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OSMANIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

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Author H****10^*"0* /9- U

Title

This book should be returhed on or before the date
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A MANUAL OF
THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

M\('MI1L\\T AND CO, LiMi'iKD
Toxnox . KOMUAY • r \LCUI r\ . MADRAS

MM UOI'KNL

TIIK M \CMILL \N COMPANY

M \\ YORK • KOS1OX - CHKA(j()
I)\LLAS • AIL\NT\ • SAX 1-RAN( ISCO

I'llIC M\(.MILL\N COMPANY
01' C \NAJ)A, LIM11KD

10KOMO

A MANUAL OF THE

TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND USES

ALEXANDER L. HOWARD

RKVISKD EDITION

TO WHICH IS APPKNDF.D AN INDEX OF
VERNACULAR NAMI'S

WITH unr.iRDs OF 100 11,1 IIVI-RATIONS

MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON

'934

^trst Edition 1920
ccond Edition 19^

PRIMKI) IN (,KKAr BRl'IAIN
I5Y K \ K (LAKK, TIMIII-1), FDINUUKM

THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED
TO

SIR FREDERICK MACMILLAN, C.V.O.

AS A MARK OF ESTEEM
AND IN APPRECIATION OE THE ENCOURAGEMENT

WHICH HE HAS GIVEN ME
DURING THE PROGRESS OF THE WORK

PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION

THE second edition of Timbers of the World has been undertaken for the
same reason as the first, namely, to supply a clearly arranged handbook
which will give information regarding those timbers which have been, or
are expected to be, used in works of art or utility.

In 1918, at the conclusion of the war, the first edition was in the
press. At that time the general public were under the impression that
the whole world was faced with a really serious shortage of timber
supplies. There was at the moment a definite shortage resulting from
the war and the cessation of shipping. A host of publications, some in-
spired by trade interests, some by the unprecedented high prices for
timber, and all supported by the certain knowledge that the world's
supplies were being too rapidly exhausted, confirmed the impression.
As a result, new and hitherto unknown timbers poured into the markets
of the world. Activity was specially noticeable in India and Burma, in
which places a large accumulation of timber had been stored up, and the
first and only really energetic exploitation of the forests of the Indian
Empire had been vigorously pursued. The Indian Forestry Service, the
largest in the world, with at that time fifty-four years behind it, would
seem to have failed to realise the commercial value of their vast forest
resources. Differing from other countries, India and Burma have never
been forced by necessity to realise their forest wealth. The ease with
which teak timber has been marketed has had a very deterring influence
upon the exploitation of the remaining very abundant and highly valuable
store of fine timbers. The situation has been remarked upon by several
American foresters and writers, some of whom have visited India and
reported upon the forests. It has also been referred to by Zon and Spar-
hawk in Forest Resources of the World as follows : " India is still un-
developed and industrially backward, and the existing forest resources
have barely been touched." The greatly increased activity during and
after the war provided much more information about those Indian

vii

viii THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

timbers which were reported in the first edition, and gave an opportunity
for experience concerning a great many fresh timbers. This knowledge
alone was of sufficient importance to call for some further publication.

Mr. J. S. Gamble, shortly before his death, sent me many specimens
of Brazilian timbers collected by his brother the late Colonel J. G.
Gamble, M.Inst.C.E., who had spent many years in Brazil, together with
the catalogue which Colonel Gamble had compiled, and these considerably
added to our information. A report on this collection, and on all other
Brazilian woods which have been seen in commerce since the war, is
included in this edition. There has always been great confusion in
regard to most of these timbers, partly ^because of the duplication of
names, but also on account of the fact that reliable information was not
forthcoming. We have now Professor Samuel J. Record's Timbers of
Tropical America, which provides the best up-to-date information.

Mr. J. H. Holland, of Kew Gardens, kindly supplied me with an
interesting collection of Chinese woods which had been received by him
from Professor Chung of the Amoy University, who apparently had de-
spatched a similar collection to Professor Record of Yale University, and
a description of these woods is included.

The certain knowledge that some small trees or shrubs, for instance
laburnum, possess a special value, and that such might be utilised in
works of art, started an inquiry in this direction. In this inquiry I have
been greatly assisted by the Rt. Hon. Viscount Powerscourt, who by his
energy and enthusiasm has accumulated a most interesting collection,
with surprising results. It would be no exaggeration to say that very
large quantities of timber grown throughout the United Kingdom, at
present used for fuel, might be utilised to general advantage. Among the
British-grown timbers which may be mentioned besides laburnum are
acacia, mulberry, thuya, and even lilac, as well as others.

Throughout this book the common name, if it is well known, has been
made use of in the alphabetical headings, and the alternative vernaculars,
as well as the botanical term, have been added in all cases where it has
been possible. It is hoped that the inclusion of these names will be of
considerable service. For the Indian timbers, the vernacular names have
been taken from Mr. J. S. Gamble's well-known Manual of Indian Timbers,
and from Sir Alexander Rodger's Trees and Shrubs in Burma, by the kind
permission of the Government of India and Sir Alexander Rodger. In
the case of the South American woods, the common names have been

^ PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION ix

taken from Professor Samuel J. Record's Timbers of Tropical America,
and those of Malaya and the Philippines from Dr. Foxworthy's Philippine
Journal of Science and Malayan Forest Records, No. 3, by the kind
permission of the respective authors. The publication of Commercial
Timbers of India, by Pearson and Brown, has occurred at almost the last
moment. From the timbers named in these volumes, although they have
not been seen in ordinary commercial usage, a selection of some forty
species has been made, as they would seem to be of sufficient importance
to be included in this work.

The weights given are in all cases the weight per cubic foot when dry
of my own specimens, but when this has been impossible, from the accepted
authorities as stated.

An index of vernacular names is added to facilitate reference.

I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to the various publications
mentioned, and my gratitude to those friends — some of whom have alas
gone from us — who have assisted me, by correspondence or otherwise,
in the compilation of this work, namely : Mr. R. T. Baker ; Sir Hugh
Beevor, Bart. ; Colonel James Brown, D.S.O. ; Mr. H. J. Elwes, F.R.S. ;
Mr. J. S. Gamble, M.A., C.I.E., F.R.S., F.L.S. ; Colonel J. G. Gamble,
M.Inst.C.E. ; Mr. Arthur Gardner ; Professor Percy Groom, M.A., D.Sc.,
F.L.S. ; Sir George Hart, I.F.S. ; Mr. Edwin Haynes ; Mr. J. Masters
Hillier ; Mr. J. H. Holland, Kew Gardens ; Dr. Charles Hose ; Major-
General Sir Newton Moore, K.C.M.G. ; Mr. B. Ohta ; Mr. R. S.
Pearson, C.I.E., F.L.S. ; Professor Samuel J. Record, M.A., M.F., Yale
University ; Mr. Hugh Saunders ; Professor R. S. Troup, F.C.H. ; my
secretary, the late Miss Eleanor Rudwick ; also many others.

And for the permission to use their works : F. W. Foxworthy, Ph.D. ;
Professor S. J. Record, M.A., M.F. ; and S^'r Alexander Rodger, O.B.E.,

F.L.S.

ALEXANDER L. HOWARD.

15 CHESTER TERRACE,
REGENT'S PARK, W.i
March 1933.

CONTENTS

PAGE

ILLUSTRATIONS ......... xiii

INTRODUCTION ......... xvii

A PASTORAL ......... xxiii

A MANUAL OF THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD i

BIBLIOGRAPHY .......,, 587

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBERS ACCORDING TO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN , 589

INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES ...... 604

GENERAL INDEX ........ 615

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES ...... 627

ILLUSTRATIONS

I'AGE

A large Ash burr after digging out . . . . . -35

The Ash burr ready for carting away . . . . -37

Mountain Ash, Victoria ....... 42

Banksia, Western Australia . . . . . . .48

The Baobab tree, North-West Australia . . . . .49

Unique Beech hedge at Meikleour, Perthshire . . . -57

Australian Blackwood in Gippsland forests, Victoria . . 70

White Box, New South Wales . . . . . -75

Moulmein Cedar . . . . . . . .109

A group of Deodar trees in the Himalayas . . . . .114

Sweet Chestnuts at Cowdray Park, Sussex . . . . .123

Logs of Ebony, South- West India . . . . . .162

Eng, Theyaung Forest, Katha, Upper Burma . . . -171

Eng, Lower Burma . . . . . . . .173

Central Forest camp, Middle Andaman Islands .... 200

Blue Gum plantations of the Nilgiris, India .... 202

Timber-hauling in New South Wales ..... 203

Staircase at Amani, Tanganyika . . . . . .228

Red Ironbark, New South Wales . . . . . .233

A Karri forest ......... 243

Forest railway in the Andaman Islands ..... 248

The beginning of the forest railway, Middle Andaman Islands . .248

East Indian Walnut in fruit ....... 253

A very handsome African Mahogany curl . . . . . 279

African Mahogany. Two fine figured logs . . . . .280

Felling a large buttressed Mahogany tree in West Africa . . .282

African Mahogany. A path through the forest . . . .285

African Mahogany. A raft on the river . . . . .28?

Mahogany. Showing waste in squaring timber . . . .288

A Mahogany camp in Southern Nigeria . . . . .291

Felling and squaring African Mahogany ..... 293

African Mahogany. Adzing square . . . . . .295

Mahogany logs being prepared for hauling and shipping . . . 297

xiii

xiv THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

PAGE

A Mahogany tree, Cuba ....... 300

Single heart. Double heart, showing curl ..... 302

Melanorrhoea usitata, Upper Burma . . . . . .317

Melia composita trees . . . . . . . .319

Methods of cutting wainscot oak ...... 344

American Oak, plain and quarter sawn ..... 349

Oak in Kyre Park, Worcestershire . . . . . .350

Oak tree of the Socna Forest, Slavonia . . . . .351

Oak grove, Kyre Park, Worcestershire . . . . -354

Oak tree of the Socna Forest, Slavonia ..... 355

The " Twelve Apostles " Oak on Lord Petre's estate at Brentwood . 359
Leaves and acorns of Ohnara and Konara (Japanese Oak) . -374

Part of the Government sawmill, Port Blair, Andaman Islands . .376

Cross-cutting logs ........ 389

Pines in Buxted Park, Sussex ...... 405

Forest of British Columbia Pine in Vancouver, B.C. . . . 409

Logs on the Ottawa River, Canada . . . . . .411

British Columbia Pine in Vancouver, B.C.. . . . .412

Avenue of Douglas Firs at Murthly Castle, near Dunkeld, Perth-
shire .......... 413

Pyinkado, Lower Burma ....... 446

East Indian Rosewood ....... 459

East Indian Rosewood log ....... 460

Forest of Shore a sp., Upper Burma ...... 464

Sal forest of good quality, Bengal ...... 465

East Indian Satinwood logs, Ceylon ...... 474

East Indian Satinwood ....... 475

A very fine log of figured East Indian Satinwood .... 476

Satinwood logs, Ceylon . . . . . . -477

Timber sheds, West India Docks, after the disastrous fire of Sep-
tember 1903 . ........ 499

Talipot Palm in flower in Peradeniya Gardens, Kandy . . . 506

Avenue of Talipot Palms in Peradeniya Gardens, Kandy . . . 507
Tallow Wood, New South Wales ...... 508

One of the oldest Teak plantations in Burma, made in 1864 • 5J3

Elephants moving Teak logs . . . . . -514

Teak log being extracted in a buffalo cart . . . . . 514

Nilambur Teak plantations . . . . . . .516

Young Teak trees, Lower Burma . . . . . -517

Elephants loading Teak . . . . . . .518

Teak timber in the forest . . . . . . -518

ILLUSTRATIONS xv

PAGK

Young Teak springing up in a bamboo-flowered area . . . 520

Typical Teak forest, Upper Burma . . . . .521

Teak logs on dragging path, Kontha, Pyinmana, Burma . . .521

Elephants taking Teak logs on tramway to the Irrawaddy River . 522

Teak logs being pushed over a bank to the Irrawaddy River (A) .522

Teak logs lying waiting for the rise with the rains . . .524

Teak logs placed in upper reaches of floating stream ready for flood . 524
Teak logs, Upper Burma ....... 525

The fire line in the Thayetmyo forests . . . . .525

Teak logs being pushed over a bank to the Irrawaddy River (B) . 526

Teak logs being pushed over a bank to the Irrawaddy River (C) .526

Teak floating in Lower Burma in the dry weather (i) . . .528

Teak floating in Lower Burma in the dry weather (2) . . 528

Some of the Government elephants, Andaman Islands . . .536

Natives hand-sawing, Ceylon ....... 546

Turpentine, New South Wales ...... 552

Wandoo, Western Australia ....... 568

Convicts felling a Terminaha procera tree in the Andaman Islands . 572
An exceptionally large and fine Yew burr from the Caucasus . .581

INTRODUCTION

AO VlANDANTE

Tu que passas e ergues para mim o teu bra$o, antes que me fa£as mal, olha-me
bem.

Eu sou o calor de teu lar nas noites frias do inverno, eu sou a sombra
amiga que tu encontras quando cammhas sob o sol de agosto, e os meus
frutos sao a frescura apetitosa que te sacia a sede nos caminhos.

Eu sol a trave amiga da tua casa, sou a taboa da tua mesa, a cama em
que tu descan9as e o lenho do teu barco.

Eu sou o cabo da tua enxada, a porta da tua morada, a madeira do teu
berco e o conchego do teu caixao.

Sou o pao da bondade e a flor da beleza.

Tu que passas, olha-me bem e . . . nao me fa$as mal.

To THE WAYFARER

Ye who pass by and would raise your hand against me, hearken ere you
harm me,

I am the heat of your hearth on the cold winter nights, the friendly shade
screening you from the summer sun, and my fruits are refreshing draughts
quenching your thirst as you journey on.

I am the beam that holds your house, the board of your table, the bed on
which you lie, and the timber that builds your boat.

I am the handle of your hoe, the door of your homestead, the wood of
your cradle, and the shell of your coffin.

I am the bread of kindness and the flower of beauty.

Ye who pass by, listen to my prayer ; harm me not,

So runs an inscription which in Portugal is displayed wherever, in
woods, parks, and gardens, timber trees are to be found. This notice
sets forth in the concentrated vigour of its style an appeal whose neces-
sity is urgent in other lands than Portugal. Apart from its artistic and
sentimental aspect, its aim is threefold. It appeals for due precautions
against the misuse of timber trees. It demands that proper and necessary
care be taken to use timber to the fullest and best advantage. It calls

xvii

xviii THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

for the recognition of the importance of timber trees in the multitudinous
needs of the community.

In England these three considerations are but little regarded. The
majority of our population show an indifference to the subject which is
but the measure of their ignorance of it, while our educational and ad-
ministrative authorities continue to neglect it in a manner which accounts
for the general apathy.

This common lack of knowledge leads in many cases not merely to a
passive disregard, but often to an active mutilation and disfigurement.
Boys particularly are prone to damage trees simply because they have
not been taught to value them.

The forests of England have been a source of national safety and
national prosperity in the past. A seafaring nation whose history in
the last three hundred years has been one of the imperial expansion of
an island race, we owe it largely to our home timber supplies that our
ships obtained the supremacy. Again, in the centuries before the general
development of our coal deposits, it was the great Forest of the Weald
that made the Sussex ironwork industry possible.

We see then that our national timber supply has been of the utmost
value to us in the past. This is no longer so, as the manner of our forest
utilisation has been wasteful and without forethought. Whole areas have
been denuded of trees which might have continued to give a supply of
home-grown timber ; while, as with other commodities, we have relied
of late years to a needless extent upon foreign supplies.

An educational system which is adequate should rightly include some
knowledge of the vital needs of the country, some realisation of the possi-
bilities of our national resources. In our schools there is an almost com-
plete neglect of that necessary function of education which should develop
the child as a member of an economic community, giving him a grasp of
the material needs and resources of his country, and opening up before
him avenues of industrial interest. Commercial geography does, for
instance, claim to fulfil this function, but educational reforms need time
before they can justify themselves, and the spread of modern methods of
teaching geography upon these lines is all too slow. There is no reason
why science should not be more often presented in its commercial relations.
At present the teaching of science and geography in our schools lays itself
open to the old charge levelled against the classical tradition. It was
urged that classical education was remote from life, it was said to touch
no springs of living or material interest, and it had no relation to modern
needs. Might not the same be said with greater truth of much of the
teaching of science in our public and secondary schools to-day ? Is it
not out of touch with living interests ? Does it show constantly its close
connection with industrial and commercial activities ?

INTRODUCTION xix

Here then we have a subject which in the past has been closely con-
cerned with our national well-being, and which is no less so in the present,
and yet it is one which is neglected in the teaching of science and geo-
graphy in our schools. The subject of timber, its supplies both within
and beyond our own Empire, together with its treatment and its possi-
bilities, is one full of interest in itself, and which might well be introduced,
not as an isolated item upon an already over-burdened list of subjects,
but in rational correlation with science and geography. We are now
faced with a period of wide industrial change and novel development,
when the natural resources of the world must be mapped out, and measures
taken for their right use and conservation. The forests of five continents
hold in themselves a vast portion of the world's wealth, and much of its
value is so far unrealised. Timber has been put to a multitude of uses in
the past, but latterly a belief was gradually gaining ground that it might
be superseded by steel and concrete. This belief is groundless and mis-
taken, as we have clearly seen since the war. In many ways it is again
being used instead of these substitutes, while further uses are being dis-
covered for it every day. Certain woods essential in industrial develop-
ments and the making of engines of war are finding new commercial
values hitherto entirely unsuspected.

These considerations, though they may appear to be but generalisa-
tions, have a close practical application to the subject, and if they have
shown anything, it is that the time has come for the British Government
to concern itself with the all-important subject of an adequate supply of
timber within its own boundaries. In the past it was the policy of the
Government to maintain an attitude of laissez-faire with regard to in-
dustry, but opinion has now swung round to regard it as a normal function
of Government to foster and assist all industries and trades necessary to
the well-being of the community. The difficulties under which the timber
industry labours should be removed. There should be adequate protec-
tion for woodlands, where, too frequently, valuable timber is ruined by
wanton ill-usage, while the present unreasonable freightage dues need
readjustment so that the trade be not strangled.

It was seen during the European war how effective definite Govern-
ment propaganda could be when it was necessary to enlighten the public
upon matters which concerned its interest. This weapon, through the
schools and in the press, could well be used for the benefit of essential
industries. As an illustration of such wise action of the State, might be
mentioned the fact that in America, in Australia, in Norway, and in
Portugal, the school children are taught to plant saplings in order that the
timber supplies of these countries may not fail. In addition to protecting
the industry and enlightening the public, the Government should take
every opportunity to encourage and foster it by providing information

xx THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

and advice as to the best policy to pursue. In the Forestry Regulations
of France, Germany, Jugoslavia, and other countries, we can find models
which it would be wise to follow, or even perhaps to actually adopt in
their entirety. We cannot wish to see the number of our woodland areas
decrease, when we realise the national, and indeed the imperial, import-
ance of a fully sufficient reserve of timbered land. As far as may be
reconciled with economic principles, the denuded areas should be re-
planted and fresh trees introduced.

So much for the material and economic aspect of the subject of timber.
From an aesthetic point of view it is full of attraction. The proud tops
of the pine and the larch which clothe our northern and our western hills
add to their sombre beauty, while the more intimate loveliness of the low-
land coppices and stately parks, with their " firs and ashes, oaks and elms,
the poplars and the cypresses," has given the poets inspiration for delicate
imagery. To know something of the description and the uses of these
familiar trees, as well as of the woods of more exotic beauty from the dark
forests of India and Burma, from the sun-drenched islands of the eastern
seas, from South America and from Africa ; their marvellous diversity of
colour, their exquisite scents, and the strange glamour of their very names,
is to gain a new and never-palling interest in a comparatively little-known
portion of the grand heritage of the heirs of this world.

I would like to add one word more. Up till now the march of civilisa-
tion has everywhere proclaimed the destruction of trees over the wide
surface of the globe, and successive generations of all races have con-
tinuously failed to establish any proper measures for reafforestation.
Trevelyan says : "A bird's-eye view of England in Anglo-Saxon times
would have revealed a shaggy wilderness of forest trees, brush-wood,
marsh and down, spreading from shore to shore." Very different is the
prospect viewed by the airman to-day. " But in those days there was
hope of the future, for though elm and oak might fall, men planted others
—AS THEY SELDOM WILL TO-DAY." Gabrielle Plattes, writing in 1639,
remarks in his book A Discovery of Infinite Treasure : " Now the multitude
of timber brought yearly from Norway, and other parts, doe plainly de-
monstrate the scarcitie thereof here ; also it may be conjectured what a
miserable case the Kingdom will be plunged into about an age or two
hence, for want of timber." About 270 years ago John Evelyn wrote :
" For I observe there is no part of husbandry, which men commonly more
fail in, neglect, and have cause to repent of, than that they did not begin
planting betimes, without which they can expect neither fruit, ornament,
or delight from their labours." In 1853 an unnamed writer of a book
entitled English Forests and Forest Trees, in the introduction says : " These
forests are very rapidly passing away. At present few of those that were
once so famous still exist. The fine forest of Sherwood was sold in 1827 >

INTRODUCTION xxi

scarcely a year passes by but enclosures are made, or some forest is dis-
afforested ; and very soon not one of the forests will retain its primitive
appearance." A late contribution to this tale of woe is Mr. Tom Gill's
reflection in his book Tropical Forests of the Caribbean, published by the
Tropical Plant Research Foundation in co-operation with the Charles
Lathrop Pack Forestry Trust, 1931 : " The American lumberman has
cut his way across the Continent ; and now is hacking out the last great
stand of virgin timber within the Continental United States, the Douglas
Fir region of the Pacific North-West."

A PASTORAL

THERE stood the elm, whose shade so mildly dim

Doth nourish all that groweth under him ;

Cypress that like pyramids run topping,

And hurt the least of any by their dropping ;

The alder, whose fat shadow nourisheth,

Each plant set near to him long flourisheth ;

The heavy-headed plane-tree, by whose shade

The grass grows thickest, men are fresher made ;

The oak, that best endures the thunder-shocks ;

The everlasting ebon, cedar, box ;

The olive that in wainscot never cleaves ;

The amorous vine, which in the elm still weaves ;

The lotus, juniper, where worms ne'er enter ;

The pine, with whom men through the ocean venter ;

The warlike yew, by which (more than the lance)

The strong-arm'd English spirits conquer'd France.

Amongst the rest the tamarisk there stood,

For housewives' besoms only known most good ;

The cold-place-loving birch, and service-tree ;

The walnut loving vales, and mulberry ;

The maple, ash, that do delight in fountains

Which have their currents by the side of mountains ;

The laurel, myrtle, ivy, date, which hold

Their leaves all winter, be it ne'er so cold ;

The fir, that oftentimes doth rosin drop ;

The beech, that scales the welkin with his top ;

All these, and thousand more within this grove,

By all the industry of Nature strove

To frame a harbour that might keep within it

The best of beauties that the world hath in it.

WILLIAM BROWNE (1591-1645)

ERRATA

WHERE authorities differ in the botanical names of trees it is difficult to decide which
should be followed in a book such as A Manual of the Timbers of the World. Not only
do these authorities change the names, as for instance for Douglas fir from Pseudotsuga
Douglasii (Groom, Boulger, Laslett, etc.) to P. taxifolia (Sargent ; and Forestry
Department of Canada Bulletin), but the spelling is often different, e.g. Chickrassia
tabularis (Gamble), Chukrasia tabularis (Rodger). Moreover, where a very great
number of such names are dealt with, mistakes in typing and printing type are
bound to occur.

I have entirely ignored the question of capital letters or otherwise, about which
there exists a great deal of controversy. I am of the opinion that in a publication
dealing entirely with the question of wood such points are of little consequence.
Nevertheless, for the sake of accuracy the following corrections are noted :

Page

For

React

Page

For

Read

F Bungeana

Mimusops

DC. var

DC var

amazonca

amazom'ca

Pubmerfcis

pubmervis

386

Enterolobium

Afncana

Bingeria

e/ipticum

e//ipticum

Bingeria

Africana

395

Calycophyllum

j Calycophyllum

Casuarma Leuh-

Casuarma Lw<?h-

Spruccanum

Sprucdanum

manni R.T.B.

manm R.T B.

396

Guzacum

Guazacum

Octoea pretiosa

Ocofca pretiosa

offinale

126

Daphmphylbum

Daphmphyllum

398

Quercus

144

Podocarpus

Junghuhwii

Junghulmii

Conaseus

Conaceus

402

Ochwflsostachys

Ochflwostachys

148

Dephelium

.ZVephelium

amentacea

Longana

403

Symploc^

Symplocos

191

Guectarda

Gue/tarda

430

Euxylphora

Euxylophora

Soleriana

paraensis

217

*Fhndersia

Flindersia

447

Madbuca utilis

Mad/mca utilis

Ifflama

Ifflaiana

494

P. tftgra

P. w^gra

241

Ourina

Tlfounna

505

Eucalyptus

256

Kurrima

Kurnrma

microrys

microcorys

zeylanica

562

Lowa

Lovoa

312

F. Chatawama

F. Chatawaiana

Klaineana

* Baker quotes this in one place as If&ama and m another as If&aiana ; Queensland
Forest Service adopts the latter spelling.

A MANUAL OF
THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

ABEY. Poeppigia excelsa A. Rich.

Weight 50 Ibs. 15 oz. San Domingo.

In North America it has sometimes been called bay-wood. The colour
is brownish-red, resembling mahogany or satinee, generally more like the
latter, with a firm, hard texture, and the same contrary grain of hard and
soft layers. It has probably been used in the United Kingdom and
termed satinee or mahogany, especially in old pieces of furniture. It is
capable of a fine finish when sharp tools are used, and is satisfactory for
turnery, mouldings, and show-cases, standing well under all conditions.

The pores are irregular in size and position, and sometimes appear in
duplicate and triplicate ; they show on the tangential section a fine mark
like chalk, which is similar to the marking of San Domingo and some
Cuba mahogany. The medullary rays are clearly defined, parallel, and
^irregular, and are joined at right angles by sparse and rather faint
^similar lines.

f
^ABEY MACHO. Hedwigia balsamifera.

The West Indies.

Little is known of this wood, though it is possible that it may at times
have been mixed with the supplies of Abey.

Abies Pindrow Spach.

Weight about 30 Ibs. (Gamble). Western Himalaya.

VKRN — Paludar, rcwan, Jhehm — Bddar, budar, tung, tung bandar, budlu,
drewar, Kashmir — Dhunu, rag, rail, pe, re, salle, sara, Chamba —
Tos, Kulu — Spun, pun, krok, kalrei, Kunawar — Bharda, thanera,
Shali — Burla, pindrau, pindrai, Hattu — Kudrom, Matiyana —
Span, krok, Bashahr — Burul, burr a, buldu, Bhajji — Kalrai, satrai,
chur, Kotkai — Raho, row, chilrow, kilaunta, Chor — Morinda,
Jaunsar — Ragha, ransla, rao ragha, raisalla, Kumaon — Himalayan
silver fir.

The two silver firs of the Himalayas are Abies Pindrow Spach, and A.
Webbiana Lindl. The Pindrow fir, according to Gamble, is the better

l B

2 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

known of the two, the wood of which is used " indiscriminately with that
of the spruce/' It has been introduced into Europe and resembles the
wood of other Abies species, with some resemblance to the wood of Pinus
Strobus.

ABURA. Mitragyne macrophylla Hiern.

Ivory Coast, Africa.
VERN — N'towo.

The wood is of a light straw colour, with a close, compact, firm grain,
capable of a very smooth surface from the tool, resembling New Zealand
kauri pine, but harder and heavier. Reports show that it has been
favourably received for decorative cabinet woodwork in the United
Kingdom.

Tropical Woods mentions that it is inclined to check in seasoning, and
is not highly resistant to insect attack and decay.

The numerous pores are from very small to small, partially plugged
and evenly placed, with numerous conspicuous rough-edged medullary
rays which show on the radial section in small flecks.

ACACIA. Robinia Pseudacacia Linn.

Weight 40-50 Ibs. America, Europe.

The tree, usually known in Great Britain as the " locust tree " or
" false acacia/ ' is a native of North America. A general impression
has prevailed that Cobbett introduced this tree into England from North
America in 1812 (?), but according to Prideaux Selby, who casts a doubt
upon Cobbett 's reliability, the first trees were introduced into England
long before — about 250 years ago — where it is now widely grown, and has
also been planted in Japan and in the Himalayas.

The timber has not been imported into England commercially and,
strange as it may seem, is very little in demand. The heart-wood when
fresh and planed is light greenish-yellow, showing a glossy lustre and a
hard, bright surface, but it subsequently darkens to a dull greenish-
brown. It is one of the number of valuable woods that we possess at
our doors, yet use so little ; in France, where the economic utilisation of
wood is practised, this timber receives the full attention that it merits.
It vies with, and in some cases surpasses, European oak in strength and
durability, is tough, very elastic, and has considerable powers of resisting
shock. Its marked durability in contact with the ground renders this
timber excellent for all outdoor work, such as posts, rails, trenails, and
so forth. On Sir Hugh Beevor's estate, for instance, a large plank was
used as a bridge for forty years, when it was carried away by floods ; and
posts for palings have remained sound in the ground for more than thirty

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 3

years (1920). Elwes and Henry quote cases of posts that were still sound
after eighty years. On this same subject of durability, Stone quotes
several authorities as follows : " . . . almost incorruptible, stronger and
more durable than oak, very elastic and of a vertical resistance one-third
greater than oak ; the best wood for spokes."

In recent times the wood has been employed, especially on the Con-
tinent, in the manufacture of spokes for the wheels of motor cars. Care-
fully selected wood has been found to be excellent for this purpose, but
in some cases the employment of defective (so-called " dead ") specimens
of acacia wood, has resulted in serious accidents. British-grown acacia
has been used occasionally in old furniture, and will compare favourably
with satinwood for such work. Exposure to light and air improves the
colour, and it is often mistaken for the latter wood. This was the case
with a small bureau owned by Mr. Edgar Taylor, which had always been
supposed to be satinwood, as it resembled it in its beautiful colour and
texture. Examination proved it to be acacia. Some burrs taken from a
tree growing in the front garden of No. 2 Lansdowne Road, Netting Hill,
provided attractive wood from which several small table-tops have been
made, and also a fair-sized music cabinet. The burrs, cut into veneer,
although lighter in .colour, compare favourably with Amboyna.

Especially worthy of note is the exceeding narrowness of the sap-
wood, which includes only from two to five annual rings, and during the
first twenty-five to forty-five years of its life the tree grows fairly rapidly.
Consequently a comparatively young tree yields serviceable timber, so
that one, after thirty-eight years' growth only, was large enough to supply
wood sufficient to make three sturdy gate-posts, or legs for half a dozen
chairs. The " false acacia/' with its graceful habit and beautiful pendant
tassels of white flowers, deserves to be widely planted, both for its beauty
and its utility.

The pores forming the pore zone are large, but all, except in the sap-
wood, are plugged with microscopic cysts (thyloses). The medullary rays
are fine, but just visible to the naked eye in transverse section.

Acacia arabica Willd.

Weight 49-58 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Kikar, Pb. — Babbar, kahkikar, Sind. — Babul, babur, Hind. — •
Gabur bakar, Sonthal — Babola, Mai Pahari — Karuvelam, Tarn. —
Tuma, nella tuma, Tel. — Gobli, jali, karri jdli, Kan. — Ramakantha,
Bombay.

The Babul tree. Principally used for its gum, known as gum arabic.
The colour is a reddish-brown, with a hard, strong grain. Useful for
many purposes throughout India, and unsuitable for export.

The pores are scarce, and irregular in size and position, somewhat

4 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

plugged. Medullary rays very irregular in size and position, conspicuous,
showing on the radial section.

Acacia Catechu Willd.

Weight 61 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Khair, Hind. — Khoira, koir, Ass. — Khoiru, Uriya — Karangalh,

bdgd, othalei, Tarn. — Sandra, nalla sandra, Tel — Khair, kaden,

Mar. — Kagh, cachu, Kan. — Rat kihiri, Cingh. — Sha, cutch, Burm.

Its chief name is "khair," but in Burma it is generally known as the
" cutch tree." .The wood is of a bright red mahogany colour, slightly
lustrous, with a close, firm, hard texture. As a tree it is very important,
less for its timber than for the astringent products which it gives. In
India this is catechu, an important catechol tan, but in Burma the tree
is valued for cutch, a black shining extract used as a tanning material,
and exported to Europe for that purpose. The wood possesses many
qualities which, were they better known, would bring a demand from
many parts of the world. It is extremely hard and durable, highly
suitable for cabinet work, and is not attacked by white ant or teredo.
It is already in use in India and Burma for a great many purposes, which
are not sufficiently important for its merits, and it is amazing to know
that it is even used for firewood. As the tree grows rapidly and is not
difficult to raise, its production should be much increased.

The pores, which arc fairly numerous, are of moderate size, and gener-
ally surrounded by a white halo. Medullary rays are clear and distinct,
but vary in fineness.

Acacia ferruginea DC.

Weight 70-73 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Ceylon.

VERN — Kaiger, Panch Mehals — Son khair, safcd khair, brahmani khair,

Berar — Kar khair, Gondi — Phandra khair, Mar — Teon khair,

Bhil — Banni, Kan. — Velvelam, Tarn. — Ansandra, tella tuma,

wum, Tel.

A very fine mahogany coloured wood, with a hard, close texture,
equally valuable and comparable in all respects with Spanish mahogany.

The pores are from medium to rather large, open, single or arranged
in duplicate, surrounded by thin light-coloured tissue. Medullary rays
fine, irregular in size and position, crossed at right angles by very fine
thin lines.

ACACIA, JAPANESE.

This wood is of a dull brown colour, with strongly marked layers of
contrary hard and soft grain, showing some mottle. It is very similar

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 5

in grain and texture to camphor- wood, with a similar fragrant scent. An
attractive wood for many classes of decorative woodwork.

The pores are numerous and open, varying greatly in size. Medullary
rays are faint and hardly discernible under the lens.

Acacia leucophloea Willd.

Weight 58 Ibs. India, Burma.

VKRN — Reru, raunj, karir, mmbar, nnga, nnj, rohani, jhmd, safed, kikar,
Hind. — Annj, Raj — Raundra, runjra, Banswara — Rinjra, Kurku
— Renuja, Bijeragogarh — Tumma, reunja, rinja, Gondi — Gwana,
Uriya — Goiri, Khond — Hewar, Mar. — Hanbawal, Guz. — Velvay-
lam, vel-vaghe, Tarn — Telia tuma, harwar, Tel. — Bill jdh, topal,
naibela, Kan. — Katu andara, maha-andara, Cingh. — Tanaung,
Burm.

The wood of this fairly large tree is brick-red, with lighter and darker
streaks. Sir George Hart says that it is not generally common, and is
unlikely to be of commercial importance.

The pores, which are in groups, are more or less plugged and are
variable in size. The medullary rays are clearly defined and irregular.
The tangential surface displays a minute, flecked appearance.

Acacia modesta Wall.

Weight 62 Ibs (Pearson & Brown). India.

VERN — Phulai, Punj. — -Palosa, Afgh.

Pearson and Brown in Commercial Timbers of India report this wood
as " light russet with a faint greenish cast, ageing to dark brown, often
with darker streaks ; somewhat lustrous . . . fairly even and straight-
grained, medium-textured. ... It is a strong and extremely hard wood.
. . . Certainly the hardest acacia timber examined . . . durable, even
in exposed positions, and in contact with water. . . . Can be classed as
a decorative wood."

Acacia seyal.

The Sudan.

" Talk " is the native name of this wood. It is an unimportant,
rough-grained wood with a strong, tough grain of the usual acacia kind.

The very small to rather moderate sized pores, not very numerous,
are placed in straight, wide, wavy lines of light medullary tissue, with
rather indefinite medullary rays crossing at right angles, irregular and
uneven.

Acacia verugera.

The Sudan.

The native name of this wood is " kuk." It is similar to Acacia
seyal but of a slightly yellower colour.

6 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The small to moderate sized pores, open, single, and in dupli-
cate, are placed between wide, wavy belts of light tissue, crossed very
irregularly by uneven medullary rays, forming an irregular network
pattern.

ACACIA, WEST AFRICAN.

See SATINWOOD, AFRICAN.

ACANA. Labourdonnaisia albescens Benth.

Weight 65 Ibs. Cuba.

VERN — Almique, acana, donsella, Trade — Acana, almiqui, Cuba.

The colour is deep, dull purple plum, with a hard, close, dense grain,
capable of a very smooth marble-like surface from the tool, often contain-
ing mahogany-like roe and mottle figure, with an inclination to split after
planing. This wood is liable to attack from some species of worm or
beetle, which bores in the direction of the medullary rays, parallel with
the concentric layers, the damaged wood emitting a strong, unpleasant
odour. Only small quantities have been imported into our markets at
long intervals.

Record reports that the wood is used for walking-sticks, umbrella
handles, and cabinet work.

The pores are small and somewhat obscure. The medullary rays are
very fine and closely packed, and are linked at right angles by similar
but more strongly marked white lines.

ACAPU. Vouacapoua Americana Aubl.

Weight 63 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Acapu, vacapou, vouacapu, wacapou, Braz. — Wacapou, e'pi de ble,

Fr. G. — Bruinhart, berkhout, braunherz, wakabu, Sur. — Blackheart,

dakamabalh ? partridge wood ? B.G. — Vouacapouholz, wegabaholz,

Ger.

This valuable timber bears a strong resemblance to dark coloured
greenheart. It is streaked along the grain with lighter and darker lines
like partridge wood, and might well be used as a substitute for teak,
although a little harder and more difficult to work. It does not split,
yields a fine surface from the tool, and stands well. The wood has a
sticky surface, and my specimen also has a peculiar and unpleasant scent.
Weisner describes his sample as exuding a fragrant odour, recalling that
of the cigar-box cedar (Cedrela odorata). A specimen of a Surinam wood
which I received from Rotterdam, known as " brownheart," and in
Holland " bruinhart," is identical with my specimen of acapu. On
the other hand, Record's description of acapu is not in agreement with
the above.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 5

Colonel Gamble says this species is the produce of Bowdichia major
and notes the alternative common name of Sycopira preta. He remark!
that it comes from Para, although found throughout the greater part o
Brazil, is much recommended, will last for a hundred years underground
and that it is used for civil and naval construction. Record treat!
Bowdichia as a separate species from Vouacapoua, and attribute!
" sucupira," " sapupira," or " sebipira " to the former, at the sam<
time admitting that the identities of these woods have yet to be de
termined.

The pores are not very open. The exceedingly fine medullary ray:
are invisible to the naked eye in cross-section, but with the magnifying
glass are clearly defined by reason of their light colour ; they are linke(
at right angles by similar light lines. These, however, are not visible ii
the specimen of bruinhart.

In Colonel Gamble's Brazilian collection there is also a specimen o
what is evidently an allied species, Sycopira mirim, which he says is no
so good as the Sycopira preta. It is a coarse-grained wood of a browi
colour, and on the tangential and radial sections the pores show longi
tudinally in lighter coloured short lines, often filled with gum. There i
a pretty ripple marking on the radial section. The Ministry of Agricultur
(Rio) says that this wood is very flexible and makes sleepers of first-clas
quality. Amongst its other uses are shipbuilding, flooring, and cabine
work.

The pores are medium-sized and irregularly disposed ; they are oftei
joined in threes and fours in short wavy lines, and are generally surrounds
by a patch of loose tissue. Concentric rings are marked by an absenc
of pores. The exceedingly fine medullary rays are very even and regulai
and rather wavy in contour.

There is also a similar wood, Sycopira assu, which is used for lik
purposes.

Acer Campbellti Hook f. & Th.

Weight 37-40 Ibs. (Gamble). The Himalayas

VERN — Kabashi, Nep. — Daom, dom, yali, yatli, Lepcha.

Gamble reports this as the " chief maple of the East Himalaya." I
resembles the Canadian or American maple, and English sycamore, per
haps harder than the last, but the colour is browner, with almost an oliv
tint. It is reported as being used for planking and tea-boxes, both un
economical uses for a very handsome, valuable cabinet wood.

The minute pores are scarce, and hardly discernible under the lens
with very numerous, exceedingly fine medullary rays, which show in th
tiniest flecks on the radial section.

8 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Acer caudatum Wall.

Weight 41-45 Ibs. (Gamble). India.

VERN — Kanzle, kandaru, kanjara, Simla — Kainjh, kanjla, Jaunsar —
Khansing, kabashi, Nep. — Yahshin, Bhutia.

This wood is white with a faint pink tinge, shiny and compact,
moderately hard, with the same appearance and grain of the American
or British maples, but much softer.

The concentric layers are marked with wide darker-coloured lines,
the pores being numerous, and very small. The medullary rays are
exceedingly small, and only discernible under the lens.

ACEUDE CANDEIA. Source unknown.

Weight 59 Ibs. Brazil.

The colour is a rich nut-brown, with a fine grain, capable of a very
smooth surface from the tool. It appears identical with a shipment of
logs which came to London about 1913, and which were included with
quite different woods, all classified together and sold as " Brazilian
walnut." It would make a fine medium for all classes of decorative
woodwork.

The pores are fairly large, numerous and evenly distributed, sometimes
joined ; they are plugged with a yellow substance. The medullary rays
are very numerous, but so fine as to be scarcely discernible, even under the
lens ( + 10). The concentric layers are clearly marked.

Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Wight.

Weight 39 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Mandama, Nep. — Madling, Lepcha — Mallav hone, Tinnevelly —
Kilingi, Badaga — Hantige, belanji, havuhgc, Kan. — Shcgappu
agili, Kadcr — Kurangadi, kuranjan, Trav. Hills — Yetama, mayah-
nin, Burm.

Gamble says it is one of the largest timber trees of India, " with a
lofty cylindrical stem branching only at a considerable height," and " easy
for reproduction." It is remarkable that the only use which has been
found for this valuable timber has been for tea-boxes and furniture, and
in Mysore and Coorg for shingles.

It is of a light mahogany colour, with an attractive, fine grain, capable
of a smooth surface from the tool. It could easily be mistaken for some
of the best classes of West African mahogany. The wood has not been
seen in commerce, but some specimens sent over for the Holland Park
Exhibition produced squares which were used for the capping of a wharf
front, where, being exposed to wet and dry conditions, durability is
essential. For ten years the wood has stood remarkably well, only sur-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 9

passed by Pyinkado (Xylia dolabriformis), which was placed in the same
position at the same time. Used for such a purpose the grain has hard-
ened, and there is a total absence of the flaky splits which, under such a
severe test, occur with most timbers.

The pores are scarce, rather large in size, and mostly in groups.
Medullary rays are irregular in position, fine, and clearly marked, show-
ing in small flecks on the radial surface.

ADERNO. Astronium commune Jacq.

Brazil.

VKRN — (which may be only in part synonymous) — Aderno, aderno preto,
aderne, ubatan, nbatan amarello, ubatao, jubatan, ybatan, gibitan,
gibatao, chibatao, chibatao pedro, chibatao vidrado

This timber, which is also known variously as " chibatan " and
" ubatan," is of a yellowish-brown, or reddish colour, with lighter or
darker variegations. (Record.)

It is used for cabinet and building work, railway sleepers, and is
reported as being strong and durable. It should not be confused with
Urunday, Astronium pi ptadenia, from Argentina.

Aesculus indica Colebr.

Weight 34-35 Ibs. (Gamble). West Himalaya.

VKRN — Tor j agd, Trans-Indus — Hdne, hanudun, hdn, ktshing, Kashmir — •
Gun, Ravi — Bankhor, gugu, kanor, pavkar, Hind. — Kandar,
Jaunsar — Pu, Sutlcj — Pangar, Kumaon

This wood is of a light grey colour very much resembling the European
horse-chestnut, excepting for the pronounced medullary ray on the radial
section, somewhat like, but smaller than that shown in beech. A wood
not likely to be seen in commerce. Its uses are the same as those for
which the horse-chestnut is employed in the United Kingdom.

Concentric layers are clearly marked by light lines. The pores are
very numerous, but exceedingly minute. The medullary rays very
strong and clearly defined.

AFAR A. Terminalia super ba Engl. & Diels.

Nigeria.

Reported by the Imperial Institute as a wood very similar to oak in
colour, and possessing a straight grain. Heart-shakes are present, but it
should be useful for general joinery work.

AGBA. Pterolobium sp.

Nigeria.

Reported by the Imperial Institute as a good, useful wood of very
serviceable width. It is resinous, and has no special figure; plain-polished

io THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

it would resemble oak. It would be useful for construction work, sills,
treads, and cheap cabinet work.

Aglaia Roxburghiana W. & A.

Weight 60 Ibs. India.

VERN — Yerra aduga, Tel. — Chokkala, kanna kompu, Tarn.

The colour of this wood is bright red. It is hard, close-grained, and
handsomely marked with a faint mottle, reported as being strong and
standing well.

The rather scanty pores are of medium size, and are sometimes sub-
divided. The medullary rays are fine, fairly numerous but rather
irregularly spaced.

Ailanthus glandulosa Desf .

Weight 38 Ibs. 9 oz. China, Japan.

This tree, the " Chinese sumach," familiar under the name of " Tree
of Heaven," said to be a translation of the local name " amboyna," is a
native of China, whence it has been introduced into England and the
Continent of Europe, but it must not be confounded with the wood known
as Amboyna (q.v.).

The timber, which is neither well known nor much used, resembles in
colour and grain that of the ash to such an extent that it is often mis-
taken and substituted for it. Careful tests made by the engineer G.
Lauboeck showed that his samples of this wood, in resistance to rupture
by bending, surpassed that of the ash grown on the Continent, and that it
possessed a high degree of elasticity and resistance to crushing. In view
of published statements opposing these results, and considering the rapid
extension of the cultivation of the tree in England, renewed tests are
desirable. My experience is that it does not possess the strength of
English ash.

The annual rings are clearly marked ; they are easily identified be-
cause of the spring zone of wide open pores. The wood is easily dis-
tinguished from that of the ash, not only, as usually the case, by the great
width of the annual rings, but also by the fact that the medullary rays are
easily visible in cross-section to the naked eye.

AINYERAN. Afrormosia laxiflora Harms.

Nigeria.

The Imperial Institute states that this wood is of no value in the
market of Nigeria, bad cross-breaks being present.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD n

AKEAKE. Olearia aricenniaelobia.

New Zealand (South
Island).

Only a very small quantity of this timber has ever been seen in
England, but further shipments would be appreciated. The New Zealand
Department of Agriculture reports the wood as " yellowish, with a satiny
lustre, frequently wavy and prettily figured ; obtainable in short lengths
and small in size. Used for ornamental cabinet-maker's work, inlaying,
etc/'

Albizzia amara Boivin.

Weight 54 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India.

VERN — Lallei, Dekkan — Wusel, Madura — Thunngi, uyil, wunja, suranji,
shekram, Tarn. — Nallarenga, shekrani, sikkai, narlingi, Tel. —
Bel-khambi, tug[i, Kan. — Kadsige, Coorg — Oosulay, Mai.

Pearson and Brown in Commercial Timbers of India report this wood
as " light brown, often with a purplish cast, beautifully mottled with
darker lines alternating with lighter tissue ; lustrous, working to a smooth
finish . . . straight or somewhat interlocked-grained, even and medium
to coarse-textured. . . . Said to be very durable . . . when polished it
is an extremely attractive timber. ... It should make excellent tool
handles . . . and articles where strength and toughness are required.
A very superior timber and well worthy of further attention by cabinet-
makers."

Albizzia lucida Benth.

Weight 38-43 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Burma.
VERN — Sil koroi, Beng. — Tapna-sins, Nep. — Ngraem, Lepcha — Mess-
guch, Ass. — Gunhi, Magh — Thanthat, Burm.

Pearson and Brown in Commercial Timbers of India state that this
wood is " brown to dark brown with lighter and darker streaks ; rather
lustrous, working smooth. . . . Broadly and shallowly interlocked-
grained, very coarse-textured ... a quite attractive wood, which would
make good posts, rafters, and scantlings."

Albizzia odoratissima Benth.

Weight 54 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon, India, Burma,

Malacca.

VERN — Lasrin, karambru, polach Pb. — Siris, siran, bhandir, bersa, bds,
bassein, bansa, Hind. — Kalei, kala siris, Merwara — Chichalda,
Berar — Koroi, tetura, Beng. — Sir si tentura, Khond — Ginnera,
Koya — Chichwa, chichola, yerjoohetta, Gondi — Chichwa, Kurku —
Kali harreri, Panch Mehals — Sedong, Lepcha — Jati-koroi, Ass. —
Moroi, Chachar — Kal-thuringi, kar vaghe, bilwara, ponnai muran-
hai, solomanim, sela vanjai, Tarn. — Shinduga, chinduga, telsu,
yerjuchinta, karu vage, Tel. — Pullibaghi, billawar, godhunchi, Kan.

12 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

— Borhi, chichua, chichanda, Mar. — Kant vagei, Mai. — Suriya
mara, Cingh. — Thitmagyi, thitpyu, taungmagyi, maikying-hvai,
maikkyc, mai-tawn, Burm.

This is a large tree which grows over the greater part of India and
Burma. Both the tree and its timber are very like koko A. Lebbek (q.v.).
The wood has the same lustrous appearance, but it is of a more reddish
tint than koko, and is not so well figured. It is fairly durable, and seasons,
works, and polishes well.

Professor Unwin recorded the following results of tests :

Resistance to shearing along the fibres . . 1283 Ibs per sq in.

Crushing strength . . . . . 4-184 tons ,, ,,

Transverse ..... 6*518 ,, ,, ,,

Coefficient of elasticity .... 755 ,, ,, ,,

The wood is used for building, shafts and axles of carts, wheels,
ploughs, and casks, also for furniture.

The numerous pores are very large, and often surrounded by a
patch of loose tissue, showing prominently on the vertical section. The
medullary rays are exceedingly fine and numerous, scarcely discernible
even under the lens ( + 12). There are concentric rings of darker coloured
wood in which the pores are more scarce.

Albizzia procera Benth.

Weight 39-40 Ibs. (average of Gamble's specimens, 46 Ibs.).

India.

VERN — Safed sins, gurar, karra, karo, karanji, gurbdri, gurkur, halsis,
baro, karolu, garso, Hind. — Karallu, kini, kilai, kill, hhin, Bombay
— Takmur, Lepcha — Koroi, medeloa, Beng., Ass. — Kilt, Gnro— -
Sarapatn, Unya — Pandrai, K61 — Garso, Kharwar — Laokn, Mechi
— Guy a man] a, Khond — Passer ginni, Gondi — Kinm, Bhil —
Gurar, kinhai, Mar — Konda vaghe, Tam. — Pedda patseru, tella
sopara, tella chinduga, Tel — Chikul, bcllati, Kan — Kottu vaga,
karunthagara, Mai — Choi, Magh — Sibok, thitpyu, sit, Burm —
Bur da, And.

The produce of this tree, known in India as " white siris " and " sit "
in Burma, is entirely unknown under these names in the United Kingdom.
It is probable that it has been imported, mixed with the produce of A.
Lebbek (Koko) (q.v.).

The wood is of a brown walnut shade, tinged with red or yellow ; it
is lustrous and bright, and inclined to be streaky, but without the dark
lines which are characteristic of European walnut. The sap-wood is not
durable. The wood is often straight-grained and mild, although much
of it is figured, and it stands well under all conditions. Gamble reports
it as " straight and even-grained, seasons well, and the heart-wood is
durable." It is used in India for a variety of purposes, which include
wheels, agricultural implements, bridges, and house-posts.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 13

The timber was tested for aircraft work at the Forest Research Institute
at Dehra Dan, India, in 1918, with the following results :

Transverse strength .... 8*02 tons per sq. in.

Fibre stress at elastic limit . . . 4-77 ,,

Modulus of elasticity . . . . 2-071,162

Compression . . . . . 4-73 tons per sq. in.

Shearing (detrusion) . . . . i'io ,, ,,

The pores are scarce and rather large and open, with smaller ones
which are occasionally plugged. The medullary rays are fine, and show
very clearly in the radial section, in the same way as in sycamore.

Albizzia stipulata Boivin.

Weight 22-45 Ibs. (Gamble). Southern India, Burma, Ceylon,

The Andamans.

VKKN — Oi, oet sirin, shirsha, kasir, Ph. — Siran, kanujerla, pattia, sam-
sundra, Hind. — Kala sins, Nep — Singnang, Lepcha — Sau, Ass.
— Sclcho, Garo — Chakua, amlitki, Beng. — Chapun, kora serum,
K61 — Bunsobn, Mechi — Kat turanji, pili vagel, Tarn — Konda
chiragu, chmdaga, Tel — Kal baghi, hote baghi, bagana, Kan. —
Laeli, ndul, kasir, Mar. — Motta vaga, Mai. — Goin, Khond —
Kabal, Cingh — Pokoh, Magh — Bonmeza, Burm.

The colour is a lighter red than that of A . odoratissima, but in other
respects, such as grain and texture, there is no material difference. If
supplies of this wood could reach the market in fair sizes and good quality,
it would become popular.

The pores vary in size from small to large, and are invariably plugged.
The medullary rays are exceedingly fine, irregular, and indefinite.

ALDER. Alnus glutinosa Gaert.

Weight 26-41 Ibs. (Stone).

Although this tree is widely distributed in temperate Europe, Asia,
and North Africa, in an area extending from the British Isles to Japan,
the timber used in Great Britain is almost entirely of British growth, an
exception being that of ply-wood, which is imported.

The wood is reddish-white, soft and light, and possesses a smooth,
fine grain. It has a somewhat soft yet tough surface, which is rubber-
like and resilient, so that a light blow causes a temporary depression un-
accompanied by any considerable permanent indentation. It is used in
the manufacture of clogs, soles of shoes, and toys, also in turnery and the
cheaper forms of cabinet work. Being extremely durable when wholly
submerged, it has provided the material for dram pipes, sluice gates, and
so forth ; in fact, Holtzapffel states that the piles of the Rialto at Venice
were composed of this wood. In America it has been used in the manu-

14 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

facture of combs. Alder charcoal has long been employed in the manu-
facture of gunpowder. Recently it has been used in large quantities for
ply-veneer of all kinds, especially for trunks, tea-boxes, packing-cases,
and the like. Still more recently such ply-veneer has been forthcoming
from Japan, where wood of excellent quality, though slightly redder than
European alder, is found. Since its utilisation in this connection there
has been a good demand. Very handsome card- and cigarette-cases
have been made from dark-grained, richly figured, gnarled pieces, but
more profitable employment could be found if its good properties were
better studied.

The annual rings are distinct in cross-section ; the pores are invisible
to the naked eye, as are most of the medullary rays, but some of the latter,
when aggregated, form dull-edged " false rays." Pith flecks are present.

ALDER, FORMOSAN. Alnus maritima Nutt. var. formosana Burhill.
Weight 33 Ibs. Formosa.

The wood is of a light yellow, straw colour ; it has a bright sheen and
takes a smooth surface. It is streaked with thin, reddish lines caused by
the medullary rays, which show very strongly on the radial section, as in
oak. Being of a very good texture, it gives every promise of standing
well, without liability to warp or twist. It has never been imported into
England, but would be very useful for a great number of purposes.
Mitsui & Co. report (1920) that an available supply of one million and a
half cubic feet exists.

The pores, which are very numerous, are small ; the medullary rays
are strong and clearly defined, with a number of secondary smaller rays
between the stronger and principal ones.

ALDER, RED. Alnus oregona Nutt.

South-eastern Alaska to California.

The colour is light brown tinged with red. The wood soft, light,
brittle, not strong, close-grained ; it is used in the United States for
furniture.

ALDER, WHITE. Alnus rhombifolia Nutt.

North America.

A light brown wood, brittle, soft, close-grained, not strong, and light
in weight. Sometimes used for furniture, canoes, charcoal.

ALERCE. Fitzroya patagonica Hook.

Weight 28 Ibs. Temperate South America.

This wood, the name of which is derived from the Arabic " al arzar,"
meaning " cedar," has the characteristic grain of the thuya and cypress,

ur inn WUKJLJJ 15

md is of about the same weight. In colour it is of a reddish hue, deepen-
ng with exposure to light and air, to a brilliant rich, warm red, with
dternate lighter and darker streaks. Elwes says that in Chile, where it
s largely used for shingles, it often turns to a blue colour, making the roofs
ook as though they were covered with slates. It is easy to work, is
capable of a smooth surface from the tool, and stands well under all con-
litions. It is not known commercially in the United Kingdom, but it
vould undoubtedly be in demand for a variety of decorative and other
vork, if any regular supply were available, especially as it is reported to
>e very durable.

The name alerce is also applied in Chile to the produce of Libocedrus
etragona, another coniferous wood, but the true alerce is of the above-
lamed species.

Lord Powerscourt has sent me a piece of a tree, thirty years old,
*rown at Powerscourt Castle, in Ireland, capable of yielding a piece of
vood of a diameter of ten inches. The growth is similar in every respect
o that of the tree in its native land, except that the concentric layers are
vider, the tree having made rapid growth.

The concentric layers, which are strongly defined, are very close, and
>how a slow-growing wood. The medullary rays are marked, and show
m the radial section in fine flecks.

\LIGNA. Afzelia africana Sm.

Nigeria.

Reported by the Imperial Institute as a hard wood of light colour and
*ood general character, suitable for solid doors, stair treads, and general
oinery. It would probably command a price near to that of Iroko.

\LMOND, EUROPEAN. Prunus Amygdalus Stokes
Amygdalus communis Linn.
Weight 43 Ibs. Europe.

The colour is dull reddish-brown, with darker veins. It is of but
ilight commercial use in turnery and marquetry.

The medullary rays are well marked, and the pores, except in the pore
:one, are very small.

\LMOND WOOD.

See Chickrassia tabular is.

VLMOND WOOD, CUBA.
See NARGUSTA.

16 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Alnus nepalensis Don.

Weight 27-28 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Kohi, koe, Pb. — Kunch, Bashahr — Kuntz, ni, newn, Sutlej — Utis,
ud^sh, wusta, N.-W.P. — Utis, Kumaon — Pusdla, Jaunsar — Kums,
Garhwal — Boshi swa, udis, utis, Nep. — Kowal, Lepcha.

A specimen plank of this wood was sent over for the 1924 Exhibition,
which is probably the only occasion upon which it has been imported into
the United Kingdom.

It appears to be similar m all respects to the Alnus of Great Britain,
although perhaps slightly lighter in weight, and more unevenly coloured
with brown stains.

Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees.

Weight 47-63 Ibs. (Gamble). Western India, Ceylon.

VERN — Nelthare, Kan. — Phudgus, Mar. — Ranai, yavaranai, Tarn.—
Wewaram, Cingh

Trimen says that this is one of the best timber trees of Ceylon, the
wood being heavy, durable, and straight-grained, and obtainable in large
sizes. My Ceylon specimen does not confirm this, as it shows an inclina-
tion to flaky shakes and worm holes. The colour is yellowish-brown with
darker streaks. It has a very close, firm, and exceedingly smooth
texture.

Gamble quotes Unwin : " Weight 63 Ibs. per cubic foot ; shearing
strength 927 Ibs. per square inch ; crushing strength 2-605 tons per square
inch ; coefficient of elasticity 459 tons per square inch," and states that
the Ceylon specimen gave only 47 Ibs. to the foot cube.

The very numerous pores are exceedingly small and plugged. Medul-
lary rays so fine as to be hardly discernible under the lens.

Alstonia scholaris Br.

Weight 28 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon, India, Burma.

VERN — Chatwan, chatinn, Beng — Satiun, chatmn, sat win, satni, Hind. —
Lationj, Kumaon — Chatiwan, Nep. — Purbo, Lepcha — Satidna,
Ass. — Chhatidna, Unya — Chhatm, Sonthal — Chhatm, Mai Pahari
— Chatni, bomudu, K61 — Chochma, Khond — Satwtn, saptaparm,
Mar. — Sattm, Cachar — Pala, wodrase, elilaip-palai, mukampalei,
Tam. — Eda-kula, pala garuda, Tel. — Mukampala, ehla-pala,
kodapala, Mai. — Janthalla, mudhol, kodale, Kan. — Rukattana,
Cingh. — Chaile, chalain, Magh — Taungmeok, taungsaga, lettok,
Burm.

A soft, light straw-coloured wood, yielding a fairly smooth surface
from the tool. Not durable, or of particular value.

The pores are very small and scarce. The medullary rays are very

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 17

fine, not straight, and with finer and almost invisible rays spaced at
irregular intervals.

Altingia excelsa Noronha.

Weight 46-47 Ibs. British India, Assam, Burma,

Java.
VERN — Jutih, Ass. — Nantayok, Burm.

Gamble says this is a lofty tree, and that the crown is often over 140
feet from the ground and remarkably straight. The colour is a dull
reddish-brown, with a fine, close grain, the wood yielding a rough surface
from the tool. The tangential section is slightly lustrous, caused by in-
numerable tiny specks of shining resinous (?) gum. Like pyinkado, it is
desirable to convert as soon as possible after felling, as the wood becomes
very hard and all tools are severely blunted. Gamble reports it as the
chief building material in Java, where he says it " grows to an enormous
size."

The strange limitation of the Indian Forestry Service is again em-
phasised when we see a splendid hardwood of this description used for
" indoor work in dry places, but too heavy for tea-boxes." If it is avail-
able in any quantity, and large sizes and long lengths can be secured, as
stated, far more important uses should be found.

The concentric layers are marked by dark lines at varying intervals.
The numerous minute pores, largely plugged, are confined between strong,
clearly defined, very variable sized medullary rays, which are very numer-
ous and show on the radial section brightly, in the tiniest of flecks.

AMARANTH or AMARANTH. Peltogyne sp.

Weight about 62 Ibs. (Record). Brazil, The Guianas, Central

America, Mexico.

The names " amaranth " and " amarante " have been applied especi-
ally in France and Germany to any brilliant purple or reddish-purple
coloured wood, including sabicu and padauk from either Africa, the
Andamans, Burma, or Indo-Chin, and also for other varieties of Ptero-
carpus sp. The names also have been used for the true purpleheart (q.v.)
Peltogyne paniculata, which has come from British, French, or Dutch
Guiana. A distinction has sometimes been drawn by calling the par-
ticular wood in question red amarante or purple amarante.

AMARELLA.

See ARARIBA.

AMARELLO. Source unknown.

Weight 49 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a beautiful, decorative furniture wood with a very fine texture
and grain. It is of a bright golden-yellow colour, with a lustrous appear -

i8 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

ance as the light falls upon it from different angles, and shows a nice
figure even in my small sample 2 inches by 2| inches. Colonel Gamble
says that it is much used for furniture locally. In appearance it is re-
markably like the bois de corail (Adenanthera pavonina) of the Andaman.
Islands.

The specimen in Colonel Gamble's collection marked " amarello " as
described above, bears a very close resemblance to that marked " amarello
vinhatico " which Record identifies as Pithecolobium vinhatico ; also
another specimen marked " piquia marfim " identified as the Aspidosperma
eburneum ; another marked " piquia " only, which possibly may be
Caryocar villosum ; and still one more marked " piquia peroba " which
is Aspidosperma tomentosum. All bear a strong resemblance, yet with
some differences. It is impossible here to make any definite pronounce-
ment regarding these woods and, therefore, they are reported under their
different names (q.v.).

The concentric layers are marked by thin white lines, the innumerable
tiny pores are all plugged, with somewhat indistinct, coarse medullary
rays, which show faintly on the radial section.

AMARELLO VINHATICO. Pithecolobium Vinhatico (Record).
Weight 49 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Vinhatico, vinhatico de espinho, vinhatico de macaco, amarello,
Braz. — Tatane', tatane bianco, espinollo, tatare', Arg. — Gold wood.

The specimen in Colonel Gamble's collection marked " amarello vin-
hatico " is of a warm nut-brown colour, with a straight, firm, hard grain,
and a fine texture. There are two small pin worm holes in the specimen,
which indicate that the wood is liable to this attack ; but except for this
defect, it is a very valuable wood, and might readily pass as true mahogany.
The two specimens — namely, that marked " amarello " only (q.v.), and
that marked " amarello vinhatico " — closely resemble each other, and the
structure of the wood appears identical. Record's description also in-
dicates that they are the same wood.

For identification see AMARELLO.

AMBOYNA. Source unknown.

Weight 39 Ibs. Borneo, The Moluccas.

The name amboyna, or kiabooca, which is the native Malay name
meaning, literally, " twisted wood," is applied to certain burrs imported
from the Moluccas (including Amboyna) and Borneo. Whether these
are all derived from the same species of tree is unknown ; various writers
attribute them to the species of Pterocarpus or Pterospermum, or to a
member of the mahogany family (F Under sia ?).

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 19

The wood is brown, tinged with yellow or red, but changes with age
to a dull-brown leather colour. It is marked with little twisted curls and
knots in a manner similar to, but more varied than, bird's-eye maple.
With the naked eye it is difficult to distinguish between the burrs of
Amboyna-wood and thuya, or even, according to some authorities, of
yew ; but though the burr-wood of the yew is similar to that of the other
two as regards colour, it is nevertheless unlike them in all other respects.

Amboyna-wood has been freely utilised in the manufacture of orna-
mental furniture, especially during the Empire period (1804-14), but after
this time its use gradually declined. Quite recently, however, a revival
took place on the Continent, particularly in Paris, where a considerable
quantity of fine burrs were converted into veneers, and employed in
making up costly furniture, and interior decorations in motor-cars.

Several years ago some very fine burrs were imported into Paris under
the name of " false Amboyna-wood," which measured up to 3 feet in
length and 20 inches in width. With the naked eye it is almost impossible
to distinguish these from true Amboyna-wood, but they possess a strong
and variable scent, sometimes pleasant but often otherwise. It has not
been found possible to trace either the geographical or the botanical
source of these burrs. They probably may belong to one or more species
of Pterocarpus from the French colonies

AMLA-KA.

See Phyllanthus Emblica.

Amoora Rohituka Wight et Arn.

Weight 35 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Burma, Anda-

mans.

VERN — Rohituka, Sans — Harm harva, hann khana, Hind. — Sohdga, Oudh
— Tikta-raj, pitraj, B^ng. — Bandnphal, Nep. — Tangaruk, Lepcha
— Lota aman, amora aman, Ass. — Okhioungza, okhyang, Magh —
Sihru, K61 — Chem-maram, Mai — Thitni, thanthatkyi, Burm.
Amoora.

Pearson and Brown in Commercial Timbers of India report that the
wood is " red when first exposed, ageing to deep reddish-brown . . .
somewhat lustrous . . . straight or somewhat interlocked-grained, coarser
textured. ... It should make up into excellent three-ply boards. . . .
It is a timber that should command a ready market in large commercial
centres, and is worth cultivating."

Amoora Wallichii King.

Weight 40-48 Ibs. India, Burma, The

Andaman Islands.
VERN — Aman, Ass.

The colour is a dull reddish-brown, with a contrary hard and soft

20 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

grain, which produces an irregular surface detrimental to its appearance ;
not suitable for export.

The pores are very variable in size and are often subdivided. The
medullary rays exceedingly fine though clearly defined, crossed at right
angles by almost indistinguishable similar fine lines.

AMYRIS WOOD. Amyris balsamifera L. West Indies, Northern

vSouth America.

The " West Indian " or " Venezuelan Sanda-lwood."
Record reports this wood as " with fragrant or sometimes rather un-
pleasant odor . . . brittle, easy to work, takes a lustrous polish, very
oily specimens appear highly durable."

Anacardium occidental Linn.

Weight 30-39 Ibs. (Gamble). India, The Andamans.

VERN — Kaju, Hind. — Hijuh, Beng — Kola mava, mundin, Tarn — Kajit,
Mar. — Jidi, kcmpu geru, godambc, Kan. — Gent mavu, Dharwar —
Thihothayet, casheiv-mit, shitkale, Burm. — Caju, Cingh

This is the " cashew-nut " tree. According to Gamble it was im-
ported into India from America. The wood is of a dirty, pinkish-brown
colour, with a poor grain ; not likely to prove durable, and more useful
as a medicine or as an astringent, than for its timber.

The pores are somewhat scarce, and plugged. The very numerous
medullary rays are confused, and hardly discernible under the lens.

ANAN. Fagraea fragrans Roxb.

F. gigantea Ridl.

Weight 60 Ibs. Burma.

VERN — A nan, Burm. — Lemesu, menang, reriang, temesu, Malay.

This timber was unknown in the United Kingdom until 1920, when
it was shipped among the specimens for the Empire Exhibition at Holland
Park. It was then noticed that occasional logs of the same timber, un-
named, had been shipped previously, but being unknown and receiving
no recognition, were disposed of at ridiculously inadequate prices, and
used in the wrong manner. Anan is a very fine timber, possessing remark-
ably durable qualities. Gamble quotes it as resisting teredo, and as
being found good and sound after three hundred years. He says it is one
of the most important of the second-class trees of Burma, but it might
rank in the first class. Several articles of decorative woodwork con-
structed from this wood were exhibited at both the 1920 Exhibition and
the Wembley Exhibition of 1924, and these were conspicuous for their
outstanding qualities of strength and appearance.

A variety of this tree known as Tembusu (Fagraea gigantea), although

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 21

not abundant, is widely distributed throughout the Malay Peninsula, and
is considered very durable. It is useful in contact with the ground or
water, and for heavy construction.

It is close-grained and of a light yellowish-red colour ; possesses a
bright metallic lustre, and is capable of a very smooth surface from the
tool. The pores are very scarce and obscure, and form a pretty ripple
mark on the radial section.

ANGELIM. Andira spectabilis ? (Dept. of Agriculture, Rio).

Weight 69 Ibs. Brazil.

My specimen is of a dull brick-red colour, with a close and compact
texture, and a faint but well-defined mottle across the tangential section,
showing more strongly on the radial section, much resembling partridge
wood (Andira sp.).

Record makes no reference to this timber and it may be that it is
identical with Angelim rosa (q.v.).

The pores are large and oval in shape, each one surrounded by a
patch of loose tissue. The medullary rays are very fine and numerous.

ANGELIM AMARGOSA. Andira vermifuga Mart.

A. anthelminthica Benth.

Weight 49 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Angelim amargosa, angehm dos campos, aracui, aracuhy, Brazil.

This wood is of a dark brown colour, streaked with lighter bands. It
would be useful as a decorative art wood, although Baterden, who gives
it as the produce of the above species, says that it is used in Brazil for
sleepers.

Bates in The Naturalist on the Amazons mentions an " engaging "
custom amongst a savage tribe of Indians, the Mundurucus, who inhabit
the shores of the River Tapajos, in which this tree figures : " They had
a diabolical custom of cutting off the heads of their slain enemies, and
preserving them as trophies around their houses. They used to sever
the head with knives and then, after taking out the brain and fleshy
parts, soak it in the bitter vegetable oil of this tree, and then expose it for
several days over the smoke of a fire or in the sun ! "

The pores are usually in groups of four or five, each group in a patch
of loose, pale-coloured tissue. The numerous medullary rays are ex-
ceedingly fine and are scarcely discernible even under the lens.

ANGELIM PEDRA. Andira spectabilis Said. ?

Weight 49 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a pale reddish-brown wood with white streaks ; it is close-
grained and in general appearance it resembles partridge wood, though

22 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

the colour is not the same. The specimen is riddled with small worm
holes, and therefore it is likely that the wood will generally be liable to
this defect.

Colonel Gamble quotes this as being produced by andira spectabilis,
but Record states it to be the Rio de Janeiro angelim amargosa.

The pores are very numerous, and appear in groups of four and five,
surrounded by pale loose tissue. The medullary rays are very fine and
numerous.

ANGELIM-ROSA. Platycyamus Regnellii Benth.
Weight 47 Ibs. (Record). Brazil.

VERN — Pereira, pdo pereira, pereira amarella, pereira vermelha, folha de
bolo, camay a de bilro, pdo pente, angehm rosa, Braz.

My specimen is brown-coloured, rather porous, but strong. Record
describes it as " colour, rose red, more or less variegated with a yellowish
hue, fading upon exposure to yellowish-brown/'

Whether this wood is identical with Angelim, andira spectabilis (q.v.),
it seems impossible to determine. Record makes no reference to andira
spectabilis.

ANGELIQUE. Dicorynia paraensis Benth.

Weight 49-53 Ibs. British, French, and Dutch Guiana.

VERN — Angehque, angelique rouge, angehque franc, angelique gris, Fr G —
Basra lokus, bastard locus, kabakally, bois angelique, Sur. — A ngehca
do Para, Braz.

The tree is of a straight growth, and yields logs 12 to 22 inches square
by 20 to 54 feet in length, clear of branches. It is known as " angelique "
in French Guiana ; as " bastard locust " or " basralocus " in Dutch
Guiana ; and is also probably known as " nutwood/' although a specimen
of so-called nutwood which came from Dutch Guiana is not altogether in
agreement with any authentic specimen of angelique.

The wood is of a reddish-brown colour, clean and even in the grain,
moderately hard, tough, strong, elastic, and not difficult to work, although
it does not cleave easily. Occasionally a few logs are found with a wavi-
ness or figure in the grain, which would make them valuable to the
cabinet-maker. There is little sap-wood. The timber is very sound and
free from knots, and except that a small percentage of the logs have a
slight heart-shake, or perhaps star-shake, at the pith or centre, there are
no defects affecting the conversion of it into planks, etc. It has been said
that the wood does not rot in water, that it is proof against attacks from
many insects to which other timber is liable, and that it is durable.
Occasionally it is found that in working, some of the logs emit an un-
pleasant odour.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 23

Three varieties of angelique, black, red, and white, are distinguishable ;
the description here given concerns the brownish-red kind. Beauverie
says that the wood finds little use in France, because it is supposed to
cause nails to rust. For many years the import into the United King-
dom has entirely ceased, but m 1914, during the war, a small shipment of
logs from Surinam, hewn square, was placed on the market under the
name of " nutwood."

The wood shows no distinct annual rings. Its pores are large,
scattered, and not numerous ; they contain a white, or reddish, but
opaque and glistening substance. The medullary rays are very fine, and
are almost invisible ; they are joined at right angles (in cross-section) by
many shorter or longer, light, wavy concentric lines, which are just
visible to the naked eye, and show independently of the pores, though
here and there linking with these. The tangential view reveals, even to
the naked eye, beautiful tiered structure or ripple marks, which are
especially distinct on the lighter-coloured wood, and resemble, in minia-
ture, the ripple marks on a sandy shore, or the patterns in finger-prints.

ANGico. Piptadenia rigida Benth.

Weight 71 Ibs. Brazil.

VEKN — -Angico, angico vermelho, angico verdadeiro, Braz. — Angico, angico
Colorado, anchico Colorado, ciirupav-rd, Arg.

The colour is " a pale reddish-brown. It is used for heavy construc-
tion and appears to be durable " (Record).

Aniba panurensis Mez.

Weight 37-43 Ibs. (Record). Brazil, French Guiana.

I have a specimen marked " Anuiba " which agrees with Record's
description of the above. The colour is a bright greenish-yellow, with a
lustrous surface, reported to darken with exposure ; a very close, firm
grain, capable of a very smooth finish and reported as durable and
splitting easily.

The small pores are scarce, plugged, in uniform position, evenly dis-
tributed, with very fine, clear medullary rays which show faintly on the
radial section.

Anisophyllea zeylanica Benth.

Weight 35 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon.

VERN — W£li-penna, iveli-piyanna, Cingh.

A yellow wood, with a tinge of red in it, and a grain resembling that
of English yew — close, firm, and hard. A very attractive cabinet wood
for small work.

24 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The pores are excessively small and plugged. The medullary rays
very clear and fine, with irregular wavy belts of lighter markings, some-
what following the lines of the concentric layers.

Anogeissus acuminata Wall.

Weight 50 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Chakwa, Beng. — Panchi, past, Unya — Numma, Tarn. — Pdchi
mdnu, panchman, paunchinan, bucha karum, pashi, pansi, Tel —
Ghor dhok, Jeypore — Gara hescl, pandri, pansi, K61. — Phds,
phasst, Mar. — Satkamehhta, thekn napay, Magh — Yung, sehoong,
Arracan — Yon, Burm.

This valuable wood, which is very popular in Burma, where it is
known by the name of " yt"n," is fairly plentiful. It has been imported
into the United Kingdom during the last few years, but has not found
much favour, although it is a strong, useful timber, and is favoured by
the oil mills in Burma for their heavy constructive work. The wood is of
a dull grey colour streaked with yellow and brown, and of a very hard,
close, firm texture It seasons well, but is difficult to work. If its true
value were fully realised, it would be greatly in request for strong, durable
woodwork in this country.

Under its Burmese name of " yon " it has been used in Burma for
structural work, for oil wells, and experimented upon rather extensively
for the manufacture of tool and pick handles, as a substitute for hickory
and ash, but although it may be possible that it can be employed in India
and Burma economically for these purposes, it is unlikely that the wood
will be able to compete.

The pores are exceedingly small and numerous. They are generally
in groups which make rather a pretty pattern, and the concentric layers
show in a rather irregular manner. The medullary rays are exceedingly
numerous and very fine, though under the lens they show clearly on the
radial section.

Anogeissus latifolia Wall.

Weight 62 Ibs. (Gamble). India.

VERN — Dhaura, dhaun, dhau, dhdwa, dhauta, dohut bdkla, bdkh, bdnkh,
Hind. — Golra, goldia, goha dhok, dhaukra, dhokn, dau, Rajputana
— Khardhdwa, Banda — Gona, goha dhau, Merwara — Dhaora,
dhamora, Berar — Dhauta, seya, Koderma — Hesel, Son thai, K61. —
Vellay naga, namme, veckah, Tarn. — Chinman, shenman, vettama,
tirman, yella maddi, Tel. — Dohu, dhobu, Uriya — Dhaori, dhamora,
dhaunda, dandua, dhavada, Mar. — Mala kdnjiram, Mai. — Dinduga,
dindlu, bejalu, dtndal, Kan. — Arma, yerma, Gondi — Dhawa,
Baigas — Dhaundak, Bhil — Dhaura, Kurku — Muniah, minah,
Khond — Sinkara, Palkonda — Vellema, Reddi — Dawu, Cmgh.

The colour is a pale bluish-yellow, somewhat like bleached hare-wood,
but not the stained sycamore which commonly passes for it. The wood

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 25

has a close, firm grain, and extraordinary strength and elasticity ; so
much so that it has been found impossible, even with a foul blow, to break
a golf club shaft, but although it possesses a considerable degree of
resilience, it is too heavy for this purpose. It is used extensively in
India for the handles of all kinds of tools, for which it is considered the
best wood possible. It seasons and stands well, and would be a suitable
wood for chair-making. A fair proportion of the supplies produce good
figured pieces with mottle.

Under the name of axle-wood this timber is referred to in the Imperial
Institute Bulletin 29, No. 2. Reference is there made to its use as sub-
stitute for hickory and ash for the manufacture of tool and implement
handles. While it may be found a competitor for these purposes in
India, it is unlikely that it can compete for these uses in the United
Kingdom, with the woods which have been continually used up to the
present, and others which are coming to the fore

The pores are numerous and regular, and arc joined by wavy belts of
light lines forming a very pretty pattern. The medullary rays, which
are fine and clear-cut, are exceedingly numerous and parallel and are
almost equidistant.

Anthocephalus Cadamba Miq.

Weight 25-50 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Assam.

VERN — Kaddam, karam, Hind., Beng. — Bol-kadam, Chittagong — Pandur,
Lepcha — Kodum, Mechi — Roghu, Ass. — Kadambo, Unya —
Kurambo, Kurku — Sanko, K61 — Vella cadamba, Tarn. — Kadambe,
riidrak-shamba, Tel — Pedda soko, Recldi — Heltega, arsanatega,
Mysore — Kadam, nhvu, Mar. — Maoo, sanvepang, Magh — Ma-u,
ma-ugaungdon, ma-ukadon, ve-ma-u, Burm — Embul-bakmi, Cingh.

An indifferent wood with a dirty stainy yellowish colour, and having
a porous and soft grain. It has no general commercial interest. Gamble
quotes the weight as ranging from 25 Ibs. to 50 Ibs., the latter being from
a sample taken from Darjeeling, and speaks of 40 Ibs. per cubic foot as an
average. But it seems very doubtful that a wood of the character of my
specimen could weigh so heavily.

The pores are scarce, fairly uniform in size and position. Medullary
rays very fine, confused and hardly discernible under the lens.

APITONG. Dipterocarpus spp.

Weight 40-41 Ibs. The Philippines, Bor-

neo, Malaya.

VERN — Krmnt kruen, krewing, tcmpoeroew, palaglar, dau-con-rai, eng,
gurjun, hora, kalub puteh, kapor ulut karubang, Karubang tudan,
lalungkab, selangan babi, takam bukit, bagac, Philippine mahogany.

The question of what exactly is apitong, Philippine mahogany, tan-
guile, or bagac presents some difficulties. This subject has been dealt with

26 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

generally in the article Lauan. Timber first offered in Liverpool many
years ago under the name of " apitong," that more recently seen styled
" Philippine mahogany/' and specimens of so-called " bagac " have varied
in colour, texture, weight, and general character of grain. The multiplica-
tion of vernacular names in the country of origin, with the additional
confusion caused by the introduction of different varieties of Diptero-
carpacaea, taken in conjunction with the apparent practice of the Trade
to call the timber different names according to circumstances, all combine
together to make it impossible to speak very definitely about this wood.
This has also been noticed by Luis J. Reyes, Wood Technologist, Philip-
pine Bureau of Forestry, who remarks that " there has been, during the
last ten to fifteen years, a noticeable change in the quality of woods now
found in the market from those of twenty-five years ago." The colour
is generally of a reddish-brown, and it has a somewhat coarse grain.
Irregular and unexpected results are experienced in the seasoning, the
expansion and contraction of the wood varying in different shipments,
necessitating careful handling and examination.

The Philippine Bureau of Forestry recommend the wood for high-grade
flooring, and as being durable for interior work. A floor in an old house
in Manila is reported to be in excellent condition after at least fifty years.
It is also used for sleepers, bridging, telegraph poles, and other construc-
tional works, but it does not resist the attack of the white ant.

Apitong. — The pores are scarce, large, in singles and duplicates, open,
with a coarse, wavy medullary ray, rather frayed on the edges, showing
prominently on the radial section.

Bagac. — Has numerous pores, from very small to medium size, mostly
plugged ; with close, fine, irregular medullary rays, which show on the
radial section faintly.

APPLE. Pyrus Malus Linn.

Weight 48 Ibs. 3 oz. Europe.

The heart-wood of apple is hard and reddish-brown, while the sap-
wood is light red. When thoroughly seasoned it stands well, but is very
apt to warp and split during the process. It is used for a variety of pur-
poses, these including cog-wheels and turnery, and it has been utilised
for the heads of golf clubs.

The annual rings are recognisable, though not marked ; both pores
and medullary rays are invisible to the naked eye.

APPLE, OREGON CRAB. Malus rivularis Roem.

Alaska, British Columbia, California.

The colour is light brown tinged with red, the wood very close-grained,
hard, and heavy. It is used for mallets, tool handles, machinery bearings.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 27

Aquilaria Agallocha Roxb.

Weight 23-29 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Ugur, Hind., Beng. — Sasi, hasi, Ass. — Akyau, Burm. — Kayu
garu, Malay.

Gamble, quoting Kurz, says this wood is used by the Karens for
making bows. He remarks that : "In the interior of old trees are some-
times found irregular masses of harder and darker-coloured wood, with
a honeylike scent, which constitute the Eaglewood of commerce/' An
experimental shipment was made of this wood for the 1924 Exhibition,
but it received no recognition. " Pores small and moderate-sized, in
short radial lines. Medullary rays fine, numerous ; the distance between
two consecutive rays less than the transverse diameter of the pores.
Numerous short transverse bands of pores and intercellular ducts filled
with a brownish substance " (Gamble).

ARARIBA. Centrolobium sp.

Brazil.

According to Record, " Arariba is the generic common name in the
markets of Rio de Janeiro and San Paulo for the various woods of the genus
Centrolobium. The kinds commonly recognised are ' amarella/ ' branca/
' rosa/ and ' vermelha.' " The great confusion regarding the timbers
of tropical America, because of the duplication of names, is particularly
emphasised in the case of those timbers called amarillo, amarello, and
amarilho. While Professor Record's work has helped the student, there
are still many cases in which correct identification remains impossible.
He reports amarello as the vernacular of the product of Pithecolobium
Vinhatico, also of Plathymenia reticulata ; amarilho and amarillo, of
Terminalia aff. januarensis ; amarillo, of Aspidosperma Vargasii.

In Colonel Gamble's collection there are three specimens, one marked
" amarello," which is a beautiful Spanish mahogany-like wood, with fine
splash mottle figure, so like mahogany indeed that the expert might
identify it as such ; one marked " potumuju " which is like a fine-grained,
hard Costa Rica mahogany ; and one marked " arariba roza " which is
of a pale yellow colour, with a close, compact grain, the minute pores
shining with brilliant sparkling gum. These three specimens are beautiful
in colour, appearance, and wood structure.

Amarello. — The concentric layers are clearly marked by thin, dark
lines, the rather small pores plugged, surrounded by light rings or tissue,
with rather coarse, irregular, indistinct medullary rays, not following the
usual straight lines.

Potumuju. — The concentric layers are marked by strong, dark lines,
the very numerous, very small pores are entirely plugged, with medullary
rays so fine that they are hardly discernible under the lens.

28 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Arariba roza. — The very numerous, tiny pores are half the size of those
in potumuju, with strong, well-defined medullary rays straight, pro-
nounced, and showing on the radial section in tiny flecks.

According to Record the prevailing colour of " arariba " is yellow
often variegated with red or black streaks, it is durable and hard, used
for naval architecture, fancy woodwork, and railway ties It splits
readily, and when worked against the grain is likely to tear out. He says
that this timber should not be confused with " arariba " (Pinckneya
rubescens). He further remarks that in Bahia " arariba " is commonly
known as " putumuju " with the various specific designations already
mentioned. As already noticed, Colonel Gamble's specimen marked
" potumuju " differs from that marked " arariba roza/'

Arariba Sickingia sp. and Arariba vermelha 5. rubra K. Sch. are
reported separately (q.v ).

ARARIBA. Sickingia sp.

Weight 55 Ibs. (Record). Brazil.

VERN — Arariba, arariba vermelha, arariba roxo, arariba rosa, ararcua,
Braz. — Paraguatan, Venez. — Coloradito ?, candehllo ?, Col.

Record treats this as identical with Arariba vermelha (Sickingia
rubra), but Colonel Gamble's specimen is different, as stated

Record differentiates between arariba of the Centrolobium sp. by means
of an accent on the last " a," while that of the Sickingia family has no
accent.

ARARIBA VERMELHA. Sickingia r libra K. Sch.

Brazil

Record would seem to treat this as identical with the foregoing
arariba, Sickingia sp. But Colonel Gamble has a specimen with the
name A. vermelha, and the source given as Sickingia rubra, which is a
bright red colour, with dark streaks, and which he reports as used for the
same purposes as arariba (as he terms it).

As with so many other Brazilian timbers, there is much confusion,
which renders certain identification impossible.

Araucaria Bidwilli Hook.

Queensland.

This wood, locally known as " bunya-bunya," is regarded as the pine
of North-east Australia.

It is a useful, straight -grained, light - coloured wood, resembling
pine.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 29

Araucaria imbricata Pav.

Weight 20 Ibs. South America.

This tree, familiar in English gardens under the name of " monkey
puzzle," is a native of Southern Chile. The wood, in colour and grain,
resembles a very mild, straight-grained deal (Pinus sylvestris), but shows
a smoother surface, and has no resin-passages. The timber has not been
sufficiently tested in this country to permit of definite statements as to its
uses. The trees grown in England would also yield wood with too many
faults, due to the rosettes of knots which represent the clusters of branches,
so that it could not be used for work requiring strength, or where long
lengths free from defect were needed. In other respects it would be
useful in joiners' work.

ARBOR VITAE. Thuya occidentalis Linn.

Weight 19 Ibs. (Gibson). North America.

This soft coniferous wood is seldom encountered in commerce. Gibson
(American Forest Trees, p. 97) says that " the wood is soft, brittle, light
and weak . . . very inflammable. The fact that it is durable even in
contact with the soil permits its use for railway ties, telegraph poles,
posts, fencing, shingles, and boats "

Arbutus unedo Linn. Southern Europe, Asia

Minor, Southern
Britain.

This is known as the " strawberry tree " on account of the strawberry-
like fruit which it bears. In Ireland, where the tree attains a height of
40 feet, with a girth of 10 feet, it is called " caithne " and " cuince." It
is said that it was introduced into Great Britain in 1586.

The wood is reddish-brown in colour, with a hard, close grain, rather
liable to split, and taking a good polish. It can be used in ornamental
cabinet work, inlaying or parquetry.

The minute pores are scarce, with pronounced variable-sized medullary
rays, which show on the radial section as in sycamore.

Sargent mentions three other varieties of Arbutus known as Madrona

(?•»•)•

ARERE.

See OBECHI.

ARISAURU. Pterocarpus gutanensis Aubl.

Weight 46! Ibs. (Stone & Freeman). British Guiana.
VERN — Arisouroo, dartrier, ounsoura, B.G. — graine a dartre, Fr. G.
The colour is yellow to brownish-red, wkh richer-coloured heart-wood
and a lustrous surface, slightly darkening on exposure. It is fairly soft

30 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

and light, with a coarse, open grain, stands exposure to weather well and
is not attacked by worms, has a very bitter taste ; it polishes badly,
and does not turn or plane well. Useful for planking vessels, and making
sluices.

The pores are large and conspicuous, evenly distributed. Medullary
rays very fine, uniform, and regular.

AROEIRA DO SERTAO. Astronium Urundeuva Engl.

Weight 69 Ibs. (Baterden). Brazil.

VERN — Urundeuva, orendeuva, aroeira do campo, aroeira preta, aroeira do
sertfio, cor on ilia.

Record says : " The name ' aroeira ' (with or without qualifying terms)
is applied to other species of Astronium and also to Schinus."

The handbook Brazilian Woods says that this is one of the best woods
in Brazil, and that it is used for building and hydraulic works as well as
for joinery. Baterden describes it as a tawny-coloured wood with red
markings. He adds : "It stands variation of temperature and wet and
dry well ... is valuable for all wearing surfaces, such as brake blocks.
The logs are small. (It is) one of the first-class sleeper woods of Bahia,
where it has a life of sixteen years."

The colour is a deep purplish-red, with slightly varying darker and
lighter shades, with a firm, hard grain, showing rather open pores on the
tangential surface. A wood highly suitable for turnery, and the best
description of high-class decorative woodwork.

The pores are rather scarce, plugged, and of small to moderate size.
Medullary rays very obscure, difficult to see even under the lens, very
numerous and very fine.

Artocarpus Chaplasha Roxb.

Weight 34 Ibs. India, Burma, Andaman Islands.

VERN — Chaplash, chaphs, Beng. — Lut-ter, Nep. — Chram, Garo — Sam,
sahm, Ass. — Cham, Cachar — Pam, topom, Magh — Taungpeinne,
Burm. — Kaita-dd, And.

This wood has a very attractive golden-brown colour, and a satiny
lustre. As it is somewhat cross-grained it requires careful planing with
a sharp tool. Although suitable for decorative cabinet work on account
of its appearance, it should not be used in large or unsecured work, as
the nature of the grain renders it liable to warp to a certain degree.
Gamble says: " It should be seasoned standing by ringing, so as to prevent
warping when cut and sawn," and quotes Chevalier Paganini, who says
he " considers it equal to or superior to teak for household furniture."

The pores are rather scarce, not large, and generally plugged, but show
prominently on the tangential section rather prettily, in a somewhat

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 31

flaky pattern. The medullary rays are well defined, close, parallel, and
irregular, and show on the radial section in minute flecks.

Artocarpus hirsuta Lamk.

Weight 31-41 Ibs. (Gamble). India.

VERN — Ayni, anjalh, aiyanepela, Tarn. — Aim, ansjem, Mai — Hebalsu,
hebhalasu, hebbalsina, hesswa, hessain, Kan. — Hebalsu, pat~phanas,
ran-phanas, Mar.

The wood of this tree and that of A . Lakoocha are so similar that they
may be classed together. The colour when first cut is a bright yellow,
but not so bright as that of A . integrifolia ; it rapidly darkens on exposure,
and in Europe continues to darken year by year until it reaches a warm,
rich, dark brown with a golden hue. In tropical climates it becomes a
dark rosewood colour, or almost black. The grain is close, firm but not
very hard, like that of an ordinary African mahogany. On the radial
section the medullary rays show in bold silver flecks. The wood has been
used in India for " dug-outs," some of which are said to be two hundred
years old and still in use ; also for door and window frames, and general
constructional work. A somewhat extravagant use for a very attractive
furniture wood, and above all, one which is reported in India as being
immune to the attack of the white ant.

The pores are rather large and scarce, mostly open. Irregular medul-
lary rays, rather thick, which display a very good pattern on the radial
section.

Artocarpus integrifolia Linn. f.

Weight 33-44 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Kanthal, katol, kathal, Hind. — Pandsa, Uriya, Tel. — Kanthar,

Sonthal — Phanas, Mar. — Pilla, Tarn. — Halsu, heb-halsu, halsina,

Kan. — Poros, K61 — Teprong, Garo — Kos, Cmgh. — Peinne, Burm.

This wood is well known, not only throughout India, Burma, and
Ceylon, but also in Europe, under the name of jak or jackwood. When
first cut it is of a brilliant orange or gamboge colour ; in Europe this
deepens to a warm brown colour, but in India the wood darkens to the
colour of rosewood, and almost black. The grain is hard and close, and
shows a strongly marked hard and soft contrary grain, which requires a
very sharp tool to obtain a smooth surface. The tree, with its oval-
shaped pods which provide the bread fruit, is one of the most striking
trees in the forests.

It is interesting to notice how in India and Ceylon the use of this timber
increases in ratio to the increase in the cost of teak. In India it is used
to a certain extent for carpenters' work and for decoration, for turnery,
and inlay and for brush backs, while its use in Burma is quite negligible,

32 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

In Ceylon, however, where teak is costly on account of transport, it is by
far the most extensively used timber for all kinds of furniture, fittings,
and decorative woodwork. It is reported as free from the attack of white
ant, and in other respects it is a superior furniture wood to teak, although
its good qualities are not sufficiently recognised. In Ceylon it is reckoned
second only to Nedun, a wood which is becoming exceedingly scarce. It
is surprising that, bearing in mind its immunity from insect attack and
its other good qualities, it has not been more highly thought of and used
in India and Burma. Gamble dismisses the subject by saying "it is
very largely used for carpentry, boxes, and furniture . . . occasionally ex-
ported to Europe for cabinet-work, turning, and brushbacks/' and Pearson
and Brown in Commercial Timbers of India do not even list it. Yet the
value of the tree for food was recognised so far back as 1787, when the
British Government provided an Admiralty ship, commanded by a naval
captain, to carry seed and trees to the West Indies, as a remedy for
the recurring famines which were experienced, an expedition which had
a romantic and tragic ending.

As Gamble says, " good trees are valuable." They are valuable for
their fruit, for their timber, for " their shade which is fair/' for the dye
which is obtained from the wood and which is " used in Burma to dye
the yellow clothes worn by the phoongies, or Buddhist priests. The bark
yields a gum ; the juice is used as birdlime, and the fruit-juice gives a
kind of caoutchouc." It is surprising that with such a reputation, even
without the qualification that the timber possessed immunity from the
white ant, the Forest Service has not further exploited the tree, and in-
creased its production.

Although there is some similarity between A. integrifolia, A. nobilis,
A. Lakoocha, A. Chaplasha, A. hirsuta, and A. incisa, the first named is
outstanding in quality.

Jackwood has been met with in small quantities on the European
markets at irregular intervals during the last fifty years, but there does
not appear to be any particular use for which it has been employed.

The pores, which are numerous and rather large, are grouped in wavy
bands, and are generally filled with a bright sparkling gum. The medul-
lary rays are very bright and well-defined, parallel but irregularly spaced.
On the radial section they show strongly in numerous straight light lines,
at right angles to the longitudinal grain.

Artocarpus Lakoocha Roxb.

Weight 40 Ibs. India, Burma, Andaman Islands, Ceylon.

VERN — Tiun, dheu, daheo, Pb. — Dahu, dhau, barhat, lakuch, Hind. —
Dhdo, dhanwala, Kumaon — Dephul, dehua, Beng. — Dowa, chama,
chamba, Ass. — Dawat Cachar — Dao, Son thai, K61 — Kamma regu,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 33

laku-chamma, nakka-renu, Tel. — Wotomba, badhar, Mar. — Wonta,
Kan. — Myauklok, myauk-laung, Burm. — Kana-gona, Cingh

The wood of A. Lakoocha is so similar to that of A. hirsuta that the
description of one is sufficient (see A. hirsuta).

Artocarpus nobilis Thw.

Weight 48 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon.

VERN — Del, bedi-del, Cingh.

The colour of the wood is bright yellow, with rather strong contrary
layers of hard and soft, generally rather hard, grain. Gamble reports it
as used for furniture and other cabinet work, and the hollowed-out stems
for fishing canoes, while the seeds are roasted and eaten by the Cinghalese.
The wood is not generally seen in commerce.

The pores are irregularly placed, scarce, very small to medium sized
The medullary rays very fine, irregular, not pronounced.

ASH, AMERICAN. Fraxinus amencana Linn.

F. sambucifolia Lam.
Weight 42 Ibs. America,

The wood is derived from about ten different species of ash. The
produce of these is mixed together without any attempt at sorting the
different kinds, which vary greatly in quality ; it is, therefore, impossible
to secure timber of any standard quality. Occasionally small supplies
equal to British or Canadian ash have been imported into England. As
a rule the wood is not so white as the Canadian, yet the best kinds rank
with, and are difficult to distinguish from, either the Canadian or English
For instance, a frame of American ash remained perfectly sound and ver}
hard, after it had been in continual use for thirty-five years in an olc
horse-car on the London tramways

Immense quantities of logs, boards, and planks have been imported
into England for a number of years, and the timber has found its way inte
general use for every kind of purpose for which ash is used. Latterly
the greatest demand has come from motor-carriage and waggon works
Although a very small percentage of supplies yield wood strong enough
yet during the war it was condemned for use in aeroplane construction.

Both the pores and medullary rays are larger and coarser than in the
British ash, although in general character the growth is the same.

ASH, CANADIAN. Fraxinus sp.

Weight 41 Ibs. 14 oz. Canada.

This wood is perhaps equal to British ash in quality, and some of i
may even be stronger. It is in demand for making oars for the Roya
Navy. Supplies, however, are daily decreasing.

34 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

ASH, CAPE. Eckebergia capensis.

Weight 40-48 Ibs. Cape Colony, Natal.

VERN — Muyama, mgwenyezinja — Cape ash, dog plum (local) ; essenhout
(Dutch, Trade).

A whitish-coloured wood, soft, tough, fairly strong and elastic ; it
slightly resembles elm, is coarse-grained, not durable, takes a good polish.
Used for floors, waggons, furniture, beams, etc.

ASH, EUROPEAN. Fraxinus excelsior Linn.

Weight 46 Ibs. 14 oz. Europe.

The common ash tree is widely distributed over Europe and supplies
the English, French, Hungarian, and Turkish ash timber of commerce.

(a) ENGLISH. Weight 47 Ibs. — The wood is greyish-white in colour,
of moderate weight and hardness, very even and close in the grain, tough,
elastic, and easily worked. Owing to its great flexibility it can never
be safely used in architectural work. For hoops and all kinds of agri-
cultural implements it is invaluable, since when steamed it can easily be
bent into any form of curve required, without injury to the fibre. Ash
is extremely durable if felled in the winter months, and properly seasoned
before use ; but where these precautions are neglected few woods are
more perishable. Very great advantage will be found in reducing the ash
logs, soon after they are felled, into planks or boards for seasoning, since,
if left for only a short time in the round state, deep shakes open from the
surface, which involves a very heavy loss when brought on later for con-
version. The advantage of converting ash logs into planks and so forth
at the earliest possible moment after felling, cannot be overestimated.

Among English woods, ash is without equal for toughness and power
of withstanding sudden shock. The finest English ash is sought for to
make hockey-sticks, tennis-racquets, gymnasium poles, and other athletic
appliances. Since the advent of the automobile it has been greatly in
demand for framing, pillars, and the general construction of bodies of
motor vehicles, and also for the woodwork of the hoods.

As a result of the great impetus given to the manufacture of aircraft
on account of the war, supplies of English ash for use in this connection
became of the greatest importance. The best wood obtainable was, in
the early stages, used for spars and langerons. Very soon, however, the
employment of ash for spars was largely discontinued, silver spruce and
other woods being substituted. For langerons it retained its position of
importance, and no other wood has yet been found so suitable for this
purpose. Later, when the construction of aircraft of all kinds and sizes
became necessary, it was found to be the best wood for the keel pieces of
the gondolas, and for some of the other constructional parts, such as the

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

ribs. A great number of pieces were required up to 32 feet in length, with
straight and even gram throughout the whole length, and entirely free
from the slightest defect. In our efforts to obtain command of the air,
which subsequently proved successful, it is impossible to overestimate

A LARGE ASH BURR AFTER DIGGING OUT

the important part played by a sufficient supply of this exceptional wood
being available. At a comparatively early date in the war, the Air Board
realised the great importance of securing regular and adequate supplies,
and large contracts were placed all over the country. Even then it was
not considered that sufficient quantities of the right material would be
secured, and one of the officials of the Air Board originated a scheme to

36 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

solve this problem. An organisation known as the " Aerial League "
was formed, one of the functions of which was to approach every land-
owner throughout the country, with the object of securing from him at
a moderate price the whole of the ash trees growing on his estate, which
could be used for aircraft purposes. The immediate result was an almost
universal acceptance of the scheme. Accordingly, within a short time
large numbers of suitable trees were cut down, promptly converted to the
required thicknesses, kiln dried, and speedily manufactured into aircraft.
It would not be an exaggeration to say that timber which was growing in
this country was within a few weeks actually a part of aeroplanes which
were then flying over the German lines in Flanders.

As already said, ash is always a difficult wood to season ; neverthe-
less, under the impulse of necessity, and the use of the most scientific
methods of kiln seasoning, success was achieved. Indeed the kiln-seasoned
product showed, on the whole, better results than were obtained from the
air-seasoned wood, which previously had alone been obtainable. The
effect of the large demand made on the resources of the country in this
respect during the war must be felt in the future, and it is to be hoped
that some measures may be taken that will enable a fresh reserve of the
best possible growth of ash to be built up for the future, although up till
now (1932) nothing is being done.

During the progress of the war a considerable number of trees were
cut in France and brought to London and elsewhere, a feat which in itself
is worthy of note, as demonstrating the transport resources of this country,
and its command of the sea. The quality of this ash produced in France
under the superior French forestry system, when compared with the
quality of that grown in this country with its lack of any such adequate
system, displayed great superiority.

The tree has a very wide sap-wood (about forty annual rings to the
inch) which is yellowish or greyish-white, and the heart-wood is light
brown. The annual rings are rendered very distinct by the spring zone
of large pores. The medullary rays are scarcely recognisable to the naked
eye in transverse section.

(b) FRENCH. — This wood is similar to English ash, but is generally
milder and less strong.

(c) HUNGARIAN. Weight 47 Ibs. 13 oz. — Only a limited amount of
this wood, which is brownish-white to pure white, has been imported
into England, and this chiefly in the form of burrs specially selected for
their wavy, curly grain. For the sake of the handsome figure, this type
of wood has been eagerly purchased at high prices, in order that it might
be converted into veneers for decorative panel-work in railway carriages
and for furniture. Of late years little of this genuine Hungarian ash has
been procurable in England, most of that which is sold under this name

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

being of American origin. A certain quantity of small, tough trees with
the bark on have been regularly imported from Transylvania, and used to
supplement the supplies of home-grown ash in making billiard cues, for
which the Hungarian wood is specially suitable. Although it is almost
impossible to distinguish between the Hungarian and English grown
timber when first cut, it can generally be identified after long exposure to
light and air, as it then assumes a greenish-yellow tint not unlike that of
acacia wood.

The pores are very numerous and irregular ; they are generally small
and form a ripple pattern in the autumn wood. The medullary rays are
very fine and numerous.

(d) SOUTH RUSSIAN and TURKISH. — This timber is nearly white, but

THE ASH BURR READY FOR CARTING AWAY

almost invariably contains a small black heart. It is difficult to dis-
tinguish from the English wood, and is strong and tough. The use of the
timber has been restricted by the fact that it has been imported only in
sizes smaller than can be readily obtained from other sources. The trees
have been imported in the round with the bark on, and ranging in dia-
meter from 10 to 20 inches at the butt end and in length from 8 to 21
feet. The wood has proved to be of a fine, strong, elastic quality.

ASH, JAPANESE. Fraxinus mandschurica Rupr.
Weight 34 Ibs. 10 oz.

Japan.

According to Dr. W. Terazaki of the Forest Experimental Station,
Tokio, the commercial supplies of Japanese ash may also sometimes

38 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

include, in addition to the above-named species, the produce of F. Spae-
thiana Lingelsh, and F. Bungeana DC. var. Pubinerbis.

During the last few years very large quantities of this fine and
exceedingly useful timber have been imported into London and Liverpool.
It is known in Japan by the name of " Tamo." The first shipments
arrived about 1908. Messrs. Mitsui & Co. imported by far the largest
quantities, although some shipments came from other sources. The im-
ports of this firm were as follows :

1908 . . 13,181 cubic feet

1909 . . 1,092

1910 . . -
- - 387.434

1912

1913 . . —

1914 . . 22,829 cubic feet

1915 • • 12,525 .,

1916 . . 53,170 ,, ,,

1917 . . 62,940

This gives a total of over 500,000 feet, or over 11,000 loads.

The above figures are conclusive evidence of its popularity. Since
the war, economic and other reasons have greatly reduced the volume of
imports of this timber into the United Kingdom. Sargent, in Forest
Flora of Japan, p. 52, says : " Fraxinus mandschurica, which is common
in Manchuria, Saghahen, and Corea, is a noble tree in Yezo, where it is
exceedingly abundant . . . and where it often rises to the height of one
hundred feet, and forms tall, straight stems three or four feet in diameter."
The timber has been imported in square, hewn logs, sawn planks, boards,
etc., and selected figured flitches and roots, with a small quantity also of
prepared floorings. When first imported it was mixed with a quantity
of timber sold as Japanese ash, but which was soon discovered to be quite
a different wood. This proved to be the product of Acanthopanax ricini-
folium, S. & Z., and known in Japan as " Sen," a timber which, although
resembling ash in the grain, possesses none of its other qualities. This
timber, being light in weight, having little or no strength and being
specially short-grained, gave Japanese ash a very bad name at the outset.
As soon as the discovery was made, steps were taken to ensure that ship-
ments of Japanese ash consisted exclusively of the product of Fraxinus
mandschurica, and as previously mentioned, large quantities have since
been imported.

The wood is generally lighter in weight and browner in colour than
British ash, and the colour is detrimental to its use for some purposes.
As the wood is relatively strong, its weight, which averages about 10 per
cent less than British, and 6 to 8 per cent less than American, is a great
advantage for many purposes. The timber is really stronger than its
weight and appearance would suggest. This is partly due to the close-
ness of the concentric layers, which give nearly three times the number of
rings to the inch of circumference. The conditions under which it is
shipped make it impossible to select the stronger growth from the

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 39

milder. The variations in the strength of the British wood are well
known, and the workman requiring the strongest and toughest ash would
not seek for it among large, park-grown trees, knowing well where to find
the growth required. In Japan, however, the produce of all the growths
becomes mixed before shipment, and as it is impossible to determine
where or how the timber has been grown, selection for toughness becomes
difficult. There is undoubtedly a large percentage of exceedingly tough,
strong wood.

Experiments for the purpose of testing the transverse strength were
made, with the following results :

No i broke at 2968 Ibs
No z ,, ,, 2688 „
No 3 ,, ,, 3360 ,,
No 4 ,, ,, 2464 ,,
(Each piece measured 30 x 2 x 2 inches )

The character of the break in Nos. i and 3 was very satisfactory, and
showed long and tough fibre. Nos. 2 and 4 were only fair. Several tests
for bending strains have been made, giving excellent results, the most
difficult and trying turns and strains being accomplished satisfactorily.
There is no doubt that, except for bent work, where very white wood is
demanded, and which is a condition which Japanese ash cannot fulfil, this
timber would satisfy all requirements. Sargent concludes his article in
the Forest Flora of Japan as follows : " Here are great supplies of oak
and ash of the best quality ... a storehouse of forest wealth, which, if
properly managed, could be drawn upon for all time." These remarks
are of singular importance now (1932). When we consider the gigantic
demands which were made upon our own home-grown supplies of ash
in only the three years of 1916, 1917, and 1918, and limited to the
knowledge we now possess, it should be considered almost criminal to use
any of our own home-grown supplies of ash for any kind of purpose for
which such a timber as the Japanese variety could be substituted. The
trees are the product of a perfectly natural virgin growth, under the best
conditions, and yield clean, straight boles of considerable length and
diameter, from which a large amount of sound straight-grained boards
and planks clear from knots can be obtained. This quality makes
Japanese ash most useful for a great variety of purposes. It has been
utilised for cabinet and pianoforte work, both solid and as a groundwork
for veneer. The wood takes the glue admirably, and the veneers laid
retain a hard, flat surface. For constructional work, excepting where
considerable strength is needed, it can be used advantageously, and its
comparative lightness of weight increases its value. This same quality,
added to the fact that it possesses the requisite strength, makes it an ideal
timber for automobile construction, both for carriage body work and for

40 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

delivery vans and lorries. In many places in Scotland and elsewhere,

it has been used for house and club decorative joinery, and furniture.

When finished in its own natural light colour, or stained like dark oak,

it has produced some very artistic and decorative results. For ships'

fittings, cabins, etc., and furniture, it is especially suitable. Without a

very rigid selection, reliable stretcher-poles have been provided. A small

quantity has been found strong enough for aeroplane construction, and

if more care is taken a considerable supply could undoubtedly be found

suitable for this work. At least one aeronautical pilot has selected the

wood for use. In Japan it has been largely used for house-building,

sleepers, oars (both for the navy and for ordinary use), clogs, and all kinds

of wooden ware. It is beyond question that the demand for ply-wood in

the future will be almost unlimited, and as Japanese ash is very suitable

for veneers, probably the whole available supply from Japan could be

used for this purpose alone.

The disadvantages of the wood consist in its colour (though that is
chiefly because of the rather prejudiced preference for ash which is white
in appearance), its liability to brown streaks, which follow the lines of the
concentric layers, and its somewhat porous nature.

A considerable quantity of hewn pieces and roots containing twisted,
curly, and fiddled mottle grain were imported into France, Germany,
Belgium, and the United Kingdom for veneers, before the war, and these
were well received. This popularity will probably revive in the future
expansion of trade. A number of sleepers were imported, which, although
they are accepted and used largely in Japan, have not found favour in this
country. According to Baterden, such use has been made of the wood
on the Chinese and Manchurian railways

The concentric layers are very clearly defined. The pores are open
and numerous in the spring growth, but exceedingly small in the autumn
growth. The medullary rays arc very small, fine, clear, and parallel.

ASH, MOUNTAIN. Eucalyptus sp.

The name " mountain ash " has been given to several quite different
species of Eucalypts in Australia, probably for trade purposes, but per-
haps because of the appearance of the bark. The practice of naming a
wood because of the appearance of the bark, referred to elsewhere, is
specially undesirable in this case, and causes annoyance and confusion
both scientifically and practically, as none of the woods named has any
of the qualities or appearance of ash.

Under the name of Mountain Ash Baker lists :

Eucalyptus Delegatensis R. T. B. " Southern Mountain ash," " Tas-
manian oak," " Stringybark."

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 41

E.fastigata, " Cut Tail."

E. fraxinoides J. H. M , " White ash."

E. virgata Sieb., "Tasmanian ironbark," "Tasmaman Mountain ash."

E. Oreades R. T. B., " Smooth-bark Mountain ash."

E. Sieberiana F. v. M , " N.S W. Mountain ash."

E. Smithii, l< Gully ash/' " White Top."

The alternative name " Stringybark " is equally undesirable, and it is
not surprising that when the wood many years ago was exploited under
this name it was not a success. Some shipments of Stringybark, Tasmania
oak, and what has sometimes been called " Australian oak," have pro-
duced irregular and uncertain results, some of the timber having shown
unusual liability to shrink and swell and warp and twist, while other
shipments have proved quite satisfactory. While some similarity has
been noticeable in the different shipments, there has been a sufficient varia-
tion to call for a separate description of each of the timbers named above.

ASH, MOUNTAIN Eucalyptus rcgnans F. v M.

Weight 41 Ibs. (Baker). South Australia, Tasmania.

This tree, known as " giant gum " and " peppermint tree," to which
the name of " mountain ash " is given, is of a pale yellow colour, but
possesses a grain having somewhat the appearance of ash, without any
of its qualities. It is easily worked, said to be durable under water, and
according to Baker, seasons well and is used extensively for house-
building, coach-work, and recently for cabinet work.

The not very numerous pores are irregular in position, and open, with
fine, indistinct medullary riys.

ASH, SILKY. Ehrctia acuminata.

Weight 35-43 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

Known as churnwood and brown cedar.

The Queensland Forest Service report it as a most desirable softwood,
with the hue and sheen of Fuji silk, and a perceptible silver-ray mottling.
It is light, firm, tough, works easily, holds nails and screws well without
splitting, and dresses with a clean shining surface. It is considered to
be stronger than Hoop pine, suitable for cabinet work and general turnery

ASPEN. Populus tremula Linn.

P. tremuloides Mich.

Europe.

VERN — Aspc, espe, zitterpappel, Germ. — Peupher tremble, Fr. — Alamo
trcmblon, Span.

This tree is found all over Europe, where it occasionally reaches over
100 feet in height and 6 to 8 feet in girth, but in the British Isles it is

MOUNTAIN ASH — VICTORIA
By kind permission of the High Commissioner for Australia

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 43

usually much smaller. The colour is a dingy white, and has a reddish-
brown appearance in transverse section, with no heart-wood. The rings
are circular, broad, and distinct. The wood is soft, light, elastic, easily
split, warping and cracking but little ; it is used for a great number of
articles, such as matches, milk-pails, butchers' trays, casks, and in France
for sabots and flooring. This wood also produces the best and whitest
pulp suitable for the paper used in books and magazines, when mixed
with a portion of sulphite spruce pulp (about 40 per cent), to give it
additional strength.

Waste land suitable for planting P. tremula might be found in parts
of Scotland and Ireland ; experiments in this direction would be advisable.

The medullary rays are not visible to the naked eye.

ASSA LEITAO. Source unknown.

Weight 49 Ibs. Brazil.

Record does not mention this timber, but there is a specimen in
Colonel Gamble's collection, the wood being very close-grained and hard,
of a light nut-brown colour, somewhat resembling that of Arariba rosa.

It does not appear to possess any distinctive value for ordinary com-
mercial usage, but it is a good hardwood.

The pores, which are generally plugged, are exceedingly small and
numerous. The medullary rays are very numerous, but so fine as to be
difficult to distinguish even with the lens ( + 10). There is a faint light
line which may be a concentric layer. The rays show on the radial
section as in beech, but much finer.

ASSEGAI WOOD. Curtisia faginea Ait.

Weight 60 Ibs. Cape Colony, Natal.

VERN — Umguna, umnoiso, Cape lance wood, Zulu.

Specimens of this wood have been seen occasionally, included with

other African exports, without securing any interest in the timber world.

The colour is a dull plum-red, and the wood has a hard, tough grain.

While providing a useful medium for works such as those for which it

is used in its native country, the most important perhaps is that from which

it receives its name. It has no further interest for timber users in Europe.

AUKCHINZA.

See DYSOXYLUM SPP.

AVODIRE. Africana Bingeria.

Weight 20-21 Ibs. Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Liberia,

The Cameroons.

Among the very large shipments of all West African woods, a few
logs of light-coloured, light-weight, white wood, manufactured in the same

44 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

manner as the mahoganies and coming with the shipments of the same,
have been offered for sale as African white mahogany, African satinwood,
and African furniture wood. These logs have varied in colour, grain, and
quality, and it is only lately (1930) that a separate identification has be-
come possible.

Among the best of these timbers it is now possible to name Avodire,
which possesses a golden-yellow colour, with a firm, clean grain, capable
of giving a very smooth surface with ease, and very strong, having regard
to its light weight. For all these reasons the wood has been favourably
received, and has provoked a brisk demand for railway-carriage work,
ships' fittings, furniture, and many other kinds of decorative woodwork.
It is a most attractive and valuable wood.

The rather scarce pores vary greatly in size, and are all open. The
medullary rays are very regular and strongly marked, showing in very
strong flecks on the radial section, as in beech.

AYOUS.

See OBECHI.

BACUPARY. Platonia insignis Mart.

Weight 37 Ibs. Brazil.

The colour is a dull yellowish-red, showing a silver grain on the
radial section. Record gives the weight at 54 Ibs., and also refers to
another wood from the Amazon district, " bacury-pary " (Rheedia macro-
phylla), which possesses a medicinal bark. In reference to Platonia
insignis, he states that " it seasons without difficulty, is easy to work, and
takes a good polish." Charpenticr, in Timber, says the wood is a little
elastic, and employed for use in civil and naval buildings.

The pores and medullary rays are exceedingly fine and numerous, with a
very fine alternately dark and light layer, following the concentric layers.

BAGAC.

See APITONG.

BAGTIKAN.

See LAUAN.

Balanocarpus utilis Bedd. -=Hopea longifolia.

Weight 67 Ibs. (Troup). India.

VERN — Kara kong, kong, Tinnevelh.

The colour is yellowish-brown when first cut, darkening to a warm
salmon-brown colour, with a very close, hard, compact grain. Gamble
reports the wood as being used for house-building, carts, and shafts. It
has not been met with in commerce.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 45

Pores very numerous, Very fine ; very fine medullary rays, which do
lot show on the radial section.

JALSA, INDIAN. Sterculia campanulata Wall.

Weight 16-24 Ibs. The Andaman Islands, Burma.

VKRN — Papita, Hind

The only product of Sterculia sp. which has found its way into com-
nerce is the one mentioned above. Gamble mentions several different
varieties, and Parkinson still more, but no opportunity has yet been
ifforded to report upon any of the others.

In the winter of 1921 -22 specimens were shown to me in the Andamans,
vhen I immediately recognised the usefulness of the wood, and subse-
[uently introduced it into the London market under the name of Indian
>alsa. The wood of Ochroma lagopus is difficult to procure, costly, defect-
ve, and small in size, while the Indian " papita," although not so light
n weight as American Ochroma, is still light enough for many purposes ,
ny two specimens taken at random weigh 16 Ibs. and 24 Ibs. respectively,
lie wood is obtainable m larger sizes, longer lengths, and more free from
iefects ; difficulty has been encountered in manufacturing it and keeping
t bright, sound, and free from discoloration or sweating. The wood has
»een received on all hands, including the British Admiralty, with approval
or the same kind of uses as those for which American balsa has been in
lemand.

The concentric layers are marked by clear, dark-coloured lines. The
'xceedingly scarce pores are large and open, with strong, bold, well-
lelined medullary rays, with intermediary scarce and fine rays between,
/Inch show on the radial section in pronounced flecks.

IALSA WOOD. Ochroma lagopus Sw.

Weight 9 io Ibs. Central and Southern America.

VERN — Balsa, balsa ivood, Trade, EC , Peru, Col., C. R., NIC. — Palo de
balsa, Peru, Boliv — Tami, Bohv — Lano, balso, Col — Gatillo,
polak, polach, NIC. — Cajeto, moho, lana, Guat. — Tanbor, lamllo,
Guat., Hond. — Guano, Sp. Hond — Algodon, Salv — Lamllo,
lanero, seibon botija, Cuba — Corkwood, down tree, bombast mahoe,
dum, Jam. — Corcho, tacangna, bois flot, corkwood, down tree, balsa
wood, Tnn. — Bois flot, patte de lievre, Mart. — Bobwood, balsam,
Misc.

This species of balsa, which comes from South America, is the one
nost commonly used in the United Kingdom. The wood is of a whitish,
>ale yellow colour, exceedingly light and porous, very elastic, and strong
elatively for its weight. It came into prominence during the war, when
t was in demand for many purposes, including the packing of armour

46 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

plates for battleships. It is used in the United States for insulating
material, refrigerator cars, for life-saving appliances, in the construction
of hydro-aeroplanes, and in a limited degree over here for the same
purposes. Its lightness and good working properties favour its use as a
packing material for highly finished furniture surfaces. Record says :
" In the natural state the wood is very perishable ... it shrinks and warps
badly." But these objections have been more or less overcome by a
light impregnation of hot paraffin solution, and the wood was treated in
this manner during the war for buoyancy purposes.

Balsa wood was used by the natives of Central and Southern America
for making boats and canoes, etc., which is probably the original source
of its name, the word balsa being the Spanish name for raft.

In an article by " M. I/1 in The Church Times referring to a journey
across South America, he speaks of crossing Lake Titicaca in Bolivia, and
watching the " native navigators, who move about the lake in crazy-
looking balsas — curious canoes made of bundles of reeds tied together,
and with one large sail, also made of reeds."

The wood is so soft and woolly that it is practically impossible to
get a sufficiently smooth surface to give an account of the transverse
grain.

In Tropical Woods, No. 17, the following specimens are reported,
viz. Ochroma peruviana Johnston, 0. boliviano, Rowlee, and 0. obtusa
Rowlee, 0. grandiflora Rowlee, 0. limonensis Rowlee, and 0. velutina
Rowlee, the last being reported as harder and heavier than the others.
There does not appear to be any necessity to differentiate between these
varieties merely on the question of timber values ; in any case, the in-
formation available is insufficient at present.

The Balsa Wood Co. have informed me that Ochroma lagopus is the
balsa most used in this country, coining from the South American States.
Also that Ochroma tomentosa is not a marketable proposition, and no
stock of it is kept in London.

BALSAM, ALPINE FIR. Abies lasiocarpa Nutt.

Called by Elwes " Rocky Mountain Fir." Wood similar to Balsam,
Abies amabilis. Used for fuel.

BALSAM, AMABILIS FIR. Abies amabilis Forbes.

British Columbia, N.W. United States.

Sargent gives the namfc of " White Fir " to this and to A. grandis ;
to the latter Elwes gives the name of " Giant Fir," and " Lovely Fir "
to A. amabilis. The wood is pale brown in colour, close-grained, light,
hard, but not strong. Sometimes used for lumber in interior work.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 47

BALSAM or LOWLAND FIR. Abies grandis Lindl.

British Columbia, N.W. United States.

Light brown in colour, this wood is soft, coarse-grained, light in
weight, and neither strong nor durable. It is sometimes manufactured
into lumber for the interior work of buildings, also used for packing-cases
and wooden ware.

BANAK. Virola merendonis Pittier.

Weight 34 Ibs. British Honduras.

A very light mahogany-coloured wood, with a straight, even, regular
grain ; it would pass as a rather mild, and perhaps inferior quality of
Honduras mahogany. A useful timber which would bring a demand if
supplies were forthcoming.

Shipments in the log have been made to the markets in the United
States over a period of four or five years, but according to Mr. Stevenson,
the Conservator of Forests at Belize, this export was discontinued in
1927. He says : " The chief difficulties encountered were the great
susceptibility of the wood to the attacks of various species of ambrosia
beetles, known locally as pinworm, and to splitting. Prolonged experi-
ment in the extraction of this timber has failed up to the present to prove
preventive measures, or indeed to indicate any way in which the damage
might be minimised. The cost of extraction has also militated against
successful exploitation of this wood. The price in the New York market
has fallen as low as $65 per 1000 ft."

Information lately received (1932) from a source of supply claims
that beetle attack can be controlled, if not prevented, by delaying the
removal of the bark until the log is ready to be placed in the water when
it is kept submerged until shipped. And according to the same authority,
the wood is immune from attack in moderate climates.

The concentric layers are marked by rather obscure darker lines at
irregular intervals ; the pores scarce, very small, exceedingly numerous ;
the medullary rays fine, and very close together.

BANKSIA. Banksia littoralis

B. integrifolia, etc.
Weight 26 Ibs. Australia.

This wood, which is named after Sir Joseph Banks (1744-1820), is
occasionally known as honeysuckle, but it should not be confused with
the New Zealand honeysuckle, Rewa-rewa (q.v.) (Knightia excelsa), which
is quite a different species. There are several species of banksia growing
in different parts of Australia ; my two specimens come from Western
Australia and Victoria respectively, but they do not appear to differ
materially. The wood is a pinkish-brown colour, and is of a rather soft

48 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

and spongy nature, the specimen from Western Australia being much
softer than that from Victoria. The broad medullary rays give a very
distinct silver grain on the radial section, and the tangential plane has a
finely netted or reticulated appearance. R. T. Baker in The Hardwoods
of Australia says that banksia is used for furniture, and that it would be
suitable for veneers.

In the timber museum at Kew there is a small sideboard made of

BANKSIA WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By kind permission of the High Commissioner for Australia

banksia and Xylomelum pynforme, which belonged to Francis Bauer,
botanical painter to King George III. Tramcar seats of Western Australian
banksia were shown at the Empire Timber Exhibition in 1920. The
wood seasons and stands well, becoming harder with age. It grows
sparsely over a wide extent of country, and there is difficulty in getting
supplies.

The pores are rather difficult to distinguish, even with the lens, as
they appear to run together in wavy, concentric lines of loose tissue.
The medullary rays, very broad and distinct, and showing in silvery
plates on the radial section, are characteristic of the genus.

BAOBAB.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Adansonia digitata Linn.

49
South Africa.

The " Cream of Tartar tree." A strange tree, more interesting on
account of the peculiar formation of its growth than for its timber, which,
according to report on the Native Timbers of South Africa, is " spongy
and soft, and of but little use for economic purposes . . . the natives
use the wood for making boxes to contain provisions . . . (and) the

THE BAOBAB TREE SEEN In :^>ixiii VVi.ol AL^iKALlA

By kind permission of the Australian National Travel Association

timber separates into rings which can be reduced by caustic soda into
fibre layers."

BARBA TIMAO. Source unknown.
Weight 26 Ibs.

Brazil.

The colour of this wood is similar to that of European oak, which it
also resembles in general appearance, although the grain is softer and
milder. The medullary rays show on the radial section as in oak, but
they are exceedingly small and line, and form by no means a prominent
display.

The wood is not suitable for export, though possibly it is valuable

50 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

locally. A pamphlet issued by the Ministry of Agriculture (Rio) says
that trunks from 3 to 4 metres long are obtainable.

The pores are scattered and somewhat sparse. The medullary rays
are very fine, and are darker in colour than the surrounding ground.
Dark streaks follow the line of the concentric growth, but these do not
show on the tangential or radial sections.

BARBERRY. Berberis Darwinii.

The Himalayas.

When first cut it is a brilliant, gamboge yellow - coloured wood,
darkening with exposure, with a firm, hard, close grain. If sound pieces
could be secured in any required size, it would form an attractive medium
for inlay cabinet work. A yellow dye used for tanning is extracted from
the wood.

The concentric layers of growth are clearly marked by light-coloured
lines. The numerous pores are minute, plugged, between very strong,
well-defined medullary rays, which are not parallel, and show strongly
on the radial section forming a pretty pattern.

BARBERRY. Berber is vulgar is Linn.

North America.

The name barberry, or more correctly " bearberry wood," is given
to the wood of Canadian buckthorn (Rhammis purshiana) and possibly
to common buckthorn (R. cathartica). The former is described by
Anderson (quoted by Stone) as " used for ornamental purposes . . . one
foot in diameter or slightly smaller." The barberry wood of commerce
may be any of these, or it may be the produce of Bumelia lanuginosa.
Generally the wood is of small size, not exceeding 4 inches in diameter.
The heart-wood is streaky, of dark and light colour. The sap-wood is a
bright yellow when fresh, and retains this colour for many years when
screened from the light (as, for instance, in Nordlinger's wood-sections).
The wood is hard and dense in texture, and is used in turnery and
marquetry.

The annual rings and medullary rays are well marked, and there is a
distinct porous spring zone.

Barringtonia acutangula Gaertn.

Weight 37 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Burma.

VERN — Ijal, samundar phul, panmdri, ingar, Hind. — Injar, panniha,
Oudh — Hijdl, samundar, Beng. — Kinjolo, hinjolo, hinjara, Uriya
— Hendol, Ass. — Kanapa, batta, kurpd, kadamic, Tel. — Piwar,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 51

tivav, ingh, Mar. — Ijar, Monghyr — Saprung, K61 — Atta pera,
Mai. — Adampu, Tarn. — Ela midella, Kyem, Burm.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, state that this
wood is " light pinkish to reddish-grey, or in some cases nearly white
towards the outside of the log ; heart-wood not distinct ; lustrous, with
smooth feel . . . straight-grained, medium fine-textured. . . . Easy to
saw, works well by hand and on machine, and finishes to a dull smooth
surface. If cut on the quarter it presents a noticeable silver grain,
which should be taken advantage of in cabinet work. Used for boat-
building, well construction . . . cabinet work, and carts."

Barringtonia racemosa Bl

Weight 27 Ibs. (Gamble). Western India, The Andamans,

Ceylon.

VERN — Nivdr, Mar. — Kumia, Beng. — Samudra, ciiddapah, Tarn. —
Samatravddi, Mai. — Diva midella, Cmgh. — Kye, Burm.

This wood is of a pale yellowish colour, with a very close texture,
inclined to have a rough surface. Gamble describes it as white and very
soft, but my Ceylon specimen shows it as moderately hard, and more
yellow than white, rather supporting the opinion of various authorities,
to which Gamble refers, that the wood is " strong and serviceable."

The exceedingly small pores are very numerous, wholly plugged,
with rather coarse and ill-defined, numerous medullary rays, which show
in flecks on the radial section

BARWOOD. Pterocarpus osun or P. ttnctonus.

Weight 54 Ibs. West Africa.

VERN — Osun, Yoruba — umc, Benin.

There is a doubt as to the definite source of this wood, the older
authorities having given it as P. santalinoides or P. angolensis. Zon and
Sparhawk give it as P. osun, and a pamphlet issued by the Governor of
Nigeria, which includes notes collected by Forest Officers, reports it as P.
tinctorius. That the wood imported under the name of " barwood " and
sometimes " camwood " was somewhat similar to the African padauk is
certain, but as the difference in colour, quality, and grain is noticeable,
and also the fact that barwood was imported in small poles ranging from
4 to 12 inches in diameter while the African padauk was in large sizes, it
appears that both woods may have come from the same source, but from
trees of different age.

The wood is of a bright and vivid red colour ; it has a close, firm
texture, and is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool. It is
imported in small sizes and used for a dye wood, and also for handles of

52 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

tools and cutlery. If immersed in water the red colouring matter is
washed out.

The large pores are very unevenly scattered. The light wavy con-
centric lines are very noticeable, but no medullary rays are visible.

Bassia latifolia Roxb.

Weight 62 Ibs. (Troup). India.

VERN — Mahwa, mowa, mahua, Hind. — Mahwa, mahula, maul, Beng. —
Moha, moholo, Unya — Mdtkom, Sonthal — Mihul, Mai Pahari —
Mandukam, K61 — Mohul, Bhumij — Irpi, Khond — Mahu, Baigas
— Irup, imp, irhu, Gondi — Mohu, Kurku — Mohwa, moho, Mar. —
Ippa, pedda ippa, yeppa, Tel — Illupei, elupa, hat ilhppi, Tarn. —
Ippi, honge, Kan. — Poonam, Mai. — Mudayat, kanzaw, Burm.

This timber is of a very bright, rich rose-red colour. The texture is
hard and close, and much resembles that of pyinkado (Xylia dolabri-
formis), without possessing any of the sticky feeling of that wood. Al-
though there is a strong contrary grain, it is capable of a smooth surface.
Gamble says that it is used for house-building, furniture, and the naves
of wheels. It would be useful for many purposes where a hard-wearing,
smooth work is required. It should also be suitable for turnery, and it
evidently stands well in all conditions.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report its use in
shipbuilding, as keels and trenails, and as a sound constructional timber
of the heavy class.

A few logs of this timber reached London several years ago. They
were described as Indian junglewood ; a ready sale was found for the
wood at satisfactory prices

The pores are neither large nor numerous. Gamble describes them
as being " in short, radial wavy lines more or less in echelon." The
medullary rays, which are exceedingly numerous, are very fine indeed.

Bassia longifolia Willd.

Weight 61 Ibs. (Gamble). Western and Southern India,

Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Ippa, yeppa, sanna ippa, pinna, Tel. — Moha, Mar. — Illupei, hat
illupei, elupa, Tarn. — Ippi, hippe, Kan. — Ellupi, Mai. — Mi,
Cingh. — Meze, kamsaw, Burm.

The wood is a nut-brown colour with some lighter streaks, and a very
close, firm, hard grain and exceedingly smooth texture, like pencil cedar.
It is reported as being strong, very flexible and durable, and lasting well
under water.

The transverse section gives a pretty pattern ; the minute pores,
arranged in wavy belts, are crossed at right angles by the finest possible
medullary rays.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 53

BASSWOOD. Tilia americana Linn.
T. heterophylla Vent.
T. pubescens Ait.
Weight 30 Ibs. North America.

True basswood is the wood of several North American species of lime
tree. The name is often, though erroneously, employed in England and
Scotland to designate the wood of Liriodendron tulipifera, which is most
commonly known under the name of whitewood or canary wood in this
country, and yellow poplar or poplar in America. The consequence is
that misunderstandings are liable to arise on the rare occasions on which
genuine basswood is ordered from the timber merchant, for the latter
assumes that whitewood is wanted. Small quantities are imported into
Liverpool and London in the form of logs, and in boards and planks from
10 to 16 feet in length, and from 4 to 24 inches in width. The wood
imported varies both in tint, which ranges from white to light or greyish-
brown, and also in quality, this possibly, to some extent, because it
consists of the product of several different species of lime tree, but also
certainly according to the time and manner of felling and storing the
produce of the tree. The wood is soft, light in weight, and by no means
strong. " Its lightness makes it serviceable as valves and other parts of
bellows for ... organs (mechanical) and piano-players. . . . Apiarists
find no wood more suitable for the small light frames in which bees build
the comb. ... Its whiteness and freedom from stains and unpleasant
odours are likewise important when vessels are to contain food-products "
(Gibson, American Forest Trees, p. 638). Indeed, Longfellow mentions
the wood in this connection — for at the wedding feast of Hiawatha

All the bowls were made of basswood,
White and polished very smoothly

In the United States the wood is largely employed, especially in the
pianoforte trade, and its uses are very varied ; but in England, although
it is inquired for in the same trade to a limited extent, there are other
woods available that are equally serviceable yet procurable at lower
prices, and which, therefore, have the precedence. For joiners' work it
is not so serviceable as whitewood, as it is more liable to warp.

The annual rings are recognisable though not sharply marked. The
pores are small and scattered. The medullary rays are just visible to the
naked eye in cross-section.

Bauhinia racemosa Lam.

Weight about 46 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Himalayas,

Ceylon.

VERN — K altar, Kashmir — Kosundra, taur, Pb. — Kachmdl, guridl, thaur,
ashta, makkuna, amht maula, dhordra, Hind. — Jhinjhora, Dehra

54 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Dun — Dhondn, dhundera, astra, bosha, Gondi — Jhinja, Ajmere —
An, arro, Tel. — Ati, archi, areka, Tarn. — Apia, seydra, Mar. —
Banraj,Tleng — Ambhota, Uriya — Aupta, banne, Kan. — Amba
bhosa, Bhil — Bossai, Kurku — Jinga, Jeypore — Kaimu, K61 —
Ghatonh, Oraon — Katmouh, Kharwar — Beriju, Sonthal — Jhingat
jija, Merwara — Choveri, Khond — Palan, Burm. — Mayila, Cingh.

The colour and grain are similar to that of B. retusa (q.v.). In my
specimen the gram is finer and the growth closer, but they sufficiently
resemble each other to make it unnecessary to distinguish between them
commercially.

For identification see that of B. retusa, but it is on a finer scale.

Bauhinia retusa Ham.

Weight 58 Ibs. (Troup). India, Burma.

VERN — Rural, Pun j ah — Kandla, kanalla, Kumaon — Kandiawa, Garhwal
— Kuayral, gwayral, kanlao, Hind. — Semla, Dehra Dun — Thaur,
Gondi — Tewar, Oraon — Laba, K61 — Katmau, Kharwar — Tenrh,
Koderma — Nirpa, Tel — Makarokranda, Khond — Are, Keddi.

A log of this wood was sent over to the Imperial College of Science
and Technology, South Kensington, in 1914. The wood is of a dull, rather
dirty brown colour, with almost black streaks which are apt to develop
gum cracks and other defects, giving altogether a rather unusual appear-
ance, on account of which it would be useful for inlay work for cabinets.
Gamble says : " The wood is the best of those of the Bauhmias, but is not
much used. . . . [The] wood [is] red, with irregular dark red or black
patches and streaks near the centre, hard ; having pale bands of soft
tissue, which alternate with dark bands of firmer texture."

The pores are very variable in both size and position, and the me-
dullary rays are exceedingly fine and regular.

BAY CEDAR. Guazuma ulmi folia Lam.

West Indies, South America.

VERN — Gudcima or gudcimo, Sp. Am., gen. — West Indian Elm, guazuma
plum, B.W.I — Gudcima boba, Cuba — Bois d'orme, guazuma,
Trinidad elm, Trm. — Orme des Antilles, bois puant, Mart. — Orme
d'Amerique, cacaoyer a feuille d'orme, Fr. G. — Gudcimo macho,
Venez. — Mutamba, Braz. — Camba-acd, cambeza de negro, ingd-hu,
ingd-negro, marmelero, Arg. — Gudcimo Colorado, Col. — Guacimillo,
NIC. — Chicarron, caulote, Salv. — Cablote, caulote, Guat. — A quiche,
buhnes, majahua de toro, palote negro, pixoi, pixoy, tablote, vdcima,
yaco granadillo, Mex.

A pale whitish, straw-coloured wood, giving a hard, smooth surface
under the tool. The concentric layers are clearly marked by dark lines.
Exceedingly small and rather scarce pores, fairly regular in position

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 55

with fine medullary rays, which show in a marked manner on the radial
section, as in sycamore.

BAY TREE. Laurus nobilis L.

North-eastern Asia.

The bay tree also grows to a considerable height in Southern Europe,
having a colour and grain like walnut, for which it would pass in finished
work. A wood suitable for decorative cabinet woodwork.

Holtzapffel mentions that this is the laurel that was used by the
ancients for their military crowns.

A specimen taken from a tree growing at Powerscourt Castle in
Ireland yields a wood quite good enough for use in decorative woodwork.

The pores are numerous, minute, mostly open Medullary rays
numerous and very fine.

BAYWOOD.

This name was originally applied to, and still is used occasionally,
especially in Scotland and the North of England, for mahogany which
comes from the Bay of Honduras, although the term has developed into
a name for any pale mahogany-coloured wood from either Africa or any
other part of the world, and even including the wood of Magnolia and
Rhododendron (according to Hough). The origin can be traced back to
the early time when mahogany was first known, when only wood from
the Spanish possessions, known as Spanish mahogany, was available.
When the wood first came from the Bay of Honduras it was not re-
cognised as mahogany.

An art critic at the Exhibition of Dutch pictures in the Royal Academy
of 1930 gave it as his opinion that a certain picture was not painted by
Rembrandt, because it was on a panel of Honduras mahogany ; but
whatever the facts might have been, there is no doubt that it would have
been quite possible, and indeed not unlikely if Rembrandt's original and
intimate knowledge of the best material to work upon is taken into account,
for him to have painted a picture on a Honduras mahogany panel,
although at that early date in Holland it may not have been recognised
that the wood was mahogany.

BEDARU. Urandra (Lasianthera) sp.

Weight 58 Ibs. 6 oz. Borneo, The Malay Peninsula.

This wood has not yet been imported into England m commercial
quantities. It is of a light yellow colour, somewhat resembling satin-
wood, shows broken streaks of dark and light colour, and is mottled and

56 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

speckled. It is dense, heavy, and of close texture. It should serve as a
useful furniture wood. Foxworthy mentions its use for piling.

There appears to be some doubt as to the origin of bedaru, as it has
also been referred to another genus, Apodytes, belonging to the same
family (Icacinaceae), also to Sideroxylon malaccense in the Malay Penin-
sula ; the authority for its reference to the genus Urandra, as far as
Borneo is concerned, is F. W. Foxworthy in The Philippine Journal of
Science (vol. iv. p. 542).

In cross-section concentric zones are marked here and there. The
scattered pores are invisible, though their arrangement is marked by a
white halo round each ; under the lens they are seen to be plugged. The
numerous medullary rays, though fine, are just visible.

BEECH, CANADIAN. Fagtis grandifolia.

Weight 45 Ibs. Eastern Canada.

The heart-wood is a warm buff colour, with brownish-cream sap-wood.
It is a fine-textured wood, hard, dense, and very strong ; suitable for
furniture, flooring, machinery, tools, etc.

" Has been imported into the United Kingdom in small quantities "
(Imp. Bulletin, 1922).

BEECH, CAPE. Rapanea melanophleos Mez.

Myrsine melanophleos R. Br.

Weight 44-45 Ibs South Africa.

VERN — Magona, isiquaqu, siqwanesehlat, Beukenhout, Dutch, Trade.

A whitish-brown coloured wood, moderately heavy, strong, hard and
brittle, with a good figure, polishes and planes well, but is not durable
when exposed. Used locally for furniture and wheelwrights' work.

BEECH, EUROPEAN. Fagus sylvatica Linn
Weight 43 Ibs.

The common beech tree is widely distributed over Europe, extending
from Great Britain and Norway to Spain ; it is also found in Asia Minor,
and occurs in Japan.

The wood is light reddish-brown, moderately hard and heavy, close
and even in texture, with a fine silky grain. The trees after being felled
should be sawn into planks, boards, and scantlings as soon as possible.
If conversion be delayed, incipient decay is soon indicated by the appear-
ance of white specks or brownish or pink streaks. The wood is lacking
in durability when exposed to alternate dryness and wetness, so that it is
unsuited for outdoor constructional work, or for props or railway sleepers ;
moreover, it is sensitive to changes in moisture, for it readily warps and

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

cracks. Yet when felled and at once placed under water, beech is very
durable. In partial illustration of this statement may be mentioned the

UNIQUE BEECH HEDGE AT MEIKLEOUR, PERTHSHIRE
By kind permission of " The Times "

beech logs that formed the original foundation of Winchester Cathedral.
These were laid in 1262 in successive layers in peat (which probably

58 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

helped to preserve the logs) and water to a depth of from 5 to 15 feet.
In 1906 Messrs. J. Thompson & Co., of Peterborough, raised these water-
covered logs, which were found on the outside to be soft and spongy to
a depth of many inches, but at the core to be hard and sound, varying in
colour from light brown to dead black. In the dry air of rooms, beech
in the form of furniture lasts indefinitely as far as resistance to decay is
concerned, but here it is very liable to attack by " worm " (beetle),
which sooner or later will excavate and with its fine tunnels destroy the
wood. Gilbert White (" Selborne ") says that these maggots are the
larvae of Ptinus pectinicornis. Many costly chairs of the Queen Anne
period were made of beech, stained and inlaid in beautiful English and
Dutch marquetry work. The framework of some of these is often found
to be riddled with the " shot-holes " of the " worm/' which has thus
caused the destruction of the furniture. A valuable violoncello has been
lately spoilt owing to the appearance of these " worm " holes, which
have perforated the sides and back, in which unfortunately beech-wood
had been used. These beetles also continually spread to other furniture, of
whatever wood it may be made. If, therefore, any article is to last for any
considerable length of time, beech should not be used in its construction.

Despite these limitations beech-wood is valuable, and is employed for
many and very varied purposes, since it is strong, elastic, splits well,
takes a good polish, and when steamed is readily bent. It is used for
tools, planes, keys and cogs of machinery, shoe-lasts, boot-trees, toys,
malt shovels, brushes, and saddle-trees. Another important use is in
the making of wrest-planks for pianos, and of the English beech used for
this purpose, it has been said that that which is grown in Devonshire or
Essex far excels any other. In welding or fusing glass it is used almost
exclusively. According to Messrs. J. Powell & Sons, beech-wood billets
are used for supplying great local heat whilst large glass objects are being
fashioned. All other wood, except beech, produces a white film (sulphur) on
lead-potash glass, which is only removed with some difficulty. In this con-
nection some sycamore billets used by mistake caused considerable trouble.

One of the chief uses of beech is in chair-making. In addition
to the manufacture which is carried on in factories, the industry
is also plied in the woods of Buckinghamshire and other districts of
England. Here the felled trees are sawn through, cleft, and turned into
legs and rails for chairs in the same manner, and by the same primitive
kind of pole-lathe, in use for centuries. Beech is extensively employed
in the brush industry. Its cohesive qualities, associated with a moderate
degree of softness, enable this wood to withstand the strain of the close
boring without splitting, as in the case of some stronger and harder woods.
It also resists the combined action of soap and water to a greater extent
than do most timbers.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 59

In Hungary, for the brush trade, the trees are cut into lengths of from
6 to 8 feet ; the resultant drums are then cleft into four quarters, which
are set out to dry, and are finally sawn into the necessary sizes. This
method of cleavage is wasteful, but yields exceedingly bright, good-
coloured timber. In that country the wood is also used for the
manufacture of complete suites of furniture for domestic rooms and
offices.

There seems no reason why English beech should not make very good
wood-pavement and flooring, if properly creosoted and carefully laid.
Indeed for the former purpose it has already been used with fairly satis-
factory results. It possesses the necessary tough, spongy quality, and
does not become slippery, as with some other hardwoods. Its expansion
and contraction are also less.

Prideaux Selby refers to the use of beech leaves for mattresses, saying :
" Upon the Continent the dead leaves, which, when dry, are of an elastic
and very imperishable nature, have long been used for filling beds, for
old Evelyn speaks of them in Switzerland, where, he says, ' I have some-
times lain on them to my great refreshment ' " ; and Sir T. Dick Lauder,
after quoting the passage from Evelyn, and speaking of the excellence
of the beds in Italy, made of mattresses filled with the elastic spathe of
the Indian corn, adds, " but the beds made of beech leaves are really no
whit behind them in their qualities, whilst the fragrant smell of green
tea which the leaves retain is most gratifying/'

Beech is an excellent firewood, and is largely used for this purpose
in France. It is also admirably adapted for the production of acetic acid
(and acetone), by its destructive distillation.

The concentric layers are very strongly marked, the pores are small
and obscure ; the medullary rays, which are sharply defined, are very
numerous, and vary greatly in strength and size. They are very pro-
nounced on the radial section.

BEECH, JAPANESE. Fagus sylvatica Linn. var. Sieboldi Maxim.

Weight 26 Ibs. Japan.

The Japanese beech is very similar to that grown in England, but it
is of a more uniform colour, a light yellow-brown, not white, and is rather
softer and milder, and keeps its shape very well. Goto states : " Beech
in Japan is used for making boats, ploughs, handles of tools, rifle-stocks,
clogs, spinning-wheels, lacquer ware, and various utensils. ... Oil from
the seeds is used for lighting as well as for food . . . treated with pre-
servatives it is especially suitable for sleepers and foundations.1'

The annual layers are very narrow and uniform. The pores are very
small and indistinct, and the medullary rays strong and prominent.

60 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

BEECH, SILKY. Villaresia Moorei.

Weight 40-47 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland, New South Wales.

Known also as " churn wood " and " soap box," and in New South
Wales as " maple/' A brownish-toned whitewood with a silver grain,
firm, tough, easy to work. Used for cabinet work, mouldings, and
turnery.

BEECH, WHITE. Gmelina Leichhardtii F. v. M.

Weight 36 Ibs. (Baterden). New South Wales, Queensland.
VERN — Btnburra, cullonen.

Known as " grey teak " in Queensland. This is one of the most
valuable of the Australian timbers. It is whitish colour with a brown
tinge, generally plain, but sometimes having a silvery grain, cross-
grained, easy to work. For purposes where a wood harder and more
durable than pine but softer than hardwood is required, it is considered
very valuable ; is fairly free from termite attack. It is reputed as being
especially useful for flooring boards, and ships' decks, as it shrinks very
little ; also for all carpentry purposes, and is said to be better than oak
for large casks and wine vats.

The Queensland Forestry Bulletin No. 2 states that " this wood is oily,
aromatic, very soft, and of medium weight . . . very durable in all
parts of buildings exposed to weather. ... It is the most easily worked
of all Queensland timbers, and is probably the finest carving wood in
Australia."

It has not been seen in commerce in England.

BEEFWOOD. Mimusops globosa Gaert.

Weight 59 Ibs. n oz. British and Dutch Guiana.

VERN — Bullet wood, bully tree, balata tree, beefwood, horseflesh, red lance-
wood, barueh, buruea, B.G. — Bolletne, bollctneboom, balataboom,
bloedbalata, pardeflesh, pardenvleesh, roode balata, Sur. — Balata,
balata franc, balata rouge, bois rouge, bois de natte, sapotilher
marron, manil-kara, I'abeille, hymankushi, mora-balli, assapookoo,
morakokuru, mamushi, Fr. G. — Acana, ausubo, balata, mameyuelo,
sapote, sapote de costa, zipote, P.R. — Jaimiqui, Cuba — Wild dilly,
U S., Bah. — Balata, purgo, Venez. — Nispero, C.A. — Massaran-
duba, massaranduba vermelha, ma$eranduba, maparajuba, apara-
hiu, apraiu, apraua, balata, chaud, muirapiranga, Braz. — Pferde-
fleischholz, Germ.

This wood is imported in the form of square hewn logs ranging from
15 to 40 feet in length, and from 10 to 18 inches square. That from
Surinam (Dutch Guiana) is the better quality, the Demerara (British
Guiana) timber being rather knotty. In the log, on calliper measure it
averages about 30 to 32 cubic feet to the ton.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 61

The colour is a dull plum red, and in this respect it somewhat re-
sembles raw beef. With the plane it yields a very smooth surface, upon
which glisten the minute shining specks of substance contained in the
pores. Stone and Freeman give the following account of its other qualities :
"Very durable, stands exposure, suffers from teredo and worms . . . fissile,
takes nails badly." In England it is only in occasional demand, and
is used in the manufacture of the best umbrella sticks, which, even when
thin, are very strong. On the Continent, where there is a constant de-
mand, beefwood (of this and possibly other kinds) is used largely for making
violin-bows of a second-class quality, walking-sticks, rollers, and tools.

Beefwood is very similar to messaranduba (Leucuma procera) (q.v.}.
Under the name of beefwood another timber may be encountered, that
of Swartzia tomentosa DC , which appears (judging from Stone and Free-
man's description) to differ, inter alia, by the tiered structure shown in
the tangential section as well as by the scattered pores.

The cross-section is marked by concentric layers of various widths
(which may represent annual rings) visible to the naked eye, also by
numerous light-coloured concentric lines, which, like the similar but finer
invisible medullary rays, are almost or quite invisible to the naked eye.
The small numerous pores are individually invisible, but are linked in
small radial lines by light-coloured tissue, and these light radial groups
are visible to the naked eye. The pores have contents that are light
yellow or orange in my specimen, which in structure and appearance
accords with the description given by Stone and Freeman, except that
these authors describe the contents of the pores as red.

Beihchmiedia sikkimensis King.

India.

VERN — Konhdiah, Oudh — Tar sing t Nep. — Kanyu, Lepcha.
A light grey-coloured wood with a close, even grain, taking a smooth
surface from the tool. Gamble reports it as being used for building
purposes and tea-boxes, which is the best use to which the wood could
be put. Not likely to repay the costs of export.

The pores are scarce and rather small. Medullary rays are very fine,
irregularly placed, and showing on the radial section in small flecks.

BENTEAK.

See Lagerstroemia lanceolata.

BETIS. Payena utilis Ridl. and other species.

Weight 56 Ibs. Malayan Peninsula, The Philippines.

VERN — Belian, metis, nyatoh bukit, putat bukit, seminal, surin.

Foxworthy, in Malayan Forest Records No. 3, describes this wood as
being very hard, heavy, strong, durable, and fine-grained. The sap-wood

62 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

is white to pale yellow or pinkish, narrow and very distinct from the
heart-wood, which is reddish-brown, occasionally with streaks of lighter
and darker colour. It is used for heavy construction, and is suitable for
fine furniture.

BIBIRU.

See GREENHEART.

BIG TREE. Sequoia Wellingtonia Seem.

Weight 24 Ibs. California.

The tree, known as Sequoia gigantea and Wellingtonia, has been
successfully cultivated in England. It should not be confused, as it
often is, with the Sequoia sempervirens, the redwood of America. The
wood is brittle and possesses little strength or value. It is light in weight,
soft and spongy, varying in colour from pale yellow to a warm red, with a
very broad white sap edge, and used to a limited extent in lumber, and for
fencing, constructional work, shingles, and said to be durable in the ground.

The concentric layers are usually wide, and irregular, they are also marked
by dark bands. The medullary rays are very numerous and exceedingly fine.

BILLIAN. Eusideroxylon Zwageri T. & B.

Weight 70 Ibs. (Baterden). Borneo, Malay Peninsula.

This timber, known as Borneo ironwood, varies in colour from dark
to light brown when first cut, while it deepens almost to black on ex-
posure to light and air. It is one of the hardest and heaviest of the
Borneo and Malay woods. It has occasionally been imported, and has
been inquired for from time to time in the United Kingdom, for some
works of importance. Foxworthy mentions its use in heavy construction,
bridges, telegraph and telephone poles, also railway ties and sleepers,
and says that it is perhaps the best wood in the world for piling. He
adds : " Billian is one of the very few woods of Borneo which is known
outside this region. It is exported to Europe in some quantity, and has
been used for piling at several places in Holland and France. It is
deserving of wider use, but a few years' vigorous exploiting will exhaust
the available supply of it."

This was one of the woods tested by Foxworthy and Woolley, and
which survived five years of that test. (See PYINKADO.)

BILLY WEBB. Sweetia panamensis Benth.

Weight 63-64 Ibs. British Honduras, Mexico.

VERN — Chichipate, Guat., Hond. — Huesito, huesillo, Mex. — Malvecino,
Pan.— -Billy Webb, Br. Hond.

A beautiful wood, with a close, compact grain, equal to Spanish
mahogany. The general appearance of this wood is similar to that of
Adenanthera Pavonina.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 63

The colour is from a light reddish-yellow when first sawn, to a rich,
dark Spanish mahogany tone on exposure to air and light, in the same
manner as Adenanthera. It is a valuable timber, and if supplies were
forthcoming would be in good demand for cabinet work.

The exceedingly numerous, invariably plugged pores, which are very
small, are plainly seen on the transverse section like a multitude of stars,
with well-defined, exceedingly fine and numerous rays, parallel and very
close.

BIRCH. Betula alba Linn.

B. lenta Linn. etc.
Weight 47 Ibs. 13 oz. Europe, Asia, North America.

The wood is of a yellowish-red colour, and is very tough and fairly
hard, close in texture, and easy to work. It is imported into this country
in logs varying from 6 to 20 feet long and 12 to 30 inches wide, and in
sawn square-edged planks and boards mostly from 10 to 16 feet long
and 4 to 18 or 20 inches wide. For many years it was used extensively
for furniture of all kinds, but of late, except for inexpensive chairs, it
has largely gone out of fashion. It is, however, in great demand for
automobile carriage building, for step-boards and framework, carts and
vans, desks and office furniture, agricultural implements (Spenser in the
Faerie Queen speaks of "the birch for shafts "), and general woodwork.
Some of the wood is beautifully figured with wavy, curly grain, and when
stained and well polished is a good substitute for mahogany. In America
it is employed in this manner for doors, and general trimming for hotels
and other buildings. In that country it is also used for floors, for which
it is admirably adapted. It is remarkable that it is not used for this
purpose in the United Kingdom, as it makes a very fine flooring, both as
regards appearance and durability. In America, ply-work has of late
years consumed large quantities. Other varieties of birch are also used
in the same manner, both in this country and in America. Amongst these
Holtzapffel mentions the following : " Betula excelsa, also called yellow
birch, has wood much like Betula lenta, and B. nigra is also much esteemed.
B. papyracea, paper or canoe birch, is employed by the North American
Indians in constructing their portable canoes. B. bhojputtra is a Hima-
layan species of which the bark is used for writing upon, and for making
the snakes of hookahs."

According to Hough, the products of B. lenta, B. papyrifera, and B.
populifolia are used in America for various purposes, in wood ware and
spools.

" The bark of the paper birch, and, to a less extent, that of other
species, is as important to the inhabitants of Canada as that of the common

64 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

birch is to those of Northern Europe. Canoes and lodges are covered
with large sheets of bark ; it is placed on shingled roofs under the shingles,
to prevent the water from coming through ; and very ornamental boxes,
baskets, and other articles are made from it by the Indians. It also
serves as a writing material, and I have a clearly written letter from
Professor Elrod, sent me by him when, making an expedition in Montana,
he ran out of paper " (Elwes and Henry, Trees of Great Britain and
Ireland, p. 994).

There is little doubt that the birch planks and boards from America
are the produce of all the different varieties mixed indiscriminately, and
it may also be the case with the Canadian, as it is doubtful if even ex-
perts can with certainty discriminate between the wood of the different
sorts.

British and Continental grown trees are much smaller than Canadian,
American, and Japanese. Most of the former are much lighter in colour,
though Holtzapffel says that the Russian wood is of a full yellow colour.
Three-ply and other Veneer in which this bright-coloured wood has been
used has lately been imported. A considerable quantity of birch is
received from Sweden and Norway in small sizes and sawn squares, for
various trades. Perhaps the largest demand is for short pieces, about
3 inches square and 6 feet long, which are used for placing in the brick-
work of buildings to support the scaffolding. These are called putlogs
and are mostly imported from Christ lansand. All sizes are employed for
brush-making, and a moderate supply for staves and box-boards is
greatly in demand.

Holtzapffel notes that the wood is not very durable, and adds : " The
bark of the birch tree is remarkable for being harder and more durable
than the wood itself ; amongst the northern nations it is used for tiles
of roofs, for shoes, hats, etc. The Russians employ the tan of one of
the birch trees to impart the scent to Russia leather, which is thereby
rendered remarkably durable. The inner bark is used for making the
Russia mats."

During the European war, as the shipments of foreign supplies largely
ceased, a considerable quantity of British birch was used, especially in
the brush trade. On the whole it was found to be quite useful, although
it was reported as being not quite so good as the Norwegian wood.

The pores are exceedingly small, somewhat plugged. The medullary
rays are fine, close, and parallel ; the wood shows dense, close, compact
growth.

With the American wood the pores are larger and more open. The
medullary rays are well defined, parallel, and joined at irregular intervals
at right angles by deeper-lined veins.

The pores and rays of the Canadian wood are similar in all respects

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 65

to the American, but the general character of the growth is more dense
and compact.

BIRCH, INDIAN. Betula alnoides Ham.

Weight 41 Ibs. (Gamble). The Himalayas, Burma.

VERN — Puya udish, chambar mayat makshe'n, sheori, shag, Pb — Bhuj-
pattra, hdur, shdul, Hind. — Kath bhuj, Jaunsar — Utis, sauer,
Garhwal — Ban utis, haoul, Kumaon — Shakshm, Tibet — Saver,
sauer, payong, utis, Nep. — Hlosunh, Lepcha — Dmgleen, Khasia —
Ldyang, Kc. — Birch, Burm. Hills.

The common birch of Northern India. This wood is so similar to
that of European birch (q.v .) that the same description applies.

The pores are small, generally plugged, and not very numerous. The
medullary rays are coarse, irregular, and less prominent than is the case
with European birch.

BIRCH, JAPANESE. Betula Maximowiczei
B. ulmifoha

B. alba Linn. var. vulgaris DC.
Weight 48 Ibs.

Prior to 1920 a considerable quantity of hewn square logs from
about 8 to 20 feet long and 12 to 36 inches broad have been im-
ported from Japan. This import has now ceased. It is there termed
Shira-kamba (Betula alba). The logs are clean and very sound, with
straight hearts, and are of better quality than any of the Canadian or
American wood. The colour is a bright yellowish-red, and the wood is
slightly harder, tougher, and more closely grained than the Canadian. I
consider it superior to other kinds in commencal use, for all purposes for
which birch is used. Recently some well-made three-ply veneer faced
with Japanese birch has been imported.

The pores are smaller than in the Canadian wood, and are almost
entirely plugged. The medullary rays are fine but distinct, and are
joined at right angles by a thin vein which occurs at close intervals.

BIRD CHERRY. Prunus Padus Linn.

Canada, North America.

The colour is ivory white, with a glistening surface, marked by a
dull greenish-brown stain, and dark veins. The branches are sometimes
used in the manufacture of pipes. Sargent describes the wood (I think
incorrectly) as " soft," the surface of my specimen being as hard as
maple.

The concentric layers are marked by thin dark lines following the
line of growth. The pores are scarce and very small, hardly discernible

66 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

under the lens, with strong well-defined medullary rays, which show
faintly, but bright, on the radial section.

BIRNUT.

A trade name given to birch which has undergone a darkening process.

BISCHOFIA. Bischofia javanica Blume.

Weight 45 Ibs. (Gamble). Formosa, India, Burma.
VERN — Pamdla, bhillar, Dehra Dun — Kot-semla, kden, kein, Garhwal —
Pun, kein, korsa, Kumaon — Irum, Oudh — Kainjal, Nep. — Sinong,
Lepcha — Taisoh, urum, Mechi — Undm, Ass. — Joki, Cachar —
Bolzuru, Garo — Boke, Mar — Thondi, malachithiyan, Tarn. —
Gobra naiYul, Kan. — Govarnellu, Hassan — Nira, Mai. — Nannal,
thinpu, Trav. Hills — Modagern vembu, Tinnevelly — Bogaungsa,
aukkyu, kywetho, tayok-the, ye-padauk, Burm. Bishopwood.

This wood is a dull reddish-brown colour, and of close, firm texture,
while in appearance it closely resembles American black walnut (Juglans
nigra). Much of it displays wavy gram. It possesses great strength of
compression and shearing, but is very liable to the attack of a small
boring beetle, which perforates it through the sap-wood to the heart-wood.

The pores are small and evenly distributed. The medullary rays are
numerous, fine, parallel, and equidistant.

BITTERWOOD.

See QUASSIA.

BLACKBEAN. Castanospermum australe Cunn.

Weight 48 Ibs. (Swain). New South Wales, Queensland.

Known as Moreton Bay chestnut, bean tree, and yuba.

This timber, well known in Australia and said to be rather rare in
Queensland, first came into prominence at the White City Exhibition,
where a room panelled and furnished throughout was exhibited. The
wood has an attractive appearance, showing various shades of olive-green
brown, traversed with dark to black streaks, and often handsomely
mottled. The grain is very close and hard, and the wood takes a smooth
surface from the tool. It is durable in the ground, stands exposure to
weather, and is said to be resistant to white ant.

Among the various places in London where this wood has been suc-
cessfully used are : Australia House, employed for panelling, flooring,
doors, and general woodwork of the library and elsewhere, by Messrs.
Wylie & -Lochhead of Glasgow, and panelling of the High Commissioner's
room. The Royal Automobile Club, Pall Mall, where it is used for the
doors, counters, decorations, and furniture of the second floor (the wood

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 67

here has not stood as well as might be desired). At the Yellow House,
Bayswater, the residence of the late Percy Macquoid, a handsome panelled
room was executed in wood which had been lying in the docks for many
years, although it had not been recognised as blackbean until long after
the room had been finished.

Owing to the very close resemblance between Ormosia sp. and
Castanospermum australe, they have often been confused with each
other.

Baker, in Hardwoods of Australia, remarks upon the difficulties of
seasoning this wood in Australia, and it is far more difficult to season it
in England, but when well seasoned, fixed woodwork stands well. Swain
claims that it possesses a very special quality of high resistance to
electricity, up to 100 times greater than with most cabinet woods.

The pores are visible, rather large, moderately numerous, and plugged
with microscopic cists (thyloses). They are scattered, and are either
found solitary or grouped in minute radial series, up to five pores in
number. They are surrounded by an almost white tissue, which extends
and tapers in a tangential direction and may link on to the next mass,
thus giving rise to concentric light lines. The excessively fine and
numerous rays are invisible to the naked eye.

BLACKBUTT. Eucalyptus pilularis Sm.

E. patens Benth.
Weight 57 Ibs. 5 oz. Australia.

This is a close-grained, hard wood of a dull yellow-brown colour.
There is a marked inequality between the hard and the soft grain which
causes an uneven surface after seasoning, also a liability to warp and twist,
and sometimes to crack. It was tried in London for wood pavements
but did not give much satisfaction. It is highly esteemed in Australia
for paving-blocks, shipbuilding, and bridge-work, sleepers and carpenters'
work. It is very strong, tough, and durable, and possesses, to an unusual
degree, fire-resisting qualities. Messrs. R. J. White & Co. of Sydney state :
" In Australia blackbutt as a firewood is shunned, as it is most difficult to
light and even when blazing the slightest disturbance of the fire sends it
black and the fire will readily die out."

The pores are numerous and in groups, partly plugged. The medullary
rays are extremely fine and irregular.

BLACK MANGROVE. Avicennia nitida Jacq.

Weight 57 Ibs. (Record). British Honduras, South Florida,

West Indies, Northern South
America.

VERN — Black mangrove, Fla., B.W.I. — Blackwood, black tree, Fla. — Green
turtle bough, lam. — Mangle bianco, mangle bobo. chifte de vaca,

68 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

P.R. — M angle" prieto , mangle negro, Cuba, Venez. — Ceriuba, ciriuba,
Braz. — Bois de meche, Guad. — Paletuvter blanc, FT. G. — Paviva,
parwa, Sur. — Orozuz, Mex. — Arbol de sal, ishtaten, istaten, Salv.

This wood merits a rather special interest. It is hard, heavy, of a deep
dark olive-green colour, lined with lighter stripes of a yellowish character.
The squared edge of the wood when prepared is almost like a knife, with a
distinct tendency to cut the flesh if the wood is handled carelessly. It is
probable that it has been marketed at times as " Green Ebony."

The pores, which are extremely small, are very numerous and generally
plugged, with medullary rays so fine as to be hardly discernible under
the lens.

BLACK POISON. Metopium Brownei (Jacq.) Urb.

British Honduras.

A brownish-green wood, reminiscent of ebony. Of hard, close texture,
with a light grey sap-wood.

Fine medullary ray, showing on the radial section, smaller but other-
wise like beech ; concentric layers marked by dark lines. The pores are
exceedingly small, and not very numerous ; the medullary rays arc line,
but very pronounced.

BLACKTHORN, IRISH. Pmnus spinosa.

Although the Irish blackthorn is probably of world-wide fame — and
the tree has been known to serve a useful purpose for Irishmen throughout
many generations — the question of the wood as one possessing other useful
qualities has probably never been considered. The colour is bright
yellow on the outside of the tree, with a rich, warm brown heart, having
dark coloured streaks. The grain is close and firm, and capable of a very
smooth surface. If sound wood of even, narrow widths could be secured,
it would make an attractive decorative wood for inlay, comparable with
the best of other woods imported for that purpose. It has great strength,
both tangential and tensile, which makes it highly suitable for those
purposes to which the limited size obtainable restricts it.

Elwes reports Chevalier in 1850, who describes a tree at the Chateau
du Chabrol, St. Patrice, on the Loire midway between Saumur and Tours :
" There is a large blackthorn, called I'epine miraculeuse, which flowers
every year in the last week in December, even in the severest seasons.
The legend is that St. Patrick, while on his way to Tours in A.D. 395,
reposed one night in winter, under the shade of this tree, which burst forth
into flowers and leaves to shield him from the cold."

This is one of those trees which invariably carry a dark-coloured heart,
which is generally limited to a small proportion of the tree contents.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 69

The concentric layers of growth are clearly marked by dark-coloured
rings. The very numerous, minute pores are plugged ; with conspicuous
medullary rays radiating from the heart in irregular wavy lines, and
showing on the radial section in minute flecks.

BLACKWOOD. Dalbergia latifolia.

See ROSEWOOD, EAST INDIAN.

BLACKWOOD, AFRICAN. Dalbergia Melanoxylon Guill. & Perr.
Weight 89 Ibs. 4 oz. Tropical Africa.

This timber has been called black Botany Bay wood, although the
name is now somewhat out of date. It is an almost black wood, with a
tendency to a dark purple plum colour. It is now imported from Mozam-
bique and the east coast of Africa, and for this reason is also known as
Mozambique ebony. Mr. A. E. Gardner says the wood was formerly
known as Ebene du Portugal, and that it is quite a different growth from
the ebony of the West Coast or the Madagascar ebony. It is probably the
same timber reported by Holtzapffel as being of doubtful origin, but that
certainly some had been imported from the Mauritius or the Isle of France.
He adds : " It is probable that this wood, in common with many others,
may have several localities. ... It is most admirably suited to excentric
turning, as the wood is particularly hard, close, and free from pores, but
not destructive to the tools, from which, when they are in proper con-
dition, it receives a brilliant polish. It is also considered to be particularly
free from any matter that will cause rust, on which account it is greatly
esteemed for the handles of surgeons' instruments."

These characteristics should recommend this wood to the attention of
those who are looking for a high-class, reliable substitute for ivory and
other articles, now very much more costly, which have been used for the
handles of knives and tools ; but its chief use is in the construction of
musical instruments. It is imported in billets, from 5 to 10 inches in
diameter, of irregular growth and shape, and of a faulty description.

The Bombay blackwood, otherwise known as rosewood (q.v.) and well
known in the timber trade, is the product of Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.

The pores and the medullary rays are equally indistinguishable with
the lens.

BLACKWOOD, AUSTRALIAN. Acacia Melanoxylon R. Br.

Weight 48 and 57 Ibs. (other specimens stated
to be as low as 36 Ibs.). Australia (including Tasmania).

In colour the wood varies from rich reddish-brown to nearly black,
banded with golden brown ; sometimes it is brown and red with dark
streaks, and may show metallic lustre. Its grain is close, often curly, and

70 . THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

with pretty figure and mottle. It is easily worked and is susceptible of a
fine polish, but must be thoroughly seasoned. Baker, in The Cabinet
Woods of Australia, states that blackwood should perhaps be placed
second only to Cedrela Toona as an Australian cabinet timber. As a
handsome decorative wood it has been used for fittings in banks, railway-
cars, and passenger steamers. A mantelpiece made of this wood was
exhibited some years ago in the Colonial Exhibition at Earl's Court. It
has been successfully used for gun-stocks It is, moreover, a strong

AUSTRALIAN BLACKWOOL) IN GIPFSLAiND I'OKlibTb, V1UTUK1A
By kind permission of the High Commissioner for Australia

timber, and Mr. C. Lyne (Minister of Lands and Works) wrote in 1903 :
" Orders are now being supplied to the Admiralty for use in the construc-
tion of gun-carriages in the arsenals, where it has been tested and given
satisfaction." It is not well known, and has not been much used in the
United Kingdom, where it might with advantage be employed in decora-
tive and cabinet work.

The wood in cross-section shows alternating darker and lighter con-
centric bands, which may denote the presence of annual rings ; the pores
themselves are invisible (though clear enough in side view), but their
positions and scattered arrangement are revealed by reason of the light

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 71

haloes surrounding each tiny group. The medullary rays are invisible,
and so fine as to be only just recognisable with the magnifying glass ( + 12).

BLUE GUM.

See GUM, BLUE.

Boehmeria rugulosa Wedd.

Weight 41 Ibs. India.

VERN — Geti, gainti, genthi, Garhwal, Kumaon — Dar, Nep — Sedeng,
Lepcha.

This timber is unknown in commerce though possessing remarkable
qualities, probably surpassing all other woods for carved work. The
colour is a light salmon-red darkening on exposure to the air to a dull red
mahogany shade. The sap-wood is an unsightly dirty brown. The trees
are liable to the attack of small worms or beetles, and also to a grub which
leaves a larger hole The wood works easily, and the grain is straight and
takes a very smooth surface from the tool. Troup says it is " apparently
not to be obtained in large size . . not common in India, being found
scattered in the Forests/' Gamble mentions that it is " used for making
bowls, cups, plates, and all kinds of domestic utensils . . . for which its
character of being easily cut and carved without splitting or warping, well
adapts it." The Rajah of Nepaul presented a marvellous piece of native
carved work in this wood to Mr. H. J. Elwes, on his last visit to India. It
would be greatly esteemed by the artist craftsman for fine work if it
became known and supplies were available.

The concentric layers are clearly marked. The pores are scattered
irregularly between the rays, mostly plugged with shining specks of solid
substance. The numerous medullary rays are thick, parallel, but not
regular.

BOLLYWOOD, BROWN. Litsea reticulata

Weight 33 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

Known as bolly gum and she-beech.

The colour is a pale brown, and the wood has a firm and rather woolly
straight grain. Used for boat-building, cabinet work, wood-carving,
joinery, mouldings, picture frames, and ply-wood, and bends well.

Bombax ceiba Linn.

China.

The wood is yellowish-red, harder and heavier than any of the Indian
bombax.

The pores are very sparse, irregular and open. The medullary rays

72 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

are variable in width, with very fine dotted specks of fine light tissue
between, and the rays do not show on the radial section.

Bombax insigne Wall.

Weight 31 Ibs. Andaman Islands, India, Burma.

VERN — Semul, thula, Beng. — Saitu, Magh — Didu, didok, taung-letpan,
Burm.

Like the well-known cotton tree, Bombax malabaricum, this yellowish-
white, soft, perishable, and non-durable timber is not likely to find much
use in Europe. In structure it is similar to B. malabaricum, except that
the pores are smaller and less scanty. It is a better timber than the
latter though it is far less common, and is used in India for cheap work,
such as planking and packing cases, also in Assam, for making tea-boxes.
For the last named purpose it is used in Calcutta indiscriminately with
B. malabaricum. These two species were largely used for match-making
in the factories at Rangoon and Mandalay.

Bombax malabaricum DC.

Weight 23 Ibs. India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Simbal, Hazara — Shirlan, Sutlej — Shimlo, Kumaon — Shimal,
Garhwal — Semul, shembal, serur, pagun, somr, Hind., Beng. —
Bouro, buroh, Uriya — Bolchu, panchu, Garo — Sunglu, tunglu,
Lepcha — Simal, saodi, Melghat — Khatsawar, Bassim — Kamba,
Khond — Buroh, Saora — Wuraga, Palkonda — Edel, Sonthal — De'l,
K61 — Simur, Mai Pahari — Burga, burgu, buraga, Tel — Sayar,
Mar. — Sawar, Guz — Illavam, pula, parutti, Tarn. — Burla, saun,
buruga, Kan. — Wallaiki, Gondi — Katseon, Bhil — Lapaing, Magh
— Ilavu, Mai. — Letpan, Burm — Katu-imbul, Cingh.

This is the silk-cotton tree of India. It is a very soft wood of a greyish-
white colour, which darkens on exposure. Very liable to the attack of
" worm," it is not durable except under water, when it lasts fairly well.
It is used in India for planking, packing-cases, tea-boxes, and toys. Gamble
says that if it is allowed to dry in the log the wood gets discoloured, so that
to ensure white planking, the trees should be sawn up at once, and the
planks dried separately.

The pores are scarce but very large and open. The medullary rays are
not distinguishable, even under the lens.

BONGOSSI. Lophira procera A. Chev.

Weight 65-72 Ibs. West Africa.

VERN — Ekki, eba, Nigeria — Kaku, Gold Coast — Okoka, okoa, lihos, kos,
bokoka, bongossi, bois de fer, red ironwood, African oak, azobe.

The colour is red, resembling beefwood ; the wood has a very strong,
hard, interlocked grain. It is one of those innumerable woods to which

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 73

the term " iron wood " has been given, and it has also been called " African
oak," but neither of these names is justified. A sample of this wood
under the name of " pondosa " was inquired for this year (1933), but this
name is not included in the vernacular lists of any of the usual authorities.
It is reported as being used abroad for maritime and other heavy con-
structional work, and as standing well. A few logs have been seen on
the English markets from time to time, generally sold under the name of
African oak, in sizes from 20 to 36 inches and in 12-feet and up lengths,
both hewn square and in the round. Reports show that there is an
abundant supply.

