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THE
MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR
ITS
THEORY AND PRACTICE,
WITH
ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE QUICK PROCESS.
BY
CHARLES M. WETHERILL, PH.D., M.D.,
MEMBER AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ; ACADEMY NATURAL SCIENCES OP PHILA-
DELPHIA J MEMBER INDIANA STATE MEDICAL SOCIETY, ETC.
PHILADELPHIA:
LINDSAY AND BLAKISTON.
1860.
. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1860, by
LINDSAY & BLAKISTON,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern
District of Pennsylvania.
HENRY B. ASHMEAD, BOOK AND JOB PRINTER,
Sansom Street above Eleventh.
R. OGDEN DOREMUS, A. M., M. D.,
PROFESSOR CHEMISTRY NEW YORK MEDICAL COLLEGE ; NEW YORK COLLEGE OV PHARMACY, ETC.
THIS WORK IS
IDEIDIOATEID
WITH THE ESTEEM OP
THE AUTHOR.
PREFACE.
THIS book was written to fill a void in the American
literature of its subject. It is true, that the modern vine-
gar process is no longer novel, and that a great part of the
contents of this work may be found scattered over the
several treatises of pure and applied chemistry; but on the
other hand, there is no concise reliable American work
accessible to the inexperienced or practised vinegar manu-
facturer, in which he can find what information is needful
for carrying out his process to the best advantage.
Vinegar making will continue to be an extensive and
widely diffused manufacture, and its importance will in-
crease as our country becomes more widely occupied. This
fact is self-evident, since a large portion of the freight upon
each barrel of vinegar is paid upon the universally to be
had water.
Having felt the need of such a work in the course of
my profession as an analytical and consulting chemist, I
had almost decided to translate the last edition of Otto's
" Lehrbucli der Essig Falrikation" (1857) ; but upon
further reflection I thought that by omitting some, ampli-
fying some, and adding other subjects, (in fact, by re-
'l*
VI PREFACE.
writing the book,) a work could be obtained which would
be more acceptable to the American public. This state-
ment is made to avoid the imputation of assuming unjustly
a portion of the results of Otto's labors. The general divi-
sion of the work, many of the tables, all of the wood cuts,
except two, and the quantitative analysis of vinegar, are
borrowed from Otto.
T am also indebted to Gottliebs' Chemische Technologic,
the U. S. Dispensatory, Dr. lire's Encyclopedia, John-
ston's Chemistry of Common Life, Regnault's Cours de
Chimie, Kopp's Grechiehte der Chemie, and to some ether
works for information. While making these acknowledg-
ments, I desire also to assume for myself some information
arising from an acquaintance with a practical experience of
the manufacture of vinegar.
In my method of treating the subject, some things may
appear too scientific for the unlearned, and others too trite
for the better informed. If the work has failed in this
respect, it has happened through the endeavor to reconcile
the subject to these two classes of persons, thereby obtain-
ing a larger audience.
CHARLES M. WETHERILL.
LAFAYETTE, INDIANA,
June 1, 1860.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL.
Early knowledge of vinegar, 13. Properties of crystalizable
acetic acid, 16. Wood vinegar, 17. History of the manu-
facture of vinegar from alcohol, 21. What limits factory
sales of vinegar, 23. Future improvements in the flavor
of vinegar from alcohol, 25. Division of the subject, 27.
PART I.
THEORETICAL.
CHAPTER I.
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES. Chemical nature of the elements con-
cerned in the vinegar manufacture, 31. Laws of chemical
combination, constancy of composition, 34. Law of pro-
portion, 36. Illustrated, 38. Chemical symbols, 39.
Atomic theory, 42. Practical example of this theory ap-
plied to alcohol, 46.
CHAPTER II.
SUGAR. Connection between sugar and vinegar, 48. Table
of the composition of the saccharoid bodies, 49. Cellulose,
51; its properties, 52 ; its transformation to dextrine
and sugar, 53. Properties of starch, 54 ; its occurrence
in the vegetable kingdom, 56; its preparation, 57; its
Vlll CONTENTS.
chemical nature, 59. Diastase, 60 ; its action in vegeta-
tion, 61. The gums, 63. Dextrine its preparation by
sulphuric acid, 64 ; by diastase, 65 ; by heat, 06. The
sugars, 66 ; the consumption of, 67. Milk sugar, 68.
Varieties of sugar, 69. Cane sugar, 71. Fruit sugar, 75.
Kaisin sugar, 76. Simple method of analyzing sugars,
78. Manufacture of raisin sugar from starch, 81. What
is meant by polarized light, 83. Action of sugar upon
polarized light, upon which is founded a method for the
analysis of sugar, 88.
CHAPTER III.
ALCOHOL. Action of ferments upon sugar, 91. Composition
of yeast, 92 ; Liebig's theory of fermentation, 92. Con-
ditions for fermentation, 94. How much alcohol a given
weight of sugar can yield, 97. Practical application of
fermentation wine, 99. Tables of the sweetness and
acidity of wines, 100. Table of the alcoholic strength of
different wines, 101. Fermentation of saccharine solutions
by the addition of yeast, 104. The art of brewing, 106.
Manufacture of malt, 108. Steeping, 110. Couching, 111.
Drying malt, 113. Mashing, 115. Concentration of the
wort, 118. Average per centage of malt extract from
the different grains, 119. Saccharometer test for the
strength of worts, 120. Table of the specific gravity of
saccharometer degrees, 121. The boiling and refrigera-
tion of worts, 122. Phenomena of fermentation, 123.
Properties of alcoholic solutions, 126. Absolute alcohol,
127. Alcoholic strength of solutions tested by the dila-
tometer, 130 ; by the thermometer, 131 ; by the specific
gravity, 132. Simple method of taking specific gravities,
133. Hydrometers, or areometers, 137. Beaume"'s hydro-
meter table, 141, 142. Gay Lussac's volumeter, 143 ; sac-
charometer, 143; acetometer, 144; alcoholometer, 144,
Proof spirits English, New York, Ohio, 145. Method of
using hydrometers, 145. Alcoholometer tables, correc-
CONTENTS. IX
tions for temperature, 147, 148. Specific gravity table for
obtaining the strength of alcoholic solutions, 150. Kule
and tables for the transformation of alcoholic volumes per
cent, to weights, per cent., and conversely, 153. The cal-
culation for making definite mixtures of alcohol and water,
154. Alcohol tests for wine and beer, 156. Alcohol
tests for wine and beer by the saccharometer, 157.
Apparent and real attenuation of worts, 158. Balling's
attenuation tables, 160, 161.
CHAPTER IV.
ACETIC ACID. Liebig's theory of the vinegar process, 162.
This process, illustrated by symbols and numerically, 163.
Particulars to be observed in the vinegar manufacture
nature of the ferment strength of alcohol in the vinegar
mixture, 164. The limits of temperature, 165. Table of
density of aqueous solutions of acetic acid, 166. Re-
stricted use of the vinegar hydrometer, 168. Tables for
the conversion of hydrated to anhydrous per cents., and
conversely, 169, 170. Tests for adulterated vinegar, 170.
Acetometry, 172. Chemical acetometry by dry alkalies
by crystalized carbonate of soda, 174 ; by dry carbonate
of soda, 177 ; by dry carbonate of potassa, 177. Table of
vinegar tests to use with foregoing processes, 178. Method
by weighing alkaline carbonated solutions, 178. Four
tables to facilitate this method, 180. Method by measur-
ing alkaline carbonated solutions, 182. Method by am-
monia with Otto's acetometer, 189. Preparation of the
ammonia te?t solution, 193. Table of Tralles' alcoholo-
meter degrees, converted to specific gravities, 194. Table
to facilitate the preparation of Otto's test solution, 195.
Another method of preparing this solution, 198. Balling
vinegar tester, 202. The acid strength of vinegar, com-
pared with the alcoholic strength of the mixture, 203.
Tables to facilitate this calculation, 204.
X CONTENTS.
PART II.
PRACTICAL.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL DETAILS. General principles of the vinegar manu
facture, 209. The wash or mixture, 213. The water to
be employed, with tests of its purity, 214. Methods of
improving bad water, 216. Water filter, 217. The fac-
tory buildings, 218.
CHAPTER II.
THE SLOW PROCESS. Example illustrating the difference be-
tween the slow and quick vinegar processes, 220. The
household manufacture of vinegar, 221. An improved
and simple method for household manufacture, 222. The
factory method, 223. The practice at Orleans, 224. Ar-
rangement for a factory by this process, 225. Modifica-
tions of tho slow process, 220.
CHAPTER III.
THE QUICK PROCESS. Boerhave's method, 233. Doebereiner's
method, 234. Preparation of the platinum sponge, 235.
Costliness of this method, 237. The modern process, 237.
The apparatus required, 238. Manufacture of the beech
wood shavings, 241. The generators, 242. Details of
the operation to set the generators in action, 247. Mo-
difications of this operation, 249. Practical example of
the manufacture, 252. Mode of working with three gene-
rators and six mixing tubs, 254. Points to be observed
in the quick vinegar process, 257. The quantity of air
entering the generators, and the changes it experiences,
258. The temperature of the vinegar room, and of the
CONTENTS. XI
wash, 261. Method of warming the wash, 262. Otto'a
practice to avoid heating the acid washes, 264. To regu-
late the quantity of ferment in the generators, 267. The
advantages of a periodical over a constant flow of the
wash, 268. Hint for obtaining an improved constant
flow, 272.
CHAPTER IV.
EXAMPLES OF THE PRACTICE OF THE BEST EUROPEAN FACTORIES.
Table of German measures, 273. Vinegar process in
Germany (1) a factory in the Dutchy of Brunswick, 274;
(2) one in the city of Brunswick, 275 ; (3) factory in Beu-
then, 276; (4) Schultze's method, 277; (5) a highly
prized recipe, 278 ; (6) factory in N., (7) in S., (8) in L.,
282. (9) Method in some manufactories, 283. (10) Im-
provements upon the quick vinegar process in England
and Germany, 283. Comparative advantages of large
over small generators, 285. Furnace for effecting a cur-
rent of air through generators, 287.
CHAPTER V.
CONCLUSION. To improve the flavor and odor of vinegar, 289.
To improve the color, 290. Clearing vinegar, 291. Re-
cipes for the preparation of vegetable and aromatic vine-
gars. Three methods for four thieves vinegar. Tarragon
vinegar. Vinaigre aux fines herbes. Vinaigre a la
Ravigote. Mustard vinegar. Raspberry vinegar. Rose,
orange blossom, neroli, bergamot, and clove vinegars.
Fumigating vinegar. Aromatic vinegars. Creme de
vinaigre. pp. 292-4.
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL.
VINEGAR is doubtless the first acid with which
man became acquainted. As it generates so read-
ily in dilute solutions of alcohol, which contain
a ferment, it must have been used cotempora-
neously with wine,* itself a very ancient bever-
age and formed spontaneously from the expressed
juice of the grape. "Noah planted a vineyard,"
and " drank of the wine" to intoxication. The
account is so circumstantial, that no doubt is left
that the patriarch was well acquainted with the
art of vinous fermentation ; and he could not
have kept wine without witnessing its trans-
formation into vinegar. The grateful use of the
grape in allaying thirst, must have led at an
early time, to expressing its juice for the purpose
of drinking. The fermentation of this juice and
its transformation to an exhilarating drink wine,
must have been at once known, and almost sim-
ultaneously the change from wine to vinegar.
* Vinegar. Vin aigre sour wine. Essig Acetum. ofoj from
ODJ, sour.
2
14 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
The pleasant effects of wine led, no doubt, to the
trial of vinegar ; and its power in assuaging
thirst, its culinary, and conservative properties
must soon have been appreciated.
Some of the chemical properties of acetic acid
were also known at an early day ; as for example,
its solvent action, with effervescence, upon car-
bonates. This appears from the following Prov-
erb of Solomon, (chap. xxv. 20.) " As he that
taketh away a garment in cold weather, and as
vinegar upon nitre, so is he that singeth songs to
a heavy heart."
To understand the simile, we must know that
the word " neter" in the original, is improperly
translated " nitre." Luther has rendered it by
" chalk," which is more suitable, as that substance
does effervesce with vinegar, which has not the
slightest action upon nitre. But strictly, the
ancients understood by " neter" the carbonated al-
kali either of potash or of soda. The commotion
which vinegar produces when poured upon one
of these carbonates, may well be taken to repre-
sent the effects of hilarity upon a heavy heart.
That the solvent effects of vinegar were under-
stood by the ancients, is shown by the well
known anecdote of Cleopatra, related by Pliny.
To gain a wager that she would consume at a
single meal, the value of a million sesterces, she
dissolved pearls in vinegar which she drank.
This is also shown by the equally well known,
but exaggerated account by Livy and Plutarch,
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL. 15
that Hannibal overcame the difficulties offered by
the rocks to the passage of his army over the
Alps, by dissolving them with vinegar. Admit-
ting the exaggeration, or the explanation which
some give, viz. : that Hannibal used the vinegar
by way of stratagem, to incite his men to greater
exertion by the belief that the difficulties of the
path were diminished, the case nevertheless
shows that the solvent action of vinegar upon
certain substances, was well known at that pe-
riod.
Vitruvius also states that rocks which cannot
be attacked by either fire or iron, will yield when
heated and wet with vinegar. The vinegar of
the ancients was that of wine, namely, a dilute
solution of acetic acid, containing certain soluble
and odorous matter derived from the grape.
We are indebted to the much abused alchym-
ists, for the first knowledge of its purification and
concentration by distillation.
Geber, who flourished in the eighth century,
gives us the earliest description of this method.
Albucases in 1100, and Basilius Yalentinus in the
fifteenth century, wrote upon the same subject,
and relate their experince as to the best means of
effecting the concentration of vinegar by distilla-
tion.
Tachenius, (1666,) taught how to make a still
stronger acetic acid, by the distillation of verdi-
gris, which is an acetate of copper. Stahl in
1697, strengthened vinegar by freezing out some
16 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
of its water in cold weather. In 1702, he taught
the method of obtaining strong acetic acid by
neutralizing vinegar by an alkali and distilling
the acetate thus formed with oil of vitriol. The
Count de Lauraguais, (1759,) and the Marquis de
Courtenvaux, (1768,) showed that the most con-
centrated acetic acid obtained from verdigris, was
capable of crystallization. Lowitz, (1789,) taught
how pure but weak acetic acid might be strength-
ened, by passing it repeatedly over charcoal pow-
der. Its may be thus deprived of so much of its
water that it crystalizes by cold.
This crystalizable acetic acid is the strongest
which it is possible to obtain. Durande, (1777,)
gave to it the name, which it still bears, of glacial
acetic acid. It is manufactured now as it was at
the close of the last century, by the distillation of
one of the acetates* with a mineral acid. The
following are its properties. Its density at 60 Fah.
is 1.063. Sixty parts by weight contain fifty-one
parts of anhydrous, or dry acetic acid, and nine
of water. This water cannot be removed from
the acid, without destroying its acid properties.
It may be replaced by a base, in which case a salt,
an acetate results. Thus, thirty-one parts of soda
will take the place of the nine parts of water and
eighty-two parts of acetate of soda will result.
Glacial acetic acid is a colorless, volatile and in-
flammable liquid, congealing at 40 Fah. and boil-
ing at 248. It possesses a pungent, refreshing
* Generally acetate soda in the United States.
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL. 17
smell, and corrosive properties to most vegetable
and animal substances. It attracts water from
the air, is miscible in all proportions with water,
alcohol and ether, and dissolves camphor and
several resins.
Having thus traced the knowledge of the in-
gredient which gives value to vinegar, from the
earliest to the present time, let us now consider,
also historically, the process of its manufacture.
If we except the brilliant results which Bertho-
let has obtained within the last two years, ena-
bling him to form in small quantities from their
elements, alcohol and several hundred allied sub-
stances, we have only two sources of acetic acid.
These are, 1st, the destructive distillation of veg-
etable and animal substances, especially wood,
and 2nd., alcohol.
1. Wood vinegar was known as early as the
year 1648, for the celebrated Glauber describes it
in a work published at that time, as arising from
the distillation of all vegetable matter. This
kind of vinegar is manufactured in our day, but
as it possesses a disagreeable empyreumatic odor
from which it is freed with difficulty, it is never
used in the household. It is employed in the
arts for purposes in which the smell is not objec-
tionable, and for manufacting the salts of acetic
acid, and from these the concentrated acid. It
finds its way in some localities into vinegar em-
ployed for culinary purposes. In such cases a
concentrated and purified wood vinegar, of from
2*
18 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
forty to fifty per cent, acid strength, is added to
raise the per centage of acetic acid in vinegar
made from spirits by the quick process. I will
dismiss the subject of wood vinegar with a brief
description of the general principles of its manu-
facture.
Dry wood is subjected to heat in close iron
cylinders, which are provided with a conduit
tube and worm for condensing the volatile pro-
ducts, and placed either vertically or horizontally
in appropriate furnaces. At first, water (which
is rejected), comes over, then a liquid, which on
standing separates into two strata. The lower
stratum is wood tar, it is of an oily nature and
contains several valuable products, the upper layer
is of a watery nature and is more abundant in
quantity than the tar. It contains the vinegar
and is called crude pyroxilic, or pyroligneous
acid. It is of a dark color and peculiar smoky
odor. It is very acid and contains from eight to
ten per cent, of acetic acid. During the distilla-
tion of the wood an abundance of combustible
gas is formed, which is passed into the furnace
to burn, thereby saving fuel. A fine quality of
charcoal is removed from the cylinders at the
close of the operation.
The crude pyroxilic acid is purified and
strengthened in the following manner. Quicklime
is slaked and made into a thin smooth paste with
water, and used for completely neutralizing the
acid. By this means acetate of lime is formed.
