1R. ^. ([rfmplf.
MANUAL
THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT
MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
COMPILED AND EDITED
By H. B. GRIGG, B.A., Oxon,
MADRAS CIVIL SERVICE. LATE ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER, NILAGIRIS.
MADRAS:
PRINTED BY E. KEYS, AT THE GOVERNMENT PRESS.
1880.
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CMajuuMm
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
Geographical position. — Confignration and aspect. — Hill Ranges and Peaks. —
Streams and Waterfalls.— Valleys. — Scenery. — Changes in features and
aspect Pages 1—10
CHAPTER II.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION— (Corifinwe^).
Length and Breadth. — Boundaries. — Area. — Divisions. — Stations. — Ghdts and
Hill Passes. — Roads.— Bungalows. — Chuttrums Pages 11—24
CHAPTER III.
POPULATION.
Early notices. — Captain Ward's Report. — Major Ouchterlony's. — Quinquennial
return. — Census of 1871. — Distribution. — Houses. — Proportion of Sexes. —
Increase in number of Hill Tribes. — Incorrectness of Returns. — Population of
Villages. — Of Ndds. — Religion. — Castes. — Occupations. — Education. — General
remarks '. Pages 25— 34
CHAPTER IV,
PART I.— CLIMATE, METEOROLOGY, AND HEALTH.
First notices of the climate. — Reports on the medical topography.— Climates —
Thermometrical and barometrical observations. — Doddabetta Observatory. —
Wellington Observatory. — Meteorological tables. — Temperature compared.- -
Winds. — Table of vrinds. — Hurricanes. — Effect of wind on barometer. — Rainfall.
— Average fall. — Extremes. — Rain-gauge stations. — Hygrometrical observa-
tions.— Vital statistics. — Comparative tables.- -Vaccination. — Results. — Special
reports, Ootacamaud— Wellington Pages 35— 45
PART II.— THE PHYSICAL AND MEDICAL CLIMATE AND TOPO-
GRAPHY OF OOTACAMAND AND THE SURROUNDING PLATEAU
OF THE NILAGIRIS, TOGETHER WITH REMARKS ON PERSONAL
HYGIENE, FOR THE USE OF VISITORS, INVALIDS, &c.
(By Surgeon-Major Whitton, m.b., b.a.. Civil Surgeon, Ootacamand.)
Physical topography. — Elevation. — Climate. — Health. — Rainfall. — Temperature.
— Hygienic rules. — Diseases peculiar to residents and new-comers. — Lawrence
Asylums.— Climates of Coonoor and Kdtagiri Pages 46— 6a
[^2i)490
PART III.— WELLINGTON.
(Extracts from a Beport furnished hy Surgeon-Major W. H. Corbett, Army Medical
Department, in Medical charge of Convalescent Depot, to the Surgeon-General,
British Medical Service.)
Description of the Hills. — Approacli from the plains. — Topography. — Geology. —
Botany, table productions and vegetation. — Seasons. — Meteorology. — Ozone. —
Climate, and its influence on health. — Places to be visited. — Period for visiting
the Hills. — Precautions to be taken. — Those who benefit. — Those who do not
benefit. — Barracks. — Cantonment. ^Sanitary condition. — The bazaar. — Water-
supply. — Commissariat supplies. — Amusements. — Duties of the troops. — Morta-
lity and sickness ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Pages 64 — 82
CHAPTER V.
GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
Early papers. — Geological Survey. — General descrijition. — Action of water — fresh
— marine. — Rock formation.— Granite absent. — Gneissose rocks — foliations. —
Minerals — iron — hornblendic gneiss. — Other varieties. — Landslips. — Intruded
rocks.— Dislocations. — Three systems of faults. — Disturbances. — Upheaval of
the ghdts. — Quartz veins. — Withering of rocks. — Laterite. — Kaolin. — Clays. —
Escarpments. — Kaity valley. — Kundas. — Alluvial. — Economic geology. — Lime-
stone.— Mr. King's note. — Gold.— South-East Wainad ... Pages 83—97
CHAPTER VI.
FLORA.
(By Lieutenant- Colonel R. H. Beddome, M.S.C, Conservator of Forests,
Madras Presidency.)
General remarks. — Botanical divisions of the Hills. — Deciduous forests on slopes
• — characteristic trees — valuable timbers. — Moist evergreen forests on slopes —
characteristic trees — timbers. — Woods of the plateau — characteristic trees —
timbers — ferns and mosses. — Grass-land of the plateau — characteristic trees and
plants (beautiful plants) of the Hills. — List of flowering plants — Dicotyledones
— Monocotyledones — Graminea;. — List of Ferns and Mosses — Cryptogams —
Jungermanniaceae — Bryaceae. — Lichenales. — Fungales. — Books of reference. —
Introduced plants Pages 98— 132
CHAPTER VII.
THE USEFUL PLANTS OF THE NILAGIRIS.
{By Surgeon-Major Bidie, m.b., Qovernment Museum, Madras.)
Introductory remarks. — Substances used as Food, &c. — pulses— cereals — roots
and tubers — fruits and seeds — greens — substances used in the preparation
of drinks — intoxicating substances — spices and condiments. — Substances
USED IN Manufactures — oils and seeds — dyes and tanning substances— fibres.
—Drugs Pages 133— 149
CHAPTER VIII.
ZOOLOGY.
PART I.— Mammals, Birds and Flshes.
{By Surgeon-Major G. Bidie, m.b., Supt. of the Central Museum, Madras.)
General. -Mammals. — Birds. — Fishes. — Introduction of Fish from low country
and from England Pages 150— 170
CONTENTS. ▼
PART II.— Lizards, Snakes anu Frogs.
(By Lieutenant-Colonel R. H. Beddome, M.S.C, Conservator of Forests,
Madras Presidency.)
Lazards, Snakes and Frogs Pages 171 — 170
PART III. — Land and Fresh-water Shells.
(By Lieutenant-Colonel R. H. Beddome, M.S.C, Conservator of Forests,
Madras Presidency.)
luoperculated shells. — Operculated shells. — Remai-ks. — Fresh-water shells.
Pages 177—179
CHAPTER IX.
ETHNOLOGY.
Introduction.
The tribes. — General view of their history. — Sources of information. — Local
distribution Pages 180--182
PART I.— The Todas.
Origin. — Derivation of name. — Physical characteristics. — Dress. — Census. —
Divisions. — Mode of life. — Dwellings. — The maud — Situation. — Family and
inheritance. — Pastimes. — Music and song. — Salutation, — Religion. — Priests.—
Temples. — Rites and ceremonies. — Birth, — Marriage. — Funerals, green and
dry. — Traditions. — Language Pages 183—202
PART II.— The K(5tas,
Length of residence. — Derivation of name. — Language. — Physical characteristics.
Dress. — Census. — Divisions. — Mode of life. — Habits. — Habitations. — Religion.
—Rites.— Birth.— Marriage. — Death. — Traditions ... Pages 203- -207
PART III.— KURUMBAS.
Origin. — Physical characteristics. — Dress. —Census. — Divisions. — Mode of life.^
Dwellings. — Livelihood. — Religion. — Rites. — Birth. — Marriage. — Death. — Tra.
ditiona Pages 208—213
PART IV.— iRULAS.
Origin. — Language. — Physical characteristics. — Dress. — Census and Divi.
sions. — Mode of life. — Dwellings.— Religion. — Rites and ceremonies. — Tradi.
tions Pages 214— 217
PART v.— The Badagas.
Origin. — Physical characteristics. — Dress. — Castes. — Wddeas. — Kongas. — Adhi-
kiris. — Kanakas. — Chittre. — Bellis. — Hdruvas. — Minor Castes. — Mode of life.
— Music and song. — Character. — Dwellings. — Religion. — Temples. — Rites and
ceremonies. — Traditions. — Language Pages 218 — 328
VI CONTENTS.
CHAPTER X.
ANTIQUITIES.
Varieties of monuments, by whom described — Caves. — Caihns, position, contents,
size, probable age. — Barrows, size, contents, compared with European tumuli. — ■
KisTVAENs, size, contents. — Stone Circles. — Azauams. — Cromlechs or Dolmens,
groups, contents, origin. — Ruined Villages.-Fokts Pages 229 — 247
CHAPTER XI.
EARLY HISTORY.
Sketch of the histoiy of peninsular India. — Early race movements. — Early
religions of the peninsula.— Relation of early hill-tribes to race movements. —
Divisions of South India. — Kongu or Chera. — Chdlas. — Kadamba dynasty. —
Hoysala BelUla. — Vijayanagar. — Mysore. — Fall of Seringapatam. — Malaydlam.
— Early Portuguese Missionaries Pages 248 — 275
CHAPTER XII.
RECENT HISTORY.
Marquis of Wellesley's policy. — Dr. Buchanan's mission. — Colonel Colin Macken-
zie's survey. — Mr. Keys' visit. — Mr. John Sullivan's exploration. — Attention of
Governor. General drawn to the Hills. — M. Leschenault's remarks. — Infanti-
cide.— Ootacamand. — Captain Ward's survey. — Mr. Sullivan opens out roads.
— Ootacamand laid out. — Sir Thomas Munro's visit. — Mr. S. R. Lushington's
scheme. — Ootacamand constituted a sanitarium. — Military Commandant
appointed. — Official complications. — Convalescent Depot established. — Mr.
Sullivan's departure. — Portion of Nilagiris transferred to Malabar. — Mr. Sulli-
van protests. — Rapid extension of Ootacamand. — Bishop Daniel Wilson. — Court
of Directors ask for report. — Committee of inquiry appointed. — Government
orders on report. — Mr. Lushington's departure.— Sir Frederick Adam
succeeds. — Medical Report. — Abolition of Convalescent Depot. — Administration
defective. — Massacre of Kurumbas.- -Special legislation proposed, but
negatived by Imperial Government. — Destruction of woods. — Draft Act. —
Ootacamand constituted a Military bazaar. — Lord Elphiustone at Kaity. — Mr.
Sullivan urges the re-annexation of that part of the plateau transferred to
Malabar. — Government declines to make the transfer. — Commandant appointed
Joint Magistrate and District Munsif. — Marquis of Tweeddale, Governor. —
Rc-transfer of the second portion of the Hills to Coimbatore. — Coffee-planting
begun.— Plans submitted for barracks at Wellington.— Coonoor Church built. —
Small Cause Court Judge at Ootacamand. — Proposals to appoint Civil and
Sessions Court rejected.— Asuistant Judge transferred from Combaconum to
Ootacamand. — Kdndas and Nidomale annexed. — Fii-st Commissioner, Mr.
Breeka.— Ouchterlony Valley added to the district.— Industriep.— Prospects of
District Pages 276— 310
CHAPTER XIII.
REVENUE HISTORY.
Introduction.
Subject divided.— Revenue system of North Coimbatore prevails.— Major
McLeod's settlement Pages 311—313
PART I.— (a.) Cultivating Tribes : the Badagas, Kdtas, Irulas, Kdrumbas.
First settlement of the Nilagiris. — Mr. Sullivan proposes a survey. — Revenue. —
Rates of assessment. — Changes proposed, 1862. — The shifting system. — " Ain "
grass and " Grazing " puttas. — Revenue Board's i)roposals. — Decision of Govern-
ment.— Revision of assessment. — Rates settled by Government — approved by
Secretary of State. — Settlement introduced — extends to plateau only. — Slate
of revenue accounts. — Settlement of Kdndas. — Lands for cultivation to be
obtained under Waste Land Rules only. — Effects of the measure. — Kdtas and
other aboriginal cultivators. — Mode of assessing lands ... Pages 314 — 327
(6.) The Graziers : the Tddas.
Claim of Todas to lordship over plateau — nature of claim — its extent — conditions
operating against it, — Restrictions on purchases of land from Tddas. — Claims
of the Tddas partially admitted. — Occupation of lands by Europeans attracts
attention of Court of Directors. — Change in policy of Madras Government. —
Grants made vpithout mention of Tddas' claims. — Settlers continue to purchase
from the Tddas. — Sir Frederick Adam's action. — Mr. Sullivan's vievFS — endorsed
by Government— approved by Court of Directors. — DiflSculties in carrying policy
into effect. — Matters still unsettled in 1839, and Court of Directors interfere. —
Mr. ConoUy's views. — Mr. C. M. Lushington strongly opposes policy of
Government. — Marquis of Tweeddale refers questions to the Court of Directors.
— After further report from the Collector of Malabar the Court's despatch,
1843, settles questions finally and orders payment of compensation for Ootaca-
mand to Tddas.— Manual of Land Rules to be prepared — provisions of the manual
relating to the Tddas — rescinded by the Waste Land Rules. — Present revenue
system Pages 327 — 343
PART II. — European and other Immigrants.
Absence of restrictions on acquisition of land by Europeans. — Policy of Lord
Amherst's Government. — Rules promulgated. — Orders of Madras Government
regarding acquisition of lands on the Hills. — Mr. Lushington encourages settle-
ments of Anglo- Indians. — Rates on lands in the MelnS,d prohibitive— Mr. Sulli-
van proposes changes — determination of Government — subsequent modifications.
— Radical changes in the policy of (Government in 1842. — Rules in the Dehra
Doon despatch. — Manual of Land Rules to be preiDared. — Right of settlers to use
of water. — Resume of the Manual. — Modification in 1858 — Redemption of land-
tax sanctioned. — Causes of variety of tenure on the Hills. — Discussion on land
policy of Government of India after the Mutiny — Lord Stanley's despatches
— Lord Canning's Resolution — action of the Madras Government — discus-
Bions in Parliament. — Waste Lands Bill. — Nilagiri Land Rules sanctioned —
Debate in the House of Commons. — Changes in the Rules and their causes. —
Auction system called in question. — Appointment of a Committee of Inquiry
and results.--Table of Sales of Waste Lands. — Absence of Tope Rules. —
Firewood allotments Pages 344- -360
PART III.— Revenue Survey.
Fu-st survey.— Major Ouchterlony's survey. — Surveyors appointed on introduction
of Waste Land Rules.— Special Assistant Collector placed in charge. — Work
transferred to Superintendent, Revenue Survey. — Settlement limits. — Rules for
conduct of operations. — Survey operations after creation of Nilagiri Commis-
Bion.— Work performed Pages 361—364
VUl CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XIV.
REVENUE ADMINISTRATION.
Revenue powers of the Commissioner and his Assistant. — Deputy Tahsildars. —
Revenue Inspectors. — Maniyagar and Karnams. — Hukamn^ma. — South-East
Waindd.— Local Funds.— Pound Fund Pages 365— 369
CHAPTEE XV.
HEADS OF REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
(a.) Imperial.
Land Revenue. — Excise on Spirits and Malt Liquors. — Stamps. — Forests. —
Miscellaneous Pages 370 — 371
(b.) Provincial.
Jails. — Registi'ation. — Police. — Medical. — Printing. — Miscellaneous Charges.
Page 372
(c.) Local.
Local Funds. — Act IV of 1871 — Pound Fund — Village Service Fund — Endowment
Fund — Municipal Funds Page 372
CHAPTER XVI.
CRIMINAL AND CIVIL JUSTICE AND REGISTRATION.
Constitution by Act I of 1868. — Sessions Judge and Magistrates — jurisdiction.
— Benches of Magistrates — statement of operations. — Civil Courts — statement of
operations. — Village Munsifs — appeals to the High Court. — Cost of Law and
Justice. — Registration — operations ... Pages 373 — 377
CHAPTER XVII.
MUNICIPALITIES AND STATIONS.
The four Settlements. — Description of Ootacamand — area and population — limits of
the Municipality— elevation — Municipal Commission — receipts and expenditure —
sanitation — market— public buildings — the gardens — hotels — rents — early sketch.
— Coonoor — description — area— municipal limits — elevation — Municipal Commis-
sion— receipts and expenditure — public buildings — population — hotels and rents. —
Wellington— dLQ^cvi^tion, &c. — Kotagiri — description Pages 378 — 390
CHAPTER XVIII.
NOTES ON THE PUBLIC WORKS OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
{By Major J. L. L. Morant, Il.E., District Engineer.)
Sums expended. — Establishment. — Roads. — Railway scheme. — Military buildings.
— Lawrence Asylums. — Building materials. — Wages and cost of materials. —
Nilagiris and Coimbatore compared. — Cost of the various edifices. Pp. 391 — 399
<;0NTENT3.
CHAPTER XIX.
PRISONS.
{By Lient.-Colonel Clementson, M.S.C, Superintendent of Prisons, Ootacamand,
and Joint Magistrate, Nilagiris.)
European Prison — buildings — prisoners— discipline — industries — diet — dress —
health — instruction — cost — establishment. — District Jail — situation — build,
ings— industries — diet — health. — Subsidiary Jails ... ... Pages 400 — 406
CHAPTER XX.
POSTAL DEPARTMENT.
Number of Post Offices. — History of Ootacamand Post Office. — Old postal rates.
— Hill Post Offices brought under inspection. — Present establishment. — Number
of letters received and despatched. — Revenue.— Coonoor and Kdtagiri. — Well-
ington.— South-East Wainad. — Old postal route of the Hills. — Tonga. — Rates
for passengers. — Post hours at Ootacamand and other offices. Pages 407 — 409
CHAPTER XXI.
TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT.
(Supplied by the Superintendent, Malabar Coast Division.)
Position. — The Indian system. — Strength of lines. — Number of Telegraph
Offices. — Staff. — Cost of construction ... Page 410
CHAPTER XXII.
POLICE DEPARTMENT.
The village system. — Crime. — Reforms necessary. — New constabulary. — Present
organization. — Stations on the Nilagiris — in Waindd section. — Proportion of
Police to population, &c., &c. — Appendices Pages 411 — 413
CHAPTER XXIII.
MEDICAL.
Establishments. — Cost. — Ootacamand — St. Bartholomev?'s Hospital. — Coonoor —
Hospital. — Wellington.— Kdtagiri.— South-East Waindd ... Pages 414 — 416
CHAPTER XXIV.
ECCLESIASTICAL.
Establishment— its ooet.— Churches in Ootacamand, St. Stephen's, St. TbomaB'.—
Coonoor, All Saints'. — Kotagiii. — Wellington. -Roman Catholic Churches —
Convent.~C. M. S. Tamil MisbioB. — The Basel Mieaioa ... Pages -417 — 123
2
X CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXV.
EDUCATIONAL.
History of education among the hiU-tribes.— Badaga schools— Scheme of Union
Schools.— Schools for Anglo-Indians.— The Breeks' Memorial School.- Convent
Schools.— Tamil Mission School.— Hobart Girls' School.— Private Schools.-
Educational needs.— Coonoor.-Lawi-ence Asylums— history— amalgamation
with the Military Male Orphan Asvlum— revenue— instruction— medical-
domain : Pages 423-437
CHAPTER XXVI.
FORESTS.
Woods on the PLiiEAU- early efforts to preserve shdlas- first conservancy
establishment— Dr. Cleghorn's suggestions— Conservancy Rules sanctioned in
I860— additional establishment— transfer of forests and plantations to the
Commissioner under Jungle Conservancy— Special Forest Officer— retransfer to
Forest Department— operations under Jungle Conservancy- Forest Commission
—present system of firewood sales, &c. Plantations on Plateau— early private
enterprise— Government plantation at Jackatalla— planting at Ootacamand—
other plantations— particulars— Ootacamand plantations— WelUngton planta-
tions—Conservator's remarks — yield of eucalyptus— ^nanciaX statement-
system of working. Forests and Plantations below the Ghats— Mddiimale
forest — plantations— receipts and expenditure- Benne forest— plantations—
Seg6r— forest— sandalwood plantation— receipts and expenditure— management
—finances of the range— minor products— timber trees ... Pages 438—454
CHAPTER XXVII.
AGRICULTURE.
Introduction.
Mr. Sullivan's enterprise. — Mr. S. R. Lnshington's farm at Kaity. — The Com-
mittee's report. — Major Ouchterlony's proposal. — Silk-worm culture. — Grant to
Mr. John Mclvor.— Private effort.— Lord Napier's Minute.— Major Ouchter-
lony's statement of produce Pages 455— 4.33
MONOGRAPH ON AGRICULTURE.
(By Major-General 'SLorgxh, formerly Deputy Conservator of Forests, Xilagiris.)
(a.) Soils.
Black soil. — Brown soil. — Yellow and red soils Page 464
(b.) Native Agbiculture.
Corps — korali — raggi — barley — wheat — sim6 — naomi — mustard — kere— poppy —
onions— garlic — peas — potatoes. — Yield per acre. — Average price of staple food-
grains. — Manuring. — Ploughing. — Sowing. — Weeding. — Area under each crop. —
Cost of cultivation. — Implements. — Cattle. — Rotation of crops.— Tei-racing
nnd fencing. — Reaping, thrashing, storing. — Price of cattle. — Land for pas-
tiu'age. — Fodder. — Cows. — Modes of bringing produce to market. — Markets. —
Results of agriculture Pages 465— 470
CONTENTS. XI
(c) English Farming.
Tracts and soils best suited. — Expenses. — Seasons for cultivating. — Field crops. —
Degeneration of seed.— Draining, terracing, and ploughing. — Cultivation. —
Manuring — lime — potash. — llorticulture. — Garden crops. — Fruit trees. —
Market prices. — Live-stock — cattle — sheep — pigs — horses — poultry.- —
Diseases. — Treatment — murrain — foot-and-mouth disease. — General remarks.
Pages 471—481
CHAPTER XXVIII.
COFFEE CULTIVATION.
Inteoduction.
Introduction of the coffee plant into South India. — Abb^ Dubois. — Coffee on the
Baba Booden Hills — iu the Waindd — on the Nilagiris. — Major Ouohterlony's
note. — The Ouchterlony Valley. — Area of coffee land under cultivation in the
district. — Statistics of coffee exports. — Estimation of cost of cultivation and
profits. — Books on coffee cultivation Pages 482— 487
MONOGRAPH ON THE CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.
{By A. H. Steedman, Esq., Balcarres Estate, Wain&d.)
Selection of land — elevation — opening out land — nurseries — shade — felling —
burning — road tracing — lining — pitting — planting— ■weeding — draining — hand-
ling and pruning. — Manuring — composts — poudrette — fish-manure — bones —
blood and slaughter-house refuse — guano — superphosphate of lime. — Irriga-
tion.— Buildings — bungalov? — cooly lines — pulper-house and store — barbacues
and drying tables — cattle sheds. — Machinery — sprouting — pulper. — Crops —
picking and curing. — Enemies of the coffee plant— bug — the borer — the coffee
rat — leaf rot — leaf disease — its remedies ... Pages 487 — 509
CHAPTER XXIX.
TEA.
Introduction.
Plant introduced, 1835.— Mr. Mann's efforts, 1854.— Dr. Cleghom's reports.—
Government policy. — Mr. Rae opens an estate near Ootacamand. — Government
introduces tea-makers and forms a nursery at Doddabetta. — Agi-icultural Exhibi-
tion and its results as regards tea. — Area under tea. — Exports and imports.
Pages 510—514
MONOGRAPH ON THE CULTIVATION OF TEA ON THE
NILAGIRIS.
(By E. J. C. Brace, Esq., of K6tagiri.)
Suitability of climate and soils of the district for grovpth of tea. — Varieties of the
plant — the China — the indigenous — the hybrid. — Selection of seed. — Selection of
land — aspect and soil — lay of land — clearing — shelter — terracing — lining —
pitting— planting. — Nurseries — propagation by cuttings — cultivation and
prnniog — yield.— Manuring— manures and their application. — Weeding.—
Fodder crops. — Manufacture — difference between black and green teas. —
Manufacture of black tea — withering— rolling— second rolling — rolling by
machinei-y— colouring — drying appliances— drying off— storing — tasting teas. —
Manufacture of green tea— sifting— packing Pages 515— 547
CHAPTER XXX.
CHINCHONA CULTURE.
Botanical Order — species — native countries — distribution — discovery of medicinal
qualities — by whom described.- -Threatened failure of American supplies of
bark. — Suggestions for introduction of chinchona into the East Indies
— attempts to introduce made by the French and Dutch — the Indian Govern-
ment recommends the sending of a Collector to South America — the Court of
Directors select Mr. Markham for the auty — his search — Mr. Spruce's search
for Red harks — Mr. Pritchett's search for Grey barks— Mr. Cross procures
Crown bark seeds — Pitayo barks. — Selection of sites on Ihe Nllagiris and
formation of plantations — area of plantations — financial results. — Policy of
Government in regard to the plantation scheme. — The manufacture of alkaloids
in the country. — Mr. Broughton appointed quinologist — his researches — Amor-
phous quinine. — Alkaloid manufactory. — Analysis of barks. — Chief species and
varieties of chinchona in India— Cultivation. — Manure. — Harvesting the bark.
— Drying the bark. — Packing. — Publications on chinchona ... Pages 548 — 570
CHAPTER XXXI.
HOETICULTURE.
Origin of the Ootacamand Gardens. — Mr. Mclvor appointed Superintendent. —
Site. — Defective management. — Dr. Wight's report. — Receipts and expenditure
to 1852. — Gardens placed under Government. — Mr. Markham's description of
the Gardens. —Medicinal plants. — Mr. Jamieson appointed. — Gardens placed
under the Commissioner. — Agri-Horticultural Society. — Recent improvemeuts.
— Superintendent's reports. — Receipts and expenditure of each garden.
Pages 571—576
CHAPTER XXXII.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Land measure. — Capacity measures. — Measure used for house sites. — Long
measure. — Weights. — Precious metals and coins ... ... Pages 577 — 578
APPENDIX.
No. Pagb
1. — Statement showing the Number of Villages and Hamlets in the
District of Nilagiris as they stood in Fasli 1285 ii
2. — Statement of Population arranged with reference to Caste, accord-
ing to the Census of 1871 ... iii
2- A. — Statement showing the Male Population arrang«d with reference
to Oooupatiou, according to the Census of 1871 ... ... iv
2-B.— Statement showing the Number of Houses, Population, and Cattle
in each Taluk tb.
3.— Statement of Rent Roll for Fasli 1281 v
CONTENTS. XlU
No. Page
4. — Statement showing the Rainfall for a Series of Ten Years in the
District ... ... ... ... ..- ... ... ... vi
5. — Statement showing Rainfall in certain places in the District of
Nilagiria from Fasli Year 1870-71 to 1876-77 vii
6. — Statement showing the Pric^es of Grain for a Series of Ten Years in
the District of Nilagiris per Garce of 3,200 Madras Measures ... x
7. — Statement sho-wing the Particulars of Cultivation, &c., for a Series
of Ten Years ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xi
7.A. — Statement showing the Area under the principal Crops cultivated
in Fasli 1285 xii
8. — Statement showing the Collections under the several Heads of
Revenue in the District of Nilagiris for a Series of Ten Years... ib.
9. — Statement showing the Number and Value of Suits disposed of in
the Civil and Revenue Courts for a Series of Ten Years ... xiii
10. — Statement showing the Receipts and Expenditure of Local Funds
under Act IV of 1871, for the Five Years ending 1875-76 ... xiv
11. — Statement showing Receipts and Expenditui-e for Special Local
Funds for the Five Years ending 1875-76 ... xvi
12. — Statement showing the Progress of Education for a Series of Ten
Years .. xvii
13. — Deaths registered in the Rui-al Circle and Towns of the District
of Nilagiris during each Month from the Year 1870 to 1877 ... xxii
14. — Deaths registered among Europeans and Eurasians from different
causes in the District of Nilagiris xxvii
15-A. — Wellington — Statement of Rainfall at the Obsei'vatory, 1873-
1876 xxviii
15-B. — Wellington — Statement of Readings of Barometer at the Obser-
vatory, 1873-1876 .. ... ... ... ... ... .. xxix
15. C. — Wellington — Statement of Ozone Readings at the Observatory,
1873-1876 XXX
15-D. — Wellington — Statement of Readings of Thermometer at the
Observatory, 1873-1876 xxxi
16. — Expenditure on Public Works in the Nilagiri District during the
17 Years from 1860-61 to 1876-77, a rupee being taken at two
shillings ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xxxiii
16- A. — Detailed particulars of the Wellington Barracks in the Nilagiri
District ... ... ... ... ... ... xxxiv
16'B. — Detailed particulars of the Ootacamund Lawrence Asylums,
Nilagiri District ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xxxvi
Ig-C. — Rates of Wages and Cost of Materials in the Nilagiri District
during the past quarter of a Century arranged in Triads, a rupee
being taken at two shillings ... ... ... ... ... xl
16-D. — Comparative Statement of the Rates for Labor, Carriage, and
Work in Coimbatore and the Nilagiri Hills in the Year 1877 ... xli
16-E.— Nature and Cost of Construction of various Edifices in the Nilagiri
District xliv
17.~A Topographical Description of the Neelaghery Mountains ... xlviii
18, — Copy of a letter dated 30th January 1819, to the Editor of the
Government Gazette, published in the " Madras Coui-ier " of the
23rd February 1819 lii
19. — From Lieutenant Evaxs Macpherson, Superintendent, Neelgherry
Road, to John Sdllivan, Esq., dated Neelgherry, 12th June
1820 Iv
20.— Geographical and Statistical Memoir of a Survey of the Neelgherry
Mountains in the Province of Coimbatore made in 1821 under
the superintendence of Captain B. S. Ward, Deputy Surveyor-
General ... ... X
CIV CONTENTS.
No. Page
21-A.— Statement showing the Strength and Cost of the Police Force
of the Nilagiri District, excluding South-East Wainad Division,
for the Year 1878 Ixxxri
21.B.— Statement showing the Strength and Cost of the Police Force
of the South-East Waindd Division in Nilagiri District for the
Yearl878 Ixxxvii
22.— Statement of Grave Crimes occurred in the Years 1870-71 and
1875-76 in the District of Nilagiris Ixxxviii
23.^Compai-ative Statement showing the Eesult of Police Operations in
regard to each Great Class of Crime usually dealt with by the
Police in the Nilagiri District during the Year 1875-76 ... Ixxxix
24.— Comparative Statement showing the Eesult of Police Operations in
regard to each Great Class of Crime usually dealt with by the
Police in the Nilagiri District during the Year 1870-71 ... xcii
25.— Detail List showing Strength, &c., of the Police Force of the Nila-
giri District, 1878 xcv
26.— Detail Lisst showing Strength, &c., of the Police Force of the
South-East Wainad Division in Nilagiri District, 1878 xcvi
27.— Rules for the sale of Waste Lands on the Neilgherry Hills, passed
by the Hon'ble the Governor in Council on the 6th March 1863,
and numbered 478A xcvii
28.— llules of the Ootacamand Lawrence Asylum cvii
INDEX ...
MANUAL
NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
Geographical position. — Configuration and aspect. — Hill Ranges and Peaks. —
Streams and Waterfalls. — Valleys. — Scenery. — Changes in features and aspect.
The Nilagiri^ District, — as it existed prior to the annexation, on cHAP. I.
the 31st March 1877, of the tracts known as the Nambalakod,
Cheramkod, and Munnanad Amshoms,^ hitherto appertaining to Description.
the Wainad^ Taluq of the Malabar District, — lies between Lati-
tude 11° 8' and 11° 37' north, and Longitude 76° 27' and 77° 4' Geographical
east. Within these limits, rise the Nilag-iri Hills, a vast mountain ^°^^ ^°°'
■ block, comprising two more or less distinct hill ranges, usually
known as the Nilagiris Proper and the Kundas."*
This mountain mass, which may be described as an irregular Configm-ation
rectangular triangle, its shortest side, or base, being the western, ^^^ aspect,
its longest the south-eastern, and its apex the hill known as
Rangasami's Peak, to the extreme east, is a gigantic headland
marking the point of union of the Eastern and Western Ghdts,
or Sahyadri Hills. These ranges constitute the eastern and
western boundaries of the great triangular table-land of the
Dekhan, which rests to the north upon the Vindya Mountains.
As the Eastern approach the Western Ghdts, they gradually lose,
' Derived from Nilam (Sans.) blue, and giri (Sans.) a hill— so called from
the blue appearance the hills present to people living in the subjacent districts.
^ Amshom (Mai.), a share, a territorial division.
^ Lit. the open or champaign country. Bailu (Karn.), a field having water
suitable for growing rice, a plain. Nadu (Karn.), a division of a district.
* So called from a village of that name. It signifies small, or little hill,
from Kinnud (Tdda), Sinna (Karn.), Chinnn (Tam.), small. — F. Metz. Kundru
(Tam.), Koiida (Tel.), means literally a small hill. — Dr. Caldwell:-
\
i MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. I. in great part, their rough and irregular conformation, until
Genial ^^^1 merge in the undulating uplands of South- West Mysore and
Description, the Wainad. The ridge of the Eastern Ghdts is divided from the
Nilagiris at their north-east extremity opposite the Gajalhatti^
Pass by the Moyar River.
The Western Ghdts, meanwhile, after almost touching the
coast line in North Malabar, trend to the south-east, becoming
more precipitous and broken in character as they proceed, until
at last they culminate at two lofty points, known as Nilagiri^ and
Miikartebetta^ Peaks, the latter the Teneriffe of Southern India.
Thence they divide into two branches running north and south,
called respectively the Nidumale or Himagdla,* and the
Kunda ranges. In couformation and physical aspect, they differ
greatly. The Nidumale^ range assumes a more and more undu-
lating character as it slopes away towards the north, until it reaches
the confines of the plateau overlooking the Mysore country. There
the fall to the table-land below is precipitous, though the physical
aspect of precipice and gorge is still somewhat rounded. The
western slopes of this range, towards the Wainad country, are
generally gradual. The Kundas, on the other hand, form a lofty
ridge or crest, the western side of which is wild, rugged, and
precipitous in the extreme. In many parts their lofty crags rise
almost perpendicularly to the height of several thousand feet from
the Nellambiir* country beneath. To the distant gaze from the
^ Probably from gajam (Tam.), an elephant, and hatti (Karn.), a herdsman's
hamlet.
* Sometimes called EUemale, the bonndary hill, from ellei, boundary, frontier,
and malei, a hilL
3 The spelling above adopted is in accordance with Badaga pronunciation.
The word seems to be a compound of mdh, nose, ar or aru, cut, and the suffix te,
eignifying the feminine gender. — aruthal, " she who was cut, " has been changed
into arte. Mr. Stokes of Kaity inclines to this derivation, which is the basis of
the Badaga tradition. This ti^adition, on the authority of a Badaga catechist, he
gives as follows: — A woman came to this spot, where her nose was cut off by
some one. Disgraced, she turned herself into a mountain, and thus acquired
the honors of a goddess, and formed the three streams which flow at her feet in
different directions, afterwards uniting into one river. The first stream year by
year washes down an elephant and says to her sister streams, " I have brought
an elephant from the hills"; the second washes down a buffalo, and proclaims the
fact to her sisters likewise; the third brings down a man and repeats the same
tale. Another derivation connects the word with maha, great, and kur (Drav.), a
Bharp point. The popular pronunciation militates against this suggestion. In
Badaga ballads, " From Mrikarte to Molemava" (a fabulous tree on the eastern
extremity of the Hills) is the phrase equivalent to our " From Land's End to John
o'Groat's."
* See Blandford's Geological Memoir.
* Lit. the long hill or mountain. Ni'dtt (Tani.) long, extended ; and malei
(Tam.), n hill or mountain.
•^ A zciiiind^ri in Malabar colobratcd for its trak forests and plantations. Name
derived probably from v.ella (MaL), paudy, unhuskcd rice.
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 3
west they appear like the battlemented wall of some gigantic CHAP. r.
fortress. Dense, but intensely green, tropical forest, interspersed General
with bamboo palm and fern-tree, clothes the ravines and even the Desckh-tion.
precipitous buttress-like spurs, to the very crest of ghdts, the eastern
face of which is covered only with wiry brownish green grass, in
which appear here and there dwarfed rhododendron and other
subalpine shrubs. From the extreme south-west angle of the
district the range runs in a southerly direction, rapidly decreasing
in height, until it reaches the open country, known as the Coim-
batore Gap, to the south of which rise the A'nemale ^ Hills. This
gap, in breadth about twenty miles, forms the great historic
pass between the Carnatic and Malabar, formerly commanded by
the Palghdt Fort.
To return to the Kundas : the ghat line pursues first an easterly
direction as far as the Melkunda promontory, which is divided
from the Nilagiris proper by the Ktinda river. Thence it pursues
a north-easterly direction, gradually becoming less serrated,
rugged and abrupt in character, though still broken by ravine
and gorge, precipice and promontory. This character it main-
tains along its northern limit, though the table-land from which
the Nilagiris spring, gradually rises from below one thousand
feet on their eastern, to above three thousand feet on their
northern side.
Apart from the Klinda and Nidumale ranges, the surface of
the Nilagiris is divided into an upper and lower plateau. The
lower forming an irregular shelf, rests upon the north-eastern and
southern slopes of the Doddabetta,' or great central range and its
offshoots, including the north-east angle of the plateau, sometimes,
though without sufficient reason, called the Kotagiri range. The
higher plateau, known amongst the aborigines as the "Mel,''^ or
upland, nad, comprises the tract lying between the western slopes
of Doddabetta and the Nidumale and Kiinda ranges. The
average elevation of this higher plateau above the lower may be
roughly stated at from 1,000 to 1,500 feet.
The great ranges already mentioned cross the Hill plateau from Hill Eanges
south to north with an inclination towards the east, but they ^^^ Peaks,
appear to be traversed, at the ghdt line already described, by
ridges running from east to west. These traversing lines appear
to have been thrown up at a later geological period, as explained
in another chapter.
The Doddabetta range proper, seen from the east, might be Hills—
I termed a great cradle mountain, with Doddabetta as its southern, central.
1 Or Elephant Hills. A'nS (elephant).
2 Lit. the great hill ; from dodda (Karn.), great, and hetta (Karn.), a hill.
^ Md (Karn.), above or west, and nddu.
4 MANUAL or THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. I. and Snowdon its northern eminence, for the distance between
Generai. these two points is little over two miles. Doddabetta stands in
Description. Lat. 11° 24' 5" 40, Long. 76' 46' 44" 39. Its height is 8,760 feet
above sea level, as ascertained by the Great Trigonometrical
Survey, 8,642 feet as calculated in 1871 by Colonel Saxton,
Deputy Superintendent of Topographical Survey. It is remarkable,
even among the mammiform hills so common on the Nilagiris,
for the flattened curve of its summit. The hollows of its slopes
are clothed with thick woods ; and rhododendron trees, though
somewhat stunted, are found even within a few yards of the top,
which is covered with thick coarse grass and flowering sub-alpine
shrubs and herbs. Snowdon, formerly known as Devasholabetta ^
on the other hand, is almost a perfect cone, the line of its northern
slope, a fall of some 1,500 feet, being remarkably even, though
steep. Its height is 8298*9 feet, or by the Great Trigonometrical
Survey, 8,380 feet.
—to the West. Standing on the Doddabetta range, and looking westward, the
first important eminences which meet the eye are the hills of
Kalklidiur2 (8002-4 feet) and Kuttakadu^ (7933-4 feet). A few
miles to the north lies the Paikare* Hill (7511-7 feet). Some ten
miles behind Kalklidiur rises Mukarte Peak (8380-3 feet, or
8,403 feet, G. T. S.), and a little to the north-west, the Nilagiri
Peak and Devar-betta, the heights of which, I believe, have not
been correctly ascertained, nor, owing to its precipitous character,
has any traveller as yet reached the summit of the former, though
the ascent has been attempted.^ The ascent of Mukarte is by
a zigzag path cut on its eastern face. Its western is an almost
unbroken wall-like precipice, several thousand feet in depth. A
little to the south-east of Mukarte is Pichulbetta (8,348 feet), the
northern extremity of the Kundas. Between these two peaks
the Paikare river takes its rise. Some four or five miles to the
north of Mlikarte stands Velingiri (8,246 feet). About the same
distance to the south is seen the K^leri (8,622 feet), and the
Klidikadu^ hills (8,491—8,502 feet G.T.S.) at the head of the
Avalanche Valley ; and about two miles further south, the cone
known as Derbetta (8,303—8,353 feet, G.T.S.) This hill is
1 Deva, God, and shdla (Karn.), a wood.
^ Lit. the village of the stone circle or temple. From Kal (Tam.), stone, hidi
(Karn.), a circle, a hut, a temple (see Caldwell, p. 503), and 'Ar, a village.
3 Derived probably from Kuddan (Tam.), a hollow, and Mdu, a forest, or a
jungle tract.
* Called after the river Paikare, which seems to be derived from payam
(Tam.), water, or river ; and harei (Tam.), a bank or boundary. It may be rendered
the boundary or frontier river. The name is significant.
^ This ascent, I have learnt since writing the above, has been accomplished by
Mr. Frasor, Sub-Assistant, Revenue Survey.
^ i.e., the temple tract.
MANUAL OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. O
known to sportsmen as bear-hill. The highest hill to the west is CHAP. i.
probably N^dgdni ; the Sisapdra Peak is however the most Generai,
interesting feature in the western region. On the eastern slope of Description.
these hills rise the chief tributaries of the Kunda river ; on the
western and southern, the chief feeders of the Bhavanf and
the Nellambiir rivers. The Kunda peaks, owing to their exposure
to the full violence of the south-west monsoon and the poorness
of the soil, are but sparingly covered with vegetation. Such trees
and shrubs as exist within the hollows shew, by their gnarled and
rugged appearance, how severe the struggle for life has been.
On the southern side of the hills the principal eminences are —to the South
Melkunda (6,923 feet) overlooking the Bhavani Valley, Devashola ^^^ ^^^*^-
(7,416 feet), half way between it and Doddabetta, and still nearer
to Ootacamand, Chinna Doddabetta, which rises behind the
Lawrence Asylum to the height of 7,848 feet. To the south
and south-east of Ootacamand the principal hills needing mention
are Kateri and Kolakambe (5,600 feet), HulikaP Drug (about
6,000 feet), and on the opposite side of the gorge the Coonoor
Peak (6,893 feet). Two or three miles north of Coonoor^ stands
Ktindamugi, round the eastern face of which the road to
Kotagiri passes; and on the approach to Kotagiri, a short
distance to the north, is seen Dimhatti Hill, or Urbetta (6,903 —
6,915 feet, G. T. S.), at the foot of which the old Sanitarium stood.
Some ten or twelve miles to the north of Kotagiri is the Kodanad
Hill (6,740 feet), and, at a still greater distance, to the east is
Rangasami's Peak (5,937 feet), a very conspicuous hill of a conical
shape, dedicated to the god Rangasami. To the north-west of
Kotagiri, at almost an equal distance from it and Ootacamand, is
Kukalbetta (7,160 feet). Nearly due north of Ootacamand, over- —to the
hanging the Moyar Valley, is the quaint shaped hill known as
Chinna Coonoor, and about a mile to the west the Segur, or
Konabetta Peak (6,777 feet). Further away to the west at the
head of the Segiir Pass stands Muttinad-betta, and beyond it
Ibex hill, a blufF-like eminence, the last hill needing special
mention.
Only three rivers of any importance have their source in the Streams.
Nilagiris — the Moyar, the Chinna or Sur-Bhavani, and the Beypur
river, but the streams which help to form these rivers are very
numerous. The Moyar rises at Mukarte and flows in a north-
easterly direction, under the appellation of the Paikare. This
river is remarkable among hill streams for its long reaches or pools
^ Hiili (Kara.), a tiger, kal (Karn.), a rock or stone.
^ Kun (Tam.), crookedness, a humpcd-back ; and ur, village. The meaning
may also more properly be " The village on the little hill " or " The little village."
See note on derivation of K6nda.
6
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. I.
Genekal
Description.
Waterfalls.
Lakes.
divided from each other by rocky rapids formed by shelving
bands of rock on which lie loose boulders. In these pools are
now to be found, though rare, trout and other fish, the ova of
which were imported from England by the late Mr. W. Gr. Mclvor,
Superintendent of the Cinchona Plantations. On reaching the
edge of the plateau it turns to the west, and passing through the
Government Cinchona Plantations, falls in a succession of
cascades to the table-land beneath. Thence it wends its way to
the east, thx'ough a gorge known as the Mysore ditch, having the
appearance of a long deep moat, as seen from the crest of the
ghdts, which forms the boundary between the table-land lying at
the foot of the'NllagirisJand Mysore, and entering the Coimba-
tore country, mingles its waters with those of the Bhavani, at
Devanaikenkota, below Rangasami's Peak. The Bhavani, taking
its rise in the spot already mentioned, flows along the southern
base of the Hills, receiving in its course the waters of the Kunda
and Coonoor rivers. The former drains the south-western slopes
of Doddabetta and the south-eastern slopes of the Kunda range,
the latter rising on Doddabetta drains the whole southern face
of the plateau, its principal feeder being the Kateri.^ The
Beyp6r river is formed mainly by two streams — the Pandi and the
Nellambur, — which have their origin on the hill ranges to the
north and south of Miikarte.
The Waterfalls^ are numerous and picturesque, though not of
any great depth or volume. The highest is that of Kolakambe,
north of the hill of that name, having an unbroken fall of about
400 feet. Second to this is St. Catherine's Fall (250 feet) in a
stream south of Kotagiri. Then follows the lower Fall of Paikare
(200 feet) and after it the upper (180 feet.) Of nearly the same
height as this latter is the Kalhatti Fall (170 feet) on the Segiir
Pass. The Kateri Fall in the river of the same name, six miles
from Ootacamand,^ is 180 feet in depth.
There are no natural lakes in the plateau, but art has attempted
to supply in the neighbourhood of Ootacamandthe defects of nature.
In the neighbourhood of this station there are some artificial lakes
or reservoirs, formed by banking up the stream at a narrow
part of the valley. The most important is that known as the
Ootacamand lake, a marked feature in the station, and one which
' Kddu (Tarn.), a forest tract, ^ri (Tain.), a river.
2 I am indebted to Captain Freeth, of the Revenue Survey, for these measure-
ments.
3 The derivation of this name is doubtful, but the most pi-obable is whotai
(dwarf bamboo), Icai (Tarn.), fruit, or green food, and mand. Dwarf bamboo
abounds in some of the shdlas near the ancient mand by the Public Gardens, still
known as Whatakai-mand, and this spelling of the name appears in the earliest
reports. The fresh shoots are eaten. Another derivation is udal-am (Tam.), water.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 7
adds greatly to its beauty. Its form is serpentine or sinuous, the CIIAP. I.
bends being caused by the projecting spurs of the hills on either general
side. Its length is about two miles and a half, its breadth from Description.
three to four hundred yards. A road follows the windings of its
banks throughout and forms the principal drive of the station, its
length being nearly eight miles.
Owing to their peculiar conformation, there are few, if any, Valleys,
true valleys among the Nilagiris. The base of one hill rises so
close to that of another, that the space between them more often
resembles a narrow ravine or hollow, than a true valley. A level
space is still more rare. The principal localities to which the
term has been applied, and which possess at least some of the
requisite characteristics, are the Nanjandd, the Kunda, the
Paikare, the Kaity, the Arvenkad, and the Orange Valleys.
The Nanjanad valley on the upper plateau, lying south-west
of Ootacamand, takes its name from a village on its western slope.
Its head is a ravine formed by two spurs of Doddabetta, and
known as Lovedale. It gradually opens out, and stretches for
some miles in the direction of the Avalanche^ valley. It is
watered by a tributary of the Paikar6 and consists, mainly, of
undulating stretches of grazing land.
The valley of the Kunda river, which in its descent to the
low comitry, forms a deep gorge, is, in its upper stretch, very
similar in character to the Nanjanad, though its slopes are more
steep. There is some cultivated land in this valley, and some tea
estates are being opened out in it.
The Paikare river gives its name to the valley which follows the
line of the lower slopes of the Nidumale range. Its most
remarkable features are the broad reaches, referred to above, of the
river which are found here and there in the wider openings, and
are supposed to be the beds of ancient lakes. This and the Kiinda
valley are favorite grazing grounds of the Todas.
The Kaity valley, which forms the upper basin of the Kateri
river, lies to the south of the Doddabetta range, and is enclosed
to the north and west by that branch of the same range which
runs out towards Devashola. It is of considerable extent, and
contains numerous thriving Badaga villages, the greater portion
being under cultivation. The soil is so well suited for the growth
of the staple Hill crops, that even the steepest hill-sides are
utilised by the ryots. In the lower portion of the valley stands
the German Mission House, surrounded by a plantation of exotic
^ So called from the post-house formerly located here. From aval (Karn.), first,
a«c/i,e'(Karii.), stage or post. The name has nothing to do with the apocryphal
, avalanche or landslip said by Mr. Blandford to have occurred in the neighbour-
f hood. — Blandford's Gcoloqirnl Mevwir.
8 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. I. trees. It was formerly the residence of Lord Elphiustone when
Ge"^al Governor of Madras.
Description. Separated from the Kaity valley by a spur, on which is built the
Rest-house on the Ootacamand and Coonoor road, is Arvenkad,
a valley of a similar configuration and character. The drainage
of this valley flows into the Coonoor river. The old road to
Ootacamand runs up the hollow of this valley ; the present one
is formed by a cutting along its northern side, a spur of Dodda-
betta.
The Orange Valley is so called from the w41d oranges and limes
with which it abounds. It starts from the north-east angle of
Doddabotta, and skirting the Kotagiri table -land, breaks through
the edge of the plateau, and descends to the low country at a spot
exactly opposite the Gajalhatti Pass. It is a deep indentation,
not above 4,500 feet above the sea level, and being shut in
by lofty hills, the temperature is very high. Owing to this
feature and to the richness of the soil, the vegetation in this
valley is more nearly tropical than in any other locality above the
ghdts.
Scenery. I know of no description which brings out the peculiar features
of the Nilagiri scenery so truthfully or effectively as the follow-
ing. ^ After remarking upon the configuration of the hills, their
aspect from the plains, and the different appearance which the
forest of the slopes assumes as the table-land is approached from
below, the writer continues : —
" The interior of the plateau consists chiefly of grassy undulating
hills, divided by narrow valleys, which invariably contain a stream or
a swamp. In the hollows of the hill-sides nestle small beautiful
woods, locally known as shdlas. It is seldom that so much variety
of beauty is found in so small a compass. From the bleak heights of
the Kundas, with their storm-beaten, moss-hung woods and rank,
coarse grass, to the springy turf and many colored sholas of
Ootacamand, and the tropical vegetation of the western slopes, every
five or ten miles brings the traveller to a new climate and new sceuery.
Even on the summit of the plateau the rainfall varies with each
different aspect, and ranging from about 30 inches to 150 or more,
produces a corresponding range of vegetation. It is, however, the
views over the edges of the table-land that are most singular and
striking, from the extreme abruptness of the descent. Let a visitor
take a short ride in almost any direction from almost any part of the
plateau, and passing along shady English-looking lanes, sheltered by
thickets of blackberry and wild rose ; across bare breezy downs,
sometimes dotted with twisted crimson flowering rhododendron trees,
and intersected by swampy valleys, where buffaloes wade and wallow,
through dense woods carpeted with rare beautiful fei-ns and gorgeous
1 Brekks' Ntlayiris.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 9
in spring-tints, beside which the coloring of an English autumn is CHAP. I.
faint and dull, by native villages, with their patches of cultivation
and their magnificent single trees, he will find himself on some ridge Description.
or promontory, looking straight down from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, on a
scene that changes like the figures in a kaleidoscope. In the morning
a sea of clouds lies at his feet, and gradually rises round him. In the
afternoon this has cleared away, and reveals, perhaps, a vast crimson
plain, veined by dark lines of wood, dotted with isolated hummocks
like giant ant-hills, and terminating in faint blue lines of mountains,
the furthest of which seems to hang half-way up the sky ; perhaps on
a tumbled mass of hills and valleys, a perfect dissolving view, for the
eye has hardly traced the outline of some rocky ridge, glowing red in
the sun-light, before a blue cloud-shadow blots it out, and a fresh
series of crests and ravines starts into sight beyond. Broken peaks,
hung with wood, frame the picture, and on all sides lies tropical sun-
light, intensified by the keen thin mountain air."
Great changes, hovrever, are rapidly taking place in the aspect Changes in
of the plateau and the slopes, due to three causes, the wide features and
extension of cultivation by the hill tribes of cereal and other
crops, the increase in the area under tea and coffee, and, lastly,
the numerous plantations of Australian and exotic trees, especially
in the neighbourhood of the large stations. Thus it has happened
that much of the indigenous forest has been felled, and many
grand sholas, which existed twenty years ago, have wholly
disappeared. To the lover of the scenery peculiar to the Hills,
this may seem an irreparable loss, but many vnll find a more
than counter-balancing gain in the variety afforded by the rich
green of the tea and coffee bushes, the larch-like forests of gums
(Eucah/pti) and the pyramidal shapes of the Australian black wood
{Acacia melanoxylon) . These make a pleasing contrast with the
almost universally rounded forms of the primeval forest, only
here and there relieved by the white stems, spreading branches,
and flattened tops of a few of the indigenous trees. Long,
however, before Europeans reached the Hills, the process of the
destruction of the woodlands had been going on in the tracts
occupied by the Badag-as, on the slopes of the Doddabetta range,
the western alone excepted. There can be little question
that these tracts, which are now given up almost wholly to the
plough or hoe, were once covered with dense jungle, except the
more stony ridges and heights. This is evidenced by the numer-
ous shola trees, single or in groups of two or three, standing
generally near a rock or stream, which have owed their escape from
the general destruction to the superstitious fears of the people,
who regard them as the homes of the unseen genii of the place.
The frequent occurrence of the suffix Md, jungle or forest, in
names of localities, where now hardly a tree is to be found, is
2
10 MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. I. an additional proof of this assertion, as is also the character of
General EQUch of the soil, which is well suited to carry heavy timber.
Description. There has been some speculation as to whether the grassy
downs and hollows lying to the west of Doddabetta were ever
covered with forest, which has been cleared away for cultivation
or pasture. This, however, is very improbable, as the character
of the soil, with its thick subjacent layer of cold gravelly clay,
has doubtless been hostile to the growth of large vegetation, but
at the same time it is probable that some of the protected valleys,
which have long been relinquished to the herds of the Todas,
were at some earlier era cultivated. This hypothesis rests
mainly on the facts that some of the sholas do not bear the marks
of great antiquity,^ whilst the lands of the valleys are often
smooth and even, as if the surface had once been levelled by the
plough.^ It is, however, to be remembered that the present
park-like appearance of the higher plateau, with its downs and
woodlands, is also, in a great measure, due to the annual recurrence
of fires which sweep over the hills, burning the grass and outlying
scrub and even the smaller sholas, and checking the larger woods
in their persistent eif orts to extend their domain further along the
sides of the valleys.
Such is a brief description of the principal natural features of
the district. The following chapter deals with subjects of a
more artificial or administrative nature.
1 The age of some shola trees is said to be not less than 800 ye^rs.
2 Some inquirers have thought that they can trace in mounds on the plateau
remains of ruined villages.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DLSTRICT, 11
CHAPTER II.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION—
Length and Breadth— Boundaries — Area — Divisiona.— Stations — Ghdts and
Hill Passes — Roads — Bungalows — Chuttrums.
The length of the district from east to west, i.e,, from a point CHAP. II.
near Rang-asami's Peak to the Pandi river in Wainad, is 40 miles. n^ZZ^r
Its breadth from north to south, i.e., from the Moyar river to the Description.
Coimbatore frontier, near Melkimda, is 29 miles. The plateau, Len thand
between its extreme north-east and south-west points, is in breadth,
length approximately 42 miles. Its breadth, in the centre, from
north to south, is 15 miles ; but its average breadth is only
about 10 miles.
The district is bounded on the south-east, east, and north- Boundaries,
east by the Coimbatore District, namely, from the south-eastern
extremity of the Kiinda range, near Melkunda Hill, to the Mysore
frontier and the Moyar river, in Lat. 11° 35', Long. 76" 52' j on the
north by the Mysore territory and the Moyar river ; on the west
and south by the Malabar District, the line running from the
Mysore frontier near Tippukadu on the Moyar, along that river .
to a point below Neduwattam, ^ and thence along a line known as
*' Richardson's line " to a hill called Aratapara. It then follows
the course of a stream running into the Pandi, and that river
itself, until it falls over the Western Ghdts, near Kark^r,
thence up the Yellamale Spur to the Nilagiri Peak, and along the
western and southern crests of the Kunda range to the Coimba-
tore frontier.
The total ^ area, exclusive of the Ouchterlony Valley, has been Area,
hitherto shown in ofl&cial reports as 749 square miles, or 479,360
1 From nidu (long) and vattam, a circle, a tanJ:, a valley ; probably the latter
meaning applies here ; the word is also applied to a circle of hamlets or small dis-
trict.— Wilson's Glossary. The ordinary spelling is retained to avoid confusion.
2 The areas of the three amshoms of Sonth-East Wainad transferred to the
Nilagiris, are estimated as follows : —
SQ. MS.
Nambalakdd ... 140
Cheramkdd 37
Munnandd 62
Thus the total area of the district, as now constituted, is 988 square miles.
By the transfer of these throe amshoms the tri- junction point of Malabar
Mysore, and Nilagiris is shifted from the junction of the Kakkanholla and Mysore
streams to a point about Lat. 11° 40' North, and Long. 76° 30' East, at the junction
of the Dodholla and Maregathe streams, theuce the boundary runs southwards
12 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. II. acres. From more recent calculations made by the Deputy
General Superintendent of the Revenue Survey, Lieutenant-Colonel
Description. Cloete, this figure appears to be excessive. Colonel Cloete
estimates the area, exclusive of tlie Oucliterlony Valley^ approxi-
mately at 695 square miles, or 444,800 acres. The following
statement shows this estimate in detail : —
Correct Areas Surveyed.
SQ. MILES.
Ootacamand Settlement ,
30-31
Coonoor „
. 11-97
Kotagiri „
. 11-42
Mekanad (Plateau)
. 58-88
„ (Slopes) ,
. 33-71
146-29
Approximated Areas.
Tddanddi (Plateau)
. 163-
(Slopes)
. 135-
Peranganad (Plateau)
. 90-
(Slopes)
. 40-
Kundas ...
. 120-
Oucliterlony Valley
. 30-
Total ...
578-
724-29
The area of the plateau is estimated approximately at 478*87
square miles. Of this extent more than a fourth part is under
occupation, probably about 79,360 acres, or 124 square miles. By
the revenue accounts the ayacut ^ area of the district, excluding
the Ouchterlony Valley, is 480 square miles, of which about
114 square miles are termed assessed, or culturable.
The swamps occupy about one-sixtieth part, or 8"87 miles, the
woods and plantations one-tenth, or 45 square miles. Thus there
remain 303 square miles of waste, rather less than 200,000 acres,
which is chiefly utilised for grazing cattle by the hill tribes.
In 1847, by Major Ouchterlony's survey,^ the area of the plateau,
excluding the Kundas and slopes, is returned as 268,494 acres,
420 square miles, of which 23,772 acres, or 37 square miles, were
up the latter Btream to Gfiltlr Hill, then west and south round Benne Teak Forest,
crossing two paths from Mudiimale to the Battery (Sultan's) and Gundalpet road,
and crossing the main road from GiSdaliir to the Battery at the 17th mile stake
from Gddaltjr; the boundaiy then follows a crooked line, generally westerly
through paddy flats to the tri-j unction of the Gana]iathi, Cheranikdd, and Mupeindd
amshonis on tlie banks of the Choladi river, then south, down the course of that
river, and eastward along a Hue generally a little below the crest of the ghdts up
to Nilagiri Peak.
' The areas of the three ndds do not include the areas of the Settlements.
'^ Lands belonging to a village and entered in the village register of lauds.
2 See Report, Madras Jourual L. S., December 18'18.
1
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. lo
under cultivation, and 244,772 acres, 382'45 square miles, waste. CHAP. II.
Thus in 30 years the occupied area of the plateau has trebled itself, general
This result is mainly due to the extension of cultivation by the Description.
Badaga villagers. Major Ouchterlony estimated that about 31,500
acres of land were subject to Badaga cultivation, but that only
about 17,000 acres were actually cultivated annually.
The following statistics, relating to each nad, or revenue
division, will be interesting. In regard to Mekanad only, however,
are the statistics reliable, for of this nad only has the survey been
completed. As to the other nads the statistics are derived from
the revenue accounts, which are admittedly more or less inac-
curate.
The district is divided into four compartments or nads, viz., Divisions,
Peranganad, Mekanad, Kundanad, and Todanad. These nads
originally were exclusive of the Ouchterlony Valley, the portion
lying between the foot of the Segur Pass and the Moyar, and the
lands attached to Irula villages on the eastern slopes. For
convenience, however, these lower tracts are included in the
superjacent nads.
Peranganad ^ derives its names from the god Eangasami P^rangan^d.
worshipped by the Badagas, whose temple is located on the peak of
that name within the arrondissement. It forms the eastern division,
and is separated from Todanad, on the west by the Mudukkadu
stream, and Orange Valley, and the north-east spur of the
Doddabetta range. On the west and south it is divided from the
Mekanad by the southern spur of the same range, and the
Kateri river. It contains the settlements of Coonoor and Kotagiri
and the Military Depot of Wellington.
Distribution of Occupied Area.
Lands held under Patta by the Hill Tribes
Lands held by Europeans and Natives under the
Waste Land Rules
Inani Lands
Lands held by Europeans and Natives under other
tenures than the Waste Land Rules
Miilachapoi Kambe and Velleru Kambe.
Lands held under Patta by Hill Tribes ... 734-43
Lands held by Europeans and Natives under
Waste Land Rules 285-50
Inam Lands ... ... ... ... ... 126*57
Lands held by Europeans and Natives under
other tenures than the Waste Land Rules ... 16-50
ACRES.
15,831-57
2,439-81
461-43
4,073-65
Total ... 23,969-46
* The initial syllable is probably a contraction of periya (Tamil), gi-eat Ua.
honorific prefix. Comp. P^-angalur in Pudukdta, and P^rambdi-, Madras,
14 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. II. The Mekauad/ which properly signifies the Western Nad
(west), is divided from Peranganad by the boundaries already
Descieiption. mentioned, from Tddanad on the north-west by a spur of the
— — Doddabetta range, and the eastern branch of the Biguli or Kunda
river, which flows through the Lovedale and the Nanjanad Valleys
to the main stream. The Biguli river also separates it from the
Kiindanad on the south-west.
The total area, including the slopes, is 92-59 square miles, or
59,247-86 acres, 37,685 acres being above the ghats. The land
above the ghats is distributed as follows according to the survey
register : —
ACRES.
Pattas 22,833-17
Under Waste Land Rules
Freehold
Under Tope Rules ...
Squatters ...
Government River Tracts ...
Do. Roads
Do. Streams
Do. Swamp
Do. Building Sites
Village Sites ... ..
Unappropriated Waste ...
or 58-88 square miles.
Land on the Slopes.
Approximate area of Patta Lands
Unappropriated Waste
21,502-75
ThoRevenue accounts give the following figures : —
Patta Lands held by Hill Tribes 20,16M9
Do. Europeans and Natives under
the Waste Land Rules ... 2,722-73
Indm Lands ... ... ... 367-81
Europeans and Natives on other Tenures ... 3,31 1-74
Total... 26,563-47
2,793-67
15-39
151-67
6-45
427-30
223-84
290-44
162-55
0-21
132-44
10,647-98
37,685-11
ACRES,
500-00
21,062-75
Kiindandd. The Kundanad lies to the west and south of the Kunda river,
its northern boundary, separating it from the Todanad, being the
1 Der. mirliu (Tamil), west. It is really the south-eastern division of the
plateau, but is west of Peranganad, originally the most important Sub-division.
The name indicates the course of the early immigrants.
/■
MANUAL OP THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT. 16
western branch of this stream, and another stream known as the CHAP, II.
Arakadholla ^ which constitutes the principal source of
Nellambur river.
Distrihtdion oj Occupied Area according to tlie Bevemie Accotmts.
Lands held under Patta by Hill Tribes ... 1,608-37
Lands held by Europeans and Natives under
Waste Land Rules 504-41
Lands held by Europeans and Natives on other
Tenures 7-10
Total ... 2,119-88
TheTodanad occupies the whole of the plateau north-west of the Todandd.
other three nads, the table-land at the foot of the northern slopes.
The Ouchterlony Valley may now be regarded as appertaining
to this nad. It is divided by the hill tribes into two divisions,
or nads, known as the Melnad and Kilnad, ^ the latter occupying
the country lying east and north of the Doddabetta range, and
north of the Mdlemand Hill line, as far as Kalhatti and Sholiir.
The Melnad has already been described. The town of Ootaca-
mand lies within the Melnad, though the southern portion of
the settlement, including the Lawrence Asylums, appertains to
Mekanad.
Distribution of Area according to the Bevenue Accounts.
Lands held under Patta by Hill tribes ... 17,652-14
Lands held by Europeans and Natives under
the Waste Land Rules 4,506-17
Inam Lands ... 651-86
Lands held by Europeans and Natives under
other tenures than the Waste Land Rules... 936-95
f Lands held under Patta by Hill tribes
and low-country natives ... ... 2,242-63
Lands held by Europeans and Natives
under Waste Land Rvdes 74-50
Inam Lands ... ... ... ... 43-00
Lands held by Europeans and Natives
under other tenures than Waste Land
L Rules 1,034-45
^,^ ^^' I Area under cultivation in full
Valley, j bearing (coffee) 3,951*10
Total ... 31,092-80
' Holla (Badaga), hole (Karn.), a stream or river.
- For meaning of Melnad, sec note ante, Kilnad ; der. /aV, below.
V
16
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. II.
GeneraI/
DeSCRIPTIOJ'
Stations.
Ghdts and
Hill Passes.
-K<5tagiii
The stations are Ootacamand, Coonoor, Wellington, and
Kotagiri. Full particulars regarding them will be found in a
later chapter. I would, however, here remark that the station of
Kotagiri, strictly speaking, is not a civil station, as for magis-
terial, revenue, civil, and police purposes it is an appendage of
Coonoor.
The Passes to the Hills, of which six deserve notice from their
importance, have generally followed, though far from closely, the
tracks which were in existence long before Europeans visited the
Hills. Of the six Passes, two, viz., Coonoor and Kotagiri, are on
the east or south-east angle of the plateau, and terminate at
Mettapollium in the Coimbatore District, a small town situate to
the south of the Bhavani river, and the present terminus of that
section of the Madras Kail way which branches off at Pothanur
in the direction of the Nilagiris. It is 94.2 feet above the sea.
At the north-west and south-west angles of the plateau are the
Gudalur and the Sisapara or Kunda Ghats, the former communi-
cating with Wainad and the northern portion of Malabar, the
latter the direct route to Calicut. On the north, communicating
with Mysore and Bangalore, is the Segur Pass. On the souths
the now almost deserted passage known as the Melur Pass.
Of the lines above mentioned the Coonoor (new), the Gudalur
(new), the Kotagiri (new), and the Segur ghdts are open to wheel-
traffic. I proceed to give a more detailed account of each.
There are two lines of road, known as the Old and New Ghdts.
The Old Ghat was the first road cut by Government for the
ascent to the Hills. It was completed in 1822 — a Corps of
Pioneers having carried out the work. Originally it started
from Srimugai, a village on the Bhavdni, two or three miles to the
north of Mettapollium. Its destination was the early sanitarium
at Dimhatti, above Kotagiri. The distance from Srimugai to
Dimhatti is reported to be sixteen miles ; from thence to Oota-
camand by the nearest track eleven; in all twenty-seven miles.
This line was originally much used by persons proceeding to the
Hills from the southern and eastern districts of the Presidency,
but was finally deserted by through-passengers after the comple-
tion of the Coonoor Pass. Subsequent to the opening of this
line the point of departure was changed from Srimugai to the
Bhavani bridge near Mettapollium. The lower portion of the
ascent was up a spur of the Hills, which stretches out a consider-
able distance into the plain towards Mettapollium, and then up
the south side of the gorge of the Erkad river. The ascent was
generally easy, until within the last few miles of Kotagiri.
The New Ghdt,— which was aligned and constructed by Major
Morant, R.E., District Engineer, the work having been begun in
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 17
1872 and completed in 1875, — also follows this spur and valley. CHAP. II.
Its total length is 20 miles. It has a uniform gradient of one in general
seventeen feet, excepting the two miles at the foot, which are Desckiption.
nearly level. It is bridged, and in no part less than nine feet,
and generally fifteen feet wide. This road is little used except
by passengers and traffic connected with estates in the neigh-
bourhood of Kotagiri. There was also an ascent from Devanai-
kenkota to Dimhatti by Tenad and Kil-Kotagiri below
Rangasami's Peak, and Nidunkiilum. The distance is 20
miles.
Some years after the construction of the Kotagiri ghat, this — Coonoor
line was projected. It was completed in the year 1833. Start- ^^^*
ing from Mettapollium it runs due west to the village of Kalar
along the level, a distance of nearly six miles, crossing in its
course two streams — the Bhavani and Kalar. From Kalar the
ascent begins. The road follows the northern side of the gorges
of the Kateri and Coonoor rivers, the distance from the foot to
the Coonoor bridge at the head of the Pass being nearly nine
miles. This ghdt, the original alignment of which is very faulty,
was constructed by the Corps of Pioneers under Lieutenant
LeHardy. The average gradient is about 1 in 12, but towards
the top the gradient is as steep as 1 in 5, and in some places it is
reversed. The new ghdt, which was completed in 1871, was
traced and constructed chiefly by Lieutenant, now Colonel, Law.
It begins the ascent at Kalar, and is 16 miles long. Its
gradient is 1 in ]8| feet. It has 32 timber bridges, of spans
varying from 12 to 70 feet. Its width is about 18 feet. It
follows the northern side of the gorge for about 13 miles,
crossing and recrossing the old ghat at no less than nine points.
It then passes to the western side of the gorge of the Coonoor
river, and meets the old pass at the bridge at the head of the
gh4t. Its great defect is its numerous zigzags, of which there
are no less than twelve.
The views in the ascent are very striking, the road winding
through deep ravines and under lofty crags, whilst far below
rushes the Coonoor river, forming beautiful cascades in its
downward course. On the opposite side stands the Hulikal
Drug — a grand bluff, wonderfully diversified with scarp and
crag, relieved with bright green foliage in each cleft or hollow,
whilst its base is covered with rich tropical forest, gradually
passing into stretches of waving bamboo. Much primeval forest,
above the elevation of three or four thousand feet, has been
destroyed, and its place supplied by coffee plantations, among
which are seen here and there the houses, sheds and huts
belonging to the estates.
18
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. II.
General
Descripxio.v,
— Segur Pass
— Gddalur
Pass.
— MeWr or
Snndaputte
Pass.
The head of this pass is distant from Ootacamand four miles
and three-quarters, the road being fairly level. The descent
is about seven miles in length, though the distance from the crest
to the old bungalow at Segur is eight miles and one-quarter.
About half way down is the village of Kalhatti, with its
picturesque waterfall not far below. From the foot of the ghat
to Tippukadu on the Moyar on the Mysore frontier the distance
is ten miles and a half. This road is generally undulating, but
in some parts the gradients are as steep as 1 in 12. The Moyar
is crossed by a wooden bridge constructed in 1841. Near this
point the road into Wainad branches off. The town of Mysore by
this route is sixty-nine miles from Ootacamand. The road for
twenty-five miles passes through much dense jungle, in whichlarge
game abounds. The gradient of this ghat, though severe, never
exceeds 1 foot in 10, the average being 1 in 12. It is bridged
with timber structures throughout. It ia partly metalled. It
was constructed in 1838, and took the place of the old path by
Bellikal ^ further to the east. At one time it was the favorite
approach to the Hills by the visitors from the northern parts of
the Presidency and Madras. ^ It is still much used for the
carriage of teak and other timber to the Hills.
This pass is so named from the village of Gudalilr, not far
from its base. The old trace was exceedingly rough and steep,
the descent being only four miles in length. The new ghat,
which follows mainly the northern face of a spur of the Hills,
was completed in the year 1868. It was traced by Captain, now
Colonel, Farewell, M.S.C., but the construction was left to
Mr. T. Browning. From the crest at Neduwattam, near the
Government Cinchona Plantations, to its base the distance is
eight miles, and from thence to Gudalur three miles. The
gi-adient is very easy, being in no case more than 1 in 19. It
has eight zigzags. The traffic on this ghat is at present light.
From Gudalur a road runs to the north-east, and connects this
line with the Segur line near Tippukadu, a distance of eleven
miles.
This pass was constructed next in order to the Kotagiri Ghat,
about the year 1828. It was at one time much used by passen-
gers from the Southern and Western districts. From the village
of Sandaputte, at its foot westwards up the Bhavani Valley,
runs the very ancient track to Manarghat and Calicut, crossing
the ridge near the gorge known as the Silent Valley, which lies
between two spurs of the Kunda range. Eastwards a path runs
down the left bank of the Bhavani to Mettapollium, thence to
1 i.e., white rock : der. belli (Kar.), white, l<al (Tarn.), rock.
2 Lord Macaulay joiirncyed to the Ilills by this route. See his Life.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
19
Coimbatore. There was also another path more direct to CllAP^lI.
Coimbatore from Sundapatte. The pass reaches the summit of general
the ghat below the hill called Siindabetta, not far from the Description.
village of Melur. It is little used now except by the hill people ;
but at one time there was a good deal of passenger traffic by it,
the road across the plateau to Ootacamand being good. It
was also once much used by tobacco-smugglers. The abandon-
ment of this line was probably chiefly due to the rapid growth in
public favor of Coonoor, both as a resort for invalids and as a
good field for coffee cultivation. There was also another ghdt to
the west of this, known as the Tallapoya Pass. Leaving the low-
land at a point on the Bliavani some distance above Siindaputte,
it reaches the plateau near Melkunda. It appears to have been
used solely by the hill people.
This pass, which was begun in 1832 and completed in 1838, the — Sisapdraor
pioneers being employed for the work, was once used as the
tappal ^ line between Ootacamand and the West Coast. It was,
however, finally abandoned, owing to the severity of the climate of
the Kiindas. It was traced by Lieutenant LeHardy, the tracer of
the Coonoor Ghdt. The pass begins at Sholakal in Nellambur
at the base of the Hills, ascends through a wooded ravine for a
distance of eleven miles and a half to the crest of the Kundas
at Sisap^ra (6,742 feet above the sea). From this point to
Ootacamand the distance is thirty-one miles and a half ; from
Sholakal to Wiindiir ten miles, and from thence to Arriakod, on
the Beypur river, fourteen miles and a half. The gradient in parts
is very steep. The view from the head of the pass, with the tower-
like Sisapara rock on the right, is perhaps the grandest on the
Hills. There was formerly a bungalow at this spot, but it was
burnt down some years ago, and has not been rebuilt.
Ootacamand is the centre of the road system of the district. Plateau
From it branch roads to the several ghdts already described, but °* ^'
of these the roads to the Coonoor and Segur Passes only are
metalled and suitable for heavy traffic at all seasons of the year.
The road to Giidalur is only metalled in parts, though bridged
throughout. The road to Sisapara wasforraei^ly traversable by carts
as far as the Avalanche, but is no longer so. The road to Kotagiri
crosses Doddabetta and follows a spur of this range until it reaches
the main road leading from Kotagiri to Coonoor. In its present
state wheeled vehicles cannot traverse it, and carriages have to
make a circuit by Wellington. Besides the roads mentioned
there is a driving road from Ootacamand to Devashola on the
south, whence an extension, more or less complete, to Kateri on
Tost.
20
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
CHAP. II.
General
Descripi'ion.
tlie eastj and Temale ^ Estate on the south. Another road, though
not complete, leads in the direction of the country to the south
and east of the Avalanche.
Half way between Coonoor and Ootacamand a road strikes ofEl
to Kateri on the south, whence branch three lines, — the first
traverses the Kolakambe coffee district, a second runs along the
southern escarpment of the Drug range, the third leads down the!
Kateri Valley to the Coonoor Ghdt. These roads are all suitable
for wheeled traffic, but are not bridged throughout. Moreover,
the Drug road, though sanctioned, has not yet been completed.
A road connecting Melkunda with Kateri is also projected.
Coonoor and Wellington are connected with Kdtagiri by a good
road bridged throughout. There is an extension to the Kodanad
district to the north. The road to Gudalur crosses the Paikare
river by a good bridge with masonry piers. It was constnicted
in the year 1857. At the summit of the range, two or three miles
from Paikare a road branches away to the north, communicating
with coffee and cinchona estates on the slopes to the east of the
Paikare Falls.
The following table gives the trunk and subordinate lines of
district roads, with mileage — these lines are marked in the plane
map attached. Over and above these roads the whole plateau is
traversed in every direction by a network of paths connecting
village with village, or these with the main road lines. Except
in a few precipitous localities they may be used as bridle-paths : —
Roads — Trunk and District.
Description of Road.
Miles.
Fur-
longs.
Total.
/From Ootacamand to Coovioov
&'§ 1 „ Coonoor to Burlidr
^o) „ Burlier to Kalar
^\ „ Kalir to Mettapollium
From Coonoor to Lamb's Rock
„ Lamb's Rock to the Dolphin's Nose
.,' From Oofacaniand to Coonoor
-cS ) „ Coonoor to Em-liar
O § ) „ Bm-MrtoKal4r
<^ \ „ K&Ur to MettapolUum
. / From Oofacamand to Wellington
^^ „ Wellington to Kdtagiri
^% „ {!.) Kot&giri to Mettapollium
P^ „ (2.) Kdtagiri to JLddfma'd
to / From Oofaca»ia.»d to KdtBgin
%^ \ „ (1.) KdtSigiri to MettapnlUum
°(^ ( „ (2.) Kdtagiri to A^ddaHctd
12
12
4
6
...
34 miles.
24 ms. 4 fs.
40 miles.
28 „
26 ms. 4 fs.
22 ms. 6 fs.
3
3
10
6
2
4
2"
5
6h
6i
10
10
20
8
14
11
8
6
6
' i.e., God's hill. Td or tdvan (Tarn.) God, and malei, a hill. By some the
name is pronounced Taimale, i.e., the hill of the mother goddess— Durga or
Bhavani— from tai (Tarn.), mother.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
21
Description of Road.
Miles.
Fur.
longs.
Total.
From Oofacama?KZ to Kalhatti
„ Kalhatti to SegBr
„ Segar to Tippuk&du,
From Tip pnkddu to Ml/sore
„ Ootacamand to Bellikal
te^ i Frova Ootacamand to Yaikave
®1 ! „ Paikare to Neduwattam
^f§ ( „ Neduwattam to GudaJwr
m r From Oof acaniand to Paikare
g'i „ Paikare to Neduwattam
;^ ( ,, Neduwattam to GiidaMr
From Gudaliir to Calicut by Karkur
„ Gudalur to Cannanore
From Ootacamand to Krurmand
„ Krurmand to IfiU-aj-fe ...
From Ootacamand to Paikare Falls by Paikare road.
New Road Ootacamand to Avalanche
^ / From Ootacamand to Avalanche
,^'S \ „ Avalanche to Banghi Tappal
Qo ) „ Bangbi Tappal to Sisap^ra
•^ I „ Sisapdra to S/io7ai-aJ
From Ootacamand to Calicut
„ Ootacamand to Mclvor's Bund
„ Mclvor's Bund to MeiMwda
From Ootacamand to Devashdla
„ Devashdla to Temale
„ Devashdla to Meliir
„ Devashdla to i'dftfi-t
From Ootacamand to Edteri (old road)
„ Ootacamand to Ellanhalli Chuttrum
„ Ellanhalli to Kateri
„ Kateri to Kdlakambe
„ Kateri to Hdlikal (PiUur)
„ Kateri to Coonoor
„ Coouoor to HuHkal (Pillur)
9
4
10
"4
23 ms. 4 fs.
45 ms. 4 fs.
59 miles.
32 miles.
22 miles.
69 miles.
126 ms. 2 fs.
16 miles.
41 ms. 7 fs.
103 ms. 3 fs.
21 miles.
6
12
9
11
10
7
4
6
2
10
6
14
16
13
9
8
10
"4
"7
4
12
9
9
6
3
9
4
4
7
6
5
6
7
4
5
■."..
CHAP. II.
General
Description.
Note. — The final stations of the several lines of road are shown in italics, and
the total distances between each in the last column.
Travellers' Bungalows. — There are seven bungalows in the Travellers'
district besides the Segur^ which has been abandoned. Of these^ bungalows,
the Avalanche, the Neduwattam, the Paikare and Kalhatti
belong to the Local Fund Board ; the Perraand and Purthe are
Government property, whilst Krurmand is private. These bunga-
lows are all situated at spots well suited for the enjoyment of the
sport and scenery of the Hills.
A wooden structure with zinc roof. It consists of a dining-hall, —Avalanche.
with front and back verandahs, four bed and two bath rooms, and
stable accommodation for about six horses. The bungalow is
about fifteen miles from Ootacamand. Half of the way is imprac-
ticable for vehicles. It is in charge of a peon paid by Government^
22
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
CHAP. II.
General
Description.
— Nednwat-
tam.
— Paikare.
— Kalhatti.
— Permand.
— Purthe,
near Mclvor's
Bund.
— Krdnnand,
who serves either as cook or maity. No provisions of any kind
are procurable at this place. A moderate quantity of crockery
and cutlery form part of the furniture. The rooms are furnished,
but there is no bedding.
This is a fairly large buildings consisting of a dining-hall 24 X
15, with verandahs in the front and in the sides, two bed-rooms,
each 18| X 15, two dressing-rooms, and two bath-rooms, each
8| X 5|, and stabling for four horses. The bungalow is twenty-
two miles from Ootacamand by the new road and seventeen by
the old. The former is a carriage road throughout. The Local
Fund Board maintain a paid servant and a sweeper. The maity
holds a liquor license, and will provide provisions if timely notice
is given by excursionists.
This bungalow contains a dining-room, two bed, two dressing,
and two bath-rooms, and supplies stabling for four horses. The
bungalow is leased by a contractor, who pays the Local Fund
Board ten rupees a month for the privilege. The bungalow is
twelve miles by the new road and ten by the old from Ootacamand.
The bungalow here commands a fine view of the waterfall.
It consists of two spacious rooms with dressing and bath rooms
attached. A couple of horses may find stabling. The bungalow
is eight miles from Ootacamand, six of which are a fine carriage
road. A peon is in charge of the building. He can cook.
This bungalow has not yet been taken over by the Local Fund
Board, It is under the Commissioner, and the peon of the
Avalanche Bungalow is in charge. The usual fees are demanded.
The building consists of a dining-room, a bed-room, each 20 X
16, with a bath-room attached, 10 X 5. There are stables for
four horses.
This building was erected by the late Mr. Mclvor at the site
of his bund across the Purthe or Kunda stream when carrying out
the silting process in 1868-69. On the abandonment of the bund
the Local Fund Board did not take charge of the building, but it
is available for travellers. The bungalow is small.
This bungalow, which stands on the bank of the Paikare river,
was built by subscription by Mr. C. B. Thomas in January 1862.
It has a thatched roof, and the following accommodation : a dining-
room, two bed and two bath rooms, and stabling for four horses.
It is ten miles from Ootacamand, for seven of which there is a
cart road. There is crockery for six people. There is a servant
in charge who can cook. It is the halting place for visitors to
Mukarte Peak,
In accordance with the Local Fund Board's rules, travellers
occupying the abovenamed bungalows have to pay the following
charges : —
RS.
A.
p.
CHAP. II.
.. 1
.. 0
0
8
0
0
General
Description
.. 2
0
0
.. 1
0
0
.. 0
4
0
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIKT Dr STRICT, 23
For a single person, per day ...
Do. do. for part of a day
For a family, per day
Do. for part of a day
For a horse-stable — charges, per day
ChuUrums or Native Rest Houses. — There are sixteen chuttrums Chuttnms.
in the district ; of these twelve are under the Local Fund Board,
three under the Municipalities, and one is still retained by Govern-
ment. There are also one or two private chuttrums, the best
of which is on the new Coonoor Ghdt, about four miles from the
top of the Pass, built by a trader, Nanjappa Eow.
This chuttrum is situated near the fifth milestone on the road — Ellanhalli.
from Ootacamand to Coonoor. It is a large building, 50'x25',
and can accommodate about fifty travellers. It is much used,
especially by travellers posting relays. The space is undivided,
except on the left, which is divided off and forms a room.
This is a small building immediately behind the toll-gate at — Craigmore.
Craigmore. It measures 15' X 12'.
This is a small building on the old road from Coonoor to — Arvenkid.
Ootacamand, about four miles from the former station.
The building is 54' X 24'. It has a reserve space for those — Kdtagiri.
who bring goods for sale to the market, of 90' X 60', including
the ground occupied by the chuttrum. The interior is not divided
into compartments, and may accommodate about sixty people.
This chuttrum is about seven miles from Ootacamand, on the — Nanjandid.
road to the Avalanche Bungalow. It is 39' long by 37' wide,
and is in three compartments, each 10^' X 24', with a verandah
in front. It can accommodate about thirty people.
This is a building 53' X 25'. It contains two small rooms. — Paikare.
The main room can accommodate about thirty-three travellers.
It is ten miles from Ootacamand by the old and tw^elve miles by
the new road.
This chuttrum is of the same size as the one at Paikare. It is — Neduwat-
twenty -two miles from Ootacamand by the new road and seven-
teen by the old.
This chuttrum was built by the late Mr. Ouchterlony. It con Ouchter-
sists of a room 20' X 12', and may be able to accommodate ^"^^^ ^'
about ten people at a time. The cooly class use this chuttrum.
It is five miles from Ootacamand on the old road.
This chuttrum is about eleven miles down the ghdt by the new — Burliar.
and six miles by the old road. It is 45' X 2G', and is divided
into two compartments, 18' X 16'.
24
IIAXUAL OF THE XILAGIRI DISTRICT,
CHAP. II.
General
Description
— New
chuttrum.
— Segur.
— Ootaca-
mand Agi-a-
haram.
— Ootaca-
mand.
— Coonoor
(Market).
— Coonoor
(Coolj).
■Kalhatti.
This chuttrum is situated midway between Paikare and Nedu-
wattam. It is 28' x 18'. The main room is 28' x 10', and can
. accommodate about twenty travellers. It was erected in 1 869,
partly by aid afforded by planters. The servant in charge of the
Neduwattam Chuttrum looks after this chuttrum also.
The chuttrum is 40' X 12', and is situated not far from the
river. It is eleven miles and a half from Ootacamand by the
Segilr Ghat. It accommodates about twenty people. There are
two compartments, 18' X 9' each, and there is also a small
bungalow at the head of the Pass.
The outer measurements of the building are 58' X 37^'. It
consists of seven small enclosed compartments and two halls
or covered enclosures. It is the only caste chuttrum in the
district. It was originally built by one Subaon, who in 1856
made it over to Government on condition that they would maintain
an establishment, keep the building in repaii', and restrict its use
to Brahmans. The establishment and contingencies cost Govern-
ment Rupees 120 per annum.
This chuttrum is under the Municipal Commissioners of Oota-
camand. It is 66' X 75', and can comfortably accommodate
twenty or twenty-five travellers. People coming up to the weekly
market use it.
There are two chuttrums at Coonoor, both under the Munici-
pality. The Market Chuttrum is the larger. It consists of two
rooms 18' X 16', a small room 16' X 7', and a long verandah
51 ' X 7i '. The accessories are a cook-room, a stable and a latrine.
Respectable natives sometimes take shelter in this chuttrum;
about twelve people can be accommodated.
This structure adjoins the bridge. It is 47' x 15', without
partitions ; about thirty coolies find comfortable accommodation,
but the number usually occupying the building is much larger.
It was erected in 1871 by one Narrainsami, who was an extensive
landholder. His family are in possession of property extending
from Kalhatti almost to the head of the Pass.
The chuttrum is 47' X 26', and is capable of accommodating
about fifty people. It is divided into six compartments — three
each 11' X 11', one 17' X 6|', one 14' x 6|', and another
ir X 6i'.
The Government chuttrums in the district are, with the excep-
tion noted, in charge of the Local Fund Board. They were
made over to this body in 1871 on the introduction of the Local
Fund Act. A fee of Rs. 2-8-0 is paid to the servants in charge
of each building, and an assignment of two acres of land is also
allowed, but utilized only at the following chuttrums, viz., Nedu-
wattam, Paikare, Burliar, Kotagiri, and Ellanhalli.
MANUAL OF TUE NILAGIKI DISTRICT. 25
CHAPTER III.
POPULATION.
Early notices.— Captain Ward's Report. — Major Ouchterlony's.— Quinquennial.—
Census of 1871. — Distribution. — Houses. — Proportion of Sexes. — Increase in
number of Hill Tribes. — Incorrectness of Ketums.— Population of Villages. —
Of Nids. — JReligion. — Castes. — Occupations. — Education. — General remarks.
The earliest notice of the population of tlie Nilagiri Hills will CHAP. III.
be found in Keys^ and Macmahon's Survey Report, dated the pop^^ioN.
12th June 1812 ^ ''The population," they observe, "male and
female in the three nads^ amounts to 2,516 individuals, of which j^^^j^^g^
number 1,647 are Badagas, 292 Lingbund or Shevaacharas,
268 Thorayers, 179 Thothavurs and 130 Cothurs.'' They mention
also the number of villages as " 41 principal and 119 subordinate."
These figures were probably obtained from the Taluq OflBce at
Devanaikenkota, to which taluq the Nilagiris then appertained.
In 1821 Captain B. S. Ward^ appears to have made a more captain
detailed census. The results are as follows : — Ward's
Census.
^ Printed in the Appendices.
- Peranganad, Mekanid and Tddandd.
2 Printed in the Appendices.
26
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIEI DISTRICT.
CHAP. III.
Population.
} •suSuoij JO jaqnini^
1
00
1
i
i ?
•oi'Braoj
■<*<
•<T'
-t
05
CO o
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%
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fe
§
^
<
M
III
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O
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00
gs
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t*
s
^
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o
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g
s
11
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§
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05
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a
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o
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a
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S
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g
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g
S
OS
8
w
1
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§
O
t^
"♦.i
-- - -
IM
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t*
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a
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5!
S
§
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i
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OT
g
e5
if
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s
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1-1
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g
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s
IM
M
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-w
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•Buoaj JO -0^
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00
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S
^
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fe
^
g
S
-ss
^
n^
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(M
Si;
^
g
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^
t*
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1
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iH
IM
M
MANUAL OF THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT.
27
Twenty-six years later or in December 1817 Captain Ouchtcr- CHAP. III.
lony^ found the population to stand thus
—
No. of
Villages
oi'Mands
CO
i
Names of Tribes.
Adult.
Children.
Total.
a3
i
1
1
s
85
227
6
22
209
2,092
81
150
Tddas
Burghers
Kothers
Irulas
Grand Total ...
Hindoos
Mussulmans
Pariahs
East Indians
Europeans
86
2,017
93
148
70
1,997
92
151
87
1,269
64
77
94
1,316
58
85
337
6,599
307
461
340
2,532
2,344
2,310
1,497
1,553
7,704
3,045
901
4,941
154
342
•••
•••
Total Population of th(
jNilagiris ... 17,087
Population.
Captain
Ouchterlony's
Report.
In the year 1856, the number of the hill tribes, exclusive of Hill Tribes-
Irulas, was as follows ; but I have not been able to ascertain jo^^*^^^ ^°
the figures of the Hindu, European, Eurasian and Mussulman
population at this date.
Tddas
Kotas
Kurumbas
Total
Male.
6,574
185
238
72
7,C
Female.
Total.
6,778
131
246
79
7,234
13,352
316
484
151
14,333
In the year 1866-67, the total population had risen to 38,142 —In 1866-67.
souls, but this figure was too low owing to the omission, probably, Keport.^'^'^^'^
of the Tamil and European population ; as five years later, accord-
ing to the census of 1871, the numbers were 49,501, or 66*0 per
square mile. Since this date the Ouchterlony Valley, hitherto
appertaining to South-East Wainad, and still more recently the
greater part of the remaining portion of that section of the
Waindd Taluq, have been added to the district, containing in
1871 a total population of 37,347 souls, or 156-26 to the square
mile. Thus the total population, allowing for the natural
increase and immigration since the year 1871, may be roughly
estimated at little short of 100,000 souls, or about 100 persons
to the square mile.
Within the limits of the district as it stood in 1871, the Distribution
population is distributed as follows. These statistics are drawn tion.°^" ^'
mainly from Dr. Cornish's Census Report. For the portions
since annexed, I am unable to give information in detail.
* Then employed on the Topographical Survey of the Plateau.
28
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. III.
Population.
^
IM 00 >-H 05 1>
^
c3
"=i
aiO*><X) rH
"q
eo"
05 eo r-l
S
H
•saaq^O
IM
§^^ i :
^
•sniBf 2S> B!fsiqppna
oq Q0 1>Q0(N
lo
•EU'BicfStjqo
^
^„.x.
1
(M
OS M eo i-H 00
CO
•sm3p8raoqBj\[
-
t-
s^§s§
;^
^
»<N
^
o
^
i> O CD IM
Oi
3
S
•sai-Butg^j
CO
■*"i-H
Cvf
1
(M
E-i
5,26
1,65
1,04
45
11
•S8IBH
QO"
'^
«
eo
050 O CO
•eaiBina^
oT
^"
p
<i
<5
O
•sepH
<M-
eo'r-T
00
^
tp CO sq :
^
•qS-b jo sjudJS:
S
f^
§
01 -tspan siJiQ
O'
i-H
tC
■5
,ja
N
(M
o
•aSv JO 8.1-69^
■*
CO Tfl C^ r-l •
O
SX Japun siog
«o
oT
eo
S^gg-
eq
1
S
s
^
.
O
(N
eo
w
I
o
M
•pa^iq'BqnTOfi
: : : : : 1
aq
•pa^iq^qni
o
of
M
I
•^1 •
"S
.2
: a
fS
W
■g
-.III ■
:t3
II
pality ...
Coonoor Munic
Wellington Can
Lawrence Asyl
Lovedale Jail '
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT,
29
Tills population was dwelling in 13,922 houses, of which all CEAP. III.
save 1,914 were thatched. The average number of inmates was pop^^ioN.
low, viz., 3'6 : and excluding the cantonments it was S'l only.
The excess in the proportion of males over females is noteworthy, p^^^^^^^^^^j^^^ ^^
This is mainly due to the fact that native traders, servants, sexL. '
coolies, and other temporary residents on the Hills are not, to
any great extent, accompanied by their women. Among the
hill tribes the proportion, except in the case of the Todas and
Kurumbas, is fairly satisfactory, as appears from the following
table : —
1871-72.
Total.
Males. [Females.
1
Badagas
Tddas
Kdtas
Kiirumbaa
Irulaa
Total ...
9,775
405
534
330
746
9,701
288
578
283
724
19,476
693
1,112
613
1,470
11,790
11,574
23,364
After making every allowance for the incorrectness of the Increase in
earlier statistics, the increase in the number of some of the hill g^Jf^'ribes.
tribes is very satisfactory. There is no evidence in support of the
assertion that the Todas are gradually dying out. In the case of Incorrectness
the other wild tribes and the Kotas, the defectiveness of these early f^^^^^^
figures is manifest, but as regards the Badagas, the returns are
probably not so incorrect. The average annual percentage of
increase, howevei', in the periods noted below, after including the
as, shows the great inaccuracy of the early retm^ns : —
1812.
1821.
1847.
1856.
1866.
1871.
Badagas
Tddas
Kdtas
Kdrnmbas
Irnlas
2,207
179
130
3,778
222 1
317
27
6,569
337
307
461
13,352
316
484
151
17,778
704
802
505
102
19,476
693
1,112
613
1,470 2
Period.
Percentage of
Increase annually.
1812—21 ...
1821-47 ...
1847—56 ...
1856—66 ...
1866—71 ...
7-9
2-7
11-4
33
1-9
1 The census of 1825-26 gave 326 Tddas.
* The villages at the foot of the ghats have been included,
itatement.
See following
CHAP. III.
Population.
30
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
The low figures for the period ending 1847, as compared with
the preceding and succeeding percentages are, I conclude^ in a
measure due to Ouchterlony's numbers being rigorously restricted
to the plateau, whilst Ward's in 1821, and the returns in
1856, seem to include the lower slopes also. If the Badaga
population of 1812 is compared with that returned in 1847, the
annual average increase was 5* 6 per cent. only. More reliance
may be placed on the census of 1825, the results of which were as
follows. The small number of girls, however, is suspicious,
though, to some extent, early marriages may account for it.
i
Men
Women
Boys
Girls
Villages
Houses
Total
1,668
1,696
1,151
632
5,147
35
1.651
Village
Population.
The distribution of these tribes among the several villages ^
is as follows : —
2
1
1
Divisions.
m
c§
S
J
Total.
g
TS
Tj
s
^^
g
1
Arakid
41
160
201
2
Arandd
...
105
105
3
Budiiiattam
...
164
250
414
4
Kokdd
30
30
5
Mekandd
243
4,707
33
60
5
5,048
6
Malachippa
23
52
75
7
Peraiigandd
331
7,7i3
105
208
6
8,363
8
Sembanare
2
45
47
9
Sembanattam
1
72
73
10
Segiir
24
24
11
Tddandd
420
6,260
517
"e
334
7,537
12
Ariyiir
36
36
13
Kdndas
lis
776
15
909
14
Kaniapd,iii
139
139
15
Siral Kamb6
""4
...
99
103
16
VagapAni
...
"2
50
52
17
Velleru Kambe
...
55
98
153
18
Ootacamand Munici-
Pality
15
38
1
54
19
Coonoor Municipality.
Total ...
1
1
1,112
19,476
693
613
1,470
23,364
1 A village on the Nilagiris often embraces a number of hamlets, some of
•which may be as extensive as the parent village. The Perangandd and Mekandd
villages are co-terminous with the sub. divisions of these names.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRl DISTRICT.
31
If these villages be assigned to tlieir proper nads, the result CHAP. III.
stands thus :— Pop^ion.
Mekandd 5,048
Todanad (including Segiir Villages) ... 8,102
Peranganad ... 9,305
Kundandd 908
Total
23,364
The people are classed thus under religions, the hill tribes Eeligion.
being included under Hindus : —
Hindus 42,451
Mahamedans ... ... ... ... 1,936
Christians 5,070
Others 44
Among the Hindus Sivaism prevails, 37,264 being Sivaites,
3,504 only Vishnaites. There are 1,467 Lingaites, a sect of
Sivaites. The Badagas are mostly Sivaites. The Mussulmans,
who have more than doubled their number in the 25 years
preceding 1871, are chiefly Soonees, 1,589 out of the 1,936
belonging to this sect, or 81 '0 percent. They are distributed
amono- the following nationalities and tribes : —
Labbes
Sheiks
Syuds
Pattans
Moguls
Other Mahamedans
273
4
853
156
178
8
464
Total
1,936
Of this total number 787 only are females.
The Christians are classified thus : —
Roman
Catholics.
Protestants.
Total.
Europeans ...
209
1,130
1,339
Eurasians
128
668
796
Natives
... 2,437
498
2,935
Total
2,774
2,296 5,070
It is not to be forgotten that these numbers include the
Wellington Depot and the Lawrence Asylum. Among the
These Labbes are half-breds sprung from Arab fathers and native mothers.
32
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. III. Europeans and Eurasians, the Protestants have a large majority,
Pop^I^ioN. but no less than 83-0 per cent, of the Native Christians are
Castes.
Roman Catholics. ^
The castes are arranged as follows : —
«fH 0
0 s
O-w ,
-M^ .
c3 oj ^
°^a|
Castes.
S
Total.
lia
1 -i
i
<0
l^§
Ui
^
Eu
Ph
Brahmans (Priests)
107
89
196
83-2
•4
Kshatriyas (Warriors)
31
19
50
61-3
•1
Chatties (Traders)
362
110
472
30-4
1-0
Vellalas (Cultivators)
2,851
1,779
4,630
62-4
10-2
Idaiyas ( Shepherds)
421
350
771
831
1-7
Kammalas (Artisans)
270
220
490
81-5
1-1
Kannakkas (Writers)
65
49
114
75-4
■3
•5
Kaikkalas (Weavers)
148
84
232
56-8
Vannias (Laborers)
708
526
1,234
74-3
2-9
Kusavas (Potters)
20
3
23
150
•05
Satani (Mixed Castes)
1,077
882
1,959
81-9
4-3
Sembadavas (Fishermen)
36
24
60
66-7
•1
Shinis (Toddy.drawers)
16
16
■04
Ambattas (Barbers)
51
"""57
108
111-8
•2
Vunnas (Washermen)
107
87
194
81-3
•4
Others
12,695
11,914
24,609
93-9
54-2
Pareiyas
Total ...
5,705
4,523
10,228
79-3
22-5
24,670
20,716
45,386
83-9
1000
The Hill tribes are classed under " Others,'' the impression
being that they acknowledge no divisions other than tribal. This,
however, is not the case, so far as the Badagas are concerned, for
among them the following principal caste divisions are found : —
Badagas.
1. Wude^ru and Kongaru. ^
2. Haruvdru.
, . ( Lingadhikaris.
3. Adhikans |Meat-adhikaris.
4. Kanukaru.
5. Badakaru.
6. Thoi-iaru.
The male portion of the population pursue the following
pations, 40 per cent, being devoted to agriculture : —
occu-
1 The census being taken in November, gives a low average for the European
Christian population.
2 Mr. Metz divides the Wudeira and Kougavaru into two distinct classes.
See Chapter on " Ethnology."
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
33
Major headings.
Minor headings.
i
li
3 P-
!z;
Total.
III
-
Professional
(
Domestic
Commercial ... f
Agricultural
Government
Military
Learned Professions
Minor do.
Personal Service
Traders
Conveyors
Cultivators
78
578
56
482
1,186
964
1,422
6,963
•3
2-8
•2
1-8
3-5
30
2-2
25-6
964
824
608
6,963
CHAP. III.
PoPULATfON.
Occupations.
Those employed in Government service are mostly Europeans,
Vellalas and Pareiyas. The learned professions occupy 35
Europeans and Eurasians, 10 Pareiyas and 6 Mahamedans. As
might be supposed, the personal servants are chiefly Pareiyas. Of
the traders nearly 30 per cent, are Mussalmans, the rest Chetties,
Vellalas and Pareiyas. The conveyors are chiefly Vellalas and
Pareiyas. The cultivators are mainly Hill-men, Vellalas,
Vannias and Pareiyas. To these classes also mainly belong the
laborers.
The state of education on the Hills is very backward, especially Education.
among the hill-men. The following table exhibits the condition
of the population in this respect : —
•
Number able
to Read and
Write.
a
.2
t
a.
s
Hindus
Mahamedans
Europeans and Eurasians
Native Christians
Others
Total ...
42,451
1,936
2,135
2,935
44
1,555
298
1,500
631
6
37
15-4
70-3
21-5
13-6
49,501
3,990
81
The foregoing statistics represent the numbers and conditions General
of the population, permanent and temporary, found on the Hills remarks.
at the close of 1871. There can, however, be little doubt that as
already stated, it has considerably increased since then, especially
as regards the immigrant populations, Canarese and Tamil ; this
increase being due to the extension of coffee, tea, and cinchona
34
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. III. cultivation, and also to the numerous public works which have
Population ^^^n undertaken during the last five years, especially in Ootaca-
mand and Wellington; meanwhile, however, until the year 1877
no epidemic disease has to any considerable extent prevailed
among these people. The same causes have also tended to
improve the condition of the hill-people. In the early notices
the miserable condition of the Badaga villagers is more than once
referred to. The women are spoken of as lean and emaciated, the
children as having protuberant stomachs, thin and fleshless legs,
— the true signs of short and hard fare. The appearance their
women and children now present forms a striking contrast
to this description. Dr. Cornish, the Sanitary Commissioner,
remarks : " I have no doubt the native population is increasing,
and that the position of the Badaga has materially improved.
I notice especially the facts that they are now tiling their houses,
that their women and children earn money on the tea and coffee
estates, and that they buy rigi and grain from the low country,
and get a better market for their straw and cattle. They wear
jewels of gold and silver, saved from their earnings. Of course
1877 was a bad year for them, but, as a rule, according to my
observation of them, they have borne the famine pressure better
than the low-country people."
MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT. 35
CHAPTER IV.
CLIMATE, METEOROLOGY, AND HEALTH.
First notices of the climate. — Reports on the medical topography. — Climates.
— Thermometrical and barometrical observations. — Doddabetta Observatory.
— Wellington Observatory. — Meteorological tables. — Temperature compared.
— Winds. — Table of virinds. — Hurricanes. — Eifect of wind on barometer. — Rain-
fall.— Average fall.— Extremes. — Rain-gauge stations. — Hygrometrical observa-
tions.— Vital statistics. — Comparative tables. — Vaccination. — Results. — Special
reports, Ootacamand. — Wellington.
PART I.
The climate of these hills has been the subject of frequent CHAP. IV,
discussion from their first occupation by Europeans in 1819 up to PART i.
recent years. The discovery of a spot within the tropics possess- „ „
ing a climate with many of the advantages and but few of the —
disadvantages of the climates of those countries, within the ^5^.* ^'^^^^^^
temperate zones, with which Anglo-Indians of the day were
familiar, excited the keenest interest.^
" When you look over the register of the thermometer which
I now send you," writes a prophetic friend of the writer, whose
letter is published in the Madras Gazette, 17th June 1820, and
who had been three months on the plateau, " the wonderful
equality of the temperature in the shade throughout the month
must strike you as remarkable, the difference between the highest
and lowest degrees at 6 in the morning being only 7| , at 8 o'clock
5, at noon 7, and the same at 8 o'clock at night. This cool and
equal temperature ought to prove highly beneficial to invalids
suffering from the diseases or debility produced by a long resi-
dence in a hot climate. We have here none of those hot close
nights which allow no rest to the sick ; it is always agreeable to
sleep under a blanket ; and one awakes in the morning revived
and refreshed. You are aware that I came up here much debili-
i tated from the effects of a severe fever. I speak, therefore, from
I| * See letters in the Madras Co-nrier, 23rd February 1819, printed in the
* Appendix.
Letters in the Madras Gazette, 19th April and 17th June 1820, 14th March
' 1821, 15th June 1822, 20fch August and 22nd October 1825 ; also a series of
letters during 1825 and 1826 by " Philanthropes " in the Bengal Ildrkaru,
republished in the Madras Courier.
36 MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV, experience ; a week's residence here produced the greatest possible
PART I. change in my health and feelings^ and I have no doubt that the
Climate, &c. day will come when this will be esteemed the Montpellier of
India, and that people will resort to it from all quarters."
In another portion of his letter this correspondent remarks : " I
don't remember to have seen the glass lower than 56 degrees at
the coldest season, and in the coldest portion of the Isle of France.
If my memory is correct, it usually rose to 75 or 76 degrees during
the day. This was during the months of May, June, July, August,
and part of September ; during the remainder of the year the
weather is very much better. If this statement is correct, the
temperature of the air on the Nilagerry Mountains in the hot
season is about equal to the temperature of the Isle of France
in the cold. I have no means of knowing what the temperature
at the Cape is, but it is not much cooler, I imagine, than the
climate of the Isle of France, as the mountainous parts of the island
are much higher than any habitable lands at the Cape. The
mean temperature for the month of March (when the hot season
is over) is stated in a periodical publication to be 72 degrees. I
remember to have seen the glass at the Government House at the
Cape rise to above 100 degrees on Christmas-day, the hottest
season of the year." * * * '' Partictilars of the climate
of New South Wales are given in Wentworth's recent account of
that colony, but I think he states the thermometer to rise as high
as 85 degrees or 90 in the shade. In the summer months of
March, April, and May on the Nilagerries it got as high as 79.
* * * These facts are abundantly sufficient to prove the
very extraordinary coolness of the Nilagerry Mountains through-
out the year."
Reports on When this letter was written only fifteen or twenty travellers had
to^o™^a ^r^ visited the Hills, but the number of visitors rose rapidly, and still
more rapidly did the climate rise in popular estimation for cool-
ness and salubrity. But some of the doctors were diffident. The
main point at issue was whether or not the Hills would supply
suitable sanitaria firstly for the invalids of the Honorable Company's
European troops, and, secondly, as a residence for Civil and Military
officers not invalids. Report after report was called for. Finally
a complete digest of all information collected on the medical
topography and climate of the Hills was submitted to Government
by the Medical Board on the 13th March 1828, together with an
excellent paper on the meteorology, contributed by Surgeon
Dalmahoy, then stationed at Kotagiri.
Later, in 1832, a full report was submitted to the Court of
Directors respecting " the extent and permanence of the benefit
derived by European soldiers and public officers " from a resort to
these Hills. The officer from whom the Medical Board derived
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 37
most of tlie information furnished with their letter, 24th CHAP. IV,
December 1832, was Dr. Baikie, and the general results of his PART I.
intelligent and indefatigable labors will be found in the chapter climate^ &c.
of his book devoted to the climate of the Nilagiris.
They concurred in the opinion that there were " no grounds
for anticipating from such an establishment^ any results of much
importance, in a financial or political point of view, if indeed its
maintenance should not be attended with positive loss/' and,
further, that, while the medical reports generally represent the
climate in the most favorable point of view, "they tend to
show that it is not well adapted for the cure of those chronic
diseases attributable to a tropical climate which chiefly lead to
ineflBciency, and consequently to discharge from the service or
transfer to the invalid or pension establishments/'
The Board, however, passed over in silence Dr. Baikie's
scheme, to which reference is made in a later chapter, for the
location of fresh recruits and European regiments on the Hills —
a scheme which has already been partially carried into effect by
the establishment of the depot at Wellington, and which bids
fair to attain, as time goes on, a more complete development.
In addition to Dr. Baikie's book, already referred to, published
in 1833, and the report on the meteorology of the hills by
Mr. Dalmahoy, the most important papers on the subject of
the climate and meteorology subsequently given to the public
were — a report by Dr. Birch {Madras Journal of Literature and
Science, 1838, No. 20), a paper on the medical topography of
the Hills, published by Government, with similar reports on the
Ceded Districts and Coorg in 1844 ; a paper in the selections of
Government papers on " Our Marine and Hill Sanitaria "
published in 1860. In Major Ouchterlony's Survey Report
(1847) will also be found many valuable observations on the
subject and some important tables. The latter chiefly apply to
Kotagiri. A pamphlet was published by Mr. Pachman in 1850,
and another in 1870 by Dr. Mackay. Both of these contain
valuable information.
The climate, or rather climates, of the Nilagiri Hills — for that
of each hill and valley seems to vary according to its exposure
to the monsoons, its elevation, or other local causes^ — may be
generally described as for the greater part of the year dry,
bracing, and exhilarating, and more equable than those of
Europe ; the maximum range of the thermometer being only
* Invalid Depot.
^ This is curiously illustrated by the fact that whilst 31'45 inches of rain fell
It jat Coonoor in October and November 1875, only 1671 inches fell at Wellington
in the same months, though only two miles distant.
38 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV, from 8 to 9 degrees at Ootacamand, and from 12 to 15 degrees at
PART I. Wellington throughout the year, in the middle of the day, as
Cli™, &c. against 28 degrees in London.
^, , As already stated a vast amount of diligent inquiry has been
Thermomet- -^ /> i i rrn • x-u
rical and bestowed on the meteorology oi the plateau, ihe scientmc
barometrical ^^lue, however, of such observations is by no means commen-
observations. ' ' -,•,■,•, ,
surate with the labor bestowed thereon, as they were not
conducted on system, or carried on with identical or relatively-
adjusted instruments. To supply this defect in accordance with
the expressed wish of the Honorable Court of Directors, the
Madras Government, during the reign of the Marquis of
Tweeddale, allotted funds for the establishment of an Observatory.
Doddabetta The summit of Doddabetta^ was chosen as farthest removed from
Observatory, (jigt^rbing local conditions affecting the air currents and temper-
ature, &c., and in 1846 a plain binck-building was erected there.
Instruments were provided from England for the new institution,
which was placed under the general control of Mr. T. G. Taylor,
the H. C. Astronomer, Madras, with an Assistant or Writer, and
a Lascar on the spot. Observations were begun in 1847 and
continued till May 1859. The observations, however, were
published till 1855, but I have seen those for the first three years
only. A discussion on the results will be found in a paper by
Colonel Sykes, f.r.s., in the Philosophical Transactions of the
Eoyal Society, Part II, 1850. This experiment eventually
proved a failure from various causes. The thermometric obser-
vations are not to be relied on, but those of the atmospheric
pressure and rainfall, though not accurate, are, Mr. Pogson informs
me, less open to suspicion.
Wellington Some years after the closing of the Doddabetta Observatory,
Observatory, another was established at Wellington under G.O., 27th August
1866, and is in the charge of the Cantonment Surgeon.
Meteorologi- The following comparative tables exhibit the thermometrical
cal tables. ^^^ barometrical conditions of Ootacamand, Wellington, and
K6tagiri : —
* About 50 miles from the sea on the west and 240 on the east.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Thermomeirical Observations.
39
Ootacamand —
Kotagiri—
Wellington-
Mean
Mean
Mean
Months.
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
from Sun -rise
from Sun-rise
calculated on
to Sun-set,
to Sun-set,
the Years
1832.
1832.
1873-74-75.
January-
54-33
59 16
58-00
February
56-33
60-83
59-00
March
6000
61-33
63-46
April
61-66
62-66
64-46
Mayi
61-66
62-83
65-40
June
58-66
6400
64-50
July
57-00
65-00
64-33
August
57-00
65-33
64-50
September
56-66
6400
63-76
October
56-33
62-50
62-76
November
5500
60-66
59-30
December
Mean Average . . .
53-33
59-33
57-50
57-33
62-305
62-36
Barometrical Observations.
Mean Height
Mean Height
Mean Height
Months.
of Barometer,
of Barometer,
of Barometer,
Ootacamand,
Kotagiri,
Wellington,
1831-32.
1847-48.
1873-74.
March
23175
24-113
24-230
April
23-085
24-126
24-208
'May
22-983
...
24-203
{June
22-910
24-459
24-192
:Ju!y
22-861
24-027
24-179
(August
22-820
22-834
24-178
' September
22-785
23-894
24-214
' October
23-056
24-112
24-185
November
23 070
24-138
24-188
December
23-174
24-890
24-252
January
23-375
24-152
24-276
February
Mean Average . . .
23-364
24-337
24-257
23055
24-098
24-213
CHAP. IV,
PART I.
Climate, &c.
The mean temperature of the hill 'stations stands thus as com- Temperature,
paved with that of Great Britain and the Presidency capitals. ^^- compared.
London
50-0
Ootacamand
57-0
Wellington ...
62-0
Kotagiri
62-0
Coonoor
64-0
Calcutta
78-0
Bombay
81-0
Madras
85-0
' The temperatm-e of this month in Ootacamand veas fii-st registered in 1822 :
mean 62, ma.ximum 72, minimum 52, range 20,
40
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV, The following comparative statement of temperature, rainfall,
PART I. and elevation of several of the more important hill sanitaria in
Clij^, &c. Iiidia may be found useful :—
"seqoai
ni mnunY J3d
niTJJI JO ll'B^J 9SBJ9AY
pauiB^jaosy
•J8quiao9Q
•jaqataAo^
•jaqo^oQ
•jaqma^dag
•fjsnSny
•£\n£
•annj*
•i^H
•ludy
•qojBJi
•^JBiuqa^j
•^aBnuBf
QOO'^OOi-tOOr-iOOOCOOifl
OO30Oo«5O^CCOCCOOOOrH
oo" tad ^ ^o ?o" *> «D us" »ft x> »o eo ■*'" ■^" OQ •*''
a —
o
K5 t> N «D 1-1 «0 (M eO lO i;0 1-H «C r-l pQ 05
O tp to CD CD U5 CO «J 50 CD 1> CO l> j^ CD
St-«0i>CDCDCDJ>t-*03.«01>C0CD -'^CD
SoOCDt>«DtbCDCDCO CD1>CDI> >^l>
t>l>.t^t>
5§S
:CDCD«0CDCDCDC01>Xl>i>^l>
SS
;gg85^SSggSJ:|§
:^^
s
§^
i^^SSSSSJggSS S
fe -^ g c
J? g fa ^ -5 J i§ ==
S g
PM
^ m r^ Co O
S3
O 00
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DTSTRICT.
41
The Nilagirisj from their geographical position, come within
the full influence of the south-west monsoon as far as the western
and upland tracts are concerned. The other portions are greatly
protected by the Doddabetta range and its spurs, which form the
dividing wind and water line between the south-west and north-
east monsoons. On the other hand those portions wliich are
sheltered from the south-west receive the full burst of the north-
east monsoon. The former sets in at Ootacamand about the
middle of June, the latter towards the end of October.
During the south-west monsoon the wind usually blows from
the west and north-west, gradually trending more and more
towards the north and east until October. From the end of this
month until the beginning of April the winds blow fairly con-
stantly from the east, working round to the west, as the sun
travels towards the north. The direction of winds, however, on
the plateau is far less constant than might be expected consider-
ing the great comparative height and almost insular position of
the Nilagiri Mountain range. This variability, apart from local
disturbing causes, such as hill, gorge, and valley present, is due
probably to the fact that it is rather a headland than an island
from which the Western and Eastern Ghdts recede in a northerly
and easterly direction respectively.
The air cuiTents meeting these ranges receive an impulse,
turning them southwards. This seems to account for the remark-
able phenomenon that for the greater portion of the year the winds
blow, more or less, constantly and directly from the north.
The following table illustrates this : —
CHAP. IV,
PART I.
Climate, &c.
Winds.
Winds at Doddabetta.
1847.
February-
March
Api-il
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
1848.
Year ..
Total
North.
North-
South-
South.
west.
east.
west.
east.
Days.
Days.
Days.
Days.
5
6
17
4
25
2
7
18
3
2
3
18
8
2
4
26
18
13
27
3
1
21
4
5
9
10
12
5
15
7
3
6
17
8
2
13
16
111
129
62
63
*■ »
. J
J
2A
0
1
25
Table of
\Yiii(ia.
42
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV,
PART I.
Climate, &c
Col. Sykea'
remarks.
llurricaues.
Effect of
wind on
barometer.
Col. Sjkes'
remai'ks.
Raiufall.
Colonel Sykes remarks : —
" The winds of the south-west monsoon, however, terminate in July
instead of October. This is the more remarkable, as Doddabetta lies
between Madras, where these winds are the prevailing winds of May,
June, July, August, and September, and Bombay, where the same
winds prevail in the same months. It is probable, therefore, that
Doddabetta is situated just above the upper surface of the stratum
of wind and aqueous vapour which supplies the south-west monsoon to
Western India, and therefore has comparatively a small supply of rain
from this source. But it is not situated (although on the Western
Coast) above the stratum of wind and aqueous vapour which supplies
the Coromandel Coast during the north-east monsoon, as it has the
same prevailing winds between the north and east points in the same
months as at Madras from October to February, when the north-east
ceases at Madras, but continues at Doddabetta until late in ]\Iay.
The prevalence of winds from points between north and west in the
months of July, August, and September is peculiar to Doddabetta :
neither Mahableshwur, at 4,500 feet, nor Madras, Bombay, nor Calcutta,
has similar indications. However, as this so-denominated north-west
wind very frequently blows from only one or two points to the north-
ward of west, the wind may belong to the monsoon of the Western
India, local physical circumstances having given it a slant."
Hurricanes are of rare occurrence, and the storms^ accom-
panied with great electric disturbance which usher in the
monsoons, generally take their course along the crests of the
range.
The slight effect of the pressure of the wind on the barometer
on the plateau is noteworthy. Colonel Sykes observes : —
" It is usually understood that very high winds materially depress
the barometer, but the records at Doddabetta do not support this view.
On the 17th and 18th of April 1847 the Avind blew with a mean
pressure of 21 lbs. and 14 lbs. respectively upon the square foot ; but
the barometers only fell from 21-955 on the 16th to 21-917 on the
17th, and rose to 21-984 on the 18th; and there was a maximum
pressure from the wind on the 17th at one time of 35 lbs. 26th of May,
maximum wind 28-5 lbs., barometer not affected more than 0-010 inch ;
J 2th of June 30 lbs. ; 26th June 32 lbs- ; 10th of September 35 lbs- ; and
14th of October 22 lbs- ; but these pressures of the wind had little or
no effect upon the barometer." '
The register of the rainfall from the several stations of
the Hills was recorded but irregularly, and mainly by private
individuals until within the last few years. The most trustworthy
returns kept until quite recently are probably those taken by
Drs. Baikio and lioss and Major Ouchterlony.
' F/iil Transaciions, Foijal Socid'j. Part II, 1850.
MANUAL OF THE XILAOIRT DISTRICT.
43
The following facts will be of interest : —
Average liainfall, Ootacaiuaiid.
1829 to 1836 inclusive
1851 to 1860 do.
1869 to 1875 do.
Inches.
47-78
52-38
46-00
CHAP. IV,
PART I.
Climate, &c.
The highest rainfall that I have found on record is 63*18 in Average fall.
1858-59, the lowest 33-84 in 1832. However, 35-50 inches Extremes.
only fell in 1869-70, and 34-65—35-76 inches in 1875-76 and
1876-77 respectively. 1
The localities where the rain gauges are now kept are Rain-gauge
Ootacamand, Wellington, Coonoor, Melkunda, Kaity, Kodanad, stations.
and Neduwattam. The average fall at each of these points for
each month of the year for the quinquennium ending 1874-75
will be found in Appendix No. 5 compared with the fall in
1875-76 and 1876-77, the years ending 31st July. If the rainfall
in the western Kundas were included, the average would be
considerably raised.
The following table exhibits the results : —
Average Eat nf all.
Stations.
Period.
Period.
1870-71-1874-75.
1875-76-1876-77.
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Wellington
Melktinda
Kaity
Kodandd
Neduwattam
48-10
68-12
51-47
56-28
50-95
61-69
113-61
35-20
58-25
40-09
40-08
39-12
41-69
101-51
Average ...
64-31
50-85
With regard to the hygrometric state of the air on the Hills, ^[S)°s'^rvi"
Dr. Baikie observes : — tions.
" The air during the months of January, February, and March is Dr.Baikie'a
intensely dry, the points of saturation (or temperature to wliicb the air
must be reduced to deposit any part of its moisture) being occasionally
as low as 13 degrees, the temperature of the air being 60 degrees. In
remarks.
^ Mr. Broughton has recorded some observations as to the amount of organic
matter in the rainfall during the north-east and south-west monsoons which are
especially important from a health point of view. He found marked differences
of organic impurity in rain falling during the south-west monsoon from that in
storms from the land side. The south-west raius were nearly absolutely free of
organic matter, while rain from the north-east or north-west was charged
with organic impurity. The rain washes the air and brings down impurities, and
the difference in the healthiness of south-west and north-east wind seasons is in
part accounted for by the purity of the air iu one case and its coutaminatiou by
terrestrial exhalations in the other.
44
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV,
PART I.
Climate, &c
April it begins to fluctuate, and in May tlie quantity of moisture
iucreases vei'y perceptibly, being accompanied by rapid changes of the
electrical condition of the atmosphere, indicated by thunder-storms
and heavy showers, but of short duration. During June, July, and
August it is nearly charged with moisture ; in September it is again
fluctuating ; in October and November moist ; and in December it
begins to reassume its dry state."
•' The following table," he adds, " presents the actual state of
the weather in Ootacamand for 366 days, from 1st March 1831
to 29th February 1832, which, from all I can learn, maybe
considered an average season'' : —
Number of days of heavy rain
Do. occasional showers with fair intervals.
Do. cloudy
Do. clear and fine
19
81
28
238
366
Vital
statistics.
Comparative
table.
Vacciuatlon.
A separate register of the births and deaths was begun in
]869. In the Appendix Table No. 13 appear the results since the
year 1870-71. The statistics for the rural tracts are, as the
figures themselves seem to indicate, of comparatively little
value. Those of the Municipal towns are more trustworthy,
especially as regards deaths, but even here the registration
of the deaths of children is probably very defectively carried out.
The following comparative statement of deaths of all ages will
be of use : —
Infants.
Adoles-
cents.
Adults.
Old
People.
Total.
Total.
m
?;
1 °5
i
§
OQ
-S
s
c3
o 1
?.
g 1
1
1
1
a
1 1
^
1 1
1874
85
57
127
118 232
138
94
66 538
379
917
1875
88
68
139
no! 234
156
83
48 544
382
926
1876
92
75
146
146 342
246
118
109 698
576
1,2741
In Appendix No. 14 information will be found of the deaths
among Europeans and Eurasians in 1874-75.
Vaccination has been unusually successful in the Hills, as the
statistics of deaths from small-pox will show. In the year 1869
the deaths are reported as 109 ; in the seven subsequent years
they amounted to only 76, of w^hich 33 w^ere in 1873— an annual
average of 10*85.
The following table exhibits the operations of the Vaccinators
for the five years ending 1875-76. The establishment consists
Exclusive of 13 born dead.
MANUAL OF THE NlLArtlRI DISTRICT,
45
of four Vaccinators, two working under the Local Fund Board CHAP, iv,
in the rural villages, and one in each of the Municipalities, all PART I.
being under the general supervision of the Medical Officers of climate &o,
Ootacamand and Coonoor : —
Years.
Total No.
vaccinated.
Successful.
Unsuccess-
ful.
Unknown.
1871-72
1872-73
1873-74
1874-75
1875-76
Total ...
1,198
1,468
2,378
1,899
1,746
1,060
1,346
2,376
1,755
1,609
62
44
58
61
67
76
78
144
83
70
8,889
8,146
292
451
In the foregoing paragraphs I have endeavoured to exhibit Concluding
briefly the principal facts in connection with the meteorology and J^emaiks.
health of the district. Considering, however, the vast importance
of these subjects in relation to hill sanitaria, I append two papers,
furnishing detailed information regarding Ootacamand and
Wellington, contributed by the Medical Officers of those stations,
Surgeons-Major Whitton and Corbett respectively. From these
papers I have omitted certain portions supplying information
which is furnished elsewhere, or which seemed otherwise unsuited
for a work of this description.
46 MANUAL OF THE NlLAGIRI DISTRICT.
PART II.
THE PHYSICAL AND MEDICAL CLIMATE AND TOPOGRAPHY OF
OOTACAMAND AND THE SURROUNDING PLATEAU OF THE NILA-
GIRIS, TOGETHER WITH REMARKS ON PERSONAL HYGIENE,
FOR THE USE OF VISITORS, INVALIDS, &c.
{By Surgeon-Major Whitton, m.b., b.a., Cicil Surgeon, Ootacama^id.)
Physical topography. — Elevation. — Climate. — Health. — Rainfall. — Temperatm-e.
— Hygienic rules. — Diseases peculiar to residents and new-comers. — Lawrence
Asylums. — Climates of Coonoor and Kotagiri.
CHAP. IV, Amongst the combined circumstances wliicli influence and produce
PART II. the climate peculiar to the Nilagiri plateau may be mentioned —
Physical AND j Local elevation.
Medical
Climate, &c. 2. Geographical position.
3. The geological structure of the soil, its vegetation,
Causes of t n j •
physical and configumtion.
climate of
Ootacamand. ^g ^[j. receives its warmth from the earth, its temperature must
Effects diminish as the elevation increases ; moreover, warm air, as it
oi local . •(•11
elevation. ascends, expands, its capacity for heat becoming greater ; much
of its heat therefore becomes latent, and sensible heat, as shown
by the thermometer, is diminished. Another effect of elevation is
the increase of the power of the sun's rays, a result which is,
however, here greatly modified by strong winds, clouds and mist,
or by the abundant moisture exhaled from the vegetation which
covers the surface of the soil.
Effects of The Nilagiris, being situated but a short distance, some fifty
^^"^^••f^phical jjjiigg^ from the Indian Ocean, are exposed to the full force of the
south-west monsoon, more especially the higher and western
portions of the range. The great height of the Nilagiri also
brings it in a marked degree under the influence of the north-
east monsoon, especially towards the north and east. These
monsoons, especially the south-west, exercise a most beneficial
influence on the climate ; for instance, during the months
of June, July, and August, the sun is vertical, and would
prove injurious in its efi'ects on animal and vegetable life were
it not that the clouds and mist, which are the usual concomitant
Note. — General description has been omitted, as it repeats matter already
given; also other matter which seemed unsuitable to a paper for a manual.— Ed.
position.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT. 47
of the monsoon during these months, moderate the power of its CHAP. IV,
rays, and reduce the radiation from the ground. The strong PART II.
gales which accompany the monsoons thoroughly ventilate the physical and
surface and remove effluvia, whilst the condensation of their Medical
aqueous vapour induces the frequent heavy showers, by which ^"^^^^^' ^'
means everything which floats in the atmosphere and is not
essential to its constitution is carried to the earth. The south-
west monsoon, being a pure sea-breeze, is remarkably healthy
and refreshing. The north-east monsoon, on the contrary, after
it has parted with its moisture, becomes cold and dry, and conse-
quently less wholesome. Moreover it brings with it air which has
lain stagnant on the plains of India during some previous months.
The geological nature of the soil and its vegetation also exert a Effects
marked influence on the configuration and climate of these Hills. Ji^^^'^^lo ^^
Were the granitic 1 basement rocks of the Nilagiris unprotected nature of the
from the denuding eff'ects of meteorological forces, they would gJ'raTa^amJ
doubtless have assumed the rugged physical characters and vegetation.
contour which are found to be identical in mountain masses of a
similar kind in other parts of the globe ; but, owing to the protec-
tion aff'orded by local peculiarities of vegetation and surface soil,
they rather resemble, in their rounded forms and elevated table-
land, with abrupt declivities, the general appearance of moun-
tains composed of calcareous rocks.
The valleys between the Hills are usually damp and marshy, Valleys.
and in these situations, owing to an accumulation of soil washed
down from the hills above, particularly when forests have aided
in retaining and enriching the soil, very fertile spots are to be
found. Many forests in these situations have been felled for
cultivation. This may in part account for the comparative
absence of forest in the cultivable parts of the plateau in the
present day. Peat swamps, so useful for the supply of fuel, are
often found at the lower part of these valleys.
Springs are to be found in almost every hill-side. Occasionally Springs, &c.
the water from these springs contains iron in minute quantities.
Many of these springs are perennial, whilst others cease to flow
towards the end of the dry season. Being fed by the rain which
has percolated through the primitive rocks, of which the hills are
composed, they are, as is usual with waters derived from a similar
source, of the most wholesome quality. At Ootacamand a great
number of small rivulets, derived from springs on the Doddabetta
range, converge, forming a stream which passes through the
lowest part of the valley.
See chapter on Geology. There is no granite on the Hills. The rocks referred
to are gneissose. — Ed
48 MANUAL or THE NlLAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV, The principal station, Ootacamand, is about 7,400 feet above
PART II. the level of the sea. It is situated in the centre of the Nilagiri
Physical and range, and from its elevation it is the coldest of the stations. It
Medical ^g located in an extensive valley, which permits of the free course
' ■ of the winds, and which is suflficiently inclined to allow of good
Station of natural drainage from every part of it. It is enclosed on all sides
Ootacaman . ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^^ range of hills. In the west centre of
the station an artificial lake has been formed. Its western posi-
tion and its unsheltered western aspect expose it more than
either Coonoor or Kotagiri to the force of the south-west mon-
soon, which is broken only by the Kundas, situated about 15
miles off.
Sanitary The Sanitary condition of Ootacamand is defective. It has now
of'theitotion ^een occupied for fifty-five years, during the last twenty-five years
" of which successive Medical Ofiicers have not failed to point out
dangers from the neglect of sanitation. For several years past the
Municipal Commission, established in 1 868, has been doing much
towards checking the evils resulting from previous neglect, but
the funds at their disposal have not been sufficient to carry out
sanitary works of any magnitude, such as a drainage system, or
adequate water-supply. It says much for the natural salubrity
of the station that it has so long remained comparatively free from
serious endemic disease, but the experience of the famine year
shows that a similar immunity cannot be calculated upon for the
future. For years past the occurrence of occasional cases of
typhoid fever of local origin point to the likelihood of further
serious results from neglect of sanitary laws.
Water-supply The chief water-supplies of Ootacamand are brought by open
of Ootaca- channels from tolerably pure sources situated at a considerable
distance from the centre of the station, but it is obvious that water
conveyed through a town by this means must be liable to pollution
in a variety of ways. It should therefore be invariably boiled and
filtered before use, but it would be better if water for drinking
purposes were pi'ocured from some of the numerous spinugs.
The water of the lake at Ootacamand is not likely to be used fur
domestic purposes by Europeans, but it is well to repeat that,
being the receptacle for all the natural and artificial drainage of
the station of Ootacamand, including the native bazaar, its water
must be polluted in no ordinary degree.
Climate. The climate of Ootacamand for the greater portion of the year
is decidedly salubrious. The air is pure and bracing, and has
a sensible effect in exhilarating the spirits and increasing the
disposition to exercise. Inconvenience is seldom experienced
under great or unusual exertion, and languor or lassitude arc
never felt as in the sultry plains of India.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
49
The prevailing- winds are those of the north-east and south- CHAP. IV,
west monsoons. The following table, showing the direction of PAliT II.
the wind, has been compiled from the meteorological observations physical and
made in the years 1848, 18i9, and 1850 :— Mkdical
Climate, &c.
^ g
=^^K
1848.
1849.
1850.
'M
ii^
Months.
iu
m
Direction
of the
Wind.
* 1
*
#
Wind. Rain.
Wind.
Rain.
Wind.
Rain.
Wind
Rain.
.lanuary ...
79
0-00
86
1-77
67
1-66
76
1-47
E. by N.
February...
79
000
56
0-00
116
2-62
84
0-87
E. by N.
March ...
79
0-55
88
215
79
0-69
82
113
E. by N.
April
68
409
56
7-72
65
5-52
63
5-77
E. N. E.
May
30
6-40
55
605
40
6-48
42
6-33
N. E.
June
281
5-6fi
270
8-45
281
6-70
278
6-70
W. by N.
July
292
13-06
303
10-59
281
11-44
292
L3-69
W. N. W.
August . . .
30J-
8-63
312
9-51
256
19-31
291
12-48
W. N. W.
September.
337
1405
299
12-26
330
9-42
322
11-91
N.W. by N.
October ...
340
4-36
4
15-37
143
13-84
48
11-19
N. N. E.
November.
40
8-48
79
6-50
67 1006
62
8-34
N. E.by E.
December.
Total ...
59
2-59
81
1-87
114 j 4-91
85
3-12
E.
65-53
82-24
... 92-65
80-14
Prevailing
winds and
rainfall
as recorded
in the summit
of Dodda-
betta.
* Mean of hourly observations for the month.
The figures under wind, representing the direction of the wind,
are reckoned from north towards the east on to 360 degrees,
which again represents the north.
From a perusal of the above table, it will be apparent that. Remarks on
notwithstandincr the elevation of Doddabetta, it is still situated the above
^ -11 tables,
within the stratum of wind and aqueous moisture brought by
both monsoons; but the comparatively small quantity of rain
which it receives annually would, however, seem to show that it
is not situated far below the upper surface of the current of
aqueous moisture. A peculiarity in the direction of the wind, not
observed in other parts of India during the prevalence of the
south-west monsoon, may be seen in the above table. Instead of
being from the south-west it is almost invariably from points
between the west and north. This very curious phenomenon is
doubtless due to some local physical circumstance, in all
probability the Kiinda hills, which impart a slant to the wind.^
The rainfall received upon the plateau is considerably less than Rainfall at
at Doddabetta. Outacamand.
See remarks in Part I. — Ed.
50
MANUAL OF THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV,
Ootacamand.
Coono
[>r.
PART II.
Average Number of Days
0^
■ ni
Pi >
on which Rain fell for
Physical and
MeDICAI)
'S ■*
K
five Years.
Clfmatk, &c.
<
Total.
Total.
Ootacamand.
Coonoor.
f October...
806
10-83
17-6
170
1 ^ 1 November.
_|8 J December.
-e S i| January...
5-52
16-76
11-0
16-0
1-16
5-37
3-4
6-4
001
0-52
0-2
1-4
^a 1 February.
0-73
4-28
1-8
2-8
l^March ...
102
16-50
1-23
38-99
2-8
36-80
2-2
45-8
ii f April ...
2-65
4-44
86-0
80
IllM^ay ...
6-71
9-36
6-22
10-66
13-0
21-6
9-4
17-4
M jj / June
5-73
3-34
15-6
9-6
^§ July
5-22
3-07
180
11-2
5 g 1 August . . .
4-04
3-30
15-0
10-4
1 a I September.
Annual Mean ...
5-55
20-54
5-92
15-63
14-4
63-0
12-8
44-0
46-40
65-28
121-4
107-2
Temperature
at Ootaca-
mand.
The above table has been prepared from the daily records of
the rainfall for five years from July 1871 to July 1876 inclusive.
The mean annual rainfall at Ootacamand for the last five years
has been 46*40, and the average number of days on which rain
fell during each of these years was 121*4.
Dr. Baikie gives 47*78 inches as annual mean rainfall at
Ootacamand for seven years from the 1st June 1829 to the 31st
May 1836, or only 1*38 inches more than the mean annual fall
recorded during the past five years. This shows that the
seasons, after an interval of forty years, have altered but little in
regard to the amount of rainfall.
According to the thermometric observations made by
Dr. Baikie, the mean maximum temperature for the years
1831, 1832, and 1833 was 67*16, and the mean minimum for the
same period was 48*05, giving a mean temperature of 57"60.
According to Mr. Ross, whose observations refer to the years
1853, 1854, 1855, and 1856, the mean maximum is 61*87 and the
mean minimum is 47*36, the mean temperature being 54-61. If
the mean between these results be taken as 56*10, we shall
probably have the correct mean temperature. There are some
later observations, but they bear unmistakable traces of error
arising from the unsuitable position in which the thermometers
were ])laced.
In the absence of later trustworthy observations, the following
extracts from remarks by Professor Oldham on the observations
recorded by Dr. Baikie and Mr, Ross will be of interest as
proving the equability and temperate nature of the climate : —
MANUAL OF THE NtLAGIRI DISTRICT. 51
" The range of the temperature of the air during the hottest hours CHAP. IV,
of the day, or at its maximum, throughout the whole year, appeal's PART II.
to he not quite nine degrees ; at the coldest hours of the night, or at _
the minimum, only 9"15 degrees; that is, the hottest hours of Medical
the day, whether in summer or in the depth of winter, do not vary Climate, &c.
more than nine degrees. The extreme variation from the hottest '
day temperature to the coldest night temperature during the
whole year (average of seven years) was only 2r25. The extreme
average range between day and night temperature was about the
same as the extreme annual range, or 21*15. The mean daily range for
the whole year (from seven years' observations) was 16'17 degrees."
In further illustration of the temperate nature of the climate^ Temperate
it may be mentioned that English vegetables (potatoes, beans, ^^^^1^'^^'^^°^*^®
cabbage, cauliflower, beet, carrots, turnips, cellery, and lettuce,) proved by its
grow almost as well as in England : that English garden flowers botamcal
o . r , productions,
are here produced in profusion almost all the year round ; and
that the indigenous botanical productions resemble chiefly those
of a temperate climate. A late writer on medical topography
states with justice that " the character of a climate is much more "^
faithfully indicated by such a natural test as its influence on
vegetable products than by any instrumental or artificial means
whatever."
The north-east monsoon usually begins about the middle of Nortli-faat
October. In the early part of October the direction of the ''^°'''°°''*
wind is variable from the north and north-west, but, as the
monsoon sets in, the wind blows from the north-east. It is
ushered in with about three weeks of rain, after which the
atmosphere clears up and the cold weather sets in. This
usually lasts from the beginning of December until the end of
February.
During the cold season the sky is remarkably clear, and the Cold seison.
force of the sun is very great- The nights are, on the contrary,
cold and frosty. Sometimes in the morning the valleys and
hollows of hills, owing to radiation and evaporation, are covered
with hoar-frost. This deposition, however, does not indicate a
similar general decrease of temperature, for, although the ther-
mometer falls to 20" F. or even lower when placed in contact
with the ground in valleys and sheltered but open situations, it
seldom ranges lower than 38" or 40° F. when exposed to the
breeze at an elevation of a few feet from the ground. Owing to
the frost and the exceeding dryness of the air at this season of
the year, all the more delicate plants, garden vegetables, and
the grasses wither, leaving a mass of decayed vegetable matter
on the surface of the ground.
From the beginning of the year and until the end of April,
north-easterly winds prevail. These prove most trying to the
invalid. From April until June the winds are variable, some-
52 MANUAL OF THE NiLAGTRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV, times shifting to tlie north, south, or east. Their mean direction,
PART II. however, is from a point about north-east.
Phys'ical and The months of April and May are the hottest in the year.
Medical The thermometer in the higher station of Ootacamand, however,
Climatk, &c. ggij^Qj^ ranges about 70° F. in the shade, although, when exposed
Hot season, to the direct rays of the sun, it will sometitnes rise to 120'' or
even more. From the time that the heavy rains set in in the
early part of June, there is a marked improvement in the public
health.
Sonth-west i^ the early part of June the wind sets in steadily from the
monsoon. ^gg^^ qj. ^est by north, and, soon becoming intensified, is accom-
panied with electrical disturbances and heavy showers.
For some days before the setting in of this monsoon heavy
banks of clouds are to be observed in the direction of the
KiAndas, and on these is expended its first violence.
During the south-west monsoon, which usually prevails until
the early pai't of October, much rain falls, and the air is
generally saturated with moisture. The hills become quickly
covered with luxuriant grasses and the forest trees put forth
their fresh leaves. During the months of August and September
breaks, as they are called, occur. The mists clear off, and the
sun shines forth for several days successively. The scenery,
usually beautiful, is now surpassingly so, the undulating ground
of the whole plateau being clothed with verdure of peculiar
richness. This season is usually considered to be the most
salubrious period of the year, and Europeans who have resided
for any length of time upon the Hills, and judge of the climate
by experience, invariably prefer the rainy season to any other.
Effects of The effects of the climate on the prevalence of diseases during
climate on the (J- gg^,gj^l^ seasons of the year are more or less remarkable,
disease."^*^^ ° During the early months, from December until April, affections
of the respiratory organs, including catarrhs and whooping-
couo-h, are very prevalent. Neuralgia and affections of the throat
are also very common. During the months of March, April, and
May diarrhoea, derangements of the hepatic functions, and
sometimes fevers of an intermittent character are met with.
These latter months may be considered the most unhealthy part
of the year. The occasional showers which fall during these
months, owing to their washing off surface impurities and
replenishing the springs, are often looked forward to with anxiety
as harbingers of an improved state of the public health. It may
be remarked that at this season visitors with their followers
ai'rive in great numbers, and some of the apparent unhealthiness
is due to sickness induced by a sudden transition from the plains.
Hygienic Most illnesses which the medical man is called upon to treat at
"ui.Hnce'o/ Ootacamand are due to individual imprudence. How important
visitors. theu is it that the visitor in quest of health or relaxation should
MANUAL OF THE NiLAGIRI DISTIITCT. 53
be possessed of such a knowledge of hygiene, or preventive CHAP. IV,
medicine, as will enable him to preserve intact that measure of PART II.
health with which he may be endowed. If this be true with regard physical and
to the healthy and the strong, of how much more importance is Medical
it that the invalid should not only be acquainted with rules for ^'""^''''' ^'
his guidance,, but be prepared to act up to them ? The following
notes on preventive medicine as applicable to visitors to this
sanitarium may therefore prove useful to those who may be
unacquainted with the peculiarities of this hill climate.
The ascent to Ootacamand being usually made in from five to
ten hours, according to the mode of conveyance, the visitor finds
himself suddenly transported from a climate with a temperature
of 85° F. or more to one whose mean temperature reaches only
56° F. To be unprepared to meet this sudden change is merely
to invite disease or such a derangement of the principal functions
as will incapacitate the traveller from deriving benefit or pleasure
from his visit. Wai'm clothing should therefore be used as soon
as a change of temperature is sensibly felt, and in the case of
young children their flannel under-clothing had better be put on
before the journey up the ghat is commenced. In case any
portion of the journey up the ghats be made during the day-time,
it will be necessary to guard against the action of the sun's rays,
which are here, owing to the stillness of the atmosphere, often
very powerful. As several tempting streams pass the ghat road,
the possibility of fever resulting from their use should generally
be known. It is better thei^efore to come provided with a few
bottles of sodawater or cold tea. Those who are in a weakly
state, but whose destination is Ootacamand, should halt a few
hours for rest and refreshment at Coonoor.
On arrival at Ootacamand it will be well to see that bedding
is suitable and sufficient and that the sheets are well aired. It
is necessary to point out this latter as an occasional cause of
illness, for, from the difficulty experienced in drying linen, &c.
during wet weather, clothes are often found to be quite damp on
being brought from the wash. The windows of the sleeping
apartments should be always kept closed at nights. Some people
keep them open, thinking that, as they have done so even in
England, they can do so here with impunity, but the cases are
different, for here, in addition to cold and damp, we have occa-
sionally malaria. Unoccupied houses are often damp and close ;
fires lighted for a day or two previous to occupancy will help to
remove these defects.
The cold moist state of the atmosphere during tbe monsoons does Precautions
not appear to be prejudicial to the European residents or invalids '° '^■j'^P
when sufficient attention is paid to the judicious adaptation of ^'^^
clothing to the state of the weather. In consequence of the
54
MANUAL OF TUE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV,
PART II.
Physicai, and
Medical
Climate, &c.
First
transitory
effects of
climate.
Dangers of
undue
exposure.
Early rising
nndeairable.
BatLing.
damp, well-made boots and woollen stockings should be worn : by
this means many an attack of diarrhoea or other illness may be
warded off. Wet clothing should always be changed on a return
home ; with this precaution, exposure in the rain seldom does any
harm. It will be well for visitors at this season of the year to
come provided with light, well- ventilated, water-proof clothing
for use as occasion may require.
Owing to the exhilarating effect of the climate, the visitor on
first arrival usually feels inclined to exert himself far beyond his
strength, and the appetite, generally keen for the time being, is
indulged. Invalids particularly should be cautious in these
respects. Visitors on first arrival are apt to be affected with
oppression of the breathing, sleeplessness, headache, and coldness
of the extremities arising from the highly-rarified state of the
atmosphere. These symptoms generally pass off after a short
residence.
It should also be remembered that the low temperature on
these hills is due to elevation, and not latitude. That the almost
vertical sun's rays, shining with great fierceness through a rarified
atmosphere, are at certain seasons of the year as powerful as
when experienced on the plains, and that the alternations of
temperature, and particularly the rapid fall which follows sun-set,
are fruitful sources of derangement of the. principal functions.
From a consideration of the above peculiarities of climate, the
importance of wearing suitable clothing, protection to the head
from the sun's rays, and of avoiding undue exposure to cold
will be apparent. In the case of young children, especially those
lately arrived, unsuitable clothing and exposure to the cun are
frequent sources of disease. Woollen under-clothing should
always be worn by such. With care and attention to these details,
children usually do remarkably well.
Amongst adults lately arrived, exposure to cold causes tempo-
I'ary congestion of the internal organs, more particularly of the
liver, due to sudden chill and cessation of the action of the skin.
Hence it follows that this climate must be prejudicial in all
cases of visceral disease, and those predisposed to weakness of
this nature should be provided with a flannel belt to be worn
round the loins and stomach. A comfortable over-coat or warm
wrappers should always be worn after sun-set, particularly if
from any cause perspiration may have been induced.
The habit of early rising so necessary in the plains is not
desirable here ; between seven and eight o'clock is sufficiently
early, and delicate persons and children should not venture out
until the sun has warmed the atmosphere and dissipated mist.
As to bathing in cold water, strong healthy people may
generally do so from the first with advantage, but it is desirable
MANUAL OF T,'HE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT. 55
that others should have the chill taken off it. With young CHAP. IV,
children and elderly people a warm or tepid bath will suit PART li.
better. Reaction should always take place after a cold bath ; physical and
should it not take place^ it may generally be regarded as a sign Medical
that cold bathing is unsuitable and should be discontinued. L
This term reaction merely implies that the blood which has been
driven from the surface has returned as shown by a glow of
superficial warmth which is experienced, and the redness imparted
to the previously pale surface. If, after immersion in warm water,
and whilst standing in the bath, a few vessels of cold water be
poured over the sui-face of the body, a feeling of reaction will be
experienced shortly after even by persons of delicate constitution.
This is an excellent mode of bathing for all who shrink from,
or who feel doubtful of, salutary reaction from the use of cold
water. The following rules as to bathing should be observed : —
Never to bathe in cold water within two hours after a meal, or
when exhausted from fatigue or any other cause, or when the
body is cooling after perspiration.
Those accustomed to the use of stimulants on the plains may Use of
generally continue to use them but in diminished quantities, s^'"''^^^^*^-
They are seldom necessary for health in this climate, except for
some invalids, and many people give them up altogether with
advantage. Light sound claret with water or sodawater will be
found a suitable beverage for most people.
Stimulating food and hot-seasoned dishes had better be Eemarks on
eschewed by the invalid. They are unnecessary, and often injuri- ^'®*^' ^^^^^^^^^
ous. Early dinners are recommended. Unripe peaches, mush-
rooms, and improperly-fed pork, sometimes brought about for sale,
are unsafe articles of consumption. Visitors from the plains often
crave for a vegetable diet on first arrival, and the abundance of
delicious vegetables here produced enables them to gratify their
taste in this respect. They should be well cooked and eaten
with moderation.
The houses in these hill stations are usually placed upon the On the
summits of minor spurs or ridges, but some are located on sites a^^ouse" °^
excavated on the sides of some of the larger undulations, and are
consequently backed by a steep cutting. When possible, a
preference should always be given to the former and for the
following obvious reasons : being placed relatively at a higher
elevation to the soil, they are drier, the air is purer, and the
drainage is more perfect ; whilst, being more fully exposed to the
morning and afternoon sun, they are generally speaking warmer.
Houses situated near the lower part of the valleys in sheltered
situations are, owing to the greater radiation, colder, and, being
exposed to dew and fog, are comparatively damp during the rainy
seasons. Sleeping rooms are usually badly ventilated, but a little
fire wire-gauze, or finely-perforated zinc placed in the upper
5G
MANUAL OF THE XILAGIRI DISTRICT-
CHAP. IV,
PART II.
Physical and
Medical
Climate, &c.
Sanitary
condition of
compounds.
Danger
attending
a visit to
the jungle
surrounding
the base of the
Nflagii-is.
Diseases
which are
of rare
occurrence
on the Hills.
part of the window, obviates this defect. There is a great
difference in houses variously situated with respect to their
water-supply for drinking purposes, for whilst some are
bountifully supplied with streams from the Doddabetta range, or
from local springs of good quality, othi?rs, and more particularly
those situated to the western side of Ootacamand, have during
the dry season to procure water sufficiently pure for drinking
purposes from a distance. It may be remarked that in the case
of children, who it is desirable should enjoy as much fresh air as
possible, a few clumps of shady trees near the dwelling will
prove an advantage, as it will enable them to enjoy the open air
when otherwise, from the heat of the sun, they would be confined
to the house. Some of the houses at Ootacamand have open
verandahs similar to those on the plains. These are in themselves
cold and draughty, and by sheltering the walls from the sun
make them at some seasons damper than they would otherwise be.
Children are liable to be laid up from colds, or accidental
exposure to the sun, from being allowed to play in such unsuitable
places.
All residents on the hills should look carefully after the state
of their compounds, for, if neglected, noxious matters accumulate
which, if not periodically removed, become a source of disease.
A small sum paid to the Municipality will ensure the removal
of all offensive matter within the limits of the compound weekly
or oftener if required.
The danger of visiting the belts of jungle which surround and
clothe the base of the Nilagiris to a height of from 2,000 to 3,500
feet, was exemplified in the early months of the year 1876. A
party of 35 Constables proceeded to arrest certain criminals who
had taken refuge there. On their return, after remaining for about
two months in this unhealthy locality, all without exception
suffered from malarious fever, so much so that two died shortly
after their return to Ootacamand, seventeen had to proceed on sick
leave, and of the remainder several, after a lapse of several
months, occasionally complain of the return of the fever and
other attendant ills. This account speaks for itself, and should
deter sportsmen and others from running a similar risk.
Although some of the above remarks hardly apply to visitors
in general, yet to the invalid, for whom iu particular they are
framed, they will doubtless prove of advantage, for he of all
others should be placed under conditions most favorable to
health. After a residence of some months the visitor becomes
acclimatized, and can then venture to do many things which
could not be attempted with impunity by one not so acclimatized.
There are no diseases peculiar to the Hills. Diarrhoea and
dysentery, said to be endemic in some of the Himalayan sanitaria,
are not met with in this form ou these hills. Variola is compara-
MANUAL OF THE NlLAOIRl DISTRICT. b/
tively rare amongst natives, probably owing to careful vacci- CHAP. lY,
nation of late years, and is seldom met with in the European. PART II.
Cholera 1 originating on the Hills is practically unknown, at least Physical and
in the higher portion of the plateau. Hardly a year passes Medical
however, but some cases are imported from the low country. [ L
Occasionally it is communicated to one, two, or more persons, and
then speedily dies out. Although so far removed above the
so-called fever range, yet there is a strong probability that malaria
is, at certain seasons of the year, carried by the dry cold winds
from the belt of jungle which surrounds the base of these hills,
and cases of intermittent fever are occasionally observed amongst
Europeans residing on the plateau who have never been absent
for a day.
Recently abundant evidence has been furnished of its occa-
sional existence in a severe form amongst the native population
by the excessive mortality which occurred in the months of April,
May, and June 1876 fi'om this disease. This exceptional state
of the public health was probably due partly to the above cause
and partly to a season of excessive drought, and the liberation of
the deleterious material from the soil by solar desiccation.
The milder cases of uncomplicated intermittent fever, con-
tracted either here or on the plains, usually do well on these hills,
for although a return of paroxysms may be induced by the rapid
alternations of temperature, yet they appear gradually to lose their
intensity in succeeding attacks.
Rheumatism originating on the Hills is also, strange to say, a
rather rare disease with Europeans, but frequent with Natives.
Diarrhoea is common enough amongst the newly-arrived, but Diseases
in these cases it is seldom intractable, and is usually due to errors ^g^. v(,itii in
of diet or exposure to cold. Amongst children it is one of the Europeans,
most troublesome diseases to which they are liable, and when it of climate'' on
occurs during dentition it is more than usually serious. same.
Whooping-cough and measles are sometimes very prevalent in
the early months of the year : croup is also occasionally met with.
In European children, who of course are carefully looked after,
these diseases generally run a mild course, but in the case of
Native children they not unfrequently prove fatal. In all of the
above cases cold and particularly the cold dry winds of the early
months of the year have to be carefully guarded against, but
otherwise the climate does not act prejudicially in any of them.
Asthmatic eases seldom do well even in the milder climate of
Coonoor. The same may be said of consumptive cases. The
former seldom originate here, and the cases observed have been
those sent from the plains for change.
* An outbreak occurred in 1877, resulting in many deaths. Though origi-
nally imported, its prevalence was probably due to bad drinking-water and
defective drainage, and to the fact that the town had not been cleansed by the
usual monsoon rains in 1876. — Ed.
8
58 MANUAL or THE NILAGIRI DISTKIOT.
CHAP. IV, Chicken-pox is a common disease with both European and
PART II. Native children, but it is always a mild disease.
P TTl and Febricula in children is frequently met with ; its usual cause
Medical is undue exposure to the sun.
Climate, &c. rp^^ ^.j^gg ^f diseases peculiar to females almost invariably
improves in this climate, and cases of dyspepsia and derangement
of the bowels generally do well. Uncomplicated cases of dysen-
tery originating here are seldom severe, and rapidly yield to
treatment. Diseases of a local nature, such as ulcers, fractures,
and wounds, usually heal rapidly, and cutaneous diseases also,
under appropriate treatment, make good recoveries. Simple
debility in young people almost always yields rapidly to the
effects of the climate and nourishing food. Parturition is pro-
bably unattended with any special risk due to the climate or
altitude. Convalescence from it is usually rapid, and nursing is
unaccompanied with the debility often experienced on the plains.
Miscarriage ia frequent in the eai'ly months, but it is more
generally due to over-exertion on ascending hills, &c., than to
any peculiarity of the climate.
Neuralgia when it accompanies anaemia or debility, or when
it remains as a relic of former malarial agency, gradually becomes
milder in its visitations, much depending on the general state
of the health, appropriate medical treatment, and a residence for
some time is required before an improvement can be expected.
Delicate strumous children do very well upon the Hills, but a
change to the Madras coast in the cold weather is very desirable
when it can be accomplished. Young children moreover should
not be brought to the Hills whilst they are cutticg their first
teeth.
Anaemia and chlorosis, although distinct diseases, may here be
classed together, for both derive marked benefit from change of
air, moderate exercise, cheerful scenery, and nutritious diet ;
such cases, with judicious medical treatment, do remarkably well.
The more severe tropical diseases are seldom seen here. The
climate being known to be unsuitable, such cases requiring a
change are sent to Europe.
Persons sufferiag from heart disease invariably complain of an
aggravation of their symptoms on ascending the Hills. The same
may be said of persons suffering from diseases of the brain.
Serious Natives of the plains are liable, on first arrival, to diseases,
diseases the result of climatic vicissitudes and insufficiency or unsuitability
Nati^s^or of food, but, after they become acclimatized by a short residence,
theplaius. they enjoy good health as a rule. Older natives frequently
succumb to disease from deficient vital energy and from an
inability to resist the depressing effects of cold. Among the
more serious diseases to which they are liable on first arrival are
dysentery, diarrhea, rheumatism, fevers, and bronchitis. This
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIKI DISTRICT. 59
latter sometimes terminates in pneumonia or inflammation of the CHAP. IV,
lungs. Europeans do not suffer from these diseases to the same PART II,
extent as the Natives^ and doubtless these diseases are for the puysicaland
most part induced by exposure to cold with unsuitable clothing. Medical
impure drinking water, and bad food. Visitors should therefore ^ '_
he careful that their servants are suitably clothed and housed,
and it is of equal importance that they should not be allowed to
sleep upon the ground, a common practice with many of them.
The sickness and mortality which affects the class of Natives
who visit the Hills to obtain employment on the various coffee
estates is very great. During the cold season many of these
travellers perish from cold and starvation, whilst others suffering
from fever or diarrhoea through neglect and exposure fall victims
to more serious diseases.
On the Nilagiri table-land we have a climate essentially tern- Cases of
perate, and one which experience tells us is capable of conferring Jj^Jlf^^e most
the greatest benefit in suitable cases. The cool refreshing breezes, benefit from
together with the lovely mountain scenery, and relaxation from ^^^^ ^^f^ *°
work, combine to effect an improvement in the health of those climate.
who have been exposed for any length of time to the enervating
influences of the plains. For the following classes the climate
will be found unquestionably most suitable and invigorating.
Young people of weakly constitution, who have broken down
through overwork in a tropical climate, or who, from having
come out to India before their constitution may be said to have
been properly formed, and in consequence have been reduced to
a state of general debility after their arrival in the country.
Older persons who, by reason of a prolonged residence on the
plains without any change, or who, after suSering from some
slight illness, have been troubled with dyspepsia, nervous
debiUty, mental depression, or loss of appetite, and who in
consequence feel an inability to perform their accustomed duties.
These are the cases which derive the most permanent benefit from
a residence on the hills. It is presumed that in the above cases
there is a freedom from all structural disease. Convalescene
from many of the more trivial diseases to which Europeans are
subject on the plains is generally hastened by a residence on
these hills, attention being paid to the selection of a station for
such cases in due accordance with the age and state of the patient
and the season of the year.
The climate of the Nilagiris has been founrl by experience to Unsuitable
be quite unsuitable in the following cases : those who have long ^^^°^-
Buffered on the plains from remittent or repeated attacks of
intermittent fevers, chronic diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and
syphilitic affections, as also cases of organic disease generally.
Although the climate of the Nilagiris has nothing in it to True valnr of
recommend it to the invalid suffering from the more serious ^ '® ^'limate.
60
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV,
PART II.
Physical and
Medical
Climate, &c.
Influence of
the climate on
the health of
the childreu
at the
Lawrence
Aaj lum.
tropical diseases, yet, in addition to the cases for which its climate
has by experience been proved to be suitable, it will be found
that the European can retain his health and vigour, as evidenced
by the robust constitutions of those who have been, for the
greater portion of their lives, resident upon the hills. It is usual
to look upon these mountain ranges as sanitaria where health may
be reo-ained, but their true value will be found to consist in their
possessing a climate in which Europeans can maintain their health
and vigour, or a periodical resort to which will enable them, on
their return to the plains, to resist the debilitating influences of
surrounding adverse conditions.
The following tables represent the sickness and mortality for
the past five years of the children of the Lawrence Asylum near
Ootacamand. It is believed that few, if any, of the great schools
of Eno-land can compare to advantage with these in so far as the
comparative absence of serious diseases or the low rate of
mortality are concerned. There are two branches of this Asylum.
One is intended for the reception of sons, and the other for the
daughters, of European and Eurasian soldiers serving in India.
Their ages vary from about eight years on admission to sixteen on
discharge.
MALE BRANCH, OOTACAMAND LAWRENCE ASYLUM, LOVEDALE.
Statement showhuj the Number of Admissions and Deaths, ^-c, of the
Diseases that came under Treatment during the past five Years.
Years
... 1 1871-72.
1872-73.
1873-74.
1874-75.
1875-76. II 1
1
^, C TJ
^
tj
>-=?S
a>
Diseases.
a
d
■g
i-
i
3
i
"a
p ^"^«
<i
P
<
p
<
p
<
p
<i
Measles
87
Chicken- pox ...
... 1 22
11
12
8
Febricula
13
9
5
1
3
Ague
3
1
1
Sun-stroke
1
1
Remittent fever
2
...
Typhoid fever...
..
2
1
Rheumatism ...
3
3
t>
Conjunctivitis
5
11
7
5
11
Bronchitis
2
1
Pneumonia
2
Dvsentery
4
5
9
12
5
Other diseases
Total
Average daily nnm
ber
47
33
36
40
11
99
147
1
72
... 1 74
46
1
87
of sick
Percentage of d
ally
2-31
403
2-10
, 3-43
2-05
2-78
1
sick to average
t
annual strength
0-78
1 13
' 06t
1 023
014 1 -58
Strength
i
29.1
336
.■^19
325
326 ' 320
MANUAL OF THE NlLAOIRI DISTRICT,
61
FEMALE BRANCH, OOTACAMAND LAWRENCE ASYLUM, LOVEDALE. CHAP. IV,
PART II.
Statement sJioiving the Niiinher of Admissions and Deaths, 8,''c., of the
Diseases that came under Treatm.ent during the past five Years.
Years
1871-72.
1872-73.
1873-74.
1874-75.
1875-76.
S i
05
1^
Diseases.
'6
ID
1
'a
T3
<D
S
-<
Q
-2
a
i
s
'a
^6
5
Measles
Chicken-pox
Febricula
Febris remittent
A gne
Parotitis
Conjunctivitis
Tonsilitis
Dyspepsia
Dysentery
Bronchitis
Pneumonia ...
Other diseases
Total ...
Average daily number
of sick
Percentage of daily
sick to average
annual strength . . .
Strength
10
5
"2
1
"2
1
•••
20
1
4
"2
"i
"2
1
3
18
2
"2
"2
"3
i
3
1
1
5
"i
4
1
1
"i
1
4
1
3
23
30
28
14
1
16
...
•22
■72
•92
■81
•32
•80
•71
114
1-44
1-40
021
0-27
i
•89
63
64
60
60
60
61
Physical and
Medical
CLIiMATE, &c.
The annual average strength for the past five years has been
320 in the Male branch, and 61 in the Female branch. In the
Male branch the average number of admissions into hospital for
each of the five years was 87, and the average number of daily
sick was only 2*78, and the percentage of daily sick to average
annual strength was 0*58. In the Female branch the average
number of admissions into hospital for each year was 22 ; the
average number of daily sick was 0'71, and the percentage of
daily sick to average annual strength was 0"89. There were in all
but three deaths during the five years, and the two cases of
typhoid fever were both imported from a distance. The European
population of Ootacamand is so fluctuating that the effects of a
continuous residence in these hills are difficult to tabulate ;
however, in the foregoing returns there is satisfactory statistical
evidence of the healthy nature of the climate.
It has already been remarked that the climate is faithfully Erroneons
indicated by its influence on vegetable products, and its healthy g^b'^gpt'J,/ ^'^
influence on the European constitution has also been noticed, the climate.
These are probably the soundest tests of the suitability or
62 MANUAL OF THE NlLAQIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV, otherwise of a climate, for, as Sir J. R. Martin, when speaking
PART II. of climate, justly observes, " For this much is certain, that the
Physical and framers of elaborate tables of the winds and of the degrees of
Medical the thermometer have as yet done little to inform our minds or
LiMATE^ cx g^-^jg Q^j. inquiry." It is erroneous to suppose that the climate
of the Nilagiris is possessed of any specific qualities by means of
which it directly cures disease, for neither of these will produce
much benefit unless aided by dietetic and hygienic rules, directed
with due regard to the constitution, the general state of each
individual case, and the season of the year. It is therefore
necessary to be cautious about expecting too much from a mere
change of climate, as this confidence leads to neglect of other
circumstances which are at least equally essential to recovery.
It is better to look upon this climate as a medium through
which a cure may be wrought than as the direct instrument by
which the change is to be effected.
Varieties of The Nilagiris enjoy a very great advantage over other Hill
possessed by sanitaria in India, as an invalid has the means afforded him of
theNiiagiri selecting out of three stations the climate most suitable to his
state of health. The other stations besides Ootacamand are
those of Coonoor and Kotagiri, but these, owing to differences in
altitude, locality, aspect, and surrounding physical features, have
well-marked differences in the respective climates, and although
this report has special reference to the climate, &c., of Ootacamand,
yet a passing glance at the salient differences between its climate
and that of the other stations may not be out of place.
Brief sketch Coonoor is situated in the south-eastern crest of the mountains,
of CooiiooT ^ ^^^ ^^ distant about 12 miles by the new road from Ootaca-
mand in a south-easterly direction. Its elevation is 5,886 feet
above the level of the sea, or about 1,530 feet less than that of
Ootacamand. Its mean annual range of temperature is about
eight degrees higher than the latter station. It is sheltered from
the south-west monsoon by the lofty Doddabetta range, and
during this season its climate is particularly mild and genial, for,
as the sun is frequently obscured by hazy mists and the rain is
only occasional, it is possible to enjoy daily open air exercise.
From the exposed situation of this station on the crest of the
hills, unprotected as it is by any barrier on its north-east side,
it receives the whole force of this monsoon, the weather during
the shoi't period it prevails being most inclement. Towards the
end of November or beginning of December this monsoon has
generally expended itself, and by Christmas-time the climate is
delightful. This is the cold season, and it lasts until towards the
close of February ; but at this season the cold north-east winds
experienced here are not nearly so trying as at Ootacamand.
Owing to radiation, ice is occasionally found in sheltered spots as
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 63
at Ootacamand, but in a smaller quantity. On proceeding from CHAP. IV,
the more bracing climate of Ootacamand to Coonoor, the change PART II.
is often accompanied with a feeling of languor and oppression, physical and
doubtless owing to the increase in temperature and the more Medical
sultry and relaxing nature of its climate. Climate, &c.
The station of Kotagiri is situated on the north-eastern crest K6tagiri.
of the plateau and overlooks the plains ; it is about 1 7 miles east
of Ootacamand, and about 12 miles from Coonoor by road.
From its position it must be even more fully exposed to the
north-east monsoon than Coonoor, and, owing to its greater
distance from the Doddabetta range, it cannot be so well protected
from the south-west monsoon as the latter station. Its elevation
being about 500 feet above that of Coonoor, and being more
exposed than either of the other stations during the north-east
monsoon, it follows that its climate is a medium between those of
Ootacamand and Coonoor. Notwithstanding the advantages
offered by its climate, it is seldom resorted to in the present day,
probably from want of house accommodation.
As a general rule, medical advice should be sought by the Selection of
invalid as to w^hich station will be the most suitable in each an inyaUd"''
individual case, and it is not possible to do more here than lay
down general remarks on the climate, &c., for guidance, as every
case must be considered with due regard to age, the general
health, temperament, previous history, and the season of the year
in which the proposed visit is to be made. It may, however, be
stated that elderly people as well as young children, the delicate,
and those who have suffered from a prolonged residence on the
plains will derive more benefit by a residence, in the first
instance, at the milder stations of Coonoor or Kotagiri than by
at once proceeding to Ootacamand.
C4
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
PART III.
CHAP. IV,
PART III.
Wellington.
Medical
Eeport on
Climate, &c.
Position of
Wellington.
Approach
from the
plains.
WELLINGTON.
(Extracts from a report furnished hy Surgeon-Major W. H. Corbett, Army Medical
Department, in Medical charge of Convalescent DejpCt, to the Surgeon-General,
British Medical Service.) '
Description of the Hills. — Approach from the plains. — Topography. — Geology. —
Botany, table productions and vegetation. — Seasons. — Meteorology. — Ozone.
— Climate, and its influence on health. —Places to be visited. — Period for visit-
ing the Hills. — Precautions to be taken. — Those who benefit. — Those who do
not benefit. — Barracks.— Cantonment. — Sanitary condition. — The bazaar. —
Water-supply. — Commissariat supplies. — Amusements. —Duties of the troops. —
Mortality and sickness.
The station of Wellington, which is the Convalescent Depot for
the British troops in the Madras Presidency, is in the Peranganad
Division of the Nilagiri District, and lies in latitude 11° 5'
north, and longitude 77^" 5" east, with an area of 446 acres, or
nearly two square miles, and a native population of 1,567. It is
6,100 feet above the level of the sea, situated on a spur running
to the south-east from the Doddabetta or middle range of
mountains, is well sheltered, only partially exposed to the mon-
soons, and well 9,dapted from situation for a sanitarium. It is
bounded on the north by the Doddabetta mountain, which is
8,760 feet above sea-level, and is sheltered by it partially from
the south-west monsoon ; on the south by Coonoor, two miles
distant, from which it is separated by a deep ravine ; on the
east by Kotagiri, 13 miles distant; and on the west by a spur
of the Doddabetta range stretching towards Katoi-i.
These hills ai-e easily and speedily accessible from the three
presidencies. A line of rail runs to Mettapollium within six miles
of the foot of the Hills, to the south-east. Here there is a good
hotel for travellers and a rest-house with the following accom-
modation : 3 rooms — one holding 6 men, or 3 families, a middle
room holding 10 men, or 5 families, and an end room holding 6
men, or 3 families ; and 3 European soldiers' tents, in which, for
the short time they may be occupied, the Rest-house Superin-
tendent has authority to place 42 men. Troops halt here during
the day. The married portion and baggage-guard leave in the
evening and come up the long ghdt, a distance of 24 miles,
with a gradual ascent, not exceeding 1 foot in 18 or 20. This
party should always be provided with torches, as it is difficult
to prevent their being the greater portion of the night on the
road. The remaining portion leave at midnight and come up
1 Portions of this paper have been omitted which contained information
furnished elsewhere or were otherwise unsuited to a paper of this descriptioo.
'•^
Old WftTERLOO BRIOGE^ij^i,
n.,T.ji
/
04
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIPJ DISTRICT.
PART III.
CHAP. IV,
PART III.
Wellington.
Medical
Report on
Climate, &c.
Position of
Wellington.
Approach
from the
plains.
WELLINGTON.
(Extracts from a report furnished hy Surgeon-Major W. H. Corbett, Army Medical
Department, in Medical charge of Convalescent Depot, to the Surgeon-General,
British Medical Service.) ^
Description of the Hills. — Approach from the plains. — Topography. — Geology. —
Botany, table productions and vegetation. — Seasons. — Meteorology. — Ozone.
— CUmate, and its influence on health. —Places to be visited. — Period for visit-
ing the Hills. — Precautions to be taken. — Those who benefit. — Those who do
not benefit. — Barracks. — Cantonment. — Sanitary condition. — The bazaar. —
Water-supply. — Commissariat supplies. — Amusements. —Duties of the troops. —
Mortality and sickness.
The station of Wellington, which is the Convalescent Depot for
the British troops in the jMadras Presidency, is in the Peranganad
Division of the Nilagiri District, and lies in latitude 11° 5'
northj and longitude 77^ 5" east, with an area of 446 acres, or
nearly two square miles, and a native population of 1,567. It is
6,100 feet above the level of the sea, situated on a spur running
to the south-east from the Doddabetta or middle range of
mountains, is well sheltered, only partially exposed to the mon-
soons, and well ^^dapted from situation for a sanitarium. It is
bounded on the north by the Doddabetta mountain, which is
8,760 feet above sea-level, and is sheltered by it partially from
the south-west monsoon ; on the south by Coonoor, two miles
distant, from which it is separated by a deep ravine ; on the
east by Kotagiri, 13 miles distant ; and on the west by a spur
of the Doddabetta range stretching towards Kateri.
These hills are easily and speedily accessible from the three
presidencies. A line of rail runs to Mettapollium within six miles
of the foot of the Hills, to the south-east. Here there is a good
hotel for travellers and a rest-house with the following accom-
modation : 3 rooms — one holding 6 men, or 3 families, a middle
room holding 10 men, or 5 families, and an end room holding 6
men, or 3 families ; and 3 European soldiers' tents, in which, for
the short time they may be occupied, the Rest-house Superin-
tendent has authority to place 42 men. Troops halt here during
the day. The married portion and baggage-guard leave in the
evening and come up the long ghdt, a distance of 24 miles,
with a gradual ascent, not exceeding 1 foot in 18 or 20. This
party should always be provided with torches, as it is difficult
to prevent their being the greater portion of the night on the
road. The remaining portion leave at midnight and come up
' Portions of this paper have been omitted which contained information
furnished elsewhere or were otherwise unsuited to a paper of this description.
CJ
I
E
Cl
Pof
Ap.
fro
pla
MANUAL OF THE nIlAQIRI DISTRICT. G5
the short ghat, a distance of nine miles. They are conveyed by CIiAr. iv,
transit to Kalar, from which place those able are expected to PART ill.
inarch. This arrangement I do not altogether think for the best, Wellington.
as the men arrive at Kalar, which is in the midst of a low swampy Medical
jungle with bad water and filled with malarious exhalations, at clui^xe, &c.
the most trying time to the constitution, from sun-set to sun-rise.
The road up the ghdt runs from east to west. On the first
portion of the ascent the bamboo grows in abundance, shelteriiig
the road. On going higher, one observes the indigenous forest
trees, among which are conspicuous the teak, of an inferior
quality, the blackwood, which is useful for furniture, and takes
a handsome polish, the sal, wild jack, and vengay. Vengay
is a superior timber considered by some equal to teak, and from
it the bridges throughout the ghdt are made. Lastly, the red
and white cedars, the woods of which are suitable for building
or making furniture. These trees are conspicuous for their great
girth, j^bout two-thirds up the ghdt it is a pleasing relief to
meet a resting-place, known as the " Toll-bar.'^ Here coffee is
provided for troops coming up. It is well shaded, and a perennial
spring of clear water flows close by. The ascent from Metta-
pollium to Coonoor is about 4,500 feet.
The barracks are in a slight hollow bounded by high moun- Topograpliy.
tains and extensive ravines. They were built in 1852 and 1853.
The station was then called Jackatalla after a neighbouring Badaga
village, which name the ravine to the north still retains. The
site was chosen by the Marquis of Tweeddale in 1847. Much of
the country surrounding the station is undulating, but broken
by ravines and rugged hills. To the west of the barracks is a
ravine which extends towards the south and through which there
is a bridle-path to the Wellington bazaar ; to the north and west
are the married quarters, and, almost due north, the hospital.
The natural drainage of the plateau is good. There are numbers
of private residences, conspicuous among which is the house of
the Commandant, about 200 feet above the barracks to the
eastward. On all sides mountain streams and brooks flow and
empty themselves into ravines to the north-west and south.
There are no gheels, marshes, lakes, or rivers of any extent in
the vicinity of Wellington. The principal stream flows along the
south-west of the cantonment below the 7iiarried quarters. It
drains the eastern side of Doddabetta range, and is joined near the
Wellington bazaar by a stream of fair size flowing from the north.
These together form the Kancunthure river, and pass down under
the Coonoor bridge, where also another considerable stream which
rises in the south and east of the cantonment after passing
through the race-course joins it. It is also joined by other streams,
which pour down in every direction, along the Coonoor ghdt,
9
66
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
productions
and vegeta
tion.
CIIAP. IV, until it readies tlie Kdteri river. The combined stream passes
PART III. KaUr, and empties itself into the Bhavani.
Wellington. The soil in and about Wellington is of a rich red ferruginous
Eeport^on c^^y °^ marl, resting on a gi\anitic ^ base, with sienite in many
Climate, &c. places, and here and there felspar, mica, and veins of quartz.
GeologyT" Flint and amethyst appear to bo embedded in the granite, sienite,
or gneiss, in the form of crystallized silica.
Botany, table The station is planted throughout with numerous ornamental
trees which afford shelter and add to its beauty. Within the
last four years there has been an average of 2,000 young trees
planted out in various parts of the station. Some of them have
failed from climate and exposure, but a large proportion continue
to thrive. These consist of rapidly-growing exotic trees, such
as the Australian blue gum, or Eucalyptus globulus.
The intersecting valleys, sides of the hills, and plateaus possess
a rich soil, the result of sub-tropical forest growth, producing
luxuriant vegetation, where almost all the European vegetables
thrive. As many as three or four crops of potatoes have been
raised during one year. The ground to the west of the barracks
is utilized as a soldiers' garden. The men to whom it is allotted
pay a monthly subscription for which they are supplied with
garden tools, and periodically wath seeds, the produce being
entirely their own property. There is an agreement with the
Commissariat to take their produce, which is served with the
rations. Here onions, cabbage, cauliflower, beans, tomatoes, peas,
lettuce, beet-root, knol-khol^ carrots, sweet potatoes, &c. grow
well. The work affords amusement and profit to the owners.
Fruits of all kinds grow luxuriantly at Wellington, particularly
oranges, peaches, the wild gooseberry, red and white raspberry,
Brazil cherry, limes, and citrons, pears and apples coming from
the more sheltered neighbourhood of Kotagiri.
Coonoor, two miles to the south, is a pretty little station,
about 6,000 feet above the level of the sea, encircled by hills,
irregular in shape and elevation, and sheltered from the south-west
monsoon. Being nearer the edge of the Hills, it is more subject to
fogs ; the variations of temperature are often sudden and great.
The climate is less bracing and more suitable for cases of chest,
bowel, and liver derangements than Wellington. There are
several excellent hotels. There are small shojDS, kept by natives,
in Coonoor ; but, as a rule, European articles of good quality that
are required should be obtained from Ootacamand. Near
Coonoor visitors should see the spots known as '' Lady Canning's
Seat," '' Dolphin's Nose," " Lamb's Rock," " Hiilikal,"
" Todamand," and the " Drlig," from which latter views of the
Places to be
visited.
1 The old riew.— Ed.
MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT. 67
Auemale and Kiuula mountains, Mcttapollium, Coimbatore CHAP. IV,
and the plains, Kotagiri, Doddabetta, Wellington, and the Law- FART III,
rence Asylum can be obtained. Wellington.
Kotagiri lies to the east and north of Wellington, about p*'^^^'^"^'J^^^
13 miles distant, with a population of 31 Europeans and 600 climate, &c.
Natives. There is a good road winding through the mountains.
It is in a sheltered plateau, protected from the south-west monsoon,
at an elevation of about 6,200 feet. It has not received proper
trial as a sanitarium, but I cannot help thinking that the climate
is such as to deserve its receiving greater attention than it has
done heretofore. Many years ago there was an experiment of
the kind tried by establishing a small sanitarium at Dimhatti
near the Orange Valley to the north, but I am informed that the
place is now in ruins, and I have not records to show whether
it was satisfactory or otherwise. The soil in the vicinity is good
for vegetables and fruit, and tea is grown on the slopes of
excellent quality, particularly in the plantation known as
Catsfield. There are no hotels or public bungalows. The
principal house is surrounded by beautiful grounds with a small
lake. It belongs to Mr. Gordon Forbes, and is called "Kota Hall.'^
There is a small church, but no resident clergyman. Also a
well-conducted dispensary, and a small bazaar.
JDoddahetta may be visited from Wellington, either by skirting
the mountains to the eastward, following those bearing to the
north and west, or by passing through the Jackatalla valley
and old race-course up the mountain side. From the top, as it is
the highest elevation in Southern India, on a clear day views
may be had of Ootacamand, to the west, lying at its base ; the
Kundas to the west and south, and the Anemales to the south,
Kotagiri to the eastward, Coonoor and the hills overlooking
Coimbatore to the south and east, and Mysore to the north.
January, February, and March are intensely dry and cold at Seasons,
nights, the atmosphere throughout the day being clear and free
from clouds, but the sun's rays are very powerful and require to
be guarded against. This is the season at which sun-strokes
occur on the Hills. There are gi'eat variations of the temper-
ature between day and night ; ice forms in the ravines, and hoar-
frost and heavy dews are of ordinary occurrence. As a general
rule a heavy shower may be expected about the end of January,
or before the 10th of February.
During February and March there is still a hard dry east wind
blowing, but, if it is a good year, heavy rain may be expected about
the 25th of March with thunder, which clears the air. Should
there not be rain at the end of March and beginning of April,
the air becomes heavy and hot, with frequent thunder-storms
from the south, but damp and cold by night, rendering, under
these circumstanc-es, the season sickly.
6? MANUAL OF THE XILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV, In April, May, and June, thunder-storms continue. The south-
PART III. east winds draw round to the south and eventually to the south-
Wellingtox "^®st. May is the hottest month, a steamy heat with high tem-
Medical perature, averaging 81 degrees in the shade. In June there are
CuM° TE &c ^^^^y winds from the south-west, from which point the monsoon
is looked for, which, as a rule, breaks about the 20th. In July,
August, and September the south-west monsoon prevails, and the
season is usually delightful, the rain never being so continuous as
to prevent a certain amount of out-door exercise, although it is
heavier and more tropical here than at Ootacamand. August
is wet, but the atmosphere is still and hot. During September
it becomes muggy, the monsoon ending about the 20th. Then
there is a break, as a rule, until the 20th of October.
In October, November, and December the weather is splendid,
though cold, and occasionally damp and wet, but very wholesome.
The north-east monsoon begins about the middle of October, and is
ushered in with heavy thunder-storms. During November there
is very heavy rain with thunder-storms and fogs.
In December the rain begins to fail. There are usually two
or three days^ break at a time. The weather is cold, and frost
begins to form ; hoar-frost is constant. During this monsoon
heavy floods are common on the eastern slopes. In November
1865 they were so severe that the water was three feet over the
Coonoor bridge, setting in without warning and doing immense
damage in about four hours. Similar floods occurred in Decem-
ber 1875 in the race-course valley. From the 16th December the
rain gradually draws off, and is not usually expected to return till
about the 12th March.
Meteorology. The atmosphere at Wellington from its rarified condition, due
to elevation, will only support a column of mercury 24 inches
high, that at the sea being 30. This shows it to be about 6,100
feet above that level. Consequently persons visiting the Hills are
relieved of an atmospheric pressure of the difference between
15 lbs. per square inch, which is that at the level of the sea, and
that of 12 J lbs., which is the pressure at Wellington. The
changes, which are observed in climate or in weather, may be
traced in general to preponderance or deficiency of the vapour
of water in the air. The steadiness of the barometers in these
latitudes is a very remarkable phenomenon. Except during
hurricanes there seems to be an absolute freedom from irregular
variations. The annual atmospheric tide is due to the varying
position of the locality with reference to the sun, the atmosphere
being lighter (as will be seen by reference to the meteorological
tables), from expansion at the summer solstice than at the winter
one.
The average mean reading for the winter months will be found
in excess of those for the centre of the year. The sun's rays are
MANUAL or THE NILAGTI^T DISTRICT. 69
as powerful here as at the level of the sea_, but the heat that CHAP. IV,
composes it is modified by free radiation. PAET III.
The mean annual range and the mean daily range of temper- Wellington.
ature are small, the warmest month being May with the mean Medical
temperature of 66*4, and the coldest month December with the Climate, &c.
mean temperature of 57*5. The mean annual height of the
barometer uncorrected is 24*246, and the mean daily variation of
the radiation thermometer is 25"2. The respective readings of
the sun^s maximum in vacuo between this and the level of the
sea shows that the diminished heat of the earth and atmosphere
of elevated regions is not due to any less quantity of solar
influence received, but to the latter being radiated away into
space, almost as fast as it is received, and, if it were not for the
difference in the amount of obscuration of the sun between
Madras and Wellington, the reading of the thermometer showing
the sun's maximum in vacuo would be exactly the same.
Between the maximum thermometer fully exposed at Wellington
and that at Madras there is a difference of 21° Fahrenheit, which
is the amount of heat lost by radiation, between this and the
level of the sea, and here, as is usual near the equator, the annual
and daily range of the barometer is not very great. In May
1872 the barometer fell to 24'018, but this was contemporaneous
with the cyclone which devastated the Madras roads; also, on
the 6th May 1874, during a cyclone at Madras, the barometer at
Wellington fell to 24*052. Rain, which is one of the most
important elements in determining climate, amounts annually,
on an average, to 46* 75 inches. Here it has small influence
on the barometer, and the popular idea that the fall of the baro-
meter indicates rain is a fallacy. It represents irregular currents
of air forming wind. This is notorious in the tropics, where the
wind is mostly ranged into uniform trades or monsoons, and rain
is almost unnoticed by the barometer. A very simple rule for
ascertaining heights of mountains and mean temperatures of such
places may be noticed here. If we are able to obtain the pressure
of the barometer, which is easily done by a pocket aneroid, and
knowing that for every 1,000 feet of ascent the barometer falls
very nealy one inch, we find that the pressure of the barometer
at Wellington is 24 inches, whilst the reading at the level of
the sea is always calculated at 30, which shows a less pressure
of six inches, making its elevation 6,000 feet, which is very nearly
correct. In the same way, if we admit that the mean tempera-
ture at the sea is to be calculated at 83° Fahrenheit, and for every
300 feet of ascent the thermometer falls a degree, we may
calculate the mean temperature, if we know the height of a locality.
Thus Wellington is looked on as 6,000 feet above the sea. Divide
300 into 6,000, and you will get 20 as the result. Deduct this 20^
from the temperature at the level of the sea, viz., 83 degrees, and
70 MANUAL OF THE NlLAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV, it gives a result of 63 degrees, which is nearly correct, that of
PART III. Wellington being 62°-6.
Wellingtox. Ozone is an electric condition of the air which is present
Medical at all times, but particularly during thunder-storms. The name is
Climate &c. derived from the peculiar smell emitted when it is produced
artificially by an electric machine. It is oxygen in an allotropic
Ozone. state, a bin -oxide of hydrogen, and is generated by the discharge
of electricity into the air. A reference to the ozone tables for
the months of October and June, when there is an electric
condition present, prior to the bursting of the monsoons, shows that
the atmosphere is filled with it. This is shown by the depth of
color on the ozone papers. The mode by which oxygen passes
into ozone is inexplicable. All we know is that it is produced
when electricity is discharged into the air. It tends to cleanse
und purify the atmosphere, but is in itself so powerful that
animals expire when placed in pure ozone.
Climate, and The climate at Wellington, although only 11 degrees from the
on healTh^'^ equator, is most salubrious, temperate, and invigorating. The
thermometer seldom rises in the shade above 75 degrees, and the
days throughout the cold months are clear and bracing. The
mornings are always refreshing, and, if the character and time of
the setting in of the south-west monsoon is regular, the months
of the middle part of the year are pleasant and healthy.
The objections to the Hills are that the valleys intersecting
them contain jungle, where malarious fever may be contracted.
These are to be particularly avoided, especially at night or in
the evening after sun-set. This is in consequence of the varia-
tions of temperature being greater than in the higher situations.
The sun's rays, however, are powerful throughout the year,
and one is never safe in being exposed to them without having
the head properly protected. The health of the inhabitants
greatly depends upon the regular periods of the monsoons, as by
them the ravines, hill-sides, and gullies are washed of the decajdng
vegetation, and in consequence the atmosphere is rendered pure
and free from malaria ; whereas, if the monsoons are not regular
or sufficient, this vegetation decomposes, the atmosphere becomes
tainted and malarious. Fevers are endemic. For, although we
are taught that an elevation of 4,500 feet is beyond malarial
influence, experience shows that not only are attacks of fever
frequent, but that they originate on these hills, and, as there is
a good deal of marshy ground in the ravines about Wellington,
owing to springs issuing from their sides and jungle growing on
their slopes, malaria is generated especially in wet weather,
producing relapses in persons whose constitutions are affected.
It is most difficult to eradicate this malaria from the system.
Attacks of febricula from chill and exposure to the sun with
high temperature, shivcrings, with severe headache, suffused eyes,
Wellington-.
Medical
Report on
MANUAL OF THE nIlAOIRI DISTRICT. 71
dilated pupils^ and derangement of tlie stomach, especially in CHAP. IV,
the youngei' soldiers, are common ; but the climate, no doubt, is PART III.
particularly adapted for newly-arrived troops from England,
when preventive, rather than curative, results are looked for,
and in it the European can maintain his health and vigour. Still (^^^ate &c
it will always be necessary, especially with reference to the younger '-
soldiers, that they should not expose themselves to the sun or
ventui'e into the valleys, and that they should be well provided
with flannel shirts with sleeves, and avoid becoming overheated.
At present the troops begin to arrive from about the middle of Period for
March, which is very advantageous considering that they are out yisiting the
of the plains before the hot weather becomes very severe, and I
think they should not be despatched from the plains later than
the 15th March if it can be avoided. The pleasantest time to
arrive would be April, May, or June.
The climate is particularly suitable to those who are suffering Those who
from ordinary depression or debility resulting from the heat of '^®°®^*'-
the plains, or who are failing either from long residence in the
excessive temperature of India, and who have fallen into a condition
of exhaustion without organic disease. It is particularly benefi-
cial to young soldiers who have had their tone of constitution
lowered by attacks of simple fever, or who have lost flesh and
strength by climate. These persons rapidly regain strength ; the
blood resumes its red globules, the cheeks and lips become rosy,
and the appetite and vigour are restored. Those suffering from
wounds, injuries, suppurating bubos, abscesses, or from scrofula
or malarious fever do well up here. Mild bowel derangements
and even dysentery, when not complicated with disease of the
liver (if precautions against chills are observed), improve, and
even rheumatism and ulcers without syphilitic taint and chronic
bronchitis, w^hich frequently attacks old soldiers in the plains
with diffuse expectoration, are benefited. Old soldiers without
organic disease, who are showang symptoms of breaking down,
thrive, improve their general health, are able to bear more
fatigue, and regain strength up here, as is shown by settlers,
pensioners, and others, who are holding positions under Govern-
ment on these hills, or are independent.
The climate, although exhilarating, is peculiar, and from the Those who do
rarified condition of the atmosphere, which at this elevation "^*^ ^®''®^''
exerts a pressure of 2| lbs. to the square inch less than at the
level of the sea, the system feels naturally the want of support,
the blood-vessels dilate, and consequently this climate is totally
unsuitable for valvular disease of the heart, or developed disease
of the lungs ; and even persons in fair health, from this peculiar
condition of atmosphere, suffer from palpitation caused by the
increased action of the heart, which becomes embarrassed in
72 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV, endeavouring to propel the blood tlirougli the relaxed or dilated
PART III. blood-vessels. This accounts for the number of people who com-
Wellington. plain of oppression and difficulty of breathing with increased action
Medical of the heart, amounting in some to cardialsfia on first arrival from
Report on ° -,■ . ^ ■ ,
Climate, &c. the plams. it is an unpleasant condition^ which passes off as the
system accommodates itself to the elevation. From the same cause
persons on first arrival at the Hills suffer from sleeplessness and
giddiness, with marked dilatation of the pupils, due to an insuffi-
ciency of blood being propelled to the brain by the embarrassed
heart. This symptom is distressing and is not benefited,
as a rule, by narcotics, but bromide of potassium with quassia is
useful by its sedative and tonic action. For the same reason
lung diseases, particularly phthisis, do badly throughout their
whole course on the Hills. For a similar cause hfemorrhages are
not of unfrequent occurrence, and the medical man has to guard
against this, particularly in women after confinement. Cases of
neuralgia during the easterly winds do badly, relapses are fre-
quent ; in fact it has been known to have originated by a residence
here, and a change to the plains seems to be the only cure.
It may be stated then that the climate of the Hills is decidedly
injurious to cases of organic disease of the abdominal and thoracic
viscera, secondary syphilitic disease, and cases of dysentery
complicated with liver, also diarrhoea of a chronic nature. It is
particularly prejudicial to cardiac, cerebral, and lung affections,
and to diseases of the liver and kidneys. This can be easily under-
stood when one considers that action of the skin and lungs, which
are the great contemporaneous channels of relief to these organs
in the plains, is in the one instance, the skin, totally checked, and
in the other, the lungs, called upon by elevation to do much more
than double work. This is shown by persons going up hill
suffering from dyspnoea, which results from the system demand-
ing more oxygen.
Any violent exercise is prejudicial, as it is thought liable to
produce disease of the circulatory system, and for this reason
gymnastic exercises are discouraged, and shot drill is not allowed.
Elderly persons are liable to irregularity of the bowels, due to
torpid action of the liver, and diarrhoea is common on first
arrival, unless great precautions are obsei^ved to avoid internal
congestions, this being nature's mode of relief, considering that
there is no transpiration through the skin ; and women from the
same cause, on first arrival, are liable to have their menstrual
functions interrupted. Children cannot be too carefully looked
after, and especially is it necessary to protect them from cold
winds by warm clothing. Teething is a most trying ordeal,
children at that period being more liable to acute abdominal and
thoracic attacks. Thoy should be clothed in flannel and all
ARRACKS
REFERENCE
2. Tipts
6 Tipts
Open/ Air/oyce JDrazrvs .
^.
•''^tr^
Mct^r-oyS %
72 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTEICT.
CHAP. IV, endeavouring to propel the blood through the relaxed or dilated
PART III. blood-vessels. This accounts for the number of people who cora-
Wellington. plain of oppression and difficulty of breathing with increased action
Medical of the heart, amounting in some to cardialgia on first arrival from
Report on ° ,. . ° . . . ^
CLIMA.TE, &c. the plams. it is an unpleasant condition^ which passes off as the
system accommodates itself to the elevation. From the same cause
persons on first arrival at the Hills suffer from sleeplessness and
giddiness, with marked dilatation of the pupils, due to an insuffi-
ciency of blood being propelled to the brain by the embarrassed
heart. This symptom is distressing and is not benefited,
as a rule, by narcotics, but bromide of potassium with quassia is
useful by its sedative and tonic action. For the same reason
lung diseases, particularly phthisis, do badly throughout their
whole course on the Hills. For a similar cause hfemorrhages are
not of unfrequent occurrence, and the medical man has to guard
against this, particularly in women after confinement. Cases of
neuralgia during the easterly winds do badly, relapses are fre-
quent ; in fact it has been known to have originated by a residence
here, and a change to the plains seems to be the only cure.
It may be stated then that the climate of the Hills is decidedly
injurious to cases of organic disease of the abdominal and thoracic
viscera, secondary syphilitic disease, and cases of dysentery
complicated with liver, also diarrhoea of a chronic nature. It is
particularly prejudicial to cardiac, cerebral, and lung affections,
and to diseases of the liver and kidneys. This can be easily under-
stood when one considers that action of the skin and lungs, which
are the great contemporaneous channels of relief to these organs
in the plains, is in the one instance, the skin, totally checked, and
in the other, the lungs, called upon by elevation to do much more
than double work. This is shown by persons going up hill
suffering from dyspnoea, which results from the system demand-
ing more oxygen.
Any violent exercise is prejudicial, as it is thought liable to
produce disease of the circulatory system, and for this reason
gymnastic exercises are discouraged, and shot drill is not allowed.
Elderly persons are liable to irregularity of the bowels, due to
torpid action of the liver, and diarrhoea is common on first
arrival, unless great precautions are observed to avoid internal
congestions, this being nature's mode of relief, considering that
there is no transpiration through the skin ; and women from the
same cause, on first arrival, are liable to have their menstrual
functions interrupted. Children cannot be too carefully looked
after, and especially is it necessary to protect them from cold
winds by warm clothing. Teething is a most trying ordeal,
children at that period being more liable to acute abdominal and
thoracic attacks. They should be clothed in flannel and all
I
4
PLAN
SHOWING THE DRAINAGE AND WATER SUPPLY TO THE BARRACKS.
ai
WELLINGTON. ^
REFERENCE
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. /O
changes of temperature avoided. Convulsions are common ; CHAP, iv,
whooping-cough and mumps are frequent ; measles and ophthal- PART III.
mia have been epidemic ; scarlet fever known, and small-pox Wellington.
also has been prevalent. Medical
. . Report on
Ihe greatest care is necessary, however, to avoid attacks of Climate, &c.
bowel-complaint, to which children, particularly at this depot,
are liable either from teething, chill, irregularity of diet,
exposure to the sun, or imperfect clothing, and to avoid which
latter a flannel roller should be always worn. Those above
four or five years of age thrive well ; their physical condition and
mental development under most circumstances improve- The
chances of sickness among children will now, no doubt, be much
decreased by the late general order directing officers command-
ing regiments to observe particularly that women and children
sent to Wellington for change should be provided with clothing
suitable for the climate.
The barracks consist of six blocks of double-storied masonry Barracks,
buildings enclosing a parallelogram. They are all alike, except the
one to the east, which is occupied by Staff Sergeants, Staff Ofl&ce,
and Court-martial room upstairs ; Sergeants' mess, the coffee
shop (at present utilised as a Roman Catholic Chapel), guard-
room with lock-up room for prisoners off it. Quartermaster's
store. Barrack store, and Carpenter's workshop on the lower
story.
The square is entered by an arch in the centre of this barrack,
which faces east and west. The remaining barracks are divided
into open verandahs on each story, inside verandahs which
are used for dining in, and long sleeping rooms which accommo-
date 35 men each, with rooms for two non-commissioned officers
at either end, and the cook-houses are in the lower story of each
building. The ventilation is good, although the flooring of the
lower story is only 18 inches from the ground ; but a free
current of air passes under it through holes above the ground
on either side, underneath the verandah. It is in consequence
dry, and sickness cannot be attributed to dampness. There are
fire-places at either end, and several small holes near the floor and
ceiling, with open arches leading into the back verandahs
connected with doors, which afford ample ventilation. The upper
stories are lofty with pent roof, very freely ventilated by swinging
windows ; they afford the same accommodation as the lower story,
viz., 35 in the large rooms and four non-commissioned officers'
rooms. One of these large rooms in the upper story is used for a
; Church of England, and, as it is one of the best situated, ventilated,
,and airy barracks, the misappropriation should, if possible, be
prevented. The question that arises is, where can the church be
; put ? A site has been selected for it on the rising ground to
10
7-4- MANUAL OF THE XILAGIRI DISTEICT,
CEAP. IV, the west of the married quarters, and with a garrison of the
PART III. strength of the depot, and a Resident Chaplain, it is to be hoped
Wellington ^^^^ Government will in time be able to erect a proper place of
Medical worship. The adjoining room in this upper barrack is used for
Cumat'" &c ^ recreation and reading room, coffee shop, and theatre. The
out-houses are situated on the flanks to the west, north, and
south, and are covered buildings, well constructed and suitable
for the purposes they are required for. The cook-houses, as
stated before, are situated at the end and on the lower story of the
building. They are provided with a range, and the cooking, which
is conducted by the soldiers under a master- cook, is well carried
out: variety is obtained, and the food supplied is liked by the men.
The married quarters are to the north and west of the plateau
on which the soldiers' barracks are built. They are placed on a
plateau formed by the hillside being scarped out, and consist of
four ranges of double-storied buildings containing accommo-
dation for 107 persons, allowing each family a front and back
room. They are well raised, fairly ventilated, and well suited to
the purpose, the only objection being the fire-place in the front
room, which is required to be used for cooking purposes, and
which occasionally smokes. The out-houses which are situated at
the back, reached by covered ways, are very good and suitable.
The drainage of the barracks throughout is conducted by
open masonry channels, which communicate with deeper trapped
drains, and empty themselves on the slopes. These require to
be frequently flushed, but answer well. The married quarters are
drained by open masonry drains, which have not answered well,
as the slope is hardly sufficient, but this state of things has lately
been improved by keeping a stream of water constantly flowing
into them, and by their being carefully and frequently swept by
hand.
The hospital is to the north about 70 feet lower than the
barracks on the summit of a hill, which renders it dry, and permits
it to be drained easily and effectually. It consists of two single-
storied masonry buildings, enclosing a parallelogram, with the
west end composed of out-houses, and store rooms, and the east
end free, or rather having the Meteorological Observatory shed
facing to the north. The accommodation is (commencing with the
building to the west and south) the Hospital Sergeant's quarters,
two special wards, surgery and store rooms for medicines, two
large wards, one known as the " non-commissioned officers'
ward," which is capable of accommodating 12, and the one
adjoining it of accommodating 15 men, with an enclosed verandah
running the full length and facing to the square. At the west end
is a small special ward for isolating sei'ious cases. Facing out-
wards are open verandahs, which are used fur smoking. The other
Sec Totqe, 2? o-^ Tltfort.
bumF
74 MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIRI DISTEICT.
CHAP. IV, the west of the married quarters, and with a garrison of the
PART III. strength of the depot, and a Resident Chaplain, it is to be hoped
Wellington. *^^^* Government will in time be able to erect a proper place of
Medical worship. The adjoining room in this upper barrack is used for
Climate &c. ^ recreation and reading room, coffee shop, and theatre. The
out-houses are situated on the flanks to the west, north, and
south, and are covered buildings, well constructed and suitable
for the purposes they are required for. The cook-houses, as
stated before, are situated at the end and on the lower story of the
building. They are provided with a range, and the cooking, which
is conducted by the soldiers under a master-cook, is well carried
out: variety is obtained, and the food supplied is liked by the men.
The married quarters are to the north and west of the plateau
on which the soldiers' barracks are built. They are placed on a
plateau formed by the hillside being scarped out, and consist of
four ranges of double-storied buildings containing accommo-
dation for 107 persons, allowing each family a front and back
room. They are well raised, fairly ventilated, and well suited to
the purpose, the only objection being the fire-place in the front
room, which is required to be used for cooking purposes, and
which occasionally smokes. The out-houses which are situated at
the back, reached by covered ways, are very good and suitable.