The transverse section displays to the naked eye an unusual and
pretty pattern. The rather sparse pores, single, double, and in triplicate,
are mostly plugged with a bright shining gum (?), with very pronounced
wavy belts of light tissue, crossed at right angles by clear, fine, parallel
medullary rays, which show on the radial section in tiny dark and light
flecks. On the transverse section the prominence of the rather open pores
is accentuated by the light clear streaks of sparkling gum (?).

Borassus flabellifer Linn.

Weight 49-50 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon, Africa.

VERN — Tdl, tdla, tar, taduka, Hind. — Tdl, Beng. — Tad, tamar, Mar. —
Potu tddi, penti tddi, Tel — Panam, pannie, panel, Tarn. — Pana,
Mai. — Tali, tale, Kan. — Tad, Guz — Tdl, Cingh. — Tan, Burm.

This, the " Palmyra palm/' is one of the most important of the very
large number of different palms, providing for uses far more important
and numerous than that of merely timber, although the very hard blackish-
coloured outside wood of the tree has been used for inlay and other fine
cabinet work in many places. Only the outside of the tree produces any
wood which is fit to use, and generally little more than 3 or 4 inches in
width. Zon and Sparhawk report it as providing the " valued ' ago
beam ' for building."

Boswellia serrata Roxb.

Weight 42 Ibs. India.

VERN — Salhe, salai, saiga, Hind. — Guggar, salaia guggar, Kumaon —
Salla, bor-salai, ganga, Gondi — Luban, salai, Beng. — Kungli,
gugulu, kundnkam, morada, Tarn. — Anduka, anduga, parangi,
Tel. — Salai, salphullia, Mar.—Chitta, Ka.n.-—Sdlgd, Sonthal—
Saler, Jeypore.

A dirty-brown coloured wood, with a fairly close, but hard grain,
taking a smooth surface from the tool. Unlikely to repay the costs of
export.

The pores are numerous, regular, and mostly open. The medullary

74 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

rays are rather fine, very numerous, and show in small flecks on the radial
section.

Box, GREY. Eucalyptus hemiphloia F. v. M.

Weight 68J Ibs. South and South-east Australia,

New South Wales.

Known as canary wood, grey, white, and yellow box, gum-topped box,
white gum, Local — Narulgun, Aborig.

Apparently the name box has been given because of the appearance
of the bark of the tree. The unfortunate inclination of Forest Officers
and others to choose a name for a wood on account of the appearance of
the bark is illustrated in this case, because nothing could be more mis-
leading than the name of " box " applied to the wood of Eucalyptus
hemiphloia. In India some Forest Officers proposed the name of " rock
bark wood " for one tree, and " monkey slipwood " for another, the last
because the tree has a bark difficult to climb. While it is natural that the
forester should have in his mind the bark of the tree, it is both unsuitable
and almost ridiculous to name a wood because of the bark.

The nomenclature of woods presents a most difficult problem, but it is
better to leave the choice of names to those who understand the wood
itself and its uses, and not to let it be confused with the botanical name or
the growth of the tree as a tree. The colour of grey box is a light nut-
brown, with the customary hard, close grain of the Eucalypt, closely
resembling the timber of E obliqua only of a darker colour. Highly
suitable for heavy, and all descriptions of work where toughness, strength,
and durability are required.

The very small, somewhat scarce pores are ranged in small belts, or
irregular bands, with strange thin lines of light-coloured tissue crossing at
irregular intervals the fine medullary rays, which are not very prominent.

BOX, SWAMP. Tristania suaveolens.

Weight 55 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

Often called swamp mahogany. Swain reports this as " a moderately
heavy red hardwood, of fine and even texture. ... It is firm but mellow
to cut, saw, turn, and dress . . . durable in and out of weather and
ground . . . reputed to be white ant resistant, and one of the best known
timbers for resisting the attacks of marine borers."

It makes a good flooring, and a general building timber if fully seasoned,
but not very strong ; it is used also for mallets.

BOXWOOD. Sources various.

Ordinary genuine boxwood is derived from the evergreen shrub or tree
Buxus sempervirens Linn., which is familiar as a shrub in English gardens,

THE TIMBEKfi OF THE WORLD 75

but also occurs in sunny places in this country as a wild plant. Extend-

By kind permission of the High Commissioner for Australia

ing over a large part of Europe from Norway to the Mediterranean, thence
across Asia as far as Japan and the Himalayas in India, it is mainly a

76 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

shrub in the northern situations, but attains a tree form in countries
bordering the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, the Himalayas and,
remarkable to mention, in England at Box Hill in Surrey, and other
places. While the commercial wood is of all the following kinds, British,
Mediterranean, Turkish, Abasian, Persian, and Himalayan, yet the main
supplies come from the countries bordering on the Black Sea. All these
woods will be described under the general heading of European and
Asiatic boxwood. How considerable has been the trade in Caucasian and
Persian boxwood is seen from the quantities exported to England, France,
and Turkey, which are reported in Trees of Great Britain and Ireland
(Elwes and Henry). From the Caucasus between 1883 and 1887 there
was a yearly average of 2340 tons, and from Persia in 1906, 1560 tons.
Since 1890 the Caucasian trade has diminished, and in 1895 the total export
had fallen to 1200 tons.

In addition to these European and Asiatic varieties genuine boxwood
of another kind, the product of Buxus Macowani (q.v.) comes from South-
west Africa and is known as African or East London boxwood. This
name is also given to the dangerously poisonous wood of another South
African tree, Gonioma Kamassi E. Mey, also known as Knysna boxwood
(q.v.) and Kamassi wood. Other so-called boxwoods, which are not
products of Buxus and lack some of the qualities of true boxwood, are the
West African, West Indian, Ceylon, and Australian boxwoods. Of these
the West Indian is the only variety which has yet occupied any important
place in commercial usage.

The wood is light yellow, very hard and heavy, of dense, most uniform
texture, and very fine grain. This unique and homogeneous wood has,
when fully seasoned, the further valuable property of non-splitting, and of
yielding a fine surface when turned or planed. It has, therefore, special
uses in the manufacture of wood-engraving blocks, rulers, mathematical
instruments, handles of tools, planes, shuttles, wood wind instruments,
combs, and inlay work. During the European war, although many other
descriptions of wood were tried, boxwood alone was found capable of
resisting the great strain of hammering the load into shells, and was so
used in the form of what are termed " punners " or " stemming rods."
These are circular rods i£ inches in diameter, and varying in length from
14 inches to about 3 feet. The rod is struck by hand with a mallet with
considerable force. Of the different varieties used the British and African
(Buxus Macowani) have proved to be the strongest. The West Indian
has given fairly satisfactory results, but although less wasteful in con-
version, has not proved so strong.

In some cases the trees exhibit loose growth, and the wood in drying
splits spirally. Exposed to damp, it is very liable to deteriorate, under-
going discoloration and a form of decay. During seasoning it is very apt

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 77

to split. For this reason large logs are sometimes quartered, or the square
log is cut down the middle of its four faces. In France, according to
Bouverie (Les Bois Industrielles , Paris, 1910), special precautions are
taken to prevent splitting, the wood being either stored during seasoning
in a dark room or cellar until ready for use, or immersed for twenty-four
hours in cold water, in which it is afterwards boiled for some time. It is
then wiped and dried, and protected from light and air by being kept in
sand or bran.

About a hundred years ago, the workmen in Scottish factories where
shuttles were made, kept the wood stored for two years in dry pits slightly
below the level of the ground, and covered with dry straw or hay. When
they were ready to use it, it was steamed for about twenty-four hours in a
steam chest, and was then roughed out to approximately the size required,
after which it was found to stand perfectly.

The result of these natural defects is that the trade in boxwood is very
speculative. For instance, before the war, if a block of boxwood were
split, it would sink in value from £60 to £4 per ton.

Abasian boxwood for wood engraving purposes for the best work is
perhaps the sole kind for which a satisfactory substitute cannot be found.
Formerly pieces of boxwood found unsuitable for engraving were utilised
in the manufacture of various articles, including shuttles, but the intro-
duction from the United States of persimmon and cornel wood, which are
adequate substitutes in the weaving trade, has caused a heavy decline in
the demand for Abasian and Persian wood. The sawdust is used for
cleaning jewellery, and is much in request since the war, realising as much
as £9 and more per ton.

The transverse grain reveals with the aid of the lens very little struc-
ture. The tree grows very slowly, so that the annual rings are narrow and
more or less inclined to be sinuous, and though recognisable to the naked
eye, are not very sharply marked. The medullary rays are so fine as to be
only just visible ; sometimes, indeed, they are invisible to the naked eye
in transverse section. The pores are so minute, that even with a lens
the wood might be mistaken by a novice for a very hard, coniferous
wood.

BOXWOOD. Eucalyptus goniocalyx F. v. M.

Weight 54 Ibs. (Baker). Tasmania, South-eastern Australia.

Known as mountain gum, grey box, blue gum.

The colour is a pale whitish-yellow, and the grain very hard, tough, and
straight, reported as being very durable.

The wood is used for a variety of purposes in its native country, but
has not been exported on a commercial scale.

78 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

BOXWOOD, AFRICAN. Buxus Macowani Oliv.

Weight 54 Ibs. u oz. South Africa.

An alternative name, which is sometimes used, is East London box-
wood.

The colour is a bright yellow, very similar to the Turkish variety, but a
little brighter, and with a slight tendency to be flecked with small black
marks. The wood is firm, dense, hard, and very strong, and compares
favourably with the Turkish. It is imported in logs ranging from 3 to
20 feet in length and ij to 9 inches in diameter, with a few larger pieces.
The timber is available in apparently unlimited quantities. It is slightly
more wasteful in conversion than the other kinds, as it develops small
faulty places, knots, and wens. It stands well, and is not so liable to split
in the log, as either the Persian or West Indian wood. It is desirable,
however, that the same care should be taken in storage as with other
kinds of boxwoods.

The structure of the wood most resembles that of the British, with
which it compares favourably. The medullary rays are slightly less
noticeable and numerous.

BOXWOOD, BUFF. Celastrus dispermus

C. bilocularis.

Weight 52 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland, New South

Wales.

Known as orangebark in Queensland, and yeliowbark in N.S.W. It
is reported by Swain to be " ivory-toned, plain and unfigured, except for a
minute silver-grain on the quarter " ; tough, non-aromatic, close, even,
and straight in grain, easy to work, takes stain readily, and is capable of a
high polish.

Suitable for turnery, also woodcuts for printing, very fine engravings
being made on the end grain ; makes an excellent flooring. Possesses
considerable strength and durability and is free from borers.

BOXWOOD, EUROPEAN and ASIATIC. Buxus sempervirens Linn.

(a) BRITISH. Weight 70 Ibs. — This can be obtained in diameters from
i inch to about 4 inches, with a few larger pieces which measure perhaps
up to about 7 inches. The intrinsic quality of the wood compares favour-
ably with the best known Abasian, and it seems probable that its present
unfavourable reputation is largely due to want of care in the manner in
which it is harvested. It is important that it should only be cut down
during the month of January. Immediately after the felling of the trees,
the wood should be placed in a dry pit a little below the level of the ground,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 7g

and covered with dry straw. If possible it should remain in this position
for two years before use. It should then be removed only as required, and
in no circumstances should it be taken into a hot work-room and be
allowed to remain there for even a few hours. It should then be shaped
roughly to the required pattern and placed in a steam box, and thoroughly
steamed. After this process it can be used for the most difficult work
without fear of splitting. It is whiter than the other sorts, and a little
more liable to a bluish discoloration. In the early part of the eighteenth
century British boxwood was in great demand. Elwes and Henry mention
that as much had been cut down at Box Hill within a few years (of A.D.
1712) as amounted in value to £3000. Now, however, the report says
that only £i per ton can be obtained, and " even at that low price no one
seems to want it." Since the war it has been more in request, and it is
to be hoped that in the future its undoubted value may be recognised
once more and greater care taken in its preservation and use. Holtz-
apffel says : " It is more curly in growth than the Turkey boxwood . . .
preferred by brassfinishers for their lathe-chucks, as it is tougher than the
foreign box, and bears rougher usage."

(b) ABASIAN. — This wood is unrivalled for use in the making of en-
graving blocks, for which purpose the diameters required are 4! inches
and upwards (formerly the minimum demanded was 6 inches, but the
tendency has been to reduce this). Curiously enough, this most costly
boxwood is demanded for printing on the cheap paper used in the thousands
of illustrated catalogues now issued so extensively from shops. Cheaper
boxwood, such as Persian, would produce a blurred illustration on a cheap
paper, and it is found more economical to use poor paper and good box-
wood, than the reverse. It is imported in clean, straight, round pieces
from about 2 inches up to 8 inches, though it is sometimes received in
larger dimensions : it is generally very sound and free from defects. The
price of good average parcels of Abasian boxwood before the war was
from £15 to £20 per ton. Specially selected pieces, however, were sold at
as high as £50 to £55 per ton ; on the other hand, a good deal of the small
split wood was sold at from £5 to £7 : los. per ton. For a wood which is
so slowly grown and is of such a close texture, the shrinkage in seasoning is
considerable. A test case showed that on the radial growth the shrinkage
in drying, measured on a diameter of i J inches, amounted to TV inch, but
on the tangential growth it was as much as 1)ff inch.

(c) JAPANESE. Buxus sempervirens Linn, var. japonica. — In Japan,
boxwood, or asame-tsuge which is the Japanese name, is used for the
best kind of engraving, but cherry (Prunus Pseudo-cerasus Lindl. var.
spontanea), of which the native name is yama-zakura, is also used, as it is
more plentiful and less costly than boxwood.

80 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

BOXWOOD, INDIAN. Buxus sempervwens Linn.

Weight 54-60 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Shanda laghune, Afgh. — Chikri, Kashmir — Papri, papar, paprang,
shamshad, shumaj, Pb. — Shibsashin, Byans.

The true boxwood flourishes in Northern India, and, according to
Gamble, " attaining over 5 feet in girth, while trees of over 3 feet in girth
are not uncommon, but the growth is usually very slow."

The wood apparently is practically the same as that which is grown
in Europe, but the cost of transport now prohibits its export. Gamble
quotes shipments made in 1880 realising £30 per ton ; in 1882, £15 per
ton ; in 1884, £20 per ton. Some sent from Naini Tal in 1880-81 realised
£30 per ton. He also says, " the cost of extraction and freight come to
about £10 per ton/' The competition of other woods which have been
imported, even including import of Gardenia species, has prohibited any
further export of true Indian boxwood.

For trade purposes the term " boxwood " has been used for any wood
of a whitish-yellow colour, hard and close in the grain, possessing what
might be termed " boxwood " qualities, but not necessarily of the same
botanical species. After the war the supplies of boxwood of the ordinary
kinds had been used up, and prices rose to a very high level. Shipments
were then made from India, consisting of small-sized logs of East Indian
satinwood (Chloroxylon Swietenia), and two varieties of Gardenia sp., viz.
Gardenia latifolia and G. turgida ; in appearance the wood of these two is
similar.

Another Indian wood known as " Ceylon " boxwood is the produce of
Canthium didymum.

The pores (Buxus sempervirens) are exceedingly small and are only
discernible under the lens. The medullary rays are very fine and
numerous.

BOXWOOD, KNYSNA. Gonioma Kamassi E. Mey.

Weight 52 Ibs. 8 oz. Africa.

The wood is a reddish-brown, rather deeper in colour than that of
other boxwoods ; it is sometimes stained a browner tint towards the sap
edges. Of recent years a considerable quantity has been imported, in
straight, clean, well-grown logs, in diameters varying from 5 to 12 inches,
and sometimes a little more, many of the butts being fluted ; it converts
into sound, clean pieces of good lengths. It is favourably reported on for
many purposes for which other boxwoods are used, but it causes some
trouble to those who work it. Either the dust or some other objectionable
quality inflames the nose and eyes, and causes feverish symptoms. The
workmen seem to recover quickly and are not attacked a second time,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 81

although there is always a certain tendency to inflammation of the
eyes.

In growth and characteristics it resembles the West Indian boxwood,
except that the medullary rays are straight and not wavy.

BOXWOOD, WEST INDIAN. Casearia praecox Gris.

Weight 59 Ibs. West Indies, Venezuela, Colombia.

VERN — Zapatero, sapatero, naranjillo, lima, limoncillo, Venez. — West
Indian, Venezuelan, or Maracaibo boxwood, Trade, gen. — India
boxwood, Eu. trade — Duis d'Amenque, Fr

The West Indian so-called boxwood, known also as Maracaibo box-
wood, has been generally supposed to be produced by Tecoma penta-
phylla (see Stone and others), but Professor Record states that this
is a mistake, and that the wood sold under these names is Casearia
praecox.

The colour is yellowish-white, rather brighter than that of the Turkish
or British boxwood. The grain is close, firm, and smooth. It is a beauti-
fully grown wood, the trees often attaining the height of 70 feet, practically
free from a single knot throughout its length. At the extreme top, the
tree branches out into a tuft of foliage Large supplies are available
within easy reach of the shipping ports. It is generally shipped cut into
lengths of 7 feet or 2 metres and from about 6 to 14 inches diameter, while
occasionally there are larger pieces. This variety of boxwood is the only
one for which the world's demand is increasing. In France and Germany,
besides other uses, it is extensively employed for making small combs. In
this country it is used for inlay work and banding in cabinets, and for
marquetry ; for handles of all kinds of tools, brush backs, mathematical
instruments and rules, barometer backs, and many kinds of turned work,
but it is not sufficiently strong and tough to be satisfactory for shuttles.
It is sometimes stained and used as a black wood, for which it is very
satisfactory. A very large quantity was consumed during the war for
making " punners " or ramming rods for loading high-explosive shells, for
which work it possessed the necessary tensile strength to make it very
satisfactory.

It is liable to become rather discoloured or blue-stained if kept long in
the log. The desirable method of storing this wood is to have the logs
sawn up the middle and cross-piled in an airy position, or even in the open,
with the bark or round side up. It is a great mistake to store it in cellars
or damp, airless places, and it should never be removed from one position
to another while seasoning.

The pores are exceedingly small and ill-defined, the growth being very
dense. The medullary rays are very fine, close, and parallel, but wavy and
ribbed.

82 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

BOXWOOD, YELLOW. Sideroxylon Pohlmanianum.

Weight 58 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

According to Swain the colour of this wood is a rich creamy yellow ;
texture extremely close and even, non-fissile, compact, tough and firm,
easy to work. It is suitable for all the purposes for which the boxwoods
of commerce are used, including engraving blocks.

BRAZIL-WOOD. Caesalpinia echinata Lam.

" Eastern Brazil from the vicinity of
Bahia southwards " (Record).

VERN — Brazilwood, Pernambuco, Fernambuco, Para, or Bahia wood,
peachwood, Trade — Fernambukholz, brasihenholz, Germ. — Bresil,
Fr — Palo brasil, Sp. — Legno del Brasile, legno rosso, legno di
Santa Maria, fernambucco , pernambucco, verzino, Ital — Pdo
brasil, ibin pitanga, ymird piranga, Braz.

This is the true brazil-wood, but more than one botanical species bear-
ing this name having been supplied, .much confusion has resulted. Holtz-
apffel gives brazil-wood as above, sapan wood as C. sapan, and brazilletto
as C. braziliensis. Messrs. J. Gardner & Sons, who probably have the
best available information at present, say that brazil, brazilletto, and
Pernambuco wood have always been regarded as the same.

The wood of these varieties is of a rich, bright-red colour, and is mostly
used as a dyewood, while the best pieces are selected for turning and for
violin bows. For this last purpose, although many different kinds of
timber have been tried, there is nothing that will yield the same result as
the Pernambuco or brazil-wood, and many players will use no other kind
on account of the peculiarly strong, resilient spring only to be found in
this wood. When planed it has a bright, metallic, lustrous surface, and
shows fine, snake-like ripple marks.

A fairly satisfactory substitute has been found in tapang (q.v.), a
Borneo wood. Although much lighter in colour, it resembles brazil-wood
in many respects, even possessing the same ripple marks.

BRIAR-ROOT. Erica arbor ea Linn.

Southern Europe.

The briar-root, universally known because of the familiar pipe, and
immortalised by the numberless odes which have been written to the
briar, is not, as commonly supposed, the rose briar, but the wood of a
heath which is common to Southern Europe and Algeria ; originally only
supplied from the South of France, but of later years more largely from
Algeria, or Northern Africa.

The name is a corruption of the French bruybre (heath). This heath
provides one more of the remarkable illustrations of how Nature has

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 83

provided us with one wood, which surpasses all others, for a particular
purpose for which we require it, because, in spite of world-wide efforts to
find a suitable wood from which to make tobacco pipes, there is nothing
comparable with the wood of erica arbor ea.

I have a specimen from a tree grown at Powerscourt Castle in Ireland,
the wood of which is a bright yellow colour, with a very close, hard, dense
grain, much lighter in colour than the appearance of the usual root wood,
showing the medullary rays in small flecks on the radial section.

The numerous, tiny pores are open, varying in size from very small to
minute, with strong, bright, thick medullary rays not numerous, not
continuous, which show faintly on the radial section.

Bridelia retusa Spreng.

Weight 52 Ibs. India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Pathor, mark, Pb — Khaja, kassi, gauli, Hind — Gay a, dhaulo,
gauh, Garhwal — Katganja, kulgava, Kumaon — Ekdama, Saharan-
pur — Karjara, Jeypore — Lamkana, Ajinerc — -Angnera, Banswara
— -Asana, asauna, kanta, kanchi, Mar — Geio, Nep — -Pengji,
Lepcha — Nanda, Rajbanshi — Katabuchi, Mcchi — Kashi, Garo —
Kamkui, Chittagong — Kosi, Uriya — Kdj, Monghyr — Kadurpala,
Sonthal — Kharaka, kaka, K61 — Kanka, Bhumij — Kanj, kaji,
Kharwar — Kosi, rugcndi, Khond — Anepu, Palkonda — Anap,
Rcddi — Mulu-vengay, kamanji, mullu-maruthu, Tarn. — Koramau,
dudi niaddi, koramadi, dunamadi, kodari, bonta vepi, Tel. —
Kasset, Gondi — Karka, Kurku — Gunjan, kati am, Mar — Bhil,
Asuna, goje', mulla honne, guorgi, Kan. — Mullangayum, Mai. — •
Adamarathu, Tinnevelly — Seikchi, Burm. — Keta kala, Cingh.

This is a dull, pale, greyish-brown wood which is very much like
American butternut. The gram is close and fairly firm, but it is rough,
and does not clean up nicely from the tool. Gamble says that it stands
well under water. The growth of the concentric layers is rather irregular,
and this in conjunction with a rather coarse grain, is probably the cause of
its liability to warp and twist in drying.

The concentric layers are well defined, and are marked by dark- and
light-shaded lines quite apparent to the naked eye. The pores are small and
are disposed in groups between the fine, thread-like, parallel medullary rays.

Bruguiera gymnorhiza Lank.

Weight 61 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Burma, Anda-

mans.

VERN — Kakra, kankra, Beng. — Thuddu ponna, wurrurada, Tel. — Sigappu
kakandan, Tarn.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
to be " uniform light red to red when first exposed, ageing to reddish-
brown . . . straight-grained, even and fine-textured. . . . The timber is

84 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

durable . . . very hard. ... It can be classed as a heavy construction
timber, and might possibly also be suitable for tool handles/'

BRUINHART or BROWNHEART.

See ACAPU.

BRUSH-BOX. Tristania conferta R. Br.

Weight 60 Ibs. Northern Australia to New South Wales.

For the first time (1930) this timber has appeared in the markets of
the United Kingdom. The colour is a reddish-yellow, with a hard, firm
texture, but not smooth on account of the contrary hard and soft layers
which make the working costly. Baker reports it as " one of the best
hardwoods for mallets . . . carriage and wheelwrights' work . . . wharf
superstructure . . . wedges . . . said to resist the attack of white ants."
The Forestry Commission, N.S.W., report that " owing to its toughness it
is used for . . . chisel-handles, planes, etc." It is to be tried in England
for pier sides and general planking, camp sheeting, capping, etc.

The pores are very numerous, from very small to medium size, mostly
plugged, with exceedingly fine medullary rays, hardly discernible under
the lens.

BUA BUA. Gnettarda speciosa L.

Indo-Malayan region.
VERN — Ketapang-ketek, Malay — Seacoast teak.

The colour is yellow with a red tinge, the wood is very durable, said to
last forty years in the ground, works well, and is a good furniture wood.

" Pores small, often in radial lines. Pith-rays moderately broad and
very fine " (Foxworthy).

BUBINGA. Brachystegia sp. ?

Weight 47-48 Ibs. Western Africa.

Ever since the establishment of the import of West African mahogany
into England, one or two logs have been seen of a wood which until lately
had no regular name. At one time it might be called furniture wood, at
another African rosewood, and in England only just lately (1930) has the
wood been identified as bubinga.

In colour and figure it closely resembles that of the Andaman and
Burma padauk, sometimes with the Andaman characteristics, and at
others the Burma. The grain is hard, close, works well, and is capable of
a fine surface from the tool, standing well under all conditions. The logs
are mostly figured, containing generally a narrow or broader stripe, caused
by layers of hard and soft growth, and often very strong broken roe and
splash mottle, and all those classes of figure, including the dark streaks,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 85

which are met with in the padauks. The dark streaks are ornamental,
and not detrimental to the wood, i.e. they do not deteriorate into shakes,
in the same way as those which are commonly called gum streaks in
mahogany, etc.

Individual specimens when polished so closely resemble individual
specimens of Andaman padauk that a superficial examination would not
be sufficient to enable, even the expert, to pronounce which was which
The merits of this wood are so great that its failure to create universal
demand is another illustration of the conservatism which prevents people
taking advantage of beautiful woods, just because they have never heard
of them before.

In a note in Tropical Woods, No. 3, published in 1925, Professor Record
quotes Chevalier, who states that " bubing\ imported into Europe under
the name of ' faux bois de rose du Congo/ for use in cabinet work, origi-
nates in the Fernan-Vaz region, where the trees attain a height of 80 to
100 feet, with trunks 24 to 32 inches in diameter, and free of limbs for
upward of 65 feet/' He describes the wood as follows : " Bois d'un
beau rouge amarante, avec dos zones longitudinales plus foncees, dense
Aubier d'un blanc rougeatre, assais epais. D () 851." " The tree is
classified as Brachystegia sp. ? "

In the same article Record claims a resemblance to Brazilian tulip-wood,
but it would appear that on a further examination he negatived this opinion

The pores are scarce, irregularly placed, fairly uniform in size, some
completely open, while a few are plugged. The medullary ray is very
strongly marked, clean-cut, and crossed at right angles by very fine bands
of similar light-coloured rings, at irregular intervals.

Buchanania latifolia Roxb.

Weight 31-36 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Chirauli, Pb. — Pidl, paydla, mund, katbhilawa, Garhwal — Pidr,
peirah, perua, Oudh — A char, char, chironji, C P. — Saraka, herka,
Gondi — Taro, Kurku — Cham, Unya — Parop, Sonthal — Char,
Merwara — Kat mad, aima, niordla, Tarn. — Chara, chinna moral
morh, Tel. — Charivari, Hyderabad — Nurkul, murkalu, Kan —
Sir, Bhil — Pyal, charoh, Bombay — Jaru mamidi, Palkonda —
Tarum, K61 — Pidl, Bhumij — Peea, Kharwar — Mungapera, Mai —
Mora kangi, mura, Trav. Hills — Lonbo, thitsiba, Burm.

An inferior soft wood of a dirty brownish-grey colour, with a grain
somewhat similar to that of balsa wood. Liable to attack by a large-
sized beetle, boring a hole more than \ inch in diameter. The wood is of
little importance.

The pores, which are very regular in size and position, are evenly
distributed, but very sdarce ; the medullary rays somewhat coarse, but
very numerous.

86 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

BUCKEYE, OHIO. Aesculus octandra Marsh

Ae. glabra Willd.
Weight 28 Ibs. (Hough). Eastern United States.

The timber of this tree, which is very similar to the English horse-
chestnut, is probably the mixed product of Aesculus octandra, Ae. glabra,
and perhaps also of Ae. octandra hybrida. Apparently this tree was
favourably considered by the horticultural world a hundred years ago, as
specimens may be seen which were planted about that time in various
parts of the country, and especially in public and private gardens around
London.

It is not known commercially in the United Kingdom, but it is in
considerable use in America, for the same purposes for which horse-
chestnut is in demand in this country. Gibson says : " Many an Ohio
statesman of former times boasted that as a baby he was rocked in a
buckeye sugar trough for a cradle/' The same authority also mentions
the use of this wood by the makers of artificial limbs, who consider it one
of their best materials.

Bucklandia populnea R. Br.

Weight 42-43 Ibs. India.

VERN — Pipli, Nep — Smdhawg, Lepcha — Dingdah, Khasia.
The colour is a nut-brown, with innumerable tiny specks of shining
gum, and a grain resembling kauri pine or New Zealand nmu. It is
reported as being in considerable demand in Darjeeling for door and
window frames, for which purpose the wood is undoubtedly suitable.

The innumerable tiny pores are mostly open, and lie between faint
medullary rays difficult to distinguish under the lens.

BULL OAK. Casuarina Leuhmanni R. T. B.

Weight 74! Ibs. (Baker). Australia.

The colour of this wood is a very rich, deep red plum, with a very hard,
close grain, taking a fine polish. It displays very large and thick medullary
rays on the radial section, resembling shee oak, but with a larger pattern.

The exceedingly numerous, minute to small pores, mostly plugged, are
crowded between the exceptionally wide, very wavy medullary rays.

BULLET TREE. Terminalia Buceras L.

Weight 57-58 Ibs. British Honduras, West Indies,

Central America.

VERN — Black olive tree, Fla — Jucaro, jucaro de playa, Cuba — Bucaro,
near, P.R.—Puctt, puktd, Mex.

According to Record this timber is known in Cuba as jucaro, and used
locally for a great variety of purposes, where strength and durability are
required. The wood is a brown-grey colour, with a very close grain,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 87

capable of a smooth surface from the tool. The trees, according to Record,
attain a height of 70 feet with 30 to 40 feet clear of limbs, and a diameter
up to 26 inches ; but the specimen which has been sent to me shows a
maximum width of only about 8 inches, and possesses no quality sufficient
to make it attractive for the export market.

The small pores are regular in size and position, mostly plugged, with
strongly defined wavy medullary rays, following parallel lines, and crossed
at irregular intervals by similar white lines, which may or may not denote
the annual layers.

BULLET WOOD. Humiria floribunda Mart.

Weight 53-57 Iks. (Record). Tropical America.

VERN — Bastard bullet wood, bastard bully, towanero, tauroniro, tourameira,
hoorihee, hoonhea, hunhi, Br. G. — Houmiri, bourne houmiri,
houmiri boumier, bois rouge tisane, bois rouge, bois d'encens, tun,
racine, gommier de montagne, bois a flambeau, triane, omiry,
homiry, umiry, umiri balsamo, couranoura, caramura, arbre a brai,
tower oemerou, Fr. G. — Umiri, umiry, umiry de cheiro, umiry de
casca cheiro, couramira, turamira, tourameira, men, Braz.

Known as " bastard bullet tree," and used locally for all those con-
structional purposes which require a strong, durable wood. Not generally
known in commerce.

Bursera serrata Colebr.

Weight 46 Ibs. India, Burma, The Andaman

Islands.

VERN — Murtenga, Ass — Soruputn moi, Unya — Urmu, Sonthal — San,
Mai Pahan — Saradi, Khond — Chitreka, Tel — Thadi, yitpadi,
Burm

The wood is of a dull reddish-brown, about midway between the colour
of teak and mahogany, with a close, even texture, a straight grain, and
rather a shiny surface, which becomes quite smooth from the tool. It
should be useful for furniture and general cabinet work, and would make
a good substitute for mahogany.

It was chosen as the best material for carving a handsome mirror frame,
a copy of a fine old model, for the exhibit of the Government of India, at
the Empire Timber Exhibition in London in 1920. The craftsman, an
excellent carver, considered it to be one of the finest woods for carving.
As only fresh shipped logs were available, the best results could hardly be
expected. The wood has stood the unfair test admirably. It would be
suitable for any fine decorative work, and especially for chairs of a high-
class character.

The concentric layers are marked by light, thin bands. The pores are
very small, numerous, and regular. The medullary rays are exceedingly
fine and small, and are only just visible with the lens ( -f 12).

88 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Butea frondosa Roxb.

Weight 36-42 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Dhdk, phulla, Kashmir — Dhdk, palds, kakria, kankrei, chichra,
Hind. — Chalcha, Bandelkhand — Chiula, puroha, C.P. — Palds,
Beng — Paldsi, bulyettra, Nep. — Lahokung, pordsu, Uriya —
Palashu, Mechi — Murut, K61 — Pharsa, Baigas — Paras, fards,
Behar — Murup, Sonthal — Chora, shora, khakra, kankra, Merwara
— Murr, Gondi — Pharsa, Kurku — Porasan, parasu, Tarn. —
Modugu, mohtu, Tel. — Muttuga, thords, muttala, Kan — Par as,
phulds, gas-kela, Mar. — Phullas kakria, Guz — Paldsin samatha,
Mai. — Pupaldsu, Trav. Hills — Gas-kdla, Cingh. — Pauk, pawpan,
shanggan, mai-kao, flame of the forest, Burm.

To those who have seen this tree in all its beauty displaying a blaze of
brilliant orange-scarlet flowers, it seems almost unfair to report on the
wood it produces, especially as it is of very little account. It has a soft,
woolly grain, incapable of a smooth surface, except by dint of unusual
exertion, and the wood is not one which can be recommended for any but
the commonest uses.

The radial section displays a very unusual and remarkable pattern. A
very few pores are regularly and evenly scattered over the surface, and
give an impression rather of worm-holes, than of pores in the wood ; they
are also strangely arranged in a pattern not unlike that of the pointer stars.
The medullary rays are coarse and numerous, and crossed at right angles
by smaller light-coloured lines, the whole forming a pretty pattern like
that of the scales of the snake.

BUTTERNUT. Juglans cinerea Linn.

Weight 25 Ibs. North America.

This wood, apart from its colour, which is a yellowish-grey, resembles
black walnut, Juglans nigra (q.v.), in all respects. Some years ago it
formed a regular supply in the United Kingdom, but latterly this has been
discontinued. It does not appear likely that it will play any important
part in the supplies of the future.

CABBAGE BARK. Andira inermis H. B. K.

Weight 46 Ibs. British Honduras, West Indies,

Central and South America.

VERN — Cabbage-bark tree, bastard cabbage, tree cabbage, wild olive, dog
almond, wormbark, angelim, partridge wood, pheasant wood, Eng.

This strange-looking wood has the colour of Honduras mahogany, with
a very peculiar rough grain, more suggestive of a palm growth than that
of ordinary wood. A very sharp plane is required to secure even a moder-
ately smooth surface, and even then a fine ridgy effect is produced by the
very close, and yet obstinate, contrary grain.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 89

Dark wavy belts of growth, crossed by very definite fine and strong
medullary rays, show on the transverse section, in what is perhaps the
prettiest pattern it is possible to obtain. On this section the pores show
as solid, although marked, but on the tangential section they show as
open and sometimes filled.

CABILMA or CABIRMA. Cedrela angustifolia Moc. & Sesse (?).

San Domingo.

This little-known timber from San Domingo is very similar to mahogany
from the same region, and resembles it both in weight and texture ; it is
browner, though not of the same brown tint as sabicu. It has been and is
still rarely imported, but would be useful for high-class chairs, as it is
strong and durable, and stands well when thoroughly seasoned. (My
tentative reference of this wood to the member of the mahogany family,
Cedrela angustifoha, rests on the authority of a correspondent from San
Domingo.)

CABO DE JUCHO. Source unknown.

Weight 49 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a close-grained, dense wood of the colour of boxwood (Buxus
sempervirens) , and liable to have bluish streaks of stain.

Record speaks of a timber Cabo de hacha, Tnchilia alia Blake, which is
probably the same, although his description gives it as light reddish-brown.

CALIGOA. Source unknown.

Weight 59 Ibs. Brazil.

This wood is a nut-brown colour, with dark irregular lines showing on
the tangential surface. The medullary rays show in exceedingly fine
flecks on the radial section. My small specimen contains a fine pin worm-
hole, which suggests that the wood is liable to this defect.

The pores are very small and numerous. The medullary rays are very
fine and rather obscure.

CALOPHYLLUM SPP.

India, Burma, The Andaman Islands.

C. Inophyllum Linn.

Weight 39-40 Ibs.

VERN — Sultana champa, Hind., Beng. — Pinnay, punnai, Tarn. — Poonang,
Uriya — Undi, Mar. — Wuma, hona, pinekai, Kan — Puna, punas,
Tel. — Domba, tel-domba, Cingh. — Ponnyet, Burm. — Bintangor,
penaga laut, Malay.

90 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

C. tomentosum Wight.

Weight 42-43 Ibs.

VERN — Poon, poone, Mai. — Pongu, malampunna, Tarn. — Nagan, Mar. —
Surhoni, siri, poone, kuve, bobbi, Kan. — Punnapay, Mai. — Vin,
Trav. Hills — Kina, Cingh.

C. spectabile Willd.

Weight 38-39 Ibs. (Gamble).

VERN — Pantaga, Burm. — Dakar tdlddd, And. — Lai chuni, Hind, (from
Andamans) — Domba-kina, Cingh.

The above three species have been produced on a commercial scale
during the last few years (1931). The result of a careful examination fails
to reveal sufficient differences to warrant their being treated commercially
as different timbers. A further variety in Ceylon is C. Burmanni Wight,
but no commercial experiment has yet been made in England with the
produce of this wood.

C. Inophyllum. — This is the Alexandrian laurel. According to Pearson
and Brown in Commercial Timbers of India, this timber is known by the
name of Poon, as also is that of C. tomentosum. Of a rather dark reddish-
brown mahogany colour, generally with handsome wavy grain, with a
firm, close, compact texture, perhaps slightly harder and denser than the
wood of C. tomentosum. Some very handsome panelling has been made,
which bears an attractive appearance similar to mahogany, but having
a characteristic all its own. It finishes and polishes well from the tool,
and has been greatly admired. Gamble's report of it as being " valuable
for some purposes in shipbuilding/1 and that of Kurz, as being " good for
masts, spars, railway sleepers, machinery, etc.," do not give the wood
sufficient credit. Gamble is better advised when he quotes Sebert in
Les Bois de la Nouvelle Caledonie, who says that it is a " magnificent wood
for cabinet-maker's work." In the panelled work referred to above, the
produce of C. tomentosum was also introduced, and it was found impossible
to identify the one from the other.

The pores are small and irregular, and joined together by wavy bands
of loose tissue. The medullary rays are very fine and numerous, rather
indistinct, and show on the radial section in minute flecks.

C. tomentosum. — This is the timber which gives the poon spar of
commerce, but for which there appears to be now little or no demand.
Mr. D. A. Thomson, late of the Indian Forest Service, informed me that
formerly the Moors used to come across to select poon spars for their
dhows, and the price to be paid by them was determined by placing
rupees along the length of the spar, the number necessary to reach from
end to end being the price that was paid. In India the wood is used for
building and bridge work. In England it has been employed in those
works for which mahogany is generally used. Some shipments of logs in

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 91

the round, boards and planks, have been received, the last from the
Mysore district, mostly securing fair prices, and having given satis-
faction.

The pores are very variable in size, they appear in groups, sometimes
joined together. There are distinct concentric lines of loose tissue appear-
ing at wide intervals. The exceedingly fine and numerous medullary rays
are scarcely discernible.

C. spectdbile. — A small shipment of this wood secured attention and
gave satisfaction in use, resembling very closely the qualities and appear-
ance of the two foregoing varieties.

The pores in this wood are rather larger and more evenly distributed.
The medullary rays are difficult to discern.

C. Wightianum. — No commercial use of this wood has been noted.
For identification see C. Inophyllum.

C. Burmanni. — No commercial use of this wood has been noted.

The pores are scarce, mostly plugged, irregularly placed in belts, with
numerous faint medullary rays.

CAMASSARY. Source unknown.

Weight 64 Ibs. Brazil.

The specimen rather resembles Barba timao (q.v.), though it has a
more reddish tint. The surface is very smooth.

The pores are very variable in size and much scattered , they are
interspersed with wavy bands of loose tissue. The medullary rays are
faint and indistinct. Dark lines mark the concentric layers.

CAMASSARY DE CARUNXO. Source unknown.

Weight 71 Ibs. Brazil.

The specimen suggests that it is a small tree, and that it is of little
importance commercially. It is similar to the foregoing (Camassary) but
is slightly darker, and is streaked with dark brown. It appears to agree
with the " camasey " reported by Record as Miconia.

The pores are small and are generally joined in fours and fives. The
medullary rays are so faint as to be almost indistinguishable.

CAMPHOR, EAST AFRICAN.

See Ocotea usambarensis.

CAMPHOR, NEPAL. Cinnamomum glanduliferum Meissn.

India.
VERN — Malligin, marisgiri, Nep.

Reported as a strong, brown-coloured, durable wood.

92 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

CAMPHOR-WOOD. (True Camphor.) Cinnamomum Camphora Nees & Ebern.

Laurus Camphora Linn.
Weight 40 Ibs. n oz. China, Formosa, Japan.

The wood is of a light yellow-brown colour, with dark and light streaks,
and has a fairly hard texture ; also it has a very strong scent of camphor,
which is persistent even after hundreds of years. There is very little
demand for the wood and it is extremely difficult to obtain. In 1911 a
large shipment was imported, but it was afterwards discovered that 75 per
cent of the planks were of the cinnamon tree, probably Cinnamomum
zeylanicum Breyn, which warps, twists, shrinks, and swells , however long
it may be kept, it has a strong scent of paregoric, or balm of aniseed, and is
altogether inferior to camphor-wood, but can easily be mistaken for it.
The well-known seamen's trunks which have been made in China, and sold
even to-day in the Eastern bazaars, are passed off as being entirely con-
structed of camphor-wood, but the tops, bottoms, and backs are made of
this inferior wood, and the remainder only is of the true camphor-wood.

In 1912 Henry John Elwes collected in Formosa some exceptionally
fine burrs of very large size, ranging up to 4 feet square, very handsomely
figured, quite unique, unlike anything seen before or since.

Some fine quality Formosan camphor-wood was displayed at the
Japanese Exhibition at the White City, which was slightly less streaky,
slightly browner in colour, harder in grain, and of better quality than the
usual supplies.

It is very difficult and costly to obtain the wood, and it has been said
that capital punishment is the penalty for cutting down the camphor tree
throughout China or Formosa.

Pores uniform in size, excepting for irregular large-sized pores which
follow the line of concentric layer in the early growth, generally plugged.
Medullary rays irregular, parallel, and rather confused, which show faintly
on the radial section.

CAMPHOR-WOOD, BORNEO. Drybbalanops aromatica Gaert.

Borneo, Sumatra.

VERN — Kapur barus, Borneo camphor-wood.

Although Foxworthy refers to some species of Cinnamomum in Borneo
and the Philippine Islands, the wood known in the United Kingdom as
Borneo camphor-wood is considered to be that of Dryobalanops. He says :
" The Borneo camphor wood is obtained from species of Dryobalanops, of
the family of Dipterocarpaceae, and does not have an odour like camphor,
except in the neighbourhood of the camphor deposits." Dr. Hose, who
lived in Borneo for many years, says that the natives call the wood
" padji," and the name " kapor," which they pronounce " karpaw," was
probably introduced by the Malays. He says that the real camphor tree

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 93

of Borneo and Sumatra is Dryobalanops aromatica, and is known to the
Malays as kapor barus, and several species of Dipterocarpaceae resembling
the camphor tree are usually known as kapor. Kapor-paya is a swamp
tree growing in low country, and resembling the swamp variety in every
way except in durability. He adds that these timbers continue to shrink
more than the timber of Dryobalanops, and also that the different varieties
of Dipterocarpaceae are so numerous and so much alike that they are
almost bound to become confused.

The timber is of a dull, light, reddish-brown colour and has gummy
pores. It has an aromatic scent, but not that of camphor. After ex-
posure to light and air it darkens somewhat to the colour of teak. Having
a hard surface it works with a good finish from the machine plane, in which
respect it resembles yang, eng, and gurjun. It has been said that it will
not be used by engineers and builders in this country, as the timber is
defective , but this cannot be substantiated. The supplies, on the contrary,
have been of faultless quality. It is this, and also the fact that large
squares and long lengths can be obtained, which gives it its present im-
portant position as a useful and much inquired-for timber. As with the
other species of Dipterocarpaceae, the principal trouble is the difficulty of
seasoning it satisfactorily. Boards i inch by 4 inches cut for flooring
have shrunk with kiln seasoning, after being seasoned previously for six
years. The best results have been obtained by air-seasoning for two years
or more, and then kiln-drying. The wood contains a kind of gum similar
to that of gurjun. Any contact with iron or steel, if all moisture is not
excluded, causes an unsightly black stain, and it is not safe, therefore, to
use iron nails or screws if the work is to be exposed to damp. In England
it appears to be durable in exposed work, but so far sufficient time has
not been allowed for any reliable test. In such work the grain does not
wear to a ridgy surface as with some hardwoods, and there is not such a
marked difference between the soft and hard grain. In this respect it is
excellent for floorings. The grain is not fibrous, and its hard but not too
slippery surface withstands the wear of shuffling feet or of nailed boots.
It is also a valuable timber for general constructional work. One or two
authorities in Borneo report it as a good wood for all purposes, and it is
much valued in its native country, where, if it were not subject to the
attack of white ant, it would be much more extensively used.

The pores are regular in size and position ; the medullary rays are well-
defined and parallel.

CAMPHOR-WOOD, FORMOSAN. Machilus Thunbergii S. & Z.

Weight 41 Ibs. Formosa.

This wood must not be confused with the true camphor of Formosa
(Cinnamomum Camphor a], from which it is very different. It is of a

94 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

rather dirty-brown colour, but with a very bright lustrous surface which,
with its lighter and darker marking, gives it a pleasing appearance. It
possesses a slightly aromatic scent, though not that of camphor, and
would be useful as an attractive cabinet or decorative wood, for in colour
and appearance it is quite unusual. Mitsui & Co. give its estimated
quantity (1920) available as 5,000,000 cubic feet.

The pores are small, very regular in size and position, and very clean
and clearly defined. The medullary rays are fine, clearly defined, parallel,
and equidistant.

Campnospenna zeylanicum Thw.

Ceylon.
VERN — Aridda, Cingh.

The colour of this wood is a dirty yellow-grey, with a very smooth
grain, rather soft. Not unlike the New Zealand kauri, though not so
hard. Gamble reports it as of little use except for tea-boxes, but from
the specimen I have, and that which I have seen in Ceylon, it would seem
to contain properties which should make it more valuable for other
purposes.

The pores are very numerous, exceedingly small, invariably plugged.
The medullary rays minute, scarcely visible under the lens.

CAMWOOD.

See BARWOOD.

CANALETE. Cordia Gerascanthus L.

Weight 51 Ibs. 13 oz. West Indies, Central America.

VERN — Bocote, barl, Mex. — Pardillo del monte, Venez. — Baria, varia, veria
negra, vena prieta, Cuba.

Professor Record, in Timbers of Tropical America, gives the source as
Cordia gerascanthoides , but in a private letter (1931) corrects this and says
it should have been given as above. He says the genus Cordia is a very
large one, with about 350 species, and it is difficult, if not impossible, to be
definite.

The wood is dense and hard, and has been imported in round pieces
from 6 to 10 inches in diameter. The heart-wood is of a deep purplish-
lilac colour, marked with thin black streaks running with the grain, and
having a bright metallic lustre ; fairly sound-hearted, free from cuppy
shakes, it stands well, and for some purposes is a good substitute for
lignum- vitae ; also useful for tool and knife handles, turnery and walking-
sticks, and the butt ends of billiard cues. The sap-wood, which is from
f to 1 1 inches wide and sometimes more, is bright yellow.

The growth is marked by alternate concentric bands in which pores

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 95

are more or less numerous. These are invisible, but their position and
scattered arrangement are indicated by a white halo surrounding the
groups, slightly linking them tangentially. The numerous fine medullary
rays are visible to the naked eye by reason of their light colour and sharp
lines.

Canarium sikkimense King.

Weight 19 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India.

VERN — Goguldhup, Nep. — Narock-pa, Lepcha.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
as " White and very lustrous when first exposed, turning grey on exposure
. . . straight-grained, even and extremely coarse-textured. ... A
perishable timber if left exposed. . . . Not worth cultivating."

Canarium zeylanicum Bl.

Weight 28 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon.

VERN — Pakkihpal, Tarn. — Kekuna, Cingh.

The colour is a dirty white-grey, with a rather soft, fine texture, like
Indian dhup.

It is reported that the wood contains an abundance of balsamic gum
resin, with a fragrant scent, which is not persistent.

The pores are mostly plugged, uniform in size, not very numerous.
Medullary rays confused, irregular, showing faintly in minute flecks on
the radial section.

CANELLA. Nectandra spp.

Weight 40-50 Ibs. Brazil.

There is great difficulty in classifying the many varieties of wood
known as canella. The Handbook issued by the Ministry of Agriculture
(Rio), mentions over twenty different kinds growing in the Brazilian
States. Record mentions as the three most noteworthy : Canella parda
(Nectandra amara Mart.), C. preta (Nectandra mollis Meissn.), and C.
Sassafraz (Octoea pretiosa Nees). The colour appears to vary from pale
yellow to a brown so dark as to be almost black. The following two
varieties are in my collection.

Canella batalha. — This is a close-grained wood with a bright lustrous
sheen, of a rather pale colour resembling satinwood, for which it would
form a good substitute. The pores are exceedingly numerous, and are
generally plugged. The numerous medullary rays are placed between
the pores.

Canella limao. — This is of a dark greyish-brown colour with a lustrous
sheen, and a smooth, even texture. It is reported as having medicinal

96 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

value for lung complaints. The structure is similar to that of C. batalha,
though the pores are more scarce.

Canellapreta. — Nectandra mollis Meissn., of which I have no specimen,
is described by the Ministry of Agriculture (Rio) as of some importance,
being a first-rate timber for work in damp situations and all kinds of
building construction. It is strong, compact, and much used for ceilings
and panels.

CANELLA IMBUIA or EMBUIA. Phoebe porosa Mez.

Weight 43-57 Ibs. (Record). Southern Brazil.

VERN — Imbuia, Braz. — Imbuia, embuia, Brazilian walnut, U S.A.

The colour varies from dark yellow to almost black, with a coarse, even
grain, generally plain but sometimes beautifully figured, with a satiny
lustre. According to Tropical Woods, No. 18, this is one of the best known
hardwood timbers of Southern Brazil, used as a substitute for walnut,
producing timber that can be found to match any specimen in colour. It
works easily, keeps its shape, and is a high-class furniture and cabinet
wood. The sawdust is said to cause irritation to the skin of some
workmen.

CANGERANA. Cabralea cangerana Said.

Weight 34 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Cancharana, canchorono, canchorena, caxarana, cedro macho, cedro-
ra, Arg — Cangerana, canter ana-minm, canjarana, cajarana,
conjerana-assu, cedro, Braz.

The wood is straight-grained, and of a bright red mahogany colour,
with a wide sap line which is of a bluish-red hue. It resembles the plainer
and commoner sorts of South American mahoganies. It is reported as
being used in Brazil for doors and windows, and being particularly notable
in that it does not shrink, warp, nor bend, which good characteristics are
upheld by its appearance and texture.

The pores are small and ill-defined. The medullary rays are not
traceable even with the aid of the lens ( +12).

Canthium didymum Roxb.

Weight 50-57 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Ceylon.

VERN — Tolan, pita koluchia, dhalasingha, Uriya — -Neckanie, vatchikoran,
yerkoh, irambaratthan, Tarn. — Nalla balasu, nakkani, Tel. —
Abalu, Kan. — Jort K61 — Pita kolaria, Khond — Konda, kolinu,
Palkonda — Atika, Reddi — Pana karawu, gal-karanda, pandaru,
Cingh. — Myauklaung, Burm.

Gamble says : "In Ceylon, its resemblance to boxwood has caused it
to be called Ceylon boxwood. . . . Wood white (Ceylon) or light brown

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 97

(India), hard-, close-, and even-grained." It is now rarely seen in Eng-
land, and indeed has never been procurable except in small quantities.
It is well grown ; from 6 to 18 inches in diameter and about 3 feet long.
It was used in the past to some extent for engraving, but was not found
hard enough to yield good results. On account of its size, large shuttles
were made of it, particularly those which were used in the manufacture
of silk.

The annual rings are clearly marked by darker coloured wood. The
very numerous pores are minute, with also very fine, numerous medullary
rays.

CAPE SANDAL.

See Excoecaria sp.

Carallia calycina Benth.

Weight 51 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon.

VERN — Ubbenya, Cingh.

The colour of the wood is a light reddish-yellow, with a hard but rather
rough gram, liable to split badly. Very similar, and perhaps indistin-
guishable from C. integerrima.

The pores extremely scarce, mostly plugged, always coarse ; large
medullary rays which give a strong splash on the radial section.

Carallia integerrima DC., syn. C. lucida Roxb.

Weight 46 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Kierpa, Beng — Palamkat, Nep. — Kujitekra, Ass — Jur, K61 —

Shengali, panast, Mar — Varanga, vallayam, Mai. — Karalh, Tel. —

Andipunar, andamargal, Kan. — Punschi, Bombay — Dawata,

Cingh. — By a, Arracan.

C. lucida.

VERN — Maniawga, Burma.

For some years previous to 1920 there was a small import which con-
sisted of pieces nailed together in the shape of a square open tube, the
pieces being used as ventilation pipes for carrying grain cargoes, which
are sold on arrival as firewood, to clear the ship. In that year certain
shipments were made for Exhibition purposes, and since then there has
been a steady, but small, import. The wood is hard and very similar in
texture to British-grown live oak, except that it has a strong red colour.
The silvery plates of the medullary rays which show on the radial section
give a similarity to wainscot oak which is remarkable, and it would make
a very handsome panelling. It seasons well and does not warp, but is
somewhat liable to crack. The timber should always be cut on the
quarter.

98 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The medullary rays are of two kinds, those which are strong and
prominent and which cause the silver grain, and the others, very fine and
numerous, which lie between these. The pores vary in size and are often
subdivided ; they are frequently filled with resin.

Carapa moluccensis Lam.

Weight 41-49 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Poshur, pussur, dhundul, Beng. — Kundalanga, somunthm, Tarn. —
Pinleon, kyat-hnan, kyana, Burm.

My specimen came to me under the name of Kyat. In both colour
and grain the wood resembles American black walnut, but with rather a
purple tinge. It is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool, with
an attractive appearance, which renders it suitable for high-class decora-
tive woodwork.

The pores are rather numerous, irregularly placed and very small. The
medullary rays exceedingly fine, numerous, and crossed at right angles by
well-defined light lines, which may or may not represent concentric layers
of growth.

CARCAUNDA. Source unknown.

Weight 58 Ibs. Brazil.

This dull, orange-yellow coloured wood, appears to take a smooth
surface from the tool.

The pores vary in size and are sometimes joined. The medullary rays
are clearly marked though very fine.

Careya arborea Roxb.

Weight 50 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN- — Kumbt, kumbh, khumbi, Hind. — Pilu, Banda. — Gumar, Mandla,
Balaghat — Kumri, Chhindwara — Gummar, Gondi — Boktok,
Lepcha — Dambel, Garo — I jar, Monghyr — Kumbt, Uriya — Kumbe,
Khond — Asunda, K61 — Kum, Bhumij — Budatare, Koya — Darepi,
Reddi — Ayma, pailae, poota-tammi, Tam. — Budd-durmi, buda
danni, dudippi, Tel — Kumbia, kuba, Mar. — Kaval, gaul, ganjal,
Kan. — Pera, udu, Mai. — Poyn, Trav. Hills — Gavuldu, Mysore —
Bambwe, Burm. — Kabooay, Talcing — Tagooyi, Karen — Kahatta,
Cingh.

A dark red, even-grained wood, which can be obtained in squares up to
25 feet by 12 inches. It is durable, seasons well, and stands well under
water. Pearson and Brown in Commercial Timbers of India report the
wood as being difficult to season ; indeed, that it is questionable whether
it can be satisfactorily seasoned. But it is said to be satisfactory in the
United Kingdom, and to polish well. It is used for gun-stocks, building,
house-posts, planking, and furniture, and is obtainable in large quantities.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 99

The pores are fairly numerous, medium in size, and often subdivided.
The gently undulating medullary rays are exceedingly fine and very
numerous. Dark-coloured concentric rings appear at irregular intervals.

Caryota urens Linn.

Weight 45 Ibs. (Gamble). Eastern and Southern India,

Ceylon.

VERN — Rungbong, simong, Lepcha — Tamadong, Bhutia — Bara flaivar,
Ass. — Salopa, Uriya — Solopo, sarta, Khond — Jzluga, Reddi —
Mhar, mardi, man, jirugu, Tel. — -Conda-panna, erim-panna, utah-
panna, tippilipana, Tarn. — Bhym, betna, bairn, bugam, bagm,
Kan. — Berli, Mar. — Shundra pana, erimpana, chundapana, olathi,
Mai. — Kitul, nepora, Cmgh. — Hlyamban, Magh. — Minbaw, Burm.

Gamble says : " This splendid palm is remarkable for its much-cut
leaves and wedge-shaped leaflets. . . . The leaves give the ' Kitul ' fibre,
which is very strong, and is made into ropes, brushes, brooms, baskets, and
other articles." It is more useful for other purposes than for its wood ;
nevertheless it produces a strong and durable material, which Gamble
reports as " used for agricultural purposes, water conduits and buckets . . .
plough-shafts and for rafters in house-building." As in most palms, the
inner wood is soft and pithy and useless, while the outer layers are exces-
sively hard, yielding a maximum width of sound wood of not more than
from 3 to 4 inches at most.

The colour is black with brown streaks, and the wood has been used to
a moderate extent for cabinet work, inlays, and bandings.

Cassia fistula Linn.

Weight 61 Ibs. India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Amaltas, Hind. — Kinjdl, knnjal, Kashmir — Alash, ah, karanzai,
karangal, kidr, kanidr, Pb. — Kirdla, Dehra Dun — Sindra, Garhwal
— Raj bnksh, kitola, Kumaon — Chimkam, Smd — Gurmala, Guz —
Sundali, bandarlati, Beng. — Shongrdl, Sundarbans — Sandan,
sunan, Uriya — -Kitwdh, kitoli, itola, shimarra, sim, N.-W. Prov. —
Warga, urga, Oudh—Jaggarwah, raila, hirojah, karkacha, C.P. —
Jaggra, jagarua, kambar, rera, Gondi—Han, K61 — Dunrds,
Kharwar — Raella, Baigas — -Kirmalia, Merwara — -Pundali, Khond
— Rela, Reddi — Banag, bangru, Kurku-~Bahawa, boya, bawa,
Mar. — Raj binj, Nep. — Sungyen, Lepcha — Sonalu, Garo — Bonur-
lati, bonurlauri, persar, Palamow — Sunaru, Ass. — Bandolat,
Cachar — Kone, sinkone, kavam, tirukontai, Tam. — Reylu, rela,
suvarnam, konay, Tel. — Konnei, Mai. — Kaki, Tam. — Kakke, Kan.
— Ehtfla, Cingh. — Ngu, pwabet, ngugyi, Burm.

This very hard, heavy, close-grained wood is the produce of the Indian
laburnum, which, when in flower in the early part of the hot season, is one
of the most beautiful trees in the Indian jungles. Sir George Hart says
that it occurs over a very wide area, but only as scattered individual trees,

ioo THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

so that he considers the timber is hardly likely to be of much economic
importance in England. It is of a brick-red colour, darkening on exposure.
According to the reports, it is obtainable only in small size, and is rather
brittle and apt to split, but would be a useful wood for turning, inlay, and
fine cabinet work.

The pores and the medullary rays are exceedingly fine and small, with
short, light-coloured ripple waves following irregular lines.

This species also grows in Brazil, and gives a pale reddish-brown wood,
which has a fine grain and takes a smooth surface from the tool. It
strongly resembles the supplies from India and Burma, although it has
not the same colour or general attractiveness, while neither the Brazilian
nor the Indian varieties compare favourably with our laburnum (Cytisus
laburnum Linn.). Although the Indian Cassia fistula is known as labur-
num, neither that nor the Brazilian wood appear to have any attributes
which would justify the name, as it is generally understood in Europe.

In the Brazilian timber the pores are fairly large and are often sub-
divided ; they are surrounded by patches of lighter coloured tissue. The
very numerous medullary rays are fine though clearly marked. Dark
concentric bands follow the line of growth.

Cassia kotschyana.

The Sudan.

The native name of this wood is " ingartu." It is of a pale yellowish-
salmon colour, with a very hard, tight, close grain, producing a very
smooth surface from the tool.

The not very numerous pores are very small and open, situated between
numerous prominent medullary rays.

Cassia marginata Roxb.

Weight 59 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Urimidi, uskiamen, Tel. — Vakai, Tarn. — Ngoomee, Burm. —
Ratu-wa, Cingh.

An attractive dark brown wood with black streaks, much like Indian
laurel, but with a closer, firmer, smoother grain. A very handsome wood
foe high-class decorative cabinet work.

Gamble reports it as well adapted for articles of turnery, such as naves
of wheels and handles of instruments ; but the wood is far too valuable
and attractive to use for such purposes.

The pores, surrounded by belts of light tissue, are very small, and
appear to be completely plugged ; but they are open on the tangential
surface, which shows a pretty ripple ray. The medullary rays are very
numerous, but confused, and not clearly discernible under the lens.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 101

Cassia siamea Lamk.

Weight 43-58 Ibs. (Gamble). Burma, Ceylon, India,

Malaya.

VERN — Beati, manje konne, vakai, Tarn. — Kassod, Mar. — Mezali, Burm. —
Wa, aramana, Cingh.

A streaky wood, with light, rather golden stripes, in shades varying to
almost black. It possesses a hard, smooth, tight grain, resembling that
of the palm. A highly decorative wood for inlay or the best class of
cabinet work.

The pores are exceedingly scarce, arranged in banded groups of light
tissue, forming under the lens a pretty, minute pattern like a tiger's skin.
Medullary rays hardly discernible under the lens.

Castanopsis brevi-spina Hay.

Weight 41 Ibs. Formosa.

The wood is of a light nut-brown colour, marked with a pretty pattern
caused by the pores. It takes a very smooth surface, showing the clash
of the medullary ray when cut on the quarter. With a very nice texture,
it has every quality for standing well without shrinking or warping, but
has never been imported into England.

The pores are rather scarce and irregular. The medullary rays are
numerous and fine, and joined at right angles by similar white lines, giving
the appearance of a fine spider's web.

Castanopsis Hystrix A. DC.

Weight 42 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Burma.
VERN — Hingon, Ass — Katus, Dalne-katus, Nep. — Sivikishu, Lepcha.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
to be " White when first exposed, turning light grey or greyish-brown with
age, the sap-wood scarcely distinguishable from the heart-wood ; . . .
more or less irregularly interlocked-grained, medium and uneven-textured
. . . should make up into useful fumed furniture of the cheaper class."

Castanopsis indica A. DC.

Weight 43-45 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Banj katus, Nep. — Kashioron, Lepcha — Sevang, Ass. — Charang,
Garo — Tailo, Cachar — Nikan, gol-shingra,Sylhet — Thite, thit&gyin,
gonthite, Ruby Mines, Burm — Indian chestnut.

A very attractive wood, of a yellow-brown colour, with a lustrous
surface and a hard figury grain, resembling a dull-coloured Mexican prima
vera, for which timber it might be substituted without fear of detection.
The pores show rather too openly on the tangential grain.

A sample taken from a plank which was sent over for the 1924 Exhibi-

102 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

tion displays the marked features accompanying spiral growth, which
indicate that the genus is liable to this defect in India, as it is in England.
The scarce, open pores are very irregular in size and position, almost
conveying the impression of being worm-holes, many with small bright
specks of brilliant shining gum. Medullary rays hardly discernible under
the lens.

CATALPA. Catalpa speciosa Warder.

South Central America.

The tree is prominent as an ornamental tree in London gardens, notable
specimens of which can be seen in the grounds of the House of Commons.

According to Elwes and Henry, the origin of the name is Catawba, the
name of an Indian tribe of Georgia and the Carolinas, The tree does not
attain to any size sufficient to make it serviceable for use in this country,
but it is used for various purposes in its own native countries. A tree
grown at Ballarat, Australia, produced a specimen which bears out the
description given above.

The wood is brown, light, soft, not strong, brittle, coarse-grained,
durable, especially in contact with the soil. It is used for posts and
fencing, but is suitable for internal fittings, and is now being much planted.

CATINGUEIRA. Source unknown.

Weight 71 Ibs. Brazil.

This greyish-brown wood is streaked and marked with deeper coloured
bands, rather resembling the English laburnum. It is a fine, firm timber
which takes a good surface from the tool, and would form a useful medium
for inlay veneer work. It has been suggested that two of the Brazilian
specimens in Colonel Gamble's collection have been incorrectly marked,
and that the woods marked respectively " coracao de negro " and " catin-
gueira " should have their names reversed. The catingueira very closely
resembles coracao, both in general appearance and in structure, while the
coracao de negro is totally unlike either.

The pores are very numerous, seldom appearing singly, but in more or
less long linked chains of pores. The medullary rays are so fine as to be
scarcely discernible even under the lens (+ 10). The concentric layers are
clearly marked by alternate lighter and darker coloured rings.

CAUCASIAN WING NUT. Pterocarya Caucasica.

The Caucasus, Persia, Armenia.

The colour of the wood is pinkish-white, with a rather soft grain. It is
light in weight, somewhat resembling that of the lime tree, and is chiefly
used for making boxes and packing-cases. Elwes states that it " is one of

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 103

the most ornamental hardwoods that we have ; and is well worth planting
in warm and sheltered positions in the south of England, where it thrives
from Kent to Devonshire."

CEDAR.

Under this commercial name a motley collection of woods is included.
In the first place comes the true cedar, a coniferous genus, Cedrus, of which
there are three species or varieties : the cedar of Lebanon, the deodar, and
the Mount Atlas cedar. Another coniferous type, the Port Orford cedar
(Cupressus Lawsoniana), should more correctly be termed a cypress, for
the tree is familiar in gardens under the name of Lawson's cypress. The
pencil cedars, being the wood of several American species of Juniperus, are
truly junipers and likewise conifers. All these woods possess a very
fragrant scent. It is not surprising that the name cedar has popularly,
and hence commercially, been attached to the cigar-box cedar, a West
Indian wood derived from a tree (Cedrela odorata] which is in no way allied
to Cedrus, but is a member of the mahogany family (Meliaceae). Other
species of Cedrela, including the Indo-Australian C. Toona and C. australis
and the Paraguayan cedar C. braziliensis, are more or less fragrant and
receive the name cedar.

The wood of Cedrela in many respects resembles mahogany, and has to
some extent similar characteristics, so that the name has been extended to
various American, African, etc. woods, which more or less resemble in
appearance those of Cedrela, though not necessarily possessing any
fragrance or strong scent. Some of the woods belong to the mahogany
family, some do not, while the sources of still others are unknown. Then
again there is in British and Dutch Guiana the so-called cedar, the pro-
duct of Protium altissimum. The tree is not a cedar, nor has it any of the
characteristics, and it is entirely without the fragrant scent usually
associated with that wood.

Further confusion arises owing to the fact that between mahogany and
cedar woods of the Cedrela type there exist transitional forms, which are
termed mahoganies or cedars according to the will of the vendor. Indeed
in some of these mixed species from the West Coast of Africa, it has been
found that even in the produce of one tree, and even on one side only,
cedar characteristics are noticeable which were absent in the remainder.
(See WEST AFRICAN CEDAR.)

Beyond these commercial woods lie others, locally termed cedars,
though unfamiliar in the English market : among such are the American
conifers, red cedar (Juniperus occidentalis) and white cedar (Libocedrus
decurrens and Cupressus thyoides), the red cedar (Cunonia capensis) of
Cape Colony, the red cedar (Acrocarpus fraxinifolius Wight) of Sikkim,
and the New Zealand cedar pahautea (Libocedrus Bidwillii). According

104 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

to Dr. Foxworthy, the names " white cedar " and " bastard cedar " have
been given to the wood of Chickrassia tabular is.

CEDAR, AFRICAN PENCIL. Juniperus procera Hoch.

Weight 40 Ibs. East Africa.

VERN — Mutarakwa.

During 1910, according to the Kew Bulletin (No. 2193), 31,000 logs of
this timber were imported into Germany from East Africa. The wood is
of a dark red or rose colour, harder, more brittle, and slightly heavier than
that of J. virginiana. Though it has the fragrance of the latter, perhaps
a little fainter, the wood has not been so favourably received in the United
Kingdom, but on account of the inferior quality and scarcity of supply
from other sources it is probable that its use will largely increase. For
such work as panelling, provided that reasonable-sized pieces free from
defects were forthcoming, it would be superior to any other pencil cedar
yet imported, as it is of a closer texture. The quality is exceedingly good,
and it takes a sharp edge for either surface or mouldings.

" The outlook for this trade appears to be bright, provided only care-
fully selected, accurately sawn, and thoroughly seasoned slats are shipped
and the price is moderate. A process has been developed in England for
rapid treatment of the slats, which appears to be successful in seasoning,
and at the same time slightly softening the wood. The process promises
to be a valuable one, which should help the trade considerably. If the
slats are carefully selected and thoroughly air seasoned, i.e. scientifically
stacked under properly regulated conditions of air and moisture for, say,
twelve months, the wood appears to be entirely suitable for pencil manu-
facture, without artificial treatment.

" There are very considerable quantities of pencil cedar in the Colony,
but the survey of these is still very incomplete. The existing saw-mills
with cedar concessions can supply any immediate demands, and it is
hoped in the near future to have other areas ready for exploitation "
(Tropical Woods, No. 22, p. 43).

When cut on the quarter the medullary rays are strongly marked, as
in beech, and the surface of the wood presents a slightly lustrous
appearance. The concentric layers are marked by thin dark lines, and
the medullary rays are clearly and strongly marked.

CEDAR, BRAZILIAN. Cedrela brasiliensis.

Weight 30 Ibs. Brazil, ? Paraguay.

VERN — Cedro amarello, cedro aromatico, cedro batata, cedro branco, cedro
caopiuva, cedro cheiroso, cedro do Amazonas, cedro rosa, cedro
vermelho, Braz.

In Colonel Gamble's collection there are three so-called cedars, marked
" cedro (Cedrela)/' "cedro/' and " cedro rosa." There is very little

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 105

difference in these three specimens ; they seem to be only variations of
the same wood. The specimen " cedro " has a strong mottle figure, and
a good firm texture, rather resembling the Paraguayan cedar but not so
hard or heavy. That marked " cedrela " is paler in colour and of a
milder character. " Cedro rosa " is deeper in colour, harder in texture,
and heavier. In structure they are similar, and like Cedrela odorata.

During the last few years (1931) several shipments of Brazilian cedars
have come into the markets of America, the Continent, and the United
Kingdom. These supplies have varied in quality, colour, and weight ;
and still more so in that some shipments have been entirely free from an
exuding gum or resin, which has been very prevalent and persistent in
others. The explanation of this feature is not yet forthcoming, so that it
is impossible at present to decide whether it is caused by a difference in
the tree, the situation in which the tree has been grown, or the time of
year when the tree has been felled. The appearance, grain, etc., of the
three kinds display no variation.

In each case the pores vary considerably in size and are irregularly
placed. The medullary rays are very fine and numerous, and the con-
centric layers are marked by bands of paler coloured tissue.

CEDAR, CENTRAL AMERICAN. Cedrela odorata Linn.

C. Mexicana Roem. and probably other

species of Cedrela.
Weight 27 Ibs. 9 oz. and 33 Ibs. I oz.

Honduras, Mexico, Cuba, West Indies,
Panama ; Central America generally.

The wood is imported in square hewn logs and in the round, ranging
from 6 to 40 feet in length and over, and from 10 to 40 inches in squares.
The timber from the different sources above mentioned is sufficiently alike
to classify it under one description. Logs from Honduras or Tobasco are
generally larger and supply the largest dimensions ; those from Jamaica
and Cuba provide the smallest.

The wood is light red in colour, generally straight in the grain, open,
porous, soft towards the heart, of light weight and rather brittle. Some
logs are beautifully figured, with wavy, curly, and mottled grain, which
resembles the roe and mottle and fiddle mottle figure found in maho-
gany. It exhales a very fragrant, agreeable scent which is remarkably
persistent.

The wood works easily, shrinks only moderately, and stands exceedingly
well when seasoned. On account of its reliable nature and light weight it
is valuable for veneering on, for yacht fitments, especially when built for
racing, where it has been used both for plain or decorative work, the more
figured wood, either solid or veneered, giving exceedingly handsome

io6 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

effects. It is also used for pattern-making, modelling, carving, and many
kinds of furniture work, especially for the linings and drawers of cabinets,
where the fragrant scent is agreeable, and is a protection from the attack
of moth or any insect. The loftier trees are much sought for to provide
boards for planking dinghies, racing and pleasure boats, where com-
parative strength and lightness of weight provide all that is required. It
is used for wide panels for railway coaches, especially where curved, as it
is pliable and can be safely bent for this purpose without splitting ; also
for the arms of telegraph poles on railways, where this wood appears to be
the most suitable to stand the required strain. Formerly the figured
wood, and especially the curls or crotches, were much used in veneers for
panels for wardrobes, bookcases, and cabinets ; in a great many of the
panels of grandfather clocks beautifully figured cedar will be found. By
far its largest use, however, is for cigar-boxes. There is no doubt that it
was originally chosen for this purpose to the exclusion of all other woods,
partly on account of the scent harmonising with that of the tobacco leaf,
but principally because its porous nature, whilst allowing the moisture in
the wet cigar to free itself, also admits moisture from without when the
cigar is becoming too dry, thus keeping the tobacco in its best condition.
The cigar merchant, however, seems to have strangely forgotten this ad-
vantage, and having begun by pasting a label on the box, has gradually
increased the use of paper and gum, until in many cases the valuable
wood is entirely covered with a single or even double lining, rendering
the box impervious to moisture either from within or without, and under
such conditions wood of almost any other kind would be equally service-
able. Mr. Oakhill, of the Imperial Tobacco Company, says that there is a
maggot which in the tobacco-producing States of America will attack a
bundle of leaves of tobacco in their dry state, and pierce through many
layers downwards. This maggot will attack tobacco boxed in other
woods, but has not been known to touch any tobacco in cedar boxes, and
if the maggot is already in the tobacco leaf when so boxed, it will not
develop.

In transverse section concentric rings are marked by thin, light, con-
centric lines, within each of which typically is a distinct pore-zone of
loosely arranged large pores. These rings may be tolerably even in thick-
ness, or some (in Cuba cedar at least) may be excessively narrow, but even
in the latter case the light line is succeeded externally by large pores ;
moreover, some of the broader rings may, at least locally, be devoid of a
pore-zone. These cedars in both respects approach in structure to
mahogany from the same regions. In transverse section the pores are
instantly visible to the naked eye, by reason of their large size, whereas
the medullary rays are fine and only just visible. They are not arranged
in tiers.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 107

CEDAR, FORMOSAN. Chamaecyparis formosensis Mats.

Formosa.

This wood is of a light yellow colour, a little deeper in shade than that
of Swiss pine (Pinus Cembra Linn.) or Port Orford cedar (Cupressus
Lawsoniana], the woods of which it resembles in other respects, except that
the fragrant scent usual in cedars is absent. It is a straight-grained,
mild, soft wood, capable of a very smooth surface from the tool, and it
should be very suitable for sounding-boards for pianofortes, violins, or
other musical instruments. There is no doubt but that this timber
would become much in demand if a regular supply could be maintained.
Messrs. Mitsui & Co. recorded in 1920 that a supply of 40,000,000 feet was
available.

The concentric layers are very clearly defined and the rings are very
close. The medullary rays are very fine indeed, yet show clearly on the
radial section in a manner similar to, but finer than beech.

CEDAR, GUIANA. Protium altissimum Marsh.

Weight 42 Ibs. (fresh). British, Dutch, French Guiana.

Twelve logs of this timber, which in France is known as " cedre-
blanc," were imported from Surinam into London in 1914, being intended
either for France or Germany, probably the latter, and diverted to Eng-
land on account of the war. Although supplies are apparently available
from British and Dutch Guiana, this import is the first on record for the
United Kingdom, at all events for a great many years. The colour is a
light nut-brown, with rather a satiny lustre, which darkens considerably
on exposure ; it has a close, smooth texture and a straight grain.

This is a useful timber and stands well under all conditions , it should
be better known, when its undoubtedly good qualities would soon bring
it into favour.

The pores are regular and uniform, and are of moderate size. The
medullary rays are numerous, clearly defined and parallel, and are easily
discernible with the naked eye. There is a liability for the wood to
develop very fine cracks on the line of the medullary ray.

The so-called " cedar " or " white cedar " is the produce of Idea
altissima Aubl., a timber used in Guiana for making canoes.

CEDAR, MOULMEIN. Cedrda Toona Roxb.

Weight 29-40 Ibs. (Gamble). British India, Australia.

VERN — Tun, tuni, Urn, maha mm, Hind. — Turn, tun, lud, Beng. — Maha
limbu, Uriya — Mahlun, Satpuras — Drawi, Pb. — Tuni, bobich,
Nep. — Simal, Lepcha — Somso, Bhutia — Poma, hendun poma,
Ass. — Goria nimt Melghat — Grawa, Khond — Mahahmo, Saora —

io8 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Kujya, Tippera — Katangai, K61 — Madagiri vembu, Madura —
Santhana vembu, Tarn. — Mathagiri vembu, Mai. — Vedi vembu,
Trav. Hills — Suli, mdli, Salem — Kal kilingi, Nilgiris — Sandam
vembu, Tinnevelly — Tundu, kempu gandagheri Kan. — Noge,
belandi, Coorg. — Devdari, todu, mahanlm, huruk, kuruk, Mar. —
Chikado, tseetkado, Magh — Shuruzbed, Chakma — Thitkado, taw-
tama, ni, kashitka, Burm.

This tree, which is of considerable value, is known in most parts of
India as " Toon," and in Burma as " Thitkado." It is soft, red, and
fragrant, and in India is largely used for furniture because it seasons easily,
works well, and is ornamental, taking a good polish. It must be well
seasoned before use, otherwise it warps badly. In England and Europe
generally it resists the action of moths and boring insects.

This wood is indistinguishable from Central American cedar (Cedrela
odorata). For general purposes in the domestic arts it might be used in
lieu of the better kinds of cedar from Cuba and Mexico, whenever these
are scarce in the market. It is also used for cigar-boxes and for packing
tobacco. As Laslett found in his time that the supplies were not mild
enough for pattern-making, it would appear that later shipments have
yielded a milder wood, as many samples have been seen of late, which were
eminently suited for this purpose. It is subject to heart- and star-shakes,
and in seasoning is very liable to split from the surface if left long in the
round or unconverted state.

In Australia this wood was formerly the " red cedar " (q.v.), widely
used in building and the manufacture of furniture.

The annual rings are clearly marked by bands of wide and numerous
pores forming the spring-zone, outside of which the more scanty vessels are
scattered. There are no concentric light lines meeting the rays at right
angles. The large pores and fine medullary rays are visible to the naked
eye in cross-section, and the rays produce a pleasing silver grain in the
quartered wood.

CEDAR, PARAGUAY. Source unknown.

Weight 31 Ibs. 15 oz. Paraguay.

Somewhere about the year 1899 one or two cargoes of a wood styled
" Paraguay cedar " were put on the London market. The supply was in
the form of hewn square logs, from 10 to 30 feet in length and about 12 to
30 inches or more in width. The logs were generally sound and of good
quality, with the grain of mahogany but having cedar characteristics, and
a strong aromatic cedar-like scent. The wood was harder and heavier
than any of the usually known product of Cedrela sp., and quite different
from the supplies of Brazilian cedar which have come into the London
market rather freely during the last few years (1931), and which are now
reported as coming from Paraguay as well as Brazil. The wood belonging

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

109

to the earlier shipments was found to stand well, but great difficulty was
experienced in persuading people to use it, as cedar buyers complained

Photograph by Basti Ram
MOULMEIN CEDAR

Received from U.P. Exhibition, Allahabad Exhibition, igio-n

that it was too hard and too heavy, and mahogany buyers that it was
cedar, because of its scent.

no THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

In transverse section the annual rings are well marked by a zone of
large pores, within which is a thin light line (in the specimen the rings are
all wide) ; the pores are visible to the naked eye, mostly open, but some
contain a glistening dark substance ; the medullary rays are visible and
somewhat wavy.

CEDAR, PENCIL. Juniperus virginiana Linn.

Weight 34 Ibs. n oz. (very variable).

United States, especially in the eastern region.

J. barbadensis Linn.
J. bermudiana Linn.

Georgia, Florida, Jamaica, and other islands of

the West Indies.

VERN — Jumper, red cedar, pencil cedar, savin, Eng.- — Cedro, cedro Colorado,
enebro, sabino, tascate, taxate, yutnu-itne, Mex. — Enebro criollo,
sabina de costa, Cuba — Sabina, S D

The woods of the above species are all practically identical in appear-
ance and properties, and are used almost entirely for pencil-making.

The timber is generally imported in the form of square hewn logs or
billets, but sometimes in the round, the sizes and quality of which have
deteriorated steadily with time, so that it is now only possible to obtain
small-sized faulty wood. Formerly large-sized pieces yielding panels 2
feet wide were procurable. The present supplies come mainly from
Jamaica, Alabama, and Georgia. The northern-grown wood is unsuitable
for pencil making. This very fragrant timber (heart-wood) varies in
colour from yellowish to purplish-red, often recalling the tints of faded
rose-petals. Under the plane it yields a surface rivalling in smoothness
that of marble, and in this possibly surpassing any other commercial wood.
As it is soft and easily cut, and has a regular and even grain in all direc-
tions, it is eminently fitted also for carving. Pencil cedar has been used
for panelling and decorative work, and in times past for many well-
appointed buildings. A superb example of work in this wood is seen in
the Reception Hall of the Skinners' Company in Dowgate Hill, which was
executed shortly after the great fire of London (1666). Its fragrant scent
is preserved to the present day, and is noticeable when one enters the Hall.
Another old building in Coleman Street, pulled down by Messrs. Colls &
Sons about 1902, contained some handsome panelling in pencil cedar, as
well as two very fine carved mantelpieces and overmantels all in Jacobean
style. Some of these panels of sound, clean timber measured 2 feet in width.

When used out of doors in contact with the soil, the wood is extremely
durable, and was formerly used for posts, shipbuilding, and so forth ; but
the southern-grown pencil cedar is now far too costly to be used for pur-
poses other than the making of pencils, and, to a limited extent, for

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD in

furniture and decorative work, linings of cabinets and cases (in order to
keep moths away, or for its aromatic scent).

The annual rings are distinct, but the medullary rays are invisible, and
the resin passages are lacking.

CEDAR, PORT ORFORD. Cupressus Lawsoniana Murr.

Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana Sarj.
Weight 33 Ibs. 5 oz, Oregon, California.

In England this tree is familiar under the name of Lawson's cypress.
In Oregon and California, as the trees often attain a height of 200 feet
and a diameter of 12 feet even above the dilated base of the trunk, timber
of large size is obtainable in the form of long boards or planks, free from
all defects. The wood is light yellow or nearly white, with a glossy,
satiny sheen darkening on exposure, and with a close, compact, but rather
soft grain. It is difficult, though possible, to produce a smooth surface,
on account of a certain gummmess, or toughness of the grain. The
adhesive contents of the wood clog the tool so that it must be continually
sharpened, otherwise the fibres are liable to be torn out. It is very
strong for its weight, is straight-grained, stands well under all conditions,
and is exceedingly durable. The wood is very fragrant and is stated to
keep clothes-moths at bay. I have a wardrobe the linings and drawers
of which are made of this cedar, and regard it as a very great luxury.
The delicate and agreeable scent appears as strong as when the wardrobe
was first made about twenty-one years ago (1932).

It has been imported into England on a commercial basis, in boards
and planks since 1911, but has probably never yet been estimated at its
real value. Mr. F. R. S. Balfour has used a considerable quantity in
fitting and joinery in his house in Scotland. It has been used to a small
extent for boat- and shipbuilding, and since the war has been imported
for aircraft construction, but for this purpose it would not appear to be
approved. In the western United States it has been used for buildings
(including floorings), fence-posts, boats and ships, but Sargent states
that on the Pacific coast it is employed almost exclusively for matches.
Durable in all situations, it is particularly so in contact with the soil ;
and has been used for railway sleepers. Elwes mentions the fact that
a certain tree was perfectly sound though it had fallen more than two
hundred years previously, and had been overgrown by a huge spruce
tree, whose trunk was j\ feet in diameter, and whose roots were " extend-
ing like the claws of a parrot around each side of the (cedar) tree and
locking underneath."

The annual rings are marked by the contrast between the wide, white
spring wood, and the narrower, reddish summer wood, the former chang-
ing gradually into the latter. As this is a coniferous timber no pores are

U2 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

present, nor do resin passages occur, though resin and fragrant essential
oil do occur in this wood. The medullary rays are excessively fine and
almost invisible, though causing a general indistinct radiating pattern on
the cross-section.

CEDAR, RED.

There are many timbers which are known under this name, chief
amongst which are the following : Cunonia capensis Linn., Cape Colony.
Cedrela Toona Roxb., India (this is the Moulmein cedar, q.v.}. Aero-
carpus fraxinifolius Wight, Sikkim, Western and Southern India, Burma.
Thuya gigantea Nutt., and T. plicata (q.v.), Western North America.
Juniper us occidentalis Hook, Western North America.

These, with the exception of Moulmein cedar, are not in ordinary
commercial use in the United Kingdom.

CEDAR, RED AUSTRALIAN. Source dubious.

Weight 52 Ibs. 4 oz. Australia.

The wood is of a red colour, strongly resembling the American cedar
(Cedrela odorata) but of a brighter hue, and is heavier, a little harder,
generally more curly in the grain, more figured, and less strongly scented.
It has been imported in boards, planks, and logs, and some handsome
furniture and fittings have been made of it. Professor Groom says :
" The red cedar of Australia is usually described as being derived from
the Toon-tree, Cedrela Toona (see CEDAR, MOULMEIN), and it doubtless
was so at one time. But the supply of the wood has greatly decreased,1
and I have no doubt that much of the ' red cedar ' now supplied is not
wholly derived from the Toon-tree. Stone, for instance, was supplied
officially with authentic specimens of ' red cedar,' and describes them :
his description convinces me that the specimens were not the wood of
Cedrela Toona. Quite certain it is that our commercial specimen is not
from that species. I rather suspect that it may be derived from a Dys-
oxylon, which belongs to the same family, and may even be D. Muelleri
Benth., the ' red bean/ of which I have not seen authentic specimens."

Professor Groom's doubt seems to be justified, as it is evident that
former shipments were of both C. australis and C. Toona, and even
Dysoxylon Muelleri, without discrimination.

The Forestry Commission, N.S.W., reports the timber as resembling
mahogany, with only half its weight, and that it produces some figured
pieces of great beauty, and remarks upon the ease in working, as well as
its durability ; they add, " it would be difficult to exaggerate the good
qualities of this valuable timber."

1 Baker's Cabinet Timbers of A ustralia.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 113

Baterden's remark in reference to Toon that this is a " true cedar "
is, of course, incorrect.

The wood is somewhat cross-grained, shows no distinct annual rings
or growth-rings. In transverse section it reveals to the naked eye in-
numerable thin, concentric light lines ; the pores are just visible, but the
medullary rays are invisible.

CEDAR, TRUE. Cedrus Libani Barrel
C. Deodara London
C. atlantica Manetti.
Weight 36 Ibs. 7 oz. Europe, Asia, Africa.

There are three different kinds of true cedars belonging to the genus
Cedrus. The differences between them are so slight and fluctuating that
all three are frequently included under one botanical name, C. Libani ;
sometimes, however, each is given a separate name as above. All are
mountain trees ; the first-named growing on Mount Lebanon, in Cyprus,
and the Orient ; the second being Himalayan, and the third African and
growing on the Atlas Mountains. All these are grown in English gardens.
The timbers of the three kinds are almost indistinguishable. An easy
way of identifying the three varieties has been mentioned to me, though
it should be taken as general and not absolute. L. for Libani, 1. for level
(the branches extend from the tree in a more or less horizontal manner) ;
D. for Deodar, d. for drooping (the branches generally droop) , A. for
atlantica, a. for ascending (the branches generally slope upwards).

The actual date when this tree was introduced into England is appar-
ently undetermined, but, according to Prideaux Selby, Aiton in the Hortus
Kewensis fixes it as being 1683.

The sole supplies in England have consisted in those derived from the
few fallen trees (of all three kinds) and one shipment of C. atlantica from
Algeria in 1909.

In a letter R. S. Pearson wrote concerning the deodar : " This is one
of the three most important timbers of India, the others being teak and sal.
This timber is too valuable in India ever to find a market in Europe." We
can thus look for practically no supplies from that source.

The light yellow timber yields under the tool a beautiful surface,
rivalling in smoothness that of the pencil cedar. Often, though not
always, the wood is fragrant, and the aromatic scent of the burning wood
may at times be so potent as to induce dizziness and headache. While
the sap-wood is perishable, the heart-wood is remarkably durable. In
this connection Gamble writes : " Deodar wood is very durable, probably,
with Cypress, the most durable of Himalayan woods. Stewart mentions
the pillars of the Shah Hamaden mosque at Srinagar in Kashmir, which
date from A.D. 1426, and are now consequently (1901) 475 years old, as

ii4 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

having been quite sound at the time he wrote. It resists the wet, also
white ants, and apparently does not suffer much from dry rot." In the
Palace at Versailles there is a richly carved gateway, above which is

A GROUP OF DEODAR TREES IN THE HIMALAYAS

inscribed : " L'H6pital des Chevaliers de St. Jean de Jerusalem dans
ITsle de Rhodes." It is made of cedar of Lebanon, and despite its in-
dubitable antiquity, is in a state of perfect preservation.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 115

The timber also possesses considerable strength, and Pearson mentions
that it is used in India to make oars, bridge ladders, frames of parallel
bars, and axle-beds of transport carts (for the Ordnance Department).
With these valuable qualities it is a pity that the wood derived from the
fallen trees is in this country generally burned or wasted. Mr. H. J.
Elwes, however, mentions one instance in which a cedar blown down on a
lawn was most successfully used by the owner to supply the flooring and
panelling of a good-sized drawing-room. Many years ago in the well-
known Chelsea Physic Garden, formerly belonging to the Apothecaries
Company, there were one or two well-known cedars which were blown
down, and the Master in Court ordered that from the timber one chair
should be made for the Master, and two others for the Wardens. For
many years these chairs have been in continual use at the Apothecaries
Hall in the City. By the kind consent of the Company they were shown
at the Empire Timber Exhibition at Holland Park in 1920, when they
attracted universal interest and admiration.

According to the publication in the Annual Report of the Imperial
Forestry Institute, Oxford, for 1930-31, two woods taken from the shrines
outside the sarcophagus of Tut-ankh-amen (circa 1356-50 B.C.) have been
identified as true cedar (Cedrus sp.) and a species of Zizyphus (q.v.).
Both timbers are reported to be in a remarkably fine state of preservation,
having survived over 3200 years. It is stated that this is explained by
the fact that it had remained absolutely dry, and the lack of moisture had
prevented disintegration. There appears little doubt that the cedar is
the true produce of Cedrus Libani.

As Cedrus is a conifer, the wood shows no pores, nor does it possess
any resin passages (though in certain specimens spurious resin passages
are induced). The annual rings are clearly marked, but the medullary
rays are invisible.

CEDAR, WEST AFRICAN. Sources various.

Weight 39 Ibs. u oz. and 40 Ibs. 12 oz.

West Coast of Africa.

Among the many kinds of woods exported from the African West Coast,
and having the scent and some other characteristics of cedar, there is one
type that can be distinguished from all the rest by reason of its consider-
able resemblance to the cedar of Central America. The logs are imported
in lengths varying from about 12 to 30 feet or more, and in squares of
from 20 to 40 inches or more, either round or hewn square. The wood is
of a light reddish-brown colour, rather redder than Cuban cedar, also
heavier and " stronger " in character. Being somewhat cross-grained,
the wood shows a special type of banded figure and requires a sharp plane
to obtain a smooth surface. The logs are liable to star-shakes in the centre,

n6 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

making it difficult to obtain sound wide boards, though they are almost
entirely free from the " cross-breaks " so common in West African
mahogany. As this type of cedar stands, well without warping or twisting,
and has been obtainable at prices lower than that of American cedars, it
has been used to a considerable extent as a substitute for the latter,
despite its greater weight. A few finely figured veneer logs have realised
very high prices (up to fifty-four shillings per cubic foot), but the wood is
not so favourably regarded for this purpose as mahogany, as, after cutting,
the veneers of cedar are apt to crack up in drying.

The botanical sources of this type of cedar are not known. Professor
Groom says : " We may perhaps hazard the guess that species of Pseudo-
cedrela are such, for it is known that African cedars are largely derived
from this genus. Other genera (see Mahogany) also supply African cedars
and mahoganies. To distinguish between the cedars and mahoganies of
Africa should not in reality be difficult, though customs of the trade have
made it so. Several so-called mahoganies have the same kind of thin,
sinuous light lines shown in cross-section ; among them are Sapeli, Warri,
Jameson River, Sekondi, and one variety of Bonamba. Of these, the
first two are scented , in fact, Sapeli ' mahogany ' is stated to be derived
from Pseudocedrela.

" The wood does not show in cross-section any distinctly marked
annual rings or similar belts (though certain darker bands divide the sur-
face into ring-like zones) ; but very numerous fine concentric sinuous
lines are visible to the naked eye and cross the medullary rays at right
angles ; the pores are visible but rays invisible to the naked eye."

CEDAR, WESTERN RED. Thuya plicata Don.

Weight 2o~2i Ibs. British Columbia.

The colour is a brownish-yellow, very similar to that of a Scotch pine
after exposure to the light and air. It is light, somewhat brittle, easily
split, and inclined to contain spiral shakes. Sargent says in earlier times
11 the Indians split the planks used in the construction of their lodges,
carved the totems which decorate their villages, and hollowed out their
great war canoes , and from the fibres of the inner bark made ropes,
blankets, and thatch for their cabins." It is in great demand throughout
the west coast of America (and indeed largely all over that continent), and
is used for a multitude of purposes, being possibly the most generally used
timber for a wide range of uses.

Sargent's romantic description of the manner in which the native
Indians used the timber, calls attention to the remarkable qualities it
possesses, as, although in weight it is among the lightest of woods, it yet
has considerable strength. An unusually smooth surface can be obtained
with the lightest movement of one touch of the plane, and its fragrant

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 117

scent added to these qualities make the wood of Western Red Cedar
unique and remarkable. It has only been introduced into commercial use
in the United Kingdom during the last few years (1930).

The stump end next the root of a Thuya tree growing at The Beacon,
Ewhurst, Staple Cross, Sussex, provided a burr from which, when cut into
veneer, several small occasional table-tops were made. When finished and
polished the wood showed a fine colouring and splendid figure, comparable
with any of those Thuya or Amboyna burrs which have been imported
from overseas, thus proving that Thuya trees grown in England can pro-
duce valuable furniture wood.

CEDAR, WHITE.

The following, all of which come from the United States, are the
timbers known in commerce as white cedar. They are, however, seldom
seen in this country, and are of little commercial value :

Libocedrus decurrens Torrey (known also as incense cedar).

Cupressus thyoides Linn.

Thuja occidental^ Linn. (See ARBOR-VITAE.)

CEDAR, YELLOW. Cupressus nootkatensis Hook.

Weight 20 Ibs. (Boulger). United States, Canada.

This wood, which should be more correctly termed cypress, is of a
light yellowish-red, and has sometimes a very handsome grain. It is not
known commercially in the United Kingdom, but is generally reported
as being exceedingly durable.

CEDRELA. Cedro vermelho. Cedrela spp.

Brazil.

This wood is so similar to that of Honduras and Cuba that it hardly
needs any description. It is slightly stronger, harder, and heavier. More
information is required regarding the woods of Cedrela sp. coming from
South America ; some shipments have proved to be of the quality dis-
played by my specimen, while others produce a gum, or resin, which on
this account makes the wood unsuitable for those purposes for which cedar
is used.

The pores are irregular in size, very small to very large, also irregular
in position, and the medullary ray is confused, and difficult to discern
under the lens. Transverse section on the whole much resembles that of
the Honduras, Cedrela odorata.

n8 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Cedrela multijuga Kurz.

Weight 36 Ibs. (Gamble). Burma.

VERN — Taungdama, Burm. — Nee, Karen.

The colour is nut-brown, with a very nice close, compact grain, yielding
a fine surface from the tool. Gamble compares it to the produce of C.
Toona, but the texture is very much closer and finer, freer from open pores,
and more satiny ; and altogether it is a more valuable timber. Its agree-
able colour and nice working qualities would make it very much appreci-
ated in all classes of work where a high, fine figure is required.

The concentric layers are marked by a thin dark line, very pronounced.
The exceedingly minute and numerous pores are evenly distributed, with
faint and not well-defined medullary rays.

Cedrela serrata Royle.

Weight 33 Ibs. (Gamble). Western Himalayas, Ceylon.

VERN — Drawi, dalh, ddl, daun, khishing, khinam, durla, N.W. Him —
Soni, Kumaon — Darlu, darh, darloi, Jaunsar — Taung-dama,
Burm.

This wood is similar to that of C. Toona, but softer, probably far more
quickly grown, and less useful or valuable. The fragrant scent is also
much less noticeable. Gamble reports it as having been introduced into
Ceylon as a shading tree for the tea plant, and he refers to its rapid growth,
" sometimes as fast as two rings to the inch of radius." My specimen
gives two rings to 2§ inches.

The pores are very scarce, excepting on the edge of the concentric layer
where they are larger and open. Medullary rays confused, hardly dis-
cernible under the lens.

Cha-dtm. China.

Professor Record says this is Gordonia sp. The colour is a light, rather
olive-brown, with a hard, dense grain resembling that of the apple. The
specimen is from a very small tree, showing a slightly pithy heart, and the
medullary rays in very small flecks on the radial section.

The concentric layers are exceedingly close, and marked by light
bands. The pores and medullary rays are extremely fine, and almost
indistinguishable.

CHAMP Michelia Champaca Linn.

M. excelsa Bl.
M. Kisopa Ham.

Weight 28-42 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Ceylon.

VERN — Champa, Hind. — Ouha champ, Nep. — Tita sopa, Ass — Champa,
champaca, Beng. — Shimbu, sempangam, chambagam, Tarn. —
Champakamu, sampenga, kanchanamu, Tel. — Sampige, kola
sampige, Kan. — Kud champa, Mar. — Champakam, Mai. — Saga,
sanga, sagawa, Burm. — Sapu, hapu, Cingh.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 119

M. excelsa.

VKRN — Bara champ, safed champ, seti champ, Nep. — Sigugrip, penre,
Lepcha — Gok, Bhutia.

M. Kisopa.

VKRN — Banchampa, Kumaon. — Champ, chobsi, Nep.
The timber produced by the above three varieties may be treated under
one description, on account of their similarity, but the product of M.
Champaca is perhaps superior. A valuable and useful timber, not yet
appreciated in India at its true value, and almost unknown in the markets
of the world. It is not a native of Ceylon, but has been planted there to
a not inconsiderable extent. When first cut it is a yellowish-olive blue,
and rather variegated, resembling the American poplar, Liriodendron
tulipifera, which wood it also resembles in grain and character. After
exposure to light it deepens to a more regular tone of light bluish-brown.
It takes a smooth surface from the tool, and has a close, compact grain,
giving sharp, good edges to mouldings.

Although not brought into general use in most parts of India, because
of its easy working and lighter weight, it is in common use in Darjeeling,
and other places difficult of approach, for many purposes, and especially
for joinery in houses and shops. Gamble's reference to its use for beads
for necklaces is a good testimony to its general good character.

A plank of this timber was presented to Viscount Powerscourt in 1861,
who caused an entire table-top to be made. This table is now in the large
hall at Powerscourt Castle, Enniskerry, Ireland, and bears on it a brass tab-
let with the following inscription : " Single Plank of Sampage or Chumpa
Tree n ft. 4^ long by 4 ft. 6£ broad by 2j inches thick. Given to Viscount
Powerscourt by Major F. Cunningham at Bangalore, Madras, India. March
1861." (Major Cunningham was the Resident at Bangalore at that time.)

The plank is a magnificent specimen of a splendid wood, and has that
figure customarily found in West Coast of Africa mahoganies, showing
also a strange mark which divides the figure, and abruptly changes its
nature. It is probable that this curious marking was caused by a creeper
growing round the tree.

Besides the unusual size and perfect quality of the single plank, another
feature is noticeable, viz. : that whereas the colour of this wood when first
cut is quite light, as light as that of American poplar, Linodendron tulipi-
fera, the colour of the table-top has become a deep, warm brown, as deep
as a dark coloured Sapeli mahogany, again supplementing the list of
Indian timbers (such, for instance, as jackwood, sissoo, padauk), which
continue to darken in colour steadily during a great number of years.
For instance, a cabinet made for the 1920 Exhibition at Holland Park of
Bengal sissoo, which was originally as light as satinwood, in ten years has
darkened by degrees to the colour of dark rosewood.

120 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The pores are regular and small. The medullary rays numerous and
very fine.

Chang-chai.

China.

Professor Chung's specimen, submitted to Kew, is marked as above,
and this specimen is one of the true camphor-wood (Cinnamomum cam-
phor a], similar in grain, colour, weight, and all characteristics, to the
Formosan wood.

CHEESEWOOD. Species unknown — probably Erythrina.

Central America.

The name cheesewood was given to some logs of timber imported into
Liverpool a few years ago. On arrival the timber was found to be ex-
ceedingly heavy, and as it was impossible to dispose of the logs, they were
sent to Messrs. M'Arthur's saw-mill to be converted into planks, as it was
thought that in this form some use might be found for them. Mr. M'Arthur
says that the sawyer was violently ill all night after sawing the logs, and
his assistant more or less similarly affected. The planks were stacked in
the usual manner for drying, and were found to be excessively heavy to
handle, measuring only about 25 feet to the ton. Some time afterwards,
being ordered to remove the pile, the men, to their great astonishment,
found the planks lighter in weight than anything they had previously
handled, the change having occurred in the drying. A sample of this wood
measuring 2] inches in thickness, 5 inches in width, and 5^ inches in length,
weighs only 4! oz., and is probably the lightest piece of timber on record.

Notwithstanding the light weight, this wood possesses some consider-
able degree of strength, and stands firm under a fair amount of pressure.
It might be described as " the softest timber of commerce." With only
light pressure the finger-nail can be inserted to a considerable depth. On
account of its strength and softness it should be useful for many purposes,
but up to the present time its chief use has been for entomological cases.

The concentric layers of annual growth are clearly marked, and
measure in places r\ inch in thickness. The medullary rays can be
distinguished by the naked eye as parallel and uneven. There are wide-
open pores, not very frequent, only situated between the medullary rays,
sometimes wide apart, occasionally close together. Bright specks of gum
shine out very white, only between the pores.

CHEESEWOOD, TASMANIAN. Pittosporum bicolor Hook.

Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales.
An alternative name is whitewood.
" This wood is yellowish-white, very hard, and of uniform texture and

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 121

colour. It was once used for clubs by the aboriginals of Tasmania. It
burns well, and should be tested for wood-engraving " (Irons, Reports
London International Exhibition of 1862). "It is much esteemed for
axe-handles, billiard cues, etc. Specific gravity 874 (Mueller) ; dia.
6| inches ; height 20-40 feet " (extract from Useful Native Plants of
Australia ; Maiden). (From private note 22/12/13 from Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew.)

CHERRY, WILD. Prunus Avium Linn.

Weight 33-49 Ibs. (Boulger). Great Britain, Europe, Asia

Minor.

This wood when first cut is light red or pink, darkening on exposure
to a deeper tint. It has a close, firm texture, and is capable of a very
smooth surface from the tool. Although little valued for many years, it
was growing in favour before the war, and since then has been in great
demand for many purposes, particularly for chair-making and for the
backs of brushes. According to Holtzapffel . " When stained with lime,
and oiled and varnished, it closely resembles mahogany ; it is much used
for common and best furniture and chairs, and is one of the best brown
woods of the Tunbridge turners. The wood of the black-heart cherry
tree is considered to be the best."1

Mr. H. J. Elwes has panelled a room with cherry at Rapsgate Park,
near Colesbornc, which presents in all respects a very good appearance,
equal to mahogany. In Trees of Great Britain and Ireland (p. 1540) he
mentions " that the pews in the church at Gibsido, Northumberland,
which were made in 1812 of cherry wood, have not warped or shrunk in
the least, the joints being as good as when made," although, as the quota-
tion goes on to say, " the sap-wood in some places is worm-eaten, the
heart-wood is almost free from this defect," and this disadvantage of the
sap-wood must be borne in mind.

The concentric layers are very conspicuous. The pores are exceedingly
fine and numerous. The medullary rays are very strongly marked, and
show clearly on the tangential as well as on the radial section.

CHERRY, AMERICAN BLACK. PnmttS SerotlHU Ehrfl.

Weight 36 Ibs. North America.

At one time this wood was second only to black walnut among the
valuable hardwoods of the United States, but the supplies have been
running short for some years past. Gibson says that it has no figure, and
that its value is due to its colour and lustrous appearance, and its compara-
tive freedom from checking and warping.

1 Holtzapffel gives the source as Cerasus avium, but from his description it is
probable that he confounded the dwarf cherry with the wild.

122 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The wood is often stained to imitate mahogany and is used for furni-
ture work, for interior finishing, and for many minor purposes.

CHERRY, VIC.

Australia.

The timber has a very hard, close, compact grain, and takes a very
fine surface from the tool. While in colour resembling that of the
European cherry, in grain it is very much harder and of a difficult character.
The appearance of the wood gives an expectation that it would split both
before and after being worked. As a wood for turnery it might be
of service, but it possesses no suitable quality for decorative wood-
work.

The pores are extremely numerous and minute, and the very fine
medullary rays are hardly discernible under the lens.

CHESTNUT. Castanea vulgaris Lam.

C. dentata Marsh, syn. C. vesca, var. americana Michx.

(North America).
Weight 28 Ibs. 10 oz. Europe, North America, etc.

This wood is known as Spanish or sweet chestnut and it should not be
confused with the horse chestnut, Aesculus. Park, grove, avenue, or
coppice grown trees provide straight, large, clean boles, which yield good
timber for large, long beams, scantling boards, and panelling timber. In
colour and grain the wood resembles the appearance of oak so closely that
it is most difficult of identification, and in finished work impossible.

Arising from the practice in Northern France and elsewhere, many
historical works, including the Westminster Hall roof, have been supposed
to be a mixture of chestnut and oak. As a result of the work lately com-
pleted at Westminster Hall, it has been stated authoritatively that none
of the wood employed was chestnut, but even still a doubt exists, on
account of the refusal of the authorities at the time of the repair work to
allow inspection. Only if a section of the transverse grain is examined
under the lens can a certain decision be arrived at. British-grown trees,
especially if park-grown, are very liable to suffer from spiral growth and
heart,- star-, and cup-shakes, the last-named defect being the most seri-
ous, and these defects render the wood wasteful in conversion. The
wood is very durable in all forms of constructional work, either within
doors or exposed to the weather, and almost invariably withstands the
attack of insects, boring worms (beetles), and fungus. Elwes mentions a
park fence of oak and chestnut, where after twenty years the oak was found
much wasted, while the chestnut remained as sound as when put in. A
large trade is carried on in split chestnut palings for fences, for which

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

123

purpose it provides a durable and satisfactory wood, as also for gate posts,
piles, and hop-poles. It is also used for the backs of all kinds of domestic
brushes.

There is reason to believe that before the sixteenth century, on the
Continent, the craftsmen in wood were already aware of the manner in
which the use of chestnut mixed with oak formed a preservative to the
oak, and the two woods are generally found mixed ; if the occurrence is
accidental, it is remarkable. The beautiful carved stalls and panels in

SWEET CHESTNUTS AT COWDRAY PARK, SUSSEX
By kind permission of " The Times "

the choir of the cathedral at Amiens are of mixed oak and chestnut, as
also is the woodwork of the church of St. Ouen at Rouen. The wood has
also been used for other carved work, for which it is very suitable. Elwes
quotes Sir George Birdwood as stating that " the late Mr. T. Blashill, who
was architect to the London County Council, pointed out in a letter to
The Times that the only instance he knew of chestnut wood in English
mediaeval carpentry is that of the chancel screen of the church, formerly
of the Knights of St. John, at Rodmersham, in Kent. The Rev. A. H. J.
Massey, Vicar of Rodmersham, tells me, however, that the chancel screen
is a modern one of oak, with portions of an ancient screen of chestnut wood

124 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

worked into it ; but the screen separating the Lady Chapel from the
chancel is composed entirely of chestnut wood/'

The large beam in the common room of Peterhouse, the oldest College
in Cambridge, is generally supposed to be of chestnut, and the utmost
examination possible without cutting out, confirms the opinion. The
panels taken from the wainscoting of a hall in Ireland were found to be
throughout of mixed oak and chestnut, and indistinguishable except on
examination with the lens.

Occasionally trees are found which are affected by the same brown
colouring which is to be found in brown oak. Elwes refers to one tree
which produced some very beautiful wood, used for the doors and over-
mantel of a room at Rapsgate Park, Colesborne.

The annual layers of growth can be clearly distinguished with the naked
eye. The wide, open pores are duplicated, and are occasionally seen in
rows of three in the spring wood ; they contain small specks of bright
shining gum. There are very minute pores in the autumn wood, though
they are scarcely visible. The medullary rays can hardly be distinguished
even with the lens ( + 12).

Castanea dentata. — A very similar tree, which provides very large
supplies of timber in America. Unfortunately these trees are attacked by
fungus and a boring worm, so that of late years large areas of the timber
have been destroyed. The wood, the weight of which Gibson gives as
28 Ibs., resembles the English chestnut. In America it is used for a great
variety of purposes, including fencing posts and rails and railway sleepers.
Gibson says : " The largest use by any single industry is probably by the
manufacturers of musical instruments, though the honour may be
divided with furniture, interior house finish, and coffins and caskets."

A large quantity of this timber is liable, as already noted, to be riddled
with small worm-holes. This is sold under the term " wormy chestnut,"
and has been imported into London and Liverpool, where it has been used
for various purposes, such as for cheap furniture, coffin boards, and for
veneering on.

CHESTNUT, HORSE Aescultis Hippocastanum Linn.

Weight 36 Ibs. Great Britain, Europe.

The tree, according to Prideaux Selby, was introduced into Europe
about the middle of the sixteenth century. He quotes M. Bom. St.
Hilaire, who said that it was brought from the mountains of Thibet to
England in 1550.

If the tree be cut down in early winter, promptly sawn into boards,
etc., and carefully stored, wood of extreme whiteness may be obtained.
If, however, the trunks are felled later in winter, or are allowed to lie for
any length of time, the wood assumes a yellowish-brown tint. It is of

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 125

moderate weight, soft, fine-grained, but perishable ; used for making soap-
bowls, brush-backs, in turnery, and occasionally for veneers. Even with
the developments which have occurred since the war, supplies of horse
chestnut are not sufficiently valued or appreciated. In Southern Europe
it is said to have been used for fruit-storing shelves ; the porous nature of
the wood absorbs the moisture from the fruit, the preservation of which is
thereby assisted.

The annual rings are marked by a thin boundary line ; the pores are
almost invisible and scattered ; the medullary rays are so fine as to be
invisible to the naked eye.

CHICARON. Comocladia.

Weight 63-64 Ibs. Mexico, Central and Southern

Australia, West Indies.

VERN — Guao, Cuba — Krcssilet franc, chicarron, S.I) — Carrasco, maiz
tostado, P.R. — Chinil-te, hincha huevo^, paia de pava, tatatian,
tatatil, teclatilla, tetlate, Mex.

The colour is a very attractive olive-green brown, with a very hard
interlocked grain, showing irregular layers of hard and soft grain, with a
rather strong wild pattern. It would form a highly attractive decorative
wood.

Record gives the name of Chicaron to Comocladia, and Chicarron to
Guazuma ulmifolia. The description of the latter wood is quite different
from the specimen in my collection, which I have identified below.

The pores are open, varying in size, largely duplicated and triplicated,
joined together by indistinct wavy belts of light lines, which cross ex-
ceedingly numerous fine medullary rays.

Chickrassia tabularis Juss. or Chukrasia tabularis Juss.

Weight 49 Ibs. India, Burma, Ceylon, Andaman

and Cocos Islands.

VERN — Chikrassi, Beng — Bogapoma, Ass. — Aglay, agal, eleutharay, Tarn.
— Madagan yembu, Tel. — Ganti malle, Salem — Dalmara, Kan. —
Pabba, Idl devadan, Mar. — Alain, Hyderabad — Mallei vcpu, Trav.
Hills — Saiphra, sey barasi, Magh — Chcgarasi, Chakma — Yinma,
tawyinma, kmthat-putgyi, Burm. — Arrodah, And.

This wood has been called " Burma almondwood " in England, and
sometimes " Chittagong " wood in India. Boulger attaches the last
name to the produce of Chukrasia tabularis and also that of Cedrela Toona.
If the latter has ever been supplied from any part of India as Chittagong
wood, either for a foreign destination or within India itself, it must have
been through ignorance, as there is no resemblance between the two
woods, each possessing a distinctive value of its own.

126 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Chickrassia tabularis is of a rather dark brown colour, with a lustrous
surface and a firm, close texture, sometimes with thin dark gum veins
following the line of the concentric layers. While the grain is generally
straight, some trees are found possessing beautiful figure of a similar
character to that which is found in mahoganies, consisting of roe and
mottle, broken roe and mottle, and splash mottle. It is an attractive
wood under all conditions, suitable for decorative woodwork, panelling,
and furniture, possessing the unique quality of retaining its colour without
either bleaching or darkening unduly. Samples were shown at the Empire
Timber Exhibition in London in 1920, and the Wembley Exhibition in
1924 ; but with the general decline in the exploitation of Indian woods
brought about by the cessation of those efforts which were made between
1920 and 1924, no headway has been made with this wood in later years.

The concentric layers are marked generally by thin, pale lines, but
occasionally by dark blood or gum veins. The pores are small and ir-
regular ; the medullary rays are invisible on the transverse grain, but
show in very fine flecks on the radial section.

China.

Professor Record thinks this is Daphniphy Ilium. This is another wood
resembling Pien-ch'ai, like a somewhat discoloured New Zealand kauri
pine. It is close-grained, with a very smooth texture and nice quality ;
Professor Chung's specimen is marked " good for carving Chinese seals "

For identification see Pien-ch'ai.

Ctfi-lin. Source unknown.

China.

The colour is a dirty, stainy yellow-brown, with a close, compact grain,
and with small, strong, broken stripes of harder and softer tissue, corn-
parable with that of Satin walnut, Liquidambar sp., which wood it re-
sembles except in colour. It is liable to warp and twist.

The tiny pores are very numerous, with confused irregular medullary
rays, which show in minute flecks on the radial surface.

Chin-ch'ai. Source unknown.

China.

This is a dirty, bluish-straw coloured wood, of fairly hard texture and
close grain, resembling the so-called Panama cedar.

The pores are irregular in size, from very small to fairly large, and
irregularly placed. The very fine medullary rays are very numerous, and
difficult to distinguish through the lens ( H-io).

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 127

CHINGAL. Balanocarpus Heimii King.

Weight 65 Ibs. Borneo, Federated Malay States,

The Straits Settlements.
VERN — Chengai, penak bunga, penak sabut, penak tembaga.

The colour of the wood is a warm brown, with a very hard, dense
texture, capable of a very smooth surface from the plane, and showing
glistening marks of gum in the open pores. It is reported as being used
for constructional work and other purposes where durability is essential.
Foxworthy says that " this has often been considered the best timber of
the Peninsula/' but although it is undoubtedly a useful wood, and pre-
ferred by the Chinese and native Malayan workmen on account of the ease
with which it can be worked, it is unsuitable for decorative woodwork, and
very liable to the attack of a small boring worm, so that while it may be
very popular in Malaya, it is by no means one of the best of the Malayan
woods. It is one of those tested by Foxworthy and Woolley, and survived
five years of that test (see PYINKADO).

The medullary rays are fine, clearly marked, and parallel. " It is
very much the same as yacal, but may be distinguished from that wood
by the fact that the tangential section always shows distinct parallel
transverse lines (ripple marks) " (Foxworthy). The pores are numerous
and irregular, and are largely filled with a gummy substance which shines
brightly.

Ch'i-sha. Source unknown. _,.

China.

A yellow-brown coloured, close-grained wood, with density and texture
similar to good African mahogany.

The concentric layers of growth are marked by prominent white lines.
The pores, mostly plugged, are numerous and irregular in position ; the
medullary rays indistinct, but showing on the radial section in tiny flecks.

CHOOI. Sageraea elliptica.

Weight 57 Ibs. Assam, Chittagong, The Anda-

mans.

The wood is famous under the name of "chooi." Pearson and Brown,
in Commercial Timbers of India, call it Andaman "bow wood" and give
the vernacular as chai. It is so strong, and yet pliable, that it has been
used by the native Andamanese (a friendly tribe) and the Jaruwahs (a
hostile tribe) for the bows from which they shoot their poisoned arrows.
The colour is a straw yellow, with an exceedingly hard, bony grain, and
the wood is very tough. The combination of exceptional strength, tough-
ness, and elasticity in a wood which is very light in weight, gives to chooi
a value that is unique. Pearson and Brown suggest that " it should
certainly be tested for hammer and pickaxe handles, picking arms, and

128 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

similar purposes. ... In Port Blair it is used for ribs of boats." But
this wood is far too valuable to warrant its use for such purposes as pickaxe
handles, for which many far less valuable timbers could be found.

The numerous, very small pores are ranged in waves between in-
numerable, well-defined medullary rays, forming parallel, but not straight,
lines and crossed at right angles by fine lines of light tissue, forming a
network pattern.

Chu-mu.

China.

Professor Record says this is Libocedrus sp. It resembles Swiss pine,
with a canary-coloured tint, is fairly close-grained, and hard. The speci-
men shows very slow growth, and a medullary-ray appearance on radial
section.

Cinnamomum cecicodaphne Meissn.

Weight 36 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India.

VERN — Malligin, marisgin, Nep. — Rohu, Lepcha — Gunserai, Mechi — -
Gondhon, gondri, gondserai, Ass. — Gundroi, Cachar.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
to be " yellowish or olive-grey in the outer layers, grading to light brown
towards the centre of the tree, often with darker lines or bands traceable
to seasonal growth and interlocked grain, more or less lustrous, working
smooth. . . . The wood is durable, both when placed in exposed positions
and when in contact with water. ... A valuable timber . . . highly
prized for furniture. ... A species to be encouraged and cultivated."

Cinnamomum inunctum Meissn.

Weight 42 Ibs. (Troup). India, Burma.

VERN — Karaive, Burm.

There is no European name for this wood, which has not yet been
imported on a commercial basis. It has the same general appearance as
real camphor-wood (C. Camphor a), with similar black streaks, but it is
of an orange-red colour and has a bright sheen. It possesses all the
necessary characteristics of a first-rate wood which will stand well under
any conditions without warping or twisting. A few logs were imported
some years ago, but being entirely unknown their value was unrecognised.

Gamble reports it as being used in India for house-building and for
shingles, but Troup says it is suitable for cabinet-making, and with the
latter opinion I agree ; if employed for constructional work it would be a
wasteful use of a fine wood. It possesses a slight, pleasant aromatic scent.

The pores, which are not very clearly defined, are irregular in size,
and are partially plugged with bright, shining gum (?). The medullary

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 129

rays are rather ill-defined, although regular and clearly apparent. Accord-
ing to Gamble, the rays give a good silver grain. They are not apparent
in my specimen.

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Breyn.

Weight 40-43 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Dalchini, Hind. — Karruwa, lalsingh, lavunga, Tarn. — Ohez, boje-

war, Mar — Sanahnga, Tel — Eringolam, elavangam, vayana, Mai.

— Lavanga, Trav. Hills — Kurundu, Cingh. — Hmanthein, thitkyabo,

Burm.

This is the cinnamon tree. It must not be confounded with the wood
reported as cinnamon from St. Vincent (q v.).

When fresh cut it is of a yellow straw colour, but on exposure to light
and air it tones down to a whitish straw colour with rather a dirty appear-
ance. The grain is fine and smooth, finishing with rather a silky effect
from the tool, but the wood warps and twists badly ; even after being
thoroughly seasoned it has been found that it will not keep its shape in
any position, so that it is entirely unsuited for ordinary works where a
wood of such appearance might be employed.

This is the wood spoken of as being included to the extent of 75 per
cent in the shipment of what was supposed to be true camphor-wood
which was received from Formosa. It has a strong scent of balsam of
aniseed. It can be identified as mixed with real camphor-wood in the
well-known Chinese seamen's trunks, and is to be found forming the tops
and bottoms, and even sometimes all, except perhaps one side. I have
not found it in the older made trunks, but it is largely used in those
offered for sale in the Eastern bazaars to-day. A wardrobe in which the
sides and doors were made of this wood, improperly used instead of
camphor-wood which was demanded, continues to shrink and expand,
warp and twist, with every change in the weather.

The pores are rather small and numerous ; there are concentric bands
showing in fine white lines at irregular intervals, which are easily seen
with the naked eye. The numerous parallel medullary rays show rather
faintly under the lens ( + 12), and although not apparent to the naked eye
on the radial section, they show quite clearly under <£he lens.

CINNAMON. Source unknown.

St. Vincent.

A specimen of cinnamon-wood, said to have come from St. Vincent,
is in my collection. It is of a heavy, dense, hard, close-grained texture,
taking a very smooth surface from the tool. It has a faint scent some-
what like that of cedar. The colour is a dull brown, shading generally to
a dark walnut colour. The wood should be excellent for turning.

Both pores and medullary rays are exceedingly fine and obscure.

130 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

COACH WOOD. Ceratopetalum apetalum.

Weight 56 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales, Queensland,

and North Coast of Australia.

Baker says : " Coach wood has a distinctive aroma of ' Courmarin,'
this alone being quite sufficient for identification/' But the ordinary
reader may not know what courmarin is. The colour is a slightly reddish-
grey brown, with a grain which displays a delicate softness in appearance
and touch, very smooth, and not unlike kauri pine. The wood is not yet
commercially known, but during the last year (1930) there have been a
few inquiries for it.

The pores are numerous and minute, in tiny wavy belts. The medullary
ray is exceedingly minute, and shows on the radial section in the tiniest flecks,
presenting a somewhat lace-like appearance to the surface of the wood.

COCAO. Erythroxylon Coca Lam.

Weight 69 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Aroba, aroba Colorado,, jibd de costa, Cuba — Coca, ayuelo, Col. —
Clavito, Venez. — Arco de pipa, catauba, catauba, fructa de pomba,
fructa de tucano, ipadu, mer curio do campo, Braz. — Ajicillo, coca
del monte, Arg. — Coca, cuca, Peru.

The colour of this wood is a yellowish nut-brown, and it has a very
firm, close texture. Brazilian Woods recommends it for turning, for
which purpose it appears to be admirably suited. The tree, the leaves of
which are chewed by the Peruvian Indians, is probably better known for
its product, cocaine, than for its timber uses.

Record states that it serves locally for fencing, telegraph poles, rail-
way ties, and sometimes for turnery and cooperage.

The pores are exceedingly small and very numerous. The medullary
rays are so fine that even under the lens ( + 10) they require a strong light
to be distinguished. The concentric layers are marked by narrow dark
bands.

COCOBOLO. Dalbergia retusa Hemsl.

Weight 85 Ibs. 14 oz. Tropical South and Central

America (Nicaragua, Panama,
and Costa Rica).

VERN — Cocobolo or cocobola, Trade — Nambar, nambar de agui, namba,
nnambar, rosewood, cocobolo nambar, cocobolo negro, C.R. — Nambar
nambar legitimo, rosewood, NIC. — Cocobolo, cocobolo prieto, Pan. —
Granadillo, Mex., Hond. — Melon, Salv. — Cocoboloholz, Germ. —
Red fox wood.

The supplies of this wood are imported in the form of short cylindrical
logs, half-flitches, and pieces of various shapes and sizes which are from
one to three feet in length, gnarled and twisted, and include knots, worm-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 131

holes, decayed heart, and other defective patches. The striped heart-
wood shows alternate bright orange and deep red bands, the latter being
often streaked with dark or even black veins. Its rich, handsome appear-
ance sometimes has the effect of tortoiseshell, both as regards colour and
marking. It is hard and heavy, yields a fine surface from the tool, and is
especially suited for turnery. When planed or turned the smooth face is
cold to the touch, like fine marble. Well polished this is a brilliant wood,
and is used for the backs of brushes and hand glasses, handles of knives,
forks, and tools, and in fancy cabinet work. Cocobolo wood deserves
much wider use, but is insufficiently known. Supplies of good quality are
scarce, and the demand is irregular.

From Central America and Mexico two species have been identified as
Dalbergia hypoleuca Pit tier and D. Granadillo Pit tier. The species in
Panama and Colombia is Dalbergia retusa Hemsl. (Record).

In transverse section indistinct layers are seen which may or may not
represent annual rings. The pores are large, visible to the naked eye,
scattered and not numerous, and have glistening contents. The extremely
fine medullary rays are invisible, but with the magnifying glass stand out
as light lines which are very numerous (being closer together than the
width of the large pores). Linking the rays at right angles are very
numerous similar light thin lines, so that the field is divided into countless
minute squares. The tangential section shows transverse striped pattern,
indicating that some of the constituents are arranged in tiers.

Cocus WOOD. Brya Ebenus DC.

Weight 69 Ibs. West Indies.

VERN — Cocus or cocos wood, granadillo, green, brown, American, West
Indian, or Jamaica ebony, torchwood, Eng. — Amenkanische eben-
holz, Germ. — Legno granadillo, Ital. — Granadillo, Span. — Grana-
dillo, ojo de perdiz, Cuba.

Supplies of this wood come in a somewhat irregular manner in round
logs from 2 to 8 inches in diameter. There is some confusion as to the
source of the supplies, though the probability is that shippers and mer-
chants supply any botanical variety they can find which is sufficiently
alike to be given the name. Some of the wood known by the name of
canalete would have passed for cocus wood. It is hard and very heavy.
The sap-wood is a very light yellow, and the heart-wood of a brown yellow.
It somewhat resembles a brownish-yellow Coromandel wood. It is used
for policemen's truncheons, flutes, bagpipes, brush backs, handles of
knives and tools, and all kinds of turnery and inlay.

The pores are very small and obscure ; the medullary rays are exceed-
ingly fine and even ; they are parallel and so regular that they would
almost appear to be artificial.

132 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

CONCHA SATINWOOD.

See HAREWOOD.

CONDURU. Source unknown.

Weight 69 Ibs. Brazil.

This handsome orange-red wood with its firm texture and smooth grain
is very like a bright Spanish mahogany, though it appears to lack the
contrary hard and soft grain characteristic of that wood. It would
probably prove to be a good chairmaker's wood.

The rather small pores are scanty and irregularly distributed ; they
are generally plugged. The medullary rays are fairly numerous and are
irregular in size and position. There is a strong ripple ray on the radial
section.

COPIE. Goupia glabra Aubl.

Weight 51-55 Ibs. (Record). British Guiana, Brazil.

VERN — Cupiuba, cupiuva, Braz. — Copie, copi, couepi, coupi, goupi, hoe pi,
kopie, cabacalh, kabukalh, kaboekalh, Guianas.

The colour of the wood is a light reddish-brown, or grey, with a
close, coarse grain, and an unpleasant odour when fresh cut. Used for
sleepers, paving blocks, boat building, and furniture, and also for native
canoes.

The pores are rather large and readily visible, numerous, well distri-
buted, mostly solitary, without definite arrangement, open. Medullary
rays very fine and numerous, almost invisible except on the radial surface.

CORACAO. Source unknown.

Weight 59 Ibs. Brazil.

The colour is reminiscent of the deepest kind of dark-coloured Italian
walnut, relieved with lighter and darker coloured streaks. It has a
smooth even texture, and would probably make a fine cabinet wood.

The very numerous pores are irregular in size, though they are generally
fairly small ; they are mostly plugged, and are so joined in threes and fours
as to form a kind of pattern. The medullary rays are very fine and are
indeed hardly discernible. Bands of darker coloured wood show the
concentric layers.

CORACAO DE NEGRO. Source unknown.

Weight 74 Ibs. Brazil.

The colour is brick red, with so close and tight a grain that the wood
presents a wonderfully marble-like appearance. The Handbook of the
Ministry of Agriculture describes the wood as useful only for common and

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 133

inferior work, but my specimen suggests that it would be an excellent
medium for the finest cabinet work. There is little resemblance between
this wood and the sample marked Coracao (q.v.}.

The pores are very minute. The medullary rays are sharply de-
fined, wavy, and very numerous ; they show in small flecks on the radial
section.

CORAL WOOD. Adenanthera pavonina Linn.

Weight 56 Ibs. India, Burma, The Andamans, West

Indies.

VERN — Rakta-chandan, ranjana, Beng — Am kundamam, Tarn. — Bandi
gunvenda, Tel. — Manjati, Mai — Thorlaganj, Mar. — Manjadi,
Kan. — Gung, Magh. — Ywegyi, ywgee, Burm. — Rechedd, And. — •
Madatiya, Cingh. — Bois de corail, FT.

The first shipments of this wood on a commercial scale were made in
1920, for the Empire Exhibition at Holland Park. Yet this species was
mentioned by Holtzapffel over seventy years ago as being used by the
French, who called it " bois de corail/' and it is under the English equi-
valent of " coral wood " that the timber is now known in commerce. The
French supplies, however, were certainly not received from British terri-
tory, but possibly from either Indo-Chin or from French possessions in the
West Indies, where the tree is also found. Charpentier, for instance,
reported it from Martinique.

When first cut, the wood is gamboge yellow with a touch of brown, but
after exposure it matures to a bright golden red, or to a coral shade, so
that it might easily be mistaken for a Spanish mahogany. It possesses
very rich mahogany figure, and is one of the most decorative timbers. An
electric-light standard in Indian coral wood was shown at the above-
named Exhibition, which was greatly admired ; the wood has since been
used successfully for cabinet-making and turnery. The following exhibits
in coral wood were also shown : two small settees in French style, made by
Mellier, Ltd. ; French type ornamental pedestal for vase, made by Mellier,
Ltd. ; four chairs, in French style, designed and made by Mellier, Ltd. ;
also a pair of electric-light table standards, and table, of French design,
made by Mellier, Ltd.

A block of wood recently (1932) taken out of the old Woolwich Dock-
yard, which is supposed to have been in the building for 150 to 200 years,
upon examination seemed to agree with the identification of Adenanthera
pavonina, the structure of the wood being almost exact. No other
botanical variety comes near to it, and Prof. Record, to whom I submitted
a sample, agreed with me that it was almost an absolute certainty. A
specimen of wood over 150 years old is not altered in its wood struc-
ture, but the characteristic evidences under the lens become somewhat

134 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

obscured. I think the wood is certainly A . pavonina, in which case it was
probably brought from the Andamans.

There is some confusion among the botanists about this timber, as the
botanical name has undoubtedly been given to two different woods.
Holtzapffel (1852) quotes Bergeron : " Coral wood was named from its
colour. When first cut it is yellow, but soon changes to a fine red or
superb coral. It is hard and receives a fine polish. The Coral Tree, so
called from the colour of its>flowers, is Erythrina Corallodendron ; but the
Bois de Cor ail of the French is the wood of Adenanthera pavonina, which
is hard, reddish-coloured, and sometimes confounded with red sanders
wood."

The pores are fairly large, and often surrounded by a ring of loose
tissue. The medullary rays are straight, exceedingly fine, and very
numerous.

CORDIA SPP.

Weight 28-56 Ibs. (Gamble). India and Burma.

According to Gamble there are " thirteen species fairly evenly distri-
buted over the country, some of them having useful woods, deserving of
being better known and more in use, especially for furniture." Of these
species only two have been noticed as a commercial proposition, namely,
Cordia fragrantissima and C. vestita. Specimens of C. Macleodii show
that the wood of this variety is indistinguishable from the others, and
equal, if not better, in quality, colour, and style. The grain is hard and
capable of a very smooth surface from the tool. It seasons, works, and
polishes well, and produces a most attractive and valuable decorative
wood for all high-class works of art. The colour is a dark reddish-brown,
with darker streaks.

The woods of all the Cordia species have a fragrant scent, more pro-
nounced in some than in others. The scent, however strong when the
wood is being worked, does not remain persistent in the finished article, as
in the case of many other woods.

The commercial import of C. fragrantissima was made under its
Burmese name of " sandawa," and the instance provides an example of
the disadvantages of the use of a local vernacular name for a wood, as it
was found impossible to interest any of the usual buyers of fine woods.

The wood of C. Myxa is much inferior in every respect, and possesses
no quality sufficiently attractive to make it worth remark. The colour is
a dirty brown, and the wood is far softer.

C. fragrantissima. — The pores vary in size, in roundish patches, which
are joined by occasional broken concentric lines. Medullary rays rather
distant, moderately broad, with a well-marked and rather handsome
silver grain.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 135

C. vestita. — Description similar to the above.

C. Macleodii. — Description similar to the above.

C. My oca. — The pores are somewhat scarce and very irregular both in
size and position. The rest of the marking is in all respects similar to that
of the Cordia spp. as named above, excepting that it is on a minute scale,
being rather less than half the size throughout.

Brazil produces several varieties of Cordia, but I have only two speci-
mens in the Brazilian collection, one named Louro (Cordia frondeus) and
the other Louro cheirozo.

Louro, C. frondeus. — The pores are very small, rather sparse, and
plugged ; medullary rays hardly discernible under the lens.

Louro cheirozo. — The concentric layers are marked by darker and
lighter lines, otherwise similar to the preceding.

CORKWOOD. Ackama Mueller i Benth.

Weight 38 Ibs. Eastern States of America.

Known also as brown alder, sugar bark, and pencil cedar. Tropical
Woods reports this as a " pinkish-brown to reddish-brown wood, fine-
textured, without distinctive figure, requires care in seasoning. Suitable
for joinery, flooring, mouldings, carving, brush stocks, boot heels, etc."

CORKWOOD or MARARA. Weinmannia rubifolia F. v. M. (Forestry Com-
mission, Sydney).
Weight 43 Ibs. New South Wales.

The colour of the wood is a light straw yellow, with a firm, fairly mild
grain, capable of a smooth surface from the tool.

Tropical Woods reports this wood as Weinmannia lachnocarpa F. v. M.,
and as being " used for heavy coach and carriage construction, general
building purposes, mallets, chisel handles, golf-club heads, machinery
bearings, etc."

The concentric layers of growth are clearly marked by lighter and
darker lines. The exceedingly scarce pores are very small, and mostly
open. Medullary rays are confused, difficult to locate, with continuous
wavy belts of fine tissue following the layers of concentric growth.

CORNEL.

See DOGWOOD.

COROMANDEL or CALAMANDER WOOD. DlOSpyroS sp.

Weight 70 Ibs. 5 oz. India, Burma, Ceylon.

D. quaesita.

VERN — Kalumtdiriya, Cingh.

136 THE. TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

D. Melanoxylon.

VERN — Tendu, temru, timburnl, Mar. — Tumi, tumki, tumida, timmum,
damddi, tuki, Tel. — Balai, Kan.

D. Kurzii.
VERN — Pecha-da, And. — Teakah, thitkya, Burm.

Diospyros sp.

VERN — Buey, Malay.

This name is one by which several different species of ebony (Diospyros)
are known, when they possess a particular kind of marking and colouring.
According to Holtzapffel, Coromandel or Calamander wood is Diospyros
hirsuta, but Gamble gives it as D. quaesita. The description given by
Holtzapffel is as follows : " The figure is between that of rosewood and
zebra-wood ; the colour of the ground is usually of a red hazel-brown,
described also as chocolate brown, with black stripes and marks." He
further adds that there are three varieties, " the Calamander or Coro-
mandel, which is the darkest, and the most commonly seen in this country,
the Calemberri, which is lighter coloured and striped, and the Omander,
the ground of which is as light as Itnglish yew, but of a redder cast, with
a few slight veins and marks of darker tints."

Certainly of later years it is exceedingly doubtful whether supplies of
Coromandel wood have been confined to one, two, or even three varieties.
Similarly marked and coloured wood has been obtained from several
different sources and from different varieties, all of which have been de-
scribed for commercial purposes as ebony when first marketed, and as
Coromandel wood when sold in the converted form, either as boards or
veneers. Of these the supplies from Macassar have produced the largest
sizes and the best colouring.

When I visited Ceylon early in 1922 I made every effort to see a
Coromandel or Calamander tree growing, but although it was thought
that one could be shown, after travelling many miles it was not forth-
coming, and the Forest Officer told me that he doubted whether it would
be possible to find one. I was able to purchase one exceedingly small
piece, about 5 inches in diameter, which was all that could be found of
this timber.

Taking authentic specimens of three different sorts, (i) Macassar,
(2) Diospyros Melanoxylon, (3) D. Kurzii, the face appearance is so
similar that they might all have been taken from the same tree. The
Japanese variety D. Kaki, which is much lighter in weight, is often very
similar, but the marking is on a smaller scale, and the light colouring is of
a more yellow shade. There is also a slight difference between these three
varieties in the transverse grain.

Macassar. — The pores are irregular in size and position, and are often

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 137

filled with a bright, shining gum. The medullary rays are very indistinct,
exceedingly fine and irregular.

Diospyros Melanoxylon. — The pores, which are smaller, are more
scarce than in the Macassar wood, also often filled with shining specks of
gum ; the medullary rays are stronger and more clearly defined.

D. Kurzii. — The pores are minute and very numerous, and the rays
very indistinct.

Yet another source of supply of so-called Coromandel wood has been
found in some occasional trees of Ceylon ebony (probably D. Ebenum,
q.v.), which show the same marking and colour. If, therefore, at some
much earlier date the name was applied only to the produce of a distinct
variety, it has now become the common term for a particular form of
marking and colour, produced by several different species of Diospyros.

The wood is used for decorative furniture in various fashions. Beauti-
ful tables and cabinets, pianoforte-cases, small ornamental boxes and
jewel-cases, have been made with this wood, which has also been used for
shop-front decorations and fitments. In the Victoria and Albert Museum
at South Kensington is a handsome armchair of Dutch manufacture,
dating from the early eighteenth century, which is made of walnut and
Calamander wood.

For description see EBONY, Diospyros.

Cotoneaster frigida Wall.

Central and Eastern

Himalaya.
VERN — Hurunay, Badaga (?).

A shrub yielding a whitish-yellow straw-coloured wood, with a very
close, smooth grain, not unlike boxwood, very hard and suitable for
turning.

Concentric layers clearly marked by a thin white line. Pores exceed-
ingly small, hardly discernible under the lens. Medullary rays numerous,
in wavy belts, and showing in the tiniest flecks on the radial section.

COTTONWOOD. Populus deltoides Marsh and other spp. of Populus.

Weight 25 Ibs. The United States.

This is the cottonwood of commerce, and should not be confounded
with the cotton tree of India (Bombax malabaricum) (q.v.). The supplies
arc the produce of several species of Populus, of which the above-named is
the principal. The wood owes its name to the cotton-like coma which is
to be found on the seeds of the tree. The wood is of a creamy- white
colour, and has a smooth, even texture, slightly lustrous in appearance.

Gibson says that cottonwood is made into nearly every kind of box
that goes on to the market, from the cigar-box to those in which pianos

138 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

are shippeS. Amongst its other uses he mentions interior finish, bank and
office fixtures, musical instruments, vehicle tops, and furniture. It is
largely used for ply-wood in this country.

The very numerous pores are exceedingly small and are only visible
under the lens. The medullary rays are fine and very numerous. Dark
concentric lines mark the annual rings.

COW-TREE.

See MESSARANDUBA.

CRABWOOD. Carapa guianensis Aubl.

Weight 38-46 Ibs. (Stone & Freeman). British Guiana.

VERN — Crabwood, andiroba, British Guiana, Demerara, and Brazilian
mahogany, Trade — Crabwood, white crabwood, lowland crabwood,
highland crabwood, caraba, white caraba, karaba, karapa, British
Guiana mahogany, B.G. — Grappa, crapa, krappa, crappo, karapa,
krapaboom, Sur. — Carapa, carapa jaune, carapa rouge, carapa
blanc, crapo, andiroba carapa, bois caille, Fr. G. — Bois rouge car a-
pat, Guad — Andiroba, andiroba branca, andiroba-saruba, andirova,
angiroba, nandiroba, nandirova, y andiroba, Braz. — Caoba, C.R. —
Osuabise, osokoru, asoroa, Gold Coast, Africa — Crabbaum, Germ. —
Batteo ? Pan.

This wood has only been imported in small quantities and in boards
and planks, although it would appear to be available in long logs up to
60 feet, and of wide squares up to 3 feet in cross-section. It is of a dull
brownish-red mahogany colour, and assumes a glossy, lustrous surface
from the tool. It has a hard grain which, running in reverse directions,
tears up under the plane, so that a smooth surface is obtained with diffi-
culty. Being inclined to warp, it could only be used as a substitute for
cheap mahogany, which can generally be produced from elsewhere at a
less cost ; it has little to recommend it for general use.

It has sometimes been incorrectly termed South American mahogany.
A legitimate alternative name is carapa, which is derived from the native
Guiana name caraipi.

The pores are small and irregular, and show bright specks of shining
gum. The medullary rays are fine, and parallel but irregular.

Crataeva Adamsonii.

The Sudan.

The native name is " dubker." A gamboge yellow-coloured wood
with a hard, close, bony grain, producing a smooth surface from the tool.
Probably only small sizes are obtainable, but information is lacking.

The very small pores are exceedingly fine ; medullary rays hardly
discernible under the lens,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 139

Crataeva Roxburghii Br.

Weight 33-47 Iks. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Bmrua, bdrua, b^lds^, bila, biliana, Hind. — Barun, tikto-shakt
Beng. — Barmdl, Melghat — Varana, bar ana, Jeypore — Purbong,
Lepcha — Tazladu, bunboronda, Mechi — Maralingam, marvilinga,
navala, Tarn. — Uskia, usiki, ulimidi, urumatti, tella voolemara,
Tel. — Nirvdla, Kan., Mai. — Bitusi, Kan. — Kumla, karwan, Mar. —
Nirujani, Coorg — Kadat, kadet, kon-kadet, Burm. — Luna-war ana,
Cingh.

A bright, yellowish-white wood, with a smooth, close grain. Gamble
says : " The smooth wood is used for drums, models, writing-boards,
combs, and in turnery, but is anything but durable and very liable to the
attacks of boring beetles." Trimen says it is planted in Ceylon for its
bitter leaves, which are used as a stomachic.

The concentric layers are marked by lighter and darker lines. The
pores very numerous, small and plugged. Medullary rays very strong,
thick, irregular, and in wavy lines, showing on the radial section in fine
flecks.

CRAVO DO MARANHAo. Dicypellium caryophyllatum Nees.
Weight 40 Ibs. Brazil.

This wood is of a pale straw colour and has a lustrous surface. There
is not much to recommend it for decorative woodwork. Brazilian Woods
reports that the tree attains a diameter of i to 2 metres, and is used for
all kinds of works which require great strength, such as parts of hydraulic
wheels. This authority also speaks of the wood as being scented, but my
specimen has no scent.

Concentric layers are conspicuously defined by a dark band. The
pores are small and numerous, and the medullary rays are very fine.

CROWSFOOT ELM. Tarrietia argyrodendron Benth.

Weight 57 Ibs. New South Wales, Queens-

land.

The wood is of a rather bright brick-red mahogany colour, with a
smooth, fine grain, yielding a very clean, smooth surface from the tool. A
very attractive wood which stands well, and would be useful for decorative
woodwork, furniture, desks, chairs, etc. Baker reports it as seasoning
quickly but liable to deteriorate if left in the log, and says it has been used
for interior panelling in some of the Queensland railway carriages, and
ships' cabins, also for brush backs, ornamental boxes, turnery, furniture,
etc. If this wood can be provided on a competitive basis with mahogany
it should have a good future.

The pores are irregularly placed, small to medium in size, mostly open,
with rather coarse, pronounced medullary rays very numerous and showing

140 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

in a small pattern of flecks on the radial section. The medullary rays are
crossed at right angles by wavy, thin lines, causing a network pattern.

Crypteronia paniculata Blume.

Weight 39 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). Lower Burma.

VERN — Ananbo, Burm.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
as " light yellowish-red to light red when first exposed, ageing to a uniform
light reddish-brown ; heart-wood not distinct, . . . straight-grained, fine
and even-textured. . . . Used for building, as planks and boards. ... It
yields a good board very suitable for flooring."

CUARUBA. Vochysia sp.

Weight 31-32 Ibs. Brazil.

The name "quaruba" is given to a number of varieties of Vochysia.
My specimen, marked as above, is pinkish-brown in colour, showing a
wide red gum vein, with a soft, rather open, coarse grain, and a slight
lustre. Record reports that the woods of Vochysia sp. as a whole are light
and soft, tenacious and strong for their weight, easy to work, and suitable
for the purposes to which the softer grades of non-durable conifers are
now employed.

The scarce, widely scattered pores, from very small to rather large, are
mostly open. The medullary rays are somewhat coarse, with secondary
rays rather obscure.

CUDGERIE. Flindersia Schottiana F. v. M.

Weight 42 Ibs. (Swain). New South Wales.

Known as silver ash in Queensland. The wood of this tree should not
be confused with that of the Queensland cudgerie or bolly gum (Litsoea
reticulata) or with Flindersia australis (q.v.), which also goes by the name
of cudgerie, both these timbers having very different characteristics.

F. Schottiana is of a greyish- white or tawny colour, the wood is firm,
tough, strong, straight and open-grained, and works well but is not durable
in the ground ; it is reported as being used for various works in Australia,
including house-building, etc., and standing well. Supplies are fairly
plentiful.

Cullenia excelsa Wight.

Weight 31-42 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Ceylon.

VERN — Malai-konji, aim-pillao, vedupla, Tarn. — Katu-boda, kabodda,
Cingh. — Kay am, Kader — Kar ayani, Trav. Hills.

A dirty-coloured uninteresting wood, of little value, reddish-grey in
colour, soft and light. Gamble says the wood seems good, but he quotes

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 141

Bourdillon, who gives the weight as 34 Ibs. and says it is worthless, with
which opinion I am in agreement.

The pores are scarce and small, partially plugged, in belts. Medullary
rays confused, hardly discernible under the lens on the transverse section,
but showing faintly on the radial section.

Cunonia capensis Linn.

South Africa.

A brown-red coloured wood, strong and close-grained. In use in Cape
Colony and South Africa, but not met with in commerce. Named by the
Dutch " Rood Els," and, incorrectly, cedar.

CUNURU or CUMARU. Dtpteryx odorata Willd.

Brazil, Guiana.

VKRN — Tonca bean, tonka bean, tonga bean, tonquin bean, tonkin bean,
Kng. — Cuamara, kumara, gomorrow, and preceding names, 13. G —
Tonka, tonka boon, comarre, quamare, groot locus, Sur — Gaiac,
gayac, gavac male, gayac de Cavenne, faux gavac, fevner tonka,
Fr G — Bois de coumarouna, Mart. — Gayac de Cavenne, Guad — •
Sarrapia, Venez , Col — Cumaru, cumaru amarello, cumaru do
Amazonas, Braz. — Koemane, Hoi. — Cumary, camin, Ital. —
Coumarounaholz, gaiacholz, Germ.

This is described by Record as one of the most beautiful trees of
northern South America, the tree which bears the well-known tonka bean,
which is universally known as used " in flavouring snuff, cigarettes, cigars,
cocoa, confectionery, etc.," and this bean thirty to forty years ago was
largely carried on account of its pleasant scent.

Record also states : " A clear yellow oil, known on the market as
cumaru, is also obtainable from the seeds and is used medicinally."

The timber is hard and heavy, with a close interlocked grain, strongly
rqsembling lignum-vitae ; capable of a very smooth, close-textured surface,
and with a distinctly oily feeling to the touch. The colour is a warm
yellow-brown, somewhat streaky.

The wood has not been seen in commerce in the United Kingdom. In
a private letter from Brazil the writer, having referred to its usefulness as
a substitute for lignum-vitae, corrects himself by saying that the word
"substitute " is wrong, as it is even more useful for many of those purposes
for which lignum-vitae is unique, and has been found superior in the
construction of stern-tube bushes.

If this report is to be relied upon there should be a future for cunuru,
as Record reports that the trees are " found 150 feet high and over 3 feet
in diameter," good sizes could be obtained, and supplies of large-sized
lignum are diminishing.

The very small pores are irregularly placed in wavy belts,

142 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

plugged. The medullary rays are very numerous, but so fine as to be
difficult to discern under the lens (-t-io), and crossed at right angles by
similar very fine light lines, making a delicate network pattern.

Cupressus Macrocarpa Gord.

Western and Southern Europe,
California, South America, New
Zealand, Australia.

The "Monterey cypress." The wood of this tree, while harder than
that of the wood of Thuya plicata, in other respects resembles it so closely
that a separate description is unnecessary.

Sargent reports it as heavy, hard, and strong, very durable and close-
grained. Trees in England produce knotty and coarse growth, but if
sound pieces could be obtained without loose or rotten knots, it would
become useful for furniture, panelling, or fittings, having much the same
appearance as pencil cedar.

Cupressus torulosa Don.

Weight 38 Ibs. India.

VERN — Devi-didr, Ravi — Deodar, Kulu, Bhajji — Gulla, gulrai, kallain,
Simla — Leaun, leon, Jaunsar — Raisalla, sarai, Kumaon — Rasula,
Garhwal — Dhupi, Dotial — Sarru, surahvyu, sunn, Tibet — Hima-
layan cypress.

The wood is of a pale yellow-salmon colour, with a straight smooth
grain ; it resembles pencil cedar (Juniper us virginiana) but is slightly
lighter in shade. It has a strong and agreeable, fragrant scent. As with
the timbers of other varieties of cypress, it appears to be very durable,
Gamble reporting it as even more " durable than deodar, as is shown by
the results of buried sleepers of the wood at Dehra Dun. These pieces
were put down in 1881 and taken out in 1892, and the Cypress wood was
found to have resisted best of all ... is frequently employed for temples
in the Himalaya, as well as for images and poles to carry the sacred
arks/' It is reported that the wood is not common and unlikely to be
of commercial importance.

The concentric layers are marked by a strong dark vein, which is also
conspicuous in the radial and tangential sections. The medullary rays
are hardly discernible with the lens ( + 12).

CURUPAY. Piptadenia Cebil Grisebach.

Weight 73 Ibs. 13 oz. South America.

VERN — Curupay, curupay negro, Arg. — Curupay, Braz.

In 1894 a cargo of hewn square logs of good length and size was im-
ported into Liverpool from Rosario in the Argentine. The wood varies in
colour from orange-grey to greyish-brown, with dark streaks and veins ;

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 143

some of it is reddish-brown, while much is handsomely marked with a
wavy, curly grain. It has a faint aromatic scent, and the same cold,
rather sticky feeling that is found in pyinkado (Xylia dolabriformis) , to
which wood, in other respects, there is some similarity. The timber has
been used satisfactorily as a substitute for African oak for dock work,
while some of the finely marked pieces have been converted into veneers,
which give a beautiful decorative appearance.

Baterden says that curupay has " been a good deal used for piles and
jetty work in the Argentine, and in such situations has lasted over thirty
years."

The concentric layers are marked by very dark and light wavy bands.
The pores are uniform, and the medullary rays parallel and regular.

CUSHIMUCHO. Michelia compresa Max.

Weight 38 Ibs. Formosa.

This wood has an unusual and attractive appearance, being of a rich
golden-brown colour, somewhat like that of a dark-coloured honey, with
a lustrous sheen, and as it has a close grain with a firm texture, and is
capable of a smooth surface, it would make a useful wood for decorative
cabinet work.

The pores are exceedingly small and numerous, and are generally
plugged. The medullary rays are equidistant and parallel, and show very
finely on the radial section.

Cynometra ramiflora Linn.

Weight 58 Ibs. (Gamble). Southern India, Burma,

Ceylon, The Andamans.

VERN — Shingra, shingar, Beng. — Irapu, Tarn. — Gal mendora, Cingh. —
Myin-ka, yeminga, Burm.

The colour is a golden brown, the wood having a very close, smooth
grain, not unlike greenheart. It is valuable for high-class decorative
woodwork and cabinet-making, banding, inlay, turnery, and a good sub-
stitute for greenheart, lancewood, and other similar woods.

Gamble quotes Skinner that " the wood is used for house- and cart-
building, and that chips of the wood give a purple dye in water. In the
Sundarbans it is used for posts for native huts and for fuel/'

The uses to which this wood have been put again illustrate the un-
economical manner in which Indian timbers are used, and the failure, up
to now, to fully develop these resources.

The pores are very small, exceedingly numerous, and plugged. The
medullary rays are fine, strongly marked, and crossed at right angles by
extremely fine similar white lines. The transverse grain under the lens
closely resembles that of African oak (Oldfieldia) .

T44 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

CYPRESS. Cupressus sempervirens Linn.

Weight 20 Ibs (Baterden). Cyprus, Asia Minor, Great

Britain.

This wood is not known commercially in the United Kingdom.
Elwes says : " It is uncertain when the cypress was first introduced into
England. The first mention that we know of it is by Turner, who was
physician at Syon in 1548." He says of the wood : " The timber is light
brown in colour, hard, and close-grained. . . . The wood is easy to work,
and gives off a penetrating, agreeable odour. It is very durable, lasts
indefinitely under water, and longer than oak when used for vine-props.
In France and Italy it is considered excellent for furniture ; and the doors
of St. Peter's at Rome, which lasted from the time of Constantine to that
of Pope Eugene IV., nearly 1000 years, were said to be made of cypress."
He concludes by quoting Shakespeare, in The Taming of the Shrew, II. i.

353 • In ivory coffers I have stuffed my crowns ,

In cypress chests my arras counterpoints,
Costly apparel, tents, and canopies

CYPRESS. Podocarpus Conaseus Rich.

British Honduras.

An uninteresting grey wood capable of producing a very fine, close
surface.

The concentric layers are very narrow, and marked by light lines ;
the medullary rays are so fine and insignificant as to be hardly discern-
ible with the lens. Shows an exceedingly fine ripple ray on the tangential
surface.

CYPRESS, BALD. Taxodium distichtim Rich.

Weight 33 Ibs. 8 oz. Southern United States.

VERN — Bald cypress, Eng. — Ahuehuete, ahuehuetl, cipre's, cipre's de Monte-
zuma, cipreso, pentamon, sabino,pentamu, tnuyucu,yaga-chichicino,
yaga-guichi xina, yucu-ndatura, Mex.

This is the deciduous cypress. It is imported in the form of planks
and boards of various qualities, but only of late years in any considerable
quantity. It is yellowish-red, often nearly salmon-coloured. In the
United States it is used so extensively that Gibson writes : " The uses are
so nearly universal that a list is impossible." Another American author-
ity, Hough, says : "Its great durability, immunity from the attack of
parasites, and non-liability to great shrinking or warping make it one of
our most valuable woods for all woodwork exposed to weather, for
tank construction, cooperage, etc." These qualities, combined with a
sharp segregation of the hard and soft grain, and with a scantiness of
resin, should bring this wood into more general use. It is especially satis-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 145

factory for out-houses and green-houses, and where so used will probably
outlast any other kind of softwood, even when unpainted. One such un-
painted building in this country has survived for six years, and the wood,
though subject to continual heat and moisture, is quite sound throughout.
The English-grown wood appears to possess equally good qualities, and
where available should be used for exposed woodwork. It differs from
the American-grown timber that reaches this country l in colour, which is
light yellow, and in appearance it recalls Lebanon cedar. There is a
liability for the hard grain to rise and the soft to sink, so that the wood
is apt to show a ridgy surface.

Gibson has made a statement which suggests that the remarkable
durability of this wood is somewhat doubtful, but there is reason to
question his opinion. Professor E. S. Sargent, in a private letter (March
3, 1915) on this subject, says : " The wood Taxodium distichum is con-
sidered to be exceedingly durable, and I do not know on what authority
Gibson has made his statement. It is not impossible, of course, that the
wood of a diseased tree, or one that had grown under abnormal conditions,
might be of poor quality/'

A very large quantity was purchased by the British Government
during the war for aeronautical construction, but it was found to be un-
suitable, and led to deplorable results.

The annual rings are marked by the alternation of the soft, open-
meshed spring-wood and the hard, closer-grained summer-wood. The
latter has one uncommon feature, it is apt to be divided into several con-
centric zones in each annual ring, by the intervention of narrow lines of
wood like the spring-wood. The medullary rays are invisible. Resin-
ducts are lacking (though resin does occur in the wood).

CYPRESS, FUNERAL. Citpressus funebris Endl.

Weight 34 Ibs. (Gamble). China, Eastern Himalaya.

VERN — Chandang, tchenden, Bhutia — Tsandan, Lepcha.

The wood of this species is a bright yellow, with reddish streaks, and
is very similar to the foregoing. In the timber museum at Kew there is
a chair and a table made of funeral cypress wood. These are decorated
with Chinese characters, and come from Ningpo in China.

Dalbergia cultrata Grah.

Weight 70 Ibs. Burma.

VERN — Yindaik, Burm.

Yindaik is also called Burmese ebony. The trees yield only a small
proportion of the dark-coloured wood, and in this and other characteristics

1 In the United States the timber vanes, so that a distinction is drawn between
the heavy " black " and the light " white " cypress.

146 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

yindaik resembles the ebonies. The colour is a purplish-chocolate with
black streaks. The grain is hard, firm, and very close, yielding a smooth
and lustrous surface from the tool. Excellent for turnery and fancy
woodwork, and deserving wider reputation and use.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, mention another
species, D. fusca, stating that " the timber is often mixed up with that of
D. cullrata, and is used for the same purposes."

The pores vary in size, and are irregularly and sparsely distributed.
They are joined by light wavy concentric lines of loose tissue, which make
a pretty grain on the tangential surface. The numerous medullary rays
are so fine as to be scarcely discernible except under the lens.

Dalbergia lanceolaria Linn.

Weight 33-50 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon, Central India, The

Himalayas.

VERN — Takoh, bithua, Hind. — Bander sins, Nep. — Barbat, parbati,
Banswarra — Gengri, Panch Mehals — Harrdm, Dharwar — Nal
valanga, Tarn. — Pedda sopara, yerra patsaru, pasarganni, Tel. —
Dandous, dandoshi, kaurchi, Mar. — Pin, K61 — Passi, Merwara —
Sirsi, passi, Jeypore — Thitpagan, Burm.

The colour is a yellowish-white, with a smooth, close grain, quite
unlike other produce of Dalbergia spp., both in colour and grain. Gamble,
quoting Skinner, says : " But it is probable that he has not described the
right wood, for, although he gives the correct Telugu name, yet he calls
his specimens Moukshow Burm. and ' Moulmein lancewood ' ; while Kurz
. . . does not give D. lanceolaria as occurring in Burma." Gamble also
says that J. W. Oliver " suggests that * Moukshow ' is perhaps a corrup-
tion of ' sauk yo,' the Lower Burma name of a species of Dalbergia,
possibly D. Oliveri." But my authentic specimen of D. lanceolaria bears
no resemblance to the wood of D. Oliveri, nor is it in any respect like
Homalium tomentosum (myaukchaw), the wood known as " Moulmein
lancewood." It would appear, therefore, that there is some confusion in
these reports.

Very scarce, small pores, varying from very small to small, sometimes
plugged, with very numerous exceedingly fine medullary rays, crossed at
irregular intervals by fine lines of light-coloured tissue, which follow the
growth of the concentric layers.

Dalbergia Oliveri Gamble.

Weight 66 Ibs. India.

VERN — Tamalan, Burm.

This beautiful wood was unknown commercially in England until 1920,
since when it has been increasingly used for all kinds of decorative art

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 147

woodwork. It has a hard and close grain, and is of a salmon to rose-red
colour, sometimes darker and even as dark as rosewood, often with golden
streaks and always a lustrous surface, especially suitable for the Empire
or Sheraton styles. The wood possesses a curious quality, surpassing all
other woods, in that when struck with a hammer it produces a strong
metallic note, so that it has been approved for use in the making of xylo-
phones, for which purpose it has given great satisfaction.

The transverse section shows a pretty grain with light and dark wavy
ripple marks. The much scattered pores are scarce and rather large. The
medullary rays are prominent, parallel but uneven, and crossed at right
angles by similar white lines, which, with the rays, give the appearance of
a spider's web.

DAMSON. Prunus domestica Linn.

Weight 32 Ibs. 9 oz. Europe.

This little-known but beautiful English wood can be used for decorative
work with very effective results, and compares quite favourably with
tulip or kingwood for banding, marquetry, or general cabinet work. It is
capable of a very smooth surface from the tool. The colouring is of a
bright yellowish-red, streaked with bands of lighter and darker red, the
general appearance being very similar to that of bleached or faded
Brazilian tulip-wood.

The pores, though numerous, are exceedingly small, with one or two
layers of slightly larger pores in the spring growth. The medullary rays,
which are parallel, are very strongly marked and of a greater thickness than
in most woods ; they show very clearly on the radial section, as in beech.

DANTA. Cistanthera papaverifera A. Chev.

Weight 46 Ibs. (Imp. Inst.). The Gold Coast.

The Imperial Institute Bulletin 29, No. 2, reports the above wood as a
valuable substitute for hickory and ash in tool and implement handles.
The report names it as slightly inferior to hickory, Burmese yon, and
English ash in shock resistance, but more flexible, and equally hard and
tough ; not so hard, but stronger than axle-wood, and less liable to break-
age than yon. It works fairly well.

The wood has not yet been seen in commerce.

DEDALI. Strombosia javanica Bl.

Malay Peninsula, Burma.
VERN — Dah daht bay an badak.

The tree is widely distributed but not abundant. The wood is pale
brownish yellow, with only slight difference between sap-wood and heart-
wood.

i48 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Foxworthy, in Malayan Forest Records, No. 3, describes it as being
" light, soft, very fine-grained . . . remarkably durable for a soft wood.
. . . Used for planks, posts, beams, and cabinet work, liable to split if the
freshly cut logs are left lying exposed to the sun."

DEGAME WOOD. Calycophyllum candidissimum Vahl.

Weight 50 Ibs. (Record). West Indies.

VERN — Degame, degame lancewood, degame spars, Trade — Ddgame, Cuba —
Sdlamo, madrono, C.A., gen. — Espino madrono, NIC. — Alazano,
guavabo alazano, Pan. — Camaron, palo camaron, Mex. — Lemon-
wood.

This wood is imported in straight, clean logs, with the bark on, ranging
from 10 to 20 feet in length, and 4 to 8 inches in diameter. The colour
is yellowish-red, rather like lancewood, though not so bright, or like a dull
West India boxwood. It is elastic, bends well without breaking, and
bears considerable transverse strain. It is used for a great variety of
purposes, and as a substitute for lancewood.

Dephelium Longana.

r ° Ceylon.

A dull plum-coloured wood with an exceedingly tight, close grain,
giving a very smooth surface from the tool, comparable with that of
beefwood. The wood is not seen in commerce.

Exceedingly small pores, hardly discernible under the lens, arranged
generally in belts. The medullary rays are so fine that they are hardly
visible.

DESBOTA. Source unknown.

Weight 69 Ibs. Brazil.

This dull yellowish-brown wood takes a smooth surface.

The pores are small, moderately numerous, and unevenly distributed.
The numerous medullary rays are crossed at right angles by thin wavy
lines, which give the effect of a spider's web.

DHUP. Canariitm euphyllum Kurz.

Weight 32 Ibs. India, The Andaman Islands.

VERN — Dhup, Hind — Indian white mahogany.

The vernacular name of " dhup " has apparently been given to the
wood of Pinus longifolia, Ailanthus malabarica, and Canarium strictum,
as well as to Canarium euphyllum.

The wood known as dhup, the produce of C. euphyllum, is the only one
of these which has been seen in commerce in Europe ; probably C. strictum
and C. euphyllum equalise, for the only timber which has been largely
introduced into European markets has come from the Andaman Islands,
and is named C. euphyllum by Parkinson. He reports the wood as " light

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 149

coloured and perishable, with a smell like that of vinegar . . . sometimes
used as floats for rafting timber . . . yields resin which is used by the
Andamanese for burning and for making a composition for covering the
binding of their arrows."

A very large quantity, which has been called " Indian white maho-
gany," has gone into consumption in the course of the last few years.

The wood is of a light straw colour, and assumes a glossy and smooth
surface with the lightest touch of the tool. This is the more surprising,
as, from the appearance, it would be thought to be rather fibrous or woolly.
It does not warp, twist, or shrink unduly, but is liable to become stainy if
exposed to wet, or left to lie without air current space. It has been used
extensively for all kinds of decorative woodwork, where a good quality
plain wood is required, including all kinds of cabinet work, linings, and
interiors, billiard-table work (including legs, sides, and bearers), for ships'
fittings and store linings, and as a substitute for American whitewood.
It can be readily stained and polished, taking an excellent red mahogany
colour, with a transparent grain, so that, if well handled, only an expert
could recognise it as not being a regular red mahogany.

The pores are not very sparse, rather large, sometimes plugged. The
medullary rays are close and regular in size and position.

Dialium divaricatum Vahl.

Weight about 56 Ibs. (Record). British Honduras, Brazil,

Central America.

VERN — Jutahy peba,jetahy preta, itu, Braz. — Granadillo, Col. — Tamanndo,
tamanndo del monte, tamanndo pneto, C A.

This is one of the innumerable woods to which the name of ironwood
has been given. Record says : " It is a large tree occurring in the forests
of eastern Brazil." The colour is a dull reddish-brown, with a very close
grain, and a whitish straw-coloured sap-wood. It is hard, close, and
reported strong and durable, but not so hard or dense as most of those
woods to which the name ironwood has been given. There are concentric
rings of growth, clearly marked by dark lines, which may or may not
denote annual growth. The transverse section shows a pretty pattern.

In the handbook Brazilian Woods, jatahy, with its alternative name
of jatoba, is reported as the produce of Hymenoea Courbaril, and a note is
added that the tree exudes a resin known as copal gum. Although both
Stone and Charpentier also give jetahy as of this species, yet Colonel
Gamble's sample marked " jatahy " does not agree with a specimen
shipped from St. Vincent under the name of locust (the common name for
Hymenoea Courbaril). It is also different from the specimen of the Dutch
Guiana locust, the so-called Surinam teak, which is said to be the product
of Hymenoea Courbaril. Colonel Gamble's specimen is of a bright yellow

150 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

colour, resembling in appearance East India satinwood. It has a fine
texture and a very smooth grain. In Dialium divaricatum, very sparse
and small pores, mostly plugged, form a constellation among a very fine
network of medullary rays, with belts of similar white lines crossing them,
making a fine pattern, like lace-work. Medullary rays fine and numerous,
and only discernible under the lens.

Dialium ovoideum Thw.

Weight 82 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon.
VERN — Kaddupuli, Tan. — Gal-styambala, Cingh.

The colour is a deep purple-brown, interspersed with yellow patches.
The grain is very close, hard, and firm, comparable with the grain of
boxwood.

It is reported upon by authorities from Ceylon as being very rare, and
difficult to obtain, even in small quantities.

The minute pores are arranged in wavy belts, very fine, making a pretty
lace-like pattern. The concentric layers are marked by irregularly placed
light lines, with exceedingly numerous and very fine medullary rays,
which, crossed at right angles by the wavy belts, make an exceedingly
fine network pattern, something of which is shown on both the radial
and transverse sections.

Dichopsis polyantha Benth.

Weight 53 Ibs. (Gamble). India and Burma.
VERN — Tah, Beng. — Sill-kurta, Cachar — Thainban, Magh.

A dull red-brick coloured wood, with a very fine, close, compact grain,
capable of a very smooth surface under the tool. Has not been seen in
commerce, but a few logs were sent over for the Wembley Exhibition. A
good wood, of value in India, but not containing sufficient qualities to
recommend it for the export trade.

The wood is reported as yielding a fair quantity of gutta-percha.

The somewhat scarce pores are placed in belts irregularly ; they are
mostly plugged and are very small. The extremely fine medullary rays
are crossed at right angles by strongly marked light lines, forming a pattern
of a square.

DILLENIA SPP.

Himalaya, Assam, Burma, Ceylon.

Gamble reports nine varieties, which he divides into two sub-genera.
Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, name the following
three species, Dillenia indica, D. parviflora, and D. pentagyna, stating that
they are used for various purposes in India and Burma.

As far as it has been possible to examine the wood of the different
varieties, the similarity suggests that for description they may all be

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 151

treated as one. The colour is a light grey-red, fairly hard, close-grained,
but except by considerable effort not giving a very smooth surface from
the tool. On the radial section the medullary ray is very pronounced,
somewhat like that shown by K'runtum ; while on the transverse section
the grain is like a rather spongy greenheart (Nectandra). In a cargo of
long squares collected in Burma during the war, for use in Salonika but
eventually diverted to London, a large number of pieces were found to be
of Dillenia spp. The wood proved serviceable, good for constructional
work, and apparently durable. As a decorative wood, it does not possess
sufficiently attractive qualities to make it worth further remark.

The identification of all the varieties may be included under the
following : pores very scanty, very small to small ; medullary rays coarse,
irregular, and of two kinds, one being much finer than the other ; generally
occurring close to another of a similar character, and showing in a pro-
nounced manner on the radial section.

DIPTEROCARPUS SPP.

Among the produce of this genus, that of the Siamese yang has been
held in more esteem in India and Burma than the eng, kanyin, or gurjun
of their own countries ; while in the United Kingdom gurjun and kanyin
have found more favour than the Siamese yang, and perhaps even the
Burmese eng has given better results. It is probable that the more
favourable impression created in India and Burma is to be attributed to
the fact that the Siamese wood was better produced and manufactured.

We have no record of the standing or durable qualities of these timbers
prior to 1890, but after about thirty years' experience (1931) the woods of
Dipterocarpaceae have all proved to be good and durable in the moderate
climate of Europe. When used for outdoor work they have stood well ;
posts have outlasted English oak posts put in at the same time under the
same condition, and for interior first-class joiners' work the wood has
stood as well as any hardwood. The best results have been obtained with
supplies of gurjun from the Andamans, and kanyin from Burma. Two
kinds are reported from Burma, viz. kanyin, which the botanists attri-
buted to Dipterocarpus turbinatus, and kanyin-byu, D. alatus. There is no
evidence as to whether the shipments have consisted of either, or both
mixed, but there seems to be no difference.

The qualities of the remainder may be classed in the following order
of merit : Southern India — Siamese yang — Borneo camphor-wood — the
Philippines.

All these timbers are not highly valued or in much demand. While the
general supplies from Borneo, Malay, and the Philippines bear a close
resemblance to those from India and Burma, there exists a much greater
variation in the softness and hardness of the grain, and care must be

152 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

taken if iron is used in contact with the wood, as staining and corrosion
may result, especially with the Borneo camphor-wood. In the Malay
Peninsula there are many species of Dipterocarpaceae which produce timber
known as keruing. The supplies from the Andamans were originally sup-
posed to be provided by D. incanus Roxb., but of late it has been said that
it is D. turbinatm. Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India,
also mention D. obtusifolim and D. costatus, both of which would appear
to be as useful as the other kinds reported upon. A description of other
varieties is given under the heading of each.

Dipterocarpus glandulosus Thw.

Weight 51 Ibs. Ceylon.

VERN — Dor ana, Cmgh.

The colour of this wood is a dull plum red, with a very hard, close
texture, harder and closer grain, and showing a better character of heart-
wood, than is general in the Dipterocarpaceae.

The pores are numerous, arranged in small bands, plugged, mostly
surrounded by pale tissue. The medullary rays are thick and pronounced,
with finer rays in between, and showing on the radial section in tiny
flecks.

Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd.

Weight 44 Ibs. (Gamble). India.

VERN — Guga, challane, Kan. — Ennei, Tarn. — Kalpayin, Mai. — Varangu,
velayam, Trav. Hills.

According to a specimen provided by the Research Department at
Dehra Dun, this timber is a better quality than any of the numerous
Dipterocarpaceae, from whatever part of the East they may come.

The colour is a good mahogany red, yielding a fine surface from the
tool, with little gum or resin, and producing a cabinet wood equal to many
specimens of the commoner sorts of mahogany.

A few specimen logs have been shipped from Southern India, but the
timber has never been imported on a commercial scale. Its qualities
would undoubtedly bring it into favourable notice, if it were better
known.

The very scarce pores are uneven in line and position, open and
plugged, with very numerous pronounced, rough-edged medullary rays
following uneven lines, and crossed at right angles by light veins following
the direction of the concentric growth.

Dipterocarpus pilosus Roxb.

Weight 43 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Assam.

VERN — Hollong, Ass.
The wood is slightly browner in colour, generally lighter in weight,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 153

and more open-grained than gurjun (q.v.), and perhaps will not stand so
well.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, say that this
timber is "as strong and elastic as teak." Without any authority on
comparative experiments, it is probable that all the varieties of Diptero-
carps in India and Burma would prove to have a greater tangential
strength than teak, and probably D. pilosus would prove to be one of
the weakest. It would be interesting to see some experiments carried
out.

The pores in single and duplicate, sometimes plugged, are in between
strong medullary rays, which show slightly on the radial section, though
not so pronounced as in gurjun.

Dipterocarpus zeylanicus Thw.

Weight 45 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon.

VERN — Hord, Cmgh.

For description see GURJUN, D. turbinatus. No separate identification
is necessary.

DOGWOOD. Cornus florida L.

C. Nuttallii, and possibly others.

Weight 46-50 Ibs. British Columbia, Van-

couver Island, North
and Central America.

The wood is also known commercially by the names of " cornel,"
" cornelian " wood, and " flowering dogwood." The colour is yellowish-
brown, generally with a darker -coloured heart, and a bright, rather
lustrous surface, having a very close, fine, hard, compact grain capable of
a very smooth surface when worked. There are innumerable uses to
which the wood is put, including shuttle blocks, wood-engraving, and for
making charcoal for gunpowder.

The very numerous pores are open, arranged between closely packed,
clearly defined, prominent medullary rays which show in tiny flecks on the
radial section.

Dolichandrone stipulata Benth.

Weight 36 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). Burma.
VERN — Mahlwa, paukkyan, Burm.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
to be " orange-red when first exposed, beautifully mottled with lighter
and darker streaks, at length fading to pale grey-brown ; the quarter
section has an attractive fine silvery fleck ; heart-wood not distinct ;
quite lustrous . . . straight-grained or nearly so, medium and even-

154 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

textured. ... A handsome timber, which is used for house posts, bows,
spear shafts, oars, paddles, and furniture. Its use for furniture should be
extended, for, though heavy [36 Ibs.! A. L. H.], its pleasing appearance
justifies further attention."

Doona congestiflora Thw.

Ceylon.

This wood is of a bright, light-reddish colour, with a bluish tint and a
glossy sheen. The grain is close and firm, and much resembles that of
poon (Calophyllum Inophyllum), for which wood it could be mistaken.

The pores are small, regular, and generally plugged. The medullary
rays are very fine and numerous, with light-coloured bands crossing,
following the lines of concentric growth.

Doona Gardneri Thw.

Ceylon.

