallel to the cardinal margin ;
hinge-margin broad, flat; anterior muscular scar moderately
developed and deep. Extinct.

Genus :—PTERINEA (probably includes the Silurian and
Devonian species referred to Avicula).

Sub-genus :—Hopteria, Billings; KH. Typica, L. Sil. New-
foundland. ‘Valves equally convex, hinge with an external (?)
ligament.

MonortTeRtA, Meek, 1865.

Tyne, Gervillia longispina, Cox. Coal Measures. Kentucky.
Hinge edentulous; anterior muscular scar faint, as in Avicula.

MYALINA (see p. 421). AmMBONYCHIA (p. 417), (?) AcTINO-
DESMA, and PTEROPERNA (p. 416). A. Casei (Megapteria, Meek),
Lower Silurian, Indiana, differs from the typical forms of the
genus in the great development of its posterior wing.

Sub-family 2.—AvicuLinm. Cartilage pit single, defined ;
anterior muscular scar very small.

Genera :—AvIcuLA (Maleagrina, Malleus), VULSELLA (p. 416);
AUCELLA (p. 416), Monoris (p. 417), Hanosta (p. 417), Postbo-
NOMYA (?) CARDIOLA (p. 417); HURYDESMA (p. 417).

Sub-family 3.—PERNIIDH. Cartilage contained in a series —
of transverse furrows. Anterior muscular scar generally very
small.

Genera :—PERNA (p. 418), CRENATULA (p. 418), HYPOTREMA
(p. 418), GERVILLIA (p. 418), BAKEWELLIA (p. 418), and InvocE-
RAMUS (p. 419), and the following additional genera :—

* See p. 415.
66

CONCHIFERA.

H6RNESIA, Laube, 1865.

Dedicated to Director Dr. Moriz Hérnes.

Type, Gervillia socialis, Sckloth, St. Cassian.

Differs from the typical Gervilliz by the peculiar structure of
the hinge, and by a more or less lengthened septum going
through the cavity of the umbones. The genusis intermediate
between Cassianella and Gervillia.

NAYADINA, Munier-Chalmas, 1863.

— Type, N. Heberti, Munier, Cenonamian, Aubeterre.
Shell resembling a transverse Vulsella, rostrated posteriorly ;
the internal fibrous layer is wanting.

Eiemus, EH. Deslongchamps, 1856.

Hiymology, édvypu06s, a sinuosity, in allusion to the sinuosities
of the borders of the post-apical opening.
Type, EK. polytypus, E. Deslong. Fig. 27

Fig. 27.—Eligmus Polytypus.

Animal unknown.

Shell free, or perhaps attached by a byssus, nearly equi-
valve, inequilateral; ovate or cylindrical, more or less com-
pressed ; anterior extremity inflated, and shorter thau the
attenuated posterior one. Test rather thick, foliaceous. Um-
bones inflated, slightly depressed or flattened, diverging and
directed backwards. Valves closed at both extremities, with
an unsymmetrical (byssal?) sinus, s, behind the umbones;
ornamented by oblique, radiating carimated ribs. Hinge
short, straight, edentulous; ligamental area triangular, with a
superficial pit, 7. Muscular scar single, situated on the free

67

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

end of 2 spoon-shaped process, p, which originates from beneath
the umbonal cavity, pallial line wanting.

Distribution, 3 species. Inferior Oolite, and Great Oolite.
Maine-et-Loire, Calvados, Balin, Galicia.

The internal process of Eligmus has no analogy with that of
the Myce and Anatine, which in them supports the cartilage,
and is an internal prolongation of the hinge; whilst that of
Lligmus gives attachment to the adductor muscle, and arises
from beneath the hinge. Lligmus is related through Vulsella
Turonensis, Dujardin, to Vuilsella; the test, however, is not
fibrous, and M. Munier supposes that the internal nacreous
layer has been destroyed by fossilization.

CASSIANELLA, Beyrich, 1861.

Synonym, Gryphorhynchus, Meek, 1864.

Type, Avicula gryphoata, Minster.

Shell thick, sub-hemispherical; right valve flat or convave,
the left very gibbous; no defined byssal sinus. Umbones
sub-central, hinge line equalling the greatest length of the
shell, in both valves with a wide well-defined cardinal area ;
ears sub-equal, not produced. Hinge with several small irre-
gular teeth near the middle. Surface striated.

Fossil, 6 species. Upper Trias— L. Lias. Austria, Bavaria,
Himalayas.

Sub-family 4.—Pinniine.

Genus:—Pinwa. Sub-genus, Aviculopinna, Meek.

Type, Pinna prisca, Minster. Permian.

Shell nearly or quite equivalve, beaks not terminal. The
general aspect of the shell seems to be intermediate between
Pinna and Avicula.

TRICHITES (see p. 420).

Faminy II1.—Myriminz.*

MopioLaRiA, Beck (Jeffreys, 1863) (see p. 422).

Derivation, allied to the genus Modiola of Lamarck.

Example, Mytilus discors, Linné.

Synonyms, Lanistes, Humphreys ; Lanistina, Gray.

Animal with the mantle folded in front into a wide incur-
rent tube, and behind into a conical excurrent tube ; foot strap-
shaped.

Shell rhomboidal, sculptured by two rows (one on each side)

* See p. 420.
68

os

CONCHIFERA.

of striz, which radiate from the beaks, leaving the middle ~
portion smooth, umbones incurved, hinge edentulous or cre-
nulated, hinge-plate finely notched.

Distribution, Temperate and Arctic seas. The four British
' species occur fossilised in the Red and Ooralline Crags and
newer Tertiaries. Several species in the Upper Triassic and
Jurassic formations, referred to Modiola, appear to belong here.