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL. 19
A portion of the resinous matter is thrown down
by the lime, but another portion enters into com-
bination with it, and dissolves in the solution of
acetate of lime, imparting to it a deep brown
color. The solution is cleared either by a filter
or by standing, and then concentrated by evapo-
ration to one half its volume. Enough hydro-
chloric acid* is then added to show a weak acid
reaction by litmus paper, and the concentration
continued to dryness. By the action of the hy-
drochloric acid, an additional portion of resinous
matter separates, which rises as scum in the boil-
ing liquid and may readily be removed. The
hydrochloric acid decomposes also certain bodies
which were in combination with the lime, yield-
ing volatile products, which are dissipated during
the evaporation of the solution. The dry residue
is heated very carefully to remove as much as
possible its volatile impurities. The result is a
crude acetate of lime of a dirty brown color.
From this crude salt, a solution of acetic acid
may readily be obtained by distillation with suf-
ficient hydrochloric acid to saturate its lime.
One hundred parts of perfectly dry, pure acetate
of lime, require 140 parts of commercial muriatic
acid (of density 1.16), to saturate its lime, and on
distillation with these proportions an acid is ob-
tained containing 40 per cent, of anhydrous or
dry acetic acid. But the crude acetate of lime in
question, is impure and contains (beside resinous
* Muriatic acid of commerce.
20 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
matter), a portion of chloride of calcium, formed
by the addition of hydrochloric acid to the vine-
gar in the first stage of its purification. It is,
therefore, necessary to perform an experiment
upon a sample of the crude acetate to ascertain
how much hydrochloric acid is necessary to libe-
rate its acetic acid. -This is important, for an in-
sufficiency of hydrochloric acid involves a loss of
acetic acid, and too much hydrochloric acid is riot
only of useless expense, but yields a vinegar con-
taining this objectionable acid.
"When the vinegar is required of less strength
than 40 per cent., a little water is added to the
mixture of hydrochloric acid and acetate of lime.
The following proportions are sometimes used.
One hundred parts of the crude acetate of lime,
90 to 95 of muriatic acid of density 1.16, and 25
parts of water. These yield from 95 to 100 parts
of vinegar of 31 per cent, dry acetic acid. In
round numbers, 150 quarts of crude pyroxilic acid
yield about 70 pounds of acetic acid of the above
strength. This acid contains a small quantity of
hydrochloric acid, from which it is freed by a
second distillation over a little carbonate of soda.
The resulting acid is colorless, but possesses a
faint empyreumatic smell, of which it may be
deprived by employing in this second distillation
from 2 to 3 per cent, of bi-chromate of potassa
instead of the carbonate of soda.
The stills used in this manufacture, should
have heads of stone-ware and worms of glass.
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL. 21
For the final rectification, these should be of sil-
ver if the purest acid be required.
2. Vinegar from alcohol.
The remaining source of vinegar, viz., alcohol,
has for the objects of this work a greater interest.
Every vinegar used for household purposes has
from the earliest period of its use, had its source
in alcohol ; but until the year 1822, this alcohol
was always taken as found already prepared in
fermented juice of fruits, as wine, cider, &c. In
1814, Berzelius discovered the correct composition
of acetic acid, and in the same year, De Saussure
performed the same service for alcohol. These
facts afforded the proper stand-point for under-
standing the theory of the transformation of alco-
hol to acetic acid ; and, accordingly, in 1822, after
Prof. Dcebereiner, of Jena, had discovered that a
weak solution of alcohol brought in contact with
platinum black,* in the presence of air, was con-
verted into acetic acid, he was enabled to give the
theory of vinegar manufacture which is now
adopted. Reserving the development of this
theory for a future page, I need only say that the
quick vinegar process, in which diluted alcohol is
exposed to the air in contact with beech shavings
and ready formed vinegar at an elevated temper-
ature, takes its date from Dcebereiner' s discovery,
and the process proceeds upon exactly the same
principles. This process is very appropriately
named the quick vinegar manufacture, for the
* Very fine powder of metallic platinum.
22 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
sole difference between it and the ancient method
of making vinegar by the exposure of wine, cider,
&c., to the air, consists in the greater speed with
which vinegar may be obtained.
Boerhave* at the commencement of the eigh-
teenth century, invented a process for quickening
the manufacture of vinegar from wine, which in-
volves some of the principles of the modern quick
process, and which at one time was very gener-
ally employed in France. At this period, how-
ever, the true theory of the vinegar manufacture
was not understood.
"We have seen how, in former times, vinegar,
a substance of universal use and indispensable in
every household, could only be made in localities
where wine or the fermented juice of some ap-
propriate fruit was to be obtained. It was neces-
sarily an expensive condiment, for besides em-
ploying wine, a costly substance, not only must
considerable capital be idle during the length of
time required for its manufacture by the old pro-
cess, but since it contains so small a quantity of
acid, its transport is expensive, for on every hun-
dred pounds, freight must be paid for the carriage
of from 90 to 97 J pounds of water. On the other
* Although foreign to the subject in hand, I cannot refrain no-
ticing an experiment of this distinguished man, to show his pa-
tience and zeal in exposing the errors and deceits of some of the
alehymists. Boerhave kept mercury at a slightly elevated tem-
perature, in an open vessel for fifteen years, and proved that it ex-
perienced thereby no material change ! He also distilled the same
portion of pure mercury five hundred times with the like result ! !
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL. 23
hand, the modem quick process enables vinegar
to be made in every locality. The amount of
capital and knowledge requisite are very small.
Spirits may be, at a comparatively cheap rate,
transported to the central point of a community,
where the vinegar may be manufactured and dis-
tributed within a circle, the extent of which will
depend upon the knowledge and skill of the
manufacturer enabling him to make cheaply;
upon the cost of material, fuel and wages ; the
freight on shipping the vinegar ; the demand for
the article, and the amount of competition. If,
as Otto advises, a very strong vinegar be made,
containing from 10 to 15 per cent, acid, the circle
of its sale may be much extended ; for while its
transport will cost the same as a weaker article,
one barrel may be converted into several by the
addition of 'sufficient water to bring it to the
usual strength at the locality where it is used.
Not only so, but the cost of barreling and storage
will be less, and the vinegar can be kept with less
danger of spoiling.
We may see from these considerations that
vinegar can be, ought to be, and will be manu-
factured in almost every community in our coun-
try, and it is the object of this book to diminish
the business of those who are still selling as a
secret among us, a discovery that has been in suc-
cessful practical operation here (and in Europe
very publicly), for the past thirty years.
Vinegar as a condiment is valuable, not only
24 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
in proportion to the acid it contains, but also ac-
cording to the flavor which it possesses hy reason
of certain sweet smelling ethers existing in it in
small quantities, and derived from the fruit of
which the fermented liquor is made. These are
absent in vinegar made from chemically pure al-
cohol ; some of them are present in vinegar made
from alcohol which contains naturally a little fu-
sel oil.
In no respect has chemistry made so rapid
progress as in the knowledge we possess within
the last few years of the ethers ; some of the sweet
smelling ones being identical with the aromatic
principles of fruits or the bouquet of vines. At
the English Crystal Palace Exhibition, some of
these were deposited as articles of manufacture,
and are now for sale in this country as secrets, at
exorbitant prices. The celebrated Mulder has
lately written to show to what extent they are
used in Europe in the artificial manufacture of
wines.
The aroma of the jargonelle pear is exactly that
of acetate of amyle oxide ; apple oil that of vale-
rianate of amyle oxide ; pine apple oil that of bu-
tyric ether,* (or better propylic ether) ; quince oil
that of pelargonate of ethyle oxide ; the flavor ot
whisky is due to acetate of the oxide of capryle.f
These different flavors are developed by dissolv-
ing the respective etherial substances in six or
more times their bulk of alcohol.
* May be made from butter. f From rancid butter.
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL. 25
The natural acidity of fermented drinks does
not, in all cases, depend upon acetic acid derived
from a portion of their alcohol. It is due to cer-
tain substances contained in the must or mash,
or derived therefrom during the fermentation.
Thus to acetic acid, (vinegar in this case,) is due
the acidity of malt beer ; to lactic acid that of
milk beer and cider; to tartaric acid that of wine;
and to citric acid that of wine made from imper-
fectly ripened grapes. Vinegar, however, appears
in all of these beverages if the fermentation has
been pushed too far. The improvement of most
wines by age is due, in part, to a separation of
the acid bitartrate of potash, which gradually de-
posits from the liquor. These acids appear in
vinegar made from the respective beverages, and
are not found (except of course acetic acid), in
vinegar made from pure alcohol. I have made
these statements for the purpose of directing at-
tention to a branch of the vinegar manufacture
which, to my knowledge, has not yet received
the notice which it merits, but which must result
to the pecuniary advantage of those engaged in
it. I mean the preparation of a vinegar by the
quick process, which shall resemble and perhaps
equal in every respect the finest wine vinegar ; to
be sold bottled, and at an advanced price, for
salads and other table use. I have no doubt that
this problem may be readily solved with but lit-
tle experiment. I am convinced that several of
the ethers with which we are acquainted actually
3
26 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
give flavor to some of our fruits and wines, and
consequently are not at all injurious to health.
When these ethers were first introduced to flavor
new varieties of confectionery, I performed an
experiment upon myself, for the sole purpose of
testing their injurious properties, by eating within
twelve consecutive hours one pound of the fruit
drops flavored with the so-called essence of jar-
gonelle pear, apple, banana and pine apple, with-
out the slightest unpleasant effect.
The moral quality of this manufacture will de-
pend upon the manner by which the article is
presented to the public. If given as actually
obtained from wine, it will, of course, be an
unwarrantable deception.
Several years ago, a convention of wine grow-
ers was held in Germany, to consider the im-
provement of their industry. They had suffered
for a few preceding years from bad wine, owing
to seasons unfavorable for ripening the grape.
Liebig, on the ground that the diminution of
strength in their wine was due to an insufficiency
of sugar in the grape, owing, of course, to the
elements of the season which preside over the
formation of sugar, advised them to add before
fermentation, a small portion of saccharine mat-
ter to the must. This proposition they rejected
with horror, as equivalent to an adulteration. But
would it not have been better to have taken the
advice and to have enjoyed wines of good quality,
rather than to have been content with the inferior
INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL. 27
natural article ? Can any one doubt if Hofmann
is successful in his search after a method of ob-
taining quinine artificially, that the profession will
administer it upon an equal footing with that ex-
tracted from bark.
Imagination is a potent tyrant over the
"senses" of the public; but it appears that
the right way to gain their approval of any
article, is to act openly with them, proving that
it is not injurious, but equally good with the ar-
ticle to which they have been accustomed, and at
a lower price. Though it is an abhorrent doc-
trine, to be honest merely because it "pays" it
is nevertheless true that honesty is the best
policy.
In treating the subject of the quick vinegar
process, I have, (like Otto,) divided it into two
distinct parts, the "theoretical" and the "practical."
In the first part I have endeavored to set forth
fully all that is required, for an unlearned man
to understand the principles of the manufacture.
In the second part will be found the method for
carrying these principles into practical operation.
I would here earnestly urge upon whoever desires
to enter this manufacture, to make himself well
acquainted with its theory, for that will be his
surest anchor to enable him to ride out the
storms of competition, as it will place him in the
position to obtain the product at the lowest cost.
Every vinegar generator is an individual, and its
28 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
operation must be studied for itself, by testing
the strength of the alcohol mixture and of the re-
sulting vinegar, and by noting the time required
for the transformation. "We are only then able
to calculate the cost of the manufacture.
PART I.
THEORETICAL.
CHAPTER I.
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES.
BEFORE we can understand the theory of the
change of alcohol to vinegar, we must become
acquainted with the chemical nature of the bodies
in question. They belong to the department ot
organic chemistry.
Without aiming at strictly scientific accuracy,
it. will be sufficient for our purpose to observe,
that organic chemistry treats of substances found
in or obtained from vegetable or animal bodies.
The most of these substances are composed of
different proportions of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, or of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and
oxygen. These are called elements, because
they have not been decomposed. What is the
nature of these elements in their free state, and
what the laws according to which they unite
with each other?
Carbon is well known by the name of charcoal
and lampblack. In a pure and crystalized state
it is graphite (the black lead of pencils) and the
diamond. It burns by union with another ele-
ment (oxygen) found in the air, and gives rise to
a gas, carbonic acid. This gas may be detected
32 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
in small quantities in the atmosphere ; it is also
found in the bottom of some wells, in caves and
valleys near volcanoes, and in coal mines where
it is called choke damp. Carbonic acid is so much
heavier than air, that it may be poured from one
vessel into another like water. It is destructive
to animal life when breathed, and extinguishes
instantly a flame immersed in it.
Mtrogen and oxygen are gases constituting
the chief bulk of the atmosphere, which, neglect-
ing the other gases existing in small quantities,
is when dry, composed of four-fifths nitrogen and
one-fifth oxygen by measure. These gases are
not in a state of chemical combination in the air,
but mixed, which condition enables life and many
processes of the arts requiring oxygen, to be car-
ried on. Air has been examined, taken from the
plains of Egypt, from the summits of Mt. Blanc
and Chimbarazo, as well as from an elevation of
21,000 feet reached by a balloon, and has always
been found to consist of nitrogen and oxygen in
the above mentioned proportions.
Oxygen is a tasteless, inodorous and colorless
gas, heavier than air and not inflammable, but
enabling combustible bodies to burn by uniting
and forming chemical compounds with them. It
may be obtained in a pure state by raising to a
red heat nitre, which is a compound of nitrogen,
oxygen and potash.
Since oxygen is heavier than air, nitrogen
must of course be lighter. This gas is also desti-
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES. 33
tute of color, taste or smell, and is neither com-
bustible nor a supporter of combustion. Though
not poisonous, it deprives of life an animal im-
mersed in it and instantly extinguishes a candle,
because it does not afford what life and flame re-
quire, viz., oxygen. It may be obtained from air
contained in a close vessel by immersing a stick
of phosphorous, which robs the air of its oxygen.
Nitrogen, as found in the air, exhibits a weak
.affinity for the rest of the elements, and plays the
part of diluting the oxygen of our atmosphere
enabling animals to live in it. With a large pro-
portion of oxygen in our air, every animal would
die of ifl animation, and not only would the iron
the smith is forging take fire, but his anvil also.
A spark would be sufficient to kindle a conflagra-
tion which would consume every combustible
substance upon our earth.
Hydrogen, the remaining element we have to
consider, is the lightest known substance. It is
an inodorous, tasteless and colorless 'gas, and ex-
ists in chemical combination with oxygen in
water, which contains by weight, one-ninth hydro-
gen and eight-ninths oxygen. It burns with a
very pale blue flame, which is almost colorless.
We have thus in water two gases, one the most
inflammable of known substances, the other the
best supporter of combustion. WTien these two
gases in the free state are mixed in the above
proportions and kindled, combustion ensues with
34 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
the formation of water and evolution of the most
intense heat. Upon this principle depends the
oxy hydrogen blowpipe, (of which an excellent
form has been invented by our countryman, the
late Dr. Hare,) which affords the source of the
greatest heat under the control of man.
From these few elements, chemically combined
in different proportions or according to different
methods, arises the vast number of substances
derived from the animal and vegetable world,
like the infinite number of beautiful forms pro-
duced in the kaleidescope by the varying relative
position of a few fragments of colored glass. Let
us now consider the laws of chemical combina-
tion so far as they relate to the subject in hand.
The first to be mentioned is the constancy of
composition of chemical compounds. It is by this
law that analysis is useful to us, for it aifirms
that a given body is an individual, and conse-
quently may be recognized, because it has always
the same composition. The apparent exceptions
to the above results of analysis, as when different
bodies seem to have the same composition, are
reconciled by supposing that the bodies in ques-
tion have their elements put together according
to a different order or method. As these excep-
tions do not concern the theory of the vinegar
process, we will turn our attention to the law
itself. Take water for an example, every 9
pounds of which contain 8 pounds of oxygen
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES. 35
and 1 pound of hydrogen. We may freeze or
vaporize water an infinite number of times, de-
compose it into its elements, recombine them to
water, using if you please, hydrogen and oxygen
taken from the antipodes. We may analyze
the water found in the interior crevice of a
quartz crystal, or wherever else it may occur
upon the globe, and it will present the invaria-
ble composition, "in 9 weights of water, 8
weights of oxygen and 1 of hydrogen."
Whenever hydrogen and oxygen come together
under the circumstances favorable to form water,
they will unite in these porportions with the re-
sult, water. What is true of water holds good
with every other chemical compound. Twenty-
two pounds of carbonic acid always contain 6
pounds of carbon and 16 pounds of oxygen. One
hundred and eighty pounds of sugar invariably
consist of 72 pounds carbon, 12 hydrogen and
96 oxygen. Forty-six pounds of alcohol contain
24 pounds carbon, 6 pounds hydrogen and 16
pounds oxygen. In 60 pounds of acetic acid we
will never find more or less than 4 pounds of
carbon, 40 pounds of hydrogen and 32 pounds of
oxygen.
Now, why should there be this constancy of
composition in the same body, and how is it
that a difference in the relative proportions of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen gives rise to bodies
of totally different properties ? These questions
36 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
were only asked and answered towards the close
of the last and commencement of the present
century. Their consideration leads us to the
second law of chemical combination, i. e., by
proportion, which law is explained by the atomic
theory. The law is very simple. It is derived
from the analysis of chemical compounds. It is
evident that we may state the result of analyses
in different ways. I have given one way in the
example of water, to wit, 9 parts by weight of
water contain 8 parts of oxygen united to 1 part
of hydrogen. It expresses the same result to
say, that 100 weights of water contain 88-89
oxygen plus 11-11 hydrogen. In both cases the
elements are in the same proportion. Referring
the analyses of different bodies to one and the
same weight or 100 parts, enables us to compare
such analyses, and to ascertain in what respect
the quantities of the respective constituent ele-
ments vary. This comparison has been made for
a vast number of compounds, and has resulted in
the knowledge of the "law of proportions" which
governs the union of the elements. Of the sixty
or more elements with which we are acquainted,
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen alone
concern us in the vinegar process. Let us pro-
ceed to illustrate the above law by their aid.
The law of proportion teaches us that, in every
chemical compound the elements unite by weight,
each according to a fixed number or its multiple.
.6
1
twice 6
1
6
twice 1
6
1
twice 6
twice 1
twice 6
1
6
twice 1
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES. 37
For carbon the proportional number (called also
its "equivalent"} is 6, for hydrogen it is 1, for
nitrogen 14, and for oxygen 8.