A brown-coloured wood very much resembling teak both in colour and
grain, but with a finer and closer grain, yielding a very smooth surface
from the tool. A very strong, valuable, useful wood, which displays good
standing qualities. It is reported that this wood is rather rare, and is
called red Doon by the sawyers in the hill country, being the only hill
species of Doona. It is durable, and was used for sleepers on the Haputale
railway. It has not been seen in commerce in Europe.

The pores are scarce, very small, and plugged. The medullary rays
are very numerous, exceedingly fine, crossed at right angles by light lines,
and showing in strong flecks on the radial section.

Doona trapezifolia Thw.

Ceylon.

VERN — Yakahalu, Cingh.

The wood is of a light reddish colour, with a golden tint, and a very
close, hard, and firm grain. Somewhat similar to D. congestiflora, but a
little harder.

On the quartered section the medullary ray shows very strongly, as
in beech. It is a handsome wood which could be advantageously used in
fancy cabinet work.

The pores are scarce and small, generally plugged. The medullary rays
very strongly marked, even, and parallel.

Doona zeylanica Thw.

Weight 29 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon.

VERN — Dun, Cingh.

The colour is a light yellow nut-brown, with a smooth, close grain.
This wood has not been met with in commerce in this country. Gamble

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 155

reports it as durable, and greatly in request for shingles, saying that the
tree is often called the " shingle tree/'

The small pores are very numerous and plugged. Medullary rays
exceedingly fine, very numerous, crossed at right angles by faint-coloured
lines of light tissue, which appear to mark the concentric layers of growth.

Duabanga sonneratioides Ham.

Weight 32 Ibs. (Troup). India, Burma.

VERN — Bandorhulla, Beng. — Lampatia, Nep. — Dur, Lepcha — Kochan,
kokan, Ass. — Jarul-jhalna, Cachar — Bondorkella, bolchim, achung,
Garo — Baichua, Magh. — Myaukngo, ma-u, thitazaw, linzin, kama-
ung-yegyi, Burm.

The wood is a light nut-brown colour resembling a pale variety of teak.
The grain is straight, but rough and soft, and does not take a nice finish.
It is not suitable for requirements in the United Kingdom, and would not
repay the expense of shipment.

The pores are rather large, and are generally in groups of two or three,
with a slight halo of light-coloured tissue surrounding them. The medul-
lary rays are irregular, and rather scarce and coarse.

DYSOXYLUM SPP.

Northern and Eastern Bengal, The
Andamans, Burma, Southern
India.

Gamble mentions fourteen species, and others have been added since.
In Alexander Rodger's list of Burma trees he gives as vernacular for
Dysoxylum binectariferum , " aukchinsa/' and for D. grande, " tagat-ni " ;
he also gives the vernacular name of " aukchinsa " to Chisochetan pani-
culatus, and he mentions D. Oliveri and D. procemm without giving any
vernacular, but omits D. malabaricum. Definite references, therefore,
become difficult.

Three of the timbers of Dysoxylum species have been met with in com-
merce, all originally sent for exhibition, namely, D. glandidosum, D. binectari-
ferum called " aukchinza," from the Andamans, and Losonia from Bengal.

A description is given under the different names.

Dysoxylum binectariferum Hook. f.

Weight 53-54 Ibs. North-East India, Western Ghats,

Ceylon.

VERN — Katongzu, Lepcha — Rangirata, Cachar — Borogotodhara, bandor-
dema, Ass. — Agtl, kadgandha, Coorg — Yenndi, Bombay.

This wood was exported experimentally from Burma for the Wembley
Exhibition, under the name of Aukchinza. According to Rodger, this
vernacular name is used in Burma for four different varieties, namely,

156 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Diospyros ehretioides, Dysoxylum binectariferum, Erioglossum rubiginosum,
Chisocheton paniculatus. It is probable that the experimental export was
of D. binectariferum.

The wood is a rich, deep red-brick colour, with a hard, close grain,
capable of a smooth surface under the tool. It possesses a somewhat
strong contrary growth of hard and soft layers. It is a useful, attractive
wood, and the timber sent had a fairly good reception. It was reported
that it had been used in Burma for making pencils, but a similar attempt
here was a complete failure, the wood being wholly unsuitable for such a
purpose.

The open pores, which are uniform in size and not very numerous, seem
to be fine, in singles, pairs, and triplicates. The medullary rays, while
being fairly numerous, are very faint and ill-defined.

Dysoxylum glandulosum Talbot.

Weight 37-52 Ibs. (Gamble). North Kanara, The Andamans.
VERN — Bill devdan, bill budlige, Kan.

The colour is a light straw yellow, with a close grain, and contrary
layers of hard and soft growth, so that a sharp tool is needed to make a
smooth surface, which then presents a stripy pattern. An attractive
wood, early discovered by the French to be suitable for first-class cabinet
work ; many pieces can still be seen of French furniture made prior and
subsequent to the Empire period, in which this wood was used to advan-
tage ; as in other cases which could be named, they discovered the value
of this wood and probably obtained supplies from Indo-Chin, thus again
illustrating the more progressive French exploitation of timbers as com-
pared with ours. The backwardness in the development of forestry
resources in India, to which attention has been called by American writers,
is illustrated by the use of this timber, which I have seen, in wasteful use,
in tea-chests.

The concentric layers of growth are clearly'marked by dark lines. The
numerous small pores are partially plugged, with numerous fine medullary
rays, crossed at irregular intervals by fine white lines, showing faintly on
the radial section.

Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd.

Weight 42 Ibs. India.

VERN — V alley agil, Tarn., Mai. — Porapd, Kader.

This timber is reported by Gamble as weighing 51 Ibs. The colour is
a dull, dirty brown-yellow, and the wood has no quality which would
make it of any use for export trade. There is a fragrant scent similar to
that of cedar, Cedrela odorata.

The numerous pores, small to medium in size, are generally grouped

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 157

and plugged ; the medullary rays are exceedingly fine, and hardly dis-
cernible under the lens.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, would seem to
regard D. malabaricum and D. glandulosum as one and the same, but those
scanty shipments of wood which have been received, and reported to be
under the two separate names, do not agree either in quality or appear-
ance ; also shipments which purported to be D. malabaricum bore a
fragrant scent as named above, and no scent was to be found in that of
D. glandulosum.

EBONY. Mainly species of Diospyros.

The term ebony is usually applied to a black wood of great hardness,
heaviness, and closeness of texture. The definition of ebony, however,
is rendered difficult by several facts. True ebonies all belong to one
botanical family, Ebenaceae, but there are black woods that belong to
other families and yet vie with ebony in blackness, though differing from
it in other characteristics, such as hardness or structure. Among such
are African blackwood (q.v.) or Congo-wood, which in Germany is often
termed Senegal ebony, though such a custom is unjustifiable, as the wood
in question is derived from the laburnum family. Incidentally it may be
mentioned that certain woods, especially pear, are stained black and used
as substitutes for ebony. Again, the name ebony is also applied to woods
that are not black. Among such the most familiar perhaps is green
ebony (q.v.), which is derived from various woods belonging to diverse
species. Moreover, woods which are true ebonies, even those from the
genus Diospyros, are not necessarily black. A considerable amount of
commercial ebony shows some natural brownness of shade, and in order
to conceal this, manufacturers of various articles blacken the wood with a
stain. In fact, it may be said that ebony is not always as black as it is
painted. In all species of Diospyros the external or sap-wood is light-
coloured. In a number of the species the central portions of the wood
are more or less black. In some cases, such as D. Ebenum and D. Melano-
xylon from India and Ceylon, this black wood forms a solid central core
extending for a considerable distance along the trunk, but even in these
species the black wood is liable to be arranged in the form of thick
strands interrupted by light-coloured wood. In other ebonies the black
wood is always interspersed with patches or bands of lighter-coloured —
light yellow to brown — wood : thus the marble-wood (D. Kurzii), from
the Andamans, which is black and light yellow in patches, deserves this
name, and the Calamander wood (D. quaesita) of Ceylon shows bands or
streaks of black and brown. Still farther removed from blackness is the
wood of D. Chloroxylon (British India), which is termed " green ebony/'
and is yellowish-grey in colour. It will be noted, too, that in several

158 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

cases, woods derived from the true ebony genus, Diospyros, are not termed
ebonies ; two additional instances may be cited : the persimmon woods
of North America (D. virginiana) and of Japan (D. Kaki). Trees belonging
to the ebony family but not to the genus Diospyros also furnish ebony :
such is alleged to be the case with Maba Ebenus of the Moluccas, and
Euclea Pseudebenus from South Africa.

Its hardness, freedom from shrinkage and warping, powers of resisting
decay and attacks by insects, as well as the smoothness of surface and
finely polished appearance obtainable, cause ebony to be highly esteemed
for particular purposes, including the making of piano keys, violin-
bridges, flutes, handles of knives, handles and backs of brushes, rulers,
mathematical instruments, walking-sticks, picture-frames, furniture, and
ornamental cabinet work generally. Piano-cases are made of wood which
is stained to resemble ebony.

The conditions of formation of the black wood in ebony are not
identical with those obtaining in regard to the heart-wood of ordinary
European trees. This fact is well brought out in Mr. Herbert Wright's
most valuable paper on the ebonies of Ceylon.1 The following information
is taken from this source. " The occurrence of ebony (black wood) within
the plant cannot be stated in terms of the age of the tree. . . . The black
heart-wood occurs usually in the stem (trunk), but is often present in
young twigs and roots. . . . The occurrence of the central black wood is
often erratic, though most usually it decreases in volume from below up-
wards. ... In some instances . . . the black heart-wood repeatedly
dies away and reappears at different points along a given length (of trunk
or branch)/' The consequence of these facts is that the search for profit-
able ebony in ebony trees is by no means a simple one. " The ebony is
obtained by felling the tree and stripping off the peripheral sap-wood. It
is usual to fell all those trees which have attained, or exceeded, a breast-
height circumference of 2 metres (6J feet), providing the preliminary ex-
amination indicates the existence of a good proportion of solid black
heart-wood. The preliminary examination usually consists of making an
incision and determining the extent to which the discoloration (blackening
of the wood) has proceeded. ..."

The precise chemical nature of the black or deep brown colouring
matters, largely contained in the cavities of ebony, is not finally established.

Apart from so-called " green ebony " (q.v.) the following have been or
are the geographical and reputed botanical sources of commercial ebonies :

(a) Black wood (occasionally interspersed with wood of lighter colour) .
Ceylon and India (" Bombay " : D. Ebenum Koenig and D. Melan-

1 Herbert Wright, " The Genus Diospyros in Ceylon : its Morphology, Anatomy,
and Taxonomy," Annals of ike Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, vol. ii. pp. 22-55,
1904.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 159

oxylon Roxb.) ; in Ceylon the wood of these and other species
when interrupted by light bands is sold as " bastard ebony."

Mauritius : D. Tesselaria Poir.

West Africa (Gaboon, Lagos, Old Calabar, etc.) : D. Dendo Welw.
and D. mespiliformis Hochst.

Zanzibar : D. mespiliformis Hochst.

Madagascar : D. Perrieri Jumelle mainly, also D. haplostylis Boiv.
and D. microrhombus Hiern.

Philippines (also Indo-Malaya) : Maba buxifolia Pers. The Indo-
Malayan D. Ebenaster Retz. may supply some of the black com-
mercial ebony.

(b) Streaked or patchy wood.

Ceylon and India : Calamander or Coromandel wood : D. quaesita

Thw., streaked brown and black. (It is highly improbable that

either D. hirsuta Linn, or D. oppositifolia supplies any " Cala-
mander " wood ; see Wright, op. cit.)
Philippines : " bolongata " and " camagoon," respectively D.

pilosanthera Blanco and D. discolor Willd., often very similar to

Calamander wood.
Andaman Islands : " Marble wood," D. Kurzn Hiern., black with

very light, often creamy white, stripes or patches.
Celebes : Macassar ebony ; a wood of unknown botanical origin,

varying in appearance, often reddish-brown with black bands, but

sometimes variegated with other tints.
Japan : Kaki or Japanese persimmon, D. Kaki Linn. f. ; black with

varying amounts of light or grey bands or patches.
North America : American persimmon wood, Z). virginiana Linn.,

light in colour with little or no black heart.

EBONY, AFRICAN. Diospyros Dendo Welw.

Weight 78 Ibs. West Coast of Africa.

The imports are from Old Calabar, Cameroon, Gaboon, Cape Lopez,
Ogowe, Burutu, and Niger. It is somewhat difficult to determine be-
tween the respective merits of the various districts. The shipments vary
in quality, conditions, and colour. The wood is sent over in billets, and
also in short logs with the centres left in ; the billets are from about 5 to
10 inches wide, and from about 2 to 7 inches thick, the logs from 2 to 13
inches in diameter. Billets and logs are from 2 feet to perhaps as much
as 8 feet. The billets are pieces split and chopped out from the main
trunk of the tree with the sap and faulty places cut away. The following
information was supplied by Mr. T. S. Leadam.

OLD CALABAR. — This was a good black ebony of fine grain, and was

160 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

much in demand when obtainable, although almost always small in dia-
meter and very short, being about 3 to 4 inches in diameter and about 2 J feet
long. It was well prepared, and trimmed always in billets. The average
weight of each piece was about 15 kilos, a piece weighing 20 kilos being
rare. It was used for pianoforte keys, and there was a considerable de-
mand for it in Sheffield for knife-handles. For some reason, at present
unknown, the import has entirely ceased, but it has been said to be due
to some local cause. Before the Old Calabar exports entirely ceased the
wood came in larger sizes, and this suggests that it was coming from
distant districts through the same port.

CAMEROON. — In the absence of Old Calabar this wood seems to
take the lead. It is generally of much larger sizes, often averaging from
25 to 30 pieces to the ton. The quality is good and the colour deep
black.

GABOON. — This wood is a very deep black and is usually reliable, but
the trimming and sorting has been conducted carelessly. At one time it
was customary in Liverpool for the selling brokers to sort the parcels into
three classes, which were called " flats," " billets," and " heavy." The
" flat " grade consisted of all the faulty wood, and was selected on account
of its deep degree of blackness for use in cutlery manufacture at Sheffield.
The " billets " were the best wood of good sizes without centres. The
" heavy " consisted of the large solid pieces, with or without centres,
more solid than the " flat " but of any kind of shape. There was at that
time a good demand for each class.

OGOWE. — This quality is the nearest approach to the Gaboon.

CAPE LOPEZ. Weight 78 Ibs. 4 oz. — The quality of this variety is very
much like that of Ogowe but has the reputation of containing a greater
supply of greyish colour. The pores are very variable in size, and are
generally filled with a white gum. The medullary rays are very obscure
and hardly discernible with a lens. There is a very faint, rather agreeable
aromatic scent.

BURUTU. — This is a coarse ebony, like an inferior quality of Macassar,
somewhat long and irregular in shape, and it is very little m demand.

NIGER. — A term generally used in America to cover all of the above
imports except Burutu. There is, however, one quality known as " Niger,"
which, though usually good in colour, has a tendency to be streaked
with grey.

EBONY, BURMESE. Diospyros burmanica Kurz.

Weight 55 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — 2Y, Burm.

This is an inferior kind of ebony, which possesses such a small black
heart and so wide a band of light (sap) wood that for European purposes

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 161

it could only be used for decorative inlay work or for golf-club heads.
The wood is hard, heavy, and close-grained, but is generally defective in
the heart.

The pores and medullary rays are exceedingly fine, and scarcely dis-
cernible with the lens ( 4- 12).

EBONY, INDIAN and CEYLON. Diospyros sp.

Ceylon, Southern India.

The word ebony half a century ago instantly suggested to anyone
engaged in the timber trade, either India or Ceylon. While small and
irregular parcels found their way into London from other sources, the
main ebony supplies were provided by Ceylon and the south of India.
Ceylon especially produced a regular supply, and in a minor degree also
Coromandel or Calamander wood (q.v.). Between thirty and forty years
ago it was found possible to get in one shipment 100 logs up to 30 feet in
length and more than 30 inches in diameter at the butt , to-day it is rare
to see anything as much as 20 feet by 15 inches, besides which it is quite
impossible to-day to find a sound, clean log which will cut any such length
or size, whereas before these were comparatively easy to secure. Ship-
ments from India have now entirely ceased, presumably because the trees
are practically all used up, and from Ceylon shipments have become
negligible. With the falhng-off of supplies there has been a correspond-
ing fallmg-off in demand, many of the previous uses having disappeared

The botanist divides the timber into three varieties, viz. Dtospyros
Ebenum Koen., D. Embryopteris Pers., and D. oocarpa Thw. It is probable
that the three have been generally mixed. Gamble reports D. Ebenum
as " the chief Ebony-yielding tree, and the only black one, without either
streaks or markings," but I have never seen any Ceylon or Southern India
wood absolutely black, with no variation in colour. The India wood,
including Ceylon, is of a very close, dense, hard grain, rather brittle, with
a consistency somewhat resembling African blackwood, with almost a
marble-like smoothness. It is rare to find a piece not streaked with a
darker or lighter brown, and sometimes even a golden colour, but never of
the same intense blackness as some ebony which can be found on the west
coast of Africa. Occasionally a log is found finely marked with light
brown or golden streaks, and this has been termed Coromandel.

The pores are exceedingly small and hardly discernible under the lens.
Medullary rays so fine that a powerful glass is required to locate them.

Diospyros Embryopteris Pers.

Weight 48-49 Ibs. India, Burma, Ceylon, Western

Himalaya.

VERN — Gab, makur-kendi, kala tendu, Beng , Hind. — Kust, Banda —
Kendu, Ass. — Gusvakendhu, Uriya — Gara tint, K61, Sonthal —

162 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Titia, Khond — Nititunika, Palkonda — Muttia tumikt, Reddi —
Timburi, Mar. — Panichi, Mai — Tumbika, pam-chika, pamchchai,
Tarn. — Tumil, tumika, Tel. — Holle-tupra, Coorg — Kusharta, Kan.
— Timbiri, Cingh. — Ye-ngan-bok, Lower Burma.

The tree which produces this timber is more valuable for other pur-
poses than its wood production. A specimen plank submitted to the
Wembley Exhibition, however, showed a fine quality close-grained, nut-
brown coloured wood, with a close texture similar to other products of
Diospyros, but without any of their attractive black colouring, and it is
probable that as a timber-producing tree its possibilities are negligible.

The very fine pores are somewhat scanty ; the concentric layers of

Photograph by G R Keen

LOGS OF EBONY. SOUTH-WEST INDIA

growth are marked by fine, light-coloured bands crossed by the extremely
numerous and very fine medullary rays, which glisten brightly on the
radial section.

Diospyros tomentosa Roxb.

Weight 48-77 Ibs. (Gamble). Northern India, Himalaya.
VERN — Tendu, kendu, temru, abnus, Hind. — Kend, kyon, Beng. — Kendhu,
Unya — Tumn, tummer, tumki, Gondi — Tendu, Baigas-«-7Vz/,
K61 — Tumiki, Koya — Tumma, Reddi — Timru, tzbru, Merwara.

This tree produces a fine ebony, similar to the commercial ebony from
Ceylon, D. Ebenum, which is better known. Gamble reports that
" Brandis unites this with D. Melanoxylon and, indeed, it is very difficult
to distinguish them either in the field or in the Herbarium." For the pur-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 163

poses of the report on the wood, there is no distinguishable difference.
While the trees are still obtainable in fairly large quantities from Ceylon,
the supplies from India of D. tomentosa seem to be practically exhausted.
A further variety is reported by Gamble, of which a specimen was sent
over prior to the Wembley Exhibition, named Z). assimilis, producing a
wood similar to that of D. tomentosa, the specimen itself having a most
attractive narrow golden-yellow streak of an unusual character. In
texture and quality of grain there is no difference between the two
varieties.

The exceedingly minute pores are somewhat scarce ; the medullary
rays are very fine indeed, joined at right angles by similar fine light-
coloured bars, forming a minute pattern.

EBONY, GREEN. Source dubious. (Possibly Tecoma Leucoxylon, Mart.1)
Weight 72 Ibs. 2 oz. West Indies.

This hard, heavy wood is obtainable only in small pieces of round
section, varying in diameter from 2j to 6 inches. The sap-wood is
yellowish-white, while the heart-wood is brownish-yellow, tinged more or
less with bright bronze-green, and traversed with deep brown and yellow
stripes. This dense wood, of nearly uniform texture, yields a very smooth
bright surface which is cold to the touch. My specimen has no scent
whatever. Another specimen, which was sent to me by Dr. Girdwood, is
of a much darker and duller green, and possesses a most fragrant scent.
It is evidently of a different species. It is used for linings and bandings in
cabinet work and inlay, and is well suited for turnery. In another instance
the wood of blue mahoe (Hibiscus elatus) (q.v.) was sawn up and passed
as green ebony. The scent of this wood, which is very fragrant, much
resembles that of the true green ebony.

While Record alludes to the wood of Tecoma, he does not describe it
nor refer to it as true green ebony, about which, however, there can be
little doubt. There does not seem to be any evidence that the wood of
Brya Ebenus has ever been regularly accepted on the market as green
ebony. Holtzapffel says that it was produced from Jamaica and the
West Indies generally ; has a bark much like cocus, but thinner and
smoother ; the heart -wood is of a brownish-green, like the green fig.

1 Professor Groom says that " The name ' green ebony ' is given to several woods.
One of these is Brya Ebenus DC., from the West Indies. Another is Tecoma Leu-
coxy Ion, with which the name is specially associated. The sample agrees in many
respects, but not perfectly, with the published descriptions of this It also resembles
the Nicaraguan wood known as ' bois d'or/ but from this and from Brya it differs in
that its medullary rays are not arranged in horizontal series to form tiers. As
opposed to greenheart, the vessels are so fine that as delicate scratches along the
grain they are invisible to the naked eye."

164 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The ebony of Jamaica is Amerimnum Ebenus. Brya Leucoxylon of
South America yields green ebony.

Writing of the wood imported from the West Indies and Jamaica,
Holtzapffel says : "It cleans remarkably well. The dust is very pungent
and changes to red when the hands are washed with soap and water. The
wood is very much used for dyeing, and it contains so much resinous
matter that the negroes in the West Indies employ it in fishing like q,
torch."

In transverse section the concentric layers are marked by the alter-
nation of light and dark concentric zones. The pores and medullary rays
are invisible to the naked eye ; with the lens the former, largely plugged,
stand out as yellowish-white spots and the latter as thin, light lines. The
pores contain a yellowish to dark red substance.

EBONY, MACASSAR.

Weight 69-74 Ibs.

This wood is imported in large billets and round logs, which generally
vary in size, ranging from 10 to 30 inches, with an average of 16 inches in
diameter, while good lengths of 6 to 16 feet are procurable, fairly sound
and good, free from other defect. It is of a rather dense, close gram,
but is not so good in this respect as the ebonies of the West Coast of
Africa. The colour ranges from dark brown to black, and a large propor-
tion of the logs are streaked with yellow or yellowish-brown, some very
handsomely figured pieces being occasionally found. These are generally
selected for special ornamental work, such as brush backs, mirror handles,
and veneers.

On the tangential section the gum shines brightly in the slightly open
pores. These are fairly evenly distributed, but are rather obscure and
mostly plugged The medullary rays are fine and very indistinct.

Echinocarpus dasycarpus Bth.

Weight 32 Ibs. (Gamble). Eastern Himalaya.

VERN — Gobna, Nep — Taksol, Lepcha.

A specimen of this wood was sent over to the Exhibition for experi-
mental purposes, but it possesses no quality to make it of any interest
for export trade. It is apparently in good demand in India, for local
purposes of various sorts.

The colour is a dirty greyish-blue ; the grain is soft, showing signs of
lines of incipient decay.

The pores are very small ; the strong, well-marked medullary ray
showing on the radial section as in sycamore.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 165

EKHIMI. Piptadenia africana Hook.

Nigeria.

The Imperial Institute reports this wood as resembling plain oak in
appearance, but having no specially attractive feature. It is suitable for
rough construction work, doors, alls, or as cheap furniture wood, but too
heavy for many purposes.

Elaeocarpus serratus Linn.

Weight 30 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon, India, Malaya, Java.

VERN — Jalpai, Heng — Ulang kdrai, uttraccham, Tarn — Vahya kara,
Mai. — Weralu, Cingh.

The colour is a rather dirty grey, with dark- and light-coloured streaks,
which give indication of being the first stages of incipient rot. A close,
firm grain, yielding a smooth surface from the tool, showing on the radial
section the small ilecks of medullary rays. The wood is reported by
Gamble as not being of much use, which report is probably correct.

The exceedingly numerous pores are very small, and plugged. The
medullary rays are numerous, irregular, and ill-defined, showing on the
radial section as above stated.

Elaeodendron glaucum Pers.

Weight 48-58 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Mirandu, padnun, bakra, janwa, Pb — Bhutta, Kashmir — Bakra,
shauna, chauh, dabcn, mdmn, N.-W P. — Dhebn, Dehra Dun —
Chaun, metkur, Oudh — Chikyeng, Lepcha — Jamrdsi, kala mnkha,
rohi, C P. — Bhutikassi, jamrdsi, Berar — Dhakka, nisur, Gondi —
Niru, Kurku — Ratangeru, Koderma — Min, K61 — Aran, tamruj,
bilur, buta pala, burkas, Mar — Bata karas, Bhil — Karkava, irkuli,
selupa, sin, karuvah, pivan, Tarn — Ninja, neradi, botanskam,
kanenns, bootigi, Tel — Bhutraksht, Hyderabad — Ncralu, Cingh.

The colour is a dirty brick-red, with an exceedingly close, firm grain,
yielding a very smooth surface from the tool. Gamble reports it as season-
ing well, and used for cabinet work and picture frames. It has not been
seen in commerce.

Numerous pores, largely plugged, very small. Medullary rays very
fine, showing faintly on the radial section.

ELDER. Sambucus nigra Linn. Europe.

Those who have ever employed themselves in hewing down the common
elder stems when growing, and have found how readily a sharp axe cleaves
through a thick stem, would be surprised at the exceeding hardness of this
wood when dry, and how attractive it can be.

It is a brown straw-yellow colour, with fine small clash of medullary
rays which show on the radial section.

166 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

It would make an attractive wood for inlay cabinet work, and in
America it is utilised for making combs.

The not very numerous pores are very minute and plugged. Strong, well-
defined medullary rays, not parallel, clearly showing on the radial section.

ELM, AMERICAN and CANADIAN. Ulmus americana Linn.

U. racemosa Thomas
U. pubescens Walt.
U. crassifolia Nuttall
U. alata Mich.
U. serotina.
Weight 44 Ibs. i oz. Canada, United States.

As with all American and some Canadian timbers, the English timber
merchant is always confronted with the difficulty of obtaining reliable
supplies, on account of the fact that these consist of the produce of several
botanical species mixed indiscriminately. These supplies may vary from
the fine, hard, white rock elm (obtainable from Canada twenty-five years
ago in large quantities of good size), through less white and less hard
transitional types, to the soft swamp elm which is possibly derived from
U. alata and is little wanted in England. Gibson quotes the respective
weights of dry wood as "40-54 Ibs., 45-26 Ibs., 43-35 Ibs., 45-15 Ibs.,
46-69 Ibs.," in order named above, omitting U. serotina ; but, according
to him, U. americana is called rock elm if it grows on " stony uplands,"
and swamp elm if on low ground. It is, therefore, not difficult to account
for the extraordinary differences found in both colour and density
between the different supplies. Gibson states that it would be difficult,
if not impossible, to identify the elms or any one of them by the colour
of the wood alone. Until a few years ago American and Canadian elm
was imported from Quebec in hewn square logs from 20 to 40 feet in
length, and n to 16 inches square, sometimes even larger, after which
for many years it was found exceedingly difficult to obtain supplies of
high-class white rock elm, and for several years before and after the war
the general quality deteriorated, most of that import being in smaller-
sized logs, in the round with the bark on. Some change appears to have
occurred, which has resulted in sufficient supplies having been available
for the last seven or eight years (1931), much of which has been equal in
quality and colour to that which was obtainable twenty years ago, the
only notable difference being that the average size in length and diameter
has lessened.

The wood is whitish -brown in colour, hard, tough, and flexible, with a
fine, smooth, close, silky grain ; and as it has only a small quantity of
sap-wood, it can be worked up closely and economically. It is necessary
to remove the sap in the conversion of the log, as, unlike that of the Eng-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 167

lish elm, it is of a perishable character. If exposed to a current of dry air
it is very liable to split with fine, deep shakes from the surface. Having
this serious liability to rend in seasoning, the logs should never be left a
week exposed to the influence of drying winds, without some kind of
protection. To preserve this timber, therefore, for future use, it should
be treated in the same manner as the English common elm, namely, by
immersing it in water. It has also been used in aircraft manufacture.
During the war the specifications drawn up by the Engineering Standards
Committee for the supply of rock elm for aircraft limited this to the
produce of Ulmus racemosa, but in practice it is doubtful if it would ever
be possible to obtain supplies solely of one botanical species.

The wood is valuable for shipbuilding, boatbuilding, and for many
purposes where toughness and durability under water are required.

It is very slow-growing, and the annual rings, which are* very close,
are distinctly marked. The medullary rays are clearly defined and
parallel. The pores in the autumn wood, which are exceedingly small,
appear like a series of very small, white, wavy bands, making a pattern
at right angles to the rays. There is a rather indistinct line of larger pores
in the spring wood.

ELM, BRITISH. Ulmus campestris Sm., etc.

Weight 36 Ibs. 6 oz. United Kingdom.

This wood, although so well known, is not treated with the considera-
tion which its merits deserve. There is little doubt but that scientific
research could bring to light many more purposes for which it could be
employed than those for which it is at present utilised. It has been
used for decorative work with very satisfactory results, as the colour and
grain lend themselves to artistic effects. In Austria and Hungary, for
instance, it is highly valued, being used particularly for open timbering
work in halls and staircases. There is no evidence to show what botanical
variety is used, but Rugen Holtz is often employed, and it is probable,
though not certain, that this is the product of Ulmus campestris. The
British Consul at Vienna in 1914 had his country house furnished with it,
and told me that he considered it as good as oak, and perhaps more orna-
mental. This example of the utilisation of home products rather than
those of more exotic growth might well be followed in this country, which
generally adopts the bad economic policy of the reverse system.

It must be borne in mind, however, that this wood is very apt to warp
and twist, though where special measures have been taken, this difficulty
has been overcome. As the first cost is very low, it would not be ex-
travagant to use a means of protecting the exterior without interfering
with the appearance of the wood, thus making it immune from the attacks
of boring insects. There is little doubt but that with the aid of preserva-

168 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

tives it could be made more useful for many kinds of constructional work,
as it is very durable under water, and fairly so under ground.

During the war it was tested for aeroplane work, although considerable
discussion arose as to its suitability, opinion being strongly divided on
the subject.

The panelling of a room in a prominent bank in Leadenhall Street has
been executed throughout in British elm, the stiles, rails, mouldings, etc.,
being in solid plain wood, with wide panels of beautifully figured elm burrs,
the whole work displaying a handsome effect which has been greatly
admired.

A room in Marsham Street, Westminster, recently completed, designed
by Sir Herbert Baker for his own use, the panelling work executed by
Holloway Bros., provides a beautiful example of the best class of work
that can be accomplished in this wood, the result of which must be to
bring it into prominence and use elsewhere.

A very determined effort has been made since the war to popularise the
use of elm for road pavement. It is not clear whether any success has
been achieved, but it is very doubtful, on many accounts, whether it can
be generally used for that purpose.

The pores in the spring wood are large and open, and in the autumn
wood form a pretty pattern of complete wavy bands, which are so con-
spicuous as to be visible without the aid of the lens. The medullary rays
are so prominent that it is strange that they do not show on the radial
section.

ELM, CHINESE. Ulmus Chinensis.

North and South China.

The Chinese elm produces such a beautiful timber that it is to be
regretted that it has never been available in ordinary commercial circles.
The colour is a rich, warm, golden yellow-red, with a beautiful and very
smooth surface, and a hard, close grain, so that on account of its colour,
grain, and lustre it would form one of the most beautiful decorative woods
obtainable. There is no indication of any liability to warp and twist, as
in the case of all British-grown elms. Mr. Wardle has sent me a specimen
of a tree grown at Ballarat in Australia, in which the quality is so fine that
it would seem almost worth while to cultivate it for decorative timber
purposes.

The concentric layers are clearly marked by strong light-coloured lines.
As in all elms, the radial section gives a very pretty pattern ; the light
lines of concentric growth displaying small pores, heavily plugged, while
the remaining growth displays belts of pores. The very numerous medul-
lary rays are uneven, varying in size, and show an attractive pattern on
the radial section.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 169

ELM, CORNISH. Ulmus nitens var. stricta Ait.

Weight 33 Ibs. United Kingdom.

This tree produces a wood which is superior in quality and texture to
either the common English elm or the wych elm, and more nearly re-
sembles the quality of the American rock elm, although not so hard, tough,
or white. According to Elwes and Henry, "It produces a remarkably
tough wood, which is used by wheelwrights for naves, felloes, and frame-
work of waggons . . . and also formerly for making boxes in which
gunpowder was compressed by an hydraulic press, as no other wood was
found to bear great pressure so well." It also stands very well for the
framework of lighter carriages and carts. Cornish elm was used for some
old carved panelling which is carefully preserved in the church at Lantiglos
near Fowey, but it displays here its liability to be attacked by a worm or
beetle, which has perforated some of the panels with holes. It is harder
arid of a lighter colour than the other English elms, and is capable of a
smoother surface from the tool. There is also some difference in the
transverse grain, which is more compact and dense, the pores being smaller
and rather less in number.

ELM, INDIAN. Holoptclea integrifolia Planch.

Weight 40 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VKRX — Pctpn, khiilcn, arjdn, raj din, kachdm, Pb. — Banchilla, Saharanpur
— Papar, hanjn, Kumaon — Papn, Bhartpur — Dhamna, kunj,
Oudh — Karanji, chilbil, chilmil, kumba, kunja ndh, kandru,
begana, C P. — Chillar, Jeypore — Pulan, Reddi — Daurango, Uriya
— Karinji, Gondi — Karanjel, Kurku — Ava, ayil, velayil, kauchia,
Tarn — Xamli, navili, tapasi, nali, pedda-nowli-eragu, Tel. —
Wawali, papara, Mar — Ras bija, Kan — Thapsi, Mysore, Coorg —
Kalddvi, Hassan — Aval, Mai — Goda-kinlla, Cingh — Mvaukseik,
pvauhscik, thale, Burm.

This wood bears little, if any, resemblance to the elm of this country.
The colour is a rather bright straw yellow, with dark streaks; with a hard,
somewhat cross grain. In India it is used for brush manufacture, but it
has not been included in commercial supplies to this country, although a
specimen was shown at the Empire Timber Exhibition of 1920, which
failed to claim any interest.

The pores are small and regular, not numerous, and are joined by faint
lines of pale soft tissue. Medullary rays are exceedingly fine, well-defined,
parallel, and equidistant.

ELM, WYCH. Ulmns montana Sm.

Weight 33 Ibs. I oz. Europe.

This wood, which is similar to the common elm, is of a better character,
milder, generally straighter in the grain, and less liable to twist, warp, and

170 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

shrink. Carefully selected, it can be used with advantage for panelling,
staircase, or other joinery, but although used for chair-making, it is not
really satisfactory, as it is always attacked by beetle. In Southern
Europe it is largely employed for trim of houses, staircases, panelling, etc.,
but in the United Kingdom its chief uses are for van- and cart-building,
some forms of bent wood, and especially for boat boards. If carefully
selected and seasoned, more advantageous uses could be found, as it is an
attractive wood in colour and grain.

The concentric layers are marked by light-coloured lines, with a double
or triple row of open pores, minute and very scarce, between the layers.
The very strongly defined medullary rays, which show on the radial
section in pronounced flecks, are crossed at right angles by wavy belts of
minute pores, making the usual pretty pattern, which elm shows on the
transverse section.

EMPATA. Vatica sp. or Cotylelobium sp. ?

Weight 54 Ibs. Borneo, The Philippines.

This wood is variously known as " rassak," " empadu," and " narig,"
and according to Foxworthy, is principally derived from species of Vatica
or Cotylelobium, both of which belong to the tribe Vaticeae of the order
Dipterocarpaceae.

The timber is hard and close-grained, and much resembles the grain
and colour of false acacia (Robinia Pseudacacia), but is of a deeper tint.
The wood is durable but somewhat liable to warp. If thoroughly seasoned
it would be suitable for general constructional work.

The medullary rays are fine, clearly marked and parallel, but not
equidistant. The pores, which are numerous, are irregularly distributed,
and are sometimes partially filled with resin.

ENG. Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.

Weight 39 Ibs. 3 oz. (my sample) ; 50-59 Ibs. (Gamble) ;

55 Ibs. (Brandis). Burma.

VERN — In, eng, Burm. — Sooahn, Talcing.

In the United Kingdom the name " eng " is most commonly used,
while in its native country the term " in " is usually employed to designate
this wood. It is a straight tree attaining, according to Troup (Forest
Pamphlet, No. 13), " the height of 80 to 90 feet with a girth of 8 to 10
feet, but it may attain a height of over 120 feet and a girth of 15 feet."
The timber is of a dull reddish-brown colour and has gummy pores. It
has a pleasant and aromatic scent, which can pervade a room, and is fairly
persistent. The wood greatly resembles Borneo camphor-wood, Siamese
yang, and Andaman gurjun. Concerning this last, Sir D. Pram, in a

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

171

private note, points out that " the Gurjun of Chittagong, or Kanyin of
Burma, are in botanical chajractersdifficult to separate ^omD.laevis,

Photograph bv R S Troup

ENG (DIPTEROCARPUS TUBERCULATUS), THEYAUNG FOREST, KATHA,
UPPER BURMA

and indeed they are generally considered identical. Yet within what is
thus treated as one species, the natives had two distinct things which
they recognised readily as Telia (from tel or teli-oil), the tree that yielded

172 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

the wood oil, and Denlia, a tree with a good, strong yet light, wood, used
among other things, in the poles of palanquins (known as Denlis). The
wood of this Gurjun or Kanyin tree is very like that of the Eng (D.
tuber culatus], which also yields a wood oil, or oleo-resin. The timber of
the Eng is very similar in colour and grain to that of the Kapor or Camphor
tree of Sumatra and Borneo (Dryobalanops aromatica)." Sir D. Prain
also says that he thinks this tree " does not contain pockets of camphor,
but that it may at times. If there be a timber which habitually shows
pockets of camphor I do not know it, and should expect it to be some
distinct species, and not Dryobalanops aromatica."

Eng is of hard texture, is straight-grained and works easily. When
planed the resinous pores shine brightly. The timber is imported in
sawn planks, clean and sound, from 10 feet to about 35 feet long, 7 inches
to about 18 inches wide, and from 2 to 9 inches in thickness. As the
trees are large and of great height, with clean, straight boles, even larger
sizes could be obtained if required. " Were it not that Burmah has so
many valuable timbers, and especially Teak, Eng would probably be in
even greater demand " (Gamble). In India the wood is largely used for
building construction and for boats. It is not considered there to be a
very durable timber for work exposed to the weather, nor according to
Troup was it found satisfactory for paving-blocks in Rangoon, where it
was used for this purpose, as it absorbed too much liquid and soon gave
off an offensive odour. Where exposed to the weather, as in sleepers,
etc., it has been destroyed by the white ant.

In a later private note R. S. Troup says : " The importance of this
timber lies a good deal in its great abundance. There is an enormous
demand for the timber in Burma, and in many places the forests have been
overworked, as well as wastefully worked. The value of In forests is,
however, coming to be appreciated, and adequate steps will, no doubt,
be taken to prevent wasteful exploitation and secure regular supplies for
the future."

This demand, particularly in view of the continually increasing cost
of teak, is certain to increase, both for home use in Burma and India, and
for the United Kingdom and all other parts of the world, as the supplies
of timber grow yearly more restricted. It appears to be useful for both
external and internal construction work in the United Kingdom, although
perhaps it is yet too early to speak with confidence as to its durability
under exposed conditions. If its characteristics were more carefully
studied, it might be used to advantage more regularly.

The products of Dipterocarpaceae from Siam and Borneo have been im-
properly described as " eng-teak " and " yang-teak," which has given
the impression that they are a variety of this wood (Tectona grandis), and
being handled accordingly it has often given unfortunate results. Un-

THE TIMBER^ OF THE WORLD

173

like teak, it i" < \<vi <liM-jl\ <lilli< un i» . .i-fiii, and irulrcrl, without kiln-
seasoninf, !t lias prihu])', IH \ci !>••( MUM PI-MI. iK - .i-om <1 \ >,nn|.l. 18

ifffl

sp). IO\VhK 1U KM \

inches lon^, ro inches wide by 2 inches thick, cut over three years, was
found to shnnk nearly 1 inch in thickness, and just over f inch in width,
when subjected to kiln-seasoning. If properly dried, eng is very suitable

174 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

for floorings, as the grain is not too fibrous, nor is it hard enough to cause
a slippery surface. The floor at Wigmore Hall, which was laid in 1905,
is of this wood. An ugly black stain is caused, as with gurjun and Borneo
camphor-wood, if iron or steel nails or screws are used wherever it is
subject to damp.

Mr. Nesbitt, in a recent letter to the Timber Trades Journal, says that
the timbers of the Dipterocarps contain " an essential oil " which is
destructive to the timber. He points out that this constitutes the great
distinction between teak and eng (which in England are sometimes con-
founded by the uninformed), as teak contains an essential oil that is a
preservative not only to the timber, but to everything with which it comes
into contact.

Eng appears to be fairly durable when exposed in this country.
This may perhaps be explained by the fact that " the destructive essential
oil," referred to by Mr. Nesbitt, may have exuded. The durability of the
timber is not so marked when under or close to the ground, in which
situations it soon begins to show deterioration. There is little doubt that
a scientific means of preserving such a valuable wood could soon be found.
Even when it is exposed to wet and dry conditions above ground, it is
quite durable ; for under these circumstances work under observation
during twelve years gives quite satisfactory results.

The pores are irregular in size and position, and are partially plugged
with resin. The medullary rays are irregular and somewhat coarse,
showing in flecks on the radial section.

Engelhardtia spicata Bl.

Weight 30-36 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Stlapoma, Hind. — Mowa, mahua, Nep. — Savyah, Lepcha — Bolas,
Beng. — Rumgach, Ass. — Bor-patta-jam, Cachar — Dinglaba, Khasia
- — Vakru, Garo — Taungtamasok, petsut, thitsawbwa, thitswebwe,
pyinsit, Burm.

An experimental export was made for the purpose of the Exhibition,
but the wood, although very useful and having merits, possesses no out-
standing quality to bring it into prominence for the export trade. Gamble
reports it as good for carving, and as being used in the Khasia Hills for
making spoons ; for both of which uses its qualities admirably recommend
it. It is of an agreeable grey-brown colour, with a suggestion of green
about it, and gives a lustrous surface from the tool.

The pores are very scarce ; in singles, pairs, and triplicates. They are
of an unusual oblong, or carrot shape. The exceedingly fine and very
numerous medullary rays are difficult to identify under the magnifying
glass, and are crossed at right angles by finely marked belts of smaller
light lines, forming a faint pattern.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 175

ENTEROLOBIUM. Enlerolobium Saman Prain. (" Rain tree/')

Central and parts of northern
South America.

Record says it is a native of Central America and parts of northern
South America, and has been introduced from India, Ceylon, and Burma,
also that it resembles very closely the wood of the siris tree of India
(Albizzia Lebbek Benth.). He reports it as being of little or no commercial
importance, but says that the timber enters the U.S.A. markets as roughly
hewn logs averaging about 24 inches in diameter and from 10 to 14 feet in
length, usually free of defects.

There is very considerable variation in the density of the wood, rang-
ing from the consistency of white pine to that of walnut, the heavier
variety resembling walnut in general appearance, and making a fairly
satisfactory substitute for that wood.

Eperua falcata Aubl.

Weight 59 Ibs. British Guiana.

VERN — Wallaba, soft wallaba, B.G. — Bylhout, bijlhout, woapa, wouapa,
walaba, Sur — Wapa, wapa huileux, wapa gras, eperu, Fr. G —
Apa, apazeiro, espadeira, wapa patouve, Braz, — Palo machete,
Venez. — Wallabaholz, Germ.

This timber, known sometimes as wallaba or wapa, is of a red-brown
colour, with dark streaks, resembling Rhodesian teak (so-called). A very
attractive wood with a hard close grain, but freely exuding an oily gum
which stains anything with which it comes in contact. Baterden refers
to its use in Barbadoes and Trinidad for telegraph and electrical poles.

Medullary rays very fine, obscure, difficult to locate even with the
lens. Pores scarce, small, sometimes plugged, concentric layers marked
by dark lines.

Eriolaena Candollei Wall.

Weight 50 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Dwani, swam, tayaw-ywetwaing, Burm. — Hadang, Kan.

This wood, which in Burma is called " dwani," has only been imported
on a commercial scale since 1920. It is one of the lesser known but
valuable decorative hardwoods of Burma. The colour is a bright salmon-
pink to brick-red and it is often marked with orange and brown streaks.
The grain is hard and close, and it seasons and polishes well. In India it
is used for such purposes as gun-stocks and cart-building, but its value in
the European market lies in its use as a medium for cabinet-making,
inlaying, turnery, and all kinds of decorative art woodwork, such, for
instance, as the brushes and electric light fitments shown at the Empire
Timber Exhibition.

The pores vary in size and are very irregularly distributed ; they are

176 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

often joined in wavy concentric bands of loose tissue. The very numerous,
straight, white medullary rays are clearly marked.

ESCALLONIA. lEscollonia floribunda H, B. K.
E. tortuosa H. B. K.

Northern South America.
VERN — Janllo, cochinito, puerquito, Quitasol

Tropical Woods, No. i, reports the tree as from 25 to 45 feet in height
and 14 to 16 inches in diameter. The wood is mostly used for fuel,
although also used locally for building purposes. The colour is light
brown with a reddish tint, with a hard, rough grain, taking a smooth
finish, resembling thuya although much harder. The specimen from a
tree grown at Powerscourt in Ireland provides a good hard quality of
wood, but without sufficient quality to recommend it for use.

ESPAVE. Anacardium Rhinocarpus DC.

Weight 38-39 Ibs. South America.

VERN — Espave (or esparva), espave mahoganv, Pesege mahogany, Trade —
Espave, espavel, aspave, C A. — Caracoli, Col — Caracoli, mija,
mijagua, Venez. — Giant cashew tree.

The colour is a light nut-brown, with a fairly smooth grain, showing
alternate layers of hard and soft growth. This timber may possibly be
described as one of the most deceptive of all woods. My specimen shows
a useful firm timber, highly suitable for works of a secondary nature,
linings and backs of cabinets, etc. Its use would be limited to those parts
of the decorative woodwork which arc not seen On the other hand,
generally, it is not durable, and very severely attacked by worm
(" beetle ").

There are two sorts of espave — the light and the dark — the light being
inferior, with small heart-wood and much sap-wood. Generally speaking
the tree is a native of the lowlands, but occasionally it is seen even on the
tops of the hills. The dark variety is more often found in a dry situation,
although it can occasionally be seen at the water's edge. It is much
superior in quality, containing a greater proportion of heart-wood and
much less sap-wood. It resists beetle attack better, and the heart-wood
is in fact practically insect-proof. It is used but little locally, but along
the coast it is the chief timber for canoes and boats, an excellent recom-
mendation in itself.

In an article in Tropical Woods, No. 22, p. 4, it says : " The tree has
various local names. In Costa Rica it is best known as Espavel, although
an alternative is Quina, perhaps in reference to the bitter bark. The
Panama name is Espave or Espava ; the Colombian, Caricoli ; the Vene-
zuelan, Mija or Mijaguo. The West Indians call it Wild Cashew because
of the resemblance to the cultivated Cashew, to which it is closely related.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 177

The use of the name Mahogany for this tree or its timber, as is occasionally
the practice of dealers and promoters, is wholly without justification."
Also, " Attempts to introduce the lumber into the markets of the United
States have been made in a desultory way, but with little success. . . .
It is none the less potentially a very useful timber."

This last reference to the usefulness of the wood is more flattering than
its reputation during the last twenty years would seem to warrant.

About the year 1910 a cargo of espave, purporting to be mahogany,
was sent to Astoria near New York, where it was attacked by a weevil or
beetle, which did an enormous amount of damage, and spread to the
mahogany stored near by. The resulting loss led to a lawsuit in the
American Courts, and the judgment given by Judge Blackmore on that
occasion is included in full at the end of this article, as it deals with an
important point regarding the liability of sawmillers of timber in their
relation as storage contractors, and the decision of the United States Court
as to the separate obligations of the parties concerned provides a useful
authority in the event of any future dispute that might occur. It is not
known whether the cargo consisted of the light or dark varieties, but it is
probable that it contained both. Upon arrival of the cargo of supposed
mahogany at New York, and when it was discovered that there was no
mahogany on board, inquiry was instituted, an explanation being received
that before the mahogany trees on this concession could be got at it had
been found necessary to clear a quantity of espave trees, and that a
second cargo was being despatched which would be found to consist of
mahogany. In due course the second shipload arrived, but upon discharge
it was discovered that the whole cargo again consisted of nothing but
espave. A surveyor was then despatched by the promoters of the Com-
pany to make inquiry on the spot, when he found there was not one single
mahogany tree on the concession which had been sold to the Company,
with the result that they sustained a very great loss.

Mr. Alexander Williams of Astoria Sawmills informed me at a later
date that after the espave had been sawn and stacked over a considerable
area of ground, he was surprised one day to see a great number of swallows
circling over the piles of timber. The incident created general interest and
astonishment, as no swallows had ever been seen in the neighbourhood
before. Attention thus being drawn to the piles, further inquiry was
made, when innumerable small heaps of sawdust were found lying on the
timber, which on further investigation revealed the terrible ravages which
had been caused by the destructive beetle. The whole incident is of first
importance, as the losses incurred amounted to many thousands of pounds.
If measures could be taken to prevent the attack of this beetle, espave
might become a useful wood.

The rather sparse pores, somewhat open, and to a small extent plugged

178 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

vary in size from rather large to medium. The medullary rays are strong
and clear, crossed at right angles by thin, light bands of parenchyma.
The concentric layers are well defined.

New York Law Journal, February 26, 1913.

DECISION BY JUDGE BLACKMORE
ASTORIA VENEER MILLS AND DOCK Co. v. HORSEY & SON
The following propositions suffice for the disposition of this case :

i st. A contract for the storage of goods, wares, and merchandise which
does not provide for any definite time of continuance may be terminated by
either party on notice.

2nd. The contract in the present case provides no definite time of storage.
The provision that if the logs are not withdrawn within a year the warehouse-
man may sell or store them elsewhere is not equivalent to an agreement on the
part of the warehouseman to keep them in storage for the period of one year.

3rd. Even if the storage was for a definite period of time the development
of the pest in the logs, which rendered their continued storage destructive of
the property both of the warehouseman and the lumber of others in its care,
justified it in terminating the contract of storage.

4th. Upon the refusal of the bailer to remove the logs, pursuant to notice
and request, the warehouseman was justified in removing them and storing
them in some other place for the account and at the risk of the owner.

5th. As it was the duty of the owner to remove the logs when notified by
the warehouseman, he is liable for the charges and expenses incurred in effect-
ing their removal, and also for such charges and expenses as had already
accrued up to that time.

6th. Neither the plaintiff nor the defendant knew at the time when the
logs were placed in storage that the insect pest was likely to develop, and
neither of them were negligent so as to give a right of action to the other.

7th. The defendant neither created nor maintained a nuisance, and there-
fore is not liable upon that theory.

It follows that judgment should be rendered for the plaintiff to the effect
that the storage contract was terminated and ceased to exist between the
parties on August 16, 1912 ; that the plaintiff is released and discharged from
all further responsibility to the defendant as warehouseman ; that the de-
fendant should be enjoined from further negotiations of the warehouse receipts,
and that the defendant should pay to the plaintiff the charges incurred up to
the time of the removal of the logs and its expenses incurred in the removal,
and that the counterclaim of the defendant be dismissed.

Eucalyptus capitellata Sm.

Weight 62 Ibs. South-east Australia.

This wood is known as the " brown/' " red," or " Coast " stringy-
bark ; it is of a pale brown or red colour, hard, works well, and is suitable
for use in places where hardwoods are required, also for fencing and house-
building. It is reported as not so durable as the " white " stringy-bark
(E. eugenioides), but superior to the " red " or " mountain " stringy-bark
(E. macrorrhyncha).

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 179

Eucalyptus corymbosa Sm.

Weight 56 Ibs. (Baker). Australia.

Known as " bloodwood." The colour is dark red, with a hard, very
coarse texture. It is reported as one of the most durable timbers of
Australia, durable in the ground and of value in damp situations, used for
telegraph poles, keels of vessels, piles, posts, and sleepers, and as being
the most important timber of the Australian bloodwoods, and in great
demand.

It is probably to be introduced on our London markets for the first
time this year.

Eucalyptus Delegatensis.
See STRINGY-BARK.

Eucalyptus fastigata.

Weight 56 Ibs. (Baker). Coast of New South Wales,

Eastern Victoria.

Known as cut-tail and stringy-bark.

" The timber is straight-grained, pale coloured and free working,
fissile. ... A good substitute for imported ash (Fraxinus)." Used
locally. " An excellent medium hardwood . . . and valued in some
parts for its durability in the ground " (Baker).

Eucalyptus fraxinoides J. H. M.

Weight 45 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales.

Known as white ash.

Baker remarks that " The timber has all the characters and qualities
of the European and American ashes, being almost white, with a nice
sheen, fissile, free working . . . suitable for casks, carriage work of all
kinds ... in fact, every purpose to which lightness, strength, and bending
qualities are a desiderata/'

Eucalyptus Oreades R. T. B.

Weight 46 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales.

Known as smooth -bark mountain ash.

Described by Baker as " one of the most conspicuous trees in the
gullies of the Blue Mountains ... it has all the bending and resilient
qualities of European and American Ashes, but is heavier. . . . Suitable
for house construction, carriage-building, and cabinet work. ... It has
little figure ... is fairly hard, tough, and straight-grained, pale-
coloured, almost white.'1

180 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Eucalyptus Sieberiana F. v. M.

Weight 51 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales, South Australia,

Victoria.

Known as N.S.W. mountain ash.

Baker reports this timber as being " harder, darker in colour (than E.
Delegatensis) , and almost invariably marked with black spots ... a
first-class timber for general building purposes, bridge-work, wharves, and
heavy coach and carriage work/'

Eucalyptus Smithii.

Weight 60 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales.

Known as gully ash and white top.

Baker describes this as a " hard, pale-coloured, close-grained timber."
The grain is slightly interlocked, shrinks a good deal in seasoning, and the
sap-wood liable to attack by borers. Suitable when dry for general rough
building purposes, coach framing, and bridge superstructures.

Eucalyptus virgata Sieb.

Weight 54 Ibs. (Baker). Tasmania, New South Wales,

Victoria, South Australia.

Known as Tasmanian ironbark, Tasmanian mountain ash.

Baker remarks that " its commercial qualities fall below that of the
Mainland ironbarks," and that the presence of gum veins somewhat
detract from it to a certain degree, but otherwise it is a close, straight-
grained, pale-coloured, hard, fairly heavy timber requiring careful season-
ing, " and is suitable for constructional works, carriage and bridge work,
and general economic purposes."

Eugenia bract eata Roxb.

Ceylon, Southern India.

VERN — Hijuh mendi, Beng. — Sagarabatna, Uriya — Anvita, aramanda,
goragmudi, Tel. — Kaya, venkahkaya, Tarn — Tembihya, Cingh.

This is reported as only a small tree or shrub, often cultivated for
ornament (Gamble).

The colour of the wood is olive brown, with a very close grain, capable
of a very smooth surface. The wood has not been seen in commerce.

The pores are very numerous, but exceedingly small, and joined by
light bands forming a kind of check pattern. The medullary rays are of
two sorts, one extremely fine, hardly discernible under the lens, while the
other, though also fine, is prominent. The rays are crossed at right
angles or obliquely by fine dark lines, which would seem to indicate the
growth of the layers.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 181

Eugenia Gardneri Duth.

Weight 63 Ibs. Ceylon, Southern India.

VKRN — Dambu, Cingh. — Nir-naval, Tamil.

The colour is yellow-brown with a greenish tinge, and a very close,
firm grain, rather hard, but not yielding a very smooth surface from the
tool. Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, say " there
appears to be no reason why properly seasoned scantlings, rafters, and posts
of Eugenia Gardneri could not also be profitably exported," and compare
the wood with that of Terminalia paniculata, Calophyllum tomentosum,
and Lager stroemia lanceolata. While the expressed opinion may be
justified as regards the export to Indian and Persian ports, I do not
consider its qualities would warrant any export to European markets,
and I am not in agreement that this wood is comparable with the three
others named.

The very small pores are rather variable in size, and plugged, arranged
irregularly with narrow wavy belts of light tissue. Very fine thread-like
medullary rays, forming a very small, pretty pattern.

Eugenia Jambolana Lam.

Weight 48 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon.

VKRN — Jdman, jam, phahnda, jamm, phaldni, pharenda, phaunda, Hind.
— Jam, Beng. — Jamo, jambo, kudijamu, Uriya — Phober, taglang,
Lepcha — Chambu, Garo — Kor-jam, Mechi — Jamu, Ass. — Naval,
navvel, nawar, naga, Tarn. — Nerale, Mysore — Narala, nairul,
nerlu, Kan. — Nasedu, nairun, nareyr, neredu, Tel. — Naindi,
Gondi — Jambul, Mar. — Jambu, Merwara — Kodo, kud, Sonthal —
Kuda, K61 — Jambun, Oraon — Lohudru, Khond — Neredu, Reddi
— Nerel, Badaga — Mahadan, ma-dan, Cingh. — Zebn, chaku, kau,
Magh. — Thabvc-bvu, tame, Burm.

Sometimes known in India as the " black plum." The colour is a
reddish -grey, with a straight grain, suitable only for general constructional
work. Gamble says " it is largely used in India for native building pur-
poses, posts, beams and rafters of houses, for agricultural implements and
for well-work, as it resists the action of water." He also mentions that
five sleepers laid on the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway in 1870, taken up in
^75, were found to be fairly sound and untouched by white ants.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial lumbers of India, recommend a trial
of this wood as a furniture timber, but I cannot agree with their opinion,
considering that the timber has no special merits to warrant its export,
and this view would seem to have been already confirmed by the small
shipments which have come to hand during the last ten years, but created
no interest although every effort was made to popularise the wood.

The pores, which are very small, are oval in shape and are often joined
by wavy belts of loose tissue. The medullary rays are so fine as to be
scarcely discernible even under the lens.

182 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Eugenia sylvestris Wight.

Weight 49 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon.
VERN — Alubo, Cingh.

The wood is of a brick-red colour with close, hard grain and a rough
surface. It is liable to contain black streaks and lines, which make an
irregular pattern on the surface of the wood. It has contrary layers of
hard and soft grain, broken up, which increase the work required to secure
a smooth surface.

The pores are very small and numerous, plugged. The medullary
rays are very numerous, fine, and hardly discernible under the lens.

EUMUNG. Acacia salicina Lindl.

Weight 48 Ibs. (Baker). Victoria, South and Western

Australia.

The colour of the wood is a rich brown, with a rough grain showing
that a smooth surface can only be obtained with difficulty, but it is re-
ported as presenting a rich appearance when properly handled.

EXCOECARIA SPP. (Sandaleen.) Excoecaria lucida Sw.

Sebastiana lucida Muell. Arg.

Record notes this wood as the product of what is now called Gymnanthes
lucida Sw., and reports it as occurring in Florida, the Bahamas, and the
Antilles. Troup reports it as a common tree in the coastal belt of Natal
and Zululand. The wood is also exported from Portugal and East Africa.
In Africa it is known as " Um Tom Boti," and also " Sandaleen."
Record says : " Occasional logs reach the New York market, and veneers
in the form of thin cross-sections called Cuban oyster wood." My speci-
men, and also a walking-stick, have both come from South Africa.

The wood is of a dull, dark red colour resembling that of beef wood.
It is very hard, heavy, and close-grained, possessing a sweet aromatic scent
somewhat similar to that of sandalwood.

Mrs. Jamieson, the donor of the stick, informed me that she possessed
a considerable tract of forest growth, some of which had been successfully
employed in South Africa for furniture.

Its qualities would make it useful for inlay work, in banding, for turning
or small cabinet work, and as used in New York, for fancy cabinet work.

The concentric layers of growth are clearly defined by dark lines.
Pores exceedingly scarce and very small, largely plugged. The medullary
rays are exceedingly fine, hardly discernible under the lens.

Excoecaria agallocha. (" The Eye-blinding Plant.")

Ceylon to The Philippines, and

Australia.
Foxworthy gives this wood the name of buta-buta. He describes it as

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 183

a soft white wood, and says : " The ' eye-blinding plant ' of India is of evil
repute. The wood contains an extremely acrid dark-coloured gum said to
cause blindness if rubbed on the eyes."

FEJAO BRABO. Source unknown.

Weight 54 Ibs. Brazil.

The small specimen of this wood in my collection is that of a very
small tree ; it would probably be of little commercial use, and no further
description is necessary.

The pores are exceedingly small and the medullary rays very fine.

Feronia elephantum Correa.

Weight 45 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Ceylon, Java.

VERN. — Bilin, kait, kat-bel, Hind. — Kath-bel, Beng. — Kabit, Melghat —
Koito, Unya — Cawtha, Bombay — Vallanga^ vela, kavit, Tel. —

Velagd, elaka, yellanga, vellam, Vila, vilatti, Tarn. Bilwar,

Kan. — Kaivat, Mar. — Dtwul, Cingh. — Thibin, thi, Burm.

This timber, which is also found in India and Java, is of a yellowish
straw colour, with a very close compact grain, yielding an exceedingly
smooth surface from the tool, comparable with that of pencil cedar. The
tree produces a useful gum.

The rather sparse pores are very small and plugged. The medullary
rays are exceedingly fine and numerous, crossed at right angles by similar
fine lines, with stronger and pronounced bands of similar lines, altogether
not unlike the boxwood (Buxus sp.) sections.

Ficus callosa Willd.

Southern India, Ceylon, Anda-
man Islands, Burma, Java.
VERN — Wal-gona, Cingh.

Very light in weight. Of a yellow-grey colour, with numerous darker-
coloured lines or streaks. Relatively strong, and a possible substitute for
Indian balsa (Sterculia), but the wood has not yet been met with in com-
merce.

The pores are very scarce, ranging from very small to fairly large, very
open, and almost entirely in narrow belts joined by tiny pores, or lines of a
light colour. The very numerous medullary rays are fine and firm, with
the right-angled belt of pores making an unusual pattern as of network.

Ficus Tsiela Roxb.

Weight 34 Ibs. (Gamble). Southern India, Ceylon.
VERN — Jadi, Tel. — Pipn, Mar. — Bili-basn, Kan. — Kalatti, Tarn. — Ela
nuga, ehetu, Cingh.

A dark brownish-coloured wood with a tinge of green in it, a hard,
straight grain like a Sapeli mahogany, but with a smoother surface. An

184 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

attractive wood for good quality decorative woodwork, the transverse
grain marked by wide patches of dark-coloured concentric layers.

Pores not very numerous, very small, plugged. Medullary rays hardly
discernible under the lens.

FIG. Ficus spp.

India, Burma, Africa.

This is probably the genus of woody plants of the Indian forests which
contains the largest number of species, and it is also found extensively in
other parts of the tropics. Many of them are unimportant shrubs, climbers
or small trees. I have the following samples in my collection :

(a) Ficus bengalensis.

YERX — Bor, bar, her, bargat, Hind — Badu, Kumaon — Bur, but, Reng —
Born, Uriya — Borhar, Nep. — Kangji, Lepcha — Ranket, GA.ro —
Bot, Ass. — Barelli, Gondi — Wora, wada, Kurku — Bat, K61 — Ala,
Tarn. — Mart, peddi-man, Tel — Ahleda, aladamara, ala, Kan —
Peralu, Mai — War, vada, vadi, Mar. — Cherla, Mai. — Maha-nuga,
Cingh — Pyinvaung, Burm.

This is the " banyan " tree, considered sacred by the Hindus, and
rarely cut, so that it is negligible from the commercial point of view.
According to Gamble, the name banyan was given to a tree growing near
the Gambroon (i.e. Bandar Abbas in the Persian Gulf) under which some
banians or Hindu traders had built a pagoda. The tree is very large and
throws down numerous aerial roots from the branches, which root in the
ground and grow into separate trunks, and by this means one tree covers
an immense area. Gamble mentions a banyan in the Andhra Valley near
Poona, which had a circumference round the spread of the branches of
about 2000 feet. Commander Buxton and Major Darley saw a Ficus in
Abyssinia which was 75 feet in circumference. They climbed to a height
of 10 feet, and the tree was then large enough to build a house upon.

The timber of the banyan is light in weight, and rather resembles
Oregon pine (Pseudotsuga Douglasii), though it is of a harder nature. On
the radial section it has a characteristic grain not unlike Bombax mala-
baricum. It is not suitable for general use, but it might be employed for
secondary cabinet work, such as the linings of drawers and cabinets.

The transverse section shows narrow, wavy concentric bands of soft
tissue, alternating with harder and firmer wood. The pores are moderate
to large sized and are irregularly and scantily distributed. The medullary
rays are very distinct, and fairly numerous.

(b) F.glomerata.

VERN — Kathgular, kruambal, rumbal, kakammal, dadhun, Pb. — Gular,
paroa, lelka, N.-W.P. — Khaina, Garhw. — Kheuma, umra, Kumaon
— Khutnia, Dotial — Gular, Oudh — Umar, umrai, tue, C.P. —

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 185

Dumri, Nep. — Tchongtay, Lepcha — Jagya dumar, Beng. —
Dhimen, Unya — Ldwa, Melghat — Thoja, Gondi — Alawa, Kurku
— Lowa, Sonthal — Dumer, Mai Pahari — Toga, Khond — Mori,
Koya — Budi, Reddi — Umbur, Mar. — Atti, rumadi, kulla-kith,
Kan. — Atti, Tarn. — Moydi, atti, bodda, paidi, mari, medi, Tel. —
Attika, Cingh. — Thapan, ye-thapan, nyaung-lhabye, Burm.

This timber, though by no means of so high a quality as the foregoing,
is yet very similar. It is used in India for a variety of purposes, such as
cheap furniture, but has not been seen in the European markets.

VKRN — Yokdung, Lepcha — Prdb, phegran, Garo — Bur, Ass. — Kathal, bat,
Sylhet — Nyaung-peinnb, Burm. — Nuga, kosgona, Cingh.

This is much lighter in weight than a and 6, and the specimen shows
distinct signs of incipient decay ; the wood is probably very perishable.
It is the produce of a very large tree of the eastern Lower Himalaya.

(d) F. religiosa.

VKRN — Pipal, Hind — A swat, asiid, Beng — Pipli, Xep. — Bor-bur, Cachar
— Jan, usto, Uriya — Hesar, K61 — Pipali, Khond — A rasa, Tarn.
— Rai, raiga, ragi, ravi, Tel. — Ah, Gondi — Pipri, Kurku — Ash-
vatha, Mar. — Pipro, Panch Mehals — Rangi, arali, basri, Kan. —
Nvaung-bawdi, Burm

This is the " peepul/' one of the best known of Indian trees, held sacred
both by Hindus and Buddhists. Gamble says that by Hindus the
killing of a peepul tree is looked upon as a great sin, so that it is rarely
felled, and although it is very destructive to forest trees it is difficult to get
it cut. He also mentions a peepul tree at Anuradhapura in Ceylon, which
was brought from Northern India and planted in 288 B.C., which is pro-
bably the oldest, or nearly the oldest, historical tree in the world. The
timber, however, is of little value, even if it were procurable. It is very
soft and light and my specimen shows signs of incipient decay. The
transverse sections of these four specimens are all very similar. (See
F. bengalensis.)

Filicium decipiens Thw.

Weight 65-68 Ibs. India.

VKRN — Katu puveras, athalanghi, Tarn. — Val munchha, ntrvah, mroh,
Trav Hills — Pehimbtva, Cingh.

This is a very hard wood of a red colour ; it is reported by Gamble as
being strong and useful. It is unlikely, however, that it will ever be of
much commercial importance in the European markets.

" Pores small, in groups of short radial lines. Medullary rays fine,
numerous, at unequal distances " (Gamble).

186 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

FIR, SILVER. Abies pectinata DC.

Europe.

The tree was introduced into England at the beginning of the seven-
teenth century, one tree being mentioned by Evelyn as having been
planted in 1603. The wood is similar in appearance to the silver spruce of
British Columbia ; in colour and texture midway between spruce (Picea
excelsa) and yellow pine (Pinus Strobus). The grain is very smooth and
silky. The principal use of silver fir in this country before the war was
for the sound-boards (belly boards) of pianos and violins. Elwes and
Henry say that " staves of this wood were found in 1900 lining the ancient
wells in the Roman Cilchester (Hants), the wood being identified by
Marshall Ward. The casks from which the staves were taken were
probably imported from the region of the Pyrenees, and either contained
wine, or Samian ware."

FIRE BUSH (The). Embothrium coccineum.

Chili, India.

The specimen of this species is marked " fire bush," and Zon and
Sparhawk give to it the vernacular name of ciruelillo, but that name,
according to Record, is given to the product of Ximenia americana L. of
Cuba.

The wood has a pretty greyish-white colour, with a very lustrous
surface ; it is hard, bony, heavy, and strong, considered a good furniture
and cabinet wood, and suitable for flooring.

The medullary rays are pronounced, as in the plane.

Flacourtia Cataphracta Roxb.

Weight 52-54 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Panidla, pamzali, Beng. — Pachnala, jamuna, Dehra Dun —
Taltspatri, pamdla, Hind. — Vayangkarci, Tain. — Thalhra, Mai. —
Jugguru, Bomb. — Abblu, Kan. — Naywd, kyetyo-po, Burm.

A dull, somewhat plum-coloured wood, very strong and hard, with a
fine close grain.

The fairly numerous pores are small and uniform in position. The
close, fine numerous medullary rays show on the radial section — as in
sycamore.

Flindersia Australis R. Br.

Weight 54 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales.

The colour of this wood is yellow to yellowish-red, with a close, hard
grain, and an oily surface. Baker calls it " teak," and Mr. Wardle

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 187

" native teak," a most unsuitable name as it has neither the resemblance
nor characteristics of teak ; a more correct comparison would be to birch.

A very valuable timber for uses in its own country, specially having
regard to the oily nature which preserves the iron or nails with which it
comes in contact. In spite of its being liable to split, and difficult to
work, on account of its great strength and durability it is in great request
for numerous works in ships and dockyards.

The rather scarce pores, partially plugged, are between irregular, vari-
able medullary rays which are rather coarse, and crossed at irregular inter-
vals by numerous white layers, which mark the line of concentric growth.

FOOCADIE. Terminalia Buceras Bail.

Weight 57 Ibs. British Guiana.

The name of this timber is variously spelt as fukadi, fucadie, and
phokadie. A specimen was shown at the Empire Timber Exhibition in
1920. It is a hard, heavy, durable wood not unlike greenheart, though it
is of a coarser and more open grain. It is suitable for general construc-
tional work, though in common with many of the valuable timbers of
British Guiana, the difficulties of exploitation will probably prevent any
general use for some time to come.

FRAMERE or FRAMIRE. Terminalia ivorensis A. Chev.

Weight 42-43 Ibs. French Equatorial

Africa.

This wood, in colour a rich light golden yellow, was referred to in
Tropical Woods (1925) as being a highly useful African wood, but that its
importation into France had been practically suspended because of insect
attack. The latest information received describes it as mild, with resist-
ance equal to red deal, and that it tenons and mortises well, holding nails
and screws securely.

It works well and is an excellent wood for cabinet and joinery work,
mouldings, floor blocks, aeroplane propellers, and piano work, but is not
exported in large quantities.

The rather large pores, plugged and open, are situated between fine,
irregular, uneven medullary rays.

FREIJO or FREI-JORGE. Cordta Goeldiana Huber.

Weight : Frcijo 46 Ibs., Frei-Jorge 39 Ibs. Brazil.

In Colonel Gamble's collection there are two very distinct specimens.
That marked Freijo, which has been called " South American mahogany/1
is somewhat like Swietenia sp. only slightly darker and heavier, being of a
dull brick-red colour.

The other specimen is marked Frei-Jorge and is a very pretty, light

i88 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

greyish-brown wood with slightly darker streaks , the medullary rays
showing in fine flecks on the radial section.

Commerce Reports, U.S.A., 2oth April 1925, from the Consul at Oporto,
says that Freijo has proved unsuitable for staves, owing to the poor quality
of the wood received, and the fact that it imparts a flavour to the wine.

Record gives the probable source of Freijo as Cordia Goeldiana Huber,
and Frei- Jorge as C. frondosa Schott.

In the light-grey wood the pores are very numerous and are so linked
together in undulating lines as to form a very pretty pattern. Strongly
marked medullary rays intersect the pores. The concentric layers are
marked by a thin white line at varying intervals.

In the heavier, darker-coloured wood the pores are irregularly distri-
buted and are not very large. The medullary rays are very clearly
denned, and can be seen with the naked eye, very close and parallel,
showing on the quarter in strong, large, and regular oblong patches, un-
like any other wood.

Fu-ch'ai. Source unknown.

China.

This attractive wood has a fairly hard, close grain, somewhat like
concha satinwood. The colour is a yellow-grey, with a rather bright
sheen. The specimen shows strong broken roe, with mottle, and presents
a high-class decorative cabinet wood which has a special character of its
own, rather like the light-coloured grey harewood of the very best kind,
or a rather pale-coloured concha satinwood.

The concentric layers of growth are marked with faint lighter-coloured
lines. The pores are very small, partly plugged, in bands or belts,
making a pretty pattern. The medullary rays are extremely fine, close,
and show on radial section as in sycamore.

FURNITURE WOOD. Species unknown.

Weight 48 Ibs. I oz. West Coast of Africa.

Many very different varieties of hardwoods have from time to time
been brought to England, and for want of more accurate information have
been called by the term " furniture wood." There has been such a great
divergence of quality and appearance that it is difficult to know exactly
the best manner of describing the timbers. Among these supplies, how-
ever, has been found one handsome and valuable variety that so nearly
resembles in all respects Australian blackwood (Acacia Melanoxylon) that
it suggests its being the same tree. The weight of my sample is exactly
the same as one of the specimens of blackwood, while the colour and
general appearance are also similar. There are the same dark gummy
streaks and the same bright metallic lustre. It is only when the section

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 189

end is examined with a magnifying glass that any apparent difference is
manifested.

The annual layers of growth are clearly defined by thin light-coloured
streaks, and the open pores are so evenly distributed that they would
almost give the impression that they were artificial. The medullary rays
are fine, parallel, very close and regular.

FUSTIC. Chlorophora tinctoria Gaudich.

Weight 50 Ibs. Central America, West Indies.

VERN — Fustic, fustick, old fustic, fustic wood, mulberry, dyer's mulberry,
fustic mulberry, Cuba wood, yellow wood, mora, mora yellow wood,
Eng. — Bois jaune, bois jaune de Bresil, bois jaune de Cuba, bois
jaune de Tampico,fasteque,fusteque, bois a plan, maclura tinctorial,
muner a rameaux epineaux, muner des temtunes, Fr. — Fustik,
fustikholz, alter fust ik,gelbhoht brasihenische gelbholz, Brasihenholz,
fiselholz, fisetholz, fustteholz, Jamaikaholz, farber -maclura, farber-
maulbeer, farbende maulbeer, Germ. — Bastaord yzerhart, stokvischo-
hout, citroenhout, gcelhout, rerwer-morebessen, Dutch — Fustete,mora,
Span. — Lcguo giallo, Hal. — Fustete, mora de loma, mora de piedra,
mora del pais, mora blanca, fresno de America, Cuba — Mora, palo
de mora, P.R. — Fustic, bois d' orange, palo naranjo, Trin. — Tata-
}iba, tatajiiba de tincta, taviwa, amoreira de espinho, espinheiro
branco, limao, runa, pdo amarello, Braz. — Dinde, palo mora, Col. —
Mora, mora amanlla, mora colorada, brazo del fuego, tatayibd,
tatayibd-pvitd, tatavibd-saivu, Arg — Amanllo, Boliv. — Moral
amanllo, moral de clavo, moral liso, moradilla, palo moral, yaga-
huil, Mex — Morera, palo de mora, brasiP C.R — Palo amanllo,
mora, Salv.

This wood is a bright golden or greenish-yellow colour, and is chiefly
valued for the yellow dye which it produces, but occasionally it is used for
cabinet work, and also for mill-rollers and naves of wheels. It saws and
planes well, is durable and does not warp.

The wood is hard and heavy. Pores rather small, but distinct, fairly
numerous. The rays are barely visible on cross and tangential sections,
distinct on radial surfaces producing a fine silver grain in proper light
(Record).

GANGAW.

See Me sit a ferrea.

GARAPA. Apuleia polygama.

Weight 59 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a close-grained, fine-textured wood of a golden-brown mahogany
colour. It so closely resembles the coral- wood of the Andamans (Adenan-
thera pavonina) (q.v.) that further description is unnecessary. It has the
same golden-reddish lustrous grain, and is a beautiful furniture wood.
Record, in Timbers of Tropical America, makes no reference to A. polygama.

igo THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Before his work was published I was doubtful whether it was the same as
grapia-punha or Garapa amarella, the produce of A. praecox (q.v.)t and
concluded they were distinct.

The pores are very small and are generally plugged with a white sub-
stance. The medullary rays are very fine and numerous ; they vary in
distance, some being wide apart, and others very close together.

GARDENIA SEP. G. latifolia Aiton.
G. turgida Roxb.

Central and Southern India, The
Himalayas, Burma, Ceylon.

Gamble names about eleven species, small trees or shrubs. The colour
of the wood is a bright yellowish-white, with a close, very firm, compact
grain, being of a similar colour and grain to the ordinary known boxwoods,
sometimes before use, and always in the finished state, almost indistin-
guishable from boxwood. Gamble reports it as " easy to work, durable,
and recommended ... as a substitute for boxwood . . . likely to be
very good for engraving and turning " ; and states that combs were made
of it. There is no evidence to show that it was imported into London until
after the war, when the usual stocks of Caucasian, Turkish, African, and
Venezuelan boxwoods were much exhausted, and an opportunity was
presented to try shipments of gardenia from India. After the first of such
shipments had arrived, some of the logs were found to split in the log, and
while being worked, and also in the finished manufactured article. It was
noticed that in some cases no such splitting occurred, either in the log or
after working, and on inquiry it was found that the produce of G. latifolia
did not split, either in the log or after manufacture, but that the produce of
G. turgida split badly, and export of this species was accordingly stopped.

The produce of G. latifolia was found admirable for turning, for con-
tainers for glass-stoppered bottles suitable for chemists, and for other
requirements. Experimental containers turned with a screw top up to
3 inches in diameter, after careful observation and daily use, have retained
their shape for upwards of twelve years, the cases being perfectly sound,
and with the screw cuttings as good as when first cut ; moreover, in a case
measuring as much as 15 inches by 4 inches diameter no measurable
expansion or contraction has taken place.

There is evidence to show that the trees should be felled only at a
particular time of the year, although no information is available to show
which is the best time.

Continual importations occurred up to 1924, when the other boxwoods
reverted to a pre-war basis, and the Indian supplies became too costly.

Superficially the wood of Gardenia sp. resembles that of Buxus sp.,
but upon a close examination a good deal of difference is revealed.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 191

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, mention two other
varieties, namely G. lucida and G. gummifera, which have not been seen in
commerce and consequently cannot be reported upon.

The minute pores of G. latifolia are open, and the medullary rays more
pronounced than in the case of Buxus. In G. turgida the pores are more
numerous, also open and slightly larger.

Garuga pinnata Roxb.

Weight 40 Ibs. India, Burma.

VKRN — Kharpat, katula, kilmira, sarota, Pb. — Ghogar, kaikar, Hind. —
Til-madi, kanman, Kumaon — Gurja, Banda — Kaikar, kaikra,
ghunja, mahdrut, C.P. — Jum, kharpat, nil bhadi, Beng. — Mohi,
sompotn, Uriya — Gia, Mechi — Dabdabbi, Nep. — Maldit, rom,
Lepcha — Gendeli poma, Ass — Chitompa, Garo — Mroung-shisha,
Magh — Garuga, gdrgd, Tel. — Gupni, gharri, kekra, Gondi — Karur,
Sonthal, Bhumij — Kekur, Kharwar — Nia jowa, K61 — Kosomara,
Ghatwal — Kosromba, Mai Pahari — Sompotn do dope, Khond —
Kahud, kekda, Berar — Kekkeda, Kurku — Karre vembu, Tam. —
Kuruk, kudak, kangkur,kakad, Mar. — Halabalagi, Kan. — Chinyok,
chiok, sinyok, Burm.

The wood is reddish-brown with a handsome silver grain. It is even-
grained and fairly hard, and is a useful wood for secondary work such as
planking, and for canoes, etc., for which purposes it is employed in India.
Little notice was taken of the small shipments received since 1920.

The pores are very numerous and are evenly distributed. The medul-
lary rays are very fine and numerous, and undulate slightly.

GLASSY WOOD. Guectarda Soleriana (Loes) Standl.

British Honduras.

The wood is a pale straw colour, with a very close, compact, straight
grain ; finer, but in texture not unlike Canadian rock elm, with a more
glassy surface, although it might be mistaken for the latter. A very
valuable wood for many purposes, if regular supplies were available.

The pores are very small indeed and very numerous. There is a close
concentric layer discernible to the naked eye. The medullary rays are
very numerous, well-defined, and exceedingly fine.

Gluta tavoyana Hook. f.

Weight 53 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). S. Burma.

VERN — Chay. thoomay, Karen — Thayetthitse, Burm.

This wood, known as Burma gluta, is reported upon in Commercial
Timbers of India by Pearson and Brown, who speak of it as " a very
handsome timber but variable in colour. . . . Not more than 20 per cent
of fine timber being obtained from the round. . . . Not quite so finely
marked as G. travancorica, but is very similar in appearance."

i92 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Gluta travancorica Bedd.

Weight 46-58 Ibs. Southern India.

VERN — Shencurungi, Tinnevelly — Shenkurani, shenchanthanam , Tarn.

This tree is fairly plentiful in the Ghats of the Tinnevelly district and
in the Travancore forests. There is generally a large proportion of sap-
wood, but the heart-wood is dark red and beautifully mottled with light
and dark, i.e. black and orange, streaks. It is hard, close-grained, seasons
well, and works and polishes admirably ; takes a smooth surface from the
tool, and stands well in all conditions where decorative wood is used.

It is practically indistinguishable from the ringas of Borneo, Melanor-
rhoea sp., and the Melanorrhoea usitata of Burma ; all these three belong
to the Order Anacardiaceae.

From many sources reports have been received of the beauty of this
wood, hitherto little known outside Madras, and belief in its value for the
European markets has been freely expressed, but notwithstanding the
considerable efforts made to popularise it, it does not find favour with
cabinet-makers and other users of decorative wood.

The pores are moderate sized, scanty, and filled with resin. The
medullary rays are very fine, very numerous, prominent, and visible on
the radial section as narrow bands of silver grain. There are numerous
pale, undulating concentric lines, often interrupted.

Gmelina arborea Roxb.

Weight 38 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Gumhdr, khammara, kambhar, kumar, gamban, seivan, shewan,
Hind — Gumdr, gumbar, Beng — Kambar, Oudh — Kumara, Garh-
wal — Khammara, batinj, Kumaon — Sewan, Merwara — Gamtnea,
Jeypore — Gamban, Nep., Uriya — Goman, Ass. — Numbor, Lep-
cha — Gumai, Cachar — Bolkobak, Garo — Kasamar, K61, Sonthal —
Gumadi, cummi, Tarn — Gumar-tek, peddagomru, tagumuda,
gumudu, Tel — Shivani, kuh, Kan. — Shewan, Mar. — Chimman,
sag, Bhil — Gamben, Khond — Peddu gumu, Reddi — Kumbulu,
kumbil, Mai — Kurse, Gonch — Kassamar, Kurku — Kumala, Trav.
Hills — Et-demata, Cingh. — Kamani, Magh — Yamane, yemane,
Burm.

The wood is of a pale yellowish-white colour and resembles white
mahogany or prima-vera in colour, texture, and grain, while it possesses
the roe and mottle figure common in mahogany. It is a useful and
attractive furniture and cabinet wood, for apart from its decorative
qualities it is a sound timber, easy to work, and very durable. Gamble
says " it is the chief furniture wood of Chittagong, and is in some demand
in Calcutta, where it has been used for making the show-cases of the
Imperial Museum. It has also been used on the Bengal North-Western

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 193

Railway for the linings of railway carriages." He quotes Captain Baker,
writing in 1829, as speaking of its use for "... organ pipes, sounding
boards, and other such work where shrinkage is to be avoided/'

The resemblance between this wood and that of Quassia is so close
that it suggests that they are related, but the wood of Gmelina arborea
has no bitter taste.

The fairly numerous pores are irregularly distributed, and are often
subdivided. The undulating medullary rays are very fine and numerous.
At varying intervals there are fine, white concentric lines of loose tissue.

GOAPIBA. Source unknown.

Weight 59 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a pale olive-brown wood, with a close, firm texture. The
specimen contains two worm-holes, indicating liability to the attack of
worm.

The numerous pores are so exceedingly small as to be scarcely discern-
ible ; they are linked together by wavy concentric lines of loose tissue.
Exceedingly fine medullary rays intersect these.

GOIA BEIRA. Source unknown.

Weight 40 Ibs. Brazil.

The colour of the wood is a pale greyish-brown. No information is
available as to the sizes which are procurable, but the specimen suggests
that only small sizes can be obtained. It has a hard, smooth, and slightly
lustrous grain.

Both pores and medullary rays are very fine and numerous. Bands of
darker coloured tissue show in the form of concentric rings.

GOITY CORO. Species unknown.

Weight 60 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a light reddish-brown wood with a close, firm texture. It is
one of the little known woods of Brazil, and calls for no special
comment.

The pores, though exceedingly minute, are separate and distinct.
The fine medullary rays are very obscure ; there are concentric bands of
loose tissue at varying intervals.

GOLD WOOD.

See ZEBRANO.

IQ4 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

GOROROBA. Source unknown.

Weight 69 Ibs. Brazil.

The colour of this finely grained wood is a light salmon-pink to brown.
There is a liability to split in fine straight parallel cracks along the tan-
gential surface.

The pores are very prominent and are plugged with a whitish sub-
stance ; they are arranged in bands following the line of the concentric
layers. The fine medullary rays radiate in undulating lines, and are only
visible under the lens ( + 10).

GRAPIA-PUNHA. Apuleia praecox Mart.

Weight 50-60 Ibs. (Record). Brazil.

VERN — Iberd-pere, yberd-pere, iberd-piapuna, grapiapuna, madera man-
chada, Arg. — Graptapunha, grapiapunha branca, jutahy (jitahy,
jatahy), amarello, garapa amarella, Braz

This is a yellowish-coloured wood, with a clean, free, straight grain,
moderately heavy, strong, and one of the most useful woods for planking
or timbering. It contains only medium dimensions, but may be turned
to account in many ways in the domestic arts. Brazilian Woods speaks of
this timber as being of first-rate quality for building and naval archi-
tecture.

GREENHEART. Nectandra Rodioei Hook.

Weight 66 Ibs. 4 oz. British and Dutch Guiana, The

West Indies.

VERN — Greenheart (brown, black, white, yellow, etc.), Demerara green-
heart, Eng., gen. — Bebeeree, bebeeren, bebeeru, bibir, bibira, bibiri,
bibiroo, bibiru, cipiri, sepira, sepeira, sipeiro, sipira, sipin, supeira,
tugui, tugul, wainop, rora-ek, E.G. Indians — Greenheart de la
Guyane anglaise, Fr. G. — Beberu, beberuboom, geelhart, groenhart-
boom, maratakka, pakouh, Sur. — Bibiru, itauba, ? Brazil — Viru-
viru, Venez. — Grunherzbaum, grunholz, beberubaum, Germ. —
Torchwood, queenwood, Misc.

The best quality of greenheart is that coming from British Guiana,
and the principal supply is from Demerara, whence it is received in hewn
logs nearly square, from 24 to 65 feet and even longer, and from 12 to 24
inches square, with waney edges, and in planks, scantlings, etc., manu-
factured to special orders. The colour is a pale yellowish-green, while
sometimes it is quite dark with brown and black streaks. The black
greenheart is considered to be the best. More than forty years ago (1932),
when the Port Elizabeth jetty on the south-east African coast was being
built, sawn timber was imported direct from Demerara, and since this
time a certain number of sawn planks and boards have been imported.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 195

The logs are generally very straight in the grain, and remarkably free
from knots and defects. They contain a considerable thickness of sap-
wood, which is not distinguishable from the heart-wood.

This was one of the woods tested by Foxworthy and Woolley, and
which survived five years of that test. (See PYINKADO.)

The strength of this wood exceeds that of most others, whether it be
tried by the transverse or tensile strain, or by a crushing force in the
direction of the fibres. Tried by the latter process it exhibits a peculiarity
unshared probably by any other timber except sabicu. It bears the addi-
tion of weight after weight without showing any signs of yielding ; and
when the crushing force is obtained, it gives way suddenly and completely
with a loud report, nothing being left of the pieces but a loose mass of
shapeless fibres. Very rarely it is liable, like sabicu, to a cross-fracture of
the longitudinal fibres. Although not subject to side-shakes, it is some-
what liable to end-splits, and great care has to be taken in sawing it up.
On rare occasions the sap-wood is attacked by a worm, which does not
affect the heart-wood. Immediately the saw has entered the wood, and
the air is admitted, the log may split with a loud report ; on one occasion
this happened, and the log flew upwards through the roof of the mill in
which it was being sawn. On this account it is desirable, as soon as the
log has passed the saw, to chain it round, securing the chain with strong
dogs spiked into the wood, which will hold it sufficiently, so that all that
can occur will be a severe split, without the risk of damage to the sawyers
or saw-frame. It is largely used for piles for sea jetties and docks, as,
although not entirely immune, the wood is partially proof against the
attack of the teredo worm. Stone and Freeman quote W. T. Oldrieve as
authority for saying that it resists Limnoria terebrans and teredo, and
ranks next to teak in resisting white ants. The grain is smooth and fine,
and cold to the touch. It is the general experience that this wood is
poisonous, and workmen are very careful not to get splinters into their
hands. Fifty to sixty years ago it was used rather extensively for stair-
treads and other joiner's work, if heavy wear was anticipated, and much
of the woodwork in the old Post Office at St.-Martin's-le-Grand was of
greenheart ; it is difficult to understand why its use in this direction has
been discontinued. It forms the best wood when used solid for salmon,
trout, and other fishing rods. A fine sample of greenheart can be made
into an exceedingly small top joint for such a rod, and will bend to an
extraordinary extent without breaking.

The pores, which are sometimes subdivided, are very numerous ; they
are often filled with a shining substance, and are generally surrounded by
a patch of loose tissue. The medullary rays are very distinct and clearly
marked ; the distance between the rays is less than the transverse
diameter of the pores.

196 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

GREENHEART, AFRICAN. Species doubtful.

Weight 63 Ibs. Tropical Africa.

A few logs of so-called African greenheart have been included in
general cargoes of mahogany from the West Coast of Africa. The wood
bears little, if any, resemblance to the true greenheart, excepting in the
colour, which is somewhat similar. The grain is coarse and open, and
suggests a likeness to the anan (Fagraea fragrans), Indian or Burman.
Most of the African logs were badly worm-holed.

The pores are small and very scarce ; they are linked by numerous
wavy concentric lines of loose tissue. The medullary rays are clear, dis-
tinct, and very numerous.

GREENHEART, SURINAM. Nectandra sp.

Weight 74 Ibs. Dutch Guiana.

The Dutch Surinam greenheart has not been commercially known in
England, but a shipment intended for Le Havre was diverted to London
on account of the war in 1915. The wood is generally darker in colour
and heavier in weight, but otherwise similar to the Demerara wood (q.v.).

The pores are slightly more numerous and smaller than in the Demerara
wood. The medullary ray is very pronounced, generally rather more than
the width of a pore apart.

Grewia elastica Royle, syn. G. vestita Wall.

Weight 48 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERX — Farn, phalwa, dhamman, Pb — Pharsia, dhamiin, bimla, Hind. —
Pharsuh, Kumaon — Pharwason, pharsanyi, Garhwal — Pharson,
Dotial — Poto dhamun, Palamow — Sealposra, Nep. — Kunsung,
Lepcha — Pershuajelah, Mechi — Dhamin, hdsa dhannn, Merwara.

This is a whitish-brown wood but much lighter in appearance than G.
tiliaefolia (q.v.). My specimen shows a pretty ripple grain on the radial
and tangential sections. The timber has not yet been imported com-
mercially. It is tough and elastic, and is used in India for the same
purposes as G. tiliaefolia.

The pores are very numerous and are smaller than the latter.
The medullary rays are very prominent and numerous. There are con-
centric rings of darker coloured wood which show in lines on the tangential
section.

Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl.

Weight 48 Ibs. India, Burma, and Ceylon.

VERN — Pharsa, phalsa, dhamin, Hind. — Pharsia, Kumaon — Pharsai,

Garhwal — Klesla, kasul, Gondi — Dhamm, Kurku — Olat, Sonthal

— Kehel mohru, Khond — Tar a, Palkonda — Unu, Tarn. — Charachi,

jana, tharra, Tel. — Dhamono, Uriya — Thadsal, balala, tadasala,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 197

Kan. — Damnak, Bhil — Daman, Mar. — Sadachu, chadache, Mai. —
Daminiya, Cmgh.

This timber has not been known commercially in the United Kingdom.
It is of a brown colour, somewhat resembling walnut, and has a close, firm
hard texture, with minute flecks of silver grain which show on the radial
section. Among its uses in India, Gamble mentions shafts, masts, golf
clubs, tool handles, and oars, and he adds that it can be used for all pur-
poses for which elasticity, strength, and toughness are required. Having
been tested for the shafts of golf clubs in England, it was found to be too
heavy for the purpose. Its most advantageous use would be in decorative
woodwork, for furniture, fittings, etc.

The pores are generally fairly large, though they vary in size : they are
very numerous. The medullary rays are fine, numerous, and undulating.
There are concentric lines of darker coloured tissue.

GUAJADA. Species unknown.

Costa Rica.

This is a soft light wood of a pale yellowish-brown colour. There is a
finely marked silver grain on the radial section.

The small pores are very irregularly distributed ; they vary somewhat
in size, the larger ones being surrounded by a patch of loose tissue. The
fine medullary rays are very numerous.

GUALLACAN. Guaiacum sp. ?

Costa Rica.

Gamble refers the specimen tentatively to Guaiacum officinale (lignum-
vitae), and this may be correct, although it differs somewhat in colour and
grain from the ordinary supplies of lignum- vitae. Record in his pamphlet
Lignum-vitae mentions over thirty common names for the species, but that
given above is not included.

The colour is a greenish-brown with darker streaks. The fibres are
very twisted, they sometimes reverse in direction, three or four times in
the width of an inch, on the tangential section. The wood exudes a sticky
gum, and possesses the fine and regularly disposed cross lines, or " ripple
marks," on the longitudinal surface, which are typical of true Guaiacum.
These are only visible with the lens.

The pores are exceedingly minute and are generally arranged in short,
radial lines. The very fine medullary rays are only visible under the lens.
Darker coloured concentric rings are clearly marked.

GUANANDIRANA.

Brazil.

The colour of the wood is a reddish-grey, with fine, light and dark
veins ; it has a fairly hard, close grain, yielding a very smooth surface from

198 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

the tool and showing numbers of small, open pores. The wood has not
been imported into the United Kingdom on a commercial basis.

The numerous pores are of moderate size, even, and open, surrounded
by a halo of bright tissue, with strongly marked medullary rays.

GUARABU. Terminalia acuminata Fr. Allem.

Weight 68 Ibs. Brazil.

The wood is of a light purple colour, with a very hard, close grain and
texture, and is capable of an exceedingly smooth surface from the tool.
It resembles purpleheart, but is of a finer grain. It has a metallic lustre
somewhat like brazilleto, and might be a good substitute for that wood
for violin bows. Reported as being used in Brazil for furniture, wheel-
spokes, beams for civil construction, and deck flooring. It is apparently
obtainable in long lengths and large sizes.

In Col. Gamble's collection of Brazilian timbers there is a specimen of
guarabu against which he notes an alternative spelling of " garabu." This
resembles mine very closely, though it is of a duller brown, and lacks the
light purple colour referred to above. Baterden says that guarabu is the
produce of Peltogyne macrocarpus. This suggests a confusion with purple-
heart, which is the produce of P. paniculata, but my authentic specimens
of these two woods are distinctly different.

The pores are numerous and small and are mostly filled with a gummy
substance. The medullary rays are strongly defined, parallel but irregular;
they are joined at right angles by finer white lines, forming a spider Js-web
appearance. The medullary rays show on the radial section as in beech,
but rather finer.

GUATECARE. Lecythis laevifolia Gris.

Chytroma Idatimon Miers. (Record).
Weight 75 Ibs. Trinidad, Brazil.

VERN — Idatimon, Fr. G. — Mutunata, Braz. — Watercare, guatecare, guate-
caro, acquatapana, Trin.

The colour is light brown, with a very hard grain, difficult to work and
season. It is reported as immune from attack of insects, suitable for work
where durable timber is required, but containing a tannin which makes it
unsuitable for casks.

GUIRI or GUIRO. Crescentia Cujete L.

Weight about 37 Ibs. (Record). British West Indies, South

America.

VERN — Calabash, B.W.I. — Higuero, cotumo, P.R. — Guira, guira cimar-
rona, Cuba — Calabasse, Guad. — Calebassier, Fr. G. — Cuiera,
cabaceira, cuite, cuiete, arvore de cuia, Braz. — Calabas, kalabose,
Cura9ao — Taparo, totumo, Venez. — Totuma, Col. — Cujete, gmro.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 199

jicara, jicaro, morro, tecomate, tigulate, temante, palo de melon,
melon tvee> Mex., C.A. — Jicaro, Salv.

This wood, generally called calabash, is of a brownish-red colour with
dark streaky lines resembling more the growth of a palm. The grain is
hard with rather a coarse texture. It is reported as used for saddletrees.

The very small pores, plugged and surrounded by a halo, are very
irregularly placed, in part singly and subdivided, and again, grouped
together in wide belts and bands, without apparently any order or regu-
larity ; exceptionally fine medullary rays almost indistinguishable under
the lens, close and parallel.

GUIZO or GUIJO. Source unknown.

Weight 50 Ibs. Philippine Islands.

The timber has not been imported into the United Kingdom, and is
unknown in ordinary commerce. From the limited opportunities avail-
able for judgment and reference, it would appear from the specimens sent
lately by Mr. A. T. Gillespie, of Manila, to be in all respects similar to the
sal (Shorea robusta) of India, and likely to prove as satisfactory and durable
in use. The weight of these timbers, which makes their cost when im-
ported so high, will militate against the use of the wood, but if the difficulty
of cost could be overcome, it should be in great demand for sleepers, and
important heavy constructional work, where hardness, heaviness, and
durability are necessary.

For description see SAL.

GUM, BLUE. Eucalyptus Globulus Labillardiere.

Weight 43-54 Ibs. (Stone), 69 Ibs. (Post Office Compt.).

Tasmania, Australia, India.

The timber is named blue gum because of the colour of the young
growth, which is of a glaucous or greyish-blue tint ; a very good reason for
naming the tree, but a very bad reason for naming the wood, which has
suffered in popularity, in common with other timbers, through bearing an
unsuitable title. The tree attains a height of from 200 to 300 feet, with a
diameter of from 4 to 10 feet. The wood is of a pale straw colour, with a
close, compact, firm texture, producing a smooth surface from the tool,
although having a somewhat twisted or curled grain.

In seasoning deep shakes occur from the surface, and it shrinks, ex-
pands, and warps considerably. It has been used extensively in England
for railway waggon building, for which purpose it is satisfactory. It has
also been tried for sleepers, but has not generally found favour, as the
chairs make an almost clean cut through the wood, probably because of
its hardness and want of elasticity. As the weight of the train passes

20O

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

201

over the ordinary softwood sleeper the chair compresses it, and rebounds
when the weight is removed, while there is rather a crushing effect in the
case of blue gum Used as fencing exposed to wet and dry conditions, it
stands well without protection of creosote or tar. It has been used
extensively by the Post Office for telegraph and telephone arms, with
satisfactory results. A late Comptroller, Mr G Morgan, provided a table
of results of experiments made with various Australian and Tasmaman
timbers, as follows :

It has given satisfaction for platforms, and deckings for wharves, and
also makes a good hard-wearing flooring, although perhaps somewhat
liable to become slippery. Blue gum and stringy-bark are remarkable for
their fire-resisting qualities In September 1903 a disastrous fire occurred
in the West India Docks timber sheds which contained stocks of all kinds
of soft and hard woods , everything was destroyed except some sleepers of
blue gum, and planks and logs of blue gum and stringy-bark ; these were
charred, but showed little deterioration as the result of the fire See

CENTRAL FOREST CAMP, MIDDLE ANDAMAN ISLANDS
Showing large gurjun trees (Dtpterocarpus turbtnatus), possibly m|jre than 500 m number, of which the value would be about £75,000

Si7K oi« SAMPI KS SFIHCTFD FOR EXPERIMENT (54 inches x 5 J inches x 4 inches)

I mibtr

Breaking Lo id
in Ibs

\\ught in Ibb

Specific Gravity

NSW Ironbark

24»75°

I 19

Spero (Spotted Gum, Eucalyptus

maculata) . . .

24,000

•87

Tallow Wood .

22,000

I 025

Blackbutt . ....

19-57°

915

White Box

19,500

I-I7

Forest Mahogany

IQ.200

•946

Turpentine

16,200

'997

Blue Gum . ...

20,100

I'll

Jarrah . ....

*4«125

I 075

Karri . ...

i r, 600

British Oak l . ...

•87

> In English Oak, " K " = 16,800 to 21,000

illustration of the sheds after the fire All the remaining planks which are
seen in the picture are blue gum and stringy-bark

Trees have been planted in the Nilgins in India, where they have made
rapid growth, producing in thirty years an average height of 143 feet, with
an average girth of 3 feet n inches The wood was reported to be some-
what indifferent, with a great tendency to warp and split. It has been
planted in South America, where the wood was used for sleepers, but
without giving much satisfaction, and has been extensively planted in
Ceylon, where it makes exceptionally rapid growth Up to the present
(1930) its cultivation has been only for the purpose of providing fuel,
although inspection of a specimen cut from a tree grown in Ceylon showed
a good quality of wood Mr Carmichael Lyne, in Tasmanian Timber,
reported : " It is specially esteemed for piles, owing to the large size that

202

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

it attains, and the comparative immunity it enjoys from the attacks of the
Teredo." He also states that the oldest wharf now in use was erected in
1868, and stood till 1902 without renewal, and mentions a sample of bridge-

BLUE GUM (LUCALYJ>'1U<> GU)Ii('IJ^) PLANTATIONS OF 1HE NILGIKIS, INDIA

decking which had been fifty years under foot traffic, and was still (1894)
hard and sound, while yet another timber formed part of the original
Bridgewater Ferry punt, built in 1818. The punt had been destroyed by

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

203

blasting about fifty years before, and the wreck had been lying on the
foreshore between high- and low-water mark, exposed to the attack of
teredo ever since, yet the timber cut in 1894 showed no signs of decay.
Mr. Charles Gcddes, of Port Pirrie, writing in 1905, says that he prefers
Tasmaman blue gum to jarrah for girders, beams (piles), and decking.
Nine years previously he had constructed 500 feet of wharf with this
timber, using it with success in preference to jarrah or karri for cross-
heads, girders, walings, sheet piles, and decking (K. C. Richardson, in a

TIMBER HAULING IN NEW SOUTH WALES
By kind permission of the Agent-General for New South Wales

Report on Tasmanian Timbers). An immense quantity was used in the
construction of the Admiralty Harbour Extension Works at Keyham, in
fender piles and rubbing pieces.

The concentric layers of growth are marked, although difficult to
locate. Pores numerous, small, singly and in bands or belts surrounded
by light sparkling haloes of gum ; the very numerous, very fine medullary
rays are difficult to locate, even with the lens ( + 10).

204 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

GUM, FOREST RED. Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm.

Weight 63 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales, Queensland,

Victoria.

The Forestry Commission, N.S.W., report it as being " very closely
related to the Murray red gum. . . . Supply abundant/'

It is generally of a paler and more salmon colour than the latter, and
is used for rough purposes.

GUM, GREY. Eucalyptus punctata DC.

E. propinqua Deane ct Maiden.
Weight 64 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales.

The name of this timber is very misleading, as the wood is of a light
brick-red colour, and according to the report of the Forestry Commission,
N.S W., it is impossible to discriminate between red ironbark and grey
gum. It has not been seen in commerce in England, but is valued in
Australia for many purposes where strength, wear, and durability are
required.

GUM, MURRAY RED. Eucalyptus rostmta Schlecht.

Weight 51 J Ibs. (Baker). Eastern States of Australia.
The Forestry Commission, N.S.W., report the wood as red in colour,
renowned for its strength, durability, and resistance to fungus diseases,
white ants, teredo, etc. Very hard to work up when dry. It is largely
used for posts and piles on account of its durability, also for railway
sleepers, where, although valuable, it is considered inferior to ironbark,
but is good for wood-paving.

GUM, RED. Eucalyptus calophylla R. Br.

Weight 56 Ibs. (Baker). Western Australia.

Julius reports : " This tree is widely distributed, and of very hand-
some appearance, growing to heights of over 100 feet and an average
diameter of about 3 feet. The wood is yellowish-red m colour, of lighter
weight than the other local eucalypts, though fairly dense and hard, and
splits readily. It is apt to be much intersected with gum veins, which
impair its suitability for important or permanent works of construction.
The exuding gum has an acknowledged value for medicinal and tanning
purposes. . . . The timber is very strong and tough, but not very durable
under ground."

The name red gum from the timber point of view is misleading, as the
colour of the wood is distinctly a dirty light yellowish-brown. Baker
reports it as " one of the commonest West Australian timbers, and generally
found growing amongst Jarrah, Wandoo, York Gum, and Karri " : adding,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 205

" It is a splendid tree for parks and streets." He refers to its use " for
handles, spokes, shafts, or anything requiring toughness, elasticity and
strength, with moderate weight. It is fissile, planes and dresses well, and
altogether should rank as a good timber." Both he and Julius refer to
the prevalence of numerous gum veins, a defect which is prominent with
many of the Eucalypts, and which greatly deteriorates from the value of
the timber. Baker also quotes J. E. Brown as speaking of " its durability,
both in the ground and water, and ... its immunity from the attacks
of white ants/'

GUM, SALMON. Eucalyptus salmonophloia F. v. M.

Weight 66 Ibs. (at 12 per cent moisture).

Western Australia.

Concerning this timber C. E. Lane-Poole writes (1918) : " [It is] an
exceedingly dense wood, the second strongest in Australia. It is question-
able whether the gold mines of Western Australia, which have up to date
yielded £80,000,000 of gold, would have been developed had it not been
for this tree and its sisters Mulga (Acacia aneura and A. steresophylla] and
Gimlet (Eucalyptus salubris)."

GUM, SLATY. Eucalyptus Dawsoni R. T. B.

Weight 66 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales.

The colour is bright red, darkening on exposure, with a close hard
grain, capable of a high polish. Considered altogether an excellent timber
for all purposes and reported as standing well under all conditions, and
ranking with the best ironbarks in quality.

The pores are fairly numerous and plugged ; with numerous medullary
rays.

GUM, SPOTTED. Eucalyptus maculata Hook. f.

Weight 61 Ibs. New South Wales, Queensland.

The colour and grain are similar to those of tallow wood (q.v.), so that
it is difficult to distinguish between them. Baker points out that it can
be differentiated from tallow wood because of the presence of sap-wood,
which should be removed before the timber is used, as it is liable to be
affected by a borer, and on this account, as a wood-paving timber, it has
not a good reputation.

He says also that the common term " spotted gum " is a little confusing,
as several species with a smooth bark are known by that name, and further
reports that the Queensland E. citriadora is sometimes placed as a variety
of E. maculata, but the two are quite distinct.

The Forestry Commission, N.S.W., report it as particularly tough, and
one of the best timbers for bending, even when cold. Very durable, and
unequalled for wheelwrights' and coachbuilders' work. It is used for

206 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

cross-pieces, shafts, poles for drays and buggies, naves, spokes, handles,
agricultural implements, framing and house-building generally, tram
rails, bridge decking, and ship planking.

The pores are very small to medium-sized, mostly ranged in very wavy
belts, often in duplicate and more, and surrounded by thin lines of light
tissue, with very numerous medullary rays, ranging in wavy strands, the
larger and more pronounced with intermediate rays between.

GUM, SYDNEY BLUE Eucalyptus saligna Sm.

Weight 46 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales.

The colour is a pale to deep brick-red, with a- close, hard grain similar
to most of the other Eucalypts. Some of the logs produce a mottled and
other descriptions of figure. It has only been used experimentally in the
United Kingdom, but has been reported as being a favourite wood in
Australia for all kinds of purposes where hard and figured woods are
required, and as being very durable.

GUM, YORK. Eucalyptus Loxophleba Benth.

Weight 67 Ibs. (at 12 per cent moisture, Lane-Poole).

Western Australia.

According to Julius, " the wood is reddish in colour, is exceedingly
hard, heavy, dense, and tough " ; it is said to have a very interlocked
grain. He also reports that it " does not grow to heights much above 80
feet or diameters exceeding 3 feet, and the stem is apt to be more or less
gnarled. . . . The principal use of this timber has been in naves, felloes,
and all kinds of wheelwrights' work, its acknowledged peculiar excellence
for which is recognised beyond the limits of the State. It is also employed
for farming requirements and other local purposes."

GUMBAR.

See Gmelina Arbor ea.

GURJUN. Dipterocarpus turbinatus Gaert. F. and other species of

Dipterocarpus.
Weight 42-50 Ibs. Burma, India, Chittagong, The

Andaman Islands.

VERN — Gurjun, tihya-gurjun, Beng. — Kanyoung, Magh. — Kanym, kan-
yinm, kanym-wettaung, kanyin-m, Burm.

This magnificent tree attains to a height of 200 feet and produces a
clean, straight bole, which often grows to a height of 90 feet and over, clear
of branches.

The wood is of a brown colour, and in appearance it resembles eng

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 207

(D. tuberculatiis) , yang (Dipterocarpus sp.), and Borneo camphor-wood
(Dryobalanops aromatica). It has an even and regular grain, and does not
show the alternate hard and soft grain generally found in similar hard-
woods. It also possesses a very agreeable aromatic scent, persistent
through many years, which becomes distinctly noticeable on entering a
room where it has been used.

The first supplies came to this country about the year 1899, in the form
of sawn planks, intended for wood paving, but for this purpose it proved
entirely unsatisfactory. In 1903 it was laid as flooring with satisfactory
results. The floor, after nearly thirty years of wear, shows no sign of
deterioration, and is much admired (1932). The absence of any fibrous
grain, or variation, such as is found in many other woods which possess
both hard and soft layers exposed to the surface, renders this wood
peculiarly suitable and durable for floorings. Continued friction caused
by rough tread or nails across the grain of the wood has little effect on
the wearing surface, and gurjun floorings consequently do not wear to a
ridgy or uneven surface in the same way as many other hardwoods.
For more than ten years no further shipments arrived, but after 1914 they
became regular and continually increased. During the war a large
quantity of logs, hewn in squares from n to 20 inches, and in lengths up
to 50 feet and over, were produced and shipped to more than one seat of
hostilities, and especially to Mesopotamia. One steamer cargo intended
for that country, which contained many hundreds of logs and large
quantities of planks, boards, and scantlings, was diverted to London,
where the wood was absorbed in all kinds of constructional and decorative
woodwork. Since the war, round logs, logs sawn square, large-sized
planks, and flooring strips, have been imported regularly. Large quan-
tities were utilised for constructional work and in high-CxXplosive filling
factories during the war, where the wood proved satisfactory in every
respect, sufficient even to call for special remark.

It has also been used in many places for constructional work exposed
to the weather, where it has proved durable, except perhaps when in the
ground. For railway carriage construction in both timber and decorative
woodwork it has proved satisfactory. A panel 3 feet wide, made up of
three boards joined together, has remained sound and good after ten years
of hard usage.

Gurjun, in common with many other hardwoods used to a fairly con-
siderable extent, has not hitherto proved to be useful or durable when
used in India or Burma, and in 1920 it was found difficult to persuade the
members of the Forest Service that it was a valuable and durable wood
when used in a moderate climate. But a railway official writing from
India says that he " considers this an extremely useful timber for car-
pentry and joinery work, especially for railway coaches, as the long

208 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

lengths make it very suitable for roof boards," and mentions that the
railway in question is again about to buy largely as a substitute for teak,
which shows their confidence in it. This is a reflection upon the failure
of the members of the Forest Service to realise the great importance of an
extremely valuable timber.

It has been noticed that although as a hard wood, possessing a life
longer than any other, and capable of resisting the hardest wear, it yet is
most silent to walk upon, more so indeed than any other hardwood that
has been tried. At the Wembley Exhibition in 1924, a very attractive
room was shown in which roof, panelling, floor, and all the furniture was
made of gurjun, which received universal admiration. Although the
room was further from ventilation than any others, being almost entirely
enclosed, it was remarked that even on the hottest day the air remained
cooler than in any other part of the Exhibition, and experiments showed
that at times of heat or close atmosphere the difference was about ten
degrees.

Careful seasoning is requisite, when it is found to stand well under
almost all conditions, but the timber should not be used in an unseasoned
state. Gurjun exudes small whitish beads of " resin " or " gum " which
provides a first-class natural polish. If the wood is rubbed with a cloth
soaked in alcohol at the time when these beads appear, a perfectly natural
polished surface can be obtained.

Experiments made as to breaking strains prove its strength to be very
great, exceeding that of British oak. They also disclosed a strange
quality, namely, that whatever means are adopted to cause the break,
when the final cleavage takes place, a small band remains which refuses
to fracture, but acts as it were as a kind of hinge, persistently resisting
complete severance.

The numerous pores are moderate in size and fairly evenly distributed.
The medullary rays are exceedingly fine and very numerous, while at
intervals some are thicker, broader, and more prominent. These latter
show in strong flecks on the radial section. At right angles are many
wavy, light concentric bands.

GYO. Schleichera trijuga Willd.

Weight 72-73 Ibs. India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Kosum, gausam, Hind. — Rusam, kusumo, Uriya — Pusku, may,
roatanga, Tel. — Pdvd, pu, puvan, puvu, kula, pulachi, zohm-bunki,
Tarn. — Sagdi, shargadi, sagade, chakota, akota, Kan. — Chendala,
Coorg — Puvatti, Kaders — Kassumar, koham, Panch Mehals —
Kusumb, koon, kohan, peduman, Mar. — Komur, pusku, Gondi —
Baru, Kurku, K61 — Kosengi, Palkondi — Puvam, Mai. — Gyo,
Burm. — Cong, kon, Cingh.

This tree is called the lac tree and Ceylon oak. The colour is yellow-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 209

brown, with a very hard, strong grain, giving a rough surface, hard to
work. It is reported as being used in oil and sugar mills, for rice pounders,
agricultural implements, carts, etc., and is the best tree for yielding lac.

The rather scarce pores are mostly plugged, with concentric layers
marked by faint, white lines, with exceedingly numerous, very fine medul-
lary rays, which are hardly discernible under the lens.

HACKBERRY. Celtis occidental L.

North America.

Also known as " nettle tree " and " sugarberry." It is a light yellow
straw colour, soft and rough, much resembling that of the Australian
nettle tree (q.v.).

HALDU. Adina cordifolia Hook. f.

Weight 45 Ibs. India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Haldu, hardu, karam, Hind. — Bangka, keh-kadam, petpuna, da-
kom, Beng — Karam, Nep — Ttkkoe, Bahraich and Gonda — Hardu,
paspu, kurrrn, Gondi — Holonda, Uriya — Shangdong, Garo — Roghu,
Ass — Kurumba, komba, K61 — Karam, Sonthal — Mandugram,
Khond — Manjakadambe, Tarn.- — Manja kadambu, Mai. — Bandaru,
kamada, rudrakadapu, kanapu, rudraganapu, dudagu, paspu
kadambe, Tel. — Hedde, yettega, yettagal, pettega, arsanatega, yet-
tada, ahnau, Kan. — Hedu, heddi, honangi, Mar. — Kolon, Cingh. —
Thaing, Magh — Hnaiv, o-aw, Burni

This wood, of which haldu is one of the Indian names, is well known as
hnaw in Burma. It is a bright yellow, or satinwood colour, with a very
fine, close texture, and is capable of a very smooth surface. The evenness
of the grain is pronounced, so that it can be cut either with, or across, or on
the transverse grain equally well, and on this account it is a valuable wood
for carving. An exquisitely carved figure of Joseph Conrad (i \ times life
size) was executed in this wood by Miss Dora Clark, and its colour gave a
flesh-like appearance. Although a little checking took place after the
work was completed, no serious splitting occurred.

The wood stands well under all conditions and is highly suitable
for cabinet-making, brush work, and all kinds of decorative woodwork.
Haldu furniture was first exhibited at the Empire Timber Exhibition in
London in 1920, and after exposure to light the colour has greatly im-
proved, so that it vies with satinwood. A large quantity was used in the
Bareilly depot bobbin factory at Clutterbuckgunj , where bobbins were
made of this wood, and found satisfactory.

Medium to large-sized trees are frequent throughout India and Burma.
In January 1921 1 took a photograph of a tree in the Kunzan forest, Upper
Burma. The tree was felled and eventually brought to London ; the butt
measured 19 feet in length, with a girth of 17 feet. The second cut pro-
duced a perfectly cylindrical log, which measured 49 feet, with a girth of

210 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

ii feet 2 inches, and the top section was 55 feet in length, with a girth of
7 feet 6 inches. Beyond this there were sundry branches yielding pieces
which could be made use of in timber sizes. Excluding the big branches,
this one tree produced approximately 918 cubic feet of solid timber.

The exceedingly numerous pores are very small indeed. The medul-
lary rays are so fine that it is difficult to see them through the lens ( +12).

Hardwickia binata Roxb.

Weight 82 Ibs. (Troup). India.

VERN — Anjan, Hind , Mar. — Acha, alii, Tarn. — Yepi, nar yepi, yapa, Tel.
— Kamrd, karachi, Kan. — Chhota dundhera, Gondi — Bone, Karku.
— Parsed, Smgrowh.

This is a very valuable wood, which should be imported into the United
Kingdom and used for many important purposes. It appears to possess
the very durable qualities of pyinkado (Xylia dolabriformis] , without the
oily or sticky surface which the latter possesses, which property in pyin-
kado, while doubtless making it more durable, also renders it less suitable
for cabinet and decorative work. It is capable of a very smooth surface
from the tool, almost, as R. S. Troup says, making it comparable with
African blackwood (Dalbergia M elanoxylon] . The same authority re-
commends it for turnery. It would be invaluable in those parts of decora
tive cabinet work where a hard smooth surface is required, and where an
undoubted, good standing wood, which will neither shrink nor warp, is
necessary. Its qualities as a decorative wood are further enhanced by its
handsome colour and appearance.

In colour it varies from brick-red to a dull dark brown, with black
streaks. It would give much the same appearance in finished work as
that which can be obtained with Italian walnut. Unfortunately, in
common with so many valuable Indian timbers, it has no European name,
nor has it ever been imported in commercial quantities. One log was sent
to the Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington, a
few years ago, and can be seen there.

The pores are regular and uniform in size and position. The medullary
rays are very faint and obscure even under the lens ( +12). There is a
small faint ripple-mark on the radial section.

Hardwickia pinnata Roxb.

Weight 45-47 Ibs. (Gamble). India.

VERN — Koldva, Tinnevelly — Malay en, samprdni, Travancorc — Yenne,
Manjara-bad — Shurah, holla, Mai. — Uram, Trav. Hills.

For many years before the war a few logs came to London at irregular
intervals, generally roughly sawn square, which were sold as East Indian
mahogany at prices insufficient to cover the cost of transport.

The colour is a lightish red-brown mahogany, which retains its agree-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD an

able light shade without either darkening or bleaching when exposed to
air and light, an unusual and very desirable characteristic. The wood
has a close, firm texture, and takes a good polish, but has an unfortunate
and continuous tendency to exude small spots of a rather sticky resinous
gum, which defect, while actually being of little consequence, as the gum
can be rubbed off, somewhat militates against its popularity.

The wood bears a strong resemblance to the well-known French
" Salmis," coming from Indo-Chin. Examples of woodwork made in this
timber were exhibited at the Empire Timber Exhibition, Holland Park, in
1920 ; and in the 1924 Empire Exhibition at Wembley, a most handsome
French boudoir, executed by Melliers, was shown in the India Pavilion.
The framework of the panelling and doors was of this wood, in conjunction
with coral-wood (Adenanthera pavonina) panels. In the Madras section
a large threefold screen was exhibited, with framing and panels also made
of this wood, which was greatly admired.

The rather small pores are scarce and open, irregularly placed, with
ill-defined rather obscure medullary rays, which show on the radial section
in very small flecks.

HAREWOOD. Source unknown.

Weight, 54 Ibs. San Domingo.

This timber, known in London as " harewood," and in Liverpool as
11 concha satinwood," is imported in square-hewn logs, from about 8 to
24 inches square and 8 to 20 or more feet long. In San Domingo it is
named " pino macho " (male pine), and thus distinguished from satin-
wood, which is known as " espanello." At first sight these two woods
appear to be very similar in colour, weight, and texture. Harewood, how-
ever, though yellow in colour and displaying a beautiful satiny lustre, is
more dull, and greyer or browner in tint, and is often traversed by black
" gum " streaks ; moreover, on exposure to light and air its greyness
gradually increases until with age the wood acquires the silver-grey hue
characteristic of genuine old harewood, and has been imitated by staining
sycamore to produce artificial harewood (q.v.}. The majority of logs
imported show abundant roe and mottle figure, with a preponderance of
the fiddle mottle effect. Some of these have realised very high prices
(£3 or more per cubic foot) for veneers. When used for panelling
and banding in cabinet work, the wood produces attractive and
artistic effects. It might with advantage be used for the backs of
brushes of the highest quality. Harewood was employed in the
form of marquetry in a seventeenth-century Flemish and German
backgammon board which is exhibited in the South Kensington
Museum.

Though the wood shows a striking resemblance to West Indian satin-

212 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

wood in the structure of the growth-rings, and even in the great variation
of their width, yet in my specimen of harewood the pores are larger, and
they, as well as the medullary rays and boundary lines of the annual rings,
stand out in cross-section more sharply from the darker general mass of
the wood. It is probable that harewood and West Indian satinwood
belong to the same family, if not to the same genus. Record refers to
timber dealers' and cabinet-makers' reports of the use of this wood in
America, and also to a complaint made by an English trading firm that
in an expected consignment of satinwood, concha satinwood was included,
to their disadvantage. None of these incidents, however, affect the
attractive qualities which harewood undoubtedly possesses. An examina-
tion of the wood certainly tends to contradict the report of the New York
people that concha satinwood is coarser textured and less heavy and firm
than satinwood, the average weight of the latter being 51 Ibs. and the
weight of concha satinwood about 52 Ibs. A careful examination of
several specimens of each displays little difference in the texture and
smoothness or otherwise of the grain. As regards the other remarks, it is
quite natural that a merchant who contracted for and expected to receive
satinwood should complain if he found the shipment consisted of another
kind, and in the matter of the American cabinet trade it is not unnatural
that the operator should notice the difference if he were desired to employ
satinwood. The appreciation of one wood or the other is essentially a
question of taste, and in this respect, although perhaps a novel point of
view, concha satinwood can hold its own as one of the most beautiful of all
artistic decorative cabinet woods.

As regards the texture, a careful comparison of the transverse grain
reveals a structure equally fine, with the advantage, if anything, in favour
of concha satinwood.

The annual rings (or zones of growth) are sharply marked by narrow
light lines at the successive boundaries. The scattered little groups of
pores are visible to the naked eye by reason of the light halo surrounding
each. The numerous medullary rays are likewise visible.

HAREWOOD, ARTIFICIAL. (Stained Sycamore or Maple.)

The so-called " harewood " of recent years has been produced by
staining sycamore or maple by a chemical process. The colour is induced
by the action of iron salts (ferrous sulphate, for instance), which stain the
drops of tannin present in the wood, particularly in the medullary rays.
This process, which was first secretly practised in Paris, was subsequently
carried out in Germany, and in more recent years in London also. Several
timbers, either white or verging on white, are capable of treatment, and
the stain penetrates through the whole of the wood, the chaste beauty of

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 213

which has resulted in its being used for handsome suites of furniture, also
in the panelling and furnishing of rooms in leading hotels and famous
steamships, including the Mauretania and Balmoral Castle. Yet the
beautiful furniture made of this stained wood cannot vie with the antique
specimens in which genuine harewood has been used. Moreover, the pure
silvery-grey gradually becomes discoloured with yellowish-brown, or
changes to a bronze colour. It is claimed that under competent super-
vision this deterioration can be avoided, but certainly up to the present
all the work in this stained wood has, in course of time, suffered the change
of colour referred to.

Harpullia imbricata Thw.

Weight 40 Ibs. (Gamble). Western India, Ceylon, The

Andamans, Java.

VERN — Harpulli, Bcng. — Chittila madaku, Trav. Hills — Na-imbul, pun-
dalu, Cingh

The colour is a light nut-brown red, with a very straight smooth grain,
like a rather inferior African mahogany. The wood has not been seen in
commerce.

The pores are rather small, very scarce, irregularly placed, with in-
numerable very fine medullary rays, wavy, crossed at irregular intervals
by very faint white lines.

Harpullia pendula Planch.

Weight 58 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales, Queensland.

Known as tulip lancewood in Queensland, this is the tulip-wood of
Australia, and is described by Baker as being " close-grained, hard and
heavy, yet works easily, and has a pretty figure produced by a dark brown
or almost black colouring with whitish streaks." It is considered suitable
for cabinet work, turnery, ornamental boxes, etc., and it is stated that
neither the sap-wood nor the heart-wood is subject to borer attack.

The Forestry Commission, N.S.W., report it as " one of the handsomest
of Australian woods . . . much esteemed for cabinet work, billiard tables,
panels of doors, etc. It resembles olive-wood somewhat in general
appearance, is a very durable timber."

HAWTHORN or WHITETHORN. Crataegus monogyna

C. Oxyacantha L.
Weight 41 Ibs. Europe, North and West Asia,

North Africa.

The wood of the well-known " May " tree. Yellowish-grey in colour
with perhaps a tinge of red in it, an exceedingly smooth, hard grain, com-
parable with that of African blackwood. Notwithstanding the small
sizes which the tree will produce, its unique qualities should render it

214 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

suitable for some work of importance. It has been used for engraving
and found to be as good as ordinary boxwood.

The concentric layers of growth are apparent to the naked eye ; the
innumerable, tiny pores and the fine medullary rays are hardly discernible
under the lens, but show on the radial section in the tiniest flecks.

HAZEL. Corylus Avellana Linn.

Weight 35-45 Ibs. (Stone). Europe, Africa, Asia.

Also known as " nutwood." The colour of the wood is a pinkish-
white with dark lines ; it is knotty, with a hard and rather open grain,
said to be soft and elastic, to split easily, and is not considered durable.
The tree does not usually exceed 30 feet in height, but the smaller branches
are useful for hoops of barrels, and similar purposes. Baterden states
that the roots are used for veneers, and the larger wood for charcoal.

The medullary rays show faintly on the radial section.

Hemicydia sepiara W. & A.

Weight 58 Ibs. (Gamble). British India, Ceylon.

VERN — Virai, Tarn. — Wira, Cingh.

The wood has a yellow-brown colour like Venezuelan boxwood, which
it also resembles in grain, although a little harder. Trimcn says it is one
of the commonest trees in the dry forest, but it grows in a gnarled and
twisted manner. Mr. Turner says that owing to its gnarled and twisted con-
dition, and being a small tree, wood large enough for ornamental furniture
is difficult to obtain, and remarks that it is a pity that, being so close-grained,
it is good for fuel, with which expression and information I quite agree.

The minute pores and the exceedingly fine medullary rays are hardly
discernible under the lens, the transverse section showing very much like
that of the Venezuelan boxwood referred to above.

HEMLOCK, MOUNTAIN. Tsuga Mertensiaua Sarg.

British Columbia, North-western
United States.

Elwes states that this botanical name is now given to Tsuga Pattoniana
by American botanists, instead of to T. Albertiana as formerly.

The wood is pale brown or red in colour, soft, close-grained, fine in
texture, not strong. It is suitable for rough lumber and fuel.

Baterden treats Tsuga heterophylla (q.v.) and T. Mertensiana as the
same wood. He says : "To get the timber into the market it is manu-
factured into flooring and scantling and sold as spruce or fir, and an
attempt has been made to introduce it as Alaska pine " ; which attempt
appears to have been successful. Takes a good polish, and is used for
wainscot panels and newels, and also largely for pulp. It is liable to black
knots, and very liable to attack by boring insects.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 215

HEMLOCK, WESTERN. Tsuga heterophylla Sarg

British Columbia, North-western
United States.

Also known as Alaska pine.

The wood is of a pale brown colour, tinged with yellow, light, hard,
tough, stronger and more durable than other American hemlocks. Being
larger, straighter in grain, and less knotty than the Eastern species, it is
a more useful wood. Very suitable for interior work, joinery, etc., and
for general construction, sleepers, piles in fresh water.

Heritiera Fames Buch., syn. H. minor Lam.

Weight 67 Ibs. (Troup). India, Burma.
VERN — Sunder, sundri, Beng — Pinlekanazo, Burm.

This wood is brownish to dark red in colour, hard and close-grained,
strong, elastic, and durable. Mr. F. I. Dalton cites instances (in India) of
rough trimmed posts placed in water-logged soil within reach of the tide,
having lasted thirteen years, and of posts placed in a somewhat more
elevated, though very damp situation, having lasted for eighteen years.
The timber is extensively used in boat-building, and there is a standard
market for it in Calcutta.

It is a valuable wood for many purposes, but hitherto difficulties of
transport and conversion have curtailed its usefulness ; if these could be
overcome, there would undoubtedly be a good market for it in this country.

The regularly disposed pores are rather scarce and are sometimes
plugged. The medullary rays are fine and uniform. There is a faint
ripple marking on the tangential and radial sections.

Heritiera littoralis Dryander.

Weight 52 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown).

India, Burma, The Andamans.

VERN — Sundri, Beng. — Pinle-kanazot Burm. — Mawtdd, And. — Chomun-
tin, Tarn — Etuna, Cingh

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, state that the
colour of the wood is " light yellowish-red to dark red or reddish-brown,
sometimes faintly streaked with black. ... A very durable timber, both
on land and in water. ... It is used for boat-building, as knees, and as
piles of bridges in Burma/'

Heterophragma adenophyllum Seem.

Weight 47 Ibs. Burma.

VERN — Petthan, Mdyu-de, Burm.

The colour of the wood is a yellowish-red, with an inclination to green.
The grain is hard and the texture close and firm ; in both colour and grain

216 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

it resembles Demerara greenheart (Nectandra Rodioei), but examination of
the end grain reveals dissimilarity. The greatest possible care is required
in the manner of its felling and conversion on account of a liability to split.
It is a valuable wood, with possibilities ; being extremely strong and
elastic, it would be a suitable substitute for greenheart. Favourable
reports have been received from India as to trials of this wood for aero-
plane work, and for fishing rods, billiard-cue butts, and mouldings, ex-
hibited at the Empire Timber Exhibition of 1920.

There is a fair quantity available in good lengths and good-sized
squares.

The numerous pores are small and are generally filled with a bright
sparkling yellowish-green gum. The medullary rays arc well-defined, and
show on the radial section in minute flecks. The rays are crossed at right
angles by similar white lines.

Heterophragma Roxburghii DC.

Weight 40 Ibs. India.

VERN — Baro-kala-goru, Tarn — Bondgu, Tel — Pullung, ivurus, paiilag,
Mar. — Kalavada, Koya — Pambapena, Reddi.

This wood is of a greyish-brown colour, rather resembling French
walnut, to which the grain is also similar. It is easily worked and is
capable of a smooth surface from the tool ; altogether a very useful
cabinet wood.

The small pores are generally plugged. The medullary rays are very
fine.

HICKORY. Hicoria ovata Britt.

H. laciniosa Sarg.
H. glabra Britt.
Weight 46 Ibs. 13 oz. Gibson gives it as 50-52 Ibs.

North America, Europe.

Although there is nearly always a use for which one wood is better
fitted than another, it is an outstanding fact with this timber. For many
purposes there is no wood which can compare with hickory. The supplies
are drawn from all botanical species of Hicoria, it being impossible to
separate them, and the natural result is that there is a wide divergence in
the quality of different shipments as regards soundness, toughness, and
absence of faulty pieces. One of the worst faults encountered is that of
the holes, caused by a boring worm or beetle, which destroy the value of a
large quantity of the timber. It is imported into this country in clean
boles with the bark on, but on the Continent before the war a high price
was paid for split billets, which were in much demand. The logs should
be converted as soon as possible after arrival, as, if left for any length of

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 217

time, even protected from weather, they split badly. When fresh the logs
weigh heavily, so that the inexperienced are surprised at the cost of
freight, the timber averaging as much as one ton, and sometimes more, for
26 feet cube of Hoppus' measure.

The colour varies from almost white through shades of yellow to brown,
with fine, straight, darker lines crossing the surface. The grain is even
and straight, and a very smooth surface can be obtained from the tool.

On the Continent and in America it has been largely used for cart-
wheel spokes and felloes, carriage shafts and coach-builders' work, all
manner of bent work and hoops for casks, and handles of picks and axes.
Throughout the United Kingdom it is in great demand for golf shafts, for
which purpose, on account of its springy toughness combined with its
light weight, no other wood can compete. It is also used for pick handles
and bent work. The Navy demands a considerable supply, and although
perhaps on account of its scarcity it has not been used to a large extent in
aeroplane work, many consider it suitable for this purpose. The tree
thrives well in England, and many good specimens may be seen in various
places ; it should be more extensively planted, both for its utility and its
graceful appearance.

Gibson mentions that all the hickory in Europe was utterly destroyed
at the close of the Ice Age, but that America was more fortunate. A speci-
men taken from a tree grown in Ireland shows a wood equally good in all
respects to that quality provided from America.

The numerous pores are variable in size, some being very large ; some
arc partially plugged. The medullary rays are very fine, parallel, and
clearly defined ; they are crossed at right angles with even more strongly
defined white lines.

HICKORY, QUEENSLAND. Flindersia Ifflaina F. v. M.

Weight 54-55 Ibs. North Coast of Queensland.

Known as " Cairns hickory." The colour is a yellowish -brown, and
it has a hard, smooth grain and wavy veins. There seems to be no
apparent reason for the name hickory, as it bears little resemblance, if
any, to the well-known hickories.

Baker reports it as being useful for heavy beams, constructional work,
parts of ships, machine-bearings, cogs, and other purposes requiring a
strong, close-grained timber.

HINAU. Elaeocarpus dentatus Vahl.

Weight 36 Ibs. New Zealand.

The Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, reports that this wood is
" light dull-brown colour, heart-wood darker, tough, strong, and durable.

218 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Procurable in lengths of 20 feet and up to 12 inches in width. Used for
fencing-posts, bridges, and culverts/'

HINOKI. Cupressus obtusa Koch.

C. formosensis Mats., syn. Chamaecyparis obtusa S. & Z.
Weight 22-28 Ibs. Japan, Formosa.

The hinoki timber from Japan and from Formosa appears to differ in
general character although the species are the same. The Japanese wood is
of a pale yellow straw colour with wavy marks caused by darker streaks ;
it possesses a lustrous sheen and the scent is very fragrant and agreeable.
Only a few logs have been imported, and commercially it is unknown.
Elwes and Henry say : "No coniferous timber is now so highly valued in
Japan for the finest buildings, as well as for interior work . . . and Sargent
says that the palaces of the Mikado as well as the temples are built of it.
... A large slab 3 feet across, brought to England by Elwes . . . was
quite free from flaws, sound to the centre and showed a very twisted and
wavy grain ; in colour resembling satinwood. . . . Hinoki is one of the
five royal trees which were reserved for Imperial and religious uses in
ancient times."

The Formosan wood is of a clean, bright yellow-brown colour, much
resembling the appearance of marsh or bald cypress (Taxodium distichum).
It is harder and heavier than the Japanese hinoki, and has a more marked
grain. It gives a strong aromatic scent which is not particularly pleasant,
and is quite unlike the fragrant scent of the Japanese wood. This is one
of the Formosan woods which till now has never been imported, but which,
if a regular supply could be maintained, would become a useful timber.

The annual rings are distinctly marked by a narrow dark-coloured
belt. The medullary rays are rather obscure but show faintly on the
radial section.

HOJOCHEE. Species unknown.

Costa Rica.

This wood is of a yellowish -grey, rather dirty colour, and has a close
hard grain, with no particular quality to recommend its export for com-
mercial purposes.

The pores are numerous and very minute, and are often joined in
strings of four to eight. The medullary rays are fine and numerous and
just visible to the naked eye, and there are concentric bands of lighter
coloured tissue.

Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.

Weight 40 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Assam, Burma.

VERN — Karra, kaura, kora, kura, kuar, kari, karchi, dhudi, Hind. — Kor,

Kashmir — Kogar, hiam, Pb. — Kural, Kumaon — Kachri, Oudh —

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 219

Samoka, girchi, Gondi — Kurakat, Kurku — Ankhna, Bhil —
Dhowda, Guz. — Kirra, kanngi, Nep. — Dudhali, dudhkuri, Mechi
— Dudcory, Ass. — Madmandi, Garo — Patrukurwan, pita korwa,
kherwa, Uriya — Dowla, kura, indrajau, Bombay — Karru, Jey-
pore — Dudhidn, Berar — Dudi, kurakhatto, Melghat — Korkona,
Oraon — Kurchi, Bhumij — Kuria, Kharwar — Hat, Sonthal —
Kurdu, Mai Pahari — Towa, kuti, K61 — Pardah, Khond — Pal,
Koya — Pala, Reddi — Vepali, kodagapalei, Tain — Pala, Kodaga,
Tel — Kurra, Mar. — Lettokkyi, lettokthein, lettok, Burm.

A pale straw-coloured wood with a close, firm texture, Rather
attractive, capable of a smooth surface from the tool, but not likely to be
of any commercial importance.

The exceedingly numerous pores arc very small, and a few are plugged.
Medullary rays exceedingly fine and hardly discernible under the lens.

HOLLY. - Ilex aquifohum Linn.

Weight 47 Ibs. (Baterden). Europe.

The wood, which is white to grey in shade, is exceedingly close-grained
in texture, and capable of a very smooth and hard surface. Generally
the degree of whiteness, on the excellence of which its value rests, depends,
as in many other cases of white wood, upon the time when it is felled, the
manner of its conversion, and the care with which the converted parts are
preserved. It should be converted immediately after the tree is felled
and the produce very carefully stored and stacked under cover, in a
moderately dry and sunless place.

Holly is chiefly valued for inlay work. Holtzapffel says • " Holly is
the whitest and most costly of those woods used by the Tunbridge-ware
manufacturer, who employs it for a variety of his best works, especially
those which are to be painted in water-colours. It is closer in texture
than any other of our English woods, and does not readily absorb foreign
matters, for which reason it is used for painted screens, etc."

The beautiful Italian sixteenth-century walnut coffer, of which men-
tion is made in the section on walnut, is inlaid with holly, which gives a
very fine contrasting effect.

Gibson quotes the American varieties for much the same purposes, Ilex
opaca, which would appear to be the principal one, and also /. cassine,
I. vomitoria, I. monticola, and I. decidua. There are about twenty-three
different species of holly in India, but these are as yet quite unknown to
commerce.

The pores, which are exceedingly small, are very regular. The very
clearly marked medullary rays are parallel and equidistant. They are
distinct on all surfaces, but show most strongly on the tangential section,
where they are exceedingly regular in their marking.

220 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Homalium tomentosum Benth.

Weight 59 Ibs. Burma and India.

VERN — Myaukchaiv, Burm.

This large tree with its very straight, smooth, greyish-white bark, is a
prominent and picturesque object, standing out as it does among the mixed
forest trees in the jungle. It has been well named " Moulmein lance-
wood " by Skinner, according to Gamble. The wood, indeed, closely re-
sembles the other lancewoods of commerce. The colour is rather light
yellow-brown, having a very hard, close, compact grain, easily to be mis-
taken for lancewoods from other sources. At the 1920 Empire Timber
Exhibition at Holland Park it was used for many different articles, in-
cluding fishing-rods, for which work it was considered suitable. Great
difficulties have been experienced in handling the timber without undue
splitting, and the wide boards appear also to be liable to split in seasoning,
after sawing. There is little doubt, if these difficulties could be overcome,
that the timber would eventually prove to be of great value. This is one
of the valuable timbers possessed by Burma which suffer eclipse on
account of the richness of the more easily secured teak.

The lines of concentric growth are very clearly marked. The in-
numerable tiny pores, mostly plugged, cover the transverse section.
Medullary rays extremely fine and numerous, close together, equidistant,
and very regular.

Homalium zeylanicum Benth.

Weight 35 Ibs. Ceylon, India.

VERN — Liyan, Liyangu, Cmgh.

A pale straw-coloured wood with darker patches and a rather soft
grain, but giving a fairly smooth surface from the tool, and a very smooth
surface on the transverse section.

The pores are irregular in size and position, with very fine and numer-
ous medullary rays. The concentric layers are marked by pronounced
dark bands.

Hon-huan-shi. Source unknown.

China.

Professor Chung says that the Chinese name is applied to Sloanea sp.
and that the tree bears a fruit or seed which is eaten by the monkeys.

The wood is of a greenish colour, straight and close-grained, resembling
American poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera).

The concentric layers of growth are plainly marked with dark lines.
The pores and medullary rays are extremely small and ill-defined.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 221

HOOBOOBALLI. Loxopterygium Sagotii Hook.

Weight 40^ Ibs. (Stone & Freeman).

South America.

VERN — Hooboobalh, hububalh, hubabalh, houboobalh, hoeboeballi, hobo-
balli, Arowak — Kooel pialh, Caraib — Snaki hoodoo, boosi mahoni,
Negro English — Slangenhout, Dutch — Surinam snakewood, Eng.

This wood, also known by the name of " hububalli," which has been
quoted as being Mimosa guianensis, is apparently now fixed to the species
as named above. Mr. B. R. Wood, Conservator of Forests in British
Guiana, explains that the source Mimosa guianensis " is a misnomer/'
this being a synonym for the " bois serpent " of French Guiana, and the
" angelim raj ado " of Brazil.

The colour is a light yellowish-brown with dark streaks. The wood is
hard and close-grained, and reported from British Guiana as being very
rare and scarce.

Record reports it as " easy to work, finishes smoothly, polishes fairly well,
but is likely to become stained with oily exudations ; appears durable."

HOOP PINE. Araucaria Cunninghamii Lamb.

Weight 30-33 Ibs, New South Wales, Queens-

land, New Guinea.

The wood, known also as " Moreton Bay " pine, is reported to be very
plentiful and is in considerable use in Australia for all purposes where soft-
wood free from odour is required. Light in colour and weight, straight-
grained, relatively strong, it is natural that it should be highly valued.
Of late years (1930) a considerable quantity of ply-wood has been manu-
factured in which this wood is employed, and is reported to be in great
demand in Australia ; also a limited quantity has been exported to the
United Kingdom, where the demand for Empire timbers has caused it to
receive unusually welcome attention.

The Forestry Commission, N.S.W., report : " Planks often show a
peculiar dotted appearance, comparable to a bird's eye maple figure,
though less handsome."

Hopea odorata Roxb.

Weight 39-58 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, The Andaman

Islands, Borneo, Cochin.

VERN — Thtngan, thitstngan, Burm. — Rimdd, And.

This wood was not met with in commerce until 1920, when small ex-
perimental shipments were made for the purposes of the Exhibition. The
colour is rather a dull, dirty grey-brown or yellowish-brown, with a some-
what rough, uneven grain, not attractive, and requiring considerable effort
to produce a smooth surface. Foxworthy says it is probably the com-
mercial equivalent of yacal from the Philippines, but Indian and Burma

222 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

thingan is milder, lighter in weight, softer in texture, and much less inter-
woven in the grain. The wood possesses no quality to make it sufficiently
attractive for export. But Gamble reports it as very durable, and capable
of resisting white ants ; also that boats made of it are said to last twenty
years. The general indication is that it is a very useful wood for all kinds
of purposes in its own country, but not worth the charges upon shipment
to other markets.

The pores are confused, irregular, and plugged ; the medullary rays
fine, parallel, and not very prominent. Gamble speaks of a beautiful
silver gram on the radial section, but it is not apparent on my specimen.

Hopea parviflora Bedd.

Weight 54-63 Ibs. (Gamble). Malabar, Southern India.

VERX — Kongu, Tarn. — Kiralboghi, tirput Kan. — Thambagam, kambagam
irubogam, Mai.

Whether a large supply of this valuable timber is available or not, the
Indian forest authorities have never yet reported. Bearing in mind its
beautiful qualities, and that, according to F. Foulkes (quoted by Gamble),
it is immune from the attack of the white ant and that it reproduces natur-
ally, it is remarkable that greater effort has not been made in its ex-
ploitation.

The colour is an agreeable lustrous, golden yellow-brown, with a very
close, fine grain, yielding a very smooth surface from the tool, a wood far
too valuable to be wasted as stated ; being very strong and durable, it is
suitable for high-class decorative woodwork and turnery.

In studying the history of Forest Research by the Indian Forest
Service during the sixty-odd years of its existence, the student is struck
by the limitations of the Service. The authorities would never seem to
have risen above suggestions that timbers might be useful for tea-boxes,
paving-blocks, or sleepers.

Gamble says it is suitable for sleepers, and, according to F. Foulkes, is
used in shipbuilding, etc. Excepting for this report, and that some very
fine sleepers were sent over to the Empire Exhibition, there has been no
exploitation.

The pores are very small to small, largely plugged with atoms of shining
gum between strong, well-marked medullary rays, irregularly placed, vary-
ing in size, and crossed at right angles at irregular intervals by thin bands of
light tissue.

Hopea Wightiana Wall.

Weight 61-62 Ibs. India.

VERN — Kalbow, ktralboght, haiga, Kan. — Kavsi, Mar — Ilapongu, Trav.
Hills.

The timber is of a yellowish-brown colour, with a very hard, close,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 223

compact grain. My specimen appears a good deal heavier than the weight
attributed to it, and is strongly marked with a fiddle mottle figure. It
would be valued for brush-backs, cabinet work, inlay, and turnery, and
perhaps for some of the purposes for which boxwood is used.

The pores are very small and numerous and are largely plugged. The
medullary rays also appear in great numbers and are exceedingly fine and
clear-cut, parallel, and equidistant.

HORNBEAM. Carpinus Betulus Linn.

Weight 51 Ibs. 13 oz. Great Britain, Continental Europe,

America.

The wood is yellowish-white in colour, close in the grain, hard, tough,
strong, and of moderate weight. There is no distinguishable sap or al-
burnum ; it may, therefore, be worked up to great advantage. Hence we
find it employed for a variety of purposes : it is useful in husbandry, and
agricultural implements made of the sound and healthy wood wear well,
as it stands exposure without being much affected by it. It is also used by
engineers for cogs in machinery, a purpose for which it is well suited. The
hornbeam tree, if pollarded, becomes blackish in colour at the centre,
owing to the admission of external moisture and parasites. This renders
it unfit for many purposes where a clean, bright surface is required, and
generally it proves detrimental to the quality and durability of the timber.
This wood, when subjected to vertical pressure, cannot be completely
destroyed ; its fibres, instead of breaking off short, double up like threads,
a conclusive proof of its flexibility and fitness for service in machinery.

A considerable trade has been carried on of late years in Continental
supplies of hornbeam, from France particularly, for use in pianoforte work,
especially the keys, for which it is highly suitable. These supplies have
been of a quality rather milder than most of the British wood, and of an
exceedingly white appearance.

The concentric layers are clearly marked. The pores, which are very
small and rather obscure, are very regular. The medullary rays are not
very clearly marked, but show on the tangential section as fine, rather
dark lines of uneven length.

HOROEKA. Pseudopanax crassifolium.

New Zealand.

This wood, commonly called lancewood, is reported by the Board of
Agriculture of New Zealand as follows : " [The colour is] lightish-brown,
sometimes of a satiny lustre ; dense, even, and compact. Procurable in
short lengths and up to 4 inches wide. Used for wheelwrights' work."

224 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

HORSE CHESTNUT, JAPANESE.

See TOCHI.

Huai-ch'ai. Source unknown.

China.

A yellow-brown wood with a close, hard grain, resembling New Zealand
kauri pine, or rimu, Dacrydium cupressinum Soland.

Professor Chung says the Chinese name means the wood of Sophora
japonica.

Hua-li-mu or Cang-szu. Source unknown.

China.

The specimen submitted by Professor Chung is inscribed : " This is
the famous flower wood, highly esteemed for all kinds of furniture and
cabinet work."

In answer to a question as to whether this wood is not " Castano-
spermum," Record says : " The flower wood has always had my interest
and I made many efforts to find out exactly what it is. I am positive it
is one of the Leguminosae, and the nearest approach that I have made,
apparently, is Cassia siamea. ... It does resemble Castanospermum . . .
but the bands of parenchyma are more sharply defined/'

The specimen which is included in the collection sent to Kew by Pro-
fessor Chung is of a golden yellow-brown colour, so closely resembling the
appearance and grain of Tasmanian black bean that it would pass for that
wood anywhere.

The grain is hard and close with a wavy, feathery pattern caused by
light-yellow reddish and dark reddish streaks interspersed, and showing a
pretty pattern on the transverse section, a decidedly handsome, decorative
wood. (For a full description see BLACK BEAN.)

Concentric layers of growth are marked by clear, light bands, the pores,
almost invariably plugged, forming wavy belts intersected with very fine,
but distinct medullary rays, presenting a very pretty appearance. The
medullary rays do not show on the radial section.

Huang-nun-mu. Source unknown.

China.

Professor Record says this wood is near to Machilus sp. It has a
fairly hard grain, and a grey-greenish tinge of colour.

The concentric layers of growth are marked by thin dark lines. The
pores are very numerous, regularly placed, regular in size, and very small.
The medullary rays are fine and confused, showing on the radial section in
tiny flecks.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 225

Hung-dfai. Source unknown.

China.

The colour is a bright, strong, rich plum, with a metallic lustre, hard,
heavy, and close-grained. Professor Chung says : " This wood is said to
be the wood of Ormosia sp." Record says : "I doubt if I should have
thought of Ormosia if Professor Chung had not suggested it," and that,
at Yale University they have numerous specimens of Ormosia from various
parts of the Tropics, and none exactly match this, although they are built
on the same general plan. He goes on, however, to say that he is " certain
that it is Leguminosae." I am unable to confirm this opinion, as the
specimen submitted from the Amoy University bears no resemblance to
any I have seen of Ormosia sp., but it resembles in colour, appearance, and
grain the Borneo wood called ringas, Melanorrhoea usitata.

The pores are numerous and largely plugged ; medullary rays are
strongly defined, parallel, but not showing on the radial section.

Hung-li.

China.

The specimen sent by Professor Chung to Kew is a wood agreeing in
every respect with the North American magnolia, Magnolia acummata
(q.v.}.

Hymenodictyon Excelsum Wall.

Weight 31 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Bartu, barthoa, Pb. — Bhaulan, bhalena, bhamina, dhauli, kukurkat,
bhuvkul, phaldu, bhohdr, potur, purguv, Hind — Banranga, Kumaon
— Lunia, lamkana, Merwara — Bhorsdl, Melghat — Bhorkoru, Mong-
hyr — Bhawasar, Kurku — Salt, K61 — Burkunda, Bhunij — Dad-
hippa, Reddi — Dondru, dandelo, Panch Mehals — Bhoursdl, Mar. —
Sagapu, peranjoli, Tarn. — Dudi-yetta, ditdippa, chetippa, burja,
bandar a, monnabillu, Tel. — Vella kadamba, Mai — Bodoka, konso,
Unya — Kusan, kuthan, Burin.

" The wood is soft but of good quality for purposes for which a soft
wood is useful " (Gamble, p. 407).

It is of a brown-yellow straw colour, with a nice medium grain com-
parable to that of a bard sample of African mahogany, but has never been
exported on a commercial scale, although it would find a ready market.
Gamble reports it as useful for tea-boxes, but the Government specimen
in my collection shows a wood of comparatively hard texture, and much
too valuable for such purposes.

' Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, speak of it as the
nearest approach to beech, and suitable for similar purposes for which
beech is required.

226 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Pores scarce, very small, in groups or bands. Concentric layers pro-
minent, medullary rays very fine indeed, but conspicuous and numerous.
On the tangential section the surface shines with very small specks of
gum.

IBICUIBA. Source unknown.

Weight 39 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a dull brown wood with a slight lustre. It has a fine, close, hard
texture and a straight grain, resembling that of Cuba mahogany, but
slightly milder and softer than that wood, although it would easily pass
for it. It would form a highly suitable wood for good-class cabinet work.

The pores are fairly frequent, and are occasionally joined together, so
that they form a patch of loose tissue. The medullary rays are very fine
and numerous. Dark-coloured lines follow the concentric layers.

IMBERIBA BRANCA. Source unknown.

Weight 54 Ibs. Brazil.

The specimen indicates that the wood is only obtainable in small sizes,
and that it would, therefore, be of little use in commerce.

The pores are scarce and irregular. The strongly marked medullary
rays are continually intersected by pretty lines of loose tissue, forming a
fine lace-like appearance.

IMBIU AMARELLO. Source unknown.

Weight 60 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a dirty yellowish-brown wood ; it has a straight grain, and takes
a smooth surface from the tool. My small specimen has a pin worm-hole,
suggesting its liability to this defect.

The exceedingly small and numerous pores are plugged. There is a
strong, well-defined medullary ray, intersected by extraordinarily fine,
straight, white concentric lines.

INGYIN. Pentacme suavis DC.

P. siamensis Kurz.

Weight 54 Ibs. Troup). India, Burma, Cochin China,

Malaya.

The wood has a pleasing nut-brown colour, a little lighter than teak,
but otherwise resembling it, capable of a smooth surface from the tool.
On this point Gamble says : "It resembles Sal in the peculiarity that on
the vertical section it has alternate belts in which the grain changes, so
that a very sharp plane indeed is required to smooth it. It is used in India
for house-building and bows " ; also, according to Troup, for " bridge

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 227

construction, piles, telegraph poles, boat-building, carts, shafts, strong
articles of furniture, and bows ; suitable for trial for paving blocks." It
is mentioned by both these authorities for its durability, while Foxworthy
notes that it is indestructible in water. It is one of the woods tested by
Foxworthy and Woolley, and which survived five years of that test (see
under Pyinkado) . It is a valuable wood for which many uses could be found
if the difficulties of a regular supply were overcome.

Gamble gives the name ingyin also to the produce of Aporosa macro-
phylla Muell., but the wood from this source is unknown in commerce in
the United Kingdom.

The pores are arranged in belts, which are made more clear by the halo
surrounding them. The numerous fine, clear, equidistant medullary rays,
which also show on the radial section as in beech, but rather smaller, are
crossed at right angles by similar irregular, fine white lines.

IPE.

See PAo D'ARCO.

IRA ROSA.

Costa Rica.

It is probable that this wood belongs to the mahogany family, although
no mention of it is made by the leading authorities, and its scientific name
is unknown. It has a soft grain similar to that of a plain Honduras
mahogany, with a reddish-brown colour and lustrous surface. It takes a
good polish and would be suitable for decorative woodwork.

The oval-shaped pores are fairly large and are distributed very ir-
regularly ; they are often joined in wavy lines of five and six together.
The medullary rays are very numerous, but so faint as to be only discern-
ible under the lens. There are faint concentric lines of loose tissue.

IROKO. Chlorophora excelsa Benth. & Hook.

Weight 41 Ibs. 14 oz. West Coast of Africa.

VKRN — Simmc, Fr. G — Iroko, bouzo, edoum, Ivory Coast — Rokko, Da-
homey— Al'vulc, Lagos — Hang, bing, adoum, Cameroons — Mandjt,
eloun, kambala, Gaboon & Moyen-Congo — Kambala, amoreira,
Portuguese Cabinda — Kambala, kamba, molundu, bolondo, M'bara,
sangasanga, Belgian Congo — Odum, Guinea — Muamba-Camba,
Angola — M'bundu, Uluguru — Rock elm, oroko, ulako, Benin —
Iroko, African oak, African teak, kambala, odoum, Trade.

This timber, the product of the m'vuli tree, generally called " iroko,"
also African " teak " and sometimes African " oak/' has been imported
from several districts on the West Coast of Africa.

According to the Association Colonies-Sciences et Comite National des
Bois Coloniaux : " Iroko grows over a wide area, from French Guinea to

228

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

the interior of the Belgian Congo. It is very abundant on the Ivory
Coast, particularly on the edge of the north forest; -more sparsely, but still
common, in the Cameroons, Gaboon, and in all the forests of the Congo ;
it grows in isolated places in the forest zones of Togo and Dahomey."

Professor Troup says : " This tree has a wide distribution in Tropical
Africa, occurring on the West Coast, in Uganda, Kenya, Tanganyika, and
"south into Nyasaland. I even saw it in Pemba Island (Zanzibar) last year."

The name African teak is quite unjustifiable as it possesses no re-
semblance to the true teak (Tectona grandis), even in appearance, while in

STAIRCASE AT AMANI, TANGANYIKA

By kind permission of J. E. M. Mellor, Esq. (Copyright reserved)

quality and texture it is totally dissimilar, besides which, iroko, while not
possessing those unique qualities which render teak valuable for special
work, has a distinctive quality of its own, sufficient to justify its specific
name. In the early days of its importation it was often called African
oak, another name to which it was not entitled.

The colour varies from a very light golden brown to a rich warm brown,
always inclined to bleach after exposure. The grain is somewhat inter-
woven, and possesses hard and soft layers which makes it difficult to get a
smooth surface with the tool. The trees have very faulty, wandering
heart-wood, generally badly shaken, making the wood wasteful in con-
version ; but exceedingly wide boards can be secured from the outside of

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 229

the tree, which remain sound, and form a useful medium for counter-tops
or similar work. It has been used in the United Kingdom for heavy felloes
for gun-carriages, and for the heads of golf clubs, and this year (1931) for
general fittings, trim, doors, etc., for the London Electrical Railway build-
ings, one station being entirely fitted throughout with iroko. It has also
been used in a great many cases as a substitute for teak, having been
described as African teak.

Mr. H. N. Thompson described it as " the best all-round timber in
tropical Africa (and) the most useful wood in West Africa," and expressed
the opinion that it was thought to be termite resistant. Mr. Mellor, how-
ever, has set this matter at rest by showing that it is apparently com-
pletely proof against the ravages of the white ant. He contributed to The
Field of ist October 1932 a picture of a staircase in a house in Tanganyika,
showing all the wood other than iroko entirely destroyed, while the iroko
remained untouched (see illustration). Mr. Mellor did not know whether
the wood was grown in Tanganyika or brought there. This information
places iroko on an entirely different basis of value, and the supplies should
undoubtedly be reserved for use in those parts of the world where the
white ant exists rather than in moderate climates where this great quality
possesses no value.

In transverse section concentric layers are formed by the occurrence at
intervals of thin, concentric light lines of soft tissue. The pores are visible,
and are linked together by shorter or longer light, wavy lines that stand
out well in the section. The medullary rays are invisible. The wood is
cross-grained and slightly wavy ; the coarse vessels (pores), imbedded in
soft, light tissue, score the surface with their furrows.

IRONBARK.

The mistake of naming a wood by the appearance or quality of the
bark is nowhere more clearly demonstrated than in the case of ironbark.
The Forestry Commission, N.S.W., while reporting it as " the king of New
South Wales," mentions no less than six different sorts, three of which
are stated to be of special value. Baker mentions nine different sorts.

As there is a very distinct difference between each, and the single
name is misleading, the six principal timbers are reported here separately,

viz. : Weight

per cu ft

Eucalyptus Fergusoni R. T. B., " Bloodwood Ironbark " . -72 Ibs.

crebra F. v. M., " Narrow-leaved ". . . . 63 ,,
,, siderophloia Benth., " Broad-leaved " . . .72^,,

Nanglei R. T. B., " Pink Ironbark " . . 69 ,,

,, paniculata Sm., " White," " Black," or " Grey " 64-69 ,,

Beyeri R. T. B., " Narrow-leaved "... 71^ ,,

230 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

IRONBARK. Eucalyptus Beyeri.

See E. paniculata.

IRONBARK. Eucalyptus crebra F. v. M.

Weight 63 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales, Queensland,

Northern Australia.

Known as " narrow-leaved ironbark," Baker describes this as " one
of the finest of the Ironbark timbers ... it is close-grained, occasionally
interlocked, reddish in colour, very hard, heavy, and very durable, for
which latter quality it is especially highly prized. ... In great demand
for sleepers, storey-posts, girders, heavy waggon and wheelwrights1 work,
bridge work, and wharves.

" The pores are numerous, but comparatively small. . . . The rays
are very small, and very numerous . . . the cells are nearly all filled with
a reddish deposit."

IRONBARK. Eucalyptus Fergusoni R. T. B.

Weight 72 1 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales.

Known as " bloodwood ironbark." According to Baker the colour of
this timber is mostly a deep red, or reddish-chocolate, but rather lighter
when aged. " It is hard, heavy, straight, or interlocked in the grain . . .
planes and dresses well for an Ironbark. ... In seasoning it splits with
the rings.

" A close-textured timber with specially thick-walled fibres. . . .
These fibres are arranged in regular rows of varying diameters. . . . The
vessels are numerous . . . the wood parenchyma is sparse. . . . Ray
parenchyma numerous."

IRONBARK. Eucalyptus Nanglei R. T. B.

Weight 69 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales.

Known as " pink ironbark." Reported by Baker as " a very fine
timber with a distinct clear pink, or red colour . . . close-grained, heavy,
hard, but does not plane to so bony a surface as Ironbarks, the fibres
having a tendency to lift almost immediately after planing/' Probably
the " lightest in weight of any of the other Ironbarks, and not quite so
hard. . . . This species differs from E. paniculata, principally in the
physical properties of its timbers, such as colour, texture. . . . Suitable
for heavy works of all kinds.

" The vessels are fairly numerous, with bordered pits on the walls and
mostly plugged with tyloses. The most conspicuous features of the wood
are multiseriate bands of wood parenchyma running in the direction of the
annual rings."

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 231

IRONS ARK. Eucalyptus paniculata Sm.

Weight 70 Ibs. New South Wales, Queensland.

Known as " white," " black," or " grey ironbark." The colour
ranges from a light to a very warm brown walnut shade, with a hard, com-
pact grain, strong and heavy. In Australia it is considered to be one of the
best of the ironbark timbers, the hardest of all, and difficult to work. It
is used for waggon and carriage work, spokes, naves, and heavy construc-
tional purposes.

Baker groups in one category Eucalyptus paniculata, E. angustifolia,
and E. Beyeri.

The pores are numerous, rather small, surrounded by light bands of
tissue, generally plugged ; the medullary rays exceedingly fine, very
numerous, and irregular.

IRONBARK, RED. Eucalyptus Siderophloia Benth.

Weight 72! Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales, Queensland.

Known also as " broad-leaved ironbark." The colour of the wood
is brown tinged with red, with a rather coarse, open, interlocked grain.
It is specially noted for its strength and durability, and is much used
for large squares, piles and constructional building work, spokes and
naves of wheels, sleepers, waggon work, scantlings, and it is said that
after twenty-live years of constant use the wood is as good as when first
used.

The Forestry Commission report this wood and E. crebra as resembling
each other in quality, and as " really valuable timbers."

" The pores are comparatively small and more numerous than in E.
crebra. The vessels are all plugged with tyloses, and of rather narrow
diameter. . . . The rays are numerous, the cells being filled with a red
substance " (Baker).

IRONBOX, BLACK. Eucalvptus Raveretiana.

Weight 65-72 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

The wood resembles West Indian lignum-vitae, is brownish-black in
colour, very heavy and very hard, but still comparatively easy to work.
It is highly durable in and out of weather or in the ground. The wood is
somewhat rare now, but has been largely used for sleepers, posts, and
rails.

IRONWOOD.

Throughout all hardwood-producing countries the name " iron wood "
is sure to be given to one or more of the timbers, so that it has now become

232 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

a common name for many heavy, hard woods. Among those for which
the term is used are the following :

Olea Hochstetteri. Ostrya virginiana.

Xylia dolabriformis. Prosopis juliflora.

Xylia xylocarpa. Tarrietia actinophylla.

Mesua ferrea. Acacia excels a.

Eucalyptus virgata. Geijera salicifolia.

Dialium divaricatum. Notelaea ligustrina.

Cyrilla racemi flora. Eucalyptus squamosa.
Bumelia lycioides.

Of the above only the first six species are generally met with in com-
merce. The Indian Xylia xylocarpa, the Burma Xylia dolabriformis, and
the Indian and Ceylon Mesua ferrea undoubtedly possess the qualities
which justify the term. The remainder differ so widely in species, char-
acter, hardness, and durability, that the use of a common name is mis-
leading.

IRONWOOD, EAST AFRICAN. Oka Hochstetteri.

East Africa.
VERN — Musharagi.

This wood should be called East African olive wood and not ironwood.
It has a hard, dense, compact grain, much resembling in appearance the
European olive, but considerably harder in texture, and with a marked
contrast between the hard and soft grain : difficult to work to a smooth
surface. The wood has been divided into what is called " ordinary " and
" figured," but there does not seem to be sufficient difference to warrant
any such grading.

The pores are very numerous and regularly placed, exceedingly small,
and plugged. The medullary rays are parallel and regular, extremely fine,
and clearly marked. The tangential grain shines with innumerable tiny
spots of gum.

IRONWOOD, RED. Erythrophloeum Labour cherii.

Weight 78 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

Also known as Cooktown ironwood and leguminous ironbark.

The colour of the wood is mahogany red with a lustrous glaze, and a
very hard, compact, tough grain, taking a high polish. It is reported to
have great durability above or under ground, with strong resistance to
white ant. Used for sleepers, fences, turnery.

The West African species is E. guineense, sasswood (q.v.).

RED IRONBARK NEW SOUTH WALES

By kind permission of the High Commissioner for Australia

234 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

ITAUBA PUANA.

Weight, 40 Ibs. Brazil.

The colour and grain of the wood, although somewhat finer and
straighter in grain, resembles Cuba mahogany so nearly that it would
pass fcr it at any time, but is not quite so hard or heavy.

The pores are rather larger than is usual in Brazilian timbers : they
are unevenly distributed and are generally surrounded by a patch of
loose tissue. The medullary rays are numerous and very fine ; as many
as four sometimes appear in the width of one of the pores. The rays
show on the radial section in minute flecks.

IVORYWOOD. Siphonodon australe.

Weight 50 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

Ivory-white in colour, with a fine, even texture, straight-grained ; used
for fine engraving, wood-carving, small turnery and cabinet work, scales
and rulers. Requires careful seasoning.

IVY. Hedera Helix Linn.

Great Britain, U.S.A., Western
Himalayas.

Those who have discovered the ease with which a sharp axe will
cleave its way through a trunk of ivy growing round a tree, will be amazed
when they find how extremely hard the wood becomes when seasoned.
The colour, which is a dull grey, is rather attractive, and the grain firm
and hard, almost like bone. There appears no record as to its durability,
but there is no reason to suppose that it would not be durable, and it
might be interesting to see whether the wood could not be actually used
as a medium for decorative cabinet work.

The pores are very numerous and small, mostly plugged, between
strong, well-pronounced rays, very numerous but rather rough-edged,
showing boldly on the radial section.

JACKWOOD.

See Artocarpm integrifolia.

JACUA or JAGUA. Genipa americana L.

Weight 59 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Jagua, Span., gen — Genipa, gempat, gempayer, gempo, bois de
fer, lana, Fr. W.I. — Caruto, Venez., Tnn. — Gempapa, gempapo,
gempapeiro, gempapo do matto, jumpapo, Braz. — Irayol, Salv.,
Guat. — Jagua azul, jagua blanca, maluco, Mex. — Nandipd, Arg.,
Par. — Hagua, jagua, xagua, janipha, jumpa, Misc.

The specimen is marked " jacua on pirutinga," but on the accompany-
ing list the name is given merely as " jacua." The timber is a light straw
yellow, and is hard and straight-grained.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 235

The transverse section presents a pretty pattern even to the naked eye.
The pores, which are very small and plugged, are arranged in wavy
bands which form an irregular pattern. The medullary rays are very fine
and numerous, and crossed at right angles by white wavy lines following
the growth of the concentric layer ; these lines are thicker and more
prominent than the medullary rays.

JAMBA.

See Xylia xylocarpa.

JARANA PRETA. Source unknown.

Weight 69 Ibs. 7 oz. Brazil.

VERN — Jarand, Braz.

This hard, heavy wood is very liable to split : it has somewhat the
grain of greenheart. The colour is yellow-brown, alternating with a
salmon shade in light and dark streaks. It takes a very smooth surface
from the tool, and its qualities suggest that it would be useful for fishing-
rods, walking and umbrella sticks. The transverse grain shows like a
dark-coloured pine (Pinus sylvestns). The wood has a distinctly un-
pleasant smell.

The pores are irregular, small, and mostly filled with gum or oil. The
medullary rays are clear and strongly defined, joined at right angles by
very distinct and fine, similarly coloured lines, making a kind of honey-
comb pattern.

JARRAH. Eucalyptus marginata Sm.

Weight 57 Ibs. Western Australia.

The wood is a bright brick-red colour and of close texture, with inter-
woven gram, occasionally figured like mahogany. In general appearance
it very much resembles karri, and great difficulty has been experienced in
distinguishing between them. A simple means of achieving this is to
burn a small piece of the wood. Jarrah will leave a black, and karri a
white ash.

The State Royal Commission on Forestry, reporting in 1904 on the
available supplies, stated that virgin jarrah forest to the north of Black-
wood River, which is suitable for milling, is estimated at 2,000,000 acres.
To the south of this river there are also considerable supplies of this
timber, while in addition to these areas there are several millions of acres
of jarrah country, not of sufficient commercial value for milling purposes,
but which will afford immense scope for sleeper-hewing.

Quoting the report of the late Mr. O'Connor, Engineer-in-chief of the
State of Western Australia, Julius says : " For durability and general
construction work of all classes, jarrah is undoubtedly one of the best of

236 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

all State timbers. In building where there is much traffic, and also in
private houses, jarrah planks furnish a durable, cleanly floor capable, if
desired, of high polish. Skirtings, dadoes, rails, architraves, door frames,
transoms, mullions, doorsteps, staircases, more particularly in public
buildings and large houses, have been and are being increasingly made
of this wood, with very handsome results."

Jarrah is eminently suitable for high-class cabinet work, but care must
be exercised in order to get it thoroughly seasoned before use. Some very
handsome furniture and panelling has been on view at the London office
of the Agent-General for Western Australia, and this can still be seen by
appointment. It has been used in England for railway waggon and plat-
form construction, and is in the third highest class for shipbuilding pur-
poses at Lloyd's. According to a report from the Chief Engineer of the
North Eastern Railway Company, jarrah piles driven about ten or twelve
years ago (1919) are still in good condition, and have proved quite satis-
factory for wharf work. At Hartlepool, where the same wood was used
for piles, there is only slight indication of attack by sea worms.

Concerning other uses to which it may be applied, Julius says that it
" has been employed for telegraph and telephone poles and signal posts
and has been found exceedingly suitable and durable ; while its miscel-
laneous uses in the State generally, for almost every purpose and require-
ment of all the industries, are innumerable."

Contrary to general practice in the case of other chief timbers of the
world, the heart-wood core of the Eucalypts is to be avoided, and speci-
fications for cut jarrah timber should therefore require freedom from
heart-wood, except in the case of piles, which are better round than
squared, Sap-wood, on the other hand, rarely measures above an inch in
thickness, and being often almost as hard as the inner wood, scarcely
needs to be particularly excluded, except in cases of special importance.

The British Fire Prevention Committee made some careful inflam-
mability trials with jarrah timber a few years ago, with the view of ob-
taining reliable data as to its fire-resistance capabilities, when severe
tests were applied. The results were regarded as generally satisfactory
and as indicating that a building constructed of jarrah would be unusually
resistant to fire, especially in the case of floors and floor-beams.

A sample, cut from a pile which has been in use for forty years, pro-
duces a wood harder and smoother than when first used, and presents a
far more pleasing and better surface than can be obtained from any less
dry specimen.

Quoting other State authorities with regard to the durability of this
timber, Julius writes : "Its suitability for piles and any works requiring
immersion in salt or fresh water has been practically noted. Specimens
obtained from piles and girders sixty years old, and used in local harbours

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 237

and bridges, appear to be perfectly sound and free from any signs of
decay. If anything, the wood seems to be harder, more solid, and
apparently more durable than freshly cut timber. ... It is destined to
supply one of the most lasting of hardwood timbers for a long time to
come, at the least costly rate, to very many parts of the world." He
adds : " Notwithstanding the superiority of this timber over so many
other kinds, it has not been found to give altogether satisfactory results
for scantlings for railway wagon building (for which karri has been found
so good (A. L. H.)). Probably the nature and grain of the wood render it
unsuitable."

Jarrah has been used very extensively in England for wood-block
pavement with varying results, some being unsurpassed in excellence,
while others were somewhat discouraging. The causes for these varia-
tions can, however, in most cases be ascertained. Perhaps the most im-
portant factor is the question of the pavement foundation, while the time
which is allowed for carrying out the work has also some bearing on the
result. Unfortunately the laying of pavement is in most cases much too
hurried, and probably too little time is allowed both for making a proper
foundation, and for seeing that this is sufficiently settled before proceeding
with the work. It is also doubtful if engineers have even yet specified
cither sufficient solidity or enough regularity for the foundation of a
hardwood pavement. The force which the jarrah block has to sustain
from the heavy weights continually striking the surface is transferred to
the foundation in a quite different manner from that which takes place
with a softwood block, which is much more resilient and consequently
acts as a kind of buffer. Possibly a medium between the concrete and the
block to take this strain would make a considerable difference. As it is,
any weakness which develops causes the foundation to give way and brings
about the beginning of the " holey " places which characterise hardwood
pavements. Immediately one block sinks even a little below the level
of those surrounding it, every wheel bumps on the edges and increases the
strain enormously, and this again enlarges the area and deepens the hole.
Again, if the foundation be carelessly laid, or on account of urgency an
insufficient time is allowed for it to set completely, the same trouble
ensues. A careful inquiry into the question of foundations for hardwood
pavements should be instituted, as there is no doubt that, as the cost of
labour is nearly as much for laying the softwood as for the hardwood, a
great saving of expense could be assured if this difficulty were overcome.
Even in the present circumstances a 5 -inch jarrah block pavement has,
since 1906, withstood the exceedingly heavy traffic in the Euston Road,
London, with fairly good results, and had in 1919 sustained thirteen years
of continual use.

Some of these blocks were taken up for repairs that year, and appeared

238 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

as sound and hard as when they were laid. I had one sawn into i-inch
thicknesses and planed, and not only is the wood in splendid condition,
but neither manure nor other deposits which it has had to withstand have
impregnated the pores, as so generally found with softwood blocks after a
much less time. Again, the variation of hardness in individual jar rah
blocks is much greater than in the case of softwood, so that if only one of
the softer kind is surrounded by harder, the same result referred to above
occurs. It has been noted that the outer growth of jarrah trees is very
much harder and closer than the heart growth, and there is also, of course,
a variation in the trees themselves. To guard against this danger it is
generally specified that only the harder wood should be used, but in prac-
tice sufficient care has not been taken either by the shipper, merchant, or
contractor. Probably the most prevalent cause for this, and also for
doubtful foundations, is the system of competitive tendering, and the
endeavour to get work carried out at the lowest cost.