CRENELLA, Brown (see p. 422).

Etymology, diminutive of crena, a notch.

Example, Mytilus decussatus, Montagu.

Animal with the mantle open in front, and folded behind
into a sessile excurrent tube; foot cylindrical, the free end
’ being disk-like and issuing out of a sheath.

Shell oval or rhomboidal, nacreous, cancellated; umbones
straight, ligament small, hinge of each valve furnished with an
upright tooth, which is crenulated, as well as the hinge plate.

The animal dees not spin a thick byssus, like Modiolaria,
but secretes only a single thread for attachment, and by means
of which it holds itself suspended in the water.

Distribution, 5 species. Low-water mark to 150 fathoms.
Norway, Iceland, Greenland, New England, Britain, France.

C. rhombea occurs in a fossil state in the Coralline Crag,
Sutton.

PRASINA, Deshayes, 1863.

Type, P. Borbonica, Desh. Isle of Bourbon.

Shell oblong thick cordiform, valves closed, margins entire
inequilateral; lunule deep circular, projecting into the interior
of the right valve, left valve in the same place furnished with
dentiform tubercles; hinge line simple, arched; ligament
external, narrow ; muscular scars two, unequal, sub-central.

ANTHRACOPTERA, Salter, 1863.

Etymology, anthrax, coal, and pteron, a wing.

Example, A. Carbonaria, Dawson, sp.

This genus includes the so-called Myaline, but they have
not the thick hinge-plate of the shells of that genus, and
species which have been described by Ludwig as belonging to
Dreissena. The form of the shell is triangular.

Fossil, 7 species of marine origin. Coal Measures. Great
Britain, Nova Scotia, Westphalia.

69

MANUAL. OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Famity [V.—ARcAaDm.*

Limopsis. Sub-genus, Trigonocelia, Nyst.

Shell approaches Leda in form, and differs from Limopsis in
the absence of the expanded ligamental area. .

Fossil, 7 species. Hocene. Paris basin, Belgium, England,
United States.

CTENODONTA, Salter, 1851 (p. 427).

Type, Tellinomya nasuta, Hall.

Synonym, Tellinomya, Hall.

Shell closed, differs from Jsourca in not having the ligamental
area, the ventricose character, large and often subspiral beaks ;
the surface of the shell is smooth or marked by lines of growth,
but never cancellated ; hinge teeth small and numerous.

Fossil, 40 species. Silurian—Carboniferous. Europe, N.
America, Bolivia.

It is probable that most of the Palseozoic species referred to
Nucula belong to Ctenodonita.

PALHARCA, Hall, 1858.

Synonyms, Megalomus, Hall, 1852; Cyrtodonta, Billings,
1858 ; Cypricardites, Conrad, 1841. ;

Example, C. Canadensis, Billings.

Shell equivaive, inequilateral; umbones near the anterior end
or terminal; general form obliquely tumid, transversely sub-
rhomboidal ovate ; posterior extremity larger than the anterior,
and usually broadly rounded; two to eight oblique anterior
teeth beneath, or a little in front of the umbones; two to four
remote lateral teeth parallel with the hinge line; pallial line
simple; muscular scars two, anterior sometimes deeply exca-
vated ; posterior superficial; hgament external.

Some species haye a narrow area between or behind the
beaks.

Distribution, 42 species. Silurian—Deyonian. N. America
and N. Wales.

Sub-genus, Megambonia, Billings, 1858.

Synonym, Vanuxemia, Hall, 1858.

Shell ovate, beaks terminal, or nearly so; anterior extremity
reduced to a small auriculate expansion, or obsolete.

Distribution, 11 species. Silurian. N. America.

* See p. 424.
70

CONCHIFERA.

FAMILY V.—TRIGONIADZ.*
? Iscayrina, Billings, 1866.

Type, I. Winchelli, Billings.

Shell equivalyve, inequilateral, two strong ridges radiating
from the beak in the interior of each valve.

Fossil, 2 species. IL. and M. Silurian. Anticosti.

Famity VI.—UNIONIDA.+
ANTHRACOSIA, King, 1856 (see p. 470).

Etymology, anthrax, carbon, in allusion to the carbonaceouy
deposits in which the genus is usually found.

Type, A. Beaniana, King. Coal Measures, Newcastle.

Shell equivalve, inequilateral. Teeth one in each valve below
the umbone, rather low and massive; crown of tooth of right
valve excavated anteriorly and ridged posteriorly; crown of
tooth of left valve ridged anteriorly and sloped posteriorly.
Umbonal ligamental fulcra, each a furrow excavated in the
hinge-plate, between the umbone and tooth. Scars of the an-
terior set of pedal muscles, situated above the anterior adductor
muscular impressions.

Anthracosia differs from Unio, to which genus the majority of
the Unioniform shells have been referred, in its simpler dental
system and in the absence of supplementary pedal muscles. It
has no relation to Cardinia, in which genus others of the
Unioniform species have been placed; whilst other members of
genus possessing the outward appearance of certain aviculoid
forms of Modiola have been ranged in the genus Myalina.

Distribution, 61 species. Deyonian—Carboniterous. West-
phalia, Saxony, Russia, Belgium, Great Britain, N. America.

CarBonicona, M‘Coy, 1855 (see p. 470).

Synonym, Prisconaia, Conrad, 1867.

Example, Unio acutus, Sow.

Cardinal tooth in right valve diverging obliquely towards the
posterior side; lateral 1-1, long and lamellar; no lunate im-
pression on the yentral margin of the anterior adductor as in
Unio.

This genus is related to Anthracosia, but differs in haying
lateral teeth.

Distribution, about 20 species. Coal Measures. Europe,
United States.

* See p. 430. {7 See p. 4382.