The drainage of the barracks throughout is conducted by
open masonry channels, which communicate with deeper trapped
drains, and empty themselves on the slopes. These require to
be frequently flushed, but answer well. The married quarters are
drained by open masonry drains, which have not answered well,
as the slope is hardly sufficient, but this state of things has lately
been improved by keeping a stream of water constantly flowing
into them, and by their being carefully and frequently swept by
hand.
The hospital is to the north about 70 feet lower than the
barracks on the summit of a hill, which renders it dry, and permits
it to be drained easily and effectually. It consists of two single-
storied masonry buildings, enclosing a parallelogram, with the
west end composed of out-houses, and store rooms, and the east
end free, or rather having the Meteorological Observatory shed
facing to the north. The accommodation is (commencing with the
building to the west and south) the Hospital Sergeant's quarters,
two special wards, surgery and store rooms for medicines, two
large wards, one known as the " non-commissioned officers'
ward," which is capable of accommodating 12, and the one
adjoining it of accommodating 15 men, with an enclosed verandah
running the full length and facing to the square. At the west end
is a small special ward for isolating serious cases. Facing out-
wards are open verandahs, which are used for smoking. The other
1- _
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SECTION THRO A. B
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AT
WELLINGTON
SCA^E 30 FEET ONE INCH
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PLAN OF THE MILITARY HOSPITAL.
at
WELLINGTON.
SCALE 4-0 FEET'TO 1 INCH.
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MANUAL OF THE NiLAGIEI DISTRICT. 75
building facing to the north has also two large wards, each CHAP. IV,
capable of accommodating 18 patients, with a verandah running- PART III.
its full length, facing the square, and an open verandah at the wkllington.
back used for smoking. At the west end are the Matron's Mkdical
quarters, and a small room known as the female hospital, which is climatk,&c.
divided, one section forming a ward for women during confinement.
The latrines, which are on the flanks, reached by covered and
closed passages, are suitable, well attended to, and conducted
strictly on the dry-earth principle. The drainage is by open
masonry channels conveying the waste wash and rain water down
the slopes. The wash-house is suitable, and is provided with basins
and taps, and a plentiful supply of water. Cooking is on a range
and is performed by native cooks under the superintendence of a
European orderly. It answers admirably, the men having various
and savory dishes, and curries when allowed, soups, puddings,
jellies, &c.
The hospital accommodation for women and children is insufH-
cient, there being only room in the ward, known as the female
hospital, for six beds, whereas seven and eight women and as
many as 18 children have required hospital treatment at one time
during the past season, 1876. The small room adjoining the female
hospital is capable of accommodating one woman, but as many
as three have been obliged to be placed in it. There are no small
wards for the treatment of special cases. One woman, suffering
from enteric fever, and a child suffering from the same, have
been obliged to be placed in a small room at the end of the
godown. This shows how great is the necessity for a new female
hospital, and now, as it is believed the number of men at this
depot will be increased by the occupation of the new barrack,
the whole of the men's hospital will be required for their own
use. It will thus be necessary to vacate the present Matron's
quarters and female hospital, and to provide others elsewhere.
I have proposed that the present lock hos]iital, which is a well-
rai.sed, well-ventilated building with boarded floor, and will
accommodate about 14 patients, should be converted for the
purpose by verandahs being thrown out front and back, and a
Matron's quarters with Medical Officer's room for out-patients
being added, without any very great outlay of money, especially
as Government are impressed with the necessity of erecting a
new lock hospital in a less objectionable position than the present,
and have sanctioned 13,000 rupees for this purpose.
The cantonment extends on the west from the Commissariat Cantonmciu.
store and godown, on the north to the Commissariat cattle-shed,
near the Jackatalla valley, on the east to the Kotagiri road and
Commandant's hill, and south to the race-course. The centre
is at a point known as the fountain where ten roads meet.
76
MANUAL OF THE KILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP, IV,
PART III.
Wellington.
Medical
Report on
Climate, &c,
Sanitary
condition.
The bazaar.
that from Kotagiri, Coonoor^ Barrack.Sj and the Commissariat
being most conspicuous. There are several houses of residents,
who are nearly all connected with the depot. The houses are
scattered prettily on the sides, slopes, and summits of the smaller
and sheltered hills.
The cantonment is carefully supervised by a Committee, of
which the Commandant is President, the Cantonment Magistrate
Secretary, and the Senior Medical Officer Sanitary Officer. The
roads, compounds, hill-sides, and valleys are kept free of over-
growing or decaying underwood, hedges are clipped, grass for
grazing purposes preserved, drains kept clean, water-courses
kept from defilement, and the lower branches of trees lopped,
thus permitting a free current of air. For these duties the
Conservancy Committee is responsible.
The Wellington Bazaar is prettily situated on the slope of a
hill extending to a valley leading from the west and south of the
barracks. It is well cared for, clean, and from its position well
drained throughout. It has masonry channels, which convey
drinking water obtained from a mountain stream to the north
and west, thus artificially turned to supply this bazaar. The
number of houses has decreased within the last two years. No
thatch is allowed, whilst ruinous houses have been removed, and
regularity with regard to position and ventilation insisted upon.
The natives are principally Pareiyas and Kanarese laborers with
a few dealers in grain and produce from the low country. The
Magistrate's Court is situated here, where criminal cases are
tried and civil suits are heard. During the year 1875, of the
former there were 880 cases, and of the latter 91. There is a
Police station also. During 1875 there was an expensive latrine
built here, which is worked on the dry-earth system, and adds
greatly to the cleanliness, and thereby the health of the village.
Its deposits are converted into poudrette, which meets with ready
sale to the coffee planters.
There was a good deal of sickness in the bazaar during the
season of 1876, but this was general throughout the district, and
is attributed to the scarcity of rain. The inhabitants suifered
from febrile and bowel disorders.
The natives of this station including camp followers, private
servants, the establishments of the Commissariat and Magistrate,
and the Sappers, which ai-e composed of a detachment of 35 men,
3 Naigues, 2 Havildars, and 1 Native officer, are totally without
any immediate supply of medicines or medical attendance, and
are obliged to apply to the Coonoor Dispensary — a distance of
two miles — for treatment.
In 1875 there wore 141 persons living in fho Wellington
Bazaar who applied to the Coonoor Dispensary for treatment
76 MANUAL OF THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP, IV, that from Kotagiri, Coonoor^ Barracks, and the Commissariat
PART III. being- most conspicuous. There are several houses of residents,
Wellington. ^^^ ^•'^ nearly all connected with the depot. The houses are
Medical scattered prettily on the sides, slopes, and summits of the smaller
Climate, &c. ^^^ sheltered hills.
-_ The cantonment is carefully supervised by a Committee, of
conditfOTi. which the Commandant is President, the Cantonment Magistrate
Secretary, and the Senior Medical Officer Sanitary Officer, The
roads, compounds, hill-sides, and valleys are kept free of over-
growing or decaying underwood, hedges are clipped, grass for
grazing purposes preserved, drains kept clean, water-courses
kept from defilement, and the lower branches of trees lopped,
thus permitting a free current of air. For these duties the
Conservancy Committee is responsible.
The bazaar. The Wellington Bazaar is prettily situated on the slope of a
hill extending to a valley leading from the west and south of the
barracks. It is well cared for, clean, and from its position well
drained throughout. It has masonry channels, which convey
drinking water obtained from a mountain stream to the north
and west, thus artificially turned to supply this bazaar. The
number of houses has decreased within the last two years. No
thatch is allowed, whilst ruinous houses have been removed, and
regularity with regard to position and ventilation insisted upon.
The natives are principally Pareiyas and Kanarese laborers with
a few dealers in grain and produce from the low country. The
Magistrate's Court is situated here, where criminal cases are
tried and civil suits are heard. During the year 1875, of the
former there were 880 cases, and of the latter 91. There is a
Police station also. During 1875 there was an expensive latrine
built here, which is worked on the dry-earth system, and adds
gi'eatly to the cleanliness, and thereby the health of the village.
Its deposits are converted into poudrette, which meets with ready
sale to the coffee planters.
There was a good deal of sickness in the bazaar during the
season of 1876, but this was general throughout the district, and
is attributed to the scarcity of rain. The inhabitants suffered
from febrile and bowel disorders.
The natives of this station including camp followers, private
servants, the establishments of the Commissariat and Magistrate,
and the Sappers, which are composed of a detachment of 35 men,
3 Naigues, 2 Havildars, and 1 Native officer, are totally without
any immediate supply of medicines or medical attendance, and
are obliged to apply to the Coonoor Dispensary— a distance of
two miles — for treatment.
In 1875 there were 141 persons living in the Wellington
Bazaar who applied to the Cocmoor Dispensary for treatment
SCALE 14 FEET'ONE INCH
LATRINE
WASH HOUSE.
li
SECTION thro: A .
SECTION THRO. CD.
MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIR] DISTRICT. 77
compared with 39 in 1874. From January to May ague, CHAP, iv,
rheumatism, dysentery, diarrhoea, and bronchitis prevailed. It PART III.
will be observed that the numbers applying for treatment are weilington
greatly on the increase (in 1876), and the Medical Officer of Medical
Coonoor has represented the totally insufficient accommodation Climate &c
there available. It has been recommended through the Canton-
ment Committee to Government that a Civil Dispensary or
detached hospital should be built at Wellington.
There is abundance of excellent water at and about Wellington, water.
For ablution purposes, connected with the barracks, there is a supply.
large masonry reservoir on the hill, about 80 feet above the
barracks on the eastern slope. The water is brought by artificial
channels from the neighbourhood of Doddabetta, and is conveyed
by hydrostatic pressure through iron pipes to the ablution rooms
and Staff Sergeants^ quarters, cook-houses, and married soldiers'
out-houses, and finally to the wash-house at the hospital. This
water is not fit for drinking, but for that purpose water is
obtained, of abundant quantity and excellent quality, from two
springs wliich arise beneath the rocks about 300 yards from the
barracks to the east and north. Here the springs are enclosed
with a masonry wall and protected by a small shady forest of
trees. The sun's rays can never reach it, and the water is
consequently cool and refreshing. It is collected at this spot
in a cask with cover and lock and key, arranged so that the
overflow is constantly passing into a channel conveying it to a
reservoir, within about 30 feet of the barracks, from which it is
conveyed by water-carriers to the filters and cook-houses. This
a,rrangement has its objections : roots of trees get into the
masonry channel ; the water is contaminated, and repairs are
expensive : whereas, if there was an iron pipe from the spring to
the reservoir, this would be avoided. Again, the reservoir is
not what it should be. At present there is merely a trough, and
the flow of 380 gallons per hour passes off as waste.
The rations of the troops consist of beef five times a week and Commissariat
mutton twice ; this is supplied by contract, the animals being ^^PP^'^^-
brought from the plains of Coimbatore a short time before being
required, as it has been found that keeping stock on the Hills
does not answer. The animals suff'er from bowel-complaint and
rapidly fall oft" in flesh. The vegetables consist of potatoes and
onions as a regular issue and the addition of other vegetables in
season at the time. The bread is made at Coonoor and is of good
quality. Beer and porter are supplied by the Commissariat for
the troops, home-brewed, and of good quality. Locally-brewed
, beer is not used, as in the North-West Provinces. Excellent beer
is brewed at Kiissowlie and JMuree, and is drunk generally by
i
78 MANUAL OF THE NLIAGIRI PTSlRICT.
CHAP. IV, troops serving in that part of India. It is a light refreshing
PART III. beverage, possesses tonic properties from chiretta or other bitters
Wellington, that is added to improve its quality, and its use proves a great
Medical saving to Government. Spirits are not allowed under any
Climate, &c. circumstances, except in cases of sickness, to be issued to the
convalescents at this depot, and yet, on reference to the returns,
it will be seen what a large number of cases of intemperance are
treated, showing that it is obtained clandestinely to an enormous
extent.
Amusements. The race-course, which is the great centre of attraction in the
month of May, is situated in a valley to the south-east. It is
well sheltered, planted with short grass, is kept in first-rate order,
and, except for one or two sharp turns, is considered a favorite
course by sportsmen. There is an excellent cricket ground on
the course with a good pavilion, where tiffin is provided. Matches
usually occur weekly, in which persons join from Ootacamand,
Coonoor, and Kotagiri, Here foot-ball also might be played.
Badminton and Lawn Tennis, and Archery are among the
sports. At the barracks they have reading rooms, where many
newspapers — Indian and English — are taken in. Games, such
as drafts, chess, bagatelle, and cards are played and theatricals
performed. Out-of-doors there are a fives^ and racket courts and
a skittle alley.
There is a good coffee-shop connected with the depot, looked
after by an officer, where men may obtain refreshments at a
moderate rate.
Duties of the The duties of the troops, which are light and conducive to
troops. health, consist of short parades, route-marches, inspections, and
fatigue duties, the latter consisting in carrying the rations,
working the fire-engines, looking after their barrack-rooms,
superintending the filters and out-houses. Except for the latrines,
no native servants are allowed.
The guards consist of the main guard furnishing four senti-ies
under the command of a Sergeant — one over the magazine, one
over the prisoners, and two over the cash-chests ; and, when
there are cell-prisoners, a Corporal's guard furnishing one sentry
is detailed, and when there are court-martial prisoners in hospital
a guard of the same strength is required at the hospital guard-
room, as under ordinary circumstances no hospital guai'd has been
considered necessary.
Serge and woollen cloth clothing is worn by the troops
throughout the year, and at night the sentries, especially during
the cold weather, wear their great coats. The parades do not
take place very early in the day ; that of church and inspections,
as a I'lile, at 1 1 o'clock.
MANUAL OP THE NILAGTKl DISTRICT. 79
Tlie accompanying- taLle is intended to convey at a glance the CHAP, iv,
sickness and mortality at the depot for the past four years, showing PART III.
the disposal, i.e., men that have benefited and have returned to Wellington
the plains and those who have not benefited, who have either Medical
been sent to the depot at Poonamallee, retained at this depot c^J^mate &c
for another year, or invalided.
In 1873 the average strength of the depot was 450-91 men,
66 women, and 138 children. Out of this number 107 men were
treated for fever, of which 56 were ague; 33 were treated for lung
affections, 32 for heart disease, and 240 for other complaints,
including debility, accidents, and milder classes of disease.
There were 401 men benefited; 28 were sent to Foonamallee ; 40
invalided to England; 10 deaths occurred — 2 from fever (one of
which was enteric), 3 from lung affections (2 of which were phthisis
and 1 pneumonia) , 2 from aneurism, 1 from dysentery, and 2 from
abscess of the liver. If we analyse these deaths, we will see that
the two cases of phthisis ought never to have been sent to the
Hills, that the case of dysentery could not have been expected to
benefit, that the two aneurisms were decidedly unsuitable cases,
and also the abscess of the liver, as all organic affections of this
organ are objected to, if it could have been diagnosed. The result
is only three cases of death due to the climate, whilst in the
case of enteric fever it is doubtful whether it may not have been
contracted elsewhere.
There were no deaths among the women in 1873, and the
principal sicknesses from which they suffered were bowel-com-
plaints, hepatitis, and debility.
Among the children there were 6 deaths, 1 from measles, 2
from debility, 1 from bronchitis, and 2 from diarrhoea, the latter
showing the great necessity for warm clothing.
In 1874 the average strength of the depot was 477-42 men,
85-52 women, and 189-71 children. There were 543 admissions
to hospital among the men, of which 71 w^ere fever, 49 lung
diseases, 18 derangements of the liver, 19 intemperance, 85
bowels, and 176 from other complaints. 470 benefited and
returned to the plains, 12 were sent to Poonamallee, 51 invalided
home, and 7 died from the following causes : — 1 calcareous degene-
ration of the aorta, 1 medullary cancer, 1 red softening of the brain,
1 meningitis, 2 pneumonia, and 1 enteric fever. To analyse these
deaths, all, except the fever and pneumonia, might have occurred
anywhere, and therefore cannot be attributed to any peculiarity
of the Wellington climate.
Of the women there were 67 admissions and 4 deaths — 1 from
small-pox, 1 from consumption, 1 from angina pectoris, and 1
from abortion.
80 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. TV, Of the children there were 77 admissions and 7 deaths — 1 from
PART III. measles, 1 from constitutional syphilis, 1 from cancer of the mouth,
^ ^ 1 from bronchitis, 1 from teething, and 1 from debility.
W ELLINGTON.
Medical In 1875 the average strength of the depot was 512-41 men,
CLiM^r^E.^c. 95-50 women, 233-10 children. There were 478 men admitted to
hospital, of whom 75 were cases of fever, 51 bowel disorders,
26 liver derangements, 88 venereal, and 73 other complaints;
430 benefited, 58 were invalided, 8 sent to Poonamallee, and 6
died. Of these three were fi'om diseases of the circulatory system,
all being aneurisms of the aoita, and three of abscess of the liver.
These cases were not suitable to the climate of the Hills.
Of the women there were 95 admitted and 4 deaths, 1 from
ague, 1 from pneumonia, 1 from retention of the placenta, and
1 from debility.
Of the children there were 101 admissions, and the great
mortality of 20. Of these, 1 died of cancer of the mouth, 1 of
tabes mesenterica, 1 of scrofula, 2 of tubercular meningitis, 2 of
puerpera, 2 of convulsions, 2 of hydrocephalus, 1 of bronchitis,
3 teething, 1 dysentery, 1 tonsillitis, and 3 debility.
The year 1876 was a sickly one, due, it is supposed, to there not
having been a proper fall of rain from the south-west monsoon,
and there were, up to the end of September, as many as 632
admissions to hospital among the men.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIKI DISTRICT.
81
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^ :• ; ; ; i : i : S ! 32
1
Fevers
Lung-s
Bowels
Heart
Liver
Brain
Venereal
Intemperance . . .
Accidents
Other complaints.
Total ...
CHAP. IV,
[.PART III.
Wellington.
Medical
Report on
Climate, &c.
Sicknes.'^ and
mortality.
rH 5i
11
82
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRJ DISTRICT.
CHAP. IV,
PART III.
Wellington.
Medical
Eeport on
Climate, &c.
'^
*
55
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MANUAL OF THE NJLAGIRI DISTRICT. 83
CHAPTER V.
GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
Geology and
ERALOGY.
Early papers. — Geological Survey. — General desci'iption. — Action of water — fre.sh
— marine. — Rock formation. — Granite absent.— Gaeissose rocks — foliations. —
Minerals — iron — horublendic gneiss. — Other varieties — Land.slips. — Intruded
rocks. — Dislocations. — Three systems of faults. — Disturbances. — Upheaval
of the ghdts. — Quartz veins. — Withering of rocks. — Laterite. — Kaolin.—
Clays. — Escarpments. — Kaity valley. — Kundas. — ^ Alluvial. — Economic geology.
— Limestone. — Mr. King's note. — Gold. — Sonth-East Wainid.
Several papers on the geological and mineralogical structure of CHAP. v
these hills have, from time to time during the last forty years
been laid before the public. The earliest of these was a '' Geolo- min
gical Sketch of the Nilgiris/^ contributed to the Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1835 by Dr. P. M. deBenza, the
Surgeon to the Governor of Madras at the time. This paper,
which is spoken of by Mr, Blandford as " very excellent/' will
be found in an improved form in Volume III of the Journal of the
Madras Literary and Scientific Society. " The Eeport on the
Medical Topography of the Neilgherry Hills/' printed by order
of Government in 1844, contains some valuable remarks on the
geology of the hills. During this and the following year a
series of letters on their topography, geology, and ethnology
was contributed to the Madras Spectator by Captain Congreve
and Dr. Burrell. Later, Captain Congreve, in the year 1861
(Vol. V, No. XVI, December) furnished another paper on the
geology of the district to the Madras Literary and Scientific
Society, in which his opinions and observations are given in
a more systematic form than in the earlier brochures. In
Major Ouchterlony's Survey Memoir (1847) there will also be
found some information on the subject, as also in two papers
contributed to the Journal of the Asiatic Society, Bengal, New
Series, No. LXXXVI, about the year 1856.
84
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Geological
Survey.
General
desci'iption.
CHAP. V. In the year 1867, in accordance with measures, proposed by
Geology and ^^® Government of India and approved by the Honorable Court
Mineralogy, of Directors^ for the investigation of the geological structure and
mineral character of the country comprised within the Presidency
of Madras, Mr, Henry F. Blandford, of the Geological Survey of
India, was deputed to carry out a systematic survey of the
Presidency. Mr. Blandford began operations on the Nilagiris
and the table-land of Mysore in the month of June of that year.
The results of his inquiries, as respects the Nilagiris, which form
the basis of the following monograph, will be found in the
Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Vol. I, Part II, published in
1858. Mr. Blandford was accompanied by three assistants,
Messrs. Oldham, King, and Geoghegan.
Of the Nilagiris Mr. Blandford observes that they, like
most of the hill-tracts of the peninsula, e.g., the Shevaroys,
Pulnis, and Anemales, rise abruptly from the lower country
round them, and are bounded on all sides by short precipitous
spurs, the remains of a great former escarpment, which, in
the course of long ages, has been broken up by the unceasing
action of the numerous streams pouring down from their surface.
After describing the drainage system already explained in
Chapter I, Mr. Blandford goes on to point out that the gorges
which break into the lateral faces of the hills are the result of
the attrital action of the water flowing down from the plateau.
In his own words :
" They have, therefore, the precipitous sides, and are separated by
the steep ridges which ahvays result from extensive fresh water
denudation in a mountainous country. The surface of the Neelgher-
ries, on the other hand, is undulating in the extreme, and the streams
which carry off its drainage meander with a comparatively gentle fall
through rounded grassy hills, but rarely forming anything like a
large rocky bluff; while the valleys never present the slightest
approach to the character of a gorge, except in some of the deeper
valleys of the Kundas, where * * * the i-ainfall is far greater than on
the surface of Neelgherries proper, and the denudation produced
thereby consequently greater. It might be inferred, therefore, even
from a casual glance at the Neelgherries, that the hills on the plateau
owe their form to marine action, it being a well established fact that
rounded hills and an undulating country are invariably the result of
such action. But on the Neelgherries we have a further proof that
the sea has formerly washed over what is now the highest portion of
the table-land, in the existence of a series of escarpments, imperfect
indeed in many cases and much cut up by the subsequent action of
surface water, but still distinctly recognisable to the practised eye,
and sometimes traceable for a distance of many miles contiiuiously.
Action of
water —
fresh.
Sea.
MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT. 85
The most conspicuous of these superficial escarpments crosses the CHAP. V.
hills in a south-west direction from the rise of the Pykara near q^ol^^ and
Makurty Peak, and forms the boundary of that elevated portion of Mineralogy,
the plateau to which the name of the Kundas has been given."
The rocks which constitute the Nilagiris belong almost wholly to Rock forma-
Itlie schistose or foliated class, which are included by some ^^^'
geologists among metamorphic rocks. But for reasons given,
Mr, Blandford regards this appellation as of but doubtful
propriety, preferring to restrict himself to the term gneissose
rocks, " gneiss being the most known and most typical of the
series.^' The other rocks are chiefly alluvial deposits, small
basaltic dykes, and some quartz veins. Nowhere above the Granite
ghdts has any trace of granite or of rocks belonging to that class ^^^®^*-
been found, though in the district below the ghats numerous
small granite veins are observable.
The rocks occurring in the district and neighbouriug tracts Gneissose
are very varied in mineral character, and might easily be regarded ''°'''^^"
as of Plutonic origin. But though at times their foliated structure
is very indistinct, yet they invariably pass into a more markedly-
typical gneissose form. They never " form igneous veins or
present any appearance of intrusion, ^^ Their foliated character
is much more marked in the plains than in mountainous tracts.
The direction of this foliation, which is fairly constant, approxi- Direction of
mately coincides with that of the " southern escarpment of the ^^luitions,
Neelgherries, the Bhowani River, the Eastern Ghats, and many of
the principal ridges on the surface of the plateau, especially those
to the south of Ootacamund. Its prevailing strike is between N,E.,
S,W. and E,N,E, and W,S,W.'' A few variations occur, notably
at Snowdon, . but these are very local. The foliation is most
distinct at Kotagiri, but it is rarely strongly marked, and never
approaches to a schistose character. The foliation becomes more
strongly marked as you descend the ghats, especially the Coonoor
ghdt, near Mettapollium. "A coarse hornblende schist, composed of
thick alternating laminas of quartz and hornblende, is seen protrud-
ing from the ground in large slabs resembling the old tombstones in
a country churchyard. ^^ The foliation becomes more compact as
you advance into the great Coimbatore plain.
The principal minerals generally found in varying proportions Minerals.
.n these foliated rocks are garnet, felspar, quartz and hornblende.
Mica occurs but rarely, and is stated by Mr, Blandford to be an
exceptional mineral in South India. Besides the above minerals,
'magnetic iron, haematite, specular iron and graphite, and, as the
•esult of decomposition, the various earthy forms of the hydratid
peroxide of iron, such as ochre and laterite and kaolin," are of
ocal occurrence. Of these the oxide of iron is the most abundant.
MANUAL or THE NILAGTRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. V.
Geology and
Mineralogy.
Iron.
HomMendic
gneiss.
Mistakes re-
garding these
rocks.
Quartz fels-
pathic gneiss,
Quartzo-
hornblondic
gneiss.
They occur '' in short irregular bands or masses in the gneiss, such
bands generally running in the direction of the foliation. Haema-
tite and specular iron are far more common on the surface than
magnetic iron, but from their manner, structure and mode of
occurrence, they are probably magnetic iron peroxidized by
atmosphei'ic agency.'' Masses of ore occur above the village of
Karrashdla, a mile and a half to the west of Kotagiri, and on a
spur of the Doddabetta range above the Washermen's — Dhobies' —
village at Ootacamand. Similar deposits also occur three miles to
the east of Jackatalla or Wellington. Here the haematite is
" interfoliated with the gneiss in broad strings of pure mineral."
In the north-western portion of the Nllagiris the gneiss contains
a very large proportion of hornblende, with which is intermixed
quartz and some garnets. This rock is described as " a hard,
tough, black rock breaking with an even fracture." It contains
but few traces of foliation in fresh fractures, but on weathered
surfaces it is otherwise. A similar hornblendic gneissose
formation constitutes the north-east or lofty section of the
Kundas, though here it is stated to be much decomposed,
producing " a thick covering of ferruginous clay and lateritic
gravel." It is these varieties of gneiss which, Mr. Blandford
observes, had misled previous geological observers, who have
described them as " syenite, greenstone, and kindred igneous
rocks." " Such formations will be seen on the Segore Ghat,
where the rock weathers into smooth rounded blocks " without
any appearance of foliation-
Near Sisapara on the Kundas appears another variety of gneissose
rock, the component minerals of which are felspar and quartz.
This variety was described by Dr. Benza as pegmatite, or graphic
granite ; but from the fact that it gradually passes into the
neighbouring gneiss, whilst the threads of quartz are " all arranged
in the normal direction of foliation," Mr. Blandford does not
hesitate to pronounce it a gneissose rock. A similar rock occurs
in the valley north-west of Snowdon, and also a more extensive
spread north of Melur, " forming a belt about three miles in
width passing from the foot of the Kundas to the Kaity valley/'
This rock contains also garnets in abundance.
Mr. Blandford observes that the most common kind of gneiss
in the central portions of the plateau is " a finely grained rock
composed of quartz, garnet and hornblende, with variable
proportions of felspar." Its foliation is indistinct; it is very
decomposible, except on the large precipitous faces, and in
decomposition forms a large mass of ferruginous clay, embedded
in which are large spheroidal boulders. In large exposed faces
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRl DISTRICT.
87
the rock shows a tendency to split off in enormous slabs slightly CHAP. v.
curved to the form of the hill side/^ The probable cause o£ these n
. ^ (jrEOLOGY AND
sphts IS the heat of the sun, which makes the surface layers Mineralogy.
expand rapidly and then separate from the cooler rock beneath. ^, TT
After heavy rain the decomposing mass, being saturated with
water, frequently breaks oif from the main rock and rushes down,
scattering the embedded boulders over the valley below. The
mark of such landslips may be observed along the Doddabetta
slopes forming the north-east side of the Kaity valley.
Mr. Blandford draws attention to the banded structure of the Banded
gneiss, which contains much hornblende, about Paikare and structure of
Mlikarte. The bands protrude from the hill-side and always run
HARD BAND&IN GNEISS, NEAR NEDDIWUTTUM,
in the direction of the foliation. Traces of this banded structure
also appear in the hills around Ootacamand, but it is rarely
possible to trace them to any distance, as they " either become
lenticular or break up and die away in the mass.'' He then
refers to a remarkable limestone formation in Coimbatore ^ exhibit-
bg the banded structure of these rocks more clearly. The lime-
Istone and the gneiss run in alternate bands. " The regularity
ind continuity of this rock for a distance of six miles and proba-
bly even more render it difficult " he writes, " to believe that it
pan be other than a really metamorphosed band of sedimentary
Series.
Notice, Madras Journal of Lite'>-atih'>-e and Science, "Vol. Ill, No. V, N§w
88 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. V. rocks^ and afford the strongest evidence of such an origin that has
Geolog^ and y^^ ^^®^ obtained in this part of India.''
Mineralogy.
FIC.I/I- TMIH ALTERNATIONS OF LIMESTONE AND CNEISS, WEATHERED,- NfAR COIMHATOOR.
Intruded
rocks.
Dislocations.
Three
systems of
faults.
As already mentioned no granite is found on the hills^ and the
other rocks which were regarded by Dr. Benza as of igneous
origin are now shown to be foliated. A few small dykes, however,
of rocks which are undoubtedly trap occur. One will be observed
north of the Paikare road near Ootacamand and another on the
northern slope of Snowdon, " about 200 yards from the summit,
and again to the north-west in the_bed of a small water-course
on the western side of the valley, and in both cases consists of
several small parallel dykes, varying from two to ten inches in
width, and consisting of a tough compact basaltic rock." These
dykes run north-west, or nearly at right angles to the foliation of
the gneiss. Trap dykes also appear at the south-west extremity
of the district near Sisapara. Mr. Blandford's paper contains a
minute description of these dykes by his assistant, Mr. King.
As regards the age of the trap dykes no evidence, Mr. Bland-
ford observes, is forthcoming, consequently " it is impossible to
say whether or not they are connected with the great outbreak
of the Deckan." Similar dykes, however, occur in Mysore.
Mr. Blandford's remarks on these subjects seem to me too
valuable to be curtailed. After observing that ample evidence
of the dislocations which have occurred is forthcoming in the
physical features of the surface, and to some extent in the
presence of mineral veins, he proceeds : —
" There are three principal systems of faulting, two of them
probably synchronous and at right angles to each other, being
those which coincide with the lines of the Eastern and Western
Ghats respectively, and a third, probably sub.^^equent to the above,
and contemporaneous with the final upheaval of the Neelgherry
plateau.
MANUAL OP THE NILAQIKI DISTRICT. 89
" The first of the systems of dislocation, viz., that to which the CHAP. V.
formation of the Eastern Ghats is due, has an east-north-east direction,
varying occasionally to north-east, and therefore about coincident Mineralogy.
with the general strike of the foliation. To this system belong the
great faults, with a down-throw to south-east which have produced ^^'^^ system.
the Eastern Ghats and the south-eastern escarpment of the Neel. Ghftrand
gherries, and those with a north-western down-throw, which have other line of
given rise to the great Kunda escarpment and that at Neddiwuttum, escarpment,
both of which face towards the north-west. To the smaller dislo-
cations of this system may be attributed the valley of Pykara at the
foot of the Himagala range and the great south-eastern escarpment
of the Dodabetta range, both on the plateau of the hills and having
a down-throw to the south-east.
" The second system is nearly at right angles to the preceding, and Second
has a west-north-west direction, varying to north-west where it meets system.
the former system in the Neelgherries.
" It comprises the Western Ghats and the smaller Neelgherry Western
escarpment of the Kunda range, or that which, facing to the north- G'lats and
east, commences at the Pykara River, and passing thence behind escarpment.
Avalanche, terminates near the village of Keel Kunda, overlooking
the valley of the Bhowani River. These two escarpments, although in
precisely the same line, face in different directions, and it is therefore
probable that the disturbance which gave rise to the latter was of
subsequent date to that which pi^oduced the former, but took place
along the old line of dislocation, the upheaval being on the opposite
side. Another line of fracture belonging to this system is that which
crosses the hills from St. Katharine's Falls to the Elk Fall in the neigh-
borhood of Kotergherry, on the north-eastern portion of the hills. Faults near
and it is to this that the gorges below these two falls are originally Kdtagiri.
due. There does not appear to have been any great amount of
disturbance along this line, so far as can be judged from the present
aspect of the country, but the evidences are sufficiently clear to warrant
the belief that such a fracture exists."
" The third great system of faults is that to which the northern Third system.
boundary of the Neelgherries, the short southern escarpment of the Why regard.
Kunda range, the extreme terminal escarpment of the hill-country ^^} ^^ ^
of Palghat, and probably some smaller dislocations in the hilly country gys^t^m!
intervening between the Neelgherries and Palghat belong. The
first of these might, at first sight, seem to ramify from the line of
I disturbance of the Eastern Ghats, which at their junction has very
nearly the same direction ; but the existence of parallel lines of faulting
elsewhere, all of which are connected with the upheaval of the
Neelgherries as a group, and the incompatibility of such a series as
synchronous with either of the two systems above enumerated, induce
the belief that it belongs to a separate and subsequent system of
[dislocations.
According to the above, the following is the series of successive disturbances
i'iisturbances which have mainly given rise to the present physical ^"^^ deduced
■aspect of the country. [,^^^4
12
90
MANUAL or THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT,
CHAP. V.
Geology and
Mineralogy.
Upheaval of
the ghdts.
Formation
of Nilagiris
" The first great disturbance which took place was the npheaval of
the ghats and the intervening plateau of Mysore, the two main lines
of dislocation meeting and possibly terminating in the Neelgherries.
The great fault, or system of faults, along which the Neelgherry or
Avalanche escarpment of the Kundas was afterwards upraised,
probably gave rise to the terminal portion of the Western Ghats, the
down-throw at the period being towards the south. Many smaller
dislocations, more or less parallel to the two main lines, would be
produced during such an upheaval, and in some of these the isolated
hill mass of the Neelgherries may have been subsequently upraised
to a far greater elevation.
" The second great disturbance which produced the Neelgherries
may have followed the former, either after a certain interval, or as
the closing act of a long period of elevation, the upheaving force being
more concentrated. The area upheaved was bounded partly by a pre-
existing line of fracture and partly by a newly-formed series having
an eastern and western direction. During the same period, minor
disturbances broke up the country for some miles to the south, and
also produced some of those escarpments which have been described
as occurring on the Neelgherries, and which were subsequently much
modified in form by marine action. It is not improbable that the
Neelgherries have been upheaved en masse to some extent since the
surface of the plateau received its present form and since that
portion of the country has been raised above the sea, for the mural
escarpments which bound the Neelgherries are far more precipitous
than we could imagine them to have been had they been subjected
to marine action during a long gradual process of upheaval from the
sea.
" Of the geological periods during which the disturbances just
upheavals not ej^^i^erated took place we can learn nothing in this part of the country,
there being no sedimentary rocks that can furnish any clue to this
important problem.
"The Carnatic, and the country through which the Godavery flows,
are the districts most likely to afford the much desired information
as to the epochs of the disturbance in the Indian peninsula.
"In describing the great lines of fractux'e in the rocks of the
Neelgherries, no notice has been taken of the small quartz veins
occui'ring in various parts of the hills, inasmuch as these minor
disturbances can scarcely be referred to any distinct system. They are
in most cases of no great length or Avidth, and of no economic value.
The vein stone in all of them is a pure white quartz, occasionally
containing a few crystals of pyrites of tolerable size, and which
appear to have the form of the pentagonal dodecahedron. In the
vein which is seen cropping out on the hill side where the Avalanche
road crosses a stream about seven miles from Octacamund, there is a
small quantity of brown haematite (limonite) filling the cavities in the
quartz. This is sometimes seen forming irregular pseudomorphs of
the pyrites, and it is evident that it has resulted from the decomposi-
— subsequent
in part to the
general up-
heaval of the
country.
— epoch of
ascertainable.
Quartz veins
cannot be
classed vcith
any system.
— Of no eco-
nomic value.
— Pyrites.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 91
tion of that mineral. Captain Oucliterlony mentions having found a CHAP. V.
speck of copper pyrites in a loose block derived from one of these „
qnartz veins, but no trace of that mineral has been found by the MmERAuta"
surveyors after careful and repeated examination of the vein stones.
It is possible the iron pyrites or mundic above described mav have Z'^^^T'^ i
, . I ^ t ■, *' haematite liow
been mistaken tor the more valuable cupriferous mineral." found.
With regard to the decomposition of the rocks already adverted —No copper-
to, Mr. Blandford observes that without a careful chemical analysis ^^^^^^'
of the various descriptions of gneiss present on the hills, it is of rocks! ^"°
difficult to account for " the unequal and irregular decomposition
which obtains in many cases in rocks of apparently identical
mineral composition. -"^ Generally it seems that the rocks contain-
ing little or no felspar are little liable to decomposition; the same
is also the case with rocks destitute of hornblende, though con-
taining much felspar. The existence of hardgueiss bands, e.g., at
Mukarte, is due to the fact that some portions of the rock contain
more quartz than others.
The laterite which exists in the hills, where no regular laterite Laterite.
beds are found, appears to be result of the decomposition of horn-
blendic gneiss. ''Theiron^' observes Mr. Blandford, ''originally
contained in the hornblende becomes thoroughly peroxidized and
hydrated, and by a species of crystallization forms a mammillated
coating of impure limonite (brown hematite) exactly resembling
the characteristic surface of laterite." A good instance of this
occurs near the Paikare River on the road to Mukarte.
This mineral is found in several places on the hills. It may be Kaolin ;
seen on the Lake road at Ootacamand, near Fairlawns, and on the ^j^^g®°"*
road between Paikare and Neduwattam. It is stated to contain
too much iron to be of much economic value. The hill kaolin is
formed by felspathic gneiss decomposed m situ. Ordinarily it is
formed from decomposed granite. Several kinds of ferruginous
clays occur, of varying tints, some of which might possibly be used
as pigments. Twenty-eight different varieties of clay were shown
at the Agricultural Exhibition at Ootacamand in October 1869.
Twenty cups manufactured from them at the Madras School of
Arts were also shown, also a flower vase made of the pure white
kaolin. The quality is stated to have been very fine.
The physical aspect of the Nllagiris has, as already pointed out, Evideuces of
been greatly affected by the action of the rainfall, the erosion of °iariue action.
' the rocks being in proportion to the severity of the rainfall. It is
: in the Kundas, for this reason, that we meet with steeper and more
precipitous hills and deeper and more gorge-like valleys than in
other portions of the range which are not open to the full burst
of the south-west monsoon. It is, therefore, on the portions of the
hills where this fresh-water influence has prevailed least, that we
92
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. V. find the most evident marks of former marine action. This is
Geolog7 and especially apparent in the escarpments of the Doddabetta range
MixERALOGY. and spurs.
Mr. Blandford observes —
" The general outline of Dodabetta, as seen from a distance, is much
rounded ; it appears as a prominent mass of hills bounded on the
greater part of its circumference by a tolerably distinct escarpment.
~^^^-^^^^
FIC:V- VILW CF THE D0DA3ETTA AiJD KAlTte tSCAS
Escarpment
— of Kaity
Valley.
This escarpment is especially visible on its south-eastern side
which overlooks Kaitee valley, and again to the north and north-
west of Jackatalla, where the projecting terminations of several spurs
present a striking resemblance to the rocky headlands of parts of the
south coast of England. The ground between these prominent spurs
has been much hollowed out by the streams pouring down from
Dodabetta, and it is, therefore, only by viewing the general contour
of these hills from some little distance that their cliff-like character
becomes apparent. Passing from Jackatalla towards Kotergherry, the
escarpment may still be traced, although much obhterated by the
subsequent formation of valleys. About half-way between Jackatalla
and Kotergherry it turns to the west, and seen from any point on the
northern part of the hills it presents a bold rocky face terminating in
Daversolabetta, a lofty conical peak a few miles north-east of Ootaca-
mund. At this point the escarpment cannot be very distinctly made
out, but to the west of Daversolabetta the upper part of the escarp-
ment appears to turn round to the south and join that overlooking
Ootacamund, while the lower part, which is extremely well marked,
although of comparatively less elevation than that of Dodabetta and
at a somewhat lower level, passes below Marlimund and Seven-Cairn
hill, crossing the Seegoor road, and forming the termination of the
pass of that name, and finally merges into the great boundary escarp-
ment of the hills. To retarn to our starting point, the escarpment
above Kaitee valley may be traced for some distance to the south-
west, and finally dies away, or rather appears to be broken up into
MANUAL or THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 93
smaller escarpments, which, in the course of time, have become nearly CHAP. V,
obliterated by the erosion of the hill streams." -,
'' _ _ Geology and
The same features are, though less distinctly, observable on the Minekalogy.
eastern side of the Kundas and in the range of hills extending —orthT"
from Mukarte to Paikare, sometimes called the Himagala range. Kundas.
The following sketch is a view of Mukarte with the Paikare
river at its foot. Tukalhallibetta, the terminating point of the
Kundas on the north, is concealed by clouds. The Himagdla
range begins with Mukarte.
F1G:V1.-VUW OFIVIAKURTY PEAK wi7h PART of the HIMACALft RANGE, amd the VALLEY
OF THE PYKARA.
Mr. Blandford further remarks —
" There are several small insular outliers, such as that to the north-
west of Mailur, the Hoolicaldroog and the adjoining hills, the hills
to the east of Coonoor, and the two pi'ominent hills * * * to the
west of Ootacamund, all of which are bounded partly at least by
escarpments more or less distinctly marked. Subsequent fresh water
denudation has much modified, where it has not destroyed, most of the
pre-existing features of the hills, in some cases rendering the escarp-
ments still deeper and more marked, in others cutting through them
and making them up into rounded spurs, so that it is only by observing
their general outline from some distance that an idea can be formed
of original appearance."
In many of the valleys of the hills are found large deposits of Alluvial
alluvium, sometimes spreading into plains or flats of consi- deposits,
derable extent. These deposits of the neighbouring mountains
appear to have accumulated in the large serpentine lakes, many
bf which are believed to have existed at some early period of the
geological history of the hills, and which were formed by dams or
ounds of rock thrown up across the valleys, by which means the
Egress of the water was checked. Through these natural bunds of
ock streams will often now be seen gradually wearing a path
iiownwards to the bottom of the original valley. Of these
94
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. V. lakes Mr. Blandford says : "It is evident that any obstacle closing a
Gkolog7 and valley excavated by running water must be of subsequent date to
MiNEJtALoGY. the formation of the valley, and, therefore, if the Neelgherry
valleys now occupied by alluvium be really of fresh water origin,
as seems most probable, there must have been subsequent to
their formation some changes in the levels of the country, which,
by stopping the drainage, converted the pre-existing valleys into
lakes.^^ Again : ^' The form of the valleys which they (the
alluvial flats) occupy precludes the idea that the former were
excavated by any other agent than the hill-streams, and such
being the case, it is, as already stated, only by subsequent
, disturbance that they could be converted into lakes. ^'
2|^^j#«*{if3
I'Hi. Vllr ALLUVIAL PLAIN ON A fLFOE-B 0F7HE PVKARA RIUhR NEAR TUKULHULLYHETTA-
Economic
Limestone.
The rocks of the hills yield but few substances of any econo-
mic value. Limestone, which, as already stated, exists in the
subjacent plain of Coimbatore, has not been found on the hills
either in the crystalline or gravel form. Some of the gneissose
rocks are fairly adapted for building purposes, but the localities
where such varieties occur are generally inaccessible. In most
cases the stone is either very loosely foliated or extremely bad ^
and deficient in joints. Where the structure is loose the stone
seems to have a great tendency to decompose. This is doubt-,
less a great objection to the use of such stone for road metal, j
but in case of building the evil might probably be greatly j
neutralised by placing the blocks so that the cross section of the
foliation only shall be exposed. The gneiss of the Kundas in
the neighbourhood of Sisapara, from its finely jointed character,
is stated to promise well for quarrying purposes ; but the
distance precludes its use. The iron ore of the plateau would
probably yield well, but the dearness of fuel militates against
MANUAL OP THE NILAaiKI DISTRICT. 95
the financial success of any scheme for smelting it. Much quartz CHAP. V.
occurs, but though very white and free from iron, it is geology and
pronounced ^' not sufficiently pellucid to be of any value for Mineralogy,
optical purposes.'^ Attention has already been called to the
probable economic value of some highly- colored iron ores and
clays for pigments or pottery. Garnets, as already stated,
abound in some of the gneiss, and in the Madras Museum there
is a small piece of pot-stone, the lajpis ollaris of the ancietits,
said to have been found on the range. Peat occurs in many
of the valleys, and for years past has been cut and used as
fuel.
Such is an imperfect summary of the results of the geological
survey. I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. King, of the
Geological Survey, for the additional interesting note which has
special reference to the Ouchterlony Valley and to the gold
prospects of the Nilagiri range.
Additional note on the rocks of the Nilagiris and adjacent
country.
Since Mr. H. F. Blandford's Memoir on the Nilagiri hills was
written, the only further exploration of the country adjacent to
the plateau proper was that made in 1874 during the survey
of Wainad, at which time the Ouchterlony Valley was cursorily
visited to note any extension of the Ddvala gold-reefs.
The rocks of the Ouchterlony Valley belong, as might be Rocks of the
expected, to the same series as the rest of the Nilagiris, though ^^^^ey.
they are mainly of that particular variety of quartzo-hornhlendic
gneiss, constituting two or more of the several belts ^ or bands
of the gneiss family of which this range of mountains is made
up. Here, as on the upland, the foliation has a north-east — south-
west strike, this being also the lie or direction of the belt across
the valley, while the general dip is very high (oO°-70^) to the
south-east.
Folding and even reduplication of the strata is often visible,
thus presenting local variations in both dip and strike ; but the
general lie is as given above.
The great band strikes right across the valley from the Moyar
on the north by Neduwattam to the plains of Malabar below the
Kundas and is about six miles in width, and is bounded on
the north-west side by a further belt of felsimthic and chloritic
gneisses in the country west of Gudaliir and towards Nadgani
and Devala. The general term quartzo-hornhlendic gneiss is
' The same or nearly the same variety of gneiss forma what may be called
the Doddabetta and Elk Hill belt on the Nilagiri plateau.
96 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. Y. applied to the whole of the band, but variations in the prevalency
Geology and °^ °^® mineral over the other are very frequent. On the Gudalur
Mineralogy, side, or in the lower part of the valley, the rock is more qiiartzose,
at times garnetiferous, and is of a light grey color ; while the more
hornblendic varieties, or as they are sometimes called syenitoid
gneisses, are higher up, and range through the Neduwattam
country and among the more elevated coffee plantations. Towards
the south-west there are frequent traces of veins of white quartz
traversing the gneiss in a direction nearly at right angles to the
foliation, or about north-north-west, south- south-east, with a dip
to the eastward ; and these are evidently southerly prolongations of
some of the numerous gold-bearing reefs of South-East Wainad.
Gold— There is, however, no knowledge of gold having been obtained
^^^ ■ from any of the valley veins, though it appeared evident from the
debris of quartz lying about the surface at one or two places nearthe
outcrop of the veins, together with the broken character of the
ground, that search for gold, if not actual workings, must have been
carried on at some former period. The quartz-reefs are also not so
strong as around Devala, being from about two to four feet in width,
and this narrowing or nipping out from the generally greater width
of the lodes traversing the softer gneisses of Devala resembles
what has happened to the same reefs still further west, where they
traverse the hard quartzose gneisses of the Marapannaddi ridge.
As the veins are crossed from the Nadgani or south-west end of
the valley towards Gudalur they become less and less distinct,
when also they gradually assume a granular structure and are
largely interspersed with mica, until at Gudalur itself they become
quite granitic in their constitution. This change in the character
of the contents of the lodes is, as in Wainad, marked by an
absence of gold, at least in any appreciable quantity ; and this
gi-anitic and barren quality exists for some miles to the eastward
into the Mysore country.
Nilagiris. Since the late resuscitation of the gold industry in Wainad,
attention has been directed to the possible auriferousness of
the few quartz veins on the Nilagiri plateau, but as yet no j
definite exploration has been made among these. At the time
of the geological survey in 1857 no trace of gold was found,
nor did there appear to be any tradition of its existence. The
veins were also so insignificant in number and size that anything
like prolonged search was not considered advisable. Still, during
the examination of Wainad, the appearance of many old sites of
working-places and diggings for gold soon recalled to mind the
existence of irregular patches of dug -up earth and quartz debris
along the banks of the Lovedale streams, and again in a smaller
valley to the south of and behind Bishop's Down which at this
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 97
time could not be accounted for, and these were doubtless also sites CHAP. V.
of old gold- workings. Subsequent information seems to confirm geolog7and
this idea, as Colonel Beresford obtained, in 1874, traces of gold Mineralogy.
from fragments of quartz picked up in the neighborhood of these
localities. This is, however, all that can at present be safely said
as to the possibility of gold on these hills ; while, at the same
time, the general absence of any of the chloritic varieties of gneiss
on the Nilagiris is, if we are guided by the character of other auri-
ferous regions, a feature which ought to inspire great caution in
the expectation of gold in any quantity in the Nilagiris quartz
lodes.
Though the Wainad, and more especially the south-east division. South. E
has been partially examined by the Geological Survey Department, ^^^^*'^*
no complete memoir has as yet appeared. From the " Prelimi-
nary Note on the Gold-field, South- East Wainad,^^ ^ by Mr. King,
much information on the geological structure of this tract will be
• found, together with a map exhibiting the same. The paper also
gives a brief narrative of the ancient gold mining history of
Wainad and Nellambur, fuller details of which were published
by Government in 1874 in a pamphlet entitled "Correspondence
regarding Gold Mines in Wainad." Further information on the
subject, especially in relation to lands having gold, whether public
or private, and the State's right to the metal will be found in the
orders of Government, 2nd April 1875, No. 512, and 2 3rd January
1877, No. 319. The Government have not yet disposed of the
questions raised. I must content myself with referring the
readers to the above papers, as this paper has already reached
to too great a length, and the questions relate more properly to
the recently annexed portion of the district, of which I am not
expected to treat in detail.
1 Kecords of the Geological Suivey of India, Vol. VIII, Part 2, 1875.
13
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAPTER VI.
FLORA.
(By Lientenaut- Colonel R. H. Beddome, M.S.C, Conservator of Forests,
Madras Presidency.)
General remarks. — Botanical divisions of the Hills. — Deciduous forests on slopes —
characteristic trees — valuable timbers. — Moist evergreen forests on slopes —
characteristic trees — timbers. — Woods of the plateau — characteristic trees —
timbers — ferns and mosses. — Grass-land of the plateau — characteristic trees and
plants (beautiful plants) of the Hills. — List of flowering plants — Dicotyledonea
— Monocotyledones — Graminefe. — List of Ferns and Mosses — Cryptogams —
Jungermanniace^ — Biyace^. — Lichenales. — Fungales. — Books of reference. —
Introduced plants.
CHAP. VI. The Nilagiri Mountains, rising to upwards of 8,000 feet, and having
J, a rainfall of less than 40 inches on some of the driest parts of the
eastern side, and 300 inches on the moistest parts of the western
General slopes, possess, as might be expected, a very varied and interest-
ing flora, exceedingly numerous in genera and species. With the
exception of the dense evergreen moist forests on the western
slopes, the whole area has been well explored by botanists, and it
is probable that there are no plants now botanically unknown on
the plateau and the deciduous forests of the slopes ; but this
cannot be said of the heavy moist forests of the western slopes.
They are of immense extent, very difficult to get at, and very
feverish at the lower elevations ; and as there are no habitations,
inhabitants, or supplies of any sort, the visits of botanists, who
have often been attracted to them, have been generally of a flying
nature. The trees in these tracts attain an immense size, 200 or
250 feet in height, and it is of course no easy matter to obtain
their flowers ; and there can be no doubt that there are still a
good many undescribed species awaiting the botanist. Some
flower in the cold season, some in the hot season, and some in the
rains, some few are in flower all the year round ; but it is believed
that the majority flower between February and the middle of May,
which is the most unhealthy time of the year. The shrubs, creepers
and herbaceous plants in these tracts are pretty well known, but
a careful search at any season of the year would undoubtedly be
rewarded by some novelties.
Hills divided Botanically we may divide these hills into four tracts, each
tracts!^ having its own flora, very few species of which encroach upon the
other tracts.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
99
1st Tract. — The drciduons Forests of the Slopes. — These are o£ CHAP. VI.
much tlie same character as the dry forests of the lesser hills and
plains of the Presidency. The trees are all more or less decidu- ^"^*'
ous in the dry months of January, February, and March, but Deciduous
the forests are never entirely bare, like the woods and forests in slopes! "^
Europe in the winter. Many trees, such as the Erijthrinas, Butea
frondosa, the three Dalbergias, Schleichera tri/juga, Stereospermum
xylocarpum, Odina Wodier, Terminalla Beleriea, and others burst
into flower in February, and leaf themselves rapidly afterwards,
before many other trees have finished shedding their leaves ; but
still these tracts have a very forlorn appearance at this season,
and fire often sweeps through them greatly to the disgust of
the Foresters. In these tracts a very great proportion of the
tropical trees of this Presidency are to be met with, and about
the lowest portions, very many of the tropical shrubs and weeds,
which do not belong at all to our alpine flora, such as the weeds
amongst Gap'parids, the small Milhworts {Pohj galas), the herbs
and shrubs of Malvacem, the Grewias and herbs of Tiliaceoi,
Zizyphus (several species), Vitis (several species), Cardiosper-
mum, leguminous weeds and herbs, most of the Cucurhitacece,
m&nj oi the Comjjositm, Convolvidacece, Scrophulariacece, Amaran-
tacem, Gommelynacece, and a large proportion of the sedges and
The trees most characteristic of these tracts are as follows : — —character.
istic trees.
Hardwickia binata.
Xylia dolabriformis.
Acacia — many species.
Albizzia odoratissima and amara.
Terminalia tomentosa, paniculata, Bele-
rica, and chobula.
Anogeissus latifolius.
Careya arborea.
Lagerstroemia microcarpa and Regina.
Adina cordifolia.
Stephegyne parvifolia.
Stereospermum xylocarpum,
Tectona grandis.
Gmelina arborea.
Phyllanthus emblica.
Sponia Wightii.
Bambusa arundinacea 1 t> v
Dendrocalamus strictus/ I^amboos.
Dillenia pentagyna.
CocMospermum gossypium.
Kydia calycina.
Bombax Malabaricum.
Sterculia foetida, urens, \'illosa, and
colorata.
Erioloena liookeriana and quinquelo-
cularis.
Boswellia serrata.
Garuga pinnata.
Cedrela Toona.
Chloroxylon Swietenia.
Elseodendron glaucum.
Schleichera trijuga.
Buchanania latifolia.
Mundulea suberosa.
Butea frondosa.
Dalbergia latifolia and paniculata.
Pterocarpus marsupium.
These tracts yield many of the most valuable timbers of the —valuable
Presidency, of which the following may be said to be the most *'""^^^^*
important : —
Cedrela Toona (WTiite Cedar).
Chloroxylon Swietenia (the Satinwood).
Schleichera trijuga (Puva).
Dalbergia latifolia (the Blackwood or
Rosewood),
pterocarpus marsupium (Vengay).
Hardwickia binata (Acha).
Xylia dolabriformis (Irul).
Albizzia odoratissima (Karangilli).
Terminalia tomentosa (Matti).
Lagerstroemia microcarpa (Venteak),
Tectona grandis (Teak).
Gmelina arborea.
Phyllanthus emblica (Nelli).
Santalam album (Sandalwood) »
100
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VI. 2nd Trad.— The Moist Evergreen Forests of the Sloijes.— These
Flora. ^^^ grandest on the western slopes, and between 3^000 and 4,000
. feet elevation, where the trees often attain 200 and 250 feet in
green fwe'sts height. They are all evergreen, and their great variety of foliage
of the slopes, and colour renders them exceedingly beautiful, some of the young
leaves coming out pure white, others a bright crimson, others all
possible tints of brown, yellow, red, and green. These tracts are
exceedingly moist from the first showers in March till the end of
December, and during that season abound with leeches. The
trees are often covered with epiphytic orchids, ferns, mosses,
balsams, and cyrtandracece, and there is a glorious profusion of
rattans, tree-ferns, climbing ferns, and fine creepers. But what
may be said to be most characteristic of these forests is the
genus Strohilanthes {Acanthacece) , large shrubs, which form the
principal underwood, and of which 29 species are found on these
hills. Some of these flower every year, others however only after
a growth of six or seven years, when they die down and renew
themselves from seed. They almost all have showy flowers, and
many are very beautiful. The two palms, Caryota urens and
Arenga Wightii, are very conspicuous in these tracts, also several
specimens of rattan (Calamus), and three very fine reed bamboos,
Beesha Rheedii, Oxytenaidhera Thwaitesii (Munro), and Teinos-
tachyum Wightii (a very handsome broad-leaved species, described
by Munro as a bambusa from specimens only in leaf) . Ferns are
in great profusion, including several tree-ferns, amongst which
the Alsophila crinita (not yet introduced into English hot-houses)
unmatched in any country, is very beautiful. Sonerilas and
balsams are also in profusion. Guttiferce, Ruhlacem, and Euphor-
biacece are the orders perhaps most copiously represented (next
to Acanthaceoi) , the first by trees, the two last by shrubs and
trees.
Above 4,000 feet these forests begin to decrease in size, and
towards the plateau they gradually pass into what will be treated
of as the Sholas or woods.
—characteris. The following is a list of the trees most characteristic of these
tic trees. forests:—
Polyalthia coffeoides.
Garcinia Cambogia and Morella.
Calophyllum tomentosum.
Mesua speciosa and Coromandelina.
pJBciloneuron Indicum.
Dipterocarpus turbinatiis.
Hopca parviflora and Malabarica.
Valeria Indica.
Cullenia excelsa.
Leptonychia moaccuroides.
Chickrassia tabularis.
Canarium strictum.
Aglaia Roxburghiana.
Beddomea Indica and eimplicifolia.
Gomphandra axillaris and polj-morpha.
Euonynius Indicus and angulatus.
Lophopetalum Wightianum.
Harpulia cupanoides.
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius.
Humboldtia Brunonis and Vahliana.
Saprosma fragrans, Wightii, and glome.
rata.
Bassia elliptica.
Pajanelia Kheedii.
Myristica laurifolia and corticosa.
Alseodapline semicarpi folia.
MANUAL OF THE NJLAOIRI DISTRICT-
101
Actlnodaphne salicina.
Cryptocarya Wightiana.
Actephila excelsa.
Sarcoclinium longifoliom.
Agrostistachys Indica.
Baccaiu-ea sapida.
Ostodes Zeylanica.
Cephalocroton Indicum.
Bischofiia Javanica.
Hemicyclia venusta.
Artocarpus hirsuta.
Gironniera reticulata.
Laportea crenulata.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
The timbers, as a rule, are not of such good quality as those in —timbers,
the deciduous forests, but there are vahxable timbers, of which
the following are the chief : —
Calophylluin tomentosum (Poon spar).
. Mesua, 2 species (Iron wood).
Hopea parviflora.
,, Malabarica.
Cliickrassia tabularis (CMttagong wood).
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius (Red Cedar or
Shingle Tree).
Diospyros ebenum (Ebony) .
Artocai-pus hirsuta (Angelli or Aynee).
Gii'onniera reticulata (Kho mongee).
These moist forests never reach quite down to the plains any-
where round the Nilagiris, though they do so in parts of South
Canara, Coorg, and Travancore. They always give way at 1,000
or more feet from the base to deciduous forests or tracts composed
of nothing but reed bamboos (Teinostachyum Wightii).
^rcl Tract. — The SJwlas or Woods of the Plateau. — These are Theshdlasor
very similar in character to the moist evergreen forests of the plateau.* ^^^
slopes, but from being atahigher elevation the trees are of different
genera and species, and their growth is much smaller, 70 feet
being much beyond the average height.
They are all evergreen, and the tints from the new growth at
certain seasons very beautiful. Mijrtacece, Lauracece, and Styracece
are the orders most represented by trees, and the undergrowth
is chiefly composed of Rubiaceous shrubs and Strohilanthes
(Acanthacece) .
The following are the principal trees growing in these sholas :
— characteris-
tic trees.
Hichelia Nilagirica.
ilydnocarpus alpinus.
Tordonia obtusa.
Slseocarpus oblongus, tuberculatus and
ferrugineus.
Jelicope Indica.
leynea trijuga.
lomphandra axillaris,
ipodytes Benthamiana.
lex Wightiana and denticulata.
'uonymus crenulatus.
licrotropis ramiflora and densiflora.
"urpinia pomifera.
leliosma Arnottiana and pungens.
hotinia Notoniana and Lindleyana.
'ugenia — many species,
entapanax Leschenaultii.
olyscias acuminata.
Heptapleurum racemosum.
,, rostra turn.
„ venulosum.
, , obovatum.
Viburnum punctatum, erubesceus,'heban-
thum, and coriaceum.
Vaccineum Leschenaultii, andNilagiri-
ense.
Sapota elengioides.
Symplocos — many species.
Lasiosiphon eriocephalum.
Machilus macrantha.
Phcebe Wightii.
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, var. Wightii.
Tetranthera Wightiana.
Litsttvi Zeylanica.
Glochidion — several species.
The timbers are of much less value than in either of the other —timbers,
'acts. The following are those chiefly in use : —
ydnocarpus alpinus.
ordonia obtusa.
emstroraia Japonica.
laeocarpus oblongus.
Ilex Wightiana.
Eugenia— several species.
Euonymus crenulatus.
i
1
102
MANUAL OF THE XILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VI.
Floba.
-ferns and
The grass-
land of the
plateau.
Ferns and mosses abound. Amongst the former Alsoph'dalate-
brosa, a tree fern, is abundant. Orchids are very poorly repre-
sented. There is one species o£ reed bamboo {Arundinana
Wightiana) and some shrubby balsams and begonias^ and the
following herbaceous plants may be enumerated as characteristic : —
Desmodinm strangulatiim.
Crotalaria barbata.
Fragaria Indica and elatior.
Sonerila speciosa.
Hydrocotyle Javanica.
Sanicula Europa^a.
Seuecio corjonbosus. Pilea Wightii.
Chrysogonum heterophylla. Chamabainia cuspidata.
Uh Trad. — The Grass-land of the Plateau. — This tract is covered
with many short, coarse species of grass which are quite burnt up
with the frost and sua in December and January. After the
first showers in March the growth is very rapid, and numerous
herbaceous plants spring up. The following are the most charac-
teristic : —
Halenia Perottetii.
Pogostemon rotundatus.
,, speciosus.
Gerardinia Leschenaultii.
Elatostetna diversifolia.
Anemone rivalis.
Ranunculus reniformis.
,, difiusus.
,, Wallicbianus,
Viola serpens.
Impatiens Beddomii.
,, Chinensis.
,, inconspicua.
„ tomentosa.
Crotalaria Formosa.
Indigofera pedicellata.
Flemingia procumbens.
Potentilla Kleiniana.
„ Leschenaultii.
,, supina.
Drosera Burmaniana,
,, Indica.
,, lunata.
Sonerila grandiflora.
Pimpinella Leschenaultii.
Heracleum ringens.
Anaphalis — several species.
Gnaphalium hypoleucum.
,, marcescens.
Senecio — several species.
Gentiana pedicellata.
Ophelia corymbosa.
,, minor.
Micromeria biflora.
Prunella vulgaris.
Pedicularis Perottetii.
,, Zeylanica.
Satyrium Nepalense.
,, Wightianum.
Habenaria — many species.
Lilium Nilagiriense.
Ptoris aquilina.
Gleichenia dichotoma.
— characteris- Trees are only here and there loosely scattered about these
plants*'^ tracts. These consist chiefly of Rhododendron arhoremn, Salix
tetras^jerma, Celtis serotina, Pittosportim, two species, Dodonwa
viscosa, Wendlandia Nottoniana. The following are the most
characteristic shrubs : —
Berberis Nepalensis.
,, aristata.
Hypericum Mysorense.
,, Hookerianura.
Eurya Japonica.
Indigofera pulchella.
Desmodium rufe.scens.
Atylosia Candollci.
Sophora glauca.
Cassia Timoriensis.
,, tomentosa.
Kubus lasiocarpus.
,, flavus.
,, rugosus.
Rosa Leschenaultiana.
Cotoneaster buxifolia.
Rhodomyrtus tomentosa.
Osbeckia Gardneriana.
Osbeckia Wightiana.
Hedyotis Lawsoniaj.
,, stylosa.
,, articularis.
„ fruticosa.
,, pruinosa.
Lobelia excelsa.
Gualtheria fragrantissima.
Ligustrum Perottetii.
,, robustum.
Jasminum revolutum.
Clerodendron serratum.
Leucas — several species.
Ela^agnus latifolia.
Strobilanthes sessilis.
,, sessiloidcs.
,, Kunthianus.
I
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
103
The latter plant is often gregarious and covers several acres in CHAP. VI.
extent, and when out in flower is one sheet of blue, and some flora.
people say that it is from this that the Nilagiris, or Blue Hills,
derive their name.
The following may be enumerated as the most beautiful plants —beautiful
found in these hills :— Pl^'^*^^-
and
Fagrpea Coromandelina (Slopes).
Ehododendron arboreum (I'latcau).
Ceropegia Decaisneana (Sisapdra Ghat)
,, elegans (Coonoor).
Exacum Perottetii ( „ ).
(Egenetia pedunculata (Northern
Impatiens acaulis (Sisapara Ghat)
, , rivalis.
,, Denisonii (Sisapara Ghat)
,, Munronii ( „ ,, )
,, Jerdonii ( „ „ )
,, maculata (Paikare).
,, latifolia ) (Kdtagiri
,, fruticosa j Coonoor).
Vigna Wightii (Northern Slopes).
Bauhinia Phcenicea (Sisapira Ghat).
Osbeckia Gardneriana (Plateau).
„ Wightiana ( „ ).
Sonerila grandifiora (Avalanche).
,, speciosa (Uotacamand) .
,, elegans (Sisap4ra Ghat).
,, versicolor ( „ »> )•
,, axillaris ( „ „ ).
Passiflora Leschenaultii (Coonoor).
Pavetta siphonantha (Sisapara Ghat).
Saprosma fragrans ( ,, „ ).
Hamiltonia suaveolens (Kalhatti Ghat).
Vaccineum Leschenaultii (Plateau).
„ Nilagiriense ( ,, ).
Lysimachia Japonica ( ,, ).
Symplocos pulchra (Sisap&ra Ghdt).
Jasminum revolutum (Plateau) .
Alstonia venenata (Coonoor Ghat).
Beaumontia Jerdoniana (Northern Slopes)
Hoya pauciflora (Sisapara Ghat).
Boucerosia diffusa I (Foot of Hills,
,, umbellata J Southern).
Porana racemosa (Western Slopes).
Rivea tilia;folia ) (Foot of Hills and
Iponiea campanulata ) Western Slopes).
Argyreia splendens (Western Slopes).
,, speciosa ( ,, )> )•
Ipomea vitifolia (Southern Slopes).
Solanum ferox (Northern Slopes).
,, Wightii (Coonoor).
Torenia Asiatica (Sisapara Ghit).
Pedicularis Perottetii (Sisapara).
-iEschynanthus Zeylanica(Sisap4ra Ghdt).
Klugia Notoniana (Coonoor Ghat).
Pajanelia Rheedii (Western Slopes).
Thunbergia Hawteyniana (Kdtagiri) .
,, Mysorensis ) (Western
,, Wightii j Slopes).
Strobilanthes gossypinus (Sisap4.ra).
,, luridus (Neduwattam).
,, tristis (Sisap4raGhat).
,, sexennis (Ootacamand).
,, pulcherrimus ( „ ).
„ paniculatus (Western
Slopes).
,, _ violaceus (SisapS,ra).
Barleria involucrata (Coonoor Gh^t).
Hedychium coronarium (Western Slopes).
Alpinia Rheedii ( ,, ,, ).
Musa ornata ( >> »> )•
Gloriosa superba (Southern Slopes).
Lilium Nilagiriense ( „ » )•
All the above are well worthy of introduction into gardens and
hot-houses. The orchids are very poor compared to those of the
Himalayas and Burmah, but the following are well worthy of
cultivation : —
Dendrobium aqueum (Western Slopes).
Caslogyne — all the species (Plateau).
Arundina bambusifolia (Western Slopes).
Ipsia Malabarica ( ,, >> )•
Cyrtoptera flava ( ,, >> )•
„ fusea ( „ „ ).
Vanda spathulata (Northern Slopes).
,, Roxburghi( ,, ,, )
brides crispum (Western Slopes).
,, Lindleyana (Kdteri and Coonoor).
Calanthe masuca (Plateau in Shdlas).
Platanthera Susannge (Western Slopes).
One hundred and seventy-eight species of ferns have been
detected on these hills, and probably others only known from other
districts will yet be discovered on the western slopes.
Two of these ferns, Lastrcea scabrosa and ferruginea are, it is
behevcd, not found elsewhere.
104
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
The following is a complete list of all the flowering plants,
ferns, and mosses found on these hills : —
List of
flowering
plants.
— Dicoty-
ledones.
Clematis smilacifolia, Wall.
„ Gouriana, Eoxb.
„ Wightiana, Wall.
Naravelia Zeylanica, D.O.
Anemone rivularis, Ham.
Dillenia Indica, L.
„ bracteata, TF.
Michelia champaca, i.
,, Nilagirica, Zenk.
DICOTYLEDONES.
Banunculaceje.
Thalictrum Javanicum, £1.
Ranunculus renifonnis, Wall.
„ diffusus, B.C.
,, Wallichianus, Ut,
DlLLENIACE^.
I Dillenia pentagyna, Sozb.
Magnoliace.^.
I Kadsura Wightiana, Ait.
Anonaceje.
TJvaria Zeylanica, Z.
Artabotrys Zeylanicus, fl. f. et T.
Unona pannosa, Dalz.
Polyalthia coffeoides, Benth. et Hk. f.
,, fragrans, Benth. et H.f.
,, cerasoides, Benth. et R.f.
,, korinti, Benth. et H.f.
,, suberosa, Benth. et H.f.
Phceantbus Malabaricus, Bedd.
Miliusa Indica, Lesch.
,, Nilagirica, Bedd.
Goniothalamus Wainddensis, Bedd.
Saccopetalum tomentosum, H. f. et T.
Alphonsea lutea, H. f. et T.
,, Madraspatana, Bedd.
Oropbea Thomsoni, Bedd.
Bocagea Dalzellii, H. /. et T.
Tinospora Malabarica, Miers.
,, cordifolia, Miers.
Anamirta cocculus, W. et A.
Tiliacora racemosa, Colebr.
Cocculus villoeus, B.C.
Menispermace^.
Stepbania rotunda, Lour.
,, hemandifolia, Walp,
Cissampelos Pareira, Linn.
Cyclea peltata, H. f. et T.
Berberis Nepalensis, Spr.
BeEBERIDEjE.
I Berberis aristata B. C.
Papaverace^.
Argemone Mexicana, L.
FUMARIACEJE.
Fumaria pai'viflora, Loun,
Cruciferje.
Nasturtium officinale, Br.
,, Indicum, B.C.
Cardamine Africana, L.
„ subumbellata, Hook.
Cardamine hirsuta, L.
Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Mbnch.
Lepidium sativiun, L.
Capparide^e.
Cleome monopbylla, L.
,, -^-iscosa, L.
GjTiandropsis pentaphylla, B. C.
Niebuhria liearis, B.C.
Cratseva religiosa, Forst.
Cadaba Indica, Lamk.
Capparis grandiflora, Wall.
Capparis Zeylanica, Linn.
,, divaricata, Lamk.
,, aphylla, Rottb.
,, Eoxburghii, B.C.
,, grandis, L.f.
,, horrida, L. f.
,, tenera, Bn/i/.
I
MANUAL OF THE NlLAGIRI DISTRICT.
105
Viola Patrinii, 7).C.
,, serpens, Wall.
ViOLACEiE.
I lonidium suffruticosum, Gul^.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
Cochlospermnm gossypium, I) C.
Scolopia crenata, Clos,
Flacourtia montana, Grak.
BixmEvE,
Flacourtia sepiaria, Roxb.
Hydnocarpus Wightiana, Bl.
,, alpina, Wit/ht.
PiTTOSPOREjE.
Pittosporum tefcraspermum, U(,
,, Nilagiriense, W. et A.
Pittosporum floribundum, W. et A-
PolygalejE.
Polygala arillata, Horn.
Javana, B.C.
leptalea, B.C.
persicarijefolia, B.C.
erioptera, B.C.
elongata, Kleni.
Polygala CHnensis, L.
,, Sibirica, Z.
,, telephioides, Willd.
Salomonia oblongifolia, B.C.
Xanthophylliun flavescens, Roxb,
Silene gallica, L.
Cerastium Indicum, W. et A.
,, vulgatum, L.
Stellaria paniculata, Edg,
Caryophylleje.
Stellaria uliginosa, L.
Arenaria Nilagiriensis, W. et A.
Spergula arvensis, L.
Diymaria cordata, Willd.
Portulaca oleracea, L.
„ Wightiana, Wall.
PoRTULACACEjE.
I Talinum cuneifolium, Willd.
Elatine Americana, Arnt.
Bergia ammannioides, Roxb.
Elatineje.
I Bergia verticellata, Willd.
Hypericine^e.
Hypericum Mysorense, Reyne.
,, Hookerianum, W. et A.
„ humifusum, L.
Hypericum Nepaulense, Choisy.
,, Japonicum, Thtinb.
Garcinia Cambogia, Besrouss.
,, Morella, Besrouss.
,, ovalifolius, Hook f.
Calophyllum tomentosum, W.
,, Wightianum, Wall.
GUTTIFER^.
Calophyllum WaJkeri, Wight.
Mesua speciosa, Choisy.
,, Coromandelina, Wight.
Pceciloneuron Indicum, £edd.
Ternstromiace^.
Ternstrbmia Japonica, Thunb.
Eurya Japonica, Thunb,
Gordonia obtusa, Wall.
DiPTEROCARPEiE.
Dipterocarpus turbinatus, GcBrt.
Ancistrocladus Heyneanus, Wall.
Vatica Roxburghiana, B. C,
Shorea Talura, Roxb .
Hopea parviflora, Bedd.
„ Wightiana, Wall.
,, Malabarica, Bedd.
Vuteria Indica, L.
14
106
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTEICT.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
Malvaceje.
Malva verticellata, L.
Sida humilis, Willd.
,, Mysorensis, W. et A.
,, spinosa, Z.
,, carpinifolia, Z.
„ rhombifolia, L.
„ cordifolia, Z.
Abutilon Asiaticum, G. Don.
,, Indicum, G. Don.
,, graveolens, JF. et A.
,, crispun, G. Bon.
,, Nilagiriense, Munro.
Urena lobata, Z.
„ sinuata, Z.
,, repanda, Roxb.
Pavonia glechomifolia, A. Hieh.
Pavonia odorata, TTilld.
Uecaschistia trilobata, Wight.
,, crotonifolia, W. et A.
Hibiscus solandra, L'Her.
,, canescens, Heyne.
,, lunariifolius, Willd.
,, pandurseformis, Burn.
,, ^-itifolius, Z.
,, cannabinus, Z.
,, angulosus, Most.
Thespesia Lampas, Dalz. and Gibs.
Kydia calycina, Boxb.
Bombax Slalabaricum, D. C.
Eriodendron anfractuosum, D.C.
Cullenia excelsa, Wight.
Sterculia foetida, Z.
,, tirens, Roxb.
,, villosa, Roxb.
„ guttata, Roxb.
,, colorata, Roxb.
Helicteres isora, Z.
Pterospermum Hejmeanum,
STERCfLIACE^E.
Wall.
glabrescens, W. et A.
Eriolajna Ho'okeriana, W. et A.
,, quinquelocularis, Wiffht,
Melhania incana, Heyne.
,, cannabina Wight,
Melochia corchorifolia, Z.
Waltheria Indica, Z.
Leptonj^chia moacuroides, Bedd,
TiLIACEJE.
Grewia columnaris, Sw.
,, emarginata, W. et
,, populifolia, Vahl,
,, sahafolia, Heyne.
„ orbiculata, Rottl.
,, tilisefolia, Vahl.
,, pilosa, Lam.
„ villosa, Willd.
„ multiflora, Juss.
,, laevigata, Vahl.
Grewia abutilifolia, Juss.
Triumfetta pilosa, Roth.
„ rhomboidea, Jacq.
,, rotundifolia, Lam.
Corchorus olitorius, Z.
,, trilocularis, Z.
Elseocarpus oblongus, Gcertn.
,, tuberculatus, Roxb.
,, ferrugineus, Wight.
,, Munronii, JFight.
Linum Mysorense, Heyne,
Hugonia mystax, L.
LlNE^.
I Erj-tliroxylon monogjTium, Roxb.
MALPIGHIACEiE.
Hiptage madablota, Gcertn.
Geeaniace^.
Geranium Nepalense, Siceet.
Oxalis corniculata, Z.
Biophj'tum poljT)hyllum, Mtmro.
Impatiens, Beddomii, -ffooZ;/.
,, modesta, Wight.
,, orchioides, Bedd.
,, acaulis, Am.
,, rivalis, Wight.
,, Denisonii, Bedd.
,, Chinensis, Z.
„ Gardneriana, Wight.
„ setosa, H.f. et T.
„ Klein ii, W. et A.
,, inconspicua, Benth,
Impatiens tenella, Heyne.
,, oppositifolia, Z.
,, tormentosa, Heyne.
,, latifolia, Z.
,, Leschenaultii, Wall.
,, lucida, Heyne.
„ Gougbii, Wight.
,, balsamina, Z.
,, Munronii, Wight.
,, dasyspcnna, Wight.
,, fruticosa, B. G.
,, Jerdonite, Wight.
,, campanulata, Wight.
,, maculata, Wight.
MANUAL OP THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT.
107
RuTACEiE.
Evodia Roxburghiana, Benth.
Melicope Indica, Wight,
Zanthoxylon ovalifoiium, WigJit.
,, tetraspermum, W. e
„ Rhetsa, D.C.
Toddalia aculeata, Pres.
Acronychia lam-ifolia, £1.
Glycosmis pentaphylla, Corr,
Miirraya exotica, L.
Clausena Willdenovii,
Limonia acidissima, Z.
„ alata, JF. et A.
Luvunga eleuthcrandra, Bahj.
Paramignya monophylla, Wight,
Atalantia monophylla, Corr.
,, racemosa, W. et A.
,, Ceylanica, Wight.
Citrus aurantium, L.
Feronia elephant um, Corr^
jEgle marmelos, Corr,
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
Ochna squarrosa, L.
SlMARUBE^.
Ailanthus excelsa, Roxb.
OCHNACE^.
I Gomphia angustifolia, Vahl.
Burserace;e.
Boswellia aerrata, Roxb.
Garuga pinnata, Roxb.
Balsamodendron Berrja, Am.
Protiiim caudatum, W. et A.
Canarium strictum, Roxb.
Meliaceje.
Naregamia alata, W. et A.
Munronia Wallichii, Wight.
Melia Azadirachta, L.
,, Azedarach, L.
Cipadessa fruticosa, Bl.
Dysoxylum IMalabaricum, Redd.
Aglaia Roxburghiana, Miq.
Lansium Anemaleanum, Redd.
Amoora Rohituka, W. et A.
Walsura piscidia, Roxb,
Heynea trijuga, Roxb.
Beddomea Indica, Hook f.
„ simplicifolia. Redd,
Soymida febrifuga, Juss.
Chickrassia tabularis, Juss,
Cedrela Toona, Roxb.
Chloroxylon Swietenia, B.C.
Chailletiaceje.
Chailletia gelonioides, Eookf^
Olacine-e.
Olax Wightiana, Wall,
Cansjera Rheedii, Gmel.
Opilia amentacea, Roxb.
Gomphandra axillaris, Wall.
,, poljinorpha, Wight.
Apodytes Benthamiana, Wight,
„ Beddomei, Ilast.
Mappia foetida, Miers.
Sarcostigma Kleinii, W, et A,
Ilex Malabarica, Redd.
„ denticulata, Wall.
Ilicineje.
Ilex Gardneriana, Wight,
„ Wightiana, Wall.
Celastrineje.
Euonymus Indiciis, Heyne.
„ crcnulatus, Wall.
,, serratifolius, Redd.
„ angiilatus, If'iglit.
Glyptopetalmn grandiflorum, B
Microtropis latifolia, Wight.
„ ramiflora, Wight.
„ densiflora, Wight.
„ microcarpa, Wight.
,, o^'^lifolia, Wight.
Lophopetalum Wightianum, Arnt.
Pleurostylia Wightii, W. et A.
Celastrus paniculata, Willd.
Gymnosporia emarginata, Roth.
„ montana, Roxb.
Elgeodendron glauciim, Feis.
Hippocratea obtusifolia, Roxb.
Salacia prionoides, B. C.
„ oblonga, Wall.
108
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VI,
Rhamne^s.
Ventilago Madraspatana, Gmrtn.
„ Bombaiensis, Dalz.
Zizyphus jujuba, Lamk.
„ glabrata, Sti/ne.
„ mimmularia, JF. et A.
„ oenoplia, Mill.
„ xylopyrus, Willd.
„ inciirva, Boxb.
Zizyphus horrida, Both.
„ rugosa, Lamk.
Rhamnus Wightii, W. et A.
Scutea Indica, Brongn,
Sageretia oppoaitifolia, Brongn.
Colubrina Asiatica, Brongn.
Gouania microcarpa, D. C.
Ampelide^.
Vitis quadrangularis, Wall.
„ repens, W. et A.
„ discolor, Balg.
„ adnata, Wall.
„ tomentosa, Heyne.
„ latifolia, Boxb.
„ Indica, L.
Vitis Rheedii, W. et A.
,, Himalayana, Brand.
„ auriculata, Boxb.
„ lanceolaria, Boxb.
„ pedata, Vahl.
Leca macropliylla, Boxb.
„ sambucina, Willd.
SAPINDACEiE.
Cardiospennum halicacabum, Z.
„ canescens. Wall.
HemigjTOsa deficiens, Bedd.
Erioglossum edule, B'C.
Allopbyllus cobbe, Bl.
Schleichera trijuga, Willd.
Sapindus erectus, Hiern.
Nepbelium Longana, Camb.
Harpulia cupanoides, Boxb.
Dodonaja \dscosa, Lam.
Turpina pomifera, Vent.
Arnottiana, Wight.
piingens, Wall.
Sabeaceje.
I Meliosma simplicifolia, Boxb.
Rhus Myscrensis, Heyne.
Mangifera Indica, L.
Euchanania latifolia, Boxb.
Odina Wodier, Boxb.
Semecarpus anacardium, L.
Anacahdiace^.
Semecarpus Grahami, Wight.
Holigama longifolia, Boxb.
Nothopegia Colebrookiana, Bl.
Spondiaa mangifera, Pers.
ConnaracEjE.
Connaxus monocarpus, L.
LEGUMINOSiE.
Sub-Order Papilionacets.
Crotalaria rubiginosa, Willd.
,, t'«!r. Wightiana, Grah.
„ calycroa, Sehr.
„ barbata, Grah.
„ Mysorensis, Roth,
„ hirta, Willd.
„ speciosa, Heyne.
,, fulva. Both.
,, longipes, W. et A.
„ obtecta, Grah.
„ candicans, W. et A.
„ Madurensis, Wight.
„ juncea, L.
,, Formosa, Grah.
„ Leschcnaultii, B.C.
„ rctusa, L.
„ verrucosa, L,
Crotalaria tecta, Both.
,, sericea, Betzy.
„ semperflorens, Vent.
,, evohiiloides, Wight.
,, dubia, Grah.
,, acicularis, Ham.
,, humifusa, Grah.
,, albida, Heyne.
,, linifolia, L.
,, biflora, Z.
,, nana, Burm.
,, Notonii, W. et A.
,, labumifolia, L.
,, clavata, W. et A.
Psoralea corylifolia, L.
Indigofcra cordifolia, Hej/ne,
,, cnncaphyUa, L.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
109
Indigofera uniflora, Heyne.
,, pentaphylla, L.
,, viscosa, Lam,
,, tenuifolia, Eoftl.
,, pedicellata, W.etA,
,, parvifolia, Heyne.
,, flaccida, Keen.
,, pulchella, Eoxb.
,, coerulea, Eoxb.
Tephrosia tinctoria, Fers.
,, incana, Grah.
diffusa, W.et A.
,, calophylla, Bedd.
Mundulea suberosa, Benth.
Milletea splendens, W. et A.
Smithia capitata, Balz.
„ setulosa, Bah.
,, gracilis, Benth.
„ blanda, JFall.
Geissaspis cristata, TF. et A.
Zornia angustifolia, Sw.
Ougeinia dalbergioides, Benth.
Desmodium cephalotes, Wall.
„ triquetrum, D.G.
„ latifolium, D.G.
,, gyrans, D.C.
„ polycarpum, D.C.
„ ruf escens, D. C. (f errugineum,
TFall.)
„ scalpe, D.O.
„ heterophj'llum, D.C.
„ pulchellum, D.O.
„ congestum, Wight.
Desmodium Wightii, Grah.
Pseudarthria viscida, W. et A.
Alysicarpus monilif er, D. C.
„ iiummularifolius, D.C.
„ styracifolius, D.G.
„ rugosus, D.C.
„ racemosus, Benth.
Abrua procatorius, L.
Clitoria tematea, L.
Dumasia villosa, D.C.
Shuteria vestita, W. et A.
Teramnus labialis, L.
Erjiihrina Indica, X.
„ stricta, lioxb.
„ suberosa, lioxb.
Mucuna monospermum, D. G.
,, gigantea, D.G.
Butea frondosa, Boxb.
Spatholobus pai'viflorus, Boxb.
Galactia tenuiflora, W. et A.
Pueraria tuberosa, D. G.
Phaseolus Mungo, i.
,, trinervius, Heyne.
„ semierectus, L.
Vigna Wightii, Benth.
Dolichos falcatus, Klein.
Dunbaria Hejoiei, W. et A.
Atylosia CandoUei, W. et A.
„ albicans, Benth.
„ rugosa, W. et A.
„ scaraboeoides, Benth.
Cylista scariosa, Ait.
Rhynchosia minima, D. G.
„ sericea. Span.
„ filipes, Benth.
Flemingia Grahamiana, W. et A.
,, procumbens, Wight.
Dalbergia latifolia, Roxb.
,, paniculata, Boxb.
,, frondosa, Boxb.
Pterocarpus marsupium, Boxb.
Derris oblonga, Benth.
„ scandens, W. et A,
Pongamia glabra, Vent.
Calpurnia aurea. Lam.
Sophora hcptaphylla, L,
„ glauca, Lesch,
Sub.Order Cmsalpiniea.
Mezoneuron cucullatum, W. et A.
Cajsalpinia paniculata, Boxb.
„ mimosoides, Lam.
Pterolobium lacerans, Br.
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Wight.
Wagatea spicata, Dalz.
Poinciana elata, L.
Cassia fistula, L.
„ tomentosa, L.
„ Timoriensis, D.G.
,, montana, Heyne.
„ auriculata, L.
J, occidentalis, L.
Cassia pumila, Zam.
„ Wallichiana, D.G.
„ Kleinii, W. et A.
Bauhinia racemosa. Lam.
„ Malabarica, Boxb.
„ purpurea, L.
„ Vahlii, W. et A.
„ ^enthamii, Bedd.
Humboldtia Brunonis, Wall.
„ Vahliana, Wight,
Tamarindus Indicus, L.
Hardwickia binata, Roxb.
Sub- Order Mimosce.
Entada Pursaetha, D.G.
Prosopis spicigera, L.
Dicrostachys cinerea, D.G.
Mimosa rubicaulis. Lam.
Xylia dolabriformis, Benth.
Acacia Arabica, Willd.
,, leucophloja, Willd.
„ Catechu, Willd.
,, sundra, Boxb.
„ ferruginea, Willd.
Acacia pennata, Willd,
„ caesia, W. et A.
,, Intsia, Willd.
Albizzia Lebbek, Willd.
„ odoratissima, Willd.
„ stipulata, D.G.
„ amara, Willd.
„ procera, Willd.
Pithccolobium bigeminum, Willd,
„ diilce, Willd.
110
MANUAL OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
EosACE.f;.
Parinarium Indicum, Bedd.
Pygeum Ceylanicum, Gartn.
Eubus lasiocarpus, Sw.
„ flavus, Ham.
„ nigosus, Sw.
Fragaria Indica, Andr.
„ elatior, W. et A.
Potentilla Kleiniana, W. et A.
Potentilla Leschenaultiana.
,, supina, W. et A.
Alchemilla vulgaris, L.
Rosa Leschenaultiana, Red. et Thor.
Cotoneaster buxifolia. Wall.
Photinea Notoniana, Wall.
,, Lindleyana, W. et A.
Saxifrage.^;.
Pamassia Wightiana, Wall.
Crassulace^.
Bryophyllum calycinum, Salisb.
Kalanchoe laciniata, D.C.
Kalanchoe grandiflora, Wall.
Drosera Burmanni, Vahl.
Indica, i.
Droserace.^.
I Drosera lunata, Ha
Serpicula Indica, Thi
HALORAGE.E.
I Myriophyllum Indicum, Willd.
Rhizophore^.
Carallia integerrima, B.C.
Tenninalia tomentosa, Boxb.
„ paniculata, Roxb.
„ Arjuna, Roxb.
„ Bellerica, Roxb.
„ catappa, Willd.
Combretace^.
Terminalia chebula, Eetz.
Anogeissus latifolius, Wall.
Combretum Wightiana, Wall.
Quisqualis Malabarica, Bedd.
Gyrocarpus Jacquini, Roxb.
Myrtace^.
Psidium guyava, L.
RhodomjTtus tomentosa, B.C.
Eugenia jambolana, L.
„ calophyllifolia, Wight.
„ Amottiana, Wight.
„ montana, Wight.
,, Malabarica, Bedd.
„ lanceolata, Wight.
Eugenia Wightii, Bedd.
„ Munronii, Wight.
„ hemisphEerica, Wight.
„ bracteata, Roxb.
,, Mooniana, Wight.
Barringtonia racemosa, Roxb.
Careya arborea, Roxb.
Melastomace^.
OsbecMa Leschenaultiana.
„ Gardneriana, Wight.
„ Wightiana, Betith.
„ aspera, Bl.
Melastoma MaLibathricum, i.
Sonerila grandiflora, Wight.
„ speciosa, Zenker.
Sonerila elegans, Wight.
,, versicolor, Wight.
„ axillaris, Wight.
„ Rheedii, Wall.
Medinilla radicans, Bo>i.
Memecylon umbellatum, Burm.
Woodfordia tomentosa, Salisb.
Lagerstroemia Reginae, Roxb.
Lythrarie;e.
Lagerstroemia microcarjoa, Wight,
lanceolata. Wall.
MANUAL OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
Ill
Jussia3a villosa, Lam.
Ludwigia prostrata, Roxb.
Onograrieje.
I Circaja alpina, Wight,
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
Casearia tomentosa, Roxb.
,, esculenta, Roxb.
Samydaceje.
Casearia Wainddensis, Redd.
Homalium Ceylanicum, Qard.
Passiflora Leschenaultii.
PaSSIFLOREjE.
I Modecca Wightiana, Vahl.
Trichosanthes palmata, Roxb.
sp.
Gymnopetalum Wightii, Arnt.
Luffa pentandra, Roxb.
Momordica dioica, Roxb.
Cucumis pubescens, Willd.
Cucurbitaceje.
CitruUus colocynthis, Z.
Cephalandra Indica, W. et A. (Coccinia).
Bryonia laciniosa, L.
Mukia scabella, Am.
Zanonia Indica, L.
Begonia Malabarica, Dry.
„ dipetala, Grah.
„ subpeltata, Wight.
BEGONIACEiE.
Begonia fallax, B.C.
„ minima, Redd.
DaTISCEjE.
Tetrameles nudiflora, R. Rr.
FiCOIDEiE.
MoUugo Bpergula, L.
Umbellifer^.
Hydrocotyle conferta, Wight.
„ Javanica, Thiinb.
Sanicula Europsea, var. elata. Ham.
Bupleurimi distichophyllum, W. et A.
„ mucronatum, W. et A.
„ falcatum, Z.
„ plantaginifolium, Wight.
Pimpinella Candolleana, W. et A.
„ Leschenaultii, B.C.
Schultzia involucrata, Miq.
Heracleum Sprenglianum, W. et A.
„ Hookerianum, W. et A.
„ rigens, W. et A.
„ ligusticifolia, W.et A.
ArALIACEjE.
Aralia Malabarica, Redd.
Pentapanax Leschenaultii, B.C.
Polyscias acuminata, Wight.
Heptapleurum racemosum, Wight.
Heptapleurum rostratum, Wight.
,, oho\a.tum, Wight.
,, venulosum, W. et A.
„ sp. nov.? (Sisapdra Ghdt.)
Loranthace^.
Loranthus loniceroides, Z.
„ Nilagiriensis, W. et A.
„ intermedins, Wight.
„ recurvus. Wall.
„ Buddleoides, Besr.
„ memecylifolius, W. et A.
,, longiflorus, Besr.
Loranthus tomentosus, Heyne.
„ lageniferus, Wight.
Viscum moniliforme, Rl.
„ orbiculatum, Wight.
„ orientale, Willd.
,, capitellatum, Sm.
Alangium Lamarckii, Thto.
Coknace^.
I Mastixia arborea, Wight.
112
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VI.
Caprifoliacejs.
Lonicera ligiistrina, Wall.
,, Lcschenaiiltii, irall.
Viburnum punctatum, Ham.
A^iburnum orubescens, Wall.
„ hebanthum, W. et A.
,, coriaceum, Bl.
RUBIACE^.
Anthocephalua Cadambus, Roxb.
Adina cordifolia, Roxb.
Stepbegyne parvifolia, Roxb.
HjTiienodictyon obovatum, Wall.
„ excelsum, Roxb.
Wendlandia Notoniana, Wall.
Dentella repens, Forst.
Argostemma «j9. ?
Neurocalyx Hookerianus, Wujht.
Hedyotis Lawsonise, W. et A.
,, stylosa, Br.
,, articularis, Br,
,, fruticosa, Z.
,, pruinosa, W. ct A.
,, verticellaris, Wall.
,, hirsutissima, Bedd.
,, auricularia, L.
,, glabella, Br.
Oldenlandia Heynei, Br.
,, aspera, Heyne.
Anotis Leschenaultiana, W. et A.
,, monosperma, W. ct A,
„ affinis, W.et A.
Rheedii, W.et A.
„ Wightiana, Wall.
Opbiorbiza mungos, Z.
„ sp.
Mussaenda frondosa, L.
Webera Asiatica, L.
Randia dumetorum, Zaw.
,, fragrans, Km>i.
, , speciosa Bedd.
Gardenia lucida, Roxb.
,, gummifera, i.
,, latifolia, Ait.
Diplospora apiocarpa, Dalz.
Knoxia corymbosa, Willd.
Canthium didjonura, Gcertn.
,, parviflorum, Roxb.
„ Rheedii, IJ.C.
, , Leschenaultii, B . C.
„ Nilagiriense, B.C.
Ixora parviflora, Va/il.
,, acuminata, Roxb.
,, nigricans, Br.
,, lanceolata, Cohb.
Pavetta Indica, L.
,, tomentosa, Roxb.
,, breviflora, I>.C.
,, siphonantha, Dalz.
Coifea alpestis, Wight.
,, grumelioides, Wight.
Morinda umbellata, L.
Psychotria elongata, Wight.
,, congesta, W. et A.
,, bisulcata, W. et A.
Charasia curviflora, Wall.
Geopbila reniformis, Besc.
Lasianthus venulosus, W. et A.
„ cyanocarpus, Jack.
,, ciliatus, Wight.
,, capitulatus, Wight.
Saprosma Wightii, Gardn.
,, fragrans, Bedd.
,, glomerata, Gardn.
Fergusonia tetracocca, Thtv.
Hamiltonia suaveolens, Roxb.
Spermacoce articularis, L.
,, hispida, 1.
Rubia cordifolia, Z.
Galium asperifolium, Wall.
,, Requienianum, W. et A.
Valeriana Brunoniana, W. et A.
Leschenaultii, Bee.
Valeriane;e.
I Valeriana Arnottiana,
Wight.
DiPSACEiE.
Dipsacus Leschenaultii.
COMPOSITEJE.
Centratherum reticulatum, Wight.
Vernonia divergens, Bcnth.
„ Wightiana, B.C.
,, pectiniformis, B.C.
,, CandoUeana, W.
,, elliptica, D.C.
,, cinerca, Zesc.
Elephantopus scaber, Z.
Adeaostemma viscosum, Forst.
Ageratum conyzoides, Z.
Dicrocephala chrysanthemifolia, D.C.
,, latifolia, B.C.
Centipeda minuta, Benth,
Cyathocline lyrata, Car.
Grangea Madl-aspatana, Poir.
Myriactis Wightii, B.C.
Pulicaria Wightiana, Benth.
Erigeron acre, L.
Conyza absinthifolia, B.C.
Blumoa hieracifolia, B.C.
Laggera alata, B.C.
,, pterodonta, B.C.
Pluchea tomentosa, B.C.
Sphasranthus hirtuB, Wills.
Anaphalis Nilagiriana, B.C.
„ Notoniana, B.C.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
113
Anaphalls Wightiana, TFalL
„ aristata, B.C.
„ elliptica, D.C.
„ marcescens, W.
Gnaphalium hj-poleucum, D.C.
Helichiysum Buddleoides, D.C.
Vicoa Inclica, D.C.
Carpesium Nepalense, Zesc.
Chrysogonum heterophyllum, Arnt.
Xanthium strumarium, L.
Siegesbeckia orientalis, L.
Eclijjta alba, Hassk.
Wedelia biflora, Benth.
„ ,, vat: urticsefolia, Be
Glossocardia Boswellea, D.C.
Bidens pilosa, Linn.
Ai-temisia parviflora, Roxb.
„ \'ulgaris, L.
Gynura nitida, D.C.
Emilia scabra, D.C.
„ sonchifolia, D. C.
Notonia grandiflora, D. C.
Senecio araneosus, D.C.
„ Walkeri, Wif//it.
„ tomcntosus, Wight.
„ Wightii, i).C.
„ midtifidus, TFilld.
„ polycephalus, D.C.
„ Lessengianus, Am.
„ pinnatiiid-as, Benth.
„ NilagiriaiiUP, D.C.
„ lavandultefolius, D.C.
„ campylodes, D.C.
„ intei-medius, Wight.
„ Wightianus, D.C.
Cnicua ar^y-acantbus, D.C.
Volutareil i ri-ocumbens, Wight.
Picris bieracioides, Z.
Lactuca glabra, Wight.
„ bastata, D. C.
Sonchus arvensis, Z.
„ oleraceus, Z.
Lactuca Hejiieana, D.C.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
Wahlenbergia agrestris, D.C.
„ Indica, D.C.
Campanula fulgens. Wall.
„ Alphonsii, Wall.
Campanulaceje.
Campanula ramulosa, Wall.
Lobelia excelsa, Zesch.
„ rosea, Wall.
„ trigona, Eo.vb.
Vaccinium Leschenaultii, Wight.
„ Nilagiriense, Wight.
„ rotundifolium, Wight.
Ericaceje.
Gualtberia fragrantissima, Wall.
Ebododendrum arboreum, Sw.
Lysimachia Japonica, Triml.
„ Lescbenaultii, Dub.
Primulace^.
I Anagallis arvensis, Z.
Moesa Indica, D.C.
Embelia ribes, Burm.
„ robusta, Roxb.
„ glandulifera, Wight.
„ Gardneriana, Wight.
Myrsine^.
Samara viridiflora, D. G.
Myrsine capiteUata, Wall.
Ardisia pauciflora, Keyne.
,, humilis, Yahl.
Antistropbe serratifolia, Bedd.
SaPOTACEjE.
Cbrj'SophyUimi Roxburghii, G. Don.
Sapota elengioides.
Mimusops Roxburgbiana, Wight.
Bassia elliptica, Dalz.
„ Wigbtiana, i^.C.
EBENACEiE.
Diospyros embryopteris, Pers.
montana, Roxb.
cordifolia, Roxb.
ebenum, Retz.
sylvatica, Roxb.
melanoxylon, Roxb.
DiospjTOS ovalifolia, Wight.
„ Candolliana, Wight.
„ paniculata, Dalz.
„ ramiflora, Roxb.
„ pruriens, Dalz.
Maba buxifolia, Fers.
Symplocos pendula, Wight.
„ spicata, Roxb.
„ obtusa, Wall.
,, pidcbi-a, Wight.
Styrace;e.
Symplocos Gardneriana, Wight.
„ microphylla, Wight.
,, foliosa, Wight.
„ nervosa, D.C.
15
114
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Jasmine.^,
Jasminum erectiflorum, B.C.
,, revolutum, Linn.
,, rigidum, /.
,, sambac, Ait.
,, cordifolium, Wall.
,, brevilobum, D.C.
,, flexile, Vahl.
Chondrospermiim laurifolium, Wight.
Olea glandulifera, Wall.
„ robusta, Wall.
„ polygama, Wight.
Ligustrum Perottetii, B.C.
,, robustum, Eoxb.
Chionantbus intermedia, Wight.
„ Malabarica, Wall.
Schrebera Swietenioides, Soxb,
Apocynace^.
Opbioxylon densiflorum, Wall.
,, serpentiniim, Wills.
Carissa carandas, Z.
Tabernamontana dichotoma, Soxb.
Wrightea tinctoria, Br.
,, tomentosa, B. Seh,
„ M'aUichii, B.C.
Alstonia scbolaris, Br.
,, venenata, Br.
Holarrhena antidysenterica. Wall.
Anodendron paniculatum, B.C.
Chonemorpha macrophylla, Bon.
Beaumontia Jerdoniana, Wight.
Chilocarpus IMalabarica, Budd.
Icbnocarpus frutesccns, Br.
„ elegans, Bon.
Plmniera acutifolia, Z.
Asclepiade^.
Hemidesmus Indicus, Br.
Bracbylepis nervosa, Wight.
Vincetoxicum pauciflorum, Becaisne,
,, callialata, Sam.
Holostemma Rbeedii, Spr.
Calotropis gigantea, Br.
Dajmia extensa, Br.
Tylophora molissima, Wall.
,, fasciculata, Sain.
,, Iphsia, B.C.
,, pauciflora, W.et A.
,, asthmatica, W. et A.
Marsdenia tenacissima, W.et A.
Gymnema sylvestre, Br.
,, birsutum, W. et A.
Hoya pauciflora, Wight.
,, viridiflora, Br.
,, pendula, W. et A.
Bidaria elegans, Becaisne.
Ceropegia elegans, Wall.
,, pusilla, W. et A.
,, Decaisneana, Wight.
Caralluma attenuata, Wight.
Boucerosia diii'usa, Wight.
,, umbellata, W. et A.
Mitreola oldenlandioides, Wall.
Fagrpea Coromandelina, Wight.
,, obovata, Wall.
Strychnos nux vomica, L.
LoGANIACE^.
Strychnos cinnamonifolia, Thun.
Gardnera ovata. Wall.
Buddleia Asiatica, Lour.
Gextiane^.
Exacum Perottetii, G.
,, bicolor, Roxl}.
,, pedunculatum, L.
,, sessile, L.
Canscora diffusa, Br.
„ decussata, Beam, et Seh.
,, sessiliflora, Beom. et Seh.
Canscora perfoliata, Lam.
Gentiana pedicellata, Wall.
Slevogtia orientalis, Griseb,
Ophelia corj-mbosa, Oriseh.
,, minor, Griseh.
Halenia Perottetii, B.C.
BORAGINE^.
Cordia myxa, L.
,, "Wallichii, Bon.
,, monoica, Roxb.
,, Rothii, Ream, et Seh.
Ehretia Ifevis, Roxb.
,, aspera, Roxh.
,, ovalifolia, Wight.
Rhabdia viminea, Bah.
Tournefortia reticosa, Wight.
Heliotropium linifolium, Lchn
HeUophytum Indicum, B.C.
Cynoglossum furcatum, Wall.
Trichodcvsma Indicum, L.
MANUAL OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT,
115
CONVOLVVLACEJE.
CHAP. VI
Erj-cibe paniculata, Soxb.
Ipomoea campanulata, L.
Convolvulus rufescens, Choisy.
Porana racemosa, Roxb.
, pes-tigridis, L.
Flora.
, turpethum, Rr.
Rivea tilisefolia, Choisy.
, Wightii, Choisy.
,, Zeylanica, Gcertn.
, sepiaria, Koniy.
,, bona-nox, Choisy.
, rugosa, Choisy.
,, cuneata, Wight.
, vitifolia. Sweet.
ArgjTeia aggregata, Choisy.
, pilosa, Sweet.
,, splendens, Sweet.
, sessiliflora. Roth.
„ speciosa, Sweet.
, obscura, Z.
„ Leschenaultii, Choisy.
, chrvseides, Choisu.
,, cymosa, Sweet.
Evolvulus alsinoides, L.
Ipomoea paniculata, Br.
Breweria Roxburghii, Choisy.
,, nil, Choisy.
Cuscuta reflexa, Roxb.
,, speciosum, Choisy.
SOLAJ
iAC-EJB.
Solanum verbascifolium, Z.
Physalis Peruviana, Z.
,, ferox, L.
Withania somnifera, Bun.
„ gigantcum, 7«c(7.
Datura alba, Z.
,, denticulatum, TFall.
fastuosa. Z.
„ Wightii, ;^m.
SCROPHULARIACE^.
Vei'bascum virgatum, D. C.
Limnophila hirsnta, Rl.
,, h^'pericifolia, Renth.
Herpestis monnieria, S.B.K.
Dopatrium junccum. Ham.
Artanema sesamoides, Renth.
Torenia Asiatica, Z.
Vandellia Crustacea, Renth.
Ilysanthes hyssopioides, Renth.
Bonnaya veronicsefolia, Spr.
Buchnera hispida. Ham.
Striga hirsuta, Renth.
Sopubia delphinifolia, Bon.
,, trifida, Ham.
Centranthera Brunoniana, Wall.
„ hispida, Rr.
Pedicularis Perottetii, Renth.
,, Zeylanica, Renth.
Campbellia aui-antiaca, Wight.
„ cytinoides, Wight.
Lentibularie^.
Utricularia flexuosa, Vahl.
,, dinntha,, Roen. et Sch.
,, coerulea, L.
„ ,, va>:B.a.&ms, Wight.
Utricularia reticulata, Z.
,, bifida.
B. Wallichiana, Wight.
Orobanchace.e.
-^genetia pedunculata.
GeSNERIACEjE.
.ZEscby nan thus Zeylanica, Gardn.
Didj-mocarpus tomentosa, Wight.
Klugia Notoniana, B.C.
Jerdonia Indica, Wight.
Ethithema Zeylanica
BiGNONIACEjE.
Oroxylum Indicum, Z.
Dolichandrone crispum. Wall.
,, Rheedii, Wall.
,, arcuatum, Wight.
Stereospermum suaveolens, Roxh.
,, xylocarpum, Roxb.
Pajanelia Rheedii, Wight.
Thunbergia Hawtajmii, Wall.
,, Wightiana, Anders.
,, Mysorensis, Wight.
,, fragrans, Roxb.
AcAXTHACEiE.
Thunbergia fragrans, var.
Anders.
Elj-traria crenata, Vahl.
Nelsonia tomentosa, Willd.
Ebermaiera glauca, Nees.
tomentosa,
116
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI L I. STRICT.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
Adenosma balsamea, Spr.
Ilygi-opliila serpyllum, Anders.
,, salicifolia, Ifees.
Ruellia patula, Jacq.
Phaj-lop^is par-v-iflora, Willd.
HemigrapMs dura, Nees.
„ elegans, Nees.
Stenosiphonium coufei-tum, Kees.
,, Eussellianiun, Nees.
Strobilanthes consangxiineus, Anders.
cuspidatus, Anders.
Kuntkiaiius, Anders.
gossypinus, Anders.
Wightianus, Nees.
punctatus, Wight.
Bolampattianus, Bedd.
Nilagiriensis, Bedd.
asper, Wight.
Perrottetianus, Nees.
anceps, Nees.
sessiloides, Wight.
sessilis, Nees.
Zenkerianus, Nees.
foliosus, Wight.
barbatus, Nees,
ciliatus, Nees.
papillosus, Anders.
micrantlius, Wight.
luridus, Wight.
lapulinus, l^iees.
tristis, Wight.
caudatus, Anders.
pallidus, Anders.
sexennis, Nees.
rubicundus, Anders.
pulcberrimus, Anders.
paniculatus, Anders.
violaceus, Bedd.
Dcedalacantbus montanus, Eoxb.
„ roseus, Vahl.
Barleria cuspidata, Wail.
„ prionitis, L.
„ cristata, L.
„ longifolia, L.
„ ccerulea, £oxb.
„ involucrata, Nees.
Crossandra infundibiiliformis, Nees.
Lepidagathis triner\'is, Nees.
„ hyalina, Nees.
„ fasciculata, Nees.
Blepbaris boerhaa^•i8efolla, Fers.
Androgxapbis Necsiana, Wight.
„ lineata, Nees.
„ ecbioides, Nees.
,, lobc-lioides, Wight.
Haplanthus vertii.illaris, Nees.
GjTnnostacbj'xun canescens, N'ees.
„ soiTulatiun, Anders.
Justicia montana, Wall.
„ betonica, Z.
„ procumbens, Z.
„ Wainadensis, Wall.
„ Wallicbii, Nees.
Monotbecimn aristatum, Nees.
Eungia pectinata, Nees.
„ repens, Nees.
„ latior, Nees.
„ Sisaparensis, Anders.
Dicliptera bivahds, Jhss.
Peristropbe bicalj^culata, Nees.
Rbinacantbus communis, Nees.
Erantbemum ecbolium, Z.
Asystasia Mysorensis, Roth.
„ cbelonoides, Nees.
„ Gangetica, Z.
„ crispata, Benth.
Verbexace.^.
Stacbytarpbeta Indica, Vahl.
Lantana alba, Mill.
,, mixta, Z. (introduced).
Prenma piupurescens, Thw. ?
,, tomcntosa, Willd.
,, herbacea, Roxb.
Tectona grandis, Z.
Clerodendron sen-atum, SjJr.
Clerodendron infortimatum, Z.
Callicarpa lanata, Z.
Gmelina Asiatica, Z.
„ arborea, Roxb.
Vitex altissima, Heyne.
„ leucoxylon, Linn.f.
„ negundo, Z.
Labiatje.
Ocimum canum, Z.
„ gratissimum, L.
„ sanctum, Z.
Plectrantbus bullatus, Benth.
„ Nilagiricus, Benth.
„ nigrescens, Benth.
„ coetsa, I)on.
„ coleoides, Benth.
Coleus barbatus, Benth.
„ Wigbtii, Benth.
„ Malabaricus, Benth.
Anisochilus dysophylloides, Benth,
„ purpureus, Wight.
„ albidus, Wight.
„ suffruticosus, Wight.
Pogostemon Hejoieanus, Berith.
„ paludosus, Benth.
Pogostemon atropurpureus, Benth.
„ rotimdatus, Benth.
„ speciosus, Benth.
„ hirsutus, Wight.
Colebrookia temifolia, Benth.
Blicromeria biflora, Benth.
Calamintha cbinopodium, Benth,
Prunella vulgaris, Z.
Scutellaria violacea, Heyne.
„ ri\-ularis, Wall.
Anisomeles ovata, Br.
„ Malabariea, Br.
Leucas cepbalotcs, Spr.
„ urticfefoUa, Br.
„ pubescens, Br.
„ procumbens, Desf.
„ miirubioides, Desf.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
117
Leucas Zeylanica, Br.
„ suffruticosa, Benth.
„ rosraarinifolia, Benth.
„ heliantheinifolia, Desf,
„ temifolia, Desf.
Dicrsea dichotoma, Tiil.
„ Wightii, Tnl.
Leucas lancesefolia, Bcsf. CHAP. VI.
„ lamiifolia, Besf.
Gomphostemma Hej-neanum, Wall. Flora.
Teucrium tomentosum, Heyne.
PLANTAGINEiE.
Plantago major, L.
PODOSTOMACE^.
Dicrsea rigida, Tul.
Hydi-obryum griseum, Tul.
Phytolaccace^e.
Gieseckia pharnaceoides, L.
Chenopodiace^.
Chenopodium ambrosioides, L. | Atriplex heterantha, Wight.
Amarantace^.
Celosia piilchella, 3foq.
„ argentea, Moq.
Chamissoa nodiflora, Mart.
Amaranthus oleraceus, Roxb.
„ friunentaceus, Ham.
„ caudatus, 3Ioq.
Banalia thjTsifiora, Moq.
.Mi-na, floribunda, Wight.
Mvua, Javanica, Tuss.
„ lanata, Jiiss.
„ Monsonia, 3Iart.
AchjTanthes aspera, L.
„ ,, var. argentea, Lam.
„ bidentata, Bl.
Cyathula prostrata, Bl.
Alternanthera sessilis, Br.
Polycarpsea spicata, Wight.
Paeon YCHiACEiE.
I Drpnaria cordata, WiUd.
POLYGONACE,^.
Polygonum barbatum, L.
„ glabram, Willd.
„ minus, Huds.
„ strigosum, Br.
„ Donii, Meissn.
Boerhaavia diffusa, Z.
Myristica laurifolia, H. f. et T.
,, corticosa, Lour.
Polygonum perforatum, Meissn.
„ Wallichii, Meissn.
„ Chinense, L.
Rumex Nepalensis, Spr.
Nyctagine^.
I Pisonia aculeata, L.
Myristicey^.
I Myristica Farquhariana, Wall.
Proteace^.
Helicia Nilagirica, Bedd.
Thymeljeace^.
Lasiosiphon eriocephalus, Lese. \ Cansjera Rheedii, Gmel.
Santalum album, L.
Osyris arborea, L.
ElCEAGNACEjE.
Eloeagnus latifolia, L.
Santalace^.
I Thesium Wightianum, Wall.
118
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
Salicace^.
Salix tetrasperma, Roxb.
Laurace^.
Machilus macrantha, Necs.
Phcehe Wightii, B.C.
Ciimamomum Zeylanicum, Breyn. (seve-
ral varieties.)
Alseodaphne semicarpifolia, Nees. (5,000
feet.)
Apollonias Amottii, Nees.
Crj-ptocaiya Wightiana, Thw. (4,000 ft.)
Telranthera ligustrina, Nees. (7,000 feet.)
,, Wightiana, Nees. (7,000 ft.)
sebifera, Bl. (7,000 feet.)
Actinodaphne salicina, B.C. (4,000 feet.)
Litsfca Zeylanica, ]>^ces.
Cassji;lia filiformis, L.
Hernaxdiaceje.
Sarcostigma Kleinii, W. et A.
ErPHORBIACE.E.
Trihe Fhyllanthete.
Actephila excelsa, BaJz.
PhyUanthus emblica, L.
„ polypliyllus, Willd.
„ Indicus, Bah.
„ Miquelianus, Miill.
„ Lesclienaultii, Miill.
„ fimbriatus, Miill.
„ AYightianus, Miill.
Glocliidioii fagifolium, Miill.
,, Nilagii-iense, Wight.
„ Perrottetianum, Miill.
„ velutinum, Wight.
„ Daltoni, Miill.
Melanthesopsis patens, Boxb.
Brej-nia rhamnoides, Willd.
Briedelia retusa, L.
,, stipi^ilaris, Z.
montana, Willd.
Putranjiva Eoxbiirghii, Wall.
Secxirinega obovata, Willd.
„ leucopyrus. Keen, in Roxb.
Baccaurea sapida, Roxb.
Bischoffia Javanica, Bl.
Hemicyclia elata, Bedd.
,, sepiaria, W. et A.
,, venusta, Wight.
Cj-clostemon macrophylliis, BL
Aporosa Lindleyana, Wight.
Antidesma Ghaesembilla, Gcertn.
,, lanceolatum, Tul.
Sauropus qiiadrangiilaris, Miill,
AgjTieia bacciformis, Miill.
Tribe Briedeliem.
Cleistantliiis patulus, Roxb.
,, stipularis, Hook.
Lebidieropsis orbicularis, Roth.
Croton Malabaricum, Btdd.
Tribe Grotonea:.
I Croton aromaticum, L.
Tribe Acahjphece.
AgTOstistachys Indica, Bah.
Sarcocliniuni longifoliiim, Wight.
Cephalocroton Indicum, Bvdd.
,, leucocephalum, Baill.
Sjnnphyllia mallotiformis. Mail.
Trevna nudiflora, i.
Mallotus albus, Roxb.
,, muricatus, Wight.
„ Philippinensis, Lam.
Cleidion Javanicum, Bl.
Jilacaranga tomentosa, Wight.
„ Indica, Wight.
Homonoya riparia, Later.
,, retusa, Wight.
Acalvpha paniculata, Miq.
'„ alnifoHa, Willd.
,, brachystachj-a, Horn,
Acalypha Indica, L.
Tragia Miqueliana, Miill.
,, involucrata, Miill.
Claoxylon mercui-ialis, i.
Tribe Hippomanece.
Trigonostemon Lawianus, Kimmo.
Givotia Rottleriformis, Griff.
Ostodes Zeylanica, Thw.
Codioeum umbellatum, Willd.
Gelonium lanceolatum, Willd,
Exccecaria insignis, Rogle.
Excoecaria Cochinchinensis, Lour.
,, oppositifolia. Jack.
Jatropha Wightiana, 3fiill.
Baliospermum montanum, Miill.
Sebastiania chamtelea, Miill.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
119
Tribe Euphorbiece.
Euphorbia antiquorum, L.
,, trigona, i?o.ri.
,, tirucalli, L.
,, bracteolaris, Boiss.
Euphorbia pycnostegia, Boiss.
,, pihilifera, L.
„ sanguinea, Hock, et Stend.
,, oreophila, Miq.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
Genera allied to Eiq)horbi(ice(e.
Daphniphyllum glaucescens, Bl. \ Sarcococca saligna, Bon.
Callitrichace^.
Callitriche vei-na, L.
CeRATOPHYLLACEjE.
Ceratophyllum verticellatum, Roxb,
Ulmus integrifolia, Roxb.
Celtis serotina, Planch,
„ Wightii, Planch.
Urticace^.
Tribe Celtidece.
Sponia Wightii, Planch.
Gironniera reticulata, Thto.
Tribe Artoearpem.
Artocarpus hirsuta, Lam.
,, integrifolia, Willd.
,, Lakoocha, Roxb.
Plecospermum spinosum, Roxh.
Antiaris innoxia, Bl.
Streblus aspera, Lour.
Taxotrophis Roxburghii, Bl.
Dorstenia Indica, Wight.
Ficus religiosa, L.
cus Bengalensis, L.
tomentosa, Roxb.
Tsiela, Z.
retusa, L.
nervosa, Roth.
asperrima, Roxb.
giomerata, Willd.
guttata, Wight.
Tribe Urticece.
rieurya interrupta, Gand.
Laportea terminalis, Wight.
,, crenulata, Gand.
Gerardinia Leschenaultii, Decaisne,
,, Zeylanica, Bee.
Pilea trinervia, Wight.
,, Wightii, W^edd.
Lecanthus peduncularis, Wall.
PoUionia Heyneana, Wedd.
Elatostema sessile, Forst., var. cuspida-
tum, Wight.
,, lineolatum, Wight.
,, diversifolium, Weddell (sar-
callosum , Wight) .
,, SLTp^vcxmvdtum, Weddell (cune-
atum, Wight).
Procris Itevigata, Bl.
Boehmeria Malabarica.
Boehmeria platyphylla, Bon. et Ham., var.
macrostachya, Wight.
Chamabrinia cuspidata, Wight.
Pouzolzia auriculata, Wight.
,, ,, var. Eheedii, Wight.
,, diffusa, Wight.
,, cymosa, Wight.
,, Indica, Gand., var. tetraptera,
Wight.
Nemorialis pentandra, Roxb., var. ramo-
sissima, Wight.
Nilagiriensis, Weddell.
hirta, Bl.
,, var. Bennettiana, Wight.
,, var. tomentosa, Wight.
,, var. Ga.rineri,Wight.
Debregeasia longifoUa, Gand.
Droguetia pauciflora, Weddell.
Aristolochia Indica, i.
Aristolochiace^.
I Bragantia Wallichii, R. Br.
120
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTEICT."
CHAP. VI.
FroRA.
PlPERACE^.
Peperomia Dindigulensis, Miq.
,, Hei,Tieana, 3Iiq.
,, reflexa, A. Dictr.
Pothomorphe suhpeltata, Mlq.
Chavica sphserostachya, Miq.
Chavica Betle, Miq. (Cultivated at foot
of hills).
Muldera galeata, Miq.
Piper attenuatum, Ham.
,, nigrum, L.
,, arborescens, Miq.
Chloranthaceje.
Chloranthus brachystachys, £1.
BaLANOPHOREjE.
Balanophora Indica, Wall.
Cycadeje.
Cj'cas circinalis, Z.
— Monoco-
tyledons.
MONOCOTYLEDONS.
ORCHIDACEiE.
Section Malaxece.
Sub-Section Liparidce.
Liparis biloba, Wight.
,, Wightii, Lindl. ( =elliptica,
Wicjht).
Microstylis luteola, Wight.
„ Rheedii, Lindl. (^versicolor,
Wight).
Oberonia dcnticulata, Wight.
,, Brunoniana, Wight.
,, Lindleyana, Wight.
,, verticellata, Wight.
,, Wightiana, Li>tdL
,, Arnottiana, Wight.
Sub-Section Bendrobice.
Dendrobium Pierardi, Roxb.
,, nutans, Lindl. (Jerdonia-
num, Wight).
,, aqneum, Lindl. {album, W.)
,, aureum, Lindl.
,, barbatulum, Lindl.
,, microbulbon, A. Bich. (hu-
mUe, W.)
,, Macrsei, Lindl.
Bulbopbyllum Nilagiriense, Wight.
,, fuscopurpureum, Wight.
„ tremulum, Wight.
Cirrhopetalum Nilagiriense, Wight,
(Bulbophyllum Kaitiense, Walps).
Cin-hopetalmn albidum, W. (B. acutiflo-
iTim, A. Rich.)
Eria braccata, Lindl. (= reticosa, Wight) .
„ polystachya, Wight.
„ nana, A. Rich.
„ pubescens, Wight.
„ Dalzelli, Sook. ( = Dend. filiforme,
Wight).
„ pauciflora, Wight.
Aggeianthus marchantioides, Wight.
Section Epidendrece.
Suh-Section Ccelogynidce.
Coelogyne breviscapa, Lindl. {= angusti-
folia, W.)
,, odoratissima, Lindl.
,, glandulosa, Zwd^. (= nervosa,
W.)
Coelogyne nervosa, Lindl.
,, corrugata, Lindl.
Pholidota imbricata, Lindl.
Sub-Section BUiidce.
Arundina bambussefolia, Lindl.
IpseaMalabarica, Rehb. ( = Pachystoma,
Bl.){? = speciosa).
Ania latifolia, Lindl,
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRl DISTRICT.
12]
Section Vandece.
Suh-Svction Sarcantfiidec.
CHAP. VI.
Eulophia ^^rcns, Br.
,, macrostachys, Lindl,
,, ramentacL-a, Lindl.
Cyrtopera fusca, Wiffht.
flava, Lindl. ( = Cullenii, W.)
Luisia tenuifolia, B. ( = Cymbidium
tenuifolia, W.)
„ trichorhiza, Bl.
Cottonia peduncularis, Lindl. ( = C. mac-
rostachys, Wight).
Vanda Koxburghii, Br.
,, spathulata, Spr.
Acampe Wightiana, Lindl. (Vanda,
^Yig}tt).
Chiloschista usucoidcs, Wight.
Saccolabium pra;morsum, Lindl.
,, ringens, Lindl. ( == S. rub-
ruin, Wight).
Saccolabium paniculatum, Wight.
,, roseum, Lindl. ( = sarcan.
thus, Wight).
„ filiformis, Lindl.
,, calceolaria, Lindl. ( = Vanda
pulchella, Wight).
Rarcanthus pcninsularis, Dals.{=z S. pau-
citlorus, Wight).
Tajiiiophyllum Jerdonianum, Wight.
brides Wightianum, Lindl.
,, crispum, Lindl. (Saccolabium spc-
ciosum, W.)
,, Lindleyanum, Wight,
,, cylindricum, Lindl.
Diploccntrum congestum, Wight.
„ recurvum, Lindl. ( = Ion-
gifolium, Wight).
Josephia lanceolata, Wight.
Suh.Section Crgptochilidce.
Acanthophippium bicolor, Lindl.
Sub. Section Brassidce,
Cymbidium aloifolium, Sw. | Cymbidium erectum, Wight.
Si<b-Section Max ilUrr idee.
Polystachya luteola, Hook. ( = P. Wightii, Wcdpers).
Sub-Section Calanthidce.
Calauthe Masuca, Lindl. ( = emarginata,
Wight).
Perottctii, A.Rich.
Calanthe veratrifolia, R. Br.
Geodorum dilatatiun, £. Br.
Section Ophrece.
Sub-Section SatyriadcB.
Satyi'ium Nepalense, Bon. ( = Perotteti- I Satyrium Wightianum, Lindl.
anum, Wight ^ albidiiiorum, Wight). \
Sub. Section Gymnadenidce.
Atevirens, Lindl.
Habenaria viridiflora, Br.
,, plantaginea, Lindl.
„ crinifura, Lindl.
,, HejTieana, Lindl.
,, rariflora, A. Rich.
,, longicakarata, A. Rich.
,, montana, A. Rich.
,, ccphalotis, Lindl.
,, platyphylla, Spr.
,, foliosa, A. Rich.
Habenaria fimbriata, Wight.
,, Richardiana, Wight.
,, dccipiens, Wight.
Platanthera Susanntu, Lindl.
„ brachyphylla, Lindl.
,, iantha, Wight.
Peristylus plantagineus, Litidl.
,, spiralis, Wight.
,, Eichardianus, Wight.
Cceloglossum secundum, Lindl.
Sub-Scction Corycidcc.
Disperis Nilagiriensis, Wight, \ Dispcris tripetaloidca, Lt«<f/,
16
122
MANUAL OF THE nIlAQIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP VI.
Floka.
Section Arethusecf.
Stti-SectioH Fogonidoe.
Pogonia biflora, Wi>)hL
Sni-S«ction Gastrodida.
Epipogium nutans, Lindl. ( = Podanthera pallida. Tri(;A<).
Siii'S<iction VanilUdit.
Fodychilus Malabaricus, \Vtjht.
Section Neottea.
Sub.St'ctiOH Spiranthidtg.
Spiranthus australis.
Sui. Sect ion Fh^iurida.
Zeuxine sulcata, L indL ( = robusta and
brevifolia, Wi^^ht).
Cheirostylis dabollata. Wiijht.
Goodytra procera, Moo/c.
Globba bulbifera. Roxb.
Zingiber Wis^htiauum, Thur.
,, Zerumbet, Sm.
Curcuma aivmatica, Salisd.
,, Isilagiriensis, >r»(;Af.
Ka-mpftria n.uuuda, H'jiiii.
Amomuin, Sp.
Ansectochilus setawus, Bl.
,, clatus, LindL
Cnemidia nen-osa ( = Guvindovia,
Wijfkt).
ZlXGlBSRSCST.
Elt'ttaria cannaecarpa, TVhkt.
cardamomum. JU(*toH.
Hedychium tiavesct-ns, Kuncoe.
,, con.>uarium. WJZiii.
„ cemuiun, >Vst;*(.
Alpinia Rhet>iii, tV'JiT-if.
Costus sptx-iosus, S>/t.
Maranta virgata. Wull.
Fhryuiuui capitatum, Willd,
Marantaceje.
I Canna Indica. L.
Monochoria hast«folia, Fr^iL
MlSACE-Ti-
Musa omata, Eoxb.
Po.NTEPERACBJS.
I Monochoria vaginalis, Fnsl.
COMMEIYSACEJS.
Commelyna salicifolia, Eosi.
,, Beugaknsis, Z.
,, obliqua, Ihn.
hirsuta \ (=Heterocarpus,
glaber \ H-i.jAt).
Aneilema ensifolium, in<fht (also
sccunda, H''.)
„ nudifloruni, Ku/tth.
,, nauuui, Ktk.
,, latit'olium, li'iifht.
,, mont;uvam, jrjy^f. { =: Dicty-
osp«jnnum, Wi<jht).
Aneilcma ovalifolium, Ji'~t^ht (= Dictyos-
peniiuml .
Pollia Indica, Wujht. {= Arlisia.)
Plt.>scopa paniculata, Sunsk. ( =I)ithy.
n.H'arpus, Wujht.)
Cyanotis cristata, Hoem J^ $<:h.
„ axillaris. Eoem ^ ^-A.
„ ^il<.>isi. AV*v/< jf' 5fA.
,, tasciculata. Roem Jf Sck. (^^rosta
and sanucnti.H5a, Wtifht.)
,, lanctvlata, H^/hi,
,, longiiolia, H'i<f%i,
Hypo\is trichocarpa, Wi^ht.
Curculigo orchidioidce, Gartn. ( =brcvi-
fuiia, VFty/fO-
H\r0XIt>ACE.5.
Cui-culigo Malabarica, JFiykt.
MANUAL OF THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT.
123
Crinum dcfixum, Oaii-l.
Paucratium vcrccuuduin, Svland.
AMAIlYLLIDACE.t.
I Pancratium Malubaricum, Kth.
CHAP. VI.
F I.OKA.
BlKMANNlACEvK.
Bui-mannia tiiflora, lio/h.
Dioscorea oppositifoHa, L.
„ peutaphylla, L.
DiOSCOREACEjK.
Dioscorca bulbifcra, L.
,, tomcutasu, Ktfi.
Pancaked.
Pandanus odoratissiiiius, L.
Palmaceje.
Arcca catechu, L. (cultivated at foot of
hills).
Caryota urens, L.
Phoeuix_SyIvfcstris, Soxb,
Pha-nix faiinifc-ra, Roxh.
Calamus Wightii, Gri^.
„ rotang, L.
and two bpecies not identified
PiSTIACEjK.
Pistia stratiotes, L.
Alismacea:.
Alisma obtusifolia, L.
Najadace^..
Aponogeton crispus, Thuhl.
Lagenandra ovata, L.
Aiurn divaricatum, L.
,, Roxburghii, Sch.
Ariesema curvatum, Kunth.
„ Lesehenaultii, Bl.
tortuosum, fich.
Amorjjhophallus campanulatus,
„ dubiuH, lil.
Colocina antiquorum, Sch.
,, vivipara, Ibrxh.
ScindapsuB f>ertu8UH, Hch.
Pothos Bcandens, L.
Asparagus rubricaulis, Kih.
„ floribun<la, Kth.
Kanse'V'iera P^oxburghiana, Sch,
iJianella ensifolia, lied.
iJisponim Leschen;iultianum, J)(jn.
Smikx maculata, Roxb.
,, ovalifolia, Rox.b.
,, Zeylanica, L.
LlLIACE.^.
Chlorophj'tum parviflorum, Lah.-
langiuin, Wight).
Gloriosa superba, L.
Ophiopogon intermedius , Bon.
Peliosanthes Nilagiriensis, Wight.
Ledelwuria hyacinthina, Roth.
Barnard) Indica, Wight.
Liliuia Nilagiriensis, Wight.
:(Pha-
JUNCACE.«.
Juncus monticola, Steudel.
Restiaceje.
Eriocaulon Nilagiriense, fiteudel.
,, lobuiitum, Uteudel.
Eriocaulon bracteoBum, Steudel.
,, bexangularft. Z.
124
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
CVPERACE.'E.
Cypenis polj-stachjiis, Rottb.
„ puncticulatus, Vahl.
„ alopccuroides, Rottb.
„ Nilagiricus, Hochst.
„ atrofeiTuginous, Steudel.
„ petrKiis, Hoclist.
„ rotundus, L.
„ aristatus, Rottb.
„ dubius, Rottb.
„ distans, L.
„ kyllingioidcs, Steudel.
„ umbellatus, J't/fil.
Kyllingia monocephala, L.
„ brevifolia, Rottb.
„ melanosperma, Kees.
„ triccp.s, Rottb.
Hj-polj-trum latifolium, Rich.
Fuirena ciliaris, Roxb.
,, iimbellata, Rottb.
Abilgaardia raonostachya, Va/iL
Fimbristylis polytrichoides, Br.
Fimbristylis schrenoides, Fahl.
„ argentea, Kees.
„ quinquangiilaria, Eunth.
„ miliacea, Vahl.
„ uliginosa, Hochst.
„ capillacea, Hochst.
„ monticola, Hochst.
Lsolepis gracilis, Kees.
„ barbata, Br.
Scirpus juncoides, Roxb.
Eleocharis capitata, Br.
Schleria tessellata, Willd.
„ lithosperma, Willd.
„ androgjTia, Kves.
Carex mercarensis, Hochst.
„ macrophylla, Hochst.
„ Nilagirica, Hochst.
,, platycarpa, Hochst.
,, gemella, Hochst,
,, nubigena, Don.
GRAMIXE^.
Oryze^e.
Oryza sativa, L.
Phalehide^.
Coix Lachryma, L.
Paxice.t,.
Paspahun Metzii, Stcudvl.
„ serobiculatum, L.
Panicum Wallichianuni, W. S; A.
„ Nilagiracum, Steudel.
„ multibiachiatum, Hochst.
„ nodibarbatum, Hochst.
„ Metzii, Hochst.
„ brachy glume, Hochst.
,, Bunnanni, Retz.
Panicum Cms galli, L.
,, glaucum, £.
,, Helopus, Trin.
„ Javanicum, Poir.
,, montanum, Roxb.
„ Indicum, Z.
„ trigonum, Retz.
„ verticellatum, Z.
Peimisetum Hohenackeri, Hochst.
Arundinella setifera, Steudel.
„ purpurea, Hochst.
Tristegine.e.
I Garnotia, sp.
Oropetium Thomoeum, Trin.
Rottboellia exaltata, Z.
ROTTPOELLIE.'E.
I Maiusuris granulans, Siv.
AxPROrOGONE-^.
Apluda aristata, Z.
Crysopogon aciculatus, Trin.
Anthistiria oiliata, Retz.
„ heteroclita, Roxb.
Andi'opogon Halapensis, Sibth.
,, Scha^naiithus, Roxb.
„ Martini, Roxh.
„ portusus, Willd.
,, Hohenackeri, Hochst.
,, oli'cantlms. Hochst.
Andi'opogon confeitiflorus, Steudel.
,, polyneuros, Steudel.
„ petiolatus. Ball/.
,, nodulibarbis, Hochst.
,, breviaristatus, Steudel.
Lschaemum nervosum, Rottb.
Heteropogon hirtus, Pers.
Impei-ata arundinacea, Ci/r.
Saccharuin spontaneum, Z.
Perotib lulifolia, Ait.
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
125
Sporobolua diandcr, Bcauv.
Aristida hystrix, Z.
AoROSTIDEiE.
I Triachryiim Nilagiricum, Stcudcl.
Stipace;e.
I Aristida deprcssa, Roxb.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
AnUNDINE.'E.
Phragmites KoxliiugJiii, Kth .
Chloride.e.
Cynodon dactylon, Pvrs.
„ gracilis, Noes.
Dactyloctenium iEgyptiacum,
Chloris barbata, Scid.
digitata, SUuUfl.
Eleusine Indica, Gwrt.
Eragrostis bifaria, Va^il.
,, unioloides, R. ^- S.
„ nutans, Stcudel.
,, paniciilata, Stcudel.
„ pannglumis, Hochst.
Festucace^.
EragTOstis atropurpiu-ca, Hochst.
Lophatherium gracile, Broug.
Eljiirophoius articulatus, Bcauv.
CVclachne pulcliclla, Br.
Tripogon bromoidcs, Both.
Ai'undinaria Wightiana, Nees.
Bambusa arundinacea, Retz.
,, orientalis, Nees.
Oxytenanthera Thwaitesii, Munro.
Bamhuse^.
Tcinostachyum Wightii, Bedd.
Dendi-ocalamua strictus, Nees.
Beesha liheedii, Munro,
Lycopodium cemuum, L.
„ phlegmaria, L.
„ seiTatuni, Thunh.
„ comiilanatum, L.
,, clavutum, L.
CRYPTOGAMS.
Ll'COrODIACEJE.
Psilotum triquetrum.
iSelaginella caudata, Desv.
„ atroviridis, Spring.
„ concinna, Spring.
„ rupestris, Spring.
Filices.
Gleichenia dichotomum, IVilld.
Cyathea spinulosa, WuU.
Alsophila latebrosa, Wall.
Alsophila crinita, Hk.
„ glabra, Hk.
Hymenophylliun exsertum, Wall.
„ polyanthos, Siv.
,, Javanicum, Spr.
Trichomanes Nilagiriensc, Bedd.
„ exiauum, Bvdd.
Trichomanes parvulum, Pair.
„ proliferum, Bl.
„ filicula, Boug.
„ pyxidiferum, L.
rigidum, Sev.
Huniata pedata, S/n.
Leucostegia immersa, Wall.
,, pulchra, Dm.
Davallia bullata, Wall.
Microlopia strigosa, Siv.
Microlepia proxima, Bl.
,, hirta, Kaulf.
,, platyphylla, Dm.
Stenoloma tcuuifulia, Sw.
ll''J
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.'
CHAP. VI. Lintisaj-a cultrata, Sw.
\ L * Schizoloma lobatum, Foir.
Flora.
Schizoloma cnsifolium, iS;^.
,, heterophyllum, Dry.
A'liantum lanccolatum, Burm.
,, caudatum, L.
,, capillus-veneris, L.
,, JEthiopiciim, L.
,, hispidulum, Sw.
Dicilanthus Mysorensis, Wall.
,, farninosa, Kaulf.
„ ,, var. Dalhousiac.
,, tcnuifolia, Sw.
I'cllcea concolor, Lauffs ^- Fisch.
,, boiWni, HA-.
,, falcata, Fn\
rt* ris loiigifolia, L.
,, cretica, L.
Pteris poUucida, Fresl.
,, ensiformis, Burm.
,, quadiiaurita, Fctz.
,1 ,, var. argentca.
M i> var, aspericaulis.
, , patens.
,, longipes, G. Don.
,, aquilina, Z.
Campteiia biaiirita, Z.
,, Anemalensis, Bedd.
Ceratopteris thalictroides, Brong.
Lomaria Pateisoni, Spr.
,, var. elongata, Bl.
Blechnum oricntale, L.
Aspl
uium nidus, Z.
, var. phyllitidis, Don.
, ensifomio, Wall.
, Trichomanes, Z.
, normale, Don.
, Wightianum, Wall.
, lunulatiim, SiV.
, Zenker ianum, Kze.
, auvitum, Su\
, falcatum, Lam.
, caudatum, Forst.
, erinicaule, Bance.
macrophyllum, Sw.
forinosum, Bl.
resectura, Sin.
hotcrocarpum. Wall,
jdanicaule, Wall.
furcatum, Thunb.
Asplenium nitidum, Sm.
,, fontanum, Bcrnh.
„ „ vat. cxiguum, Bedd.
,, varians, IT/i. ^- Grcc.
„ tcnuifolium, Dom.
AthjTium Hohenackerianum, Kze.
,, macrocarpum, Bl.
,, nigiipes, Bl.
,, aspidioidcs, Schl.
,, umbrosum, /. Sm.
,, var. australe.
Diplanium sylvaticum, Fresl.
,, lasiopteris, Mctt.
„ polypoidioides, Mett.
,, asperum, Bl.
,, latifolium, Don.
Anisogonium esculentuui, Fresl.
Actiniopteria radiata, Link.
Pnlysticlium amiculatum, Sw.
,, aculeatum, Sw.
,, „ var. angulatum.
Cvrtomium falcatum, var. caryotideum,
Wall.
Aepidium polymorphum, Wall.
,, dccurrens, Fresl.
„ cicutarium, Z.
Lastrsea aristata, Sw.
,, coniifolia, Wall.
,, hii-tipes, ir/c.
„ gracilescens, Hk.
,, calcarata, Hk.
„ „ var. falciloba, Ek.
„ orhthodes, Kze.
„ tylodes, Kze.
„ thelypteris, Desv.
„ syrmatica, Willd.
„ Filix mas var. patentissima.
„ „ rar. elongata.
„ „ var. cochlcata.
Lastrfca sparsa, Don.
„ crenata, Forsk.
„ di.ssecta, Forst.
„ fenuginea, Bedd.
„ scabriosa, Kze.
„ Boryana, Willd.
„ setigcra, Bl.
Nephrodium otaria, Fresl.
„ unitum, F. Br.
„ pteroides, Fe(z.
„ extensum, Bl.
„ cucullatum, Bl.
„ Amboinense, Fresl.
„ arbuscula, Desr.
„ pennigerum, Bl.
„ moUe, Desv.
„ truncatum, Fresl.
Nephrolcpis cordifolia, Z.
exaltata, Sc?i.
Oleandra musttifylia, Kze.
MANUAL OF
THE
NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
127
Phegopteris distans, Lou.
Pleopeltis lanceolata, Z.
CUAP. VI
„ ornata, Wall.
„ membranacea, Don.
„ punctata, T/tioib.
„ punctata, L.
Flora.
Polypodium paiasiticum, Mtt(.
„ tritida, Don.
subfulcatum, Bl.
„ nigroscens, Jil.
Niphobolus adnascens, Hw.
„ loit.ihiza, Jrull.
fissus, BL
Drynaria quurcii'olia, L,
Pleopeltia linearis, Thioii.
GjTnnogramma totta, Schl.
„ leptophylla, Dcsv.
Selliguea lanceokta, uX-.
„ involuta, Do>i.
Menisc'iura triphyllum, Stv.
Antrophyum plantagineum, Kaulf.
Antrophjnim rcticulatum, Kaulf.
Vittaria clongata, Sw.
T.x-niopsis lineata, Sio.
Drymoglossum pilosolloidcs, Frcsl.
Hemionitis arifulia, Burm.
Elaphoglossum conforme, Sw.
„ laurifolium, Thouars.
„ viscosum, Sw,
„ etigmatolepis, Fcr.
Stenochhcna palustre, Z.
Polybotrya appendiculata, Willd.
Polybotrya appendiculata var asplenii-
fulia.
Gjinnopteris lanceolata, H/c.
„ axillaris, Citv.
„ contauiinans, Wall.
„ teriiiinalia, Wall.
Osmunda rcgalis, L.
Anemia tomcntosa, Sw. I Lygodium scandcnn, Sw.
» )) I'lir. Wightiana, Gurdn. \ .,_ „ pinnatitidum, Sw.
-Angiopteria evecta, Eoffen.
I Marattia fraxinea, Sm.
Ophioglossace.t:.
Ophioglossum reticulatum, L.
„ nuditaule, L.
Helminthoatachya Zeylanica, UK
Butrychium paucifolium. Wall.
„ Virginianum, Sw.
„ „ var. lanuginosum,
Wall.
JUNGERMANNIACE^-(SCALE MOSSES). ' -Scale
Plagiochila dichotoma, Nees.
Lophocolea mm-icata, Nees.
Gottschea aligera, Nees.
„ glaucescens, Nees.
Madothcca Perrottetii, Mont.
„ Nilagiriensis, Mont.
„ ligulifera, Taylor.
„ acutifolia, Zehm. ^ Ldbg.
Lejennia minutissima, Lanwrt,
„ cucullata, Nees.
„ Nilagiriana, Gottsche.
Frullania glomerata, Z. # Zr%. Mosses.
„ Wallichiana, Mitten.
„ acutiloba. Mitten.
„ moniliata, Nees.
Steetzia crispata, Nees.
Dumortiera hirsuta, N'ees.
Marchantia nitida, Z.
Fimbriaria leptophylla, Mont.
Kiccia fluitans, Linn.
Sendtncra dicrana, Ta>/1.
GjTnnomitrium lutesceus, Mitt.
Equisetace^e.
Equisetum debile, Eoxh.
1 Equisetum, ap.
Marsileacea'.
Marailfiu qu
idiifolia, i.
128
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
BllYACE^— (URN MOSSES).
TkIBE I. — DlCRANACE^.
Pleuridium denticuktum, Mitt.
Leptotriuhum phascoides, Mitt,
,, plicatum, C. Millhr.
,, Schmidii, C. Miilkr,
Trematodon Schmidii, G. Miilkr.
,, paucifolius, C. Midler.
sp.
CjTiontodinm amjenum, T. S; Mitt.
rjecilophyllum tenerum, Mitt.
„ Taylori, 3fitt.
„ nitens, Mitt.
,, amoene-virens, Mitt.
Campylopus recurvus, Mitt.
,, Goughii, Mitt.
Campylopus Nilagirionsis, 3Iitt.
,, albescens, G. Miiller.
,, densus, Schl.
,, latinerve. Mitt.
„ flagelliferus, G. Miiller.
,, involutus, G. Miiller.
,, caudatus, C. Miiller.
,, ericetorum, 3ntt.
,, tricolor, G. Miiller.
„ eryt'hxogna^]ia.lon,G. Miiller.
,, Schmidii, G. Miiller.
,, nodiflorus, C. Miiller.
„ nitidus Mitt.
Didymodon Btenocarpus, Mitt.
Tribe II.— Grimmie.e.
Grimmia ovata, Web. and Mohr.
,, Nilagiriensis, C. Miiller.
Glyphomitrium (Brachysteleum) tortula,
C. Midler.
Tribe III. — Levcobrye^.
Octoblcpharum albidura, Hediv.
Leucobrjiim Javensc, Mitt.
„ Wightii, Mitt.
LeucobrjTim Nilagiriensis.
„ Bowringii, Mitt.
Tribe IV. — SYRRHoroDoxTE.iE.
CaljTnperes sp.
Tribe V. — Torti'le.e.
Weissia (Gj-mnostoma) involuta, Hook.
Tortula orthodonta, MiUlvr.
„ stonophylla, Mitt.
Tortula augustata. Mitt.
„ (Sj-ntrichia) Schmidii, C. 3Iiiller.
Ancectangium Schmidii^ C. Midler.
Tribe VI. — Orthotriche-'e.
Zygodon acutifolius, C. Miiller.
,, cylindricarpus, C. Miiller,
,, tetragonostomus, Brann.
Ulota Schmidii, 3ntt.
Orthotrichum n. ; sp. (No. As% Herb. Bed.)
Macrumitrium Pen-ottetii, C. Midler.
,, squarrulosum, C. Miilkr.
Macromitrium Schmidii, C. Midler.
,, Muellerianum, Mitt.
,, sulcatum, Brid.
,, uncinatum, C. Midler.
,, fasciculare, Mitt.
,, Nilagiriensis, C. Miiller.
Schlothoimia Grevilliana, JMitt.
Tribe VII.— Funarie^,
Entosthodon Euseanug, Miff.
,, Perrottctii, 31itt.
,, physcomitrioides, Miiller.
„ diversinervis, Midler.
I Entosthodon submarginatus, Midler.
Fimaria connivens, Miilkr,
„ hygrometiica, Bill.
Tribe VIII. — SpLACHNEiE.
Tayloria subglabrata, Mitt.
Tribe IX. — Bartramie^e.
Bartramia (Philonotis) Eoylei, 31itt.
,, ,, pseudofontana,
3fiiller.
,, ,, falcata, Mitt,
Bartramia (Philonotis) macrocarpa, Miilkr.
,, ,, subpcllucida, Mitt, j
„ (Brcutclia) Indica, Mitt.
,, ,, dicranacea, MUdc
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
129
TkIBE X. — BllYE.E.
Bryum giganteum, Hook.
Wightii, Mitt.
argenteum, Linn.
ramosum, Honk.
Schmidii, C. Miiller.
Harveyanum, C. Mi'ller.
flaccidisetum, G. 3Iiille>:
Montagneanum, C. Miiller.
rugosum, C. Miiller.
porphyi-ioneuron, C. Miiller.
alpinum, L,
lamprostegura, C. Miiller.
(Dicranobryum) Weissite, Mitt.
Bryum (Brachymcnium) vclutinum, C.
Miiller.
„ ( ,, ) clavariccformo,
G. Miiller.
,, ( „ ) Nepalense, Hook.
,, Icptostomoides, G. Miiller.
,, apalodictyoides, C. Miiller.
,, Zollingcri, I)i<by.
,, modianum, Mitt.
Mniura rostratum, Schr.
,, rhyncophorum, Hook.
Rhizogonium spiniforme, Brack.
Anomodon planatus ? Mitt.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
Tribe XI. — HYrorTERYOiEjE.
Hypopterygium tenelluin, C. Miiller. | Hypopterygium struthiopteris, Brid.
Tribe XII. — Rhacopile^e.
Ehacopilum Schmidii, G. Miiller.
Tribe XIII. — HookeriEjE.
Lepidopihim Ootacamandianum, Mont.
Distichophyllum (Mniadelphus) Mon-
tagnei, G. Miiller.
Distichophyllum (Mniadelphus) 8uccu-
lentum, Mitt.
Hookeria (Calliostella) flabellata, Mitt.
Tribe XIV.— Erpodieje.
Aulacopilum tumidulura, Thiv. and 3Iitt. \ Erpodium n ; sp.
Tribe XV. — Neckere^.
Hedwigia Indica, G. Miiller.
Cryphcea (Braunia) Indica, Mitt.
,, (Dendi-opogon) ferruginea.
Mitt.
Phyllogonium elegans. Hook, and TFils.
Pterobryum involutum, T. and Mitt.
„ Ceylanicum, Thw. and Mitt.
, , tumidum, Mitt.
Cyi-topus frondosus. Mitt.
Meteorium fuscescens, 3Iitt.
,, blandum, Mitt.
,, squaiTosum, Mitt.
„ floribundum, D. and M.
,, flexipes. Mitt.
,, Foulkesianum, Mitt.
,, reclinatum, Mitt.
,, hispidum, 3fi.tt.
Meteorium aiiro-nitens, Mitt.
convolvens. Mitt.
punctulatum, G. 3Iiiller.
Schmidii, G. Miiller.
filamentosimi, 3{itt.
cuspidifemm, 3Iitt.
Neckera Montagneana, G. Miiller.
„ Goughiana, Mitt.
,, ssqualifolia, G. Miiller.
,, arcuans, Mitt.
,, Schmidii, Mitt.
,, parvula. Mitt.
Porotrichum ligulsefolium, 3Iitt.
„ sp.
„ fruticosum, 3ritt.
Homalia Targioniana, 3Iitt.
Tribe XVI. — SematophyllEjE.
Tribe XVII.— Stereodonte.ij.
Stereodon (Taxicaulis) albescens. Mitt.
)> ,> Ivoreanus, Mitt.
,, subhumilis, G. 3Iiiller.
,, leptorhynchoidcs, Mitt.
Stereodon (Symphyodon) Pcrrottetii,
Mitt.
Entodon plicatus, C. Miiller.
,) (Leptohymenium) juliformis',
3ntt.
17
130
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VI.
Flora.
Tribe XVIII.— Hypne^.
Fabronia secimda, Mont.
,, Goughii, Ilitt.
,, Schmidii, C. Muller.
Hypniim discriminatum, Mont.
„ Wightii, Mitt.
,, Bonplandi, Mitt.
,, phimosum, Mitt.
„ lychnitis, C. 3fiiller.
,, prociimbens, Mitt,
,, hiimillimum, 3Iitt.
,, Biichanani, Hook.
Rhegmatodon orthostegius, Mont-
Trachypus crispatulus, Mitt.
Trachj'pus bicolor, ScJnv.
,, atratus, Mitt.
,, Biichanani, C. MiiUer.
,, plicfefolius, C. Miiller.
„ brevirameus, C. Miiller.
Tbuidium cymbifolium, Doztj and M.
„ glaucinum, Mitt.
„ blepbarophylla, C. Miiller.
„ pristocalyx, C. Muller.
„ tamariscella, G. Miiller.
Plcuropus Nilagiriensis, Mitt.
Leskea consanguinea, Mont,
„ prionophylla, Mitt.
Tr:be XIX. — Skitophylle^.
Fissidens anomaliis, Mont.
Schmidii, C. Miiller.
Fissidens serratus, C. Muller.
„ Ceylonensis, Dozy and M,
Tribe XX. — Polytriche.'e.
Pogonatum Neesii, C. Miiller.
„ microstomum, £r.
„ aloides, Brid.
Pogonatum hexagonum, Mitt.
Polytrichum perichtutiale, Mo>d.
Tribe XXI. — Bitxhaimie.?;;.
Diphyscium sp. | Diphyscium sp.
LICHENALES.
Lichens. There are numerous lichens on these hills, but they have never been worked out.
— Fungi.
Books of
reference.
Introduced
plants.
FUNGALES.
Fungi are numerous, but little is known about them.
The above is a complete catalogue of the flowering plants,
ferns, and mosses of the Nilagiris as at present known. The
descriptions are nowhere to be found in a collected form, though
" The Flora of British India " by Dr. Hooker (very slowly
progressing) will in time supply this want. For the present, the
student must consult Wight and A.rnott's " Prodromus " and
DeCandolle's " Prodromus " for most of the plants ; for the
orchids. Dr. Lindley's '^ Genera and Species Orchidacete " and his
papers in the Linnaean Journal; for the grasses Kunth's "Enume-
ratio Plantarum " and SteudeFs " Syn. PL Gram. ; " and for the
mosses the works of Miiller and Mitten.
Very many of the flowering plants are figured in Dr. Wight's
" Icones,'' and most of the trees and shrubs, or at least one or more
of each genus, in Colonel Beddome's " Flora Sylvatica,'' aod all
the ferns in Colonel Beddome's " Ferns of Southern India " and
" Ferns of British India,'^ all of which works arc to be found
in the Ootacamand Library.
The list does not include introduced plants. The Australian
EacaJijj)ti and Acacias have given quite a new character to Oota-
MANUAL OF THE NtLAGIPJ DISTRICT. 131
camand and Coonoor, in and about which they have been planted CHAP. VI.
very largely. The Forest Department have planted several Floka.
hundred acres of Eucalijptus gluhiilus, the blue-gum of Tasmania,
and there are also extensive plantations of Acacia melanoxylon
and dealhata. They are all excellent firewood, and, in the event
of a railway being made up the ghdts, plantations of this sort will
be very profitable, the growth being exceedingly rapid and
the yield per acre very large (probably not less than 25 tons
per annum from EucaJi/pfns globulus and 15 tons from Acacia
dealbata).
Numerous species of Eucalyptus have been introduced from
Australia, amongst which may be mentioned E, sideroxylon (the
iron bark), E. ohliqua (stringy bark), E. fissilis (mess-mate),
E. viminalis (manna- gum), E. amygdalina (the gigantic box-gum),
E. rostrata (the red-gum), E. perfoliata, besides many other
Victorian species as doing well. Some West Australian Eucalypti,
such as E. marcjinata (the jarrah or mahogany tree, the wood of
which stands exposure to sea-water, and in Australia is much in
use for jetties, ship-building, railway sleepers, &c.) and E. calo-
phylla, have been introduced and will grow with care, but they
do not stand the frost when young, and have to be carefully
covered up in December, January, and February until they attain
certain dimensions.
Very many of the Australian Acacias, besides those above
mentioned, have been introduced and ornament our gardens- and
roads, &c. Amongst them are Acacia liomolopliylla (the myall
or violet wood). Acacia pi/cnantha, A. salicina, A. decurrens.,
A. cultriformis, A. dodonoeifolia, A. elata, A. longifolia, A. saligna,
A. pulchella, Alhizzia lophantha, besides many others.
Many other Australian trees and shrubs have also been intro-
duced into gardens on the plateau, amongst which are many
species of Hakect, Grevillea and Banlcsia, Casuariua quadrivalvis
and suherosa (the she-oak and he-oak), Pomaderris (three species),
Myoporum insulare, Pittosporum (two species), Melaleuca (several
species), Leptosp)ermum (several species), Callistemon (two species),
Beaufortia, Kunzea, Calothamnus, Angopliora, Tristania, &c.
Many of the Coniferce have also been introduced from the Hima-
layas, Japan, and other countries, the most successful of which
are Gupressus macrocarpa, Latvsoniana, torulosa, serrqoervirens and
Cashmericma. Araucarias Bidwillii and Cunning hami. Criptonieria
Japionica. Frenela species, Pinus p)inaster and longifolia.
Some of the European pines, such as the Larch and Scotch
Fir (P. laricio and P. sylvestris) and some of the Himalayuu
Abies have quite failed to grow.
Coffee now covers many acres of the slopes between 2 000 'lud
5,000 feet.
13:;
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VI. Cinchona and tea are also very largely grown ; the former from
Flora. 3,000 feet upwards, the latter from 4^500 feet.
The mangosteen fruits well in the garden at Burliar, about
4,000 feet elevation on the south-eastern sloi:)es, where also the
nutmeg of commerce, the clove, the cocoa, and the vanilla grow
luxuriantly.
Oranges, apples, peaches, and pears grow well at Coonoor and
Kalhatti ; pears succeed also in the colder and damper climate of
Ootacamand, where walnuts thrive and fruit well. Strawberries
and raspberries grow and fruit, but do not answer very well
except with constant attention to the supply of liquid manure and
water. Cherries and gooseberries will not fruit at all, probably
from the want of a regular winter, which is also the reason that
the oak grows so badly, and the elm, birch, and most other
European deciduous trees make no growth whatever. Currants
very rarely fruit. In the gardens of the plateau most of the
flowers found in English gardens and green-houses are to be met
with. The growth of fuschias, geraniums, and heliotropes i3
most luxuriant ; they are often made into hedges.
MANUAL OF THK -NiLAGIRI m STRICT, 133
CHAPTER VI I.
THE USEFUL PLANTS OF THE nIlAGIRIS.
{By Surgeon-Major Bidie, m.b., Government Museum, Madras.)
Introductory remarks. — Substances used as Food, &c. — Pulses — Cereals — Roots
and tubers — Fruits and seeds — Greens — Substances used in the preparation
of drinks— Intoxicating Substances — Spices and condiments. — Substances
USED IN Manufactures — Oils and seeds — Dyes and tanning substances —
Fibres. — Drugs.
As a supplement to the monograph on the Flora in this Manual, CHAP. Vll.
I have been asked to furnish a memorandum on the useful plants of useful
the Nilagiris. As Colonel Beddome has enumerated the various Plants.
timber trees belonging to the range, it remains for me only to notice j , "T 7" .
other plants, used as food or medicines, or in the arts. The list of remarks,
these in a district presenting such varieties of climate and possess-
ing such a rich flora is, it need hardly be said, rather an extensive
one. It will be impossible therefore, within a reasonable compass,
to do more than notice the more important products, and even
these notices must be brief. The most scientific mode of
arranging the articles would of course be according to the natural
orders to which the plants belong, but as the great majority of
those who may have occasion to consult the list will not be
botanists, it has been deemed preferable to subordinate the
botanical classification to a practical one, grouping the plants, in
the first instance, according to their economical uses. Except in
the case of some very important products, such as cinchona, tea
and coffee, no notice will be taken of plants which have been
introduced from other countries and are merely cultivated as
curiosities in gardens, or to a very limited extent. The three
primary classes under which the several substances will be
arranged are therefore as follows : —
I. Substances used as food, &c.
IL Substances used in manufactures.
in. Drugs.
I.— SUBSTANCES USED AS FOOD, &C. Substances
used as food.
Of these I shall first notice pulses and cereals.
134
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VII.
Useful
Plants.
-Pulses.
— Cereals.
A. PULSES.
N.O. LEGUMINOS^.
The varieties of pulses cultivated on the plains are rather numerous^
but very few of them are suited for the cold wet climate of the Hills.
English peas and beans are reared in gardens and find a ready sale in '
the weekly markets.
B. CEREALS,
N.O. GRAMINE^.
The chief grain crops of the Nilagiris are as follows : —
Panicum. Tarn. Korali,' probably a form of P. italiaim changed by
climate.
Panicum miliare. Eng. Millet. T(mi. Same.
Panicum miliaceum. Eng. Little Millet. Dtik. China. Tarn- Var%u.
Kan. Navone.
Eleusine cokacana. Eng. Raggi. Duh. Raggi- Tarn. Kaywur.
Kan. Raggi.
Triticum vdlgare. Eng. Wheat. DuJc. Gehun. Tani. Godumai.
Kan. Godhi.
Hordeum. Eng. Barley. Tarn. Barli-arisi.
These well known grains need no explanatory notices. Of the six
kinds named, Korali and Barley are the two most commonly cultivated.
In addition to the grains proper a species of Amaranthus is raised to a
small extent, and its seeds form a nutritious article of food.
— Roots and
tubers.
— Fruits and
C. ROOTS AND TUBERS.
N.O. SOLANACE^.
Solanum tuberosum, the potato, has long been cultivated on the
Hills, but of late years the crops have been more or less a failure owing
to potato-disease, and from constantly growing the tubers in the same
ground, by which the soil gets exhausted.
N.O. DIOSCOREACE^.
Dioscorea pentaphylla, a twining jungle plant yielding a kind of
yam.
N.O. AROIDE^.
Amorphophallus campanulatus. Eng. Telinga-potato. Tarn. Karunai.
The root of this anun attains a size as large or even larger than
that of a man's head, and is eaten like yams.
D. FRUITS AND SEEDS.
N.O. MALVACEiE.
Hibiscus esculentus. Eng. Edible Hibiscus. Etik. Bhendi. Tarn.
Vendaik-kai. Kan. Bende-kai.
A mucilaginous fruit, eaten as a vegetable.
1 The native synonyms will be given as far as known, and the following are
the contractions oraployod in rendering them -.— Tam. Tamil. Kan. Kanarese.
Duh. Dukhni (the form of Hindustani used in Southern India).
MxVNUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 135
N.O. STERCULIACE^. CHAP. VII.
Stercdlia FOiTiDA. Eng. Sterculia seeds. Tavi. Pinari-kai. Useful
The kernels of the seeds are eaten by natives. Plants.
N.O. TILIACE^.
Elzeocarpus oblongus, a pretty tree, belonging to the genus which
yields the tubercular seeds worn by Brahmins as beads. The hard
tubercular shells of the seeds of this tree are broken, and the kernel
eaten by natives like almonds.
N.O. RUTACE.E.
LiMONiA ACiDiPsiMA, a Very acid species of lime.
Citrus aurantium. £ng. Orange. DtcJc. Narangi. Tarn. Kich-
chilip-pazham, Kan. Kittale-hannu.
Of the orange there are several varieties, and when carefully culti-
vated they yield excellent fruit.
Fekonia elephantum. Eiig. Wood-apple. DicJi. Kavit. Tarn. Vilam-
pazham. Kan. Byalada-hannu.
The pulp of the fruit has a strong flavour and sweetish taste and is
eaten.
^GLE MARMELOS. Eng. Bael fruit. DiiJc. Bel-phal. Tarn. Vilva-
pazham. Kan. Bilapatri-hannu.
The fruit when ripe is sweetish and aromatic, and when green it is
astringent and used in diarrhoea and dysentery.
N.O. ANACARDIACE^.
BucHANANiA LATIFOLIA. Etig. Cuddapah almond. Tarn. Kat-manga.
Shara-purpu. Kan. Chara-puppu.
Kernel of the seed.
N.O. ROSACEA.
Fragaria Indica, this, the wild strawberry, is small and insipid.
RuBus LASIOCARPUS and Rdbus flavus, known as blackberries and
edible.
N.O. COMBRETACE^.
Terminalia catappa. Eng. Country Almond. DiiJc. Jangli.badam.
Tam. Nattu Vadam-kottai. Kan. Nat-badami.
Kernels of seeds.
N.O. RHAMNACE^.
ZiZYPHUS jujuba. Eng. Bev-h-nit. DuJc.Bcv. Tam. Elandap-pazham.
Kan, Yalachi-hannu.
Known as the jujube-fruit, and is wholesome and palatable.
N.O. MYRTACE^.
PsiDiUM ptriferum and P. pomiferum, the Guava, grows on the lower
slopes, but the fruit does not attain great perfection.
136
CHAP. VII.
Useful
Plants.
MANUAL OF THE NtLA^^IRI DISTRICT.
handsome shrub yields the fruit
Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, this
known as the hill-gooseberry.
Eugenia jambolana. Eng. Jambolam or Blue apple. Duk. Jamun.
Tarn. Nagap-pazham. Kan. Nerale-hannu.
A sweetish and astringent fruit.
N.O. CUCURBITACE^.
MoMOEDiCA DioiCA. Tavi. Palupaghel.
The young fruit of this member of the Cucumber family as well as
its roots are eaten.
N.O. SOr.ANACE^.
SoLANUM MELONGENA. E71Q. Brinjal. Tcim. Kathrikkai.
The fruit is a well known vegetable.
Physalis Peruviana. Cape-gooseberry. An introduced plant, but
now growing wild all over the Hills. The fruit makes very good jam
or tart.
N.O. PALMACE^.
Phcenix farinifera. Eng. Small or Wild Date. DuJc. Sandole.
Tarn. Isham-pazham.
Fruit eaten.
N.O. MUSACE^.
MusA PARADisiACA. Eiig. Plantain. DuJc. Mouz. Tarn. Vazhaip-
pazham. Kcui. Bale-hannu.
I have not noticed the apple, peach, pear, walnut and other
introduced fruits, as their culture is confined to_a few gardens and
still in a very primitive state.
Greens. E. GREENS.
N.O. CRUCIFER^.
Nasturtium officinale and Nasturtium Indicdm. Both these species
yield edible cresses.
N.O. PORTULACACE^.
PoRTULACA OLERACEA, P. WioHTiANA. Leavcs eaten as greens.
N.O. RUTACE^.
MuRRAYA (Bergera) Konigii. Eug. Curry-leaf. Duh. Karya-pak.
Tarn. Karu-veppilai. S'an. Kari-bevina.
The leaves are used for flavouring curries.
N.O. AMARANTHACE^.
Amaranthus oleraceus, a. frumentaceus and A. caudatus. The
leaves of the three species are used as pot-herbs.
Achyranthes aspera is also eaten at times.
N.O. LAURACE^E.
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. Eng. Cinnamon. Dak. Dal-chiui. Tarn.
Lavangap-pattai. Kan. Dala-chinni-
The leaves of the cinnamon tree arc used as ilavouring agents in
food.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 137
F. SUBSTANCES USED IN THE PREPARATION OP chap. vii.
DRINKS.
USEFUI,
N.O. CAMELLIACE^. Plants.
Thea (species). Eng. Tea,. Duh. Cha. Tarn. Te-ilai, Substances
The first effort to introduce the tea plant into Southern India was preparation
made by the Agri-Horticultural Society of Madras, which imported of diiuks.
plants from China in 1857. It is only of late years, however, that
much attention has been paid to its culture. At the present time
there are numerous plantations on the range situated at elevations
ranging from 5,000 to 7,000 feet above sea level. The plants culti-
vated are the China, the Assam, and a hybrid, the last-named being
usually preferred as being more prolific of leaf. The produce of the
Nilagiri tea estates commands fair prices in the English market, and
is extensively sold at high rates both locally and in Madras and other
large towns in Southern India. The field for the extension of tea
culture on the Nilagiris is limited, and the industry is likely to
receive a check by the resolution of Government to preserve intact
the wooded ravines, locally known as sholas. In 1874-75 there were
87,372 lb. of tea shipped from Madras to Europe.
N.O. KUBIACE^.
COFFEA Arabica. Eng. Coffee. Btih. Bun, Bund. Tarn. Kapi-
kottai. Kan. Kapi-bija.
Coffee was introduced into Southern India about two centuries ago
by a Mahomedan pilgrim, Baba-buden. This man on his return from
Mecca brought a few berries in his wallet, and taking up his abode
amongst the wilds of the hills in western Mysore, which still bear his
name, planted them near his hut. For many years the culture was
in the hands of natives, and confined to small gardens. Upwards of
60 years ago it began to attract the attention of Europeans, and at the
present day there is an almost continuous chain of estates, belonging
to Englishmen, extending from the north of Mysore down to Cape
Comorin. On the eastern slopes of the Nilagiris the coffee estates are
numerous and large, and on the western side the Ouchterlony Valley
presents a magnificent expanse of coffee culture, unequalled as to ferti-
lity in Southern India. The exports of coffee have not been on the
increase of late years, but this may be partly due to the fact that its
consumption is increasing amongst the native population, and that
much of it is, therefore, used locally. The exports of coffee from
Madras ports in 1875 amounted to lb. 33,738,922.
G. INTOXICATING SUBSTANCES, &C. Intoxicating
N.O. LEGUMINOS^. substances.
Acacia Catechu. Eng. Catechu. Bui: Katthah. Tarn. Kashu-
katti. Kan. Kachu.
The Extract made into pellets is chewed with betel-leaf.
18
138
MANUAL or THE NILAGIRT DISTRICT.
CHAP. VII.
Useful
Plants.
N.O. SOLANACE^.
NicoTiANA RUSTiCA. Etig. Tobacco. Buh. Tamaqu. Tarn. Pugai-
ilai. Kan. Hogesappn.
In former years a good deal of tobacco culture was carried on on the
Hills, but of late it has greatly declined as it can be grown much
cheaper on the plains.
N.O. URTICACE^.
Cannabis sativa. Enrj. Indian Hemp. 'D^i,^:. Siddhi. Tarn. Bangi-
ilai. Kan. Bhangi.
The leaves and flowering tops are used as intoxicants. The use of
hemp for this purpose in India was first noticed by a Portuguese
writer in 1563. The hemp is smoked and also made up in various
prepai'ations.
X.O. PIPERACE^.
Chavica betle. Eng. Betel-leaf, JDuh. Pan. Tarn. Vettilai. Kan.
Vile-dele.
Used as a masticatory by both sexes and all classes, in conjunction
with lime and areca nut.
N.O. PALMACE^.
Aeeca Catechu. Eng. Betel-nut. Buk. Supari. Tavi. Kottai-paktu.
Kan. Adike.
Astringent and constantly chewed, natives believing that it preserves
the teeth and strengthens the gums.
Spices and
condiments.
H. SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
N.O. MALVAGE^.
Eriodendron anfeactuoscm. Dill-. Khatyan-ka-kalli. Tarn.
M arat ti -m ogg u .-
The ovaries of the flower or very young fruits are used as condi-
ments.
N.O. SOLANACE^.
Capsicum ? Species of chillies are cultivated at low elevations.
N.O. PIPERACE^.
Piper nigrum. Eng. Black Pepper. DuTx. Kali-mirchi. Tarn.
Milagu. Kan. Menasu.
The dry berry is used as a condiment.
N.O. ZINGIBERACE^.
Zingiber officinale. Eng. Ginger. BvJc. Adrak. Tarn. Inji.
Kan. Hasisunthi.
The di-ied root is sometimes used in cookery.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTKICT. 139
Curcuma longa. Eng. Turmeric. Duk. Haldi. \Tam. Manjal- CHAP. Vll.
Kan. Arishina. tt~~"
A constant ingredient in carries. Plants.
Elettaria Cardamomum. Eng. Cardamoms. Dul: Elachi. Tarn.
Ellakai. Kan. Yalakkai.
A well known condiment.
N.O. LILIACB^.
Allium sativum. Eng. Garlic. Duk. Lassan. Tarn. Vcllaip-pundu.
Kan. Belluli.
A strong smelling condiment.
Allium cepa. Eng. Onions. BuJc. Piyaz. Tarn. Vengayam. Kan.
Irulli.
A well known cultivated bulb.
N.O. GRAMINE^.
Andropogon Schcenanthus. Eng. Lemon-grass. DiiJc. Hazar-masa-
leh. Tarn. Karpura-pullu. Kan. Vasane-hullu.
Used as a flavouring agent.
II.— SUBSTANCES USED IN MANUFACTURES.
A. OILS AND OIL SEEDS. Oils and
N.O. PAPAVERACE^.
Argemone Mexicana. Eng. Mexican Thistle. Dul: Pila-dbatura,
Tarn. Birama-dandu. Kan. Datturi.
Oil extracted from the seeds.
N.O. LOGANIACE^.
Strychnos nux-vomica. Eng. Nux-vomica. Duh. Kuchlah. Tarn.
Ettik-kottai. Kan. Mushti-bija.
An oil is got from the seeds and they are also used for the manu-
facture of strychnia.
N.O. EUPHORBIACE^.
RiciNUS COMMUNIS. Eng. Castor-oil seeds. DnJc. Yaraudi. Tarn.
Amanakkan-kottai. Kan. Haralu.
The seeds yield castor-oil.
B. DYES AND!TANNING SUBSTANCES. Dyes and
tanning
N.O. BERBERIDE^. substances.
Berberis aristata. Eng. Indian Barberry bark.
The roots contain 17 per cent, of yellow coloring matter.
140 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTEICT.
CHAP. VII. N.O. MALVACE^.
Useful HiBiscus ROSA-siNENSiS. Eng. Shoe-flower, DnJc. Jasut. Tain.
Plants. Sliappattup-pu- Kan. Dasvalada-huvu.
The flowers yield a bluish-purple hue-
N.O. RUTACE-^.
ToDDALiA ACULEATA. Duh. Jangli-kali-mirchi. Tarn. Milakaranai.
Roots contain yellow coloring matter.
^GLE MARMELOS. Eiig. Bael Fruit. Dulc. Bel-phal. Tarn. Vilva-
pazham. Kan. Bilapatri-hannu.
Rind of fmit astringent and yields a yellow color.
N.O. MELIACE^.
Melia azedarach. Eng. Persian Lilac. Diih. Gouli-nim. Tarn. Malai-
vembu. Kan. Bettada-bevina.
Leaves contain a green coloring matter.
N.O. RHAMNACE^.
ZizTPHUS JDJUBA. Eng. Beviwdt. Duk.Ber. Ta??!. Elandap-pazham.
Kan. Yalachi-haunu.
Bark used by dyers with other compound dyes.
Ventilago Madraspatana. Tarn. Pappili-chakka or Sural-pattai.
Kan. Papli-chakka.
Root-bark a valuable dye and much used by native dyers.
N.O. ANACARDIACE^.
BucHANANiA LATiFOLiA. Eag. Cuddapah Almond. Tarn. Kat-manga ;
Shara-purpu. Kan. Chara-puppu.
Bark astringent, used by dyers and tanners.
Semecarpus ANACAEDiUM. Eug. M&rkmg-iiut DwA-. Bhilavan. Tarn.
Sheran-kottai. Kan. Geru.
The resinous juice of the pericarp is used in conjunction with lime
for marking cotton clothing.
N.O. LEGUMINOS^.
Acacia Arabica. Eng. Babool Tree. Dtd-. Kali-kikar. Tani. Karu-
velam. Kan- Kare-jali.
Bark highly astringent, used by tanners and dyers.
Acacia Catechu. Eng- Catechu. Buk. Katthah. Tani. Kashu-katti.
Ka7i. Kachu.
Gum used for tanning, &c.
Butea FRONDOSA. EiHj. Butca Or Bastard Teak. D?(7.-. Palas-ka-jhar.
Tarn. Murukka-maram. Kan. Muttuga-gidda.
Plowers yield a yellow dye.
Cassia auriculata. Eng. Tanner's Cassia. Vi'k- Tarvar. Tarn.
Avarai. Knn. Avara-gida.
Bark a most valuable and generally used tanning agent.
MANUAL OF THE NiLAGIRl DISTRICT. 141
N.O. COMBRETACE^. CHAP. VII.
TfTRMiNALiA CHEBULA. Eng. Chebulic Myrabolans. Dak. Halda. Tarn. Useful
Kaduk-kai. Ka7i. Alale-kai. Plants.
Fruit the Myraholan of commerce, used as a dye and tanning stuff.
Terminalia bellerica, Eng. Belleric Myrabolans. Buk. Balda.
Tarn. Tanrik-kai. Kan. Tari-kai.
Fruit used for dyeing yellow and black.
Terminalia tomentosa. Duh. Jangli-karanj. Tarn, Karuppu-
maruta-maram .
Bark used for dyeing black.
N.O. RUBIACE^.
RuBiA CORDIFOLIA. Eng. Indian Madder. Buk. Man jit. Tani.
Manjitti. Kan. Manjusbta.
Roots yield a kind of madder.
N.O. URTJCACE^.
Artocarpus integrifolia. Eng. Indian Jack Tree. Buh. Phunus.
Tarn. Palah-marum.
Saw-dust of the wood yields a yellow dye.
N.O. EUPHORBIACE^.
Phtllanthus emblica. Buk. Anvulah. Tarn. Nelli-kai. Kan.
Nelli-kai.
Bark astringent, used in dyeing.
Mallotus Philippinensis. Eng. l^amela. Tarn. Kamela.
A powder from the outer surface of the fruit gives a yellow dye.
C. FIBRES. Fibres.
N.O. MALYACE^,
Hibiscus cannabinus. Eng. Dukhaui Hemp. Buk. Ambari. Tarn.
Palungu.
This plant yields a very excellent fibre. In addition to this one
there are six other species of Hibiscus on the Hills, all of which contain
fibre. In fact, as a rule, all the herbaceous plants of the Mallow
family contain fibre.
N.O. LEGUMINOS^.
Several Grotalarias and Bauliinias contain fibre. A laro-e, climbing
species of BauMnia yields the fibrous bark u.sed on the Government
Cinchona Estates for tying on the moss, used in the mossing system of
harvesting the cinchona bark.
N.O. ASCLEPIADE^.
Calotropis gigantea. Eng. Mudar. Bu,lc. Akra. Tarn. Erukkam.
Kan. Yakkeda.
Yields a strong and durable fibre, used by native fishermen for
making fisliing lines.
142 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VII. Marsdenia tenacissima. The stems yield a very superior fibre.
Some of it prepared some years ago by me was nearly as fine as silk
PLrNTs^ and very glossy and strong.
Drags.
N.O. URTICACE^.
Girardinia Leschenaultii. Contains a fine silk-like fibre used by
the Hill tribes for making thread. Can be advantageously _^cultivated
and will yield two or more crops per annum.
Antiaris innoxia. The inner bark yields a mesh of strong fibi'ous
matting, which, is made into bags by some Hill tribes.
N.O. MUSACE^.
MuSA ornata. All the plantains contain a quantity of very superior
fibre.
N.O. PALMACE^.
Ph(enix farinifera. Eng. Date Tree. DuJc. [ 8andole-ka-jhar.
Tarn. Ishan-chedi.
Leaf stalks yield a strong fibre.
N.O. PANDANE^.
Pandanus odoratissimds. Eng. Fragrant Screwpine. Duh. Kedgi.
Tarn. Tazham. Kan. Kyadage.
Yields a very strong and superior fibre.
N.O. LILIACE^.
Sanseviera Zetlanica. Eng. Bowstring Hemp. DiiJc. Murgali.
Tam. Marul.
Yields large quantities of very sti'ong fibre and might easily be
cultivated.
III.— DRUGS.i
Owing to the large number of articles coming under this class, it
will not be possible to do more than simply specify their action as
medicines.
N.O. MENISPERMACE^.
Anamirta cocculus. Eng. Cocculus Indicus seeds. Duh. Kakmari-
ke-binj. Tarn. Kakkai-kolli-virai. Kan. Kakamari-bija.
Poisonous internally ; used generally as an ointment.
TiNospORA CORDIFOLIA. Diili. Gul-bel- Tam. Shindil-kodi. Kan.
Amruta-balli.
Tonic and diuretic.
^ The Superintendent of the Botanical Ganleus, Ootacamaud, is now cultivat-
ing experimentally various exotic medicinal plants, such as Khubavb, Jalap,
Peppermint and Ipecacuan, and there is every prospect of his shortly being able
to supply these in quantities sufficient to meet the large demands of the Medical
Department.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI Dl-TfMCT. 143
N.O. BERBERIDE^. CHAP. VII.
Berberis ARISTATA. Eng. Indian Barberry bark. Useful
Tonic and febrifuge. Plants.
N.O. PAPAVERACE^.
Arqemone Mexicana. Eng. Mexican Thistle. Bulc. Pila-dhatura.
Tarn. Birama-dandu. Kan. Datturi.
Fresh juice used for muscular pains. Oil of seeds employed in skin
diseases.
N.O. CRUCIFER^.
SiNAPis JUNCEA. Eng. Country Mustard. Bah. Rayan. Tarn.
Kadugu. Kan. Sasave.
N.O. CAPPARIDE^.
Gtnandropsis PENTAPHYLL4. Biih. Hulhul-ka-jhav. Tarn. Velai.
Juice of leaves used as a rubefacient.
N.O. GUTTIPEE^.
Garcinia Morella. 1 Eng. Gamboge. DuJc. Ausarahe-revan. Tarn.
Garcinia Cambogia. ) Makki.
Yield gamboge, a drastic purgative and pigment.
N.O. DIPTEROCARPE^.
Dipterocarpus turbinatus. Eng. Gurjun Balsam ; Wood-oil.
DuJc. Garjan-ka-tel.
Used in leprosy.
Vateria Indica. Eng. White Dammer. Tain. Vellai-kunrikam.
Yields white dammer, which is allied to copal,
N.O. MALVACE^.
BOMBAX Malabaricum. E7ig. Red-cotton Tree. DnL: Kanton-ka-
semal. Tarn. Mul-ilava-maram. Kan. Mnllu-buraga-mara.
Gum astringent ; fruit yields silk-cotton.
Eriodendron anfractuosum. Dtik. Khatyaii-ka-jhar. Tain. Ilava-
maram. Kan. Bura-mara.
Yields gum and silk-cotton.
N.O. STERCULIACE^.
Steeculia FffiTiDA. Eng. Sterculia-secds. Tarn. Pinari-kai.
Seeds yield an oil ; bark aperient.
N.O. LINAGES.
Ertthroxylon monogtnum. Eng. Red Cedar. Dul-.. Dewadar. Tain.
Tevadarum.
Leaves were largely eaten by the poor during the recent famine.
Wood fi-agi-ant.
144 MANUAL OF THE Ntj.AGIRI DISTRICT,
CHAP. VII. N.O. EUTACE^.
Useful To tliis family belong the orange, lime, citron, &c., which are too
Plants. well known to require any notice here.
^GLE MARMELOS. Eng. Bacl Fruit. Dtdc. Bel-phal. Tavi. Vilva-
pazham. Kan. Bilapatri-hannu.
Half-ripe fruit astringent and used in dysentery.
ToDDALiA ACULE.^TA. Duli. Jangli-kali-mirchi. Tarn. Milakaranai.
Root-bark bitter, stimulant and febrifuge.
Fekonia elephantum. Ehg. Wood-apple. Dulc. Kavit. Tarn. Vilam-
pazham. Kan. Byalada-hannu.
Leaves have the smell of anise ; half-ripe fruit astringent.
N.O. BURSERACE^.
Canarium strictdm. Eng. Black Dammer. Dul-. Kala-damar.
Tarn. Karuppu-damar.
Yields the beautiful black dammer of Southern India,
N.O. MELIACE^.
Melia azadirachta. Eng. Nim ; Margosa. Buk. Nim. Tarn.
Veppam. Kan. Bevina-mara.
Bark tonic and febrifuge. Mr. Broughton got from the bark an
amorphous resin ; the bitter principle seeds yield an oil used in skin
diseases.
N.O. CELASTRINE^.
Celastrus paniculata. E7ig. Staff -tree. Tarn. Atiparich-cham.
An empyreumatic oil made from the seeds is known as Oleum
uigrum and used in beriberi.
N.O. ANACARDIACE^.
Semecarpus anacardium, Eng. Marking-nut. Dulc. Bhilavan.
Tarn. Sheran-kottai. Kan. Geru.
The acrid juice of the nut is caustic and vesicant. It is also used
with lime for marking cotton cloth, like marking ink.
Odina wodier. Engr. Annaickarai wood. Duh. Besharam-ka-jhar.
Tam. Odiya-maram.
Bark astringent, used in skin diseases.
N.O. LEGUMIN0SJ5.
Acacia Arabica. Eng. Babool-tree, Duh. Kali-kikar, Tam. Karu-
velam. Kan. Kare-jali.
Bark astringent and used for tanning. The gum is that known in
India as gum-arabic.
Acacia LEucoPHLiEA. Eng. Panicled Acacia. Huh. Sharab-ki-
kikar. Tam. Vel- velam. Kan. Bilijali-mara,
Bark astringent, used in distilling spirit.
Acacia Catechu. Eng. Catechu, Buk. Katthah. Tam. Kashu-katti.
Kan. Kachu.
Yields a kind of catechu, the CatecJm nig mm of materia medica.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 145
Cassia fistula. Enrj. Purging Cassia. Bui-. Amaltas. Tarn. CHAP. VII.
Konraik-kai. Kan. Kakke-kai.
The piilp of the fruit is laxative. Plants.
Ptekocarpus maesupium. Eng. Indian Kino. Bulc. Nat-ka-dammul-
akhvain. Tarn- Kandamiruga-mirattum.
Yields the gum kino of commerce.
BuTEA FRONDOSA. Eiifj. Butea Gum. Bale. Falas-ka-gond. Tavi.
Murukkan-pishin, Kan. Muttaga-gondu.
Yields a kind of gum like kino. The seeds are used as an anthel-
mintic.
Abrus precatorius. Eng. Indian Liquorice. Bulc. Gumchi. Tarn.
Gundu-mani. KaM. Gul-ganji.
Root said to be used as a substitute for liquorice. The red seeds
with black tips are used as weights by native jewellers and
druggists.
N.O. COMBRETACE^.
Terminalia bellerica. Eng. Belleric Myrabolans. Buk. Balda.
Tarn. Tanrik-kai. Kan. Tari-kai.
The fruit is the asti'ingent Belleric myrabolans of commerce.
Terminalia chebula. Eng. Chebalic Myrabolans. Buh Halda.
Tain. Kaduk-kai. Kan. Alale-kai.
The common myrabolans, largely exported.
Terminalia catappa. Eng. Country Almond. Buk. Jangli-badam.
Tarn. Nattu-vadam-kottai. Kan. Nat-badami.
Bark astringent, fruit used as a substitute for almonds.
Terminalia tomentosa. Buk. Jangli-karanj. Tarn. Karuppu-
maruta-marum.
Bark astringent, used in dyeing and tanning.
N.O. MYRTACE/E.
PsiDiUM pyriferum and P. pomiferdm. Eng. Guava root. Buk.
Jam-ka-chal. Tarn. Goyya-ver. Kan. Shibe-hannu.
Bark of stem and root astringent and used in diarrhoea.
Eugenia jambolana. Efig. Jambolam or Blue Apple. Buk.
Jamun. Tani. Nagap-pazham. Kan. Nerale-hannu.
Bark astringent.
N.O. CUCURBITACE^.
Citrullus colocynthis. Eng. Colocynth, Buk. Indaravan. Tarn.
Pey-komatti. Kan. Hava-mekke-kai.
Yields a kind of colocynth, an active purgative.
Trichosanthes palmata. Buk. Guda-pandu. Tani. Shavari-pazham.
KoM. Avagude-hannu.
A handsome climbing jilaut. Fruit said to be pui-gative.
19
146
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRF DISTBICT.
CHAP. VII.
Useful
Plants.
N.O. RUBIACE^.
Eng. Crown bark.
Dull. Barak. Tarn.
Eng. Red bark. Duk. Barak.
Tarn.
Cinchona officinalis.
Shurap-pattai.
Cinchona succirubra.
Shnrap-pattai.
These valuable plants, natives of South America, were introduced
in 1861, and are now quite naturalised. Other species besides those
mentioned above are cultivated, but only to a small extent. The area
of the Government cinchona estates is a little over 842 acres.
Besides distinct species there are also various varieties and hybrids
which have appeared on the estates, and some of which promise to
become very valuable. The bark hitherto has been chiefly harvested
by what is called the mossing process. Under this system three kinds
of bark are sent to market, viz., ' unmossed-hark, mossed-hark, and
reneived barl: The alkaloid on which the commercial value of bark
chiefly depends is quinine, but it also yields cinchonidine, quinidine and
cinchonine, all of which are also very efficacious as febrifuges. The
average amount of alkaloids in Nilagiri bark is from 5 to 6 per cent.,
but some varieties and hybrids have yielded as much as 12 per cent.
The crown bark is rich in quinine, and red bark contains chiefly
cinchonidine.
Randia dumetorum. Eng. Emetic nut. Dzik. Med-phal. Tarn.
Marukkalan-kai.
Fruit emetic.
Gardenia lucida. Duk. Dikamali. Tarn. Kumbai. Ka7i. Dikke-malli.
Yields a fragrant resin, considered antispasmodic.
N.O. VALERIANEiE.
Valeriana Leschenaultii, V. Brunoniana, Roots have a smell like
that of the officinal valerian and might be used as a substitute.
N.O. COMPOSITE.
Vernonia anthelmintica. Eng. Purple Flea-bane. Duk. Kali-ziri.
Tarn. Kattu-shiragam. Kan. Kadu-jirage.
Used by natives as a remedy for leprosy and snake-bite. Also
employed to kill parasites in the hair and as an anthelmintic.
N.O. CAMPANULACEJS.
Lobelia excelsa. Leaves poisonous, but may probably become a
substitute for the officinal Lohelia.
N.O. EBENACE^.
DiosPTROs embryopteris. Eng. Gab-fruit.
Tumbilik-kai.
Fruit astringent, a remedy in diarrhoea.
Bnk. Tendu. Tarn.
1 Unmossed-hark is simply natural bark.
Mossed-harh is natural bark which has for some time been covered with moss.
Renewed-hark is the bark which forma under in covering of mosa after
the natural bark has been stripped off.
MANUAL or THE NILAGIRT DISTRICT. 147
DiosPYROS MELANOXYLON. Eng. Ebony tree. Tarn. Tumballi-maram. CHAP. VII.
Flowers used as a perfume ; bark astringent. ^7
Plants.
N.O. APOCYNE^.
HOLARRHENA ANTiDYSENTEEicA. Buk. Karva-indarjou. Tarn. Kulap-
palai-virai.
Bark formerly exported to Europe as a remedy for dysentery under
the name of Conesse-larl- , C'orte de pala, Tellicherry bark.
N.O. ASCLEPIADE^.
Hemidesmus Indicus. Eng. Indian Sarsaparilla. Dak. Nannari.
Tarn. Nannari. Kan. Sugandha-palada-gida.
Used in all Government hospitals as a substitute for sarsaparilla.
Tylophora asthmatica. E)i(/. Indian Ipecacuanha. DuJc. Pit-kari.
Tarn. Nach-churuppan.
The powdered leaves used as a substitute for ipecacuan.
D^MiA EXTENSA. Duk. Jutup. Tam. Velip-parutti ; Uttamani. Kan.
Hala-koratige.
Leaves emetic and expectorant-
HoYA VIRIDIFLORA. Leaves expectorant and emetic.
N.O. LOGANIACE^.
Strychnos nux-vomica. Efiff. Nux-vomica. Dul\ Kuchlah. Tam.
Ettik-kottai. Kan. Mushti-bija.
The seeds are the commercial source of strychnia.
N.O. GENTIANE.,53.
There are several species of Emmim, two of Ophelia and one Gentiana,
all of which are more or less bitter and possess the tonic properties of
the European gentian. The gentian is a little prostrate plant of great
beauty, and very common in dry pasture about Ootacamand.
N.O. CONVOLVULACE^.
Pharbitis nil. Eng. Kaladana. JDiiJc. Kali-zirki-ke-binj. Tmn.
Kodi-kakkatan-virai ; Jiriki-virai.
The seeds are used as a substitute for jalap, and their active princi-
ple is a resin, Pharhitisin, discovered by me in 1861.
Ipom^a turpethum. Eng. Indian Jalap. DuTc. Tikra. Tam.
Shivadai-ver.
The Turhith-root of old writers. Purgative.
N.O. BORAGINACE^.
CoRDiA MYXA. Enrj. Sepistan-plum. Did. Bari-gondni. Tam. Periya-
naruvili.
Yields the larger sehestens of older writers. Emollient and demulcent.
N.O. SCROPHULARIACE^.
Herpestis monniera. Tam. Nir-brami.
Regarded as diui-etic and laxative.
148 MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VII. N.O. VERBENACE^.
Useful Vitex negundo. Eng. Five-leaved Chaste tree. Diik. Shambali.
Plants. Tarn. Vellai-nochchi. Ka?i. Lakki-gida.
Heated leaves applied to swellings. Internally said to be anodyne
and diuretic.
Clerodendron serratum. Dulc. Gand-baha-rangi. Tarn. Shirutek.
Used by natives in fevers and colds .
N.O. SOLANACE^.
Datura alba. Indian or White-flowered Datura. Duh. Ujla-
dhaturah. Tarn. Umattai. Kan. Ummatte-gida.
Anodyne and antispasmodic, used in medical practice.
N.O. LABIATE.
OciMUM SANCTUM. Eng. Holy Basil, Duh. Tulsi, Tarn. Tulashi.
Kan. Tulashi-gida.
One of the sacred plants, the tulste, said to be expectorant and
diaphoretic.
N.O. AMAEANTHACE^.
AcHYEANTHES AsPERA. DuJc, Aghara. Tarn. Nay-ui*ivi. Kan. Utrani-
gida.
Astringent and diuretic.
N.O. LAURACE^.
CiNNAMOMUM Zetlanicum. Eng. Cinnamon. Dulc. Dal-chini. Tarn.
Lavangap-pattai. Kan. Dala-chinni.
The bark is the cinnamon of commerce.
N.O. SANTALACE^.
Santalum ALBUM. Eng. Sandal- wood. Duh. Sandal. Tarn. Shandanak-
kattai. Kan. Grandhada-chekke.
Powder of wood used as a local application, essential oil used as a
perfume, &c.
N.O. EUPHOEBIACE.^.
Mallotus Philippinensis. Eng. Kamela. Tam. Kamela-mavu.
Yields a red powder Jcamela, used as a dye and anthelmintic.
RiciNus COMMUNIS. Eng. Castor-oil seeds. Did-. Yarandi. Tam.
Amauakkan-kottai. Kan. Haralu.
Castor-oil plant.
Euphorbia antiquorum. Duk. Tin-dhari-send. Tam. Shadurak-kalli.
Euphorbia tirucalli. Eng. Milk-hedge or Indian Tree-spurge. Duk.
Bar-ki-send. Tam. KalU. Kan. Bonta-kalli.
Juice very acrid.
Phtllanthus emblica. Duk. Anvulah. Tam. Nelli-kai. Kayi.
Nelli-kai.
Fruit astringent and antiscorbutic. Used also as a condiment.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 149
AcALYPHA Indica. E)ig. Indian Acalyplia. Duh. Kuppi. Tarn. Kuppai- CHAP. VII,
niani. Useful
Emetic. Plants.
N.O. PIPERACE^.
Pipes nigrum. Eng. Black Pepper. JDuJc. Kali-mirchi. Tarn. Milagu.
Kan. Menasu.
Black pepper plant.
N.O. ZINGIBERACE^.
Elettaria cardamomum. Eng. Cardamoms. Dulc. Ilachi. Tarn.
Ela-kai. ITan. Yalakkai.
Yields cardamoms, a well known spice.
Curcuma aromatica. Eng. Wild Turmeric. Dulc. Anbe-lialdi. Tarn.
Kasturi-manjal. Kan. Kasturi-arishina.
Tonic and carminative.
N.O. LILIACE^.
Ledebouria hyacinthoides. Duh. Chhoti-jangli-piyaz. Tarn. Shiru-
nar i- vengay am .
Bulbs expectorant.
Gloriosa supeeba. Duh. Nat-ka-bachlinag. Tam. Kalaippaik-kiz.
hangu.
Roots used to adulterate the aconite root imported from Northern
India.
N.O. CYPERACE^.
Cyperus rotundus. Duh. Kore-ki-jar. Tam. Korai.
The common korai, a troublesome weed. Root aromatic and
diaphoretic and stimulant.
N.O. GRAMINE^.
Andropogon citratum. E7ig. Lemon-grass. Buk. Hazar-masaleh.
Tam. Karpura-pullu. Kan. Vasane-hullu.
Yields lemon-grass oil.
150
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIPJ DISTRICT.
CHAPTER VIII.
ZOOLOGY.
PART I.— MAMMALS, BIRDS AND FISHES.
PART II.— LIZARDS, SNAKES AND FROGS.
PART III.— LAND AND FRESH-WATER SHELLS.
Zoology.
General.
PART I.
Mammals, Birds and Fishes.
{By Surgeon-Major G. Bidie, m.b., Supt. of the Central Museum, Madras.)
General. — Mammals. — Birds. — Fishes. — Introduction of Fish from low country
and from England.
CHAP. VIII, There has never been any attempt to give a complete description
PART I. of the fauna of the Nilagiris/ such as was drawn up by the late
Dr. Wight on the flora of this region. Indeed, the only available
information on the subject consists of scattered notices in various
general works, such as those of Jerdon, and these have reference
chiefly to mammals and birds. As regards the reptiles and fish of
the Blue Mountains not much is known, but there is even less
recorded regarding the molluscs and hardly anything at all with
reference to the rich insect fauna. There is not, therefore, much
to be learned from books regarding the zoology of the Nilagiris,
but fortunately there are in the Madras Museum a fair collection of
birds from the district and specimens of the more remarkable
mammals, together with a few reptiles and fish. These and the
incidental notices already referred to have therefore supplied
material for the present memoir.
Mammals.
— Monkeys.
MAMMALS.^
Monheys. — The most common and best known of this family
on the hills is the Nilagiri langur, Preshytis juhatus of Jerdon,
which inhabits retired sholas on the upper parts of the slopes and
never descends to low elevations. It is covered throughout with
a black glossy fur, except on the head and nape which have long
^ Many interesting notes on the habits of wild animals on the Hilla will be
found in " Game, by Hawkeye." Ootacamand, 1876. — Ed.
- For facility of reference, the nomenclature of Jerdou has been used in the
notices and lists of mammals and birds.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 151
reddish-brown hair. The beauty of this unfortunate animal^s CHAP. Vlil,
coat is likely to lead to its extermination, as on account of the PART I.
high price given for good skins the shikarees are indefatigable in zoology.
shooting it down at all seasons. When caught young it becomes
quite docile in captivity.
The Lion Moiihcij. — This animal {Tmius silenus) is much more — The Lion
rarely seen than the previous one, as it is shy and inhabits dense °° ^^'
and remote forests on the Malabar side of the hills. It was long
designated the " Wanderoo/^ and believed to be a native of
Ceylon, but does not exist in that island, being confined to the
Western Ghdts of the Indian peninsula. It is sometimes tamed,
but is a sorry pet in captivity, being morose and bad tempered.
The hair on its body is black, and there is a tuft at the tip of its
tail ; but the most remarkable feature in its appearance is the
reddish white ring of hair surrounding the face, which gives it a
very antiquated and venerable expression.
Bats. — There is very little known regarding the Nilagiri — Bata.
members of this family, only two, viz., NycHcejus Temminchii and
Bipposideros murinus, having reached the Museum. As seen on
the Nilagiris the " Little Horse-shoe Bat'^ is, according to
Jerdon, of a light rufous colour, and found at Kaity and Eallia.
Hedge-hog. — There are several specimens of the South Indian — Hedge-hog.
hedge-hog [Erinaceus micropus) in the Museum, and we lately
got a live animal, but it refused to eat and soon died. It is found
chiefly on the eastern and lower slopes of the hills, and is smaller
than the English hedge-hog. Its head and ears are nude and of
a dark colour, and the spines are ringed with brown and tipped
with white.
Blach Bear. — This animal [Ursus I ahiatus), ^Ithowgh. a good —Black Bear,
deal hunted by English sportsmen, is still not uncommon on
the hills. Its long, black, shaggy covering of hair is too well
known to need any description. Its distinguishing marks are the
light-coloured muzzle and feet, and the curved white band on the
chest. Its particular vanities in the way of food are ants and
beetles, but it has a sweet tooth for honey, and, by way of dessert,
sometimes resorts to the fruit of the little date-palm found on
various parts of the hills. One of its favourite relaxations is to
scratch the bark of trees with its powerful claws. This, the
Natives say, is done with the object of whetting the claws, but it is
more probable that, as in the case of cats, it is done out of pure
exuberance of animal life and spirits, or perhaps it may be intended
to dislodge ants or other insects concealed in the crevices of the
bark.
Martens, 8fc. — Tv/o members of this family are found on the —Martens.
hills, viz., the Indian marten{Martes fia.vigula) and the Hill-otter, a
species of Lutra much smaller than L. nair or L. vulgaris. There
152
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTEICT.
Zoology.
—Cats.
CHAP. VIII, is only one skin of the Hill-otter in the Museum, and as the
PART I. animal was not full grown, it is impossible to determine its species.
It is by no means uncommon, but very sliy and therefore rarely
seen. Its dispersion over the range seems to indicate that fish
are more plentiful in hill-streams than is generally supposed.
Cats, 8j'C. — Of the cat family four species are found on the hills,
but all of these are more common on, and rather belong to the
fauna of, the plains. Chief of these is the tiger, which has been
found at all elevations, although, of course, more common in
jungles on the lower slopes than on the higher plateau. At times
the tiger takes up its abode in some thicket quite close to one of
the principal stations, a temerity which generally leads to its
destruction, as it is soon marked down and pursued by ardent
sportsmen. The tiger not unfrequently tries to carry off the
buffaloes of the hill-men, but is often defeated in these attacks as
the animals close up for mutual defence, and attempt to gore or
trample their assailant to death. The cattle-herd on these occa-
sions is said to take shelter within the irregular ring formed by his
charge when on the defence. The leopard {Felis parcJus) is also
not uncommon on the hills, and does not lose in the cooler climate
any of the predatory habits for which it is remarkable on the
plains of India. Indeed, it might rather be said that it is even
bolder in its depredations on the hills than elsewhere. Some
years ago there appeared, in one of the Madras papers, an account
of a leopard having ascended a tree on the Nilagiris to escape
from its tormentors when hotly pursued by dogs and men, in
which retreat it was potted like a rook. The other members of
the feline family found on the Nilagiris are the leopard-cat {Felis
Bengalensis), and the common jungle-cat {Felis chaus).
-Tree-cata. Tree-cafs. — The common tree-cat exists on the eastern side
of the hills, and skins of another Paradoxurus, of much larger
size, were recently got from the Anemalle range and Kotagiri.