These difficulties have militated against the use of jarrah for block
pavement, and it is not so eagerly sought for as it was a few years ago ;
but considering the cost of labour and the inconveniences of more frequent
stoppage of traffic, jarrah pavement should be much more largely used in
the future. In 1899 Hornsey Road, northward from Shaftesbury Road,
was paved with samples of jarrah, white oak, creosoted deal, and red gum
blocks. The white oak and red gum mostly failed, but the jarrah and
creosoted deal were in good condition, practically nothing having been
spent in repair after over six years' traffic.

According to a report of Mr. W. N. Blair, Surveyor for the Borough of
St. Pancras, Park Street was paved with jarrah in June 1893, and in 1907
was in good condition, very little having been spent in repair. Pancras
Road, in front of the Town Hall and round into Great College Street, was
paved with jarrah in 1892, and, excepting the tramway tracks and mar-
gins, was in good condition in 1907, very little having been spent in repair.
Mr. Blair speaks of the life of jarrah blocks under very heavy traffic as
nearly four years and considers it satisfactory, and also that the life is
about 50 per cent longer than that of creosoted deal. In his report he
makes this very significant statement, which should receive the very
greatest attention of all pavement engineers : " It was not until some of
our earliest laid jarrah pavement had worn into holes that the cause of
the holes was discerned to be due to the presence of blocks with certain
characteristics in their grain, which for several years past we have been
rejecting, with the result that more recent work will wear more evenly,
and, therefore, will have longer life than the earlier work. . . . The follow-
ing may be taken as conditions characteristic of the two timbers :

" JARRAH. — Easily cleansed ; very durable ; good foothold generally ;
becomes noisy by wear on edges of blocks.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 239

" CREOSOTED DEAL. — Holds the dirt, and becomes greasy; less secure
foothold ; takes frost readily, therefore slippery ; wears evenly, but
quickly ; more silent under traffic. Exudes an oily film, causing slipperi-
ness, and an unpleasant odour for some time. The effect of creosoting at
first reduces porosity, but this protection diminishes." He concludes by
saying that all the motor omnibus companies were unanimous in favour
of jarrah paving for safe travelling for rubber- tyred vehicles. In a later
note in 1914 he thinks that " having regard to their relative prices and
life and to certain characteristics attaching to each, such, for instance, as
the greater smoothness of surface and as causing less noise under traffic,
I think preference must now be given to creosoted deal if it be selected
from the most suitable class of timber."

In reference to this last report it is not improbable that the relative
costs may change to the advantage of hardwoods and that greater care
with foundations and selection of timber may improve the hardwood
pavements. For sleepers it is probable that nothing can be obtained
which surpasses jarrah for durability and fire resistance, if indeed there is
any timber to equal it in this respect. Some jarrah posts taken up in
1931, having been in the ground to the depth of some 3 to 4 feet in clay
soil for forty years, were found to be perfectly sound and hard, only the
outside edges showing a slight decomposition to a thickness of less than
i\ inch. Every year fresh reports come to hand increasing its reputa-
tion ; its use is therefore epecially justified in this country, which,
on account of the damp climate, calls for particular consideration,
although the termite-proof qualities of the wood are not called into
question.

The pores are very large and open, and are plugged with gum. The
numerous medullary rays can be seen very faintly under the lens.

JARUL.

See Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae.

JELUTONG. Dyera costulata Hook, f .
D. la%i flora Hook. f.

Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo.

In Malayan Records, No. 3, this is stated to be a very large tree, but
not abundant.

The wood is very soft, light, and even-grained, the colour whitish, with
no distinction between sap-wood and heart-wood, and not durable.
Being easy to work it is used for many purposes, such as pattern-making,
match-sticks and boxes, packing-cases, planks, but it is not suitable for
structural work.

240 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

JEQUITIBA. Cariniana spp.

Brazil.

Record's account of Brazilian jequitiba may be summarised as follows :
There are at least three species, all trees of immense size :

C. excelsa Casar. Jequitiba branca (Province of Rio).— Used for sugar-
boxes.

C. domestica Miers (Goyez Province).

C. brasiliensis Casar. Jequitiba rosa (Rio Province) — Used for ship-
building.

Various botanical specimens from Brazil have been identified as C.
legalis (Mart) Kuntze ; the common names of this species being jequitiba,
jequitiba amarella,j. branca,j. rosa,y. vermelha, Braz. — Brazilian mahogany.

Record quotes Mr. Curran as describing Jequitiba to be " light brown
in colour and easily worked."

Colonel Gamble's specimen is of a light nut-brown colour with dark
streaks. A note written by him on the specimen says that the tree grows
to a height of 100 to 115 feet, and 10 feet in diameter, and the timber is
used in joinery. The grain is very smooth, comparable with that of
pencil cedar, Juniperus sp., with a close dense texture, a fine grain, and
a lustrous surface ; it is altogether an excellent cabinet wood. The
specimen has one pin-hole in it, which suggests its liability to insect
attack.

Record reports it as of Rio de Janeiro, (( a tree of immense size, with
very broad, lofty, spreading branches. Its trunk producing a timber of
much value, useful in works of construction and shipbuilding, which is
known by the name of 'jequitiba rosa'." He also quotes Miers, who
regarded Cariniana rubra as synonymous to Couratari rubra, and Record
considers Couratari legalis Mart, as synonymous to C. brasiliensis.

Brazilian Woods mentions the last-named Jequitiba, C. legahs, and
jequitiba branco, C. speciosa, and this book, issued by the Ministry of
Agriculture in 1921, mentions these two names and that of/, cedro merely
as variations in the name of one timber.

The pores are very sparse and irregularly distributed. There are
many fine wavy concentric lines, and also bands of darker-coloured tissue
at varying intervals, in the same direction. The medullary rays are very
fine and numerous.

Jsing-p'i-hsiang.

China.

The colour is grey-brown, similar to that of the American live oak, but
with a smoother, closer grain, showing the medullary ray on the radial
section very small as in the plane tree.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 241

Professor Record identifies this wood as the product of Ilex sp.
The pores are exceedingly small, and invisible to the naked eye, with
strong, wide medullary rays.

JUCA. Caesalpinia ferrea Mart.

Weight 89 Ibs. Brazil.

The wood is a deep purplish-brown colour, with a very hard close
texture, almost comparable with that of African blackwood (Acacia
Melanoxylon). The resemblance of juca to the Dalbergia cultrata of
Burma, sometimes known as Burmese ebony, is marked, although the
colour of the former is deeper and darker. The structure as displayed on
the transverse grain also resembles D. cultrata , the principal difference
being rather in the relative sizes of the different features of the structure
than in general character. Colonel Gamble's specimen shows three worm-
holes approximately one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, which indicates
that the wood is liable to this defect.

The small pores are unevenly distributed, and are joined together by
light, wavy concentric lines or loose tissue. The medullary rays are
straight and very fine and numerous.

JUG. Ouriria sp.

British Honduras.

A dull brown-coloured wood, with very strong, hard and soft contrary
grain, showing little attractive quality.

Pores exceedingly numerous, very small, generally plugged, with
minute and extremely small medullary rays, hardly discernible under the
lens.

Juniperus chinensis Linn.

China, Mongolia, Japan.

The wood has not been seen in commerce.

Elwes says : "It attains a great age ; the largest I saw were at the
Temple of Confucius, which were said to be over 700 years old . . . one
tree was about 40 feet by 17 feet, and another covered with burrs was 14
feet in girth." The wood resembles that of the English yew, but pos-
sesses a very strong and pleasant aromatic scent, rather like pencil cedar.
A specimen taken from a tree grown at Powerscourt Castle, in Ireland,
shows an attractive furniture wood.

The concentric layers of growth are clearly marked by dark rings.

KAKARALLI, BLACK. LecythlS Sp.

Weight 74J Ibs. (Wood). The Guianas.

Record reports this as ? Eschweilera corrugata Miers, and gives the
name of the wood as " manbarklak."

242 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

In colour and grain this wood resembles that of the Brazilian sapucaia
(q.v.).

The pores are rather scarce and plugged. The medullary rays are
exceedingly fine, very numerous, and crossed at right angles by wavy
belts of light tissue, making a very pretty pattern.

KAKI. Diospyros Kaki Linn. f.

Weight 48 Ibs. 10 oz. Japan.

This beautiful decorative wood shares with African blackwood the
distinction of being capable of almost the smoothest surface obtainable in
any timber ; it has a marble-like coldness to the touch. The grain is
very close and even, although it is lighter in weight than other ebonies.
The ground colour is a dense black, with beautiful streaks of orange-
yellow, grey, brown, or salmon colour imposed upon it ; occasionally all
these shades are seen together. It is highly valued in Japan, where it is
used for ornamental decorative work in boxes, desks, and in mosaics. It
possesses a slightly disagreeable scent.

The pores are fine and scarce, and are generally plugged. The medul-
lary rays are exceedingly fine, though irregular ; they appear in parallel
lines.

KAMAP. Strombosia rotundifolia King.

Malay Peninsula.
VERN — Petahng gajah.

The wood is a light olive-brown colour, with a very hard, close, com-
pact gram somewhat similar to that of boxwood but yielding a rougher
surface from the tool. Foxworthy reports it as finer grained and denser
than that of petaling, and used for the same purposes, but it could not be
used as a substitute for boxwood. As in the case of the latter the in-
numerable tiny pores are plugged, with minute medullary rays crossed at
right angles by similar light lines, forming a very minute network pattern.

KARRI. Eucalyptus diver sicolor F. v. M.

Weight 53 Ibs. Western Australia.

We are probably only just beginning to realise the value of this im-
portant Australian timber, the product of a magnificent tree which grows
to an immense height, and of which that part of the British Empire pos-
sesses such a princely supply. Julius speaks of it as " one of the finest
and most graceful trees in the forests of Australia," and as occasionally
reaching the wonderful height of " 300 feet . . . over 180 feet to the first
limb and from 20 to 30 feet in circumference at the base."

The timber is red in colour, heavy, tough, dense, elastic, and closely
similar to jarrah in appearance. This similarity, however, is actually

A KARRI FOREST

Photograph by the kind permission of C. E. Lane-Poole, Esq., Forest Department,

Perth, Western Australia

244 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

harmful, and the absence of due investigation and comparison of the two
woods has led to the same deplorable results as noticeable with the Indian
timbers, eng and gurjun, which have suffered by their similarity to teak.

Karri is a much stronger wood than jarrah, but is not so durable in
the ground, and is not termite proof. It has been largely used in England
for railway waggon scantlings, and telegraph arms, and has given most
satisfactory results ; it is doubtful indeed whether it has not been proved
to be better for these purposes than any other timbers available. C. E.
Lane-Poole says : " It is on Lloyd's list of shipbuilding timbers, and is
suitable for all purposes where large sections of great strength are neces-
sary. It has been found very satisfactory for wooden pipes and it makes
a good waggon spoke." Julius reports that " piles of unusual straight-
ness and regular taper, of either ordinary or exceptional lengths, can be
obtained with facility and in large quantities, and have been not a little
used in water not infected with marine pests. Karri also readily affords
baulks of exceptional section and planks of great width." It has been
found very satisfactory as sliding beams for mines, and has been made use
of in this manner both in South Africa and the United Kingdom, and
on the Continent, especially in Germany, with satisfactory results. Mr.
H. M. Howe, State Mining Engineer at Perth, Western Australia, received
(1931) from Mr. H. A. Reid, of Johannesburg, the following report :
" Since writing to you I have inspected one of our mines equipped some
thirty-five years ago and found that the Karri king posts as well as Karri
support for tanks, main framing of crusher stations, etc., are still sound
and in good condition. Attention has been drawn to this and considera-
tion is being given to the possibility of using Karri for heavy constructional
work."

For the durability of karri in contact with the ground when processed,
there is not so much evidence yet available, but there is good reason to
anticipate that in the course of time, and when sufficient trials have been
made, the results will prove satisfactory.

Perhaps the most important consideration from our point of view,
having in mind its size and abundance, is its employment in fireproof con-
struction, for in a marvellous degree it is able to withstand the ravages of
fire, and is therefore of very great value. In a disastrous fire that occurred
in the West India Docks, the logs and planks of Australian hardwoods
were found afterwards to have received only very slight damage, little
more than a thin charring on the outsides.

Logs of this wood should be stored in the water, as otherwise they are
liable to split and crack up badly. Planks, boards, and blocks should be
stowed entirely under cover, packed as closely as consistent with a suffi-
cient admission of air, to prevent fungus growth or other harm. The place
chosen should also be entirely free from sun and rough winds, preferably

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 245

below the level of the ground, and in a slightly damp rather than very dry
situation.

The pores are large and numerous, and are usually filled with gum.
The medullary rays are not discernible even with the lens.

KATSURA. Cercidiphyllum japonicum S. & Z.

Weight 22 Ibs. Japan.

A large quantity of this timber was imported into London and Liver-
pool before the war, in logs, boards, and planks. At first it was not
sought for, but its good qualities were soon realised and a considerable
demand has since existed. It excels all similar soft and light hardwoods
in its extraordinary smoothness of grain and the sharpness of the edge
which can be obtained from either machine or hand tool. This renders it
very suitable for mouldings, however intricate the pattern. In these
respects it will compare favourably with pencil cedar (Juniperus vir-
giniana), which wood, however, can never be obtained in such long lengths
emd wide widths, free from defect. It is of a light nut-brown colour, and
is very similar to kauri pine ; it has been used for a great many decorative
purposes, such as cabinet-making, shop-fitting, and panelling, largely in
place of American whitewood (Linodendron tulipifera). While perhaps
it does not stand in unfixed work as well as this wood, being a little liable
to warp if used in wide widths, it far surpasses it in its very fine, smooth,
silky grain and hard surface. It is reported by Goto (Forestry of Japan)
as being used for wood-engraving in that country.

The pores, which are very fine and obscure, are largely filled with a
bright, glistening gum, which sparkles on all sections. The medullary
rays are hardly visible under the lens (4-12).

KAYA. Torreya nucifera S. & Z.

Weight 32 Ibs. Japan.

VKRN — H on gay a, Shir o gay a

The colour is a bright yellowish-white with a lustrous surface, and a
hard, close, very smooth grain, harder than but otherwise like Port Orford
cedar, though without any aromatic odour, the scent being somewhat
unpleasant. It is reported as being used for chests and boxes, and also
for chessmen. The wood has not been met with in commerce.

The concentric layers are marked by well-defined, strong, dark lines.

Kayea assamica King et Prain,

Weight 55-58 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Assam.

VERN — Sia Nahor, Ass.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, state that the wood
is " light red to reddish-brown . . . somewhat lustrous . . . heavy . . . inter-

246 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

locked-grained, fine-textured. . . . The timber is considerably more
elastic, stronger and harder than teak . . . nor is the timber durable in
water, but as house posts or as beams it is durable/'

KELEDANG. Artocarpus lanceaefolia Roxb.

Malaya.

The colour of the wood is bright yellow to dark yellow, darkening on
exposure to the air to a deep walnut colour, similar to that of A . integri-
folia in Ceylon, with a firm, close, compact grain, capable of a very smooth
surface and possessing innumerable fine specks of gum (?) which pro-
vides on the surface a lustrous sheen. Foxworthy recommends it as
suitable for heavy construction and some classes of furniture, but the
wood should be carefully reserved for only a high-class decorative wood-
work.

The very scarce pores vary in size from small to large, and are almost
invariably open; with ill-defined, irregular medullary rays coarse-edged,
but showing on the radial section in light flecks.

KEYAKI. Zelkowa acuminata PI.

Weight 39 Ibs. 9 oz. Japan.

This is a very handsome, hard, fine-grained, golden-brown decorative
wood, somewhat resembling English elm in colour, but with a much finer
quality of texture, which after finishing from the tool displays a bright
metallic lustre. It stands well, does not warp or twist, and if imported
commercially into the United Kingdom, should, when known, make a very
handsome timber for decorative purposes, panelling, and furniture. Pro-
fessor C. S. Sargent (Forest Flora of Japan] describes it as Zelkova Keaki,
and says : " The wood is more esteemed by the Japanese than that of any
other of their trees. It is noted for its toughness, elasticity, and durability,
both in the ground and when exposed to the air. It is considered the best
building material in Japan, although it has become so scarce and ex-
pensive that Keaki is not now used for this purpose except in temples,
where the large, light brown, highly polished columns which support the
roof are always made of this wood." He also says that it surpasses
American oak in " compactness, durability, and lightness ; for Keaki, in
comparison with its strength, is remarkably light." Elwes and Henry
say : " The most beautiful trays and cabinets which come from Japan
are made of dark, irregularly-grained and wavy-lined wood of the Zelkova."
Two good specimens of this tree can be seen in Hyde Park, London, 10 to
12 inches in diameter, and very healthy.

The annual layers are very clearly marked, close, and numerous ; the
medullary rays are strong and well-defined. The pores are single, very

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 247

large and open in the spring wood, but very small and scattered in the
autumn growth.

KING TREE. Mora sp.

British and Dutch Guiana,
Tropical South America.

In an interesting account of some of the colossal trees of the primaeval
forests of Para, given by Bates in his Naturalist on the Amazons, the author
says that amongst " these grand forest trees was the moira-tinga, the
white or king tree/' and he suggests that it is probably the same as, or
allied to, the Mora excelsa, which Sir Robert Schomburgkh discovered in
British Guiana.

For the description of this timber see MORA, Dimorphandra Mora.

KINGWOOD. Dalbergia sp.

Weight 75 Ibs. 13 oz. South America.

For a number of years the wood which for commercial purposes has
been called " kingwood " has been the produce of a number of different
varieties, which have possessed in a greater or lesser degree the character-
istics of the original wood. Holtzapffel speaks of it as being " called
violet-wood — imported from the Brazils in trimmed logs from 2 to 3
inches diameter." He calls it one of the most beautiful hardwoods in
appearance. Foxworthy says that kingwood or violet-wood is " probably
(derived) from species of Dalbergia and best known under these names
from Madagascar and South America." I have a specimen of sissoo
(Dalbergia Sissoo) which, although not quite the same, would pass for
kingwood. Old cabinets, especially of French manufacture, display a
wood which possesses a very transparent surface, and a strong metallic
sheen. The beautiful effect of the wood when so used can be seen in an
English cabinet of the early eighteenth century, which is veneered with
kingwood, and is exhibited in the South Kensington Museum.

The wood is of a rich violet-brown, shading sometimes almost to black,
and streaked with varying lighter and darker markings of golden yellow ;
it has a bright lustre, and a very smooth surface is obtainable. Always a
beautiful cabinet wood, it is still more so when it has become toned with
age.

The wood in cross-section shows concentric marking, mainly dark,
and marked by thin, light lines at irregular intervals. The cross-pores
are large enough to be visible to the naked eye. The medullary rays are
invisible, though on very smooth sections a hazy pattern may be seen.
The fine light-coloured rays stand out, and are crossed at right angles by
similar concentric lines, either singly or several close together. Under the
lens the pores seem to be plugged with a red substance.

If THE

THE OF THE

250 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

KIRI. Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) H. Bn.

P. imperialis S. & Z.
Weight 20 Ibs. Japan.

The wood is extremely light in weight, being scarcely more than half
as heavy as poplar. Of a very light nut-brown or reddish-brown colour,
it somewhat resembles light-coloured wych elm. In Japan it is used for
making musical instruments, bookcases, clogs, and floats for nets. Its
charcoal is employed for polishing, and is reported to be indispensable in
the manufacture of gunpowder. The Japanese excel in high-class cabinet
work, and select this wood in preference to all others for linings and
drawers of small cabinets, because its shrinkage and swelling are infinite-
simal. Such cabinets are not considered to be well made unless the
drawers run easily with the slightest pressure, and the pushing in of one
drawer causes the opening of another. The wood is very costly in Japan.

It is largely cut into very fine veneers which are used for a great
number of quite different purposes, including the lining of small articles,
such as ink-stands, clock cases, etc., also for visiting-cards with the name
printed upon the veneer, and for wall coverings. A music studio in a
well-known London house is decorated throughout with a veneer pasted
on a stout backing.

The annual rings, marked by the very distinct spring zone of numerous
large pores, are often very wide. Outside this zone the small pores are
grouped in short, peripheral lines and thus produce a pattern reminiscent
of plum. The pores are all plugged. The medullary rays are fine and
just visible or quite invisible, though in the radial section they stand out
as light shallow bands.

KOA. Acacia Koa.

Weight 52 Ibs. Hawaii.

A few logs of this wood have been imported into Liverpool, of late
years (1920). They are of good size and length. According to Baterden
it is " related botanically to the blackwood of Australia and Tasmania (A.
Melanoxylori) ... is the one fairly abundant Hawaiian tree which is
valuable for its timber. It is a highly prized cabinet wood, a good deal
used on the island." It is a red mahogany colour, capable of a very
smooth surface with a glossy sheen. The texture is fine and close, and in
appearance the wood shows a similarity to Australian blackwood.

A report in Tropical Woods states that A . koa has been used for furni-
ture, musical instruments, in veneer for radio cabinets and furniture, and
that the curly-grained wood is specially prized.

The pores are medium in size and fairly numerous. The medullary
rays are parallel, very fine, and rather faint.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 251

Ko-ch'ai.

China.

Professor Record identifies this as Castanopsis sp. The specimen sub-
mitted is that of a poor quality wood of the colour and appearance of
American hickory, but with neither strength nor toughness, and with a
liability to twist and warp.

The pores are very dense and irregular. The medullary rays are not
discernible on transverse section, but show very faintly on the radial.

KOKO. Albizzia Lebbek Benth.

Weight 47 Ibs. (Troup) ; my sample 65 Ibs.

India, The Andamans, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Sins, sirin, sirdi, kalsis, tantia, garso, Hind. — Gokiru, Kumaon —
Sinsha, Beng. — H^nh, Ass. — Harren, Panch Mehals — Vaghe, hat
vaghe, Tarn — Tinia, TTriya — Dirasana, darshana, hat vage, pedda
duchirram, Tel. — Kal baghi, bengha, swsul, Kan. — Ch^chola, Mar.
— Kokko, Burm — Beymadd, gachodd, And — Mara, Cingh.

This wood is the produce of the siris tree, and is common as an orna-
mental tree all over India and Burma. It is not common in Ceylon, where
it is called mara, but some trees are to be found there. Up to the present
time (1930), the shipments which have found their way into European
and American markets have been entirely from the Andaman Islands,
where the wood is obtainable in large sizes, up to 3 feet square. It seems
that in parts of India, Burma, and Ceylon the tree rarely attains such a
large size. On first exportation of this timber from the Andamans nearly
all was shipped to America, where it would seem to have been given the
name of East Indian walnut (see Tropical Woods, No. 18, S. J. Record).
But there is reason to believe that these shipments consisted of a mixture
of koko, Albizzia Lebbek , and laurel-wood, Terminalia tomcntosa. The
timber also appeared on the London market, in small quantities mixed
with padauk, but it is probable that these shipments included the produce
of A. procera and A. odoratissima. While a difference can be noticed in
individual logs of the different varieties, a sufficient general resemblance
exists to prevent a certain separate identification.

C. E. Parkinson, in A Forest Flora of the Andaman Islands, quotes
Gamble as an authority for the use of the name of East Indian walnut in
the European markets, but no confirmation can be found. In the latest
edition (1922) of J. S. Gamble, under the heading A Ibizzia Lebbek, the follow-
ing has been added : " The ' burrs ' are especially valuable and fetch ten to
twenty times the price of plain wood. It is probably the ' East Indian
Walnut ' of the European market." Gamble made few mistakes, but an
inspection of all the imports of the United Kingdom during the last forty
years has failed to display one single burr, and including a visit to the

252 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Andamans in 1921, when I made special inquiry, all my efforts have failed
to produce evidence of even one having occurred on this tree, nor have I
ever been able to find any burrs of koko wood. In the United Kingdom
the name of East Indian walnut has been used for the produce of Termin-
alia tomentosa, but I have never seen it applied to that of Albizzia Lebbek.

The task of describing the colour of any given wood is always one of
the utmost difficulty. Degrees of colour are so numerous and minute
that it becomes almost impossible to find adequate words to express the
differences. Of all the timbers, the colour of koko might be said to be
the most difficult to describe, as in different lights the gram reflects
curious and unexpected colours and displays a unique, lustrous sheen, so
that while it would be correct to describe the wood as brown, it can also
be seen golden, almost yellow-golden, and sometimes with a distinct green
shade. It is a very attractive wood for a great variety of decorative wood-
work, and excellent for turnery. The dust given off in working is reported
to be irritant. It has been imported in logs hewn and sawn square, in
lengths of from 8 to 20 feet, and in sizes from 16 to 36 inches.

Among the many different kinds of hardwoods which India possesses,
and until lately considered of little value, koko is an outstanding excep-
tion, as the demand has been regular and consistent. In the Andamans
it was the principal wood used in the convicts' workshops.

There has been a moderate but continuous demand from America,
where a considerable quantity has been used for decorative furniture and
panelling, and by the Pullman Company in coaches, restaurants, and
smoking-carriages .

In the new India House, London, a handsome exhibition of woodwork
in koko can be seen, in the form of panelling and framing, chairs, and other
furniture. At Grosvenor House the panelling and furniture in the recep-
tion room, parquet flooring, and chairs in the library, were furnished in
this wood. The late Henry John Elwes had a number of dining-room
chairs made in koko which were shown at the Exhibition at Holland Park
in 1920, and their condition to-day (1930) leaves nothing to be desired.
At the 1924 Wembley Exhibition many examples were shown of decorative
woodwork in koko, especially the chairs in the dining-room, which were
originally intended for presentation to H.R.H. the Prince of Wales.
These magnificent chairs were a copy of the Chippendale Peacock chair
in the Victoria and Albert Museum, with the Prince of Wales' feathers
substituted for the peacock back. During the six years (1930) since the
Exhibition, they have been in continual use, and it can be seen that the
wood provides a chair wood equal in every respect to Spanish mahogany.
The dining-room of Government House, Port Blair, in the Andaman
Islands, panelled with koko thirty years ago, is still in splendid condition,
also a magnificent partition screen, carved by the convicts and erected at

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

253

the Club House, Port Blair, thirty-two years ago (1930), is still in good
preservation.

rnorograpn oy i . a. LhttreRar
EAST INDIAN WALNUT (ALBIZZIA LEBBEff) IN FRUIT

The pores are large and open, scarce, and irregular in position. The
medullary rays exceedingly fine, wide apart, and irregular.

254 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

KOWHAI. Sophora tetraptera Ait.

Weight, 48 Ibs. New Zealand.

This wood, according to the Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, is
pale brown in colour, heavy and compact, and possesses great strength,
toughness, and elasticity. It is only procurable in short lengths and up to
6 inches in width, and is used for shafts and machinery, agricultural
implements, and for cabinet work.

KRANJI or KERANJI. Dialium spp.

Weight 50 Ibs. Malay Archipelago.

VERN — Kuran, mempanjor.

The colour is a bright brown-red to a rich red, with a very hard, close
grain, often with narrow contrary layers of hard and soft grain, and
possessing an exceptionally bright lustre. Laslett in 1875 described the
wood as exceptionally tough, and one of the strongest with which he was
acquainted. He tested one piece for tensile strength, and the average
weight required to cause breakage was about ten times that of British oak.

Foxworthy, in Bulletin No. i, published in 1916, speaks of keranji as
being one of the finest furniture woods of the country. He mentions also
a number of other species of Dialium which occur in British India and
Malaya. Although isolated cases of commercial activity in keranji have
occurred from time to time, the wood has never been common in the
European markets.

The rather scarce pores, almost invariably open, are irregularly placed,
with small wavy belts of light tissue ranging along the concentric layers
of growth, and very fine, hair-like medullary rays at right angles, the
radial section showing a cross network of light tissue, and the tangential
section fine, rather inconspicuous ripple rays.

K'RUNTUM. Source unknown. ? Helicia sp. (Foxworthy).

Weight 51 Ibs. 13 oz. North Borneo.

This is a hard, moderately heavy wood, light brownish-red in colour,
and resembling shee oak (q.v.}. Foxworthy described the wood as dur-
able, and as being used in the building of houses. He tentatively attri-
butes it to a species of Helicia (Proteaceae). Professor Groom says that
although it does recall certain proteaceous woods that have broad medul-
lary rays, it is probable that it is with equal possibility derived from a
species of Casuarina ; for it shares with species of this genus the posses-
sion of numerous fine (invisible) rays, and thin lines of broken tangential
(concentric) soft tissue, as well as the remarkably broad rays that often
locally divide and become reunited. No distinct annual rings are visible,
but very striking are the numerous, very thick, often dividing medullary

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 255

rays that cover half any surface of the wood, and produce the boldest
silver grain. The pores being large, by their openness somewhat spoil the
appearance of the surface, and often have light-coloured contents that
cause chalky lines along the grain.

Kuei-cWai.

China.

Professor Chung reports this as Cinnamomum, which opinion is con-
firmed by Professor Record. The specimen submitted to Kew is that of
an attractive, light red-brown, close-grained wood, with roe and mottle
figure, and the medullary ray prominent on the radial section. It bears
no resemblance either in texture, grain, or colour to that of the well-
known Cinnamomum sp., nor does the wood possess the scent which is
customary with these. The specimen is more like a brownish-coloured
East India satinwood.

The pores are exceedingly small, mostly plugged. The medullary
rays are very fine, parallel, showing strongly on the radial section.

KUNGKUR. Pithecolobium confertum Benth.

Malaya.
VERN — Medang buavci, medang kok, Kedak.

The wood is a nut-brown colour with a pronounced lustre, so resembling
the wood of the Rain Tree (q.v.} that it is covered by that description.
Foxworthy reports it as easy to work, keeping its shape well, and used for
furniture. The expert would have difficulty in describing the difference
between the two woods.

The very coarse pores are single and double, surrounded by a band of
light-coloured tissue, very sparse ; with sparse medullary rays irregular
but rather wide apart, not prominent.

KUREN. Melia japonica Don.

Weight 66 Ibs. Formosa.

This is a light-brown, very open-grained timber, which in general
appearance resembles wych elm. It is an inferior wood, and is not likely
to be useful for anything but the commonest purposes. It has never yet
been commercially imported into England.

It has large open pores showing marked gum streaks. Many of these
pores appear to wear away, so that the surface becomes irregular. The
annual rings are marked by a belt of large pores, the outer part of each
ring containing a few smaller-sized pores which are joined by light wavy
bands of loose tissue. The medullary rays are faint and very numerous,
and show in flecks on the radial section.

256 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Kurrima zeylanica Arn.

Ceylon.
VERN — Konnai, Tarn. — Palen, ether ally a, uruhonda, Cingh.

The wood of this tree is a light-brown, dirty colour, stained with blue,
with a short grain yielding a rough surface when worked. It is reported
as being used in Ceylon for tea-chests and packing-cases ; it is not suitable
for export.

The pores are very scarce, irregularly placed, mostly plugged, with
strong, rough medullary rays, crossed at irregular intervals by light bands
of larger and smaller pores.

K'u-szu. Source unknown.

China.

This rather attractive wood resembles olive-wood so nearly that it
might pass for it, although much lighter in weight, being only about 25
Ibs. to the foot cube.

It is of close, dense growth ; both pores and medullary rays are in-
discernible under the lens ( -fio).

Kydia Calycina. Roxb.

Weight 36 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Pola, pula, pull, patha, potdn, choupultea, Hind. — Barranga, bhoti,
C.P. — Kakhi, Oudh — Kubmde, Nep. — Sedangtagla, tagla, Lepcha
— Mahow, moshungon, Mechi — Boldobak, Garo — Kopdsia, Unya
— Potri, pandiki, pcddapotri, pedda kunji, kondapatti, Tel —
Buruk, bosha, Gondi — Bendi, bende-naru, bellaka, Kan. — Warang,
ihya, rdn-bhendi, Mar — Bitha gonver, K61 — Derhi, Kharwar —
Wala, Khoncl — Pulan, Jeypore — 'puska olat, vSonthal — Bothi,
Melghat — Petshat, tayawm, tabo, dwabok, divalok, myet-hlwa,
balumashaiv , Burm

The wood is of a whitish-yellow colour, with a straight soft grain ; on
the radial section it shows the medullary rays in flecks, in a manner
resembling beech. Its qualities would not recommend it for export, and
it does not appear to be reported upon very favourably in India.

The pores, though not large, are numerous. The medullary rays are
broad and conspicuous.

LABURNUM. Laburnum vulgar e Berchtold & Presl.

Cytisus Laburnum Linn.
Weight 53 Ibs. (Elwes). Europe.

The beautiful greenish-brown wood of the laburnum, in common with
many other English-grown woods, is seldom used ; yet it is as suitable
for the smaller work of turnery, inlay, and cabinet-making as many
exotic timbers. It is occasionally found in the form of " oysters," which

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 257

are obtained by taking a cross-section of the wood ; these are used in
originals and reproductions of furniture in the Queen Anne style. Elwes
and Henry quote Sang " that in his time (1812) it was the most valu-
able timber grown in Scotland, and . . . sold at IDS. 6d. per foot."
It was then used for cabinet-making, musical instruments, handles, and
chairs.

The annual rings are marked by a belt of large pores, the smaller pores
on the outer part of each ring being joined by wavy concentric lines of
light-coloured tissue. The medullary rays are fine and numerous and
are generally undulating.

LACEWOOD.

See PLANE, Platanus orientalis.

LAGERSTROEMIA.

The timbers produced by Lagerstroemia, except L. parviflora and L.
tomentosa, so much resemble each other that, while it might be advisable
on account of the different localities from which they are produced to
describe them separately, yet from the timber point of view the character-
istics and uses are so similar that they may well be classed together. In
the development or exploitation of these timbers such a practice would
prove advantageous. In the aggregate the quantity is considerable, but
difficulties of transport, and other obstacles, prevent the continuity of
supply. The wood known on the English market as " American oak "
includes possibly twenty-two varieties : all are mixed together and
brought into commercial use under the one common name. In like
manner it would be advantageous if the supplies of the different species of
Lagerstroemia could be mixed together, and labelled Pyinma, the name
employed in the trade. In common with all other woods, there are
slight variations to be found in different samples of the same wood ;
some being a little darker or lighter, harder or softer than others. These
variations are not greater than in other sorts, and would not militate
against its use.

Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae would be supplied from India and Burma,
L. hypolenca from the Andamans, and L. lanceolata from Western
India.

Most of the wood is of a red-brown colour, with a rather shining sur-
face, produced by specks of bright gum. The grain'is straight and even,
with occasional exceptions, when highly figured logs are found. Such
trees produce a beautiful timber, presenting a very attractive appear-
ance.

258 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae Retz.

Weight 43 Ibs. (Troup). India, Burma, Ceylon, Malay

Peninsula.

VERN — Jarul, Beng — Ajhar, Ass. — Bolashan, Garo — Gara saikre, K61 —
Taman, mota bondara, Mar — Kadali, pumaruthu, Tarn. — Challd
hole dasdl, Kan. — Adamboe, mani maruthu, mr maruthu, Mai. —
Shem marutha, Trav. Hills — Kamaung, Magh. — Einmive or Eik-
mwe, pvinma, pvinma-ni, Burm. — Muruta, Cingh. — Bongor,
bunga, Malay. *

The wood varies according to different supplies, from a light red-brown
colour to a darker and deeper tint, and has a slightly lustrous sheen.
The grain is straight and even, producing good surface from the tool. It
was shown at the Empire Timber Exhibition at Wembley in the form of
panelling for the Westminster Bank, which was subsequently removed
and set up in the branch bank at St. Martin's le Grand. The panelling
was greatly admired. It has also been used by the Post Office for tele-
graphic and telephonic instrument cases, etc.

A considerable difficulty has been experienced in obtaining supplies,
otherwise a much extended use would have been possible. Gamble
reports it as " the chief timber tree of Assam, Eastern Bengal, and
Chittagong, and one of the most important of the trees of Burma. ... It
is very handsome when covered with its large lilac flowers."

The pores are variable in size, and somewhat plugged. The medullary
rays are exceedingly small and fine, and are very difficult to identify
with the lens ( + 12).

Lagerstroemia hypoleuca Kurz.

Weight 44 Ibs. The Andaman Islands.

The description of the wood is similar to that of Lagerstroemia Flos-
Reginae (q.v.), varying more in colour from light to dark.

For all descriptions see that of L. Flos-Reginae, as also for identification.

Lagerstroemia lanceolata Wall., syn. L. microcarpa Wight.

Weight 53 Ibs. West Coast of India.

VERN — Benteak, venteak, Tarn. — Ventaku, Tel. — Bolunditr, bilh-randi,
Kan. — Nana, Mar. — Senjdl, Mai. — Venda, vengalam, Trav. Hills.

For description and identification see that of L. Flos-Reginae.

Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.

Weight 45-60 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Bdkh, hat dhaura, dhaura, adhuan lendya, seina, sida, asid, Hind.
— Sida, Beng., Mechi, Ass. — Bordheri, bordengri, Nep. — Kanhil,
Lepcha — Shida, Garo — Shej, Bancla — Seji, Bijeragogarh — Kakna,
Guz. — Sahine, Chanda — Chakrej, Kurku — Chinangi, Tel. — Chunji,
pilugu, Hyderabad — Nana, bondara, nandi, belhnandi, sina,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 259

sokutia, lendi, Mar. — Ventaku, chemnge, Kan — Lendya, Baigas —
Sina, nelh, leria, Gondi — Chekerey, Kurku — Sidha, Uriya — Nahua,
Khond — Sianangi, Palkanda — Saikre, K61, Sonthal — Tsambelay,
Yaungbale, Kyettaivra, Burm. — Lendia.

For colour and grain see description of Leza, L. tomentosa. This wood
can be used in conjunction with L. tomentosa without distinction. It is
perhaps a little more open-grained, but otherwise similar.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, liken it to L.
calyculata, referring to it as a wood which, " if properly seasoned . . .
has a most promising future." No difficulty has been experienced in
seasoning the wood in England, and some very high-class cabinet work
has been executed, suggesting that it is far too valuable a wood to be used
for common purposes.

The pores are numerous and irregular in size and position, connected
by a network of short, fine, irregular patterns or bands, making a wavy
and pretty pattern. The medullary rays are very numerous and ex-
tremely line, only just discernible by the lens, and do not show on the
radial section.

LALONE. Source unknown.

Weight 69 Ibs. Cuba.

In 1892, some hewn logs of about 15 to 18 inches square, to which
this name was given, were imported into London. The wood is of a red
plum colour, similar in density and texture to Spanish mahogany. It is
capable of a fine smooth surface from the tool.

The pores are scattered and filled with a bright shining gum. The
medullary rays are fine, uneven, and somewhat irregular. The tangential
surface shows the pores also shining brightly, with minute specks of gum.

LANCEWOOD, MOULMEIN.

See Homalium tomentosum.

LANCEWOOD. Oxandra lanceolata S. W. Baitt.

Tropical South America.

VERN — Lancewood, Eng. gen. — Lanzcnhoh, Germ. — Bois de lance, bois
d'arc, Fr. — Palo de lanza, Sp. — Yaya, Sp. Am. — Yava comun,
Cuba — Black lancewood, white lancewood, Jam — Hava pneta, haya
blanca, yaya, yaya blanca, puno, P.R. — Benba, jerjerecou, Fr. G.
— Yan-yan, yarn-yarn, arara, carisitt, carra-sen, kada-burichi,
karasen, hoivadanni, arrewawa ? B.G. — Gttanabanillo, Venez. —
Yaya, yalla, Pan. — Biribd, embyu branco, pinhao, envira, ouregou,
pindahyba, Braz.

The colour of the wood is a pale yellow, resembling a dull satinwood ;
it has a very close, smooth grain which splits or rends freely. On account
of its special elasticity and springiness it is the best timber for cart
shafts. It is also used in a great number of different works, amongst

260 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

which are bows and measuring-rods, though these latter are generally
supposed to be made of boxwood.

LANCEWOOD, ST. DOMINGO.

Weight 62 Ibs. (Record). West Indies, British Guiana.

The prominent position which St. Domingo lance wood formerly
occupied in the timber trade has been disturbed on account of the change
which has taken place in the demand, largely caused through the advent
of mechanical transport. Lancewood spars were in great demand, and
high prices were realised for good quality. The demand came from
different trades, and has now fallen off ; but supplies have also diminished,
so that to-day the true South American lancewood is expensive and rare.
The peculiar qualities of bending and resilience, and the general character,
make the wood unique for many purposes, such as measuring-rods, rules,
etc.

The colour is similar to that of boxwood, with a firm, close grain, very
hard and tough. In the transverse section the characteristics arc also
similar to those of boxwood, the numerous pores being infinitesimal* in
size, with strong, well-defined medullary rays very thin, rather wide, and
showing on the radial section in a marked fashion, as in sycamore.

LARANGEIRA. Esenbeckia febrifuga Mart.

Weight 49 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Larangcira do matto, quina do matto, mamonhinho, trcs folhas
vermelhas.

The wood is of a pale-yellow straw colour, and has a dense, close grain,
slightly lustrous. According to Stone, it would appear that this is the
Brazilian orange-wood (Citrus aiwantium). Colonel Gamble's specimen
corresponds in all respects with Stone's account of orange-wood, though
it could hardly be described as, in his words, " a wood of beauty."

Record reports it as only obtainable in small to medium sizes, and this,
as well as its appearance, indicates that it might be serviceable as a substi-
tute for boxwood.

The pores are very small and need the lens to be distinguishable ; they
are sometimes joined in twos and threes. The medullary rays are very
fine, numerous, and wavy. There are white concentric lines of loose
tissue at varying intervals.

ARCH. Larix europaea DC.

Weight 47 Ibs. 13 oz. United Kingdom, Europe.

This is one of the most valuable softwood timbers, found throughout
the United Kingdom, chiefly in the north, and in the temperate and colder
regions of the northern hemisphere. So far as England is concerned,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 26i

larch, although growing at our door, was despised and little cared for
before the war. This is the more remarkable when it is realised that the
Romans used this wood for their amphitheatres and other buildings.

The colour of the wood varies from a light, bright red to a warm brick
colour, always with lighter and darker streaks similar to the well-known
marking of pitch pine, to which it bears a strong resemblance. There is a
great diversity of thickness in the growth of the concentric layers, which
vary according to the climatic conditions under which the tree is grown.
The annual rings in some cases are very regular and measure only .-*.,-
inch, while in others, of exceedingly wide growth, they increase up to
f inch or more. This same divergence is also to be observed in individual
trees, which range through nearly as great a latitude.

The wood requires care after conversion. To get the best results it
should be taken direct from the saw, and carefully stored under cover,
with sticks evenly and regularly distributed between the planks. It is
apt to discolour while fresh, and more than in the case of ordinary soft
timbers, is inclined to warp and twist. An exceedingly durable wood
under all conditions. Perhaps this quality is best demonstrated by its
use in the form of piles, or for wharfmg timbers.

It is stated on good authority that the greater number of the houses
in Venice are built upon piles of this timber, particularly those of which
the supports are alternately exposed to wet and dry conditions ; many of
these piles after being in place for ages are said not to have the least
appearance of decay. Elwes mentions that " churches and manor
houses (in Poland) built 300 to 500 years ago of larch wood are still
standing."

A specimen piece of a pile driven in 1854-55 in the river Nene was
taken up in 1904, when it was found to be in a perfect state of preservation.
Part of the wood was subjected during this period to the action of wind
and weather, and alternate wetting and drying. Many notable Italian
pictures have been painted on panels of larch. It makes excellent floor-
ing, and if creosoted would be suitable for wood paving, as it is hard
enough to resist the wear of traffic, while also giving a good foothold for
horses. Used as sleepers, larch is superior to other softwoods, and its
greater value in general is shown by the fact that the controlled price of
larch during the war was 30 per cent higher than that of any other British
softwoods. It is one of the most profitable timbers which can be planted
in this country, though the prevalence of larch disease has of late years
stimulated the planting of Douglas fir in its place. It is to be hoped,
however, that as this disease has practically disappeared, larch will again
take the premier position which it deserves. A plantation of this wood,
when only thirty-nine years old, yielded timber more than 10 inches in
diameter at breast height.

262 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Before the war the use of larch was confined to such class of work as
park and other fencing, but consequent upon the restricted import of
foreign timbers, it began to receive honour in its own country. Its
utility for a variety of purposes has become widely realised, and the con-
tinued demand in preference to other British softwoods proves its value.
Amongst other purposes it has taken the place of pitch pine in the frame-
work for bed-springs.

LARCH, ALPINE. Larix Lyallii Parl.

British Columbia, N.W.
United States.

Light reddish-brown in colour, this wood is coarse-grained, hard, and
heavy. Suitable for mining purposes.

LARCH, SIBERIAN. Larix sibirica
L. dahurica.

Siberia.

A steady importation of larch, described as Archangel, began about
thirty years ago, and continued in a more or less irregular manner until the
war. The wood was imported in logs, round and hewn square, and deals
and planks, generally only in sizes of 3 inches by 9 inches and 3 inches by
ii inches, and the import is now continued under the name of Siberian larch
instead of Archangel. This is probably due to the fact that in earlier days
it was shipped from the White Sea, while latterly shipments were from the
Kara Sea. These consist now of all sizes of boards, battens, deals, and
scantlings. The grading of qualities is similar to-day to that which was
originally adopted in regard to the red wood shipped from Archangel,
and the prices generally ruling for larch are on a slightly higher level.
The colour and grain are similar to the product of the Archangel pine
(Pinm sylvestris) but a little redder, and the wood is very much heavier,
harder, and stronger, and provides a first-class constructional timber
which ought to be in great demand. There is hardly any data upon
which to base the durability of Siberian larch, but there is reason to believe
that it has a good record.

Elwes mentions a report from Morgan Gellibrand & Company that
" all the lighters at Onega were built of larch timbers, which lasted a very
long time," and that when " an old house at Archangel, which had been
built on a foundation of larch logs, was pulled down, they were found to
be quite sound after . . . possibly a hundred years." He also quotes
Messrs. Pearson & Sons, who " used a large quantity of larch deals for
their block moulds . . . and the wood has given entire satisfaction."

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 263

LARCH, WESTERN. Larix occidentalis Nutt.

Weight 34-42 Ibs. (Baterden). British Columbia, N.W.

United States.

Elwes, quoting Sargent, says : " Western larch surpasses that of all
other American conifers in hardness and strength ; it is very durable,
beautifully coloured, and free from knots ; it is adapted to all sorts of
construction, and beautiful furniture can be made from it." He also
states that until its old name of " tamarack " was changed to that of
" western larch " the timber was little esteemed, but now it is extensively
exported ; the coarse grades are used for heavy constructional work,
railway tics, etc., and the finer sawn into planks for flooring and other
indoor finish, panelling, mouldings, cabinet-making. " Little inferior to
oak in strength and durability " (Baterden).

LAUAN. Source unknown.

Weight 41 Ibs. Philippine Islands.

It is difficult to give a reliable account of the woods, which have been
known in commerce since 1920, called by this name. Foxworthy speaks
of " White Lauan," " Almon," and " Red Lauan," giving the name of
" Meranti " as " all the product of several species of Shorea, or of Para-
shorea plicata and Pentacme contorta, and possibly of Hopea." The
activities of American lumbermen and others in the Philippine Islands
during the last few years have produced very large quantities of timbers
varying somewhat in quality and appearance, all of which may have been
collected from the supplies included under the name of lauan. This
timber has been shipped to America, Australia, Europe, and elsewhere.
Various names have been employed, such as " Lauan," " Red Lauan,"
" White Lauan," " Apitong," " Bagac," " Philippine Mahogany," " Bag-
tikan," etc., and while the appearance and quality of the different ship-
ments have varied, even in some respects in actual characteristics, there
has been no great departure from the original authoritative specimen, the
variation having been more in hardness or softness and colour. Father
Gaspard de St. Augustine says, in his manuscript History of the Philippine
Islands, that the outside planks of the old Manilla and Acapulco galleons
were of lauan wood, and that it was chosen because it does not splinter
with shot.

The timber varies from a light yellow colour to a brown-red or brown,
with a fairly close grain, rather stringy, working only fairly well under
machine or hand tool, without the necessary strength for mortice and
tongue, so that it provides a substitute for only the lowest qualities of
mahogany. A prolonged dispute has been carried on in America because
of its introduction under the name of " Philippine mahogany." After a

264 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

long argument, and following apparently the decision by the Circuit Court
of Appeals disallowing the term Mahogany, this decision was reversed
and it has now been agreed that the trade name of " Philippine mahogany "
may be used (1932).

A considerable quantity has been consumed in the United Kingdom
in works of secondary importance, for linings and shelves of cabinets, and
for various fittings where the wood is not seen prominently, but it does
not command favour.

The concentric layers are clearly defined, pores very numerous, largely
plugged, single and in duplicate. The medullary rays irregular, crossed
at right angles at irregular intervals by similar faint white lines. While
the medullary rays do not show in a very pronounced manner on the
transverse section, they show very strongly in marked flakes on the radial.

LAUREL, COMMON. Prunus Laurocerastis L.

Asia, Europe.

This shrub, also known as " cherry laurel," had spread all over Europe
at a very early date, and according to Evelyn was introduced into England
in 1614. The colour of the wood is a pinkish-white, with a hard, rough
grain.

The medullary rays showing very fine, like tiny beech grain.

LAURELWOOD. Terminalia tomentosa W. & A.

Weight 48-74 Ibs. (Gamble). Throughout India and Burma.

VERN — Saj, sein, sain, asan, assain, assaina, asna, sadn, Hind. — Piasal,
usan, Beng — Jhau, Rajbanshi — Aman, Ass — Taksor, Lepcha —
Sahdju, kala sahdju, Uriya — Athna, sadra, sadara, sadora, am,
Berar — Barsaj, Bijeragogarh — Karra marda, karu maruthu,
ancmui, Tarn. — Maddi, nalla maddi, nclla-madu, Tel. — Matti, kan
math, banapu, Kan — Thcmbavu, Mai. — Sadn, hadn, Guz. —
Murada, kali maruthai, Arcot — Karkaya, sadora, holda, dudi
maddi, Hyderabad — Am, madat, yen, Mar. — Saja, Baigas —
Maru, Gondi — Madge, Bhil — A tana, Sonthal — Maddi, Reddi —
Chouchong, Talcing — Taukkyan, Burm.

This wood varies in colour from a yellowish-brown through all stages
to a rich warm brown, with dark streaks ; it is handsomely marked, and
produces all kinds of figure, including stripy or straight roe, broken roe
and mottle, generally resembling European walnut but more strongly
figured, with a hard, close, firm, dense grain. The tree is distributed over
a very wide area, covering almost all parts of India and Burma ; the
plainer wood, and lighter in colour, coming from Bengal and Northern
India, while the best figured wood is practically limited to supplies from
Southern India. Burma provides a fair proportion of slightly figured
wood, and some with good figure, but generally the logs are of a very

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 265

faulty character, especially in the heart-wood of every tree, which is very
shaky and defective.

A few logs hewn square and sometimes in the round were seen in the
London market upwards of twenty-five years before the war, but they
caused httle notice, and the very beautiful qualities which the wood pos-
sesses remained undiscovered. About the year 1903 a shipment which
arrived here was sent to New York, when the enterprise and knowledge of
those concerned brought the wood into prominent notice. The figured
logs were sawn or knife-cut into veneers, and the plainer logs into lumber.
Some very high-class decorative woodwork was provided, particularly in
Pullman cars on the railways, where the plain wood was utilised for fram-
ing and mouldings, and some very handsomely figured wood for the panels.
There was little further development until in London at the Holland Park
Exhibition in 1920, when laurelwood was again shown to great advantage,
and in 1924 at the great Wembley Exhibition some magnificent work was
shown, in which the wood was displayed with great effect, and resulted in
its general acceptance as one of the finest of all decorative woods.

Among the outstanding works is the very large panelling in the voting
lobbies at the London County Hall. The library in the late offices of the
High Commissioner for India, in Grosvenor Gardens, was panelled with
this splendid wood. The large committee-room of the new India House
is trimmed throughout with laurelwood, and the immense committee-
table shows a fine selection of mottled wood, while the large panels in this
room present the appearance of " walnut " marble ; the small committee-
room adjoining is panelled with a different class of the finest splash mottle
figure. The whole of the ground floor of Messrs. Glynn Mills' Bank in
Whitehall is furnished in this wood. Another outstanding work is that
of one of the rooms in the new Melchett building at Westminster, where
large-sized doors, finishing over 2 inches in thickness, have been provided
in solid wood, and found to stand as well as any other hardwood, without
warping, shrinking, or twisting.

It is very strong and durable, and is especially suitable for chair-
making. Some chairs copied from original Sheraton patterns were shown
at the 1920 Exhibition, which are in perfectly sound and good condition
now (1931), the colour and figure having much improved with exposure
to light and air.

The general objections to the use of a very hard wood have been freely
circulated, and undoubtedly laurelwood is hard to work and wasteful in
conversion ; but it has been demonstrated that modern machinery and
methods of working have overcome the one difficulty, and although laurel-
wood is somewhat wasteful, it is not more so than is the case with many
other beautiful, high-class, figured woods.

The pores are not numerous, open and surrounded by a light ring of

266 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

soft tissue, mostly connected in wavy belts by the same kind of light
marking. The medullary rays are very indistinct even under the lens,
and very fine and numerous, crossed at right angles at irregular intervals
with similar light lines, which connect the pores.

LAURUSTINUS. Viburnum Tinus Linn.

The Mediterranean region.

The wood is a pinkish -white colour, with a close grain, very hard
and heavy, like Venezuelan boxwood.

The pores are small and numerous, the medullary rays showing in tiny
flecks on the radial section.

LEZA WOOD. Lager stroemia tomentosa Presl.

Weight 50 Ibs. (Troup). India, Burma.

VERN — Leza, Burm.

The wood is of a grey-brown straw colour, with a line, close gram,
equalling the Mexican prima vera, and not unlike it in appearance. It is
capable of a very smooth surface from the tool, and is an admirable de-
corative wood for high-class work. Gamble reports it as valuable for
boats and spar-handles ; it is also used for canoes and cart-wheels, but
would provide a far better decorative furniture wood than the teak which
is commonly used throughout Burma.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, refer to this timber
as closely approaching that of L. Flos-Reginae ; but in this opinion, as also
in the suggestion that it should be tested for golf sticks, I am not in
agreement.

The pores are regular and small, connected by a network of short, fine,
light concentric bands. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine and
numerous, parallel and equidistant, and show in a kind of fine ripple ray
on the radial and tangential sections.

Li-ch'ai.

China.

Professor Record identifies this as Liquidambar sp., which American-
produced wood it much resembles, but with a greyer colour and a harder
grain. Like the American wood it is very liable to warp and twist unduly,
which characteristic is noticeable in Professor Chung's four-inch-wide
specimen. The surface is covered with minute specks of brightly shining
gum.

The minute pores are very numerous and regularly placed. The
medullary rays are obscure, but show on the radial section in tiny
flecks.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 267

LIGNUM-VITAE. Guaiacum officinale Linn,

G. sanctum Linn.
Weight 88 Ibs. 9 oz. The West Indies, Central America.

VKRN — Lignum-vitae , U.S., general trade — Guaiacum-wood, Eng. — Holy
wood, wood of life, Indian wood, Lit — Guayacan, guaiacan,
guajacan, Span. — Lignum sanctum, guayacan bianco, hoaxacan,
P.R. — Guayacan negro, guayacan pneto, palo santo, Cuba — Gayac
jaune vert, Mart. — Bois de gaiac, hois de gayac, bois sant, Fr. —
Pockholz, guaiacholz, guajak, guajakholz, franzosenholz, lignum
sanctumholz , Germ. — Guataco nero, legno santo, legno benedetto,
legno di guaicao, Ttal. — Pokhout, Dutch — Guaiaco, Port — Congo
cypress, Brush-back trade, local.

According to Record, at least six species are recognised by botanists,
but very little reliable information is available regarding their respective
ranges. There are two species in the West Indies, namely, G. officinale L.
and G. sanctum L. The best quality is that from San Domingo, which
ranges in lengths of 12 to 18 feet and 8 to 12 inches in diameter.

In an exhaustive article by Record on Lignum-vitae, published in
1921, the latest information available regarding this wood can be found.
He tells us that Oviedo in 1514 mentions the name of " guayacan " as a
native tree ; also that lignum-vitae has been an article of trade since 1508,
when it was supposed to contain marvellous medicinal qualities, but that
it is now little employed in medicine.

The lignum-vitae received from San Domingo is that which contains
the largest sap-ring. It has been customary to divide all the shipments
into two sorts, these being described respectively as " thick sap " and
" thin sap." In the former the sap-rings vary from anything between
one inch to more than two-thirds of the tree, but in the latter generally
from not more than half an inch to an inch. The heart-wood is of a
greenish-black colour, and, upon being exposed to light and air, grows
darker. The sap-wood is a bright light yellow, in colour very similar to
East Indian satinwood. Lignum-vitae is one of the hardest and heaviest
of timbers ; it is also one of the most useful, and for a great many purposes
it has been found impossible to produce a substitute. The maintenance
of a sufficient store of supply may indeed be said to be a question of
national importance, for during the war the great demand practically
exhausted all the available supplies. There is nothing equal to it for
making sheaves for blocks, and when employed in this way it wears well
and seems almost imperishable. Laslett said that he had examined some
sheaves after they had been in use for fifty to seventy years, and found
them perfectly good and fit for further service.

Perhaps the most important of the many uses to which it is put is
for the bushing of the stern-tubes for propeller shafts in all, even the
largest ships. In a private note Mr. S. Woodrow says : " Lignum-vitae

268 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

has been found by long experience to be the best material for this purpose,
as, owing to the silky nature of the wood, and the oil contained in it
acting in conjunction with the water, a natural lubricant is formed."
The life of the material when used in this manner is extraordinary, and
varies from three to seven years, the shortest period being the life of the
wood for a fast ship like the Manretania. It is also used for making
bowls, for which purpose no other wood is so suitable, and for the packings
between saws in machine-saw frames.

Holtzapffel says that " when first cut it is soft and easily worked, but
it becomes much harder on exposure to the air. The wood is cross-
grained, covered with a smooth yellow sap-like box, almost as hard as the
wood, which is of a dull brownish -green, and contains a large quantity
of the gum guaiacum, which is extracted for the purposes of medicine.
. . . The fibrous structure of this wood is very remarkable ; the fibres
cross each other sometimes as obliquely as at an angle of 30 degrees
with the axis, as if one group of the annual layers wound to the
right, the next to the left, and so on, but without much apparent
exactitude."

In the Museum at Kew there is a remarkable specimen of a piece
which was taken from a parcel, the whole of which, consisting of many
tons, was attacked by a form of rot which spread from the centre to the
circumference along the medullary rays in a continuation of perforations,
and appeared as though attacked by a worm. The whole parcel was ren-
dered valueless by this extraordinary condition of decay, strangely con-
fined to the heart-wood and stopping abruptly short of the sap-wood,
which was apparently quite unaffected. Professor Record says this seri-
ous defect of heart rot occurs in the growing tree, but the wood is durable
after the tree is felled.

Strange to relate, lignum-vitae must have found its way into England
in the early days of the seventeenth century. According to Domestic
Utensils of Wood, by Owen Evans-Thomas, just published (1932), wassail-
bowls dated circa 1640 were made of lignum-vitae, and apparently a great
many specimens of early seventeenth -century work can be produced in
this wood. Almost everything prior to that date seems to have been
turned from British-grown pear tree, maple, sycamore, beech, etc.

Lignum-vitae was used in the form of marquetry for the decoration of a
Dutch table of the late seventeenth century, which is to be seen in the
South Kensington Museum.

The pores are exceedingly small and scarce. The medullary rays are
hardly visible with the aid of the lens ( + 12). My specimen displays, on
the transverse grain extending at right angles to the concentric layers, a
very pretty marking which has an effect like moire silk. Nothing can be
seen under the lens to explain this appearance.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 269

LILAC, CALIFORNIA. Ceathus thyrsiflorus.

California.

Also known as " blue myrtle." This is an uninteresting straw-coloured
wood with a pink tinge, and a rather coarse grain, not comparable with
the common lilac Syringa vulgaris.

The concentric layers are clearly marked by light, broad lines, with
prominent open pores in a single line of concentric growth ; in later
growth there are numerous exceedingly fine pores in short wavy belts.
Very numerous, very fine medullary rays, which do not show on the radial
section.

LILAC TREE. Syringa vulgaris Linn.

The British Isles.

The colour varies from a pale yellow to a darker tint of yellowish-
salmon, with faint stripes resembling a bleached Brazilian tulip-wood,
with a firm, hard grain capable of taking an exceedingly smooth surface.
It is possible that the lighter or darker colour of the wood follows the
colour of the lighter or darker flower. For delicate cabinet work or
inlays it would be comparable with tulip-wood or king-wood.

The late Mr. E. N. Kent, of Letchmore Heath, had an auctioneer's or
chairman's table hammer made from a lilac tree grown in his grounds,
which proved to be as strong and useful as any made of lignum-vitae. A
piece taken from a tree grown in West Sussex yielded up to a 6-inch
width, which while lighter in colour is still very attractive.

The concentric layers are marked by dark lines. The innumerable
minute pores arc plugged, with very numerous clearly defined medullary
rays showing on the radial section in tiny flecks.

LIME. Tilia cordata Miller.

Weight 37 Ibs. 8 oz. Europe.

" The wood is very light-coloured, fine and close in the gram, and when
properly seasoned it is not liable to split or warp. It is nearly or quite as
soft as deal, and is used in the construction of pianofortes, harps, and other
musical instruments, and for the cutting boards for curriers, shoemakers,
etc., as it does not draw or bias the knife in any direction of the grain, nor
injure its edges ; it turns very cleanly " (Holtzapffel).

Lime-wood is well suited for carving ; its smooth and even texture
makes it a good medium for this art. A fine example may be seen in the
Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, where there are two
beautifully carved oval plaques of the period of Henri IV., of the late
sixteenth or early seventeenth century. Mr. Haycock, of the L.M.S.
Railway Works, reports that he has used lime-wool very largely for
artificial limbs, with great success.

270 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

A thin, light concentric band may or may not mark the annual layer
of growth. The pores are very small and obscure. The numerous
parallel medullary rays are fine and are clearly marked.

Limonia acidissima Linn.

Weight 61 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Burma.

VERN — Beh, Hind. — Tor-claga, Tel. — Kawat, Mar. — Bharassi, Jeypore —
Keiri, kan, Merwara — Belsian, Palamow — Bhenta, Uriya — Nai-
bcla, Kan. — Thihaza, thanatka, Burm.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report that this
wood is " light lemon-yellow when first exposed, turning light brownish-
yellow with age . . . hard, straight-grained, even and very fine-textured.
. . . Reported to be very durable and immune to insects and fungus
attack (J. W. Nicholson). . . . Tested for turnery/'

Litsaea chinensis Lamk.

Weight 45-48 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon,

Malaya, China,
Australia.

VERN — Maida lakn, meda lakn, gwd, ridn, chandra, gar bijaur, singrauf,
Pb , N.W. Prov. — Medh, Oudh — Churo, kathula, Kumaon —
Katmara, shin gran, Garhwal — Garoli, Dotial — Kukur chita, Beng.
— Suppatnvok, Lepcha — Maida lakn, Mar. — Katakamma, Reddi
—Narra alagi, Tel. — Elumpurukki, Tarn. — Bomt, bombi, Cingh —
Ondon, Burm

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, remark that L.
scbifera Pers. is a synonym of the above species.

The colour of the wood is a light brick-red, with a close grain yielding
a smooth surface from the tool, and not hard. Gamble reports it as
durable and not attacked by insects, and Foxworthy as " nearly inde-
structible," a description which is not justified on examination of the
specimen itself. It is not suitable for export.

The concentric layers of growth are marked by dark, obscure, irregular
rings. The minute, plugged pores are rather scarce, and arranged in
duplicate and in small irregular belts, with very fine medullary rays,
hardly discernible under the lens.

Litsaea Gardneri Thw.

Ceylon.

A yellowish, straw-coloured, fairly hard wood with a straight grain.
More information about this wood is required, as it should be useful for
many purposes in its native country, although not of sufficient interest for
export.

The pores are numerous, very small, mostly plugged. Medullary rays

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 271

obscure, very fine, crossed at right angles by tiny light lines making a
network pattern.

Litsaea zeylanica C. & Fr. Nees.

Weight 54 Ibs. Ceylon.

VERN — Kanvel, chirchira, Mar. — Bodeda, Saura — Akupatnkam, Tel —
Belon, Badaga — V ay ana, Mai — Dawml-kurundu, kudu-dawula,
Cingh.

The wood has an agreeable silver-grey colour resembling that of hare-
wood, with a close, firm grain, yielding a smooth surface from the tool.
Being an attractive wood, it should meet with a ready demand if it could
be supplied in market sizes free from defect ; suitable for inlay, turnery,
or any decorative woodwork of a superior character.

The concentric layers of growth are marked by dark rings ; very
numerous, minute pores, plugged. Medullary rays exceedingly line, and
not showing on the transverse section.

LOCUS WOOD.

See ANGELIQUE, Dicorynia paraensis Bth.

LOCUST WOOD.

See TEAK, SURINAM, Hymenaea Courbaril.

LOGWOOD. Haematoxylon campechianum Linn.

Weight 50-60 Ibs. Central America.

VERN — Logwood, campeachy or campechy wood, campetch, peach-wood,
poach-wood, blackivood, blockwood, Eng. — Campecheholz, Campes-
chenholz, blauholz, blutholz, allerheihgenholz, blank holz, Germ. —
Bois noir, bois bleu, bois de Campeche, bois de sang, bois sanglant,
bois de la Jamaique, bois de Nicaragua, campeche, campeche carmen,
campeche rouge, cceur rouge, Fr. — Campeggio, legno di campeggio,
legno azzurro, legno nero, Ital. — Palo de Campeche, palo de sangre,
palo azul, palo de tinta, Unto, Span. — Pao sanguinho, Port.

Record reports it as a strong, rather brittle, highly durable wood,
finishing smoothly and taking a high polish. It is better known in com-
merce as a dyewood and not useful as timber.

Longan-ch'ai. Source unknown.

China.

Professor Chung identifies this as Euphoria longana. The wood is
extremely hard, close-grained, resembling apple, but darker in colour.

The pores are very small, generally open, a few plugged. The medul-
lary rays are almost indistinguishable under the lens ( + 10).

272 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

LONG JACK. F Under sia Oxyleyana.

Weight 46 Ibs. (Baker). N.S. Wales, Queensland.

Known as yellow-wood ash in Queensland. The grain is close, firm,
and hard, with a good bottom, and the colour that of a West Indian
satinwood, which wood it resembles, so that in finished work it might be
mistaken for it, although a little duller in colour and less satiny. Layers
of concentric growth are strongly marked on the transverse section.
Baker calls it she-teak and refers to it as " being close in grain, some-
what similar to American Ash, tough or leathery to work, polishes well."
A strange description, as the wood is quite unlike either teak or ash,
either in colour, texture, or anything else.

Lophopetalum fimbriatum Wight.

Weight 34 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, state that the
colour is " uniform pale yellow to light pinkish- or brownish-grey with a
faint yellowish cast, with inconspicuous light brown streaks or mottled
with light brown on the tangential surface . . . somewhat lustrous . . .
straight-grained, medium- and even-textured. . . . Not durable in the open
or in contact with the ground. Under cover it is durable and keeps its
colour. . . . The Manager of the Radharani Saw Mills states that during
the war he supplied this timber to be tested for aeroplane frames and
that it was favourably reported on by the authorities. Not an ornamental
timber, but a fine, clean board wood, suitable for all general carpentry
purposes."

Lophopetalum Wightianum Arn.

Weight 28-29 Ibs. (Gamble). India.

VERN — Balpale, Kan. — Vengalkattei, Tarn. — Vengkotta, karuka, Mai. —
Vengkadavan, Trav. Hills.

The wood is of a pale straw colour, with a fine, close grain, similar to
that of a hard Honduras mahogany. It is a valuable furniture wood, but
without any particular characteristic ; suitable for linings, backings, or
other fine cabinet work where close-grained, reliable wood is needed.

The pores are very variable in size, open, irregular in position, giving
an appearance of having been made by some insect. The medullary rays
are of the finest possible character, very numerous and close, and crossed
at right angles, at very irregular intervals, by fine chains of light, wavy
bands.

LOSONIA. ? Dysoxylum sp.

Weight 40 Ibs. India, Burma.

A shipment was made for the 1920 Holland Park Exhibition from
Bengal under the name of losonia, which Mr. S. K. Button thinks is

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 273

Dysoxykim procerum or Z). binectariferum. He gives the Nepali vernacular
as " lahasune." Although there is some resemblance between the wood
of losonia and aukchinza, the structure is different, and either Burma
aukchinza or Bengal losonia is probably attributed to the wrong source.
The wood closely resembles that of poon (Calophyllum tomentosum).

The colour of losonia is a dull lightish-red, with a nice grain which
works well under the tool, stands well in all positions, and is a useful
substitute for mahogany.

The concentric layers are marked by thin, dark lines at irregular
intervals, the pores from small to medium size, scarce, joined by extremely
fine white lines, making an attractive pattern. The very fine medullary
rays are very close together and irregular.

LOURO.

See Cordia sp.

LOURO VERMELHO.

Brazil.

The colour of the wood is yellow with a tinge of green, much resembling
the wood of louro, Cordia frondeus (q.v.), but with marked contrary layers
of hard and soft grain. Record reports : " The commonest and most
generally used ' louro ' seems to be the ' vermelho/ Ocotea sp., which is
well suited for lumber. . . . The wood is easily worked, and although it is
considerably heavier than the cedro (Cedrela), which it somewhat re-
sembles, it is used for many of the same purposes as that wood and is
much cheaper." Some confusion exists in this as in man}7 other cases of
South American woods.

The resemblance between the specimens marked louro vermelho and
those marked louro and louro cheirozo is considerable, while at the
same time the two latter are attributed to Cordia, and the former to
Ocotea. The fragrant scent which is indispensable in nearly all the
Cordias, and which is possessed by the two specimens of louro marked
Cordia, is entirely absent in that marked louro vermelho.

The very scarce pores are irregular in position, rather large, sometimes
plugged, with irregular but pronounced medullary rays.

LUMBAYAO. Tarrietia javanica Bl.

Weight 36 Ibs. Java, Cochin-China, The Philippines.

This timber was imported into London and Liverpool in 1914 in sawn
planks from 10 to 25 feet long, 8 to 14 inches wide, and i to 6 inches
thick. It is of a light reddish-brown colour, with open pores showing
the medullary rays on the surface, as in the plane tree : they are well-
defined on the transverse grain. Otherwise the appearance and texture

274 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

is similar to that of East India cedar (Cedrela), but it is without any aro-
matic scent. It is straight-grained and easily worked, but it appears
liable to warp and twist, and can only be used as a substitute for cheap
mahogany or cedar.

The pores are not very numerous, very large, and open. Medullary
rays hardly discernible under the lens, but showing on the radial section
in tiny flecks.

Machilus Blumeai. Hay.

Weight 39 Ibs. Formosa.

The wood is of a light brick-red colour, and in this, as well as in its
grain and general character, it resembles the plainer and commoner de-
scriptions of mahoganies from the southern districts of America. The
grain is firm and straight, and a very smooth surface can be obtained,
though the wood shows a liability to warp.

The concentric layers are clearly defined. The pores are exceedingly
numerous, small, and even-sized. The medullary rays are very fine and
sharp, and are parallel. They are joined at right angles by a great
number of similar lines, which vary greatly in size and strength.

Machilus edulis King.

Weight 39-44 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Himalaya.

VERN — Dudn, lepchaphal, lepchakaivala, Nep — Pham, Lepcha

A very attractive wood with a silver-grey colour, similar to that of
black chuglam, capable of a fairly smooth surface from the tool, but not
silky ; it is likely to contain all kinds of figure as well as mottle. The
attractive colour would lend itself admirably to any decorative woodwork.
A specimen shipment was sent over for the 1920 Holland Park Exhibition,
but no development has taken place since, and the wood has not been
met with in ordinary commerce, although it has been used in India for
planking, tea-boxes, etc.

The concentric layers are marked by dark rings ; the numerous pores
are very small and mostly plugged, with extremely fine medullary rays,
numerous, parallel, and generally equidistant.

Machilus Gammieana King.

Weight 35 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India.

VERN — Machilus — Lah, jagnkat, Nepal — Phamlet, Lepcha

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
as being " pale yellowish or roseate-grey when first exposed, ageing to
light grey or pinkish-grey, passing over into pale red or pinkish-brown
towards the centre of the tree, occasionally with darker streaks . . .

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 275

straight-grained, fine and even-textured. . . . Very durable. ... A sound
construction timber."

Machilus macrantha Nees.

Weight 36-37 Ibs. Southern India, Ceylon.

VERN — Kurma, Kan — Gulum, Mar — Kolla mdvu, Tarn. — Urdvu, Mai —
Ana kuru, Trav. Hills— -Kromtf, Badaga — Iruli, Kader — Ululu,
Cingh.

The colour is a light greyish-brown, with a slightly lustrous surface
and a rather coarse, rough grain, yielding a rough surface from the tool.
This wood was reported by Gamble as of an orange-brown colour, which
does not agree with my authentic sample of Machilus macrantha. It is
reported as being used for building and for boats, but if regular supplies
could be provided it would meet with a welcome reception here as a
fine panelling and cabinet wood.

The concentric layers of growth are marked by dull light lines. The
rather small-sized pores, plugged, are arranged in wavy belts ; medullary
rays faint and somewhat sparse, irregular in position, not showing on the
radial section.

Machilus odoratissima Nees.

Weight 39-42 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Himalayas, Burma.
VKRN — Dalchini, mith-patta, prom, badror, Icddil, Pb. — Kawala, Hind. —
Sciknangyi, Burm

The wood is a brown-red colour, darkening on exposure, with a close
grain, similar to that of Cuba mahogany, which timber it resembles in
many respects. It is used in Burma for building, etc. The layers of
growth are marked by rather wide, dark bands. The rather numerous
pores, partly open and partly plugged, are formed in short belts or bands.
Medullary rays are pronounced, irregular, and uneven in position.

MADRE CACAO. Ghncidium septum Jacq.

Weight 77-79 Ibs. The Philippines, Honduras,

Central and Tropical
America.

VERX — Madnal, cacagua

This is a very strong, hard, dense, heavy wood of a dark reddish-
yellow colour, and a surface something like that of the palm caryota, but
a different colour. It takes a high polish and is durable. Being subject
to attacks by a boring worm (beetle), local discoloration occurs ; never-
theless it has valuable qualities and should be tried for works such as
violin necks, bows, etc., or turnery.

In Timbers of Tropical America Record gives the vernacular madre
cacao as produced by Erythrina crista-galli L., and describes the colour

276 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

as " yellowish-white ; subject to blue-stain," and mentions in connection
with it the names " coral tree " and " red bean tree " in Jamaica. My
specimen from Honduras somewhat resembles the Australian black bean,
but of a very red colour.

In reply to a question, Professor Record says : " The name (madre
cacao) is likely to be applied to any tree used for shade in cacao plantations,
but in British Honduras, Guatemala, and the Republic of Honduras it
generally refers to Glirictdium sepium. This is a low-branching legumin-
ous tree, of about the shape of an apple tree. It loses its leaves during
the winter and is then covered with a great mass of light pink flowers.
The trees are frequently used for live fence-posts, and an avenue of them
in blossom is a gorgeous sight. The greenish wood is hard, heavy, tough,
strong, and durable, but available only in small sizes. . . . When I
published Timbers of Tropical America in 1924, very little was known
about the identities of Honduras trees and I have since then made a
special effort to straighten them out."

The somewhat scarce, very small pores are arranged in belts, and
plugged. The extremely fine medullary rays are parallel and nearly
equidistant.

MADRONA. Arbutus Mcnziesii Pursh.

A. Xalapcnsis H. B. K.
A. arizonica Sarg.

North America.

The " strawberry tree " known in Great Britain is reputed to be
Arbutus unedo. There docs not appear to be any difference between the
wood of the madronas and that of the strawberry tree ; it is probable that
the different sorts have become confused.

For full description see Arbutus unedo.

MAGNOLIA. Magnolia acuminata Linn.

Weight 36 Ibs. 6 oz. North America.

Very large supplies, in sawn lumber, boards, and planks, have been
imported into the United Kingdom and found a ready market for many
years past (1931).

The wood is of a light straw colour, often with dark, almost purple
streaks or stains like American poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), but harder
and closer in the grain, which lends itself as a useful medium for sharp
angles or for mouldings, etc. A very valuable and useful wood, requiring
selection if uniformity in colour is requisite.

The tree, a native of America, was introduced into England in 1736
by Peter Collinson, an arboriculturist of Mill Hill.

W. G. Evans & Co. report that, having used magnolia for the internal

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 277

construction of a pianoforte, the top side was stained with a brown stain
to match the walnut, and it was found that the colour penetrated through
to the under side of a piece of wood one-quarter inch thick. Micro-
photographs were taken revealing pores which penetrated through the
tangential surface in a horizontal direction towards the growth of the
tree, as well as in the perpendicular growth as usual. Similar experiments
with Indian balsa, English ash, Honduras mahogany, silver walnut, and
birch failed to show any similar pores.

The pores are very small and indistinct, the concentric layers clearly
denned, and the fine medullary rays sharp and distinct.

Magnolia Campbellii Hook.

Weight 25 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Himalaya.

VKRN — T.al champ, Nep — Sigumgrip, sagok, penre, Lepcha — Pendder,
patagan, Bhutia.

This wood has a firm, close and compact, lustrous grain, capable of a
smooth surface from the tool. When first cut it is yellowish-white, but
exposure to air turns it to a lustrous mole colour.

A beautiful wood for presenting a unique colour in panelling.

»
MAHOE, BLUE. Hibiscus clatiis Sw.

Weight 48 Ibs. Cuba, Central America.

VI.RN --Blue mahoe, mountain mahoc, maltese wood, blue mahogany, Trade
— Majagua, majagua comiin, majagua blanca, majagua azul,
majagua de la macstra, Cuba — E majagua, emajagua exccha,
majagua, mahagua, P R. — Tall hibiscus, grand mahot, bois de
liege, Barb — Tulip tree

This timber is imported in the form of logs, both hewn square and
round, from 8 to 20 feet long, and about 10 to 20 inches square. The
supply is small and intermittent. The wood is of a pronounced and pleas-
ing grey-blue colour, sometimes having dark blue streaks, with a close
texture and grain. It has an agreeable aromatic scent, and when worked
the wood has a transparent, lustrous appearance. It is strong, flexible,
and elastic, and " does not corrode nails " (Leman, Hortus Jamaicensis).
Weisner says that it has all the character of the best European ash, but
is more durable and longer in the fibre.

It is surprising that such a beautiful wood should never have been
used for decorative work. It combines quality of surface with a very
artistic colour, and a room decorated with it would have the same appear-
ance in shade as genuine harewood (not the artificially coloured so-called
harewood), and would be much more lasting and require less delicate
treatment ; also it might be used for inlay work, and would be excellent
for billiard cues. This wood is very durable when exposed to weather,

278 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

or in contact with the ground, under both of which conditions it seems
to harden and improve. Blue mahoe has also been used for fishing-rods,
and there is reason to suppose that it has sometimes been passed off in
veneers as " green ebony."

The pores are irregular and rather scarce, and are partially plugged
with a bright-shining gum. The medullary rays are very clear and
distinct, parallel, and nearly equidistant.

MAHOGANY. Swietenia spp.

Central America, The West Indies, West Africa.

VERN — Mahoganv, Spanish mahogany, Cuban, St. Jago, Santo Domingo,
Honduras, Tobasco, Nicaragua, Mexican, etc., mahogany, Eng.,
Trade — Caoba, Span — Acajou, Fr. — Mahogamholz, acajouholz,
echtes mahogani, Germ — Mogano, acagiu, Ital. — Mogno, acajit,
anacardo da America, Port — Mahok, Dutch — Caoba monde, cedro
carmesi, magnolia ? Col. — Caoba blanca, cedro cebello, Pan. — Yulu,
Nic. — Caoba, cobano, fior de venadillo, gateado, palo zopilote,
rosadillo, tzopilotl, venadillo, zopilote, z. Colorado, z. negro, zopilotl,
zopilocuahuitl, zopilo-zontecomacuahuitl (buzzard-head tree], Mex.—
Madeira, madeira wood, Fla , Bah — Cedar, cedrela, redwood (old
names).

The name mahogany has been applied, properly and improperly, to
many kinds of wood. In judging as to the legitimate use of the name it
must be remembered that originally mahogany was obtained solely from
the West Indies, and subsequently the mainland of America, and that it
gained its unique reputation not only because of its decorative qualities,
colour, figure, lustre, and capability of taking a high polish, but also
because of its mechanical characteristics, which include relative hardness,
remarkably slight shrinkage so that the wood stands well, and its
considerable powers of repelling the attacks of beetles responsible for
" worm -holes." Therefore, to give the name mahogany to other woods
that are merely reminiscent of it, as regards colour and general appear-
ance, is quite unjustifiable. Yet the name has been applied locally, or
even more widely, to numbers of woods having little agreement with
mahogany in appearance or properties : for instance, in Australia to the
woods of several kinds of gum trees (Eucalyptus), including jarrah, and
in the United States to even a common birch (Betula lento).

The woods deserving the name of mahogany are now procured from
Central America, the West Indies, and tropical West Africa. The
American woods are said to be the products of a genus Swietenia which
belongs to the family Meliaceae, which might be termed the mahogany
family. The Swietenia trees themselves have leaves recalling ash or
laburnum in design, though not in detail. The flowers, seed-cases, and
seeds are also characteristic. The genuine African mahogany tree would
be recognised as such by persons familiar with Swietenia, for in foliage,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

279

flowers, seed-cases, and seeds, as well as in wood, they closely resemble
the American trees. They
belong to the same family,
Meliaceae, and even to the
same subdivision of that
family, but to different
genera, namely, in the main,
Khaya and Entandrophragma.
To distinguish between these
genera and Swietenia requires
the trained eye and experience
of a botanist ; indeed so close
is the resemblance that the
botanist first describing an
African species of the Entan-
drophragma named it Swietenia
angolense.

The mahoganies of America
differ among themselves, and
from the African mahoganies,
yet certain American and
African kinds agree so closely
that even experienced practi-
cal men find it difficult or
impossible to distinguish be-
tween them. As a matter of
fact, however, it is possible
for the expert, especially when
aided by a lens, to recognise
the American or African source
of any sample. So far, then,
the woods of both continents
are entitled to the name of
mahogany.

Other genera of the same
family, Meliaceae, provide
woods more or less closely
agreeing with mahogany, for
instance : Carapa in Africa
and America, Dysoxylon Fra-
serianum, the Australian
mahogany or pencil cedar,
Soymida febrifuga, the red-wood or mahogany of India. Other members

VERY HANDSOME AFRICAN MAHOGANY
CURL

280

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

of the Meliaceae supply so-called mahoganies or cedar-wood : such
are species of Guarea or Pseudocedrela in Africa (for instance, Sapeli
mahogany is truly a scented cedar- wood derived from a Pseudocedrela}.1
The meliaceous Cedrela is the source of cedar-woods in tropical America
and Asia, and in Australia. Farther removed from mahogany are still
other woods yielded by members of the same family : namely, the Chitta-
gong wood (Chickrassia) of India, and East Indian satinwoocl (C hloroxylori) .

Photograph by permission of Messrs, E. Chaloncr & Co., Liverpool
AFRICAN MAHOGANY. TWO FINE FIGURED LOGS

It is therefore evident that the woods of only certain members of the
Meliaceae deserve the name mahogany.

MAHOGANY, AFRICAN.

Tropical Africa now supplies the greater part of the enormous quantity
of mahogany which of late years has been imported into England. The
wood was generally reported by the authorities to be produced by Khaya
Senegalensis A. Juss., but Dr. J. Hutchinson of Kew, in Tropical Woods,
No. 15, p. 24, says that this " is incorrect, as the timber of this species is
not exported," the principal source being Khaya ivorensis A. Chev. It is
a wood of such beautiful appearance and fine qualities that it has found a
ready market, and has indeed been employed all over the civilised world.
The total imports into Liverpool alone, during 1913, amounted to 64,579
1 According to H. N. Thompson.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 281

logs, out of which 33 million feet were sold in Liverpool ; apart from this,
2o,ooo-odd logs were transhipped. To this has to be added over 21,000
tons, approximately over 10 million feet, imported into London, making
the total for London and Liverpool amount to over 43 million feet.
The increase to Liverpool is shown as follows :

Million Feet Million Feet

1894 ... 9

1897 • • • *3
1900 . . .18

1903 . .21

1905 . .17

1913 - 33

Of later years the export has very greatly diminished, partly due to
direct shipments to U.S.A., but principally because of a great falhng-off in
supplies.

The figures for the last three years, to Liverpool and London, only
amount to :

LIVERPOOL.

Million Feet

icj^g . 13

193° • • .10

1931 ... 6

LONDON

Million Feet

1929 . . 4

1930 . . 4

1931 . . 2

Perhaps it is hardly realised from what a vast area these supplies are
obtained. From Senegal to the present known limit in Angola, the timber
is available throughout a country extending along a coast-line of approxi-
mately 5000 miles, and from nearly 10 degrees south of the equator to
nearly 15 degrees north. Having this in mind, very much more emphasis
should be laid upon the names of the districts whence the timber is ob-
tained, and which to some extent indicate its character. No one would
confuse, for instance, the produce of Honduras with that of Cuba. Yet in
practice, in regard to African timber as far as the public is concerned, the
supplies from this immense tract of country are grouped together under
the one inclusive term of "African mahogany." In some specifications
the terms " Lagos " or " Benin " are used, but in many more cases no
such precise designation is found. Yet the distinction in character and
quality is very great, and in tendering for a supply which merely stipulates
" African mahogany," a wide field is open for conjecture as to what class,
and how far down in the scale of quality, the buyer will accept.

One of the advantages of these African supplies is that they furnish
an abundance of wood of greater length and width than any other kind of
mahogany. The greatest fault is the prevalence of heart-shakes, cross-
breaks, wind-shakes, thunder-shakes, which are the various names given
to cross-fractures. These are liable to occur at intervals ranging from 6
inches apart to 10 feet, and extend across the longitudinal grain more or
less extensively, so that actually in some cases the log has broken in half.
In all cases these fractures mar the appearance and scope of the timber,
and occasionally render it entirely valueless. Much speculation has arisen

282

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

as to the cause of this defect. Some have said that it is caused by lightning
or thunder, hence one of the names ; but the general opinion is that it is
caused by the swaying of the trees to and fro in the wind. I do not, how-

FELL1NG A LARGE BUTTRESSED MAHOGANY TREE IN WEST AFRICA

ever, agree with this theory, nor do I see how it can be sustained. In logs
of close, firm texture from circumference to heart, the defect is little found,
but in those trees where the heart-wood is soft and spongy, or, as it is
termed in America, " punky," the cross-breaks abound. In these trees

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 283

the annual layers or rings are much closer and compact in later life, so
that the portion of the tree which is likely to be cross-broken can often be
very nearly estimated by the expert from the appearance of the butt,
which will show approximately the point where the tree began to make
slow growth. In such case the difference between the strength of the
outer and inner layers must be very considerable. It seems, therefore,
quite possible that in later life the inner portion dries up and shrinks, and,
being bound in by the close, strong outer layers, a strain is caused which
snaps the fibres of the soft and weaker parts. This theory is supported
by an observation of other varieties, where the heart-wood is found to be
more regular, and almost if not quite as strong and compact as the outer
wood, and in which heart-breaks are rarely found. Whatever the reason
may be, this fault has caused many a disappointment to the over-sanguine
purchaser, who finds his £500 log stricken with this complaint. There is
no doubt that the figured wood is more liable to this defect than the mild,
straight-grained, plain logs.

The varieties known as f( Sapeli " and " cherry " mahogany are not
liable to soft hearts, as the character of the annual layers is uniform
throughout the life of the tree, and in these kinds cross-breaks are rarely
found.

It has now been seen that of the several varieties of mahoganies and
other hardwoods shipped from the different ports on the West Coast, the
larger proportion are offered and sold under the general term " African
mahogany." Many of these are not true mahoganies, and others, though
bearing some resemblance, yet vary to such an extent that the difference
is easily recognisable. Those shipments which are recognised by the
trade as being true mahogany are the varieties which are now to be
described.

(The weights given are of my authentic specimens of dry wood.)

ASSINEE. Weight 28 Ibs. 9 oz. Supplies of mahogany from Assinee
are remarkable on account of the extraordinary number of finely figured
trees which are obtained, many of which have realised almost fabulous
prices. Except in this respect, the wood is not on the whole so satis-
factory as the other kinds. In general character it is softer and lighter
in weight, and the defect of cross-breaks is perhaps found in Assinee
wood to the greatest extent of any, many large trees being entirely
spoilt by this fault. There is a noticeable scarcity of mild, straight-
grained wood, and a large proportion is of a poor colour.

The pores are less abundant and more scattered than in the Lagos
wood, but in other respects it is similar.

AXIM. Weight 30 Ibs. I oz. — This quality is rather mixed. A con-
siderable proportion yields bright, excellently coloured wood of good
texture, some of which is as fine as the best of any African mahogany,

284 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

while on the other hand there is a certain amount of defective, soft,
punky wood containing cross-breaks. The logs suffer badly on account
of the necessity of shipping them in the surf over a rocky coast, which
rubs the sides so that they present a torn and bruised appearance, while
the fact that they are usually shipped in short lengths is a further dis-
advantage.

The numerous pores vary largely both in size and position ; some are
plugged. The medullary rays are fine but very distinct, showing in small
flecks on the radial section.

BATHURST. Weight 48 Ibs.-— Between the years 1894 and 1897 some
of the finest mahogany which has been seen from the West Coast of
Africa arrived from this port. The shipments then suddenly ceased,
and this class of mahogany has not since been seen. During the year
1913 a small shipment was sold in Liverpool which was catalogued as
having been shipped from Bathurst, but the quality was not comparable
with the original supply, or even at all similar to it. For firmness of
grain and texture, richness of colour and depth of quality, even good
specimens of Cuba and San Domingo would not surpass it. Slightly
heavier than these in weight, it was of a rich reddish-brown colour,
and a few logs were obtained large enough to yield 28 inches, or even a
little more, cut clear of the heart, which contained the richest broken
roe and mottle.

The pores are very large and are sparse. The medullary rays, which
are exceptionally thick, are parallel and irregular.

BENIN. Weight 38 Ibs. 9 oz.— This mahogany must now be con-
sidered the best obtainable from the coast. Benin, Grand Bassarn,
and Lagos wood most nearly resemble the supplies from Honduras.
The colour is the true bright mahogany-red, though slightly browner
than other varieties ; the wood works well under either hand or
machine plane, for it possesses the quality which is termed " a good
bottom." It stands well without shrinking, warping, or twisting,
and the large sizes in which it can be obtained add to its value. It is
especially good for panels, for which it is superior to most other mahoganies.
The grain, although not liable to twist or buckle, is more tough and inter-
woven, which renders it less liable to split or fly in pinning. The more
figured wood, which is unsuitable for panels, proves attractive for decora-
tive work on account of its colour and the variety of the grain. The logs,
which are of solid, firm growth, are generally free from cross-breaks, and
yield a large percentage of clean, sound wood of a reliable character.
There is little doubt but that this timber would yield as good material for
aeroplane propellers as anything that could be obtained. Indeed, African
mahogany of Benin quality was found to have been used in the propeller
blades of the Zeppelins brought down in England during the war (1916).

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

285

The pores are rather small but exceedingly numerous, and many are
plugged. The numerous, pronounced medullary rays are wavy and form
a pretty ripple marking on the radial section. Rather indistinct concentric
lines cross the rays at irregular intervals.

BONAMBA. Weight 35 Ibs. 4 oz. — Of recent years a large quantity
of timber has been imported almost entirely in round logs, but a few
have arrived hewn square. The shippers have sent a miscellaneous
collection of all kinds of timbers without discrimination. These are

AFRICAN MAHOGANY. A PATH THROUGH THE FOREST

found to consist of about eight widely different varieties, several of
which in no way resemble mahogany. Great difficulty has been ex-
perienced m selecting the logs of true mahogany before the timber
has been sawn, as it is all covered with discolouring matter. It is
evident that all the trees of the forest have been cut without any selec-
tion ; but the experiment must have been found very unprofitable, as
the uncertainty regarding the nature of the wood has been reflected in
the exceedingly low prices realised for the shipments.

The true mahogany which is included is of fine quality, colour, and

286 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

texture, generally straight-grained, mild, and suitable for panels. Among
the unknown varieties of logs some develop a blue mould which clings to
the outer skin on the circumference, and on the ends of the logs, and pro-
duces after sawing a white mould or fungus which fills all the pores, and
the wood appears to possess no virtue or strength, and becomes quite
valueless. Some of the logs are perforated with worm-holes. Another
variety is similar to the description known as Sapeli, and is almost indis-
tinguishable from it. Still another kind produces a wood of a dark dull-
brown colour, with a closer texture and a harder grain ; this, though quite
unlike mahogany, is useful, as it is suitable for many kinds of cabinet work,
and especially for counter-tops.

The transverse grain of the true mahogany is generally similar to that
of Benin, but has slightly larger pores ; the colour is a deeper red and
the medullary rays are less distinct.

Mahogany is also shipped from the following ports : Coco Beach,
Eclimda, Princes, Acquidad, Pontadoon, Dixcove, Forcados, Duala,
Dcgama, Beniot, Fresco, Ovenda, Quillo, Boutry, Mundah River, Trepow,
Beyin, Sinoe. These mahoganies are in general similar to the foregoing
varieties.

CAPE LOPEZ. Weight 38 Ibs. 9 oz.—~ Logs from this port consist of
excellent wood, which is generally mild in quality and straight in
grain ; it is of a bright colour and easy to work. This mahogany is
one of the most valuable woods which come from the coast, and
specially suitable for panels ; unfortunately the logs arrive badly
star-shaken in the heart, or contain other shakes or splits, which
would suggest that they are either felled carelessly, or suffer damage in
transit. It is possible that this may be caused by the logs being hurled
by the currents against the rocks in their passage down the rivers to the
sea-coast. They are also more or less damaged by teredo worm-borings.
Worm-holes either of large or small size, on the outside of logs from other
ports, do not generally prove to be a serious matter, as they rarely pene-
trate far. In the Cape Lopez wood it is quite different, for the boring of
the teredo worm is found to penetrate into the entire log, sometimes even
reducing it to a mere honeycomb, so that it is of little value. It is not
possible always to see the indications on the outside of the log, and even a
careful search will fail to disclose the slightest sign of the damage, which
is only discovered after the log is sawn up. On one occasion such a log
was found to contain many hundreds of these teredo worms alive and hard
at work. The sawyer obtained some alive and left them in the mill over-
night, but by next morning they had been devoured by rats. He after-
wards secured alive a worm measuring 22 inches in length, and upwards
of | inch in diameter, which is now preserved in spirits of wine. The piece
of the log from which it was taken contains the end of the hole which has

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

287

been bored, and which measures exactly I inch in the largest part. One
board 6 feet long by 20 inches wide contained over seventy of these holes,
many of which were more than f inch in diameter. The worms work
surrounded by a slimy solution which probably acts as a lubricant to the

AFRICAN MAHOGANY. A RAFT ON THE RIVER

teeth or jaw, which works like a tool commonly employed in a centre-bit.
The hole made in this manner is at first bright and clean, as cut by an
ordinary tool, but after the body of the worm, surrounded by solution,
has passed through, it is left as though polished, with an almost black
covering. The body of the teredo worm which was found was full of saw-
dust. It is desirable that this damage should be stopped. Many people

288 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

would be glad to have an opportunity of using Cape Lopez wood, but are
unable to do so on account of this fault. The quality of the timber is so
good that it would well repay the extra price which would be obtained,
whatever expenditure was necessary. A large quantity of Gaboon
mahogany or " Okume " (Boswellia Klaineana) has also been imported
from Cape Lopez. Whether this timber comes from the same district as
the ordinary Cape Lopez wood, or is transhipped from another port, is
unknown, but it is certain that the wood is identical with that known as
Gaboon. The general quality has been better than that shipped from
Gaboon itself, and the logs have been more sound and serviceable, but the
claim that it is different in character is incorrect. There is a slight

MAHOGANY. SHOWING WASTE IN SQUARING TIMBER

variation in both supplies, a proportion of the logs from both ports being
of a slightly different character and quality, as well as of a superior tex-
ture. This, however, is only a variation without distinctive difference.
For a fuller description reference should be made to the account of Gaboon
mahogany.

The appearance of the tangential grain of regular Cape Lopez mahogany
(not Okume) resembles that of Grand Lahou, but the average weight is
less. The pores are scattered and scanty. There is a light, ill-defined
concentric ring, which may or may not mark the annual growth. The
medullary rays are very fine and parallel ; they are rather indistinct, and
are joined at right angles by similar white lines of parenchyma : all these
characteristics are very similar to the Grand Lahou wood.

CHERRY. Weight 40 Ibs. 12 oz. — There is no distinctive name by
which this variety can be recognised. The name " cherry " is one

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 289

given by Americans on account of its colour, which somewhat resembles
that of the American cherry-wood. Although specimens have been
found among the mahogany imports from nearly all the ports on the
coast, the largest quantity has been imported from Lagos and Cape
Lopez. The logs are of the usual dimensions of the African maho-
ganies, and range up to 6 feet in diameter in the round, and 50 to 56
inches in the hewn logs. The wood is hard, strong, comparatively heavy,
has a close texture, and is liable to warp and twist if used in an unseasoned
condition, though it stands well if properly seasoned. It varies consider-
ably in colour, part being of a light mahogany red, while some is a very
dull brown ; the finest, a warm, bright red, closely resembles the matured
colour which is assumed by the Cuban or Spanish woods. The logs are
inclined to split on the ends and sides, and do not weather so well as the
ordinary sorts. The splits also generally extend throughout the length of
the whole piece, and recur at intervals of a few inches over the hewn or
sawn surface of the outside of the log, in parallel lines. This wood, there-
fore, should be converted into planks, boards, scantlings, or veneers im-
mediately on arrival. It is exceedingly difficult to cut with the saw on
account of a kind of gum it contains, which clogs the saw and blunts the
tool. An ordinary bandsaw such as that used in Europe will not, how-
ever ingeniously prepared, enter the wood beyond a few inches. The
majority of the logs are also impossible to saw with either veneer or ground-
off saws. A horizontal reciprocating saw specially set and prepared can
be used successfully if a continuous stream of soapy water is poured on it
as it is working. Without these preparations the saw will run and pro-
duce irregular thicknesses, or parts of the board will have the grain torn
out, and the saw will generally be jammed, so that it is only extracted
with the greatest difficulty. To the inexperienced eye this is the more
surprising, as the appearance of the timber would give the impression that
it is the easiest kind of African mahogany to saw. These disadvantages
militate against its use, although when they are overcome it provides a
valuable cabinet, furniture, and decorative wood, especially suited for
counter-tops, hand-rails, and chair wood. Many of the logs are richly
figured. Some of them retain their first brilliant appearance, and will
provide panels quite equal in effect, if not occasionally superior, to that
produced by the Cuban wood. Sometimes, however, the figure sinks or
dulls somewhat after polishing, and does not show brilliantly except under
particularly strong natural or artificial lighting. The surface is much
spoilt by the french-polishing which is customary in England. The
American and Continental custom of using a coachmaker's flat varnish
is preferable. This variety of African mahogany was found in the
propeller-blades of the destroyed Zeppelins. It was used in alternate
layers with ordinary African mahogany, or Honduras, or Sapeli. The

ago THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Germans seemed to consider that it was immaterial which of the three
was used, but evidently the cherry mahogany was purposely introduced
on account of its strength and reliability.

The pores are small and are generally filled with a bright gum ; the
medullary rays are fine and parallel, occasionally showing slightly on the
radial section,

GRAND BASSAM. Weight 31 Ibs. 15 oz. — Shipments from this port
have very much increased during the last few years, and the quality
has much improved. The average sizes are exceptionally large and
long, ranging up to 30 feet in length, and often 4 feet square, while
even larger sizes are sometimes obtained. A large proportion of the
trees yields richly figured logs, and many fine specimens have been
seen of recent years. Amongst these was a tree shipped to Mr. J.
J. Richardson, of which three pieces were sold in Liverpool and
one in London ; these four realised the record price of £4228. The
butt cut of this tree contained about 5000 feet of measure, that is,
417 cubic feet, and weighed 9! tons. It required two days for 300
men to haul this log to the river for shipment, and the one piece was
sold lu*- £2518.

The timber from Grand Bassam is generally shipped with a larger
amount of wane on the sides than is the case with other African mahoganies.
This is an economical way of manufacturing the timber, but causes a con-
siderable loss here. Not only does the heavy wane reduce the width obtain-
able in conversion, but it is measured almost as if it were square, and the saw-
ing bill has to be paid for the widest part of the log. An additional loss is
also experienced, as the outside of the log generally carries about an inch
of sap and has a large number of small worm-holes. This timber would
probably yield a greater proportion suitable for use in propellers for air-
craft, than anything else except Benin. In structure it resembles the
Benin wood except that the pores are slightly larger.

GRAND LAHOU. Weight 30 Ibs. 12 oz.- -This timber is very similar to
the Lagos, but the logs in general are not so sound or so good in quality.
When carefully selected, this wood makes excellent panels. The ports
of Twin Rivers, Benin River, and others yield similar supplies to the
above, but are generally more varied in character and quality.

The medullary rays are rather indistinct and irregular ; the pores are
scattered and irregular in size and position ; the concentric layers are
indistinct.

JAMESON RIVER. Weight 40 Ibs. 12 oz. — Most of the timber shipped
from this source is of a lighter colour and closer grain than any of the
other kinds. A larger proportion of the wood has a very pronounced
cedar character, and some is scented. The logs are sound, and the wood
is of a good, firm, useful texture.

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291

292 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

LAGOS. Weight 31 Ibs. 15 oz. — Of all mahogany from the West
Coast, the timber shipped from this port held the first place for quality
for a long time. From 1892, and after for several years, the shipments
contained a large proportion of finely figured timber of a beautiful,
bright, clean colour, which high standard has not been maintained. It
is doubtful whether the supplies now occupy even a second place in
value. The logs are well manufactured, but a large proportion now
have soft hearts, often badly weathered, and with a greater preval-
ence of cross-breaks. This may be due to the timber being felled at
the wrong season, as I understand that felling proceeds throughout the
year. In colour and quality it is similar to the Honduras wood, and
it is often difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish between them. A
little more care would be required in selecting this timber for aircraft pro-
pellers, than would be the case with the Benin wood.

The medullary rays are even more pronounced than in Benin mahogany,
and the pores are slightly larger and more open ; in all other respects it is
similar.

OKOUME. Aucoumea Klaineana Pierre. Weight 25 Ibs.

VERN — Okoume, Gaboon, Gaboon " mahoganv," Trade — Acoume, ojoumc,
M'ponghouc, N'komi, Mitsogho, Baviya — Angouma, Pahouin,
Bengouma, Bakalai — Moukoumi, Bapounou, Ksclnra, Bakaya —
Koumi, Baloumbo — N'koumi, Bavili ba Loango.

This extremely useful wood, generally called " Gaboon " in England
and Scotland, deserves a name of its own, since it certainly fills a place of
importance which justifies a title which would give it individuality ; this
fact is recognised on the Continent, where it is known by the name of
Okoume. Although used there, and here, for many of the purposes for
which mahogany is required, it is certainly not considered a mahogany.

According to Jean Collardet, this timber was first brought to European
attention in 1885. Subsequently the above-named botanist Pierre decided
the source as being of a new genus, Aucoumea, which is closely related to
Boswellia Klaineana. The record further states that three varieties are
recognised : namely, zouga, a red timber ; nyangala, a rose-coloured
variety ; and combo-combo or cambogala, which is pale rose in colour.

Pale in colour, soft, and light in weight, and yet strong, it meets the
special requirements of many classes of work, and at the price at which
it has been obtainable for a long period it probably provides the best
value for money of any known timber. It has been claimed that it is a
cedar, but there is no evidence to support this assumption, and the scent
of cedar is entirely absent. For making cigar-boxes this wood should be
equally suitable, so long as the cigar manufacturers continue to paste
paper labels over the greater part of the boxes. It is largely used in
automobile carriage construction both in England and abroad, and also

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

293

for ship's fittings, and on the Clyde and elsewhere it has superseded pine
for this purpose. Its appearance is much improved by either a light
carriage varnish or polish, without the use of stain ; french polish or stain
generally causes a muddy, and therefore an unsatisfactory, surface. A

1-KLLING AND S^UARIM, Al-KItAN M\H()GANY

handsome show-window in a large store in New York is furnished with
finely figured wood of this species, which, besides looking very bright and
showy, makes an excellent background for the display of wares of all
sorts. It needs a good finish, when it will present a very fine appearance.
" Gaboon " (Okoume) has been tried for the purpose of making aeroplane
propellers, but has been found to be entirely unsuitable.

294 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Samuel J. Record, in a note in Tropical Woods, gives some interesting
information : " Okoume has become the most important timber exported
from Africa, exceeding African mahogany, which is now becoming scarce.
The exports of Okoume logs from Gaboon, which amounted in 1913 to
134,000 tons, were discontinued during the war, beginning anew in 1920
with 33,000 tons. They have since progressively risen to 305,000 tons
during 1927 and to about 400,000 tons in 1928. . . . Although commerce
in Okoume is almost entirely in French hands, Germany remains, as before
the war, the principal consumer, taking about half of the production.
French industry absorbs about a third. The remainder goes, in the order
named, to Holland, Italy, Spain, Belgium, England, and Norway. Ship-
ments to the United States are on the increase, but are still very small."

According to a Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, the geographical
distribution " is comparatively restricted, the tree being found only in
the Gaboon, in Spanish Guinea and in the western part of lower French
Congo. ... In spite of exploitation for some years past, the tree is still
abundant and reproduces well."

When we consider the vast quantities of this timber which have been
exported, it seems incredible that if the supply is only in a restricted area,
there can be much reserve.

The transverse grain shows that it has great similarity to Honduras
mahogany, although the marked appearance of the annual layers is absent ,
the pores are irregular, as in Honduras ; the medullary rays strongly
marked, and are parallel but not equidistant.

SAPELI. Entandrophragma utile Sprague. Weight 44 Ibs. i oz. Nigeria.
— A very large quantity has been imported into London and Liverpool
since the general introduction of West Coast wood. The logs are of un-
usually large size and length, even up to as much as 7 feet square. The
principal deliveries have come from Lagos and Benin, but this variety is
found in the supplies from all the ports, and especially in the so-called
" Bonamba " mahogany imported from Duala. It has been customary
to name this wood Sapeli mahogany when it was imported from Lagos and
Benin, but if received from other ports it is described and sold as mahogany
without special classification, excepting that occasionally the timber is
called " scented." A few logs possess very strong characteristics of cedar,
with its pungent aromatic scent ; others have only a faint scent and a
corresponding absence of cedar texture, while a few have cedar character-
istics and scent on one side of the tree, the other side being of the pure
mahogany type, which is only occasionally devoid of any scent. The
wood is generally heavier and harder than other African mahogany, and
almost invariably contains a roey or contrary parallel grain, which is often
broken in character, and interspersed with more or less strongly pro-
nounced mottle. These logs produce very handsome figured and coloured

C/3

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295

296 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

wood, which is used either in veneer, or solid for panels or other decorative
work. A straight-grained log is very rare. The principal fault consists
in its liability to splits, which are generally ring- or cup-shakes, following
the line of the concentric layers. These show as actual splits on the butt
end of the tree, but they are also liable to develop along a gum streak
after the wood is sawn up, and, unlike the other kinds of African mahogany,
generally extend -throughout the length of the tree, occasionally repeating
in circular layers at intervals of a few inches. Another of the disadvan-
tages of this wood is that, after finishing and polishing, the soft grain will
sink slightly and the hard grain will rise, showing rather an uneven surface.
This difficulty can, however, be overcome by careful finishing. The wood
is almost entirely free from the cross-breaks so prevalent in all other
West Coast varieties. The general colour of the timber is much browner
than the other mahoganies, and on this account the use of the ordinary
wood has been condemned in America, where the practice of sawing up
different logs and mixing the produce results in a variation of colour in
individual boards ; also the finely figured logs are not liked for veneers, on
account of their liability, due to the exceedingly hot, dry climate, to split
badly after conversion. Before the war the principal demand was from
Germany, where this wood seemed to be very favourably received, as it
was well suited to the design of decorative cabinet work peculiar to that
country. Sapeli mahogany was found in the propeller-blades of the de-
stroyed Zeppelins, and is undoubtedly a very fine material for such work.

The pores are rather large and irregular, and are interspersed with
bands of smaller pores which make a wavy pattern similar to elm. The
medullary rays are strongly marked and are parallel ; they show on the
radial grain as in maple.

SASSANDRA. Entandrophragma sp. Weight 27 Ibs. 9 oz. — -Supplies
coming from the Ivory Coast of a form of African mahogany, differ-
ing from that which had previously been imported, resulted in the
common name of " Sassandra " becoming general for commercial use.
Later information shows that whereas all of the wood which bore this
character was considered to be alike, there were two, or perhaps three,
different sorts, viz. Tiamo, Sipo, a third being possibly Aboudikro, all
species of Entandrophragma. From the timber point of view there is
not sufficient difference to warrant separate names being given.

Record has pointed out that the bark of Sipo de Sassandra is thick and
very deeply furrowed, whereas the bark of other species is smooth or
scaly, flaking off in plates. According also to the same authority, the
timber is cut in Sassandra, Lahou, and Tabou.

Sassandra wood is harder, closer in the grain, and of a darker colour
than any other African mahogany except Bathurst. A certain number of
logs coming from other districts, and especially from Axim, are of the same

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

297

variety as that generally known as Sassandra wood. Nearly all these
logs contain dark gum veins which are more or less pronounced. The
surface of the wood when planed is very smooth and lustrous, but it is
liable to crack, and will sometimes split in parallel longitudinal lines.
Some very finely figured logs have been seen which realised exceptionally
high prices ; one log sold for over los. per foot super of one inch, equal to £6
per cubic foot. As these figured logs are always required for veneers, and
Sassandra wood has been found to crack when converted, it is not therefore

MAHOGANY. LOGS BEING PREPARED FOR HAULING AND SHIPPING

very favourably received. This variety was also found in the propeller-
blades of the destroyed Zeppelins. It is probably the best kind of wood
for this purpose, especially if used in alternate layers with cherry mahogany.
SECONDI. Weight 47 Ibs. 13 oz. — This wood is generally harder and
heavier than the other varieties. A proportion is sufficiently hard to
be a good imitation of the Cuba wood, but there is an absence of the
white chalk-marks in the grain. The logs are shipped well squared,
but are liable to splits and to side- and end-shakes. The quality of
the wood makes it more suitable for decorative work and furniture than
for panels, especially as the rich red colour is very good. A large per-

298 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

centage, if not all, of this wood should be quite suitable for aircraft
propeller-blades.

The annual layers of growth are well denned ; the pores are decidedly
less numerous, and the irregular and broken medullary rays are less dis-
tinct than in the Benin wood. The radial section shows bright shining
gum in the small pores.

SIPO. The colour is similar to that of the African mahogany (Khaya
senegalensis) , but the grain is more silky, lustrous, and rather softer. The
woodworks and stands well and takes a good polish, the figured wood being
very attractive. For many years past individual logs of this timber have
been disposed of in the London and Liverpool markets, unidentified and
merely described as West African mahogany. It is only just of late (1932)
that " Sipo " wood, the wood construction of which is quite different from
that of mahogany, has been separately classified, the first change probably
having been started in France.

The concentric layers of growth are clearly marked by fine, dark lines.
The numerous pores are very small, surrounded by fine lines of light-
coloured tissue. The fine medullary rays follow wavy lines, and are
crossed at irregular intervals by very fine lines of light tissue, the whole
revealing a very different structure from that of African mahogany.

WARRI. Weight 38 Ibs. 9 oz. — This is a very hard timber, with a grain
which is often very much interwoven and of a roey character. The colour
is a light reddish-yellow which darkens slightly on exposure to the air.
The logs are liable to star-shake in the heart, and generally show a good
deal of fault on conversion. It is a useful timber for decorative fittings,
and if properly finished (not french-polished) the appearance is pleasing
and unusual. It would undoubtedly be suitable for use for aeroplane
propellers.

The pores are very regular in size, and are often filled with gum. The
medullary rays are strong, irregular, and not equidistant ; they are joined
at right angles with similar white lines. The tangential grain shows
bright spots and streaks of shining gum, and there is a slight, pleasantly
aromatic scent, somewhat resembling that of African cedar.

MAHOGANY, BURMA. Pentace burmanica Kurz.

Weight 42 Ibs. (Gamble). Burma.

VERN — Thitka, kashit, kathttka, Burm.

Thitka, which has been given the name of Burma mahogany, is of a
light brownish-yellow colour, similar to that of Cuba mahogany when
first cut, and possessing as great transverse and tensile strength. It has a
close, fine, hard grain ; stands well under all conditions, and takes a very
fine surface from the moulding machine or the machine plane ; so much
so, that a wood-worker reported that he had used all kinds of mahogany

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 299

for fifty years, and preferred the Burma to all other sorts. It would hardly
be amiss to call this wood the " Swietenia " of Burma.

The occasional shipments which found their way into London and
Liverpool prior to the war received little recognition. After the 1920
Empire Timber Exhibition at Holland Park, a slight improvement took
place, especially after the name thitka was changed to that of " Burma
mahogany," when quite considerable shipments were freely exported. In
the United Kingdom and on the Continent the wood has now become
popular, and its demand is likely to continue. The efforts to introduce
it into America would seem to have failed. The timber does not conform
to the requirements laid down throughout the American markets. At
the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley, a ladies' boudoir furnished in
French style was exhibited, and was greatly admired by everyone, especi-
ally by H.M. the then Queen of Roumania. The room was subsequent!}'
re-erected at the Daily Mail Ideal Home Exhibition.

Burma mahogany is also a splendid wood for chairs, decorative wood-
work, ships' furniture generally, mainly on account of its exceptional
strength. It has been well received also for railway carriage work.

MAHOGANY, COLOMBIAN. Cariniana pyriformis Miers.

Weight 42 Ibs. Colombia (South America).

The name mahogany is incorrectly applied to this wood, for it does not
belong to the mahogany family. The timber, however, is so similar that
commercially the name will probably continue on account of its suitability.

The supplies are shipped from Cartagena, a port on the Atlantic coast
of the State of Colombia. Formerly they were only sent to Havre, but
latterly London and Liverpool have received supplies. The logs are
received mostly in the round, but occasionally are hewn with waney
edges, in large squares ranging from 18 inches to 48 inches. The wood is
always very much split and damaged, which is possibly due to the logs
being dashed with some force against either rocks or other obstacles in
their journey down the rivers to the coast, for they are usually cut from
one to two hundred miles inland. As previously said, the timber greatly
resembles mahogany in colour and is often beautifully figured. It works
well, takes polish readily, and when well seasoned neither shrinks, warps,
nor cracks.

The wood can be distinguished from genuine mahogany by the numer-
ous thin, light lines joining the rays at right angles, and thus forming a
close network with rectangular meshes.

MAHOGANY, COSTA RICA.

Weight 42 Ibs. 15 oz.

The timber from this zone is imported in straight, hewn square logs of

300 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

about 8 to 20 feet and over ; they are generally short in length and are

A MAHOGANY TREE, CUBA

10 to 30 inches square. It is of a bright-red colour, has a firm texture,
and is hard and close-grained ; the pores are often filled with a white

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 301

chalky substance. In character it is like the Cuban wood, but is generally
more straight-grained, and used for the same purposes. The logs are
very liable to heart-shakes and galls, while rotten and defective places,
in which burrowing worms are found, are prevalent.

MAHOGANY, CUBA.

Weight 39 Ibs. n oz.

This is imported in round logs with the bark on, also in hewn square
logs which are mostly straight, though some are bent and crooked, and m
sawn boards and planks. The logs are from 8 to 36 inches square, and
from 6 to 30 feet in length, though some are considerably larger. The im-
ported sawn timber is of small size and indifferent quality.

The wood is generally of a hard, close texture, and is heavier than
any other mahogany except some of the Spanish wood. When first
cut it is of a light-red colour, but on exposure it rapidly darkens to a rich
deep red, which, with its glossy, transparent, and satiny surface, has a
most handsome appearance. A small proportion of the trees contains
black, gummy veins which, although not injurious to the wood, yet
appear unsightly. Others again, develop white chalky marks in the
pores like the San Domingo wood.

Many of the logs arc beautifully figured or marked with wavy and curly
grain, which is variously termed splash mottle, roe and mottle, fiddle-back,
plum, snail, blister, and cross-bar.

Good well-figured logs command very high prices for veneers, the record
during the last twenty-five years being one which realised £13 • los.
per foot cube. Probably the finest log imported during this period
was one sold at Liverpool in 1901 by Messrs. Farn worth & Jardine for

The wood from Cuba has largely taken the place of the old supplies
from San Domingo. It is of the same character, though occasionally it
surpasses it, for while the colour darkens with age, the Cuban wood better
retains its brightness and transparency. It shrinks very little in seasoning,
does not warp or twist, and is very durable.

The colour of Cuban mahogany when first worked is very light, even
lighter than some of the other sorts, but an impression prevails that it
should be as dark as the old work which has matured with age. In order
to comply with the somewhat unreasonable demand for this darker wood,
it is customary to stain the new to the shade of the old. This is an unfor-
tunate practice, as it entirely spoils the transparency and beauty of the
wood. Originally all the polishing was done by hand, without the use of
polish ; this produces the best results. Staining and heavy french-
polish:ng ruin the colour, which otherwise would continue to improve with

302

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

the lapse of time. Very beautifully marked wood is obtained by cutting
through the fork of the main trunk, or of two large limbs, thus :

SINGLE HEART

DOUBLE HEART, SHOWING CURL

Sometimes the main trunk itself consists of twin trees which have
grown together. This peculiarity occurs more often in Cuba mahogany
than in any other. When this growth has taken place without the
formation of any bark, the wood presents a rich and agreeable appearance.
These pieces when converted are known in the United Kingdom by the
term " curls " and in America as " crotches." They are used extensively
for panels and other decorative work.

The pores are irregular in position and size, and are more or less
plugged with gum (?). The medullary rays are rough and irregular,
showing rather obscurely in small flecks on the radial section, joined at
right angles by rough similar light-coloured lines at irregular intervals.

MAHOGANY, GUATEMALAN.

Weight 38 Ibs. 9 oz.

Central America (Guatemala).

This mahogany is of a brighter red colour than Honduras, and in
character and texture more resembles Cuban, and is indeed, often indis-
tinguishable from it. It finishes with an exceedingly smooth surface
from the tool, and stands very well. It is obtainable in large to very
large squares, ranging even up to 4 feet, but it is generally exported in
rather short lengths, rarely over 14 feet long, the average being not more
than ii to 12 feet. The logs are somewhat faulty, often much shaken,
and liable to wormy and decayed centres. Occasionally very sound fine
trees are found, and a few are beautifully figured. The white chalky
grain which is a feature of Cuban and San Domingo mahogany is very
prevalent in Guatemalan, and it is largely used as a substitute for these
varieties.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 303

The concentric layers are sharp and denned to the naked eye ; the
medullary rays are distinct, regular, and nearly parallel ; the pores are
irregular in size and position.

MAHOGANY, HONDURAS. Swietenia sp.

Weight 29 Ibs. 12 oz. Central America (Honduras).

Large quantities of mahogany have for many years been imported
from Honduras ; probably the best in quality is that which has been
shipped from Belize. It is received in hewn square logs and in the round,
and also, of later years, in square sawn boards and planks. This, however,
has been exported first from Honduras to North America, where it was
sawn and thence re-exported in the various grades and qualities of the
National Hardwood Lumber Association.

The wood is similar to the other mahoganies of Central America,
though for a great many purposes it is superior to all. It is lighter in
weight and milder in texture than the Spanish or Cuban. The dimensions
in which it has been produced are larger than any other kind obtainable
from Central America. In common with all other mahoganies, the forests
yield a small proportion of highly figured pieces which are in great demand.
Unlike the Spanish or Cuban wood, which darkens with exposure, that
from Honduras bleaches, and when exposed to exceptionally strong rays
from the sun, the colour inclines to a beautiful golden brown or even
greyish shade. Although very occasionally a tree will be found to possess
the white, chalky substance so common in the Spanish wood, yet it is
unusual, and Honduras mahogany generally has a more or less black
marking in the pores, some trees containing both the black marking and
the white.

This timber has at times been called " baywood " (q.v.), the term
referring to the Bay of Honduras, from which the wood was obtained.

The pores are irregular both in size and position, and are not very
numerous. The pronounced medullary rays are parallel but irregular ;
they are crossed at intervals by similar lines. The rays show very
strongly on the radial section as in sycamore.

MAHOGANY, MEXICAN and TOBASCAN.
Weight 30-33 Ibs.

The mahogany which has been exported from Mexico has varied so
much in quality that it is difficult to give a clear account under one
heading. Those shipments described as Tobascan mahogany have been
regularly of a high-class character, and the wood compares favourably
with Cuban supplies. Many shipments of Mexican mahogany have
reached the markets in America and Europe, comparable in quality with
that from Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, and Costa Rica, but always

304 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

having a percentage of inferior, soft, and unsatisfactory wood. As a
result it has been customary to class that which can claim the name of
Tobascan, by itself, and to use the name of Mexican for the remainder.

No doubt the best trees have long since been used up, and what is left
consists of a larger percentage of logs hewn straight but with wandering
hearts, showing that crooked-grown trees are more abundant than
straight.

MAHOGANY, NICARAGUA.

For a description of this wood see HONDURAS MAHOGANY. The slight
differences are not of sufficient importance to warrant any attempt at
differentiation.

MAHOGANY, PANAMA.

Weight 35 Ibs. 9 oz. Central America.

Mr. Bradley says that there are two varieties of true mahogany in
Panama, the light and the dark. The dark is, with some variations,
similar to the mahogany of Central America, and bears a conical-shaped
pod. The light variety is of the same family, but differs in leaf, seed, bark,
grain, and colour, the seed being nearly round. The light mahogany
grows on the wet land near the creeks in an accessible position. The timber
of these two varieties may be classed together. The quality and colour are
good, and resemble that of Honduras, so that this wood often passes for it.
It has been imported in the round, and in hewn square logs of small and
large sizes. The majority have arrived in such a split condition that the
wood has not been favourably received, and until some means can be
found to bring the logs in a more sound condition, little commercial de-
velopment will ensue. Its uses have been the same as those for Honduras
mahogany.

A cargo of so-called Panama mahogany was despatched to New York
in 1910, which proved to consist of ESPAVR (q.v.).

In the true Panama mahogany the concentric layers show sharply
defined to the naked eye. The pores are open and irregular ; the medul-
lary rays are clear and regular, and are in all respects similar to Honduras
mahogany.

MAHOGANY, SPANISH. Swietenia Mahogani Linn.

Weight 48 Ibs. San Domingo, etc.

The name " Spanish " mahogany has been applied to the wood which
from earliest times came from the Spanish West Indies, and not, as some
have erroneously thought, from Spain. It is interesting to notice that the
origin of what subsequently developed into an active trade in a most
fashionable wood was the bringing to England of a few planks and butts

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 305

of mahogany as ballast by the captains of English vessels voyaging to
the West Indies. Spanish mahogany, probably first heard of in 1597,
only came to England in marketable quantities towards the end of the
seventeenth century. In 1724 a few planks were sent home by a West
India captain to a Dr. Gibbons, who was erecting a house in King Street,
Covent Garden. The workmen rejected them as being too hard, but the
doctor's cabinet-maker, Woolaston, made a candle-box from them.
Notwithstanding his bitter complaints about the hardness of the wood,
when the box was finished it outshone in beauty all the doctor's other
furniture, and so Spanish mahogany, being admired by the Duchess of
Buckingham, became fashionable. Nearly all the beautiful and highly
figured pieces of Chippendale furniture produced about 1750 were made of
this wood. Its unusually attractive qualities then gave it the premier
position, which it retains to-day. The importation has always been of a
desultory character, those trees growing within easy access of any seaport
being cleared rapidly, after which difficulties of transport precluded re-
moval of anything over a small size or weight. The export of mahogany,
at first from Porto Rico, and afterwards from San Domingo, where the
country is rugged and mountainous with no suitable transport other
than oxen and mules, was carried on under great difficulties. Towards the
end of the eighteenth century a considerable demand arose for that form
of timber known in England as " curls," and in America as " crotches."
These pieces are obtained from that portion of the tree which contains a
fork, either of the main trunk or secondary branches (see MAHOGANY,
CUBA). To meet this demand great numbers of trees were felled, and all
the forks from about 9 inches in length and 5 inches in thickness were
carefully hewn out. These pieces, in oblong hewn slabs, ranged up to
about 3 feet long and 2 feet wide, or as large as it was possible for the
oxen or mules to carry, were packed on their backs and brought down to
the sea-coast for export. Meanwhile the main trunks, too heavy to re-
move, were left lying on the ground, where many remained for over half a
century. The trade in the curls received a considerable impetus from the
publications and influence of Mr. Edward Chaloner, who published a useful
pamphlet on the subject in 1800, and whose firm still occupies a leading
position in Liverpool. At a later date an enterprising engineer, M. Juan
Baptista Nunez, a native of San Domingo, having studied engineering in
America, was engaged in carrying a railway system through San Domingo.
He rapidly realised the advantage of collecting those large trunks of trees,
felled so many years before, and which, through the advent of the railway,
could now be transported. For many years Mr. Nunez shipped to New
York, Liverpool, and London a number of these trunks, hewn into squares,
many of which were of magnificent colour, texture, and figure, although
often the outsides of the logs were decayed from exposure to tropical

306 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

weather. Such deterioration destroyed even as much as 3 inches of the
outside wood, but after this was removed, the colour and quality of the
remainder were found to be as sound and satisfactory as could be desired.
San Domingo mahogany, or " City wood " as it was called, had in the past,
and still has, a peculiar attraction for many, and a few such have been
found so extreme in their admiration that they might justly be titled
" mahogany misers." One cabinet-maker in the Midlands refused to use
or part with several fine logs which he kept in his warehouse, which had
one cut through the log, and were planed, showing the figure. He kept
these logs for over half a century, dusting them with a silk handkerchief
at least once a week. They all contained very fine figure and quality.
Some very thick planks of very rich wood were discovered lying in a cellar
in the West End of London, where they had been at least for fifty years,
and when found were dirty and thick with dust. Upon discovery it was
impossible at first to identify the wood. A portion of these planks were
subsequently used and can be seen in the panelling of the Wigmore Hall,
London, and display a quality and figure no longer procurable. It is dis-
tressing to find it recorded by a late publication (1931) by Mr. Tom Gill,
Tropical Forests of the Caribbean, that practically all the valuable timber
trees of Porto Rico, Haiti, and San Domingo have now disappeared. The
irregularity in the supply of San Domingo encouraged a larger import from
Cuba, from whence large quantities of fine texture and quality have been
imported, such wood enjoying the title of Spanish mahogany. The quality
of individual trees from Cuba has equalled, if not indeed surpassed, that
from San Domingo, but while as a rule the Cuban wood is less faulty in
the heart, and yields larger sizes and longer lengths, the intrinsic quality of
the wood as a whole is not so good. San Domingo and Cuba mahogany
when first cut are, as a rule, light in colour, but with exposure turn to a
deep rich colour, generally darkening with exposure to sunlight, while
individual specimens occasionally are bleached by the same agency.

Two large trees of Swietenia mahogani, growing in the Botanical
Gardens in Calcutta, were felled in the winter of 1922-23 and subsequently
transported to England, where, after being sawn into boards, they were
shown at the Exhibition at Wembley. The butt of the larger, which had
lost its crown some years before, weighed over 10 tons, and measured over
6 feet in diameter, containing over 4000 feet super as i-inch board measure
of timber. Although no certain information is available, as nearly as it is
possible to estimate, the age of the tree was about 129 years. The smaller
one weighed just over 4 tons, and contained about 1600 feet super as i-
inch board measure, and it is probable this tree was 82 years old. The
quality of the wood in both cases is as good as that which has been grown
in San Domingo, thus contradicting the impression, which prevailed in
the Indian Forest Service, that the quality of mahogany grown in India

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 307

is inferior. The general uses to which Spanish mahogany is put are so
well known that comment is unnecessary.

The pores are very irregular in size and position, while the white chalky
substance with which they are often plugged is peculiarly characteristic of
the wood. The medullary rays are rather coarse ; they are parallel and
uneven, and are joined at irregular intervals by similar light-coloured lines.

MAHOGANY, VENEZUELAN. Swietenia Candollei Pittier.

Weight 45 Ibs. South America.

The wood is of a true mahogany quality and character, colour, and
grain. The quality resembles that of the old-fashioned Spanish wood,
possessing figure varying from plain stripes of harder and softer layers to
broken layers constituting what is known as " broken roe," and often
with some mottle. There is also a preponderance of the characteristic
white chalk in the pores.

The pores are very scarce, irregular, rather large, with fine medullary
rays crossed at right angles by tiny similar light marks, making a pattern of
a square.

MAHWA.

See Bassia lati folia.

MAIDEN'S BLUSH. Echinocarpus aitstralis Benth.
Sloanea australis Swain.

New South Wales, Queensland.

This timber is known as " maiden's blush " in New South Wales and
" blush Carrobean " in Queensland. Swain describes it as " the palest of
uniform pinks ... lit by a silken sheen." The romantic Australian who
named this timber must have been influenced at the time by some passing
fancy, and it would be desirable that a name should be found that would
be more descriptive of an ordinary and somewhat uninteresting timber.
When exposed to the air, the wood is a normal brown without any distinc-
tive feature and a grain mid-way between a softwood and a hardwood. It
is described as being used in Australia for various building purposes,
carpentry, and turnery.

MAIRE, BLACK. Olea Cunninghamii Hook.

Weight 72 Ibs. (Baterden). New Zealand.

Of this wood the New Zealand Board of Agriculture says : " Deep brown
in colour, often streaked with black and highly ornamental, durable, even
in grain, and takes a good polish. Procurable up to 20 feet in length and
12 inches in width. Used for framing for machinery, millwrights' work,
and oranmental cabinet work of all descriptions." Baterden says that

308 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

the timber makes good durable sleepers, piles, and fence-posts, and it is
said to make capital wood for large engraving blocks if properly seasoned,
as it does not wear and bears high pressure. He adds that it takes a long
time to season.

MALLETWOOD, BROWN. Rhodamnia argentea

K. trinervia.
Weight 50-56 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

Also known as white myrtle, blackeye, or brush turpentine. " It is of
the Boxwood type, tough to cut . . . has considerable strength and dura-
bility. . . . Baker recommends its use for carriage, waggon, and wheel-
wrights' work " (Swain).

The principal uses are for mallets, heads of mauls, etc. It is Indian
pink in colour, and fine in texture.

Mallotus Philippensis Muell.

Weight 43-51 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, The Andaman

Islands, Ceylon.

Gamble mentions this as one of the most universally distributed and
most common of Indian forest trees. The vernacular names by which it
is known are so numerous that, on account of its unimportance, they are
not included.

The colour is a greyish -brown, similar to a plain Ancona walnut, with
a fine, close grain capable of a smooth surface from the tool. No oppor-
tunity has been given to ascertain whether the wood stands well, but if it
should do so, it might be a substitute for grey French walnut. A small
experimental shipment was made for the 1920 Exhibition, but no develop-
ment has occurred since, and the expectation of its being met with
regularly in commerce is unlikely.

There are concentric layers marked by dark lines at varying intervals.
The pores are very regular both in size and position, small, and open.
The very numerous medullary rays are hardly discernible under the lens,
but show in the tiniest possible flecks on the transverse section.

MAMEE APPLE. Calocarpum mammosum (L.) Pierre.

Weight 43-44 Ibs. British Honduras, West

Indies, Central and North-
ern South America.

VERN — Sapote, mamee-sapote, marmalade fruit, marmalade tree, B.W.I. —
Mamey, mamey Colorado, mamey zapote, Cuba — Sapote, zapotte,
gross zapotte, zapotte a crime, sapotille mamey, marmalade naturelle,
Fr. W I — Bartaballi, balataballi, B.G. — Zapote mamey, Col. —
Mamey Colorado, Col., Venez., EC. — Zapote, C.A., Mex. — Zapote

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 309

Colorado, zapote mamev, mamey Colorado, tezonzapote, tzapotl, tsapas
sabam, haaz, chacal haaz, Mex. — Sal-tul, tul-ul, chul, chul-ul,
Guat. — Ingerto, zapote mgerto, Salv. — Beko, kurok, kom-kra, fiu,
C.R. — Oa-bo, Pan. — Sapoteassu, palata, uique, Braz.

A light grey-coloured wood, with a very hard surface, mid-way be-
tween a mahogany density and that of the ordinary plane, and taking a
smooth surface from the tool. It is not likely to become a commercial
wood, as the supply is limited and uncertain, since the tree is protected by
natives on account of the fruit.

The concentric layers are clearly marked by dark lines, and very
scarce, small pores, forming a kind of irregular pattern, at right angles
to the concentric layers. The very numerous and exceedingly minute
medullary rays are hardly discernible under the lens.

MANGEAO. Litsea calicaris Benth. & Hook.

Weight 38-48 Ibs. New Zealand.

" White, firm, strong, and of great elasticity, and is suitable for a great
variety of purposes requiring strength, toughness, and elasticity with light
weight. Procurable in lengths up to 25 feet and up to 18 inches wide.
Used for ships' blocks, coopers' ware, wheelwrights' bent stuff " (Board of
Agriculture, New Zealand).

Mangifera indica Linn.

Weight 42 Ibs. (Gamble). British India, Burma, Ceylon,

Malaya.

VKRX— Am, Hind — Ghari am, Ass. — Jegachu, bocho, Garo — Marka,
Gondi — Uh, K61 — Ama, Baigas — Ul, Sonthal — Maha, Khond —
Ambo, Uriya — Tsaratpang, Magh — Ambc, Kurku — -Amba, Mar —
Mad, mangas, Tarn. — Mamadi, mamid, Tel. — Mavena, mdvu,
marveen, Kan — Mdvit, Mai — Thavet, mango, Burm. — Sepam,
Malay.

This is a dirty-coloured, brown wood, with a fine, close grain, yielding
a smooth surface from the tool. Gamble reports it as being grown prin-
cipally for the sake of its fruit, and that it is used for planking, doors,
window-frames, packing-cases, canoes, and tea-boxes. It is not suitable
for export.

The minute pores are not discernible under the lens. Medullary rays
numerous and very fine.

MANGROVE. Rhizophora Mangle L.

Weight 69 Ibs. Brazil, Tropical America, India,

Africa, and the Tropics
generally.

VERN — Mangrove, red mangrove, Eng. — Mangle', m. Colorado, Sp. Am.,
gen. — Mangle rouge, Guad. — Manglier, Mart. — Manglier rouge,

310 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Trin. — Mangue vermelho, mepareyba, apareiba, guapanba, Braz. —
Paletuvier rouge, Fr. G. — Duizenbeenboom, Sur. — Mangle salado,
Pan. — Mangle' gateador, C.R. — Candelon, mangle' dulce, m. ttnto,
tab-che, tap-chet Mex.

The mangrove formations of the world are to be found in two broad
but well-defined areas — an Eastern area embracing East Africa, Asia, and
the Polynesian Islands down to Australia, and a Western area comprising
the coasts of America and West Africa. There are two botanical names
noted by Colonel Gamble for this wood, and also two specimens in the
collection, one marked " Mangue, Rhizophora Mangle," and the other
" Mangue vermelha." Both these are of a brown colour, streaked with a
darkish shade, and bear a superficial resemblance in the grain, but the
structure as seen on the transverse section does not correspond.

It is stated that " Mangue vermelha " forms what are called " man-
guesaes," when the seeds shoot before they are detached from the tree and
the shoots descend until they strike into the ground, thus forming a
thick forest from one tree. Under the roots a crab is found which is con-
sidered to be poisonous because of the herbs on which it feeds. The people
at St. Joan da Barra, notwithstanding this opinion, used to eat the crabs
they found among the mangue.

Record refers to " 15 genera and about 50 species." It is probable that
only a few of them produce timber of any size and utility. Colonel Gamble
in his notes says that his collected specimen is of either Avicennia tomen-
tosa or Lagunculana racemosa, but I think there can be no question that
it is Rhizophora mangle.

J. S. Gamble, in his Manual of Indian Timbers, mentions the following,
Rhizophora conjugata, R. Candelaria, and R. mucronata Lamk., as occurring
throughout India, Burma, and Ceylon. The woods of these vary con-
siderably, from the wood mentioned above, in colour and grain ; the colour
of these is a light salmon pink, with a hard, close grain, containing the
same kind of figure-marking as that found in mahogany. The transverse
grain shows the cleanest-cut pattern, with fine, sparse pores, heavily
plugged, and very pronounced. Medullary rays are single, duplicated,
and triplicated, and in spite of their prominence, hardly show on the radial
section.

With the American produce the pores are exceedingly numerous and
often subdivided ; they show in bands alternately scarce and numerous,
so that a section of the wood shows alternately light and dark. The
numerous medullary rays are very strongly defined, and show a pretty,
though minute, silver grain on the radial section.

Mangue vermelha. — The pores are exceedingly numerous and often
subdivided, in alternate bands of few and many pores, so that a section
of the wood is alternately light and dark. The numerous medullary rays
are strongly defined, and show a minute silver grain on the radial section.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 311

Rhizophora mangle (South American). — The pores are very minute and
very numerous, plugged, with lightly defined medullary rays. With the
Indian Rhizophora the pattern is similar to the latter, but on a larger and
more pronounced scale, with the finest clean-cut section possible, and the
rays strongly marked.

MANUKA. Leptospermum ericoides A. Rich.

New Zealand.

This timber, the produce of the tea tree, according to the Board of
Agriculture, New Zealand, is red in colour, dense, straight-grained, and
elastic. It is only procurable in short lengths which are small in size. It
is used for wheelwrights' work and for inlaying.

MAPLE. Acer saccharinum Wang.

A. saccharum Marsh.
A. macrophyllum, etc.
Weight 37 Ibs. 2 oz. Canada, United States.

This exceedingly important timber is drawn from a very wide expanse
of country, and is obtained from many species. It has, therefore, an ex-
tensive range of quality, from the best, hard, tough-grained white maple,
through many stages to a soft, often bluish or reddish medium-textured
wood. The best is always asked for, and sometimes obtained ; it is
termed in specifications " hard, white, rock maple." A considerable
quantity is found with a curly, twisted grain, and is known as " curly "
or " bird's-eye " maple. This variety is much in demand for decorative
work, and is generally used in the form of veneers. The whiter the wood in
which this description is found, the more highly it is valued. It is used
for trimmings of buildings, cabinet work, furniture, and general decorative
purposes, especially in the saloons and state-rooms of yachts and steamers,
and for railway coaches.

A particular variety of wavy, curly grain without bird's-eye marking
has been called " Papapsco wood " (q.v.}. Other uses for maple are very
varied, and include rollers for several kinds of machines, agricultural im-
plements, presses for heavy machinery, and for general furniture. A finely
carved German coffer of maple, dating from the fourteenth century, can
be seen at the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.

It has also been used for the backs of violins. The violin of the
musician in Longfellow's " Wayside Inn " was

Fashioned of maple and of pine,

That in Tyrolean forests vast

Had rocked and wrestled with the blast

The texture being of a tough, substantial nature, without long or
fibrous grain, the wood is suitable for floorings where hard wear and rough

312 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

usage are required, as the surface does not become torn or flaked, and the
continual dragging of heavy articles or the shuffling of feet does not wear
the surface. For this purpose it is extensively used throughout Canada
and America, and in this country also, but the timber being particularly
susceptible to damp, the greatest possible care is required in laying a floor
to prevent shrinkage or swelling.

The pores are exceedingly small and very regular. The medullary
rays are very strong and parallel, showing very distinctly, though finely,
on the radial section.

MAPLE, JAPANESE. Acer palmatum Thunb. and others.

Japan.

It is impossible to say of what species the commercial supplies of
Japanese maple consist, nor is it probable that at present it could be
ascertained. Goto names A. palmatum as being " abundant in Hokkaido
and the northern part of the main island." It is therefore likely that this
species predominates in supplies. Fifteen different species are named by
this authority. The character, general quality, and size of the ship-
ments which have already arrived in England, give the impression that
the wood is all of one species. The colour is white, and the texture and
grain of the wood are very good indeed, and compare to advantage with
the best Canadian. For all purposes for which hard rock maple excels
(see MAPLE), the Japanese is equally good, if not more satisfactory.

MAPLE SILKWOOD. Flindersia Brayleyana F. v. M.

syn. F. Chatawaina and F. Pimenteliana F. v. M.
Weight 35-40 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland, New South Wales.

Known also as Queensland maple. The wood is a light red mahogany
colour, with a hard, close grain, resembling the plainer kinds of American
mahoganies, although harder. It is difficult to know why it has been
called " maple," as it does not in any way resemble maple (Acer}. A fair
quantity has found its way into the European markets, and its usefulness
has been recognised as a good substitute for mahogany. Swain reports it
as " one of the prime cabinet woods of the world, ranking with Cedar,
Mahogany, and Walnut."

Maple silkwood is moderately elastic, and the grain often wavy and
curly ; it veneers and plies perfectly, taking stain readily, seasoning well,
and is said to be disliked by borers. It is not durable in the ground or
in damp situations, but is useful for inside purposes and in shipbuilding.

The pores are very small and rather scarce, but of moderate size, with
a rather coarse, ill-defined medullary ray ; the transverse section grain
showing very similar to that of African mahogany (Khaya Senegalensis).

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 313

MAPLE, VINE or DWARF. Acer circinatum Pursh.

A . glabrum Torr.

British Columbia, N.W. United
States.

The colour is light brown, sometimes almost white. A hard,
heavy, and close-grained wood, not strong. Used for tool handles and
fuel.

MARBLEWOOD. Olea paniculata R. Br.

Weight 59 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales, Queensland.

Known also as " clove berry," and should not be confused with
marblewood, Andamans, Diospyros oocarpa (q.v.).

The colour is yellow, with darker streaks. Baker likens it to the
Australian black plum, Cadellia monostylis Benth. It has a tough, hard
grain and is reported as being difficult to work.

MARBLEWOOD, ANDAMANS. Diospyros oocarpa Thw.

Weight 45 Ibs. (Gamble). India, The Andaman Islands, The

Nicobars, Coco Islands, Ceylon.
VERN — Vellei-kantnkali, Tarn. — Kalu-kadumbcnya, Cmgh.

The name is well chosen, as it would be difficult to find in nature
anything more resembling marble. An alternative name is " zebra-
wood."

The wood is of a dense, ebony black, with stripes of golden yellow and
whitish-yellow ; it has a very close, hard, firm texture which is rather cold
to the touch, and is capable of a very smooth surface. Experience of its
use in various kinds of woodwork had disclosed that the wood does not
stand well, and is not comparable with the ebonies, or so-called coromandel
woods from other sources. When used either in solid or veneer work in
furniture, it is very liable to split. In such work as small ornamental
boxes, razor-cases, etc., where thicknesses from J inch to j inch are em-
ployed, it has also been found to be too brittle for continual use, and the
wood throws off the glue, causing the box to fall to pieces. As walking-
sticks it is not found to possess the necessary strength to resist ordinary
wear and tear. The supply of even reasonably sound trees seems to be
practically exhausted, those logs which have been shipped during the last
ten years having been so inferior in size and condition, and so defec-
tive, that it has been impossible to convert even small sizes for any
purpose.

The scanty pores are exceedingly small and plugged. Medullary rays
confused, very fine, and hardly discernible under the lens.

314 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

MARIA PRETA. Melanoxylon Brauna Schott.

Weight 69 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Brauna, barauna, grauna preta, grauna parda, garauna, mana
preta, perovauna, Braz.

My specimen displays a small portion of dark wood, almost black, with
a much larger proportion of yellow-brown. Whether the light-coloured
portion is the sap-wood of the tree it is impossible to judge, the indications
inclining rather against this view.

It is a hard, cross-grained wood, but my specimen is riddled with
worm-holes, and otherwise defective. There is nothing to show that it
would be useful for any ordinary purpose.

The pores are rather small and infrequent ; they are joined by con-
tinuous wavy bands of loose tissue. The medullary rays are fine, numer-
ous, and undulating.

MASSARANDUBA or MESSARANDUBA. Leucuma procera Mart.

Mimusops data Fr. Allem.
Mimusops sp.

Weight 71 Ibs. 9 oz. Brazil.

VKRX— Bullet wood, bullv tree, balata tree, bee/wood, horseflesh, red lance-
wood, barueh, buruca, B.G — Bolletne, bolletneboom, balataboom,
bloedbalata, pardejlesh, pardenvleesh, roode balata, Sur — Balata,
balata franc, balata rouge, bois rouge, bois de natte, sapotillier marron,
manil-kara, I'abeille, hvmarikushi, mora-balh, assapoo/wo, mora-
hokuru, niamushi, Fr. G — Acana, ansubo, balata, mameyiielo,
sapote, sapote de costa, zipote, P. R — Jtnmiqui, Cuba — Wild dillv ,
U S., Bah — Balata, purgo, Venez — Nisf>ero,C A — Massaranduba,
massaranduba amarella, m de leite, m. vermelha, mac,eranduba, ma-
parajuba, aparahn't, aprani, apraua, balata, chaud, muivapiranga,
Braz. — Pferdefleischholz, Germ.

It is not clear from which of the above species this wood is produced,
or whether all are included under one name. Brazilian Woods gives the
same Brazilian name to them, and mentions that in the State of Bahia
they are called " apraiu."

Record reports two kinds of massaranduba ; Mimusops amazonca
Huber and Mimusops aff. data Fr. Allem., while Pereira names three
species, i.e. the yellow, red, and milk massaranduba. The last name
doubtless originated from the fact that the bark of the tree secretes an
abundance of fluid which can be used as milk, hence its alternative names
of milk tree and cow tree. This fluid is common to all three species. The
available supply is limited.

Colonel Gamble's specimen is bright brick-red in colour, and has an
exceedingly close, firm, hard texture, yielding a very smooth surface from
the tool, with a bright metallic lustre. It is mentioned in Brazilian Woods
as an excellent wood for piles and submerged work, as well as for hydraulic

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 315

work. It is well suited to heavy, durable outside constructions and rail-
way ties, and would be useful for chair and table legs, or any decorative
furniture work where a very hard, smooth, durable wood is required,
though it would perhaps be found too hard and heavy for ordinary
cabinet work.

The pores are very scarce, and are generally arranged in short wavy
bands or groups ; in some cases they are plugged. The medullary rays
are exceedingly numerous, clearly defined and parallel, but irregular.
At intervals they are crossed at right angles by similar light wavy bands,
presenting a very pretty pattern.

Mastixia Thwaitesii.

Ceylon.

A pale yellowish-white timber with a soft, rather rough grain, not of
much value. Liable to attack by a small boring insect, which stains the
wood black.

The excessively small and numerous pores make a pretty pattern on
the transverse section. The medullary rays are wavy and very fine,
showing on the radial section in minute silver flecks.

MATAI. Podocarpus spicata R. Br.

Weight 40 Ibs. New Zealand.

This wood, alternatively known as black pine, has been imported into
London this year (1930), especially as a flooring wood in narrow widths.
The colour varies from light straw to yellow of a deeper shade. It has a
smooth even grain like that of kauri pine. It is a good, useful wood, but
does not possess sufficient attraction to warrant the costs of transport
from New Zealand. It is used for general building purposes, especially
flooring and weather-boarding, joinery, and cabinet-making. Obtainable
in long lengths and up to 24 inches in width.

Faint lines mark the concentric lines, but in rather an obscure manner.
The medullary rays are numerous and fine, showing in extremely small
flecks on the radial section.

MATAMATA. Eschweilera sp.

Weight 68 Ibs. 6 oz. Brazil.

This wood is of a dull nut-brown colour, and is capable of a smooth
surface from the tool. It is, however, inclined to warp and twist in a
more than ordinary degree, and also to split longitudinally with the
growth, in numbers of straight, small lines. It could only be used, there-
fore, in small sections, and for a limited number of purposes.

Record, quoting Huber, says : " The ' matamata ' of the Amazon region
supplies a timber in demand for hydraulic works, particularly for the

316 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

supports of bridges and warehouses, because of its great resistance to the
attacks of the teredo. There are two species, namely, Eschweilera coriacea
Mart, and Eschweilera Matamata Huber."

The pores are very regular and uniform, and are rendered apparent by
a whitish halo. The medullary rays are very fine and clear, and show a
stronger wavy mark at right angles, the whole making a beautiful pattern
on the transverse section.

MAYFLOWER. Tecoma pentaphylla A. Juss.

Weight 36 Ibs. British Honduras, Mexico, Panama.
VERN — Roble, Sp. Am. gen. — Roble bianco, P R. — Palo bianco, roble bianco,
roble de vitgo, Cuba — Apamdte, roble Colorado, Venez. — Ocobo, Col
— Roble de savana, Pan. — Mano de Icon, matihsquati', Gnat ,
Hond. — Cortes, macuehzo, Hond. — Amapa, Mex. — and others.

Record says that " the vernacular name ' roble ' is applied to a number
of different trees, but to none more commonly than to Tecoma pentaphylla,
the wood of which has a superficial resemblance to oak, though it does not
have prominent rays." It is a beautiful grey-brown wood, with a grain
more like mahogany than oak. When first cut it shows a light straw
colour, but on exposure to air turns a silver-grey brown. The colour is so
attractive that, if supplies are forthcoming, it will be in demand.

The pores are regular and very numerous ; the concentric layers
marked by dark lines ; the medullary rays are exceedingly fine, hardly
discernible under the lens, with a very marked ripple ray on all sections.

MEDANG or MENDONG.

Malay Peninsula.

Foxworthy reports that this wood is produced by a great number of
different genera and species, and that there are over a hundred names for
it, mostly known as medang with some qualifying term. The wood is a
light yellow straw colour, with a smooth, close, lustrous grain, suitable
for light decorative woodwork purposes or laminated woodwork. Fox-
worthy says the medang produced by the Cinnamomum genus has an
aromatic odour. All of these woods unduly expand and contract, and
are very liable to warp and twist.

The pores are very small, parallel, plugged, with numerous medullary
rays which are obscure and difficult to detect under the lens.

Melaleuca leucadendron Linn.

British India, Malaya, Tropical Australia.

VERN — Milkwood, white or swamp tea-tree, atchoourgo, Aborig. — Kavu
putt, Malay.

The Cajeput tree. The colour of the wood is reddish-brown, with a
hard, close grain, reported as durable underground.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

3^7

Gamble says (< the leaves give the Cajeput oil used in rheumatism."
Not met with in commerce.

Melanorrhoea spp., Ghtta spp., etc.

India, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra.
VERN — Kheu, Manipur — Thitsi, Burm — Soothan, Taleing — Kiahong,
Karen — Borneo rosewood, black varnish tree, rengas or nngas,
Malay.

The wood was first introduced commercially into London at the
Holland Park Exhibition, 1920, under the name of "red zebra wood,"

MELANORRHOEA US11ATA, UPPER BURMA

The colour is a rich deep red, with darker and lighter streaks. It has a
dense, hard grain which yields a smooth surface under the tool. Several
handsome pieces of furniture, including a copy of an early Jacobean
cabinet in the possession of the late Percy Macquoid, were shown at this
Exhibition, where the wood was much admired. It was also used as
lining and banding in tables and sideboards. In the East it is reported
as used for building bridges, and smaller work, such as tool handles.

Dr. Eox worthy, in Malayan Forest Records, No. 3, 1927, says :
" Ridley . . . gives Melanorrhoea Maingayi Hook. f. as the principal source
of the timber known as Rengas. It now seems that Rengas is produced

318 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

by quite a number of species belonging to the genera Gluta, Melanorrhoea,
Melanochyla, Parishia, and Swintoma. The group is not well understood
and no attempt is made to define the different species." Speaking of the
danger of poisoning, he says : " The wood contains some of the poison,
which is most active when the wood is fresh, but which is capable of
causing poisoning many years after the wood is first cut." It may be
that, as in such woods as koko, Knysna boxwood, balsa, and greenhcart,
there is a particular property, affecting individual shipments, which may
contain some slightly poisonous qualities producing feverish attacks,
swollen glands, or even a septic condition ; but ten years of its use in
England has not confirmed his statement, and to my knowledge no com-
plaints have been made. At the same time, a continued warning such as
that afforded by Dr. Foxworthy's last publication, and coming from such
an authority, must not be ignored.

The pores are numerous, uneven, irregular in position and size, gener-
ally small and plugged. Medullary rays numerous, irregular, close and
fine, with thicker wavy lines, crossed at right angles by similar lines,
making a pretty pattern on the transverse section.

Melia Azedarach Linn.

Weight 38-40 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon.
VKRN — Darachk, Kuram Valley — Chein, kachein, Sutlej — Drek, bakdm,
bakdvan, betain, deikna, bakarja, Hind — Deknoi, Jaunsar — Bitan,
Kumaon — Denkan, Garhwal — Bitravan, Dotial — Maha limbo,
malla mm, muhli, C.P. — Bakainu, Nep. — Pcjn, padrai, Mar. —
Mallay vcmbu, Tarn. — Taraka vepa, makdnim, Tel. — Bevu, chik
bc'vu, heb-bevu, Kan. — Thamaga, tamaga, Burm.

This is known as the " Persian lilac." The colour is mahogany red,
and while attractive, the wood is rather soft, but valuable for decorative
cabinet purposes.

Swam mentions an Australian variety, M. Azedarach var. aitstralasica,
or M. composita, generally called " tulip cedar," and " known to bushmcn
as ' white cedar,' although the wood is not white but is variegated like
streaky bacon."

The pores are fairly large, mostly plugged ; strong medullary rays
showing prominently on the radial section.

Melia composita Willd., M . dubia Hiern.

Weight 26-33 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Ceylon, Africa, Aus-
tralia, Tropical Asia.

VERN — Eisur, hmbarra, nlmbarra, Bombay — Dingkurlong, Khasia —
Mallay vembu, Tarn. — Bevu, betta bevu, had bevu, Kan. — Lunu-
midella, Cingh.

The wood of the two different species, for commercial purposes, may be
treated as the same. It is reddish-white in colour, yielding a smooth

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 319

surface from the tool. Gamble says : " The structure resembles that of

MELIA COMPOSITA TREES

toon (Cedrela Toona), but all the pores are of the same size, and the wood
is softer. ... In Ceylon the outriggers of native boats are made of this

320 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

wood, which is highly esteemed also for various other purposes/' The
failure in discovering the value of Indian timbers is again illustrated by
the use of such a valuable wood for the outriggers of native boats.

This wood has the unique grain of kiri, Paulownia sp., varying only in
the colour. In Japan the wood of Paulownia is highly valued, and it has
been used greatly to the advantage of the producer.

The concentric layers are marked by pronounced, thin, dark-coloured
lines, with open pores of small to large size, other pores open and plugged,
very small to medium-sized. The medullary rays are rather coarse, at
very irregular intervals, wavy, showing on the radial section as in cedars
(Cedrela spp.).

Melia indica Brandis. M. Azadirachta Linn.

Azadirachta indica Juss.

Weight 45-52 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon.
VERN — Azad-darakht, neb, Pers. — Nim, Hind. — Betam, Kumaon — A gas,
Palamow — Limbo, C P. — Kohumba, Guz — Nimun, Sindi — Vepa,
vempu, Tarn. — Yapa, yepa, taruka, vcmpa, Tel. — Limb, nimbav,
Mar. — Bevina, bevu, heb-bevu, kirn bevu, Kan. — Kohomba, Cingh
— Tamaka, thmbaw-tamaka, Burm.

This is known as the " neem " tree, which is prominent in Northern or
Western India, and may be seen growing in avenues in Calcutta and other
places in Burma. Gamble quotes Oliver, who states : " It is wild and
cultivated in Upper Burma." The tree is reported as being very pro-
ductive, almost every part of it, the bark, wood, leaves, seeds, oil, and
gum, all being utilised for medicine, food, or otherwise. Moreover, it
provides most excellent shade when other trees are bare.

The wood resembles that of high-class quality mahogany (Swietenia
mahogani), so that even an expert might be deceived. Gamble says that
the authorities report the wood as warping and splitting, but experiments
show that, properly handled, there is no danger in this respect.

The concentric layers of growth are marked by thin white lines, the
pores generally in groups, rather small, plugged ; the medullary rays
parallel but not straight, well-defined, crossed at wide and irregular
intervals by stronger light patterns.

Memecylon capitellatum Linn.

Weight 58-60 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon, Burma, The Deccan.
VERN — Nirdsa, Unya — Alii, Tel. — Arjun, arjuni, kurpa, Bombay —
Udatalh, Kan. — Kay a, kassau, Tarn. — Kora-kaha, weli-kaha,
dodan-kaha, Cingh.

The wood is a rather bright yellow colour, with a close, compact grain,
yielding a very smooth surface from the tool. Gamble states that it is a
small tree useful for fuel and making charcoal ; in the Deccan it is used

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 321

for house-posts. The quality of the wood is far too good to be used for
such purposes ; it would be an excellent medium for all descriptions of
decorative woodwork, although not of sufficient character to warrant
export.

The pores are very scarce and small, plugged. Medullary rays rather
coarse, irregular, uneven, and unequal, showing on the radial section in
tiny flecks.

MEMPENING. Pasania spp.
Quercus spp.

Malay Peninsula.
VERN — Berangan babi.

The colour of the wood is a pinkish-brown, duller but somewhat like
that of Quercus rubra, with a rather soft, smooth grain, yielding a smooth
surface from the tool. This product of an evergreen oak is milder and
lighter in weight, softer in grain than in any other evergreen oak yet
recorded. If supplies were available in commercial sizes it would meet a
good demand. Foxworthy reports the wood as suitable for some classes
of furniture when carefully seasoned, which is placing the value of the
timber on a higher rating than it deserves.

The rather scarce pores vary from small to fairly large, ranged in
streaky bands between the usual wide, pronounced medullary rays of the
evergreen oak, which, as usual, show on the quartered section in dark
reddish-coloured flakes.

MENGKULANG. Tarrietia spp.

Malaya.

VERN — Balong ay am, Kedah — Mekehang, mehma, mengkeluang, merbaju,
sikit keluang, teraling.

The colour of the wood is brick-red, with light, lustrous narrow streaks
and a firm, strong grain, requiring a sharp tool to secure a smooth surface
because of the narrow ridges of contrary harder and lighter layers. A
very attractive, decorative furniture wood which Foxworthy reports as
formerly used for cart-wheels in Malacca, it works readily, takes a fine
polish, and is very suitable for furniture, with which opinion I entirely
agree. According to the same authority, the most common form is T.
simplicifolia.

The large open pores are scarce and widely distributed, with sparse,
dark-coloured medullary rays, irregular and obscure.

MERANTI.

See SERAYA and LAUAN.

322 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

MERAWAN. Hopea spp.

Malay Peninsula.

VERN — Chengal pasir, damar mata kuching, damar siput, jangkang, men
garawan, merawan jangkang, pengarawan, pengarawan penak.

Foxworthy, in Malayan Forest Records, No. 3, states that the timber is
credited with being the produce of a number of Hopea species, widely
distributed in the Peninsula, and rather abundant.

The wood is pale yellow when first cut, darkening after exposure to
air, soft to hard, light to moderately heavy, with a variable grain which is
in some cases smooth and capable of a good finish, and in other cases
rough and difficult to work.

Mesua ferrea Linn.

Weight 70 Ibs. (Troup). India, Burma, Ceylon, Andaman

Islands, Malay Peninsula.

VERN — Nagesar, Beng. — Nahor, Ass. — Nagesshvoro, Uriya — Nangal,
mallay nangal, ndngu, naka, Tarn. — Naga kesara, Tel. — Nang,
Tmnevelly — Nagchampa, Mar. — Nagasampigi, kesara, Kan. —
Pen, Trav. Hills — Atha, Coorg — Surli, Kader — Behetta cham-
pagam, Mai. — Nd, Cmgh. — Kaing-go, Magh — Naksher, Mechi —
Gangaw, Burm. — Penaga, lenggapus, matopus, Malay.

The native Burmese name by which it is sometimes known in Europe
is "gangaw" ; in India it is called " Indian rose-chestnut," and sometimes
" ironwood." This wood is of bright rose-red colour, which darkens on
exposure, with a rather coarse, open grain ; nevertheless it is decorative
in colour and general appearance. It requires to be thoroughly seasoned,
when it stands well. Gamble says : " The timber is very strong, hard and
heavy, and it is just its weight and hardness, and the difficulty of extracting
it from the forest and converting it, that leads to its comparatively slight
use. It gives good sleepers, as good as those of pyinkado, but the cost of
extraction, conversion and freight is so great as to make its extended use
unlikely. ... In the Andamans ... it is used for building, for bridges,
gunstocks and tool handles."

This timber was first imported commercially into Europe in 1920, but
is not yet much in demand, as its merits are not recognised by timber
users. Being a valuable and important timber, efforts should be made
to find those requirements for which its remarkable strength, hardness,
and durability so greatly recommend it. The Superintendent (1921) of
the cellular gaol at Port Blair (Andamans) prefers it for many purposes to
any timber the Andamans can yield. He specially commends it for
mallet heads.

The pores are not very numerous ; they are sometimes in single
formation, but more generally in short radial lines of five or six joined

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 323

pores. The medullary rays are fine though distinct, and parallel ; they
are crossed in a peculiarly irregular manner by small, white wavy lines,
the whole giving an effect as of a badly damaged spider's web. The
transverse section shows concentric belts of light- and dark-coloured
wood.

Michelia excelsa and M . Kisopa
See CHAMP.

Michelia nilagirica Zenk.

Ceylon, Southern India.
VERN — Pila champa, Hind., Mar. — Shembugha, Tarn. — Wal-saput Cingh.

The colour of this wood is a light yellowish -white, with a very close
grain, and yielding a smooth surface, especially for such a light wood.
Trimen reports that it was used for sleepers on the Nanu-oya Railway,
and Gamble that it is used for house-building ; this last authority
quotes the weight at 38 Ibs. per foot cube, but the specimen pro-
vided to me by the Forest Authorities, Ceylon, is much lighter,
namely, 25-27 Ibs. It seems impossible that this wood can be useful
for either sleepers or house-building, but it would prove an excellent
substitute for balsa wood, or in place of Paulownia for the linings of
small cabinets.

The pores are very scarce, irregular in size and position ; medullary
rays strongly marked, very numerous, and showing in an unusually pro-
nounced manner on the radial section.

MILHO COZIDO. Licania incana Aubl.

Weight 59 Ibs. Brazil.

This wood is of a light nut-brown colour, yielding a smooth straight
surface from the plane. It has a close texture comparable to that of
Spanish mahogany, and it shows minute flecks on the radial section.
Pereira says it is a scarce timber, of secondary quality, used for interior
works.

The pores are rather scarce and are variable in size ; they include a
proportion which are wider and more open than is usual in Brazilian
timbers. There are wavy bands of light tissue following the line of the
concentric layer. The very numerous medullary rays are exceedingly
fine, forming, with the wavy bands which cross them at right angles, a
fine lace-like network.

324 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Miliusa velutina Hook.

Weight 48-53 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Dom-sdlt Hind. — Daulo, Kumaon — Gausal, Garhwal — Kari, C.P.
— Kharrei, kajrauta, Oudh — Karikaput, Koderma — Peddachilka
duduga, nalla duduga, Tel. — Thabutkyi, Burm.

A light brownish-green coloured wood with a fine, close-grained tex-
ture. Not likely to be of any commercial importance, but apparently of
some use in its native country.

Pores are scarce ; medullary rays coarse but well-defined.

Millettia pendula Bth.

Weight 66 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Thinwm, Burm.

This is a very beautiful wood possessing a rare figure, and it would be
much sought for if a regular supply were established. It is of a dark
chocolate colour, with black and reddish streaks, and somewhat resembles
a rich dark partridge wood. It is capable of a smooth surface, but re-
quires a sharp tool, and finishes with a bright metallic lustre. It would
be valuable for cabinet work and inlay, also for walking-sticks and turned
articles of a decorative nature.

The pores are scarce, and generally plugged with gum. The medullary
rays are very fine indeed, although clear-cut ; they are parallel and ex-
ceedingly numerous, and crossed by pretty wavy lines of light ripples
following the concentric layers.

Mimusops Elengi Linn.

Weight 54-57 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, The Anda-

mans.

VERN — Bukal, bohl, Beng., Mar. — Mulsdri, maulser, Hind. — Khin, kira-
kuh, Uriya — Pal, Palkonda — Magadam, mahila, makil, mukalai,
vilva-pattin, Tarn. — Pogada, Tel. — Bokal, boklu, mugah, bokh,
renje, bagalamara, Kan. — Bar soli, Meywar — Vavoh, ovalh, owli,
Mar — Elengi, Mai — Kaya, chaya, Burm. — Munamal, Cingh.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, give the name
" bullet-wood " to this timber.

The colour of the wood is bright plum-red, with a very hard, close,
compact grain, the pores on the tangential grain shining brightly in tiny
specks. It resembles very much the European plum, but is much harder
and heavier.

" Pores small, in short lines, which are generally radial but often
irregular and oblique. Medullary rays very fine, very numerous, uniform
and equidistant. Many parallel, wavy, concentric bands, narrow but
conspicuous " (Gamble).

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 325

Mimusops hexandra Roxb.

Weight 72 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Ceylon.

VERN — Khir, khimi, Hind. — Rain, Meywar — Khin, kirakuh, Uriya —
Ranjana, raini, khirni, Mar. — Raini, Gondi — Pdla, palle panlo,
palla pandu, Tel. — Palla, kanun palle, palai, Tarn. — Pal, Pal-
konda — Palu, Cingh.

This very valuable wood is known in Ceylon as " palu," and in the
Andamans as " bullet-wood." Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers
of India, attach the name to M. Elengi and M. littoralis, and do not men-
tion it as produced by M. hexandra, quoting the latter as a synonym of M.
indica. The wood is purplish-red in colour, with a very close, firm, hard
texture. Occasional logs have found their way into London from Ceylon
and the Andamans, but while it is a valuable wood in its native place,
it cannot compete in Europe with the South American beefwood (Mimusops
globosa), which it resembles. It is capable of a very smooth surface from
the tool, and is excellent for turnery. Gamble reports it as used for sugar-
mill beams, oil-presses, house-posts, tool handles, and turnery. He adds :
" The great weight and hardness hamper its extended use as timber," fail-
ing to recognise that these are the qualities which make its exceptional
value, and that as the world's supplies of such timbers are rapidly dimin-
ishing, its uses should be confined to those purposes for which it is suitable,
which do not include house-building or furniture. Trimen reports its use
for railway sleepers — a most unreasonable waste of a valuable wood.
Pearson and Brown report it as very durable, quoting the same kind of
uses as above, but showing that it is suitable for articles where toughness
and hardness are of importance, yet still failing to realise the value of a
rare wood which should not be used for common purposes.

The very numerous, tiny pores are in belts or bands, and plugged.
The medullary rays are numerous, very fine, and difficult to distinguish
under the lens.

Mimusops littoralis Kurz.

Weight 66 Ibs. The Andaman Islands.

VERN — Mohiva, pinle-mohwa, katpah, Burm. — Dogola, mowha, And.

This is a handsome wood, sometimes known as " bullet-wood " and
resembling M. Elengi but of a lighter red, and a more wavy grain. It is
smooth, and takes a good polish. Gamble says that it is apt to split.
" The timber is extracted in squares up to 50 feet long with a siding of 2
feet. It is difficult to cut and saw or to drive nails into. . . .

" Pores very small, elongated, subdivided, in radial or oblique
lines. Medullary rays very fine, very numerous, uniform, and equi-
distant."

326 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

MINGRIS. Koompassia Beccariana Taub.

Weight 52 Ibs. 14 oz. Borneo.

This timber is hard, and is of a dull, brick-red colour. In Borneo it is
not considered durable, and seems liable to twist and warp. It very much
resembles the somewhat inferior varieties of Dipterocarpus.

The numerous open pores are filled with gum. The very fine medullary
rays are parallel, but not quite equidistant.

MIRABOW, MIRABOO, or MERBAU. Intsia Bakeri Prain.

Afzelia palembanica Baker, and possibly
Intzia (Afzelia) bijuga Colebr.
Weight 60 Ibs. 10 oz. Malay Peninsula, Borneo, India,

The Philippines.
VERN — Ipil, Malay.

Intsia Bakeri occurs in the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Sumatra ;
no such narrow limits mark the coastal species, 7. bijuga, which is widely
distributed over the tropics of the Old World from Madagascar and the
Seychelles to India, Malaya, and across the Pacific Ocean as far as the
Sandwich Isles. According to Foxworthy the woods of the two species
are named respectively " miraboo " and " ipil" or " miraboo laut," but are
so similar in appearance that he could detect no structural difference be-
tween them. It is possible that the wood of commerce may be derived
from both species. It has been imported in sawn planks and boards of
various sizes.

The timber is so hard and heavy that it is sometimes numbered among
the " ironwoods." It is of a warm, brown colour that darkens almost to
blackness with age and exposure. The Borneo wood is one of the most
valuable in that island, and has been imported into England under the
name of " Borneo teak " or " Borneo No. i teak," but it has none of the
qualities of teak, and on account of its heaviness did not find favour as a
substitute for that wood. The wood from New Guinea (probably /.
bijuga) imported into Germany was also recommended as a substitute
for teak. Mirabow takes a good polish and has been extensively used in
the Far East in the manufacture of furniture ; one fine piece possessed by
Dr. Hose in Borneo formed the circular top of a dining-table (8£ feet in
diameter and 2\ inches in thickness) and had been hewn from the trunk,
moulded, and completely finished by natives solely with the aid of axes.
Being very resistant to decay, and to the attacks of insects (including
" worms "), the timber has been successfully used in Borneo, etc., for
bridges, houses, posts, and other constructional purposes ; but it is said
to corrode steel.

Experiments have been made in America which serve to show that
this wood is but little affected by acid, and consequently makes a good

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 327

wood for accumulator boxes ; but according to an American Professor it
contains too much colouring matter, which might discolour the solution.
In transverse section the wood shows many thin, sharp, light concentric
lines, dividing it into concentric zones which are of very uneven widths.
The same section also reveals numerous light dots, evenly scattered ; each
dot has a light-coloured fringe and includes one or more pores, which are
mostly visible to the naked eye. The coarse vessels (pores) contain a
substance which is sulphur-yellow or glistening red to reddish-black. The
light-coloured medullary rays are fine and numerous.

MIRO. Podocarpus fermginea Dow.

Weight 46 Ibs. (Baterden). New Zealand.

The wood varies from light to dark brown in colour, is close in grain,
moderately hard and heavy, planes up well, and takes a good polish.
Some logs are nicely figured ; it is, therefore, very suitable for cabinet-
makers' work. It would also be useful for the turner, and for any orna-
mental work. As it yields timber 10 to 18 inches square, and 20 to 30
feet in length, it would no doubt be fit for civil architecture.

Mischodon zeylanicus Thw.

Weight 69 Ibs. Ceylon, Southern India.

VERN — Tampanai, Tarn. — Tammanua, Cingh.

The colour is a dull nut-brown, with a reddish shade, the texture very
close and compact, yielding a very smooth surface from the tool. Gamble
reports it as " used for building, and durable under water." Its qualities,
however, render it unsuitable for building purposes, as it is very hard and
would be expensive to work ; but it is very suitable for decorative wood-
work and turnery.

The concentric layers of growth are marked by light lines. The pores
are very small, numerous, and plugged. Medullary rays very numerous,
exceedingly fine, parallel, uniform and regular.

M'KUNGUNI. Commifera sp. Troup.

Weight 42 Ibs. East Africa.

The colour when first cut is a bright golden green with very fine,
purple veins, but with exposure it changes to an attractive olive brown
with still a touch of green in it. The grain is very close, compact, hard,
yielding a very smooth surface from the tool. Suitable for furniture,
panelling, and good class decorative woodwork.

According to a letter from the Conservator of Forests, Tanganyika,
the trees are widely scattered and there is a lack of transport. He adds :
" The trees as a rule would square from 18" to 24", and they would have

328 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

to be carried by natives, which limits them to 10 cubic feet, consequently
only small sizes could be transported."

The concentric layers are marked by dark and light lines at varying
intervals, and more or less pronounced, with numberless very small pores,
plugged, and generally surrounded by belts of light tissue, crossed at right
angles by strong, fine, pronounced medullary rays.

MOERI. Possibly Brabejum stellatifolium L.

South Africa.

This is the well-known " red stinkwood " or " wild almond " of South
Africa. The colour is a dull brick-red, and the wood has a close, hard
grain. In quality, grain, hardness, and weight it resembles Muer (Pygeum
africanum), although there is a noticeable difference in the structure, that
of moeri having the pores regular in both position and size, often seen in
twin and triple formation ; medullary rays are parallel, often exceedingly
close together, and comparatively strong ; while my specimen of muer
shows the concentric layers clearly marked, the pores less numerous and
plugged, and very fine, close medullary rays.

MOHO. (Narrow Leaf) Bellotia Campbellii Sprague.

This wood seems to be identically the same as the well-known balsa
wood, Ochroma species. For description, therefore, see BALSA WOOD,
Ochroma spp.

Record does not mention Bellotia Campbellii, which name is attributed
to the balsa wood in British Honduras.

MOIRA-TINGA.

See KING TREE.

MOLAVE. Vitex littoralis, Dene.

The Philippines.

This wood is yellowish or straw-coloured, hard, heavy, strong, and
close in the grain ; it possesses a figure or waviness that somewhat re-
sembles satinwood, hence it may be found useful not only in building but
for cabinet purposes. Molave timber appears to be of good quality, and
has the property of seasoning without much shrinkage or splitting ; it
also stands long exposure to the weather without showing any signs of
deterioration. In the Philippines it is considered very durable.

Foxworthy states that for many purposes it seems to be fully the equal
of teak. Amongst its many uses he mentions house- and ship-building,
cabinet-making, doors, flooring, sleepers, and paving-blocks.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 329

MONCA BRANCA. Source unknown.

Weight 44 Ibs. Brazil.

This brown-coloured wood with its smooth, tight grain, somewhat re-
sembles the silky oak (Grevillea robusta) of Australia in texture and appear-
ance. The flecks which show on the radial section are of a darker colour
than the groundwork.

The small pores are uniform in size and position. In between are the large,
strongly marked medullary rays, which radiate from the centre in curves.

MORA. Dimorphandra Mora Benth. & Hook.

D. excelsa Baill., or Mora excelsa Baill.
Weight 76 Ibs. 14 oz. (fresh cut). British and Dutch Guiana.

VKKN — Mora, B. G. — Peto, niora, roode mora, witte mora, palakoea, Sur. —
Mahot rouge, Fr. G. — Itelarbe, Mart. — Mora, muro, Trm. — Morahoh,
Germ.

In 1875 Laslett published a good report of this wood, from which time
until just lately (1930) little, if any, efforts have been made to popularise
it. Fourteen logs hewn square, straight-grained and of good quality,
came to London from Surinam during the war, the cargo having been
diverted from Havre.

Stone and Freeman give a very complete account in which they say
that it is more durable than teak. They mention three varieties : the
red, the white, and mora-bucquia ; this last, however, is not considered to
be durable. Record refers to this as " morabucquia " and says that it
resembles the true mora, and is confused with it on the market. " Mora
can be met with in logs 18 to 35 feet in length, 12 to 20 inches square " ;
these are the same sizes reported by Laslett.

The wood is a yellowish-brown colour, and contains an oily and glutin-
ous substance in its pores, probably conducive to its durability. It is of
close texture, and has occasionally a twist or waviness in the fibre, which
imparts to the logs possessing it a figured appearance.