71

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

FAamMILty VILI.—HtIprurrripz.*

Genus :—HIPPURITES.

Sub-genus, D’ Orbignya, Woodward, 1862.

Type, H. bi-oculatus,; Lamk. ; no ‘‘ ligamental inflection ”’ of
the outer shell.

Fossil, 4 species. Middle Chalk. Europe.

Barrettia, Woodward, 1862, dedicated to Mr. Lucas Barrett,
late Director of the Geological Survey of the West Indies.

Type, B. monilifera, Woodward. ‘‘ Hippurite Limestone.”
Jamaica. No ‘‘ligamental inflection” as in D’Orbignya, but
presents the further peculiarity of an indefinite number of pal-
lial duplicatures extending all round the margin of the lower
valve.

Famity XJ.—LUcINIDA.t+
Lorires, Poli, 1791 (Jeffreys) (see p. 456),

Etymology, lorum, a strap; and pes, a foot.

Example, Tellina lactea, Linné.

Animal with the margin of the mantle notched; incurrent
tube long.

Shell almost equilateral, cancellated, or sculptured by
flexuous striz; lunule short; cartilage quite internal; teeth,
one cardinal in the right, and two in the left valve; laterals
remote, and sometimes indistinct.

Distribution, species. Atlantic, Mediterranean, West Indies.

Fossil, species. Hocene France.

Axinus, J. Sowerby, 1821 (see p. 431).

Synonyms, Thysaira, &c., Leach ; Bequania, Leach; Crypto-
don, Turton; Ptychina, Philippi; Thiatyra, G. Sowby.; Clau-
sina, Jeffreys.

Example, Tellina flexuosa, Montagu.

Animal with the mantle margin thickened, open, not pro-
longed into tubes; foot long, sub-cylindrical, and very slender.

Shell globular, posterior side furrowed or angulated, umbones
much recurved; lunule short or indistinct; ligament usually
and to a certain extent external, placed in a groove on the hinge
line, and outside the hinge-plate; teeth aitogether wanting.

In A. flewuosus, the hinge-plate is indented in the right valve
immediately below the beaks, and slightly reflected in the left,

* See p. 440. 7 See p. 455.
72

CONCHIFERA.

which gives that valve the appearance of haying an indistinct
or obscure cardinal tooth.

Distribution, 4 species. Europe.

Fossil, Tertiary. Two of the three British species occur in a
fossil state in the Coralline Crag.

SPORTELLA, Deshayes (see p. 457).

Example, Psammotea dupia, Defrance.

Sheli oblong, smooth, depressed, sub-equilateral; valves
closed. Hinge narrow, with two unequal, diverging teeth in
the left valve, one in the other; the lateral teeth are wanting.
Muscular scars large, oval, nearly equal; pallial line simple.
Ligament external.

Fossil, 17 species. Tertiary. Paris basin.

Possibly some of the Liassic species referred to Unicardiwm
belong to this genus.

CoRBICELLA, Morris and Lycett, 1853.

Etymology, diminutive of Corbis.

Type, G. subsequilatera, Lycett.

Shell destitute of ornament, ovately elongated, rather com-
pressed ; anterior side small; hinge characters differ from those
of Corbis, m the absence of the anterior lateral tooth, and in
the oblique internal ridge passing downwards behind the ante-
rior muscular scar.

Corbicella is intermediate between Corbis and Tancredia; an’
from the latter, to which it is more nearly allied, it is separatea
by its more ovate form, and by the absence of the posterior
oblique angle, and in the possession of a lengthened hinge-
lamina and depressed remote posterior lateral tooth.

Fossil, 7 species. Upper part of Inferior Oolite—Oxfordian.
Fingland; France.

[Faminy KELLImDZ. |

LAs#A, Brown, 1827.

Etymology, possibly a corrupt derivation of Aatoxjior, a shield.

Type, Cardium rubrum, Montagu.

Synonyms, Poronia, Recluz; Cyleadina, pars; Kellia, pars;
Bornia, pars.

Animal with the mantle folded on the anterior side so as to
form a wide but incomplete incurrent tube; the excurrent tube
is inconspicuous, placed on the opposite side; foot long.

E 73

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Shell minute and roundish oval; beaks straight; cartilage
long, placed at the shorter end of the shell, contrary to that in ~
Kellia ; left valve with a minute thorn-like cardinal tooth; and
in each yalve two remarkably strong lateral teeth.

The genus is intermediate between Montacuta and Kellia.

Distribution. ‘‘ The Lascece usually inhabit the littoral zone,.
where they congregate in vast numbers at the roots of small
sea-weeds, in the crevices of rocks, and in empty shells. L.
rubra, a British species, is viviparous, and lives as much out of
the sea as in it. Other species occur in yarious parts of the
world.” —Jeffreys.

Faminy XII.—CycLADIDZ&.*

In addition to the genera enumerated in W. M. i., p. 461
et seq., the following belong here :—
GALATEA (see p. 486), and—

FISCHERIA, Bernardi, 1860.

Dedicated to M. Fischer, one of the editors of the Journal
de Conchyliologie.

Type, EF. Delesserti, Bern., inhabiting the rivers of the
Gaboon, W. Africa.

Shell differs from that of Galatea in the rudimentary condi-
tion of the lateral cardinal teeth of the right valve, and by the
elongated lateral teeth bemg compressed, as in Cyrena; and
from Cyrena by its fewer cardinal teeth, depth of the pallial
sinus, and by the absence of lateral teeth in the right valve.

Famity XIII.—CyYPRINIDz.+
CYPRICARDELLA, Hall, 1857.