It follows then from this law, that if a body
consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the
relative weight of the respective elements must
be in one of the following proportions :
CAKBON. HTDBOQEX. OXYGEX.
8
8
8
twice 8
8
twice 8
twice 8
&c., &c., &c.
"We can imagine by this consideration how
vast may be the number of chemical compounds
containing only three elements in different pro-
portions. The following examples will illustrate
the law of equivalents.
"Water contains hydrogen and oxygen in the
proportion of 1 of the former to 8 of the latter
element. Chemists are acquainted with another
body containing the same elements but in differ-
ent proportions. It is called deutoxide of hydro-
gen, and consists of 1 part of hydrogen in union
with 16 (i. e., twice 8) parts of oxygen. "Water
and deutoxide of hydrogen have entirely different
properties.
Again, in carbonic acid the carbon is to the
4
38
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
oxygen as 6 to 16 (i. e., twice 8). Pass carbonic
acid over charcoal at a red heat, and a different
gas, called carbonic oxide is thus formed. In it
the carbon bears to the oxygen the proportion of
6 to 8.
Finally, the table of the compounds of nitrogen
with oxygen is illustrative of the law of propor-
tion. It is as follows :
Laughing Gas, .
Deutoxide of Nitrogen, .
Hyponitrous Acid,
Nitrous Acid,
. 14 4- 8
1 4. | O vv ft 1 f*
. 14 -f 3 x 8 = 24
14 -f. 4 x 8 = 32
Nitric Acid, 14 -f- 5 x 8 = 40
Let us trace now the law of proportion in three
" organic" compounds immediately concerned in
the vinegar manufacture.
180 parts of Sugar =
That is
CARBON.
-HYDROGEN.
OXYGEN.
6X12
72
+ 1X12
12
+ 8X12
96
45 parts of Alcohol =
That is
6X4
24
1X6
6
8X2
16
60 parts of Acetic acid =
That is
6x4
24
1X4
4
8X4
32
Observe how sugar, alcohol and vinegar differ;
they each contain the same e.lements, (carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen,) but in different proper-
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES. 39
tions. In respect to the carbon the weights are
multiples of 6. In sugar the carbon is 12 times
6, in alcohol it is 4 times 6, and in acetic acid or
vinegar it is also 4 times 6. The multiples of the
hydrogen (1) for the three bodies are 12, 6 and 4,
and for the oxygen (8) they are 12, 2 and 4, as
may be seen in the table.
It would be well for the reader, if he have not
already that knowledge, to make himself ac-
quainted with the chemical "symbols" of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen, and as well to remember
how they are used to express the composition of
sugar, alcohol and acetic acid. This knowledge
will enable me to explain the conversion of sugar
to alcohol, and the latter to vinegar in a very
simple mariner, and so that it may be well im-
pressed upon the mind. This advantage may be
gained without the slighest difficulty by resorting
to an artificial aid to the memory. The capital
letter of the name of each of the elements in
question is its "symbol;" that is, stands for it,
thus C for carbon, H for hydrogen and O for
oxygen. Moreover, each of these letters stands
for the proportional number or equivalent of its
respective element. Thus C stands for 6 equiva-
lent weights of carbon, H for 1 of hydrogen, and
O for 8 of oxygen.
These numbers may be very readily remem-
bered. Consider that hydrogen is the lightest
known substance, it was once universally em-
40 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
ployed for inflating balloons ; it has in fact the
smallest proportional number of all the elements,
it leads the column of equivalents, holds the
first rank, is 1 ; also note that when we write H
the pen makes down strokes very like a couple
of ones. When we write C for carbon, we make
almost exactly a figure 6 its equivalent. Finally
the figure 8 is nothing more than two O's, one
above the other. When, therefore, you write O
for oxygen, imagine another on top of the
symbol and you have 8, the equivalent of oxygen.
The multiples of the proportional numbers
are expressed by a little figure on the right and
below the symbol; thus C 4 denotes 4 equivalents
of carbon, i. e., since the equivalent of carbon is
6, the above symbol stands for 4 times 6 or 24
weights of carbon. C0 2 is the symbol of car-
bonic acid. It teaches us that this gas is com-
posed of 6 weights of carbon united to twice 8
weights, that is 16 weights of oxygen. HO is
water, 1 hydrogen -f 8 oxygen. On the same
principle sugar is symbolized thus C 12 H 12 12 , 12
times 6 weights of carbon, 12 times 1 of hydro-
gen, and 12 times 8 of oxygen.
The symbol of alcohol is C 4 H 6 2 . That of
acetic acid is C 4 H 4 4 .
These symbols may be readily remembered.
Sugar has a dozen of each of the equivalents
of its elements. Acetic acid is J of the sugar
symbol, that is 4 4 4.
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES. 41
Alcohol and acetic acid have the same num-
ber of carbon equivalents. We shall find here-
after that alcohol does not lose any carbon in
passing to vinegar, but is deprived of hydrogen.
Almost every one knows that the formation of
vinegar is an oxidyzing process ; the H 6 O 2 of alco-
hol become H 4 O 4 . In passing into acetic acid
alcohol loses 2 equivalents of hydrogen, and
takes up 2 of oxygen.
Acohol = C 4 H 6 2 becomes acetic acid = C 4 H 4 4 .
For this ingenious method of illustrating the
constitution of chemical compounds by symbols,
we are indebted to the celebrated Berzelius.
If the reader be not a chemist he will, doubt-
less, be much struck with this strange relation
existing between numbers and the constituent
elements of a chemical compound. If he desires
to inquire into the reason of this relation, the
atomic theory will afford him all the satisfaction
which in the present state of science it is pos-
sible to have.
It will be proper here to note well that it is
the proportional numerical relation of the elements
that has been proved by analysis, and not the
identical numbers themselves. We have taken
1 to denote the equivalent of hydrogen because
it is the smallest of all equivalents, in which
case the equivalents of carbon and oxygen are
6 and 8. We might have assigned any other
number for H in which case we would find that
4*
42 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
6 and 8 standing for carbon and hydrogen would
have to be altered proportionally.
In fact the French chemists, because oxygen
enters into so many compounds, make it the
base of the table of equivalents by calling it 100,
in which case carbon becomes 75 and hydro-
gen 12J. But note that in H : C : : : 12f :
75 : 100 the numbers are in the same proportion
as 1 : 6 : 8.
The Atomic Theory. Let us imagine a drop of
water divided into smaller ones, and each of these
into still smaller ones and so on. It will not be
long before we reach a drop of the smallest size
appreciable by our senses; but we may go on
dividing in imagination and when the mind,
bewildered at last, pauses, let us ask the ques-
tion "Can we go on dividing forever; or must
we at length reach a point at which the drop is
no longer susceptible of division?" The atomic
theory supposes the latter alternative, viz. : that
bodies cannot be infinitely divided. A particle
incapable of further division is at length reached
to which is given the name atom, the etymology
of which is indivisable.
In this example we reach the atom of water
which we say is indivisable, that is as water; we
may indeed separate it into hydrogen and oxy-
gen, but it is then no longer water. Hydrogen,
oxygen and all the elements have their respective
atoms, which cannot of course be divided ; if they
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES. 43
could the element would be no longer an element
but a chemical compound.
Now these atoms must have weight, for dividing
a body does not destroy or diminish the aggre-
gate weight of the portions into which it is
divided. The question very naturally presents
itself whether the atom, say of hydrogen, has the
same weight as the atom of oxygen, or as the
atom of any other element? In other words
Have the atoms of the different elements the
same weight? We cannot now, and probably
never may tell the actual weight of any atom, for
such weight is far too small for the sensibility of
our most delicate balances. We may, however,
by the aid of the atomic theory form a very
reasonable supposition as to the relative weight
of the atoms. We have every reason to believe
that whatever an atom of hydrogen may weigh,
an atom of carbon weighs 6 times as much, and
an atom of oxygen 8 times as much. The atomic
theory assumes that in chemical combination it is
the atoms that unite ; that one or more atoms of
one element unite with one or more atoms of
another element. Furthermore, that the equiva-
lent numbers represent the relative weights of the
atoms. For example, one atom of water con-
tains an atom of hydrogen, and an atom of oxy-
gen, and the atom of oxygen weighs 8 times as
much as the hydrogen atom. If we analyze say
9 grains of water, we will obtain 1 grain of hy-
44 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
drogen and 8 grains of oxygen. Now I would
like the reader here to note the uncertainty of
the numerical result of the theory. The analysis is
perfectly correct ; one-ninth weight of any given
quantity of water is hydrogen, the rest is oxygen.
In the analysis we weigh millions of atoms.
What right have we to say that 1 atom of water
contains 1 atom of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxy-
gen ? We might say that it contains 2 atoms of
hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen, provided we
assign \ as the weight of a single atom of hydro-
gen. The atom of oxygen would then weigh 16
times as much as the hydrogen atom. In fact
some chemists have made this supposition. To
say which supposition agrees best with the pre-
sent state of chemistry, involves a consideration
of its whole domain.
Whatever we may assign as the difference
between the weight of an atom of hydrogen and
one of oxygen, there is no question as to the
numbers resulting from the analysis of water,
nor is there anything unreasonable in the sup-
position that in a chemical compound the atoms
unite, which atoms have a different weight for
every element.
Without assigning the grounds for our sup-
position, let us admit with the majority of
chemists, that water is composed of equal atoms
of H and O, that the oxygen atom weighs 8
times as much as the hydrogen atom, and that
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES. 45
the nitrogen atom weighs 14 times as much. It
will then follow as a necessary result from the
atomic theory that, the elements must unite in
the proportion of their equivalent numbers or of
multiples of those numbers.
If the atom of weigh 8 times as much as
the hydrogen atom, and if water contains equal
atoms of hydrogen and oxygen ; 9 pounds, ounces
or grains of water must contain 1 pound, ounce
or grain of hydrogen and 8 pounds ounces or
grains of oxygen. Deutoxide of hydrogen con-
tains the same elements as water. "We may ex-
pect to find one of the elements as a multiple of
its equivalent ; this is the case. The union of 1
pound of hydrogen with 16 pounds of oxygen
gives rise to 17 pounds of deutoxide of hydrogen ;
thus by the atomic theory
(H) 1 atom of hydrogen weighs, ... 1
(0 2 ) 1 atoms of oxygen weigh twice %== . . 16
(H0 2 ) 1 ATOM OF DEUTOXIDE OF HYDROGEN Weighs, . 1*7
The difference therefore, between water and
deutoxide of hydrogen is that water contains 1
atom of oxygen united with 1 atom of hydrogen,
while in deutoxide of hydrogen 2 atoms of oxy-
gen are joined to one of hydrogen. The follow-
ing according to the Atomic Theory is the
46 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
TABLE OF NITROGEN WITH OXYGEN.
In equivalents.
(NO) Protoxide of Nitrogen, y O
1 atom N -}- 1 atom 14 _j_ 8
(N0 2 ) Deutoxide of Nitrogen,
1 atom N -f 2 atoms 14 _[_ 2 x 8 = 16
(N0 3 ) Hyponitrous Acid,
I atom N -f 3 atoms 14 -f 3 x 8 = 24
(N0 4 ) Nitrous Acid,
1 atom N -f 4 atoms 14 -j- 4 x 8 = 32
(N0 5 ) Nitric Acid,
1 atom N _[> 5 atoms 14 -|- 5 x 8 = 40
I have thus purposely described the Atomic
Theory by way of speculation; for it is a specu-
lation, and however reasonable and explanatory
in a simple manner of chemical phenomena, is
not in the present state of the science, susceptible
of proof.
Let us in conclusion, take a practical example
ot this theory applied to alcohol, which is ex-
pressed by the symbol C 4 H 6 2 . In this body, by
the theory, four atoms of carbon, five of hydrogen,
and two of oxygen are conjoined, with the result
of one atom of alcohol. By the atomic theory,
we can infer the analysis : for since the weights
of the atoms of CHO, are respectively 6:1:8;
4x6 = 24 pounds of carbon joined to 6x1 = 6
pounds of hydrogen, and 2x8 = 16 pounds of
oxygen give 46 pounds of alcohol.
The compounds belonging to the department
of organic chemistry, are signalized by the readi-
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES. 47
ness with which they fall apart under the influence
of reagents, to form new combinations. This
behavior may be expected from the atomic
theory. Such compounds are like the pile in the
child's house of cards. With skill we may re-
move a card, (atom,) or two, forming a structure
of different shape ; but there are cards, which if
removed, will involve a complete ruin of the
edifice. Besides, if two such houses are in con-
tact, the fall of one will result in the fall or change
of its neighbor, as in the chemical case of fer-
mentation, explained by Liebig's theory.
CHAPTER II.
SUGAR.
ALL the vinegar used in the household arises
from a transformation of alcohol, which itself re-
sults from a chemical change experienced by
sugar. In the majority of instances, vinegar
manufacturers by the quick process employ ready
formed alcohol, which they buy as alcohol, spirits,
high wines, whisky, or some similarly distilled
liquid. It might, at first sight, appear useless in
this work, to devote a chapter to sugar, and part
of another to the manufacture of a fermented
liquid. It has, however, been deemed advisable
to treat these subjects in a general manner, not
only that a few may avail themselves of what is
said of them, but that a clearer idea may be pre-
sented of the relation of sugar and alcohol to
vinegar ; for there are some who seek to improve
their manufactured vinegar by the addition of a
saccharine substance, not aware that the alcoholic
and the acetic fermentations are entirely different
processes, and to be effected, require different
conditions, whether of temperature, nature of the
ferment, &c.
Although, according to the plan of this work,
Part I. is devoted to theoretical considerations ;
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE. 49
in the following chapters upon sugar and alcohol
a few practical operations will be discussed.
In the present chapter, we will, after consider-
ing the chemical nature and properties of the
sugars and allied bodies, learn how they may be
obtained in a liquid capable of fermentation. In
the chapter on alcohol we will proceed with the
change of sugar to alcohol, both theoretically and
practically, besides giving what alcoholic informa-
tion the vinegar maker ought to have, if he em-
ploy in his process spirits already manufactured.
The following table contains the principal
sugars and allied bodies, that is, bodies from
which sugar may be made, together with their
chemical composition :
THE SACCHAROID BODIES.
Starch ....... C 12 H 10 10 .
crystalized j or as some suppose, / C 24 H 24 24 .
\ CB~
Gums
Dextnne,
f f Cane sugar crystalized, . 1 C 12 H U U .
\ Supposed to be arranged, / 0^0, + 2HO.
Fruit sugar, (uncrystalizable,) . C 12 H 12 12 .
f Glucose or rasin sugar, called 1 Q TT o
Sugars -\ \ improperly grape sugar, / *VryMir
Milk sugar f-*,
j or as some s
I arranged as,
The formula in the last column denotes the
number of atoms or equivalents which each
body contains ; thus in cellulose, C^H^Ojo, there
are 12 equivalents or atoms of carbon united
50 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
with 10 of hydrogen, and the same numher of
oxygen. It will no doubt surprise the non-chemi-
cal reader to find bodies as unlike in their general
properties as wood, starch, gum, and sugar classed
together, but let him note how analogous is their
atomic constitution. These bodies all contain 12
atoms of carbon, and their hydrogen and oxygen
atoms are in equal proportion ; that is, in the
proportions proper to form water. One would
suppose that we might transform one member
of the table into another by the mere addition
or abstraction of one or several atoms of water.
This is generally the case ; indeed, we may easily
remember them all, if we say that the saccharoid
substances contain 12 atoms of carbon, and re-
spectively 10, 11, 12, and 14 atoms of water.
These bodies, with the exception of milk sugar,
all by fermentation fall apart into exactly the
same substances, namely : alcohol, carbonic acid,
and water ; the sugar directly ; the cellulose, starch
and gum, after having first experienced, by a
simple chemical process, a change into sugar. It
will perhaps be asked, how cellulose, starch, and
gum can have the same atomic constitution, and
yet be different bodies? The answer is ready.
The given formulse denote merely the number of
atoms of the constituent elements, not the arrange-
ment or grouping of the atoms, which is doubt-
less, different for each body. For example,
the formula for cane sugar is C 12 II n O n ; but we
have chemical reasons for supposing that these
CELLULOSE. 51
atoms are grouped thus : C 12 H 9 9 -f 2HO. Though
it may be said, for the purpose of remembering
the formulae of the table that all of their H aad
are contained as water ; this statement is, strictly
speaking, incorrect.
It should be stated, that while the proportion
between the atoms of CH and in the foregoing
table is firmly established, there is a difference of
opinion as to the actual number of atoms of each
element present. Thus cellulose might be C 24 H 20
O^ ; C^HgoOso ; C 6 H 5 5 , &c. ; for in all these formu-
lae, CH and are in the same proportion, namely
as 12 : 10 : 10. In fact, some chemists regard milk
sugar to be C 12 H 12 12 ; others as double this for-
mula, C 24 H 24 24 . The formulae given in the table
are those adopted by the majority of chemists.
To proceed with the subject cellulose, starch and
gum, however their atoms may be grouped, have
the same general atomic constitution C 12 H 10 10 .
CELLULOSE.
This body is the material of the myriads of cells
which make up every vegetable body. It is some-
times, though improperly, called lignine. The cells
themselves are filled in some instances with gra-
nules of starch, as in the potato and certain roots and
seeds. In other cases their walls are encrusted with
a firm woody matter, the true lignine. "Wood owes
its stiffness to this liguine, of which the composition
is unknown. In young plants the cells contain
a fluid or viscous matter holding in solution mine-
52 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
ral salts, gums, gelatinous, and albuminous mat-
ter, &c., &c. In oleaginous seeds, as of the olive,
flax, various nuts, &c., the cells contain besides
the above mentioned substances, others of an oily
nature. These cells maybe seen in every vegetable
body by examining a thin slice of it with the
microscope ; in the pith of the elder they may be
readily perceived with the naked eye. In the
asparagus they are also thus visible, and present
the appearance of lengthened cylinders. Vege-
table cells present a varied form. In hemp and
flax they are long and cylindrical ; in the cotton
fibre they are flattened, and like a twisted ribbon.