This latter is called by the natives Tree-dog, and is, I believe,
the P. Zeylanieus, yslt. fuscus, of Kelaart. It is not noticed by
Jerdon, and has not hitherto been regarded as a native of Southern
India.
-Mungoos. Mvngoos. — Three species of this animal are found on the hills,
viz., {Herpestes vitHcolIis) the stripe-necked mungoos, {H.fusciis)
the Nilagiri brown mungoos, and {H. Smithii) the ruddy mungoos.
The first of these is found throughout the Western Gh4ts and
elsewhere, but the H. fuscus would appear to be peculiar to the
Nilagiris. It is almost unnecessary to refer to the use of the
mungoos in the economy of nature as an enemy of snakes,
poisonous and non-poisonous. At one time it was believed that the
animal, when wounded by a snake, resorted to some special plant as
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIR: DISTRICT. 153
aai antidote to the poison of the reptile, but it is now known that CHAP. VIII,
the mungoos does not have recourse to any specific when bitten. PART I.
The impunity with which it comes out of such conflicts is zoology.
entirely owing to the little animal's boldness and cunning mode
of attack, and if fairly bitten by a poisonous snake, such as the
cobra, there can be no doubt that the results would be fatal.
The Wild Dog. — This animal, Guon rutilans, with its beautiful —Wild Dog.
rusty red coat, large erect ears, eyes staring into the far distance,
and cruel face, is certainly one of the most distinguished- looking
of the /era' naivrceoi Southern India. Its- cousins, the jackal and
fox, have always a sneaking expression about them, as befits their
habits ; but the bold look of the dog shows that it is made of
sterner material, and its habits do not belie its physiognomy.
Wild dogs always hunt in packs, chiefly during the day, and
while thus engaged, keep up a peculiar sort of bark. When once
they have fixed on their destined victim, they follow it with
unfaltering perseverance until the animal becomes exhausted,
when they rush in and worry it to death. They prey on deer and
smaller animals, and Sir Walter Elliot mentions that he has known
tigers leave a jungle in which a pack of wild dogs had taken up
its quarters. This they possibly did not from any fear of the
dogs, but because the presence of the latter would diminish the
number of game and supply of food. Natives have rather a dread
of the wild dogs, and consider it very unsafe to attack them,
more especially if they are engaged in feeding on some animal
they may have killed.
Squirrels. — Seven species of squirrels are found on the hills, —Squirrels.
One of these, the Nilagiri striped squirrel, is peculiar to the hill
ranges of Southern India and Ceylon, but a nearly allied, if
not identical, species, the Sciurus insignis of Horsfield, is found in
Java. The flying squirrel also frequents dense forests at low eleva-
tions on the western slopes of the hills. It is very difficult to
procure, being, like the bats, nocturnal in its habits ; but specimens
can generally be obtained when forest is being felled for coffee
plantations.
Rats. — Several species of rats and four of mice are found on the —Rata.
Nilagiris. One of these, Golimda Elliotti, is also common in
Ceylon, and is well known to planters both there and in Southern
India as the coffee rat. It is so called because in certain seasons
it invades coffee estates in large numbers, and proves very destruc-
tive by cutting the young branches and eating the flowers of the
coffee plant. Planters believe that it usually subsists on the
seeds of the bamboo, and that when supplies of these fail it resorts
to the coffee plantations. However this may be, it is very destruc-
tive owing to the immense numbers in which it appears. Its
20
IS^ MANUAL or THE NILAGIBl Dl.STRlCT.
CHAP. VIII, flesh is mucli relished by various castes of natives, aud is said to
PART I. be very palatable.
ZooMMJY. The Porcupine. — The porcupine is very common at various
7 elevations on the Nilagiris, and most destructive to garden
pine. crops. It is especially fond of potatoes, and various engines of
destruction, including spring-guns and steel-traps, are employed
to get rid of the enemy. A deep narrow ditch with perpendi-
cular sides is sometimes dug around the potato fields to keep
the porcupines off, as they cannot cross this, and when they fall
into the ditch they are enable to get out and are caught. They
burrow like rabbits, and are nocturnal in their habits. When
found abroad and pursued they are easily run down, but very
dangerous either to men or dogs not acquainted with their
system of defence, as when hotly pressed they suddenly charge
backwai'ds with spines erect, when ten to one the unwary
pursuer is taken by surprise and gets impaled on the spines.
Their coat of armour enables them to set at defiance blows with
a stick and even a charge of shot from a gun, unless it takes effect
in the head,
—The Elephmd. — The eUpJiant is only found low down on the
^^ ^° slopes of the hills, and owing to the clearing away of jungle for
coffee planting and the indiscrinnnate destruction by shooting
which was carried on for some years, is not so common as it
formerly was. The Indian elephant differs both from the
African and that of Ceylon. The chief points of difference
between the three species will be found in the shape of the head,
the size of the ears, the disposition of the streaks of enamel in
the teeth, and the number of the ribs. In all tliree species the
number of pairs of true ribs is six, but in Elephas Indicus the
pairs of false ribs number thirteen, while in the E. Sumatraniis
of Ceylon they number fourteen and in E. Africauus fifteen.
"Very exaggerated ideas have been entertained as to the height
of the elephant. Of 201 elephants which were some years ago in
the possession of theMadras Commissariat, the height of the tallest
was exactly nine feet eight inches, and that of the majority below
eight feet. The fossil remains of an elephant foimd at Jabbalpur
are said to have shown a height of fifteen feet, but it is doubt-
ful if, at the present day, any Indian elephant ever much
exceeds ten feet in height. The Commissariat elephant which
measm-ed nine feet eight inches was a male captured in Coimbatore,
and 36 years of age. Of late years certain restrictions have, very
properly, been instituted by Government for the protection of wild
elephants, and considerable numbers been captured in keddahs
in Coimbatore and Mysore. As a rule, the wild elephant is a
very timid animal, and Rorpie or destructive individuals compara-
tively rare. For a more cxtcuded account of this noble animal
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIKI DISTRICT. 155
I would refer my readers to Temient's cliarraing- " Natural History CITAP. vni,
of Ceylon/' to which I have been indebted for some of the facts PART I.
already given. Zo^ogy.
Deer. — Both the Samlirr and Spofted Beer frequent the ' ]
Nilagiris, but are getting scarce and shy owing to the constant
persecution to which they are subjected by men, who, being on the
hills and with nothing else to do, go out to shoot. The Eib-faced
or Barhlnq Deer receives the latter name from its peculiar call,
■which somewhat resembles a bark. Its face is marked with two
long converging furrows, and it has large canines in the upper
jaw, with which it wounds dogs when brought to bay. It is not
gregarious, but leads a lonely life in remote jungle and is rather
timid. Its horns are small with one snag, and its general color
a bright rufous bay. The mouse-deer is also found in dense
forest on the lower slopes.
The Nilagiri Wild Goat, the Ihex of sportsmen, is now — The Nfla-
becoming rather scarce on the hills, and so wary that it is nearly ^^^''^^ [^^^^
impossible to get near it. It is quite peculiar to Southern India,
being found only on the Nilagiris and other portions of the
Western Ghdts south of that range. The male, vs^hen full grown,
is of a dark brownish color, with a pale saddle and stiff mane.
The horns ai-e short, curved, keeled internally, and closely ringed
externally. The Nilagiri wild goat frequents the ledges of
precipices and other difficult rocky retreats. It is gregarious
and extremely wary. Ou the slightest alarm the herd melt away
as if by magic, disappearing amongst the rocks. The Tehr or
wild goat of the Himalayas belongs to the same genus.
Both the ibex and other game animals, at one time plentiful
on the hills, are being fast exterminated, there being no close
season. Bucks in soft-horn and does with young are wantonly
shot down; and if measures be not adopted to protect the animals
during the breeding season, there will not, in a few years, be one
left on any part of the range.
A Bill has recently been introduced into the Legislative
Council to secure protection for both game and fish, indigenous
or introduced, on the Nilagiris.
The Gaur or Bison of the sportsman frequents the dense moist —Bison,
jungles of the western slopes of the Nilagiris. It has a very
wide geographical distribution, being found wherever there is
sufficient cover all along the Western Ghdts, in the Pulni Hills,
and in the remote ranges of the Northern Circars. It also
occurs in Central India, the Terai and in Burmah. It is a very
timid animal, and when alarmed the whole herd dashes into the
forest regardless of every obstacle. It is also very wary, but
when wounded a bull bison will often charge with great ferocity.
156 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VIII, The following is a list of the mammalia found on the Nilagiris,
PART I. in which the names given are those adopted by Jerdon in his
Zoology. " Mammals/' a book likely to be in the hands of all taking an
interest in the matter, and to which they can easily refer for
further information.
ORDER PRIMATES.
FAMILY SIMIAD^.
Presbytis jubatus. The NUagiri Langur.
Inuus silenus. The Lion Monkey.
SUB-ORDER CHEIROPTERA.
FAMILY VAMPYRID^.
Hipposideros mnrinus. The Little Horse-Shoe Bat.
FAMILY VESPERTILIONID^.
Nycticejus Temminckii. The Common Yello^v Bat.
ORDER INSECTIVORA.
FAMILY SORECID^.
Sorex niger. The N'llagiri Wood-Shreiv.
„ Perroteti. The NUagiri Pigmy-Shrew.
FAMILY ERINACEID^.
Erinaceus micropus. The South-Indian Hedge-hog.
ORDER CARNIVORA.
TRIBE PLANTIGRADA.
FAMILY URSID^.
Ursus labiatus. TJie Indian Black Bear.
TRIBE SEMI-PLANTIGRADA.
FAMILY MUSTELID^.
Maries flavigula. The Indian Marten.
Lutra sp. ? The Hill Otter.
TRIBE DIGITIGRADA.
FAMILY FELID^.
Felis tigris. The Tiger.
„ pardus. Tlie Pard.
„ Bengalensis. The Leopard-Cat'
„ chaus. The Coynmon Jitngle-Caf.
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
157
Paradoxurus musanga
Paradoxurus sp. ?
Herpestes Smithii.
„ fuscus.
„ vitticollis.
FAMILY VIVERRID^.
The Common Tree-Cat.
The Ruddy Mungoos,
The Nilagiri Bronm Muvgoos.
The Stripe-necked Mtingoos.
FAMILY CANIDiE.
Cuon rutilans. The Wild Bog.
CHAP. VIII,
PART I.
Zoology.
ORDER RODENTIA.
FAMILY SCIURID^.
Sciurus Malabaricus.
„ Elphinstonei.
„ macrourus.
„ palraarum.
„ tristriatus.
„ sublineatus.
Pteromys petaurista.
The Malabar Squirrel.
The Bombay Red Squirrel.
The Grizzled Hill Squirrel.
The Common Striped Squirrel.
The Jungle Striped Squirrel.
The Nilagiri Striped Squirrel.
The Brown Flying Squirrel.
FAMILY MURID^.
Nesokia Indica.
Mus Nilagiricus.
„ crassipes.
„ Darjeelingensis.
Platacan thorny s lasiurus.
Golunda Elliotti.
The Indian Mole-Rat.
The Nilagiri Tree-Mouse.
The Large-footed Mouse.
The Darjeeling Mouse.
The Long-tailed Spiny Motise.
The Bush or Coffee Rat.
Hystrix leucura.
FAMILY HYSTRICID^.
The Indian Porcupine.
Elephas Indicus.
ORDER UNGULATA.
TRIBE PROBOSCIDEA.
FAMILY ELEPHANTID^.
The Indian Elephant.
Sus Indicus.
TRIBE CH^RODIA.
FAMILY SUID^.
The Indian Wild Boar.
Rusa aristotelis.
Axis maculatus.
TRIBE RUMINANTIA.
FAMILY CERVID^.
The Samher Stag.
Tlie Spotted Deer.
158
MANUAL OF TTIK NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VIII, Cervulus aureus.
PART I. Memimna Indica.
Zoology.
The Ixih-faced or Barliing-Deer.
The Mo2(,se-Deer.
FAMILY BOVID^.
Heraitragus hylocrius. The N'llacjiri Wild Goat.
Gaveeus gaurus. The Gaur or Bison.
Birds.
—Birds of
prey.
-Owls.
BIRDS.
The avi-fauiia of the Nilagiris is fairly represented in the
Madras Museum, one of the taxidermists having made collections
there during two successive years, and a large number was
collected by me in 1877. Comparatively few bii'ds are seen
on the slopes and ravines on the higher ranges of the hills,
but they become more numerous, both as to individuals and
species, at elevations of from two to four thousand feet, that is
to say where cover and food are most abundant. During the
more rainy months of the south-west monsoon the majority of
birds migrate to the eastern side of the range, where there is
less rain and more sunshine. One of the most interesting birds
found on the hills is the migratory wood-cock, and it is curious
to notice the punctuality with which it annually appears, notwith-
standing the systematic manner in which the bird is persecuted
and shot down. Indeed there can be no doubt that if the wood-
cock had been a permanent resident, it would long ere now have
been exterminated or frightened away from its haunts, but,
being a pilgrim and stranger, it comes back yearly, all unconscious
of, or forgetting the risks it will run, and the deadly gaps that
will be made in its ranks. A list will be found farther on of
the chief birds known to frequent the Nilagiris, the nomencla-
ture and classification being those of Jerdon. This list contains
species, and the order which first requires notice is that of
the Raptores, or birds of prey. The most remarkable of these, as
to size, are the long-billed brown vulture, and scavenger vulture,
which are not uncommon, and ai'e said to breed on the hills. Of
hawks there is a goodly number including the kestril, two falcons,
two goshawks and two sparrow hawks. There is no true eagle,
but one kite-eagle, one hawk-eagle, and a serpent-eagle occur.
Owls. — This group of birds is well represented, no lessj
than eight species of owls being found on the Nilagiris. Of
these the most remarkable is the brown wood-owl, which is
regarded by Natives, both in India and Ceylon, with superstitious
dread. It is purely a nocturnal bird, and its dismal yell is no
doubt the reason for its being regarded with such fear. Most
owls are more or less disliked by natives except the little spotted
MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIIU DJSTKICT. 159
owlet, and it even is no favorite. A resident in Coorg informed CHAP. VIII,
me that lie once put an owl in a cage, on which his Coorg friends PART I.
besought him to set it at liberty, otherwise some disaster would Zoology.
certainly befall his family. He tried, to argue with them as to
the absurdity of their fears, and resolved to keep the bird to
show that nothing would go wrong in consequence of its presence.
On this resolution becoming known the bearers who attended
on his children also pleaded with him to send the owl away, and
threatened to resign his service if it were retained, as they were
afraid to live on the premises with it. Hearing of this a mis-
sionary in the station volunteered to take charge of the bird to
show that such superstitions were groundless, and. it was
accordingly lodged in his verandah. Shortly after this the
missionary had to visit an unhealthy part of the district, where he
got an attack of jungle fever which very nearly cost him his life.
When this occurred the Natives at once triumphantly ascribed
the fever to the presence of the owl, and some of the missionary's
native friends lost no time in setting it at liberty. The
missionary ultimately recovered, and this result was confidently
attributed to the timely liberation of the caged bird.
rerchinq birds. — This large group is well represented on the —Perching
Nilagiris. ' ^^"^''•
Of Sivallows and Siviffs there are at least eleven species, and
one of the most remarkable of these is the edible nest swiftlet
{Collocalia nidifica). It breeds at various places on the hills,
one site being a cave above the road from Ootacamand to
•Coonoor, near the first toll-bar out of Ootacamand. The nests
found here consist of a frame-work of grey lichen, glued
together by inspissated mucus. Night-jars, Bee-eaters, King-
fishers, and the Indian Roller are also more or less common, and
the frugivorous Great Horn-bill occurs on the eastern slopes.
Various writers have noticed the peculiar loud noise made by the
wings of this bird when flying, and Hodgson, as quoted by
•Jerdon, compares its cry to the braying of a jackass. The list — Climbing-
^f climbing birds belonging to the Nilagiris is rather a long one, " ^'
Of the beautiful plumaged wood-peckers eight species are found
Dn the hills, and there are seven cuckoos, of which the pied-crested
species is perhaps the most common. Sun-birds, Shrikes and Fly-
'utchers are also represented, and of Thrushes, including Short-
vings and Babblers there are at least eighteen species. Of game-
oirds there are Peacocl-, Jungle-fcml, Spur-fowl and Bush-quail,
lot to mention the Wood-cock and Wood or Solitarij Snipe. The
aeautiful Nilagiri or Imperial Pigeon also deserves notice, as
oeing one of the prettiest of its family and somewhat limited in
ts geographical range. A list is appended of the birds known to
Tequcut the Nilagiri^s.
160
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VIII,
PAKT I.
Zoology.
ORDER RAPTORES.
FAMILY VULTUEID^.
Gyps Indicus. The Long-hilled Broim Vulture.
Neophron pei'enopterus. The White Scavenger Vidture.
FAMILY FALCONID^.
Falco peregrinator.
Tinminculus alaudarius.
Erythropus cenchris.
,, vespertinus.
Astnr palumbarius.
The Shahin Falcon.
The Kestril.
The Lesser Kestril.
The Red'leg'jed Falcon.
The Goshawk.
(Lophospiza) trivii'gatus. The Crested Goshawk.
Accipiter nisus.
„ vlrgatus.
Neopus Malaiensis.
Nisaetus Bonelli.
Spiloruis cheela.
Buteo vulgai-is.
Milvus govinda.
Pernis cristata.
Strix Javanica.
„ Candida.
Syrnium indranee.
Urrua Bengalensis.
Ketupa Ceylonensis.
Ephialtes pennatus.
Athene radiata.
Ninox scatellatus.
The European Sparroio-HawJc.
The Bcsra Sparrow-Hawk.
The Black Eagle.
The Crestless Eaivk-Eagle.
The Crested Serpent-Eagle.
The Common Buzzard.
The Common Pariah Kite.
The Crested Honey-Buzzard.
FAMILY STRIGID^.
The Indian Screech-Oivl.
The Grass-Owl.
The Brown Wood-Oiol.
The Bock Horned- Otd.
The Brown Fish-Owl.
Tlie Indian Scops-Oid.
The Jungle Owlet.
The Brown Hawk-Owl.
Hirundo rustica.
„ domicola.
,, daurica.
Cotyle concolor.
„ rupestris.
Chelidon iirbica.
Acanthylis gigantea.
Cypselus melba.
,, affinis.
Collocalia nidifica.
ORDER INSESSORES.
TRIBE FISSmOSTRES.
FAMILY HIRUNDINID^.
The Common Swalloio.
The Nilagiri House- Swalloio.
The Eed-r2unped Sivalloio.
The Dusky Crag -Mart in.
The Mountain Crag-Martin.
The English House-Martin.
The Broion-necked Spine-tail.
The Alpine Swift.
The Common Indian Swift.
The Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet.
Dendrochelidon coronatiis. The Indian Crested Sirift.
FAMILY CAPRIMULGID^.
Batrachostomus moniliger. The Waindd Frog-mouth.
Caprimulgus Kelaarti.
Mahrattousis.
The Nilagiri Night-jar.
Syke$' Night-jar.
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
161
FAMILY TROGONID^.
Harpactes fasciatus. The Malabar Trogon.
FAMILY MEROPID^.
Merops quinticolor. The Chesnut-headed Bee-eater.
Nyctiornis Athertoni. The Blue-necked Bee-eater.
Coracias ]ndica.
FAMILY CORACIAD^.
The Indian Boiler.
FAMILY HALCYONID^.
Halcyon fuscus. The White-hreasted Kingfisher.
Alcedo Bengalensis. The Ccnnmon Indian Kingfisher.
FAMILY BUCEROTID^.
Homraius bicornis. The Great Horn-bill.
Hydrocissa coronata. The Malabar Pied Horn-bill.
TRIBE SCANSORES.
FAMILY PSITTACID^.
Palseomis rosa. The Rose-headed Farraheet.
„ columboides. The Blue-winged Parrakeet.
Loriculus vernalis. The Indian Lorikeet.
Hemicircus canente.
Chrysocolaptes sultaneus.
„ goensis.
MulleripicTis Hodgsoni,
Gecinus striolatus.
FAMILY PICID^.
The Heart-spotted Woodpecker.
The Golden-backed Woodpecker.
The Black-backed Woodpecker.
The Great Black Woodpecker.
The Small Green Woodpecker.
Chrysophlegma chlorophanes. The Southern Yellow-naped
Woodpecker.
Micropternus gularis. The Madras Bufous Woodpecker.
Chrysonotus Shorei. The Large Three-toed Woodpecker.
FAMILY MEGALAIMID^.
ima caniceps. The Commmi Green Barbet.
„ viridis.
Xantholaema Indica.
,, Malabarica.
The Small Green Barbet.
The Crimson-breasted Barbet.
The Crimson-throated Barbet.
CHAP. VIII,
PART I.
Zoology.
FAMILY CUCULID^.
Cuculus canoras. The European Cuckoo.
„ Sonneratii. The Banded Bay Cuckoo.
Hierococcyx sparverioides. The Large Hawk-Cuckoo.
The Indian Plaintive Cuckoo.
The Emerald-Cuckoo.
TJie Pied-crested Cuckoo.
The Bed-winged Crested Cuckoo.
The Indian Koel.
Zanclostomus viridirostris. The Small Green-billed Malkoha,
21
Polypbasia nigra.
Chrysococcyx Hodgsoni.
Coccystes melanoleucos.
„ Coromandus.
Eudynamis orientalis.
162
MANUAL or THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VIII,
PART I.
Zoology.
Centropus rufipennis.
Taccocua LesclienaTiltii.
The Common Cotical.
The Southern Sirkeer.
TEIBE TENUIROSTRES.
FAMILY NECTARINID^.
A-i'aclinotliera pusilla.
Le2:»tocoma Zeylonica.
,, minima.
ArachnecMlira Asiatica.
Dicaeum concolor.
The Little Spider-hunter.
The Araethyst-nt^mped Honey-sucker-
TJie Tiny Honey-sticker.
The Ptirple Honey-sucker.
The NiJagiri Floiuer-pecker.
FAMILY CERTHIAD^.
Sitta castaneoventris. Tlie Chesnut-hellied Nuthatch-
Dendrophila frontalis. The Velvet-fronted Blue Nuthatch.
Upupa epops.
,, nigripennis
FAMILY UPUPID^.
Tlie European Hoopoe.
The Indian Hoopoe.
TRIBE DENTIROSTRES.
FAMILY LANIAD^.
Lanius erytlironotus.
Tephi'odornis sylvicola.
Hemipus picatus-
Volvocivora Sykesii.
Pericrocotus flammeus.
„ brevirostris.
„ erythropygius.
Dicrurus longicaudatus.
„ casrulescens.
Chaptia fenea.
Edolius Malabaricns.
The Rufous-hacked Shrike.
The Malabar Wood- Shrike.
The Little Pied Shrike.
The Black-headed Cuckoo- Shrike.
The Orange Minivet.
The Short-hilled Minivet.
The White-hellied Minivet.
The Long-tailed Drongo.
The White-bellied Drongo.
The Bronzed Drongo.
The Malabar Racket-tailed Drongo.
FAMILY MUSCICAPID^.
Tchitrea paradisi.
Myiagra azurea.
Leucocerca pectoralis.
Cryptolopha cinereocapilla.
Ochromela nigrorufa.
Eumyias melanops.
„ albicaudata.
Cyornis ruficauda.
„ pallipes.
Erythrosterna leucura.
The Paradise Fly-catcher.
The Black-naped Blue Fly-catcher.
The White-spotted Fan-tail.
The Grey-headed Fly-catcher.
The Black and Orange Fly-catcher.
The Verditer Fly-catcher.
The Nilagiri Blue Fly-catcher.
The Rufotis -tailed Fly-catcher.
The White-hellied Blue Fly-catcher.
The White-tailed Robin Fly-catcher.
FAMILY MERULIDJS.
Callene rufiventris.
Myiophonus Horsficldii.
Petrocossyphus cyanens.
Orocetes cinclorhynchus.
Turdus Wardii.
The Rufous-bellied Short-tving.
The Malabar Whistling Thrush.
The Blue Rock-Thrush.
The Blue-headed Chat-thrush.
Ward's Pied Blackbird.
MANUAL OP THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT.
1G3
Oreocincla Nilagiriensis.
Pyctorhis sinensis.
Alcippe poiocepliala.
,, atriceps.
Pomatorhinus Horsfieldii.
Garrulax Delesserti.
Trochalopteron cachinnans.
„ Jerdoni.
Malacocircus Malabaricus.
„ Malcolmi.
Layardia subrufa.
Cli^toruis striatus.
Schsenicola platyui'a.
The Nilagir! Thnish.
The Yelloiv-eyed Babbler.
The N'llagiri QuaJcer-Thrysh.
The Black-headed Wren- Babble)
The Southern Scimitar-Babbler.
The Waindd Laughing-Thrush.
The N'dagiri Laughing-Thriish.
The Banasore Laughing Thrush.
The Jungle Babbler.
The Large Grey Babbler.
The Rufous Babbler.
The Grass Babbler.
The Broad-tailed Reed-bird.
CHAP. VIII,
PART I.
Zoology.
FAMILY BRACHYPODID^.
Hypsipetes Nilagiriensis.
„ ganeesa.
Criniger ictericus.
Kelaartia penicillata.
Rubigula gnlaris.
Bracbypodius poiocephalus.
Otocompsa jocosa.
Pycnonotus bEemorhous.
Phyllornis Jerdoni.
„ Makbaricns,
lora Zeylonica.
Irena puella.
Oriolus kundoo.
,, Ceylonensis.
The N'llagiri Black Bulbid.
The Ghat Black Bulbul.
The Yelloio-lroioed Bulbul.
The Yellow-eared Bulbul.
The Ruby-throated Bulbul.
The Grey-headed Bulbul.
The Red-whiskered Bulbul.
The Common Madras Btdhul.
The Common Green Bulbul.
The Malabar Green Bulbul.
The Black-headed Green Bulbul.
The Fairy Blue-bird.
The Indian Oriole.
The Southern Black-headed Oriole.
FAMILY SYLVIAD^.
Copsycbus saularis. The
Kattacinclamaci'oura. The
Pratincola atrata. The
„ Indica. The
Larviyora cyaua. The
Acrocepbalus dumetorum. The
Ortbotomus longicauda. The
Prinia socialis. The
„ Hodgsoni. The
Drymoipus sylvaticus. The
Pbylloscopns lugubris. The
Motacilla Madraspatana. The
Nemoricola Indica. The
Pi pastes agOis. The
,, montanus. The
Agrodroma einnamomea. The
Magpie-Robin.
Shama.
N'dagiri Black Robin.
Indian Bush- Chat.
Blue Wood-chat.
Lesser Reed-Warbler.
Indian Tailor-Bird.
Bark-ash y Wren- Warbler.
Malabar Wren- Warbler.
Jungle Wren- Warbler.
Bull-green Tree- Warbler,
Pied Wagtail.
Black-breasted Wagtail.
Indian Tree-Pipit.
Bill Tree-Pipit.
Rufous Rock-Pipit.
FAMILY AMPELIDiE.
Zosterops palpebrosus. The White-eyed Tit.
Parus cinerens. The Indian Grey Tit.
Macblolopbus Jerdoni, The Southern Yellow Tit.
164
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VIII,
PART I.
TRIBE CONIROSTRES.
FAMILY CORVID^.
Corvus culminatus. The Indian Gorhy.
Dendrocitta leucogastra. The Long-tailed Magpie.
rufa. The Common Indian Magpie,
Acridotlieres fuscus.
„ tristis.
Temenuchus Blythii
Pastor roseus.
Eulabes religiosa.
FAMILY STUENID^.
The Hill BanJc-Myna.
The Common Myna.
The White-headed Myna.
The Ease-colored Starling.
The Southern Hill Myna.
FAMILY FRINGILLID^.
Estrelda amandava. The Bed Wax-hilh
Munia undulata. The Spotted Munia.
„ striata. The White-haclced Munia.
Alauda gulgula. The hidian Shy-larh.
„ Malabarica. The Crested Malahar LarJc.
ORDER GEMITORES.
FAMILY TRERONID^.
Osmotreron Malabarica. The Grey-fronted Green Pigeon.
,, flavo-gularis. The Yelloio-fronted Green Pigeon.
Carpophaga insignis. The Bronze-bacJied Imperial Pigeon.
FAMILY COLUMBID^.
Palumbus Elpbinstonei. The Nilagiri Wood-Pigeon.
Turtur Suratensis. The Spotted Dove.
FAMILY GOURID^.
Cbalcoplmps Indicus. The Bronze-winged Dove.
ORDER RASORES.
FAMILY PHASIANID^.
Pavo cristatus. The Common Peacock:
Gallus Sonneratii. The Grey Jungle-Fovd.
Galloperdix spadiceus. The Bed Spxir-Fowl.
FAMILY TETRAONID^.
Perdicula Cambayensis. The Jungle Bush-quail.
„ erythrorliyuGlia. The Painted Bush-q2ia!I.
TRIBE LONGIROSTRES.
FAMILY SCOLOPACID^.
Scolopax rusticola. The Wood-cod:
Gallinago nemoricola; The Wood Snii^e.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 165
TEIBE MEEGITORES. CHAP, viii,
FAMILY PODICIPID^. PAR^I.
Podiceps Philippensis. The Little Grebe. Zoology.
FISHES.
The streams ou the higher parts of the range contain very few Fishes,
fishj compared with what would be found in similar waters in
any part of Europe. Standing by the Paikare river^ for instance,
during a fresh, it is with a feeling of regret that one contemplates
the utter barrenness of a stream apparently so well suited in
every way to nourish hosts of fish, and afford sport for the lovers
of the '' gentle art. ^' In 1866 Dr. Day attempted to introduce
trout into the Nilagiri waters, but from various causes the experi- — Dr. Day's
ment failed.^ A full account of these experiments will be found fntrocfuce fish
in Dr. Day^s first report, printed in Government Proceedings, 28th from the low
June 1866, No. 650, and of his further experiments to introduce guropZ ^"""^
fish from the low country in his second report, printed with their
Proceedings of 9th May 1867, No. 1,052. These reports contain
valuable contributions to the natural history of the district.
Subsequently the late Mr. W. G. Mclvor deposited live trout,
tench, (the common sort, and also the beautiful German variety),
rudd, carp, gold-fish and silver eels in the Ootacamand lake
and several streams on the higher parts of the range.^ Of the
tro^it some were said to have been subsequently caught in a
stream near Neduwattum, and some in a pool in the Paikare river
above the Bungalow towards the close of the year 1875.^ These
were seen and pronounced by Mr. H. S. Thomas to be undoubtedly
trout. Of the other species the carp and tench have multiplied
in the lake and elsewhere. The rest do not seem to have survived.
Dr. Day also introduced Barhus Carnaticus into the Ootacamand
and Bellikal lakes."* Whether these are living in the former is not
known, but those put into the latter are flourishing. Subse-
quently Mr. H. S. Thomas deposited Lobes calbases and L. nigres-
cens in a pond on the Adderley estate. These lived long enough
to show they would stand the change of climate, but afterwards
got into the coffee-pulper and were killed. Finally in 1877
Mr. Knox and Mr. Wapshare introduced into the Paikare river
' An attempt had previously been made in 1863, by Mr. E. C. G. Thomas,
which also failed.
- Lady Napier and Ettrick placed the first fish in the Ootacamand Lake in
August 1869.
^ A full account of the method adopted by Mr. Mclvor will be found in the
Proceedings of the Madras Government, 6th January 1868, No. 31 ; 5th August
1869, No, 2,262 ; and G.O., 23rd August 1873, No. 899.
■• Good M4h-seer (large carp, Barbus mosal) fishing may be had in the large
streams at the base of the Nilagiris, see Mk. Thomas' Rod in India, 1873.— Ed.
Zoology.
166 MANUAL OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VIII, some Barhus Garnat'icus caught in the Hope-river, Ouchterlouy
PART I. valley. The fate of these is not yet known.
According to Dr. Day the only indigenous species found at
hio-h elevations on the plateau is Banio Nilagiriensis. He also
caught in the rapids of streams on the slopes of the range a
small roach, Nemacheilus Guntlieri, a little carp, Puntius Grayi
{Barhus arulius, Gunth.) and Barilius rugosus, erroneously called
a " trout." The following is a list of the fish found on the plateau
and slopes of these hills so far as known : —
GOBIID^.
Gobius neglectus. Jerdon.
NANDID^.
Nandas marginatus. Jerdon.
OPHIOCEPHALID^.
Ophiocephalus marulius. Buck. Ham.
„ gachua. Buck. Earn.
„ striatus. Lacep.
EHYNCHOBDELLID^ .
Mastacemblus armatus. Lacep.
SILURID^.
Macrones punctatus. Jerdon.
„ Cavasius. Buch. Ham.
Wallago attu. Block.
„ Malabaricus C et V.
Glyptosternum lonah. SyJces.
SCOMBRESOCID^.
Belone cancila. Buch. Ham.
CYPRINID^.
Discognathus lamta Buch. Ham.
Labeo Kontius. Jerdon.
„ Dussumieri. 0. et V.
Mola meletfcinus. C. et V.
Barbus dubius. Bay.
,, Mysorensis- Jerdon.
,, Carnaticus. Jerdon.
„ tor. Buch. Ham.
,, melanampyx. Bay.
„ lepidus. Bay.
,, arulius. Gunth.
Nuria Malabarica. Bay.
,, Madraspatensis. Bay.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 167
Rasbora Nilagiriensis.
Buch Ham.
„ daniconius.
Buck. Ham.
Barilius cocsa.
Buch. Ham.
,, gatensis.
C. et V.
Danio Nilagiriensis-
Day.
„ aurolineatus.
Day.
Perilampus atpar.
Buch. Ham.
Chela argentea.
Day.
Homaloptera Bi'ucei.
Gray |- Hardw.
Nemacheilus semiarmatus
. Day.
„ sinuatus.
Day.
„ striatus.
Day.
„ Deuisonii-
Day.
„ Guntheri.
Day.
NOTOPTERID^
Notopterus kapirat.
Bomi.
MUR^NID^.
Mursena maculata.
Bttch. Ham.
CHAP. VIII,
PART I.
The following interesting account of the means employed by —"Mr-
Mr. Mclvor for the transport of live fish from England to the success.^
Nilagiris is extracted from G.O. No. 2,262 of 5th August 1869.
"I collected the young Trout-fry in July 1867, and had them
kept in an aquarium till the date of my departure for India, to
accustom them to the artificial condition to which they would be
subjected during the voyage. When first placed in the aquarium,
a rapid flow of water was allowed to pass through it ; after ten
days this flow of water was gradually diminished ; but as many
of the fry died, the flow of water was again increased, and
continued for about six weeks, when it was again diminished
with more favorable results. On leaving England I selected
eighteen of the most healthy Trout-fry to be conveyed to India.
The other species of fish had not this preparatory process, and I
believe this was a disadvantage. On the 3rd November 1867,
I left Southampton by the P. and 0. Steamer with eighteen lake
Trout-fry, twenty-four Tench, twelve Carp, twelve Gudgeon,
twelve Rudd, twelve Silver Eels, and three Goldfish (one male
and two females). Of those I succeeded in bringing to the
Neilgherries, fifteen Trout, ten Carp, twenty-four Tench, twelve
Budd, twelve Silver Eels, and three Goldfish. The Gudgeon
were all lost by an accident in the Red Sea ; two Trout were
subsequently lost by leaping out of the tubs in which they were
placed. One female Goldfish died ; nine of the Eels escaped into
the running stream, and have not since been seen ; the remaining
three Eels were placed in a large pond in the gardens ; and the
other species of fish in a house, or rather enclosure covered with
wire-netting, specially prepared for their reception, by forming
168
MANUAL OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VIII, four ponds with a stream of clear water running through them.
PART I. Previous to my departure I had the fry of each species placed
„ separately in tin boxes, 15 X 10 inches, fitted with a small tap so
■ as to allow a flow of water to pass from one box into the other,
as per sketch below. Fig. I. The boxes should be placed in a
wooden frame so as to stand the one above the other, as at A,
and above the fish boxes is placed a cistern, 20 X 10 and 12
inches deep, to receive the water for the supply of the fish boxes
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIEI DISTRTfT,
160
below. The wooden frame should be constructed so as either CHAP, "vrrir^
to be slung or stand on the deck. It is better^ however, that PART I.
it should be slung so as to swing to and fro with the motion of zoology,
the ship. This can be effected by passing a rope through the iron
loop C and suspending the
frame in some convenient
place exposed to a breeze.
The same arrangement
should be adopted when
conveyed by land in a
Railway carriage or other-
wise. Fig. II is a longi-
tudinal section of the fish
box; A being a small
flange for the lid to rest
on ; B the lid, made of
[perforated tin or zinc so
las to allow the air to act
on the water when the
lid is shut. The lid should
never be shut except in
very stormy weather, and
when there is a danger of
the fish being thrown out
of the boxes. In order to prevent all the water from being drawn
off, the tap C should be
placed about the centre of
the box. Fig. Ill is a
cross section ; A the flange,
B the lid, C the tap. The
boxes are prepared for the
reception of the fish, by
placing about \ an inch
well-washed gravel at the
bottom ; they are then
filled three parts full of
water, and in this is placed
a few aquatic plants to
float in the water. These
plants give off a small
portion of oxygen and
afford shelter to the fish.
During the journey the
water should be changed
in the boxes and replaced
in the cistern three times in twenty-four hours, or once every
eight hours if possible. It is best to throw the fresh-water
22
170 MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VIII, into the boxes by means of a syringe, as in this way it catches
PART I. the oxygen of the air in its descent. In addition to this the
„ water prior to being used should be thoroughly aerated by
ZOOLOGY. -l ,., cin -j^i • i?
forcing air through it by means oi a bellows with a piece ot
elastic tubing (sufficient to reach the bottom of the water)
attached to the end of the pipe. The smaller the fish-fry are,
the safer they can be conveyed ; but fish of considerable size
could be conveyed with safety by increasing the size of the boxes
in proportion, and thus placing at their disposal a greater
quantity of water."
MANUAL OP THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT. 171
PART IL
Lizards, Snakes and Frogs.
REPTILIA.
(By Lieutenant. Colonel R. H. Beddome, M.S.C, Consei-vator of Forests,
Madras Presidericy.)
LIZARDS. CHAP. VIII,
PART II.
ORDER SAURIA. —
Zoology.
VARANID^.
Lizards.
Varanus dracoena, L. ... Southern slopes.
„ lunatus, Gray. ... Western slopes.
LACERTID^.
Cabrita Leschenaultii, D. et B. ... About the foot and lower slopes
on eastern and southern side.
„ Jerdoni, Bedd. ... Do.
Ophiops Jerdoni, Blyth. ... Do,
SCINCID^,
Euprepes carinatus, Schn. ... Slopes everywhere.
„ macularius, Blyth. ... Do.
„ brevis, Guntli. ... Walaghat.
„ trilineatus, Jerd. ... Eastern slopes.
Hinulia Dussumieri, D. et B. ... Foot of Sisapdra Ghat and west-
ern slopes.
Ristella Rurkii? Gray. ... Walaghdt and western slopes.
„ n. sp. (an undescribed sp... Foot of Sisapdra Ghat,
with 2 large frontals).
Mocoa bilineata, Gray. ... Ootacamand, very common under
stones.
Riopa albopunctata, Gray. ... All the slopes.
„ Hardwickii, Gray. ... Do.
„ punctata, L. ... Do.
GECKOTID^.
Gecko Anemaleam, Gunth. ... Slopes above Gajalhatti.
Hemidactylus trihedrus, Band. ... Slopes, common.
,, maculatus, D. et B. ... Do. do.
„ Pieresii, Kelaarf. ... Do. do.
Leschenaultii, D- rA B. Do. do.
172
MANUAL OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
Zoology.
'CHAP. VIII, Gymnodactylus Kollegalensis, Bedd. Sisapdra slopes near the foot,
PART II. abundant.
„ Indicus, Gh-ay. ... Ootacamand and Kundas, very
common under stones.
Goniodactylus planipes, Bedd. ... Foot of western slopes,
„ Waiuddensis, Bedd. ... Walagliat, &c., and the Ouchter-
lony Valley.
AGAMID.^E.
Draco Dussumieri, D. et B.
Si tana Pondiceriana, Cuv.
Calotes nemoricola, Jerd.
„ ophiomachus, Merr.
„ Elliotti, Gunth.
,, versicolor. Band.
gigas, Bhjth.
Salea Horsfieldii, Grmj.
Charasia dorsalis, Gray.
Western slopes.
Eastern slopes and foot.
Coonoor slopes.
All the slopes.
Sisapdra slopes.
All the slopes, very common.
Eastern slopes.
Ootacamand and all the plateau,
very common.
Abundant on rocks
ghats.
on all the
CHAMCELIONID^.
Chamoeleo vulgaris, L. ... Southern slopes.
Harmless
HARMLESS AND VENOMOUS SNAKES.
ORDEE OPHIDIA.
HARMLESS SNAKES.
TTPHLOPID^.
Typhlops braminus. Band. ... Common under stones on the
slopes.
Onychocephalus acutus, J), et B. ... Rare about the foot on the west-
ern slopes.
UROPELTID^.
Rhinophis sanguineus, Bedd.
Silybura Beddomei, Gunth.
„ Elliotii, Gray.
„ ocellata, Bedd.
„ Ceylanica, D- et B.
„ brevis, Gunth.
Plectrurns Perottetii, D. el B.
„ Guntheri, Bedd,
Melanophidium Wainddense,
... The Ouchterlony Valley.
... Walaghdt.
... Common on the slopes.
. . . Common at Walaghdt and in the
Ouchterlony Valley.
... Kalhatti, Walaghdt, Shdlur and
elsewhere.
... Walaghdt.
... Ootacamand, very common.
... Walaghdt.
Bedd. Ouchterlony Valley, very i-are.
MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT. 173
CALAMARID^. CHAP. VIII,
Geophis microcephalus, Gunth. ... Ootacamand, very common. FART II.
Zoology.
OLIGODONTID^.
Oligodon subgriseus, D. et B. ... Eastern and southern slopes,
„ spilonotus, Gunth. ... Do.
Ellioti, Gunth. ... Do.
„ brevicauda, GuntJi. ... Walaghat and the Ouchterlony
Valley.
„ affinis, Gmith. ... Do.
Simotes venustus ... Ootacamand, not rare.
COLUBRID^.
Ablabes olivaceus, Bedd. ... The Oachterlony Valley, rare.
„ Humberti, Jan. ... Southern slopes.
Cyclophis Calamaria, Gunth. ... Slopes.
Coluber rubro- venter, Bedd., n. sp.... Mudiimale.
Cynophis Malabaricus, Jerd. ... Western slopes.
„ Helena. ... Eastern slopes, rare.
Ptyas mucosus, L, ... Slopes up to 4,000 feet, very
common.
Zamenis fasciolatus, Shmo. ... Below Kotagiri, &c., rather rare.
Tropidonotus quincunciatus, ScJil. ... Lower slopes.
„ Beddomei, Gunth. ... Mudiimale and western slopes.
„ stolatus, L. ... Slopes, common.
„ monticola, Jerd. ... Western slopes and Mudumale.
„ plumbicolor, Gantr. ... Shdlur, Kalhatti, and all slopes,
common.
Atretium schistosum. Band. ... Mudumale, very common.
DENDROPHID^.
Dendrophis pictus, Gunth. . . . Slopes, common.
Chrysopelea ornata, Shaiv- ... Do. do.
DRYIOPHID^.
Tragops Perottettii, D. et B. ... Grass land of the plateau, very
common.
Passerita mycterizans, L. ... Slopes, very common.
„ purpurascens, Gunth. ... Walaghdt, rare.
DIPSADID^.
Dipsas trigonata, Boie. ... Slopes, common.
„ Forsteni, D. et B. ... Do. rare.
„ nuchalis, Gunth. ... Western slopes, common.
174
MANDAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VIII,
PART II. Lycodon aulicus, L.
Zo^GY. " striatus, Shaw.
Python molurus, L.
LYCODONTID^.
... Common up to 4,000 feet.
... Slopes, common.
PYTHONID^.
... All the slopes up to 4,000 feet,
not common.
ERYCID./E.
Gongylophis conicus, Schn.
Eryx Johnii, Bussell.
... Common under stones in dry
forests up to 3,000 feet.
. , . Foot of Hills, east side.
Venomous
snakes.
VENOMOUS SNAKES.
ELAPSID^.
Naja tripudians, Merr.
Ophiophagus elops, Gunth.
Callophis nigrescens, Gunth.
„ Malabaricus, Jerd.
„ cerasinus, Bedd.
„ trimacalatus, Gunth.
Bungfarus coeruleus, Schn.
DaLoia elegans, Shato.
Echis carminata, Schn.
. . . Common low down, rarely coming
up to 5,000 feet.
... The Ouchterlony Valley and
western slopes, rare.
... Slopes near G-ajalhatti, rare,
... Western slopes and up to Nedu-
wattam, rare.
... Mudumale and western slopes.
. . . This rare little snake, only hither-
to known from the dry districts
of Trichinopoly and Bellary,
has just been discovered at
the foot of the Sisapara Ghat.
... Eastern slopes.
VIPERID^.
Lower slopes, eastern side.
Do. do.
CROTALID^.
Trimeresurus Anemaleensis, ... Western
Gunth.
„ strigatus, Graij.
Halys Elliotii, Jerd.
Hypnale nepa, Lour.
slopes and northern
slopes, common.
Kundas, very common.
Coonoor slopes, described briefly
by Dr. Jerdon, but never detect-
ed since.
Slopes, not uncommon.
Of the venomous snakes only two, viz., Trimeresurus strigatus
and Callophis Malabaricus ascend to the plateau, and they appear
to be confined to the western and northern sides of the Hills,
never having been observed about Ootacamand or Coonoor, &c.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
175
Trimeresurus A'nemaleensis and Hypnale nepa are
in the moist forests and in coffee estates on the slopes. OpJiio-
jphagus elops (the hill cobra) and the four species of CallopJds are
very rare. Naja tripudians (the cobra), Bungarus coeruleus (the
carpet snake), and Daboia elegans (the cobra monil or chain
viper) are common only about the foot ; the little Echis is very
common in dry rocky ground, but not up to any elevation. It is
very doubtful if the Halys is really a Nilagiri snake.
The above 45 innocuous and 13 venomous snakes are all that
have as yet been detected in this district, but it is more than
probable that other Uropelts, which occur in Wainad, and
probably further new species will be found on the western slopes,
and other Anemale snakes, such as Simotes RusseUii and Lycodou
A'nemaleensis, probably occur there.
common CHAP. VIIT,
PART II.
Zoology.
FROGS.
ORDER BATRACHIA.
Frogs,
RANID^.
Rana Kuhlii, 8chl.
,, pygmcBa, Gunth.
„ hexadactyla, Les.
„ cyanophlyctis, Schn.
,, tigrina, Dand.
„ gracilis, Wiegm.
„ n. sp. (var. verrucosa,
Gunth.)
Pyxicephalus breviceps, Schn.
.. Walaghat.
.. Do.
.. Eastern slopes.
Do.
Do.
. . Plateau, the common frog in all
swamps.
. . Western slopes.
CYSTIGNATHID^ ?
Crinia (or allied genus) n. sp. ... Walaghdt. A minute frog with
free toes, no parotids, maxillary
teeth, and sacral vertebras
sometimes dilated.
PHRYNISCIDiE.
Melanobati'achus Indicus, Bedd. ... This little frog, only lately
discovered on the Anemales
and Madura Hills, has just
been found at Walaghdt.
RHINODERMATID^.
Cacopus systoma, Schn.
Diplopelma ornatuni, B. et B.
„ Carnatica, Jerd.
... Slopes.
... Walaghdt, &c.
... Eastern slopes.
176
MANUAL OP THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. VIII,
PART^II. Bufo melanostictus, Scfera.
Zoology. „ Beddomei, Gunth.
„ hololius, Gunth.
BUPONID^.
. . . Common everywhere.
... Western slopes.
Do.
POLYPEDATID^.
Polypedates maculatns, Gunth.
,, pleurostictus, Gunth.
,, brachy tarsus, Gunth.
Hylorana temporalis, Gunth.
„ curtipes, Jerd.
Ixalus variabilis, Gunth.
„ opisthorbodus, Gunth.
„ saxicola, Jerd.
„ tinniens, Jerd.
,, diplostictus, Gunth.
Rbacophorus Malabaricus, And.
... Lower slopes.
... Ootacamand and all tbe plateau.
... Walagbat.
... Plateau and slopes.
... Walagbat and tbe Oucbterlony
Valley.
. . . Plateau and slopes.
... Western side, plateau, and slopes.
. . . Western slopes, on rocks, beds of
rivers.
... Tbe tinkling frog of Ootacamand.
... Walagbat.
... Western slopes.
HYLCEDACTYLID^.
Callula triangularis, Gmith.
,, olivacea, Gunth.
„ obscura, Gunth.
„ picta, D. et B.
... Paikare.
... Walagbat.
... Plateau, western side and slopes.
... Slopes near Gajalhatti.
BATRACHIA APODA.
Epicrium glutinosum, Z). et B.
Cecilia oxyura, B. et B.
Westei'n slopes.
Do.
MANUAL OF THE NILAQITa DISTRICT.
177
PART III.
Land and Fresh-water Shells.
{By Lieutenant-Colonel R. H. Bed))OME, M.S.C., Conservator of Forests,
Madras Presidency.)
Inoperciilated shells.— Operciilated shells. — Eemarks.— Fresh-vmter shells.
Inoperculated Land Shells.
Vitrina auriformis, Bl.
sp.
„ sp.
Helix ampulla, Bens.
„ apicata, Bl.
,, aspirans, Bl.
„ Barrackporensis, Pf.
„ bistrialis, Bed'.
„ cacuminifei'a, Bens.
„ castra, Bens.
,, conulus, Bl.
,, crinigei'a, Bejis.
,, cysis, Bens.
„ euomphalos, Bl.
„ fallaciosa, Fer.
5, fastigiata, Hiitt.
,, febrilis, Bl.
„ Huttoni, Pf.
„ Indica, Ff.
,, injussa, Bl.
„ Kundaensis, Bl.
,, lychnia, Bl.
,, Madraspatana, Gray.
„ mucosa, Bl.
„ Nilagirica, Pf.
,, retifera, Pf.
„ Shiplayi, Pf
„ Sisaparica, Bl.
„ solata, Bii.
,, tertiana, Bl.
„ thyraeus, Bn.
„ todarum, Bl.
,, Tranquebarica, Bl.
Streptaxis Perotteti, Petil.
Watsoni, Bl.
23
CHAP. VIII,
PART III.
Zoology.
Inopercu-
lated land
shells.
178
MANUAL OF THE XILAGIRI DISTIIICT.
CHAP. VIII,
PART III.
Zoology.
Pupa (Ennea) bicolor, Hidt.
Bulimus mavortius, Reeve.
„ Nilagiricus, P/V.
„ pliysalis, Ba.
„ pragtermissus, Bh.
„ punctatus, Ant.
trutta, Bl.
Achatina Ceylanica, Bn.
„ oreas, Bn.
„ Perotteti, Pf.
Shi play i, Pf.
hebcs/;?/.
,, paupercula, Bis.
„ Jerdoni, Bn.
,, Bensoniana, Pf-
„ corrosula, Pf.
Botellu.=», Bu.
facula, Bn.
Opekculated Land Shells.
Operculated Diplommatina (Nicida) Nilagirica, BL
land shells. ,, „ nitidula, Bl.
Jerdonia trochlea, Bn.
Craspidotropis ctispidatns, Bl.
Cyathopoma Coouoorense, Bl.
„ Dekhanense, Bl.
„ filacinctum, Bl.
„ Malabaricum, Bl.
„ malleatum, Bl.
,, Wainddense, Bl.
Oi^isthostoma Nilagiricum, Bl.
Alycseus expatriatus, Bl-
Pterocyclos bilabiatus, Sorv.
,, rupestris, Bus.
Cyclophorus annulatus, Tros.
„ cselocomus, Bn.
„ deplanatus.
„ Indicus, Besh.
„ involvulus, Mull.
„ Jerdoni, Bn.
„ Nilagiricus, Bn.
„ ravidus, Bn.
Shiplayi, Pf.
Kemarka. The grand Helix ampulla is only found in the moist forest on
the western slopes 3,000-4,000 feet elevation, where the rare and
fine Cydoplwrus Nilagiricus also occurs. Both these shells are
very rare in collections, and of considerable value. Diplommatina,
MANUAL OP THE NiLAQIRI DISTRICT. 179
Jerdonia, Craspidotrojns, Opisthostoma, Cydo2ohorus, Shlplayi, CHAP. VIII,
and some of the GyatJiopomas, Streptax'is, many small Helices PART III.
and some of the Achatinas abound in the sholas or woods of zoology.
the plateau. Helix Madraspatana abounds on the grass land of
the plateau, sometimes in association with Helix Nilagirica and
Bidimus Nilagiricus. The two species of Pteroajclos are found at
or near the foot of the hills, and most of the Cydophori in the
woods on the slopes (Sisapdra, Coonoor, and Kalliatti ghdts).
Fresh-water Shells.
There are very few fresh-water shells. Nerltina PerroUetii i^'rcsh-water
occurs in some rivers on the plateau, and Paludina Bei}galensis, ^ ^ ^'
Planorhis exustus, and AmpuUaria glohosa occur in tanks.
180
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
CHAPTER IX.
ETHNOLOGY.
PART I.— THE TO'DAS.
PART II.— THE KO'TAS.
PART III.— THE KU'RUMBAS.
PART IV.— THE IRULAS.
PART v.— THE BADAGAS.
Ethnology.
The tribes.
General view
of their
history.
Introduction.
The tribes. — General view of their history. — Sources of information. — Local
distribution.
CHAP. IX. The Nilagiris are inhabited by five native tribes, four of wbicb
may be regarded as primitive or aboriginal, viz., the Todas, the
Kotas, Kiirumbas and the Irulas, and the fifth as belonging to
the Aryanized Hindu races now in ascendancy throughout
Peninsula India.
These tribes deserve, and have received the careful attention of
ethnologists, and their language that of philologists. They are,
in a measure, representatives of races which once overspread large
portions of South India, some of which appear to have attained to
a certain degree of civilization, and even to extended rule. In the
Todas we may perhaps see the remnants of tribes who occupied
the river tracts of the Dekhan, and who tended their sacred herds
of buffaloes long before their bovine rivals monopolised the venera-
tion of the people; — in the Kotas, perhaps, the representatives of the
early artisans of the south, who wrought metal and wood for the
aborigines in the ages before the handicrafts became the monopoly
of the present castes, who wear the thi-ead of the twice-born and
boldly dispute with the Brahmans their supremacy in the social
scale ; — again, in the Kurumbas we may see the kinsmen of the
primitive shepherds and goatherds of the southern uplands, who,
unlike the more pliable Ideiyas, were too independent to ally
themselves with the immigrant races from the north : — whilst in
the Irulas we find the descendants of the hunting tribes of the
south, who have attained to some civilization and power, as, for
example, in the case of the Bedas and Nayaks. Lastly the Bada-
gas, or people of the north, have a historic position, in that they
bear witness to the fact that portions of the Nilagiris must have
been long under the authority of Carnatic chiefs.
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 181
But altlioug-h the primitive tribes are thus representatives^ in a CHAP. IX.
degree, of tribes whose power and influence was once widespread, ethnology
yet they can be so only in a degree, for the constituent clans of
each of those tribes, though known now under some general
appellation, and possessing some generic qualities in common,
were probably separated from one another in manifold way»s.
Through untold ages prior to the dawn of history. South India
r was probably occupied, like Central Africa of to-day, by numerous
3 clans and tribes, springing up and then vanishing with a rapidity
7 which is hardly conceivable in more civilized communities, where
r) war, famine, and pestilence have lost some of their primal destruc-
p tive force. Some of these clans would naturally, under favoring
t' cii'cumstances, have progi-essed, whilst others, under unaltered
t\ conditions, would have necessarily remained in their primitive
r state. But all would be known alike to strangers by one generic
li name, taken probably from some accident of their appearance or
!i! mode of life. This probably was the case with the Kiirumbas and
l Irulas,the dwarfs and blacks of the past. Clans belonging to each
\<\ of these great divisions or tribes became civilized, partially at least,
\i\ attained dominion, and exercised the arts of government and of
K politic life ; but others never emerged from a state of barbarism and
Si savagery. Among these were probably the forefathers of the Nilagiri
ii Kiirumbas and Irulas. In fact the former are even now behind
I their kinsmen of the neighbouring plains, and obtain a livelihood
X by the pursuit of game, instead of by the care of sheep. Similarly,
I elsewhere, remnants of other large tribes, such as the Maravas and
the Kallas, are scattered over the country, though some of their
kindred have secured territory and power. But making allowance
for these facts, still the isolated sections or remnants of tribes
once powerful possess a greater interest than remnants which we
know must have been greatly affected, both in language and
manners, by contact with immigrant races, in that their very
isolation has tended to preserve unchanged their dialect and race
idiosyncracies. Thus in these dwellers in the wilderness, whether
we regard them as descendants of, or merely as akin to the power-
ful tribes of their name of yore, we may find true indications of
what their ancestors were before they succumbed to conquering
invaders, and lost all their original brightness, by being driven
back to seek subsistence under conditions of the savage life from
which they had for a time emerged.
In a work of this description, however, speculative inquiries are Sources of
out of place, and therefore in the following monographs I have i^iformation.
endeavoured simply to produce faithfully the recorded observations
and views of the several competent writers on the subject.
By far the most trustworthy and exhaustive treatise thereon
is the Report on the Primitive Tribes and Monuments of the
182
MANUAL OF THE NILA.GIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX. Nilagiris, drawn up by the late Mr. Breeks^ under the orders
of the Madras Government, in pursuance of the general instruc-
tions of the Government of India, and to it I am mainly-
indebted, but have also made constant reference to the works of
Messrs. Metz, Marshall, Harkness, Baikie, Ouchterlony, Jervis,
Caldwell, Congreve, Shortt and Pope, and to several reports
furnished to the Madras Government at different times.
As regards the local distribution of the tribes, it may be roughly
stated that the Irulas and Kurumbas are scattered about the
slopes, that the Badagas occupy the whole middle plateau, except-
ing, only, tracts in the north-eastern angle of Peranganad called
Kodanad, as well as a small extent of pasture land in the vicinity
of four mands ^ near Coonoor and Hulikal, which belong to the
Todas, and the lands attached to the six large villages of the
Kotas, of which two are in Peranganad, two in Todanad, one in
Mekanad, and one in the Kiindas.
Ethnology.
Local
distribution.
Tdda Villages.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 183
PART I.
The Todas.
Origin. — Derivation of Name. — Physical characteristics.— Dress. — Census. —
Divisions. — Mode of life. — Dwellings. — The mand — Situation. — Family and
inheritance. — Pastimes. — Music and Song. — Salutation. — Religion — Priests. —
Temples.— Rites and ceremonies.— Birth. — Marriage.— Funerals, green and
dry. — Traditions. — Language.
It has become the custom to consider this people as lords of CHAP. IX,
the soil, not only on account o£ their self-assertion and indepen- PAM I.
dent bearing, but also on account of their practice of levying Ethnology.
guclu, or tribute in kind, from the other tribes. The Government ' .-
have, in a measure, countenanced this claim of lordship over the
lands of the plateau by paying to them quit-rent for certain lands
within the towns of Ootacamand and Coonoor.^
The Todas have probably inhabited the Nilagiris for many
centuries, their occupation being anterior to that of any other of
the tribes now dwelling thereon; but there are not sufficient
reasons for considering them to be the earliest inhabitants of the
hills.
Some remains of villages in no way resembling Toda mands, as
well as the cairns and barrows, are possibly the work of a race or
races who preceded them, but of whom the Todas can give no
account. If Dr. CaldwelPs theory is correct, that the Todas are
a Dravidian race of Scythian origin, they would seem to have left
the plains after the Aryan invasions, but befoi'e the tenets of the
Brahmans had taken any hold upon the minds of the people, and
before there had been any extensive mixture of races.
But the date of their coming and their previous history are alike
uncertain. Some think that they migrated to the Hills ^ about
800 years ago from the Kanarese country, and those who hold this
theory, of the grounds of which I am ignorant, look upon them
as a people who have degenerated from isolation, their religion
containing only here and there some fossil remains of a former
faith, and their language having dwindled to a mere skeleton.
Colonel Marshall's researches have led him, on the contrary, to
look on them as a primitive race still in its infancy. The Todas
themselves say that they came from the jungle tract of inferior hills
situated between the Kanarese and Tamil Districts, in the direc-
tion of the Hasanilr Pass in the Eastern Ghats, north-east of the
^ The history of the action of Government in regard to the land rights of the
Todas will be found in the chapter on the Revenue History of the District.
* Dr. Pope's Tudci Qrammar ; Mr. Metz's Tribes inhabiting the Nilgherries.
184
ANUAL OF IHE NILAOIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX.
PART I.
Ethnology.
Nilagiris. In making this assertion, they are probably repeating
parrot-like the Badaga tradition regarding the latter's advent to
the hills, as is their wont, not being gifted with sufficient imagina-
tion to evolve a mythic history of their own. Another theory is
that they came from the West Coast, The similarity of some of
their customs to those of the Malayalams and the position of their
mands, which are mostly in the western uplands of the plateau,
whilst some are even in the Wainad, seem to lend colour to the
view that their country lay to the west of the Nilagiris.
On the other hand, Dr. Caldwell remarks : —
"It has not been noticed by writei'S on the Nilgherries, but it is
nevertheless a fact that, notwithstanding the long residence of the
Tudas in a cold, cloudy mountain region, the color of their skin is
considerably darker than that of the more modern hill race, the Bada-
gas, a race of people who immigrated from the Canarese country not
many centuries ago, and is many shades darker than that of the
majority' of the natives of the Malabar Coast. The darkness of the
complexion of the Tudas tends to prove that they came originally
from the eastern or sun-burnt side of the range of Ghats ; and that,
long before they took up their abode in the hills, they had formed a
constituent portion of the low country population."
The mode of wearing the hair also seems to point the same way.
The luxuriant crop or mop of hair, which is their pride, differs but
little from the rough, shaggy and unkempt hair of many of the
Pareiya and wandering castes of the Carnatic and Dekhan, except
that it is oiled and combed. This pride in " these redundant locks,
robustious to no purpose " is shared in an eminent degree by
the women, whose desire to curl their hair, which has little natural
wave in it, may be a point deserving the attention of the ethno-
logist, for this fashion is perhaps but an imitation of the mode
of some superior race with whom their ancestors were familiar.
The hazel or brown eye common to the Toda, Kurumbaand Kota,
is also met with in the wild castes of the eastern plains.^
Nor does this view altogether militate against the notion that
they approached the hills from the western side through the
old Carnatic country. A race of drovers of semi-amphibious
buffaloes is more likely to have gradually pushed forward its
herds through the rich moist flats of Wainad to the grassy downs
of the Nilagiris, than through the dry plains of Coimbatore and
Salem, The fine species of buffalo which they possess may
perhaps be found more nearly allied to the race of buffaloes
known in Mysore as the Chokatti buffalo, which comes from the
' One tribe, the Puleiyas, in Malabar are very black.
* See Fergusson's Tree and Serpent Worship, x>age 224- ; also Dr. Caldwell,
Appendix, Gram. Drav. Lang., page 566.
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 185
tracts along the Kistna river, than to the common and meaner CIIAP. IX,
animal of the plains.^ PART I.
Dr. Pope derives the name from the Tamil word Toru-van, a Ethnology.
herdsman. Mr. Metz and Dr. Caldwell doubt the correctness of _^ ■; ~~ .
. . . . ^ ^■ 17 Derivation or
this derivation, the d m Toda being the dental, not the lingual a, the name
and not related to the Tamil r or I. They consider the correct T<5da-
derivation still unknown.
The Todas surpass all the other tribes in physique and dignity physical
of bearing, but they are not so tall as the Badagas. Still they character.
may be spoken of as tall, the height of the men averaging 5 feet
3*30 inches, that of the women 5 feet 0'25 inches. Their features
may best be described as European, with Roman noses and bright
hazel eyes, good teeth and an abundance of rather coarse but
glossy black hair, which is worn in a crop by the men and in long
thick ringlets by the women. The expression of their counte-
nances is open, fearless, and agreeable, and their smile invariably
pleasant although rather vacant. Those who are interested in
the lost tribes have been attracted by the peculiar noses of the
Todas. Their faces have sometimes a general resemblance to the
Jewish type, but nothing in their customs or traditions connects
them with the Jews. There is, however, a pastoral simplicity about
them, when seen with their herds or in their homes, which agrees
with our preconceived ideas of the primitive Hebrews. But it is
rather beside the other races of the Nilagiris, than as compared
with the natives of the plains, that the Todas appear to great
advantage.^ Though admitting that they are a hardy, fine-looking
race, as might be expected from their simple mode of life and the
bracing mountain air they breathe. Dr. Caldwell remarks : —
" It is also certain that many of the statements that are commonly
made, both in conversation and in books, respecting their physical
characteristics are mere romance. As regards size and strength of
body they will not bear comparison with the natives of the North-
West Provinces, or even with the Telugu farmers and palanquin-
bearers. The supporters of the Celtic Indo-European origin of the
Tudas, are wont to rest the chief weight of their theory on the Roman
noses of their proteges, but aquiline noses are not unfrequently met
with amongst the people of the plains, though they have not had the
good fortune to attract so much of the notice of tourists ; and, after
all, the nose which is most commonly seen on the Tuda face is not an
aquiline, but simply a large nose. Even if it were universal, it
would reveal nothing respecting the origin of the Tuda, for physio-
logy makes little account of noses, but much of heads and the shape
* Dr. Shortt thinks all the breeds identical.
^ The good food which the Badaga is now able to secure is improving his
physique.
24
186 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX, of the head, and the head of the Tuda does not differ in any material
PART I. point from that of the low-conntry Dravidian." '
Ethnology. Though it cannot be denied that their facial pecnliarities are
not so marked as they at first appear^ and that a good deal is due
to their long beards and way of cutting their hair and to the
absence of the turban, there is still something in the fearless
manners and independent bearing of the Todas, which makes
' them very attractive. They thoroughly enjoy a joke and never
scruple to laugh heartily at anything which amuses them, showing
no servile fear of Europeans, but rather treating them as equals
if not inferiors. This fearlessness may in part arise from the
superstitious awe with which other tribes regard them, which
has enabled them to hold their own without the aid of arms or
numbers. The Badaga regards the Toda of the hills as a grand
counterpoise in the art of necromancy to the malicious Kurumba
of the slopes.
Dress, Ac. The dress of the Toda is simple in the extreme, but not ungrace-
ful. It consists of a coarse species of cloth woven at Coimbatore,
and white when new, having one or two bars of colour, generally
red, woven into it at each end. By the men it is worn
wound round the body, so as to form a kilt or petticoat, leaving
the legs nearly bare ; then it is brought under the right arm and
the end is thrown over the left shoulder. In general effect it is
not unlike a Roman toga. The men also wear the lingiiti or
waistcloth called by them kuvu or konu.
The female dress consists of the same kind of cloth, but it is
merely thrown over the shoulders and held together in front, and
is not worn so gracefully as by the men. Women also wear heavy
brass armlets, generally two on one arm, called Tuwagi} They
have necklaces of twisted Iiair or black thread with silver clasps,
and here and there a bead or a bunch of cowrie shells, and some-
times a silver chain. They wear silver bracelets of rather a pretty
pattern, and silver rings on their fingers and thumbs, also iron
bracelets of peculiar design, one like a snake. Sometimes a
silver chain is worn round the waist, to which is attached a
small silver box opening with a screw, and used for carrying
small coins.
/ Their ideas of cleanliness are extremely limited ; but, like most
Natives, they clean their teeth. Their hair-dressing is by far the
most elaborate feature of their toilette : according to Mr. Metz,
who was well acquainted with their habits, the curling of their
ringlets on long sticks occupies a considerable time every
evening.
1 Orammar of Dravidian Languages, Appendix, page 557.
2 Weight about 5 lb.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
187
The following is a list of the Toda population in the Nilagiri CHAP. IX,
District according to the final censua of 15th November 1871. PART I.
Particulars will be found in Chapter II. Ethnology.
Villages.
Number of Persona.
Mands
occupied.
Mands
unoccupied.
Male.
Female.
Total.
Todaniid
Perangandd
MekanAd
Kiindas
Total ...
319
53
2
212
49
2
531
104
4
30
5
1
38
3
2
376
263
639
36
43
Census.
The number of mands has decreased since 1847.^ There were
then in
Todanad 74
Mekanad ... ... ... ... ... ... 3
Perangandd ... ... ... ... ... 8
Breeks into two classes, who Divisions.
2, Tarserzhdl. The first consists
The Todas are divided by Mr,
cannot intermarry : 1, Devdlydl ^ ;
of the Peiki clan, corresponding in some respects to the Brah-
mans ; the second, of the four remaining clans, called respectively
Pehkans, Kuttans, Kennans and Todis. Mr. Breeks states that the
Peikis do not intermarry with the other clans, but Mr. Metz
asserts that none of the clans intermarry.
The Todas are essentially a pastoral people, and, in a measure, Mode of life,
nomadic, that is to say, the inhabitants of each mand or village
possess one or two other mands, and^ move from one to the
other as they may find it convenient or necessary to do so, either
to secure pasture for their herds or shelter from the monsoons,
which are more felt in some localities than in others.
They never make any attempt to cultivate their lands. The
gudil, which they levy in kind from the Badagas and Kotas,
supplies them with grain, and beyond this they depend entirely
upon their large herds of buffaloes for support. Mr. Breeks
humorously remarks : —
" Labor of any kind they hardly attempt ; indeed, so entirely
incomprehensible is the notion to them, that when, on one occasion,
an unlucky mistake about the ownership of some bufialoes committed
' Ouchterlony's Report.
* Devdlyil signifies " A man of God's house" from D^vA'ayam, a temple, and
dr, a person. Tarserzhdl seems to signify servant, from Tdsan, a servant or slave, a
man of the fourth caste. Mr. Mctz does not mention these names ; possibly they
are modern descendants of the high and lowr caste sections of the Toda tribe.
This caste distinction in an isolated and unbrabmanized race is suggestive.
^ They also leave a mand for a time when one of their number dies.
188
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX, an old Toda to jail, it was found impossible to induce him to work
PART I. with the convicts, and the authorities, unwilling to resort to hard
' measures, were compelled to save appearances by making him an
y Ethnology. ,', -^ "^^
Dwellings.
Besides their simple household duties, the women do a coarse
kind of embroidery in blue and white thread obtained from the
low country. They use Nilagiri nettle-thread for sewing their
cloths and English needles.
Of late years some few Todas, impelled by the example of the
Badagas, whose industry is gradually making them rich, have
applied for employment on plantations, but neither they nor their
employers appear to have been much pleased with the experi-
ment.
The houses of the Todas are well described by Dr. Shortt^
as
" A peculiar kind of oval pent-shaped construction, usually 10 feet
broad. The entrance or doorway into this building measures 32
inches in height and 18 in width, and is not provided with any door or
gate ; but the entrance is closed by means of a solid slab or plank of
wood from 4 to 6 inches thick and of sufficient dimension to entirely
block up the entrance. This sliding door is inside the hut, and so
arranged and fixed on two stout stakes buried in the earth and
standing to the height of 2| to 3 feet as to be easily moved to and fro.
There are no openings or outlets of any kind either for the escape of
smoke or for the free ingress and egress of atmospheric air. The
doorway itself is of such small dimensions, that to effect an entrance
one has to go down on all fours, and even then much wi-iggling is
necessary before an entrance can be effected. The houses are neat in
appearance and are built of bamboo closely laid together, fastened
with rattan and covered with thatch, which renders them water-tight.
Each building has an end wall before and behind, composed of solid
blocks of wood, which slopes down to the ground. The front wall or
planking contains the entrance or doorway. The inside of a hut is
from 8 to 15 feet square and is sufficiently high in the middle to
admit of a tall man moving about with comfort. On one side there is a
raised platform or pial formed of clay, about two feet high and covered
with sambar^ or buffalo skins, or sometimes with a mat. This
platform is used as a sleeping-place. On the opposite side is a
fire-place and a slight elevation on which the cooking utensils arc
placed. In this part of the building faggots of firewood are seen
piled up from floor to roof, and secured in their places by loops of
rattan. Here also the I'ice-pounder and pestle are fixed. The mortar is
formed by a hole dug in the ground 7 to 9 inches deep and rendered
hard by constant use. The other household goods consist of three
or four brass dishes or plates, several bamboo measures, and some-
times a hatchet." * # * #
Tribes of the Neilgherries. — Shoktt.
Indian Elk.
i
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 189
" Each hut or dwelling is surrounded by an enclosure ' or wall CHAP. IX,
formed of loose stones piled up from 2 to 3 feet high and includes a PART I.
space or yard measuring 13 by 10 feet." Etiinologt.
A cluster of five or six of these houses, with a cattle kraal,
forms a mand ^ or village, from mane, (Kan.) a house (Tam.
manei.) One hut is always used as a dairy, ^ and one or two
give shelter to the calves. The rest are simply dwelling-houses.
Though the Todas can hardly be said to possess any love for the
beautiful, the picturesqueness of their mands, and the beauty of
the sites which they choose for them, have probably helped to
heighten their attractions as a people, and to add to the mystery
which surrounds them.
One or two of these villages are perched on the extreme edge Situation of
of the plateau, commanding glorious views of the plains and of ™°^°
the rich woods from which the mountains rise. Others nestle on
the edge of a shola, or are at least backed by some beautiful
single trees. The presence of their buffaloes, seldom driven far
away when pasture can be found near at hand, ensures a patch
of short green velvet sward, sloping down to the stream which
supplies the mand with water, or terminating in a marsh where
their favourite animals wallow.
One remarkable feature in the Nilagiri sh61as lends an addi-
tional, though perhaps a fictitious charm, to these villages, for it
gives them, from a little distance, the one characteristic in which
they are often wanting on a nearer view — a look of neatness and
order. There is occasionally a strange resemblance in these
sh61as to carefully planted shrubberies, and some glades about
Ootacamand might almost belong to the grounds of a well kept
country place. The trees in the depth of the wood are often not
high and of no great size, but their branches are gnarled and
moss-grown, and nature has selected and placed them, as if with
a view to variety of growth, foliage and colour. Shrubs, wreathed
with jasmines and dog-roses, fringe the edges of these copses ; and
ferns and flowering plants, among which are the violet and a
variety of the forget-me-not, make a border where they meet the
sward. Periodical fires and the grazing of the buffaloes help to
keep this line distinct; and if the trees are torn or cut for firewood,
1 A cluster of huts always is, but not, as a rule, each hut.
* The Europeans who first ascended the hills probably confounded the word
iniott or mortt, which they used instead of mand with the latter. The former
is the name used for the Irula villages on the slopes, with which the officers of
the Coimbatore District were familiar ; the words however may be of identical
derivation. Mott or mortt is derived from mar am, a tree, a word common to all
Dravidian dialects. Dr. Pope derives mand from mande, a herd (Kanarese).
' P<chi. P&l, milk + tchi ? tchi ^ erthchi, it is. This suffix seems to be the
third person of er, to be, and probably is equal to — milk is here, i.e., the place
where milk is kept.
190
MANUAL OF THE NtLAGIKI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX,
PART I.
Ethnology.
nature restores the injury done to her with a lavish hand, and
throws a mantle of rich green drapery over the wound. The
woods are, however, too valuable as a shelter from rain and cold
to be ruthlessly injured by the Todas. They show great judg-
ment in the selection of sites for their mands, shifting from one
to another as the seasons change, and showing an intimate acquaint-
ance with all the changeful moods of the Nilagiri climate. One
peculiarity, the result of a great altitude within the Torrid Zone,
has hardly been sufficiently dwelt on in a former chapter, although
it sometimes has a prejudicial effect on the health of both Natives
and Europeans, — I allude to the strange combat between summer
and winter, between the chill frosty air of night and the
burning tropical sun of mid-day, — all the fiercer for the tmns-
parent medium through which it shines, — which characterizes a
winter in the hills. Its efi'ect on vegetation, especially on flowers
and fruit, is very marked, and some gardens and even portions of
the sholas look as if Oberon and Titania had been quarrelling
there, so well does her lament apply to them-
The seasons alter : hoary-headed frosts
Fall in the fresh lap of the crimson rose ;
And on old Hyems' thin and icy crown,
An odorous chaplet of sweet summer buds
Is, as in mockery, set. The spring, the summer,
The childing autumn, angry winter, change
Their wonted liveries ; and the 'maz'd world,
By their increase, now knows not which is which.
And this same progeny of evil comes
From our debate, from our dissension :
We are their parents and original."
Midsummer Nighfs Bream, Act II. Sc. L
Family
relations and
inheritance.
To return to prose. It is said that the inhabitants of a mand
are generally related to one another, and that, although each
household has its head, the whole together forms but one family.
The practice of polyandry, however, which still exists, tends to
make their relationships most confusing ; but, strange to tell, it
does not appear to interfere with the domestic affections. This is
probably in part due to the form of polyandry being that of
several brothers or near kinsmen having one wife, a less gross
institution than that existing among other polyandrists in South
India. Polyandry is on the decline, and those men who can afford
it have each their own wife. Often an elder brother indulges in
this extravagance, whilst the younger are satisfied by a marital
co-partnery. Female infanticide, which undoubtedly existed as a
practice among them, but which has now entirely ceased, rendered
polyandry a necessary institution. The position of the children in
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT, 191
relation to the several husbands does not appear to be defined. CHAP, ix.
Colonel Marshall asserts that each husband has an equal claim to PART I.
parental right in the children born to them by the wife, and Ethnology.
Mr. Metz that they claim the children on the principle of
seniority, thus, the first child is given to the eldest brother, the
second to the next, and so on. The differences are probably due
to the varying customs of the several clans. I am not aware
that these questions have ever been sifted in a court of justice.
Women do not inherit, but the property is equally divided among
the sons, the youngest taking the house, and with it accepting
the duty of maintaining the females of the deceased. It is
probable, however, that the father's wishes may to some extent
determine the distribution of the estate. Inheritance goes in the
male line,^ not in the female as amongst the polyandrists of the
West Coast.
The Tddas have several games, which they play with much Pastimes,
energy and apparent enjoyment. They are expert at a game
called Ildta, which is played with a cylindrical piece of wood
pointed at both ends and a bat. In fact Ilata is a variety of
tipcat. ^
Another game is called Narthpimi and is thus described by
Mr. Breeks :
" Close to some munds a stone table may be observed, consisting
of two slabs stuck edgeways into the ground and another laid across
them, leaving an opening just large enough for a man to drag himself
through on his stomach. Two stones are fixed as starting posts, one
at about thirty, the other about sixty yards from the table. A man
stands by each of these, and the nearer of the two runs to the table
and tries to wriggle under it, before the other, starting at the same
time from the farther stone, can catch him. The rapidity with which
they squeeze through the opening must be the result of long practice
in crawling in and out of their house-doors."
A third game, called Kdridlayimi, has some resemblance to
Puss in the Corner.
They have only one musical instrument, a kind of flute, called Mnsic and
Buguri. It is simply a hollow bamboo with holes at intervals, ^"°S-
and is by no means sweet in tone. The singing of the Todas is
remarkable for an entire absence of tune. They lean their heads
upon their hands, shut their teeth, and make a droning nasal
sound which can hardly be dignified even with the name of a
chant, and often approaches more nearly to a snore. As far as
I know, they have no words for these songs, though one is
known as the wedding song {snori). The Toda word is graphic.
' It is remarkable, iiowever, that in regard to the sacred bnfEaloes, the descent
is through the females.— Marshall.
192
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX,
PART I.
Mode of
salutation.
Tenure of
land.
Religion and
religious
beliefs.
Their mode of saluting one another is peculiar to themselves.
A woman when she meets a man^ lifts his feet^^ first one and then
the other, to her head as she crouches before him. In the case of
an old woman, the ceremony is reversed, and she places her foot
on the head of the man.,
Badagas are called mdv, or fathers-in-law, by the Todas in token
of respect. A Badaga greets a Toda by laying his hand on the
head of the latter.
The Todas hold the lands on which their mands are built and
the surrounding grazing lands on grazing puttas or leases. They
pay two annas an acre. Further particulars will be found in the
Revenue chapter.
Of the religion of the Todas, as of their origin, very little
remains to be said when the bare facts of the case, as far as they
can be ascertained in one instance, and as far as they exist in the
others, are divested of the hypothetic and romantic dress with
which their chroniclers have adorned them. Their religion is
either wholly rudimental, owing its few forms and ceremonies to
recent contact with Hindus and others, or it is only the skeleton
of an ancient but more developed cult.
Following the Toda through the peaceful but monotonous
course of his life, from the quaint ceremonies which herald his birth
to his death-bed, surrounded by relatives who moxirn, as orientals
only can, we find no trace of any guiding or restraining power —
apparently no sense of religious obligations or supernatural fears.
He is too strong and fearless, or perhaps too dull and unimagi-
native, for superstitious horrors. His simple life presents few
problems of good and evil, right and wrong. Hence he has
little conscience or sense of wrong doing. It is startling, then,
to find that after death he has a heaven^ for the good and a hell
for the bad, where, as they charitably aver, Badaga sinners at least
must expiate their offences, and that the grim ceremonial of his
funeral contains some words of prayer for the forgiveness of sins.
It is significant that such words as God, sin, ghost (Dev,
Pdpum, and Bhiit) are almost pure Sanscrit, whilst the words
^ This salutation is called A'dabuddiken, " I seize the foot."
^ Aninor, heaven. — Dr. Pope. Mr. Rice (Gazetteer of Mysore and Coorg) thinka
this is a confusion, and that Amnor is a corruption of Marriamma or Amunna-
dd.ru, the mother or village goddess. Mr. Breeks, however, gives Ammundd^
heaven ; Colonel Marshall says, " The Toda has Papum for sin, but I morq
than doubt if he has any word for hell."
" All Todas go to Amnor." — Marshall. '
Mr. Breeks remarks : " The Todaa, as we have said, believe in a heaven and a hell, A
the latter being a swamp full of leeches" called Pufferingen, from PuJ'a, a leech, ( '
and en, a place. May not Amndr or Ammun&d, after all, be simply the village '.
or country of the goddess Marriamma P
MANUAL OF THE NILAGllU DISTRICT.
193
which relate to ideas, which they have clearly borrowed from
the Badagas, are Kaiiarese.
It has been supposed that the T6das believe in the transmigra-
tion of the soul, but this is not very clear. They have, as has
been said above, a distinct idea of a life after death, to be spent
in a country, sometimes called '' the other district."^ As their
buffaloes are their chief food in this world, they considerately kill
a sufficient number at each funeral to supply the dead with milk
in the next. The spirits of men and buffaloes are supposed to
take a leap together into Hades from Mukarte Peak.
The Toda has no idea then of an all-pervading Power, still less
of a benevolent personal God ; neither can he be said to act with
any hopes of reward or fear of punishment of a supernatural
kind. He has a half childish awe of any thing unusual or beyond
his comprehension, and very soon exalts such things into objects
of reverence, Dev or Swami, though in the same category he
includes occasionally the bones of his ancestors, a buffalo, a bell
(Konku), an axe, an old knife, or the Palal himself.
The absence of religious rites, except the annual^ sacrifices of a
buffalo-calf, and the extreme vagueness of what little can be
illicited from them on the subject of religion, seems to have led
to a report that they were not idolaters,^ and the Jesuits of the
west coast made several trips to the Hills in hopes of finding a
colony of orthodox Christians, or at least of Manicheans^ who
had, though long estranged, preserved some features of their
former faith. But in this they were disappointed. The exceed-
ingly primitive worship of the Todas is confined to one material
object, the sacred buffalo-bell, which is hung round the neck of
the best buffalo of the sacred herd, and is looked upon by them
as the representative of Hiriadeva^ or the chief god.
Besides this deity they have quite a pantheon of presiding
gods, one in fact for each mand, and a hunting god called
Betakan,^ whose temple is at Nambalakod in Wainad- He is the
son of Dirkish, the son of En, the first Toda, and is now, they
say, attended by Brahmans. But to these gods they do not pray,
and in what their religious worship consists it would be hard to
say. It has few features of fetishism, no expiatory sacrifices,
CHAP. IX,
PART I.
^ See Metz. The word alluded to by this gentleman is probably Paradesam,
neighbouring country ; Paradise.
^ See Rice, Mysore and Coorg, on similar customs in Mysore, page 365, Vol. I.
3 There is no T6da word for idol. See Dk. Pope's Tuda Grammar.
* There can be no doubt that, like the Manicheans, the Tddas reverence or
even worship light, such as the sun, moon, or a lighted lamp. See Colonel
Marshall.
5 Hiriya = lord.
* i.e., the hunter. — Breeks.
25
194 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRl DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX, and there are but few traces of the joyous nature worship of Vedic
PART I. times, still less any connection between its vague ideas of deity
Ethnology, ^•nd its notions of right and wrong. " Some old men/' Mr. Breeks
writes, '^ of devout turn of mind, make salaam to the rising sun
(Birsch) and at some seasons to the moon (Tiggul) and fast at
eclipses, and occasionally they may prostrate themselves at the
door of the Pdltchi,^ but no one except the pujari attempts
any thing beyond this. " May all be well," " May the buffaloes
be well " is the only form of prayer." * * * " They do not appeal
to their mund god by name, nor do they seem to expect that he
will show them any especial favor ; in fact the names of their
gods, like some of their funeral ceremonies, seem more like fossil
remains of an extinct religion than parts of a living creed." It
is also a curious fact that the Toda does not pray by deputy.
His priest, so far from offering up prayers for the people, regards
himself as a god who needs not to pray.
Priests. In spite of this apparent apathy, one division of the Todas, the
Peikis, is devoted to the priesthood, or rather resembles a tribe of
Levites. . There are five kinds of priests. The highest are the
Palais,'^ a mixture of herdsmen and priests. They live iu
isolated holy mands or groves called Tirieri. No female may
approach the mand, and no man may converse with the Pdldl
except from a distance, much less touch him. His own father
must bow down before him. He is attended by a herdsman
called the KdvalaP or watchman, who is also an ascetic, but by
no means so holy as the Palal, being merely his servant. He
may converse with the Palal, but may not touch him.
" Great sanctity attaches to the person of the Palal in the eyes of
his Toda brethren, and he exerts a powerful influence over their
minds. They believe that God dwells in him, and makes known
His will through him to those who come to him for coiinsel." *
Both Pdldl and Kdvaldl are generally married men, and only
lead a celibate life during their term of office. The preparation
which a Pdldl must undergo is by no means light. The aspirant
is expected to retii'e to the jungles and there to live for eight
days without any clothing to protect him from the severity of
the weather and with hardly any food. Each day he strips some
bark off the Tude tree {Meliosma simplicifolia or MUling-
tonia) ; and three times every day he performs the following
' Sacred Dairy or Temple.
2 Pal = milk, M = a. person, Man— appellative
3 KAi'al = watch, guard, and dl = person.
* Mr. Metz.
^ Marshall.
Ethnology.
MANUAL OF THE NtLAGIRI DISTRICT, 195
" Squeezing some of the jniee of the bark into a leaf-cup containing CIIAP. IX,
water from the stream or spring, he raises the cupful with the right PART I.
hand to his forehead in token of respect ; then lowering it to his
mouth and drinking off the contents, passes the empty leaf round over
his head and left shoulder, then depositing it behind his right side.
This formula is repeated three times, using a fresh leaf each time.
Next he takes the remainder of the bark and rubs his naked body all
over with it, washing himself immediately with fresh water."
After thirty days of this exposure in the wilds, he is allowed to
enter upon his duties, and from henceforth he inhabits a small
hut in the lonely TIrien-mand}
He renounces women and lives a life of rigid asceticism. The
office of Palal is seldom, if ever, held for life. There are instances
of its being held for fourteen years, but the ordinary period is
from two to three years. "^
The dress of a Palal consists of a scanty black cloth. These are
woven by the Badagas of Jackaneri.
Priests of the second order are' qalled VarzhdJ .'^ They go
through the same ceremonies as the Pdldl, but hold office for a
shorter period and are employed as milkmen. They wear only
the linguti.
The next two orders seem to be identical with the Varzkdl, but
their designation depends upon the mands to which they belong.
They are called, respectively, Kokvdli and Kurptdi. The last,
Pdlkdpals, i.e., milk watchers, are a lower order. They are not
obliged to lead a celibate life and may wear the pufkuli.
It is said that the Pdldls make up for their austerities by
paying occasional visits to Badaga villages. They are held in
great reverence for their sanctity and for their supposed acquain-
'tance with the black arts by the timid Badagas, who readily
supply them with such luxuries as ^hey have to give. The Pa Ml
appropriates all the milk of the sacred herd. It is considered too
holy tu be sold as milk, but what remains when the Pdldl and
Kdvaldl have had their shares is made into ghee, and in that
state sold to the laity and the Badagas.
There are tw-o kinds of temples; one,^ called Boa or Boath, is a Temples.
conical roofed building surrounded by a wall. There are four in
the hills : —
* 1, called Manhon at Muttinad mand about four miles from
Ootacamand on the left of the Segilr road.
' i.e., the sacred buffalo mand, tiri, honorific jirefix holy ; eri~h-om t'r, buffalo.
' From Varimha, year + 61 — Kan.
^ For a minute descrij)tion of a Ron interior and exterior see Marshalf,.
* Breeks.
196
MANUAL OF THE NIL\GIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX,
PART I.
Ethnology.
Rites and
ceremonie
—Birth.
— Marriage.
2, Kinezh, at the Tirieri mand, near Sh61tir.
3, called TarzMva, at the Tirieri mand on the Kundas.
4, called Mutterzhva, near Brikapatti.
There was formerly a fifth called Katedva near Mukarte, bnt it is
now in ruins.
The second kind of temple is called a Pd/fchi. It resembles an
ordinary house, but is larger. There are two varieties, one is merely
a dairy house, such as every mand possesses, the other is some-
thing more, and its importance appears to depend upon the relics
it contains. These are called Kurpus^ and the Pdltchi in which
they are kept is looked upon as a shrine. Mauds where they are
found are called Etad, or great mands, in contradistinction to
Buri, or common mands.
The Boa temples do not seem properly to belong to the T6das,
but to some earlier race. They are not attended by priests of the
highest, but of the second grade. The particulars regarding them,
however, are more appropriate to the following chapter.
Soon after a child is born a young buffalo-calf is brought.
The father takes three bamboo measui-es and pours water from
the third measure into the other two, holding them close to the
hind quarters of the calf on its right side. The meaning of this
singular rite is not clear, but it probably has reference to the
future supply of milk for the infantas sustenance. The following
custom is also noteworthy, but also inexplicable. The Toda throws
no light on the subject. He, like most other Hindus, is content
to say and know that " it is mdmul " or custom.'
The father and mother of a new-born child take each a leaf in
their hands ; water is poured over the leaf held by the father, and
from it to the one in the mother^s hand ; she drinks and puts a
drop into the child's mouth three times. After this mother and
child are removed to a separate hut and remain there until the next
new moon. No ceremony is used when girls are named, but boys
are taken by the father to the door of the Pdltchi. The father
prostrates himself, and a name is then given to the infant, gene-
rally a few months old, by its maternal grandfather.
Early betrothals are common among the Todas and an
interchange of buffaloes ratifies the agreement. Later, when the
marriage is consummated, another exchange of buffaloes takes
place. There is no ceremony, except that the woman bows down
before her husband who places his foot upon her • head. She
then performs some simple household duty, such as drawing water
and cooking food, and is thus installed. In the case of two or
more brothers marrying one wife, the ceremony is performed by
the eldest only.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 197
In the seventh month of a woman's first pregnancy an apparently CHAP. IX,
meaningless rite is gone through, which is curious, because in it PART i.
the bow and arrows, now fallen into disuse, play a part, as they ethnology
also do at funerals.
It is thus described by Mr. Breeks :
" The woman's father visits the husband's hut. The husband asks
' Shall I tie the tali ?' ' The father consents. The husband then
asks, ' Shall I give a bow ?' The father answers, ' yes.' The
husband makes a bow of the Hubbe shrub (Sophora cjlauca), the bark
serving for a string. He takes this into a shola in the afternoon, and
gives it to his wife, who, sitting down before a jungle tree, in the
stem of which a convenient hole can be found to place a small
earthenware lamp, asks the name of the bow, holds it a little while,
and then places it at the foot of the tree. Each mand has a different
name for the bow "
The husband and wife remain all night in the shola.
The ceremonies with which the Toda surrounds his dead are —Funerals,
strange and weird, with touches here and there full of pathos and
beauty. But, again, we are haunted by the thought that the ritual
is in places more suggestive to us than it can be to him, and that
memory or imagination infuse a meaning for us into forms which
to him are '' mamul " and nothing more.
When a Toda is thought to be " sick unto death " he is dressed
in all the ornaments and jewellery of his house, and his friends' last
office is to give him milk to drink. ^ After death he is wrapped
in a new mantle, into the pockets of which a supply of grain,
sugar, &c., is put for his use on the road to Amnur. No coin to
fee the ferryman of the infernal river is placed in the mouth of
the dying man as is done in the case of moribund Badagas.
The omission seems simply to indicate the isolated position of the
T6da for many generations. They provide in kind for what a
Badaga provides in coin. There are two funeral ceremonies,
one, which includes the burning of the body and takes place as
soon as possible after death. This is called the green ^ funeral.
The other is celebrated some months later and may include all
the members of the tribe who have died during the year. It is
called the dry^ funeral.
As soon as death occurs, the dead man is brought out of his —Green
house and laid upon a bier made of branches. On this he is ^^'^®'^'^^-
^ Or necklace, answering to our wedding ring.
^ The Phrenologist among the Tddas.
^ Hrise Ked't. From Hdse Drav. perhaps J}as^l (?) green, soft, tender. Kedti,
(Tamil, Kanarese), destrnctioa, death.— Marshall.
* Bara-K^dn— Bniro or Var, Tamil ; KanareRe and Telugn, bar, dry, parched,
i eterile.— Marshall.
Mr. Breeks gives Kordzai Kedu, green funeral ; MarvendU K^dii, dry funeral,
198 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX, carried by his nearest relatives, surrounded by a crowd of
PART I. mourning friends to the nearest Kedu or burial mand, or, as it is
Ethx^ogy. often called, MethgiuU or burning-place.
A small herd of buffaloes is driven along with the cortege and all
the friends of the deceased and the neighboring villagers assemble
to do honor to the dead. Arrived at the Methgudi a funeral pile
is constructed on which the corpse is placed. Each buffalo has
a little bell hung round its neck, and they are then driven close to
the pile with the words "Avan od ntii," " Go with him." Then
the mourners, male and female, down to the youngest baby, take
three handfuls of earth, throw them towards the buffaloes ; then
they throw earth three times upon the body, saying " Purzh-nl-
gama, Purzh-ul-gama, Purzh-ul-gama," "Let him go into the soil."
The recumbent corpse is now lifted up in the arms of his relatives,
and each cow in succession is dragged by two men up to her
master, whose arm is raised and made to touch the animal's
horns. After this the pyre is lighted by fire made by the friction
of two sticks. The body is lifted up and swung three times from
side to side, then laid on the burning wood face downicards.
As the flames devour the body the people cry " Shall we kill
buffaloes for you V " You are going to Amnilr ;" " may it be well
with you ;" " may all thy sins go." One or two buffaloes are now
killed, and as each creature falls dead from a blow from the butt
end of an axe the people crowd round it, sobbing and lamenting
and kissing its face. After this they sit round the bier in pairs
with their faces together and their foreheads touching, weeping
bitterly and wailing in true oi'iental fashion.
After the corpse is consumed, they collect the bones and the
skull ^ to be kept in the house of the deceased until the dry funeral
is celebrated. Any jewels or coins that may have been on the
body are sought for,^ but the ashes are " left to the winds."
The friends then salute the place and leave it.
They never mention the dead by name. No prayer or religious
ceremony seems to accompany a burning, nor are the priests
necessarily in attendance.
_.X)ry The dry funeral is a less solemn, although a more elaborate,
funeral. ceremony. Probably the mere fact of its now being postponed until
two or three funerals can be celebrated together has tended to make
it more or less of a commemoration festival. T The reasons for thn
making one festival serve for all the dead of one tribe seem X'>
' Norrzh, Nirru (Dra.), ashes. — Pope.
- Breeks. Colonel Marshall says they are buried with only valueless articles,
such as knivps, metal rings, &c.
I
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRl DISTRICT. 199
have been chiefly economic, but Governinent^ have also stepped CHAP, ix,
in to restrain the reckless slaughtering of buffaloes which was PART i.
customary on these occasions, on the ground of the cruelties etu^ooy.
practised, and this action may have helped to the same result,
None were gainers by the death of the poor animals except the
Kotas, who attend on these occasions as musicians and claim the
carcases of all the buffaloes. When the Todas are asked why they
give them all to the Kotas, the stereotyped reply is " It is
■m/imid shdstra." " When the buffaloes are alive they are ours,
when they are dead they are the Kotas',"
The ceremonies are spread over three days. On the first the
Todas assemble in large numbers at a Kedvianei or funeral-house.
" Each clan has its own and different ones for men and women.
They are like ordinary Toda huts, but are sometimes decorated at
tlje time of the funeral with siHer coins."
' Kota musicians are in attendance as well as Badagas and other
natives, and sometimes shopkeepers from Ootacamand selling
biscuits and sweetmeats. The scene is busy and animated,
singing and dancing go on; to pass the time panchayets^ a,re
held, and occasionally a Toda becomes possessed of his god and
makes a variety by doing a little prophesying in a wild and ecstatic
manner, but like such '' mediums " from the Pythian down to
those of modern times, his communications are not of a very
exalted nature, nor do they convey information which would be
otherwise unattainable, but generally consist of denunciations of
the present and praises " of the good old times.'' ^
Nothing further is done on the first day except the driving in
of the buffaloes intended to be sacrificed. When they are safely
enclosed in the kraal — two or three for each of the dead
commemorated — the young men throw off their jjutk illis and rush
among them, hanging on to the animals by the neck and horns,
whilst a bell is tied round the neck of each. At this point the
women begin to lament, but though the tears flow down their
cheeks they are soon dried, and the rest of the day is spent in
feasting.
The ceremonies of the second day are the most important. In
the first place the Ked is brought out, wrapped in a new piitMli
and placed within the stone wall which encloses the Keclmanei.
Twenty or thirty men stand round it shouting the apparently
irrelevant sentence " Hah, Boh, er Mr uUama/' " May the
I buffaloes and calves be well," after which each lays his hand on
; the remains, bowing until his forehead touches the cloth in which
they are wrapped. The Ked is then carried to where a hole has
• Permission has to be obtained from the Commissioner before slaughtering
the animals.
* Juries ^f five men to settle disputes.
200 MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX, been dug at the entrance to the cattle kraal^ and each relative
PART I. throws three handfuls of earth on it and then into the cattle kraal
Ethnology, ^s at the green funeral, muttering " May I throw earth V
" Purzhu hikama V to which a Peiki ^ replies " Purzhul,''
''Throw earth. ^^ It is curious to note that whilst a "Peiki"
performs this office for the lower clans, a " Tarserzh/d " performs
it for the high caste, " Devahjdh"
After this the pujari approaches with garlands of creepers,
which he throws at the buffaloes. This is the signal for the coiip-
dc- grace. The poor terrified creatures, who have been half
maddened by the treatment they have received from the youug
men who have spent the pi^cceding hours in exciting them in
every way, rush madly about and sometimes leap the kraal
wall and make their escape to some distance before they can be
caught and despatched. Their bodies are dragged back and
placed in a line with the iridhuJi and Ked beside them, and men
and women sit round it, mourning in couples as at the green
funeral.
What follows next is weird and cruel, and the Todas evidently
fear that Government may prohibit it on the score of cruelty, for
they "make a secret ^ of this part of their proceedings.^' A
buffalo cow and calf are brought ; the latter is held by three men,
whilst the former receives a blow between the horns which stuns
without killing her.^ A gash is made under the fore leg of the
poor animal, and the Varzhdl'^ dipping some pieces of bark into
the wound, gives seme of the blood to the kinsmen, who smear it
upon the Ked, muttering " Karma odi pona," " May the sin run
away," and some other sentences containing the words Kirma, sin,
and Ammundd, heaven. The conclusion of this strangely
significant rite I give in Mr. Breeks' own words : —
" A Peiki man then puts on the ptitkidi in which the Ked has been
wrapped and a silver necklace, and taking the bow^ and arrows,
the latter laid across the bow as if in readiness for shooting, dips the
points of the arrows into the blood on the Ked, saying ' Birzhutu-
kama T ' Shall I give a bow ?' After this they walk to another stone
near the Kedmanei in procession, shouting ' Hob, Hoh,' the Peiki
with the bow in the middle and the Varzhal in front, carrying the
^ This pujari does not appear to be a priest or at least one of higher orders, but
simply an officiating layman. Colonel Marshall made particular inquiries on this
point and learnt that neither Palal or Kavalal had any religious duties to perforin
on such occasions.
2 Breeks.
3 See MacPhekson's Klwnd Hills.— The buffalo has now taken the place of
the human meria as the most httiug sacrifice to the Earth. Mother among the
Khonds.
* An inferior priest.
Made by the Kdtas expressly for each occasion.
MANUAL OF THE NILAdlR] DISTRICT. 20T
leaf vessel ' out of which he takes two pieces of bark at intervals, CHAP. IX,
throwing one behind him. The calf is dragged to this stone and let PART I.
loose, when they all run after it, throwing themselves down at intervals ~
so as to touch the gi'ound with their foreheads and shouting
* A)amaadga seruma Karma dharma tilinia,' which may be rendered
' May he enter heaven ; may it be well with his good deeds and his
sins." ■
The Ked is burnt within an Azdram or circle of stones sunk in
the ground, with a miniatui*e bow and three arrows, a Kef-liaUi
or sickle, an axe, a palm-leaf umbrella, some jaggery, gram and
other articles. The fire is lighted at four in the morning, and as
it burns the Todas mourn and wail, sitting as before in couples
and sobbing their rhythmical farewell to the dead, whilst the
Kotas rend the air with their discordant music. Mr. Breeks
continues : —
" Just as dawn is breaking the music is stopped, the mourning
ceases, and in dead silence all cluster I'ound the Azaram for the
impressive closing ceremony. Water is sprinkled on the embers, a
large stone at the entrance of the circle is taken up and a pit dug
under it, into which they scrape the ashes and the stone is replaced.
Finally a dim figure enters the circle, and raising a cliatty high
over his head, dashes it to pieces on the stone covering the ashes,
bends down, touches the stone with his forehead, and hastens away.
All the others perform in turn the same prostration, and flitting
silently down the hill, a procession of hurrying shadows fades into
the mist, through which twinkles the distant fire of the Kkhnanei.
Imagination might easily transform them into the departing spirits
of the propitiated dead."
With the exception of one or two vague stories, some of which Traditions,
may have been picked up from the Badagas at a comparatively
late date, the Todas have nothing to say of their past history.
They generally look on at the despoiling of the cairns and
cromlechs with perfect indifference, and appear to attach no
importance to them ; although, it is said, they do lay ^ claim to
some. Travellers from time to time have narrated crude stories,
supposed to have been gathered from the Todas, relating to their
origin, but they are very contradictory. Captain Ward^ says
they have some idea that they were originally self-born, and
that they have also a notion that their ancestors, in primitive
* Containing the bark steeped with blood.
^ This is done at a Tddi funeral. Peikis and Pekhans do not sacrifice a buffalo
or lose a calf at the dry funeral, but sacrifice a male buffalo at the next new moon. —
Breeks.
3 See Metz.
* Biographical and Stniii^fical Siirvey of the Kelagherry Mountains, 1824.
26
202
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX, times, were tlie palanquin-bearers to the giant Rdvana, and
PART I. were expelled from Lanka on his being slain by Rama. A few
Ethnology, legends, taken from the lips of the Todas, are related by
Mr. Breeks and Mr, Metz_, but they are too long to repeat
here.
Language. ^he Toda language is by no means peculiar to themselves as
was once thought. It is a dialect of old Kanarese, and closely
allied to other Dravidian languages of the plains. There is no
trace of any written character having ever been used by the
Todas.
Dr. Pope remarks : " This language, of which but a very scanty
fragment remains in use, has more sounds than any other Dravidian
dialect, and some of these are peculiar to it, seeming to have been
modified by the position and habits of the tribe. The Tudas chiefly
converse in the open air, calling to each other from one breezy hill-top
to another. Their speech sounds like old Kanarese spoken in the
teeth of a gale of wind." In concluding iiis analysis of the grammar,
he writes, " on the whole I venture to think (I) That the Tuda is a
language which was once highly inflectional, but having lost most
of its inflections, the people who have evidently degenerated in every
way as the result of isolation, have not replaced them by significant
particles or auxiliaries to the same extent as the other South Indian
tribes; and the language has thus dwindled down to a mere
skeleton. It now barely suffices for the pui'poses of a very barbarous
people. (2) The language seems to have been originally old Kanarese
and not a distinct dialect. The Tudas were probably immigrants from
the Kanarese country, and had dwelt on the Nilagiris for about 800
years. Their language was old Kanarese. A few Tamil forms were
introduced by the Poligars. Intercourse with the Badagas has
probably modernized a few of the forms and introduced some words.
Of Telugu influence I see no trace. It is true that the Tuda for tree
is man, and in Telugu manu, while in Tamil and Kanarese it is mara ;
but the soft r is always avoided by the Tudas who turn vdram into
vom. Nor can I trace any resemblance in Tuda to Malayalam in any
of the points where that dialect diifers from its sisters." '
This view of the Kanarese affinities of the Toda language
appears now to be endorsed by Dr. Caldwell, though he formerly
considered it more nearly connected with Tamil. ^
1 I learn from Dr. Oppert, Professor of Sanskrit, Madras, that in his opinion
the Toda dialect is probably more nearly allied to Telugu than any other Southern
dialect.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 203
PART II.
The Kotas.
Length of residence. — Derivation of name. — Language.— Physical characteris-
tics.— Dress.— Census.— Divisions.— Mode of life. — Habits. — Habitations. —
Religion.— Rites.— Birth.— Marriage. — Death.— Traditions.
Our knowledge of the origin of this people, who may be CHAP. IX,
described as a clan of Helot craftsmen, is most meagre; but PART II.
judging from their language and traditions, there seems ground eth^ogy.
for regarding them as next to the Todas in the length of their —
residence on the Hills. They have a settlement at the foot of 5,e'' "lateau ""
the western slopes near Gudaliir, and, like the Todas, their oldest
village or street is in the western highlands of the Toda land
or ndd.
The name is differently spelt Kotu, Kdter, Kotar, Kohatur Derivation of
and Kotturs. Its derivation is doubtful. The Todas call them "^°^^-
Kuof or cow-men, and, arguing from this word, some connect it
with K6 (Sans.) cow, and hatija, i.e., cow-killing. The first part
of the derivation is probably correct. They are emphatically
men of the coiu, as opposed to the buffalo, the animal of the
Toda. The latter they are never allowed to keep ; the former
they keep, but do not, for superstitious reasons, milk. Mr.
Breaks observes that he has been informed that in Mysore, some
workers in metal are called Kotars and worship Kama, but I can
find nothing in support of this assertion in the Mysore Oazetteer,
though the lists of castes and out-castes given in it seem very
complete.
There can be no question but that like the Todas, this tribe Language,
belongs to the great Dravidian family. Dr. Caldwell speaks of
their language as '' an old and very rude dialect of Kanarese,'' but
it is more like that of the Todas than any other. The chief
difference between the two lies in the deep guttural^ pronunciation
of the Todas, the Kotas' pronunciation being more dental. Their
respective dialects appear to be mutually understood.
Dr. Shortt gives the average height of twenty-five men as 62-61 Physical
inches, the women being considerably shorter, they only average J^^^^'^*^^"^-
57-98. The color of the Kotas is lighter than that of the other
tribes and more inclined to copper. They are, on the whole,
better looking and of a stronger physique than Kiirumbas or
Irulas, having well-formed heads and better-shaped noses. Their
cheek bones are high and prominent, and they have generally an
1 Mr. Metz.
204
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX,
PART II.
Dress, &c.
Census ami
Divisions.
Mode of life.
air of deci.sion. The men wear their hair^ which is black, straight
and longj parted down the middle, either loose or tied in a knot
behind. In the men the forehead is inclined to be prominent. In
the women this defect is more marked, and they are generally-
less good-looking. Their noses are shorter and incline to a
snub, and the chin is short and angular.
The dress of the men consists of the usual coarse unbleached
cloth. The women have a similar one, which is worn over one
shoulder and under the other arm, and forms a kind of petticoat
reaching just below the knees. They are fond of rude ornaments,
bracelets, armlets, and necklaces of seeds and wire. The dress of
the dancers who attend festivals is peculiar. It is a loose ill-made
goivn of calico, with a skirt gathered very full round the waist
and reaching to the ankles. This is ornamented with country
red cloth sown on in patterns, a bright-colored girdle or scarf, and
a handkerchief round the neck. Trousers of colored cotton stuff
and a turban complete the costume. Their national dance
requires six or eight performers, who stand in a row, their
motions being uniform. The effect of these dresses when the
dancers twirl together from one side to the other is most quaint
and laughter- moving. Indeed the main characteristic of the
dance is the way in which their draperies swing to and fro with
the measure.
They recognise no caste among themselves. The only divisions
are of a very indefinite nature, and are called Keris or streets, but
appear to have very little to do with locality, for Mr. Breeks
mentions that " inhabitants belonging to all three Keris " are
found in one Kotagiri.^ They always seek their wives fi'om
another KerL They are distributed as follows : —
\
Tddanad.
Meka-
nad.
Peranga-
nad.
^2?- Total. Male.
Female.
Villages
Inhabitants...
2
420
1
243
2
331
1
118
6 ; ...
1,112 534
578
1
There is another Kotagiri near Gudalur in Wainad, which is
not included because it was not within the district prior to the
annexation.
The Kdtas are the artizans of the Hills, and are necessary to all
the other tribes as their blacksmiths, carpenters, tanners, rope-
makers, umbrella-makers, potters, mu.sicians, and workers in gold
and silver. Consequently, their villages have sprung up in the
1 i.e., Kdta hill. This probably is a Badaga corruption of Kotakeri, or Kota
street.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 205
localities which enabled them to pursue their handicrafts and to CHAP. IX,
find a ready sale for their wares. PART II.
\ Every Badaga village has a number of Muttu Kdtas (said to be Ethnology.
from Midtava, Kanarese, to touch) living in the nearest Kotagiri.
Each Badaga also has a particular individual among the Muttu
Kotas who works for him^ and who is repaid in grain at harvest
time. They work in the same way for the other tribes, who pay
them in the produce they possess. Todas pay them in dead
bufPaloes and ghee, the Kurumbas in grain, and the Irulas in
plantains and grain. They are also well paid for their music,
and often receive \ rupee each for playing at a feast. On their
part they pay the usual tribute in grain, gudu, to the Todas.
It is said that the Todas as well as the other tribes have a Habits.
great contempt for the Kotas on account of their filthy custom
of eating carrion. They ar^ not allowed to enter a Badaga
temple or to join in their annual feast to Hette, to which the
Todas are invited. They once, the story goes, attempted to sell
milk, but the Todas scouted the idea of such unclean people
taking to so sacred a pursuit, and they were obliged to give way.
Strange to say, their disgusting food seems to agree with them,
for they are stronger and of a finer physique than any of the
tribes, except the Todas, and Mr. Metz observes, '^ at no time
do they thrive so well as when there is a murrain among ihe
herds of the Todas and Badagas.''' They justify themselves by
saying that when the three most ancient Hill-tribes, the Todas,
Kurumbas and Kotas were formed by Kamatardya out of three
dro))s of perspiration which fell from his forehead, he commanded
the Todas to live on milk ; the Kurumbas he allowed to eat meat,
such as the flesh of buffaloes, calves, &c. ; the Kotas had liberty to
eat carrion if they could get nothing better. They are also
addicted to drinking and opium-eating.
Their villages are large and generally contain sixty houses or Habitations.
more. Their houses are of mud and thatch, not by any means so
regularly arranged as those of the Badagas, and only saved from an
utterly poor and squalid appearance by the patches of cultivation
which surround them. Though the houses are entirely devoid of
ornament, the pillars of the verandah are sometimes of stone
sculptured by cutters from the low country. In each village one
or two houses are set apart, to which the women retire during
seasons of purification.
^ The Kotas had, it is said, formerly but one deity ^ Kama- Religion,
tardya, but they also worship his wife ; ^ each is represented
by a silver plate. The god is also called Kambata and
Kamata. If Kamata is correct, it is probably the same as
^ Siva. ^ Kahaaumna or Kalikai.
206
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRT DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX,
PART II.
Ethnology.
Rites and
Ceremonies.
—Birth.
-Marriage.
— Fauerals.
Kama, the god of love. It is noteworthy that a town of the
KurumlDas in Tondarmandalam was called Kamakottam, and that
the goddess Parvati was worshipped in the temple there (Winslow) .
If liowever the correct word is Kambata, then the worship may
be the same as the Badaga worship of the " Pillar god.^' And this
view seems to derive support from the story of the new deity,
Magale, (-Ma/<a + Jial,hig stone) represented by an upright stone,
of the establishment of which Mr. Bi'eeks speaks. Their temples
are mere pent-houses of thatch, opea at both ends, and supported
by square stone pillars sculptured after much the same fashion
as the pillars of their verandahs, but on a larger scale. There is
no image of any kind it is said. There are two or more of these
temples in each village.
Of their two great annual festivals one is in honor of Kamata-
raya. It lasts for a fortnight and gives them an opportunity for
decorating themselves in any dresses, ornaments, &c., that they
can borrow and of performing their national dance to the music of
their drums and horns accompanied by singing. Occasionally a
Kota becomes possessed by a god. He yells, dances, rolls aboutj-
aud performs the most frantic gestures until at last he falls down
in a kind of fit. This phase of the worship recalls the demonology
of Southern India. The other feast is in honor of the dead who
have died during the year, and answers in some respects to the
Toda gTeen funeral.
Immediately after the birth of a child, it is removed, with its
mother, to a temporary hut, made of boughs, and called Vollu
giidu, from vollu, inside, gudu, a nest. After thirty days they inhabit
one or two permanent huts set apart for women when they are
considered unclean. When they leave these huts to return home,
after the third mcmth has passed, it is the custom for the women
to take seven steps backwards among seven kinds of thorns. The
Kotas can give no explanation of this ceremony, it is simply
mdmid. On the seventh day, after the return of the mother and
child, a feast is given to all the relatives- The child is fed with
gruel, " congee," and named.
The Kotas marry only one wife, unless she has no children, in
which case a second is permissible, and both women live in the
same house.
It is usual for boys of fifteen or upwards to be betrothed to girls
of six or eight. When the girl becomes of age, she is sent for to
the house of her future father-in-law. A feast is given with
mr;sic and dancing, and the ceremony is concluded by the bride-
groom's mother tying the tdli round the bride's neck. Among
the Kotas the tali is a silver necklace of Kota workmanshiji.
The Kotas seem to have borrowed some of their funeral rites
from the Badagas and some from the Todas. The Tcru or scaf-
MANUAL OF THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT. 207
folding hung with cloth and erected before the house of the CHAP. IX,
deceased is similar to the one used by the Badagas. Under this PART il.
the body is placed on a cot, face upwards, as is the custom among ethnology.
the Badagas and Kdrumbas. It is then removed to a Due or
burning ground and burnt with the implements of the deceased.
The skull-bones are collected next day aiid burned. This answers
to the green funeral ; the dry funeral rites are performed later.
Then one or more skulls are placed on cots and burned with a bow
and arrows and various other implements. The ashes are not
buried.
Their language is a vulgar dialect of Kanarese and helps to Language,
strengthen the notion that the Kotas are a low-caste people of the
plains.
There is a ti'adition among them that they once lived on a Traditions,
mountain in Mysore called Kollemale, after which they named the
first village they built on the Nilagiris. The Todas say that they
were brought from the plains to work for them. It is certain
that the Kotas were dwellers in the Hills long before the Badagas
came there, otherwise one would be inclined to think that as artizans
their services would hardly be required by the Todas, who are
purely a race of herdsmen, whilst the Badagas, as agriculturists, are
daily in need of their handicraft for making and repairing their
ploughs and hoes. This anomaly is more apparent than real. It is
probable that close intercourse with the plains has always existed,
so that the Kotas, though living with the Todas, would have
found a market for their manufactures in the low country,
to which they would naturally have to resort for the purchase of
metal, &c. Meanwhile, their position could secure them from
the oppression to which workers in metal would be sure to be
subjected in troublous times, especially at the hands of the high
caste artizans. 1 This tribe may yet prove very usefulin the develop-
ment of the Hills. They are intelligent and hardworking, and their
monogamous customs seem likely to ensui-e their rapid increase
in numbers.
^ Can the existence of these metal workers on the hills have any connection
with the gold-digging referred to in the following chapter ?
208
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTKICT.
i
CHAP. IX,
PART III.
Ethnology.
Origin and
history.
PART III.
KURUMBAS.
Origin. — Physical characteristics. — Dress. — Census. — Divisions. — Mode of life. —
Dwellings.— Livelihood.— Religion.— Rites — Birth.— Marriage.— Death.— Tradi-
tions.
The Kiirumbas occupy the slopes of the Hills and are undoubt-
edly allied to, or derived from, the same stock as the tribes
scattered about the districts of Malabar, Mysore, and Coimbatore,
of whom several are mentioned by Buchanan. In the low country
they are called Kiirubas or Cilrubaru, and are divided into
numerous families, such as the Ane or Elephant, Naya or Dog-,
Male or Hill Kurumbas. According to Buchanan, there are tw^ ^
great divisions, Handi and Kumbali Kurumbas. He speaks of the
Kad Kurumbas, an exceedingly poor tribe living south of the
Kaveri. As described by him they are not unlike their brethren
of the Hills ; he says " they build miserable low huts, have few
rags for a covering, and the hair of both sexes stands out like a
mop and swarms with vermin. Their persons and features are
weak and unseemly, and their complexion is very dark." The word
Kurumba means a shepherd.^ It seems probable that all the
tribes still extant are remnants of a once powerful people composed
probably of numerous small tribes possessing considerable terri-
tory in Canara,^ Western Mysore and in the great ^ Carnatic
Plain and sprung from a race of nomadic shepherds, one of the
great Dravidian group of tribes who inhabited the Peninsula of
South India before the historic period. In the early centuries of the
Christian era, some tribes acquired a certain amount of civilization
and obtained by conquest possession of some more ancient
kingdoms. Several dynasties of Kadamba Eajas^ reigned at
Banawdsi, once an important city near Onur (Honur) in Sunda.
This city was an important seat of the Jaina sect. This is note-
worthy, as the Kurumbas of the south were in some way mixed ^
up with the Jains.
1 The derivation is doubtful, but it appears to be allied to Kdru (Tamil) short.
The word Kdrumba signifies a village in a desert tract and also wickedness.
The latter is a derivative meaning due to the predatory habits of these people'
The word Kurumha also in old Kanarese, it is said, signifies a sheep (Kurum-
badn, Tamil). But this animal is probably so called from being kept by a
Knrumban or dwarf.
2 A part of Malabar is still called the district of Curnmbara.— Buchanan.
3 There is also a custe in Malayalara condemned to slavery called Catal or
Cnrumbal, and in the plural Catulum or Curumbalum. — Buchanan.
* May not this word be a compound of Katu or Katam (both meaning forest)
and Kftrumba, and perhaps be the same as Kdd-Kvirumba .''
5 Catalogue Rals., Vol. Ill, p. 399.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRE DISTRICT.
209
CHAP. IX,
PART III.
Ethnology.
In one of the Mackenzie MSS. they are spoken of as "a
wild people who cared not for their lives ;" but we are also told
that they were " shejiherds, weavers, lime sellers, traders/' and
that the Kings of Chola and Pandya made war upon them. The
wildness of this people has pi-obably been greatly exaggerated by
the more timid races of the plain country of the south. A people
who built fortresses, who traded by sea and land, who manufactured
goods and cultivated gardens, could not have been wild and
uncivilized, though they may have been fierce and vindictive as
Arab traders now are. This fierceness was their safety. Finally,
the kingdom of the Kurumbas, known as Kiirumba bhumi, with its
twenty-four forts, which seems to have become very extensive,
occupying the track of the Carnatic between the Penuar and
Palar and extending inland as far as the Western Ghats, was
overthrown by Adondai, the illegitimate son of Kulattungi Chola,
and the conquered country went henceforth by the name of
Tondamandalam. Their power probably survived longest in
North Karnata and in the Southern Hills of that ancient country.
It was probably from the dry uplands of Karnata, so well suited
for the pastarag-e of sheep, that like the Mahrattas in modern
times they originally pressed wedge-wise into the dry jungle
tracts of the Carnatic plain, whilst the rich alluvial lands remained
in the possession of the enervated but wealthy races of the coast.
The records which bear upon the subject are very contradictory
and confused and so mixed up with fable that it is almost impossi-
ble to extricate from the tangled mass any intelligible account of
this strange people. Some historians put the date of their conquest
at 700 A.D. Others recognize in them the Rajas of Vijayanagar
and fix it as late as 1500 A.D. This latter theory is impro-
bable, as the southern tribes seem to have lost all traces of
civilization and to have no recollection whatever of their previous
history. It should not, however, be lost sight of that Buchanan
mentions Kuruba horsemen, known as Handi Rasalas, living about
the upper Kistna.
These, however, are but fragmentary notices. But when the
inscriptions at Conjevaram and elsewhere have been deciphered,
some connected history of South India from the times of Asoka
to the fall of Vijayanagar will perhaps be written. In such a
history it may be found that the Kurumbas have played an
important part in South India. At present the attempt to piece
together the scraps of information which are scattered here and
tliere seems to promise little profit. The paleographist must
precede the historian.
i The Kurumbas are small in stature, very uncouth, and wild and Physical
I squalid in appearance. An average of 25 measured by Dr. Shortt ^ ?^»a'"acter.
gives the height of the men as 60-64 inches. He says: —
See Tribes on the Nilaqiris.
-Shortt.
27
210
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. TX,
PART III.
" They have a shortish and spare form of body, with a peculiar
wedge-shaped face and obtuse facial angle, cheeks hollow, with promi-
nent malars or cheek-bones ; slightly-pointed chin ; eyes moderately
large and frequently blood-shot. Color of irides dark brown, the
nose has a deep indentation at the root about If inches in depth,
which is general, and when contrasted with the profile or line with
the ridge of the nose and os froutis, it gives them a very peculiar
expression of feature.
Caste and
Divisions.
" The hair is long and black and is grown matted and straggling,
somewhat wavy, and is sometimes tied into a knot, with a piece of
cord on the crown or back of the head, while the ends are allowed to
be free and floating. They have scarcely any moustache or whiskers
and a straggling scanty beard ; occasionally one is met with full
moustache, whiskers, and beard. They are, as a body, sickly-looking,
pot-bellied, large mouthed, prognathous, with prominent outstanding
teeth and lips ; frequently saliva dribbles away from their mouths.
" The women have much the same physiognomy as the men, only
somewhat softened in expression and slightly modified in feature with
a small pug nose and surly aspect. An average of 12 gives 54-25 as
their height. They are very shy and dislike seeing strangers or
being questioned by them."
The men seldom have any covering except the " linguti ;" some
of the women have only a waist cloth, and others wear a square ^
cloth which reaches from under the arms to the knee. Occasion-
ally, when they can afford it, both men and women adopt the
ordinary dress of natives. The women, too, are fond of ornaments,
and wear necklaces and nose rings, earrings, and bracelets of glass
and iron.
According to the last census they numbered 613.
The following table gives the different castes and divisions and
the localities in which they live : —
'
^ai
i
i
i
^t
1
a
p
13
>
'a
t
<
1
hi
PQ
:§
1
1
^
P
S
1
1
S
<
1
c
i
>
1
29
Eda Kiirumbaa
29
Karniadiya Kurumbas
7
V
Kdruiiibas Proper
41
11
60
23 201
2
1
6
3«
15
2
55
453
Kiirumba Okkibiga
4.
... 1 ...
41
Male Kurumbas
109
... 1 ...
109
Pal Kurumbas
11
... 1 ...
11
Male 330.
Female 283. Total...
613
Called tdndu, lit. a piece.
ii
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 211
These families or blguii ' do not intermarry, and it will be CHAP. IX,
observed that their distinguishing names, Pal, &c., resemble those PART III.
of the plains. Mr. Breeks mentions four tribal divisions, the ethnology.
names of which he learnt from a Kurumba — 1, Botta K. who live
on the northern slopes and in Mysore district ; 2, Kumbali K.
who make blankets and live in the low country; 8, MulluK.
(locality uncertain) ; 4, Handi K. who live on the eastern slopes.
Mr. Metz seems to regard the Nilagii-i Kurumbas as belonging to
the Mullu tribe. In the Bhavani valley there are some Jain^
Kurumbas who live mainly on the sale of the honey which they
collect.
The villages of the Kurumbas are called mottas, probably from Mode of life.
maram, a tree. They consist generally of only four or five huts ^^^^^^'^s^-
made of mud and wattle with thatched roofs. The front of a
house is sometimes whitewashed and ornamented with rude draw-
ings of men and animals in red earth or charcoal.
" They store their grain in large oval baskets and for bottles tbey Livelihood,
use gourds. They clear a patch round about the village aud sow the
ground with ragi (Eleusme coracana), Tenne {Pavicum Bali cum), or
Kiri (Amaranthus trisUs). They dig up roots (called gasi'i) for food
and collect jungle produce, honey, resin, gallnuts, &c., which they
barter with low-country traders, and they are clever in catching game
in nets and dispose of the flesh in a surprisingly short time. They
pay no (]ud%i, to the Todas." ^
Kurumbas occasionally take work on coffee plantations and
some earn a livelihood by officiating as priests to the Badagas.
They are also employed as musicians at wedding feasts and
funerals of the other tribes, where they play on clarionets, drums,
and tambourines, as well as on the huguri.
The Kurumbas make baskets of rattan and milk vessels out <;f
a joint of bamboo, as well as nets ; these last are made of a thread
called oilhatti. Their women do not labor in the fields, but confine
themselves to the limited work of their households, fetching
water, cooking, &c.
The following extract embraces all that can be said of the Religion,
religion of the Kurumbas : —
Some Kurumbas whom I have met with profess, in answer to
inquiries, to worship Siva, and occasionally women mark their fore-
head with the Siva spot. Others, living near Barliar, worship
' Biga means lit. a lock.
^ Jain said to be from honey, but it may refer to the connection of these tribes
with the Jainas.
The tribal divisions of the Kiirimibas are very numerous. In Mysore Mr. Rice
enumerates no fewer than fifteen, who occupy mainly the hills along the south-
western boundary of Mysore. In Hassan alone the Kad and Jain Kurumbas
number 1.819.
' Brekks.
212
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX,
PART III.
Ethnology.
Rites and
Ceremonies.
— Birth and
Marriage.
Kuribattri-aya (lord of many sheep) and the wife of Siva under the
name of Musni. They worship also a rough round stone under the
name of Hiriadeva, setting it up either in a cave or in a circle of
stones like the so-called " Kurumba Kovi^" of the Badagas, which the
latter would seem to have borrowed from the Karumbas ; to this they
make puja, and offer cooked rice at the sowing time. They also pro-
fess to sacrifice to Hiriadeva a goat, which they kill at their own
hf>uses, after sprinkling water, and eat, giving a portion of the flesh
to the pujari- Others say they have no pujari ; among such a scattered
tribe customs probably vary in each motta. They do not consider the
stone as a Iwgam, although they profess to be Saivites They make
no -ptvja at home. They profess some small caste scruple, and will not
eat with any tribe but the Badagas ; but they will accept uncooked
food from Todas, though not from Kotas. — Beeeks.
They are very much dreaded as sorcerers by all the tribes
except the Todas. As these have some pretension to being
workers in the black art too and are probably in a measure behind
the scenes they do not appear to have any fear of their witch-
craft. It is a curious fact that neither Kota^ Irula, or Badaga
will slay a Kurumba until a Toda has struck the first blow; but
so soon as his sanctity has been violated by a blow they hasten
to complete the murderous work which the sacred hand of a Toda
has begun. I am not aware of any attempt ever having been
made on the life of a Toda by either Kurumbas or other hill men.
They probably owe this immunity to their general benevolence.
The Badagas, on the contrai'y, are in such fear of them that one of
their tribe has been known to die of terror merely from meeting
a Kurumba in a lonely place ; nevertheless they recognize their
services on many occasions, for example, to turn the first sod at
the ploughing, to reap the first sheaf at the harvest. They, like
the Pareiyar of the low country, enjoy some privileges which seem
to have come down to them from a time when they were the occu-
pants of the land who had to be propitiated by immigrant tribes.
The following extract from an article in the ''Antiquary" by
Mr. Walhouse, quoted by Dr. Caldwell, forcibly expresses this : —
" It is well known," he writes, " that the servile caste of Southern
India once held far higher positions, and were indeed masters of
the land on the arrival of the Brahminical races. Many curious
vestiges of their ancient power still sui'vive in the shape of certain
privileges, which are jealously cherished, and, their origin being
forgotten, are much misunderstood. These privileges are remarkable
instances of survivals from an extinct order of society — shadows of
a long-departed supremacy, bearing witness to a period when the
present haughty high caste races were suppliants before the ancestors
of degraded classes, whose touch is now regarded as pollution."
They have no ceremony to celebrate the birth of a child, and
their marriages are contracted without any early betrothal or any
MANCTAL OF THE NtLAGIRI TIISTRICT. 213
especial rites. It sometimey happens that after a couple have CHAP. IX,
cohabited for some time they agree to live together for life, and PART ill.
then their friends are iovited to a feast on the occasion. Widows ^^^^ „
JCjTHNOLOGY.
are allowed to marry again.
They burn their dead and, as a rule, take no care to collect the —Funerals,
ashes, but allow them be scattered to the winds. The body is
placed under a car hung with cloth but no ornaments, coins, or
implements are burnt with it. After dancing round the car to the
sound of their weird music, the corpse is burnt and the car with it.
Some few deposit a bone from the pyre in a Sdvumane or death
house — a small cromlech surrounded by upright stones and bearing
some resemblance to the more ancient cromlechs found on the hills,
but these are the Kurumbas who live near Rangas^mi's Peak
and Burliar. These ^ Savumanes they say were made by their
forefathers. They no longer make them. When they can afford
it, they administer a small gold coin called a Birian hanna ^ to
a dying man. This custom also obtains among the Badagas.
Mr. Metz describes their language as a corruption of Kanarese Language,
with some Tamil words intermixed, and asserts that the Kanarese
dialect spoken by them is purer than that of the Badagas. Dr.
Caldwell however speaks of their language as " rude Tamil,''
regarding that of the Badagas as " an ancient but organized
dialect of the Canarese.'' The Mysore Kurumba tribes speak old
Kanarese.
They are said to have no traditions of any kind. But if this is Tradition.
true of the Nilagiri Kurumbas it does not appear to be quite the
case with some of the tribes in Mysore. Their habitual distrust
of strangers probably renders them uncommunicative.
1 Breeks— Tribes, &c.
* Birian-hanna or Viria raya, a gold coin struck in Mysore. Value j rupee.
214 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
PART IV.
Irulas.
Origin. — Language. — Physical characteristics. — Dress. — Census and Divisions. —
Mode of life. — Dwellings. — Religion. — Rites and Ceremonies. — Traditions.
CHAP. IX, The Irulas^ — the men of darkness — belong to a still more
PART IV. primitive race than the Kurumbas^ namely, the Bedas or hunters
Ethnology ^^ ^'^® forests of the peninsula, some of whom, like the Kurumbas,
have attained to civil life and power in Mysore and the tract
Origin. ^£ (,Q^j]^^j.y known as ancient Kdrnata. The Bedas of Mysore,
who belonged in part to Karnata, in part to Telingana, became
soldiers by profession and agriculturists, and to them belong-
most of the Mysore Palegars. The opinion that the Nilagiri
Irulas are allied to these Bedas receives confirmation from the
fact that they, like the Mysore Bedas, are worshippers generally
of Yishnu, a remarkable circumstance considering the almost
universal Sivaism of the aboriginal tribes of South India. This
fact is still more remarkable when it is considered that the wilder
tribes of Kurumbas^ in Mysore diifer but little from the Mysore
Irulas in appearance and mode of life, whilst those of the
Nilagiri s not only personally resemble the Irulas, but inhabit
villages which are known by the same name — motta — alike situated
in the lower slopes, and are occasionally found living in the same
hamlets. The tribes of the plateau, however, do not confound
them, in fact they hardly recognize the Irulas as inhabitants of
the mountain. The identity of the Irulas of Mysore, Kurniil, and
elsewhere receives further confirmation from the fact that both
speak a corrupt dialect of Tamil.
Language. Buchanan, who had but a brief acquaintance with the Nilagiri
Irulas, regarded them as speaking a dialect of Kanarese, and
on this ground came to the conclusion that they were not related
to the Mysore Irulas, although he observes that their customs
and mode of life correspond. Subsequent inquiry has shown their
speech to be not Kanarese but Tamil, but this refers to the Irulas
proper only. I am not aware whether the speech of the Bedas
approaches Tamil or Kanarese ; probably the latter. If this be
so, their civilized condition in the midst of a Kanarese population
might well account for the gradual abandonment of their native
idiom.
Physical They are superior in physique to the Kurumbas, and rather
istica!'^ ^^' better looking. According to Dr. Shortt, an average of twenty-
1 From the Tamil irnl, dark,. bUick.
^ Jain.
MANUAL OF THE NIIAOIRI DISTRICT.
21.
five men gave their height as 61 "78 inches. They are very dark, CHAP. IX,
as the term Irula denotes, and their hair, which is straight and I'ART lY.
seldom very long, is worn by the women parted in front and tied in ethnology.
a knot behind. The men shave their heads and wear the Ktidmui.
The men seldom wear anything but the Hnguti when at home Dress.
in their villages, but when they work on plantations they occa-
sionally adopt the loose cotton cloth worn by the other tribes.
The women wear a square cloth reaching from the waist to the
knees, the upper part of the body being nude. They are fond
of ornaments, and wear ear and nose rings, wire bracelets and
armlets, and strings of beads round their necks.
Dr. Shortt gives two classes of Irulas — the UraN and Knrutali. Censns and
" The TJrali "^ he says, " mean rulers of the country, the Kurutali ^^^'^^'o^^-
the serfs or common people.'' Mr. Breeks distinctly states that
"they have no castes or divisions." By the Census of 1871 the
distribution was as follows : —
"
1
>(D
1
<
1 i
i 1
a
'x,
1
t
1
<D
1
I
1
^0>
S
cd
m
"S
1
^5
Total.
! t
160 105 250
i
30
5
52
6
45
72
24
334
139
99
50
98
1
1,470
Number of males and females are equal.
Near Raagasami's Peak, and scattered about the slopes and Mode of life.
base of the hills to the south and south-east, there are several
mottas} These villages consist of seven or eight huts, generally
built round a square. Patches of ragi and tenne surround them,
in the care of which men and women take an equal share. Near
their villages they have large gardens of plantain and lime trees,
and cultivate the neighbouring ground in the Catucadu fashion,
changing the field every year.^
They attend the market (or shandy) held at Mettapollium every
Saturday, carrying down jungle produce, such as timber, bamboos
and game, &c., to exchange for tobacco, salt, and cloths. A few
mottas are scattered on the northern and western slopes of the
Hills, but their inhabitants lead a harder life from the severity of
the monsoon and their isolated position.
They seldom make any provision for the winter, but subsist on
a crop of grain as long as it lasts, and trust for seed and what
1 Strictly village-men.
^ Derived from maram, a tree.
' Buchanan.
216
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX,
PART IV.
Ethnology.
Dwellings.
Religion.
more they may require to the Badagas, with whom they barter
wood, honey, bees^ wax, and other forest produce.
Their method of preparing their food is thus described in
Captain Harkness^ account of the Nilagiris : —
" Each morning they pluck as much as they think they may
require for the use of that day, kindle a fire upon the nearest large
stone or fragment of rock, and when it is well heated, brush away
the embers and scatter the grain upon it, which, soon becoming
parched and dry, is then readily reduced to meal. This part of
the process over, or as soon as the rock has cooled, the parched giain,
which in the meantime has been partially cleansed of the husk, is,
with the assistance of a smaller stone, rubbed into meal, mixed up
with water, and made into cakes. The stone is heated a S(5Cond
time, and the cakes are put on it to bake ; or, where they have met
with a stone which has a little concavity, they will, after heating it
the second time, fill the hollow with water, and with this, when
warmed, they mix up the meal and form a sort of porridge. In this
way the tvhole of the family, their friends, and neighbours will live
till all the grain has been consumed, and it seems to be considered
among them as superlative meanness to reserve any, either for seed or
future nourishment."
Of late years they have mixed more with civilized tribes, and
some are to be found among the coolies on coffee plantations.
They will only eat with the Badagas.
Their houses are made of split bamboo interwoven like basket-
work and plastered with mud inside, without any attempts at
ornament.
The Irulas have two temples, which have a general interest
apparently for all the tribes, one on Rangasami's Peak dedi-
cated to Vishnu under the name of Rangasami. They are only
circles of rough stones, each enclosing an upright one, with iron
tridents fixed in the ground. They are called dodda and chikka,
the great and the little. The pujari or priest is an Irula, and
he wears the Vishnu mark on his forehead. Although the
Badagas are for the most part Sivaites, they come in large numbers
to these temples once a year about sowing time, and make offer-
ings of plantains, milk, &c., to the god. No animals are
sacrificed. In a cave on the hill there is earth regarded as holy,
which is much valued by worshippers.
There is also a temple at Kallampalla in the Sattiamangalam
Taluq near Devanaikenkota, where an Irula priest officiates, but
this one is dedicated to Siva. In this temple there is a stone
called Mariamma or Mariatha, a form of Dilrga, the goddess of
small-pox. To her they make offerings of goats and cocks. A
sheep is sometimes sacrificed. Irulas make no piija in their
homes, and seem to have very vague ideas even of the Hinduism
they profess. Having paid the pujari two annas for each
village once a year, their coji.sciences are at rest.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTKICT. 217
There is no marriage or birth ceremony. Wlien a boy comes CHAP. IX,
of age he chooses a wife for himself, and there is no previous PART IV.
betrothal. The Irulas bury their dead, and their funeral customs ethnology.
are entirely different to those of the other tribes. Having dug
a grave, they place the body in it in a sitting posture with a lamp ceremonies.
beside it. After dancing round the corpse for some time, they fill
up the grave with earth and place a small upright stone to mark
the spot. Each village or motta has its burial-ground. I can
hear of no other ceremony.
They have no traditions whatever, though they appear to have Traditions,
been made the subject of some fables. Their neighbours below
the ghdts declare that they possess the power of taming tigers,
and that Irula women, when they go into the woods, leave their
children to the care of a tiger. Their familiarity with the habits
of game has probably given rise to these fables.
28
Ethnology.
218 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIKI DISTRICT.
PART V.
The Badagas.
Origin.— Physical characteristics. Dress. — Castes.— Wddeas.— Kongas. — Adhi.
kdris.— Kanakas. — Chittre — Bellis. — Hdruvas.— Minor Castes.— Mode of Life.
—Music and Song.— Character.— Dwellings — Religion.— Temples.— Rites and
Ceremonies. — Traditions. — Language.
CHAP. IX, The Badagas or Northmen are the descendants of Kanarese
PART V. colonists from the Carnatic country known now as North
Coimbatore and South Mysore, which at one time formed an
important part of the ancient Kongu kingdom. It is
^^^^^"" commonly reported that the principal migrations took place
about three hundred years ago on the breaking up of the
Vijayanag-ar Empire ; but there can be no question that Kanarese
colonists must have occupied portions of the plateau long before
this and whilst the Nilagiris appertained rather to ancient
Kdrndta than to Dravida or the land of the Tamils ; in fact the
latter can hardly be said to have gained a footing on the Hills,
except in the case of the Kanakas or accountant class, until
after our occupation. These Kanarese colonists probably
migrated to the Hills when driven from home by famine,
political turmoil, or local oppression. The Lingayat Wodeas were
probably among the more recent immigrants. Among several
facts which indicate the long residence of most of the sections
of the tribe on the plateau, we may mention, (1) that the Badaga
population are almost to a man Sivaites, whilst only two-thirds
belong to this sect in the neighbouring district of Mysore, which
shows that they were but little affected by the conversion of the
Mysore Rdjas to the Vishnuvite faith in 1610 A.D ; (2) the names of
several of the divisions of castes are almost unknown in Mysore,
it being otherwise with the more recent immigrants ; (3) their
language is a dialect of old Kanarese, whilst their kinsmen
below the ghats speak the modern dialect ; (4) the local distribu-
tion of the other tribes, and the absence among them of a tradition
of the advent of the Badagas to the hills ; (5) the respect with
which they are treated by the Todas, whose mode of addressing
them is honorific, indicating the Kanarese ascendancy at the
time of their immigration.
The earliest notice of the Badagas that I have found is in
Buchanan. He writes on 24th October 1800, —
" Honey and wax are gathered by a caste called Bndugar, who
inhabit the hilly country between this (Devanaikcnkota) and the
province of Malabar, and which lies south from Nellcala, or the
MANUAL OF THK NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
219
Ethnology.
Wynaad of Major Rennell. They live in small villages and huts like CHAP. IX,
the Eriligaru, and not only use the Cotu-cadu cultivation already PART V.
described, but have also ploughs. The quantity of honey and wax
which they procure is considerable, and they pay nothing for it, there
being no forest renter in this district."
The word Badaga is Kanarese and is the same as the Tamil
Vadugan ^ or Northman . It is applied not only to the Bada-
gas of the hills who approached them from Mysore and Canara,
but is of far wider significance and older date. By this name
were designated also the " Telugu followers of the Ndyakkas ^
of Madui'a, who spread themselves over the Tamil country
and even made irruptions into South Travancore.^' French
Missionaries seem to have considered the words Telugu and
Badaga as synonymous ; thus confusing the different northern
emigrants under one appellation, as our ancestors called every
Teuton a Dutchman and every stranger a Welchman.
Compared with the other hill tribes, the Badagas are an
Aryanized people, though pi^obably descended from the same
Dra vidian stock. In their religion and manners they bear the
impress of comparatively recent contact with Hindus of the plains ;
whilst the Todas, Kotas and Irulas and even the Kurumbas must
have taken refuge in the fastnesses of the Nilagiris, either before
or soon after the great Aryan invasion of the peninsula. The
superstitious reverence for a race far beneath them in intelli-
gence and civilization which has induced the Badagas to choose
Kurumbas and Irulas for their priests has a parallel in the
relations of the high caste people and the Pareiyas of the plains
and in the privileges claimed by the Bhills, an aboriginal people,
at the coronation of Rdjput princes.
Unlike the other tribes almost every class of the Badagas
has some sort of history of its own, and some even point to
villages below the hills from which they came and where their
relatives still live.^
In appearance the Badagas are very distinct from their Physical
neighbours. They are an active race, of moderate stature, with
the usual Hindu features and prepossessing expression and
light skins. An average of twenty-five measured by Dr. Shortt
gives 66-70 as the height of the men, and 58-47 for that of the
women. They are accustomed to labor from their earliest youth •
boys of from seven to ten years of age being employed to break
stones upon the roads ; whilst the women take an equal share with
the men in working in the fields. This may in part account for
charact.er»
istics.
^ From Vadiigu, north, and avan, he, pronominal suffix.
* See Caldwell's Gh-ammar.
^ See ^Mf.Tz' Tribes of the Xeilgherries.
220
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX,
PART V.
Ethnology.
Dress.
Castes or
divisions
— Wddeas.
tlieir extreme thinness ; one meets with very few who can be
called stout.
The men wear the lincjuti, and both sexes a large unbleached
cloth, which is stiffened to render it water-tight and warm to an
extent which makes it very ungraceful. It is loosely wrapped
round them ; so loosely that as a Badaga works in the fields,
he is obliged to stop between every few strokes of his hoe
to gather up his cloth and throw one end over his shoulder.
They wear turbans of the same cloth with an end hanging
behind. Their ornaments consist of brass, iron, or filagree
silver earrings, necklaces, bracelets, and armlets ; they also wear
nose-rings. The men frequently carry a silver box for opium
or any little treasure they may happen to possess, such as a
charm, a title-deed, or paper. The women are tattooed in rows
of dots about the chest and four marks thus '° on the forehead.
They recognize eighteen different castes or sects ; of the seven
highest each one has a little history of its own. The first, called
the Wodeas, a branch of the reigning family of Mysore, are
proud and aristocratic. They refuse to carry burdens and
disdain to work for Europeans, and in consequence are very
poor. They possess only five villages. The AVodeas will not
eat with the other castes, and consider themselves as Gurus
(priests or rather bishops), for they only perform certain ceremo-
nies. They wear the lingam.
The following extracts from Mr. Eice's Manual of Mysore and
Coorg throw some light on the previous history of the Wodeas.
" Odeyar, Wodeyar,^' or Wadeyar, he says, "is the plural and
honorific form of Odeya, a Kannada word meaning lord, master.
Wilks states that it indicated at the period of which we are
writing (1399-1422) the governor of a small district, generally of
33 villages. Vader, a modification of the word, is the title of
respect by which Jangama (Lingayat) priests are addressed."
The first Raja who took the title was called Vijaya Wodeyar ;
he reigned in 1399-1422. In 1578-1617, however, his descendant
Kdja Wodeyar extended the possessions of his family over all
the south of the present Mysore district and captured several
places towards the north from Yagadesra Rdya. He expelled
the Wodea raja from Oomatur, south-west of Mysore, who fled
to the Nilagiris then probably under his authority. " His rule was
remarkable for the rigor and severity which he exercised towards
the subordinate Wodeyars and his indulgence towards the ryots.
The Wodeyars were generally dispossessed and kept in confine-
ment at the seat of government" (Wilks' Mysore). This Raja
Wodeyar had also abandoned the religion of the Jungum, and had
become a Vishnuvite. Here we seem to have the reason for the
MANUAL OF THE NTLAGIl;! DISTRICT. 221
emigration of the Wddeas to the Hills, presuming that chiefs of CHAP. IX,
the caste were not already iu authority there, and their pride and PART V.
pretensions to the priesthood are both explained. Ethnology.
Second are the Kongas. The Rev. W, Stokes considers them _
to be identical with the Wodea, but Mr. Metz, whose acquaint-
ance with them was even longer, calls them a distinct sect.
He says their ancestors came from Sargur ^ by the Gajalhatti
Pass on the Coimbatore side of the Hills, where they still live, and
they take their name from Kongu, the name by which Coimbatore
is known to the hill tribes. They generally wear the lingam,
but a part of the tribe have lost their caste and the privilege of
wearing it through the weakness of one of their number. A
Konga fell in love with a low caste girl, and to jjlease her tasted
meat which is forbidden to all Lijngayats. Against this, however,
the Kongas can boast that one of the Badaga rdjas of former
days once married a girl of their caste. ^
The Adhikdris are divided into two sets, Lingadhikaris who — Adhikdria.
wear the lingam, and Meatadhikdris, who have come from the
village of Nellitore.
The Kanalcas or accountants are the only class who can read —Kanakas,
and write. They are also physicians and exorcists. They were
probably introduced when the hills were under the sway of
Tamil chiefs, this officer (accountant) being called Shanbhog in
Mysore.
The Chitfre class came to the Hills with the Wodeas, it is said, — Chittre.
in the train of the Raja of Malekota, a ruined fort near the head
of the Segur ghAt.
The Belli or silver class are said to be the most cunning of the —Belli.
Badagas. There is an outcaste of this name in Mysore. The
village of Jackatalla is inhabited by this class, whence the
Badaga proverb, " If you are not very wide-awake, do not go
to Jackatalla," i.e., Wellington.
The Hdruvas are a degenerate class of Brahmans ; they may be — Haruvas.
connected with the Harihara, i.e., the Vishnu- Siva sect, who
combine the worship of these divinities. They still wear the
Brahminical string and officiate as priests at the harvest festivals.
Every second year they profess to perform the miracle of walking
with bare feet over burning coals. The first settlers of this caste
do not appear to have brought any women with them.
These are the seven principal castes. The remaining eleven Minor castes,
are as follows : — The Hatara or marriage caste, the Ancas, who
I: 1 Sargur is not near the Gajalhatti Pass, but north-west of Gnndelpet.
* See Metz' Tribes of the Neil^herries. By Badaga R^jas some Wddea Rija is
|- probably meant.
, This ia now prohibited.
222
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
Ethnology.
— Toreas
— Kurabaras
Mode of life,
Music and
song.
CHAP. IX, live exclusively in the Todanad, the Mari, the Khasiuri, who live
PART V. at Kaity and are also called Gangaluru and whom Mr. Metz
regards as VelMlas, the Dumas, the Gonajas, and the Manika
or gem caste. The origin of this name I have been unable to
trace.
There are two castes of Velldlas scattered in diiferent districts,
as well as the Toreas or lowest class, and the Kumhararu or
potters. These last occupy two villages near Kalhatti, and are
probably the same caste as the Kumbararu of Mysore. They
do not intermarry with other Badagas, which seems to point to
their being late arrivals. It was a Torea ^ chief who sought to
marry the maiden who was rescued by Vijaya, the founder of the
Mysore house.
Their villages form a pleasing contrast to those of the other
tribes, although they are by no means so picturesque as the mands
of the Todas. Their long rows of neatly thatched or tiled houses
stand in the midst of smiling fields of korali and s4mi, and are
surrounded by well-stocked farm yards. They have an air of
thriving industry which is very characteristic ; for the Badagas
are becoming a comparatively wealthy race, thanks to their
industrious habits. As the men constantly leave their villages to
work in the nearest coffee plantations, much of the labor in their
own fields, as well as ordinary household work, is performed by
the women. They are so industrious and their services of such
value to their husbands that a Badaga sometimes pays Eupees
150 or Rupees 200 as dowry for his wife.
They are a gentle, light-hearted race, as any one will testify who
has heard their ringing laughter as they wind their way in Indian
file along any of the numerous paths which intersect the sholas
or climb the hills about Ootacamand. On the afternoon of the
market day especially large parties of them may be seen returning
to their villages laden with fairings, the foremost man in the row
relating some incident in a stentorian voice for the benefit of the
rest, who show their attention by an occasional grunt, as they jog
along, and their appreciation of his wit by a chorus of laughter.
They are fond of music and song ; their tunes are quaint and
original and, when heard from a distance, have an uncultured
sweetness about them in keeping with the soft coloring and wild
beauty of the scenery of the land which is their home. They
have many ballads of great length, which are sung to a monotonous
kind of chant, and are an endless source of amusement, judging
by the eagerness with which a Badaga audience listens to them.
They are divided into stanzas of unequal length, and when a
' break ' occurs, or the performer pauses to take breath, the
1 An account of this caste -will be found in Bichanan.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
223
audience chimes in with a general grunt which has a most ludi- CHAP. IX,
crous effect. The metre of these ballads is generally four feet of FART V.
unequal lengths, varying in almost every line, but ending frequently ethnology.
in a spondee. The following lines are the opening verses of
one of these ballads translated from a German version of the
Badaga by Mr. Metz, who has made a large collection of similar
ballads ; the metre of the original is preserved as nearly as
possible.
Bala Sevana.
Once in the village of Hanniamatinu,
Near t5 the fortress of Kolgga Kambe,
Lived there a youth named Bala Sevana,
Also his brother, B61a-MaJa.
Like were they to one another,
E'en as the spreading horns of a buffalo.
Nineteen men had Bela-Mada,
Nineteen ploughed the land for Sevana.
Once in the field of the gravid slope they
Met by the corner of the sacred seal- stone ;
First to the Circar made they obeisance,
Then they made a salaam to the temple,
Folding their hands to the moon above them.
Deep in the earth they scooped a hollow,
Then they fetched an armful of hillus,'
Played with a golden ball and with a
Bat of silver the game of Hillata.
Lo ! the daughter of Yerugatta,
The twice fallen, Yerade-blui,
Took unto her eighteen maidens.
There stood she upon the green slope,
'Neath the richly laden Khavilu ; ^
There did she unbind her tresses,
Thick were they as the churn-stick, mlattu.
Meanwhile skilful Bdla Sevana
Caught the hillus of Bela-Mada ;
Mada caught not those of Sevana.
Then said Yerugatta's daughter,
The twice fallen, Yerade-blui,
" Has not Bela in Temale,
Li the grazing ground of Mdda,
To the brim milked eighteen pailsful ?
" Then his loins with pure white kerchief
Girt he not and made the butter,
^ Hillus. Pieces of wood, the projectiles in the game.
* A shrab which beai'S edible berries.
and
224
ANUAL Di THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX,
PART V.
Ethnology.
Character.
Made it with coir and churn of Pangni,
Allamadda ^ was the framework ?
" Therefore B^la-Mada's weary,
Tho' his hands have still their cunning :
Widows' sons are three times gifted.
"But had skilful Bala Sevana
To the brim milked eighteen pailsful,
" He forsooth had been too weary,
He had never caught the hillus ;
Poorly fed is Bala Sevana,
Drinking washings of the milk-pail.
Art thou rich like Bela-Mada ? "
Thus spake mocking Yerade-blui.
Prone fell B61a 'mid the I'ushes.
Bala Sevana too, exhausted,
Fell among the Hubbe bushes.
See his face is dull and faded,
Which anon shone like a platter, —
Fatal word of Yerade-blui,
Word of dark and evil omen.
So the some time loving brothers, —
Like were they to one another
E'en as the spreading horns of a buffalo, —
Part for aye from that same moment.
oees-Jl
The ballad, which is very lengthy, goes on to relao the,
adventures of Bala Sevana, how he labored twelve years fo
his wife, became very rich, performed heroic deeds, and eventually
was appoinrted the chief Monegar of the Hills, receiving the
seal of office from the cutcherry at Satiamangalam.
The morality of the Badagas is neither better nor worse than
might be expected from a naturally gentle and industrious but
timid and ignorant people. Their regard for truth is of the
slightest, and a clever piece of cheating is sure to excite their
warmest admiration. In the funeral song which has been translated
by Mr. Gover, one of the crimes enumerated for which a e-
ment must be made, is that of " preferring a complaint to the
Sircar,'^ and one of their numerous proverbs embodies the aame
idea : ''If you prefer a complaint to a magistrate, it is as ii you
had put poison into your adversary's food."
Either the terrors of the Sircar are not what they were, or this
precept is much disregai'ded, for the Court-house at Ootacamand
is constantly thronged with Badagas, and they are now very
much given to litigation.
' Wnod of a jungle tree.
i
MANUAL OK THE NILAGIRT PISTRICT. 225
There is nothing very remarkable about their dwellings. CHAP. IX,
They are ordinary cottages or huts built of stones or mud, with PART V.
a substantial roof of thatch, which is gradually giving place to ethnoTogy.
tiles as the people become more wealthy. There are lofts over
each house, and the back eaves are sometimes closed in so as to ^^^^^^^^gs-
form an additional room. There is generally a verandah with
a pial in the front of the house, and a terrace for thrashing and
winnowing grain; whitewash is a good deal used, and of late years
their houses have been much improved. They are built in lines
.with occasionally an intervening street. They contain but
little furniture : a rice-pounder, a few brass salvers, and a mortar
made in the floor being all the necessary additions to a Badaga
dwelling.
The Badagas are Hindus of the Siva sect, but their form of the Religion,
worship of Siva has lost much of its purity since their settlement
in the Hills and intercourse with the more savage tribes about
them. A small number belong to the sect called Lingayats, of
whose origin in Mysore Mr. Rice gives the following account : ^
" About 1160, little more than 40 years after the establishment of the
Vaishnava faith in Mysore by Ramanuja Chari, arose the well known
sect of Siva- worshippers called Lingayats, chiefly composed of the
Kanada and Telugu-speaking races.
" ^dsava, the founder of the sect, whose name literally means bull,
and 3 in fact regarded as the incarnation of Nandi, the bull
of Si. His political career has been sketched in connection with the
history of the Kalachuryas. He was the son of an Aradhya Brahman,
a native of Bagwadi in Belgaum. According to the legends, he
refused to wear the Brahmanical thread because its investiture
required the adoration of the sun, and repaired to Kalyana, the capital
of Biggala, where he became, as elsewhere related, the prime minister,
and where he founded the new sect.
" Its distinctive mark was the wearing on the person of Sbjungama
lingam or portable linga. It is a small black stone, about the size of
an acorn, and is enshrined in a silver box of peculiar shape, which is
worn suspended from the neck or tied round the arm.
"Basava rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmans,
togfather with the observances of caste, pilgrimage and penance.
.■ '■' * « * « *
" The Lingayat faith soon spread through the north-west of Mysore,
and, according to tradition, within 60 years of Basava's death, or
1108 — 1228, it was embraced from Ulovi near Goa to Sholapore, and
fropa Ballehalli in Balehonnur to Sivaganga. It was the state
religion of the Wodeyars of Mysore from 1399 to 1610."
' See Rice's Manual of Mysore and Coorg.
39
22G
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX,
PART V.
Ethnology.
Temples.
The Lingayat priests from Gundelpetta pay a pastoral visit
to the Badagas of the hills every two or three years, for which
they receive a present of a cow or an ox.
There are some hundreds of deities in the Hills, some of their
shrines being merely ruins of cromlechs or houses, but the
following are the principal shrines and idols : — The list is from
Mr. Metz.
Knl-Kamharaya, or the stone pillar god.
Koriaraya, a rusty knife preserved in the village of Jacka-
neri, and supposed to have belonged to a man who committed
suicide by leaping from St. Catherine's Fall.
Kariabettaraya, a silver figure representing a charitable
Badaga of the AdhikAri caste, now deceased.
Hiriadeva and Hette, a Badaga and his wife. The latter com- _
mitted suicide when her husbaud died, and both are worshipped.
Other Badaga women emulating the example of Hette have
received the same honors, notably one called Manikamma.
Mdhddesivara, an image of Siva copied from the one at Nanjana-
gudi, called Nanjanda.
Rama, or Rangasdmi, is worshipped at only two places; at
Rangasami's Peak, where the officiating priest is an Irula, and at
Hiilikal Drug, there the priest is a Badaga and wears the Vishnu
mark.
Yernasdmi, a refractory chief from Coimbatore, who took
refuge in the Nilagiris and was betrayed by the Badagas and
cursed them for their treachery.
Jedeasdmiy a god said to have appeared to a Lingayat. He
is supposed to make the hair gi-ow.
Ketaraya, a gold nose-ring, a god worshipped by the Toreas.
Betasdmi, a god of sport.
Oangamma, who presides at every stream. The T6das also
TVorship this deity.
Kahkaraya, the god of vomiting, who is frequently fro])itiated
by an offering of a quarter rupee.
Virahhataraya, a granite image well carved and supposed to
have been brought by the ancestors of the Badagas from Mysore.
The principal temples are the Hette Kovil in the Peranganad,
two dedicated to the Mdhdlingaadvii at Ten ad in the Peranga-
nid, and at Melur in the Mekanad, Jedeasami's temple at
Nidunk.uum in the Peranganad, Hiriasdmi temples, one at
Kuddanad in the Todanad and the one at Melur.
There are also three others dedicated to gods not included in
the above list, one to Kariabettaraya at Athiyarhatti in the
Mekanad, oneto BarigandthaSit Kurrachawadi in the Mekandd, and
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 227
one to KaffaJcal Mariavimen, probably the small-pox goddess, at CHAP. IX,
Shdlilr in the Todanad. part v.
As far as I can learn, no special ceremonies are usual on the ethnology.
birth of a child among' the Badag-as. In this they seem to „. ■ 7
resemble ordinary Hindus. Their marriages, too, are contracted Ceremonies.
without any especial rites. The looseness of the marriage tie
among them may in part account for this. A time of probation
is permitted after marriage, during which either husband or wife
may change their minds. It is not unusual for a Badaga to form
a temporary alliance with two or more young women, sending them
back to their parents when he is tired of them, or even turning
them out of doors before he settles down in earnest with a wife for
life. A little feasting and the music of the Kotas is all the
display that most of the castes indulge in. The Wodeas and
Toreas alone employ a priest to perform some marriage ceremonies
and make offerings to the gods. They also erect a rustic pandal,
hung with garlands, under which the bride and the bridegroom
take their seat, while the women sing songs and betel-nut is
handed round. Feasting and dancing to the music of the Kotas
concludes the marriage rites.
Their funerals ai'e far more elaborate. Their forms begin
before life is extinct and continue for several days. When a man
or a woman is pronounced hopelessly ill, a small gold coin, worth
quarter rupee and called a Birian hanna, is dipped in ghee and
placed between his lips. If he can swallow it all the better ; if not,
it is tied to his arm, for it is intended to go with him on his long
journey to pay his expenses until he has crossed the bridge of
thread which leads to the next world. 'When the end has come,
messengers are sent in all directions to summon the friends of the
deceased, to call from the villages far and near the Kota musicians,
and to bring in wood and branches from the neighbouring sholas.
A funeral car, a tower-like structure, is made close to the house of
the deceased and hung with cloth. When it is ready the body is
brought out on a cot and placed under it.
Strangely enough, the Kotas are employed as at a Tdda funeral
in making bows and arrows which are laid on the bier, though a
long time must have elapsed since the Badagas have possessed,
much less used, any weapon of war or of the chase. The hoe and
other tools of the deceased are also placed beside him, with his
walking stick and flute. In the case of a woman, a rice-beater is
substituted as being a more fitting emblem of her duties when alive,
although she has generally a claim to the agricultural implements
as well. On the following morning, when a large number of people
have assembled, the death dance begins. It continues until
sim-set, growing wilder and wilder as the day draws towards its
close. The near relations of the dead do not join in it, but walk
228
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. IX, round the bier, carrying food in their hands and weeping whilst
PART V. they enumerate the good qualities of their relative. After this
Ethnology, the corpse is carried outside the village and then begins the
strange ceremony which the Todas seem to have copied, and
which 80 vividly recalls the scape-goat of the Jews. Instead of
a goatj a calf is chosen to bear the sins of the dead. A long Htany
is chanted and as each sin is mentioned, the people join in the
refrain, shouting " It is a sin ! "
Traditions.
Language.
He killed the crawling snake."
Chorus — '
The creeping lizard slew."
It
Chorus — " It is a sin."
When the last sentence with its response " Let all his sins be
forgiven, and may it be well with him, yea all be well/^ has died
away, earth is thrown on the body, and it is cari'ied away to be
burnt with the car on the banks of the nearest stream. The
ashes are afterwards collected and thrown into the water. It is
customary with the Badagas to give occasional feasts in honor of
all the dead who have died during the eight or ten previous
years.
Although some of the castes can point to the villages in
Mysore from whence they came, and can tell some stories of the
ill-usage which they received from Tippu's troops and the
followers of neighbouring chiefs, they know but little about their
ancestors in a more remote degree. According to Mr. Metz,
scraps of their history are to be found interwoven in the
lengthy ballads which they delight to recite, and it is much to be
regretted that that laborious and patient observer of the habits of
the hill people has not given to the public the large collection of
their poetry which he has already translated into German.
Dr. Caldwell thinks that their language approaches most
nearly to old Kanarese.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIKI DISTRICT. 229
CHAPTER X.
ANTIQUITIES.
Varieties of Monuments, by -whom described — Caves. — Cairns, position, contents,
size, probable age. — Barrows, size, contents, compared with European tumuli. —
KisTVAENS, size, contents. — Stone Circles. — Azarams. — Cromlechs or Dolmens,
groups, contents, origin. — Ruined Villages. — Forts.
The antiquities of the Nilagiris, although numerous^ do not CHAP. x.
possess any great variety, neither do they differ materially from antiquities,
similar remains to be found in almost every hill range in Southern
India. ^
They consist of caves, cairns, barrows, kistvaens, cromlechs Varieties of
or dolmens, and stone circles, and also of sculptured stones, ™°^'^"^^" ^•
one inscription and some scratches on the rocks at Belliki, which
are most probably written characters too, but which have not
as yet been deciphered, and some ruins of forts and villages.
These may be roughly classed, for the sake of convenience,
under three heads, each representing approximately the relics
of a different period, though it is by no means intended to
lay down any strict rule, and it is possible that one class may
overlap the other more than at first appears.
To the first and earliest ^ would seem to belong the only two
caves as yet discovered possessing any remarkable features in the
Hills.
To the second, the cairns, barrows, kistvaens, unsculptured
cromlechs and stone circles, which seem to correspond with the
tumuli and rude stone monuments that have been described in the
Kistna, Salem, and other districts.
To the third, the sculptured cromlechs, or at least the sculptures
found upon them, and the Tamil inscription at M^llir, the ruins
of villages,^ and the ruined forts.
* No antiquities exist on the Pnlni Hills in Madura. See Mr. Nelson's Manual,
Part V, Chap. VIII,
* " It cannot be too strongly insisted upon, or too often repeated, that stone
architectm-e in India commences with the age of Asoka (B.C. 250). Not only have
we as yet discovered no remains whatever of stone buildings anterior to his
««ign, but all the earliest caves either in Behar or in the Western Ghats show
architecture in the first stage of transition from wood to stone." — Fergusson,
Tree and Serpent Worship.
' As mentioned in a former chapter, some of these rains may be very much
more ancient than others.
230 MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. X. Of the earliest forms of religion no traces exist, and if the
ANxiocTTiEs I^sisyus and Takshas, the worshippers of trees and sei-pents,^
ever inhabited these hills, they have left behind them no traces
of their religion,
—by whom The Subject of the antiquities of this district was first syste-
escn e . matically taken up about the year 1847, when Captain, afterwards
Colonel, Congreve published a valuable paper in the Madras
Journal of Literature and Science (Vol. 14, No. 32) pointing
out the similarity of the Nilagiri tumuli to Druidical remains
of the Cel to- Scythians in different parts of Europe, and arguing
from this the Celto- Scythian origin of the Todas, whose work he
believed them to be. Subsequent investigations and a broader and
more scientific acquaintance with the subject has confirmed this
view in so far as the Scythian or Turanian ^ origin of the cairn
builders is concerned, but whether the Todas of the present day
are the descendants of the people who built the cairns still
remains an open question. Various writers followed in Colonel
Congreve's steps, and finally the late Mr. Breeks, Commissioner
of the Nilagiris, by order of the Madras Government, drew up an
elaborate report, after having opened a large number of the
cairns and barrows and made a collection of their contents.^
Caves. The following account of the caves of Belliki is from Colonel
Congreve's paper : —
" Although possessing none of the features of interest belonging
to the cave temples of the west of India, they are nevertheless worthy
of observation.
" Formed by rocks projecting from the mountain side, the two caves
are the work of nature, though the hand of man has incT*eased their
dimensions. The first * * * [f^ about 30 paces broad,
12 deep, and 20 feet high at the entrance, the roof sloping downwards
inside until it reaches the floor- Several smaller caverns branch
from the outer caves, most of which are now filled up by loose
stones and tninks of trees — the performance, I conjecture, of the Ko rum-
bas, who use this as a place of sacrifice and poojah. * * *
The roof and facade of the caves present the remains of old paintings
of armed men, men on horseback, animals, and demons so inidely
executed as to render it as likely they are the work of the Korumbas
as of a raoi^e accomplished people.
*****
" To I'each the second cave it is necessary to proceed in the first
instance to Arrawaddy, two miles below Conagherry, and procure the
^ No ancient serpent stones, though common in Mysore, have, as far as 1 know^
been found in the Nilagiris.
- "No Semite and no Aryan ever built a tomb that could last a century or was
worthy to remain so long. " — Fergusson's History of Architecture, Vol. I, page 51,
1865.
3 This collection is still in the Commissioner's Office. Ootacamaud., bui is about
to be distributed between the Calcutta and Madras Museums.
MANUAL OF THE NtLAQIRI DISTRICT. 231
services of Korumbar guides, the route being intricate and embarrassed CHAP. X.
with grass and jungle. * * On reaching the cave I proceeded . ~~ .„
to measure, and found its depth 13 yards, its breadth 6, and the
height of its entrance 40 feet, the roof sloping downwards until it
meets the inner walls 5 feet high. The rock in which this cave is
situated is perforated with several passages intersecting each other
and connecting the interior of the cave with the flat surface above it.
I explored the passage, but found nothing except an old iron ring.
The sides of the large cave were marked with outline intaglio figures,
and what perhaps were once inscriptions are now so defaced as almost
to defy an attempt to copy them. I however contrived to transfer
the more legible to paper.' On the left sides of the cave are the
following intaglio cuttings in the rudest style.
" A human figure having the head of a bird with its waist encircled
by the fold of a snake seemingly expanding and raising its seven heads
behind the figure. In front of this human figui'e is a symbol having
some resemblance to one of the Buddhist symbols mentioned by Colonel
Sykes. The seven-hooded snake is frequently seen accompanying
images and drawings of Buddha. To the proper left of the figure
is, what I take to be, another Buddha or Jain symbol of a gridiron
form with a handle above it. To the right of the large figure and
snake is the rude effigy of a human being from whose head rises
a long shaft surmounted by a chuckrum or lotus. There is a Buddhist
symbol not unlike these. The same figure which seems to be balancing
the chuckrum has a broom in its hand, which it will be recollected is one
of the symbols of officers of Jain priests who use it to sweep insects
out of their way for fear of treading upon them. In front of the
figure of the Jain priest is a tree. Below this a figure kneeling, and
apparently intended to be placed in a square niche. * * * At
the bottom of the left hand side wall of the cave are some characters
not unlike the old Pali. Near the floor, on the right side of the
entrance, are some other characters.
" Returning from the cave I copied the rock inscriptions in the
Belliki valley. There are three."
Colonel Congreve thought that one was old Kanarese, another
old Malayalum, and the third the old Sanscrit of the third century
before the Christian era ; but it is difficult to understand the
grounds on which he hazarded this assertion. Doctor Oppert, the
Sanscrit Professor in the Madras University, who was kind enough
to examine for me both Colonel Congreve^s drawings and the
photographs in Mr. Breeks' book, has given it as his opinion that
the scratches are characters, but so rudely executed that he could
not identify them with those of any particular language.
In using the words cairns, cromlech, &c., I shall, to avoid Cairns,
confusion, adopt the definition of them given by Mr. Breeks.
» Photographs of the intaglios and scratches will be found in Bbeeks' Tribes
aind Monuments of the ^tlagiris.
2:32
MANUAL OF THE XILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. X. By the term cairn, is understood a circular enclosure, formed
ANxiqi^TiEs. either of single stones, a wall, or a heap of stones and earth. ^
These are very numerous. Mr. Breeks mentions having opened
forty, and a considerable number had been opened previously ^
and their contents removed. Many are still unexplored. They are
of different forms and exhibit more or less care in their construc-
tion— some being surrounded by a wall of uncemented stones so
built as to give them the appearance of a draw well ; others
DRAW WELL CAIRN
COWGREVE.
are less carefully built, or only heaped up on the outside and lined
with slabs, until they dwindle down to a mere circle of stones
embedded in the earth.
CAIRN.
1 Phin ia the T6da name. Badagas call them Hokkallu or navel-stonea,
' Colonel Congfreve opened forty-six.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
233
Cairns are most numerous in the thickly populated portions of CHAP. X.
the hills and are met with but rarely in the Kundas. Antiquitiks
They occupy almost invariably commanding positions on hills, _ ""
and the principal stone slabs within the circles lie most fre-
quently south-west by north-east. Sometimes rather more to the
north and south, but never in a contrary direction.
The following articles had been discovered. Generally some —contents.
burnt bones, and in some cases pieces of skulls and jaw bones
which are still whole. Pottery, varying from vessels made of very
coarse clay, like the common chatty, to very fine pottery
containing specks of mica and well glazed. The shapes of these
vessels are very varied. Some of the lids are ornamented with
figures of men and animals. There are pots having lids with
birds, pigs, deer, dogs, elephants, horses, buflaloes, and trees, and
CINERARY URNS
I one or two figures of men and women — some of the men on
horse-back. One lid has a pillar or tower on it. Nearly all the
implements found are of iron and present a curious similarity to
those found in PJuropean tumuli. They include knives of various
kinds, swords, razors, scythes, bells, and chains, also a few bronze
vessels, some of them beautiful in shape and workmanship,
and some gold ornaments — no silver.
30
234
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. X. There are some long beads of agate, bored through longitudi-
AntioiJ7ties ii^% '> ^^^'^ beads of cornelian and of gum.
A SWORD
SPEAR HEAD FOUND m GAIRNS
Mxlhouse
The absence of silver in the cairns may be an indication of their
antiquity, gold having been much less common than silver as far
back at least as the eleventh century. One Roman coin— an
Aureus — has been found.
LIOSofURHS
CONOREVE
The diameter usually varies from 20 to 28 feet, but there are
some small cairns measuring only 9 or 10 feet. Most of the pots —
cinerary urns — and implements are found within a few feet of the
surface, either beneath stone slabs or resting on other slabs or
a close pavement sunk a few feet down. The earth between the
two layers of stones in which the pots are tightly packed is a
black finely pulverized soil resembling decomposed animal matter.
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 235
I Large quantities of broken pots are frequently found embedded CHAP. x.
i^'^ ^ Antiquities.
Of the age of the cairns it is difficult to form an opinion. That
I the most modern are from three to four centuries old is almost — P'"'^'^"'*
1 _ age.
proved by the fact that the Badagas know nothing about them,
whilst the enormous girth of some of the trees which have grown
up within them, filling the interior of the circles with their roots,
bears witness to an undisturbed possession of the locality for
even a longer period. On the other hand the contents of the
cairns do not point to any very remote antiquity. The weapons
I are mostly of iron, many of them such as are in use in the present
1 1 day, and the few bronze vessels which have been found are always
ij found with iron ones. This, as need hardly be explained, is
I { significant, as it at once fixes the era to which these antiquities
\ I belong, though the actual date of the iron age in India may very
likely differ materially from that of the iron age in Europe, the
use of iron having been much earlier known in Asia.
The barrows ^ differ from the cairns chiefly in being surrounded Barrows.
by a ditch which is sometimes enclosed in one or more circles of
loose single stones. The centre consists of a mound, which
appears to have been like the cairns, almost invariably a place of
interment for the ashes of the dead, if not the spot where crema-
tion actually took place. They are very numerous, generally
occurring near cairns or in similar elevated localities.
^
?-
s^'^^
BARROW.
Co7iqreve
The diameter, measuring across the outer circle of stones or to
the outer slope of the ditch when this forms the extreme edge of
the barrow varies from 20 to above 60 feet.
The contents are very similar to those of the cairns, leaving no
doubt whatever of the sepulchral nature of these tumuli. The bones
are most frequently found in small bronze vessels enclosed in an
Badaga Ponguli or gold pit.
236
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. X.
Antiquities.
earthenware chatty or pot. The swords, daggers, spear-heads,
and sickles are identical and do not belong to another era in art. .
The same may be said of the pottery, which is very plentiful.
Mr. Breeks sums up thus :—
"The general features of the cairns and barrows vary very little.
Above and beneath the slabs, which in a great majority of cases lie
north-east and south-west exactly as if they had been placed by
compass, and round the circle near the surface, lie the rough pots,
large deep narrow vessels, pointed at the bottom so that they cannot
stand upright, with rough figures of men and animals on the lid, and
empty or containing only earth, as far as their almost invariably broken
state allows one to judge. The number of these is surprising.
Baskets full of heads and horns of buffaloes and other figures may be
carried away from some cairns ; but in most cases they lie so near the
surface penetrated by the roots of trees and bushes that nothing can
be recovered. Below at depths varying from one to four feet are the
cinerary urns, superior in quality and make.
There does not seem to be any rule as to the arrangement of the
interments. Sometimes the bones are at the bottom of the urn, some-
times in a bronze vase contained in it, sometimes under the inverted
bronze. Often the bronze is not in or near the urn. Some of the
urns do not contain bones but only implements and ornaments,
and some only earth. Sometimes the number of interments corre-
sponds with that of the slabs, but this does not occur often enough
to prove design." ^
^S:-^-
BELL IVIETAL VESSELS
— compartd
with Euro-
peau tumuli.
In outward appearance the cairns and ban*ows of the Nilagiris
differ very slightly from those in Europe ; and their contents, as
has been said before, exhibit even a more striking similarity.
Each of the articles in the following list is found in the cairns
of both countries.
' No very large urns, measnring as much as 4 feet in diameter, such as are
found in Tinnevelly, have ever been found in the Nilagixia.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
237
Taken out of the Nilagiri cairus by Mr, Breaks :
Spearheads.
Knives.
Sickles.
Cornelian beads.
Pottery (vaiyiug in quality from
very coarse to fine), small vessels
containing a colorless fluid.
Miniature pots and weapons.
Lamps or censers.
Charcoal.
Burut bones.
Ashes and decomposed animal matter.
Shi-eda of silk. (Woollen cloth is found
in Europe.)
Gold ornaments.
Pavements on which the buried articles
rest.
Bells.
CHAP. X.
ANTIQL-ITIIl?'
Eepresentations of the buffalo, horse, sheep, and deer are very
common. Colonel Congreve writes : " When comparing the
barrows of the Nilagiris with those in Dorsetshire I omitted
to mention that in one of those ancient Celtic cemeteries was
found a young bullock's head enclosed in a 'patera of earthen-
ware.''
The bright red glazing and the zigzag and harrow-headed
mouldings of some of the urns are common to both.
IRON iMPLEMENT C0NOR&VE.
Next in order — because they, too, have probably been used as Kistvaen.-?.
tombs — are the Kistvaens. There is less danger of confusion as
regards this term, for in every variety — and there are several —
the hist or chest distinguishes them. The name, however, has
sometimes been erroneously given to free-standing dolmens or
cromlechs. The hist is almost invariably formed of large stone
slabs so placed as to enclose a square space or vault, but the
aperture varies from a round hole pierced in one side to a large
space formed by the absence of one of the slabs. Those in the
Nilagiris are of the first kind, the upper edge of the kist being
level with the surface of the ground. They are surrounded by
a circle of single stones. As far as is at present known, they
238
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. X. exist in only one locality, on the slopes near Kotagiri — close to
Antiquities.
the site of the ruined fort of Udiardya.
KISTVAEN-CONGREVE
—size. Mr. Breeks found them all much alike. The size of the chest
was about 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, and the round
aperture varied from 12 to 15 inches in diameter. They had all
been opened, but the earth within the kist was mixed with
—contents, charcoal, whilst that outside appeared to be the natural soil. A
broken dagger and some fragments of pottery are all the "Jinds"
recorded. These were not in the kist but beside it. One of
the Kistvaens described by Mr. Boswell in the Kistna District
exactly corresponds with these, the pottery being in ** an adjacent
chamber," not in the kist. In the plains Kistvaens are said to
exist side by side with cromlechs, and to be undoubtedly tombs.
In the Nilagiris, although they appear to have no connection
with the cromlechs, there is every reason to suppose that they,
too, were used as sepulchres.
Stone circles. It is almost impossible to distinguish these, in the few cases in
which they exist apart from cairns, from modern Toda Azarams.
Mr. Breeks thinks that only one isolated ancient circle has been
identified near the Paikare Tirieri-mand, but that there are
circles in two places, which are perhaps neither kraals nor cairns.
Of these he remarks : —
"They consist of two or thi-ee groups of circles of dry walling, to
the right of the Segnr road, opposite Muttanad mand. One of these
first dug out appears to be the kraal referred to in the story of Koten.
It is built on sheet rock, in some places quite bare, in others covered
only by a thin coating of tm-f and vegetable soil. Near this were
several circles joined together, some large and some small. In one of
the latter, about half a foot below the surface, were five small stones,
about 12 X6x 6 inches laid in this form. Nothing was found within
or below the stones."
The whole hill-side was covered with azdrams, indicating that
it was an ancient burial ground.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 239
A number of old Azarams had been opened. They contain CHAP. x.
exactly what an acquaintance with Toda customs of the present .
A.NTI0UITIK3
day would lead one to expect. The only difference being that it
seems formerly to have been the custom to bury bracelets and -A^z^rams.
other valuables with the ashes, instead of withdrawing them when
the burning has taken place as is now done.
These old Azdrams supply one link in the chain which should
connect the cairns with the modern ones, but many links are still
missing, and it is impossible to assign the cairns and barrows to
the Todas on existing data, though they perhaps have a better
claim to them than either of the other Hill tribes. Against this
is to be set the fact that the Todas do not generally claim them,
and that they look on calmly at their spoliation, though they never
seem to rifle them themselves.^
These terms are applied to monuments something like Kist- Cromlechs or
vaens, but above ground. They are formed of stone slabs enclosing l^olmens.
a chamber, but open at one side, or in some cases only of two
upright slabs with another resting tablewise upon them. They
generally occur in groups in low-lying, secluded spots, and do not
appear to have any connection with the cairns and barrows,
although those with unsculptured stones may belong to the same
period. The sculptured ones are probably more modern. In
many respects they recall Buddhist reliquaries, ^ though the
carvings resemble those of the Lingayats in Mysore, and the
subjects are almost identical with some which are found in similar
monuments in that kingdom. It is quite possible, however, that
the carvings were executed long after the cromlechs were built.
The principal groups are as follow : —
(1.) Sholur. The cromlechs here have carvings on the side —groups,
stones which, though rough in execution, deserve to be
fully described if only for the sake of comparison with
those described by Mr. Eice in his Manual of Coorg
and Mysore. The slabs are divided into compartments
by a raised line which forms a kind of frame to each
picture, and is on a level with the figures in bas-relief.
In the upper compartment of one stone, the central
figure is a Basava, or sacred bull of Siva, kneeling
before a kind of altar on which is a rude representation
of a lingam. Behind the bull is a human figure,
probably meant for the piijdri. The rest of the stone
is divided into compartments containing figures of men.
• The Todas are moreover said to lay claim to some of the cairns. See
Breaks.
The Buddhist reform altered the funeral tumulus into a relic shrine,
modifying this, as it did most of the Turanian forms of utterance, from a literal to
a somewhat more spiritual form of expression, but leaving the meaning the
Bame."— Feegusson's History of Arch., p. 51.
240 MANUAL OF THE NtLAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. X. They are armed with spears and bows and arrows, and
ANxTuiTiEa ^^^ figure is on horse-back. The women on the second
stone are naked above the waist^ and their hair is
dressed in a knob on one side.
(2.) Mehir. On one of the stones in this group at the back
is the only inscription of any importance on the
Hills. A description of it by Sir Walter Elliot will be
found in Mr. Breeks' book. He regards the subject as
a virgal {vira-hal or hero-stone) and a Mastilikal
{Mnha 8ati hal, great Sati stone). It represents the
death of a hero who was killed by a tiger, and whose
wives performed sati. The inscription which is in
modern Tamil has been deciphered by Dr. Pope as well
as the broken condition of the stones would admit.
He says : " It reads thus : — ' In the Vegudanya of the month
Sittirai (April-May) in the Aswini Nak shetra the 42nd cycle of
the Sakayear 1518 (the character which I suppose to be 5 is 1^
which as a numeral is unknown) for a gift .... for a
tiger this writing.' Dr. Pope seems to think, it is a grant ;
and he adds : " Saka 1518, i.e., A.D. 1596, is late enough for the
Badagas, but they do not seem to know anything of the crom-
lechs, and were or professed to be ignorant even of the second
group which was hidden among some bushes. ''
The Badagas, however, do reverence some of the hira kaJlu, and
offer fruit and flowers before them. This may only be because
the '' subjects have generally some reference to the worship of
Siva. They oddly enough never claim these stones, but say
sometimes that the unsculptured cromlechs were the work of their
ancestors."
The other groups of cromlechs are as follow : —
(3.) Group at Meliir. Only one of these sculptured, the
subject being a double sati.
(4.) A single sculptured cromlech at Jakata Kambe. Here
the Badagas perform an annual sacrifice.
(5.) A very fine group of cromlechs at Achenua. Some are
built into the village kraal and used as pens for
calves.
(6.) Group at H'laiuru between Kotagiri and Kodandd.
The sculptures represent a hunting memorial.
(7.) Group at Kakusi.
(8.) Group of sculptured cromlechs on Major Sweet's planta-
tion near Kdt^ri.
(9.) One large cromlech sculptured and some small unsculp-
tured ones at Melkunda.
MANUAL OP THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT. 24l
Two groups have been entirely destroyed, one a *^ five-celled " CHAP. x.
dolmen in the direction of Htilikal Drug-, which has fortunately p^^^^Z^j^y
been described by Mr. Walhouse ^ and another near the Kundas.
FIVE-GELLED DOLMEN
former^ £^^isiiri^ 72mt JVids JAtand' JVcla^iris
As a rule, the cromlechs yield nothing but dHa hotia l-allvs, -contents
but from those in Major Sweet's plantation some iron and brass
; armlets were taken by Mr. Breeks, as well as sickles, rings, two
I small iron hatchet-heads, and a common rough chatty or earthen-
I ware pot. No bones or charcoal have been found, and it is difficult
to suppose that the cromlechs were ever intended to be used as
sepulchres.
In a work o£ this description it would be out of place to put -origin.
forward theories concerning the origin of these remains; indeed a
very meagre account of what exists is all that can be attempted.
It should, however, be borne in mind that the Todas have been
known to claim some of the cairns, though it is impossible to recon-
cile their utter apathy when these monuments are disturbed and
desecrated with any genuine regard or veneration for them.
According to Mr. Metz,the few Todas who have '* maintained that
the cairns were the work of their ancestors '' were men who had
been examined by Europeans, and who had soon detected what
information was desired, regulating their replies accordingly.
On the other hand, their present mode of burning and burial in
5tone circles (azarams) as well as the conical shape of the Boas
[temples) seem to connect them with these remains, which are
^'learly the work of a Turanian people.
; As regards the third class of monuments, none of the present Sculptured
nhabitants of the Hills are capable of executing sculptures of even cromlechs.
o elementary a degree of art as those on the cromlechs. The
Indian Antiquary.
31
242 MANUAL OF THE NtLAGIRI DISTRICT,
CHAP. X. Kotas alone possess the necessary tools, and they never use them
AntiqtTties. ^°^' ^^^^^ purpose but employ sculptors from the lower countr}'- to
decorate their houses. The present customs of the Kurumbas and
Irulas seem to point to the use of such structures as depositories
of either smooth water- worn stones, to which they attach a super-
stitious reverence, or for stones which are placed in sacred spots in
memory of the dead. No distinct traces of Buddhism are apparent
in the meagre religion of either race, but if, as seems probable,
they occupied the low country for centuries before they sought
shelter in the Hills, they must, whether their status was as impor-
tant as has been thought or not, have been more or less affected
by that which was the paramount religion of the peninsula from
B.C. 500 to A.D. 1000. Colonel Congreve thought that he saw
in the monuments of the Nilagiris very clear traces of the Jain
religion, but he was evidently led away by the word Pandya,
whichhe tookto refer to the Pandy an kings of theSouth,and whose
dominion he thought was at one time established over the Hills.
Be this as it may, it is now generally admitted that the word
is used in a general sense, and has no especial reference either to
the kings of Pandya or to the Pandava brothers, except in so
far as the latter take the place of the giants and fairies of other
countries, for " to them all over India ancient mysterious struc-
tures are ascribed.^^^ However, it is possible that in the burial
customs alone of the Kurumbas and Irulas some traces remain
of a religion which has all but died out among them. In
Travancore a tribe still exists who make miniature cromlechs
and place a stone in them in memory of each person who
dies. This is held sacred and offerings made to it. That the wild
and illiterate people of the Hills can tell nothing of the history
of these monuments is not to be wondered at when the vague
and unsatisfactory replies that are often elicited from compara-
tively learned Brahmins are remembered. It is no uncommon
thing to be told by such that temples which cannot have been
erected before our era are many thousands of years old, and such
lapses of time as ten or twenty centuries are counted but as a spau
in their loose way of computing time. The Badaga name for the
Kistvaens, Mdunjaru Mane or Mauryars' houses, may give some
clue to their origin. It looks at least as if they connected them
with the dynasty of Magada, though it does not follow
that they were erected by the subjects of that kingdom or
even by their descendants, though both are possible. It is well
^ See Caldwell's Comparative Grammar of the Dravi^ian Languages, p. 59-1-,
Appendix. " To call anything " a work of the Pandava" is equivalent to term-
ing it " Cyclopiaii" in Greece, " a work of the Picts " in Scotland, or " a work of
Ninirod " in Asiatic Turkey ; and it means only that the structure to which the
name is applied was erected in some remote age, by a people of whom nothing
is now known."
MANUAL OF THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT, 2i3
known that Asoka caused topes and monuments to be erected far CHAP. x.
beyond the actual limits of his kingdom and there ai'e also some . "
grounds for connecting the present Kurumbas of the Hills with
the Kadamba Rdjas whose suzerainty succeeded his in South India
and who spread themselves over a large portion of the peninsula
some centuries later. But the name may have been learned in
Mysore^ and merely applied by the Badagas to similar structures
which they found when they came to the Hills.
Of these ruins there is veiy little to be said. They are met Ruined
with not unfrequently on the plateau, but are not remarkable in ^^ ^^^^'
any way. There is nothing to distinguish them from the ruins
of modern huts, either as to size or as regards the quality of the
masonry. Their age is mainly apparent by the overgrowth of
shrubs and trees which frequently conceal them almost entirely.
Those on the largest scale are at Fairlawns a few miles from
Ootacamand, and Colonel Congreve was induced by the position
of some of the walls and by the amount of ground they cover,
to suggest that they might indicate the site of an ancient
Capital. To me it seems more probable that this was once a
%allage of gold diggers from the Waindd, for in this and other
offshoots of Nanjanad valley ^ may be seen mounds of earth along
the banks of the streams where the soil has been washed for gold,
lyitis possible at one time that this part of the plateau yielded
I gold and as it lay within the Kongu or Coimbatore country,
; gold-seekers from the north and west would have to stand upon
the defensive. This would account for the remains of a strong
fort under shelter of which the village may have sprung up,^
and may throw light on the remarkable fact of the existence
on the Hills — which, for ages perhaps before the advent of the
Badagas, were mere buffalo-walks — of an outcaste race of workers
in gold and other metals, the Kotas.
Besides the ruins at Fairlawns which have not been clearly Forts,
identified, three forts originally existed, two of which are
still in a fair state of preservation. The one best known is
situated on summit of the Hulikal Drug and commands the
Coonoor ghdt and the low country about Coimbatore. It is said
to have been used by Tippu during his wars with the English as
a stronghold for his prisoners, and among the stories of his cruelties
is one which charges him with hurling some of them from the
top when he found it expedient to get rid of them. But these
stories are probably pure fictions.
' One of these is the valley behind Bishopsdown and Fernhill, the Tdda name
of which is Piinthut, or gold-thnt (?}, pat, village. Mr. Broiigh- Smyth, the emi-
nent Australian Mining Engineer, who recently examined the Fairlawns Valley,
expressed a firm opinion that it contained ancient gold workings.
^ See Madras Journal of Literature and Science, No. 32, 1847, p. 97- Article on
" Antiquities of the Neilgherries '' by Colonel Congreve.
244 MANUAL OF THE KILAGIRI DISTEICT.
CHAP. X. The second fort is in the T6dan£d near the Segur Pass and is
ANTi'^TiEs. called Mdlekota or old fort.
• The site of the third, called Udiaraya, is near Kotagiri, but
although the position is known no ruins remain.
There is a tradition in the Hills that these three forts were once
occupied by three Rajas who ruled over the whole of the
Nilagiris, and that they were only strengthened by Haider Ali and
used in his wars and subsequently in those of his son.
In the Kongu-desa Rajakal ^ mention is made of a Nilagiri
durga which was taken by Hari-vari-deva, a king of the Chola
kingdom, but it is impossible to say if this really applies to one
of the forts already mentioned.
As the architectural remains are closely connected with those of
the neighbouring Districts of Coimbatore, I append a memorandum
regarding them by Mr. William Fraser, District Engineer, Coimba-
tore, (1859). Madras Journal of Literature and Science, May 1860.
Memorandum on the interesting memorials of antiguity in the
Coimhatore District ^
The memorials of antiquity in the Coimhatore District, although
numerous, are not striking. The very ancient memorials consist of,
BO far as I have seen,
I. Cromlechs,
II. Sepulchral tumuli,
III- Pillar stones,
IV- Stone circles.
The memorials of more modern times are —
I- Temples,
II. Forts,
III- Palaces,
lY- Rock inscriptions,
V. Manuscripts.
2. As I am unacquainted with Indian antiquities, I have
designated these remains by the names given to similar objects
in other countries. These names are probably correct, for no one
who is acquainted with Celtic antiquities can fail to be struck with
the similarity between them and the ancient remains scattered over
this district.
Cromlechs.
3. Some of the cromlechs I have seen in this district are similar
to those found in Ireland : three or more stones placed upright, and
over them a large flat stone placed so as to form a small rudo chamber.
» Madras Lit. Journal, No. 32, 1847.
- Mr. Fraser's remarks on stone circles are confined to those on the Nilagiris
and contain nothing of importance. The remarks on the other memorials, rock
iaacriptions excepted, are also not note-worthy. — Ed.
MANUAL OP THE nIlAQIRI DISTRICT. 245
I do not allude to the numerous small buildings of this type, formed ClIAJ'. X.
with dressed stones, and generally having one or two figures of Hindu ^^
deities carved upon them, but to those of a much ruder description,
foi'med with unhewn stone, and without any carving or inscriptions.
4. In one respect these cromlechs differ from those in the British
Islands.
The latter arc ruder in construction : the upright stones are often
without any particular form, as if they intended merely to support the
top stone.
The number of suppoi'ts too, varies greatly, sometimes only three,
sometimes six ; and thus the chamber is variable and rude in form.
The cromlechs in this district are, on the contrary, formed with
carefully selected flat stones placed on edge, so as to form a chamber
nearly square and nearly completely enclosed.
The covering stones have not so decided a slope as have those of the
cromlechs of the British Isles.
5. Of unmistakable cromlechs, I have seen not more than six.
Four of these are in the valleys of the Baw4ni and Moyar Rivers ;
and two in the valley of the Noyel River or the Bolamampatti Valley :
one of the latter is close to the road from Coimbatore to Dambrapale-
yam and about five or six miles from Coimbatore.
These two are remarkable for having, in a stone forming one side of
the chamber, an oval shaped hole about 10 or 12 inches in diameter.
6. Major Hamilton when he visited the higher ranges of the
Anamalais discovered a cromlech precisely similar to those in the
Bolamampatti Valley.
i It is on the east side of, and about 400 yards from, the Tora Kddavu
j River, about three or four miles south of Ponachi.
' I did not see this cromlech, but having seen Major Hamilton's sketch
and heard his description, I have no doubt but that it is a real crom-
lech.
Sepulchral Tumuli.
7- These are found in every part of this district — in the cultivated
plains — in the lands that have been irrigated for hundreds of years —
around the base of the Anamalais — in the deep gorges at the foot
of the Nilgiris— -and in the now untrodden unhealthy jungles in the
valleys of the Bawani and Moyar, I have found these sepulchral tumuli,
svith their kistvaens, cinerary urns, and the other characteristics
tvhich distinguish the tumuli that are scattered over Northern and
Western Europe.
, 8. These tumuli are not generally found isolated or singly here
|ind there. In some places 10 or 12 acres are covered with them ; and
j.hese burial places are so close to each other that it is impossible to
•esist the belief that the whole of the country must, at one time, have
jeen thickly peopled : it is scarcely possible that these could be the
■esults of the occasional visits of a nomadic race.
9. By far the finest specimens of these remains, that I have seen,
re in the valley of the Moydr.
24G MANUAL OF THE XlLAGlEI DISTRICT.
CHAP. X. Generally, tbe tnmuli are not much raised above the surface of the
AxTior" IE ^^^^ ' ^^^^S ^he Mojar many of them are raised eight or nine feet and
each tumulus is surrounded by a stone circle.
10. In some places there is one tumuli much larger than the rest,
and surrounded by a larger circle of larger stones, fiat, placed on edge,
and standing about three feet above the ground.
11. In every instance there is a large flat stone upon the top of the
tumulus ; in a very few cases I have seen two within one circle ; and
I presume each covered a kistvaen, as was the case in all (perhaps
100) that I have seen open.
Some of the covering stones contained 150 to 200 cubic feet.
12. The kistvaens in these tumuli are precisely similar to those
found in Europe : from four to five feet in length and two to three in
width ; thus evidently intended for the reception either of cinerary
remains, or of bodies in a sitting posture : a mode of burial still observed
by Lingadharis and others. The dimensions given above are those
that generally prevail ; but I have seen some much larger : there is a
very large one in a rice field near Coimbatore close to the new road
to the Railway Station : they are all, so far as I have seen, placed east
and west.
13. I opened one of the tumuli in the valley of the Moydr, it
contained the usual cinerary urns of baked clay, with portions of
calcined and uncalcined human bones — I have been told that pieces of
metal have been found in some but I never saw any.
14. Very many cinerary urns have been collected by the Railway
Engineers, as their works laid open hundreds of tumuli. The Collector
of this district, too, had and still has a considerable number.
They ai-e of various shapes, and in size they vary from two or three
feet to four or five inches in diameter : some are rudely ornamented,
usually by wavy parallel lines ; but none that I have seen are in this
respect equal to those in European collections : I once thought I had
discovered a black glazed one, but, on closer inspection, I found that
the polished surface had been produced by friction.
15. Of the origin of these tumuli the same tradition is found iu
every part of the district. That they are the houses of a race of
Pigmies called Pandura, who, having angered the gods, were punished
by fire i-ained upon them from heaven : that they sought protection in
their houses and pulled these huge stones over them.
16. The people have no veneration for these remains, not even the
Erulars and Kurambers, who inhabit the jungles around the hills and
who are so like the descendants of aborigines. The only feeling they
have about them is fear, that the spirits of the Pandiiras might visit
them if they interfered with their graves.
Pillar Stones.
17. In a country where boundaries are still marked with pillar
stones, it may naturally be expected that this class of memorial would
ANTiqriTiES.
MANUAL OP THE NlLAGIRl DISTRICT. 247
be numerous ; such is the case in Coimbatore— pillar stones, marking CUAP. X.
boundaries, are found everywhere.
Most of them are dressed stones : some are inscribed, and many have
carvings of Hindu figures upon them.
18. Occasionally other pillar stones are met with, which seem to
have been raised to commemorate some gallant deed in the destruction
of tigers, as they are carved with representations of struggles between
these animals and human beings. There are many of these thi'ough-
out the district.
19. I found one half of an inscribed pillar stone a short time ago in
an irrigation channel near the base of the Anamalais. So far as we could
make out the inscription, from the one half that was present, it was to
the effect that a large tract of juugle had been granted to some person
by a raja who reserved to himself certain privileges ; this inscription
is evidently very old. I have directed search to be made for the other
half.
20. All these pillar stones are, however, comparatively modern,
and have yet to exist for a few centuries before they become what is
generally understood by the name. They are evidently of a date long
posterior to that of the cromlechs and tumuli. I have, however, met
with pillar stones which I consider coeval with those monuments of
antiquity — rude, unhewn stones having an unmistakable family like-
ness to the Leagans of Ireland, the hoar stones of Scotland, and the
hoar stones of England.
21. In a thick jungle in the valley of the Kodangiri, a tributary of
the Bawani, there are two or three of these stones at a place called
Kutirai Kuttu' Palam, and there is a good specimen about nine or ten
feet in height in the valley of the Bawdni near the village of Sunda-
patti.
22. In the valley of the Moyar near a place called Mangadu there
are two.
Rock Inscriptions.
48. I have met with but one, near Anamalai : it is cut in a flat
rock, which, up to the time of my seeing it, had been used by the
villagers to beat out grain upon.
49. It is in old Tamil, and to the effect that a certain quantity
of land had been granted for the support of the Anamalai Temple,
and pronouncing anathemas against any one who should deprive the
temple of those lands- The temple was demolished by Tippu, who
I suppose by appropriating the lands earned the anathema in full.
By beating grain upon it a portion of the inscription has been
destroyed.
I directed a low wall to be built around it.
' The " Kattu " here does not refer to building — but to tying. The
Erulars who live near, say it is named from a tradition, handed down by their
1 fathers, that a small band of predatory horsemen who were skulking in this
valley tied their horses to these stones.
In an adjoining valley called Kalkattu Palam, there are about 20 sepulchral
tumuli.
248
MANUAL OP THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAPTER XL
EARLY HISTORY.
CHAP. XL
Early
History.
Sketch of the
history of
peninsular
India. —
Early race
movements.
Sketch of the history of peninsular India. — Early race movements.— Early
religions of the peninsula. — Relation of early hill-tribes to race movements.—
Divisions of South India.— Kongu or Chera.— Chdlas.— Kadamba dynasty.—
Hoysala Bellala.—Vijayanagar.— Mysore.— Fall of Seringapatam.— Malaydlam,
— Early Portuguese Missionaries.
Although tlie Nilagiris, prior to our occupation, have no history,
that is, no written record of the changes in the varying peoples
who have found a refuge on their heights from the turmoils of
the open lands below, or of their doings, yet, from their peculiar
geographical position, they possess an interest for the historian
when considered in relation to the movements and development
of the principal races of the south. The Nilagiri mountain-block
stands forth, not only as a divider of winds and waters, but also
as a divider of races and peoples, or, viewed in another way, as
a pillar marking their point of contact, just as it marks the point
of union of the great mountain systems of peninsular India.
Around its base, from the earliest ages, contending tribes and
nations have struggled, the men of the north with the men of the
south, and each and both of these with the people of the west,
whilst in its wild recesses remnants of savage races have found a
place of shelter and a home. To its south is the high road from
the east to the west coast, the great Palghat Pass through which
the Dravidians^ pushed their way into Malabar ; to its north the
Gajalhatti Pass, through which the same people pressed upwards
into the table-lands of Mysore ; to its west Karkur and other
passes, through which the Malayalams penetrated into Wainad.
But the tide of conquest was ever rising and falling, and down-
wards from Mysore or upwards from Malabar marched the
avengers of these conquests.
Though small the area of the Nilagiris, yet it has probably at one
and the same time been divided between the three great historic
races of the south— the Tamulians, the Malaydlams, and the
Kanarese— and consequently its history combines in a measure
that of Coimbatore, Malabar and Mysore, whose inhabitants
Thoy also entered, perhaps later, from the extreme south by Cape Comoriu.