The Panama species is Dimorphandra oleifera (Triana). Miles Haman
reports that the wood springs in sawing, but does not splinter readily, and
planes well. It resists decay but is susceptible to attack by teredo and
other marine borers. The worst defect is water-cracks in the heart. It
is excellent for shipbuilding, railway ties, house frames, etc. ; 150 sleepers
have lately been sent to the London Midland & Scottish Railway to be
laid and tested.

The pores of Dimorphandra Mora are conspicuous and numerous, and
are generally in duplicate or triplicate, more or less filled with gum. The
medullary rays are strongly defined, irregular, frequent, scarcely parallel,
and show clearly on the tangential section.

330 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

MORRELL. Eucalyptus longicornis F. v. M.

Weight 64 Ibs. Western Australia.

" It is a strong, dense, hard wood, and has an interlocked grain. It is
of a dark brown colour and is used for wheelwrights' work, tool handles,
etc. It is also used for mining timber. . . . Transverse strength 16,900
Ibs. per square inch. Tensile strength 18,000 Ibs. per square inch "
(Lane-Poole).

Morus indica Linn.

Weight 37-47 Ibs. (Gamble).
M . laevigata Wall.

Weight 45 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Tul, Pb. — Tutn, Hind — Tut, Kashmir — Siahtut, Kumaon — Tut,
Beng. — Chota kimbu, Nep. — Mekrap, Lepcha — Num, meshkun,
Ass. — Tut, ambat, Mar. — Poza, Burm.

The mulberry tree in India is cultivated more for the leaves required
for feeding silkworms than for its wood, but the latter is of such a fine
quality that it would prove to be of very considerable value if properly
handled ; and there are so many useful purposes to which this wood
could be put, that the order might well be reversed. It was never met
with in ordinary commerce until some experimental logs were sent over
for the 1920 Holland Park Exhibition, when the outstanding qualities of
the wood were recognised. It is of a golden-brown colour, darkening on
exposure, slightly less yellow than the European mulberry, with a nice
firm texture, capable of a smooth surface under the tool, good tangential
strength, and excellent standing qualities. Small shipments were received
from both India and Burma, and although they were both good, the latter
proved to be the better. This tree might well be cultivated for future
development.

The growth is rapid, and concentric layers wide, and very strongly
marked by light-coloured rings, which contain large open pores in a
narrow belt in the wood growth.

The pores are exceedingly small, fairly numerous, but irregularly
placed. The medullary rays are very strong, parallel, but at uneven
distances, and show in a marked manner on the radial section.

M. laevigata.

VERN — Tut, Hind. — Kimbu, Nep. — Nambyong, Lepcha — Singtok, senta,
Bhutia — Sola, Ass. — M aiding, tawpw&sa, tawposa, posa, Burm.

This wood is similar in many respects to M. indica, except that in the
Eastern Himalayas it often grows to a height of TOO feet, with a girth of
15 feet, and is of slower growth. It is of unusual and unique qualities,
being suitable for panelling, carving, and turnery, as it bends easily and

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 331

stands well under great strain ; it is particularly suitable for tennis
racquets. A canoe was constructed for the Wembley Exhibition, and
this wood was used for the timbers, stem, sculls, etc.

The pores are very scarce, rather small, often subdivided, and slightly
plugged. The medullary rays are rather coarse, irregular, and uneven,
showing on the radial section as prominent, but small, silver grain ; they
are crossed at right angles by white lines, which probably mark the layers
of concentric growth.

MOVINGUI. Distemonanthus Benthamianus Baill.

Weight 39 Ibs. West Africa (Cameroons, Gaboon).

The colour is like satinwood, darkening on exposure, and the wood
similar in grain, but more open, and showing the pores more clearly.
Certain logs yield a fine figure or broken roe, which is much in demand,
and the wood has been used effectively in panelling at various exhibitions,
also on cross-Channel steamers.

The concentric layers are marked by lighter and darker coloured rings.
The numerous pores varying greatly in size, are in short wavy belts,
generally plugged, with fine, well-defined medullary rays, regular and
crossed at right angles by similar light lines forming a network pattern.

MUER. Pygeum africanum.

Weight 51 Ibs. East Africa.

The colour is a dull brick-red, with a very close, compact grain, show-
ing on the tangential section innumerable tiny specks of sparkling gum.
The wood possesses all the qualities of a good Spanish mahogany, for
which it would pass in any finished work.

The concentric layers are clearly marked. The pores are fairly numer-
ous and plugged, with very fine and close medullary rays.

MUGAITA. Rapanea rhododendroides.

. Weight 45-46 Ibs. East Africa.

The colour of this wood is a rather dull yellowish-red, with a hard,
tough grain ; it requires a sharp tool to saw and plane, and does not take
a very smooth surface. Has not been seen in European markets. It is
reported as being used for cabinet and furniture work locally, but care in
seasoning is required, as the wood is very liable to warp and twist.

The minute pores, plugged, are ranged between very pronounced,
exceedingly thick medullary rays, which show on the radial section.

MUHUGU. Brachylaena Hutchinsii.

Weight 58-60 Ibs. East Africa.

The colour is an olive-green brown, with a very close, compact grain
giving a fairly smooth surface from the tool. The wood has not been seen

332 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

in commerce, but is reported as very durable and immune from the attack
of insects, and used in its native country for furniture, bridge decking, and
fuel.

The innumerable tiny pores, plugged, are regularly distributed, with
very fine medullary rays, confused and hardly discernible under the lens.

MUIRAPIRANGA. Brosimum paraense Huber.

Weight 70-71 Ibs. The Amazon region.

VERN — Saline, satine rubanne, satine rubane', satine' gns, bois dc ferolcs,
bois de lettre rouge, bois de Cayenne, bois baroit, bois marbre p Fr. G.
— Satine rubanne', ajeersi, oolemenbalh, warimibalh, sokoncballi
addd, Sur. — Muirapiranga, meurapiranga, moira-piranga, conduru,
conduru de sangue, cunduru, gonduru, Braz — Palo dc sangrc,
Peru — Cacique, Pan. — Brazil redwood, cardinal wood, Misc.

Record says : " The ' muirapiranga ' of the Amazon region, Brosimum
paraense Huber, is distinguished from the others (Brosimum species) by
having a large core of beautiful red heart-wood." The colour is a rich
purple red, with a very close, straight grain, with alternate lines reminiscent
of the French satine, although darker in colour. Record calls attention
to the similarity of structure with letterwood (Piratinera gmanensis) .

A very fine decorative wood, suitable for high -class cabinet work.

The medium-sized pores, all plugged, are irregularly placed, sub-
divided, with very uneven medullary rays in irregular size and position,
wavy.

MUIROSI. Maba abysainica.

Weight 47 Ibs. East Africa.

A hard, close-grained wood, so closely resembling West African box-
wood that even the expert might be deceived.

The exceedingly numerous tiny pores, all plugged, are evenly scattered
over the surface. Medullary rays hardly discernible under the lens.

MULBERRY. Morus nigra Linn.

Weight 40 Ibs. Europe, Great Britain.

The black mulberry has been cultivated in Southern Europe from a
very early period, and according to Elwes was probably planted in Eng-
land about the sixteenth century ; there still remain many very old and
decayed examples in various parts of the country. The colour when first
cut is a brilliant gamboge yellow, on exposure becoming a rich golden
brown, with a firm grain. The wood is strong, and if sufficient size and
length is procurable it provides a first-class chair wood. A very old tree
in Lord Hewart's garden at Totteridge, which was blown down during the
winter of 1929-30, provided some handsome burrs and some sound wood,
from which several small occasional tables were made for Lady He wart.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 333

When finished the wood gives a rich and attractive appearance, equal if
not superior to anything which could be provided from very much more
expensive woods, which are ordinarily procured from abroad at consider-
able cost. »

The concentric layers are clearly defined by pronounced rings of pores
which are large and open, in distinct lines, with secondary pores in the
later growth crossed at right angles by very wide, strong medullary rays,
at parallel but very irregular intervals, showing on the radial section and
making a pretty pattern.

MULGA. Acacia Aneura F. v. M.

Weight 68 Ibs. Southern Australia.

A reddish-brown timber with a very bright yellow sap-wood, resembling
English plum. A useful decorative wood for inlays and bandings.

Hard, close-grained, and heavy. Concentric layers of growth marked
by light bands ; exceedingly numerous and very minute pores, with the
finest of all fine medullary rays, hardly discernible under the lens.

MULTA. Source unknown.

Weight 55 Ibs. Brazil.

This wood has a pleasing greyish-brown colour, and the specimen
shows a faint mackerel ripple. The small specimen, only 2 inches by 4
inches, contains the heart and the pith, so that probably the tree is only
a small one. The texture is very hard, firm, and close, and the wood
should form a good medium for inlay veneer work.

The pores, which are very small, are all linked up with lines of light-
coloured tissue, which follow the growth of the concentric layers. The
exceedingly fine medullary rays are very numerous, but can only be dis-
cerned under the lens ( + 10).

MUNGUBA. Source unknown.

Weight 33 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a dirty, greyish-coloured wood ; it is of a coarse, soft gram,
and is of little consequence.

The transverse grain is so soft that it is impossible to plane the wood
and to examine the structure.

MUSENGERA or MUSANGIRA. Podocarpus milanjianus

P. gracilior.
Weight 28-30 Ibs. East Africa.

The local name for this wood is podo. It is of a bright yellow straw
colour, with a firm grain, capable of a smooth surface from the tool, very
like kauri pine. It is reported as being obtainable in lengths up to 25

334 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

feet, and to square up to 24 inches. The woods produced by the Podo-
carpus species, while attractive in appearance and easy to work, are un-
fortunately all liable to warp and twist in a degree beyond most woods of
this character. Musengera is reported as being used locally for building
works and for plain furniture.

The suggestion that it would be a good substitute for pine and deal is
mistaken, as it is neither sufficiently reliable nor can it be provided on an
equally economical basis.

The similarity between the two sorts named above is so great that it is
difficult to differentiate between them.

MUSH AMI. Allophylus abyssinicus.

Weight 36 Ibs. East Africa.

The wood is of a dirty white colour when first cut, darkening to brown
on exposure. It is moderately hard, shrinks in seasoning, requires to be
bored for nails to be driven into it, and is reported as subject to attack of
insects.

The pores, mostly subdivided, are small, evenly placed, and generally
open ; medullary rays hardly discernible under the lens.

MUSKWOOD. Olearia argophylla F. v. M.

Weight 29-30 Ibs. South-east Australia, Tasmania.

The colour is a golden brown, with a close grain like olive wood, but
not so hard, taking a smooth surface from the tool. The tree apparently
is subject to burr growth, yielding valuable burr wood and figure of a high-
class character.

MUTARI. Panax sp.

Weight 28-30 Ibs. East Africa.

The colour is a yellowish-white, showing innumerable specks of spark-
ling gum and a soft but compact grain, like Indian balsa but harder and
heavier. This wood has never been seen on the European markets and
there is little information concerning its uses, but it would be an admirable
substitute for works where balsa woods are required, if a little heavier
weight would not be detrimental.

The very sparse pores, very small to fairly large, are mostly plugged
with faint, irregular, rough-edged medullary rays which show on the
radial section as in Indian balsa, but smaller.

The botanical equivalent Panax sp. is tentatively given by Troup.
The description given of another East African wood named mutati
(Heptapleurum sp.), which was shown at the Holland Park Exhibition in
1920, is exactly similar to that given above, and, failing any more in-
formation on the subject, it seems probable that the mutati and mutari
are the same timber.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 335

MUZAITA.

See Ocotea usambarensis.

MYALL. Acacia pendula A. Cunn.

Weight 76 Ibs. Queensland, New South Wales,

Victoria.

The colour of the wood is a rich, warm brown with darker and lighter
streaks. It has a very hard, smooth, close grain, and possesses a highly
aromatic scent, but not the same as that of Acacia acuminata (q.v.), for
which wood it has sometimes been mistaken. Baker says it is " close in
texture, not too distinctly figured, polishes well, and should be very suit-
able for turnery, as it makes splendid handles of all kinds for bowls,
mauls, etc."

MY LADY. Aspidosperma megalocarpon Miell.

Weight 59-60 Ibs. British Honduras.

An uninteresting reddish-yellow wood, which evidently casts and warps
unduly.

The transverse section shows a multitude of extremely fine, small,
plugged pores, with also a multitude of very fine, well-defined rays, parallel
and close together. Transverse section similar to that in the case of
Billy Webb, but everything in identification is of a smaller nature.

Myoporum serratum R. Br.

Weight 41 Ibs. Australia.

Known as native juniper, blueberry, native currant, cockatoo bush,
native myrtle.

The colour of the wood is whitish-yellow, with a hard, strong grain,
like birch requiring a very sharp tool to produce a smooth surface ; a
useful furniture wood.

The concentric layers are marked by bands of very fine pores, plugged
with numerous strong medullary rays, varying in size. The very numer-
ous tiny pores are of two sorts, some quite open, others arranged in wavy
belts, plugged, with exceedingly numerous, very fine medullary rays
hardly discernible under the lens, which are crossed by still fainter light-
coloured lines forming a rather rough network pattern.

Myristica Irya Gaertn.

Weight 52 Ibs. (Gamble).

Burma, Andaman Islands, Cey-
lon, Malacca, Malay.

VERN — Mutwindd, chuglam, And. — Iriya, Cingh. — Maloh, Burm.
Although this wood bears the vernacular name of " chuglam/' it must
not be confused with the well-known " chuglam " of the Andaman Islands,

336 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

which is the produce of Terminalia sp. The colour is a light brick-red,
with darker-coloured thin veins, somewhat like poon. The grain is close,
and yields a fairly smooth surface from the tool. A useful wood for
common purposes, but although Gamble reports it as seasoning well and
taking a good polish, his expression " a handsome wood, worthy of
attention " cannot be confirmed.

The small pores are very scarce, uniform in position and size, and
generally surrounded with a pale tissue. The numerous medullary rays
are irregular, uneven, and crossed at right angles by fine light lines
making a network pattern. Medullary rays numerous, very fine, wavy,
showing on the radial section in tiny flecks.

Myristica laurifolia Hk.

Weight 32-33 Ibs. Ceylon, Southern India.

VERN — Malawi padavu, palmamkam, Tarn. — Patthapanu, Kader — Mala-
boda, Cingh.

A soft, light straw-coloured wood with thin reddish streaks, and some
irregular discoloration of a brownish hue. The timber is not likely to be
useful except for common purposes, such as tea-boxes.

The scarce pores are giouped in an irregular manner in single, double,
and triple formation. The close, numerous medullary rays are line and
prominent, crossed at irregular intervals by similar very fine light lines.

MYRTLE. Fagus Cunninghamii.

Weight 57-58 Ibs. Tasmania, Australia.

Known also as " Tasmanian beech/*

During the last few years (1930) fairly considerable quantities of myrtle
have been imported into the United Kingdom.

The wood is of a salmon-pink colour, with a close, compact grain,
yielding a very smooth surface under the tool, but somewhat hard to work.
It is a rather attractive wood, but hardly possesses sufficient characteristics
to make it worth the heavy cost of freightage and working, and up to the
present it has not always stood well in the places where it has been used.
Attempts have been made, but not always successfully, to utilise this wood
for Post Office instruments.

A specimen of British-grown myrtle, Nothofagus Cunninghamii, is in
my collection, the colour of which is light grey, lighter than, but otherwise
similar in appearance and grain, to the well-known olive-wood. It takes
an exceedingly smooth surface from the tool, and is very close-grained.
If sound pieces could be secured of reasonable width, it would be a useful
wood for purposes where hard, smooth surfaces are required.

In Fagus Cunninghamii the concentric layers are marked by darker
and lighter wide lines. Pores exceedingly numerous, plugged, and very

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 337

small. The well-defined medullary rays are very fine, close, and parallel,
making a pretty pattern on the radial section.

Nan-Mai. Source unknown.

China.

A nice yellow, canary-coloured wood, with a close grain, somewhat like
Mexican prima vera, but not such a good wood.

The concentric layers are marked by thin dark lines. The pores are
regular in size and position, and largely plugged. The medullary rays
are very fine, equidistant, and parallel.

Nan-mu-hua.

China.

Professor Record has identified this as Phoebe sp. The wood has the
grain and appearance of the real camphor, slightly darker, but without
any scent. It has an attractive, fine, close, golden grain, highly figured,
but displaying small in -barks which would militate against its use.
Professor Chung says it is very costly.

The pores are very numerous, small, and mostly plugged. The
medullary rays are very numerous, equidistant, parallel, and extremely
fine, but clear.

NARGUSTA. Terminalia obovata R. & P. Eichl.

Weights, Honduras specimen 34 Ibs.,

Cuba specimen 42 Ibs. 12 oz. British Honduras.

In common with all of the South American timbers a definite descrip-
tion and statement of source seems impossible in the face of the con-
fusion which exists, because of the duplication of names and the incom-
plete botanical decisions. In attributing the source of nargusta to Ter-
minalia obovata I am accepting Professor Record's latest publication in
Tropical Woods, No. 10, coupled with an authentic specimen sent to me
this year (1932) by the Chief Conservator of Forests, British Honduras.
At the same time, I have three other specimens, two of which were sup-
posed to be authentic, and one, a specimen cut from a log belonging to a
shipment from Cuba put upon the London market in the year 1900, and
called Cuba almond-wood.

In colour and grain, as well as in wood construction, the three last
specimens referred to, two from Honduras and one from Cuba, resemble
each other very closely indeed, so that when the first Honduras specimen
arrived in 1930 I was able immediately to identify it as the same as the
shipment from Cuba in 1900. The latest specimens from the Chief Con-
servator at Honduras, while bearing a fairly close resemblance, present
sufficient variation to make any decision still doubtful.

338 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Tropical Woods, No. 10, gives the names as " guayabo " and " al-
mendro " and describes the wood as " light to dark olive, often streaked,
feather-grained, tough and strong, not easy to work, takes a high polish,
is durable/' A small pamphlet issued from British Honduras gives the
description as " greenish-yellow with decorative pink lines ; used locally
for boards indoor and outdoor and for planks on bridges. . . . Used to
decorate the interior of the Council Chamber of the new Public Buildings
in Belize."

Tropical Woods, No. 24, attributes nargusta to Terminalia Hayesii
Pittier.

Accepting all four specimens as the product of the same species, with
certain variation, Record's description is sustained, excepting that he fails
to remark upon the exquisite figuring, which consists of reddish-brown
streaks and every description of splendid figure, including broken roe and
mottle, splash mottle, plum and snail, and all those descriptions of figuring
which are met with in well-known mahoganies, together with a more or
less brilliant lustre. The one weakness which the wood displays is the
variation of colour, which sometimes necessitates staining to give a com-
pletely good appearance. The specimens from Honduras in quality and
grain are strangely Cuba-like, while in texture and surface the Cuban
specimen is more reminiscent of the Honduras mahogany.

The shipment of the year 1900 sold on the London market as Cuba
almond-wood consisted of a large number of large-sized hewn square logs
from about 18 inches to over 36 inches. All the logs contained figure of
good character, including many of the finest figured logs it would be pos-
sible to imagine. High prices were realised, and very fine decorative
results secured from the veneers which were produced. The greater part
of the cargo found its way to America. Since the arrival of this shipment
no further supplies have been forthcoming.

Among other important works, some handsome Pullman cars, which
can still be seen working on the Southern Railways, are trimmed with
Cuba almond-wood.

The numerous small pores are of moderate size, partially plugged,
with very numerous, very strongly defined, fine medullary rays crossed at
right angles by wide and irregular similar light-coloured lines.

NARRA. Pterocarpus indicus Willd., syn. P. pallidus Blanco.

The Philippines, Malay Peninsula.

Known as sena or angsana in the Malay Peninsula. Narra is in-
digenous to the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, and produces wood
greatly varying in colour ; said to be the most popular of the cabinet
wood-producing trees in the Philippines, and sometimes called the
" National Tree of the Philippines/1

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 339

The colour varies from pale yellow to brown, light salmon, dark or
brilliant red, often with streaks of light or dark red, the bright-red variety
being the most valuable.

Foxworthy reports that the wood has " a slightly aromatic odour,
durable, not attacked by termites, easily worked and polished."

According to Tropical Woods it is moderately hard and heavy, not
very strong but fairly durable, does not split or open, is fairly easy to
work, and takes a good polish. The dark wood, being stronger than the
light-coloured, is considered to be the best. It is one of the most popular
furniture woods of the country, often having a pretty figure.

" Has distinct ripple marks on the tangential surface " (Malay Forest
Records] .

NATIVE CHERRY. Exocarpus Cupressiformis Labill.

Weight 52 Ibs. Australia.

The colour is yellow-red, with a close, hard texture, capable of a very
smooth surface from the tool.

Baker reports it as a good cabinet and carving timber, also used for
wood-turning and marquetry. It has been tried for golf clubs, but pos-
sesses no characteristic quality to recommend it for use outside its native
country.

The pores are very numerous, tiny, mostly plugged, with somewhat
fine, confused medullary rays which show faintly on the radial section.

NEDUN. Pericopsis Mooniana Thw.

Weight 45-56 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon.

VERN — Ne'dun, Cingh.

The limitation of this tree to Ceylon is one of those strange fancies of
nature which surprises the student of forestry. Many trees found in
Southern India are common to Ceylon, Burma, and throughout Siam, and
it seems strange that others of Southern India are not represented in the
Andamans or Burma. Again, certain trees in Ceylon are non-existent in
Southern India, the Andamans, or Burma. The Dutchman, with his keen
discernment, recognised the valuable qualities of nedun in Ceylon, and
used up the supplies rapidly, so that it is now very rare.

The visitor will find furniture, fittings, and decorative woodwork of all
kinds made in this handsome wood, and it is rightly regarded throughout
the island as the finest furniture wood obtainable.

It has an attractive, deep, warm brown colour, similar to dark-coloured
walnut, but brighter, with a close, firm, hard grain, showing a metallic
lustre like a darker edition of the black bean of Australia. It stands ex-
ceedingly well in the trying climate of Ceylon, and, unlike most timbers in
India, improves in quality and appearance.

340 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

This wood and that of ormosia both belong to the Sophoreae family, and
the wood of Castanospermum Australe from Australia closely resembles that
of the Ceylon Pericopsis Mooniana, although the former is much lighter in
colour.

The pores are in groups, almost entirely plugged, with exceedingly
fine, close-grained medullary rays, rather regular, the whole making a very
pretty pattern on the transverse section.

NEEDLEWOOD. Hakea leucoptera R. Br.

Weight 55 Ibs. Australia.

The colour is a rich, warm reddish-brown ; the wood is close-grained,
hard, and tough, somewhat resembling beef wood (Stenocarpus salignus) ;
it is an attractive cabinet wood, and takes a good polish. Baker reports it
as having been tried for tobacco pipes, but found unsatisfactory.

The pores are very scarce, almost indiscernible under the lens, with
large, wide, strong medullary rays, uneven, irregular, taking a wavy line of
direction.

NEGRITO. Simaruba glauca DC.

Weight 25-26 Ibs. British Honduras, South

Florida, Brazil.

Record says this is one of the most ornamental of all tropical trees in
Florida. The wood is of a whitish-straw colour, with a soft close grain,
but taking a very smooth surface from the tool. It is reported as not
being very durable.

The sparse, open pores are rather above ordinary size, and are mostly
plugged, showing rather a pithy growth. The medullary rays are neither
well-defined nor definite ; crossed at irregular intervals by the very fine
similar white lines, they do not show on the radial section.

NETTLE TREE. Laportea urtica.

New South Wales.

The colour of the wood is a rather dirty grey, with a soft, somewhat
spongy grain, but it is capable of a smooth surface from the tool, showing
a certain lustre when planed. The wood is very light, comparable in
weight and texture to that of Indian white mahogany, and relatively strong
for its weight. There is a considerable resemblance between the wood of
the Australian nettle tree and that of the North American hackberry (q.v.).

NIRI. Xylocarpus borneensis Becc.

Weight 40 Ibs. 4 oz. Borneo, The Philippines.

This is a hard timber, close and fine-grained, and of a dull, coffee-
coloured or reddish-tinted brown, with darker brown gum-streaks. It is

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 341

rather liable to warp, but will take a fine smooth surface from the tool.
Foxworthy mentions that a similar product from East Africa and the Fiji
Islands, which is used for fine furniture, sandals, piling, etc., is obtained
from X. obovatus A. Juss and X. granatum.

The annual rings are slightly apparent. The pores are numerous,
evenly distributed, and generally filled with gum or resin. The medullary
rays are fine, close, and parallel.

NUTWOOD.

See ANGELIQUE, Dicorynia paraensis Benth.

OAK. Quercus spp.

There are many different species of oaks, all belonging to the genus
Quercus, and confined to the northern hemisphere : but the " she-oaks "
of Australia, " African oak," and others from the southern hemisphere
are not oaks, nor even allied to them.

In Great Britain there are two native species and their hybrids, and
both of these are deciduous, that is to say, they annually shed all their
foliage in autumn. These extend widely over Europe, through France,
Germany, Austria, and Russia, and supply us with British, Austrian, and
Russian oak. Going southwards to the Mediterranean region the decidu-
ous species are more numerous, and are reinforced by evergreen oaks
(holm oak, cork oak) which are never leafless. Passing on to India, the
number of kinds, both deciduous and evergreen, is still greater, but not
one of them yields timber that is exported to any extent. Again, in Japan
there are quite a number of various kinds of oak, and among them are two
deciduous species that supply to England and Europe generally the well-
known Japanese oak. Crossing the Pacific to Canada, other species of
deciduous oaks are encountered, and again on going south to the United
States they are increased in numbers, and supplemented by evergreen
species ; from this wealth of species are derived the medley of timbers
known as American oak and (from evergreen species) " live oak."

The commercial oaks may be ranged under three main headings :

1. EUROPEAN : (a) British ; (b) Russian ; (c) Austrian ; all, or nearly
all, derived from two closely allied species.

2. AMERICAN : (a) deciduous, derived from a mixture of species ;
(b) " live oak/' derived from one or more evergreen species.

3. JAPANESE : derived from two closely allied species.

For decorative purposes, commercial oak is supplied in the form of
boards and so forth of two kinds : wainscot or quartered oak, and plain
or bastard sawn oak. As plain oak is sometimes supplied in fulfilling con-
tracts demanding wainscot oak, it is necessary to have a clear knowledge
of the meaning of the latter description. This can be acquired by a con-

342 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

sideration of the history of its manufacture and the origin of the term
" wainscot/'

Oak and other straight-grained European timbers cleave most readily
along the grain in the direction of the medullary rays, and this is particu-
larly true when these are broad and deep. In such a case the splitting
takes place along the deep rays which are thus exposed, and produces the
" silver grain " common to the oak. When oak is thus split into thin
boards they are wedge-shaped (being thinner towards the centre), and are
termed "•clap-boards/' being still so called in the United States. Their
shape particularly adapted them for use as shingles for roofs. The word
" clap-board " itself denotes the mode of preparation, as it means a board
produced by cleavage (cf. German word klaffen, to split asunder). For
panelling, such boards were worked on the face side, so that ancient oak
panelling shows the clash or silver grain broadly spread over the surface
to an extent unobtainable by means of the saw, except in isolated cases.
Wainscot boards thus prepared by cleavage were imported into England
at a very early date.

According to Professor Joseph Wright, the word " wainscot " is of
Dutch origin. The early Dutch form of the word is waeghe-schot, in
which weaghe (old English, waeg ; German, Wege) means a wave, and schot,
a partition, a closure of boards. Thus, according to Professor Wright,
the " wave " refers to the wavy pattern on the wood (the silver grain
caused by the medullary rays). " Schot " may refer to the mode of pre-
paration, by which the wood was cleft or partitioned into boards, or to the
purposes fulfilled by these in the construction of partitions in a house.
Professor Wright states that in the seventeenth century, or possibly
earlier, waeghe-schot became wagenschot, as the first element of the word
was popularly associated with " wagen " (a wagon, a wain). Professor
Skeat, another authority, says that the word is a corruption of the old
Dutch waeghe-schot, wall-hoarding, from the old Dutch waeg, a wall, and
schot, a partition. Again, it has also been said that it is derived from the
old Putch " wagen " (wagon) or " wen," and " schot " (partition), which
might refer to the sides of a wagon or to a division within it. In former
days wagons when journeying long distances had divisions for sleeping
accommodation. This kind of partition was introduced into the house,
the rooms of which were " wagen-schotted," wainscoted. Much of the
panelling of early date was carried out in so-called deal, the product of
Pinus sylvestris, but wealthier people were able to gratify their taste by
using oak. As at that time saws were not used, the only possible method
of conversion was that of splitting, and as oak splits on the medullary rays,
the whole of the wood used showed a maximum display of " clash " or
" figure."

It will thus be seen that whichever of the theories of the origin of the

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 343

term be accepted as the most probable, there is no question that for a
room to be trimmed in wainscot oak the wood must show figure or clash
on the face, and that the term " wainscot " used in connection with oak
means figured oak.

To sum up : (i) It shows that the word " wainscot " was applied to a
wood showing silver grain, the oak, and that this was necessarily divided
along the medullary rays. (2) It denotes that the application of the word
" wainscot " to any kind of wood not cut on the quarter is inadmissible.

While the meaning of the term wainscot as applied to oak wood is
beyond doubt, the architectural meaning of the term has wandered from
the original so far that it denotes a wooden boarding, sometimes panelling
of the walls of a room. The consequence is that there might be ambiguity
in a specification demanding that a room shall be wainscoted with oak
panelling, but there should be no misunderstanding when the demand is
that a room shall be panelled with wainscot oak. Yet to avoid all possi-
bility of litigation it would be well to use the term " quartered " when
wainscot oak is wanted, and possibly even supplement this term by " (well,
boldly, best) figured."

Boards obtained by cleavage are necessarily wedge-shaped. With the
advent of the saw it was possible to rapidly cut flat boards, but obviously
if such boards were sawn exactly along the medullary rays the waste of
material would be very great. It was therefore necessary to adopt some
practicable and economic approximation to the results obtained by
cleavage.

The following are among such methods of sawing :

The trunk is sawn down the middle (Fig. i) ; the marginal pieces of
the two halves are sawn off and there result two billets, termed wainscot
billets. If these are cut in the manner shown in Fig. 2, that is, at right
angles to the broad flat sides, the cut a-b is parallel to the medullary rays
and the board yielded will be the most highly figured. A cut along c-d or
e-f will traverse the medullary rays most obliquely and therefore show
some figure, but the silver grain will be smaller and less marked. In fact,
the nearer the board is to a-b the larger and bolder will be the figure ; the
nearer to c~d or e-f the smaller and less bold will it be.

Yet when wainscot billets are cut sufficiently narrow (Fig. 3) all the
boards show sufficient figure to be termed wainscot oak. If the billets,
however, are cut wider (Fig. 4), it is evident that the boards cut from the
outside will actually be plain oak, or approximate to it, so that a board
g-h will actually be plain oak. Hence if the wainscot billets be too wide
not every board cut is wainscot oak.

This mode of producing wainscot billets has been adopted during
late years with oak from Riga, Libau, and to a limited extent from
Japan.

344

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Another method of sawing which is possible if the trunks are of con-
siderable diameter, is pursued in the case of Austrian (Hungarian) oak.
The butts are sawn as shown in Figs. 5 and 6. Each butt yields two wains-
cot billets, A and B, and two wainscot planks, C and Z), 3 to 8 inches in
thickness. The centre and the remaining marginal pieces, E, F, G, H,

FIG. I

FIG. 3

FIG. 4

FIG. 5

FIG. 6

are not used to produce wainscot oak. The two billets (as in Fig. 6) are
subsequently cut in the manner already described.

These considerations of the mode of cutting lead to the conclusion
that not every board cut from a wainscot log or wainscot billet is neces-
sarily wainscot oak, for the marginal boards will be plain oak if the billet
or log be too wide in relation to the original thickness of the butt.

So far the matter has been discussed solely from the point of view of
history and decorative effect, but there is another important aspect of the
question. Shrinking and warping during drying are very much less along

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 345

the medullary rays than in a direction at right angles to these. The result
is that true wainscot panels will shrink, warp, or crack less than plain
oak panels under the same conditions. Hence, even should oak possess
little silver grain, true wainscot panels (cut on the quarter) would be more
valuable than plain panels.

From all points of view then, it must be rigidly insisted that wainscot
is that cut on the quarter, and showing very considerable silver grain in
the form of transverse bands. It will be seen, therefore, that the original
panelling in oak, or as it was termed, " wainscoting," consisted neces-
sarily (since the whole of the wood was reft or split) of highly figured timber
showing the " clash " or " flower " to the greatest extent, but that at a
later date, with the advent of the use of the saw, a change gradually took
place. According to an account of " W. S." published by the Timber
Trades Journal, 7th August 1915, " The wainscot oak in the old houses in
the country was mostly English oak ; there was not much Dutch or Riga
wainscot before the reign of William the Third (1689-1702). I think Sir
Christopher Wren introduced a great deal of it into this country ; he was
building for a Dutch king, therefore it was natural that he should use it."
John Armstrong (1835) savs •' " Most of the timber cut by windmills at
Westzaam and Zaandam and others near Rotterdam, and shipped either
from Ostend or the Holland ports." He also reports that George the
Fourth (1820-30) sent his representative over to Holland to purchase
wainscot oak for Gothic fittings in Windsor Castle, but although he ob-
tained the wood he does not seem to have been very pleased with the
quality, partly because he could not select billets for figure, but had to
accept them as they came. George the Fourth has not been the only
disappointed man. Complaints and disputes leading to law-suits and
arbitrations have been continually recurring. It would therefore be desir-
able that, to prevent further disappointments and disputes, there should
be a general agreement that where work is specified to be executed in
wainscot oak, it should be understood that the wood must show a "pre-
ponderance of good figure or clash, and especially so in the panels. At
the same time, having regard to the altered conditions since the age when
" split " wood was used, reasonable regard should be paid to the eco-
nomical conversion of the material. For instance, the appearance of the
finished work would not suffer if a reasonably wide latitude were allowed
in the use of plain wood in mouldings, styles, and rails. A brief considera-
tion of the foregoing remarks on conversion will conclusively show the
loss or waste in attempting to produce all the timber dead on the quarter,
as it appears when split.

The important position which oak occupied in the United Kingdom
consumption is realised probably by only a few, and the following figures
will therefore be informative :

346 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

TOTAL IMPORTS OF OAK INTO UNITED KINGDOM FROM ALL SOURCES

Loads.

1913

254.386

1,736,061

1922

108,093

1,430,184

1914

180,607

1,246,220

1923

164,481

2,236,660

1915

123,587

956,036

1924

201,246

2,716,140

1916

48,221

5H,368

1925

203,997

2,600,756

1917

7,°75

163,158

1926

196,694

2,453,04i

1918

12,679

382,563

1927

254,698

3,009,587

1919

137,173

2,848,016

1928

263,251

3,116,591

1920

85,271

2,504,200

1929

261,817

3,164,021

1921

59,930

1,430,184

1930

280,938

3,179,263

The extraordinary totals reached in the years 1928 and 1929 of over
three million pounds for the import of oak alone, suggest an inquiry which
might be termed National. The following is an analysis of the figures :

U.S.A

\ Russia
I Latvia
1 Poland

Austria j •

Czecho-slovakia

Yugo-slavia J

Japan .....
"Italy

Canada and other British Possessions

Irish Free State ....

1928

1929.

£2,220,091

£2,215,920

508,577

572,544

214,592
126,878

10,608

242,671

76,812
6,761

7,422

21,512

* It is to be presumed that the imports from Italy should now lm hide some of those previously from
Austria, and might be added to the figures of the other European countries

— with others of lesser amounts.

It will thus be seen that the United States exported to the United
Kingdom in 1928 and 1929 respectively a quantity almost as large as the
entire annual imports of oak into the United Kingdom until 1923. The
total amounts of the post-war years 1919 and 1920 are, of course, abnormal.

OAK, AFRICAN. Lophira data Banks.
Weight 70 Ibs.

The produce of this timber is not often seen in our markets, although
J. M. Hillier, in the Kew Bulletin, No. 2, 1913, mentions that some was
brought to Liverpool from the Gold Coast, where it is known as karkoo.
He adds that "it is the favourite wood for railway sleepers and heavy
constructional work generally . . . (and) owing to its great weight and the
difficulties of shipment it has not yet received the notice which its merits
deserve." In a list of forest trees of the West Coast of Africa, prepared
by Sir Walter Egerton, it is stated that this timber is known in Yoruba
as " Ponhon " and in Benin as " Ugbeberi." I have seen at least five
different hardwoods from the coast all of which have been termed " African

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 347

oak/1 and which, although all possessing qualities of heaviness and hard-
ness, differed materially in all other respects ; it seems impossible to be
sure of the identity of the different varieties.

OAK, AFRICAN. Oldfieldia africana.

Ivory Coast.

VERN — Angouran, esson, fu, fou, esm, etu, (From the Bulletin of the
Agent-General for the Colonies.)

A very hard, strong, tough wood, known by the name of African oak,
and sometimes African teak, the product of Oldfieldia africana, was well
known to the British Navy about 150 years ago. Evidence exists showing
that it was commonly used in England for other purposes as well, and in
France for the French Navy.

As far as we know, the first reference to its use was by Laslett in 1875.
He says : " The African Oak tree, the African teak or Mahogany timber of
commerce, for it is known under a variety of names, is probably the
Swietenia Senegalensis or S. Khaya from Sierra Leone, and appears to form
a link between the Oak of Europe and America and the Teak of India/'
Laslett was rarely wrong, but the African oak of which he was speaking
was undoubtedly Oldfieldia africana, and had no relation to either of the
two woods he named (and which are not now classified as Swietenia), nor
had it any likeness to the oak of Europe or America, nor the teak of India.

Chevalier reports it as being found in Malamalasso, common in Sanwi,
Sassandra, and Cavally, but it has not been seen in the markets of the
United Kingdom for the last thirty years. Several different kinds of
timber from time to time have been imported and called African oak,
but the wood was quite different from that of Oldfieldia. One of these
has been traced to Lophira alata Banks. The spirally carved pillars
in the state-room of the Foudroyant, a ship taken by Nelson from the
French, and subsequently used as his flagship, were of this wood, but
whether the pillars were in the ship when it was built, or introduced at a
later date, is not known. It is noticed that the native name of the tree is
fou, and the name of the French battleship " Fou " droyant, either a curious
coincidence, or having some relation to the name of the wood. A con-
siderable volume of constructional timber work in this wood was estab-
lished throughout England at about this date, including complete stair-
cases, in more than one historical building.

In the Bulletin of the Agent-General for the Colonies (Ivory Coast), it
is stated that the wood is little exploited on account of the difficulties of
transport. It is recommended as a substitute for box, lignum-vitae, or
service tree ; and has been used for making tools, planes, blocks, jointing
planes, etc. ; but as it does not possess the special qualities of either box
or lignum-vitae, and is unlike service tree, it would not be suitable in

348 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

England for the articles mentioned ; its real value consists in its immense
strength and durability, when for such purposes the heavy cost incurred
for transport can be afforded.

OAK, AMERICAN. Quercus alba Linn, and other Quercus spp.

Weight 41 Ibs. 14 oz. North America.

The very important part which this wood plays in the timber supply
of this country is shown by the immense quantity imported every year.
The value in money has approximated to a million pounds yearly, ranging
from £675,000 during 1909 to over a million in 1913. Its use far exceeds
that of any other oak, and constitutes more than live-eighths of the whole
supply from abroad. This remarkable result is not due to its superiority
over other supplies so much as to the enterprise and energy of the American
merchant, in providing it in a suitable manner and at a moderate price,
while its transport is facilitated by advantageous railway and steamer
freights. The timber so provided is the produce of a great many species
mixed indiscriminately. The sources of supply have been continually
extended as the available forests disappeared under the woodman's axe,
and the once famous Indiana white oak is now no longer obtainable, at
least for export. The result, so far as that part of the shipments which is
used for constructional work is concerned, is not of consequence, as the
present supplies are suitable, but for cabinet and decorative work the
mixture of the variety of grain and colour is disadvantageous. The colour
varies from a pale yellow brown through various shades to a light brick-
red. The wood of Q. alba " is of a pale reddish-brown colour, straight-
grained, moderately hard and compact, tough, strong, and of fair dura-
bility. Being remarkable for its elasticity, planks cut from it may, when
steamed, be bent into almost any form or curve, no matter how difficult,
without danger of breaking or splintering them. This characteristic
renders it especially valuable for shipbuilding purposes. The wood opens
very sound ; and as it shrinks but little, and almost without splitting,
during the process of seasoning, there is nothing to prevent its extensive
use in railway carriage-building, civil architecture, and generally in the
domestic arts. ... In the experiments that were made, it was found
White Oak compared very favourably with all the foreign Oaks, but proved
to be slightly inferior in strength to the English Oak." So wrote Laslett
in 1875, and it would be impossible to give a better description.

Of late years the logs have occupied a very important place, as they
yield strong timber of long length up to over 60 feet, and large squares, up
to 2 feet 6 inches, perhaps more, of clean, straight grain and good quality.
This, however, is neither of the same character nor of so high a standard
as the old shipments. It is used mostly in railway carriage and waggon
building. The timber is not very durable and should not be used in

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

349

England in those places where it is required to remain sound for a great
number of years, although much can be done to increase its durability by
a wise system of ventilation around those parts which are built into walls.
Unfortunate results with American oak beams were experienced in its use
for the roof and other places in the museum at Barnard Castle. The
especial qualities of toughness and elasticity, together with a plentiful
supply of long lengths of straight grain which can be easily obtained free

A. Plain sawn.

B. Quarter sawn.

C. Quarter sawn.

from knots, give the planks and waggon scantlings a very justifiable
popularity. An enormous quantity has been used for sills for windows,
this being principally due to the low price at which it has been provided,
as for such purpose it is doubtful if it is sufficiently durable. Planks and
boards for decorative work are obtainable in what is termed " plain " or
" quarter sawn." The plain boards are then sawn so that the surface
shows the tangential section, while the quarter sawn displays the radial.
A boxed heart square is generally taken from the heart.

It will be seen that quarter sawing entails greater cost and more waste,

THF TTMRFT^^ OF THF WQRLD

fnoiograpn ny Rina permission oj ti j. knees, k.sq.
OAK IN KYRE PARK, WORCESTERSHIRE

which consequently
makes it more expen-
sive. Immense quan-
tities of these descrip-
tions have been used
in every kind of
cabinet, building, and
decorative work. The
product of the log is
handled as it comes
from the saw and is
selected into grades
according to an inspec-
tion regulation de-
cided by the National
Hardwood Lumber
Association. This
authority regulates the
different qualities by
rule, the product being
divided into what are
called firsts and
seconds, " No. i com-
mon/' " No. 2 com-
mon," and " culls."
A very large quantity
of floorings is imported
ready prepared. All
flooring strips in
America are of a much
narrower width than
that which has been
commonly adopted in
the United Kingdom ;
the usual widths of
imported American
floorings are nominal
3 and 3^ inches. The
wood is always plain
sawn, quarter sawn
floorings being un-
known, It is tongued
and grooved, and

13. OAK TREE OF THE SOCNA FOREST, SLAVONIA

351

352 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

generally bored for secret nailing ; the ends also are tongued and grooved
so that they can be joined without cross-cutting to fit the joists. The
lengths are much shorter than those commonly used in English prepared
floorings, ranging as the wood falls from the saw, from 18 inches to 16
feet, the average being about 8 feet. A very excellent plan of hollowing
the under side is adopted in order to provide for a free current of air, and
the consequent ventilation of the floor to prevent the attack of dry rot.

According to the Pioneer Western Lumberman, San Francisco, ist
November 1915, the largest oak tree in the world is to be found in San
Benito. " This lordly tree measures thirty-seven feet six inches in cir-
cumference. The natives, who declare that it produces a ton of acorns
every year, take great pride in it." The note remarks that this tree sur-
passes that which previously was supposed to be the largest, and which was
known as the famous Hooker oak of Chico, California, named in 1872,
which rises to a height of 105 feet, but is only 21 feet 8 inches in circum-
ference.

The pores in the spring wood are large and regular. The medullary
rays, which are larger and bolder than in any other oak, are very numerous
and continue, more so than in other varieties, in a direct line from the
heart to the circumference. The converted wood displays, therefore,
when quarter sawn, a larger and bolder figure or clash than it is possible to
produce from any other variety of oak.

OAK, AUSTRIAN. Quercus pedunculata Ehrh.
Q. sessiliftora Sm.

Croatia and Slavonia (Jugo-Slavia).

Austrian oak is mainly yielded by the forests of Slavonia and Croatia,
the best quality being the Slavonian. It is shipped from Susak and other
ports of the Adriatic, and also overland.

The term "Austrian" is still used (1932), although, in view of the
changes which have recently occurred, it would be more correct to call the
timber Slavonian oak and Croatian oak.

Trees of large dimensions, straight and clean in growth, and possessing
lofty branchless boles, are obtained from the forests. A number of the
latter, whether owned by the State, by public bodies, or private persons,
are administered by the State, which ensures proper management, includ-
ing regulation of the felling and due regeneration of the stock. The result
of this enlightened system, which is followed by a number of Continental
countries, but not here unhappily, is that there will be a considerable
maintenance of the supply of Hungarian oak. Trees of large size will
decrease in number in the future, and are not expected to be available
many years hence. The cause of the depletion of these large trees is
twofold. On the one hand, such trees are of great age, and therefore

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 353

cannot be replaced by others in a few years. On the other hand, the
modern German method of forestry determines that the trees shall be
felled at the moment when they represent the maximum profit (as
measured by interest on capital and condition of the remaining forest) ;
and this moment is reached in all European timber trees long before they
have obtained impressive dimensions. Yet at present very large oak
trees are still found in Slavonian forests, which also include a wealth of
fine old ash, elm, lime, and hornbeam trees, and are so old as to have some
claims to be regarded as truly primeval.

Trees with such outstanding features as height, girth, and cleanness of
stem, are not confined to the Slavonian forests. Yet with that curious
attitude in which the average Englishman ignores the value of the pro-
ducts of his own country and utilises instead those of foreign lands, such
trees as these become well known, whilst others in England, of equal
quality and dimensions, remain unnoticed.

For instance, in Kyre Park, Worcestershire, the property of Mrs.
Baldwin Childe, is an oak grove containing over one hundred trees, whose
clean, straight stems are of a wonderful height. H. J. Elwes, writing of
them, says : "... they are not so remarkable for their girth as for the
way in which they run up with clear stems to a great height. The two
tallest are certainly over 130 feet by my own measurements in 1907. . . .
The largest . . . has a stem 83 feet long by 17 feet 8 inches in girth at
5 feet, and contains 1031 cubic feet of timber. Fourteen of them contain
over 600 feet, and the smallest tree in the grove has 97 feet, which is
considered a big oak in many districts. . . . There is an oak of remarkable
size in another part of the Kyre estate. . . . It is 113 feet in total height,
with a trunk nearly straight to about 90 feet high, where the head begins,
and 15 feet 10 inches in girth " (see illustrations).

Two oak trees which grew in the Socna forest in Slavonia are also
illustrated.1 The following were the dimensions of the two main trunks :

Tree A. Tree B

Complete height .... 130 feet (circa) 130 feet (circa)

Height to lowest branch . . .42 feet 3 inches 35 feet 9 inches

Diameter at height of 5 feet . . 4 feet 2 inches 4 feet 6 inches
Diameter at height of 22 feet 9 inches . 3 feet 6 inches

Diameter at height of 35 feet 9 inches . Over 4 feet

Thus it will be seen that, as against a diameter of 4 feet 2 inches
and 4 feet 6 inches in the case of the two exceptional trees in Slavonia,
among sixteen trees at Kyre Park, the four largest have perhaps a larger
diameter, while the height of the lowest branch exceeds that of the
Slavonian.

1 For these photographs and the accompanying information I am indebted to
the Photographic Studio " Etienne."

2 A

354

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The value of the British-grown tree exceeds that of the Continental, yet
in the spring of 1914 princely oaks were sold within fifty miles of London

Photograph by kind permission of //. /. Elwes, Esq
OAK GROVE, KYRE PARK, WORCESTERSHIRE

at less than is. 9d. per foot cube, whereas I was told that in Slavonia an
equivalent of 75. 6d. per foot cube had been paid for similar trees for the
English market.

The wood of such venerable oak trees is often " over-ripe " or other-
wise faulty ; it is, in other words, more or less infected by wood-destroying

A. OAK TREE OF THE SOCNA FOREST, SLAVONIA

355

356 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

fungus, which also attacks virgin forests in Bohemia. If the timber be
only slightly affected it can be used in the manufacture of furniture, but
is not sufficiently good in quality for export. Large sound trunks from
Slavonia are dispatched mainly to Holland and Germany.

The method of cutting Austrian oak into billets and wainscot wood
has already been described. In this respect also the English merchant
has pursued a short-sighted policy with regard to the conversion of the
native timber. With the foreign oak the best methods to suit the par-
ticular requirements of this country have been found and acted upon, but
no such wise methods have been employed with the home-grown product.
The cost of conversion in this manner is naturally greater than in the ordi-
nary way, yet what is allowed to one timber is denied to the other. Even
where someone has had sufficient enterprise to adopt this process with
British oak, he has received neither support nor encouragement. The
considerable demand in England for Austrian oak, which depends to a
large extent on the automatic repetition of specifications, arose for the
following reasons. Many years ago it was found possible to secure large
butts of Austrian oak capable of yielding billets particularly clean and
free from defects, and of a width exceeding that procurable elsewhere.
Moreover, the wood is mild in quality, and shows bold silver-grain ; in
colour it is of a uniform yellow-brown, and in this respect, as well as in its
grain, is often indistinguishable from Russian oak. Apart from these
features it is probably only slightly inferior to the timber obtainable from
the more northern forests of South Russia.

In addition to the supplies of Austrian oak cut in the manner already
indicated, a certain amount is exported in the form of round bark-covered
butts, or these sawn into planks or boards, also in the form of square-
edged planks (both plain and figured) and boards. The last-named serve
for flooring and parquetry, but the trade in these for such purposes is
limited by their high cost, as it is possible to procure equally suitable oak
from other sources at a lower cost. In Hungary, however, an extensive
industry in oak parquetry is conducted.

In the autumn of 1914, after the war had broken out, H.M. Office of
Works issued a specification demanding the use of " Austrian oak " for
the panelling of " Armament buildings," then intended to provide the
office for the Board of Agriculture. Following a letter of remonstrance
addressed to The Times by " Man in the Street/' H.M. Office of Works
altered the specification to a demand for British oak, and this was therefore
used for trimming two rooms, which, beautiful in design and execution,
have a very handsome effect. The work was carried out by Messrs.
Cleaver, and a brass plate has been affixed which notes the botanical variety
of the wood and the places whence the oak trees came.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 357

OAK, BOG.

The oak which is known by the term " bog oak " is provided by trees
which have been buried in peat bogs or elsewhere in England, Ireland, and
according to report, in Russia. Also by trees which have been roughly
hewn square by the axe and similarly buried or put under water, as in the
case of dock gates, sluice gates, etc. In many cases these trees and logs
have remained under ground for a great number of years, running into
many centuries. The reasons for their having been buried are not always
apparent, but in the case of those hewn square pieces taken out of docks
and sluice gates, etc., the reason is apparent, and the age also is generally
known. Reference is made in the article on British oak to some oak
spikes taken from the foundations of Winchester Cathedral, and some oak
from the foundations of Holy Trinity Church, Hull, also to some squared
large-sized logs and beams from the London Docks. In all these cases the
timber, generally saturated with moisture, had become nearly black or a
rich black. In some cases when the timber is first found it is easily cut
with a knife or axe. Upon exposure to the air it has sometimes broken
and disintegrated and turned to dust, while in other cases it has hardened
and become useful for furniture, panelling, etc. The whole of the oak taken
out of the London Docks was used for making into small articles such as
inkstands, etc. The same practice was followed with the timber which
came from Hull, and to a limited extent from Winchester. Some large-
sized squares and planks taken from the river Thames were supposed to
be the remains of an old Roman bridge ; these were made into chairs,
now used by the Chairman and Vice-Chairman in the County Hall,
London. The library at Munden near Watford, Herts, the seat of the
present Lord Knutsford, is panelled with particularly line bog oak framed
with live oak. Some timber was shown in London which purported to
come from under one of the Russian rivers, and from what was said to be
a submerged Russian forest. It caused considerable interest, and resulted
in the Royal Box at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, being made from
wood supposed to come from these forests. The wood was a beautiful
black, but owing to its cracked and faulty condition was very wasteful in
conversion. Sufficient timber was provided for the Royal Box, but sub-
sequently no further news was heard of the Russian submerged forests.

OAK, BRITISH. Quercus Robur pedunculata Ehrh.

Q. Robur sessiliflora Sm.
Weight 52 Ibs. 14 oz. The British Isles

The two kinds of British oak timbers hardly differ, if they differ at all,
in their general qualities. On the whole, it is possible that the product of
Q. pedunculata is slightly stronger and harder than that of Q. sessiliflora,

358 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

although, as the proportion of supplies of the latter is so much less than
that of the former, I have been unable after close observation over many
years to detect any real difference, and it appears to me that the quality
of both varieties, either as regards mildness or strength, is dependent upon
the soil and the situation in which they have been grown. There is no
doubt that there is a much more marked difference in the qualities supplied
from Continental sources. Laslett says : " It is the prevailing opinion
that the wood of the Quercus Robur pedunculata is the best in quality, and
that the Quercus Robur sessiliflora is slightly inferior to it ; but while coin-
ciding generally in this opinion, I feel bound to admit that, during a long
experience in working them, I have not been able to discover any important
difference between the two varieties. We find, indeed, the wood of the
two species so closely resembling each other, that few surveyors are able
to speak positively as to the identity of either. It is only by tracing the
log from the first fall of the tree to the hands of the converter that we are
able to say that the timber of the sessiliflora is a little less dense and com-
pact in texture than that of the pedunculata."

With the knowledge of Laslett's experience in mind I have never
allowed a single specimen of sessiliflora, many of which have come under
my notice, to pass by unexamined. I believe it would be impossible to
prove that there is any difference.

There is no oak in the world comparable to British oak. Pre-eminent
among British timbers, it stands unchallenged for its strength and dura-
bility, which have become proverbial, and emblematic indeed of the
nation which owes the foundations of its greatness to the " wooden walls "
of oak, which in past centuries compassed the waters of the globe and
gave this land the title of " Mistress of the Seas."

The unsurpassed strength of British oak is universally admitted, al-
though to provide statistics of comparison is impossible, since the experi-
ments made have not been sufficiently numerous ; nor have those which
have been made taken into account various factors, such as the amount
of moisture in the wood. Evidence of its great durability has been pro-
vided in the report on European oak (q.v.), but interesting additional
examples are cited by Laslett in connection with his discussion on the
relative merits of winter-felled and spring-felled oak. Among these cases
are those of certain ships built for the Royal Navy, the wood used being
winter-felled oak. The Sovereign of the Seas, built in 1635, was pulled to
pieces forty-seven years later and rebuilt, " and the greater part of the
materials were found to be in sufficiently good condition for re-employ-
ment." The Royal William, built in 1715-19, was finally taken to pieces
after a service of ninety-four years. The Montague, launched in 1779, was
in active service and good condition in 1815. Opposed to these examples
is that of the sloop, Hawke, of whose oak timber one-half was winter-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

359

felled and the other half spring-felled. " She was built in 1793, and ten
years later was in such a general condition of decay that she was taken to
pieces, no difference being then observable in the condition of her several
timbers." This does not imply that winter- felled and spring-felled timber
are equally liable to decay. In this case the winter-felled timber " was

LtilL IWliLVii AJfUbJLU&b UAK UIN LUKU miKli b £,blAl£. Al 13KJ2.1N 1 WU<JJL>

14 feet high to the big branch ; girth, 27 feet i J inches ; diameter, n feet.

barked standing in the spring of 1787, and not felled until the autumn of
1790." In considering the meaning of these facts relating to the Hawke
it is important to remember that wood-destroying fungi often require a
starting-point opposing slight resistance to them, but after that stage is
passed, having acquired full vigour, they can attack timber that would
have successfully resisted their opening onslaught. In any case the

360 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

general consensus of opinion among Government authorities in England,
France, and other countries is that winter -felled oak is the more
durable.

Ordinary British oak timber is procurable in two extreme and various
transitional forms. The general characters of the two extremes were well
described by Laslett as follows : " The English oak tree, if grown in
sheltered situations or in forests, frequently reaches a height of 70 to TOO
feet with a clear, straight stem of from 30 to 40 feet [I think it would be
more correct to put this figure at 30 to 60 feet. — A. L. H.] and a circum-
ference of 8 to 10 feet, and much larger specimens (though now only
rarely to be met with) were formerly common. If grown in open and ex-
posed situations it is generally shorter, and frequently takes strange and
eccentric forms, assuming a somewhat curved and crooked shape ; this,
however, is one of its most valuable characteristics, as naturally curved
timber is almost indispensable for wood shipbuilding. It is when grown
under these conditions that it appears to attain its maximum of hardness,
and is often found so gnarled and knotty that it is difficult to work."
Grown in appropriately shaded forests, the tree casts off its lower branches
as the trunk elongates, so that knots are lacking on the long bole ; and
the trunk produces straight-grained wood arranged in annual rings of
more or less even width. In these respects it resembles the typical forest-
grown Russian, Austrian, and Japanese oak. When grown out in the
open, or in well-lighted woodlands, the trunk retains its old branches,
which develop into low-pitched boughs and produce huge knots. More-
over, the energy of the tree is diverted to producing a thick stumpy trunk
with wide fibrous annual rings, and broad medullary rays. The annual
rings are, however, apt to be very unequal in thickness, so that the grain
is uneven and far removed from the straight by the intervention of
numerous larger and smaller knots. The result is that this wild-grained
timber is not so strong as the preceding kind, but has a much more
varied, decorative effect, which is enhanced by bold silver grain, unsur-
passed by any other European commercial oak.

It is strange to note that although British oak is generally admired and
highly valued when it bears the stamp of antiquity, yet at the present
time foreign varieties are more often used in preference to it. When it is
employed, there is the assurance that not only is it beautiful and orna-
mental, but it is capable of remaining sound and excellent for future ages,
thus presenting a record of the art and craft of the period in which the
work was executed. The foreign oak, which is more commonly used,
results in work which differs little in its spiritless uniformity from any
ordinary stained and varnished wood.

An illustration of the enduring qualities of British oak can be found
in the hammer-beam roof of Westminster Hall, which, erected in 1399,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 361

lasted for over 500 years and has only recently (1919) been repaired. In
contrast to these may be mentioned the elaborate fifteenth-century carved
oak in the Frari Church and the Church of S. Stefano in Venice (alluded to
elsewhere), which, executed in Italian walnut, is now perforated with
worm-holes and is crumbling to dust. Other examples of the superior
effect resulting from the use of British oak can be seen at the Court of
Criminal Appeal at the Royal Courts of Justice, London ; the sub-
committee room at Lloyd's Registry in Fenchurch Street, E.G. ; in the
benches and ends of the seats in Lanteglos Church near Fowey, in Cornwall,
and the following places :

The Thistle Chapel in St. Giles1 Cathedral, Edinburgh, designed by Sir
Robert Lorimer and built by Mr. N. Grieve. The British oak used in this
building was sawn and sticked for over fifty years, and was grown in
Essex.

Liverpool Cathedral, designed by Sir Gilbert Scott, the oak for which
came from the same source as the above.

The dining-room of a house at Hyde Park, executed by Messrs.
Holland & Hannen, which is a reduced copy of the Brewers' Hall.

The offices of the P. & O. Company in Leadenhall Street ; many of
the steamers of the company are also trimmed with British oak.

Mr. G. T. Wills' house at Sunnmgdale, built by Messrs. J. Bentley &
Sons, Waltham Abbey. The timber used in this instance was mostly
grown on Lord Chesham's estate at Latimer.

The late Mr. T. E. Collcutt's house at Tottcridge, Herts ; also Mr.
Alfred B. Smith's, The Crossways, Tottendge ; and Highwood, Highwood
Hill, all possess beautiful woodwork entirely executed in British oak.

Much of the charm of this work depends not only on the varied colour-
ing of the wood, but upon its very irregularities and faultiness, yet architects
often reject such wood on account of its knots and uneven grain. For-
tunately of late years its use for decorative purposes has increased, and
as its beauty has become more appreciated, the difficulties attendant upon
an irregular and uncertain demand tend to diminish. The present in-
adequate supplies will doubtless be augmented, as the craftsman learns
that he can execute his work as easily and economically as with the
foreign oak.

It is customary to consider British oak as difficult to work and in-
capable of standing well after completion — an erroneous and wholly ground-
less opinion. Much of the modern work catalogued above was executed
by O. Ayton and his sons, who, originally country carpenters, were artists
in this work, all of which is in perfect condition without shrinkages or
any other fault.

Irish-grown oak is considered by some authorities to be inferior to
English-grown, and vice versa other authorities claim it to be superior.

362 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The Power scourt Memorials, written by the 6th Viscount, says : " Even
so early as the nth century the Irish oak forests were well known, as is
shewn by the request said to have been made by William Rufus for Irish
oak for the building of Westminster Hall." There is evidence that the
oak used for Westminster Hall came from the Royal Forest of Glencree.
In a private letter from Dermot Doyne of Coollattin, Shillelagh, Co.
Wicklow, addressed to the present Viscount Powerscourt (1931), he says :
" My old grandfather always told us that Westminster Hall was roofed
with Shillelagh oak from below Coollattin House, and that the huge trees
now standing were then too small to cut. The old Lord never made a
statement unless he was certain. I have seen the matter quoted in
some book also.*' I am of the opinion that as good oak is grown in
Ireland as can be grown in England, and that good, bad, and indifferent
are to be found in both islands, and that any definite pronouncement is
inappropriate.

For constructive work the strength and durability of oak are well
recognised ; it would be difficult to estimate its life when used submerged.
The beech piles which formed the foundation, laid in 1202, of Winchester
Cathedral were held together by oak spikes, which, a rich black, were
found perfectly hard and sound when they were taken out after 700 years.
James Thomson & Co., of Peterborough, found perfectly sound English
oak in the foundations of Holy Trinity Church at Hull, built circa 1270,
and said that in their long experience they had never found any other
buried woodwork in as sound a condition. Large-sized logs and beams
up to 35 feet in length and 20 inches square were used for the lock-gates
for the London Docks. These were taken up for repair and renewal in
ig"T5, having then been in position for periods ranging from 60 to 200
years ; they were found to be hard, in splendid preservation, and nearly
black. The oak which replaced the damaged portions was obtained from
the Duke of Wellington's park at Strathfieldsaye, and measured 35 feet in
length, squaring i8J by 19 J inches. A tablet giving particulars of the wood
and date of submersion was affixed to these logs before putting them down.

Elwes refers thus to a prehistoric boat which was dug up at Bngg
in Lincolnshire in 1884 l :

" This wonderfully preserved dug-out was hollowed out of one huge
oak log 48^ feet long, and approximately 6 feet in diameter, which showed
no signs of branches, a log which must have contained nearly 1000 feet of
timber, and which could not be matched now in England, or, so far as we
know, in Europe or North America. . . . The boat was found embedded
in the blue and brown clay which underlies the peat, and is considered on
geological evidence ... to be from 2600 to 3000 years old."

1 Described in a lecture by the Rev. D. Gary Elwes, and published in 1903 — A
Prehistoric Boat. Stanton & Son, Northampton.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 363

Oak is not unique, however, in its durability when totally submerged or
completely buried in soil, for other timbers share this quality with it, but
it does excel other woods in remaining sound for long periods when exposed
to air and weather. The beams and uprights of the half-timbered Savoy
Farm at Denham, Buckinghamshire, 500 to 600 years old, were in 1915
still in a wonderful state of preservation.

Yet oak timber is by no means immune from decay, especially if used
without thought or care. For window-sills it would be difficult to find a
better timber, and it is therefore generally specified ; yet the wood is con-
tinually being used in an entirely unseasoned state, and even before fixing
is generally painted. The wet and the sap within the wood are conse-
quently sealed up, and decay probably begins immediately the sill is
fixed. Under such conditions the commonest description of Scots pine
would last for a longer time.

A short time ago the oak beams in the roof of Bowes Museum, Barnard
Castle, were found to be in a very bad state of decay, and had to be taken
out and replaced with new. It is not certain whether these were all
British or all American oak, but Professor Annan of Armstrong College,
Newcastle, in his report attributes the dry rot of the beams to the fact
that they were placed in position while unseasoned, then thickly varnished,
and the ends built into the walls so that no evaporation was possible, all
ventilation having been stopped.1

When used for pit-props and railway sleepers the life of oak is probably
never more than, if as long as, twenty-four years, when unventilated or
exposed to alternate wet and dry conditions, for it readily succumbs to
the attacks of dry rot (Merulius lacrymans).

In contracts, engineers and architects often mistakenly demand
that the oak timber to be used shall be taken from trees which are
guaranteed to have been felled for a period of seven years (or perhaps
not less than live years) prior to use. The object in view is not attained,
as trees which have been felled for some years do not season, and they
deteriorate.

Being easily cleft, oak is excellently adapted for the manufacture of
palings, staves, barrels, wheel-spokes and the like, and is largely so em-
ployed. It would also be well adapted for shingles for roofs, though its
use for this purpose is not now required. When steamed it is readily com-
pressed, and in this form supplies keys and trenails for fixing railway lines.
The presence of a considerable amount of tannin in oak should exclude its
use in contact with iron, when discoloration ensues and ultimately results
in the disintegration of the wood and the corrosion of the nails, fastening,
and other ironwork. Copper is therefore preferably used, otherwise the
ironwork should be galvanised.

1 Private note. O. S, Scott, Curator, Bowes Museum, 19/2/14.

364 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

English oak is sometimes attacked by a fungus (Chlorosplenium aeru-
ginosum) which stains the wood a brilliant vivid green. • When so affected
it is used for inlay work in Tunbridge ware. This fungus has generally
been considered as appearing only in oak, but an instance has been known
of its occurrence in a cherry tree grown in Ireland. In Great Britain and
Europe generally the oak is peculiarly liable to be struck by lightning,
which seriously damages, and often destroys, the whole value of the wood.
The timber is attacked by various wood-destroying fungi, and is liable to
many defects.

The seasoning and conversion of oak is of the utmost importance, too
little attention having been paid to this in the past. Excepting where
large timber is required for beams, dock-gates, and similar purposes, the
best results are obtained by cutting the timber into planks and boards of
the sizes likely to be required at the earliest possible moment after the
tree has been felled. For all joiners' work, and especially where ventila-
tion is restricted, the seasoning should be complete before use. Even
after thorough seasoning, where the best work is desired, the wood should
first be roughly worked, then kept for a short time in a warm chamber as
near as possible of the temperature of the room in which it will finally be
placed, and not until after this should it be fixed together and finished.
It is desirable that a period of about forty-eight hours should elapse before
fixing the wood, after breaking the skin by fresh planing, as on each occa-
sion when this has to be done a further change and shrinkage will occur,
even if the wood is 200 or more years old.

OAK, BROWN. Quercus Robur Linn.

Weight 47 Ibs. 13 oz. The British Isles.

When certain individual British oak trees (Quercus Robur) are felled,
their ordinary heart-wood is found to be partially or wholly changed into
a richer toned reddish-brown wood which is known as " brown oak." It
was formerly, and indeed it is occasionally even now, among English
timber merchants and others in this country, called " red oak." The
colour is much like that of polished crocodile leather, very variable in
character, depth, and richness. It may be uniformly of a comparatively
light brown, or again a deep, rich brown, having in some cases lighter
streaks ; while in some portions from one to two inches wide, the ordinary
colour does not appear to have been affected at all ; again, the warm
brown may be spotted and streaked with almost black veins, presenting a
rich appearance. This last form is called " tortoise-shell " pattern.

It is a strange fact that one single tree may be affected without others
near or around it showing the slightest trace. Thus, out of a group of
trees in Farming Woods Park, one large tree was found to be of a fine rich
colour, although some five or six other similar trees quite close to it were

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 365

of ordinary colour. On the other hand, it sometimes happens that in a
group of trees all are found to be more or less affected. This was specially
noticeable in a small wood on the golf course at Stanmore in Middlesex,
where a large proportion of the trees which were cut down proved to be all
brown, while some were slightly affected and others not at all. One or
two very old and large specimens of undoubted American red oak (Querciis
rubra Linn.) growing in England, were found to have this peculiarity.

In the trunk the brown wood occurs either at the base, extending up-
wards to a variable height, or extending downwards from the crown
towards the base to a variable depth, and it appears probable that in a
few cases it may start from a large knot below the crown and extend some-
what downwards, but in such cases the proportion of the tree affected is
slight. The trunk may be wholly of a rich brown from the base to the
crown ; it may taper brown to a point, or prove to be brown on one side
only. An example of this was noticed in a tree grown at Radlett, Herts,
where the brown wood at the base of the trunk extended apparently com-
pletely across the heart-wood, then tapered very sharply in an upward
direction, becoming at the same time confined to one side of the trunk,
and continued thus upwards, gradually tapering to extinction at an approx-
imate height of 15 feet. In connection with partially unilateral distribution
may be mentioned the case of an oak tree which grew near a stream. The
bole, when only 18 inches in height, gave way to two erect stems, each of
which was about 18 inches in thickness over a length of 12 to 15 feet.
The stumpy bole showed " brown oak " on one side only, and the erect
leader topping that side was also characterised by brown wood, whereas
the leader springing from the other side of the bole possessed quite normal
wood. The brown wood extending up the trunk is often arrested by an
extensive knot, and in any case a large knot acts as an obstacle. In the
case of trees which have been pollarded, the trunk may be found to be all
brown up to the crown, but it is rarely, if ever, found that all the leaders
are also brown. A very large tree obtained from Danbury Palace, near
Chelmsford, Essex, had five secondary trunks growing out of the butt, all
of which were of a very rich brown colour. (After the tree was sold, a
man was idly pulling out the decayed wood from a hollow in the side of
the trunk when he felt something hard, which he discovered was a small
coin, afterwards found to be of Roman origin.) Much more often, how-
ever, in the case of pollarded trees, only one or possibly two of the
secondary trunks carry brown colour through, and in most cases it is
noticeable that the secondary trunk or trunks which are affected occur on
that side of the main trunk which has displayed the stronger and richer
colour.

In considering the origin of this wood it must be emphasised that
" brown oak " is the product of the ordinary species of British oaks (pre-

366 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

sumably Q. Robur pedunculata and Q. Robur sessiliflora). The cause of the
phenomenon was unknown until it was investigated by Professor Percy
Groom.1 The following are the results obtained. The heart-wood is laid
down as perfectly normal heart-wood, which is subsequently converted
by the action of a particular kind of fungus into brown oak. The scientific
name of the fungus is not absolutely established, though in all of three
specimens, coming from different parts of Great Britain, it was one and
the same in species. The fungus causes the wood to assume first a yellow
colour, then a richer brown, culminating in a deep reddish-brown or some-
times blackish-brown. It advances most rapidly along the grain of the
wood, often at first being distributed along certain strands of the wood and
causing these to assume a colour darker than that of the remainder. This
usually temporary condition explains the origin of the tortoiseshell variety.
The fungus advances more slowly along the medullary rays. These two
methods of progression explain how the wood may become thoroughly
infected by the fungus, which, however, grows very slowly and incom-
pletely in a tangential direction. Artificial infections of boards or ordinary
heart-wood of the oak led to the artificial production of brown oak. The
fungus is of a somewhat exceptional type among wood-inhabiting fungi,
for it shows only the feeblest power of attacking the actual wood sub-
stance ; while it is converting ordinary heart-wood into brown oak, it
feeds on other substances in the wood (probably tannin among others).
This fact is of importance in appraising the connection between the fungus
and the decay exhibited in certain " brown oak " trees.

It is widely known that " brown oak " trees when standing sometimes
undergo decay. I have observed many cases in which the trunks of oak
trees showed the butt in a complete condition of white-rot up to the height
of from 3 to 6 feet, but above this the heart-wood was firm, hard brown
oak. This was specially noticeable with some fine butts which were cut
down on Lord Chesham's estate at Latimer, Bucks. One of these trees,
measuring about 36 inches in diameter, appeared when felled to be value-
less on account of the white, fluffy, decayed wood which completely covered
the trunk within a distance of an inch or two of the bark. Upon cross-
cutting from 3 to 4 feet through the tree was perfectly sound, and of a
very dark brown colour.

Moreover, " brown oak " trees sometimes show signs of ill-health as
evinced in stag-headedness. Do these facts indicate that the browning
process is one of incipient decay caused by the fungus responsible for that
browning ? Stag-headedness is a symptom of various kinds of diseases
of the oak tree, some associated with wood-destroying fungi, and others
not so, and it is very apt to occur on ordinary oak trees occupying light

1 Percy Groom, " ' Brown Oak ' and its Origin," Annals of Botany, 1919, vol.
xxix. pp. 393-408.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 367

soils which are apparently unfavourable to the development of " brown
oak." Again, Professor Groom thinks that the fact that large brown oak
trees occur without showing any traces of decay in their hard, firm " brown
oak," accords with the feeble powers of attacking wood substance shown
by the browning fungus. On the other hand, there are many kinds of
wood-attacking fungi that cause decay in the sap-wood and heart-wood of
the oak tree. A number of them gain admittance through wounds, and
several can simultaneously attack heart-wood at the same point. One or
more of these may be responsible for the rotting of " brown oak," and at
present there is not the slightest reason for believing that the fungus
causing the production of " brown oak " is responsible for such rotting,
or that " brown oak " is wood in a condition of incipient decay. The
matter requires further investigation. As only the heart-wood of the
tree is affected, and the sap flows up to the leaves exclusively in the sap-
wood, it is not surprising that trees containing " brown oak " show no
external signs of its possession. The fact that " brown oak " owes its
origin to a fungus and therefore arises only when the tree is infected, gives
some explanation of the distribution of " brown oak " trees and of " brown
oak " in the individual tree.

Such trees are found in Great Britain in regions extending from the
south up to Scotland. A large number of old oak trees in the northern
vicinity of London are infected. This has been particularly noticed at
Stanmore, Wembley, Edgware, Mill Hill, Totteridge, Enfield, Finchley,
Golders Green ; also at Radlett and Stoke Park. Many handsome trees
which developed the tortoiseshell pattern, and also the uniform brown
colour, were found in Stoke Park, Stoke Poges, and were all shipped to
America, some having since been utilised to form the panelling and furni-
ture in the City Hall, Chicago. It is significant that in Cassiobury Park,
close to several of the above-named places, where the soil is light, no
" brown oak " had been found. Light soil in general seems to be inimical
to its development. The peculiarity occurs in trees varying from very
old ones to those which are perhaps as young as twenty years. As no
evidence exists as to the date of infection, it is quite impossible to draw any
conclusions as to the rate of production of " brown oak."

A remarkable fact about this beautiful form of English oak is that,
although it is found at our doors, few people in England are even awarfe of
its existence ; yet it is known in America as one of the finest decorative
woods ; indeed, in general, Americans appear to think that it is the only
form of oak which grows in England. There it is called simply " English
oak," the term " brown oak " being seldom used. H. J. Elwes, Trees of
Great Britain and Ireland, quoting Mr. C. M'Kimm, a distinguished
American architect, says : " We regard it as the most beautiful oak in the
world . . . preferred to all others for its finer quality, richer colour, and

368 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

endurance." The hall and staircase at The Lynch House, Totteridge,
Herts, is entirely panelled and furnished in " brown oak/' from trees
which grew on the Totteridge Park estate, and which provide a fine example
of this wood. The trees were cut down some twenty years ago, and their
roots can still be traced. Elwes says : " The best example that I have
seen of fine brown oak work in England is at Rockhurst, the residence of
the late Sir Richard Tarrant, in Sussex. This was done by Messrs. Marsh,
Cribb & Co. of Leeds, with brown pollard oak, showing very varied
figure " ; and since the date when he wrote this, the same firm has com-
pleted some equally fine panelling in the dining-room of Mr. H. J. Elwes'
house at Colesborne. Indeed, it is doubtful if this is not on the whole a
still finer example.

In my experience no such timber has ever been found either in France
or elsewhere on the Continent. Professor Groom, however, says that he
examined the French chene rouge, derived from the same species of tree
(Querciis Robur], and found the wood so similar that with the naked eye
he could not distinguish it from " brown oak," but the microscope re-
vealed considerable differences between the British and French woods,
thus indicating that the causes of the anomaly in the two cases are
different.

The question of seasoning is of more than ordinary importance in con-
nection with the use of English oak, and especially with the brown variety
under discussion. Excepting in the case of burry logs, they should always
be cut as nearly as possible on the quarter. After cutting, the planks and
boards should be stowed in a position entirely sheltered from sun, wind, or
rain, and preferably in a place where drying will proceed slowly. This last
precaution is specially necessary with curly, twisted, or burry grain.
When first cut, the wood is unusually strong, and is liable to split and warp,
although when seasoned it stands very well. A plan adopted by some
has been to place the sawdust of the wood thickly in between the planks,
but this practice may result in fermentation and formation of fungi, and
it is very doubtful if it is effective. Elwes, writing of some magnificent
specimens of panelling and wainscoting executed in brown oak for Dr.
Weld, of Boston, U.S.A., by Messrs. Noyes & Whitcomb, thus describes
the method of seasoning employed by this firm : " Dry white fine boards
fresh from the hot-air kiln are laid on each side of the oak boards, and
properly stripped (sticked) in an open covered shed. When the moisture
has been partially absorbed, they are all turned over and again sandwiched
between fresh dry fine boards ; thus saving a great deal of time, which is
rarely given to season timber properly in America, and preparing the wood
to stand the conditions of dryness, which are more trying to furniture in
American than in English houses."

Veneers cut from " brown oak " (especially from burr- wood) require

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 369

very special care in drying in order to avoid splitting, and to keep them
flat. They should be stored in a cool place, a basement for preference,
packed as tightly as possible, covered with tarpaulin, and loaded above
with weights. After a time they should be carefully turned over, wiped
with a cloth, and re-packed with the reverse side uppermost.

OAK, BURR and POLLARD. Quercus Robur pedunculata Ehrh. and

Q. Robur sessiliflora Sm.

Great Britain.

Burr-wood shows the grain of the wood running in all directions, so
that the cut surface is marked by small twists, curls, or bird's-eye specks,
and often has scraps of enclosed bark (" gaul "). As always is the case
with burr- wood, that of the oak is particularly liable to warp, twist, and
even crack during drying, and especially so when used in thick pieces ; it
is therefore invariably cut into veneers. When well chosen, burr-wood
of " brown oak " produces a variegated decorative effect which is un-
rivalled of its kind ; while the burr of ordinary oak yields veneered panels
whose ornamental qualities will be regarded by many as superior to those
of certain more costly woods, including bird's-eye maple. Burr- wood is
produced by pollard as well as other oak trees.

A pollard tree is one whose poll (head) has been cut off when the tree
has reached a considerable age ; pollard willows, cultivated to produce
osiers for basket-work, provide familiar examples of such trees. The
results of such decapitation are : first, that the growth in length of the
main trunk is permanently arrested ; and secondly, that a number of
branches shoot forth from the top of the headless bole, and develop into
more or less vigorous boughs.

Pollard oaks are abundant in England, and include most of the old
oak trees in Epping Forest, as well as many in Sherwood Forest. All the
old oaks in Moor Park, Rickmansworth, were and are of this type, and
according to tradition owe their state to very human motives. It is
stated that in 1685 the Duchess of Monmouth, desirous of revenging the
beheading of her husband, caused all the oaks in this park to be pollarded,
and thus rendered for ever incapable of supplying timber for the Navy
of the hated English.

The more or less numerous branches ultimately springing from the
head of the pollard tree gradually produce at the summit of the trunk a
thick mass of burr-wood. Moreover, the rest of the trunk thickens, and
from it there may burst forth countless young shoots, clusters of which
produce at their bases large swollen humps, known as burrs. Elwes de-
scribes a good example of the result of this mode of growth : the trunk
that he investigated was " ten feet high and nine feet in girth. . . . Its
wood, when cut into veneer, was throughout the whole thickness of the

370 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

tree more like that of bird's-eye maple than oak, and has served to make
the front of a very handsome bookcase/'

Yet burrs are by no means confined to pollard trees, for they frequently
arise on ordinary trees at various heights up the trunk. The causes re-
sponsible for the production of burrs are often unknown. In the oak they
appear to arise sometimes as a consequence of attack by rabbits, which
gnaw the bark at the base of young trees and thus stimulate the trunk to
abnormal growth. This is localised and gives rise to a burr, which may
extend completely round the base of the trunk.

It is thus evident that the terms " burr " and " pollard " should not be
employed as synonyms. Still less correct is it to confine the term " pollard
oak " to burr- wood of the " brown oak tree," as was formerly the custom
among timber merchants. This burr- wood of " brown oak " was much
admired and used from fifty to a hundred years ago, when it was known
as " pollard oak." l It was more appreciated in the north of England,
though some fine examples of Victorian cabinet work, made by Gillow and
others, are to be found in the south (a handsome round table of that period
veneered with this wood, stands in the Savile Club, London).

OAK, CALEDONIAN. Carnarvonia aralioefolia.

Weight 35-45 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

Known as red or black oak. Swain reports it as "a firm, compact,
moderate-weight wood of dully gleaming reddish chocolate hue, silkily
mottled. ... It is tough to cut but is straight-grained and fissile ... a
little heavier, harder, and finer-textured, and darker than Silky Oak . . .
durable in the weather, but not in the ground . . . inclined to warp in
seasoning." Suitable for cabinet work, panelling, moulding, and turnery.

OAK, CORK. Quercus Suber Linn.

Spain, Portugal.

This oak supplies the cork which is used for commercial purposes. It
is the produce of the extraordinarily developed corky layer of the bark.
Pliny mentions the use of cork for stopping bottles and casks, and also for
nets and lifebelts. The general employment of corks for glass bottles,
however, appears to date only from the fifteenth century.

OAK, FOREST. Casuarina torulosa Ait.

Weight 58 Ibs. New South Wales, Queensland.

The colour of the wood is a dull brown, with a very coarse, harsh, sour
grain, and it is specially inclined to warp in seasoning. It is reported as

1 So far as can be ascertained, at that time " maiden " " brown oak " (i.e. wood
having the ordinary straight grain) was never sought for, and was used merely when
accidentally secured.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 371

strong and durable, and used in Australia for shingles, staves, veneers,
tool-handles, mauls, and cabinet purposes. It is liable to the attack of pin-
worm.

The pores are rather scarce, irregular, and extremely small, open, and
coarse ; wide medullary rays at irregular intervals, confused, sometimes
duplicated, showing on the radial section as in live oak, with numerous
fine, wavy belts of light tissue ranged between the medullary rays in the
lines of the concentric growth, and innumerable minute fine rays between
the principal rays, crossed at right angles by tiny lines forming a very fine
network pattern.

OAK, FORMOSAN. Quercus gilva Bi.

Formosa, South Japan.

This wood, known in Japan as ichii-gashi, is of a brick-red colour, hard
and heavy, with a firm, close texture, capable of a very smooth surface
from the tool. It has never been imported on a commercial basis, but
according to Goto " is valued in the making of the handles of agricultural
and other tools and implements ; also in making wheels and rudders."
In its qualities it resembles English live oak, from which it only differs in
colour.

The pores are very scarce and rather less than moderate size. In be-
tween the strong, bright, principal medullary rays are innumerable ex-
ceedingly fine, secondary rays which are only visible with the lens ( + 12).

OAK, FORMOSAN. Quercus pseudo-myrsineaefolia Hay.

Weight 75 Ibs. Formosa.

This wood resembles that of Q. Moni Hay in weight, texture, and
general characteristics. It is, however, of a brighter colour, almost of a
rose shade, and while lacking the darker streaks of that wood, the effect is
more uniform. It is a very beautiful wood, and should be highly valued
for cabinet and decorative woodwork.

The transverse grain has a very pretty appearance. The pores are
scarce and small. The principal medullary rays are very strong, and
running parallel between them are numerous equidistant secondary rays,
with similar fine white lines at right angles ; the beautiful effect thus given
resembles delicate lace or a fine spider's web.

OAK, HIMALAYAN. Quercus spicata Smith.

Weight 58 Ibs. India.

VERN — Danwa singah, phaco singah, arkaula, Nep. — Bara chakma, Beng.
— Kacheeng, Lepcha — Sahu hingori, Ass. — Dmgjing, Khasia —
Sagat, thttcha, thitb, Burm.

The wood is of a rather dirty reddish-brown colour, showing little of the
general characters of Quercus, while it has a rather rough and fibrous grain.

372 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Troup recommends it as being durable and not inclined to warp. He
mentions it as being used for " building (Assam), well construction, ploughs,
mortars, helms of boats/'

There are singular, short, dark wavy ripples, following the lines of
concentric layers. The pores are very small and scarce. The medullary
rays are strong, wide, and conspicuous.

OAK, HOLLY. Quercus Morii Hay.

Weight 67,lbs. Formosa.

The wood is of a bright salmon-red colour, streaked with wide, dark
reddish-brown markings, and is of a very hard texture which is capable
of a smooth surface. The colour and the pretty marking of the pores,
which make a pleasing pattern on the radial section, and the strong wide
clash or flower caused by the medullary rays, render the wood very valu-
able for ornamental, cabinet, or decorative work. It has never been
imported into this country, but would undoubtedly be much sought for if
it became known and were available. It is one of the most beautiful of all
the oaks. According to the report of Mitsui & Company, there is an esti-
mated supply (1920) of about 30 million cubic feet.

The pores are very small and scarce. Besides the strong, broadly
marked principal medullary rays there are, evenly distributed between
them, smaller secondary rays, which are numerous, very fine, and parallel.

OAK, HOLM. Quercus ilex.

Weight 60 Ibs. Europe, North Africa.

In common with many other home-grown trees the holm oak is either
burned or wasted. Having before us this beautiful evergreen tree, it is
strange that no serious attempt has been made to realise its usefulness.
Elwes says the timber is valued for " cart-wheels and other farm imple-
ments, and preferred to that of the cork oak." It is reported to be largely
used in Algeria for carriage-building and joinery, and that the Romans
used it for axles.

The colour is slightly darker than that of the ordinary English oak,
with a very hard, close grain, and it is very durable. This tree should be
planted both for its beauty and utility.

OAK, INDIAN. Quercus dilatata Lindl.

Weight 58-69 Ibs. (Gamble). Northern India.

VERN — Zdih, Kafiristan — Ban, banji, banchar, barachar, bardin, banni,
parungi, chora, kali ring, mdru, mdur, moru, karsh, marghang, Pb.
— Moru, tilangsa, timsha, N.-W.P. — Kilonj, Kumaon — Tilonj,
Garhwal — Ramshing, Byans.

Excepting that it is slightly harder and darker in colour, this wood
might pass well for European or American live oak. Gamble reports it as

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 373

a useful, strong wood excepting that it is very apt to warp and shrink, and
difficult to season.

The very small pores are arranged in long, narrow, wavy lines, with
very strong, aggressive medullary rays, as usually found in evergreen oak.

OAK, INDIAN. Quercus lanceaefolia Roxb.

Weight 42 Ibs. (Gamble). British India, The

Himalayas.

VKRN — Patlekatus, Nep. — Siri, Lepcha — Shingra, chauko, Garo — Bucklai,
Ass — Hmgon, Cachar — Dingsmng, Khasia.

This attractive evergreen oak, brownish-yellow in colour, with an even
grain which works well under the tool, resembles the British oak Quercus
pedunculata, but with little show of medullary grain.

The pores are uniform in size, arranged in short, wavy belts, making a
rather pretty pattern. The numerous, very fine medullary rays are hardly
discernible under the lens, and crossed at right angles by darker belts,
forming an unusual pattern for oak.

OAK, JAPANESE. Quercus grosseserrata Bl.
Q. crispula Bl.
Q. glandulifera Bl.
Q. dentata Thunb.
Weight 40 Ibs. 12 oz.-47 Ibs. 13 oz. Japan.

Quercus grosseserrata and Q. crispula are known in Japan by the name
of " Ohnara," Q. glanduhfera by the name of " Konara," and Q. dentata as
" Kashiwa."

According to Goto, " the several varieties of kashi (oak) are the most
widely distributed of the broad-leaved evergreens." Ubame-(Imame)
gashi, Quercus phyllireoides A. Gr., " is white with a shade of yellow, and
the hardest and heaviest of all timbers produced in Japan. Is used in
house-building where hardness and strength are required, but the chief
use is in charcoal-making." The same author classes Ichii-gashi, Quercus
gilva BL, Shira-kashi, Q. vibrayeana Fr. & Sav., Aka-gashi, Q. acuta Thunb.,
in the same category with Ubame-gashi. The European supply of
Japanese oak is produced almost exclusively from Q. grosseserrata and
Q. crispula, with a very small supplement of Q. glandulifera.

There have been imported from Japan into the United Kingdom during
the last few years very large quantities of oak logs, hewn square, in lengths
of from 8 to 26 feet, and in widths of from 14 to 36 inches, and a small
number of round logs with the bark on as felled, also boards, planks, and
staves. The first shipment was in 1905, and, as often the case with fresh
timber supplies, through lack of experience in dealing with it, a great
quantity was found to be very defective. By degrees, however, producers
have learnt the best methods of handling it, and so avoiding the errors of

374

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

those who have not yet learnt by experience. The quality now obtainable
is of a high class.

In 1920 the shipments to the Continent had reached the enormous
total of 50,000 loads per annum. This timber comes from the north island
of Hokkaido, and is shipped from the ports of Otaru, Muroran, and
Kushiro. The trees are felled between the months of November and
March by men who camp in the forests. When the logs are hewn they are
pulled by horses over the snow to the nearest railway, the frozen surface
enabling them to be transported over the hills and rough places.

QUEKCUS CRISPULA, " OHNARA "

Q. GLANDULIFERA, " KONARA '

The product of virgin forests of great age, the timber is remarkable for
its extreme regularity of growth and freedom from faults. In no other
oak, with the exception of the " Spessart " oak (q.v.), are the yearly layers
so uniform throughout the whole life of the tree from heart to bark. As
the annual rings are very narrow, growth being exceedingly slow, any
scantling sawn out represents a much greater age for its size than in
British or other commercial oaks. For instance, in two pieces 4 inches
wide, taken at random, the British showed 28 layers or annual rings,
whilst the Japanese showed 8i» A further examination of five more pieces
of the same size gave a variation from 62 to 93 years ; it thus took 28
years to put on 4 inches of British growth in thickness, against 81 years

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 375

for the same size in the Japanese wood. Many specimens of British, Con-
tinental, and American oak could be found, produced in even less time,
perhaps only five or six years for the same size, whilst it would be very hard
to find any of the imported Japanese oak with much variation.

The wood is of uniformly good colour and texture, and is of slightly
milder quality than the European. The trees also yield a much greater
percentage of clean timber free from knots and other defects, and the
hearts are extraordinarily straight and sound. These features constitute
its great commercial value.

Notwithstanding the prevailing opinion held at the time when the
wood was first introduced that it would not prove to be durable, and the
very mild character of the grain, the results have been surprising. Japan-
ese oak, used as half timbers and posts, shows no deterioration or any fault
to-day (1932), after 25 years' exposure, so that it may be said to be highly
durable for both inside and outside work. Sleepers of Japanese oak, laid
on the Metropolitan Railway between King's Cross and Farringdon Street,
London, were taken up quite sound after many years, with the portion of
the sleeper in contact with the ground not decayed or injured, notwith-
standing the special strain of this portion of the line, where the steam and
the continual change from wet to dry condition tell heavily on the timber.
Where there was a previous indication of decay it became a little extended
internally, but the general result is favourable to the durability of the
wood in contact with the ground. 4

One of the defects of oak from all countries is its liability to brown
streaky stains running through the wood, and this is perhaps the worst defect
of Japanese timber, and is no doubt due to some of it being over-ripe.

The wood shrinks a little more than some kinds of oak, but seasons more
quickly, and is more easy to work and fume or stain, and has a good appear-
ance. This oak is particularly suitable for floorings, either in parquet or
long boards. As the wood is mild and clean it holds its shape after planing,
and being closely grained as well as elastic, the fibres are not so cut by the
wear of the rough tread ; and as its cost is moderate, the best and most
mature timber can be used for the purpose. In Austrian or other
European or American oak, on the contrary, the well-grown trees can all
be utilised for making wide boards for wainscoting, and consequently realise
a much higher price than is paid for floorings, with the result that im-
mature wood and large branches are converted for this purpose.

On more than one occasion perfectly fresh logs have been sawn up,
seasoned in kilns, and worked into panelling and fittings, which have been
fixed and the whole process completed within three months, while the
work executed has afterwards shown no sign of shrinkage or other fault.
It is doubtful if such a proceeding could be carried out with any other kind
of commercial oak with the same satisfactory results. Panelling, church

376

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378 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

A specimen taken from a tree grown at Powerscourt Castle, in Ireland,
produces a wood similar to that of the live oak. It has not been, and is not
likely to be, seen in commerce.

The pores are exceedingly small, rather scarce, arranged in short
straight lines, slightly more pronounced in the spring wood, with strange
belts of light-coloured wavy lines between. The medullary rays which
show on the radial section are clearly defined, with beautiful marking as in
live oak, but on the transverse section are very straggling and confused,
unlike the usual other kinds of Quercus.

OAK, JAPANESE. Quercus vibrayeana Fr. & Sav.

South Japan.

Shira-kashi is a hard, very dense, close-grained timber. The colour is
a warm brick-red with dark streaks, not unlike the rich red colour of some
British brown oak. It is somewhat like American red oak (Q. rubra),
though browner and of a more pleasing tone. The texture of grain and
appearance of the medullary rays are exactly similar to the European ever-
green oak, and also in its characteristic liability to diagonal splits. The
wood resembles that of Q. gilva, except that it is even harder and heavier.
Not any of the above species named — that is, of evergreen oaks — have
ever been imported on a commercial basis.

The pores are small and very scarce, nearly always following an
irregular single line. The medullary rays are very numerous, and stand
out thick and conspicuous to the naked eye. They are crossed at right
angles by exceedingly fine parallel lines (? parenchyma).

OAK, LIVE. Quercus virens Ait.

Weight 59 Ibs. (Hough). North America.

Although the close observer has found planks of live oak included in the
general shipments of American oak, yet so far as can be ascertained no
regular supplies of the wood have been seen in this country. This is un-
fortunate, as the timber undoubtedly contains qualities of strength and
durability, and its exceptional value should make it sought after. It is
stronger than any other known oak. My specimen is very hard ; it is of a
nut-brown colour, and is close and smooth-grained. Gibson refers to the
former great use of this oak in the American Navy, and says further :
" In strength and stiffness it rates higher than the white oak. ... It
takes a smooth polish. When the wood is worked into spindles and small
articles and brightly polished, its appearance suggests dark polished
granite. ... Its value as a cabinet material has not been appreciated in
the past, nor have its possibilities been suspected/'

A library at Lord Knutsford's house has live oak employed in the
panelling.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 379

The pores are not numerous ; they are very smooth and clear-cut.
The medullary rays are clearly defined, showing with beautiful marking
on the radial section.

OAK, RUSSIAN. Quercus pedunculata Ehrh. and
Q. sessiliflora Sm.

Russian oak is very similar to British and Austrian oak. In strength
it compares rather with the former than the latter, but the detailed tests
so far made give no really reliable basis on which to compare the strengths
of British and Russian oak, while as a constructional timber Austrian oak
does not come into question in Great Britain. Russian wainscot oak on
the whole may show slightly less bold silver grain than Austrian, yet the
best qualities of the former vie with those of the latter in decorative effect.

Russian oak is exported from Danzig, Libau, Memel, Odessa, Riga, and
Stettin.

(a) DANZIG OAK. Weight 47 Ibs. 7 oz. — A large quantity is imported
in the form of

(1) Logs hewn nearly square, from 8 to 30 feet long and from 10 to 20
inches square.

(2) Plangons — hewn logs with very large wanes.

(3) Planks of various lengths.

(4) " Deck-deals," which are planks varying in length from 24 feet
upwards (but averaging about 32 feet), in breadth from 9 to 15 inches, and
in thickness from 2 to 6 inches.

(5) Staves, which are irnported only in comparatively small quan-
tities, and are used for making casks and barrels. The wood is rather
brownish in colour, and is slightly harder and heavier than other Conti-
nental European oak.

(6) Wainscots. The import of wainscots from Danzig, at one time
considerable, has now almost ceased, and the quality of the few ship-
ments which have been made has much deteriorated.

In earlier times there is little doubt that a large trade was carried on
in oak brought from Danzig. Mr. E. Haynes quotes from the subsidy rolls
of the second year of King Henry IV. A.D. 1400, 519 years ago (1919),
an early reference to the import of " wainscots, clapholtz (barrel staves),
tonholtz (wood for tuns), bow staves (arrow shafts), righoltz (rails or spars),
Bords (planks), delles (deals), renus (oars), plyning bords (folding boards),
masts, spars de firr (firewood spars).1' There would be a roll for London,
and others for principal ports. The one for the ports of the Humber —
Hull, Grimsby, etc. — was in the Augmentation Office, London, a century
ago, and may now be in the Record Office. In 1827 Charles First, F.S.A.,
published " notices relative to the early history of the town and port of
Hull," in which as an appendix he printed this Hull and Grimsby subsidy

380 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

roll, saying : " It is a document of singular interest as a mercantile record/'
The enrolment is in the Latin of the period. " The number of wainscots
landed is amazing, which, with the low values, even with the then high
value of money, suggest they were small in size." Elwes and Henry (op.
cit. p. 342) quote thus from a note in Hollinshed's Chronicles (vol. i. p. 357,
ed. 1807) : " According to Mr. J. C. Shenstone, Harrison of Redwinter in
Essex, who lived in the reign of Henry VIII., was the author of this note :
' Of all oke growing in England the parke oke is the softest, and far more
spalt and prickle than the hedge oke. And of all in Essex that growing in
Bardfield Parke is the finest for joiners craft ; for oftentimes have I scene
of their workes made of that oke so fine and faire as most of the wanescot
that is brought out of Danske, for our wanescot is not made in England.
Yet diverse have assaied to deal with our okes to that end, but not with so
good successe as they have hoped, because the ab or juice will not so
soone be removed and cleane drawne out, which some attribute to want of
time in the salt water.' " It is therefore clear that at these very early
dates oak wainscot was imported into England. Elwes is in some doubt
about the meaning of " Danske," but there is little doubt surely that it
meant " Danzig." What the words " spalt " and " prickle " meant is
doubtful, but it is likely that they relate to the kinder nature of the timber.
Of Danzig oak Laslett wrote : " It is of fair durability and is largely
used in the construction of the mercantile ships of this country, but only
sparingly for our ships of war, except for their decks, for which purpose it
is regarded as a speciality as it stands well the wear and tear of gun-
carriages. For planking it is much esteemed, as the grain is straight,
clean, and almost free from knots. Further, it is so pliable and elastic,
when boiled or heated by steam, that it may be bent into the most difficult
or curved forms without showing any signs of fracture." The use of this
timber for shipbuilding has now entirely ceased. Moreover, it becomes
each year increasingly difficult to obtain satisfactory supplies, for the
quality has deteriorated. The timber is now largely used in the building
of railway carriages and railway waggons.

(b) LIBAU OAK. See RIGA OAK.

(d) ODESSA OAK. — This wood is brought from Volhynia, Kieff, and
the southernmost provinces of Russia, and is imported in the same manner
in all respects as the Riga and Libau. During later years a very large
quantity of high-class oak logs, hewn nearly square, and others, both hewn
and sawn into octagonal shapes, have been imported, which have been
used for railway carriage and waggon building and constructional pur-
poses, as well as to a certain extent for joiners' work. A very large quan-
tity also of wainscots of good size and high-class quality has been regularly

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 381

imported. The quality of the wood is similar in colour and texture to the
other Russian oak, but a little milder and softer, more nearly than the
others approaching to the quality of Austrian.

(e) RIGA OAK. — The oak shipped from Riga and Libau is derived from
forests in the interior of the Russian Baltic provinces and of Russian
Poland. It is shipped as wainscot logs or billets, hewn logs (only in small
quantities), and floorings. The principal trade, however, has been in
wainscot billets. About twenty-five or thirty years ago Riga logs were
the best obtainable, and realised the highest prices, although their sizes
were small, the billets each averaging scarcely more than 18 cubic feet.
The quality of these old shipments, and especially the Kieff logs, was the
highest yet attained. The wood was bright, of uniform colour, close-
grained, hard and firm in texture, and very durable. Laslett wrote : " It
is characteristic of this oak timber that the medullary rays are very numer-
ous and more distinctly marked than is the case with Danzig oak " ; and
the same authority quotes that " it was customary to select the logs into
' Riga/ ' English,' or ' Dutch ' ' crown ' qualities ; or the ' brack ' quality,
at prices varying with the market rates. In 1875 these prices respectively
were 100, 90, 80, and 60 shillings per 18 foot cube, in the order named."
Kieff logs from about 1885 to 1890 cost about 120 shillings per 18 feet cube.
This method of selection and of selling has long since been abandoned,
although the term " crown " applied to the quality is still quoted, though
more often than not incorrectly, and the logs are now sold always at so
much per foot cube. Although the best modern shipments are not of the
former superlative quality, it is doubtful if any other Eiiropean oak,
excepting British, equals this in quality or texture. Riga and Libau wain-
scot logs do not command so high a price as Austrian, since their smaller
size and mode of conversion involve greater waste.

The square hewn logs are used for constructional purposes in buildings,
for window-sills, and in the construction of railway carriages ; while the
planks and boards are utilised for joinery and floorings. The boards are
too often cut from small immature wood, or secondary trunks and branches,
with the result that they are strong and inclined to warp and twist, and
are not very satisfactory.

(/) STETTIN OAK. — The timber agrees with that exported from
Danzig and Memel, since it is derived from the same regions. In recent
years there has been an increased export from Stettin of hewn logs and
logs sawn octagonally. This timber is mainly used for railway carriages
and railway waggons.

OAK, SPESSART.

The oak known as " Spessart " is that which comes from a highland
forest district belonging mainly to the Bavarian province of Lower

382 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Franconia, but in the north to the Prussian province of Hesse Cassel. It
does not appear perfectly clear whether the timber is the product of
Quercus sessiliflora or Q. pedunculata, but it is probable that both sorts
occur, and some authorities have stated that Q. sessiliflora is the hill oak
and Q. pedunculata the valley oak. The predominating features of this
wood are its mildness and extremely regular growth of the annual rings.
Nearly every tree produces the same thickness of growth to every annual
layer ; on this account, and because of its exceedingly mild nature, the
timber is greatly valued throughout Germany, where the greater part of
the production is used for the best quality of knife-cut veneers. The
regularity of its growth and closeness of its annual rings are only compar-
able with some of the oak grown in Japan, no other country producing
these peculiar qualities.

OAK, TASMANIAN.

See STRINGYBAKK.

OBECHI and ARERE. Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum.

Weight 20-21 Ibs. Africa.

Known in the English market as obechi and arere ; in the German
market as abachi ; and in the French market as ayous, from the Came-
roons, and as samba, from Grand Bassam.

Record reports that there is an abundant supply, but the logs deterio-
rate so quickly that exceedingly good transportation facilities are essential.

It does not appear to be quite certain that the timber known as ayous
and that known as obechi are precisely the same, although it is probable.
Ayous has been used extensively for the core wood in ply-wood manu-
facture, but is reported as being found unsatisfactory.

Occasional logs have found their way into Liverpool and London for
many years past (1930) until a short time ago, under the name of African
whitewood.

It is of a light yellow straw colour, with a firm, straight grain, which at
first sight gives the impression of woolliness, but a smooth surface is easily
produced, and the wood is, relative to its weight, remarkably strong. As
it is obtainable in long lengths and wide widths, sound and free from
defect, and at a very reasonable price, it has become in demand for a great
variety of purposes where its economical working, light weight, and good
quality have rendered it most popular. Tropical Woods publishes a list of
shrinkage tests which established the knowledge that it stands as well as,
and similar to, other woods of this weight and density.

The scarce pores are rather large and open, with confused rough-edged
medullary rays varying in thickness, and not showing on the radial
section.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 383

OBOBONEKHUI. Guarea Thompsonii Sprague & Hutchinson.

Nigeria.

Reported by the Imperial Institute in Descriptive List of Some Empire
Timbers as a wood of good quality, already marketed in some parts as a
" mahogany/' for which it is said to be a good substitute ; the grain is
somewhat similar to Honduras mahogany. A better timber than okwein
(which might also sell as a mahogany), being of better colour and milder in
working. It could be used for carriage-building.

Ocotea usambarensis.

Weight 34-36 Ibs. East Africa.

The East African wood known as camphor, or by the native name of
muzaita, is a wood with a fine, close, mahogany-like texture and colour,
resembling and practically indistinguishable from many of the lighter
coloured so-called West African mahoganies ; it also resembles that of
the cinnamon tree, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, in appearance. The East
African camphor-wood stands well without warping, twisting, shrinking,
or swelling, and it is in all respects a valuable timber. There is a strong
scent of camphor and the pores are plugged with a bright glistening gum.

The numerous pores are irregularly placed in groups, and plugged.
The rather fine medullary rays are not very prominent.

Odina Wodier Roxb.

Weight 50 Ibs. India.

VKRN — Kiamil, kimul, kamldi, kashmala, jhingan, mowen, nwhen, woven,
moyna, gmvan, Hind. — Jigna, Oudh — Garja, Bijeragogarh — Bara
dabdabbi, halloray, Nep. — Jiyal, lohar, bhadi, Beng. — Gob, Ajniere
— Gol, Merwara — Wodier, wude, uthi, odi, Tarn. — Gumpim, gum-
pina, gumpna, dumpini, diimpri, dumper, Tel — Kaikra, gumpn,
gharri, Gondi — Kekeda, Kiirku — Shimti, punil^ gojal, Kan. — Mot,
moja, moye, shimbat, shimti, Mar — Kalasan, Mai. — Jir, jivdl,
Monghyr — Dowka, Sonthal, K61 — Dowka gia, Bhumij — Mot,
Uriya — Dope', Khond — Hneingpyoing, Magh — Nabe, Burm. —
Hik, Cingh.

The wood is of a light yellow-brown colour, with a straight, even grain,
somewhat resembling cigar-box cedar (Cedrela odorata). It appears to
stand well without warping or shrinking. It should be useful as a substi-
tute for plain mahogany or cedar.

The pores are small and rather scarce, and regular in position. The
medullary rays are exceedingly fine and rather obscure.

OGUGU. Sterculia cordifolia Cav.

Nigeria.

The Imperial Institute says this wood is remarkable for the absence of
shrinkage in seasoning, but has little market value.

384 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

OITY or CABRAIBA. Moquilia tomentosa Benth.

Brazil.
VERN — Oiti, oity da Praia, aiti guayti, oiti$ica ?, Braz.

The colour is a lustrous red-brown, with a hard, close grain, capable of
a smooth surface from the tool. Record says that it is strong and easy to
split, and likens it to satinee, for which wood it should make a very good
substitute. He adds, " it is used in civil and naval construction, for fence-
posts, piling, and railway ties." An uneconomical use for a very fine
cabinet wood.

The numerous tiny pores are regularly placed, fully plugged, with very
fine regular medullary rays, parallel, not showing on the radial section.

OKWEIN. Brachystegia spicaeformis Benth.

Nigeria.

As reported by the Imperial Institute, the wood resembles iroko in
grain, although not so hard, and in colour that of a light mahogany.

Oka ferruginea . Royle.

Weight 66 Ibs. (Pearson £ Brown). India.

VERN — Khwan, shwan, Trans-Indus — Zaitun, Afgh — Ko> hohu, kao, kau,
wi, Pb. — Kau, Jaunsar — Kahu, khau, Sind. — Olive.

Pearson and Thrown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood as
" variable in colour from light brown with close, narrow, darker streaks
through shades of olive-brown to deep purple, regularly shaped . . .
straight-grained or somewhat shallowly interlocked-grained, very fine and
even-textured . . . durable. ... It takes a beautiful polish. . . . The
North-Western Railway uses it extensively for all classes of shafts and
handles of tools. ... It should be valuable for inlay work in its darker
shades and for small panels when of lighter colour."

Olearia Macrodonia.

A greenish olive-coloured wood resembling the well-known olive wood,
capable of smooth surface under a sharp plane. If sound pieces can be
secured in any size, it would be an attractive medium for inlaid, fine-class
decorative woodwork.

The pores are rather scarce, plugged, ill-defined. Medullary rays
short and wavy, not parallel.

OLEO VERMELHO. Myroxylon toluiferum H. B. K.

Weight 54 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Oleo vermelho, Trade — Balsamo, oleo vermelho, cabreuva, cabreuva
vermelha, cabore, incienso, Braz. — Quina, quina-quina, kma, kina-
kina, kina morado, incienso, Arg. — Qmna-quina, Boliv. — Balsamo,
balsamo detolu, tolu, tache, Col. — Balsamo, Venez., Pan. — Balsamo,
palo de balsamo, Salv. — Balsamito, C.R.

The colour is a very bright red, with an extremely close, rather con-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 385

trary grain, very hard, requiring a sharp tool to secure a smooth surface.
The wood has a delicate, agreeable scent and somewhat resembles the
French satinee ; it is very suitable for decorative cabinet work, especially
of the Empire style.

Record says that cabreuva vermelha is the common name in Sao
Paulo, and that it is also exported from Brazil under the name of oleo
vermelho. He mentions that there is a considerable supply, that it is an
excellent substitute for Cuba mahogany, and promises to become of much
greater importance in the foreign trade, as well as in the local markets.

The concentric layers are marked by dark lines. The very numerous
minute pores are mostly plugged ; the medullary rays exceedingly fine,
and hardly discernible under the lens.

OLIVE. Olea europoea Linn.

Weight 58 Ibs. 6 oz. Southern Europe.

Olive is imported in round logs varying from 4 to 12 inches in diameter,
though occasionally a few pieces are somewhat larger. It is of a yellowish-
brown colour streaked with darker markings of all shades, sometimes verg-
ing almost to black. A very smooth, marble-like surface can be made with
the tool, when the wood somewhat resembles the surface of boxwood. It
is used for inlay and for small work of a decorative nature, such as the
ink-stands, paper-knives, and table ornaments which are frequently
brought from the East as mementoes of a visit.

The pores are scarce and obscure. The medullary rays, which are very
small and exceedingly fine, are clearly marked.

OLIVIER. Chuncoa obovata Poir., allied to Terminalia aff.

januarensis DC.
Weight 48-50 Ibs. Trinidad.

VKRN — Amandier du bord de mer, amandier du pavs, almendron de playa,
olivier, yellow ohvier, aceitumllo, poirier, Trin.

This is a moderately hard wood, greenish-brown in colour, figured with
red markings. It takes two years to season and should be immersed in
water immediately after felling.

It is used locally for building construction, is considered durable even
in damp situations, and is immune from insect attack.

ORANGE. Citrus aurantium Linn.

Weight 49 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Southern Europe, Tropi-
cal America, Africa.

VERN — Narangi, nanngi, santara, kumla nebu, Hind. — Jairum, Kumaon
— Janmera, jamera, Garhwal — Sitntala, Nep. — Sulum, Lepcha —
Narangt, Mar. — Kitchh, Tarn. — Kittah, Tel. — Shaung-pang, Magh
— Leinmaw, kabala, Burm.

The wood is yellowish-white, hard, close-grained, with rather a tough

386 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

surface after planing. A specimen grown at Powerscourt Castle displays
a useful and strong wood for walking-sticks, and might perhaps be used
for making golf clubs, but has no special characteristic fitting it for use as a
decorative medium.

The very close-grown concentric layers are visible to the naked eye,
marked by white lines. The tiny pores open, not very numerous, and
ranged in narrow and short wavy belts of light tissue. Medullary rays
are pronounced, irregular.

ORELHA DE MACACO. EnteroloUum elipticum Benth.

Weight 49 Ibs. Brazil.

Record classes orelha de macaco, vinhatico de boi, and mihatico ama-
rello as the same, and gives the source as Plathymenia reticulata Benth.,
while Pereira distinguishes between them. It is probable that in com-
mercial usage they become mixed. A bright orange-coloured wood, the
general appearance being similar to the American Osage orange, with a
silky lustre and a smooth grain.

The pores are large and numerous ; they are sometimes joined and are
surrounded by a patch of loose tissue. The medullary rays are very fine
and numerous, and radiate from the centre in wavy lines.

ORHAM WOOD. UlmUS sp.

Weight 32 Ibs. Canada, United States.

The name " orham " is undoubtedly a corruption of the French
" orme," elm. The wood which is commonly known under this name is a
very good quality elm, though it is neither hard nor tough enough to be
useful for the purposes for which Canadian or American rock elm are
usually employed. It might be described as being half-way between this
and English wych elm, though it is whiter and milder in character. It
has been used extensively in the United Kingdom for many purposes, par-
ticularly for making coffins.

ORMOSIA STRAITA. _

Burma.

A rather soft, close-grained wood of a difty, yellow-brown colour,
liable to warp and twist, and not likely to prove attractive in decorative
woodwork.

The pores are in belts varying in size, and fairly numerous. The
medullary rays are uneven and irregular, varying in density and thickness.

OSAGE ORANGE. Toxylon pomiferum Raf .

Madura aurantiaca Nutt.

Weight 48 Ibs. (Hough). North America.

This wood, which is imported in lengths of 6 to 8 feet and 12 to 18
inches in diameter, is of a bright orange colour, deepening with exposure

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 387

to air and light. It is rather lustrous, very pliable and elastic, and has
been used for walking-sticks and golf shafts, though for the latter purpose
it is too pliable in these days when stiff shafts are in demand. In Texas
and other American States it is largely used and valued for posts, agri-
cultural implements, and waggons.

Sargent says it was used " formerly by the Osage and other Indians
west of the Mississippi river, for bows and war clubs." He also gives it the
alternative name of " bow- wood." Fine trees have been grown in various
parts of this country, and especially at Lord Aldenham's seat near Radlett
in Hertfordshire, and also at Kew.

There is a strong contrast of dark and light rings in the annual growth.
The pores vary considerably in size, and are filled with a bright, shining
gum. The medullary rays are fine and distinct and rather irregular.

PADAUK, AFRICAN. Source unknown.

Probably Pterocarpus santalinoides L'Herit. or P.

angolensis DC.
Weight 60-61 Ibs. West Coast of Tropical Africa.

Logs hewn square and in the round, in sizes from 16 inches to 36
inches, have found their way into London and Liverpool included in
shipments of mahogany, without creating any interest. A demand arose
from America, and shipments in fair quantities resulted. There is a
resemblance in this wood to that of the Andaman padauk, but it has a
softer, more open grain, is lighter in weight and colour, and distinctly in-
ferior in general quality ; neither is it so hard nor so strong as barwood
(q.v.). Exposed to a strong light it bleaches to a dull light brown, while
with a moderate exposure to light it turns a dull plum-red colour, and as
in the case with barwood, water is stained with the dye.

The pores are exceedingly variable in size, very unevenly distributed,
plainly visible to the naked eye, and sometimes sparsely filled with gum.
Medullary rays very fine, close, and obscure ; while much more strongly
marked are seen irregular bands of white lines, which follow the lines of the
concentric layers.

PADAUK, ANDAMAN. Pterocarpus dalbergioides Roxb.

Weight 54 Ibs. The Andaman Islands.

VERN — Chalanga-dd, And.

When Burmese convicts first went to the Andamans, they saw a tree
which resembled the padauk of their own country and gave it the same
name — padauk, the au pronounced as ou in gout. In other countries,
America and on the Continent, etc., it has been called East Indian
mahogany, vermilion, Indian redwood, false satinee, and other names.
The colour ranges from all shades of golden brown to a violent red, hence

388 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

the name vermilion. With exposure some logs deepen in colour, while
others fade (increasingly in India), so that there are those that turn almost
black while others bleach to a golden yellow ; this is no doubt the reason
why Gamble states that padauk fades to much the same colour as teak.
Those who know only the results of exposure in temperate climates would
be amazed at the effect created by the fierce light and atmosphere of
tropical countries, where woods of even the lightest colour when first cut
— such as sissoo, champak, and the very bright golden-yellow jackwood —
deepen in course of years to almost black. Yet at the same time the wood
of certain logs will bleach, and all the colour go out.

In the Andamans padauk used to be selected and classified as " on-
coloured " and " off-coloured/' the proportion being about 70 per cent
" on " and 30 per cent " off," but only a proportion of the " on-coloured "
wood contains the very brilliant red. After its first introduction to the
markets of the West, little notice was taken of it in England or France,
notwithstanding considerable efforts which were made to recommend it,
but a very large inquiry arose in the American market, from whence con-
siderable demand was made for the heavy " on-coloured " wood. This
quickly earned publicity began to wane in 1911, and practically faded out
before the war. The logs generally contain alternate layers of hard and
soft grain, which necessitate the use of a sharp tool to produce a smooth
surface, plain wood being scarce, while a small percentage of the trees yield
wood with beautiful figure, including all the descriptions of figure which
are found in mahogany, i.e. stripe or roe, broken roe with mottle of all
classes, even up to the very best splash mottle, fiddle mottle, the predomin-
ating feature being the handsome narrow stripe, often with dark-coloured
veins, which add to the general attractive effect of the wood. On this
account as well as for its rich colour, it is chiefly valued for ornamental
decorative woodwork, furniture, and panelling. It has a handsome ap-
pearance in parquet flooring, makes a splendid chair wood, and is very
strong and durable under all conditions. In India, besides being used for
these purposes and for planks and beams, it is considered the best wood for
gun-carriages and wheels. The greater part of the vast Marshall-Field
store in Chicago is trimmed and furnished with it, while it forms the panel-
ling and furniture of many large public buildings, clubs, and private
houses. It provided handsome cases for a number of pianofortes and
organs, and the Pullman Car Company formerly used it in very large
quantities for trimming dining, sleeping, and smoking compartments in
railroad cars. The dull kind of polish (not french polish) used in America,
or perhaps it should be called a flat coach-builders' varnish, suits the
appearance and wear of this wood better than the usual methods adopted
in England. Of late years the demand in England and on the Continent
has increased. Fine examples may be seen in Sir Francis Peek's buildings

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

389

in East cheap ; the Bank of England's new offices in Finsbury Circus, and
it will also be seen prominently in the new Bank now building (1932) ; the
library in the office lately occupied by the High Commissioner for India at
Grosvenor Gardens ; and more extensively than elsewhere, in the new
India House, Aldwych, London. A handsome store has also been trimmed
and fitted throughout at The Hague in Holland.

The pores are irregular in size and position, and are occasionally seen

Photograph by G R Keen
CROSS-CUTTING LOGS

in duplicate and triplicate. The medullary rays arc very fine, rather
obscure and numerous, mostly parallel and joined at right angles by wide,
irregular, light-coloured bands.

PADAUK, BURMA. Pterocarpus macrocarpus Kurz.

Weight 53-59 Ibs. (Troup). Burma.

In England this wood is commonly pronounced padook, the " au " as

" oo " in " hook/' The correct pronunciation is p&dauk, the " au " as

" ou " in "gout." This wood is the product of the true forest paclauk tree.

390 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

" Trees are obtainable which will give clear pieces ranging in length from 16 to
28 feet with a centre girth of from 6 feet to 8 feet 3 inches, but larger logs are
obtainable, although the difficulties of transport prevent their extraction/'

The timber varies in colour from a bright yellowish-red to a dark
brick-red, and is sometimes streaked with brown ; its brilliancy of colour
is not so marked as in that of the Andaman padauk. In moderate climates
it generally bleaches to an attractive golden brown, or golden yellow colour,
and with the strongest exposure to sun and light will eventually take on
almost the exact colour of Ceylon satinwood, while in Burma and other
tropical countries it may darken to a deep warm brown, and sometimes
almost black. It possesses a hard, firm texture, and like the Andaman
wood, its close, contrary grain causes some difficulty in producing a smooth
surface. It seasons well, but in the early stages it should not be exposed
to extremes of heat and cold, or left unprotected from the wind, as this is
likely to cause it to crack. For many years it has been accepted as being
stronger and more durable than the Andaman wood. Mr. R. S. Pearson
says that the Andaman padauk (Pterocarpus dalbergioides) is now con-
sidered to be better in all respects. Further inquiry does not support Mr.
Pearson's contention as regards the strength, as it is probable that the
earlier opinion is supported by experiment, while in durability there is
nothing to choose between the two. It is far stronger than teak, and very
suitable, as Troup has pointed out, for " naves, spokes, and felloes of cart
and carriage wheels, solid cart wheels, axles, carriage building, furniture,
ploughs, harrows, and Burmese harps." In England it was formerly used
by the Ordnance Department, but of late years does not seem to have
been in demand for that Department. All of these uses, excepting perhaps
for the making of furniture and harps in Burma, may be considered as a
wasteful use of one of the finest decorative and cabinet woods the world
provides. This can be seen by viewing the library in the new India
House, which is entirely panelled and furnished in Burma padauk, and
presents an appearance second to none of the outstanding representations
of the finest woodwork to be seen in London. Individual logs have been
sold on the London market from time to time, at prices ranging up to
even 485. per foot cube, and even now (1932) the true value of this fine
wood has never been realised. During the war 175 logs, collected for use
in different parts, eventually reached the Government Depot at Mandalay.
So little was their value recognised that sales were made from these
accumulated stocks at a maximum price of less than £4 per ton. Those
remaining on hand in 1920 were shipped to London, and high prices were
realised, that for one log reaching a maximum of £96 per ton, and a con-
siderable number of the same shipment were used to make the woodwork,
referred to above, at India House.

The pores are very irregular in size and position ; they are generally

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 391

plugged with a white gum. The fine medullary rays are rather obscure
and very irregular. At irregular intervals they are crossed at right angles
by similar light markings which appear round the concentric layers in fine,
narrow, wavy lines.

PAGATPAT. Sonneratia Pagatpat Blanco and

S. alba Smith.
Weight 53 Ibs. The Philippines.

Foxworthy says that these two species are very much alike and may be
identical.

The wood is hard, dense, and fine-grained. In appearance it much
resembles guizo, but the grain is finer. It has never yet been imported on
a commercial basis. If the difficulties and expense attending the export
of such a heavy wood could be overcome, there is every reason to believe
that the timber would meet with a good reception. Foxworthy reports it
as " working readily, but contains quite a large amount of salt, and conse-
quently is said to cause nails or spikes to rust quickly. . . . Air-dry wood
sometimes contains as much as i per cent of its weight of salt."

The pores are small and irregular, sparkling somewhat on the tangential
section. The medullary rays are not very strongly defined, and the
texture and growth are very close.

PAHAUTEA. Libocedrus Bidwilii Hook.

Weight 28 Ibs. (Stone). New Zealand.

The Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, says that this wood is of a
" red colour, remarkably straight in grain, and durable. Procurable in
lengths up to 30 feet and up to 12 inches wide. Used for bridge-building,
telegraph posts, fencing-posts, and rails."

Palaquium ellipticum Benth.

Weight 43 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India.

VERN — Panchoti, palla, Mar. — Kat illupei, Tarn — Pa/a, Mai. — Kei pdla,
Trav. Hills — Pauchonta, Kan. — Illupei , Kader — Pali.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, state this wood to
be " light red to light reddish-brown . . . straight-grained or sometimes
wavy-grained in the radial plane, medium and even-textured. . . .
Moderately durable if not placed in exposed positions. ... It is used in
Madras for building, as doors, window-frames, planking, flooring, and
ceiling boards ; for cheap furniture. ... A sound timber, which gives the
best results when seasoned in kilns."

Palaquium grande Engler (Dichopsis grandis Benth.).

Weight 35-36 Ibs. Ceylon.

VERN — Kirihiriya, mihinya, kinhembihya, Cingh.
The colour is a deep brown, with a tinge of purple, and a very hard,

392 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

close, compact grain, capable of a very smooth surface from the tool.
Gamble reports it as used for roofs of bungalows and store-houses, on
coffee and tea estates. Its qualities would indicate that this is a wasteful
use of a wood which would be valuable for decorative woodwork and turnery.
Pores exceedingly fine, very numerous, plugged. Medullary rays
irregular, indistinct, very fine, difficult to locate.

Palaquium petiolare (Dichopsis petiolare}.

Weight 37 Ibs. Ceylon.

The colour is light brick-red, with a softer grain, and less hard and
heavy than Palaquium grande (q.v.). J. S. Gamble does not report it.

The concentric layers of growth are marked by confused dark lines,
the pores are very small and arranged like splashes of rain.

PAO D'ARCO. Tecoma sp.

Weight 69 Ibs. Brazil.

YKRN — Lapacho, lapacho amanllo, lapacho bianco, 1. crespo, I. negro, I. rosa,
lapachillo, tally, tave, tayi, Arg. — Tajibo, Bohv. — Ipe, ipe amarello,
ipe cascudo, ipe folhas roxas, ipe jabotid, ipe prcto, ipe tobaco, ipe
roxo, ipe una, ipe do campo, ipe da varzea, pdo d'arco, pdo d'arco
amarello, pdo d'arco YOXO, quiarapaiba, urupanba, Braz. — Hackia,
iron-tree, ironwood, wasiba, washiba, bow-ivood, B.G — Groenhart,
groenhati, ijzerhout, Sur — Ebene verte, bois d'ebene verte, gupanba,
Fr. G — Arahoni, arrhonee, Galibis — Araguaney, acapro, curanre,
echahumo,flor amarillo, Venez. — Pin, poui, Trin — Chicald, cana-
gitate, guayacan polvillo, Col — Guayacan, Pan. — Cortes, corteza,
mano de leon, Guat — Cortez amanllo, c. negro, c prieto, Salv. —
Corteza amanlla, guayacan, C.R. — Quebracho, masicardn, Hond —
Amapd, amapd prieto, guayacan, roble, verdecillo, Mex. — Yellow
guayacan bastard lignum-vitae, Surinam greenheart, bethabara,
washiba, no ib wood.

In Colonel Gamble's collection there are two samples, one of which ib
marked " ipe pardo " and the other " pao d'arco." The latter is also
marked with the botanical name of Bignonia pentaphylla, but no species is
given with the former. I can detect no difference in these two specimens,
either in general appearance or in the structure as seen in the transverse
section. Baterden refers to this wood as Tecoma speciosa and says that
the name means " arch-wood."

Record says there are numerous species in Brazil, the common name
in the south being " ipe " ; in the north " pao d'arco " is a name applied
to other woods as well (according to Pereira). Pao d'arco amarello is one
of the tallest trees of the Amazon region, but pao d'arco roxo is taller still.
There is much confusion of identification with these, but both belong to
Tecoma genus, and generally no distinction is made between them.

Pereira names two kinds in the State of St. Paulo, the red and the
yellow, both as being Bignoneacea.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 393

In The Naturalist on the Amazons, by Henry Bates, are some interesting
notes on several Brazilian trees. He speaks of a sawmill near to Para
where " they frequently squared logs for sawing 100 feet long of the pao
d'arco and the massaranduba. The total height of these trees, stem and
crown together, may be estimated at from 180 to 200 feet ; where one of
them stands, the vast dome of foliage rises above the other forest trees as a
domed cathedral rises above the other buildings in a city." This poetic
description of the forest is worthy of repetition, for who is there that has
not been thrilled and astonished by the grandeur of a mighty forest and the
glory of its trees ; even a great warrior of antiquity halted his army to
view a single enormous plane tree, and our artists in wood and stone have
been indebted to the exquisite forms of bark, leaf, and fruit for their
models, as shown in our great cathedrals, and wood carvings, indeed many
of our most treasured examples of Art are due to the inspiration derived
from the beauty of the trees of the forest.

Colonel Gamble notes that the pao d'arco is plentiful throughout Brazil,
and that it grows to a height of over 20 metres, and to a diameter of over 2
metres. He says that it is identical with ipe pardo (Tecoma speciosa}.
The colour is a lustrous brown with a slightly greenish tinge, somewhat
resembling a dark greenheart, but with a much closer and firmer grain.

Ipe tobaco has a reputation for first-class sleepers, which are said to
last for eleven years, while ipe una ranks second, lasting only nine years.
All of the different varieties have astringent qualities and are reported as
of medicinal value. Record reports the wood as used for carts, barrels,
casks, and general construction ; Brazilian Woods states that they are
excellent for piles, boom, and harbour work.

Some of the logs are highly figured, with small broken roe and mottle,
and veneers have been obtained which give the appearance of a dark
golden-brown Ceylon satinwood, and have been used for high-class decora-
tive work in America and England. There is reason also to believe that
veneers of this wood have passed for green ebony. It is also valued for
decorative cabinet work, panelling, chair-work, etc. The practice of
using it for casks, general construction, etc., should be condemned as a
wasteful use of a precious wood.

The pores are very small and numerous, and are sometimes joined in
wavy bands. The medullary rays are very fine and numerous.

PAO BRANCO. Auxemma Gardneriana Miers.

Weight 50 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Pao brcwco, Braz.

This is a valuable wood of a dark brown colour ; it resembles American
black walnut (Juglans nigra) though it is more attractive in appearance.
It gives evidence of possessing those qualities of strength, toughness, and

394 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

elasticity which give to European walnut (J. regia) its value ; and conse-
quently it should be a good medium for gun-stocks, than which no higher
recommendation could be made, but the colour is richer and darker.
Shipments should find a ready market.

The pores vary both in size and position, and the concentric layers are
marked by bands in which pores are alternately found and absent. The
medullary rays are well-defined and show on the radial section in fine light
flecks.

PAO CARGA. Source unknown.

Weight 39 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a pale reddish-brown, straight-grained wood, which is smooth
and lustrous in appearance.

The pores are very numerous, and are generally joined in twos and
threes. Medullary rays are exceedingly fine and numerous, and are
crossed at right angles by similar light wavy concentric lines. The con-
centric layers are marked by narrow bands of darker-coloured tissue.

PAO FERRO. Caesalpinia sp. Mart.
Weight 69 Ibs.

Brazil, The Guianas, and other parts
of Tropical South America.

This wood adds one more to the long list of timbers known as " iron-
wood/' Over eighty distinct botanical species can be traced in various
countries of the world, all of which are known by this name (Foxworthy).

Brazilian Woods mentions two different species of pao ferro, one of
which is given as the produce of Swartzia tomentosa, known also in British
Guiana as " iron wood " (Record), and the other of Apuleia ferrea. Of
the former the following description is given : " This wood, which is as
hard as iron, a peculiarity which gives it its name, is especially used for
hydraulic works." Apuleia ferrea is described as a " first-class wood for
building, hydraulic works, harbours, piles, etc." Colonel Gamble's speci-
men, however, is marked as above, Caesalpinia ferrea, and this name he
also gives in his notes, where he mentions that the wood lasts for hundreds
of years underground.

In colour it is a deep purplish-brown merging almost into black, and it
has a firm, smooth, marble-like texture which is reminiscent of African
blackwood (Dalbergia Melanoxylon), a wood which it resembles in other
respects.

The pores are very small and numerous, and are linked together in
wavy lines of loose tissue. The medullary rays are so exceedingly fine
and close that they are only visible under the lens. Concentric rings are
clearly marked by darker-coloured wood.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 395

PAO MULLATO. Calycophyllum Spruccanum Benth.

Weight 59 Ibs. Brazil.

This wood is pale nut-brown in colour, with a very dense, close, and
even texture. The pores, which show longitudinally on the radial section,
have glistening contents. There are several worm-holes in the small speci-
men examined, a defect to which the wood is liable.

The pores are exceedingly small and are generally linked in wavy lines.
The medullary rays are fine and numerous, and are crossed at right angles
by similar light, wavy concentric lines.

PAO D'OLEO. Copaifera Langsdorffii Desf.

Weight 49 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a bright red, slightly lustrous wood, with a smooth, close
texture and a strongly marked silver grain on the radial section. There is
a noticeable similarity between its appearance and that of the Burmese
thitsi (Melanorrhoea usitata). A wood deserving careful attention, which
would make a very fine cabinet wood.

Baterden says that it is used for furniture and sleepers as well as in
general construction.

The pores are variable in size and are plugged with a dark oily
substance. The medullary rays are very fine and numerous. Dark,
irregularly spaced lines mark the layers of concentric growth.

PAo POMBO. Tapirira guianensis Aubl.

Weight 30 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Pdo pombo, fruta de pomba, Braz. — Tapinn, Galibis — Duka,
dooka, B.G — Bots tapire, Fr G.

This wood is of a whitish straw colour, and a smooth and lustrous
texture, unusual in a wood so light in weight. Stone gives the name as an
alternative for simaruba (Simaruba amara), but I doubt whether the wood
to which he refers is identical with the specimen in Colonel Gamble's
collection. Stone says that simaruba may easily be mistaken for quassia,
but this specimen of pao pombo is unlike quassia. He also speaks of it as
having a bitter taste, but there is no taste in this specimen.

The small and rather infrequent pores have a somewhat curious effect in
that, like the medullary rays, they are also darker than the groundwork of
the wood, which is the reverse of what is usually the case. The rays are fine
and numerous. Dark-coloured concentric lines appear at irregular intervals.

PAo SANTO. Zollernia paraensis Huber.

Weight 89 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Pdo santo, muirapinima preta, Braz. — Santo wood.
The colour is a dark purple with still darker streaks, while the sap-
wood is a bright yellow. It is even harder than lignum-vitae, with a closer

3Q6 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

and more even grain, scarcely, if at all, interlocked. The wood possesses
a sweet aromatic scent.

In his pamphlet on Lignum-vitae (Bulletin No. 6), Professor Record
mentions in regard to Paraguay lignum- vitae : " This is the wood of
Bulnesia Sarmienti locally known as ' palo santo ' on account of its use
for incense in churches . . . this wood has a place on the market in the
manufacture of the ' oil of guaiac wood ' used by perfumers." Also that
the equivalent Portuguese term is " pao santo," and that the wood of the
Zollernia paraensis of Brazil is known by this name, having been exported
as a substitute for Guiacum officinale. He further states that the pores
in Bulnesia Sarmienti and B. arborea are arranged in radial lines, and that
this is the important distinguishing characteristic. The pores in my
sample are quite irregularly distributed, and in this respect resemble
Guiacum officinale.

The very small pores, which are irregularly placed, are linked at right
angles by concentric wavy belts. The medullary rays are exceedingly
fine and very numerous.

PAo SETIM. Source unknown.

Weight 39 Ibs. Brazil.

In Colonel Gamble's collection there is a specimen marked " pao sctim."
In colour and almost every respect it resembles pao amarello (Enxylophora
paraensis), which is also sometimes termed pao setim. The fact, however,
that there is such a marked difference in the arrangement of the pores and
medullary rays, suggests two different woods.

Brazilian Woods describes pao setim (literally satinwood) as Aspido-
sperma eburnea — giving an alternative name, Pequia marfim— of a bright
sulphur colour. This corresponds with the description of another of
Colonel Gamble's specimens marked Piquia marfim (q.v.) and seems to
indicate that A. eburnea is not the same wood as his specimen of pao setim.

In pao setim the pores are large and rather regularly placed, plugged
with a sparkling substance, with clearly defined thin bands of lighter-
coloured tissue, following the line of the concentric layer ; these are
crossed by exceedingly numerous medullary rays.

In pao amarello the pores are very small, showing singly or grouped in
pairs between very strongly marked medullary rays.

PAPAW. Carica Papaya Linn.

Weight 23 Ibs. India, South America.

VERN — Papaya, papita, Hind. — Pennji, Kan. — Thinbaw, Burm.

The papaw or papita tree is familiar to every traveller, more on account
of its agreeable fruit than for the wood which it yields. This is of a rather
dirty yellow straw colour, with numberless tiny spots of sparkling gum,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 397

very light in weight, and soft in grain. The wood could be used as a
substitute'for balsa.

The not very numerous pores are very large, generally open, with
scarce, rough-edged, irregular medullary rays, not prominent, and, unlike
Sterculia sp., hardly show on the radial section.

PARAGUAY LIGNUM-VITAE.

See PAo SANTO.

PARAHYBA.

See Simaruba A mar a.

PARAJU. Source unknown.

Weight 69 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a straight-grained wood of a nut-brown colour ; it is close and
even in texture, and has a very dense grain. The medullary rays show on
the radial section in small flecks. My specimen shows small pin worm-
holes.

The pores are rather small but very numerous ; the concentric rings
are marked by an absence of pores. The medullary rays, which are
exceedingly line and numerous, are only discernible under the lens.

Parashorea stellata Kurz.

Weight 50 Ibs. Burma.

VERN — Kaunghmu, thingadu, Burm. — Panthitya, Tavoy.

The colour of the wood is light brown, with an even grain, comparable
with mahogany, for which wood it might become a substitute.

Supplies are of good dimensions, and fairly plentiful. During the last
few years (1931) the wood has been imported into the London market, and
only the general prejudice against new woods has hindered its popularity.

The pores are large and open, with strong medullary rays at wide
intervals, intersected at right angles by exceedingly fine lines, of a similar
light character.

Parishia insignis Hook. f.

Weight 24 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). Burma, Andamans.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
as " light pinkish -grey, ageing to pale brownish-grey ; lustrous when first
exposed . . . straight-grained, coarse and even-textured. . . . Not durable
in the open, fairly so under cover. ... An excellent board wood of the
better class, very suitable for match-boarding, bottoms of drawers, backing
for cupboards, wainscoting, partition work, and should make up into a
sound plywood board."

398 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

PARTRIDGE-WOOD. Andira sp.

Weight 85 Ibs. 15 oz. Brazil.

Holtzapffel says that this wood is " sent in large planks or in round or
square logs, called from their tints, red, brown, and black, and also sweet
partridge. The wood is close, heavy, and generally straight in the grain.
The colours are variously mingled, and most frequently disposed in fine
hair streaks of two or three shades, which in some of the curly specimens
cut plank- wise resemble the feathers of a bird. The partridge-woods are
very porous ; cut horizontally, the annual rings appear almost as two
distinct layers ; the one hard, woody fibre, the other a much softer sub-
stance thickly interspersed with pores ; this circumstance gives rise to its
peculiar figure, which often resembles that of the palm tree woods.
Partridge-wood was often formerly employed in the Brazils for ship-
building, and is also known in our dockyards as cabbage- wood. It is now
principally used for walking-sticks, umbrella and parasol sticks ; in
cabinet work and turning ; and . . . also for fans."

The very small pores, plugged, are linked together by short wavy
bands ; the medullary rays are hardly discernible on the transverse
section.

PASANIA or PASINIA. Quercus Junghuhuii Miq.

Weight 41 Ibs. Formosa.

In appearance this remarkable wood resembles a veritable cross be-
tween the English sweet chestnut and English oak. The colour is similar
to that of the chestnut, from which it is only distinguished by the presence
of strong medullary rays. The pores show on the radial section in a series
of pretty, uneven lines, and improve the effect. It should be a valuable
decorative cabinet and trimming wood.

The annual layers are very strongly marked, there being a very wide
and distinct difference between the spring and the autumn growth. The
pores are scarce and small. The medullary rays are very sparse, uneven,
and irregular.

PATAPSCO Or PAPAPSCO.

For some reason which remains unexplained, this is a name given to a
particular form of figured maple (q.v.). The figure is a curly, wavy mottle
with a blister, or indications of blister, without any bird's-eye being
apparent.

PAU or PAO AMARELLO. Euxylophora paraensis Huber.

Weight 56 Ibs. 3 oz. Brazil, Para.

VERN — Pdo amarello, pdo setim, amarello, Braz. — Sateen wood.
This wood has a grain like a fine Spanish mahogany, but is of a bright,
rich, warm golden-yellow colour. The tint is not that of satinwood, but

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 399

is more like a bright prima vera. It is used in Para for decorative cabinet
work and for flooring. It has never been imported on a commercial basis,
although it is such a handsome wood, that it would be much sought for in
furniture and decorative cabinet work of all sorts, if it were known and
obtainable.

The pores are very small, singly or grouped in pairs between very
strongly marked medullary rays.

Paulownia.

China.

The specimen of Professor Chung's has no name on it but it is identified
by Professor Record as Paulownia.

The wood is very light in weight, very soft in grain, but not comparable
to the Japanese Paulownia.

It is a soft, pale yellow straw-coloured wood, with a very wide annual
growth from | inch to i inch, somewhat pithy, similar to, but not so good
as the obechi of Western Africa.

PEAR, NATIVE. Xylomelum occidental R. Br.

Weight 46 Ibs. (at 12 per cent moisture).

Western Australia.

This is a soft wood of a deep red colour, with pronounced medullary
rays, and, according to Lane-Poole, a beautiful figure. It is used as a very
fine furniture wood ; when finished with a wax polish it resembles moire
silk.

The wood is not exported, as supplies are very limited.

PEAR TREE. Pyrus communis Linn.

Weight 47 Ibs. 13 oz. Europe.

This wood is remarkable for its extraordinary smoothness and evenness
of texture, which renders it excellent for carving, as it can be cut easily
with a sharp edge in any direction. It is a pale yellowish-red, resembling
flesh colour more nearly than any other timber. Thus, if a statue were
made of pear-wood it would probably be the closest resemblance to the
human figure that could be produced. It is used for mathematical and
drawing instruments and rules. Elwes and Henry mention its use for
cogs, wood-screws, and tool handles.

It has also been used for furniture. A recent addition to the Victoria
and Albert Museum is a seventeenth -century table of pear-wood from
Boughton House, Northamptonshire. It is also to be seen in the form of
marquetry, together with sycamore, ash, and maple, in a cabinet of pine,
which, dating from the second half of the sixteenth century, is carved on

400 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

the base with the rose and portcullis, emblems of the Tudor sovereigns of
England.

Pear tree wood, together with many other British woods, was more
commonly used in earlier times, as there was then a much more limited
choice ; an illustration of this is the pear-wood inlay on a walnut writing-
desk which bears an inscription showing that it dates back to a little after
the year 1703.

A large trade is carried on in France and Germany in pear-wood
stained black to resemble ebony, which is used extensively in the piano-
forte and cabinet trades.

The pores are exceedingly fine and numerous. The medullary rays are
hardly discernible with the aid of a lens ( -f 12).

Pe-ch'i-sha. Source unknown.

China.

A close-grained wood with the colour and grain of birch, but not so
hard, liable to warp and twist.

The pores are from very small to small, some plugged, with a faint
line which probably indicates layers of concentric growth. Medullary
rays very fine and numerous, hardly showing on the radial section.

Pl-li.

China.

Professor Record says this is Michelia sp. It is an attractive wood
resembling, but harder than, Micheha Champaca. While somewhat
similar in colour and character, it is of a harder, closer grain than English
sycamore. The specimen has marked on it " good for printing blocks,"
but it would not be approved for this purpose in England.

The concentric layers of growth are marked by strong, light and dark
bands. The pores are exceedingly small and plugged. The medullary
rays are very strong, numerous, and close, showing strongly on the radial
section.

Pentace Griffithii King.

See also MAHOGANY, BURMA.

Weight 50 Ibs. Burma.

VERN — Thithale, Burm. — Thitsho, Tavoy.

The colour is similar to that of P. burmanica, but individual logs are
liable to a blue stain, which is persistent and cannot be removed. The
same description covers both woods ; P. Griffithii is perhaps somewhat
harder, closer-grained, and heavier. It may be used with impunity in
work of minor importance, although the timber is inferior to that of P.
burmanica.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 401

The concentric layers are well-defined and observable to the naked eye.
The exceedingly numerous pores are evenly distributed, and are smaller
even than those in P. burmanica, while the medullary rays, which are
parallel, wavy, and nearly equidistant, are not so strongly marked or so
well-defined as in the latter.

PEPPERMINT. Eucalyptus Australiana R. T. B. et H. G. S.

Weight 47-48 Ibs. New South Wales, Victoria.

Known as narrow-leaved peppermint.

The colour of this wood is brownish-yellow, with a hard, close grain,
resembling a dark-coloured stringybark. Baker reports it as a good
timber to work, and used for cabinets, coach and carriage framing, general
building purposes, and it is said to be sold in Sydney as a substitute for
hickory. It would be difficult to discriminate between this wood and
many specimens of stringybark.

The numerous small pores, mostly plugged and surrounded by a halo,
are arranged in wavy belts, with numerous, very fine medullary rays
almost indiscernible under the lens.

PEROBA BRANCA. Tecoma Peroba Record.

Weight 50 Ibs. Brazil.

VKRN — Peroba, ipe peroba, peroba amarella, peroba branca, peroba reseca,
peroba verdadeira, peroba do campo, Rio to Bahia, Brazil.

In Colonel Gamble's collection this wood is called peroba branca, and
a further specimen sent from Brazil names it pau peroba. The wood is
light greyish-brown in colour, close and fine in the grain, and not difficult
to work, although possessing wide patches of contrary grain. It attains
large dimensions, and is fit for employment in architecture, for furniture,
and in the domestic arts. The tree is of straight growth, is stronger than
teak (Tectona grandis), agrees well with iron, and is very durable. It has
been used in the constructional work of Brazilian ironclads, and is a valu-
able timber which should find many important uses.

The pores are very numerous and small. The medullary rays are
exceedingly small and fine, but clearly marked.

PEROBA-ROSA. Aspidosperma polyneuron Muell. Arg.
Weight 59 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Palo rosa, Arg.

This wood is of a pale rose colour with some darker streaks. It has a
very hard, firm, close-grained texture. In appearance it much resembles
the East African pencil cedar, but is very much harder. It is capable of
a smooth surface from the tool, and is reported as being largely used in

402 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Brazil for sleepers, also for furniture and floorings. It is possible that it
might be well adapted for pencil-making.

The pores are exceedingly small and are scarcely discernible. The
medullary rays are very fine and slight.

PERSIMMON-WOOD. Diospyros mrginiana Linn.

Weight 49 Ibs. (Gibson). North America.

This is the ebony of America. Gibson describes it thus : " The wood
is hard, strong and compact, and is susceptible of a high polish. . . . The
value of persimmon depends largely on the proportion of sap-wood to
heart-wood. That was the case formerly more than it is now ; for until
recent years the heart -wood of persimmon was generally thrown away, and
the sap-wood only was wanted ; but demand for the heart has recently
increased. The demand for persimmon in a serious way began with its
use as shuttles in textile factories. Weavers had made shuttles of it for
home use on hand looms for many years before the demand came for
power looms. . . . Persimmon-wood is suitable for shuttles because it
wears smooth, tough, and of proper weight. Most woods that have been
tried for this article fail on account of splintering, splitting, quickly work-
ing out, or wearing rough. The shuttle is not regarded as satisfactory
unless it stands 1000 hours of actual work. Some woods which are satis-
factory for many other purposes will not last one hour as a shuttle/'

Its use in Great Britain for golf heads has been continually growing,
and it is hard to find a better or even as good a wood for the purpose.
Very rarely a few pieces are found that have such a handsome marking of
light yellow, brown, and almost black streaks that the wood has been of
great value as a veneer. In New York a table was made of such a piece
which is as remarkable as it is unique, and has been much admired. The
nearest resemblance to it would be a narrow-striped ebony.

A fine whitish ring which may mark the concentric growth is clearly
visible. The pores are somewhat irregular in size, not large, but very
uniform in position. The rays are very fine and distinct, parallel, regular,
and almost equidistant.

A similar persimmon-wood of equally good quality is obtainable in
Japan, but it is not imported commercially into this country.

PETALING. Ochnasostachys amentacea Mast.

Malay Peninsula.
VERN — Mentati.

The wood is a yellowish-brown colour, with an exceedingly hard, close,
compact grain, similar to that of boxwood, for which it might be substi-
tuted for many of those purposes where boxwood is required. Foxworthy
reports it as a strong wood subject to splitting when left in the sun, and to

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 403

dry rot when used as bridge timber. The qualities of the timber would
suggest that neither of these propositions should be entertained ; no
timber should ever be left in the sun, and this timber certainly ought not
to be used for bridge-building.

The innumerable tiny, plugged pores as well as the very numerous
fine medullary rays are reminiscent of the transverse surface of the
Knysna boxwood.

Pe-ya. China.

Professor Record identifies this as Symplock sp. The colour is a fine
yellow-white, with a close, tight grain, and giving a very smooth surface,
between that of English holly and Venezuelan boxwood. A very useful,
fine-quality wood.

The concentric layers are marked by rather faint, dark lines. The tiny
pores are very numerous. Medullary rays well-defined, but show very
faintly and small on the radial section.

Phyllanthus emblica Linn.

Weight 52 Ibs. India, China, Japan.

VKRX — Imbal, ambli, Pb — Daula, amla, amhka, aura, aola, aunra, Hind.
• — Aoitla, mill, Kashmir — Aunla, Nep — Suam, Lepcha — Amla,
ambolati, amulati, Beng — Amban, Garo — Oivla, Mechi — Amluki,
Ass — Aolav, Melghat — Onra, ounla, Unya — Aid thanda, Cuttack
— Nilli, milli, nalli, aunn, usir, lalla, Gondi — Aunre, Kurku —
Meral, K61 & Sonthal — Durga, Khond — Usinki, Reddi — Usin,
Koya — Nelh, nellekai, toppinelh, Tam. — Osirka, usn, osereki,
usinka, amala kamu, usan, Tel. — Xelli, nilika, Kan. — Ohalu,
gondhona, Unya — Aonh, awla, Mar. — Xclli, Cingh. — Zibyu,
tasha, shabvu, Burm.

Gamble speaks of this wood as being " red, hard, close-grained, warps
and splits in seasoning, no heart-wood. ... A pretty and ornamental
tree, but of not much importance. . . . The wood makes good poles, and
is useful for agricultural implements, building, and furniture : it is durable
under water and can be used for well- work."

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, quote that Talbot
mentions its use for gun-stocks.

Annual rings not distinct. Pores small and moderate-sized, uniformly
distributed, often subdivided, or in short radial lines. Medullary rays
moderately broad, the distance between two rays generally greater than
the transverse diameter of the pores ; silver-grain prominent.

Phyllanthus indicus Muell.

Weight 54 Ibs. Ceylon, Southern India.

VERN — Karawu, Cingh.

The wood is a light, dull plum colour, generally like a pale-coloured
purpleheart, with a close, firm, compact grain, capable of a smooth surface

4o4 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

from the tool and showing the medullary rays on the radial section pro-
minently, as in beech. A very useful wood for minor decorative woodwork
and turnery.

The very small pores are numerous and plugged, with regular, parallel,
strongly marked medullary rays.

Pten-ch'ai.

China.

Professor Record has identified the specimen which was sent from the
Amoy University as Liqmdambar sp. The wood bears a close resemblance
to that of American satin walnut (Liqnidambar) but shows a brighter
colour, and has a somewhat harder and closer grain.

The pores are very numerous, regular, and exceedingly small, with very
numerous, very line medullary rays.

PIMENTO. Pimenta officinalis Linn.

Weight 68 Ibs. The West Indies.

The timber is of a dark to light salmon colour, with a very firm, hard,
close texture and a smooth surface. It is inclined to warp unless used in
very narrow widths, and is principally employed for making walking-
sticks.

The pores are exceedingly small and numerous. The medullary rays
are very fine and small, and are indeed hardly discernible with the aid of a
lens ( -f 12).

PINDAHYBA. Xylopia frutescens Mart.

X. emarginata Mart.
Weight 49 Ibs. Brazil.

The specimen from Colonel Gamble's collection is greyi.sh-white in
colour with darker streaks, and has a very smooth, close grain. It is used
for interior wTork and for boxes. Brazilian Woods says that it is used for
tool handles, but I think that such a use must be limited to axe handles
and the like, where a hard wood is not necessary. The uses in the United
Kingdom would be for decorative work, for which its artistic colour would
recommend it.

The Ministry of Agriculture (Rio) says there are two varieties, the
pindahyba and pindahyba preta, and adds that the tree grows to a great
height. Pindahyba is also one of the Brazilian names given to lancewood
(Oxandra lanceolata) (q.v.).

The pores, which have white contents, are small and very numerous.
The medullary rays are fine and numerous, and are joined at right angles
by similar white lines making a minute check pattern.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 405

PINE and FIR. Sources various.

The softwoods of commerce consist chiefly of the following :
P^nus sylvestris .... Redwood or red Baltic pine.

Picea excelsa .

Larix europoea

Pinus Strobus

Pinus resinosa

Pinus rigida or P. pahidris

Pseudotsuga Douglasii

White wood or spruce.

Larch.

Yellow pine.

Red pine.

Pitch pine.

Douglas fir or Oregon pine.

The subject is one which is somewhat difficult of comprehension, both

PINES IN i;i Mil) PARK, SUSSEX
By kind permission of " The Times "

on account of the many different sources and consequent variety of the
wood itself, and also of the perplexing nomenclature. Names which are
in common use in England differ from those on the Continent, and even
within the confines of this country they vary according to locality ;
different names are applied to the same wood ; names change with the
lapse of time ; and finally, names which are botanically quite incorrect
are very (m'iur,ill\ employed, so that these conflicting elonients icMilt in
continual confusion and dispute.

406 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

According to Mackenzie's Ancient Man in Britain and Lyell's Antiquity
of Man, the first appearance of foreign wood coming into this country
would be perhaps as much as 3000 years ago. Mackenzie says : " It is
probable that the earliest foreign wood to reach this country in a manu-
factured state was in the form of ' dug-out ' boats or canoes, made of Oak
and Pine, examples of which have been found in Scotland, in silt, 25 feet
above the present sea level. These boats have a distinctly Mediterranean
character, and in one of them a plug of cork was discovered. It is there-
fore almost certain that this boat had come from Spain, where the Cork
Oak tree (Quercus Suber) has always grown in profusion — but is absent
from the British Isles. The date of the boats mentioned has been esti-
mated by experts to have been about 3000 years ago, and this is the earliest
record of cork being used for the purpose described."

Although it is not improbable that timber in the raw state found its
way into the country at a much earlier date, the first authentic information
places it in the reign of William III., about 1689.

PINE. Pinus Caribea Mor.

Weight 38 Ibs. South Florida, British Honduras,

The Bahamas.

Known as Cuban or splash pine.

Record says : " There are at least five species in Guatemala, the most
important commercially being the Cuban or splash pine, Pinns canbea
Mor. This species is common in Southern Florida and the coast regions
of the Southern States, where it gradually replaces long-leaf pine (P.
palustris Mill.)."

The wood is a red colour, with exceptionally strong dark lines on the
concentric layers, which do not show so prominently on the tangential
face. While harder in grain and redder in colour, it is not otherwise un-
like yellow pine, called white pine in America, Pinus Strobus.

PINE. Pinus Coulteri.

California.

A pine belonging especially to California. The wood has not been seen
in commerce in the United Kingdom, but Mr. Wardle has sent me a speci-
men grown in Ballarat, which is of quite fair quality, resembling that of
P. ponder osa.

PINE. Pinus ponderosa Laws.

Western North America.

This wood, which goes by the name of yellow pine, resembles the yellow
pine P. Strobus, but with dark concentric layers, similar to the dark lines
of pitch pine, P. palustris, although less pronounced. In a specimen in the

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 407

possession of Lord Powerscourt, the lines are limited to one side of the
board, while the other side is exactly like yellow pine. Mr. Wardle has
sent me a specimen cut from a tree grown at Ballarat, which shows that
this wood can be grown in Australia of a quality equal to that in its own
country.

The tree, which is indigenous in western North America, has been
introduced in a great many parts of the world. Elwes and Henry, in
Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, say: "As a timber tree it is not
likely to have any importance in Europe, the timber being coarse in
comparison with that of native species."

PINE, ALEPPO. Pinus halepensis Mill.

Mediterranean District.

The colour and grain are similar to that of the well-known Weymouth
pine (Pinus Strobus), but the quality is not so good. It is reported as
being used in its own country for packing-cases, telegraph poles, turnery,
and as a source for the supply of turpentine.

Mr. Wardle, of Ballarat, has been good enough to send me a piece of a
tree of P. halepensis grown in Ballarat, Victoria, Australia, which appears
to have produced a wood equal in quality to the growth in its native
country.

PINE, ALPINE. Pinus Cembra Linn.

Northern Russia, Europe.

The wood is a yellowish-brown colour, with a close grain, very durable,
light, soft and fragrant, easy to work, polishes well and does not warp or
shrink. It is rarely seen in the United Kingdom except in carvings and
toys, for which work it is in great demand in Switzerland owing to its
softness, density, and absence of hard rings. It cannot he procured in
large sizes without knots, and clean boards of more than a foot in width are
rare.

PINE, BLUE. Pinus excelsa Wall.

Weight 26-33 Ibs. (Gamble). Afghanistan, The Himalayas

to Bhutan.

VKRN — Piuni, Afg. — Nukhtar, Kuram — Bidr, Hazara — Chil, chir, chiltu,
chitu, chiu, Kashmir to Jaunsar — Chtla, Garhwal — Kail, Beas,
Sutlej — Limt Chamba, Kunawar — Yara, yur, yiro, kairu, hair,
Kashmir- — -Shomshtng, hmshing, Lahoul — Raisalla, lamshing,
durrasalla, Kumaon — Tongschi, Bhutan.

A large tree producing good timber, which ranks next in value to that
of the deodar. The wood is of a light red colour, close-grained, durable ;
it floats well, is less brittle, and free from the strong scent and oily nature

408 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

of deodar, and consequently is better than the latter wood for planking,
furniture, doors, and windows.

PINE, BOSNIAN PITCH. Finns Laricio Poir.
P. nigra Arnold.

Asia Minor, Southern Europe.

In or about the year 1925 shipments of square-sawn pine logs arrived
and were offered for sale in London under the name of Bosnian pitch pine.
According to Elwes, the common names are " Corsican pine " and
" Austrian pine."

The colour is similar to that of the well-known American pitch pine,
but although reported upon by Elwes and Henry in Timbers of Great
Britain and Ireland as being strong, heavy, and resinous, and the first
quality considered equal to that of American pitch pine, this high recom-
mendation has not been sustained, the shipments of the wood not being
approved. The import has now completely stopped (1932).

PINE, BRAZILIAN. Araucaria brasiliana Lamb.

Weight 29 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Parana pine, Eng — Pinheiro do Parana, pinho, pinho branco,
pinho vermelho, Braz — Citny, kuviv, pinho, pino, Arg — Curi-y,
pinheiro do Brasil, pino bianco, pino Colorado, Par.

The large and beautiful Parana pine tree which grows in the south of
Brazil, commonly reaches a height of from 30 to 60 feet, and sometimes
even attains to 135 feet.

Brazilian Woods reports it as an effective substitute for the pines and
firs of Europe and America, and as being used for building, joinery, ships'
masts and yards, cases and barrels.

Record in Tropical Woods, No. 14, says that while the total export
from Brazil in 1926 was 107,292 tons, 79,939 tons were of the Parana pine,
thus indicating its commercial importance.

The colour is a warm yellowish-brown, having a much closer and finer
grain that that of ordinary pine (Pinus), or other species of Arancana.
With this exception it greatly resembles the usual Araucaria, and also the
kauri pine of New Zealand, for which, in spite of its lighter weight, it
would easily pass.

The medullary rays form a pretty silver grain on the radial section,
with annual rings of darker-coloured wood.

PINE, BRITISH COLUMBIA. Pseudotsuga Douglasii Carr.
(Douglas Fir). P. Taxifolia Brit.

Weight 34-35 Ibs. British Columbia, N.-W. United States.

Elwes, in Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, says: " It is known in the

European, South African, and Australian markets as Oregon pine or

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 409

Oregon fir, on tin- I'.irific Coast of Noith \mrrica as red or yellow iir, in
"• f ' l.iho, «ind ( oloi.nlo ,i^ K d pun , and in California

FOREST Ob BRITISH COLUMBIA

By kind permission of the High Commissioner for Canada

correctly called spruce or hemlock/' It would seem preferable to call it
" Douglas fir" since it is neither Oregon, red, nor yellow fir, certainly not
pine, and the name Douglas fir is that under which it is cultivated in

410 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

England. In America two different sorts are recognised by lumbermen.
Gibson describes these as being known as " yellow " and " red," the former
being considered the more valuable. He further states : " Both may
come from the same trunk, and the reason for the difference in colour and
quality is not well understood."

In its native forests the Douglas fir is one of the most magnificent of all
the trees in the world. Writing in The Hardwood Record, Gibson says :
" The largest are 300 feet high, occasionally more, and from 8 to 10 feet
in diameter. The average among the Rocky Mountains is from 80 to 100
feet high and 2 ta 4 in diameter. The amount of timber yielded by one
tree may be realised from the experience of Dr. Watney (of ' Buckholt/
Pangbourne) , who was present at the felling of one in Washington Territory,
U.S.A. The height of the trunk was 250 feet and that to the lowest bough
was 157 feet. The following were the diameters at different heights above
the ground : 83 inches at 7 feet, 65 inches at 37 feet, 52 inches at 107 feet,
and 32 at 191 feet. The trunk was sawn off at a height of 7 feet above the
ground (where it showed 420 annual rings), and 184 feet of its length
yielded 21,503 feet converted, equalling 1958^ foot cube. It took nine
railway trucks to convey the timber from London to Pangbourne. The
timber contained practically no sap, very few shakes, but some of the
planks contained dead knots. Large sections of the trunks (exceeding
7 feet in diameter) are familiar in England to those who visit Kew Gardens
and the Natural History Museum, South Kensington." The Douglas fir
flagstaff formerly at Kew Gardens, which was presented by the Govern-
ment of British Columbia in 1861, was well known. It was 159 feet in
length, and measured I foot 8 inches in diameter at the base and 5 inches
in diameter at the small end. This is now surpassed by the flagstaff which
was erected in 1919, and, like the former one, it was presented by the
Government of British Columbia. The gigantic trunk towers to the
height of 214 feet. The width at the base is 2 feet 9 inches, and it measures
i foot across at the small end.

The timber occupies one of the most important positions in the timber
world, and is known and used in nearly every civilised country. " No
other single species in the United States or in the world equals the annual
cut of Douglas fir. ... In 1910 the lumber cut from this fir amounted to
5,203,644,000 feet " (Gibson).

With the ever-decreasing number of large trees of Scots pine (Pinus
sylvestris) and pitch pine (P. palustris), this timber comes increasingly to
the fore as the remaining source of big coniferous constructional timber,
especially so in virtue of its great strength. It is imported into the United
Kingdom from British Columbia and the United States, in the form of
sawn logs, planks, and boards.

The wood is of a reddish-yellow colour, usually mid-way between yellow

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

411

pine (P. Strobus) and pitch pine in tint and general appearance. The
resinous grain of Douglas fir is milder and less pronounced than that of
pitch pine, but some specimens of the former are difficult to distinguish
from those of the latter, or from Canadian red pine (P. resinosa).

The uses of the timber are manifold, and as Gibson (dealing with
America) wrote, " it would be easier to list industries that do not use it
than those that do." When used for constructional work indoors it

LOGS ON THE OTTAWA RIVER, CANADA
By kind permission of the High Commissioner for Canada

possesses sufficient durability for reasonable requirements. For exposed
work, however, it cannot be said to compete with Baltic or pitch pine.

The principal value of Douglas fir lies in the fact that it is a timber
obtainable in large sizes, logs, scantlings, and planks, free from sap-wood,
objectionable knots, or other defects. The facility with which wide
widths of the timber clean and free from sap-wood can be obtained, renders
it valuable for internal woodwork. Yet as a joiners' wood it is not entirely
free from deficiencies. The marked difference between the hard and soft
grain is associated with a ridgy surface when the wood is worked. The

412

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

grain is apt to rise after either polishing or painting, and this increases the
expense of finishing.

For floors and decks the timber should be " rift-sawn " in such a

By kind permission of the High Commissioner for Canada

manner that the broad faces of the boards or planks are at right angles to
the annual rings ; for when the boards are cut with their broad faces tan-
gential to the annual rings, the grain is liable to flake out and a rough

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 413

surface results. For decorative work, where variety of figure is desired,
the latter type of sawing should be followed.

Among many other uses the timber has been employed extensively in
various countries in the making of masts and spars. In England pitch
pine or Baltic pine is preferred, but the latter cannot compete with Douglas
fir in dimensions, while the former is sometimes too heavy.

Douglas fir is also used in the manufacture of railway sleepers and
paving-blocks. The sawn wood opposes very considerable resistance to

AVENUE OF DOUGLAS FIRS AT MURTHLY CASTLE, NEAR DUNKELD,

PERTHSHIRE

By kind permission of " The Times "

the penetration of creosote, and therefore requires high pressures to inject
quantities sufficient to satisfy engineers accustomed to deal with Baltic
pine.

Baterden, in Timber (p. 80), points out that Oregon pine, although
" apparently more open in the grain . . . will nevertheless take in much
less creosote than either pitch pine or Baltic timber, and that is rather
against its use for sea work. On one occasion some Oregon logs were
tanked with Baltic redwood logs ; the latter took in nearly n Ibs. of
creosote per cubic foot, whilst the maximum for the Oregon was only 2f
Ibs., and the same thing applies to thin planks. On several occasions the

414 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

author has made careful comparisons in creosoting this timber, and he has
got 7 to 9 Ibs. of creosote per cubic foot into pitch pine which has been
air-drying for about three months, whilst Oregon logs dried under the
same conditions and for the same period, and subjected to the same press-
ure in the cylinders along with the pitch pine, rarely took in more than
3 Ibs., and many of them not 3 Ibs. per cubic foot, and retanking and
repressing made no appreciable difference in the quantity injected/'

Douglas fir grows rapidly and well in suitable positions in England ;
magnificent specimens are to be seen in Dropmore Gardens and many
other places in England and Ireland. Though its young twigs are liable
to attack by a special kind of fungus mildew, the species at present suffers
from no special serious attacks by either fungus or insect. In view of the
variability of the timber, even in its American home, far-reaching assump-
tions as to the quality of British-grown timber would be premature.

With the advent of the national slogan " Use Empire Timbers " great
efforts have been made to bring this timber into general use in place of
those supplies from Northern Europe. These efforts have resulted in an
increased consumption, shown by the following figures :

TOTAL IMPORTS FROM U.S.A. INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM

DURING THE YEARS 1927-1931

1927 ..... 28,857 Stds

1928 ..... 49,225 ,,

1929 ..... 56,736 »

1930 ..... 70,848 ,,
1931 46,807 „

TOTAL IMPORTS FROM CANADA INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM
FOR THE YEARS 1927-1931

1927 ..... 13,895 Stds.

1928 ..... 21,492 ,,

1929 ..... 23,925 ,,
1930 33.897 ..

1931 ..... 33»94I »

(Excluding railway ties.)

A pamphlet has been issued (1933) by the Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research, entitled Empire Timbers for Structural Design —
British Columbia Douglas Fir, in which a claim is made that reduced sizes
(one quarter of an inch in thickness and width) of B.C. pine are from 15
per cent (in the case of if x 3!) to 29 percent (in the case of 2f x 8|) stronger
than the scantling sizes a quarter of an inch more in thickness and breadth
in Baltic timber. This statement is said to be based on experiments carried
out in the Forest Products Laboratories of Canada for pine, and at Princes
Risborough in England for red or yellow deal. Independent tests give
contrary results, and pending the publication of a proper scientific inquiry

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 415

it is safe to assume that as a general rule the Baltic pine (P. sylvestris) is
the stronger wood.

PINE, BROWN. Podocarpus elata
P. amara
P. pedunculata.

Weight 30-40 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

VERN — She-pine, yellow pine, Port Macquarie pine, native deal — Kidney
wallum, dualgual, gooyum, dyrren-dyrren, Aborig.

Swain suggests that this wood should be included with hoop pine and
bunya pine, and marketed under the inclusive name of Queensland pine.

It is a plain, fine-textured, non-aromatic coniferous softwood, of pale
golden-brown hue an4 some lustre ; a little harder and heavier than hoop
pine, but slightly brittle. It takes a good polish, and is esteemed for
wood-carving, its special advantages being lightness, evenness of texture,
ease of working, and durability. While not always immune, it has a
reputation for resistance to white ants and marine borers.

Suitable for indoor work, including joinery, cabinet-making, furniture,
floorings, and planking and decking of small boats.

PINE, CELERY TOP. Phyllocladus rhomboidalis Rich.
Weight 40 Ibs. (Baterden). Tasmania.

Tasmanian Timbers describes this wood as " a heavy, strong pine, of a
clear yellow colour, useful for boards, internal fittings, or implements. It
is very tough, and the shrinkage is so small that the general belief is that
it will not shrink at all. The smaller trees furnish masts for small vessels."

PINE, CYPRESS. Callitris spp.

New South Wales, Queensland.

VERN — White pine, Murray pine, cypress pine, ivhite cypress pine, black
cypress pine, bay or fir cypress, Stringybark or jungle cypress pine
(Swain).

According to Baker and Smith, " Callitris is the genus descriptive of
the Australian Cypress generally . . . the most common ... is glauca . . .
widely distributed throughout Australia " (private letter from Agent-
General for N.S.W.). None of these timbers has yet been seen in the
European markets.

Murray pine, commonly called cypress or turpentine pine, the produce
of Callitris verrucosa, is said to be a distinct species. The colour of the
wood is olive brown with a greenish tinge, reminiscent of olive wood and
sufficiently alike to deceive even the expert, but while the grain is equally
smooth, the wood is softer, and less difficult to work. A very attractive,
decorative furniture wood.

4i6 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The Forestry Commission report it as "a very showy timber . . .
many of the planks are so gorgeous in appearance ... it may be readily
dressed up to a smooth and glossy surface/'

The concentric layers are marked by dark rings.

PINE, DANZIG. Pinus sylvestris Linn.
Weight 26 Ibs.

This is generally known abroad as " redwood," and when referring to
hewn square logs in England as Danzig "fir," and in the last few years,
when sawn in various sizes into boards, battens, deals, and scantlings as
" yellow " or " red." There used formerly to be a very large export trade
in what were termed deck deals, but this trade has entirely ceased. In
hewn square logs the sizes varied from 8 to 20 inches in width and from
10 to about 30 feet in length, though these measurements may at times
have been exceeded. Specifications shipped of late years in sawn sizes
have been similar to those sizes exported from Sweden and Finland, and
in competition with the same. Specifications for the deck deals were from
2 to 4 inches in thickness, with an average width of 8| inches, and in
lengths from 20 to 40 feet. The British Admiralty purchased considerable
quantities under the specification as follows :

Deck Deals. — The Dantzic deals for decks of 4 inches thick shall be cut 8
inches in breadth, and shall be 8 inches clear of sap for the greater part of
their length and nowhere less than y£ inches clear of sap, and shall be 26 to
40 feet in length, averaging not less than 33 feet The deals of 3! and 3
inches thick shall be cut 8 inches in breadth and shall be 7^ inches clear of
sap for the greater part of their length, and nowhere less than 7 inches clear
of sap, and shall be 25 to 35 feet in length, averaging not less than 30 feet.
The deals of 2^ inches thick shall be cut j\ inches m breadth, and shall be 7^
inches clear of sap for the greater part of their length, and nowhere less than
7 inches clear of sap, and shall be 25 to 35 feet in length, averaging not less
than 30 feet. The deals of 2 inches thick shall be cut 7^ inches in breadth,
and shall be 7^ inches clear of sap for the greater part of their length, and
nowhere less than 7 inches clear of sap, and shall be 20 to 35 feet in length,
averaging not less than 28 feet.

Longer deals of each thickness may be supplied, but only 10 per cent
over the greater lengths shall be considered in ascertaining the required
averages.

The deals of each thickness shall be delivered at each Dockyard in the pro-
portion of not less than 70 per cent Crown quality, and the remainder Crown
Brack quality. The whole shall be bright, clean, sound, yellow wood, con-
verted in the country, of an equal thickness and square-edged, and shall be
clear of unsound sap, shakes, injurious knots and defects, according to their
respective brands, and thoroughly air-dried before inspection.

In colour the wood is similar to that from other North European
sources ; it is generally even and straight in the grain, tough, elastic,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 417

easily worked, harder in texture than similar timber from other sources.
On account of its stronger character and harder qualities it has been famous
for use as heavy timbering and in general constructional work. Employed
as piles in fresh tidal water and exposed to wet and dry, its life varies from
16 to 20 years as compared with the 25 to 30 years for American pitch pine.
In earlier times Danzig " fir " was thought highly of by architects and
engineers, so that in all specifications a demand was made for the joists
and timbering to be of the best quality Danzig fir, a condition of terms
which were universally employed but rarely carried out, and in common
with other terms which have been handed down for generations is still
sometimes to be found in specifications to-day. While the timber ex-
ported from Danzig is undoubtedly hard, strong, and durable, the sawn
timber shipped is not generally up to the quality of the other shipments
from the Baltic, and in consequence ordinary specifications imported from
Danzig have been on a lower basis of cost than other supplies. The tend-
ency lately has been to increase the import, but while longer lengths can
easily be obtained, the timber is more knotty, contains more sap, and
carries more waney edges than the general shipments from the Baltic,
so that it is mostly used for the commonest description of building pur-
poses, rough constructional purposes, and packing-cases, etc.

PINE, HUON. Dacrydium Franklinii Hook. f.
Weight 33 Ibs. Tasmania.

" The Huon pine, so called from the Huon River, where first found, is a
pine which grows to a great size in the river-bottoms of the West Coast ;
it has a diameter of 8 to 10 feet, but the ordinary size of the tree will give
a plank of from 14 to 30 inches in width and up to 20 feet in length. The
wood is straight-grained and heavy for a pine, of a bright yellow straw
colour, and very full of an essential oil which causes it to be almost rot-
proof. When made into furniture, the oil slowly oxidises, and the wood
turns to a smoky-fawn colour with age. It is a splendid joiners' wood, and is
especially useful for boat-planking, as the teredo objects to the essential oil.

" The supply is little more than sufficient for the local demand, but it
is a timber that is well worth systematic cultivation, Huon pine being one
of the most durable timbers known. It is not a tough wood, having rather
a short fracture, but it steams and bends well. Some trees will cut very
handsome figured panels. It has a strong and, to some people, rather a
sickly odour " (Tasmanian Timbers).

PINE, JACK. Pinus Banksiana Lam.

P. divaricata Du Mont de Cours.

Canada, Labrador, Michigan, Maine.

Known also as " Gray pine." The colour is from a very pale brown to
a pinkish straw, nearly always with a red stripe. The wood is soft, light,

418 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

close-grained, not strong, resembling red pine closely enough for the
lumber of both to be mixed ; occasionally obtainable clear of knots. It
is not considered durable and resists impregnation with creosote.

Elwes, quoting J. C. Langelier, Canadian Forestry Association, 1905,
says : " Banksian pine ties are from year to year coming to the front. . . .
When there will be no more cedar (Thuya occidentalis] to supply the enor-
mous quantities of ties required yearly by railroads, one of its most valu-
able substitutes will unquestionably be found in the Banksian pine, which
the northern region is in a position to supply for a very long period/'

PINE, JAPANESE RED. Pinus densiflora S. & Z.

Weight 24 Ibs. Japan.

This wood is known in Japan by the name of akamatsu. According to
Goto there are two species of pine, which the Japanese distinguish by the
names of " akamatsu " or red pine, and " kuromatsu " or black pine.
The former " is the most widely distributed of all the coniferous trees in
Japan, being found from the southern extremity of Kyushu to the southern
portion of Hokkaido." It is used in Japan for building purposes.

The wood is softer and lighter in weight than Baltic pine, and has the
characteristic mildness of Canadian yellow pine (Pinus Str obits), while the
grain is also similar to that wood ; it is, in fact, something between the
two. It is milder and softer than the Siberian pine (Pinus mandschurica
Rupr.). There is apparently a very large supply, but it is exceedingly
difficult to obtain in clean lengths free from knots. It has been found to
yield good results when used for the sounding-boards of violins. Supplies
of this wood have reached England mixed with white pine, and it has been
found difficult to discriminate between the two.

The annual rings are close and regular.

PINE, KAURI or COWDIE. Agathis australis Salisb.

Dammar a australis Lamb.
Weight 30-39 Ibs. (Baterden). New Zealand.

Laslett said the " Kaurie or Cowdie Pine is a native of and found only
in New Zealand," but there are other varieties of kauri pine in Queensland,
Australia. It is most plentiful about the middle part of the northern
island, where there are very extensive forests, but it is only moderately
abundant a little farther south, and towards Wellington only occasionally
seen. Kauri pine, when used for masts, yards, etc., is unrivalled in excel-
lence, as it not only possesses the requisite dimensions, lightness, elasticity,
and strength, but is much more durable than any other pine, and will
stand a very long time before it is thoroughly worn out.