Cotton and linen afford us the purest cellulose,
especially when in the form of paper, and old
linen or cotton rags, because the chemical and
mechanical processes which they have been sub-
jected to in their manufacture and "wear" have
removed the foreign matters which are more de-
structible than cellulose. Pure cellulose is white,
translucent, insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, or
the oils. "With concentrated nitric acid, it expe-
riences a change, giving rise to an eminently ex-
plosive substance gun cotton. Its behavior with
oil of vitriol concerns more immediately the vine-
gar manufacturer. This acid changes it to a gum
called dextrine, which, as we shall see, by boiling
with a weak solution of the same acid, passes into
glucose or raisin sugar. Any one may perform
this interesting experiment as follows :
Add in a wedgewood mortar, oil of vitriol to
CELLULOSE. 53
half its weight of dry linen, cotton rags, or
paper. The mixture must be made very gradu-
ally, or th'e heat evolved will char the mass.
After all the acid has been added, rub up the
pulpy mass with the pestle, and let it stand for
several hours ; after which, add very gradually, its
bulk or more of water ; stir up well, and warm
for a short time ; then filter off the solution. The
woody fibre has thus been converted into " dex-
trine;" but the acid in the solution must be got
rid of. This is effected by adding thin lime white-
wash ; but not enough to completely neutralize
the acid. The neutralization is completed by
means of chalk or powdered limestone. If, after
once more filtering, we evaporate the solution,
the dextrine remains as a gummy mass. If we
desire sugar instead of dextrine, we must before
neutralizing the acid, boil the solution for three
or four hours, replacing the water as it evaporates.
The dextrine passes probably first inio fruit sugar ;
but certainly at last into raisin sugar. The pro-
cess is completed as before by neutralizing the
acid, filtering and evaporating to the crystalizing
point. Linen rags may thus yield more than
their own weight of sugar ; but the process is
comparatively an expensive one. As the sugar
from wood is fermentable, and the resulting alco-
hol susceptible of the vinegar process, we need
not be surprised to find that vinegar is one of the
products of the dry distillation of wood. But the
manufacture of vinegar from wood by destructive
5*
54 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
distillation is many times cheaper than by the
chemical process.
STARCH.
It has been said that some plants contain in
certain of their cells, starch. If with a sharp
knife we take the thinnest possible slice of a
potato, so thin that, it is transparent on the edges,
and then placing it upon the point of a needle,
stir it gently in water, so as to wash off the adhe-
rent matter, the microscope will afford an ocular
demonstration of the statement. Place the slice
upon a slip of glass with a drop of clear water
upon it, and covering it with a piece of thin glass,
such as is used in microscopy, examine its magni-
fied image. A most beautiful and interesting
picture will present itself. The cellular structure
of the vegetable is manifest; some of the cells are
empty, their contents have been discharged by
the cutting and subsequent washing. Others are
filled with transparent, shining, egg-shaped par-
ticles of various sizes; they are the starch "glo-
bules" Some of them are exactly egg-shaped;
others are more or less irregular. A close in-
spection will manifest upon each a "hilum"*
around which the starchy matter appears to
have been deposited in eccentric layers. If
the glasses between which the starch globules
* Hilum, a mark. In botany the mark on a fruit or seed in,di-
cating where the stem was attached.
STARCH. 55
lie be pressed together to break some of the
starch globules, the fracture passes through the
hilum as if the globules were weaker at that point.
If we heat very gradually the . glass on the side of
the starch 'deposit, the peculiar action of warm
water upon starch will be exhibited. The starchy
layers in each globule will begin to exfoliate about
the hilum, demonstrating that the matter is in
layers. By greater heat the globules disappear,
having become completely exfoliated and trans-
parent. By close attention we can perceive the
now shrunken membranous sac which originally
enveloped the starch globules.
Viewed by polarized light, starch is a beautiful
microscopic object.* In a certain position of the
polarizing apparatus, every globule has a black
cross depicted upon its shining white surface.
The intersection of the cross coincides with the
hilum. Finally, if we place the starch of different
plants under the microscope, we- will find that
although they bear the general characteristics
which I have described in potato starch, they are
so different in average size and shape that we may
assign the starch to its plant, or rather plant
family, by such microscopic examination.
Starch enters largely into the food of man, and
of every graminivorous animal ; accordingly we
find it in some portion of almost every plant. It
* Modern improvement has so cheapened the microscope as to
place this interesting instrument within the reach of almost every
lover of nature. See' every Optician's Catalogue.
56 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
is eaten, not only associated with gluten, in the
different varieties of bread or cakes and in certain
vegetables, but is also prepared separately for
purposes of food, as in sago, tapioca, arrowroot,
farina, corn starch, &c.
Corn starch is from maize ; farina is the starch
of wheat; sago that of the pith of the trunk of a
species of palm tree ; tapioca and arrowroot are
starch obtained from two different kind of roots
growing in the "West Indies.
Thus this important substance occurs in the
root, stem, seed, or fruit of a great many plants.
In the root, as of potato, arrowroot, and the plant
yielding tapioca ; in the stem of the sago palm ;
in the seed, as of rice, peas, beans, wheat, barley,
rye, oats, and the cereals generally ; in the fruit,
as of banana, plaintain, bread fruit, &c. The
amount of starch contained in these different sub-
stances varies according to the kind and culture of
the plant. Thus potatoes contain from 14 to 20
per cent, of starch. The following is the compo-
sition of an average variety :
Starch, .... 20-0
Cellulose, . . . 1-7
Gluten, . . . .1-5
Gum, sugar, and oil, . . 1'3
Mineral salts, . . .1-0
Water, . . . 74-5
100-0
Wheat contains a percentage of starch of from
STARCH. 57
55 to 77, and from 7 to 20 gluten ; the remaining
constituents being gum, oil, cellulose, mineral
salts, and water.
Rice contains 86 per cent, of starch.
Preparation of Starch. In preparing starch from
these different plants, the simple method always
obtains of rupturing the cells, washing out the
starch globules thus set free, and collecting them
after they have settled in the water, than which
they are heavier, having a specific gravity of 1-53.
In obtaining starch from wheat and similar
seeds, the gluten presents an obstacle to be over-
come. Several methods are adopted for liberating
the starch globules from their cells. Sometimes
the wheat is suffered to swell in water until soft,
and then placed in warmer water to ferment, when
the starch maybe squeezed out by pressure in bags,
or by grinding under vertical edge-stones. Some
prefer to crush the seed between iron rollers be-
fore steeping. In all cases the starch is liberated,
and much of the gluten got rid of by fermenta-
tion. The globules are then suspended in water,
passed through fine sieves, and permitted to settle
repeatedly, and at the last suffered to remain in the
water from four to five days. In settling, the
round form of the starch globule is of advantage,
for it enables it to reach the bottom of the vat
much sooner than the light, flattened shreds of
cellulose. The deposits of gluten, cellulose, &c.,
resting upon the stratum of starch, are called
slimes. They are rejected and serve for food for
animals.
58 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
The starch is at last removed from the water
and placed in perforated canvas lined boxes,
where its water for the most part drains off. The
mass is then broken up into rectangular plates,
which are dried, first upon half burned bricks,
and finally in stoves. During dissication the
plates split up into the prismatic columnar form
in which we find the starch of commerce. "Wheat
yields an average of from 35 to 40 per cent, of
good starch.
Potato starch is sometimes used by the vinegar
maker. This he prepares himself, by reducing
the vegetable to a pulp in a rasping machine,
under a moderate stream of water. The pulp is
squeezed and stirred by the hand, or by machin-
ery, upon a fine wire or hair sieve, under thin
jets of water. The pulp remaining is re-rasped.
The milky water holding the starch in suspen-
sion, is collected in a vat, where it remains for a
time. The supernatent water is brought into a
second and thence into a third vat. The starch
settles in these different vats of different fineness
and purity. It contains about 33 per cent, of
water, and is called green fecula. It may, of
course, be treated like wheat starch and obtained
dry; but the vinegar maker employs it in the
moist condition, preserving it under a layer of
water, which is renewed from time to time, to
prevent fermentation and at length converting it
into raisin sugar and alcohol by processes to be
described hereafter. The product of starch from
STARCH. 59
the potato, is from 17 to 18 per cent, of the
weighed tuber.
Chemical nature of starch. Chemists are ac-
quainted with at least three varieties of starch.
1. Starch proper, such as has been just described,
existing in the potato, wheat, &c., and which is
always intended when speaking of starch in this
work. 2. Inuline, found in the roots of several
plants, as elecampane, the dahlia, &c. 3. Lichen
starch, obtained from several lichens and algse,
among which may be mentioned Iceland moss
and carrageen or Irish moss.
These three varieties agree in their insolubility
in cold water, alcohol, ether or oil, and in being,
by the aid of dilute sulphuric acid or diastase,
converted into sugar.
They differ in their behavior with hot water and
iodine ; thus : 1. Ordinary starch gives with hot
water a mucilaginous liquid, jellying when cold,
and colored intensely blue with iodine. 2. Inuline
gives a granular precipitate when its boiling solu-
tion is cooled, and which is colored yellow by io-
dine. 3. Lichen starch yields a gelatinous mass
when cold, which is colored brownish gray by
iodine.
To return to ordinary starch ; if we place some
in cold water, no change takes place, but upon
boiling the starch, layers exfoliate, having burst
the membranous sac enveloping the starch glob-
ule. If too much water has not been taken, a
gelatinious mass, the starch of the laundress, re-
60 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
mains on cooling. It has been supposed that an
actual solution of the starch does not here take
place, because if the apparent solution be frozen
the starch all separates.
A watery solution of iodine colors intensely
blue, not only the starch globules and starch
paste but also the water in which starch has been
boiled. Cellulose is not colored blue by iodine,
but acquires this property by a short contact with
oil of vitriol, which seems to prove that woody
fibre in its passage to dextrine and sugar, assumes
something of the starchy nature.
Starch itself may be transformed to gum dex-
trine by heat, acids, and by diastase. The gum
formed by heating dry starch can better be treated
under the head of dextrine. As a prolonged ac-
tion of acids and diastase, result in the change of
dextrine to raisin sugar, I shall defer the consid-
eration of these phenomena to the portions of
this chapter which treats of sugar.
I have used several times the word diastase ;
it may be well to conclude the subject of starch
by a description of this wonderful body.
Every living seed when placed under the con-
ditions of moisture and warmth favorable to its
development, sprouts, during which process "di-
astase" is formed, probably from the albuminous
matter of the seed. This diastase has the remark-
able property of converting starch first into a gum
called dextrine and then into sugar. In brewing,
this property is utilized. The operation of malt-
STARCH. 61
ing brings about an artificial germination of bar-
ley or rye, whereby diastase is formed, which
acts upon the starch of the seed, converting it
into the fermentable bodies, gum and sugar. To
obtain and test the properties of diastase, we have
only to add alcohol to a filtered watery solution
of crushed malt, which precipitates diastase along
with other matter. If we place this sediment in
contact with starch and water at a temperature of
from 140-149 Fah., the transformation of starch
to gum first and then to sugar may be observed.
Diastase thus plays an important part in the
economy of nature. A seed is like the fecundated
egg of a fowl which contains within its shell every-
thing needed for the formation of a perfect bird,
which under favorable circumstances breaks from
its imprisonment and leads a life of an entirely
different character from its embryonic condition.
The plant roots itself immovably in the earth, and
its food comes to it from earth and air through its
rootlets and leaves. Its food, besides mineral salts,
is carbonic acid and water, which it decomposes in
the light, appropriating the carbon, hydrogen and
some oxygen, to form compounds necessary to its
existence, and breathing out the greater part of the
oxygen. The plant is an organism essentially
opposite to the animal ; in fact, they are comple-
mentary to each other, for each yields what the
other requires for its life, and together they com-
plete the grand circle of vitality. The animal
nourishes itself with the hydro- carbon matter of
62 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
the plant, oxidizing these in its body and breath-
ing them, out in the form of carbonic acid and
water necessary to plant life ; while, on the other
hand, the animal could not live without oxygen,
the breath of the plant. The plant to develop
itself by the aid of carbonic acid and water, needs
to root itself in the ground and rear its stem in
the air. How then can the seed buried in the
dark earth gain this advantage ? It contains in its
envelope enough matter to shoot a rootlet down-
ward and to elevate a delicate stem and leaf to
the air, and diastase, formed during the germi-
nation, appears to play the part in it of convert-
ing its starch first into soluble gum and sugar,
from which the insoluble cellulose of the cells is
formed, upon the walls of which the rigid lignine
is deposited, giving rise to the stiff wood thrust-
ing itself downward in the radicle and upward in
the stem. Starch dextrine and cellulose all con-
tain C 12 H n O n . The life process I am describing,
arranges by the aid of diastase, these atoms in the
requisite manner to effect the change from starch
to wood. "With the first root and leaf the plant
is born, it shifts for itself, takes in matter from
quarters exterior to itself, and advances to the
perfection of its development, transmitting its life
force to a subsequent generation, by bearing seed
after its kind.
THE GUMS. 63
THE GUMS
constitute a class of bodies, distinguished in the
popular mind for the adherent, sticky, or so
called gummy nature of their solutions, and are
employed in the arts for pasting, thickening col-
ors, as mordants in calico printing, and for giving
gloss and finish to certain woven fabrics. Gum
arabic and tragacanth, as well as the cerasine
which exudes from the trunk of the cherry, peach,
plum and similar trees, are well known. Dex-
trine the artificial gum, prepared from starch,
takes rank with these.
The gums have the general atomic constitution
C 12 H 10 10 , that is as far as the number of atoms of
their elements go, they are identical in composi-
tion with each other, with woody fibre and with
starch. They all differ in certain chemical and
physical properties, which is attributable to the
arrangement of their atoms, and which differ-
ence does not concern our present purpose. It
suffices to know their points of resemblance,
viz., that none of them crystalize ; that all when
heated with a dilute solution of mineral acid,
(sulphuric,) are transformed into sugar, which
may be converted into alcohol and then vine-
gar; that when pure they are not colored by
iodine; and that, although more or less solu-
ble in water, they are insoluble in strong alco-
hol. The latter property enables us to separate
sugars and gums, for if we add enough strong
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
alcohol to the mixed solution, the sugar will
remain in solution, and the gum will assume the
form of a- sediment.
DEXTRINE
arises from the transformation of starch, in three
ways ; by acids, by the action of diastase, and by
heat. In its adhesive property and general ap-
pearance when pure and dry, it much resembles
gum arabic. As it costs much less than gum
arabic, it is extensively employed in the arts as a
substitute. It has received its name, which
means "right-handed," from its action of twisting
the plane of polarized light to the right hand to
a greater degree than any known body. I will
endeavor at the close of the chapter, to give a
popular explanation of this effect on polarized
light.
Dextrine may be prepared by the following dif-
ferent methods :
1st. By boiling starch with almost any dilute
acid. A little sulphuric acid added to a boiling
gelatinous starch paste will, in a very short time,
make a solution as limpid as water. The change
to dextrine has been thus effected. "We can
readily ascertain when the starch is all gone, by
adding every few minutes to a small portion of
the liquid, a few drops of iodine solution, which
strikes a blue color with starch, but does not affect
the dextrine. It is important to stop the boiling
at the precise point when iodine no longer colors
DEXTRINE. 65
the solution, since prolonged boiling changes the
dextrine to raisin sugar. Thus, if 15 parts of
starch, 60 of water and 6 of oil of vitriol, be
boiled together for four hours, replacing the
water as it evaporates, the dextrine at first formed
is entirely converted into sugar. The process
can be interrupted at any moment ; the acid neu-
tralized by chalk, and the dextrine, sugar, or their
mixture, recovered from the filtered solution by
boiling it down to a syrup.
2d. Preparation ~by Diastase. It has been ob-
served that diastase effects the above change of
starch to dextrine and sugar. The following sim-
ple experiment may be performed by any one :
Powder a small quantity of malt (germinated
barley), and soak it for several hours in a little
water of the temperature of 80-85 Fah., squeeze
the water from the parts through linen and
filter ; the result is a solution of diastase. One
part by weight of dry diastase is capable of
transforming 2000 parts of starch to dextrine,
and subsequently to sugar. Hence, one part of
diastase is as effective as 30 parts of sulphuric
acid. If the diastase solution be added to gela-
tinous starch kept at a temperature between
150-170 Fah., the transformation to dextrine
will speedily take place, a delay of several hours
at this temperature will complete the change of
dextrine to sugar, and we can, as before, ascer-
tain when all the starch is gone by the use of
iodine solution. The action of the diastase may
6*
66 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
be arrested at any point, by raising the tempera-
ture to the boiling point.
3d. Preparation ly Heat. Dry starch raised to
the temperature of 400 Fah., is converted into
dextrine. Except that it is of yellowish tinge its
appearance is unchanged; it dissolves readily in
water yielding a gummy solution. Dextrine used
in the arts for gum purposes is thus prepared ; it
is called British gum. A trace of acid added to
starch enables British gum to be made at a much
lower temperature than 400. For example : if
1000 pounds of starch be moistened with a mix-
ture of 300 pounds of water and 2 pounds nitric
acid, and after spontaneously drying be exposed
for one or two hours in stoves to a temperature
of 212-230 Fah., the transformation wall be com-
plete, and all the acid will have evaporated.
British gum is not, like dextrine prepared by sul-
phuric acid or diastase, transformable into sugar.
THE SUGARS.
The sugars constitute a class of bodies most
important for man's food. Sugar is not only
in the earliest nourishment which the mammal
requires; not only is it eagerly sought by the
young, and enjoyed by men of all ages in the
various fruits and vegetables constituting their
food, but enormous quantities of pure sugar are
manufactured and consumed every year, as may
be seen by Dr. Stolle's table quoted in the
"Chemistry of Common Life."
THE SUGARS. 67
Millions of pounds Per centage of the whole
annually. Sugar production.
Cane Sugar, .... 452*7 87.7
Beet " .... 362 7.3
Palm " .... 220 4.2
Maple " .... 45 0.8
100.0
In the following countries the assigned quan-
tities of sugar are used yearly in proportion to
their respective populations :
Countries. Pounds per head annually.