MANUAL OF THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT. 249
consist for the most part of these races; nor can the tale be satis- CHAP. XI.
factorily told until the historical material of each of these ^
provinces has been fully recorded and analysed. That of Histoby.
Mysore has hitherto engrossed the greater share of attention;
that of Coimbatore and of Malabar has not as yet been pieced
together.
In the two preceding chapters I have endeavored briefly to
narrate the most important known facts regarding the tribes
residing on the Nilagiris and the existing monuments thereon.
From these data three important conclusions may, perhaps, be
derived : firstly, that these hills were once occupied by a race,
the builders of the cairns and barrows, who spread themselves
more completely over their surface than any of the existing
tribes, but whether their occupation was prior to, or contempo-
raneous with, that of one or more of the extant tribes, or whether
they were or were not Dra vidians, is uncertain ; secondly, that at
least one race exists, the Todas, who migrated thither without
being subjected in any way to Brahmanical religious influences,
but whether they are of the same stock as the rest of the Dravidian
races of the peninsula cannot be said to be absolutely proven,
though it is highly probable ; and lastly, that the race which has
exercised the longest and most powerful influence on the Nila-
giris, and which first tilled the soil extensively, is the Kanarese.
At the dawn of Indian history we find the greater portion of
India, south of the Vindya mountains and of the Nerbadda river,
occupied by races who probably spoke dialects of one language
— Dravidian — whilst to the east and west in Orissa and North
Konkan the inhabitants already spoke dialects of the tongue of
their Aryan conquerors. Among these Dravidian races there
probably was at least one race difiering in religion and possibly in
language from the aborigines, known as the Ndgas,^ said to be a
Scythian people who worshipped the serpent and took it for their
national emblem. These Dravidian ^ races are now represented
by the Tamils, the Telugus, the Malaydlams, and the Tulu and
Kodugu-speaking peoples, and by the more or less uncivilized
races whose idioms are known as Toda, Kota, Grond, Kliond, Or^on,
and Rajmahal, who occupy mainly the highlands of the Deklian.
These hill people are all regarded as Dra vidians as opposed to Kola-
rians, — the generic appellation of tribes speaking dialects allied to
the language of the Kols, — in great measure by reason of the
proved Dravidian nature of their speech and the absence of any
I • The Yd-vanas appeared in the south much later. See the delightful account
of these strangers in Dr. Hunter's Orissa, Vol. I, Chapter V.
* See Dr. Caldwell's ijrammar of Dravidian Languages in Introduction.
32
250 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
UAP. XI. traces of another language ; and if unity of language were the only
Early *®^^ °^ identity of race and origin^ then the wilder races are very
History, properly placed in the same family of men as their more civilized
neighbours who use a cognate language ; but whether the evidence
drawn from the religion, manners, customs, and physical peculiari-
ties of some of these tribes bears out fully this assumption is by
some still regarded as an open question, though we find no certain
traces of an older and essentially diverse people ; for with wholly
Bavage peoples it is conceivable that a race might disappear
without leaving a trace of its language in the speech of its sup-
planters, or adopt that of its conquerors, losing every trace of its
original tongue.
These wilder Dravidian races appear, as the curtain of history
rises, to be occupying the highlands and mountains of the
Dekhan, especially its western and southern borders and the upper
tracts of the Goddvari and Kistna rivers. " At any rate it
appears probable from the classical Geography,^' remarks Pro-
fessor Wilson,^ " as well as the imperfect character and general
tenor of the traditions regarding this part of the peninsula, that
a considerable tract of country between the Goddvari and Kistna
rivers fi'om the sea coast eastwards continued, to a comparatively
modern date, in the possession of scattered and barbarous tribes,
or an untenanted expanse of mountain and forest, such as it was
when Rama, with his wife and brother, resided in a cottage of
leaves near the sources of the Godavari.^^ But although fierce
and wild tribes occupied these forests and jungles, yet in the
richer valleys of the great rivers and on the plains near the coast
were people, dwelling in towns, far more advanced in civilization
and the arts, who were engaged in commerce, the highway of
which was the Arabian Sea or the Bay of Bengal ; but there are
no ruins to evidence to what degree of civilization they had
attained. Meanwhile we find the Aryans pushing down along
the east and west coast, their course along the sea-board being
comparatively easy, and finally forcing their way from central
Hindostan in a direct line southwards through the Dekhan.
But the resistance of the tribes in possession appears to have
been so determined that, although at last the power and
civilization of the Aryans obtained a permanent footing in the
more fertile and open portions of the Dekhan, and gradually
extended to the most southern portions of the Peninsula and
even to Ceylon, yet they were compelled to adopt the language
of the people, and probably, in the first instance, much of
their religion and many of their customs. The Aryan invaders
1 Descn2)tive Catalogue, Vol. I, p. xcix.
MANUAL OP THE NILAaiRI DISTRICT. 251
were probably led by Kshatriya chiefs, though it may be their chap, xi
advent had been preceded by that of some holy rishi or sage, who e ^ k7y
sought seclusion in the forests of the south or escape from the Histuky.
religious dissensions of his native country. To these pale-faced '
j immigrants the wild and black tribes of the country appeared
I monstrous and horrible. Hence with romantic exaggeration they
have been handed down to us as giants (Asuras)/ monkeys
I (Vanaras), and demons (Rakshasas). Indian legend and poetry
! are full of the conflicts, with varying fortune, between the incomers
and the people of the soil, and again between these settlers and
still later comers, who were often inspired by the reforming zeal of
the Brahmans. For as the warlike Kshatriyas prevailed over the
i aborigines, so they in their turn yielded to the power of these religi-
j ous enthusiasts ; but gradually they brought the Kshatriya chiefs
I and the leaders of the aboriginal races under their power and,
! whilst leaving to such the headship of their people, succeeded in
giving to prince and subject alike their civilization, such as it was,
; but along with it imposing the yoke of Brahmanical law and
! religion, whilst those who would not bow before the invader,
I whether Kshatriya or Brahman, became outcastes, or if they
i preserved their independence it was in isolation and retirement.
A remarkable instance of such independence occurs in the case
of the Coorgs, who, aided by the physical peculiarities of their
j country, not only repelled for long ages the invasion of armies.
but also the subtle inroads of the Brahmans, who up to this day
have never been able to found a colony in Coorg. Here and
there chiefs of the wilder Dravidian races who had succumbed
to the invaders, as for example the Kurumbas, rose again to
power, but this they obtained, or at least retained only in so far
as they sought the aid of the church of the immigrant Aryan
sacerdotalists and brought their people under its influence. At
times probably the Brahmans made use of such converts to
overthrow the hated Kshatriyas, and along with them their
Buddhist or Jaina rivals.
What was the religion of the peninsula prior to the arrival of Early reli.
the Aryans from the north there is little to show, but it was pro- penlLtil^^
, bably rude and similar to those still prevailing among aboriginal
tribes who have come but little into contact with these immi-
grants, viz., veneration for the Lingam, the emblem of life and
power ; reverence for household and village divinities ; and also
among some tribes respect for the serpent. This serpent worship
was especially prevalent in Mysore; "there is scarcely a village
t ■
f 'This name still lingers in wild hill tribes, Malsir's Lords of the Hills; in
liiMalabar, Buchanan's Journey, Vol. II, p. 6.
252
MANUAL OF THE nIlAOIRI DISTRICT,
Early
History.
CHAP. XI. in that State in which there are not effigies of the serpent carved
in stone, erected on a raised platform near the entrance for the
adoration of the public. ^^ ^ The same is the case in Coimbatore ;
but the Nilagiris, as already stated, possess no such stones, though
representations of the serpent are occasionally met with among
those of other animals on the pottery in the cairns. The conclu-
sion therefore seems to be, either that the Hills were not yet
occupied when the Nagas possessed the neighbouring countries ;
for had this been the case it is probable that these enterprising
serpent worshippers would have brought the dwellers thereon
under their power, or that the people of a country where the
serpent^s bite is not death cared not to take measures to
propitiate this reptile. The sustainer of life, the buffalo, never
lacked reverencers.
The story of Rdma — the scene of some of whose exploits was in
Mysore, and in whose history even the Todas, as before mentioned,
claim a place, asserting that they were the palanquin-bearers ^
of the giant Rdvana and were expelled from Lanka, — would
seem to indicate that the early religions of the peninsula, such
as they were, were not formulated or organized. Rama meets
in his march no walled cities, no temples, no priests. His
enemies are monkeys and serpents, demons and giants, birds
and beasts of prey.^ His aim is to rescue the holy ascetics,
of whom Agastiya is the chief, from such enemies. As an
evidence, however, that at this mythic period either the sub-
jacent country was not thickly peopled, or that missionaries
had not obtained a footing therein, the Nilagiris and also the
neighbouring hills, so far as my information goes, possess no sacred
hill bearing testimony, like the Agastiyamale in Tinnevelly, to the
devotion and piety of some saint. The spread of the Aryan cults
seems to have been very gradual, but that of Brahmanism was
especially slow in many parts of the peninsula ; and although the
Aryanised inhabitants of the richer and more accessible parts of
the country along the Malabar and Coromandel coasts — the
revolution in the former preceding that in the latter tract — were
gradually Brahmanised about the beginning of the Christian era,
the extension of this system to the Carnatic country was probably
much later ; in fact there is no certain proof that Brahmanism was
ever established there until the overthrow of Buddhism in the
tenth century and the missionary enterprise of Sankya Acharya.
' Mijsore Gazetteer, Vol. I, p. 363.
2 The tradition is remarkable as existing among a tribe of herdsmen, -who
would not be likely to invent it. It existed amongst the Tddas when Europeans
first visited the Hills.
' Wilson'h Descriptive Catalogue, Vol. I, Introduction.
MANUAL OF THE NIlAQIRI DISTRICT.
253
Early
History.
Wtether or not Buddhism, and simultaneously or subsequently CHAP. XI.
Jainism/ had made much progress in the south peninsula prior to
tlie introduction of Brahmanism is doubtful ; but if the intro-
duction of Brahmanism is placed about the Christian era, it pro-
bably succeeded these religions in some parts at least of the
peninsula, and certainly in the Dekhan ; for we know that Bud-
dhism had been extending its domain rapidly iu the fifth and fourth
centuries B.C., and that in the eighteenth year of Asoka's reign
(B.C. 245) Buddhist missionaries were sent to Mdhishamanda-
lara (perhaps Mysore) and to "Waniwdsi or Bdnawdsi, the capital
of the Kadamba dynasty, on the river Varada, north of Mysore.
- The home of Buddhism and of Jainism in the south was probably
Mysore and K4rn4ta generally, but undoubtedly Buddhism 2 and
still more certainly Jainism spread over the tracts further south.
i Buddhism probably lingered in Mysore until the tenth or eleventh
century, whilst Jainism is not yet extinct.^ The Jain faith was
very prevalent in Mysore, increasing in power as Buddhism
declined, becoming predominant in the early centuries of the
Christian era. Its power fell with the conversion of Vishnu
i Varddhana, the Hoysala Bellala king, in the twelfth century.
I *' The rock inscription at Sravana Belgola/ which describes the
' migration of a body of Jains from Ujjayani under the leadership of
Badra Bahu in about the fourth century B.C., seems to record the period
of their first introduction into Mysore. Of the history of their settle-
ment in this country little is known, but the oldest authentic inscrip-
tions^ of the south show them to have long held an influential
position in the early centuries of the Christian era, and all the earliest
Hterature is Jain. Three Chera kings of Kongu in the first and second
centuries had a Jain guru, and Jains were gurus to the same line of
kings down to the fifth century. A Jain named Akalanka confuted
the Buddhists at the court of Hemasitala in Kanchi in ?88, and a
century later, Amogha Varsha, king of Kanchi, had as his guru
Jinasenacharya, reputed as the author of the chief Jain puranas. The
state of Humcha, Shimoga District, founded in the seventh or eighth
' The Jains are distinguished from the Buddhists by the rejection of the doc-
trine of Nirvdna and by the worship of saints, or Thirthankaras ; but, like Bud-
dhists, they are divided into monks and laymen. Some of these Jain monks went
3tark naked. The moral code of the Jains is expressed in five maha-vratas or
great duties — refraining from injury to life, truth, honesty, chastity, and freedom
Trom worldly desire. There are four dharmas or merits — liberality, gentleness,
piety, and penance ; and three sorts of restraints — government of the tongue, of
the mind, and of the person.
- See Cunningham's Ancient Geography, Southern India. Hnen Thsang did not
i'isit the Mysore country or mention it, but proceeded north-west from Conjeveram
.io Konkanapura, probably Anegundi on the Tungabadra, opposite to the site of
' There are still 13,000 Jains in the province.
* In Hassan, Mysore. Here is the gigantic image of Gomatesvara.
* Mercara Platea— iTidtan Antiquities, I, 363.
254 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRT DISTRICT.
CHAP. XI. century was Jain and so continued till the eleventh. The K'alachnrya
kings of the twelfth century were Jains, and the Hoysala Bellala kings
History, ^o Vishnu Varddhana belonged to the same faith. The conversion of
this monarch to the Vaishnava faith in 1117, and the establishment of
the Lingayet form of Siva faith at Kalyana about 1160, put an end to
Jain predominance in Mysore as a state religion, though the Vijayanagar
kings extended a partial favor to it, especially in Kanara and the west."
Ml/sore Gazetteer, Vol. 1, page 371.
How near the Jain cult approached the Nilagiris is evidenced by
the fact that one of the seats of Jainism was Maleyur near Grundel-
pet on the road from the Nilagiris to Mysore^ and was the birth-
place of Akalanka referred to above^ who procured the expulsion of
the Buddhists from South India. The absence of traces of Bud-
dhists and Jains in the Nilagiris tends to show that these mountains
were but sparsely populated during their supremacy, and further
that though the Toda customs have some strange resemblance to
those of these religionists, yet they would appear to be anterior
to the formulating of their creeds.
But before the fall of Jainism the old lingam or phallic worship
of the ante-Aryan races, which had been developed in the north
to an organized cult under the name of Sivaism, continuing the
worship of Siva, the destroyer, and of Diirga, the earth-mother,
known also as Parvati or Bhavani,^ had been revived. In the
south this regenerated religion was preached by Sankya Achdrya,
the apostle of Sivaism and the founder of the Smarta sect. He
was a native of Cranganur in Malabar, and belonged to the tribe
of Namburi Brahmans. His era was about the eighth or ninth
century A.D. His work was the abolition of Jainism and the
reformation of the Brahmans. Professor Wilson ^ remarks : —
" It has been already observed that the prevalent division of the
Hindu faith in the earliest period of its establishment appears to have
been the worship of Siva, and the traditions of the different countries
corroborate this view ; for the tutelary divinities of both the Pandyan
and the Ghoia kingdoms were forms of that deity or his bride. In
Telingana the first princes are reputed to have been Vaishvava, hut
this is the only division in which that faith predominated. In course
of time however — probably by the seventh or eighth century — a variety
of modifications existed, to reform which Sankara Achdrya, it is
related, was born. He did not attempt to abolish all the varieties of
the Hindu faith, but whilst he recalled the attention of the Brahmans
to the tenets of the Vedas and the injunctions of the inspired legis-
lators, and thence founded the division known in the south as the
Sinartal Brahmans, who disclaim, although they may practise, the
exclusively preferential worship of any form of the Supreme Deity, he
gave his sanction to the continuance of certain sects, over whom
' Compare Talboys Wheeler, Vol. Ill, p. 364.
Descriptive Catalogue, Vol. I, p. 61.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 255
he permitted sundry of his disciples to preside. These were the CHAP. XI.
Saivas, Valshuavas, Sauras, Sdktas, Gdna-patyas, and Kapalikas or ^
Yorjis^ HisTOKY.
The Saiva form of Brahmanism dominated the south for about
four centuries^ when the great Vishnu revival was brought about
by the preaching of Eamanuja Acharya^ a native of Sripermatiir,
near Madras, educated at Conjeveram, but who established the
head-quarters of his sect at Srirangam, near Trichinopoly. As
already stated, this apostle reduced the Jains to insignificance.
In the Nilagiris the Sivaites now very greatly predominate
among the Badagas and in the neighbouring tracts of Mysore.
Taking Mysore as a whole, however, the sects are nearly equally
divided, there being 2,564,846 Sivaites against 2,242,532
Vishnuites. At the period of the revival of the worship of Vishnu,
the Preserver, arose the sect of Lingayats, the most revered sect
on these hills,^ and the sect peculiar to the Kanarese, just
as the sect of Siva belonged to the west and that of Vishnu to
the east coast. The Lingayat faith was a compromise between the
teaching of the Sivaites and the V ishnuites, and seems indicative
of the influence of the nations of the west - and east upon those of
the central plateau, just as English Protestantism was the
outcome of German, Lutheran, and French Calvinistic Propagan-
dism. The compromise was known under the appellation Hari-
hara, Hari, Vishnu, Hara, Siva, combined in one person. The
founder of this sect was Bassava, a Brahman^ native of Belgam.
The name signifies bull, and he was regarded as the incarnation of
Nandi, the bull of Siva. The mark of the sect was the Jangama
Lingam. Bassava summed up the first principles of religion as
the Guru, the Lingam, and the Jangam, i.e., the teacher, the
adorable emblem of divine power, and religious union. This faith
prevailed extensively in Karnata, and was the state religion of
the Wodeas of Mysore from the end of the fourteenth to the
beginning of the seventeenth century, when Raja Wodeyar
adopted the religion of Vishnu and persecuted the subordinate
Wodeas or heads of districts, one of whom fled to the Nilagiris.
This flight may account for the number of Wodea settlements on
;he Hills — which is remarkable considering the social pre-eminence
:»f the class, it being that of the Mysore Rajas — and the number
:>f Lingayat inhabitants. There are, however, still 419,900
Lingayats in Mysore, one-third of whom are in the Mysore Division
contiguous to the Nilagiris.
' There are 1,467 Lingayats in the district.
- Only 1-5 per cent, of the inhabitants of Malabar are Vishnuites, 98o per
ent. being Sivaites. lu Coimbatore the proportions are— Vishnuites 228, Sivaites
6y, Lingayats -3.
266
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XI.
Early
History.
Belation of
early hill,
tribes to race
movements.
All the religious movements thus far spoken of have in a
measure their representatives among the ancient tribes on the
plateau. This cannot be said of the great religious movement in
Malabar, which dates from the conversion of Cheram Perumal,
Kdja of Kerala, to Mohammadanism in the ninth century, the
resultant of which was the Mapillas, the offspring of Arab fathers
and Malayalam mothers. The absence of this race from the Hills,
though tolerably numerous in Wainad, shows that if the Nilagiris
were conquered by Malay ala, they were not incorporated with
that country as the Wainad was, though also geographically a part
of Karncita. The almost total absence of Lingayats ^ from the
Waindd taluk and Malabar generally, though numerous in the
Hills, points the same way.
The Christianity of the west coast — that of the Nazarens —
appears never to have penetrated to the Hills, though some
writers have attempted to connect the religion of the Toda with
it ; and the similarity was such as even to impress the native
mind, long before it was remarked by Europeans. I refer
to the reports which reached the ears of the earliest Portuguese
missionaries regarding the existence of Christians in the Hills,
reports which induced them to make the expeditions referred to
elsewhere.
Before sketching the history of the kingdoms adjacent to the
Nilagiris, in whose destinies its history is involved, I would
note the relation of the Todas to the early race movements of
the south. As already stated, in the Todas we probably find a
race of aborigines who came in contact with the Aryans, whilst
the simple nature-worship of this people had still some of its
power, and before it had been deeply influenced by Brahmanical
sacerdotalism, though, perhaps, not before it had been subject
to Buddhistic teaching. The tradition, almost the only one
they possess, that they were the palanquin-bearers of the giant
Rdvana, and were expelled from Lanka on his being slain by Rama,
tends this way; but as regards their religion and religious
customs, although they show few traces of Brahmani&m, yet they
differ in many ways from the ordinary cults of the wild
tribes of the south. Moreover, the fact that the Todas have no
veneration for the serpent, but worship the sun, may show
that they could not have been long under the power of the
Ndgas, but, on the contrary, were in close contact with a race of
sun-worshippers — such worshippers were the Aryans. But that the
Todas did not come from the far north with these people seems
probable, apart from linguistic and physical peculiarities, from
the fact that they hold the buffalo in such affectionate regard.
Only '02 per cent, of the inhabitants of Malabar are Lingayats.
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
25-
for it is improbable that this black, ungainly, wallowing animal CHAP. XI.
could have become an object of aifectionate regard to a people "^
who knew and used the Brahmani ox, the horse, and the elephant.
But this very peculiarity would connect them with the builders
of the cairns and cromlechs, for whilst among the earthenware
figures collected by Mr. Breeks there is only one figure resembling
an ox, though it may also represent a bison, which has the distin-
guishing hump elongated, the makers of these figures seemed
to have loved to linger over the forms of the buffalo, and
though they also made figures of horses, elephants, and wild
animals, their most successful representations are those of tho
buffalo. The sacred animal is never represented as bearing
a burthen, but he often wears a bell. This love of the
buffalo must have been common to a tolerably civilized race, for
not only are bell-metal vessels of chaste design found along with
such figures, with armed warriors, horse and foot, and also the
representation of what may be a pillar of victory, but Dr. Shortt
informs me that he has in his possession two artistic representa-
tions of the buffalo in bronze, which were dug up at Coimbatore.
Early
History.
LID OF URN WITH P/kLAR
It seems therefore not an unnatural inference that though abori-
ginal, this curious people was on very intimate relations with au
Aryan race. The names of their deities, it will be remembered,
are of Sanskrit origin, fairly direct, whilst their language
has been but slightly influenced thereby. Can this be explained
on any reasonable theory ? It seems very doubtful ; but we
may perhaps find, in tho history of the Dekhan, a clue which,
33
258 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XI. if f(jllowed up, may throw light on the past of this people.
Early 'i^^^^^^ traditions and their speech show them to be a Kanarese
History, or Telngu people who approached the Nilagiris from the north,
and this view is supported by the Brahman tradition, mentioned
by Mr. Metz, that they came with Rdma from the north. ^ Also
by the fact that they call the south-western portion of the district
Pirgiir, which Mr. Metz interprets as the land of Feringis, i.e.,
of strangers. The absence of any Toda settlements on the
southern slopes of the Hills also points the same way. They
further call their grazing grounds (the uplands of Todanad)
Melur, but have no name, Mr. Metz states, for the western
portions of the Kundas, though thoy call the eastern portion
Meurur, or the land of rain. A people who lived from time imme-
morial on the uplands would not naturally call these uplands
Melur; but a people coming from the lowlands would. It is also
curious to observe that though the Todas have settlements in
Waindd near the Nilagiris, and even have a special reverence
for a shrine there, where their hunting god Betakan resides, yet
they have not extended their settlements thither. It may be that
incursions from Malabar drove them hillwards. Their presence
in Waindd must, however, date back many centuries, for the
absence of Lingayats in Waindd is an evidence that, for the last
eight centuries at least, Kanarese dominion in that tdluk, though
the tract geographically is a part of Kdrndta, must have been very
fitful. That they came from the north may then be admitted, but
with what people were they connected there ? Their religion may
help us to find an answer. What is there unique in it ? Veneration
for the buffalo, adoration of the sun, moon, and fire — in a word,
light — and the hermit character of their priests. These traits apper-
tain to a race having a fire cult and to a land where the bufialo
was held in special honor. Again, their marriage customs would
connect them with a race of polyandrists. A race possessing seve-
ral of these characteristics seems at one time, in the dim twilight
of history, to have ruled in part of the Dekhan. There is men-
tion 2 of a Mdhishamati — city (?) of the buffalo — on the Nerbadda;
again in the Mahabharata, of a town of the same name situated
apparently further south, — south probably of the Godavari, on
a tributary of the Kistna; — and again in Buddhist history
(240 B.C.) of a Mdhisha-mandalam, or buffalo country, probably
1 This legend, though conflicting with the Toda stoiy, is noteworthy, as both
legends would place them in close relation with great kings. It may indicate
that they were a tribe adopted by the conquerors. I have noted elsewhere the
presence of caste distinctions existing among them in a far more marked degree
than in other aboriginal races.
-See Lassen's Inchon AUerflun», Vol. 1 , i)p. o67-fi9 and noto. Tlip coninion
interpretation of Mihisha — buffalo — in this name is not universally adniitted.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 259
Mysore, in the south. Of M^hishamati on the Nerbadda, we CHAP. XI.
are told that during the reign of a king of the solar line, the early
restorer of the kingdom of the Nagas/ — said by some to be a History.
Scythian race — the Haihagas — also a race, seemingly, of
Scythian origin — attacked the city and drove out the king.
During his flight in the forest his son Sagara was born, who,
on coming to man's estate, became a great conqueror, nearly
destroyed the Haihagas and their allies, and imposed on the
conquered the mode of shaving the head and wearing the hair
known as hudami. Of the M^hishamati of the Mahabhdrata,^
we read that in it one Nila ruled. Here was the worship of
Agni (fire) maintained, and here prevailed a system of free
love amongst the women. Mr. Rice thinks that this fact may
indicate the dominion in the south of a Malabar chief. But
against this view it may be urged that the religion of the
Malaydlams was essentially phallic. Nila was attacked by
Sahadeva, one of Yudisthira's generals, who, after conciliating
the god Agni, conquered the city. Lastly we read, as already
stated, in the Mahdwanso that after the great Buddhist council in
241 B.C. — the third synod, — in the reign of A.s6ka, mission-
aries under the leadership of Mahadeva were despatched to
Mdhisha-mandalam to establish the religion of Buddha " and to
bring them imto righteousness which passeth knowledge, and to
deliver those bound in the fetters of sin." ^ There they made
80,000 converts.* I do not attempt to do more than draw atten-
tion to these facts, but it is strange to find that there existed in
Southern India a race of polyandrists who were at the same time
worshippers of the Vedic deity, the sun, and whose cities, situated
in the land of rivers, were called after the buffalo, whose home is
in the wide river basins of the Dekhan, where it attains its
greatest vigor and size. And further that this race should not
only have been in conflict with Scythian tribes, but have more
or less mingled with them. Vedic, Scythian, and Dravidian cults
seem here to have mixed. With such a race the T6das must
once have been in close contact. We find them using burial places
and performing burial rites so similar that it makes it a ques-
tion whether ,they were not the builders of the cairns, though
we know that the Nilagiri cairns do not differ essentially from
cairns found in other parts of the globe, which are generally
admitted to have been built by Scythic tribes. They still adore
the sun and light, though the sun has ceased to be a god ; whilst
* For a notice of this race, see Talboys Wheeler, Vol. I, p. 147.
2 The M^hibharata, or great war, was probably about 1400 B.C., the Kamijana
about 1300 B.C.
3 Dr. Hunter's Orissa, Vol. I, p. 193.
* Tounour's M6,h6iwanso.
260
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XI.
Early
History.
Divisions of
South India.
the ab.sence of snake-worship may indicate that they were con-
nected with a race which did not adopt the religion of the
Ndgas. Moreover when we consider that there are the strongest
grounds for believing that they were inhabiting the Hills when
Buddhism and Jainism ceased to be the State beliefs of the
powerful neighbouring Kdrndta kingdoms, the absence of
marked traces of these religions may indicate that the Todas
left the plains before they became organized cults, for had they
migrated thither during their ascendancy, surely some more
distinctive traces of these creeds would survive amongst them.
Of the great race divisions of South India, those which espe-
cially concern the Nilagiris are the Dravidian or Tamulian, the
MalayAlam, and the Kanarese. The Tamulian race, which seems
to have ultimately divided itself into three great sections — Pandya.
Chola and Chera — occupied the whole champagne country of
the peninsula south of the Eastern Ghdt line and west of the
Western Ghats ; the Malayalam, the country west of the latter
range and south of Mangalore ; the Kanarese, the tract north of
this town along the west coast as far as the Konkan, and the
southern angle of the Dekhan table-land, more especially Mysore-
These distributions are stated roughly, but a glance at the map
will show that the Nilagiri range is the point of trijunction of
the Tamulian divisions. We are only concerned with two, viz.,
Chola and Chera. The Cholas had their principal seats in the
lower Kaveri, in the Trichinopoly and Tanjore Divisions ; but as
mentioned later, their dominions embraced the whole Carnatic
plain north of this river. The Cheras occupied the country known
as Kerala.^ Dr. Caldwell remarks : —
" The Kerala of the ancients seems to have divided itself into two
portions, one of which, the district lying along the sea coast, has
always retained the Sanskritic name of Kerala, whilst it also called
itself by the Tamil name of Chei'a ; the other, an inland district includ-
ing Coimbatore, Salem, and a portion of Mysore, seems to have dropped
the name of Kerala altogether and called itself exclusively either
Ckera or Kongu. It is to the latter district that the papers of
Professor Dawson * and Dr. Eggeling on the Chera dynasty refer.
Though, however, the districts and dynasties differed, I have no doubt
that the navies Kerala and Chera were originally one and the same,
and it is certain that they are always regarded as synonymous in
native Tamil and Malayalam lists of synonyms- In the various lists
of the boundaries of Chera given by Tamil writers, the Malabar coast
from Calicut southward — that is, the whole of Southern Kerala — is
invariably included- Probably Kera was the earliest form of the word
Kerala, a Sanskritic derivative- The word Kongu, one of the names of
' Introduction, Gramynar Dravidian Languages, p. 22.
2 Vol. VIII, R.A.S. Journal.
MANUAL OF THE NILAaiRl DISTRICT. 261
the Chera country, means, like Kodagu (Coorg), ci'ooked, curved, CHAP. XI.
and is evidently a name derived from the configuration of the coun-
try,"' History.
Allowing that the Malayalam people speak a dialect of Tamil,
they are to all intents and purposes a separate Dravidian people,
distinguished from the Tamils and the Kanarese by marked
religious and social peculiarities. As regards Karnata, we are con-
cerned with the Kadamba and Hoysala BelMla dynasties and those
of Vijayanagar and of Mysore.
Kongu seems to have been the name of the country ruled by Kongn oi
the Chera dynasty. Professor Wilson says : —
" The northern limit of Chera varied at different periods, being
originally placed at Palani near Bliarapiira, whilst at a subsequent
period the capital, Dalavampur or Talcacl, above the Mysore Ghauts,
indicates a considerable extension of the boundary in this quarter,
and the Chera principality probably included the greater portion of
Karnata. Its eastern limits were the possessions of Chola and Fandya
and the western those of Kerala. In its early state, however, it
comprehended the extreme south of the Malabar coast or Travancore,
and consisted of that province, Wynad, the Nilagiri mountain district,
the southern portion of Coimbatore and part of Tinnevelly. In this
tract we have in Ptolemy the people called Carei, and not far from
it Carura Regia Cerebothri, in which, making allowance for inaccuracies
of sound and expression, we have the Cheras and Car^ir, still a city
in this district, and Cherapati, the sovereign of Ghei-a." ^
An account of these kings will be found in the Kongn-desa
Bdjakal, already referred to, translated by W. Taylor. Their
capital was at Skandapura, which is placed by Lassen near the
Gajalhatti Pass. In the third century after Christ their capital
was moved further north to Talkad on the Kaveri, near Kollegal,
just beyond the Coimbatore frontier, but their rule extended
over all South-west Mysore, including, doubtless, the Nilagiris.
They were a warlike race and delighted in the horse and elephant.
It will be remembered that numerous figures of these animals
caparisoned have been found in the Nilagiri cairns and cromlechs.
Mr. Rice enumerates twenty-eight kings from about the begin-
ning of the Christian era to 894 A.D. The early kings were
apparently Jains. The seventh (A.D. 178 to 188), Sri Vikrama,
joined the Siva faith. He was a great warrior, his conquests
extending over Chola, Pandya, Kerala, Malaysia and Mysore.
His successor, Kongani Varmma Dharma, was the founder of a
new dynasty, and removed the capital to Talkad or Delavanapura.
He lives in story as the divider, with one stroke of his sword, of
' See also Preface to the Kongu-desa R&jakal, Madras, p. xiv, 1, 1647, and
Mr. Nelson's Manual, Part III, pp. 45-47.
^ Descriptive Catalogxie, Vol. I, Introduction, xcii.
262
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Early
HiSTORV.
CHAP. XI. a Sila-stambiia or pillar of victory, which may shadow forth a
conflict with the Buddhists, who inscribed edicts on such erec-
tions. In the fifth century a monarch of this race married the
sister of one of the Kadamba kings of Banawasi, an event which
shows the importance of the dynasty at the time. At the close
of this century the reigning monarch, Amrita or Drahva-niti,
was " a great magician in the mantras • whenever he might go to
war with his enemies, by the power of his mantras he would
make a loud sound ; the forces of his enemies remained mute and
motionless, with their warlike arms upright in their hands, and
without knowing how to make use of them.'' ^ Little wonder
then that he is reported as conquering Kerala, Pandya, Chola,
Dravida, Andhra, and Kalinga, and many other countries. We
find that in his reign South-west Mysore ^ was known as Punndd,
ten thousand. The last ruler of this dynasty seems to have
been Malladeva, at the close of the ninth century, when a Chola
king, Aditya Varmma, " being crowned in the Tanjavur-putnam,
came to Kongu-desam, and conquered the Vardar (huntsmen or
wild people) of the king of Kongu-desam and took the town of
Talikad; and, giving many free endowments to many agraharas,
he governed that country in addition to his own." The energy
and perseverance of this kingly race was great Driven from their
ancestral dominions by the Cholas, they are said to have pushed
their way to the north-east and ultimately to have founded the
Gangavamsa dynasty in Orissa.^ One of them, in the latter part
of the thirteenth century, " raised the lovely pile that now over-
looks the Bay of Bengal at Kanarak, the temple of the sun,* whose
luscious ornamentation forms at once the glory and the disgrace
of Orissa art."
On these hills we have the representatives of this Kongu people
in the Kongas, a class of Badagas who wear the lingam and occupy
villages near Rangasdmi Peak, opposite the Gajalhatti Pass, the
ancient home of their race. They are second only to the W6deas
in rank. To this day do the hill-people call North Coimbatore
the Kongu country.^ The name survives inthe Kangiam Taluk
of that district. The South Mysoreans still call Tamil Kangi.
This race may be described as that section of the Tamil
people who ruled the river-basin of the Kaveri below the gh^ts,
though at one time their empire was probably counterminous
with the Tamil language. In their progress towards the north
Chdlas.
' Kongu-d^sa RajakaL
* Rice. May not this be pon-n&d, the district of gold?— a name which would
be most appropriate to the Waindd and its neighbourhood.
^ Lassen, Ind. Alt., IV. 14, and Dr. Hunter's Orissa, Vol. I, pp. 277-290.
* Known to sailors as the black pagoda.
» Mr. Mbtz' Neilgherry Uills, p. 50 ; Wiles' Mysore, Vol. I, p. 4..
MANUAL OF THE NtLAGIKI DISTRICT. 2G3
they encountered the Kiirumbas, who occupied the districts CHAP. XT.
below the ghats westwards of the shore-line from Pulicat to early
Cnddalore. The subduer of these warlike clans was Adonddi, History.
the illegitimate son of Kulattungi Chola. This conquest probably
occurred in the eleventh century. The advance along the eastern
coast may have been the result of their retirement from South
Mysore, if we accept the latter half of the eleventh century as the
period in which Adonddi's conquest took place, for the dominion
of the Cholas does not appear to have lasted in South Mysore
for more than one hundred and fifty years after the taking of
Talked in A.D. 894. The Chola conquests in Klirumbanad seem
to have been preceded by an alliance of the royal house with the
eastern Chalukyas. The progress of the power of the Hoysala
Belldla dynasty in South Mysore was probably the cause of the
subversion of the Chola dominion in that country. The Chola
monarch whose power appears to have been most extended was
Hari-vari, who reigned at the beginning of the eleventh century.
After conquering Madura, the writer of the Kongu-desa Rajakal
relates that —
" Amarbhujangan, the general, sot out with four kinds of forces
towards the west of the mountain named Saiya, and thence proceed-
ing to fight against the Kerala-desa, he heard that its king was
performing the Chatur-balaganavi and other ceremonies, in consequence
of which he became greatly incensed and conquered (took) Kotur^
Incira-giri, Nilagiri-durga, and other places ; and as the entire strength
of the king failed him, he embarked on boardship and fled into an
island in the midst of the sea. Subsequently this general of the
Chola raja, according to the permission of his master, collected and
deposited all the plunder of riches acquired in this invasion in the
/Saiva temple on the top of the ghaut, and on the extreme west he
fixed a conquest-pillar ^ with a flag, to denote his victory to that
point; and he thus acquired great fame in the world."
Here a gap occurs in the manuscript. It proceeds to state : —
" Then the Kongu-desa and Karnatica-desa being subject to him,
he, the Maharaja Chola raya, gave the name of Raja-raja-puram to the
town of Keriur, in the Talicad district in the northern part of
Kongu-desa, and gave it to the merchants (Vaisyar) of Dalavaii*a-
puram."
Mr. Taylor remarks that the king referred to in the latter
quotation is probably not Hari-vari but Kulattungi Chola, the
father of Adonddi, the conqueror of the Kurumbas. During the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries the Ch61a race appears to have
been pushed back by the Hoysala Bellala kings and the vigorous
Chalukyas and Kalachuryas. The Tamils, however, with the
' Jaya-stambha.
2G4
MANUAL OF THE KILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Early
UlSTORY.
Kadamba
dynasty.
pertinacity of their race, held to the best portions of the low-
lands, whilst at the beginning of this period they gained a reli-
gious victory by the conversion of the Bellala king Varddhana
from Jainism to the faith of Vishnu through the preaching of
Ramanuja Achdrya. It is possible that it was during these cen-
turies that the earliest Kanarese colonists pushed forwards into the
Nflagiris and on to the ranges to their south towards the Palghdt
Pass. Driven back by immigrants from the south-east, and then
by new-comers from the north-east, the Kongu Kanarese would
naturally retire to the highland part of their territory, and wait
for better times, which came to pass during the empire of
Vijayanagar.
The Kadamba ^ dynasty, which was of great antiquity, ruled
over North and South Canara and the western portions of ancient
Karndta, Their capital, Banawasi, is mentioned by Ptolemy .^
The date of the first king, Trinctra Kadamba, is fixed by Wilson as
A.D. 168, and the kingdom appears to have lasted 1,168 years
until the foundation of the Vijayanagar empire, but with probably
greatly diminished power. Early in the fifth century a daughter
of the house was married to Madhara, king of Kongu, and, until the
rise of the Bellala kings, they may be said to have divided the
greater portion of Kdrnata between themselves and the Cheras.
{Des. Cat., p. cvii.)
" Up to the fifth centui'y, " says Mr. Rice, " they were independent,
but being then subdued by the Chalukya king Kartti Varmma, they
were reduced to the condition of feudatories. Their jurisdiction seems
to have been thence limited to the province of Hanagal or Parangal
until the tenth century, when they appear as lords of Banawasi as
well as of Hanagal and other places. * # * Their capital was later
established at Goa. The connection of the founders of Vijayanagar
with the Kadambas has not been established, but the former were
certainly descended from a Tuluva family of ancient origin and
power,, whose dominions extended towards the western sea,^ and
the Kadamba grants, which continue up to the time of the rise of
Vijayanagar, then cease."
It is the unascertained connection of the rulers of Banawasi—
with the Kiirumbas, pei-haps prior to the rise of the Kadamba
dynasty — which renders the history of this people interesting
as regards the Nilagiris ; but as notes * on the point will be found
in Mr. Breeks' chapter on the Klirumbas, it will not be discussed
further here.
1 Said to be so named from the Kadamba tree, a species of naxiclea, one of the
Chinchoniacece. See note 4, page 208, Chapter IX.
^ Descriptive Catalogue, p. ci.
' Wilson, McA. Coll. 1, civ.
* See Cahr's Set-en Pagodas ; Ellis' Mir&si Right.
MANUAL OF THE NJLAQIRI DISTRICT. 265
The Hoysala Belldla dynasty possessed the suzerainty of Kdr- CHAP. XI.
ndta proper from the beginning of the tenth to the middle of the eTrly
fourteenth century, and at one period during the reigns of Vira History.
BelMla and Vira Narasimha (1188-1249) the whole of Karnata g-^T"
as far as the Kistna was subject to their sway, " and the pro- Beildla.
vinces of Malabar and Kanara on the west, the Dradira country on
the south and east, and part of Telingana on the north-east,
acknowledged them, if not as immediate masters, yet as exercis-
ing supreme authority over them through their officers, or through
the native rajas as vassals and tributaries." ^ The early kings
were Jains. Their capital was generally at Talkdd, near Kollegal,
on the Kaveri, but it appears at one time to have been trans-
ferred to Tuluva, and again, at a later period, to Dwarasam^udra
near Bednore, south of the Kistna. ^
The founder of the race, who was probably a petty feudatory
of the Kongu or Chola kings, was named Sola, and obtained the
cognomen of Hoyi — strike {Kanarese) — from his good fortune
and daring in killing, at the command of a rishi, a tiger which
had infested the neighbourhood of the shrine of the goddess
Vasantaka.^ This race of kings was eminently warlike. The
story in the Kongu-desa Rdjakal shows them to have been con-
stantly in conflict with the neighbouring princes, especially those
of Malabar and Canara. Mr. Rice quotes from an inscription
how the fourth king of the line, Vishnu Varddhana (1114- 1145),
is related to have overthrown the Tulu and Haihaga kings, became
possessed of Talkad, subdued Kongu, overcame Nolambadi
(Chitaldrug), gained possession of Kovatur (Coimbatore), sacked
Toreyur, and, pas ing Vellore, took up his residence at Conjeveram.
The boundaries of the kingdom are given : " the lower ghaut of
Nangala on the east ; Kongu, Cheram and Anemal on the south;
the Karkanar ghaut road of Konka on the west ; and Sarimale
on the north.'' These southern boundaries include the Nilagiris.
This king's chief residence was at Beliir in Hassan, where he
founded the celebrated temple. He became a convert to the
Vishnu faith through the influence of his wife and the preaching
of Ramdnuja Acharya, whom " he received and trusted" when
fleeing from the Chola king, who sought to compel him to
acknowledge the supremacy of Siva, and " with great devotion
protected many Vishnu temples, and was a Vishnu- bakti
(votary of Vishnu)."^ His successors, however, were some-
times of the Saiva faith, but they appear generally to have
shown toleration towards the Jains, whose religion had ceased to
Descriptive Catalogve, Vol. I, p. cxi.
Kongn-di'sa Eajokih
The other title, Hollala, is from halam, strrn^'th.
Kongu-d'so. Rajakal.
34
266 Manual of the nilagiri district.
CHAP. XI. be that of the State. This king was succeeded by his son Yira
Early Narasiniha (1145-1188), who seems to have been engaged chiefly
History, in wars in the south, supporting the Chola against the Pandya
kings. ^ He was followed by Vira Bellala and Vira Narasimha, to
whom reference has already been made. The latter monarch seems
tp have changed the State religion to that of Siva.^ His successor
was Bellala Kaja, whose son, Someswara, followed him. During]
his reign the power of the Bellalas began to wane, and they seem]
to have received a crushing defeat in the Konkan. The Hdjas of]
Kerala and Chola rebelled, and finally, in the reign of Narasimha,
Someswara's son (1268-1308), the dynasty succumbed to the!
attack of the Moslems under Kafur, the vizier of Ala-ud-Dinj
of the house of Khilji (1295-1316). Their capital, Dora-sama-
dra, was sacked, and the Bellala king is said to have been carried]
captive to Delhi. ^ This chief's conquests extended as far south]
as Madura. These Mahommadan chiefs held sway for forty-eight]
years, until the people were delivered from the hateful yoke by]
the prowess of a Kanarese or Mysore chief Kampana Wodea, who]
was probably in the service of the Rdja of Vijayanagar.*
Vijayanagar. g^^ the Moslem conquest was not yet to bring the Hindus of]
the south under complete subjection. Dissensions at Delhi had
enfeebled the administration in the distant provinces, and the]
fresh generation of Hindus in the Dekhan had forgotten the]
terrible punishment which followed the revolt in 1320. So in]
1347 a fresh uprising took place, in which both Mussulmans and]
Hindus joined. The outcome was the establishment of an inde-]
pendent Mussulman kingdom, with its capital at Kalburga, by]
Hasan Gangu, the founder of the Bahmani dynasty, and the]
creation of two Hindu states, those of Telingana and KdrnataJ
With the latter only are tve concerned. Its capital was Vijayana-j
gar, the city of victory (corrupted from Vidydnagara, the city'
of learning), on the south of the Tungabadra, opposite Anegundi,
the ancient seat of the mysterious Yavanas or lonians. Here
also was situated Kishkindha of the mythic age. The founders of
this kingdom, which was destined to dominate the whole of the
South Dekhan and the peninsula, were Bakka and Hakka, or
Harihara, sons of Sangama, probably a petty Kdrnata chief of
Kurumba origin. Their minister was the sage Mddhava, a
disciple of Sankya Acharya, who was probably " connected with
the Sringagiri ^ establishment, the members of which, alarmed
by the increasing numbers of the Jangamas and Jains, and the
» Mysore Gazetteer, Vol. I, p. 218.
* Descriptive Catalogue, Vol. 1, csl.
3 Talboys Wheeler, Vol. IV, Ist 1, p. 63.
* Nelson's Manual, Part III, pp. 81. 82.
* In the Kfldur District, Mysore, the chief seat of the S»va priests. — Gazetteer.
Mysore, Vol. I, p. 379.
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 2(37
approach of the Mahommadans, may have contributed their CHAP. XI.
wealth to the aggrandisement of the sons of Sangama." ^ The „
date of the founding of the city usually given is 1 336, but this History.
is probably too early. The dynasty of Harihara possessed the
throne until the year 1490, when it was superseded by that of
Narasinga, whose descendants held the raj until its final over-
throw. The empire, which perhaps reached its zenith in the
reign of Krishna Raya (1508-1542), existed until the final decade
of the sixteenth century ; but its power was broken thirty years
before by the defeat and death of the usurper Kam Rai at
the battle of Talikota in 1665. This victory marks the true
beginning of the ascendancy of the Moslems in the peninsula.
Hitherto their irruptions south of the Kistna were little better
than predatory excursions. For more than two hundred years
the able monarchs of Vijayanagar had withstood the Moslem
immigrants ever pressing towards the south, and by their astute
policy had combined the eternally conflicting princedoms of the
peninsula into a confederation against the followers of the
Prophet. In effecting this object they resorted to a system of
military colonization,^ — which they may have learned from the
Mahommadans, — the establishment throughout the peninsula of
bands of Telugu soldiers known as Nayaks, conferring on them
lands, in return for which they preserved order in the subject or
quasi-subject rajaships. Such settlements seem to be peculiar to
this empire, for we find nothing similar to them in the policy of
the earlier native conquerors of the south.
As the empire of Vijayanagar waned, and whilst the Mahom- Mysore,
madan power was rising in importance, some of the native
feudatories gradually advanced towards independence. The most
important of these were the Nayaks of Madura and the Wodeas ^
of Mysore. In South Mysore, as elsewhere, several vassal chiefs
had received small tracts of territory, and in return rendered
military service. The principal were the Wodeas of Mysore,
Kalala, Yelandur and Ummatur. The first and the last chiefly
concern the Nilagiris. These chiefs were under the immediate
authority of the viceroy of the Vijayanagar kings, whose seat
was at Seringapatam.
The house of Mysore traces its origin to two Yadava cadets,
Vijaya and Krishna, who came from Guzerat to push their
fortunes in the south. On arriving at Hadindd, near Nanjangudi,
on the Mysore-Ootacamand road, they found the daughter
of the Wodea of the place about to be forced into a marriage
' Descriptive Catalogue, Vol. I, p. cxii.
2 WiLKs' Mysore, Vol. I, Chapter I.
3 See Chapiej' IX, Part V.
Z0» MANUAL OP THE KILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XI. with the Torea or low-caste chief of Karugahalli near Mysore.
eTrly "^'^^y espoused the maiden's cause and slew the bridegroom^ and
HisTOEY. out of gratitude the lady became the willing bride of Vijaya,
who changed his religion from that of Vishnu to the Jangama,
and became the Wodea of Hadinad and Karugahalli. This event is
placed at the beginning of the fifteenth century. Little is known
of the history of his descendants until the reign of Chama Rdja
the Bold (1571-75)^ who reunited the dominion which his father
Betad Cham Rdj had divided between his three sons.^ This
monarchy taking advantage of the weakness of Vijayanagar, was
the first to refuse to pay tribute to its viceroy. He built or
repaired the fort and tower hitherto called Puragiri^^ but hence-
forth known and to be known to the world as Mysore (the
buffalo-town). His son Raja Wodear (1578-1617) ousted the
viceroy from Seringapatam (1610) and transferred thither the
seat of government, and changed the religion of the State to
that of Vishnu.^ It was at this time that the Wodeas of Kalala
(descended from the Vijayanagar family), which lies on the
Ootacamand- Mysore road, identified their interests with those of
the house of Mysore, and thenceforth the scions of this stock
have filled the office of Dalavaye,* minister and general, of the
Mysore kingdom. This alliance was perhaps in a measure due to
the hatred of the Wodeas of Kalala for the Wodeas of Ummatur.
These chiefs, who undoubtedly for a long period exercised rule
over the Nilagiris, and who in their adversity found a refuge
here, and for a time, perhaps, preserved their partial independence
in the Mdlekota fort near Kalhatti,^ possessed the fort of Ummatur,
lying three leagues to the east of Kalala near Yelandur and the
Billi-rangum hills. They were related to the Vijayanagar
viceroy, Sri Ranga Rayal, and their principality was an impor-
tant fief of that empire. The house of Kalala had been nearly
exterminated by the Ummatur chief. The survivor, on coming to
man's estate, allied himself to the Mysore king Rdja Wodear, who
thus aided, subdued Ummatur and annexed it to the Mysore
raj (1613). Mr. Metz mentions that there are still living
near Malekota Betar (huntsmen) whose ancestors were in the
service of the Ummatur Raja as tax-gatherers, and hence are still
cordially hated by the Badagas. This fact is noteworthy, as
it tends to show that the common view that the Badagas came
1 WiLKS, Vol. I, Chapter II.
'^ Said to be the same as Parikere, where the Kongu kings acquired the
recognition of their dominion in the fifth century. — Mysore Gazetteer, Vol. I,
p. 241.
3 WiLKS, Vol. I, Chapter II.
* Derived from dala (Kan.), army ; hence leader of an army.
* See Mr. Brekks' Xilgherru Hilh, p. 45.
MANUAL OF THE NILAQTRI DISTRICT.
269
to the Hills on the break-up of the Vijayanagar empire is impro- CHAP. XI.
bable, for they seem to have regarded the representatives of early
that empire with dislike, whilst they still call the Mysore History.
chiefs (true Kanarese) their Kartas or lords. The name of the
fort at Kotagiri — Udiaraya-kota, i.e., the Wodearaya's fort —
seems also to indicate that it was the hold of a hostile raya (title
of the Vijayanagar kings) rather than of a friendly chief.*
Kdja Wodear's conquests appear to have embraced the whole
of the district of Mysore.^ His rule, Colonel Wilks states, was
" remarkable for the rigour and severity which he exercised
towards the subordinate Wodeas and his indulgence towards
the ryots." The Wodeas were generally dispossessed and kept
in confinement on a scanty allowance at the seat of govern-
ment ; and it was the policy of Raja Wodear to reconcile the
ryots to the change by exacting from them no larger sums
than they had formerly paid. The comparatively impoverished
condition of the Wodeas on the Hills, though they are still
exceedingly proud, may have been the result of these stringent
measures.
Raja Wodear's successor, Chama Rdja (1617-1636), continued
his predecessor's policy towards the Wodeas, and sought to extend
his dominions below the ghdts towards Madura. Thus he came into
conflict with the great Tirumala Nayak, who had recently come
to the throne (1628). The invaders were defeated by the famous
Ramapayya, who pursued them up the Gajalhatti Pass, and who
is said to have taken Mysore.^ Wilks is silent regarding this
expedition. It should be remarked here that during the latter
half of the sixteenth century Visvanatha and his successors,
the founders of the Nayak dynasty, had gradually brought the
Kanarese and Telugu chiefs of the country lying below the ghats
to the north and west of Madura under their hegemony, by
inclusion in the feudal fraternity known as the Madura Falaya-
karans.^ It was possibly during this period that the revenue
system of Coimbatore was introduced on the hills, and aloug
with it the Kanakan or writer class, for at no period subsequent
1 Colonel Wilks assigns to the fifty years which succeeded the battle of Tali-
kdta " the origin or improvement of most of the drooga or fortified places of the
Karuatio proper and of Baramahal." Vol. I, Chapter III.
'^ In a map illusiratiug the history of Mysore, Mr. Rice does not include the
Nilagiris in Mysore at Wodear Riija's death, but it is so included at Chikka
Deva's death in 1701. He does not slate when it was acquired, but in the
absence of evidence to the contrary, we may reasonably infer it was virtually
annexed when Ummatur was conquered, for there can be little doubt that the
Nilagiri plateau proper belonged to these rdjas.
^ Nelson's Manual, Part IV, p. 125.
* Nelson's Manual, Part III, p. 99.
270 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XI. thereto and prior to the English occupancy does the Tamil
dominion seem to have extended over any part of the plateau.
History. The wars between the Rajas of Mysore and the Nayaks of
Madura — the former generally aided by the Narasinga kings (the
fading representatives of the Vijayanagar house), the latter by the
Mussulmfvns — continued at intervals, and with varying success,
during the reigns of the three following princes, Immadi Raja,
R, Narasa Rdja, and Dodda Deva Rdja/ a period extending from
1637 to 1672, but they eventuated in the permanent annexation
to Mysore of a large portion of Coimbatore, Karur and Erode
in 1667, and also Darapiir. Colonel Wilks' account necessarily
loses sight of the Mysorean reverses whilst it magnifies their
successes. The other, or Madura, side of the picture is given
by Mr. Nelson.^ Chikka Deva Rdja (1672-1704) succeeded to
the throne. His yoath was passed at Yelandur, where he
became acquainted with the celebrated Jain pundit Visha
Laksha. He was for a long time a prisonei at Hangala, a fort
south of Gundulpet. His father died here, and over his tomb he
raised a pagoda to Aparamita Paravasa Deva (the god of
perpetual exile). This spot is otherwise of historic interest, for
near it is Tirkanambi, once the seat of a prince of the Kadamba
line, and the temple, Tri-Kadamba, is said to mark the trijunc-
tjon of the Kadamba, Kerala and Kongu territories.^ The
Kongus, it will be remembered, probably gained possession of all
South Mysore in the seventh century, whilst the conquests gained
by the Malayalams probably followed the decay of the Kadamba
empire in the fifth century. Chikka Deva, whose early life was
spent within view of these blue hills, was perhaps the most
able monarch of the Mysore dynasty. He established a post,
reformed the revenue system, and developed the administra-
tion generally. His energy raised the Jangamas against him, but
they were ruthlessly reduced to submission. Early in his reign
he came in contact with the Mahrattas. He managed, however,
to divert their attention from his dominions whilst they ravaged
the eastern portions of the Dekhan and the Carnatic. Meanwhile
he strengthened his position and added to his prestige by an
alliance with the Emperor Aurangazib. To him history must
award the praise of having established a secure and prosperous
state, " extending from Palni and Anemale in the south to
Midagesi in the north, and from near Karnatic Ghur of Baramahal
in the east to the borders of Coorg and Balam in the west." *
' This rija came to the throne in the year the great Tirumala Ndyak died,
1659.
- Madura Manual. Part III. Chapter VI.
3 Mijsore Gaz^.ttn^r, Vol II. p. 279.
* Mijxore Oa-.ettP<>r, Vol I. p. ^47.
MANUAl- OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 271
With Chikka Deva the house of Mysore seems to have lost the CHAP. XI.
administrative energy which had raised it in little more than a ^
_ 'Til iliARLY
century to be a considerable power in South India. Two History.
princes occupied the throne between his death and 1731, but
authority was gradually passing out of their hands into those of
the Dalavaye, whilst the prestige of the house was greatly
weakened by the successful invasion of Sadat Ulla Khan, Naw^b
of Arcot, and his allies. These foes were, however, bought off by
a crore of rupees. A similar procedure was followed to induce
the Mahrattas to retire two years later. Two pageant princes
followed, but the real rulers were the brothers Deva and Nanja
Bdja. These chiefs gradually got mixed up with the wars of the
English and French in the Carnatic, into the details of which it
is not necessary to enter here. But it was in these conflicts that
an obscure Mussulman soldier, Haider, by military genius, courage,
energy and cunning rose to eminence, and in the course of a few
years succeeded not only in obtaining the chief place in the army
and state by ousting Nanja Rdja in J 759, whose brother Deva
Raja had recently died, but after a seemingly desperate reverse
usurped the government in 1761. This he retained till his death
in 1782, when he was quietly succeeded by his son Tippu.
Meanwhile Rajas continued nominally to occupy the throne, find
were exhibited annually in regal state at the Dasara feast, but
they were treated by Haider simply as state prisoners, and so
continued until the death of Chama Rdja Wodear in 1 796, when
Tippu deemed it unnecessary to appoint a successor. It is
unnecessary here to narrate the events of Tippu's reign, which
closed by his death at the storming of Seringapatam on the
memorable 4th May 1799- It may, however, be remarked
that during Haider and Tippu^s operations in Coimbatore against
the English, the importance of the Nilagiris as points of observa-
tion seems to have impressed itself on these strategists. Almost
inaccessible except to hill people, they commanded a splendid
view of North Coimbatore and the Gajalhatti Pass. From these
outposts reports of an enemy^s movements could be sent more
readily and quickly to Seringapatam than from stations near
Sattiamangalam. They seem, too, to have strengthened the
three old forts for the purpose of preventing raids from the
Wain ad into Mysore and Coimbatore, for a raid of the kind is
mentioned by Buchanan as happening immediately after the
overthrow of Tippu. Whether it was for these or for revenue
reasons, we find that the Nilagiris, or rather Devanaikenkota,
which included the greater portion of the tract, was of sufficient
importance to find a place and a name in the Proclamation
of annexation issued at Seringapatam by General Harris, Colonel
Arthur Welleslev, the Honorable Heni'v Wplleslev. Colonel
272 MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XI. Kirkpatrick and Colonel Barry Clof5e on the 24.th June 1799 as
Early portion of tbe Sultan's territory ceded to the British.
History. Thus far we have traced the history of the native states whose
Malaydlam. history was more or less connected with the Nilagiri mountains,
but there is one race whose connection with the Nilagiris we
have no means of ascertaining, though probably for several
centuries past it has claimed a portion of the hills as its own —
I allude to the Malayalam people. Their claim of suzerainty
over any portion of the plateau (they never colonized any part
of it) probably dates back to the age in which they forced back
the indigenous races, and perhaps the Kauarese, from the Wainad
plateau, which geographically is a portion of Kdrndta and not of
Malabar. When this movement took place I am unable to say,
but I have already noted that in the fifth century the boundary
of Kerala (Malabar) extended to Tirkanambi east of Giindulpet.
It was probably prior to this extension of dominion that the
Kanarese races took possession of the hills south of the Nilagiris.
Buchanan writes :
" There is a tract of land occupying part of the mountains which
separate Malabar from Cuimbatore. The Namburis or Nairs had no
authority over its inhabitants, who speak the language of Karnata. It
is divided into two districts, Attapadi and Agrata Cadawa, each
subject to a Gauda or hereditary chief. The pass leading to Attapadi
goes by Manaarghat, which was subject to the Tamuri' as chief of a
district called Nerunganada."
He thus accounts for the subject position of these Gaudas :
" Each raja took advantage of the hill chief, who could only have
access to the commerce of the low country through his dominions
and forced him to pay a tribute for permission to trade."
He goes on to say :
" Fi'om these hilly districts there are road.s that lead to Ban Nayakan-
cotay and Coimbatore ; and it would be of great importance to
comraerre to have these roads cleared, as also the passes which
lead up from Imdda in Malabar to the northern parts of Mysore."
Early Jt was, however, in consequence of the Malayalam suzerainty
Missionaries. ^^^^ Europeans first approached the hills at the opening of the
seventeenth century. The following account of this expedition,
which I extract from Mr. Breeks' work^ apart from its great interest
in other respects, is especially noteworthy as abolishing entirely,
the ordinary, though uuphilosophical, view that the Badagas came
to the Nilagiris on the break-up of the Vijayanagar empire
three hundi'ed years ago ; for here we find, at this very date, that
S(i the n;<tiv<^f; mil llie /anioiin
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 273
the Badagas had not only reached the present western limit of CHAP. XI.
their settlement on the Nilagiris, Melklinda, but that the early
plateau was divided into four districts, and that the Badagas History.
were already in a relatively superior position to the Todas ; but
at the same time it must be noted that the Todas are said to be
scattered pretty equally over the four districts, whilst two hundred
years later they had been pushed back to the unculturable
uplands of the plateau, and that their number had decreased
to a half of what it was estimated to be by the Jesuit Ferreiri,
but it must not be forgotten that those two hundred years
comprised a period of endless turmoil and internecine strife. I
now quote in extenso from Mr. Breeks' work Mr. VVhitehouse's
abstract of a manuscript in the British Museum,
" At the Synod of Udiamparur in the State of Cochin,' held
under Archbishop Menezes in 1599, information having been received
that there were certain villages of Christians in a country called
Todamala, who anciently belonged to the Syrian Church of Malabar,
but then had nothing of Christianity except the bare name, it was
ordered that priests and preachers should be sent thither immediately
to redeem them to the Catholic faith, baptise them, &c. Francisco
Key, the first Roman Catholic Bishop of the Syrian Christians, in
1G02 sent a priest and deacon of the Christians of St. Thomas with
a good guide to find out the place and collect information. They
reached the Todamala ; but, as the account brought back by them
was not so sure and complete as was desirable, Bishop Roy requested
the Vice-Principal of the Jesuits to depute a priest of his own order
to make further inquiries. The Rev. jacome Ferreiri was selected
for this mission. He started from Calicut, the place of bis residence,
and was permitted to return safely, after undergoing great exposure and
fatigue, with a good deal of information about the hill tribes, their
manners and customs ; but with no tidings of any Christian colony,
which had either become extinct or removed elsewhere, if it had ever
been there at all. At Calicut he wrote a formal report, dated April
1st, 1603, from which the following particulars are gleaned: —
He proceeded via Manarecate 13 leagues inland from Tanur. A
native convert, a nephew of the Samuri Rajah, accompanied him and
some others. Their route led them over steep and rugged mountains
infested with elephants and tigers. At Manarecate they were told
that the Todamala was 6 Canarese or 12 Malabar leagues distant, and
that it would take them two days and a half to reach their destination.
Here they provided themselves with extra clothing as a protection
against the cold of the mountains, and also provision for their journey.
The Nairs who accompanied them wisely left their weapons behind
them, lest the hill people should take alarm. The evening of the
* Todamala is included in a list of Christian Churches given in Assemani
Bible, Orient., but this only refers to the date of this same synod.
35
274
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XI.
Early
History.
second day from Manarecate * found them at the foot of a steep hill
up which their route lay. On the third day they reach a Badaga
village called Meleuntao (? Melur or Melkundah), containing between
one and two hundred inhabitants. The priest and deacon previously
sent are said to have arrived thus far. Here they met also with the
chief of the Todas, who agreed to call his people together so that they
might have an opportunity of conversing with them. On the follow-
ing day the Jesuit father tried to converse with the Badagas on the
subject of Christianity. He also had an interview with the Toda priest
called Pollem (Palal) outside the Badaga village, which he would not
enter for fear of pollution. They saw some Toda women, and gave
them looking glasses and hanks of thi^ead, with which they were much
pleased. The third day of their sojourn on the hills was spent in a
visitation of some of the Toda settlements, which are very correctly
described, as also their dress, diet, manners, and customs. They
could not give much account of their own origin, and gave no infor-
mation leading to the supposition that either they or their ancestors
ever had anything to do with any form or profession of Christianity.
They simply said that they had heard that their ancestors came
from the east, that one party settled on these mountains, and
another party descended into the plains. Their number was supposed
to be about 1,000, scattered pretty equally over four mountain
districts. Feeling the cold, and the Samorin's nephew beginning to
be indisposed, they now began to arrange for their descent into the
low country. Ere they left, they promised to return within a year
and make a longer stay. Circumstances however prevented them
from so doing. The friendly Badagas showed them a better road than
that by which they made the journey there."
The route by which they returned may have been the Gudalur
or Karkur Ghats. Mr. Breeks quotes a notice (furnished by
Dr. Gundert) of the Todas by a Carmelite priest, gathered
from reports of the tribe current on the west coast, who
visited Malabar in 1657. It speaks of the mountains where
they dwelt as " in the kingdom of the Zamorin." But how slight
the hold was that the Zamorin had evea on the ghat country
below the Nilagiris is manifest from the fact that his nephew's
retinue had to leave their weapons behind them before entering
the country. The Badagas are simply spoken of as friendly. At
this period the power of the Mysore house was rapidly rising.
1 Mr. Whitehouae says, " I think the Manarecate must be the place called
Manaur in Ward's Government Survey Map, about Lat. ll^ Long. 76° 30",
because it was 13 leagues inland from Tanor, and from thence 12 leagues to the
Todamala. There is a Manaar at the foot of the Sundapatti Ghat, but this ia
too near. This idea receives support from Buchanan's Journey through Mysore
and Canara, Vol. II, p. 434, veherehe speaks of a tract of land occupying part of
the mountains between Malabar and Coimbatore, divided into two districts,^.
Attapadi and Agrata, Cadava, and says that the pass leading to Attapadi is called
Manarghat."
MANUAL OF THE NILAaiRI DISTRICT. 275
Thus far I have endeavoured to raise an interest in the CHAP. xi.
Nilagiris by connecting them not only with the great race early
movements and rehgious revolutions of Southern India, but also History.
by collecting such fragmentary notices as link them, however
loosely, with the story of the neighbouring countries. But for
such scattered rays of light the darkness which envelopes their
past would be impenetrable. I now pass on to their story from
the time when they first became known to the English.
27G
MANUAL OF THE NTLAGlkl DISTRICT.
CHAPTER XII.
RECENT HISTORY.
CHAP. XII,
Kecent
History.
Marquis of
Wellesley's
polic-y.
Marquis of Wellesley's policy. — Dr. Buchanan's mission. — Colonel Colin Mackenzie's
survey. — Mr. Keys' visit. — Mr. John Sullivan's exploration. — Attention of
Governor-General drawn to the Hills. — M. Leschenault's remarks. — Infanti-
cide.— Ootacamand. — Captain Ward's survey. — Mr. Sullivan opens out roada.
— Ootacamand laid out. — Sir Thomas Munro's visit. — Mr. S. R. Lushington's
scheme. — Ootacamand constituted a sanitarium. — Military Commandant
appointed. — Official complications. — Convalescent Depot established. — Mr.
Sullivan's departure. — Portion of Nilagiris transferred to Malabar. — Mr. Sullivan
protests. — Rapid extension of Ootacamand. — Bishop Daniel Wilson. — Court of
Directors ask for report. — Committee of inquiry appointed. — Government
Orders on report. — Mr. Lushington's departure. — Sir Frederick Adam
succeeds. — Medical Report. — Abolition of Convalescent Depot. — Administration
defective. — Massacre of Kiinimbas. — Special legislation proposed, but
negatived by Imperial Government. — Destruction of vroods. — Draft Act. —
Ootacamand constituted a Military bazaar. — Lord Elphinstone at Kaity. — Mr.
Sullivan urges the re-annexation of that part of the plateau transferred to
Malabar. — Government declines to make the transfer.^Commandant appointed
Joint Magisti'ate and District Munsif. — Marquis of Tweeddale, Governor. —
Retransfer of the second portion of the Hills to Coimbatore. — Coffee-planting
begun. — Plans submitted for barracks at Wellington. — Coonoor Church built. —
Small , Cause Court Judge at Ootacamand. — Proposals to appoint Civil and
Sessions Court rejected. — Assistant Judge transfen-ed from Combaconum to
Ootacamand. — Kiindas and Nidumale annexed. — First Commissioner, Mr.
Breeks. — Ouchterlony Valley added to the district.— Industries. — Prospects of
District.
After the fall of Seringapatam the Marquis of Wellesley
" being justly of opinion that a more complete knowledge of
these countries was indispensably necessary/^ resolved to have
Mysore and the territories belonging to that state which had
been recently annexed by the British carefully surveyed, and
their physical, commercial, and agricultural conditions reported
on. The survey operations were entrusted to that distinguished
officer and oriental scholar Colonel Colin Mackenzie ;^ the other
inquiries were confided to Dr. Francis Buchanan, in whose
journal we possess invaluable notes on '' the state of agriculture,
arts and commerce ; the religion, manners and customs ; the
history, natural and civil," of the provinces visited by him. Dr.
Buchanan started from Seringapatam on the 19th May 1800,
and, after traversing East and South Mysore, entered Coimba-
See Cat. Rai$. Vol. J, Preface, vii
MANl'AI. OF THK NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
277
tore iu October of that year, on the 24th day of which month he CHAP. XII.
was at Devanaikenkota, a fort on the north side of the Bhavani, r^^t
a little above its junction with Moyar, and the head-quarters of Histoky.
the taluk to which the Nilagiris proper belonged.
" It was built," he says, " by Dana, a Nayaka or Polygar dependent Dr. Bucha-
on Madura. * * * His descendants were deprived of it by Bal ^^^'^'"'^^•°°-
Raja, another dependent on the princes of Madura. From him, or at
least a descendant of the same name, it was taken by the Raja of
Mysore, and from its having been long dependent on that family, by
far the greater part of its inhabitants speak the language of Karnata."
The disturbed state of the country as well as the relations of
the hill-people are illustrated by the following occurrence : —
" About two months ago thirty or forty Nairs from Walnad, or
from Nelleala, as it is here called, persuaded the chief of one of the
hill villages subject to the Company to join them with sixty or seventy
men. This united force came down to the low country and plundered
three villages. A hundred candashara,^ supported by a few sepoys,
were sent out ; and after an engagement, in which nobody was killed,
took the chief and seven men prisoners. Of these three were Nairs.
About ten years ago these banditti made some disturbance among the
hill villages, but never before ventured down to the low country."
Then follows the first reference that I have met with to the
Badagas : —
" Honey and wax," he writes, " are gathered by a caste called
Budugar, who inhabit the hilly country between this and Malabar, and
which lies south from Nelleala or the Wainad of Major Rennell.
They live in small villages like the Eriligarxi,, and not only use the
cotu-cadu cultivation already described, but have also ploughs. The
quantity of honey and wax which they procure is considerable, and
they pay nothing for it, there being no forest renter in the district."
On the following day, the 25th October, the unwearied doctor
" took a long and fatiguing walk to the top of the western hills ^
in order to see a camhay, or village inhabited by Eriligaru." ^
1 I find reference to these incursions in a letter from the Board of Revenue
to Lord Clive in June 1803, which is curious as containing the first reference to
the Todanad I have met with. It runs, " In consequence of the Hoblis of Devaroya-
patam and Totanad having been threatened with invasion by the insurgents in
Wainad, the former has been deserted by its inhabitants, and the Collector has
found it necessary to detach peons for their protection." Mr. Garrow, the letter
farther states, on the outbreak of the rebellion in Malabar, engaged a band of 117
peons for the protection of this part of the Coimbatore District. In the following
year (1804) the Government sanctioned the entertainment of 100 peons to protect
the Hoblis of Devardyapatnam against invasions from the rebel Pyche Rdja of
Wainad.
2 The spot was probably near Arakdd, below Rangasdmi's Peak, on the old
track from Devanaikenkota to Kdtagiri.
3 Dr. Buchanan (Chapter IX) also refers to the Tddas, but he was evidently
misinformed about them, not only placing them in the ranges south of the
Nilagiris, but as cultivating with the plough and paying rent for their fields.
2/0 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XII. But lie was more concerned with these wild people than with the
„ ^, grand hills on which they dwelt. Still the glorious panorama of
History, hill and plain which was spread out before him could not pass
unnoticed.
" Although the atmosphere was rather hazy, I had from the hills,"
he writes, " a noble view of the whole course of the Bhavani and of
the country called Chera, as far as Sandi-durga, and other remote hills.
Near the village I was refreshed by the cool water of a fine perennial
spring, which in India is a great rarity."
Thus, whilst the first European who ascended these hills was a
religious propagandist, upon whose eye their glorious scenery fell
unheeded, the first Englishman was a scientist, whose first words
were a tribute of praise to the hills, the river, and the refreshing
spring, and the note he struck has been re-echoed by every fellow-
countryman who has since climbed to this land of " springs of
water ^^ and of " sacred hills."
From Devanaikenkota Buchanan passed to Srimugai, near
Mettapollium, the residence in Tippu's time of an amildar, and
thence to Coimbatore, where we part company with him.
Colonel Colin We tum now to Colonel Mackenzie. His scheme of survey
8urvev°^^^^ embraced ''the statistics and history of the country as well
as its geography." He had three assistants and a Naturalist,
Dr. Heyne. Among the services to science which he performed
may be mentioned the discovery of the Jaina religion, the
accumulation of a mass of information regarding Lingayat
and other sects, the Sassanams and other inscriptions, the
monumental stones and trophies — virakal and mastil-al,^ —
" the sepulchral tumuli, mounds, and barrows of the early
tribes." This information was embodied in district survey
memoirs. Although we know that Colonel Mackenzie did not
ascend the Nilagiris, yet there can be little question that either
one or more of his assistants did, for we find from his letter (11th
January 1816) to the Madras Government, that in 1808 he had
forwarded a notice of the Hills contained in his " 6th Volume of
Memoirs of the 18th and 26th October 1808 " transmitted to the
Court of Directors in 1809. I have endeavoured to obtain this
notice from the Surveyor- General's Office, Calcutta, to whom these
volumes were returned, but without success ; the extract,
however, is of interest.
" I have put up in the case for transmission to Europe a copy of a
map of the Nilagiri mountains in the district of Danaikencotta. in the
Coimbatoor province, on the original scale of survey of one mile to an
inch. I have selected this as an original specimen of the work of the
native assistant surveyors, and of the survey of a singular tract of
' See his letter quoted in Preface to Tol. 1 of the Cot. Rais.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGirU DISTRICT. 279
mountainous country situated centrally in the limits between the CHAP. XII.
countries of Malabai", Mysore and Coimbatoor, remarkable for their „ ~_
extraordinary height, and for being inhabited by two singular tribes History.
of people described to be dissimilar to the natives of other provinces
in habits, manners, language and complexion, some notices of whom
are communicated in the memoirs of the Mysore Survey sent home in
] 808, and in Colonel Wilks' History of Mysore.^ This tract contains
-PJi> miles of mountains and 250 of plain country, altogether 746
miles."
A copy of this map I have not seen, but Colonel Cloete, Revenue
Survey, has courteously forwarded to me a copy of a map of the
hills east of the Paikare and Kunda rivers, prepared from surveys
from 1807-1814, that is, the Coimbatore portion of the Nilagiris,
the tract west of these rivers not having been surveyed till
1821-23 by Captain Ward. Four years, however, subsequent
to the despatch of the memoirs to the Honorable Court, we find Mr. Keys'
that a European surveyor ascended the hills under instructions ^^^' '
from Mr. Garrow,- Collector of the Coimbatore District. The
name of this surveyor was William Keys.^ His first letter is
dated Tenad, 30th March 1812. On the 5th April he was at
Peranganad, and on the 20th idem at Malekota, or Kalhatti,
returning to Devanaikenkota on the last day of the month. His
report will be found in the appendix. I do not purpose to do
more than quote fi'om the letter forwarding the second portion,
leaving the reader to judge for himself of the first known essay
describing the Nilagiris. Mr. Keys writes in August : —
" It will be unnecessary for me to observe to you, Sir, that in the
execution of this arduous duty, we have underwent considerable
difficulties, and experienced great inconveniences from the inclemency
of the climate, particularly of the Neelaghery mountains ; but not-
withstanding, I beg leave to suggest that I have made it my duty to
be very particular in exploring those parts, and I flatter myself that
the plan will be found an accurate and distinct delineation of them."
Mr. Keys found '' no manufactures on the hills and much less
of trade," though this is hardly consistent with the details of
produce which he gives, and the fact that the Government at this
time derived a revenue of about 15,000 rupees from this tract.
1 I have not been able to trace the reference. — Ed.
2 It is noted that no reference is made to the Nilagiris, except the lowland
portion abont Devarayapatuam, in Mr. Hodgson's long and interesting report on
the revenues of Coimbatore, 10th September 1807 : but in the report of the
Coimbatore Commission to Lord William Bentinck, 18th May 1804, reference
is made to the rent of the hill villages. I would here note that the years 1803,
1804 and 1805 were marked by great deficiency in the rainfall.
^ Another Surveyor, Jlacmahon, seems to have been on the hills about the
Bame time.
280
MANUAL OF THE NTLAGIRI DISTRICT.
Recent
History.
Mr. John
Sullivan's
exploration
CHAP. XII. During the five years that followed I have not been able to
trace any special notes on the Nilagiris^ but with the year 1818
began the history of the European occupation and colonization
of the plateau.
Early in 1818 two gentlemen ^ on a few weeks' leave visited
the hills for ' shikar ;' they ascended apparently by the old
Devanaikenkota path by Tenad and Kil-Kotagiri, south of Ranga-
sdmi^s Peak, having slept a night en route near some Irula villages,
still existing. They proceeded to Kotagiri, and on their return
to Coimbatore, having " surprised their friends by the account
they gave of it, particularly of the extreme coldness of the
climate,'' a party was formed, who set out to repeat the tour on
the 2nd January 1819. A long account of their tour will be
found in the letter to the Editor of the Government Gazette,
dated 30th January 1819, printed in the appendix. Of this
party Mr. John Sullivan, Collector of Coimbatore, appears to
have been one, and it is to the energy and enthusiasm of this friend
of the native that we owe the final colonization of the hills.
Mr. Sullivan, Mr. Thomas informs me, ascended by a narrow hill-
path used by Irulas, and pitched his tent in the sheltered valley of
Dimhatti near Kotagiri. He soon returned to Coimbatore, but
again ascended the hills in May in company with the celebrated
naturalist Leschenault de la Tour, who was completely restored
to health by a residence here of a few months.
Mr. Sullivan, with characteristic energy and consideration for
the people, in his first letter to the Board of Revenue, dated 6th
March 1819, requests that a rough survey of the lands may be
made, as " the inhabitants are extremely anxious to have their
lands measured, under an idea that they are paying more than
they ought to do.-" He incidentally remarks that surveyors had
been sent to this tract " commonly known by the name of
Neilgherry Hills " in 1800-1, but that " owing to the extreme
inclemency of the climate" the surveyors were frightened, measured
not an acre, and contented themselves with " making an estimate
of the quantity and quality of the land, and fixing the old
rates of teerwa upon it," ^ which, he adds, were " extremely
favorable to the ryots." Rupees 800 was the estimate for the work,
^ Mr. E. B. Thomas, for many years Collector of Coimbatore, and whose
personal acquaintance with the hills extends back to 1827, informs me that their
names were Kindersley and Whish, Assistants to the Collector of Coimbatore ; hnt
I have not found the names mentioned in contemporary papers. In Jervis's book
these names appear, but he states that they ascended in pursuit of a Poligar who
had maltreated bis ryots, and sought to escape the strong arm of the law in these
hills. Another account is that they followed smugglers.— (Baikie.)
2 He gives the revenue of the hills for twenty years ending 1819, which will
be found in Chapter XIII.
MANUAL OF THE NiLAGIRl DISTRICT. 281
whicli was sanctioned. He also asked for and obtained Eupees 300 CHAP. XII.
to make the path to the Hills more accessible, observinf^ that r^^t
if this were not done, the revenue, which had been gradually History.
diminishing, would in a short time waste to nothing, for the
ryots pay as they please, their position rendering them *' quite
secure from any coercive measures." The formation of the road
was entrusted to Mr. Macpherson in command of a party
of pioneers, and to the same officer the survey of the lands.
The road was reported as completed on 23rd May 1823. This
was the old Srimugai Pass, which preceded the Kotagiri Pass
first cut by Mr. Thomas.^
The hills meanwhile were attracting attention, and we find that
by June 1820 upwards of twenty gentlemen had visited the
plateau, and one lady, name unknown, " without any inconvenience
to herself and without giving particular trouble to the bearers "\
A long and interesting letter was published in the Madras
Gazette, 17th June 1820, containing extracts from the letters of
M. Leschenault, Botanist to the King of France, on the region, its
people and its vegetation ; and contemporaneously a report written
by Mr. Macpherson, printed in the appendix, was forwarded to
Government, who appear to have passed on to the Governor-
General these and other papers, for in the Gazette of India very
shortly afterwards appears the following notice : —
" We trust that future reports of the salubrity of this spot will Attention of
remove all the apprehensions that have been entertained, and that it Qeneral
will become a place of resort for those whose state of health may drawn to the
require that change of temperature which it unquestionably affords, f'^ilis-
Should a continued residence in these regions prove that the climate
is favorable to the European constitution, it may perhaps be deemed
expedient hereafter to form a military establishment for pensioners
and invalids, with a regular hospital ; and if it should become a
military station, with Medical Officers attached to it, houses would
Boon become erected, and conveniences would be provided for those who
might be compelled to seek the benefit of the climate ; and, in all
probability, many persons on the coast, who have withdrawn from
active life, but who do not intend to return to their native country,
would take up their future residence on the Nilgherry Mountains."
In his letter forwarding Lieutenant Macpherson^s report, Mr.
Sullivan urged on Government the desirability of employing on
the new road the prisoners of Coimbatore and Salem, as labor
could not be had on the hills or from Coimbatore, remarking
that, as there was only one path and " the country on either side
so rugged and steep that no prisoner would dare deviate from it,
a sentinel therefore at the top and bottom of the pass would be
1 Jekvis, p. 134.
36
282
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Recent
History.
CHAP. XII. sufficient to prevent the escape of any person working under the
officer." His enthusiastic faith — a faith which succeeding years
have proved to have been well founded — in the climate, which he
tells us elsewhere did more to restore him to perfect health than
a voyage to the Cape, finds expression in this letter.
" There is no Asiatic or African climate known to us (with the
exception of that of the Nepaul mountains) so cool and equal throughout
the year as the Neilgherries, and I have no doubt, when the road is
made accessible and a medical man is stationed there, these mountains
will become the general resort for invalids instead of the Cape and the
Isle of France."
And further :
*' My own mind is strongly impressed with the important results
which may follow from the discovery of this country as affording an
excellent asylum for invalids, both ofiB.cers and soldiers. * * * It is
literally true that out of the sun heat is not known on the mountains in
any one month of the year. The soil is remarkably fertile, wheat and
barley are already cultivated, and many of the European fruits grow
wild and only require culture to attain perfection."
This latter prophecy has not been fulfilled, and even Mr. SuUivan
had some fear that his readers would hold his fancy more lively^
than it ought to have been in the picture he had drawn, and so
appeals to other gentlemen to bear him out.
Sir Thomas Munro, who had just succeeded to the Governorship
of Madras, approved Mr. Sullivan's suggestions, anticipating
" much advantage from the acquisition of an accurate statistical
knowledge of that district,^' but, with his known economy, declined
to sanction Rupees 26 for an English writer.
Space will not permit of my giving M. Leschenault's account
of the Hills, but as he was the fii*st botanist who visited the
mountains, I cannot refrain from quoting at length his monograph
forwarded with a collection of Nllagiri plants to the Madras
Literary Society.
" La collection des plantes que mon ami et moi avons recueilMes
sur les montagnes de Nilgerret, renferme plus de 200 especes, parmi
lesquelles un grand nombre de nouvelles. Nous avons pense que la
Society Litteraire de Madi'as recevroit avec interet quelques echan-
tillons de ces plantes. Le temps que j'ai ete oblige de donner a leur
recolte, et a leur preparation, ne m'a permis que de les examiner
rapidement. Je manquerois des livres, et des moyens de comparaison
necessaires pour fixer definitivement leur place, aussi je me suis
contente le plus souvent de reconnoitre le genre j'ai donne avec reserve,
quelques noms ne pouvent etre que provisoires, car j 'ignore si les
plantes auxquelles je les ai donnees n'ont pas ete nommees par MM.
Roxburg, Rotteler, Bnchanan, Blein, et Heyne, dont les recherches,
sur d'antres montagnes de la peninsule, sont anterieures aux mienne,
mais dont je ne connois point les herbiers.
M. Lesche-
nault's
remarks.
MANUAL OF THE NTLAGTRI DISTRICT. 283
" Le regne vegetal sur le montagne de Nilgerret offre le plus grand CHAP. XII.
interet, tant par le nombre des objets nouveaux, que par la diflFerence
qui existe entre les plantes de cette contree et celles de la plaine — on History,
y trouve un grand nombre de genres analogues avec ceux d'Europe, tels
sont les Vaccinium, Rhododendron, Fragaria (strawberry), Rubus
(raspberry), Anemoni, Balsamina, Geranium, Plantago, &c., &c.
Ce rapport indique que les plantes utiles d'Europe s'acclimateraient
parfaitement bien, et la vigourense vegetation que Ton remarque
partout, assure d'abondantes recoltes.
" Parmi les plantes les plus remarquables que nous avons recueil-
lees, je citerai le Berberis Tinctoria, espece nouvelle, dont le bois et
I'ecorce fournissent une belle couleur jaune, qui peut devenir importante
pour les teintures, si Ton parvient a lui donner de la fixite. Elle n'est
point employee par les indigenes.
" Le Leptospermum Scopariura arbuste, qui produit un fruit excel-
lent que la culture rendrait encore meilleur ; il seroit possible
d'acclimater ce cbarmant arbuste dans plusieurs contrees d'Europe.
" Mr. m'a adresse une excellente description d'une belle
plante qui croit au sommet des plus hautes montagnes. Elle appar-
tient a un genre nouveau. Je ne I'ai trouvee ni en fleurs, ni en
fruits.
" Les bois offrent souvent des ai'bres d'une grandeur et d'une
grosseur remarquables, bons pour le charpente et la menuiserie.
Les bords des ruisseaux et des torrents sont pares de jolie plantes
et d'arbustes elegants qui peuvent embellir nos jardins.
" Parmi les plantes cereales, le bled, I'orge, dont j'en ai vu que les
grains, m'ont paru d'une qualite inferieure, et je crois necessaire de
renouveler les semences."
In Mr. Sullivan's letter above referred to, he had brought to the Infanticide,
notice of Government the strong reasons there were for believing
that the Todas practised female infanticide, and had suggested
the institution by Mr. Macpherson of further inquiries. Sir T.
Munro approved the proposals, but though the practice undoubt-
edly existed, and possibly still continues in remote mands, yet
I have seen no report furnishing indubitable evidence on the
point.
In March 1821 a letter appeared in the Madras Gazette giving Ootacamand,.
an account of a visit to the Mukarte "belt.'' It is noteworthy for
containing the first distinct mention of Ootacamand. The note
runs : — February 22nd. " Marched Wotokymand. High wind
evening and all night — to sensation extremely cold." To this
letter is appended a thermometric table of the temperature at
I Jackan^ri ^ for twelve months ending 28th July 1821,
In June 1822 appeared the first ofiicial Medical Report on the
Hills, drawn up apparently by Assistant Surgeon Orton, of Her
1 Two miles south-east of Kdtagiri, elevation about 5,275- feet.
284 MANUAL OF THE NILAiilRI DISTRICT,
CHAP. XII. Majesty's 34th Regiment. The paper is a careful resume oi all
EecTxt *'^^ information then available on the suitability of the climate for
History. Eiu'opeanSj and discusses the several localities most suitable for a
station. Of Ootacamand Mr. Orton says : —
" In the Torder village of Wuttacamund I was informed that no
death had happened for three years."
He summed up as follows : —
"In the event of Government formingan establishment for invalids on
the Neilgherries, it will require mature consideration to fix on the most
proper situation for that purpose. The neighbourhood of Dimhutty
would be most convenient for procuring supplies, &c., by the new road
and on account of the Collector's establishment being placed there ;
but the country about Codavomoody is much prettier, more cultivated,
and populous. The Todiernaad, from its much greater height and
coldness, would deserve the preference, were it not to be apprehended
that its swamps and woods would be injurious. It does not, however,
appear from experience that such is the case. The Toders are a
more robust and healthy race than the other castes who occupy the
less elevated tract. It is probable that a clean and dry tract may be
found equally elevated with the Todiernaad. The country imme-
diately west of Sooloor (Sholur) seems to possess all these advantages,
and it is close to Mysore and a pass leading down into it. It might be
deemed eligible to erect a few small temporary buildings for the recep-
tion of sick officer's — similar to some already raised by Mr. Sullivan
for travellers — at several different parts of the table-land. The experi-
ments of proving, on a sufficiently large scale, the effects of this
singular climate on the European constitution would be a highly
interesting one in a philosophical point of view, and, if successful, its
results would be highly important and valuable."
Mr. Sullivan's energy, however, virtually solved the question as
to the capital of the Nilagiris. In the year following his j&rst
visit he seems to have determined on selecting the grand valley
of the western slopes of Doddabetta for his residence. The site
chosen for his house was a spur projecting out into the eastern
centre of the valley, commanding a grand view of the western
range, whilst it was surrounded by grassy hills more or less covered,
especially iu the hollows, with magnificent sholas or woods.
This valley seems to have been a favourite pasture-ground of the
Todas, containing two or three important mands, near one of which
Mr. Sullivan fixed his house, and hence the settlement obtained
its name — Ootacamand. It is strange that the terminations of the
names of the four principal settlements of the hills represent its
four principal tribes — Ootacamand, the Todas ; Kotagiri, the
Kotas ; Coonoor, the Badagas ; and Kolakambe, the Irulas. The
Kurnmbamotte is not yet so distinguished. To return to Mr.
Sullivan. — To this house he gave the name of Stonehouse, from
the material, rouo-h stone, of which it was built. This structure
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIKT DISTRICT. 285
has since then passed through many hands. In 1860 the Lawrence CHAP. XIL
Asylum was established there, and there continued till its removal r^^t
to Lovedale in 1871, when it became the property of Government, History,
and is now used for the Government Offices, to which is attached
the new Council Chamber. The building appears to have been
tolerably advanced to 1822, a European servant being in charge.
In September 1822 Mr. Sullivan applied to Government for
permission to enclose 500 ballas of waste land, having, with the
consent of Government, procured a professional gardener and
agriculturist with a view to making '^ experiments in hoi'ticulture
and agriculture under his superintendence." " The experi-
ments,'' he adds, " may eventually prove useful to the public, and
the expense of making them will be my own." This gardener's
name was Johnstone. Mr. Sullivan had also another assistant, an
African named Jones, an excellent gardener and seedsman.
Johnstone eventually took up the business of a market-gardener
on his own account, made a good deal of money, and returned
to England ; whilst Jones carried on a similar business near
the Mdlemand reservoir until his death. The land asked for
and obtained by Mr. Sullivan was the valley to the south of
Stonehouse, on parts of which the fruit trees planted by this
true coloniser of the Nilagiris may still be seen, whilst others
were planted by him, or by his aid, at the houses known as
Lushington Hall, Shoreham, the Club, at Kaity and at Bellikal,
and many other places. The presence of European grains and
fruits on the hills, as already noticed, stimulated these pioneers to
action.
It was in this and the following year that Captain Ward, Captain
originally one of Colonel Colin Mackenzie's assistants, sarveved ^'^''^'^
Survey*
the Hills and completed the valuable memoir which will be found in
the appendix, though it was not submitted to Government till July
1826. The following extract, written probably towards the end
of 1822, is interesting as showing the progress made by the
settlers on the Hills up to that date : —
"Since these regions have been visited by gentlemen," he writes,
" several bungalows have been built in different pleasant situations, as
at Dimhutty, and here is a very good kitchen garden, as also at Jacke-
nery in a lower situation. A few temporary ones have been erected
for the convenience of travellers at Kodavomoody, Naiijauaad, Keelur
and Yellanhullj, and another is now in some progress at Whotakary
in the MuUanaad, with a spacious garden, laid out with taste on the
shoulder of a low ridge, which promises in time to outstep those above-
mentioned. One great disadvantage attending building here is the
■want of materials. Inhere is a variety of timber, but it appears to be
of very indifferent kind, nor is it possible to burn firm bricks; the clay
being of a bad quality, does not adhere together for any time."
286
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
Recent
History.
Mr. Sullivan
opens out
roads.
CHAP. XII. In this year (1823) Mr. Sullivan obtained a grant fi*om Govern-
ment of 5,000 rupees to complete the road across the range to the
Wainad by Glidaliir, " thus completing the communication between
the eastern and western coasts," rendering the Nilagiris " easily
accessible to all persons approaching them from the sea." He
also obtained permission to repair the communication with Mysore
by the Gajalhatti Pass. In the following year he succeeded in
obtaining a grant of Rupees 6,500 for opening out the Karkoot
(Karkur) Pass, which had been suffered to fall into decay after
the capture of Seringapatam, and to repair the line connecting
the pass with the Mysore frontier, which had originally been
constructed by Tippu Sultan, making it practicable for wheel
traffic. The opening of the road to the West Coast led to the
importation of large supplies of grain, '' thus affording timely
relief to the market on the eastern side during this season of
scarcity." In the following year (1824) Mr. Sullivan thus sums
up the benefits the people had derived from his measures : —
" The whole produce of the hills was formerly carried down upon the
backs of the natives for the person who rented it from the Govern-
ment. The rent was a rigid monopoly/ and the demand upon the
ryots undefined. Under this system the province and population
were rapidly declining. Since the road was made the lands have been
measured, assessed with money-rents, a regular ryotwari system
introduced, and all the produce is now sold on the hills and carried
down to the low country upon bullocks. Although these changes
have been attended with a very considerable reduction of the public
revenue, yet such is the demand and competition tor the valuable
products of the hills, and such the comparative facility of transferring
them in all directions, that the loss will very soon be covered by
increased cultivation."
During the following two years little progress appears to have
been made in inducing the Government to establish a sanitarium
on the plateau, though Mr. Sullivan states he had long endeavoured
to impress on the Government the great advantage which might
be derived from the Nilagiris, being of opinion that " the judicious
expenditure of thousands here would lead to the saving of lacs."
But he had not been idle. It was about this time that the
Ootacamand Lake was formed and many of the roads about the
station cut. He built the house, and laid out the garden and
grounds of Bishopsdown, then called Southdowns, having leased
his houses at '' Stonehouse" and gardens to Government for 460
rupees a month. Dr. Haines and Captain Macpherson also
began to build, the one about the Club Hill, the other on the
Ootacamand
laid out.
' The renting system appears to bave been introduced here, as in other parts
of Coimbatore, in 1807.
MANUAL OF THE NIlAGIRI DISTRICT. 287
western slopes of Elk Hill. But towards the close of the year CHAP. XII.
1826^ Sir Thomas Munro — clarum et venerahile nomen — crossed r^^t
the hills on his return from a tour through the southern History.
districts. He seems to have well appreciated them, remarking gjr Thomaa
that " no description hitherto given of them had done justice to Muuro's visit.
the subject." He died at Bellary a few months later, and though
he marked out no policy for the hills, he ordered Mr. Sullivan
to report thereon. This report he submitted in September 1827.
It contains a long account of the climate. It states that in
Ootacamand there were then seventeen houses for Europeans,
ten of which were private property unconnected with Government;
that at Kotagiri there were five bungalows, these being occupied
by private families.
"Roads," he writes, "have been made in all directions about the
settlement of Ootacamund, so that invalids may take either horse or
palanquin exercise with almost as much facility as in the low country .
A fine piece of water has also been constructed, on which boats are
beginning to ply. A subscription has been set on foot for a public
reading-room. Ootacamund, in short, is gradually approximating to
a state of comfort and civilization."
But the times of indifference to the Nilagiris were at end when Mr. S. R.
Mr. Stephen Rumbold Lushington succeeded to the Grovernorship Lushmgton's
of Madras three months after Sir T. Munro's death. Within thirty
days of his assuming the government, we find a long series of
questions addressed to the Ootacamand Station Committee, ^
composed of Mr. Sullivan, Dr. Haines and Captain Macpherson.
From the answers to these queries, dated 27th November 1827, we
learn that Government were in possession of four bungalows,
accommodating ten bachelors and three families, upon which
Government had spent 20,000 rupees, having received as rent
above 3,000 rupees, and that forty or fifty Government officers
had been accommodated in them ; that there were four private
bungalows available on rent at Ootacamand — one at Rallia, between
Ootacamand and Kotagiri, and three at the latter place; — that
Government had already advanced Rupees 32,000 to these gentlemen
to build private residences, and that thirteen bungalows were being
constructed by them ; that " demand for accommodation " by
intending visitors " was incessant ; " that Mr. Sullivan had
tendered his house, Stonehouse, with the garden to Government
as a hospital for 100 soldiers, but that the project had fallen
through, and that, consequently, he had made over the garden,
• It was in this year that two letters to the Bengal Harlcaru by Philanthropes
appeared, containing the first philosophic account of the Nilagiri tribes.
* Their powers were undefined, and I have not been able to trace the minute
of their appointment.
288 MAI^UAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XII. measuring 10 acres, to a respectable European to cultivate,
Ee~ent *' °^ condition that the produce is to be appropriated to the
History, supply of the public market." In reply to a proposal of
Government to establish gardens, the Committee proposed no
further outlay, but urged the propriety "of making Mr. Sullivan's
garden the foundation for a botanical establishment," remark-
ing that " a great many products largely used in medicine,
and imported at a great expense from Europe, might be
raised here in any quantities." We further learn from this
report that, under orders from Government, advances had been
made " at different times to people to establish bazaars here,
and the market is now regularly and well supplied with every
essential article. The prices of rice and some other grains,
though cent, per cent, higher than those in the low country, are
not above the usual bazaar rates at the Presidency ; and when the
passes into Malabar are fully opened, a very considerable reduc-
tion of them may be confidently expected." There were by this
time about 500 people, with 23 shops, in the bazaar. The
community were still dependent on the low country for bread.
The Committee urged Government to estabhsh a brewery for the
manufacture of malt liquor for the European troops, as they
believed the hill barley was capable of being converted into
excellent malt. Hops, they thought, would grow if once
introduced, but many efforts made by individuals to effect this
had failed. They therefore urged that the Company should send
out plants by the next year's ships. We find that an establish-
ment of public palanquin-bearers was kept up. Villages, we are
told, were beginning to spring up at the foot of the passes.
They urged the employment of low-country bearers and coolies
(ghaut condashars) for a curious reason, fi^om which we may learn
what a great change has come over the Nilagiri tribes.
" The hill people are so independent in circnmstances and character,"
they write, " that no temptation of wages will induce them to engage
themselves voluntarily as coolies, and they are only prevailed npou to
work from a conviction that, refusing to do so, Government might
make some just demands against them for increase of rent, which are
now from motives of expediency withheld."
Ootacamand The result of the deliberations^ of Government was the
BaniSii^.^ establishment of Ootacamand as the sanitarium of Madi-as.
After summing up the advantages of the hill climate, with the
observation that the temperature was — what the late learned
Doctor Baillie declared to be—'' most favourable to the prolonged
existence of man as an animal," they resolved, in order that
invalids might ''reap the benefit of this chmate," that the Mysore
1 Extracts, Minutes Consultation, 11th December 1827
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 289
Pass (Segur) should at once be made practicable for carts, and CHAP. xri.
that ten companies of Pioneers should immediately be employed r^^-x
on the work ; that travellers' bungalows should be built at History.
Bellikal on the head, and at Segur at the foot of the pass (also
at Tippukddu and at Donde in Mysore), and on completion of
these bungalows, others were to be constructed on the Wainad
and Coimbatore Passes. At Ootacamand the accommodation
being "meagre and inadequate" compared with the pressing
wants of the community, the following buildings were to be
erected forthwith : a hospital to accommodate 40 or 50 invalid
soldiers, costing 10,500 rupees; ten bungalows, each to accom-
modate four officers or two families, at 6,800 rupees each.
These buildings were to be " durably and well " constructed^ so
as to bear a second story if necessary. The Commissary-
General was ordered to supply chunam and the Gun Carriage
Factory all the wood-work and furniture, and " the most vigorous
exertions were to be used in carrying the resolution of Govern-
ment into effect." The neighbouring Collectors and even the
Resident at Mysore were warned to lend every assistance in
building this new temple to Joy and Health in this land, — to many
a land of dearth, drought, and dreariness.
If in these energies Mr. Sullivan saw the approaching fulfilment Military
of the dream which had for nearly ten years occupied his imagin- 2°"oTnted^°*
ation, the pleasure was mixed with bitterness in the appoint-
ment of a Military Commandant, though he himself had advocated
the appointment of a special officer. The duty of supex'vising
the hills, which had " hitherto devolved upon a Committee of
Public Officers or upon the Principal Collector, Coimbatore,"
was held sufficiently burdensome to constitute a separate chai'ge.
The Commandant was to control all public buildings, public
works, and establishments, and " all military persons of inferior
rank to his own who may proceed thither." All arrangements for
purchase or sale of public property were to be made through
him, and all applications for quarters to him. He was to report
progress weekly. Major Kelso, of the 26th Native Infantry, was
selected for the post, with a staff allowance of Rupees 400 per
mensem.
But these activities induced conflicts. Mr. Sullivan being Official
shortly afterwards ordered, in communication with this officer, ^j^°^g' "'^'
to allot gi'ound for a military bazaar. Major Kelso sought to
mark out a large cantonment some ten or twelve square miles
in extent for this purpose, and to construct the native bazaar
at the spot now called Charing Cross, below Stonehouse ;
Mr. Sullivan to restrict it to a small space for a bazaar,
which he wished to locate near the west end of the lake.
37
290 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIKI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XII. It is needless to detail the controversy that ensued, but it
j^ ^ ultimately closed in a compromise, the part selected for the
History. Cantonment bazaars, public offices, hospital, &c., being the spur
on which St. Stephen's Church, Bombay Castle, the jails and
bazaars now stand. ^ The officer appointed to sui-vey the
station was Major Hansen, Deputy Quartermaster-General. His
report^ is interesting as drawing attention to the swamps of
the station and suggesting their being drained, but he did not
consider them necessarily unhealthy, for, although mostly impas-
sable, springs were constantly oozing from the rising grounds in
their vicinity, and thus they partook more " of the character of
running streams than of stagnant water." He also eai-nestly
urged on Government to limit and allot ground to private
individuals who had already built or were building houses. He
remarks, " At present the extent is vei-y undefined, and the claims
are, in many instances, so very unreasonable, that I think as little
time as possible should be lost in defining the relative limits of
each man's property." He urged that the Government bungalows
for private individuals should be built on the slopes along the
western lake, and that a suspension bridge should be thrown
across this piece of water. He also discussed the passes to the
hills, being strongly in favour of the Gudalur. It was also due
to this officer that the central ridge already referred to was
selected for the public buildings. His views were generally
approved by Government, but they resolved to station only one
company of sepoys, instead of two, at the place, and ordered the
proposed native barrack accommodation to be reduced accord-
ingly.
Convalescent The various military buildings as well as private residences
^^^*" were pushed on with great rapidity. On the 8th January 1830
*'the Convalescent Depot" at Ootacamand was notified as ready
for occupation, and the first detachment of convalescents arrived
in May following. During part of the year 1829 Mr. Lushington
appears to have resided on the hills and to have taken a very
active part in pushing on the works, visiting with this object the
several ghats. He renewed, on behalf of Government, the lease
of Mr. Sullivan's house " Stonehouse," and purchased from him
for Government the Bishopsdown property as a residence for
invalid officers for Rupees 35,000.
Mr. Sullivan's But though Mr. Sullivan hailed Mr. Lushington's change of
Portk)n^of~ poHcy with enthusiasm, the views of these gentlemen differed
Nilagiris
transferred ' The limits were soon extended, and two or three years later included the
to Malabar. whole Ootacamand Valley. — See Map, lat Edition of Or. Baikie's work.
* The report is dated 23rd Septembor 1828. In March of this year Surgeon
Dalmahoy had submitted the report rei orred to iu Chapter IV, Part I, but his
remarks were mainly confined to Kdtagiri.
OOMPODNDS
in the
""n cantonment of ootacamund
'^ February 1829.
\
\
r
^^'>:
\
A\
\
\.
<t^
'h^ .
290 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTEICT.
CHAP. XII. It is needless to detail the controversy that ensued, but it
P , ultimately closed in a compromise, the part selected for the
History, cantonment bazaars, public offices, hospital, &c., being the spur
on which St. Stephen^s Church, Bombay Castle, the jails and
bazaars now stand. ^ The officer appointed to survey the
station was Major Hansen, Deputy Quartermaster-General. His
report^ is interesting as drawing attention to the swamps of
the station and suggesting their being drained, but he did not
consider them necessarily unhealthy, for, although mostly impas-
sable, springs were constantly oozing from the rising grounds in
their vicinity, and thus they partook more " of the character of
running streams than of stagnant water." He also earnestly
urged on Government to limit and allot ground to private
individuals who had already built or were building houses. He
remarks, " At present the extent is very undefined, and the claims
are, in many instances, so very unreasonable, that I think as little
time as possible should be lost in defining the relative limits of
each man's property. '^ He urged that the Government bungalows
for private individuals should be built on the slopes along the
western lake, and that a suspension bridge should be thrown
across this piece of water. He also discussed the passes to the
hills, being strongly in favour of the Gudalur. It was also due
to this officer that the central ridge already referred to was
selected for the public buildings. His views were generally
approved by Government, but they resolved to station only one
company of sepoys, instead of two, at the place, and ordered the
proposed native barrack accommodation to be reduced accord-
Convalescent The various military buildings as well as private residences
^'^^^' were pushed on with great rapidity. On the 8th January 1830
*'the Convalescent Depot" at Ootacamand was notified as ready
for occupation, and the first detachment of convalescents arrived
in May following. During part of the year 1829 Mr. Lushington
appears to have resided on the hills and to have taken a very
active part in pushing on the works, visiting with this object the
several ghats. He renewed, on behalf of Government, the lease
of Mr. Sullivan's house " Stonehouse," and purchased from him
for Government the Bishopsdown property as a residence for
invalid officers for Rupees 35,000.
Mr. Sullivan's But though Mr. Sullivan hailed Mr. Lushington's change of
Portk)^DoV" policy with enthusiasm, the views of these gentlemen differed
Nilagiris ■ — ■ —
transferred ' The limits were soon extended, and two or three years later included the
to Malabar, whole Ootacamand Valley.— See Map, 1st Edition of Dr. Baikie's work.
* The report is dated 23rd September 1828. In March of this year Surgeon
Dalmahoy had submitted the report rei^rred to iu Chapter IV, Part I, but his
remarks were mainly confined to Kdlagiri.
. Mr. W. Carstairs Staff aurgoon
, Asst. Sm'goon T. Robson's By Bt.
i Mv. S. Smith'B
J Lieutt. Burlton'a
J CaptQ, H. C. Cotton's
[ Do- -
I SorgeoQ Glue Bombay Eetbt. I
AAA Military Limits '
BBB Ground Reserved by Govt, for pablic t
fev'
^
h ."
PLAN
OOlIPODMDi
CANTONMENT OF OOTACAMUSD
February 1829.
sa Captn. Mc Phereon's
M Do.
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37 Do.
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38 Parsoe'j
1 39 Lt. Mc. Lood
<0 Cmn. Dadcrwood'.
1 ■
« Mr. Ap^teca
3 Craggj
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MANUAL OK THE NiLACURI DISTRICT. 291
on many points, and the result of this disagreement was that CHAP. XU.
advantag-e was taken of Mr. Sullivan's departure from the Hills ^
at the close of 1829 (he was succeeded by Mr. J. Thomas) to History.
transfer the greater portion of the Nilagiri Taluk, including the
portion below the ghats at the northern base of the hills, to
Malabar ; Kotagiri and the adjoining portion of Peranganad
alone remaining to Coimbatore, The transfer took place in
January 1830. The ostensible reason was to check the smuggling
of tobacco from Coimbatore across the range into Malabar, where
there was a monopoly, the revenue in the latter district having
been much affected by this illicit traffic.
" A free transit of tobacco," writes Mr. Lushington, " being per-
mitted in every part of the Coimbatore District, a vast quantity of it
is brought up during the fair season and concealed by the Malabar
smugglers in different parts of the Neilgherry Hills adjoining the
Kundahs, which are in the Malabar District. On a favourable
opportunity the tobacco is conveyed to the low country by secret and
almost inaccessible paths down the Kundah mountains, the smugglers
keeping together in a large body on account of the numerous elephants
and tigers with which the forest is infested, until they reach the open
country of Malabar at the bottom, where they separate and disperse in
different directions."
" The most obvious way of preventing this system of smug-
gling " was to transfer the Nilagiris to Malabar. The revenue of
the portion transferred was said to be about Rupees 9,000 only.
It was also thought desirable to place the two main passes under
one authority. The Collector of Malabar at the time was Mr.
Sheffield. Very shortly after this transfer it was found necessary
to retransfer that portion of Peranganad which had been trans-
ferred to the Collector of Coimbatore, including, subsequently,
the villages of Nellitore, Odantore, Velleru-Kambe and Anyur-
Kambe, in order that that officer might complete the Coonoor
Ghat, which had now been begun. The Collectors of Malabar
were allowed to please themselves regarding the retransfer of
the Devarayapatnam tract, north of the Nilagiris.
Mr. Sullivan, however, did not permit his beloved hills to be Mr. Sullivan
transferred from the district he had ruled so long without P^'otests.
a severe struggle. He wrote a long and powerful minute on the
subject, and, though his arguments were not to prevail at the
time, twelve years later, during his term as a Councillor, they
did prevail as stated hereafter. It was during this controversy
that the contention in regard to the ancient dividing line of the
Coimbatore and Malabar Districts came prominently forward,
but it is not intended to sum up the arguments advanced on
either side. The determination of the Ggvernor in Council ^
Extracts, Minutes Consultation, 19th Febraarv 1830, No. 180.
292
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Kecent
History.
CHAP. XII. on Mr. Sullivan's protest in regard to the boundary which had
hitherto separated the Malabar and the Coimbatore Collectorates
on the Nilagiris was as follows : —
" The Right Honorable the Governor in Council considers the
evidence and information adduced by Captain Ward to be conclusive
as to the fact that all the lands on the western bank of the Pykarra
(or as he calls it, the Bnkkarry) river beloug to Malabar. Captain
Ward could have no personal interest in the question ; his duty was
to survey the country ; one of the chief objects of a survey is to mark
distinctly the acknowledged boundaries of adjoining countries and
to fix them in communication with the inhabitants when they are
disputed. The boundary in this case was traced in 1822-23, and Captain
Ward's accuracy in this respect was never, so far as the Government
are aware, disputed' until the close of Mr. Sullivan's administra-
tion, when all other subjects of controversial disquisition had been
exhausted."
This order is of interest in other ways, for it contains the first
expression of the views of Government on the claims of the
T6das to be lords of the soil, and of the woods and of the wastes,
a claim which was vigorously advocated by Mr. Sullivan, though
they, i.e., 450 of them, paid as grazing-tax Eupees 581 only.
We learn that there was already a Tahsildar on the Hills with
civil and criminal jurisdiction, but when appointed I have
not been able to trace. It is noted that the average land
revenue of the hills to 1813 was Rupees 14,762, but during the
following fourteen years Rupees 6,499 only. In conclusion the
Government ordered careful inquiries to be instituted into the
alienation of lands, the prevention of which they considered of the
greatest importance in view to the formation of a settlement on
the Hills, and the minutes of Sir Thomas Munro on the rights
of the Crown in the soil were commended to Mr. Sheffield for
careful study.
The transfer of the taluk to Malabar accomplished, the pro-
gress of the station was most rapid. Whilst in 1827 there were
only seventeen houses in the station, within the following six
years the number had risen to one hundred and two. A fine
church, St. Stephen's, had been built at a cost of Rupees 24,000,
provided in part by the Government, in part by the Church
Mission Society, and in part by private subscriptions ; and also a
Roman Catholic chapel. A Grammar School " had been estab-
lished by the Church Mission Society for the sons of Missionaries
and of Europeans. Hospitals for Europeans and Natives, also
Rapid
exteusion of
Ootacamand
1 This is hardly correct, as Mr. Sullivan called attention of the Survey Depart-
ment to the error in his opinion on first receiving Captain Ward's map in July
1826.
2 The building is now known as Sylk's Hotel. The prospectus will be found
in Appendix V, Ist Ed., Baikie's Nilgiri Hills.
MANUAL OF THK NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 293
Jails, also a Club (the Club-liouse still used for this purpose CHAP. Xll.
was built by Sir William Rumbold, Bart., a partner of the famous „ .
house of Palmer and Co., Hyderabad), and lastly three largo shops History.
by Parsees from Bombay.^ The Bombay authorities also had not
been idle, and had established public quarters for their invalid
officers at the house known as Bombay House, Elk Hill, and pro-
vided a Medical Officer for their care.^ Meanwhile the selection
and the opening out of the Coonoor Pass by Mr. Lushington
led to the formation of a station at Coonoor, the first houses
being those built by and for the Pioneers. An experimental
farm had been begun at Kaity Valley under the Assistant
Commissary- General Major Crewe. I would here mention that the
establishment of a school, the building of the church, and the
scheme for hill colonization by Europeans, were in great measure
projected by Daniel Wilson, the eccentric but energetic Bishop
of Calcutta, the only Indian Bishop at the time, and his zealous
Assistant, Archdeacon Robinson of Madras. Bishop Wilson Bishop
arrived in Calcutta in 1832, and shortly afterwards began his Daniel
celebrated tour throughout his diocese which lasted five years, and
during which he travelled 13,000 miles. Of him Lord Dalhousie
remarked that he was the best man of business he had met in
India. This zealous bishop also advocated a scheme for the
Christian instruction of the native immigi-ants to the Hills. The
consecration of St. Stephen's was a great day. Bishop Wilson
took for his text the words " the wilderness and solitary place
shall be glad for them and the desert shall rejoice and blossom
as the rose.'' He referred to the natural wilderness as blooming
around them, and " the valleys, till lately abandoned to solitude
and desolation, teeming now with life, and in certain progress
towards that time when they shall stand so thick with corn
that they shall laugh and sing " — a prophecy which still remains
to be fulfilled. He left the hills for the West Coast, journeying
through Wainad. I cannot refrain from quoting his remarks
on this district, though the conclusion will probably not meet
with a response from the present settlers : —
" The cotton, coffee, and tobacco of this district, its mineral and
other spontaneous productions, would, with even moderate care and
pains, become an overflowing stream of wealth, and of that which
statesmen love best — revenue. I never saw a country which, with a
little management, might be rendered so gloriously taxable."
The station grew with marvellous quickness under Mr. Court of
Lushington's fostering care, but the expenditure he was incurring ^'j^®°*^°" ^^^
' The principal, Nesserwanjee Jehangeer, is now represented by Framjee and
Company.
2 Several interesting sketches of Ootacamand and other places on the Hills
will be found in Harkness, Jervis, Baikie (Ist Edition), and a series of large
engravings by Captain McMurdy, all about 1834.
294
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTfaCT.
Committee
of inquiry
appointed.
CHAP. xn. was evidently viewed vi^itb doubtful favor by the Court of
Recent Directors,, and about six months before he resigned office that
History, eminently frugal and cautious body of rulers addressed a
despatch to the Madras Government, asking for more definite
information than had yet been given of the advantages which
had attended the occupation of the Hills. They desired to know
the number of houses, their cost ; the names of owners and
occupiers ; past and present cost of establishments, and a list
thereof ; also to be furnished with a medical report ; and ordered
all correspondence on the subject of the Hills to be submitted to
them. The Government, however, seem to have been forewarned ;
for in July, whilst the despatch was on its way, a Committee
was appointed by Government to investigate the expenditure
hitherto incurred, and that still necessai'y, on buildings, roads, and
bridges, and the prospects of the Hills. The report of this
Committee, which was composed of Major Strahan, Deputy
Quartermaster-General, Major Hutchins, Adjutant-General, and
Captain Eastment, who succeeded Major Kelso as Comman-
dant of the Nilagiris, was submitted on the 10th August 1832, and
contains much valuable information. The Committee enter at
some length into the subject of the experimental farm established
at Kaity Valley in April 1830, referred to in the chapter on
agriculture ; they recommend the employment of prisoners from
Malabar on the Hills ; they support Major Crewe's scheme ^ for
encouraging colonization, having no hesitation in giving their
opinion that cultivation might be carried to a very great extent,
and remarking that " the flourishing appearance of the fields of
grain around the small villages of the native Burghers prove the
excellence of the soil, and the many flowing and unceasing
streams of water from springs on the hills ensure constant
irrigation during the driest parts of the season, and when the
pei'iodical rains may be scanty ','' they recommend that great care
should be taken in fixing the boundaries of lands g-ranted to
settlers and builders, and that the borders of the lake should be
kept free from encroachment; they urge the desirability of
forming an establishment for breeding cattle for the public service
and supply of " salted provisions for the use of His Majesty^s
Navy," having observed " the herds of fine cattle belonging to
the pastoral tribes." They then proceed to report on the pubHc
buildings, having " the advantage of the attendance of Lieutenant
Pears,^ of the corps of Engineers." The buildings detailed are
St. Stephen's Church, the Convalescent Depot, Southdowns, the
Public Quarters, the Native Barracks, the Choultry, the Lock
Hospital, and the Public Bazaar, portions of which they think
' See Appendix VI, Baikie, 1st Edition.
^ Now General Thomaa Pears, R.E.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRl DISTRICT. 205
should be reserved as ''a public granary," "These bazaars," they CHAP. XII.
say, '^ were originally erected to encourage native merchants from T>"~7r
the low country to settle at Ootacamand, and the arrangement History.
appears to have succeeded perfectly, supplies of all kinds being
in abundance ;" but, as they ai e kept up at public expense, they
suggest, after reserving the " granary," that the remainder should
be granted to deserving occupants " on such conditions as may
secure the several objects connected with them." The " Bake
House " was to be treated likewise. They recommend the erection
of permanent bridges in Ootacamand by the Pioneers and the
completion of the bund. As regards the ghats, they note that a
road from Ootacamand to Coonoor was nearly completed ; that the
Coonoor Ghat was opened to an extent of five miles from the top,
and only 2| miles remained to be completed ; they find the
passage of the Bhavani at Mettapollium accomplished with
difficulty in basket boats ; so, whilst favoring the erection of a
suspension bridge, they recommend the immediate construction
of a " flying bridge " of boats, Two excellent travellers' bunga-
lows had already been constructed, one at Coonoor and one at
Mettapollium. On the road to the west by Gudalur they
recommend that boats, " teengars," be provided for the Paikare
river, and suspension bridges for smaller streams. They find a
" most excellent " travellers' bungalow at Neduwattam, but that
at Paikare fast going to decay. They advise the partial abandon-
ment of the Kotagiri and Srimugai Pass, as likely to be
superseded by that of Coonoor, a road having been opened from
that place to Kotagiri. They did not visit the Kundas, but
report the Sisapara ghat as already open, and recommend the
construction of bungalows at the head and foot of the pass. At
the Avalanche a large wooden bungalow, built at the Government
Farm (Hoonsur ?) in Mysore, had already been erected. The
steepness of the gradients of some of the ghats did not attract
attention, for they remark that the Coonoor and Gudalur ghats
(the old with gradients of 1 in 8) will, on completion, " be easy
for travellers and wheeled carriages of any description almost
throughout the year." The times have changed j even one innineteeu
does not suffice, but a railway is demanded for easy ascent. As
regards the suitability of the hills as a sanitarium, they consider
it "proved beyond a doubt," and submit a report from Dr. Baikie,
Principal Civil Surgeon, in support of this opinion. They advise
the establishment of a subordinate sanitarium at Dimhatti, where
accommodation sufficient for ten officers already existed, originally
intended for the use of a missionary establishment. They propose
to provide also accommodation for fifty soldiers there. Their good
opinion of the Nilagiri climate was imqualified, being " for the
restoration of health unequalled in any part of India." " The
Committee have never experienced and never heard of any place in
296
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XII.
Recent
History.
Government
Orders on
report.
Europe where man's comfort and existence are so little endangered
by the pressure or vicissitudes of climate." In conclusion they
suggest that the Nilagiris should be committed to " the superin-
tendence and undivided control of one active officer/' who should
be placed under the immediate orders of the Military Board ;
also that all the Medical Officers should be under " the immediate
check and control of the Superintending Medical Officers."
The recommendations of the Committee were mostly approved
by Government. The employment of convicts was sanctioned ;
also one Overseer and two Sub-Overseers and fifty workmen for
the Kaity Farm on 24, 12, and 8 rupees monthly respectively, the
last " with a cloth jacket once in two years." These employes
were to be chosen from the two companies of tent lascars employed
by Government on the Farm " if they wished it ;" a half-yearly
statement of the produce of the land and expense of culture was
to be submitted to Government. As regards grants of lands to
settlers, they raised no objection if care be taken " that the new
settlers have only land that has not been broken up, and that
they make to the Todawars, when there is a mand in the vicinity,
the same acknowledgments as the Burghers here also made to
the Todawars. This will, of course, not preclude voluntary
transfer and purchase of old lands from the Burghers in particular
cases ; but the general principle should be for the new settlers
to occupy new unbroken land." Space was always to be left
for public roads, an excellent provision, the neglect of which has
cost the State dear in this district. The borders of the lake were
to be reserved. The scheme for cattle-breeding was regarded
favorably, but to be left to private enterprise. The bazaars
were to be handed over to private persons. Government i-eserving
the right to resume at any time on payment of the estimated
value of the buildings. The works suggested in Ootacamand
were to be carried out by Pioneer agency under Major Crewe, the
special engineer establishment being dispensed with. The works
recommended in the several passes were to be executed. The
constitution of a sanitarium at Dimhatti was reserved for further
consideration.
Major Crewe was appointed chief officer of the Hills as
suggested, Captain Eastment going to Ganjam. The establish-
ment on the Hills now consisted of eight officers costing 2,550
rupees monthly, of whom five were medical, the command-
ing officer drawing Rupees 400 staff allowance. In forwarding
their report to the Court of Directors, Mr. Lushington expressed
his confidence that the Home authorities would be gratified
in observing at how small an expense his Government had been
able " to open to the sick of all the Presidencies the use of the
blessings which have been bestowed upon us in the Nilgiris
in a temperate climate, a fertile soil, and a beauty of scenery not
MANUAL OP THE NtLAQIRI DISTRICT. 297
surpassed in any region of the globe," rnd desired that " similar CHAP. XII.
statements of expense incurred at what are denominated the t>
sanitaria of Bengal and Bombay " might be called for, as he had History.
met with " no persons so deeply and so gratefully impressed with
the superior benefits of the Nilgiris as those who visited the
hills from Bengal and Bombay.''
Mr. Lushington left the Hills, not to return, in August 1832, Mr. Lushing-
but on leaving, with thoughtful consideration for " subordinate ^^""-'^ depar.
ranks of the service," he placed the bungalow and gardens,
which he had himself purchased at Dimhatti ^ from the Mission
Society, on trust in the hands of the Collector of Coimbatore and
of the Commanding Officer for the use of such free of all charge.
The bungalows accommodated six families.
If it was a Civilian Collector, Mr. John Sullivan, who was the
first to bring the Hills prominently to notice and to test their
value in respect of climate and of soil, it was a Civilian Governor
who first made them the permanent abode of Europeans, and
placed their reputation as a seat for sanitaria and as a field of
European enterprise almost beyond dispute. He seems to have
created an enthusiasm in the hill country and its people which
found expression in several works, such as Baikie's, Harkness'
(Secretary to the Royal Asiatic Society), Jervis', and in other
brochures ; in fact the Nilagiri literary era belongs to his reign,
though the works were not published until shortly after his retire-
ment in the time of his successor Sir Frederick Adam. " It will
be the glory of Mr. Lushington's Government," writes Captain
Limond in June 1832, " without extravagant hyperbole, that
he introduced Europe into Asia, for such are his improvements
in the Nilgiris." Ag-ain : " The Coonoor and Koondah ghats
(his own special works) will be to all succeeding times
monuments of his beneficence and wisdom. * * * No power on
earth can keep down the approved and tried celebrity of the
Nilgiris. In the process of time they will become one of
the noblest colonies in the known world. In future history
Mr. Lushington will be recorded as their illustrious, enlightened,
and early benefactor. * * * The Nilgiris were comparatively
unknown before his day." And yet such is the absence of
interest in the history of them displayed by Englishmen in
this country, that probably not one in ten of the present residents
have the vaguest notion of the debt they owe to this Civilian and his
coadjutors. But the too bright hopes of these enthusiastic pioneers
were destined soon to be overshadowed, though not quenched, by
the rough lessons of experience.
A note on the climate of Dimhatti will be found in the appendix to Jervis.
38
298
MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT.
Eecent
History.
Sir F. Adam
succeeds.
Medical
report.
CHAP. XII. Mr. Lushington was succeeded by Sir Frederick Adam. The
report on the extent and permanence of the benefits derived
by Europeans from a resort to the Nilagiris, drawn up by the
Medical Board (at that time composed of Messrs. Owen, Davies,
and Hay), was submitted to Government, fpr transmission to the
Honorable Court, on the 24th December, 1832. We find that to
the end of October from date of establishment in January 1830
138 men of His Majesty and the Honorable Company's Sei-vicea
had been admitted, of whom 75 had been restored to good health,
11 much benefited, 14 discharged as incurable, 10 died, whilst 28
remained in the depot. The majority of men sent to the Hills
were young and not suffering from severe chronic complaints.
In admitting that the public service had not derived extensive
benefit from the Convalescent Depot, the Board remark that it
had hitherto labored under great disadvantages. " Placed in an
elevated and unsheltered situation, without a surrounding wall,
the building ^ was fully exposed to the south-west monsoon, while
its vicinity to the bazaar afforded ready access to spirituous
liquors." A more suitable building having been recently selected,
they hoped that a more satisfactory trial might be made of the
climate. They sum up the case as follows : —
" But, although the benefit hitherto derived from the Convalescent
Depot cannot, under these circumstances, be considered as indicating
in a perfectly satisfactory manner the probable extent of the utility of
a matured and well-regulated establishment of that nature, we think
it proper on the present occasion to state that, from the information
before us, we see no grounds for anticipating from such an establish-
ment any results of much importance in a financial or political point
of view, if indeed its maintenance should not be attended with positive
loss. When the distance of the greater number of stations occupied
by European troops from the Nilgiri Hills is considered, it will be
obvious that a resort to them cannot be available for the cure of
acute diseases, except in the cases of tedious and imperfect convales-
cence, which do not appear to have been numerous for some years past ;
and the medical reports received from the hills, while they generally
represent the climate in a most favorable point of view, tend to show
that it is not well adapted for the cure of chronic diseases attribu-
table to a tropical climate, which chiefly lead to inefficiency, and
consequently to discharge from the service or transfer to the invalid
or pension establishments."
Taking the diseases which had led to invaliding in His Majesty's
Army, they find that in very few cases would the climate be
suitable for cure. So much for the soldiers.
As regards the officers of Government, civil and military, they
note that, from the year 1826 to 1832, 238 sick Madras officers
The present jail.
I
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 299
had been under the medical officers on the Hills, and during CHAP. XII.
1830, 1831, and 1832, 51 Bombay officers,^ making a total of 289, j^~^^
of whom 136 had been cured, 54 improved, 25 sent to Europe, History.
12 died, 6 not improved, 16 transferred, and 40 remained.
These figures show that the results in the case of officers were
decidedly better than in that of the common soldiers.
The Convalescent Depot, however, did not gain in popularity Abolition of
and on 4th July 1834, on the suggestion of Sir Frederick Adam, oepd?"''*'''*'
it was abohshed, there being at the time only 16 patients in the
depot, the monthly cost of which was 413 rupees exclusive of
the outlay on the hospital itself and repairs and commissariat
charges. The cost for each soldier per annum was reckoned at
Kupees 310. The benefits derived had fallen very short of those
expected when it was established, and were in no way commen-
surate to the cost of the depot. The medical esta,blishment was
reorganized, being reduced to two Assistant Surgeons at
Ootacamand and an Apothecary at Kotagiri, the medical charges
being thus reduced from 900 rupees to 570 rupees monthly.
The lock hospital was abolished and converted into a common,
hospital. The books of the soldiers^ lending libraries were
distributed between Trichinopoly and Cannanore.
Whilst the settlement was beginning to lose in reputation as a Administra.
sanitarium, the general administration was found to have suffered ^°^ ® ®° ^^®'
greatly from the transfer of the greater portion of the plateau to
Malabar. The result of this divided authority was that neither
the Collector of Malabar nor Coimbatore took much interest in its
affairs. Meanwhile the authority of the Commandant was
confined to Ootacamand. The massacre in 1835 of no less than Massacre of
68 Kurumbas for witchcraft by the other hill tribes, the perpetra- "^'^ ^^'
tors of which crime were not detected, compelled the Government
to action. Sir Frederick Adam had now the assistance of Mr.
John Sullivan, who had succeeded to Council. In order to remedy
the defects of the existing system and afford protection '' to the
lives and property of all classes of the inhabitants of the hills,''
the Government proposed to adopt a plan for placing the Nilagiris
under an authority distinct from that of the Collectors of Malabar
and Coimbatore, but resolved, in the meantime, to vest in the
Officer Commanding police authority over all the Hills, and to
appoint him Magistrate of the same, the revenue administration
continuing as heretofore. The order of Government, 1st June
1832, constituting Ootacamand a general military bazaar wag
cancelled. The Foujdari Adalat were ordered to carry the
magisterial arrangements into effect. This, however, the Court
1 Under a niedical officer of the Bombay Eatablisbment.
300
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRT DISTRICT.
Recent
History,
Special
legislation
proposed.
CHAP. XII. objected to do on the ground that it was opposed to Section S,
Regulation IX^ 1816, and_, on further reference by Government,
declined to reconsider their opinion, but suggested the appoint-
naent of a Joint Magistrate. The Government then determined
to legislate specially with the object of vesting in one officer, civil
or military, the powers of a Collector, Magistrate, and Justice of
the Peace, but limiting his civil jurisdiction to the powers of a
Commanding Officer under Regulation VII of 1832. The Govern-
ment observed that the annual net revenue of the Hills amounted
to Rupees 9,427 only, and that it was necessary that the most
economical system should be adopted for its realization. More-
over the hill tribes, it was noted, were most reluctant to attend the
courts in the low country, it being beyond question that they
frequently suffered oppression rather than complain to tribunals
so distant from their homes. There was no resident European
authority on the Hills, except the Commandant ; and, as already
stated, his jurisdiction was confined to Ootacamand. By this
arrangement collision of authorities was to be avoided, the police
and revenue administration improved, and the " concealed
resources " of the hills developed. The Foujdari Addlat were to
ascertain and report the proper limits of the separate charge to be
created. After some further objections on the part of the Fouj-
dari Addlat a draft Act was finally submitted to Government. This
draft, amended by the omission of mention of Regulation
VII of 1832, and the substitution in detail of the civil powers
proposed to be conferred on the chief officer, was submitted to the
Government of India in July 1836. Among the treasons urged
in favor of special legislation were the necessity for controlling
servants and of checking the destruction of woods. The Govern-
ment remark that the felling of trees on the hills without
authority would be attended with very injurious consequences
to the low country, as the irrigation of the latter mainly depends
upon the springs above, and that, if the wood is cut which shades
them, the water would rapidly evaporate. This is the first
indication of the care of Government for the woodlands. The
Imperial Government, however,^ would not hear of special
legislation, being very averse, without the clearest necessity, to
the enactment of special penal laws for particular portions of the
country, whilst the Nilagiris possessed no such peculiarity in the
circumstances of their position or population as to warrant their
exemption from the ordinary criminal procedure. They, however,
suggested that the Commandant should be invested with the
powers of a Joint Magistrate, Deputy Collector, and Assistant
Judge. The Sudr Addlat were directed to advise Government,
Destruction
of woods.
' Lord Aucjkliiad had just succeeded Lord William Bentinok.
MANUAL OF THE NtLAGIRI DISTRICT. 301
but ttey held that to carry out the Supreme Government's wishes CHAP. XII.
it would still be necessary to legislate, as the Madras Govern- r^^t
nient did not intend the Commandant to 'exercise so high civil History.
power as indicated by the Supreme Government. They were
urged to reconsider their views, but they adhered to their decision,
and finally forwarded to Government a draft Act for adoption,
which runs as follows : —
" I. It is hereby enacted that it shall be competent to the Governor Draft Act.
in Council of Fort St. George to vest in a separate officer, either
civil or military, the powers of Collector and Magistrate under the
Eegulations of that Presidency, and of a Justice of the Peace upon
the Nilagiri Hills, within such local limits as may be assigned by an
order iu Council, together with the special jurisdiction in civil
suits described in the following section of this Act.
"II. The officer appointed under the provisions of this Act shall
have exclusive authority to try and determine, in conformity with the
rules prescribed for the proceedings of the Courts of Udalut generally,
but as regards vakeels agreeably to the rules prescribed by clauses
second and third, Section XIV, Regulation VI of 1816, or refer to
arbitration under the rules prescribed by Regulation XXI of 1802
suits against any persons upon the Nilagiri Hills, those described in
Article VII, Regulation V, 1827, not excepted, for personal property
to an amount not exceeding four hundred rupees. The decisions of
arbitrators shall be final, but an appeal within thirty days under the
rules in force regarding appeals shall lie from all decrees of the said
officer in suits exceeding twenty rupees, to the auxiliary court at Coimba-
tore, from whose decrees a special appeal shall be admissible by the
Zillah Court of Salem under the provisions in force regarding special
appeals."
Lord Auckland, however, continued obdurate. His government Legislation
would not admit the necessity o£ special legislation on the grounds ^°^">^y j
urged by the Sudr, that the establishment of a special tribunal
on the Nilagiris would, under existing regulations, " materially
affect the rights, persons and property of the inhabitants," unless
the court established differed from the ordinary tribunals, but
they could not see why a court of ordinary jurisdiction should
not be established there ; nor would they admit that the popula-
tions of the Nilagiris were worse off in the matter of civil courts
than other parts of this Pi-esidency, and therefore there was no
reason for giving peculiar relief to persons who labored under
no peculiar hardship. At the same time judicial reforms were
promised to the people of the Nilagiris in common with the
people of other districts.
Thus ended the first effort of the Madras Government to
give a more complete form of administration to the Nilagiris.
Thirty years and more were to pass before the district was
to achieve independence and a constitution which in some
302
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XII.
Recent
History.
Ootacatnand
constituted a
Military
Bazaar.
Lord Elphin-
stone at
Kaity.
respects is inferior to that first proposed. Meanwhile the
progress of the country was undoubtedly greatly retarded. It is
possible that Lord Macaulay^ who then guided the legislation of
the Indian Empire, and who does not appear to have been very
favorably impressed with the Nilagiris/ which he visited in
1834, may, on general principles, have thwarted the accomplish-
ment of the wishes of the Madras Government.
Sir Frederick Adam submitted, and orders were issued on 16th
July 1837, abandoning the scheme and constituting Ootacamand
a mihtary bazaar. This Governor took considerable interest in
the Hills and the people, and it was during his time that the
Government first fixed the assessment to be paid for lands taken
up by settlers, and virtually acknowledged the rights of the Todas
to the plateau — a policy that was approved by the Honorable
Court of Directors in their despatch 10th April 1839, though
qualified by the remark that they desired to " reconcile the
interests of both parties,'' i.e., Europeans and Natives. To this
day do Government pay to the Todas yearly compensation for
the lands of the Ootacamand cantonment, excluding the mand
reserves, amounting to Rupees 162-10-1 — an undying witness
to a policy, perhaps too generous, but comparing favorably with
that which in 1862 deprived the Badagas of their immemorial
right to obtain land under patta, compelliug them equally with
European settlers to purchase it under the Waste Land Rules.
Sir Frederick Adam resigned the Governorship of Madras 4th
March 1837, and was succeeded by Lord Elphinstone, who held
office till September 1842.
He, like his predecessor, took great interest in the Hills, and
during his time, though the policy adopted in regard to the
rights of the hill people was rigorously assailed, it remained
unchanged as long as he held office- It was in his reign
that the coifee industry first began on the eastern slopes, and
other agricultural enterprises which have not been equally suc-
cessful. He fixed his residence at Kaity, taking possession of
the Government Farm buildings, and acquiring the land, which
had been taken up for the farm in rather an irregular manner, in
due form on a ninety-nine years' lease from the Badaga pattadars,
paying them heavy compensation for their losses from the previous
occupation, and a good price for the long lease. He expended
considerable sums of money in building a large country house and
laying out the grounds ornamentally, furnishing it in a style quite
new to Indian experience. After he left the country the property
1 He occupied Woodcock Hall when he joined Lord William Bentinck at Ootaca-
mand.
I
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 303
was purchased by Mr. Casaraajor of the Civil Service, formerly CHAP, XII.
Resident at Mysore^ for Rupees 15,000. This gentleman estab- r^^t
lished a school here for Badaga children. On his death he left the History.
greater portion of his property to the Basel Mission, who subse-
quently purchased the houses, which ever since have been the head-
quarters of this Mission on the Nilagiris, and a convalescent depot
for their agents.
In the year 1839 Mr. John Sullivan, on a petition from certain Mr. Sullivan
Badagas, revived the question of reannexing to Coimbatore that ^'f^^'^ *'"^ .
portion of the plateau which had been transferred to Malabar in to Malabar.
1830, and not retransf erred in the following year. He urged that
whilst this portion was, in regard to magisterial and police
administration, under the Collector of Malabar, it was still under the
court of Coimbatore, which was within the jurisdiction of the
Southern Court of Circuit, whilst the Magistrate of Malabar was
under the Western Court of Circuit ; consequently, as Magistrate
of the Nilagiris, he was not controlled at all, and the result was
that the police were quite unchecked. Moreover, Ootacamand
was under a military police, which was in reason whilst it was a
military station, but not so now that it was practically a civil one.
Further, the authority of the Tahsildar of Ootacamand was limited
to the Malabar portion of the plateau, there being no similar
functionary in the Coimbatore portion, which was consequently at
a great disadvantage. He suggested the appointment of a
Civil Assistant after the transfer of the tract to Coimbatore. The
Government called on the Principal Collectors of Malabar and
Coimbatore to report. The Collector of Coimbatore, Mr. Babington,
whilst objecting to some of Mr. Sullivan's assertions and
observing that the trade of the Hills was almost wholly with
Malabar and Mysore, from which provinces the people drew their
food supplies, thought reannexation on the whole desirable,
though, in the interests of his own district, he urged that the tract
should be constituted an independent district, or if this scheme,
on financial grounds, could not be carried out, that it should be
made a sub-collectorate. Mr. Underwood, Collector of Malabar,
opposed the measure strongly on magisterial, financial, com-
mercial and political grounds, holding that it was fraught with
danger to his district and our rule there, and was likely to impede
the progress of the Hills by separating them from the ports and
commercial enterprise of the west coast. The Board of Revenue,
however, were in favor of the change, remarking that there was no
reason to expect that the revenue under the tobacco monopoly
would decline, as urged by Mr. Underwood, if the transfer took
place, for the increase in this revenue had been admittedly
due to the manufacture of a superior article in Coimbatore and
the vigilance of the preventive estabhshment of that district.
304
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XII
Recent
HiSTOHY.
Grovernment
decline to
make the
transfer.
The Com-
mandant
appointed
Joint Magis
trate and
District
Munsif.
• The Government however determined in July 1839 that sufficient '
^ grounds had not been adduced for the change, remarking that the
objections urged by the Collectors of Malabar and Coimbatore
thereto were equally strong and conclusive. This resolution was
passed in Mr. Sullivan's absence, but he recorded a long minute
of protest. In this paper he urged, as additional reasons, that
the land tenure of the Hills differed from that of Malabar, and that
the maintenance of a Military Commandant was unnecessarily
expensive, and suggested the giving to the Tahsildar the powers
of a District Munsif and of appointing a Civil Assistant. He also
urged the expediency of employing the Coimbatore engineering
staff instead of that of Malabar. Nothing was done. The
matter came up again the following year in consequence of a
dispute between two villages on the new Coonoor road, Bikhatti
and Yellannalle, situated on the boundary line of Peranganad and
Mekandd. In connection with this case Mr. Conolly, the ill-fated
Collector of Malabar, recommended the appointment of a District
Munsif on the hills. "Formerly,'' he writes, "all differences were
settled by the Burghers among themselves. The influx of strangers,
and the altered state of their society, has led them, as appears
from the present instance, not to be always satisfied with this
simple mode of administering justice."
The result, however, was a partial reform ; the Commandant
was appointed Joint Magistrate to the Magistrates of Malabar
■ and Coimbatore, and also District Munsif. These changes appear
to have been, in a measure, due to instructions from home.
Colonel King, who had succeeded Colonel Crewe, resigned shortly
afterwards (November 1840), and Colonel Jennings, his assistant,
was appointed in his room by Lord Elphinstone, with the
designation of Staff Officer of Ootacamand, on the same allow-
ances, a designation which was again changed to Officer Com-
manding the Hills by the Marquis of Tweeddale in 1843. The
Staff Officer was to be aided by two assistants, one of whom was
in charge of the roads, the other of the post offices and other
miscellaneous offices. All hill officers however were, under the
imperative instructions of the Honorable Court (Despatch, 2nd
March 1842), to hold office for two years only, and to be chosen
from officers in the low country whose health required the
change of climate. At this time also Lord Elphin&tone had in
contemplation the location of a European corps on the Hills, and
one of the reasons for changing the designation of the resident
officer was that he might have to be superseded by the officer
commanding the corps. The Hills were still regarded less
as a sphere for British enterprise than as a home for British
troops.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 305
Mr. Sullivan's arguments in favor of radical changes in the CHAP, xn
administration, which were opposed by the other Civilian Member
of Council, Mr. Bird, were not to prevail in Lord Elphinstone's
time, but just before his resignation the question of reannexation
came up again, and by the irony of fate, on the motion of Mr.
Charles May Lushington, Member of Council, a near relative of
Mr. Stephen Rumbold Lushington, who was responsible for the
transfer to Malabar. He ably represented the anomalous position
of the Nilagiri administration, remarking that, although the Staif
Officer had been appointed Joint Magistrate with jurisdiction over
the whole tract, he was virtually subordinate to no Magistrate, and
was permitted by an order in Council to try in one district offences
committed in another. He writes :
" From the hill just above Ootacamund the sadr station of Coimba-
tore may be seen, but instead of allowing any of our revenue subjects
aggrieved by the acts of the revenue officers at Ootacamund to proceed
and lay their grievances before the Collector of a station they can
see from their own doors, they are forced, by the present order of
things, to go to a country inimical to their health and habits, and to
travel through a dense feverish jungle upwards of 160 miles, being
nearly four times the distance they would have to go for redress were
Ootacamund placed under the authority of the Coimbatore Collectorate."
But Government is a slowly moving machine, and the only point
gained was the referring of the subject with other matters apper-
taining to the Hills, for the decision of the Court of Directors, it
being held that the powers of Joint Magistrate and District
Munsif, recently conferred on the Staff Officer, met the most
salient objections of Mr. Sullivan.
But the Marquis of Tweed dale, who assumed office on the Marquis of
24th September 1842, resolved immediately to adopt Mr. q^^^^^^^^^'J^^^^^
Sullivan's proposal, and, on St. Valentine's day, 1843, ordered Retransfer of
the retransfer to Coimbatore of the eastern portion of the Hills, tbe second
p , portion of the
or rather the portion of them which formerly belonged to it, leav- Hills to
ing to Malabar the jurisdiction over the tract west of the Paikare Coiuibatore,
river, the position of the two districts previous to the year 1830.^
The Collector of Malabar, however, was admonished to provide
for the education of the T6das within his range in accordance
with the instructions of the Honorable Court of Directors, who,
in their despatch, 14th December 1842, had expressed regret
that the attempts of the Madras Government to introduce
education and civilization among the Todawars had hitherto
been unsuccessful, but trusted '' from the interest taken in the
matter by the local officers " that no means, when available,
' The Nellambur R4ja was at the time mooting claims to the country west
of this river.
39
306 MAN' DAL OF THE NILAGIKI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XII. would be neglected to secure this important object. The
Marquis of Tweeddale, like his predecessors, took a lively interest
HrsTORv. in the Hills, and was perhaps more friendly to European settlers
than any of them, Mr. Lushington excepted. Early in his
reign the policy of the Home Government underwent a marked
change in regard to the grant of Government waste lands to
Europeans, which finds expression in the celebrated despatch of
Coffee plant- the 2 1st June 1843. It was during his governorship, which
ing begun. ^^^^^^ ^.^^ 23rd July 1848, that coffee planting by Europeans
was begun in the Waindd and on the western slopes of the
Nidumaleg. To him Ootacamand owes the Lake Eoad. But the
principal act which will cause his name to be remembered was
the determination to establish a military station on the Hills,
not a mere convalescent depot, but a cantonment, with a British
regiment permanently located there. The abolition of the depot
at Ootacamand seems to have intensified the desire of the
Government to have a home for soldiers in this salubrious chmate
at a lower elevation and on a more suitable scale. It will be
remembered that Lord Elphinstone also favored a similar scheme.
The subject of locating troops in the hills had for some time
been occupying the attention of the Government of India and
the Home Government, and already more than one such station
had been established in the north of India. The immediate
cause of its settlement was the determination of the Govern-
ment to build barracks at Bangalore and Trichinopoly. The
Marquis of Tweeddale desired to lay out the sum sanctioned for
Trichinopoly, about £45,000, in building barracks on the Nilagiris,
removing thither the European corps from Trichinopoly.
Orders were issued to select two sites, one near Ootacamand
and one near Coonoor, in the Jackatalla Valley ; the latter site now
known as Wellington, was pointed out to the Marquis by Captain
Ouchterlony, then engaged on the survey of the Hills. The
proposal to build near Ootacamand was abandoned for reasons
with which I am not acquainted, but the Government resolved
on building temporary barracks, similar to those used in Bengal,
in the Jackatalla Valley, though the medical officer reporting
on the site had brought to their notice that in one portion of
the area, though not that on which buildings were to be placed,
there existed ruins of a village which the Badagas asserted
had been abandoned for its feverishness. Though the proposal
to build barracks on the Nilagiris was approved by the Govern-
ment of India in February 1847, yet, owing to political reasons
regarding the disposition of European troops in India, the ques-
tion was not settled in the time of the Marquis of Tweeddale.
It must not be forgotten that at this time there were strategic
objections to the Nilagiris as a station for troops, which hardly
MANUAL OF THE NiLAGIIU DISTRICT. 307
apply now that a railway has been constructed to the foot of CIIAP. XII.
the ghdts. No carriage could then be obtained except from recent
Mysore, Salem, and Coimbatore ; and in view to meet this difli- History.
culty it was proposed to establish cattle depots at Gundulpet
and Mettapollium. It was feared also that the troops would
contract fever in marching from the Hills, especially on the
Mysore side.
Such was the state of affairs when Sir Henry Pottinger sue- Sir Henry
ceeded to office, which he retained until April 1854. He pians'subl
differed from his predecessor in regard to the character of the mitted for
barracks, which he considered should be permanent, and -^vemDgton.
consequently the plans for such a barrack, to accommodate
500 men, were called for, and the plans for temporary barracks
remitted for further alterations. Meanwhile orders were given
in the Revenue Department to acquire the site from the Badagas,
and to collect timber on the Hills. This order was after-
wards countermanded, and teak selected for the work. In
November 1849 two sets of plans and estimates, the one for
temporary barracks, amounting to Rupees 61,500, the other for
permanent two-storied barracks, amounting to Rupees 4,20,000,
were submitted to Government. If stone were to be used instead
of brick, the extra cost was estimated at Rupees 30,000. Before
sanction the Medical Board were called on for report on the sites
and plans. Their reply was favorable as regards the site ; they
also approved a two-storied building. The scheme for a
Convalescent Depot was sanctioned by the Home authorities in
1850-51 and the work begun,^ though the boundaries were
not fixed and notified until 3rd May 1853. In 1852 Sir Richard
Armstrong, the then Commander-in-Chief, recommended that
the name should be changed from Jackatalla to Wellington,
in honor of the illustrious duke, who from the first had evinced
an interest in the establishment of a sanitarium on the Nilagiris,
which he must have seen from afar in his youth, and had
expressed his unqualified approbation of the measure. The
proposal did not find favor with Sir Henry Pottinger, being
unprecedented, and likely to be unintelligible to the natives.
Eight years later, 3rd April 1860, Sir Charles Trevelyan thought
otherwise, holding " that this interesting military establishment
could not be connected with a more appropriate name " than
Wellington, and ordered it to be so called henceforth. On the
30th November preceding this notification the post of Comman-
dant on the Nilagiris was abolished, that of Joint Magistrate
' It -was the building of the barracks, and consequent present and prospective
demand for firewood, which led, in 1849, Captain Ouchterlony to suggest the
' -tablishment of Australian fire-wood reserves. In the first instance the trifling
'ua of Rupeea 7i was sanctioned for raising nurseries.
308
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XII
Recent
History.
Coonoor
Church built.
Small Cause
Court Judge
appointed at
Ootacamand.
Proposal to
appoint
Civil and
Sessions
Court
rejected.
, continuing, and the Military police of Ootacamand transferred
to the civil authorities. The office of Commandant, which is now
represented by that office at Wellington, had existed thirty years.
Meanwhile the station of Coonoor had been rapidly growing
in importance, partly from the extension of coffee plantations and
partly from the preference shown by many for its mild climate,
especially during the prevalence of the south-west monsoon.
About the year 1850 the residents and others subscribed a sum
of Eupees 6,000 for the erection of a church. Lieutenant- General
Kennett granting the land for the site and burial ground. The
designs were prepared by Captain Francis, the Executive
Engineer at Jackatalla. The sum not being sufficient to
complete the work — part of which, including the tower, having
been constructed of brick and clay, was washed down during the
monsoon rains of 1852 — application was made to Government to
complete the building at a cost of Rupees 6,500, and to take it
over for the use of the Chaplain who had already been appointed
for the charge of Jackatalla and Coonoor. This the Government
ultimately consented to do. Fresh estimates were prepared, and
the church with the tower finally completed at the beginning of
1854 at a total cost of Rupees 16,160, of which Rupees 8,982 were
provided by private contributions.
The progress of the Nilagiris and the consequent increase of
litigation induced the Government, Lord Harris being Governor,
on the 1st November 1855 to establish a Principal Sudr Amines
Court at Ootacamand under Act VI, 1855, and Regulation VII,
1827, with Small Cause Court powers in suits of Rupees 500
and under. The Commandant was accordingly deprived of the
powers of District Munsif, but continued to be Joint Magistrate.
The salary of the new Judge, Mr. Burgess,^ a Barrister and First
Judge of the Madras Small Cause Court, was Rupees 800.
Arrangements were made also for the Judge of Coimbatore
holding criminal sessions at Ootacamand.
It should here be stated that in the preceding year the Sudr
Court, in view to improve the judicial administration of the Hills,
proposed to establish a Civil and Sessions Court, as had been done
at Tellicherry and Honiir, on a salary of Rupees 1,750. The
Government rejected the scheme, partly because of the expense,
and partly because the intermediate character of the salary would
necessitate constant changes in the Judges. The Sudr Court
then proposed an auxiliary Civil and Sessions Court, with an
Uncovenanted Judge, who in criminal cases was to exercise the
exceptional powers of the Agent to the Governor in Ganjam and
^ Mr. Burgess was succeeded by Mr. James Ouchtcrlony, who opened out the
coffee estates in the valley called after him.
MANUAL OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 309
Vizagapatam. An appeal was to lie to the Court of Coimbatore CHAP. XII.
iu suits exceeding Rupees 10,000 in value. The Government r^^^t
approved this plan, but it was opposed in the Viceregal Legislative History.
Council by Mr. D. Elliott on the grounds (1) that it was impolitic
to give an uucovenanted officer powers exceeding those of a
covenanted Subordinate Judge ; (2) that the litigation on the Hills
did not demand a Judge with higher powers than a Principal Sudr
Amiu ; (3) that the Criminal Sessions Court being light, could be
pi'ovided for by the Judge of Coimbatore holding occasional
sessions at Ootacamand. Mr. Elliott's views prevailed, and Act
XXV, 1855, was passed.
The Court continued until the 1st June 1858, when it was Assistant
aboHshed, or rather transferred to Combaconum, and the Jgj.^|Jj j'j,^^"
Assistant Judge's Court at that town transferred to Ootacamand, Combaconum
Mr. E. W. Bird, C.S., being made Assistant Judge on a salary of ^j^^^^^^''''"
Rupees 1,400. By noti6cation on the 7tli August 1858, the
Kimdas, the Nidumale tract west of the Paikare river, and the
Devarayapatnam tract north of the Nilagiris were included in the
jurisdiction of the court. A proposal to include the Nambalakod
amshom of South-East Wainad with the Ouchterlony Valley in
the jurisdiction was negatived on the ground that a Malayalam-
speaking people would be brought under the operation of a
Tamil court.
The opening out of the Government cinchona plantations west of Kdndas and
-1 . 1 ^ ^ ■ ^oor\ ni Nidumalf>
the Paikare river — narrated m a subsequent chapter — m l«50-bl, annexed.
the claims urged to one of the sites by the Nellambur Eaja, and
the impending introduction of the Waste Land Rules, among other
reasons, induced the Government in 1863 to annex to the Coim-
batore collectorate the Kiindas and the tract west of the Paikare
already placed under the civil jurisdiction of the Ootacamand Court.
About the same time the Madras Government, now presided
over by Sir William Denison, who had succeeded to office in 1861,
resolved on " the creation of a Civil and Sessions Judgeship on the
Nilagiris on Rupees 2,000, in lieu of the Subordinate Judgeship,
with the view of placing the administration of justice both in the
lowlands of Coimbatore and on the Nilagiri Hills on a more
efficient footing.'^
It had been found that the unnecessarily prolonged absence First Com-
of the Judge of Coimbatore for the sessions on the Hills had S;'^^""^;;^
greatly hindered business in the Coimbatore Court. This
arrangement was sanctioned by the Imperial Government, but
was not found to work satisfactorily, and was finally abolished
by Act I, 1868, which provided for the separation of the district
fi'om Coimbatore, and fixes its present administrative and judicial
constitution. The first Commissioner appointed under this Act
310 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XII. was Mr. James Wilkiuson Breeks, who retained the office till his
_ death on the 7th June 1872. He succeeded in securing the
History, confidence of Government and the loving respect of all classes
within his jurisdiction. The Memorial Schools which bear his name
were built in great measure by public subscriptions as a testimony
of this regard, whilst in St. Stephen's Churchyard is his tomb,
erected by the members of his Service.
The Ouchter- During the commissionership of his successor, Mr. J. R.
l^YeJto^the Cockerell, on the 15th July 1873, the tract known as the Ouchter-
district. lony Valley was added to the district, and on the 31st March
1877 three amshoms of the south-eastern division of Wainad.
Industries. The transfer of the Indian Empire to the direct rule of the
Crown, and the gradual extension of the provincial powers of the
Madras Government, have resulted in the rapid progress of this
district in common with the rest of the Presidency.
The great industries of coffee, tea, and cinchona cultivation have
resulted from the liberation of private enterprise from former
restrictions, the adoption of more considerate land rules, and,
as regards cinchona, the fostering care of Government. The
extension of the cultivation of cereals and other articles of food
by natives and others has been equally rapid. Meanwhile public
buildings and institutions have sprung into existence. Churches,
libraries, and schools have been built, and newspapers established.
Two important towns have been constituted Municipalities, and
Prospects of the district a Local Fund Circle. In a word, though much
the district, remains to bed one to place the prosperity of the Nilagiris on a
sure footing, the progress of the past gives a good hope that this
land has a bright future before it, and a place in the history of
English enterprise and civilization in South India, which may, in
the times to come, if our race is true to its traditions, be looked
back upon with pride by future generations both of Englishmen
and Natives.
MANUAL OF THE NILAOIKl DISTKI'T. 311
CHAPTER XII I.
REVENUE HISTORY.
INTRODUCTION.
PART I.-(«) THE CULTIVATING TRIBES ; (6) THE GRAZIERS.
I'ART II. -EUROPEAN AND OTHER IMMIGRANTS.
PART III.— REVENUE SURVEYS.
Introduction.
Subject divided. — Revenue system of North Coimbatore prevails. — Major
McLeod's settlement.
The history of the Land Revenue administration of the Nilagiris CHAP. XIII.
may be treated conveniently under three heads : firstly, that of
the hill-tribes ; secondly, that of the settlement of Eui-opeans ; History.
thirdly, that of the revenue survey. The first head may be
subdivided into that relating to (1) the cultivators, viz., the divided.
Badagas, the Kotas, the Irulas, and Kurumbas ; (2) the graziers,
the Todas. The land revenue economy of the Nilagiris, as far as
the permanent cultivators — i.e., the Badagas and the Kotas — are
concerned, was and is practically that of the Coimbatore District,
to which the tracts which had been partially brought under the
plough at the time of the cession of the country to the British
mostly belonged ; whilst the position of the wandering or inter-
mittent cultivators, the Irulas and the Kurumbas, does not
essentially differ from that of similar ti'ibes or cultivators occupy-
ing the slopes of hill-ranges in Southern India ; on the other hand
the position of the grazing tribe, the Todas, is perhaps unique.
At the date of the cession of the Devanaikenkota Taluk to the Revenue
English, the Hills, which formed a portion of it, appear to have No^i^tTcdm-
been under the same revenue system as the rest of North Coim- batore pre-
batore, although the village areas were still loosely defined and ^^^^^'
the use of land practically unrestricted. It may be mentioned in
passing however that there was no renter ^ of the monopoly of
the produce of the forests, such as honey, wax, and resin. This
Vide Buchanan, Chap. IX.
312 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI^DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII. exception is noteworthy, as it appears from a letter ^ from the
Revenue Collector of Coimbatore to the Board of Revenue (3rd August
HisToin. 1843) that in other hill-tracts in that district the monopoly of
the forest produce was farmed out.^ The inference is that the
Badagas were too powerful to submit to the exactions of a renter.
Major Immediately after the cession of the Coimbatore District the
McLeocVs settlement of its revenue was entrusted to Major McLeod, the
Principal Collector of Coimbatore and Malabar. The object of
Major McLeod's settlement was to rectify the evils of Tippu's
revenue system. It will be remembered that Haider Ali had
abolished the ancient system of division of produce and had
introduced a fixed money assessment on the cultivated lands of
each village. The collection of the revenue was entrusted to
amildars, whose charges were of considerable extent. Tippu
increased the number of the amildars and decreased the area
entrusted to each. He required the cultivators to pay for all
cultivable lands, whether cultivated in the year or not. The
result was that the ryots became terribly impoverished, and
when the country came under our rule most of them were
heavily in arrears. Major McLeod^s first settlement was in
December 1799. It was based upon the accounts rendered by the
curnams. Being fully persuaded of the inaccuracy and falsity of
many of these accounts, Major McLeod proposed to the Board
of Revenue that the arable lands of each village should be
measured by competent surveyors, trained in Salem. The project
was approved. Operations began in North Coimbatore in March
1800 and were completed in March 1801. The area of each
field was recorded, the cultivable area being distinguished from
non-cultivable, whether waste, or grass, or occupied by water-
courses, &c. The assessment of each field was noted, also the
name of the holder or holders and the character and legality of
the tenure, and such other particulars as were considered necessary
for the completeness of a revenue register. After this information
was complete the surveyoi's and others were employed to classify
the lands according to their fertility after full consultation with the
' The foUowiBg passage from Mr. Wroughton's letter is deserving of mention :
" This (tax on forest produce) is one of a class of imposts which have the effect
of marking the sovereignty and defining the boundary limits more effectually
than could be arrived at under any other system, and with reference to the
proximity of this district (Coimbatore) to the States of Travancore and Cochin, as
also to Malabar, and its being bounded by dense and impenetrable jungles, it
appears to me that the continuance of this tax is beneficial also in a political
point of view, and that its interruption would be an inexpedient measure."
2 Vide also letter from this Collector to the Board of Revenue, loth March
1856.
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 313
heads o£ the villages. Subsequently the lands were assessed by the CHAP. XIII.
Collector according to a fixed scale, which provided twelve grades revenue
of assessment for dry and four for wet and garden lands. Topes History.
of fruit trees were assessed separately. In fixing the grades the
general character of the taluk or neighbourhood was taken
into account. This survey and the subsequent settlement affected
the land revenue considerably, but to relieve the people from any
temporary inconvenience caused by the change it was provided
that ' all diminution of the former rates were to be remitted to
the inhabitants, but all augmentations above one-tenth of the
actual assessment were to be divided among the two or three
first years after the survey, instead of being demanded in the
first.'^ The result was that the revenue for Fasli 1211 showed a
decrease on that of the preceding year of 7,224 star pagodas,
though the ultimate increase was estimated at 30,426 star
pagodas. The estimate was more than realized.
' See letter from Board of Reyenue to Lord Clive, 18th November 1802.
40
314
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
Mr. Sullivan
proposes a
survey.
Bevenne of
Nilagiris.
PART I.
(a.) Cultivating Tribes — The Badagas, Kotas, Irulas^ Kiirumbas.
First settlement of the Nilagiris. — Mr. Sullivan proposes a survey. — Revenue. —
Rates of assessment. — Changes i^roposed, 1862. — The shifting system. — "Ain"
grass and " Grazing" puttas. — Revenue Board's proposals. — Decision of Govern-
ment.— Revision of assessment. — Rates settled by Government — approved by
Secretary of State. — Settlement introduced — extends to plateau only. — State
of revenue accounts. — Settlement of Kundas. — Lands for cultivation to be
obtained under Waste Land Rules only. — Effects of the measure. — Kotas and
other aboriginal cultivators. — Mode of assessing lands.
I have above very briefly sketched the first recorded pymash,
or settlement based on measurements^ of the Coimbatore District,
as its effects extended to the Nilagiri plateau, raising the revenue
from Rupees 13,425 to Rupees 18,267. I say its effects, for
Mr. Sullivan, in a letter to the Board of Revenue, 6th March
1819, states that although surveyors were sent in 1800-1 to the
Nilagiris, they did not stay, but " sent accounts of their work, and
it was taken for granted that they had completed it.^' On
ascending the Hills he found that the survey was entirely nominal,
and that not an acre of land had been measured. '' The extreme
inclemency of the climate indeed,^' he goes on to say, "frightened
the surveyors and prevented them from doing more than making
an estimate of the quantity and quality of the land, and of
fixing the old rates of teerwa upon it." He accordingly proposed
to survey the lands at a cost of Rupees 800, not with any
intention of attempting a new classification or of interfering with
the existing rates of assessment, which he regarded as extremely
favorable to the ryots, but simply to ascertain accurately the
extent of their occupations. With this letter he forwarded the
following statement of the revenue derived from the Hills during
the nineteen years ending 1818, which is interesting. He attri-
buted the falling off in receipts to the want of a road. The
survey was approved by Government, but I have not been able
to trace any report of its completion : —
RS. RS.
Fasli 1209
„ 1210
„ 1211
„ 1212
„ 1213
„ 1214
„ 1215
„ 1216
„ 1217
„ 1218
13,425 F
isli 1219
13,425
„ 1220
18,267
, 1221
18,445
, 1222
16,855
, 1223
16,197
, 1224
15,994
, 1225
16,613
, 1226
15,418
, 1227
15,067
15,067
15,067
12,055
10,052
9,639
9,533
14,350
8,393
8,925
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
311
But wiiatever the results of the field measurements may have CUAP.
XIII,
been, Mr. Sullivan did not attempt, during the period the Hills
were under his control, to interfere with the settlement of
Major McLeod as revised two or three years later by Mr. Garrow,
who succeeded Major McLeod as Collector of Coimbatore.
Writing in January 1835, Mr. Sullivan remarks that this assess-
ment, which did not, on the average, exceed half a rupee a
cawnie, and "which was in former times as much as the
land could afford to pay, has become, under the improved circum-
stances of the people, little more than a quit-rent ; but as
the owners, in common with their neighbours in Malabar, have
enjoyed the advantage of a light tax so long, the faith of Govern-
ment is in fact pledged for its continuance.''
These rates ^ were as follows : —
PART I.
Revenue
History.
Rates of
Rate.
Per Bullah.
Per Acre.
Rate.
Per Bullah.
Per Acre.
RS. A. p.
RS. A.
p.
RS. A. p.
RS. A. p.
1st
...4 6 4
1 2
5
9th
... 1 12 2*
0 7 4
2nd
... 4 1 10
1 1
3
10th
... 17 6*
0 6 2
8rd
... 3 8 5*t
0 14
9
11th
... 1 2 10*
0 4 11
4th
...3 3 8
0 13
6
12th
... 0 14 If
0 3 8
5th
... 2 15 0*t
0 12
4
13th
...0 9 5
0 2 5
6th
... 2 10 4*
0 11
1
14th
...0 7 0
0 1 10
7th
... 2 5 7*t
0 9
10
15th
...0 4 8
0 13
8th
... 2 0 ll*t
0 8
7
No change of any importance took place in the rates of assess- Changes
ment on lands held by hill cultivators without the Settlements i8g2°''*^'
for forty years after our advent, but in 1862 the question of the
land system of the Nilagiris came under discussion, and this
discussion resulted in important changes in the tenure of land
by the hill-men and in the rates of assessment paid by them. The
causes which induced these changes appertain mainly to the
gradual extension of coffee and other plantations on the hills and
slopes, and the consequent demand for land for such purposes ; ^
but there were certain evils in the land system of the Hills which
aggravated the disadvantages of the position of the settler and
' Only the rates marked with an asterisk are mentioned in Mr. Conolly's
letter to the Board of Revenue, 20th July 1833. Those which practically were in
operation on the plateau are marked with across. Major Ouchterlony gives also two
rates for potato cultivation, Rupees 7 and Rupees 5 per bullah for good and inferior
land respectively. Those, however, appear to have been si^ecial rates in the
Settlements. The rates of assessment for lands taken up under the darkhast rules,
where lands may still be so granted, differ according to the locality. In the
Segur tract it is Rupees 1-2-4 on dry and wet lands per cawuio of 1'32 acres, whilst
garden lands are assessed at Rupees 2-5-7 per bullah of 3-82 acres. In South-East
Waindd the rate is Rupees 1-4-0 per acre on cultivation, besides 8 annas jemna-
bhogam or landlord's fee. In the Waindd hill-tribes are permitted to cultivate
hill slopes not being forest at the ordinary assessment without darkhast. The
revenue so derived is debited to Seva jamma.
evstem.
316 MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII, demanded a remedy. The evils lay in the Coimbatore shifting or
PART I. «« Bhurty " system, and in the unique custom of that district in
K EVENUE regard to grass and fallow lands. Under the existing system of
History, land tenure, under which holdings were both shifting and almost
undefined, the hill cultivators were able easily to raise fictitious or
seemingly fictitious claims to lands which strangers sought to
acquire, and were thus enabled either to defeat the object of the
applicant, or compel him to buy out the claimant in order to
secure possession.
The shifting The " Bhurty '' or shifting system was a necessary conse-
quence here, as elsewhere, of the poorness of soil and of the
poverty of the cultivators. A poor soil is easily exhausted if
called on to bear crops which abstract its food-producing
qualities or essentials. To supply the loss a recuperative process
is necessary. If left waste, nature herself slowly performs this
process, but art renders such a rest or fallow unnecessary.
Deep delving or ploughing, application of manure, and change of
crop, will supply in a few months, and far more abundantly, the
needs for which nature demands years. The hill cultivator
was poor and ignorant, and so the State allowed him to possess
a tract or tracts five or even ten times greater in extent than
the portion for which he actually paid assessment, and which was
shown in his annual putta. These several tracts might be miles
apart, and sometimes even in different ndds or villages. If 20
acres only were entered in the putta, the puttadar paid for, and
was supposed to cultivate 20 acres only ; but his claim might
extend to over 200 acres in scattered fields, in which he selected
the 20 acres, in one or many pieces, which he chose to cultivate
each year, according to the condition of the soil or season, or other
local or peculiar necessity. Nor had the separate lots which the
putta was supposed to reserve to the ryot been . ever properly
defined or limited, or even identified. They were as often in
posse as in esse, and the potentiality of possession really depended
upon the will of the headmen and the connivance of the lower
revenue officials. The position was rendered still more compli-
cated by the ancient custom of joint or undivided family holdings,
a system which is only now beginning to give way before the
growing desire for individual and separate holdings consequent
on theincreasing prosperity and intelligence of the people. It may
safely be said that, with the exception of the home-farm lands
of each hamlet, the rest of the area, cultivable or uncultivablc,
forest or swamp, included within the bounds of the several nads
or rural divisions was practically at the disposal of the village
elders and subordinate revenue ofiicials. The ill-defined and ill-
understood rights of Government were virtually ignored, and
Circar wood or waste on the agricultural portions of the plateau,
that is, the tracts occupied by the Badagas, to all intents and
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
317
purposes consisted only of deep forest or tracts which no man CHAP. Xlii.
cared to claim for agricultural purposes, or which had never been PART i.
cleared for cultivation. Revenue
Such was the shifting system — a system dear to the people, but History.
inimical to agricultural progress. Its abolition was a necessity ;
but the way in which it was to have been carried into effect— had
not a lenient system of demarcation or practically, though not
technically, of revenue settlement prevailed — would undoubtedly
have proved a violent and unexampled invasion of the rights and
privileges of the hill cultivators.
The two other accidents of the Coimbatore agricultural system " Ain " grass
which were alleged to be abuses were that known as the " ain " puttaf.'^^'"^
grass and that of " grazing '' puttas. As regards *'ain " grass,
it had been the usage of Coimbatore to permit the ryot to retain
in his possession under this name a certain portion of his holding
as fallow at one-fourth the original assessment. The extent thus
held was not to exceed one-fifth of his regular holding. The
grazing puttas were granted for inferior lands, known as " Parava-
pillu vari," to be retained as pasture at one-quarter the ordinary
assessment until such land was required for cultivation by himself
or another ryot. The evil complained of, in regard to the former,
was that a ryot was practically at liberty to select any portion
of his nominal holding as fallow, and thus defeat a selector in his
desire to obtain land in his neighbourhood ; as regards the latter,
that it gave a preferential right to the occupier. The evils
complained of in all these cases were, in the main, due to the
absence of a definitive survey and settlement.
When the alleged grievances were first discussed by the Board The Revenue
of Revenue, they recommended, as regards the " Bhurty " posals.
system, that it should practically cease, on the principle
prevailing in the plains that when a ryot fails to pay his
assessment, having no grounds for remission, his right to the
land lapses ; consequently, when a hill ryot " shifted " his
cultivation, he was to be regarded as having relinquished his
land, which accordingly was to be available for the first appli-
cant to whom the Collector at his discretion might transfer
it. So long as he cultivated or paid his assessment he might
sell at his pleasure. In suggesting this radical measure they
argued that —
" So long as unoccupied land is abundant there is no objection
to the Burgher " shifting " his cultivation as much as he pleases, but
he cannot naturally claim a right to all the land which in a series
of years he has thus occasionally cultivated ; still less can Govern-
ment, in justice to the general community, admit such a right. Now
that land required on the Hills by European settlers for agricultural
purposes is invariably sold by auction, subject to an unvarying annual
318
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII, assessment of Rupee 1 per acre, wliile tlie Burgher can at any time
PART I. take up a portion at rates of assessment generally below that sum,
there is clearly no reason why any further concession should be made
History. to the latter.
' " As regards " grazing puttas " the Board strongly urged the
inequity of restricting unnecessarily the privileges of the hill
cultivators in regard to grazing rights. " The abuse of privilege "
they observe^ ''is to be guarded against^ but is not sufficient
reason for withholding what general principles of good policy
would concede^ and that the original occupants of d,ny particular
locality have certain preferential rights of common over new-
comers is recognised in every civilized system of polity. That
such a right has been paid for by a villager should certainly
strengthen his claim rather than weaken it. The paramount
importance in an agricultural community of a sufficient extent
of grazing land to maintain an ample stock is even more than
ordinarily indisputable in a naturally poor country like Coimba-
tore, where the requisite extent must be greater to provide the
same amount of nourishment for the cattle, and the necessity for
an abundant supply of manure is more imperative, and the Board
would strongly deprecate any innovations which might tend
unduly to restrict the facilities for attaining these objects.'^ But
they were anxious to throw no unnecessary difficulties in the
way of intending bond fide cultivators ; and to prevent a ryot
from paying temporary full assessment instead of one-quarter in
order to defeat a settler from obtaining land, they proposed that
whilst the land continued in the puttadar's possession no reduc-
tion fi'om full assessment should be allowed, except in regard
to the " ain grass '' fifth, and that the putta should be required
to be renewed annually. The " ain grass " privilege, it will be
noted, was to be preserved intact.
The Government did not deal with the suggestions regarding
"shifting " puttas, but as regards " grazing puttas '■' they
questioned the validity of the Board's reasons, holding that, as
the Badagas did not desire to take up the land with any intention
of permanently improving it, their tenure should be regarded as
annual, and as giving no preferential title ; and, even as regards
the immemorial " ain grass'' privilege, the Government would
not admit that so small a payment should secure more than the
right of pasturage for a year. A preferential right would enable
the Badagas virtually to exclude strangers, for whilst they held
that in the plains, where boundaries are definitely fixed, there
would be little risk of abuse, it was otherwise on the Hills.
This order of Government did not touch the question of
assessments, which, together with the general question of restnct-
Decision of
Government.
Revision of
assessments.
I
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 319
ing the roving cultivation of the Badagas without ignoring their CHAP. XIll,
ancient rights, formed for some time previous to its issue the PART I.
subject of correspondence between the Collector of Coimbatore, revenue
Mr. Thomas, and the Board. Mr. Thomas had, in the first History.
instance, proposed that as a compromise a Badaga should be
allowed an acre of fallow without payment for every acre of land
for which he paid, or as an alternative that the assessment should be
reduced 15 per cent, as compensation for the loss of the "^ shifting "
system. The Board held that " the proper remedy was to
make the assessment low enough to admit of the land being
permanently held with profit to the owner," and directed the
Collector to take the existing rates of assessment on the Hills
into consideration, "bearing in mind that the poverty of the land-
holder or his unthrifty culture was not the test by which the
assessment was to be regulated." Mr. Thomas, however, held
that in dealing with the assessment of the lands the
intrinsic capabilities of the soil alone should be considered, and
not accidents of ^'manure and capital." He pointed out that
the proposed restriction of grazing privileges would limit the
supply of manure, and that though the Badagas were better off
than formerly, a large expenditure of capital on the land would
probably not produce very favourable results, as though several
practical European farmers iiad tried to get more out of the
land than the Badagas, they had failed ; and further that the
Badagas were by no means unthrifty agriculturists. He therefore
urged that a reduction of 15 per cent, in the assessment was the
least that could be conceded. He subsequently submitted state-
ments of holdings and assessments showing the effects of his
proposals in detail, but for convenience of calculation substituted
12 1 for 15 per cent. The Board admitted that considerable
reduction was called for, but pointed out, very properly, that the
" shifting " system had not necessarily resulted from the poverty
of the soil, but was generally practised where unoccupied land
was abundant. " The Burghers," they remark, " being wretchedly
poor, and originally without a remunerative market, so long as
they were able to change their occupancy at will, pursued the
cropping system as the one by which they could draw their
support from the soil with the least possible expenditure of
labour and capital. They were put to no expense in supplying
fertilizing materials of any kind to their outlying fields, for to
use none is a necessary incident of this kind of cultivation, and
by leaving the land fallow for long periods, the mere action of
the atmosphere on the soil saved them some of the mechanical
labour of ploughing. Under such a system, and poverty-stricken
as they were, they had neither the inducement nor the means to
obtain from the land the fullest return in the shortest period.
320
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Revenue
Hr STORY.
CHAP. XII], nor SO long as they could betake themselves to fresh land at
FART 1. pleasure would they care what quantity of land was ultimately
exhausted." They proceeded to argue that lands in the proximity
of cattle kraals, where manure was easily available, were kept
constantly under cultivation ; and further urged that in assessing
land it is right to assume that labour and capital will be
expended on it sufficiently to maintain permanently its natural
productiveness. One important fact, however, was forgotten, viz.,
that lands are allowed to lapse into jungle in order that ashes of
the vegetation burnt when it is again cleared may add to its
fertility and supply in part the manure necessary for the growth
of crops. The kraal, especially as now constructed, without cover
from sun and rain, supplies little more manure than is sufficient for
the home-farm cultivation. The Board, however, were ready to
deal even more liberally than Mr. Thomas with the Badagas,
whose privileges and advantages under the " shifting " system
they were proposing to abolish ; and recommended a reduction of
25 per cent, in each of the existing fifteen rates of assessment,
" on the understanding that claims to land for which payment is
not made will cease to be recognised.'^ The immediate conse-
quent reduction of revenue was estimated at Rupees 1,900. The
cultivable area, excluding inams, was returned as 29,912 acres,
of which, according to the accounts of 1859-60, 18,857 were
cultivated and 11,055 waste.
The Government generally concurred with the Board, but
resolved to substitute for the manifold rates in force five rates as
follow : —
Rates settled
by Govera-
Dient.
For assessments above 13 annas
Do. below 13 annas, but above 9 annas.
Do. below 9 annas but above 6 annas...
Do. below 6 annas but above 4 annas...
For all assessments below 4 annas ...
AS.
10
8
6
4
2
The following was the cultivable area under each class
ACRES.
3,943
4,611
13,221
5,517
2,620
Thus the average assessment would have been slightly over 6
annas per acre if the total cultivable area, 29,912 acres, were taken
up. In 1876 the lands held under ordinary putta alone amounted
to 67,925 acres, paying Rupees 20,560 or an average of Annas 5§
MA:NUAL of the NiLAGIRI DISTRICT. 321
per acre. This area will probably be very largely increased when CIIAp. xill,
the survey is complete. When the Government sanctioned the PART i.
new rates, which were only to apply to the 29,912 acres of putta Rj-^^vk
lands, and consequently not to interfere with the Waste Land Kules History.
just passed, the concession was thought ample compensation for
the loss of the " shifting " privilege ; but the Badaga thought
otherwise, for in fact the 29,912 acres was a fictitious number,
and he continued to cultivate any lands lying within his village
ayacut without scruple, and will continue to do so until the survey
and settlement is complete and the subordinate revenue officials
can be relied on to detect and report unauthorized cultivation.
The determination of Grovernment was reported to the Secre- Approved h.v
tary of State for approval, and was sanctioned by Sir Charles Secretary uf
Wood in a despatch dated 24th April 1863, who expressed a
hope that the measures adopted would lead to the improvement
of the condition of the Badagas ; and that so far from the intro-
duction of European capital being likely to injure the prospects of
these people, he trusted that they would gain thereby in a better
method of cultivation and many useful acquisitions of civilized
life in addition to profitable employment of sorts.
Mr. Grant, who had succeeded Mr. Thomas as Collector of Settlement
Coimbatore, was entrusted with the carrying of the settlement into ^^'^■°^"'^^*^-
effect. This he did in Fasli 1272 (1862-63), and reported in May
1864 not only that the Badagas had been informed that the
" shifting " system had ceased for ever, but he adds graphically :
" It has ceased, and the people now regard it as a by-gone system ;
it is never alluded to." The Hindu is not wont thus readily to
abandon his privileges and the institutions of his ancestors.
He said " yes," but went on ploughing and planting as heretofore,
until an accurate survey revealed the true position. In fact, each
year has the area of cultivation and permanent occupation been
extending with the growth in numbers of the hill-tribes, the
increase of wealth among them, and the great extension of
plantations. Meanwhile, possession or occupation has been the
only test of ownership applied in the process of the demarcation
that has been proceeding, and the only evidence available to
support the truth of a claim was that of the claimants and of
their kith and kin.
Mr. Grant pointed out that 29,912 acres shown in Mr. Thomas' Settlemcui
statement included lands in ten villages or arrondissements, pia^eau oniy.^
whilst virtually the Badagas only held lands in three arro7idisse-
wfiHis or parishes as he termed them— the Todandd, the Mekanad
and the Peranganad. He limited his settlement to these three
villages. The aggregate extent of land held by the Badagas then,
viz., in Fasli 1272, was 23,585 acres, pajdng Rupees 11,099 as
revenue. The new rates produced a loss of Rupees 2,254 on this
41
322
MANUAL OP THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP
. XIII, amountjbut tliisloss was more than counterbalanced by the
PART I.
J? E VENUE
History.
State of tlie
Revenue
Rc'oounts.
Settlnraent of 'M.T.
the Kundas
taking up 1 1,522 acres of waste yielding a revenue of Rupees 4,295,
leaving the total assessment at Rupees 13,140 on 35,105 acres,
against Rupees 8,1 14 on 17,333 acres in the preceding fasli. Thus
it appeared that the Badagas had more than doubled their holdings.
" The majority of the lands have been roughly demarcated, so that
I think I may say," wrote Mr. Grant, " that the old practice
of putting forward doubtful claims to lands applied for by Euro-
peans and others has been put a stop to." There can be no
question that the increase in the holdings was really nominal,
or rather that it imperfectly represented cultivation which had
hitherto been moi*e or less concealed. The demarcation was
practically useless. From the above assessment Rupees 1,961
were deducted for certain waste retained in puttas, caval lands,
and " ain " grass lands, leaving the settlement figures at Rupees
11,179; but these items were in great measure temporary
concessions.
The following remarks of Mr. Grant are noteworthy : —
" The revenue accounts, although they exhibit certain extents of
land in each village as assessed and unassessed waste, do not define
the boundaries of these lands. The result was, in carrying out the
changes under report, it became impossible to say in cases in which
unassessed waste lands had been cultivated, which portions belonged
to the assessed and which to the unassessed lauds ; and as it was
evident that many of the Burghers had both lands in their enjoy-
ment, it was resolved, as the best way to meet the difficulty, to allow
them to retain all the lands which had been cultivated under the
" Bhurty " system, and which in reality formed portions of their exist-
ing holdings. The practical result has been that the lands taken up
exceed the actual quantity of assessed waste exhibited in the accounts
submitted to Government by 5,194 acres, and show a corresponding
reduction in the available unassessed waste lands, of which many
thousand acres still remain untouched. Although somewhat opposed
to the letter of the Government order, the course followed seemed to be
in accordance with ita spirit ; in fact it would have been difficult, if
not impossible, to have carried it out differently, as, the lands not being
demarcated and surveyed, there were no data as to which were the
assessed and which the unassessed lands : almost all either were, or
had been, under the plough at the time the settlement v^-as made."
Grant also introduced the new rates into the Kilndas^
which had but recently (1860) been transferred to the Coimbatore
District from Malabar. The revenue system hitherto existing in
this tract seems not to have been thoroughly understood^
as Mr. Grant speaks of the revenue being collected " on the
number of fields locally termed ' Kottoocudoo ' and ' Yercudoo '
at so much on each description of field," but although these terms
may have begun to represent the description of the field, that
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
323
is, whether it was cultivated by the plough er, or the hoe kottu, CHAP, Xiir,
instead of the possession of the right of using a plough or hoe, yet PART l.
this change had not been sufficiently perfected to find a place in revenue
the revenue accounts ; but the ryot still received a putta nominally Histoky.
for the right to use a plough or hoe, and not for so much land ; for
the former privilege he paid Rupea 1 to Rupees 1-8, and for the
latter 4 to 8 annas ; but the extent of land over which the right
was to be exercised did not appear in the pntta. Armed with
this document he cultivated whatever land he liked and wherever
situated. The result was that often fresh forest land was cleared
whenever the land already under the plough or hoe began to show
signs of exhaustion. The " Bhurty " system can hardly be said
to have prevailed here, but an almost unrestricted and unlimited
right to ear the ground and delve at choice. Mr. Grant reported
that he had had the lands occupied by these Kunda Badagas
in 1862-63 (Fasli 1272) roughly surveyed by the taluk officials
and classified according to the productiveness of the soil, and
assessed at the five new rates. The total area was ascertained to
be 1,220 acres, of which 118 acres appertained to the first class,
assessed at 10 annas, 43 to the second, 606 to the third, and 299
and 154 acres to the fourth and fifth classes respectively. The total
net assessment, after deducting Rupees 10 for ain grass, was
Rupees 404, against Rupees 434, the settlement of the previous
fasli. " The small decrease of Rupees 30,^' remarked Mr. Grant,
'^is nothing when the advantages of the new system are considered
with reference not only to the Kunda, but to the other villages
on the Hills. The door to much fraud has been closed, and the
sources of endless disputes and false claims to lands have been
swept away ; whilst the Burghers and Government have both
immediately benefited, the former by the reduction of assessment
and the latter by an increased revenue.'^ These words read
strangely after the lapse and experience of fifteen years ; and
it is to be regretted that the survey and settlement made by
Mr. Grant had not been more complete. In the Kundas, more
especially, was the work so indifferently performed, that the
particulars entered in the new puttas of area were utterly
unreliable, whilst no boundaries were given, the only clue to the
identification of the land being its name or designation. This
usually helped to fix the rate only but not its area. Sources of
dispute and false claims to lands, so far from being swept away,
were rather more numerous and fruitful than heretofore.
In making the settlement of the lands held by the cultivating ciritiv^ation bv
tribes on the plateau,^ Mr. Grant had proclaimed that henceforth hiii-tribes
only to be
obtained by
^ It must not be forgotten that this settlement extended only to the plateau auction under
and higher slopes. The ancient settlement still exists in the tracts at the foot of Waste Land
the ghiitsin the Moyar valley. Rales,
324 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII, lands not appearing in tlie puttas of tliis settlement conld not be
PART I. obtained by the Badagas except by purcliase in auction undei-
Revenue ^lie Waste Land Eules recently sanctioned. No exception appears
History, to have been made even in the case of house sites. The Board
of Revenue demurred to this restriction, pointing out at the same
time that the final rule of the Waste Land Rules expressly reserves
to Government the power to grant land on putta as heretofore ;
but the Government of the day were less liberally inclined, and
resolved not to grant the Badagas any greater privileges in regard
to waste lands, even though situated within the inmost circle of the
hamlet farms, than were allowed to Europeans and other immi-
grants, remarking that the Badagas had been liberally dealt with,
and as they acquiesced in the future adoption of the rules, there
could be no objection to their being brought into operation.
This arrangement, it was thought, would prevent disputes between
Europeans and Badagas about lands. But this policy was in
marked contrast with that of the Marquis of Tweeddale and of
his successor Sir Henry Pottinger. Li the rules issued by the
latter in 1849, it was expressly declared that the native inhabi-
tants of the Nilagiris should continue as heretofore to hold on
putta the lands then in their enjoyment and any further lands
which they might take up for their own cultivation ; and this
liberality was not confined to the hill-tribes, but any native settler
from the low country was allowed to hold on similar tenure such
lands as he might take bond fide for his own occupancy.^ The
views, however, of the Madras Government found acceptance with
the Secretary of State, Sir Charles Wood, who, in a despatch
dated 23rd November 1864, expressed his gratification at the
result of Mr. Grant's settlement and acquiesced in the restrictions
on the Badagas.
Effects of the This measure has been until recently virtually ignored, and
measure. consequently its restrictive effects have been but little felt ; but
there can be no question that had the revenue system of the
succeeding twelve or fourteen years been strictly in accordance
with rule, and had the rights of Government been secured by an
accurate survey, its operation would have produced much discon-
^ I cannot refrain from quoting the order of Sir Frederick Adam's Government,
31st October 1834, when granting compensation for the appropriation by
Mr. Lushington's Government of Badaga ryots' lands for the experimental farm
at Kaity. It rnns : — " Supposing the rights of the Burghers to be merely a
pi-escriptive right of occupancy, that right should not have been taken from them
(so long as thoy fulfilled the condition of tenants by providing for the cultivation
of the land and paying the Government revenue) without compensation in land or
money. Restitution will now be made to them, but something more than i-estitu-
tion is necessary to do them full justice ; they should be compensated for the
loss of the profit they were accustomed to derive from the land after pajnng the
revenue and all charges during the time they have been out of possession."
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT-
S2l
tent, which might have necessitated its abrogation. It has been CHAP. Xlli,
urged that the rates fixed on ryots' lands are extremely low when __
compared with the rates paid under the Waste Land Rules, but Revenue
this is only partially true, especially when it is considered that the H^sroinr.
greater part of Badaga cultivation is on grass and scrub land as
opposed to forest. Moreover a Badaga, whilst cultivating yearly
one acre, is compelled to pay assessment on, say, four acres, and
in this way his assessment is virtually quadrupled.^ Thus for
land with 8 annas assessment he practically pays 2 rupees an
acre, or the maximum rate on forest land held under the Waste
Land Rules. The system adopted is akin to that of Tippu Sultan
referred to earlier in the chapter, by which the ryots were com-
pelled to pay for all arable lands, whether cultivated or not.
The completion of the survey of putta lands, begun in 1870^ at
the request of the Commissioner, will soon put an end to the
advantage which the hill cultivators have possessed under the
settlement of 1863, and will test the question whether or not
their lands as a whole are too heavily assessed.^ A Badaga now
clings to his land though he may derive little profit fi'om it,
because he fears it may be alienated for ever under the Waste
Land Rules if it comes to the hammer for arrears of revenue.
Meanwhile the well earned fruits of his labour on plantations and
roads, and even at handicrafts, provide him with the means of
paying the Government demand. In this respect his position
compares most favourably with that of ryots in remote taluks in
the plains. There can be little doubt that the whole land question
of the district requires thorough and systematic treatment, and it
will probably be found advisable, on completion of the survey,
to have a fresh settlement of the country ; and it would be well,
^ The survey of the Mekanid increased the occupied area 80 per cent., but
probably not more than one-third of this area is yearly cultivated. The fallow,
however, has its value as grazing ground. To estimate rightly this increase, the
home-farm lands, a fairly well fixed quantity, should be deducted.
* I would here remark that the resolution of Government when this survey
was begun, to demarcate the lands found in the possession or occiipancy of a
ryot as his, although the area might be much greater than that entered in his
putta, was a direct infraction of Mr. Grant's survey and settlement approved
by the Secretary of State, which restricted the Badagas to the lands at that time
ascertained to be in their possession, some 29,000 acres. It is well that the
finality of the previous settlement was forgotten or ignored.
^ Quite recently the following rules have been approved by Government for
dealing with excess in demarcation : —
1. In cases of unauthorized occupation of primeval forest, title-deeds for the
portion which has not been planted should be absolutely refused, except in special
cases to be submitted for the orders of Government ; retention of the area actually
planted might be permitted, unless there is some strong ground for prohibiting
further cultivation, on payment of the average auction price for similar land
sold during the year, or dui'ing a series of three or five years, as may be thought
most equitable with reference to the circumstances, such as enhancement of
326
MANUA.L OF THE NILAGIRT DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII,
I'ART I.
Rf VENUE
U I STORY.
Kdtas and
other aborigi-
nal culti-
vators.
Mode of
assessing
lands.
in the interests both of Government and the villagers^ if this
settlement were accompanied by the introduction of a complete
revenue, judicial, and police system among the hill peoples. The
present village arrangements have outgrown the altered condi-
tion of things. Hamlets have grown into villages without being
provided with a sepai-ate establishment of village officers, or, in
a word, receiving the privileges of village autonomy.
The land revenue arrangements of the Kotas differ in no respect
from those of the Badagas, though they care less to extend their
cultivation ; and of the practice e:jtisting in regard to the remain-
ing tribes, the vagrant Irulas and the Kiirumbas, little has to be
said except that the shiftinrj system of cultivation, which hither-
to prevailed amongst the Badagas, has prevailed amongst them
in a still greater degree. A putta once granted for cultivating
some undefined portion of land ostensibly for a season has been
permanently held, and been made to represent, not the title to one
piece of land of undefined extent, but an undefined number of
pieces. These puttas have been, and it is believed still are, freely
alienated, and form the title to valuable coffee and other
plantations on the eastern slopes of the Hills. Efforts were made
by Mr. Breeks to call in these puttas and to endorse them as
non-transferable. In some cases this was done, but owing to
a defective revenue administration the evil has continued. The
completion of the survey and the improvement of the revenue
administration will in time abolish the abuses. Hitherto the
checks which an annual revenue settlement is supjjosed to afford
to encroachments and other irregularities in regard to cultivated
land have been in great measure inoperative.
I would shortly note that the mode of assessing the lands of the
hill cultivators is practically according to the intrinsic quality of
prices owing to unusual competition, &c. ; assessment on the area retained
should be levied in arrears from the date on which it would have been payable
had the land been procured in a regular manner and further encroachment
prevented by imposition of prohibitive assessment.
2. In cases of unauthorized occupation by other than Badagas of grass or
scrub, the reservation of which is not considered necessary, title-deeds should
be oifered on payment of the average auction price and assessment for the past
years on the excess over the area covered by putta, subject to an allowance of
25 per cent, or 5 acres, whichever is more favorable to the occupant. This
allowance will, the Board think, be a sufficient concession in cases of error of
estimate on the part of hond fide purchasers, and will probably exclude all hufc
the cases in which the discrepancy must have been palpable.
3. In the case of bond fide Badaga holdings, excess over the putta area within
100 per cent, should be charged with assessment for the futm-e merely ; where
the land demarcated is more tlian double the extent shown in the putta, the
occupant should have the option of throwing up the excess over 100 per cent, or of
retaining it on payment of the average auction price and back assessment.
4. In the case of specific grants the area demarcated should be strictly
limited to the extent specified therein.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. ' 327
the soil, aud the assessment, when once fixed in a putta on the CHAP. Xlli,
report of the subordinate revenue official, who probably bases his PART I.
opinion on the description of pi-oduce that may be raised thereon, revenue
is not, I believe, ordinarily disturbed. Formerly, however, it History.
was the practice at the approach of harvest for the taluk officials
with the curuums to make a tour through the different villages,
" and form an estimate of the probable outturn of the crop on each
field from its appearance, rating it as first class if it promises to be
abundant, and as second class if otherwise. The highest rate
levied is on lands cultivated for potatoes, which pay 7 rupees per
vullam (bulla) for first-class ground, and 5 rupees for second-class.
The next rate in the scale of assessment is applied to lands
bearing wheat, which pay for first-class ground Rupees 3-8-5 and
for second-class Rupees 2-5-7; barley, which pay for first-class
Rupees 3-8-5 and for second-class Rupees 2-5-7 per vullam, and
the same for poppy, vendium, mustard seed, garlic and onions.
The lowest rate applies to raggee, samee, koralley, peas, shen-
nugee and tenney, all of which pay Rupees 2-0-11 per vullam for
first-class land, and for second-class Rupees 0-14-1 per vullam."
— Odchterlony's Memoir,
(h.) The Graziers — The Todaa.
Claim of Todas to lordship over plateau — nature of claim — its extent — conditions
operating against it. — Restrictions on purchases of land from Tddas. — Claims
of the Tddas partially admitted. — Occupation of lands by Eui-opeans attracts
attention of Court of Directors. — Change in policy of Madras Government. —
Grants made without mention of T(5das' claims. — Settlers continue to purchase
from the Tddas. — Sir Frederick Adam's action. — Mr. Sullivan's views — endorsed
by Government— approved by Court of Directors. — DiflBculties in carrying policy
into effect. — Matters still unsettled in 1839, and Court of Directors interfere. —
Mr. Conolly's views. — Mr. C. M. Lushington strongly opposes policy of
Government. — Marquis of Tweeddale refers questions to the Court of Directors.
— After further report from the Collector of Malabar the Court's despatch,
1843, settles questions finally and orders payment of compensation for Ootaca-
mand to Todas. —Manual of Land Rules to be prepared — provisions of the manual
relating to the Tddas — rescinded by the Waste Land Rules. — Present revenue
system.
Thus far I have treated of the cultivating tribes. I now turn to Tddas' claims
the graziers— the Todas. The fact that they, relatively to the over plateau.
: Badagas at least, the principal cultivating tribe, were the earliest
I occupants of the plateau, gave rise to pretensions on their part to
I lordship over the Hills, pretensions which received for many years
fthe enthusiastic support of Mr. John Sullivan, of Mr. Hough, and
i of Captain Harkness, but which were as strenuously opposed by
some distinguished membei'S of the Civil Service, especially Mr. /
S. R. Lushington, Mr. C. M. Lushington, and Mr. Bird. Mr.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Revenue
History.
cla
CHAP. XIII, S. R. Lusliingtoiij whilst Governor, liad practically ignored these
PART 1. claims, but his successor. Sir Frederick Adam, regarded them
favourably, and made concessions which were opposed to the
permanent rights in soil which throughout India belong to
the State. Lord Elphinstone did not disturb the policy of his
predecessor, although towards the end of his reign, in 1840, after
Mr. Sullivan's retirement, the civilian members of the Govern-
ment made a determined attack on the policy of the preceding
five years ; but on the accession to power of the Marquis of
Tweeddale the papers were referred to the Honorable Court of
Directors. In their reply of 21st June 1843 the question as to
the rights of the Todas in the land was finally set at rest.
The position claimed for the Todas was similar to that known
as the jenm tenure in Malabar, and was alleged to extend to the
whole of the plateau. The " gudu," or basket of grain, which
the Todas received from the Badagas was regarded as rent paid by
the tenants to the landlords for the lands occupied by them. The
high position claimed for this tribe of barbarous herdsmen was
in great measure due to the ignorance that existed in regard
to the nature of this custom. But when it was ascertained that
other tribes received from the timid Badagas benevolences of a
similar nature, the argument grounded thereon lost much of its
force. At first, too, it was believed that all Badaga ryots paid a
contribution of the kind,^ but later it was ascertained that the
payment was not universal, but was mainly confined to Badaga
villages neighbouring the Toda grazing grounds of the uplands.
The contribution, which is believed by Mr. Breeks ^ to amount
to about two kuligas or four Madras measures of grain for an
ordinary putta field, appears to be of a two-fold character.
It is probably, to some extent, compensation for appropriation
to cultivation of lands once grazed by Toda buffaloes, but it also
partakes of the nature of a free-will oft'ering to secure the favour,
or rather avert the displeasure, of the Todas, who are supposed
to possess necromantic powers. The fond advocates of Toda
rights also lost sight of the fact that they had from time
immemorial paid to the Circar a tax on all female buflTaloes in their
possession, amounting to 2 cantarai fanams, or 9 annas 5 pies, per
1 " The ' goodoo ' is not collected into a common fund and then divided, but
each ' mund ' or ' moort ' has the goodoo of a cei-tain number of Burgher villages
appropriated for its support, and if any difficulty should be made in payment,
the aid of the monegar is called in for its collection." — Mk. Sullivan.
2 Major Ouchterlony states that the Todas claim one-sixth of the produce,
and that the Badagas admit that they paid at this rate before the advent of the
English. He also states that the owner of a good house contributed 1 cuudagam
= 20 kuligas ; the less opulent 5 or | cundagam. Some interesting information
on the custom will be found in his memoir.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
329
animal, as well as an assessment of 1 cantarai fanam, or 4 annas 8 CHAP. Xill,
pies, per bullah on the grazing lands in the immediate neighbour- PART l.
hood of their mands, calculated at the rate of 10 buUahs (38 acres) revenue
for every hundred head of cattle herded at a mand. This latter tax History.
produced Eupees 350 in 1828 and Rupees 400 in 1847.
When Mr. Sullimn first settled on the Hills, he appears to have —its extent.
regarded the Todas' rights as extending to the whole of the
plateau. " Referring to what has lately appeared in the public
papers on the subject of colonizing the Hills," he writes on New
Year's eve, 1829, " I would only beg leave to remind the Boai-d
that these hill people have rights. The Todawars can show as clear
a proprietary right to the soil they now occupy as can be produced
by the Mirassidars of Malabar, and to a certain share of the
produce of all land now cultivated or that may hereafter be culti-
vated. The Todawars were originally in possession of the whole
range, and it was only with their permission that the Burghers
settled and cultivated upon mutual agreement, which is in force
at this moment. The scanty number of the Toda population
cannot be held to bar their claims. The Burghers again, holding
from the Todawars on a fixed quit-rent, have a property in all the
land they occupy. The cultivation and population in their nauds
are rapidly increasing, and in a few years the Burghers, if left
undisturbed, will occupy all the best descriptions and many of the v
inferior soils. In the Malnaud, or Todawar country, there is
certainly room for a colony. That tract would support a very
large population, but before any measures are taken for colonizing,
the consent of the proprietors should be obtained, and a fair
remuneration made to them for what they are to give up. They
have been greatly injured by the formation of the cantonment of
Ootacamand. The occupants of lands within this circle have paid
for two cawnies for each house ; for all the rest of the land from
which the Todawars are debarred the use, they have received no
remuneration at all. Having been the means of introducing
Europeans and strangers to the Neilgherries, I am bound by every
obligation of public duty and good feeling to assert the rights of
the inhabitants whenever an attempt may be made to invade
them." He had purchased from them, it will be observed, and , y
not from Government, the lands occupied by him at Stonehouse,
and later at Southdowns (Bishopsdown), and his example had
been followed by several others, notably Sir William Kumbold,
who thus acquired the site on which the Club and neighbouring
houses now stand.
These transactions were not called in question by Government —condition
until the beginning of Sir Frederick Adam's reign, but were virtu- "^^^-^gj^f
ally admitted, for Government obtained by purchase properties so
acquired without questioning the title- But the rapid growth
42
330 MANUAL OF THE NILAaiRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII, of the cantonment during Mr. S. R. Lushington's administration
PART I. had brought the land question of the Ootacamand settlement into
Revenue prominent notice early in that Governor's reign, and rendered it
History, absolutely necessary that the position of Government in regard to
such lands should be definitely settled. Each house-owner had
endeavoured to secure as much as possible of the lands adjoining
that on which his house stood^ and to this day there are several
instances in which owners of house properties have no documen-
tary title to portions of their estates.
Eeatrictions Early in 1828 the subject had engaged the attention of Govern-
on purchases jj^gjiti and reports had been called for. but before full information
of land from ' J^ '
Tddaa. was received as to the number and extent of these properties
and the terms on which they were held, the Government, in
November of this year, deemed it proper to limit the space to be
allotted to each dwelling-house, exclusive of the site of the build-
ing and outhouses, to two cawnies, and directed that all ground
held in excess of this area, which might have been enclosed or
appropriated without permission from Government, should be
resumed and incorporated tvith Circar land. Proprietors of houses
already built, and persons desiring to build, were required, the
former within three months, and the latter before beginning a
building, to take out Government grants '* in the usual form for
the authorized extent of ground for each house, such grants being
subject to the fees levied on the issue of similar instruments at
the Presidency.'' The same order reserved all land between
Stonehouse and the Willow Bund south of the lake for pubHc
buildings.