Shell ovate, subelliptical, or subquadrate; concentrically
striated; hinge of right valve with two cardinal teeth; the an-
terior tooth beneath the beaks; posterior tooth turned obliquely
backwards, leaving a triangular pit, which is probably occupied
by a tooth in the other valve. Anterior cardinal margin with a
long narrow groove, apparently for the reception of a slender
projection of the other valve; posterior side beveled from
above, edge thin; ligament external, in a deep cavity; mus-
cular scars distinct, shallow; pallial line simple.

Fossil, 4 species. Carboniferous. Indiana.

* See p. 461. ¢ See p. 463.
74

CONCHIFERA.

ANISODONTA, Deshayes, 1860.

Type, A. conplanatum, Dh. THocene. Paris basin.

Shell transversely elongated, compressed, inequilateral ; hinge
thick; a large conical and a triangular socket in each valve;
ligament external. Anterior adductor scar very small, and
comprised between two prominent ribs (one parallel and the
other transverse to the anterior border); posterior scar subcir-
cular, superficial; pallial line faint, entire.

Distribution, 2 species. Bourbon.

? Matuert, Billings, 1858.

Dedicated to Mr. Mather, of the Geological Survey of New
York.

Type, M. tenera, Billings. Trenton limestone, Canada.

Shell transverse, equivalve ; beaks near the anterior end; two
small obtuse cardinal teeth in the left valve, and one in the
right; ligament external.

ConcHoDoN, Stoppani, 1865.

Kiymology, conchos, a shell, and odos, a tooth.

Type, C. infraliasicus, Stop. Lower Lias. Lombardy.

Shell equivalve, symmetrical, very thick, cordiform, closed;
beaks large, angulated, involute. Ligament internal, very
long, marginal, attached to the posterior half of the hinge-plate.
Hinge massive; in the right valve, one large rounded tooth in
front (placed above a dental pit), and two transverse cardinal
teeth ; left valve with a large circular socket, bounded below
by a curved lamellar tooth; two transverse and one curved
teeth beneath the umbo.

DICEROCARDIUM, Stoppani, 1865.

Etymology, diceras, haying two horns, and cardiwm.

Shell equivalve, symmetrical, closed, free; umbones very
prominent, elongated, or spiral. Hinge-plate broad, thick,
separated by an interval of varying width from the edge of the
valve, and prolonged into the umbonal cavity. Left valve with
a compressed cardinal tooth, corresponding to a socket in the
right valve; valves furrowed by ligamental grooves. Ligament
external.

Fossil, 4 species. Upper Trias. Lombardy, North-West
Himalayas.

75

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

CYPRIMERIA, Conrad, 1864.

Type, Cytherea excayata, Morton. Cretaceous. North
America.

Shell lentiform; hinge of right valve broad, with a bifid
oblique cardinal tooth and two oblique acute anterior teeth,

with an intermediate pit for the reception of the tooth in the.

opposite valve.

DOoSsINIOPSIS, Conrad, 1864.

Derivation, Dosinia, a generic name, and opsis, like.

Type, D. Meekii. Eocene. United States.

Shell exteriorly like Dosinia. Cardinal teeth three in each
valve; posterior tooth of right valve bifid; in the left valve,
a thick rugose lateral tooth fitting into a cayity in the opposite
valve; under the umbo is a pit; cartilage plate granulated;
pallial sinus deep and angular.

Distribution, 3 species. Eocene. United States.

CoNCHOCELE, Gabb.

Type, C. disjuncta, Gabb. Miocene? California.

Shell irregularly quadrate, very inequilateral, angulated pos-
teriorly ; presenting some analogies to Hdmondia, Unicardium,
and Cardiomorpha. Ligament external; hinge with a long,
sharp tooth running from the beaks parallel with the cardinal
margin, almost to the posterior end; pallial line simple.

ASTARTE. Subgenus, Astartella, Hall and Whitney, 1858.
A. vera. Coal Measures. LTlinois and Indiana. The anterior
tooth of the right valve has a longitudinal pit in the summit.

[FAMILY CARDIT#. |
Woooptra, Deshayes, 1860.

Dedicated to Searles V. Wood, a distinguished paleontologist
of England.
Example, Tellina digitaria, Linné.

Shell small, rounded, equivalve, equilateral; valves closed,

smooth, or ornamented with oblique, curved strie ; hinge thick;
right valve with a single, large, median, triangular tooth, de-
pressed or channelled in the middle; left valye with two narrow,
unequal, diverging teeth; lateral tooth wanting or rudimentary.
Ligament internal, small; muscular scars small, equal, oval or
ovate; pallial line simple.

Distribution, 1 species. Mediterranean; also fossil in the

76

CONCHIFERA.

Crags of England, in that of Anvers, and in the Pleistocene
deposits of Palermo.

Fossil, 8 species. Hocene, Miocene, Pliocene. France,
England, Germany. W. lamellosa, Sandb., is inequilateral.

LuTETIA, Deshayes, 1860.

Example, L. Parisiensis, Deshayes.

Shell small, orbicular, globose, equivalve; valves closed ;
border simple and entire; hinge narrow; cardinal teeth three in
each valve, two diverging; the third large and obliquely placed
between the others; muscular scars small, oval, submarginal,
equal ; pallial line simple; ligament external.

Fossil, 2 species. Hocene, Paris.

GooDALLIA, Deshayes, 1860.

Example, Erycina miliaris, Defrance.

Shell small, trigonal, equivalve, inequilateral; valves closed ;
cardinal teeth in the right valve two, diverging, separated by a
triangular socket; in the left valve, one triangular, sometimes
bifid; lateral wanting, or rudimentary; ligament external, very
short; pallial line simple. —

Fossil, 8 species. Eocene. Paris.

GoOoDALLIOPSIS, Raincourt and Munier, 1863.