Russia, 1J
Belgium, 5
France, 7
Great Britain, .... 28
Venezuela, .... 180
The amount to each inhabitant of the United
States is not stated, hut it is safe to say that the
proportion far exceeds that of Great Britain.
The sugars cited in the first tahle are identical
in nature with cane sugar, although obtained
from such different plants. If asked for a simple
definition of the true sugars I would say that
they are bodies of sweet taste, soluble in water,
less soluble in alcohol, yielding alcohol and car-
bonic acid by the vinous fermentation, and having
in every atom of sugar twelve (or a multiple) atoms
of carbon, and hydrogen and oxygen in equal
atoms, that is in the proportion proper to form
water. This last characteristic is expressed by
giving sugars the name "carbohydrates" i. e.
" charcoal waters." My definition excludes mineral
68 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
sweets, as sugar of lead and hyposulphate of silver.
It also shuts out certain vegetable sweets as the
manioc, and liquorice which are not "carbohy-
drates" nor yielding alcohol and carbonic acid
by yeast fermentation.
All sugars are not identical with cane sugar.
Here are the different varities :
Cane Sugar,
Fruit "
Raisin "
Milk
*) either f
/ or \
C 12 H 14H
f C 12 H 12 12 \
lc 24 H 2 Aa
It is unfortunate that the sugars form so
few definite crystalizable compounds with other
bodies. For this reason, analysis cannot show
whether the number of atoms assigned actually
belongs to the sugars, although its results are
certain with respect to the proportion existing
between the numbers of atoms of carbon, hydro-
gen and oxygen.
Milk Sugar. Let us consider this variety at
once so as to have done with it. It enters in no
respect into the vinegar manufacture and finds a
place here solely because the Tartars ferment the
milk of their mares to form the alcoholic drink
Kouhmiss, which when distilled yieids the spirit
called arrack. This sugar is contained in the
milk of all mammalian animals, and has been
detected, it is said, although the fact has been
denied by Dessaignes, in the acorn.
In Switzerland and in other cheese-making
THE SUGARS. 69
countries, it is manufactured for sale to a small
extent, by evaporating to crystalization the whey
after separating the curd for cheese. The ho-
moeopathist employs it to infinitely dilute his
drugs, hy triturating a small portion of them
with a large quantity of milk sugar.
This body crystalizes in white four sided
prisms, is gritty to the teeth, less sweet and less
soluble than cane sugar, requiring 4 parts of hot
and 7 of cold water. Dilute acids transform it to
raisin sugar. It does not ferment with yeast
alone, but dissolved in the milk with butter and
curd readily yields carbonic acid and alcohol.
A characteristic product of its fermentation is
lactic acid. Chemists are not agreed whether it
contains 12 or 24 of the atoms respectively of its
elements.
Cane, Fruit and Raisin Sugars are so well
known by experience if not by name, that it is
not too much to say that every civilized indi-
vidual is in the habitual use of all of them. All
the sugar sold as such in the solid state is of the
same variety as cane sugar. Fruit sugar is en-
joyed in molasses and in acid fruits, and raisin
sugar in raisins and other acid fruits which have
been dried.
1st. Cane Sugar is found in the sugar cane,
sorghum, stalk of maize, the wounded top shoot
of the palm, American aloe, &c., in the ascend-
ing sap of the maple, in beets, melons, cocoa,
pine apples, bananas, the nectaries of flowers,
70 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
and in the juices of parts of many other vege-
table productions. It is a singular fact that
those parts of the plant most remote from the
leaves contain juice the richer in sugar, which
appears to show that the sugar experiences a
change in the branches to cellulose or the fibre
of wood. We have learned how wood may be
converted into sugar; here is perhaps, an ex-
ample of the transformation of sugar to wood.
2d. Fruit Sugar is found in acid fruits, as the
grape, gooseberry, strawberry, apple, peach, cur-
rant, pear, cherry, &c. Also, in honey, where it
results probably from a transformation in the
bee of the cane sugar of the nectaries of flowers.
It also results from the change of cane sugar by
acids or by ferments, and is well known to us in
molasses, the larger portion of which is fruit
sugar.
3d. Raisin Sugar which bears also the name
"glucose," may be seen in the form of little
whitish grains covering the surface of raisins
and of prunes. It is generally called "grape"
sugar; a misnomer, for grapes contain chiefly
fruit sugar, which is transformed into raisin
sugar by the process of drying and by time.
Since fruit sugar becomes converted into raisin
sugar by standing, we often find liquid honey
become by age, a crystaline mass of raisin sugar.
Raisin sugar is also the result of the transfor-
mation of woody fibre, starch and gum by acids,
or in the case of the last two bodies, by diastase.
THE SUGARS. 71
As might be supposed it frequently occurs with
fruit sugar in the juices of acid fruits in honey,
&c. It has been noticed in dry seasons as an
exudation upon the leaves of some forest trees.
In the animal kingdom it has been found in the
white of an egg, in the liver and blood, and
always in the urine of persons suffering from the
disease "diabetes mellitus." In this disease the
patient frequently passes over 30 pints of urine
per day, containing 3 pounds 4J ounces of raisin
sugar. Milk sugar may be converted by dilute
acids into raisin sugar.
Let us now, as briefly as may be, consider these
three kinds of sugar.
1st. Cane Sugar. This variety is manufac-
tured largely from the juice of the cane, beet
root, and sap of the maple. The average com-
position of the sugar cane is
Sugar, 18-22
"Water and gluten, . . . . . 71
Woody matter, 10
Salt, 1
100
That of the European cultivated sugar beet,
Sugar, 10^-14
Water, 81
Fibre, 5
Gluten, &c., 3
100
"While from 6 to 7 per cent, of cane sugar are
72 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
extracted in Europe from fresh beet root, not
more than 6 to 6J result generally in the "West
Indies from the sugar cane.* This difference is
due to the superior scientific skill applied to the
former manufacture.
The loss of sugar is attributable to the change
which the juice experiences in its treatment, by
which 3 per cent, of sugar are converted into
molasses (uncrystalizable fruit sugar), 2J are
lost in the skimmings, and 6 per cent, left in the
canes. The molasses of the beet owing to its
unpleasant taste is not available directly for
sweetening purposes.
Cane sugar crystalizes readily and beautifully,
as may be seen in sugar candy. The density
of these crystals is 1-6. It dissolves in J only
of its weight of cold water. Eighty parts of
boiling absolute alcohol will dissolve one part
of sugar, which is almost entirely separated on
cooling. Weaker alcohol having a strength of
83 per cent, will dissolve J its weight of sugar
at the boiling temperature.
The action of heat on sugar is worthy of notice.
Eaised to a temperature above 320 Fah., it melts
to a viscous fluid, which when suddenly cooled
is like glass, brittle, transparent and non-cry s-
taline. Its atomic constitution is as before C 12 H n
O n . If this candy be kept for some time in the
air it becomes gradually crystaline, to produce
which effect its molecules must gradually shift
* In Cuba 10 to 12 per cent. Johnston.
THE SUGARS. 73
their relative positions in the solid mass. Chem-
istry furnishes us with several examples of this
singular phenomenon in solids. This molecular
rearrangement takes place suddenly if candy
while yet warm be pulled, the mass becoming
white and opaque. The temperature rises dur-
ing the operation as if a condensation were
taking place.
Sugar kept for some time at 356 Fah., is radi-
cally modified. It loses the power of crystalizing
from its solutions. Between 378-396 it parts
with two atoms of water, becoming C 12 H 9 9 , and
caramel, a black substance, no longer sweet or
fermentable, but deliquescent and readily dis-
solving in water, to which it imparts a deep brown
color. Caramel is employed to give vinegar
made from alcohol and which is as limpid as
water, the fine natural color of wine or cider vin-
egar. When sugar is kept in contact with almost
any acid, even with dilute ones, it becomes un-
crystalizable and presents a very great analogy
to fruit sugar.
Cane sugar forms several compounds with
mineral salts ; some of them are very deliquescent
and refuse to crystalize with the pure sugar re-
maining in the molasses. As the juices of sugar
bearing plants contain a certain quantity of min-
eral matter, we may readily perceive how a loss
of crystalizable sugar is due to this property.
If we examine molasses, we find that it con-
tains, 1st. Uncrystalizable sugar, arising from the
74 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
action of heat in the boiling process, and from the
action of acids and ferments upon the juice. 2d.
Crystalizable sugar kept in solution by its combi-
nation with mineral salts. 3d. Free crystalizable
sugar which cannot readily separate in crystaline
form from the viscous molasses, which impedes
that motion of the sugar molecules so necessary
to crystalization. This portion of sugar, however,
separates from the molasses by long standing.
The analysis of crystalized cane sugar, yields the
formula, C 12 H n O n , in which the atoms are sup-
posed to be grouped C 12 H 9 9 +2HO, because we
may form a compound of oxide of lead and sugar,
containing C 12 H 9 9 +2 atoms of oxide of lead; and
again we may take this lead compound and sub-
stituting therein 2 atoms of water for the two of
oxide of lead obtain crystalized sugar having the
original formula C 12 H n O n .
Cane sugar is susceptible of the alcoholic fer-
mentation, but it must pass first into fruit sugar.
This change may take place by acids, either al-
ready present or generated in the fermentable
liquid, or by the ferment itself.
The juices of sugar yielding plants contain
everything necessary for fermentation. When
exposed to the air at a slightly elevated tempera-
ture, substances are generated which transform
cane to fruit sugar, and a ferment arises which
transforms the latter into alcohol.
To affect the alcoholic transformation, pure
sugar requires to be diluted with water to a
TIIE SUGARS. 75
strength of from 10 to 12 per cent, and a ferment
then added.
2. Fruit Sugar. This sugar, found in the juices
of acid fruits is very sweet and un cry staliz able.
It occurs in the ascending sap of the birch, and in
the descending sap of the maple. It is frequently
associated with cane sugar, as in honey, grapes,
&c. It may be readily obtained, by saturating
the acid juices with chalk, then boiling with white
of egg, which in coagulating separates certain
mucilaginous substances. The filtered liquor is
then evaporated by a gentle heat. When, dry it
has the appearance of gum, does not crystalize,
and soon becomes liquid by attracting moisture
from the air. It dissolves very readily in water,
also freely in alcohol of 33 per cent., but is nearly
insoluble in absolute alcohol. A ferment added
to its watery solution at once induces the alcoholic
transformation.
If a syrup of fruit sugar be kept for a long
time, a portion is transformed into raisin sugar,
which crystalizes out in grains. The dried
sugar also becomes crystaline by long standing,
having first attracted moisture from the air.
Chemists explain this change of fruit sugar,
(C 12 H 12 O 12 ,) to raisin sugar, (C 12 H 14 U ,) by the as-
sumption of 2 atoms of water, 2HO.
When a watery solution of cane sugar is boiled
for a considerable time, it refuses to crystalize ;
the result is supposed to be a mixture of cane
sugar with fruit sugar which has been formed,
76 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
the viscidity or ropiness of the latter impeding the
crystalization of the remaining cane sugar. Veg-
etable juices containing fruit sugar possess a body
capable of passing into a ferment, which at the
proper temperature, induces the alcoholic fer-
mentation in such juices.
Cane and fruit sugars are rarely employed by
the vinegar maker. They generally command a
higher price in their state of sugar, than when
converted into acetic acid, and it is only in ex-
ceptional cases that they are thus employed. In
the case of wine, cider, &c., used for the finer
vinegars, and which -arise from fruit sugar, it
need scarcely be said, that these are made for
beverages which command a higher price ; the
ultimate conversion into vinegar depending upon
their souring, or upon other considerations, as of
supply and demand, &c.
3. Raisin Sugar. This sugar maybe called, at
least in our country, the source of all the vinegar
made by the quick process, because all of our
commercial alcohol arises from the fermentation
of raisin sugar, formed in the brewing of grain of
different kinds. This sugar bears two other
names, glucose and grape sugar. Both of these
designations are misnomers. Glucose means
sweet, yet raisin sugar is inferior in sweetness to
either cane or fruit sugar. It is estimated that
one pound of cane sugar is equivalent in sweetness
to from two to three pounds of raisin sugar. As
to the other name, grape contains by far more
THE SUGARS. 77
fruit than raisin sugar, although the former is
transformed gradually into the latter when the
grapes are dried and kept.
Raisin sugar appears to arise always from a
change of fruit sugar, by the assumption of two
atoms of water, (C 12 H 12 12 + 2HO = C 12 H 14 O 14 ).
The granular crusts which form in jars of pre-
served acid fruits, consist of raisin sugar. The
cane sugar employed in making such preserves
is converted into fruit sugar (?) by the acid of the
fruit. This, by time and the absorption of water,
changes to raisin sugar which crystalizes out.
Raisin sugar is more difficult of crystalization
than cane sugar. It forms warty, cauliflower-like
aggregations of grains. It is also less soluble,
one pound requiring in the cold one and a half
pounds of water for solution. On the other hand,
it dissolves more freely in alcohol ; one part of
raisin sugar being dissolved by sixty parts of boil-
ing absolute alcohol, and by from five to six parts
of alcohol of 83 per cent.
The following is the action of heat upon this
sugar :
At 140 Fah., it softens, and at the temperature
of boiling water, it is completely liquid. At the
latter temperature, it loses two atoms of water and
becomes C 12 H 12 12 , but this is not fruit sugar, for
it acts differently upon polarized light. The so-
lution of this changed sugar when evaporated,
yields a pitchy mass when evaporated to dryness.
Abandoned in contact with water for a time, this
7*
78 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
mass returns gradually to crystalizable raisin
sugar.
At a higher temperature, raisin sugar like cane
sugar, becomes caramelized. Raisin sugar com-
bines less readily with bases than cane sugar, nor
is it changed, like the latter, by the action of di-
lute acids.
Oil of vitriol dropped upon raisin sugar dis-
solves it without blackening, forming a chemical
compound. Cane sugar under the same circum-
stances, yields a charred mass. Upon this differ-
ence is due the following characteristic test, which
is said to indicate one millionth part of cane
sugar in solution. Mix one part by weight of oil
of vitriol with from five to seven of water. Add
some of this acid to the suspected sugar solution,
and expose to the temperature of boiling water.
If cane sugar be present the liquid will turn dark.
A very striking characteristic of raisin sugar
and one which enables us to distinguish it from
cane sugar, and even to determine its quantity in
solution, is its action upon salts of copper at the
boiling temperature. Sulphate of copper, tartrate
of potassa and caustic potassa are dissolved toge-
ther in water, and the intens'ely blue liquid re-
sulting is filtered. If weak solutions of sugar are
to be tested, the solution should not be too blue ;
in such a case, dilute with water to the proper
strength. If to a portion of this test, boiling, a
solution containing raisin sugar be added, the test
liquid will lose its blue color, and an orange red,
THE SUGARS. 79
granular solid, will separate from it. This pre-
cipitate, which is the suboxide of copper, results
from the sugar depriving the copper test of a por-
tion of its oxygen. Cane sugar does not and fruit
sugar does produce the same result. If, however,
a solution of cane sugar be boiled with a little oil
of vitriol, it becomes converted into fruit sugar,
which will give the above mentioned reaction
with the copper test. A method of analysis for
determing the actual amount of sugar in a solu-
tion, is founded upon this reaction with salts of
copper, as follows. Take a measure capable of
containing about two fluid ounces. As it is not
necessary to know the exact capacity of this mea-
sure, it may be made from a glass stoppered bot-
tle, by simply filing a small channel in the stop-
per, longitudinally. If this bottle be filled to the
brim with any liquid and the stopper inserted, the
excess of liquid will escape by the channel in the
stopper, and thus the bottle always measures ex-
actly the same quantity. Dilute a quantity of the
copper test so that by repeated trial, it is found
that ten grains of raisin sugar exactly decolorizes
a measure full of it.
WQ are now prepared to determine in a few
moments the quantity of raisin sugar in solution.
Thus, boil one measure full of the copper test in
a porcelain dish, and add the sugar solution grad-
ually, from one of the graduated vessels, to be
described on a future page ; stop as soon as decol-
oration takes place, and read the number of parts
80 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
of the saccharine liquid, that have been required
to produce this effect. That number contains ten
grains of raisin sugar. If we know the relation
existing between the graduated measure and a
gallon, we can, of course, by a simple rule of three
calculation, ascertain how many grains of sugar
are in a gallon of saccharine liquid. To apply
this analysis to cane sugar, we must first boil the
sugar solution with a little oil of vitriol, and hav-
ing saturated the excess of acid by caustic potassa,
proceed as in the former case.
Finally, a mixture of cane and raisin sugar may
be thus analyzed. First, determine the decolori-
zing power of the mixture, which gives the amount
of raisin sugar. Then, treat with acid and potash
to transform the cane sugar, and determine the
amount of decolorizing pow r er which the saccha-
rine solution has thus acquired. I have thus de-
scribed an easy mode of analyzing the sugars, in
case it should be required. Far simpler and more
reliable, although more expensive at first on ac-
count of the apparatus, is the method of analysis
by polarized light.
Preparation of Raisin Sugar, on a large scale.
The vinegar manufacturers generally employ alco-
hol already made. But in some instances they use
potato starch or raisin sugar formed from the
same, either by dextrine or by sulphuric acid. In
all cases the sugar must be converted into alcohol
by fermentation before it can be transformed into
vinegar. This is effected in a small fermenting
tun at the vinegar works.
THE SUGARS. 81
Iii the following description, it will be seen how
starch may be transformed upon a large scale into
raisin sugar for the % use of the vinegar maker by
the action of oil of vitriol.
The operation is carried on in large tuns, which
are two-thirds filled with the mixture, and in which
the temperature may be raised to the boiling point
by blowing in steam.
For every 100 pounds of starch from one to
three pounds of oil of vitriol, and from 150 to 300
pounds (15 to 30 gallons) of water are taken. A
portion of the water is used to dilute the acid, the
rest to mingle with the starch. The diluted acid
is introduced into the tun, and the steam turned
on so as to bring it to the boiling temperature.