Todas'olaims A few days after the issue of this order the Government dealt
admitted ^"^^^ ^^® Toda claims, ^ which had been strongly urged by Mr.
Sullivan. The Board of Revenue had hesitated to admit the
property rights of the Todas, and held that such rights as they
possessed did not stand in the way of Government allotting lands
for building and other purposes ; but the Government declined to
enter into a discussion on the alleged property rights of the Todas,
but adopted the terms observed by Mr. Sullivan in purchasing
their privileges from the Todas as a sufficient guide for regulating
the payment by other individuals " of compensation " for the
usufruct of the land which the Todas had hitherto enjoyed. The
decision was that each occupant should pay to the Todas as
*' compensation "16 cantarai fanams for each bullah, being sixteen
times the assessment paid by the Todas for pasture land, and four
times the lowest rate for cultivated lands in the plateau ; and in
addition to this the Government required the occupant to pay to
the Circar, from the date of the grant, ** quit-rent at the rate
1 E. M. C, 14th November 1828.
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 331
usually assessed on lands for which Government grants are issued, CHAP. Xlll,
and that from the same date rent pro tanto shall cease to be PART I.
demanded from the Todawars/' All applications for grants were revenue
to be accompanied by certificate that the prescribed compensation Histoby.
had been paid to the Todas. The area allowed to each house,
which had been originally recommended by Sir T. Munro, was
maintained, subject to modification in special cases.
The occupation of lands for agricultural purposes on the Occupation
Nllagiris had attracted the attention of the Honorable Court of Europeans^
Directors, and on the 2nd September 1829 the Court communi- attracts
cated to the Madras Government a copy of the Resolution of the Q^^^t ^^f °
Supreme Government, 7th May 1824, more particularly referred Directors,
to later on in this chapter, and directed that the rules therein laid
down should be " strictly observed in the case of every permission
granted to a European to hold land on lease for purposes of
cultivation." This Resolution provided that lands occupied by
Native cultivators by hereditary right should not be transferred
without their consent and that of "all parties possessing an
interest in the soil or in the rents.'' Lands could only be obtained
on lease for a period not exceeding twenty-one years.
Meanwhile applications for grants of land, mainly in the Change in
Ootacamand settlement, began to flow in. Some of them were Mr^Ynshing-
disposed of by the Government in April 1831. In sanctioning^ ton's Govern,
these grants no mention is made of compensation to Todas, nor ^^^ '
were the grants limited to a period of twenty-one years, but were,
" as at Madras, for an indefinite period." In fact the practice
in the Presidency appears to have been adhered to in all respects.
The quit-rent fixed was Rupees 5| per cawnie *' to be assessed
uniformly on all lands on the Nilagiris, whether within or with-
out the cantonment."^ The Government justified its departure
from the instructions of the Court of Directors by alleging that
those instructions referred exclusively to large tracts of land
rented by indigo planters and others for agricultural purposes, and
could not be held to apply " to the erection of dwelling-houses on
small plots of ground at a place where, from local circumstances,
the acquisition of very considerable landed property is almost
impossible." The claims of the Todas to any compensation,
though so emphatically asserted in 1828, were now forgotten. East
Indian settlers received grants of waste land according to the
extent of their capital, beyond the limits of the cantonment,
without any mention of paying assessment to Government.
Meanwhile, however, settlers continued to purchase lands from Settlers
the Todas. These transactions are recounted in a letter from the f^ontinue to
purchase
— from Tddas.
1 19th April 1831.
» E. M. C, 8th November 1831.
332 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII, Collector of Malabar in 1833 as follows : " Land lias^ from time
PAKT I. to time, been purcbased from the Todawars by different persons
Revenue ^o^ ^^® purposes of building and cultivation, wben a small
History, compensation, generally from 10 to 50 rupees, always amply
' satisfied them ; and these purchases were, until the recent orders
of Government, generally effected through the Officer Command-
ing on the Hills, who, being on the spot, was able to see justice
done to all parties." The Todas, he remarks, had " learnt to
assert and protect their own rights on all occasions, and never
failed to make a good bargain in disposing of their lands ;"
and he adds that he had received no complaints of oppression
J being used towards them to induce or compel them to part with
their lands. But there was a notable exception to this — Kandel-
mand — which the Todas only alienated to Sir W. Rumbold, who
required it to form part of the domain which he desired to attach
to the house he was then building, after considerable compulsion
on the part of the Peschar and the offer of Rupees 400, their
unwillingness being due to the existence of a small temple in its
centre, which they alleged contained " the effigies of their gods
and the monuments of their ancestors. '^
Sir Frederick So long as Mr. S. R. Lushington held the reins of Government
Adam's ^^^ rights of the Todas as well as the Badagas in the land were
virtually ignored, but with the change of Governors came a
violent reaction in the policy of the Government. Shortly after
Sir Frederick Adam's accession to power the Government turned
its attention to the land question, and caused a searching inquiry
to be made into all land transactions with the Hill tribes. As
regards the Badagas the Government had themselves been the
chief transgressors in the matter of the Kaity Experimental
Farm, where cultivated lands belonging to Badaga ryots had been
appropriated by Government without payment of any compensa-
tion, the assessment only being remitted. As regards the Todas
the only important case was that of Sir W. Rumbold, above referred
to ; in both instances ample compensation was granted to the
sufferers and the land restored.
The action of Sir Frederick Adam's Government was mainly in
accord with the views of the Court of Directors, who, early in 1834,
when calling for a report on the past and present condition of
the Todas, had expressed a strong desire that the rights of ^this
people should be respected, and that they should not be deprived of
any of their privileges without ample remuneration. The report
called for by the Court opened up the whole question of the
Todas' rights in the soil. Mr. Sullivan was at this time Principal
'^ Collector of Coimbatore. He at once took up the cause of the
Todas, and, succeeding to Council in 1835, he was enabled to
caiTy on the contest with advantage and final success, which
MANUAL OF THE NILAQirj DISTRICT. 333
was mainly due to a lengthened minute on the subject recorded CHAP, xili,
on the 5th September 1 835. PART l.
His views border on the romantic. He admitted that the Revenue
Todas were not the first inhabitants of the Hills^ grounding this History.
assertion on the fact that they laid no claim to the cromlechs and Mr. Sullivan's
tumuli^ but as boldly asserted that^ being in possession when the ^'®"'^-
Badagas arrived, the latter were only " permitted to break up
the soil of the Nilagiris upon an express compact with the
Todawars that a portion of the produce of each cultivated plot
should be rendered to them as the original occupants." '' This
compact/^ he contiuueSj "is still religiously observed, and its
origin is freely admitted by the Burghers themselves. The
portion of the produce so rendered varies from a tenth to an
eighth. It is called ''goodoo/ and bears an exact resemblance
to that species of property in land in Arcot which is called
' Marah/ ''
This position however he subsequently partially modifies, for,
after remarking that the Badagas had spread over the Peranganad,
Mekanad and the Todanad, the Todas having the exclusive
occupation of the upland portion only of the last-named on the
arrival of Europeans, he goes on to say, " The property of the
land in the other divisions of the Hills vests in the Burghers, who
hold it upon the prevailing tenure of Coimbatore, viz., the punctual
payment of the Government assessment, but the Todawars have
an inalienable claim to their ' goodoo.' The Malnaud, which
extends from the boundary of the Todawarnaud to Nadoobett, is
the property of the Todawars in the same sense as the lands of
Malabar vest in Jemnikars, the Government in both cases retain-
ing, of course, their full rights of revenue over the lands. The
origin of the property is not to be traced in either instance :
both have been in possession from a remote antiquity, and both
have enjoyed their property under a light tax. No division has
ever been made of the land amongst the Todawars. They enjoy
the property in common, and when in 1822 I first became
acquainted with their proprietary rights, the money which I
then paid for the purchase of those rights over the lands
I then occupied, and over other lands which I afterwards occu-
pied, was divided amongst the Todawars resident on the
Malnaud, but the few families who still remain in the other
nau4s were not considered entitled to a share. * * * 2^o
compensation has ever been made for the land included in the
cantonment, which embraces a circle of several miles, and those
of their favourite mands from which they have been entirely
ousted ; neither do they receive anything for the numerous herds
which now graze upon their lands within the cantonment."
334
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII,
PART I.
Revenue
History.
— endorsed
by Govern-
ment.
— approved
by Court of
Directors.
Difficulties in
carrying
policy into
effect.
Mr. Sullivan's views were in the main approved by the Govern-
mentj of which he had become a member, in October 1835. It
was ordered that their rights should be " respected," and that
they should not " on any account be disturbed in the possession
of the lands heretofore held by them, which they may desire to
retain for pasturage, so long as they pay the taxes at present
payable ^ by them ; that private persons shall not be permitted
to appropriate any of those lands without the consent of the
Todawars interested in them at terms mutually agreed upon,
and no part of those lands shall be taken for public purposes
without compensation to the Todawars who have previously
occupied them." Subsequently the Board of Revenue recom-
mended that " cattle belonging to persons holding lands for
building and other purposes should not be allowed to graze
indiscriminately on uncultivated lands within their mands or
villages without the consent of the proprietors."
The determination of Government was fully endorsed by the
Court of Directors in a despatch dated the 19th April 1837, the
Court being anxious " to reconcile the interest of both parties."
But prior to the receipt of this despatch orders had been issued to
the Collector of Malabar to arrange with the Todas for the settle-
ment of compensation for lands occupied by Europeans at the rate
before mentioned, and it was further directed that agreements
should be entered into with the T6das for the purchase of their
common right and interest in their lands within or without the
cantonment, and that the lands they desired to retain should be
defined. Allowance was to be made in favour of Government for
sums already paid by private individuals.
Difficulties however arose in carrying out this order. In
the first place it could not be ascertained what had been paid
to Todas, and in the second place lands were frequently taken up
and cultivated for a time and then abandoned. In regard to the
latter point it was decided that it would be sufficient to make an
allowance to the Todas out of the assessment payable to Govern-
ment, the amount so deducted to be specified in the jamma-
bandi chittas and puttas ; the former was ignored. In February
1847 the Board of Revenue reported that the area in theOotaca-
mand settlement to be reserved to the Todas was under 100 cawnies
or 133 acres, for which extent the Board stated at the rate
sanctioned the compensation would be Rupees 162-10-1, but
recommended that they should have compensation for the entire
cantonment area, including the spots the Todas desired to reserve.
This proposal the Government sanctioned, and their order was
' About a fourth of the assessment receivable if the laud were cultivated.
MANUAL OF THE NILAOIEI DISTklCT. 335
followed by the following curious notification by the Collector CHAP. XI II,
of Malabar:— parti.
" Government having determined that compensation for the whole Revenue
land included in the cantonment of Ootacamund shall be paid direct History.
to the Todas from the public treasury, and that no demand shall be
made on pi'ivate occupants on this account, and further that the
amount ah^eady paid by private individuals as compensation to the
Todas for lands occupied by them shall be paid on their making over
to Government the right and interest purchased by them from the
Todas, in lieu of which a perfect and unquestionable title will be given
them by Government to the lands in their occupation : Notice is
hereby given that on proof by authenticated documents of any such
payment having been made being furnished to the Sub Collector of
Malabar at Ootacamund on or before the 1st April next, such sums
shall be repaid to the parties on the terms above specified."
But many obstacles presented themselves to the completion of
this arrangement_, the chief of which was the refusal of the Todas,
instigated by the Tahsildar of Ootacamand, to accept the compen-
sation offered. The Advocate-General also had pointed out to
Government the legal difiiculties involved in their policy.
Things remained unsettled, and when in April 1839 the Court of Matters still
Directors expressed a hope that Government would soon be able to iglf^ qq^^^
conclude an agreement with the Todas, '^ either by payment of of Directors
annual rent or otherwise/' orders were thereupon issued to the "^*®^ ^^^'
Collector of Malabar to induce the Todas to make over the lands
on payment annually of Rupees 150 *■' as quit-rent for the same.''
In 1840 Mr. Conolly forwarded some important observations to
Government, dealing with the Todas' claims from a Malabar
point of view. He pointed out that even in Malabar a man might
cultivate waste, restoring it to the owner should a claim be estab-
lished on receipt from the latter of full compensation ; and further
that a man is not allowed to leave his land waste unless he agree
to pay to Government the tax they would receive if it were culti-
vated ; and proceeded to remark that it was a serious question
" whether the Todas should have greater favour shown to them
(allowing them to be proprietors of the soil) than is shown to the
proprietors of Malabar; whether they should be allowed to keep
the large portion of the Hills ^ which they claim as their peculiar Mr.Conolly's
property in a state which may fairly be called waste, to the "^'®^^^-
prejudice of Government, who might derive a large emolument
from its being brought under cultivation." And after observing
that the Todas only paid a land assessment on 190 bullahs (700
acres), and that the Government could hardly have intended in
1835 to have allowed them to occupy the rest of the uplands (in
1 i.e., the uplands— Meln&d— of fcTie T<5daa.— Ete.
336 MANUAL OF THE NJLAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII, area fifty times greater than wliat they paid for) without payment
PART I. of land tax, he proceeds : —
Eevexue " ^^^ ^^^^ ^^® Todas have a right to exjaect by a fair construction
TlisTORY. of the resolutions of Government, is that these 190 bullahs, for which
they do pay a tax, should be guaranteed to them so long as the amount,
small as it is, is duly paid ; and with regard to the remaining portion,
I think the rule which prevails in Malabar ****** might
be fairly applied, although the cases are not in their nature exactly
analogous. The Todas might be allowed the proprietary right to
the whole of the soil, but it might be insisted that they should pay a
tax for it, or, failing that, allow it to be occupied by those ivho ivould
pay the assessed or assessable rates, receiving however, as in Malabar,
15 per cent, of the profits as the landlord's share. All land not
tendered for might be left, as at present, in the Todas' possession
with liberty to use it as their own till it was, piece by piece, taken
up by those who would make a more profitable use of it. It would
be very long ere, under this system, any such quantity would fall out
of their hands (as far as the use of it goes) as to affect their interests
as herdsmen ; and by that time (if not before) it may be hoped they
will have advanced in the scale of civilization and have seen the
advantage of uniting husbandry to the mere tending of buffaloes.
They may be compelled in time (and it is to be wished they should
be) to change their mode of life by the operation of this system,
but they can never be really injured by it ; for, to say nothing of
the moral consequences, every bullah of land that is lost to them in
one way (saving the empty title to the proprietary right, on which
they set much value) will be amply made vip by the 15 per cent,
which it is proposed should be given them from its produce."
In the following month Mr. Conolly submitted to Government
an agreement concluded with the Todas, by which they consented
to make over to Government the lands in the Ootacamand
settlement, deducting certain reservations on payment of a " quit-
rent '' of Rupees 150. In consideration of these reservations
the Todas consented to cede " such portions of land ivithout the
cantonment as have already been appropriated for building
purposes.^'
Mr. C. M. But Mr. Sullivan had now retired, and the proposal to pay
stron T""" " quit-rent " to the Todas, and the decision of Government in 1835
opposespolicy to acknowledge these barbarians as 'Herds of the soil/^ met with
m nt^^*^^' *^® viio?>i determined opposition from Mr. CM, Lushington, now
senior Member of Council. In a very able minute, dated the 15th
December 1840, he combated Mr. Sullivan's theories and the novel
proceedings of the Board of Eevenue, boldly asserting that "all
opinions of any value were unanimously concurrent in maintaining
that the ruling power in India not only possessed the right of
making grants of waste land, but that its exercise from time
immemorial was as frequent as undeniable.^' Passing in rapid
i
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 337
review the opinions of eminent revenue officers from 177G and the CHAP. XIII,
policy which was formulated in Regulation XXXI of 1802, he PART I.
quoted Sir T. Munro's remark that " there is no reason to suppose kevenue
that private landed property ever at any one time existed^ except History.
upon one footing-. Over the greater part of India from Pulicat to
Ganjam, in the Ceded Districts, the Baramahal and Coimbatore, it
seems to have been always Jis now little known except as inam
from the sovereign.'^ After enlarging on this celebrated
Governor's recorded opinions he proceeds to criticise the position
taken by Mr. Sullivan and the evidence produced by Mr. Sullivan
from Toda and Badaga customs, upon which it is based. He
demolished the analogy between Penn's purchase of Pennsylvania
and the Government acquisition of Toda lands, mentioning
incidentally the notorious fact that Tippu had annually sent his
Kichhana establishments to the Hills for pasturage whilst
compelling the Todas to pay tax for pasture. He enters fully
into the import of the custom of pajang " gudu/' and, though
ignorant of the meaning of the word, shows how it was admittedly
paid to secure " the goodwill and protection " of the Todas,
its sanctions being moral. He shows that whilst demanding for
the Todas Malabar land-rights, Mr. Sullivan had from the first
strenuously contended against the view that the Todas or their
country had ever anything to do with Malabar. He then goes on
to point out that Mr. Sullivan, in issuing puttas on his first advent
ito the Hills, made no distinction between the puttas of Todas and
' 'of Badagas, and finally closes his argument by stating the legal
difficulties, urging that Government were in dilemma, for whilst by
Regulation XXXI they denied that any length of tenure constituted
a right without production of authentic documents, they had
by orders of 1835 declared that the Todas' rights in the soil
were paramount ; consequently no settler could obtain a valid
title, for if he claimed by purchase from a Toda, he was met by the
.abjection that the law allowed no such rights in waste land ; if
by purchase from Government, by the objection that Government
liad declared they would not sell without the consent of the land-
j ord Toda. He then warns the Government against the policy
idopted by urging that there were other claims involved in " this
iiession to the Toda." " These claims," he writes, " extend to a
rery large tract of the Neilgherries, and the person pref erring-
hem is the Nullumboor Zemindar, whose zemindari adjoins the
^SJ'eilgherries. This is another reason against admitting the claims
• i»f the Todawars, except on legal proof, for, as justly observed by
i )ir Thomas Munro, ' We must not too hastily declare any right
\ o be permanent, lest we give to one class what belongs to
nother.' " Mr. Lushington's views were fully endorsed by the
ther Civilian Member, Mr. John Bird, who, whilst agreeing that
43
oo8 MANUAL OF THE NJLAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII, compeiiMttion, not quit-rent or " goodoo " should be paid, demanded
PART I that the claims of the Todas to sovereign rights in the soil should
Ee^ue be repudiated.
History. Lord Elphinstone would not move, and it was not till the
Marquis of latter part of 1842 that his successor, the Marquis of Tweeddale,
reTers'^thl^ took up the matter. The Collector of Malabar was called on
questions to to explain the delay in making a final settlement with the
Directors* °^ Todas. In December 1842 he reported that the T6das had
after further agreed to Substitute the word " compensation" for *' goodoo " in
th^°c'^lle°tor ^^® agreement made with them in 1840, and that accordingly he
of Malabar, had paid them Rupees 300, or two years' indemnity, leaving
arrears to be settled later. In reporting the area " actually in
the occupation of the Todas," he defines it as the land lying
between Doddabetta and the Paikare river and Segur and the
Melur cultivated lands. In February 1843 the Government
submitted the question of the Todas' rights for the decision of the
Court of Directors. After pointing out that the chief difficulty
in disposing of claims to land on the Nilagiris arose from the
circumstance that the rights of the inhabitants in the soil had
never been defined, and that the resolution of the Government
in 1835 had been held virtually to apply to the Ootacamaud
settlement only, they proceed thus : —
*' An attentive examination of the whole subject did not enable us to
discover that the rights of the Todas in the laud differed from those
of the people of India generally in their relation to the existing
Government. They seem always to have paid a land tax, and this was
a light pasture tax only, because the Todas are a pastoral tribe in the
lowest stage of civilization. Other classes of the hill population, we
observed, of more settled habits, were not exempted from the payment
of the usual agricultural tax. It is true we found that the latter were
in the habit of offering certain gratuities or allowances of grain to the
Todas under the name of " goodoo," the exact import of which is
unknown, but similar payments are made to other rude tribes of the
mountains without any acknowledgment of superiority claimed or
service rendered."
The despatch goes on to state that Todas had been maintained
in possession of the lands occupied by them, but that the
Government had been of opinion that these rights could not be
suffered to bar the progress of improvement over the large tracts of
land constituting the Nilagiris, nor to hinder the application of
lands to more beneficial purposes, considering it sufficient that the
Todas should receive in such cases a compensation, eras Mr. Conolly
had proposed with reference to the tenures of Malabar, a share of
15 per cent, on the net profits. On this point they desired to
be furnished with the early orders of the Court, observing thnt
the question in issue really was whether the Todas were to have
MANUAL OP THE NILAGTRI DISTRICT. 339
their absolute title acknowledged to the entire tract of the Hills CHAP. XIII,
at any time depastured by their herds, and to 15 per cent. PART I.
"of all future produce resulting from the application of the revenue
capital and skill of others to the land/' or whether their rights History.
would be amply compensated by assigning to them " a liberal
compensation (as in the case of Ootacamand), which shall
indemnify them from all loss where their prescriptive right of
pasturage is infringed, and the limit of their pasture-ground
bond fide curtailed." They then suggest that instead of an
annual payment, which might bear the semblance of a rent, a
lump sum should be paid as compensation once for all. As
regards the lands in more permanent occupation of the tribes,
such as village sites and spots appropriated to religious rites,
the Government suggested that the Todas should be secured
from all interference, and that their absolute right in them should
be declared. They further requested orders on the amount of
compensation for lands already occupied. In the same despatch,
with reference to several applications by Europeans for lands on
the Hills, they requested orders on the right of Europeans in the
Company's service to hold lands, and under what restrictions ;
also as to the conditions to be attached to grants to Europeans
not in the service and to Natives.
The reply of the Court of Directors to this reference, conveyed -the Court's
in their despatch of the 21st June 1843, set the questions connected i845^ge^tie8
with the Toda claims finally at rest. After summing up the case questions
they proceed as follows : — finally.
" From a consideration of the univei-sally acknowledged rights of
Government in respect to uncultivated lands, as well as of the peculiar
circumstances of the case under discussion, we cannot admit the
existence of any such proprietary rights in the soil on the part of the
Todas as can in any way interfere with the right of Government to
permit parties willing to pay the full assessment to bring it under
the plough. It remains therefore to be determined whether they
! possess a right to be compensated for the abridgment of the grazing
; privileges which they have exercised over the lands on the Hills by
! their gradual cultivation and enclosure, and in the event of their
i being considered to possess such a right, on what principle the
compensation shall be assigned to them.
" We have already observed that the only title which can be advauced
on the part of the Todas is that of immemorial occupation, and the
only advantage which they have derived from their occupancy (with
> the exception of the annual payments received from the Burghers)
has been that of pasturing their herds. The injury which they will
, sustain from the settlement of strangers on the Hills will consequently
1 arise from the diminution of their pasture grounds as the lands are
gradually brought into cultivation. It must be admitted that this
will be a positive disadvantage to them, and that the loss of a privilege
340 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT,
CHAP. XIII, wLicli they have enjoyed from time immemorial is a fair subject for
PART I. compensation, although it is probable that many years will elapse
before cultivation advances so far as to interfere to any serious extent
History with the means of feeding their herds ; and in the mean time it is to
be hoped that the Todas will be brought under the influence of more
settled habits, and see the advantage of uniting the cultivation of the
soil with their present occupation of tending buffaloes.
" There does not appear to us to be any such similarity between
the circumstances of the Todas and those of the inhabitants of Malabar
in respect to the occupation of the land as would entitle the former to
the allowance of 15 per cent, on the profits of cultivating land by any
other party than the actual proprietor, which is claimed by the laud-
lords in Malabar. We should rather consider that they would be
sufficiently compensated by a payment equivalent in amount to the
" goodoo " which they now receive from the Burgher cultivators,
especially as it would appear that they have not been in the habit of
interposing any obstacle to the cultivation of the lands in their occu-
pancy on these terms. In the event of land for which the pasturage
tax is paid being brought under cultivation, an equivalent remission
must of course be made from the amount of the tax.
"We are of opinion that the stipulated compensation should be
added to the assessment which the land may be required to pay to
Government in order that the Todas may receive it direct from the
Collector's treasury. You consider that it would be desirable to
afford the Todas compensation by the payment of a principal sum
once for all as a full equivalent for all claims or interest which they
may possess in the land. Our principal objection to such an arrange-
ment is founded on the liability of the capital sum so raised being
dissipated by the simple race for whose ultimate suppoi-t it is intended
to provide. Could the capital be invested so as to yield an annual
income to be distributed in the same manner and in the same propor-
tions as the compensation which we have sanctioned being made
from the Collector's treasury, our objections would not only be
obviated, but a fund would be provided for assisting any of the Todas
to undertake agi-icultural operations, whenever they may be disposed
to do so, with advantage to themselves.
"With respect to the lands which are in the more pei'manent
occupation of the Todas, such as their mands or sites of villages and
particular spots appropriated to religious rites, we agree with you
that they should be secured from all interference, and their absolute
right in them declared. We are further of opinion that you should
abstain from making any grant of land in the immediate vicinity of
their villages, as it is to be hoped that in course of time they may be
induced so far to change their habits as to bring them themselves
into cultivation.
" Before these instructions can be systematically acted on it will be
necessary that you should be provided with a detailed survey antl map
of the Neilgherry Hills, distinguishing the lands in the occupation of
MANUAL or THE NILAGIRl DISTRICT, 341
the Government and private individuals, those brought under cultl- CHAP. XIII,
ration by the Burghers, those which are to be left in the permanent PART I.
occupation of the Todas, and those entirely unoccupied, over a portion ^g^ENUE
of which the Todas have been accustomed to pasture their herds. History.
This work should be immediately commenced ; but in the meantime
we do not wish to restrict you from accepting any eligible proposals
which may be made to you for bringing waste laud into cultivation,
care being taken that the rights of other parties are not infringed, and
the general rules which we have laid down observed as far a3 practi-
cable.
" In considering any claims which may be advanced by individuals
to hold lands under titles dei'ived by purchase from the Todas, you will
bear in mind that they could not transfer any more extensive right
than they themselves possessed, viz., the right of occupying the land
for purposes of pasturage. Such land must be held liable for the full
assessment whenever it shall be brought into cultivation by the actual
occupants, or in the event of any other party proposing to reclaim it ;
in the latter case the occupant would be entitled to similar compen-
sation as would have been assigned to the Todas had the land remained
in their occupation."
The Court in the same despatch ordered compensation to be —payment of
paid to the Todas for their exclusion from the lands of the Ootaca- for Ooteca-""
mand cantonment from the 27th December 1837, the date on which mand
it was resolved that the compensation should be made to them. °^' ^^'^
The Court also foi'warded a copy of the despatch of February 1842
to the Supreme Government regarding the acquisition of lands in
Dehra Doon by Europeans, enunciating the policy of the Court of
Directors regai-ding the acquisition of waste lands by Europeans,
and the security which should be afforded for rights and privileges
of the neighbouring native villagers.
On receipt of these orders the Board of Revenue were called on Manual of
to prepare a manual of rules for the approval of Government oi^dere/trbe
based thereon, and further to ascertain precisely the lands in the prepared,
occupation of Europeans on the Nilagiris, and the circumstances
under which such lands had been acquired.
The manual of instructions, though submitted late in 1843, did -P™\'f •'^^ ,
' ° .of the Manual
not receive sanction until the end of 1849, on the completion relating to
of Major Ouchterlony's survey. The map prepared at the time t^^e Todas.
exhibited, among other things, the lands in the occupation of the
Todas as well as the unoccupied tracts over portions of which these
people had been wont to pasture their herds. These instructions, as
far as concerned the Todas, laid down that lands which had hitherto
been " entirely unoccupied^' or ^'used only as pasture grounds by
the Todas " should, on being taken up for agricultural purposes,
he assessed "■ according to the rates paid on land of similar
quality in the nearest agricultural village, unless where -the land
be within a specified distance of Ootacamund/' (when special rates.
\
342 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII, from which Badagas were exempt, prevailed). The rules also
PART I. required the observance of the Court's orders regarding the non-
Eevenue proximity of land grants to mands and other Toda sites, and as
History, regards " goodoo " enacted that, '' If it shall appear to the satis-
faction of the Revenue authorities, upon inquiry made previous to
the lease, or at any time during its currency, that the land leased
is liable to the payment of goodoo or compensation fees to the
Todas, the goodoo payable to these latter will be collected from
the grantee in addition to the assessment, for the purpose of being
paid to the Todas from the public treasury. The amount of
goodoo in each case shall be determined by the Collector,
subject to an appeal to the Board of Revenue. '^ After reiterating
the judgment of the Court of Directors as regards the pasture
lands of the Todas, that they could sell no " other right than
that of pasturage," the rules declared, '' if the land be required
for cultivation, it must still be disposed of, under the rules in
force, by public auction, for that purpose ; the goodoo on the land,
when such may clearly appear to be payable, being, in that case,
paid to the party who has purchased the right of grazing from
the Toda in the place of the Toda himself," which practically,
though not overtly, deprived the Toda of his ill- defined but
admitted rights of pasture in the Nilagiri uplands,
—rescinded These rules remained in force, subject to certain modifications in
Land R^lef ^ 1858, until the 6th March 1863, when they were superseded by the
present Waste Land Rules, which swept away for ever not only the
fiction of the Todas' grazing rights, but also the communal claims
of a village to the lands within its ancient limits, by the decree that
all lands were ivaste " in which no rights of private proprietorship
or exclusive occupancy exist," and were liable to be disposed of
by public auction. Were it not for the words in Rule XVII " a
claim of any other right incompatible with the sale of land
under these rules," the conclusion might be drawn that little
consideration for the rights and privileges of this ancient and
simple race of herdsmen would be shown in future. In the
period, scarce fifteen years, which has elapsed since then, we have
done little to protect this race from the ultimate deprivation of
the choicest spots they hold except by the measure of declaring
the puttas for such grazing lands as they still hold non-transfer-
f able. But the intention of Government has been easily defeated
by a system of sub-letting, which has converted the home-lands
of several mands into potato fields and market gardens. Quite
recently the Government have sanctioned the assessment at full
rates of lands granted on favourable tenure if alienated by lease.
This ruling will doubtless check the practice.
Present It remains simply to state that under the survey now procced-
revenue • ^^^^^ g£^ j^^^.^g ^|- ^^^^ ordinarily to a considerable extent
ByBtem. t> ^
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 343
woodland, are demarcated as the site or reserve of each mand, CHAP. XIII,
the total number being about seventy. On this the Todas pay an PART I.
assessment of 2 annas per acre, i.e., the lowest assessment under re7en^de
the present settlement. This is the only tax, which is about History.
double the rate of the ancient " pillu-vari'^ or grass tax, now paid
by them, the buffalo tax having been abolished with the Moturpha
taxes in or about 1850. The ancient grazing tax was levied at
the rate of one-tenth bullah or two-fifths of an acre to each buffalo.
U
344 MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
PART II.
European and other Immigrants,
Absence of restrictions on acquisition of land by Europeans. — Policy of Lord
Amherst's Government. — Rules promulgated. — Orders of Madras Government
regarding acquisition of lands on the Hills. — Mr. Lushington encourages settle-
ments of Anglo-Indians. — Rates on lands in the Melnid prohibitive — Mr. Sullivan
proposes changes — determination of Government — subsequent modifications. —
Radical changes in the policy of Government in 1842. — Rules in the DehraDoon
despatch. — Manual of Land Rules to be prepared. — Right of settlers to use of
water. — Resume of the manual. — Modification in 1858. — Redemption of land-tax
sanctioned. — Causes of variety of tenures on the Hills. — Discussion on land policy
of Government of India after the Mutiny — Lord Stanley's despatches — Lord
Canning's Resolution — action of the Madras Government — discussions in Parlia-
ment.—Waste Lands Bill. — Nilagiri Land Rules sanctioned. — Debate in the
House of Commons. — Changes in the Rules and their causes. — Auction system
called in question. — Appointment of a Committee of Inquiry and results. — Table
of Sales of Waste Lands. — Absence of Tope Rules. — Firewood allotments.
CHAP. XIII, It remains for us now simply to trace the liistory of the land
PART II. in connection with immigrant settlers. When Europeans first
Revenue ^^'^^ ^P ^^^^^ residence on the Hills no rules had been laid
History, down, or the policy of the East India Company indicated, in
Absence of regard to the acquisition of lands by Europeans, more especially
restrictions by their owu Servants. As will be known to covenanted civilians,
of lanTby '^'^ their covenant, whilst containing severe restrictions against
Europeans, trading, i.e., privately competing with their employers in the
trade of the country, is silent in regard to the acquisition or owner-
ship of land. Consequently when Mr. Sullivan, who was the
first purchaser of land on the Hills, acquired the Stonehouse,
and subsequently other properties, there were no restrictions
on transactions of this nature. Believing strongly in the
Todas' right to the uplands, he purchased direct from them,
and his conduct in so doing was never questioned by the Govern-
ment of the day ; so far from so doing the Government about
ten years later purchased his properties from him, accepting
his titles as valid. Other original settlers followed the course
adopted by Mr. Sullivan, and many of the oldest properties in
Ootacamand were acquired in this way. For some time no
assessment was demanded by Government. For several years
such land alienations were confined to the cantonment of Ootaca-
mand ; but during the rapid development of this station under
Mr. Lushington's Government, in consequence of the increasing
number of applications for land and the disorder and indefinite-
ness that existed in relation of many of the properties already
acquired from the Todas, the Madras Government towards the close
I
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 3'15
of 1829 received orders from tlie Court of Directors to adapt CHAP. XIII,
their policy to the rules and instmictions laid down by the i'AET ii.
Supreme Government in their resolution of the 7th May 1824, l{^^N^;E
and by the Court in the despatch of 8th July 1829, " conceiving History.
it expedient that the rules observed in granting permission to
Europeans to hold lands in India should be, as nearly as circum-
stances will permit, uniform at the several Presidencies."
The immediate cause of the issue of the resolution of the 7th i\Ak-y
May was the desire of Doctor Wallich, Mr. Gordon, and others to 'f ^i"''' „
obtain lands for coffee cultivation in Bengal — a project which Lord Government.
Amherst's Government were anxious to encourage. This docu-
ment is of great interest, which is my excuse for quoting from it at
length.
" As far as a judgment can in such cases be formed until trial be
made, there appears to be abundant reason to conclude that the
cultivation of coffee may be successfully prosecuted in this country on
an extensive scale, and that the ai'ticle may indeed be produced at a
cost considerably below that which the lowest prices hitherto known
in the market would amply reimburse, while at the same time there is
scarcely anything of which the consumption is likely to experience so
large an augmentation in the event of any material reduction of price.
" The extension of the export trade of ludia is an object of the
highest importance both to England and to India, and the introduc-
tion of a new branch of trade such as that in question may eventually
become would be a great national benefit. The speculation appears
therefore to be one which is in a high degree worthy of the support of
Government. From the nature of the case it is indispensably neces-
sary that those who undertake it should have an assured tenure in the
lands appropriated to the cultivation for a considerable period of
time, and although it is to be expected and desired that the Natives
will before long enter on the speculation and be guided by the example
set to them in the conduct of it, yet to its early and successful
introduction on a large scale it appears to be essentially requisite to
allow scope to European enterprise and intelligence."
After remarking that the land required would ordinarily admit
of easy demarcation. Lord Amherst expressed a hope that little
difficulty would be experienced " in providing- for the satisfactory
adjustment of all claims and the effectual pi'otection of all riglits
attaching to land to be used in the cultivation of coffee, or other
use necessarily included within the limits of the plantation. For
this purpose, and especially for the protection of the ryots and
the security of the real interests of the speculators,'' especial
rules were considered necessary. The rules may be summed up —rules pro-
as follows :— mulgated.
(I.) Arrangements for occupation of land by Europeans, between
them and the owners and occupiers, were to be certified by the Col-
lector.
44
540
MAXUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTKICT.
CHAP. XIIL
PART II.
Retekue
History.
(2.) This officer's award was to be binding, subject to appeal to tlie
Board of Revenue touching rent, adjustment of boundaries, and the
like.
(3.) The tenure was to be leasehold, not freehold ; but the terms
of the lease w^ere undefined.
(4.) Only " Europeans of respectability, being persons of course
duly licensed as to residence," might be authorized to take out lease.
(5.) Before establishing a coffee plantation the intending planter
must apply to Government for permission to do so, naming the
district and the quantity of land to be included in the plantation.
(6.) On receipt of the permission of Government the party had to
forward to the Collector full information regarding the tract and its
occupants.
(7.) This statement was to be duly published in the neighbourhood
and at the Collector's ofiice ; objectors to appear within a month.
(8.) On objection being taken, the Collector to hold a regular
inquiry, and, if he allow it, to report the matter for orders of the
Board of Revenue.
(9.) If he do not allow it, he shall order an ofiicer to proceed to the
spot, and, after measurement, &c., of the land, shall see that the
necessary deeds are exchanged between the parties.
(10.) The Board of Revenue to confirm these proceedings.
(11.) Persons licensed to bear all expenses.
(12.) Lands occupied under hereditary right of occupancy not to be
transferred without consent of such occupiers. As regards zemindars
and middle-men the right to object depended upon " the nature of
the intermediate tenure, but in general it (was) the desire of Govern-
ment that no lands should be taken by Europeans unless all parties
possessing an interest in the soil or in the rents shall consent to the
arrangement."
(13.) Collector's decision, subject to appeal to the Board of
Revenue, to be final in disputes of every kind and description relating
to the land, water- courses, wells, rents, &c.
(14.) Lands (except malgoozaree) liable to sale in satisfaction of a
Collector's award ; also, if a planter should " violently disturb the
possessions of his neighbours or should otherwise be guilty of any act
in breach of the peace," the enforcement of this penalty was reserved
to the Governor- General.
In the despatch of 1829 the Court extended these rules, which
related to coffee only, to the cultivation of indigo and other
agricultural products, providing that the length of the leases
must in all cases be regulated with reference to the nature of the
cultivation, and must not be greater than would be necessary to
afford the undertaker the prospect of a fair remuneration for
the capital he may expend. In no case was a lease to exceed
twenty-one years without the express sanction of the Court.
In the case of a European eveiy transfer of a lease was to be
approved by Government; so that they might satisfy them^^clves
MANUAL OF THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT. 31-7
" ill regard to the respectability and good character of the CHAP. XIII,
individuals " who were to hold. PART II.
Prior to the receipt of instructions from the Court of Directors revenue
the Madras Government had, in November 1828, at the request History.
of the military authorities, issued orders limiting the space to be
allotted to each dwelling-house, exclusive of the site of the ^^^ Madras
building and outhouses, to 2 cawnies (about 2| acres), the Government
area suggested by Sir Thomas Munro ; and had directed that all acquLS of
land in excess, enclosed or appropriated without permission of lands on the
Government, should be incorporated with the Circar land ; and ' ^"
further directed that all proprietors and intendingpurchasers should
take out grants from Government for their lands, "such grants
being subject to the fees levied on the issue of similar instruments
at the Presidency .'' Existing propi'ietors were allowed three
months for the purpose; intending purchasers until they began
the erection of their houses. Under orders issued about a fort-
night later, such occupants were required to pay the compensation
of 16 cantarai fanams, already mentioned, to the Todas, and to
Government quit-rent at the rate usually assessed on lands for
which Government grants were then issued. And as regards the
enclosures already made which exceeded two cawnies, it was ruled
that each case should be submitted for the orders of Government.
It was subsequently settled in 1831 that these grants were all to
be personal — no European hereafter, if purchasing the property
described in the grant, being permitted to occupy it without a
fresh certificate in his own name — and that it rested with Govern-
ment when issuing title-deeds for such grants to insert any special
conditions in the deed. In addition to this instrument the
Collector was to issue to the party a certificate of permission to
occupy the land. Later in the same year (1831) it was decided
that applications should be made to the Principal Collectors of
Malabar and Coimbatore, according as the land concerned was
situate in the Malabar or Coimbatore portion of the Nilagiris,
but the Officer Commanding at Ootacamand had a voice in the
disposal of lands in the cantonment. The ordinary rate of
quit-rent was 5j rupees or 1^ pagoda per cawnie, whether
within or without the cantonment of Ootacamand. This high
rate of Rupees 3-15 per acre was fixed in 1810 as the ordinary
quit-rent on lands held under Government grants in the
provinces ; in no case was the quit-rent to be less than 1 pagoda
(Eupees 3^) per cawnie {vide Note 1, page 269 ; also Note 4, page,
270, Maskell's Board's Circular Orders, 1855). The Govern-
ment further declared that the leases should, as at Madras, be
for an indefinite period, holding that the Bengal rules could not
apply " to the erection of dwelling-houses on small plots of
ground at a place where, from local circumstances, the acquisi-
148
MANUAL OF THE KILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Mr. Lushing
ton encour-
ages settle-
ment of
Anglo-
Indians.
— rat OS on
lands in the
M61ndd pro-
hibit ivo.
I, tion of any considerable landed property is almost impossible/'
These grants, under wliicli many of tlie older properties in
Ootacamand were acquired or secured^ were issued by the
Government Registrar ; but the instructions regarding the
area to be occupied seem from the first to have been prac-
tically a dead letter. There is hardly a property in Ootacamand
which does not exceed the prescribed limit, nor does it appear
that in any case the special orders of Government were
obtained to secure possession of the larger area. Meanwhile,
however, settlers continued to pui'chase lands from the Todas,
notably Sir William Rum bold in the case already referred to.
At this time also Mr. Lushington was encouraging Anglo-
Indian agricultural settlers to occupy waste land outside the
cantonment in extent according to the amount of their capital.
No assessment appears to have been fixed on such grants, and, in
addition to this implied concession, I find from a letter from
Mr. Lushington's Private Secretary to the Officer Commanding the
Nilagiris, that they were to receive a moderate supply of potatoes
as seed from the Government Farm, and also spare implements of
husbandry, to be paid for by instalments, and " such other assist-
ance as may tend to encourage their industry and enable them to
overcome their first difficulties without expense to Government.
Similar indulgences may be shown to the Native cultivators on
the Hills, and the Government anticipates great benefit to them,
to the community, and to the revenue from the extended culti-
vation of European grains and vegetables, especially potatoes,
which judicious aid and encouragement are likely to produce.^'
In a letter dated July 1833 the Collector of Malabar requests the
Board's instructions regarding the assessment of such lands, and
remarks, " but very few persons of this description (Anglo-
Indian settlers) have as yet been induced to settle on the
Neilgherries, and these are by no means in easy circumstances.
Some of them have bori'owed money from the Philanthropic
Society to enable them to carry on the undertaking, and I have
reason to believe they were led to expect they would be exempt
from the tax, at least for some years.'' He then recommends
that, considering the expense of labour and other disadvantages,
lands cultivated by them might be given free of tax for two or
three years, and that then they should not be assessed higher
than the punja rates paid by Natives. No definite orders appear
to have been issued upon this important matter, but it will be
remembered that shortly afterwards Sir Frederick Adam was
engaged in investigating the land history of the plateau, especially
in regard to the Todas and Badagas.
It however appears from a letter from Mr. Sullivan, dated
January 1835, that the order of Government fixing the assessment
«
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIIil DlSTRirT. 349
on land in Ootacamand at 5^ rupees per cawuie was bold to ap]>ly CHAP. xiii.
to the whole of the Meluad, or the uplands of the Todandd, and I'AKT]!.
he urged that an adherence to this rate would inevitably drive Kkvenuk
stock and capital to the waste lands of the middle plateau of the History.
Hills, where the average assessment did not exceed a half-rupee
per cawnie. " This question is one of importance/' he writes,
" because from the great advantages which the Hills possess in
soil, command of water, and certainty of seasons, they are capable
of supporting a very large population, and of administering in
seasons of scarcity to the wants of the country below. It is the
interest therefore of Government, in the lai'gest sense of the term,
to encourage the investment of capital in their cultivation, and
that will best be done by extending the assessment which was
fixed thirty years ago upon the lands of the three great divisions
to the Malnaad. *=}:** The land within the canton-
ment (Ootacamand) and beyond it is occupied indiscriminately
by Europeans, East Indians, and Natives, and it is obvious that
there must be one assessment for all, or they to whom advantages
are given will drive others out of the market.''' The force of
this objection is borne out by the fact that six years later it was
ascertained that no less than fifteen estates had been acquired by
purchase from Badagas in the Coimbatore portion of the Hills near
Kotagiri and Coonoor, aggregating some 800 acres, unsecured
by a Government grant ; whilst in the Malabar portion of the
plateau it does not appear that a single estate was formed during
that period.
Mr. Sullivan, however, shortly afterwards somewhat modified —Mr. Sulli-
his views, and in his minute written in the month of August pronosed
in the same year he suggested that lands situated at a certain changes.
distance from the cantonment of Ootacamand should be assessed
according to the standard prevailing in the nearest Badaga village ;
but as regards the lands within the cantonment he observes, " con-
sidering that the land in Ootacamund is stated to be of the richest
'description, and capable, when worked, of producing as rich
crops as are to be seen in any part of the world,' and, as already
stated, a market is at hand for produce, an assessment for lands
of the first class of double the amount which is now paid for the
same class in the Burgher villages, or Kupees 7 per bullah, or
Rupees 2-5-4 per cawnie, would be a very moderate charge ; an
increase of one-third might be made on lands of the second, of
one-half upon the third, and of one-fourth upon the fourth class,
beyond which it would not probably be necessary to go in the
classification."
A year later we find the Board of Revenue approving generally
of Mr. Sullivan's proposals, though raising no objections to the
suggestions of the Collector of Malabar that the assessment on
6oU MANUAL OF THE \ILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII, enclosures shoiild be fixed at the ordinary rates^ Enpees 5i and 3^
PART II. per cawnie. In regard to Mr. Sullivan^s proposal that lands
Bevekue occupied for agricultural purposes should be at the same rates as
History, the lands held by Badagas, they remarked that they held the
proportions just, " because were the assessment regulated so as
to exceed the rates of assessment paid by the Burghers, the occu-
pancy of new lands would be checked, or to avoid the higher
assessment new-comers would hold of the Burghers^ and thereby
defeat the object of the comparatively high assessment. Besides
it has been usual with Government to continue the rates of taxation
which have been established. In the populous and rich district
of Malabar the ancient light assessment has been preserved,
and the private rights in the waste land have been continued to
the proprietors. There seems no good reason, therefore, why the
advantages of the established rates of assessment should not be
secured to the scanty population of the Hills. ^^
— determina- In their order of 25th July 1836 the Government accepted
Government ^^^' Sullivan^s proposals as regards agricultural lands in Ootaca-
mand and those at some distance therefrom_, but maintained the
ordinary rates, 5;^ and 3^ rupees, on lands enclosed for pui'poses
of building. The territorial limit of the agricultural lands paying
the enhanced rates was to be fixed by the Board with reference
to their accessibility to the market- This limit was shortly
afterwards fixed, on the Board's recommendation, roughly at
three miles radius from the centre of the station — the present
limits of the station, not municipal limits. Badagas already
cultivating within this limit were to be exempt. The limiting
line followed the extreme boundary of the Badaga villages
situated nearest to a circle of three miles from the centre of the
cantonment, and where there were no villages it ran through the
points nearest the circle best suited to be used as landmarks.^
— subsequent In December following, it having been brought to the notice
mo 1 cations. ^£ Government that the rates of assessment fixed for house
enclosures pressed heavily on the house-proprietors of Ootaca-
mand, they determined to maintain the highest rate, Eupees 5f ,
for the cawnie of land which constituted the site of the house. The
remainder was ordered to be assessed at the rate in force on fourth-
class lands, viz.. Rupees 1-2-4 per cawnie, At the beginning of
the following year (1837) it was decided to raise the assessment
on lands of the second class taken up for agricultural purposes
within the cantonment by three-fourths instead of one-third the
ordinary assessment, so that the gradation in the assessment
might be more regular.
' The exact limits so fixed will be found in a memorandum by Mr. D. Elliott
in the Board's Proceedings, 18th August 1836.
MANUAL OF THE NILALIlEI DISTRICT.
351
These orders still regulate the assessment on lands, whether for CHAP. XIII,
building or agricultural purposes, occupied within the canton- P-^^T II.
ment of Ootacamand. Bevenue
It is unnecessary to recount the position occupied by European '
settlers in relation to the Todas during the five years ending 1842. Radical
The close of this year, however, marks an era in the history of ^j^^ policy of
European settlements in South India. The difficulties which Government
existed in the issue by the Government Registrar of permission
certificates ^ for lands acquired on the Hills was ascertained
to be due to the fact that the rights of the ancient occupiers of
the soil had never been defined, and that the existing land
arrangements did not adequately provide for schemes of extensive
improvement and the settlement of capitalists on the Hills. In
issuing fresh rules and laying down new conditions, the Govern-
ment appear to have calculated on the concurrence of occupiers ;
but, supported by the lawyers, they naturally demurred to accept
conditions which more or less affected the validity of their titles
and the value of their properties. The whole question was referred
to the Court of Directors in despatches of 27th December 1842
and 15th February 1843. The Court's reply of the 21st June
following has already been referred to at length in the matter of
the Todas' claims, but this document is of equal historical moment
on account of the policy which it laid down for the disposal of
waste lands. That pohcy is detailed in a despatch dated 23rd
February 1842 regarding the grants of wastelands in Dehra Doon,
and this Government were directed to act, as far as circumstances
would admit, in accordance with the instructions contained in that
despatch ; but it was observed that before such instructions could
be systematically acted upon, it would be necessary to survey
and map the Hills, ''distinguishing the lands in the occupation of
Government and private individuals, those brought under cultiva-
tion by the Burghers, those which are to be left in the permanent
occupation of the Todas, and those entirely unoccupied, over a
portion of which the Todas have been accustomed to pasture their
herds." This work was to be set in hand at once, but in the
mean while the Government were permitted to accept eligible
proposals for cultivation, care being taken that the rights of other
parties were not infringed and the general rules laid down by the
Court were observed as far as practicable. The Court also directed
that the rates fixed for enclosui^es for dwelling-houses in Ootaca-
mand should be charged for similar enclosures outside the limits
of that cantonment.
' The riiles regulating the issue of these certificates in the provinces were
promulgated in April 1835, and will be found in Appendix No. 4, Maskell's edition
of Circular Orders of Board of Revenue, 1855.
Oo2 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTlllCT.
ClIAP. XIII, The general rules laid down in the Dehra Doon despatch may
PART II. by summed up as follows : —
Rrvenue (1.) Grantee to erect and keep in repair boundary marks.
^^^""^'" (2.) Public thoroughfares or estates vest in the State and rights of
Land Rules way to be respected.
Doon '^ (3.) Grantee to pay 1 per cent, on his assessment for repair of public
despatch. road.«!.
(4.) Right to minerals reserved to Government ; right to remove
lime and other stone from river-beds within gi-ant to the public.
(5.) Right to distribute water reserved to the State.
(6.) Grantee to aid in the police arrangements of neighbourhood.
(7.) No grant to exceed 4,000 acres to one person; additional land
might be gi^anted at a certain sum per acre.
(8.) Grants to be made in section of 1,000 acres.
(9.) In grants of forest lands certain number of sections to be
reserved for public timber requirements.
(10.) All grants to be on lease, subject at expiration of lease to
ordinaiy assessment of the district.
(11.) Sale or transfer of lands not brought under cultivation null
and void. Such micultivated portions to be regarded as personal and
hereditary only.
(12.) No grant to be made without previous survey and fixing of
boundaries.
(13.) Public competition by tenders to be invited ; highest to be
accepted.
(14.) " Ancient common rights not to be abrogated until the land
is actually brought into cultivation."
A Manual of The Board of Revenue were required by the Madras Govern-
h'e prepared. Client to Submit a manual of instructions ^ embodying these
principles, but, though submitted very shortly after the receipt
of the order, the Government did not, as already stated, sanction
it until the close of 1849, after the completion of Major
Ouchterlony's survey.
Right of set- Whilst these subiects were engaging the attention of the Board,
tiers to the . a a o >
use of water, the question of the right of settlers on the Hills to apply the water
of the streams of the mountains to the irrigation of their farms
and gardens came before Government. The right so to utilize
the streams had been disputed by Mr. Wroughton, the Collector
of Coimbatore, especially in regard to the lands irrigated by the
Bhavani, on the ground that the water should descend unchecked
into his district, '^in virtue of maraool and prescriptive right, and
the great extent of irrigated land under that river, and the high
rate of assessment fixed upon it.^' The Board would not admit
the claim on the ground of prescriptive right, although the plea
' The manual will be found as Appendix No. 5 of Maskell's edition of Board's
Circular Orders, 1855.
MANUAL OF THE NILAOmi DISTRICT.
Revenue
History.
that the Badagas aud other hill tribes had never utiUzed streams cnAP. XIII,
as irrigants was not disputed, asserting that it would not be PART II.
easy to establish " a principle which, conceding their title to the
land (as Government had done), would deny their right to the water
which rises in it or flows through it." They also argued that
compared with the assessments charged on dry lands in Coimba-
tore, the Hill assessments were not low when all the countervailing
circumstances were taken into consideration. '' To exclude/' the
Board go on to say, ' ' from the advantages o£ irrigation a tract
of couutry so favoured by nature as the Neilgherry table-land,
fitted for the culture of the mulberry tree, coffee, flax, and other
valuable products both of the Torrid and the Temperate Zones,
while it would be opposed to all true and enlightened policy,
would, the Board submit, be productive of little or no benefit
to the inhabitants of the low country. The quantity of water
required for irrigation on the Hills is inconsiderable, and even of
that quantity .... some portion percolates the earth and
falls into the same stream at a lower level. On the other hand,
the advantage to the ryots of the plains from an increased demand
for their rice and other products on the Hills, consequent on the
extension of agricultural speculations prosecuted there, is too
obvious to need remark." But whilst holding these views as
regards the rights of the ryots of the plains, they also held
that a settler should not be permitted to turn the course of
the stream, raise a dam, or cut a channel without first
communicating with the local authorities, so as to prevent " one
cultivator from engrossing water to the prejudice of anothei*,
and ensuring to all a fair and equal proportion of this necessary
element of cultivation." The Government however did not dispose
of the question raised for disposal of land applications submitted
shortly afterwards, but determined to await the survey of the
HiUs, which was very shortly afterwards taken in hand. In a
despatch, however, of the 17th June 1845, the Court of Directors
entirely agreed in the \'iews of the Board of Revenue regarding
the disposal and control of the streams of the Hills.
In the manual, after reciting the settlement made in 1836 and Resume of
1837 as to assessment on lands in Ootacamand and lands taken up ® i^anua .
for cultivation, hitherto used as pasture by the Todas, and declar-
ing that the demand on Badaga arable lands had been determined,
the Government laid down the following rules, which applied to
Europeans or others taking up land for agricultural and building
purposes : —
(1.) Native inhabitants of the Nilagiris to hold on putta lands
occxipied and any further lands they may take up for their own
cultivation.
(2.) Native settlers to hold similarly "such lands as they may take
up londjide for their own occupancy."
45
354
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII,
PAKT II.
Modifications
in 1S58.
Redemption
of laud-tax
sanctioned.
Causes of
variety of
tenures on
the Hills.
(3.) Collector empowered to allot for houses and gardens land not
exceeding half cawnie, at ordinary rate of assessment, to " East Indians,
Natives of the agricultural classes, Europeans of the lower orders,
pensioners and others." The grant might contain any special con-
ditions.
(4.) On receipt of application Collector to make full inquiry regard-
ing claims thereto, character of land, if forest, whether it should be
reserved.
(5.) Report to be sent to Board of Revenue with plan.
(6.) On their approval land to be put up to public auction, upset
price ordinarily eight to ten years' assessment ; ordinary assessment to
be levied yearly.
(7.) Fee-simple not sold ; lease for agricultural objects not to exceed
30 years, for building purposes 99 years, renewable every 33 years at
option of lessee without fine or enhancement of assessment. Agri-
caltaral leases liable to re-assessment at termination of lease.
(8.) Applicant to satisfy Collector regarding his means.
(9.) Certain portion of grant to be brought in given period into
cultivation, or lease liable to be declared null and void ; portions not
cultivated liable to forfeiture.
(10.) Uncultivated portions inalienable.
(11.) Lessee to erect and maintain boundary-marks.
(12.) Lessee to respect and grant rights of way, but in case of
public roads, &c., &c., to be entitled to compensation, to be settled by
arbitration.
(13.) Control over all streams, springs, reservoirs and channels of
irrigation reserved " in the fullest manner" by Government. Diver-
sion of streams requires sanction of revenue authorities.
(14.) Minerals reserved by Government.
(15.) Government may grant lands, without inviting competition,
on special conditions.
These are the principal provisions relating to immigrants, minor
articles and those relating to the Todas having been omitted.
The instructions were amended in 1858 as follows : —
(1.) Upset price to be fixed by the Collector.
(2.) The rule regarding applicants' means to be omitted.
(3.) The penalties for non-cultivation to be omitted.
(4.) Alienation of uncultivated portions allowed, if first registered
in Collector's Office.
In 1859 the redemption of the land-tax was authorised at
twenty years' purchase, subsequently raised to twenty-five years.
Such has been the history of the phases of the action of
Government in relation to the occupation of lands prior to the
introduction of the present Waste Land Rules ; and tenures of
land in the cantonment of Ootacamand in a special degree,
and in the stations and outlying country tracts as far as immi-
grants are concerned, are as various as the phases of their action.
MANUAL OF THE NtLAGIRI DISTRICT. 355
Not only is there marked differences in the tenvires of the several CHAl'. XlJl,
properties, but many properties are occupied under several PART II.
tenures ; whilst much land, especially in the Native portions of the Revenue
station, is held under a squatting tenure, which, until recently, was Histoky.
no recognised tenure at all, but simply an implied permission
on the part of Government to the squatter to retain possession of
the space originally occupied without permission. The ordinary
rate for puttas for lands held by Native cultivators in Ootacamand
is Rupees 1-18-G, and for squatter tenure in the station Eupees 10
per acre. The partial exclusion of the stations from the operation of
the Waste Land Rules further complicated matters, and there can
be little question that order will never be obtained until a complete
settlement is effected on defined principles. Such a settlement
is as much needed in the stations as it is in the district.
After the mutiny, for political reasons, the land systems of Discussion ou
India were much discussed. This discussion was focussed by the poiiit^of
Secretary of State's (Lord Stanley) despatch of 3 1st December Governmeut
1858 ; it raised three questions— [heMuthiy.
(1) The redemption of the land-tax generally. — Lord ^
(2) The expediency of permitting " grantees of waste lands, despatches.
under existing rules, to commute the annual payments
stipvilated under the rules by a single payment at the
time of receiving possession of the grant.''
(3) The expediency of disposing of waste lands in perpe-
tuity, free of all prospective charge for land revenue.
Lord Stanley, in March 1859, desired information regarding
the extent of land capable of cultivation, but uncultivated, at the
disposal of Government in British India ; and at the same time
required the Government of India to state *■' the conditions which,
having regard to the diffei^ence in revenue administration prevail-
ing in the respective localities, they would recommend for
disposing of such lands either for a term of years or in perpetuity,
to persons desirous of binnging them into cultivation.-"
The Madras Government, whilst deprecating the redemption
of the land-tax generally, resolved to deal with certain lands in
accordance with the policy indicated by the Secretary of State.
Their determination was (1) to put up to auction all lands required
for building purposes at an upset price of twenty times the assess-
ment of the land, (2) to allow lands occupied wholly or in pai*t
by buildings to be converted into freehold on payment of twenty
times the annual assessment, (3) to give a fee-simple title in
certain cases without payment {e.g., lands included in village
sites), (4) to make the orders applicable to the Nilagiris and
the Wainad, the Shevaroys and the Pulnis.
For nearly two years the Government of India had under —Lord Can-
discussion the questions raised by Lord Stanley. In October 1861 J^'°s'^ ^'i^o-
the Madras
Govoriiment
006 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII, appeared Lord Canning's celebrated Resolution, enunciating
PART II. the policy of the Government of India, first, regarding the
Revenue ^^^^ ^f unassessed waste ; secondly, regarding the redemp-
HisTofiY. tion of the land revenue. The rules laid down were long
known as the Fee-simple Rules, though this term does not
appear in the Resolution, and although it contains no pro-
vision prohibiting the levy of an assessment where the full
property was transferred to the purchaser. It defined the
tenure of waste lands granted under its terms as ''an heritable
and transferable property, held in perpetuity, free from all
claims, either of the Government or of third persons, prior to or
inconsistent with the grant.'' The rules prescribed among other
things that the land might be granted after thirty days' notice ;
that it should only be put up to auction in the event of there
being more than one applicant, the upset price to be that of
an ordinary grant ; that the price of unassessed land (uncleared)
should not exceed 2| rupees per acre, of land unencumbered with
jungle Rupees 5 per acre ; that possession of unsurveyed lands
might be given before survey. The Resolution fixed twenty
years' assessment for the redemption of the land-tax.
—action of The Madras Government submitted draft rules as required,
though the draft was opposed to their own views, remarking
that the rules already in force in this Presidency provided for
sales by auction, and consequently that there was no objection
to the extension of the system proposed in the Resolution ;
but that lands in Madras so sold were subject to assessment,
it was pointed out also that the upset price of Rupees 2^
and Rupees 5 was much too low for coffee and tea lands, and
that the price of land was not the true obstacle to the intro-
duction of European capital and skill ; it was also urged that the
price should bear a fair proportion to the profits derived from the
land, and be sufficient to enable Government to perform its
obligations. The propriety of selling lands, subject or not
subject to a yearly assessment, at the option of the applicant was
suggested, but the auction system was insisted on in all cases as
fair to all concerned, and as removing all possibility of favour-
itism. It was further pointed out that the rules were quite
uusuited to the Nilagiris, and the Government subsequently
excepted these Hills from the operation of the rules of October
1861, the Government of India not objecting.
discussions Lord Canning's rules met with much adverse criticism in
England, and were brought before the House of Commons by
Mr. Smollett in May 1862 (Hansard, No. 166, p. 2136). In
the July following Sir C. Wood addressed to the Government
of India his celebrated despatch disallowing some of the most
important pi'ovisions of the Resolution. He directed that waste
in Parlia
ment
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 857
lands sliould invariably be sold by public auction; that in CHAP. Xlll,
all cases the boundaries should be marked out before sale; PART^ll.
that each Provincial Government should fix the upset price revenue
suited to various descriptions of land in each district; that History.
in no case should possession be given before survey ; that
the time allowed to third parties to object should be fixed by
law ; that the price of redemption should vary according to the
market value at the time of four per cent, stocks.
A fresh draft of rules was accordingly called for ; meanwhile, Waste Lands
however, the Waste Lands Bill engaged the attention of Govern-
ment and finally became law, 10th March 1863, its operation
extending to the Nilagiris.
Shortly after this the Madras Government submitted the The Nilagiri
Unassessed Waste Land Eules and also special drafts for the sanctioned.
Nilagirisj the Shevaroys, and the Wain ad. These special drafts
differed from the general code " in the reservation of assessment
and the absence of a minimum upset price." The rules for the
Nilagiris were finally approved by the Secretary of State in
October 1863, on the ground that the lands on the Nilagiris were
subject to an annual general assessment and did not fall within
the scope of the rules for the sale of unassessed waste. This
distinction is of the highest importance.^ The rules for the sale of
waste lands on the Nilagiris will be found in the appendix. It
should be here observed that in practice they have been confined
to the plateau and slopes, and that the lowlands to the north,
between slopes and the Moyar, have heretofore been excluded
from their operation, though I am not aware of any special
sanction for this procedure.
The despatch upon which these rules were based raised much Debate in the
discussion in England, and came before the House of Commons, on q^^I^^^^^^^^
the motion of Mr. Henry Seymour, for its cancelment in May
1863. A full report of the debate, in which several leading states-
men took part, will be found in Hansard, Vol. 170, p. 1610-1659.
The main points raised were — the redemption of the land-tax ; the
declaring auction sales of waste lands compulsory throughout
India ; the necessity of a law of limitation connected with the
occupation of land. It is unnecessary to detail the discussion,
but it is noteworthy that Sir C. Wood, when objecting to the upset
^ Mr. Breeks writing, in 1869, regarding objections to the Waste Land Rules,
Bays : — " There i.s some ground no doubt for these objections, and individual cases
of hardship could, I dare say, be adduced ; but the lauds on the Niligheries are
not unassessed waste practically unlimited in area. * * * The lands are
assessed lands, limited in area and dotted all over with villages of the hill tribes,
who, by long use for grazing and cultivation purposes, have acquired a natural
right to be consulted before large tracts are alienated."
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII, prices fixed by Lord Cannings drew special attention to the
PART II. Nilagiris, mentioning an instance of 45 acres of land having
REVENUE realized Rupees 1^310^ which, with the assessment on the descrip-
HisToRY. tion sold, Rupees 2 per acre, with a twenty-five years' redemption
right, gave a total value of Rupees 80 per acre, and urged that land
which could fetch such a price could not reasonably be sold for 5
shillings per acre.
Changes in Since the promulgation of the "Waste Land Rules there have
the rules and jjggjj g^ fg^ relaxations favouring the planting industry. In 1869
their causes. . ° , T . ° , ,
the depressed condition of the planting interests, and the rather
general disapproval of the auction system by that interest, led to
the investigation of the matter. Much valuable information will
be found in the Revenue Board's Proceedings, 18th March 1870,
and the Government Proceedings, 22nd September 1876, Revenue
Department. Under the original rules an assessment of Rupees 2
for forest and Rupee 1 for grass land per acre was charged from
date of purchase, but in the order above quoted the assessment
on forest land was postponed to beginning of the sixth year, that
on grass land reduced to 8 annas per acre but levied from date of
purchase. These orders had retrospective effect. In making this
Auction concession the Government remark that they " fully recognise
Rystem called ^j^g political and other incidental advantages to be derived from
III qucs ion. ^^ influx of Europeans and European capital into India, and they
would gladly give every reasonable encouragement to this move-
ment. It is true that the grant of land by Government entirely
free of tax would not make the cultivation of coffee, tea, or
cinchona a profitable speculation under certain circumstances ;
but any modification of the existing rules which would render
them more favourable to the planter could not fail, in some
degree, to assist him ; and it is impossible to deny that at
present the large majority of existing estates are in a languishing
condition, and that their proprietors have been brought to the
vero-e of ruin." The concession regarding forest land proceeded
on the assumption that a coffee estate would be in full bearing by
that time. The free period was extended to grass land taken up
for tea and fuel plantations in August 1874, the concession being
especially intended to encourage tea planting.
When making these concessions the Government expressed an
opinion that " the sale of land on the Hills by auction under the
existing rules presents impediments to cultivation which it may
be desirable to remove." ''Many thousand acres of land " they
observed, " are still available with scarcely an applicant, and this
tends to show that precautions against land-jobbing may no longer
be needed. His Excellency in Council is therefore willing to con-
sider whether it may be possible to abrogate this system beyond
certain limits, say, three to five miles round the hill stations,
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIKl DISTRICT. 359
and in lieu thereof to charge a very moderate upset price^ which CHAP. XIII,
might be fixed at different rates for different districts of the Hills TART ii.
for all comers, subject, of course, to the assessment and stipula- Revenue
tions intended to secure the hona fides of the purchasers. History.
Waste lands might be subjected to a special rate and valuation
with reference to the standing timber." The questions were
referred to the Board of Revenue for report, and the Commis-
sioner was ordered to form a committee consisting of gentle-
men '^ w^ell acquainted with the condition of land on the
Hills." The committee constituted under this order consisted of —appoint-
Mr. J. R. Cockerell, Major-General H. R. Morgan, Mr. W. G . ^^^^^^^/^J^ ^^^
Mclvor, Captain Campbell Walker, Mr. W. Cotton Rhode, and inquiry and
Mr. E. J. C. Brace. Their report and draft of land rules, which ''^'"^*-
contained many eminently radical alterations, will be found,
with the Board of Revenue's review thereon, in CO., 18th
February 1876. This order was not final, but in pursuance of
the policy already indicated the Government directed the Board
to draw up another scheme of rules, abandoning the auction
system, and 'Westing in the Commissioner authority to dispose
of individual applications, subject to an appeal to the Board of
Revenue." The Commissioner was instructed to have forest
reserves defined. The draft i-ules submitted by the Board will be
found in G.O., 5tli May 1876. The modification of rules has been
postponed by Government, as it appeared that the sanction of
the Secretary of State to any vital changes would be necessary.
Meanwhile a commission was appointed to settle on forest reserves
and the completion of the Nilagiri revenue survey ordered to be
expedited. The result has been that the sale of forest lands under
the rules has been practically stopped.
The following table shows the lands sold under the rules since
their introduction. It will be observed that the average price
does not exceed 7 rupees an acre. The land however includes a
considerable area of grass land. Good land may be obtained from
Badagas for 10 rupees an acre, but inter se lands are often trans-
ferred for much less.
360
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
CHAP, xiir,
PART II.
Revexde
HiSTOKY.
Statement of Lands sold under the Waste Land Btdes.
Year.
Number of
Lots.
Total Area rr,., „,.. „
ascertained Tota Price
by Survey. ^'^^^l^^^^-
1863-64
1864-65
1865-66
1866-67
1867-68
1868-69
1869-70
1870-71
1871-72
1872-73
1873-74 •
1874-75
1875-76
1876-77
1877-78
1878-79
21
22
90
37
27
2
9
26
21
13
13
16
15
18
27
12
ACRES.
2,450
2,233
2,788
832
305
4
58
246
93
291
538
1,631
607
1,505
1,008
777
RS.
12,934
10,992
4,610
1,536
3,700
523
745
658
2,076
1,273
16,856
2,028
11,906
7,206
8,051
19,491
369 1 15,373
104,590
Firewood
allotments.
Before closing this section I would note that the Tope Rules
do not apply to this district. The Board suggested their introduc-
tion in 1869, but the proposal was objected to by Mr. Breeks,
as he feared the concession might lead to a few persons creating
a monopoly. The Government, however, sanctioned the grant of
blocks of land, not exceeding 50 acres, in the neighbourhood of
the hill stations for firewood plantations^ rent free for seven
years, subject to confirmation at the end of that period, if fully
planted up, at an assessment of Rupee 1 per acre and grant of
title-deed ; if not fully planted, to lapse to Government. The
question of introducing the Tope Rules was revived in 1876 and
is still unsettled.
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 361
PART III.
Revenue Survey.
First survey. — Major Ouchterlony's survey. — Surveyors appointed on introduction
of Waste Land Rules. — Special Assistant Collector placed in charge. — Work
transferred to Superintendent, Revenue Survey. — Settlement limits. — Rules for
conduct of operations. — Survey operations after creation of Nilagiri Commis-
sion.— Work performed.
The first revenue survey, as distinguished from topographical,' CHAP. XIII,
was carried out by the orders of Mr. Garrow, Collector in Coim- PART III.
batore, in or about 1805. I have already quoted Mr. Sullivan reTenue
to the effect that it was purely nominal. In 1820 Mr. Sullivan History.
obtained permission to have a rough survey of the cultivated lands,
but what the results of that survey were I have not been able to
ascertain.
The first systematic survey, however, of the Nilagiris was that First survey.
ordered by the Court of Directors in 1843. It was completed
in 1847. It combined, in a measure, revenue with topographical
information. It did not extend to the Kundas. The results
are detailed in Major Ouchterlony's " Geographical and Statis- Major
tical Memoir.'' It showed the area of the plateau of the Nilagiris ^^'If^^'ey '■^''''^''
proper to be 268,494 acres (no allowance being made for undula-
tions in the surface) ; 23,772 acres had up to that date been
brought under cultivation, of which between fifteen and sixteen
thousand appear to have been kept ordinarily under the plough.
The Waste Land Rules necessitated a fresh and more detailed Surveyors
survey. This survey, however, succeeded the introductioa of the appointed on
rules, whilst Major Ouchterlony's preceded the promulgation of the of WasteLand
" manual " of 1849. In May 1862, in reply to enquiries from the Rifles.
Collector of Coimbatore, the Government ordered (1) that one or
two surveyors should be sent up to the Hills temporarily, but that
the establishment sanctioned for Wainad would subsequently be
available for some months in the year for work on the Hills ;
(2) that parties applying for land should specify boundaries ;
(3) that hill stations should embrace lands within three miles of
the centre of Ootacamand and one-and-a-half mile of that of
Coonoor and Kotagiri ; (4) that the Collector should reserve lands
required for public purposes. At the end of 1862 the establish-
ment employed on the Hills consisted of two surveyors on
Rupees 150 each. These surveyors worked under the supervision
1 Mr. Macmahon's notes in 1811-12 and Captain Ward's memoir of survey
in 1820-2-4 will be found in the appendices.
46
362
MANUAL OF THE NiLAGIEI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII, of the District Engineer, Coimbatore. The rules as finally settled
PART III. were promulgated in 1863. The articles especially relating to
survey, are (1) that lots should not exceed 500 acres without, or
10 acres within, station limits ; (2) that each lot should be compact,
and as nearly as possible a parallelogram — road or water frontage
not to exceed half the depth of the block ; (3) no lot to be sold
until surveyed and durable marks fixed.
In October 1863, partly with the view of expediting the
disposal of applications for waste lands, the Special Assistant
Collector was transferred from Malabar. Considerable sales
of waste lands took place in 1863-64, and towards the close of
1864 the Government ordered three surveyors to work on the
Nilagiris under the orders of the Superintendent of Revenue
Survey, Colonel Priestly. It appeared that the rules had been
disregarded ; that the lots were not compact, and included streams
which should have been excluded. The decision as to the shape,
&c., of the land to be sold was, before survey, to be fixed by the
revenue officers of the district. Whilst the Assistant Collector
was in charge of the demarcation about 7,000 acres were marked
out and subsequently surveyed prior to the transfer of the work to
the Revenue Survey Department, but much of this had necessarily
Revenue
History.
Special
Assistant
Collectoi'
placed
in charge
Work trans
ferred to
Superinten-
dent, Revenue ^Q -^Q revised in accordance with the stricter requirements of this
Burvey. • t i i t . .
department. In some cases considerable discrepancies m area of
estates were discovered. In 1865, on the representation of the
Superintendent of Revenue Survey that the two surveyors were
unaided by demarcators, draughtsmen, or computers, the Govern-
ment sanctioned the employment of such assistants, but they
were to be borne on the strength of the nearest survey party.
Towards the close of the same year the Government ordered the
Superintendent of Revenue Survey to arrange for the survey of
the cinchona plantations, and in the following year directed that
the Hill stations should be mapped on a large scale, as many
surveyors being employed as might be necessary to complete the
work in a year or eighteen months. Subsequently the employ-
ment of a detachment of No. 1 party on the Hills was sanctioned,
and later in the year the party was strengthened by the transfci"
of the Wainad surveyors during the unhealthy season.
Settlement In October of the following year the Government fixed the
limits. exact limits of the hill stations as follows : —
Rules for
conduct of
operations.
Gotacamand
Coonoor . . .
Kotagiri . . .
3 miles radius from the Jail.
2 do. Gray's Hotel.
2 do. the Church.
At the same time the Government approved the following rule
for preparation of survey plans. All reserves, whether of streams,
MANUAL OP THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT. 363
roads, riglits of way, wood, or any other right, to be clearly CHAP. XIII,
shown in the survey plans and exhibited in distinctive colour. PART III.
The Collector to give survey officers the necessary information, revenue
The assessment on area reserved to be in all cases deducted. History.
Shortly after the constitution of the Nilagiri Commission Survey
Mr. Breeks reported that, owing to the delay in the survey and operations
,1 • -1 1 i • i.-i.i J J • after creation
demarcation, it had been impossible to issue title-deeds, m of Nilagiri
many cases, of land sold under the rules, and consequently that Commission.
no assessment had been levied on the lands sold. The demar-
cation was so defective that he recommended the transfer of
the work wholly to the Survey Department, the boundaries
being pointed out to the surveyors by the Commissioner or his
Assistant in the presence of the demarcating clerk, who was to
remain on the ground until the work was completed to aid in
supply of labour and in other ways. This clerk was finally
abolished by order of Government in 1873. These proposals
were sanctioned ; the responsibility of the surveyor extended
little beyond seeing that the marks were fixed in the manner
indicated by the Commissioner, on whom still devolved the adjust-
ments of disputes and the settlement of the limits of blocks.
He at the same time recommended the location of a small
but fully constituted party on the Hills, not only to be employed
on survey of waste land blocks, but also in marking out the main
lines of roads and also outlying estates, and in the preparation
of a guide map. In the following year he urged the matter again,
but it was not till 1870 that the sphere of the department's action
was extended to all lands under occupation, including the putta
lands occupied by the Hill tribes. Prior to this, with exception of
occasional special surveys of estates, such as those in Kdteri Valley
in 1869, the work undertaken was chiefly connected with waste
land blocks and the survey of all properties in the Hill stations.
About this time an Assistant Superintendent was placed in
charge of the detachment in place of a Sub-Assistant, and
he conducted its operations until the close of 1872 under the
general superintendence of the Deputy Superintendent at Coim-
batore. The old arrangement was then reverted to, but in 1876
the superior officer was again placed in immediate charge.
The following memorandum shows the position of the survey
up to 31st March 1878 :—
The total area of the Nilagiris, exclusive of the Ouchterlony Work
Valley and the three amshoms annexed from Waindd, is 704-27 P^i^oi'^ed.
square miles. The area surveyed on i6-inch scale of coffee estates
is 23-59 square miles ; waste land blocks, 19*33 square miles ; and
puttas, building sites. Government forests, reserves, &c., 278-39
square miles. The number of holdings comprised in the district
364
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIII,
PART III.
Revenue
History.
is 17,115, the average area in acres is 12 02, aud the cost per square
mile of demarcation and survey, including registry, is Kupees
1,606-14-10. This rate is based on cost of survey of settlements
24 inch, as well as other tracts 16 inches to a mile. The whole
area (704'27 square miles) has been topographically surveyed on
2 and 4 inch scales at a cost per square mile of Rupees 37-8-8.
The cost of revenue survey of the three settlements — Coonoor,
Ootacamand and Kotagiri — which comprise an area of 53*70
square miles, is Rupees 3,137-6-11 per square mile, and of the
remainder of revenue survey is Rupees 1,225-5-6 per square
mile. The work remaining to be done on 16-inch scale is O'lO
square mile fields to be plotted, 21*97 square miles to be detailed,
and 95*72 square miles to be finished ; and these will be completed
by the end of September 1879 ; and the work remaining to be
done on 2 and 4 inch scales is 81 42 square miles to be plotted,
122*22 square miles to be detailed, and 249*50 to be finished, and
these should be completed by the end of December 1879, except-
ing the Malabar boundary, which remains undecided.
MANUAL OF THE NIL^GIRI DISTRICT. 365
CHAPTER XIV.
REVENUE ADMINISTRATION.
Revenue powers of the Commissioner and his Assistant. — Deputy Tahsildars. —
Revenue Inspectors. — Maniyagar and Karnams. — Hukamn^ma. — South-East
Waindd. — Local Funds. — Pound Fund.
Undek Act I of 1868 the Commissioner of the Nilagiris is CHAP. XlY.
invested with all the powers of a Collector devolving upon that ^ TT .
official by any Act or Regulation, and is the head of the revenue Administra-
administration. The Assistant Commissioner is invested also with ""^"
similar revenue powers, but an appeal against his decisions lies to Revenue
the Commissioner in his capacity of Collector. The district is not, ConTmistioner
as far as the Commissioner and his Assistant are concerned, split and the
up into divisions, but their authority is conterminous, with Commissioner.
the exception of the treasury, ^ which is practically in charge of
the Assistant Commissioner. The revenue administration rests
almost solely with the Commissioner and has the following
establishment : —
Per Mensem.
E8.
Sheristadar and General Manager ... ... 200
Account Department (3 Clerks) ... ... 765
English Correspondence Department (3 Clerks) 165
1 Duffadar, 14 Peons, 1 MasaJchy, 1 Sweeper
and 1 Toty. 143
Vernacular Depai-tment (4 Clerks) ... ... 105
2 Deputy Tahsildars and their establishment ... 305
3 Revenue Inspectors ... ... ... ... 85
Temporary —
1 Malayalam Clerk 50
2 License Tax Clerks 40
' The Madras Bank is practically the treasury. At the Commissioner's Office
are kept the accounts of the district, all moneys being received directly by the
Bank supported by a chellan or receipt from the Commissioner or his Assistant.
In the same way disbursements are made directly by the Bank on the
authorization of the Commissioner or the Assistant Commissioner.
36G MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIV. The Commissioner is aided in the administration by two Deputy
Revenue Tahsildars — one stationed at Coonoor, the other at Gudalur. The
Admimstra- revenue jurisdiction of the former is conterminous with the
^^"^' magisterial jurisdiction of the Joint Magistrate of Wellington ;
Deputy that of the latter extends over South-EastWaindd, The Deputy
Tahsildars. Tahsildar of Coonoor draws a salary of Eupees 65 monthly. His
principal duties relate to inspection of waste land applications and
reporting on petitions referred to him by the Commissioner. He is
ex-offielo stamp-vendor and Money Order Agent. He has no sub-
treasury properly so called, as all collections are transmitted to
head-quarters at the end of each month. The revenue establish-
ment of the Deputy Tahsildar, Gtidaliir, consists of —
ES.
2 Gumastahs, each at ... ... 20
1 Revenue Inspector at ... 30
Peons, &c. ... ... ... 35
His establishment as District Munsif costs 65 rupees monthly.
Revenue There are two Revenue Inspectors on the Nilagiris. One works
Inspectors. immediately under the Commissioner in the T6dan4d and
Kiindas, the other under the Sub-Magistrate of Coonoor. There
is one Revenue Inspector in South-East Waindd.
Maniyagar There are four head Maniyagar with colleagues, and six
and Kamams. Karnams, one of each of the former ofiicials being in charge of the
great ndds — the M^kandd, the Perangandd, Todandd and Kunda-
ndd. There are also Maniyagar or headmen for Ootacamand,
Coonoor, Segur, and for the villages below the ghdts and on the
slopes ; and also inferior Maniyagar for the hamlets on the plateau.
The Maniyagar, except in Ootacamand, are hereditary officials, the
nearest male relation succeeding, provided he is considered by the
Revenue authorities to be a fit and proper person to perform
the duties of head of the village. These Maniyagar possess
great power and influence in their respective ndds, though only
those of Ootacamand, Coonoor, and Kotagiri as yet hold regular
court for the disposal of petty civil and criminal cases under the
Regulations- They, with the exception of the Maniyagar of
Ootacamand, belong to the Badaga race, and are practically the
chiefs of the territory under their charge. They are wealthy and
are generally much respected by the villagers within their
divisions. The Karnams on the other hand are essentially Govern-
ment nominees, this office not as yet having become hereditary,
though the tendency is in this direction. There are six of these
officials : two for Todandd, one for each of the other three ndds,
and one for Segur. Their pay and income appear in thefollowing
statement : —
I
MANUAL OF THE NtLAGIRI DISTRICT.
Statement of Village Servants.
367
Division.
Tddanid,
Mekan^d.
Peranga-
ndd.
Kdnda
Segur
Munnandd
Cheram.
kdd.
Nambala-
kdd.
Number of Head and Sub-
Maniyagar.
3 Head Mauiyagar and
2 Joint Maniyagar.
1 Ooty Maniyagai-
11 Sub- Maniyagar
5 Thundal3
2 Karnams
3 Head Maniyagar
6 Snb-Maniyagar
1 Karnam
2 Thuudals
4 Head Maniyagar and
1 Joint Maniyagar.
14 Sub-Maniyagar
1 Karnam
10 Thundals
3 Head Maniyagar
1 Sub-Maniyagar
1 Karnam
3 Thundals
1 Maniyagar
1 Karnam
2 Thundals
1 Adicarry
1 Menon or Karnam
1 Peon
1 Adicarry
1 Peon
1 Adicany
1 Menon or Karnam
2 Peons
Total
Extent.
ACRES.
252
CENTS.
93
46
435
92
123
651
264
22
45
34
367
461
10
45
19
11
13
38
.2
94
49
35 8 0
34 5 7
213 15
51 15
68 7
334 6 3
130 2 4
9 7 0
35 8 10
13 3 7
5 9
136 11 3
25 7 5
53 7 7
27 0 6
242 10 9
11 2 8
16 7 1
9 3 9
Fees
in Money.
12 0 0
84
0
0
8
0
0
40
0
0
18
0
0
63 0 0
72 0 0
60 0 0
51 0 0
60 0 0
63 0 0
72 0 0
120 0 0
CHAP. XIV.
Revenck
Administra-
tion.
561 0 0
In tlie chapter on tlie revenue history the position of the ryots Hukamn^ma.
on the plateau in regard to their lands has been explained. The
result of their peculiar position in relation thereto is, that practi-
cally the ryotwari system with its privileges and incumbrances is
in abeyance. Lands are seldom given on darkhast^ and may not so
368 MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIV. be given except under the operation of tlie final rule of the Waste
Revenue Land Rules. This remark, however, only applies to the plateau
Administra- and slopes, the system prevailing in the Musnagudi tract north of
__^ the Nilagiris being similar to that prevailing in North Coimba-
tore. Lands in this tract are still granted on darkhast, and the
ryots' privileges and duties in regard to their holdings are those
ordinarily prevailing, and need not here be detailed.
Method of The lyen land -revenue is collected throughout the district in
Und-?e?fnue ^^^ ^^^^^ °i' instalments as follows :—
in the
plateau, in •^°"
Musnagndi November ... ... ... ... 2
December ... ... ... ... 2
and in South
East Wainid
January ... ... ... ... 4
February .. ... ... ... 4
March ... ... ... ... ... 2
April 2
Total ... 16
It is collected through the medium of the Head and Sub-
Maniyagar. A register of plantation lands and houses and lands
paying quit-rent is maintained at the Commissioner's Office.
South-East It does not fall within the scope of this manual to discuss the
revenue system })revailing in South-East Wainad, which generally
corresponds with that of the Malayalam Districts.
Local FuudB. The management of the funds raised under Act IV of 1871
devolves upon a Board, of which the Commissioner is ex-oficio
President constituted under that Act. The Assistant Commis-
sioner acts as Honorary Secretary to the Board, a non-official being
ordinarily Vice-President. All public communications, bungalows,
and chattrams are vested in the Board. Its income is derived
from land cess, levied at the rate of one anna in the rupee, tolls,
and other petty soui'ces. The house-tax is not levied. The roads
are tolled at maximum rates, and there is at least one toll-bar on
each of the important lines. Owing to the limited income of the
Board, as shown elsewhere, its sphere of action is confined almost
exclusively to supervision of the communications of the district,
of vaccination, and of the bungalows and chattrams. It has as
yet done little for the education of the people or for the sanitation
of their villages, or for the health administration generally. The
income of the Board is hardly sufficient for maintaining existing
lines of communication in ordinary repair, and consequently it has
to depend upon Government for grants-in-aid from Provincial
Funds for all new works or exceptional repairs. The Board,
however, performs a useful function in bringing the leading
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 369
planters together to discuss matters appertaining to the welfare of CHAP xiv
the district within the scope of the Act, and also in giving the
Commissioner a defined position with regard to the works, health, AmJZrL
and education administration of the district. tion.
The administration of this fund is by law entrusted to the Cattle Pound
Assistant Commissioner in his capacity of District Magistrate. ^''''^•
There are few cattle pounds in the district. A moiety of the
surplus receipts, if any, is credited to Government for the
Baidapet agricultural scheme, the other moiety to Local or
Municipal funds.
47
370
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CHAPTER XV.
HEADS OF REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
(a) IMPERIAL.— (b) PROVINCIAL.— (c) LOCAL.
(a) Imperial.
Land Revenue. — Excise on Spirits and Malt Liquors.
Miscellaneous.
-Stamps. — Forests.-
CHAP. XV.
Heads of
Revenue and
e.x.pendituke.
Land
Revenue.
The area of the Nilagiris proper, and the extent of land, and
its distribution in each ndd, will be found in Chapter II. In
Fasli^ 1285 there were 4,108 puttas ; this would give the
average ryot's holding under ordinary tenure at about 14 acres.
The following statement shows the extent and the land revenue
assessment in that fasli. It includes lands held under all
tenures : —
Extent.
Assessment.
Dry
Wet 2
Miscellaneous
Total
ACRES.
79,902
79,902
46,020
90
9,267
55,377
' This fasli is taken, as in the subsequent fasli the accounts of South-
East Waindd are included. With South-East Waindd the number of puttas in Fasli
1287 was 5,350. The total holdings of the district as novs^ constituted amount to
93,496, assessed at 65,610 rupees. Of this figure 13,550 acres appertain to South-
East Waindd, assessed at 25,123 rupees. The area in South-East Waindd repre-
sents only that assessed and cultivated. The exact area of each holding is not
ascertainable under the revenue system in force in Malabar. The areas may be
classified as follows : —
lyen
( Nilagiris
i South-East Waindd
„, ^ . . ( Nilagiris
Plantation. ) f', „
South-East Waindd
ACRES.
60,033
4,428
19,913
9,122
* Thei-e are no irrigation tanks in the district ; the area entered as wet
is watered by jungle streams. There are 2,258 acres classified as wet in South-
Kast WainAd.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT, 371
The principal items under Miscellaneous are proceeds of waste CHAP. XV.
land sales, Rupees 3,500, and quit-rent on house property, headTof
Rupees 5,061. Excluding this item the average ordinary land Revenue and
revenue for the ten faslis ending 1284 was Rupees 26,755 ; that of Expenditure.
Fasli 1285 was Rupees 37,934. The increase is due to lands sold,
and lands in excess of register areas discovered by the Revenue
Survey. The figure Rupees 37,934 is made up as follows : —
RS.
Lands held by hill-people ... ... ... 20,561
Lands held for plantations, &c. ... ... 17,373
The small revenue derived from plantations is due to the fact
that a considerable extent of the land sold under the Waste Land
Rules had not as yet passed out of the initial period of free
tenure ; the drawback on this account in this fasli was Rupees
8,014.
The system of abkari in force in the district is the excise, Excise on
superseding that of sale by auction under which the monopoly ^F"*^ ^^^
was worked until June 1875. In Fasli 1285,32,000 Imperial'"'"' ''^''°"'
gallons of spirits of various strengths were excised, yielding a
revenue of 87,000 rupees. An excise ^ of 4 annas per Imperial
gallon is levied on beer, yielding a revenue in Fasli 1285 of
18,994 rupees on 79,880 gallons excised. Licenses of the sale of
liquor yielded 990 rupees.
The revenue derived from the sale of stamps was — Stamps.
ES.
Non-judicial stamps ... ... ... 7,696
Court fees ... ... ... ... ... 14,525
Particulars of receipts under Forests will be found in Chapter Forests.
XXVI.
The most important items under Miscellaneous are the receipts Misceilane-
from the Chiuchona plantations and from the Government gardens. '^^^^
Roughly the total revenue and charges of the Nilagiris proper Total revenue
debitable to Imperial, excluding chinchona, may be set at Rupees ^^^ charges.
1,60,000 and 2,00,000 respectively, viz. :—
RS.
Land Revenue 30,000
Forests ... 46,000
Minor Departments ... ... ... 16,000
Law and Justice ... ... ... 42,500
Ecclesiastical 31, .500
Medical 33,000
Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... 1,000
2,00,000
' The excise has since this been reduced to 1 anna per gallon for beiow 6 per
cent, alcoholic strength.
372
MANUAL OP THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT.
Heads of
Eevenue and
expendituee.
Eevenues.
Charges.
(h) Provincial.
Jails.— Registration. — Police. — Medical.— Printing. — Miscellaneous Charges.
The receipts from jails amount to about Rupees 1,200 annually,
being the proceeds mainly of jail manufactures. The particulars of
registration will be found in Chapter XVI. A sum, chiefly fines,
is credited annually under Police. A sum of Rupees 900 is received
under Medical, being grants of Rupees 500 and 400 respectively
by the Ootacamand and Coonoor Municipalities towards the local
Government dispensaries. A contribution of half per cent, on
income is also paid by the Municipalities on account of the Madras
Medical College. About Rupees 100 is realized annually from
subscriptions to the District Gazette. Roughly the total revenues
of the district under Provincial may be set at Rupees 4,000,
including miscellaneous items.
The charges may be estimated approximately at Rupees 66,000,
Jails
Registration
Police
Medical
Printing
Minor Establishments
Office rent ...
Miscellaneous
22,000
1,000
27,000
6,000
3,000
1,500
1,500
4,000
66,000
(c) Local.
Local Funds— Act IV of 1871— Pound Fund— Village Service Fund— Endow-
ment Fund — Municipal Funds.
Local Funds. The revenue of the Local Fund Board in the Nilagiris proper
may be estimated at Rupees 35,000, of which approximately
Rupees 30,000 are derived from tolls and Rupees 2,500 from
land-cess at one anna in the rupee on assessment. The receipts
from the Cattle Pounds amount to about 1,200 rupees annually
against charges 1,000 rupees. The receipts of the Village Service
Fund amount to Rupees 162 against charges of the same amount.
The amount is received from Government. There is practically no
Endowment Fund. Rupees 120 is, however, received from Govern-
ment and paid for the maintenance of the Brahmins^ Chuttrum
in Ootacamand. For particulars of the Municipal Funds see
Chapter XVII.
I
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 373
CHAPTER XVI.
CRIMINAL AND CIVIL JUSTICE AND REGISTRATION.
Constitution by Act I of 1868.— Sessions Judge and Magistrates— jurisdiction.
— Benches of Magistrates— statement of operations.— Civil Courts— statement of
operations.— Village Munsifs— appeals to the High Court.— Cost of Law and
Justice. — Registration — operations.
In a previous chapter I have traced briefly the arrangements cHAP. XVI.
which existed on the plateau for the administration of justice q^^^^^^ ^j.^
generally^ as well as of revenue, until the present constitution of Civil
the district was elaborated and then fixed by Act I of 1868 Justice^&c.
(Madras) .
By this Act the chief criminal and civil powers are vested Constitution
in the Commissioner of the district, whilst the chief magisterial ^^^8.
power is entrusted to the Assistant Commissioner, the latter
officer being aided in the magisterial administration by two Joint
Magistrates, viz., the Joint Magistrate of Ootacamand and the Criminal
Joint Magistrate of Wellington and Coonoor, the Sub-Magis- Jj^fl^^J.^^;'^
trates stationed at Coonoor and in the South-East Wainad, jurisdiction,
and three benches of Honorary or Special Magistrates at Ootaca-
mand, Kotagiri and Gudalur. A bench was created in Coonoor,
but it ceased to exist at the end of 1876. The appointments of
Joint and Sub-Magistrates are not specially referred to in
Act I of 1868, but this Act provides that Government may invest
any one residing on the Hills with any or all powers of a
Magistrate.
The Commissioner, in his capacity of Sessions Judge, holds
a sessions ordinarily once a month at Ootacamand. The system
of trial by jury has not yet been introduced, that of assessors
still prevailing. The Assistant Commissioner, as Magistrate of
the district, has no special territorial charge, but he directly
supervises the work of the Sab-Magistrates of Coonoor and
of the South-East Wainad, disposes of criminal appeals from
these functionaries, and frequently presides at the sessions of the
benches at Kotagiri and in South-East Waindd. The Joint
Magistrate of Ootacamand exercises the full powers of a Magis-
trate, and is also President of the Ootacamand bench of Magis-
I
I
374
MANUAL OP THE KILAGIRI DISTEICT.
C HAP. XVI. trates. His territorial jurisdiction is as follows : Local limits
Cr iminal and included in the tracts known as Segur, Kiindas, Todandd (except-
Civir,
Justice, &c.
Honorary
Magistrate.
ing the Ouchterlony Valley, the Ossington Estate, and the
GovernmeTit plantations at Neduwattam), and so much of Ootaca-
mand as lies within the Todanad.
The Joint Magistrate of Wellington, who possesses full magis-
terial powers, is also Magistrate of the Military Cantonment
at that station. His territorial jurisdiction is as follows : the
local limits included in the tracts known as Peranganad and
Mekanad, excepting such portion of the latter as lies within the
settlement of Ootacamand. He also presides occasionally at the
sessions of the benches of Honorary Magistrates at Kotagii'i.
The Sub-Magistrates of Coonoor and the South-East Waindd
possess second-class powers only. The territorial jurisdiction of
the Sub-Magistrate of Gudalur comprises the local limits included
in the three amshoms (Cheramkod, Munnandd and Nambalakod)
of South-East Waindd, the Ouchterlony Valley, the Government-
plantations at Neduwattam and the Ossington Estate.
The territorial jurisdiction of the Coonoor Sub-Magistrate is
conterminous with that of the Joint Magistrate of Wellington.
The bench of Magistrates at Ootacamand was constituted in
1875 under the orders of Government, dated 16th February 1875,
No. 378, Judicial Department. The bench, however, at present
rarely meets. The bench has first-class powers, with power to
try summarily all offences mentioned in Section 222, Criminal
Procedure Code. The benches of Magistrates in the South-East
Wainad and Kotagiri were constituted under the orders of
Government, dated 26th April 1878, No. 876. They consist of
planters, and were especially constituted to aid the State in
dealing more speedily and effectively with breaches of labor
contracts and other offences which more or less impede or
obstruct the progress of the planting industry. Their powers are
as follows : First-class magisterial powers, provided that the
Honorary Magistrate is a member of the bench and takes part
in the proceedings, and power, under Section 224 of the Criminal
Procedure Code, to try summarily all the offences mentioned
in Section 222 of the said Code, when the bench is presided over
by a Magistrate of the first class-
From the retm-ns of 1878 it appears that the following work
each of the Mao^isterial Courts above
if operations, was performed by
described : —
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
375
Prelimi-
Courts.
Trials.
nary
Inquiries.
Appeals.
Suits instituted.
Judicial Commissioner
11
8
Assistant do.
18
i
Joint Magistrate, Ootacamand
667
3
Cantonment Magistrate, Wellington
503
5
All Sub-Magistrates
»218
Suits disposed of.
Judicial Commissioner
11
7
Assistant do.
18
1
Joint Magistrate, Ootacamand
666
3
Cantonment Magistrate, Wellington
503
5
All Sub-Magistrates
2 218
CHAP. xvr.
Criminal and
Civil
Justice, &c.
In his civil capacity the Commissioner possesses the powers of Civil Courts.
a Civil Judge, and of a Subordinate Judge in civil suits, and^
under Act XVIII of 1868, of a Small Cause Court Judge ; the
A-ssistant Commissioner, those of a District Munsif and of a Small
Cause Court Judge under the Act above quoted. As District Mun-
sif his jurisdiction is limited to suits not exceeding Rupees 2,500
in value. The Small Cause Court of the Nilagiris is constituted
under the special Act referred to above, which empowers the
Commissioner and Assistant Commissioner to exercise severally
or jointly jurisdiction under Act XI of 1865. The Assistant
Commissioner, as junior Judge, may refer any case, on application
or otherwise, to a bench consisting of himself and the Commis-
sioner as senior Judge ; in case of difference of opinion, the opinion
of the Commissioner prevails. The Cantonment Magistrate of
Wellington, under Act I of 1866, possesses Small Cause Court
powers, his jurisdiction extending to suits in value Rupees 400.
The Sub -Magistrate in the South-East Waindd also possesses
civil jurisdiction to the following limits : Rupees 50 as Small
Cause Court Judge, and Rupees 2,500 as Munsif.
The following statement shows the work performed by each of — operation.?.
these Courts in 1878 : —
1 Kdtagiri Bench
Wain^d do.
Salaried Sub-Magistrates
67
... 136
15
218
2 Ootacamand Bench
K(5tagiri do.
Wainid do.
Salaried Sub-Magistrates
1 Old case.
65
... 136
16
218
376
MANUAL OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XVI.
Criminal and
CrviL
Justice, Ac.
Courts.
Ordi-
nary
Suits.
Small
Cause.
Appeals.
Instituted.
Judicial Commissioner
Assistant do
GddaldrMnnsif
8
51
30
211
16
12
Disposed of.
Judicial Commissioner
Assistant do.
Gddaliir Mnneif
6
52
32
188
13
11
Maniyagar. Three of the Maniyagar, viz., those having their head-quar-
ters at Ootacamand, Coouoor, and Kotagiri, perform the func-
tions of Village Munsifs under Regulation IV of 1816. Accord-
ing to the latest returns the number of cases disposed of by each
was as follows : —
No. of Cases
disposed of.
Ootacamand ... ... 138
Coonoor ... 110
Kdtagiri ... ... ... 45
293
Cost of Law
and Justice.
Only four appeals from the District Court were preferred to
High Court in 1878 and one second appeal.
The cost of the administration of law and justice in the
district (exclusive of South-East Waindd) is approximately 42,000
rupees, distributed as follows : —
Assistant Commissioner ...
Court Establishment
Process Service Establishment
Contingencies
.. 16,400
.. 3,230
960
300
OA pnrt
Joint Magistrate, Ootacamand
Contingencies
. 10,558
500
n nK,Q
Joint Magistrate, Wellington
Establishment
Contingencies
Process Service Establishment .
. 8,400
.. 1,104
500
250
10 "51
42,202
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
377
To this should be added about Rupees 500, a moiety of the CHAP. XVI
charges of the Sub- Magistrate at Coonoor, the total charge for criminal and
which is now debited to Land Revenue. Half the salary of the Civil
Commissioner and his Assistant is debited to Law and Justice ''^^™^ ^•
under the orders of Government. The salary of the Joint Magis-
trate of Ootacamand is not consolidated, but depends upon the
military rank of the officer. That above entered is the Staff
Corps pay of a Lieutenant-Colonel, plus a special allowance of
Rupees 70. The salary of the Joint Magistrate, Wellington, is
consolidated and fixed at Rupees 700 a month.
Taking the population of the district, exclusive of South-East
Wainad, at 60,000 souls, the cost of the civil and criminal
administration is rather less than 12 annas per head. About
one-fourth this cost is probably covered by the sale of judicial
stamps.
The Nilagiris was constituted a registration district in 1869. Registration.
The Registrar was appointed in that year. His jurisdiction is
limited by the jurisdiction of the Commissioner under Act I of
1868. There is a Sub-Registry Office at Gudalur. The Regis-
trar's Office adjoins the Court House, Ootacamand. At the
head office documents in Tamil and English, in original, will be
admitted for registration ; at the sub-office, Glidalur, in English,
Tamil and Malayalam.
The following statement shows the operations of the depart- —statement
ment on the Nilagiris in 1876-77 and 1877-78 :—
of operations.
Fees realized on registration ...
Receipts other than fees
Total ...
Expenditure ...
Aggregate value of property
transferred by documents.
Total number of documents ...
1876-77.
158
1,127
1,097
9,16,130
1877-78.
1,482
464
1,274
12,66,007
NO.
671
48
378 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAPTER XVII.
MUNICIPALITIES AND STATIONS.
The four Settlements. — Description of Ootacamand — area and population — limits of
the Municipality— elevation — Municipal Commission — receipts and expenditure —
sanitation— market — public buildings— the gardens— hotels— rents— early sketch.
— Coonoor — description — area— municipal limits — elevation— Municipal Commis.
eion— receipts and expenditure— public buildings — population — hotels and rents.—
Wellinffton—descTiT^tion, &c. — Koiagiri — description.
CHAP. XVII. There are on the Hills four stations — Ootacamand, situated on
MUNICIPAL!- *-^^® tiglier plateau or Melnad ; Coonoor, to tlie south-east, at the
TIES AND head of a great pass or gorge, the upper portion of which faces
Stations. ^Q^^rds the town of Coimbatore ; Wellington, at a short distance
The four to the north of Coonoor, lying on the eastern slope of one of the
setSements ^^^ great valleys which bifurcate from near the head of the
or townships. Coonoor pass ; and Kotagiri, lying some ten miles to the north
of Coonoor, on the ridge of the ghats. Ootacamand and Coonoor
are Municipalities; Wellington is a Military Cantonment; Kota-
giri is still a straggling settlement with no separate corporate
existence.
Ootacamand. Ootacamand, the chief town of the district, occupies the
western slopes of the Doddabetta mountain range ; the town proper
lies within the basin formed by two spui's of this mountain, the
highest point of the southern being Elk Hill, of the northern
the Club Hill. These spur-ranges, like the western slopes of
Doddabetta itself, are broken into somewhat deep and rocky,
though open, valleys, which in early days were filled with
beautiful forests. The ranges constituting the northern and
southern shoulders of the town lose their rougher features
towards the west and gradually pass into rolling downs, which
stretch away for miles to the Kundas and form a splendid
riding country, with here and there a swamp or wood in the
hollows from which spring innumerable streams. Owing to its
peculiar natural features, Ootacamand is much exposed to the
westerly winds, but is well protected upon the north and east.
The bottom of the Ootacamand basin has been converted into
a lake some two miles in length and one-third mile in width, by
throwing a dam across the main stream at a narrow pass where it
issues from the central valley. This lake is divided into two
II
MANUAL OF THK NILAOIKI DISTRICT. 379
waters by means of a causeway and bridge known as the " Willow CHAP. XVII.
Bund/' from the Indian willows which Hue its banks. It is situated municip^li.
towai-ds the upper or eastern portion of the lake and is the tieh and
means of communication between the north-west and south- tatiqns.
west portions of the town. The western lake is sinuous in form
with grassy headlands and reedy bays. Upon the hills which
surround it, more or less concealed by woods of eucalyptus,
acacia, cypress, and pine, stand some of the finest private
residences in the town ; whilst on a picturesque foreland of its
southern bank stands the new Church of St. Thomas, a gothic
edifice, and opposite to it, on the north bank, though at a
greater distance from the lake, the Roman Catholic Church
dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. Around the margin of the lake
runs a wide carriage drive, from various points in which good
views of the valley may be obtained.
The upper lake is an oval piece of water, which is at present
much contaminated by the drainage of the Native town or bazaar
which lies on its northern bank. The marsh at the head or
eastern extremity of this lake has now been reclaimed and
levelled, and is being formed into a park, known as the Hobart
Park, for purposes of public recreation. The area, including the
lands lying on the northern and southern margins of the lake as
far as the Willow Bund, is about thirty acres. A portion of
the ground (about seven acres) near the road to the south, at
the foot of the western wood-covered slopes of Elk Hill, is
appropriated to a gymkhana with a pavilion, a pretty octagonal
structure of brick and teakwood with high-pitched roof and sharp
gables. The grounds about it are laid out with shrubberies, trees
and flowers. Opposite to the pavilion, at the eastern extremity
of the Native bazaar, stands the Hobart School for Native girls,
and to the east of it the public mai'ket. Beyond the latter is
the agraharam, or Brahmins' village. On the slope of the hill
behind the market are the Police lines and station, and above
these ranges of buildings St. Bartholomew's Hospital, behind
which, on the top of the ridge, are the jails for Europeans and
Natives. At a short distance to the east, on the same spur, is the
Public Library, and opposite to it the Post Office ; a little further
on are the Breeks' Memorial Schools and the public offices of
the district. Nearer to the hill stands the Church of St. Stephen,
the old station church, and opposite its gates the church and
school of the Church of England Native Christians. The sides
of the hill to the east and west of St. Stephen's are thickly
studded with houses and cottages, including westward the Club
House and the principal hotels, eastward the Assembly Rooms.
Looking to the east from St. Stephen's, but at a much lower
elevation, on the western extremity of a minor spur of Doddabetta,
380
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Municipali-
ties AND
Stations.
CHAP. XVII. stands " Stoneliouse/' which contains the Council Chamber and
the ofl&ces of the Madras Secretariat. The hill commands a fine
view of the Ootacamand valley and the distant Kunda range. In
the hollows and on the spurs of Doddabetta to the north and
south of Stonehouse are many residences. The lands on these
slopes are generally very fertile and well watered, and for this
reason a considerable and greatly extending area is cultivated as
garden land. In a steep ravine about half a mile to the north of
Stonehouse are the Public Gardens and the Toda mand from
which Ootacamand takes its name. Above the Public Gardens,
stretching across the Doddabetta saddle, is the Government
Cinchona Plantation. On the northern shoulder of the ravine,
adjoining the Public Gardens, lies Norwood, the hill residence of
the Governor of Madras, backed by a fine wood of eucalyptus on
the side of the Snowdon mountain.
From the foot of Stonehouse, towards the south, runs the
highway to Coonoor, which disappears in the deep cutting (which
separates Elk Hill from the Doddabetta range), bridged by the
aqueduct of the south water-supply channel.
This is a simple description of the main valley, but the limits
of the station lie far beyond it and include two other important
valleys — to the south and parallel with it, Lovedale, with its
picturesque little lake, above which stand the extensive storied
buildings of the Lawrence Asylums with their lofty Italian
tower — to the north, the valley of Mdlemand, which opens out
towards the head of the Segur Pass. Between the Ootaca-
mand and the Malemand valleys is a hollow, across the outlet of
which a dam has been thrown, forming the Mdlemand reservoir,
from which, through a channel nearly three miles in length, the
northern portion of Ootacamand is supplied with water.
One of the peculiar features of the town is the manner in which
the population. Native and European, is scattered over the
greater portion of the area lying within the municipal limits noted
below. The houses occupied by Europeans generally have not
less than five or six acres of land attached, and many possess
domains from twenty to seventy acres in extent. In the chief
Native bazaar on tbe border of the lake some two or three thou-
eand persons are congregated, and perhaps half of this number
in Kandel, a bazaar in a small valley to the west of the station ;
but a large number of Natives have their homes in scattered
hamlets, chiefly in the eastern portions of the station. The
inhabitants of these hamlets are chiefly Kanarese, with a fair
sprinkling of Tamils. There is no Badaga village within muni-
cipal limits, and only three or four Toda mands.
Area of station, lying within a circle with three miles' radius
from the Jail Hill, is 19,297* 74 acres, or about 30 square miles.
— area and
population,
MANUAL OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 381
The exact area of the Municipality I have not ascertained, but CHAP.XVII.
it is probably about ten or twelve square miles. Municipali-
The Municipality contained, in 1871, 238 houses ordinarily g^^^^j^^g
occupied by Europeans and 1,064 houses inhabited by Natives.
The population of the bazaar may be estimated at 3,380 souls,
taking the average number of inhabitants occupying each of the
676 houses at five persons. Population of Kandel, with 317
houses, in the same way is estimated at 1,585.
The following are the limits of the Municipality : a line —limits of the
drawn from the north side of the Craigmore cutting to the top Municipality.
of the Craigmore Hill ; from there to the top of Doddabetta, on
to the top of Snowdon, and from thence to Mdlemand to the
top of juncture of two roads leading from Ootacamand station.
From this point at Mdlemand the boundary runs in a direct line
to the top of Betmand Hill ; from thence to the top of a shola
planted with Australian trees, and then on to the second mile-stone
on the Segur road. From the Segur road to a point on the Paikare
old road, from which the road to the Government brick-field
diverges ; then from the Paikare old road through the brick-field
valley to a point on the nullah below the new Paikare road, at
which a bridge formerly stood. From the point at which the
bridge stood the boundary then runs to the road leading to the
Governor's shola to where three roads cross one another, and
then on to a swamp close at hand, following the course of the
water which crosses the Avalanche road, and falls into the stream
below. From the stream the boundary then goes in a straight
line to the top of the Cairn hill and down to the Lovedale
stream, below the western boundary of what was Colonel Taylor's
land. From this point to the boundary up the Lovedale stream
until it gets close to Craigmore, when it strikes up to the cutting
whence it first started.
The elevation of Ootacamand varies from about 7,150 feet —elevation,
above sea-level, at the ordinary water-level of the lake, to 8,642
feet at the summit of Doddabetta. (Latitude, 11° 24' 5-40";
longitude, 76" 46' 44-39".)
The height of Elk Hill is 8,090 feet. St. Stephen's Church
(tower) stands 7,429 feet above sea-level, and probably 7,350 feet
represents the average height of private residences above the sea.
The town of Ootacamand was first constituted a Llunicipality — Mnnici-
on the 3rd October 1866 under Act X of 1865 (now rescinded). P«^*y-
Prior to this a Station Committee had existed and made some
spasmodic efforts for the improvement of the town.
The Commissioner of the Nilagiris is ex-officio President of the
Municipal Commission. The Commissioners have had conferred
upon them by Government the power of nominating a Vice-
382
MANUAL OF THE XILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XVII. President. The Assistant Commissioner, in the capacity of
,, Honorary Secretary to the Commission, a title which has descended
MUNICIPALI- *' PI
TIES AND from the days of the old Station Committee, has hitherto
Stations, performed the chief executive duties of the Commissioners. The
number of Commissioners has generally been about eight or nine,
of whom about half have been Natives. By recent order in
Council the number of Commissioners is fixed at a maximum of
ten, of whom one-half may be elected by the tax-payers under
the rules promulgated by Government.
—receipts and The following table exhibits the receipts and expenditure of
expenditure. ^]^jg Municipality during ten years : —
Ootacamand.
Years.
Receipts.i
Expenditure.
Taxes
and
Fees.
Miscel-
laneous.
Total.
Works.
Conser-
vancy.
Other
Objects.
Total.
RS.
RS.
RS.
RS.
RS.
RS.
RS.
1868-69
20,496
2,365
22,861
9,846
6,788
7,127
23,761
1869-70 ...
19,559
4,374
23,933
18,402
9,167
9,675
37,334
1870-71
18,812
6,187
2t,999
14,742
8,768
10,611
34,121
1871-72 ...
16,338
4,656
20,99 i
5,187
7,567
10,353
23,107
1872-73
16,597
6,063
22,660
10,892
8,222
11,578
30,692
1873-74
19,688
6,898
26,586
19,410
7,497
11,256
38,163
1874-75
16,744
8,940
25,684
14,046
6,861
13,216
34,123
1875-76 ...
15,488
11,195
26,683
19,260
6,712
11,393
37,365
1876-77 ...
20,019
9,473
29,492
10,149
9,230
16,462
35,841
1877-78
Total ...
21,317
8,364
29,681
10,000
12,798
10,917
33,715
1,85,058
68,515
2,53,573
1,31,934
83,610
1,12,678
3,28,222
At present all the taxes detailed in Act III of 1871 are in force
with the exception of tolls, and are collected at maximum rates.
In lieu of tolls the Government undertakes the repair of the
principal thoroughfares of the station, which are excluded from
the operation of the Municipal Act, at a cost of about 5,000 rupees
annually. The tax on professions was abolished in 1874-75 by
Lord Hobart's Government, but, owing to the financial necessities
of the station, was reimposed in 1878-79. The Government, in
consideration of the neglect of past years and the peculiar
circumstances of the town as the chief sanitarium in South India,
besides constructing the two large water reservoirs (at Malemand
and Doddabetta), with supply- channels for the north and south
portions of the station at a cost, direct and indirect, of probably
' The receipts are exclusive of grants from Government and loans, but the
expenditure shows the outlay by the Municipality of moneys received by grant or
loan from Government. Of the outlay on works probably 50 per cent, has been
devoted to works connccled with the sanitation of the town.
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIKI DISTRICT. 383
not less than Rupees 85,000, have espeuded considerable sums on CHAP. XVII.
the construction or reconstruction of roads within the station, municipali-
and also on the improvement of the town bazaar and the ties and
reclamation of the upper lake, besides providing gratis for some ^^^^'°^^-
years for these and other sanitary works the services of a large
gang of convicts.
The sanitary condition of Ootacamand at the time of the — «amtation.
establishment of the Municipal Commission was most deplorable.
A detailed account of the state of affairs then existing will be
found in the report of the Sanitary Commissioner (the late Mr.
R. S. Ellis, c.B.) in 1868. Much had been done in the succeeding
nine years to remedy some of the more crying evils, but in conse-
quence of the outbreak of cholera in 1877 in the hill stations,
when the district was suffering from drought and famine, the
Government appointeda Committee, consisting of Surgeon-General
Gordon, c.B. (British Army), Dr. Cornish, Sanitary Commissioner,
and the Commissioner of the Nilagiris, to report upon the
sanitation of the station. A history of the health of the town from
1855 and most of the important papers connected with the
subject will be found in the Committee's report dated December
1877. It is not necessary to refer to the matter further here,
beyond inserting a few remarks on the subject by Major Morant,
R.E., District Engineer. " The site of Ootacamand, '' he writes,
" has been well chosen, but from its commencement until now it
has never been systematically treated, the town having been
allowed to grow up uncontrolled. The gradients of many of the
roads are inconveniently steep. The town would have been
better served by fewer roads properly alligned. Houses have
been allowed to be built without guidance ; the locality of many
is objectionable ; the construction of most is poor and insanitary.
Lands have also been recklessly sold to private individuals, who
in many cases allowed them to remain unutilized and unenclosed.
It is not now easy to obtain space for public wants. Thus
difficulties exist in the way of much needed improvements.
Ootacamand might have been a beautiful, convenient, and healthy
town at no greater outlay than has already been incurred. The
great desideratum is a copious supply of good dinnking water, the
present scheme in dry seasons not being adequate to requirements
of the town. To this cause is due much of the sickness in dry
years. More might be done by lease-holders in digging wells for
themselves ; a few have been successfully sunk, but near the bazaar
and in low-lying parts densely occupied such wells would be
exposed to contamination by soakage of sewage and filth
through the adjoining strata. The drainage of the town may be
regarded as a matter of secondary importance. The steepness of
the ground upon which it is built and the wash of tropical floods
effect a rude scavengering which is generally effective, and the
384
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
Municipali-
ties AND
Stations.
— market.
CHAP. XVII. passage of sewage into the lake, through which a current always
flows, though objectionable, cannot be an insupportable evil.
Outbreaks of disease are probably due to the necessity under
which the Natives labor in seasons of drought of drinking impure
water rather than to the imperfect drainage of their town.''' The
system of sanitation in the populous portions of the station is to
remove all excreta, without deodorization, and sweepings in carts
drawn by bullocks, beyond the town. A system of dry-earth
conservancy, including the manufacture of poudrette with ashes
of sweepings and slaughter-house refuse and pulverized bone, was
in vogue for two or three years, but has been, from various
causes, discontinued, but may again be revived if a demand for
the manure arises.
There is a weekly market or shandy held every Tuesday, which
yields to the Municipal Commission a revenue of about 3,000
rupees a year — the right to levy fees at certain approved rates
being farmed out — for the sale of general produce, wares, poultry
and vegetables, but there is at present no market for the sale of
meat. Such an institution is much needed, as also a permanent
market for the sale of vegetables, fruit, and poultry. The
■weekly market is supplied with staple food-grains and poultry from
the low country, chiefly Coimbatore, and garden produce mostly
from the neighbourhood of Ootacamand. The arrangements for
the sale of meat are very defective. It is now ordinarily hawked
about the town or exposed for sale in low ill-ventilated Native
houses. The Commissioners have provided two slaughter-houses
located below the jail, and obtain a considerable revenue from the
slaughtering fees.
The following are the principal public or quasi-puh]ic buildings
in Ootacamand : —
— principal
buildings.
St. Stephen's Church.
St. Thomas' Church.
The Tamil Mission Church.
The Church of the Blessed
Virgin Mary (Romau Catho-
lic).
The Goa Church.
Zion Chapel (Non-conformist).
Government House (Norwood).
The Council Chamber and Sec-
retariat (Stonehouse).
The Courts and Offices of the
Ni'lagiri Commission.
The Nilagiri Public Library.
The Breeks' Memorial Schools.
St. Bartholomew's Hospital.
The Jails.
The Police Station and Lines.
The Post Office.
The Telegraph Office.
The Madras Bank.
The Ti-aveller's Home.
The Nazareth Convent and
Schools.
The Subsidiary Jail (now used
as a Municipal Workshop).
The Hobart Native Girls'
School.
The Wesleyan Mission School.
The Pavilion.
The Ootacamand Club.
The Public Rooms (Misquith's).
Freemasons' Lodge.
The Market.
384
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Municipali-
ties AND
Stations.
— market.
CHAP. XVII. passage of sewage into the lake^ through which a current always
flows, though objectionable, cannot be an insupportable evil.
Outbreaks of disease are probably due to the necessity under
which the Natives labor in seasons of drought of drinking impure
water rather than to the imperfect drainage of their town.^' The
system of sanitation in the populous portions of the station is to
remove all excreta, without deodorization, and sweepings in carts
drawn by bullocks, beyond the town. A system of dry-earth
conservancy, including the manufacture of poudrette with ashes
of sweepings and slaughter-house refuse and pulverized bone, was
in vogue for two or three years, but has been, from various
causes, discontinued, but may again be revived if a demand for
the manure arises.
There is a weekly market or shandy held every Tuesday, which
yields to the Municipal Commission a revenue of about 3,000
rupees a year — the right to levy fees at certain approved rates
being farmed out — for the sale of general produce, wares, poultry
and vegetables, but there is at present no market for the sale of
meat. Such an institution is much needed, as also a permanent
market for the sale of vegetables, fruit, and poultry. The
weekly market is supplied with staple food-grains and poultry from
the low country, chiefly Coimbatore, and garden produce mostly
from the neighbourhood of Ootacamand. The arrangements for
the sale of meat are very defective. It is now ordinarily hawked
about the town or exposed for sale in low ill-ventilated Native
houses. The Commissioners have provided two slaughter-houses
located below the jail, and obtain a considerable revenue from the
slaughtering fees.
The following are the principal public or quusi--pub]ic buildings
in Ootacamand : —
— principal
buildings.
St. Stephen's Church.
St. Thomas' Church.
The Tamil Mission Church.
The Church of the Blessed
Virgin Mary (Romau Catho-
lic).
The Goa Church.
Zion Chapel (Non-conformist).
Government House (Norwood).
The Council Chamber and Sec-
retariat (Stonehouse).
The Courts and Offices of the
Nilagiri Commission.
The Nilagiri Public Library.
The Breeks' Memorial Schools.
St. Bartholomew's Hospital.
The Jails.
The Police Station and Lines.
The Post Office.
The Telegraph Office.
The Madras Bank.
The Tmveller's Home.
The Nazareth Convent and
Schools.
The Subsidiary Jail (now used
as a Municipal "Workshop).
The Hobart Native Girls'
School.
The Wesleyan Mission School.
The Pavilion.
The Ootacamand Club.
The Public Rooms (Misquith's).
Freemasons' Lodge.
The Market.
^ -^ -- A
MANUAL OP THE NILAaiRI DISTRICT. 385
The arcliitecture of several of these buildings is in good style, CHAP. XVII.
especially that of St. Thomas' Church, the Breeks' Memorial
School, the Council Chamber, and the Pavilion. ties^and"*
Much has been done in Ootacamand by means of local com- Stations.
mittees formed for the attainment of a special, sometimes a —societies.
purely temporary, object. To such agencies several of the
buildings above enumerated owe their existence, more especially
the hospital, the library, and the various churches and schools.
Among those now existing may be mentioned the Library, the
Hospital, and the Friend-in-Need Committees.
The Public Gardens are noticed elsewhere. They belong to —the public
Government and are under the management of a Superinten- S^'^^'^^s.
dent who is directly responsible to the Commissioner.
There are several hotels in Ootacamand, though no single hotel —hotels,
lias accommodation for more than a few families and single persons.
The principal are Sylk's, Longwood, Bishopsdown, Shoreham, and
Primrose House. The terms average about 6 rupees per diem, or
Rupees 150 a-month for a single person.
The rent paid for houses is high during the season, ranging from —rente, &c.
about 75 rupees a-month for four-roomed bungalows to 300 rupees
for the largest houses. This rental, however, ordinarily includes
furniture, house rates, and the services of a house gardener. The
value of house property is however low when compared with the
rental. A house which would command a rental all the year round
of Rupees 100 monthly would probably not realize 10,000 rupees
if sold, unless the domain was large and the land good. This
position is partly due to the absence of capital in the place, the
changing character of the population, and also to the heavy cost
of repair ; many of the houses having, wholly or in part,, been built
of inferior materials, such as sun-dried brick and mud and poor
timber covered with coarse stucco, chunam being very expensive.
Some improvement however is taking place in building, especially
by the use of sheet iron for roof linings.
The sketch of Ootacamand as it was in 1834, taken from —sketch of
Captain McMurdy's Views, will be of interest to those who know Ootacamand.
the town as it now is. The change is chiefly due to the growth
of Australian trees, which during the last few years have altered
the face of the station. The planting of the public grounds and
roads with ornamental exotics is much needed to relieve the
\ present monotony in the tone and tint of the foliage. The
: absence of avenues on the public roads is a marked feature in
the town.
The picturesque little town of Coonoor lies at the head of the Coonoor—
/grand ravine and pass which bears its name; the ravine faces south- <^^2c"Pt»o"'
east, but a considerable portion of the town is situated on the
' 49
386 MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT,
CHAP. XVII. western slopes of one of the valleys at the head of the pass, only
~~~ a few of the houses being built on sites commanding a view down
TIES AND the ravine. The Native town spreads over the lower slopes of
Stations. ^^^ spurs of two hills, which, divided by a central stream and
bordered by two other streams on the east and west, terminate
in a wedge-like promontory at a point where the united waters of
these three streams break over the stony lip of the ghAt and rush
down the gorge under the name of the Coonoor river, until finally
the stream discharges its volume into the Kateri river. The
three streams are crossed by three bridges — one, an old stone
(laterite) structure, spans the river at the spot where it breaks
over the ghats ; the second, a black wooden suspension bridge,
crosses the eastern affluent streams to the western spur, up which
runs the road to Wellington ; the third, of stone, spans the eastern-
most of these two affluents, which drain the Coonoor valley proper,
and connects the eastern spur, up which passes the main road to
Upper Coonoor, with the head of the glidt. On an eminence on
the western spur stands the pretty Protestant Mission Chapel,
and on the eastern the Roman Catholic Church ; below the latter,
on the extreme point of the iuterfluvial spur, is the market. The
road to Upper Coonoor passes up the ridge and thence round
the head of the valley, and along the wooded ridge which
encloses it on the east and south. On this ridge stands the
Coonoor Church, dedicated to All Saints, with a lofty square tower.
The church is surrounded by a beautiful grave-yard planted with
exotic trees and flowers. It commands one of the finest views
in Coonoor. To the east of this ridge is a ravine separating it
from the Tiger's Hill, round which winds Lord Hobart's road,
which passes into the road to Lamb's Rock, Lady Canning's Seat,
and the Dolphin's Nose some five miles eastward of Coonoor
above the Kotagiri gorge. From the Dolphin's Nose there is a fine
view of St. Catharine's Falls. The views along this road are very
grand. Below it, stretching away to the east as far as the eye
can see, are the great Coimbatore and Salem plains, the ancient
Kongu realm; northwards the Bellirangan hills and the ranges
which mark the line of the Balaghat country ; whilst south and
westwards is the great Coonoor pass, walled in on the south by
the grand " Driig " which is backed by the Lambton's Peak
range, south of the Bhavani river and the distant Anemale
mountains.
At the head of the spur on which the church stands is the
Coonoor Library, and above it Gray's Hotel. Behind the hill on
which Gray's Hotel stands is another valley, one of the ravines
on the western side of the Coonoor peak, along which run.s
the road to the Bleak House plantations, and onwards to Kotagiri.
This valley, within the last five or six years, has been formed
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 387
into a garden named Sim's Park — after Mr. J. D. Sim, a late CHAP. XVII.
Member of Council. It is an ofF-slioot of the deep ravine which muni^ali.
divides Coonoor from Wellington, the upper portion of which ties and
has, by the energy of the Joint Magistrate, Lieutenant-Colonel ^^^^«-
Richards, been converted into a race-course, which, though
small, is perhaps unrivalled by any in India for the picturesque-
ness and beauty of its position.
The drainage of this valley forms the middle stream of Coonoor,
which meets the other streams at the old Cooaoor bridge. This
bridge is the central point of the Coonoor road system. Here the
old and new ghdt roads meet, and from it, along the right bank of
the western stream as far as the Wellington bazaar, runs the main
road to Ootacamand. Above this road to the left as the traveller
ascends is the Sub-Magistrate's Court, the Police Station, Post
Office, and a few private residences, and below it the Ashley
Engineering Works.
The scenery of Coonoor differs very greatly from that of Ootaca-
mand ; its vegetation is semi-tropical, the contour of many of
its hills rugged and severe, though softened by profuse vegeta-
tion ; its coloring bright and warm. On the other hand the
vegetation of Ootacamand is rather that of the Temperate Zones ;
its hill lines are unbroken and undulating, and its coloring
ordinarily cold and grey. Its climate also differs as widely as
its scenery. Warm, moist, and relaxing, breathing of the soft
south, it seems calculated to induce a dolce far niente life ; whilst
that of Ootacamand, ordinarily cool, dry and invigorating^
demands a life of energy and motion. Each, however, supplies a
great need. To many the climate of the higher sanitarium is
uncongenial and even, it may be, under certain conditions actually
injurious. Such persons find in Coonoor a delightful and
healthful retreat, and in any case a fitting preparation for the
colder and rarer air of the upper plateau.
In an earlier chapter the rise of Coonoor has been referred
to. Its prosperity has been in great part due to the excellent
jcliaracter of the land in its neighbourhood for planting purposes,
but also in a measure to its proximity to the railway, as well as
the attractions of its scenery and the lusciousness of its climate.
Ootacamand had become an important station before a bungalow
was built in Coonoor ; in fact, its very existence is due to the
demands of visitors from the southern districts for a nearer and
easier road to Ootacamand than that by the Kotagiri Pass.
The Coonoor settlement, which includes the Wellington Can- —area,
onment, is limited by a line drawn roughly within a radius of two
miles from Gray's Hotel. The area within these limits is 11'97
<<juare miles, or 7,660 acres.
388
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XVII.
MUXICIPALI.
TIES AND
Stations.
— municipal
limits.
— Municipal
Commission.
— receipts and
expenditure.
The municipal limits are much less extensive and exclude the
Wellington Cantonment. They were fixed by notification dated
27th July 1869 as follows :—
" On the east by a line drawn from the Sappers' burial-ground on
the old ghat up to Nungappa Row's land adjoining Mr. Wait's plan-
tation, and on the top of the hill on the north side of which Mr.
Mann's tea plantation is situated, taking in the Bandy Sholah road
and the houses named Woodhouselee, Mr. Hall's house, and Elk-hill
House ; then along to the top of the hill and down its slope to the
nullah below Colonel Grant's house to a point in a line with the house ;
then along the nullah to the point at which it turns eastwards towards
Coonoor. From this turn of the nullah the boundary runs in a direct
line over the hill to the bridge on the Coonoor and Ootacamund road,
in the east side of Wellington, and from the bridge including the Milk
Village along its east side, and thence in a direct line to the Karteri
stream ; then eastward down the stream to the junction of the Karteri
and Coonoor streams, then up to the latter stream, to the side of the
new bridge, and from there in a direct line to the Sappers' burial-
ground on the old ghdt, whence it first started."
The height of All Saints' Church above the sea-level is 5,954
feet, that of the Coonoor bridge about 5,500 feet. Most of the
houses occupied by Europeans are between 5,700 and 6,000 feet
above sea-level. Coonoor Peak, however, is 6,893 feet above
sea-level, or only 300 feet below the level of the Ootacamand lake.
Coonoor was constituted a Municipality by notification, under
Act X of 1865, on the 19th October 1866. The Commission is
administered almost wholly by European residents, but the
Station Medical OflBcer ordinarily ofiiciates as Vice-President.
The Commission has done much to improve the station in sanitary
as well as sesthetic matters, but the town still lacks an adequate
water-supply and a systematic drainage. The steepness, however,
of the ground, on which the greater portion of the Native town is
built, supplies the want of drainage when scoured by the heavy
rains, which wash down the debris of the town pretty thoroughly
and thus mitigate the many existing sanitary defects. With the
exception of the profession tax, the taxes laid down in Act III
of 1871 are levied. The tolls however are in the hands of the
Local Fund Board, and, as in Ootacamand, the Government main-
tain the main thoroughfares.
The following statement shows the receipts and expenditure of
the Commission during the ten years ending 1877-78 exclusive of
loans, &c, : —
MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT.
Coonoor.
389
Receipts.
Expenditure.
Years.
Taxes.
Miscel-
laneous.
Total.
Works.
Conser-
vancy.
Other
Objects.
Total.
1868-69
1869-70 .
1870-71 .
1871-72 .
1872-73 .
1873-74 .
1874-75
1875-76 .
1876-77 .
1877-78 .
ES.
5,336
6,054
4,265
5,304
4,984
4,337
3,409
4,441
4,901
4,414
ES.
1,336
1,888
2,148
2,031
4,220
3,264
7,030
8,973
7,586
7,534
ES.
6,572
7,942
6,413
7,335
9,204
7,601
10,439
13,414
12,487
11,948
ES.
3,532
3,919
1,120
1,291
2,241
1,026
2,287
3,058
8,288
2,748
ES.
2,322
2,573
2,424
2,369
2,898
2,871
2,929
4,900
5,430
5,084
RS.
3,745
2,002
4,253
4,200
3,849
4,248
4,238
5,283
6,003
4,740
ES.
9,599
8,494
7,797
7,660
8,988
8,145
9,454
13,241
19,721
12,572
1,05,671
Total
1
47,345
46,010
93,355
29,510
33,800
42,561
CHAP.XVn
MCNICIPAM-
TIES AN1>
S'fATIONa.
Coonoor possesses no public building of any size or importance —public
buildi
Ac.
besides All Saints' Cliurcli. The American Mission Chapel
and the Roman Catholic Chapel dedicated to St. Anthony are
comparatively small structures. The Public Library is a simple
building ; the Market (held on Sundays and Tuesdays) consists,
as at Ootacamand, of plain tiled sheds. The Post OflBce was
formerly the Travellers' Bungalow ; the Sub-Magistrate's Office,
the Police Station, the Hospital, the Native Chattram and the
Coonoor Day School are all plain buildings. Sim's Park, artisti-
cally planted with beautiful trees and shrubs and laid out as a
pleasure ground with summer houses, also with swings and poles,
&c., bids fair to rival the Ootacamand Public Gardens. At
present, however, it possesses no conservatories or green-houses.
The population of Coonoor at the last census was 3,058, —population
dwelling in 536 houses. The number of houses, however, has
very considerably increased during the past seven or eight years.
The number of inhabitants is now probably not less than 5,000.
There are several hotels and lodging-houses in Coonoor, the —hotels, Ac.
chief being the Union (Gray's), Glenview, and Hillgrove House.
The rates are generally the same as at Ootacamand. House
property is much more valuable, and, as most of the land within
the Municipality has passed into private hands, it is difficult to
obtain building sites. Building materials being cheaper, the
houses are probably in the main better constructed than at the
principal station. Rents are much the same as at Ootacamand,
though the population is less migratory than at that station,
many planters residing there permanently. The future of
Coonoor depends mainly on the success of agricultural enterprise
on the eastern and southern slopes.
The account of Wellington in Chapter IV gives nearly all WELtiNGiox.
the information that is necessary in regard to this cantonment.
390 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XVII. It lies to the nortli-west of Coonoor, on the ridges lying between
w„JZr.„ the western and middle streams which meet at the old Coonoor
TIES AND bridge. The Native bazaars however, with the Joint Magis-
Stations. tj.^^g^g Qq^j.^ and the Police Station, lie on the right bank of the
western stream, across which a fine suspension bridge has been
thrown at a spot a short way above the bazaar. The hills and
ravines in the cantonment were very bare of forest ; the defect
however has been remedied, especially in the neighbourhood of
the barracks, by plantations of Australian eucalypti. Its climate
is probably superior to that of Coonoor, the ghat mists ordinarily
not extending in this direction. Its exact limits will be found
in notification of lUth May 1865. It is a portion of the Coonoor
settlement, and the Municipality is for the purposes of the
Contagious Diseases Act under the surveillance of the Canton-
ment Magistrate.
The early history of the proposal to locate European troops
on the plateau and the final decision to build barracks have
already been related in Chapter XII.
KdcAGiHi. The only station remaining to be noticed is Kotagiri, lying
some twelve miles to the north-east of Coonoor and at the head
of a fine pass or ravine, in which are many coffee and tea estates.
Kotagiri is especially interested in the tea industry, and hitherto
may be said to have taken the lead on the Nilagiris in this
enterprise. There are but sixteen large houses in the station, the
principal being Kota Hall, which stands on the ridge of the
ghats, commanding a fine view of the eastern slopes and distant
ranges. This house, built in 1830, was once occupied for several
months by Lord Dalhousie, who preferred Kotagiri as a residence
to the other stations. The little Native bazaar lies on the sides
of the valley behind, at the foot of which is a neat, but small,
church. The elevation of Kotagiri is at 6,500 feet above sea-
level. Its climate, though less invigorating than that of Oota-
camand, is colder and more bracing than that of Coonoor. The
superior character of the climate is due partly to the greater
elevation, but probably in a greater degree to the open character
of the country. It is well protected from the violence of the
south-west monsoon, but in the early months of the year the
easterly winds are felt more here than at Coonoor. The area of
the station, having a radius of two miles, is approximately 12
square miles, or 7,639 acres. The boundaries of this as of the
other stations is marked by large stones and a deep trench. The
population of Kotagiri at the last census was 641 only, and,
unlike the other stations, it does not promise to increase rapidly,
though that of the neighbourhood with the extension of planta-
tions is doubtless growing steadily.
The only public buildings are the Church, the Dispensary, the
Chattrum, and the Police station.
MANUAX OP THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT. 391
CHAPTER XVIII.
NOTES ON THE PUBLIC WORKS OF THE NILAGIRI
DISTRICT.
(By Major J. L. L. Mokant, R.E., District Engineer.)
Sums expended. — Establishment. — Roads. — Railway Scheme. — Military Baildings.
— Lawrence Asylums. — Building materials. — Wages and cost of materials. —
Nilagiris and Coimbatore compared. — Cost of the various edifices.
This memorandum applies solely to tte district prior to the CH. xviii.
annexation of a portion of Soutli-East Wainad. The accom- ....
^ , . . . Notes on
panying table (Appendix No. 16)i exhibits the sums which Public
have been expended on public works on the Nilagiris during the Works.
seventeen years ending with 1876-77. From it we learn that Sums expend.
(omitting cost of establishments) the annual expenditure on ^^ °° pnbhc
new works and repairs in this district during those seventeen
years has averaged £20^265 and £3^993 respectively, distributed
as follows : —
New Works. Repairs.
£
£
Military Buildings
10,639
780
Civil Buildings
3,264
271
Communications ... ,,.
5,951
2,909
Miscellaneous Public Improvements...
411
33
Total ... 20,265 3,993
The cost of the establishment which has disbursed the above
sums has averaged 13'2 per cent, of the entire expenditure.
In the year 1860-61 the Wellington barracks were completed. Establish-
Excepting the officer employed on that work the Nilagiris had '^^'^^•
no resident Engineer until 1861-62; one from Coimbatore had
paid it occasional visits. In the latter year a separate Engineer
was appointed to the district. Thenceforth public works of all
kinds were pushed on with vigour.
' In this and in all other tables the figures are given in English currency, the
rupee being taken at two shillings.
392 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Ctl. XVIII. In a lofty and isolated mountain district like tlie Nilagiris,
^ wliicli was formerly sparsely populated, difficult of approach, and
Public but little known, to obtain access from the surrounding low-lying
^^""^^; districts by means of roads to its elevated plateau was the first
Ron da. problem which Engineers had before them ; and the subject
of providing intercommunications to open up the plateau and
make it everywhere more accessible has ever since engaged
their attention. The passes rising up to the plateau which were
first constructed were too steeply and unscientifically traced to
allow of their being permanently retained. Large sums of
money had subsequently to be expended in replacing them by
proper roads fit for w^ieeled traffic. The existing passes, placed
in the order of their construction, are —
1. The Kotagiri Pass on the south-east.
2. Ths Sandapntte Pass on the south.
3. The Sisapd.ra Pass on the south-west.
4. The Segur Pass on the north.
6, The Coonoor Pass on the south-east.
6. The Giidaliir Pass on the west.
Of these the first and two last have been succeeded by new
roads ; the third is but little used ; the second has been aban-
doned. In the year 1863-64 the more complete and correct
roading of the district was actively begun, and has since been
systematically carried out ; but owing to limited funds these
roads have been too much hurried on, quality having been sacri-
ficed to quantity. The object seems to have been to make as
many miles of road just passable for carts as possible, and not
to expend too much money on their gradients, straightness,
bridging or surface. The result is that the district possesses a
large number of roads, most of which are indifferent in their
original construction, and which will have to be improved as the
district advances in prosperity. It would perhaps have been
better if the roading of the district had been more concentrated,
portions being taken up and properly completed before other
parts were begun.
The only trunk road of the district is that which runs from
the east in a westerly direction between the present railway
terminus at Mettapollium and the south-east edge of the Wain^d
at Gudalur, through the only district towns of Coonoor and
Ootacamand. Towards this arterial line flow feeders : most of
these join it at Coonoor, which is situated on the top of the
plateau at its south-east edge. One feeder taps the north-east
portion of the district in the neighbourhood of Kotagiri and
Kodanad, where there is a growing tea industry ; a second
high level line ruijs cast along the edge of the plateau to liady
MANUAL OF THE NILAaiRI DISTRICT. 393
Canning's Seat, Lamb's Rock, and Dolphin's Nose, affording CH. XVIII,
access to the town of Coonoor for numerous tea and coffee
estates, the latter of which extend down the hill slopes towards
Mettapollium ; a third feeder opens access to the west and
south of the district in the neighbourhood of Kateri and Kola-
kambe, where lie most of the Nilagiri coffee estates.^ From
Kateri branches a feeder which taps Devashola and Meliir,
where are large cinchona estates ; and Kateri is now connected
with Ootacamand by a branch to Yellannalle, A line has been
traced connecting the Kimdas with Devashola, and hence with
Coonoor. A fourth feeder taps tea and coffee estates in the
vicinity of the Hulikal Driig. From Ootacamand runs a main
feeder (once famous, now but little used except by the Forest
Department), via the Segur Ghdt, almost due north towards
Mysore. From Ootacamand also branches the line to Ddvash61a
and Melur, and from it a third but very incomplete line runs
south-west towards Sisapara on the Kundas. There are a few
other connecting branches. It thus appears that very much
has been effected to open out the district by roads. But much
remains to be done before the Nilagiris can be said to be every-
where accessible. The lofty and in part promising western tract
called the Kundas, ^ with their western slopes, and the northern
crests of the district plateau between Kodandd and Neduwattam
may, without exaggeration, be said to be as regards communica-
tions in almost the same condition as when the Nilagiris
were first discovered.
The following table of all the district roads, giving their cost,
traffic, length, and annual maintenance will be of service : —
1 K6tagiri has also been recently placed in direct connection with the Railway
terminus at Mettapollium by a ghat road of 1 in 17 twenty miles long.
^ Noi'th Kundas or Nidumale range. — Ed.
50
39-i
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XVIII.
Notes on
Public-
Works.
i^l
P3
t^ ^ .^ t^ .^ Oi
Oi vn 0? 00 'T* 00
00 -*
CD O
S -i^
o 00
C^ rH
1:^ 10
00 (M O
ir ^s
<D O
.t3 '^
: fl
c3 in
£ 1
. «^ s .s
O O c3
'■'M *
II n:-
o
o 3 -r 'o
« ri ? S"
1-s '-^ a
5«3 p3
ill:
o <» ~ >
I 'C CD - 00
OO O OObdCQi
Sill
g^
2i|
J5 ja .d
-a .-5
lO ?0 »> 00 OS P rH
•p-Bog Jiunjx 'SPH 'S
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 395
The Nllagiris are now occupied by Europeans chiefly for the CH. xvin.
purpose of growing shrubs yielding articles of export ; they are „ ~~
resorted to for a portion of each year by the Madras Govern- 'vvu\m
ujent and by European visitors mostly from Madras and Banga- ^^'"f"^^
lore ; and nearly all food-supplies, building materials, and other Railway
necessities of life are imported from the adjoining low-lying districts, sc*"'!^"^
mainly from the one on the eastern side. Hence the means by
which all tliis traffic can best be served becomes the most impor-
tant question relating to the Nilagiris. A glance at the map
clearly shows that the inlet and outlet for all the district traffic
is the railway terminus at Mettapollium. This is by far the
nearest point of ingress and egress to the district, and it is the
point towards which all the Nilagiri traffic now converges. Now
Mettapollium is a station on the branch line which leaves at
Pothanur the main line of the Madras Railway ; and this main line
runs across the Indian peninsula from Madi-as on the east to
Beypur on the west coast, being connected with lines to Bombay
and Allahabad. The extension of this branch along the arterial
line of the district up the Coonoor Pass to Coonooronthe east, and
thence through Ootacamand, its centre, to Neduwattamon the west,
is that of which the Nilagiri Disti-ict at present stands most in
need. Statistics collected in 1874- show that the total charges on
the annual traffic between Mettapollium and Coonoor amounted to
. £44,000 ; that this traffic had been increasing during the previous
seven years at an average rate of 11 per cent, per annum ; and
that it had doubled itself within the previous ten years. Hence
it is probable that a railway between Mettapollium and Coonoor,
costing under half a million sterling, will return a paying dividend.
There is only one system of mountain railways which will
perfectly serve all the passenger and goods traffic, and which
can be constructed between the above places for that sum. This
is the rack-rail system of M. Riggenbach, a Swiss Engineer. He
has offered to construct within four years a railway between
Mettapollium and Coonoor. He undertakes himself to raise the
necessary capital, which he estimates at £400,000. He requires
Government to grant him, free of charge, all the land required
for the line, and to guarantee him from the opening of the line
and for the first ten years thereafter an interest of 4 per cent,
per annum on only one-half of the outlay if the net receipts,
after deducting all expenses, do not reach that figure. He pro-
poses to construct the line between Mettapollium and Kalar (the
foot of the Coonoor Pass) on the ordinaiy system, and that
between Kaldr and Coonooronthe rack- rail system, with a gradient
of one in eight. His system has extended over the Continent,
where eight lines and thirty-two locomotives are at work. The
Government of Madras are disposed, it is understood, to favorably
596
MAXfAL OF THK NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Notes on
Public
Works.
Military
buildings
CH. XVIII. entertain his offer, and it is to be hoped that the line may shortly
be begun. A branch railway on the metre gauge is about to be
made between Bangalore and Mysore. Its extension from Mysore
into the Waindd might be profitable, and would certainly develope
that large coffee tract ; but it could scarcely serve the Nilagiris.^
Any point on it would be as far from Ootacamand as Mettapollium
is, and Coonoor would be altogether out of its reach.
Though communications are obviously the most important of
public works on. the Nilagiris, nearly twice as much (excluding
repairs) has been expended on military buildings. Of these
there are but two, viz., the barracks for convalescent soldiers at
Wellington and the Jisylum for soldiers^ orphans at Ootacamand.
The Wellington barracks were begun in 1848 and completed
in 1860. In 1876 another block was added to them. Appendix
No. 16-A gives particulars. They can accommodate 54 non-
commissioned officers and 820 privates, and have cost in all
£166,740. Each married soldier obtains 5,376 cubic and 384
square feet of living space, at a cost per head of £362. Each single
soldier obtains 1,530 cubic and 77^ square feet at £166 per head.
This cost covers that of every out-building, &c. Ample provision
has been made for the comfort of the British soldier in the
Wellington barracks, which are very substantial buildings, well
built of the best materials. Indeed a larger number of soldiers
might quite conveniently be accommodated by utilizing the wide
back verandahs, which are enclosed. These barracks are amply
provided with ablutionary water laid on in pipes by gravitation.
The drinking-supply comes from a pure spring, and is piped to
the point from which it is drawn. The barrack sites are all well
drained. The latrines are worked on the dry-earth system, and
the night-soil is daily removed from the buildings to a sufficient
distance, where it is sold. The soldiers' food is admirably cooked
in stoves. But the site on which these barracks are built has
proved to be not altogether a healthy one.
The Ootacamand Lawrence Asylums were begun in 1863, and
all work upon them was stopped in 1871. They are incomplete.
Appendix No. 16-B gives particulars. The Male Asylum has been
completed at a cost of £57,500. Nearly £4,000 have been
expended on the Female Asylum, the out-buildings of which have
been temporarily converted into quarters : an additional outlay
of some £34,000 for sergeants and masters will be needed to
complete it according to the original design to accommodate 300
girls, with a chapel for both boys and girls. The girls are now
lodged in what was intended to be the hospital for both branches :
this was built for about £8,000. The buildings which have
^ This view is not endorsed by me. — Ed.
Lawrence
Asylums.
MANa'AL OK TIIK NILAGIRI niSTIlICT
39;
Notes on
Public
Works.
been completed can accommodate 1 Principal, 1 Matron, 3 CH. XVIII.
Sergeants, 2 Mistresses, 400 boys and 144 girls, with workshops
for the boys and quarters for native servants ; but no separate
hospital for either boys or girls having yet been provided, and
the accommodation for the boys' staff (such as masters, &c.)
being very limited, some of the dormitories are used as hospitals,
tailors' shops, &c. ; and sergeants and other Euro])eans are
lodged in quarters intended, when designed and sanctioned, for
native servants. The whole of the buildings, as they now stand,
accommodate
1 Principal,
1 Manager,
6 Masters,
() Sergeants,
4 Farm servants (Europeans)
2 Matrons,
3 Mistresses,
330 boys, and
60 girls,
besides numerous native servants. Each boy is supplied with
735 cubic and 25 square feet of sleeping space ; he is also sup-
plied with very large school and dining rooms, a covered play
ground and every other convenience. This has cost, including
everything, £164 per (boy) head. Each girl is supplied with 785
cubic and 38 square feet of sleeping space ; other accommodation
is in many respects limited ; the building cost is £75 per (girl)
head. The site selected for the asylums is very salubrious, being
freely open to every breeze, and on ground which falls away from
the buildings on all sides. The boys' asylum is a large, lofty,
handsome, double-storied building, forming three sides of a
quadrangle, and designed in the Italian Gothic style with a
campanile 130 feet high. It is well built of the best materials.
The boys' food is cooked in Duff's stoves. Water is supplied in
open channels, and is pumped up some 50 feet to the building
plateau. Its distribution might be improved. The latrines are
on the dry-earth system, but are sanitarily too close to the main
buildings. The girls' asylum (designed as the hospital) is a
single-storied unpretentious but commodious and convenient
building. Its sanitary arrangements are similar to those of the
boys' branch.
All building materials are found on the Nilagiris except lime Building
and timber. The stone is a gneiss of a very hard description, and ^naterials.
is seldom chiselled. It is used as rough rubble in the retaining
walls of roads, and answers well. Admirable clay for bricks is
obtainable everywhere. The sand for mortar is very impure and
dirty : no really good silicious sand can be procured except by
breaking up the quartz pebbles which abound. Road metal is of
three kinds — broken gneiss, which is very hard and makes a good
surface ; broken decomposed sienite, which bears moderate
traffic ; and broken laterite, or gravel, which binds well and cai*ries
Public
Works.
398 MANCJAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XVIII. light traffic on springs, but rapidly disintegrates in very wet
NOTE.S ON weather. The Nilagiris have no limestone nor any indigenous
timber. Lime is obtained from near Mettapollium. The stone
from which it is burnt is semi-crystalline and honey-combed, with
about 20 per cent, of silicates. The lime is good, but sets verv
slowly. It is burnt at Mettapollium and delivered on the hills
unslaked. Morgan's cement is also sometimes used ; it sets
quickly, and is a very valuable article. Teakwood is obtained
from the Government forests at Mudumale, north-west of
Ootacamand. Of late years the supply has deteriorated, as those
forests are being gradually worked out. At best the wood is full
of holes and flaws, entailing great wastage, and the size of the
logs is small. Such scantlings as are eventually obtained are
very strong, but the timber is only half seasoned. On the Nilagiri
plateau not a single indigenous tree is found which can be used
as timber. As the slopes of the mountain are descended trees
useful for building are met with, and the lower down the slopes
the more numerous and vigorous are these trees. Efforts have
been made to thin the plateau forests and to clear away the
brushwood, leaving the larger trees to reassert their vigour, but
without success ; the trees are a prey to parasites. Australian
trees have been introduced into the district with marked success,
but many of them are also attacked by parasites of the mistletoe
type. The blue-gum, et hoc genus omne, promise to best suit the
soil and climate of the Nilagiris. But no real data regarding the
value of the timber of these trees has as yet been afforded. They
are cut down before maturity, and the wood is used before being
in the least seasoned.
Wagos and Appendix No. 16-C gives the rates of wages and cost of
materials materials at every triad during the last quarter of a century.
Speaking roughly, during that period the rate of wages has
doubled and the cost of materials has tripled. Improved
communications have prevented imported articles like lime,
teakwood, and Europe iron fi'ora increasing in the same ratio as
local materials. Cooly labour being in great demand by owners
of estates, it is difficult to procure, and is proportionately inde-
pendent. About one-half of the coolies come from Mysore, the
other half being the Badagas of the Nilagiris. The former are
physically weaker, but do best as brick-makers and road repairers ;
the latter are stronger and more intelligent. All skilled labour I
is, as required by the Department Public Works, directly imported i
from the Coimbatore, Trichinopoly and Madura Districts. !
Private persons (in Ootacamand especially) find it almost impos- |
sible to obtain skilled labour in the bazaar, and generally apply to
this department for it. Such skilled labour as is obtainable is
not always the best. The cold wet chmate induces to indulgence
in ardent spirits, and wet days, when little or no work is done^
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIKI DISTRICT.
899
Notes on-
Public
Works.
have sometimes to be paid for in full. The climate is not CH. XVlii.
appreciated by any class of imported Native, least of all by the
skilled workmen. These latter, with few exceptions, leave the
hills when the period for which they have been engaged termi-
nates. Breaches of labour contract are also not infrequent. Very
few women and boys are employed as labourers, proportionately
far less than in most other parts of India.
Work by contract is seldom performed. It is nearly all done
departmentally, by waged labourers who are tasked, their work of
eveiy kind being periodically measured and priced at certain
rates. Suppliers of materials are not numerous, but lime, sand,
firewood, road-metal, &c., are all furnished by contract. The
procuring and managing of all labour and the obtaining of the
means of transit for building materials, are the greatest difficul-
ties against which an engineer has to contend on the Nilagiris.
Appendix 16-D compares rates of labour and materials in
the Coimbatore and Nilagiri Districts, and gives the increased
percentage of the latter over the former.
It will probably at the same time be useful to record the prices
of food-grains in those two districts, as is done in following
table : —
Statement shoiving Comparative Prices of Food-grains, ^'c, on the Nilagiris
and at Coimbatore.
Rice,
1st sort.
Rice,
2nd sort.
Horse-
gram.
Cholum.
Cumboo.
Salt.
Wheat.
il
1^
il
k
Il
=2^
•SS.
IS
11
1"
is.
Nilagiri Hills...
At Coimbatore.
Per ton on Nila-
giris, Rs.
Per Ton in
Coimbatore,Rs.
Increase per ton,
Nilagiris.
17-42
22-26
19-75
23-36
30-10
42-97
34-59
41-43
38-22
53-55
19-05
34-38
21-62
28-87
125-5
100-6
114-7
95-8
80-6
52-1
64-4
54-0
63-2
41-6
114-4
65-1
103-6
77-5
24-9
18-9
28-5
10-4
21-6
49-3
261
In conclusion I would draw attention to table (Appendix No. Cost of
16-E) showing the cost of the various edifices constructed edifice!
throughout the Nilagiri District.
400 MANUAL OF THE XILAGIKI DISTRICT.
CHAPTER XIX.
PRISONS.
{By Lieut. -Colonel Clemkntson, M.S.C, Superintendent of Prisons, Ootacamand,
and Joint Magistrate, Nilagiris.)
European Prison — buildings — prisoners— discipline — industries — diet — dress
health — instruction — cost — establishment. — District Jail — situation — build-
ings—industries— diet — health. — Subsidiary Jails.
European Prison at Ootacamand.
CHAP. XIX. The European Prison was designed, as a Central Jail, for the
Prisons accommodation of Europeans sentenced to penal servitude and
long terms of imprisonment throughout India. It consists of a
Pr^s^on^ block of buildings containing two rows of small separate cells.
Description of thirty-six in number, arranged opposite each other in a lower
the uildinge. ^^^ upper story with a corridor between. The capacity of the
cells on the ground-floor is 977'65 cubic feet and of those in the
upper 936-3 cubic feet, except the two at the west end, which
are 1,656-32 cubic feet. These latter have flat roofs, but the
roofs of all the others are dome-shaped. The ground-floor also
contains a guard-room, office-room, and a hospital sufficiently large
to accommodate four patients. The jail yard is divided into
compartments with a workshed in three of them and two small
store-rooms. In the fourth there is a kitchen
Character The jail was Open for the reception of prisoners in 1862. The
and number ^^.g^ convict admitted was a man sentenced by the Sessions Court
of prisoners. . . "^
of Mangalore in February of this year. In the March following
twenty-nine convicts, chiefly civilian criminals, were received from
Calcutta, and in June five mihtary court-martial prisoners from
different cantonments of the Presidency. In later years, as
suitable jail accommodation became available in the other Presi-
dencies, convicts ceased to be transferred from thence to this
jail; and at present it is chiefly used for the confinement of military
prisoners and civilians, Europeans and Eurasians, sentenced to
long terms, or for shorter terms, if sentenced by the local Courts.
The total number incarcerated up to November 1878 was 298, of
whom 110 were sentenced by the Civil Criminal Courts and 188
by the Military Courts. The daily average in jail for the last
five years ending 31st December 1877 was 2573; 7"19 civilians
and 18*54 military.
Female convicts are not admitted into this jail, nor are civil
prisoners (debtors). For juveniles there is no separate accommo-
MANUAL OF THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT. 401
dation. Of the latter only two have been admitted; they were CHAP. XIX.
not allowed to associate or work with the adults. PkTsons
All prisoners on arrival are considered on probation and liable
to the discipline of the separate system for such period as the -^^'^cplme.
Superintendent may direct, but in no instance for less than three
months, except in the case of prisoners who have less than six
months of their imprisonment to undergo, or have already
undergone three months of their sentence elsewhere, or solitary
confinement as part of their sentence. On expiry of the
probationary term, convicts work in association under the super-
intendence and control of European warders. They are required
to rise at 6 in the morning on week days, and are employed
in cleaning their cells and the corridor, &c., up to 7 o'clock, when
they are allowed into the yards for washing and exercise. At
7-30 A.M. they return to their cells for breakfast and remain
locked up until 8 o'clock. They then go to the worksheds and are
kept steadily and industriously at labour of various descriptions
until about 1 o'clock. They then retire to their cells for dinner
and are locked up for an hour. At 2 p.m. work is resumed in
the yards and continued till 5 o'clock. Half an hour is allowed
for the afternoon exercise, and at 5-30 the prisoners are confined
for the night after their evening meal is served to them. On
Sundays convicts are allowed three hours exercise in the yards in
the forenoon and two in the afternoon. For the rest of the day
they are confined to their cells.
None . of the convicts are employed on extramural work. — inf^ustiies.
At present the intermural labour consists chiefly of weaving, coir
mat making, rattaning, shoemaking, and beating out the fibre
from the cocoanut husk, which latter has been recently substi-
tuted for stone-breaking. Other industries, as saddlery, carpentry,
&c., for which a convict may be specially qualified, are occasionally
introduced when there is a demand for such labour. All the
jail work, such as sweeping out the yards, white and yellow
washing the premises, cooking, tailoring, and the like, are done by
the convicts themselves, except privy conservancy, which devolves
on native convicts sent for that purpose from the neighbouring
district jail. All prisoners are eligible for employment as cooks,
for such period and at such times as the keeper may direct.
The sale-proceeds on account of manufactures amounted in 1877
to Rupees 2,569-1-11, yielding a net profit to Government of
Rupees 31-12-11 per head of effectives.
The ordinary diet of the convicts is as follows: — —diet.
,. f Bread, 18 ounces.
XTT T \ i Potatoes, 1 pound.
Wednesday, i r, / • i- e ai j. n
' \ boup (consisting of 4| ounces meat. 3 ounces
p ' i potatoes, and 1 ounce dholl, 1 ounce onions).
' • ■ i^Snet Pudding (5 ounces flour and | ounce suet).
61
402
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIX.
Prisons.
Monday,
Wednesday,
and
Friday.
Saturday.
Tuesday
and
Thursday.
r Gruel, 1 pint (2 ounces meal or rolong and 1 ounce
) sugar).
y Cofiee, 1 pint.
vA little pepper and salt.
r Curry-stuff is added to the soup to form muUigatanni,
•\ and 8 ounces of rice are substituted for potatoes.
C In other respects as above.
f Cooked meat (bake), 7 ounces.
I Bread. ")
Potatoes. j
<( Suet Pudding.
I Gruel.
I Coffee- I
LSalt, &c. J
In all respects as above, excep bi-ead 22 ounces.
As above.
Sunday
Probationers are not allowed pudding. For tlie sick tlie doctor
may prescribe special hospital diet.
For breaches of prison discipline convicts are liable to
restrictions in diet. Bread and vs^ater or half rations may be
awarded as a punishment,, the former for a period not exceeding
3 days for any one ofFence^ and the latter for a period not exceed-
ing 7 days. The delinquent is subject to labour of the lightest
description while on bread and water^ and to that of medium
severity while on half rations.
—dress. On admission each prisoner is supplied with a small kit,
marked with his register number^ consisting of 1 cap, 1 coat,
1 waistcoat, and 2 trousers of ordinary infantry blue grey cloth,
2 blue serge and 3 cotton check shirts, 2 flannel banians, 2 pairs
of drawers, 3 pairs of socks, 2 handkerchiefs, 1 pair of boots and a
pair of slippers, 1 comb and 4 towels. He is also allowed a coir
mattress and 2 pillows, 4 sheets and 4 pillow slips, 2 blankets and
a coverlet or cotton rug. During one month of his sentence and
when undergoing punishment for breaches of prison discipline, a
convict is deprived of his mattress and is required to sleep on a
plank bed.
—health. Favoured by a salubrious climate, the health of the convicts has
been remarkably good. Only two deaths have occurred since
the opening of the jail, and in both cases heart disease was the
immediate cause. The first was that of a convict who had under-
gone seven years of his sentence of imprisonment, and was at the
time suffering also from pneumonia. The second was that of a
military man who had had heart disease previous to admission,
and succumbed to it in about a month after entmnce. The
more prevalent ailments are stomach affections and colds.
There have been no epidemics. Ithasbeeu found that convicts
have generally gained weight during their imprisonment.
MANUAL OF THE NtLAQIRI DISTRICT. 403
Divine service is performed once a week for Roman Catho- CHAP. XIX.
lies, and twice a week, Sundays and Wednesdays, for Protestants. pjj~s_
There is a small library of useful and instructive books available
for the use of the well-conducted prisoners. Each prisoner, if a —instruction.
Protestant, is supplied with a Bible and Book of Common Prayer ;
and, if a Roman Catholic, with a Douay Bible and Garden of
the Soul.
The total cost of guarding and maintaining the prisoners in the —cost.
European Jail for the year 1877 was as follows : —
RS. A. P.
Establishment 7,206 15 8
Rations 4,059 11 3
Clothing 1,181 0 7
Contingencies 1,430 10 5
Hospital charges (including cost of
medicines) ... ... ... ... 117 1 0
Total Rupees ... 13,995 6 11
or Rupees 559-2-0 per head of average strength.
The establishment consists of 1 Keeper, 5 Warders, 1 :Mes- —establish.
senger, 1 Medical OjBBcer (also in charge of one of the two
Ootacamand divisions), and 1 Assistant Apothecary, the Joint
Magistrate of the station being ex-officio Superintendent. There
is no Police guard over the prison, the warders having to act in
the double capacity of guard and turnkey.
District Jail, Ootacamand.
The building was originally the old Travellers' Bungalow, District Jail.
subsequently utilized as a Cutcherry for the Principal Sudder
Amin, and was ultimately, in 1856, converted into a District
Jail under the charge of the above officer, with a requisite
establishment of subordinates. For many years the Joint Magis-
trate has been ex-officio Superintendent of the jail.
The jail is well situated on a hill nearly in the centre of Ootaca- —situation,
mand. The site is in every way good, except as regards its
proximity to a bazaar, the sanitary condition of which is any-
thing but satisfactory.
The jail is not on the standard plan. It consists of a range of
buildings facing the west, and contains ten wards and one under-
trial ward, watchman's room, and at the northern end four solitary
cells. There are four kitchens at the southern end, and at the
north-western end latrines, &c., with earth stores. Opposite the
main building is a range of stores and a workshop. The whole
is surrounded by a wall about 7 feet high. The hospital is in a
404
MANUAL OF THE NiLAOIRI DISTRICT.
— accommo
dation.
— buildings.
— industries.
CHAP. XIX. separate yard, and contains four wards and accommodation for 26 i
Prisons, patients. The wards, both jail and hospital, are generally well
ventilated. There is also a separate building with a yard sur-
rounding for civil debtors, European and Native.
The jail is wanting in separate accommodation for juveniles,
and in a separate yard for females to work in during the day.
The jail is calculated to accommodate 72 convict males,
10 convict females, 3 under-trials, and 6 civil debtors ; total 91.
The area of ground occupied by the jail premises measures
about 70 acres and is thus utilized up : — On the east and apart from
the building is the vegetable garden, manured with poudrette,
and producing excellent vegetables for the use of the prisoners.
There is also on this side of the jail a temporary jail which
is used for short-term prisoners. It is roofed in with corrugated
iron, and partitioned into three wards capable of accommodating
88 inmates. The flooring is of earth tamped down, but the
occupants sleep on raised boarded platforms.
The jailor^s quarters are situated close to and west of the civil
debtors' jail. The Police guard-room is just outside the main jail.
The hospital is a building 218 feet 6 inches long and 75 feet
wide, having a verandah to the front and rear. The ends of the
verandah at the back have been closed in and are used for a bath
and store-room. Flanking it on the west, but detached, are the
male and female latrines and dead-house. The accommodation
provided by the hospital is ample, there being three wards for
males and one for females. They are intended ordinarily to contain
24 male and 2 female inmates. There is also a surgery and a
store-room. The wards of the hospital, as also those of the jail,
are lighted nightly with kerosine lamps. The hospital staff is
one Surgeon and one Apothecary. There is no quarantine
ward.
The civil debtors' jail provides accommodation for 6 inmates,
and is a comfortable building, but is rarely occupied.
Prisoners are received by drafts from the Coimbatore and other
jails when the number in the jail falls very low. These drafts are
needed to keep up the gang employed in public works to its full
strength, about 100 prisoners.
Chinese are very rarely admitted into this jail.
The occupation of the convicts is chiefly extramural, at present
on the works at Norwood and the Gardens ; the work done
is principally road-making, excavation, &c. These labouring
convicts are supervised by an Overseer of the Public Works
Department. They are guarded to and fro by the Police, and
are in charge of prison warders assisted by convict maistries, who
more directly see to the completion of their task. Within the
MANUAL OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
405
jail and its precincts a number of the convicts are employed CHAP. XIX.
on the sanitary duties of the jail and in raggi-grinding, tailoring, PR^g.
cooking, and as dhobies ; a little carpentry and smith's work is
also done, and vegetable gardening. There are no manufactures.
The jail garden supplies excellent vegetables sufficient for the
prisoners' consumption ; the surplus is sold and by this means a
trifling sum is realized monthly and remitted to the treasury.
The cost of rations during 1877 for a daily average strength —diet, &o.
of 155-33 convicts was Rupees 11,625. The diet is ample and
good, and in accordance with scale : 5 ounces of meat are supplied
thrice weekly ; no fish is used ; also no tyre, as it is not obtainable
in sufficient quantities ; the vegetable ration is therefore increased
to 71 ounces in lieu of the tyre. There have been no scorbutic
ailments, and the prisoners, as a rule, gain weight during their
confinement. The wat^r for drinking is obtained from the
Mdlemand Lake ; it is received into a reservoir, and pumped up
into a covered masonry filter. It is sometimes very muddy even
after filtration. The cost of clothing for 1877 was Eupees 737.
The nature of the clothing and bedding is thus : — 1 cap, 2 cum-
bly jackets, 2 cotton breeches, 2 cumblies, 1 cumbly hood, and
1 coir mat for each male convict.
The following rules are enforced regarding ablution of the
whole body for
(a.) LIales— Bathe twice a week within the jail. A large cistern
is used as a bath. Cheakai is issued on each occaaion, and
oil every alternate week.
(h.) Females— Bathe similarly, but in the compound of the
debtors' jail.
The general health of the prisoners during 1877 as contrasted —health,
with former years was very unsatisfactory. Numbers were
admitted in a state of starvation. Of 173 total admissions into
hospital, 21 were for simple starvation, and of those admitted
under the heads of general dropsy, debility, diarrhoea, and
dysentery, the primary cause of disease in most instances was star-
vation, and twenty-four invalids were transferred to Coimbatore
on medical grounds, being too emaciated to stand this cold climate.
Almost all the deaths were due to privation. Ordinarily the
ailments are such as are incidental to the nature of the climate,
e.g., dysentery, diarrhoea, and chest affections.
Subsidiary Jails.
There is a lock-up for under- trial and short-term prisoners, Subsidiary
i.e., convicted persons whose sentence does not exceed one or two *'^^'
406 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XIX. weeks, at the Wellington Police Station, and another at the
; Sub-Magistrate's Court, Coonoor. The convicted prisoners are
mployed in out-door work in the proximity of the prisons. There
are also lock-ups at GMalur and Devdla.
MANUAL OF THE Nil,AGITlT DISTRICT. 407
CHAPTER XX.
POSTAL DEPARTMENT.
Nnmber of Post Offices.— History of Ootacamand Post Office.— Old postal rates. —
Hill Post Offices brought under inspection. — Present establishment. — Number pjjAP XX
of letters received and despatched. — Revenue. — Coonoor and K6tagin. — Welling-
ton.— South-East Waindd.— Old postal route of the Hills.— Tonga.— Rates for Postal
-Post hours at Ootacamand and other offices. Department.
There are four Post Offices on the Nilagiris, viz., at Ootacamand, Number of
Coonoor, Kotagiri, and Wellington. ^^^^ 0®*^^^-
Ootacamand is the first station at which a Post Office was History of
opened. This was in the year 1826: the establishment then 2°*f ''^T''''^
. 1 e . T T T Post Office,
consisted or one writer and two delivery peons. In 1828 an
additional writer and delivery peon were sanctioned, and in
1829 (as the Hills were becoming more generally known) the
delivery staif was increased by two more peons. There appear
to have been no fresh changes till the year 1837, when Colonel
Thomas King was appointed Postmaster, drawing a subsidy
of Rupees 100 per mensem, with two clerks, one on Rupees
35 and the other on Rupees 20, and four delivery peons. Mr.
Hodges was the next Postmaster, and held office for a period of
more than twelve years (from 1843 to 1855), During his time
the establishment underwent several changes.
The rates of postage prior to the year 1854 (when the postage oid postal
labels were first introduced) were regulated according to dis- rates.
tances and weight. The charge for a letter weighing a tola to
Madras was in those days 8 annas, and it was five days in transit.
A letter of the same weight now goes for 1 anna and is one day or
twenty-four hours in transit.
It was not till the year 1855 that the Post Offices on the Hills Hill Post
were included in the inspectoral circle of Coimbatore. Ootaca- ?^°®f
mand is the head or disbursing Post Office, and all the others are undef- inspec-
subordinate to it, Mr. Hodges was the first inspector ; Mr. *^°°-
Bower is the inspector at present.
resent strength of the Ootacam
1 Postmaster
and office is as follows :
Salary,
ES, A, P.
... 100 0 0
Present
establish-
ment.
1 Head Clerk
50 0 0
2 Clerks on Rs. 30 each
... 60 0 0
13 Peons
... 46 0 0
Contingencies
... 18 12 0
Total ... 2/4 12 0
408
MANUAL OF THE Ntl.AGIRI DISTRICT,
CHAP. XX
Postal
Department
Number of
letters
received and
despatched.
Revenue.
Coonoor and
Kotagiri.
Wellington.
South-East
Waindd.
Old postal
route of the
Hills.
Tonga.
Rates for
passengers.
The number of covers i-eceived for delivery on an average at
present in the season is 2,000 daily, and out of the season 700.
. The despatch is nearly the same as the receipt.
The net revenue derived by this office yearly may be estimated
at 68,000 rupees.
The Coonoor and the Kotagiri Post Offices were the next
opened ; but the exact dates are not known.
The Wellington (then called Jackatalla) Post Office was opened
in the year 1855.
In the South- East Wain^d, which now forms a portion of
Nilagiris, there are five Post Offices : — Gudaliir (opened in the
year 1867), Guynd (1870), D^vdla (1874), Cherambddi (1874),
and Nellak6ta (1877).
Prior to the opening of the railway the mails were conveyed
to Ootacamand via Mysore and Segur Pass by dak runners.
The road establishment then consisted of 26 runners and 2 mail
overseers. The mails are now conveyed by rail up to Metta-
pollium, and till lately from thence by runners. The distance
from Mettapollium to Ootacamand is 25 miles. There were 9
stages and 54 permanent runners ; during the season the num-
ber of runners was more than doubled. The whole distance was
run in 5 hours 10 minutes up-hill and 4 hours 30 minutes down-
hill.
The runners establishment between Ootacamand and Metta-
pollium was abolished on the 9th November 1878, from which
date the mails (both letter and banghy) have been carried by
tongas similar to those used in the Simla and other ghdts in
Northern India. The runners establishment on an average costs
Rupees 650 per mensem, for which sum the agents of the Tonga
Company have taken the contracts to convey the mails. The
time allowed for the up journey is 5 hours 30 minutes and the
down journey 4 houi's 45 minutes, the distance between Ootaca-
mand and Mettapollium being 34 miles.
A Tonga carries three passengers. The rates are as follows : —
Beturn Tickets hy Pair Horse Toyiga.
FS.
Mettapollium to Ootacamand and back, or vice versa, per seat. 30
Do. to Coonoor do. do. 18
Coonoor to Ootacamand do. do. 12
V'p Journey.
Mettapollium to Ootacamand, per seat
Do. to Coonoor
Coonoor to Ootacamand
20
14
8
MANUAL OF THE NII.AGITU DISTRICT.
409
Down Journey.
Ootacamand to Mettapollinm, 1 seat
Do. to do. 2 seats
Do. to do. 3 seats
Do. to Coonoor, per seat
Coouoor to MettapoUium, 1 seat
Do. to do. 2 seats
Do. to do. 3 seats
KS.
.. 16
.. 24
.. 32
.. 6
.. 12
.. 18
.. 24
CHAP. XX.
Postal
Depaiitmest.
The letter mail is now despatched from Ootacamand at 8-45 Post hours at
A.M. and the parcel mail at 5 p.m. The hours fixed for receiving SS'er ^^
registered letters is between 6 and 7-30 a.m. and from noon to
5 P.M. The letter-box is cleared for the last time at 8 a.m., but
on overland days it is kept open till 8-15.
The following table shows the hours for despatch and delivery
of letters at each of the stations on the Nilaariris : —
(I.) Ootacamand —
Despatch
Delivery
(2.) Coonoor —
Despatch
Delivery
(3.) Wellington-
Despatch
Delivery
(4-) Kdtagiri —
Despatch
Delivery
8-30
A.M
4-30
P.M
10
A.M
2
P.M
8-4.5
A.M
3
P.M.
5
A.M
5
P.M.
52
410 MANUAL OF THK NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAPTER XXL
TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT.
(Supplied by the Superintendent, Malabar Coast Division.)
Position. — The Indian system. — Strength of lines. — Number of Telegraph
Offices. — Staff. — Cost of constructions.
CHAP. XXI. The Nilagiris are connected with the Indian telegraphic system
Telegraphs ^'*" Mysore on one side and via Mettapollium on the other. On the
latter route the Government line is joined to those belonging to
the Madras Railway Company at MettapolHum.
The length of the line from Ootacamand to the Mysore frontier
is about 23 miles, and to Mettapollium about 20 miles ; total 43
miles.
There are two Telegraph Offices on the Nilagiris ; one of the
second class — working hours from 7 a.m. to 9 p.m.— at Ootaca-
mand, and another of the third class — working hours from 10 a.m.
to 5 P.M. — at Coonoor.
The staff attached to the former consists of one Telegraph
Master and one Signaller, and the latter is worked by a Telegraph
Master alone.
The above lines and offices are attached to what is designated
the Mercara Sub- Division in the Malabar Coast Division of
Government Telegraphs. The Superintendent is unable to furnish
particulars regarding the cost of constructing the above lines.
They formerly belonged to what was, prior to 1866, known as " the
Madras Circle," the records of which were, it is believed, on
the reorganization of the department in 1866 forwarded to the
Director-General's Office, Calcutta ; but whether they are still in
existence or have been destroyed the Superintendent is unable
to say.
MANUAL OF THE NILAaiRI DISTRICT. 411
CHAPTER XXII.
POLICE DEPARTMENT.
The village system. — Crime. — Reforms necessary. — New constabulary. — Present
organization. — Stations on the Nilagiris — in Wain4d section. — Proportion of
Police to population, &c., &c. — Appendices.
In respect of village police arrangements this district is pecu- CH. XXII.
liar ; although there are headmen of rural divisions termed grama p^^e.
maniyagar, and subordinate headmen, id maniyagar, ruling in
hamlets, many of which have grown into considerable villages, yet '^^^ village
they have hitherto retained under them in many cases no regular ^^
village servants, as in the villages in the plains. Every able-
bodied villager is required to obey the behests of his village
chief, and to perform such customary duties as the exigencies of
the village or district administration may demand. The result
of this communal system is that intra-village crime is almost
unknown, whether it concerns offences against person or property,
and extra-village crime is even now almost wholly confined to
crimes of intertribal violence, and seldom relates to property,
except where land disputes are concerned.
Violent offences are generally connected with superstitious Crime,
feehngs. The object of most of these assaults is the Kiirumba,
and in such attacks all the other hill-tribes, and probably also
some of the more recent Kanarese immigrants, are usually ready
to take a part. The vaguest notion of their duties as village
magistrate or police officer prevails among the headmen. So far
from their understanding that it is their duty to repress such
crime, they seem to regard it almost as a sacred duty not only
to countenance and shield the wrong-doers, but even to aid iu
the perpetration. We may infer from this state of things that
the Nilagiris, prior to our advent, had remained apart from the
general police system of the neighbouring Kanarese and Tamil
countries, for rough and rude though that system was, yet it had
succeeded in training each village not only to do what was
necessary to secure the lives and property of its members, but
to take a share in protecting the lives and property of its neigh-
hours, and in so doing to be ruled by a moral law of communal
obligation which had grown, not out of the village Hfe, but out
of the wider life of a rdj or state.
Reforms
necessary.
412 MANUAL OF THE NTLAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXII. To the absence of auytliing approacliing a village police,
P(^LicE. maintained by land endowments or the fees of the village, may
also be attributed the fact that there are no hereditary thieves in
the district, like the Dundassies in Ganjam, the Kavilgar of
Trichinopoly, and the Talliaries of Cuddapah. There can however
be no question that an effective police administration of the hills
must have as an antecedent condition the organization of a
domestic police, or at all events the education of the heads of
villages to a due knowledge and appreciation of their responsi-
bilities and duties as the dispensers of justice in petty cases and
as the protectors of the lives and properties, not only of their fellow
villagers, but also as guardians of the public peace generally.
New constab- In establishing, therefore, a constabulary on the Nilagiris
" ^^^' constituted on the European model, the Government met with
no obstacles among the people arising out of the vested interests
of the old watchmen, or the prejudice, conservatism, or fears
of the people ; but at the same time this new constabulary was
deprived of the aid which it obtained elsewhere from the experi-
ence and knowledge of the ancient hereditary police, whether
honest or dishonest. Prior to the introduction of the regular
police system elaborated by Sir William (then Mr.) Eobinson, it
may be said that outside the limits of Ootacamand no police
existed on the Hills. The peons of the Revenue oflficers — chiefly
those of the Tahsildar — appear, under the system that prevailed
from 1816 to 1859, to have done the little police work that was
done, but how imperfectly this was performed has already been
the subject of remark in Chapter XII. The failure of the police
administration was one of the principal causes which produced
changes in the higher executive agency of the district. Ootaca-
mand possessed, from the year 1820 to 1855, a military police,
and until the military control was finally and radically abolished
in the civil stations this police remained under the orders of the
mihtaiy magistrate, under the style, at one time, of Officer
Commanding, at another, of Commandant of the Nilagiris. The
establishment of the military depot at Wellington was the imme-
diate cause of the abolition of this police.
Present The present police organization of the district is as follows.
orjianization. -pj^^ Superintendent of Police, Coimbatore, exercises a general
control over the Nilagiri district — an arrangement which has
continued from the time when the Hills proper formed a taluk
of that district. The officer immediately in charge is the Cliief
Inspector, on a salary of Rupees 350, who has under him 1
Inspector and 2 Sub-Inspectors. The Chief Inspector has taken the
place of an Assistant Superintendent, an office which was abolished
in 1875. The duties and responsibilities of the Chief Inspector
have considerably increased by the annexation to the district of
MANUAL OF THE Nif.AaiR! DISTRICT. 413
the Soutli-East Wainad, not ooly from tlie fact that it adds to CU. XXir.
the population 38,000 souls, but also because it brings him into pJ^fTg.,
contact with a turbulent and dangerous class, the Malabar
Moplas. The task, too, of detecting and repressing coffee thefts
is also extremely difficult, though the recent passing of Act VIII
of 1878 — the law passed for the special object of repressing these
offences — will doubtless afford the means of effectual repression.
The head-quarters of the Chief Inspector are at Ootacamand ;
the subordinate Inspectors are stationed at Coonoor and Ootaca-
mand.
There are ten stations in the Nilagiris proper, viz., Ootacamand Stations on
town, Ootacamand district, Paikare, Neduwattam, Kalhatti, ^^ " ' agins.
Masnikovil, Kotagiri, Wellington, Coonoor district, Coonoor town.
The total strength, excluding Wainad, is 125 men. The details
as to the force kept at each of these stations, the principal
village within the beat, and the number of the beats will be found
in Appendix No. 25.
In Waindd the strength of the force is 34 men. There are four — in Waindd
stations, as follows: — Gudalur, Cherambadi, Devdla, andNadgani.
The proportion of the police to the population is 1 in 400 and Proportion of
to area 1 in 6| square miles on the Nilagiris proper, and I ^''^j^jt^^Q
in 1,117 and 1 in 7 respectively in the Wainad; or taking &c., &c.
the district as now constituted, 1 in 629 and 1 to 6^ square
miles of territory. The cost per head of the population was
in 1875-76 Rupees 0-9-3, and per square mile Rupees 37-4-6
in the Nilagiris proper, and Rupees 0-5-8 and Rupees 33-1-3
respectively in the South-East Wainad. The total cost for the
district now is approximately Rupees 38,140 or Rupees 0-6-1
per head of population ; and Rupees 38-9-8 per square mile. It
must not be forgotten that a considerable portion of the area of
the district is but sparsely populated.
In the appendices (Nos. 22 to 24) will be found some interest- Appendices,
ing information as to the crime statistics of the district prior
to the annexation of South-East Waindd.
414 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAPTER XXIII
MEDICAL.
Establish,
ments
Establishments. — Cost. — Ootacamand — St. Bartholomew's Hospital. — Coonoor —
Hospital. — Wellington. — Kotagiri. — South-East Wainad.
CH. XXIII. The medical establishment of the district, exclusive of Welling-
Medical. ^'^^> which is under the supervision of the Deputy Surgeon-
General of the Southern Division, consists of three Civil Surgeons,
three Apothecaries, and four Hospital Assistants.
Cost. The cost of the establishments, exclusive of that at Wellington,
may be estimated at Rupees 40,000 annually.
Ootacamnnd. — Two Commissioned Medical Officers, ordinarily of
the rank of Surgeon-Major, are stationed here. The duration of the
appointment is four years. One of these officers has charge of the
northern half of the station, including St. Bartholomew's Hospital .
the other of the southern half, along with the charge of the Native
and European Jails. The officer in charge of the hospital has also
care of the division of the district under the Joint Magistrate of
Ootacamand. He supervises also the operation of the vaccinators,
whether Municipal or Local Fund, and has generally a seat on the
Municipal Commission. He also supervises generally the regis-
tration of vital statistics in the Municipality. He is aided by two
Hospital Assistants, one of whom is restricted to the hospital ;
the other is available for the care of the Police and itinerant work
generally. The Medical Officer in charge of the Jail is assisted
by a medical subordinate of the grade of Apothecary.
St. Bartholo- This institution has grown out of the old civil dispensary, and is
Horpiui. strictly speaking the property of Government. By the Towns'
Improvement Act it should have become vested in the Municipal
Commission, who would thus ha^e become responsible for its
maintenance and management. The revenues of the Commission,
however, were considered to be sufficiently burthened; consequently
the institution was retained by Government, the Municipal
Commission being required to contribute Rupees 500 annually
towards its upkeep. This is still done. The management of the
institution is entrusted to a committee, the Medical Officer in
charge acting as Executive Officer and Secretary. There is a
sub-committee of ladies upon whom devolves the care of all
MANUAL OF THE NII.AGIRI DISTRICT.
415
household matters^ food-supplies, &c. The superior hospital estab- CH. XXIII,
lishment is maintained by Government with exception of the nurse- meuical.
Jhe general expenses of the institution are met by pubhc charily^
but the Government supplement all such receipts by a grant
equal to fifty per cent, of the sum raised monthly, 'i'he institution
originally cost about 21,500 rupees, and was opened for the
reception of in-patients in 1867. It has, however, been very consi-
derably added to since then by the erection of contagious and
indigent wai'ds, which are connected with the building by covered
passages. The institution is highly appreciated by both Europeans
and Natives, The accommodation is as follows : —
Wards
for Europeans
for Natives
Men
Women
Men
Women
besides two rooms for special cases, a contagious diseases ward,
and a ward for pauper invalids.
The attendance in 1878 was as follows : —
Europeans
Natives
Total ...
In-patients.
46
1,012
1,058
Out-patients.
950
7,890
One of the Medical Officers of Ootacamand is Consulting
Physician to the Lawrence Asylum, and receives a special allow-
ance for the duty ; but an Apothecary is directly in charge.
There is one resident Commissioned Medical Officer at Coonoor, Coonoor.
who, as at Ootacamand, is ordinarily of the grade of a Surgeon-
Major. He is entitled to hold the office for four years. He is
also in general charge of the Eastern Division of the plateau,
including Kotagiri. His duties are similar to those of the Senior
Medical Officer at Ootacamand. As the only Civil Officer of
superior rank resident in Coonoor, he is generally entrusted with
executive work of the Coonoor Municipality in the capacity of
Vice-President. He is aided by a Hospital Assistant at Coonoor,
whilst an Apothecary is directly in charge of the dispensary at
Kdtagiri.
There is a neat little hospital in Coonoor, a Government insti-
tutiou, which, as at Ootacamand, was not transferred to the
Municipal Commission. There is, however, no managing com-
mittee. The Commission contribute Rupees 400 annually to the
institution. The hospital contains two main wards affording
accommodation for 8 men and 4 women.
416
MANUAL OF THE NILACilRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXIll. The attendance in 1877 was as follows : —
Medical. In-patients
Out-patients
Total
254
1,998
2,252'
Wellington.
Kdtagiri
At Wellington there is ordinarily one Medical Officer ; but the
number depends on the number of convalescents there. He has
also charge of the Observatory. Further particulars will be found
in Chapter IV.
As already stated^ there is only a dispensary at Kotagiri.
It is entirely supported by Government, though it has been trans-
ferred in a manner to the Local Fund Board, and has a sub-
committee of that Board to supervise its working.
The attendance in 1877 was —
In-patients
Out-patients
Total
22
3,033
3,045 '■
South-East There is a hospital at Gudalur. It was originally a gim.si-private
Wain&d. institution, Government supplying an Apothecary, but the planters
maintaining the institution by subscription. It is now vested in
the Local Fund Board.
' Enropeans and Eurasians 267.
^ Earopeans and Eui'asians 123-
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 417
CHAPTER XXIV.
ECCLESIASTICAL.
Establishment— its cost. — Churches in Ootacamand, St. Stephen's, St. Thomas'. —
Coonoor, All Saints'. — Kotagiri. — Wellington.— Roman Catholic Churches-
Convent. — C. M. S. Tamil Mission. — The Basel Mission.
There are three Chaplains on the Hills, ordinarily of the grade of CH. XXIV.
Senior Chaplains, stationed respectively at Ootacamand, Coonoor, ecclesus-
and Wellington. The Chaplain of Ootacamand attends the Euro- tical.
pean Jail, and has also spiritual charge of the western portions Establish.
of the district, including the Ouchterlony Valley and Gudaliir, ment.
whither he is expected to proceed for ministration once in every
two or three months. The Chaplain of Coonoor has also spiritual
charge of the eastern and southern portions of the district, including
Kotagiri and Kdt^ri. The duties of the Chaplain of Wellington
are exclusively confined to the military stationed at the depot.
The cost of the three Chaplains to Government, including —cost,
establishment, &c., may be set at Rupees 30,000 annually.
Hitherto nothing has been done to render the Church of England
on the Nilagiris in any way self-supporting, though a considerable
portion of the Europeans resident at Ootacamand and Coonoor are
civilians, and consequently not strictly speaking entitled to the
services of a Chaplain.
There are two churches belonging to Government in Ootaca- Churches in
mand — St. Stephens' and St. Thomas'. The latter may be ° acaman
regarded as a sort of chapel-of-ease to the mother church,
St. Stephen's. The lay trustees of St. Stephen's are also respon-
sible for St. Thomas'. The Chaplain of Ootacamand has the
right of attending meetings of the church committee at St.
Thomas', even when a clergyman may be especially deputed to
do duty there ; but hitherto he has generally not interfered in
the administration of this church.
St. Stephen's Church was, as already stated in Chapter XII, St. Stephen's
built in 1830 partly by subscription, when Mr. S. R. Lushington
was Governor of Madras. It was consecrated in 1831 by Dr.
Daniel Wilson, the eccentric but admirable Metropolitan of India.
The building is of no particular style ; the square tower however
is gothic, and forms a marked feature in the town. The church
53
4li
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
ECCLKSIAS
TICAL.
St. Thomas'
CH. XXIV. has been recently much improved by the addition of a chancel,
the gift of the widow of the late William Graham Mclvorj the
Superintendent of the Grovernment Chinchona Plantations. The
same lady has presented three handsome stained- glass windows
to the church. There is a good organ. There are sittings for 300
persons. Pew-rents are charged for a large portion of the sittings
at the rate of Rupees 2 a sitting. Within the church enclosure,
but above the church, is the cemetery. It is neatly planted with
trees and shrubs. This burial-ground has been used since 1830.
Europeans who died in the station previously were interred in the
old cemetery, adjoining the Woodlands domain at Stonehouse.
The Government have ordered all burials at St. Stephen's to
cease, and the Bishop has consecrated the enclosure of St. Thomas'
as a cemetery. Only one burial has, however, hitherto taken
place there. The cemetery has yet to be planted and laid out
with paths.
The first proposal to build a second church in Ootacamand was
made in 1860, when a public meeting was held and a committee
formed to carry out the proposal. The death of Bishop Dealtry
in 1861 for a time checked the carrying on of the scheme.
In 1865, however, when Archdeacon Dealtry became Chaplain
of Ootacamand, the attempt to build a second church was
revived, and Government having promised a grant of Rupees
30,000, a second appeal to the public was put forth in 1866 by a
committee consisting of Bishop Gell, the original committee, and
some fresh members. This appeal was so far successful that the
site near the lake was purchased from Mr. A. Higginbotham,
with a strip of ground on the lake side of the road, for Rupees
12,275, and the ground formally transferred to Government by
Government Order of August 1st, 1866, No. 157.
The foundation-stone was laid by General Dowker on 1st May
1867, and, after many difficulties, the church was so far finished
in 1870 as to be safe and usable, but the steeple is not yet
built and the intended raised floor is not yet put in. The cost.
Rupees 64,732-3-1 (site, minus cost of old buildings and contri-
bution of Rupees 1,000 from Mr, Higginbotham, being Rupees
8,093-1-4), was met as follows : —
Government grant
Contributions (including pew-rents of
St. Stephen's from 1867 to 1872)...
RS. A.
32,190 0
0
32,542 3 1
The church, which is picturesquely situated, is gothic in style
and cruciform in shape, with a chancel and sanctuary. It has a
square tower. It was consecrated and dedicated to St. Thomas
the Apostle on 20th October 1870 by the Right Reverend Bishop
MANUAL OP THE NILAGTRI DISTRICT. 41^
Milman, D.D., Metropolitan of India, during the absence in CH. XXIV.
England of the Diocesan. Ecclesias-
In the incumbency of Reverend J. M. Strachan, m.d., from tical.
April to October 1871 the following additions and improvements
were subscribed for and carried out :—
BS.
Seats, at a cost of ... ... ... ... 468
Hassocks, cushions, &c. ... ... ... 80
Lectern ... ... ... ... ... 270
Communion silver plate ... ... ... 376
Total ... 1,194
Subsequently, during the years 1875 to 1876, considerable sums
wei-e collected by the incumbents for the time being, especially
the Reverend W. Barton, which were expended on church furni-
ture and in enclosing and planting the churchyard.
The church now is seated to hold about 130 persons, and it
will be further furnished as funds are available. A Church
Improvement Fund was started in 1878, to which over Rupees 500
was subscribed in the incumbency of the Reverend A. C Taylor,
Chaplain of Vepery. Recently an organ has been presented to
the church by Mrs. AUon of Bishopsdown.
This church is gothic in style, and, though superior from an All Saints'
architectural point of view to St. Stephen's, is by no means equal Coonoor.
to St. Thomas'. The history of its erection has been given in
Chapter XII. It was consecrated on 18th March 1854. It has a
fine tower, but no chancel. It contains sittings for about 200
persons. Pew-rents are collected. Efforts are being made to
raise funds to build a chancel. The graveyard surrounding the
church is the European cemetery of Coonoor. Coonoor was
constituted a separate chaplaincy in 1865. The church is the
property of Government, and is managed by a committee consist-
ing of the Chaplain and two lay trustees.
The church at Kotagiri, though the property of Government, Kotagiri
has not been consecrated. It was built by Major-General Gibson ^"^
of Kota Hall, and became the property of Government in 1864.
It has accommodation for about fifty persons. Protestant Dis-
senters have the right of using the church for divine service when
the Chaplain of Coonoor does not officiate. He ordinarily visits
Kotagiri once in two months.
There is no church in Wellington, a large room in the barracks Wellington.
being fitted up for the purpose of divine worship.
There are three churches belonging to the Roman Catholic com- Koman
munion, one in Ootacamand, one in Coonoor, and one in Gudaliir. charcbes.
420
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXIV.
ECCLKSIAS-
TICAL.
-Conr.ent.
Coonoor and
Kdtagiri.
Church Mis-
sionary
Society's
Tamil
Mission.
I am indebted to tlie Reverend Father Triquet for the following
information regarding the Roman Church's mission on the Hills : —
The Christians of this communion who accompanied Europeans
to the Hills in the early days erected a chapel near the house
now known as Kilburn. A priest named Paul, from near Soraaniir,
visited and administered to the congregation. He had another
chapel built for the Pioneers, near Neduwattam, who were
employed on the Gudaliir Pass. Later these Pioneers were
removed to Kandel, in Ootacamand, and they there built a
chapel, which became the principal chapel on the Hills, the priest
residing on the spot. In 1830, one Stephen Joachim, the butler
of Sir William Rumbold, built another chapel above the old one
on the Segur road. The son of this Joachim now officiates there,
though he has no canonical orders. In 1839 a priest named
Beauclair resigned the old chapel, which is no longer the property
of the Roman Catholic Church. This priest built a small chapel
at Metucherri, near the site of the present church, in 1839-40, but
the chapel (now used as a school-house) being found insufficient
for the congregation, in 1859 the Reverend Father Pierron laid
the foundation of the present church. It was consecrated on 15th
August 1870. It cost upwards of 25,000 rupees, the Mission
receiving a grant-in-aid from Government towards the building.
The building has been recently much improved, and is now
capable of holding a vei'y large congregation. The Roman
Catholic population is very numerous, being in the season nearly
3,000 souls. The resident priest receives a small allowance from
Government of Rupees 30 monthly for the charge of the jail.
There is a convent of the Society of Marie Reparatrice in a
building adjoining the church, established in January 1875. The
convent bears the name of Nazareth, and the present community
consists of twelve nuns. There are schools, an orphanage, a
Magdalene refuge, an asylum for the destitute, and a dispensary
attached to the convent. The head-quarters of this Society,
whose branches are spread over the world, is at Rome.
The chapel here is dedicated to St. Anthony. It has accommo-
dation for about 300 persons. There are about 800 Catholics in
Coonoor and 200 in Kotagiri.
Other buildings in Ootacamand devoted to religious purposes are
the Tamil Mission Chapel near St. Stephen's and Zion Chapel.
The building and property of the former are vested in the Bishop
and Archdeacon of the diocese. It was built about the year 1857.
This mission is a branch of the Church Mission Society. It was
formally superintended by a local committee. There is now a
resident Native clergyman. Zion Chapel, which is open to all
nonconformists, was built in 1857. It holds about 100 persons.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 421
The building is vested in trustees. In Coonoor there is the CH. xxiv
American Mission Cliapel, witli accommodation for about 250 ecclesms.
persons. The mission is superintended by the American Mission- tical.
aries in North Arcot. There is a resident catechist.
For the followinor notice of the Basel Mission I am indebted Jhe Basoi
" Mission .
to tlie Reverend W. Stokes : —
The Nilagiri branch of the Basel German Evangelical Missionary
Society's work in India has the following stations : —
First. — Kaity, with three Missionaries (Messrs. Stokes and Sayer
since 1874, Eev. M. Mieg since 1878), a prayer-room, a congregation
of 54 individuals not including the missionary staff, and sanitarium-
quarters for the Society's Missionaries coming up from the plains.
The Mission has likewise a sanitarium at Coonoor.
There is an orphanage and boarding school (with at present 16
boys and 25 girls) attached to the Mission for native children of both
sexes, boys however only being retained to a certain age. The parents
and guardians of the same are expected to contribute their mite
towards the support of these children, who are in charge of a native
matron under the supervision of a married Missionary. A native
master conducts the school. The girls are also taught needle- work
after school-hours, and have practice in household affairs. The boys
are employed in different kinds of out-door work. The Mission having
taken over a number of famine orphans from the Devala Orphanage
Committee, for whom thei'e was not sufficient accommodation at Kaity,
the Home Committee have directed the removal of the girls to
K<5tagiri, where a new building for them is in course of erection,
towards which the Mission thankfully records having received from
Government the liberal grant of Rupees 1,000.
Second. — Nirkambe, considered as an out-station of Kaity, lying
three miles southward, with a congregation of 21 members, where there
is a Mission chapel and a resident Badaga evangelist. The first
Badaga convert, Abraham, baptized in 1858 (»J< 1870) was the
father of this Christian village. The custom obtaining as to services
is to hold them on alternate Sabbaths at each place, so that both
congregations should be able to meet in worship one Sabbath at
Kaity and the next at Nii-kamb^. There is a Mission school at this
place for Christian and Heathen children. A school for Heathen
children at Adikahatti (near Devashola) is about being transfei'red
to Kdteri, as the people of the former village are growing indifferent
about their school, whereas those of the latter are most eager to
obtain instruction for their children.
Third. — Kotagiri, having a congregation of 108 souls. The Rever-
end A. Biihrer, the pastor, assisted by a catechist who is a Badaga,
has charge of the station. The native church at Kotagiri was built
by Miss Cockburn and handed over to the Basel Mission. The same
lady also supports a school which is attended by Christian and Heathen
children and visited by the Missionai-y. Four Christian families live
out on a plantation in K6daudd. They are regulai'ly visited by the
Missionary and the catechist. The station was established iu 1867.
422 MAXCAL OF THE xiLAGIRI DTSTRrCT.
CH. XXIV. The head-quarters of the Basel German Evangelical Missionary
EccleTias- ®°"^^*y'^ work is at Kaity, once the property and residence of Lord
TicAL. Elphinstone, Governor of Madras, where it commenced its operations
in 1849. In that year the late G. J. Casamajor, Esq., of the Madras
Civil Service, bequeathed the greater portion of his property to the
Basel Society for the maintenance of a mission to the hill tribes on
the Nilagiris. It should be remembered that three years previous to
the bequest made by Mr. Casamajor, which constitutes the larger of
the sinews of the present operations, the same work was being prose-
cuted with characteristic zeal by the good gentleman himself with the
help of the German Missionaries. From 1846 some twenty Missiona-
ries have lived and labored in this part of the mission -field. Some of
these devoted servants have departed this life.
There are numbers of young men in the Kaity Valley and other
villages who have not only received secular education, but have also a
fair knowledge of the truths of Christianity.
Some Badaga youths have been sent to the training schools of the
Society on the Western Coast to prepare themselves for work among
their countrymen.
A few of the converts have been taught handicrafts, such as carpentry
and weaving, and are able to earn their own livelihood.
Itinerating forms an important branch of the Hill Missionary's work.
The Mission owns little cottages in the different districts, which the
Missionaries make their head-quarters while working in the district.
Where they have no cottages, tents are used.
The demeanour of the Badagas when preached to is in most cases
respectful ; they frequently testify to the truth and wisdom of the
words spoken, but, alas ! do not so frequently accept them. It must be
stated, however, that although the converts on the Nilagiris are few
considering the number of years the Mission has been at work, most of
them have embraced the Christian religion from conviction and not
fi'om unworthy motives, as is very often the case in the plains where
large numbers are gathered in.
The head-quarter station is embosomed in a pretty plantation of
Australian and forest trees, which shelter it very much from the
windy blasts so common to Kaity, situated as it is in the centre of an
extensive valley.
There, too, in a clear space on the skirt of the plantation is a little
acre containing the graves of members of missionary families and
two Missionaries, while others lie buried in Gotacamand and Coonoor.
The pecuniary cost of the Kaity Mission during the year 1878 was
Rupees 5,800, of which the sum of Rupees 3,000 was donated by the
Casamajor Mission Fund, some Rupees 900 by public contributions,
and the balance by the Parent Society in Basel. The Kotagii'i station
receives no help from the above Mission Fund, but is supported
entirely by the Home Committee and local contributions.
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT, 423
CHAPTER XXV.
EDUCATIONAL.