Type, G. Orbignyi, Rainc. and Mun. Hocene. Fercourt.

Shell oval, flattened, equivalve, inequilateral, smooth, slightly
dilated in front, and compressed behind; valves closed; hinge
with two cardinal teeth, separated by a triangular socket, in
each valve; lateral teeth distinct and elongated, one in each
valve. Other characters those of Goodallia.

HAMILY XIV.—VENERIDA.*
PsaTHURA, Deshayes, 1860 (see p. 456).

Etymology, paOvpoc, friable.

Type, Erycina fragilis, Lamk. ocene. Paris basin.

Shell oval, inequilateral, thin, transparent, fragile; hinge
teeth, in the right valve, two equal and deeply bifid ; left valve,
two unequal, entire; ligament.external; anterior adductor scar
narrow, claviform; posterior subquadrangular ; pallial simple,
thus differing from Clementia, to which it is related by the hinge
characters.

* See p. 472.
Bee Vi

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

IsopomaA, Deshayes, 1860.

Type, I. cyrenoides, Deshayes. Hocene. Paris basin. _
Shell transversely oval, very thin; hinge similar to that of —
Cyrena, but the pallial line is sinuous.

Famity XVI.—TELLINIDA.*
SowERBYA, D’Orbigny, 1850 (see p. 478).

Dedicated to Sowerby, author ef ‘‘ British Mineral Con-
chology,” &c.

Type, 8. crassa, D’Orb., Prodrome I., p. 362.

Synonym, Isodonta, Buvignier, 1851.

Shell equivalve, subequilateral ; right valve with two oblique,
diverging, cardinal teeth separated by a mesial trigonal socket,
and two lamellar lateral teeth separated from the hinge border
by longitudinal grooves ; left valve with a conical tooth between
two oblique pits; laterals two; longitudinal lamellar and pro-
jecting, and united to the superior border; ligament external.

Fossil, 8 species. Lower Lias—Portlandian. England,
France, Germany.

QUENSTEDTIA, Morris and Lycett, 1853 (see p. 481).

Dedicated to Professor Quenstedt, the veteran paleontologist
of Wurtemberg. .

Type, Pullastra oblita, Phillips.

Shell like that of Psammobia ; hinge with an obtuse transverse
cardinal tooth in the left, and a cardinal pit in the right; lga-
ment external, in a narrow elongated groove ; posterior adductor
scar rounded, anterior elongated, sinuated; pallial sinus smaller
than in Psammobia or Sanguinolaria.

Fossil, 3 species. Inferior Oolite—Great Oolite. England,
France, Germany.

P PALMOMYA, Zittel, 1861.

Shell triangular, depressed, nearly equivalve, mequilateral ;
right valve with two cardinal teeth, the posterior larger and in
front of the cartilage pit; left valve with a single cardinal
tooth; a prominent posterior lateral tooth in each valve;
muscular and pallial impressions very faint.

Fossil, 1 species. Coral Rag. Glos, Normandy.

* See p. 479.
78

CONCHIFERA.

FAMILY X V.—MAcTRIDA,*

Includes VAUGANELLA (p. 479), LuTRARIA (p. 479), Macrra
(p. 477), GNATHODON (p. 478), HETEROCORDIA, ANATINELLA
(p. 479), CARDILLA (p. 469), and

PSEUDOCARDIUM, Gabb.

Type, Cardium Gabbi, Remond. Miocene and Pliocene.
California.

Etymology, pseudo, false, and cardiwm, a generic name.

Shell thick, heavy, resembling Levicardiwm externally ; liga-
ment internal; lunule cordate; left valve with a large carti-
lage pit and a V-shaped tooth, which articulates in a cor-
responding depression in the night valve; 2 lateral teeth in
each valve, very strong and prominent.

Famity XVIITI.—Myacina.t
Poromya, Forbes, 1843 (see p. 491).

Passing into the genus Mya.

Hxample, P. granulata.

Synonyms, Hucharis, Recluz; Embla, Loven; Cumingia
parthenopea, Tiberri (non Thetis, Sby.).

Animal with unequal siphons, clothed with numerous fila-
ments, foot narrow and slender.

Shell sub-orbicular, sub-equivalve, and inequilateral, thin,
transparent, slightly nacreous within; valves closed, surface
granulated ; teeth, in right valve, a short but strong cardinal,
and in the left a minute triangular cardinal and a ridge-like
lateral on the posterior side.

Distribution, 10 species. Britain, Scandinavia, Mediterranean,
Tropical America.

Fossil, 13 species. Eocene. France, Germany, England,
United States.

CorBpuLomyA, Nyst, 1846 (see p. 490).

Derivation, Corbula and Mya.

Examples, Corbula complanata, Sowerby; Lentidium Medi-
terraneum, Jan and Cristofori.

Shell oval, transverse, depressed, closed, inequivalve, sub-
inequilateral; right valve the larger, with one pyramidal tooth,

* See p. 477. 7 See p. 489. i
ie

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA.

and a narrow and deep socket; left valve with two unequal teeth
separated by a large socket. Ligament internal, pallial Pres
sions simple, sightly inflected posteriorly.

Animal with the mantle united behind, margins of the
mantle with duplicate foliaceous tentacles; foot compressed,
triangular; siphons short, united at the DRE. the incurrent
tube the larger and more elongated, the opening of which is
surrounded by arborescent tentacles.

Distribution, 3 species. Mediterranean.

Fossil, 7 species. Hocene. France, Belgium, England.

ANTHRACOMYA, Salter, 1861.

Etymology, anthrax, coal, and mya, a generic name.

Synonym, Naiadites, Dawson.

Type, A. Adamsi, Salter.