The duramen, or heart-wood, is of a yellowish-white or straw colour,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 419

moderately hard for pine, strong, clean, fine, close, and straight in the
grain. It has a very pleasant and agreeable odour when worked, planes
up well, and leaves a beautiful silky lustre upon the surface, resembling
in some degree the plainest satinwood. It shrinks very little, and stands
well after seasoning ; further, it takes a good polish, and is therefore valu-
able for conversion into planks and boards ; also it is very suitable for
cabin and other fitments in ships, for joiners' work generally, or for orna-
mental purposes. It is also employed for the decks of yachts, as, from
the regularity of its grain and the absence of knots, it has a better appear-
ance than the Danzig pine that is commonly used. It wears more evenly,
and does not require the reconciling or planing over which is frequently
found necessary where other woods are worked.

The kauri pine is generally sound and free from the defects common to
many other descriptions of timber ; it very rarely has more than a slight
heart-shake, even in old trees ; the star- and cup-shakes are also very
rare. It is therefore a remarkably solid timber, and may be considered
one of the best woods that the carpenter can take in hand. Results of
tests show that the wood possesses an exceptional strength in proportion
to its weight and character.

Two other kinds of kauri pine are recognised in the markets of New
Zealand, viz. " wavy " and " mottled " kauri. The names themselves
denote that in the case of the " wavy " kauri the grain is inclined to be
wild, with dark-coloured streaks ; and in the case of the " mottled "
kauri the same characteristic is shown in irregular streaks, which in
mahogany would be termed " snail " pattern.

The demand has increased very considerably during the last few years,
and it is much to be regretted that general reports seem to anticipate a
short supply in the future. It is difficult to season this wood in the United
Kingdom, and the customary calculations of time which apply to ordinary
woods will be found all too little m this case.

Dark rings clearly mark the concentric layers. The medullary rays,
which are only noticeable in some specimens, cause a fine, mottled
appearance on the radial section.

PINE, KAURI. Agathis robusta
A. Palmer stom
A. microstachya.
Weight 21 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

Known as Queensland kauri and resembling the New Zealand kauri
pine, but much lighter in weight, and softer in grain. Swain states that
" it is easy to work, cut, saw, and nail ; it glues well, and can be stained
and polished readily ... its durability is low in the weather or ground
. . . has no great degree of strength.'*

420 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

A. robusta is lighter, softer, and weaker than the other species, and is
now seldom seen on the markets.

PINE, KING WILLIAM. Athrotaxis selaginoides Don.

A. cupressoides Don.
Weight 22 Ibs. (Baterden). Tasmania.

" The wood varies in colour from pinkish-yellow to pink. It is
extremely light, and has a scent like cedar, from which it is called the
1 pencil cedar ' locally. After it is planed up there is a slight exudation
of the resin. It is used for cabinet and joiners' purposes, and for making
sculls for racing-boats. Notwithstanding its extreme lightness, it has
considerable toughness and strength, and is very durable in the weather,
being second only to Huon pine in this respect " (Tasmanian Timbers).

PINE, KOREAN. Finns Koraiensis S. et Z.

Weight 24 Ibs. i oz. Japan, Manchuria.

VERN — Chosen-matsu.

The wood is slightly redder in colour, and shorter in grain (apparently
close-grown) than the Canadian yellow pine (Pinus Strobus) (q.v.), for
which it is a very good substitute.

PINE, LIMBER. Pinus flexilis James.

N.W. North America.

Sargent names this the " Rocky Mountain white pine." In colour the
wood is light yellow, turning red with exposure ; it is soft, close-grained,
and light. Sometimes used as lumber.

PINE, LODGE-POLE. Pinus contorta var. Murray ana Engelm.

British Columbia, Western North

America.

Known also as tamarack pine and black pine.

The wood is light yellow to nearly white in colour, soft, close, straight-
grained, light, not durable nor strong, easily worked, very knotty, and
warps and cracks badly. Used for railway ties, mine-timbers, fuel, and
sometimes manufactured into lumber.

PINE, LONG-LEAFED. Pinus longifolia Roxb.

Weight 40 Ibs. for North-west wood, 40-43 Ibs. for Sikkim

wood (Gamble). Northern India, The Himalayas.

VERN — Nukhtdr, Afg. — Chil, chir, drdb chir, Pb. — Gula, thansa, Kangra —

Anander, Jhelum — Shti, Sutlej — Siral, sirh, kalhain, Jaunsar —

Chir, salla, sapin, kolon, kolan, kolain, Garhwal, Kumaon — Salo,

Dotial — Dhup, Oudh — Dhup, sala dhup, sula, Nep. — Gniet, nyit,

Lepcha — Teadong, tang, Bhutia.

The wood is very similar in all respects to that of yellow pine (Pinus
Strobus), except that it is a little harder and possesses more " pitchy "

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 421

layers. It would be highly suitable for most of the purposes for which
yellow pine is used. As may be seen, Gamble regards it mainly from the
standpoint of its usefulness for sleepers in India. We should consider it
in England far too valuable for such use, and as there is evidence that
there is a considerable supply, every effort should be made to obtain the
required sleepers in India from timbers of less value. The world's supply
of pine is steadily decreasing, and for many purposes of great importance
it is the only suitable timber. Gamble states : "In his Hints on Arbori-
culture in the Punjab, Ribbentrop says : ' I am convinced that this tree
will yield the greatest net money return when once we begin to impreg-
nate.' " Also : " The wood is used in building houses and boats, for
making tea-boxes, shingles, etc. The wood of the Sikkim trees is heavier,
harder and stronger, more durable and of better quality, than that of the
North-west."

Its real value, however, should be found in its suitability for joiners',
cabinet, and other high-class work for which yellow pine is used in this
country. Any other employment such as that which has obtained, viz.
its use for sleepers, is uneconomic.

PINE, MARITIME. Pinus Pinaster Soland.

Northern India, Cape Colony, Aus-
tralia (Vic.), France, Mediterranean
region, Portugal, Great Britain.
Known also as the " cluster pine."

The wood is of a reddish colour, soft and coarse-grained, not durable.
It is used as fuel, for packing-cases, and very extensively for pit-props.

PINE, NEW ZEALAND. Podocarpus dacrydioides A. Rich.
Weight 31 Ibs. 15 oz. New Zealand.

The tree yields clean timber of long lengths and wide widths. It is a
light whitish-yellow colour, in appearance much resembling yellow pine
(Pinus Strobus). The native name is " kahikatea." It is soft and straight-
grained, and is largely used in New Zealand and Australia for butter-boxes.
It is reported as being not durable for exposed work, and in its own
country is liable to attack from boring insects. A very large quantity was
imported a few years ago (1919) into the United Kingdom, but has given
disappointing results, as it shrinks, warps, and twists to a considerable
extent even after many years of seasoning. Although used experimentally
for many purposes as a substitute for yellow pine and American whitewood
(Liriodendron tulipifera), it has generally been condemned.

The concentric layers are clearly defined. The medullary rays are
confused and indistinct. The fibres are so soft and pulpy that it is ex-
ceedingly difficult to make a clean cut on the transverse grain suffi-
ciently smooth to display the construction of the wood.

422 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

PINE, OREGON.

See PINE, BRITISH COLUMBIA.

PINE, PITCH. Pinus palustris Mill.

P. rigida and other species.
Weight 42-43 Ibs. United States of America.

This timber is known as southern pine in the United States and pitch
pine in all other parts of the world, and the supplies for the last seventy
years have consisted of the mixed produce of several species of Pinus.
The best of this is produced by P. palustris. The ordinary supply includes
short-leaved pine P. echinata, as well as other sorts ; what proportion of
these are included has varied according to the convenience and circum-
stances of the shipper. Both hewn and sawn until before the war were
imported merely under the terms of " hewn " or " sawn " respectively
and without any further additional term of quality, but since then it has
come forward under the terms " long-leaf merchantable sawn pitch pine "
or " short-leaf merchantable sawn pitch pine " ; quite lately the import of
the merchantable short-leaf class has ceased, probably on economic
grounds. Also deals, planks, scantlings, and boards are imported under
the various qualities of " prime," " Rio prime/' " merchantable/' and
" square-edged and sound."

Gibson, in American Forest Trees (p. 43), says : " There is no precise
agreement as to what should be included in the group of hard pines in the
United States, but the following twenty-one are usually placed in that
class/' In this list, besides P. palustris, arc included P. echinata, P. taeda,
P. heterophylla, P. rigida, which have been exported to the United Kingdom
and abroad, and there are possibly others. Laslett in 1875 gave P. rigida
as the only source.

Pitch pine is a wood which is so well known that it seems unnecessary
to describe its appearance. Of a similar grain, although much harder in
texture and with strong pitchy growth, it resembles in appearance that of
Scots pine (P. sylvestris).

Laslett said : " The principal defects in pitch pine are the heart- and
cup-shake." The cup-shake often extends a long way up the tree, and it
would be impossible to better this description of its defects if the timber
referred to is the product of the true pitch pine (P. palustris}. Unfortun-
ately, in recent years shipments have deteriorated in quality and have
included the product of other species ; consequently, to the defects men-
tioned by Laslett others must be added, such as open grain, coarse, sour-
grown wood, large knots, and a far too great preponderance of sap-wood,
which latter is often seriously discoloured. The cutting during the last
thirty or forty years has been on such a vast scale that the forests will now

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

no longer produce so much of the large-sized and better quality timber.
For decorative work for churches, public buildings, and private houses it
was greatly in vogue during the early Victorian era. Its good qualities
suffered, in common with other material, from the ugly and ungainly
style then general, and although to a limited extent the timber is still used
for decorative purposes in public buildings, it is no longer sought for such
work. For floorings, however, it still maintains a considerable reputation,
although its use is somewhat curtailed, as such wood is generally required
to be rift-sawn. Wood so converted is wasteful and costly, and on this
account floorings intended to be laid in pitch pine are often superseded by
other woods. It is stated that George Washington built the Mount Vernon
mansion of pitch pine in the year 1743, and it is reported that the woo.d is
still generally sound and good.

The wood is very durable, and on this account, and also because of its
large size and long length, it is in great demand for constructional work,
for which it is admirably suited in all respects. Used for piles on tidal
water, where timber is subjected to alternating wet and dry conditions,
its life is from ten to fifteen years longer than that of Danzig or Memel pine.
It would be difficult to estimate its length of life for interior construction ;
but provided that good material is used, and the timber is well ventilated,
it probably equals in durability that of any other soft wood. Every pre-
caution should be taken to see that the timber is in good dry condition,
and thoroughly ventilated. There is at least one case on record where the
joists which composed the flat roof of a costly building, being unfortunately
improperly ventilated, were reduced to powder within two years of the
completion of the building. There is evidence that under unfavourable
conditions pitch pine readily falls a prey to the attack of dry rot.

Among the supplies a small proportion is occasionally found containing
very finely figured wood, the logs yielding a curly and twisted grain which
produces a most pleasing effect. This class of figured wood was in great
vogue about thirty years ago for a short period, but is now only occasionally
in request.

According to a publication of the United States Department of Com-
merce, a " total of 11,625,385,000 feet (about 5,871,000 Petrograd stan-
dards) was produced in 1929 by approximately 8000 sawmills scattered
through the Southern States. More than 821,000,000 feet (about 414,700
Petrograd standards) in 1929 found their way to foreign markets. Re-
duced to boards 12 inches wide and I inch thick placed end to end, this
amount of pitch-pine lumber would encircle the earth at the Equator more
than six times."

As already outlined, it is encouraging to notice that something in the
nature of reafforestation is being practised in regard to this most valuable
timber.

424 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

PINE, RED. Pinus resinosa Sol.
P. rubra.

North America.

In America the wood is known as Norway pine or American red pine.
It is relatively strong and resembles the Baltic pine, but is harder in the
grain, has a slightly redder tint, and carries a wider margin of sap-wood.
Shipments to London, Liverpool, and Glasgow were common thirty to
thirty-five years ago, but it was only supplied in lengths of 10 to 16 feet,
which were not very convenient for the general demands, and the sap-
wood was often discoloured, so that it was never popular. Imports be-
came less and less, and it is now rarely seen in the English or Scottish
markets.

PINE, RED BALTIC. Pinus sylvestris Linn.

Timber in the form of hewn logs first found its way into the United
Kingdom from several different ports on the Baltic, but notably from
Danzig, Memel, and Riga. Swedish timber was also imported, but
whether direct from seaports in Sweden, which may have been possible,
or whether transported to Danzig and shipped from there, is not known.
All of this timber was called "fir," with the prefix Swedish, Danzig,
Memel, or Riga, as the case might be. The logs were rough-hewn and
varied greatly in length and size. In the earlier time there was no differ-
entiation made between what was afterwards known as " red " or " yellow "
or " white," but at a later date shipments were divided into two sorts, one
described abroad as " red " and in England as " yellow," and the other
known everywhere as " white," this latter being the produce of spruce
(Picea excelsa) (q.v.). All this timber was used throughout England, but
especially in London and on the east coast, for constructional works of
every kind, for beams, roofing, piling, general wharf construction, and for
shipbuilding. Hewn logs, bearing the original shipping and quality marks
clearly rased (marked by a knife called a rase), are still to be seen in many
old buildings. At a later date the same timber was imported from
Norway, hewn and hand-sawn, in two dimensions only, namely, 3 inches
thick by n inches wide, and 3 inches thick by 9 inches wide ; the first
were styled " planks " and the second " deals."

On 23rd June 1663 Samuel Pepys records in his Diary how he went with
Sir W. Warren " about business . . . discoursing about deals, I did offer
to go along with him among his deal ships which we did to half a score,
where he showed me the difference between Dram, Swinsound, Christiania,
and others . . . their manner of cutting, sawing them by water mills,"
and again on i6th July of the same year he " made a great contract with
Sir W. Warren for 40,000 deals Swinsound @ £3 : 175. per 100." As the

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 425

deals would have been all in lengths of 12 feet 3 inches by 9 inches, the
actual cost at that time would amount to £2 : 178. 6d. per Petersburg
standard against the price of £18 to £25 per Petersburg standard which
rules to-day (1932).

Timber so imported was considered to be the finest material obtainable
for all classes of joinery work, and even to this day specifications can still
be seen demanding the use of " best Christiania deal " for the joiner's
work, although probably the last import of genuine Christiania deals was
made fully fifty years ago (1932). Subsequently the trade from Norway
was confined to planed flooring and match boards, with a limited quantity
of small-sized battens and scantlings, and pit-props. In the Swedish
trade, which at first was also confined to the same sized planks and deals,
by degrees a development took place, which resulted in all kinds of sizes
and qualities being produced in planks, deals, battens, boards, and scant-
lings. Laslett names the figure of import in 1874 as being about 3,500,000
deals, 7000 loads of timber, and 18,000 fathoms of firewood, besides a large
quantity of boards for flooring, etc. A quantity of hewn flitches from 2 to
3 inches thick, with waney edges, in widths of about 10 to n inches, and
of good lengths, was imported, probably from Memel, to provide the
flooring in the galleries at Knowle Park, where it still serves its useful
purpose. Lord Sackville was good enough to have some of the planks
lifted for inspection (1932), when they were found to be hard and sound in
both heart-wood and sap-wood, and nearly as good as they must have been
more than 150 years ago. In this same building the oak beams and cills
are in many cases much decayed and suffering severely from beetle attack.

There is evidence that the timber was familiar in England in the seven-
teenth century, for Milton wrote in Paradise Lost :

His spear, to equal which the tallest pine
Hewn on Norwegian hills to be the mast
Of some tall Ammiral, was but a wand

Most of the carved work in pine of the late sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, many fine examples of which can be seen in the Victoria and
Albert Museum at South Kensington, was executed in this wood. Nor-
wegian, Swedish, and Danzig pine were probably used indiscriminately.
An interesting record of the early use of the wood is provided by the follow-
ing account for the building of a partition in Glasgow Cathedral in 1713,
which was quoted in a letter to the Timber Trades Journal some years ago :

£ s. d.

To five long hundred daills and ane short hundred and ten

daills at 15 shill. thepeice . . . . . 523 o o

To sawing 210 of the said daills at 9 pound per hundred . . 18150

To 1 30 foot firr timber to the said use 14 shill. 6d. per foot is . 94 5 o

To six draught long trees at 125 shill per draught is . . 3 12 o

To sawing 18 draught trees at 6 shill. 8d. per draught is. . 600

426 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

To Francis Stevenson, wnght, for himself and servitors for wnght £ s. d.
work wrought be him m the outer and inner kirks, putting
up the partition wall betwixt the outer kirk and queir
(choir) and making up a broken pend and purple wall behind
the wistloft, and scaffolds to the work, and sarking and
lyning the spars, and taking off the lead and putting on new,
and to pleasterers conforme to particular accompt . 220 o o

Documentary evidence is available to show that in 1798 the following
imports were made :

Timber .
Deals .
Wainscot

31,302

-21.503
21,072

The list of timber imports at the beginning of last century is :

Russia

Prussia

Norway

1807 .

6101

3645

44.3*9

1808 .

517

114

784

in Petersburg

1809 .

433

1480

12,606

standards

1810 .

1340

2419

57.041 J

It is interesting to make a comparison between the above and the
import for 1928 to 1931 from all countries, as follows :

1928
1929
1930

1931

All Countries

1.574.300 }

1,671,284 ,11

i 658 212 j m Petersburg standards

To-day the supply, though not illimitable, is still assured, largely through
the economic forestry systems of these countries.

The quality of all timber from the Baltic has gradually deteriorated,
a state which it is expected must continue. The sizes obtainable have also
diminished. Thirty-seven years ago it was possible to obtain from the
Baltic 75 per cent of sizes 3 inches by 9 inches and 3 inches by n inches,
the remaining 25 per cent only being of the smaller sizes, while in 1919 the
produce of the forests was not of sufficiently large size to yield more than
25 per cent of the 3 by 9 and 3 by u size, and 75 per cent of the smaller.
There is now hardly any 3 by n from the Swedish forests. With regard to
the question of the size produced, it should be understood that shippers
would always cut the largest possible sizes from the trees, as the price
increases in proportion to the dimensions, and the cost of conversion is less.

The trade in Swedish and Finnish timber has gradually developed
during the last fifty years, so that now practically every port in the Baltic
Sea and the Gulf of Finland round to Gothenburg on the North Sea, ex-
ports all manner of timbering, floorings, joinery, and general woodwork.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 427

The trade is so varied, and the qualities and descriptions of the wood
range over such a wide field, that to attempt to describe it would require
a whole book ; only a brief reference to it can here be made. As stated
elsewhere, every district produces wood containing its own peculiar charac-
teristics. For instance, supplies from one port will excel in respect to
freedom from shakes, while those from another in the absence of sap, and
the best quality from one port will hardly equal the worst from another.
Generally speaking, the highest standard of quality is obtained from
Bjorneborg and Kemi on the Finnish coast, and from Gefle to Sundsvall
on the Swedish. The wood exported from North Russia, particularly that
from Archangel, Onega, Kem, Leningrad, and Siberia, excels all other
supplies, having a greater percentage of large dimensions and showing no
depreciation in quality as compared with earlier productions. The im-
ports from Archangel and Leningrad generally have a hammer stamp on
the butt ends of the planks, deals, battens, and boards ; those from the
Finnish ports are stencilled. It is customary to brand with a coloured
stencil mark the produce from Sweden and Norway, while various other
methods are adopted at the remaining sources of supply.

PINE, SILVER. Dacrydium Westlandicum T. Kirk.

Weight 41 Ibs. (Baterden). New Zealand.

This timber has not been imported on a commercial scale. The Board
of Agriculture, New Zealand, reports it as " yellowish-white in colour,
sometimes mottled, straight and even in grain, dense, firm and compact,
of great strength and toughness. Procurable up to 20 feet long and 15
inches in width. Used for bridges, wharves, sleepers, mining-timbers,
cabinet-making ; also in building and joinery generally."

PINE, SUGAR. Pinus Lambertiana.

Weight 30 Ibs. (Baterden). Western North America.

The wood resembles Baltic redwood, with rather a satiny lustre, very
resinous, durable, and free from odour. It is extensively used in the
Western States of America for all classes of softwood woodwork. It also
closely resembles the wood of Pinus Strobus. Dallimore in an article,
" The Economic Value of the Coniferae," says : " Two species with rather
similar timber [to Pinus Strobus] are ' western white pine ' (Pinus monti-
cola) from western North America and ' sugar pine ' (P. Lambertiana) from
Oregon and California. Considerable use is now being made of the timber
of these two species, particularly of the sugar pine."

PINE, TONA WANDA. Pinus Strobus.

North America.

During the war a large quantity of Tonawanda pine was imported into
the United Kingdom. This supply from America produced a wood which

428 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

competed favourably with the Canadian pine (Pinus Strobus), but no
further supplies have been forthcoming.

PINE, WHITE. Pinus albicaulis Engelm.

British Columbia, Western North
America.

Also known as the " white-bark pine." The colour is light brown,
with a close grain ; the wood is soft, light, and brittle. " The timber when
accessible is used by miners for props, fuel, and sleepers " (Elwes).

PINE, YELLOW or WHITE.1 Pinus Strobus Linn.

Weight 27 Ibs. 9 oz. Canada, North-eastern United States.

This pine, known in America and Scotland as the " white pine " and
cultivated in England under the name of " Weymouth pine/' is indigenous
in a rather restricted region ; the north-eastern parts of the United States
and adjoining Canada, extending from Winnipeg to Newfoundland, and
down the Atlantic States to Virginia. Formerly vast forests abounded,
with trees over 200 feet in height and 7 feet in diameter at the base of the
trunk. The ruthless felling operations of the American lumbermen, un-
accompanied by adequate afforestation, have greatly reduced supplies.
Of later years the quality also has deteriorated, and it becomes increasingly
difficult to obtain the wood free from knots and sap-wood, although a fair
quantity free from defects can be obtained. The timber has steadily ad-
vanced in price, which eventually reached the figure of 6s. per cubic foot
for the best quality. As the result of the large import of Siberian pine,
the price slightly declined towards the year 1914. During the war, the
Timber Controller fixed the maximum price at 9s. 8d. per foot cube.

It is probable that Pinus monticola was included in the supplies of
yellow pine.

An interesting handbook (A History of the Lumber Industry in the
State of New York, by Wm. F. Fox), which was published in i9O2*by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture, informs us that " in 1614, the year when
the first houses were built at Albany and on Manhattan Island (now the
city of New York), the territory which now constitutes the State of New
York was forest-covered throughout. . . . New York was not only a
forest State but essentially a white pine State. This valuable species was
plentiful throughout the territory. . . . Many New York lumbermen still
living recall giant white pines that measured 7 feet or more across the
stumps and over 220 feet in height. . . . Dr. Toorey wrote in 1843 :
' The white pine is found in most parts of the State. . . . Our chief ex-
tensive forests of this noble and most valuable tree are on the headwaters

1 The name " yellow pine " in the United States is not given to this wood, but to
entirely different kinds of pine timbers.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 429

of the Hudson and on the rivers which empty into the St. Lawrence.' . . .
The Adirondack tourist of to-day can still see in the tall trees at Paul
Smith's or in the noble colonnade of white pine along the shores of Forked
Lake further evidence of its extensive habitat." A quotation given in
the same book from the Ulster County Gazette of I3th November 1779,
reads :

For sale. The one-half of a Sawmill. With a convenient place for building in
the town of Rochester. By the mill, there is an inexhaustible quantity of Pmewood.

It is imported in the form of sawn boards and planks of various sizes
and thicknesses, also in wide planks, with square sawn edges, sometimes
termed " sidings " ; also in long logs hewn square but showing waney
edges. From these logs deck planks and other exceptional sizes are sawn
out.

The wood is a pale straw colour, and contrasts with other commercial
pines and iirs by the very thin, dark, parallel lines (resin ducts) running
with the grain. Strong in comparison with its weight, and very durable,
it is perfectly reliable. Being a " soft pine " (as opposed to the hard pines,
represented by the Scots pine and pitch pine), it is soft and easy to work,
as it is also straight-grained. For various indoor uses it is admirably
fitted, since although it requires a longer time to season than the majority
of soft timbers, yet when properly seasoned it undergoes remarkably slight
shrinkage, warping, or twisting. For a great number of years, until
shortly before the war, when its high cost militated against its use, yellow
pine was the chief wood used by joiners in most parts of Scotland, for
window frames, linings, skirtings, and doors. On account of its unique
standing qualities it is favoured by engineers for pattern-making. For
the decks of ships this is a favourite wood, and in yielding clean, white
flooring for pleasure yachts it has no rival. Yellow pine was formerly
used largely for signboards, but is now sometimes replaced in this relation
by less costly woods. Immense quantities are used in the manufacture
of matches (" white pine or cork pine " matches), for which purpose it is
unsurpassed.

The annual rings are clearly marked, but in contrast with the Scots
pine and pitch pine, the spring wood merges very gradually into the
summer wood.

PINHO DO MINAS. Araucaria sp.

Weight 39 Ibs. Brazil.

This is similar to the pinho do Parana (PiNE, BRAZILIAN, q.v.), though
the specimen in my collection is not of quite such high quality.

Although Record does not give pinho do Minas by name, there can be
little doubt that the " two important species of Araucaria " mentioned
are the P. do Minas and the P. do Parana.

430 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

PIQUIA. Caryocar villosum Pers. (probably).

Weight about 51 Ibs. (Record). Amazon region.

VERN — Ptqmd, piquia-ete, peqm, peqmd, Amaz., Braz.

The colour is a straw-yellow, the wood showing marked layers of hard
and soft grain, and requiring considerable work to produce a smooth
surface. Record says : " According to Huber this is one of the most
important woods in the Amazon region. It is a large tree scattered
throughout the upland forests of that region, and supplies wood which,
though porous, is very strong and tough on account of its interlaced fibers.
It is valued especially for frames, knees, and floor timbers of ships and
boats. It is used also for hubs and felloes of wheels, piling, posts, cross-
ties, cooperage, and miscellaneous civil and naval construction/'

There is a great liability to twist in seasoning caused by the contrary
grain of hard and soft layers. Shipments of this wood have been received
in the course of the last two or three years, but so far the wood has not
received favourable notice.

The pores are in singles and multiples, plugged, and surrounded by
marked bands of light tissue. The exceedingly numerous, very fine
medullary rays are very close, parallel, crossed at irregular intervals by
dark- and light-coloured lines, which probably mark the concentric layers
of growth, and crossed also by the finest possible light lines, making a fine
network pattern.

PIQUIA MARFIM. Aspidosperma eburnea Fr. Allem.

Weight 69 Ibs. Brazil.

This wood is of the brightest yellow satinwood colour, and has an
exceptionally close and smooth compact grain. It very closely resembles
West Indian satinwood (Xanthoxylum), except that the grain is closer and
finer. It would provide an excellent substitute for the latter.

Record says : " It is only available in very limited quantities, and
highly prized for cabinet work, mathematical scales, and for engraving
purposes."

Brazilian Woods describes pao setim (literally satinwood) as Aspido-
sperma eburnea, giving an alternative name, pequia marfim, of a bright
sulphur colour.

In Colonel Gamble's collection there is a specimen marked pao setim,
in colour and other respects resembling pao amarello (Euxylphora
paraensis), which is also sometimes termed pao setim ; but a marked
difference in the arrangement of the pores and medullary rays suggests
two different woods.

In pao setim the pores are large and rather regularly placed, plugged
with a sparkling substance, with clearly defined, thin bands of lighter-
coloured tissue, following the line of the concentric layer ; these are

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 431

crossed by exceedingly numerous medullary rays. In pao amarello the
pores are very small, showing singly or grouped in pairs, between very
strongly marked medullary rays.

In piquia marfim the pores are exceedingly minute, and medullary
rays very fine. Concentric rings are marked by bands of deeper-coloured
wood in which the pores are very evenly distributed.

PIQUIA PEROBA. Aspidosperma tomentosum Mart.

Brazil.

VERN — Guatambu, guatambu amarello, pequid (or piquia), pequid amarella,
peroba amarello, Braz. — Lemon wood.

According to Record, " ' Peroba ' is the name of a highly important
group of Brazilian woods which are comparable in general utility to our
oaks. Entire buildings are often constructed of this timber — sills, fram-
ing, flooring, interior finish, sash, and doors — while the same material is
employed for the furniture."

In other respects Record's description, in which he names it " lemon-
wood " and as " mostly bright, clear canary-yellow colour," is not in any
way in agreement with shipments of timber marked " peioba " which have
been seen in the London markets during the last two years. This wood
is of a strong reddish-salmon colour, interspersed with very dark splashes
resembling more the appearance of a dark-coloured British-grown plum ;
the grain also bears a pronounced lustre, and is capable of a very smooth
surface. In seasoning the wood is apt to warp.

Shipments which have arrived up to the present have not created
much interest, and the wood does not* seem likely to find a use in this
country.

The very numerous tiny pores, all plugged, arc regularly placed with
exceedingly fine medullary rays difficult to discern with the lens.

Pirus Japonica Max., var. P. aucuparia Gaertn. (or Sorbus aucuparia).

Weight 54 Ibs. Japan.

VERN — Nanakamado.

The colour is yellowish -brown with a very close, smooth, hard grain.
Only very small dimensions are obtainable from timber grown in this
country, which yields a firm wood of good quality and suitable for works
where hardness and toughness are required. The wood is reported by
Goto as of small value, generally used by miners and fishermen as firewood.

Baterden calls attention to a variety Pyrus aucuparia as a " rowan "
or " mountain ash/' and says the wood is tough and elastic, but only
procurable in small sizes.

The concentric layers of growth are marked with fine dark lines.
The innumerable tiny pores and the medullary rays are hardly discernible
under the lens.

432 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Pistacia integerrima Stewart.

Weight 49 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India.

VERN — Kaka, kakkar, kakrangche, kakring, hangar, tung, sish, hurkh, Pb.
— Kakroi, Jaunsar — Karkar, hangar, batkal, Kashmir — Kakar,
singi, Kumaon — Shue, sarawan, masua, Afg.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
to be " olive-yellow to yellowish-brown, beautifully marked with narrow
close veins . . . turning to a rich brown with age. . . . The timber is
very durable ... is not really difficult to saw. ... An extremely hand-
some timber, used for all kinds of ornamental work and carving. Used
for furniture . . . would be very suitable for small panels, inlay work,
for picture frames and similar small articles."

PITTOSPORUM. ? Mayii or Tenuifolinm.

Weight 40-45 Ibs. Australia.

The colour of the wood is ivory-white, with thin, dark-coloured lines,
and having a very hard, close, smooth grain much resembling holly.

Pityrantha verrucosa Thw.

Weight 54 Ibs. Ceylon.

VERN — Vidpani, Tarn. — Dik-wenna, Cingh.

The colour is a bright yellow, with a hard, tough grain, but it is difficult
to produce a smooth surface. The wood is tough and very strong.
Trimen reports that it is much sought after in the Eastern Provinces
for axles of timber carts ; a wasteful way to use such a valuable
timber, which should be employed in those works where boxwood is
required.

The transverse grain shows a very pretty pattern of innumerable
little bands or belts of pores, all plugged, ranged between the finest possible
regular and numerous medullary rays.

PLANE. Platanus orientalis Linn.

P. acerifolia Willd. (sometimes known as Lacewood).
Weight 30-42 Ibs. Europe.

The plane tree, so familiar to Londoners, in whose city it thrives so
well despite the smoky atmosphere, and which is generally known by the
name " London plane/' includes two or more varieties, viz. the American
plane (P. occidentalis] , which, according to Prideaux Selby, may have
been introduced into London towards the end of the eighteenth century,
and the Oriental plane (P. orientalis}, which, according to the same

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 433

author, was introduced into England nearly 300 years ago. In regard to
the former, Selby mentions a " beautiful tree growing in the Palace garden
at Lambeth [which] had, we are informed by Loudon, in 1837, at 40 years'
growth, reached that lofty elevation, and another in Chelsea Garden,
planted by Miller, was then estimated at upwards of one hundred and
fifteen feet in height." In regard to the latter, he quotes Turner in his
Names of Herbes, 1541, as his authority for the date of the introduction of
the tree into England. There are to be found in many parts of England,
Scotland, Ireland, and Wales further varieties of the same tree, at any
rate in the leaves and fruit, but the wood of all these trees is similar and
may be taken under one general description.

During the recent Persian Exhibition held in London the catalogue
made reference to the stately, majestic, and graceful Chenar trees (the
oriental plane) as being an outstanding feature in Persia.

Prideaux Selby calls attention to the greater hardiness of P. orientalis,
which he says stands the English climate better than that of P. occidentahs,
quoting more than one account of the destruction by frost or severe
weather of the western plane when the oriental plane has survived. He
describes the difference between the two kinds as follows : "In the
oriental plane . . . the leaves are smaller and much more deeply lobed or
divided into segments than in the western tree . . . and the petioles of the
leaves, which in the oriental species are green, in the American tree are
purplish red. The fruit or ball-shaped catkins also of the Occident alis
plane are larger and not so rough externally as those of the other/' The
wood varies from a very pale yellow to a light red or a greyish-blue, and at
times presents the variegated effect of a mixture of all these tints. The
colour is probably affected partly by the situation and soil from which
the tree is taken, but perhaps more by the time of year when the tree is
felled. It is difficult to understand why the wood is not more largely
used, as there is little doubt that, if its qualities were more studied, its
merits would commend it for many purposes.

The grain is tough, elastic, and hard. Prideaux Selby says that the
wood of P. occidentalis was scarcely known in England at the time he
wrote (1842), but he quotes Olivier, who says that the wood of P. orientalis
is equal to that of any European tree for cabinet-making, and that " it is
almost exclusively employed by the Persians for their furniture, doors,
windows, etc/'

It is largely used in France for a great variety of purposes and to a
certain extent in Germany. Under the name of " lacewood " it has been
somewhat largely used in America, and American conversions have been
sold in England under this name. This description is the produce of the
tree cut dead on the quarter, so that a very pronounced " clash " is shown
on the face of the board. It can be used to advantage for floorings and

2 F

434 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

many other purposes for which maple is in demand. The Church of St.
Sepulchre, Holborn, had formerly some beautiful panels of plane-wood,
dating from the seventeenth century ; one of these is now in the Victoria
and Albert Museum, South Kensington. A beautiful example can be
seen in the doors of Blake Hall, Ongar, Essex, the residence of Major Capel-
Cure. These are faced with plane tree, cut dead on the quarter, and
exposure to light and air has changed the colour into a very attractive
delicate golden red ; it is interesting to note that the identity of the wood
was for many years unknown to the owner.

A fine plane tree can now be seen flourishing by the side of the Grand
Junction Canal in London, close to the north gate of Regent's Park leading
to Avenue Road. It has an interesting history. In 1874 a barge con-
taining petroleum, while passing up the canal, exploded with a report
which was heard ten miles away. The bridge and the keeper's cottage
were blown away, the plane tree being apparently destroyed. Thirty
years after, the only part of the old trunk remaining was a dead, charred,
pointed piece, which could be seen protruding through the new and vigor-
ous growth around it ; this dead piece has now disappeared (1932), and
the only sign of the disaster which remains is an opening extending from
the ground to about 10 feet from the present top of the tree. This opening
is now closing, and it is safe to predict that in a very few years the trunk
will no longer bear any evidence of the damage.

An interesting account of the plane tree may be seen in the Rev. C. A.
Johns' British Trees and Shrubs, referred to elsewhere in this book
(SYCAMORE, q.v.). He rightly describes the plane as a majestic tree, and
refers to the delight which it gave to the early Romans and Greeks, Re-
ferring to the pleasure which the great Roman orators and statesmen,
Cicero and Hortensius, had in the tree and how they prized it for its shade,
he says that, when afterwards they transplanted it into France, they
exacted a solarium by way of tribute, on any of the natives who should
presume to put his head under it. Johns also refers to the failure to take
advantage of the usefulness of the wood in the West, while he mentions
that in the Levant and Asia it is employed in carpentry, joinery, and
cabinet-making. Had he lived in a later age he could have witnessed
how the thrifty Frenchman makes a very complete use of every part of the
tree, using the limbs as well as the trunk, down to even six inches in
diameter, while the wasteful and extravagant Englishman burns the trees,
trunk and all, and pays a high price for imported wood.

The concentric layers are very clearly marked by narrow white lines.
The exceedingly numerous and very minute pores are separated at almost
exactly regular intervals by a stout, strong medullary ray, which produces
the figure referred to on the radial section, while the other section gives a
very pretty pattern of exceedingly small interlaced lines.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 435

Pleurostylia Wightii W. & A.

Weight 48 Ibs. (Gamble).

Ceylon, Southern India, Mauritius,
Madagascar.

VKRN — Chiru-piyari, Tarn. — Piyari, panaka, Cingh.

The wood is a light yellow-red brick colour, with thin, darker lines.
Its appearance resembles that of Lebanon cedar, but with a harder,
firmer, and closer grain. Described by Gamble as a very pretty wood,
used in Cuddapah to make combs. While the grain is unusual and a nice
surface can be obtained, the expert would not confirm Gamble's view as to
its appearance.

The minute pores are exceedingly numerous, plugged, with the
finest possible medullary rays, crossed at irregular intervals by light-
coloured thin bands, following the concentric layers of growth, wavy
and broken.

PLUM. Prunus domestica Linn.

Weight 54 Ibs. Europe.

There are many wild species of plum, but it is probable that the timber
is more or less similar in each, and only differs according to variation of
environment.

It is a very handsome wood, which is not valued as highly as its un-
doubted qualities deserve. It is reddish-brown, with darker and lighter
streaks of the same colour, and is occasionally varied by some yellow. It
is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool, and has a close, firm,
hard texture. For cabinet work, inlay, and turning it would be difficult
to surpass. Laslett says it has been used for pipes. It was also one of
the decorative woods used in Tunbridge ware. No tree trunk should ever
be wasted or burned, a practice too common in this country.

The pores are very small and obscure. The principal medullary rays
are very clearly defined and vigorous, interspersed with numerous second-
ary rays of very varying size. These show in very small and numerous
flecks on the radial section.

PODOCARPUS SPP.

South Africa, New Zealand, West
Indies, Mexico.

The genus Podocarpus is to be found over a great many different parts
of the world — according to Record most abundantly in the Southern
Hemisphere. " The yellowish or brownish woods are of fine and uniform
texture, easy to work, and highly esteemed locally for the same purposes

436 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

as white pine (Pinus Strobus L.). . . . The common names are : Cobola
(C.R.) ; pina blanca (Pan.) ; Chaquera pino, pino de pacho (Col.) ; pino,
pino veti (Venez.) ; sabina cimarrona (Cuba) ; pinheirinho (Braz.) ; pino
(Arg ) ; mamu (Chile) "

In East Africa a useful wood from this source is known under the name
of yellowwood, African pine, and butterwood. In Tasmania a harder,
but somewhat similar wood of the same colour is called celery cedar.
According to Gamble, in India and Burma a wood of a similar colour but
much closer grain is obtained from P. neriifolia (q.v.). Record speaks of
100 species, but only two have become well known in commerce — namely,
Podocarpus elongata, South African yellowwood (q.v.), and Podocarpus,
Australian and Tasmaman (q.v.).

PODOCARPUS SPP., AUSTRALIAN and TASMANIAN.

The wood is a yellow colour, with a rather uneven, hard grain, heavier
than the African. In other respects the description of African yellow-
wood applies. Boulger mentions Podocarpus Thunbergii Hook., Rhus
rhodanthema, and Daphnandra micrantha. There is no evidence to show
from which source the limited shipments seen in commerce have been
produced.

Podocarpus elongata.

South and Tropical Africa.

Known as African yellowwood.

A dirty, yellow-coloured wood, with a close grain. The tree yields
long lengths and wide widths of sound wood, which is inclined to shrink,
also to warp and twist to an unusual degree.

Podocarpus neriifolia Don.

Weight 42 Ibs. India, Burma, Andaman Islands.

VERN — Gunsi, Nep. — Dingsableh, Khasia — Hinan, Cachar — Wehmada,
And. — Thitminpo, Burm.

This is a soft, light, straw-coloured wood, with a faint lustre after
planing. Its vernacular name of " thitmin " means " prince of woods/'
which is intended to suggest the excellence of its qualities. Gamble says :
" It is justly esteemed in Burma, and is of considerable importance in the
Andamans. . . . The wood is used in general carpentry, and is excellent
to work ; it is employed for oars, spars, masts, and to make tea-boxes.
It seasons well and does not warp or shrink/'

The medullary rays, though numerous, are so faint as to be scarcely
visible under the lens (4-12).

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 437

Poeciloneuron indicum Bedd.

Weight 55 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India.

VERN — Puthangkolh, Mad., Tarn. — Kirbalh, ballagi, Kan. — Vayila, Mai.
— Vaiya, Kader.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, state that this
wood is " dark red with darker heart-wood . . . heavy . . . straight-
grained or nearly so, medium coarse-textured . . . durable in open
situations and very durable under cover. ... It has been tried for
sleepers."

POHUTUKAWA. Metrosideros tomentosa A. Cunn.

Weight 54-64 Ibs. New Zealand.

According to the Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, the wood is
" deep red in colour, heavy and compact and of great strength, exhibits
great power of resistance to the teredo. Procurable in short lengths and
up to 24 inches in width. Used for piles, stringers, bridge and wharf
planking, and mining-timbers."

POLAK. Ochroma bicolor Rowlce.

Weight 13! Ibs. British Honduras.

For a description of this wood in all respects see that of BALSA WOOD,
the only exception being that the radial section of polak shows a profuse
display of strong medullary ray, of the same character as that which is
seen in the plane tree.

Polyalthia cerasoides Benth. & Hook.

Weight 52 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma.

VERN — Hoom, Mar. — Vubbina, Kan. — Gutti, chilka duduga, Tel —
Nakulsi, mulili, nublay, Tarn — Thabut-thein, gyoban, Lower
Burm.

The colour of the wood is a bright straw-yellow, with a hard, firm,
high-class gram, yielding a very smooth surface from the tool. Somewhat
resembling haldu but with a stronger gram.

The medullary rays to the naked eye show on the radial section, like
those of the finest plane tree.

Polyalthia simiarum Benth. et Hook. f.

Weight 44 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Burma.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, state that this
wood is " pale olive yellow . . . lustrous . . . moderately heavy . . .
moderately hard, straight-grained, even and medium fine-textured. . . .
Not durable in exposed positions, but is fairly so under cover. ... On
the quarter it presents a handsome silver-grain. . . . It is a fair plank
wood."

438 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

POPLAR, ENGLISH. Populus alba

P. nigra Linn.
Weight 35 Ibs. 4 oz. United Kingdom.

This is a valuable timber, which is far too little used or appreciated in
this country. The colour ranges from a whitish-yellow to grey ; in some
cases it is nearly pure white and compares favourably with rock maple.
It is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool, and possesses a line,
close, hard, tough texture which especially fits it for a great many im-
portant purposes. It is easy to work, and according to Holtzapffcl it
is " suited for carving, common turnery, and works not exposed to much
wear/' It has also been used largely by toy-makers, and to a certain
extent for cabinet work, and for brake blocks for railway waggons.

The famous " Inlaid room " at Sizergh Castle, Westmorland, which
dates from the sixteenth century, is of oak inlaid with poplar and bog oak.
The white poplar wood against the contrasting black of the bog oak has a
most effective appearance, set as it is in a groundwork of English oak. A
reproduction of the room can be seen in the South Kensington Museum.

During and since the war this wood has been used somewhat extensively
for the spars and ribs of aeroplanes, and for other purposes in aeronautical
construction, one pilot at least considering it as good as, if not better than,
any other timber. It has also been used as ply-wood in the same kind of
work.

Both pores and medullary rays are so exceedingly fine that they are
difficult to see even with the lens ( + 12).

POPLAR, GREY. Populus canescens Sm.

Weight 31 Ibs. Europe.

This is a very fine timber of much more value than it is popularly sup-
posed to possess. The colour is a light yellow with some dark streaks. It
takes a very smooth surface from the tool and possesses a tough, close
texture comparable to the medium varieties of maple. Its uses might
be much more general if it were better known. For floorings it should be
little inferior to maple, and it is one of the best woods for ply-veneer work.
Elwes and Henry quote Smith, English Flora (iv. 244) : " The wood is
much finer than that of any other British poplar, making as good floors as
the best Norway fir (pine) in appearance, and having moreover the valu-
able property that it will not, like any resinous wood, take fire."

The pores are very small and obscure, and the medullary rays ex-
ceedingly fine and difficult to detect even with the aid of the lens ( + 12).

A report appeared in the Timber Trades Journal of 5th October 1918
as follows : " At Bitterne, on the banks of the River Itchin, in clearing
the ground for extensions to H. J. Beazley's shipyard and engineering

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 439

works, an aspen tree was recently cut down. The trunk was over 35
feet high, its girth 13^ feet, and when uprooted the base of it measured
over 27 feet round, the tree appearing to be about a century old. It is
interesting to note that around the roots were found numerous fragments
of Roman pottery and a considerable number of other relics of the Roman
occupation, and some coins, including one of the period of Constantine I.
in an absolutely perfect condition. Bitterne Manor marks the site of the
local walled Roman city of Clansentum [sic] [Clausentium], the greater
part of which site is now occupied by the timber-yard and wharf of W. W.
Howard Bros/'

This tree was a grey poplar, but it has often been called " asp " or
" aspen " by woodmen.

Although I have been over this site on so many occasions, I regret that
I never observed the tree until it was cut down. When this was done I
secured a specimen for examination. The concentric layers are very in-
distinct and confused, and it is impossible to count the rings or gain any
knowledge of the life of the tree. The timber is of a pale yellow-grey
colour, with a close, tough texture, and, although not so hard, is rather
more like maple than any ordinary poplar. In seasoning, the wood has
warped somewhat, and would appear liable to this defect.

Populus euphratica Olivier.

Weight 30 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Southern Asia.
VKKN — Bahan, Smd. — Bhdn, jangli, benti, safedar, Pb. — Patki, Brahui —
Hodung, Laclak — Indian poplar.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
to be " reddish, ageing to reddish-brown, with broad dark lines which
form ellipses or tortoise-shell figuring in flat-sawn boards ; rather lustrous
with a silky sheen when first exposed but becoming dull with age . . .
straight to more or less irregularly interlocked-grained, medium fine but
somewhat uneven-textured. . . . When seasoned it lasts fairly well under
cover, but is very liable to insect attack if care is not taken, especially
when in a green state. It may be classed as durable in contact with, or
in, water. ... It is ... a very suitable timber ... for ply-wood."

Populus trichocarpa Torrey & Grey. XT A, , „ A .

r r j j North and Central

America.

The " Western balsam " poplar. Elwes says : " This magnificent
poplar, the largest of the genus, is a native of the Pacific Coast ... in
Oregon and Washington this timber is used for making staves and wooden-
ware. Jepson states that the wood is light, soft, and straight-grown, but
not strong."

It has not been seen in commerce in the United Kingdom, but has been

440 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

largely planted as a roadside tree, on the new arterial roads near London,
where it is growing well.

PORCUPINE WOOD. Cocos nucifera Linn.

Weight 47-70 Ibs. (Gamble). South America, India, Burma,

Ceylon, North Andaman
Island.

VERN — Narel, nanyal, Hind. — Nankel, Beng. — Tenna, tenga, Tarn. —
Nan kadam, tenkaia, kobban, Tel. — Thenpinna, kinghena, tengina,
Kan. — Tenga, Mai. — Pol, Cingh. — On, Burm. — Jadhirdah, And.

The cocoanut palm. Record says this is the chief cocoanut-producing
tree -of commerce. The colour is red, with a very hard grain ; the heart-
wood is soft to very soft but not hollow. Capable of a very smooth surface
from the tool. It is generally used for constructional purposes, spear
handles, walking- and umbrella - sticks, and turnery, and is a very
attractive wood for inlay decorative furniture work. In common with
other palms, it is very liable to attack by large weevils and many other
destructive insects.

The pores are large and very sparse. On the vertical section the wood
is prettily streaked.

Premna tomentosa Willd.

Weight 40-54 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon, Peninsular India.

VERN — Kotokoi, Sonthal — Chambara, Mar. — Nagal, naoru, naura, Tel. —
Ije, Kan — Kampu gumadu, Reddi — Kolukkatti, Tarn — Bu-scru,
Cingh. — Mai-sak-hpu, mai-sak-hai, Burm.

Both in colour and texture this timber closely resembles satmwood
(Chloroxylon Swietenia), so much so that it would readily pass for it.

Pores very small and numerous. Medullary rays very numerous, ex-
ceedingly fine, and showing on radial section as minute flecks.

PRICKLY YELLOW. Zanthoxylon Microcaspum Gris.

Honduras.

A greenish-yellow wood with a very smooth surface, rather soft and
fine, not unlike the surface of satinwood, but much softer, possessing a
slightly glossy lustre. Record does not mention Z. Microcaspum, but
gives the name of prickly yellow to Zanthoxylon sp.

The concentric layers are clearly marked. The pores very numerous
and small ; medullary rays irregular and ill-defined.

PRIMA VERA. Tabebuia Donnell-Smithii Rose.

Weight 36 Ibs. 6 oz. Central America.

VERN — Pnma vera, pnma vera mahogany, white mahogany, Trade — Prima
vera, roble, Mex. — Cortez, cortez bianco, Salv. — San Juan, Hond.

This wood is so little known in the United Kingdom that it is practically
never mentioned. It has, however, been used very freely in the United

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 441

States for furniture, panelling, and general decorative work, and for
railway-car trimming. As a result a small supply has come to London
and Liverpool, and although apparently not identified, it has been occa-
sionally used in the panels of some railway coaches on the principal rail-
ways. It is sometimes known in the United States as " white mahogany,"
which is perhaps a better name than prima vera, as in everything but
colour it resembles mahogany. When first cut, it is of a pale straw appear-
ance, darkening with exposure to light and air, to a warm yellowish-rose,
and much resembling satinwood. The wood is generally more or less
figured, that is, with a " mottled " or " roey " grain, some being very
strongly marked with " splash mottle " of the best description. It stands
well under all conditions and takes a high finish from the tool. For a
light room prima vera may be said to present, in general tone and colour-
ing, a more artistic effect than satinwood, although the wood itself is not
of so fine a grain. The principal defect is that nearly all the logs contain
small pin-holes caused by a boring insect. These can, however, be remedied
by a competent polisher.

The pores, which are small, are rather obscure, but are marked by a
light ring or halo. The medullary rays are fine and not very distinct,
showing very faintly and sparsely on the tangential section.

A very similar wood is supplied from the West Coast of Africa, which
perhaps is identical with that called in France " white mahogany," the
source of which is unknown. There is reason to suppose that a different
form of polishing may be necessary, as in the case of all the mahoganies
from the West Coast of Africa (see remarks on polishing African mahogany,
cherry, and okoumc). In different specimens which present the same
general appearance there is a very marked distinction in the construc-
tion. Thus in one the pores are small and scarce and the medullary rays
clear and defined, while in another the pores are rather large and more
numerous, and the medullary rays very obscure and faint. On both, how-
ever, they show in very much the same degree on the tangential section.

PRIVET. Ligustrum lucidum Aiton. „. .

6 China.

This is a handsome Chinese shrub often cultivated in India. The wood
is a light yellow-brown colour, with a hard, close, and very smooth texture,
and even-grained.

The pores are small ; medullary rays fine and numerous.

The European privet is Ligustrum vidgare (q.v.).

PRIVET. Ligustrum vulgare. _ XT . A , .

Europe, North Africa.

The ordinary observer of the well-known privet hedge which is so
common, would hardly believe that it yields a hard, strong wood with a

442 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

very smooth surface and a pleasing lustre, which although obtainable only
in small sizes, would vie with foreign woods for inlay purposes and
decorative furniture work. Indeed, if used in such a manner it is probable
that even the expert might mistake it for olive-wood.

The swamp privet (Forestiera acuminata) of the southern States of
North America yields a similar wood, but it is reported as being difficult to
work.

The concentric layers of growth are clearly defined. The pores are
very small, numerous, plugged, and open, with fine, delicate medullary
rays difficult to observe under the lens, which show minutely on the radial
section.

PROSOPIS. Prosopis spicigera Linn.

Weight 57-59 Ibs. (Gamble). India.

VERN — Jhand, khdr, Pb. — Kandi, kundi, Sind. — Chaunkra, Agra —
Khejra, Rajputana — Sangn, Pertabgarh — Semru, hamra, Guz. —
Shemi, saunder, Mar — Shami, Beng., Uriya — Perumbe, vunne,
jambu, Tarn. — Cham, Tel.

This wood is of a light yellow straw colour, very hard, and has a close-
grained, fine texture. Useful timber, but not suitable for export.

Prunus Puddum Roxb.

Weight 45 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Burma.

VERN — Charmdn, amalguch, pdja, pajia, Pb. — Paddam, pdya, Hind —
Phaja, Jaunsar — Paydn, Kumaon, Gharwal — Pangia, Dotial —
Kongki, Lepcha.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
to be " light red when first exposed, ageing to reddish-brown, somewhat
lustrous . . . working smooth . . . moderately heavy . . . moderately
hard to hard, straight or rarely wavy-grained, medium-textured. ... A
durable timber, not liable to either fungus or insect attack. ... It is the
class of wood which is extensively used in England in turnery for toys,
egg-cups, and similar small articles It might also be used for furniture,
such as small tables, chairs, stools, and for writing-table requisites."

Pterocarpus Marsupium Roxb.

Weight average 55 Ibs. (Gamble). Central and Southern

India, Ceylon.

VERN — Bija, bijasdr, bijasdl, piasdl, Hind. — Byasa, piasdl, Uriya —
Dhorbeula, dsan, bibla, Mar. — Peddei, bijo, Gondi — Peddagi,
yeanga, yegi, yegisa, pedtga, pedei, Tel. — Vengai, Tarn. — Benga,
honnd, hond, Kan. — Bzjaira, Bijeragogarh — Radat bera, Bhil
— Hitun, hid, K61 — Murga, Son thai — Beeya persar, Kharwar —
Paisar, Mai Pahari — Ragat bera, dhorbieula, Berar — Vengis,
Khond — A wit, Saora — Vengsha, Reddi — Gammala, Cingh.

The chief native names of this species are vengai and bijasal. The

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 443

wood is of a golden-brown colour, with lighter streaks, like a brown-
stained satinwood, and it has a satiny lustre. The grain is smooth, firm,
and close. Although it has established its reputation in Madras and at the
Gun-Carriage Factory at Jubbulpore, where it has been used for gun-
carriage wheels, its proper sphere is for employment as a delicate furniture
and cabinet wood. Warmer in tone and less obtrusive in character than
satinwood, it would appeal with peculiar force to the artistic decorative
artist in wood, and it is a matter of surprise that it has never yet been
exported on a commercial basis. This is one of the timbers mentioned in
Gamble's list as being available in fairly large quantities.

" Pores moderate-sized and large, often subdivided, scanty, resinous,
uniformly distributed in pale patches, which are joined by fine, white,
wavy, often interrupted concentric lines ; marked on a vertical section.
Medullary rays very fine, numerous, short, uniform, and equidistant "
(Gamble).

Pterospermum acerifolium Willd.

Weight 45 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Mdyeng, Jaunsar — -Kanakchampa, mus, Beng. — Hattipaila, Nep.

— Numbong, Lepcha — Gaik, Magh — Machkunda, Sonthal — Mak-

chand, Mai Pahari — Laider, Mechi — Taung-petwun, sinna, Burm.

The wood, which can be obtained in squares 20 feet by 10 inches by
10 inches, is reddish in colour and moderately hard. It works and polishes
well, and is used for planking ; it also makes good matches and match-
boxes.

Pterospermum suberifolium Lam.

Weight 47-49 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Ceylon.

VERN — Baelo, bayalo, ginnga, Unya — Baili, Khond — Lolagu, Tel. —
Muchucuda, Mar. — Taddo, vinanku, Tarn — Welanga, Cingh

The wood has an agreeable, dull plum colour, with a fine hard grain,
showing figure on the tangential surface, and the medullary ray pro-
nounced in light flecks on the radial. A very attractive wood, suitable
for fine cabinet work, inlay, and turnery. Gamble reports it as being
tough and used for building carts and other purposes, illustrating another
instance of the misuse of a valuable wood for want of knowledge. The
concentric layers of growth are marked by broken dark lines.

The small pores are variable in size and position, and are plugged.
The medullary rays under the lens are confused, but show prominently
on the radial section.

PUKATEA. Laurelia Novae Zelandiae A. Cunn. XT „ . ,

New Zealand.

The Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, reports that this wood is of
" a pale brown colour streaked with deeper shades, often very ornamental.

444 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Procurable in long lengths and up to 12 inches in width. Excellent for
furniture and also for boat-building."

PUNAH. Tetramerista glabra Miq.

Malaya.

The colour of the wood is a dull yellow-brown with a rather coarse
grain and uneven texture, yielding a rather rough surface from the tool.
The timber has not been seen in commerce in the United Kingdom, but it
is reported as being useful for inside building purposes in Malaya, not
durable in the ground, readily attacked by white ants, but immune from
boring beetles.

The rather large pores are sparse, mostly plugged, with a smaller
proportion widely open ; innumerable medullary rays line but rough-
edged, which do not show on the radial section.

PURIRI. Vitex littoralis Dene.

Weight 62-76 Ibs. (Baterden). New Zealand.

This wood, called also New Zealand teak although there is no justifica-
tion for the name, is of a dark brown colour, very hard, dense, and heavy.
Some experimental shipments were made on a small scale many years
ago, and efforts to introduce it for general work as a decorative cabinet
wood, and especially in pianoforte work, met with little success. It is
reported that it is obtainable in lengths up to 20 feet and 15 inches in
width It has been stated that it is the strongest and most durable
timber produced in New Zealand, and that sleepers, posts, etc., have been
known to stand for twenty-five years

PURPLEHEART. Peltogyne paniculata Bth.

Weight 64 Ibs. 2 oz. (fresh undried sample), 66 Ibs. 4 oz. (my
dried sample, Demerara) British, French, and Dutch

Guiana, Brazil.

VERN — Purpleheart, purple-wood, violet-wood, amaranth, Eng. — A mar ante,
bois violet, Fr. — Amarantholz, violetholz, Germ — Purpuurhart,
Dutch — Legno amaranto, I violetto, I. porpora, Ital. — Madera
purpurea, palo morado, Span — Pdo roxo, pdo rojo, guarabu roxo,
g. branc, g. preto, g. rajado, g. vermelho, guarabussu, barabu,
amarante, ellen grypho, roxinho, Braz. — Morado, Boliv. — A mar-
ante, violet, bois violet, bois bagot ?, bois de coeur, pourpre, bois
pourpre, Fr. G. — Purperhart, poerprehati, kooroobooelh, kooroo-
boovelli, koroborelli, hoepelhout, zeedrat ?, Sur. — Purpleheart, saka,
sacka, saka-balli, koruburelh, marawineroo, B.G. — Purpleheart,
sapater, zapatero, Trin. — Tannaneo, Col. — Nazareno, morado, Pan.
— Palo morado, Mex.

This beautiful wood is not sufficiently appreciated in England. It is
of dense, close texture, and after planing is very smooth to the touch ; it

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 445

is brown to salmon-red when cut, but after exposure to air and light it
rapidly becomes purple in colour. The Surinam wood produces a more
brilliant colour than that from Demerara. It is very strong and durable,
and stands exceptionally well under difficult strains. On this account it
has been used by French motor-carriage builders for the frames of window-
sashes and like purposes. For this it is probably better than any other
wood, as it is not injured by damp or the continual washing, while the
fine, smooth grain assists the sliding up and down of the windows. It is
used for ramrods, marquetry, and inlay and lining work, especially in
French furniture, in which connection it bears a variety of names, these
including " amaranthe " and " palisandre." A sample piece of this wood,
labelled with this latter name, was sent to me for identification, confusion
having arisen by the fact that in France the name " palisandre " usually
indicates rosewood.

In Tropical Woods, No 25, March 1931, Record reports that the trim
of a library at Lenox, Massachusetts, has been done in this timber and
proved to be expensive.

The pores, which are rather small, are evenly distributed and largely
filled with gum. The medullary rays are even and regular, parallel and
very distinct. The pores in the Surinam wood are larger and have
scarcely any gum filling, but otherwise the structure is similar to the
Demerara variety.

PYINKADO. Xylia dolabriformis Benth.

Weight 81 Ibs. (my specimen) ; according
to Gamble the weight per foot cube
ranges from 60 to 83 Ibs. Burma.

VERN — Pvuigado, pym, Burm.

This wood is known as the ironwood of Burma. As the botanists
have now decided that the pymkado of India is a different variety, viz.
Xylia xylocarpa (q v.), the vernacular names quoted by Gamble included
it, and are therefore omitted.

The wood is a reddish-brown colour, hard, heavy, tough, very strong
and rigid. The pores are filled with a thick, glutinous oily substance,
which gives a sticky feeling to the touch, and is still noticeable even after
a great many years' exposure to weather.

Gamble says : " After teak the most important timber tree of Burma.
. . . The chief use of the wood is for railway sleepers, large numbers of
which are now cut in Burma and exported to India. It is the chief wood
used on the Burma railways. It is also eminently suited for paving
blocks, and has been successfully tried for the purpose in Rangoon.
Good blocks were exhibited in Paris in 1900. ... It is also excellent for
telegraph posts. The local uses are for boat-building, agricultural imple-

446

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

ments, carts and tool handles. It is a valuable building wood, especially
for piles and beams of bridges/'

PYINKADO, LOWER BURMA

Photograph by J. H. Lace

Laslett, writing in 1875, quoted a note by Lieut-Col. H. W. Blake,
the Commissioner at Moulmein, who wrote that the wood was " heavier

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 447

than water, and more indestructible than iron." He added : " There is
a piece of this wood which supported a teak figure of ' Godama/ taken
from Rangoon in 1826, standing in a lake near. The teak figure has long
since mouldered away into dust, but at the pillar I fired a rifle shot at 20
yards distance, the ball was thrown back, making no penetration whatever.
The wood seems hardened by time and exposure, and it is also a fact that
the teredo will not touch it. The Burmans do not girdle and kill this tree,
as they do the teak, but fell and saw it up at once, and refuse to work it in
a dry state."

Gamble was incorrect in stating that pyinkado is immune from teredo
attack, since it is now known that the wood has been attacked in the
waters of Burma ; nevertheless it is probable that pyinkado is capable of
resisting teredo attack better than any other known wood.

Tropical Woods, No. 25, p. 36, reports an important experiment carried
out by Dr. Foxworthy and H. W. Woolley. Pieces of wood to the number
of 5600, representing twenty-one different kinds of Malayan, and some
from other countries, were tested. These were all placed in trenches 15
to 1 8 inches deep, each piece 2 feet long by 2 inches square, and whenever
available, those that were sound and seasoned were chosen. The trenches
were then filled up, leaving 3 to 6 inches of the wood projecting, and brush
to attract insects was then piled on top. Subjected to this trial, the
following woods had no pieces destroyed during five years of test : Bebras
(Burseraceae) ; Betis (mostly Madbuca utilis) ; Belian (Eusideroxylon
Zwageri] ; Chengal (Balanocarpus Heimii) ; Damar Laut Daun Kechil
(Shorea utilis) ; Giam (Hopea nutans] ; Greenheart (Nectandra Rodioei) ;
Ingyin (Pentacme siamensis) ; Jahar (Cassia siamea) ; Kumus (Shorea
ciliata) ; Pyinkado (Xylia dolabriformis) ; Sama Rapa (Shorea sp.) ;
Sudan Batu (Meliaceae).

The conclusions arrived at as the result of these important tests were :

1. " Under the conditions of our test, fungus attack is of relatively

minor importance, and pieces are usually destroyed mainly by
insect attack.'1

2. "No wood that has been tested is immune to the attacks of

termites."

3. " Any wood that lasts for as much as 5 years under the conditions

of these tests, may be considered durable."

4. " Pieces containing sap-wood were destroyed more quickly than

those that were all heart-wood."

5. " Hardness does not prevent insect attack. Kempas, a very hard

wood, is very quickly attacked, and is sometimes destroyed
within six months."

The logs are too heavy to float, even after ringing, which makes the

448 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

transport difficult and costly. When the tree is fresh cut, the saw or
tool will work it, though with some difficulty, but after long exposure it is
said to be impossible for any tool to work it. About the year 1910 a ship-
ment of about 100 logs, sawn square, was brought to London in mistake
for a parcel of teak which it was intended to ship. This was the first
shipment coming to London of any consequence, and the result was that
the wood found a ready market. In the year 1920 arrangements were
successfully carried out, regular shipments to the United Kingdom resulted,
and the demand has continually increased.

Pyinkado possesses in a degree beyond most other timbers, and possibly
surpassing all, hardness, strength, and amazing durability. Experiments
carried out by Laslett showed that pyinkado, under transverse strain, was
nearly twice as strong as English oak, and more than 20 per cent stronger
under tensile strain. Mr. Richardson informs me that 480 blows with a
4-ton hammer, delivered on a squared pyinkado pile which was placed on a
concrete base, failed to move the pile 2 inches. Pyinkado has been used
extensively for wharf piling, planking, camp-sheeting, and decking. It
has proved to be one of the most serviceable, if not the best of any, for
" dollies " 1 for pile-driving. A church belfry frame was exhibited at the
Exhibition of 1924, and a fairly considerable number of belfries have since
been fitted with pyinkado girders, being much approved. It was selected
for the constructional timber for the floating pier at Tilbury, and a hand-
some bridge was built throughout of pyinkado at Marsh Lock near Henley.
Its resistance to the attack of white ant has been stated by the Malay
States Forest Department to be the third highest out of thirty best-known
hardwoods the world produces. Pyinkado piles used on the south coast
of England are now in as good condition after two and a half years as
when placed in position, while all other timbers which have been tried
were riddled with holes. An open bridgeway in Westminster requiring
a temporary road was planked with 3-inch thickness of pyinkado ; the
same bridgeway had previously been planked with oak, but the traffic,
being exceedingly heavy, destroyed the oak planks within one year, when
it was renewed with the 3-inch pyinkado planks referred to above. At the
expiration of a year and two months the pyinkado planks were worn
down by the traffic to a thickness of I inch, and varying up to i| inch, thus
forming an illustration of the comparative wear of oak and pyinkado under
exceptionally hard and trying conditions.

The timber known as jamba or irul, and pyinkado, is the product of
Xylia xylocarpa and is distinct from the Burmese X. dolabriformis.

The pores, which are few in number, are rather small, and are plugged
with a bright, shining gum or resin. The medullary rays are numerous,
parallel, visible, and very fine.

1 A " dolly " is the short piece or square of wood between the falling hammer
and the pile.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 449

QUALM. Schizolobium Parahybum Blake (Veil).

British Honduras.

A soft, whitish-yellow wood, with a slightly blue stain, and a woolly
grain, yet capable of a smooth surface from the tool, resembling dhup
(Calophyllum tomentosum). The wood is not likely to possess any com-
mercial interest.

The concentric layers are clearly distinguished by dark lines, displaying
in my specimen rapid growth. The pores are scarce and irregular in size,
partially plugged. The medullary rays irregular, and clearly defined on
the transverse section, giving an appearance of wood structure, suggesting
greater strength than the wood appears to possess.

QUANGDONG, WHITE. Eloeocarpus grandis and others.

Weight 28-35 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

VERN — Caloon, Aborig.

Known as blue fig and blueberry ash. Swain states that the colour
varies from gleaming white to greyish or brownish tone in some grades,
the wood being lighter and stronger than Queensland pine, porous and
open -grained. It is a tough softwood of considerable strength, easy to
work, cuts cleanly, holds nails well, takes glue and stain.

Having high durability and seasoning well, it is suitable for inside
work and stained cabinet work, but should not be used in the ground.

QUASSIA. Picraena excelsa Lindl.

Weight 35 Ibs. 4 oz. Tropical America.

VKRN — Bitterwood, West Indian bitterwood, Jamaica quassia, Trade —
Lignum quassia Jamaicense, Pharm. — Bitterwood, bitter ash,
B W.I. — Bois amer, bois de St. Martin, bois de quassia de la
Jamaique, quachi, coache, simarouba, Fr. W.I. — Kwassiehout,
grammam kivassie, bitteresche, Sur. — Fresno amargo. Col. — Palo
amargo, quina brava, Arg. — Quassiaholz von Jamaica, bitterholz
von Jamaica, Germ.

This timber is imported in small round logs, yielding boards of 10 to
ii inches in width. It is yellowish-white with a green tint, generally with
more or less shade and mottle figure ; the grain is line, close, and smooth.
The wood has an exceedingly bitter taste, but an agreeable scent. Its
principal use is for the destruction of insects.

The pores are rather small and not very numerous. The medullary
rays are fine and somewhat indistinct.

QUEBRACHO. Schinopsis sp.

Weight 70-80 Ibs. (Record). Argentina.

VKRN — Quebracho, Trade — Quebracho, quebracho Colorado, q. negro, q.
moro, q. machol, q. chaqueno, q. crespo, Arg. — Soto negro, Boliv. —

450 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Quebracho, matto grosso, Braz. — Barauna, Bahia, Braz. — Iron-
wood, red lignum-vitae, quiebra-hacha, break-axe, axe-master, Misc.

According to Record, " the botanical range of Schinopsis extends from
Northern Argentina, Western Paraguay, a small portion of Bolivia, and
an undetermined area of Brazil, as far north as the interior of the State of
Bahia . . . approximately 200,000 square miles." Also, " This genus is
the source of the valuable South American tanwood known as quebracho
... a contraction of the colloquial Spanish and Portuguese term
' quiebra-hacha ' (axe-breaker). . . . There are two kinds of quebracho —
the red or ' quebracho Colorado ' . . . and the white or ' quebracho
bianco ' (the latter) supplied by a species of Aspidosperma."

The wood ib very hard and heavy, with an exceedingly dense, close
grain, and is a deep red colour. Its principal uses have been for sleepers,
and for the extraction of tannin.

Quercus lamellosa Smith.

Weight 61 Ibs. (Pearson £ Brown). India, Burma.
VERN — Shalshi, pharat-smghah, budgrat, Nep. — Bitk, Lepcha — Thite,
Burm., Kc.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
as " russet to greyish-brown, frequently with lighter streaks ; lustrous
(especially on the quarter) when first exposed but becoming dull with age,
refractory under tools . . . fairly straight to more or less irregularly
grained, medium coarse and uneven-textured (large pores and rays). . . .
The timber is durable, unless placed in damp positions. ... A heavy
construction timber and a species worth protecting and cultivating/'

QUINCE. Cydoma vulgans Pers.

Weight 46-47 Ibs. India.

VERN — Bihis N. Ind. — Bamtsunt, bumsutu, Kashmir.
The wood is yellowish-white in colour with darker streaks, and a very
close, compact, hard grain, resembling apple, but harder. Specimens ol
British-grown trees give the same result.

The numerous, minute pores are hardly discernible under the lens,
and similar medullary rays equally difficult to locate.

QUIRA. Platymiscium polystachyum Benth.

Weight 45-46 Ibs. Central and Northern

South America.

VERN — Quira t sinkra, zrok, Pan. — Aceituno monies, granadillo, Salv.— •
Roble, Trm. — Roble, roble Colorado, roble bianco, Venez. — Trebo
Col. — Panama redwood, vencola, Trade.

Other SPECIES— Subinche*, Mex. — Mulatto, hormigo, ormigot Guat.
Hond. — Nambar bastardo, Nic. — Quira, Pan. — Macacauba, maca
cauba da varzea, macacauba da terra fir ma, moira-caoba, Braz.
The colour is from a reddish-brown to a rich red, with darker vein?

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 451

and a lustrous surface, a stripy, contrary grain making it hard to yield a
smooth surface.

In Panama the name " quira " is also applied to the product of P.
dub^^im Pittier ; the name " macacauba " is a common name for several
species of Platymiscium in the Amazon region, where it is fairly abundant
in certain districts.

A small consignment of timber came into London from Brazil in 1931,
shipped as " Brazilian padauk." Upon examination it proved to be a
wood known by the name of " macacauba " and " quira." The wood was
found to agree exactly with that of a 7" x 7" baulk which was taken out
of a building in Woolwich Dockyard, where it had been for upwards of
100 years, and possibly nearly double that time. It is interesting to
notice that examination of the wood structure shows an almost complete
agreement in every point with the produce of Adenanthera pavonina
(Ywegyee) from Burma.

A very attractive wood for decorative furniture work. It is liable to
attack by a small boring worm (beetle) which discolours the wood in the
neighbourhood of the attack.

The pores are moderate to large sized, subdivided, rarely plugged,
surrounded by a halo of light tissue, with exceedingly fine-threaded,
numerous, medullary rays.

RABUGE. Source unknown.

Weight 69 Ibs. Brazil.

The wood has a rich dark red colour, with darker streaks ; it is fine
and close-grained, takes a lustrous surface from the tool, and after being
polished has an attractive satin-like sheen. There is a faint ripple mark-
ing, the medullary rays showing in minute silver grain on radial section,
and it is altogether a beautiful wood which should be employed for the
best kinds of cabinet-making and decorative art woodwork.

The pores are large and often subdivided ; they are surrounded by a
ring of loose tissue. The medullary rays are so fine as only to be discern-
ible under the lens. There are concentric rings of darker coloured wood.

RAIN TREE (The). Pithecolobium Saman Benth.
Weight 26-36 Ibs. (Gamble).

South America, India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Rain tree, Eng. — Samdn, Venez. — Campano, Col. — Quango, Jam.
— Samdn, guango, P.R. — Algarrobo del pats, Cuba — Garreto,
unfcero, zorra, Salv.

This tree was introduced into India from South America by the
British, who planted it largely throughout India, Burma, and Ceylon.
Gamble says : " The growth is exceedingly fast, but does not answer to
expectation as the wood is nearly valueless, either as timber or fuel. . . .

452 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Where the soil and the climate is moist, the Rain Tree is useful for avenues,"
I do not think Gamble does justice to this beautiful tree. It is very
largely planted by roadsides, and grows quickly, affording a great attrac-
tion to the traveller, as well as a very much required shade ; its timber
might certainly be made much more use of than it is at present.

This tree is not mentioned in Pearson and Brown's new book, Com-
mercial Timbers of India. The question arises whether the Forestry De-
partment have yet made sufficient efforts to recognise its value, on the one
hand as a shade tree, and on the other as a timber tree, both of which
come under the commercial heading, and are worth consideration. At
least, as timber it possesses qualities equal to those of the American gum
(Liquidambar styraciflua], which the Americans have succeeded in making
a very valuable property.

The colour of the wood is a warm nut-brown, slightly lighter but
resembling koko, with somewhat the same lustre, and with a softer grain,
showing contrary hard and soft layers. A wood which, while not durable
in India, seems to be quite durable and satisfactory in moderate climates.

The pores are scarce and large, fully open. The medullary rays too
fine to be easily seen under the lens ( + 10).

RASPBERRY JAM- WOOD. Acacia acuminata Benth.

Weight (at 12 per cent moisture), 62 Ibs.

Western Australia.

This wood possesses a rich colour, varying from violet to crimson, with
a very hard, close, lustrous grain. It has also been called " violet-wood,"
probably on account of its very pleasing and strongly persistent scent of
violets. From a billet of this wood I turned a small ornamental box nearly
forty years ago, and the scent is still apparent on opening the lid. The
fragrance also at times resembles that of crushed raspberries, hence the
name. It is probable that, when in a fresher condition, the wood possesses
a stronger and different scent.

It is a valuable wood for turnery and inlay, and should be more
generally known. According to some authorities it is very durable, and
has been said to withstand the test of seventy years in the ground as posts,
though it is to be regretted that a wood of such value should ever be used
for such a purpose.

RATA. Metrosideros robust a A. Cunn.

Weight 45 Ibs. (Baterden). New Zealand.

The New Zealand Board of Agriculture describes this wood as being
red in colour, straight in grain, hard, dense, heavy, and of great strength
and durability. It is procurable in long lengths and up to 48 inches in
width. Amongst its uses are mentioned wheelwrights' work, the frame-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 453

work of railway waggons and carriages, and also machine beds and
bearings.

RED ASH. Alphitonia excelsa Reissek.

New South Wales.

An unsuitable name for a wood which only resembles ash in colour,
and even then with a red tint. Reports show that there is not a con-
siderable supply, but that the wood assumes a " fiery red " colour, and is
" ornamental."

RED BEAN. Dysoxylon Muclleri Benth.

New South Wales.

The Forestry Commission, N.S.W., report that the supply is not large.
The wood is of a red colour, with a " neat figure." A good furniture wood,
and has a " quiet yet handsome figure that looks well under polish."

RED BOMBWAY. Planchonia andamanica King.

Weight 61-62 Ibs. The Andaman Islands.

VICRN — Lai Bombway, Hind.

According to Parkinson the local name Bombway comes from the
Burmese name, Bambwc, of Carey a arbor ea, a tree somewhat resembling
this one, but not found in the Andaman Islands.

The wood is of a brown-red colour, with a medium hard grain, capable
of a very smooth surface from the tool. Specimens of the wood were
shown at the Exhibition at Holland Park in 1920, and at Wembley in
1924. Supplies have been irregular and not reliable.

The rather numerous pores are arranged in singles and belts, sometimes
straight and sometimes curved, very small, surrounded by a halo of light
tissue, with fine, numerous, parallel medullary rays, crossed at right
angles by very faint dotted white lines.

RED MAHOGANY. Eucalyptus rcsmifcra Sm.

Weight 6 1 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales, Queensland.

The colour is a bright brick-red, rather like karri, but the wood generally
proves too hard and heavy and fails to create any demand. The grain is
close, hard, and interlocked, bearing very hardly on the saw and the plane,
making it very difficult to secure a smooth surface. The Forestry Com-
mission, N.S.W., report it as becoming very hard with age, even as hard
or harder than ironbark ; resistant to white ants, and durable. A fairly
considerable shipment of this timber, which contained a small proportion
of highly figured pieces, that is, showing broken roe and mottle of a rather
fine character, was brought to the London market between twenty and
forty years ago.

454 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

RED SANDERS. Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. f.

Weight 75 Ibs. (Gamble). The East Indies, Southern India.
VERN — Lai chandan, rakta chandan, seyapu chandanum, Tarn. — Erra
chandanum, Tel. — Honne, Kan.

This wood, also known as " red sandalwood " and " ruby wood," is
not so often seen now as formerly. Gamble says that the wood is " ex-
tremely hard ; the sap-wood white, heart-wood dark claret-red to almost
black, but always with a deep red tinge, orange-red when first cut." It is
imported in small round logs from about i£ inches to as much as 8 or 9
inches in diameter, with an occasional larger piece, and is used for red
dyes, turnery, and inlay. It has a strongly marked contrary grain of
hard and soft texture, but is capable of a very smooth surface if thoroughly
worked with a sharp tool, and when finished shows a fine, glossy, lustrous
surface.

The pores are small, uneven, and generally plugged with resin or gum.
The very fine medullary rays are numerous, parallel, and nearly equi-
distant. They are joined at right angles by very fine white bands in
pairs, following the lines of concentric layers.

RED SILKY OAK. Stenocarpus salignns R. Br.

Weight 51 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales, Queensland.

Known also as " beef wood."

Baker reports it as " fairly close-grained, and having a very dark red
colour."

For description see SILKY OAK, Grevillea robusta.

REDWOOD. Erythroxylon Affini A. Rich.

British Honduras.

A red mahogany-coloured wood, so similar to the product of some of
the African mahoganies as to be indistinguishable.

The peculiar feature is a narrow stripy layer of hard and soft wood,
producing a narrow stripe, such as that sought for in Sapeli mahogany. A
useful furniture wood.

The pores vary from extremely numerous in some places to a great
scarcity in others, mostly plugged, very small. The medullary rays are
extremely small, well-defined, close together, and parallel.

RESAK. Shorea barbata Brandis.

Malay Peninsula, Borneo,
Sumatra.

The common form of resak is S. barbata. The colour of the wood is a
light yellow brown, with a firm, close texture, yielding a very smooth
surface from the tool. A very strong wood of good character, closely

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 455

resembling yacal. Kumus, Damar Laut, and Giam are very similar, so
that the timber might be classified under one heading ; the wood of Giam
being heavier than the others.

The numerous pores are very small and plugged ; with numerous
clearly defined, fine medullary rays.

REWA-REWA. Knigktia excelsa R. Br.

Weight 46-50 Ibs. (Stone). New Zealand.

This timber is sometimes known as New Zealand honeysuckle. The
Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, reports that it is " deep red in colour,
and beautifully mottled in silver grain. Procurable up to 20 feet in
length and 15 inches in width. Used for house-blocks, piles, railway
sleepers, machine beds, and for ornamental cabinet-making."

Baterden says : " It is often used for mantelpieces owing to its incom-
bustible nature. It is durable when used for interior work, but will not
stand exposure to variations of weather. All oily substances should be
avoided when polishing New Zealand honeysuckle, as it absorbs grease
and oil to the detriment of the finely-marked grain ; and moreover, var-
nishing is said to be a disadvantage "

My specimen is of a light grey straw colour, with a very lustrous sur-
face. Concentric layers of growth clearly marked by dark lines, with
minute pores, connected by very light belts of light tissue, crossed by
broad, irregular, rough-edged medullary rays, which appear of a pinkish
shade and show in flecks running parallel with the longitudinal grain on
the tangential face. The numerous, minute pores are hardly discernible
under the lens. Numerous, strongly marked medullary rays irregular in
width and position.

RHODODENDRON. Rhododendron ponticitm Linn.

America, Asia.

The colour of the wood is a rather pale pinkish-white, with a very
smooth, rather pretty grain. According to Gamble, it varies from soft
to moderately hard, and is liable to warp and shrink.

The medullary rays show strongly in small flecks.

RIMU. Dacrydium cupressinum Soland.

Weight 34-40 Ibs. (Baterden). New Zealand.

The tree is of straight growth and attains a height of from 80 to 100
feet, with a circumference of from 6 to 9 feet. It varies in shade from
light yellow to chestnut-brown, with some streaks of lighter and darker
colour, much resembling the so-called satin-walnut (Liquidambar styra-
ciflua Linn.), but with a much finer, closer texture. Unlike this wood, it

456 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

stands well under all conditions, although it requires a long time to season
properly. It is capable of a very smooth surface from the tool, and is
excellent for mouldings and carved work, as a fine edge and finish is easily
obtained with either hand or machine tool. A large quantity was im-
ported in logs, planks, and boards about twenty years ago (1919), and
remained in the docks for a long time, as it was entirely unknown and its
merits were not realised. When at last it was used, it was soon appreci-
ated, and subsequently inquired for, but no further shipments have
arrived.

Besides its many uses for cabinet and joiners' work, it was found to be
one of the best woods for the framing of show-cases for shop-fittings.

The numerous very fine medullary rays are parallel, and hardly dis-
cernible under the lens.

RINGAS.

See Melanorrhoea Spp.

RIUGAN. Pametia pinnata Forst.

Weight 55 Ibs. Formosa.

The wood is very heavy, dense, and close-grained, and is largely
marked with a wavy grain. It is of a light cherry colour similar to
English cherry-wood, and would be a useful timber for many purposes if
regular supplies could be maintained, but so far it has not been imported
commercially into the United Kingdom.

The pores are fine and glisten with bright spots of gum. The ex-
ceedingly numerous medullary rays are very fine and clean-cut ; they are
parallel and nearly equidistant.

ROBLE. Nothofagus sp.

Weight 34 Ibs. Argentina, New Zealand, Tasmania,

Australia.

VERN — Roble, roble de Magellanes, coigue, coyan, guindo, hualle, pcllin,
rault, Chile — Roble, roble cienego, coihiie, cohigue, coyan, knguc,
mre, Arg. — Beech, South American beech, Antarctic beech, Eng.

This wood, which has been called " roble/' " Chilian oak/' " rauli,"
" Chilian beech," and " melica," is of a reddish-brown colour, with a very
nice, firm, close grain, capable of a very smooth surface ; altogether an
exceedingly useful wood, comparable with our beech, but more durable.

Under the above names it has been often introduced for sleepers in
many parts of the world ; a wasteful use of a valuable wood.

The concentric layers of growth are clearly marked with even, light-
coloured lines, the innumerable, tiny pores, with confused medullary rays
hardly discernible under the lens.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 457

ROSEWOOD. Dalbergia Stevensonii Standl.

Weight 63 Ibs. British Honduras.

While supplies of this wood have undoubtedly been sold in America
and Europe under the name of rosewood, it is not the usual rosewood of
commerce. Although lighter in colour, with a very hard and heavy grain,
it is eminently suitable for all the purposes where rosewood is required,
excepting that it will not provide wide enough sections. It has probably
been also sold under the name of kingwood.

The exceedingly sparse pores are very variable in size, single and
duplicated, well opened, with concentric layers closely marked by dark
lines, and the very finest of clear-cut medullary rays, at close intervals.

ROSEWOOD. Dysoxylon Fraserianum Benth.

Weight 50 Ibs. (Baterden). New South Wales.

The name rosewood is due to the fragrant rose odour when the wood is
first cut ; this is another instance of a misleading name as the wood does
not in the least resemble the rosewoods so well known on the markets of
the world.

The timber, which is also known as Australian mahogany and bog
onion, is reported by the Forestry Commission, N.S.W., as being of a red
colour, resembling Honduras mahogany. It is said to work splendidly,
and is used for a great number of important purposes, including wine
casks ; also it is durable, and resistant to white ants.

ROSEWOOD, BAHIA and RIO. Dalbergia sp and generally

I), mgra.
Weight 54 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Brazilian rosewood, palisander wood, jacaranda wood, Eng. —
Jacarandaholz, pahsanderhoh, Germ. — Pahssandre, Fr. — Madero
de palisandro, Sp. — Palissandro, legno di jacaranda, Ital. —
Jacaranda (various kinds), cabiuna, cavitma, jacaranda cabiuna,
Braz.

According to most authorities the wood is produced from many
botanical species. Amongst these Baterden mentions Dalbergia nigra,
Machoerium incorruptibile, and M. legate. Brazilian Woods notes that
rosewood is furnished from the three following sorts : Dalbergia nigra Fr.
Allcm., Machoerium allemani Benth., and M. violaceum Fr. Allem. An
entirely distinct wood known in Brazil as rosewood or pao rosa, is the
product of Physocalymma floridum.

Brazilian rosewood has been familiar as a decorative wood throughout
the last century, and its popularity commenced with the Empire period.
In the early days of Queen Victoria's reign rosewood, used in the solid and
in veneer, was employed in the best quality of decorative cabinet work. It

458 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

has been immortalised by Lewis Carroll in Hiawatha's Photographing : —

" From his shoulder Hiawatha
Took the camera of rosewood,
Made of sliding, folding rosewood ;
Neatly put it all together."

and later in the same : —

" First the Governor, the Father:
He suggested velvet curtains
Looped about a massy pillar ;
And the corner of a table,
Of a rosewood dining table."

The wood is so exceedingly well known that it seems almost superfluous
to describe it. During the last twenty years its popularity diminished, so
that, except in the manufacture of pianos, it has been rarely used, although
in France and America the demand has been regular and steady. The trees
produce very varying examples of colour and figure, with a very firm, hard,
close grain, and an agreeable aromatic scent. The wood is capable of an
exceedingly smooth surface, but the colour fades on exposure.

Originally the timber from Bahia was considered the best for quality,
while supplies from Rio, although not so well marked or figured, produce
larger and wider pieces more free from defect. The quality has more or less
deteriorated in the course of the last twenty years, with a growing difficulty
of obtaining sound wood of sufficient size to yield good veneers and panels.

The pores are exceedingly irregular both in size and position. They
apparently vary both in numbers and size in the different concentric
layers. There are irregular belts of darker coloured lines of varying
widths which follow the concentric growth. The medullary rays are
exceedingly fine and numerous ; they are generally crossed at right angles
by somewhat similar fine white lines, thereby forming a network pattern.
The radial section presents an exceedingly fine ripple ray.

ROSEWOOD, EAST INDIAN. Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.

Weight 53-54 Ibs. India, Ceylon.

VERN — Sitsal, Beng., Nep., Oudh — Shisham, sisu, kalarukh, bhotbeula,
sissui, Mar. — Sissu, Guz. — Sirds, sissu, sirsa, sissa, Mandla —
Sissua, Unya — Iti, eruvadi, thothagatti, Tarn. — Jitcgi, ycrugudu,
jitangi, Tel. — B^t^, thodagatti, Kan. — Bhotuk, Bhil — Serfs, Gondi
— Sensso, Kurku — Rule, K61 — Satsiyar, Sonthal — Ruzerap, Mechi
— Iridt, Palkonda — Jitiyegishi, Koya.

This wood, famous throughout Southern India and Ceylon under the name
of blackwood, and sometimes incorrectly called shisham, is, after teak, the
most important wood which India produces. The colour is a light or dark
rose red, with light and dark streaks, very similar in colour to that of the South
American rosewood. The texture is close, firm, and hard, generally with
a contrary hard and soft grain, requiring rather a sharp tool to secure a

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

smooth surface. The wood possesses an agreeable aromatic scent

Q
O

H
c^

like but not so pronounced as that of the South American wood, and is one
of the principal furniture woods in India, with some popularity for the same

460

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

purposes in Ceylon and Burma. It is very well known throughout England,
America, and all over the Continent, indeed in all the markets of the world,
generally under the name of East India, Malabar, or Bombay rosewood.

With the disappearance of the Empire and Victorian styles of furniture
in Europe, the then well-known Bahia or Rio rosewood went out of fashion
and the East Indian wood suffered in somewhat the same way. Properly
exploited, the very valuable qualities and the beautiful appearance of the
wood should lead to a far larger and extended use. It stands exceptionally
well under all conditions and is highly suitable for first-class decorative
woodwork, possessing the necessary strength and quality of grain for

EAST INDIAN ROSEWOOD LOG

Photographic (, R Kttn

wearing well under every condition, and is an excellent wood for turnery.
Throughout Europe, in America, and in England its principal use has
always been in the pianoforte trade, where it has been used both in the
solid and in veneer. The veneers are sawn or cut generally through the
log, but sometimes around it.

Resulting from the Exhibition at Holland Park in 1920 many im-
portant works were carried out, notably a handsome hall constructed for
Mr. Llewellyn, near Colesborne, Glos. At the Wembley Exhibition a
complete shop front, designed and executed by F. Sage & Co., Ltd., two
carved eagle-headed armchairs made by W. & T. Lock of Bath, a complete
dining-room suite consisting of dining-table, sideboard, dinner-waggon,
chairs, and pedestal writing-table, were exhibited, all made by native
labour under the direction of a European supervisor, by McKenzies, Ltd.,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 461

of Bombay. In the new India House, Aldwych, the entrance door is
furnished in this wood, and in the new Bank of England it is used for
flooring. A wide field of usefulness still awaits this, one of the most
valuable decorative woods the world produces.

The pores are scarce and irregular, with long fringes of very small
pores in wavy lines, at right angles to the numerous exceedingly fine,
parallel medullary rays.

SABIA. Source unknown.

Weight 59 Ibs. Brazil.

This wood very closely resembles Cuba mahogany in colour and appear-
ance, though the grain is very like that of Cuba cedar (Cedrela odorata).
The timber is fine, hard, and close, being in every respect equal to Cuba
mahogany, and would make a very fine cabinet wood.

The concentric layers are marked by strong rings of large pores. The
pores are generally very large for a Brazilian wood ; they are irregularly
distributed, and are surrounded by patches of loose tissue. The medullary
rays are very fine and close.

SABICU. Lysiloma Sabicu Benth.

Weight 60 Ibs. 10 oz. The West Indies.

VERN — Sabicu, Cuban sabicu, Trade — Jigue, jigue bianco, sabicu, savacii,
savico, Cuba — Wild tamarind, Fla. — Sabicu, horse-flesh, Bah. —
Xiaxek, Mex. — Sabicuholz, Germ.

This is imported in hewn square logs in lengths from 8 feet up-
wards, and from 10 to 36 inches in squares, with occasionally still larger
logs. The wood is of a dull brown colour, with a bright lustre, and an
exceedingly close, firm, smooth grain. Many logs are very highly figured,
containing both straight and broken roe, with mottle and splash mottle,
resembling very closely that of Spanish mahogany. It is tough and com-
paratively strong, although Laslett considered it unsuitable for the beams
of heavy guns, lest it should contain some hidden defect, which he refers
to as a cross fracture of a very remarkable kind, but shipments during the
last twenty years have not confirmed this opinion. This is the cross-
break which has more latterly been found to exist so largely in the
mahogany from the West Coast of Africa. Sabicu exhibits a peculiarity
which is shared by greenheart, in that, when tested for crushing force in
the direction of its fibres, it bears the addition of weight after weight
without showing any signs of yielding, but when the crushing force is
obtained, it gives way suddenly and completely, nothing being left of the
pieces but a loose mass of shapeless fibres. It " has very little sap and is a
remarkably solid wood ; [also] it is characteristic that there is an almost
complete absence of the heart-, star-, and cup-shakes. It seasons slowly,

462 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

shrinks but little, and does not split, as do most other woods, while
undergoing that process. It also bears exposure to the weather without
being in any but the slightest degree affected, even if left without either
paint or varnish to protect it ; further, it works up well and there is only
a trifling loss in its conversion . . . therefore ... it has much to com-
mend it to the favourable notice of the manufacturer " (Laslett).

Formerly it was much employed in shipbuilding, where its good
qualities gained for it a high reputation, and to this may be attributed
the fact that it is frequently specified for purposes where other, and
possibly less expensive, woods might be equally suitable. It has also been
used to a very considerable extent by the Ordnance Department for gun
carriages and similar work. Until the outbreak of the European war it
was considered to be the best wood for saddle-trees, but supplies then fail-
ing, substitutes were perforce employed. Amongst these was padauk,
and it is doubtful as to whether that is not the more suitable wood of the
two.

Sabicu was used rather extensively in the finest pieces of cabinet work
by Sheraton, the brothers Adam, and others of that date, and some of the
pieces generally considered to be of mahogany have proved to be of this
wood, especially where curls or crotches have been used, and where the
figure is plain or splash mottle. The wood presents a beautiful effect,
particularly when employed in conjunction with satinwood. It develops
a mellow tone and is greatly improved by exposure to light and air.

A cargo, landed at the West India Docks about the year 1919, con-
sisted entirely of square hewn logs, mostly of large size, every log being
highly figured. The best of these were sold and transhipped to America.

The pores are scarce and very irregular in size and position ; they
generally appear in groups, and some are plugged with a bright shining
gum. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine and numerous, parallel
and equidistant, and crossed at right angles by thin white lines. All the
sections show pretty and delicately marked ripple rays.

SABICU, AFRICAN. ? Zanthoxylum senegalense DC.

Weight 46 Ibs. West Coast of Africa.

VERN — Ughahan, Benin — Ata, Lagos — Artar, Pharm. Journ. (3), xx. p.
163 — Sabicu. (From Kew Bulletin.)

According to the Kew Bulletin, 1908, which quotes the vernacular
names as above, the source of this wood appears to be Zanthoxylum sene-
galense DC., but there is no definite information that the timber which has
been seen in commerce is from this source.

The colour is a golden-brown, with a hard, fine texture rather spoiled
by the open pores which show on the tangential surface. The wood bears
a strong resemblance to that of the West Indian sabicu (Lysiloma sabicu),

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 463

and is probably as strong and useful. A large shipment was landed in
Liverpool about the year 1900. The logs were hewn well square and were
of large size, ranging from about 18 to 40 inches square and from 10 to 30
feet in length, exceedingly sound and free from defect, many showing
stripe and broken roe with a little mottle. Difficulty was experienced in
finding any purchasers as the wood was one which had not been seen in
commerce before, but eventually the whole shipment was disposed of, and
on what was considered at the time a remunerative basis. It was generally
understood that the timber was used in the Ordnance Department, or for
the purposes for which that Department is responsible. Since that date
single logs have arrived, mixed in general shipment of mahogany, but
there has been no large consignment.

The very sparse pores are large and open, strangely situated in groups,
with wavy belts of tiny pores or light lines, crossed at right angles by the
finest possible medullary rays, almost undiscernible under the lens, the
whole making a strange and rather pretty pattern.

Saccopetalum tomentosum Hook. f. & Th.

Weight 40 Ibs. India.

VKRN — Kirna, karri, Hind. — Homba, Melghat — Hoom, Bombay — Wumb,
hessare, Kan. — Chilkadudu, Tel. — Toska, Gondi — Humba, Kurku
— Ome, Sonthal — Heeran, Mai Pahari — Umbia, umbi, Merwara —
Umb, Jeypore — Ome, hake hitmu, K61 — Gonda palasu, Uriya.

This is a very nice wood, of a light olive-yellow or brown colour, with
a very close, firm, hard texture ; it takes a smooth surface from, the tool.
The radial section is covered with tiny flecks of silver grain caused by the
medullary rays. It should be a valuable cabinet wood, as it undoubtedly
stands well under all conditions. Troup mentions it as used for carving,
for which it is eminently suitable.

The pores are exceedingly small ; the medullary rays very strong,
broad, and numerous, parallel though not equidistant.

Sa-ch'ai.

China.

Professor Record considers this as the produce of Fraxinus sp. The
specimen submitted by Professor Chung resembles that of Japanese
keyaki, Zelkowa acuminata (q.v.), with a slightly softer grain.

In the early growth the pores are large and open, with much smaller
pores in the later growth. Intersected with fine, strong medullary rays,
which do not show on the radial section.

SAL. Shorea robusta Gaert. f.

Weight 55 Ibs. (Gamble). Northern and Central India.

VERN — Sal, sola, salwa, sdkhu, sakher, Hind. — Shdl, kanddr, Garhwal —

Sakwa, Nep. — Teturl, takral, Lepch. — Bolsal, Garo — Jargi, Khond

464

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

— Sarjum, K61 — Sargi, Bhumij — Sakwa, KhTarwar — Sekwa, Oraon
— Shal, Beng. — Salwa, sonnghi, Uriya — Sardi, Rewah — Guggi-
lapu, Palkonda — Koroh, Oudh — Sarei, nnjal, C.P. — Gugal, Tel.

This very valuable wood, though little known in England, is in general
use in India. The timber is hard and rather cross-grained, of a close
texture and light brown colour, with small whitish sap-wood which is not
durable. Gamble writes : " The fibres of alternate belts in the wood on a
vertical section running in opposite directions, so that when the wood is
dressed a very sharp plane is necessary or it will not get smooth ; does
not season well/' Quoting Brandis, he continues : " The trees attain the

Photograph by A . Rodger

FOREST OF CHOREA SK, UPPER BURMA

height of ioo to 150 feet with a clear stem to the first branch of 60 to 80
feet, and a girth of 20 to 25 feet. . . . As a rule it attains to 60 to 80 feet
. . . and a girth of 6 to 8 feet." In drying, superficial flaws appear and
great care is needed, but when thoroughly seasoned it stands almost
without a rival for strength, elasticity, and durability. Great difficulty is
experienced in getting the timber out of the forests, as it will not float.

It is largely used in India for all purposes where durability and elas-
ticity are required, and especially for sleepers. Pearson gives the life of
a good sal sleeper as 20 years compared with 17 to 28 years for teak
(Tectona grandis), 20 years for pyinkado (Xylia dolabriformis) from Burma,
and 8 months to 6£ years for jamba (Xylia xylocarpa) from Bombay and

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

465

Madras. The rail docs not cut into the sal sleepers at all, even after long
use, but the spike-holes corrode and the spikes shake loose after continual
wear , they also rust, but apparently not more than in the case of teak
sleepers, though worse than jarrah. Sal holds the spikes longer and
better than others The wood somewhat resembles the so-called camphor-
wood of Borneo (Dryobalanops aromatica), but it is harder and heavier,
and would give more satisfactory results for strength and durability. It
would be a very useful constructional wood in England, and if it could be
obtained in regular supplies at a moderate cost its use should be en-
couraged.

I'hoto.-Mechl. Dept. Thomason College, Roorkee
SAL FOREST OF GOOD QUALITY, BENGAL

The pores are of moderate size and are plugged with gum ; they often
appear in patches. The medullary rays are very fine and clear-cut,
parallel, and joined at irregular intervals at right angles by faint white
lines.

Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

Weight 26-27 Iks- India, Burma.

VERN — Bed, bent, baisht, Hind. — Laila, bains, N.W. India — Bis, beis,

bttsa, bin, btdu, bakshel, magsher, safedar, badha, Pb. — Ytr, bins,

Kashmir — Bed, jalmdla, Dehra Dun — Garbains, Garhwal —

Bhanish, Kumaon — Btlsa, bhiusa, Oudh — Bhesh, Garo — Bhi, Ass.

466 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

— Wallunj, bacha, Bombay — Bocha, bitasa, Mar. — Nachal, K61 —
Cheur, Kharwar — Baigay, Badaga — Bes, Monghyr — Niranjt, Kan.
— Momaka, yethabye, yene, Burm. — Pam jama, Beng. — Indian
willow.

The wood is of a pale red colour, with a soft, porous, even grain.
Gamble reports it as used for posts, planks, and yokes ; and Troup (Forest
Memoirs) suggests its use for matches, but an examination of the wood
does not confirm his view as to its suitability.

The irregular concentric layers of growth are very clearly marked by
thin dark lines, with pronounced, thin layers of open pores, larger than the
pores in the spring and autumn wood, which are of moderate size and rather
sparse. The numerous, very close medullary rays are confused and hardly
discernible under the lens.

SALM WOOD. Cordia alliodora R. & P. Cham.

Weight 23-25 Ibs. British Honduras, Brazil.

VERN — Loro negro, peter ebi, Brazil.

This is a beautiful wood, reminiscent of but superior to Japanese kiri,
Paulownia imperialis. The colour is a dull golden brown. The wood has
a smooth grain and is very light in weight, but gives indication of being
relatively strong, and standing well.

The medullary rays show prominently on the radial section. Con-
centric layers are marked by strong broken lines ; making a very pretty
pattern on the transverse section, with numerous small pores, mostly
plugged ; broken and lighter lines marking the concentric layers. The
medullary rays are exceedingly strong. The sap-wood is liable to pin
worm-holes.

SAMBA.

See OBECHI.

SANDALEEN.

See Excoecaria sp.

SANDALWOOD. Santalum album Linn.

5. cygnorum Miq.

Weight 55 Ibs. India, Western Australia.

VERN — Chandan, chandal, sandal, Hind. — Gandha, gandada, Kan. —
Srigandam, Tarn. — Santagu, Burm.

The wood is of a dull yellow colour, which, exposed to light and air,
darkens almost to brown. It has a very close, firm texture, and a sticky
feeling to the touch. The fragrant aromatic and persistent scent is well
known, being familiar in the ornamental wood-work which has for a long
time been imported from India. Troup says that this is " the most

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 467

valuable wood in India, which grows as a parasite on the roots of other
plants. [It is] commonest in the native State of Mysore. The value lies
in the scented oil contained in the heart-wood. . . . There is a considerable
industry in the distillation of sandalwood oil from raspings of the heart-
wood/' He adds that it is a beautiful wood for ornamental turnery.

In Australia the extraction of sandalwood is a very important industry.
At present the wood is chiefly obtained from the roots of trees which,
many years ago, were destroyed by forest fires. The Hon. J. D. Connolly,
then Agent-General for Western Australia, wrote in 1911 : " The export of
sandalwood to the Far East, where it is used for carving images and for
ornamental work, has long been a substantial industry, and in the early
days the sandalwood getter was the pioneer of civilisation in many
districts." Dealing with the year 1910-11, he adds that sandalwood of a
value of £69,141 was exported.

The pores are exceedingly small and very numerous. The medullary
rays also are very fine, and both pores and medullary rays are difficult
to distinguish even with the lens ( + 12).

SANDALWOOD, WEST INDIAN.

See AMYRIS.

SAND AN. Ougeinia dalbergioides Benth.

Weight 55 Ibs. (Troup). India.

VERN — Sandan, asatnda, tinnas, timsa, Hind. — Shdnjan, pdnan, Oudh —
Sandan pipit, Nep. — Bandhona, Uriya — Kala palds, tewas, Mar.
— Tewas, ruthu, Melghat — Panan, Monghyr — Ruta, K61 — Rot,
Sonthal — Pannan, Koderma — Jaru, Khond — Eru, Koya — Chi-
chera, Reddi — Ser, shermana, tinsai, Gondi — Dargu, tella, motku,
Tel. — Kari muted, Kan. — Tewsa, Bhil — Rutok, ruthu, Kurku —
Tunnia, Banswara — Telus, Khandesh.

The wood is grey-brown and is often mottled. It is of a hard, close
texture and smooth grain, and takes a good polish. It is durable and
tough. Gamble says : " This very pretty and useful tree is a valuable one
in India. ... It makes excellent furniture. Roxburgh mentions that
the pillars of Maharaja Sindhia's palace at Oojein are made of it."

The pores are very regular, and form a pretty pattern. The medullary
rays are exceedingly fine, well-defined, very numerous, parallel, and
equidistant.

SANTA MARIA. Calophyllum Calaba Jacq.
Weight 53 Ibs.

Central America, Northern South
America, West Indies.

VERN — Santa maria, chijole mahogany, Trade — Marias, palo de maria,
P.R. — Ocuje, Cuba — Baria, varilla, maria, santa maria, S.D. —
Galba, galpa, galopa, aceito de maria, crabwood, Trin. — Maria,

468 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Venez. — Aceite, aceite de maria, Col. — Santa mar la, calaba, Pan. —
Maria, C.R. — Santa maria, krassa, Nic. — Maria, santa maria,
palo maria, hmowcillo de cordoba, Mex.

The wood of Santa Maria resembles that of the poon tree in India
(Calophyllum Inophyllum), so closely that it would be impossible for the
expert to distinguish between the two in finished work ; thus providing
a further interesting example of the remarkable similarity of woods in the
East and West Indies. The description given by Laslett is so good that
I think that it should be quoted complete. " The wood is of a pale
reddish colour, moderately hard, has a clean fine straight grain, and is a
little porous. It is generally free from injurious heart- or star-shake, has
few knots, does not shrink much, and scarcely splits at all in seasoning.
It is easily worked, and may therefore be considered a very fair substitute
for the plainest Honduras or Mexican mahogany. Some few years since
(1875) several cargoes of Santa Maria timber were brought to the royal
dockyards, and employed there* for beams, planking, etc., m ships ; and
although it would seem never to have been much in favour as a building
wood, there is good reason to think that in the absence of Mahogany it
might very well be used for cabin fitments, for furniture, and many other
purposes. This wood stands exposure to the weather remarkably well,
and is, I think, durable, since a parcel of about 150 loads which I inspected
after it had been left in the open in a moist country for about ten years,
showed scarcely any signs of deterioration either at the centre or at any
other part, and had but few shakes on the external surfaces/'

The pores arc moderate in both size and quantity and arc plugged.
The fine medullary rays are hardly discernible under the lens.

SAPAN or SAPPAN WOOD. Caesalpinia sapan

Siam, East Indies.

The colour is a brilliant orange red, with a very fine, close, tight gram,
very lustrous. Holtzapffel says it was imported as a dye-wood, greatly
inferior to Brazil-wood, C. echinata (q v.), and too unsound for turning.

If this wood can be obtained in straight pieces of any sufficient size,
it should be a good substitute for Brazil-wood for violin bows, etc.

The concentric layers are clearly marked by darker and lighter lines.
The pores are rather small, evenly distributed, numerous, and open, sur-
rounded by a half halo of light tissue The medullary rays are exceedingly
fine, very distinct, and parallel.

Sapindus emarginatus Vahl.

Weight 62 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon, India.

VERN — Ritha, Hind. — Bara-ntha, Beng. — Mukta may a, Uriya — Rita,
Mar. — Konkudu, Tel. — Pounanga, puvandi, neykoddan, panalai,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 469

Tam. — Thalay marathu, aratala, antawdla, Kan. — Areeta, Mai. —
Chdna, shothali, mthd vanji, Trav. Hills — Puvella, penela, Cingh.

The " soapnut " tree. The colour of the wood is a bright gamboge
yellow, with variable streaks of lighter and darker colour. The grain is
close and the wood hard, and it requires a very sharp tool to make a
smooth surface. Gamble reports it as very little used, only occasionally
for carts and in building, which is another instance of the wasteful use of
a valuable decorative wood, suitable for cabinet work and turnery.

The transverse section displays a very pretty pattern, the small pores
being arranged in belts or bands, joined by thin, light lines of tissue
crossed by finest but clear medullary rays, very numerous and regular.

SAPOCARANA. Source unknown.

Weight 49 Ibs. Brazil.

In Colonel Gamble's notes on Brazilian timber he says that this wood
is not so good as sapucaia de pilao, and adds that it resists white ant. To
compare these two woods at all appears to me to be rather perplexing, for
there is such a marked contrast between them. Sapocarana is a bright
yellowish-coloured wood, while the other is a deep brick-red, and their
structure is different.

Sapocarana, while it is not of such good quality or so heavy as satin-
wood, would make a good substitute for that wood.

The pores are very small and numerous ; they are irregularly distri-
buted and are often joined. The medullary rays are fine and numerous.
The concentric layers are marked by belts of more numerous pores.

SAPODILLA. Achras Zapota L

Weight 78 Ibs. British Honduras, Central America,

Southern Mexico.

YKRN — Sapodilla, nascbcrry, neesbcrry, msberrv, B.W.I. — Nispero, Sp.
Am gen — Zapote, sapote, Cuba — Sapoticr, sapotille, sapotiller,
Fr WI — Mispel, mtspelboom, DWI. — Chico, zapote chico,
chicozapote, Mex., Gnat. — Tzicozapotl.ya, Mex. — Xispero qmtense,
Kc. — Muyozapot, Salv — Korob, C.R. — Ibdn, NIC — Aluy, sapo-
dilla, chicle, Guat. — Sapotilla, Braz. — Breiapfel, sapotillbaum,
Germ. — Chicle tree, chewing-gum tree, Misc.

This tree would seem to be more important for the gum it exudes —
which is made into chewing gum — than for its timber properties. It is a
deep dark plum colour with a hard, close grain, like beefwood, which it
closely resembles.

The exceedingly small pores can hardly be discerned under the lens ;
nor can the separate, numerous fine medullary rays, which do not show
on the radial section.

470 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

SAPUCAIA. Lecythis sp.

Weight 69 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Sapucaia, sapacaia, sapucaya, sapucaia grande, Braz. — Monkey -
pot, cream-nut tree, sapucaia-nut tree, Eng.

This specimen, which is marked Lecythis Sapucaia, shows heart-wood
and sap-wood. The heart-wood is of a reddish-brown colour, and has a
close, firm texture, which takes a good smooth surface from the tool.
The sap-wood is a light yellow, and is perforated with worm-holes which
do not penetrate the heart-wood.

Brazilian Woods mentions sapucaia as the produce of Lecythis ollaria
Veil. ; it also gives sapucaia-mirim (L. minor, Veil.). The former is said
to be an excellent wood for building and naval architecture. This tree
bears a fruit known as " marmite de singe," and it is under the English
equivalent (" monkey-pot ") that the wood has been reported upon by
several authorities. Henry Walter Bates in The Naturalist on the Amazons
mentions that in the forests of the Para district he saw a quantity of large
empty wooden vessels which had fallen from the sapucaia tree. He goes
on to say : " They are called ' Monkeys' drinking cups ' (Cuyas de Macaco],
and are the capsules which contain the nuts sold under the name just
mentioned, in Covent Garden Market. At the top of the vessel is a circular
hole, in which a natural lid fits neatly. When the nuts are ripe this lid
becomes loosened, and the capsule falls with a crash, scattering the nuts
over the ground. The tree which yields the nut (Lecythis ollaria} is of
immense height. It is closely allied to the Brazil-nut tree (Bertholletia
excelsa), whose seeds are also enclosed in large woody vessels ; but these
have no lid and fall entire to the ground. This is the reason why the one
kind of nut is so much dearer than the other. The sapucaya is not less
abundant probably than the Bertholletia, but its nuts in falling are scattered
about and eaten by wild animals ; whilst the full capsules of Brazil-nuts
are collected entire by the natives."

Stone speaks of kakeralli as the produce of Lecythis ollaria Linn., and
gives as alternative names : sapucaia nut (British Guiana), sapucaia-pilao
(Rio de Janeiro), and barklak (Dutch Guiana). Yet while Stone's micro-
photograph of the structure of kakeralli agrees perfectly with my specimen,
he states that the colour of the wood is reddish- or greyish-brown, and
that this is not sharply defined from the light brown sap-wood ; on the
other hand my specimen shows a sharp line of demarcation between the
reddish-brown heart-wood and the whitish-yellow sap-wood. It is, how-
ever, possible that my specimen is the allied species Z,. grandiflora,1 which
is also known as sapucaia, and this Stone describes as having a light-red
heart-wood defined from the lighter sap-wood. Altogether this seems to
be a very valuable timber which should be better known and appreciated.

1 Not in Record.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 471

The pores are rather scarce and are plugged. The medullary rays are
very fine and numerous, and are crossed by lighter wavy lines of loose
tissue.

SAPUCAIA DE PILAO. Lecythis pisonis.

Weight 79 Ibs. Brazil.

This is closely allied to the foregoing. Colonel Gamble describes it as a
first-class wood and says that it is used for piles and in civil and naval
architecture ; and that it resists white ant. He gives the height of the
tree as 80 feet, with a diameter of over 6 feet 6 inches. To use such
a wood as this for works of construction appears strange, for it is much
more suitable for decorative art furniture than for any other purposes.
It is of a brick-red or mahogany colour, and has a fine smooth grain taking
a beautiful surface from the tool. Indeed in many respects it presents the
qualities of the best Spanish mahogany, even to the peculiarity of the
white chalky marks, which show in the open pores on the tangential
surface.

The pores are very scarce and small and are partially plugged. The
exceedingly fine medullary rays are intersected at right angles by equally
fine concentric lines which thus divide the field into countless minute
squares. The rays show in tiny silvery flecks on the radial section.

Sarcocephalus cordatus Miq.

Weight 35 Ibs. India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Vammi, Tarn. — Bakmi, Cingh — Ma-u, ma-u-lettanshe , ma-u-
kadon, ma-u-lelan, ma-u-gyt, Burm.

The wood is of a light grey-brown, with a soft punky grain. It could
not be recommended for works of any importance.

The pores, which are not large, are numerous and regular in size and
position. The medullary rays are not visible with the lens ( + 12).

SASSAFRAS, TASMANIAN. Atherosperma Moschata Labill.

Weight 42 Ibs. Australia, Tasmania.

An attractive, dark grey-coloured wood, with dark streaks, and a close,
firm grain resembling magnolia. An effective decorative wood for
panelling and all cabinet work. Baker says : " The cabinet softwoods
Sassafras Doryphora sassafras and Atherosperma moschata are both well
known.'1

The lines of concentric growth are clearly visible to the naked eye.

The pores are very numerous, exceedingly minute, uniform in size,
largely plugged, with irregular, ill-defined medullary rays which show on
the radial section, making a ripple-like pattern.

472 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

SASSWOOD. Erythrophloem guineense G. Don.

Nigeria.
VERN — Brun, mwavi, ordeal tree, sasswood.

A hard and very durable timber, used in constructional work where
great strength and durability are required, and for wheelwrights' work.

SATINEE. Perhaps Ferolia ginanensis Aubl. or F. variegata Lam.

Weight 54 Ibs. French Guiana.

This valuable highly decorative wood is insufficiently known or appre-
ciated in England, although it was mentioned by Laslett in 1875. In
France, however, it has been extensively used, and is highly valued for its
unusual qualities. The colour is light red, which bleaches a little and
assumes a very bright lustre or sheen, especially when treated with a thin
transparent polish in the attractive manner peculiar to the French artist.
There is no other wood comparable to it for work in the French Empire
style. The nearest approach is, perhaps, the San Domingo abey (Pocppigia
excelsa) or the Malayan keranji (Dialium sp.), although the keranji, while
displaying a most brilliant lustre, is rather lighter in colour, There is
always a slightly marked, very narrow shade or roe (caused by the contrary
soft and hard grain), which when laid alternate ways adds greatly to the
appearance of the panel or cabinet.

The pores are irregular in size and position. The medullary rays,
which are very fine, are exceedingly numerous and sharply defined.

SATIN WOOD, AFRICAN. ... „ ,Af.

West Coast of Africa.

Under the above name, or the names of " yellowwood " or " green-
heart/' there have been imported from several ports on the West Coast of
Africa a number of logs of varying sizes up to 3 feet square. As to the
source of the wood I am incompletely informed. Mr. J. J. Richardson
submitted specimen leaves and wood of the tree to the authorities at Kew,
who attributed them to a species of Acacia. Mr. Richardson was unac-
quainted with the native name of the tree.

The wood is greenish-yellow in colour and has a hard, smooth surface.
Some is beautifully figured, so that it is valuable for furniture, cabinet
work, panelling, brush backs, and the like. The timber should also be
useful where strength and a certain amount of elasticity are required. Mr.
George Miller has furnished and panelled a handsome room with this
wood, at Newberries, Radlett, Herts. The statement has been made that
it endangers the health of those who work it, but up to the present (1919)
only one case of illness that could be possibly associated with this timber
has been reported, and even in this instance the connection is doubtful.

The concentric layers are marked by indistinct dark lines. The pores

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 473

are regularly distributed, both singly and in pairs. The medullary rays
are very fine and close, parallel and irregular ; they show on the tangential
section.

SATINWOOD, ANDAMAN. Murraya exotica Linn.

Weight 62 Ibs. South and West India, Burma,

The Andaman Islands.

VERN — Marchula, juti, atal, Hind. — Marchi, Kumaon — Juti mersolo,
Garhwal — Bilgar, Dehra Dun — Kamini, Beng. — Naga golunga,
Tel — Kunti, Bombay — Raket-berdr, Gondi — Simali, Nep. — Shit-
zem, Lepcha — Thanatka, moksongayok, Burm. — Machalla, And.
— Ettenya, Cingh.

The wood is light yellow, with occasionally greyish streaks. It has been
compared to boxwood, but my specimen is quite dissimilar, lacking as it
does the even regularity of the colour in that wood. It is sometimes
prettily figured, would be suitable for cabinet work and for walking-sticks,
and would be appreciated if it became known in this country. Gamble
says that it has been tried for wood-engraving, for which it seems suitable
if well seasoned.

" Pores very small, sometimes in short radial lines of 2 or 3. Medullary
rays very fine, very numerous. Sharp, white, concentric lines, which
frequently run into each other, unevenly spaced, roughly about 40 to 50
per inch " (Gamble).

SATINWOOD, EAST INDIAN. Chloroxylou Swietenia DC.

Weight 59 Ibs. 8 oz. Ceylon and India.

VERN — Behra,girya, behru, bihn, C.P. — Bhirra, girya, Berar — Bhira, Gondi
— Bhirwa, Baigas — Bella, Paklonda — Halda, bhena, billu, Mar. —
Mududad, mutirat, bur us, punish, Tarn. — Billu, bilgu, Tel. —
Scngel, sail, K61 — Bharhul, Kharwar — Behru, Unya — Huragalu,
Mysore — Buruta, Cingh.

Although occasionally shipments of satinwood have been made from
Southern India and Bengal, by far the bulk of the supplies have come from
Ceylon. Large-sized trees have been seen in India, and one of good size
was cut down in the Botanical Gardens at Calcutta a few years since, but
generally only small timber has been available, in sizes from 5 inches to
8 inches in diameter. R. S. Troup, in a private note, mentions that the
tree is very common in parts of the Indian Peninsula, the largest out-turn
being from the Godaveri district of Madras.

A continuous and important trade has been conducted with Ceylon
for many years, the logs shipped ranging in size from 12 inches up to 3 feet
6 inches in diameter, and from 6 to 25 feet or even longer. The logs are
very liable to cup-shakes and gum-rings, which show on the butt ends in
thin lines following the layer of annual growth, sometimes parallel, some-

474

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

times completely round the tree. They are also subject to the borings of
large grubs, which leave holes from £ inch to i inch in diameter. These
generally occur on the outside of the tree, under the bark, rarely beyond
the sap-wood, but often reduce the proportion of convertible wood.
Nearly all the timber is more or less figured, a plain log being exceptional.
The figure ranges from a plain light- and dark-coloured stripe, or a broken
stripe or roe, to the finest broken roe with splash mottle figure. During
the last few years, until the early part of 1930, a vigorous demand grew
up on the Continent and in America, without similar interest in the United
Kingdom. The greatly enhanced prices which resulted produced a very
large supply, which included a high-class quality of magnificently figured

Photograph by G. R. Keen
EAST INDIAN SATINWOOD LOGS, CEYLON

wood, superior to anything which had previously been seen, and the
figures paid for the fine logs ran very high. With the world-wide trade
depression a reaction was experienced, the supplies largely exceeding the
demand, until satinwood claimed little interest in commercial circles. In
India the wood has been used for many purposes, including wharf piling,
agricultural implements, brush backs, carving and turnery, naves and
felloes of wheels, and a great variety of different work. The bridge at
Peradeniya, near Kandy, Ceylon, was constructed almost entirely of this
wood. It contained a single arch of over 2oo-feet span, which has lately
been taken down. In England its uses have been confined to brush and
mirror backs, small and large cabinets, also furniture and panelling. A
very handsome example of fine East Indian satinwood panelling can be
seen at Lyons' Popular Restaurant, Piccadilly. In many of the fine

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 475

examples of satinwood furniture East Indian wood has been used for
linings and cross bandings. It varies in colour more than the West
Indian, being of all shades from a bright yellow to a dark brown.

The concentric layers show in a similar manner to the West Indian
(Zanthoxylum), except that there is a greater variety in the lighter and
darker streaks.

The pores are very regular and evenly distributed and the medullary
rays clearly defined, parallel, and joined at irregular intervals by similar
white lines running at right angles. In all respects, except colouring, it

EAST INDIAN SATINWOOD

is remarkably similar to, and has all the characteristics of, the West Indian
wood.

SATINWOOD, WEST INDIAN. Zanthoxylum sp.

Weight 51 Ibs. 13 oz. The West Indies.

The finest satinwood, both in quality and colour, has been imported
from Porto Rico, but supplies of good-sized logs have almost ceased, and
most of the best wood of late has come from San Domingo. A small
number of logs of good quality and colour came from another island, circa
1906 to 1910, the origin being kept secret for trade reasons. Small-sized
wood of good quality and colour has been obtained from Jamaica in
limited quantities.

This very beautiful, decorative cabinet wood was appreciated at an
early date by the most artistic furniture designers and makers, who have
left to posterity a great many magnificent specimens of their art executed
mostly, if not wholly, in West Indian satinwood. The brothers Adam,

476

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Sheraton, and Hepplewhite have all stamped this wood with their art, and
their art with this wood. The work has sometimes been varied by the use
of bandings or linings, and, in a few instances, with whole panels, of other
decorative woods. Satinwood and sabicu produce a happy combination
of colour which particularly suits this type of furniture. Probably even
these great artists never imagined that the colour of the wood that they
used would mature to such a lovely tint as that assumed by satinwood
after iooor 150 years. This is a golden yellow colour with a bright, satiny
sheen which cannot be obtained by any artificial means, or equalled by any
other wood.

The logs range in size from about 7 inches to 24 inches in diameter, and

Photograph l>v 0 K Ka n
A VERY FINE LOG OF FIGURED EAST INDIAN SATINWOOD,

l8 FEET BY 9 FEET IN GIRTH
The figure can be clearly seen on the butt end

are generally manufactured in oblong pieces with nearly square rd^cs
Occasionally some are found even larger, but anything over 18 inches is
now very rare. I have a beautifully figured piece composing a table top,
which measures 28J inches wide by 4 feet long, and is all cut on the
quarter, entirely free from heart. This was probably from a log grown all
on one side, but which even then must have been fully 4 feet in diameter
and probably more. The plainer logs are used for such work as sides,
rails, styles, and mouldings, and for legs of cabinets ; while a very small
number of figured logs are also used for ornamental brush and mirror
backs. Nearly all the figured wood is converted into veneers for 1 uglily
decorative furniture and panelling. Such logs command very high prices

w
o

o
o

477

478 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

indeed, the record being about £18 per foot cube for a squared log, and
£150 per ton for a root of Porto Rico wood. A considerable number of
roots of trees were brought from Porto Rico in 1920, most of which were
used for ornamental brush and mirror backs ; a few, however, have pro-
vided some magnificently figured specimens of veneers, about 20 to 30
inches long, and ranging from about 8 inches in the narrower, to 15 inches
in the broader parts. These irregularly shaped pieces, when matched up,
form very handsome table tops and panels.

The colour of the Porto Rico wood is generally richer than that of
other varieties, although some of the logs imported from an unknown
source have equalled the best Porto Rico wood. Generally, however, all
other varieties are of a paler shade. The colour continues to deepen and
improve with exposure. There is a strong and pleasant scent in the wood
which somewhat resembles that of cocoanut oil. Logs kept for a con-
siderable time are liable to split with heavy side-shakes, but when con-
verted this risk disappears, and in this respect the wood shows a marked
superiority over East Indian satinwood (Chloroxylon Swietenia}.

The medullary rays are strongly marked, and are uneven and irregular,
showing slightly on the radial section as in sycamore. They are joined at
right angles by somewhat similar white lines, making an uneven oblong
pattern of various sizes. The pores are scattered, numerous, and fairly
regular ; they are generally filled with gum.

The produce of Zanthoxylum sp. is also obtainable from the East
Indies, the common name being somewhat confused because the East
Indian satinwood is Chloroxylon Swietenia, the Andamans satinwood
Murraya exotica, while two varieties not known in commerce or under the
name of satinwood are to be found in India. They are : Zanthoxylon
Rhetsa DC., a wood described by Pearson and Brown in Commercial
Timbers of India as " light greyish-yellow to yellowish-grey " colour, and
used in Southern India as planking, rafters, scantlings, axe handles, legs of
bedsteads, chair-making, etc. ; Zanthoxylon Budrunga Wall, described by
Pearson and Brown as " canary-yellow . . . fading to pale yellowish-
grey/' and their further description suggests that the wood is of a satin-
wood character.

Schima Wallichii Choisy.

Weight 44 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Chilauni, goechassi, Nep. — Makusal, Hind. — Sumbrong, sungsung,
Lepcha — Gugera, Goalpara — Makriah chilauni, makusal, nogakat,
nogabe", Ass. — Dingan, Khasia — Boldak, gugera, G£ro—Jam,
Cachar — Gogra, phulgogra, Mechi — Sangraban, Magh — Sambaw,
Arr. — Mukru, Manipur — Laukya, thityah, Burm.

This is a reddish wood, fairly hard and tough, durable but apt to
shrink and split unless carefully seasoned. The tree is rather common, and

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 479

a good quantity of timber can be obtained in squares 25 feet by 10 inches
by 10 inches. It is suitable for such work as bridges, building, and
planking.

Schrebera Swietenioides Roxb.

Weight 57 Ibs. (Gamble). India.

VERN — Moka, goki, ghant, gantha, Hind. — Patali, ghanta par all, Bandel-
khand — Jantia, nemiburo, Uriya — Makkam, mokob, mokalapu,
galla, Tel. — Mogalinga, Tarn. — Ghattdr, Baigas — Karindi, mokha,
dhakka, Gondi — Jhdn, Kurku — Mokkak, Bhil — Kalgante, Coorg
— Kasira, Sonthal — Guntera, Mai Pahari — Gaterh, Koderma —
Ghato, Ovaon — Ghanto, Kharwar — Jarjo, sundapsing, K61 —
Moko, Khond — Moke, Koya — Mokapa, Reddi — Thitswelb, Burm.

This wood is described by Troup as " brownish-grey, hard, close-
grained, no definite heart-wood, but irregular masses of purple or claret-
coloured wood in the centre, and scattered throughout the tree ; durable
and of good quality. Used for ploughs, weavers' looms, utensils ; possible
substitute for boxwood for engraving/' My specimen, taken from a trunk
sent over specially, is a uniform yellowish-brown colour, like a rather dull
satin wood (Chloroxylon Swietenia). There is no trace in the log of any
other colour. The wood is smooth and close-grained, but, according to
the specimen to which I have referred, is not suitable for engraving, as
Troup suggests. It should rather be employed for cabinet and decorative
work, for which its artistic appearance would recommend it.

The pores are regular and small. The medullary rays are also regular,
parallel, and unusually thick, showing plainly to the naked eye on the
transverse section.

Semecarpus Anacardium Linn.

Weight 33-44 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Bhilawa, bheyla, Hind. — Bhalai, Nep. — Bhela, bhelatuki, Beng. —
Bhalha, Uriya — Kongki, Lepcha — Bawaroe, Garo — Soso, Sonthal,
K61 — Bhilwa, Baigas — Sh^d^, Palkonda — Choso, Melghat — Kokha,
biba, Gondi — Shaing, shayrang, shengkotta, thembarai, Tarn. —
Jiri, jidi, nella-jedi, Tel. — Bibha, bibu, Mar. — Gheru, kari gheru,
ger, Kan. — Sambin, Trav. Hills — Bibwa, bibu, Mar.

Gamble reports this as the " marking-nut " tree, yielding a kind of
marking-ink.

The colour of the wood is a dirty greyish-brown, with a rather rough,
straight grain, of poor quality, and little interest.

The pores, which are medium-sized, parallel, plugged, are regular in
position, with numerous rough, confused medullary rays, which show in a
pronounced manner on the radial section.

480 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

SEPETIR. Sindora spp.

Malaya.
VERN — Saputi, sepetah.

The colour of the wood is yellow-brown, with dark streaks, and slightly
lustrous surface, and a very close, compact grain, yielding a smooth surface
under the tool. It has not been seen in commerce in the United King-
dom, but Foxworthy reports it as standing well ; he also states that
5. coriacea is much the commonest.

The concentric layers are marked by dark and light lines. The very
tiny, very scarce pores are almost invariably plugged, with numerous
but fine medullary rays forming irregular lines, crossed at right angles at
irregular intervals by thin layers of light tissue.

SEQUOIA. Sequoia sempervirens Endl.

Weight 25 Ibs. 5 oz.

Southern Oregon to Central California.

This timber is called " sequoia " in England and " redwood " in
America. It should not be confounded with the timber of the Big Tree
(Sequoia gigantea} which is not generally known in commerce. The colour
is a dull brick-red, deepening in tone with age and exposure, similar in its
style of marking to that of most pines, but occasionally trees are found to
contain curly and wavy figure, and sometimes burrs. When immersed in
water some of the colour washes out, as with African padauk, and Gibson
says : " This colouring matter, when washed out in large amounts in the
process of paper-making, has been manufactured into fuel gas."

Although the grain is rather soft and the timber dulls the edge of the
tool, a fine, smooth surface can be easily secured. It is used in America
for shingles, all kinds of joinery work and trim, sleepers, and paving blocks.
Gibson reports the wood as so strong and durable that when the ties are
worn out they are gathered up by thousands and used for fence-posts. It
has been extensively used in the United Kingdom for shipbuilding, fittings
of all kinds, and pattern-making. The late Mr. Wilberforce Bryant had
a much admired room at Stoke Poges panelled with sequoia.

It is very deceptive in regard to its seasoning qualities, as however long
it may have been drying, the wood when cut appears to be unseasoned, yet
with less than the usual period allowed for drying other woods, it has been
found to stand well when others fail, and in a particular place the wood
withstood the trying conditions imposed by a mantelpiece and overmantel
of a fireplace. As it is not liable to heavy shrinking, and is obtainable in
very wide widths, it is most suitable for sign-boards and panels of all kinds.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 481

Reference has been made elsewhere to the mistaken idea, prevalent through-
out the United Kingdom, that all timbers should be french polished, and
perhaps no wood gives more evidence of this error than sequoia, which
should be treated in quite a different manner.

The trees are of immense size, yielding exceedingly wide planks, up to
and possibly over 6 feet in width, free from defect.

The annual rings are clearly marked by a dark band of stronger grain,
and are very irregular. The tree generally makes large growth in early
life, growing more slowly at a later period ; the annual growth in both
early and later life varying considerably from year to year. The medullary
rays are clearly marked, and are parallel on the transverse section. They
stand out from the soft grain, giving, with the concentric layer, somewhat
the appearance of a miniature honeycomb. When cut on the quarter,
these concentric rings appear like thin red stripes, much darker than the
general colour, and the medullary rays are strongly marked, as in the
plane tree.

SERAYA, SERA YAH, or SERIAH. Shorea sp., Shorea Curtisii Dyer.

Weight 22 Ibs. 2 oz. Malay Peninsula, Borneo.

VKRX — Meranti seraya, bohoi.

Foxworthy, who in his earlier publication ascribes this wood to Hopea
sp., does not refer it to this source in his later work ; he ascribes the whole
produce to Shorea sp., and says : " The Merantis are the trees which
dominate and give character to our lowland forests. ... A number of
species of Shorea, perhaps as many as twenty, produce this, our most
abundant timber tree. . . . The different Merantis are usually known in
Singapore as Seriah (more correctly Seraya)."

The product of this tree has been imported from the Malay Peninsula,
Borneo, and Singapore, mostly in sawn square planks and boards, and a
few logs hewn square. The converted pieces have been cut out free from
all defect, and the wood has been called by a variety of names, such as
East Indian mahogany and East Indian cedar, as well as by its proper
name of serayah. It is light in weight, and so similar in colour and appear-
ance to Gaboon mahogany (Boswellia Klaineana) that individual pieces
when planed can hardly be distinguished from it by the naked eye. The
end section shows some degree of difference. A considerable variation in
texture, quality, and weight has been found in different shipments, but it
is all very liable to warp and twist, and this timber should never be used
in any position where it is not fixed and tied down. It is a good substi-
tute for mahogany in cheap work, or for cheap cigar-boxes, but the
grain is of a woolly, spongy nature, and it is difficult and costly to

482 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

obtain a smooth finish from the tool. The following are the best known
species :

Meranti Tembaga (Shorea leprosula Miq.).
Nemesu (Meranti Pa'ang) (Shorea bracteolata Dyer).
Melantai (Shorea macroptera Dyer).
Meranti Rambai Daun (Shorea acuminata Dyer).
Meranti Sarang Punai (Shorea parvifolia Dyer).
Kepong (Shorea sericea Dyer).

The annual layers are strongly defined, the pores are irregularly placed
and uneven in size. The medullary rays are confused and ill-defined, but
show very strongly on the radial section as in sycamore and beech.

SERVICEBERRY, WESTERN. Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt.

Canada, United States.

A heavy, hard, close-grained wood, of a light brown colour.

SERVICE TREE, WILD. Pyrus torminalis Ehrh.

Weight 39 Ibs. 13 oz. Europe, North America.

The wood is hard and close-grained, with a smooth texture, and is of a
yellowish -red with lighter coloured streaks. Elwes and Henry say it " is
unknown as a timber tree in the trade, owing to its scarcity. Evelyn says
that ' the timber of the sorb is useful to the joiner, of which I have seen a
room curiously wainscotted ; also to the engraver of woodcuts, and for
most that the wild pear tree serves/ "

The numerous pores, which are very small, are quite regular. The
medullary rays are hardly discernible even with the aid of the magnifying
lens ( + 12).

Sha.

China.

A wood resembling Canadian red pine, but with a much softer grain.

Professor Chung's specimen says it is the produce of Cunninghamii
lanceolata, and Professor Record confirms that the wood is undoubtedly
Cunninghamii sp.

Sha-chu. (See WALNUT, Juglans regia.)

China.

Professor Chung's specimens were all numbered, and No. 40 is marked
Sha-chu. On the list provided to Professor Record for his identification,
No. 40 is a specimen of Cinnamomum Camphora, but the No. 40 in Pro-
fessor Chung's specimens sent to Kew is of true walnut, Juglans regia, as
above.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 483

The wood is similar in grain, colour, weight, and all other respects, to
the European variety of this species.

Shan-t'ao. Source unknown.

China.

This is a specimen of a common wood, much disfigured by worm-holes.
It is possibly a plum, and of little account.

The very numerous pores are minute and invariably plugged, with the
finest possible numerous medullary rays crossed irregularly at right angles
by faint white lines, marking the concentric layers.

Sh-eng-ch'ai.

China.

Professor Record says this is Chamaecypris sp. The wood is sweet-
scented, aromatic, of a light straw colour with a golden brown, in all but
colour resembling Japanese hinoki.

The lines of concentric layers are marked with dark golden brown,
shading to a lighter colour.

SHEE OAK. Casuarina Fraseriana Miq.

Weight 42 Ibs. Western Australia.

Also called sheoak and she-oak. According to Baker the shoe oaks
(Cabuarincae) derive their names from the sound of the wind when passing
through the branches. The colour of this wood is a light reddish-yellow ;
it has a smooth, hard texture which is somewhat comparable with live
oak. The medullary rays show strongly in a series of large-sized flecks or
splashes. It is a handsome wood for decorative cabinet work, and was so
used rather extensively in this country during the latter part of the nine-
teenth century. For many years there has been no import on a com-
mercial basis. The Forestry Commission, New South Wales, says : " She-
oaks vary so much in depth of tint and distribution of the blotchy grain
to which the wood owes so much of its beauty, that it is difficult to describe
by any brief general description. Used for shingles, staves . . . orna-
mental turnery work . . . cabinet work . . . generally in veneers . . . and
good screws of hand screws."

Shih-kun. Source unknown.

China.

A very hard, close-grained, nut-brown coloured wood, resembling
English-grown apple in grain and hardness, and the pear tree in colour.
The specimen is cut from a very small tree and continues to split.

484 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Shorea assamica Dyer.

Weight 36 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Burma.

VERN — Makai, Ass.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
as " light tawny grey to light brown . . . fairly straight-grained, even and
coarse-textured. . . . The timber lasts fairly well under cover ... it is used
for construction, bridge planks, dugouts, canoes and furniture."

Shorea talura Roxb.

Weight 65-70 Ibs. (Gamble). Southern India.

VERN — Talura, talari, Tarn. — Jaldn, Tel. — Jdld, Coorg — Jalaranda, Kan.

This wood is much like Shorea obtusa but milder-grained, rather shorter,
and less liable to warp. Has not been seen in commerce.

Pores minute to rather small, mostly open, with rather rough-edged
medullary rays parallel, not equidistant.

Shui-li. Source unknown.

China.

This wood resembles American poplar (Liriodendron tulipiferd) and
Japanese katsura (Cercidiphyllum japonicum), or half-way between these
two woods. Record says it is magnolia.

The pores and medullary rays are so fine as to be hardly discernible
under the lens, but the medullary rays show as tiny flecks on the radial
section.

Sideroxylon tomentosum Roxb.

Weight 51 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Burma.

VERN — Kanta bohul, kontaboro, Unya — Palei, mul-makil, Tarn. — Holay,
Badaga — Hudigolla, kumpoh, Kan. — Kumbul, kanta kumla,
Bombay.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, report this wood
as being " light yellowish-brown, turning to light brown with age, without
markings , heart-wood not distinct . . . straight-grained, very fine-
textured. ... It is said to be durable if used under cover, but to be
affected by dry rot if exposed to damp."

SILKY OAK. Grevillea robusta, Orites excelsa, Cardwellia sublimis.
Weight 37 Ibs. Australia.

The colour of the wood is pinkish-red, rather like American red oak
(Quercus rubra), with a fairly hard, close grain, yielding a smooth surface
from the tool. It has a kind of mottled appearance, a pink-red ground
with dark splashes on the tangential surface, and a strong clash figure
caused by broken-up patches of the medullary rays on the radial cut, as in
oak. There is a certain silky or lustrous surface, hence the name.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 485

Throughout Australia it has been recognised as one of the best native
decorative woods, and has consequently commanded a fair price. In
Europe, where a wider choice of decorative woods is available, silky oak
has not hitherto received much attention ; but in the course of the last
year (1931), as a result of the Empire preference phase, a considerable
increase in the demand has been experienced. In Australia it has a high
reputation for seasoning and standing well, but it has not been used suffi-
ciently in the United Kingdom for any opinion to be given. The tree
has been largely introduced into India and Ceylon, and the traveller there
finds it everywhere, especially as a shade tree on tea plantations. A speci-
men cut from a tree grown in Ceylon produces a wood slightly softer in
the grain, but otherwise equal in quality to the Australian-grown timber.

Swain states that it is strong, tough, holds nails tightly, and is easy
to handle and work ; can be carved, veneered, bent, glued, and stained
equally well. It makes high-class ply-wood, stands exposure to weather
but is not durable in the ground, and has an all-round excellence for
cabinet-making.

The pores are sparse, open, and plugged, about half and half. As
would be expected, the feature of the transverse section is in the wide,
rough-edged, exceedingly strong medullary rays, which, in wavy belts,
cause the unusual marking of clash on the radial section.

SlLKWOOD, BOLLY. Cryptocarya oblata.

Weight 34 Ibs. (Swam). Queensland.

Also known as Tarzali silkwood, Macquarie maple, or Mazlin's beech.
Swain reports that the colour is " pale mauvish-pink ... it is a firm
softwood of egg-shell lustre, lighter, softer, and weaker than Maple Silk-
wood . . . easy to work and mortice, dresses cleanly, and takes a bright
polish."

Useful for cabinet work, joinery, and turnery, and might be used in
ply-wood and veneer. A very good substitute for maple silkwood, but
is not so strong and tough.

SILLY YOUNG. Lucuma belizcnsis Standl.

British Honduras.

A plain wood of a straw colour, with no interesting characteristics.
Not attractive enough for decorative woodwork.

Concentric layers marked by fine darker coloured lines, numerous and
extremely small pores almost entirely plugged, with extremely fine
medullary rays.

SILVERBALLI, BROWN. Ocotea sp. or Ncctandra sp.

Weight 33-34 Ibs. British and Dutch Guiana.

The wood is reported from the Forestry Department, British Guiana,

486 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

as weighing 49^-56! Ibs., but my specimen sent from there, when dried,
is found to weigh as stated above.

The source of the silverballis is still uncertain. The Forestry Depart-
ment in British Guiana report them as Nectandra sp. Record gives the
identification as Ocotea sp. for brown silverballi, stating as his authority
the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

The colour is a dark walnut brown with a lustrous sheen, and a hard,
close grain, which does not yield a very fine surface from the tool. An
attractive, decorative wood which, if regular supplies of fair widths and
lengths could be obtained, would be in great demand. The wood is easy
to work, and although light in weight is comparatively strong.

The concentric layers are marked by dark rings, with rather numerous
pores, varying from small to rather large, both open and plugged, with
fine, irregular medullary rays which show on the radial section in small
flecks.

SILVERBALLI, KERITI. Ocotea aff. fasciculata Mcz.
Nectandra Pichurim Mez.
Weight 27-28 Ibs. British Guiana.

The colour is a dirty greyish-brown with darker streaks, a fairly hard-
grained wood, yielding a smooth surface from the tool, with a lustrous
sheen. Resembling angelique, but softer.

The pores are rather small to medium in size, generally open, with
coarse, rough-edged medullary rays, which show on the radial section in the
tiniest flecks.

SILVERBALLI, YELLOW. Aniba Jenmam Mez.
Persea aff. nivea Mez.
Weight 37 Ibs. British Guiana.

The wood is similar to the Keriti in colour, appearance, and grain,
but heavier and harder.

The very small pores are scarce, mostly surrounded by a halo of light
tissue, and frequently plugged. The medullary rays are very numerous,
parallel, sharp, and clearly defined.

Simaruba amara Aubl.

Weight 28 Ibs. (Record). Brazil, The Guianas.

VERN — Simaruba, simarupa, maruba, aruba, B.G. — Soemaroepa, walkara,

adoonsidero, Sur. — Simarouba, acajou blanc, bois blanc, bois de

Cay an, Fr. W.I. — Marupd, marupauba, maruba , Braz. — Simar-

ruba, Col. — Brazilian white pine.

A dirty, yellow-white coloured wood, with a straight, rather rough
grain, of poor quality. Liable to the attack of worm (beetle) and not

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 487

suitable for export. It should not be confused with quassia, although
containing some similar qualities.

It is reported upon by Record, who also mentions " Other species,
parahyba, pdo parahyba, paraiba, pe de perdiz, caixeta, caixeta branca,
malacacheta, marupd-rana, caju-rana, pitombeura de Marajo (Braz.) ;
paradise tree, bitterwood (Fla.) ; bitter damson, bitter dan, mountain damson,
stavewood (Jam.) ; palo bianco, simaruba (Cuba) ; olivo (Pan.) ; simaruba
(C.R.) ; acietuno negrito (Nic.) ; acietuno, jucumico (Salv.) ; xpaxakil
(Mex.)."

The pores are very scarce, variable in size and position, joined by faint
lines with numerous, irregularly placed, rather coarse medullary rays.

Sissoo. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.

Weight 48 Ibs. India.

Vj'.RN — Shisham, sissn, sissai, Hind. — Shewa, Pushtu — Tali, safedar, shin,
nelkar, Pb. — Sissdi, Oudh — Yette, Tarn.

The timber of sissoo is probably unknown to any but those possessing
an intimate knowledge of India and its forest wealth. Yet sissoo is one
of the most valuable of timbers, and in its qualities practically unique.
The grain is so remarkable that the native craftsman can work the most
delicate and intricate carving, to a depth which the European would
hardly believe to be possible of achievement in any wood. The native
princes in India possess works of this character which would astonish the
craftsmen of this country who have not previously been familiar with the
wood and the native workmanship.

The colour is a rich warm brown, sometimes having golden or deeper
brown streaks, and darkening on exposure. The texture is firm, hard, and
compact. It is very strong and durable, and seasons well without warping,
twisting, or splitting, while it takes a beautiful polish. It is extensively
used in India for a variety of purposes. Gamble states : " As a furniture
wood and for carving, it is probably the finest wood in India ; while with
regard to its durability and strength as a wood for wheels, Clifford says :
' The wheels of our ordnance carriages have never failed, however arduous
or lengthened the service has been on which they have been employed, of
which no more striking example can be furnished than the campaign in
Afghanistan, about the most trying country in the world for wheels.
Some of our batteries served throughout the campaign, went to Bameean
and even to the Hindoo Koosh, and came back again to India without a
breakdown, while Royal Artillery wheels, built of the very best materials
Woolwich could produce, specially for Indian service, almost fell to pieces
after a few months' exposure and service on the plains of India/ " Sissoo
gives a very handsome appearance when used for parquet flooring. If a

488 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

regular supply of this timber were obtainable it would become an assured
success.

The pores are scarce, the larger connecting with a ring of smaller, and
making a handsome ripple pattern on the transverse grain. The medul-
lary rays are very fine, numerous, and parallel, and are crossed at right
angles by similar white lines.

SNAKEWOOD. Brosimum Aubletii Sw.

Piratinera guianensis Aubl.

Weight 77-83 Ibs. (Stone & Freeman). British Guiana.

VERN — Lettenvood, snakewood, leopard wood, speckled wood, tortoiseshell
wood, Eng. — Bois de lettres, bois de lettres de Chine, bois de lettre
mouchete, bois d'amourette mouchete, Fr. — Letterholz, buchstaben-
holz, schlangenholz, muskatholz, tigcrholz, Germ. — Lctterhout,
letterhoudt, Dutch — Legno tigre, legno serpente, Ital. — Burokoro,
burracura, bourracourra, boutous, cangica paira, tibikushi, tibicusi,
B.G. — Letterhout, man letter hout, roode letter hout, gespikkeld Ictter-
hout, letri, manletn, kapeweri letri, basra Ictn, poevinga, pauletoe,
bcpauletoe, moejepauletoe, kolero, koelero, koereroe, bclekoro, boele-
kolle, sokone biberoe, paida, ivekere paida, tianahn iveive, tokoro
apolli mene, Sur. — Bois de lettre mouchete, bois de lettre gris, pira-
tmer.piratminere, Fr.G. — Boislezard, Leeward Is. — Mmrapinima,
muirapemma, moira pinima, murure', gatia, gateado, gamalleira
preta, pdo rainha de listras, pdo tartarugo, pdo vermelho, barrueh, oiti-
minmayra, Braz. — Guaimaro, casiquecare, Pan. — Lignum liter atum.

This wood is imported in short round logs from about 3 to 6 feet long
and about 3 to 7 inches in diameter with the sap-wood cut off. It is very
hard, dense, and close-grained, and is rather brittle, generally of a faulty
description ; supplies are growing more scarce. The colour of the heart-
wood is a deep bright red, which darkens on exposure, and is more or less
marked with dark or black rings and spots, which, resembling the marking
of a snake, account for its name. It is principally valued for walking-
sticks, well-marked pieces suitable for this purpose realising, especially in
Paris and New York, very high prices. It is also used for handles of
umbrellas and parasols, for inlay work, bows for archery, and fiddle bows.
The sap-wood is of a bright light yellow colour, and Stone (Timbers of
Commerce, p. 203) suggests that it might be used as a substitute for box-
wood. So far, however, the sap-wood has not been imported.

The pores are very scarce and exceedingly small. The medullary rays
are numerous and variable ; some which are very sharp and prominent
have fine, small secondary rays running between them.

SNAKEWOOD, INDIAN. Strychnos colubrina Linn.

S. nux vomica Linn. T ,.

India.

This wood is not important, and is not encountered in ordinary
commerce in the United Kingdom.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 489

SNEEZEWOOD. Pteroxylon utile Eck. & Z.

Weight 65-75 Ibs. South Africa.

This wood, valuable as it is for its great durability, is so fully appreci-
ated and utilised in its native country that it is unlikely ever to have much
commercial importance in the United Kingdom. In common with some
other timbers, though in sneezewood probably in a greater degree than any
others, the dust from the wood causes sneezing.

SNOWDROP TREE. Halesia Carolina Linn.

Weight 39-40 Ibs. South Carolina, Florida.

The colour is salmon pink, with a close, firm, hard grain resembling
that of Canadian birch in both respects, but with a marking somewhat like
satin walnut. It provides a rather attractive wood for decorative cabinet
work, assuming an agreeable colour on exposure to light.

The rather scarce pores are exceedingly small, and irregular in position,
with fine, ill-defined, thin, short medullary rays.

Sonneratia apetala Ham.

British India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Keowra, Beng. — Kylanki, Tel. — Marama, Tarn. — Kanbala, labe,
Burm.

A dull reddish-brown coloured wood with a close, even grain, resembling
several South American woods very closely. Foxworthy says that it is
moderately hard, and used for house-building, packing-cases, planks, and
fuel.

SOPHORA. Sophora japonica Linn.

China and Japan.

The wood is known in Japan as yen-ju or en-ju, and is of a golden-
greenish-brown colour, with a lustrous sheen, capable of a very smooth
surface from the tool, resembling laburnum, but lighter in colour and more
lustrous. It is tough and durable, though light and coarse-grained, and
is used in Japan for the pillars and frames of the wooden houses.

The concentric layers are marked by lines of dark and light growth,
with very prominent single lines of pores in each concentric layer, the
remaining portion being dotted with the finest possible unopen pores.
The medullary ray is very fine and irregular, showing on the radial section
in tiny flecks.

490 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Soymida febrifuga Adr. Juss.

Weight 74 Ibs. (Gamble). Central and Southern India.

VERN — Rohan, Hind. — Rohina, Beng. — Rohan, rohini, pohora, Bcrar. —
Shem, wond, Tarn. — Sumi, Tel. — Sohan, suam, Uriya — Soimi,
Gondi — Royta, Bhil — Somangi, Khond — Soymide, Palkonda —
P alar a, Mar.

According to Gamble this wood is called " Indian redwood," but the
name is not suitable, as the colour of the wood is half-way between that
of American black walnut and rosewood, and should be described as
blackish-brown. It has a beautiful, close, compact grain, giving a fine
surface from the tool, and is a valuable and attractive decorative furniture
wood ; for all high-class purposes comparing well, in this respect, with
Spanish mahogany.

SPINDLE TREE. Euonymus europoeus Linn.

Europe, North Africa, Siberia.

Also known as European prickwood. The colour is white, with a very
compact, even, smooth grain and texture, like Venezuelan boxwood. It
is light, tough, and said to be easily cut and difficult to split. It is used
for spindles, turnery, and when carbonised for making crayons, and in the
manufacture of gunpowder.

Spondias mangifera Pers.

Weight 26 Ibs. India, Burma, Ceylon, Andaman

Islands.

VERN — Amra, amara, ambodha, Hind. — Ambar, Oudh — Amara, Nep.,
Ass. — Amna, Beng — Ronchihng, Lepcha — Tongrong, adai, Garo
— Kat mda, ampallai, Tarn. — Aravi mamadi, amatum, Tel — Kat
ambolam, Mai. — Amb, Mar. — Amte, amati, givoddan, Kan. —
Hamdra, Gondi — Ambera, Kurku — Ambota, Uriya — Ambeti, leina,
Khond — Ambada, Mar. — Katamba, kekda, Berar — Ambalam, Mai.
— Ambayam, mdmpuh, Trav. Hills — Embarella, Cingh. — Puh ille,
Kader — Gw&, pwebaung, Burm.

The hog plum. This is a soft and spongy greyish-white wood. The
timber is of little, if any, commercial value.

The pores are large, numerous, and often subdivided. Medullary rays
fine, and moderately broad, irregular, white, prominent, distinctly marked
as long narrow plates in the silver grain.

SPRUCE. Picea excelsa Link.

Weight 36 Ibs. 6 oz. Europe, Canada, United States.

This timber, if imported from the Baltic, is called " white fir/' " white
deal," or " white," but if from Canada or the United States, the name
" spruce " is used. It would be preferable to use the correct term
" spruce " for the produce of all these countries.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 491

The wood is white, and straight and even in the grain ; it is tough,
elastic, and light, and more difficult to work than pine, chiefly owing to
the excessive hardness of the small knots which are frequently found in it.
These are generally blackish, or they are surrounded by a black ring, and
often form the only means of distinguishing the wood from the so-called
" yellow-deal " (Pinus sylvestris). The Baltic spruce is milder and easier
to work than the Canadian or American ; some of the latter is exceedingly
tough and hard to saw and plane. When cut into deals it is somewhat
disposed to warp, unless it is carefully stacked in the places where it is
stored during the process of seasoning. The shrinkage is inconsiderable,
and the sap-wood, though generally only of moderate thickness, is rarely
noticeable, while if it is distinguishable, the timber has been allowed to
get rain-wet before drying.

The trees are generally straight, and being strong as well as elastic
they are admirably suited for making the small spars required for ships
and boats. They are also in great request for ladders and scaffold poles.
The timber is useful for all kinds of interior joiners' work, and in the
simpler forms of furniture and articles of domestic offices, such as cup-
boards and tables. For these purposes the only objection is that, not-
withstanding the use of the best varnish or paint, the mark of the hand or
machine-plane shows through more than in the yellow deal or other
similar woods. For timbering work indoors its life is probably slightly
less than that of yellow deal. In this connection it may be remarked
that it is strange that whereas architects and engineers will not allow its
use for this work in London or the South of England, it is common to
specify and use it in Liverpool, the North-West districts, and in Scotland
and Ireland. For constructional work out of doors, however, or where
strength is required, it should not be used, as when exposed to the varia-
tions of the weather it soon decays ; and on one occasion the collapse of a
large staging constructed in this wood, and formed for people to witness a
ceremony, resulted in considerable casualties.

Used for sleepers, spruce has proved to be quite satisfactory. A letter
from Mr. E. Trench, of the London & North-Western Railway, dated 2^rd
July 1919, reads : "... the sleepers . . . were laid in the Ingleton x
Branch in 1886 and 1887, and the great majority of them are still on the
road. These sleepers were invoiced as ' spruce,' and probably many of
them were spruce, but I am not in a position to say that they all were,
and it is difficult now to identify the timber. They were purchased from
the Duke of Buccleuch, and were grown in Dumfriesshire."

The concentric layers are clearly marked by a dark ring, It is im-
possible to see the medullary rays under the lens ( + 12), but the rays
show very finely as faint flecks on the radial section.

1 Yorkshire.

492 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

SPRUCE, BLACK. Picea mariana B.

Canada, Northern United States.

The colour is pale yellowish-white ; the wood is soft and light, not
strong. Used for paper pulp.

SPRUCE, ENGELMANN. Picea Engdmanni Engelm.

British Columbia, Western United
States.

In colour this wood is pale yellow tinged with red, very little sap-
wood ; it is close-grained, light, and soft, not strong. Manufactured into
lumber and used extensively for building purposes, also for fuel and char-
coal.

SPRUCE, HEMLOCK. Tsuga canadensis Carr.

Weight 36 Ibs. Eastern North America.

Gibson describes the wood as follows : " The wood of hemlock is soft,
light, not strong, coarse and crooked grained, difficult to work, liable to
wind-shake, splinters badly, not durable. The colour of hemlock heart-
wood is light brown, tinged with red, often nearly white. The sap-wood
is darker. . . . The physical characteristics of hemlock are nearly all
unfavourable, yet it has become a useful and widely used wood. It is
largely manufactured into coarse lumber and used for outside work —
railway ties, joists, rafters, laths, etc. It is rarely used for inside finishing
owing to its brittle and splintery character. Clean boards made into
panels or similar work, and finished in the natural colour, often present a
very handsome appearance, owing to the peculiar pinkish tint of the wood
ripening and improving with age. With the growing scarcity of white
and Norway pine, hemlock has become the natural substitute for these
woods for many purposes. ... In 1910 hemlock lumber was cut in
twenty-one States, the total output exceeding 2,500,000,000 feet.

" Hemlock possesses remarkable holding power on nails and spikes,
and that is one reason for its large use for railway ties. It does not easily
split, and there is no likelihood that spikes will work loose ; but the wood
decays quickly in damp situations, and unless given preservative treat-
ment hemlock ties do not last long. Manufacturers of boxes and crates
use much hemlock. The wood is also employed by car builders, manu-
facturers of refrigerators and farm implements, but the largest demand
comes from those who use the rough lumber.

" The summer wood of the wood of the annual ring is conspicuous,
and the thin medullary rays are numerous.'*

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 493

SPRUCE, HIMALAYAN. Picea Moriuda Link.

Weight 31 Ibs. India.

VERN — Wesha, bajur, Afg. — Kachal, v6t nar, kachan, Hazara, Kashmir —
Rewan, ban ludar, sangal, salla, sarei, kduh, rot, rag, rdo, bang re
krok, Pb., Himalaya — Tos, Ravi — Raut raiang, re, ryang, Sutlej —
Rai, Jaunsar — Kandre, re, rhdi, rdo, khutrau, ndlla, rdgha,
monnda, kail, kilu, Garhwal, Kumaon — Sehshtng, Bhutia.

The wood of this tree greatly resembles that of the European spruce,
and contains the same well-known black knots. While its com-
mercial value is not at the present time very great, yet the Indian
supplies fill an important place in the reserves for the future needs
of the Empire.

The concentric layers form a grain which is comparable with that of the
cedar, though this wood is probably of a milder nature.

SPRUCE, JAPANESE. Abies Mariesii Mast.
Picea ajanensis Fisch.

Japan.

Included in shipments of oak, ash, etc., from Japan, there has been a
fairly considerable quantity under the name of Japanese spruce. As the
supplies were not uniform and regular, an inquiry was made and it was
discovered that the shipments were said to contain two quite different
species, namely " Todo matsu " (Abies Mariesii Mast.) and " Yezo matsu "
(Picea ajanensis Fisch.). Both of these were regarded by the shippers as
spruce, and of a quality corresponding with the well-known European
spruce. A more careful examination of these shipments disclosed that in
addition to the two species named above there was also included timber
which bore a distinct resemblance to the Baltic red pine (Pinus sylvestris] ,
and which might possibly have been the Japanese red pine (Pinus densi-
flord). The confusion arising from these mixed shipments, supplemented
by a definite opinion from the shipper that no red pine was included, has
made it impossible to make any definite statement.

It is estimated that there is an annual supply of 750,000 tons of this
Japanese spruce ; that is, 500,000 tons of " Todo matsu " and 250,000
tons of " Yezo matsu."

SPRUCE, SITKA or SILVER. Picea sitchensis Carr.

Western Canada, United States.

This timber is produced from enormous trees of great length and
girth, which rank high amongst the giants of the forest, comparing even
with the lofty eucalypts of Australia. Notwithstanding the fact that the

494 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

timber is close-grained, remarkably free from knots, and, relatively to its
weight, stronger than any other timber procurable, yet before the Euro-
pean war it was scarcely known outside its own country. Indeed the only
use to which it was put in the United Kingdom was the limited quantity
purchased annually by the Navy for making long oars, a purpose which
required a timber of this character free from knots. During the war a
dramatic change occurred, for, owing to the sudden demand for great
quantities in the manufacture of aircraft, the value suddenly rose ten
times, or even more, than that of its pre-war price. The demand for timber
which would serve this purpose was so great that the woods of the following
species were admitted as approved substitutes :

Quebec spruce (Picea alba and P. ingra Link.).

White Sea white deal (P. excelsa Link.).

White Sea red deal (Pinus sylvestris Linn.).

West Virginia spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.).

Port Orford cedar (Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana Murr.).

New Zealand kauri (Agathis [Dammar a] Australis Sahsb ).

Canadian white pine (Pinus strobus Linn.).

Oregon pine (Pseudotsuga Douglasii Carr.).

The establishment of the British Engineering Standards Association sub-
sequently cancelled the foregoing rule, and laid down that in future
only the produce of Picea sitchensis should be employed, and a specifica-
tion was issued by them regulating the quality. The use of silver spruce
in aeroplane construction brought to light the incidence of spiral growth in
Sitka spruce, and indeed in trees in general. The aircraft manufacturer
quickly discovered that 50 per cent of the produce as it came from the
forest had spiral growth and proved unfit for the strain to which it was put.
The discovery resulted in a very severe inspection of all the timber pro-
posed for use in aircraft, and moreover a considerable amount of research
and inquiry as to the cause of spiral growth of trees, and what measures
might be taken to prevent it. One American authority propounded the
theory that the probable cause was heredity, while others have claimed
that it is due to situation and climatic conditions. The silver spruce
(Picea sitchensis) is peculiarly liable to this fault, in its wake closely
followed by sweet chestnut (Castanea vulgaris), horse chestnut (Aesculus
Hippocastanum) , and common thorns (Crataegus spp.).

Resulting from the popularity of this tree, occasioned by the immense
financial interests created, many landowners, including the Government,
have planted considerable areas of silver spruce in this country. The
tree thrives well, grows rapidly, and in the opinion of more than one
expert seems likely to be a more profitable investment (certainly in many
positions) than any other tree that can be planted.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 495

Stephegyne diversifolia Hook f .

Weight 41 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown).

India, Burma, Andamans.
VERN — Dinga, Burm.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, state that this wood
is " Creamy white when first exposed, ageing to pale yellowish-brown . . .
in general straight but somewhat uneven-grained or broadly wavy-
grained in the radial plane, fine and quite even-textured. ... It is very
fairly durable when not in contact with the ground. ... It is used in
Burma for building and packing-cases."

Stephegyne parvifolia Korth.

Weight 45 Ibs. India, Burma, Ceylon.

VERN — Kulm, Kashmir — Kaddam, kallam, keim, kangei, Hind. — Phaldu,
Kumaon — Mundi, Gondi, Baigas — Kutebi, Kurku — Guri, Ko-
derma, Palamow — Gm, komba, K61 — Goure karam, Sonthal — Goli
karam, Mai Pahari — Kadidla, Coorg — Mundi-mundi, Uriya —
Pajakiru, Khond — Kdmba, Palkonda — Sima bandaru, Reddi —
Chinna kadambu, chelampai, nir kadampa, buta-kadambe, Tarn. —
Nir-kadambe, karmi, bataganapu, Tel. — Congu, hedu, yetega, kad-
war, kadani, kanu, bata kadapu, attaka, Kan. — Kadamb, karamb,
kalam, Mar. — Sira kadamba, Mai. — Kambli, Trav. Hills — Tamdk,
Bhil — Kumra, Banswara — Tein, teinthe, Burm.

Gamble reports this wood as being a light pinkish-brown, hard, and
even-grained, and very similar to Adina cordifolia. In India it is used for
building and furniture, but it has not yet been seen in European commerce.

Stephegyne tubulosa Hk.

Weight 42 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon, Cochin.

VERN — Helamba, Cingh.

This wood is a salmon-pink colour, with a very close, compact grain,
yielding an exceedingly smooth surface from the tool. Comparable with
boxwood, which it closely resembles, except in colour. A valuable timber.

The pores are very small and generally plugged. The medullary rays
even, regular, very fine.

Sterculia fatida Linn.

Weight 26-45 Ibs. (Gamble). West Coast of India, Burma,

Ceylon.

VERN — Jangli-badam, Hind. — Pindri, Tarn. — Gurapu-badam, Tel. —
Letkop, Burm. — Telambu, Cingh.

The colour is a reddish-brown, with a close, compact grain which does
not yield a smooth surface from the tool, and shows on both radial and
tangential sections a flecked appearance of the medullary rays, in a some-
what unusual manner.

496 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Gamble reports it as spongy, soft, and of no value, but my Ceylon
specimen does not confirm this opinion, as it displays a wood likely to be
of use for a decorative woodwork of various sorts, although without suffi-
cient characteristics to warrant any export.

The pores are scarce, and irregular in size and position. The medullary
rays are broad, rough with cross-bars, and showing strongly on the radial
section.

Stereospermum chelonoides DC.

Weight 40-59 Ibs. India, Ceylon.

VERN — Pader, padn, parral, Hind. — Parari, Nep. — Singyen, Lepcha
— Sir pang, Mechi — Bolzel, Garo — Paroli, Ass. — Pareya-auwal,
Cachar — Dharmara, atcapah, Beng. — Tsaingtsa, Magh — Padn,
pon-padira, pathin, pumbathn, padn, vela-padn, Tarn. — Tagada,
thagu, kala goru, moka-yapa, pisul, Tel. — Taitu, Berar — Pam-
phuma, Uriya- — Kirsel, tuatuka, padul, paral, Mar. — Patoh, Khond
— Kandior, Kol — Padurni, Bhil — Nai-udi, mallah, Coorg — Kail-
udi, Kan — Kuring kura, Mai. — Lunu-madala, dunu-madala,
Cingh. — Thakutpo, singwe, thandb, Burm.

This is a hard wood of a grey colour, though it has been described as an
orange yellow. It is moderately durable, elastic, and easy to work, and
is suitable for furniture.

" Pores moderately sized and large, joined by narrow, irregular, wavy,
interrupted belts and lines of soft tissue. Pores frequently filled with a
white substance of a resinous nature, which is prominent on a vertical
section. Medullary rays short, wavy, moderately broad, numerous,
prominent on a radial section as long, narrow, horizontal bands " (Gamble).

Stereospermum suaveolens DC.

Weight 42 Ibs. (Pearson & Brown). India, Burma.

VERN — Paral, padal, padidla, padana, parur, Hind — Phallai, Kashmir —
Tumn, Kumaon — Pandri, C.P. — Phalgataitu, Melghat — Parari,
Nep. — Singyen, Lepcha — Parul, Beng. — Patuh, Uriya — Parer,
Sonthal — Par oh, Mai Pahari — Pandri, Kharwar — Parar, Mong-
hyr — Kandior, K61 — Padn, Tarn. — Kala-goru,kuberakashi,padan,
par ah, Tel. — Hooday, billa, Kan. — Unt katar, padar, Gondi —
Padar, Kurku — Pandan, Bhil — Parul, kalagari, patala, Mar. —
Palol, ela palol, Cingh.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, refer to this wood
as " yellowish-brown, often handsomely mottled with narrow darker
streaks which yield a very handsome figure on the quarter ; quite lustrous
when first exposed, with somewhat rough feel . . . straight-grained,
coarse and uneven-textured. ... It may be classed as fairly durable,
or durable, according to the position in which the timber is placed ... it
is rarely subject to insect attack. ... It works easily and takes a good
polish, finishing to a smooth surface . . . may be classed as a valuable

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 497

timber for construction . . . would certainly make up into attractive
furniture. ... A species to be encouraged."

Stereospermum xylocarpum Wight.

Weight 36-47 Ibs. (Gamble). India.

VERN — Kharsing, bersinge, Mar. — Jai-mangal, sondar-padal, Mandla —
Dhota mara, dhotte, Gondi — Teto, Kurku — Vadencarni, malei uthi,
Tarn. — Ghansing, hoodav, Kan — Udi, ude, Coorg — Pathin, vedang-
konnan, edang korna, Mai.

The colour of the wood is nut-brown with a glint of orange in it. The
grain is close and firm. It would be suitable for decorative and cabinet
work. Gamble says : " The wood is good and handsome ; it is tough and
elastic and takes a good polish . . . and deserves to be better known, and
to be in more general use."

The pores are regular and numerous. The medullary rays are very
.fine, regular, parallel, and equidistant.

STINKWOOD. Ocotea bullata E. Mcy.

South Africa.

Has not been seen in commerce in the United Kingdom, but is con-
sidered to be the best South African wood for making furniture : very
scarce. Of a reddish -brown colour, more inclined to brown than red.

STRINGY-BARK. Eucalyptus obliqua L'Herit.

E. gigantea.
Weight 46 Ibs. Tasmania, New South Wales.

Known as Tasmanian oak, and messmate.

This timber is of a light brown straw colour resembling English oak.
It is strong and durable, and will take a good surface from the tool. Great
difficulty is experienced in driving nails, and it is more economical to bore
the holes first. It is difficult to season, and shrinks unevenly, the wood of
the inner growth contracting disproportionately with the outer growth ;
for example, a plank sawn to an exact thickness of 2\ inches by 10 inches
wide, when dried, was found to fee | inch less on one edge than on the other.

K. C. Richardson, in his Report on Tasmanian Timbers, p. 10, quoting
W. H. Forsyth, says : " After twenty-six years' experience I have found
Stringy Bark to be admirably adapted for piles, some of which have been
in the wharves for 30 years, and are in very fair condition." Further,
quoting J. Finchman, M.Inst.C.E., he continues : " Tasmanian Blue Gum
and Stringy Bark are the Standard Timbers for all Government Works ;
Blue Gum is the heavier and stronger, but Stringy Bark is generally pre-
ferred, as being more free in working and more easily obtainable."

Another authority states : " The usual life of this timber in bridges is

2 K

498 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

from twenty to twenty-five years ; sleepers average about fourteen years,
and none of the Government Railway buildings — some of which were built
twenty-seven years ago, chiefly of this timber — have yet been renewed.
. . . Especially suited for wood-paving. It is preferable to Jarrah, being
quite as durable, gives a better surface, and is also lighter in weight.
Given equal conditions, Stringy Bark blocks will wear out two sets of the
Deal or Beech blocks which are largely used in European cities. . . .
Stringy Bark blocks do not polish under traffic, but give a good foothold
for horses . . . paving of the roadways of the Hobart Market building,
laid in 1853, are stn*l doing duty " (1903). This opinion that stringy-bark
is preferable to jarrah for paving-blocks cannot be upheld, as far as ex-
perience shows in this country, as proof of the superiority of jarrah for
these purposes has been overwhelming.

Between forty and fifty years ago (1932) an effort was made to popular-
ise this timber throughout the whole of the United Kingdom under its
own name of stringy-bark, and a fairly considerable quantity was im-
ported. It was used for a close park fence, posts and rails, and after
thirty-three years was found to be sound above ground, and in better
condition perhaps than would have been the case if English oak had been
used. The wood was actually harder than when fresh ; but that portion
of the posts which was in the ground was found to be decayed, and in
general experience it does not appear to be a timber that remains durable
under ground.

A further quantity of this consignment was used for the constructional
timbers in a very large building in the East End of London. Upon this
building being taken down in 1930, the timbers were found to be harder
than when they were first used, and in perfect condition, showing no signs
of decay or deterioration.

Reference is made under the heading of blue gum to the disastrous
fire which occurred in the West India Docks in 1903, and a photograph
taken of the shed can here be seen. I may state that, during a period of
fifty years, in only two serious fires where timber has been consumed, have
I ever seen such fire-resisting qualities. First, the stringy-bark and blue
gum in the fire mentioned above, and second, this year (1932) when some
of the same consignment which had been used in the stable buildings at
Crown Wharf, Canning Town, was burned. In both cases the stringy-
bark was charred to a depth of not exceeding about a J of an inch all
round the beam or plank, the timber underneath being still as bright
and sound as if there had been no fire. I think that there must be some
quality which these timbers possess (either the smoke which is engen-
dered or some other property) which especially acts as a fire preventa-
tive. In most cases of really serious large timber fires every particle of
the wood, even to the dust itself, is consumed. In the case of the stable

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

499

buildings the occupant had wrongfully stored a large number of jute mats,
and a quantity of tallow, yet, although the building was fully alight, no
sooner had the stringy-bark charred on the outside than the fire began to
die down.

While little success attended the first effort to popularise the stringy-
barks, since the 1924 Exhibition at Wembley the produce of Eucalyptus
obhqua and E. Delegatensis has been exported in very large quantities

Photograph by permission of ^fessrs J Bartram & Son, Melbourne

PHOTOGRAPH OF THE TIMBER SHEDS, WEST INDIA DOCKS, ON
SEPTEMBER 1903

Showing the stacks of Tasmanian Hardwoods ex " Runic," after the disastrous fire there
that destroyed eleven acres of stacked timber. These hardwoods were the only woods that
resisted the fire. The view shows them lying in the ashes of other timbers.

under the trade name of " Tasmanian oak," and a considerable demand
has resulted. Among many public and private buildings in which it has
been employed are the floorings for the new Lloyds building in Leadenhall
Street, and the Commercial Union Assurance Co., Cornhill.

The pores are variable in size, and are arranged in groups ; some are
plugged with gum. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine, parallel and
close together, generally equidistant ; they are irregularly joined at right
angles by very faint lines of a similar character.

In Western Australia there are two important varieties of Eucalyptus

500 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

known as tingle-tingle, but as the forests are rather isolated, delay has been
experienced in exploitation. Both of these are called stringy-bark by
Baker.

STRINGY-BARK, WHITE. Eucalyptus eugemoides.

Weight 54-57 Ibs. (Swain). New South Wales, Queensland.

Known as pink blackbutt in Queensland and white stringy-bark in
New South Wales. The wood structure is very similar to that of E.
obliqua, with pores more uniform in size and arranged in more pronounced
groups, with wavy belts forming almost squares in some cases, mostly
plugged with gum ; the medullary rays are extremely fine, parallel, close
together, somewhat obscure under the lens.

SUCUPIRA. Bowdichia sp.

Weight 54 Ibs. Brazil, Northern South America.

VERN — Sucupira, sapipira or sebipira (various other spellings), sucupira-
assu, s. doce, s. minm, s. d'agua, s. preta, s. roxa, sipipin, Braz. —
Alcornoque, Venez.

The colour is light brown with lighter coloured streaks, rather lustrous ;
a very dense, hard, and heavy wood with a wavy grain and coarse texture ;
difficult to work, very tough, strong, and durable. According to Mr.
Curran, sucupira is preferred above all other woods in Brazil for making
hubs and felloes for wheels. He also says : " Another kind of sucupira
known as sucupira-assu has been introduced into the market, but is con-
sidered inferior."

Sucupira closely resembles acapu (Vouacapaoua) ; the chief difference
lies in the larger sized pores, closer vessel lines, and finer rays of the
sucupira.

Record states : " What is believed to be the genuine sucupira does not
have ripple marks."

It is used for shipbuilding, cabinet work and turnery, flooring, scaffold-
ing, and work exposed to the weather. Brazilian Timber reports that it
" makes sleepers of first-class quality, lasting eleven years."

The not very numerous pores, invariably plugged, are arranged in
wavy groups, with wavy, inconspicuous medullary rays.

SUCUPIRA AMARELLA. Bowdichia nitida Spr.

Ferreirea spectabilis Fr. Allem.

Brazil.
VERN — Sucupira, sucupira amarella, marachyba, Braz.

Record says that trees of this species yield a hard, heavy, strong
timber, highly durable. It is splintery, and difficult to work ; takes a high
polish, the surface feeling as though it had been waxed.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 501

When fresh cut the colour is brownish-yellow, becoming darker upon
exposure ; rather streaky, looks waxy. Sap-wood pale yellow, and
thin.

SUGI. Cryptomeria japonica Don.