History of education among the hill-tribes. — Badaga schools — Scheme of Union
Schools. — Schools for Anglo-Indians. — The Breeks' Memorial School.— Convent
Schools. — Tamil Mission School. — Hobart Girls' School. — Private Schools. —
Educational needs. — Coonoor. — Lawrence Asylums — history — amalgamation
with the Militarj' Male Orphan Asylum — revenue — instruction — medical —
domain.
As early as 1839 the Court of Directors desired the Govern- CHAP. XXV.
ment to take into consideration the provision of education for „ ^
the Todas. In December 1840 the Collector of Malabar explained
the reasons which had prevented any steps being taken in this ^u^ation*
direction. Up to the close of 1842 he had been unable to bring among the
forward any feasible plan for effecting this object. The Court of ^^^^-t'^^^s.
Directors thereon expressed their regret that the efforts of the
Madras Government to introduce education and civilization among
the Todas had hitherto been unsuccessful, but they did not
doubt that this Government would not neglect any available
means, if they should offer, of effecting this object. The Collectors
of Malabar and Coimbatore were again urged to do what they
could. Nothing, however, was done until 1846, when the Basel
Mission Society established an agency on the plateau and made
attempts to instruct the Badagas and other hill tribes, though,
owing mainly to the apathy of the people — their wild habits and
indifference to learning — their labours were rewarded with but
little success.
It was not until ten years later (1856) that the Badagas first
appear to have shown any desire for instruction, especially in the
Tamil language, being probably stimulated by the discovery that
a knowledge of this tongue might be useful in their dealings with
European planters who were then beginning to settle on the Hills,
and also in their business in the courts and with native officials,
who generally were unacquainted with Kanarese dialects. A report
had also become current among them that only men able to
speak Tamil would be selected for the post of maniyagar, the
height of a Badaga's ambition. These facts we learn from the
report of the Tahsildar of the time to the Collector of Coimbatore,
Mr. E. B. Thomas. On the strong recommendation of this officer,
Government, in August 1857, consented to the establishment of
four schools under the supervision of Lieutenant-Colonel Pears,
R.E., Inspector of Schools in North Tamil Division. The Govern-
424 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
CIIAP. XXV. ment of India accorded their sanction totlie scheme in November
Their sanction was necessary, for, as in the case of the
Khond Schools in the Ganjam Hills, these hill schools did not
fall within the educational scheme then approved for the Presi-
dency. A monthly grant of Rupees 40 was allowed for the
salaries of four masters, and a sum of Rupees 400 was expended on
the erection of four school-houses in the following localities : —
1. Tuneri, in the Todandd, about 8 miles north-east of Ootacamand.
2. Adikahatti, in the Mekandd, south-west of Ootacamand, some 3
or 4 miles from Kdteri.
3. Kaligiri, in the P^ranganad, about 4 miles from Coonoor on the
road to Kdtagiri.
4. Dimhatti, near Kdtagiri.
The teaching in these schools was fi-ee of charge to all. At
first they were well attended, "probably because they were Govern-
ment institutions and the Tahsildar interested.'' (Colonel Pears.)
In the course of a few months, however, three schools were made
over to the German Missionaries at their request. Rupees 40 being
disbursed to them as a grant-in-aid, on condition that they
should expend an equal sum every month from their own
resources upon the education of the hill tribes, one of their
number being especially set apart to superintend them, the
Missionaries for the time being the Revs, F. Metz, 0. Moericke,
and F. Kittel. Their grounds for requesting the transfer were —
(1), the district was too thinly populated to admit of two educa-
tional schemes; (2), for eleven years they had been maintaining
schools in various parts of the district ; (3), the Badagas had
confidence in the Missionaries, and would raise no objection to
their being entrusted with the sole management.
In April 1859 Colonel Pears reported that these Missionaries
had more than fulfilled the conditions under which the schools
were made over to them. The schools were then ten in number,
six new ones having been added after the transfer.
The schools and attendance at this time were as follows : —
Dimhatti
... 13
Kotagiri
... 10
Jackatalla
... 7
Kerehada
... 8 Night schools
... 9
Nadahatti
... 6 Do.
... 8
Adikahatti ...
... 12
Balakolla
... 10 Night schools
... 8
Tuneri
... 12
Sholur
... 13
Kaity
... 7
Total ... 98 -t- 25 = 123,
MANUAL OF THE NlLAGIRI DISTRICT. 420
Colonel Pears remarks : — CHAP. XXV.
" Among the difficulties which the missionaries have to contend educational.
with in canying on the schools I may mention three ; the first and
greatest is the want of qualified masters : those first engaged were
natives of the plains ; for want of better they are still employed, but
they are very bad, possessing but poor attainments, and generally not to
be trusted. * * * Others of the masters are Badaga youths
trained by the missionaries. These are better in every way, but there
are but few such, and it will not be easy, at least for some time, to
increase the number. * * * *
" The second difficulty that I refer to is the extreme poverty of the
hill people, which, whatever may be their wish, makes it often
impossible for them to dispense with the labour of their children
at home or in the fields. # * * »
" The third difficulty is the opposition of the village headmen.
This opposition, it is worth observing, does not arise from any
relio-ious feeling ; on the contrary, it is a fact that those headmen
who are most favourably inclined to the missionaries and their
schools are those who pay most regard to the traditions and customs
of their own religion, while those who oppose them are remarkable
for nothing but gross immorality and brutish ignorance."
The expediency of transfer of the schools was noticed by the
Secretary of State as questionable in that the hill people desirous
of having their children taught had no longer the opportunity of
obtaining for them secular instruction only, but on a further report
from the Madras Government he withdrew his objection.
In reply to a suggestion from Government that opportunities
of instruction provided for the Badagas should be extended to the
other hill tribes. Colonel Pears, after giving a brief notice of the
different tribes and dwelling on the marked differences between
them, their wild, often brutish habits, and the dislike which the
Badagas show for some of them, points out that it would be '' quite
impracticable to bring boys of any two tribes into one school."
He adds —
*' I would leave it to them (the missionaries) to decide (in
communication with the Inspector) in what direction they could
extend their operations, that is, whether to continue to confine them
to one tribe, or to endeavour to embrace others."
It appears to have been found impracticable to interest any of
the other tribes in education. Of the Todas Colonel Pears says
(1859)—
" The only attempt that I have ever heard of as having been made
to instruct this tribe was made some years ago by a missionary who
took three whole families into his house and maintained them iu
idleness in order to bring the children under instruction. It did not
succeed, and I am informed that the children are now among the
most disreputable of their tribe."
64
42G MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XXV. A school for Kotas was established by the missionaries, but it
Educational. ^^^ *° ^® closed through jealousy of the Badagas. The promise
was good, as the Kotas are an intelhgent race.
The Badaga schools did well for a time, the number increasing
to eleven, and Government increased the grant to meet the increased
expenditure. The teaching was quite elementary, being confined
to reading in Kanarese and Tamil and to simple sums. In 1863 the
number of the schools had fallen to five with a greatly reduced
attendance. The grant was reduced to Rupees 40. Two causes
are assigned by the Inspector for the falling off— (1), the frequent
changes in the "personnel" of the missionaries; (2), the great
demand for labour, which renders the work of even very young
children valuable. In the following year the Government grant
was withdrawn, as the total number of children in the day and
night schools (4) had fallen to 44, of whom only 12 attended the
inspectorial examination. Three schools — at Kaity, Nirkambe, and
Kotagiri — have survived. An annual grant of Rupees 120 to each is
provided from Local Funds, and, though not strictly in accordance
with rule, has been approved by Government in consideration
of the exceptional character of the schools and the difficulties
the missionaries have to contend with.
—scheme of On the introduction of the Local Funds Act, Mr. Breeks
F^^°°, drew up a scheme of schools for the rural tracts, but the
bcnools. ^ . 1T1-I1
house-ta^ having been abolished, the scheme has not yet been
introduced. The increasing prosperity of the Badagas is unques-
tionably inclining them to seek instruction for their children,
and it is probable that a scheme of Union Schools if now
introduced would meet with the approval of some of the leading
villages. For some years past an Inspecting Schoolmaster has
been employed by the Board, but his duties are practically confined
to the Municipalities.
Above I have tried to trace the history of educational effort
in regard to the hill tribes. I proceed to note briefly the educa-
tional position of the two chief towns.
Schools for A part of Mr. S. R. Lushington and Bishop Wilson^s scheme
IiTdkns. foi' t^e utilization of this Hill Sanitarium was the establishment
of a good school for the education of European and Eurasian
children — a scheme somewhat similar to that with which Bishop
Cotton's name is now associated. The Church Mission Society,
a Society which aided in many ways the early development of
the hill colony, undei-took the scheme. A fine building, now
known as Sylk's Hotel, was erected by the Societ}' in 1831. The
school was placed under the charge of the Rev. J. B. Morehead.
It was chiefly intended for the sons of missionaries, but others
were admissible- The institution was designated " The Church
MANUAL OF THE NiLAOIRl DISTRICT. 427
Missionary Grammar Scliool," and was " to be especially known CHAP. XXV.
and distinguished as a seminary for sound learning and religious educational.
education according to the doctrines and discipline of the United
Church of England and Ireland." The property and manage-
ment of the school was vested in the Madras Committee, Church
Mission Society. " The new method of teaching, as detailed by
Dr. Bell and practised in the Charter House and other European
Grammar Schools (was) to be introduced as extensively as possi-
ble.'' There were foundationers and paying pupils, the charge
of the latter being Rupees 70 monthly. A preparatory school
was attached.^ How long the institution existed I have been
unable to trace.
Until communication with Europe became easy and cheap
several private middle-class schools existed in Gotacamand.
Among these may be mentioned the school at Snowdon House,
established by the Rev. G. U. Pope, d.d. The school was
begun between 1850 and 1860, and ultimately became a collegiate
institution affiliated to the Madras University. It was closed
in 1871, when Dr. Pope accepted the post of Warden of Bishop
Cotton's School, Bangalore. There were as many as 70 or 80
boarders in the institution. The closing of this school was a
great misfortune to the station, and no similar institution has
as yet arisen in its place. It is deeply to be regretted that it was
not converted into a public institution.
In 1872, on the death of the late Mr. J. W. Breeks, Commis- The Breeka*
. p 1 , • •> • .■ Memonal
sioner of the Hills, a committee was formed to raise subscriptions School.
for a memorial to him. The great need of a school for the children
of Europeans and Eurasians whose means did not admit of
their sending their children to England or other parts of India to
obtain a good education was considered, and it was determined
that the memorial should take the form of a school, but as many
natives were contributing to it, it was decided that children
of natives of the respectable classes should also be admitted.
Subscriptions were obtained amounting to over 4,000 rupees.
A grant-in-aid was given by Governmeat and also by the Munici-
pality. The foundation-stone was laid on the 16th May 1873 by
the Honorable J. D. Sim, c.s.i., in the presence of the late Lord
Hobart, Governor of Madras. The building was completed in
June 1874 at a cost of Rupees 9,487. The school was opened
in that month, the services of a trained master of Highbury
having been secured. The Government promised a grant of
Rupees 150 monthly for three years. The progress of the school
was so satisfactory in the first year of its e.xistence that it was
determined to extend the building. Subscriptions were solicited,
' Tho prospectus will be found in the first edition of Baikie's book, (1833).
428 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XXV'. and about Rupees 4,000 raised. This sum was supplemented
Educational ^y grants from Government and the Municipality, The balance
required to complete the building was raised by debentures. The
additional building, which has a lofty tower with a good clock, ^
was completed in 1878 at a cost of about Rupees 16,000. The
main room has accommodation for about 50 boys, the additional
room for 100. The buildings are well furnished. The early
promise of the school has not so far been realized. Early in 1878
the grant of Rupees 150 was withdrawn by Government, and the
school lost its head master. The first building has been utilized
as a parish school for girls and little boys, the larger building
being at present more than sufficient for the needs of the school,
there being only about 30 lads in attendance. The standard is
that of the entrance examination of the Madras University.
Efibrts have been recently made to develope the school, but
without success. It is vested by order of Government in four
trustees, the Commissioner, the Chaplain, the Senior Civil
Surgeon, and the Vice-President of the Municipality, by deed of
trust, and has a small endowment transferred to it in trust by the
Church Committee, consisting of the house and premises known
as " Bosinger's Shop.'' It yields a rent of Rupees 50 monthly.
Private The late head master of the Breeks' Memorial School, Mr. H.
Schools. Croley, on leaving that institution, established a private day and
boarding school at Bombay House. The school educates to the
Matriculation standard. There is a considerable number of
boarders.
The Convent The schools of the Nazareth Convent established in 1875 are
Schools. doing good service in educating Europeans, Eurasians, and
Natives.
The school for Europeans provides instruction in modera
languages, music, drawing, and painting, and other necessary
subjects. The pupils are divided into three sections — for the first
section the rates are Rupees 50 and 20 for boarders and day
scholars respectively ; the second Rupees 30 and 5 ; and for the
third Rupees 16 and 3.
The school for East Indians under the charge of two nuns
affords a simpler scheme of education. There are two sections,
the charges for which are Rupees 10 and 2 in the first, and Rupees
6 and 1 in the second section respectively for boarders and day
pupils.
The Native School is under the charge of a nun assisted by
native teachers ; the children are admitted free.
^ The clock was provided out of the fund raised for the reception of His Royal
Highness the Prince of Wales, who had included Ootacamand in the scheme of his
tour in India.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRl DISTRICT.
429
The total number attending these schools is about 120. The CHAP. XXV.
schools are under Government inspection. Educational-
The Catholic Mission has also a school for boys with native
teachers ; the school is still rather elementary. The school-house
was once the Roman Catholic Church of the station.
The Church of England Tamil Mission has a school for boys Tamil Mia-
held in the chapel near St. Stephen's Church. There are about 100 ^^°°
children in attendance. The school is under Government inspec-
tion, and receives salary grants from the Municipality. English
is taught, but the standard of the school is low. The Mission has
a small branch school at Kandel.
In the bazaar there is a neat school-house named the Hobart The Hobart
School, Lady Hobart having promoted a scheme of providing a " ^
school for native girls and contributed liberally towards its erec-
tion the sum of Rupees 500, the total cost being rather over 2,500
rupees. The school-yard is neatly fenced in and planted. A
dwelling house within the enclosure for the schoolmistress has
recently been erected. Funds were obtained by subscription.
The property is vested in the Bishop and Archdeacon of the
Diocese in trust. The trustees are required to maintain a school
for native girls, the agency now employed being the Church
Mission Society, who maintain and manage the school. It is under
the " Results System." There are about 50 names on the books ;
there is accommodation for about 80 little children.
There is a small school-house and cottage in St. Stephen's,
vested in the Church Committee. It was left in trust to the
Committee for school purposes. An elementary school for girls
has been maintained there.
There are several small private schools in the town for the Other
education of both Europeans and Natives.
The great educational need of Ootacamand is a good public Educational
middle-class school — higher and lower grades— -for boys and girls, J^^^^
enabling boys to obtain entrance into the public service or the
Madras University, and girls their livelihood, if necessary, as
teachers or otherwise, supplemented by branches for the instruc-
tion of the children of the poor in letters and industries. At
present the educational necessities of the most important Euro-
pean settlement in India are left to chance and spasmodic private
effort.
The principal school in this station for European and Eura- Coonoor.
sian children was established by Mr. T. Stanes and is maintained
by subscription. It is located in a neat building, with a residence
for the mistress attached. It is under Government inspection ;
there are about 40 children in attendance ; there are four teachers.
The children are offered for examination under the Results system.
430
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XXV. The Roman Catholics have two schools attached to the church —
Educational. ^^^ ^^^ boys^ the other for girls. The Schools are under
Lawrence
Asylums.
— history.
(Tovernment inspection, grants being sought under the Results
system. There are about lOU children in attendance.
The American Mi.ssion also maintains an elementary school for
natives, which is under Government inspection.
At the beginning of 1856 Sir H. Lawrence, k.c.b,, made an
offer of a donation of Rupees 5,000 and Rupees 1,000 annually
if an institution similar to those established at Sunawar and Mount
Aboo were started at some hill-station in this Presidency, provided
action was taken within three months. A meeting was held in
Ootacamand on 13th February 1856, when it was resolved to accept
the offer, and to make strenuous efforts to carry out the project.
An address was issued and subscriptions invited. Some difficulty
arose on the religious principles to be adopted for the institution.
Finally a prospectus for an institution to be called " The Ootaca-
mand Asylum for the Orphans and other childi-en of European
soldiers in India" was adopted. The proposed asylum was to
be constituted on a strictly Protestant basis. The Committee
chosen had for its President Bishop Dealtry. By the month of
June 3,705 rupees in donations and 335 rupees in yearly subscrip-
tions had been subscribed. The Committee sought the aid of
Government, and noted that " should it ever be in contemplation
to remove the Military Male and Female Asylums to these Hills,
the two institutions might, if Government wished, be blended into
one." The Government awaited the result of an appeal to the
army. The Commander-in-Chief, though not objecting to an
appeal, would not himself support it, " unless the children of
soldiers of the Roman Catholic and all other Christian professions
of Faith " were admitted to participate fully in the benefits of the
proposed institution. In October of this year the Committee were
told by Government that they had no power to transfer the Madras
Asylums, and that their action would depend upon the support
the scheme would receive from the army, and the adoption or
otherwise of the present rules of the Sundwar Asylum " in their
full expression." The proposed deviation from the rules of the
model institution resulted in an abandonment of the scheme for
a time. The outbreak of the Mutiny also occupied public
attention. Sir H. Lawrence in his will recommended the projected
school at Ootacamand to the fostering cai-e of the East India
Company. In June 1858 the Honorable Court inquired what
had been done. This inquiry resulted in the revival of the
scheme. A meeting was held at Ootacamand in August 1858, when
it was resolved to adopt the Mount Aboo rules for the proposed
institution, and to invite subscriptions on this basis. Later a
MANUAL OF THE nIlAOIRI niSTRICT. 431
Committee was formed, with Bishop Dealtry as Patron, and the CHAP. XXV.
Honorable Walter Elliot as President, Mr. E. W. Bird being educational
Provisional Secretary. In a despatch, dated March 1859, the
Secretaiy of State concurred in the view of the Government of
India that " the best way to give effect to Sir Henry Lawrence^s
wishes, and to accomplish surely and satisfactorily his wise
purposes, will be to take both the Mount Aboo and the Nilagiri
School into the charge of Government as has been done in the
Sunawar School'^ When making this proposal the Governor-
General had added —
" If this be thought too large a measure, I would advise that the
Mount Aboo School be left under its present management, aided by a
liberal subscription from Government, and that for the Nilgiri School
a sum not less than the total of all donations received from the public
be awarded for its establishment, and a subscription of Rupees 10,000
per annum for its maintenance, upon the understanding that the
main rules in force at Sunawar shall be observed."
The Madras Government referred the despatch to the Com-
mittee for report, and subsequently pointed out that "the Govern-
ment could not recommend that the charge of the asylum should
be assumed unless the Committee were prepared to consent to
equal hberty in respect to religious instruction being allowed to
all classes of Protestants and Roman Catholics/'' The Committee,
however, considered themselves bound to abide by the funda-
mental rule laid down by Sir H. Lawrence regarding religious
instruction, and declined to transfer the asylum to Government
except "on the distinct understanding that the principles on
■which the institution was founded be adhered to in their integrity
after it has been adopted by the State.'^ By this time (June 1859)
the asylum had been opened some months. The Stonehouse
property valued at Rupees 22,600 having been purchased, 40 boys
and 2 girls had been admitted ; 30 were already in the institution.
The Committee had admitted children of the military class in
Ootacamand as day-scholars. They at this time had secured the
following subscriptions : —
RS.
Donations
... 37,72/
Annual subscriptions
... 6,100
Monthly do.
396
Besides these sums they expected to receive 20,000 rupees
from the " London Lawrence Memorial Fund,"' and other sums
aggregating 6,500 rupees.
The scheme of the constitution was settled in detail. Sub-
scribers had the right of nomination. A.n appeal at the same time
was issued on behalf of the female branch.
432 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTiaCT.
CHAP. XXV. Towards the close of the year the Government of India
Educational, informed the Madras Government that unless the Committee
agreed to adopt in principle or in entirety the rules of the
Sundwar Asylum relating to religious institutions the Government
could not take over the institution. In January 1860 the
managing body accepted these conditions, " as they knew it
would be the desire of the late Sir Henry Lawrence/' subject to
a reference to the subscribers. Such reference however appears
never to have been made. Meanwhile, the Committee of the
Madras Military Male Orphan Asylum had under consideration
the expediency of transferring their asylum to the Hills and
amalgamating it with the Lawrence Asylum. The Committee
of the latter asylum were favourably disposed to the project
regarding the amalgamation '' as a very desirable object/' but
they were unable to pledge themselves on the subject in conse-
quence of their relation to Government. It was admitted that
there were very sei'ious obstacles in the way of the Government
adopting the Madras Asylum. The question of uniting the
asylums came before Government in November 1859 ; but
Government, though appointing the Director of Public Instruc-
tion (Mr. A. J. Arbuthnot) as their representative on a Committee
entrusted with the selection of a site in the event of the union
taking place latei", expressed no opinion on the desirability
of combining the institutions. The two Committees, however,
proceeded with their scheme, and after abandoning for the
time the proposal to unite the Female as well as the Male
Madras Asylum, determined to arrange for the maintenance and
education of 400 boys. This number they expected to be able
to provide for from the joint resources of the amalgamated
asylums if the Government granted monthly Rupees 1,000, a
sum equal to the income of the Lawrence Asylum (male branch).
The Government were also requested to contribute towards the
new building, for which the Committees of the two asylums
expected to be able to provide about Rupees 1,25,000.
They proposed to appoint 8 Governors, 5 being ex-officio, viz.,
the Commander-in-Chief, the Bishop, the Director of Public
Instruction, the Senior Civil and Senior Military Officers on duty
on the Hills. These five were in the first instance to select three
other members, and thenceforth the Board was to be self-electing.
It was urged that the an'angement would be far less costly to
the State than the adoption of the Lawi'ence Asylum as a State
institution. The scheme was before Government when the letter
fi'om the Government of India above alluded to was received.
The Lawrence Asylum Committee having accepted the Govern-
ment of India proposals, the Government resolved in February
(
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 4-Vi
1860 that the question of the union should remain in abeyance, CHAP. XXV.
whilst the Director of Public Instruction was called on to report educational
on the necessary arrangements for the establishment and carrying
on of the Lawrence Asylum on its transfer to Government.
This officer reported against the Lawrence Asylum being consti-
tuted a State institution, remarking that the Madras Committee
had determined that there was nothing in the Sundwar rules
precluding the amalgamation of the Lawrence Asylum with the
Madras Military Male Orphan Asylum, and that they had
solicited in addition to the grant of Rupees 23,905 already
received from Government for these Madras asylums, a grant-in-aid
equal to the amount the State was prepared to spend in maintain-
ing a separate institution. He proposed, and the Government
endorsed his proposal, that the amalgamation should be carried
out under his direction, that the government of the asylum
should be entrusted to the body above named, that a grant of
Rupees 2,500 monthly should be made. Rupees 2,000 being for
maintenance of 200 boys, and 500 rupees for general expenses (this
sum being the estimated cost to the State of a State institution),
together with a building grant-in-aid ; that the female branch
should be maintained by the State (estimated cost for 100 gii'ls
Rupees 1,500 monthly), pending any arrangement which might
be made later with the Madras Female Military Orphan Asylum
for their union.
At this time (March 1860) the assets of the Ootacamand
Asylum were stated to be — male branch Rupees 75,679, female
Rupees 12,323. The monthly expenditure in the former was
Rupees 926, in the latter Rupees 562.
Pending the orders of the Government of India, a monthly
grant of Rupees 500 was made to the Ootacamand Committee.
The Government of India, though declining to sanction the
scheme, the expenditure involved being too great, considered it a
very good one, remarking —
" The object of removing the Military Orphan Asylum to the Hills
is one of great importance and incalculable benefit, and is well worth
the pi'oposed cost ; while the amalgamation of the Male Orphan Asylum
with the male branch of the Lawrence Asylum will enable the
Government to maintain an efficient school at Ootacamund for 400
boys at a less expense than if it was called upon to defray the entire
cost of a separate institution."
They, however, recommended the scheme for the approval of
the Secretaiy of State in July 1860. At the same time the Public
Works Department was called on by the Madi-ns Government to
prepare plans and estimates for a building sufficient to accom-
modate the united asylums.
55
434 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XXV. No intimation, however, of the views of the Home Grovernment
EDucIm)NAL. "^^^ received until the beginning of 1862. The delay which had
occurred had been prejudicial to the progress of the institution.
The knowledge that the Government had agreed to maintain
it led to a large falling off in subscriptions, whilst the prospect of
its immediate transfer to Government checked the energy of
the Committee.
In reply, the Secretary of State, though commending the
scheme for the male branch of the asylum, doubted whether it
would be desirable to remove at once, and without a more careful
examination of the question from a health point of view, the
boys, who were mainly of mixed blood, from Madras to Ootaca-
mand, believing the climate of Madras far more congenial for
such than that of a very elevated table-land. The consideration of
the question was accordingly to be postponed. " On the other
hand,^' he remarked, " it is quite certain that children of pure
Em^opean descent are far more likely to be reared and trained
with vigourous bodies and energetic minds so as to become when
grown up useful subjects or servants of the State at Ootacamund
than at Madras, and for such it is my desire that a Lawrence
Asylum should be established on the Neilgherries without loss
of time." He approved the proposed grant of Rupees 2,500
for the maintenance of 200 boys, and required that a female
branch should also be maintained. The despatch concluded in
the following remarkable words : —
" I have to remark that while the State, from a regard to the last
wishes of Sir Henry Lawrence, and from a desire to secure to a
numerous class of Her Majesty's subjects, peculiarly calling for
sympathy and assidtance, the benefits which the Lawrence Asylums
are calculated to afford, hag undertaken the support of a given number
of children in each of the three institutions above named, Her
Majesty's Government would much regret that this measure should
have the effect of checking the benevolence of the community in India,
who contributed so liberally towards the origiaal establishment of these
asylums. It is desirable, therefore, that measures may be taken to
make it publicly known that any contributions which may be made to
the general objects of these asylums will be applied to extend their
benefits still more widely. If sufficient funds for this purpose should,
from time to time, be subscribed by the public, an additional number
of children in each case might be taken in and provided for ; and, as
is the case in similar institutions in England, contributors to a certain
amount might be invested with proportionate rights of nominating
eligible pupils. When it is considered how largely the English army
in India has been augmented within the last four years, I can have no
doubt but that there will always be found many friendless orphans of
our soldiers, to whom such an asylum would prove a boon of the
highest value. To the living soldier these institutions will show that
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 435
the Government take a real interest in the fate of his offspring, while CHAP. XXV.
to the State they will amply repay the public expenditure by affording r.
the best means ot bringing up a number of our race, who may, under
God's blessing, prove a credit to the nation with whom they claim
affinity."
The Director of Public Instruction, Mr. A. J. Arbuthnot, was
directed to submit proposals for giving effect to the Secretary of
State's instructions. His recommendations, which form the basis
of the present institution, were —
(1.) That Lovedale should be the site of both asylums.
(2.) That a Committee of nine, four being Government nominees
should be constituted managers and trustees.
(3.) That the Government of India should be asked to contribute
Rupees 4,000 monthly as a maximum grant-in-aid, leavino- Rupees
1,000 monthly to be provided by public subscriptions.
(4.) That the Committee should submit a code of rules for the
approval of Government.
(5.) That the Couamander-in-Chief, Madras, and the Bishop of the
Diocese should be visitors.
(6.) That the Director of Public Instruction should be the medium
of correspondence with Government.
Accommodation was to be provided for 200 boys and 100 girls.
The Madras Government approved generally of his proposal,
but, instead of fixing a grant, limited the number of children
horn the Government should maintain and educate to 150 boys
and 80 girls, leaving 50 boys and 20 girls to be provided for by
public charity. The Government also agreed to pay the salaries
of the Principal and the establishment. They directed that the
rules should provide for the head of the institution being a
clergyman of the Church of England, and that this appointment
should be subject to the approval of the Governor in Council.
(The appointment of a clergyman had not been part of the
original scheme, but was suggested by the Military Male Orphan
Asylum Committee, and was subsequently required by Govern-
ment.)
Subscribers and donors of certain amounts had the right of
nomination. These arrangements were reported to the Secretary
of State in August 1862, and he was at the same time urged
to reconsider his decision in regard to the amalgamation of the
two asylums. In July 1863 the Home Government waived
their objection to the amalgamation, and in April following the
Lovedale site was finally selected, being preferred to sites proposed
at Stonehouse, Governor's Shola, and Malemand. The plans were
to provide for the accommodation of 400 boys and the same
number of girls with the necessary establishment. These plans
were submitted early in the following year, the estimate being
approximately eleven lakhs. The draft rules were about the
w
436 MANUAL OF THE NilAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAP. XXV. same time adopted by Government. These rules are those under
Educational, which the asylum is now administered. They will be found in
the appendix. They were framed for the Lawrence Asylum
proper, and have never been revised since the amalgamation
with it of the Madras Asylum. This revision was especially
necessary, as the Madras rules were more favourable to the
Eurasian community than the Lawrence Asylum rules. The
wisdom of the amalgamation scheme, which Sir Charles Trevelyan
characterizes as 'Hhe greatest measure of Anglo-Indian colonization
yet taken," is open to grave question. Neither the British nor
the Eurasian soldier can be said to have benefited by it, and
hitherto, as a colonization scheme, it has indisputably failed.
From this year (1863) the buildings were erected rapidly,
but it was not until 1869 that they were suflBciently advanced to
admit of the children, then numbering 120 boys and 63 girls,
beino- removed to them from Stonehouse and Norwood.
Difficulties arose regarding the excess in the expenditure by
the Department Public Works, and the works for a short time
were stopped; but in 1871 the main block of the male branch
was completed, and in September of that year the amalgama-
tion with the Madras Asylum was completed, and the children,
220 in number, transferred to Lovedale. The cost of the
buildings and ground to Government has been approximately
£75,000, but as yet only the foundations of the female branch
have been laid and the church has not been begun. The girls are
located in the hospital building. Further particulars regarding
the buildings will be found in Chapter XYIII.
— amalgama- It is unnecessary to detail the arrangements finally made for
tion with ^-^ amalo-amation of the asylums. By it the Lawrence Asylum
Military Male » i • j t t , ,
Orphan obtained the right to the interest and bonus at 4 per cent, on
Asylum. ^■^^ funded property, amounting to 4,80,000 rupees, and the
profits of the Asylum Press in Madras. The property is still
vested in distinct trustees. The income so acquired may be
roughly estimated at half a lakh of rupees,
—revenue. The present income of the two branches is approximately as
follows : —
Male Branch,
ES.
Grant-in-aid
...
... 31,650
Interest
...
... 19,565
Bonus
...
... 19,260
Press profits
... 10,000
Orphan allowance
and other fnnds
... 13,000
Industries -
...
6,495
Total ... 1,00,000
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 437
Of this amount about three-fifths are expended on clothing CHAP. XXV.
and diet.
EUUC.VTIONAL
Female Bravcli.
Grant-in-aid
Orphan and other allowances
Miscellaneous
RS.
... 16,320
... 2,080
600
Total ... 19,000
There are ordinarily at the asylum about 325 boys and 60
girls ; the average cost per annum of a boy is rather under
300 rupees, of a girl Rupees 260.
The standard of instruction in either school is not very high, —instruction,
though girls are educated for the Teachers' tests. The Tele-
graph class in the male branch, the Instructor for which is
provided by Government, has been very successful. There are
other industrial classes, and a good band. The Head Master is
aided by six Assistants in the school department. There are two
Mistresses and a Matron in the female branch. The Govern-
ment Inspector of Schools of the division annually reports upon
the educational working of the institution.
There is a resident Apothecary, supervised by one of the —medical.
Medical Officers of Ootacamand selected by the Committee.
The health of the asylum has been noticed in Chapter IV.
A large farm is attached to the institution, but farming —domain.
or gardening forms no portion of the industrial training. The
area of the asylum reserve is about 1,200 acres, a considerable
portion of which is natural woodland. Many acres have also
been planted with eucalyptus, and a few acres with tea and
chinchona.
488 MANUAL OF THE KILAGIRI DISTRICT,
CHAPTER XXVI.
FORESTS.
Forests.
WcoDS OS THE Plateau — early efforts to preserve shdlas— first conservancy
establishment — Dr. Cleghorn's suggestions — Conservancy Rules sanctioned in
1860 — additional establishment — transfer of forests and plantations to the
Commissioner under Jungle Conservancy — Special Forest Officer — retransfer to
Forest Department— operations under Jungle Conservancy— Forest Commission
— present system of firewood sales, &c. Plantations on Plateau — early private
enterprise — Government plantation at Jackatalla — planting at Ootacamand —
other plantations— particulars — Ootacamand plantations — Wellington planta-
tions— Conservator's remarks — yield of ev.calyptus—&na.ncia,l statement —
system of working. Forests and Plantations below the Ghats — Miidumale
forest— plantations — receipts and expenditure— Benne forest — plantation —
Segdr — forest — sandalwood plantation — receipts and expenditure — management
— finances of the range — minor products — timber trees.
Woods on the Plateau.
CH. XXVI. Within a few years of the establishment of Ootacamand the
tendency to destroy ruthlessly the woodlands of the settlement
attracted attention^ and efforts were made to check the mischief.
Early efforts ^he most important of these was the insertion in the title-deeds
shdlas. of lands granted by Government of a clause compelling the
grantees to make good by planting saplings all vacancies caused by
the felling of trees. Efforts were also made to prevent, as far as
possible, the felling of trees held to be valuable timber. Few, if
any, of the trees of the sholas of the plateau being of much value
as timber, such restrictions were practically inoperative. More-
over, many of the sholas of the settlement were still unalienated.
In the year 1837 the Government interfered directly to check the
destruction of woodlands for private use, which, independently
of their beauty, they regarded as highly useful in preserving by
the shade they afford the springs from drying up. Accordingly
orders were issued interdicting the practice of indiscriminately
felling timber and forest trees within the military limits of
Ootacamand, and directing that no trees in future should be cut
down except by special sanction, which was never to be granted
unless the trees selected were in situations in which they were
not ornamental or of use in shading springs of water from the
influence of the sun in the dry season.
MAMUAL OF THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT. 439
The mischief however continued, and apparently about the year CH. XXVI.
1852 the Government sanctioned an establishment of 1 Forester Forests.
and 6 peons for conservancy purposes. We find that by 1857
Eupees 2,100 had been expended against receipts Rupees 1,368. "ngervancy
Mr. B. B. Thomas was at this time Collector of the district, establish-
In a report regarding the Hill woodlands and plantations in 1858,
Dr. Cleghorn ^ writes thus regarding this officer : —
" He has earnestly and unceasingly exei'cised a personal supervision
of the woods around Ootacamund when he visited the Neilgberries, and
has manifested a warm interest in the progress of this department as
evinced by the estabHshment of his private garden at Burliar, which
has been productive of much good in disseminating fruit and other
trees. I do not hesitate to affirm with truth that but for his continued
exertions the neighbourhood of Ootacamund would have been denuded
of its remaining beautiful sholas long since."
This praise was fully acknowledged by Government.
Dr. Cleghorn's suggestions are summed up as follows : (1), —Dr. Cleg-
improvement of establishment by appointment of an English gu^gggtiong.
Forester ; (2), portioning out the woods, limiting the period of
cutting to one year in ten for each, preserving a certain number
of the finest growing trees to the acre, planting (after cutting)
quick-growing trees in and around each wood ; (3), the practice
of removing dead wood, except at stated intervals, to be discon- ^
tinned ; (4), encouraging use of peat instead of firewood ; (5), the
formation of plantations at Wellington, the formation of avenues
along the main lines of road, the planting of 10,000 trees for
ornamental purposes in Ootacamand. The Government directed
Dr. Cleghorn and Mr. Thomas to draw up rules for the conser-
vancy of the Nilagiri woods, and sanctioned a grant from the
proposed planting at Ootacamand. Nothing farther as regards
the conservancy of woodlands seems to have been done at the
time, and in the following year (1859), we find Dr. Cleghorn
writing thus ^ : —
" In Ootacamund the ripe trees of the indigenous sholas are sold
by auction, fetching a small return (Rupees 20 or 30 per shola).
As the influx of settlers increases the original tree vegetation will
disappear entirely, prohibitory rules will be futile, and then proprietors
will plant according to their own requirements, and a few probably
for profit."
Towards the close of this year Mr. Thomas again addressed
Government on the urgent necessity of conserving the Nilagiri
woodlands, especially in the neighbourhood of the stations.
Persons were still permitted to cut ad libitum in Government
' First Conservator of Forests, appointed on creation of the department in
1856.
2 Paf^e 152, Forests and Gardens of South India,
440
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXVI.
Forests.
— rules
sanctioned
in 1860.
sholas witliout payment, and thus the most powerful incentive
to private planting was lost.
After further report from the Conservator, the Government
(Sir Charles Trevelyan being Governor) decided ^ —
" First. — The whole of the sholas or woods in the neighbourhood of
the station to be absolutely reserved, not only for their beauty, but
also from fear of injuring the water- springs ; their limits to be
marked ; no private cutters to be allowed inside ; old trees to be felled
by servants of the department, and brought outside, and to be sold
there by private auction ; trees to be planted when required in vacant
— additional
establish-
ment.
" Secondly. — Sviitable woods at a distance from the station to be
selected and marked out in lots of moderate size, and a number
of these lots, amply sufficient for a year's supply, to be put up to
auction annually. The contractor to be permitted to clear the ground
entirely within his lot or lots, with the exception of such trees as
may be marked by the Conservancy Department previously to sale.
" Thirdlij. — The cleared lots to be planted, as required, by the
Conservancy Department.
" Fourthly. — No private felling of any kind, or for any person, to be
allowed in woods or on land belonging to Government."
These rules which applied especially to Ootacamand were also
to be adopted, so far as might be necessary, at Coonoor.
An additional Forester was sanctioned, and Government
promised to increase the establishment if necessary to render the
conservancy of the numerous and extensive woods effectual and
to detect surreptitious cutting. About this time an Overseer
was appointed for Coonoor, and not long afterwards Major
Morgan, Deputy Conservator of Forests, was placed in charge
of the Nilagiri sholas and plantations, including the forests
northward of the Hills.
—transfer of The conservancy however continued to be ineffectual, and on
planta^tions to *^® Creation of the Nilagiri Commission in 1868, the subject was
reported on by the Commissioner. In October 1868 he wrote :
" Day by day I feel more satisfied that, unless conservancy is taken
in hand and organized on some efficient footing under the control
of an experienced officer, the destruction of the surrounding
sholas is but a question of time." Dr. Cleghorn had in 1867
proposed to place the general charge of the Nilagiri woods under
the Special Assistant Collector — the resident revenue officer —
prior to the creation of the Commission. The Board of Revenue
supported the scheme of transfer and the appointment of a
military officer having '' some experience of forestry (and) * * of
a standing, which would give his proceedings and opinion weight
the Commis-
sioner.
G.O., 20th March 1860.
MANUAI, OF THE -NILAGIRI PIJ
441
with the European community on the Hills," The Government CH. XXVI.
sanctioned the transfer of the plateau woods and plantations p^'^xs.
to the Commissioner under Jungle Conservancy Rules from 1st
April 1869, but declined to sanction the entertainment of a special
superior officer until they were satisfied that the services of
such, as well as a stronger establishment, were needed. The
grounds for ti-ansfer were — (1), in so small a district, no depart-
ment should exist over which the Commissioner could not
exercise full control; (2), the Forest Department had failed to
check illicit felling and smuggling and had worked the Hill woods
at a loss ; (3) none of the Hill sholas contained valuable timber.
The employment of a Special Officer was subsequently —Special
(September 1869) considered necessary, and Major Jago, attached
to the Wellington Depot, was placed in charge under the Com-
missioner, drawing a special horse allowance from the Conservancy
Fund. The establishment was increased at an enhanced annual
cost of Rupees 732, viz., Rupees 4,296 against Rupees 3,564. The
Special Officer retained charge until 1874, when he was replaced
by an officer of the Forest Department.
At the close of 1874-75 the sholas and plantations were retraus- — retransfer
ferred under sanction of Government of India to the Forest Department.
Department ; the working expenses were to be kept within the
income of the range, unless grounds were specially shown for an
excess.
The operations during the interval of this special arrangement —operations
were chiefly under plantations, and will be referred to below, conservancy.
The management, however, and the revenue derived from the
natural woodlands somewhat improved ; but the destruction of
the forests continued, especially that of such as belonged to private
proprietors in the neighbourhood of Ootacamand and Coonoor.
Some forests had also been alienated under the Waste Land Rules
in various parts of the Hills and slopes.
The rapid decrease of the woods came prominently under the — Forest_
notice of the Government in 1877, and in January 1878 a Commis- °'^'^^^^^°°-
sion was appointed to report upon the woodlands to be reserved in
the Perauganad, the Todandd and the Kuudaudd. At the same
time the Government on the recommendation of the Commissioner,
the Conservator of Forests, and the Board of Revenue, directed
that all woodlands reinaining in the Mekanad should be reserved,
which were estimated not to exceed 1,000 acres. The Commis-
sion reported on the Peranganad and Todanad in August 1878.
They found still 11,700 acres of Government woodland in the
latter, of which they proposed to reserve 10,800 acres ; in the
former they found but little remaining, except in the Coonoor
Ghdt, already reserved. They recommended that as in the
Mekanad the remaining woodland in Peranganad should be strictly
56
442
MANUAL or THE NILAGIRI r)ISTRICT.
CH. XXVI.
FoREJTS.
— present
system of
fijewood, &c.
reserved. On this report the Government determined (November
1878) that "■ no application for forest or shola land be entertained
on the Nilgiris until the whole district has been reported on,
and the general question of land reservation, whether forest or
grass land, considered, and future policy decided/'
The woodlands are now worked by the Forest Department on
the seigniorage system — Rupees 1-4-0 is charged as seigniorage for
a cart-load of 1,000 lb. if cut by the buyer in the shola, 1 anna
for a head bundle, and 3 annas for a bullock -load.
The seigniorage for charcoal ^ burners is 4 annas for a bag,
or head-load of 5<) to 70 lb. Firewood is also sold by the
department at a depot in Ootacamand at Rupees 2 per cart-load.
The hill-tribes are also permitted to remove wood for agricultural
implements, for funeral pyi'es, and some other special objects, free,
on passes issued by the Forest Officer.
— early
private
enterprise.
— Govern-
ment
plantation at
Jackatalla.
Plantatioxs on Plateau.
I now proceed to notice the history of the plantations on the
plateau. Much had been written on the subject of planting exotic
trees on the Nilagiris prior to 1855, officially by Messrs. E. B.
Thomas and Mclvor, and Captain Campbell ; otherwise by
Mr. J. Sullivan (Agri-Horticultural Society's Proceedit»gs) and
Captain Allardyce, Dr. Wight, and Captain Ouchterlony (Madras
Journal of Science), and plantations had been formed by private
individuals near their houses, plants having been secured mainly
from the arboretum in the Government Gardens.
The construction of the Wellington barracks and the consequent
large demand for firewood induced the Government ^ in 1856,
1 The following extract, from a report of Mr. Gass, details the system of manu-
facture : — The process of making charcoal is as follows : A spot, close to a supply
of water, is selected and the gromid is slightly hollowed out. In and around this
hollow are placed dry branches and on top the wood, cloven into thin strips, is
loosely thrown. The branches are set fire to, and, as the wood on top burns away,
fresh wood is added from a heap close by. When after four or five hours the
fire has burned down, a mixture of ashes, earth, and water is thrown on the red
embers to extinguish them thoroughly and the charcoal is finished.
One man and one woman are generally employed in the manufacture, and the
trees chiefly used are Cinnamomam Zeylanicum and Michelia Ntlagirica, the
heartwood being best fitted for the purpose. But, with the exception of the
Rhododendron, all kinds of timber may be employed. The bark, which is sepa-
rated from the wood by the heat, makes the best charcoal, and that of Cinnamomum
Zeylanicum is so far superior that the charcoal made from it sells at double price
to the dhobies, who fill their hollow smoothing irons with it ; and I was informed
the natives, if permitted to strip off the bark without felling the tree, would
willingly pay 12 annas seigniorage for a day-pass."
* Some interesting information on the scheme for plantations will bo found in
M. C. Rev., 8th .June 1858 ; also in Clechorn's Forests and Gardens of South India,
page 171, et seq.
MANUAL OF THE Nil,AGllU DISTRICT. 443
on the recommendation of Captain Campbell (then employed at ClI. XXVI.
Jackatalla (Wellington) as Assistant Executive Engineer) and forests
Mr. E. B. Thomas, to sanction a grant of Rupees 10,000 for experi-
mental plantations of exotic timber trees, chiefly Australian.
The money was divided between Captain Campbell and Mr.
Thomas. The site selected by Captain Campbell was 3| miles
from Wellington near Bleakhouse. The plot selected was 100
acres in extent, covered with coarse grass and bracken. It was
purchased for Rupees 700. By the beginning of 1858, 8 acres
had been planted chiefly with Acacia robusta [melanoxylon).
Some deodars and pines were also planted. Captain Campbell
also had made efforts to replant the felled portions of the Great
Kota Shola with indigenous trees of sorts most esteemed by the
Badagas. By the end of 1859 Captain Campbell had expended
about Rupees 10,000 on these several operations. There were at
this date already 90 acres planted, containing two lakhs of trees
of various ages.
Meanwhile, Mr. Thomas at Ootacamand had planted out —planting at
8,000 Australian trees and resown certain denuded sholas with ° a^caman .
such seed. The presence of Australian acacias in the heart of
some of the sholas near Ootacamand is due to this officer's
practice of thus disseminating the seed of such trees.
The Government at this time ordered the planting of 10,000
trees in and about Ootacamand for ornamental purposes at a cost of
Rupees 1,350, the operations to be under Mr. Mclvor's direction.
This sanction was made "^ under the conviction that the outlay
(was) trifling in comparison with the advantages to be derived
from the proposed plantation, even in an economical view, and
that it is highly desirable that an example of successful planting
should be placed before the residents on the Hills in each of the
chief places of resort as an encouragement to others to engage
in an enterprise which, while it will be generally beneficial, will
also be individually remunei^ative."
Mr. Mclvor had estimated that for an expenditure of 10,000
rupees in ten years Government would get a return in the same
period of Rupees 50,000. The result of this planting is observable
now, especially at the western extremity of the Lake.
Subsequently some other plantations were formed on the Hills, —other
notably the Governor's Shola, about 3 miles to the west of ^ ^" ^ ^^^^^
Ootacamand ; but in 1869, when the Nilagiri woods and planta-
tions were handed over to the chai'ge of the Conservator, the area
of the plantations amounted to 191 acres only ; when retrans-
ferred the area had risen to 919 acres. In 1876 the area was 960
acres, of which 339 acres were in the neighbourhood of Ootaca-
mand, and 621 in that of Wellington and of Coonoor.
444
MANUAL OF THE KILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXVI.
Forests.
jfpl
— Ootaca-
mand
plantations
The following extract from the Conservator's inspection report
in 1876 gives full particulars of each plantation: —
— ; — " Aramhij Plantation, distance from Ootacamund If miles. — This is the
ofplantations oldest Government eucalyptus plantation at Ootacamund ; it was
planted in 1863, 1864, and 1865, and consists of about 38 acres, 30
of which was shola land and the rest grass ; the plants were put down
6' by 6 ; it is almost entirely Eucalyptus globulus, but there are a few
trees of other species which however have not succeeded so well.
" This plantation has not been treated systematically as a high timber
plantation ; the ti'ees are not as straight as they should be, and they are
of very unequal growth, many being 30 to 40 inches in circumference,
v.'hereas some are only 3 or 4 inches ; about 504 are now standing to
the acre and many are splendid specimens.
" Governor's Shola Plantation, 5 miles from Ootacamund. — This is about
80 acres. 70,000 Australian acacias were put down in 1863 and the
two or three following years, and 45,000 Eucalyptus globulus in 187U,
1871, and 1872 ; the growth is very fair.
" Snowdon Plantation, 2 miles from Ootacamund. — About 7 acres
planted with 9,000 Acacia melanoxylon and dealbata ; planted by the
Collector about the year 1860 before the Forest Department took
charge.
'■'■ Malemand Plantation, \\ miles from Ootacamund. — About 9 acres
planted with 7,000 Acacia melanoxylon, a few Eucalyptus globulus;
planted by the Collector some fifteen or sixteen years ago.
" The Sheffield Plantation, 3| unites from Ootacamund. — Fifteen acres
planted with Acacia melanoxylon and dealbata in trenches ; planted
by the Forest Department in 1862 ; the growth is not very good.
" Madana Plantation, 3 miles from Ootacahiund. — Eight acres of
acacia planted with 8,000 trees about twelve or fifteen years ago.
" BrooJdands Plantation, 3| miles from Ootoxamund, lately purchased
by the Forest Department. — Ten acres planted about the year 1862 with
8,000 Acacia melanoxylon and dealbata.
^'Norwood Plantation, Ij miles from Ootacamund. — Twenty-six acres
planted in 1872 and 1873, 9' by 9', with 14,000 Eucalyptus globulus';
stems more or less crooked from being planted too far apart, but
growth good for a fuel plantation. It should give at least 100 tons to
the acre and produce again from the stools. Reserved as an accessory
to Government House.
" Cally Plantation, 3| miles from Ootacamund. — Fourteen acres planted
6' by 6' in 1870 with Eucalyptus globulus; when two years old in
1872 it was burnt clean down by a fire which crept in from the grass-
land adjoining ; it has however made splendid growth from the stool,
and having been pruned down to one leader, no one without very close
examination could detect that the trees were not the original seed-
lings.
" Arnikal Plantation, 5|- viilfs from Ootacamund. — Eleven acres
planted in 1873 with 6,000 Eucalyptus globulus at 9' by 9' ; growing
well.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 445
" Andy Plantation, 4: miles from Ootacamund. — Sixty acres planted in CH. XXVI.
1873 with Eucali/ptiis globulus ; this plantation is in great part grass- _, ~""
land, and is too exposed to the monsoon for eucahiptus and has
proved a failure. There are now only 5,000 Encalijptus globulus
established, and these are growing very poorly.
" Baikie Plantation, 3 miles from Ootacamund. —Thirty-three acres
planted in 1874 with 39,000 Eucalyptus globulus at 6' by 6'; growing
well.
" Chowgliat Gaily, 3| miles from Ootacamund. — Thirty acres planted
in 1871 with 32,000 Eucalyptus globulus 6' by 6' ; the upper part of
the plantation is much exposed to the monsoon, and there are many
failures ; the lower part has grown very well.
" The Koolie Plantation, 1| miles from Ootacamund. — About 58 acres.
'^ Bleakhouse Plantation, about 2 miles from Wellington. — About 235 — Wellington
acres. One hundred and fifty acres of this was planted nearly twenty pl^'^t^tio'^s-
years ago chiefly with Acacia melanoxylon ; seventy-five acres are
young, having been planted during the last few years, and are com-
posed almost entirely of Acacia dealbata (the Wattle).
" The Newman Plantation, about 5 miles from Wellington. — Thirty-five
acres, of which 25 were shola and 10 grass-land; it was planted in
1870 and 1871 entirely with Eucalyptus globulus 6' by 6', and there
are about 40,000 trees, and the growth is certainly splendid and
beyond anything I have ever seen in any country,
" Ballea Plantation, 4 or 5 miles from Wellington. — Sixty acres
planted in 1872, 9' by 6', with Eucalyptus globulus and Acacia melan-
oxylon alternately in broad strips.
" The growth of the eucalyptus is not straight.
" The Old, Forest Plantation, about 3 miles from Welliiigton. — Two
hundred acres planted in 1872-73, 9' by 9', with Eucalyptus globulus ;
this is the best soil and aspect of any of the plantations, and would
have been a magnificent plantation if it had been planted 6' by 6' ; it
was however planted 9' by 9', and the trees have consequently grown
very crooked ; the growth has been exceedingly rapid, the average
height being 59j feet and the average girth 17^ inches, and, although
there are only 537 trees to the acre, the weight per acre (exclusive of
tops and branches, which average 70 lb. per tree) was computed at
39 tons per acre.
" Blackbridge Plantation. — Forty-eight acres in the immediate vicinity
of Wellington, planted with Eucalyptus globulus two years ago ; there
have been many failures.
'^ The Rock Plantation, 2 miles from Wellington. — Eight acres planted
in 1875 with Eucalyptus globulus 6' by 6'.
^^ Tippucachy, 2\ or 3 miles from Wellington. — Thirty-five acres
planted with Eucalyptus globulus 6' by 6'.
" The firewood supply of the station of Ootacamund from Government
sources for the year 1875-76 was 1,832 tons, and to be on the safe
446 MANUAL OF THE NILAaiRI DFSTRICT.
CH. XXVI. side we may say we require to cut over annually from 25 to 30 acres
of our plantations (Acacia^ and Eucalypfics).
" I consider therefore that we have a sufficient area of plantations
Conservator's about Ootacamund for a permanent supply of fuel by felling in
rotation, and 1 would not extend the plantations beyond planting up
the remainder of the Koolie Plantation, the felled portion of the
Buthery Shola and any other gaps ; but if most of the eucalyptus is to
be reserved for building timber as proposed by the Commissioner,
though the supply from thinnings in the plantations (to be treated as
high timber) will be very considerable, we may yet require some
addition to our plantations and be compelled to fell the rest of the
Buthery Shola and perhaps even other sholas ; bat after we begin
working our older acacia plantations, time will soon show us if this is
the case.
" If a railroad was ever made up to the plateau the conditions would
be utterly different, and, immediately such is commenced, planting should
be largely extended, wherever suitable sites are available, within five or
six miles of the line. The railway scheme was abandoned, I believe,
because it was supposed there was not sufficient traffic, but was it ever
taken into consideration how enormously the traffic would increase,
we should probably send annually thousands of tons of timber dowa
for locomotive fuel, sleepers, building timber, &c. The Eucalyptus
qlohulur. is certainly much inferior to teak for the interior fitting of
hou.ses, &c., but it is known to be a valuable building timber, and it is
largely used in Australia for beams, joists, and rafters, and in out-door
work for piers, bridges, fence-rails, railway sleepers (duration about
nine years), also for shafts and spokes of drays and a variety of other
purposes-
Yield of "The enormous yield per acre in the aucalypf its -plantfitions on the
plantations, plateau between 6,500 and 7,000 feet elevation is very astonishing.
I calculate it about 1,450 cubic feet per acre per annum for the first
five or six years, or in dry weight 25 tons per acre per annum (58
cubic feet to the ton) ; the eucalyptus grows splendidly from coppice,
and five or six years would appear to be about the best period for
rotation, so that a permanent supply of about 25 tons per annum
per acre may be calculated on.
" I deputed Mr. Gass (trained Forest Assistant) to make very careful
calculations in the " Newman " Plantations near Wellington, and the
following was the result : —
1 It has become very apparent that the planting of Acacia melanoxylon either
for timber or firewood will never be as profitable as the planting of eucalyptus ;
its growth to begin with is verj much slower, and it is everywhere attacked by
the Loranth, which parasite in time kills the tree but very soon renders it sickly ;
this tree, besides, does not appear to grow at all well from coppice, nnless when
cut very yonng. The Wattle {A. dealbata) grows very readily from the stool, but
it comes no such a dense mass of small twig- like stems that its treatment is very
unmanageable, and without great expense in constant pruning and careful
management it cannot be depended upon except for very small firewood, and it
should only be planted where a constant supply of such is required, or as a
shelter against the monsoon -n-inda.-— Inspection Report, 1878.
MANUAL OF THE Nil.AOIT?! DISTRICT. 447
*' It was found that 292 trees were standing on 10,89U square feet CH. XXVI,
(the J acre). The measurements taken were as follows : average height
deduced from six trees = 69 feet, average girth deduced from ten
trees = 19 inches. Three trees were felled respectively 28, 20 and
12 inches in girth ; the first contained 13s, the second 7|, and the third 2
cubic feet (the upper pai^t of the stem where less than 3 inches in diameter
was not reckoned) ; this gives an average cubic content of 7 1 to each
tree, or multiplying by 292 and dividing by 58 = 38 tons to the
1^ acre =152 tons per acre. The tops of the three felled trees together
with the bi-anches weighed 170, 100 and 80 lb. (average 116 lb. per
tree) ; this however was not added in the calculation given above as the
weight of the green wood gives a very erroneous result, the wood
having been proved to lose about two-fifths of its weight in six months ;
the first tree felled, which was measured to be 13| cubic feet, was
weighed and found to be 880 lb., whereas its dry weight would only
be about 500 lb. (or between 38 and 39 lb. per cubic foot).
" In the plains we only calculate for 2f tons per acre per annum from
babool and other plantations, so that the rate of growth of the
eucalyptus up here may be said to be nine times as ra]»id as anything
we can grow in the plains. Our fenced-in fuel reserves of indigenous
trees in the plains are, as I have reported, only yielding 1 ton per acre
per annum, but they may be worked up to a much greater yield, and
cannot, of course, in their present state be compared with regular
plantations.^
" Mr. Gass at my request also made careful measurements of some of
the largest trees in the Aramby Plantation (now twelve or thirteen
years old) ; fifteen trees were measured with the following results :
average circumference 34 inches, height 85 feet, average cubical contents
23 cubic feet. The bole decreases to less than one foot in girth at
about 14 or 15 feet from the top.
" Although there are many trees in this plantation averaging 23 cubic
feet, there are many that are mei'e spindles (the result of too little and
injudicious thinning), and if now cut over the yield would not be
m.ore than 150 tons to the acre, the same as that calculated for the
"Newman" Plantation at Wellington, which is only half its age ; it
is true that thinnings have been removed from time to time, but
allowing for this it is clear that the best period for eucalyptus as a
coppice fuel plantation is about five to six years according to circum-
stances ; the growth at Wellington is rather more rapid than at
Ootacamund, as they get less frost during the winter months, and the
plantations can be cut over at five or even four years of age, but at
Ootacamund six to seven years will probably be found the best period
of rotation."
The statement g'iven overleaf shows the receipts and expenditure —Financial
on the Nilagiri forests and plantations from 1862-63 to 1877-78. ^\aSons°*"
Prior to this the Conservator believes the following- sums were &c.
expended through the Department Public Works : —
* The indigenous sholas of the Nilgiris yield about 150 bandy-loada to the
acre (say 65 tons). Their growth i.? exceedingly slow ; reproduction probably not
less than 150 years, so that the annual yield i.s considei'ably under half a ton per
acre per annum.
448
MANUAL OF THE NlLAGIIil DISTRICT.
CH. XXVI.
Forests.
— system of
working.
M<idumale
forest.
Expenditure from March 1856 to April 1858
Do. for the two years 1858-59
Do. in 1860-61
Amount paid to D P.W. for stores ...
Expenditure in 1861-62
RS. A. P.
6,460 10 10
5,259 8 6
1,656 0 0
692 7 3
333 6 0
Years.
Total
Charges.
Receipts.
f 1862-63
1863-64
1864-65
Under Imperial Conservancy ...-{1865-66
1866-67
1867-68
1 1868-69
fl869-70
1 1870-71
, , , ^ 1871-72
Under Jungle Conservancy ^1872-73
! 1873-74 '.'.'.
^1874-75
. 1875-76
Under Imperial Conservancy ... 1876-77
( 1877-78
Total . . .
BS.
1,639
2,259
1,5N3
2,168
1,821
1,757
1,518
6,411
9,838
9,703
14,481
17,111
*16,730
*7,255
8,492
10,026
R8.
83
164
780
565
514
934
108
3,294
4,003
3,554
4,297
3,168
* 9,465
*13,200
11,101
7,259
1,12,792
62,479
The Conservator is now required to retain cm the plantations
trees likely to grow into good timber ; to fell for fuel inferior
trees only ; to remove dead and dying trees from sholas ; to plant
up vacancies therein and generally carefully to conserve them ; to
get rid of Wattle {Acacia dcalbata) as far as possible.
Forests below the Ghats.
It remains now to notice shortly the forests and plantations
below the ghdts, known as the Mudiimale, the Benne, and the
Segur.
The area of this tract of forest, which lies to the north-west of
the Nilagiris on the Mysore frontier, extending from Tippukddu
northwards beyond the Mudumale hill, until it joins the Wainad
Teak hill, is approximately 300 square miles ; of this extent 200
square miles have been leased by Government from theTirumalpad
of Nellambur for 99 years at a rental of Rupees 3,500, dating from
1862. Prior to this date, in 1857, the Government had obtained
the tract on lease for five years for the supply of teak for the
Wellington barracks for Rupees 2,300 per annum. The lessor
has the right to honey, wax, gall-nuts, lac, parthon (pitch), and
cardamoms. This forest contains much teak, also other timber
trees of value, such as blackwood (vengay). The number of teak
* Includes the receipts and charges of the sholas.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGTRI DISTRICT.
449
F0REST8.
-teak pk
tatiou.
trees is estimated at 150,000, of vengay 40,000. It also contains CH. XXVI.
large tracts of bamboo. The growth of the trees is very fine.
Much timber has been removed from this forest not only for the
requirements of the Nilagiris, but also for the Mysore market
and for the Waiiiad. Large trees are said to be growing scarce,
and consequently the felling has been restricted.
A plantation of young teak trees was formed here in 1868-69,
in extent 20 acres. The growth is not promising. The spot is
too much outside the influence of the south-west monsoon.
Experience seems to show that the planting of teak in mountainous
country does not promise so well as in rich valleys, e.<j-, Nellambur.
The mountain teak yields, however, a superior timber to the
product of richer and moister soils.
The following table shows the receipts and expenditure on this —receipts and
forest. The forest was worked by the Public Works Depart- expenditure.
ment until 1860 ;—
Receipts.
I Expenditure,
I including Estab-
I lishinent and the
j rental of Rupees
3,500 per annum.
1861-62
1862-63
1863-64
1861^65
1865-66
1866-67
1867-68
1868-69
1869-70
1870-71
1871-72
1872-73
1873-74
1874-75
1875-76
1876-77
1877-78
1
, RS.
A.
r.
RS.
1 37,936
5
1
34,346
62,731
5
0
44,023
15,287
6
5
37,292
48,846
15
6
43,854
67,570
11
6
64,891
69,611
5
2
47,072
64,914
9
7
54,162
60,014
7
5
49,794
47,978
7
4
47,380
15,184
12
2
39,617
21,528
0
0
44,521
46,043
8
6
46,163
41,823
0
0
39,429
20,905
12
10
43,446
53,928
1
8
36,797
46,516
4
5
52,193
40,276 10
10
41,901
7,61,097
11
5
7,66,889
A. P.
14 7
11 5
7 4.
12 0
2 10
3 7
14 9
10 7
4 6
6 0
7 8
13 9
0 0
1 0
5 0
7 4
10 8
5 0
(Minus) - 99,395 2 7
(Plus) -f- 93,602 5 0
Balance against the Forests .. 5,792 13 7
This forest, properly speaking, is a portion of Wainad, lying — Benne
north-west of Tippukadu, and comprises an area of 80 square miles, foi'^st-
It is the property of Government. It is worked chiefly eastward to
the Mysore road for the supply of timber to the Nilagiris. The
description of forest is similar to that of Muduraale, but the
growth finer.
57
450
MANUAI OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXVI.
Forests.
—plantation.
— Segdr
forest.
This plantation consists of teak. It is situated about nine
miles to the north-west of Mudiiraale and is well within the
influence of the south-west monsoon. It was begun in 1871-72
and has been gradually extended, now comprising about 80 acres.
The soil and climate being more congenial than that of Mudiimale
the growth of teak is more rapid than in that plantation, as well
as straighter. The expenditure on this plantation and that at
Mudiimale had amounted to Rupees 25,-557 up to the end of
1877-78 exclusive of share of establishment. It is about double
the rate per acre incurred in Nellambur.
This forest lies to the east of Segur and the Mysore road,
comprising the tract of country between the base of the Nilagiris
and the Moyar river. Its area is about 40 square miles. The
timber trees are generally of inferior growth and quality, the
tract being almost beyond the influence of the south-west
monsoon. It is very unhealthy. The forest is chiefly valuable
for its sandalwood, from which a moderate revenue is derived.
The forest is not worked for timber.
—sandalwood This plantation, known as Serabra-geddi, is strictly speaking in
plantation. gouth-East Waindd, a little to the E.N.E. of Gudalur, below
the Paikare Falls. It was begun in 1872-73, and has an area
of 23 acres, containing about 23,000 saplings. The elevation is
about 3,000 feet above sea-level. The artificial cultivation of
sandalwood [Santalum album) is still in an experimental stage.
The growth has been good, but the Conservator regards the soil
as too rich for securing heartwood of the best quality. The plant
prefers a poor soil and scrub jungle. Much care has been
bestowed on the plantation. The expenditure to end of 1877 78
amounted to Rupees 8,841.
— receiptsand The following statement shows the receipts and expenditure on
expenditure, ^j^g Segur Forests since 1873-74 :—
Year.
1873-74
1874-75
1875-76
1876-77
1877-78
Tutal
Eeceipts.
Expenditure,
including Estab-
lishment.
RS. A.
2,194 0
6,672 0
7,815 0
9.470 2
7,275 2
P.
0
0
0
8
0
RS. A. p.
2,800 0 0
4,032 0 0
4,756 0 0
3,883 1 9
6,338 12 0
33,426 4
8
21,809 13 9
(Plus) + 12.222 6 11
(Minus) - 606 0 0
Balance in favour of the Forests ... 11,616 6 11
MANUAL OP THE NTLAGIRf DISTRrCT.
451
The Nilagiri range, which comprises the district as it stood CH. XXVI.
prior to annexation, together with the tracts to the north-west Forests
just mentioned, is under the charge of a Deputy Conservator
of Forests with the following subordinate establishment,
forests are all worked directly by the forest agency : —
mj-Q — manage.
^ "'^ ment.
1 Sub-Assistant Conservator
1 First-class Kangcr
1 Head Clerk
150
100
60
The following abstract shows the charges and receipts in —finances of
1877-78 for the range :- *^^ '^''^^'
Receipts.
RS.
Timber
... 41,378
Firewood and cha
•coal
296
Bamboos
155
Sandalwood
...
... 6,021
Minor produce
123
Miscellaneous
...
49
viditure.
Total ...
54,854
Expt
RS.
RS.
Conservancy works —
Working ...
... 2,5 M
Timber removed by pui
chasers
... 1,536
Rent
... 3,800
Cattle and tools
...
... 3,489
Roads
902
Planting
... 5,795
Miscellaneous
490
40,490
Establishment —
Salaries
... 16,500
Travelling allowances
...
... 4,294
Contingencies
224
18,168
Total ...
58,658
I
The Nilagiri forests proper have at no time been leased for minor —minor
products. The principal of^these are — honey, resins, turmeric, l"'"^"^^'^*^
452
MANaTAL OF THE NILAGIRI DTRTRTCT.
CH. XXVI. ginger, soap-nuts, fibres, barks for tanning. The forest tribes,
except at Mudumale, are permitted to collect such products with-
FORESTS. ^ . .
out molestation.
—timber For the following lists of indigenous and imported trees, &c.
trees. j ^^ indebted to General Morgan, formerly Deputy Conservator
of this Range.
(l.)—Li'^t of introduced Trees, Shrubs, ^c, and their Uses.
Eucalyptus globulus
(Tasmanian blne-gnm).
E. robusta
E. rostrata
E. calophylla
E. amygdalena
B. species
Acacia melanoxylon
„ molissima
Araucaria Bidwellii
(Buneya Bnneya of
Australia).
Casuarina muricata
Cryptomeiia Japonica ..
Cnpressns Cashmeriana.
C. torulosa
Pinus maritima
Cinchona succirnbra or
red bark.
Cinchona condaminea or
crown bark.
Coffea Arabica
,, Liberica ...
Thea Bohea
„ Assamica
Jalap
Ipecacuanha
Digitalis (Fox-glove) ...
Tobacco ...
New Zealand Flax
Annattoo
Cocoa
Nutmeg ...
All spice
Cardamoms
Elevation.
FT.
6,000 to 7,000
5,000 to 6,000
5,000 to 6,000
5,000 to 6,000
6,000 to 7,000
5,000 to 7,000
5,000 to 7,000
5,000 to 6,000
6,000 to 7,000
6,000 to 7,000
6,000 to 7.000
6,000 to 7,000
6,000 to 7,000
4,000 to 6,000
6,000 to 7,000
2,000 to 5,000
1,000 to 3,000
2,000 to 7,000
5,000 to 7,000
1,000 to 2,000
Grows to 250 feet. Very useful for
all purposes. First -class timber.
The mahogany of Australia. First.
class timber. Swan River.
The mahogany of Australia. First.
class timber. Swan River.
The mahogany of Australia. First-
( class timber, .swan River.
' Grows 350 feet in height. Good
timber.
Many kinds.
The blackwood of Australia. Good
for furniture.
Bark good for tanning. Good for
firewood ; bui'ns green.
Good timber. Seed edible.
Tough timber ; good firewood
j Good cedarwood. Japan.
Good timber. Cashmere.
Good timber. Cashmere.
j Fair wood. England.
Good for fever and dye.
America.
South
[The best tree for producing
quinine.
Best in moist places and well
laniired soil.
Stands drought ; berries very large.
Well suited for moist places. Tea
fine. China.
2,000 to 6,000 I Requires a warm, moist climate.
1 Tea strong.
A purge. South America,
i Good for dysentery. South
I America.
5,000 to 7,000
5,000 to 6,000
5,000 to 7,000
2,000 to 4,000
2,000 to 3,000
1,500 to 3,000
1,500 to 3,000
2,000 to 3,000
Manilla, Havannah, &c. Good when
well cured.
The fibre of this when treated with
oil is equal to Manilla hemp.
Grows well. Good to mix with
chocolate. Coloring matter for
cheese, butter, &c.
Grows well in a very hot, moist
climate.
Grows well.
Grows well.
Grows well.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 453
List of introduced Trees, Shrubs, 8fc., and their Uses — (Continued). CH. XXVI.
Forests.
-
Elevation.
Clove
FT.
2,000 to 3,000
Grows well.
Breadfruit
2,000 to 3,000
Grows well.
Pineapple
1,000 to 3,000
Grows well.
Orange ...
4,000 to 6,000
Various kinds. Malta, S.Michael, &c.
Limes
4,000 to 5,000
Various sorts.
Figa
4,000 to 5,000
Various sorts.
Apples
4,000 to 7,000
Various sorts.
Pears
4,000 to 7,000
Various sorts.
Sti-awberries
4,000 to 7,000
Various sorts.
Raspberries
4.000 to 7,000
Various sorts.
Dorian
1,000 to 2,000
Various sorts.
Mangosteen
1,000 to 2,000
Various sorts.
Peaches
4,000 to 6,000
Various sorts.
Plums
4,000 to 6,000
Various sorts.
.) — List of Trees indigenous to the NUagiris, their Uses, mid at what
]j]levation foimd.
\
\
Elevation.
Michelia Nilagirica or
5,000 to'7,000
Useful wood for tea boxes and
Chumpek.
ordinary work.
Hydnocarpus alpina
5,000 'to 6,000
Used for house-building ; red wood,
(Monkey fruit).
Coonoor.
fair grain.
Gordonia obtusa
5,000 to 7,000
Fairly useful wood.
Ilex Wightiana and
6,000 to 7,000
Very useful wood for tea boxes.
denticulata.
Superior wood for rafters, planks,
and grain like beech.
Euonymus crenulatus . . .
5,000 to 6,000
Good for engraving.
Eugenia Jambolana or
5,000 to 7,000
Good for charcoal, but having a
Jambur.
twisted grain ; of no use for
planks.
Eugenia species
5,000 to 6,000
Hard, dense red wood, good for
Paikare.
rafters.
Cinnamomum Zeylani-
4,000 to 7,000
Good for planks and rafters.
cum (Native name Dal-
Waindd to
chinee).
Ootacamand.
Mesua (Iron wood)
4,000 to 5,000
Slopes of the hills
Valuable timber.
Hopea parviflora
4,000 to 5,000
Second-class timber.
Calophyllum tomentosum
3,000 to 4,000
Ship's spars, &c.
or Poon spar.
Tectona grandis (Teak).
1,000 to 4,000
First-class timber.
Dalbergia latifolia or
1,000 to 4,000
First-class timber, good for fur-
Blackwood.
niture.
Chikrassia tabularis (Red
2,000 to 4,000
Excellent timber.
cedar).
Cedrela toona (White
3,000 to 5,000
Excellent timber.
cedar).
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius.
3,000 to 4,000
Good timber ; a gigantic tree.
Artocarpus hirsutus(Wild
2,000 to 3,000
Good timber.
Jack. Ainee Native
name).
Pterocarpus marsupium
2,000 to 4,000
Good timber, fine grain.
(Vengay Native name).
Terminalia glabra(Kuree.
2,000 to 3,000
Hard, heavy wood, valuable for
muradoo Native name).
being very straight and stroHg.
Lajrerstrrpmia (Veu Tek
1,000 to 6,000
Light but useful timber.
Native name).
454
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI BISTRICT.
CH. XXVI.
Forests.
List of Trees indigenous to the Nilagiris, their Uses, and at what
Elevation foxmd — ( Continued) .
Elevation.
Vatica laccifera (Sal
FT.
2,000 to 3,000
Hard, heavy, good timber.
Native name).
Conocarpus (Velli Naga)
1,500 to 4,000
White wood, useful for planks ^
centre black, but always has
heart shake.
Acacia speciosa (Native
1,000 to 5,000
Good timber.
name Waghy).
Chloroxylon Swietenia
2,000 to 4,000
Tough wood and handsome for
(Satinwood).
furniture.
Santalinum album (San-
2,000 to 4,000
The most valuable wood of com-
dalwood.)
merce ; price has risen to 4
annas a pound for first-class
wood.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIKI DISTRICT. 455
II CHAPTER XXVII.
AGRICULTURE.
{By Major-General Mo rg.ktu, formerly Deputy Conservator of Forests, Nilagiris.)
Introduction.
Mr. Sullivan's enterprise. — Mr. S. R. Lushington's farm at Kaity. — The Com-
mittee's report. — Major Ouchterlony's proposal. — Silk-worm cultm-e. — Grant to
Mr. John Mclvor. — Private effort. — Loi-d Napier's Minute. — Major Ouchterlony's
statement of produce.
By way of preface to the following interesting paper by Major- CH. XXVII.
General Morgan, than whom no one has had a wider experience .
in experimental English farming on the plateau, I proceed to
note briefly the history of agriculture in the district-
Mr. Sullivan may be well called the pioneer of improved agricul- Mr. Sullivan's
ture and horticulture, especially on the higher plateau, and to ^^ ^''P"^®-
his efforts in this way I have already referred in a preceding
chapter. Soon after he had begun to build the house known
as " Stonehouse," he obtained the consent of Government for
procuring at his own charges the services of a professional
gardener and agriculturist for the purpose of making experi-
ments in agriculture and horticultiu'e ; and, on the arrival of this
employe, the Government pei'mitted Mr. Sullivan to enclose 500
bullas or nearly 1,900 acres, he having apparently purchased the
land from the Todas. His intention was only to cultivate suitable
portions of this area. The tracts occupied by him appear to
have been the hills and valleys extending from Stonehouse to
the neighbourhood of Bishopsdown. On these properties which
were portions of the original block passing into the hands of
Government on Mr. Sullivan's leaving the Hills in or about 1830,
they continued to maintain the gardens, though on a small scale,
until the radical changes in the Hill administration under Sir
Frederick Adam. I have not been able to find any account of
Mr. Sullivan's agricultural enterprise, but from scattered notices
it appears that to him is mainly due the introduction of
Ruropean fruits and flowers. He also made attempts to introduce
the culture of English cereals among the Badagas. Species of
i»ar]ey and wheat are still known as the dare's (gentleman) wheat or
456 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTKICT.
CH. XXVII. barley, and crops ?^ these species are said to be still grown,
Agriculture though the grain has degenerated greatly either from climate or
hybridisation with the indigenous species. Vetches he also intro-
duced, but the system of cattle-feeding prevailing among the
Badagas does not necessitate the growth of fodder crops, and so
the cultivation ceased. He appears also to have tried the culture
of flax and hemp, for which the Hills are well suited. His experi-
ments were chiefly confined to the plateau, but he also established
a garden in the neighbourhood of Kalhatti.
Mr. S. R. On Mr. Sullivan's departure, the Governor, Mr. S- R. Lushing-
farm^af*^*^'^ ton, brought the resources of Government to his aid in experi-
Kaity. mental English farming, and also ofl"ered the assistance of Govern-
ment to Anglo-Indians who were willing to colonize the Hills. In
April 1830 he established an experimental farm at Kaity, taking
up Badaga lands for the purpose in a high-handed manner, which,
after his departure, was the subject of a severe censure from the
Court of Directors, who ordered the lands to be restored and ample
compensation to be given to the landholders for loss of profits
whilst their lands were improperly appropriated. Money however
was not easily obtained, and accordingly the Government early ia»
1830 ordered two companies of tent lascars to proceed to the
Hills for the purpose of relieving some of the people employed
in protecting and improving the Government property at that
station. They were placed under the orders of the Commissariat
Officer, Major Crewe. About the same time orders were issued for
the establishment of a store of implements of husbandry and horti-
culture at the Commissariat Depot, such implements to be sold at
prime cost to the public until they could be procured from other
sources. The implements forwarded included light ploughs,
wheel-barrows, rakes, &c. The articles were supplied from the
Grazing Farm in Mysore. The history of the Kaity farm project
I quote from the report of the Committee appointed to inquire
into the progress of the Hills ^ on the eve of Mr. Lushingtou's
departure. They write : —
Committee's " The Committee have gone over the portions of the land which have
report. ]3gg^^ placed under Major Crewe's superintendence and control for the
purposes of experiments in agriculture and horticulture in the Kaity
valley. It is stated by Major Crewe that these experiments were
commenced ucder his superintendence in the month of April 1830.
The Committee found that fields to a considerable extent have been
broken up in the English style of farming with ploughs of the English
shape and by means of cattle trained for the purpose. Some of these
fields have been planted with potatoes ; othei-s, on a smaller scale, have
been laid out in wheat, oats, and barley, and more are now under
» E.M.C, .Military neputiiiieiit. .>i!i (Vtol)or 18.32.
MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT. 457
preparation to secure seeds for second crops. Considering the short CH. XXV 11.
time these experiments have been in progress, the Committee beg to a^„. ,7.^7.. ......
observe that the high appearance of the farm shows not only the
capabilities of the soil, but that the exertions of the Superintendent
in overcoming the many difficulties Avhich he must have had to
encounter in the commencement of operations of so novel a description
have been great indeed. Several spots of ground at Kaity laid out as
gardens are in a most flourishing condition, and the Committee have
no reason to doubt but that the expectations which might have been
entertained when these experiments were resolved on will be realized to
the fullest extent. From a memorandum submitted by Major Crewe it
appears that the farm at Kaity consists at present of about 150 acres,
chiefly ai^able, with an extensive garden, the whole in its infancy, calling
for enclosure, preparation of lands, roads, water-courses, &c., and that
there are two large gardens at Ootacamund to be kept up."
Major Crewe had asked for a permanent establishment of 30
men for the farm, 8 for the garden at Bishopsdown, and 6 for
that at Stouehouse. The Committee recommended the mainte-
nance of a permanent establishment of 50 men and 3 overseers^ to
be selected from the tent lascars. They proceed : —
"Major Crewe has stated that good workmen cannot be procured on
the Hills at a lower rate than 8 rupees per month (the pay and batta
of the lascars at present employed being, however, within a fraction
of Rupees 10). This appears high wages, but on the formation of all
infant settlements and establishments a certain latitude must be
granted, and the Committee have no doubt that, as the settlers on the
Hills increase, the wages of woi'k-people of all descriptions will fall to
a lower scale. As a set-off against the expenses which have already
been incurred and the expenditure px'oposed to be continued, Major
Crewe states that last year, being the first, Rupees 2,000 were carried
to the credit of Government, arising out of the produce and seeds, and
that this season affords every expectation of realizing Rupees 5,000.
Further, as Major Crewe justly observes, that, as the several grounds
get into heart and the farm improved by culture and sheltered by
enclosures and plantations, a considerable annual increase must result."
Major Crewe had written as follows on the public usefulness
of the farm : —
" Sums ah'eady realized from the produce of the farm, as well as those
to be derived this season will afford adequate means to justify the
expense incuri'ed in prosecuting this undertaking. Some stress also
may be laid on its great public accommodation from the seeds and
vegetables afforded to the local community and from the dissemin-
ation of the former of every description and of the best qualify
throughout India. Its utility is also showing itself by the encourage-
ment and aid afforded to industi-ious but needy persons in the erection
of cottages and the culture of potatoes and other saleable articles,
whereby they will earn their livelihood."
After remarking that the Anglo-Indians — Rieley, Jones, and
Joyce — with their families had already settled on the Hills and had
68
458 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXVII. been aided from the farm and that six more families were desirous
Agri^ture. of settling here, he proceeds :-
" There is every promise of extensive tracts of land now lying waste
and capable of becoming most productive being brought under
cultivation, to the increase of public revenue and to the useful
employment of Indo-Britons and others for whom it has become
difficult to find occupation."
On this the Committee remark that they '^ have no hesitation in
giving their opinion, founded on the observations they have
personally made in their several excursions, that cultivation
might be carried on to a very great extent on the Hills. The
flourishing appearance of the fields of grain around the small
villages of the Native Badagas proves the excellence of the soil
and the many flowing and unceasing streams of water from
springs on the Hills ensure constant irrigation during the driest
parts of the season and when the periodical rains may be scanty.
The Committee therefore beg to recommend the adoption of
Major Crewe's suggestions as to encouraging colonization to the
greatest possible extent ; materials for constructing the most
comfortable dwellings for natives are to be had in abundance."
The Government approved these suggestions, observing that
there could be no possible objection, care being taken that the
new settlers have only land that has not been broken up, and that
they make to the Todas when there is a mand in its vicinity,
the same acknowledgments as the Badagas have made to the
Todas ; but that this rule was not to preclude voluntary transfer
and purchase of old lands from the Badagas in particular cases,
but the general principle should be for the new settlers to
occupy new unbroken lands. They at the same time sanctioned
the Committee's proposals regarding the farm establishments.
But the scheme was destined soon to be abandoned under the
orders of the Honorable Court and the lands to be restored to
the Badagas. The Government however retained the buildings
and the gardens immediately adjoining. Subsequently they were
leased to the Marquis de St. Simon, the Governor of Pondicherry,
who lived there for some time until 1839. In March 1840 Lord
Elphinstone, the Governor, arrived on the Hills, and took up his
abode at Kaity on account of the greater privacy of the place and
of the mildness of its climate. He subsequently purchased the
lands from the Badagas and the buildings from Government and
continued to reside there occasionally. He built the large house
and extended the plantation. On his departure the property was
purchased by Mr. Casamajorof the Civil Service, by whom it was
bequeathed to the German Mission.
This was the first and last effort by Government directly to
establish a model farm on the Nilagiris.
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 459
In 1847 Major Ouchterlony proposed the establishment of a CH. XXVII.
Government farm, more especially for the growth of wheat and Agriculture
barley, recommending two sites for the purpose — one the elevated
tract to the westward of the Paikare river, commencing at the Ouchter-
north-west angle of the plateau near Neduwattam, and extending lony's
southwards to Mlikarte peak, the other the Kodandd promontory Pi'opos^^-
in which Mr. Hill has now formed his large tea estate. His
proposed farms had special reference to the establishment of
Government breweries on the Hills for supplying the troops with
malt liquors. He also desired to promote immigration of
farmers from Europe. His remarks are noteworthy as indicating
the great change that has taken place in the price of labour, &c.
" Here cooly labor is very cheap, 2 annas, or 2|(?., a day being the
regular rate of pay for a working man who can pei'form any duty
pertaining to spade husbandry, and undertake all the duties of a farm
which in England fall to the lot of the common laborer, such as
hedging and ditching, trenching, hoeing, reaping, stacking, thatching,
&c., &c. A shilling a day, or | a rupee, is the pay of a bricklayer or
carpenter ; men to look after 2 horses receive 14 shillings, or 7 rupees
a month, cowherds 4 or 5 shillings, and all other labor in proportion.
These advantages, coupled with those presented by a ready and ever-
demanding market for such articles of produce as wheat, barley (oats
if raised), clover, hay (of which article an immense quantity would be
consumed in Ootacamund if it was procurable), turnips, potatoes
(Ceylon offering a very favorable market for this vegetable), butter,
eggs, and stock of all descriptions, both for butcher's meat and for
salting for ship use, would surely, it is to be supposed, tempt many
indigent farmers to this hilly I'egion, whose necessities impel them to
emigrate from the mother-country, but whose steps are stayed by the
warnings uttered by the many hundreds of their unfortunate fellow-
countrymen who have hurried heedlessly out to the Australian colo-
nies, only to meet with disappointment and ruin."
I must refer to the Memoir for further information of the state Silk-worm
of agriculture on the Hills at the time, but I would quote his cilt^^re.
notice of silk-worm culture, as the matter is now attracting
attention.
" There remain yet a few articles of plantation produce to be
noticed, the oldest of which, in the agricultural history of the Neil-
gherries, is silk. There are sevex-al plantations of mulberry trees in
various parts of the Hills for the breeding of the silk- worm with estab-
Jishments for preparing and winding the cocoons, the silk produced
by which has, I understand, been pronounced in London to be of a
quality very far superior to any produced in the plains, either in
Bengal or other parts of India, and what has been sent to England
appears to have realized very high prices. The quantity produced
however has hitherto been very insignificant, and I confess, as far as
I am able to judge, the scheme appears a complete failure. The
mulberry trees do not shoot out fresh leaves with that redundant
efiEort.
460 MANUAL OF THE NJLAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXVII. luxuriance wliich distinguishes all other descriptions of vegetation on
Agui^^ure. *^^^® ^^^^^ ' ^^^ weeding, watering, and pruning which they require
■ involves much expense ; the worms require the most delicate treat-
ment both in regard to food and temperature, any mismanagement of
which entails destruction on myriads, and the quantity of cocoons
produced is not in a sufficiently large proportion to allow the superior
quality of the silk reeled from them to secure a profit to the planter.
" Already one extensive plantation, and worm and silk-house, at
Coonoor has been given up, and I should think it will not be found
that this description of cultivation will be extended by future settlers."
SrY h" ^" ^^^^ *^® ^^*® ^^' ^' ^' ^^^I^*^^ obtained, with the sanction of
Mclvor. the Court of Directors, on behalf of his brothers James and John
a lease on very favorable terms for 10 years of 2,116 acres of land,
part of which v^'as selected at Ootacamand and part at Kateri,
with the object of establishing a '' Scotch farm with improvements
of grains, grasses, and cattle, &c." The project however was not
carried into effect, the lands at Kdteri being utilized for the
growth of coffee and potatoes. The land at Ootacamand was
ultimately resumed, and that at Kdteri finally transferred to the
late Mr. James Mclvor by special agreement.
Private Although Government has not again interfered in agricultural
enterprise, yet during the past twenty years, with the development
of the settlement of Europeans on the plateau, more especially
those connected with coffee-planting, many experiments have been
made in a small way in the cultivation of exotic food-plants and
to some extent in the introduction of sheep. The farm at Tudor
Hall, on the northern slope of the Hills, which bounds Ootacamand
on the north, was the most systematically conducted enterprise,
and General Morgan^s experience was mainly gained here ; but
within the last four or five years a farm has been established at the
Lawrence Asylum, and the experience there obtained, which will
be found briefly summainsed in some of the recent annual
reports, will prove of use to ^intending agriculturists. The estab-
lishment of a model farm in Madras and the appointment of a
scientific agriculturist as its Superintendent gave rise to hopes that
the Government might establish an experimental farm on the
plateau. The scheme of provincial farms, which was contemplated
in connection with the Madras project, did not embrace the
Nilagiris, but the plains, which naturally had the first claim on
the attention of Government. In September 1871, however,
Lord Napier^s Government determined to have the productive
I^'>i'<J ^ capabilities of the Hills reported upon by Mr. Robertson, the
minute,^ Superintendent of the Farms at Saidapet. Lord Napier writes
in a minute dated 7th September 1871 : —
" The hill ranges of this Presidency do, however, also offer a legi-
timate subject of inquiry in this respect (improvement of husbandry),
and the Neilgherries, as the seat of the Government sanitarium, of
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT,
4G1
an increasing planting interest, of an independent English population, CH. XXVI J.
of large establishments for the support and education of English and ^okicultvre
East Indian youths, and of a Native population embodying a culti-
vating and pastoral tribe, would justify a special investigation."
He suggested that Mr. Robertson's attention should be drawn
specially to the following subjects : —
(1.) The capabilities of the Hills for the purposes of breeding
horses, horned cattle, and sheep.
(2.) The facilities which these Hills may afford for the institution
of small farms on the Eui^opean system, worked in part
at least by European labor.
(3.) The improvement of the husbandry of the hill-people.
On the subject of European colonization His Lordship's
remarks especially deserve attention. They are —
" Some discussion has occurred, from time to time, respecting the
possibility of appropriating portions of the Neilgherry Hills for the
purpose of establishing European agricultural settlers, for the purpose
in fact of creating a self-supporting English rural population. On a
first view of the plateau such an undertaking might seem promising
to an inexperienced eye. The climate is fine for a large portion
of the year, the temperature is congenial to the European consti-
tution, the soil is rich, there are apparently large tracts of unappro-
priated ground, there is a market ; these are conditions favorable
to the production of cereal crops, garden crops, fruits, and valuable
commodities for exportation, such as tea and coffee ; there is a friendly
and fostering authority. A close inspection and analysis, however,
tend materially to qualify such favorable expectations. Much of the
good land on the warm side of the Hills is subject to the rights of
native cultivators ; the cost of building is excessive ; the pi'ice of
labor is high ; clothing is dear ; medical attendance and education
would be costly and ditficult of access ; the sale of grain crops, fruits,
and vegetables would offer little money remuneration compared to
the wants even of a humble European family ; the returns of tea and
coffee cultivation are slow and liable to great fluctuations. A poor
man would find it difficult to establish and maintain himself ; a richer
man would prefer to go elsewhere. My own impressions are deci-
dedly unfavorable to the Hills as a scene of agricultural settlement for
Englishmen ; but I think it would tend to the correction of erroneous
impressions and to the formation of sound opinions that this question
should be illustrated by the report of a person of unquestionable
judgment and practical knowledge in such matters. The formation
even of a limited working and self-supporting English community on
these Hills, if it could be effected under favorable conditions, would not
be without importance either in a commercial or political point of
view, and the basis for such a community might be found, in part, in
the Male and Female Military Orphan Asylums which are about to be
permanently established on the Neilgherries. There is the land and
4&2 MAXUAL OF THE NILAQIRI BTSTRICT.
CH. XXVII. there are the people ; the question is whether they could be made to
suit each other r"
Mr. Robertson submitted bis report in 1875, and as it bas been
publisbed, it is unnecessary to give tbe results of bis investigation.
To tbe portion of tbe paper by General Morgan wbicb relates
to native agriculture I bave added notes where from other informa-
tion in my possession I think correction needed.
Major Ouch- rjy-j^Q following statement of tbe agricultural products of tbe
statement of Nilagiris in 1847^ extracted from Major Oucbterlony's paper, is
produce. gf too great bistoric value to be omitted : —
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
463
.ia:(.i\3n5 -la J
© o o ■* o ■*
X X O — I O -H
(M iM ^ la ■* ■*
•pqsng .laj
•ejoog
2 JO mnS^io^ J9tj
O O O N O lO t>
• 05 0> 00 O 00 Oi lO
■ r-t 1-4 O O O O iM
a, oj
CH. XXVII.
Agricultobk.
00 00 O rH O o o
: (M IM O rH O rH ■*
' o o o o o o o
•SJa:jJBn^ nj
•spi^sna ni
•sainS'B[03 uj
•pgag uio,i}
dojQ JO Tun:|8y; jo op'Kjj
•ajoy J3cl spqsng
ni ^uaiTJAtnba
eoinus-^-^-^iNiMOiN
oocoooi>iovoiDioicooeomo
t^00CCr-(S<l>rt;0»O<MO05(Ma5
05 CO •* «C -*, <M 1^ «> ^_ l^0 X -^^^ 35
N o" ■* r-^ 1> C0~ i-T i-T 00 (jq" « r-T
doibdoihido'XiodoihiN
•uninnA
Jt3
■s8.tov nj
•SaiUM.UQ uj
•suitintiA UJ
ooooooooooooo
ooooooooooooo
©--H^int^O^r-li
■* r-l CO (M 1-1 r-( r-<
: : : : :3s Kg
CH. XXVII.
Agricdlture.
464 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
MONOGRAPH ON AGRICULTURE.
(Major- General Morgan's Paper.)
(a) Soils.
Black soil. — Brown soil. — Yellow and red soils.
Soils.
The soils on these hills may be roughly set down as four in
number, viz., the black, brown, yellow, and red, sometimes running-
into each other.
—Black soil. These generally face the north, and very frequently overlie a
rich retentive clay subsoil. Occasionally the soil is of a dense
black and peaty nature. Such soil, until well worked and limed, is
unproductive ; but the true black soil of the Hills with a good sub-
soil is undoubtedly the most productive of all the soils. It may
be called a rich loam,
—Brown soil. This is the soil next in value. It faces north-east or north-west,
and is found even due east and west according to the shelter which
the ground possesses. It is a fair soil for most crops, but rather
stiff er than the black soil to work — a clay loam.
—Yellow soil. This soil may be called a stiff clay, poor until heavily manured.
It requires under- draining even on steep hill-sides. It faces due
south, south-west, south-east, and, having been exposed to the
beat of the monsoon for ages, it has gathered no fertilizing matter,
and is ruinous to cultivate except as grass-land.^
— ?ied soil. This soil is not so stiff' as the yellow, but as far as productive-
ness is concerned is equally poor, and, facing ordinarily the same
way, is exposed to the same disadvantages — the beat of the
monsoon and a fierce southern sun. Except when sheltered, it
is a hungry soil and ruinous to cultivate. It may be said of
the soils on these Hills that there are two good soils and two bad
soils, interspersed here and there with intennediate ones partaking
more or less of the good or bad qualities of the one or the other.
It may be laid down, as a rule, that all the soils require lime in
large doses, the stiff soils to make them light, the peaty and
black soils to sweeten them and render the vegetable matter in
the ground suitable for the food of plants.
' I cannot conciir with General Morgan in this view. When well worked
and manured, these red and even the yellow soils become productive. Eucalyptus,
acacia and other exotics grow tolerably well in them. They are very retentive
of moisture which gives them an advantage in the hot and dry months. Mr.
Robertson remarks : " When deeply ploughed, regularly worked, and adequately
manured, they will yield well, especially when in the manure applied there is a fair
proportion of lime. It is not that these soils are deiicient in the elements of
plant-food, lime excepted, but their physical condition is such that this food
remains latent and useless until by deep cultivation the soils are brought fully
under the influence of atmosjjheric agencies." — Ed.
MANUAL OF THE NiLAGIRT DISTRICT. 465
(h) Native Ageiculture. ch. xxvii.
Crops — korali—raggi— barley — wheat — same — naomi — mustard — kere — poppy — Agriculture.
' onions — garlic — peas — potatoes. — Yield per acre.- -Average price of staple food-
grains. — Manuring. — Ploughing.— Sowing.— Weeding. — Area under each crop. —
Cost of cultivation. — Implements. — Cattle. — Rotation of crops. — Terracing
and fencing. — Reaping, thrashing, storing. — Price of cattle. — Land for pas-
turage.— Fodder. — Cows. — Modes of bringing produce to market. — Markets. —
Results of agriculture.
The various crops cultivated by the indigenous tribes of the Native
Hills, especially the Badagas, are as follow :— Crops'!^*'''''^"
Korali is a niillet, and is grown on every soil, from the richest to — korali.
the poorest. On rich soils it may be seen nearly 2^ feet in height
and bearing some 6 cwts. to the acre of grain, and from I5 to 2
tons of excellent straw, much appreciated when fresh by
horses, bullocks, and cows. This straw, whenever practicable, is
all sold off the land and nothing in return put in — a ruinous
process. This grain is the chief food of the Badagas.^
This grain is now grown to some extent. On good soils it — raggi.
produces heavily when manured, from 7 to 8 cwts. of grain the
acre. It grows from 5,500 feet downwards. Its nutritive
properties are very high, ranking with oats.^
Barley is, with korali, the principal crop cultivated on the Hills, —barley.
It grows best on the dark soils, but the return is wretched, the
straw very inferior, deficient in silica ; in fact, barley crops, only 2
feet in height, are fi^equently laid by heavy rain or wind, so
deficient is the straw in silica. The straw is sold off the land.
Barley of late years has risen in price enormously. Formerly
60 to 70 lb. could be purchased for the rupee, now 30
can hardly be procured. New seed ^ and a different style
of cultivation is much needed. The soils and climate are well
adapted for the growth of the best kinds of barley if properly
manured ; but the fatal system of non-manuring and fallows is
the rule. A black barley shown at the Nllagiri Exhibition in
1869 was much approved of. It had been grown at Kotagiri,
and the yield per acre was said to be great. The return expected
' From inquiries instituted I find that ordinarily the yield does not exceed
5 kandagams or 200 Madras large measures. This is also Major Ouchterlony's
estimate. The yield of straw is about 10 to 15 bundles of 60 lb. or |rd ton.
About 60 lb. seed are sown to the acre. The yield is about tenfold. It is often
sown with same. The grain is very small, one-twentieth of a grain of wheat. — Ed.
^ This grain is chiefly grown in the lower Todan&d and P^rangandd. It is a
great favourite with the Hill-tribes and the Kanarese. The quantity raised by
the Badagas is insufiBcient for their needs, and consequently much of that
imported is consumed by them. The ordinary yield is eightfold — Ed.
3 Grain of plants grown from seed introduced from Europe or Australia is found
to deteriorate rapidly. In three generations it becomes thin and lean, with
but little farinaceous substance and a hard kei'nel.— Ed.
59
46G
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTi;TrT,
■mustard.
— ker^.
—poppy.
CH. XXVII. by Badagas is but five to one, or, say, to two bushels of seed ten
Agriculture, bushels crop, or about one-fourth of what the yield should be!^
— wI^IT" ^ ^^"' amount of wheat is cultivated. It requires a stiff er soil
than barley. The yield is small, the grain indifferent ; in fact
so inferior that the bakers procure their wheat from Coimbatore
and even Bangalore in preference to using the wheat of tlie Hills.
There is no good reason wby this should be, as, like barley, the
soil and climate is suitable for tlie gTOwth of tlie best wheat, and '
it only requires good seed and intelligent husbandry to produce
the best results.^
— sam^ Same ^ (Panicum miUare) is much esteemed by the Badagas
and cultivated to some extent. The yield is small.
— naomi. Another small grain, naomi (Panicum Italicum), grows at a
low elevation, but is not cultivated largely.
This is grown in the Badaga villages to some extent. It is
frequently found as a weed in the higher parts in the Hills
amongst turnips, oats, &c. ; and, though other weeds may be pulled
up, this even in a garden is invariably retained by both Badagas
and Kanarese.
Kere [Amaranthus camjyesf?-}' s),'Prmce's feather, is often grown
near the village in lines with raggi, and is much valued by the
Badagas. This grain is small and white ; it is produced only for
house consumption,*
A small field of poppy is always grown near every Badaga village.
It grows best where the village is below 6,000 feet. The opium is
collected in the cold months as the juice is then thicker.^ The
field generally receives some manure, though the yield is small
owing to want of care in the cultivation. It sells for 8 annas an
ounce. Opium is much eaten by Badagas,
The common small onion is grown regularly close to the
village, and this crop of all others is heavily manured, but the yield
is indifferent, one measure of onions producing but two measures
of crop.'' The onions are very strong in flavour, quite unlike the
onions of the low country, which are mild and delicate-
1 Major Oucliterlony says the jdeld is twentyfold. The deterioration must
have been great since his time, and probably General Morgan's estimate is too
high now. See also Mr. Robertson's note on this grain in his report. — Ed.
2 See Mr. Robertson's report. The wheat chiefly cultivated is the Triticum
K2^eUa. Mr. Robertson considers the Hills promise well as a wheat-growing
country. — Ed.
^ Mr. Robertson states that there are four kinds of same. — En.
* The leaves and stalks are also cooked when tender and much relished by the
Hill-tribes.— Ed.
' Before sunset a small incision is made in the pcricarjiium, whence the
opium exudes, and is removed in the following morning. The seed is used for
food.— Ed.
■^ This yield seems too low ; foiu- or five fold is probably nearer (lie fact. — Ed.
MANUAL OP THK NTLAGIRl DISTUICT. 467
This is also ^rown in the same manner as onions, and the yield CH. XXVTT.
is small ; but the bulbs are far larger than low-country garlic. agriculture^
These are grown as field peas, but the yield is small. The peas, — ; —
too, are smaller than the English field pea. —peas!''*
Lately large crops of this tuber have been grown by Badagas, as —potatoes.
the price has risen from Rupees 40 to at times Rupees 100 the ton,
due in a measure to the prevalence of disease.^ There is no doubt
that the Badaga country is especially suitable for the growth of
potatoes, which delight in a dry soil of a reddish brown colour and
warm sun and moderate rainfall. With much rain they lose their
starch and become watery. Kalhatti, Bellikal, Kaity, Coonoor
and Kotagiri are well suited for the growth of the potato.
The Kalhatti valley has for years produced the best potatoes on
the Hills ; the soil is a reddish brown loam, the climate moderately
moist, and frosts only occur in January,
The probable yield ^ of each crop per acre is — Yield pen-
acre.
GWTS,
Wheat 3
Barley ... ... ... ... ... 3
Korali ... ... ... ... ... 3
Poppy ... ... ... ... ... 4 seers of opium
Same {Panicum miliare) ... ... 2 and 40 Ib.-
Naomi (Panicmn Italicum) ... ... 2 of seed.
Mustard ... ... ... ... 3
Kere 2
Onions ... ... ... ... 3
Garlic ... ... ... ... 3.
Peas 2
Potatoes ... ... ... ... 40
The following statement contains the prices of the staple grains Average
during ten years ending June 1878, but, with the exception of pnce of staple
wheat, raggi, and horse-gram, the grains named are imported.
1 The manner in which the plant is cultivated, often in swampy ground,
without cessation, so long as the land yields any return, may probably have
been the cause. Efforts have been made by Govei-ument to remedy the evil by
introduction of good seed of new varieties ; but, until a more intelligent mode of
culture is adopted and lime applied to the soil no permanent impi-ovement can be
expected. — Ed.
2 With the exception of korali and mustard, I believe the estimate is too low
{see also Ouchterlony's statement). — Ed.
CH. XXVII.
Agkiculture.
Manuring.
Ploughing.
Sowing.
408 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Prices of Grains per Garce of 3,200 Measun
Kice.
Cholmn.
Cumboo.
Wheat.
Horse-
Raggi.
Ist Sort.
2nd Sort.
RS.
RS.
RS.
RS.
RS.
RS.
RS.
Fasli 1278
620
563
295
276
520
320
303
„ 1279
696
618
295
271
575
264
281
„ 1280
558
494
277
203
558
226
218
„ 1281
481
446
222
192
403
247
177
„ 1282
530
477
237
205
412
263
198
„ 1283
582
533
304
291
533
337
256
„ 1284
582
512
298
291
457
337
256
„ 1285
582
533
320
337
492
320
278
„ 1286
753
674
457
400
674
522
441
„ 1287
Total ...
Average ...
Madras full
914
800
624
502
985
674
582
6,298
5,650
3,329
2,968
5,609
3,510
2,990
629f
565
333
2961
561
351
299
measures.
508
5-66
9-61
10-80
5-70
910
10-70
Manure from the village cattle is carried to the adjoining hills
in baskets. Cattle are never used for the carriage of manure. The
quantity applied simply depends upon the fact whether or not
murrain has visited the village herd. The amount of manure per
acre does not exceed 2 tons. The manure is of poor quality, as
Badaga cattle are never fed on manure-producing food. It is
flung broadcast and ploughed in. When fallow land is broken up,
the small bushes (Dodonea) are burnt and the ashes scattered over
the land ^ and ploughed in.
From five to six ploughiugs are made.^ The first ploughing
is generally in April with the first showers. Sowing takes place
towards the end of April, reaping in August. If a wet August
comes, the crops suffer greatly.
Grain crops are all sown broadcast by hand. Only headmen are
entrusted with this important work. The Kanarese cultivators
sow some crops in furrows, e.g., onions, peas, &c.
' Probably half a ton per acre is the ordinary quantity used. The village
debris of straw, &c., is mixed with it. It is not used until it is dry and powdery
from decomposition and exposure to the sun. The manm-e is applied after the
seed is sown. The thorough decomposition of the manure, though it is impover-
ished by the process, frees it from seeds of weeds and larvae of insects. — Ed.
'^ Four ploughings take place before so-wing ; one after it. The early plough-
ings first lengthwise, then across the field, then diagonally. The ploughs are
of wood and the depth of the furrow not more than 6 inches. After each
ploughing, stones, roots and weeds are carefully removed. The stones are piled
up or used for terracing to prevent waste. — Ed.
MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIR! DISTRICT.
400
The weeding is done by women and children and very clean ciT. XXVII.
the fields are kept. Some twenty women form line, using a ^^.^;;;;^^^^^^^
small adze-shaped hoe for digging out weeds.^
The number of acres under each crop in Fasli
reported to have been —
Raggi
Korali
Same
Wheat
Barley
Other food-grains
Potatoes
Horse-gram
ACRES.
3,430
15,728
4,662
3,199
3,761
588
754
67
Mustard
Vendiem
Poppy
Vegetables
Other crops
Total
1285 (1876) is Weeding.
Acres under
each crop.
ACRES.
355
144
66
189
394
. 33,317
The cost 2 of ploughing, sowing, weeding, reaping and thrashing Cost
an ordinary grain crop is as follows : —
cultivation.
Six ploughings at 8 As, each
Cost of seed, 67 lb., at 1 Re. per 30 lb.
Sowing
Rent of land ...
Weeding
Reaping
Thrashing
Total
13 8 0
Crop at 30 lb. per rupee
11 Rs. 3 As.
1 ton of straw at 10 rupees.
336 lb. or
21 3 0
1 Two weedings take place before harvest, at intervals of six weeks. — Ed.
' With every respect to General Morgan's great experience I would estimate as
follows for, say, a one-acre field of raggi : —
5 ploughings at 8 annas
60 lb. of seeds
Dressing and sowing
2 weedings
20 headloads of manure
Heaping and thrashing
Assessment of land
Proceeds —
Grain, 4 cwts.
15 bundles straw
Total
RS.
A.
P.
. 2
8
0
. 2
0
0
1
0
0
6
0
0
2
8
0
5
0
0
0
8
0
. 19
8
0
. 20
0
0
7
8
0
Profit
Major Ouchtcilony's estimate of charges is absurdly low.— Ed.
470
JIAN'CAL OF TRE N'ir,AOIRI DISTRICT.
CK. XXVI 1. The implements used by the hill peoj)lo in agriculture are —
Agricultuke.
Implements.
The Plough
Harrow
Bill-hook.
Sickle.
Weeding adze.
Axe.
Momati.
Cattle.
Rotation of
crops.
Terracing and
fencing.
Reaping,
thrashing,
storing.
Prices of
cattle.
Land for
pasturage.
Fodder.
Cows.
Number of ploughs in the district ... ... 3,496
Do. of ploughing cattle ... ... ]0,156
One plough suffices to work about 10 acres.
There is some slight attempt near the villages to cultivate land
by rotation of crops — such as onions after wheat or garlic, peas
and potatoes after wheat or barley — but only on manured land.^
Terracing on freshly-cleared land is also carried on where
stones are abundant with manifest advantage. Fencing is
confined to the fields immediately adjacent to the village.
Women generally reap. A small reaping hook is used. Grain
is thrashed out in the primitive fashion by the village bullocks
muzzled. A post is set in the centre of the threshing-floor, which
has been carefully plastered with cow-dung. The animals are
fastened neck to neck some ten deep and driven round the circle.
Of course the straw is rendered quite unfit for thatching, even
if sufficient silica was in it for thatching straw. The grain is
stored in huge conical baskets plastered inside and out with
cow-dung. The small proboscis beetle is very destructive to many
kinds of grain in store, such as wheat and barley. The oats and
raggi are not attacked by it. It may be observed that raggi
stored in pits in the ground of an oblong shape improves by
keeping, and when seven years old is liiglily esteemed. The pits
are called gows or cows ; hence a man is called Timma Gowda
or Timma of the pit-place. Hence to be a Gowda amongst
Kanarese is to be a man of caste.
Badaga cattle may be valued at about 25 rupees a head for
stout oxen.
It takes at least 4 acres of natural grass land to keep a bullock
all through the year."^
No artificial fodder is ever given, and trees are not even
pollarded, as in the low country, during dry weather.^
The yield of milk of a cow is about half a quart in the morning
and a quart in the evening. About ten quarts would yield a
pound of butter. The price of a good milk cow is Rupees 30 to 35.
1 The abrogation of the " shifting " system will probably necessitate the
introduction of a rough rotation system. — Ed.
2 A hill buffalo probably requires 7 or 8 acres.
" A description of wild flax which grows in the sholas is much used as
fodder in dry sousoua. The catlle also eat the korali and other straw.— Ed.
MANUAL or THE nI TAG TBI DISTRICT. 471
Badagas bring grain in Lags and baskets to the markets at CH. XXVIT.
Ootacamand, Coonoor, and Kotasfiri. Their women also assist : .
bullocks are rarely used. — — -
The weekly markets do not seem to have had much influence J^^"'^*'f^ "^
in developing among the Badagas a desire to improve the quality j.ro luce to
of the crops grown by them or to introduce new varieties of food ">^''^^*'-
plants into their farms, but they resort to them regularly to *^'"■^'^^^•
purchase the surplus grain they need.
The Badaga agricultui-e does not maintain them : they have Result of
to go out to daily labour, and with the money so obtained to agriculture,
purchase grain to add to the village stock.
(c) English Farming.
Tracts and soils best suited. — Expenses. — Seasons for cultivating. — Fiold crops. —
Degeneration of seed. — Draining, terracing, and ploughing. — Cultivation. —
Manuring — lime — potash. — Horticulture. — Garden crops. — Fruit trees.—
Market prices. — Live-stock — cattle — sheep — pigs — horSfS — poultry. —
Diseases. — Treatment — murrain— foot-and-mouth disease. — General remarks.
As a general rule, it may be laid down that all the country Tracts of the
west of Doddabetta is best suited for oat-hay and turnip crops ; that J*''^^ *^".*^ ®"^^^
east of Doddabetta for general grain crops, mangold wurtzel,
and potatoes. For Guinea grass, Mauritius grass, and tSorghmn
saccharatum the northern aspect is the best.
The cost of breaking up grass land, manuring, sowing and Expenses.
reaping in the cultivation of cereals or wet crops may be calcu-
lated as follows per acre : —
First Year.
Breaking up the land 9 inches deep
Cutting sods
Ten tons manure
Seed, 80 lb. (oats)
Sowing
Harrowing
Rent
Reaping
Stacking
Total
The return may be estimated at 2 tons of oat-hay at 40
rupees = 80 the lirst year. The second year the expense may
be calculated as follows : —
RS. A. p.
Three plougliings at .3 Rs- 9 0 0
Ten ton.s manure ... ... ... ... 30 0 0
Sowing 80 lb. oats ' ... 4 4 0
RS.
A.
p.
30
0
0
10
0
0
30
0
0
4
0
0
0
4
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
5
0
0
2
0
0
83
4
0
472 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Cn. XXVTl.
. Harrowiner
Cutting
Pittiug
Rent
Eight tons green fodder secured in
pit at 5 Rs. ...
Second crop. — Ploughing twice at 3 Rs
Ten tons manure at 3 Rs.
Transplanting turnips
Cost of plants
Pulling 20 tons
Weeding do.
Return — 20 tons of turnips at 5 Rs.
Thus Expenses for these two crops
Return
RS.
A.
p.
1
0
0
5
0
0
4
0
0
1
0
0
54
4
0
40
0
0
. 6
0
0
30
0
0
5
0
0
5
0
0
5
0
0
5
0
0
56
0
0
100
0
0
110
4
0
140
0
0
or a profit of 30 rupees the acre for green crops. Should a green
and dry crop be taken, the expenses may be taken as follows,
assuming that the land is in good heart and has been well culti-
vated for two years : —
RS.
A.
p.
Ploughing three times at 3 Rs.
9
0
0
Manuring, 10 tons at 3 Rs.
... 30
0
0
Sowing 80 lb. oat-seed
4
4
0
Harrowing
1
0
0
Cutting
5
0
0
Pitting
4
0
0
Rent
1
0
0
54 4 0
Eight tons green fodder in pit at 5 Rs.
per ton 40 0 0
Ploughing three times at 3 Rs.
Five tons manure at 3 Rs.
Sowing seed 80 lb. oats
Cutting
Stacking
9
0
0
15
0
0
4
4
0
5
0
0
2
0
0
Return — 2 tons being at 40 Rs.
35 0 0
80 0 0
MANUAL OP THE Ntl.AGIRI DISTRICT. 473
RS. A. P. CH. XXVll.
Then expenses for two crops will
amount to 85 0 0 Agriculture.
The returns will be ... ... ... 120 0 0
or 35 rupees the acre.
It must be understood that 30 rupees is the sum allowed for
manure. Farm-yard manure may be alternated with poudrette
with advantage, three tons of poudrette being equal to 10 tons of
farm-yard manure, or they may be mixed together in the pro-
portion of 1 ton poudrette (say) 10 rupees, to 7 tons of farm-yard
manure (say) 20 rupees.
If potatoes are grown as a green crop, the rotation will be
potatoes planted in February at a cost as follows : —
One deep ploughing, Rs. 6 ... ... i
Two slight ploughings 8 Rs. each, Rs. 6 )
Ten tons manure
One ton seed ...
Planting
Ridging and weeding
Watching
Taking up
Rent
Return, if no disease, six tons at Rs. 60
a ton ... ... 360 0 0
The second ci'op may be oats, and
expenses will be the same as No. 5.
Return do. do.
Or expenses for two crops
Return
or Rupees 233 per acre.
It must be borne in mind that the potato crop is one of more
risk. At one time potatoes are down to 20 rupees a ton, then
up to 100 rupees.! Again, disease may smite the crop and the
return will hardly pay for the seed. Coolies and porcupines are
also great enemies of the potato crop. The depredations they
commit are most serious.
The seasons vary exceedingly. A wet September means good Seasons for
turnips and damaged hay ; late April rains mean a short ^^il">atmg
potato crop ; early frost is death to the second potato crop, and ^''°^^'
ES.
A.
p.
> 12
0
0
30
0
0
90
0
0
5
0
0
10
0
0
14
0
0
10
0
0
1
0
0
172
0
0
35
0
0
80
0
0
207
0
0
440
0
0
' The variations in the prices obtained for potatoes depend mainly on the
quality of the crop, and not so much on the fickleness of the markets. Good
potatoes generally obtain a good price, but since disease has prevailed, aometimea
the prevailing rates have been exorbitant. — Ed.
60
474 MA.vuAr, OF the Nir.AoiRi district.
CH. XXVII. so on ; but, as a general rule, west of Ootacamand the seasons of
Agri'cultuke. *^^ various crops may be stated as follows :— Potatoes, first crop,
plant in February, take up in August. Oats, first crop, sowJ
in March showers, reap in August. As regards turnips, sowl
in June, transplant in August. Potatoes, second crop, plant inl
August, take up in December. Oats, second crop, for hay or grain!
sow in September, reap in February. Turnips, transplant from
August to October, gather up to March.
East of Ootacamand crops are much later as there is but little!
frost. The south-west monsoon is slight and the north-ej
monsoon is prolonged into January, making the seasons later by!
two or three months.
Field crops. The climate west of Ootacamand is only suited for a limited
number of root and fodder crops, amongst which may be noted!
turnips, swedes for bullocks, cows, and sheep, oats to be cut!
green and kept in an air-tight pit until they have fermented-
most valuable fodder for the dry weather — the great advantage]
being that this ci'op can be secured in the wettest seasons and]
simply requires to be buried in a pit, which may be, for conveni-
ence of filling, 4 feet wide, 4 feet deep, and 10 feet long.
This pit, when the fodder is well pressed down, will hold about'
two tons. The earth must be heaped up over the fodder for at
least 2 feet in height, sloping away from the centre to the sides.
No air nor water must be allowed to enter ; any cracks appearing
must be closed up. The fodder will keep a year. The theory of
this system is that fermentation develops the saccharine matter
in the plant, and the exclusion of air prevents decay. This system
is largely practised in France and is valuable on the Hills, where for
six months all green crops flourish, but cannot be made into hay
owing to excessive moisture. It also enables the farmer to
take two crops off the ground with certainty. Korali also may
be treated in the above manner. Oats, when sown in September,
make excellent hay in January, the time for cutting being
when the plant flowers. If it passes that stage all the saccharine
matter leaves the stalk and is deposited in the grain ; hence the
hay loses much of its nutritious properties.
Lucerne grows better east of Ootacamand ; vetches grow fairly
and would do well if treated like green oats. Swamp grass makes
excellent hay, but seeds before January, so it is difficult to secure
it. Cocksfoot grass and sheep^s fescue grow well and make good
hay, but seed before January. In fact, as hay crops, they are very
uncertain ; a dry September alone enables the hay to be secured.
East of Ootacamand it may be laid down that the following
grains all do well from 6,000 to 5,000 feet :—
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
47-)
Maize, all sorts. I Potatoes. CH. XXVII.
Barley. ! Mangold wurtzel.^ Agr.^uke.
Wheat. i Guinea grass.
Sorghum saccharatnm. i Lucerne.
Buckwheat.' I Mauritius grass.
Fresh importations of seed require to be made constantly both Degeneration
from Australia and England. °^ ^''^''^•
The stiff yellow soils even on steep hill-sides would be much Drainiug,
improved by draining, and all soils would benefit much by sub- p'jougliii^.
soil ploughing. In Australia lands subsoil ploughed suffer hardly
at all from excessive drought ; the soil remains free instead of
being caked, and the roots of plants are enabled to penetrate
much deeper, and of course to draw up much moisture. On the
Hills it is much needed. Terracing on steep slopes where stones
are available is undoubtedly a wise practice, but one that seldom
can be followed owing to the lack of stones. Fences also are scarce
and far between ; in fact, they can be said hardly to exist. Plough-
ing to the depth of 9 inches is very necessary, and if the subsoil
share is run in the furrows to the depth of another 6 inches,
or 15 inches in all, the results would be very satisfactory.
In breaking up grass-land the strain is very great ; the dynamo-
meter often showing 7 cwt. This is as much as four powerful
bullocks can manage. Indeed, they must be first-class bullocks
to do it ; the ordinary bullock would consider half this strain as
more than enough. Horses, being too fast, are of no use for this
kind of work ; but for earthing up potatoes or turnips a single
powerful horse with one of Ransom^s light single-horse ploughs
will do more work and keep more ground clean in one day than
25 coolies could or would do.
Nothing is lost by heavy manuring and good cultivation. Cultivation
Ploughing 9 inches deep and 10 tons of good farm-yard manure to ^^ ">anure.
the acre may be considered fair cultivation and safe to produce
average crops in average seasons ; but even better than this may
be accomplished if the subsoil plough is used and 2 tons of
poudrette added to the 10 tons of farm-yard manure. It must be
remembered that turnips and potatoes insist upon manure being
applied direct in the furrows. Oats and other cereals do well
enough if the manure is thrown broadcast over the field. At present
the Hills are fain to content themselves with poudrette and farm-
yard manure, the cost of carriage up the ghat effectually forbid-
ding the use of any special manures, such as lime, saltpetre,
* This grows well at Ootacamand, but ripens its seed so irregularly that one.
half the crop is in flower whilst the other half is shedding its seed.
" This will not grow in Ootacamand ; the climate is too cold, and it requires
much salt.
476 MANUAL OF THE NtLAGIRI DISTRICT,
CH. XXVII. bones_, guano, phospho-guano, &c._, the cost per ton up the ghdt to
A Ri''uLTURE Ootacamand being not less than 30 rupees.
There is no denying that the Hills are prepared to absorb lime
"" *™^" to any extent. Even in England on all but calcareous soils the
amount of lime considered necessary is formidable ; 2 cwt.
an acre annually for twenty years is not considered too large
a dose on some soils. It is true that on the Hills, in the decom-
posing hornblende, we have some twelve per cent, of lime, but the
question is, not the amount of lime in the hornblende, but the equal
distribution of hornblende in the soil. The subsoils chiefly consist
of felspar abounding in potash, a most valuable ingredient, but no
lime ; at least Siberian felspar is credited with but three per
cent., and many other felspars with not one per cent. It should be
remembered that most of the soils on the Hills west of Ootacamand
have never been broken up, and to enable the plant to assimilate
the vegetable matters in the soil lime is nece.ssary. On the stiff
soils lime may be used with greater safety than on the light soils,
because lime has a tendency to make a stiff soil lighter ; hence the
light soils only require sufficient lime to render the vegetable
matter in them sweet, and therefore suitable for the food of plants.
In fact lime may be said to be the beginning, the middle, and the
end of agriculture ; without it we cannot tell what the soils of the
Hills are capable of. With a railway up the ghdt lime would be
delivered over the Hills at 20 rupees the ton ; even at this enor-
mous rate the application of lime would be a success. Lime applied
to fields in England rarely costs more than 6 rupees a ton. Lime
has the property of releasing ammonia from manure ; hence it is
not wise to combine the two. Lime should be slaked on the field,
applied broadcast, and then ploughed in. Afterwards apply
manure,
—potash. No doubt the subsoils contain much potash, as they chiefly
consist of felspars, but it is a question if the felspar readily yields
up its potash, or, in other words, if it does not require considerable
exposure to the air to liberate or fit the potash in the felspar for
the consumption of it by plant-life. When the felspathic subsoil
is available, it would be advisable to spread some of it on the
surface and plough it in . After a certain time had elapsed, the
weathering it underwent would free the potash and render it
fitting plant-food. In parts of Ireland granite rocks are burnt
for potash ; the burning sets free the potash for plant-food.
Tobacco is well known to require an enormous amount of potash,
and the Badaga country is well suited for its growth.
Horticulture. Under these heads we have to review products as widely apart
as cinchona and strawberries, for arboriculture may be considered
a branch of agriculture, and horticulture another branch. Fu'st,
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 477
then, to deal with the cinchona tree. On these Hills this tree has CH. XXVII,
found a home equally congenial with its native habitat. Cinchona AGuicuLxnRK.
condaminen may truly be said to flourish on these mountains
of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet without a check, regardless of a
burning sun by day or ten degrees of frost by night. The bark
produced from this tree by skilful cultivators has in London
realized prices surpassing that of all other barks produced in
the world. Of coffee the same almost may be said of that grown
here, with the addition that there are numerous coffee climates
and numerous skilled coffee-growers in various parts of India
and elsewhere. Of tea it may be said that the prices realized
in the London market have been quite equal to those from other
parts, such as Darjeeling, and it only requires more skilful and
uniform manipulation, coupled with a larger outturn, to render
the Nilagiri teas famous, the climate and the soil being fully
equal to tea requirements. The Nilagiris may be said to export
nothing but the above three products and a few potatoes, the
export of garden produce without a railway being impracticable.
Of garden crops, vegetable-marrows, beet-root, cauliflowers, and Garden
cabbages are produced in abundance and of fair flavour ; carrots crops,
indifferent, turnips indifferent, celery fair, not blanched enough for
want of sand, which is very difficult of obtainment. Rhubarb is
well grown in private gardens, so are marrow-fat peas. Natives
grow fair knol-khols, radishes, salads, broad beans and French
beans. These, if grown in Badaga land, are excellent ; but toma-
toes, cucumbers, capsicum, and sweet herbs, which would grow
well at Coonoor and Kalhatti, and for which there would be a large
demand, are quite neglected.
In a mountainous region subject to perpetual changes of Fruit trees,
climate, with no settled seasons except those of wind and rain, fruit
has an indifferent time of it, with now a burning sun, then misty,
cloudy weather, then rain, next day a drying north-easter, fruit
knows no regular season, hence, except on a southern exposure
and a very sheltered spot, everything in the shape of fruit refuses
to ripen. Very delicate management, such as wintering trees in
September, pruning heavily, watering and manuring abundantly
may produce a crop ; but west of Ootacamand the crop, except
that of apples, is very problematical. Enormous crops of St.
Michael and Malta oranges of a fine flavour have been obtained at
Coonoor by skilled management — 300 dozen of oranges from a
single tree. Good pears have been produced on the slopes of
Doddabetta, also strawberries ; but it requires generations, espe-
cially in such a climate as the Hills, to produce a first-class fruit-
grower. It took three generations of Rivers', each man li\nng to
seventy and upwards, to produce the present Rivers, the greatest of
478
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Market
prices.
CH. XXVII. fruit-growers in England ; lience in an equally difficult climate we
Agriculture ^^J presume it will require tlie same amount of time and experi-
ence. The Hills produce a few fruits naturally, the hill guava,
Brazil cherry, gualtheria, jamburs, wild strawberry, white and red
raspberry and blackberry.
The vegetable market may be considered to be fairly well sup-
plied; but the Natives, who are the principal market-gardeners,
hardly aim at excellence, for which there are two reasons, first,
that people's butlers, as they are called, do the marketing ; this
lets in the vicious system of '' dustoorie,'' or what the Yankees
call " stealings.'' The fellow yclept butler buys field peas and
charges the price of marrow-fats to his mistress. The unfortunate
grower of marrow-fats has the field pea price quoted, and is
offered the same ; the spirit of excelling is utterly cowed within
him ; there is no one to appreciate his efforts, and shortly he gives
up marrow-fat growing and subsides into field peas. Thus it is
with everything. Some few years ago an Agri-Horticulturist
Society was established ; shows were organized, prizes were given
to Natives for the production of superior vegetables, good seeds
were distributed, and for a time some impression was made ; the
market-gardener improved in his productions, and things looked
promising; but unfortunately death stepped in — the able Commis-
sioner, Mr. Breeks, who took the greatest interest in these matters,
was carried off; members left, and once more the ever-present
butler had it all his own way, and surprise is felt that such a
climate and soil should be incapable of yielding vegetables equal
to those grown in England.
The live stock of these Hills may be considered to be of an
inferior description, due to the following causes : first, the want of
nourishment in the natural grasses ; second, the excessive drought
from January to April, occasioned by a hot sun during the day
and frosts at night. During the three months of January, Feb-
ruary, and March, the cattle, unless fed in sheds, are starved, and no
breed in the world could thrive under such conditions. Indeed,
even in England, a century ago, so impossible was it to carry
the cattle through the winter, that a large percentage was
annually slaughtered and salted for winter consumption. By
the gTowth of turnips and improved cultivation this system
has been altered ; and it may be said of these Hills that until
the system of agriculture is entirely cTianged and cattle stall
fed through the dry months, an improved breed of cattle cannot
be expected. The same may even with greater force be said of
sheep, for they must be fed through the dry weather or die.
Various breeds have been introduced with but little success, as
stall-feedinj? has been neglected. With oat-hay, fermented green
Live-stock.
— cattle.
MANUAL OP THE NiLAOlRI DISTRICT. 479
fodder, turnips, and low country grain and oil-cake, no doubt CH. XXVII.
the climate will support an improved breed of cattle with every a.qriculture
certainty of success. Country sheep at the third cross with
English cannot be distinguished from English sheep.
The best method of improving the breed of cattle would be to
import, say, a Kerry bull and cross him with the best Nellore
and Guntoor cattle ; the produce, if stall-fed, would be good
milking cows and draug'ht bullocks. For the warm climate of
Coonoor or Kotagiri Mr. Robertson recommends the Devon
breed ; these, if fed on Guinea grass. Sorghum saccharatum,
lucerne, and maize, would no doubt do well.
For sheep an imported Cots wold ram crossed with a large —sheep,
woolly sheep bred in Mysore would be moat likely to succeed.
A cross of Leicester and China has been introduced, and for
flavour of meat and early maturity left nothing to be desired ;
but from want of fresh blood the sheep became delicate, and
many lambs were lost from inflammation of the lungs brought
on by continued exposure to cold in the monsoon. Shelter at
night is necessary.
The Berkshire breed of pig crossed with the China has sue- —pigs,
ceeded admirably, but Nilagiri bacon and hams have never been
a success, the absence of winter weather preventing the due
curing of the same.
Horses could no doubt be produced on these Hills, as it may —horses.
be laid down that where oats can be grown horses can be bred.
The Arab horse, after a year on the plateau, becomes fully
acclimatized ; the Australian horse fills out in an astonishing
manner ; and a cross of a thorough -bred Arab horse and Australian
mare would produce a very serviceable horse, worth at four years
old some seven hundred rupees. Mules, too, could be bred
with great advantage, provided that the jackass siies were of
the best kind from Spain. Australia could furnish the mares.
All poultry flourishes here. The young should be raised in —poultry.
the dry months from January to May.
Cattle diseases of two kinds are very prevalent. Murrain or Diseases.
JDoddah RogJui sometimes decimates the native herds. Conse-
quent upon the system common amongst Todas and Badagas
of allowing the Kotas to preside over the carcase of every
animal that dies, the ,skin and meat being the Kotas' perquisite,
the men carry these off and thus infect neighbouring herds. Foot-
and-mouth disease is not uncommon.
Treatment should be — food, conjee-water of rice or raggi. Treatment
Medicine — mouth to be washed with carbolic acid and water, — ™»^>^aja-
and a decoction of 30 water to 1 carbolic acid administered
480
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI lUSTRICT.
CH. XXVII. internally. Chlorate of potash one tablespoonful to one quart
Agricultuhe ®^ water — half a pint twice a day. Animal kept warm and
separate.
— foot-and-
mouth
General
remarks.
Make the animal stand in marshy ground. Diet, soup of rice I
or raggi. Wash out the mouth with carbolic acid and water.
The agriculture of the Nilagiris may be truly described as being
in the progressive stage : nothing but tea, coffee, and cinchona
bark can at present pay the cost of transit to the coast. Pota-
toes, it is true, are exported, but in very limited quantities. Until
a railway from Mettapollium to Ootacamand is an accomplished
fact agriculture must languish and the resources of the Hills
remain undeveloped. It has been mentioned that the great want of
the Hills is lime to develope the soil ; the present rates of carriage
being quite prohibitory, lime cannot be applied. The system of
burying green fodder to ferment, if largely carried out on the Hills
and in Waindd, where good grass is so abundant, would reduce
the cost and risk of keeping all kinds of animals in the dry season.
The cultivation of too large areas by the Badagas is a suicidal
policy, and is the result of cheap land. Were the amount of labour
and capital expended upon half the area, the results could not fail
to be far more satisfactory than at present ; but a Native is ever
prone to have a greed for land, perhaps more so than Europeans,
and it is very difficult to convince him that one acre well culti-
vated is far better and yields a better return than two indifferently
farmed. In the Badaga valleys there are fair soils, an excellent
climate, and a good market for many products which might be
produced, but are not. In fact, if the Badagas would only exert
their intelligence to grow good vegetables in addition to wheat,
barley, raggi, and millet, they would soon improve their condition :
they possess the intelligence, but not the assiduity. Much has
been written about spade husbandry, and small European farmers
have settled on various sites on the Hills, but hitherto no man has
succeeded in realizing an ordinary living. It may be that the
thrifty, hard-working, intelligent, small settler has never tried the
Nilagiris, but only men deficient in those qualities so necessary
for success in life. The retired soldier makes a bad settler in
India ; he has been accustomed to have so many things done for him
that he has lost the art of doing anything for himself. The man
who is not prepared to lead a frugal life and work hard need not
hope to obtain a living from the soil, and it would only be by
superior intelligence that he could with frugality and hard work
succeed at all. Natives can afford to raise grain so cheaply m
ordinary seasons that even high farming would hardly pay the
European ; nor, indeed, is it desirable that he should raise grain
MANUAL OF THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT. 481
when he has so large a field open to his skill and capital in the CH. XXVII.
cultivation of tea, cinchona, and coffee. .
Agriculture.
Much discussion has arisen regarding the sale of land by
auction in opposition to selection, and various opinions have been
given. This much may be said, that at a meeting some few
years ago of various officials and non-officials the unanimous
opinion was that auctions were detrimental to the agricultural
interests of the Hills, and their abolishment was strongly recom-
mended.
61
482 MANUAL OF THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
COFFEE CULTIVATION.
Introduction.
Introduction of the coffee plant into South India. — Abbe Dubois. — Ooffee on the
Baba Booden Hills— in the Wain4d — on the Nilagiris.— Major Onchterlony's
note. — The Onchterlony Valley. — Area of coffee land under cultivation in the
district. — Statistics of coffee exports. — E&timation of cost of cultivation and
profits. — Books on coffee cultivation.
CU. XXVIII. The coffee plant, belonging to the great order of Cinchonacese/
was introduced into South India towards the end of the eighteenth
f.p5?ivATWN. century, probably by Arab merchants trading to the West Coast.
The first notice of the cultivation is contained in a letter from the
of co°ffee1nt°o Abb^ Dubois to Colonel Miller, Resident of Mysore, dated 15th
South India. September 1805, replying to a request of the latter to obtain a
Abb.i Dubois, ^aan from the West Coast acquainted with the cultivation of the
plant.2 He writes :—
" I never understood that that plant grew in any part of the hills
situated in the west of Mysore, although I have made many times
enquiries on the subject with native botanists, who seem to have a
tolerable knowledge of the plants of the country. However, as your
information is by all means more extensive and more to be trusted
than mine, I will not contradict it ; but I may assure you that the
produce of that plant (if it exist in the country) as an object of diet is
entirely unknown to natives. That it would succeed if properly reared
thei'e can be no doubt. Any gentleman in this place (Seringapatam)
who may cultivate for curiosity sake some plants of it will produce two
crops in a year of good quality. * * * About ten years ago, when I was
in the Baramahal, Colonel Read, Collector in that part of the country,
undertook to make a large plantation at Tripatur by the means of
an American he sent for from the coast, and to whom he gave a
monthly pay of 25 pagodas. The plantation I saw many times had
thriven well during the first year, and promised success, but the
manager proving a man without conduct, Colonel Read was so soon
disgusted of his services and dismissed him. At the same time, having
found no one to replace him, and pei-ceiving besides that the prodnce of
that kind of cultivation would in no case equal the expenses necessary
in that part of the country, the plantation was suffered to perish."
^ Three plants of the order are said to bo i idigenous to the Nilagiris— Co/eo
alpe«tris, cirannuloidefi, and Wighiiana {vide Simmonds' Tro;pical AgTiculturo).
^ Papers relating to the Coffee Districts, Madras, 1859.
MANUAL OP THE NiLAQIRI DISTRICT. 483
Colonel Wilks mentions that a garden existed in the Baba CH. XXVIII.
Booden Hills/ attached to a mosque ; the seeds are said to have coffee
been brought from Mocha. Prior to this, however, in 1801 Cultivation.
Dr. Buchanan mentions having seen coffee trees in a very thriving p ff7~^th
condition near Tellicherry, but they had not as yet borne fruit. Uaba Booden
The seed appears to have been introduced into the Waindd from ^'^^^'
Anjarakandi by Major Brown in 1828. This was the beginning \vaindtr
of the plantations in the neighbourhood of Manantoddi. Not
long before this a few Europeans had begun to plant coffee in the
Baba Booden Hills, and some years later on the Menzirabad
mountain, the home of the celebrated Cannon's coffee. These
plantations were practically the pai-ents of coffee in Southern
India.^
Although coff'ee planting had been begun thus early in Wain4d,it — oe the
was not until the year 1839 that the cultivation became an enter- ' ^^''^'^•
prise, and about the same time the first gardens wei'e formed on
the Nilagiris. The cultivation of the plant on the Shevaroys had
preceded its introduction into the Nilagiris, a plantation having
been formed on the former hills about 1830. The extension
however of the cultivation was rapid in the Waindd and more
gradual on the Nilagiris, but in 1847 it had been fully established
even in the latter tract, and by the year 1863-64 there were
probably forty estates in various parts of the district.
The following extract from Major Ouchterlony's Memoir in this Major
year is deserving of record. Ouchter-
. lony 8
Numerous plantations of coffee trees are scattered about the Hills, remarks.
principally situated on the slopes descending to the plains, where the Coffee.
elevation suitable for the growth of this shrub can be obtained. Until
within the last two or three years, coffee plantations were only found
on the eastern side of the Hills, but representations of the excellent
quality of the berry, and of the advantages attending its cultivation
^ "According to tradition the coffee-plant was introduced into Mysore by a
Mahommadan pilgrim named Baba Booden, who came and took up his abode
in the uninhabited hills in the Naggur Division, named after him, and where he
eytablished a college, which still exists, endowed by Government. It is said that
ho brought seven coffee berries from Mocha, which he planted near to hia
hermitage, about which there are now to be seen some very old coffee trees. The
coffee plant has been known there from time immemorial ; but the earliest
official account of it is in 1822, when the revenue was under contract." —
Druey's Useful Plants of India. See also Colonel Onslow's remarks quoted in
Shortt's Coffee-planting. In 1822 the revenue derived in Mysore from coffee was
only 4,270 rupees annually ; by 1837 it had risen to 7,472 rupees. The produce
taxed in 1843 w as 15,238 maunds of 28 lb. ; in 1849 it had risen to 52,236 maunds ;
in 1861, 346,083 maunds.
^ It will be remembered that Dr. Wallich and Mr. Gordon began coffee
planting in Bengal in 1823 (see Chapter XIII), and that their enterprise led to
the promulgation of the first code of rules for the sale of wastelands. lu the
pi-eceding year the enterprise had been begun in Ceylon by Sir Edward Barnes
and Mr. George Bird.
484 MANUAL OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXVIII. on the Neilgherries, having been made in Ceylon, the attention of the
skilful planters of that island was attracted in this direction, and the
Cultivation, result has been the opening of several plantations, where I ventured
to predict, in a former memoir, that this description of cultivation
would sooner or later be introduced, viz., on the western slopes of the
Hills, where advantages are offered to the planter eminently superior
to those, the possession of which has, of late years, so greatly enhanced
the value and importance of the neighbouring islands.^
Cheap labour, The chief of all is the cheapness of labour, a cooly receiving even on
4 rupees a distant plantations in the " Koondahs " 4 rupees a month, while in
Ceylon 8, 9 and even 10 are given ; while in the pay of artizans such
as carpenters, sawyers, masons, &c., a still greater disparity exists in
favor of this district.^ Second to this is the abundance of labour
which can always be commanded here, the neighbouring provinces
of Malabar, Mysore and Coimbatore supplying coolies in sufficient
numbers to meet all demands, and at all seasons of the year ; while in
Ceylon the utmost difficulty is experienced in most parts to obtain
labourers when urgently required ; and at all times the supply of
coolies is extremely precarious. Planters here have also the advantage
of a good public road passing through the heart of the forest land of
the " Koondahs," and affording ready means for obtaining supplies,
machinery, &c., or of sending away produce for shipment by a route,
of which less than 30 miles are by land and 36 by water, to the port
of Calicut.^ One estate which was opened about two years ago near
" Wallahkadoo," half-way down the Koondah ghaut, by the late
Archdeacon of Ceylon and Mr. Hutson, also of that island, and which
I had an opportunity of inspecting recently on my way up from the
Western Coast, is in a very flourishing condition, and has every
promise of turning out most successfully. In its neighbourhood are
tracts of virgin forest land of immense extent, stretching away over
VTpstern tlie innumerable spurs and valleys into which the Koondahs are
slopes of the broken as they slope downwards towards the Ponany river, all
well suited eminently suitable for coffee planting, having the proper elevation, a
for coffee good and rich soil, and enjoying a climate particularly favourable to
cultivation, ^.he nourishment of this peculiar shrub. If the success which is
looked for crowns the exertions and adventure of the tirst speculators,
there can be little doubt that when the Koondah coffee appears
regularly in the market as a production of this district, the attention
of capitalists at home will be directed to it, and the western portion
of this mountain tract become a source of great increase to the revenue
of the country, while it will afford employment and subsistence to the
many indigent people in the neighbouring provinces, who, at the
1 Works on Coffee Cultivation by Shortt, Hull, and Laborie, have been published
by Hiffginbotham and Co., Madras. — Ed.
^ The market value of cooly and other labour has risen considerably since this
memoir was published. A cooly now receives 6 annas per day, children 2
annas ; farm servants, gardeners, &c. 8 rupees per mensem ; carpenter li rupee,
bricklayer 1 rupee, a day. — Ed.
'' The Sisaj>&ra Ghdt ie little ustd now.— Ed.
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 485
present time, suffer such privations from the want of it, between the CH. XXVIII.
seasons of sowing and reaping the crops in the plains, and indeed for
more than three-quarters of the year. Cultivation.
The other, or what may be called the old plantations in the other "7""
parts of the Hills, but principally on the north-eastern slopes, are ^t Coonoor
insignificant in point of size but remarkable for the peculiarly fine and Kdtagiri
flavour of the coffee produced, which is considered to be owing to the °° ^^^'
high elevation at which most of them are situated. Some plantations
near Coonoor and Kotergherry are 5,000 feet above the level of the sea,
but it seems to me that the advantage derived from this superiority
of flavour is more than counterbalanced by the general want of
vigour and luxuriance of the coff'ee trees, which evidently do not
thrive in this latitude so well at an elevation above 4,500 feet, as
between that and 3,000 feet. It is not easy to estimate the amount
of land at present under actual cultivation for coffee on the Neilgher-
ries, as, in most cases, the coffee fields are so mixed up with the
mulberry grounds, that it is difficult to arrive at the precise extent of
each, but it may be pronounced not to exceed 280 acres on the eastern
side, and 300 acres on the western. The general return of those on
the eastern side, which are the only ones at present in bearing, is on an
average about 6 to 7 cwt. per acre, which is a remunerative rate
under the prevailing circumstances of cheap labour, but the trees require
manure to keep them up to this rate of bearing, and more care in
pruning and managing than is bestowed upon them.
The opening of the Ouchterlony Valley, the finest coffee tract in Ouchterlony
the district, was begun by the late Mr. James Ouchterlony about ^ ®^'
1850. The difficulties encountered by this able and energetic
pioneer in coflfee planting are thus graphically described in a
letter to Government in 1860 : —
" I was equally a pioneer in the experiment of coffee planting on the
Nilgiri slope near the Gudalur Pass, where I first commenced the
cultivation. In a limited degree many of the features of a new colony
were then presented : there was no resident population within any
accessible distance ; no articles of food to be had near the spot ; we had
no roads (properly so called), no police, and no law save at courts too
distant to be reached. Labour and food had, in fact, to be imported
from a remote district, the first being only obtained with difficulty,
and then often scared away by the solitariness of the spot and an
undefined dread of evil in the minds of the coolies. Doubts of success
were even engendered in the minds of most of those who had embarked
with me in the enterprise, and who necessarily withdrew from it. But
at length a bright issue attended the efforts ; and I will only say, let the
changed aspect of the country around in respect of cultivation tell
what the effect has been upon the general interests."
The area now under cultivation in this valley exceeds 4,000 acres.
Coffee planting has now been tried on various portions of Area now
the slopes, and so far it seems to have succeeded best in the t^n^[n tho'^'
valleys and slopes to the east, to the south, and to the north-west district.
486
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXVIII. of the plateau, though there are some fine plantations lying
~ towards the north-east; but generally speaking the northern
Cultivation, slopes are too deficient in rainfall, and the western, i.e., the
Kunda range, too much exposed to the violence of the south-west
monsoon. The following statement shows the area under occu-
pation and coffee cultivation according to the latest return in
1876-77. The subsequent returns include portion of the South-
East Waindd.
Statistics of
coffee exports.
Estates.
Elevation.
Area.
Taken up
but not
planted.
Total.
Approxi-
mate yield.
Mature
Plants.
Immature
Plants.
132 ...
FEET.
3,000
to
6,000
ACRES.
j 11,184
ACRES.
2,434
ACRES.
6,825
ACRES.
20,443
LB.
3,560,480
The following are statistics of coffee exports from the Madras
Presideacy. Iiil824-25the quantity was 768,o201b., value 1,79,764
rupees. For the five years ending 1830-31 it averaged 356,739
lb., value 59,912 rupees. The figures show no very significant
variations until 1843-44, the average of the twelve preceding years
being only 393,379 lb., value 75,277 rupees. In 1843-44 the
exports rose to 811,000 lb., value 1,52,000 rupees ; in 1845-46 to
1,699,152 lb., value 2,69,750 rupees. The following year shows
a slight decrease. Up to the close of this year the figures include
re-exports, but in what proportion they stood, to exports proper
I am unaware. The exports proper in 1847-48 stood at
2,206,900 lb., value Rupees 3,38,000, but by the close of 1850-51
the figures had risen to 4,757,135 lb., value Rupees 4,79,000.
By the close of 1855-56 they had reached 8,601,0001b., value
8,92,000 rupees. The next five years saw a rise to 18,571,000 lb.,
value 32,41,000 rupees. These were nearly doubled by 1865-66,
being 34,527,000 1b., value 78,13,000 rupees. They remained
nearly stationary during the following five years, being
55,484,000 lb., value Rupees 82,84,000 in 1870-71, and showed
only a slight rise in quantity in 1874-75, being 36,652,000 lb.,
but great in value, 1,36,13,000 rupees.
The figures for the following four years were : —
Years.
1875-76
1876-77
1877-78
1878-79
Quantity.
Value.
LB.
45,092,000
36,16t>,000
33,399,000
38,476,000
1,74,27,000
1,43,32,000
1,35,56,000
1,56,01,000
MANUAL OP THE NtLAQIRI DISTRICT. 487
Taking the area of coffee cultivatiou in the district at 12,000 CH. XXVIII.
acres roughly, of the quantity exported in 1876-77 probably coffbe
not less than 4,500,000 lb. came from this district, excluding Coltivatiun.
South-East Wainad, in value about 20 lakhs of rupees.
In the following paper by Mr. Steedman the principal points Estimate of
connected with the cultivation are carefully and clearly sum- ^"^^j^*^^^"^^^''
marised. It contains, at my desire, no elaborated estimate of form- profits.
ing a plantation, as the cost differs in various parts of the district
according to facilities of labour, natui^e of soil, and many other
conditions. In Mr. Hull's work on coffee planting in South India
and Ceylon a fairly approximate estimate will be found. It
may be roughly stated that, exclusive of cost of land but inclu-
sive of buildings, machines, roads, &c., it costs between 300
and 400 rupees an acre to bring a moderate sized estate of (say)
200 acres into full bearing. The cost of working may be set
at 130 rupees per acre. The yield maybe estimated at 4 cwts.
per acre. This, at 50 rupees net per cwt., gives 200 rupees, an
excess of 70 rupees over charges, or approximately 20 per cent.
ou capital expended, exclusive of shipping and brokerage charges,
&C.1
The works on the subject deserving especial mention are Mr. Books on
H. M. Elliot's '' Coffee-planting in Mysore and Coorg,'' Dr. J. ^ado^""''
Shortt's '^ Hand-book to Coffee-planting in Southern India," Dr.
Bidie's " The Borer," and Mr. H. P. Hull's " Coffee-planting in
Southern India and Ceylon." A mass of general information
on the subject will be found in P. L. Simmonds' treatise on
" Tropical Agriculture."
MONOGEAPH ON THE CULTIVATION OF COFFEE.
{By A.. H. Steedman, Esq., Balcarres Estate, Wamdd.)
Selection of land — elevation — opening out land — nurseries — shade — felling —
bui-ning — road tracing — lining — pitting — plan ting— weeding — draining — hand-
ling and pruning. — Manuring — composts — poudi'ette — fish-manuro — bones —
blood and slaughter-house refuse — guano — superphosphate of lime. — Irriga-
tion.— Buildings— bungalow — cooly lines — pulper-house and store — barbacues and
drying tables— cattle sheds. — Machineiy — sprouting — pulper. — Crop —picking
and curing. — Enemies of the coffee plant — bug — the borer — the coffee rat — leaf
rot — leaf disease — its remedies.
In selecting a site for a coffee plantation a variety of consider- Selection of
ations must be taken into account, and, foremost amongst 1^^^^-
' Taking the area under coffee in bearing in the Presidency at 190,000 acrea
(Mysore 125,000, Madras districts 50,000, and Travancoro 15,000), the exports,
including Travancore, at 375,000 cwts., the internal consumption at 75,000 cwts.,
we have the average yield of coffee rather over 2,h cwts. per acre including native
cultivation. These figures would seem to indicate that the margin of profit can
488 MANUAL OF THE NtLAGlHI DISTRICT.
CH. XXVIII. these, it behoves the planter to ascertain that the laud which it is
proposed to take up possesses a stream of water which runs all
Cultivation, the year round, or, at any rate, will continue to flow until the
crop season is over; for without a sufiicient supply of water it
is impossible to pulp the coffee. Unless, therefore, the land in
question possesses a stream, or there are facilities for leading
water from no great distance, the selector must make up his mind
either to abandon it or to follow the native plan and dry hia
coffee in the cherry, which plan not only entails a serious diminu-
tion in the value of his coffee, but, in cases of plantations of any
extent, is really impracticable owing to the enormous extent of
drying ground that would be requisite. Then the land should be
sheltered from the wind, situated, if possible, in the line of the
showers which fall early in the year and go far to ensure good
crops, and should not be exposed to the full fury of either the
south- west or north-east monsoon, with the accompanying
excessive damp and constant and injurious mists and fogs.
Great care should be taken that frost never affects the land, as
this is fatal to coffee, scorching and withering it as if fire had
passed over it. Another deadly enemy to coffee is damp at the
roots, so that swampy land or land that is nearly flat must be well
drained before it will grow coffee.
—elevation. The range for coffee varies from about 3,000 to 4,500 or even
to 6,000 feet on the eastern slopes above the sea level, and about
the best possible site that could be selected is a well sheltered
valley with a gentle declivity and a stream flowing through the
centre. It should also be remembered that the greater the
altitude the finer the quality of the berry, which is to a certain
extent only neutralized by the smaller quantity yielded.
—opening out Having selected and obtained his land, the first thing for the
*^"^' planter to do is to run up temporary huts or cooly lines, unless he
can rely upon a sufficiency of local labour, such as Badagas or
Kurumbas, to fell, pit, and plant his land. To save time and
labour the planter should make arrangements to purchase plants
from some of his neighbours, and these can usually be bought
in sufficient numbers at from 8 to 12 rupees per thousand ; but,
if this is impracticable or the planter has a fancy for importing
seed from a distance, he should lose no time in making a nursery.
—nurseries. A plot of ground as nearly level as possible and close to water
should be selected, carefully dug all over to the depth of 2 or
even 3 feet, all the stones picked out and beds made about
be but small, or about £2-10 per acre. If, however, the small yield of coffee
cultivated in native gardens be taken into consideration, and the fact that aban.
doned or quasi- abandoned lands are often included in the areas returned, the
net average profits probably do not fall short of €5 per acre, or £1,000 per annum
for an estate of 200 acres.
MANUAL OP THE NtLAGIRI DISTRICT. 489
4 feet in width and 10 or 12 in length with trenches between, CH. XXViii.
down which the water may be led, so that there may be coffee
no difficulty in watering the plants. If cattle manure is easily Cultivation.
procurable, it would be well to scatter a quantity broadcast over
the beds and then dig it well in. The seed should be pushed in
with the finger about an inch below the surface of the soil and
carefully covered over, and when the seedlings spring up (which
will vary very much in time according to locality,) and are about
2 inches above ground, they should be transplanted out at
distances of about 6 or even 9 inches apart, so as to allow of
their growing into healthy, sturdy plants. The nursery should
be kept carefully watered and weeded, and a sufficient number
of coolies should be told off specially to this duty. Some people
erect a pandal or grass covering over their nurseries, but I
think this is unnecessary if there is plenty of water. My own
experience of planting seed is very unsatisfactory. A quan-
tity obtained by me from one of the finest plantations on the
Coonoor side was carefully planted in December 1874 — a very
large percentage of the plants threaten to turn out chicks —
all were severely affected with leaf -disease {Hemeleia vastatrix),
and a large quantity of the seed came to nothing. A friend in
South Waindd, who obtained carefully selected seed from Ceylon,
where they profess to have comparatively few chicks (so called
from Chickmuglur, from which place this miserable species has
unfortunately been introduced), assured me that a very large
percentage of this seed turned into chicks. Were I to plant
seed again, I should be very much inclined to obtain either
•some of the renowned Cannon's Mysore, or else some from
Travancore. My advice to a young planter would be, buy good
plants, if you can, and, if this is impossible, plant seedlings in
your nursery, taking care only to obtain those growing under or
near fine healthy trees; and these seedlings, if well and carefully
planted and tended in the nursery, ought to be ready for plant-
ing out in about eight months. A good, though rather
expensive, plan is to plant the seedlings in small cane baskets,
and then they can be planted out in the pits just as they stand,
the basket soon decaying. This plan has the additional advan-
tage that plants in baskets will stand a good deal of dry sunny
weather without dying, and so can be planted out during the
early showers in April and May, whilst as supplies amongst
old coffee they are much more likely to succeed than any other.
Before going any further, the planter should make up his —shade.
mind whether he will make a clean sweep of the forest or leave
some trees standing for the purposes of shade. The idea seems
to be gaining ground that shade of one kind or another is the
only real safeguard against attacks of leaf-disease, borer, and a
62
490 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXVIII. general decay and death of the coffee plant. In some parts of]
Coffee Mysore the coffee is regularly planted under the shade of the
Cultivation, jungle, which is merely thinned out; and this plan saves, I have
no doubt, a great deal of expense in weeding, &c.; but then the]
yield is very small indeed, not more, as a rule, than 2 cwts.j
per acre, as I am informed.
Whilst shade may be absolutely necessary in some exception-
ally dry climates, I consider that it still remains to be seen if it
will answer generally and prove the panacea that many predict ;
still, in the face of the continued serious attacks of leaf-disease,
it is perhaps wise to try every prescription in the hope of
ultimately overcoming this terrible plague. If the planter
wishes to try the eff'ect of shade, it would be well to leave trees
standing at sufficient distances apart to allow of a moderate
amount of light and sunshine reaching the coffee. The planting
of the various kinds of wild fig, dwarf plantain and other trees
for the purposes of shade, which is now largely done on many old
plantations, is a tedious and costly operation, which the planter
who has made up his mind on the question of shade and who is
just starting, would do well to avoid by the simple expedient
suggested above of leaving certain trees standing while felling
the rest of the jungle or forest. Many however contend, and
with some show of justice, that if shade trees — as jack and the
various kinds of wild fig — are planted at the same time with the
coffee, they will have grown sufficiently for purposes of shade by
the time that shade is really required.
—felling. The best and simplest plan, if it can be managed, is to have the
felling done by contract as is now generally done in Waindd,
but, as far as I can learn, the old terms of felling at the rate of
10 rupees per acre with Klirumbas or Punniahs are now
past, and it will cost fully 15 rupees if not more. If the work is
not done by contract and paid for after a rough and approximate
survey is made, the planter should keep a close and constant
watch over the coolies engaged, as felling is very hard and
tiring work, and a cooly has not the very remotest idea of a really
honest day's work unless well looked after and not allowed to
shirk.
—burning. The forest having been felled, the usual plan is to allow the
whole to stand for six or eight weeks until the branches and
smaller saplings are dry and then to set fire, when a grand
conflagration usually follows. The burn, as it is called, whilst
clearing the way for the pitters and producing, as is natural,
a quantity of ash, destroys the fine mould and soil which has
been accumulating for years, and which is so very valuable for
coilee.
MANUAL i)F THK NII.AGIKI DISTKHT.
491
But few planters, however, have the courage to incur the trouble CH. XXVIII.
and expense of lopping and piling the brushwood and branches coffee
in heaps and leaving the mass to decay (or even of burying, Cultivation.
as has been done), which is rendered necessary if the aid of fire
is not invoked. On one plantation in WainAd this plan was
followed and the result, according to report, is a yield of more
than a ton an acre, and this not once but repeatedly ; but this
is a long, tedious, and expensive operation, and is not likely to
be the plan generally adopted.
After the burn, and having selected a site for the store and —road
pulper-house near a stream and as near the bottom of the estate
as possible— since it is easier for the coolies to carry the picked
coffee down than up hill, — it will be well to trace a cart or bandy
road from the entrance of the plantation to the site of the proposed
store. At the same time, in order to avoid making unneces-
sary pits or having to pull up plants subsequently, it is advisable
to trace as many narrower paths as may be requisite, to enable
the planter to go all over the plantation, for he may rely upon it
that it is a great mistake to overtask himself or the coolies by
rambling up and down hill more than is unavoidably necessary.
And next comes the important task of lining, upon which —lining,
depends in a great measure not only the symmetrical appearance
of the plantation but the facility with which weeding, picking,
manuring, and the various contract works are checked and
examined. The best plan is to take two base lines running from
north to south and east to west by the aid of a cross staff or
road-tracer to ensure accuracy. Then having provided a number
of pegs and a piece of stout hempen rope, with the distances
marked off by means of pieces of cloth twisted into the
strands as in a log line, and a pole to mark off the width between
the lines, the planter should station two coolies one at each end of
the line, and, commenciag from the base line, should proceed to
put down the pegs in parallel lines. The old rule used to be
6 feet by 6 feet apart, but my experience is that the proper distance
is 6 feet by 5 feet, except in cases where the soil is unusually
rich and the growth uncommonly luxuriant. Stumps and logs
will more or less tend to throw the lines out a little, but if the
planter insists upon the cooly making the pit exactly where the
peg is placed, the lines will come out in the end with beautiful
regularity. The marks on the hempen line will require occasionally
to be set right in consequence of the unavoidable stretching of the
rope. This need for correction is experienced even with the
Surveyor's chain.
Armed with mamoties (some planters supply planting bars —pitting,
as well) and an axe to evei-y three or four coolies to cut through
492
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Coffee
Cultivation
-planting.
CH XXVIII. roots, &c., the coolies should now be set to pitting. The usual
contract is 25 pits, 2 feet cube, per man^ or 10 rupees per thousand,
and the planter should see that the pits are made full size, and
that roots and stones are carefully taken out, as also that the
pits are made exactly where the pegs were placed. These pits
should be allowed to stand open till shortly before the rains set
in, when they should be filled in with soil from the jungle (which
would be a good, though an expensive, plan) or else with the
surrounding earth, stones being carefully rejected and the peg
replaced in the centre of the pit for a guide when planting.
Some planters maintain that it is not a good plan to plant
during heavy rain or very early in the monsoon ; but having
planted in all weathers, I think that one cannot begin too soon
after the rain has once fairly set in. At the same time the most
favourable season (if you are so fortunately situated from having
abundance of labour and work being well in hand as to be enabled
to pick your days) is during dull showery weather. If the plants
come from the planter's own nursery, a good though expensive
plan is to take up each plant with a ball of earth attached
and plant it thus in the pit, but with balls a cooly will not plant
more than 60 or 70, and if the plants are brought from any
distance this is out of the question. If planted without balls,
the cooly should be provided with a sharp-pointed stick, with
which he makes a hole in the loose earth of the pit, inserts the
plant, gives it a slight pull upwards to provide against the tap-
root being twisted, and then, with hand or foot, presses the earth
firmly down all round the plant. A cooly should plant out 200
or 250 in this way, and should be carefully watched to see that
he does not plant two in a pit, or even throw some away in order
to get over his task the sooner.
In about two months' time, or perhaps less, the newly-planted
land will require weeding, and it will be a good thing if the
planter makes two resolutions : the first, to keep constantly
weeding so as never to allow the weeds to seed or get ahead
of him, and secondly, never to allow a mamoty to be used in
weeding. With constant care and attention hand-weeding can
easily get rid of all the weeds, and these being few and far
between, the weeding will be cheap and expeditious, as each cooly
will easily be able to ran over three or four long lines. In the evil
olden days, when the rule was to take as much out of the soil
as possible and high cultivation was unknown, the weeds were
allowed to grow until they threatened to smother the coffee,
and then gangs of coolies were sent with mamoties, and they
dug and scratched away till, what with this constant scrape of the
mamoty and the wash caused by the heavy monsoon rain, most
of the old estates have lost all their surfaeo-soil, and it is almost
-weeding.
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 493
hopeless to expect to get the estates thoroughly clean. Indeed, CH. XXVIII.
some go so far as to say, cut down the weeds once or twice a year, coffee
and for the rest trust to manuring and pruning ; but it seems to Cultivation.
me a fatal mistake to disregard weed, though at the same time
I would never allow a mamoty to be used for the purpose.
Digging up and loosening the soil is a very good thing on very
gentle slopes, but in my opinion, in the majority of cases, the less
the soil is touched the better, as the great majority of coffee
plantations are on very steep inclines, and the wash and loss of soil
is very great-
A great variety of weeds are to be found on a coffee plantation
— ferns, goat-weed or ageratum, Spanish needle, a thorn called the
wild brinja], the Sisapara creeper, the jungle sand-paper or fig
(which, if allowed, grows into a tree), and a number of varieties
of grasses, the Hurriali, the thatching grass, Dubber-ooloo, and a
creeping grass of whose name I am ignorant, which last forms
a regular mat on the surface of the soil, and is, in my opinion,
the most pernicious of all. According to Dr. Bidie, the most
hurtful weed is the goat-weed, which is said to take up all the
ingredients which coffee requires.
As almost all coffee plantations are situated on steep slopes, —drainage.
the object of drainage is not so much to get rid of superfluous
water as to prevent its carrying away soil in its rush. 1 am not
a believer in an elaborate system of main and catch drains, which,
as far as I have seen, are continually filling up, overflowing, and
end in cutting dreadful chasms. If stones are abundant, as is
often the case, the best plan, I think, is to revet or build
round the lower surface of each tree ; and if this is carefully done,
the tree finally stands in a kind of natural flower-pot, and the
lower surface instead of being sloped with the slope of the hill
(thus exposing the roots) is flush with the upper surface. Reno-
vation pits or trenches 8 or 4 feet long by 1 foot broad and 2
feet deep should be dug between each alternate group of four
trees, and these pits not only serve to catch the soil which is
washed down, but act as receptacles for weeds. Some planters
make use of them as manure pits. As soon as these pits are
filled up fresh pits between the alternate groups of four trees
should be dug, and when the time comes round for the first pits
to be opened the soil in them can be heaped up round the roots
of the trees. Were it not for the constant and unceasing washing
down of the soil that goes on, this heaping up of earth round the
root of the trees would very likely cause rot, canker, and disease ;
but as it is, it only replaces what is being constantly washed away.
A cooly can dig twenty-five to thirty of these renovation pits. Some
planters, I believe, build terraces, but not having tried this plan
494 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXViil. myself or seen it doue, I cannot say if it has answered. One planter
in Ceylon proposed to take out a patent for prevention of wash
Cultivation, by means of cylinders, made of wood, earthenware or iron, but
the project fell through.
As coffee is very intolerant of constant damp at the roots, it
is an absolute necessity to deeply drain the swamps, which, when
thus treated, grow magnificent coiiee and yield very heavy
crops.
It may seem presumptuous, in the face of so many authorities
who are strongly in favour of drains, to speak against them ; but
my experience shows me that on the steep slopes which charac-
terize most of the coffee plantations water does not stand but soon
ruTis off ; and whilst it is true that estates which are exposed to the
full fury of the south-west monsoon do suflFer from damp, I
can only explain the seeming anomaly by saying that it appears
to me that the excessive moisture is in the air, and that the best
plan to counteract this is to keep the trees thoroughly well weeded
and handled.
—handling When the plants are about two and a half or three years old
and pruning, (though this depends in some measure upon the climate, soil, and
situation of the plantation), the trees will need topping to prevent
their growing any taller. Coffee trees are usually topped at 3^
to 4 feet, but in windy or exposed situations they should be
topped at 2 or 2 i feet in order to protect them as much as possi-
ble against being blown about. If a lowed to grow at its own
pleasure — and this is to be seen in native gardens — coffee will
grow to a height of 15 to 20 feet with a number of stems and but
few lateral branches. This is the plan followed in Arabia, where
the berries are not picked as with us, but shaken off when fully
ripe on to mats placed beneath the trees and then dried in the sun.
Handling — an operation performed by hand and not with a knife —
consists in pulling off the suckers or shoots which spring out from
the stem, and which, if allowed to grow up, would grow into
stems, and also in stripping off all the lateral branches (within a
radius of 6 inches from the stem) sent out by the primaries, so as
to allow of air and light reaching the centre of the tree. If cut
off with a knife these suckers shoot out again with redoubled
rapidity. Pruning, or the use of the knife, if systematically
carried out from the opening of the plantation, is comparatively
a simple operation, and consists in checking the tendency of the
tree to run to wood and leaf instead of fruit, and the severity or
leniency of pruning must, to a certain extent, depend upon climate.
The coffee tree throws out pairs of lateral branches at right
angles to each other and at distances of about 6 inches apart, which
branches are called primaries and should never be cut off. These,
MANUAL OF THE NtLAOIRl niSTRICT. 405
in their turn, pendont alternate smaller branches called secondaries, CH. XXVIII.
and these, if allowed, throw out tertiaries. The tertiaries and q
every alternate secondary should be cut off, and occasionally from Cultivation.
overbearing or weakness the ends of the primaries will die, when
they should be cut back to the live wood. Some planters scarcely
prune at all for two or three years, and then cut the trees to
sticks ; but the best plan is to prune steadily and regularly
so as to ensure, as far as possible, a regular fair average
crop instead of a bumper every now and then, with intermediate
years of very small crops and rest for the trees. In old plantations
where regular pruning has been neglected, drastic measures are
often necessary, and in one notable instance, the planter gradually
went through the whole of his plantation stumping or cutting
down the trees to within a foot of the ground and then manured
those stumps, and he has been nobly rewarded, for his planta-
tion is now one of the finest in the district. The usual plan is to
prune as soon as crop is finished and before the coolies leave for
their country, and this plan has been strongly recommended ; but
if the planter has permanent labour always at command, pruning,
in my opinion, should be deferred till showery weather, as the trees
then bleed less, or, in other words, lose less sap than in hot sunny
weather. The prunings should be carefully buried.
This is a subject on which there are perhaps more differences of Manuring,
opinion than on any other connected with planting. The best
kind of manure, the best mode of applying it, as well as the quan-
tity necessary, are still and are likely to remain vexed questions.
Up to within the last few years high cultivation was quite the
exception instead of the rule, and the results of this negligent
treatment of the soil are startlingly put forth by Mr. Eobertson,
of the Model Farm in Madras, and in Mr. Schrottky's late work.
Coffee-planters might, perhaps, have gone on for some time longer
following the old plan despite the warning of bug and borer, but
that fearful pest — the Hemeleia vastatrix — has startled them from
their lethargy, and most are now awake to the fact that the choice
only lies between high cultivation and ruin.
This is generally allowed to be the best manure, and is said to —cattle,
contain almost if not all the ingredients required by coffee. The ™^""^®*
complaint made by some planters of its bulky nature and conse-
quent expensiveness scarcely needs an answer, but the most
telling argument against it is that grazing is limited ; that only a
certain number of cattle can be maintained on the grass -land
usually attached to each plantation ; and that until some such
fodder as the prickly comfrey {8ymi-)hytu,m aspervimum) or the
Sorghum saccharafum, which are sr/id to floui-ish without manure
and yield large quantities of food, are widely introduced, stall-
496
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTTirCT.
CH. XXVIII. feeding to any large extent is out of the question. It is quite
Coffee possible that ere long^ under tlie pressure of reduced crops with
Cultivation, increased expenditure, planters will follow the advice offered them
by Dr. Bidie in his able and interesting Report on the Ravages
of the Borer and Review of the existing Systems of Coffee Culture,
and, abandoning the poorer portions of their estates, concentrate
their efforts and expenditure on the finest fields of coffee. The
abandoned fields might then be planted up with these much-
praised fodder plants, and the herds of cattle might be largely
augmented and stall-feeding become general. Cattle-manure
should be well pulverized and mixed with jungle soil and a bushel
applied to each tree, and even though the cattle may have been
fed upon nothing but grass, the effect upon coffee is little short
of marvellous. The usual plan is to apply manure after the crop
season is over and before the coolies depart to their country, but
if possible it should, in my opinion, be put out between the end
of the monsoon and the picking season. In those very excep-
tional cases where the coffee grows on a very gentle slope there
can be no better mode of application than to scatter the manure
broadcast and then dig it well in, the mere forking or trenching
of the ground where practicable being of great assistance to the
trees ; but I believe that this method is out of question on the
generality of coffee estates. Whilst some bury the manure to the
extent of two and even three bushels in the renovation pits and
others dig shallow semi-circular pits above the trees, the plan I
think most effectual is to remove the soil above the tree with a
manuring fork, put in the manure, and replace the soil. The
showers will soak through and carry the virtue of the manure
to the lower roots. From all that I can read and learn, horti-
culturists ever strive to make fruit trees as much as possible
surface-feeders, even to the extent of forcing them to do this by
paving the subsoil with broken tiles, &c.
—composts. Some planters, however, do not own any grass-land, and are
thus practically debarred from using cattle-manure; but it is
always open to them to utilize the weeds, pulp, line refuse,
ash, &c., which, with the aid of lime or chunam to hasten
decomposition, make a valuable manure, and the planter cannot
do better than study the Prize Essays on Manuring written by
Mr. Arnold and Mr. G. White, both of Ceylon, which were pub-
lished by the Planters' Association of that island.
— poudrette. Some planters in Wainad used to obtain poudrette prepared
with ashes and dry earth from Ootacaraand. Planters near
Coonoor purchase the right of cleaning out the latrines, and
use this manure in a liquid state more or less. It appears to
me that the manure is moie efficacious when used in a liquid
state-
MANUAL OF THE NTr.\niRI MSTRK
^197
Large quantities of a kind of sprat are caught near Calicut and CH. XXVIII.
sent up in neat parcels in vast quantities to Waiuad. Well mixed coffee
with pulp and jungle soil, I have found this manure very Cultivation,
efficacious. I apply about a quarter of a bushel to each tree^ and _figij.
reckon that it takes a ton of fish to each acre ; but I think the effect manure,
is not very lasting and that the manure should be applied yearly.
Fish has long been used as manure for tea in Japan.
Considering the vast herds of cattle slaughtered monthly in — bonea.
Australia and South America, and the large demand there would
be for bone-manure if it were only well crushed and sold tolerably
cheap, I am surprised that bone-crushing mills have not been
started in those places and a large trade in bone-manure inaugu-
rated. It is true that both crushed and steamed bones can
be procured in India, but the price is very high, considering
that, unless treated with sulphuric acid, this manure whilst
lasting is slow in taking effect. Many planters hesitate to try so
expensive a manure. I am informed that bone dust mixed with
castor poonac makes a very fine manure, and 1 have found very
good results from bone dust mixed with jungle soil.
This has been imported from Bombay by one of the firms at —blood and
Calicut, but I am informed by a planter who tried it that it showed to^ufe^l^fugg.
no results.
This is very expensive and very generally adulterated, and is —guano,
usually considered too stimulating and evanescent in its effects.
Whether owing to adulteration or deterioration, this manure — snperphos-
has by no means answered the expectations formed of it. p eo i .
This mode of cultivation is but rarely employed, and my irrigation,
experience is that, except with a very large supply of water, and
this favourably placed, it is impossible to do any good. Unfor-
tunately just when irrigation is most required the streams are
at their lowest, but perhaps something may be done towards
saving and preserving the blossom in the absence of showers by
the watering-engine of Messrs, Rhodes and Co., which has been
used I learn with good effect by the agent of the Moyar Coffee
Company.
These should be made as pucka and permanent as possible, as Buildings,
the constant renewal of temporary erections is not only twice or
three times as expensive in the end, but takes up a vast amount
of labour which might be much more beneficially employed in
cultivation.
Although, until the plantation is well under way — felled, pitted —bungalow.
and planted — the planter may have to put up with a wattle-and-dab
hut, he should not hesitate to erect a comfortable bungalow as
soon as the labour can be spared, for, in order to keep his health, he
must be comfortably housed. Some prefer wooden houses raised
G3
493
MANTTAL OF THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT.
Coffee
Cultivation.
— coolv lines
Cn. XXVIII. from the ground on stone pillars, which may be obtained complete
from Messrs. Massey and Co. of Calicut, or a substantial and
tolerably cheap bungalow may be made of mud and stone walls
faced with chunam and roofed with shingles, which, if made on the
estate, cost Rupees 3-8-0 per thousand. Unfortunately these are apt
to rot and be eaten by white-ants, and teak shingles are expensive,
costing between 15 and 18 rupees per thousand. A very good kind
of tile is manufactured at Calicut and Tellicherry, and if this
were only glazed, it would make a perfect roof ; as it is, those who
have tried these tiles complain that they leak after the second or
third monsoon. Most of the planters have been their own architects,
and their bungalows, whilst as a rule not exactly ornamental, are
useful and comfortable; but the great desideratum is a thoroughly
water-proof roof : the best roof, though a very expensive one, is
undoubtedly continuous iron covered by tiles. The site selected
for the bungalow should be some hill above the coifee.
Cooly lines should be built substantially of stone and mud or
brick with shingle or tile roof, and provided with doors to each
room or compartment. Planters usually reckon that a line 60 feet
long by 12 or 15 feet broad and divided into 5 rooms will
accommodate 40 or 50 coolies ; but, as amongst the Kanarese there
are a number of different castes, some of whom will not live in the
same line with others, it is usually necessary to build two lines —
one for the high and the other for the low caste coolies. The
planter must always remember that without labour it is impossible
to grow coffee, and that, whilst insisting upon obtaining a fair day's
work for a fair duty's wage (as things go in India), he should do
everything in his power to make his coolies comfortable and
healthy : pay them regularly and in person, and not through
maistries ; and then, unless the plantation is in an unhealthy district,
he may rely upon it that his coolies will return to him year by
year, as they are great creatures of habit, and as a rule unenter-
prizing and hard to turn out of the regular groove. The coolies
are filthy in the extreme as regards their habits, and it is a matter
of astonishment that fever and dysentery do not prove more
often fatal. For sanitary purposes the planter should do his best
to induce the coolies to make use of the renovation pits, and it
may even in course of time become necessary for planters to erect
regular latrines ; but this entails keeping a number of scavengers
or toties, as the lowest Pariah coolies would resolutely refuse to
clean out these latrines. Chunam also might be frequently
sprinkled about the lines.
The pulper-house should be erected rather above the store,
unless the two are combined in one, the lower portion forming the
pulper-house and the upper the store ; but this combination
— pniper-
housc and
store.
MANUAL OF THE NiL\GlRI DISTRICT. 499
building would scarcely answer except in the case of a small estate CII. XXViir.
of 60 or 70 acres, or where there is always an abundant supply Cofi-ek
of bandies or bullocks to convey away the coffee as soon as it Cultivaxion.
is ready. Some build their pulper-houses and stores entirely
of woodj with wooden vats or cisterns, whilst others employ brick
and cliunam or Portland cement ; but both are open to objection ;
the wooden cisterns shrink, I'ot, and are soon destroyed by wbite-
ants so as to need renewing every second or third year, and
the cement or cliunam ones, though painted with tar, soon wash
and wear away, A good and really permanent material botb for
pulper cisterns and barbacues has still to be found, but it has
occurred to me that this material may perhaps be found in the
liquid flint with which the floor of the Bombay Custom-house
is paved ; unless I have been misinformed, no planter has yet
tried this. The following seems to me about the best kind of
store to build if the combination pulper-house and store is not
approved of. Stone and mud walls with large barred windows,
to be closed if necessary with shutters ; stone pillars about 3
feet high on which stout beams are placed, and on these rafters,
over which are stretched rolls of double coir matting. This will
ensure a thorough current of air, which will prevent the parch-
ment coffee from getting heated and musty. In Ceylon, where
they have rain almost throughout the crop season. Clerihew's
apparatus for driving a heated current of air through the coffee
by means of a fan is generally used, but, as far as I know, this
has not been introduced into India, and unless the season here is
unusually wet, as was the case in 1862, this is scarcely required.
For my part I prefer to use both, as I think that coffee dries — bartacuea
sooner on the old drying tables covered with coir matting, so I ami drymg
leave my coffee on the drying tables to drain for a day or two,
and then leave it to dry on the barbacues two or three days
longer. The latter are usually made of brick covered with
chunam and painted with a composition of tar and resin, but if
ever so carefully made they soon crack and require to be re-done,
and are expensive and not so lasting as they should be, consider-
ing their cost. My drying tables are made of sawn timber, which
I take to pieces regularly every year after crop is over and store
away in my store or pulper-house. Were the cement made by
General Morgan not so expensive, this would, I think, be the best
material for barbacues.
Cattle sheds should be dispersed about the plantation so as to —cattle-
save carriage as much as possible, and should be erected on sites ^heds.
suited either for carriage by bandies or despatch of the manure
by wire ropes, which latter are coming into general favour. A
good rough but strong and lasting cattle-shed may be made
500
MANUAL OF THE NII.AGIRI DISTRICT.
Coffee
cultivatiox.
Machinery.
-spouting.
CH. XXVIII. of thick stone and mud-walls where stone is plentiful, otherwise
of brick with a shingle or tile roof, and care should be taken also
to thatch or cover the manure shed so as to prevent deterioration
of the manure by exposure to the weather.
If sufficient water-power is available, the planter will find it
a great saving of labour and even of expense in the end to put up
a water-wheel, and in these days of great pressure on the labour-
market and the very general complaint of an insufficient supply
of coolies except in a few favoured districts, any saving of labour
by means of machinery is a most decided gain.
For sending down cherry cofiee from the elevated portions of the
plantation to the pulper-house, spouting, though frequently used in
Ceylon, is not much used in India as far as I am aware, but wire
ropes for shooting down the cattle manure and jungle soil are
coming into very general use. Chafi" and litter- cutting machines,
especially those made by Richmond and Chandler, are often used,
and since manure is doubly efficacious if applied in a well-pulverized
state, they are valuable if only to cut the daily supply of litter or
bedding ; but when stall-feeding becomes general, they will be still
more valuable as cattle eat greedily well-cut-up fodder which they
would otherwise refuse. When there is a water-wheel the chaff
cutter can easily be attached to it and worked by it instead of
by manual labour.
There are two kinds of pulper in general use — Gordon's breast
and Walker's single and double disc, and in olden times the old
Tellicherry chop-pulper, but this last has quite gone out of
fashion and is now rarely seen. For my part I much prefer the
Walker's double discs, which cost about Rupees 400 or Rupees 450,
and of late years have been made entirely of metal.
Finally each estate should be provided with a pluviometer to
register the rainfall.
Crop season commences and ends in different seasons of the
year in various districts, and even in the same district it varies
very considerably owing to unusually wet or dry seasons. When
crops are good, coolies, if they please, can earn very good wages,
as the rate for picking never falls below 2 annas a bushel of
cherry coffee, and active coolies can easily pick three and even
four bushels a day, though many are so lazy as to be satisfied
with earning the average 4 annas. Some planters merely
supply their coolies with baskets, which often leads to a loss of
coffee by spilling, and the passing of stones and other extraneous
matter into the pulper. Towards evening the coolies come to
the pulper-house carrying the coffee picked during the day, and
on some estates they have two deliveries daily ; the writer
or superintendent, standing by the bushel measure (which is
frequently a standing one with a door to open in front to let out
— pulper.
Crop —
picking and
curing.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT, 501
the coffee), notes the quantity picked b}' each, and either gives CH. XXVIII,
tickets, or credits each cooly in the check roll with the quantity cof7ee
brought in. Some planters allow the cherry to stand till the Cultivation.
next morning, but this plan is very apt to heat the coffee and
make it " foxy,^' as it is called, that is, to cause red spots to
appear in the beans, and I always have my cherry coffee pulped
the same night. Strictly speaking, coffee should not be picked
until it is fully ripe, that is to say, until each berry is of a
rich purple verging on black, but in practice this is impossible
even with the largest gangs, and sometimes when the coffee
ripens simultaneously all over the plantation, a larger or smaller
percentage drops before it can be picked, especially if there are
showers or strong winds at the time. At the same time coolies
are fearfully careless, and it is necessary to watch carefully that
they do not strip the branches and bring in ripe and green
berries and even leaves.
After it is pulped, the coffee will require to stand from 18
to 24 hours, according to the altitude of the plantation, to
ferment, as until this process has been undergone it is found
impossible to wash the coffee (now become parchment) clean,
that is, to get rid of the mucilage which envelopes it when pulped.
When thoroughly washed it is exposed to the sun on barbacues or
drying tables until sufficiently dry, which operation takes from
four to six days, and it is then transferred to the store to await
the arrival of bandies or bullocks to convey it to the cleaning
or shipping agents, as no planter cleans and packs his own coffee.
As soon as the parchment coffee reaches the cleaning agent,
it is exposed to the sun for another day or two, and it is then
peeled by machinery, which operation gets rid of the parchment
and silver skins.
The old plan was to have the coffee pounded in large wooden
mortars in order to get rid of the parchment and silver skins, but
of late years a double iron roller with fluted bottom, revolving
very rapidly in an iron receptacle and driven by steam has been
very generally introduced. This peeling machine is on the same
principle as the chunam grinding and mixing mill so common
in India, but made of iron instead of wood and driven by steam
instead of horses or bullocks. After being peeled the coffee is
poured into a winnowing machine, also driven by steam, which
drives off the parchment skin (now reduced to a fine powder
and used as fuel for the engine boilers) and delivers the clean
coffee into bags. This coffee is then sized by means of a
machine made of metal perforated with holes increasing in size
as it reaches the end, and from these different holes the various
sizes drop into boxes or bins. After being sized by machinery,
the coffee is handed over to the garbling women who, with
502 MANUAL OP THE NIL.VGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXVIII. morrums or native winnowers, separate all the pea-berry or
oTTT^.. round sing-le beans and the black and broken berries, and each
Cultivation, woman's work is then carefully examined by an inspector.
The coffee is finally packed in casks, cases, or bags, and marked
with the name of the planter or plantation, and alphabetical
letters A, B, C, PB and T to distinguish the different classes,
1st, 2nd, 3rd, Pea-berry, and Triage. Indian coffee is, as a rule,
shipped to England generally by canal steamers, but a small
quantity is yearly sent direct to France. There are now two
coffee-cleaniug establishments at Coimbatore, to which most of
the coffee from Coonoor and Kotagiri is sent for preparation,
and these crops thus have the great advantage of being cleaned
and packed in a dry climate, and do not imbibe any moisture, as
the coffee prepared on the coast is almost certain to do. For a
long time Messrs. Stanes and Co. enjoyed the monopoly at
Coimbatore, but lately Messrs. Binny and Co. have also started
works there. From Coimbatore the coffee can be sent by rail
either to Madras or Beypur for shipment, at which latter place
Messrs. Stanes and Co. have another coffee curing establishment.
The coffee from the Segur side is sent to the Bangalore Works
of Messrs. Binny and Co. for preparation, whilst the crops from
the Ouchterlony Valley are sent either to the works at Mamale
on the Nellambiir river, some little distance from Beypur, or
to one of the numerous coffee-cleaning houses in Calicut, viz.,
Messrs. Parry and Co., Pierce, Leslie and Co., Hinde and Co.,
Andrew and Co., or to Stanes and Co. at Beypur.
Enemies of The coffee plant is a very hardy one, as spite of years of
the coffee ngglect and careless cultivation followed by repeated attacks
^ ^° ' from one foe after another, it still survives and yields, though in
diminished quantities. Birds, monkeys, jackals, and squirrels,
all have a decided liking for the berries when ripe, as the pulpy
covering is sweet ; but these can scarcely be called enemies of the
tree, for, though they deprive the coffee planter of a larger or
smaller share of his crop, they do no absolute harm to the tree as
far as I have seen, and the birds are, in reality, friends, as they
destroy millions of caterpillars and noxious insects.
—bug {Leea. This, the first pest that attacked the coffee tree, appeared in
nium caffec^). Qeylon in 1845 according to Dr. Bidie, and caused a great
deal of alarm in 1847. The bug prevailed for a long time, appear-
ing and disappearing in the most uncertain and perplexing
manner, being especially well developed during the monsoon and
giving the trees the appearance of being covered with soot. On
one estate in Wainad a large portion of the plantation was infested
with bug, looked as black as ink, and gave no crop at all for
about five years ; but this pest has apparently worn itself out and
MANUAL OF TIIK KILAOIRI DTSTRIf'T. 503
disappeared, except on a few spots here and there, at any rate CH. XXVIII.
temporarily. The only remedial measures found effectual are Coffee
constant weeding, pruning and handling; in fact, allowing the Cultivation.
sun and air to have free access to the trees. Dr. Bidie thus
describes the bug in his Report on the Ravages of the Borer : —
"As the male and female, when mature, are very different in
appearance, they will require to be described separately.
'^ Male. — Head sub-globular ; eyes black ; antennae eleven-jointed,
and with tufts of hair at the tips ; thorax somewhat heart-shaped ;
wings two, horizontal, delicate, membranous and two-nerved ; abdomen
with two lateral and one long central appendage. Of pinkish
brown color, but not often seen on the bushes.
" Female. — Apterous, capable of walking about until nearly full-
grown, when, being impregnated, she becomes fixed to a young shoot
or the margin of the under-surface of a leaf. She is then a conical-
like scale of a brown color, which., to the naked eye, looks smooth, but
under the microscope has a strong resemblance to the back of a
tortoise. This scale contains several hundred eggs, which are smooth,
oblong, and of a pale flesh color, and are hatched within it. When the
young ones come out, there is but little difference in appearance
between the sexes ; but in a little while the males betake themselves
to the underside of the leaves and the females to the young shoots.
" The male does not derive any nourishment from the tree, but the
female has a proboscis with which she incises the bark and drinks
the sap of the tree. The eggs being very minute, are easily trans-
ported from one place to another by adhering to clothing, birds, or
animals, and this may account for the apparently mj^sterious way in
which the pest often makes its appearance on an estate. Daring the
first year of invasion it does not do much harm, but in the second
year, owing to the increase in the number of scales, a good deal of
the foliage is destroyed and a portion of the crop turns black and
falls ofi". About this time, too, a saccharine substance called the
honey-dew is secreted, apparently by the bugs, and shortly the plant
acquires a dark, warty, and sordid appearance. A careful examination
will now discover the presence of a fungus which gradually covers
the branches and leaves. In the third year the plant will probably
be completely devoid of leaves, and of course bear no crop. The
fungus, which spreads over the plant in a dense, black, felt-like cover-
ing, was termed the Triposforium Gardneri by Berkeley and Syiicla-
dium Nietneri by Rabenhorst. The bug seems to appear first in
sheltered damp hollows and ravines, but when once fairly established
spreads over every part of an estate. It generally disappears in a
few seasons, but leaves the trees in a weak and exhausted state, and is
very apt to return. It seems to be prevalent in wet seasons. No
effectvial remedy has been discovered for it, and Dr. Gardner
thought that the ravages of the insect were entirely beyond human
control. Mr. Neitner says hand-rubbing will destroy an immense
quantity of the bug, but is afraid the permanent good effect is
50 1 MANTAL OF THE \il,AOIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXVIII. trifling. High culture, he also remarks, has the effect of throwing off
the pest, and tar applied to the roots of the tree seems to be a valu-
Cultivation', able remedy. The bug has at times been very prevalent in Coorg
and Wainad, but is not so well known in Mysore, and does not appear
to be common or destructive on shaded estates."
—the borer The attacks of this insect created so much alarm that Dr.
quadruj)es\ Bidie, M.B., P.R.G.S., vfas in 1867 instructed by Government
specially to report on the ravages caused by the borer in the
different districts of Wainad. This report, which contains a
mass of valuable and interesting information, was published in
1869 by Messrs. Gantz Brothers, and should be carefully read by
every planter. Dr. Bidie ascribes the alarming increase of
the borer which took place some years ago to drought, want of
shade, bad culture, destruction of forest trees in which the insect
used to live, and departure of some of its enemies ; and whilst
warniag planters that high cultivation was essential, he suggested
that shade should be tried, which recommendation has of late
been very generally followed. The borer proved most destruc-
tive on bamboo lands and in very dry, hot climates, and in such
situations, notably in Coorg, many plantations died out altogether;
but of late years not so much has been heard of the borer,
though there are rumours that it is appearing again in Coorg, and,
as Dr. Bidie remarks, the insect, being indigenous to India, may-
appear again at any time owing to exceptional seasons, and
consequently it is well to be prepared by having the plantations
well shaded and well cultivated. The following is Dr. Bidie^s
description of the borer : —
" This is a very pretty insect, being slender and elegant in form and
beautifully colored. The female is distinguished from the male by
her superior size and by the ovipositor being often partially protruded.
She is generally from six to seven-tenths of an inch in length and
measures from eight to nine-tenths across the wings. The male is
considerably smaller, head depressed and flattened in front, posterior
portion lustrous black, anterior portion pale greyish green from
numerous hairs of that color ; labrum slightly exserted and rounded ;
mandibles horny, robust, sharp- pointed, and incurved ; maxillary
palpi somewhat slender and clavate, the last joint long and
thick ; labial palpi clavate, with the last joint thick and slightly
truncated ; eyes lunate, curved round the angles of the head, large
and brilliant ; antennae of moderate length, eleven-jointed, filiform,
first joint longest, thickest, and curved — third, fourth, fifth, and
sixth joints slightly dentate ; prothorax round or slightly oval,
globular, covered with greyish green minute hairs and marked above
with a black spot and on each side with a black dot ; cly trie sometimes
scarcely covering the abdomen, broad at their base and very slightly
tapering, convex, rounded at their extremities, black, marked with
white or yellow transverse, diagonal, and curved lines, the last of
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT- 505
which form three figures like the inverted letter V ; legs, the front CH. XXVIII.
pair shortest, the second pair longer, and the last pair about as long ^~ '
as the body ; four posterior femora of a pink color, third joint of the CuLTivAiroN.
tarsi bifid and the last armed with a sharp and double hook.
^'' Pupa. — The insect in this stage of its existence is generally found
in a roomy cell prepared by the larva immediately under, or only
separated by a thin layer of wood from, the bark of the tree. It is
shorter and thicker than the larva, and exhibits the antennae, limbs,
elytra, &o., disposed in the manner usual in the family. Larva is at
first not more than the tenth of an inch in length, and very slender ;
when full-grown it is from three-fourths to one inch in length,
broadest at the head and gradually tapering towards the other
extremity, of a pale yellow or whitish color and fleshy consistence.
The body consists generally of eleven segments and is apodous, but
thi-ee or four of the abdominal rings are each provided dorsally with a
tubercle which aids the insect in moving forwards and in fixing its
body while lengthening its tunnel. The head is hard and scaly,
flattened above and armed with very powerful mandibles with which
it reduces the wood to a fine powder. This forms the food of the
voracious creature, and having passed through its body, is compacted
behind it in the tunnel and so agglutinated by some mucilaginous
fluid that it may be removed like a cast of plaster of Paris.
" Ova. — The eggs are placed deep in the little cracks which always
abound in the bark, and fixed by some secretion that is voided at the
time of deposition. The ovipositer is a telescopic split tube, and when
not in use is drawn up into its sheath, which terminates the abdomen.
It is capable of being protruded to a considerable length, which
enables the female to place the eggs out of the reach of danger, and
is armed at its extremity with two little round bodies bearing a few
hairs, which are probably used to clear out and enlarge the crevice
where the eggs are placed. It is difficult to ascertain the number
which one female will lay, but the average is probably from 150 to
200. The eggs are placed in little clusters containing from five to
eight each. Tliey are very small, about the size of a pin point and of a
white color. Under a lo'v magnifying power they are found to consist
of a pearly white membrane and are of a piriform shape. They
gradually enlarge in length as the embryo progresses, until at length
the little larva can be seen through the membrane. They are mostly
deposited in sunny places and hot sunshine favors, while cold damp
weather retards or prevents, their hatching. Heavy showers destroy
them, and they are eaten by several minute insects. They are not often
deposited and do not hatch i-eadily in shade.
" General history of the itisect. — When the beetle emerges from its
pupa covering, it finds itself in a dark chamber. At this time it has
not attained its full size ; the hard case of the body is not so strong as
it afterwards becomes, and the colors of the elytra and other parts of
the body are dull and imperfect. Accordingly it remains in the place of
its birth from three to ten days, until every jiart of its frame has attained
64
506 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
m. XXVIII. its due uevi;Jopment, when, moved by irresistible instinct, it sets to
work, and with its powerful iaw cuts a tuixncl through the barrier
COFKFE It/ cj
Cultivation. ^^''^^ separates its cell from the surface of the tree. One might
suppose that in performing this operation the little creature would be
just as likely to go in the wrong as the right direction, but this is
prevented by the larva when about to be transferred to the pupa
state always going to rest with its head towards the exterior of the
tree. Very often the larva carries on its work of destruction in the
root of the tree, and were it to undergo its transformations below
ground, the beetle would never be able to escape. With marvel-
lous instinct, however, the borer always returns to the stem to
prepare the cell for the pupa and beetle, except in some rare instances
in which the surface of a root has become exposed to the air by the
washing away of the soil. The beetles may be met with at all seasons,
but are most plentiful just after the monsoon and throughout the dry
season. They live from twelve to twenty days, apparently feeding on
vegetable matter, bat are not often seen at large, althoagh sometimes
met with on the leaves or bark of the coffee tree. They delight in
bright sunshine, and are very active in their movements and not easily
caught. At the season when most abundant, they sometimes appear
in considerable numbers in the windows of the planter's bungalow,
and walking through a field of coffee, it is no unusual thing to find two
or three adhering to one's clothes. Trees attacked by the borer always
occur in patches, the mischief beginning in one and gradually extend-
ing to the others. The females in general select warm sunny places
for depositing their eggs, avoiding exposed and shady situations.
Indeed, shade seems to be obnoxious to them, and when the ova chance
to be deposited in trees protected by it, they do not hatch. The
female beetle is much more numerous than the male, and is active
during her whole life in depositing ova. When engaged in this
operation she moves about briskly on the bark of the coffee tree,
looking for a convenient crack or chink in the bark, and having found
this, the ovipositer is rapidly inserted and a few eggs deposited and
fastened in their place, where they are so securely hidden that they
can only be seen by carefully removing some of the outer portion of
the bark. In from eight to fifteen days they are hatched, and the
young grub, a very minute creature, begins to exercise its mandibles,
and derives sustenance from the inner juicy layers of the bark. Its
presence there causes the outer portion to ri;3e in a well-defined ridge,
as if a wire had been passed between it and the wood. This is an
unfailing symptom of the enemy having taken possession of the plant,
and enables the planter to detect an infested tree long before any other
signs of the scourge have become manifest. As the larva increases in
size and strength, it dips into the tender young wood, and at length
drives its tunnel in all directions, having, apparently, rather a
predilection for the hardest and most sapless portions of the stem.
The tunnel pursues a very winding course, but rarely touches thut of
another individual, and never emerges on the surface of the stem.
The empty part of the tunnel, in which the borer lives, is rather longer
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 507
than itself, but it pushes forward, and fixes its body by the dorsal CH. XXVIII.
abdominal tubercles and the rings generally. The tunnel is lengthened coffee
by the action of the powerful gorge-like mandibles, and the wood-powder Cultivation.
having passed through the intestine of the grub is, as already
mentioned, excreted and firmly compacted behind it. The work of
destruction is carried on by the larva for about or a little more than
nine months, when, working its way towards the surface of the stem,
it prepares a chamber immediately under or but a short distance from
the bark, in which it goes to rest and becomes transformed into the
pupa. In this state it continues for from thirty to fifty days, the time
depending a good deal on the state of the weather. The entire
existence of the insect from the deposition of the ova to the death
of the beetle does not exceed twelve months, and in this it differs
from other members ot the Ceramhjcidce, who are said to pass from
two to three years in the larva state, although, it must be confessed,
that we have but little accurate information concerning the obscurer
points of their life-history. As regards the coffee borer there can be
no doubt that the life of an individual in all its stages is comprised
within twelve months, as instances have repeatedly come to my notice
of the beetle existing in stems less than eighteen months old. The
season at which the beetles appear differs slightly in different districts,
but there is generally a numerous brood on the wing after the
monsoon and again about the middle or end of the dry season The
eggs are also of course deposited at these seasons, and the pupa are
to be met with in greatest abundance in the month of September or
about the beginning of October. A small percentage of the pupa are
abortive or decay from water getting admission by old holes through
which beetles have escaped, and it sometimes happens that the chamber
in which the beetle appears is so far from the surface of the stem that
it is never able to effect its escape."
The ravages of this animal have been chiefly confined to Coorg —the coffee
and Ceylon, but during one year it threatened to prove a very rs,t(Golunda
serious foe to the planters in Wainad also. Driven, according to
all accounts, by the absence of its usual food — either the nilloo or
the bamboos, — the rat attacked the coSee trees in thousands, and
gnawed away the primaries, giving the coffee trees the appearance
of having been wantonly cut to pieces with pruning knives.
This disease, which is unquestionably caused by excess of — leaf-rot.
moisture, comes in and departs with the monsoon, and has been
experienced to a greater or less extent since coffee was planted.
It causes the leaves and a percentage of the berries also to turn
black and drop off, and prevails most when the rain and mist are
heaviest and most continuous. Planters, whose plantations are
situated in unusually damp, misty climates, must he prepared to
suffer from this pest, but it may be mitigated to a certain extent
by keeping the plantation well weeded and pruned.
We now come to the latest and most serious enemy of disease
the long-suff'ering coffee plant, which made its appearance (^«'"ei«a
^^ vastatrix).
508 MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
OH. XXVIII. about six years ago and threatens to prove as lasting and
CoFFKE damaging as the oidium in the vine, for which disease, according
Cultivation, to all accounts, there has been found no cure, save digging
up the vines and planting fresh ones. Hemeleia vastatrix
seems to have spread simultaneously all over the coflFee-growing
countries of the world, and it attacks even the hardy Liberian
variety which has been lately introduced into India and
Ceylon. Startled by the general outcry of alarm, the Home
Government, at the instigation of the Ceylon authorities, directed
the Collectors of the various coffee-growing districts to circulate a
series of questions drawn up by Mr. C H. K. Thwaites, Director
of the Royal Botanic Gardens of Peridinya and Hakgalla,
amongst the planters, the replies to which were to be tabulated
and sent to England for the consideration of some of the best
horticultural authorities. As the outcome of the enquiry, a
pamphlet has lately been largely distributed amongst the
planters — Mr. Cooke's Report on Diseased Leaves. Mr. Cooke
has come to the conclusions, 1st, that the ravages of the
Hemeleia vastatrix are not to be compared to those of the
leaf-rot ; 2nd, that the planters should all simultaneously sponge
the leaves of the affected trees with a solution of Condy's fluid.
In my opinion and that of most planters with whom I have
conversed on the subject, the leaf-disease has done more harm
than all the other plagues combined, and it remains to be seen if
the coffee will ever entirely throw it off or recover from its effects.
As far as I can see, the disease is now at any rate in the sap of the
tree,^ and probably some application to the roots of sulphur,
carbolic acid, petroleum or chunam may be found of use. The
leaf-disease must by this time unfortunately be well known to all
coffee planters, and its appearances are as follows : — The leaves
present first of all a spotted appearance, and in due time are
covered on the under surface with a golden rust, and finally shrink
and drop off, leaving the tree quite bare ; in many instances the
fruit is also affected. A large percentage of the berries grow till
they are nearly full sized and then drop off, and if examined
are found to contain nothing. Some even grow to full size and
ripen, but when pulped are found quite empty. Some planters
thought this was a new disease and invented the term " shank ]"
' In a report to the Planters' Association, Ceylon, in 1879, Mr. Daniel Morris,
Assistant Dii-ector, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, recommends, as the most
eificacious remedy, flowers of sulphur mixed with unslaked coral lime, in the pro-
portion of 1 of sulphur to 3 of lime ; the mixture to be applied to the plant and to
the soil. The disease is an external parasite — an organic fungoid gi-owth — and not
diffused in the juices of the coffee plant. In districts (Ceylon) affected by the
south-west monsoon, it is generally present during December and the early
months of the year as an external parasite in the form of long filamentona
threads, which cover every part of the bark and leaves. — Ed.
MANUAL OF THE NtLAOIKI DISTRICT. 509
but in my opinion these empty berries are one effect of the leaf- CH. XXVlir.
disease^ and as far as I am aware^ were unknown till this disease „
appeared. The leaf-disease is most capricious in its attack, Cultivation.
appearing and disappearing without any apparent cause, affecting ~~ —
both poor and healthy looking trees, on all kinds of soil and at all
elevations ; but, as a rule, the "chicks'' suffer most and earliest
from its attacks, whilst it is beginning to be generally allowed that
trees under shade are not so badly crippled as those in the open,
so that, perhaps, as was found with the borer, shade combined
with high cultivation may prove a remedy or at any rate a
palliative.
None of these plagues seems to have affected the plantations on
the Nilagiris as seriously as they have done those in the low
country of Waindd, Mysore, Coorg, Travancore or even in Ceylon ;
but I imagine that no coffoe planter can say that his crops have
not been more or less reduced by leaf -disease.'
1 Replies to queries from Nilagiri planters on the leaf-disease will be found
in G.Os., dated 30th November 1875, No. 1,715, Revenue Department ; 8th
March 1876, No. 336, Revenue Department ; and 6th July 1876, No. 006, Revenue
Department.
510
MANUAL OF THE XILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAPTER XXIX.
TEA.
Introduction.
Plant
introduced
Plant introduced, 1835.~Mr. Mann's efforts, 1854.— Dr. Cleghom's reports.—
Government policy. — Mr. Rae opens an estate near Ootacamand.— Government
introduces tea-makers and forms a nursery at Doddabetta.— Agricultural Exhibi-
tion and its results as regards tea. — Area under tea. — Exports and imports.