The starch having been mingled with the water as
stated, so that it may be poured in a thin stream,
is now brought into the boiling acid in" ten suc-
cessive portions, and the temperature is maintained
for 30 or 40 minutes, after the addition of the last
portion. By this time the conversion into raisin
sugar has been effected ; but the fact is ascertained
by suffering a few drops to cool upon a plate, and
then adding a little solution of iodine, w r hich
strikes a blue color as long as any starch remain
unchanged. In this operation a portion of the
starch may be converted into gum, which is
capable of being changed to sugar by a more pro-
longed boiling of the acid solution. This point is
ascertained by filtering a small portion of the
liquid, and adding then an equal bulk of strong
82 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
alcohol. The presence of gum is indicated by a
flocculent precipitate; gum being insoluble in
alcohol.
The sugar being formed, the next step consists
in removing the acid ; which is effected by add-
ing gradually, finely powdered limestone, or
chalk rubbed up with water, to the liquid in
the tun, until it ceases to redden blue litmus
paper. The white sediment which thus forms is
sulphate of lime or plaster of Paris. Every pound
of oil of vitriol yields a pound and a half of this
plaster ; a small portion remains dissolved. After
standing for twelve hours, the clear liquid is drawn
off, and poured through bone black to decolorize
it, after which it is boiled down to the strength
proper for fermentation to alcohol.
If it be required to crystalize it, it must be
boiled to a strength of 32 Beaume", and set aside
for eight days. One hundred pounds of perfectly
dry starch may yield the same weight of dry
raisin sugar. But since the apparently dry starch
of commerce contains 18 per cent, of water, 100
pounds of such starch are capable of yielding not
more than 82 pounds, or in practice, 80 pounds
of raisin sugar. Hence it follows that we may
obtain from 100 pounds of starch 800 pounds of
syrup, of 10 per cent, saccharine strength, or pro-
per for fermentation. The small amount of sul-
phate of lime which the syrup contains, does not
injure it. The foregoing process may be improved
by using quick lime for neutralizing the greater
THE SUGARS. 83
part of the acid. When limestone or chalk is
employed, the escape of the carbonic acid is very
troublesome, causing the liquid to "boil over.
Caution must be observed in the use of quick
lime, as an excess injures the sugar. The liquid
must become perfectly cold, and a half a pound
of quick lime in the state of whitewash added very
slowly for every pound of oil of vitriol present.
A small portion of carbonate of lime is then suffi-
cient to complete the neutralization.
The action of Sugar upon Polarized Light. The
effects of polarized light with the sugars are so
characteristic of their different varieties, that a
history of sugar would be imperfect without some
allusion to such phenomena. I will therefore en-
deavor briefly and popularly to explain the phe-
nomena.
To do this we must recall some of the properties
and laws of light. Light always travels through
a medium in right lines or rays. A ray of light
reaching a body may be either wholly or partially
reflected, refracted or absorbed.
If it leave the body at an equal angle, as a bil-
liard ball rebounds from the cushion, it is " re-
flected:'
If it traverse a transparent body, more or less
bent from its original course, (that is, making an
angle with said course,) it is refracted.
If it strike a black body it is "absorbed." If
the body be colored, it is partially absorbed.
White light is, as is well known, composed of
84 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
the seven rainbow colors. Any one of these colors
may be reflected refracted, or absorbed. The
law of reflection is the same for every color, viz. :
" the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence."
Refraction, on the other hand, varies : 1st, with
the transparent body ; 2d, with the color of the
ray ; for first, white light is refracted to a differ-
ent degree for different transparent bodies. The
refraction, is measured by a mathematical relation,
which need not be given here. Secondly, the
colored rays are refracted to a different degree by
the same transparent body. It is this property of
the colored rays which enables us to prove the
compound nature of white light. Refraction has
another peculiarity about it. If a ray of light
strike a transparent body perpendicularly to a
plane surface, it will be totally transmitted with-
out refraction. If it strike at a certain angle pecu-
liar to the body, it will be totally reflected without
refraction. If it strike at an intermediate angle,
part of the ray will be reflected, and the rest re-
fracted, according to the nature of the transparent
body. It concerns our purpose to observe that
in the last case both the reflected portion and the
refracted portion of the ray contain polarized light.
Light may be polarized by reflection at certain
angles from different substances, as water, black
glass, &c. ; by refraction, as by bundles of glass
plates, carbonate of lime, and other crystals ; and
by transmission as through plates of the mineral
THE SUGARS. 85
tourmaline. By these means, a ray of white light,
or a ray of any color, may be polarized. The fol-
lowing is the difference between common light
and polarized light. If we permit a beam of any
kind of light to enter a dark room through a cir-
cular aperture in one of the shutters, we will find
that it may be reflected from, or transmitted by
any crystalized or uncrystalizecl body in the very
same manner, and with the same intensity, whether
the surface of the body is held above or below the
beam, on the right side or on the left, or on any
other side of it, provided that it falls on the sur-
face in the same manner.* In other words, a ray
of common light has the same properties on all of
its sides.
Now, if this same ray of light be permitted to
pass through a crystal of Iceland spar, or to fall
upon a plate of glass at the angle of 56, the two
rays into which it is divided will be polarized.
The^ will have different properties upon different
sides, as the magnet has different properties at its
two poles. Take one of these rays of polarized
light, and apply another plate of glass to it at the
polarizing angle, (56,) and rotate the glass, (keep-
ing it always at the angle 56,) and it will be found
that on two sides, which are opposite, the ray will
be reflected, while on two others, intermediate
with the former, the ray will not be reflected at
all.
We may also perceive this polarity by transmit-
* Sir D. Brewster.
86 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
ting the ray of polarized light through another
crystal of Iceland spar, or a plate of tourmaline,
which we suffer to rotate on its axis. Beginning at
the point where most light passes through the crys-
tal, we will find on rotating that the light fades until
it disappears at a quarter of a revolution, gradually
reappearing to the original brightness at the half
revolution, disappearing at three-quarters of the
revolution, and appearing at the full revolution.
This is a very remarkable property of light, and
one which has received an extended application
in science and the arts. The body which polarizes
the ray of light is called the ".polarizer," the body,
by means of which we observe its polarity, is
called the "analyser" If we interpose between
the polarizer and analyser, sections of doubly re-
fracting crystals, there will be seen rings and
curves of the most brilliant colors, caused by por-
tions of the crystal of different molecular constitu-
tion refracting differently the white polarized ray,
separating it into prismatic colors. In the same
condition, granules of starch appear of brilliant
white upon a dark back ground, each granule
containing upon its surface a black cross.
Solutions of sugar have the property of rotating
the plane of polarization to the right hand or to
the left, a phenomenon called circular polarization.
The "plane of polarization" is that plane which
contains the ray of light before and after its polari-
zation. It is in this plane only that the polarized
ray may be observed by the "analyser." As
THE SUGARS. 87
stated, two positions of the analyser, 180, that is,
half a circle apart, will permit the polarized ray
to he seen by reflection or refraction, in which
case the refracted or reflected ray is in the plane
of polarization. In two other positions of the
analyser, one quarter of a circle distant from the
former two, there is total darkness. Polarize a
ray of red light, and examine it with the analyser ;
in two positions of the analyser, it will be totally
transmitted, and in two others totally shut off.
To illustrate circular polarization ; using red
light, place the polarizer and analyser for dark-
ness. Then interpose a glass tube, of 8 inches
in length, filled with a solution of sugar; the
field of view is no longer dark, but red, and
the analyser must be rotated a little before
darkness is restored. The sugar has " rotated"
the plane of polarization. With a solution of
cane sugar, the analyser must be turned a little
to the right before it darkens ; with fruit sugar it
must be turned to the left. The sugar has twisted
the plane of polarization, and that is all ; for if
we rotate the analyser we shall find at 0, perfect
darkness; 90 perfect light; 180 perfect dark-
ness ; 270 perfect light ; and intermediate shades
of light between these points. If, in the above
experiment with sugar we employ white light, the
field of view will never be dark, but will change
through the prismatic colors. The reason of this
is that sugar rotates the plane of polarization to a
different degree for every color of which white
88 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
light is composed ; consequently, in rotating the
analyser, the maximum of light for one color coin-
cides with more or less darkness for the other
colors. In rotating the analyser to the right with
a right polarizer, as cane sugar, the order of the
colors is red, yellow, green, blue, violet, red. With
a left polarizer, as fruit sugar, the analyser must be
rotated to its left, to produce this order of colors.
In determining the degree to which the plane
of polarization is rotated by different liquids, we
must place them in tubes of the same length,
since the thicker the stratum of liquid the greater
is the rotation. Having placed the polarizer and
analyser for darkness with white light, we insert
the sugar tube and ascertain how many degrees
the analyser must be turned to develop a peculiar
violet shade, which is selected because the color
changes rapidly to blue on the one hand, and red
on the other, by rotating the analyser. At the
same time we ascertain whether the substance is
a right or a left handed polarizer. A method of
analyzing sugar is founded upon these principles.
By the law of circular polorization :
1st. For the same substance and for the same
thickness of the stratum of liquid, the stronger
the solution the greater is the rotation. This
affords a means of analyzing sugars by comparing
their solutions with a standard solution.
2d. In solutions of the same strength different
bodies rotate the plane to a different degree.
Thus dextrine rotates to the right to the greatest
THE SUGARS. 89
degree of all substances, whence its name "right
handed." The rotation of cane and raisin sugar
is also to the right, but to a less degree than that
of dextrine.
The plane of polarization is rotated to
The left by The right by
Fruit sugar, Dextrine,
Gum Arabic. Kaisin sugar,
Cane sugar,
Milk sugar.
When fruit sugar becomes raisin sugar by long
standing, it becomes right-handed. Cane sugar
treated by an acid becomes left-handed fruit
sugar.
When raisin sugar loses two atoms of water by
heat, it acquires the same formula as fruit sugar ;
but it is not such, for it continues to be right-
handed with respect to polarized light.
This difference of behaviour of the different
sugars with polarized light is due to a constitu-
tional difference of molecular arrangement, and
proves that they are essentially different bodies,
though closely related.
The sugar of the flower is cane sugar, which
becomes the fruit sugar of honey by passing into
the body of the bee. Honey exposed to the air
for some time experiences another change from
fruit sugar to raisin sugar.
Cane sugar, . . . C 12 H U U
+HO=Fruit sugar, . . . C 12 H 12 12
-f 2HO=Raisin sugar, . . C 12 H U 14
8*
90 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
Unfortunately the present state of chemistry
does not enable us to go backward from raisin
sugar to cane sugar. A fortune awaits the dis-
coverer of a cheap process for effecting this re-
action, cane sugar being much more valuable
than either raisin or fruit sugar.
CHAPTER lU.
ALCOHOL.
SINCE in the manufacture of vinegar, some em-
ploy wholly, or in part, a fermented liquid, which
they prepare themselves, we may profitably in the
present chapter, study the principles as well as
the methods upon which the manufacture of alco-
hol depends.
A solution of pure sugar remains unchanged at
all temperatures. If, however, we add a proper
"ferment" at the temperature of 70 Fah., de-
composition will set in and the molecule of sugar
will be broken up into carbonic acid and alcohol.
Ferments are certain bodies containing nitrogen,
and undergoing decomposition. For example;
when albumen, as in the white of egg, fibrine,
as in the fibre of muscle, caseine, as in cheese,
the gluten of seeds and vegetables, or other
nitrogenized bodies of similar nature are ex-
posed with water to the air, they do not delay
to decompose. If, in this state, they be added to
a solution of sugar at the summer temperature,
the alcoholic fermentation takes place. The fer-
ment called yeast is composed chiefly of vegeta-
ble egg-shaped cells, and if observed with the mi-
croscope in fermentable solutions, its growth by
92 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
budding may be perceived. "Whether this vege-
tation is a result of the fermentation, or whether
the latter is a consequence of the vegetation, is
yet a disputed point. Fresh yeast has the follow-
ing composition before and after fermentation :
PER CENTAGE.
BEFORE. AFTER.
Carbon, . 47.0 47.6
Hydrogen, 6.6 7.2
Nitrogen, 10.0 5.0
Oxygen, (about,) 35.0
In brewing, yeast increases one-fourth of its
original weight, by the aforesaid growth. This
increase arises from a transformation of the
glutenous or nitrogenized matter present in the
fermenting liquids. When pure sugar solutions
are fermented, no increase of yeast takes place.
If the sugar be in excess, the yeast remains in
an altered condition and inoperative to produce
fermentation in another liquid.
The following is Liebig's theory of fermentation,
which though not altogether satisfactory, is at least,
the best we have. The ferment is undergoing a
change, by reason of its decomposition excited by
the oxygen of the air ; consequently, its atoms are
in motion, this motion is communicated to the
sugar atoms with which it is in contact, so that
they fall apart as carbonic acid and alcohol.
The following conditions are imperative for
fermentation.
ALCOHOL. 93
1st. The ferment is created by the exposure of
certain nitrogenized bodies to the oxygen of the
air. As soon as the ferment exists, fermentation
takes place independently of the air. This fact
has been proved by the following simple experi-
ment. Fill with quicksilver a glass tube, so that
no air bubbles remain attached to the side of the
tube ; close the end with the finger and insert it
in a vessel filled with quicksilver. Ripe grapes
may be so pressed under the mercury that their
juice will rise into the tube, taking the place of a
portion of the mercury. This juice not having
come in contact with the air, will keep for an in-
definite time. If now the smallest bubble of air
be admitted to the juice, a ferment will be formed
from the nitrogenized constituents of the juice,
this will act upon the sugar and convert it into
carbonic acid and alcohol. The gas may be seen
collecting in the tube. The remaining liquid will
be found to have lost its sweet taste and alcohol
may be distilled from it. This is a beautiful and
instructive experiment. The principle involved,
induced the discovery by Appert of preserving
fresh meats, fruits and vegetables by heat and
hermetically sealing. Ripe fruits evidently keep
as long as they do, because their juices are con-
tained in separate cells, and the whole covered
with a waxed skin, excluding perfectly the air.
In Appert's process, which is now employed
universally in the household, the vessel is filled
with the fruit, vegetable or meat, and water
94 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
at the boiling temperature. Having then been
closed, it is kept for a short time at, or a little
above, the temperature of boiling water. Any
pre-existing ferment is thus destroyed. The small
amount of oxygen present in the air in the inter-
stices is gradually absorbed at the boiling tem-
perature by the animal or vegetable contents of
the can.
2d. Fermentation requires contact of the sugar
solution with the ferment. Place some sugar dis-
solved in ten times its weight of water, in a wide
mouthed bottle. Take a tube, open at both ends,
and place it by means of a perforated cork (not
air-tight), so that one end may dip in the sugar
solution. Having cleansed this tube, tie filter
paper tightly over its lower end, making a porous
diaphragm. Place now some yeast in the tube,
and insert the latter in the bottle. The yeast is
thus separated from the sugar water by the po-
rous paper, which will permit the passage of a
liquid, but not that of a solid. Fermentation will
not take place in the bottle, but what sugar water
filters into the tube through the paper, will be fer-
mented, proving conclusively that contact is nec-
essary for fermentation.
3d. The following conditions arrest, modify or
influence fermentation. The temperature is im-
portant That most favorable to the alcoholic
fermentation ranges between 68-77 Fah. At a
low temperature, the fermentation is very slow.
Bavarian beer is brewed between 32-46J Fah.
ALCOHOL. 95
In brewing malt liquors, a different kind of
yeast is generated from the gluten of the malt at
different temperatures. Thus, at the highest
temperature the yeast floats and presents under
the microscope the appearance already described.
At low temperatures, the yeast, in the form of
single egg shaped globules, sinks to the bottom
of the fermenting tun. The limits for ordinary
brewing are not lower than 51, nor higher than
86.
A boiling temperature at once arrests ferment-
ation by destroying the ferment. The presence
of too much sugar takes from the activity of fer-
mentation. The most favorable strength is ten
weights of water to one of sugar. Whatever de-
stroys or removes the yeast arrests the fermenta-
tion. Thus filtering removes the yeast. The
same is killed by certain essential oils, as that of
mustard, sulphuric and sulphurous acid, the sul-
phites, &c. The following substances paralyze
the ferment; much alcohol, common salt, cyanide
of mercury, corrosive sublimate, pyroligneous
acid, nitrate of silver, &c. Arsenious acid and
tartar emetics, which are violent poisons to man,
do not paralyze the fermenting action of yeast on
sugar.
Such being the general principles of the alco-
holic fermentation, it remains for us to inquire
what chemical changes take place during the pro-
cess. As regards the ferment, we are yet igno-
rant of the chemical changes to which it is sub-
96 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
ject ; we only know that in a fermenting liquid, if
albuminous matters are present, the ferment in-
creases or grows.
The chemical transformation of the sugar is
simple. One atom of sugar is split up into four
atoms of carbonic acid, two atoms of alcohol, and
in the case of raisin sugar, in addition, two atoms
of water.
We have to consider the fermentation of three
kinds of sugar, viz : that of, 1st. Cane sugar
(C 12 H n O n ), which always before it ferments passes
into 2d. Fruit sugar (C 12 H 12 12 ), and 3d. Kaisin
sugar (C 12 H 14 O 14 ), which loses two atoms of water
with the greatest facility, passing into a body
having the same composition as fruit sugar
though not identical with it. As it differs not
for the explanation of the alcoholic fermentation,
whether the two atoms of water in raisin sugar
are parted with before or during the process, let
us assume that all sugar undergoing fermentation
is composed of 12 atoms each, of carbon, hydro-
gen and oxygen. The change is then expressed
thus,
fC - 2
p o
Four atoms of carbonic acid,
Two atoms of alcohol,
Equal one atom of sugar,
1
2
[o
2
K
jo.
H 6
H 6
2
2
ALCOHOL. 97
This result is also expressed by the following
formula :
Sugar = Carbonic Acid -[-Alcohol
C 12 H 12 12 4C0 2
We may readily learn from this formula, how
much alcohol a given weight of sugar can yield.