Shell thin, equivalve, the right valve rather larger; valve
close, oblong, wider behind, where there is a blunt siphonal
ridge; rounded anteriorly, with a byssal sinus on tlie anterior
ventral edge. Beaks small, anterior, and slightly prominent,
with an obscure lunette; posterior hinge line with a narrow
interior ridge; ligament external. pidermis strongly
wrinkled.

Animal unknown ; probably had a closed mantle and respi-
ratory siphons.

Distribution, 9 species. Coal Measures, associated with
marine animals. Great Britain, Nova Scotia.

Faminty XTX.—ANATINID&.*

RIBEIRIA (see p. 497).

Mr. Billings describes in this genus, ‘‘ beneath and in front
of the umbo, a small aperture of a semicircular shape, which
appears to be the entrance to a tubular passage running back-
wards over the transverse plate into the general cavity of the
body.” He regards it as a byssal orifice.

Mr. J. W. Salter referred this genus to the class Crustacea.

Fossil, 4 species. LL. Silurian, Portugal; Canada, England.

Faminy X XI.—PHOLADIDA.+

XYLOPHAGA (see p. 506). Sub-genus, Xylophagella, Meck,
1864.
Type, X. elegantula. Cretaceous. Dax.

* See p. 494, + See p. 503.
80

CONCHIFERA.

Shell having the form and ornamentation of Xylophaga, but
possesses an oblique internal postero-dorsal ridge; burrows,
apparently, without a shelly lining.

MARTESIA (see p. 505). Sub-genus, Diplothyra, Tyron, 1862.
D. Smithii, Staten Island, burrowing in oyster-shells.

Shell with a double accessory valve; the principal plate
directly over the umbones, with a smaller anterior one adjoin-
ing.

TEREDO (see p. 506). Sub-genus, Calobates, Gould. (7.
furcelloides, Gray). Siphonal palettes large, long, stilt-shaped ;
siphons adherent, only becoming free at the tips.

Distribution, 2 species. Burmack, Australia.

Nausitora, Wright, 1864. N. Dunlopi (freshwater, India).
Siphonal palettes, outer surface convex, covered with thick
scale-like strize, inner flat or slightly concave.

Distribution, 2 species, burrowing in wood. Bengal. Aus-
tralia.

INDEX TO APPENDIX.

The synonyms are printed in zfalics, and the pages where the genera are described are
indicated by an asterisk (*).

Achatina, *41.
Acicula, 50. =
Aciculidze, 50.
Aciculina, *20.
Acrochasma, *44,
Acroculia, 34.
Acteonella, 51.
Actinodesma, 66.
Adamsia, 14.
Alaria, *24.
Amara, *17.
Amberleya, 33.
Ambonychia, 66.
Ammonicerina, 31.
Ammonitide, 10.
Amnicola, 29.
Amphiclina, 62.
Amphithalamus, *30
Ampullaria, 29.
Anachis, *13.
Anatinidee, 80.
Anaulus, #48.
Anculosa, *29.
Angasiella, *51.
Angitrema, 28.
Anisoceras, *12.
Anisodonta, *75.
Anomiade, 64.
Anthracomya, *80.
Anthracoptera, *69
Anthracosia, *71.
Aphragmites, *6.
Aporrhaide, 24.
Arcade, 70.
Asoceras, *5.
Asolene, 29.
Astarte, 76.
Astartella, 76.
Atrypa, *58.
Aulacoceras, *9.
Auriculide, 45.
Auriculina, 19.
Aviculidz, 66.
Aviculing, 66.
Aviculopecten, 65.
Aviculopinna, 68.
Axinus, *72.

Bactrites, 10.
Baculina, *10.
Barleeia, *31.

Barrettia, 72.
Bathmoceras, *9.
Belemnites, 3.
Belemnitide, *3.
Bellerophontine, 39.
Bequania, 72.
Bithinia, 29.
Blauneria, *46.
Borma, 73.
Borsonia, *17.
Bourciera, *50.
Brachiopoda, 53.
Brachytrema, *23.
Brochina, 25.
Brondelia, *44.
Buccinide, 14.
Buccinopsis, *14.
Buccinopsis, 14.
Bugesia, *29.
Bulimella, *24.

Cecide, 25.
Cecum, *25.
Calceola, 62.
Calceolina, 37.
Callopoma, *35.
Calobates, 81.
Calyptra, 39.
Calyptreeide, 34.
Camerella, *59.
Camptonyx, *43.
Cancellaride, 18.
Carbonicola, *71.
Carditee, 76.
Carinaropsis, 39.
Carpenteria, 65.
Carychium, 46.
Cassianella, *68.
Casside, 15.
Cassidula, 45.
Cassiope, *26.
Centronella, *54.
Cephalopoda, 3.
Ceres, *48.
Ceriphasia, 28.
Ceritella, *23.
Cerithiade, 21.
Cernina, 17.
Cerostrema, 26.
Charionella, *56.
Oheletropis, 14.

Chemnitzia, *20.
Chilocyclus, 26, 29.
Chittya, 50.
Choanomphalus, *44,
Choristoceras, *11.
Chrysallida, 19.
Chrysostoma, 36.
Circulus, 35.
Clausina, 72.
Clostophis, *47.
Clydonites, *11.
Clymenia, 10.
Cochlearia, *26.
Cochloceras, *10.
Conchifera, 64.
Conchoce!e, *76.
Conchodon, *75.
Concholepos, 15.
Conide, 17.
Corbicella, *73.
Corbulomya, *79.
Cordieria, 17.
Cremnobates, 45.
Crenella, *69.
Cryptodon, 72.
Cryptcenia, *37.
Cryptonella, 56.
Cryptopiocus, *22.
Ctenodonta, *70.
Cuma, 15.
Cyathopoma, 47.
Cycladidex, 74.
Cyclophorus, *47.
Cyclostoma, *46.
Cyclostomidee, 46.
Cyclotopsis, 46.
Cylcadina, 73.
Cylindrella, 41.
Cypreeide, 16.
Cypricardella, *74,
Cypricardites, 70.
Cyprimeria, *76.
Cyprinide, 74.
Cyrtina, *55.
Cyrtoceras, *7.
Cyrtocerina, *8.
Cyrtodonta, 70.
Cystiscus, *16.