CH. XXIX. The history of tea cultivation in this district dates from the
Z"7~ year 1835, when some boxes of plants were sent from Calcutta
1_ to the Nilagiris, and at the same time to Coorg. Mysoi*e, and the
Agri-Horticultural Society in Madras. The plants received on
the Nilagiris were planted chiefly at the Experimental Farm at
Kaity, and there cared for by Colonel Crewe and M. Perrottet,
the French Botanist. They had been raised from seed brought
direct from China by Mr. Gordon, the Secretary of a Committee
specially appointed by Lord W. Bentinck (then Governor-
General) to consider means for the introduction of the tea
industry into India. The experiment appears on the whole to
have been a failure, at least as regards the Madras Presidency,
although a few plants seem to have survived in each locality to
which they had been sent.^ Attempts were made at different
1 General Culleu, Resident, Travancore, writes to Government in October 1859
'n-ith reference to reports which he had received of the growth of tea at Coonoor
as follows : —
" The tree thrives well in the Travancore territory, both at the level of the
sea and altitudes of 1,800 and 3,200 feet. I first met with it in the coffee
plantation of Mr. Hnxham in the year 1841, on the route from Qnilon to Courtal-
lum, at a farm called Caldoorty, about 40 miles inland and 6 or 700 feet above
the sea. There are some 10 or 15 trees from 20 to 25 and 30 feet high ; they
were. I believe, introduced during the government of Mr. Lushington, who I
believe also introduced those formerly at Kaitee on the Neilgerries. I procui-ed
plants from Mr. Huxham and put them down in an experimental spice garden
which I had established some twelve years ago at 1,800 feet on a hill in the south
of Travancore near Oodagherry. They are now trees of 20 to 30 feet high, growing
vigorously ; and I have about 400 plants procured from their seed growing on
another hill near the Tinnevelly frontier, at an elevation of 3,200 feet. There can
be no doubt therefore of the facility of its introduction, although from the
moderate altitudes and great atmospheric moisture of the localities hitherto
selected, they may possibly be considered to grow more luxuriantly than is desir-
able ; but which, if a defect at all, can probably be easily remedied by selecting
ground more to the eastward, at greater altitudes, and with a less haoiid
climate."
He proceeds to draw the attention of Government to the Travancore and
Cochin " Cardamom Hills" as especially suited for tea culture.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 511
times to manufacture tea from those on the Nilagiris, but without CH. XXIX.
success. It was not until some years later that Mr. Mann of i^~
Coonoor succeeded in producing fair drinkable tea from the
Nilagiri plants.
Thus encouraged, Mr. Maun brought with him from China in Mr. Mann's
February 1854 a good supply of seed of the best descriptions, ^^'^^^^
collected by Mr. Fortune ^ from the finest plantations in the
country, and applied at once to Government for land in the
neighbourhood of Coonoor to form a nursery. After many delays,
during which a large number of the seedlings died (the remainder
was only saved by being sent to the Waindd), Mr. Mann
succeeded in acquiring a piece of land near Coonoor, which is
now known as the Coonoor Tea Estate.
The seedlings were planted in grass land to save time, the
forest land not being ready. As early as 1856 the tea produced
from these plants was favourably reported on by the London
brokers. Mr. Mann, however, appears to have been disheartened
by the difficulty of procuring forest land to extend his estate, as
is shown by the following extract from a letter to Dr. Cleghorn, Dr. cieghcm's
then Conservator of Forests. Referring to a second importation
he writes in April 1855 : " I got another small supply of seed
from China brought round in the same way " (i.e., in earth in
which the seeds germinated during the voyage) " which I put
down in my nursery at Coonoor immediately they arrived, and
scarcely lost a single plant. About 2,000 of these I planted out,
though still very small, in the forest land in November of the
same year, and the remainder, about 800, remained in the
nursery until November 1856. I was convinced from the way
these plants came on that the tea plant would grow well there,
and applied through the Collector to the Government for a
suitable piece of forest land for a tea plantation, which, if they
had granted me, I would at once have returned to (Jhina and
brought over a large quantity of seed ; but I could get nothing
but poor grass land, on which nothing would grow without being
heavily manured, and to my repeated solicitations they at last
sanctioned two cawnies of forest land, subject to all kinds of
restrictions, so I gave the thing up and went on with the coffee,
though I still think, if given fair play, the tea plant would not
only grow well on the Neilgherries but pay well too."
Dr. Cleghorn in a visit made a few months later was struck by
the thriving condition of the plants in Mr. Mann's nursery, and
called his attention to the quantity of seed falling from the trees.
In a letter dated August 1 859, he writes : —
' Author of " Wanderings in China." Thia gentleman was sent by the Court of
Directors to China to collect plants and seed with the view of introducing the
culture into the North-West Provinces,
12
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CU. XXIX.
Tea.
Policy of the
Government.
Mr. Rae's
efforts.
" I am happy to observe that you. have acted on my letter of 25tli
ultimo, and that your new superintendent is collecting the seed
carefully with a view to establishing a large nursery. * * *
On a further consideration of the course which it seems desirable to
adopt in reference to your tea plantations, I am inclined to recom-
mend to Government that one or two Chinese manufacturers be
brought down from the North- West Provinces at the public expense
fur the purpose of testing the actual qualities of the teas produced
in these bills. * * * No doubt some satisfactory arrangement
would readily be come to by which Government would obtain what
they would consider an equivalent for their risk in the experimental
manufacture.
" I cannot pledge Government to any special course, but personally
1 should think that if jou would enable the Government to form a
nursery from seed from your plantations, they would be satisfied,
bearing in mind the great expense you have incurred in bringing your
plantation to its present state."
Dr. Cleghorn's representations to Government called forth
the following characteristic minute from Sir C. Trevelyan : —
" I cannot understand why Dr. Cleghorn volunteered the assistance
of Government in this matter. The experiment of growing and
manufacturing tea had been commenced as a mercantile undertaking,
which is the only wholesome and sound footing on which such
enterprises can be conducted. * * * The manufacture of tea in
India has been pi-oved to be a profitable business, and ample experi-
ence has been acquired of it. All that private undertakers have to
do, is to avail themselves of this advanced state of the art, with such
modifications as the circumstances of South India may require, which
they will be likely to do with much greater zeal and activity if they
know that the Government will not do it for them. I see no necessity,
therefore, for this industry in this part of India passing through the phase
of a Government establishment. On the contrary, I believe that the
vigorous and expansive period of the undertaking would be postponed
by it for years to come, for when Government intrude into those
operations which properly belong to private life, their hands are, as was
truly described by Sir Robert Peel, torpid and wasteful. In Northern
India the manufacture of tea did not begin to be remunerative until
it was transferred from the Govei-nment to a private company ; and
what have all the expensive Government Farms done for the improve-
ment of Indian cotton ? The worst effect of this policy, however,
is the morbid habit of dependence upon Government, which in some
communities has amounted to a moral paralysis ; and it ought to be
our care to keep our Anglo-Indian settlements free from this taint."
Sir Charles' views were accepted by bis Goverument (September
1859).
Almost simultaneously with the formation of Mr, Mann's
garden at Coonoor, Mr. Rae of Ootacamand had obtained a
grant of land for tea near Kalhatti, constituting tlie estate now
known as Dunsandle. lie experienced similar difficulties to those
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 513
of Mr. Munn in securing suitable land. Shortly after this a garden CH. XXIX.
was begun at Kotagiri, and in 1 863 tlie estate known as Belmont -"jT. ^
was formed on the Bishopsdown property in Ootacamand.
In Sir William Denison's reign some direct encouragement was Ti-a manipu-
afforded to the industry by introducing, in 1863, skilled manipula- jj^^.„^| .^„a '^
tors from the North-West Provinces, distributing in 1864 a nmserv
supply of tea seed procured from the same source gratuitously, Doddubeita.
and by forming (18()4) a small tea nursery for raising good and
fresh seed at Doddabetta within the Government Chinchona
Plantations. The manipulators remained eighteen months ; their
services do not appear to have been much appreciated. The
nursery at Doddabetta has been of little use to Government or the
public, and is now leased to a private planter.
The energy however of the Nilagiri planters has sufficed for the A^iicultiuai
success of the enterprise without the fostering aid of Government, an^ its*^re3uit3
The introduction of the new Waste Land Rules in 1863 was, as to u-a.
however, the measure which set this energy free. By the end
of 1869 there were probably some two or three hundred acres
of tea cultivation in the district. At the Agricultural Exhibition
held at Ootacamand in October 1869 no less than eighteen
exhibitors appeared. The exhibits were in some cases of very
good quality. The teas were with two exceptions black. Report-
ing on this product, the Commissioner, Mr. Breeks, wrote : " I
attach great importance to tea, viewed as an investment for
English capital on these hills. Several private individuals have
commenced its cultivation here, and it is most important to
ascertain whether it can be carried on profitably. * * * *
As far as soil and climate go the practicability of growing tea
on the Neilgherries has been established. But the tea plant will
grow almost anywhere ; what we want to know is whether, under
proper conditions of locality and management, tea planting in
the Neilgherries will pay. Labour, means of transit, quantity
of produce per acre, are all questions for the planter on the spot.
* * * No two planters here manufacture alike ; and colour,
strength, and flavour are much affected by elevation.^'
He suggested to Government the forwarding of the specimens
to England for brokers' opinions. The Government approved
the suggestion. The brokers' report will be found in G.O.,
16th September 1870. Many of the exhibits were pronounced
good and some very good, the values ranging from Is. 4cZ. to Qs.
per pound. The Government, in agreeing to the above proposal,
requested the Commissioner to report as to the steps to be taken
to develope the enterprise. This report will be found in G.O., 5th
October 1871, Revenue Department. The planting community
suggested the following measures : —
I. Free tenure of land for a certain period.
66
514
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXIX.
Tea.
Exports and
imports.
II. The introduction by Government of experts to teach
the best method of manufacture.
III. The purchase of Indian instead of China tea by the
Commissariat.
IV. The importation and raising by Government of the best
kinds of hybrid China and indigenous Assam seed.
The first concession was partially accorded by Government,
the second refused, as also the third, the last was approved, but
the approval was practically inoperative.
In treating of this enterprise, Mr. Breeks urged the import-
ance of encouraging tea-planting to the utmost with the view
of developing the resources of the N"ilagiris and other hill
plateaux, holding that as the plant flourished in climates congenial
to the European constitution, it aiforded " the best hope of
inducing any number of them to people our hill plateaux.'' This
forecast seems likely to be fulfilled as regards the Nilagiris, for in
the eight years that have passed since he wrote the area taken up
for this cultivation has risen to 4,200 acres, of which 2,550 are
mature and ],650 immature plants, the yield of which must
approximate 400,000 lb., in value probably not less than Rupees
3,50,000. The land taken up for the cultivation exceeds 7,000
acres, being double the area so appropriated in 1876.
The following statement shows the quantity of tea exported
from, and imported into, the Presidency from 1869-70 to 1878-79.
The figures indicate a rapid increase in the local consumption of
tea, as, although much of the tea manufactured in the Presidency
is consumed in the country, the imports do not indicate a corre-
sponding decline.
Imports and Exports of Tea into and from Madras Presidency {including
foreign and coasting, hut excluding British Ports vnthin the Presi-
dency).
Years.
Imports.
Exports.
Quantity.
Value.
Quantity.
Value.
LB.
RS.
LB.
RS.
1869-70
183,176
1,84,552
6,245
9,238
1870-71
140,924
1,40,924
20,342
20,611
1871-72
256,433
2,56,433
37,922
50,001
1872-73
221,042
2,20,738
43,591
52,614
1873-74
149,641
1,49.681
80,907
89,496
1874-75
147,957
1,47,253
98,694
1,20,751
1875-76
220,636
2,14,197
122,981
1,47,926
1876-77
41,227 1
38,354
153,007
1,72,763
1877-78
167,643
1,40,050
183,620
1,93,294
1878-79
175,237
1,15,730
210.146
2,17.194
' Imports from Calcutta very small.
MANCTAL OF THE NILAGIBl DISTRICT, 515
The following paper has been kindly prepared by Mr. Brace, CH. XXIX.
one of the earliest tea planters in the district. Mr. Brace has also
had considerable experience in tea cultivation in Northern India.
I have onaitted the introductory historical notice and remarks
relating to climate and soil, regarding which information is given
elsewhere.
Tea.
MONOGEAPH ON THE CULTIVATION OF TEA ON THE
NILAGIEIS.
(By E. J. C. Brace, Esq., of K6tagiri.)
Suitability of climate and soils of the district for growth of tea. — Varieties of the
plant — the China — the indigenous — the hybrid. — Selection of seed. — Selection of
land — aspect and soil — lay of land — clearing — shelter— terracing — lining —
pitting —planting. — Nurseries — propagation by cuttings — cultivation and
pruning — yield. — Manuring — manures and their application. — Weeding. —
Fodder crops. — Manufacture — difference between black and green teas. —
Manufacture of black tea — withering — rolling — second rolling — rolling by
machinery— colouring — drying appliances— drying off — storing — tasting teas. —
Manufacture of green tea — sifting — packing.
For all practical purposes the Nilagiris may, as regards their Suitability of
Buitability for tea cultivation, be divided into two main divisions/ soj^^for^tea
each having a different climate, which not only necessitates the
cultivation of a different class of plant, but also a different course of
treatment. A line drawn across the map of the Nilagiri District,
from Kodanad on the north to Melkunda on the south, will as
nearly as possible effect the de.sired demarcation. The eastern
half will show the warm and sheltered side, which is not only
protected from the violence of the south-west monsoon, but also
less subject to the cold dry winds of the winter season. The
* Since the above lines were wi-itten the large tract of country known as South.
East Wainad has been added to the Nilagiri District. I am of opinion that both
the climate and soil are all that could be desired for successful cultivation of the
tea plant, and am confident that with a good selection of plant, and equally high
cultivation, gardens here will rival both in quantity and quality of their produce
the best gardens of Assam and Cachar. Pure indigenous plants might be grown
here with the greatest success. There are several classes of soils unsuited to coffee,
but on which tea will thrive. The ti-aveller passing through Waindd can hardly
fail to notice, on almost every estate, a greater or less extent of exhausted or
1 diseased coffee, the maintenance of which can hardly be compensated for by the
crop. Yet these same poor fields might be made to yield excellent crops of tea.
In some places the pi-evalence of bug, borer, or leaf disease renders coffee cultivation
a very precarious investment, but as tea is never matei'ially affected by these pests
it may be gi-own with safety. The worst enemy of the tea plant is the red spider,
but that has not hitherto, to my knowledge, been met with in Southern India.
Better grown tea plants than those now coming into bearing in the Ouchterlony
Valley could not, I believe, be found in Assam or Cachar, and the teas produced
there should, with careful manufacture, hold their own well in the London market.
516 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT,
CH. XXIX. western half will point out those parts of the district where
Z plantations are not only as a rule situate at higher elevations, but
where growth and yield are much curtailed by what amounts
virtually to a double wintering, viz., during the high cold and
damp winds of the south-west monsoon, and the clear sharp dry
winds and nightly frost of the cold season. The severity of the
climate checks the growth and yield of the plants to such an extent
that bushes five years old will show less vigorous growth and
constitution than plants of half that age grown at the same elevation
on the eastern side of the hills. The black sour grass lands I look
upon as wholly unfitted for tea cultivation ; not but what they
may be made capable of yielding some return after some years, but
because the money so spent would have yielded a treble or
quadruple return if invested on soil that had good drainage and
was of a freer nature. The lands best suited to successful cultiva-
tion of the tea plant lie along the southern and eastern slopes of
the hills. These have the advantage of getting a fair share of
both monsoons, possess a warmer and more equable climate, and
the atmosphere taken throughout the months of the year contains
a greater percentage of humidity. In many parts these lands are
very stony, but this is rather an advantage than a drawback,
provided the stone present is in detached boulders, and not in
the form of sheet rock at a short depth below the surface. Stones
not only facilitate free drainage, a matter of no small importance .
to the health of the tea plant, but they retain moisture both beneath
and around them ; they absorb heat during the day and give it out
at night, thus rendering the temperature in their immediate
neighbourhood more equable ; and also, by their constant decay
under atmospheric influences, they provide a valuable supply of
inorganic food for the roots of plants. That stony lands are less
easy to cultivate in the first instance must be admitted, but their
fertility makes ample amends for this defect.
Varieties of Before going further in my remarks on the climate and soils of
t ie ea p an . ^-^^^^ hills, it will be better to describe the several varieties of plant
cultivated, as the suitability of the variety to the soil and elevation
of the site selected has a great deal to do with the success of a
garden.
—the China. First we have to deal with the pure China plant. This is a
low-growing shrub vdth. small, harsh, dark green leaves, growing
at first with a single stem, but very soon throwing up additional
suckers, and the more these are cut near the surface of the
ground the more numerous do they become. The leaf hardens |
and the young wood ripens more rapidly than does that of either of
the other varieties, and in consequence the plant bears seed earlier i
and to a very much greater extent. Amongst pure Cliina plants
a very great difi'ercnce exists in the size and texture of the leaf of
MANUAL OP THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT. 517
individual plants, even in cases in which the seed from which the CH. XXIX.
plants were raised has been obtained direct from China. In its Z
native country it has to endure great extremes both of heat and
cold, and this natural hardiness is its sole merit. It is therefore
the variety in some respects best calculated to succeed in the
highlands of the western division.
The indigenous plant forms a marked contrast to the above, —the
In the first place it is not a shrub, but a forest tree of moderate i°<i^g®"""''-
size, found in its wild state in the warm, moist valleys of Assam
and Munnipoor. Unchecked, it will grow up with a single stem to
a height of 25 to 30 feet. It has large light green leaves, of a very
soft texture, broad in the centre, but very acuminate at the apex.
This plant, as its natural habitat implies, is partial to tropical
climates, and although it can, when two years old, with its roots
well established, bear an extreme degree of heat with impunity, it
suffers very much both in health and productiveness if subjected
to frost or cold winds. At the higher elevations of these hills the
growth of this variety is partially stunted. Its cultivation there-
fore, by itself, in gardens should not ordinarily be attempted at
higher elevation than from 5 to 6,000 feet. On the eastern
slopes of these hills, how low down tea of this variety may be
grown is a point we have yet to ascertain, but on the western
side, the whole of the Wainad, or at any rate all the lands suitable
for coffee, are well suited for the cultivation of this and the hybrid
variety. The plants seldom bear much seed unless allowed to
grow unchecked.
I now come to the most generally useful variety of the tea plant — the
in cultivation, viz., the hybrid plant. A first-class hybrid combines hybrid.
a great deal of the hardiness of the China plant with the
vigorous growth, size, softness of leaf, and great productiveness
of the indigenous plant. It seldom bears sufficient seed to
hinder its yield of leaf, and the seed it does produce has too
great a marketable value to make it advisable to strip it from the
trees before it reaches maturity. There are, as is natural, plants
of this kind of every type and quality, and although a garden
may be planted with seed produced by bushes of the highest
x;lass, it may often be no easy matter to find among the plants so
produced any half dozen exactly alike. Let it, however, approach
the China plant ever so closely in appearance, it will be found to
yield more than twice as much leaf as the latter, and, on the
other hand, however closely it may resemble the indigenous, it
will be found possessed of a more vigorous constitution and less
liable than either of the other varieties to disease. It may be
grown with advantage as high as 6 or 7,000 feet in sheltered
localities ; ^ and as low down as the indigenous plant is found to
^The plant flourishes in Ootacamand at elevations approaching 8,000 feet.— Ed.
518 - MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXIX. thrive ; as a rule it grows naturally with a single stem, and in
rpg^ cases where it has a tendency to produce more, these may easily
be removed without fear of their renewal. Individually I do not
object to two or three stems, as these plants seldom throw out
suckers unless the roots are injured close to the stem of the tree.
Both the indigenous and hybrid varieties need a better soil
than that in which China plants may be grown, but I never advise
tea planting on lands which do not possess to a considerable
extent natural richness, and care must be taken that this standard
of fertility is at any rate maintained if it cannot be improved.
Selection The impression that the tea plant succeeds best in a cold
climate is erroneous. Tea plants do not grow freely or mature
their seed so well at a high elevation as they do lower down, and
the plants raised from seed so grown must share to some extent
the weakness of the parent plant. Thus seed procured from the
Government garden in Doddabetta ^ would be held in small
esteem by an experienced planter. European aginculturists lay
great stress upon the selection for seed purposes of only the
heaviest and best developed grains ; and the same rule holds
good in tea planting also.
It is but from a few gardens in Assam, and one or two only
on the Nilagiris, and that in very limited quantities, that really
first-class hybrid seed can be obtained. In Assam the gardens
best known to me as supplying a good class of plant are the
Bishnauth, Luckimpore, and Hool Maree Company's Estates.
On very many gardens the mixed nature of the plant renders it
undesirable that seed should be purchased from them. It seldom
costs less than Rupees 80 to deliver a maund of seed on these
hills, and its turning out good or bad is a mere lottery.
I succeeded once in raising from two maunds of Bishnauth seed
45,500 plants ; last year from the same quantity treated with
great care I only obtained two seedlings. This uncertainty is a
' In paragraph 23 of his letter, G.O., 28th August 1874, Mr. Cockerell, speaking
of the late Mr. W. G. Mclvor, remarks : —
" He says that the seed grown on it is more adapted to the wants of planters
than seed grown at Burliar could be, because seed from the latter spot would be
planted out at a greater elevation, and would throw weakly seedlings owing to the
greater cold, whereas seeds grown higher up do not suffer on being planted at a
lower elevation.
" 24. I take it that Mr. Mclvor's opinion on this point must be considered
decisive."
My experience is directly against Mr. Cockerell's theory regarding tea seed.
I have never yet seen really well filled seeds of the indigenous and hybrid varieties
grown at the higher elevations. The result is generally a shell of the usual size
and a small undeveloped shrivelled nut inside. A well-developed seed grown at
any elevation will, all other circumstances being the same, produce a stronger
plant than a half-formed one. A visit to a well-cared-for nursery, situated about
5,500 feet elevation, filled with plants raised from seed imported dii-cct from
Assam, will serve best to upset the above theory.
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT. 519
very serious matter to a man who is opening out largely and CH. XXIX.
dependent on Bengal for his supply of seed. An average of from ^^
lOjOOO to 12,000 plants per maund of imported seed must be
considered satisfactory.
From a maund of seed off my own hybrid plants grown at a
mean elevation of 5,400 feet I can as a rule raise from 25,000 to
30,000 seedlings, and the plants so raised are in no way inferior to
those imported direct from Assam. That the produce of plants
grown on the liills at a moderate elevation is quite as good as
that imported has been satisfactorily proved. Had the course
I proposed been adopted at the time of its suggestion, I feel confi-
dent that great stimulus would have been given to tea planting on
these hills.
Mr. Robertson, the Superintendent, Government Farm, Saida- Selection
pet, as also did the late Mr. Mclvor, lays great stress upon the ^^^spect and
subject of aspect. They maintain that the northern slopes of soil.
these hills are invariably better clothed vnth a natural growth
of vegetation, and consequently better supplied with springs of
water ; also that in addition to these advantages the growth of
vegetation on slopes facing the north was more rapid, and the
heat during the dry months from the southerly declination of the
sun's course less severely felt. It would be presumptuous on my
part to pass over the opinion held by such scientific and experi-
enced authorities, but I must confess that, after having cultivated
the tea plant on all aspects, I have never been able to attribute
the freer growth of any one plot of cultivation to aspect alone.
Soil and shelter from wind were generally able to account for it.
Nor am I of opinion that the richest soils, consequently those
best adapted to the successful cultivation of the tea plant, are
only to be met with on lands still covered with natural forest.
There are large tracts of scrub grass and fern lands, more
especially in the sheltered valleys of the eastern slopes, which,
no doubt, previous to the immigration of the Badagas to these
hills, were covered by natural forest ; and many of these by the
secondary growth give positive evidence of the fact. Doubtless
the Badagas, on their establishing themselves on these hills,
were possessed of sufficiently sound judgment to avail themselves
of the right which lay in their power, viz., to select the most
favourable sites for the erection of their villages and the cultiva-
tion of their crops ; and a careful observer will note that they have
almost invariably succeeded in doing so. One of the safest tests
of the suitability of a plot of land for tea cultivation is a luxuriant
growth of the common bracken fern (Fteris aquiUna). It clearly
indicates sufficient moisture, richness of soil, and good drainage.
Such lands undoubtedly require constant weeding for the first
three years, but amply repay the trouble and care taken with them.
lav of land.
520 MANUAL OF THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT.
CU XXIX. With regard to the lay of the land, the less the slope the better ;
■Tk\. ^^ ^^^^ ^^* lands, provided they possess good drainage and are
not subject to frosts, are the most suitable. Steep lands, if
stony, may be terraced, a practice which should be carried out
more extensively than it now is on these hills. The soil is of
as great importance to the planter as his capital. Whenever
the surface soil with its strong proportion of organic matter has
been lost, there remains little but the inorganic subsoil, which
unless heavily manured cannot maintain the vigour of the plants.
—clearing. The first operation to be performed is the clearing of the
natux'al growth on the land to be opened out. On heavy forest
lands the general rule is to cut every thing, except a few of the
trees whose timber is valuable : these are rung and left standing.
The usual rate for clearing these lands by contract is Rupees
12 per cawny (1^ statute acres). On the more lightly wooded
lands, many planters leave a few trees here and there for
appearance sake ; but this should be done with caution, as many
of our jungle trees are infested throughout the greater part of
the year by swarms of caterpillars, which descend at night and
commit great havoc amongst the leaves of young plants. More-
over there are but few trees beneath whose shade, or within
range of whose roots, tea plants will make a satisfactory growth.
The trees where rung can subsequently, when seasoned, be felled
and cut up for timber. They are not likely to injure the plants
materially by their fall, as would be the case on a coffee or
chinchona estate.
— stieiter. It is very necessary on forest land to leave belts from 20 to 30
yards wide on all exposed ridges, or on the more open lands to
plant belts of quick-growing trees {eucalypti, the larger varieties
of chinchona, &c.) to check the violence of the monsoon gales.
Shelter fi-om strong wind is absolutely essential to good growth.
Moreover the soil on ridges of the above description is seldom
of very superior quality, and the planter must bear in mind that
one acre of well sheltered tea is worth two that are exposed or
planted in a hard gritty sub-soil. Both the sources and course of
springs and streams must be left well protected by natural wood,
or the water-supply will be much diminished, in some cases lost
altogether. It is false economy in order to secure an extra acre
or so of tea, to run the chance of losing one's water-supply or
to lessen the power of attracting mists and clouds, and causing
the moisture they contain to be precipitated.
A heavy burn is only desirable on strong clays. On the lighter
lands it sets free, to a great extent, in the form of gases, the
organic matters contained in the surface soil. Roots and stumps
should, as far as practicable^ be collected and either carried away
MANUAL OF THE XILVGIRI DI.STRICT.
i21
or burnt in heaps. If left about on the ground they merely CB. XXIX.
serve the purpose of breeding myriads of white-ants. rp^^
When the ground has been thoroughly cleared, the planter can
easily determine the manner in which he will lay out his estate.
The sites for the buildings and nurseries cau now be selected,
as also the course of the roads and drains.
In my opinion vei'y steep slopes should not be cultivated unless —terracing.
means of terracing substantially are at hand, and even then drains
at wide intervals may be necessary to break the force of a heavy
fall of water. These drains should be laid out at a gradient of
1 in 30 to 1 in 40. The general cost of terracing comes as a rule
to about the same as that of pitting, viz.. Rupees 20 to 25 per
acre. In the cases of light showers, the terraces absorb the
rainfall instead of letting it run off the ground. It is always
advisable to demarcate, at any rate, and if possible, to partially
cut out the traces of the roads and drains before beginning to
line the estate.
The next business is to line the estate, i.e., mark out by means —lining.
of pegs or slips of bamboo, the exact spot at which a pit is to be
dug for the reception of the plant. This is most easily accom-
plished by the aid of a Chesterman^s land chain 100 feet long, in
links of 1 foot each, and a staff indicating the distance between
the rows for the men at each end of the chain. The whole
appearance of the garden in after years depends upon the
accuracy with which this work has been performed. The first
step to be taken is to lay a horizontal base line as far as you can,
and then from its centre set off a vertical line and work from
that. The lines must be kept accurate, not following the curves
of the hill. In spite of their somewhat set and square appearance
they will be more pleasing to the eye than a succession of
irregular curves. The cost of lining should not exceed Rupees 5
per acre.
The land has now to be pitted. A cylindrical pit of 18 inches —pitting.
in width and depth is the best size. These pits are usually made
by contract at the rate of Rupees 12-8-0 per 1,000, or, if executed
by the planter's own labour, at Rupees 10 per 1 ,000. When the
land has to be terraced this work should be done after the lining
and before the pitting. Some planters incline to horizontal
trenches 18 inches wide and deep, but the cost is much greater,
and while the roots have soft ground to work their way through
on two sides, on the other two they ai'e met by a hard compact
surface.
In the earlier days of tea-planting, very wide distances were
advocated, sometimes as much as 7 feet by 7 feet for indigenous
plants. Experience has^ however^ taught us that shrubs planted
66
522 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH, XXIX. mucli closer, and confined to narrower limits, yield a very mucli
rpj,^ larger return, and that too at a less cost.
At present it is the rule in Assam to put out hybrid plants
at a distance of 4 feet by 4 feet, and very large returns are thus
obtained at an early age. On the other hand, the very close
system, 3 feet by 2 feet and 2^ feet by 2^ feet, frequently prac-
tised in Darjeeling and the North-West Provinces, is not to be
recommended.
In my opinion for a fair class of hybrid plant 3 feet by
3 feet is the closest that the bushes should be planted at the high
elevations on the western side of the Nilagiris ; and 4 feet by
4 feet, or at the outside 4 feet by 3 feet at elevations of 6,000
feet and downwards on the eastern and southern slopes of the
hills. Planting 4 feet by 4 feet will give on land perfectly free
from stone, and excluding the space occupied by roads, drains,
&c., 2,722 plants per acre, but making allowance for these, say a
little over 2,000 plants clear per acre. Two small compact bushes
4 feet in diameter will yield a very much larger supply of leaf
than would the bush of 8 feet diameter, and the amount of
manure required per acre will remain the same.
A few planters incline to the hedge system of cultivation^
say 3 feet apart in the row and 5 or 6 feet between the rows.
The system is not one to be recommended : it is far better to let
each plant have a regulated distance on all sides to which it can
spread its roots in search of nourishment. Others incline to
what is called the quincunx system, i.e., commencing the second
line from half way between the two first pegs and going back to
the same line in the third row as shown. The system has little
to recommend it.
When the pits have been exposed a short time to atmospheric
influence, and the monsoon rains have set in, they may be refilled,
care being taken that only the best soil is returned and that that
is free from roots, weeds, stones, &c. The soil should be heaped
up to some height in the centre, as the rains will soon compress
it again, and a small pit in which water will lodge would be the
result. The cost of this work will be about Rupees 2-8-0 per
1,000 pits,
-planting. The land is now ready to be planted. There are two ways of
doing this, and both have their advocates, viz., planting the seed
in situ and transplanting seedlings from nurseries. In .<??'/ k plant-
ing is performed by sowing three or four tea seeds, germinated
or fresh, in each pit, shading or not according to the state of the
weather, and subsequently, when they are 2 or 3 inches high,
leaving the strongest grower in the pit. Those removed serve
to fill up vacancies that may exist, or may be planted in a nursery
for use the following season. Some planters allow all to grow up
MANUAL OF TllK NILAailM UISTIUCT. 523
together unchecked, but iuvuriubly one takes the lead and out- CH. >
strips all the others in growth. A single plant in sole possession ^^
of the pit will always produce a finer and more vigorous bush —
than can several seedlings huddled up together. There is not
the slightest doubt that on well-drained lands with a moderate
incline and in favourable seasons the planting of germinated seeds
in situ is a saving of both labour and money. The risk attached
to so doing is that on these hills we can never rely thoroughly
on the weather that may prevail at any particular season of the
year, and close observation and record over a series of years
have only led to very mystifying results. Tea seed that is
imported from Assam ripens generally about the middle or end
of October, and seldom reaches the Nilagiris earlier than the end
of December or early in January. The first quarter of the year
frequently passes without a drop of rain having fallen, and it
naturally follows that planting in situ under such circumstances
would be attended with great risk. If, however, the seed is sown
in nurseries and carefully tended, the plants so raised may be
planted out without any fear of undue loss in the first rains of
the south-west monsoon, and even should that fail, as is sometimes
the case, the planter is almost sure of suitable weather before
October ; but the earlier in the season the plants are put out the
better, as they are then enabled to establish themselves well and
make some growth previous to encountering the trials of a hot
season. It is however as well to wait for the second or third
shower to plant up pits that have been recently filled in. The
loose soil has become more compact, and the heat generated
by the first fall has had time to pass away.
Nilagiri seed, on the other hand, ripens between March and
August, the crop lasting as a rule over three months, and the
time of its commencement depending much on the quantity of
rain that fell during the north-east monsoon and the dryness or
otherwise of the first quarter of the year. If therefore the plants
are well shaded up to the time of their attaining 2 inches or so
in height, and no floods occur to wash the seedlings out of the
ground, tliey have every chance of making a strong and vigorous
growth, and the check occasioned by removal of a strong seedling
is avoided. This is more especially the case when the seed has
been germinated previous to its being sown in the pits. In the
case of planting germinated seeds in the pits, two seeds to each
pit will be found ample, and the nearer they are situate to the
centre of the pit the better the subsequent appearance of the
garden will be. In situ tea-planting on these hills, however,
always involves more or less risk. A tea plant raised in a nursery,
if planted with care and of a moderate size, is by far the most
524 MANUAL OF THE NirAGIRI DISTEICT.
CJI. XXIX. likely ultimately to succeed, and this course will in the majority
;j77~' of cases be pursued by the planter who prefers certainty to
chance.
There is a practice now coming much into favour of raising
the germinated seed in small baskets of split bamboo : and thus
transferring them to the pits they are meant to occupy. The
outer covering of bamboo soon rots, and allows free passage to
the lateral rootlets. In the case of filling up vacancies this
system has much to commend it.
Nurseries. Concluding that the planter has in part at all events preferred
the certainty to the chance, and made up his mind to raise at any
rate a great portion of his plants in nurseries, we have now to
consider the formation of the nurseries in which these seeds are
to be sown. In all tea seed there is a proportion, seldom less
than 8 per cent., of empty shells or unripe nuts, and these planted
out in beds not only waste room, but give the beds an unsightly
appearance when the plants have begun to show above ground.
The best site for a nursery is a piece of level ground, if such
can be procured — failing that, a gentle slope on which terraced
beds can be easily cut out. A very convenient size for nursery
beds is in my opinion 30 feet long by 5 feet wide, with 2| or 3
feet paths between the beds. The beds themselves should be
well dug to a depth of 18 inches, and raised about 4 to 6 inches
above the level of the paths. It is by no means a bad plan to
lay the top soil of the paths on to the beds. The edges may be
faced with stone, flat tiles, bamboo slips — on no account should
solid manure be appUed to nurseries ; it attracts larvae of all kinds,
which do much damage by eating the tender roots of the seedling.
The surface should be made perfectly smooth and even. On this
the seeds may be spread in a layer one seed thick, and covered
over with an inch or an inch-and-a-half of good sandy loam. A
good watering should be given in the first instance, and afterwards
a lighter one from time to time as necessary. The seed of the tea
plant, like most other seeds of a fleshy description, is very
intolerant of an excessive supply of water, and this is more espe-
cially the case with seed that has travelled a long distance, say
from Assam, and been allowed to dry partially on the journey.
The greatest caution must be used therefore in giving these
seeds just as much water as they can utilize and no more. At
the end of five weeks the upper layer of soil may be removed, and
those seeds that have commenced to throw out a radicle, or have
burst their shell, may be taken out for sowing in the nurseries.
The remainder should be covered over agaiu and let alone for
another fortui"-ht.
MAXCIAL OF TIIK NILAGIRl DISTRICT. 525
For the purpose of sowing seeds with regularity and precision CH. XXIX.
I generally employ a board about 2| inches broad, and of a length rp^^
equal to the width of the bed. Along each side of the board corre-
spending notches are cut 2| inches apart, and these denote the spot
on which each seed is to be placed. By always working with a few
rows uncovered, the lines may be kept straight throughout the
whole length of the bed. The seeds should be sown in shallow
drills about 1^ inches deep. A board as described above makes
the seedlings stand about 3^ to 2^ inches apart in the bed : and
this is about as close as will admit of the young seedlings being
taken up subsequently with a good ball of earth attached to their
roots.
If it is desired to produce seed that shall remain true to a certain — propaga-
type, that procured from plants raised from cuttings is most likely c^t^tjngg.
to attain the desired object ; but for general purposes the planting
out of cuttings cannot be too strongly condemned. But with regard
to yield the experiment has been made overand over again in various
districts during the past twenty years, and in no case with anything
like the success that attends the planting out of seedlings. The
reason is obvious. Let any one examine the roots of a four or
five-year old plant raised from a cutting, and he will find that it
shows no sign of possessing a tap-root. Such plants consequently
sufier much in dry weather, and even in favourable seasons do not
yield in anything like the same proportion as bushes that have
been grown from seed. For these hills there is nothing like a
small healthy seedling, taken up with a compact ball of earth
adhering to its roots. Early or late in the season it stands the shift
better, is sooner established, and when once started makes rapid
growth. The utmost care is needed not to bend or otherwise
injure the tap-root of the plant, and in transplanting the roots
should be buried just up to the collar and no further. From 4 to
6 inches in height is a nice size at which to plant seedlings out.
I have seen many planters fork up or pull like carrots both tea
and coffee seedlings, and plant them out regardless of the tap-
root being broken. No one could expect such a plant to thrive.
Shading in favourable monsoon weather is in my opinion unneces-
sary and unadvisable, but in the case of planting of necessity,
very early or very late, in broken weather, will do much to
establish and keep the plants in health, I would strongly urge
the importance of careful planting : vacancies are avoided, and a
fine growth encouraged. It is best to leave the young plants
alone for a month or six weeks after planting, when a good
weeding may be given all over the estate. From this time
however the land cannot be kept too scrupulously clean. A
cooly should plant out 200 to 250 plants in a day. Sickly plants
can generally be detected three months after planting, and these
520 MANUAL OP THE XILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXIX. should be replaced as early as possible by healtlxy individuals
Z raised in bamboo baskets. English garden trowels are the best
tools for transplanting- purposes. The average cost of planting
out may be said to be about Rupees 3 to 4 per acre,
—cultivation The year after planting, so soon as the spring showers set in,
piunmg. ^^^ young plants will commence to shoot freely. Until they
have attained a height of from 18 inches to 2 feet they are best
left alone ; but when the centre and main lateral shoots show
an undue tendency to upward growth, they should be cut back.
The more spindly the centre growth, the closer back it should
be cut. This comparatively rough treatment of the centre will
determine the flow of sap more strongly into the lower side
branches, and cause the young plants to fill out into symmetrical
bushes. Lateral growth might be equally well encouraged by
stopping the lateral shoots, and the leaf so obtained might be
made into tea. Much risk, however, attends this operation, as it
is difficult to make the pickers understand clearly the difference
between those shoots which should be picked and those that are
best left alone. A light trimming with a knife to all straggling
branches is a much safer course.
As far as possible the plants should be trained to a single stem
for at least 6 inches above ground. A light surface trimming
about the middle of the south-west monsoon, followed by a some-
what severer one at the end of the north-east rains, will probably
be found sufficient during the second year. A couple of months
or so after this second trimming a crowd of young succulent
shoots will spring up all over the surface of each plant ; and
when these have attained a fair length, say from 6 to 8 inches,
the upper leaves may be picked and manufactured. The greatest
care however must be taken to allow the lateral branches to grow
unchecked. From 2| to 3 feet is about the best height at which
to maintain the surface-level of the plants at pruning. This will
allow them from 1 to 1 4 feet of upward growth during the course
of the picking season ; and so long as they are maintained within
these limits the women and children can reach with ease the
shoots that have to be plucked. About July the plants will be
old enough to undergo their first systematic pruning. The upward
shoots from which crop has been taken will be shortened back to
1| or 2 inches of young wood at their base, and those lateral
shoots that show much growth will be shortened back to due
limits. This course of treatment will be continued until the
plants have fully covered their ground, by which time they will
have nearly attained their full jnelding power.
Judging from my own experience, the best time for pruning is
from early June to middle of August, and it is generally about
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
527
this season^ that the seed crop of the preceding year has matured, CH. XXIX.
and that of the coming season has formed its flower buds. Except- ^^
ing at very low elevations hard pruning every year is not advisable.
The growth at the higher elevations is not suSiciently strong to
enable the plants to stand it. Severe pruning once in from 3 to 4
years is sufficient, and should in old estates be accompanied by
forking and manuring wherever practicable.
A few remarks are necessary on the subject of picking. It has —picking.
been already stated that after the second trimming, plucking
may be commenced from the centre shoots that have made a
growth of from 6 to 8 inches : the lighter, within reasonable limits,
that these shoots are picked the better. Young plants of this age
have seldom many more leaves than are sufficient to keep the
plant in health and support vigorous growth. It is only the
supernumerary leaves produced in excess of the requirements
by a course of artificial treatment that should be picked and made
into tea. The planter's object is to produce an excessive and
unnatural yield of leaf, and to do this and maintain the trees in
health, skilful management is necessary.
Each of the leaves on the above shoot are known to planters by
technical names, as follows : —
1 At high elevan'ona February and March are the best months in which to
prune. — Ed.
528 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTEICT.
CH. XXIX. The convolute hud a is generally known as the flowery pekoe
1^ leafj h and c as orange pekoe leaves, e and/ as souchong, and g
and h, Avere they sufficiently tender in our climate for the purpose
of manufacture, would turn out the coarse leaf known as congou
and bohea. But these leaves are not all picked separately, as
their names would lead one to suppose ; the sorting of the teas
is accomplished by means of sieves subsequent to manufacture,
and will be treated of in its proper place.
The leaves a and h should be picked together at the point
marked in the diagram, the leaves c, d, e, f and g just above the
bud at the axil of the leaf, care being taken to leave just sufficient
of the leaf above the petiole to protect and support the latent
bud. In cases where the planter picks all the leaves, the quality
of his teas will be materially improved if the leaves are picked
and manufactured separately, but there is little objection to the
four leaves a, h, c, d, being picked and manufactured together.
The shoots even of old bushes should be allowed to make fair
growth for the first few pickings after pruning ; afterwards, when
leaves are more numerous, closer plucking may be resorted to.
The convolute bud at the apex of each shoot is what is ultimately
known in the manufactured article as the pekoe tip, that white or
orange downy leaf, a full proportion of which shows care in the
plucking and manufacture and materially increases the value of
the tea.
—yield. On the Nilagiris and other elevated hill ranges where tea is
grown the yield cannot come up in quantity or strength to
that of gardens situate in more tropical climates. The hill
planter must therefore rely more on the quality than on the
quantity of his outturn.
A good garden of hybrid plants at an elevation of 5,500 to 6,000
feet should, under proper treatment, yield when seven years
old from 300 to 350 lb. per acre of manufactured tea, and there
is every reason to believe that manured and highly-cultivated
estates may be made to produce from 350 to 450 lb. per acre.
On the western side of the hills, on the high elevations, I think
that from 150 to 250 lb. should be looked upon as a satisfactory
return.^
The following table will give an idea of what outturn may
reasonably be expected under favourable circumstances : —
1st year Nil.
2nd ,, „
1 I think Mr. Brace has put these figures too low. From 200 to 300 lb. is in my
opinion a moderate estimate. — Ed,
Tea.
MANUAL OF THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT. 529
3rd year 120 150 CH. XXIX.
4th „ 160 ... ... 200
5th „ ... ... 220 300
6th „ 250 350
7th „ 300 350
Low sheltered sites with good soil and sufficient rainfall will
give far greater results than gardens that are less fortunately
situated.
With regard to the manuring of tea estates, we know Manuring.
that where suitable manures can be purchased and applied at
moderate rates, the yield of gardens has in several instances
been more than doubled — in fact, that any advance towards high
cultivation is found remunerative. No tract of land can go
on steadily year after year yielding up its stores of organic
and inorganic matter without becoming in time perfectly sterile,
unless some restitution is made. The tea planter cannot avail
himself of the rotation of crops, and the maintenance of fertility
in his soil must ^Q gathered from extraneous sources. Space
will not allow of my dealing with this subject at length in
this paper, but a few remarks on the chief constituents of the
ash of the leaf of the plant, the manures most suited to supply its
demand, and the best methods for their application may be
treated of briefly.
A sample of Nilagiri tea of my own manufacture, kindly
analyzed by Professor R. Harvey, of the Madras Medical College,
gave the following results : —
Leaves —
Moisture lO'lO
Ash 4-50
Ash-
Potash 30-20
Phos. acid ... 16-89
Silica -70
These are the chief constituents of the soil abstracted by the
production of crops of tea, and unless these important elements
are in proportion to their exhaustion returned to the soil, a
decrease in yield, amounting in the end to absolute sterility, must
result. So far as silica is concerned the soil contains, on all good
tea lands, an almost permanent supply of this element ; the othei-
two, together with various other chemical substances that enter
into the composition of the leaf, must be supplied as needed by
re<Tular manuring. The substances are found as a rule to a
67
530 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
(m. XXIX. sufficient extent in the manures generally in use among planters.
'jT^ Lime, which is generally found present to a considerable extent
in the ashes of most other plants, appears only to an inappreciable
extent in the ash of the tea leaf, the ash of few of the best tea soils
containing I'SO per cent, of this substance in any form; but,
considering the almost total deficiency of our soils as regards
lime, it should not be altogether lost sight of in the manures
applied. The plants will absorb sufficient for their requirements,
rejecting any excess that the soil may contain.
I am indebted to the Indian Tea Gazette of June 20th, 1877,
for the following extract : —
"In order to determine now what mineral plant-food a would-be
good tea soil must contain, and in what proportion, we must base our
remarks upon the tea-plant itself, and upon the inorganic substances
in it as revealed by an analysis of its ashes.
" Mr. Schrottky gives the composition of the ashes of young leaves
of the Assam hybrid tea-plant as follows : —
In 100 Parts.
Chloride of Sodium
Do. Soda
Do. Potash
Do Magnesia
Do. Lime
Oxide of Iron and Manganese
Phosphoric Acid
Silica
and states that old leaves and stems will contain more lime aud siHca
than here represented."
Present limits will not allow of my entering at any length on
the chemistry of the tea-plant. I must content myself with
making a few remarks on the object for which manures are
applied, those best suited to the tea-planter's requirements, and
the best method for their application.
The planter's object in applying manm^es must not merely be
to return to the soil those substances of which previous crops
have deprived it, but also, by the judicious application of those
substances which form the chief constituents of the plant he
intends to cultivate, to increase its capacity for producing crops.
The leading substances which enter into the composition of the
tea plant, and in one or more of which the majority of our tea
soils are presumably deficient, are phosphoric acid, potash, lime,
and sulphuric acid. Silica is always present in abundance.
., ,,,
2-247
8-941
36-514
..
10-089
..
8-517
..
3-966
..
13017
0-439
Total ...
99-944
MANUAL OF THE NILAGTRI DISTRICT. 531
The manures chiefly in use and most easily procured are — CH. xxix.
1. Poudrette. Tka.
2. Horse or Pig manure.
3. Cattle manure.
4. Oilcake.
5. Guano.
6. Fish.
Night-soil has long been known to be one of the most powerful rondretit-.
fertilizers. It contains a large proportion of nitrogen. The most
valuable form is that manufactured on the principle in use by the
Ootacamand Municipality, which process has, by the kind permis-
sion of the Honorary Secretary at that time, been published in my
larger pamphlet on tea cultivation . To quote a few extracts from
that :—
" The poudrette manufactured by the Municipality contains, in
addition to poudrette proper, at least 1 0 per cent, of bone-ash and J 0
to 15 per cent, of sheep and bullock's blood."
Many estates situate within a few miles of Ootacamand,
Coonoor or Wellington, and possessed of good road communication,
are thus enabled to procure a most valuable fertilizer at a
moderate cost The only drawback to its application lies in the
repugnance of all natives, and even of those of the lowest caste,
to have anything to do with it. The bones it contains furnish a
large supply of lime and phosphoric acid. Blood, though seldom
used as a manure by itself, is a- valuable addition to a compoat
on account of the large proportion of nitrogen it contains.
On large estates — and for that matter small ones too — a con-
siderable supply of ordinary poudrette. may be obtained by
establishing a good system of conservancy. The manure so
obtained, when deodorised, may with advantage be mixed up with
other manures, blood, burnt bones, lime, wood-ashes, charcoal,
green weeds, &c. The surface of this and all other manures,
while in the heap, should be well covered with a few inches of
soil to prevent the escape of ammonia and other volatile gases.
It is to be regretted that such a valuable product as this should
be allowed, as is the case on most estates, to go to waste.
Horse and pig manure stand next in order to the above and Horse ami
are richest in nitrogen, and the urine of the pig furnishes a ^"8 niunme.
considerable proportion of phosphoric acid. In a fresh state they
are somewhat too heating, and previous to application should
either be well decomposed or applied in combination with some
other substances as a compost. Horse manure is seldom procura-
ble in any quantit}'-, but such supplies as can be procured should
be made use of.
In my opinion pigs should be kept to a much greater extent
on estates than they are at present, not only on account of the
532 MANUAL OF THE NILAQIKI DISTRICT.
CH. XXIX.
Cattle
uiaiuire
iclmess of theii- manures, as for the immense quantity that they
-Tj,.^ make when well littered down, and the trifling cost of their keep.
They will eat and thrive on almost every weed that grows on an
estate.
Cattle manura is the fertilizer most frequently used by the
planter, and in many cases the only one procurable. It should
be thoroughly decomposed before its application, and is always
the better for being made into compost with other substances.
Though less heating than horse or pig manure, its effects are more
lasting, and it is the only medium with which the more powerful
stimulant manures should in small proportion be applied to the
soil. The effect of a bushel basket of cattle manure may be said
to extend over four years. On all estates some cattle at all
events may be maintained, and if these, or a portion of them,
can be stall fed, a much larger outturn of manure will be obtained.
Manure in a fresh and undecomposed state should not be applied
to the roots of any plant, as it is very apt to promote, especially
in wet weather, fungoid disease of the roots. A bushel basket
of well rotted cattle manure in a fairly dry state will weigh on
an average 25 lb., and one such basket to every tree once in
four years may be considered sufficiently high cultivation. Allow-
ing 2,000 plants on an average to the acre, this will give us a
little over 22 tons to be applied per acre once in every four years.
A garden of 100 acres, of which one-fourth is manured at a time,
will require 550 tons of cattle manure per annum. In all cases
where bone-dust, blood, wood-ashes, lime, &c. are added to the
manure, the greater will be its value.
Sheep and goats' droppings are admirable manures, but they
do not decompose rapidly.
In places where oilcake can be obtained cheap and in large
c^uantities, a considerable increase of yield may be obtained by
its application, and where the manures above named are not
procurable in sufficient quantity I can recommend its use. Its
effect, however, is very transitory, and frequent application will
be needed if much good is to result. Far better feed cattle on
it and use it in the second-hand form.
Guano. Guano is beyond doubt, when obtained in a pure state, the
most poAverful manure known. Its application, except in small
quantities and then in conjunction with other less stimulating
substances, is not unattended with danger. By itself its effect
upon plants is much that of the free use of alcohol on the humau
system. An unnatural vitality is caused only to subside and
bring on relapse directly the stimulant has ceased to act. For
farm crops, where it.s effect is needed on a crop that only occupies
the ground for a short time, its value is decidedly groat; but for
Odc-ike.
MANUAL OP THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT. 533
a permanent crop like tea or coffee its ase, independent of combi- CII. XXix:.
nation witli other substances, is not to bo advised. A small rp^^
quantity, say | to ^ lb. per tree, mixed with half a basket of
animal manui'e, may eke out a scanty supply of the latter, which
latter will in its turn serve to check the reaction which would
otherwise ensue when the stimulating properties of the guano had
subsided.
Fish is a very powerful and forcing manure, and should, in my pish manui-e.
opinion, only be used in combination with animal manures. It is
very rich both in phosphoric acid and niti'ogen. From 1 to 2 lb.
fish to I to 1 basket of cattle manure should not only have a
powerful, but also lasting, effect in increasing the yield of leaf in
a garden.
Its direct action may be speedily noticed in the improved
brilliance and vigour of the foliage of the plant to which it has
been applied.
Having fully discussed the respective merits of the manures —application
generally in use, I now come to consider the best method of
applying them. To illustrate this in the clearest form, I will
avail myself of a short extract from Dr. Lindley's " Theory and
Practice of Horticulture :" —
" As to the use of applying manure, ifc must be obvious that it can
be of nc use unless it is in contact with the absorbing part of the
roots ; now these parts are young fibres and spongides as has been
ah-eaJy stated, and, when plants have arrived at any size, the roots
form the radii of a circle of which the circumference is the principal
line of absorption. This being so, if a plant has arrived at the state of
a bush or tree, it is useless to apply manure at the base of the stem,
because that is precisely where the power of absorption is least, if it
exists at all ; and, as the circle formed by the roots is generally greater
than that of the branches, the proper manner of applying manure is to
introduce it into the ground at a distance from the stem about equal
to the radius formed by the branches, and yet, although this is so
evidently right, I have seen a gai-dener who ought to have known
much better, sedulously administering liquid manure, by pouring it
into the soil at the base of the stem, which is much the same thing as
if an attempt were made to feed a man through the soles of his feet."
To further illustrate the object I have in view, I shall make
another short extract from my lengthier paper on the cultivation
of tea ! —
" Now the part of the foregoing remarks of Dr. Lindley's to which
I wish to draw most earnest attention is that relative to the distance
from the stem at which manure should be applied. There are still, in
Southern India at any rate, planters who believe that close to the stem
is the proper place to bury manure, and many, evidently with a view
to render it still more useless, lump it at a depth far below the range
of feeding rootlets. Now the advice of Dr. Lindley that the manure
53-4 MANUAL OP IHE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXIX. should be laid at a distance from the stem about equal to the radius of
,,~ the branches applies to a tree in the open. On a tea estate, where the
— l^- bashes are grown as closely together as circumstances will permit, we
have plants growing under unnatural circumstances, and as we find it
necessary to curtail the lateral growth of the branches when they
commence to touch one another, so must we deal with the roots also,
more especially when supplying them artificially with food. In fact,
we must endeavour that the feeding roots of each plant shall not, as a
rule, spread much further than a circle formed from the stem with a
radius of half the distance between the plants. It is my favourite plan
therefore to fork a trench between each pair of plants.
Now as the feeding roots of the plant seldom extend downwards
beyond 12 to 18 inches from the surface, and are by far the more
numerous and active towards the top, it stands to reason that the
nearer the manure is brought in contact with these, the greater its
effect will be ; consequently from 9 inches to 1 foot is the best depth
for these holes- When the soil has been removed to this deptli
(injuring the main roots as little as possible), the soil may be loosened
with a fork a few inches deeper with advantage. The small fibrous
roots torn or cut ofi" will soon be reformed, and that in far greater
numbers. I prefer, when practicable, lifting the soil all round the tree,
nowhere nearer than from 15 to 18 inches from its stem, on flat or
uuterraced lands where serious wash is not to be apprehended. On
terracing land pits must be dug between the trees. Many planters lay
down their manure in trenches cut between the rows, but for my own
jiart I prefer the practice above illustrated.
For loose soils and where the trees are planted at fairly wide
distances apart, many planters like to lay their manure on the sui-face
and then fork it in. As a rule much of the manure remains within
reach of atmospheric influence and parts with its nourishment to the
air instead of the plant.
The manure should not be thrown into the holes in a lump, but
well mixed up with the soil, and the whole covered with a good 3
inches of earth to prevent the evaporation of its constituents during
decomposition."
v<-i-iiiiJL' A few remarks are called for on this subject. I would most
strongly urge that land that has been put under tea should be
kept clean from the outset. All plants other than that which it
is the planter's object to cultivate, abstract nourishment from
the soil and do not, even when buried green, return all that they
have absorbed. On light soils hand-weeding is to be preferred.
On stiff soils a light scraping with the mamoty will not injure tlie
trees, but will aid materially in keeping the soil open. Tea will
not be found to thrive on lands which are overrun with grasses,
ojperaceie, or any other dense growth of weeds.
During the first year a weeding once in every six weeks will, in
all probability, be found sufficient, and during the two following
years ouce in every two months. By this time the seeds origi-
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 535
nally contained in the soil have been either extirpated by these Cll. XX IX.
frequent clearings or have in all pi^obability lost their vitality, ij.~'
and but little trouble or expense will be hereafter incurred in ■
keeping the land clean. Some weeds, such as the goat-weed
[Agemtum cordifoUum), exhaust the soil more than others, but as
it is far better to allow none at all to grow, I shall not enter into
further details regarding them. Grasses and ferns are, as a rule,
the most troublesome to extirpate, but a good forking ujd of the
roots will generally be found effectual.
There are but few gardens which cannot spare a few acres for Culture of
the culture of green crops for stall feeding cattle and other stock. ^'''^^'" "''°^''''
The number of profitable plants from which the planter can take
his choice is very considerable. Maize, Guinea, Mauritius, rye,
and other grasses, cabbages, turnips, mangold- wurtzel, swedes,
prickly comfrey, buckwheat, santung cabbage, lucerne, potatoes,
cum multis alils, offer a wide field for choice.
It was originally my intention to enter into some detail with
regard to the various ills, insect and vegetable, to which the tea
plant is heir. I have however arrived at the conclusion that it will
be enough to point out the one unfailing panacea for all these
evils, and that is, good systematic cultivation. Do not overpick
your plants when young or overprune them ; do not let them
become choked by weeds, or fail to feed them when they need it.
There need be but little apprehension of disease if these principles
are carried out : healthy plants are rarely attacked.
So far as the cultivation of the tea plant is concerned my task
is now done. A few paragraphs on the manufacture and on one
or two points of interest connected with tea planting in general
will bring this paper to a close.
In the third year the planter will begin to gather a small On maim-
crop from his garden, and, although this cannot be expected ^^'^*'^^'^-
to pay his working expenses, it will be found to go some
considerable way towards doing so, and fully justify, at the end
of the second year, the erection of a tea-house.
For an estate of 50 acres or less a building 50 feet long and
18 to 20 feet wide, the walls 1| feet thick and 9 feet high inside,
of burnt brick, should give ample accommodation. The roof
should be of corrugated or continuous iron. If a good pitch is
given to the roof, a loft laid on the tie-beams will materially
increase the accommodation.
The furnaces and trays for drying black tea should be laid
along one end wall, their mouths facing outwards, and I most
strongly recommend that all the black and fancy teas should be
dried over iron pla.tes and not by the direct action of charcoal,
as so universally practised in our leading tea districts. Charcoal
536 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
CU. XXIX. lias no direct influence on the quality of tea, whereas the saving
^~ from the use of wood is very considerable.
■ Though it may not be the planter's intention to manufacture
green teas to any extent, it is a good plan to have two or three
iron tea pans in every factory. They are of great service
in warming broken teas previous to packing, and, if a demand
for green teas should occur, can be turned to their legitimate use.
One or two tables, say 12 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 3 feet high,
will be needed for rolling the leaf gathered, and a few zinc-lined
bins, capable of holding from 500 to 2,000 lb. of manufactured
tea, will be found necessary.
I have no opportunity of providing plates to illustrate these
necessary items of tea-house furniture, but as the majority of
estates on these hills are more or less well supplied with them, an
intending planter has only to visit one or two gardens in order
to be fully acquainted with what is necessary.
For many of the details of this subject I shall have to quote
a few extracts verbatim from my lengthier paper on Tea Cultiva-
tion in Southern India.
A slight notice has already been ta.ken of the leaves ordinarily
plucked for the purpose of manufacture. Whether four leaves
as a, h, c, d, are all plucked and manufactured together, or a,
b, c, and cl, e, f, are plucked and prepared separately, matters
little so far as the general description of the various processes to
which the leaf is subjected are concerned.
First, to note the leading points of difference between black
and green teas,
—difference 1. The leaf of the former has a portion of its moisture
bfack and evaporated by withering in the sun (or artificially) until quite
green teas, soft or flaccid. The latter is rendered sufficiently soft for manipu-
lation by a short but brisk panning.
2. With black teas, the juice is retained so far as practicable
in the leaf, and subsequently evaporated by a slower process.
In the manufacture of green teas it is expressed from the outset,
and the leaf subsequently dried at a higher temperature.
3. Black tea is allowed, after the rolling has been completed,
to stand and take colour, i.e., incipient fermentation is allowed
to take place, thereby converting a great portion of the tannin,
the bitter principle contained in tea leaf, into gallic acid, and
thus softening the astringency it would otherwise possess. If
this process is carried too far, strength is lost, and what brokers
term sourness results.
After these few introductory remarks I propose to deal with
the treatment of the leaf from the time it is weighed in at the
factory. If coarse leaves are picked, they should be manufactured
separately from the finer leaves.
MANUAL OF THE N^tl.AGIRI DTSTTJTCT. ^)S7
The manner in wliich leaf should be plucked has already been CK. XXlX.
explained. The next object is that the leaf plucked should be ;j^
kept perfectly cool, not pressed down so hard in the picker's
basket as to generate heat in the centre and thus cause ferment- Qf^^\ayk tea.
ation to set in. As a safeguard against this, the leaf gathered
is weighed in, as a rule, in most gardens twice during the day,
first at from noon to 1 p.m., finally when work is left off. The
leaf brought in is, so soon as it has been weighed, spread out
thinly on racks covered with bamboo mats. A free circulation of
air among the leaf is desirable, as this much hastens the evapora-
tion of the moisture contained in it. The more moisture there
is in the leaf and atmosphere, the thinner it should be spread
out; when this has been done, the leaf is left on the racks until
the following morning.
The first operation now is to wither the leaf, i.e., to extract —withering.
by evaporation so much of the moisture it contains as to enable it
to be rolled and take a good twist without breaking. To do this,
the head tea maker, when the rays of the morning sun have
become sufficiently powerful, spreads it out thinly in shallow flat
baskets, or on bamboo mats, turning it over frequently. When
thoroughly withered the hairy down on the pekoe tips will be
seen to stand clearly out from the leaf when held to the light,
and the stem may be bent back both ways without snapping.
The feel of the leaf is in a great measure the best guide to go by,
but practice only can teach the planters when the leaf is ready
to roll. As in our climate the sun does not always attend on
our wishes, we must at times manage to do without his aid, either
by keeping the leaf until sufficient moisture is evaporated, or by
making it into green tea. Some heat the leaf slightly in pans
or on trays previous to rolling; but I cannot recommend the
practice, as the leaf so treated either turns sour or colours badly
afterwards — in the latter case the outturn shows very green.
When sunshine fails, I advise the planter to spread his leaf out
thinly in a warm corner of the tea-house, and wait patiently until
the leaf is soft enough to roll, when he must do the best he
can with it.
Over exposure to the sun is a mistake, as it blackens some
of the leaf, and causes the fine pekoe tips to become discoloured
and undistinguishable from the coarser leaf. Moreover it much
weakens the infusion. On a moderately bright morning a quarter
of an hour in the sun and an hour or so inside the factory will
bring the leaf into fit condition for rolling.
Previous to the rolling process leaf should never be spread
thickly or allowed to lie in mass, or heat will be generated in the
centre and the tea turn sour.
68
538
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIKl DISTKICT.
Tea.
-rolling.
— second
rolling.
— rolling by
machinery.
"Rolling is a process in which no small amount of dexterity
is required to turn out first-rate work. Some planters roll the
leaf straight out ; others with a circular sweep of the hand,
taking care always to work in the same direction. The latter
motion may be best described as that of an eccentric set on a
false axis. The latter method is the better in my opinion. Some
roll their leaf very heavily, making a regular lather of the juice ;
this is bad, as in addition to weakening the tea by imdue
expression, the finer leaves get broken. The leaf should be
lightly rolled, the juices being little more than brought to the
surface^ and only sufficiently expressed to cause the leaves to
adhere when compressed by the hand into the form of a cone or
ball. The fine twist and curl are communicated to the leaf not
by hard pressure, but by frequently taking up and intermingling
the mass as the rolling progresses, and picking out, for subse-
quent separate treatment, any hard coarse leaves that have been
brought in. As to the amount that a man should take up at a
time, sufficient to make when rolled a ball as large as a full-sized
cricket-ball is enough ; with a smaller quantity the leaf is apt to
be broken, and with the larger the roll will not be even nor the
twist good. The time taken to roll a handful will be from
seven to fifteen minutes. It is better not to judge by time but
from the appearance of the leaf. When ready the leaf should be
taken up between the two hands and pressed into the form of a
ball or cone. Keady for the reception of these a blanket is laid
single -fold on a bin or at one end of the rolling table, the upper
fold being rolled up until the exposed half has been fully covered
with balls of leaf. Few men in Southern India will roll well
more than 25 to 30 lb. of leaf a day.
Some planters are in the habit of giving the leaf a slight
panning and then a light second roll, in order to perfect the
appearance of the tea : when the twist looks insufficient, or the
get-up of the tea is of special importance, this is an excellent
plan.
While on this subject I may as well venture a few remarks on
the advantages of rolling tea by machinery. The only machine
with which I am hitherto acquainted that can be said to do its
work satisfactorily, and to save a vast expenditure of labour
without in the least degree impairing the quality of the produce,
is that patented by Messrs. W. and J. Jackson, late of Assam.
The Calcutta Agents from whom these may be procured to
order are Messrs. Williamson, Magor and Co.
The great drawback to the use of these machines, so far as the
Nilagiris are concerned, is the excessive prime cost, somewhere
about £110 sterling in Great Britain, and then only large estates
of 100 acres or upwards, in full bearing, would be justified in
MANUAL OF THE NtLA(iIRI DISTRICT. 539
incurring so heavy an outlay. In Bengal these machines are cn. XXIX.
worked by steam-powerj but on these hills there is hardly an r^-j-A.
estate to be found that has not a sufficient water-supply to work
a 2 to 3-horsepower turbine or overshot water-wheel.
Where a number of small gardens lie within reasonable
distances of one another, the owners might club together with
advantao-e and set up one of these machines for their joint use, or
some enterprising individual, who cultivated a somewhat larger
acreage than his neighbours, might do well by manufacturing
their tea for them at a moderate rate per pound.
Even with Jackson's machine a light hand rolling is afterwards
necessary ; but this takes so little either of time or labour, that
the cost may be said to be merely nominal. I am convinced that
this machine does as perfect work as machinery can ever attain
to, and that its working is never likely to be materially improved
on.
When the leaf is all rolled, the upper fold of the blanket should
be folded closely down and the leaf left to take colour.
Many planters colour their tea loose and in heaps. It is not my — colounng.
practice to do so at first, but only towards the end of the process,
or if I see that the cones are not colouring evenly throughout.
Time is no test at all. I have coloured tea on these hills in 1^
hours, whereas on aJiother occasion I have known it stand for
eight hours and even then not take any colour. At an elevation
of about 5,500 feet the thermometer will range as a rule between
70° to 86°, and the time requii^ed to colour the leaf properly will
vary from 2| down to 1^ hours.
The colour of the leaf when ready for drying should be a
brownish olive. If the fine leaf is too brown there is risk of
sourness, and the strength of the sample will be aflfected ; if
the larger leaves are too green there will be a raw acrid flavour in
the liquor after infusion. So long as the leaves that still appear
green are only a few coarse ones that have got in here and there,
it does not much matter : these will come out in the sifting. Of
the two evils, let your tea be under rather than over coloured.
Constant attention and practice are the only things that can help
you. A fairly trained staff, with whom a little trouble has been
taken at the outset, may be trusted to work by themselves in a very
short time. I have seen various means of forcing out the colour
practised, but do not advise the adoption of any of them.
When this process has been completed, the cones should be
broken up thoroughly, no small lumps being allowed to remain,
and the whole spread out thinly until the trays are ready to
receive it.
Now before going on any further with the manufacture, appliances.
I will explain the various appliances in use for drying off
510 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXIX. teas. Previous to the introduction of the trays now in general
^^ use in Southern India^ the tea used to he dried off in
bamboo basket dhools over charcoal fires. The objections to
these wei'e very great : in the first place the sides were never
air-tight and the greater portion of the heat was wasted. To
obviate this, the sides were often plastered with cow-dung, and
any stray spark catching this imparted a full but doubtfully
desirable flavour to the tea. Secondly, the belt in the centre
on which the bamboo sieve was almost always irregularly pitched
did not fit accurately the sieve on which the tea rested. Thirdly,
from the constant falling through, on to the fire, of fine leaf and
dust, the chances of turning out " smoky burnt " tea were
much enhanced. Lastly, an enormous number of these dhools,
and a proportionate number of men to watch them, were neces-
sary in order to dry off any quantity of leaf. A better form of
dhool, i.e., one made of cast-iron, was proposed by Mr. Haworth
in his report on tea in Cachar, but even this did not provide a
remedy for the last-named objection. In fact rather than use
appliances of this nature I would prefer to dry off the teas in
pans, but this is a tedious process, and the risk of sourness
(perhaps the worst fault a tea can possess) is rendered much too
probable.
The most satisfactoiy apparatus for drying off tea that I have
hitherto met with, is the tray apparatus (the invention of an
eminent Cachar planter, and also figured by Mr. Haworth in
his report) now in almost universal use on the Nilagiris. I
regret that I have no means of appending an illustration of it ;
but intending planters have but to visit the nearest tea estate
to see it in full working. In Bengal these drawers are always
laid on masonry over charcoal fires. The introduction of the
hot-air principle by means of an iron plate let into the masonry
of the furnace at a height of 18 inches was an improvement
introduced by a Nilagiri planter, and, both as regards economy
of fuel and excellence of quality of the article manufactured by
its means, is worthy of universal adoption. The advantages of
the iron plate system are —
1. That the heat can be better regulated.
2. That there is less risk of burning, or, as in the case of
bad charcoal (the furnaces are fed from outside), of
communicating a smoky flavour to the tea.
3. That as there is a false drawer with a zinc bottom to
catch all the dust and broken tips when the teas
are turned over in the course of drying, the risk of
smoky burnt teas, caused by particles dropping on
the fire or iron plate is obviated.
4. That the cost of preparing charcoal is done away with.
MANUAL OF THE NTLAGIRI DISTRICT. 541
The iron plate should bo 24 to 28 inches, and from -f'jr to f inches CH. XXIX.
thick. Cast-iron plates procured from England are the best. ip^Z
The plates cast in this country are alwaj'^s uneven in thickness
throughout, and, from the hardness of the metal, liable to crack
right across. Wrought iron plates heat more readily, but from
their expansion and contraction in proportion as they are
influenced by heat or cold require to be more strongly fixed in
the masonry. A good compound for plastering the inside face
of the walls of the furnaces may be made as follows : — 4 parts
soorkee, 4 best stiff clay, 1 lime. Some planters use ordinary
lime and sand, tempered with water infused with gall-nuts and to
which jaggeiy and white of eggs have been added ; but I have
my doubts as to the efficacy of this mixture.
Above the plate, which should have an exposed surface of from ~<3i7'iig off.
15 to 18 inches square, the masonry sides may widen out rapidly
to the same dimensions at top as the trays that are about to be
laid over them. The best size for the trays is 2 feet 6 inches
square. The lowest tray is but half the depth of the upper
ones, and the bottom is of block tin or zinc. Whenever any of
the upper trays are drawn out, either to be filled or to have the
tea they contain rearranged, this bottom tray is drawn out
simultaneously with the other to catch all the dust and pekoe
tips that fall through the wire gauze ; otherwise these would fall
upon the heated iron, and communicate a burnt flavour to the teas
that were drying above. When the upper tray has been returned,
the bottom tray is drawn out, and either laid on the top of the
set or aside, as may be most convenient. A slab of wood covers
the mouth to retain the heat.
The three upper trays are those which contain the leaf that
is to be dried off. These are about 3 inches in depth, and
the bottom of each covered with fine well-stretched galvanized
iron wire gauze. The leaf to be dried should be spread over
these drawers from 1 to 1^ inches thick, commencing with the
bottom drawer. When the tea in the bottom drawer has begun
to get dry, i.e., when all fear of further fermentation has passed
away, the drawer may change places with the empty one above
it, and the latter be filled with fresh leaf. When almost dry,
the same change may be effected with the uppermost drawer,
the latter being placed lowest to receive fresh leaf. When the
tea in the top drawer is thoroughly dried, it may be removed,
and the same process continued until all the leaf in hand has been
dried off".
The man who superintends the drying off* must first ascertain,
by placing his hand inside the mouth-place of the bottom drawer,
that the furnaces have been heated to a proper degree. There
542 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXIX. should be a good brisk heat at first, so much so that the hand
m can only just be held iuside for a few moments without discoin-
fort. If this is not carefully attended to, it is quite as easy to
turn tea sour in the trays as by allowing it to ferment unduly
during the colouring process. Thermometers are useless as a test,
as the heat has invariably burnt the bulb of all that I have ever
tried. Practice alone can decide when the heat is sufficient, and
a few trials will give the requisite knowledge. When the whole
process of drying off has been completed, the drawers may be
filled up any how with the tea made, and laid one above the other
on top of the wood-work to give the tea the benefit of the
w'armth given out by the cooling plates all through the night.
The next morning the whole may be weighed, and, if not required
for immediate sale, be thrown into a large bin to await the
process of sifting.
Manufacture "We now come to the manufacture of green teas. The chief
green ea. (jj.^^|3g^^.]^g ^q ^\^q manufacture of these are that they require more
labour, closer supervision, and are, as a class, wholly unsaleable in
the local market. Their London value, too, fluctuates to such an
extent as to render the manufacture of them a most precarious
business. The advantage about them is that they can readily be
turned out in dull cold weather, when the turning out of black
teas of fine quality is a somewhat difficult task. The planter
will do well to have a sufficient number of pans in his factory,
so as to enable him to turn out teas of this description as occa-
sion may require.
With regard to the setting up of these pans, some lay them
in the masonry horizontally, others at a slight incline, say of 30°.
I prefer the latter method. It lessens the risk of burning odd
leaves here and there, renders it easier to empty the pans of leaf,
facilitates the regulation of the temperature, and in the final
process of bringing out the colour at a high temperature makes
this process less trying to the workman's hands.
Leaf that is intended to be made into green tea is not withered
in the sun ; in fact manufacture may be commenced from the
time of its being brought into the factory. Previous to com-
mencing, the pans have, I conclude, been fired up to a moderate
heat, but not sufficiently so to cause the leaf to ci-ackle violently
so soon as it touches the pan. One man will be required to
warm the leaf for every eight to ten men employed in rolling.
The quantity of leaf weighed out for each pan at a time should
be from twenty to thirty pounds. This amount having been
weighed out, the head tea-maker takes up enough leaf to make
up a double handful for each man engaged in rolling, and pans it
at a gentle heat until it is thoroughly warm, soft, and flaccid.
The mass is then swept out of the pan into a basket and thrown
MANUAL OF THK NiLA(ilKI DISTRICT. 543
out from this on to the rolling table. It is immediately taken cn. XXIX.
up by the rollers, who set to work on it at once. ^^,
"In rolling green tea a considerably greater amount of pressure
may be bi-ought to bear upon the leaf than in the ease of rolling for
black teas, and the matter of the leaf being a little more broken
does not signify so long as it is not literally cut to pieces and a.
fine close twist left on the leaf. This is only to be attained by
frequently shaking up the leaf during rolling. When the leaf has
been sufficiently rolled, each man should take up his handful and
compress it into a firm ball, squeezing as much juice as he possibly
can out of it. This done, the ball should be thoroughly broken up
and the leaf spread out very thin on a table or mat. The latter point
is of the greatest importance, as any slight heating of the leaf in
this stage would cause fermentation to set in, and a dark colour
would be commimicated to the liquor after infusion.
" So soon as the first batch of leaf has been rolled once, a second is
brought from the pan and similarly treated ; and this is done until
the whole twenty or thirty pounds has received the first roll. The
whole is then again heated at a slightly increased temperature for
about ten minutes and is then brought back to receive a second roll.
The latter should take about five minutes, and the leaf should then
be again compressed, and any superfluous juice squeezed out. The
balls are now broken up again, and the whole returned to the pans
for the final drying off. The temperature of the pans may now be
materially increased, but not to an excessive degree, until nearly all
the juice contained in the leaf has been evaporated and the latter
has assumed a greyish black colour. The leaf will turn very dai'k in
the drying process, but the colour will come out all right in the end.
When the leaf seems nearly dry and assuming a greyish tint, the pan
should be made as hot as the workmen's hands can bear it. Two
men should now be set to each pan, and the leaf whirled round and
round as quickly as jiossible, not a single particle being allowed to
remain stationary at the bottom of the pan for a second, or burning
will result. It is on this final process that the "colour " depends, and
until the men have become expert at it, and their hands hardened, it
is very difficult to get them, without close supervision, to keep the
pans at the proper temperature. The men should relieve each other
every half minute or so until the bloom has come out, which may be
ascertained by taking up a handful and holding it to the light. As
the tea cools the bloom will be more strongly developed.
" The colour to aim at is a bright pearly French grey ; and if the
planter has never seen a really first-class green tea turned out, he
should procure a sample from a broker, and try to work up to it.
It is of still more importance to keep green tea dry than black ; it
will absorb moisture freely, and the bloom will be lost, probably
beyond hope of recovery, by another firing.
"The time taken in turning out a batch of gi'een tea wiU occupy
from two to three hours ; an even steady heat up to the time of
541- MAXUAI. OF THE XiLAGIia r)ISI'RIC'I'.
CH. XXIX. commencing to bring out the colour is the point to aim at. If you
~ hear your half-dried leaf hissing and crackling, heave it out into a
L cooler pan at once.
"The tasting of green teas is conducted in the same manner as
that of black, but widely different results are looked for. The liquor
should be a pale primrose straw-colour, and the flavour full strong and
very pungent. The outturn of the leaf should be a bright pea-green.
If the liquor be at all dark, we may rest assured that some leaves
have been allowed to take colour either in the rolling or drying
processes ; and the colour of the outturn will tell the tale by showing a
few discoloured leaves here and there. When the di'ied sample shows
much yellow leaf we may be sure these latter have been burnt."
—tasting i^ ig as well to taste every day's make. For the following
general directions I was indebted some years back to Messrs.
Moreen and Co. of Calcutta.
" Infuse the leaf, allowing it to draw for five minutes. If the tea
is fine in quality, the leaf after infusion will be of a light salmony
colour, or in other words the colour of a bright new penny-piece, and
the liquor will be of a bright rich ruby colour. If under-fermented,
some greenish leaf will be observed after infusion, and the liquor
will be of a pale colour and have a sharp, pungent greenish taste.
If over-fermented, the infusion will come out of a dusky olive green
colour, and the liquor, although dark, will have a dull look and a soft
insipid taste, and if much over-fermented, soui-ness will ensue."
" It often happens that the planter can get cup and bowls, but not
the accompanying scales and weights. Under these circumstances
any other scale will suit his purpose, and the weight of ^ tola or of
a 4-anna bit will tell him the exact amount of leaf to be infused.
He must be careful to measure accurately the time allowed for
infusion, viz., five minutes. Fresh spring water should be used :
water that has been previously boiled and allowed subsequently to
cool will not develope satisfactorily the qualities of the tea. The
finer the leaf from which the sample is taken the stronger and richer
the liquor will be. Dull dark leaves in the outturn after infusion
may be owing to two causes, over-fermentation or burning in the
trays ; generally, in the latter case, the burnt flavour will be detected
in the liquor. If the cement which lines the well beneath the trays
has cracked and allows smoke to come through, the flavour of the tea
will be affected, and the same thing may occur from particles of dust
falling into the plate."
—sifting aud It is advisable to keep the tea in bulk in the bins until there
storing. -g enQugii accamulated to make up a moderate break for the
London mai-ket. All damaged teas should be kept separate.
Evenness in quality in each day's make is a great desideratum.
Sifting is a dusty task, and one likes to have it going on in the
tea-house as seldom as possible. With a large outturn and
limited accommodation^ it is true that sifted tea occupies much
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRT DISTRICT. 545
less space in the binSj but vvliore ample space for all operations CH. XXIX,
is provided, I prefer the former course. To repeat what I have rp^,^
said elsewhere, —
" One of the reasons for storing the tea in bulk is, tliat in no two
consecutive da3's can one depend upon the tea manufactured being of
the same quality and value ; and if the daily teas turned out were
sifted and packed separately, the quality of the teas packed in the
several boxes might be found to differ materially. Sifting therefore
just previous to despatch, and mixing in one heap all the tea according
to its class, obviates this difficulty."
" Up to the present time our teas, both black and green, have
been stored in the bins in the same state as they were at the end of
the drying process. We now come to the business of assorting them
for the London market. This is done, as a rale, by means of brass
wire sieves of standard mesh, or, in large concerns, by machinery.
I have seen planters in Southern India use bamboo sieves of native
make, but these are always irregular in mesh, and stand bat a small
amount of work. The best sieves are those procured from P. Jonas,
Esq., 155, Fanwork Street, London, E.G. A full set will consist of
Nos. 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14. The namber of the sieve represents the
number of spaces to the square inch. No. 4, the largest size, will
only be required in case the planter manufactures the coarser leaves.
No. 6 is the most useful all round. The tea that passes through this
will, if well made, turn out a good pekoe, worth from 2s. to 3s. per lb.,
or at the worst a pekoe souchong worth from Is. lOd. to 2s. '6d. per
lb. If he sells his tea in this country, I advise the planter to use this
sieve only. If no coarse leaf has been picked, and the rolling has
been done properly, the tea that passes through this sieve may be
classed as good pekoe, while that which remains will be a fair
souchong. The dust, broken flat leaf, and tips will be subsequently
winnowed out with a common bamboo rice fan, and be added to that
which fell through from the trays in the process of drying.
" If, however, the planter means to sell his produce in London, he
will find it advisable to assort it to a greater extent. He should
begin with the finer sieves, and go on to the coarser. Thus :
Sieves 12-10 will turn out fine orange pekoes-
Sieve 8 do. pekoe-
Sieve 6 do. pekoe or pekoe souchong.
That which is left forms No. 6, souchong or congou.
" If he passed the dust, &c. through a No. 14, he may send this home
as broken orange pekoe, but it is better perhaps not to do this, but
to send the dust, tips, and broken flat leaf as broken pekoe. When
there is much broken or flat leaf a decline of 2cl. to M. per lb. in the
value must be expected.
" The whole of the tea for despatch should be sifted out at once,
and each quality kept separate until the whole is done, when packing
(39
Tka.
54(3 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CU. XXIX. inay commence. This ensures evenness of quality througliout the
boxes which constitute the boreah.
" The sifting of green teas is conducted in exactly the same manner,
but the teas are differently named. Sieve No. 12 will turn out Young
Hyson, the flat and broken leaf winnowed out of this Hyson Skin,
No. 10 will give Hyson No. 1, No. 8 Hyson No. 2, No. 6 Imperial
Gunpowder, that which remains Gunpowder,"
Messrs. W. and J. Jackson have patented a very powerful and
satisfactory sifting machine^ but its working capacities are too
great for our small gardens. There is, however, procurable from
Messrs. J. Savage and Sons, Eastcheap, London, a very excellent
mixing and sifting machine, the price of which is £14. This
will sift readily 1,000 lb. per day of 10 hours.
-packing. Boxes of excellent make and even weight are procurable at
moderate rates from the Cochin Steam Mills Co., Cochin. These
being worked by machinery are packed flat for travelling and put
together (the sides being numbered) as required for use. The
boxes I am in the habit of using are No. 1, 100 lb. full chests.
Inside measurement. \ .^ ^^^.^ / broken pekoe ..110-
Length 21 inches / \ orange pekoe
Depth 18 ,, I j pekoe souchong
Width 17 ,, / ^"^^^'to ' souchong or congou . .
No. 2, Half Chests, -v .,, .
Length 14| inches f ^ f broken pekoe
!-> ii, 1 c 1 > on an > ,
Depth 15i ,, I \ orange pekoe
Width Hi „ ) ^^^^^S^ ^
No. 3, 20 lb. Boxes. \ .,, . ^
Length 12 inches / / broken or orange pekoe
-Tk ii, 1 o > on an /- 1
Depth 12 ,, I \ pekoe . ,
Width 12 „ ) ^^''^^^ ^
It is not advisable to pack the coarser tea for home shipment
in boxes containing less than a Bengal maund of 82 lb.
The boxes must be put together securely, care being taken to
drive in each nail perfectly straight. If any points project
inside the lead will be torn. For 20 lb. boxes 1 inch French
wire nails, and for the half and full chests 1^ inch similar nails
should be used.
Previous to packing the boxes must be leaded. Tea lead is
sold in sheets of regular size by the cut. Both Betts' and
Compton's lead are of excellent quality. The best size of sheet
is 37-22, and these sheets weigh, as a rule, about 1^ lb.
When the boxes are all ready and the teas have been sifted,
they must, whether green or black, be fired again so as to be
packed hot. Tea that has been fired will stand great pressure
without the leaf breaking. AVhen the required quantity has been
packed in each box and well pressed down, the top should be
125 lb.
110 „
100 „
90 „
50 1b.
45 „
25 1b.
20 „
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 547
carefully soldered. The top of the box is then nailed down, and CH. XXIX,
the ends bound with | inch iron hooping. ^j^
All that now remains is to brand the boxes. There should be
a distinct mark of the estate on the top of each box, and on the
front side below this the number of the box, the quality of the
tea, and the tare and trett weight clearly marked. Nothing
now remains but to despatch the teas for shipment.
548 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CHAPTER XXX.
CHINCHONA CULTURE.
Chinchona
Culture.
Order.
Botanical Order— species— native countries — distribution — discovery of medicinal
qualities — by whom described. — Threatened failure of American supplies of
bark. — Suggestions for introduction of chinchona into the East Indies
— attempts to introduce made by the French and Dutch — the Indian
Covernment recommends the sending of a collector to South America — the
Court of Directors select Mr. Markham for the duty — his search — Mr. Spruce's
search for Red barks— Ur. Prifcchett's search for Grey barks— Mr. Cross procures
Crown hark Seeds — Pitayo barks. — Selection of sites on the Nilagiris and
formation of plantations — area of plantations — financial results. — Policy of
Government in regard to the plantation scheme. — The manufacture of alka-
loids in the country. — Mr. Broughton ajipointed quinologist — his researches —
Amorphous quinine. — Alkaloid manufactory. — Analysis of barks. — Chief species
and varieties of chinchona in India — Cultivation. — Manure. — Harvesting the
bark. — Drying the bark. — Packing. — Publications on chinchona.
CH. XXX. The genus Chinchona, the number of species of which has been
reduced by Messrs. Hooker and Bentham to thirty-six, belongs
to the order of Chinchonacece, one of the five natural orders
appertaining to the chinchonal alliance — an alliance which, it is
of interest to note, is not far removed from the Myi'tles, to which
order belongs the Eucalyptus or gum of Australia — being distin-
guished therefrom by the small embryo and large quantity of
albumen. The order has two sub-divisions : (1) Coffese, (2) Chin-
chonaceae. Of it Dr. Lindley remarks : —
" Cinchonads ^ are almost exclusively fouud in the hotter parts of the
world, especially within the tropics, where they are said to constitute
about one-twenty-uinth of the whole number of flowering plants. This
order is not only one of the largest of which we have knowledge, but also
c<mtains a very considerable number of most important species largely
employed for the use of man in the countries they inhabit. Many
are accordingly the most valuable of remedial agents, acting as tonics,
febrifuges, emetics, or purgatives ; others, on the conti-ary, having their
secretions in a state of great concentration, prove to be formidable
poisons : nevertlioless a few produce eatable frnit, and one is distin-
guished above all others for its agreeable stimulating seeds.' Dyeing
qualities are also observed in a small number."
' Vegetable Kingdom, Cinchonals.
^ Cofifee.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIllI DISTRICT.
549
Cephel'ts Ii)ecacuanha, the ipecacuanha of commerce, a native CH. XXX.
of the damp forests of Brazil, belongs to this order ; also the chikchona
Gardenias, so well known to the visitors to Hindu temples in the Culture,
Peninsula. '
The following- table/ taken from the Pharmacographia of —species.
Messrs. Fliickiger and Hanbury, exhibits the principal species
their countries produce : —
Conspechis of the principal Species of Cldncliona.
Species {excluding sub-species and
varieties) according to Weddcll.
Where figured.
Native
Country.
Where
Cultivated.
Product.
I. — Stirps Cinclionae officinalis.
1. Cinchona officinalis, Hook
But. Mag. 5364
Ecuador (Loxa)
India, Cey.
Loxa or Crown Bark, Pale
"
Ion, Java.
Bark.
2. „ macrocalyx, Pav. ... Howard N. Q...
Peru
Ashy Crown Bark. The sub-
species C. Fa I ton affords an
important sort called I'alton
Bark, much used in the
manufacture of quinine.
3. „ lucumajfolia, Pav. ...
Do,
Ecuador, Peru
Carthagena Bark, confounded
4. „ lanceolata,R. etP. (?)
Do.
Peru
with Palton Bark, but is not
so good.
5. „ lancifolia, Mutis ...
Karst. tab. 11,
12.
New Granada.
India ...
Columbian Bark. Imported
in imaiense quantities for
manufacture of quinine. The
.soft Columbian Bark is pro-
duced by Howard's var.
oblonya-
A poor bark, not now imported.
6. „ amygdalifolia, Wedd.
Wedd. tab. 6...
Peru, Bolivia.,.
II. — Stirps Cinchonae rugosae.
7. Cinchona Pitayensis, Wedd. ...
Karst. tab. 22, i New Granada
India
Pitayo bark. Very valuable;
C. Trianm. [Popayan).
used by makers of quinine ;
it is the chief source of quini-
dine.
Bark unknown,probably value
8. „ rugosa, Pav.
Howard N. Q. Peru
9. „ Mutisii, Lamb.
Do. ... Ecuador
less.
Bark not in commerce, con-
tains only aricine.
10. „ hirsuta, R. et P. ...
Wedd. tab. 21 Peru
11. „ Carabayensis, Wedd.
Do. 19 Peru, Bolivia.
Bark not collected.
12. „ Pahudiana, How. ...
Howard N. Gi. Peru
India, Java
A poor bark, yet of handsome
appearance; propagation of
tree discontinued .
13. „ aspcrifolia, Wedd. ...
Wedd. tab. 20
Bolivia
Bark not collected .
H. „ umbellulifera, Pav...
Howard N.Q...
Peru
Bark not known as a distinct
sort.
Do. do.
15. „ glandulifera, R. et P.
Do,
Do.
16. „ Humbokltiana.Lamb.
Do.
Dp.
False Loxa bark ; Jacn bark.
A very bad bark.
IIL — Stirps Cinchonae micran-
tliae.
17. Cinchona Australis, Wedd. ... Wcdd. tab. 8 . . ,
South Bolivia-
An inferior bark, mixed with
1
CaUsaya.
18. „ scrobiculata, H. et B.
Do. ... 1 Peru
.,,
Bark formerly known as Red
C'usro Bark or Santa Ana
Bark.
19. „ Peruviana, How. ...
Howard N. Q...
Do,
India -J
Grey Bark, Huanuco or Lima
20. „ nitida, B. et P.
Do.
Do.
Do i
Bark. Chiefly consumed on
21. „ micrantha, R. et p....
Do,
Do,
Do'. J
the Continent.
Quoted in Dr. King's Manual of Chinchona Cultivation.
560 MANUAL OP THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT.
Conspectus of the principal Species of Chinchona— {Continued).
Species (excluding sub-species and
varieties) according to Weddell.
Where figured.
Native
Country.
Where
Cultivated.
Product.
IV — StirpsCinchonse Calisayse.
22. Cinchona calisaya, "Wedd.
Wedd. tab. 9...
Peru, Bolivia.
India, Cey-
lon, Java,
Jamaica,
Mexico.
Calisaya Bark, Bolivian Bark,
Yellow Bark. The tree exists
under many varieties ; bark
also very variable.
23. „ clliptica, "Wedd.
Peru (Cara-
baya).
Carabaya Bark. Bark scarcely
now imported. C. eimeura,
Miq. (flower and fruit
unknown), may perhaps be
this species.
v.— Stirps Cinchonee ovatae.
21. Cincliona purpurea, R. et P. ...
Howard N. Q...
Peru (Huama-
lies).
Iluamalies Bark. Not now
imported.
25. „ ruflnervis, Wedd. ...
Do. ...
Peru, Bolivia...
Bark a kind of light Calisaya.
26. „ succirubra, Pav.
Do. ...
Ecuador
India, Cey-
Kcd Bark. Largely cultivated
lon, Java,
Jamaica.
in British India.
27. „ ovata, E. etP.
Do. ...
Peru, Bolivia ..
India (?)
Java (■;)
Inferior Brown and Grey Barks.
28. „ cordifolia, Mutis
Karst. tab. 8...
New Granada,
Peru.
Columbian Bark (in part).
Tree exists under many va-
rieties ; bark of some used
in manufacture of quinine.
29. „ Tucujcnsis, Karst. ...
Do. 9...
Venezu ela..
Maracaibo Bark.
30. „ pubescens, Vahl. ...
Wedd. tab. 16
Ecuador, Peru,
Bolivia.
Arica Bark, Cusco Bark, from
var. PeUetieriana, Some
of the varieties contain
aricine. C. valoptera, Miq.,
is probably a variety of this
31. )> pupurascens, "Wedd....
Do. 18
Bolivia
Bark unknown in commerce.
. — native
couutrics.
— distribu-
tion.
" The trees prodacing tlie medicinal barks are all natives of tropical
South America, where they are found in the dense forests of the
mountainous regions of the western part of that continent at a height
of from 2,500 to 9,000 feet above the level of the sea, and in an equable
but comparatively cool climate. The cinchona-producing region
forms a crescentic zone which follows the contour of the coast-line,
but nowhere actually touches it, beginning at 10° N. and extending to
20° S. latitude. This crescentic belt is nowhere much above 100
miles in width, but its length (following its curve) is more than 2,000.
During its course it passes through the territories of Venezuela,
New Granada, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia."
It will be observed in the foregoing table that the trees yielding
barks of commercial or medicinal value known as Red, Crown,
Carthagena, Grey, and Yellow, are confined to distinct and
comparatively limited areas, both as regards elevation above the
sea and geographic position. Mr. Markham distributes them thus :
Crovm harhs, the Loxa region.
Red barks, the western slopes of Chimborazo.
Carthagena barJcs, the North Granada region.
Grey barks, the Huanuco region, North Peru.
Calisaya barks, Bolivia and South Peru,
MANUAL OF THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT. 551
It is an uLiscitled point whether or not the therapeutic proper- CH. XXX.
ties of this bark were known to the Indians before the arrival of chinch()na
the Spaniards, though the balance of evidence is in favour of Culture,
this assumption. The name is Indian,^ *' quina-quina/' " bark _^ij^vTr„
of bark." To the Countess of Chinchon, the wife of a Viceroy of modicinal
of Peru, and her Jesuit friends is the world indebted for the P^-^rf'-^ics.
introduction of this inestimable febrifuge into Europe in 1640,
It was long known as " Countess' powder " and " Jesuit's bark,"
and later as " Cardinal's bark ;" hence arose the prejudices of
Protestants against its use-
A century elapsed before the genus of the quina tree was —by wiiom
established by Linnjeus (1742), who paid a just tribute to the '^*'^'^''''^'^-
Countess' memory by naming it after her. Nor has her service
to humanity been forgotten by his followers, who have extended
the name to the whole family of allied plants. He knew but
two species. One of these, the C. officinalis, however, had been
previously (1838) described by Dr. La Condamine, one of the
members of the French expedition to South America, despatched
in 1735 to measure an arc of a degree near Quito; the other
members wei'e Godin, Bouguer, and the celebrated botanist
Joseph de Jussieu. Jussieu spent thirty-four years in prosecuting
his investigations in South America, but he failed in his attempts
to forward young chinchona plants to Europe. Seeds of C. calisaya
were sent to the Jardin des Plantes by Dr. Weddell in 1846.
They were procured from Bolivia. The plants which sprung of
these seeds were the first grown in Europe.^
Dr. King remarks : —
"The species found in the region between 10° N. and the
equator (the barks of New Granada) wci'c described by Mutis in the
last century and more recently by Karsten in his Flora Oolomhice.
Mutis' notes remained in manuscript until 1867, when Mr. Clement
Markham succeeded in unearthing and printing them, and both his
notes and drawings have still more recently been published at Paris by
M. Triana in his Nouvelles Etudes sur les Quinquinas. The cinchonas
of the region between the line and 14° S. (the barks of Ecuador
and Northern Peru) were first examined by Ruiz and Pavon,
and a magnificent work founded on Pavon's specimens was published
by Mr. J. E. Howard in 1862 ; while those indigenous in the region
from the fourteenth parallel of South latitude to the exti*emity of the
zone in 20° S. were described by M. Weddell in his splendid monograph
published at Paris in 1849."
Fears had long existed that the bark supply from South Threatened
America would fail owing to the wanton destruction of the *f ''"''® ^^
" American
■ supplies of
1 Markham's Travels. bark-.
- The first jolant grown in Java was one of these. It died shortly after arrival,
but a numerous progeny has arisen from a cutting made from it.
Chinchona
Culture.
552 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRl DISTRICT,
CH. XXX. diinclioua forests by tlie bark-collectors,^ and thus tlie impor-
tance of introducing tbe plant into other countries suited for its
growth was generally acknowledged, especially by the two
nations— the English and Dutch— who, by reason of their Eastern
possessions, were the chief consumers. As early as 1835 Dr.
Forbes Royle, then Superintendent of the Gardens at Seharun-
pore, suggested its introduction on the Khasia andNilagiri Hills,
and later (1839) in his " Illustrations of Himalayan Botany/'^
The subject attracted the notice of Lord William Bentinck. Dr.
Royle wrote in 1852 :
Suggestions " The probability of the entire sucoess of the cinchona tree in India
to iutrodace g^gj^^^ t,o admit of hardly any doubt, if ordinary care is adopted in the
hIto*the'East selection of suitable localities. I myself recommended this measure
Indies. many years ago when treating of the family of plants to which
cinchonas belong. I inferred from a comparison of soil and climate
with the geographical distribution of cinchonacea3 plants that quinine
yielding cinchonas might be cultivated on the slopes of the Nilagiris
and of the Southern Himalayas, in the same way that I inferred the
Chinese tea plants might be cultivated in the Northern Himalayas."
The French Academy had been urged by Jussieu and others
to induce the French Government to make similar experiments, as
the project was so uncertain that it was improbable that private
capitalists would undertake it. Dr. Weddell had well written
(Hist., p. 13):—
" The only remedy is cultivation, and it is absolutely necessary to
have recourse to it. If any tree deserves acclimitization in a French
colony, that tree is incontestably cinchona, and posterity will wish
a blessing on the man who has carried the idea into execution."
—attempts In consequence an attempt was made in Algeria by the French
Fren^ch^and'' Government iu 1850, but it failed. ^
Dutch. The Dutch Government, however, was the first to take the
matter in hand. As early as 1829 ^ scientific men had pressed on the
Dutch Government the advisability of introducing into Java the
1 " If no means be adopted," wrote Dr. Weddell in his History in 1849, " to
arrest this destroying agency, posterity will have to regret, if not the total
disappearance, at least the gradually occurring scarcity of the various kinds of
quina."
2 The desirability of introducing chinchonas into the East Indies was urged in
a memorial addressed to the East India Company between 1838 and 1842 by Sir
Robert Christison and backed by Dr. Forbes Royle, but no active step was
taken till 1852, when again, on the motion of Dr. Royle, some efforts wore made
to obtain plants through Consular Agents.
In the original memorial presented by Sir Robert Christison he pointed out that
" the transplantation, if successful, would become remunerative," because the
trees might be cut down younger than was the case in America, and tho bark
might be collected like cinnamon bark. — Enci/cl. Britan., "Vol. V.
•* " Cultivation of the Chinchonas in Java," by K. W. VAnGorKOM, page 7.
^ K. W. v.\nGouku.m's Oultii'atioti of the Chinchonas.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 563
cultivation of chincliona, and one Textor was directed to proceed CH. XXX.
to South America to collect plants and seeds, but lie died and the ^
■^ ... LHINCHONA
expedition was abandoned. Dr. Weddell s visit to the chincliona Culture.
region (1845-48) was productive of a revival of interest in the
matter. In the year 1852^ in accordance with the grand and
benevolent plan of the Dutch Minister of State, Pahud, the
botanist M. Hasskarl was deputed to collect plants and seeds of
valuable varieties and convey them to Java. The plants collected
by him were landed in Java in 1854. These were more or
less worthless varieties of G. callsaija. A plant of the true
calisaya had, however, as mentioned above, been already intro-
duced into Java. Seeds of other varieties, especially of the
C. lancifolia, also arrived about the same time and germinated.
This was the beginning of the Java plantations. At first the
Dutch expended much money and time on the cultivation of
inferior kinds on a faulty method, but in 1864 they changed
their system. They have now a large number of very valuable
species ^ and a far larger number of trees than exist on the Govern-
ment Plantations of Southern India.
In the year 1852 (the year of the Dutch expedition) Lord —the Indian
Dalhousie requested the early consideration of the Honorable Government
^ ^ •' recommends
Court of Directors to a proposal of the Government of Bengal to the sending
send a " gardening collector " to South America to collect ?* ^ garden-
j' ° ing collector
plants and seeds. Dr. Royle, then employed at the India House, to South
submitted a report on the subject to the Court, supporting the ^"^^"'^*-
recommendation. But the Board of Control considered that the
necessary supplies of seeds and plants should be forwarded
through the Consular Agent. Some plants and seeds were
collected, but they did not survive the voyage to Europe. In
1853 '^ a few plants of C. calisaya were sent to Calcutta from
Kew ; five survived the voyage, but two died during removal to
Darjeeling, and the remainder was killed there by frost in the
first winter. Early in 1856 Dr. Royle again urged the matter on
the Indian Government, but without success. Lord Canning
penned a minute, 20th October 1856, strongly supporting the
recommendations of the Medical Board and Agricultural Society
to employ a scientific collector in South America. *' In six
years,^' he observed, " the Government of India has expended
nearly £54,000 ^ in quinine and cinchona bark, and, therefore,
I believe that success will be well worth the cost." He con-
curred in the Board's views that there was every probability of
^ Some bark of the C. calisaya, var. Ledgeriana, is reported to have yielded 10
to 13 j per cent, of crystalline sulphate of quinine. — Dr. King.
- Bine Book, Vol. I.
3 In 187fi-77 India imported t,618 lb. of qnininc alone, value 3,34,137 rupees,
against 3,9251b., valiio 1,91,019 rupees, in 1875-76.
70
554 MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXX. tlie successful cultivation of chinchona in the Eastern Himalayas,
„ e.a., in the mountainous regions of Assam and tracts eastward of
Chinchona ■' ' • -, n t ti.tm
Culture. Silhet ; also on the Sides of the JNilagiris, and probably also m
parts of Malabar. Dr. Royle supported these proposals in a long
memorandum (March 1857), which appears to be the last report
this eminent botanist wrote on the subject. He had, however,
—Court of the gratification of obtaining the sanction of the Directors to the
Belect Mr. despatch of a collector to South America,^ but his death in 1858
Markham for prevented his carrying this into effect. Mr. Clement Markham,
^ ^^^' a clerk in the India Office well acquainted with the Cordilleras
(where chinchona abounded) and the dialects spoken in those
tracts, in April 1859 offered to superintend the collection of plants
and seeds. His services were accepted.
—Mr. Mark- Mr. Markliam^s scheme was to collect simultaneously the seeds
am s searc . ^^^ plants in the three chief chinchona regions. For Ecuador, the
home of the " Red bark,^' he selected Mr. Spruce, a botanist,
aided by Mr. Cross, a gardener ; for the Peruvian Province of
Huanuco, with its " Grey barks," Mr. Pritchett ; whilst he
reserved for himself and his assistant, Mr. Weir, a gardener, the
forests of Bolivia and South Peru, in which the Yellow barks or
calismja are found. The expedition arrived in Peru in January
1860. Mr. Markham proceeded inland in March and returned
to the coast on the 1st June, bringing with him 497 plants of the
C. calismja and 32 of the inferior species, wicraniha and ovata;
and, in accordance with his instructions, started for England with
his collection, it having been decided that the plants should be
forwarded by the overland route to India. He reached the
Nilagiris vid Bombay and Calicut on the 12th October 1860.
The plants suffered much during the latter part of the journey,
the roots being much decayed. Mr. Mclvor was, however, able to
secure 207 cuttings, besides potting 125 of the original plants.
—Mr. Meanwhile Mr. Spruce, whose special task was the collection
S'arctTfor ot " Red barks " (OascariJla roya), began his exploration in 1859
"Red barks.'' with the view of settling on the tracts in which he could conduct
his collecting operations. He selected a place named Limon for
his head-quarters, and started on his expedition on the Uth
June 1860, accompanied by Dr. Taylor of Riobambo. He was
joined by Mr. Cross at Limon in July. They commenced opera-
tions, Mr. Cross remaining at Limon establishing a nursery
of Bed barh cuttings, whilst Mr. Spruce searched for seed.
By the end of Oecember they returned to the coast with a
freight of 637 well-established plants and 100,000 healthy
seeds. These were des]iatched from Guayaquil to England in
charge of Mr. Cross on the 2nd of January 1861. He reacLed the
Niliigiris on the 3rd April 1H61 with 463 C surcirnhnt plants.
1 JUuc Pook, Vol. I, page 20.
MANUAL OF THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT. 555
bringing with him also 6 C. calisaija plants.* The survival CH. XXX.
of these caZi6'a//a plants was fortunate, as only one of the cuttings
of the plants of this kind brought by Mr. Markham was alive.
The seeds were despatched by post. An interesting account of
this journey will be found in Mr. Spruce's Report, No. 43, Blue
Book, Vol. I, which is of special value, as he was an excellent
naturalist.
Mr. Pritchett, to whom the search for '' Grey barks " had been —Mr. Prit-
committed, arrived at Huanuco on the 28th May, a town in the chett's seareS-
midst of the region where these trees abound. He returned to barks."
tbe coast with plants in Wardian cases and a collection of seeds
towards the end of August. The plants and seeds were
C. micrantha, G. nitida, and 0. Peruviana. The plants in War-
dian cases arrived in England in good order, but they perished
before the cases reached Ootacamand. The seeds, however,
germinated freely contrary to expectation.
Mr. Spruce had been unable to proceed to the Crown bark _Mr. Cross
(0. condandnea)'^ region. This duty was entrusted to Mr. Cross procures
on his return from England. He started from Guayaquil for the seeds.
Loxa forests in the autumn of 1861, procured and despatched in
December 1861 to India 100,000 C. condaminea seeds, also a
small quantity of crispa seed, both varieties of G. officinalis of
Linn^us. The packets arrived at Ootacamand in good order
on the 4th March 1862.
The valuable species known as the Pitayo or Cai-thagena barks — Pitayo
[C. lancifolia and G. Pitayends) were not introduced into India ^^^^^■
until much later. A collection of seed had been made by Mr. Cross
in 1863, but it lost its vitality. In 1868 this collector proceeded
to the district of Popayan in New Granada, and there obtained
a supply of seed which arrived on the Nilagiris towards the
end of the year. They germinated freely. In the autumn of the
following year Mr. Cross forwarded some plants of these species
to India.
Previous to Mr. Markham's arrival in October 1860 Mr. Selection of
Mclvor had selected the wooded ravine above the Government ^^^,^^ ?" *^®
gardens on the Doddabetta range, with an elevation of between °
7,600 and 7,900 feet above sea lev^el. Mr. Markham considered
the site very suitable for varieties of chinchonas growing at high
elevations in South America, such as G. cnlisaya (shrubby
variety), G. nitida, 0. condaminea, and C. lancifolia; but for
the species requiring a warmer and moister climate, such as
G. s II cci rubra, G. calisaija, G. micrantha, and C. Peruviana, he,
in communication with other officers of Government, selected a
1 Blue Book, Vol. I, page 159.
2 C. C/ialmnrijuera (Pavon). For proper botanical uaiiies of these species see
page 254, Vol. I, Blue Book.
55G
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Chin'chox
Culture,
CH. XXX. forest glen at Neduwattam above Gudaltir, on the north-western
slope of the Nilagiris, having an elevation of about 6,000 feet.
Towai'ds phe end of 1862 the Government approved Mr. Mclvor's
selection of the wooded slopes on either side of the Paikare
waterfall, having an elevation about the same as Neduwattam.
These plantations are known as the Wood and Hooker estates.
The former was so named in honour of the then Secretary of State,
the latter in that of the celebrated botanist. Towards the end of
the following year the Government sanctioned the opening of a
plantation near Melkunda, about nine miles south of the Avalan-
che Bungalow, having an elevation of between 6,000 and 7,000
feet.
When these plantations were begun their ultimate extent does
not appear to have been discussed. In the third year of opera-
tions, when the success of the experiment was partly assured, the
Secretary of State sanctioned an extension aggregating 150 acres
yearly for ten years, but in 1866 the same authority fixed 1,200
acres as the maximum limit of the cultivation. This limit was
erroneously supposed to have been reached in 1869, at which
time the cultivated area did not probably exceed about 800 acres.
Small extensions have been carried out since that date. The area
of the plantations, as ascertained by the recent survey (base
measurement), is as follows : —
Doddabetta 320-47
Neduwattam 301-63
Wood 72-18
— area of
plantations.
Paikare
Hooker
15419
848-47
This area was planted up very gradually. Taking whole
numbers, the area planted in each year stands thus, omitting
Melkilnda, where the area planted approximated 30 acres. This
estate was abandoned in 1871 by order of Government. No great
reliance is, however, to be placed in the figures.
Dodda-
betta.
Nedu-
wattam.
Wood.
Hooker.
Total.
ACRES.
ACHES.
ACRES.
ACRES.
ACRES.
1862
31
...
31
1863
■■■9
5
3
17
1864
11
58
11
80
1865
41
44
24
109
1866
61
31
26
118
1867
23
29
40
92
1868
33
12
6
58
109
1869
119
104
19
242
1870
9
32
41
1871
8
H
1872
8
8
1873
2
i'i
11
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. OO /
For many years tlie number of plants on the estates was miicb CH. XXX.
exaggerated. The recent numeration and classification by Major chinchona
J. Campbell Walker has set this vexed question at rest. The Cultuke.
correct figures compare thus with those previously accepted by
Government on the estimate of the late Superintendent : —
Estimated.
Actuals.
Dcddabetta
Neduwaitam
Wood
Hooker
Melkunda
345,980
474,740
304,484
65,254
Total ... 1,690,458
NO.
226,936
208,780
45,758
87,557
569,031
As regards the description of trees the estimated and actual
figures stand thus : —
Estimated. I Actuals.
Red Bark
Crown do.
Yellow do.
Grey do.
Other species
Total
NO.
579,938
531,282
34,250
28,759
16,229
1,190,458
260,837
305,432
552
1,874
In the following statement, extracted from Major Campbell — ffuancial
• • results
Walker's report, the financial history of the plantations is given.
Interest on the annual balance of charges has been calculated at
4-50 per cent. The expenditure and receipts on account of the
manufacture of alkaloids have been excluded. No allowance is
made for cost of land or assessment thereon. The statement
shows the position at the end of 1875-76. This year was chosen
by I^Iajor Walker as it closes the initial stage in the history of the
plantations, the termination of which is almost contemporaneous
with Mr. Mclvor's death. The area has not been extended since
then.
1 The figures do not include a few hundred trees which were remaining at
Melkiiuda at the time, chiefly Red barks.
558
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Account of Receipts and Expetiditure on occount of the Cinchona Plantations from
the commencement up to the close uj 1875-76, takeii from the Accounta)it-GeneraVs
Books, Returns of Sale fnmi hulia Office, and other sources.
Receipts.
Charges. 1
Value of
B^rk
Value of
Value of
Bark sup-
plied to
other Gfo-
vernmcnts
and Cash
Receipts.
Establish-
ment
Build-
Value
Interest
Years.
supplied
to the
Bark
sent to
Total.
including
Superinten-
ings
and
Other of
Charges! Convict
Balance
of
Charges.
TotaL
Quinolo-
gist.
England.
dent's
Salary.
Plant.
Labour.
RS.
B9.
RS.
RS.
RS.
R3.
RS.
R8.
B8.
RS.
1860-61...
4,821
4,821
1861-62 ..
...
22,915
217
23,132
186-^63 ..
...
48,.390
1,258
49,648
1863-64...
12,727
53,174
3,492
69,392
186i-65...
24.445
59,667
6,615
90,726
1865-66...
•Z5,450
3,700
58.887
10,697
98,735
1866-67...
...
2,450
2,450
23.804
3.(125
52,632
48,666
15,140
1,43.268
1867-68...
287
288
26,087
2,6J0
43,296
48,667
19,687
1,40,3:^7
1868-69..
...
1.680
1,680
25,672
2,030
30,6=56
48,667
27,779
1,34,784
1869-70...
1,512
1,512
25,783
1,650
19,163
3:^,769
80,365
1870-71...
4,365
324
4,689
23,730
300
6,143
,37,318
67,491
1871-72...
9.5t3
3,479
13,022
17.157
85(1
13,160
40,144
71,311
1872-73 ..
16,807
4,388
227
21,422
12,724
550
16,441
42,767
72,481
1873-74...
21,136
36,417
300
57,851
12,574
558
15,092
45,064
73,288
1874-75...
8,576
273
8,849
62,405
16,406
1,700
17,417
46,759
81.282
1875-76...
1876-77...
60,405
2,000
17,234
1,5.50
27,423
49,018
95,225
61,939
l,at,976
7,254
1,74,171
2,63,793
18,513
4,89,257
1,46,000
3,78,724
12,96,287
j 4,33,746
3,058
4,36,804
12,467
...
58,408
50,495
1,21,371
61,939
5,38,723
10,313
6,10,975
2,76,260
18,513
5,47,665
1,46,000
4,29,220
14,17,659
Net Results.
Total charsres up to 1875-76
Total receipts do.
Net charges
Add charges of 1876-77
Deduct receipts of 1876-77
Net charges up to 1876-77
12,96,287
1,74,171
11,22,116
1,21,372
12,43.488
4,36,805
The receipts and expenditure for the two succeeding years,
independent of the value of bark sent to England/ which probably
did not fall short of £50,000 were as follows : —
Receipts.
Expenditure.
Sale of
Plants.
Establish-
ment.
Working
Charges, &c.
Total.
1877-78
1878-79
RS.
17,543
10,052
RS.
8,199
9,794
RS.
69,349
69,986
RS.
77,548
79,780
Policy of When establishing these experimental plantations the Secretary
in^re'gard^o ^^ State clearly indicated the object which Her Majesty's Govern-
theChiiichona nient had in view in so doing.
Plantations.
' The value of the bark sent to England in 1877-78 wns £33,231, bnt tlic price
realized for iLe succeeding year's crop 1 Lave not bctu able to ascertain.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 559
"Tho two first objects of the experiment (he writes) arc tlie provi- CII. XXX.
sion of an abundant and certain supply of bark for tlie use of hospitals "7^
and troops, aud the spread of cultivation through the lull districts in Culture.
order to bring the remedy within the reach of the frequenters of
jungles and of the native population generally. Your Government
has very justly deemed that the experiment cannot be regarded as a
mere money-speculation, nor are the commercial advantages that may
be derived from it to be considered as other than a secondary consi-
deration, though, of course, a return of the outlay and the spread of
chinchona cultivation by private enterprise^ are very desirable in
themselves."
In 1871 the propriety of selling the plantations, or of dispensing
with two of the four, was considei'ed by the Government with a
view of leaving the development of chinchona. to private enterprise,
peeing that the successful cultivation of the tree had been proved ;
but it was ultimately decided that it was inexpedient for the
Government to leave the undertaking to private industry, as
in many respects it was still in an experimental stage ; — " for
(remark the Madras Government in a despatch to the Secretary
of State) the barks of the already discovered species of cinchona
yield a varying ratio of alkaloids at different stages of their growth,
and it is possible that the species now least valued may, when more
matured, be found rich in alkaloids, and vice versa. The questions
raised by the frequent discovery of fresh varieties of cinchona,
or of an unprecedentedly large proportion of alkaloids in some
of the known varieties, will be most expeditiously solved under
Government supervision, which allows the freest scope for
experiment.^' These views were accepted by the Secretary of
State,- who inclined to the opinion that a portion of the plant-
ations with the manufactories should remain permanently under
the superintendence of Government ; but he added : —
" It should be clearly understood that the intention of Government
in sending their surplus bark to England for sale in the open market
is not to enter into permanent competition with private growers, whose
success would be viewed by Government with great satisfaction, but
rather to act as the pioneer, and to establish the reputation of Indian-
grown barks for their advantage. At the same time the Government
will do rightly in continuing the sale of bark until the outlay attendant
upon the introduction and cultivation of the plants is repaid."
These remarks have all special reference to the local manu-
facture of quinine alkaloids as well as to the trade transactions
of Government. The question of the continuance of the planta-
tions under the State has been much discussed in the recent
infjuiry, and the Secretary of State has decided that the plant-
' Blue Book, Vol. 1, page 255.
2 Despatch, April 1871.
560 MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CII. XXX. ations should be retained under the superintendence of a
Chi^^ona specialist. _ . , , , , . . ^. 1
Culture. So soon as it was ascertained by the analysis ot barks sent
Th^iianu- to England for analysis, that they bid fair to yield quinine and
factureof other kinds of alkaloids, and that the yield of these alkaloids
aikaloicls m .^g^j.jmj with, or was more or less dependent upon, artificial condi-
tions of culture, the Madras Government suggested, on the
advice of Mr. Markham, who visited the plantations in 1865^ that
an experienced chemist, having a thorough knowledge of chiu-
chona and its product, should be appointed to investigate on the
spot various points connected with the cultivation of the tree and
the extraction and use of its alkaloids. The Secretary of State
approved the proposal, as without such aid the various questions
at issue — including that of undertaking the manufacture of quinine
and other chinchona alkaloids locally — could not be satisfactorily
settled.
Mr. Brough- Mr. John Broughton, an Assistant at the Royal Institution,
ton appointed ^j^jg^-^arle Street, was selected, and reached India in November
quinologist. n t ->
1866. His salary was fixed at £1,000 yearly.
In the instructions^ to Mr. Broughton the Secretary of State
remarks : —
" The oldest trees on the Neilgherries have now been planted out
for nearly four years, and the analyses of their barks, which have been
made by Mr. Howard, prove that there is a very marked increase
of the yield of febrifuge alkaloids under cultivation. The time has
now come, therefore, when it is necessary to investigate the causes
which regulate the yield of alkaloids from cultivated cinchona
barks, and to ascertain the preparation of the febrifuge which will
combine cheapness with efficacy in the greatest degree."
" The analysis of bark from plants growing in different situations,
by a competent scientific chemist on the spot, will be a principal
means of discovering the conditions, as regards elevation, climate, soil
and exposure, best calculated to produce the largest possible yield of
alkaloids, those conditions of course varying with the different
species. There are several difficult questions connected with the
formation of the alkaloids in bai-k, and particularly with the changes ia
the alkaloids themselves, caused probably by cultivation, which should
be carefully and diligently investigated. It will also be an important
duty of the chemist attached to the Cinchona Plantations to ascertain
the difference, as regards yield and efficacy, between green and dried
barks ; and to make accurate analyses of the leaves, and hereafter
possibly of the flowers, of the different species. The best method of
drying the bark must be decided by scientific experiments; and,
1 Blue Book, 1870.
ClIINCHONA
Culture.
MANUAL OF THE NTIAOIKI 1)ISTHICT. 561
finally, it will be expected from the chemist that he should, through
his investigations, enable Her Majesty's Government to arrive at a
decision with respect to the best and cheapest method of preparing the
febrifuge for use among the labouring classes of the Natives of India.
He will also be required to consider the questions connected with the
manufacture of the cinchona febrifuge for the use of hospitals and
troops in India."
It would be out of place here to detail the history of Mr. —Mr.
Brouorhton's valuable researches, which will be found in his ^'"""g'^to" s
o •' _ researches,
reports, most of which have been published in the Blue Books on
chinchona cultivation. The most important facts either discovered
or proved by him were, (1) that the alkaloids were at a maximum
in October and May, (2) that barks covered by moss yielded
a greater amount of alkaloid and in a state which admits of
their crystallization as sulphates easily, (3) that the alkaloids
are chiefly deposited in the cellular tissue, (4) that the direct
rays of the sun are inimical to the development of alkaloids in the
bark, (5) that the alkaloids in the bark are injuinously affected
in the process of drying in sunshine, or in heat above 100^, or in
steam-beat, (6) that the leaves, blossoms, and wood of chinchona
contained either very little alkaloid or none at all, (7) that Nilagiri
chinchonas contained more chinchonidine than quinine, and that
the proportion of the former to the latter increased after about
the eighth year.
During the first four years of his service Mr. Broughton
conducted many experiments with a view of ascertaining a cheap
febrifuge suitable for use in the hospitals of the country, but it
was not until 1870 that he finally adopted a combination of
alkaloids known as Amorphous Quinine. It consisted of the —Amorphous
" total alkaloids of cinchona bark in the form of a non-crystalline fii^i"'"^.
powder, mixed to some extent with resin and red colouring matters
so abundant in the red bark.'' A full description of the process
of manufacture is given in Mr. Broughton's report to the Madras
Government, 1st December 1873. The drug was acknowledged
as an efficient febrifuge by the Madras Medical Department.^
The manufacture continued for three years, when doubts having
arisen as to its economy and expediency, a Special Commission
was appointed in June 1871 by the Madras Government,
consisting of Dr. Cornish and Mr. Cockerell, to report as to its
value as a medicine and the cost of manufacture. The Commis-
sion found that after calculating the price of the bark at its market
1 Mr. Broughton in a private communication gives the following dii-ections for a
cheap febrifuge decoction, the bark used being not less than three years old. A
pound of freshly dried bark, cut up finely, boiled for half an hour and then
squeezed ; boiled again for the same period in fresh water, and again a third
time in the same manner. Mi.x. the decoctions and evaporate to small bulk.
71
562
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXX.
Chinchona
ClLTLRE.
Alkaloid
value^ the product cost more tliaii ordinary quinine ; whilst as
prepared and issued, it was of uncertain composition, sometimes
rich in quinine, at others chinchonidine and chinchonine predomi-
nating. The Government accordingly resolved to abandon the
manufacture. Mr. Broughton thereupon, January 1875, resigned
his appointment and left the country. The manufacture has not
since been resumed, nor has a scientific chemist been appointed to
observe the history of the ti-ees. Rather less than 1,000 lb. of
Amorjjhous Qid nine vfixs -prodnced during the continuance of the
manufactory.
The financial results connected with this experiment may be
manufactory. ^Q^g]^]y estimated as follows : —
Receipts.
RS.
Value of 922 lb. amorphous
quinine manufactured' ... 30,737
Excess expenditure balance... 1,71,703
Eipenditure.
Salary of Qninologist
Establishment and laboratory.
Cost of manufacture, including
buildings—
(a) Ootacaniand ... 11,735
(b) Neduwattam... 21,458
RS.
79,027
18,125
Bark supplied
rates)
(at market
72,095
Analysis of
barks.
Total ... 2,02,440 Total ... 2,02,440
During Mr. Broughton's service systematic analyses of the
barks of the several kinds of chinchona grown on the Hills were
conducted with special reference to mode of culture, site,
elevation, age of trees, and the seasons of gathering the bark.
Numerous analyses of specimens sent to England, by Messrs.
Howard and DeVriz, exist, but the results are so varying and
conflicting as to be of little use except to the specialist. A
complete comparative history of the analysis of each variety
under known variations of age, culture, &c., remains to be
perfected.
The highest yield of alkaloids discovered by Mr. Broughton was
on Doddabetta in 1868 in the variety of species of G. condaminea
known as angustifolia, amounting to no less than 11 '50 per cent,
of total alkaloids, of which 10-13 per cent, were crystallised
sulphate of quinine. A higher percentage still of alkaloids, namely,
12-30, is reported to have been obtained by Mr. Mclvor from
a hybrid known as G. i^ubescens ; but although Mr. Howard stated
J This calculation is based on the supposition that each pound contained in
five parts, 1 of crystalHzable quinine, 2 of chinchonidine, 1 of chinchonine i.nd
1 of uncrystallizable residue. * * * If the amorphous quinine is taken to
have displaced an equal weight of quinine at l.SO*-. a pound, its actual value to
Government will liave been Rupees 59,930. (Sec note ou the Chiiiclioua
Plantations.^
MANUAL t)V THE NII.AGIKl DISTRICT.
5G:
INCnONA
CULTCKE.
that thi.s variety excelled the anrjnstifolia — especially, it would CH. XXX.
seem, in the size and vigour of the tree — yet I am not aware q^^
that its merits have been as systematically tested as those of
G. aiigusfifolia.
The following table, taken from Mr. Broughton's report of
187;3, gives analyses of Nilagiri bai'ks, which may be taken as
a fair example of their yield of alkaloids : —
-M
^
a
is 1 '2
j^ li
^
c3
03
33
1
• ,n3 1 CS
til 1^^
if
^ttt 'B.
1
03
1 ^
iill Mini i
Total Alkaloids ... |6-20
5-82
2-75
4-45
511
3-o8i 4-32 3-42 6-6ol 3-61 091
Quinine and Quinidine .. 114
3-25
... il-31
0-97
1-33 308i<i-32 3-89 207 ...
Cinchonidiiie and Cin- 5 06
2-57
2-75 314
4-14
2-25
1-24 llOi 2-711 1-54! ... 1
chonine.
1
Pure Sulphate of Quinine '. 0-74
2-62
... 0-74
0-62
0-81
311
2-39 3 86 204i ...
obtained crystallized, j
I
jPure Sulphate of Cin- 3-47
0-88
1-00 1-61
2-22
114 0-85
0-67 l-OO: 0-99' ...
1 chonidine obtained
j crystallized.
Dr. Bidie, in his " Cinchona Galture," 1879, gives the following Chief species
list of chiuchonas in India : —
Croum and Pale Barhs.
and varieties
of chinchona
in India.
Chinchona oflficinalis {and
varieties).
C. condaminea.
C. uritusinga.
C. angnstifolia.
C. lancifolia.^
Yellow Barhs.
C. calisaya (aad varieties), j C. Javanica.
C- Ledgeriana. |
Red Barhs.
C. succirubra {two varieties).
Grey Barhs.
I C. micrantha.
C. Peruvij
C. nitida.
C. Pitayensis.-
C. pubescens.
Other Barks.
I C. Pahudiana.
Hybrids.
I C. lanosa.
The instructions given in the preceding chapter on tea, as to
the .selection of land and the forming and laying out of a tea estate
Columbian or Carthagena bark.
Pitayo bark.
ThU
MAXIIAI. OK THK NILAGIl
Chinchona
Culture.
Cultivation.
Manure.
CH. XXX. may be folio ?ved generally in the formation of a chinchona estate.
Further detailed information will be found in Mr. Mclvor and
Dr. King's Manuals. The experience of past years seems to favour
close planting/ especially in the case of condamrneas planted
in exposed situations, also the propagation of plants by seed and
not by cuttings or layering. Seed from plantations where natural
facilities for hybridization exist is to be preferred, as the growth
of hybrids is generally stronger, whilst the tendency in them
seems to be towards a greater secretion of alkaloids. Hybrids of
condaininea and saccirnbra, whilst partaking in great measure the
vigour and strength of the sucdruhra, yield bark whose richness
in quinine alkaloids approximates to that of the bark of the
best varieties of condaininea. The natural tendency of the
Nilagiri chinchonas to produce strong and rich hybrids is the
most promising feature of the cultivation.
The results of the experiments in the application of manures
to the chinchona tree will be found in Mr. Broughton's report,
April 1872. The effect on the growth of the tree was not
marked, nor in the case of the Red barks was the secretion of
alkaloids improved; but the Crown barks, to which guano,
ammonia sulphate, and fai-myard manure had been generally
apphed, showed a great increase in the alkaloids. In fact the
result of applying the last-named manure was the doubhng of
the quantity of alkaloids. As regards the growth of Crown
barks, subsequent experience goes to show that it is greatly
favoured by the application of farmyard manure in the first few
years after planting out.
There are four modes of gathering the bark : (1) by coppicing,
(2) by stripping the bark in longitudinal sections, (3) by uprooting,
(4) by scraping or shaving the bark. Of these methods, until
recently, the second only had been followed in the Government
plantations, and consequently nearly all the experience gained
so far is of this method, which may be regarded as the discovery
of Mr. Mclvor. It therefore remains yet to be shown what mode
of treatment is on the whole best suited to the several descrip-
tions of chinchona with a view to obtaining the most valuable
yield of bark from a given area of cultivation in a given series of
years : in a word, what method is economically and scientifically
the best.
There are two modes of coppicing : (1) cutting the tree down and
allowing the shoots to spring from the bare stump, (2) felling the
tree but leaving a root or stem shoot, or several such, to replace it.
These methods— certainly the latter — are known to succeed as
Harvesting
of bark.
1 C. succinihra should be planted 4 feet X 4 feet and C. condaminea 3 feet X 3
feet ordinarily, and thinned out from about the fourth year if necessary.
MANUAL OP THE NTLAOriM DiSTKICT. 565
regards the growth of the shoots, but the vakio of the bark of such CH. XXX.
growth, compared with that of an original phxnt, has yet to be „ "^
satisfactorily ascertained. Culture.
The stripping is ordinarily known as the mousing process,
though the application of moss, or other vegetable substance
suited to exclude the light and protect the wound, is not abso-
lutely essential to the renewal of the bark. The process is thus
described by Mr. Mclvor {vide report of the Commissioner of the
Nilagiris, August 1875): —
Description of the process of Mossing. — " A labourer {iroceeds to an
eight-year-old tree, and, reaching up as far as he can, makes a hori-
zontal incision of the required width. From either end of this incision
he runs a vertical incision to the ground, and then, carefully raising
with his knife the bark at the horizontal incision until he can seize it
with his fingers, he strips off the bark to the ground and cuts it off.
The strip of bark then presents the appearance of a ribbon more or less
long. Supposing the tree to be of 28 inches in circumference, the
labourer will take nine of the above ribbons, each \\ inches wide. He
will thus leave, after the tree has been stripped, other nine ribbons
still adhering to the tree, each somewhat broader than the stripped
ribbon and at intervals apart, occupied by the spaces to which the
stripped ribbons had adhered. As soon as he has removed his strips,
the labourer will proceed to moss the trunk all round, tying on the
moss with some fibre. The decorticated intervals will thus be excluded
from light and air, and this point is one of the capital points in
the system. The mere exclusion of light and air from a stem partially
bared of bark acts in two ways : it enables a healing process to be
rapidly set up in the same way as a plaster does in the case of a wound
in an animal organism : and it has this further curious effect, it
increases the secretion of quinine in the bark renewed under its
protection. This increase of quinine is admitted by Mr. Broughton in
all his reports. At the end of six or twelve mouths the bands of bark
left untouched at the first stripping are removed, and the intervals
they occupied on the trunk are mossed. At the end of twenty-two
months, on an average, the spaces occupied by the ribbons originally
taken are found to be covered with renewed bark much thicker than
the natural bark of the same age, and this renewed bark can be removed
and a fresh pi'ocess of renewal again be fostered by moss. In
another six or twelve months the renewed bark of the natural ribbons
left at the first stripping can be taken, and so on ; harvests are obtain-
able from the trunk, alternately from the spaces left at the. first
stripping and the spaces left by the second stripping. Experience
hitherto does not show any limit to the taking of these harvests from
a tree. Of course it is understood that at every stripping the ribbons
taken are longer than at the preceding stripping, because the tree
eacli year increased in height and bulk, and, therefore, the top of
every ribbon consists of natural bark and the lower part of renewed
bark.''
506
MANUAL OF THK NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
CH.XXX.
Chinchona
Culture.
The following remarks of Dr. Bidie are noteworthy : —
" When moss is not available, grass is sometimes used to exclude the
lio-ht, and it is probable that an envelope of soft thick cloth, tarred on
one side to protect it from white-ants, might answer well. Indeed
renewal on the barked surfaces will take place without any covering
whatever, although there can be no doubt that protection expedites
the process. On removing a strip of bark there is found between it
and the wood a layer of mucilaginous-like consistence, the cambium.
This consists of formative material, from which both bark and wood
are developed, and the greatest care is therefore requisite not to injure
it in any way, and to expose it as little as possible to air and sunshine.
It should therefore be quickly and cautiously covered with the moss
or other material. Mr. Mclvor states that the average time required
for the renewal of bark is about twenty-two months, but experience
shows that a considerably longer period is requisite. It has also to be
pointed out, that by the repetition of the stripping and mossing system
the vigour of the tree is impaired, and the thickness of the renewed
bark somewhat reduced. Some of the older Crown Bark trees on the
Nilagiris have been barked and mossed four times, and some of the
older Eed Barks six times. Both kinds have shown a wonderful
tolerance of the operation, but there are now obvious signs of its having
reduced the vigour of the older plants. Thus most of the trees which
have been frequently barked carry less luxuriant foliage, and show a
greater tendency to produce an excessive crop of flower and seed than
trees which have not been mossed. They also i*enew their bark very
slowly, requiring nearly three years for the process, and even then the
renewed bark is very thin. There can be no doubt, however, that up
to a certain age the mossing system is a good and economical one. In
the case of both Red and Crown Barks therefore I vvould recommend
to the planter a combination of the mossing and coppicing systems.
Cropping according to this method, he should begin by barking and
mossing four times in successive years, as the bark becomes fit for the
market. This would secure one crop of natural bark, one of mossed
bark, and two of renewed bark. On the completion of the fourth
stripping, moss should again be applied and kept on till complete
renewal takes place. At this stage I would propose to coppice, which
would bring in a third and large crop of renewed bark from the mossed,
as well as a considerable amount of natural bark from the unmossed
parts of the tree. In the case of the Red Bark trees too there can be
no doubt that it will be found possible to repeat the mossing process
on some of the bigger shoots which spring up after coppicing. It has
already been mentioned that the mossing process increases not only
the absolute quantity of alkaloids in renewed bark, but also the pro-
portion of quinine. The source from which the increase in total
alkaloids is derived is not very clear, but from Mr. Broughton's experi-
ments in 1873 there is strong reason to believe that the gain in the
renewed bark is obtained by a transfer to it of some of the alkaloids
from the original bark on the upper unmossed parts of the tree.
MANUAL iM' THK NtLAGIRl DISTRICT. 667
Of such transfer we have other examples, as in the case of Loran- CH. XXX,
thaceous parasites growing on Ntc£ vomica trees, the alkaloid consti- ^^^^^^^^,^
tuents of the host, viz., strychnia and brucia, being transferred to the Culture.
parasite.' If this transfer in the case of the cinchonas be confirmed
by future observations, it will follow that the main advantage of the
mossing process will be the production of a superior product by the
concentration of the alkaloid constituents of the tree generally in the
strips of renewed bark. One good point of the mossing system, or of
combined mossing and coppicing, is, that a crop can be got from the
trees at an earlier age than would be desirable if coppicing alone or
uprooting were adopted, as under either of the latter systems it would
be uneconomical to collect the bark before it reached the stage of
maximum yield. The process of mossing can only be conducted
during the monsoon, when the trees are full of sap, as if done in the
dry season the bark will not lift, and is renewed with difficulty. The
collection of the bark at that time is, however, attended with some
disadvantages, as that is the period of the year at which the cinchona
contains the smallest amount of alkaloids."
So far the moss-reuewing process, which is that generally
practised in the district, may, on the whole, be pronounced a
decided success ; bat it is of the first importance to remember that
the essence of the system is the renetval of the bark, under moss,
for the application of moss to the stem may be adopted with
advantage in all the other systems of treating the bark. The
system of up-rooting, that is, digging up the tree and removing the
bark from the roots — generally rich in alkaloids— as well as the
stem, though practised in Sikkim, has not been introduced. The
system of scraping or shaving off the outer layers of the bark,
leaving the inner layer or liber to protect the camhium — which has
been recently introduced by the Dutch in Java— is being experi-
mentally tried on some estates, but its suitability for the conditions
of climate prevailing on the Nilagiris has yet to be ascer-
tained. The allegf^d advantages of the system are (1) that it
involves the removal of only the valuable portions of the bark,
(2) that all such is removed, whilst under Mr. Mclvor's process
only sections are removed, (3) that the bark renews in a shorter
period, (4) that the health of the tree is not affected, (5) that
the protection of moss is not essential for renewal.
It is necessary that the bark should be dried in partial shade, as Drying the
the action of sunlight and exposure to the heat of a fire dissipates ^^^'^•
the alkaloids. Sheds with shelves of bamboo laths, so as to
admit of a free current of air, should be erected in convenient
localities. When the bark is tolerably dry, it should be placed
in a room artificially heated so as to evaporate the remaining
moisture in it. The room may be heated by flues or charcoal
page 375, O'Shaughnessy's Bengal Dispensatonj,
1842.
568 MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXX. fii-es, but the temperature should not be permitted to rise above
Chinchcna ^^^° ^- Gi-reen bark of tolerably mature age loses about two-
CuLTURR. thirds of its weight in the process of drying.
Packi^o~" The best mode of packing the bark for shipment to Europe
is in bags made of gunny cloth, consisting of two layers^ with an
intermediate coating of tar, which ensures the purpose of uniting
the layers and effectually excluding moistare.
The following list of books on chinchona is taken from Dr.
King's Manual : —
List of books List cf the chief Modern Works relating to Cinchona (from Flilckiger
onchiuchona. ^,^'^ Hanbun/s Fharmacographia, page 328).
Berg (Otto), Chinarinden der i^harmaTcognos^tischen Sammlung zu
Berlin. Berlin, 1865, 4to, 48 pages and 10 plates shewing the
microscopic structure of barks.
Bergen (Heinrich von), Monographie der China. Hamburg, 182G,
4to, 343 pages and 7 coloured plates representing the following
barks: — China rubra, Huanuco, Calisaya, flava, Haamalies,
Loxa, Jaen. An exhaustive work for its period in every
direction.
Blue-books — East India (Cinchona Plant), folio. —
A. — Copy of correspondence relating to the introduction of the
Cinchona 2yl'^nt into India, and to proceedings connected
with its cultivation, from March 1852 to March 1863.
Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, 20th
March 1863. 272 pages. Contains correspondence of
Royle, Markham, Spruce, Pritchett, Cross, Mclvor,
Anderson and others, illustrated by 5 maps.
B. — Copy of further correspondence relating to the introduction of
the Cinchona plant into India, and to proceedings connected
vnth its cultivation, from April 1863 to April 1866.
Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, 18th
June 1866. 379 pages. Contains monthly reports of
the plantations on the Nilgiri Hills ; annual reports for
1863-64 and 1864-65, with details of method of propaga-
tion and cultivation, barking, mossing, attacks of insects,
illustrated by woodcuts and 4 plates ; report of Cross's
journey to Pitayo, Avith map ; Cinchona cultivation in
Wynaad, Coorg, the Pulney Hills and Travaucore, with
map ; in British Sikkim, the Kangra Valley (Punjab),
the Bombay Presidency, and Ceylon.
C. — Copy of all correspondence between the Secretary of State for
India and the Governor'General, and the Governors of
Madras and Bombay, relating to the cultivation of Cin-
chona plants, from A2)rill866 to April 1870. Ordered by
the House of Commons to be printed, 9th August 1 >^70.
Contains reports on the Nilgiri and other plantations,
with map ; appointment of Mr. Broughton as analytical
chemist, his reports and analyses ; reports on the relative
MANUAL OF THE NiLAQIRI DISTRICT. 569
efficacy of the several Cinchona alkaloids ; on Cinchona CH. XXX,
cultivation at Darieeling' and in British Burma. ^
•• ^ CHINCIIONA
Delondre(Augustin Picrre)et Bouchardat(Apollinaire), Qtdnolnrjie. Cultuuk.
Paris, 1854, 4to, 48 pages and 23 good coloured plates exhibit-
ing all the barks then met with in commerce.
Gorkom (K, W. van), Die GhinaeuUur auf Java. Leipzig, 1869, 61
pages. An account of the management of the Dutch plantations-
Howard (John Eliot), IllustratioHS of the Nueva Qninolngia of
Pavon. London, 1862, folio, 163 pages and 30 beautiful
coloured plates. Figures of Cinchona, mostly taken from
Pavon's specimens in the Herbarium of Madrid, and three plates
representing the structure of several barks.
Howard (John Eliot), Quinology of the East Indian Plantations.
London, 1869, fol. x, and 43 pages with 3 coloured plates,
exhibiting structural peculiarities of the barks of cultivated
Cinchona.
Karsten (Hermann), Ble medlcinischen chinarinden Neu-Granada's.
Berlin, 1858, 8vo, 71 pages and 2 plates shewing micro-
scopic structure of a few barks. An English translation pre-
pared under the supervision of Mr. Markham, has been printed
by the India Office under the title of Notes on the Medicinal
Cinchona Barks of New Granada by H. Karsten, 1861. The
plates have not been reproduced.
Karsten (Hermann), Flom Columbioi terrarumque adjacentium
specimina selecta. Berolini, 1858, folio. Beautiful coloured
figures of various plants, including Cinchona, under which
name are several species usually referred to other genera. Only
the first three parts have been published.
Markham (Clements Robert). The Cinchona species of New Gra.
nada, containing the botanical descriptions of the species examined
by Drs. Mutis and Karsten ; icith some account of those botanists
and of the results of their labours. London, 1 867, 8vo, 139 page*
and 5 plates. The plates are not coloured, yet are good
reduced copies of those contained in Kars ten's Floroi Columbioi ;-
they represent the ioUowing -.— Cinchona corymbosa, C. Triance^
C. lancifoUa, G. cordifolia, C. Tiicujensis.
Miquel (Friedrich Anton Wilhelm), De Cinchona} spedebus quibus-
dam, adjectis lis qioce in Java cohmtur. Gommentatio ex AnnaUbus
Musei Botanici Lugduno-Batavi exscripta. Amstelodami, 1869,
4to, 20 pages.
Phcebus (Philipp), Lie Belondre-BouehardaVsthen CUna-Eitiden.
Giessen, 1864, 8vo, 76 pages and a table. The author gives a
description, without figures, of the microscopic structure of
the type-specimens figured in Delondre and Bouchardat's
Quinolugie.
Planchon (Gustave), Des Qidnquinas. Paris et Montpelher, 1864,
8vo, 150 pages. A description of the Cinchonas and their
barks. An English translation has been issued under the
superintendence of Mr. Markham by the India affice, uudei;
72
570 MANUAL OF THE NlLAaiRI DISTKICT.
CH. XXX. the title of Peruvian Barks, by Gustave PlanchoD, London,
printed by Eyre and Spottis\A-oode, 1866.
CoLTURE.* Soubeiran (J. Leon) et Delondre (Augustin), De V intrnducHon et
de V acdimataiion des Cinchonas dans les hides neerlandaises et
dans les hides hritanniques. Paris, 1868, 8vo, 165 pages.
Triana (Jose), Nouvelles Etudes sur les Quinquinas. Paris, 1870,
folio, 80 pages and 33 plates. An interesting account of the
labours of Mutis, illustrated by uncoloured copies of some of
the drawings prepared by him in illusti'ation of his unpublished
Qiiinologia de Bogota, especially of the several varieties of
Cinchona lancifoUa; also an enumeration and short descriptions
of all the species of Cinchona, and of New Granadian plants
(cheifly Cascarilla) formerly placed in that genus-
Vogl (August), Chinarinden des Wiener Grosshandels und der
Wisner Sanmiluvgen. Wien, 1867, 8vo, 134 pages, no figures.
A very exhaustive description of the microscopic structure of
the barks occurring in the Vienna market, or preserved in the
museums of that city.
Weddell (Hugh Algernon), Histoire nafurelle des Qiiinquinas, oic
monoqraphie du genre Cinchona, suivie d\ine descripUon du genre
Cascarilla et de quelques autres planfes de la mevie trihu. Paris,
1849, folio, 1U8 pages, 33 plates and map. Excellent uncoloured
fignres of Cinchona and some allied genera, and beautiful
coloured drawings of the officinal barks. Plate I exhibits the
anatomical structure of the plant ; Plate II that of the bark.
Weddell (Hugh Algernon), Notes sur les Quinquinas, extrait des
Annales des Sciences naturdles, 56me serie, tomes XI et XII.
Paris, 1870, 8vo, 75 pages. A systematic arrangement of the
genus Cinchona, and description of its (33) species, accompanied
by useful remarks on their barks. An English translation has
been printed by the India Office with the title. Notes on the
Quinquinas by II. A. Weddell, London, 1871, 8vo, 64 pages.
A German edition by Dr. F. A. Fliickiger has also appeared
under the title Uehersicht der Cinchonen von H. A. Weddell,
Schaffhausen and Berlin, 1871, 8vo, 43 pages, with additions
and indices.
I would add the following to the above list : —
Blue Book (Chinchona Cultivation), East India. Ordered to be
printed, 21st March 1876.
Report on the Government Chinchona Plantations, Nilagiris.
By Captain Campbell AValker, 1878.
Report of the Committee on the Manufacture of Alkaloids, &c.,
1878.
Lecture on Chinchona Culture, by Surgeon-Major Bidie, M.n.,
1870, Madras.
Report by Robevt Cross of his Mission to South America in
1877-78. London.
MANUAL OF THIS NILAGIKI DISTRICT. 571
CHAPTER XXXI.
HORTICULTURE.'
Horticul-
ture.
Origiu of the Ootacamand Gardens. — Mr. Mclvor appointed Superintendent. —
Site.— Defective management.— Dr. Wight'.s report.— Receipts and expenditure
to t852. — Gai-dens placed under Government. — Mr, Markham's description of
the Gardens. — Medicinal plants. — Mr. Jamieson appointed.— Gardens placed
under the Ckjmmissioner. — Agri-Horticultural Society. — Recent improvements.
— Superintendent's reports. — Receipts and expenditure of each garden.
In April 1817 it was first proposed to establish a Public CH. XXXL
Garden in Ootacamand, the chief promoters of the scheme being
Mr. Bell, Bombay Civil Service, and Major A. Grant. A.
Committee was appointed, and a prospectus issued and widely .":
circulated soliciting subscriptions and pointing out the advantages OotllTamand
which the climate of the Hills offered for the formation of a Gardens,
nursery garden which would indirectly benefit all parts of
India. At the same time application was made to Government
for aid. The Marquis of Tweeddale, then Governor of Madras,
approved of the undertaking, and in June of the same year a
working Committee was appointed, and Rupees 100 granted by
Government towards the expenses of the garden. On the sugges-
tion of the Marquis of Tweeddale the Government proposed that
the Court of Directors should be asked to send out " a scientific
and practical gardener qualified to undertake the management of
the gardens, and to sanction a grant of an annual contribution
sufficient to meet his salary,^'
In June 184.7 the sanction of the Court of Directors was Mr. Mclvor
communicated, and in January of the following year Mr. William appointed
Graham Mclvor was engaged for five years on a salary of £150 denr.^"^^^*^'
a year with a leave allowance of £75. It was stipulated that he
should not trade, and that he should conform to all the rules
relating to the Uncoveuanted Service. Mr. Mclvor arrived
in Madras early in the spring, and was ordered to proceed at
once to Ootacamand and report himself to the Committee and the
Commandant.
The portion of the gardens first brought under cultivation was
the upper and steeper part, a piece of Government shola runnino-
1 I had hoped to have given a paper on the history of horticulture on the Hills
by a specialist, but have been disappointed in ray expectation.
572
MANUAL OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT,
CH. XXXI.
Horticul-
ture.
Site.
Defective
management.
Dr. Wight's
report.
Receipts and
expenditure.
Garden
placed under
Governuieut-
down a shallow raviue between two spurs of the Doddabetta
range. The lower and more level portion of the ground which
now forms the approach to Government House was not added
until the year 1851, when its purchase from Mrs. Kyan was sanc-
tioned by the Court of Directors at a price not exceeding Rupees
50 a cawny.
The site is well chosen both as regards aspect and soil, and
much of the present beauty of the gardens is due to the happy
manner in which advantage has been taken of the picturesque
lay of the land and of the trees and rocks with which it abounds.
Bits of fine old sh61a still nestle undisturbed in nooks and
corners of the grounds, though they are now connected by gravel
paths and grassy slopes intersected by beds of flowers. To
Mr. Mclvor the greatest credit is due for the taste and judgment
displayed in the laying out of the grounds.
For the first four years of its existence, however, the progress
of the gardens appears to have been unsatisfactory, and in May
1852 Mr. Mclvor was called upon to report on its state and
prospects. The result of this report was the formation of a
working Committee of three members. The Committee also
determined to devote a sum of Rupees 100 a month to higher
horticulture, the gardens having been utilized up to this time
mainly for the cultivation of vegetables for the benefit of sub-
scribers.
Little improvement appears to have been made in spite of
these changes, chiefly owing to the want of unanimity between
Mr. Mclvor and the Committee. Dr. Wight's report a few mouths
later^ in which he supported Mr. Mclvor, led to the abolition of
the original Committee. The gardens were placed entirely in
Mr. Mclvor's charge, with an ex-qfficio Committee having the
Collector of Coimbatore and the Commandant among its members.
The receipts and expenditure up to this time were as follows.
Expenditure from October 1847 to June 1852, Rupees 16,122
exclusive of Mr. Mclvor's salary. Receipts for the same period
Rupees 14,600, that is. Government allowance Rupees 4,800,
private subscriptions Rupees 9,800.
In 1854 the ex-ojficio members of Committee again saw fit to
form a Committee of Management, to whom Mr. Mclvor was
instructed to submit his accounts, and it was not until November
1855 that Lord Dalhousie recommended that the gardens should
be taken over by Government. A Committee, however, appears
to have existed under one form or another, although tacitly
abolished, until September 1857, when the gardens were placed
under the control of the Conservator of Fi)rests, Dr. Cleghorn,
the Commandant being still required to check the accouuts.
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 573
Their history from this date has bcca one of steady if not CH. XXXI.
of rapid progress. Nor can it be doubted that they have given an ~7T,
impetas to horticulture in general, and have been the means of tube.
introducing and propagating a large number of useful as well as
ornamental plants and shrubs which have been sent to many
ditferent parts of India. In 1856 the Government of India
sanctioned a monthly sum of Rupees 50 and free carriage for
plants and seeds to and from Calcutta.
As the gardens progressed the cultivation of vegetables was
abandoned, as the available space was required for the growing
of flowers and ornamental trees and shrubs, but not before they
had been of much service in teaching the native gardeners how
to supply the local market and in inducing them to cultivate
better varieties from seed imported and distributed to them free
of charge. The old conservatory was constructed and a fern-house
built about this time. The following extract from Markham's
" Travels in Peru and India " gives his impression of the gardens
in 1860 :—
" The English settler on the Neilgherries will find English fruits, Mr. Mark-
flowers, vegetables and grasses, the introduction of which is mainly li^im's de-
due to the exertions of Mr. William G. Mclvor, the Superintendent ^'^"^ ^°^^'
of the Government Gardens at Ootacamund, and now also Superinten-
dent of Cinchona Plantations in Southern India. This gentleman has
been in charge of the gardens at Ootacamund since 1848, and unites
zeal, intelligence, and skill to the talent and experience of an excellent
practical gardener. Under his auspices the steep scopes of one of the
spurs which run off from the Peak of Dodabetta and overlook the
cantonment of Ootacamund have been converted into a tastefully
laid out garden, in a succession of terraces. Hampered at first by
the interference of a useless committee, and with no assistance beyond
that of an East Indian foreman and labourers from the Mysore plains,
he has succeeded in changing the wild mountain side into a very
beautiful public garden. Every point of view is taken advantage
of with admirable taste, and numerous trees and flowering shrubs
have been introduced from England, Australia, and other countries,
while the native flora of the hills is fully represented. There are
English roses and geraniums, ponds bordered by white arums, shady
walks overarched by trellis-work, tasteful vases filled with showy
flowers, thickets of rhododendrons, hedges of heliotrope and fuchsias
fine clumps of tall spreading trees, — and from the upper terraces,
between the leafy branches, there are glorious views of the Ootaca-
nmnd vallej and of the finely broken range of the distant Koondah
hills."
Of the branch garden at Kalhatti on the Segur ghat, which
had been added for the cultivation of plants requiring a warmer
climate and less elevation, Mr. Markham writes as follows : —
" A magnificent waterfall descends into a rocky basin close beside
it, and the garden contains oranges of many kinds, shaddochs, lemons,
HORTICUL.
TUKE.
574 MANUAL OF THE NlLAGIRl DISTRICT.
CH. XXXI. limes, citrons, nutmegs, loqnats and plantains. On this spot the
delicious Chirimoyas, the seeds of which we brought from Peru, will
hereafter ripen and enable the people of India to taste the ' master-
piece of nature.'
* * * * *
*' These gardens are self-supporting."
Mediciual Up to the year 1856 the only medicinal plant which had been
plants. largely cultivated was the digitalis, but on a suggestion of tbe
Medical Department that more attention should be given to
this branch, it was suggested that a special garden should be
made for this purpose at Melkunda. Whether this project was
ever carried out or not is uncertain, but it was probably found
that the gardens at Ootacamand, Burliar, and another nui'sery or
branch garden established shortly afterwards at Kalbatti on the
Segur ghat offered sufficient varieties of soil and climate for
experiments in the growth of medicinal plants.
Mr. Jamie- Government experiments in the rearing of chinchona plants from
BOii 3 appoint- . ' 1 • 1 1 1 1 • 1 • • • lo,^.,^
ment. seeds and cuttings, which had their beginning in iooU, soon
occupied a large proportion of Mr. Mclvor's time, and it was
found necessary to give him a European assistant. The pre-
seot Superintendent, Mr. Jamieson, from the gardens at Kew,
was accordingly engaged as Deputy Superintendent of the Chin-
chona Plantations, but his work was mainly confined to the
gardens. He began his duties at Ootacamand in 1868, continuing
as assistant to Mr. Mclvor until 1871, when he was promoted to
the appointment of Superintendent on Mr. Mclvor becoming
Superintendent of the Government Chir.chona Plantations.
Gardens Soon after the Commission was formed the gardens were
placed under placed under the Commissioner, and this arrangement has
Commissioner ^ .»-tt-i lo- c ^ -i
continued. An Agri- Horticultural Society ^ was formed mainly
Agri-Horti- through Mr, Breeks' influence, which did good service in encour-
Society, ^o^'^o the native growers by distributing seeds and offering prizes
for vegetables, which were awarded by a Committee appointed to
inspect the vegetables brought for sale to the local market.
During Mr. Breeks' life agri-horticultural shows were held from
time to time in the gardens, but since his death only one has
taken place. Though its affairs were never finally wound
up, the Society seems to have virtually died out, and it is much
to be regretted that it is not revived, for although the show of
Howers and vegetables was never so good as might reasonably
' In June 1869 the Government sanctioned the transfer of tlie gardens to the
Agri-Elorticnltural Society, the Commissioner being President of the Committee
of Management. Mr. Mclvor, who was relieved of the superintendence of the
gardens, being an er-officio member of the Committee, whilst Mr. Jamieson, as
Superintendent, was to work under the orders of the Committee. The transfer
was not carried into effect, as Mr. Jamieson decli:"ed to act as Superintendent
under the orders of the Cuuimittue.
MANfTAL OP THE NtLAQIRI DISTRICT. 575
have been expected, the effect of these exhibitions could not have CH. XXXI.
been other than beneficial as an incentive to both native growers Horticul-
and amateur gardeners. ture.
Among the most noteworthy improvements since Mr. Jamieson Eecent
has taken charge are some which come more especially within ^g^^^^^^'
the province of landscape gardening. Portions of the lower
part of the grounds have been cleared of the Acacia dealbafa.
and A. melanoxylon and laid out in grass studded with aurcicarias
and other handsome trees, including some rare varieties of the
eucalyptus, and many additional flower beds have been introduced.
Handsome gates flanked by lodges, one of which is used for a
herbarium and the other as an office, have been placed at the
entrance of the gardens. The approach to Government House
is now through these gates, and the carriage drive which has been
cut along the lower slope and first terrace having made it neces-
sary to lay out these portions of the grounds afresh, a good deal
has been done to improve their general appeai'ance. A spacious
conservatory has been recently erected above the terrace near
the band stand.
As regards natural beauty, however, the Ootacamand gardens Sim's Park,
must yield the palm to the more recently formed garden at
Coonoor, called after the late Member of Council, Sim's Park.
During the last few years of his stay in India Mr. Sim devoted
much time and attention to the formation and laying out of
these gardens. The site is a particularly suitable one, and the
climate of Coonoor being milder, is more adapted for the cultivation
of flowers, and especially of roses. The ground embraces some
stretches of natural shola which are finer than any in the gardens
at Ootacamand. The tree ferns are especially beautiful, and
many foreign varieties have been placed in the shady hollows
which ai-e the natural habitat of this graceful family of plants.
A miniature lake has been formed by damming up the stream
which flows at the foot of the gardens, and a number of jjaths
cut through the wilder portions of the enclosure.
The Superintendent's reports for the last few years are of Snpeiinten-
special interest, showing the number of useful plants which have po°ts! *^"
been introduced and propagated, among others the Santung
cabbage, prickly comfrey (Symphytum asperrimum), and the
mahogany tree. The list of medicinal plants now includes the
ipecacuanha, jalap, rhubarb, peppermint, lavender, digitalis,
taraxicum. A medicinal garden was formed in 1878 at the head
of the Botanical Gardens, Ootacamand, five acres in extent, on
the suggestion of the Surgeon-General, Indian Medical Depart-
ment. A spcci.'il grant is given for this purpose. In 1878-79 no
less than three acres were cultivated with jalap. A quantity of
576
MANUAL OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
HORTICUL
TUHE.
Cn. XXXI. dried jalap, as well as of Berheris cortex and dried digitalis, was
supplied to the Medical Department. The fruit trees at Burliar
have been let for the last few yeare, thus rendering this garden
self-supporting. It now contains fine specimensofthemangosteen,
leechee, clove, nutmeg, Liberian coffee, and other valuable tropi-
cal fruii-bearing trees and shrubs.
Receipts and The receipts and expenditure for the year 1878-79 at the
expenditure, several gardens, including the grovinds of the Secretariat at Stone-
house and at Grovernmeut House, Norwood, which are also under
the Superiutendent, were as follows . —
Garden.
Receipts.
Expenditure.
Ootacamand Botanical C
Garden. i
Stonehouse Park
(Secretariat.)
Upper Norwood
(Government House.)
By sale of plants
By (Government grants
Sundries
Total ..
Government grant
Government grant . .
RS.
2,838
10,720
40
Establishment
Minor Establishment
and Contingencies.
RS.
5,327
5,514
10,841
874
229
13,598
Total ...
Establishment
Sundries
Establishment
Sundries
Total ...
1,100
1,050
1,103
1,028
26
1,054
Medicinal Garden
Government grant ..
4S8
Establishment
498
Sim's Park
Government gitint ..
RS.
2,379
Establishment
Sundries
Total ..
RS.
1,840
540
2,380
Kalhatti
Government grant
Rent, &c
Total ..
. 180
75
. 255
Establishment
180
Burliar ...
{
Government grant ..
Rent, &c
335
. 273
Establishment
Sundries
276
59
Total .
. 608
Total ..
335
Grand Total .
. 19,488
Grand Total ..
16,391
MANUAL OP THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT. 577
CHAPTER XXXII.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Landmeasure.— Capacity measures.— Measure used for house sites. — Long mea=
sure.— Weights.— Precious metals and coins.
28 Adis, or country ft. = 1 K61 ... = 24 English ft. CH. XXXII.
100 Oruhs = 1 Cawnie = 57,600 square ft. Measures.
= l''S2-Z3U acres. Lanl
1 Balla ... ... = 3-82 acres = 166464 square ft. measure.
In the Ee venue accounts cawnies are subdivided into annas
and 12 pies or part of an anna.
yL of an Anna . . . = 300 square feet.
12 Pies ... = 1 Anna or 3,600 square feet.
16 Annas .. . = 1 Cawnie or 57,600 square feet.
A cawnie is to the English acre as 160 is to 121.
To convert ca«vnies into acres, the usual course is to multiply
the cawnie by 160 and divide by 121.
Since the Revenue Survey was introduced, acres and decimals
are generally used in all measurements.
In measuring house sites, the measure known as mane or Measure used
ground (= 60 x 40 feet = 2,400 square feet) is used. for house
It is noted that the space (about 12 feet) between the beams ^^*^^'
(thulam) which support the roof ordinarily is called an ankanam.
A fair sized Tamil house would consist of about 4 ankanams of
12 feet each. The term is used by the Badagas also, but with
them each section would ordinarily not exceed 9 or 10 feet in
breadth.
2 Alloks ... ... ... =z 1 Ullok = \ measure Measures of
a Madras measure). ^'"P^*^^*^-
8 Alloks = ] Paddi or Measure.
8 Measures = 1 Merkal.
5 Merkals = 1 Para.
400 Merkals ... = 1 Garisa.
60 Jodis (Mysore measures)
or 100 Madras half-
measures = 1 Palla.
73
578
MANUAL OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
CH. XXXII. A Madras half-measure filled to overflowing is used in all
transactions. Its cubic contents equal 50" 17 inches. ;In the
Measuees. weekly markets held at the several stations and other parts of
the district this measure is used in selling articles such as
chillies, pepper, turmeric, and other condiments, which are
generally purchased by weight in other places. Ghee is also
sold by measure. The aborigines of Nilagix'is have a measure
called kolagam, nearly equivalent in size and contents to the
Madi'as half-measure.
25 Imperial bottles = 1 Kodam or pot. This sort of measure-
ment is used in selling oil.
Long
Weights.
Preoioas
metals and
coins, gold
and silver.
Monoy.
9 Angulams or Inches . . . = 1 Jan or span.
12 do. . . . = 1 Adi or foot.
18 do. ... = 1 Mlira or cubit.
2 Cubits or 3 English feet = 1 Gaj or yard.
1 Palam
8 Palams ...
6 Seers
1 Viss
li Viss or 50 Palams
8 Viss
20Maund8
32 Koondamani weight
10 Varaha weight ...
8 Palams ...
1 Rupee weight ...
12 Pies
16 Annas ...
4 Kas (pies)
3 Thuddtis
4 Annas ...
4Belli8
34 Rupees ...
Dodda-hana
Chicka-hana
3 Rupees in weight.
1 Seer = 24 Rs. weight.
1 Viss = 120 Rs. weight.
3J Rathal.
1 Tlik = 150 Rs. weight.
1 Maund = 960 Rs. weight.
1 Baram or candy
19,200 Rs. weight.
1 Star Pagoda or 1 Varaha
weight.
1 Palam (1 i oz. Avoirdupois).
1 Seer.
^H Varaha weight.
1 Anna.
1 Rupee.
1 Thuddii.
1 Anna.
1 Belli.
1 Rupee.
1 Varaha.
4 Annas.
2 Annas.
APPENDIX.
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
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Q (B o CS
OF THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT.
No. 2. — Statement oj Population arranged with reference to Caste, according
to the Census oJ 1871.
Nationality.
Caate.
Population. j
Males.
Females.
Total. ■
r
Brahmins ...
107
89
196
Kshatriyas
31
19
50
Chetties
362
110
47:i
Vellalar (Agriculturalists)
2,851
1,779
4,630
Idaiyar (Shepherds)
421
350
771
Kammaldn (Artizans)
270
220
490
Kanakkan
65
49
114
Hindus ... -!
Kaikkalar (Weavers)
148
84
232
Vauniau (Laborers and Cultivators) . . .
708
526
1,234
Kusavan (Potters)
20
3
23
Satani (Mixed)
1,077
882
1,959
Sembadavan (Hunters)
36
24
60
Sh4u4n (Tu(ldy-drawers)
16
16
Ambattam (Barbers)
51
'"57
108
Vanndn (Washermen)
107
87
194
Others
12,965
11,914
24,609
Pareiyaa
Total ...
Lnbbeya
5,705
4,523
10,228
24,670
20,716
* 45,386
218
55
273
Arabs
3
1
4
Sheika
461
392
853
Mahomedans.. ■
Syuds
92
64
156
Pattans
104
74
178
Moghuls
5
3
8
I
Europeans
Other Mahomedans
Total ...
266
198
464
1,149
787
1,936
818
521
1,339
Eai-asians
523
273
796
Othera
Grand Total ...
32
12
44
27,192
22,309
49,501
N.B, — Of the Hindu population 2,935 are Native Christians.
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 2-A. — Statement slio^ving the Male Poindatlon arranged with reference to
Occupation according to the Census of 1871 .
Number of
Major Headings.
Minor Headings.
Males
employed.
r
Government Service
78
Professional <
Military-
Learned Professions
571
66
(
Minor do.
481
Domestic
Personal Service ...
964
Commercial \
Traders
Conveyors
814
608
Agricultural
Cultivators ...
6,963
r
Dress
548
Food
480
Metal
143
Industrial ... ...-{
Construction
311
Books ...
15
Household Goods
39
L
Combustibles
2
r
Laborers
3,930
Indefinite and non-Pro- }
Property-
71
ductive. j
Unproductive
41
(
Others
Total ...
207
16,322
i
No. 2-B. — Stat&tnent showing the Number of Houses, Populatmi, and Cattle
in each Tahiq.
Number of Houses
Population
C Terraced
) Tiled ...
J Thatched
(.Unspecified
(Males ...
( Females . . .
Total
Total
69
1,845
11,864
144
13,922
27,192
22,309
49,501
f Tilling Cattle
I Cows
She-Buffaloes
Agricultural Stock -i Sheep
Ploughs
I Horses ...
^Ponies ...
6,212
6,341
6,196
3,464
2,897
Unknown.
Do.
OF THE NILAGTRI DISTRICT.
No. 3.— Statement of
Bent Roll for Fcisli 1281.
Puttas.
Single
Puttas.
Joint Puttas.
Total Puttaa.
Number.
Assess,
nient.
Number.
Assess.
ment.
Number.
Assess-
ment.
j-Todanid
806
RS.
2,955
264
Ra.
2,756
1,070
RS.
5,711
Mekandd
291
1,343
299
2,588
590
3,931
Budinatam
86
1,135
4
36
90
1,171
h
Sembanatham
21
176
...
21
176
Segnr
14
116
1
23
15
139
Peranganid and Kambes.
432
2,109
206
3,127
698
5,236
.Kdudaa
115
401
26
109
141
510
Total ...
1,765
8,235
860
8,639
2,625
16,874
fTodanM
87
2,162
2
37
89
2,199
Mekandd
30
1,431
11
676
41
2,107
o
Segur
9
801
9
801
l^
Perangand,d
148
2,126
9
520
157
2,646
Kundas
2
4
...
...
2
4
Miilachapoi
1
285
...
1
285
^Velleru Kambe
1
3
...
1
3
Total ...
278
6,812
22
1,233
300
8,045
Grand Total ...
2,043
15,047
882
9,872
2,925
24,919
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
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OF THE NILAGIEI DISTRICT.
No. 5. — Statement shminng Rainfall in certain places in the District of
miayiris fnmi Fasli Year 1870-71 to 187U-77.
1
^
I. a
^*
im"
«•
^•
«3
■2 >
«5
i>
No.
Fasli Year.
x>
x>
CO
i>
4
£ " fe
5
CD
00
t^
i>
t^
Sja g
ti
t^
00
00
2
>^ >,
00
00
'"'
•"*
'"'
'-*
<
Ootacamand.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
1
July
506
333
4-89
4-46
5-51
4-65
4-42
6-81
2
August
6-33
5-02
4-20
6-05
295
4-91
1-98
399
3
September
204
4-23 1008
6-42
2-78
5-11
4-24
1-50
4
October
1010 10-45 ; 3-99
7-32
10-24
8-42
8-33
1-66
5
November
1-69
13-92
6-93
2-35
2-10
5-40
2-30
•26
6
December
111
■06
1-90
0-44
-85
-87
2-55
•11
7
January
195
•05
1-00
8
February
•60
2-79
0-'86
1-42
•36
9
March
1-55
'•05
1-45
"•80
•96
2-82
2^56
10
April
5-73
1-93
5-96
2-20
1-46
376
1-72
2-88
11
May
4-71
500
7-35
11-18
5-45
6^74
4-57
7-15
12
June
Total ...
5-68
6-45
2-27
7-36
10-87
6-53
1-72
8-48
46-55
50-44
50-36
50^09
43-06
48-10
34-65
35-76
Coonoor.
1
July
314
3-29
4^70
2-30
2-85
326
1-55
3-95
2
August
3-03
3-95
6^70
1-00
2-75
3-49
2-10
3-35
3
September
2-36
5-85
9-10
5-80
5-35
5-69
3-50
5-05
4
October
4-40
22-04
3-55
8-40
10-50
9-78
9-65
1405
5
November ...
20-42
15-55
24-35
9-10
13 00
16-48
21-80
8-95
6
December
3-95
3-58
7-10
4-45
3-10
4-44
8-65
1-90
7
January
18-41
•15
0-40
2-05
5-25
8
February
5-35
•90
16-90
3-30
•30
5-35
1-65
9
March
1-44
•70
0-15
1-70
100
3-60
5-80
10
April
7-68
8-97
2-'60
4-25
3-50
5-40
2-90
4-65
11
May
3-25
2-58
1225
8-14
3-80
6-00
4-35
2-70
12
June
Total ...
3-21
3-95
2-20
3-80
300
323
3-75
2-60
76-64
71-51
89-45
51-09
51-90
68-12
61^85
54-65
WeUiugton.
1
July
1-83
1-95
3-95
302
2-84
2-72
1-97
3-15
2
August
295
3-26
3-79
4-37
2-97
3-47
1-51
310
3
September
2-07
6-90
8-62
4-37
7-56
5-90
5-02
3-02
4
October
5-33
13-90
2-92
7-71
10-48
8-07
717
5-81
5
November
12-36
11-72
12-00
3-20
6-46
9-15
9-54
6
December
3-23
1-44
2-97
1-84
3-72
2-64
7-02
1-47
7
Januaiy
13-45
•10
-35
•65
3-64
•15
8
February
2-13
■95
8-35
2-72
354
-27
9
Ma,ch
2-54
•14
l-'65
1-44
2-66
7-36
10
April ...
9-05
4-'91
2^'36
2-80
2-30
4-28
3-65
3-09
11
May
1-31
1-59
12-80
704
4-31
5-41
5-94
2-47
12
June ...
Total ...
3-25
2-89
1-57
4-26
4-13
3-22
2-42
3-39
59-50
49^61
59-33
41-82
47-07
51-47
46-90
33-28
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
N'o. 5, — Statement sJiowing Uainfall in certain places in the District of
miagirisfrom Fasli Year 1870-71 to 1876-77— (Continued).
(N
ei
•>*
U5
1- 0
■2 >
«5
i>
No.
Fasli Year.
d
t-;
5
5
t*
6
t^
ti
l>-
i-
S.d S
»>
t>.
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
<;■" ^
.-<
Melkunda.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
1
July
303
8-50
5-90
5-50
5-74
2-80
670
2
August
201
3-55
2-85
1-75
2-54
•80
4-80
3
September
6-45
6-90
5-59
4-35
5-82
3-30
4
October
'^
13-90
3-80
12-45
900
9-79
11-50
11 -'55
5
November
^
1-36
23-10
7-80
8-95
10-30
9-05
6
December
'3
2-20
5-25
2-45
4-8
3-90
370
5'20
7
January
1-0
1-00
8
February
•50
8-20
l"50
•5
2-67
'•50
9
March
;z;
•80
1-25
2-02
3-30
415
10
April ...
6-60
3^"io
2-43
2-00
3-53
102
...
11
May
2-'c7
1-60
12-20
6-00
6-50
5-67
2-70
12
June
Total ...
3-75
310
2-30
9-00
5-10
4-65
•95
8-15
5-82
41^55
76-90
55^97
50-70
56^28
3912
41-05
Kaity.
1
July
335
5-35
405
3-18
4-23
3-55
3-78
2
Au^st
3-85
5-00
4^85
3-45
4^29
•95
4-53
3
September
675
12-50
5-30
6-40
7-74
5-75
2-71
4
October
...
13-75
4-10
0-65
13-20
7-92
614
3-55
5
November
9^65
7-90
3-50
3-65
6-17
516
1-85
6
December
...
•65
2-95
1-65
1-75
2-15
122
7
January
•38
•38
...
...
8
February
15
5-'40
2-15
2-57
...
9
March
4-20
2-15
3-17
3-50
8^'49
10
April
3^'80
2^80
223
2-72
2-89
343
296
11
May
3-70
305
9-75
13-47
5-96
7-19
5-76
4-75
12
June
Total ...
4-95
4-40
2-50
6-10
6-89
4-97
319
481
8-65
49-40
58-25
46-50
49-63
50-95
39-58
3865
Kodandd.
1
July
3-98
6-84
..5
3-89
4-21
2-41
251
2
August
4-56
3-16
5-32
4-82
4-46
1-65
493
3
September
7-25
1219
5-71
4-59
7-43
3-39
6-32
4
October
17-60
3-60
16-81
17-89
13-97
1603
3-38
5
November
11-54
14-32
5-20
6-85
9-48
802
2-99
6
December
1-30
5-70
1-31
4-46
3-19
1-60
•47
7
January
•10
134
•72
...
8
February
'•'45
7-'95
•65
3-02
"65
9
March
•09
{•86
•97
1-12
511
10
April
2-49
1-90
4-21
396
3-14
2-60
11
May
392
4-80
11-06
7-56
3-85
6-24
10-50
5-27
12
June
Total ...
3-98
6-25
3-94
802
5-23
5-48
-55
3-88
7-90
60-22
70-66
5713
! 58-74
1
61-69
47-87
3551
OP THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT.
No. 5. — Stnicment slwwhig Rainfall in certain places in the District of
Nilagiris from Fusli Year 1870-71 to 1876-77— (Continued).
No.
Fasli Year.
1
1
00
00
pi
i
00
Neduwattam.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
IN.
1
July
29-86
29-51
31-71
3517
4004
33-26
37-35
43-30
2
August
25-24
15-44
19-34
18-30
24-20
20-50
8-41
2245
3
September
22-39
16-56
13-02
15-60
13-15
16-15
5-75
9-45
4
October
19-44
5-79
5-31
1201
14-22
11-35
4-24
3-90
5
November
2-67
8-14
3-71
•79
1-47
3-35
•40
6
December
•39
...
219
•21
•26
•76
...
7
January
•35
...
...
•50
•42
...
8
February
•65
...
•72
...
•68
9
March
•74
•08
•40
•45
-83
•50
3-33
1-90
10
April
...
1-67
4-93
211
3-57
3-07
2-33
2-38
11
May
...
3-39
5-92
15-89
4-42
7-40
1-58
312
12
June
20-12
17-97
43-72
13-51
23-83
11-33
41-80
Total ...
101-73
100-70
105-22
144-25
116-17
113-61
74-32
128'70
AFFETNBrX TO THE MANUAL
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Xii APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 7-A.— Statement shoiving the Area under the principal Crops ailtivattd in
Fasli 1285.
Kaggy
Wheat
Ganjee
Koralie
Saniay
Other food grains
Potatoes ...
Castor-oil seeds ..
Opium
Mustard ...
Vendiem ...
Horse-gram
Tea
Coffee
Cinchona
Vegetables
Other crops
ACRES.
3,430
3,199
3,701
15,728
4,662
588
754
10
66
355
144
07
2,302
12,593
1,311
109
384
Total ... 49,013
No. 8. — Statement showing the Collections under the several Heads of Bevemie
in the District of Nilagiris fur a Series of Ten Years.
Faslis.
Official
Years.
Land
Revenue.
Forest
Revenue.
Abkiri.
Income
Tax.
Stamps.
Total.
KS.
RS.
RS.
BS.
RS.
RS.
1276 ...
1866.67...
23,778
54,035
93,237
16,585
1,87,635
1277 ...
1867-68...
36,484
36,294
53,285
4,595
14,649
1,45,257
1278 ...
1868-69...
36,571
29,234
33,909
8,809
13,179
1,21,702
1279 ...
1869-70...
41,844
10,252
85,522
14,437
9,918
1,61,973
1280 ...
1870-71...
38,207
6,379
86,005
17,081
7,715
1,55,387
1281 ...
1871-72...
35,178
6,660
78,461
6,227
8,631
1,35,157
1282 ...
1872-73...
32,343
33,075
86,659
5,673
13,081
1,70,831
1283 ...
1873-74...
42,254
25,953
70,517
6
13,860
1,52,620
1284. ...
187t-75...
45,648
18,427
75,847
17,213
1,57,135
1285 ...
1875-76...
38,916
36,815
1,00,217
20,272
1,96,220
OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT-
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APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 10. — Statement shorcing the Receipts and Expenditure of Local
^
S
^
Receipts.
i
— I
g
RS.
RS.
R3.
RS.
RS.
- „ , f 0, Road Fund
1. Balance ( j, Endowment Fund
-3,627
-238
-3,834
177
-10,304
-194
-3,877
309
-3,060
404
2. Provincial Grant for General Fund
1,103
701
5,704
2,747
Do. for Road Fund
44,790
51,380
52,350
48,530
46,286
3. Do. for Schools
...
4. Do. for General Purposes
4,390
680
Special Sanctions
10,580
5. Surplus Pound Fund
...
...
2,244
6. Avenue
...
7. Fishery Rents
...
8. Miscellaneous
98
9. Road Cess under Act III of 1866
...
...
10. Land Cess nnder Act IV of 1871
807
...
2,262
2,121
2,089
11. Tolls' Act IV of 1871
10,907
14,692 12,785
13,729
14,867
12. House Tax
...
...
...
13. Fees in Schools and Training Institutions ...
...
...
14. Contributions
175
125
430
100
15. Educational Receipts
...
...
...
Choultries, &c
964
410
1,100
360
360
16. Sale of Elementary Books
17. Fees from Travellers' Bungalows
18. Balance of Bungalow Fund
...
...
19. Fines and Penalties
...
...
20. Sale of other Property
...
...
...
...
21. Public Works Receipts
...
22. Do. Refund of Expenditure
23. Miscellaneous
92
5,910
3,023
3,433
1,312
24. Miscellaneous Debt Account
...
Suspense Account
Grand Total ...
...
14
i
53,773 70,013
76,818 71,417
1
67,363
OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
Funds under Act IV of 1871, /or the Five Years ending 1875-76.
^
CO
Tjl
\n
to
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*>
t«.
1-.
t>.
Expenditure.
g
i
i
i
i
•"•
New Works.
RS.
KS.
RS.
RS. RS.
1. Communications { ^ ^^^^ ^„^^^^ - ;;;
10,230
5,773
14,871
17,152
15,873
2. Educational ... By P. W. D.
...
3. Sanitaiy and f By P. W. D.
Miscellaneous. { By other Agency
...
...
...
...
Incomplete Works
2*341
9,906
...
260
Repairs.
4.Com™nicatio=3{gP-J;f^^„^^ •■■ ;;;
34,808
37,084
37,762
31,760
38,566
5.Ed„catio„a. ... { =^, TiJ.-i'.^.ej ;;: Z
...
...
...
6. Sanitary and ( By P. W. D.
Miscellaneous. \ By other Agency
200
2,691
2,043
260
7. Public Works Department supervision
7,570
17!lOO
16^399
12,616
13,637
8. Petty Establishment
256
2,345
9. Tolls and Ferries
...
■59
...
10. Tools and Plant
"e
506
...
460
450
Conti-ibutions to Coonoor Municipality
Total Grant I ...
11. Payment for Inspection
55,411
2,065
1,815
72,714
71,723
66,155 70,741
...
125
467
482
12. Local Fund Schools
...
13. Purchase of Books, &c
.,
...
...
14. Salary Grants
...
...
...
"go
15. Results Grants
158
220
...
Miscellaneous
Total Grant II ...
...
275
250
175
158
275
375
862
542
16. Hospitals and Dispensaries
17. Vaccine Establishment
414
558
552
595
18. Sanitary Establishment and cleansing of Tanks
...
and Wells.
Choultries Establishments
422
444
330
328
718
19. Travellers' Bungalow Establishment ...
173
275
286
486
Miscellaneous
Total Grant III ...
20. Establishments at the Presidency and in the
882
72
422
336
1,913
1,235
1,166
1,799
1,532
867
881
1,046
Collector's and Local Fund Board's Offices
and Contingencies.
21. Writebacks of incorrect Credits of District
...
...
...
Road Fund and Balances.
Total Grant IV ...
336
1,532
867
881
1,046
Advances Recoverable ...
...
484
22. Miscellaneous Debt Account
2,263
14
Total Expenditure ...
rRo.id Fund
56,327
76,434
74,684
71,327
74,142
-3,834
-7,548
-3,879
-3,060
-8,971
23. Balance ...-| Endowment Fund
177
216
309
403
138
(General Fund
Grand Total . . .
1,103
911
5,704
2,747
2,054
53,773
70,013 ,76,818
71,417 67,363
XVI
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
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OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. 5
No. 12. — Statement shoioiag the Progress of Education for a ScrirF: of
Ten Years.
Description of Schools.
1866-67.
i"
^"^
Niiiiiber of
Pupils.
Boys.
Girls.
1867-68.
.= o
Number of
Pupils.
Boys. Girls.
A. — Government Schools.
1 Maintained from Imperial I i>rj2(3ig
or Provincial Funds. | Lower
2. Maintained from Local or ) [yfj^^^jp
Municipal Funds. | ^o^er
* Lawi-ence Asylum
Total ..
Middle
B.— Schools Aided.
1. By Salary Grants
2. By Results Grants
Higher
Middle
Lower
Higher
Middle
Lower
3. Combined Salary and f jjj^^jfj
Results Grants. ^ ^ower
(Omitting Lawrence Asylum) Total
C. Schools binder Inspection I Higher
for Results Grayits 6itt < Middle
not aided. (Lower
Total
Number of successful candidates for the
Uncovenanted Civil Service Examination
educated in this district.
Number of successful candidates for
Special Tests.
Number of successful candidates for
Matriculation and F. A.
123
71
71
( Mat. 6
i,F.A. 0
56
56
Mat. 8
F.A. 1
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 12. — Statevrent sho7v{vg tJif Progress of Education for a Series of
Ten Ycrtrs— (Continued).
Description of Schools,
A. — Oovcrnment Schools.
•if Higher
Maintained from Impenan j^jjuig
or Provincial Funda. | Lower
_ , ( Higher
Maintained from Local or | jjjjfjjjig
Municipal Funds. ) Lower
Total
* Lawrence Asylum ... Middle
B. — Schools Aided.
1. By Salary Grants
( Higher
I Middle
( Lower
2. By Results Grants
3. Combined Salary
Results Grants.
{hi
A fHi
(Lo
Higher
iddle
Lower
Higher
ddle
Lower
•^ 2
« (Omitting Lawrence Asylum) Total
C. Schools under Inspection ( Higher
for Results Grants but I Middle
not aided. I Lower
Total
Number of successful candidates for the
Uncovenanted Civil Service Examination
educated in this district.
Number of successful candidates for
Special Tests.
Number of successful candidates
Matriculation and F. A.
for
Number of
Pupils.
Girls.
121
61
1869-70.
^9.
O'Jl
59
61
Mat. 4
F.A. 2
• Teachers' Certificate Examination.
Number of
Pupils.
Boys.
126
Girls.
62
98
J Mat. 5
( F.A. 0
»4
OF THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
No. 12. — Statement showing the Progress of Education for a Series of
Ten Years — (Contiuued).
Description of Schools.
1870-71. 1
1871-72.
o ^
II
Number of
Pupils.
..1
Number of
Pupils.
Boys. Girls.
11
Boys.
Girls.
A.—Oovernment Schools.
1 Maintained from Imperial f^^^l '"
or Provincial Funds. ^ Lower ...
2 Maintained from Local or ( ^jj^^j^ "•
Municipal Funds. (.Lower
Total ...
* Lawrence Asylum *.. Middle ...
B.— Schools Aided
/■Higher ...
1. By Salary Grants ... Middle ...
Lower . . .
/Higher ...
2. By Results Grants ...'Middle ...
(Lower
3. Combined Salary and ( ^^^ ■
Kesulta Grants. Lower
• (Omitting Lawrence Asylum) Total . . .
C. Schools under Inspection Higher ...
for Results Grants hut Middle ...
not aided. { Lower
Total ...
Number of sncccssfnl candidates for the
Uncovenanted Civil Service Examination
educated in this district.
Number of successful candidates for
Special Tests.
Number of succes.sful candidates for
Matriculation ami F. A.
...
...
...
68
*
29
1
"2
140
"94
72
1
"1
'"2
2
344
#
153
36
2
94
5 j 189
29
...
•■!
2
1
1
Mat. 1
F.A. 0
t3
^ ...
-I
2
Mat. 1
IF.A.O
||-
Closed after 9 months.
t Tcacherii' Certificate Examination.
XX
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 12. — Statement shoiolixj the Progress of Ediication for a Series of
Ten Years — (Continued).
1872-73.
1873-74.
CM
o .
Nnmber of
'o .
Nnmber of
Description of Schools.
Il
Pupils.
11
Pupils.
1
Boys. Girls.
Boys.
Girls.
A. — Government Sclwols.
1. Maintainecl fio"i I™Perial| jjj^^jjg
or Proviucial Funds. (Lower
••'•
2. Maintained from Local or ( JJifidie '"
Municipal Funds. (Lower '.'.'.
Total ...
* Lawrence Asylum ... Middle ...
;:."
"1
'97
...
1
97
1
329
65
1
324
64
B.— Schools Aided.
r Higher ...
1. By Salary Grants ... < Middle ...
(.Lower ...
...
1 Higher ...
2. By Results Gmuts .... Middle ...
(Lower ...
"3
161
"30
...
.'.".■
3. Combined Salary and j HIJI;- ...
Results Grants. | ^ower ...
* (Omitting Lawrence Asylum) Total ...
C. Schools under Jnspectrow ( Higher ...
/or Residts Grants bwt ( Middle ...
nut aided. (Lower ...
Total ...
Number of successful candidates for the
••'•
...
...
...
3
161
30
...
1
1
Uncovenanted Civil Service Examination
educated in this district.
Number of successful candidates for
Special Tests.
3*
Number of succps!=fnl candidates for
Matriculation and F. A.
\lat.0
F.A.O^
( Maf.O
••• \ F.A. 0
Teachers' Certificate Examination.
OF THE NILAOIKI DISTRICT.
No. 12. — St<ttt:nient shmring iho VroijteR^ of Edncalion. for a Sarics of
Ten Years — (Continued).
Description of Schools.
A. — Gwernment Schools.
1. Maintained from Imperial i jij^jig
or Provincial Funda. | Lower
2. Maintained from Local or I ]»r:^fii„
Municipal Funds. \ ^^^^^,
* Lawrence Asylnm
B.— Schools Aided.
1. By Salary Giants...
2. By Results Grants
Combined Salary
Results Grants.
and
Middle
Hio^her
Middle
Lower
Higher
Middle
Lower
Higher
Middle
Lower
(Omitting Lawrence Asylum) Total
C. Schools trader Inspection I Hitjhcr
for EpshUs Grants but • Middle
not aided.
Lower
Total ...
Number of successful candidates for the
Uncovenanted Civil Service Examination
educated in this district.
Number of successful candidates for
Special Tests.
Number of successfid candidates for
Matriculation and F. A.
1874-75
1875-76.
Number of
Pupils.
Number of
Pupils.
11
Boys.
Girls.
Boys.
Girls.
104
253
363
189
58
Mat.O
FA. 0
1 102
1 Not known.
34
276
276
Jlat. 1
F.A. 0
38
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 13. — Deaths registered in the Rural Circle and Towns of the District
of NUagiris during each Month from the Year 1870 to 1877.
1
2
3
4
Years.
Rural Circles
and Towu3.
Population for which
Returns were received.
Total Deaths registered
during the Year.
S
1-5
1
1
1.
<
1
Males.
Females.
Total.
1870...
1871... j
1872... }
1873... {
1874...
1876... j
1877... 1
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coouoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Municipal Towns..,
Total ...
Rural Circle
Municipal Towns...
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ..
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coouoor
Total ...
n,989
6,745
2,124
10,190
5,204
1,890
22,179
11,949
4,014
23
8
2
17
10
1
30
9
4
41
7
8
52
8
1
20,858
17,284
38,142
33
28
43
56
61
11,989
6,745
2,124
10,190
5,204
1,890
22,179
11,949
4,014
30
9
10
30
25
12
10
29
23
11
30
31
4
20,858
17,284
38,142
49
51
47
63
65
73
52
19,926
7,112
15,911
5,974
35,837
13,086
26
29
43
28
33
50
75
36
27,038
21,885
48,923
55
71
83
111
125
20,269
6,923
16,192
6,117
36,461
13,040
30
23
20
32
24
30
38
39
43
47
27,192
22,309
49,501
53
52
54
77
90
19,378
4,890
1,583
15,867
4,323
1,325
35,245
9,213
2,908
37
13
2
26
11
5
39
18
7
59
32
4
74
42
6
25,851
21,515
47,366
52
42
64
95
122
19,378
4,890
1,583
15,867
4,323
1,325
35,245
9,213
2,908
45
17
8
51
15
6
35
20
5
49
15
6
54
32
8
25,851
21,515
47,366
70
34
7
6
72
60
70
94
19,378
4,890
1,583
15,867
4,323
1,325
35,245
9,213
2,908
35
20
6
48
14
7
59
24
9
118
35
31
25,851
21,515
47,366
47
61
69
92
184
19,378
4,890
1,583
15,867
4,323
1,325
35,245
9,213
2,908
54
23
9
83
36
13
71
94
13
272
99
29
329
74
61
25,851
21,515
47,366
86
132
'-
400
464
OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
No. 13. — Deaths registered in the liural Circle and Towns of the District
of Nilagiris during each Month from the Year 1870 to 1877 — (Continued).
Years.
Rural Circles
and Towns.
4
— (Continued).
Total Deaths
registered during the Year
-{Cont
inucd) .
1-5
1
1
1
O
1
i
1^
1
1870... j
1871...
1872... }
1873... {
1874... )
1875...
1876... 1
1877... I
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coouoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle ...
Municijial Towns.
Total ...
Rural Circle
Municipal Towns.
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
47
7
11
41
12
12
31
10
3
30
7
4
30
13
6
29
7
6
27
8
11
398
106
69
.65
65
44
41
49
42
46
573
46
27
4
44
28
9
51
23
7
68
21
7
47
15
11
45
16
3
25
20
2
470
232
92
794
77
81
81
96
73
64
47
134
68
73
43
37
33
40
26
38
25
36
17
43
36
651
443
202
116
70
66
63
53
79
1,094
69
39
56
37
50
23
48
30
40
21
41
30
32
38
491
389
108
93
73
78
61
71
70
880
71
24
4
55
35
7
39
29
8
25
21
7
40
24
11
51
20
5
37
20
9
553
289
75
99
97
76
53
75
76
66
917
45
31
9
52
15
13
50
22
10
49
24
9
56
15
12
46
21
11
44
20
6
576
247
103
85
80
82
82
83
78
70
926
154
41
23
125
35
12
56
32
10
57
15
9
52
22
9
66
26
12
43
23
12
847
294
146
1,287
2,266
714
449
218
172
98
81
83
104
181
46
43
78
159
42
29
269
76
33
215
70
53
192
42
52
199
51
59
242
61
55
378
338
286
309
358
270
230
3,429
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 13. — 'Deatlm rerjif^fn-oA in the Rural Circle and Tmvns of the Dliifrict
of Nilagiris daring each Month from the Year 1870 to 1877— (Continued).
5
Total Deaths
Injuries.
from all
Years.
Rural Circles
and Towus.
c3
o
1
o
causes.
c5
s
s
o
a
S
S
1
3
a
s
s
•<
i
^1
IP
1
J
H
Rural Circle ...
5
280
2
111
398
1870
Ootacamand ...
73
2
31
...
106
Coonoor
44
1
24
69
Total ...
5
397
1
4
166
573
1871
Rural Circle ...
3
1
343
52
1
3
67
267
203
470
Ootacamand ...
2
1
137
42
]
1
48
137! 95
232
Coouoor
...
51
8
...
2
31
48
44
92
Total ...
5
2
531
102
2
6
• •
146
452
342
794
1872 {
Rural Circle ...
1
2
465
98
1
3
81
364
287
651
Municipal Towns.
6
112 44
1
2
248
218
225
443
Total ...
1
8
607 142
2
"■■
5
329
582
512
1,094
1873 {
Rui-al Circle ...
19
320 44
2
7
99
285
206
491
Municipal Towns.
14
861 60
1
2
5
221
178
211
389
Total ...
33
406
104
1
4
12
320
463
417
880
^^_
—
1874
Rural Circle . . .
6
426
41
1
1
3
75
327
226
553
Ootacamand ...
6
86
51
3
143
165
124
289
Coouoor
2
25
18
1
...
29
46
29
75
Total ...
14
537
110
1
2
6
247
538
379
917
Rural Circle ...
9
6
394
35
1
13
118
336
240
576
1875
Ootacamand ...
1
...
63
43| ...
4
136
148
99
247
Coouoor
9
-
37
28j ...
1
35
60
43
103
Total ...
12
6
494
106
1
1
17
289
544
382
926|
^ (
Rural Circle ...
23
655
39
2
1
3
1 , 123
465
382 847
1876 Ootacamand ...
8
128
43
1
114
148
1461 294
(
Coonoor
2
69
36
...
39
92
54 146
Total ...
25
8
852
118
2
1
4
1
276
705
582 1,287
—
— —
1877
Rural Circle ...
333
174
1,289 281
1
2
13
173
1,368
898 2,2fif.
Ootacamand ...
93
124
1611 75
1
1
4
255
373
341 1 714
(
Coonoor
50
29
77 220
73
264
185 41-9
Total ...
476
327
1,5271 576
2
3
17
501
2,00.5
1,424' 3,429
1
OP THE NiLAOIRT DISTRICT.
XXV
No. 13. — Deaths registered in the Rural Circle and Tmms of the District of
miagiris during each Month from the Year 1870 to 1877— (Continued).
Years.
6
Rural Cii-clee and
Towns.
Ratio of Deaths per 1,000 of Population.
Si
i
s
i
i
"a
From all Causes.
1
1
1
1870...
1871... 1
1872... [
1873... [
1874...
1875... •
1876...
1877...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
;:;
•22
12-62
6-10
10-95
-09
•16
•24
i
17-94
8-87
17-18
•13
10-40
•13
15-02
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coouoor
Total...
Rural Circle
Municipal Towns ...
Total ...
Rural Circle
Municipal Towns...
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total . .
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
, Coonoor
Total ..
J Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ..
•13
•16
•04
•08
15-46
11-46
12-70
2-34
3-51
1-99
•18
•16
•49
22-27
20-31
22-60
19-92
18-25
23-28
21-19
19-41
22-91
•13
•05
13-92
2-67
•20 21-66
19-78
20-81
•02
•05
•46
12-97
10-85
2-73
3-44
•11
•23
18-26
30-6
1803
37-7
18-02
33-85
•02
•16
12-40
2-90
•14
21-52
23-39
22-36
•5
107
8-7
6-6
1-2
4-6
•2
•6
14-
25-7
12-7
34-5
13-4
29-9
...
•6
8-2
2-9
•3
170
18-6
17-7
...
•1
•6
•6
1208
9-3
8-5
1-1
5-5
6-1
•1
•3
•3
16-8
33-8
29-05
14-2
28-7
21-8
17-6
15-6
31-3
25-7
19-3
•2
11-3
2-3
•1
20-8
•2
•1
•6
•1
11-1
6-8
12-7
•9
4-6
9-6
-3
•4
•3
17-3
30-2
87-9
15-7
22-9
32-4
16-3
26-8
35-4
•2
•1
10-4
2-2
•4
21-0
17-7
19-5
0-6
'0-6
6-8
18-5
13-8
23-7
1-1
4-6
12-3
0-1
0-1
23-9
30-2
58-1
24-07
33-7
407
2403
31-9
50-2
0-5
01
17-9
2-4
0-1
27-4
27-05
27-1
9-4
10-0
17-1
4-9
9 13-4
9-9
.36-5
17-4
26-4
7-9
8-1
75-6
0-4
0-6
70-6
76-2
166-7
56-6
78-8
139-6
64-2
77-4
154-4
100
4 6-9
32-2
12-1
0-4
77-5
66-1
723
APPENDIX TO THE MANtTAL
jjo. 13. — Deaths registered in the Rural Circles and Towns of the District of
Nilagiris during each Month from the Year 1870 to 1877 — (Continued).
Years.
Rural Circles and
Towns.
7
8
9
10
Number of Births
registered.
Ratio of Births
per 1,000 of
Population.
00 O
c3
1 °
o
rS O
i
-!
1
1
1
i
i
1
1870... i
1871...
1872... {
1873... {
1874... {
1875... j
1876...
1877 .. j
Rnral Circle
Ootacamaud
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Municipal Towns.
Total ...
Rural Circle
Municipal Towns.
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
Rural Circle
Ootacamand
Coonoor
Total ...
344
20
17
293
22
12
637
42
29
28-69
2-96
8-00
28-75
4-22
6-34
28-72
3-51
7-22
•78
5-36
9-96
381
327
708
18-26
18-91
18-56
3-54
273
118
39
189
102
35
462
220
74
22-77
17-49
18-31
18-54
19-60
18-51
20-83
18-41
18-43
•36
•10
4-48
430
326
756
20-61
18-86
19-82
•99
219
280
156
285
375
565
10-99
39-37
9-8
47-7
10-46
43-17
10-32
7-78
499
441
940
18-45
20-15
19-21
3-15
281
284
238
238
519
522
13-8
41-02
14-6
38-8
14-2
40-03
•8
10-23
...
565
476
1,041
20-7
21-3
21-02
3-32
228
194
45
246
194
40
474
388
85
11-7
39-6
28-4
15-5
44-8
30-1
13-4
42-1
29-2
10-8
35
2-2
467
480
947
18-06
22-3
199
•6
395
170
42
290
139
41
685
309
83
20-3
34-7
26-7
18-2
321
301
19-4
33-5
28-5
3-1
6-7
6-'9
6-5
20-7
607
470
1,077
23-4
21-7
22-7
3-2
338
170
51
281
165
35
619
335
86
17-4
34-7
32-2
17-7
38-1
26-4
17-5
36-3
29-5
4-4
559
481
1,040
21-6
22 3
21-9
5-2
466
187
43
348
172
40
814
359
83
24-0
38-2
27-2
21-9
40-7
30-2
23-1
38-9
28-5
...
••'•
696
560
1,256
26-9
260 26-5
1
45-8
^1? THE NiLAOlRI DISTRICT.
XXVll
^
^
^
fil
•S9l'CI\[
•sai^pi
•{V^OJ^
•aaiuraaj
•sai-Bja;
•I«?0X
'saiBji
•e3sni3a aaqqo x^y
•S'jniiJiduioo-pM.oa
•SXOAB^
•xod-n^rag
•B.ioioqo
•soi-Bnio^a
•BOl'BI^
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eo N (M <M eo ■*
2 2
0 a
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 15--4. — Wcllwgto7i — Statement of Rainfall at the Olservatory,
1873—1876.
Moutbs.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876
Eain.
Eain,
Rain.
Rain.
it
i
li
1-1
§
S §
II
%
ti,
It
1°'
i
o -g
E o
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Total ...
Mean ...
10
9
12
7
10
12
7
16
6
4
8-45
232
12-80
1-46
3-20
4-30
3-20
7-21
3-20
1-84
1
6
1
4
17
13
7
11
15
21
10
7
0-35
2-72
0-14
0-63
7-04
4-26
1-07
2-97
7-56
10-51
6-46
3-72
4
5
6
15
14
8
6
10
11
11
4
0-65
1-65
2-30
4-31
4-12
113
1-51
5-02
M7
9-97
7-02
6
8
14
11
13
4
6
6
6
4
2-16
3-65
5-94
2-42
3-15
2-94
3-03
5-82
1-79
1-47
93
47-98
112
47-43
94
44-85
78
32-37
7-75
3-99
903
395
7-83
3-74
6-5
2-69
OF THE nIlAGIRI DISTRICT.
i
1
is
P5
'oStiv^ 1
|§ggS|g2g|g2
I
ii4
^
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i
CO
I— 1
00
Si
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r-t
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e
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iiliillllllil
1
g^ g
ISliiiiiilll
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|tS3
11
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6 o
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iiiliiiiiiii
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l-l
i
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p
t
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aiilsSSIiiis
i
60-2 §
15 s
lillliiliill
1
1^1
1
s
i
X APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. l5-C.—WelUn(jton — Statement of Ozone readings at the Observatory,
1873—1876.
Months.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
Ozono.
Ozone.
Ozone.
Ozone.
is
is
li
go
1-
Mean at
10 A.M.
Mean at
4 p.m.
January
75
65
67
60
70
60
75
65
February
75
65
68
60
75
60
70
60
March
70
60
70
65
70
60
78
63
April
75
63
75
60
75
65
70
60
May
70
62
65
55
70
60
65
57
Juno
65
58
70
60
65
60
70
60
July
70
62
65
60
70
65
68
58
August
76
65
65
55
75
65
70
60
September
72
63
65
55
70
60
75
65
October
70
62
65
60
70
60
68
60
November
65
60
70
60
75
65
71
60
December
Mean ...
70
60
75
60
70
60
68
58
71
62
68
59
71
70
70
60
OF THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT.
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APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
D. S rt O
a f^ oi
S i^" 9
t^(MT}i|>QO<r>lM'J<
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t>QO oooot^t^t>l>i>t^r^
OP THE NILAGIRI DISTEICT.
XXSUl
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XXXIV
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. IG-A. — Detailed pariiculars of the
Description of Barrack or VTork.
Single
Double I
Storied, i
Accommodation provided in each
Building.
I No. of
I Rooms.
Size of
Rooms
in Feet.
Space per
Soldier unit
exclusive of
Verandahs.
Cubic Square
Space, I Space,
Cubic j Square
Fert. Feet.
No. 1 Barrack Block with detached Wash-
houses and Latrines.
„ 2 do. do. do.
„ 3 do. do. do.
do. do.
do. do.
do.
do.
No,
1 Man-iod Quarters with detached
Wash-houses and Latrines.
2 do. do. do.
3 do. do. do.
4 do. do. do.
Staff Block
Hospital with detached Wash-houses and
Latrines, Dresser's Quarters, &c., in
3 blocks.
I School and Library Block with detached
Cook-houses, &c.
Racquet and Ball Court and Skittle Alloy.
Canteen, Coffee Room and Ration Shed ...