Weight 30 Ibs. Japan, Formosa,

This is a strong, reliable timber, having the characteristic marking
found in Oregon pine, pitch pine, cypress, and sequoia, of which timbers
it most resembles the last named — though it is much harder and firmer in
the grain, and of a dull nut-brown colour. The dark and light streaks of
brown and yellow form a wavy pattern, and the bright spots of gum
sparkle and give the wood a slightly lustrous gloss. Goto mentions an
exhibition specimen from an old tree, which was found buried and had
undergone carbonification, making it a beautiful dark colour. It pos-
sesses all the qualities requisite for making good and durable furniture, but
it has not yet been imported into the United Kingdom on a commercial
basis.

The concentric layers are strongly marked by light and dark rings, the
growth being very slow and layers small. The medullary rays are very
fine but clearly marked.

SUMACH. Rhus typhina L.

Canada, North-Eastern United States.

The extravagant Englishman, who demands a standard of woodwork
far in excess of that asked by others, consistently refuses to recognise the
value of timber produced by trees growing outside his front door, while
paying high prices for less ornamental timber which is brought from far
overseas. Among the many illustrations is that of the sumach tree,
which can be found growing in gardens throughout London and else-
where.

The timber is not produced in sizes large enough to use in important
works, but it can be used in an attractive manner for inlay and fine
cabinet work. Being olive green in colour, with rather a lustrous sheen,
it would be a good substitute for green ebony, although the grain, other-
wise very much resembling that of the wych elm, is perhaps a little
soft.

The concentric layers are marked by pronounced rings of hard and
soft layers. Pores exceedingly small and irregular, in belts. Medullary
rays exceedingly fine, hardly discernible under the lens.

SUNDRI.

See Heritiera Fomes.

502 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Sung-pe. Source unknown.

China.

A reddish-coloured pine, resembling pitch pine, but softer, comparable
in this respect with Canadian red pine.

The wide layers of concentric growth are strongly marked by a rich
brown, sometimes almost black, layer of resinous growth.

Swietenia macrophylla.

See MAHOGANY, HONDURAS.

SYCAMORE. Acer Pseudoplatanus Linn.

Weight 38 Ibs. 9 oz. Europe.

The Rev. C. A. Johns, in The Trees and Shrubs of Great Britain, says:
" The name acer, given to it by the Romans, is derived from acer, acris,
sharp or hard, on account of the hardness of the wood, which was used for
making spears and other sharp-pointed instruments. ... Its specific
name, Pseitdo-platanus, means mock plane, being given to it in consequence
of the resemblance borne by its leaves to those of the plane tree. The
name Sycamore was given to it by the older botanists, who erroneously
believed it to be identical with the Sycamore, or Mulberry fig of Palestine,
which it somewhat resembles in the size and form of its leaves."

Johns found that even botanists could make a mistake. But the sur-
prising thing is that the mistake has not been corrected, as in wood, bark,
leaves, and fruit, it bears no resemblance to the plane tree. Sargent says :
" Acer is the classical name of the Maple tree, and Platanus is the name of
the plane tree." In America all the timbers of the Acer sp. are termed
maple, and all the Platanus, sycamore. In Scotland the produce of Acer
Pseudoplatamis is called plane. It is unnecessary to point out the resulting
confusion, and it would seem a simple matter to set it right with a definite
pronouncement, by giving the name " maple " to all products of Acer sp.
So far as the timber of these different woods is concerned, the alteration is
very necessary, as, although the product of nearly all the different species
of Acer is much alike (varying only in degrees of hardness and colour), it
shows a marked difference from the timber of all the Platanus species. If
Johns is correct when he says that the name sycamore was given to it by
the older botanists, who earnestly believed it to be identical with the
sycamore or mulberry fig of Palestine, it seems that it would be quite
possible that the tree which these botanists were looking at was the plane
(Platanus sp.) and not the maple (Acer sp.).

It is easy to understand that the Romans, seeing the plane tree in
Southern Europe, might give it the name of sycamore on account of the
resemblance between its leaves and those of the fig tree. In a garden in
London two trees can be seen, one a fig and the other a London plane tree,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 503

and the resemblance is noticeable. Again, the preponderance of plane
trees over a wide belt of country, including the lordly stretch of graceful
and majestic " Cheenar " trees in Persia, could not fail to attract the atten-
tion of any new-comers ; while the Acer species, which the older botanists
termed Acer pseudoplatanus, could hardly have been sufficient in numbers
to cause remark.

The following interesting quotation is from Johns : " c Trees/ says
the Roman naturalist Pliny, ' afforded the first inducement to the barbar-
ous tribes of Gaul to cross the Alps, and spread themselves over Italy.
A certain Swiss once came to Rome to learn the art of a smith, and on
his return took with him raisins, dried figs, oil, and wine ; the taste of which
incited his countrymen to invade Italy with a hostile army. But who
would have thought it possible that a tree should have been brought from
a remote region of the world for the sake of its shade only ? yet such was
the case : the plane was first carried across the Ionian Sea to shade the
tomb of Diomede, who was buried in one of the small islands off the coast
of Apulia ; thence it was introduced into Sicily ; from Sicily it was brought
to Rhegium in Italy by the tyrant Dionysius ; and has now extended so
far, that the Morini (people of Calais) are taxed for its shade. Dionysius
held it in high honour, and since his time it has so much increased in
estimation, that its roots are nourished with wine instead of water/

"Diomede was a Grecian hero, and to honour his tomb the tree was
planted which had of old been venerated in Greece, and even in Asia.
Herodotus informs us that when Xerxes was about to invade Europe with
his mighty army, and had arrived at Lydia, in Asia Minor, he fell in with
the plane tree, which, on account of its excessive beauty, he decorated
with golden ornaments, and left behind him a warrior selected from the
Immortal Band to take care of it. ' Aelian and other authors tell us,' says
Evelyn, ' he made halt, and stopped his prodigious army of 170,000 soldiers,
which even covered the sea, exhausted rivers, and thrust Mount Athos from
the continent, to admire the pulchritude and procerity of one of them/ "

Pie also quotes the Earl Sandwich, who in 1739 saw the great plane
of the Island of Stanchio, and says " among the curiosities of this city is a
Sycamore tree, which is, without doubt, the largest in the known world/'

In later years there have arisen from time to time others like Dionysius,
who by their initiative and energy have transported trees from one con-
tinent and established them in others, so that throughout India and Burma
hundreds of miles of rain trees from America were planted by the British
for shade, and at a later date vast areas in India and Africa have been
covered with eucalypts. The unfortunate thing is that no Government
has yet existed in this country which will recognise the national importance
of initiating such a policy.

Although perhaps it may be said that every kind of tree has its proper

504 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

time for being felled, and no other is so good, this is specially applicable
to sycamore, the reason being that the colour is of such great importance,
and it is only possible to obtain the desired result by felling when the sap
has ceased to flow ; it is also essential that the tree should be converted as
soon as possible. An occasional tree can be found highly figured, with
mottle, splash mottle, and broken roe, and of late years (1930) a large
demand has been made for such trees, for America.

The wood, which has a close, firm, tough grain, is a pale whitish-yellow.
After exposure to air it becomes whiter, and when this exposure is con-
tinued, the wood again inclines to its original yellow shade. Although its
qualities would have recommended it for more general use, yet it has of
late years been chiefly in demand for veneers. Some of these have been
made of the wood in its natural condition, especially when the tree has
displayed a figury nature. More generally, however, the wood has been
stained a silver-grey colour, by the process described in the article on
artificial harewood (q.v.).

Another important use for sycamore is for the manufacture of large
rollers for washing and other machines of various kinds. It has also been
effectively used for flooring. The main gangway on His late Majesty King
Edward's steam yacht, which was used by the King and Queen on State
occasions, was made of sycamore. It was much used in marquetry in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

It has also been used for violin backs, table-tops, panels and decorative
woodwork in ships, yachts, and railway carriages. Some handsome pillars,
probably generally mistaken for marble, can be seen in Simpson's Res-
taurant, in the Strand, London.

The pores are fairly numerous, and irregularly placed. The medullary
rays show as distinct white lines. The concentric circles are clearly
visible to the naked eye.

SYCAMORE, SATIN. Geissois spp.

Weight 37-45 Ibs. (Swain). Queensland.

Known as blood-in-the-bark. According to Swain the wood is Indian
pink in colour, with a silken sheen, and fine, even texture. It is tough and
strong, glues and stains well, and is especially suitable for cabinet work and
other furniture ; also used for general building, it makes a handsome
polished floor when back-sawn, but is not durable in the ground.

TAINGBOK. Source unknown.

Weight 59 Ibs. Malay Peninsula, Burma,

The Andamans.

A few logs of hewn square timber arrived in the London Docks, of a
wood with this name. The colour is greyish-brown, with a hard, smooth,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 505

compact grain. A quite attractive wood, suitable for high-class cabinet
and joinery work.

Every effort to trace the wood, and identify it with any known species,
has failed.

A tree named taung-bok, the produce of Ternstroemia penangiana
Choisy, is mentioned by both Gamble and Brandis, but no information is
forthcoming, nor does the description given indicate that it is the same
as the wood referred to above.

The pores are scarce, small to medium and open ; medullary rays not
discernible under the lens.

TALIPOT PALM. Corypha umbraculifera Linn.

The Andamans, Ceylon, Burma.

VERN — Conda-pani, Tarn. — Sidalum, Tel. — Kodapana, Mai. — Bine, tali,
shri-tah, Kan. — Tala, Cingh. — Pehn, Burm.

Mr. H. W. Cave says in relation to this palm : " The botanical world
offers no more beautiful sight. . . . The period when it may be enjoyed is,
however, quite uncertain, as the flower bursts forth only once in the lifetime
of the tree, when it is approaching its hundredth year. It occasionally
happens that scores of trees are in flower at one time ... its leaves are
much used in the construction of camps for the officers of the Survey
Department. . . . They become what the natives term ' ola ' or paper. On
these strips the history of the people and their religious systems have been
handed down to us. I have seen manuscripts of this material more than a
thousand years old, and yet in perfect condition, with the characters so
clear and distinct that it is difficult to realise their vast age. . . . The
uses to which the leaves are put are computed by the natives at eight
hundred and one."

As a visitor to the Peradeniya Gardens, Kandy, in 1924, I had the
unique opportunity of seeing some of these palms in the well-known
avenue in full flower, an occasion of which I took full advantage, securing
photographs.

The colour of the wood is a streaked black and white, with an exceed-
ingly hard grain, requiring the sharpest tool to prepare the surface. So
hard, indeed, that the adze striking the wood produces a clear, ringing
note, almost as though it had struck steel.

In its native country the wood has been used for various purposes, and
in Europe, including England, for inlaid work in fine cabinets, but only to
a very limited extent.

TALLOW WOOD. Eucalyptus microrys F. v. M.

Weight 60 Ibs. New South Wales, Queensland.

The colour is pale brown, the wood strong, hard, durable, and of a
greasy nature. In this country it is exceedingly difficult to season, when

5o6

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

it is very liable to split and crack, producing fractures across the grain
which do not close, and during the process it displays uneven shrinkage,
inclining to twist, so that the surface will have hollow places where one
part of the grain has shrunk more than another.

The use of the wood in London for paving proved unsatisfactory. In
grain, hardness, and weight, the blocks were found too irregular, but it has
been reported upon as being eminently satisfactory for this purpose in

TALIPOT PALM IN FLOWER IN PERADENIYA GARDENS, KANDY

Australia. The Forestry Commission, N.S.W., report it as " after iron-
bark . . . probably the most valuable of our hardwoods. . . . Used for
flooring, particularly in ball-rooms ... on account of its greasy nature.
. . . For sleepers, decking, hand-railing, girders . . . bridges. ... It
makes admirable posts and rails, lasting an indefinite period."

The pores vary from small to large, partly plugged and open, generally
surrounded by layers of light tissue. The very numerous line medullary
rays are hardly discernible under the lens.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 507

TAMARACK. Larix americana Mich.

Weight 38 Ibs. (Hough). North America.

This American larch somewhat resembles the European wood in colour
and texture, though it is perhaps tougher and harder. It is used in
America for much the same purposes as those for which European larch is
valued here.

AVENUE OF TALIPOT PALMS IN PERADENIYA GARDENS, KANDY

Hough describes the wood as being of a light orange-brown colour,
with thin, lighter sap-wood, and says that it is valued for railway ties,
posts, planks, and lumber for inferior finishing. In addition to these
uses, Gibson mentions that " boat-builders use tamarack for floors, keels,
stringers, and knees. Fence-posts and telegraph poles come in large
numbers from tamarack forests. . . . [The wood is] also made into boxes,
pails, tanks, tubs, and windmills."

TALLOW WOOD — NEW SOUTH WALES
By kind permission of the High Commissioner for A ustralia

508

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 509

TAMARIND. Pithecolobium arboreum (L.) Urb.

Weight 46 Ibs. Trinidad, The Antilles,

Mexico.

VERN — Bahama sabicu, Trade — Wild tamarind, Jam. — Cojoba, cojobana,
P.R. — Moruro, moruro prieto, tengue, Cuba — Coralillo, frijolillo,
Mex. — Conchido, loro, lorito, C.R. — Cola de marano, cola de mico,
quebracho ? Guat., Hond.

A mahogany-like, mahogany-coloured wood having a close, firm, com-
pact grain, with a hard bottom, to which the name of Bahama sabicu has
also been applied — a name not well chosen, as, although the wood con-
tains some of the qualities of sabicu, it far more resembles Spanish
mahogany, but without the white chalky grain. This provides an illustra-
tion of how the quality and appearance of a wood can be produced by a
wholly different species, since an expert could be excused for mistaking the
produce of P. arboreum for mahogany.

The open pores vary in size, and are rather numerous ; the medullary
rays so fine as hardly to be discernible under the lens, and not showing on
the radial section.

TAMARISK. Tamarix anglica.

India.

This is a light straw yellow-coloured wood with a very hard grain.
Showing a medullary ray like sycamore.

TAMBAIBA. Enter olobium Timbouva Mart.

Weight 20-30 Ibs. (Zon & Sparhawk) . Brazil.
VERN— Timbo, timbouba.

The wood is light brown, open-grained, and not strong. Record
reports that " because of its softness and ease of working is used as cheap
substitute for cedar, and is sometimes known as timbo cedro." It is also
used to take the place of pine for general construction, doors, and boxes.

Reported to be a poisonous wood.

T'ao-jen. Source unknown.

China.

The wood has a firm, hard grain, is of a dark brown to brick-red colour,
and of medium weight, comparable to that of a hard African mahogany.

Neither Professor Record nor I have been able to identify it with any
known species.

The pores are very numerous, exceedingly small, and hardly discernible
under the lens ( + 10). The medullary rays are indistinguishable.

5io THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

TAPANG. Koompassia excelsa (Becc.) Taub.

Weight 76 Ibs. 14 oz. Borneo, Malay Peninsula.

VERN — Tualang, Malay.

This is a very dense, hard, heavy wood, strong but brittle. The colour
ranges from bright to dark red, becoming almost black with age, and
exposure to light and air. It is often marked with a dark and light grain
with some mottle, and shows the medullary rays on the tangential section
as in beech, but finer. In Borneo the large pieces are used in solid planks
of from 2 to 2| inches thick for tables and bedsteads, and the smaller sizes
for paddles, and pans for washing gold. Beccari, in Wanderings in the
Great Forests of Borneo, p. 269, writes : " The most valuable things in this
house were immense planks of beautiful wood used for squatting on by
chiefs holding councils, and also as beds. They were of a very hard, close-
grained wood of a deep red colour, taking a beautiful polish, and to my
thinking, finer and superior in quality to the best mahogany. The plank
on which I laid my ' tilang ' or bedding was over 2 inches thick, 8 feet in
length, and 6 in width. " These huge planks — he also quotes Mr. St. John
as speaking of two planks 10 feet 6 inches by 6 feet 6 inches, and 15 feet
by 9 feet — are hewn out with axes, without the use of any saws, from the
huge buttresses of these enormous trees, which, in a fluted manner, or, as
Beccari describes it, in " great laminar projections," soar upwards from
the butt. They are hewn out of the trunk as if it were a rock, without
cutting the tree down, and apparently without doing it any injury. Dr.
Hose brought back from Borneo many such tapang planks, and some
which had been shaped by the natives, with the axe only, and brought to
such a beautiful smooth polished surface that the European can hardly
believe they have been worked with no other tool.

This handsome wood has, till recently, been unknown commercially in
England. Violin bows of tapang have been made with fairly satisfactory
results.

The pores are scarce, rather large, and plugged with a bright glistening
gum. The medullary rays are clear and fine, but very irregular and
unusually rounded. They are joined at right angles by somewhat similar
light lines strongly defined, and giving, especially on the tangential surface,
a marked likeness to a spider's web. There is also a beautiful ripple mark
on all sections, which, coupled with the somewhat metallic lustre of the
wood, gives, when finely worked, a very good appearance.

TAPINHOAN. Silvia navalium Fr. Allem.

Weight 55 Ibs. Brazil.

This is a light straw-coloured wood, with a firm, hard, even texture
and close grain. It bears resemblance to a similar wood called canella

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

tapinhoan, also from Brazil, but of an inferior quality. It is reported as
being used in Brazil for building canoes and boats, for cooperage, naval
and civil construction, and is good for under- water construction.

The wood yields a pleasing, fragrant, aromatic perfume which is very
persistent.

The pores are numerous but very small. Medullary rays very obscure,
and only discernible under the lens ( + 12).

TARAIRE. Beilschmiedia Tarairi Benth. & Hook.

New Zealand.

The New Zealand Board of Agriculture describes this as of a " reddish-
brown colour, remarkably straight in the grain, close, but rather brittle.
Procurable in long lengths, and up to 12 inches in width. Used for ships'
blocks, and for cheap furniture."

TARIMAN. Source unknown.

Weight 49 Ibs. Brazil.

This is an attractive and valuable furniture wood. It has a pleasing
silver-grey colour, midway between that of stained sycamore and old oak.
The grain is very smooth, close, and firm. If regular supplies in fair
lengths and widths are available, so that the wood could be used for
decorative art furniture work or panelling, it would command attention
and prove to be of high value.

The small pores are surrounded by loose tissue, and lie between the
numerous, rather prominent, medullary rays.

TAWHAI. Fagusfusca Hook. f.

Weight 53 Ibs. New Zealand.

This timber, which is also known as black birch, is, according to the
Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, " red in colour, straight, even, com-
pact in grain, tough and durable in all situations. Procurable in long
lengths, and up to 24 inches in width. Used for piles, stringers, bridge and
wharf planking, and mining-timbers."

Baterden says that this wood " was the only timber used for a stiffened
suspension bridge, spanning Chasm Creek Gorge."

TEAK. Tectona grandis Linn.

Weight 45 Ibs. India, Burma, Siam, Java.

VERN — Sdj, Arab. — Sdj, sal, Pers. — Sdgun, Hind. — Singuru, Uriya —

Sag, sdgwan, Mar. — Sipna, Melghat — Teka, Gondi — Sag, Bhil —

Tekku, tek, Tarn. — Teku, Tel. — Jddt, sagwani, tega, Kan. — Tekka,

Cingh. — Djati, Malay — Kyun, Burm.

The supplies of this timber are shipped from Moulmein and Rangoon
in Burma, Malabar in India, Bangkok in Siam, and from the Island of

512 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Java. Mr. McKinlay says that he found one patch of true teak (Tectona
grandis) in the Philippine Islands, where the trees appeared to be about
forty years old, and were growing in close forests as though they had been
planted.

The wood varies from yellow or straw colour to a rich brown when first
cut, darkening on exposure ; sometimes it has dark and almost black
streaks or veins, this last feature being more often found in the Java wood,
and in that from some parts of the Indian Peninsula. Troup speaks of the
so-called " Godaveri teak " as being particularly handsome in this respect.

Teak works with an oily surface, and when first cut has a sticky
feeling to the hand. It is moderately hard and strong, clean, even and
straight in the grain, and is easily worked. It shrinks very little in
seasoning, and the logs do not side-shake.

According to Laslett (1875) : " Teak wood contains a resinous oil
which clogs its pores and resists the action of water, and it often oozes into
and congeals in the shakes which radiate from the pith, forming there a
hard concrete substance, which no edge-tool can touch without losing its
keenness. The oil acts as a preventive against rust when iron is in contact
with it, and for this reason it is preferred to all other known woods for the
backing to the armour plates of iron-clad ships of war."

All my life I have heard that teak contained an essential oil. Refer-
ence to this term can be found in numerous publications, and holding the
same opinion as Laslett as to the " hard concrete substance, which no
edge-tool can touch without losing its keenness," and accepting Laslett's
statement as to the prevention of rust by the use of teak against iron, I
expressed the same opinion in my first edition, using the term " essential
oil " instead of that of " resinous oil " used by Laslett. This statement
as applied to teak was criticised by an authority, whereupon I appealed to
Dr. Chandler, who kindly made inquiry, the result of which would seem
to show that neither " essential oil " nor " resinous oil " as applied to the
particular nature of the substance referrred to in teak is correct. In
other respects Laslett's description is accurate. Dr. Chandler points out
that when teak is exposed to destructive distillation the following pro-
ducts are obtained :

Per cent

Heavy tar ...... 10-6

Watery distillate ..... 36-0

Light oil (tar oil) . . . . . 3-4

Charcoal . . . . . • 35*°

Uncondensed . . . .15-0

100-0

" The tar contains the crystalline substance in considerable quantity ;
it may be extracted by adding an excess of caustic soda, when much heat
is evolved and the substance is precipitated as a curdy mass which soon

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NILAMBUR TEAK PLANTATIONS
Tree with man at base, 7 feet 8 inches in girth

Photograph by R. S. Iroup

51*

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Photograph by A . Rodger

TYPICAL TEAK FOREST, UPPER BURMA

Photograph by R S 'Iroup

TEAK LOGS ON DRAGGING-PATH, PREPARED WITH CROSS-BILLETS,
KONTHA, PYINMANA, BURMA

521 9 T. 3

ELEPHANTS TAKING TEAK LOGS ON J^AMWAY TO THE IRRAWADDY RIVER

Photograph by A Boyd

1EAK LOGS BEING PUSHED OVEKift HANK TQ THE IRRAWADDY — A

522

523

TEAK LOGS LYING WAITING FOR THE RISE WITH THE RAINS

Photograph bv R, S. Troup

TEAK LOGS PLACED IN UPPER REACHES OF FLOATING STREAM READY
FOR FLOOD, KONTHA, PYINMANA, BURMA

524

TEAK LOGS, UPPER BURMA

Photograph by R. S. Troup

Photograph by A . Rodger
THE FIRE LINE IN THE THAVETMYO FORESTS

5-25 2L4

TEAK LOGS BEING PUSHED OVER A BANK TO THE IRRAWADDY — B

TEAK LOGS BEING PUSHED OVER i BANK TO THE IRRAWADDY— C

526

527

Photograph bv A Ro<lKt r

TEAK FLOATING IN LOWER BURMA IN THE DRY WEATHER
(i) A dam ready to be broken

riif>to£raph bv A . Rodger

TEAK FLOATING IN LOWER BURMA IN THE DRY WEATHER
(2) The dam after the first rush of water has subsided

528

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 529

becomes crystalline. This crystalline compound is quinone C18H16O2."
And he quotes Sir George Watt in the Dictionary of the Economic Products
of India (1893, vol. vi. part iv. p. 10) as stating : " Teak wood has been
examined by Dymock, who states that it yields on distillation an opalescent
distillate impregnated with resinous matter, but no trace of essential oil
could be obtained." And further : " Teak owes its value chiefly to its
great durability, ascribed to the fact that it contains a large quantity of
fluid resinous matter which fills up the pores and resists the action of
water."

Dr. Chandler thinks that the material which blunts the tools may be
the dried resin deprived of its oily constituent, or more probably the resin
which has become hardened as a result of oxidation. He adds : " There
is, of course, also the possibility of deposition in the wood cells and crevices
of mineral substances derived from the sap ; such is well known to occur
occasionally in other species of timber."

With regard to the claim made by Laslett that " the oil acts as a pre-
ventive against rust when iron is in contact with it," this claim can no
longer be sustained. At the time he wrote, his supplies came from South
India, and the trees were felled without ringing. To-day by far the largest
proportion, if not all, of the teak which is marketed is ringed before felling,
the result of which is that corrosion now does occur when the timber is
in contact with iron, as also is the case with other woods.

Teak often contains a white deposit. This was analysed in an experi-
ment made in 1862 by Professor Abel, which is quoted by Gamble, with
the following result :

Per cent.

Lime ..... 34 04

Magnesia . . . . 1-86

Ammonia . 1-12

Phosphoric acid . . . . • 43 35

Water and organic matter .... J(J*54

Carbonic acid . . . . o 09

The trees in the forests are girdled ; that is, they are ringed completely
round to the heart-wood three years before they are intended to be cut
down. The trees then soon die, when they become light enough to be
floated down the rivers. If felled without ringing the timber will sink.
Thirty years ago the supplies reached England about a year from the time
of felling, but now more often a period of three to seven years elapses.
At that time many of the forests worked were comparatively close to the
seaport, but now the trees often have to float down the rivers a distance of
from 1000 to 1500 miles.

Mr. Andrews says that throughout the whole of Burma at that time
it was possible to cut 75 per cent of prime clean timber from the trees
free from fault, while now they have difficulty in getting more than 10 per

2 M

530 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

cent. The hauling is done by elephants, and the increased cost and diffi-
culties of the log extraction can be understood when we know that
formerly the cost of an elephant was about £100, while in 1914 it was from
£300 to £450 ; and while an elephant was then able to haul 120 trees in a
year, now, on account of the greater obstacles, it can only deal with from
30 to 40. The immensity of the necessary organisation can be illustrated
by the fact that in 1913-14 the Bombay Burma Trading Company em-
ployed 2500 elephants and 6000 buffaloes to carry on the work of transport.
The round trunks, arriving at the port of shipment, are sawn into square
logs, planks, boards, and scantlings, and also into blocks for railway-
carriage wheels and keys for railway chairs.

Mature teak trees are often found to be hollow in the middle, and it
has been thought possible that fire may be a partial cause of this. Those
that are hollow are converted into large-sized flitches, which are very
valuable on account of their size, and freedom from heart or fault.
Drastic measures were adopted by the Government, about fifty years ago,
to check the ravages of these fires, and fire-zones were cut, which in certain
districts had the desired effect. Troup, however, remarks that " in these
districts the regeneration of the forest has been entirely stopped, while
where the fires have continued, there is a sufficient growth of healthy
young trees." He thinks that this remarkable result is due to the un-
checked vigorous growth of other vegetation choking the young shoots of
teak, whereas, when the fire burns down the undergrowth, these survive.
The first year the shoot springs up and is burnt down when the fire comes ;
the next year another shoot comes up and is again burnt , but after three
or four years the root is found to be more vigorous and strong, and finally
puts up a fresh tree, which establishes itself.

The teak tree is remarkable for its large leaves, which are from 10 to
20 inches in length, and from 8 to 15 inches in breadth, of an oblong shape,
and so rough that the natives use them for sand-papering. The trees
frequently attain the height of 80 to 100 feet and more, with a circumfer-
ence of from 6 to 10 feet and over. The largest log recorded was one from
the Ruby Mines Division, Upper Burma, launched in 1898, which measured
82| feet in length, 12 feet in girth at the base, and 7 feet in girth at the
top, and contained 507 cubic feet of timber, which would weigh over 12
tons. Even after this length was cut, there was still a considerable sized
log to be cut from the top.

A great many of the trees are inclined to be very crooked, and the
stems are often twisted and fluted, making the conversion difficult and
costly. To-day the best quality is considered to be that from Moulmein,
although it is difficult to recognise any material difference between that
and other varieties. Perhaps the Rangoon timber is slightly more
crooked in the heart, while that from Bangkok, though better in this

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 531

respect, is found to contain more bee-holes. The timber from Malabar is
slightly denser, harder, and heavier. Teak from Burma and Siam may
often be found quite seasoned on arrival, but there is sometimes a little
shrinkage : twelve pieces, each 30 inches by 2 inches square, after being
subjected to a dry heat of 120° in a seasoning chamber, showed no
shrinkage in length ; six pieces were found to have shrunk T}.2 to tV of an
inch in width. To most people the scent of teak being sawn or worked is
agreeable, and also that of a room panelled or trimmed in it, but others
regard it as being unpleasant, and occasionally some parcels have had an
exceedingly foul smell. In one case expensive fittings costing many
hundreds of pounds, finished and fixed, were entirely rejected on this
account, and had to be replaced by other wood, though no similar case
has been reported.

Besides the immense quantities required for the navies and ship-
building of the world, a vast amount is used for railway-carriage con-
struction, and for this work, notwithstanding the great cost, it seems almost
impossible to find a satisfactory substitute. Where it is used for panels
for railway carriages, it might perhaps more often be desirable to substitute
mahogany, which is already largely employed. The quantity of teak used,
both on account of its fire-resisting qualities, and its immunity from the
attack of the white ant, is enormous. It is also used for accumulator
boxes, as the nature of the wood resists the action of the acids used, and
it does not warp or split. It is largely used for floorings for public build-
ings of all kinds. For such work, however, the fibrous nature of the grain
renders it liable to be cut by the tread of nailed shoes, which soon break
down the wearing surface. For hard wear of this character other timbers
can be substituted with better results at less cost, but it is very suitable
for hospitals, where its resinous nature and reliable standing qualities
provide a sanitary floor with a good effect. The wear which the floors of a
hospital sustain is light, so that a harder wearing surface than teak is not
necessary. Of late years the greatly enhanced cost has tended somewhat
to reduce its use for window-sills and frames, and other forms of joinery
work, for all of which purposes there are fortunately, at present, abundant
supplies of equally satisfactory timbers which can be obtained at less cost.
In India it was formerly largely used for sleepers, and all kinds of building
construction, but here also the increased cost has made it necessary to
adopt substitutes. Where used in India for sleepers, and in England
for posts buried in the ground, it has been found to be very durable,
more so indeed than oak. In strength, resistance to crushing, and trans-
verse strain it ranks high, although not so high as many other Indian
timbers. R. S. Pearson has made very exhaustive tests which give the
relative strengths of the product of teak grown in plantation and natural
forests respectively, and which can be seen in an admirable pamphlet

532 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

(Forest Bulletin, No. 14, 1913) entitled " A Further Note in the Relative
Strength of Natural and Plantation-grown Teak in Burma." " As a rule,
teak in Burma is felled when it reaches a girth of 7 feet at breast height.
It then varies in age from no to 190 years in natural forest, the average
being 150 " (R. S. Troup, private notes).

Large areas of artificial plantations have been formed. These were
commenced in 1862, and have been continued ever since ; their total area
at present amounts to nearly 70,000 acres. It will probably be about
thirty to forty years before they commence yielding regular supplies of
large size, but the out-turn then will be by no means negligible. The
famous teak plantations of Nilambur in Malabar deserve special mention.
These plantations were commenced in 1842, since which date continual
additions have been made. They now aggregate about 5000 acres,
though probably only one-third of this area will produce timber of large
size. Already, however, a good many trees have reached a girth of over
7 feet.

The out-turn of teak from Burma in the five years preceding the war
was :

1908-1909 . . .270,140 tons

1909-1910 . . . 284,607 ,,

1910-1911 . . . 309,787 ,,

1911-1912 . . . 252,723 „

1912-1913 . . . 255,876 ,,

and later :

1 91 7-1 91 (S . . . 111,964 ,,

1918-1919 . . 06,579 ,,

1919 1920 . . 436,022 ,,

1920-1921 437,290 ,,

1921-1922 597,048 ..

1922-1923 . 469,364 ,,

1923-1924 . 519,145 ..

1924-1925 . . . 424,492 ,,

1925-1926 . 436,014 ,,

1926-1927 . 453>9f>i ,,

1927-1928 . . 442,198 ,,

1928-1929 . . . 434,269 ,,

1929-1930 . . . 394,092 ,,

It is worthy of note that before the European war the Germans were
purchasing regularly one ton of teak seed for planting in the colonies
which they then possessed in East Africa. The enterprise thus shown
with regard to this valuable timber might well be more largely followed by
the British Government.

Rows of regularly arranged pores mark the annual rings ; the other
pores, which are variable in size, are scattered and few in number.
The medullary rays are fairly numerous, and give a fine silver-grain
effect.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 533

TEAK, JAVA. Tectona grandis Linn. f.

Weight 45 Ibs. 7 oz. Java.

The supplies of teak from Java come from the seven districts of Rem-
band, Semarang, Madioen, Sourabaya, Cheribon, Kembal, and Kedire.

From the district of Remband " Blora " teak is procured, which is the
best quality obtainable in Java. The next best comes from Semarang,
but some from this district is not good. Madioen has some good teak, but
most of the timber is chalky. Sourabaya wood is not very good, being
light in colour and weight. The supplies from the remaining three —
Cheribon, Kembal, and Kedire— are all of inferior quality and full of
chalk.

The teak tree is not indigenous to Java, but the conditions are re-
markably favourable to its growth. Originally planted round the temples
or shrines, it has spread over a wide area in pure forest, unlike its habit in
Burma and India, where it invariably grows in mixed forests. In many
places a very free natural regeneration occurs, so that often in a few weeks
a magnificent healthy new crop of young seedlings will spring up and
flourish vigorously. On the other hand, the conditions are not favourable
to satisfactory growth in the later life of the tree, which becomes stunted
and will not produce the same straight boles as can be found in Burma
and Siam. Thus the produce of the trees is of less size, and it is difficult
to obtain any quantity of long timber. The densely populated island of
Java uses a very considerable quantity of teak annually, as there are no
other domestic jungle woods, such as are largely used in India for all
purposes, and many of which have now to be imported into Java to keep
up the required supply. There is not, therefore, much prospect of any
considerable export of teak in the future. The effect of a change that
the Government made in the manner of selling the timber has also re-
stricted the volume of export. Until recently, in spite of large supplies
of good quality from Java, obtainable at a lower price than the Burma
wood, it was found difficult to overcome the prejudice against it. This
was due partly to the manner of description : the term Java being used
to describe the whole of the supplies without discrimination, whereas the
quality of Blora teak was good enough for the best purposes, and some of
the other qualities hardly fit for common use. This difference was well
understood by the Dutch at home in Holland, and by the shippers in
Java, so that better qualities commanded a proportionately higher price.
A very heavy rise in the value of the Burma and Siam wood has had the
result of stimulating the inquiry for Java teak, and many who would not
formerly entertain it are now anxious to obtain supplies. The colour
varies from a light straw, paler than that of the wood from Burma, to
a rich brown, equal to any other sort. Some of it is harder to work,

534 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

heavier in weight and chalky, and the gritty nature of the wood blunts
the edges of the tools readily, but the best quality obtainable is as good
as any of the Burma or Siam timber, from which it is impossible to dis-
tinguish it. It generally contains a more curly and wavy grain, and a
much larger proportion of what is termed " roe and mottle " figure. A
special feature of the Java wood is the dark-coloured, almost black,
streaky marks which it contains, and which make it very attractive when
used for panelling or any decorative work. This last quality is so pro-
nounced that, for those who desire to secure the best appearance in teak
panelling or furniture, it would be worth while to specify the use of the
Java wood.

For identification of wood growth see TEAK, BURMA.

TEAK, SURINAM. Hymenaea Conrbaril Linn.

Weight 70 Ibs. 8 oz. (very wet and fresh).

The Guianas, West Indies, South America.

VERN — West Indian locust, South American locust, leather -leaved locust,
locust gum, Brazilian gum-copal tree, gum-anime tree, courbanl,
courbaril plum, Eng. — Locust, cimin, courbanl, caouroubah,
kawanan, kivanari, Br. G. — Locus, lokus,jengi kanda, lokisi kaka,
Surinaamsch teakhout, Westindsch teakhout, julchihout, courbanl
hout, Sur — Courbanl, courbanl montagne, courbanl de savane, bois
de courbanl, locustner, cacachien, algarrobo, chimidida, caroubier
de la Guyane, copaher de Amenque, diphylle pois de confiture, Fr. G.
— Locust, stinking-toe, courbanl, algarobo, Trin. — Algarrobo, Cuba
— Courbanl, marbre, Guad. — Algarrobo, courbanl, quapinole jutahv,
jatoba, P.R. — Jatay, jetav, jataiba, jatobd, jatoba roxa, jatahy,
jatahy roxo, jatahy peba, jutahy, jutahy cafe', jutahy assu, jutahy de
campo, jutahy mirv, jutahy pororoca, jutahy peba, jutahy catinga,
jutahy roxo, yatayba, yutahi, yutahv, algarobo, Braz. — Avail, abati
timbary, Parag. — Algarrobo, corobore, Venez. — Algarrobo, naza-
reno, Col. — Cuapinol, cuapinole, cuapmoli, coapinol, guapinol,
copinole, algarrobo, Mex., C A — Lokustbaum, animebaum, hen-
schrenkenbaum, Germ. — Bois de simire, bois de courbanl, Fr. —
Cannanboom, gom anime boom, locusboom, spruikhaanboom,
Dutch — Algarrobo, legno locusta, Ital. (Various species included in
preceding.)

The duplication of names in South American woods has caused much
confusion, and in no case is this more pronounced than in that of Hymenaea
courbaril, which is the true locust or locus wood of the Guianas. While it
is called Surinam teak, it bears no resemblance to the true teak (Tectona
grandis).

Dr. J. Ph. Pfeiffer, of Delft University, explains in a private letter
that the confusion exists because the product of Dicorynia paraensis Bth.
is called " basralocus," " bastard locust," " nut-wood," " angelique."

The colour of so-called Surinam teak is a light brick-red, with slightly
lighter streaks, or " a dark brown to orange-red wood, often streaky,"

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 535

which are the terms used by Stone and Freeman. The wood has a hard
texture with rather open grain, and has proved reliable, standing well
when seasoned, possessing those qualities which make it durable. It is
essentially a cabinet-maker's and turner's wood.

It is not generally met with in commerce in the United Kingdom, but
during the war a few logs came into the London market, and proved to
be of good, sound, useful quality.

The pores are regular and usually even in size ; they are generally
single, but sometimes occur in duplicate and triplicate. The medullary
rays are strongly defined, and at uneven intervals are joined at right angles
by a clear light ring, similar in appearance, which follows the line of con-
centric layers and marks their line of growth.

TEMPINIS. Sloetia sideroxylon Teysu & Binn.

Malaya.

The wood is a bright golden mahogany colour, with a very fine, firm
grain similar to that of Spanish mahogany. The timber has not been
seen in commerce in the United Kingdom, but Foxworthy reports it as
probably the strongest of all the Malayan woods. Its qualities recommend
it for use for fine decorative woodwork, where the fine qualities of mahogany
are required.

The pores are very small and plugged, arranged in short wavy bands ;
the fine medullary rays are very irregular and uneven, showing in faint
dark-coloured flecks on the radial section.

Terminalia Arjuna Bedd.

Weight 59 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Anjan, arjun, arjuna, anjam, arjan, jamla, koha, kowa, kahua,
Hind — Arjun, Oudh, Beng — Arjuno, panda sahajo, Uriya —
Hanjal, Cuttack — Koivha, Sonthal — Gara patana, K61 — Mardi,
Khond — Vella niarda, vella matti, vella maruthu, Tarn — Arjun ,
anjan, sadura, savnnadat, Mar. — Maddi, bilh matti, Mysore — Yer-
niaddi, e'rra niaddi, iclla madit, Tel. — Holematti, Kan. — Arjuna
sadra, Guz. — Kahit, Baigas — Mangi, koha, Gondi — Kitmbuk,
Cingh. — Taukkyan, Burm

The product of a beautiful tree which is planted for ornamental pur-
poses in gardens and avenues, yielding a wood which, if it could be supplied
in quantity, would be one of the valuable timbers of commerce.

Strange indeed it is that the Forest Service of India has never dis-
covered the value of such a wood ; also that, in 1918, a specimen I received
of a bright straw-coloured yellowish-timber, although marked 7". arjuna
in two places, was found to be the produce of an entirely different species,
which resulted in a quite incorrect report of the wood in my first edition.

The wood is practically of the same colour as that of American black

536

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538 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

timber, in considerable quantities, was being used for the commonest
purposes, or burned, in the Andaman Islands. From that date an in-
creasing export has occurred from the Andaman Islands, and a con-
siderable quantity has been used in decorative woodwork of the highest
class. The light-coloured wood has been employed for the less costly
woodwork in pianofortes and the like, while the silver-greywood has been
used extensively in the highest class, and the demand has far exceeded the
supply. The wood must not be used in an unseasoned condition, but
when seasoned it stands well. A superb dining-room was exhibited at
the 1924 Empire Exhibition at Wembley, and among the outstanding
works which have been completed since that date the following may be
mentioned : First-class dining-cars on the London Midland & Scottish
and Southern Railways, which have been universally admired ; the new
buildings of the County Fire Assurance Company, Piccadilly Circus,
designed by Wm. G. Newton & Partners, and executed by Holloway Bros. ;
the fittings and decorative woodwork of a very large number of the
Underground Railways.

" The pores are very scanty, large, frequently subdivided, joined by
irregular, wavy, concentric bands of soft, loose, cellular tissue. Fine,
equidistant, uniform medullary rays are indistinctly visible in the harder
and darker portions between the bands, and on the radial section, where
too the pores are prominent " (Gamble).

Terminalia Catappa Linn.

Weight 38-41 Ibs. (Gamble).

India, Burma, The Andaman

Islands.

VERN — Badam, Beng. — Taree, Kan. — Nat vadom, Tarn. — Vedam, Tel. —
Adamarram, Mai. — Kottamba, Cingh — Catappa, Malay

The colour of the wood is light reddish-brown, with a hard, close grain,
and the pores display on the transverse section numberless bright shining
specks of gum. Parkinson reports this as the " Bengal almond " or
" Indian almond " tree. This wood has not been exported commercially.

The concentric layers are marked by pronounced dark rings. The
pores are so uniform and regular that they give the impression of a hand-
manufactured pattern. The medullary rays are very close, parallel,
exceedingly fine.

Terminalia Chebula Retz. The Myrobolan tree.

Weight 64 Ibs. India, Ceylon, Burma, Malay.

VERN— //am*, har, harrara, Hind.-— Haira, Kumaon — Hantaki, Beng.—

Hihkha, Ass. — Silim, Lepcha — Karedha, horada, Uriya — Halm,

harla, hirda, Mar.—Rola, K6i—Hadra, Oraon— Hilda, Berar—

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 539

Karka, hir, harro, mahoka, Gondi — Kadakai, Tarn. — Kadukka,
Mai. — Karaka, kadukar, Tel. — Herrda, anale, Kan. — AlaU,
Mysore — Kajo, Magh. — Panga, Burm. — Aralu, Cingh.

Brownish-yellow with a purplish tinge, this wood has a close, fairly
hard grain. If supplies could be made in regular decorative woodwork
sizes, a considerable demand would result ; at present it is not met with
in ordinary commerce.

Pearson and Brown, in Commercial Timbers of India, say that it very
much resembles T. Oliveri but is more ornamental, an opinion which
might be open to question.

The pores are numerous and mostly plugged, regular in position and
size. The medullary rays are very fine, and hardly discernible under the
lens.

Terminalia glabra W. & A.

Weight 52-60 Ibs. (Gamble).

Central and Southern India, Burma,

Ceylon.
VERN — Same as for T. Arjuna

A brown, walnut-coloured wood, with close, compact grain, very much
resembling the produce of T. Arjuna. It takes a fine surface from the
tool and is marked concentrically by wider or narrower dark lines. The
small-sized pores, which are evenly distributed between the layers, are
clearly visible to the naked eye. But the medullary rays are exceedingly
fine, and hardly discernible under the lens.

Terminalia Manii King.

Weight 39 Ibs. Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

VERN — Kala Chuglam.

This wood is known as " black chuglam " ; the colour is greyish -brown,
resembling that of Ancona walnut. It possesses a very hard, close grain
with good bottom, and takes a smooth surface from the plane, displaying
a lustrous face. If properly seasoned, the wood stands very well indeed,
but it should be used mainly for veneering, and not in any great thickness.

The very numerous pores, which are mostly plugged, are rather small
and are uniform both in position and size. The concentric layer of growth
is confused and uncertain. The medullary rays are exceedingly fine,
close, and parallel.

Terminalia myriocarpa Heurck & Muell, Arg.

Weight 51 Ibs. India, Upper Burma.

VERN — Panisaj, Nep. — Sungloch, Lepcha — Hollock, Ass.

The colour is greyish-brown, resembling that of grey Ancona walnut,
for which wood, if prepared by a competent workman, it might be mis-

540 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

taken. Gamble reports the tree as common and conspicuous, and quotes
Chevalier Paganini that it is " excellent for many purposes, straight-
grained, pretty hard, does not warp or split to any considerable extent
when it is seasoned, stands well in and out of doors. Its only enemy is a
kind of small borer. It is peculiarly adapted for cheap furniture, windows,
doors, railway carriages and generally for any work where accurate fitting
is the main object. "

In 1922 we find it reported as being extensively used for tea-boxes.
While these were the best uses to which this valuable timber was put, the
railway company covering the district in which the tree grew abundantly
was making use of imported American maple, American poplar, and
American satinwood — three trees which neither in appearance nor quality
could be compared with hollock. A large-sized panel, made in a ply-wood
factory in India, was shown to me in 1922 when I was in Calcutta, and 1
was informed that the panel had been prepared for the new Secretariat
building in Delhi. Although I understood it had been tried in various
circumstances for some period, the panel showed no sign of shrinkage or
defect, and gave every evidence of being entirely satisfactory. The
potential value of this timber seems to be considerable, and the failure
to have recognised its merits earlier illustrates the backwardness of the
development of the uses of Indian timber, referred to by American writers,
especially as it was reported many years ago to be available in large
quantities and in large sizes. It has never been available in commerce
in the United Kindgom.

The pores vary in size, are distinctly on the large side, and are very
open, irregularly placed, and not very numerous. The medullary rays
are exceedingly fine, close, wavy, and broken, crossed at right angles by
white lines shaded dark, showing what might or might not be lines of con-
centric growth.

Terminalia paniculata W. & A.

Weight 48-65 Ibs. (Gamble). India.

VERN — Kindal, kinjal, Mar — Neemeen, Tel — Pe-karakai, vcn maruthu,
Tarn — Honal, hongal, hunab, huluvd, hulve, Kan — Ulwc, Coorg —
Pu marutha, Mai. — Poo mardd, pillai mardd, Anamalais.

The colour is a rich warm brown, similar to that of American black
walnut, for which, when in finished work, it might easily be mistaken. It
works exceedingly well, and is capable of a smooth surface from the tool.
Gamble says : "A fine tree with a good wood, but not so valuable as that
of T. tomentosa. It is improved by being kept under water." Gamble's
experience was too limited. While individual specimens of trees of
T. tomentosa are certainly more valuable, the plain wood of T. paniculata,
if produced in the approved manner for commercial purposes, would be of

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 541

still greater value. A small shipment was brought over for the Holland
Park Exhibition in 1920, and was offered for sale under the name of kindal,
one of its vernacular names, but the absence of any indication of a regular
import failed to create any interest commercially.

The pores are very numerous, and vary greatly in size from very small
to fairly large. The larger pores form a layer with a very light mark,
which might or might not be a line of concentric growth. The medullary
rays are very numerous, irregular, not equidistant, and somewhat rough.

Terminalia parviflora Thw.

Weight 47 Ibs. Ceylon.

VKRN — Hanpalandra, Cingh.

This wood, which is a light straw colour, displays still one more dis-
tinctive and remarkable appearance, differing from the already numerous
descriptions of wood produced by the Terminalia species, so that an ob-
server, at first glance, would not believe it possible that the wood should
belong to this genus. The grain is fine and close on the tangential sur-
face, having almost the appearance of a fine-quality pine ; but on the
radial section, showing its hard dense nature, with the medullary ray in
small flecks as in sycamore. It would be much appreciated if it were
obtainable in the usual sizes required for decorative woodwork.

The very small pores are arranged in belts, making a pretty pattern
with the fine, clearly defined medullary rays intersecting the pores at
right angles.

Tetrameles nudiflora Br.

Weight 24 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Burma, Ceylon, The

Andamans, Java.

VKRN — Mamakat, hoongia, Xep — Payomko, Lepcha — Bolong, Garo —
Sandugaza, Beng — Bolur, jennalu, Kan. — Ugado, Mar. — Chim,
Tarn. — Chim, vclla chini, Mai. — Nigitnu, mugunu, Cingh. — Tseik-
poban, Magh — -Kaing, ihitpok, saivbya, Burm.

The wood is a light greyish-straw colour, with a fine, close grain, and
shows great strength relatively to its weight. Gamble reports Kurz as
stating that the wood is valueless, but Bourdillon that it is used for dug-
out canoes, " and if rubbed with fish oil and used in salt water a boat will
last from 8 to 10 years." This information is important in view of its
suitability as a substitute for balsa wood — a name to which it is as much
entitled as the balsa wood of South America.

Considering its exceptional strength in relation to its weight, it should
be regarded as a most valuable wood for use in those works of importance
for which its character renders it valuable.

542 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The rather scarce pores are moderate to small in size, ranging singly
and in groups of two and three between strongly defined medullary rays,
parallel, fairly equidistant, which are crossed at right angles by very thin,
light, clear lines.

Thespesia populnea Corr.

Weight 50 Ibs. India, Ceylon.

VERN — Parsipu, Hind — Poresh, parash, dumbla, Beng — Paris, purasia,

Portia, pursa, pur sung, puvarasam, kavarachu, puvarachu, Tarn. —

Gangareni, gangarava, Tel — Bhendi, Mar. — Bendi, Guz. — Asha,

hurvashi, Kan. — Bugari, Hassan — Sunya, Cmgh.

This is the wood of the Portia, or tulip tree, and is of a pale salmon-
mahogany colour. It has a close texture, and a grain with contrary hard
and soft layers ; the medullary rays showing as silver grain on the radial
section. Gamble reports it as " durable . . . used in South India for gun-
stocks, boats, cart and carriage making, and for furniture ; in Bombay for
wheel-spokes ; in Burma for furniture and carts."

Record reports it as also growing in the coastal forests of the Indo-
Malayan region, tropical Africa, the West Indies, and certain other
portions of tropical America.

The names by which it is known there are as follows : Seaside mahoe,
cork tree, Spanish cork, Bah. — Emajaguilla, palo de jaqueca, santa maria,
P.R. — Majagua de Florida, Cuba — Catalpa, Guad., Mart.—Mahaiilt de
londres, Trin. — Portia tree, tulip tree, India— Bandlo, P.I. — Fref, eijan,
Gold Coast, Afr. — Faux bois de rose, bois de rose d'Occanie, Fr. — Rosewood
of Seychelles, umbrella tree, Eng.

The pores are small and regular. The medullary rays are clear,
strong, and well-defined.

THINGAN.

See Hopea odorata.

THITKA. P enlace burmanica.
See MAHOGANY, BURMA.

THITSHO.

See Pentace Griffithii.

THITYA. Shorea obtusa Wall.

Weight 52-53 Ibs. India.

A yellowish-brown coloured wood with a close, firm grain, but giving
rather a rough texture from the plane ; in appearance much like y6n,
though a little darker in colour, inclined to warp badly in seasoning. Has
not been seen in commerce.

The concentric growth marked by darker and lighter coloured rings.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 543

The rather small pores are mostly plugged, regular in size and position,
with faint, rough-edged medullary rays regular, parallel, and almost
equidistant.

THUYA. Tetraclinis articulata Masters.

Morocco, Algeria.

Algerian thuya is similar to the American or English grown thuya, the
product of Thuya occidentahs L., T. plicata, but the Algerian wood is
only seen in the United Kingdom in the form of burrs.

The colour is yellowish-brown red, with a softer grain than that of
Amboyna, but very much resembling it, and capable of an exceedingly
smooth surface from the tool. The wood has a sweet aromatic scent, and
of late has become fashionable for small tables and boxes, etc.

A comparison between the wood of an Algerian burr and that taken
from a tree grown in Sussex shows little difference ; the one might easily
be mistaken for the other.

According to Boulger the wood is known as " Atlas Cypress," " Citrus,"
or " Citron-wood," and is probably the " Thyme wood " of the Apocalypse.
At Cordova it is used for the roof of the Cathedral and known as " Alerce ";
Boulger also says that it is the " Lignum-Vitae " of the French.

I am unable to iind any confirmation of either of these statements.
In any case, the wood of thuya has no resemblance to either the well-
known alerce, or the lignum-vitae of commerce.

TIAMA. Entandrophragma macrophyllum A. Chev.

West Africa.

Very large quantities of this timber have been imported into London
and Liverpool for a great many years past, and have been sold under the
name of African mahogany. In the course of the last few years a dis-
tinction has been made between the different woods, and that named
tiama separated from the others. A more careful separation was prac-
tised in France and Germany than in England, in which countries it is
probable that the wood has only been sold under the name of tiama.

The colour is browner, the grain slightly rougher than in African
mahogany, Khaya Senegalensis, with a stronger resemblance to the Sapeli
wood ; but the difference is not very marked, and the wood is suitable in
all respects for the same kind of uses as the others.

The pores are variable in size, not very numerous, occurring in singles
and doubles. The medullary rays are exceedingly irregular in size,
position, and distinctness, showing in a marked manner on the radial
section, and crossed at right angles by extremely fine, similar light lines,
which show irregularly.

544 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

TIMIDAK. Source unknown.

Weight 46 Ibs. 4 oz. Borneo, The Malay States.

This is a cross-grained, fine-textured wood of a light yellowish-brown
colour, with a surface very similar to that of Honduras mahogany. It
takes a nice finish from the tool, stands well, and would be a useful sub-
stitute for any work for which mahogany is used.

The pores are of moderate size and rather open. The medullary rays
are close, fine, and parallel.

TINGLE-TINGLE.

See STRINGY-BARK.

TITOKI. Alectryon excelsinn Gaert.

New Zealand.

The Board of Agriculture, New Zealand, report this wood as of a
"light-red colour, straight-grained, of great strength, toughness, and
elasticity. Used in wheelwrights' and coachwrights' work, axe handles,
swingle-trees, and handles of carpenters' tools."

TOBROOS. Enterolobium cyclocarpum Gris.

Weight 36 Ibs. British Honduras, Northern South

America, Central America, West
Indies.

VERX — Guanacaste, conacaste, pichwood, genizero, South American walnut,
Mexico

The colour is a strong reddish-brown, resembling koko (Albizzia
Lebbek) (q.v.) both in colour and grain, and with the same rather lustrous
appearance. In fact, it would be hard to distinguish between these two
woods.

Mr. Stevenson, the Conservator of Forests, Belize, in a private letter,
reports that it " grows in British Honduras as a scattered riverain tree
chiefly used for the making of dories," and says that he doubts whether
any large supplies could be obtained, and that no shipments have yet been
made to the U.S.A.

The open pores are rather large, occurring singly and in duplicate.
They are rather scarce, with fine, indistinct medullary rays, crossed at
irregular intervals by similar white lines.

TOCHI. Aesculus turbinata Bl.

Weight 32 Ibs. Japan.

According to Goto this wood is called tochi-noki, and comes from the
district of Chusenji.

This Japanese horse-chestnut is very similar to the English, alike in

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 545

grain, but of a darker, and golden-brown colour. Highly figured planks
and flitches, containing attractive splash mottle figure of a smaller and
bolder pattern, have found their way to the English market of late years
(1930). Some of the planks are marked by a slight discoloration, with
black lines.

The concentric layers are marked by fine, dark streaks. The minute
plugged pores and the very numerous, exceedingly fine medullary rays
are hardly discernible under the lens.

TOTARA. Podocarpus Totara A. Cunn.

Weight 28-37 Ibs. New Zealand.

This is one of the most valuable timbers of New Zealand, but it has not
been imported on a commercial scale. The Board of Agriculture, New
Zealand, reports it as " deep red in colour, clean and straight in the grain,
also capable of resisting the marine worm for protracted periods. Pro-
curable in long lengths and up to great widths. Used for general building
purposes, joinery, and cabinet-making ; bridge and wharf work, and wood
pavements." Some years ago many well-marked pieces were sent to this
country for figured veneer work, the figure being of a curly, wavy, burry
character. The veneers were well received and used for panels in piano-
forte work and cabinets.

TOWHAI. Weinmannia racemosa Linn.

Weight 45 Ibs. New Zealand.

According to the New Zealand Board of Agriculture this wood is of a
" deep red colour, hard and strong, ornamental grain. Procurable in
medium lengths up to 10 inches in width. Used for cabinet-making and
ornamental work."

TRINCOMALI WOOD. Berry a Ammonilla Roxb.

Weight 60 Ibs. (Troup). India, Burma, Ceylon, The

Malay States.

VERN — Halnnlhla, halmilla, Cingh. — Chevandelai, Tarn. — Petwun, Burm.

The colour is a deep, dark red, similar to that of beefwood, or bullet
tree. It has a coarse, sticky, hard grain, and an oily feeling to the touch.
It resembles the hard wood of lignum-vitae, and for certain uses it is a
very good substitute for that wood. Troup reports that in the seasoning
small radial cracks are apt to form. Gamble reports the wood as very
durable ; experiments made by Professor W. C. Unwin, F.R.S., in 1899
gave the following results :

Weight ...... 4Q'93 per cub.^foot.

Resistance to shearing along the fibres . . 830-3 per sq. inch.

Crushing stress ..... 3*44-2 tons per sq. inch.

Coefficient of transverse strength . . . 6-898 ,, ,, ,,

Coefficient of elasticity .... 780-7

546

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

It is difficult, however, to understand the weight arrived at by Professor
Unwin, as several specimens which have been examined exceed the figure
he has given.

Photograph by G R. Keen
NATIVES HAND-SAWING, CEYLON

Trincomali wood has been known under this name in the United
Kingdom for a great number of years, and in the adoption of suitable
names it presents a good illustration of the necessity for accepting one

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 547

easily remembered, and not likely to confuse the users of the wood.
When it was introduced about 1920 as Berrya Ammonilla, it was even
rejected by those people who had formerly used Trincomali wood.
Strangely enough, the same thing happened in Ceylon, and Mr. Lushington,
when called upon to make a report as to the failure of the development
of the Ceylon woods, reported that the authorities in Ceylon, when offered
the wood of Berrya Ammonilla, re fused it under this name, although under
the name of Trincomali wood it was favourably received. This is an
illustration of the doubtful advantage of mixing the botanical Latin name
with the regular trade name, whether correct or otherwise.

Its good standing qualities make this wood greatly sought for, where
hardness and toughness, elasticity, and durability are required.

The numerous, very small pores are regular in size and distribution,
joined by wavy belts of minute secondary pores, which make a pretty
pattern. The rays are exceedingly fine, parallel, nearly equidistant, and
show on the radial section very marked, and almost as strongly as in the
plane, with a ripple ray prominent on both sections.

Tfi-ch'ai.

China.

Professor Record identifies this wood as Tetradenia sp. Professor
Chung says that it is the wood of the lacquer tree.

The colour is an attractive brownish olive-green, with a shining bright
lustre, and a very fine, close grain, yielding a smooth surface from the
tool.

The close concentric layers are marked by fine dark lines. The pores
are very small, plugged, and regularly distributed. The medullary rays
are fine, rather coarse, irregular, and crossed at irregular intervals by con-
spicuous dark lines, marking the concentric layers of growth.

TSUGA. Tsuga Sieboldi Carr.

Weight 38 Ibs. Formosa, Nikko, and Chizengi.

The Tsuga family, or genus, is properly confined to Japan, China,
North America, and the Himalayas, and embraces many different
varieties, none of which have been met with in general use in commerce.
After the war, small experimental shipments came to hand, as there
seemed a prospect of a demand, but little interest was displayed in the
timber, and there has been no further development.

The wood has an attractive, fine grain, harder and heavier than Scots
pine, but much resembling it. The initial shipments came from Japan
or Formosa, or both. Mr. H. J. Elwes, on his visit to Formosa, secured
some specimen planks, and also some exceedingly fine burrs, which he
sent to England, and from which he had some handsome cabinets made.

548 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Tsuga Brunoniana Carr.

Weight 23 Ibs. Central and Eastern Himalaya.

VERN — Changathasi dhup, thingia, thingani sula, tengre salla, Nep. —
Tangshing, Bhutia — Semadung, chemdang, nyitkun, Lepcha.

The Indian hemlock spruce. A light-coloured wood with a pinkish
tinge, soft, light in weight, and of poor quality ; it is used for shingles of
roofs.

TUART. Eucalyptus gomphocephala DC.

Weight 70 Ibs. (Julius). Western Australia.

The wood is of a yellowish or straw colour, hard, heavy, tough, strong,
and rigid ; the texture close, and the grain so twisted and curled as to
render it difficult either to cleave or work. It is a very sound wood,
possessing few or no defects, with the exception of a mild form of heart-
or star-shake at the centre, which would necessitate a small amount of
waste if it were required to reduce the logs into thin planks or boards ;
but if employed in large scantlings it will be found a most valuable wood,
especially where great strength is needed. In seasoning it shrinks very
little and does not split ; it is also characteristic of this wood that it will
bear exposure to all the vicissitudes of weather for a long time, being only
to a small degree affected by it. It has been known to be subjected to
this severe test for full}7 ten years, and when afterwards converted, it
opened out with all the freshness of newly felled timber. Possibly no
better evidence is required to show that this is a durable wood. It is
used in shipbuilding for beams, keelsons, stern-posts, engine-bearers, and
for other works below the line of flotation, for which great strength is
required, a weighty material in that position not being objectionable in
the construction of a ship. It would make good piles for piers and sup-
ports in bridges, and be useful in the framing of dock-gates, as it with-
stands the action of water and is one of the strongest woods known,
whether it be tried transversely or otherwise. It would, however,
probably be found too heavy for use in the domestic arts.

Julius says : "In consequence of the comparatively small quantities
of this timber so far used, definite information in regard to durability is
hardly available. . . . Tuart is very rarely attacked by white ant, and is
not liable to attack by dry rot ... stands well when steamed and bent
as roof-sticks, and many hundreds are in use in the State for this purpose."

C. E. Lane-Poole says : " Its main use, along with wandoo, is for
railway waggon and truck construction. The chief mechanical engineer
in Western Australia, Mr. E. S. Hume, has reduced the maintenance of
his trucks from £3 -.7:6 to los. per year per truck by substituting for
steel, tuart and wandoo in wider-carriages. "

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 549

Tu-ch'ai.

China.

Professor Record says this is Podocarpus. The wood is of a pale straw
colour, with a grain slightly harder, but resembling that of Swiss pine. It
has a slight aromatic scent, rather like Japanese hinoki, which the wood
resembles in other respects. The concentric layers are marked by strong,
well-defined, dark lines, showing a somewhat uneven growth.

TULIP WOOD. ? Physocalymma scaberrimum Pohl.

P. floridum.

Weight 50-64 Ibs. Brazil.

VERN — Tulip wood, rosewood, Trade — Sebastiao de arruda, pao rosa, grao
de porco ?, cego machado or maschado ?, Braz. — Brazihamsches
rozenholz, tulpenholz, Germ. — Bois de rose, Fr.

In the confusion of timbers from South American sources arising from
the multiplication of names, no case is more pronounced than that of so-
called tulip wood. It is evident that supplies of several different botanical
varieties have been given the name of tulip-wood for trade purposes.
Record says there is a general mistaken belief that tulip is produced by
Physocalymma scaberrimum, as above, which equals P. floridum. In
Tropical Woods he says : " It is intermediate between specimens of
Dalbergia and Ttpuanha." The wood is known locally as " sebastiao
de arruda," also as " pao rosa," a name which is also given to
Dalbergia sp.

The well-known Brazilian tulip wood is imported in small, round,
irregularly shaped logs and billets, ranging from 2 to perhaps 8 inches in
diameter, and generally of a somewhat faulty character. The colour is a
fresh violet-red, streaked with deeper red and salmon-coloured stripes ; if
exposed to strong light, the bright colour fades almost completely. The
growth is dense and hard, but the wood is liable to split after being
sawn.

It is a very favourite wood in the composition of certain kinds of
French furniture, especially of the Empire period, and it is used to-day
for bandings and ornamental inlay work, also in turnery. " The wood,
which is very wasteful and splintery, is used for Tunbridge ware manu-
factures and brushes " (Holtzapffel).

Supplies grow more scarce every year.

The specimen " sebastiao dc arruda " which is said to be the produce
of P. floridum in Colonel Gamble's collection, is unlike the tulip wood
described above. It is a pale, even, yellow colour without stripes, lighter
in weight (49 Ibs.), and does not seem to answer to the other descriptions
of this wood.

550 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The concentric annual layers of growth are marked by dark rings.
The pores in line of the concentric layers are fairly large and open, with
very numerous, very small pores in the remainder of the layer. The
medullary rays are irregular, exceedingly fine, and parallel.

Tung-ch'ai. Source unknown.

China.

The colour is a light grey, with a straight, even, soft grain, and a
rather satiny sheen, showing tiny flecks of medullary rays on the radial
section. The wood is very light and is not unlike the Japanese kiri,
Paulownia sp.

Professor Chung reports that the " traders " say the seeds of this tree
produce Tung oil, and that the name means the wood of the Aleurites sp.,
but Professor Record questions this opinion.

The concentric layers of growth are clearly distinguished by the larger
pores of spring growth, with much smaller pores in the later growth.
The medullary rays are not very clearly defined on the transverse section,
but show in marked, small flakes on the radial.

Tung-tsao. Source unknown.

China.

This appears to be Cedrela species. The wood resembles that of
Cedrela Toona of India, Burma, etc. A valuable wood, with a brighter
colour than either the Indian or the American C. odorata.

In the spring growth the pores are wide open, but with sparse, very
small, mostly plugged pores in the later growth. The medullary rays are
irregular, parallel, and numerous, showing in fine clash on the radial
section.

TUPELO. Nyssa aquatica Marsh

N. sylvatica Marsh and/or
N. uni flora Wang.
Weight 45 Ibs. 7 oz. North America.

This wood, in the United Kingdom correctly called tupelo, also in-
correctly, American whitewood and basswood, is known in America as
tupelo gum or bay poplar. It is a timber possessing qualities which have
been insufficiently recognised. The failure to season the timber thoroughly
before use has caused disappointment and loss ; but if thoroughly seasoned
it possesses qualities which cannot be excelled, even if equalled, by any
wood of similar character. It should not be employed for unfixed work,
such as tops of doors and screens, as it is liable to warp and twist in such
positions. It is capable of an extremely smooth surface from the tool,
giving sharp, clear-cut lines for mouldings, and wearing well notwith-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 551

standing hard usage ; while the whitish-yellow ivory colour it possesses is
peculiar to this timber and cannot be matched.

Elwes quotes Holroyd — 17.5. Department Agricultural Forestry Service
Circular, No. 40, 1906 — reporting that it had been impossible to market
this timber excepting under a fictitious name " so great has been the
prejudice against this, and others, known as gums." This report illus-
trates the strange habit which Forestry Services seem to indulge in of
publishing remarks calculated to depreciate the commercial value of
forest products in timber rather than to search for opportunities which
may create values ; for instance, the astute American lumberman has
discovered that one of the American gums, the product of Liquidambar
styraciflua, could be handled so that it has produced a great source of
wealth. The Forestry Service would do well to realise that to use a name
which would help to popularise the use of an important wood is an advan-
tage which might even justify the use of a fictitious name, but surely the
term " fictitious is in this sense inaccurate ? If the appearance of the
timber suggests the term " satin walnut " the name is quite as justifiable
as if it were called " monkey slip-wood," the name proposed by the
Forestry Service following the somewhat common practice to describe the
bark of the tree. The Forestry Service of any country might congratulate
its officers if they were able to show ingenuity by giving a name to the
timber which would bring it into popularity and use.

When tupelo was first introduced into the United Kingdom it was
difficult to find a market, but as soon as its qualities were known a good
demand was created.

The pores are exceedingly small, numerous, and plugged; the medul-
lary rays very fine, and hardly discernible under the lens.

TURPENTINE. Syncarpia laurifolia Ten.

Weight 60-6 1 Ibs. New South Wales.

The difficulty of describing the colour of a wood has been referred to
elsewhere. In the case of turpentine it appears to me that the colour of
my specimen is a warm rich nut-brown, with a slightly lustrous surface.
Baker calls it a dark brown ; Swain, Indian pink colour with an egg-shell
lustre ; and the New South Wales pamphlet says it varies from dull red
to brown or purple-brown. It has a dense, hard, compact grain, which,
on account of its contrary hard and soft layers, requires a sharp tool to
produce a smooth surface. The seasoning is difficult, needing both care
and time, as the wood is apt to warp, and to dry with an irregular surface.
It has a first-class reputation in Australia for durability, and of late has
been imported into the United Kingdom in considerable quantities, in
logs, planks, and boards, for work where durability and strength have been
required.

552

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The Forestry Commission, N.S.W., report the wood as " resisting
decay . . . white mils marine borers, the last especially if the bark

TURPENTINE — NJLW SOUTH WALES
By kind permission of the High Commissioner for Australia

be intact"; and further, as "a very good fire-resisting wood." The
pamphlet also adds that in the case of pih s, jetties, etc., " they should be

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 553

driven with the bark intact, as much of its power of resistance to cobra,
etc., is apparently due to the presence of a layer of oleo-resin between the
timber and the bark." It is also claimed that turpentine resists marine
borers in sea water better than any other timber. A large number of
round logs with the bark on have been imported this year (1932) for dock
and jetty work at Falmouth, and a shipment has also reached the London
Docks for the first time. It is claimed in Australia that it is desirable to
use the timber with the bark on, but Captain Bartlett, of the Falmouth
Dock and Harbour Board, does not think it is of any consequence, while
he expresses the highest opinion of its suitability for dock work because it
is so immune from marine borers.

The exceedingly small and very numerous pores, mostly plugged, are
regular throughout the transverse section. Layers, which may mark a
season's growth, are shown by a dark, thin line at irregular intervals.
The medullary rays are so fine as to be hardly discernible under the lens
( + 10), but they show on the radial section in very strongly marked fine
flecks.

TURPENTINE, BRUSH. Syncarpia leptopetala F. v. M.

Weight 62 Ibs. (Baker). Queensland, New South

Wales.

This wood closely resembles that of Syncarpia lannfolia (q.v.). Baker
says " In some specimens very difficult to distinguish from that timber
... a little more open in the grain ... a faster growing tree." It
should be suitable for the same purposes as S. laurifoha.

Tzu-hsin.

China.

Professor Record considers this is magnolia, with which I agree. It is
of good quality and resembles American magnolia in every way.

The concentric layers of growth are marked by dark bands ; in other
respects it agrees with the identification of picn-ch'ai and ch'i-hsii (q.v.).

UM TOM BOTI.

See Excoecaria sp.

Valeria acuminata Heyne.

Weight 40-42 Ibs. (F. Lewis). Ceylon.

VERN — Hal, Cingh.

A yellowish -brown wood with thin, dark-coloured streaks, close-
grained and capable of a smooth surface from the tool. A useful wood for
local consumption, but not having any characteristics to make it of value
for the export market.

554 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The very numerous pores are very small and plugged ; the medullary
rays very numerous, varying in thickness from very fine to coarse.

Vateria indica Linn.

Weight 36-40 Ibs. (Gamble). Southern India.

VERN — Piney mar am, dhup mar am, v allay kungiliam, kondncam, Tarn. —
Dupa maram, dhupa, paim, munda dhup, illupathla, gugle, Kan. —
Ditpada, Tel. — Pavam, paim mar a, perum ptnev, vella kondnkam,
Mai.— Hal, Cinghu

The " copal " or " piney varnish " tree. Pearson and Brown, in
Commercial Timbers of India, report that this timber has been exported to
Bombay and sold as " Malabar White Pine." According to Gamble the
wood is of a light grey colour, coarse-grained, moderately hard and porous.
It is occasionally used for masts of native boats, coffins, packing-cases,
and tea-chests.

Vatica obscura Trim.

Weight 80 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon.

VERN — Tumpalai, Tarn.

The colour is a dirty, dull brownish -red, with a tine, close, compact
grain, yielding a smooth surface from the tool. A very useful wood,
especially for turnery. Trimcn says that Cinghalese wood-cutters call the
tree " dun."

The exceedingly numerous minute pores are plugged, with clearly
defined, numerous medullary rays, which do not show very clearly on the
radial section.

Vatica Roxburghiana Bl.

Weight 59-60 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Ceylon.

VERN — Cheru piney, Mai — Vellei payin, Trav. Hills — Mcndora, Cmgh

This wood is reported by Gamble as Vatica chinensis. It is of a light
brown colour, with an even, smooth grain, and very close texture ; re-
ported as being durable under ground. It does not possess any special
character to justify its report for decorative woodwork, although it might
be used to advantage locally in this manner.

The pores are extremely numerous and very small ; the medullary
rays numerous, parallel, and well-defined.

Vatica Scaphula Dyer.

India.
VERN — Boilshora, Magh.

A rather open-grained, silver-grey coloured wood, with brown open
pores, showing on the tangential ray, with a slightly glossy sheen.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 555

VERA-WOOD. Bulnesia arbor ea Engl.

Weight 66-67 rt>s- South America (Maracaibo).

VERN — Vera, vera aceituna, v. amarilla, v. azul, v. blanca, bera, berra,
Venez., Col. — Maracaibo lignum-vitae , vera-wood, Trade — Guaya-
can, palo sano, Colombia — Gayac de Caracas, Fr. — Verahoh, Ger. —
" Congo cypress," Brushback trade.

The wood known as vera-wood and Maracaibo-wood has been on the
markets of the United Kingdom, the Continent, and America for a long
time. Partly on account of efforts made by traders to pass it off as the
genuine lignum-vitae (Guaiacum officinale), and partly because no definite
statement as to its source could be found from any authority, confusion
existed and users became suspicious, so that even on occasions the genuine
lignum-vitae was suspected of being vera-wood. Although Record reports
it as being liable to cup-shakes, radial cracks, and similar defects, the
shipments to this country have been, on the whole, of first-rate quality,
and for a number of purposes vera-wood is a very good substitute, although
for the most important uses of lignum-vitae it is not suitable.

In a pamphlet issued by Professor Record, Bulletin No. 6, 1921, the
subject is very clearly stated : " This ' Maracaibo lignum-vitae ' or vera-
wood is not considered suitable for propeller-shaft bushings and certain
other purposes. The objections that have been made to it are that it
does not wear well and that the grain is less interwoven than in the best
of the genuine wood, and accordingly there is more liability to cup-shakes,
radial cracks, and similar defects. One New York dealer states that 75
per cent of the vera logs he has seen bhowed bad ring-shakes/' He further
says : " The heart-wood is very durable under exposure and will last
indefinitely in the ground. Mr. H. M. Curran found among the ruins of
an old Spanish fort on the tip of Araya Peninsula, Venezuela, a pole
which was in perfect preservation after some 300 years. A specimen of
this wood was examined by the writer and identified as the heart-wood
of Bulnesia arbor ea" Also : " The variations in the color of the wood,
attributed to the effect of site, give rise to the names ' vera aceituno '
(olive), ' vera amarilla ' (yellow), ' vera azul ' (blue), and ' vera blanca '
(white)."

It is "one of the most highly prized woods on the Venezuelan markets "
(Zon and Sparhawk).

The concentric layers are marked, not very clearly, by dark and light
rings which merge one into the other. The extremely tiny pores, grouped
thickly in the early growth of the layer, become more scarce and widely
distributed later, partially plugged, with the finest of all fine threaded
medullary rays crossed at right angles by equally fine, light lines of tissue,
causing a very fine network pattern.

556 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

VERONICA. Possibly Trevesia.

Europe.

This shrub produces a whitish-brown, very hard, close-grained wood,
which carries a great deal of inbark growth, perhaps destroying its value
as a cabinet wood. It is tough and strong and could be used for those
purposes which require these qualities.

VINE, COMMON or GRAPE. Vitis vinifcra Linn.

Western Asia, The Caucasus, N.W.

India, The Deccan, Burma.

VERN — Dakh, dakki, draksha, anguY, Hind — Lanang, Kunawar — Sabyit,
Burm.

The grape vine is so universally known that it would seem almost
superfluous to refer to it. Boulger says that it was originally a native of
Armenia, from whence it has been introduced to every part of the world
where the grape will grow.

The wood is of a grey-yellowish colour, with a hard, bony grain and a
somewhat rough texture, the medullary rays showing prominently on the
radial surface. A stout walking-stick, prepared from a suitable trunk,
might perhaps be of assistance to the wayfarer who had enjoyed the juice
of the vine " not wisely but too well."

The pores vary greatly in size, from very small to medium, open and
pronounced. The medullary rays are very strongly defined, wide, rough-
edged, and showing on the radial section as in live oak.

VINHATICO. Echirospermum Balthazarii Fr. Allem.
Weight 42-52 Ibs. Brazil.

In common with all the Brazilian woods, the identification of vinhatico
is exceedingly confused. The specimen with this name in Colonel Gamble's
collection is of a brilliant gamboge yellow, with a lustrous sheen. Several
different shipments have come to London from time to time and have
been sold under the name of vinhatico, but although a common name has
been employed, each shipment has been of a different kind of wood, and it
seems impossible therefore to make any definite pronouncement upon it.

Vitex altissima Linn.

Weight 61 Ibs. (Gamble).

Ceylon, Southern and Western India.

VERN — Nemili-adagu, Tel. — Maila, mayila, kadamanakku, Tarn. — Myrole,
mairol, balgay, nauladi, sampaga-pala, Kan. — Banalgay, Mar. —
Mayilella, Mai. — Milla, miyan-milla, sapu-mtlla, Cingh.

An attractive wood of an olive-green colour, with a hard, firm grain,
prettily marked. Similar to V. pubescens, and equally suitable for high-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 557

class work. Gamble reports it as in use for building construction, and for
making carts, and other purposes — a wasteful use of a valuable cabinet
wood. Carved elephants and toys made of " milla " and " sapu-milla "
can be seen in the bazaars of Ceylon to-day (1932).

The very small pores are irregular in position, and plugged. The
numerous and very fine medullary rays are wavy and irregular, and show
faintly on the radial section.

Vitex glabrata Br.

Weight 40 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Goda, hoima, ashwal, Beng — Tokra, Magh. — Tauksha, Burm.

The colour is a somewhat dirty brownish-grey, resembling the sap-
wood of French walnut. It has a rather hard grain, capable of taking a
medium surface from the tool, and has been found to be fairly durable,
but no exploitation of this wood has taken place in commerce. It has
been known by the name of Indian grey lancewood, which is quite mis-
leading, as it has neither the strength, texture, nor elasticity of the
lance woods.

The very numerous, very small pores, mostly plugged, are irregularly
placed over the surface. The medullary rays are fairly strong, but con-
fused, showing on the radial section in tiny flecks.

Vitex Leucoxylon Linn. f.

Weight 40 Ibs. (Troup). India.

VERN — Songarbi, shcnts, Mar. — Luki, konda vavih, neva-ledi, Tel. —
Sengeni, senkani, karnl, hola naki, Kan. — Jiniekoi, Koya — Kadu-
nochchi, ntr-nochchi, Tarn — Nebedda, Cmgh.

This is a very nice wood, of a greyish-brown colour, and a regular,
even, and close grain. If supplies could be assured, and the wood be-
came known, it would be appreciated for a highly artistic, decorative
cabinet, or other work, as the colour is attractive and the grain good.

The pores are small and regular. The medullary rays are broad and
conspicuous, showing in very small flecks of silver grain.

Vitex pubescens Vahl.

Weight 54 Ibs. India, Burma, The Andaman

Islands, Malay Peninsula.

VERN — Dhalasmgha, muria, Uriya — Nowli eragu, hemili adttgu, busi, Tel.
— Mvladi, Tam — Kyetyo, kyi4ngankmve, Burm. — Leban, halban,
Malay.

A very hard wood, of a warm olive-brown colour. It has a close,
compact grain, not unlike English laburnum, and is capable of a very
smooth surface. A highly attractive wood, suitable for all classes of

558 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

decorative woodwork, for turning and inlay, and is said to be durable in
the ground.

The pores, which are rather scarce and very small, are so forked as to
mark concentric lines at irregular intervals. The medullary rays are very
fine, clear, distinct and parallel, equidistant and numerous. There is a
fine mottle running through the grain.

WAIKA CHEWSTICK. Symphonia globulifera L. f.

Weight 41-43 Ibs. British Honduras, West Indies to

Central America.

VERN — Hog gum, doctor gum, boar wood, B.W.I. — Manmballi, kanmanni,
buck-wax tree, B.G. — Bois cochon, mani, manil, Fr. G. — Anany,
oanam, Braz. — Mani, peraman, Venez. — Cenllo, sambogum, Pan.,
C.R—Barillo, Guat., Hond.

The wood is a dirty, straw-yellow colour with a firm, close, hard grain.
Record says that it is used to a small extent for general construction and
carpentry, and that occasional logs have been shipped into the United
States from Jamaica under the name of bbarwood.

The concentric layers are marked by rings visible to the naked eye.
The pores are very scarce and small, with very strongly marked medullary
rays, crossed at right angles by even stronger whitish lines of small pores,
making belts of white lines, and producing a pretty pattern. The medul-
lary ray shows very strongly on the radial section.

WALNUT. Juglans regia Linn.

Weight, European 40-48 Ibs. , N.W. Himalayas 41 Ibs. ;
Sikkim 33 Ibs. (average) (Gamble).

Great Britain, France, Italy, Tur-
key, Caucasia, India, China.

VERN — Charmaghz, Pers. — Ughz, waghz, Af^. — Akhor, khor, krot, dun,
Kashmir — Kabotang, thanka, Pb. — Starga, Ladak — Kd, khol,
Kunawar — Akhor, okhdr, Jaunsar — Akhor, kharot, Kumaon —
Akhrot, Hind. — Kabshing, Byans — Akrut, Beng. — Kol, Lepcha —
Tagashing, Bhutia — Thitcha, Burm.

Supplies of this familiar wood reach England from all the above-
named countries with the exception of China, while from India there has
as yet been scarcely any commercial export. It has been imported in the
form of logs, round and square, burrs, planks, boards, and veneers. In
colour it varies from light greyish -brown to dark brown, often traversed
by black and golden or golden-red streaks and stripes, or it is handsomely
mottled and shows a wavy " roey " grain.

Although walnut requires some time to season, and shrinks con-
siderably during the process, yet when subsequently exposed to drying
or moistening influences it stands excellently, and it is exceedingly difii-

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 559

cult, if not impossible, to find another wood possessing this attribute to
the same degree. For this reason it is the best known wood for gun and
rifle stocks. After the rifle stock has been cut out and shaped, the wood
retains its form and shape exactly, so that the rifle barrel and locks will
drop into their position and rest, without bending the locks or throwing
the barrel out of the straight. No variation in climate affects this wood.
Exhaustive experiments made by Mr. Phillips, the Superintendent of the
Small Arms Factory at Enfield, have shown the great difficulty of pro-
curing any other kind of timber capable of enduring the same test. The
combination of characters which confer on walnut its reputation of being
by far the best wood for gun stocks may be here summarised.

1. Relative strength, toughness, and elasticity, which provide the

power of resisting shock.

2. Appropriate weight, which gives proper balance.

3. Relative freedom of the seasoned polished wood from any shrinkage,

swelling, or splitting when exposed to wet, damp, or heat.

4. Uniform texture and appropriate hardness, so that the wood is

readily cut into delicate shape, yielding a smooth surface which
is easily plugged by polish.

5. The hardness necessary to prevent the wood from being dented.

6. Lack of brittleness, or tendency to split, which decreases the danger

of fragments of the wood being knocked off.

Recently also, walnut has been found to be very suitable for the pro-
peller blades of aeroplanes, as, apart from its resistance to damp and
drought, it shows a degree of toughness, or the lack of that brittleness to
which I have previously referred, which excludes many timbers from such
use.

From a very early date walnut has been used for furniture and decora-
tive work throughout Europe. The much-admired Queen Anne furniture
is particularly associated with this wood, which at that period was almost
exclusively used in the manufacture of the best work. Much of the rare
and valuable Italian furniture and decorative architectural work of still
earlier date was made in this wood. The superb choir-stalls in the Frari
Church at Venice were executed in Italian walnut in 1468 by Marco di
Vicenza, who also worked in 1465 on the choir-stalls of the church of
S. Stefano. The S. Zaccaria choir-stalls (Coro delle Monachei) were also
made in Italian walnut by Francesco and Marco di Vicenza between 1455
and 1464.*

The colour, general appearance, and carving qualities of the wood
appeal particularly to the decorative artist, vet it seems undesirable that
works of art, whose great beauty makes them worthy of permanence,

1 According to a private letter of Mr. Gerald Campbell, British Vice-Consul at
Venice (1914).

560 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

should be executed in walnut, for this wood is almost invariably attacked
by " worm " (boring beetle), which ultimately destroys the whole work.
Reference has already been made in the article on oak (q.v.) to the
crumbling walnut woodwork in Italian churches, in contrast with the per-
fect condition of equally old woodwork in oak. The beautiful inlaid stalls
and panelling, and magnificent carved solid work in many of the churches
in Venice are perforated with holes, and are falling to pieces, reduced to
dust. The attack is by no means limited to old walnut, for fresh panelling
and new furniture may become seriously " worm "-eaten within two or
three years of completion. Moreover, the beetles (" worm "), thus finding
in walnut a favourite feeding- and breeding-place, readily advance to a
similar destruction of articles made of other kinds of wood. Many
authorities refer to the liability of "worm" attack on walnut as being
confined to the sap-wood, but although this is the more liable, and the
attack may begin there, it always spreads over both heart- and sap-wood.
Besides the architectural work, much of the exquisite furniture of early
date is undoubtedly lost to the present age on this account. On the
other hand, there are many fine specimens extant which are still in good
condition. At the South Kensington Museum may be seen a pair of
folding doors in walnut inlaid with holly and pear-wood from the Palace
of Federino, Duke of Urbino, at Gubbio, which date from the early six-
teenth century. Of the same period is a coffer of walnut bearing the arms
of the Rospigliosi and the Altieri families in Rome. Neither of them
shows sign of decay.

BRITISH. — This varies very considerably in quality, texture, and
colour, according to the place and soil on which the trees grow ; and a
much larger proportion of finely figured, good-coloured British wood can
be obtained than is usually recognised. A particularly finely figured tree
of rich colour, which I was informed grew on Mr. Harcourt's estate, was
sold and sent to America some years ago. The figure, quality, and
colour certainly equalled, if it did not surpass, anything which has been
found elsewhere in Europe. The tree, originally sold in England for a
moderate price, produced thousands of feet of veneer which is now adorn-
ing some beautiful rooms in America, where it has realised a total value
of well over £1000 sterling. A polished panel made from it by the American
cabinet-maker is at the Lynch House, Totteridge, Herts. At an Exhibition
in London in January 1932, a walnut writing-desk inlaid in pear- wood was
exhibited bearing the inscription, " A tree, eight yards about and fifty
high, 100 pounds value when blown down by ye great wind of 1703 in
Stratton Park."

Prior to the war probably not more than from forty to fifty English
walnut trees, or burrs, were shipped to America, but in the last few years
(1931) every walnut tree which could be found, of any size or quality, has

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 561

been ruthlessly felled and shipped, so that it is increasingly difficult to
find a single tree of any size and quality left standing.

Notwithstanding the disadvantages as to the use of walnut in some
kinds of work, referred to above, it remains one of the most valuable of
timbers, and having in mind the world-wide demand and universal de-
pletion of supplies, the planting of walnut trees should have an important
place in any future schemes of reafforestation.

CAUCASIAN. — Although, in England, Italian walnut has always held the
reputation of being the finest in quality, colour, and figure, yet by far the
largest volume, of fine quality, has come from the Caucasus, and that
imported from Circassia the best, especially that from the district of Poti.
The supply has been much reduced, and most of the so-called " Circassian "
walnut has been Georgian, Mingrelian, Imerethian, Gourian, and Abasian,
all districts farther east, and at greater distance from the sea coast. The
traders have been generally very astute, and it has been difficult to dis-
cover the source of the supply, and as a result many disputes and diffi-
culties have occurred, leading, in one case at least, to a law-suit. Every
year supplies become scantier, while the quality deteriorates, so that the
walnut of the better class will soon become unobtainable. As in the
case of most other valuable figured woods, by far the greater part of the
best walnut has found its way to the United States, where it is much
appreciated for decorative panelling or " trim," and for furniture and
pianos. The practice there is to select the better figured logs, which are
sawn into flitches, or large-sized planks, and placed in a steaming chamber,
and when thoroughly steamed, fixed on to a knife veneer-cutting machine.
They are then either cut straight through or on the half round on a rotary
cutter, the last-named producing wider veneers. The remainder of the
logs are sawn into boards, and so forth (which is called " lumber "), and
used for more ordinary " trim " or cabinet work.

It is difficult to distinguish any structural features characteristic of the
woods of different countries, for in the same country the wood varies
considerably in structure and weight.

In general, in transverse section the annual rings are rendered visible
by the scarcity and slightly smaller size of the vessels (pores) in the outer
part of each ring ; in the spring wood the pores are large and scattered
and do not produce a sharply defined pore zone. With the aid of a pocket
lens ( -f 12) the fine medullary rays are rendered visible, with the fine,
concentric light lines (of soft tissue) joining them at right angles.

FRENCH. — This wood is for the most part light-coloured and straight-
grained ; and the relatively small amount of finely figured French wood
available is practically all absorbed by Paris and Marseilles for veneers.
In recent times a great amount of decorative architectural work has been
executed in plain French walnut, the quiet grey colour and straight grain

562 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

of which produces a dignified and restrained artistic effect, and parti-
cularly suits the modern styles of cabinet work.

ITALIAN. — While this is generally named in architects' and other speci-
fications, it is actually very rarely obtained. Supplies of walnut from
Italy, and especially Ancona, were fairly considerable until from thirty to
forty years ago, when they became very rare indeed. The special feature
of this wood was that a large proportion carried with it a preponderance
of dark streaks, with good figure, which was especially appreciated for
artistic furniture and decorative woodwork. The probability is that the
walnut trees provided by the southern slopes of the Alps were brought
into Italy and produced a larger proportion of the dark-coloured wood,
giving rise to the distinctive names of Italian walnut and French walnut ;
the more northerly slopes of the Alps apparently producing a greyer
coloured and less pronounced figured wood.

The term " Ancona " walnut has greatly changed its meaning, and
any supplies of dark, streaky figured wood, whether produced from
French, Italian, Spanish, or Circassian sources, are now known as "Ancona
walnut."

SPANISH. — A regular but not large quantity of wood has been imported
from Spain. The general quality and conditions are the same as the
French, from which it is difficult to distinguish it, except that on the
whole the shipments have consisted of sizes more irregular in width and
length, and containing more faults, with a much larger percentage of sap-
wood.

TURKISH. — This most nearly resembles the French walnut, but it
includes a greater proportion of figured wood.

WALNUT, AFRICAN. Lovea Klaineana Thompson.

Weight 30 Ibs. 12 oz. West Coast of Africa.

This wood is shipped, usually mixed with consignments of mahogany,
from all the ports on the West African coast. The logs are generally of
large sizes, 8 to 30 feet long and 18 to 40 inches square, and are at times
of even larger dimensions. They are also received in the round, either
with or without the bark. The wood only resembles walnut in its colour,
and by the fact that it shows the same streaks of veins which are prominent
in the true walnut (Juglans regia). This is probably the reason why the
incorrect term of walnut has been applied to it in the timber trade. In
all other respects, such as formation, grain, weight, texture, and figure, it
resembles African mahogany. The logs vary in character, those from
Cape Lopez being almost entirely plain and straight-grained, while from
Benin and Lagos the larger portion of the wood is strongly marked with
stripes or " roe/' which, though sometimes straight, is more often broken
up into an irregular growth showing black lines which curve and twist

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 563

into fantastic shapes. These form what is termed " blister " or " snail "
figure, while other unusual markings also occur. The colour is somewhat
similar to that of French walnut, but is more variable ; sometimes the
wood is of a darker brown, but it nearly always has a golden tinge. By
careful selection a yellowish-brown golden tint can be obtained which is
quite unique. It is easily worked, and is not wasteful in conversion, as
with most European walnut. The logs provide long lengths and good
widths free from defect, so that without difficulty panels can be obtained
up to 2 feet 8 inches and even 3 feet in width.

Although up to the present African walnut has been procurable at a
low cost, few have discovered what a handsome decorative wood it is.
Mr. Leonard Stokes, a former President of the Royal Institute of British
Architects, has used this wood for many important buildings, including
Emmanuel College, Cambridge. All of this beautifully designed work is
left from the tool without polish, and has a very fine appearance. Mr.
Stokes also designed a room in this wood for Lord Digby, which has been
much admired. Mr. George Miller has had his library at Newberries,
Radlett, Herts, furnished and panelled with it. In this case a dull brown
polish has been used, the result being a most handsome and effective
appearance. Richly figured curls or crotches have been obtained from
these logs, some of which have been converted into large panels and used
for decoration on the P. & O. line of steamers, the rails and stiles being
of the plainer variety of the same wood. It has been used with success
for the interior decoration of automobiles. Effective floors can be laid in
the wood, and as flooring it both wears and keeps its colour well. Only
a small proportion of the logs provides sufficiently handsome timber for
decorative work, and it should not be assumed that the name of African
walnut alone will ensure a satisfactory result, that being only obtained by
careful selection. It should be a very good substitute for French walnut
for aeroplane propellers, blades, and rifle butts, for when seasoned the wood
stands very well and is not brittle.

With the tremendous wave of fashion for the use of walnut furniture
and walnut panelling during the ten years up to 1930, African walnut has
been greatly in demand, and in almost every part of England, woodwork
can be found in which African walnut has been used as a basis for European
walnut panels and trimmings. For instance, wardrobes, bedsteads, chairs,
and every description of furniture has been made, in which the front
parts have been faced with European walnut, while for the sides and
backs, and in many cases the trimmings, African walnut has been
employed.

The transverse grain shows irregularly sized scattered poies. The
medullary rays are parallel but uneven ; the annual layers of growth are
so obscure as to be almost un traceable.

564 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

WALNUT, BLACK. Juglans nigra Linn.

Weight 37 Ibs. 7 oz. North America.

This wood is so familiar in this country that a detailed description
would almost appear to be superfluous. The colour, which is of a more
uniform tint than the European wood, is a rich purplish-brown. The
beauty of the colour is apt to deteriorate under the unfortunate and ill-
advised system of french-polishing which obtains in this country, and
though admirable for some woods, is quite out of place with black walnut.
The texture is hard and smooth and the grain generally straight and even,
though occasionally it displays all descriptions of beautiful figure. A
limited quantity of burrs is still obtainable, realising extraordinarily high
prices. Black walnut is in good demand for all descriptions of decorative
cabinet work, and for telephone instruments it is used almost exclusively.
It possesses, though in a lesser degree, those exceptional qualities found in
European walnut (q.v.) which give the wood its pre-eminence for gun and
rifle stocks.

The use of this wood for decorative work is of considerable antiquity,
and probably dates from the time of the early settlement of English people
in America. At Totteridge Park, Hertfordshire, which in the early
eighteenth century was in the possession of James Bridges, first Duke of
Chandos, there are some doors of that period which have been found to
have been made of American black walnut of very high quality.

At this time also a considerable number of trees were planted or grown
from seed in many parts of the United Kingdom. No American timber
could be bought of a better quality than that (quoted by Mr. H. J. Elwes)
of a tree blown down at Albury, which was given to him by the Duke of
Northumberland.

During the European War black walnut, besides being largely used for
rifle stocks, was employed to a great extent for propeller blades in aircraft
work. The demand was so great that supplies rapidly diminished. A
movement was set on foot at Washington, however, to appeal to owners
of such trees throughout the country, to sell the timber to the Government
in order to aid in the more vigorous prosecution of the war. This scheme
was carried out with great success, and a sufficient supply became avail-
able, both in America and in this country. A similar plan was adopted
in England with regard to English ash (q.v.).

The pores are very irregular in size, and are evenly distributed. They
are larger in the spring growth than in the autumn, and this variation
causes the concentric layers to be distinctly marked. The medullary rays
are clear and fine cut ; they are somewhat irregular, and are crossed at
right angles by innumerable fine lines, the whole presenting a pattern, as
of lace-work. They show on the radial section in very fine, light-coloured
flecks.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 565

WALNUT, MANCHURIAN. Juglans mandschurica Maxim.

Weight 32 Ibs. Manchuria.

This resembles the European walnut (Juglans regia), but is generally
milder and straightcr in the grain. It is more of a yellowish -brown in
colour, and there is a marked absence of the light and dark streaks which
characterise the European walnut. According to the information at
present available, the trees are, unfortunately, all small in girth and con-
sequently only provide narrow widths, which will render the prospect of
its commercial success doubtful. Like other walnuts, it stands well
under all conditions without warping or twisting.

The annual rings are clearly marked. The pores, somewhat irregular
in size and arrangement, do not form any definite pore-zone. The fine
medullary rays and thin light lines joining them at right angles, come into
view as in European walnut, when the transverse section is examined
under the lens.

WALNUT, QUEENSLAND. Cryptocarya Palmerstoni Bail.

Weight 47-48 Ibs. Northern Queensland.

Also known as " walnut bean " in Queensland. A brown wood,
sometimes with a dark red-coloured streak, having none of the charac-
teristics of either European or American walnut, excepting the colour.
The grain is attractive and often well-figured, but very hard to saw and
difficult to work with all tools. The wood emits a very strong and most
objectionable smell, although one authority contradicts this ; it splits
readily, and is difficult to season, great care being required to prevent it
from warping and shrinking when used in solid woodwork.

A brisk demand from America resulted in the export of large supplies,
so that the market was flooded. This was followed by a controversy as
to the name by which the wood was to be known, resulting at first in a
suggestion that it should be called " Oriental Walnut " ; and at a later
date an agreement seems to have been reached for the wood to be called
" Oriental Wood." It appears that upon its introduction it had been
called " Oriental " wood by the original importer, to conceal the origin
and identity of the Queensland timber. It is known throughout the
United Kingdom as " Australian " or " Queensland'' walnut, names which,
correct or otherwise, seem to be the most suitable. The wood has not
been received with much favour in England.

Its insulating resistance to electric current is said to be fifty times
greater than with most other woods, making it especially useful for elec-
trical appliances.

The pores are rather variable in size and position, mostly open, with
very numerous, ill-defined, rough-edged medullary rays crossed at irregular
intervals by faint, fine lines which follow the layers of concentric growth.

566 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

WALNUT, SATIN. Liquidambar styraciflua Linn.

Weight 37 Ibs. 7 oz. North and Central America.

VERN — Red gum, sweet gum, gum-ivood, liquidambar, bilsted, hazelwood,
alligator wood, ambar wood, U.S. — Hazel pine, satin walnut, Eur. —
Trade — Amberholz, satinnuss-baum, Germ. — Legno di noce satinato,
Ital. — Liquidambar or hquidamber, Mex., C.A. gen. — Estoraque,
mari-penda, naba, ocotzotl, ocozol, ocozote, ocozotl, yaga-bito, yaga-
bizigni, Mex. — Goma colorada, Arg.

The correct name for this wood is " sweet gum " or " red gum," but
the Americans have marketed it under the various names of satinwood,
hazel pine, red pine, grey pine, and on one occasion as " Calif ornian "
red gum. The astuteness of the American in finding profitable markets
for his woods, is shown in a marked manner by the successful results which
have attended the exploitation of this timber, as, except for appearance,
it possesses almost every bad quality which can be found in any wood.

It is of a light reddish-brown colour with dark streaks and a lustrous
surface. The grain is hard and close, but in seasoning it shrinks unevenly,
and after seasoning is completed, continues to expand and contract with
variations of the climate, to a greater degree than any other timber. An
experimental piece, quarter sawn to 9 inches by 3 inches, shrank on the
heart side to a bare 2\ inches, and on the outer side to z\ inches. The
hard grain stands up and the soft grain sinks, causing a corrugated surface.
The shrinkage in drying is exceptional, and even when quarter sawn it is
liable to twist and warp. Immense quantities have been used throughout
Europe for cheap furniture, for furniture linings, railway and other coach-
work. The wood is familiar all over the world, often used for sewing machine
covers and stands. In the summer of 1901 or 1902 pavements were laid down
in Coventry Street, Lower Regent Street, Waterloo Place, and Whitehall, by
a contractor who exploited this timber under the name of Californian red
gum. Upon identification, a newspaper agitation was started, resulting in
law-suits ; and very shortly afterwards — in some cases within a year — in the
removal of the whole pavement in those areas where the wood was employed.

The exceedingly numerous and minute pores are irregularly placed
throughout the whole of the wood, with rather coarse medullary rays,
which show very fine and scattered on the radial section.

Walsura piscidia Roxb.

Weight 61 Ibs. (Gamble). India, Ceylon.

VERN— ^Walsura, chadavakku, Tarn. — Walursi, Tel. — Kinkon, mol-petta,
Cingh.

A dull, purplish plum-coloured wood, with a very hard, close grain,
yielding a very smooth surface from the tool. Gamble quotes Beddome,
saying the wood is used for various purposes, and the pulp of the fruit to
intoxicate fish !

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 567

It would be an attractive medium for decorative woodwork or turnery.
The numerous, tiny pores are plugged. Medullary rays numerous,
fine, wavy, and irregular.

WAMARA. Swartzia tomentosa DC.

Weight 65-80 Ibs. (Record). The Guianas.

VERN — Wamara, wamaru, womara, brown ebony, clubwood, ironwood,
baracarra, wanebala, B.G. — Ferre'ol, bois fey, panacoco rouge, gran
panacoco, bois dc pagaie blanc, bois de perdrix, perdnx, heistere
rouge, anacoco, Fr. G — Apoetoe, boucara, Sur. — Pdo de remo,
hucuya, anacoco wanebala, Braz. ; Legno ferro, legno carne di
cavallo, Ital. — Pdo ferro, Port. — Pferdefleischholz, Germ.

The colour of this wood is a purplish-black, with a very hard, close
grain, yielding a very smooth surface, approaching to the hardness and
surface of African blackwood. This is one of the innumerable so-called
ironwoods, and is referred to in this work in the article entitled Pao
Ferro, which wood it much resembles.

The concentric layers are marked by fine, light- and dark-coloured
lines. The pores are not very numerous, very small, and mostly plugged ;
the exceedingly fine, very numerous medullary rays are crossed by ir-
regular and faint lines of light tissue, more or less pronounced.

WANA. Nectandra Wana and possibly AT. Pisi Miq.

Weight 64 Ibs. 2 oz. (wet). Surinam (Dutch Guiana).

VKRN — Determa, tciruma, B.G. — Tete'roma, wane, Sur. — Gngnon, gngnon
franc, gngnon rouge, Fr. G. — Louro rosa ?, Braz.

This wood is also called Surinam mahogany and cirouaballi but should
not be confused with " brown silverballi," which, while resembling wana
in structure and character, is heavier and of a different colour. It is of a
light-red mahogany colour, and is very similar to the African mahogany
in grain and texture, though a little coarser and rougher. It was unknown
in the United Kingdom until 1914, when a shipment of 137 hewn logs was
diverted from Havre to London on account of the war. The timber
proved to be clean, straight, and sound, although somewhat defective in
the heart. It works well, but does not easily take a nice finish from the
tool. The sap-wood on the outside of the logs was much perforated with
small worm-holes. A large quantity of this wood has been used as a
substitute for Danzig pine, for the roof timbers of a church at Plymouth,
and it appears to be wearing well. As long lengths and large squares can
be produced, it should prove in the future to be a useful timber for many
purposes.

The pores are numerous, evenly distributed, but not very open. The
medullary rays are regular, parallel, and fairly even.

568

WANDOO.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Eucalyptus redunca Schau.
Weight 70 Ibs. Western Australia.

A local name for this wood is white gum. Julius gives the following
report :

WANDOO WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By kind permission of the High Commissioner for Australia

"Trees of average size attain the height of 60 to <S<> f<<t, \\illi an
average diameter of 2 to 3 feet. The timber is brownisli-rrd in colour,
very hard, dense, strong and durable, and even when fully seasoned

THE TIMBERS OF THE* WORLD 569

weighs up to 70 Ibs. per cubic foot. For railway sleepers this timber is
deemed. to rank equal to jarrah, and is also used for short piles and for
bridge and wharf planking, etc., in permanent works when conveniently
procurable. It has been, and continues to be, freely and very successfully
employed for both wheelwrights' and millwrights' work, for which its
extreme hardness, especially when seasoned, is particularly appreciated.
It is used for ribs, bends, and knees in lugger and boat-building, (and)
for mining timbers ; while it serves to provide very durable fencing,
stockyards and other settlers' wants. ... As in other Eucalypts, the
heart-wood core is to be avoided. Specifications for cut timbers should
therefore require freedom from heart-wood, except in the case of piles,
which are better round than squared.

" With regard to the durability of wandoo, the Railway Department,
in reporting the result of sleepers laid on the Newcastle (Western Australia)
line as a test, states : ' About 150 of these were put in about seventeen or
eighteen years ago when the line was constructed. Fully 90 per cent of
them are, to all appearance, as good as new, being very hard and sound,
and they will in all probability last yet for many years. A few of the
sleepers were slightly decayed on the outside, but on scraping off about a
quarter of an inch the remainder of the timber was found in each instance
to be perfectly sound. . . . The wood is not liable to attack by dry rot
unless under conditions exceptionally favourable to its development.' "

C. E. Lane-Poole says that " its main use, however, is for waggon
scantlings for the railway stock for the Government Railways of the State.
It gives a life of twenty-five years in under-carriages of trucks. The top
plank of these trucks is always made of wandoo, which stands the wear
of the loading and unloading better than steel ; also the stanchions of the
trucks are of wandoo. A remarkable quality which this timber possesses
is that when used in conjunction with steel there is no chemical action
between the wood and the metal. Bolts have been taken from the
under-framcs of trucks after twenty years' use, and been found to be
quite as clean as when put there, while the auger marks were still visible
in the holes."

Warburgia ugandensis

Weight 54 Ibs. East Africa.

VERN — Musiga.

This wood, which is also called greenheart, has somewhat the appear-
ance of the darker kind of Demerara wood of the same name, but of a
much closer texture, and very smooth to the touch, comparable with that
of African black wood.

It is yellow-gold with dark-coloured streaks, forming together a very
handsome wood, far more decorative than the name greenheart might imply.

570 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The small pores vary from small to minute, and are somewhat scarce
and irregular in position, with well-defined, but fine, medullary rays,
which are numerous, showing on the radial section as a faint ripple ray.

WASHIBA or BOWWOOD. Tecoma (or Tabebuia) spp. (Record).

Weight 58-59 Ibs. British and French Guiana,

Tropical South America.

The wood is of a dark olive-brown, with a close, firm, straight grain,
similar to greenheart, with a rather lustrous surface. According to
Record, " it attains a height of 120 feet or more, with trunks large enough
to square 30 inches free of sap. The wood is strong, very elastic, and highly
durable. " On account of its particularly tough and elastic quality, it is
highly prized for bows and fishing-rods, possessing the same qualities which
make greenheart useful for this purpose, the tangential and bending
strength being very great, although it does not possess great tensile
strength.

Record refers to a confusion which has existed between washiba,
Tecoma sp., and satine, Brosimum paraense, which also probably confused
Herbert Stone. While washiba has no resemblance whatever to satine,
it very closely resembles Surinam groenhart, and not in the same degree,
the well-known Demerara greenheart ; indeed, even after examination
the expert might make the mistake.

A report from Mr. Wood, Conservator of Forests, British Guiana,
states that the tree is so rare in British Guiana that it would be doubtful
whether a single log could be supplied.

The exceedingly numerous, very small pores are all plugged. The
medullary rays are very fine indeed, very numerous, with exceedingly
fine rays between, rather stronger and more pronounced on the radial
section.

WATTLE. Acacia dealbata Link.

Weight 47 Ibs. (Gamble). Eastern Australia, Tasmania,

Northern India, Ceylon.

This wood, also called mimosa, white wattle, and silver wattle, pro-
duces a timber which is not considered of much value. The colour is a
yellowish-red, with a metallic lustre, and it is perhaps suitable as a decora-
tive inlay wood for cabinet work. Its general uses are for cheap casks,
trenails, turnery, and fuel. It has a rapid growth, reaching a great
height. It was introduced into India in 1840, where Gamble reports it as
having reached a height of 46 feet with a diameter of 12 inches in eleven
years, and it is to be seen as an attractive ornamental tree at Nuwara
Eliya in Ceylon. A specimen grown at Powerscourt Castle, in Ireland,
yields a fairly good-quality wood.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 571

The concentric layers of growth are marked by dark lines. The pores
are scarce and exceedingly small, occurring singly and in duplicate, sur-
rounded by light-coloured tissue. Medullary rays very fine and wavy,
irregular.

Wendlandia Notoniana Wall.

Weight 53 Ibs, (Gamble). Ceylon, Southern India.
VERN — Showla, Mar. — Puvu, thovara, Trav. Hills — Rawanidala, Cingh.

The wood, which is of very little value, is of a light yellowish-brown
colour, with a hard, close, even texture, showing signs of incipient decay.

The numerous pores ,are very small, with numerous medullary rays,
very fine, sharp cut, and showing on the radial section in tiny flecks.
Dark veins follow the lines of concentric growth and also strike at right
angles across them.

WHITEBEAM. Pyrus Aria Ehrhart.

Weight 39 Ibs. Europe, Asia.

The colour is generally yellowish -brown, but certain trees cut at the
right time may yield white timber, with a very fine, close, hard grain,
yielding a very smooth surface from the tool. According to Elwes its
principal uses are for axle-trees, naves and felloes of wheels, carpenters'
tools, walking-sticks, and in Hampshire (where the wood is known as
whipcrop), for whip handles, handles of cutlery, musical instruments.
The same author refers to an authority who states that it is liable to warp
and split badly in drying, which last defect could be entirely prevented by
proper handling.

The innumerable minute pores are almost invisible under the lens ;
medullary rays very numerous and fine, and show on the radial section
as in beech, but of a much finer pattern.

WHITE BOMB WE. Terminalia procera Roxb.

Weight 49 Ibs. India, Burma, The Andaman

Islands.
VERN — Safed Bombwav, Hind.

The wood is a light brown nut colour, with slight, dark streaks, pre-
senting the appearance of a grey Ancona walnut, with a somewhat similar
grain, easy to work and yielding a smooth surface from the plane. Supplies
have been confined to shipments from the Andaman Islands, the quality
of which has proved satisfactory and produced a considerable demand,
which might be greatly increased if regular supplies could be relied upon.
There is some confusion as to the term " white " bombwe, some supplies
being termed " bombwe " or " bombway," and what was thought to be
the same wood, on arrival proving quite different and unsatisfactory.

572

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Gamble would appear to have treated the produce of T. proccra as
equivalent to that of 7\ Catappa. Parkinson, on the other hand, differ-

I'holograph by G. K. Keen
CONVICTS FELLING A TERMINALIA 1'ROCERA TREE IN THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

entiates between the two, referring to T. procera as the " white bombway
tree/' and T. Catappa as the " Bengal almond " or " Indian almond tree,"
the local name for the latter being " badam." The wood called " white
bombwe " and that which was described as the produce of T. Catappa

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 573

(y.v.) and which has been supplied up to the present time, are quite
different.

The pores are irregular in size and position, in singles and duplicates,
partially plugged. The medullary rays are irregular, uneven in size, and
not straight, showing strongly on the radial section.

WHITE CEDAR. Tabebuia longipes.

Weight 45 Ibs. British Guiana, Brazil.

VERN — Wankunu, wankun, waracoon.

A yellow-brown straw-coloured wood with a fairly hard grain, but not
giving a very smooth surface from the tool. Has not been seen in com-
merce in Europe, but is reported as being used for oars and paddles, and
considered very durable, especially underground. Although it is named
cedar and white cedar, this wood must not be confused with the other
Guiana cedar (Protium altissima or Idea altissima}, although called
cedre blanc. The wood called taipoca from Brazil is evidently the same
as the above.

The not very numerous pores vary in size from small to medium,
mostly plugged, with extremely fine medullary rays arranged at regular
intervals and crossed at right angles by faint lines, which carry with them
a row of pores.

WHITE MAHOGANY. Eucalyptus acmenoides Schauer.
Weight 64 Ibs. (Baker).

New South Wales, Eastern Australia.

The colour of the wood so strangely termed " White Mahogany " is a
dull brown walnut, with a grain quite unlike mahogany. Once more the
misfortune of naming timbers because of the appearance of the bark,
which appears to be the reason why this timber is called " white mahogany,"
is brought into prominence. The name should be immediately changed,
and if no other more suitable one could be found, it might be called " New
South Wales Walnut."

The grain is close, firm, and hard, harder than Queensland walnut but
equally suitable for plain cabinet work, where a straight-grained, hard
wood is wanted.

Baker mentions two varieties, viz. Eucalyptus acmenoides Sch. and
E. umbra R.T.B., referring to the former as " hard, close-grained and heavy,
suitable for general building purposes, shipbuilding, and wood blocks, also
extensively used for sleepers, being one of the finest of our hardwoods."
Weight 64 Ibs. per foot cube. The latter, E. umbra, is 62 Ibs. per foot
cube. " Not recommended for use in the ground . . . occasionally sub-
ject to attack by borers, nevertheless a useful wood for house-building,
bridge work, some forms of carriage construction, axe handles, and spokes."

574 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

WHITETHORN.

See HAWTHORN.

WHITEWOOD. Liriodendron tulipifera Linn. (The Tulip Tree).

Weight 28 Ibs. 10 oz. Noith America.

This very important timber has been used for a vast number of pur-
poses in the United Kingdom, America, and elsewhere. One of the most
majestic of trees, it provides in that season of the year when it blooms, a
most imposing and impressive sight ; the eye ranges along a great mass of
wide-spreading foliage, while the tree-tops are clothed with innumerable
tulip-like flowers. Scattered about in England are many beautiful speci-
mens which our forefathers, with a greater appreciation of the effects of
arboriculture than, alas ! is found to-day, planted around their dwellings
and in their parks. One such tree was standing in what a few years
since were the grounds of Bitterne Manor, at Southampton, on the site of
the first Roman town in England, which was named Clausen tium. This
tree, probably 160 to 200 years old, proved to be an extremely well-
figured tulip tree, having those particular marks which are called " blister,"
" snail/' and " burr," and yielded a large quantity of veneer.

There is a handsome tulip tree of unusual size, which has a burry
growth surrounding it, growing on the land belonging to Mr. Nichol,
near Manningtree, which in the summer of 1930 bore a full crop of tulip
flowers.

The timber is known in England as " whitewood " or " canary white-
wood " ; in Scotland and England sometimes, though incorrectly, as
" basswood " ; and in America as " poplar." The colour, when the
wood is fresh cut, is canary yellow, sometimes with rather a bluish tint
deepening and toning down with exposure to air to a light yellowish-
brown, with a satiny lustre, which is probably caused by the countless
small specks of bright, shining gum which glisten on all sections. It is
mild, easy to work, silky in grain, and capable of a very smooth surface
from the tool. Having been available in very large quantities, in long
lengths and wide widths of beautiful quality, at a cost far below its real
value, it has been extensively used for all kinds of joinery and cabinet
work, fittings and similar work.

It requires time to season thoroughly, and shrinks considerably, but
when properly dried, stands well under all conditions. It also finishes
with a sharp edge, which renders it a good wood for moulding. It is ex-
tensively used jn America, and, to a more limited extent, in the United
Kingdom, for ply construction. A few trees are found possessing a curly
grain ; these are generally cut into veneer, on a rotary veneer cutter round
the log, producing a marking which is called " blister figure." These
figury veneers are used for panels for decorative work in railway coaches,

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 575

state-rooms and saloons for yachts and steamers, and for general
cabinet work.

The numerous pores are very small and regular. The medullary rays
are uniform, distinct, and parallel, showing in small flecks on the radial
section in a very even and artificial looking pattern.

WILLOW, EUROPEAN. Salix coerulea Smith

S. alba Linn.
Weight 24 Ibs. 12 oz. Europe.

The well-known " bat-willow " is famous wherever the English
language is spoken, and is so familiar that it seems almost superfluous to
give a description. Although it always commands such a high price for
bat-blades, and the demand is so large, it possesses many valuable charac-
teristics which should encourage every forester to plant the tree wherever
it can thrive. For bat-blades trees have been known to realise as much as
los. 6d. per foot cube, or more. No other wood has been found which
can be used to such advantage for artificial limbs. The tree trunk itself,
or squares sawn out if the size be large enough, can be shaped and hol-
lowed to the form of the limb, and although during the process, or when
drying, it does occasionally split, it will generally stand. No other wood
has been found that will satisfactorily pass thib test. A considerable
quantity was imported from America during the war, and the American
artificers, who during the war were in charge of the artificial limb factories
at Roehampton, called the wood they used " red willow. " I have been
unable to trace the actual species, but I cannot distinguish it from the
English bat-willow. Owing to the wood denting instead of splitting when
struck by heavy objects, it is valuable for linings for carts, barrows,
brakes for railway and other waggons, being especially good for the last-
named purpose, as it does not fire so readily as other woods by the friction
of the wheels. Elwes and Henry say that the best class of bat-blades are
obtained from Salix coerulea, S. alba producing blades of an inferior kind.
The report adds : " G. W. Newton states that George Stephenson had
a high opinion of willow as forming durable blocks for paving. Gorrie
states that in roofing, it has been known to stand over one hundred years
as couples, and with the exception of about half an inch on the outside,
the wood has been found as fresh at the end of that period as to be fit for
boat-building. Boards of willow were laid for floors in 1700."

Willow has been tried for aircraft construction at the Royal Aircraft
Factory, with quite satisfactory results, but it is doubtful if sufficient
supplies in the necessary lengths and sizes of straight-grained timber free
from knots could be obtained to make its use practicable.

The numerous pores are exceedingly small. The medullary rays cannot
be distinguished with the lens ( + 12).

576 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

WILLOW, JAPANESE. Salix Urbaniana Von Secman.

Japan.

The Japanese name of this wood is Tokachiyanigi. It is obtainable in
logs ranging from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, averaging about 15 inches.
The wood is reddish-yellow in colour, with a white to straw-coloured sap •
wood, and is closer and finer in texture and grain than the English willow.
It takes a smooth surface from the tool, and would make a good substitute
for the latter in bat-making. It would also be suitable for aircraft con-
struction, possessing as it does the same qualities as the English wood, as
it is very similar to this, but the colour is slightly browner, and the annual
rings are much closer.

The concentric layers are well-defined, the pores are not very numerous
or large, and the medullary rays are obscure. On the tangential section
the pores shine with minute particles of gum.

WOOLLYBUTT. Eucalyptus longijolia Link et Otto.

Weight 68 Ibs. (Baker). New South Wales.

A deep red colour, tough, strong, hard, and close-grained. The
Forestry Commission, N.S.W., report it as " not unlike red ironbark, for
which more valuable timber it is sometimes substituted." It is a very
durable timber but deficient in strength and elasticity, particularly near
the heart.

Wu-chang.

China.

Professor Record identifies this as the wood of the cinnamon tree
(Cinnamomum zeylanicum) (q.v.)t with which I agree. Professor Chung's
specimen is marked " the taste of wood sour."

The lines of concentric growth are marked by strong bands. Pores
very small and scarce, mostly plugged. Medullary rays very sparse and
confused.

Wu-tien.

China.

The colour is a rather dirty reddish-brown, with a soft, straight grain,
showing the open pores like a poor-quality Spanish chestnut. Record
identifies this wood as Castanopsis sp.

The concentric layers are marked by dark lines. The pores are very
small and rather scarce. Medullary rays very fine, and almost un-
observable under the lens, crossed at right angles by fine, small belts of
light tissue.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 577

Wu-?ung.

China.

Professor Chung reports that this wood is said to be Firminiana simplex.
Professor Record considers it to be Paulownia. The specimen submitted
by Professor Chung does not resemble Paulownia, but is more like the
Indian wood of Bombax sp.

It is soft-grained, of indifferent quality, and is a wood of which little
use could be made in England, although there is a note on the specimen
saying it is " good for making musical instruments."

The concentric layers are exceedingly wide, up to nearly one inch.
The pores are numerous, plugged, coarse, and pithy, with coarse medullary
rays showing on the radial section.

Xylia xylocarpa

Weight 57-61 Ibs. India, Burma.

VERN — Jambu, Hind — Jamba, verul, suna, Mar — Boja, kongora, tangani,
Uriya — Tangedi, Khond — Irul, Tarn — Kada, Mai — Konda tan-
gedu, tangedu, eruvalu, bojeh, Tel — Jambe, tirawa, Kan — Irul,
irummala, pangah, Trav Hills — Orjon, Khond — Tangani, Saura
— Tangudu, Palkonda — Shilve, Coorg

Until lately this timber was thought to be the same as the Burma
pyinkado, Xylia dolabnformis Benth. Its range is throughout the Indian
Peninsula, attaining a large size on the west coast, though not so great as
pyinkado in Burma. The colour is brown, without the red tinge noticeable
in Burma pyinkado. The grain is closer with more numerous but smaller
pores, and the wood is more liable to split in seasoning. It has a very
high reputation in India, where it is greatly in demand for all work where
durability is required. On account of a brisk demand in India, sufficient
quantities are not available for export.

The exceedingly numerous pores vary in size , they are single, and in
groups of two, three, and even more, and usually plugged. The very
strongly marked, finely defined medullary rays are very numerous, and
with the pores make a pretty pattern on the tranverse section. The
difference of construction as shown in the transverse section of the two
woods— that is, the Burma X. dolabnformis and the Indian A", xvlocarpa —
are so marked that it seems strange that the two should ever have been
included under one name.

Xylopia parvifolia Hk.

Weight 35-47 Ibs. (Gamble). Ceylon, Southern India.

VHRN — Nctaitm, atuketiya, Cmgh.

A rather dirty, grey-coloured wood, with a straight, fine, hard grain,
yielding a very smooth surface. A useful wood, but not suitable for export.

578 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

The concentric layers of growth are marked by strong, dark lines.
The not very numerous pores arc very small and plugged. Medullary
rays numerous, regular, parallel, not showing on the radial section, crossed
at right angles by similar white lines, making a very pretty lace pattern.

YACA or YASI. Santalum Yasi Seem.

Weight 36-37 Ibs. The Fiji Islands.

A yellowish -brown wood streaked with lighter and darker markings,
resembling New Zealand rimu, rather like olive-wood, and capable of a
smooth surface like pencil cedar, having a slightly aromatic scent.

It is called the sandalwood of Fiji, and is a very attractive wood.

The numberless, minute pores are, together with the medullary rays,
hardly discernible under the lens.

YACAL. Shorea sp.

Weight 62 Ibs. 4 oz. The Philippines.

A shipment of fine, clean, faultless planks of this timber came to hand
shortly before the war, and, as its undoubtedly good qualities were un-
known, it was sold at an exceedingly unremunerative price. The wood
is of a light yellowish-brown colour, with a firm, hard texture and close
grain. It is very durable and reliable under all conditions, and would
be much in demand if it were better known. According to Foxworthy,
" yacal seems to be supplied by Shorea balangeran Burch., and other species
of Shorea. Some of it is also supplied by Hopea odorata Roxb., and other
species of Hopea. Large quantities . . . are used in the Philippines for
railroad ties. Perhaps the largest place of export for the wood is British
North Borneo. ... A very excellent, durable wood which is said to be
free from insect attack,"

Experiments conducted in America have shown that yacal is one of the
best woods that could possibly be used for acid containers.

The pores are of moderate size, generally plugged with glistening gum,
and are disposed in groups forming a pretty pattern. The fine, clear:cut
medullary rays, which are parallel, are very numerous, and are joined at
wide intervals by a faint light-coloured ring, which follows the line of the
concentric layers.

YANG. Dipterocarpus tuber culatus Roxb. (?)

Weight 42 Ibs. 7 oz. Siam.

The resemblance of this wood to eng (q.v .) is so strong that one will
pass for the other. It has been claimed that yang is better than eng, and
vice versa. In general, it may be possible that yang is slightly lighter in
colour, otherwise it is difficult to name any difference, and for description
it will be well to refer to the section on eng.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 579

YARURU. Aspidosperma sp.

Weight 62 Ibs. British Guiana.

Record remarks that this wood is said to be Aspidosperma excelsum
Benth., and he also adds that on account of the peculiar growth of the
tree the wood is not much used, except by the Indians for paddles.

The colour is yellowish-white striped with salmon-pink, and it has a
very close, hard, compact grain, which will not yield a very smooth surface
from the tool. Tropical Woods, No. 17, p. 41, refers to its use for pulp,
without giving it a very good character for this purpose.

The innumerable tiny pores, plugged and open, lie between number-
less very close and fine medullary rays, parallel, at irregular intervals, not
very straight.

YATE. P^icalyptus cornnta Labill.

Weight 77 Ibs. Western Australia.

The colour of this wood is a rather dirty yellowish-grey. It is reported
by Western Australian experts as the " strongest timber in the world."
In one test for tensile strength, the breaking load was 17^ tons per square
inch, 3J tons less than that usually specified for wrought iron of ordinary
quality. Its uses in Australia are for general wheelwrights' work. It
occurs in localities in the South-west and Western Australia, but the
supplies are so small that it has become almost a negligible quantity for
milling, and insufficient for export.

The very small, plugged pores are arranged in short, twisted belts of
bands, with innumerable, exceedingly tine, sharp medullary rays, which
do not show on the radial section.

YELLOW-WOOD, AFRICAN. Source unknown.

Weight 20 Ibs. East Africa.

This timber is also known as African pine. It has not yet been im-
ported commercially into the United Kingdom, but is likely to be so in
the near future. It is of a dirty yellowish-straw colour, with streaks of
darker brownish-black. It is straight-grained, very light in weight, close
and compact, and capable of a smooth surface.

Besides the above, the names of Natal yellowwood, and upright yellow-
wood, both of which are a species of Podocarpus, have been used, but as
there has been no commercial import, and the wood is practically unknown
in this country, the source of my specimen is doubtful.

On the transverse section even a sharp plane produces a broken fibre,
and it is difficult to distinguish either pores or medullary rays.

YEMANE.

See Gmelina arbor ea.

580 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

YEMERI. Vochysia hondurensis Sprague.

British Honduras.

The colour of the wood is a whitish-yellow with a rather dirty blue
stain, and a soft straight grain. A wood of little value. Record reports
it as being used to a limited extent in Brazil for canoes, camp interior
construction, and charcoal ; and in the drier regions, for fence-posts. On
account of its pithy nature, the wood of the Honduras species does not
give promise of being either durable or useful.

The pores are evenly distributed and regular, with somewhat confused
and slight medullary rays, hardly visible under the lens on the radial
section.

, BRITISH. Taxus baccata Linn.

Weight 48-50 Ibs. (Baterden). Europe.

This useful and highly decorative wood is now little known or esteemed,
although it possesses qualities which deserve much better recognition. If
the economic use of domestic woods were practised in this country as it
has been in France and Germany, yew would have undoubtedly been
brought into prominence. The colour is a pale red, somewhat like cherry-
wood or pencil cedar ; it has a beautiful, smooth lustrous grain. Some-
times it is handsomely figured, and occasionally has a burr growth, the
produce of which will compare favourably with amboyna, and has indeed
actually been mistaken for it. The strength and elasticity of yew-wood
has been known for centuries, particularly on account of its use for bows,
in this country. It also makes a good golf-club shaft, although its strength
is not quite equal to sustaining the sudden shock of the striking blow, as
with hickory for example, so that its life in the club is not so long as that
of hickory.

At Sir Mark Collet's house, St. Clere, Kemsing, Sevenoaks, some hand-
some doors are made of yew. The stiles and rails are of the ordinary
figured wood, and the panels of exceptionally fine figured burr. The
colour has deepened with long exposure, assisted by careful polishing,
and is now a rich warm red-brown leather colour, altogether forming one
af the most attractive mediums for house decoration. Yew is parti-
:ularly suited for the purpose of chair-making, and some very fine speci-
mens of considerable antiquity are to be found in many places. Elwes
and Henry allude to an extremely handsome armchair in Hornby Castle,
the property of the Duke of Leeds. " The date is about 1550. It is
made of yew, which adds to its rarity, for up to this time it was practically
penal to employ yew-wood for any other purposes than the manufacture
)f the national weapon ; in this instance the wood has become close, as
lard as steel, and of a beautiful dark amber colour." The wood, though
it is difficult to obtain, is also valued for brush-work.

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 581

Lord Powerscourt has sent me a piece of yew tree taken from a bog in
Ireland, which is a very rich dark plum colour. The wood seems to have
greatly hardened and become excessively smooth, being also abnormally
heavy.

The timber is so good that it deserves the full attention of forest
economists, who should plant the tree for the use of future generations.

The concentric layers are strongly defined by dark lines.

AN EXCEPTIONALLY LARGE AND FINE YEW BURR FROM THE CAUCASUS
It measured over 7 feet in length

YEW, CAUCASIAN. Taxus baccata Linn.

The Caucasus.

This wood is imported in short hewn logs, from 7 feet to 10 feet in
length and 14 inches to 28 inches in width. It is similar to the British-
grown variety, but is a little denser and harder in grain. It has been
used for brush-work, and for this purpose has occasionally boon imported
into Liverpool from the Caucasus. In 1911 one of the finest burrs I have
ever seen was shipped to London from Batoum. This burr weighed nearly
one ton and was magnificently marked. It was purchased by an American
and sent to Paris.

Yung-shu. Source unknown. ~,.

6 China.

This is a common tree in Foochow, often attaining great size, and said
to be a Ficus sp. A very attractive wood, which would be greatly admired

582 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

in any decorative woodwork. The colour and grain are similar to that
of the Japanese keyaki, Zelkowa keyaki, but finer and closer.

The pores are very open, but small and scarce. The medullary rays
are strongly marked, parallel at irregular distances, and joined at right
angles by wide belts of similar white lines. It has a pretty transverse
section. The medullary rays show strongly on the radial section.

ZEBRA -WOOD. A stronium fraxinifolium Schott. and

A. Conzattii.

Weight 53-62 Ibs. (Record). South America, Mexico.

VERN — Gon$alo alves, gon$alo alves rajado branco or preto, guarabu rajado,
guarabu batata, guarabu encirado, jejmra, muiraquatiara, Braz. —
Zebra wood, Kingwood.

It is doubtful if this wood has been imported into the United Kingdom
for the last thirty years (1930).

Late in the eighteenth and early in the nineteenth century, during the
period that rosewood was fashionable, zebra-wood was used to a limited
extent, perhaps introduced by inclusion in shipments of rosewood,
possibly from ignorance. It has again been seen lately in the London
market (1931), called rosewood, but whether the present shipments are
the produce of A stronium fraxinifolium or A. Conzattii is not clear. The
alternative name of kingwood has not been used in the English market,
the well-known kingwood of present and earlier times being distinctive.

Record states : " It is beautifully figured and is highly esteemed for
the manufacture of fine furniture. The darker and heavier grades make
good railway ties, and are useful for any purpose requiring a strong and
durable wood. It is often mixed in shipments of Brazilian rosewood."

The wood is streaked with coloured lines of light yellow to red, and
has dark red and almost black stripes. It has a close grain, with broad
contrary layers of hard and soft texture, capable of a very smooth surface,
but hard to work for British requirements.

The numerous small pores are very regular in position, almost in-
variably plugged ; medullary rays very numerous, exceedingly fine, but
not showing on the radial section.

ZEBRA-WOOD, RED.

See Melanorrhoea spp.

ZEBRANO or ZINGANA. ? Cynometra aft. C. Lujai Willd.

Weight 64-65 Ibs. West Coast of Africa.

VERN — Bois ztbre, ztbrano, Col. — Izingana, Ferran-Vaz — Zingana, Sette-
Cama.

Known also as " zebra " wood in the United Kingdom and America.
The colour is a lustrous, light gold with narrow streaks in varying widths

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 583

of a deep warm brown, which slightly darken on exposure. A highly
decorative fancy wood of exceptional appearance, quality, and colour.
The Continental and American demand has been fairly considerable, and
a certain amount of interest has been created in the United Kingdom.

A specimen of this wood was given to me many years ago, accom-
panied by a statement that it grew on the foothills of the Cordilleras in
South America, and that the wood contained a certain amount of gold,
and was named " goldwood " on that account. It seems probable that
this was an invented story to obscure its origin, for trade purposes.
Record mentions goldwood as a common name of Pithecolobium vinhatico ;
there is no resemblance between these two woods and they should not,
therefore, be confused.

According to the French authorities, the tree belongs to the Gaboon
district and the Cameroons, and is not abundant.

The pores are of medium size and are fairly numerous ; they are some-
times surrounded by a patch of loose tissue. The medullary rays are
exceedingly fine and very numerous.

ZELKOWA or ZELKVA. Zelkowa crenata Spach.
Z. ulmoides Schneider.

Southern Russia (Caucasus), Northern
Persia.

The name of the tree in its native land is " dzelkwa," meaning " stone-
wood," so called because of the hardness of the wood and the difficulty in
driving nails.

Three species are known, the largest of which is Z. acuminata in Japan
and China, Z. crenata as above, and Z. cretica, a shrub of Crete and Cyprus.

The wood is yellowish-white, with a tough, hard grain, much like
American or Canadian elm, but not so close-grained or long in the fibre.
Mr. Dollimore says : " The tree was introduced into England in 1760 . . .
it is tough and flexible, does not crack and warp, takes a fine polish, and
is very durable even when placed in wet situations . . . suitable for
cabinet work and carriage building." While there is some resemblance
to the keyaki of Japan (Z. acuminata), there is an entire absence of that
beautiful sheen or lustre which the Japanese wood possesses in a high
degree, and although the wood of Z. crenata is undoubtedly a strong ser-
viceable timber, it would never be so noticeable when used as pillars to
the temples, as the Japanese Z. acuminata, both in Japan and China. In
a private note Mr. Dollimore calls attention to the resemblance of these
woods to those of the elm (Ulmus), a likeness so marked that the expert
in timber who had never heard the name " zelkva " would immediately
identify the wood as of Ulmus sp.

584 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

ZIRICOTE. Cordia dodecandra DC.

Weight 60 Ibs. Honduras, Mexico.

The colour is a warm brown, streaked with dark and almost black
lines, with a firm, close, hard grain similar to rosewood. A very attractive
decorative wood for the best class cabinet and inlay work, suitable for
turning.

Mr. Hugh Saunders finds records of its being held in stock and in con-
siderable demand seventy years ago.

Record in Timbers of Tropical America does not name ziricote but
gives siricote as a " similar wood " and* tentatively refers to it as Cordia
gerascanthoides, but in a letter (1931) corrects this decision. Ziricote and
canalete C. gerascanthus must not be confused, the difference between the
two woods being very great.

The not very numerous pores, variable from very small to medium
size, and mostly open, are ranged between prominent and secondary
medullary rays, varying from exceedingly fine to very coarse, crossed at
right angles by strong, deep, almost black, irregular lines, which look like
the dark black veins in marble. The rays do not show on the radial
section.

Zizyphus jujuba Lam.

Weight 48 Ibs. India.

VERN — Ber, baer, ben, Hind. — Kid, ber, Beng — Rengha, rcgi, Tel. —
Yellande, ellandi, Tarn — Rhor, ber, Mar — Renga, Bhil — l£lentha,
Mai. — Yelchi, ilanji, ilantai, Kan — Yellantha, Madura — Botay,
Melghat — Jom, janom, Sonthal — Janumjan, K61 — Bore', Khond
— Ringa, Gonch — Bor, Baigas — Bogei, Rajbanshi — fibang, Magh.
— Ber, bogn, Ass — Boro-koli, Unya — Maha-debara, Cingh — Zi,
zidaiv, Burm.

The wood of the " jujube " tree very much resembles a plain, straight,
even-grained black walnut (Juglans nigra Linn.), though it is slightly
lighter in colour. The evenness and regularity of the grain, and its evi-
dence of good standing qualities, should recommend it for important
cabinet and other work. Gamble reports it as " universally used for
saddle-trees, also for agricultural implements, sandals, bedstead legs, tent-
pegs, golf clubs (Chicago Exch. Cat.), and other purposes." Troup men-
tions its use for gun-stocks, for which its qualities would appear strongly
to recommend it.

Pearson and Brown in Commercial Timbers of India name Z. Xylopyrus
Willd. as producing a wood which is generally considered inferior to that
of Z. jujuba, but nevertheless attractive and likely to be useful.

The pores are very small and are surrounded by a pale halo ; the
concentric layers are very clearly marked. The medullary rays are
hardly discernible under the lens ( + 12).

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD 585

Zizyphus mucronata and Z. Spina-Christi Lam.

Baluchistan.

Neither of these woods is known in commerce, but according to the
Annual Report of the Imperial Forestry Institute, Oxford, for 1930-31,
one of the two woods taken from the shrines outside the sarcophagus of
Tutankhamen (circa 1356-50 B.C.) resembles Z. Spiwa-Christi, and closely
resembles Z. mucronata (the sidder of the Sudan).

A specimen of Z. Spina-Chnsti has just been received at the Imperial
Forestry Institute, and is being examined, and it is thought that it may
throw further light on the identity of the species found as stated above.
The wood is reported to be in a fine state of preservation after surviving
about 3200 years.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BAKER, R. T The Hardwoods of Australia 1919

BATERDEN, J. R. Timber. 1908.

BRANDTS, D. Indian Trees. 1921.

CHARPENTIER, P. Timber. 1902.

Commisao d'Expansao Economica do Brazil Brazilian Woods.

ELWES, H. J , and Dr A HENRY The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland.

1913-

FORESTRY COMMISSION. The Principal Timbers of New South Wales. 1921.
FORESTRY OFFICERS. Forest Trees and their Uses, West Coast of Africa.

1904-1910.
Fox WORTHY, F. W. The Philippine Journal of Science, vol iv. 1909 Malayan

Forest Records, No 3. 1917

GAMBLE, J S. A Manual of Indian Timbers. 1902.
GIBSON, H. H. American Forest Trees. 1913.
GOTO, F. Forestry of Japan 1904
GROOM, P. Trees and their Life Histories.
HOLTZAPFFEL, C. A Descriptive Catalogue of Woods. 1875.
HOUGH, R. B. Trees of the Northern States and Canada 1907.
JULIUS, G. A. The Timbers of Western Australia. 1906.
LANE-POOLE, C. E. (juelques apercus sur les bois de 1'Austrahe Occidentale.

1918.

LASLETT, T. Timber and Timber Trees. 1875.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (Rio). Brazilian Timber. 1921.
PARKINSON, C. E. The Forest Flora of the Andaman Islands. 1923.
PEARSON, R. S. Commercial Guide to the Forest Economic Products of

India. 1912.

PEARSON, R. S., and BROWN, H. P. Commercial Timbers of India. 1932.
RECORD, S. J., and MELL, C. D. Timbers of Tropical America. 1924.
RICHARDSON, K. C. Tasmanian Timbers.
RODGER, ALEXANDER. Trees, Shrubs, etc., in Burma.
ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS, KEW. Bulletin (Nigeria) Series ix. Part i.

587

588 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

SARGENT, C. S. Manual of the Trees of North America. 1905.

SELBY, PRIDEAUX.

STONE, H. Timbers of Commerce. 1904.

STONE, H., and W. G. FREEMAN. The Timbers of British Guiana 1914.

SWAIN, E. H. F. Timbers and Forest Products of Queensland. 1928.

TRIMEN. H. Flora of Ceylon.

TROUP, R. S. Indian Woods and their Uses. (Indian Forest Memoirs, vol. i.

No. i). 1909.

YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. Tropical Woods, Nos. 1-31.
ZON and SPARHAWK. Forest Resources of the World. 1923.

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBERS ACCORDING
TO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN

AFRICA

Abura

Acacia seyal

Acacia verugera

Afara

Agba

Ainyeran

Alder

Ahgna

Ash, Cape

Assegai Wood

Avodire

Ayous

Baobab

Barwood

Beech, Cape

Blackwood

Bongobsi

B 'or ass us flabellifer

Boxwood, African or East London

Boxwood, Knysna

Briar Root

Bubinga

Camphor
Camwood
Cape Sandal
Cassia kotschyana
Cedar, Pencil
Cedar, Red
Cedar, True
Cedar, West African
Crataeva Adamsonii
Cunonia capensis

Danta

Ebony
Ekhimi
Excoecaria sp.

Fig

Framere

Furniture Wood

Gold Wood
Greenheart

Hawthorn or Whitethorn
Hazel

Troko

I ron wood, East African

King wood

Mahogany

Mangrove

Me 1 1 a composite*

M'kungum

Moen

Movmgui

Muer

Mugaita

Muhugu

Muirosi

Musengera

Mushami

Mutari

Muzaita

Oak, African

Oak, Holm

Oak, Lophira alata

Obechi and Arere

Obobonekhiu

Ocotea itsambarensis

Ogugu

Okwein

Orange

590

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Padauk

Pine, Maritime

Pleurostylia Wightii

Podocarpus spp.

Podocarpus elongata

Privet

Sabicu, African

Samba

Sandaleen

Sasswood

Satin\vood

Sneezewood

Spindle Tree

Stinkwood

Thuya
Tiama
Tiamo

Uni-tom-boti

Walnut, African
Warburgia ugandensis
Whitethorn or Hawthorn

Yellow- wood
Zebrano or Zingana

CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES

Abey

Abey Macho

Acana

Almond Wood, Cuba

Amaranth

Amyris Wood

Balsa Wood

Banak

Bay Cedar

Baywood

Bibiru

Billy Webb

Bitterwoocl

Black Mangrove

Black Poison

Boxwood, West Indian

Bullet Tree

Bullet Wood

Cabbage Bark

Cabilma or Cabirma

Canalete

Cape Sandal

Catalpa

Cedar

Cedar Pencil

Cheesewood

Chicaron

Cinnamon

Cocobola

Cocus Wood

Concha Satinwood

Coral Wood

Cypress

Degame Wood

1)2 ahum divancatum

Dogwood

Kbony, Green
Enterolobium Sam an
Excoecana sp.

Fustic

Glassy Wood
Green heart
Guajada
Gullacan
Guiri

Harewood
Hojochee

Ira rosa

Jug
Koa

JLalone

Lancewood, San Domingo

Lignum -vitae

Locust Wood

Logwood

Madre cacao
Mahoe, Blue
Mahogany
Mahogany, Costa Rica

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBERS

591

Mamee Apple

Mangrove

Mayflower

Moho

My Lady

Nargusta
Negrito

Olivier
Orange

Pimento

Pine, Cuban

Podocarpus spp.

Polak

Populus tnchocarpa

Prickly Yellow

Prima Vera

Qualm

Quassia

Qmra

Redwood

Rhododendron

Rosewood

Sabicu

Salm Wood

Sandalwood

Santa Maria

Sapodilla

Satinwood, West Indian

Silly Young

Tamarind
Teak, Surinam
Tobroos

Waika Chewstick
Walnut, Satin

Yemeri

Zebra-wood
Ziricote

CANADA AND U.S A.

Acacia
Alder, Red
Alder, White
Apple, Oregon Crab
Arbor Vitae
Ash, American
Ash, Canadian

Balsam, Alpine Fir

Balsam, Amabilis Fir

Balsam, Lowland Fir

Barberry

Basswood

Beech, Canadian

Big Tree

Birch

Bird Cherry

Black Mangrove

Buckeye, Ohio

Butternut

Cape Sandal
Cedar, Pencil
Cedar, Port Orford
Cedar, Red

Cedar, Western Red

Cedar, White

Cedar, Yellow

Cherry, American Black

Chestnut

Corkwood

Cornel

Cotton Wood

Cuprcssus macrocarpa

Cypress, Bald

Dogwood

Elm

Excoecaria sp.

Hackberry
Hemlock, Mountain
Hemlock, Western
Hickory
Hornbeam

Ivy

Larch, Alpine
Larch, Western
Lilac, California

592

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Madrona

Magnolia

Maple

Maple, Vine, Dwarf

Oak

Oak, Live
Orham Wood
Osage-orange

Persimmon \Voocl

Pine, British Columbia or Oregon

Pine, Jack

Pine, Limber

Pine* Lodge-Pole

Pine, Pitch

Pine, Red

Pine, Sugar

Pine, Tonawancla

Pine, White

Pine, Yellow or White

P^nus Coulten

F*inus ponderosa

Plane

JPopulus trichocarpa
Privet, Swamp

Rhododendron

Sequoia

Serviceberry, Western
Service Tree
Snowdrop Tree
Spruce

Spruce, Black
Spruce, Engelmann
Spruce, Hemlock
Spruce, Silver
Sumach

Tamarack

Tsuga

Tupelo

Walnut, Black
Walnut, Satin
White wood
Wych Elm

SOUTH AMERICA

Acapu

Aceude Candeia

Aderno

Alerce

Amaranth

Amarello

Amarello Vinhatico

Amyns \Vood

Angelim

Angehm Amargosa

Angelim Pedra

Angehm Rosa

Angehque

Angico

Aniba panurensis

Arariba, Centrolobium sp.

Arariba, Sickingia sp.

Arariba Vermelha

Araucaria imbncata

Arisauru

Aroeira do Sertao

Assa Leitao

Bacupary
Balsa Wood

Barba Timao

Bay Cedar

Beefwood

Black Mangrove

Boxwood, West Indian

Brauna Parda

Brazil-wood

Brown heart

Bullet Wood

Cabbage-bark

Cabo de Jucho

Caligoa

Camassary

Camassary cle Carunxo

Canella

Canella Imbuia

Cangerana

Carcaunda

Catingueira

Cedar, Brazilian

Cedar, Guiana

Cedar, Paraguay

Cedrela

Cocao

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBERS

593

Cocobolo

Conduru

Copie

Coracao

Coracao de Negro

Cow Tree

Crabwoocl

Cravo do Maranhao

Cuaruba

Cunaru or Curnaru

Cupressus macrocarpa

Curupay

Desbota

Dialium divancatum

Enterolobtum Saman
Rperua falcata
Escallonia
Espave

Fejao Brabo
Fire Bush
Foocadie
Frei-jorge

Garapa

Goapiba

Goia beira

Goity coro

Goldwood

Gororoba

Grapia-Punha

Green heart

Greenheart, Surinam

Guanandirana

Guarabu

Guatecarc

Guiri

Hoobooballi
Hornbeam

Ibicuiba

Imbenba branca

Imbiu amarello

Ipe

Itauba puana

Jacua or Jagua
Jarana preta
Jequitiba
Juca

Kakaralli, Black

King-tree

Kingwood

Lancewood
Larangeira
Locus Wood
Locust Wood
Louro vermelho

Mahogany, Colombian

Mahogany, Venezuelan

Mamee Apple

Mangrove

Maria preta

Massaranduba

Matamata

Milho cozido

Moho

Moira-tinga

Monca branca

Mora

Muirapiranga

Multa

Munguba

Negrito
Nutwood

Oity

Oleo vermelho

Orelha de Macaco

Pao d'arco

Pao branco

Pao carga

Pao ferro

Pao mullato

Pao d'oleo

Pao pombo

Pao santo

Pao setim

Papaw

Paraguay Lignum-vitae

Paraju

Partridge-wood

Pau or Pao amarello

Peroba branca

Peroba rosa

Pindahyba

Pine, Brazilian

Pine, Cuban

Pinho do Minas

594

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Piquia

Piquia marfim
Piquia peroba
Porcupine Wood
Purpleheart

Quassia

Quebracho

Quira

Rabuge

Rain Tree

Rhododend ron

Roble

Rosewood, Bahia and Rio

Sabia

Salm Wood
Sandalwood
Santa Maria
Sapocarana
Sapucaia
Sapucaia de Pilao
Satinee
Silverballi, Brown

Silverballi, Keriti
Silverballi, Yellow
Simaruba amara
Snakewood
Sucupira
Sucupira amarella

Tambaiba

Tapinhoan

Tariman

Teak, Surinam

Tobroos

Tulipwood

Vera Wood
Vinhatico

Wamara

Wana

Washiba or Bow Wood

White Cedar

Yaruru
Zebra Wood

ASIA

Alder
Arbutus unedo

Bay Tree

Birch

Boxwood

Caucasian Wing Nut
Cedar, True
Cherry, Wild
Cypress

Hazel

Hopea odorata

Larch, Siberian
Laurel, Common

Melia composita
Oak, Russian

Pine

Pine, Bosnian Pitch

Plane

Populus euphvatica

Rhododendron

Sapan
Spindle Tree

Vine, Common

Walnut, Caucasian

Walnut, Juglans regia

Whitebeam

Whitethorn and Hawthorn

Yew, Caucasian
Zelkowa or Zelkwa

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBERS

595

AUSTRALIA, TASMANIA, NEW ZEALAND

Akeake

Araucaria Bidwilli
Ash, Mountain
Ash, Red
Ash, Silky

Banksia
Beech, Silky
Beech, White
Blackbean
Blackbutt
Black wood
Bollywood, Brown
Box, Grey
Box, Swamp
Boxwood
Boxwood, Buff
Boxwood, Yellow
Brush Box
Bull Oak

Cedar, Moulmem

Cedar, Red

Cheesewood, Tasmanian

Cherry, Vic.

Chicaron

Coach Wood

Corkwood or Marara

Crowbfoot Elm

Cudgerie

Cuprcssus macrocarpa

Eucalyptus

Eumung

Excoecaria

capitellata

corymbosa

Delegatensis

fastigata

fraxinoides

Oreades

Siebenana

Smithii

virgata

agallocha

Fltndersia australis

Gum, Blue
Gum, Forest Red
Gum, Grey
Gum, Murray Red

Gum, Red
Gum, Salmon
Gum, Slaty
Gum, Spotted
Gum, Sydney Blue
Gum, York

Harpullia pendula
Hickory, Queensland
Hmau
Horoeka

Ironbarks
Ironbox, Black
Ironwood, Red
Ivory wood

Jarrah

Karri
Kowhai

Litsoea chinensis
Long Jack

Maiden's Blush

Maire, Black

Mallet wood, Brown

Mangeao

Manuka

Maple Silkwood

Marblewoocl

Matai

Melaleuca leucadendron

Meha composita

Miro

Morrell

Mulga

Musk wood

Myall

Myoporum senatum

Myrtle

Native Cherry
Needlewood
Nettle Tree

Oak, Caledonian
Oak, Forest
Oak, Tasmanian

596

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Pahautea
Pear, Native
Peppermint
Pine, Aleppo
Pine, Brown
Pine, Celery Top
Pine, Cypress
Pine, Hoop
Pine, Huon
Pine, Kauri
Pine, King William
Pine, Maritime
Pine, New Zealand
Pine, Silver
Pittosporum
Podocarpus spp.
Pohutukawa
Pukatea
Puriri

Quangdong, White

Raspberry Jam Wood

Rata

Red Ash

Red Bean

Red Mahogany

Red Silky Oak

Rewa-Rewa

Rimu

Roble
Rosewood

Sandalwood
Sassafras, Tasmanian
Shee Oak
Silkwood, Bolly
Silky Oak
Stringybark
Stringybark, White
Sycamore, Satin

Tallow Wood

Taraire

Tawhai

Tingle-Tingle

Titoki

Totara

Towhai

Tuart

Turpentine

Turpentine, Brush

Walnut, Queensland

Wandoo

Wattle

White Mahogany

Woollybutt

Yaca or Yasi
Yate

BORNEO, THE PHILIPPINES AND MALAYA

A Ibizzia odoratissima
Altingia excelsa
Amboyna
Apitong and Bagac

Bagtikan. See Lauan

Bedaru

Betis

Billian

Bua-Bua

Camphor Wood
Cassia siatnea
Chingal
Coromandel Wood

Dedali

Ebony, Macassar
Elaeocarpus serratus

Empata
Excoecaria agallocha

Feronia elephantum
Picus callosa

Guizo or Guijo

Harpulha imbricata
Hopea odorata

Ingyin

Jarul
Jelutong

Kamap
Keledang
Kranji or Keranji

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBERS

597

K'runtum
Kungkur

Lagerstroemia Flos-reginae
Lauan (Bagtikan)
Litsoea chinensis
Lumbayao

Madre cacao

Mangifera indica

Medang or Mendong

Melaleuca leucadendron

Melanorrhoea spp.

Mempening

Mengkulang

Meranti

Merawan

Mesua ferrea

Mingns

Mirabow, Miraboo or Merbau

Molave

Myristica Irya

Narra
Niri

Pagatpat

Petaling

Punah

Red Sanders

Resak

Ringas or Rengas

Sapan

Sepetir

Serayah

Taingbok
Tapang
Teak, Java
Tempenis

Terminalia Chebula
Tetrameles nudiflora
Timidak
Trmcomali Wood

Vitex pubescens
Yacal
Zebra-wood, Red

CHINA

Ailanthus glandulosa
Amlika

Bombax ceiba

Camphor, True

Cha-chai

Chang-chai

Ch'i-hsh

Ch'i-lin

Chm-ch'ai

Ch'i-sha

Chu-mu

Cypress, Funeral

Elm
Fu-ch'ai

Hon-huan-shi

Hopea odorata

Huai-ch'ai

Hua-li-mu or Cang-szu

Huang-nun-mu

Hung-ch'ai
Hung-li

In gym

Jsing-p'i-hsiang
Juniper us chinensis

Ko-ch'ai

Kuei-ch'ai

K'u-szu

Li-ch'ai

Litsea chinensis
Longan-ch'ai
Lumbayao

Nan-ch'ai
Nan-mu-hua

Paulownia
Pe-ch'i-sha
Pe-li
Pe-ya

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Phyllanthus emblica
Pien-ch'ai
Pine, Korean
Privet

Sa-ch'ai

Sha

Sha-chu

Shan-t'ao

Sh-eng-ch*ai

Shih-kun

Shui-li

Sophora

Stephegyne tubulosa

Sung-pe

T'ao-jen

Ts'i-ch'ai

Tsuga

Tu-ch'ai

Tung-ch'ai

Tung-tsao

Tzu-hsin

Walnut, Juglans yegia

Walnut, Manchurian

Wu-chang

\Vu-tien

Wu-t'ung

Yung-shu

EUROPE

Acacia

Alder

Almond

Apple

A raucaria imbricata

Arbutus unedo

Ash

Aspen

Bay Tree

Beech

Birch

Blackthorn

Boxwood

Briar-root

Cedar, True

Cherry, Wild

Chestnut

Cupressus macrocarpa

Cypress

Damson

Elder

Elm

Elm, Cornish

Elm, Wych

Excoecaria sp.

Fir, Silver

Hazel
Hickory

Holly

Hornbeam

Horse-chestnut

Ivy

Laburnum

Larch

Larch, Siberian

Laurel, Common

Laurustinus

Lilac Tree

Lime

Mulberry

Oak, Austrian

Oak, British

Oak, Bog

Oak, Brown

Oak, Burr and Pollard

Oak, Cork

Oak, Holm

Oak, Russian

Oak, Spessart

Olive

Orange

Pear Tree
Pine, Aleppo
Pine, Alpine
Pine, Bosnian Pitch
Pine, Dantzic
Pine, Maritime

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBERS

599

Pine, Red Baltic

Plane

Plum

Poplar, English

Poplar, Grey

Privet

Service Tree
Spindle Tree
Spruce
Sycamore

Veronica

Vine, Grape or Common

Walnut, British
Walnut, French
Walnut, Italian
Walnut, Juglans regia
Walnut, Spanish
Walnut, Turkish
Whitebeam

Whitethorn or Hawthorn
Willow

Yew, British
Zelkowa or Zelkva

INDIA, BURMA, CEYLON, THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

Abies pindrow

Abies Webbiana

Acacia arabica (Babul Tree)

Acacia Catechu

A cacia ferruginea

Acacia leucophloea

Acacia modesta

Acacia Robinia pseudacacia

Acer Campbelh

Acer caudatum

A crocarpus fraxinifolius

Aesculus indica

Aglaia Roxburghiana

Albizzia amara

Albizzia lucida

Albizzia odoratissima

A Ibizzia procera

Albizzia stipulata

Almond Wood

Alnus nepalensis

Alseodaphne semecarpifolia

Alstonia scholaris

Altirtgia excelsa

Amhka

Amoora Rohituka

Amoora Wallichii

Anacardium occidentale

Anan

A nisophyllea zeylanica

A nogeissus acuminata

Anogeissus latifolia

Anthocephalus Cadamba

Aquilaria agallocha

Artocarpus Chaplasha

Artocarpus hirsuta

Artocarpus integrifolia
Artocarpus Lakoocha
Artocarpus nobilis
Aukchinza

Balanocarpus utihs
Balsa
Barberry

Barringtonia acutangula
Barringtonia racemosa
Bassia latifolia
Bassia longifoha
Bauhinia racemosa
Bauhinia retusa
Beilschmiedia sikkimensis
Benteak
Birch, Indian
Bischofia javanica
Blackwood
Boehmeria rugulosa
Bombax insigne
Bombax malabaricum
Borassus flabellifer
Boswellia serrata
Boxwood
Bridelia retusa
Bruguiera gymnorhiza
Bua Bua

Buchanania latifolia
Bucklandia populnea
Bur sera serrata
Butea frondosa

Calophyllum spp.

6oo

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Camphor, Nepal
Campnosperma zeylanicum
Canarium sikkimense
Canarium zeylanicum
Canthium didymum
Carallia calycina
Carallia integerrima
Carapa moluccensis
Careya arborea
Caryota urens
Cassia fistula
Cassia marginata
Cassia siamea
Castanopsis Hystrix
Castanopsis indica
Cedar, Moulmein
Cedar, Red
Cedrela multijuga
Cedrela serrata
Champ

Chickrassia tabularis
Chooi

Cinnamomum Cecicodaphne
Cinnamomum inunctum
Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Coral Wood
Cordia sp.
Coromandel wood
Cotoneaster frigtda
Crataeva Roxburghii
Crypteronia paniculata
Cullenia excelsa
Cupressus torulosa
Cynometra ramiflora
Cypress, Funeral

Dalbergia cultrata
Dalbergia lanceolaria
Dalbergia Oliveri
Dedali

Dephelium longana
Dhup

Dialium ovoideum
Dichopsis polyantha
Dillenia sp.

Diospyros Embryopteris
Diospyros tomentosa
Dipterocarpus glandulosa
Dipterocarpus indicus
Dipterocarpus pilosus
Dipterocarpus zeylanicus
Dolichandrone stipulata
Doona congestiflora

Doona Gardneri
Doona trapezifolia
Doona zeylanica
Duabanga sonneratioides
Dysoxylum spp.
Dysoxylum biwectanferum
Dysoxylum glandulosum
Dysoxylum malabancum

Ebony

Ebony, Burmese

Echinocarpus dasycarpus

Elaeocarpus serratus

Elaeodendron glaucum

Elm

Eng

Engelhardtia spicata

Eriolaena candollei

Eugenia bracteata

Eugenia Gardneri

Eugenia Jambolana

Eugenia sylvestris

Excoecana agallocha

Feroma elephantum

Ficus callosa

Ficus Tsiela

Fig

Filicium decipiens

Fire Bush, The

Flacourtia Cataphracta

Gangaw
Gardenia spp.
Garuga pinnata
Gluta tavoyana
Gluta travancorica
Gmelina arborea
Grewia tiliaefolia
Grewia vestita
Gum, Blue
Gurjun
Gyo

Haldu

Hardwickia binata
Hardwickia* pinnata
Harpullia imbricata
Hemicyclia sepiara
Heritiera Fomes
Heritiera littoralis
Heterophragma adenophyllum

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBERS

601

Heterophragma Roxburghii
Holarrhena antidysenterica
Homalium tomentosum
Homalium zeylanicum
Hopea odorata
Hopea parviflora
Hopea Wightana
Hymenodictyon excelsum

Ingyin
Ivy

Jack wood
Jamba
Jar ul

Kayea assamica

Koko

KuYYima zcylanica

Kydia calycina

/- agerstroemia Flos - Reginae
Lagerstroenria hypoleuca
Lager stroe mia lanceolata
Lager sir oemia parviflora
Lancewood, Moulmein
Laurel Wood
Leza Wood
Limonia acidissima
Litsoea chinensis
Litsoea Gardner i
Litsoea zeylamca
Lophopetalum fimbriatum
Lophopetalum Wight ianum
Losonia
Louro

Machilus edulis

Machilus Gammieana

Machilus macrantha

Machilus odoratissima

Magnolia Campbellii

Mahogany

Mahwa

M allot us Phihppensis

Mangifera indtca

Mangrove

Marble wood, Andamans

Mastixia Thivaitesii **

Melaleuca leucadendron

Melanorrhoea spp.