Dentaliade, 40.
Deshayesia, *18

83

Deslongchampsia, *39.
Diarthema, *24.
Diastoma, *30.
Dibranchiate, 3.
Dicerocardium, *75.
Diplothyra, 81.
Discoceras, *8.
Disculus, 33.
Ditremaria, *38.
D’Orbignya, 72.
Doride, 51.
Doridopsida, *52.
Doridopsis, *52.
Dosiniopsis, *76.
Dunkeria, 20.

Eatonia, *59.
Eglisia, 26.
Hichwaldia, *59.
Eligmus, *67.
Embia, 79.
Fineta, 16.
Endoceras, *7.
Enida, 36.
Eolide, 52.
Eopteria, 66.
Etallonia, *51.
Ethalia, *37.
Fucharis, 79.
Euchrysalis, 21.
Bucosmia, *35.
Hucyclus, *32.
Eulima, 20.
Eurycelon, 28.
Euspira, 17.
Eustoma, *22.
Exelissa, *22.

Fibula, *22.
Fischeria, *74,
Fissilabria, 23.
Fossarus, *32.
Fissurellide, 39.

Gadinia, *40.
Gadus, *40.
Ganga, 27.
Gasteropoda, 13.
Geomelania, 50.
Georissa, *50.
Geostilbia, 41.
Gibbula, 35.
Globularia, 17.
Globulus, 17.
Glossoceras, *6.
Glotella, 28.
Goniatide, 10.
Goniatites, 10.
Goniobasis, 28.
Gonioceras, *7.
Goodallia, *77.
Goodalliopsis, *77.
Gosavia, *17.
Gryphorhynchus, 68.
Gymnodoris, 51.
Gyrotoma, *28.

84

INDEX.

Haliotide, 37.
Haliotinee, 37.
Hamulina, *12.
Harpa, 15.
Harpax,, 65.

Har pella, 16.
Helcion, *39.
Helicide, 41.
Helicina, 50.
Helicinide, 50.
Heliocryptus, *34.
Helonyz, 40.
Hemsinus, 27.
Hercoceras, *9.
Hermiceratites, *63,
Hero, *52.
Hippurites, 72.
Hippuritide, 72.
Holopella, *27.
Homalogyra, *31.
Hornesia, *67.
Hyalimax, *42.
Hydrobia, 29

Incilaria, 43.
Janthinidze, 34.
Io, *28.

Topas, *15.
Isanda, 36.
Ischyrina, *71.
Isodoma, *78.
lsodonta, 78.

Jerdonia, 47.

Kalinga, 52.
Keilostoma, *80.
Kellia, 73.
Kelliidee, 73.
Keyserlingia, 63.
Kilwertia, 22.
Krynickia, *42.

Lacuna, 32.
Lacunella, *32.
Laimodonta, 45.
Lanistes, 29.
Lanistes, 68.
Lanistina, 68.
Laseea, *73.
Leiorhynchus, 56.
Leiostraca, 20.
Lepeta, *40.
Leptocelia, *54.
Leptoconchus, 15.
Leptomaria, *37.
Leptozxis, 29.
Leuconia, 45.
Leucorhynchia, *36.
Leucostoma, 23.
Limacide, 42.
Limneide, 43.
Limopsis, *70.
Lingulella, *62.
Lingulepis, *62.
Lingulide, 62.

| Liomesus, 14.
Lirator, 45.
Lithasia, 28.
Littorina, 32.
Littorinella, 29.
Littorinide, 32.
Lituites, *8.
Lituunculus, *8.
Loripes, #72.
Lucinide, 72.
Lunatia, 17.
Lutetia, *77.
Lyria, *16.

Macroceramus, *41.
Mactridz, 79.
Madrella, *52.
Magilus, 15.
Maravignia, 32.
Margarita, 35.
Marisa, 29.
Martesia, 81.
Matheria, *75.
Mathilda, *20.
Megalomus, 70.
Megambonia, *70.
Meghimatium, 43.
Meioceras, *26.
Meladomus, 29.
Melafusus, 28.
Melampus, 45.
Melanatria, 27.
Melania, *27.
Melaniade, 27.
Melanopsis, 29.
Meristella, *55.
Meseschiza, 28.
Mesostoma, *24.
Microstelma, *31.
Microthyca, 36.
Modiolaria, *68.
Modulus, 32.
Moitessieria, *29.
Monodonta, 37.
Moropteria, 66.
Muricede, 138.
Myacide, 79.
Myalina, 66.
Mytilidee, 68.

Navadites, 80.
Nassaria, *15.
Natica, 17.
Naticella, 18.
Naticidze, 17.
Naticospis, 17.
Nausitora, 81.
Nautilide, 5.

| Nacella, 39.

Nautilus subtuberculatus,

o
Nayadina, *67.
Neritopside, 19.
Neverita, 17.
Nitidella, *15.
Nucleospira, *56.

Obolella, *63.
Odontostoma, 49.
Odostomia, 19.
Olivedee, 15.
Omalogyra, 31.
Omphalia, 26.
Omphalius, 36.
Onoceras, *7.
Ophicardelus, 45.
Ophidioceras, *8.
Ophileta, *34.
Ophioceras, 8.
Ophisthostoma, *48,

Opistho-Branchiata, 51.