By substituting 6 for the carbon, multiplying it
by the number attached, and proceeding in an
analogous manner with hydrogen, whose equiva-
lent is 1, and oxygen, whose equivalent is 8, we
change the above expressions for atomic consti-
tution into those of the combining weight of the
several bodies. For example,
C 12 = 6 X 12 = 72
H 12 = 1 X 12 = 12
12 = 8 X 12 = 96
Weight of 1 atom of sugar, = 180
C = 6
2 = 8 X 2 = 16
Weight of 1 atom of carbonic acid, 22
4
Weight of 4 atoms of carbonic acid, 88
C 4 = 6 X 4 = 24
1 X 6 = 6
2 X 8 = 16
Weight of 1 atom of alcohol, 46
2
Weight of 2 atoms of alcohol, 92
9
98 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
Hence 180 pounds of fruit sugar will yield 88
pounds of carbonic acid and 92 pounds of abso-
lute alcohol. Consequently, by the rule of three, if
180 pounds of sugar give 92 pounds of alcohol : :
100 pounds of sugar : will yield ^? = 51-12 of
alcohol, and we have the following per centage
result :
Alcohol, 51.12
Carbonic acid, 48.88
Sugar, 100.00
If we weigh the sugar as fruit sugar, we may
say in round numbers, that sugar is capable of
producing half its weight of alcohol.
If we weigh cane or raisin sugar, we must, for
strict accuracy, modify this expression. Thus,
cane sugar (C 12 H n O n ), contains 1 atom of water
less than fruit sugar ; hence, from the number 180
in the above expression, we must subtract 9, the
weight of 1 atom of water (HO = 1 + 8 = 9), and
the expression becomes, 100 pounds of cane sugar
yields ^ = 53.22 pounds of alcohol.
Raisin sugar, on the other hand, contains 2
atoms of water (2x9 = 18), more than fruit sugar.
Hence adding 18 to 180 we have, 100 pounds of
raisin sugar yields ^ 46.46 pounds of abso-
lute alcohol. This affords an illustration of the
use and convenience of chemical formulae.
Starch and gum have the same formula,
C 13 H 10 10 , and are converted into fruit sugar by
ALCOHOL. 99
the assumption of two atoms of water 162
pounds of gum will yield 180 pounds of the
said sugar, which, in its turn, will produce 92
pounds of absolute alcohol. If 162 pounds of
starch give 92 pounds of alcohol : : 100 pounds
will yield 56-79 of alcohol. This yield of alco-
hol is, however, never practically obtained in
brewing, because a portion of the starch is con-
verted into a permanent gum incapable of the
saccharine transformation. As the formation of
permanent gum is influenced by the temperature
during the mashing, (see Ure's Die., Art. Beer,)
it becomes important for the vinegar maker and
distiller who brew with a view to alcohol and not
to beer, to be well acquainted with the principles
governing this formation.
Let us proceed to the practical application of
the fermentative process. The simplest case is
wine. If the juice of the grape or of any other
saccharine fruit or vegetable be exposed to the
air, certain nitrogenized compounds existing
therein become ferments, which convert the
sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid. Thus,
grapes yield wine, apples cider, pears, perry ; the
sap of certain palms, toddy ; of the sugar cane,
guarapo, or sugar cane wine ; of the American
aloe, pulque, &c., &c. These wines, distilled,
yield spirituous drinks containing a larger pro-
portion of alcohol ; thus, brandy from grape wine ;
kirsch-wasser from fermented cherry juice; rum
from sugar cane, wine or fermented molasses;
100
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
aguardiente from pulque, &c. To these may be
added arrack from koumiss, or fermented mare's
milk, and whisky, from fermented grain.
The acidity or sweetness of the different wines,
depends upon the relative proportion of the
ferment to the sugar ; upon the saccharine strength
of the vegetable juice, and upon the method of
the manufacture generally.
Johnston* gives the following tables of the re-
lative sweetness and acidity of the respective well
known wines :
TABLE OP SWEETNESS.
Claret,
Burgundy,
Ehine and Moselle,
Sherry,
Madeira,
Champagne, .
Port, .
Malmsey,
Tokay,
Samos,
Paxarette, .
) Wines contain no sensible portion of
T sugar.
from 4 to 20 grains sugar per ounce
" 6 to 20
" 6 to 28
16 to 34
" 56 to 66
74
88
94
SCALE OF ACIDITY.
Sherry the least acid.
Port next "
Champagne " "
Claret " "
Madeira "
Burgundy
Rhine Wine
Moselle the most acid.
Chemistry of Common Life.
ALCOHOL. 101
The acidity of wines is due to Tataric acid in
combination as -bitartrate of potassa from the
grape juice, and partially to acetic acid, arising
from a transformation of a portion of the alcohol.
If the grapes from which the wine is made were
unripe, citric acid is present in the beverage.
The amount of alcohol varies not only with the
different kinds, but in different varieties of the
same wine. This alcoholic strength depends upon
the kind of grape used, upon soil, climate, season,
culture, and method of manufacture, and upon
the mode of storing the wine.
Sparkling or effervescent wines are a variety
bottled before the fermentation is completed ; by
which a portion of the carbonic acid of fermenta-
tion is imprisoned in the wine and kept in solu-
tion by its own pressure, and escapeing when
the vessel is uncorked.
Brande gives the following table, in which the
per centage (by measure) of absolute alcohol is
stated for several well known wines :
TABLE.
100 measures of the wine, at 60 Fah., contain the following measures
of absolute alcohol.
Portwkie, .... 19-82
" .... 23-92
Madeira, .... 17-91
% " .... 22-61
Sherry, ..... IT-GO
"... 18-37
Claret, (Bordeaux,) . . . 11-95
9*
102
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
Lisbon,
Malaga,
Malmsey,
Marsala,
a
Champagne, (rose,)
" (white,)
Burgundy, .
Hermitage, (white,)
' (red,)
Hock,
u
Vin de Grave,
Frontignac,
Cape Madeira,
Muscat,
Constantia, .
Tokay, .
Lachrymco Christi, .
Currant Wine, .
Gooseberry Wine, .
Elder Wine, ^)
Cider, K .
Perry, )
Brown Stout,
Ale,
Porter,
Rum,
Hollands,
Whisky, (Scotch,)
(Irish,) .
17-45
15.98
15.91
14-31
15-98
10-46
11-84
13-34
11-06
16-14
11-40
13-31
8-00
11-84
11-84
16-77
17-00
18-29
9-15
18-24
19-03
10-96
9-14
6-30
8-00
3-89
49-71
47-77
50-20
49-91
The foregoing tables, used in connection with
others to be given in this work, are useful in cal-
culating the acid strength of vinegars capable of
being manufactured from the respective wines,
ALCOHOL. 103
such acid strength depending of course upon the
per centage of alcohol in the wine.
Besides the ingredients already enumerated,
wine contains coloring, organic and mineral
matter, the latter derived from the soil. These
of course are found in the vinegar manufactured
from such wines.
Distilled wines (spirits) do not contain the
mineral salts and extractive matter. The slight
color which some of them possess is due probably
to the action of heat upon the extractive matter
of the wine during the process of distillation giving
rise to volatile coloring matter in small quantity.
A very important class of ingredients, not
only in wines but spirits, comprehends certain
volatile aromatic liquids, existing in very minute
proportions. To these are due the aroma and
bouquet of wines, giving them their different and
characteristic flavors, and influencing so strongly
their relative values. These substances are form-
ed by the fermentative act from substances exist-
ing in the juices from which the wines are made.
By the acetic transformation they undergo changes
together with the alcohol, communicating certain
flavors to the resulting vinegars. By reason of
their presence, the vinegar from wine stands pre-
eminent above all others. A greater chemical
knowledge with respect to them is increasing
daily, and hopes are entertained thereby of greatly
improving the quick vinegar manufacture which
employs pure spirits.
104 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
The second class of fermented liquids embraces
all cases in which sugar has been employed in a
pure state, and in which & ferment has to be added
to the saccharine solution.
Any sugar mentioned in Chapter II., may be
dissolved in ten times its weight of water, the
solution brought to a temperature 68-77 Fah.,
and good brewers' yeast added. For every 100
pounds of sugar, 1J pounds of yeast (estimated in
the dry state) will be required. Fermentation
takes place rapidly, especially in the case of
fruit and raisin sugars. Cane sugar requires a
longer time, and passes before fermentation into
fruit or an analogous sugar, as has been shown by
experiments with polarized light.
The curious fact has been proved that this
change is due to a vegetable acid or acids present
in the yeast, and as this acid is of vegetable nature,
a longer time is required to transform cane to
fruit sugar, than in our experiments with mineral
acids. By Regnault's authority, it is stated, that
yeast freed from its acid by washing, will not fer-
ment solutions of cane sugar until by exposure to
the air a fresh quantity of acid is generated in the
yeast by its decomposition.
The strength of a pure solution of sugar may
be ascertained by simple inspection with the sac-
charometer ; the advance of fermentation may be
watched by noting the diminution of the specific
gravity of the liquid ; and the amount of alcohol
present can be determined by the alcoholometer.
ALCOHOL. 105
These tests and the neee? 5 arv,jYi3triiineifts will be
explained upon a future page.
The third class of fermented liquids embraces
all cases of grain fermentation, and that of analo-
gous substances, in which starch is converted into
raisin sugar by the action of diastase formed
during the operation, while sugar is converted
into alcohol by a ferment also generated during
the operation. The process is called brewing. The
brewer and the distiller employ processes generally
the same, the different nature of the product re-
quired by each, involving a slight difference of
treatment of the materials employed.
The brewer strives after the finest flavored beer
or ale, and one which may be readily preserved ;
while the distiller regards less the taste of the fer-
mented liquid than the amount of alcohol which
he is able to form at the same cost, and he is
prepared to at once distill off this alcohol.
The fermentation of bread involves some of the
principles of this class of fermented substances.
To flour, kneeded with water, is added yeast, or
leaven, which is fermented dough, and the result-
ing mass is exposed to a warm temperature. By
action of the ferment, the starch of the flour is
transformed into sugar and gum, from portions
of which alcohol and carbonic acid are generated
by fermentation ; while from the gluten of the
flour, by the generation of more ferment, the pro-
cess is accelerated. As dough is of a tenacious
character, (owing to the gluten,) the carbonic acid
106 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
is impeded in its ^ot ,[><', and puffs up the dough,
forming a porous mass. Baking arrests the fer-
mentation, renders the mass more porous by the
expansive action of heat upon the carbonic acid
and water, drives off carbonic acid and alcohol,
and renders the mass more solid by the evapora-
tion of a portion of the water, and by the coagu-
lation of the albuminous matter by heat. In some
of the large bakeries of Europe, the alcohol has
been collected by appropriate devises, but the
process has not been sufficiently remunerative to
warrant its continuance.
THE ART OF BREWING.
Let us consider now in greater detail the art
of brewing ; a knowledge of which is of great
importance to the vinegar manufacturer ; for in
many instances it is very remunerative to em-
ploy in this manufacture the starch of potatoes,
or of some kind of grain which must be ferment-
ed before it is available. Besides, many have
an erroneous impression as to the part which
sugar plays in the vinegar process, which,
if corrected, will enable the manufacture of a
superior article at an inferior cost.
The art of brewing falls naturally into four
stages. 1st, malting ; 2d, mashing and preparing
the wort; 3d, fermenting the same; and 4th,
ripening and preserving the fermented liquid.
The distiller, who brews grain for the alcohol,
THE ART OF BREWING. 107
which he at once distills off, proceeds differently
from the beer and ale brewer, in 2d, 3d, and 4th.
1st. In both processes the malting is similar,
the object being the artificial germination of the
grain. Here diastase is formed, which acts upon
the starch, converting a portion of it into sugar
and gum. When the process is sufficiently ad-
vanced, it is arrested by drying the grain, which
is then "malt."
2d. Mashing is the preparation of a solution
in hot water of the malt, and the further action
of heat upon this solution, to which farinaceous
substances have been added, the resulting liquid
being called the "wort" During this process,
the sugar and gum are dissolved from the malt,
and its diastase completes its action to convert
the remaining starch into sugar, and to effect the
same transformation upon the starch of the added
farinaceous matters. This process is also arrested
by elevating the temperature.
3d. In fermentation the sugar is converted into
alcohol by the action of an added ferment, yeast.
In beer brewing, a portion of the sugar remains
after fermentation.
4th. The preservation of the beer and its plea-
sant taste are secured by hops, added during the
preparation of the wort, by a secondary fermen-
tation, which places carbonic acid in the beverage,
and by the general manner, according to which
the whole process has been carried on.
The distiller aims to prepare a solution of alco-
108 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
hol of definite strength at the least cost of time
and fuel, and with the greatest freedom from fusil
oil, which is a liquid of disagreeable taste, exist-
ing more or less in all fermented liquids, and sup-
posed to be derived from the husks or skins of
the grain, fruit, or vegetable. It is not looked
upon with disfavor by the vinegar maker, as it
changes by his process into aromatic substances,
which improve the flavor of the vineger.
The distiller endeavors to manage the prepara-
tion of his worts so that it contain the greatest
possible amount of sugar and the least uncon-
vertible gum. In fermenting the wort he aims to
leave no sugar unconverted into alcohol. In other
words, he manages to convert as much starch as
possible into sugar, and then alcohol ; and does
not care for the keeping properties of the result-
ing liquid, as he at once distills off the alcohol.
Both beer brewers and distillers avoid all ten-
dency to acetification in their process. This the
vinegar brewer encourages, proceeding in other
respects like the distiller.
Having thus taken a bird's eye view of brewing,
let us consider it in greater detail, and especially
with an eye to the vinegar manufacture.
I. MALTING. The operation of malting is a
beautiful illustration of the power which man
possesses over the functions of vegetable life,
making them subservient to his own life, well-
being, and happiness. Starch is to be changed
into alcohol ; it must first pass into sugar, and
THE ART OF BREWING. 109
diastase, a substance formed in the first develop-
ment of the plant from the seed, must be had as a
simple means of effecting the required transfor-
mation. The maltser places the seed in the con-
dition of its natural development ; in other words,
to borrow a figure from the poultry yard, he hatches
it. He stimulates its vital energy, until sufficient
diastase is formed to effect his purpose ; then puts
it to a violent death to prevent a waste of starch.
If the outer husk of a grain of barley or of other
similar seed be removed, we shall find an enve-
lope of hard cells (gluten) in close contact with
each other. Enclosed in this shell is the starch,
and at one end of the seed we shall find the germ of
the future plant, destined to feed upon the starch
and gluten until its rootlets penetrate the earth
downward, and a stem and leaves elevate them-
selves into the air, to draw therefrom its gaseous
food, carbonic acid. The development of seed to
plant takes place naturally, when the spring rains
have saturated it witn moisture, and when the
warmth of the approaching summer is beginning
to be felt. When the conditions of moisture and
warmth are absent, the seed refuses to germinate,
its power in this respect remaining latent for an
indefinite period. We have witness of this in the
grains of wheat found in the sarcophagus of an
Egyptian mummy, which, when planted, germi-
nated, giving plant and seeds, from which arose
a variety new to modern times, and which bears
the name of mummy wheat.
10
110 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
Malting may be performed upon any grain ;
but barley is peculiarly suitable for the purpose
from the quantity of diastase it gives rise to. The
operation consists of three parts.
1st, steeping; 2d, couching; and 3d, drying.
1. Steeping is effected with water in stone or
wooden cisterns, furnished with a large faucet
and perforated plate to prevent the egress of the
grain when the steeping water is drawn off.
Enough water having been introduced into the
cistern to cover the grain to a depth of six inches,
(to allow for swelling,) the barley is added and
stirred about with rakes. The imperfect grains
which float are removed. If the barley be dirty,
or should acetification begin, the water is renewed.
During the steep, carbonic acid is formed from
the grain, and held in solution together with ex-
tractive matter from the husks, which communi-
cates to the steep water a yellowish color. The
grain takes up one half its weight of water, and
increases one-fifth in size, is lighter in weight,
(if dried,) and paler in color by the loss of extrac-
tive matter. The maltster judges that the steep-
ing is complete, when the grain may be readily
pierced with a needle, and when a grain, upon
being strongly pressed between thumb and finger,
sheds its starch. If it remain in the husk, it has
not been sufficiently steeped; if it exude a milky
juice, it has been spoiled for germination by too
long steeping. The time required for steeping
depends upon the kind of grain, its age, and
THE ART OF BREWING. Ill
the temperature of the water. Old grain requires
longer steeping than new. For dry sound grain
from 36 to 48 hours are required in summer, and
in cold seasons from three to five days. At the
completion of the steep the water is drawn off,
fresh water added to wash the grain, and the
latter suffered to drain off for several hours
through the open faucet. The barley is now
ready for the operation of
2. Couching. At this stage, the germination of
the grain is effected. A rather low temperature
(not to exceed 62 in summer,) darkness and
air are required to effect the object of couching.
The room is by preference a cellar, with a dry
floor of stone, cement, or brick, having every
crack carefully cemented. The windows are fur-
nished with slats to admit air and exclude light.
The barley is formed into a square heap, called
the couch, of from five to sixteen inches in height,
being somewhat higher at the edges, where the
evaporation is greater than in the middle of the
heap. The management of the couch requires
and exhibits all the skill of the maltster, whose
object is to cause every grain to germinate in like
degree, and to arrest the germination at the proper
point. He must keep the grain from drying, and
prevent the temperature from becoming higher
in one portion of the heap than in another, con-
ducting the operation slowly, so that the rootlets
are developed rather than the germ of the future
plant. These purposes are effected by repeated
112 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
movement of the couch, shovelling it into new
heaps so that the intermediate grains hecome top
ones ; by altering the height of the couch to regu-
late the evaporation, and by managing the light
to effect the manner of vegetation. In handling
the couch wooden shovels are employed, care
being taken not to break the grain, as such in-
jured seeds could not germinate, but would de-
compose, giving a bad malt.
A badly managed couch would yield seeds fully
sprouted ; some undersprouted, which would not
contain the desired diastase, some oversprouted,
which would involve a loss of starch, and thereby
alcohol, as the rootlets and acrospire* absorb
starch, and are not converted into alcohol by the
brewing process.
Germination is an oxidation process, a slow
combustion. The seed absorbs oxygen from the
air, and returns carbonic acid, giving rise to an
elevation of temperature which is controlled by
the maltster by altering the height of his couch.