Plunge-bath and Armourer's Forge
Cricket Shed, Powder Magazine and
Privies for Native Camp Followers.
Commissariat Godowns and Staff Ser-
geants' Quarters.
Slaughter-houses
Burial-ground
Drainage of Barrack and Hospital
Squares.
Water-service both potable and ablution-
ary, including Reservoirs, Channels, and
Pi]ies.
Roads of approacli and Cantonment Roads,
Excavating for site of Barracks
140 Privates
and 8 Non- |
Commis- •<
sioned
Officers. I
L
In each Block of Quarters.
I In each Block.
^ ^2 ! I ^or Privates.
X 9ii I 1,530 1 77.|
X 8 ^For Non-Corn.
X 12 I missioned
X 9i! I Officers.
7 I J 4,503 I 228
1 10 Sergeants ...
j Commandants.
! Rooms, Sergts .
Mess and
ReadingRooms.
Qx.-mr.'sStores.
Guard-Rooms
with Cells ...
Offices and ...
! Workshops. . .
Entrance
I covered way.
286 X 10 n
I I For each
86 X 8 ! > Family.
16 X 14 : 1 5,370 I 384
16 X 10 ij
r : Four Wards for
Soldiers.
Single-<
Hospital Ser-
geant's Quar-
ters .
Surgery and
Medl. Stores.
Special Ward...
M Women'sWard.
Single.
Double.
Single.
School Room...
Library
Class Rooms ...
Three sets of
I Quarters for
Librarian,
i Schoolmaster,
and School-
i mistress.
Verandahs . . .
21
21
njx
12
12
220 X 12
80 X 21
65 X 21
60 X 10
I Married Non^
! Commissioned
f Officers.
16,677 I 981
X 10
X 16
X 10
X 10
X 14
X 10
X 10
X 21
if
2,050 I 102
77 X 33
32 X 46
32 X 20
20 X 16
20 X 10
16 X 10
10 X 10
198 X 10
For Librarian
and School-
master.
>. 11,700 I 780
For School-
mistress.
16,380 I 780
• Single story first roofed in and burnt do-wn-
OP THE NILAGIRT DISTRICT.
Wellington Barracks in ihe N'dagiri Distrid.
XXXV
Cost of
each Main
Building.
13,196
17,590
13,292
20,503
15,203
9,128
9,128
9,128
9,128
Cost of
Auxiliary
and
Subsidiary
Buildings.
12,927
Cost of Accommoda-
tion of each
Married Soldier.
Barrack
alone.
BaiTack with
Auxiliary and
Subsidiary
Buildings and
"Works.
10,529
5,825
1,9S6
3,299
1,000
435
2,626
1,535
246
2,337
4,538
1,650
1,530
Cost of Accommodation Total Accommodation
of each single Soldier. ! and Cost.
Barrack with \
Barrack AuxiUar>-and
nw Subsidiary 1 Sergeants. Privates.
^^°^^- Buildings and
Works.
£
89] §
119 I «
138 j I
103J.5
177
148
196 I §
161J
Upper story added and block completed in 1876,
APPENDIX TO TH"E MANUAL
No. 16-J5. — Befailed particulars of the Ootacamand
Description of Building.
Single or
Double
StOi-ied.
Arccmmodation
provided in each
Building.
Number of Boys, .^ ^
Girls, and other [^ S
occupants. j E a
55
Space per Boy, |
Girl, or other unit, |
exclusive of |
Passages. \
Cubic
Space
in Feet.
Square
Space
in Feet.
Cost of the
Main
Building.
Boys' School.
Doi-mitorics for bovs
Store Booms, Dining Hall )
aud School Rooms, &o. | "
Principal's Quarters ... Treble
Sergeants' Quarters ... , Double ...
Covered Play-ground, ! „
Staircases, Towers and '■
Porch. j
Corridor.? and covered Double and
passage to Lavatories ] Single,
aud Latrinos.
Kitchens for boys, Princi- Single
pal, and Sergeants. i
Dormitories for
400 boys, about
30 boys in each
Dormitory.
400 boys
One Principal
aud Secretary.
Quarters for 3
Sergeants.
400 boys, 1 Prin-
cipal, and 3
Sergeants.
400 boys
Lavatories and Latiines...
Play-sheds and Workshops ... |
for the boys.
400 boys, 1 Prin.
cipal, and 3
Sergeants.
400 boys
Girls' School.
Dormitories
Matron.? and Mistresses'
Quarters.
Kitchen
Lavatories and Latrines...
Single ..
Total Number of
Rooms in Boys'
School.
144 girls
1 Matron or
Lady Superin-
tendent.
2 Mistresses
For 1 Matron, 2
Mistresses, and
1 W girls.
For 1 Matron, 2
Mistresses,and
14 1 girls, or
147unitsinall.
Total Number of
Rooms iuGirls'
School.
14
11
298
321
14 ' 34,729
21 11,428
22 173
16
118
13
40
785
16,272
16,840
98
40
12
2,762
776
'From T to VI
£49,256.
38
900
92:
From X to XI
£5,773.
OP THE NiLAOIEI DISTRICT.
Zaivrence Asylums, Nilaglri Districf.
xxxvu
Cost of
Auxiliary and
Subsidiary
•Buildings.
Cost of Acconimo-
datiou of each Boy,
Cost of Accommo.
dation of each Girl.
Total Accommo.
dation aud Cost
of Boys and
Girls, &c.
Remarks.
Building
alone.
Main Build,
ing with
Auxiliary &
Subsidiary
Buildings.
Building
alone.
Main Build-
ing with
Auxiliary &
Subsidiary
Buildings.
1
Out of those 14
Dormitories one
is now used as
a Tailors' Shop,
and two as a
Hospital.
...
.£123
...
£144.
...
i
i
!
Of these 3 quar-
ters ouG is now
occupied by a
Matron, one by
the Sei-gcant.
Major, and the
third by the Ilead
Master.
1
From VII to
IX £8,298.
};•■
...
£40
...
£56
1 Principal, 3
- Sergeants, 400
boys.I Matron,
and 144 girls,
£80,283.
1
Of these 6 Dormi-
tories one is now
used as a Hospi.
tal, ono as a
Dining Hall, and
one as a School
Room.
From XIII to
XIV £2,313.
...
...
1
1
XXXVlll
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. IG-Z?. — Vdailcil i^artkvlars of ihc Ootacamand I
Description of Building.
Single or
Double
Storied.
Accommodation
provided in each
Building.
Space per Boy,
Girl, or other unit,
exclusive of
Passages.
Cost of the
Main
Building.
Number of Boys,
Girls, and other
occupants.
Cubic
Space
in Feet.
S quare
Space
in Feet.
Buildings, ^'c, common to
loth Asylums.
Servants' houses
Water-service to both
Asyluma.
Excavating Sites
Roads and approaches ...
Drainage of Plateaus of
both Asylums.
Compensation for land
and other sundries.
Latrines,Wash-housos, and
Cook-rooms of proposed
new Female Asylum.
••"
■.:;
...
...
...
...
OP THE NfLAGIRI DISTRICT.
Laiorence Asylums, N'llagiri District — (Continued).
JtXXlX
Cost of
Auxiliaiy and
Subsidiary
Buildings.
Cost of Accommo-
dation of each Boy.
Cost of Accommo-
dation of each Girl.
Total Accommo-
dation and Cost
of Boys and
Girls, &c.
Remarks.
Building
alone.
Main Build-
ing with
Auxiliary &
Subsidiary
Buildings.
Building
alone.
Main Build.
iug with
Auxiliary &
Subsidiary
Buildings.
£
4,054
1,639
2,126
1,285
511
1,088
3,940
...
Inclusive
of every.
thing £164.
.'.■.■
Inclusive
of every-
thing £75.
...
...
xl
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. IG-C— Rates of Wages and Cost of Materials in the Nilagiri District during
the past Quarter of a Century arranged in Triads, a Rupee being taken at I
two Shillings.
Wages.
1
Rates pee Diem.
1852. 1 1855.
1858.
1861.
1864.
1867.
1870. ]
1873.
1876.
Skilled Labor.
s. d.
s. d.
d. s. d.
8. d.
s.d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
Maistry ... Fer diem.
1 k
1 \
0
2 0
2 4i
2 4i 2 4i
2 8i
2 10
Stone-cutter. . „
1 0
n
1 4i
1 6
1 n
2 0
2 6
2 6
Bricklayer ... „
0 9ii 1 1
H
1 31
1 5
1 5
1 5i
1 6
1 6
Blacksmith ... „
0 10|l 1 1
2|
1 41
1 n
1 9
1 9
1 lOi
2 0
Carpenter ... ,,
0 10^ 1 f
H
1 4
1 n
1 9
1 9
1 10|
1 10|
Painter ... „
0
1 3
1 n
2 0
1 6
1 6
1 6
Common Coolies.
Gangman ... Per diem.
0 4|; 0 5
0
6
0 6|
0 9
0 9
0 10|
|1 3
1 3
Cooly man ... ,,
0 3| 0 3|
0
H
0 51
0 6
0 9
0 7k
10 7-1
0 7|
Do. woman „
0 3:03
0
3
0 3|
0 4
0 41
0 4A
0 4i
0 4.1
Do. boy ... „
0 2 1 0 2
1
0
2
0 2i
0 2|
0 3
|0 3
0 3
0 3
Materials.
Rate per
1852.
1855.
1858.
1861.
1864.
1867.
1870.
1873.
I
1876.
!
Wall bricks ... i
i
1,000
s.
8
s.
8'
14
s.
17
s.
24
24
s.
24
s.
24
s.
24
Paving do. ... \
1,000
16
16
24
36
50
50
50
50
50
Pillar do. ...
1,000
17
17
30
40
48
48
50
50
50
Flat tiles
1,000
4
^
8
8
12
12
12
12
12
Pan do.
1,000
5
9
12
12
16
16
16
16
16
Rough rubble
stones.
C. yard.
...
H
4k
6
3
3
3
3
3
Flooring stones
dressed.
100 sq. f t-
110
120
130
130
130
130
130
Limestone (un-
burnt).
C. yard.
29
29
29
54
50
48
48
48
48
Lime burnt and
slaked.
»
12
18
2ri
24
36
36
29
26
24
Firewood
1,000 lb.
li
...
...
71
Sand for mortar.
, C. yard.
1»
H
1 '
^
6
6
6
^
6
Tcakwood in the
log.
C. foot.
2
21
I 2}
3
4
4
4
1 '
1
4
Europe bar iron.
Ton.
...
560
660
560
560
560
! 560
!
1 "^
OF THE NiLAQIRI DISTRICT.
xU
t^
^
f^
QQ
i
a
Much private work being done on the hills by
owners of houses and of estates, maistries of all
kinds are very difficult to be obtained.
The stone on the Nilagiris ia much harder than that
in Coimbatore.
!It is at all times very difficult to obtain black-
smiths and painters ; very few of either class are
ever needed.
Unless these head coolies or gangmen are paid
highly, they refuse to procure coolioa. Coolies
are also always very difficult to be got, there being
such a large demand for them by private parties
and on estates. I and all the other officials on the
Nilagiris find it veiy difficult to procure sufficient
labor ; and planters and others employ less labor
than they otherwise would if it was more plentiful.
<u .
1 g8S§^S?S8SSi ii'c^l ^S :
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fc O O OOOCOOOOOOO OOOOOM
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1
Per
Mouth
Day ... ...
Day
'3
g «•
RATE8 FOR Lab
Skilled Worhne
Muistry
Stone-cutters, 1st class ..
Do. 2nd „
Bricklayers, 1st „
Do. 2nd „
Carpenters, 1st „
Do. 2nd „
Smiths, 1st „
Eo. 2nd „
Painters, 1st „
Do. 2nd „
Laborers.
Head cooly or gangman ..
Cooly man
Do. do
Do. woman
Do. hoy
Do. do
xlii
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
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OP THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT.
xli
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xliv
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. Hj-E. — Nature mul Cost of Construction
i
Name of Building.
Description and
[leight
Single
or
Double
Storied.
Foundation.
Plinth.
Quality of
Work.
Depth.
Quality of Work.
Height
Feet.
Feet.
r
Lawrence Asylum
Male Branch.
Double
and Tre-
ble with
Campa-
nile.
Brick and mor-
tar on broken
brick con-
crete.
'^
Brick and mortar
pointed with cut
stone quoins.
2^
Lawrence Asylum
Girls' School (de.
signed as Hospital).
Single ...
Brick and
mortar.
3
Brick and mortar
plastered with mor-
tar.
2
1
Commissioners' OfiBce.
Do. ...
Do.
i
Do.
1^
1
St. Stephen's Church.
Do. ...
Do.
4
Do.
2»
St. Thomas' Church...
Do. ...
Do.
3|
Do.
2
^3
a
a
o
Nilagiri Poblic Li.
brary.
Stables and Coach-
houses of Norwood
Government House.
Do. ...
Do. ...
Do. ...
Brolceu blue
stone in mor-
tar well ram-
med, and
brick in
mortar.
2i
Do.
Do.
2
Stonchousc, Council
Chamber of the
Mad ras Government .
Do. ...
Brick in mor-
tar.
4
Brick in mortar and
tuck pointed with
mortar.
31
Breeks' School exten-
Do. ...
Do.
2\
Do.
1
1
1
sion.
!
Breeks' Memorial
School.
Do. ...
Do.
3
Do.
1
St. Bartholomew's
Hospital.
Do. ...
Do.
H
Brick in mortar and
plastered with mor-
tar.
11
OP TR-R NtLAQIRI DISTRICT.
xlv
of various Edificrs
in the Nilaglri District.
of Walls, &c.
Cost.
Area.
ii
1|
Walls to top of Wall-plate.
Roof.
Floor.
S-rt
Quality of Work.
Height.
f
Feet.
£
Sq. ft.
Shill
ings.
Brick and mortar
pointed with
uiortar.
13' lower
story,
ll'uppci
story.
Tent roof tiled
over continuous
iron ; all timber
teakwood.
Pl.ankod on dwarf
walls with sub-
ventilation ; upper
floors tongued
and grooved.
Teakwood,
57,500
18,300
24
1868
Brick and clay
plastered with
mortar.
15
Pent roof tiled
over flat tiles ;
timber teakwood.
Planked on dwarf
walls with eub-
ventilation.
8,000
13,760
12
1867
Brick and mortar
plastered with
mortar.
16
Pent roof tiled
over continuous
iron; timber teak.
Do.
5,640
7,326
15i
1865
Do.
16
Flat terraced.
Concrete plastered.
5,000
4,900
20^
1830
Do.
ISi
Corrugated iron
over felt and plank,
ing steep pent
Gothic trusses.
Brick in mortar on
edge incomplete.
6,440
4,944
26
1868
Brick and mortar
pointed with mor-
tar.
18
Pent tiled over
planking.
Planked on dwarf
walls with sub-
ventilation.
3,800
2,936
26
1867
Brick in clay plas-
tered with mor-
tar.
9|
Pent roof of corru-
gated iron to
coach. houses and
tiles to stables; all
timber teakwood.
Brick concrete and
mortar well ram-
med.
1,700
5,366
'
1876
Brick in mortar
and tuck pointed
with mortar.
m
Pent roof, teak
shingles ; all tim-
ber teakwood,
ceiling to roof
planked.
Planked on dwarf
walls with sub-
ventilation.
3,000
3,167
19
1875
Do.
13
Pent roof, tnaV
shingles ; all tim-
ber teakwood.
Do.
1,700
2,892
12
1875
Do.
11
Pent roof of corru.
gated iron over
felt and planking.
Do.
900
1,250
14
1873
Do.
14^
Pent roof tiled
over continuous
iron ; all timber
teakwood.
Do.
2,230
5,768
8
1866
xlvi
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 16-E. — Nature and Cost of Construction
Namo of Building.
Description and Height
Single
Double
Storied.
Foundation.
Quality of
Work.
Depth.
Plinth.
Quality of Work. Height
European Jail
Native Jail
Single
Pair of Seed-houses Do.
with railings and
gate.
Pavilion
r
Barracks, Batchelors'
quarters.
d
bo
;a '
^
Barracks, Married
quarters.
L
Barracks' Hospital ...
r
All Saints' Church ...
o
O "1
Market
"
L
Dispensary
Do.
Double
Single
Do.
Do.
Do,
Double ... Brick in mor-
tar.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Feet.
4
Brick in mortar and
plastered with mor-
tar.
Do.
Brick in mortar and
pointed (tuck) with
mortar.
Brick in mortar and
tuck pointed with
mortar.
Brick in mortar and
plastered with mor-
tar.
Feet.
2
4i
Do.
Do.
Brick in clay and
plastered with mor-
tar.
Brick in mortar and
plastered with mor-
tar.
H
OP THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT.
of various Edifices in ilie Nilagiri District — (Continued).
xlvi
of Walls, &c.
Cost.
Area.
year in which
constructed.
Wall3 to top of
Wall-plate.
Roof.
Floor.
Quality of
Work.
Height.
Feet.
£
Sq. ft.
Shill-
ings.
Brick in mor-
tar and plas-
tered with
mortar.
22
Flat terraced with
brick on edge,
brick jelly, three
courses flat tiles,
and two coats of
plaster.
Planked on dwarf
walls with snb-
vcntilation; upper
floors tongued and
grooved ; teak-
wood.
4,400
10,900
8
1863
Do
14
Pent roof tiled
over teakwood
scantlings.
Planked on dwarf
walls with Bub-
ventilation.
5,060
15,318
6i
1851 and
1867
Brick in mor-
tar and tuck
pointed with
mortar.
9
Pent roof, con-uga-
tcd ii-on on rafters
with louvred ven-
tilators.
Do.
500
823
12
1874
Do.
15
Pent roof, teak
shingles ; all tim-
ber teakwood
with glass sky-
light turre t.
Do.
600
1,961
6
1875
Do.
35
Pent roof tiled
over flat tiles ; all
timber teakwood.
Planked on dwarf
walls with sub-
ventilation ; up-
per floors tongued
and grooved ;
teakwood.
280,000
41,148
14
1853 to
1860
Do.
31
Do.
Do.
19,000
27,382
131
1856 to
1862
Brick in mor-
tar and plas .
tered with
mortar.
Do.
16
19
Do.
Pent roof cormgat-
ed iron over felt
and planking.
Planked on dwarf
walls with sub-
ventilation.
Brick concrete in
mortar and plas-
tered with mor.
tar.
11,000
3,600
24,224
4,293
10
16i
1853
1850
Brick in clay
and plastered
with mortar.
9i
Pent roof tiled
over teakwood
scantlings.
Brick concrete and
gravel well ram-
med.
500
2,940
3^
1865
Do.
13
Do.
Planked on dwarf
walls with aub-
ventilation.
760
2,618
H
1850
xlviii APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 17. — A Topographical Bcscriplion of the Ncelaghery Mountains.
From a letter by WiLLiAM Keys, Assistant Ecvcnue Syrvc>/or, to W. Garrows,
Collector of Cuimhatore, 1812.
This tract of the country, forming the elevated division of the
Danaikeucota Taluk, is situated on the extensive range of the Neelaghery
or Blue Mountains, which stretches westward, and is separated by an
adjoining high and lofty ridge called the Coonda and Neddimullay
bills, terminating the eastern limits of the Wynaud country.
Extent and 1. It extends in length from east to west 30 miles, and in breadth
boundary. -^qi miles, containing a superficies of 495 square miles, and is bounded
on the north by the lands of Davaroyputnum and the Mysore
Province ; west by the Wynaud country in Malabar ; and south and
cast by the lowlands of Sattimungalum and Danaikeucota.
Divisions and 2. Porunganaud, Maicanaud (Mokandd), and Kothanaud are three
Sub-divisiona, ^jyigiQ^s or mootahs on the hills, containing in the whole 41 principal
and 119 sulx)rdinate villages. These villages are chiefly small,
consisting of hardly more than five to ten houses, built quite low and
confined, and generally placed in one or two rows, presenting the
appearance of a few straggling huts rather than a village.
Climate and 3. The climate is extremely cold and unhcalthful, from continual
population, covering of mist and clouds. The population, male and female, in
the three nauds amounts to 2,516 individuals, of which number l,G47
are Buddagurs, 292 Lingbund or Shevaacharas, 268 Thoraycrs, 179
Thothavurs, and 130 Cothurs.
The Buddagurs, so called from their having settled on the mountains
from the northward,* speak the Cannady language, and are the
principal inhabitants as well as cultivators of the land. The Lingbund
and Thorayers likewise speak the same language and cultivate the
land. The Thothavurs, said to be the first that peopled this moun-
tainous tract, have a distinct dialect, which is unknown even to their
neighbour sects. They cultivate no land, but only attend their flocks
of bufialoes, with which they live about the most retired parts of the
mountains by some spring or stream of water, on a part of the country
in the Thothanaud Division, appropriated as pasture-lands, being f I'om
its sterile quality unsusceptible of cultivation. This space is distin-
guished by the appellation of Keelaurum and Mallanaud, signifying a
barren mountainous tract, and consists of 70 square miles. Although
the Thothavurs cultivate no land, they however have a small interest
in the produce, allowed them by the Buddagurs and others, being
considered as the aboriginal inhabitants. Their chief subsistence is
the milk of their eattlo- i^ Lastly the Cothurs, or the lowest class of
* From Woomutoor in the MyBoic rroviuce.
OP THE NtLAQIRI DISTRICT. xlix
inhabitants, wlio have also a peculiar idiom of tlicix' own, but converse
mostly in the Cannady language, not only cultivate the land, but serve
as artificers in the capacity of tho gold, silver, and brass smiths,
carpenter, blacksmith, potter and wicker wox'ker, also dresser of hides
and skins. Independently of these there are the Irclurs, whose number
is not very large and who blend the Malabar with the Cannady language.
They inhabit and cultivate the deep valleys on the sides of the moun-
tains (dependant to the low-lands), and, unlike the inhabitants on the
height of tho hills, are induced to undergo the arduous labor of
preparing their fields with a small instrument resembling the hand
hoe, on account of tho steep and stony nature of the soil, which
however is extremely fertile. These arc likewise expert in bringing
down the large honey-combs or bee-hives that are abundant about
the rocks and precipices, as also in felling large trees and conveying
the timber down to tho plains.
The whole of the inhabitants are very unclean in their persons and
dress, as they have no barbers or washers among them, and more so,
as they imagine it an abomination to the deity Neelagharvy Runga-
sawmy, presiding over these mountains, either to have their clothes
washed, or their faces shaved by a barber, but the latter they efFcct
among themselves ; nor do they wear anything for the protection of
their feet, probably on the same account. In short they have altogether
an uncommonly rude appearance, more especially the Thothavurs, who
hold it as a sacred and inviolable custom never to keep their heads
covered, whether under the scorching heat of the sun or heavy showers
of rain or frost ; and custom even forbids them to shave at all, where-
fore they suffer the hair of their heads to grow, only cutting it from
time to time, so as not to remain too long.
4 The surface of the country is very unequal and wavy, and Nature of the
, , .^, . surface.
abounds with springs.
5. There arc only two small forts, one called Oolicul Guggenchoky Forts and
other
buildings.
doorga, upon a high hill on the south, and the other Mullayacota, upon other
a gentle eminence on the north ; they arc built in the simple manner
that fortifications are generally seen about this country, consisting of
a common mud wall faced with rock stones and surrounded by a
ditch, and it is evident that they had been constructed in order to
check the restless disposition of the neighboring countries in former
times. There are no other buildings deserving notice.
6. The Bariggy-olay or the Moyar river in the north takes its Rivers and
source from the stupendous heights of the Neddimullay hills, and has "^"^^^f, J^f^?^'.
several other streams running down into it from the Mullanaud tions.
pasture-lands i The Chicka-olay or Mannar river takes its rise from
the Mulnaud hills about Cowah and runs down southward, discharging
itself into the Bhavany river. Besides these, the mountains give
rise to numerous other nullahs, both large and small, but of these
may be particularly noticed the great nullah running down on the
north of Mullayacota, which below tho mountains is called tho
Sheegoor river, joining the Moyaur on the cast of Davaroyputuum,
1 APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
and another Kpiinging from the liigh ridges between Thothanaiid
and Poranganaud, discharging itself into the Moyaur i-iver about five
miles on the west of Gajelhtitty, before which a small canal is
branched off it for the irrigation of paddy lands of a small extent
about the village Moyaur. The nullah rushing down the hills on the
north of Nellithoray (having the appellation of Culaur or rocky river)
from Maicanaud is considerable, and waters an extent of three square
miles of paddy lands belonging to Nellithoray.
Hoacls and 7. There are thi-ee passes leading up to the mountains from the
passes. low-lauds. The first is from Danaikencota, which begins to get upon
ihe hills from about two miles on the west of it, and continues its
track over a pretty steep eminence till as far as half a mile on this side
of Urracadoo, the first village on the mountains, and distant by tlic
route seven miles. It is extremely difficult and impracticable to
laden bullocks from the steep ascent and ruggedncss of the path.
•From Urracadoo by Thaynaud and Ncduncolum to Poranganaud is
sixteen miles, the road not less difficult from the many acclivities and
•declivities to be passed over.
The second pass leads tip from D.xvaroyputnnm, the length
of which from the foot to Mullayacota fort is nearly five miles, over a
much gentler slope, but it is not in any way less difficult, and there
■are few parts so dangerous, where the least stumbling or slip of
the foot will be attended with the most tragical consequences. It is
entirely impi'acticable to horses and laden bullocks, although it is
asserted that in the times of Tippoo Sultan a few hoi'ses and one or
two pieces of cannon were carried over to the fo rt. From Mullayacota
to Thothanaud is three and a half miles, and from the latter place to
■Porunganaud, over Cookul, it is eleven miles, the road pretty tolerable.
The third pass leads up from Aulhutty on the south, and it is very
steep and rugged till the summit of the hill is gained at Serulcombay,
■a small village, whence the difficulty of the road becomes moderate
to Porunganaud, which from Anlhiitty is thirteen miles. From
Porunganaud westward to Maicanaud is eighteen miles, and from
Maicanaud to Mullayacota in Thothanaud, over the pasture-lands, is
ten miles, road tolerable. In short the sevei-al roads leading through
the mountains may with propriety be all called passes.
Jungle. 8. The sides of the mountains and the several deep valleys opening
about them are covered with large trees of the black and teak wood,
as well as many other kinds, and which supply a large quantity of
timber ; there is also a good share of bamboo ti'ees on the sides,
which grow up only to the summit of the hills, whence the jungle
decreases to a low wood, and in several places only to brushwood.
Although the surface of the mountains bear such a paltry covering,
there is, however, a striking diversity of landscape from the immense
and large shady thickets or clusters of overgrown trees, which lie
interspersed generally by some spring of water. The deep vallws
on the sides abound with plantain groves, the fruit of which is
inferior in quality to that of the low countries and extremely unwhole-
OF THE NtLAGTRT DISTRICT. li
some. There is a growth of rattans and canes on tlie liills, biit not
of good kind.
0. There are no mannfaptiix-cs on the hills and mnch less^ of trade. Manufactiirea
10. The soil of the cultivated lands is very fertile, and may be „ . ^
accounted as being prevalently loam, in soiWi places rather light and produce,
inclining to gravel. A few spots of ground contiguous to the villages
are manured on account of growing poppy plants and wheat.
The principfil produce of the mountains is opium, poppy seeds,
wheat, mustard and garlic, and beside these there are the following
articles of produce, viz., ventheum (seeds used for culina^ry
pui'poses), blacic peas (a kind of pulse called Mysore dhall),
gaunji (a grain resembling wheat), vussomboo or country gentian^
ghoe, honey, and bees' wax. The only kinds of dry grain that they
gi'ow on the mountains are two sorts of shaume, which article is
used as the food of all classes of the inhabitants. With respect to
cattle there are immense flocks of buffaloes, veiy large, and btjrdering
much upon the wild kind ; these are chiefly kept by the Thothavurs
as observed above, but the Buddagurs and others also have a few of
their own about the villages. It is the milk of these animals that
they get in abundance, there being but very few cows (in comparison
to the above), wliicb are kept by the most opulent, and although
they are the breed of tke highlands, yet they suffer severely from
the cold, frost, and dews, if kept in the nights exposed as the
buffaloes. The bullocks are used in ploughing the fields, much after
the manner iu the low countries. There are no sheep or goats bred;
on the hills, and very little of poultry.
Ganapathi Agrahara, WILLIAM KEYS,
24:111 June 1812. Assistant Revenue Surveyor.
N.B. — The highland tract of country about Davaroyaputnum on
the north and below the mountains, containing a superficial extent
of 140 square miles, has an unequal wavy aspect, is covered with
thick wood, and contains not more than eight villages, all which
are small, and have each about it a little space of ground cultivated.
The road leading to the Wynaud country runs thi-ough this part.
It is plain that it had been more largely cultivated some years back,
and had likewise some paddy lands ; but the depredations of wild
elephants of late and the diminution of hands have almost laid it
desolate. There is a thick forest of teakwood trees on the west of
Davaroyaputnum, which extends to a considerable distance even in the
Wynaud counti-y ; and on the east of Davaroyaputnum the jungle is
interspersed with sandalwood trees. The soil here is fruitful, and
the climate is mostly dry and distinguished for unhealthiness.
The country on the south of the mountains is diversified with hills,
mostly high and disposed in ridges, and has likewise a wild aspect.
The air about the plain country is warm and healthy than otherwise,
but about the hilly parts of Gopenaury and Annacutty is observed to
be inhospitable.
(Signed) WILLIAM KEYS
lii APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 18. — Co2)y of a letter dated ^Oth January 1819, to the Editor of the
Government Gazette, 'published in the ''Madras Courier " of the 23rd
Fehruarij 1819.
To THE Editor of the Government Gazette.
Sir, — Yon sometimes give your readers notices of the thermometer
as it stands at Madras. They may perhaps be amused by a few obser-
vations of the same kind from a part of the country not more than
350 miles distant from the Presidency.
The low country of Coimbatore is separated from Malabar and
Wynaad by a mountainous region 30 miles in length and IG in breadth,
and which contains about 500 square miles. It is divided into three
naads or countries, the Paungnaad, the Todiernaad, and the
Maiknaad. The name given to the whole by the lowlandcrs is
" Nilgerries " or the blue mountains ; this name, however, properly
belongs but to one part of the range, and is by the highlanders,
peculiarly applied to a high peak, the " Rungasawmy Coil " or
Nilgcrry. Two gentlemen having visited this region early in last
year, and having surprised their friends by the accounts they gave of it,
particularly of the extreme coldness of the climate, a party was formed,
who set out to repeat the tour on the 2nd of January.
They left Denaigencottah (which is about ten miles from the foot of
the Guzzlehutty Pass, and two miles from the bottom of the Nilgcrry
Mountains) at G a.m. on the morning of the 2nd, and after two days'
painful march, reached Dernaad, the first village in the Paungnaad, on
the evening of the 3rd — distance about 16 miles.
Thermometer on the 2nd at 6 a.m., 67; at 8, 71 ; at 11, 62; at 2 p.m.
68. On the 3rd, thermometer at 6 A.M., 52 ; at 8, 62 ; at 5 p.m., 50. 4th
halted at Dernaad. Thermometer at 6 a.m., 44 ; at 8, 60 ; at 3 p.m., 64 ; at
6, 54 ; at 8, 48. 5th. — Marched from Dernaad to Tondernaad, principal
village of Paungnaad, 9 miles. Thermometer at 6 a.m., 40 ; at 7, 50 ;
at 11, 60 ; at 2 p.m., 62 ; at 6, 50 ; at 7, 48. 6th.— Halted at Toddiernaad.
Thermometer at 5 a.m. near the tent 40 ; hoar frost in the valley below ;
the thermometer, when placed on the ground, sunk to 31 ; at 8 a.m. it
was 48 outside the tent ; at 9, 55 inside and 64 in the sun ; at 2 p.m., 70
in the sun, 58 in the shade. 7th. — Marched to Kodaramoody, a village
in the Toddiernaad, distance 8 miles. Thermometer at 6 a.m., 36.
Hard frost this morning ; the water in the chatties completely frozen
three-fourths of an inch round the vessels, and the thickness of a dollar
in the centre ; at 9 A.M. thermometer 5 1 in the shade, and 60 in the
sun ; at 11 in the shade 68 ; at 12, 70 in the sun ; at 2 p.m., 72 in the
sun; at 7, 39 ; at 8, 38; at 9, 34. 8th.— Thermometer at 6 a.m. near
the tent 34. A very hard frost this morning ; the water in the chatties
frozen, and the ice kept sufficiently well to enable us to make our wine
(already cool enough) colder at dinner. Thermometer at 7 a.m., 36
in the shade, 46 in the sun ; at 8, 50 in the sun ; at 11, 72 in the sun ;
at 2 p.m., 34 in the sun; at 6 p.m., 48; at 8, 34. 9th. — Marched to
OP THE NILAOIRI DISTRICT. liii
Mailkott.ay, another village in the Toddiernaad, distance 7 miles.
Thermometer at 6 a.m., 33. A frost again, and the water also frozen ;
tlic ice not so thick as on the preceding morning, although the glasa
stood near the tent 3 degi-ecs lower. 10th and llth morniugs mild
and clondy ; the thermometer was not seen to sink below 44. 12th.
— To Nella Courli, a village in the Maiknaad, distance 3 miles. Thermo-
meter at 6 A.M., 40; at 8 p.m., 30. 13th. — No account of the thermo-
meter taken, but the water in the chatties frozen during the night.
On coming to the low country on the 16th, the thermometer for
the greater part of the day stood at from 80 to 84.
The thermometer from which the above register was taken hung
upon the tent ropes, close to which large fires were burning all the
night. It did not give, therefore, the real temperature of the air, for
when the mercury was above the freezing point, we had hard frost
and ice a hundred yards from the tent. In Hindostan, when the
thermometer sinks to the freezing point, the extremes of heat and
cold arc often felt in the same day ; but we have no example, I believe,
in this part of the globe, of a temperature so cool and so even for a
continuance as that which is shown from the register of the thermo-
meter given in the preceding part of this paper.
We could not ascertain the exact height of our situation in this
mountainous region, but we considered ourselves to be at least three
times as high as the highest part of Mysore ; and if this calculation is
cori-ect, the elevation would be from 9 to 10,000 feet above the level
of the sea. In looking over Mysore on one side and the low country
of Coimbatore on the other, it w^as hard to distinguish the country
above from the country below the ghauts ; we were so much higher
than both. The party were on their legs most part of the day, and
generally walked ten or twelve miles up and down steep hills from
10 o'clock in the morning until sunset, without experiencing the least
inconvenience from heat, often indeed seeking the sunshine as a relief
from cold. With the exception of two slight ague fits there was no
sickness amongst our followers, notwithstanding the intense cold of the
nights and mornings, and the little protection they had against it.
In every part of the high country we found raspberries, both red
and white, and sti'awberries growing in the greatest luxuriance ; wc
found also a fruit in shape resembling a medlar, but of much smaller
size, and in taste not to be distinguished from the gooseberry : its
interior arrangement is also the same. White roses, marrigolds,
balsams were seen in abundance and in full flower ; we found
specimens also of cinnamon and black pepper, and a tree yielding a
beautiful yellow dye. If the color should stand, as it promises to do,
the discovery of this tree would be an important one. The country is
inhabited by three classes of people, whose language, manners, and
customs arc entirely distinct, viz , Todevies, Koties and Borgies, The
two first are considered the aborigines of the hills, and the Todevies
to be a superior caste to the Koties. The Todevies are exclusively
herdsmen ; they have no fixed habitation, but wander with their herds
liV APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
of buffaloes from pastnro to pastiire. Their huts are of a semi-circular
form, strongly built with bamboos and mud, having a hole near the
ground sufficiently large for their own ingress and for the egress of
the smoke from their fires. Only one marriage is permitted amongst
the males of a family, and if it should consist of ten or more persons,
they have a wife in common. The lady is exempt from household
cares and duties, she is served by the men, whose duty it is to prepare
and cook the victuals, and it is her privilege also to be cai'ried on the
shoulders of her husbands when she makes visits or journeys. She
selects whom she pleases of the family as her companion at bed and
board, and this freedom of choice protlaces no interruption of domestic
harmony. It is necessary that all the men of a family should agree in
the choice of a wife, and if there should be a dissentient voice amongst
brethren when a lady is submitted for their approbation, she is forth-
with sent back to her relations.
Many of the men whom we saw measured above six feet ; they are
robust and athletic, with a marked expression of countenance, Roman
noses, and handsome features. The women, though much above the
size of their sex below, have anything but a prepossessing appearance :
their features are coarse and their mouths unusually wide, but, on the
whole, they have much more of the European than the Asiatic cast of
countenance. Their dress consists of a single cloth, which completely
envelopes their persons, and effectually conceals any grace of figure
that they may possess. Both men and women arc fair — fairer, perhaps,
than the fairest class of Mahomedans. The fairness of their complexions,,
and their singular expression of countenance, may have given rise
to a report which has long been prevalent of the existence of a white
race of inhabitants in this region. Men, women, and children go bare
headed and bare-footed in all weathers. It is against the custom
of their caste to wear either turban or sandal ; they permit their hair
and beards to grow without restraint. Both sexes, and indeed all the
inhabitants of these hills, wear their cloths without washing until
they drop into pieces from filth and rags.
The Koties in appearance have no resemblance whatever to the
Todevies, and except that both classes go without covering head or
foot, their manners and customs are as dissimilar. Their persons arc
more diminutive, their complexions darker, and their features much
less expressive. They are cultivators and artizans as well as musi-
cians and dancers. The discord or harmony of their pipe has a strong
resemblance to the sounds produced from the Scotch bag-pipe, and the
dance appeared to an amateur of the party to be either the original or
a copy of the famed " quadrille. 'V
The Bergies are the principal cultivators and landholders. They
emigrated from the neighborhood of Mysore about 300 years ago, and
obtained possession of their lands from the Todevies, to whom they
continue to pay a few handfuls of grain from each field as an
acknowledgment of the grant. The language of the Bergies is a
dialect of the Canarese ; that of the Todevies and Koties is supposed
OP THE NILAOIRT DIRTRirT. Iv
to be a dialect of the Tamil : but it is a singular fact that tlie Todcvics
cannot speak tlie language of the Koties, or the Koties that of the
Todevies, and that the language of both these classes is equally
unintelligible to the Bei'gics.
The soil of this region is remarkably fertile and yields two crops in
the year, of wheat, barley, peas, opium, garlic, mustard, and various
species of millets. We found the pea and poppies in full blossom
notwithstanding the severity of the weather. The frost indeed appears
to have no ill effect whatever on the vegetation. The valleys allbrd
inexhaustible supplies of excellent water. It was impossible to move a
quarter of a mile in any direction without crossing sti'cams. Some of
tliem are highly impregnated with iron, and one was found of a
warmth much above the temperature of the outward air. These
streams run throughout the year, and empty themselves into the
Bovani river on the one side, and into the Moyar on the other, of the
low country. There are no sheep here, though the climate, soil and
pasture are admirably adapted for them, and there can be no doubt
but that Merino sheep would thrive here as well as in the walks of
their native country. Black cattle arc numerous, and the breed has
more substance and bone than the cattle below. The Todevies possess
large herds of buffaloes of immense size, and live principally upon
their produce. The domestic fowls are twice as large as those below,
and excellent for the table. The sportsmen of the party remarked
the game to be as large as game in Eui'opc, particularly the hares,
wliose color is usually red. Wolves wei'c the only beasts of prey we
saw, though the inhabitants spoke confidently of tigers being in the
hills.
I have not troubled your readers or yourself with any description
of the scenery of this singular and interesting country, although it
was impossible to move in any direction without being struck with its
extraordinary grandeur and magnificence. Every thing that a combi-
nation of mountains, valleys, wood and water can afford is to be seen
here. Your readei's will perhaps be surprised to learn that frosty
regions are to be found at no very great distance from the Presidency,
and within 11 degrees of the equator.
I am, Sir,
Your obedient sei'vant,
30th January 1810. A SUBSCRIBER.
No. 10.— From Lieutenant EVANS MACPHERSON, Superintendent,
Ncehjherry Road, to JOHN SULLIVAN, Esq., dated Neetghernj,
12th June 1820.
I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter, of the 1st
instant, calling upon me to state my opinion of the climate of this lofty
Ivi APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
region, its effects upon myself, and the people under my orders, the
diseases of the natives, and whether they are more or less liable to
fever than the inhabitants of the low district, the capabilities and
resources of the country, whether it is adapted for the growth of
European productions, and generally to remark on any other topic
worthy of being brought to the notice of the public or of Govern-
ment.
Limited as is the information a person in my humble situation in
this country has an opportunity of obtaining on some of those heads
I am sensible I can do the subject but little justice, yet as a plain
statement of facts may do much good by bringing to the notice of
Government and the European community the temperature and
salubrity which this extraordinary and interesting country enjoys
above every other to which we can have convenient access, I under-
take the task with pleasure but with much diffidence.
I. Tem]}erature of the Climate.— With, respect to the climate of the
Neelgherry in as far as my experience has hitherto extended, I think
I may venture to pronounce it one of the plcasantesfc in the world as
it regards temperature. My residence in these mountains has been
since the 14th of March (now about three months), and probably the
hottest season of the year. A reference to the monthly registers of the
thermometer, with which I have furnished you, will prove that tliis is
incomparably the most temperate Asiatic climate with which we arc
yet acquainted, and far superior to that of the Cape or the Mauritius.
Here at no season of the year is it too hot in the shade, and to sleep
under a light blanket in the warmest months is always agreeable.
To invalids and people suffering from the debility produced by a long
residence in a hot climate this, I should think, must prove of the first
importance. Neither hot winds nor sultry nights arc here known.
During the continuance of the milder months (for we have no hot
ones) the mornings and evenings are so cool that a visitor from the
low lands is very willing to seek the warmth of the sun, and one may
almost every day take exercise in the open air suffering no other
inconvenience than perhaps being a little sun-burnt. I am informed
by gentlemen who have visited the hills in December, January,
and February that the thermometer is frequently below the freezing
point, and that ice is found on the chatties in the mornings. It is at
that season very cold and chilly, and it will be absolutely necessary to
furnish with warm clothing such natives as may accompany their
masters to the hills, for otherwise they will be liable to attacks of
ague and bowel-complaints from the excessive coldness of the night
air.
The effects of 2. So long back as 1815 I suffered an attack of the Ganjam
the climate epidemic which appears to be an intermittent in its most malignant
on SrconsU- form, since which period when in feverish situations, or after exposure
tutions of the to inclement weather, I have been subjected to occasional attacks of
m" wX-?*"" fever. At Madras, in December last, while residing in a house nearly
^^ "^ ^^ " surrounded by water (in Chintadrepetta), I had two attacks of ague ;
OP THE NILAOIRI DISTHICT. Ivii
in the February following at Coimbatore I was nearly brought to the
brink of the grave by the same disorder. In March I ascended the
Neelgherry, weak and debilitated ; in a few days my appetite was
restored, and I soon recovered health and strength, since which period
I have not had a single day's sickness.
My followers and servants, without exception, had all the fever of
the low country, and some of them ascended the hill suffering under
its effects ; in a few days they also completely recovered (bark was
administci'ed to them), and except in two instances there have been no
relapses. The coolies employed under my orders joined me on the
22nd April, the very day, it will be seen by the register of the thermo-
meter, on which the rains commence that usually fall here about that
season, and though they were exposed to severe winds and rain for
several nights Avithout cover there were but seven or eight of them
comjjlaining of bowel-complaint or slight agues, and as the weather
cleared up all of them recovered, and on this day amongst my followers
of all descriptions but three are taking medicine.
I have been particular in my inqniries relative to the diseases of of tlie dis.
the natives, and whether or not epidemics or infectious maladies arc cases of the
ever prevalent amongst them ; the result has been most satisfactory ; vrhethe'r'thcv
their appearance indeed bespeaks them not a sickly race ; no epidemic or tlio iuhabi-
was ever known amongst them but the small-pox, of which they stand taints below
in much fear, and which occasionally makes dreadful ravages amongst ject to fever,
them and causes a great waste of population. The scourge of the low
lands, the cholera morbus, has never extended to these hills. More
instances of fever have occurred in the hills within the last two years
than was ever known before, but I believe for one case of fever hero
more than thirty occur below.
The hills produce a variety of grains. Pulses and other articles The resources
which are subjects of exportation, such as wheat, barley, peas, natchey, ofthecouutry.
and a variety of small grains, onions, garlic, ghee, honey, bces'-wax,
dammer, sandal-wood, hides, and rattans, some pepper and excellent
opium are amongst their productions ; the inhabitants reserve grains,
&c., just enough for seed and for their own subsistence, so that
nothing can be obtained hei'e for money excepting milk and ghee.
The soil is uncommonly good — generally a fine, rich dark vegetable Nature of
mould mixed with red earth. It is perhaps not too bold an assertion ^'^^ ^'^^ '^"^^
to say that almost all European productions would grow here when adapted for
we consider its advantages of climate, soil, and the great facility of the growth
obtaining water for the purposes of irrigation from inuumei-able and of *j|'J"fjl.iean
inexhaustible springs and rivulets gushing on all sides from the
hills.
The face of the country, as far as I have seen, is uneven hills and
bottoms, for they are too confined to be called valleys, but the hills to
their very summits are generally covered with a fine soil, and their
ascent is not so abrupt or steep, but they might easily be suljjected to
the labors of the plough. Unlike the other hilly regions of India, there
is very little jungle (and to this and to its elevation nuuit be attri-
H
ArrENDIX TO THE MANUAt
Their
appearance.
butcd I tliiuk its tcmporaturc of climate and salubirity of air), and all
that is required to bring the country under a more complete system
of cultivation is the protection of the ryot against the tyranny and
oppression of the heads of villages, more extended population, and a
free market.
Division of The region denominated the Neelgherry is divided into three nauds
into NaudTor °^ ^^^^^^'^^^^3, tlie Todur Naud, Mekenaud, and Purganaud. These are
Districts. inhabited by a race of people differing in language, appearance, and
(loubtless in origin, and divided into twelve castes, the principal and
most -marked being the Todewars, Kothewars, and Burghers.
Todcwara. These appear to be the aborigines of the hills ; they are acknowledged
lords of the soil by the other castes by the universal practice
prevailing amongst them of presenting to the Todewars a certain por-
tion of each crop yearly. The Todewars themselves never engage in
the labors of agriculture ; they have large herds of buffaloes with which
they range from pasture to pasture, and subsist entirely on their
produce and on the tribute of grain presented to them by their vassals.
The Todewar is fair and handsome, with a fine expressive counte-
nance, an intelligent eye, and an aquiline nose ; his appearance is
Tnanly, being tall, strong- built, and well set up ; his limbs muscular and
finely proportioned. It is not uncommon in a circle of twenty Todewars
to find perhaps two or three above six feet high. Their hair generally
eui'ls, and some of the women have natui*al ringlets which many a fine
lady might envy ; but this is their only chaiTn, possessing no other grace
nor beauty. Men and women go bareheaded and barefooted. A
single cloth which envelops their persons is the dress common to
both sexes.
A singular custom prevails amongst this caste, the brothers of a
family having but one wife in common. They serve her on all occa-
sions, and carry her on their shoulders when she journeys or chooses
to visit. She selects whom she pleases as her companion at bed and
board ; in short her sway is universal in the family, and her orders not
to be disputed. Neither the men nor women ever wash their clothes
which they wear until it drops off" from age and filth.
Amongst this people it is to be feared the practice of female infanti-
cide prevails. I have had information on this head which leaves me
little room to doubt the fact ; they themselves disavow it if questioned,
and accoixnt for the comparative paucity of the female sex by
declaring that amongst them more men than women are born ; it is
my intention, at a future period, to prosecute further inquiry into
this subject with a view of submitting some plan if possible for its
prevention.
Kothewars. This is esteemed a low caste — the paria of the hills, and none of the
other castes will eat with them or even cuter their houses. They are
the artizans, being carpenters, braziers, silver and iron smiths, chuck-
Icrs, and chatty-makers ; they are also the musicians and dancers,
in which amusement the women never engage ; their dress is the same
as the Todewars — a coarse loose cloth which they also never purify by
Singular
customs
amongst the
Todewars.
Female
infanticide.
OP THE NiLAQIRI DISTRICT. lix
washing ; they go bareheaded and barefooted in all weathers ; they
speak a language different from, and not understood by, the Tode-
wars ; they are small men, but stout and muscular ; the hair of very
many of them is bushy and usually tied behind in a knot.
This caste arc the cultivators of the soil ; they have a tradition Burghers,
amongst them that they emigrated from Mysore many years ago ; they
wear a turband and shave the beard ; sandals are not in use in the
hills ; like the former caste they do not employ a washerman on any
occasion.
The mai'riagos of this caste remind one of what is called bundling Their
in Wales. The bride and bridegroom being together for the night, mnrriage
in the morning the bride is questioned by her relatives whether she is
pleased with her husband elect ; if she answei*s in the affirmative it is a
marriage ; if not the bridegroom is immediately discharged, and the
lady does not suffer in reputation if she thus discards half a dozen
suitors.
Liquors of an intoxicating quality arc never distilled on the hills Intoxicating
nor drunk by any of the castes : opium is chewed, but I believe \iq"o*'s o^'
•^ -^ ' ^ drugs,
seldom or never to excess.
As drunkenness is unknown here, so likewise is its usual attendant Crimes,
crime, robbery or murder being unheard of, and I believe petty
pilfering even seldom if at all practised.
All the castes worship one God — the creator of heaven and earth ; Their
they sometimes make images, but they say these are not gods, but serve '"orsbip-
to remind one of him. Idols ai'e not common, and I have never seen
one. They pay a yearly visit to Rungasamy coil, which is, I believe,
the only pagoda in the country. They make offerings of the fruits of
the soil, but do not sacrifice.
They have two holy-days or days of rest in the week (Saturday and Days of rest.
Monday), on which they will' on no account work their cattle ; though
they will do nothing for themselves on these days, they count it no
sin to do service for me.
This caste eat animal food ; but individuals born on a Friday are Eat animal,
prohibited this indulgence ; their diet must consist exclusively of milk ^°°<^-
and vegetables.
Cultivation is carried on with much pains and wonderful neatness. Mode o£
They plough the field five times and weed it carefully before they cultivation,
deposit the seed ; the weeding is performed by the women and children
with a crooked iron instrument. They make an enclosure or pound And
of loose stones near the field to be cultivated in which the cattle are ^^^1^"'"^° *^°
confined at nights for a certain period, and they thus preserve and ripen
the manure until it is fit for use.
Of the grains most of them may be said to be put in the ground Grains when
soon after the first rains, that is, about the end of May and beginning sown.
\ of June, and reaped towards the end of August and beginning of
September. It is singular that they make no use of their forage ; they
leave it to rot on the cri'ound.
Ix
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
Opinm whcu
sown and
reaped.
Wild fruits
and flowers.
The opium is usually sown in October and gathered in January.
In the jungles are found a variety of wild fruits and a profusion
of beautiful flowers ; of the former there are wild figs, strawberries,
raspberries, red and white ; a fruit resembling the gooseberry both in
taste and internal structure, a beriy which the European visitors to the
hill have called the barberry and the natives juckul (the root of the
bush on which this berry grows yields a most beautiful yellow dye),
and many others. Of the latter the white rose, sometimes showing
itself 30 or 40 feet high (being a creeper), honey-suckles, marigolds,
and a hundred others for which I have no name, adorn the jungles.
I am sensible the above account is very imperfect, and but little
calculated to give a proper desci'iption of the hills or the manners
and customs of its inhabitants. My opportunities of acquiring informa-
tion have been necessarily confined, and the difiiculty and expense of
moving much about where tents, baggage, everything must as yet be
carried by men has been no inconsiderable obstacle in the way of my
being better acquainted with these subjects. On this account as well
as because I am but little in the habit of writing on any subject I
must solicit a partial perusal of the foregoing remarks.
No. 20. — Geogrrq-JurAtl and Statistical Memoir of a Survey of the Ncel-
gherry Mountains in the Province of Coimhatore made in 1821 under
the Superintendence of Caj)tain B. S. Ward, Beimty Surveyor-General.
Its situation,
nature, and
extent.
Description of the Neelgherry Mountains.
This mass of mountains, situated between the parallels of ll'^ and
12° of North Latitude, and 7i^° and 7T of East Longitude, is bounded
on the north by the table-land of Davaroypatam, a narrow tract
divided from the table-land of Mysore by the windings of the Moyar
river at the bottom of a deep narrow- wooded valley ; to the south
and east by the open country of Coimbatore ; to the south-west a
branch of the Bhowany, called the Maunar, divides it from the unpopu-
lated mountains of Khoondahs dependent on Malabar; on the west
by the chain of ghats, defined by the Murkurty peak ; to the north-
west by the windings of the Bukkary river, one of the sources of the
Moyar from the table-land of Wynaad, its greatest length being from
cast to west 36 miles, and a medium breadth of 15 miles, in figure
an irregular oblong, and contains on the whole a superficial area of 4G9J
square miles, of which only 14 square miles may be said to be under
cultivation. The surface is in no part even, being composed of ridges
of different elevations, running parallel to each other and forming
deep valleys between ; about the centre it is divided by a loftier chain
running in a north-east and south-west direction ; from it lesser
ridges branch off in all directions ; on this are several conspicuous
eminences as Dodabetta Devoybetta, their elevation above the sea
being about 8,700 feet on the west of this range, and very elevated
OP THE NiLAOIRI DISTRICT. Ixi
are a series of plain green undulating lulls denominated Mullanaud
affording extensive rich pastures, no part of it being cultivated ; the
broad valleys formed by these green ridges are somewhat extensive, their
bottoms in general mai'shy, and the nullahs or mountain streams work-
ing their way through them in a variety of serpentine courses become
however confined on approaching the fall or exterior of the mountain,
which to the north presents a bold face of stupendous precipices, rising
in most places almost perpendicularly from the table-land of Davaroy-
patam ; to the east and south thay are seen to slope down in irregular
woody ridges from an elevation of about 5,000 feet in some parts
presenting bold rocky precipices. Most of the narrow streams have
their sources in the main chain, flow down on all sides in devious
windings, and where arrested by rocks fall in small catai'acts, eventu-
ally discharging themselves into the Moyar on the north, the Bhowany
on the south ; the streams of these rivers unite near the village of
Pungar, three miles from its eastern base. The surface is formed of
innumerable ridges, perfectly open, covered with a short stunted grass,
yet not entirely devoid of wood, being fringed with groves of forest
trees ; these are seen at the head of ravines not unfrequent along the
streams in the valleys and a few on the summit of the ridges to the
eastward ; towards the west in Mullanaud they are very extensive,
covering the whole side of the hills to one or two square miles. In
the eastern portion of Parunganaud many of the lower slopes are over-
run with a low jungle, principally by a plant which bears a delicious
fruit in great abundance, much esteemed by the natives, and called
the TJwivtalmn, in taste and flavor not inferior to a gooseberry. The
southern hills in Maikanaud are overrun with a long grass intermixed
■with fern and other wild shrubs, and the exterior slopes and deep
valleys on all sides with a variety of forest trees. Around the southern
base the bamboo grows in great profusion, and, on the table-land of
Davaroypatam, along the foot of the mountain the teak, blackwood,
and sandal appear to thrive.
It is divided into three Nauds, viz., Parunganaud, Maikanaud, and Divisions and
the Thodawanaud, and contains IGO hamlets or villages independent of vinago3.
the temporary habitations of the Todawars in Mullanaud with a popu-
lation of above 4,000 souls. Parunganaud lying on the east is by far
the most populous. Next to it is Maikanaud occupying the south-west
portion and Thodawanaud including Mullanaud to the west, though the
largest division is far inferior to the others including the Thodawar
population. The hill hamlets are in general small, composed of from
two to twenty houses, arranged in one or two lines, sometimes forrning a
street; they are built of mud and covered with thatch, low and excessively
filthy, the entrance or doorway generally facing the east and situated
on the slopes of the lower ridges. These arc extensively cultivated
and well attended to ; some of the neighbouring ridges yearly undergo
it partially ; the most extensive tracts are cultivated by the Badagas.
Each division has its Cotter village ; this being a very low class, they
are under the necessity of herding together, which gives their villages,
from having a larger number of cottages, a respectable appearance, and,
Ixii APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
though they are the artizans, cultivate extensive tracts in the vicinage
of their habitations ; the Mullu Curunibers confine themselves to the
exterior slopes and prepare their fields with the hand-hoe. The Toda-
wars, a migratory race, only tend large herds of bunaloes, chiefly confin-
ing themselves to the Mullanaud pastures on the west. It is a singular
circumstance that no regular temples or places of w^orship are to bo
seen here, but they have a house in some of the more extensive villages
set apart for performing their ceremonies called Davurmannay, and
sometimes a small detached hut in a grove for tliis purpose; tlie
Todawars on occasions convert their dairy into a kousc of worship ;
there are three deities worshipped by the Badagas besides Uunga-
sawmy, which, however, is considered to be the principal deity and held
iu great veneration by all the mountaineers, the Todawars e-ven nofc
excepted. He is worshipped on the peak called after him on the eastern
side of the mountain which appears conspicuous from the plain country
on the south-east. The only emblems of the deity seen on it are a
few rude stones and iron tridents fixed in the ground and surrounded
by a low, rude, circular wall of loose stone with a coujDle of large iron
pans on it ; these arc on tl>c festival of Shcvaratry replenished with
ghee or oil, and at night illuminated. The hill people during this
festival come from their villages on the west and make ofi'erings of
fruit, ghee, &c. ; this peak is also celebrated for a cavern on the north
declivity, which contains some holy earth, in request by Brahmins and
other castes ; much of it is carried a.way to different parts by pilgrims
who come here during the annual festival.* The hill hamlets or villages
are often seen in clusters of three or four within half a mile of each other
and sometimes nearer ; in some cases they are alone in remote situations
on the sides of the valleys ; the scenery in all situations beautiful though
somewhat naked from a scarcity of trees near them. The clear purling
streams meandering in every direction at the bottom of the valleys
afford a constant supply of water, of which however no advantage-
is taken, irrigation being in a great measure neglected in all parts..
Since these regions have been visited by gentlemen, several bungalows
have been built in different pleasant situations as at Dimhutty, and
here is a very good kitchen garden, as also at Jackanairy in a lower
situation. A few temporary ones have been erected for the convenience
of travellers at Kodavanudy, Nunjanaud, Keelur, and Yellanully, and
another is now in some progress at Whotakay in the Mullanaud, with
a spacious garden laid out with taste on the shoulder of a low ridge,,
which promises in time to outstrip those above mentioned. One great
disadvantage attending building here is the want of materials ; there is
a variety of timber, but it appears to be of a very indifferent kind, nor
is it possible to burn firm bricks ; the clay being of a bad quality does
not adhere together for any time.
Soil and The soil of the hills varies materially ; to the east it is of a light red
productions, j^j^cd with gravel ; that peculiar to Mullanaud is a deep brown some-
times inclining to black ; in the morasses and woods it is perfectly so,
* A further account of tbcir cnstomsand manners will be seen in another place.
OP THE NtLAOIRI DISTRICT. Ixiil
perhaps owing to an accumulation of much putrid vegetation ; in
many parts about the tracts of cattle and the different paths arc to
be discerned fed attd yellow ochreous earth ; yet is the Boil not very
stony ; the laterite and granite is found a little below the surface ia
some situations. The soils on the whole are very rich, but a very
small portion of the extensive slopes calculated for the plough is
cultivated. European vegetables have been tried and thrive exceed-
ingly well, as also apples, strawberry, &c., but it is a singular
circumstance that the plantain and other fruit trees, even the com-
mon vegetables of the open country, have not been found to succeed.
The chief productions are corally, gunja, a species of barley, shamay,
buttacudla, field pease, poppy, the seeds of greens, and wheat ; also
garlic, onions, mustard, vendiem or fenugrick ; the marshes yield
spontaneously vussumbu, or the sweet-scented flag-root, in cci'tain
situations ; honey and bees'- wax is collected from the exterior rocky
precipices and from the hollows of trees. It may bo necessary hero
to remark that the poppy capsules, from which the opium is extracted,
are not punctured till the plants arc full fourteen months old ; this
operation being performed by the women and children with a small iron
nail, wounding the capsule on the sides towards evening, when during
the night a milk or resin exudes and coagulates, which is collected on
the following day a few hours after sunrise ; this operation continues
to bo repeated every fourth day till the plant shows indications of
fading. A few of the plants bear two capsules, but one of them in this
case is only punctured from a supposition if extracted from both
that the opium would then be of a weaker quality.
The agricultural instruments in use here are precisely the same implomcnta
rude machines seen in the low country ; the plough, &c., are all jj*^** ™"'^*' °^
constructed by the Cotters. The agricultural season commences with "^ ^^ '^'
April ; after a few heavy showers of rain, the lands undergo the
operation of ploughing three or four times ; the seed is then sown of
the following grains : — corally, gunja, shamay, wheat, mustard ; garlic
and onions also are planted ; in August they reap gunja, wheat and
mustard ; garlic and onions are gathered at the same time. In January
following they reap corally and Greens seed ; during September the
fields are again ploughed and manured, when poppy, peas, fenugrick seed
is sown, and more garlic planted ; in December they gather the poppy
capsules and reap peas and fenugrick seed. From the above remarks
it will appear that cultivation is continually going on for nine months in
the year, during which interval some of the gi-ains yield two crops ; from
January to March the ryots are employed in the repairs of their cottages
and gathering fuel, which is laid up in large stocks in the vicinity,
where it is cut and brought to the villages in small quantities when
required.
The domestic animals seen on the hills are herds of black cattle Cattle and
and buffaloes. The cows produce rich milk in small quantities, and o^^cr
the bullocks are the only animals yoked to the plough; they are,
however, of an inferior kiud and generally thin. The buffaloes are
Ixiv APPENDIX TO THE MANDAL
superior in size and make to any in India, and are excessively savage ;
they roam at leisure in very large herds on the pastures in Mullauaud ;
arc chiefly the property of the Todawars; they yield very large
quantities of rich milk, which is manufactured into butter and ghee,
and forms one of the principal articles for export. The wild animals
are the elk, spotted deer, and hog ; bears and tigers not a few ; the
latter have been known to attack men, and the buffaloes grazing on
the pastures to the west frequently fall a prey to this ferocious
animal. Hares abound in all parts, as also pea and wild fowl, and
black quail, doves, and a variety of other birds, together with
vultures, kites, and ravens, but the common crow is never seen to
frequent these regions.
Climate. The climate of these mountains is perbaps the finest known
between the tropics ; during December, January, and February it is
extremely cold ; water is often frozen during night, and the ice is
sometimes seen to remain on its surface after sum-iso, but during the
other nine months it is delightful the whole day ; in the morning it
is often below 50°, never above 60^ nor in the hottest day in this
interval does it rise above 75° in the shade ; notwithstanding the
gelidity, the inhabitants appear on the whole to be extremely healthy ;
fevers are sometimes prevalent, but of a slight nature, arising
perhaps more from exposure to the keen night air and rain ; they are,
however, in other respects free from most epidemic diseases, the small-
pox excepted, which is much dreaded here. It is singular in so
extensive a population that a deformed object is rarely seen ; yet from
the promiscuous intercourse of the sexes there is strong reason to
believe they are not altogether free from venereal complaints. A
very favorable idea of the salubrity of the climate may be drawn from
the many instances of European gentlemen recovering their health
after a short residence on them, a circumstance which of itself proves
beyond a doubt its extreme healthiness ; it is, however, injurious to
health to be exposed the whole day to the keen air and sun, it having
a tendency to make the face and lips very sore ; the pain arising from
it does iu some individuals create fever. The south-west or Malabar
monsoon has its influence here ; it commences early in June ushered
in with violent winds and sleet, with sometimes a heavy fall of rain ;
this continues with short intervals of fair weather to September, when
the north-east monsoon shows indications of setting in ; the wind
blowing from that quarter is followed with heavy showers of rain,
with thunder and lightning, during November and December ; from
the middle of the latter month to May the weather is generally fair
and serene ; in April some heavy showers arc experienced, with
thunder and lightning accompanied with hail, and the wind then
blows from various quarters, mostly from south-east; during the
prevalence of both monsoons the mountain is for many days together
enveloped in dense fogs, which disperse after a heavy shower, when
the atmosphei'c clears up and the weather continues fair for some
days.
OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. Ixv
Nothing of note under this head is to bo seen hero, with the Fortifica.
exception of the sight of two forts, which, though of modern date, have **'?"*^ *°'*.
fallen to decay ; Mullacottah, at the head of a valley, commands an buildiugs,
extensive view of the Mysore country ; it is situated three miles south-
east of Sholoor, built of stone and mud, in form a square, and
surrounded by a deep dry ditch, its interior overrun with jungle.
HoUycul, on a conspicuous detached ridge to the south, is built on an
inaccessible bold bluff rock, with many inequalities, occupies a largo
surface, its shape an irregular rectangle, the access to it leads over the
saddle of the ridge through extensive lofty forest, then up a perpen-
dicular rock admitting the passage of only one individual at a time ; it
commands an extensive view of the low country to the south and east,
and also a large portion of the surface of the mountain on the north ;
these places were once garrisoned by a few of Tippu's troops with a
design to keep the mountaineers in check and also to assist the Sultan'a
servants in collecting the yearly revenue. It is worthy of notice that
there are circular towers on the top of most of the higher and flat
eminences called Hokuls ; a few of them are perfect at the present
day, being in diameter about 20 feet and 5 feet high, built of loose
stones, the interior strewed about with broken images of idols, &c. •
from this circumstance it would appear that they were once places
of worship; but no account of their origin can be obtained from the
present inhabitants further than that these edifices were built by the
Boopalans, predecessors of the present race of the Toduwars.
A coarse cloth wore by both sexes may be considered the only imports and
article imported, excepting bars of iron for implements, tobacco and exports.
other requisites being purchased by the inhabitants at the weekly
markets held at a few large villages in the low country ; the exports
consist of wheat, poppy seed, opium, honey, wax, garlic, onions,
mustard, fenugincks, vasambu, ghee, and little of the superior kinds
of dry grain, all which find a ready sale below.
Iron ore is found on many of the ridges impregnated with stones. Mines and
a small hill to the south-west of Trichaguddy is remarkable for it ; uiinerala.
much of it is also to be seen mixed with sand of the difi"erent streams
washed down the slopes of the hills ; none of it is, however, smelted
here, it being imported in bars from the low country.
There are no less than five roads or paths through difi*erent passes Roada, passes
communicative with the villages on the surface of this mountain ; of ^'^'^ '^*^'^'®^-
these the most easy of access is the one lately made by a party of
pioneers ; it is the most frequented by travellers and admits of palan-
quins ; horses and laden cattle go up it with much ease. The road
to the pass strikes off from the left bank of the Bhavani river at
Sirmogay, proceeds thence waving north-west three miles over level
ground and low jungle to the base of the ridge ; here commences the
ascent steep, zigzag and rugged for a mile northerly, to the shoulder
of the ridge, along which it winds westerly with many inequalities,
principally ascending till it gains a gap between two high woody tops
near Conjapany ; from thence descends rather steep on the southern
slope of the ridge to a level surface, gradual descent to a nullah, and
ascends from it to a temporary bungalow at Serulii, a delightful
3
2
160
3
1
0
1
2
20
5
6
40
1
3
40
1
4
180
Ixvi AI'PEXDIX TO THE MANUAL
situation, amidst lofty wood, about 4,000 feet above the plain ; the
road now winding north-west descends gently for half a mile, then in
forest over a level surface, west one mile ; crosses a couple of small
streams flowing to the east, and here leaves the forest ; the ascent
again commences winding round on the eastern brow of hills, in a
general north-west direction in a deep valley, along a branch of the
Kaunday river, close on the right, pouring down in cascades, and
after crossing several small streams gains the cultivated slopes,
passing the villages of Jackatalla and Jackanery on the left, to the
bungalow Urravani on the right, from thence the ascent steep, and
winding round, the east brow of a wooded hill, it arrives at a plain
level surface, Mail Kotagherry village on the left, then gently winding
almost on the summit of another ridge, deep valley on the left,
descends gradually to the bungalow at Dimhutty, a distance of 16
miles 4 furlongs.
M. F. Y.
From the left of the bank of the Bhavani
to the base of the ridge is
to Coonjapaiiy, ascent steep
to Arravaui Bungalow, descent
to do. do. and descent ...
to Mail Kotagiri village, ascent
to Dimhatty Bungalow, gentle descent
Meastu-e distant miles ... 16 4 0
The road leading from Dandikenkotai on the west will scarcely admit
of laden cattle, being very rugged and rocky, the road from the above
place waving over dry grain fields, and some low jungle for one and a
half miles to the base of the ridge, which it commences to ascend
and pi"oceeds winding westerly on the summit, has a gentle descent
to Urracode in a small valley, cultivated with plantain, jack, and
other fruit trees, thence it descends to a large stream ascending very
steep winds over the southern brow of the Rungasawmy Hill, thence
down a valley crossing another steep ridge, ascends a slope
winding gently. Daynaad on the left, descends a small rugged pass to
a temporary bungalow on the right, again ascends gently to the
summit of a ridge, winding round the west brow of a hill, descends
northerly into an open valley between low hills for about a mile and
a half, descends westerly another small pass to Nedancolum, a fine
village on the right, from thence over low plain ridges crossing two
large streams in swamp, ascends another ridge and descends by a
zigzag rugged pass to a large stream north-west of Cuppanatharay,
then up the low brow of a low hill, gently ascends through low
jungle, and crossing another small stream rises up to Dimhatty
being on the whole a distance of 20 miles 7 furlongs.
From Danaikcnkotai to the foot of the pass is
„ to Urracode generally ascending
,, to Dayna4d Bungalow do.
Nedancolum, first part ascent, then descent
Dimhatty, ascending gently, steep descent,
ascend'- ,., 20 7
M.
F.
Y.
1
5
100
5
3
0
10
6
100
16
0
100
OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. Ixvii
This communication with Dimhatty though circuitous is for a
considerable way carried over very easy ground, with the exception
of the first portion of it to Daynaad. The pass on the whole is of an
easy ascent, and may be made practicable at a small labor and
expense for laden cattle. The pass leading up from Authutty, on
the left bank of the Bhavani, is short and thei'cfore difficult and
steep, joins the new road near the Serulu Bungalow, the ascent up
the ridge being only 2 miles. It may be made practicable for laden
cattle, and is constantly traversed by the hill people in preference to
the new I'oad, the communication being shorter with the villages on
the plain. The pass from Keelur down to Soondaputty, a deserted
hamlet on the left bank of the Bhavani among hills, is in a great
measure steep ; from the bungalow at the above place, the path runs
south-west half mile, having the hamlet of Munjacumba on the left ;
it winds easterly on the saddle of an open ridge, ascends gently
almost to the summit of Soondabetta, in high grass and date bushes,
and the western slope, southerly to a small pool on the right, then
south-easterly to the exterior or fall of the mountain, descends
gradually winding to a wood and hut, thence descent steep, passing
\ over a flat rock south-westerly to a nullah, keeps along it for a short
distance and crossing it passes over gentle ascent, descends and
crosses the Manar River, and ascending from it takes a south-westerly
course, descends then south-east, passing over a rather level surface
to Soondaputty, and is on the whole a tolerable path, the pass
excepted being tedious in the descent.
M. F. Y.
From Keelur to the summit of the pass ... ... 3 7 160
,, to nullah at the foot of the pass ... 6 4 200
„ to the Manar River 8 1 40
„ to Soondaputty banian tree... ... 10 0 0
The road and pass on the north, leading down to the table-land of
Devaroyapatam at present frequented, leads from the village of
Kulhutty, descends and crosses a ravine near Tudukaly, thence on a
flat cultivated surface intersected by three inconsiderable streams,
ascends a low ridge, and descending gradually to a lai"ge nullah
crosses it, and two smaller ones to a buffalo crib, on a flat table, on
the margin of which it runs east-north-east to a nullah in wood,
quitting it, descends abruptly by several zigzag winding north-
east and north, latter part very rugged to Courmullay, a deserted
village at the foot of the mountains, the whole length of the pass being
two-and-a-half miles, the path and crossing the MuUayacotta River and
some ruins to Shegoor northerly runs, north-north-west over some
uncultivated paddy lands and through a jungle of sandal and
bamboos, recrossing the above river, here called Cottoar, from thence
again north-west by north over high ground covered with low and
open wood, again crosses the above river to Shembanuttum Fort. This
pass is the most difficult, yet does admit of laden cattle, is on the whole
from Kulhutty to Shembanuttum, a distance of nine-and-a-quarter miles.
The original road skirting the eastern side of the IMullayncotta Valley
Ixviii APPENDIX TO THB MANUAL
has been impracticable for years from parts of the ridges having fallen
and barred the both in many places.
The communication on the surface to the westward from Dimhatty
runs on a ridge south-west to Todanad, thence through the opening
of a high ridge west-north-west between hills on easy slopes, and
crossing a nullah half a mile north of Kulhutty, ascends a ridge,
descends it to the Kookal stream, ascends a long slope in low jungle
to a conspicuous tree, Cuggoochy, a small hamlet on the left, leaving
it, ascends a small winding pass, then on a level slope, at the summit
of the Kookal Valley. Trichaguddy on the left, descends and crosses
a stream and marsh, rises gently from it, and descends rather steep
to a bungalow near a winding stream, crosses to the village of
Kodavamudy on a gentle slope ; the road to the west descends, and
crossing another winding stream rises gently to the village of Toonairy
on the right, then descends on a brow and crossing another hill
stream winds gently up to Hunnikuray on the right, thence ascending
on a slope has a short descent to a winding stream ; on crossing it,
proceeds on a ridge, Kondahutty, two furlongs on the left, winds
round a hill, steep valley on the right, and crossing a few small
streams gains the village of Kondahutty. Prom thence over a level
surface descends rather steep, and crossing a large stream ascends to
Kulhutty on the right. Here branch off two paths, one described above
leads easily down to the valley, crosses another rivulet, Mailcottah
Fort, on an eminence on the left, descends steep and circuitous to the
Mantar, a large winding rivulet, ascent on passing it Yerj steep, for
a quarter of a mile, then over waving ground to the village of
Shoolur ; from this place paths lead off to the south and west,
traversing the pasture lands of MuUanadd in all directions.
From Dimhatty to Tandanadd
„ to Kuggoochy
„ to Trichagandy ...
„ to Kadavanludy Bungalow
„ to Toonairy
,, to Hunndvnn-oy
„ to Kadhutty
„ to Kulhutty
„ to the Mantir
,, to Sholar
From Kauvamoody to Toomanhutty
The path from Dimhatty to Ootacamund leaves the former one
two furlongs south-east of Taudanaad, proceeds south, crosses a small
stream, keeps waving on a plain surface westerly, Orasholah village
three furlongs on the right, continues to wind on gentle slopes south-
west, crossing three inconsiderable streams gently descending and
ascending high hill on the right, descendsa small pass and crosses a large
stream two furlongs west of Togalhutty, and ascends another ridge
southerly, descends on the western slope of it, and crosses another
irrigious stream at a junction a furlong north of the village of
Yellithoray, situated on a cultivated eminence ; the path then runs on a
M.
F, Y.
0
6 50
6
0 60
6
3 120
8
2 60
9
4 60
10
7 180
14
1 140
14
7 100
16
5 100
17
6 100
3
1 0
OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.' Ixix
level to the south-west in a narrow valley, low steep ridge, covered with
jungle on the left, ascends gently leaving a swamp on the right and a
remarkable hill with a single tree beyond it ; it then descends into
a nai'row vale crossing a large stream to the top of a ridge, on the
slope of which it descends rather steep, crossing another large
irrigious stream below a confluence, and rises southerly to the village
Munjatulla ; then on the north brow of a ridge, waving, descends into
an open valley, and crossing a few smaller streams on a waving surface,
ascends a high ridge rather steep, Yellanully village on the right,
two furlongs from it, descent steep to another stream, and rising again
waves round the southern brow of a hill, gently glides down westerly
into a valley, Kaytee on the right, and crossing sevei-al hill streams
at short distances, gains a ridge and ascends north-north-west to
its summit, descends and crossing another stream, winds round the
eastern brow of a hill to a gap, then waving gently down on the
western brow of high hills to a small stream and marsh ascends the
flat ridge of Whotakaymund, Mr. Sullivan's Bungalow on the left. It
is in general a good path, but very circuitous.
M. F. Y.
From Dimhatty to Taudanadd
0 6 0
„ to Togulhutty
4 1 120
to Yellithoray
5 2 0
,, to MnnjatuUa
8 4 120
to Yellanully
.. 11 0 120
„ to Kaytee
12 3 20
„ to Whotakaymand
15 4 20
The direct road now making by a party of pioneers to
Whotakaymund runs south of the village of Orasholah, passing a ridge
winds on a waving surface between Padhal and Culhutty ; ascends a
ridge and descends it rather steep on the west slope of a large rivulet,
crossing which it ascends an easy slope, runs south of Ballycumba,
descends from it to another stream, ascends an easy slope, and winds
north of the village of Tatarvane, Puggala, and joins the summit of
another ridge, on which is situated that of Cumbutty ; it then descends
on the northern slope of a hill, leaving Cumbagay on the right, and
descends to a stream ; from it ascends another gentle slope, on which it
keeps waving for a considex-able way. Tumanhutty on the right, two
furlongs, ascending winds roimd the eastern brow of the Koonatachapu
hill, village on the left, descends and crosses a few streams and
uneven ground, and ascends to the summit of Dodabetta ridge, and
ultimately winding in its descent, on a slope of the same to
Whotaykamund.
M. F. Y.
From Dimhatty
to Orasholah
12 0
^,
to Culhutty
3 0 0
,^
to Billacumba
4 10
„
to Puggala
5 2 0
„
to Cumbaghy
6 3 0
>f
to Tooinaahutty
7 10
to Coonatchapa
8 5 0
„
to Whotaykamund
0 3 0
IXX APPEXDIX TO TFTE MANUAL
To enter into a full description of all the paths would perhaps be
superfluous, the surface of the hill being traversed by them in every
direction. A ftiiv of those measured is, however, here inserted.
From Mullacottah to Nunjanadd ...
,, Nunjanadd to Whotakaymund
„ Nunjanadd to Ootalmund
„ Nnujanadd to Keeliir
„ Keeliir to Kaytee
„ Whotakaymund to Baricooly..,
,, Baricooly to Keeliir
„ Nnnjanaad to Baricooly
M.
P. Y.
8
6 20
6
4 0
6
2 0
8
1 100
8
4 0
7
2 0
4
3 0
3
6 100
(Signed) B. S. WARD, Lieutenant,
Assistant, Surveyor-GeiieraV s Dept.
MiSCELLAXEOUS.
It may be necessary in this place to give some account of the differ-
ent castes of people inhabiting this vast mountain ; these principally
consist of four castes— Budagers, Todawers, Cotters, and Mullucurum-
bers ; the latter are the officiating priests to the former, who are the
principal cultivators, occupying villages and lands in all the three naads
or divisions with the exception of the western portion or Mullanaad,
dependent on the Todawanaad, a tract of low green hills in ridges
affording pasture to large herds of buffaloes ; about it are interspersed
the kralls or munds of the Todawars in remote places to the west,
forming their summer, those again to the east, almost on the skirts of
the Budao-er villages, their winter habitations. Each division has its
Cotter village, distinct from the Budagers; they are in general
extensive, having from forty to fifty houses arranged in lines. They
are the artizans, and also cultivate large tracts of land around their
habitations. The women of both these classes perform the principal
labors of the field in common with the men, who, however, leave the
more arduous service of watcliing, weeding, and cleaning them to the
women after the plough has done its duty. In their physiognomy,
habits, and language they materially differ from one another. The
prevailing language among all is the Canarese, much corrupted with
peculiar phrases and idioms of their own invention. They are perfectly
illiterate. An attempt to establish a school among them at Daynaad
not long ago has failed ; on what account is not known.
Agriculture in primitive times was carried on on a very limited
scale by the Mullucurumbers only in exterior valleys and slopes ; to
the Budagers must be attributed the merit of diffusing husbandry all
over the face of the mountains ; to these aerial regions they are said to
have emigrated about four centuries ago from Woomatur and other
places in the south of Mysore, and consequently have derived the
appellation of Vada or Budagers, having come from the north, the
compound word Buda-ger signifying literally people of the north.
It appears they were originally invited by a chieftain or rajah of
OF THE NILAQIRl DISTRICT. Ixxi
Woomatixr, wlio had about that period taken refuge on these moun-
tains, who, on then- ai'iival, finding the land fertile, settled on them and
in course of time were followed by others, and now form the largest
proportion of the population of the hills. This class of people are
again sub-divided into the following sects : — Harruvars, Buddagur,
Shevacharas, Odykary, and Torayen ; these do not intermarry, however
agreeing in most other particulars. The Harruvars are of the superior
class, and wear the sacerdotal thread similar to the Brahmans of the
low counti'y.
OF THE BUDAGEES.
An individual wishing to form a connection of this nature proceeds Marriages,
to pay court to one of the other sex for a month and upwards ; during
this interval he is assiduous in making her small presents, and by
attention he seldom fails of gaining his object. He then settles with
her parents the stipulated sum to be paid, which varies from six to ten
Puns (15 to 20 rupees). Matters being thus adjusted, he takes
his partner home, and the ceremony concludes with a repast. The
parents of the young woman make over with her a cow and bullock,
a metal dish, and an ornament for the neck called a talley. It often
happens that the present stipulated is not promptly liquidated, but
payment deferred to a definitive period on ample security ; in default
of non-payment the relatives of the woman endeavour to separate her
from her husband. If she will not be prevailed on, it is then determined
according to the circumstances of the husband — a part of whose cattle
and other property is disposed of to meet the demand. Polygamy is
not uncommon among them ; an individual may have two or more wivea
if his circumstances will admit of his maintaining them, and they
generally speaking prove of infinite service to him in the labors of the
field, the largest portion of that duty devolving on the women. The
standard of union here appears very fickle and capricious ; divorces or
separation are not uncommon arising from disgust or disaffection, and
when such is the case are seldom reconciled ; this disposition to
incontinency is more predominant with the fair sex- In case of a
separation of this nature, all the children remain with the father ; and
the woman is moreover obliged to give up all presents, &c., she may
have received, the dowry being left to be adjusted on her second
espousal. In case the woman is in a state of pregnancy when she
takes this measure, the child when weaned is also consigned to its
father, who pays her six rupees, twenty cantirai fanams for her trouble;
her next husband pays the amount of the dowry stipulated on the
former marriage, and is moreover responsible for all debts she may
have incurred during it, which, if not liquidated by her second
husband, she is separated from him by coei'cion and married to a
third person fixed upon by the community. While in a state of separa-
tion if she should have a clandestine intercourse with another indivi-
dual and prove with child, the gallant is then compelled to take her
on paying the stipulated dowry.
Ixxii
APPKNDIX TO THE MANUAL
Funerals. Their funeral rites are performed in the following manner : —The
corpse is laid on a cot opposite to the house under a canopy four feet
high ; from the centre rises a pole of ten feet with cross yards decorated
with pendants of white cloth ; beneath it is exposed in wicker baskets
boiled victuals, grain, &c., as offerings to the defunct. The relations and
neighbours for a considerable time keep singing and dancing round
the canopy. The ceremony concludes by knotting in a corner of the
shroud the roll of a palm leaf worn by the wife of the deceased
on her ears, and the contrary if a woman dies, a piece of light wood
worn by the husband ; the corpse is then removed to the pile accom-
panied by music, and consigned to it with the oblation. The male
children of the deceased shave their heads and face. The sect of
Shevacaras bury their dead.
Worship. Besides Rungasawmy, the dieties worshipped in the interior are
Hereadeo, and the goddess Hethadeo, also a subordinate deity called
Kunkolu K'ai'odia, or the eye-giving power ; the latter is their tutular
goddess ; the Harruvars and Shevacaras have their Mahalinga.
Drc33, &c. The coarse clothing of the mountaineers, stiffened with starch,
intended as a defence against the gelidity of the climate, gives to men
and more especially to the women a most uncouth appearance ; the
men wrap round them a large sheet with colored borders, and a
handkerchief about the head ; those individuals who can afford it have
rings of gold to their ears, and of silver on their fingers. The dress
of the women consists of a coarse cloth, four or five cubits in length,
hemmed in at the upper and lower extremities by triple lines of cotton
twist, and drawn up in a fringe, giving it the shape of a petticoat,
fastened with ligatures below the arm and midriff ; yet in spite
of thick starch and bandages exposes a great part of the legs ; their
jewelry consists of heavy brass bangles, worn above the elbow of the
right arm, and those that can afford it a silver bracelet graces the left
wrist, rings of gold and brass to their ears, fingers and toes, with a
pendant jewel affixed to the membrane of the left nostril. Very few,
if any, of the women in years can be termed beauties ; the fine features
of some of the young girls occasionally seen are eclipsed by their
awkward dress and propensity to dirty apparel. A few of the males
in circumstances are robust and well made, but the generality are
meagre and of a phlegmatic temperament, occasioned by the poor
diet they subsist on and the pernicious use of I'aw opium ; in their
disposition, with but a few exceptions, it may with propriety be said
they are cunning, suspicious, and incommunicative in their dealings
with strangers, display a covetous desire for lucre, which stimulates
them to duplicity and falsehood ; among themselves are tolerably
social ; jealousy is perhaps a negative passion, as fornication appears
to be the prerogative of both sexes.
Diet. They subsist genei-ally on koralay and shamay (two species of
millet), gunja or barley, and the flour of the keeray or Garden greens
seed. Condiments are not in general use, but garlic gives a zest to all
their meals; they are not averse to animal food (bejf excepted), but
OF THE NiLAGIRI DISTKICT. Ixxiii
very little, if any, enters their faro, excepting at a marriage, or some
grand day of feasting. Milk, tyre, and rancid ghee may be considered
among their luxuries.
In all the duties of husbandry women partake more of the labors Lab
than the men — the holding the plough is perhaps one exception, being
the sole duty of the men ; performing all the duties of the field, beside
their internal household affairs, to which in a great measure wc may
attribute their strong, harsh, masculine features and deportment. The
dairy, it must be remarked, is, however, the exclusive duty of the men,
the milk kept iu an inner apartment, and there churned ; the females
are scrupulously prohibited from entering it, Tthe poorer class make
good porters.
TODUWARS.
The remarkable dissimilarity of these people in their persons and
features from the other mountaineers is very striking ; they arc
evidently a distinct race, and are iu fact the aborigines of these aerial
regions ; their origin it is impossible to trace. When interrogated on
this point we could only learn that they have some idea that they were
originally self borne, and they have also a notion that their ancestors
in primitive times were the palanquin-bearers to the giant Rawan,
and were expelled from Lunka on his being slain by Rama. This
migratory ti'ibe confine themselves and herds of buffaloes to the
Mullanaad, Taranaad and Kulanum Hills, which afford excellent
pastures ; this tract, consisting of the western portion denominated
Todanadd, is marked by several of their kralls or munds, with a
circular roof of thatch and door scarce high enough to admit a dog, into
which they crawl on all fours ; their site in general retired, near a tuft
of forest trees in delightful situations, with extensive circles fenced
with wood and stone for their buffaloes ; those towards the west arc
occupied during summer. On the approach of the Malabar monsoons
they retire with their cattle to the east, on the skirts of the Badager
villages ; a few families, however, continually reside in Perunganaad
and Maiknaad, and tend with their own the cattle of the Badagers.
Their chief occupation is the care of their buffaloes and the dairy, for
which purpose a house of large dimensions at each mund is reserved
apart, is by them considered sacred, women not being permitted to
enter ; in it they also perform such ceremonies in use on the anniver-
sary of their deceased relatives, having no temples or other places of
worship. Each clan being in possession of from one to two hundred
buffaloes, pays a tax annually for each cow half a rupee ; this they are
well enabled to do from the sale of raggy and poultry. Leading
a pastoral life and abstracted from all agricultural pursuits, they are
indebted to the Badagers for grain given them gratis at the annual
harvest — a custom from time immemorial in consideration of their
being the hereditary claimants of the soil. On the celebration of any
marriage among the more wealthy Badagers they receive from quarter
to half a rupee as a present ; they also subsist in a great measure on a
Ixxiv APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
variety of bulbous fruits procured by digging, largo quantities being
ohtaiiicd on all the hills in the Todawanadd. The Todawars are in
general well made and robust, in stature tall — some of them exceed six
feet in height, and approach nearer to the European in feature, with
Roman noses ; they evince a friendly propensity to strangers, and
appear to display more candour than their eastern neighbours, but it
must, however, be remarked from personal observation they arc not
now behind the Burghers in criminal deceit and falsehood. The
women arc reputed beauties ; some of the younger ones are possessed
of handsome lineaments and exceedingly fair, with some vivacity, but
like all other native women are old and wrinkled before they attain
their thirtieth year ; the men are very much attached to them, and carry
their affection for the sex to a most voluptuous degree. Their colloquial
language is the Canarese as spoken by the Badagers, but they have a
most difficult and intricate one of their own, perfectly distinct from all
the languages in India, and only known to themselves (they are
illiterate). The same neglect of cleanliness in their apparel is observed
here. Both men and women wear a large white sheet with colored
borders ; the only difference observed is the manner of wrapping it about
the person ; with the female the habit is the perfect dishabille ; the right
hand, which is exposed, serves to keep the wrapper from disrobing or
being blown away. The men wear a scanty piece of cloth round their
middle in addition to the sheet thrown round the shoulder and
hanging to the knees, wearing their hair thick and full six inches in
length, with bushy beards, having recourse only to shears when either
become troublesome to the wearer, and never by any chance are
known to shave or cover the head. The women have flowing tresses
waving down to the shoulders, and often curled up with short sticks ;
on the whole pay much attention to their hair, anointing it with rancid
ghee in lieu of jewels, which all arc unable to afford, with the excep-
tion of a couple of brass bangles on the right arm, and silver or brass
rings on the fingers ; they puncture with an indelible black dye their
necks, hands, and legs in imitation of jewellery. A singular custom
among them is wearing a brass chain or girdle next to the skin round
the waist, an appendage that no grown up woman or girl should
bo without. They have no formal rites of mai-riage, concluding
alliances by reciprocal choice, the present on the jiart of the man to
the connections of the bride being from six to eight buffaloes. When
arrived at the house of her husband, she is obliged, in case he has
brothers, to acknowledge them as husbands, and to render them the
services and submission due from a wife. Independent of her
husbands, she is by their laws allowed to choose an individual from a
separate family as a gallant, styled coombhal, who is as eligible to her
embraces as any of the former ; in short the coombhal has a discre-
tionary power over her, for in case the young woman should be at
the house of one of her husbands, and the coombhal comes in, the
husband iramediately retires, and leaves her to his alliance ; the legal
husbands contribute towards her maintenance, and the coombhal
provides her with a cloth yearly, with tobacco and other small presents.
OF THE NILAGTRI DISTRICT. IxXV
Notwitlistandiiip; this inronsistcncy, the Toduwars live very peaceably
together ; the partition of the boys begotten in this manner chiefly
depends on the seniority of the brothers, the eldest claiming the first
born, and so on consccntively ; the girls, left to the care of the mother,
arc generally betrothed when very young- In a connection of this
nature, when one woman is common to a plui-ality of husbands, it is
natui'al to suppose that the males must far exceed those of the females j
an investigation into the cause of this disparity in the sexes has led
to a supposition that they have been in the habit of destroying the-
females hitherto, at least those born on ominous days of the week, by-
some unnatural means, leaving them, as has been conjectured, at the-
door of the pen to be trampled by the buffaloes rushing out furiously
when liberated ; and if what is above stated be a matter of fact, wo-
have still to ascertain the cause from whence originates this unna-
tural deed. The duties of the women often lead them out to tend the
cattle when grazing ; they also attend to all domestic affairs, the dairy
excepted, and when at leisure amuse themselves with needle-work,
darning the hems of cloth with i-ed and blue thread ; in this perform-
ance they display some taste, and are by the Badagers, for whom
they work, recompensed with grain or small money according to
exigencies. In their migrations, the infirm and old women arc
removed on the shoulders of the men ; this circumstance gave rise to a
credulous report that they invariably transported their women in this
manner. It has been an ancient practice among them that one of the
males should devote himself to a life of pious solitude, such is denoted
a Teri'iara, and sometimes Pollon, who is reverenced as a priest ; this
anchorite resides perfectly secluded in the recess of some deep forest
in a state of nudity, a small hut being there prepared for him, seldom
communicating with the laity. Such of those who have any temporal
or spiritual business, accost him and hold a conference, taking care to
keep at a respectable distance. The Terriara is generally the most
wealthy of the tribe, having largo flocks of buffaloes presented to him
by the laity, the produce of which is chiefly distributed among the-
herdsmen, the anchorite reserving but a small part to himself ; he
however occasionally makes an eleemosynary excursion to the neigh-
bourhood of the munds. The dairy or milk-house (having no pagoda
or idol of worship) is consecrated annually in memory of departed
relatives. On this occasion they burn a lamp fed with butter, and
make offerings of milk, ghee, fruit, invoking the names of the
departed souls with supplication ; during the performance of these
ceremonies the Terriara is invited to officiate as high priest. The
ofiice of a Terriara is by no means permanent ; he may resign of him-
self, by signifying his intentions to the community at large, who
appoints some other individual to his room. From what is above
stated a conclusion may be drawn that they are not very zealous
idolaters, yet are superstitious enough to have their lucky and unlucky
days ; this has a powerful influence in all their concerns ; thus Thursday,
Saturday, and Sunday are reckoned good days, and vice versa with
the remainder of the week. A person dies on any of the ominous
Ixxvi APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
(lays, the funeral rites are fleferrcd to the succeeding good day ; tlie
ceremony on this occasion consists in assembling the relations of the
deceased, when they utter their condolence in loud lamentations ; after
this follows a sacrifice of two or more buffaloes, which are killed with
heavy clubs and their skull and horns chopped off ; the corpse is then
placed on the pile for cremation. On the anniversary following the
relations convene at the same spot, each bringing a buffalo ; to these
arc added others belonging to the stock of the deceased, and
pickctted near the place where the body was consumed ; the ceremony
being performed, eight or ten able men with heavy clubs enter on a
promiscuous slaughter, when they proceed to part the horns from the
head of the animals ; it has been a perfect mystery hitherto what was
done with the flesh of these animals ; from some inquiries in another
quarter it has been ascertained that the Toduwars eat of it, and are
in the habit always, when they can afford it, to partake of the flesh of
this animal, the hides serving them as beds, when clean and dressed ;
yet they pretend all animal flesh to be unclean.
MtJLLUCOORMBERS.
The aggregate amount of this caste is very small, inhabiting the
recesses of the valleys or slopes of the mountains, towards the plain
country. They are a primeval race, almost contemporary with the
Toduwars, and have an equal right to the inheritance of the soil ; have
from very remote times followed the occupations of husbandry, culti-
vating the steep acclivities, in the execution of which they only use
the hand hoe, a species of culture called cottiikad, and assessed very
moderately. The produce of their fields, however, is very precarious
and seldom affords them a sufficiency for consumption, for which they
are in a great measure indebted to the Buddagers, to whom they officiate
as priests. The Badager will never undertake any agricultural affair
without some ceremonies performed by the Miillticoormber* to Kali-
buntyan ; this ceremony ended, he holds the plough and turns up the
glebe in each field, when the duty of the husbandmen commences ; he
then receives from each ryot from four to ten colagays of grain,
according to the circumstances of each individual, and retires. At
harvest time his services are again required to apply the sickle to the
ripe grain ; when the reapers proceed for this duty, he is permitted to
take as many of the sheaves as he can well bear away on his shoulders.
Their marriages, funeral ceremonies, are similar to those of the
Badagers, differing very little in their habits and manners from them ;
living in seclusion they are seldom seen abroad, -dsiting the villages
from mere necessity.
KOTHURS.
This caste of people are the most industrious race on the Neilgherrics,
following all the most useful occupations as carpenters, black-
* Who is fed for his spiritual duty. At the commencement, of the ploughing
season a sacrifice of fowls aud sheep arc offered by the Mdllucoormbcis.
OP TTIE NtLAGmi DISTRICT. Ixxvii
smiths, poltera, &c., and ofTiciafe as mnsicians at fcastp, fnncrals, and
marriages ; in short they arc the only artizans on the liills, and arc
moreover good husbandmen ; paying more attention to ngriculturc,
their fields appear to thrive better around their hamlets than those
seen in the vicinity of the Badager villages ; they are, however, of a
very inferior caste, and by their neighbours considered in the same
light as the chuckler in the low country ; they have cattle, but from
superstitious motives never milk the cow, are not permitted to have
buffaloes, but such unserviceable old animals which the Cadagers
dispense with for a trifle ; these are allowed to die, when they partake
of them, in short of the flesh of all kinds of dead animals, not being
allowed by their laws to kill any ; the hides being dressed are disposed
of to advantage ; their exterior and filthy propensities render them so
peculiarly disgusting to their neighbours that a Badager will not
drink of the stream that flows in the vicinity of their villages, polluted,
as it is supposed to be, with the flesh of the dead animals and their
raw hides, these being generally dressed on the side of a stream. In
all the three Divisions or Nadds arc Kothur villages, denominated
Kothagerrys ; these hamlets, though few, have geneitiUy a large poimla-
tion, and always in pleasant situations, with a grove of large trees?
present an agreeable prospect from a distance. They are a moro
ancient people than the Badagers, their dress similar to that of the
Toduwars, both sexes wearing their cloths in the same manner as
the latter race- The men go bareheaded, wear the hair long, tied in
a knot behind ; they are in general of the middle stature, ill-made,
short and bad featured ; some of the women, however, are fair, and
withal well-made and handsome.
'The ceremony, if such it may be called, takes place on the mutual Marriages,
consent of both parties, being allowed a previous cohabitation ; the
parents of the young woman receive from the husband a compensa-
tion of 3 to 5 rupees ; the man is at liberty to take a second wife,
provided the first has no male issue after three successive female
births. A woman from any disagreement is allowed to separate
herself from her husband ; in this case she leaves all her children, and
moreover returns the present on marriage, but to their credit it may
be said, though mean and contemptible, that female infidelity is not
common ; their ornaments are of small value. Copper bracelets adorn
their wrists, and brass bangles above the left elbow ; the neck decorated
with black beads of stone or glass. The Kothurs burn their dead, and
worship the manes in some dark grove on the following anniversary.
Their idol is Cumbatodeo ; for the worship of this deity small thatched
edifices arc erected, and offerings made on certain occasions.
IRRELURS.
These arc a distinct race of people from the other highlandcrs of Irrcl^rs,
the mountains, classed among the lowest of the Soodra caste, are very ^^^^^ cdsaii-
little superior to the Pariahs, diminutive and ill-made, are grossly wars,
ignorant, and iu their apparel scanty and excessively filthy ; their
Ixxviii ArrENDix to the manual
cottages arc sitnatcd on the exterior slope ami valleys, the sides of
which they cultivate with a variety of dry grain, also plantain, jack
and other fruits, which arc seen in groves in the bosom oP low valleys ;
they have scarcely any communication with the people of the hills,
but often come down to the plains to dispose or barter plantains
and other hill productions at the max-ket villages. Those occupying
the ridges on the east towards Denkankotai arc invariably called
Irrelurs ; to the south on the ridges forming the Bhavani Valley are
called Mudiimars ; and on the northern slopes towards Davaroypatam,
they go by the appellation of Cussuwars ; these also cultivate large
tracts on the plain surface of the table-land, and yet are all one race,
differing in no one instance ; their customs, manners, and occupation
being alike. In their marriages perhaps they arc singular. This
contract does not take place between the parties cohabiting till the
second or third child is born, when the man agrees to pay a stipulated
sum by instalments as a dowry to the friends of the woman, who give
with her as a portion a buffalo ; the contract now becomes binding.
In case of her demise the man must make over the whole of the
balance before he forms another connection ; but if she should sui'vive
her husband who has a brother, she must immediately become his
wife, and also to the next till all are extinct, so that a fruitful woman,
according to their customs, is always provided for. In their cemeteries
and burials they widely differ from the other castes, appearing to
venerate the manes of their dead above every other consideration.
The cemeteries are scattered in pleasant but lonesome situations,
being a neat house quite open to the east. About the middle and
against the inner walls of all of them are seen a heap of circular black
stones ; these are placed on one of the community being interred, and
consequently are accumulating from day to day. The males are buried
on one side, females on the other. The ceremonies and feasting on these
occasions last a month, and during this interval the earth lies very loose
on the corpse ; it is then softened with water and beaten down after
the last rites are performed. If one of the community should happen to
die at a distance even, his corpse is sent for and the usual rites are
performed, though it be in a putrid state. The deities worshipped by
them is Rnngasawmy and the goddess Masula or Butti'dcaly. Offer-
ings of sheep, &c., are made to her on certain days of ceremony.
(Signed) B. S. WARD, Leutenant,
Assistant, Survcyor-GeneraVs Department
OF THE NiLAOmi DISTRICT.
Ixxix
Register of the Thermometer at WhotaJcaij on the Neilf/hemj Mountains
for April 1822, kept hy J. Sullivan, Esq.
Date.
6 A.M.
9 a.m.
Noon.
3 P.M.
6 P.M.
Remarks.
8
48
64
66
61
60
Morning fine, afternoon rain; at
2 P.M. thermometer at 55.
9
50
63
64
61
58
Rain.
10
48
64
62
55
Do.
11
48
62
66
65
60
Afternoon rain ; cvouiug One,
12
52
62
66
68
59
Fine throughout.
13
48
65
68
67
61
Fair,
14
52
64
68
67
60
Do.
15
50
66
63
64
59
Fine.
16
50
62
62
58
59
Rain in the afternoon.
17
51
63
68
66
59
Morning fine, heavy clouda in the
afternoon, high wind at night.
18
...
58
67
59
Rain at night.
19
64
66
64
60
Fine throughout.
20
50
65
66
64
60
Slight rain in the evening.
21
64
68
67
59
A shower in the evening.
22
50
63
66
65
60
A slight shower in the afternoon,
high wind at night with thunder.
23
51
62
64
62
59
Fine throughout.
24
51
...
68
66
60
Do.
25
50
63
66
62
59
A slight shower in the afternoon,
heavy clouds and thunder.
26
53
63
66
65
60
High wind, thunder and rain during
the night.
27
...
60
62
63
59
Fine.
28
63
64
63
59
Do.
29
54
63
69
64
60
Do.
30
64
68
66
62
Do.
Average
50
03
64
63
60
General mean 60.
Minimum 48, maximum 69, range 21.
Ixxx
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
Ecgidcr of the Thermometer at WhotaJcay on the Neihjhcrrij Mountahis
for May 1822, kept by J. Sullivan, Esq.
Date.
6 A.M.
55
54
54
60
58
58
55
54
52
54
54
56
54
52
54
52
54
54
6 P.M.
Remarks.
65
66
66
67
65
65
64
65
64
64
64
64
67
64
65
67
66
62
70
66
64
64
62
64
58
64
58
59
60
60
69
70
68
69
65
68
67
65
66
67
64
65
71
70
70
69
71
71
72
68
68
64.
62
64
64
64
64
62
63
54
65
68
65
60
60
60
62
63
62
62
62
62
62
Fine.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Hard shower in the evening.
Shower in the afternoon.
Fine.
Rain during the night.
Do.
Fine.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Hard shower in the evening.
Showers in the afternoon.
Hard shower during the day.
Fine.
Hard shower in the afternoon.
Showers in the afternoon.
Fine.
Shower iu the afternoon.
Fine
61 General mean 62.
Maximum 72, minimum 52, range 20.
OF THE NfLAGim DISTRICT:
Ixxxi^
Register of Thermometer at Whotakay on the Neilgherry Mountains for
June 1822, hept hy J. Sullivan, Esq.
Date.
6 a.m.
9 a.m.
NooN.
3 P.M.
6 p.m.
Remarks.
1
54
60
62
64
57
2
53
57
58
59
55
The Bouth.west monsoon set in with
drizzling rain and high wind.
3
54
59
59
60
55
Do. do.
4-
54
58
56
56
54
Do. do.
5
54
58
59
58
56
Drizzling rain for a short time.
6
55
57
60
58
57
Do. do.
7
55
56
63
63
58
Very fine.
8
55
60
64
63
59
Do.
9
55
60
63
66
60
Do.
10
56
60
65
64
59
Do.
11
55
60
62
64
58
Do.
12
54
60
64
60
56
Shower in the evening.
13
54
58
64
62
58
Slight showers at intervals.
14
55
58
61
62
58
Very fine.
15
55
64
58
Do.
16
53
58
64
62
58
Do.
17
53
62
64
59
Do.
18
54
59
63
60
57
Rain at intervals during the day.
Average
54
58
61
61
58
Mean 58.
19
52
57
55
54
52
Rain and high wind.
20
51
54
60
55
53
Showers at intervals.
21
53
62
65
58
58
Drizzling rain at intervals.
22
53
56
62
60
54
Fine.
23
53
60
64
55
52
Occasional showers.
24
51
61
70
71
58
Fine.
25
50
68
60
58
Showers during the day.
26
48
64
71
64
58
Do.
27
50
60
68
60
56
Do.
28
52
59
68
70
54
Showers in the evening.
29
52
59
74
57
64
Fine.
30
51
56
65
66
54
Do.
Averag
51
60
65
60
55
Mean 59.
Ixxxii
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
Register of TJiPrmometer at Whotakay on the Neilgherry Mountains
for July 1822, kept by J. Sullivan, Esq.
1
0 -ki
y
9 ^
05 "^
■2S
31
o -2
.2 a
a u
is
Remarks.
1
57
54
67
60
62
62
60
61
57
53
Fine.
2
55
53
58
55
61
58
59
58
56
54
Occasional slight showers.
3
55
53
55
54
57
56
57
56
55
54
Do. do.
4
55
53
56
53
58
58
57
61
56
54
Do. with high wind.
5
56
53
54
52
56
56
57
56
56
54
Do.
6
54
51
56
58
58
58
58
60
56
54
Fine.
7
55
52
57
56
57
57
59
59
57
54
Slight showers at intervals.
8
56
52
57
54
58
57
58
60
55
52
Hard showers & high wind.
9
55
52
57
55
58
58
58
56
67
54
Do. do.
10
55
52
58
55
58
62
59
58
55
52
Slight showers at intervals.
11
55
52
59
60
59
64
60
64
56
Fine.
12
57
54
58
58
58
58
59
62
58
57
Slight showers at intervals.
13
57
54
64
61
64
72
62
58
58
56
Hard shower in the after-
noon.
14
58
54
61
66
62
60
60
61
58
56
Slight do. do.
15
57
54
55
53
58
55
57
54
57
53
Rain for the greater part
of the day.
16
55
51
57
54
58
59
57
54
55
52
Drizzling rain and wind.
17
55
51
57
54
58
59
57
54
54
51
Do. at intervals.
18
55
53
59
56
58
58
58
59
55
55
Hard shower in the
evening.
19
56
54
59
55
57
55
57
56
56
64
Drizzling rain.
20
57
56
57
61
60
60
57
54
Occasional slight showers.
21
55
52
56
59
62
68
64
64
58
54
Very fine.
22
57
54
60
74
65
68
63
70
60
57
Very fine in the morning ;
slight shower evening.
23
56
52
58
62
64
69
64
70
60
58
Very fine in the morning.
24
57
54
59
57
62
65
58
56
Fine ; slight shower in the
evening.
25
58
54
60
64
61
65
62
62
58
56
Rain in the evening.
26
56
50
58
60
62
70
62
62
60
55
Hard shower in the even-
ing.
27
55
53
60
60
59
59
56
Do. in the evening.
28
57
52
60
62
61
59
61
61
60
58
Hard rain.
29
56
52
58
66
63
66
62
64
60
60
Fine.
30
56
51
61
64
58
56
60
60
60
56
Hard shower in the morn-
31
53
48
61
68
64
65
61
64
59
56
ing.
Fine.
Average
56
52
58
59
60
60
69
60
57
54
General average 57.
Maximnm in the shade
Minimum do.
Maximnm in the sun ... 72
Minimum in the open air 48
OP THE NtLAQIRI DISTRICT.
Ixxxiii
^
fejr-^
§§
^ §
S S
IS
li
Kl
1
ID
Xi
i
i
1
1,
Oi Cp rH XO qi M t^OrHNt^lN OS 00
CO Ol l> 05 t^ ti-*COira»OiX)T}<00 U3
,-1 lo rH in 00 00 oOQOQOcococo i> eo
1
Shavanumputty Hill
Rungasawmy Peak
Villachy Curdd
Rungasawmy Peak
Dodabetta
Do
Mdrkdrty Peak
Koonda Peak
Kudiakad
Davarbetta
Do
Do
Koondamoga
Koonda Hill
o
1
"^ CO 00 rH CO ^ooooooo" o
g g ^ g £; ^ J28^*^§ ^ g
Tjl eo rH eo (N (N (M(NrHt*(Mt» O O
o> N CO IN t^ 00 eot»o»o»oo o o
^ S ^ S S S "^S^S^S ^ ^
us rH CD W) 00 «5 eOINrHi>eOQ "-I CO
(M IN rH rH rH r-> ^ ,^ ^55 rH
III
0 14 10 D.
0 3 15 D.
1 43 20 E.
1 58 00 D.
0 4 30 E.
0 8 00 D.
2 30 10 E.
2 39 30 D.
3 22 30 E.
3 35 30 D.
1 38 30 E.
1 48 30 D.
0 18 00 D.
0 21 00 D.
0 14 30 D.
2 48 00 D.
0 25 30 E.
3 50 00 E.
1 24 30 E.
1 35 00 D.
0 58 30 E.
1 4 00 D.
1
o
m
a
1
OQ
Kallagamalli
Shavanumputty
Rungasawmy Peak
Shavanumputty
Villachy Curdd
Shavanumputty
Rungasawmy Peak
Villachy Curdd
Dodabetta
Villachy Curdd
Dodabetta
Rungasawmy Peak
Mdrkdrty Peak
Koonda Peak
Kudiakadbet
Davarbetta
Do
Do
Kooudamoga
Rungasawmy Peak
Koonda Hill
Rungasawmy Peak
^
1
^
w
Shavanumputty
Kallagamalli ...
Shavanumputty
Rungasawmy Peak
Thavanumpatty
Villachy Curdd
Do.
Rungasawmy Peak ,
Villachy Cui-dd
Dodabetta
Rungasawmy Peak ,,.
Dodabetta
Do
Do
Do
Do
Rungasawmy Peak
Villachy Curdd
Rungasawmy Peak
Koondamoga
Rungasawmy Peak ...
Koonda Hill
Ixxxiv
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
^;
1^
fc3,
1^
I::
I «
8 tj
■|.i
so ^
^■| i
111
•-=■ »*^ "*^
^
s
1
-t5
6815-7
7267-5
8380
8488-2
69150
65068
5123-7
5113-1
14639
8901-4
1066-0
5404-0
1223-4
6627-4
8752-9
M
Kodanid
Kokulbetta
Davursolay ...
Bevoybetta ...
Oorbetta
Dimhutty Bungalow
Kooreddy Peak
Do.
Coimbatore Palace
lyasawmy Peak
Danaikoncottah
AUattoor Hill Fort
ned by Colonel Lambton ...
a" ^
1
0 37 OJ
0 38 0
0 45 0
0 45 0
7 42 Ok
2 30 9i
1 14 6}
3 00 0
11 height determ
o
■U
6^
W
O OOOOOOO O 00 N CO fc,
VO »C (M rH N O t> tN, to CO rj* Oi"^
CO
J?
III
0 26 00 E.
0 20 00 D.
2 38 0 D.
1 24 30 D.
1 34 00 D.
1 15 00 D.
12 12 00 D.
4 28 57 E.
4 6 30 E.
0 16 00 D.
0 12 30 E.
1 31 10 E.
1 39 30 D.
9 9 30 D.
9 6 00 E.
2 42 15 D.
OO
Stafciona observed.
'• ••
1?
Kodanaid
Koonda Hill
Kokulbetta
Tantaurbetta
Bevoybetta
Koonda Hill
Dimhutty Bungalow
Kooreddy Peak
Do
Coimbatore Palace
Shavanumputty
lyasawmy Peak
Shavanumputty
Danaikoncottah
Rungasawmy Peak
AUattoor Hill
"c3
m
a
TO
Koonda Hill
Kodandd
Dodabetta
Do
Do
Oorbetta
Do.
Sh-avanumputty
Villachy Curdii
Shavanumputty
Coimbatore Palace
Shavanumputty
lyasawmy Peak
Rungasawmy Peak
Diiuaikencottah
Porriakunjee
Jl
ia
g
g
■jj
cs
a
^
cl
k:)
1
_«0
-ts
s
m
cS
•n
^
§
>>
-*^
g
0)
3q
hJ
^~
Q
.^
«
.2
<
^
^
m
m
OO
3^
OP THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT. IxxXV
The following bearings and distances may be requisite if the
calculations are to be revised ; they will properly appear in the series
of triangles which will accompany the Coimbatore Survey.
Kallagannully to Shavanumputty ... 79 N, 10 W. 155,763 feet.
Shavanumpnttj to Villachy Cui-dii ...
Allattoor Hill to Perriakunjee
Perriakunjee to Dodabetta
Villachy Curdu to Dodabetta
Shavanumputty to Rungasawmy Peak.
(Signed) B. S. WARD.
12 N, 13 W.
40,289 „
22 N, 44 E.
119,517 „
9 N, 26 E.
173,954 „
50 N, 47 W
114,814 „
8 N, 14 W.
132,991 „
Ixxxvi
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
or THE NiLAGTRI DISTRICT.
Ixxxvii
il
CQ
CQ
IP
ES. A. P.
33 1 3
Cost per
Head of
Popula-
tion.
a: 00
II
to
i
o
1
O i-H (M
s 2- 2- S-
CO
00
00
o; 2 '^
< . r-t IN
03 " ' '22
?o
00
i o
(x o o o
4 ® o o
^ i -^ ^ 1 1
o
o
W o
in''''''''
o
o
1
i
^ <=> o o
o o o
<
o
o
00
hi
n ® fi
1
1
- i ; « ^
^
g1
^•2
- : ; ^ ^
^
a
= : ' ' i 1
-5 ^ "£ tn
1 § ^ ^ 1
1 1 1 1 1
Ixxxviii
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
g
•p3J3AOO»a;
: : : =° I ^
•-JBOri
: : i '^ i i
m
•pa^joiAuoo
O T-4 . '^ ^
•pa-jseajv
S - : « S S
•pa-joa^aa
(M ,-1 _ (M 05
•pa^jodaa
« -^ ; ^ "* «
i
1
•p9J9AO00a
: 2 : 2 iS
••^soT
i ; ^ : ^ i
CD
a
•pepiAnoo
U5 _ Cfl CD
•p9?S8.UV
t„ (M t^
i
•p9q09qO(I
rH (M U5
•pa^jodaa
*« _ N 00
i
g
5
Murder
Culpable homicide
Dacoity
Highway robbery
Robbery
House-breaking
OP THE NILAQIRI DISTRICT.
Ixxxix
No. 23. — Oomparative Statement showing the Remit of Police Operations in
regard to each Great Class of Crime tisually dealt tvith bij the Police in
the Nilagiri District during the Year 1875-76.
Cognizable
Persons arrested without Warrant.
Cases
Acquitted
reported.
Number of
Released
including
Persons
without
released on
arrested.
Trial.
Appeal or at
Sessions.
i
Class of Crime.
.-a
t-g
a,
b-g
•■2
&I
^
t"S
Ti
a
c6 U
ft.
c« u
a,
&<
5 ^
<
la
<i
|a
<
<
il
"o
J
3
-H
1-5
rH
S
^
i^
a ^
sS
a"s
S t^
a i-
g{2
"b"s
O O 00 O 00
O O 00
0 00
0 oQO
0 00
0 0 00
^ rH
t; ^ r-l U rH
^ .is .-1
'_ rH --I -w f-l
■^ r-l
U -tJ r-<
^A
1^
^ &(
Eq
fe |Em
P^
^
1
Offences relating to the
Army and Navy.
...
...
...
2
Offences against public
justice.
3
Offences relating to coin
and stamps.
1
1
^
1
...
1
for sake of
2
21
...
11
5)
motives.
6
Culpable homicide
1
...
1
...
7
Suicide
...
8
Other serious offences
against the person
not connected with
attacks on property.
4
2
"ii
'"2
""'3
'"2
"l
9
Public and local nui-
sances.
7
1
10
9
10
Offences against pro-
perty accompanied
with personal violence
or preparation for
hurt.
6
20
20
11
Theft by house-break.
21
2
18
3
7
2
1
...
12
ing.
Theft
178
36
271
51
69
8
33
4
13
Receiving stolen pro-
perty.
9
2
16
2
5
3
...
14
Mischief of a serious
character.
3
...
2
...
2
...
15
Belonging to a gang of
dacoits, robbers, and
thieves.
*"
16
Vagrancy and bad
character.
...
17
Breaches of special laws
cognizable by Police.
903
220
956
251
154
71
61
30
18
Minor offences not cog.
nizable by Police but
prosecuted by inform-
ation before Magis-
trate.
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 23. — Comparative Statement showing the Bestdt of Police Operations in
regard to each Ch-eat Class of Grime usually dealt with by the Police in the
Nilagiri District during the Year 1875-76— (Continued).
Persons arrested without Warrant—
Cases prosecuted
by information
(^Continued).
before Magis-
trate.
Ordered
to find
Security.
Finally
convicted.
Average
Number of
Days occupied
in each Case.
Number of
Informations
lodged.
Class of Crime.
i
n
&"g
'C
b-S
r^
t-§
'n
&"§
'O
□n
c« ^
p.
o3 h
p.
eS jj
PL,
rt h
i
<
1^
<
1^
<
|l
<j
la
^
■b3
-w
-n
i
3
-* CO .
a S
9 t^
a"g
222
0 00
252
|2
&--
|S
1^2
1
Offences relating to the
Army and Navy.
...
...
...
2
Offences against public
justice.
...
...
1
1
3
Offences relating to coin
and stamps.
...
1
1
...
*)
^for sake of
...
10
".'..
5)
K motives.
6
Culpable homicide
1
...
...
...
7
Buicide
...
...
...
8
Other serious offences
against the person not
connected with at-
tacks on property.
7
9
Public and local nui-
sances.
10
9
3
10
Offences against pro-
perty accompanied
with personal violence
or preparation for
hurt.
11
Theft by house-break,
ing.
...
10
1
...
12
Theft
169
39
13
Receiving stolen pro-
perty.
...
8
2
...
14
Mischief of a serious
character.
...
...
15
Belonging to a gang of
dacoits, robbers, and
thieves.
...
16
Vagrancy and bad
character.
...
...
...
...
17
Breaches of special laws
cognizable by Police.
741
150
...
18
Minor offences not cog-
nizable by Police but
prosecuted by inform,
ation before Magis-
trate.
OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT.
No. 23. — Co7nparative Siatoment slioimig the Result of Police Operations in regard
to each Great Class of Crime usaalhj dealt ivith by the Police in the
Nilagiri District during the Year 1875-76— (Continued).
Cases prosecuted by information before 1
Magistrate— (C'o)i(uiued).
Number of
Persons
arrested.
Number
acquitted.
Number
oi-dered to
find Security.
Number
convicted.
6b
a
1
Class of Crime.
<
is
t
<
«5
11
a.
<
11
o
^
-1
tS
"m to
CD
■g "
CQ
.-1
s|
1
B^
Tr:
B^
a^^
sg
'^"^•
0 00
2323
I2
S52
p og 1
S£S
gs
2 52
;z;
fa""
PR
fe
fe
£ '
^
^
&-I
1
Offences relating to the
Army and Navy.
...
2
Offences against public
justice.
1
1
1
...
1
...
3
Offences relating to coin
and stamps.
...
...
■|
/ for sake of
-, , 1 robbery.
J^"^^'^ from other
...
...
5)
' motives.
6
Culpable homicide
...
...
7
Suicide
...
...
8
Other serious offences
against the person
not connected with
attacks on property.
9
Public and local nui-
sances.
6
••
...
6
10
Offences against pro-
perty accompanied
with personal violence
or preparation for
hurt.
11
Theft by house-break-
ing.
...
...
12
Theft
...
...
...
13
Receiving stolen pro-
perty.
14
Mischief of a serious
character.
...
...
15
Belonging to a gang of
dacoits, robbers, and
thieves.
...
...
16
Vagrancy and bad
character.
...
...
17
Breaclies of special laws
cognizable by Police.
...
18
Minor offences not cog-
nizable by Police but
prosecuted by inform-
ation before Magis-
trate.
1
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 24. — Comparative Sfaiemenf. sliowing the Result of Police Operations in
regard to each Great Class of Grime usually dealt with by the Police in the
Nilagiri District dttring the Year 1870-71.
Cognizable
Persons arrested without Warrant.
Cases
Acquitted
reported.
Number of
Released
including
Persons
without
released on
arrested.
trial.
Appeal or at
Sessions.
Class of Crime.
bb
i
0
1
2
d
s
1
3
'5
t
t
i!
r-l
IS
=£
•<
-*3 <S
■^
:i
<
Z P
<
S
.3
^S
"S
Is
"S
Is
"S
,3|
g
a
^1
s
a:H
a
S^
a
a «
g
s«
g
2S
g
g«
0
2m
J^
^
^
^
^
6-1
Ee,
£
fe
1
Offences relating to
Army and Navy.
2
OflFences against public
justice.
4
4
,..
...
...
3
Offences relating to coin
and stamps.
1
1
...
4 ,
/ for sake of
,- , S robbery.
Murder ^^.^^ ^^^^^
5)
\ motives.
6
Culpable homicide ...
...
7
Siiicide
1
8
Other serious offences
against the person not
connected with attacks
on property.
9
"1
"'22
"1
"e
1
9
Public and local nui-
sances.
7
9
...
...
10
Offences against pro-
party accompanied
with personal violence
...
11
Theft by house-break-
15
3
16
1
11
12
ing.
Theft
123
29
182
52
11
30
13
Receiving stolen pro-
perty.
11
2
11
3
...
4
2
14
Mischief of a serious
character.
1
15
Belonging to a gang of
dacoits, robbers, and
thieves.
...
...
16
Vagrancy and bad
ch.'tracters.
17
Breaches of special laws
cognizable by Police.
354
15
480
20
18
2
18
Minor offences not cog-
nizable by Police but
prosecuted by infor.
mation before Magis-
trate.
67
69
40
OP THE NiLAami DISTRICT.
No. 24. — Comfaraiivf: Statement sJiowivg the Restdt of Police Operations in
regard to each Great Class of Crime usually dealt vnth by the Police in the
Nilagiri District during the Year 1870-71. — (Continued^.
Class of Crime.
Persons arrested without Warrant
— {Continued).
Ordered
to find
Security.
^^
Finally
convicted.
Average
Number of
Days occupied
in each Case.
?B
Cases prosecuted
by information
before Magis-
trate.
Nnmber of
InformationB
lodged.
^S
Offences relating to
Army and Xavy.
Offences against public
justice.
Offences relating to coin
and stamps.
for sake of
robbery,
from other
motives.
Culpable homicide
Suicide
Other serious offences
against the person not
connected with attacks
on property.
Public and local nni-
Murder.
Offences against pro-
perty accompanied
with personal violence,
Theft by house-break-
ing.
Theft
Receiving stolen pro.
perty.
Mischief of a serious
character.
Belonging to a gang of
dacoits, robbers and
thieves.
Vagrancy and bad
characters.
Breaches of special laws
cognizable by Police.
Minor offences not cog-
nizable by Police but
prosecuted by inform-
ation before Magis-
trate.
16
171
7
462
29
XCIV
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
No. 24. — Comimrattve Statement aliow'mg the Result of Police Operations in
regard to each Great Class of Crime iisnalh/ dealt toith by the Police in the
Nilayiri District during the Year 1870-71 — (Continued).
Cases
prosecuted by
information before
Magistrate—
-{Continued).
Number of
Number
Number
ordered
Number
arre'stfifl .
acquitted.
to find
convicted.
Security.
Class of Crime.
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4\
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7 , Suicide
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against the person not
connected with attacks
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9
Public and local nui-
Bances.
...
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10
Offences against pro-
perty accompanied
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Theft by house-break-
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in<?.
Theft
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•••
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Mischief of a serious
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15
Belonging to a gang of
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thieves.
...
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16
Vagrancy and bad
character.
...
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17
Breaches of special laws
cognizable by Police.
...
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18
Minor offences not cog-
nizable by Police but
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ation before Magis-
trate.
OP THE NiLAOJIRI DISTRICT-
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OF THE NTLAGIRI DISTRICT.
No. 2/'. — Bides for the sale of Waste Lands o)i the Neilgherry Hills, passed
by the Hon'Jjle the Governor in Council on the 6th March 1863, and
numhered 478.4.
I. Waste lands in wliich no rights of private proprietorship or
* T? YVTTT exclusive occupancy exist, and which may not
be reserved as hereinafter* provided, may,
until further notice, be sold under the following rules : —
II. Applications for land under these rules shall be addressed to
the Collector of the Coimbatore District, and shall comprise the
following particulars : —
(a.) The estimated area of the land applied for.
(b.) The situation of the land and its boundaries, as accurately as
can be stated.
III. No lot shall exceed 500 acres, unless otherwise specially ordered
by Government. Within towns and villages the maximum extent of
a lot shall be ten acres. But any person may apply for several
contiguous lots, each not exceeding the above limits.
IV. Every lot shall be compact, and as nearly as possible a paral-
lelogram. When the land touches any road, or river, the length of
the road or water frontage shall not exceed one-half of the depth of
the lot, and in all other cases the blocks will be so laid out that, as
far as practicable, their length shall not exceed half their depth.
V. No lot shall be sold until it has been surveyed, and durable
boundary marks have been erected.
VI. If, on receipt of an application under Rule II, the Collector has
reason to believe that the land applied for is saleable under these rules,
he shall call upon the applicant to deposit with him the estimated
cost of surveying the land and of marking it out with dui-able boundary
marks, unless the land is already surveyed and demarcated. The
Collector will refund to th e depositor any portion of his deposit which
may not be actually expended in the survey and demarcation, and the
depositor shall pay any deficiency.
VII. If the applicant fails to deposit the sum required under Rule
VI within six weeks from the date of demand, his application shall be
null and void.
VIII. On receipt of the deposit required under Rule VI, the
Collector shall, as soon as possible, cause the land applied for to be
surveyed and marked out, and shall exclude from the lot all excess which
may be found on survey beyond the limits prescribed in Rule III, and
shall advertise the lot for sale on a given day, to be fixed so as to admit
of the notice required in Rule IX being given.
IX. The advertisement shall be in English and Tamil, and shall
specify the locality, extent, and boundaries of the lot, the aggregate
N
xcviii APPEyDix to the manual
annual assessment, and the place, time, and conditions of sale. It shall
be posted for three clear months on the land itself, as well as in the
neighbouring villages, in the offices of the Collector and the Tahsildar
of the taluk, and the nearest police office. A notification of the
intended sale shall also be inserted in the District Gazette. The Collector
shall at his discretion fi.x the time and place of sale, and may alter both
if necessary, provided that not less than fourteen days' notice be
publicly given of every such alteration, and that no land be sold until
it has been advertised, as aforesaid, for three full months.
X. The Collector shall send written notice of the place and time
of sale, as also of any alteration, tinder the provisions of Rule IX,
to the applicant ; but no sale shall be disturbed in consequence of
the non-receipt of such notice, or delayed in consequence of the
non-appearance of the applicant.
XI. On receipt of applications for lands under these rules, the
Collector will hold a preliminary inquiry, and if he sees reason to believe
that claims will be put forward for the lands applied for, he will duly
warn the applicant that the survey will be undertaken only at his
request and at his risk. Should the applicant prefer that the survey
should be proceeded with on these terms, the same will be done, and if
after the survey it should prove that the lands are not saleable under
these rules, the applicant must pay the expense of surveying them,
as well as of surveying any excess beyond the limits prescribed in
Rule III. If no such warning be given, and the laud should even-
tually prove not to be saleable, then the survey will be at the expense
of Government. An applicant withdrawing his application prior to
the sale of the land will be entitled to the refund of so much only
of his deposit under Rule VI as may not be expended.
XII. On the withdrawal of an application, it shall be discretional
with the Collector to proceed with the sale of the laud or not, as he
considers best for the public interests.
XIII. The upset price shall in all cases be merely the cost of the
survey and of the erection of durable boundary marks. If the original
applicant be the purchaser, he shall receive credit for his deposit or
payment ; otherwise the amount shall be repaid to him at once from
the sale proceeds.
XIV. If, before the time of sale, no claim of private proprietorship,
or of exclusive occupancy, or of any other right incompatible with the
sale of the land under these rules, be preferred to the land, the lot
shall, as advertised, be put up to auction, and sold to the highest
bidder above the upset price, subject to an annual assessment, payable
on or before the 30th June of each and every year, of one rupee for
each acre of land contained in the lot.
XV. The successful bidder shall, immediately on the sale being
declared, pay down 10 per cent- of the price. The residue of the pui-chase-
money may, at the option of the purchaser, be paid in full within
thirty days, or in three yearly instalments of equal amount, bearing
interest from the day of sale at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum. In
OF THE NTLAGTRI DISTRICT. XClX
the former case, on payment of the residue of the purchase-money,
a deed, in the Form X annexed to these rules, shall be famished to the
purchaser and possession given. In the latter case the land will
remain hypothecated to Government as security for the punctual
discharge of the unpaid principal and interest as they fall due, and on
default of any such payment the Government may re-enter and
repossess themselves of the land, or, at their option, the land may be
resold at the expense and risk of the defaulter. When the purchaser
elects to pay the purchase-money by instalments, he shall not receive
possession until he has duly executed the deed marked Y annexed to
these rules. When the conditions of Deed Y have been duly fulfilled,
a deed in the Form X will be issued in lieu of it.
XVI. The sale shall be conducted under and subject to the following
conditions of sale : —
(1.) — "That the highest bidder above the upset price shall be the
purchaser of the premises ; and if any dispute arise between two or
more bidders at the same price, the premises shall be immediately put
up again at the last preceding undisputed bidding and resold.
(2.) — " That immediately after the lot is knocked down, the purchaser
thereof shall pay to the Collector a deposit of Rupees 10 per centum
in part of his purchase-money, and intimate to the Collector whether
he elects to pay the residue within thirty days, or by three yearly
instalments, as provided by the rules passed by the Hon'ble the
Governor in Council, under date the 6th day of March 1863, 'No. 478A,
and shall at the same time sign an acknowledgment in one of the
Forms U or V* (as the case may require) annexed to the said rules.
(3.)_That if the purchaser shall elect to pay the residue of his
purchase-money within thirty days, he shall within thirty days from
the day of sale pay to the said Collector the residue of his purchase-
money, and shall thereupon receive a conveyance of the premises in
the form marked X annexed to the said rules.
(4.) — " That if the purchaser shall elect to pay the residue of his
purchase-money by three yearly instalments, he shall within ten days
from the day of sale execute a deed in the form marked Y annexed to
the said rules.
(5.) — " That all persons desirous of becoming purchasers are to
satisfy themselves as to the identity and correct description of the
property, and the measurement and boundaries of the premises, previous
to the sale ; as by having the premises knocked down to him, the
purchaser thereof shall be held to have waived all objections to any
mistakes that may afterwards appear to have been made in the
description of the premises, as well as to any other error whatever in
the particulars of the property.
(6.) — " That if the purchaser elects to pay within thirty days, and
if, from any cause whatever, the purchase shall not be completed by
the thirtieth day from the day of sale, or if the purchaser shall elect
to pay by instalments, and shall neglect for ten days from the day of
* These forms have been omitted in rbiR Appendix.
C APPEXDTX TO THE MANUAL
sale to execute a deed in the form marked Y annexed to the said rules,
then the purchaser shall pay to the Collector interest at the rate of
Rupees 12 per cent, per annum on the remainder of his purchase-money
from the day of sale until the purchase shall be completed in the one
case, or until a deed in the form Y be executed in the other cases
without prejudice, nevertheless, to the right of resale reserved by the
seventh condition.
(7.) — " That if the purchaser shall neglect or refuse to comply with
the above conditions, or any of them, his deposit money shall be
forfeited and retained by Government, and the Government shall be at
liberty to resell the premises either by public auction or private
contract without the necessity of previously tendering a conveyance
to the purchaser ; and the deficiency, if any, arising from such resale,
together with all expenses attending it, shall be made good by the
purchaser at the present sale, who shall so neglect or refuse, as and for
hquidated damages."
XVII. If, before the time of sale, a claim of private proprietorship,
or of exclusive occupancy, or of any other right incompatible with the
sale of the laud under these rules, shall be preferred to the land or any
part of it, the Collector shall postpone the sale of the land until
such claim shall be disposed of in due course of law.
XVIII. Reserves of grazing and forest land, of land for the growth
of firewood, for building sites, parks, recreation grounds, and the like,
and of land required for other special purposes, are not to be sold
under these rules without the express sanction of the Government.
A registt* of such reserves will be maintained in the Collector's office,
and will be open to inspection by intending applicants at such times
and under such rules as the Collector may prescribe by notification in
the District Gazette.
XIX. The annual assessment on lands sold under these rules may
at any time be redeemed by the owner by payment of a sum equal to
twenty-five times the said annual assessment-, and the lands so redeemed
shall thereafter be for ever free from all demand on the part of the
State on account of land-revenue. On payment of the redemption
money the owner of the land shall be furnished with a deed in the
form Z annexed to these rules,
XX. Arrears of annual assessment shall be recoverable in the same
manner as arrears of ryotwary land-revenue are or may be recoverable
by law for the time being in force in the Madras Presidency.
XXI. Lands sold or redeemed under these rules shall, nevertheless,
continue subject to all general taxes and local rates payable by law or
custom.
XXII. The existing and customary rights of Government, of other
proprietors and of the public, in existing roads and paths, and in streams
running through or bounding lands sold under these rules, are reserved,
and in no way affected by the sale of such lands under these rules.
XXIII. Nothing contained in these rules shall be held to debar the
Government from granting waste laud on putt a, cowle, or otherwise
at their discretion as heretofore.
OF THE NiLAGIRl DiST?.l'CT. CI
X.
No.
This Indenture made the ((f) day of one thousand eight
hundred and sixty (a) between the Right Hon'ble the Secretai-y
of State for India in Council of the one part and (^-B.)
of in the district of (h) of the other
part : whereas under the rules for the sale of waste land passed by the
Hon'ble the Governor of Fort Si. George in Council on the sixth day
of March one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three and numbered
478A the Collector of Coimbatore did on the (a)
day of one thousand eight hundred and sixty (a)
offer for sale by public auction the land described in the schedule
here-under written subject to annual assessment in perpetuity on the
said land of Rupees (a) and whereas at such sale the said (A.B.)
offered the sum of Rupees (a) for such land subject to such
assessment and being the highest bidder was declared to be the
purchaser thereof according to the terms and conditions in such rules
contained : and whereas previously to the execution of these presents
the said (A.B.) has paid into the treasury of the said
Collector to the credit of Her Majesty's Government of India the full
sum of Rupees (a) Now this Indenture witnesseth that
in consideration of the said sum of Rupees (a)
so paid by the said (A-B.) (the receipt
■whereof is hereby acknowledged), the said Secretary of State in Council
doth sell alien and convey unto the said (A.B.)
the piece or parcel of land containing British statute
acres («) situated on the Shervaroy Hills
in the collectorate of Salem bounded as mentioned in the schediile
hereunder written and delineated in the map or plan hereunto annexed
together with all erections and buildings (if any) thereon erected and
built and all products both above and below the surface ways paths
passages waters water-courses wells fences ditches easements profits
rights members and appurtenances whatsoever to the said land and
premises and every or any part thereof belonging or appertaining except
and always reserved out of these presents all existing and customary
rights of Govei*nment and of proprietors of lands adjoining or lying
near to the land and premises hereby conveyed in all existing roads
and paths and in streams of water running through or bounding
the land and premises hereby conveyed to hold the said land and
premises hereby conveyed with the appurtenances to the said
(A.B.) his heirs personal
representatives and assigns for ever subject nevertheless to the pay-
ment by the said (A.B.) his heirs personal
representatives and assigns to the said Secretary of State in Council
his successors or assigns yearly and every year for ever hereafter of the
clear sum of Rupees (a) on or before the thirtieth day of June
in each year and likewise subject to the payment by the said
(A.B.) his heirs personal repi'esentatives and assigns of
all general taxes and local lates now existing or which at any time
Gl'l' APPE^rriTX TO THE MANUAL
hereafter may be imposed by law as also to the covenants and condi-
tions hereinafter contained and the said (A.B.) for himself
his heirs personal representatives and assigns doth hereby covenant
with the Secretary of State in Council his successors and assigns in
manner following (that is to say) that he the said (A.B.)
his heirs personal representatives and assigns will yearly and every
year for ever hereafter pay on or before the thirtieth day of June in
each year the said sum of Rupees (a)
AND LIKEWISE will at his and their own costs and charges forthwith
erect and at all times hereafter maintain and keep in good repair
permanent boundary marks round the land and premises hereby-
conveyed AND FURTHER that in case he the said (A.B.)
his heirs personal representatives or assigns shall make
default in payment of the said annual assessment of Rupees (a)
or any part thereof as and when the same shall become payable under
the covenant hereinbefore contained then and in such case and so often
as the same shall happen the said assessment of Rupees (a)
and all arrears thereof shall and may be treated as arrears of ryotwary
land-revenue and may be recovered in the same manner as ryotwary
land-revenue is now or at any time hereafter may be recoverable
PROVIDED always and it is hereby declared and agreed by and between
the parties hereto that the said (A.B.) his heirs personal
representatives and assigns shall at any time be at liberty to redeem
such annual assessment by payment to the said Secretary of State in
Council his successors or assigns of the sum of Rupees (c)
of lawful money of British India and that immediately after such
payment the land and premises hereby conveyed shall be for ever fi-ee
from all demand for land-revenue. In witness whereof the Hon'ble
the Governor of Fort St. George in Council on behalf of the said
Secretary of State in Council hath hereunto affixed the seal of the said
Governor in Council and the said (A.B.)
hath set his hand and seal the day and year first above written.
T.
This Indenture made the (a) day of one
thousand eight hundred and sixty (a) between the Right
Hon'ble the Secretary of State for India in Council of the one part
and (A.B.) of in the district of
(&) of the other part : whereas under the Rules for the sale
of Waste Land passed by the Hon'ble the Governor of Fort St. George
in Council on the sixth day of March one thousand eight hundred and
sixty-three and numbered 478A the Collector of Coimbatore did on the
(a) day of one thousand eight hundred and sixty (a)
offer for sale by public auction the piece or parcel of land containing
British statute acres ('t) situated in the village
of in tlie taluk of in the
OF TIIK NILAGIRl DlSTKll'T. Clll
Colloctorate of Coimbatorc bounded as mentioned in the schedule
hereunder written and delineated in the map or plan hereunto annexed
SUBJECT to the payment by the said (A.B.)
his heirs personal representatives and assigns to the said Secretary of
State in Council his successors or assigns yearly and every year for
ever hereafter of the clear sum of Rupees (/) on
or before the thirtieth day of June in each year : and whereas at such
sale the said (A.B ) offered the sum of
Rupees (0 foi' such land subject to such
assessment and being the highest bidder was declared to be the
purchaser thereof according to the terms and conditions in such rules
contained : and whereas at the time of such sale the said (A.B.)
paid into the hands of the said Collector the sum of Rupees (a)
being the amount of deposit at the rate of Rupees 10
per cent, on the said purchase-money as required by the said rules
and under the provision contained in those rules has elected to pay
the balance of such purchase-money amounting to the sum of
Rupees (c) in three yeai-ly instalments
of Rupees (c?) each with interest on such balance or
on such part thereof as shall from time to time remain unliquidated
at the rate of Rupees 6 per cent, per annum.
Now THIS Indentqre WITNESSETH that in consideration of the said
sum of Rupees (^e) so paid to the said Collector as hereinbefore
mentioned (the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged) and of the
covenants on the part of the said (A.B.)
hereinafter contained the said Secretary of State in Council for himself
his successors and assigns doth hereby covenant with the said
(A.B.) his heirs personal representatives and
assigns that on payment by the said (A.B.)
his heirs personal representatives or assigns of the said sum of Rupees
(c) with interest thereon as herein
mentioned he the said Secretary of State in Council his successors or
assigns will convey unto the said (A.B.) his heirs
personal representatives and assigns for ever the said land and premises
together with all erections and buildings (if any) thereon erected and
built and all products both above and below the surface ways paths
passages waters water-courses wells fences ditches easements profits
rights members and appurtenances whatsoever to the said land and
premises and every or any part thereof belonging or appertaining
EXCEPTING nevertheless all existing and customary rights of Government
and of proprietors of lands adjoining or lying near to the said land and
premises purchased as aforesaid in all existing roads and paths and
streams of water running through or bounding the purchased land and
premises to be held by the .said (A.B.) his heirs
personal representatives and assigns subject to the payment of the said
yearly sum of Rupees (/) on the thirtieth day of June in
each year as hereinbefoi'e mentioned and likewise subject to all general
taxes and local rates now existing or which at any time hereafter may
be imposed by law and to the observance of the several conditions in
CIV APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
the said rules contained and the said (A.B.)
for himself his heirs personal representatives and assigns doth hereby
covenant with the said Secretary of State in Council his successors
and assigns in manner following (that is to say) that he the said
(A.B.) his heirs personal
representatives and assigns will yearly and every year for ever hereafter
pay on or before the thirtieth day of Jane in each year the said sum of
Eupees (/) AND LiKEWLSE will at his and their own
costs and charges forthwith erect and at all times hereafter maintain
and keep in good repair permanent boundary marks round the land and
premises so purchased and further that he the said
(A.B.) his heirs personal representatives and
assigns will on the (g) day of (g) which will
be in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty (g) pay or cause
to be paid to the said Secretary of State in Council his successors or
assigns the sum of Rupees {<!) of lawful money of
British India and on the {h) day of (h)
which will be in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty (/<)
a like sum of Rupees (d) and on the (/)
day of (0 which will be in the year one thousand eight
hundred and sixty (/) a like sum of Rupees (d)
of like lawful money and also will pay to the said Secretary
of State in Council his successors or assigns interest at the I'ate of
Rupees 6 per cent, per annum on the said balance of the said purchase-
money or sum of Rupees (c) or on such ^art thereof as shall from
time to time remain unpaid by two equal half-yearly payments on the
(j) day of (J) and the (A-) day of
(A-) in each year together with a proportionate part of like
interest until the said balance shall be fully paid or satisfied or until the
said Secretary of State in Council shall obtain possession of the said
la.nd and premises under the provisions hereinafter contained: and it is
hereby declared and agreed by and between the parties hereto that
until default shall be made by the said (A.B.)
his heirs personal representatives or assigns in payment of the said
annual assessment or sum of Rupees (/)
as and when the same shall become payable under the covenant
hereinbefore contained or in payment of the said instalments or any
of them or any part thereof respectively or of the said interest or any
part thereof it shall be lawful for the said (A.B.) his
heirs personal representatives and assigns peaceably and quietly to
occupy possess and enjoy the said land and premises so purchased and
receive and take the rents issues and profits thereof to and for his and
their own use and benefit : and the said (A.B.) for himself
his heii's personal representatives and assigns doth hereby further
covenant with the said Secretary of State in Council his successors and
assigns in manner following (that is to say) that in case be the said
(A.B.) his heirs personal represent-
atives and assigns shall make default in payment of the said instalments
or any or cither of them or any part thereof respectively or in payment
OV THE NrLAGIRI DISTRICT. CV
of tbe interest hereinbefore covenanted to be paid or any part thereof
as and when such instalments and interest shall respectively become due
THEN and in such case and within one month after demand of possession
shall have been made on him or them by or on behalf of the said
Secretary of State in Council his successors or assigns he the said
(A.B.) his heirs personal
representatives and assigns will deliver to any person authorized by an
order passed by the Governor of Fort St. George for the time being in
Council to receive the same the quiet and peaceable possession of the
said land and premises together with all erections and buildings which
now are or which at any time between the date of these presents and
such delivery of possession may be erected and built or standing on
the said land and all improvements made to the said land in the
meantime : and moreover that in the event of such default being made
by the said (A.B.) his
heirs personal representatives and assigns or in case of the breach or
non-performance of any of the covenants and arrangements herein
contained on the part of the said (A.B.)
his heirs personal representatives and assigns it shall be lawful for
the said Secretary of State in Council his successors or assigns at
any tine hereafter to resell the said premises either by public auction
or private contract and if on such resale the said premises should be
sold for a sum less than the said sum of Rupees (/) he
the said (A.B.) his heirs personal representatives and
assigns will pay to the said Secretary of State in Council his successors
or assigns the difference between the sum for which such premises shall
be re-sold and the said sum of Rupees (I)
or it shall be lawful for the said Secretary of State in Council his
successors or assigns at any time after such default or breach into
and upon the said land and premises or any part thereof in the name of
the whole to re-enter and the same to have again repossess and enjoy
as in his and their former estate any thing hereinbefore contained to the
contrary notwithstanding : AND FURTHER that in case he the said
(A.B.) his heirs personal representatives and assigns shall
make default in payment of the said annual assessment of Rupees
(/) or any part thereof as and when the same
shall become payable under the covenant hereinbefore contained then
and in such case and so often as the same shall happen the said assess-
ment of Rupees (/) and all arrears thereof
shall and may be treated as arrears of ryotwary land-revenue and may
be recovered in the same manner as ryotwary land -revenue is now or
at any time hereafter may be recoverable : peovided always and
it is hereby declared and agreed by and between the pai'ties hereto
that the said (A.B.) his heirs personal
representatives and assigns shall at any time be at liberty to redeem
such aunuul assessment by payment to the said Secretary of State in
Council his successors or assigns of the sum of Rupees (m)
of lawful money of British India and that immediately after such
payment the land and premises hereby conveyed shall be for ever free
0
Cvi APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
from all demand for land-revenue. In witness whereof the Hon'ble the
Governor of Fort St. George in Council on behalf of the said Secretary
of State in Council hath hereunto affixed the seal of the said Governor
in Council and the said (A.B.) hath set his hand and
seal the day and year first above written.
No.
This Indenture made the (a) day of one thousand
eight hundred and sixty (a) between the Right Hon'ble the
Secretary of State for India in Council of the one part and
(A.B.) of in the district of
(h) of the other part : whereas by an indenture dated the
(a.) day of one thousand eight hundred and sixty (a)
and made between the said Secretary of State of the one part
and the said (A.B.) of the other part the said Secre-
tary of State for the considerations therein mentioned did sell alien
and convey unto the said (A.B.) his heirs personal
representatives and assigns forever the piece or parcel of land contain-
ing British statute acres (a) situated in the village of
in the taluk of in the collectorate of
Coimbatore bounded as mentioned in the schedule thereunder written
and delineated in the map or plan thereunto annexed with the appurte-
nances subject to the payment by the said (A.B.) his
heirs personal representatives and assigns of the annual assessment or
sum of Rupees (a) and to the payment of all general taxes and
local rates then existing or which at any time thereafter might be
imposed by law as also to the several exceptions covenants and
conditions therein contained and in and by such reciting indenture it
was declared and agreed that the said (A.B.) his heirs personal
representatives and assigns should be at liberty to redeem such annual
assessment by payment to the said Secretary of State in Council his
successors or assigns of the sum of Rupees («) and that
immediately thereafter the said land and premises should be for ever
free from all demand for land-revenue : and whereas the said
(A.B.) under the said provision hath paid into the treasury
of the Collector of to the credit of Her Majesty's Government
of India the said sum of Rupees (a) and hath requested that the
said land may be declared to be for ever hereafter absolutely freed and
discharged from the payment of the said sum of Rupees (a)
and of all land-revenue payable thereon and that the said land may be
likewise declared to bo and continue as freehold. Now this Indenture
WITNESSETH that in pursuance of the said provision and in consideration
of the said sum of Rupees (a) so paid by the said (A.B.)
as hereinbefore mentioned (the receipt whereof is hereby
acknowledged) the said Secretary of State inCouncil doth remise release
or THE NiLAGIRI DISTRICT. Cvii
and for over quit claim unto the said (A.B.)
his heirs personal representatives and assigns the said annual assess-
meut or sum of Rupees (a) and fdrther doth declare that
the said land and premises may for ever be held as freehold fully and
absolutely enfranchised exonerated acquitted and discharged by these
presents from all demand on the part of Her Majesty for or on account
of quit-rent assessment land-tax or other land-revenue : provided
always and it is hereby declared and agreed by and between the parties
hereto that in all other respects the said land and premises shall be
subject to the several exceptions reservations covenants and conditions
in the hereinbefoi-e in part recited indenture contained. In witness
whereof the Hou'ble the Governor of Fort St. George in Council on
behalf of the said Secretary of State in Council hath hereunto affixed
the seal of the said Governor in Council and the said (A.B.)
hath set his hand and seal the day and year first above written.
No. 28. — Rules of the Ootacamand Lawrence Asylum-
1. The object of this Institution is to provide for the children of
Soldiers of the British Army, who are serving, or have served, within
the limits of the Presidency of Madras, a refuge both from the
debilitating efiects of a tropical climate and from the serious draw-
backs to the well-being of children incidental to a barrack Hfe ; to
afford them an education suitable to their condition in life, plain,
practical, and essentially Christian ; and, as far as practicable, to
train them to useful occupations.
2. The Asylum received its designation, the " Ootacamund Lawrence
Asylum," in honor of the memory of the late Sir Henry Lawrence, k.c.b.
In January 1860 it was transferred to the Government of Madras •
and, by an order of the Governor in Council, dated 2nd June 1862, it
received its present constitution.
3. The Asylum consists of two separate branches, the male and the
female, united under the general supervision and control of one head,
designated the Principal, who is responsible to a governing body
named the Committee of Management.
4. The Asylum is designed to provide accommodation for 300
children, viz., 200 boys and 100 girls, to -which numbers it is at present
limited.
6. The Institution depends for its support partly on a grant from
Govei^nment and partly on voluntary contributions. The Government
grant is calculated to provide for the salaries of the Principal and hia
stafi" and for the maintenance of 150 boys and 80 girls ; all beyond
those numbers will be maintained ])y the public.
6. No child will be admitted under five or above twelve years of age,
except in special cases to be decided by the Committee.
APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
7. Cliildren entitled to the benefits of the Institution are classified
as follows : —
Class I. — Children of pure European parentage who have lost
both parents.
Class II. — Children of "European fathers and East Indian or
Native Christian mothers who have lost both parents, and
children of pure European parentage who have lost only one.
Class III,— Children of European fathers and East Indian or
Native Christian mothers who have lost one parent, and
children of pure European parentage who have both parents
living.
Class IV. — All other children of soldiers of the British Army not
provided for in the preceding classes.
The order of precedence in the admission of candidates will be
regulated in accordance with this classification.
8. Four years' annual subscription of Rupees 50, or a donation of
Rupees 300, shall confer the title to nomina,te one child for each such
subscription or donation ; and, in like proportion, for higher amounts ;
and these nominees will take precedence in admission of the other
candidates in the several classes to which they belong.
9. The children of Soldiers of the ranks of Private and Corporal, who
ai'e only drawing the pay of those ranks, will be admitted free of
charge. Children having living fathers above the rank of Corporal
will be charged according to the following scale, except under
extraordinary circumstances, when the power of exemption from, or
reduction of, payment shall be exercised by the Committee : —
1st Child.
2nd Child.
3rd Child.
RS. A. P.
RS. A. P.
ES. A. p.
Serjeant
3 0 0
2 0 0
Nil.
Serjeant-Majors
4 0 0
2 8 0
10 0
Soldiers retired or on Staff employ, if
drawing Rupees 60, but less than
Rupees 80, per mensem
5 0 0
3 0 0
2 0 0
Do. do. Rs. 80 do. Rs. 120.
9 0 0
6 0 0
4 0 0
Do. do. „ 120 do. „ 150.
12 0 0
9 0 0
6 0 0
Memorandum. — In addition to the Govei'nment allowance (if any) of Rupees
2-8-0 per mensem.
10. In all cases where private Soldiers, Non- Commissioned Officers,
hold appointments by which their income is increased, they shall pay
the rate of that rank, the allowances of which most nearly approxi-
mate to their actual income from all sources.
11. From pensioned Soldiers whose incomes do not exceed the pay
of a Private or Corporal no payment shall be demanded. Other
Pensioners will be required to pay according to the foregoing rule.
12. Applications for the admission of children must be made
through the Officers Commandirg Regiments or the heads of depart-
OF THE NiLAGIEI DISTRICT. CIX
ments to which, the parents or guardians are attached ; in the case of
Pensioners, through their Paymasters or employers ; and of nomina-
tions, through the Donor or Subscriber nominating. Such applications
must be addressed to the Secretary, who will furnish printed forms
of application and a descriptive roll to be filled up by the applicant.
The baptismal certificate of the candidate will also be required with
the last pay certificate, if in receipt of the Government allowance.
The parents or guardians of candidates whose cases do not answer
to any of the foregoing descriptions may apply direct to the Secre-
tary.
13. The Secretary, in announcing the election of a candidate, will
fix a reasonable time, to be determined by the Committee, for joining
the Institution. If the summons be not attended to, the election will
be considered void and another candidate chosen, excepting for reasons
which shall satisfy the Committee.
14. Applications for the removal of children shall be made through
the channels prescribed in Rule 12, giving one month's notice.
15. Illegitimate children, children laboring under any form of
disease which is likely to incapacitate them for the ordinary duties
of life, the children of fathers not Soldiers of the British Army who
are serving or have served in India, and cliildren of Soldiers who
have been dismissed the service by sentence of Court Martial are
ineligible.
16. The Government of the Asylum is invested in a Conjmittee of
Management, consisting of nine Members, resident for the time being
on the Nilgiri Hills, four of whom are appointed by the Government
and five elected.
17. The Lord Bishop of Madras and His Excellency the Commander-
in-Chief are connected with the Institution in the capacity of Patrons,
and are at liberty at all times to visit the Asylum, and to refer to the
Committee, or to the Government, any point which they may consider
demanding attention.
18. The five elective Members shall be chosen by the votes of
Donors to the Institution to the amount of Rupees 300, and subscri-
bers to the amount of Rupees 50 per annum, resident for the time
being within the limits of the Presidency of Madras. Members of
Committee, as such, shall be entitled to vote at each election.
19. A provisional Member shall also be elected, according to the
conditions of the preceding rule, to take the place of any vacating
elective Member.
20. The death or resignation of a Member, or his ceasing to reside
on the Nilgiri Hills, or his failing to attend four successive monthly
Meetings of the Committee without assigning satisfactory reasons
shall create a vacancy.
21. A vacancy, as soon as it occurs, shall be reported by the
Secretary to the Committee at their next ensuing regular Meeting ; and
if it be that of a Government Member, notice thereof shall forthwith
ex APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
be given to the Government. If the vacancy be that of an elective
Member, the provisional Member shall at once succeed thereto, and the
election of a new provisional Member be proceeded with under
Rule 19.
22. One month's notice of an election shall be given, and, with the
voting papers to be furnished to the electors, the Committee shall
submit the names of any gentlemen resident on the Nilgiris,
whom they may see occasion to recommend, the majority of votes
determining the election. In the event of an equality of votes in
favor of any two or more candidates, the decision between them shall
rest with the Committee. The notice of the election of new Members
to the Committee shall also be published in the Fort St. George
Qazetie.
The Committee are empowered to frame such bye-laws as they may
consider necessary for the despatch of business. They shall hold a
Meeting- regularly once a month on a day to be fixed by them.
Four Members shall form a quorum.
24. Any thx'ee Members shall have the power of convening an
Extraordinary Meeting of the Committee, giving the Secretary one
week's notice of the same.
25. The Committee shall at each monthly Meeting appoint two of
their Members to visit the Institution officially and to report their
impressions at the next ensuing Meeting. Every department of the
Institution shall be accessible to these visitors.
26. The Committee shall be at liberty to appoint, from time to time,
two lady visitors, who shall be requested to visit the female branch
once a month, or oftener if thought desirable, and to enter any
remarks they may have to make in a book to be kept for the purpose,
which, after each visit, is to be forwarded to the Secretary.
27. That Rupees 1,000 a year be paid to the Medical Officer in
charge of the Asylum, and that he be required to pay a daily visit to
each Institution and to make a weekly inspection of every thing
affecting the health of the inmates, making a special report on such
occasion ; and with such arrangements the services of a simple Dresser
will be sufficient for the duties to be performed with reference to those
who may be sick.
28. The Principal of the Asylum shall invai'iably be a Clergyman
of the Church of England, his appointment being subject to the
approval of the Governor of Madras in Council. The appointments
to all other offices in the Institutions shall be at the disposal of the
Committee.
29. The Principal is in superior charge of the Institution in both
its branches. He will be responsible for the general direction of the
education and discipline and for the regulation of the int-ex'ior economy
of every department. As Principal he will hold periodical examina-
tions of the classes both in their religious and secular studies ; as
Chaplain he has pastoral charge of the Institution ; as Seci'etary he
is the executive officer of the Committee. He will also take charge
of the accounts. In communication with the Committee, or such
OF THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. CXI
Sub- Committee as they may appoint, he will make all the necesaary
disbursements. In the event of his intending to resign his appoint.
. ment, it is necessary that he should give six mouths' notice to that
effect. The Committee will also give the same notice on their desiring
to dispense with his services.
30. The Head Master will, under the direction of the Principal,
superintend the tuition in the male branch, his special charge being the
upper division of the school, and the training of pupil teachers under
the provisions of Rule 45-
31. The Head Mistress will, under the direction and supervision of
the Principal, have entire charge of the female branch. She will be
responsible for the moral and intellectual training of the girls, who
will be subject to her control both in and out of school. Her authority
will be that of a parent as well as that of a teacher.
32. The domestic arrangements of the female branch will, for the
present, be conducted by a Matron, who will be subordinate to the
Head Mistress. She will also be required to instruct the girls in all
duties of the housewifery, needle-work included, and to be present at
their meals.
33. The education given in the schools shall be generally such as
■will fit the children to discharge their duties in that station of life in
which the providence of God has placed them.
34. In the religious lesson given in open school all the leading
truths of Christianity shall be inculcated without unnecessary allusion
to controverted points of faith and practice.
35. The Catechisms of the various Protestant bodies may be taught
in private to the children of each body.
36. The authorized version of the Bible shall be read in school.
37. At the hours in which religious instruction is given in the
schools. Priests of the Church of Rome and accredited Ministers of
Evangelical Protestant bodies may attend and give instruction to
the children of their respective communions, a place being set apart
for that purpose, on giving previous notice of their wish so to do to
the Seci-etary.
38. Priests of the Church of Eome and accredited Ministers of
Protestant bodies shall have free access to the sick of their respective
communions in the Infirmary at all times.
39. Divine Service, in accordance with the rites of the Church of
England, shall be celebrated twice on each Sunday in the Chapel of
the Institution, all the inmates of the establishment being required to
attend, subject however to the provisions of Rule 40.
40. On the application of a Priest of the Church of Rome, or
accredited Minister of any Evangelical Protestant community, request-
ing permission to celebrate Divine Service on a Sunday with the
members of his communion, a place shall be set apai't for the purpose,
and such members shall have permission to attend. Such application,
however, must be made on the previous Saturday.
CXll APPENDIX TO THE MANUAL
41. The form of prayers sanctioned for use in the Asylum shall be
read every morning and evening throughout the year by the Principal,
or such officer as he may appoint for the purpose.
42. The Institution is subject to Government inspection, and will
be inspected and examined by the Government Inspector of Schools
at such times as the Director of Public Instruction, in communication
with the Committee, may direct.
43. There shall be an annual examination of the schools in the
month of May or June, conducted by the Government Inspector of
Schools, aided by such persons as may be appointed by the Committee,
with the approval of the Director of Public Instruction, after which
thei'e shall be a public distribution of prizes.
44. The Committee shall have the power of selecting, from time to
time, a limited number of the most promising children to be trained
as pupil teachers (both boys and girls), with a view to their quali-
fying themselves for employment in the Educational Department of
Government.
They shall be selected at about the age of 14 or 15, and continue
under training for a period of (about) four years, entering into an
engagement with the Committee for the time being to that effect.
They shall receive 4 rupees per mensem for the first year, after
which, providing their progress and conduct be satisfactory, their
monthly gp-laries shall be increased to 5 rupees in the second,
7 rupees in the third, and 10 rupees in the fourth years of their
apprenticeship. During the whole period of their engagement the
half of each month's salary shall be deposited in the Government
Savings' Bank, in the name of the Principal, in trust for each pupil
teacher specified by name ; and should any of them be guilty of breach
of engagement, the deposit shall be forfeited to the Institution.
45. Capitation money at the rate of 5 rupees per mensem shall
be allowed for each of the pupil teachers to the Master or Mistress
entrusted with their training.
46. According to the means at the disposal of the Committee,
and to the opportunities that may be offered, they will adopt
measures for qualifying the boys for employment in different trades
and pursuits and for the creation of industrial branches of various
descriptions.
47. The Principal will report to the Committee when any boy
has attained the age of 16 and any girl that of 18 years. It will then
be the duty of the Committee to take such measures as may seem
suited for his or her settlement in life. Where any such boy or girl
has parents, guardians, or other near relatives able to render assis-
tance, they will be required to remove the child on the Committee's
calling for the same. This rule, however, shall be no bar to the
Committee accepting any suitable engagement for a girl who shall
have attained the age of 16 years.
48. The Committee of Management shall, by the 1st June each
year, submit to Government a report upon the condition and progress
OP THE NILAGIRI DISTRICT. CXlll
of the Asylums daring the preceding official year ; and, as appendices
to the same, shall be furnished —
(1) A statement of accounts ;
(2) A list of the establishment, with salaries attached.
(3) A statement showing the studies pursued by the several
classes in both Asylums ;
(4) A time-table for the teachers, i.e., showing the disposal of
their time ; and
(5) A time-table for the pupils.
The papers numbered 2, 3, 4, and 5 shall correspond to the 30th
April immediately preceding the submission of the report. The Com-
mittee shall forward their Annual Report to the Director of Public
Instruction for submission to Government. The Report of the
Inspector of Schools can be added as an appendix to the same at
the discretion of the Director of Public Insti'uction.
INDEX TO NAMES OE PLACES, PERSONS, &a
*^* Names in the Ap}>endix have not been indexed.
INDEX TO NAMES OF PLACES, EIVEES, &c.
Achenna, 240.
Adikahatti, 421, 424.
Agastiyamale, 262.
Agrata Cadawa, 272, 274.
Allahabad, 395.
Andhra, 262.
Anegundi, 253, 266.
Anemales, 3, 67, 84, 152, 175, 245, 247,
265, 270, 386.
Anjarakandi, 483.
Anyur kambe, 291.
ArakadhoUa stream, 15.
ArakAd, 30, 210, 215, 277.
Aran4d, 30, 215.
Aratapara hill, 11.
Arcot, 271, 333, 421.
AriyiSr, 30, 210.
Anawaddy, 230.
Arriakod, 19.
Arvenk&d valley, 7, 8.
Arvenkdd, 23.
Assam, 137, 515, 517, 518, 519, 522, 523,
524, 530, 538, 554.
Attapadi, 272, 274.
Avalanche valley, 4, 7.
Avalanche, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 89, 90, 103,
295, 381, 556.
Baba Booden Hills, 483.
Bagwadi, 225.
BalaghAt, 386.
Balakolla, 424.
Balam, 270.
BaUehaUi, 225.
Banawdsi, 208, 253, 262, 264.
Bangalore, 16, 306, 395, 396, 427, 466, 502.
Banghi Tappal, 21.
Baramahal, 269, 270, 337, 482.
Battery (Sultan's), 12.
Bear-hill, 5.
Bednore, 265.
Behar, 229.
Belgam, 225, 255.
Beliir, 265.
BeUary, 174, 287.
Bellikal, 18, 21, 165, 285, 289, 467.
lake, 165.
BeUiki, 229, 230, 231.
Bellirangan HiUs, 386.
Bengal, 40, 287, 297, 306, 345, 459, 483,
519, 539, 540, 553.
Benne Teak Forest, 12, 449.
Betmand Hill, 381.
Beypur river, 5, 6, 19.
Beypiir, 395, 502.
Bhavini river, 5, 6, 16, 17, 18, 19, 66, 85,
89, 245, 247, 277, 278, 295, 352, 386.
Bhavtai valley, 5, 18, 89, 211,
Biggala, 225.
Biguli river, 14.
Bikhatti, 304.
Billi-rangum Hills, 268.
Bolamampatti valley, 245.
Bombay, 39, 40, 42, 293, 297, 299, 395, 497,
499, 554, 568, 571.
Bndinattam, 30, 210, 215.
Bukapatti, 196.
BurUar, 20, 23, 24, 132, 211, 213, 439, 518,
574, 576.
Cachar, 515, 540.
Cairn Hill, 381.
Calcutta, 39, 42, 230, 293, 400, 410, 510,
514, 553.
Calicut, 16, 18, 21, 260, 273, 484, 497, 498,
502, 554.
Canara, 208, 219, 254, 264, 265, 274.
Cannanore, 21, 299.
Cape Comorin, 137, 248.
Camatic, 3, 90, 180, 184, 208, 209, 218, 252,
260, 263, 269, 270, 271.
Carura Kegia Cerebothri, 261.
Ceded Districts, 37, 337.
Ceylon, 151, 153, 154, 155, 158, 250, 483,
484, 487, 489, 494, 496, 499, 500, 502,
507, 508, 509, 568.
Chera country, 253, 260, 261, 265, 278.
Cherambddi, 408, 413.
Cheramkdd, 1, 11, 12, 367, 374.
Chickmugltir, 489.
Chinna Bhavani (river), 5.
Chinna Coonoor (hill), 5.
Chinna Doddabetta, 5.
Chitaldrug, 265.
Chola Kingdom, 209, 244, 254, 260, 261,
262, 263, 266.
Choladi river, 12.
Club Hill, 378.
Cochin, 273, 312, 511.
Coimbatore, 6, 11, 16, 19, 67, 85, 87, 154,
184, 186, 189, 208, 218, 221, 226, 243,
244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 252, 255,
257, 260, 261, 262, 265, 269, 270, 271,
272, 274, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281,
289, 291, 292, 297, 299, 303, 304, 305,
307, 308, 309, 311, 312, 314, 315, 316,
317, 322, 333, 337, 347, 353, 361, 362,
363, 368, 378, 384, 386, 391, 398, 399,
404, 405, 407, 412, 423, 466, 484, 502,
672.
Coimbatore gap, 3.
Combaconum, 309.
Conagherry, 230.
Conjoveram, 209, 253, 255, 265.
Masnikovil, 413.
Matheran, 40.
Mclvor's Bund, 21, 22.
Meezerabad, 483.
Mekandd, 12, 13, 14, 15, 25, 26, 30, 31, 182,
187, 204, 210, 215, 226, 321, 325, 333, 366,
367, 374, 424, 441.
Meleuntao, 274.
Melkunda, 3, 5, 11, 19, 20, 21, 43, 240, 273,
274, 515, 556, 557, 574.
Melndd, 3, 15, 285, 329, 333, 335, 348, 349,
378.
M^ldr, 19, 21, 86, 93,226, 229, 240, 258, 274,
338, 393.
Melur Pass, 16, 18.
Mercara, 253, 410.
MettapoUium, 16, 17, 18, 20, 64, 65, 67, 85,
215, 278, 295, 307, 392, 393, 395, 395, 398,
408, 409, 410, 480.
Metucherri, 420.
Meui-ur, 258.
Midagesi, 270.
Molemava, 2.
Mount Aboo, 40, 430, 431.
Moy4r river, 2, 5, 11, 13, 18, 95, 245, 246,
277, 357, 450.
Moydr valley, 5, 245, 246, 247, 323.
Mudukkddu stream, 13.
Muddmale, 12, 173, 174, 398, 448, 449, 450,
452.
Miikarte, 2, 4, 5, 6, 21, 87, 91, 93, 196, 283.
Miikart^ Peak, 2, 4, 22, 85, 193, 459.
Mulachapoi Kambe, 13.
Munnanad, 1, 11, 367, 374.
Munnipoor, 517.
Mupeindd, 12.
Muree, 40, 77.
Musnagddi, 368.
Muttinid-betta, 5, 195, 238.
Mysore, 2, 6, 11, 16, 18, 21, 67, 88, 90, 96,
137, 154, 184, 193, 203, 207, 208, 211,
213, 214, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 225, 226,
228, 230, 239, 243, 248, 249, 251, 252,
253, 254, 255, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263,
266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 274,
276, 277, 279, 284, 286, 288, 289, 295, 303,
307, 393, 396, 398, 408, 410, 448, 449, 450,
456, 479, 482, 483, 484, 487, 489, 490, 504,
509, 510, 573.
Mysore ditch (gorge), 6.
,, stream, 11.
„ ghats, 261.
Nadahatti, 424.
Nadg^ni, 5, 95, 96, 413.
Nadoobett, 333.
Naggur, 483.
Nambalakdd, 1, 11, 193, 309, 367, 374.
Nangala, 265.
Nanjanid, 23, 285.
Nanjanid valley, 7, 14, 243.
NanjanagMi, 226, 267.
Neduwattam, 11, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 43, 89,
91, 95, 96, 103, 165, 174, 295, 374, 393,
394, 395, 413, 420, 459, 556, 557, 562,
563.
Nellak6ta, 408.
Nellambiir, 2, 19, 97, 305, 309, 337, 448,
449, 450.
Nellambiir river, 5, 6, 15, 502.
Nelleala, 218, 277.
NelUtore, 221,291.
Nellore, 479.
Nepaul, 282.
Nerbadda river, 249, 258, 259.
Nerunganada, 272.
Nidunkulam, 17, 226.
Nidumale range, 2, 3, 7, 306, 309, 393.
Nilagiri Peak, 2, 4, 11, 12.
Nilagiris proper, 1, 3.
Nirkambe, 421, 426.
Nolambadi, 265.
Northern Circars, 155.
North Konkan, 249.
North-west Provinces, 77. 185, 511, 512,
513, 522.
Noyel river, 245.
Odantore, 291.
Oodagherry, 510.
Oomatur, 220.
Ootacamand, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12,'15, 16, 18, 19, 20,
21, 22, 23, 24,28, 30, 34, 38, 39, 40, 41,
43, 44,45,46, 47, 48,49, 50, 52, 53, 56,
60, 61, 62, 63, 66, 67, 68, 78, 85, 86, 87, 88,
90, 91, 92, 93, 103, 130, 131, 132, 142, 147
150, 159, 165, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 183,
189, 195, 199, 215, 222, 224, 230, 267, 268,
283, 284, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 292, 293,
295, 299, 300, 302, 303, 305, 306, 308, 309,
329, 330, 331, 334, 335, 336, 338, 339, 341,
344, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 353, 354, 355.
361, 362, 364, 366, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376,
377, 378, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 387,
388, 389, 390, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 398,
400, 403, 407, 408, 409, 410, 412, 413, 414,
415, 417, 418, 419, 420, 422, 424, 428, 429,
430, 431, 433, 434, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441,
442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 453, 457, 460,
471, 474, 475, 476, 477, 480, 496, 513, 517,
531, 555, 562, 571, 573, 574, 575, 576.
Ootacamand Lake, 6, 48, 165, 378, 381, 388.
Orange Valley, 7, 8, 13, 67, 95.
Orissa, 249, 262.
Ossington Estate, 374.
Ouchterlony Valley, 11, 12, 13, 15, 27, 137,
166, 172, 173, 174, 176, 309, 310, 363, 374,
417, 485,502.
Paikare, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 87, 88, 91, 93,
103, 176,238,295, 381,413,453,556, 563.
Paikare Falls, 6, 20, 21, 450, 556.
Hill, 4.
„ River, 4, 5, 7, 20, 22, 85, 89, 91, 93,
165, 279, 292, 295, 305, 309, 338,
459.
„ Valley, 7, 89.
Palar river, 209.
Palghat, 3, 89.
Palghdt Pass, 248, 264.
Pandi river, 6, 11.
Pandya Kingdom, 209, 242, 254, 260, 261,
262.
Paranga, 264.
Parikere, 268.
Pennar river, 209.
Perambdi-, 13.
INDEX.
Perangalur, 13.
TVranganad, 12, 13, 14, 25, 26, 30, 31, 64,
182, 187, 204,210,215,226,279,291, 321,
333, 366, 367, 374, 424, 441, 465.
Peridinya, 508.
Permand, 21, 22.
Piohulbetta, 4.
Pilhir, 21.
Pirgur, 258.
Ponachi, 245.
Ponany river, 484.
Pondicherry, 458.
Poonamallee, 79, 81, 82.
Poorendhur, 40.
Pothanur, 16, 395.
Piidiikota, 13.
Pulicat, 263, 337. '
Pulnis, 40, 84, 155, 229, 261, 270, 355, 568.
Punjab, 568.
Punndd, 262.
Puragiri, 268.
Piirthe, 21, 22-
,, stream, 22.
Quilon, 510.
Raja-raja-puram, 263.
Pallia, 151, 287, 445.
Ramandroog, 40.
Rangas^mi's Peak, 1, 5, 6,
216, 226, 262, 277, 280.
Richardson's Line, 11.
11, 17,213, 215,
Sahyadri Hills, 1.
84idapet, 460, 519.
Saint Catherine's Fall, 6, 89, 226, 386.
Saiya, 263.
Salem, 184, 229, 260, 281, 301, 307, 312, 386.
Sandi-durga, 278.
Sargiir, 221.
Sarimale, 265.
Sattiamangalam, 216, 224, 271.
Segur, 15, 18, 21, 24, 30, 31, 92, 195, 215,
238, 289, 315, 338, 366, 367, 374, 381,
420, 450, 502.
Segur Pass or Ghat, 5, 6, 13, 16, 18, 19, 24,
86, 221, 244, 289, 380, 392, 393, 408, 573,
574.
Segur Peak, 5.
Seharunpore, 552.
Sembanare, 30, 210, 215.
Sembanattam, 30, 210, 215.
Beringapatam, 267, 268, 271, 276, 286, 482.
Seven-Cairn Hill, 92.
Shevaroys, 40, 84, 355, 357, 483.
Shimoga, 253.
Shdlakal, 19, 21.
Sholapiir, 225.
Sbdlur, 15, 172, 173, 196, 227, 239, 284,
424.
Sikkim, 567, 568.
Silent Valley, 18.
Silhet, 554.
Simla, 40.
Siral Kambe, 30, 215.
Sisapdra, 19, 21, 86, 88, 94, 103, 174, 393.
Sisap&ra Ghdt or Pass, 16, 19, 103, HI, 171,
172, 179, 295, 392,484.
„ Peak, 5.
Rock, 19.
Sivaganga, 225.
Skandapura, 261.
Snowdon, 4, 85, 86, 88, 380, 381, 444.
Somaniir, 420.
South Canara, 101.
Sravana Belgdla, 253.
Sringagiri, 266.
Srimiigai, 16, 278, 281, 295.
Sripermatur, 255.
Srirangam, 255.
Sultan's Battery, 12.
SunAwar, 430, 431, 432, 433.,
Sunda, 208.
Sundabetta Hill, 19.
Sundaputte, 18, 19, 247, 392,
Pass, 18, 274.
Sur-Bhavdni river, 5.
Talikdta, 267, 269.
Talked, 261, 262, 263, 265.
Tallapoya Pass, 19.
Tanjore, 260, 262.
Tan'ur, 273, 274.
Telingana, 214, 254, 265, 266.
Tellicherry, 308, 483, 498, 500,
Temale, 20, 21.
Ten4,d, 17,226, 279, 280.
Terai, 155.
Tiger's Hill, 386.
Tinnevelly, 236, 252, 261, 510.
Tippukadu, 11, 18, 21, 289, 448, 449.
Tirkanambi, 270, 272.
Todamala, 273, 274.
Tddamand, 66.
Todan&d, 12, 13, 14, 15, 25, 26, 30, 31. 182,
187, 204, 210, 215, 222, 226, 227, 244,
258, 277, 284, 321, 333, 366, 367, 374.
424, 441, 465.
Torakidavu river, 245.
Toreyiir, 265.
Travancore, 101, 219, 242, 261, 312, 487
489, 509, 510, 568.
Trichinopoly, 174,255, 260, 290, 306, 398,
412.
Tripatur, 482.
Tukalhallibetta, 93.
Tuluva, 265.
Tuneri, 424.
Tungabadi-a, 253, 266.
TJdiamparur, 273.
Udiaraya, 238, 244, 269 (Kota).
Ujjayani, 253.
Ulovi, 225.
Ummatdr, 267, 268, 269.
tjrbetta (hiU), 5.
Vagapftni, 30, 210, 215.
Varada river, 253.
Velingiri, 4.
Velleru Kambe, 13, 30, 210, 215, 291.
Vellove, 265.
Viiayanagar, 209, 218, 253, 254, 201, 264,
266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 272.
Q
1 N D E X.
Yindya Mountains, 1, 249.
Vizagapatam, o09.
WalagMt, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176.
AVallahkadoo, 484.
TVain&d, 1, 2, 11, 16, 18, 27, 95, 96, 97, 175,
184, 204, 219, 243, 248, 256, 258. 261, 262,
271. 272, 277, 286, 289, 293, 306, 309, 310,
315. 355, 357, 361, 362, 363, 366, 368, 370,
373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 391, 392, 396, 408,
413, 416, 448, 449, 450, 453, 480, 483, 486,
487, 489, 490, 491, 496, 497, 502, 504, 507,
509. 511, 515, 517, 568.
Washermen's village, 86.
Wellington, 13, IG. 19, 20, 28, 31,-34, 37.
38, 39, 40, 43, 45, 64, 65. 66, 67, 68, 69,
70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80,
81, 82, 86, 221, 306, 307, 308, 366, 373,
374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 386, 387, 388, 389,
391, 396, 406, 407, 408, 409, 412, 413, 414,
416, 417, 419, 439, 441, 442, 443, 445, 446,
447,448, 531.
Western GMts, 1, 2, 11, 41, 88, 89, 90, 151,
155, 209, 229, 260.
Whatakai mand, 6.
Wundiir, 19.
Yelandur, 267, 268, 270.
Yellamale Spur, 11.
Yellannalle, 285, 304, 393.
INDEX TO NAMES OF PEESONS, TKiBES, &c.
Abbe Dubois, 482.
Abraham (Badaga convert), 421.
Adam, Sir V., 297, 298, 299, 302, 324, 328,
329, 332, 348, 455.
Adhikaris, 32, 221.
Aditva Varrama, 262.
Adondii, 209, 263.
Agastiya, 252.
Agni, 259.
Akalanka, 253, 254.
Ala-ud.Din, 266.
AUardyce, Capt., 442.
AUon, Mrs., 419.
Anderson, Mr., 568.
Aneas, 221.
Ane Kurumbas, 208.
Amarbhiijangan, 263.
Amherst, Lord, 345.
Amoga Varsha, 253.
Amrita, 262.
Aparamita Paravasa Deva, 270.
Arbuthnot, Sir A. J., 432, 435.
Armstrong, Sir K., 307.
Arnold, Mr., 496.
Arnott, 130.
Asoka, 209, 229, 243, 253, 259.
Asuras, 251.
Athiyarhatti, 226.
Auckland, Lord, 301.
Am-angazib, 270.
Baba Booden, 483.
Babington, Mr., 303.
Badagas, 2, 7, 9, 13, 25, 26,
32, 34, 180, 182, 184, 185,
192, 193, 195, 197, 199,
206, 207, 211, 212, 213,
220, 221, 222, 223, 224,
228, 232, 235, 240, 242,
268, 272, 273, 274, 277,
302, 303, 304, 306, 307,
318, 319, 320, 321, 322,
326, 328, 329, 332, 333,
342, 348, 349, 350, 351,
380, 398, 421, 422, 423,
443, 455, 456, 458, 465,
470, 471, 476, 477, 479,
577.
Badakaru, 32.
Badra Bahu, 253.
Baikie, Dr., 37, 42, 43, 50,
292, 293, 295, 297, 427.
Baillie, Dr., 288.
Bakka, 266.
Bal Raja, 277.
Barnes, Sir E., 483.
Barton, Rev. W., 419.
iva, 225, 255.
,27,
29, 30. 31
, 186
187,
188,
201,
202,
205,
216,
218,
219
225,
226,
227,
246,
255,
262
284,
294,
296,
311,
312,
316,
323,
324,
325,
337,
339,
341
353,
359,
366,
424,
425,
426
466
467,
468,
480,
488,
519,
182,
280,
290
Beauclair (Priest), 420.
Bedas, 26, 180, 214.
Beddome, Lieut.-Col. R. H., 98, 130, 133,
171, 177.
Bell, Dr., 427, 571.
BelMlas. See Hoy.sala Btllalas.
Bellala Rdja, 266.
Bellis, 221.
Bentham, 548.
Bentinck, Lord William, 279, 302, 510, 552.
Benza, Dr. Sec de Bcnza.
Beresford, Col., 97.
Berg Otto, 568.
Bergen Heinrich von, 568.
Berkely, 503.
Betad Cham Rdj, 268.
Betakan, 193, 258.
Betasami, 226.
Bhavini, 20.
Bhavani, 20, 254.
Bhills, 219.
Bidie, Dr., 133, 150, 487, 493, 4£-6, 502, 503,
504, 563, 566, 570.
Birch, Dr., 37.
Bird, Mr. G., 483.
Bird, Mr. J. (Councillor), 305, 327, 337.
Bird, Mr. E. W., 309, 431.
Blandford, Mr., 2, 7, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88,
91, 92, 93, 94, 95.
Blein, 282.
Boswell, Mr., 238.
Botta Kurumbas, 211.
Bougner, M., 651.
Bouchardat, M., 569.
Bower, Mr., 407.
Brace, Mr. E. J. C, 359, 515, 528.
Breeks, Mr. J. W., 8, 182, 187, 191, 192,
193, 194, 195, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202,
203, 204, 206, 211, 213, 215, 230, 231,
232, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 257,
264, 268, 272, 273, 274, 308, 326, 328,
357, 360, 363, 426, 427, 478, 513, 514,
574.
Brough- Smyth, Mr., 243.
Broughton, Mr. J., 43, 144, 560, 561, 562,
563, 564, 565, 566, 509.
Brown, Major, 483.
Browning, Mr. T., 18.
Buchanan, Dr., 208, 209, 214, 215, 218, 222.
251, 271, 272, 274, 276, 277, 278, 282,
311, 483.
Biihrer, Rev. A., 421.
Burgess, Mr., 308.
Buirell, Dr., 83.
Caldwell, Dr., 1, 4, 182, 184, 185, 202, 203,
212, 213, 219, 228, 242, 249, 260.
Campbell, Uapt., 442, 443.
CXXIV
NDEX.
Canning, Lord, 355, 356, 358, 553.
Cannon, 483, 489.
Carei, 261.
Carr, 264.
Casamajor, Mr., 303; 422, 458.
Chalukvas, 263, 264.
Chama Rdja, 268, 269.
Chama K^ja Wddear, 271.
Cheram Perumal, 256.
Cherapati, 261.
Cheras, 253, 260, 261, 264.
Chikka Deva, 269, 271.
Chinchon, Countess of, 551.
Chittre, 221.
Chdlas, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266.
Christison, Sir R., 552.
Cleghorn, Dr., 439, 440, 442, 511, 512, 572.
Clementson, Lieut. -Col., 400.
Olive, Lord, 277, 313.
Cloete, Lieut.-Col., 12, 279.
Close, Col. Barry, 272.
Cockburn, Miss, 421.
Cockerell, Mr. J. R., 310, 359, 518, 561.
Congreve, Col., 83, 230, 231, 232, 237, 242,
243.
Conolly, Mr., 304, 315, 335, 336. 338.
Cooke," Mr., 508.
Corbett, Surg.-Major W. H., 45, 64.
Cornish, Dr., 27, 34, 383, 561.
Cotton, Bishop, 426,427.
Crewe, Col., 293, 294, 296, 304, 456, 457, 458,
510.
Croley, Mr. H., 428.
Cross, Mr., 554, 555, 568, 570.
CuUen, Genl., 510.
Cunningham, Mr., 253.
Ciirub&ru, 208,
Cussuvers, 26.
Dalavaye, 268, 271-
Dalbousie, Lord, 293, 390, 553, 572.
Dalmahoy, Surg., 36, 37, 290.
Dana, 277.
Davies (Profr.), 298.
Dawson, Mr., 260.
Day, Dr., 165, 166.
Dealtry, Archdeacon, 418.
Dealtry, Bishop, 418, 430, 43 L
deBenza, Di-. P. M., 83, 86, 88.
DeCandolle, 130.
deJussieu, M. Joseph, 551, 552.
Delondre, A. T. M., 569, 570.
Denison, Sir W., 309, 613.
DevaEaja, 271.
Devalyils, 187, 200.
DeVriz, M., 562.
Dodda Deva Edja, 270.
Dowker, Genl., 418.
Druhvuniti, 262.
Drury, 483.
Dumas, 222.
Dundassies, 412.
Diirga, 20, 254.
Eastmont, Capt., 294, 296.
Eda Kdrumbas, 210.
Eggeling, Dr., 2G0.
Elliot, Mr. H. M., 487.
Elliot, Hon. W., 431.
ElUot, Sii- W., 153, 240.
Elliott, Mr. D., 309, 350.
Ellis, Mr. R. S., 383.
Ellis, 264.
Elphinstone, Lord, 8, 302, 304, 305, 300. 328,
338, 422, 458.
Farewell, Col., 18.
Fergusson, 184, 229, 230, 239.
Ferreii'i, Rev. Jacome, 273.
Fliickiger, Dr., 549, 568, 570.
Fortune, Mr., 511.
Framjee and Co., 293.
Francis, Capt., 308.
Eraser, Mr., 4, 244.
Freeth, Capt., 6.
Gangaluru, 222.
Gangamma, 226.
Gardner, Dr., 503.
Garrow, Mr., 277, 279, 315, 361.
Gass, Mr., 442, 446, 447.
Gell, Bishop, 418.
Geoghegan, Mr., 84.
Gibson, Maj.-Genl., 419.
Godin, M., 551.
Gomatesvara, 253.
Gonajas, 222.
Gordon, Surg. -Genl., 383.
Gordon, Mr., 345, 483, 510.
Gover, Mr., 224.
Grant, Mr,, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325.
Grant. Major A., 571.
Gundert, Dr., 274.
Haider Ali, 244, 271, 312.
Haihagas, 259, 265.
Haines, Dr., 286, 287.
Hakka, 266.
Hamilton, Major, 245.
Hanbury, 549, 568.
Handi Kurumbas, 208, 211.
Handi Rasalas, 209.
Hansard, 356, 357.
Hansen, Major, 290.
Harihara, 266, 267.
Hari-vari-deva, 244, 263.
Harkness, fJapt., 182, 216, 293. 297, ;{27.
Harris, General, 271.
Harris, Lord, 308.
Hiruvas, 32, 221.
Harvey, Mr., R. 529.
Hasan Gangu, 266.
Hasskarl, M., 553.
Hatara, 221.
"Hawkeye," 150.
Haworth, Mr., 540.
Hay, 298.
Hemasitala, 253.
Hette, 205, 226.
Heyne, Dr., 278, 282.
Higginbotham, Mr. A., 418.
Hill, Mr., 459.
Hiriadeva, 193, 212, 226.
Hiriasami, 226.
Hobart, Lady, 429.
Hobart, Lord, 427.
Hoblis, 277.
Hodges, Mr., 407.
Hodgson, Mr., 159, 279.
Hooker, Dr.. 130, 548, 5,'i6
Hough, Mr., 327.
Howard, Mr. J. E., 551, 560, 562, 569.
Hoysala, Bellalas, 254, 261, 263, 264, 265,
266.
Huen Thsang, 253.
HuU, Mr. H. T., 484, 487.
Hunter, Dr., 249, 259, 262.
Hutchins, Major, 294.
Hutson, Mr., 484.
Huxam, Mr., 510.
Ideiyas, 180.
Immadi R^ja, 270.
lonians, 266.
Iridas, 13, 27, 29, 180, 181, 182, 203,205,
212,214,215,216,217,219, 226, 242, 246,
277, 280, 284, 311, 326.
Jago, Major, 441.
Jaiu Kurumbas, 211.
Jumieson, Mr., 574, 575.
Jangamas, 270.
Jedeasami, 226.
Jennings, Col., 304.
Jerdon, Dr., 150, 151, 152, 156, 158, 159, 174.
Jervis, 182, 280, 293, 297.
Jinasenachdrya, 253.
Joachim Stephen, 420.
Johnstone, Mr., 285.
Jones, Mr., 285, 457.
Joyce, 457.
Jussieu. See de Jussieu.
Kadamha kings, 208, 243, 253, 261, 262,
264, 270.
Kad Knrumbas, 208, 211.
Kafui-, 266.
Kahasunina, 205.
Kakkaraya, 226.
Kalachuryas, 225, 254, 263.
Kalikai, 205.
Kal-kambaraya, 225.
KaUas, 181.
Kamata, 205.
Kamataraya, 205, 206.
Kambata, 205.
Kampana Wodea, 266.
Kanakas, 32, 221, 269.
Kariabettaraya, 226.
Karmadiya Kiirumbas, 210.
Karsten, Dr., 551, 569.
Kartti ^'armma, 264.
Kattakal Mariammem 227.
Kavaldls, 194, 195, 200.
Kelso, Major, 289,294.
Kennans, 187.
Kennett, Lieut. -General. 308.
Kerala, 261.
Ketaraya, 226.
Keys, Mr. W., 25, 279.
Khasturis, 222.
Khilji, 266.
Khonds, 200.
Kindersley, Mr., 280.
King, Colonel, 304, 407.
King, xMr., 84, 95, 97.
King, Dr., 547, 551, 553, 564, 568.
Kirkpatrick, Colonel, 272.
Kittel, Rev. F., 424.
Knox, Mr., 165.
Kokvdlis, 195.
K61s, 249.
Kongani Varmma Dharma, 261.
Kongas,32, 221, 262.
Kongus, 264. 265, 270.
Konka, 265.
Koriaraya, 226.
Kdtas, 25, 26, 27, 29, 180, 182, 184, 187, 199
200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 212, 219
227, 242, 243, 284, 311, 326, 426, 479.
Krishna, 267.
Krishna Raya, 267.
Kulattungi Chdla, 209, 263.
Kumbali Kurumbas, 208, 211.
Kumbararus, 222.
Kunth, 130.
Kuribattraya, 212.
Kurpulis, 195.
Kurubas, 208, 209.
Kdrumbas, 27, 29, 180, 181, 182, 184, 186,
203, 205, 206, 207,208, 209, 210, 211, 212,
213, 214, 219, 230, 231, 242,243, 246, 251 '
263, 264, 266,299,311, 326, 411, 488,490.
Ktirumbaokkibiga, 210.
Kurutalis, 215.
Kuttans, 187.
Kycolens, 26.
Laborie, 484.
La Condamine, Dr., 551.
Lassen, 258, 262.
Law, Col., 17.
Lawrence, Sir H., 430, 431, 432, 434.
Le Hardy, Lieut., 17, 19.
Leschenault de la Tour, M., 280, 281, 282.
Limond, Capt., 297.
Lindley, Dr., 130, 533, 548.
Lingadhikaris, 32, 221, 246,
Lingavunts, 25, 26.
Lingayat Wddeas, 218.
Lushington, Mr. C. M., 305, 327, 336, 337.
Lushington, Mr. S. R., 287, 290, 291, 293,
296, 297, 298, 305, 306, 324, 327, 328, 330.
331, 332, 344, 348, 417, 426, 456, 510.
Macaulay, Lord, 18, 302.
Mackenzie, Col. C, 209, 276, 278, 285.
Macmahon, M., 25, 279, 361.
Macpherson, Capt., 281, 283, 286, 287.
Macpherson, 200.
Madhara, 264.
Madhava, 266.
Mdgale, 206.
I Mahddeswara, 226.
i Mahddeva, 259.
; Mdhdlingasdmi, 226.
Makay, Dr., 37.
Maladeva, 262.
ilalekota Rdja, 221.
Male Kurumbas, 208, 210.
j Manikamma, 226.
I Manikas, 222.
I Mann, Mr., 511, 512, 513.
' Mara%-as, 181.
1 Mariamma, 216.
I Mariatha, 216.
I Maris, 222.
! Markham, Ih: C. R., 550, 551, 554, 555, 560,
I 568, 569, 570, 573.
CXXVl
INDEX.
Marshall, Col., 182, 183, 191, 192, 193, 194,
195, 196, 197, 198, 200.
Martin, Sir J. R., 62.
Maskell, Mr., 351, 352.
Mclvor, Mr. J., 460.
Mclvor, Mr. W. G., 6, 22, 165, 167, 359,
418, 442, 443, 460, 518, 519, 554, 555, 556,
557,' 562, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568, 571, 572,
573, 574.
McLeod, Major, 312, 315.
McMurdy, Capt., 293, 385. I
Meat-adhik4ris, 32, 221.
Menezes, Archbishop, 273.
Metz, Rev. F., 1, 32, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187,
191, 193, 194, 201, 202, 203,205, 211, 213,
219, 221, 222, 223, 226, 228, 241, 258, 262,
268, 424.
Mieq, Rev. Mr., 421.
Miller, Col., 482.
Milman, Bishop, 419.
Miquel, F. A. W., 569.
Mitten, 130.
Moericke, Rev. C, 424.
Morant, Major J. L. L., 16, 383, 391.
Morehead, Rev. J. B., 426.
Morgan, Major-Genl., 359, 410, 452, 455,
460, 462, 464, 466, 469, 499.
Morris, Mr. D., 508.
MuUer, 130.
Mullu Knrumbas, 26, 211.
Munro, 100.
Munro, Sir Thomas, 282, 283, 287, 292, 331,
337,347.
Musoni, 212.
Mutis, Dr., 551, 569, 570.
Muttu Kotas, 205.
Ndgas, 249, 252, 256, 259, 260.
Nanja Rija, 271.
Nanjanda, 226.
Nanjappa Rou, 23.
Napier and Ettrick, Lady, 165.
Napier, Lord, 460.
Narasa R&ja, R., 270.
Narasimha, 266.
Narasinga, 267, 270.
Narrainsdmi, 24.
NAyaks, 219, 267.
Navaks, 180, 269, 270, 277.
NaVa Ktirumbas, 208.
Neitner, Mr., 503.
Nelson, Mr., 229, 261, 266, 269, 270.
Nesserwanjee Jehangeer, 293.
Nila, 259.
Oldham, Professor, 50,84.
„ Mr., 510.
Onslow, Col., 483.
Oppert, Dr., 202, 231.
Orton, Assistant Surgeon, 283, 284.
O'Shaughnessy, Dr., 567.
Ouchterlony, Col. J., 12, 13, 27, 30, 37, 42,
83, 91, 182, 187, 306, 307, 315, 327, 328,
341, 352, 361,442,459, 462,465, 466, 467,
469, 483.
Ouchterlony, Mr. J., 23, 308, 485.
Owen, 298.
Pachman, Mr., 37.
Pahud, 653.
Palils, 194, 195, 200, 274.
P^legars, 214.
Palkapals, 195.
Pal Kiirumbas, 210.
Panduras, 246.
Pandyas, 260, 261, 266.
Parvati, 254.
Paul, Priest,_420.
Pa von, M., 551.
Pears, Genl. Thos. (R.E.), 294, 423, 424, 4 2.i.
Peel, Sir Robt., 512.
Pehkans, 187, 201.
Reikis, 187, 194, 200, 201.
Perrottet, M., 510.
" Philanthropos," 35, 287.
Phoebus, 569.
Pierron, Rev. Fr., 420.
Pillar God, 206.
Planchoni, G., 569, 570.
Pogson, Mr. ,.38.
Poligars, 202.
Pope, Dr. G.U., 182, 183, 185, 189, 192, 198,
202, 240, 421.
Pottinger, Sir H., 307, 324.
Priestly, Col., 362.
Prince of Wales, 428.
Pritchett, Mr., 554, 555, 568.
Ptolemy, 261, 264.
Piij^ris, 200, 212, 216.
Puleiyas, 184.
Punniahs, 490.
Pyche Raja, 277.
Rabenhorst, 503.
Rae, Mr., 512.
Raja Wodeyar, 220, 225, 268, 269.
R&jputs, 219.
Rakshasas, 251.
Rama, 202, 226, 250, 252, 256, 258.
Ramanuja Ach4rya, 225, 255, 264, 265
Ramapayya, 269.
Ram Rai, 267.
Rauganatha, 226.
Rangas&mi, 5, 13, 216, 226.
Ravana, 202, 252, 256.
Read, Col., 482.
Rennell, Major, 219, 277.
Rhude, Mr. W. Cotton, 359.
Rice, Mr., 192, 193, 211, 220, 22-5. 2o9, 259,
261, 262, 264, 265, 269.
Richards, Lt.-Col., 387.
Rieley, 457.
Riggenbach, M., 395.
Rivers, Mr., 477.
Robertson, Mr., 460, 461, 462, -164. 466.
479, 495, 519.
Robinson, Archdeacon, 293.
Robinson, Sir W., 412.
Ross, Dr., 42, 50.
Rotteler, M., 282.
Roxburg, M., 282.
Roy, R. C. Bishop Francisco, 273.
Royle, Dr. Forbes, 552, 553, 554, .JiiS.
Ruiz, M., 551.
Rumbold, Sir W., 293, 329, 332, 348, 420.
SadatuUa Khan, 271.
Sagara, 259.
Sahadeva, 259.
Sauguma, 266, 267.
NDEX.
Sankya AcMrya, 252, 254, 266.
Saxton, Col., 4.
Sayer, Rev. Mr., 421.
Schvatthy, Mr., 560.
ychrottky, Mr., 495.
Seymour, Mr. H., 357.
Shoflicld, Mr., 291, 292.
>hi vu-acharas, 25.
shuitt, Dr., 182, 185, 188, 203, 209, 214,
215, 219, 257, 483, 484, 487.
Sim, Hon. J. D., 427, 575.
Simmonds, Mr. P. L., 487.
Smarta sect, 254.
Smollett, Mr., 356.
Sola, 265.
Someswara, 266.
Souberan, J. L., 570.
Spruce, INIr., 554, 555, 568.
Sri Kanga Riyal, 268.
Sri Vikrama, 261.
St. Simon, Marquis de, 458.
Stanes, Mr. T., 429.
Stanley, Lord, 355.
Steedman, Mr. A. H., 487.
Stendel, 130.
Stokes, Mr., 2.
Stokes, Rev. W., 221, 421.
.Strachan, Rev. J, M., 419.
Straham, Major, 294.
Subaon, 24.
Sullivan, Mr. J., 280, 281, 282, 283, 284,
285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292,
297, 299, 303, 304, 305, 314, 315, 327,
328, 329, 330, 332, 333, 334, 336, 337,
344, 349, 350, 361, 442, 455, 456.
vSykes, Col. F. R. S., 38, 42, 231.
Tallaries, 412.
Tarserzhdls, 187, 200.
Taylor, Mr. P. G., 38.
Taylor, Dr., 554.
Taylor, Mr. W., 261, 263.
Taylor, Rev. A. C, 419.
Tennent, 155.
Textor, 553.
Thomas, Mr., 22, 165, 280, 281, 291, 319,
320, 321, 423, 439, 442, 443.
Thwaites, Mr. G. H. K., 508.
Tippu Sultan, 228, 243, 247, 271, 278, 286,
312, 325, 337.
Tirumala Nayak, 269, 270.
Tirumalpad, 448
Todas, 7, 10. 25, 26, 27, 29, 180, 182, 183,
184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191,
192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 199, 200, 201,
202, 203, 205, 206, 207, 211, 212, 218,
219, 222, 226, 227, 228, 230, 232, 239,
241, 243, 249, 252, 254, 256, 258, 259,
260, 273, 274, 277, 283, 284, 292, 296,
302, 305, 311, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331,
332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339,
340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 347, 348, 349,
351, 363, 354, 380, 423, 425, 455, 458,
479.
Tddis, 187, 201.
Tondanaandalam, 206, 209.
Toreas, 25, 26, 32, 222, 226, 227, 268.
Trevelyan, Sir C, 307, 436, 440, 512.
Triana (Jos.), M., 551, 570.
Trinctra Kadamba, 264.
Triquet, Rev. ¥i., 420.
Turnour, 259.
Tweeddale, Marquis of, 38, 65, 304, 305,
306, 324, 328, 338,571.
Underwood, Mr., 303.
Urali, 215.
Vanaras, 251.
vanGorkom, K. W., 552, 569.
Varddhana, 264.
Varzhals, 195, 200.
Vasantaka, 265.
Vijaya Wddeyar, 220, 222, 267, 268.
Vijayanagar Kings, 209, 254, 264, 268, 270,
272.
Vira Beliala, 265, 266.
Virabhataraya, 22fi.
Vira Narasimha, 265, 266.
Visha Laksha, 270.
Vishnu Varddhana, 253, 254, 264, 265.
Visvanatha, 269.
Vogl, A., 570.
Walhouse, Mr., 212, 241.
Walker, Capt. J. Campbell, 359, 557, 570.
Wallich, Dr., 345, 483.
Wapshare, Mr., 165.
Ward, Capt. (B.S.), 25, 30, 201, 279, 285,
292 361
Weddell, Dr. H. A., 551, 652, 553, 570.
Weir, Mr., 554.
Weilesley, Marquis of, 271, 276.
Wellesley, Hon. H., 271.
Wentworth, Mr., 36.
Wheeler, Mr. T., 254, 259, 266.
Whish, Mr., 280.
White, Mr. G., 496.
Whitehouse, Mr., 273, 274.
Whitton, Surg.-Major, 45, 46.
Wight, Dr., 130, 150, 442, 572.
Wilks, Col., 220, 262, 267, 268, 269, '270,
279, 483.
Wilson, Mr. (Professor), 11, 250, 252, 261,
264.
Wilson, Bishop D., 293, 417, 426.
Winslow, 206.
Wddeas, 32, 218, 220, 221, 225, 227, 25.5,
262, 267, 268, 269.
Wddeyar Raja, 220, 225, 268, 269.
Wood, Sir Charles, 321, 324, 356, 357, 556.
Wroughton, Mr., 312, 352.
Yadava, 267.
Yagadeva Raya, 220.
Yavanas, 249, 266.
Yernasami, 226.
Yudisthdra, 259.
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