Opisthoporus, 47.
Orthidze, 60.
Orthoceras, *7.
Orthoceratide, 5.
Orthonychia, 34.
Ostreide, 64.
Otina, 46.

Paladilhea, *28.
Palwarea, *70.
Paleomya, *78.
Paludina, 29.
Paludinella, 29.
Paludinide, 29.
Paludomus, 27.
Parthenia, 19.
Patellide, 39.
Patina, 39.
Pectinidee, 64.
Pedipes, *45.
Peltarion, *12.
Peplidia, 51.
Perenna, *50.
Perniide, 66.
Pernopecten, *65
Pernostrea, *64.
Persa, 45.
Phasianella, 35.
Phasianema, 32.
Phidiana, *52.
Philippia, 33.
Philomycus, *42.
Philopotamis, *27.
Pholadide, 80.
Phragmotheca, 64.

Phyllobranehus, *53.

Phylloteuthis, *3.
Physella, *45.
Piloceras, *7.
Pinaxia, 15.
Pinna, *68.
inniinze, 68.
Pira, 45,
Pitharella, *43.
Planaxis, 23.
Platyceras, *34.
Plecotrema, *45.
Plectostoma, 48.
Pleurocera, 28.
Pleurotomaria, 37.
Plicatula, *65.
Plocamophorus, *51.

INDEX.

Poeyia, *44.
Polinices, 17.
Pomatiopsis, 29.
Pompholyx, *43.
Pomus, 29.
Poronia, 73.
Poromya, 79.
Potodoma, 28.
Prasina, 69.
Prisconaia, 71.
Propilidium, *40.
Proserpina, *49.
Proserpinella, 50.
Proserpinide, *48.

Prosobranchiata, 13.

Psathura, *77.

Pseudocardium, *79.

Pseudomelania, 20.
Pterinea, 66.
Pterineine, 66.
Pteroperna, 66.
Pteropoda, 63.
Pterostoma, *30.
Ptychatractus, *13.
Ptychina, 72.
Ptychostoma, 18.
Pulmonifera, 41.
Purpura, 15.
Pupuride, 15.
Purpurina, *18.
Pyramidella, *19.
Pyramidellide, 19.
Pyramis, 36.
Pyrgiscus, 26.

Quenstedtia, *78.
Quoyia, *23.

Rapana, 15.
Raulinia, *32.
Rensseleria, 54.
Rensseleria, 59.
Rhiostoma, *47.
Rhizochilus, 15.
Ehodostoma, 45.
Rhynchonellide, 59.
Rhynchospira, *58.
Ribeiria, *80.
Ricinula, 15.
Risella, 32.
Rissoide, 30.
Rotella, 36.
Rowella, 40.

Salterella, *63.
Sandbergeria, 21.
Scalaria, 26.
Scalariadze, 26.
Scaliola, *30.
Scalenostoma, 20.
Schasicheila, *50,
Schismope, *38.
Schizostoma, 28.
Scissurellinee, 37.
Sidula, 45.
Signia, 45.

Siliquaria, 25.
Skeneide, 31.
Skenidium, *60.
Solaride, 33.
Solarium, 33.
Soleniscus, *20.
Sophina, *41.
Sowerbya, *78.
Spira, 31.
Spiraculum, *47.
Spiriferida, 54.
Sportella, *73.
Stenocisma, 58.
Stenothyra, 29.
Stilifer, *21.
Stiliferide, 21.
Stoastoma, 50.
Stolidoma, *46.
Strebloceras, *26.
Strephobasis, 28.
Strepoma, 28.
Streptoceras, *8.
Streptorhynchus, *60.
Stricklandia, 59.
Stricklandinia, *59.
Strophostylus, *54.
Styliferina, *21.
Syncera, 29.
Syringothyris, *54.

Taheitia, 51.
Tanalia, *27.
Tebennophorus, 43.
Tectaria,-32.
Teinostoma, *37.
Telescopella, 28.
Tellinide, 78.
Tellinomya, 70.
Terebratulide, 53.
Terebratula, *53.
Teredo, 81.
Terquemia, *65.
Tessaroluz, 24.
Tetrapranchiata, 5.
Teuthide, 3.
Thiatyra, 72.
Thysaira, 72.
Torellia, *19.
Torinia, 33.
Tornatellide, 51.
Tralia, 45.
Tremanotus, *39.
Trematospira, *57.
Tretoceras, *7.
Trigoniadze, 71.
Trigonocelia, 70.
Trimerella, *63.
Triplesia, 59.
Tritoniadze, 52.
Trochocochlea, 36.
Trochus, 35.
Tropidoleptus, *61.
Truncaria, *14.
Truncatella, *50.
Trypanostoma, 28.
Tubifer, 23.

85

INDEX.

Turbinide, 35. Vermetide, 25. Woodwardia, 38.
Turritellide, 26. ¥ emetus, 25.
* Vibex, 27. Xanthonyx, *42.

Ue aes Poe Vitularia, 15. Xylophaga, 8%.

aaa ae Vitulina, *61. Xylophagella, 80.
Uvanilla, 35. Volutide, 16.
Valenciennesia, 43. Volvulina, 51. Ziziphinus, 36.
Vanuxemaa, 70. Zospeum, *46.
Veneride, 77. | Woodia, *76. | Zygospira, *58.

THE END.

nen nn ee EEE
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SHELLS AND FOSSILS.

Ae QaP Ao Ne oT APE AAP Rs

MR. R. DAMON, OF WEYMOUTH,

ENGLAND.

Tnvites the attention of Collectors, Museums, &c.,
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4

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7

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