Me ha Azedarach

Melia composita

Melia indica, M. Azadirachta

Memecylon capitellatum
Mesua fewea
Michelia Kisopa
Micheha mlagirica
Mihusa velutina
Millettia pendula
Mimusops elengi
Mimusops hexandra
Mimusops httorahs
Mirabow or Miraboo
Mischodon zeylanicus
Morus indica
Morus laevigata
Mynstica Irya
Mynstica launfoha

Nedun

Oak, Himalayan

Oak, Indian

Odma Wodicr

Olea ferruginea

Orange

Or most a straita

Padauk, Andamans
Padauk, Burma
Palaquium elhpticum
Palaquium gvande
Palaquium petiolarc
Pa paw

Par a shore a stellata
Parishia insigms
Pentace Gnffithn
Phyllanthus emblica
Phyllanthus indicus
Pine, Blue
Pine, Long-leafed
Pine, Maritime
Pistacia integcrrima
Pityrantha verrucosa
Pleurostylia Wightu
Podocarpus neru folia
Poeciloneuron indicum
Polvalthia cerasoides
Polyalthia simiantm
Populus cuphratica
Porcupine Wood
Premna tomentosa
Prosopis spicigera
Primus Puddum
Pterocarpus Marsupium
Pterospcrmum acenfolium

6O2

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Pterospermum suberifolium
Pyinkado

Quercus Lamellosa
Quince

Rain Tree
Red Bombway
Red Sanders
Ringas or Rengas
Rosewood, East Indian

Saccopetalum tomentosum
Sal

Salix tetrasperma
Sandal\vood
Sandan

Sapindus emarginatus
Sarcocephalus cordattis
Satinwood, Andaman
Satinwood, East Indian
Schima Wallichii
Schrebera Swietenioides
Semecarpus Anacardium
Shorea assamica
Shore a talura
Sideroxylon tomentosum
Sissoo
Snake\vood
Sonneratia apetala
Soymida febrifuga
Spondias mangifera
Spruce, Himalayan
Stephegyne diver si foha
Stephegyne parvifoha
Stephegyne tubulosa
Sterculia foetida
Stereospermum chelonoides
Stereospermum suaveolens
Stereospermum xylocarpum

Taingbok
Talipot Palm
Tamarisk

Teak

Terminalia arjuna

Terminalia belerica

Terminalia bialata

Terminalia Catappa

Terminalia Chebula

Terminalia glabra

Terminalia Mami

Terminalia myriocarpa

Terminalia pamculata

Terminalia parvi flora

Tetrameles nudiflora

Thespesia populnea

Thingan

Thitka

Thitsho

Thitya

Trincomali Wood

Tsuga Brunoniana

Vateria acuminata
Vatena indica
Vatica obscura
Vatica Roxburghiana
Vatica Scaphitla
Vine, Common
Vitex altissima
Vitex glabrata
Vitex J.eucoxylon
Vitex pubescens

Walnut, Juglans regia

Walsura piscidia

Wattle

Wendlandia Notomana

White Bombwe

Xylia xylocarpa
Xylopia parvi folia

Yang

Zebra- wood, Red
Zizyphus jujuba
Zizyphus mucronata

JAPAN AND FORMOSA

Acacia, Japanese

Acacia Robinia Pseudacacia

A ilanthus glandulosa

Alder, A Inus glutinosa

Alder, A Inus maritima

AmliKa

Ash

Beech

Birch

Bischofia javanica

Boxwood

Camphor, True

Camphor Wood, Formosan

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBERS

603

Castanopsis brevi-spina

Cedar

Cushimucho

Hinoki

Horse chestnut

Juniperus chinensis

Kaki

Katsura

Kaya

Keyaki

Kiri

Kuren

Machilus Blumeai
Maple

Oak, Formosan

Oak, Holly
Oak, Japanese

Pasania or Pasinia
Phyllanthus emblica
Pine, Korean
Pine, Red
Pirus Japonica

Riugan

Sophora

Spruce

Sugi

Tochi
Tsuga

Willow

INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES

Abies amabihs, 46

grandis, 46, 47

lasiocarpa, 46

Mariesn, 493

pectinata, 186

Pmdrow, I

Webbiana, I
Acacia acummata, 335, 452

aneura, 205, 333

arabica, 3

Catechu, 4

dealbata, 570

excclsa, 232

ferrugmea, 4

koa, 250

leucophloea, 5

Melanoxylon, 69, 188

niodesta, 5

pendula, 335

Kobinia pseudacacia, 2

sahcina, 182

seyal, 5

steresophylla, 205

verugera, 5

Acanthopanax ricmifolium, 38
Acer Carnpbelln, 7

caudatum, 8

circinatum, 313

glabrum, 313

macrophyllum, 311

palmatum, 312

pseudoplatanus, 502

saccharinum, 311

saccharurn, 311
Aceude candeia, 8
Achras Zapota, 469
Ackama Muellen, 135
Acrocarpus fraxmifolms, 8, 112
Adansonia digitata, 49
Adenanthera pavonina, 18, 62, 133, 189,

45i

Adina cordifolia, 209
Aesculus glabra, 86

hippocastanum, 124

indica, Q

octandra, 86

turbinata, 544
Africana bingeria, 43

Afrormosia laxiflora, 10
Afzeha africana, 15

palembanica, 326
Agathis austrahs, 418

niicrostachya, 419

Palmerstoni, 419

robusta, 419

Aglaia Roxburghiana, 10
Ailanthus glandulosa, 10

malabanca, 148
Albizzia amara, n

Lebbek, 12, 251, 544

lucida, ii

odoratissima, II, 12, 251

procera, 12, 251

btipulata, 13
Alectryon excelsum, 544
Aleuntes sp , 550
Allophylus abyssimcus, 334
Alnus formosana, 14

glutinosa, 13

maritirna, 14

nepalensis, 1 6

Oregon a, 14

rhombifoha, 14
Alphitonia excelsa, 453
Alseodaphne semecarpifoha, 16
Alstonia scholaris, 16
Altingia excelsa, 17
Arnelanchier alnifoha, 482
Anierimnum ebenus, 164
Amoora Rohituka, 19

Wallichu, 19

Amygdalus communis, 15
Amyns balsannfera, 20
Anacardium occidentalc, 20

Rhinocarpus, 176
Andira sp., 21, 398

anthalminica, 21

mermis, 88

spectabihs, 21, 22

vermifuga, 21
Aniba Jenmani, 486

panurensis, 23
Anisophyllea zeylanica, 23
Anogeissus acuminata, 24

latifolia, 24
Anthocephalus Cadamba, 25

INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES

605

Apodytes, 56

Aporosa macrophylla, 227

Apuleia ferrea, 394

polygama, 189

praecox, 190, 194
Aquilaria Agallocha, 27
Araucana sp., 429

Bidwilli, 28

brasiliana, 408

Cunninghamn, 221

imbricata, 29
Arbutus arizonica, 276

Menziesii, 276

uncdo, 29, 276

xalapensis, 276
Artocarpus Chaplasha, 30

hirsuta, 31, 32

integnfoha, 31, 32, 246

Lakoocha, 32

lanceaefoha, 246

nobilis, 33
Aspidospcrma sp., 579

cburnea, 18, 396, 430

excelsum, 579

megalocarpon, 335

polyneuron, 401

tomentosum, 18, 431

Vargasn, 27
Astromum commune, 9

Conzattn, 582

fraxmifohum, 582

Urundeuva, 30
Atherosperma moschata, 471
Athrotaxis cupressoides, 420

selagmoides, 420
Aucoumea Klameana, 292
Auxemma Gardncnana, 393
Avicennia nitida, 67

tomcntosa, 310
Azadirachta mdica, 320

Balanocarpus Heimn, 127

utihs, 44
Banksia integnfoha, 47

httorahs, 47
Barnngtonia acutangula, 50

raccmosa, 51
Bassia latifoha, 52

longifolia, 52
Bauhmia racemosa, 53

retusa, 54
Beilschmiedia sikkimensis, 61

tarain, 511

Bellotia Campbelln, 328
Berbens Darwinn, 50

vutgaris, 50
Berrya animonilla, 545
Betula alba, 63, 65

alnoides, 65

Bhojpattra, 63

excelsa, 63

Betula (contd.)—

lenta, 63

Maximowiczii, 65

nigra, 63

papyracea, 63

papynfera, 63

popuhfoha, 63

ulmifoha, 65

vulgans, 65

Bignoma pentaphylla, 392
Bischofia javanica, 66
Boehmena rugulosa, 71
Bombax Ceiba, 71

insigne, 72

malabancum, 72
Borassus flabellifcr, 73
Boswelha Klameana, 292

serrata, 73
Bowdichia sp , 500

major, 7

nitida, 500

Brabejum btellatifolmm, 328
Brachylaena Hutchinsn, 331
Brachystegia sp , 84

spicaeformis, 384
Brideha retusa, 83
Brosimum Aubletn, 488

paraense, 332
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 83
Brya Kbenus, 131, 163

leucoxylon, 164
Buchanama latifolia, 85
Bucklandia populnea, 86
13ulnesia arborea, 555
Bumeha lanugmosa, 50

lycioides, 232
Bursera serrata, 87
Butca frondosa, 88
Buxus Macowam, 76, 78

sempervirens, 74, 78, 80

sempervirens var, japonica, 79

Cabralea Congerana, 96
Caesalpmia sp., 394

brasihensis, 82

echmata, 82

ferrea, 241

Sappan, 82, 468
Calhtris spp ,415

verucosa, 415

Calocarpum mammosum, 308
Calophyllum sp., 89

Burmanni, 90

Calaba, 467

Inophyllum, 89

spectabile, 90

tomentosum, 90, 181, 273

Wightianum, 91
Calycophyllum candidissimum, 148

Spruceanum, 395
Campnosperma zeylanicum, 94

6o6

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Canarium euphyllum, 148

sikkimense, 95

strictum, 148

zeylanicum, 95
Canthmm didymum, 96
Carallia calycina, 97

integerrima, 97

lucida, 97
Carapa guianensis, 138

moluccensis, 98
Cardwelha subhmis, 484
Carey a arborea, 98
Carica Papaya, 396
Cariniana brasiliensis, 240

domestica, 240

excelsa, 240

legalis, 240

pyriformis, 299
Carnarvoma arahoefolia, 370
Carpmus Betulus, 223
Caryocar villosum, 18, 430
Caryota urens, 99
Casearia praecox, 81
Cassia Fistula, 99

kotschyana, 100

margmata, 100

siamea, 101, 224
Castania americana, 122

dentata, 122, 124

vesca, 122

vulgans, 122
Castanopsis sp , 251, 576

brevi-spina, 101

Hystrix, 101

indica, 101

Castanospermum australe, 66, 340
Casuarma Fraseriana, 483

Leuhmanni, 86

torulosa, 370

sp., 254

Catalpa speciosa, 102
Ceathus thyrsiflorus, 269
Cedrela sp., 274, 280, 550

angustifoha, 89

australis, 103

brasiliensis, 104

mexicana, 105

multijuga, 118

odorata, 6, 105, 383

serrata, 118

Toona, 70, 107, 112, 125, 319
Cedrus atlantica, 113

Deodara, 113

Libam, 113
Celastrus bilocularis, 78

dispermus, 78
Celtis occidentalis, 209
Centrolobium sp., 27
Ceratopetalum apetalum. 130
Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 245
Chamaecyparis sp., 483

Chamaecyparis (contd.) —

formosensis, 107

Lawsoniana, ur

obtusa, 218

Chickrassia tabularis, 125, 280
Chisocheton paniculatus, 155, 156
Chlorophora excelsa, 227

tinctona, 189

Chloroxylon Swietenia, 80, 440, 473
Chuncoa obovata, 385
Chytroma Idatimon, 198
Cmnamomum, 255

camphora, 92, 93, 120, 482

Cecicodaphne, 128

glanduhferum, 91

inunctum, 128

zeylanicum, 92, 129, 576
Cistanthera papavenfera, 147
Citrus Aurantium, 385
Cocos nucifera, 440
Commifera sp., 327
Comocladia sp., 125
Copaifera Langsdorfri, 395
Cordia spp , 134

alhodora, 466

dodecandra, 584

fragrantissima, 134

frondeus, 135, 273

frondosa, 188

Gerascanthus, 94

Goeldiana, 187

Macleodii, 134

Myxa, 134

vestita, 134
Cornus florida, 153

Nuttalh, 153
Corylus Avellaiia, 214
Corypha umbracuhfera, 505
Cotoneaster fngida, 137
Cotylelobium sp., 170
Couratan legalis, 240

rubra, 240

speciosa, 240
Crataeva Adamsomi, 138

Roxburghii, 139
Cratoegus moiiogyna, 213

Oxyacantha, 213
Crescentia Cujete, 198
Crypteronia paniculata, 140
Cryptocarya oblata, 485

Palmerstoni, 565
Cryptomena japonica, 501
Cullenia excelsa, 140
Cunnmghamii sp., 482

lanceolata, 482
Cunonia capensis, 112, 141
Cupressus formosensis, 218

funebris, 145

Lawsoniana, in

macrocarpa, 142

nootkatensis, 117

INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES

607

Cupressus (contd.) —

obtusa, 218

sempervirens, 144

thyoides, 117

torulosa, 142
Curtisia faginea, 43
Cydonia vulgaris, 450
Cynometra, 582

Lujai, 582

ramiflora, 143
Cyrillia racemiflora, 232
Cytisus laburnum, 256

Dacrydium cupressinum, 455

Franklmh, 417

Westlandicum,. 427
Dalbergia sp., 247, 457

cultrata, 145

fusca, 146

granadillo, 131

hypoleuca, 131

lanceolana, 146

latifolia, 69, 458

melanoxylon, 69

nigra, 457

Oliver!, 146

retusa, 130

Sissoo, 487

Stevensonn, 457
Dammara austrahs, 418
Daphnandra micrantha, 436
Daphmphylhum, 126
Dephehum longana, 148
Diahum spp., 254

divaricatum, 149, 232

ovoideum, 150
Dichopsis grandis, 391

petiolara, 392

polyantha, 150

Dicorynia paraensis, 22, 341, 534
Dicypelhum caryophyllatum, 139
Dillema spp , 150

indica, 150

parviflora, 150

pentagyna, 150
Dimorphandra excelsa, 329

Mora, 247, 329

olcifera, 329
Diospyros sp., 135, 157, 161

as si mi Us, 163

burmanica, 160

chloroxylon, 157

Dendo, 159

discolor, 159

ebenaster, 159

ebenum, 137, 157, 161

ehretioides, 156

Embryopteris, 161

haplostylis, 159

hirsuta, 136, 159

Kaki, 136, 158, 242

Diospyros (contd.) —

Kurzii, 136, 157

Melanoxylon, 136, 157, 162

mespiliformis, 159

microrhombus, 159

oocarpa, 161, 313

oppositifolia, 159

Perrieri, 159

pilosanthera, 159

quaesita, 135, 157

tesselaria, 159

tomentosa, 162

virginiana, 158, 402
Dipterocarpus spp., 25, 151

alatus, 151

costatus, 152

glandulosus, 152

incanus, 152

indicus, 152

laevis, 171

obtusifolms, 152

pilosus, 152

tuberculatus, 170, 578

turbmatus, 151, 206

zeylamcus, 153
Dipteryx odorata, 141
Distemonanthus Benthamianus, 331
Dohchandrone stipulata, 153
Doona congestiflora, 154

Gardnen, 154

trapezifoha, 154

zeylanica, 154
Doryphora sassafras, 471
Dryobalanops aromatica, 92
Duabanga sonneratioides, 155
Dyera costulata, 239

laxiflora, 239
Dysoxylon Fraserianum, 279, 457

Muellen, 112, 453
Dysoxylum spp., 155, 272

bmectanferum, 155, 156, 273

glandulosum, 155, 156

grande, 155

malabancum, 155, 156

Oliver!, 155

procerum, 155, 273

Ebenaceae, 157
Echinocarpus australis, 307

dasy carpus, 164

Echirospermum Balthazani, 556
Eckebergia capensis, 34
Ehretia acummata, 41
Elacocarpus dentatus, 217

grandis, 449

serratus, 165

Elaeodendron glaucum, 165
Embothrium coccineum, 186
Engelhardtia spicata, 174
Entandrophragma sp., 296

macrophyllum, 543

5o8

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Entandrophragma (contd ) —

utile, 294
Enterolobium cyclocarpum, 544

elhpticum, 386

Saman, 175

Timbouva, 509
±perua falcata, 175
irica arborea, 82
irioglossum rubiginosum, 156
snolaena Candollei, 175
irythnna, 120

coralloclendron, 134

crista-galli, 275
£rythrophloem gumeense, 232, 472

Labouchern, 232
£rythroxylon Affini, 454

coca, 130
Lscalloma flonbunda, 176

tortuosa, 176
Lschweilera sp., 315

coriacea, 316

corrugata, 241

Matarnata, 316
Csenbeckia febrifuga, 260
Eucalyptus sp , 40

acmemoides, 573

angustifoha, 231

austrahana, 401

Beyeri, 229, 231

calophylla, 204

capitellata, 178

citriodora, 205

cornuta, 579

corymbosa, 179

crebra, 229, 230

Dawsoni, 205

Delegatensis, 40, 179

diversicolor, 242

eugemoides, 500

fastigata, 41, 179

Fergusom, 229, 230

fraxmoides, 41, 179

gigantea, 497

globulus, 199

gomphocephala, 548

goniocalyx, 76

hemiphloia, 74

longicornis, 330

longifolia, 576

loxophleba, 206

maculata, 205

marginata, 235

microcorys, 505

Nanglei, 229, 230

obhqua, 74, 497, 500

oreades, 41, 179

paniculata, 229, 231

patens, 67

pilulans, 67

propinqua, 204

punctata, 204

Kucalyptus (contd.) —

Raveretiana, 231

redunca, 568

regnans, 41

resimfera, 453

rostrata, 204

sahgna, 206

sahnonophloia, 205

salubris, 205

siderophloia, 229, 231

Siebcriana, 41, 180

Smilhn, 41, 1 80

squamosa, 232

tereticorms, 204

umbra, 573

virgata, 41, 180, 232
Euclea pseudebeiius, 158
Eugenia bracteata, 1 80

Gardner!, 181

Jambolana, 181

sylvestns, 182
Euonymus europoeus, 490
Euphoria loiigana, 271
Eusideroxylon Zwageri, 62
Euxylophora paraensis, 398
Excoecaria spp., 182

Agallocha, 182

lucida, 182
Exocarpus cupressiformis, 339

Fagraea fragreins, 20

gigantea, 20
Eagus (^unniiighamii, 336

fusca, 511

grandifolia, 56

Sieboldi, 59

sylvatica, 56, 59
Eeroha guianensis, 472

vanegata, 472
Feroma elephantum, 183
Ferreirea spectabihs, 500
Ficus spp , 184, 581

altissuna, 185

bengalenhis, 184

callosa, 183

glomerata, 184

religiosa, 185

Tsiela, 183

Fihcium decipiens, 185
Firminiana simplex, 577
Fitzroya patagonica, 14
Flacourtia cataphracta, 186
Fhndersia sp., 18

Australia, 140, 186

braylcyana, 312

Chatawaina, 312

Ifflaina, 217

oxleyana, 272

pimentehana, 312

Schottiana, 140
Forest icra acummata, 442

INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES

609

Fraxinus sp., 463, 33
Americana, 33
Bungeana, 38
excelsior, 34
Mandschunca, 37
pubinerbis, 38
sambucifoha, 33
Spaethiana, 38

Gardenia spp , 190

gummifera, 191

latifolia, 80, 190

lucida, 191

turgida, 80, 190
Garuga pinnata, 191
Geijera sahcifoha, 232
Geissois spp , 504
Genipa americana, 234
Glauca, 415
Ghricidia sepium, 275
Gluta spp ,317

tavoyana, 191

travanconca, 192
Gmehna arborea, 192

Lcichardtn, 60
Gonioma Kamassi, 76, 80
Gordonia sp , 118
Goupia glabra, 132
Grevillea robusta, 484
Grewia elastica, 196

tihaefoha, 196

ve^tita, 196
Guaiacum sp , 197

officmalc, 267, 396

sanctum, 267
Guarea Thompsonn, 383
Gi azuma ulmifoha, 54, 125
Gi ectarda boleriana, 191
Guettarda speciosa, 84
Gymnanthcb lucida, 182

Haematoxylon campechianum, 271
Hakca leucoptera, 340
Halcsia Carolina, 489
Hardwickia bmata, 210

pinnata, 210
Harpulha imbricata, 213

pendula, 213
Hedera helix, 234
Hedwigia balsamifera, I
Hehcia sp., 254
Hemicyclia sepiara, 214
Heptapleurum sp., 334
Heritiera Fomes, 215

littoralis, 215

minor, 215
Heterophragma adenophyllum, 215

Roxburghii, 216
Hibiscus elatus, 163, 277
Hicoria glabra, 216

Hicona (contd.) —

laciniosa, 216

ovata, 216

Holarrhena antidysenterica, 218
Holopetelea mtegrifoha, 169
Homalium tomentosum, 220

zeylanicum, 220
Hopea sp., 322, 481

longifoha, 44

odorata, 221, 578

parviflora, 222

Wightiana, 222
Humiria floribunda, 87
Hymenodictyon excelsum, 225
Hymenoea Courbaril, 149, 534

Icica altissima, 107, 573
Ilex sp , 241

aquifolium, 219

cassine, 219

decidua, 219

monticola, 219

opaca, 219

vomitona, 219
Intsia Baken, 326

tnjuga, 326

Juglans cmerea, 88

mandschunca, 565

mgra, 66, 88, 564

regia, 482, 558
Jumperus barbadensis, no

Bermudiana, no

chmensis, 241

occidentals, 112

procera, 104

virgmiana, 104, no

Kayea assamica, 245
Khaya ivorensis, 280

senegalensis, 280
Knightia excelsa, 47, 455
Koompassia beccanana, 326

excelsa, 510
Kurrima zeylanica, 256
Kydia calycina, 256

Labourdonnaisia albescens, 6
Laburnum vulgare, 256
Lagerstroemia, 257

calyculata, 259

Flos-regmae, 258

hypoleuca, 258

lanceolata, 181, 258

microcarpa, 258

parviflora, 257, 258

tomentosa, 257, 266
Laguncularia racemosa, 310
Laportea urtica, 340
Larix americana, 507

dahurica, 262

6io

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Larix (contd.) —

europoea, 260

Lyallii, 262

occidentalis, 263

sibirica, 262

Laurelia novaezelandiae, 443
Laurus Camphora, 92

nobilis, 55
Lecythis sp., 241, 470

grandiflora, 470

laevifolia, 198

minor, 470

ollaria, 470

pisonis, 471

Leptosperrnum ericoides, 311
Leucuma procera, 61, 314
Libocedrus sp., 128

Bidwillii, 391

decurrens, 117

tetragona, 15
Licania incana, 323
Ligustrum lucidum, 441

vulgare, 441
Lirnonia acidissima, 270
Liquidambar sp., 266, 404

stryraciflua, 566
Linodendron tulipifera, 53, 220, 484,

574
Litsaea cahcaris, 309

chinensis, 270

Gardner!, 270

reticulata, 71

sebifera, 270

zeylamca, 271
Lophira alata, 346

procera, 72
Lophopetalum fimbriatum, 272

Wightianum, 272
Lovea Klaineana, 562
Loxopterygium Sagotn, 221
Lucuma behzensis, 485
Lysiloma sabicu, 461

Maba abysainica, 332

buxifolia, 159

ebenus, 158
Machilus sp., 224

blumeai, 274

eduhs, 274

Gammieana, 274

macrantha, 275

odoratissima, 275

Thunbergii, 93
Machoerium allemani, 457

incorruptibile, 457

legate, 457

violaceum, 457
Maclura aurantiaca, 386
Magnolia acuminata, 225, 276

Campbellii, 277
Mallotus philippensis, 308

Malus rivularis, 26
Mangifera indica, 309
Mastixia Thwaitesii, 315
Mayii or Tenuifolium, 432
Melaleuca leucadendron, 316
Melanorrhoea spp., 192, 317

Maingayi, 317
Melanoxylon brauna, 314
Melia australasica, 318

azadirachta, 320

azedarach, 318

composita, 318

dubia, 318

indica, 320

japonica, 255

Memecylon capitellatuni, 320
Mesua ferrea, 232, 322
Metopmm Brownei, 68
Metrosideros robusta, 452

tomentosa, 437
Michelia sp , 400

Champaca, 118

conipresa, 143

excelba, 118, 323

Kisopa, 1 1 8, 323

mlagirica, 323
Miliusa velutina, 324
Milletia pendula, 324
Mimosa guianensis, 221
Mimusops sp., 314

amazonica, 314

elata, 314

Elengi, 324

globosa, 60

hexandra, 325

indica, 325

httorahs, 325

Mischodon zeylanicus, 327
Mitragyne macrophylla, 2
Moquilea tomentosa, 384
Mora sp., 247

dimorphandra, 329

excelsa, 247, 329
Morus indica, 330

laevigata, 330

nigra, 332

Murraya exotica, 473
Myristica Irya, 335

laurifolia, 336
Myoporum serratum, 335
Myroxylon toluiferum, 384
Myrsine melanophleos, 56

Nectandra spp., 95, 196, 485

amara, 95

mollis, 95

Pichurim, 486

pisi, 567

Rodiaei, 194

Wana, 567
Notelaea ligustrina, 232

INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES

iNothofagus sp., 456

Cunmnghamn, 336
Nyssa aquatica, 550

sylvatica, 550

uniflora, 550

Ochnasostachys amentacea, 402
Ochroma sp., 328

bicolor, 437

bohviana, 46

grandiflora, 46

lagopus, 45

hmonensis, 46

obtuba, 46

peruviana, 46

tomentosa, 46

vclutma, 46
Ocotea sp , 273, 485

bullata, 497

aff. fasciculata, 486

pretioba, 95

usambarensis, 383
Odma Wodier, 383
Oldficldiana africana, 347
Olea Cunninghamn, 307

europoea, 385

ferrugmea, 384

hochstetteri, 232

pamculata, 313
Olearia argophylla, 334

anccnniaelobia, n

macrodonia, 384
Ontes excelsa, 484
Ormosia sp , 225

straita, 386
Ostrya virgmana, 232
Ougemia dalbergioidcs, 467
Ounria sp , 241
Oxandra lanceolata, 259, 404

Palaquium elhpticum, 391

grande, 391

petiolare, 392
Pametia pinnata, 456
Panax sp., 334
Ptirashorea phcata, 263

stellata, 397
Panshia insignis, 397
Pasania spp., 321
Paulownia sp , 320, 399, 577

imperiahs, 250

tomentosa, 250
Payena utilis, 61
Peltogync sp., 17

macrocarpus, 198

paniculata, 17, 198, 444
Pentace burmanica, 298, 400

Griffithu, 400
Pentacme contorta, 263

siamonsis, 226

suavis, 226

Pericopsis Mooniana, 339
Persea aff. Nivea, 486
Phoebe sp , 337

porosa, 96
Phyllanthus emblica, 403

indicus, 403

Phyllocladus rhomboidalis, 415
Physocalymma floridum, 457, 549

scaberrimum, 549
Picea ajanensis, 493

alba, 494

Engelmanni, 492

excelsa, 424, 490

Mariana, 492

Morinda, 493

rubens, 494

Sitchensis, 493
Picraena excelsa, 449
Pimenta ofncinahs, 404
Pinus albicaulis, 428

Banksiana, 417

caribea, 406

Cembra, 407

contorta, 420

Coulten, 406

densiflora, 418

divaricata, 417

echinata, 422

excelsa, 407

flexilus, 420

halepensis, 407

heterophylla, 422

Koraiensis, 420

Lambertiana, 427

Lancio, 408

longifolia, 148, 420

monticola, 427

Murrayana, 420

nigra, 408

palustris, 422

Pinaster, 421

ponderosa, 406

resinosa, 424

ngida, 422

rubra, 424

Strobus, 2, 427, 428, 436

sylvestns, 29, 416, 422, 424

taeda, 422
Piptadcnia africana, 165

Cebil, 142

rigida, 23

Piratmera guianensis, 332, 488
Pirus aucupana, 431

japomca, 431
Pistacia mtegerrima, 432
Pithecolobium arboreum, 509

confertum, 255

Saman, 451

vinhatico, 18, 27
Pittosporum bicolor, 120
Pityrantha verrucosa, 432

6l2

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Planchonia andamanica, 453
Platanus acerifolia, 432

occiden tails, 432

orientalis, 432

Plathymenia reticulata, 27, 386
Platonia insignis, 44
Platycyanus Regnellii, 22
Platymiscmm dubium, 451

polystachyum, 450
Pleurostylia Wightii, 435
Podocarpus spp., 435, 549

amara, 415

coriaseus, 144

dacrydioides, 421

elata, 415

elongata, 436

ferruginea, 327

gracilior, 333

milanjianus, 333

nem folia, 436

pedunculata, 415

spicata, 315

thunbergi, 436

totara, 545

Poeciloneuron indicum, 437
Poeppigia excelsa, I
Polyalthia cerasoides, 437

simiarum, 437
Populus sp., 137

alba, 438

canescens, 438

deltoides, 137

euphratica, 439

mgra, 438

tremula, 41

tremuloides, 41

trichocarpa, 439
Premna tomentosa, 440
Prosopis juliflora, 232

spicaegera, 442
Protium altissimum, 107
Prunus Amygdalus, 15

avium, 121

domestica, 147, 435

Laurocerasus, 264

padus, 65

Pseudo-cerasus, 79

Puddum, 442

serotma, 121

spinosa, 68

Pseudopanax crassifolium, 223
Pseudotsuga Douglasii, 408

taxifolia, 408
Pterocarpus sp., 17, 1 8

angolensis, 51, 387

dalbergioides, 387

guianensis, 29

mdicus, 338

macrocarpus, 389

marsupium, 442

osun, 51

Pterocarpus (contd.) —

palhdus, 338

santalinoides, 51, 387

santalinus, 454

tinctorius, 51

Pterocarya Caucasica, 102
Pterolobium sp., 9
Pterospermum acerifolium, 443

subcrifolium, 443
Pteroxyloii \itile, 489
Pygeuni africanum, 331
Pyrus Aria, 570

commums, 399

malus, 26

torminahs, 482

Quercus spp , 321, 341
acuta, 373
alba, 348
crispula, 373, 376
dentata, 373
dilatata, 372
gilva, 371
glabra, 377
glanduhfera, 373, 376
grosseserrata, 373
ilex, 372
Jimghuhuii, 398
lamellosa, 450
lanceoefoha, 373
Morn, 371, 372
pedunculata, 373, 379, 382
phylhreoides, 373
pseudo-rnyrsineaefoha, 371
Kobur, 364, 368
Robur pedunculata, 357, 369
Robur sessihflora, 357, 369
r ubra, 365
sessiliflora, 379, 382
spicata, 371
S uber, 370
vibrayeana, 378
virens, 377, 378

Rapanea melanophleos, 56

rhododendroides, 331
Rhamnus cathartica, 50

purshiana, 50
Rheedia macrophylla, 44
Rhizophora candelaria, 310

conjugata, 310

mangle, 309

mucronata, 310
Rhodarnnia argentea, 308

trinervia, 308

Rhododendron ponticum, 455
Rhus rhodanthema, 436

typhina, 501
Robinia Pseudacacia, 2

Saccopetalum tomentosum, 463

INDEX TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES

613

Sageraea elliptica, 127
Salix alba, 575

coerulca, 575

tetrasperma, 465

urbaniana, 576
Sambucus nigra, 165
Santalum album, 466

cygnorum, 466

Yasi, 578

Sapindus emargmatus, 468
Sarcocephalus cordatus, 471
Schima Walhchii, 478
Schinopsis sp., 449
Schinus, 30

Schizelobmm parahybum, 449
Schleichcra trijuga, 208
Schrebera swietenioideb, 479
Sebastiana lucida, 182
Semccarpus anacardium, 479
Sequoia gigantea, 62, 480

sempervirens, 62, 480

Wellingtons, 62
Shorea sp., 481, 578

acummata, 482

assamica, 484

Balangeran, 578

barbata, 454

bractcolata, 482

Curtisn, 481

leprosula, 482

macroptcra, 482

obtusa, 542

parvifoha, 482

robusta, 463

sencea, 482

talura, 484
Sickmgia sp , 28

rubra, 28
Siderozylon malaccense, 56

Pohlinanianum, 82

tomcntosum, 484
Silvia navahuin, 510
Siniaruba amara, 486

glauca, 340
Sindora bpp , 480

coriaca, 480

Siphonodon australe, 234
Sloanea sp , 220

austrahs, 307
Sloctia sideroxylon, 535
Sonncratia alba, 391

apetala, 489

pagatpat, 391
Sophora japonica, 224, 489

tctraptcra, 254
Sorbus aucuparai, 431
Soymida febnfuga, 279, 490
Spondias mangifera, 490
Stenocarpus sahgnus, 454
Stephegyne diversifoha, 495

parvifolia, 495

Stephegyne (contd.) —

tubulosa, 495
Sterculia campanulata, 45

cordifolia, 383

foetida, 495
Stereospermum chelonoides, 496

suaveolens, 496

xylocarpum, 497
Strombosia javanica, 147

rotundifoha, 242
Strychnos colubrina, 488

nux vomica, 488

Swartzia tomentosa, 61, 394, 567
Sweetia panamensis, 62
Swietema sp., 278, 303

angolense, 279

Candollei, 307

khaya, 347

macrophylla, 502

mahogam, 304

senegalensis, 347
Sycopira assu, 7

mirim, 7

preta, 7

Symphoma globulifcra, 558
Symplock sp , 403
Syncarpia laurifoha, 551, 553

leptopetala, 553
Synnga vulgans, 269

Tabebuia sp , 570

Donnell-Smithii, 440

longipes, 573
Tamanx anghca, 509
Tapiria guianensis, 395
Tarnetia spp , 321

actmophylla, 232

argyrodcndron, 139

javanica, 273

simplicifolia, 321
Taxodium distichum, 144
Taxus baccata, 580, 581
Tecoma sp , 392, 570

leu coxy Ion, 163

pcntaphylla, 81, 316

peroba, 491

speciosa, 392

Tcctona grandis, 172, 511, 533
Tcnuifohum, 432
Termmaha acuminata, 198

arjuna, 535

bclenca, 536

bialata, 537

buceras, 86, 187

Catappa, 538, 572

Chcbula, 538

glabra, 539

Hayesii, 338

ivorensis, 187

aff. januarensis, 27, 385

Manii, 539

614

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Terminalia (contd.) —

mynocarpa, 539

obovata, 337

paniculata, 181, 540

parviflora, 541

procera, 570

superba, 9

tomentosa, 264, 540
Tetraclinus articulata, 543
Tetradenia sp., 547
Tetrameles nudiflora, 541
Tetramensta glabra, 444
Thespesia populnea, 542
Thuya gigantea, 112

occidentalis, 29, 117, 543

plicata, 112, 116, 543
Tilia amencana, 53

cordata, 269

heterophylla, 53

pubescens, 53
Torreya nucifera, 245
Toxylon pomiferum, 386
Trevesia, 556
Trichilia alta, 89
Triplochiton scleroxylon, 382
Tnstama conferta, 84

suaveolens, 74
Tsuga Albertiana, 214

Bmnoniana, 548

canadensis, 492

heterophylla, 214, 215

Mertensiana, 214

Pattoniana, 214

Sieboldi, 547

Ulmus sp., 386, 583

alata, 166

amencana, 166

campestris, 167

chinensis, 168

crassifoha, 166

montana, 169

nitens, 168

pubescens, 166

racemosa, 166

serotina, 166

stncta, 1 68
Urandia sp., 55

Valeria acuminata, 553
indica, 554

Vatica sp., 170

chinensis, 554

obscura, 554

Roxburghiana, 554

scaphula, 554
Viburnum Tinus, 266
Villaresia Moorei, 60
Virola merendonis, 47
Vitex altissima, 556

glabrata, 557

leucoxylon, 557

littoralis, 328, 444

pubescens, 557
Vitis vinifera, 556
Vochysia sp., 140

hondurensis, 580
Vouacapoua Americana, 6

Walsura piscidia, 566
Warburgia tigandensis, 569
Weinmanma lachnocarpa, 135

racemosa, 545

rubifolia, 135
Wendlama Notomana, 571

Ximenia americana, 186

Xylia dolabriformis, 9, 232, 445, 448, 577

xylocarpa, 232, 445, 448, 577
Xylocaqms borneensis, 340

granatum, 341

obovatus, 341
Xylomelum occidentale, 399

pyriformc, 48
Xylopia emarginata, 404

frutescens, 404

parvifoha. 577

Zanthoxylon Budrunga, 478

microcaspum, 440

Rhetsa, 478
Zanthoxylum sp., 475

Senegalense, 462
Zelkowa acuminata, 246, 463, 583

crenata, 583

cretica, 583

Keaki, 246

ulmoides, 583
Zizyphus jujuba, 584

mucronata, 585

Spina-christi, 585

xylopyrus, 584
Zollernia paraensis, 395

GENERAL INDEX

Abey, i, 472
Abey Macho, i
Aboudikro, 296
Abura, 2
Acacia, 2

False, 2, 3

Japanese, 4

Seyal, 5

W. African, 6
Acana, 6
Acapu, 6, 500
Aderno, 9
Afara, 9
Agba, 9
Ago beam, 73
Amyeran, 10
Akeake, n
Alder, 13

Brown, 135

Formosan, 14

Red, 14

White, 14
Alerce, 14, 543
Ahgna, 15
Alligator wood, 566
Almond, Bengal, 538, 572

Burma, 125

European, 15

Indian, 538, 572

Wild, 328
Almond wood See Chickrassia Tabuhiris

Cuba. Sec Nargusta
Amaranth or Amarante, 17, 444
Amarella. See Arariba
Amarcllo, 17, 27
Amarello Vinhatico, 18
Ambar wood, 566
Amboyiia, 10, 18

False, 19

Amlika. See Phyllanthus emblica
Aniyris wood, 20
Anan, 20
Angehm, 21, 22

amargosa, 21, 22

pedra, 21

rosa, 21, 22
Angelique, 22, 534
Angico, 23

Apitong, 25, 263
Apple, 26

Oregon crab, 26
Arariba, 27
Arariba, 28

vermelha, 28
Arbor vitae, 29, 117
Arere. See Obechi
Ansauru, 29
Aroeira do Sertao, 30
Ash, American, 33

Bitter, 449

Blueberry, 449

British, 25, 34

Canadian, 33

Cape, 34

European, 34

French, 36

Gully, 41, 1 80

Hungarian, 36

Japanese, 37

Mountain, 40, 41, 431

Mountain, NSW, 41, 180

Mountain, Smooth-bark, 41, 179

Mountain, Southern, 40

Mountain, Tasmaman, 41, 180

Red, 453

Rowan, 431

Russian, South, 37

Silky, 41

Silver, 140

Turkish, 37

White, 41, 179

Yellowwood, 272
Aspen, 41, 439
Assa leitao, 43
Assegai wood, 43
Aukchinza. See Dysoxylum sp.
Avodire, 43
Axe-master, 450
Axle-wood, 25
Ayous. See Obechi

Babul, tree, 3
Bacupary, 44
Bagac, 25, 263
Bagtikan. See Lauan
Bahia wood, 82

6i6

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Balsa, Indian, 45, 183, 334

wood, 45, 328, 437, 541
Balsam, 45

Alpine Fir, 46

Amabihs Fir, 46

Lowland Fir, 47
Banak, 47
Banksia, 47
Banyan, 184
Baobab, 49
Barba Ttraao, 49
Barberry, 50
Barwood, 51
Basswood, 53, 550, 574
Bastard bully, 87
Bat willow, 575
Bay Tree, 55
Baywood, 55, 303
Bean, Red, 276, 453

tonca, 141

tonga, 141

tonka, 141

tonkin, 141

tonquin, 141

tree, 66

walnut, 565
Bear berry wood, 50
Bedaru, 55
Beech, Antarctic, 456

Canadian, 56

Cape, 56

Chilean, 456

European, 56, 498

Japanese, 59

Ma&lm's, 485

She, 71

Silky, 60

South American, 456

Tasmaman, 336

White, 60

Beefwood, 60, 314, 325, 340, 454, 469
Benteak. See Lagerstroemia lanceolata
Betis, 6 1

Bibiru See Greenheart
Big Tree, 62, 480
Billian, 62
Billy Webb, 62, 335
Birch, 63, 65

black, 511

Indian, 65

Japanese, 65
Birnut, 66
Bishopwood, 66
Bitterwood. See Quassia

West Indian, 449
Bitterwood, 487
Blackbean, 66, 224, 276, 339
Blackbutt, 67

pink, 500
Blackheart, 6
Black Poison, 68

Blackthorn, Irish, 68

Blacktree, 67

Blackwood, 67, 69, 271, 458

African, 69, 157, 210, 213, 241, 394

Australian, 69, 188, 250

See Rosewood, Indian
Blockwoocl, 271
Blood in the bark, 504
Bloodwood, 179
Blueberry, 335
Blue gum, 71
Blush, Carrobean, 307
Boar wood, 558
Bobwood, 45
Bog onion, 457
Bolly gum, 71
Bollywood, brown, 71
Bombway, red, 453
Bombwe, white, 571
Bongossi, 72

Botany Bay wood, black, 69
Bow wood, 387, 392

Andaman, 127
Box, brush, 84

grey, 74, 77

gum topped, 74

Swamp, 74

white, 74

yellow, 74
Boxwood, 74, 77

Abasian, 79, 77

African, 76, 78

British, 78

Buff, 78

Ceylon, 80, 96

East London, 76, 78

European and Asiatic, 76, 78

India, 8 1

Indian, 80

Japanese, 79

Knysna, 76, 80, 403

Mamcaibo, 81

Venezuelan, 81, 266

Wrest African, 332

West Indian, 81

Yellow, 82
Brazil-wood, 82, 468
Break-axe, 450
Briar-root, 82
Brownheart, 6, 84
Brumhart, 6, 84
Bua Bua, 84
Bubinga, 84
Buckeye, Ohio, 86
Buckthorn, 50
Buck-wax tree, 558
Bullet tree, 86
Bullet tree, Bastard, 87
Bulletwood, 60, 87, 314, 324, 325
Bully tree, 60, 314
Burma gluta, 191

GENERAL INDEX

617

Butternut, 88
Butterwood, 436
Buzzard-head tree, 278

Cabbage Bark, 88
Cabbage Bark tree, 88
Cabbage, Bastard, 88

Tree, 88

Cabilma or Cabirma, 89
Cabo de Hacha, 89
Cabo de Jucho, 89
Cajeput tree, 316
Calamander wood, 157
Calemberri, 135
Caligoa, 89
Camasey, 91
Camassary, 91

de Carunxo, 91
Campeachy wood, 271
Camphor, 383
Camphorwood, Borneo, 92, 151, 207

K. African. See Ocotea usambarensi^

Formosan, 93

Nepal, 91

True, 92

Camwood. Sec Bar wood
Canaletc, 94, 584
Canary wood, 53, 74
Canella, 95

Batalha, 95

Imbuia, 96

Limao, 95

parda, 95

preta, 95

Sasbafraz, 95

tapmhoan, 510
Cangerana, 96
Cang-bzu, 224

Cape Sandal. See Excoecana sp.
Caraba, white, 138
Carcaunda, 98
Cardinal wood, 332
Cashew-nut, 20
Cashew tree, giant, 176

wild, 176
Catalpa, 102
Catechu, 4
Catingueira, 102
Caucasian Wing-nut, 102
Cedar, 103, 278, 383

African Pencil, 104

Bastard, 104

Bay, 54

Brazilian, 104

Brown, 41

Celery, 436

Central American, 105

East Indian, 481

Formoban, 107

Guiana, 107

Incense, 117

Cedar (contd.) —

Moulmein, 107

New Zealand, 103

Paraguay, 108

Pencil, no, 135

Port Orford, in, 245, 494

Red, no, 112

True, 113

Tulip, 318

West African, 115

Western Red, 116

White, 107, 117, 318, 573

Yellow, 117
Cedrela, 278
Cedro vermelho, 117
Cha-ch'ai, 118
Champ, 118
Chang-chai, 120
Cheesewood, 120

Tasmaman, 120
Cherry, 79

American Black, 121

Bird, 65

Blackheart, 121

Native, 339

Vic, 122

\Vlld, 121

Chestnut, 122

Horse, 124

Indian, 101

Indian rose, 322

Japanese. See Tochi

Moreton Bay, 66

Spanish or Sweet, 122, 398

Wormy, 124
Chewing-gum tree, 469
Chicaron, 125
Chicle tree, 469
Ch'i-hsii, 126, 553
Ch'i-hn, 126
Chin-chai, 126
Chingal, 127
Ch'i-sha, 127
Chittagong wood, 125
Chlorosplemum aeruginosum, 364
Chooi, 127
Chuglam, Black, 539

White, 537
Chu-mu, 128
Churn wood. 41, 60
Cinnamon, 129
Cinnamon tree, 129, 383
Cirouaballi. See Wana
Citron wood, 543
Citrus, 543
Clove berry, 313
Clubwood, 567
Coach wood, 130
Cocao, 130
Cockatoo bush, 335
Cocobolo, 130

6x8

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Cocus wood, 131
Conduru, 132
Congo wood, 157
Copal tree, 554
Copie, 132
Coracao, 132

de negro, 132
Coral tree, 134, 276

wood, 133
Cork, Spanish, 542

tree, 542

Cornel. See Dogwood
Cornelian wood, 153
Coromandel or Calamander wood, 135,

159, 161
Cotton tree, 72
Cotton wood, 137
Courbaril, 534
Courmarin, 130
Cow tree, 314
Crabwood, 138, 467

Highland, 138

Lowland, 138

White, 138

Cravo de Maranhao, 139
Cream-nut tree, 470
Cream of Tartar tree, 49
Cuaruba, 140
Cuba wood, 189
Cudgerie, 140
Cumaru, 140
Cunuru, 140
Currant, Native, 335
Curupay, 142
Cushimucho, 143
Cutch tree, 4
Cut-tail, 41, 179
Cypress, 14, 144, 501

Atlas, 542

Bald, 144, 218

Bay or Fir, 415

Black, 145

Congo, 267, 555

Funeral, 145

Himalayan, 142

Lawson's, in

Monterey, 142

White, 145

Damar Laut, 455
Damson, 147

Bitter, 487

Mountain, 487
Danta, 147
Deal, Native, 415, 498

Red, 416

White. See Spruce

White Sea white, 494

White Sea red, 494

Yellow, 491
Dedali, 147

Degame lancewood, 148

spars, 148

wood, 148
Denlia. See Eng
Deodar. See Cedar True
Deodar, 142
Desbota, 148
Dhup, 148
Dilly, wild, 60, 314
Dog almond, 88
Dogwood, 153
Dogwood, flowering, 153
Down tree, 45

Eagle wood, 27
Ebene du Portugal, 69
Ebony, 137, 157

African, 159

American, 131

Bastard, 159

Brown, 131, 567

Burmese, 145, 160, 241

Burutu, 1 60

Cameroon, 160

Cape Lopez, 160

Ceylon, 137

Gaboon, 160

Green, 68, 131, 157, 163

Indian and Ceylon, 161

Jamaica, 131

Macassar, 159, 164

Mozambique, 69

Niger, 1 60

Ogowe, 1 60

West Indian, 131
Ekhimi, 165
Elder, 165

Electricity, High resistance to, 67, 565
Elm, American and Canadian, 166, 386,

583

British, 167

Chinese, 168

Cornish, 169

Indian, 169

Rock, 1 66, 227, 386

Swamp, 166

Trinidad, 54

West Indian, 54

WTych, 169, 255, 386
Empata, 170
Eng, 170, 578
Eng-teak, 172
Escallonia, 176
Espave*, 176

Lawsuit, New York, 178
Eumung, 182-
Eye-blinding Plant, 182

Fejao brabo, 183
Fernambuco wood, 82
Fig, 184
Blue, 449

GENERAL INDEX

619

Fir. See Pines and Firs

Danzig, 416

Douglas, 408

Giant, 46

Himalayan silver, i

Japanese. See Spruce, Japanese

Lovely, 46

Lowland, 47

Pindrow, i

Red, 409

Riga, 424

Rocky Mountain, 46

Silver, 1 86

Swedish, 424

White, 46, 490

Yellow, 424
Firebush, The, 186
Flame of the Forest, 88
Flower wood, 224
Foocadie, 187
Foxwood, red, 130
Framere or Framire, 187
Fu-ch'ai, 1 88
Furniture wood, 84, 188

African, 44
Fustic, 189

Old, 189

Wood, 189
Fu stick, 189

Gangaw See Mesua ferrea
Garapa, 189

amareila, 190
Gardenia spp , 190
Giam, 455

Gimlet. See Gum, Salmon
Glassy wood, 191
Goapiba, 193
Godavcn teak, 512
Goia Beira, 193
Goity-coro, 193
Gold wood, 1 8
Goldwood See Zebrano
Gororoba, 194
Grapia-punha, 194
Grcenheart, 194, 472, 569

African, 196

Demerara, 194, 216, 569

Surinam, 196, 392, 570
Green turtle bough, 67
Grey wood. See Harewood, Artificial
Grey wood, Indian Silver, 537
Guajada, 197
Guallacan, 197
Guanandirana, 197
Guarabu, 198
Guatecare, 198
Guayacan, yellow, 392
Guiri or Guiro, 198
Guizo or Guijo, 199
Gum-anime tree, 534

Gum, Black. See Tupelo

Blue, 77, 199, 497

Bolly, 140

California red, 566

Copal tree, Brazilian, 534

Doctor, 558

Forest red, 204

Giant, 41

Grey, 204

Hog, 558

Mountain, 77

Murray red, 204

Red, 204, 566

Salmon, 205

Slaty, 205

Spotted, 205

Sweet, 566

Sydney blue, 206

Tupelo, 550

White, 74, 568

Wood, 566

York, 206

Gumbar. See Gmehna arborea
Gurjun, 206
Gyo, 208

Hackberry, 209, 340
Haldu, 209
Harewood, 211

Artificial, 212, 504
Hawthorn or Whitethorn, 213
Hazel, 214
Hazel wood, 566
Heath See Briar-root
Hemlock, Mountain, 214

Western, 215
Hickory, 25, 216, 251

Cairns, 217

Queensland, 217
Hinau, 217
Hmoki, 218
Hnaw, 209
Hojochec, 218
Holly, 219
Holy wood, 267
Honeysuckle, 47

New Zealand, 47, 455
Hon-huan-shi, 220
Hoobooballi, 221
Hornbeam, 223
Horoeka, 223

Horse chestnut, Japanese. See Tochi
Horseflesh, 60, 314, 461
Huai-ch'ai, 224
Hua-li-mu, 224
Huang-nun- mu, 224
Hung-ch'ai, 225
Hung-li, 225

Ibicuiba, 226
Imberiba branca, 226

620

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Imbuia amarello, 226
In. See Eng
Indian wood, 267

junglewood, 52
Ingyin, 226
Ipe. See Pao d'arco
Ira rosa, 227
Iroko, 227, 384
Ironbark, 229, 230, 231

Black, 229, 231

Bloodwood, 229, 230, 231

Broad-leaved, 229, 231

Grey, 229, 231

Leguminous, 232

Narrow-leaved, 229, 230

Pink, 229, 230

Red, 231

Tasmaman, 41, 180

White, 229, 231
Ironbox, black, 231
Iron-tree, 392

Ironwood, 231, 322, 392, 394, 450, 567
Ironwood. See Bilhan

Borneo, 62

Burma, 445

Cooktown, 232

East African, 232

See Hopea parviflora

Red, 72, 232
Ironwoods, various, 232
Itauba puana, 234
Ivorywood, 234
Ivy, 234

Jacaranda wood, 457

Jackwood, 31, 234

Jacua or Jagua, 234

Jamba, 464

Jamba. See Xyha xylocarpa

Jarana preta, 235

Jarrah, 235, 498, 569

Jarul. See Lagerstroemia Flos-regma

Jelutong, 239

Jequitiba, 240

Jsing-p'i-hsiang, 240

Juca, 241

Jug, 241
Jujube tree, 584
Juniper, no
Native, 335

Kakaralli, black, 241

Kaki, 242

Kamap, 242

Kamassi Wood. See Boxwood, Knysna

Kanyin tree. See Eng

Kapor. See Camphorwood, Borneo

Karri, 242

Katsura, 245, 484

Kaya, 245

Keledang, 246

Keyaki, 246, 463, 582

Kidney Wall urn, 415

King tree, 247

Kmgwood, 247, 582

Kin, 250

Koa, 250

Ko-ch'ai, 251

Koko, 12, 251

Kowhai, 254

Kranji or Keranji, 254, 472

K'runtum, 254

Kuei-ch'ai, 255

Kumus, 455

Kungkur, 255

Kuren, 255

K'li-szu, 256

Laburnum, 100, 256

Lacewood. See Plane

Lacquer tree, 547

Lac tree, 208

Lalone, 259

Lancewood, 223, 259, 404

Black, 259

Cape, 43

Degame, 148

Indian grey, 557

Moulmem, 220, 259

New Zealand. See Horoeka

Red, 60, 314

San Domingo, 260

Tulip, 213

White, 259
Larangeira, 260
Larch, 260, 405

Alpine, 262

Siberian, 262

Western, 263
Lauan, 263
Laurel, Alexandrian, 90

Cherry, 264

Common, 264
Laurel wood, 251, 264
Laurustmus, 266
Lemon wood, 148, 431
Leopard wood, 488
Lctterwood, 332, 488
Leza wood, 259, 266
Li-ch'ai, 266
Lignum sanctum, 267
Lignum-vitae, 141, 197, 231, 267, 396,

543, 545

Bastard, 392

Maracaibo, 555

Paraguay, 396, 397

Red, 450
Lilac, California, 269

Persian, 318
Lilac tree, 269
Lime, 269

GENERAL INDEX

621

Limoria terebrans, 195

Liquidambar, 566

Locus wood. See Ang61ique

Bastard, 22
Locust, 534

Gum, 534

Leather-leaved, 534

South American, 534

tree, 2

Wood. See Teak, Surinam

West Indian,^ 534
Logwood, 271
Longan-ch'ai, 271
Long Jack, 272
Losonia, 272
Louro. Sec Cordia sp.
Louro vermelho, 273
Lumbayo, 273

Madeira Wood, 278

Madre cacao, 275

Madrona, 29, 276

Magnolia, 225, 276, 278, 484, 553

Mahoe, Blue, 277

Bombast, 45

Mountain, 277

Seaside, 542
Mahogany, 278, 383

African, 8, 278, 280, 543

African white, 44

Assmee, 283

Australian, 457

Axim, 283

Bathurst, 284

Benin, 281, 284

Blue, 277

Bonamba, 285, 294

Brazilian, 138, 240

British Guiana, 138

Burma, 298, 400

Cape Lopez, 286

Cherry, 283, 288

Colombian, 299

Costa Rica, 299

Cuba, 226, 234, 278, 301, 385, 461

Demerara, 138

East Indian, 387, 481

Gaboon, 288, 292, 481

Grand Bassam, 284, 290

Grand Lahou, 290

Guatemalan, 302

Hondurus, 272, 278, 303, 544

Imports of, 281

Indian White, 148

Jameson River, 290

Lagos, 281, 284, 292

Mexican and Tobascan, 278, 303

Nicaragua, 278, 304

Okoumc, 292

Panama, 304

Philippine, 25, 263

Mahogany (contd.) —

Prima Vera, 440

Red, 453

St. Jago, 278

Santo Domingo, 278

Sapeh, 280, 294, 543

Sassandra, 296

Secondi, 297

Sipo, 298

South American, 187

Spanish, 4, 278, 304, 461

Surinam, 567

Swamp, 74

Venezuelan, 307

Warri, 298

White, 440, 573
Mahwa See Ba^sia latifoha
Maiden's Blush, 307
Maire, Black, 307
Malletwood, Brown, 308
Maltese wood, 277
Mamee Apple, 308
Mangeao, 309
Mangrove, 309

Black, 67

Red, 309
Manuka, 311
Maple, 60, 311, 398

Bird's-eye, 311, 369

East Himalayan, 7

Haro\, 311

Japanese, 312

Macquaire, 485

Queensland, 312

Rock, 311

Silkwood, 312

Stained, 212

Vine, dwarf, 313

White, 311
Marara, 135
Marblewood, 157, 313

Andamans, 313
Maria preta, 314
Marking-nut tree, 479
Marmalade fruit, 308

tree, 308

Massaranduba, 314
Matai, 315
Mata-mata, 315
Mayflower, 316
May tree, 213
Medang or Mendong, 316
Melon tree, 199
Mempenmg, 321
Mengkulang, 321
Meranti, 481

Meranti. See Lauan and Seraya
Merawan, 322
Meruhus lacrymans, 363
Messmate, 497
Milho cozido, 323

622

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Milk tree, 314

Milk- wood, 316

Mimosa, 570

Mingris, 326

Mirabow or Merbau, 326

Miro, 327

M'kunguni, 327

Moeri, 328

Moho, 328

Moira-tinga. See King tree

Molave, 328

Monca branca, 329

Monkey-pot, 470

Monkey puzzle, 29

Mora, 189, 247, 329

yellow- wood, 189
Morrell, 330
Movingui, 331
Muer, 328, 331
Mugaita, 331
Muhugu, 331
Muirapiranga, 332
Muirosi, 332
Mulberry, 189, 330, 332

Black, 332

Dyer's, 189

Fustic, 189
Mulga, 333
Multa, 333
Munguba, 333
Musengera, 333
Mushami, 334
Muskwood, 334
Mutan, 334
Mutati, 334

Muzaita. See Ocotea usambarensis
Myall, 335
My Lady, 335
Myrobolan tree, 538
Myrtle, 336

Blue, 269

Native, 335

Natural, 335

White, 308

Nan-ch'ai, 337
Nan-mu-hua, 337
Nargusta, 337
Narra, 338
Nedun, 339
Needlewood, 340
Neem tree, 320
Negrito, 340
Nettle tree, 209, 340
Niri, 340

Nutwood, 214, 534
See Ang61ique

Oak, 341

African, 72, 227, 346, 347

Oak (contd.) —

American, 341, 348

Austrian, 552

Black, 370

Bog, 357

British, 357, 398

Brown, 364, 370

Bull, 86

Burr and Pollard, 369

Caledonian, 370

Ceylon, 208

Chilian, 456

Clap boards, 342

Cork, 370, 406

Danzig, 379

European, 341, 378

Forest, 370

Formosan, 371

Fungus in, 364

Himalayan, 371

Holly, 372

Holm, 372

Hooker, The, 352

Hungarian, 352

Imports of, 346

Indian, 372, 373

Japanese, 372, 373
Kxports from, 377

Libau, 380

Live, 357, 371, 372, 377, 378

Memel, 380

Odessa, 380

Red, 364, 370

Reel Silky, 454

Riga, 381

Russian, 379

Shee, 483

Silky, 329, 37<>. 454> 4^4

Spessart, 374, 381

Stag-headedness in, 366

Stettin, 381

Tasmaman, 40, 382, 497, 499

Wainscot, 341

Russian, 379
Obechi and Arerc, 382
Obobonekhui, 383
Ogugu, 383
Oity or Cabraiba, 384
Okwein, 384
Old Calabar, 160
Oleo vermelho, 384
Olive, 334, 384, 385

tree, black, 86

Wild, 88

Wood, E. African, 232
Olivier. 385

Yellow, 385
Omander, 135
Orange, 385

bark, 78

wood, Brazilian, 260

GENERAL INDEX

623

Ordeal tree, 472
Orelha de Macaco, 386
Orham Wood, 386

Oriental Wood. See Walnut, Queens-
land

Ormosia Straita, 386
Osagc Orange, 386

Padauk, African, 17, 387

Andaman, 17, 387, 390

Burma, 389
Padji, 92
Pagatpat, 391
Pahautea, 391
Palisander Wood, 457
Palm, Coeoanut, 440

Palmyra, 73

Talipot, 505
Pao amarello, 396

branco, 393

carga, 394

d'arco, 392

d'oleo, 395

ferro, 394

mullato, 395

pombo, 395

santo, 395

setim, 396
Papaw, 396
Paradise tree, 487
Parahyba See Simaruba Amara
Paraju, 397
Para wood, 82

Partridge wood, 6, 21, 88, 398
Pasania, 398

Patapsco or Papapsco, 311, 398
Pau amarella, 398
Peachwood, 82, 271
Pear, Native, 399

Tree, 399
Pe-ch'ai-sha, 400
Peepul tree, 185
Pe-h, 400
Peppermint, Narrow-leaved, 401

Tree, 41

Pernambuco wood, 82
Peroba, branca, 401

rosa, 401
Persimmon-wood, 158, 402

American, 159

Japanese, 159
Petaling, 242, 402
P€-ya, 403
Pheasant wood, 88
Pien-ch'ai, 126, 404, 553
Pimento, 404
Pindahyba, 404
Pine and Fir, 405
Pine, African, 436, 579
Alaska, 215
Aleppo, 407

Pine (contd.) —
Alpine, 407
Austrian, 408
Banksian, 418
Black, 315, 420
Blue, 407

Bosnian pitch, 408
Brazilian, 408
White, 486
British Columbia, 408
Brown, 415
Bunya, 415

Canadian white. See Spruce
Celery Top, 415
Cluster, 421
Corsican, 408
Cuba, 406
Cypress, 415
Black, 415
Jungle, 415
White, 415
Danzig, 416, 567

Douglas. See Pine, British Columbia
Grey, 417, 566
Hazel, 566
Hoop, 221, 415
Huon, 417
Imports of, 414, 426
Jack, 417

Japanese Red, 418, 493
Jungle cypress, 415
Kauri or Cowdie, 224, 418, 419, 494
King William, 420
Korean, 420
Limber, 420
Lodge-pole, 420

Long-leaved, 406, 420
Malabar white, 554

Maritime, 421
Moreton Bay, 221

Murray, 415

New Zealand, 421

Norway, 424

Oregon, 405, 408, 494, 501

Parana, 408

Pencil cedar, 420

Pitch, 405, 411, 422, 501

Port Macquarie, 415

Queensland, 415

Red, 405, 409, 424, 566

Red Baltic, 405, 424

Rocky Mountain white, 420

Scots, 410, 429

She, 415

Silver, 427

Southern, 422

Splash, 406

Sugar, 427

Tamarack, 420

Tonawanda, 427

Turpentine, 415

624

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Pine (contd.) —

Western white. 427

Weymouth, 428

White, 415, 428
Canadian, 428, 494

Whitebark, 428

Yellow, 405, 406, 415, 421, 428
Piney varnish tree, 554
Pinho de Minas, 429
Piquia, 18, 430

marfim, 18, 396, 430

peroba, 18, 431
Pittosporum, 432
Plane, 432

Oriental, 432
Plum, 435, 533

Black, 181, 313

Courbaril, 534

I>og. 34

Hog, 490
Poach wood, 271
Pohutukawa, 437
Polak, 437
Poon tree, 468
Poplar, Amencan, 52, 220, 484, 574

Bay, 550

English, 438

Grey, 438

Indian, 439

Western Balsam, 439
Porcupine wood, 440
Portia tree, 542
Pnckly Yellow, 440
Prickwood, 490
Prima Vera, 337, 440
Privet, 441

Swamp, 442
Prosopis, 442
Pukatea, 443
Punah, 444
Purin, 444
Purpleheart, 17, 444
Purple-wood, 444
Pyinkado, 210, 445, 464

Insect tests, 62, 127, 195, 227, 447

Qualm, 449
Quandong, white, 449
Quassia, 193, 449

Jamaica, 449
Quebracho, 449
Queen wood, 194
Quince, 450
Quira, 450

Rabuge, 451

Rain tree, 175, 255, 451

Raspberry jam- wood, 452

Rata, 452

Red Bean tree, 276

Red doon, 154

Redwood, 278, 416, 454, 480

Brazil, 332

Indian, 387, 490

Panama, 450
Resak, 454
Rcwa-rewa, 47, 455
Rhododendron, 455
Rimu, 86, 224, 455
Ringas or Rengas, 192, 225, 317

See Melanorrhoea spp.
Riugaii, 456
Roble, 456
Rosewood, 130, 457, 549

African, 84

Bahia and Rio, 457

Bombay and Malabar, 460

Borneo, 317

Brazilian, 457

East Indian, 458, 460

Seychelles, 542
Ruby wood, 454
Rugen Holtz, 167

Sabia, 461
Sabicu, 17, 461

African, 462

Bahama, 462, 509

Cuban, 461
Sa-ch'ai, 463
Sal, 226, 463
Salmis, 211
Salm wood, 466
Samba. See Obechi
Sandaleen. See Excoecana sp.
Sandalwood, 466, 578

Red, 454

Venezuelan, 20

W. Indian. See Amyris
Sandan, 467
Sanders, Red, 454
Santa Maria, 467
Santo wood, 395
Sapan or Sappan Wood, 468
Sapocarana, 469
Sapodilla, 469
Sapucaia, 242, 470

de pillao, 471
Sapupira, 7
Sassafras, 471

Tasmaman, 471
Sasswood, 472
Sateen wood, 398
Satinee, 384, 472

False, 387
Satinwood, African, 44, 472

Andaman, 473, 478

Concha. See Harewood

East Indian, 255, 280, 473, 478

West Indian, 212, 430, 475
Sebipira, 7

GENERAL INDEX

625

Sen, 38

Sepetir, 480

Sequoia, 480, 501

Seraya, Serayah, or Senah, 481

Serviceberry, Western, 482

Service tree, Wild, 482

Sha, 482

Sha-chu, 483

Shan-t'ao, 483

Sh-eng-ch'ai, 483

Shih-kun, 483

Shingle tree, 155

Shui-li, 484

Silk cotton tree, 72

Silkwood, Bolly, 485

Tarzah, 485
Silly Young, 485

Silver grey wood. See Harewood, Arti-
ficial

Indian, 537
Silverbalh, Brown, 485

Keriti, 486

Yellow, 486
Sipo, 296
Sincote, 584
Sins tree, 251

white, 12
Sissoo, 247, 487
Snakewood, 488

Indian, 488

Surinam, 221
Sneezewood, 489
Snowdrop tree, 489
Soap box, Go
Soapnut tree, 469
Sophora, 489
Speckled wood, 488
Spindle tree, 490
Spruce, 405, 409, 490

Baltic, 491

Black, 492

Engelmann, 492

Hemlock, 492
Indian, 548

Himalayan, 493

Japanese, 493

Quebec, 494

Silver or Sitka, 493

West Virginia, 494
Stavcwood, 487
Stinking Toe, 534
Stinkwood, 497

red, 328

Strawberry tree, 29, 276
Stringy bark, 40, 179, 201, 415, 497

Brown, 178

Coast, 178

Red, 178,

White, 178, 500
Sucupira, 7, 500

Amarella, 500

Sugarbark, 135
Sugarberry, 209
Sugi, 501
Sumach, 501

Chinese, 10

Sundn. See Hentiera Fames
Sung-pe, 502

Swamp or white tea-tree, 316
Sycamore, 7, 400, 502

Satin, 504

Stained, 212

Taingbok, 504
Talk, 5

Tallow Wood, 505
Tamarack, 507
Tamarind, 509

Wild, 461, 509
Tamarisk, 509
Tambaiba, 509
Tamo, 38

Tanguile. See Apitong
T'ao-jen, 509
Tapang, 82, 510
Tapmhoan, 510
Taraire, 511
Tariman, 511
Taung-bok, 505
Tawhai, 511
Teak, 186, 208, 464, 511

African. See Iroko

Annual output, 532

Australian, 186

Blora, 533

Borneo, 326

Burma, 534, 511

grey, 60

Indian, 511

Java, 533

Moulmem, 511

Native, 187

New Zealand, 444

Seacoast, 84

She, 272

Surinam, 534
Tea tree. See Manuka

White or Swamp, 316
Telia See Eng
Tempenis, 535

Thmgan. See Hopea odorata
Thitka. See Mahogany, Burma
Thitsho, 400
Thitya, 542
Thuya, 14, 543

Algerian, 543
Tiama, 543
Tiamo, 296
Timidak, 544

Tingle-Tingle. See Stringy bark
Titoki, 544
Tobroos, 544

626

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Tochi, 544

Toon. See Cedar, Moulmein
Torchwood, 131, 194
Tortoiseshell wood, 488

pattern, 364
Totara, 545
Towhai, 545
Tree of Heaven, 10
Trincomali wood, 545
Ts'i-ch'ai, 547
Tsuga, 547
Tuart, 548
Tu-ch'ai, 549
Tulip tree, 277, 542, 574
Tulipwood, 213, 549
Tung-ch'ai, 550
Tung oil, 550
Tung-tsao, 550
Tupelo, 550
Turpentine, 551

Blackeye, 308

Brush, 308, 553
Tzu-hsin, 553

Umbrella tree, 542

Um Tom Boti. See Excoecaria sp.

Varnish tree, Black, 317
Vera-wood, 555
Vermilion -wood, 387
Veronica, 556

Vine, Common or Grape, 556
Vmhatico, 556
Violet-Wood, 247, 444, 452

Waika Chewstick, 558
Wallaba. See Eperua falcata

Soft, 175
Walnut, 482, 558

African, 562

American, 566

Ancona, 539, 562, 571

Black, 564

Brazilian, 8, 96

British, 560

Caucasian, 561

Circassian, 561

East Indian, 251

French 216, 561

Italian, 562

Manchurian, 565

Mexican, 544

Queensland. 565, 573

Satin, 566

Walnut (contd.) —

South American, 544

Spanish, 562

Turkish, 562
Wamara, 567
Wana, 567
Wandoo, 548, 568
Washiba or Bowwood, 570
Watercare, 198
Wattle, 570

Silver, 570

White, 570

Wellingtonia. See Big Tree
White Top, 41, 180
White wood. See Cheese wood, T,

manian. See Spruce
Whitebeam, 571
Whitethorn. See Hawthorn
Whitewood, 53, 405, 574

African, 382

American, 245, 421, 550

Canary, 574
Wild Duly, 60, 314
Willow, European, 575

Indian, 466

Japanese, 576
Wood of Life, 267
Woollybutt, 576
Wormbark, 88
Wu-chang, 576
Wu-tien, 576
Wu-tung, 577

Yaca or Yasi, 578

Yacal, 221, 455, 578

Yang, 578

Yang-teak, 172

Yaruru, 579

Yate, 579

Yellow wood, 189, 436, 472

South African, 436, 579

upright, 579
Yellowbark, 78

Yemane. See Gmelina arborea
Yemen, 580
Yew, British, 580

Caucasian, 581
Yung-shu, 581

Zebra wood, 313, 582

Red. See Melanorrhoea spp.
Zebrano or Zingana, 582
Zelkowa or Zelkva, 583
Ziricote, 584

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

Abachi, 382
Abalu, 96
Abati timbary, 534
Abblu, 1 86
Abnus, 162
Acagiu, 278
Acajou, 278
Acajou blanc, 486
Acajouholz, 278
Acaju, 278
Acana, 6, 60, 314
Acapro, 392
Acapu, 6
Aceite, 468
Aceite cle maria, 468
Aceito de maria, 467
Accituno montes, 450
Acha, 210
Achar, 85
Achung, 155
Acietunillo, 385
Acietuno, 487
Acietuno negrito, 487
Acoume, 292
Acquatapana, 198
Adai, 490
Adamarathu, 83
Adamarram, 538
Aclamaruthi, 536
Adamboe, 258
Aclampu, 51
Add£, 332
Aderne, 9
Aderno, 9
Aderno prcto, 9
Adhuari lendya, 258
Adoonsidero, 486
Adouin, 227
Agal, 125
Agas, 320
Agil, 155
Aglay, 125
Ago beam, 73
Ahera, 536
Ahleda, 184
Ahnau, 209
Ahuehuete, 144
Ahuehuetl, 144

Anna, 85

Am, 264

Ami, 31

Ami-pillao, 140

Aiti guayti, 384

Aiyancpela, 31

Ajeersi, 332

Ajhar, 258

Ajicillo, 130

Aka-gashi, 373

Akamatsu, 418

Akhor, 558

Akhrot, 558

Akhriit, 558

Akota, 208

Akupatrikam, 271

Akyau, 27

Ala, 184

Ala thanda, 403

Aladamara, 184

Alal<3, 539

Alamo trcmblon, 41

Alash, 99

Alawa, 185

Alazano, 148

Alcornoque, 500

Algarobo, 534

Algarrobo, 534

Algarrobo del pais, 451

Algodon, 45

Ah, 99, 185

Allerheiligenholz, 271

Alii, 320

Alligator wood, 566

Almendro, 338

Almendron de play a, 385

Almique, 6

Almiqui, 6

Almon, 263

Alter fustik, 189

Alti, 210

Alubo, 182

Am, 309

Ama, 309

Amala kamu, 403

Amalguch, 442

Amaltas, 99

Amandier du bord de mer, 385

627

628

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Amandier du pays, 385

Amapa, 316, 392

Amapa prieto, 392

Amara, 490

Amarante, 444

Amaranth, 444

Amarantholz, 444

Amarello, 18, 27, 194, 398

Amari, 19, 264

Amanlho, 27

Amarillo, 27, 189

Amati, 490

Amatum, 490

Amb, 490

Amba, 309

Amba bhosa, 54

Ambada, 490

Ambal, 403

Ambalam, 490

Ambar, 490

Ambari, 403

Ambat, 330

Ambayam, 490

Amb£, 309

Ambera, 490

Amberholz, 566

Ambeti, 490

Ambhota, 54

Ambli, 403

Ambo, 309

Ambodha, 490

Ambolati, 403

Ambota, 490

Am, 442

Amerikanische ebenholz, 131

Amla, 403

Amh, 53

Amlika, 403

Amluki, 13, 403

Amna, 490

Amoora, 19

Amora amari, 19

Amoreira, 227

Amoreira de espmho, 189

Ampallai, 490

Amra, 490

Amte, 490

Amulati, 403

Ana kuru, 275

Anacardo da America, 278

Anacoco, 567

Anacoco wanebala, 567

Anale, 539

Anan, 20

Ananbo, 140

Anander, 420

Anany, 558

Anap, 83

Anchico Colorado, 23

Andamargal, 97

Andiptmar, 97

Andiroba, 138

Andiroba branca, 138

Andiroba Carapa, 138

Andiroba saruba, 138

Andirova, 138

Anduga, 73

Anduku, 73

Anemiii, 264

Anepu, 83

Angelica do Para, 22

Angelim, 88

Angelina amargosa, 21, 22

Angelim dos Campos, 21

Angelim raj ado, 221

Angelim rosa, 22

Angehque, 22, 534

Angehquc franc, 22

Angehque gris, 22

Angehque rouge, 22

Angico, 23

Angico Colorado, 23

Angico verdadeiro, 23

Angico vermelho, 23

Angiroba, 138

Angnera, 83

Angouaran, 347

Angouma, 292

Angsana, 338

Angur, 556

Am kundamam, 133

Ammebaum, 534

Anjalh, 31

Anjan, 210, 535, 539

Anjam, 535, 539

Ankhria, 219

Ansandra, 4

Ansjeni, 31

Antawala, 469

Aola, 403

Aolay, 403

Aonh, 403

Aoula, 403

Apa, 175

Apamata, 316

Aparahiu, 60, 314

Apareiba, 310

Apazeiro, 175

Apoetoe, 567

Apraiu, 60, 314

Apraua, 60, 314

Apta, 54

Aquiche, 54

Aracuhy, 21

Aracui, 21

Araguaney, 392

Arahoni, 392

Arali, 185

Aralu, 539

Aramana, 101

Aramanda, 180

Aran, 165

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

629

Arara, 259
Arareua, 28
Arariba, 28
Arariba rosa, 27, 28
Arariba roxo, 28
Arariba vermelha, 28
Aranb& amarella, 27
Arariba branca, 27
Araribd rosa, 27
Arariba vermelha, 27
Arasa, 185
Aratala, 469
Aravi mamadi, 490
Arbol de sal, 68
Arbrc & brai, 87
Archi, 54
Arco de pipa, 130
Are, 54
Areeta, 469
Areka, 54
Arere, 382
An, 54
Andda, 94
Annj, 5
Arisouroo, 29
Arivita, 1 80
Arjan, 169, 535, 539

Arjun, 3^°. 535. 539
Arjuna, 535
Arjuna sadra, 535, 539
Arjuni, 320
Arjiino, 535, 539
Arkaula, 371
Arma, 24
Aroba, 130
Aroba Colorado, 130
Arocira do carnpo, 30
Arooira do sertao, 30
Aroeira preta, 30
Arrewawa, 259
Arrhonee, 392
Arro, 54
Arrodah, 125
Arsanatega, 25, 209
Artar, 462
Aruba, 486
Arvore de cuia, 198
Asamda, 467
Abame-tsuge, 79
Asan, 264, 442
Asana, 83
Asauna, 83
Asha, 542
Ashta, 53
Ashvatha, 185
Ashwal, 557
Asid, 258
Asna, 264
Asoroa, 138
Aspave, 176
Aspe, 41

Assain, 264
Assama, 264
Assapookoo, 60, 314
Astra, 54
Asud, 185
Asuna, 83
Asuiida, 98
Aswat, 185
Ata, 462
Atal, 473
Atana, 264
Atcapah, 496
Atchoourgo, 316
Atha, 322
Athalanghi, 185
Athna, 264
Ati, 54
Atika, 96
Atta pera, 51
Attaka, 495
Atti, 185
Attika, 185
Atuketiya, 577
Aukchinsa, 155
Aukkyu, 66
Aunla, 403
Aunra, 403
Aunre, 403
Aunn, 403
Aupta, 54
Aura, 403
Ausubo, 60, 314
Aval, 169
Avati, 534
Awla, 403
Aya, 169
Ayil, 169
Ay ma, 98
Aym, 31
Ayous, 382
Ayuelo, 130
Azacl-darakht, 320
Azobe, 72

Babbar, 3
Babela, 536
Babola, 3
Babul, 3
Babiir, 3
Bacha, 466
Badam, 538, 572
Badar, i
Badha, 465
Badhar, 33
Badror, 275
Badu, 184
Baelo, 443
Baer, 584
Bagd, 4
Bagac, 25
Bagalamara, 324

630

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Bagana, 13
Bagni, 99
Bahan, 439
Bahawa, 99
Bahera, 536
Baheri, 536
Bahr6, 536
Bai, 184
Baichua, 155
Baigay, 466
Baih, 443
Bainda, 536
Baing, 541
Baini, 99
Bains, 465
Bairo, 536
Baishi, 465
Bajur, 493
Bakain, 318
Bakainti, 318
Bakarja, 318
Bakayan, 318
Bakla, 24
Bakli, 24. 258
Bakmi, 471
Bakra, 165
Bakshel, 465
Balai, 136
Balala, 196
Balata, 60, 314
Balata franc, 60, 314
Balata rouge, 60, 314
Balata tree, 60, 314
Balatabalh, 308
Balataboom, 60, 314
Balda, 536
Baigay, 556
Ballagi, 437
Balong ay am, 321
Balpale, 272
Balra, 536
Balsarnito, 384
Balsamo, 384
Balsamo de tolu, 384
Balso, 45
Balumashaw, 256
Bambwe, 98, 453
Bamtsunt, 450
Ban, 372
Ban ludar, 493
Ban utis, 65
Banag, 99
Banalgay, 556
Banapu, 264
Banchampa, 119
Banchar, 372
Banchilla, 169
Bandara, 225
Bandarlati, 99
Bandar u, 209
Bander siris, 146

Bandhona, 467

Bandi gurivenda, 133

Bandolat, 99

Bandordema, 155

Bandorhulla, 155

Bandriphal, 19

Bang, 227

Bang re krok, 493

Bangka, 209

Bangru, 99

Banj katus, 101

Banji, 372

Banjir, 536

Bankhor, 9

Bankli, 24

Banne, 54

Banm, 4, 372

Banraj, 54

Baiisa, ii

Bar, 184

Bara, champ, 119

Bara chakma, 371

Bara dabdabbi, 383

Bara flawar, 99

Bara ritha, 468

Barabu, 444

Baracarra, 567

Barachar, 372

Barain, 372

Barana, 139

Barauna, 314, 450

Barbat, 146

Barelh, 184

Bargat, 184

Barhat, 32

Barfa, 94, 467

Banllo, 558

Barklak, 470

Barl, 94

Barmal, 139

Baro, 12

Baro-kala-goru, 216

Barranga, 250

Barrueh, 488

Barsaj, 264

Barsoh, 324

Bartabalh, 308

Barthoa, 225

Bartu, 225

Baru, 208

Barua, 139

Barueh, 60, 314

Bartin, 139

Bds, u

-Basra letri, 488

Basra lokus, 22, 534

Basri, 185

Bassein, 11

Bastaord yzerhart, 189

Bat, 185

Bata kadapu, 495

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

631

Bata karas, 165

Bataganapu, 495

Batinj, 192

Baikal, 432

Batta, 50

Batteo, 138

Bauranga, 225

Bauri, 536

Bawa, 99

Bawaroe, 479

Bayalo, 443

Bayan badak, 147

Beati, 101

Bebeeree, 194

Bebeeren, 194

Bebeeru, 194

Beberu, 194

Bebe"rubaum, 194

Beberu boom, 194

Bed, 465

Bedi-dci, 33

Beeya persar, 442

Begana, 169

Behara, 536

Beheda, 536

Behedo, 536

Behetta champagam, 322

Behra, 473, 536

Behru, 473

Bema, 99

Beis, 465

Bejalu, 24

Beko, 309

Bel-khambi, n

Belandi, 108

Belanji, 8

Belarbre, 329

Belekoro, 488

Beleyeh, 536

Beli, 270

Belian, 61

Bella, 473

Bellaka, 256

Bellati, 12

Bellmandi, 258

Belori,.27i

Belsian, 270

Bcnde naru, 256

Bendi, 256, 542

Benga, 442

Bengha, 251

Bent, 465

Benteak, 258

Benti, 439

Bepaule"toe, 488

Ber, 184

Be>, 584

Bera, 555

Berangan babi, 321

Beri, 584

Beriba, 259

Beriju, 54
Berkhout, 6
Berli, 99
Berra, 555
Bersa, n
Bersinge, 497
Bes, 466
Betain, 318, 320
Bethabara, 392
Betta bevu, 318
Beukenhout, 56
Bevina, 320
Bevu, 318, 320
Beymada, 251
Bhadi, 383
Bhaira, 536
Bhalai, 479
Bhalena, 225
Bhalha, 479
Bhamfna, 225
Bhan, 439
Bhand'r, n
Bhanish, 465
Bharassi, 270
Bharda, i
Bharhul, 473
Bhaulan, 225
Bhawasar, 225
Bhcla, 479
Bhelatuki, 479
Bhendi, 542
Bhenta, 270
Bherda, 536
Bhena, 473
Bhesh, 465
Bheyla, 479
Bhi, 465
Bhilawa, 479
Bhillar, 66
Bhilwa, 479
Bhira, 473
Bhirra, 473
Bhirwa, 473
Bhiusa, 465
Bhohar, 225
Bhor, 584
Bhorkoru, 225
Bhorsal, 225
Bhotbeula, 458
Bhoti, 256
Bhotuk, 458
Bhoursal, 225
Bhiijpattra, 65
Bhumra, 536
Bhurkul, 225
Bhutikassi, 165
Bhutrakshi, 165
Bhutta, 165
Bhyni, 99
Biar, 407
Biba, 479

632

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Bibha, 479

Bibir, 194

Bibira, 194

Bibiri, 194

Bibiroo, 194

Bibiru, 194

Bibla, 442

Bibu, 479

Bibwa, 479

Bidu, 465

Bihi, 450

Bihri, 473

Bija, 442

Brjaira, 442

Bijasal, 442

Bijasar, 442

Bijo, 442

Bijlhout, 175

Bila, 139

Bilasi, 139

Bilgar, 473

Bilgu, 473

Biliana, 139

Bili-basri, 183

Bih-budlige, 156

Bili-devdan, 156

Bih- j ah, 5

Bilm, 183

Billa, 496

Billawar, n

Bilh matti, 535, 539

Billi-randi, 258

Billu, 473

Bilsa, 465

Bilsted, 566

Bilur, 165

Bilwar, 183

Bilwara, n

Bimla, 196

Bin, 465

Binburra, Go

Bine, 505

Bmg, 227

Binga, 495

Bins, 465

Bmtangor, 89

Biriba, 259

Bis, 465

Bitan, 318

Bitasa, 466

Bitha gonyer, 256

Bithiia, 146

Biti, 458

Bitrayan, 318

Bitsa, 465

Bitter dan, 487

Bitteresche, 449

Bitterholz von Jamaica, 449

Bitusi, 139

Blankholz, 271

Blauholz, 271

Bloedbalata, 60, 314

Blutholz, 271

Bobbi, 90

Bobich, 107

Bocha, 466

Bocho, 309

Bocote, 94

Bodda, 185

Bodcda, 271

Bodoka, 225

Boelekolle, 488

Boga poma, 125

Bogaungsa, 66

Bogei, 584

Bogri, 584

Bohera, 536

Bohl, 324

Bohoi, 481

Bohora, 536

Boilshora. 554

Bois amer, 449

Bois angehquc, 22

Bois bagot, 444

Bois baroit 332

Bois blanc, 486

Bois bleu, 271

Bois caille, 138

Bois cochon, 558

Bois fer, 567

Bois flot, 45

Bois jaune, 189

Bois jaune de Bresil, 189

Bois jaune de Cuba, 189

Bois jaune de Tampico, 189

Bois lezard, 488

Bois marbre, 332

Bois noir, 271

Bois pourpre, 444

Bois puant, 54

Bois rouge, 60, 87, 314

Bois rouge carapat, 138

Bois rouge tisane, 87

Bois sanglant, 271

Bois sant, 267

Bois serpent, 221

Bois tapire\ 395

Bois violet, 444

Bois zebre, 582

Bois a flambeau, 87

Bois a pian, 189

Bois d'amourette mouchet£, 488

Bois d'arc, 259

Bois d'ebene verte, 392

Bois d'encens, 87

Bois d'orange, 189

Bois d'orme, 54

Bois de Campeche, 271

Bois de Cayan, 486

Bois de Cayenne, 332

Bois de coeur, 444

Bois de corail, 18, 133

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

633

Bois de Coumarouna, 141

Bois de courbanl, 534

Bois de fer, 72, 234

Bois de f e" roles, 332

Bois de gaiac, 267

Bois de gayac, 267

Bois de la Jamaique, 271

Bois de lance, 259

Bois de lettre gris, 488

Bois de lettre rouge, 332

Bois de lettres, 488

Bois de lettres de Chine, 488

Bois de lettres de mouchete, 488

Bois de liege, 277

Bois de meche, 68

Bois de natte, 60, 314

Bois de Nicaragua, 271

Bois de pagaie blanc, 567

Bois de perdnx, 567

Bois de quassia de la Jamaique, 449

Bois de rose, 549

Bois de rose d'Oceanie, 542

Bois de St. Martin, 449

Bois de sang, 271

Bois de Simire", 534

Boja, 577

Bojeh, 577

Bojewar, 129

Bokal, 324

Boke, 66

Bokh, 324

Boklu, 324

Bokoka, 72

Boktok, 98

Bola, 330

Bolas, 174

Bolashan, 258

Bolchim, 155

Bolchu, 72

Boldak, 478

Boldobak, 256

Bol-kadam, 25

Bolkobak, 192

Bolletne, 60, 314

Bolletrieboom, 60, 314

Bolondo, 227

Belong, 541

Bolongata, 159

Bolsal, 463

Bolundiir, 258

Bolur, 541

Bolzel, 496

Bolzuru, 66

Bombi, 270

Bomi, 270

Bomudu, 16

Bondara, 258

Bondgu, 216

Bondorkella, 155

Bone, 210

Bongor, 258

Bongossi, 72

B6nmeza, 13

Bonta yepi, 83

Bonurlati, 99

Bonurlauri, 99

Boosi mahoni, 221

Bootige, 165

Bor, 184, 584

Bor-bur, 185

Bordengri, 258

Bordheri, 258

Bore, 584

Borhar, 184

Borhi, 12

Boro-koli, 584

Borogotodhara, 155

Bor-patta-jam, 174

Bor-salai, 73

Boru, 184

Bosha, 54, 256

Boshi swa, 16

Bossai, 54

Bot, 184

Botanskam, 165

Botay, 584

Bothi, 256

Boucara, 567

Bourne houmiri, 87

Bouro, 72

Bourracourra, 488

Boutous, 488

Bouzo, 227

Boya, 99

Brahmani khair, 4

Brarua, 139

Brasil, 189

Brasihenholz, 82, 189

Brasiliemsche gelbholz, 189

Brauna, 314

Braunherz, 6

Brazilienisches rozenholz, 549

Brazilletto, 82

Brazo del fuego, 189

Breiapfel, 469

Bresil, 82

Bressilet franc, 125

Bruinhart, 6

Brun, 472

Bucaro, 86

Bucha karum, 24

Buchstabenholz, 488

Bucklai, 373

Buda-darini, 98

Buda-durmi, 98

Biidar, i

Budatare, 98

Budgrat, 450

Budi, 185

Budlu, i

Buey, 136

Bugani, 99

634

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Bugari, 542
Buis d'Amerique, 81
Buk, 450
Bukal, 324
Buldu, i
Bulmes, 54
Biilii, 536
Bulyettra, 88
Bumsutu, 450
Bunboronda, 139
Bunga, 258
IJjmsobri, 13
Bunya-bunya, 28
Bur, 184, 185
Buraga, 72
Burda, 12
Burga, 72
Burgu, 72
Burja, 225
Burkas, 165
Burkunda, 225
Burla, i, 72
Buroh, 72
Burokoro, 488
Burra, i
Burracura, 488
Buruea, 60, 314
Buruga, 72
Buruk, 256
Buriil, i
Buriis, 473
Buruta, 473
Bu-seru, 440
Busi, 557
But, 184
Buta-buta, 182
Buta-kadambe, 495
Buta pala, 165
Bya, 97
Byasa, 442
Bylhout, 175

Cabacalli, 132

Cabaceira, 198

Cabiuna, 457

Cablote, 54

Cabo de hacha, 89

Cabore, 384

Cabretiva, 384

Cabreiiva vermelha, 384

Cacachien, 534

Cacagua, 275

Cacaoyer a feuille d'orme, 54

Cachu, 4

Cacique, 332

Caithne, 29

Caixeta, 487

Caixeta branca, 487

Cajarana, 96

Cajeto, 45

Caju, 20

Caju-rana, 487

Calaba, 468

Calabas, 198

Calabash, 198

Calabasse, 198

Calebassier, 198

Caloon, 449

Camagoon, 159

Camara de bilro, 22

Camaron, 148

Camba-aca, 54

Cambeza de negro, 54

Cambogala, 292

Camiri, 141

Canipano, 451

Campeche, 271

Campeche carmen, 271

Campeche rouge, 271

Campecheholz, 271

Campeggio, 271

Campeschenholz, 271

Campetch, 271

Camv^ood, 51

Caiiaguate, 392

Cancharana, 96

Canchorena, 96

Canchorono, 96

Candehllo, 28

Candel6n, 310

Cangerana, 96

Cangica paira, 488

Canjarana, 96

Cannanboom, 534

Canterana-mirim, 96

Caoba, 138, 278

Caoba blanca, 278

Caoba monde, 278

Caouroubali, 534

Caraba, 138

Caracoli, 176

Caramura, 87

Carapa, 138

Carapa blanc, 138

Carapa jaune, 138

Carapa rouge, 138

Carisiti, 259

Caroubier de la Guyane, 534

Carrasco, 125,

Carra-sen, 259

Caruto, 234

Casique care, 488

Catappa, 538

Catauba, 130

Catawba, 102

Catuaba, 130

Caulote, 54

Caviuna, 457

Cawtha, 183

Caxarana, 96

Cedre blanc, 107

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

635

Cedrela, 105
Cedro, 96, 104, no
Cedro amarello, 104
Cedro aromatico, 104
Cedro batata, 104
Cedro branco, 104
Cedro caopiiiva, 104
Cedro carmesi, 278
Cedro cebello, 278
Cedro cheiroso, 104
Cedro Colorado, no
Cedro do Amazonas, 104
Cedro macho, 96
Cedro-ra, 96
Cedro rosa, 104
Cedro vermelho, 104
Cego machado, 549
Cenicero, 451
Cenllo, 558
Ceriuba, 68
Chacal haaz, 309
Chad ache, 197
Chadavakku, 566
Chai, 127
Chaile, 1 6
Chakota, 208
Chakrej, 258
Chaku, 181
Chakua, 13
Chakwa, 24
Chalam, 16
Chalanga-da, 387
Chalcha, 88
Challa hole dasal, 258
Challane, 152
Cham, 30
Chama, 32
Chamba, 32
Chambagam, 118
Chambar maya, 65
Chambara, 440
Chambu, 181
Chamian, 442
Champa, 118
Champaca, 118
Champakam, 118
Champakamu, 118
Chana, 469
Chandal, 466
Chandan, 466
Chandang, 145
Chandra, 270
Changathasi dhup, 548
Chani, 442
Chaplash, 30
Chaplis, 30
Chapun, 13
Chaquera pino, 436
Char, 85
Chara, 85
Charachi, 196

Charang, 101
Charmaghz, 558
Charoli, 85
Charu, 85
Charwari, 85
Chat inn, 16
Chatiun, 16
Chatiwan, 16
Chatni, 16
Chatwan, 16
Chaua, 60, 314
Chauko, 373
Chauh, 165
Chaunkra, 442
Chauri, 165
Chay, 191
Chaya, 324
Chegarasi, 125
Chein, 318
Chekerey, 259
Chelampai, 495
Chemdang, 548
Chem-maram, 19
Chendala, 208
Chene rouge, 368
Chcngai, 127
Chengal pasir, 322
Chemnge, 259
Cherla, 184
Cheru pmey, 554
Chetippa, 225
Cheur, 466
Chevandeiai, 545
Chhatiana, 16
Chhatm, 16
Chhatm, 16
Chhota dundhera, 210
Chibatan, 9
Chibatao, 9
Chibatao pedro, 9
Chibatao vidrado, 9
Chicala, 392
Chicarron, 54, 125
Chichalda, n
Chichanda, 12
Chichera, 467
Chichipate, 62
Cmchola, u, 251
Chichra, 88
Chichua, 12
Chichwa, n
Chicle, 469
Chico, 469
Chicozapote, 469
Chifle de vaca, 67
Chijole mahogany, 467
Chik bevu, 318
Chikado, 108
Chikrassi, 125
Chikri, 80
Chikul, 12

636

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Chikyeng, 165
Chil, 407, 420
Chila, 407
Chilauni, 478
Chilbil, 169
Chilka duduga, 437
Cmlkadudu, 463
Chillar, 169
Chilmil, 169
Chilrow, i
Chiltu, 407
Chimidida, 534
Chimkani, 99
Chimman, 192
Chinangi, 258
Chmdaga, 13
Chinduga, n
Chini, 541
Chiml-te, 125
Chinna kadambu, 495
Chinna moral, 85
Chinyok, 191
Chiok, 191
Chfr, 407, 420
Chirauli, 85
Chircmra, 271
Chiriman, 24
Chironji, 85
Chiroroe, 536
Chiru-piyari, 435
Chitompa, 191
Chitreka, 87
Chitta, 73

Chittila madaku, 213
Chitu, 407
Chiu, 407
Chiula, 88
Chobsi, 119
Chochnia, 16
Choi, 12
Chokkala, 10
Chomuntiri, 215
Chora, 88, 372
Chosen-matsu, 420
Choso, 479
Chota kambu, 330
Chouchong, 264
Choupultea, 256
Choveri, 54
Chram, 30
Chugalam, 537
Chuglam, 335
Chul, 309
Chul-ul, 309
Chundapana, 99
Chunji, 258
Chtir, i
Churo, 270
Cimiri, 534
Cipiri, 194
Cipres, 144

Cipre*s de Montezuma, 144

Cipreso, 144

Ciriuba, 68

Ciruelillo, 186

Citroenhout, 189

Clavito, 130

Coache, 449

Coapmol, 534

Cobano, 278

Cobola, 436

Coca, 130

Coca del monte, 130

Cochmito, 176

Cocobola, 130

Cocobolo fiambar, 130

Cocobolo negro, 130

Cocobolo prieto, 130

Cocoboloholz, 130

Coeur rouge, 271

Cohigue, 456

Coigiie, 456

Coihue, 456

Cojoba, 509

Cojobana, 509

Cola de rnarano, 509

Cola de mico, 509

Coloradito, 28

Comarre, 141

Combo-combo, 292

Conacaste, 544

Conchido, 509

Conda-pani, 505

Conda-panna, 99

Conduru, 332

Condurii de sangue, 332

C6ng, 208

Congu, 495

Conjcrana-assu, 96

Copaher de Amenque, 534

Copi, 132

Copie, 132

Copmole, 534

Corahllo, 509

Corcho, 45

Cornel, 153

Corobore, 534

Coronilla, 30

Cortes, 316, 392

Cortez, 440

Cortez amarillo, 392

Cortez bianco, 440

Cortez negro, 392

Cortez prieto, 392

Corteza, 392

Corteza amarilla, 392

Cotumo, 198

Couepi, 132

Coumarounaholz, 141

Coupi, 132

Couramira, 87

Couranoura, 87

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

637

Courbaril, 534

Courbaril hout, 534

Courbaril montagne, 534

Courbaril plum, 534

Courbaril de savane, 534

Coyan, 456

Crabbaum, 138

Crapa, 138

Crappa, 138

Crapo, 138

Crappo, 138

Cuamara, 141

Cuapinol, 534

Cuapinolc, 534

Cuapmoh, 534

Cuca, 130

Cuddapah, 51

Cuiera, 198

Cuiete, 198

Cumce, 29

Cuite, 198

Cujete, 198

Cullonen, 60

Cumaru, 141

Cumaru amarello, 141

Cumaru do Amazonas, 141

Cumary, 141

Cummi, 192

Cunduru, 332

Cupiuba, 132

Cupiiiva, 132

Curarire, 392

Cun-y, 408

Cuny, 408

Curupay, 142

Curupay negro, 142

Curupay-ra, 23

Cutch, 4

Dabdabbi, 191
Daben, 165
Dadhippa, 225
Dadhun, 184
Dagame, 148
Daheo, 32
Dahu, 32
Dakamaballi, 6
Dakar tdlada, 90
Dakh, 556
Dakki, 556
Da-k6m, 209
Dal, 118

Dalchini, 129, 275
Dali dali, 147
'Dalli, 118
Dalmara, 125
Daln£-katus, 101
Damadi, 136
Daman, 197
Damar mata kuching, 322

Damar siput, 322
Dambel, 98
Dambu, 181
Daminiya, 197
Damnak, 197
Dandelo, 225
Dandoshi, 146
Dandous, 146
Dandua, 24
Danwa singali, 371
Dao, 32
Daom, 7
Dar, 71
Darachk, 318
Darepi, 98
Dargu, 467
Darli, 118
Darloi, 118
Darlu, 118
Darshana, 251
Dartner, 29
Dau, 24
Dau-con-rai, 25
Daula, 403
Daulo, 324
Daurango, 169
Dauri, 118
Dawa, 32
Dawata, 97
Dawu, 24

Dawul-kurundu, 271
Degame, 148
Dehua, 32
Deikna, 318
Deknoi, 318
Del, 72
Denkan, 318
Denlia, 170
Dephul, 32
Derhi, 256
Determa, 567
Devdari, 108
Devi-didr, 142
Dhak, 88
Dhakka, 165, 479
Dhalasmgha, 96. 557
Dhamin, 196
Dhamman, 196
Dhamna, 169
Dhamni, 196
Dhamono, 196
Dhamora, 24
Dhamun, 196
Dhanwala, 32
Dhao, 32
Dhaora, 24
Dhaori, 24
Dharmara, 496
Dhau, 24, 32
Dhaukra, 24
Dhauli, 225

638

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Dhaulo, 83

Dhaunda, 24

Dhaundak, 24

Dhaura, 24, 258

Dhauri, 24

Dhauta, 24

Dhavada, 24

Dhawa, 24

Dhebri, 165

Dheu, 32

Dhimera, 185

Dhobu, 24

Dhokri, 24

Dhondri, 54

Dhorara, 53

Dhorbeula, 442

Dhota mara, 497

Dhotte, 497

Dhowda, 219

Dhiidi, 218

Dhundera, 54

Dhundul, 98

Dhiinu, i

Dhup, 148

Dhup, 420

Dhup maram, 554

Dhupa, 554

Dhiipi, 142

Didok, 72

Didu, 72

Dik-wenna, 432

Dindal, 24

Dinde, 189

Dindlu, 24

Dindiiga, 24

Dingan, 478

Dmgdah, 86

Dingjmg, 371

Dingkurlong, 318

Dinglaba, 174

Dingleen, 65

Dingsableh, 436

Dingsning, 373

Diphylle pois confiture, 534

Dirasana, 251

Diwul, 183

Diya mid^lia, 51

Djati, 511

Dodan-kaha, 320

Dogola, 325

Dohu, 24

Dom, 7

Dom-sai, 324

Domba, 89

Domba-kina, 90

Dondru, 225

Donsella, 6

Dooka, 395

Dop^, 383

Dorana, 152

Dowa, 32

Dowka, 383
Dowka gia, 383
Dowla, 219
Drab chir, 420
Draksha, 556
Drawi, 107, 118
Drck, 318
Drewar, i
Dualgual, 415
Dubker, 138
Dudcory, 219
Dudhali, 219
Dudhiari, 219
Dudhkun, 219
Dudi, 219

Dudi maddi, 83, 264
Dudi yetta, 225
Dudippa, 225
Dudippi, 98
Dudri, 274
Dvigadu, 209
Duizenbccnboom, 310
Duka, 395
Dum, 45
Dumbla, 542
Dumer, 185
Dumper, 383
Dumpini, 383
Dumpri, 383
Dumri, 185
Dun, 154, 554, 558
Dunras, 99
Dunu-madala, 496
Dupa maram, 554
Dupada, 554
Dur, 155
Durga, 403
Duriamadi, 83
Durla, 118
Durrasalla, 407
Dwabok, 256
Dwalok, 256
Dwani, 175
Dyrren-dyrren, 415
Dzelkwa, 583

Eba, 72

Eb&ne verte, 392
Echa-humo, 392
Echtes mahogam. 278
Eda-kula 16
Edang korna, 497
Edel, 72
Edoum, 227
Eh&a, 99
Ehetu, 183
Eijan, 542
Eikmwe, 258
Einmwe, 258
Eistir, 318

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

639

Ekdania, 83
Ekki, 72
Ela midella, 51
Ela nuga, 183
Ela palol, 496
Elaka, 183
Elavangam, 129
Elengi, 324
Elentha, 584
Eleutharay, 125
Ehla-pala, 16
Ehlaip-palai, 16
Elian grypho, 444
Ellandi, 584
Ellupi, 52
Eloun, 227
Elumpurukki, 270
Elupa, 52
Emajagua, 277
Emajagua exceisa, 277
Emajaguilla, 542
Embarella, 490
Embuia, 96
Embul-bakmi, 25
Embyu branco, 259
Empadu, 170
Enebro, no
Enebro cnollo, no
Eng, 25, 151, 170, 206
Ennci, 152
Envira, 259
Eperu, 175
Epi de ble\ 6
Enm-panna, 99
Enmpana, 99
Ermgolam, 129
Erra chandanum, 454
Erra maddi, 535, 539
Eru, 467
Eruvadi, 458
Eruvalu, 577
Espadeira, 175
Espancllo, 211
Esparva, 176
Espave, 176
Espave mahogany, 176
Espavel, 176
Espc, 41

Espmheiro branco, 189
Espino madroflo, 148
Espmollo, 1 8
Essenhout, 34
Esson, 347
Estoraque, 566
Esiii, 347
Et-demata, 192
Etheraliya, 256
Etteriya, 473
Etu, 347
Etuna, 215

Faras, 88

Farbende maulbeer, 189

Farber-maclura, 189

Farber-maulbeer, 189

Farn, 196

Fasteque, 189

Faux bois de rose, 542

Faux gayac, 141

Fernambucco, 82

Fernambukholz, 82

Ferr6ol, 567

Fevrier tonka, 141

Fiselholz, 189

Fisetholz, 189

Fiu, 309

Flor amanllo, 392

Flor de venadillo, 278

Folha de holo, 22

Fou, 347

Franzosenholz, 267

Fref, 542

Fresno amargo, 449

Fresno de America, 189

Frijollollo, 509

Fructa de pomba, 130

Fructa de tucano, 130

Fruta de pomba, 395

Fu. 347
Fucadie, 187
Fukadi, 187
Fusteque, 189
Fustete, 189
Fustik, 189
Fustikholz, 189
Fustteholz, 189

Gab, 161
Gaboon, 292
Gabur-bakar, 3
Gachodd, 251
Gai'ac, 141
Gai'acholz, 141
Gaik, 443
Gamti, 71
Gal-karanda, 96
Gal-mendora, 143
Gal-siyambala, 150
Galba, 467
Galla, 479
Galopa, 467
Galpa, 467

Gamalleira preta, 488
Gambari, 192
Gamberi, 192
Gaminea, 192
Gammala, 442
Gandada, 466
Gandha, 466
Ganga, 73
Gangarava, 542

640

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Gangareni, 542

Gangaw, 322

Ganjal, 98

Gantha, 479

Ganti malle, 125

Gar bijaur, 270

Gara hesel, 24

Gara patana, 535

Gara saikre, 258

Gara tiril, 161

Garabu, 198

Garapa amarella, 194

Garaiina. 314

Garbains, 465

Garga, 191

Garja, 383

Garoli, 270

Garreto, 451

Garso, 12, 251

Garuga, 191

Gas-kala, 88

Gas-kela, 88

Gateado, 278, 488

Gaterh, 479

Gatia, 488

Gatillo, 45

Gaul, 98

Gauli, 83

Gausal, 324

Gausam, 208

Gavuldu, 98

Gaya, 83

Gayac, 141

Gayac de cayenne, 141

Gayac jaune vert, 267

Gayac male, 141

Geelhart, 194

Geelhout, 189

Geio, 83

Gelbholz, 189

Gendeh poma, 191

Gengri, 146

Genipa, 234

Genipapa, 234

Genipapeiro, 234

Genipapo, 234

Genipapo do matto, 234

Genipat, 234

Genipayer, 234

Genipo, 234

Genizero, 544

Genthi, 71

Ger, 479

Geru mavu, 20

Gespikkeld letterhout, 488

Geti, 71

Ghansing, 497

Ghant, 479

Ghanta parali, 479

Ghanto, 479

Ghari am, 309

| Gharri, 191, 383
Ghato, 479
Ghdtonli, 54
Ghattar, 479
Gheru, 479
Ghogar, 191
Ghor dhok, 24
Ghunja, 191
Gia, 191
Gibatao, 9
Gibitan, 9
Ginnera, n
Gmyan, 383
Girchi, 219
Giringa, 443
Girya, 473
Gmet, 420
Gob, 383
Gobh, 3

Gobra nairul, 66
Gobria, 164
Goda, 557
Goda-kinlla, 169
Godambe, 20
Godhunchi, n
Goechassi, 478
Gogra, 478
Goguldhup, 95
Goin, 5, 13
Gojal, 383
Goje, 83
Gok, 119
Goki, 479
Gokiru, 251
Gol, 383
Gol-shingra, 101
Goldia, 24
Goh karam, 495
Golia dhau, 24
Golia dhok, 24
Golra, 24

Gom anime boom, 534
Goma Colorado, 566
Gomari, 192

Gommier de montagne, 87
Gomorrow, 141
Goncalo alves, 582
Goncalo alves raj ado branco or preto,

582

Gonda palasu, 463
Gondhona, 403
Gondhori, 128
Gondri, 128
Gondserai, 128
Gonduru, 332
Gonthite, 101
Gooyum, 415
Goragmtidi, 180
Goha, 24
Goria nim, 107
Goupi, 132

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

641

Goure karam, 495
Govarnellu, 66
Graine a dartre, 29
Grammam kwassie, 449
Gran panacoco, 567
Granadillo, 130, 131, 149, 450
Grand mahot, 277
Grao de porco, 549
Grapiapuna, 194
Grapiapunha, 190, 194
Grapiapunha branca, 194
Graiina parda, 314
Grauna preta, 314
Grawa, 107
Grignon, 567
Grignon franc, 567
Grignon rouge, 567
Groenhart, 392
Groenhartboom, 194
Groenhati, 392
Groot locus, 141
Gross zapotte, 308
Grunherzbaum, 194
Grunholz, 194
Guacima, 54
Guacima boba, 54
Guacima Colorado, 54
Guacima macho, 54
Guacimillo, 54
Gual-maro, 488
Guaiacan, 267
Guaiacholz, 267
Guaiaco, 267
Guaiaco nero, 267
Guaiacum-wood, 267
Guajacan, 267
Guajak, 267
Guajakholz, 267
Guanabamllo, 544
Guanacaste, 544
Guango, 451
Guano, 45
Guao, 125
Guapanba, 310
Guapinol, 534
Guarabii batata, 582
Guarabu branco, 444
Guarabii encirado, 582
Guarabu preto, 444
Guarabu rajado, 444, 582
Guarabu roxo, 444
Guarabu vermelho, 444
Guarabussu, 444
Guatambii, 431
Guatambii amarello, 431
Guatecare, 198
Guatacaro, 198
Guayabo, 338
Guayabo alazano, 148
Guayac de Caracas, 555
Guayacan, 267, 392, 555

Guayacan bianco, 267
Guayacan negro, 267
Guayacan polvillo, 392
Guayacan preto, 267
Guazuma, 54
Guazuma plum, 54
Guga, 152
Giigal, 464
Gugera, 47$
Guggar, 73
Guggilapu, 464
Gugle, 554
Gugu, 9
Gugulu, 73
Giii, 495
Gumdo, 456
Guira, 198

Guira cimarrona, 198
Guiro, 198
Giila, 420
Giilar, 184
Gulla, 142
Gulrai, 142
Gulum, 275
Gum anime tree, 534
Gumadi, 192
Gumai, 192
Gumar, 98
Giimar, 192
Giimar-tek, 192
Gumbar, 192
Gumhar, 192
Gummar, 98
Gumpina, 383
Gumpini, 383
Gumpna, 383
Gumpn, 383
Gumudu, 192
Gun, 9
Gundroi, 128
Gung, 133
Gunhi, ii
Giinjan, 83
Gunserai, 128
Gunsi, 436
Guntera, 479
Guorgi, 83
Gupanba, 392
Gupni, 191
Gura manja, 12
Gurapu-badam, 495
Gurar, 12
Gurbari, 12
Guri, 495
Gurial, 53
Gurja, 191
Gurjun, 25. 151, 206
Gurkur, 12
Gurmala, 99
Gusvakendhu, 161
Gutti, 437

642 THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Gwa, 270 Heb halasu, 31

Gwana, 5 Heb-halsu, 31

Gwayral, 54 Hebalsu, 31

Gwe, 490 Habbalsina, 31

Gwoddan, 490 Hedde, 209

Gyo, 208 Heddi, 209

Gyoban, 437 Hedu, 209, 495

Heeran, 463
Heist£re rouge, 567
Hela, 536
Helamba, 495
Heltega, 25
Hemih adugu, 557
Hendol, 50
Henduri poma, 107
Henschrenkenbaum, 534
Herka, 85
Herrda, 539
Hesar, 185
Hesel, 24
Hessam, 31
Hessare, 463
Hesswa, 31
Hewar, 5
Hid, 442
Higuero, 198
Hijal, 50
Hijuli, 20
Hijuh mendi, 180
Hik, 383
Hilda, 538
Hihkha, 538
Hinan, 436
Hmcha huevos, 125
Hmgon 101, 373
Hinjara, 50
Hinjolo, 50
Hippe, 52
Hir, 539
Hirda, 538
Hirih, 251
Hirojah, 99
Hitun, 442
Hlosunli, 65
Hlyamban, 99
Hmanthein, 129
Hnaw, 209
Hneingpyomg, 383
Hoaxacan, 267
Hoboballi, 221
Hodung, 439
Hoeboeballi, 221
Hoepelhout, 444
Hoima, 557
Hola naki, 557
Holay, 484
Holda, 264
Holematti, 535, 539
Holle-tupra, 162
Hollock, 539
Hollong, 152

Haaz, 309
Hackia, 392
Hadang, 175
Hadra, 538
Hadri, 264
Hagua, 234
Haiga, 222
Haira, 538
Hak^ humu, 463
Hal, 553, 554
Halabalagi, 191
Halban, 557
Halda, 473
Halloray, 383
Halmilla, 545
Halmilhla, 545
Halra, 538
Halsina, 31
Halsu, 31
Hamara, 490
Hamra, 442
Han, 9
Hane, 9

Hanjal, 535, 539
Hanpalandra, 541
Hantige, 8
Hanudun, 9
Haoul, 65
Hapu, 118

Har, 538
Hardu, 209

Han, 99

Hanbawal, 5

Harm harra, 19

Harm khana, 19

Haritaki, 538

Harla, 538

Harpulli, 213

Harra, 538

Harrani, 146

Harrara, 538

Harren, 251

Harro, 539

Harwar, 5

Hasa dhamin, 196

Hasi, 27

Hat, 219

Hattipaila, 443

Hdur, 65

Havulige, 8

Hay a blanca, 259

Hay a prieta, 259

Heb-b6vu, 318, 320

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

643

Holonda, 209
Homba, 463
Homiry, 87
Hona, 89
Honal, 540
Honangi, 209
Hond, 442
Hongal, 540
Hongaya, 245
Honge, 52
Honne", 442, 454
Hoobooballi, 221
Hooday, 496, 497
Hoom, 437, 463
Hoongia, 541
Hoonhea, 87
Hoorihee, 87
Hora, 25
Hora, 153
Horada, 538
Hormigo, 450
Hote baghi, 13
Houbooballi, 221
Houmiri, 87
Houmin boumier, 87
Howadanm, 259
Hualle, 456
Hubaballi, 221
Hububalli, 221
Hucuya, 567
Hudigolla, 484
Huesillo, 62
Huesito, 62
Hulluch, 536
Huluvd, 540
Hulve\ 540
Humba, 463
Hunab, 540
Huragalu, 473
Hurihi, 87
Hurkli, 432
Huruk, 108
Hurunay, 137
Hurvashi, 542
Hymankushi, 60, 314

Iban, 469
Ibera-pere, 194
Ibera-piapufta, 194
Ibiri pitanga, 82
Ichii-gashi, 371, 373
Idatimon, 198
Ijal, 50
Ijar, 51, 98
Ije, 440
Ijzerhout, 392
Ilanji, 584
Ilantai, 584
Ilapongu, 222
Ilavu, 72
Iliya, 256

Illavam, 72
Illupathla, 554
Illupei, 52, 391
Imbuia, 96
Imli, 403
In, 170
Incienso, 384
Indrajau, 219
Inga-hu, 54
Inga-negro, 54
Ingar, 50
Ingartu, 100
Ingerto, 309
Ingli, 51
Injar, 50
Ipadu, 130
Ip^, 392

Ipe amarello, 392
Ipe cascudo, 392
Ip6 da varzea, 392
Ipe de Campo, 392
Ipe folhas roxas, 392
Ipe jabotia, 392
Ipe peroba, 401
Ipe preto, 392
Ipe roxo, 392
Ipe tobaco, 392
Ipe una, 392

Ipil 325
Ippa, 52

Ippi» 52

Iramberatthan, 96
Irapu, 143
Irayol, 234
Irhu, 52
Indi, 458
Iriya, 335
Irkuli. 165
Iroko, 227
Irpi, 52
Irrip, 52
Irubogam, 222
Irul, 448, 577
Iruli, 275
Irum, 66
Irummala, 577
Iriip, 52
Ishtaten, 68
Isiquaqu, 56
I statin, 68
Itauba, 194
Iti, 458
Itola 99
Itti, 149
Izmgana, 582

Jacaranda, 457
Jacaranda cabiuna, 457
Jacaranda holz, 457
Jacua on pirutinga, 234
Jadhirdah, 440

644

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Jadi, 183
Jddi, 511
Jagarua, 99
Jaggarwah, 99
Jaggra, 99
Jagrikat, 274
Jagua, 234
Jagua azul, 234
Jagua blanca, 234
Jagya dumar, 185
Jai-mangal, 497
Jaimiqui, 314
Jairum, 385
Jak, 31
Jala, 484
Jalaranda, 484
Jalari, 484
Jali. 3

Jalmala, 465
Jalpai, 165
Jam, 181, 478
Jamaikaholz, 189
Jaman, 181
Jamba, 448, 577
Jambe, 577
Jambo, 181
Jambu, 181, 442, 577
Jambul, 181
Jambun, 181
Jamera, 385
Jamla, 535, 539
Jamni, 181
Jamo, 181 *
Jamrasi, 165
Jamu, 181
Jamuna, 186
Jana, 196
Jangkang, 322
Jangli, 439
Jangli-badam, 495
Jampha, 234
Janmera, 385
Jan6m, 584
Janthalla, 16
Jantia, 479
Janumjan, 584
Janwa, 165
Jarana, 235
Jargi, 463
Jari, 185
Jarillo, 176
Jarjo, 479
Jaru, 467
Jaru mamidi, 85
Jariil, 258
Jarul-jhalna, 155
Jatahy, 149, i*94> 534
Jatahy peba, 534
Jatahy roxo, 534
Jataiba, 534
Jatay, 534

Jati-koroi, n

Jatoba, 149, 534

Jatoba, 534

JatobA roxa, 534

Jegachu, 309

Jejuira, 582

Jengi kanda, 534

Jequitiba, 240

Jequitiba amarella, 240

JequitibA, branca, 240

Jequitiba cedro, 240

Jequitibd rosa, 240

Jequitiba vermema, 240

Jerjerecou, 259

Jermalu, 541

Jetahy preta, 149

Jetay, 534

Jhan, 479

Jhand, 442

Jhau, 264

Jhera, 536

Jhind. 5

Jhmga, 54

Jhingan, 383

Jhinja, 54

Jhinjhora, 53

Jib^ de costa, 130

Jibang, 584

Jicara, 199

Jicaro, 199

Jidi, 20, 479

Jigna, 383

Jigue, 461

Jigue bianco, 461

Jija, 54

Jiluga, 99

Jimekoi, 557

Jmga, 54

Jir, 383

Jiri, 479

Jirugu, 99

Jitahy, 194

Jitangi, 458

Jitegi, 458

Jitiyegishi, 458

Jiyal, 383

Joki, 66

Jom, 584

J6r, 96

Jubatan, 9

Jicaro, 86

Jucaro de playa, 86

Jucumico, 487

Jugguru, 1 86

Julchihout, 534

Jum, 191

Junipa, 234

Junipapo, 234

Jur, 97

Jutahy, 184^ 534

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

645

Jutahy assu, 534
Jutahy cafe, 534
Jutahy catinga, 534
Jutahy de campo, 534
Jutahy miry, 234
Jutahy peba, 149, 534
Jutahy pororoca, 534
Jutahy roxo, 534
Juti, 473
Juti mersolo, 473
Jutili, 1 6

Ka, 558
Kabakally, 22
Kabal, 13
Kabala, 385
Kabashi, 7, 8
Kabit, 183
Kabodda, 140
Kaboekalli, 132
Kabooay, 98
Kabotang, 558
Kabshmg, 558
Kabukalh, 132
Kachal, 493
Kacham, 169
Kachan, 493
Kacheeng, 371
Kachein, 318
Kachnal, 53
Kachri, 218
Kada, 577
Kada burichi, 259
Kadakai, 539
Kadali, 256
Kadam, 25
Kadamanakku, 556
Kadamb, 495
Kadambe, 25
Kadambo, 25
Kadamic, 50
Kadani, 495
Kadat, 139
Kad-b£vu, 318
Kaddam, 24, 495
Kaddupuli, 150
Kaderi, 4
Kadet, 139
Kadgandha, 155
Kadiala, 495
Kadsige, n
Kadukar, 539
Kadukka, 539
Kadu-nochchi, 557
Kadurpala, 83
Kadwar, 495
Kaen, 66
Kagli, 4
Kahatta, 98
Kahikatea, 421

Kahu, 384, 535
Kahua, 535
Kahiid, 191
Kaiger, 4
Kaikar, 191
Kaikra, 191, 383
Kail, 407, 493
Kaimu, 53
Kaing-go, 322
Kainjal, 66
Kainjli, 8
Kair, 407
Kairu, 407
Kait, 183
Kaita-da, 30
Kaj, 83
Kaji, 83
Kajo, 539
Kajranta, 324
Ka]U, 20
Kaka, 83, 432
Kakad, 191
Kakammal, 184
Kakar, 432
Kakeralli, 470
Kakhi, 256
Kaki, 99, 159
Kakkar, 432
Kakke, 99
Kakra, 83
Kakrangche, 432
Kakna, 88, 258
Kakring, 432
Kakroi, 432
Kaku, 72

Kal baghi, 13, 251
Kal kilmgi, 108
Kala chuglam, 539
Kala goru, 496
Kala mukha, 165
Kala palas, 467
Kala sahaju, 264
Kala sins, n, 13
Kala tendu, 161
Kalabose, 198
Kaladn, 169
Kalagan, 496
Kalam, 495
Kalarukh, 458
Kalasan, 383
Kalatti, 183
Kalavada, 216
Kalbow, 222
Kalei, n
Kalgante, 479
Kalhain, 420
Kali harreri, 1 1
Kali maruthai, 264
Kali ring, 372
Kaliar, 53
Kahkikar, 3

646

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Kall-udi, 496
Kallain, 142
Kallam, 495
Kalpayin, 152
Kalrai, i
Kalrei, i
Kalsis, 12, 251
Kalthuringi, n
Kalu-kadum beriya, 313
Kalub puteh, 25
Kalumediriya, 135
Kamada, 209
Kamanji, 83
Kamassi wood, 76
Kamaung, 258
Kamaung-yegyi, 155
Kamba, 72, 227, 495
Kambagam, 222
Kambala, 227
Kambar, 99, 192
Kambhar, 192
Kambli, 495
Kamini, 473
Kamkui, 83
Kamlai, 383
Kamma regu, 32
Kampu gumadu, 440
Kamra, 210
Kamsaw, 52
Kana-gona, 33
Kanakchampa, 443
Kanalla, 54
Kanapa, 50
Kanapu, 209
Kanbala, 489
Kanchanamu, 118
Kanchi, 83
ICandar, 9, 463
Kandaru, 8
Kandi, 442
Kandiawa, 54
Kandior, 496
Kandla, 54
Kandre, 493
Kandru, 169
Kanemis, 165
Kangar, 432
Kangei, 495
Kangji, 184
Kangkur, 191
Kanhil, 258
Kanidr, 99
Kanj, 83 .
Kanjara, 8
Kanjla, 8
Kanju, 169
Kankra, 83, 88
Kankrei, 88
Kanlao, 54
Kanman, 191
Kanna kompu, 10

Kanom, 536
Kanor, 9
Kanta, 83
Kanta-kumla, 484
Kantabohul, 484
Kanthal, 31
Kanthar, 31
Kami, 495
Kanujerla, 13
Kanun palle, 325
Kanvel, 271
Kanyin, 151, 206
Kanym-byu, 151
Kanyin-ni, 206
Kanyin wettaung, 206
Kanyinni, 206
Kanyoung, 206
Kanyu, 61
Kanzaw, 52
Kanzle, 8
Kao, 384

Kapeweri letri, 488
Kapor, 92
Kapor-paya, 93
Kapor ulu, 25
Kapur barus, 92
Kar ayani, 140
Kar khair, 4
Kar vaghe, n
Kara kong, 44
Karaba, 138
Karachi, 210
Karaka, 539
Karalli, 97
Karallu, 12
Karam, 24, 209
Karam, 209
Karamb, 495
Kararnbru, n
Karangal, 99
Karangalli, 4
Karani, 140
Karanjel. 169
Karanji, 12, 169
Karanzai, 99
Karapa, 138
Karaseri, 259
Kara\ve, 128
Kara^vu, 403
Karchi, 218
Karedha, 538
Kari, 218, 270, 324
Kari gheru, 479
Kari nciatti, 264
Kari mutal, 467
Karika, 83
Karikaput, 324
Karimanni, 558
Karindi, 479
Karingi, 219
Karinji, 169

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

647

Karfr, 5
Karjara, 83
Karka, 83, 539
Karkacha, 99
Karkar, 432
Karka va, 165
Karkaya, 264
Karkoo, 346
Karmi, 495
Karo, 12
Karolu, 12
Karra, 12, 218
Karra marda, 264
Karre vembu, 191
Karri, 463
Karri j all, 3
Karril, 557
Kami, 219
Karruwa, 129
Karsh, 372
Karu maruthii, 264
Karu vage, n
Karu vagei, 12
Karubang, 25
Karubang tudan, 25
Karuka, 272
Karunthagara, 12
Karur, 191
Karu vah, 165
Karuvelam, 3
Karwan, 139
Kasamar, 192
Kashi, 83, 373
Kashioron, 101
Kashit, 298
Kashitka, 108
Kashi wa, 373
Kashmala, 383
Kasir, 13
Kasira, 479
Kassamar, 192
Kassau, 320
Kassei, 83
Kassi, 83
Kassod, 1 01
Kassumar, 208
Kasul, 196
Kat ambolam, 490
Kat b&, 183 '
Kat dhaura, 258
Kat ilhpi, 52
Kat illupei, 52, 391
Kat maa, 85, 490
Kat turanji, 13
Kat vage, 251
Kat vaghe, 251
Katakamma, 270
Katakuchi, 83
Katamba, 490
Katangai, 108
Katbhilawa, 85

Katganja, 83
Kath-bel, 183
Kath bhiij, 65
Kathal, 31, 185
Kathgiilar, 184
Kathitka, 298
Kathula, 270
Kati ain, 83
Katmara, 270
Katmau, 54
Katmouli, 54
Katol, 31
Katongzu, 155
Katpali, 325
Katseori, 72
Kattu elupay, 536
Katu andara, 5
Katu-boda, 140
Katu-imbul, 72
Katu puveras, 185
Katula, 191
Katus, 101
Kau, 181, 384
Kauchia, 169
Kauh, 493
Kaunghmu, 397
Kaura, 218
Kaurchi, 146
Kaval, 98
Kavani, 99
Kavarachu, 542
Kavit, 183
Kavsi, 222
Kawala, 275
Kawanari, 534
Kawat, 183, 270
Kaya, 180, 320, 324
Kayu garu, 27
Kayu puti, 316
Kehel mohru, 196
Kei pala, 391
Keim, 495
Kern, 66
Keiri, 270
Kekda, 191, 490
Kekeda, 383
Kekkeda, 191
Kekra, 191
K6kuna, 95
K6kur, 191
Keli-kadam, 209
Kempu gandagheri, 108
Kempu geru, 20
Kend, 162
Kendhu, 162
Kendu, 161, 162
Keowra, 489
Kepong, 482
Kerumg, 152
Kesara, 322
Keta kala, 83

648

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Ketapang-ketek, 84
Khaina, 184
Khair, 4
Khaja, 83
Khakra, 88
Khammara, 192
Khansing, 8
Khar, 442
Kharaka, 83
Khardhawa, 24
Kharot, 558
Kharpat, 191
Kharrei, 324
Kharsing, 497
Khatsawar, 72
Khau, 384
Khejra, 442
Kherwa, 219
Khesla, 196
Kheu, 317
Kheunia, 184
Khinam, 118
Khir, 325
Khiri, 324
Khirni, 325
Khishing, 118
Khoira, 4
Khoiru, 4
Khol, 558
Khor 558
Khulen, 169
Khumbi, 98
Khutma, 184
Khutrau, 493
Khwan, 384
Kiabooca, 18
Kiahong, 317
Kiam, 218
Kiamil, 383
Kiar, 99
Kiarpa, 97
Kikar, 3, 5
Kilai, 12
Kilaunta, i
Kill, 12
Kilingi, 8
Kilmira, 191
Kilonj, 372
Kilu, 493
Kimbu, 330
Kimul, 383
Kina, 90, 384
Kina-kma, 384
Kina morado, 384
Kindal, 540
Kinghena, 440
Kmhai, 12
Kini, 12
Kinjal, 540
Kinjal, 99
Kinjolo, 50

Kinni, 12

Kinthat-putgyi, 125
Kirakuli, 324, 325
Kirdla, 99
Kiralboghi, 222
Kirballi, 437
Kirihembiliya, 391
Kirihiriya, 391
Kirikon, 566
Kirmalia, 99
Kirna, 463
Kirra, 219
Kirri b£vu, 320
Kfrsel, 496
Kishing, 9
Kitchh, 385
Kitola, 99
Kitoli, 99
Kittah, 385
Kitul, 99
Kitwali, 99
Klesla, 196
Ko, 384
Kobbari, 440
Kochan, 155
Kodaga, 219
Kodagapalei, 219
Kodale, 16
Kodapala, 16
Kodapana, 505
Kodari, 83
Kodo, 181
Kodum, 25
Koe, 1 6
Koelero, 488
Koemane, 141
Koepi, 132
Koereroe, 488
Kogar, 218
Koha, 535, 539
Koham, 208
Kohan, 208
Kohi, 1 6
Kohomba, 320
Kohu, 384
Kohumba, 320
Koir, 4
Koito, 183
Kokan, 155
Kokha, 479
Kokko, 251
K61, 558
Kola mava, 20
Kolain, 420
Kolan, 420
Kola sampige, 118
Kolava, 210
Kolero, 488
Kolinu, 96
Kolla, 210
Kolla mavu, 275

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

649

Kolon, 206, 420
Komba, 209
Komba, 495
Kom-kra, 309
Komur, 208
Kon, 208
Kon-kadet, 139
Konara, 373
Konay, 99
Konda, 96
Konda chiragu, 13
Konda tangedu, 577
Konda vavili, 557
Kondapatti, 256
Kondo vaghe, 12
Kondricam, 554
Kone, 99
Kong, 44
Kongki, 442, 479
Kongora, 577
Kongu, 222
Konhaiah, 61
Konkudu, 468
Konnai, 256
Konnei, 99
Konso, 225
Kontaboro, 484
Kooel pialli, 221
Koon, 208
Kooroobooelli, 444
Koorooboovelh, 444
Kopasia, 256
Kopie, 132
Kor, 218
Kor-jam, 181
Kora, 218
Kora kaha, 320
Kora serum, 13
Koramadi, 83
Koramau, 83
Korkona, 219
Kor6b, 469
Koroborelli, 444
Koroh, 464
Koroi, n, 12
Korsa, 66
Koruburelh, 444
Kos, 72
Kosengi, 208
Kosgona, 185
Kosi, 83
Kosomara, 191
Kosromba, 191
Kosum, 208
Kosundra, 53
Kot-semla, 66
Kotokoi, 440
Kottamba, 538
Kottu vaga, 12
Koumi, 292
Kowa, 535, 539

Kowal 1 6
Kowha, 535, 539
Krapaboom, 138
Krappa, 138
Krassa, 468
Krewing, 25
Krinjal. 99
Krok, i
Krome, 275
Krot, 558
Kruambal, 184
Kruen, 25
Kruin, 25
Kuar, 218
Kuayral, 54
Kuba, 98
Kuberakashi, 496
Kubmd(§, 256
Kud, 181
Kud champa. 118
Kuda, 181
Kudak, 191
Kudijamu, 181
Kudrom, i
Kudu-dawula, 271
Kujitekra, 97
Kujya, 108
Kuk, 5

Kukiir chita, 270
Kukurkat, 225
Kul, 584
Kiila, 208
Kulgaya, 83
Kuli, 192
Kulla-kith, 185
Kulm, 495
Kum, 98
Kumala, 192
Kumar, 192
Kumara, 141, 192
Kumba, 169
Kumbe, 98
Kumbh, 98
Kumbi, 98
Kumbi, 98
Kumbia, 98
Kumbil, 192
Kumbuk, 535, 539
Kumbul, 484
Kumbulu, 192
Kumia, 51
Kumla, 139
Kumla nebu, 385
Kumpoli, 484
Kumra, 495
Kumri, 98
Kiinch, 16
Kundalanga, 98
Kundi, 442
Kundrikam, 73
Kungli, 73

650

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Kunis, 1 6
Kiinj, 169
Kunjanali, 169
Kunsiing, 196
Kunti, 473
Kuntz, 1 6
Kiara, 218
Kurakat, 219
Kurakhatto, 219
Kural, 218
Rural, 54
Kurambo, 25
Kuran, 254
Kurangadi, 8
Kuranjan, 8
Kurchi, 219
Kurdu, 219
Kuria, 219
Kuring kura, 496
Kurma, 275
Kurmi, 209
Kur6k, 309
Kuromatsu, 418
Kurpa, 320
Kurpa, 50
Kurra, 219
Kurse, 192
Kuruk, 191
Kuruk, 1 08
Kurumba, 209
Kurundu, 129
Kusan, 225
Kusharta, 162
Kiisi, 161
Kusumb, 208
Kusumo, 208
Kutebi, 495
Kuthan, 225
Kutij 219
Kuve, 90
Kuviy, 408
Kwanari, 534
Kwassiehout, 449
Kyana, 98
Kyat, 98
Kyat-hnan, 98
Ky6, 51
Ky^ni, 51
Kyettawara, 259
Kyetyo, 557
Kyetyo-po, 186
Kylanki, 489
ICyon, 162
Kyunt 511
Kyungauknivd, 557
Kywetho, 66

Laba, 54
Lab£f 489
L'abeille, 60, 314

Laeli, 13

Lahasune, 273

Lahokiing, 88

Laider, 443

Laila, 465

Laku-chamma, 33

Lakiich, 32

Lai Bomb way, 453

Lai champ, 277

Lai chandan, 454

Lai chuni, 90

Ldl devadari, 125

Lali, 274

Lalla, 403

Lallei, n

Lalsingh, 129

Lalungkab, 25

Lamkana, 83, 225

Lampatia, 155

Lamshing, 407

Lana, 45, 234

Lanang, 556

Lanero, 45

Lanillo, 45

Lano, 45

Lanzenholz, 259

Laokri, 12

Lapachillo, 392

Lapacho, 392

Lapacho amarillo, 392

Lapacho bianco, 392

Lapacho crespo, 392

Lapacho negro, 392

Lapacho rosa, 392

Lapaing, 72

Lapong, 536

Larangeira do matto, 260

Lasrin, n

Lationj, 1 6

Laukya, 478

Lavanga, 129

Lavunga, 129

Lawa, 185

Layang, 65

Leauri, 142

Leban, 557

Leddil, 275

Legno amaranto, 444

Legno azzurro, 271

Legno benedetto, 267

Legno carne di cavallo, 567

Legno del Brasile, 82

Legno di campeggio, 271

Legno di guaicao, 267

Legno di jacaranda, 457

Legno di noce satinato, 566

Legno di Santa Maria, 82

Legno ferro, 567

Legno giallo, 189

Legno granadillo, 131

Legno locusta, 534

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

651

Legno nero, 271

Legno porpora, 444

Legno rosso, 82

Legno santo, 267

Legno serpente, 488

Legno tigre, 488

Legno violetto, 444

Leina, 490

Leinmaw, 385

Lelka, 184

Lemesu, 20

Lendi, 259

Lendia, 259

Lendya, 259

Lenggapus, 322

Lengue, 456

Leori, 142

Lepchakawala, 274

Lepchaphal, 274

Leria, 259

Letkop, 495

Letpan, 72

Letri, 488

Letterholz, 488

Letterhoudt, 488

Letterhout, 488

Lettok, 1 6, 219

Lettokkyi, 219

Lettokthem, 219

Leza, 266

Lignum literatum, 488

Lignum quassia Jamaicense, 488

Lignum sanctum, 267

Lignum sanctumholz, 267

Lihos, 72

Lihung, 536

Lim, 107, 407

Lima, 8 1

Limao, 189

Limb, 320

Limbarra, 318

Limbo, 320

Limoncillo, 81

Limoncillo de cord6ba, 468

Limshing, 407

Lmzin, 155

Liyan, 220

Liyangu, 220

Locus, 534

Locusboom, 534

Locustrier, 534

Lohar, 383

Lohudru, 181

Lokisi kaka, 534

Lokus, 534

Lokustbaum, 534

Lolagu, 443

Lonbo, 85

Lorito, 509

Loro, 509

Loro negro, 466

Lota amari, 19
Louro, 135
Louro cheirozo, 135
Louro rosa, 567
Lowa, 185
Luban, 73
Lud, 107
Luki, 557
Lui\a-midella, 318
Luna-warana, 139
Lunia, 225
Lumi-madala, 496
Lupung, 536
Lut-ter, 30

Maa, 309

Macacauba, 450

Macacauba da terra firma, 450

Macacauba de varzea, 450

Ma9eranduba, 60, 314

Machalla, 473

Machilus, 274

Machkunda, 443

Maclura tinctorial, 189

Macuelizo, 316

Madagan vembu, 108, 125

Ma-dan, 181

Madat, 264

Madatiya, 133

Maddi, 264, 535, 539

Madera manchada, 194

Madera de pahsandro, 457

Madge, 264

Madling, 8

Madmandi, 219

Madrial, 275

Madrono, 148

Magadam, 324

Magona, 56

Magsher, 465

Maha, 309

Maha andara, 5

Maha-debara, 584

Maha limbo, 318

Maha limbu, 107

Maha nim, 107

Maha nuga, 184

Mahadan, 181

Mahagua, 277

Mahahmo, 107

Maharut, 191

Mahault de londres, 542

Manila, 324

Mahlun, 107

Mahlwa, 153

Mahoganiholz, 278

Mahok, 278

Mahoka, 539

Mahot rouge, 329

Mahow, 256

653

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Mahu, 52

Mahua, 52, 174

Mahula, 52

Mahwa, 52

Maida lakri, 270

Mai-kao, 88

Maikkye, 12

Maikying-lwai, 12

Maila, 556

Main, 125

Mainakat, 541

Mairol, 556

Mai-sak-hai, 440

Mai-sak-hpu, 440

Mai-tawn, 12

Maiz tostado, 125

Majagua, 277

Majagua azul, 277

Majagua blanca, 277

Majagua comun, 277

Majagua de Florida, 542

Majagua de la maestra, 277

Majahua de toro, 54

Makai, 484

Makalae, 536

Makanim, 318

Makarokranda, 54

Makchand, 443

Makil, 324

Makkam, 479

Makkuna, 53

Makriah chilauni, 478

Makshen, 65

Makur-kendi, 161

Makusal, 478

Mala kanjirarn, 24

Malaboda, 336

Malacacheta, 487

Malachithiyan, 66

Malai-konji, 140

Malaing, 330

Malam padavu, 336

Malampunna, 90

Maldit, 191

Malei uthi, 497

Mali, 108

Malla nfm, 318

Mallali, 496

Mallay kone, 8

Mallay nan gal, 322

Mallay vembu, 318

Mallei vepu, 125

Malligiri, 91 1 128

Maloh, 335

Maluco, 234

Malvecino, 62

Mamadi, 309

Mamee-sapote, 308

Mamey, 308

Mamey Colorado, 308

Mamey zapote, 308

Mameyuelo, 314

Mamid, 309

Mamonrinho, 260

Mampuli, 490

Mdrnri, 165

Mamushi, 60, 314

Man letterhout, 488

Manbarklak, 241

Mandania, 8

Mandji, 227

Mandugram, 209

Mandukam, 52

Mangas, 309

Mangi, 535, 539

Mangle, 309

Mangle bianco, 67

Mangle bobo, 67

Mangle Colorado, 309

Mangle dulce, 310

Mangle gateador, 310

Mangle negro, 68

Mangl6 pneto, 68

Mangle rouge, 309

Mangl6 Salado, 310

Mangle tinto, 310

Manglier, 309

Mangher do rouge, 309

Mango, 309

Mangue, vermelho, 310

Mani, 558

Mani maruthu, 258

Maniawga, 97

Manil, 558

Manil kara, 60, 314

Maniu, 436

Manja kadamba, 209

Manjadi, 133

Manjakadambe, 209

Manjati, 133

Manje konne, 101

Manletri, 488

Mannibalh, 558

Mano de leon, 316, 392

Maoo, 25

Maparajuba, 60, 314

Mara, 251

Maracaibo lignum- vitae, 555

Marachyba, 500

Maralingam, 139

Marama, 489

Maratakka, 194

Marawineroo, 444

Marbre, 534

Marchi, 473

Marchula, 473

Mardi, 99, 535, 539

Marghang, 372

Mari, 99, 184, 185

Mari-penda, 566

Maria, 467

Maria preta, 314

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

653

Marias, 467

Marisgiri, 91, 128

Mark, 83

Marka, 309

Marmalade naturelle, 308

Marmelero, 54

Maru, 264

Maru, 372

Maruba, 486

Marupd, 486

Marupa-rana, 487

Marupauba, 486

Maruthai, 264

Marvcen, 309

Marvilinga, 139

Masicaran, 392

Massaranduba, 60, 314

Massaranduba amarella, 314

Massaranduba de leite, 314

Massaranduba vermelha, 60, 314

Masua, 432

Matayen, 210

Mathagin vembu, 108

Matilisquatc, 316

Matkom, 52

Matopus, 322

Matti, 264

Matto grosso, 450

Ma-u, 25, 155, 471

Ma-u-gyi, 471

Ma-u-kadon, 471

Ma-u-lelan, 471

Ma-u-lettanshe, 471

Ma-ugaungdon, 25

Ma-ukadon, 25

Maul, 52

Maula, 53

Maulscr, 324

Maur, 372

Mavena, 309

Mavu, 309

Mawtda, 215

May, 208

Mayahnin, 8

Mayeng, 443

Mayu-de, 215

Mayila, 54, 556

Mayilella, 556

M'bara, 227

M'bundu, 227

Meda lakn, 270

Medang buaya, 255

Medang kok, 255

Medeloa, 12

Medh, 270

Medi, 185

Mekeliang, 321

Mekrap, 330

Melantai, 482

Melica, 456

JMelima, 321

Melon, 130

Mempanjor, 254

Mendora, 554

Mengarawan, 322

Mengkeluang, 321

Mentati, 402

Mepareyba, 310

Meral, 403

Meranti pa'ang, 482

Meranti Rambai daun, 482

Meranti Sarang punai 482

Meranti seraya, 481

Meranti tembaga, 482

Merawan jangkang, 322

Merbaju, 321

Mercuno do campo, 130

Menang, 20

Meshkuri, 330

Mess-guch, ii

Metis, 61

Metkur, 165

Meurapiranga, 332

Mezah, 101

Meze, 52

Mgwenyezinga, 34

Mhar, 99

Mi, 52

Mihatico amarello, 386

Mihinya, 391

Mihul, 52

Mija, 176

Mijagua, 176

Milla, 556

Milli, 403

Minbaw, 99

Miraboo laut, 326

Mirandu, 165

Mm, 165

Minah, 24

Mispel, 469

Mispelboom, 469

Mith-patta, 275

Miyan-milla, 556

Modagerri vembu, 66

Modugu, 88

Moejepauletoe, 488

Mogalmga, 479

Mogano, 278

Mogno, 278

Moha, 52

Mom, 191

Moho, 45, 52

Moholo, 52

Mohtu, 88

Mohu, 52

Mohul, 52

Mohwa, 52, 325

Moi, 383

Moira-caoba, 450

Moira pmima, 488

Moira-piranga, 332

654

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Moira-tinga, 247
Moja, 383
Moka, 479
Mokalapu, 479
Mokapa, 479
Moka-yapa, 496
Moke\ 479
Mokha, 479
Mokkak, 479
Moko, 479
Mokob, 479
Moksongayok, 473
Molien, 383
Mol-petta, 566
Molundu, 227
Momaka, 466
Monnabillu, 225
Mora, 189, 329
Mora amarillo, 189
Mora blanca, 189
Mora colorada, 189
Mora de loma, 189
Mora del pals, 189
Mora de piedra, 189
Mora kangi, 85
Mora-balli, 60, 314
Morabucquia, 329
Moradilla, 189
Morado, 73, 444
Moraholz, 329
Morakokuru, 60, 314
Moral amarillo, 189
Moral de clavo, 189
Moral liso, 189
Morala, 85
Morera, 189
Mori, 185
Morinda, i, 493
Morli, 85
Moroi, ii
Morro, 199
Mom, 372
Moruro, 509
Moruro prieto, 509
Moshungon, 256
Mota bondara, 258
Motku, 467
Motta vaga, 13
Moukoumi, 292
Moukshow, 146
Mowa, 52, 174
Mowen, 383
Mowha, 325
Moye, 383
Moyen, 383
Moydi. 185
Moyna, 383
Mroung-shisha, 191
Muamba-Camba, 227
Muchucuda, 443
Mudayat, 52

Mudhol, 1 6

M&dudad, 473

Mugali, 324

Mugunu, 541

Muhli, 318

Muirapenima, 488

Muirapinima, 488

Muirapinima preta, 395

Muirapiranga, 60, 314

Muiraquatiara, 582

Mukalai, 324

Mukampala, 16

Mukampalei, 16

Mukru, 478

Mukta may a, 468

Mulatto, 450

Mulili, 437

Mulla honne", 83

Mullangayum, 83

Mullu maruthu, 83

Mul-makil, 484

Mulsari, 324

Mulu-vengay, 83

Munamal, 324

Munda dhup, 554

Mundi, 495

Mundi-mundi, 495

Mundiri, 20

Mungapera, 85

Muniah, 24

Mura, 85

Murada, 264

Murga, 442

Muria, 85, 557

Murier k rameaux epineaux,

189

Murier des teinturies, 189
Murkalu, 85
Muro, 329
Murr, 88
Murtenga, 87
Murup, 88
Murure", 488
Munit, 88
Muruta, 258
Mus, 443
Musharagi, 232
Musiga, 569
Muskatholz, 488
Mutamba, 54
Mutarakwa, 104
Mutirai, 473
Muttala, 88
Muttia tumiki, 162
Muttuga, 88
Mutunata, 198
Mutwinda, 335
Muy, 469
Muyama, 34
Muyozapot, 469
Muzaita, 383

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

655

M'vule, 227
Mwavi, 472
Myaukchaw, 220
Myauk-laung, 33, 96
Myauklok, 33
Myaukngo, 155
Myaukseik, 169
Myet-hlwa, 256
Myin-ka, 143
Myladi, 557
Myrole, 556

Na, 322
Naba, 566
Nabe, 383
Nachal, 466
Naga, 181
Naga golunga, 473
Naga kesara, 322
Nagal, 440
Nagari, 90
Nagasampige, 322
Nagchampa, 322
Nagesar, 322
Nagesshvoro, 322
Nahor, 322
Nahua, 259
Naibela, 5, 270
Na-imbul, 213
Namdi, 181
Nairul, 181
Nairuri, 181
Nai-udi, 496
Naka, 322
Nakkani, 96
Nakka-renu, 33
Naksher, 322
Nakulsi, 437
Nal valanga, 146
Nali, 169
Nalla balasu, 96
Nalla duduga, 324
Nalla maddi, 264
Nalla sandra, 4
Nallarenga, n
Nalli, 403
Namba, 130
Nambar, 130
Nambar bastardo, 450
Nambar de agui, 130
Nambar legitimo, 130
Nnambar, 130
Nambyong, 330
Namli, 169
Namme, 24
Nana, 258
Nanakamado, 431
Nanda, 83
Nandi, 258
Nandipa, 234

Nandiroba, 138
Nandirova, 138
Nang, 322
Nangal, 322
Nangu, 322
Nannal, 66
Nantayok, 16
Naoru, 440
Nar yepi, 210
Narala, 181
Narangi, 385
Naranjillo, 81
Narel, 440
Nareyr, 181
Nan kadam, 440
Narig, 170
Narikel, 440
Narmgi, 385
Nanyal, 440
Narhngi, u
Narock-pa, 95
Narra alagi, 270
Narulgun, 74
Naseberry, 469
Nasedu, 181
Nat vadom, 538
Nauladi, 556
Naura, 440
Naval, 1 8 1
Navala, 139
Navili, 169
Navvel, 181
Nawar, 181
Nay we, 186
Nazareno, 444, 534
Neb, 320
Nebedda, 557
Neckame, 96
Nedun, 339
Nee, 118
Neem, 320
Neemeeri, 540
Neesberry, 469
Nelkar, 487
Nella-jedi, 479
Nella-madu, 264
Nella-tuma, 3
Nellekai, 403
Nelli, 259
Nelthare, 16
Nemesu, 482
Nemiburo, 479
Nemili-adagu, 556
Nepora, 99
Neradi, 165
Nerale, 181
Neralu, 165
Neredu, 181
Nerel, 181
Nerlu, 181
Netawu, 577

656

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Neva-ledi, 557
Newn, 1 6
Neykoddan, 468
Ngoomee, 100
Ngraem, n
Ngu, 99
Ngugyi, 99
Nhyu, 25
Ni, 16, 108
Nia jowa, 191
Nieri, 87
Nigunu, 541
Nikari, 101
Nil bhadi, 191
Nilika, 403
Nilli, 403
Nim, 320
Nimbar, 5
Nimbarra, 318
Nimbay, 320
Nimuri, 320
Nir kadambe, 495
Nir kadampa, 495
Nir maruthu, 258
Nir-naval, 181
Nir nochchi, 557
Nira, 66
Niranji, 466
Nirdsa, 320
Nire, 456
Nirija, 165
Niroli, 185
Nirpa, 54
Niru, 165
Nirujani, 139
Nirvala, 1 39
Nirvali, 185
Nisberry, 469
Nispero, 60, 314, 469
Nispero quitense, 469
Nisur, 165
Nithd vanji, 469
Nititunika, 162
Nivar, 51
N'koumi, 292
Nogab^, 478
Nogakat, 478
Nog^, 1 08
Noibwood^ 392
Nowli eragu, 557
N'towo, 2
Nublay, 437
Nuga, 185
Nukhtar, 407, 420
Numbong, 443
Number, 192
Numma, 24
Nuni, 330
Nurkul, 85
Nyangala, 292
Nyatoh. bukit, 61

Nyaung-bawdi, 185
Nyaung-peinn&, 185
Nyaung-thabye, 185

Nyit, 420
Nyitkuri, 548

Oa-bo, 309

Oanani, 558

O-a\v, 209

Ocobo, 316

Ocotzotl. 566

Ocozol, 566

Ocozote, 566

Ocozotl, 566

Ocuje, 467

Odi, 383

Odum, 227

Oe, 13

Ohalu, 403

Oliez, 129

Ohnara, 373

Oi, 13

Oitigica, 384

Oiti-rnirimayra, 488

Oity, 384

Oity da Praia, 384

Ojo de perdiz, 131

Ojoume, 292

Okhar, 558

Okhioungza, 19

Okhyang, 19

Okoa, 72

Okoka, 72

Okoum£, 292

Olat, 196

Olatlii, 99

Oleo vcrmelho, 384

Olivier, 385

Olivo, 487

Ome, 463

Omiry, 87

On, 440

Ondon, 270

Onra, 403

Oolmeriballi, 332

Oosulay, 1 1

Orendeuva, 30

Orjori, 577

Orme d'Amerique, 54

Orrne des Antilles, 54

Ormigo, 450

Oroko, 227

Orozuz, 68

Osereki, 403

Osirka, 403

Osokoru, 138

Osuabise, 138

Osun, 51

Othalei, 4

Oulia champ, 118

Ounla, 403
Ouregou, 259
Ourisoura, 29
Ovalli, 324
Owla, 403
Owli, 324

Pabba,.i25
Pachi manu, 24
Pachnala, 186
Padal, 496
Padar, 496
Padari, 496
Padaria, 496
Paddam, 442
Pader, 496
Padiala, 496
Padji, 92
Padrai, 318
Padn, 496
Padriun, 165
Padul, 496
Padurni, 496
Pagun, 72
Paida, 488
Pauli, 488
Pailae, 9#
Pami, 554
Paini mara, 554
Paisar, 442
Paja, 442
Pajakiru, 495
Pajia, 442
Pakkilipal, 95
Pakouh, 194
Pal, 219, 324. 325
Pala, 391
Pala, 16, 219, 325
Pala garuda, 16
Palaglar, 25
Palai, 325
Palakoea, 329
Palamkat, 97
Palan, 54
Palara, 490 *
Palas, 88
Palashu, 88
Palasi, 88

Palasm samatha, 88
Palata, 309
Palei, 484
Palen, 256
Paletuvier blanc, 68
Paletuvier rouge, 310
Pali, 391

Palisanderholz, 457
Palissandre, 445, 457
Palla, 325, 391
Palla pandu, 325
Palle panlo, 325

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

Pallissandro, 457
Palmamkam, 336
Palo amargo, 449
Palo amanllo, 189
Palo azul, 271
Palo bianco, 316, 487
Palo brasil, 82
Palo camar6n, 148
Palo machete, 175
Palo maria, 468
Palo mora, 189
Palo morado, 444
Palo moral, 189
Palo naranjo, 189
Palo rosa, 401
Palo sano, 555
Palo santo, 267
Palo zopilote, 278
Palo de balsa, 45
Palo de balsamo, 384
Palo de Campeche, 271
Palo de jaqueca, 542
Palo de lanza, 259
Palo de maria, 467
Palo de melon, 199
Palo de mora, 189
Palo de sangre, 271, 332
Palo de tinta, 271
Palol, 496
Palosa, 5
Palote negro, 54
Palu, 325
Paliidar, i
Pambapena, 216
Pamphuma, 496
Pana, 73
Pana karawu, 96
Panacoco rouge, 567
Panaka, 435
Panalai, 468
Panam, 73
Panan, 467
Panasa, 31
Panasi, 97
Panchi, 24
Panchman, 24
Panchoti, 391
Panchu, 72

Panda sahajo, 535, 539
Pandan, 496
Pandaru, 96
Pandiki, 256
Pandrai, 12
Pandri, 24, 496
Pandiir, 25
Panel, 73
Panga, 539
Pangali, 577
Pangar, 9
Pangia, 442
Pani, 30

657

2 U

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Paniala, 66, 186

Panichi, 162

Panichchai, 162

Pani-chika, 162

Pani jama, 466

Panisaj, 539

Panizali, 186

Pankar, 9

Panlag, 216

Pannan, 467

Pannian, 50

Pannie, 73

Panniha, 50

Pansi, 24

Pantaga, 90

Panthitya, 397

Pao amarello, 398, 189

Pao branco, 393

Pdo brasil, 82

Pao d'arco, 392

Pao d'arco amarello, 392

Pao d'arco roxo, 392

Pao de remo, 567

Pao ferro, 567

Pao parahyba, 487

Pao pente, 22

Pao pereira, 22

Pao pombo, 395

Pao rainha de hstras, 488

Pao rosa, 457, 549

Pao rojo, 444

Pao roxo, 444

Pao sanqumho, 271

Pdo santo, 395

Pao setim, 398, 43°

Pao tartarugo, 488

Pao vermelho, 488

Papar, 80, 169

Papara, 169

Papaya, 396

Papita, 45, 396

Paprang, 80

Papri, 80, 169

Paraguatan, 28

Parahyba, 487

Paraiba, 487

Paral, 496

Parali, 496

Parangi, 73

Parar, 496

Parari, 496

Paras, 88

Parash, 542

Parasu, 88

Parbati, 146

Pardali, 219

Pardeflesh, 60, 314

Pardenvleesh, 60, 314

Pardillo del monte, 94

Parer, 496

Pareya-auwal, 496

Pariva, 68
Paroa, 184
Paroli, 496
Par6p, 85
Parral, 496
Parsed, 210
Parsipu, 542
Pariil, 496
Parungi, 372
Parur, 496
Parutti, 72
Parwa, 68
Pasarganni, 146
Pashi, 24
Pasi, 24
Paspu, 209
Paspu kadambe, 209
Passerginm, 12
Passi, 146
Pata de pava, 125
Patagan, 277
Patala, 496
Patali, 479
Pat ha, 256
Pathin, 496, 49?
Pathor, 83
Patki, 439
Patl6 katus, 373
Patoli, 496
Pat-phanas, 31
Patrukurwan, 219
Patte de lievre, 45
Patthapanu, 336
Pattia, 13

Patuli, 496

Pauchonta, 391

Pauk, 88

Paukkyan, 153

Paul^toe, 488

Paunchinan, 24

Pau peroba, 401

PAva, 208

Pawpan, 88

P4ya, 442

Payola, 85

Pay an, 442

Payani, 554

Payomko, 541

Payong, 65

Pe, i

Pecha-da, 136

Peddachilka dudriga, 324

Pedda duchirram, 251

Peddagi, 442

Peddagomru, 192

Pedda ippa, 52

Pedda kunji, 256

Pedda- no wli-eragu, 169

Pedda patseru, 12

Peddapotri, 256

Pedda soko, 25

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

65<

Pedda sopara, 146
Peddei, 442
Peddi-mari, 184
Peddu gumu, 192
Pedega, 442
Ped&, 442
Pe de perdiz, 487
Peduman, 208
Peea, 85
Pehimbiya, 185
Peinnd, 31
Peirah, 85
Pejn, 318
Pe-karakai, 540
Pelm, 505
Pellin, 456
Penaga, 322
Penaga laut, 89
Penak bunga, 127
Penak sabut, 127
Penak tembaga, 127
Penela, 469
Pendder, 277
Pengarawan, 322
Pengarawan penak, 322
Pengji, 83
Penr£, 119, 277
Pentam6n, 144
Pentamu, 144
Penti tadi, 73
Peqiu, 430
Pequia, 430, 431
Pequici amarella, 431
Pera, 98
Peralu, 184
Peraman, 558
Peranjoli, 225
Perdrix, 567
Pereira, 22
Pereira amarella, 22
Pereira vermelha, 22
PeVi, 322
Pennji, 396
Pernambucco, 82
Peroba, 401, 431
Peroba amarella, 401
Peroba amarello, 431
Peroba branca, 401
Peroba do campo, 401
Peroba reseca, 401
Peroba verdadeira, 401
Perovaiina, 314
Persar, 99
Pershuajelah, 196
Perua, 85
Perumbe, 442
Perum piney, 554
Pese'ge mahogany, 176
Petaling gajah, 242
Peterebf, 466
Peto, 329

Petpuria, 209

Petshat, 256

Petsut, 174

Pettega, 209

Petthan, 215

Petwun, 545

Peuplier tremble, 41

Pferdefleischholz, 60, 314 567

Phaco singali, 371

Phaja, 442

Phalani, 181

Phaldu, 225, 495

Phalgataitu, 496

Phahnda, 181

Phallai, 496

Phalsa, 196

Phalwa, 196

Phamlet, 274

Phanas, 31

Phandra khair, 4

Phani, 274

Pharat-singhali, 450

Pharenda, 181

Pharsa, 88, 196

Pharsai, 196

Pharsanyi, 196

Pharsia, 196

Pharson, 196

Pharsuli, 196

Pharwason, 196

Phas, 24

Phassi, 24

Phaunda, 181

Phearan, 185

Phober, 181

Phokadie, 181

Phudgus, 1 6

Phulai, 5

Phulas, 88

Phulgogra, 478

Phulla, 88

Phullas kakria, 88

Pial, 85

Piar, 85

Piasal, 264, 442

Pichwood, 544

Pila champa, 323

Pili vagel, 13

Pilla, 31

Pillai marda, 540

Pilu, 98

Pilugu, 258

Pma blanca, 436

Pinari, 495

Pinda-hyba, 259, 404

Pinda-hyba preta, 404

Pindrai, i

Pindrau, i

Pinekai, 89

Piney maram, 554

Pinhao, 259

66o

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Pinheirinho, 436

Pinh.ei.ro do Brasil, 408

Pinheiro do Parana, 408, 429

Pinho, 408

Pinho branco, 408

Pinho vermelho, 408

Pinlekanazo, 215

Pinle-mowha, 325

Pinl&on, 98

Pinna, 52

Pinnay, 89

Pino, 408, 436

Pino bianco, 408

Pino Colorado, 408

Pino macho, 211

Pino de pacho, 436

Pino veti, 436

Pipal, 185

Pipali, 185

Prph, 86, 185

Pipri, 183, 185

Pipro, 185

Piquia, 430

Piquia etc, 430

Piratiner, 488

Piratinmere, 488

Piri, 146

Pisul, 496

Pita kolaria, 96

Pita koluchia, 96

Pita korwa, 219

Pitombeura de Marajo, 487

Pitraj, 19

Piuni, 407

Piwar, 50

Pixoi, 54

Pixoy, 54

Piyari, 165, 435

Pockholz, 267

Podo, 333

Poerprehati, 444

Poevmga, 488

Pogada, 324

Pohora, 490

Poirier, 385

Pokhout, 267

Pokoh, 13

Pol, 440

Pola, 256

Polach, n, 45

Polak, 45

Poma, 101

Pondosa, 73

Pongu, 90

Ponhon, 346

Ponnai murankai, n

Ponnyet, 89

Pon-padira, 490

Poo mar da, 540

Poon, 90

Poonam, 52

Poonang, 89
Poone, 90
Poota-tammi, 98
Porapa, 156
Porasan, 88
Porasu, 88
Poresh, 542
Poris, 542
Por6s, 31
Portia, 542
Posa, 330
Poshur, 98
Potdri, 256
Poto dhamun, 196
Potri, 256
Potumuju, 27
Potur, 225
Potu tadi, 73
Poui, 392
Pounanga, 468
Poyn, 98
Poza, 330
Prab, 185
Prima vera. 440
Prora, 275
Pu, 9, 208
Pucte, 86
Puerquito, 176
Pui, 392
Pukte, 86
Piila, 72, 256
Pulachi, 208
Pulan, 256
Pulan, 169
Puli, 256
Puli ille, 490
Pullibaghi, ii
Pullung, 216
Pumarutha, 540
Pumaruthu, 258
Pumbathri, 496
Pun, i, 66
Puna, 89
Punas, 89
Pundali, 99
Pundalu, 213
Punil, 383
Punnai, 89
Punnapay, 90
Punschi, 97
Pupaldsu, 88
Purasia, 542
Purbo, 1 6
Purbong, 139
Purgo, 60, 314
Purgur, 225
Purio, 259
Puroha, 88
Purperhart, 444
Purpuurhart, 444
Pursa, 542

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

661

Pursung, 542
Punish, 473
Pusjila, 1 6
Puska olat, 256
Piisku, 208
Pussur, 98
Putat bukit, 6 1
Puthangkolh, 437
Puvam, 208
Piivan, 208
Puvandi, 468
Puvarachu, 542
Puvarasan, 542
Puvatti, 208
Puvella, 469
Puvu, 571
Puvu, 208
Piiya udish, 65
Pwabet, 99
Pwebaung, 490
Pyal, 85
Pyaukseik, 169
Pyin, 445
Pymgado, 445
Pymma, 257, 258
Pymma-ni, 258
Pymsit, 174
Pymyaung, 184

Quachi, 449
Quamare, 141
Quapinole jutahy, 534
Quaruba, 140

Quassiaholz von Jamaica, 449
Quebracho, 392, 449, 5°9
Quebracho chequeno, 449
Quebracho Colorado, 449
Quebracho crespo, 449
Quebracho machol, 449
Quebracho moro, 449
Quebracho negro, 449
Quiarapaiba, 392
Quiebra-hacha, 450
Quina, 176, 384
Quina brava, 449
Quina do matto, 260
Quina-quina, 384
Quira, 450
Quitasol, 176

Racine, 87
Radat bera, 442
Raella, 99
Rag, i, 493
Ragat bera, 442
Ragha, i, 493
Ragi, 185
Raho, i
Rai, 185
Raiang, 493
Raiga, 185

Rail, i

Raila, 99

Ram, 325

Raisalla, i, 142, 407

Raj am, 169

Raj birij, 99

Raj briksh, 99

Raket berar, 473

Rakta-chandan, 133, 454

Ramakantha, 3

Ramani, 192

Ramshing, 372

Ranai, 16

Ran-bhendi, 256

Rangi, 185

Rangirata, 155

Ranjana, 133, 325

Ranket, 184

Ran-phanas, 31

Ransla, I

Rao, 493

Rao ragha, i

Ras bija, 169

Rassak, 170

Rasula 142

Ratangeru, 165

Rat kihin, 4

Ratu-wa, 100

Rau, 493

Rauh, 456

Raundra, 5

Raunj, 5

Ravi, 185

Rawanidala, 571

Re, i

Re, 493

Recheda, 133

Regi, 584

Rela, 99

Renga, 584

Rengas, 317

Rengha, 584

Renje, 324

Renuja, 5

Rera, 99

Reriang, 20

Reru, 5

Reunja, 5

Rewari, i, 493

Reylu, 99

Rhai, 493

Rialla, 493

Rian, 270

Riar, 493

Rimda, 221

Rmga, 5, 584

Rmgas, 317

Rm], 5

Rmja, 5

Rinjal, 464

Rinjra, 5

662

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Rita, 468

Ritha. 468

Roatanga, 208

Roble, 316, 392, 440, 450, 456

Roble bianco, 316, 450

Roble cienego, 456

Roble Colorado, 316, 450

Roble de Magellanes, 456

Roble de savana, 316

Roble de yugo, 316

Roglm, 25, 209

Rohan, 490

Rohani, 5

Rohi, 165

Rohina, 490

Rohini, 490

Rohituka, 19

Rohu, 128

Roi, 493

Rokko, 227

Rola, 538

R6m, 191

Ronchilmg, 490

Rood Els, 141

Roode balata, 60, 314

Roode letterhout, 488

Roode mora, 329

Rora-ek, 194

Rosadillo, 278

R6t, 467

Row, i

Roxinho, 444

Royta, 490

Rudraganapu, 209

Rudrakadapu, 209

Rudrak-shamba, 25

Rugendi, 83

Rukattana, 16

Rumadi, 185

Rumbal, 184

Rumgach, 174

Runa, 189

Rungbong, 99

Runjra, 5

Rusam, 208

Ruta, 467

Rute, 458

Ruthu, 467

Rutok, 467

Ruzerap, 458

Ryang, 493

Sabicu, 461, 462
Sabicuholz, 461
Sabina, no
Sabina cimarrona, 436
Sabina de costa, no
Sabino, no, 144
Sabyit, 556
Sacheng, 536
Sacka, 444

Sadachu, 197

Sadara, 264

Sadora, 264

Sadra, 264

Sadri, 264

Sadura, 535, 539

Safed, 5

Safed Bombway, 571

Safed champ, 119

Safedar, 439, 465, 487

Safed khair, 4

Safed siris, 12

Sag, 192

Saga, 118

Sagade, 208

Sagapu, 225

Sagarabatna, 180

Sagat, 371

Sagawa, 118

Sagdi, 208

Sagok, 277

Sdgun, 511

Sagwan, 511

Sagwani, 511

Sahaju, 264

Sahine 258

Sahm, 30

Sahu hmgori, 371

Saikamehhia, 24

Saikre, 259

Sain, 264

Saiphra, 125

Saitu, 72

Saj, 264

Saj, 511

Saj a, 264

Saka, 444

Saka-balli, 444

Sdkher, 463

Sdkhu, 463

Sakwa, 463

Sdl, 463, 511

Sala, 463

Sala dhup, 420

Salai, 73

Salaia guggar, 73

Sdlamo, 148

Saler, 73

Sdlga, 73

Salhe, 73

SaH, 225, 473

Salla, 73, 420, 493

Salle, i

Salo, 420

Salopa, 99

Salphullia, 73

Sal-tul, 309

Salwa, 463

Sam, 30

Saman, 451

Samatravadi, 51

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

663

Samba, 382
Samba w, 478
Sambiri, 479
Sambogum, 558
Samoka, 219
Sampaga-pala, 556
Sampenga, 118
Sampige, 118
Samprani, 210
Samsundra, 13
Samudra, 51
Samundar, 50
Samundarphul, 50
Sanalinga, 129
Sandal, 466
Sandan, 467
Sandan pipli, 467
Sandani vembu, 108
Sandari, 99
Sandawa, 134
Sandra, 4
Sandugaza, 541
Sanga, 118
Sangal, 493
Sangasanga, 227
Sangraban, 478
Sangn, 442
San Juan, 440
Sanko, 25
Sanna ippa, 52
Santa maria, 467, 542
Santagu, 466
Santara, 385
Santhana vembu, 108
Santi, 536
Sanyepang, 25
Saodi, 72
Sapacaia, 470
Sapan wood, 82
Sapater, 444
Sapatero, 81
Sapm, 420
Sapipira, 500
Sapodilla, 469
Sapote, 308, 314, 469
Sapote-assri, 309
Sapote de costa, 314
Sapotier, 469
Sapotilla, 469
Sapotillbaum, 469
Sapotille, 469
Sapotille mamey, 308
Sapotiller, 469
Sapotillier marron, 60, 314
Saprung, 51
Saptaparni, 16
Sapu, 118
Sapucaia, 470
Sapucaia grande, 470
Sapucaia mirim, 470
Sapucaia nut-tree, 470

Sapucaia-pilao, 470

Sapucaya, 470

Sapu-milla, 556

Saputi, 480

Sara, i

Saradi, 87

Sarai, 142

Sardi, 464

Saraka, 85

Sarapatri, 12

Sara wan, 432

Sarei, 464, 493

Sargi, 464

San, 87

Sarjum, 464

Sarota, 191

Sarrapia, 141

Sarrii, 142

Sarta, 99

Sasi, 27

Satiana, 16

Satm6, 332

Satine gns, 332

Satme" ruband, 332

Satme" rubanne, 332

Satinuss-baum, 566

Satiun, 16

Satm, 1 6

Satrai, i

Satsiyar, 458

Sattm, 1 6

Satwin, 16

Sau, 13

Sauer, 65

Saunder, 442

Saun, 72

Savacii, 461

Saver, 65

Savico, 461

Savimadat, 535, 539

Savin, no

Savyak, 174

Sawar, 72

Sawbya, 541

Sayar, 72

Schlangenholz 488

Sealposra, 196

Sebastiao de arruda, 549

Sebipira, 500

Sedangtagla, 256

Sedeng, 71

Sedong, n

Sehoong, 24

Sehshing, 493

Seibon botija, 45

Seikchi, 83

Seiknangyi, 275

Sein, 264

Seina, 258

Seji, 258

Sekwa, 464

664

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Selangan babir-25

Sela vanjai, n

Selcho, 13

Selupa, 165

Semadung, 548

Seminal, 61

Semla, 54

Sempangam, 118

Semru, 442

Semul, 72

Semur, 72

Sen, 38

Sena, 338

Sengel, 473

Sengeni, 557

Senjal, 258

Senkani, 557

Senta, 330

Sepam, 309

Sepeira, 194

Sepetah, 480

Sepira, 194

Ser, 467

Serang, 101

Serfs, 458

Serisso, 458

Seti champ, 119

Sewan, 192

Seya, 24

Seyapu chandanum, 454

Seyara, 54

Sey barasi, 125

Sha, 4

Shabyu, 403

Shag, 65

Shaing, 479

Shakshin, 65

Shal, 463

Shalshi, 450

Shami, 442

Shamshad, 80

Shanda laghune, 80

Shangdong, 209

Shanggan, 88

Shanjan, 467

Shargadi, 208

Shaul, 65

Shaung-pang, 385

Shauria, 165

Shayrang, 479

Shegappu agili, 8

Shej, 258

Shekram, n

Shekrani, n

Shem, 490

Shembal, 72

Shembugha, 323

Shemi, 442

Shemi marutha, 258

Shenchanthanam, 192

Shencurungi, 97

Shengali, 97
Shengkotta, 479
Shenkurani, 192
Sheori, 65
Sheriman, 24
Shermana, 467
Sherus, 557
Shewa, 487
Shewan, 192
Shibsashin, 80
Shida, 258
Shidi, 479
Shilve, 577
Shimal, 72
Shimarra, 99
Shimbat, 383
Shimbu, 118
Shimlo, 72
Shimti, 383
Shfn, 487
Shinduga, 1 1
Shingar, 143
Shmgra, 143, 373
Shingran, 270
Shira-kamba, 65
Shira-kashi, 373, 378
Shirlan, 72
Shirogaya, 245
Shirsha, 13
Shisham, 458, 487
Shit kale, 20
Shitzem, 473
Shivani, 192
Shomshing, 407
Shongral, 99
Shora, 88
Shothali, 469
Sho\vla, 571
Shri-tali, 505
Shti, 420
Shuc, 432
Shumaj, 80
Shundra pana, 99
Shurali, 210
Shuruzbed, 108
Sh^van> 384
Siahtut, 330
Sia Nahor, 245
Sianangi, 259
Sibok, 12
Sida, 258
Sidalum, 505
Sidder, 585
Sidha, 259

Sigappu kakandan, 83
Sigugnp, 119
Sigumgrip, 277
Sikkai, n
Sikru, 19
Siku keluang, 321
Silapoma, 174

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

665

Silim, 538
Sil koroi, 1 1
Sill-kurta, 150
Sfm, 99

Sima bandaru, 495
Simal, 72, 107
Simali, 473
Simarouba, 449, 486
Simarupa, 486
Simarruba, 395, 486
Simbal, 72
Simme, 227
Simong, 99
Simur, 72
Sina, 258
Sinara, 99
Sindliang, 86
Smgi, 432
Smgrauf, 270
Smgriang, 13
Singuru, 511
Singtok, 330
Singwe, 496
Smgyen, 496
Smkra, 450
Smna, 443
Sinong, 66
Smyok, 191
Sipeiro, 194
Sipipin, 500
Sipira, 194
Sipin, 194
Sipna, 511
Siqwaneschlat, 56
Sir, 85
Sirai, 251

Sira kadamba, 495
Siral, 420
Siran, n, 13
Siras, 458
Siri, 90, 165, 373
Sirikara, 24
Sirikishu, 101
Sinkone, 99
Sirin, 13, 251
Siris, n, 251
Sirisha, 251
Sirli, 420
Sirpang, 496
Sirsa, 458
Sirsi, 146
Sirsi tentura, u
Sirsiil, 251
Sish, 432
Sissa, 458
Sissai, 487
Sissu, 458, 487
Sissua, 458
Sissiii, 458
Sisu, 458
Sit, 12

Sitsal, 458
Slangenhout, 221
Snaki hoodoo, 221
Soemaroepa, 486
Sohaga, 19
Sohan, 490
Soimi, 490
Sokon^balh, 332
Sokond biberoe, 488
Sokutia, 259
Solomanin, n
Solopo, 99
Somangi, 490
Sompotn, 191
Sompotri do dop£, 191
Somr, 72
Somso, 107
Somunthm, 98
Sonalu, 99
Sondar-padal, 497
Songarbi, 557
Som, 118
Son khair, 4
Sooahn, 170
Soothan, 317
Sormghi, 464
Soruputn moi, 87
Soso, 479
Soto negro, 449
Soymide, 490
Span, i

Spruikhaanboom, 534
Spun, i

Srigandam, 466
Starga, 558
Stokvischohout, 189
Suam, 403, 490
Submch6, 450
Sucupira, 500
Sucupira amarella, 500
Sucupira-assu, 500
Sucupira-d'agua, 500
Sucupira-doce, 500
Sucupira-mirim, 500
Sucupira-preta, 500
Sucupira-roxa, 500
Sula, 420
Siih, 108

Sultana champa, 89
Sulum, 385
Sumbrong, 478
Sumi, 490
Sunari, 99
Sunaru, 99
Sundali, 99
Sundapsing, 479
Sunder, 215
Sundri, 215
Sungloch, 539
Sunglu, 72
Siingsung, 478

666

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Sungyen, 99

Suntala, 385

Supeira, 194

Suppatnyok, 270

Surah- vyu, 142

Suranji, n

Surhoni, 90

Suria, 577

Surin, 61, 142

Surin aamsch teakhout, 534

Suriya, 542

Suriya mara, 12

Surli, 322

Suvarnam, 99

Swani, 175

310
Tablote, 54
Tabo, 256
Tacangua, 45
Tache, 384
Tad, 73
Tad, 73
Tadasala, 196
Taddo, 443
Taduka, 73
Tagada, 496
Tagashing, 558
Tagat-ni, 155
Tagla, 256
Taglang, 181
Tagooyi, 98
Tagumuda, 192
Tahaka, 536
Tailadu, 139
Tailo, 10 1
Taipoca, 573
Taisoh, 66
Taitu, 496
Tajibo, 392
Taka, 536
Takam bukit, 25
Takmur, 12
Takoli, 146
Takral, 463
Taksol, 164
Taksor, 264
Tdl, 73
Tala, 505
Tala, 73
Talari, 484
Tate, 73

Tali, 73, 150, 487, 505
Talispatri, 186
Talk, 5

Tall hibiscus, 277
Tally, 392
Talura, 484
Tamadong, 99
Tamaga, 318
Tamak, 495

Tamalan, 146

Tainan, 258

Tamar, 73

Tamarindo, 149

Tamarindo del monte, 149

Tamarindo prieto, 149

Tamd, 181

Tami, 45

Tammanua, 327

Tamo, 38

Tampanai, 327

Tamruj, 165

Tan, 73

Tanaung, 5

Tanbor, 45

Tandi, 536

Tang, 420

Tangani, 577 ^

Tangaruk, 19

Tangedi, 577

Tangedu, 577

Tangshing, 548

Tangudu, 577

Tangue, 509

Tanguile, 25

Tani, 536

Tannaneo, 444

Tantia, 251

Taparo, 198

Tapasi, 169

Tap-che, 310

Tapinri, 395

Tapria-sins, n

Tar, 73

Tara, 196

Taraka vepa, 318

Taree, 538

Taro, 85

Tarsing, 61

Taruka, 320

Tarum, 85

Tascate, no

Tasha, 403

Tatajiba, 189

Tatajuba de tincta, 189

Tatan6, 18

Tatane bianco, 18

Tatare, 18

Tatatian, 125

Tatatil, 125

Tatayiba, 189

Tatayiba-pyita, 189

Tatayiba-saiyu, 189

Taukkyan 264, 535, 539

Tauksha, 557

Taungdama, 118

Taung-letpan, 72

Taungmagyi, 12

Taungmeok, 16

Taungpeinnfe, 30

Taung-petwun, 443

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

667

Taungsaga, 16
Taungtamasok, 174
Taur, 53
Tauroniro, 87
Tawposa, 330
Tawpwesa, 330
Tawtama, 108
Taw-yinma, 125
Taxate, no
Tayawni, 256
Tayaw-ywetwaing, 175
Taye, 392
Tayi, 392
Tayok-the, 66
Tayuva, 189
Tchenden, 145
Tchongtay, 185
T6, 1 60
Teadong, 420
Teakah, 136
Teclatilla, 125
Tecomate, 199
Tega, 511
Tern, 495
Teinthe, 495
Tek, 511
Teka, 511
Tekka, 511
Tekku, 511
Teku, 511
Telambu, 495
Tel-domba, 89
Telia, 171
Telia, 467
Telia chmduga, 12
Telia madu, 535, 539
Telia sopara, 12
Telia tuma, 4, 5
Telia voolemara, 139
Telsu, n
Telus, 467
Temante, 199
Tembiliya, 180
Tembusu, 20
Temesu, 20
Tempoeroew, 25

Temru, 136, 162

Tendu, 136, 162

Tendii, 162

Tenga, 440

Tengina, 440

Tengre salla, 548

Tengue, 509

Tenkaia, 440

Tenna, 440

Tenrh, 54

Te6ri khair, 4

Teprong, 31

Teralmg, 321

T^te'roma, 567

Tetlate, 125

Teto, 497
Tetruma, 567
Tetura, n
Teturl, 463
Tewar, 54
Tewas, 467
Tewsa, 467
Tezonzapote, 309
Thabut-thein, 437
Thabutkyi, 324
Thabye-byu, 181
Thadi, 87
Thadsal, 196
Thagu, 496
Thamban, 150
Thaing, 209
Thakutpo, 496
Thalay marathu, 469
Thale, 169
Thalhra, 186
Thamaga, 318
Thambagam, 222
Thanatka, 270, 473
Thandc, 496
Thandra, 536
Thanera, I
Thanka, 558
Thansa, 420
Thanthat, n
Thanthatkyi, 19
Thapan, 185
Thapsi, 169
Thara, 536
Than, 536
Tharra, 196
Thaur, 53, 54
Thayet, 309
Thayet-thitse, 191

Thekri napay, 24

Thembarai, 479

Thembavu, 264

Thenpinna, 440

Thi, 183

Thibm, 183

Thihaza, 270

Thihothayet, 20

Thinbaw, 396

Thinbaw-tamaka, 320

Thingadu, 397

Thingan, 221

Thingani sula, 548

Thingia, 548

Thinwin, 324

Thinpu, 66

Thitcha, 371, 558

Thite, 101, 371, 450

Thitegyin, 101

Thitka, 298

Thitkado, 108

Thitkate, 400

Thitkazaw, 155

668

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Thitkya, 136
Thitkyabo, 129
Thrtmagyi, 12
Thitmin, 436
Thitminpo, 436
Thitni, 19
Thitpok, 541
Thitpyu, 12
Thitsawbwa, 174
Thitsein, 536
Thitsho, 400
Tbitsi, 317
Thitsibo, 85
Thitsingan, 221
Thitswebwe, 174
Thitswele, 479
Thityah, 478
Thodagatti, 458
Thoja, 185
Thondi, 66
Thoomay, 191
Thords, 88
Thorlaganj, 133
Thothagatti, 458
Thovara, 571
Thuddu ponna, 83
Thula, 72
Thuringi, n
Tianalin w6we, 488
Tibicusi, 488
Tibikushi, 488
Tibru, 162
Tigerholz, 488
Tigulate, 199
Tihiri, 12
Tikkoe, 209
Tikta-raj, 19
Tikto-shak, 139
Tilangsa, 372
Tiliya-gurjun, 206
Til-madi, 191
Tilonj, 372
Timbin, 162
Timbo, 509
Timb6 cedro, 509
Timbouba, 509
Timburi, 162
Timburni, 136
Timmurri, 136
Timru, 162
Timsa, 467
Tinia, 251
Tinnas, 467
Tinsai, 467
Tinto, 271
Tippilipana, 99
Tirawa, 577
Tiril, 162
Tirman, 24
Tirpu, 222
Tirukontai, 99

Tita sopa, 118

Titia, 162

Tiun, 32

Tivar, 51

Tnuyucu, 144

Toandi, 536

Tochi-noki, 544

Todo matsu, 493

Todu, 1 08

Toga, 185

Tokachiyanigi, 576

Tokoro apolli rnerie, 488

Tokra, 557

Tolan, 96

Tolu, 384

Tongrong, 490

Tongschi, 407

Tonka, 141

Tonka boon, 141

Topal, 5

Toponi, 30

Toppinelli, 403

Tor-elaga, 270

Torjaga, 9

Tos, i, 493

Toska, 463

Totuma, 198

Totumo, 198

Tourameira, 87

To\va, 219

Towanero, 87

Toweroenierou, 87

Trebo, 450

Tres folhas vermelhas, 260

Triane, 87

Tsaingtsa, 496

Tsambelay, 259

Tsandan, 145

Tsapas sabani, 309

Tsaratpang, 309

Tseetkado, 108

Tseikpoban, 541

Tualang, 510

Tuatuka, 496

Tuc, 184

Tugh, ii

Tugui, 194

Tugul, 194

Tuki, 136

Tiil, 339

Tulpenholz, 549

Ttil-ul, 309

Tiima, 3

Tumbika, 162

Tumi, 136

Tumida, 136

Tumika, 162

Tumiki, 162

Tumil, 162

Tumki, 136, 162

Tumma, 5, 162

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

Tummer, 162 Unu, 196

Tumpalai, 554 Uram, 210

Tumri, 162, 496 Uravu, 275

Tun, 107 Urga, 99

Tundu, 1 08 Uriam, 66

Tung, i, 432 Urimidi, 100

Tung, bandar, i Urmu, 87

Tunglu, 72 Uruhonda, 256

Tuni, 107 Urum, 66

Tunnia, 467 Urumatti, 139

Turamira, 87 Urunday, 9

Tun, 87 Unindeuva, 30

Tut, 330 Urupariba, 392

Tutri, 330 Usan, 264

Tzapotl, 309 Usari, 403

Tzicozapotl, 469 Usiki, 139

Tzopilotl, 278 Usir, 403

Usiri, 403
Usirika, 403
Usinki, 403
Uskia, 139
Uskiamen, 100
Usn, 403
Usto, 185
Utah-panna, 99
Uthi, 383
Utis, 1 6, 65
Uttraccham, 165
Uyil, ii

669

Ubame-gashi, 373

U bat an, 9

Ubatan amarello, 9

Ubatao, 9

Ubbenya, 97

Ucar, 86

Udatalli, 320

Udd, 497

Udi, 497

Udis, 1 6

Udish, 1 6

Udu, 98

Udul, 13

Ugado, 541

Ugbeben, 346

Ughahan, 462

Ughz, 558

Ugur, 27

Uique, 309

Ul, 309

Ulang karai, 165

Uli, 309

Uhmidi, 139

Uloko, 227

Ululu, 275

Ulwe, 540

Umar, 184

Umb, 463

Umbi, 463

Umbia, 463

Umbur, 185

Ume, 51

Umguna, 43

Umiri, 87

Umiri balsamo, 87

Umiry, 87

Umiry de casca cheiro, 87

Umiry de cheiro, 87

Umnoiso, 43

Umra, 184

Umrai, 184

Undi, 89

Unt katar, 496

Vacapou, 6
Vacima, 54
Vada, 184
Vadencarni, 497
Vadi, 184
Vaghe, 251
Vaiya, 437
Vakai, 100, 101
Vakru, 174
Vahya kara, 165
Vallanga, 183
Vallay kungiham, 554
Vallayam, 97
Val munchha, 185
Vammi, 471
Varana, 139
Varanga, 97
Varangu, 152
Varfa, 94
Vanlla, 467
Vatchikoran, 96
Vavoli, 324
Vayana, 129, 271
Vayangkarei, 186
Vayila, 437
Veckali, 24
Vedam, 538
Vedang-konnan, 497
Vedi vembu, 108
Vedupla, 140
Vela, 183

670

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

Velaga, 183
Vela-padri, 496
Velayani, 152
Velayil, 169
Vel-vaghe, 5
Velvaylam, 5
Velvelam, 4
Vella cadamba, 25
Vella chini, 541
Vella kadamba, 225
Vella kondrikam, 554
Vella marda, 535, 539
Vella maruthii, 535, 539
Vella matti, 535, 539
Vellam, 183
Vellay naga, 24
Vellei-karunkali, 313
Vellei pay in, 554
Vellema, 24
Velley agil, 156
Vempa, 320
Vempu, 320
Venadillo, 278
Vencola, 450
Venda, 258
Venesia, 555
Vengai, 442
Vengalam, 258
Vengalkattei, 272
Vengis, 442
Vengkadavan, 272
Vengkotta, 272
Vengsha, 442
Venkalikaya, 180
Ven maruthu, 540
Ventaku, 258, 259
Venteak, 258
Vepa, 320
Vepali, 219
Vera, 555
Vera aceituna, 555
Vera amanlla, 555
Vera azul, 555
Vera blanca, 555
Vera-holz, 555
Verdecillo, 392
Veria negra, 94
V£ria prieta, 94
Verwer-morebessen, 189
Verzino, 82
Vidpani, 432
Vila, 183
Vilatti, 183
Vilva-pattiri, 324
Vinanku, 443
Vinhatico, 18
Vinhatico de boi, 386
Vinhatico de espinho, 18
Vinhatico de macaco, 18
Violetholz, 444
Virai, 214

Viri, 90
Viruviru, 194
Vouacapouholz, 6
Vouacapu, 6
Vubbina, 437
Vunne, 442

Wa, 1 01

\Vacapou, 6

Wada, 184

\Vaghz, 558

Wainop, 194

Wakabu, 6

Wala, 256

Walaba, 175

\Val-gona, 183

Walkara, 486

Wallaba, 175

\Vallabaholz, 175

Wallaiki, 72

\Vallunj, 466

Wal-sapu, 323

Walsura, 566

^Valursl, 566

Wamara, 567

^VaIna^u, 567

"Wane, 567

Wanebale, 567

\Vapa, 175

Wapa gras, 175

\Vapa huileux, 175

'Wapa patouv^, 175

War, 184

Waracoon, 573

Warang, 256

Warga, 99

Wankuri, 573

Warikurru, 573

Warimiballi, 332

Washiba, 392

Wasiba, 392

Wawah, 169

Wegabaholz, 6

Wekere paida, 488

Welanga, 443

Weli-kaha, 320

Welimada, 436

"Weli-penna, 23

\Veli-piyanna, 23

Weralu, 165

\Vesha, 493

\Vestindisch teakhout, 534

Wewarani, 16

Wi, 384

Wira, 214

Witte mora, 329

Woapa, 175

Wodier, 383

Wodrase, 16

Womara, 567

Wond, 490

INDEX TO VERNACULAR NAMES

671

Wonta, 33
Wora, 184
Wotomba, 33
Wouapa, 175
Wude, 383
Wiima, 89
Wumb, 463
Wuni, 4
Wunja, ii
Wuraga, 72
Wurrurada, 83
Wurus, 216
Wusel, ii
Wiista, 1 6

Xagua, 234
Xiaxek, 461
Xpaxakil, 487

Ya, ^469

Yaco granadillo, 54
Yaga-bito, 566
Yaga-bizigni, 566
Yaga-chichicmo, 144
Yaga-guichi xina, 144
Yaga-huil, 189
Yakahalu, 154
Yali, 7
Yahshin, 8
Yalla, 259
Yamane, 192
Yama-zakura, 79
Yandiroba, 138
Yang, 151, 207
Yapa, 210, 320
Yara, 407
Yari-yari, 259
Yarn-yarn, 259
Yatayba, 534
Yath, 7

Yaungbale, 259
Yavaranai, 16
Yaya, 259
Yaya-blanca, 259
Yaya-comun, 259
Ybatan, 9
Ybera-pere*, 194
Yeanga, 442
Yegi, 442
Yegisa, 442
Yehera, 536
Yela, 536
Yelchi, 584
Yella-maddi, 24
Yellande, 584
Yellanga, 183
Yellantha, 584
Yemane, 192
Ye-ma-u, 25
Yeminga, 143

Ye*n, 264
Yene, 466
Yen-ju, 489
Yenne, 210
Ye-ngan-bok, 162
Yepa, 320
Ye-padauk, 66
Yepi, 210
Yeppa, 52
Yermdi, 155
Yerjochetta, n
Yerjuchmta, n
Yerkoli, 96
Yerma, 24
Yermaddi, 535, 539
Yerra aduga, TO
Yerra-pat-saru, 146
Yerugudu, 458
Yenil, 577
Yetama, 8
Yetega, 495
Yethabye, 466
Ye-thapan, 185
Yettada, 209
Yettagal, 209
Yettama, 24
Yette, 487
Yette"ga, 209
Yezomatsu, 493
Ymdaik, 145
Ymma, 125
Yir, 465
Yiro, 407
Yitpadi, 87
Ymird piranga, 82
Yokdung, 185
Yon, 24
Yuba, 66

Yucu-ndaturar, 144
Yulu, 278
Yung, 24
Yiir, 407
Yutahi, 534
Yutahy, 534
Yutnu-itne, no
Ywegyi. 133
Ywegyee, 133, 451

Zaih, 372
Zaitun, 384
Zapatero, 81, 444
Zapote, 308, 469
Zapote chico, 469
Zapote Colorado, 309
Zapote ingerto, 309
Zapote mamey, 309
Zapotte, 308
Zapotte a creme, 308
Ze*brano, 582
Zebri, 181
Zeedrat, 444

672

THE TIMBERS OF THE WORLD

zi, 584 -

Zibyu, 403
Zidaw, 589
Zingana, 582
Zipote, 314
Zitterpappel, 41
Zolim-buriki, 208
Zopilocuahuitl, 278

Zopilote, 278
Zopilote Colorado, 278
Zopilote negro, 278
Zopilotl, 278

Zopilo-zontecomacuahuitt, 278
Zorra, 451
Zouga, 292
Zrok, 450

THE END

Punted in Great liritain, by K. & R. CI.AKK, LIMITED, Edinburgh.

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