At first no dampness is imparted to the hand
when thrust into the heap. After a while a fruity
smell is perceived, the temperature of the inside
of the couch rises 10 above that of the atmo-
sphere, and the hand thrust into the grain is be-
dewed with moisture. This stage of the opera-
tion is called sweating, and it is now that the
germination begins. The fibrils of the roots be-
* The germ or portion of the sprouted seed which becomes
stalk and leaves is called in brewing the " acrospire."
THE ART OF BREWING. 113
gin to appear at one end of the seed, and shortly
after an elevation is perceived at the same end.
This is the aerospire, which in barley proceeds
under the husk to the other end of the seed, where,
if the process were not arrested, it would break
forth to become the "plumula" or stalk and leaves.
After the sweating process has continued for a
short time, the couch is turned to bring about the
same process for the external grains, and when
the germination is fully started, the couch is
lowered in height at every shovelling, until from
16 inches it becomes 3 or 4. Two turnings a day
are customary.
By this means the too speedy germination of
the seed is arrested. It must be remembered that
the rootlets and acrospire, and especially the latter,
destroy starch. If the temperature be kept down,
and the light shut out, the acrospire does not de-
velop itself well, and at the close of the process
has not advanced much beyond half the length of
the seed, while the rootlets have pushed to 1J
times that length, and are curved, so that the
seeds hook together. Malting of course involves
a loss of some starch, without which the diastase
could not be formed ; scientific malting seeks to
make this loss as small as possible.
At the close of couching, the barley, now well
germinated, is dried quickly to arrest further de-
velopment. This effect is produced either in the
air or by malt kilns.
3d. Drying. Kiln drying is effected at tempe-
10*
114 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
ratures differing according to the color required
for the malt, which is thus adapted to different
varieties of beer. It must not be forgotten that
an elevated temperature converts starch into per-
manent gum which does not ferment into alcohol,
and hence for the vinegar maker and for the
distiller, the lower the temperature of the kiln,
the better is the malt. One hundred degrees,
Fah., is the limit for their purpose.
By drying, the rootlets and acrospire become
brittle, fall off and are sifted away from the
"mati."
One hundred pounds of barley, judiciously
malted, weighs after drying and sifting, eighty
pounds. The loss is as follows,
Malt, 80.0
Water in the barley, 12.0
Extractive matter removed by steeping, . 1.5
Dissipated in the kiln, 3.0
Loss by falling of the fibrils, . . .3.0
Waste, 0.5
Weight of original barley, 100.00*
Good malt exceeds the bulk of the original bar-
ley by from 8 to 9 per cent.
Ure gives the following characteristics of good
malt. " The grain is round and full, breaks
freely between the teeth, has a sweetish taste, an
agreeable smell, and is full of soft flour from end
to end. It affords no unpleasant flavor on being
* Ure.
THE ART OF BREWING. 115
chewed, and is not hard, so that when drawn
across the fibres of an oaken table it leaves a
white streak like chalk. It swims upon water,
whereas unmalted barley sinks."
II. PREPARATION OF WORTS, OR MASHING.
The operation of mashing has for its object the
transformation of starch to sugar by the aid of the
diastase of malt. The result is a saccharine solu-
tion suitable for fermentation, which is called the
"wort" or "worts." In malt itself a portion of
starch has already submitted to a saccharine
change by the diastase, and another portion has
been changed to gum by the drying process, es-
pecially if the temperature of drying has been too
much elevated.
In the preparation of fine ales, good barley
malt is alone submitted to the mashing process ;
but the distiller and vinegar maker always add
a certain quantity of unmalted grain, because the
diastase in the malt is capable of transforming a
much larger quantity of starch than exists in the
malt. One part of pure diastase is capable of
saccharifying 2,000 parts of pure dry starch. The
relative proportion of diastase and starch existing
in malt, depends upon the grain from which the
malt is made, as well as upon the skill of the
maltser. From ten to twenty -five pounds of finely
ground malt will, with four hundred pounds of
water at a temperature between 140-167, convert
into sugar one hundred pounds of pure starch.
Any of the cereal grains, or the starch "from po-
116 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
tatoes, may be mixed with malt for mashing. A
mixture of several sorts of grain is considered
advisable, wheat with barley and oats ; barley
with rye and wheat, &c. One object of the mix-
ture is to obtain a more porous mass for mashing
by reason of the husks of the grain.
The relative proportion of raw grain and malt
employed vary with the different manufacturers.
Otto advises the vinegar maker to use equal
parts of raw grain and malt. The grain and malt
must both be ground, but not too finely, for not
only would a pasty, impenetrable mass result, but
it would be difficult to obtain a clear wort.
This comminution is attained by crushing with
rollers, (which is preferable,) or by grinding be-
tween mill stones, or under edge stones, so that
the hull of the grain is torn asunder and the pul-
verized starch set free. It is necessary to perform
this operation a short time before preparing the
mash, as the pulverized malt and grain spoil, es-
pecially in damp localities.
The mashing tun is a large wooden vessel, hav-
ing a perforated false bottom a few inches above
the real bottom. These perforations are so small
that the crushed malt cannot pass, and are conical
with the greater diameter downward to prevent
choking. The faucet is, of course, below the
false bottom. The amount of warm or cold
water necessary to form a thin paste, having been
introduced into the mashing tun, the mixture of
malt and raw grain is added, and the mass tho-
THE ART OF BREWING. 117
roughly stirred by blades, revolving by hand
power or by machinery, so as to obtain a uniform
mixture, free from lumps. The proper amount
of water, which has been heated in a large cop-
per vessel, is now added, mixed with the mass,
and the same suffered to stand with the tun cov-
ered from an hour to an hour and a half. An
addition of a quart of skimmed milk to every one
hundred pounds of malt and grain, is considered
by Balling of advantage. At the expiration of
the allotted time, the saccharification is complete.
We can assume that practically in mashing,
every pound of starch gives rise to a pound of
mixed sugar and gum, and the sugar exceeds in
proportion the gum the nearer the heat has been
kept to the minimum temperature, 140 Fah.
As the gum does not yield alcohol in this pro-
cess, it becomes important to regulate the tem-
perature in mashing. The heat should rise grad-
ually and not exceed 151 Fah. This end is at-
tained by adding the hot water gradually to the
mixture, suffering it to flow upward through the
false bottom, the mass being continually stirred.
When the first wort is ready, the faucet should
be opened and the wort returned to the tun until
it flows clear. It is then drawn off as closely as
possible. More water is added, stirred into the
mass, and withdrawn in like manner, to obtain
the saccharine solution with which the grain is
saturated. A third quantity of water is sprinkled
upon the mass in the tun and in passing through
118 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
it displaces whatever valuable wort might other-
wise remain. Further exhaustion of the mass is
useless, for not only would a wort result too weak
for profitable fermentation, but the value of the
grain residue for feeding stock would be im-
paired. The worts when sufficiently cool, may
be fermented ; but a very important point with
respect to their strength remains to be considered.
This subject is called,
The concentration of the wort. The alcoholic
strength of the fermented liquid depends upon
this concentration, which is governed by the
quantity of water added during the mashing, less
what evaporates during the subsequent boiling
and cooling of the worts. How much water,
therefore, must be added during the mashing pro-
cess, is a question to be decided by the required
strength of the fermented liquid.
With a perfect fermentation one pound of alco-
hol arises from two pounds of sugar. Every
pound of alcohol yields a little less than 1 J pounds
of radical vinegar, that is, hydrated acetic acid,
or the strongest possible vinegar. If then we
seek to obtain a vinegar of given strength, we
must bear in mind these data in order to obtain
the proper concentration for the wort. Thus, a
12 per cent, solution of sugar will give a 6 per
cent, (by weight) alcohol, which will yield a
vinegar containing a little less than 8 per cent,
(by weight) of hydrated acetic acid.
The residue obtained by the evaporation of
THE ART OF BREWING. 119
wort is called "malt extract." It contains sugar
and gum together with a little coloring matter.
The following are Balling's results from the
analysis of malt extract obtained from the differ-
ent grains.
Average percentage of
malt extract.
From wheat or maize, . . . .70
" barley, .... 60
" barley malt, (unkilned,) . . .57
" equal parts wheat and barley, . 65
" equal parts raw and malted barley, . 58
These numbers represent also the percentage
of starch in the respective grains employed, since
every pound of starch yields a pound of malt ex-
tract. Of course in the practice of brewing, a
smaller proportion than the above of malt extract
is obtained, since a portion remains in the grain
residue, and in the last weak wort, with which it
is saturated. For example, if the malt mixture
contain 60 per cent, of starch, 100 pounds would
be capable of giving 600 pounds, that is, 72 gal-
lons of wort of 10 per cent, saccharine strength;
but for the reasons assigned we are able to obtain
in practice only 65 gallons of wort of 10 per cent,
malt extract strength. To prepare a wort of 10
per cent, with the malt mixture generally em-
ployed, we must take for every 100 pounds, 84
gallons of water, of which we may use 24 gallons
of temperature, 143, to mingle with the grain,
and 24 gallons at the boiling temperature, to
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
effect the conversion of starch to sugar. This will
leave 36 gallons to employ in two portions for
washing out the wort from the residue of grain.
The first wort flows off' with a concentration of
from 12 to 13 per cent.*
"We are not, however, left to mere routine in
this matter, since the saccharometer enables us
always to test the strength of worts. The greater
the percentage of malt extract in the worts the
greater is its specific gravity, which the saccharo-
meter exhibits by a simple inspection. This
instrument is of the same principle as the alco-
holometer, and the family name of all such is the
hydrometer. For a description of them see a
subsequent page.
In practice the worts are cooled to the tempera-
ture for which the saccharometer is graduated,
and which is generally marked upon the instru-
ment. The worts are placed in a tall glass cylin-
der, the saccharometer suffered to float therein,
and at the water level upon the stem of the in-
strument, the strength of the worts may be read.
The strength of worts may also be inferred from
its specific gravity, to be determined as will be
described. If the specific gravity of the wort is
taken at 63 Fah., its percentage strength of
malt extract may be obtained by consulting the
following table :
* Otto.
THE ART OF BREWING.
121
TABLE.
The specific gravity of sacckarometer degrees at temperature 63 Fah.
Sugar in 100 parts
of the solution.
Specific gravity of
solution.
Sugar in 100 parts
of the solution.
Specific gravity of
the solution.
1-0000
39
1-1743
1
1-0040
40
1-1794
2
1-0080
41
1-1846
3
1-0120
42
1-1898
4
1-0160
43
1-1951
5
1-0200
44
1-2004
6
1-0240
45
1-2057
7
1-0281
46
1-2111
8
1-0322
47
1-2165
9
1-0363
48
1-2219
10
1-0404
49
1-2274
11
1-0446
50
1-2329
12
1-0488
51
1-2385
13
1-0530
52
1-2441
14
1-0572
53
1-2497
15
1-0614
54
1-2553
16
1-0657
55
1-2610
17
10700
56
1-2667
18
1-0744
57
1-2725
19
1-0788
58
1-2783
20
1-0832
59
1-2841
21
1-0877
60
1-2900
22
1-0922
61
1-2959
23
1-0967
62
1-3019
24
1-1013
63
1-3079
25
1-1059
64
1-3139
26
1-1106
65
1-3190
27
1-1153
66
1-3260
28
1-1200
67
1-3321
29
1-1247
68
1-3383
30
1-1295
69
1-3445
31
1-1343
70
1-3507
32
1-1391
71
1-3570
33
1-1440
72
1-3633
34
1-1490
73
1-3696
35
1-1540
74
1-3760
36
1-1590
75
1-3824
37
1-1641
75-35
1-3847
38
1-1692
11
122 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
Let us return now to the final treatment of the
wort, which we left separated from the exhausted
malt residue. Beside sugar, gum, and color-
ing matter, it contains in solution several nitro-
genized substances, as vegetable albumen and
changed and unaltered diastase. It may either be
at once cooled down to the temperature of fer-
mentation, or boiled for a short time to separate
by coagulation, the above mentioned nitrogenized
matters. It is true that the presence of these
renders the subsequent fermentation easier, and
if the manufacture of yeast for sale is connected
with the brewing, increases the quantity of this
product. At the same time they render the
vinegar made from such worts more liable to spoil
and acquire a bad smell if the subsequent opera-
tions of fermentation and acetification are not car-
ried on very slowly.
The worts are boiled in a large copper kettle,
in which the whole operation of mashing is per-
formed in some factories, having care to use stir-
ring machinery to prevent the mash scorching
upon the bottom of the copper. A portion of the
albumen coagulates in clots, which are skimmed
from the boiling liquid and placed in a small
vessel to drain off the adherent wort. The rest
of the coagulum is separated after the boiling by
passing the wort through a sieve, or a strainer
made from a basket lined with plenty of straw.
The clear wort is then drawn off into coolers,
which are large shallow vessels, exposed to air
THE ART OF BREWING. 123
currents at a depth of two or three inches. In
warm weather, a coil of tube in which flows a
current of cold water, aids in this refrigeration.
It is important to cool the worts as rapidly as
possible, and not to ferment them at a high tem-
perature. If the fermentation commences in the
coolers at a high temperature, the alcohol is par-
tially, as it forms, converted into acetic acid. The
fermentation should confine itself to the sugar and
take place slowly to give the yeast time to sepa-
rate. Acetic acid will hinder the perfect separa-
tion of these nitrogenized products, which will be
found in the vinegar made from the fermented
liquor, and as said before, render it more liable to
spoil by keeping.
III. FERMENTATION. The worts cooled to the
proper temperature are ready for fermentation.
This is affected in a vessel called the " gyle
tun," which must be large enough to allow
for the rising of the yeast. When the tem-
perature of the room containing the gyle tun
is 60 Fah., the worts should be cooled to about
65. For every 100 gallons of worts, from J
to J of a gallon of good fluid yeast is added and
well stirred in. Some prefer not to add the whole
of the yeast at once ; but to mix it with several
gallons of warm wort, in which a very rapid fer-
mentation is excited, and to add this mixture to
the worts at once or at intervals. Balling advises
the addition of a little malt meal or cold extract
of malt to the fermenting wort, supposing that
124 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
its diastase converts to sugar a portion of the
gum in the wort. The length of time required
for the fermentation depends upon the general
manner of carrying on the process in which the
proper regulation of the temperature plays a pro-
minent part. After a few hours, a wreath of foam
occasioned by bubbles of evolved carbonic acid,
makes its appearance around the edge of the tan.
As it widens, the temperature increases, and it at
last overspreads the surface of the liquid and thick-
ening, forms a high mass of foam which effectually
excludes the air. The greater part of the yeast
floats in this foam, although a portion falls to the
bottom of the tun. The elevation of temperature
and evolution of carbonic acid gas keep up a con-
tinual motion of the particles of the worts, which
gradually exchange their sweet taste for an alco-
holic flavor. The density diminishes from two
causes ; 1st, they lose sugar, the solution of which
is heavier than water; and 2d, they gain alcohol, a
fluid lighter than w^ater. The intestine commo-
tion at length begins to subside, the cover of
yeast and froth becomes harder, brown in color,
and loosens itself from the sides of the tun, and
the temperature of the liquid falls to that of the
surrounding air. These are all signs of the com-
pletion of the first stage of fermentation ; but the
brewer watches especially the lowering of specific
gravity, or in his language the attenuation of the
worts. I shall have occasion to explain more
fully the subject of attenuation at the close of the
THE ART OF BREWING. 125
present chapter, when discussing the alcoholic
strength of the malt wine.
Upon the completion of the gyle tun fermenta-
tion, the top yeast is removed, the bottom yeast
well stirred up, and the malt wine placed in large
casks with open bungs, to purge itself. A slow
after-fermentation sets in, and as the casks are
kept constantly full of liquid, the remaining yeast
escapes from the bung-hole. As soon as no more
issues, the bung-holes are cleansed, and the bungs
driven. A quiet fermentation establishes itself,
which perfects the malt wine, and leaves it ready
for the vinegar maker. I have said nothing
about hops, which are not used by the vinegar
manufacturer.
This operation of brewing for vinegar may be
carried on with a much smaller capital than for
beer brewing or distilling, especially where malt
may be purchased.
The brewing process thus described may serve
as a pattern for the conversion of any starchy or
saccharine substance to alcohol. If we employ
potatoe or other starch, we must first change it to
sugar by malt by the operation of mashing, or by
the action of sulphuric acid, as described in a
former chapter. For raisin sugar, honey, &c., it
is only requisite to make, by the aid of the sac-
charometer, a solution of definite strength, re-
membering that half the saccharometer degrees
will give the percentage by weight of alcohol in
the fermented liquid. Thus a solution indicating
126 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
12 per cent, by the saccharometer, will yield an
alcohol of 6 per cent, by weight absolute alcohol,
since every pound of sugar is capable of affording
about half a pound of absolute alcohol. Having
a saccharine solution of known strength, it re-
mains to ferment it by the addition of yeast at
the proper temperature as described.
PROPERTIES AND TESTS OF ALCOHOLIC SOLUTION.
The vinegar maker employs two kinds of
alcoholic liquids; 1st, pure alcohol and water, or
"spirits;" 2d, wines, cider, perry, malt wines,
&c., which consist of alcohol water, gum, aroma-
tic ethers, and a small proportion of mineral
salts, derived from the earth by the flow of the
sap. It is very important to learn the true alco-
holic strength of any fermented liquor or spirits
employed by the vinegar maker, and to be able
to obtain this information for oneself, not taking
it at second hand from interested parties. To
give the different methods by which this end may
be readily accomplished will be the object of the
remainder of the present chapter.
When we say that a certain liquid contains so
much per cent, of alcohol, we always understand
" absolute' alcohol, that is, alcohol in its highest
possible state of concentration. In speaking of
the percentage of alcohol, we always mean, unless
it is stated otherwise, percentage by volume ; for
example, 90 per cent, alcohol is that of which 100
gallons contain 90 gallons of absolute alcohol. If
the percentage is expressed by weight, then in
PROPERTIES OF ALCOHOL. 127
100 pounds of, say 60 per cent, alcohol, there
would be 60 pounds of absolute alcohol. I shall
give tables, from which weight per cents of alco-
hol may be converted into volume per cents, and
vice-versa.
Absolute alcohol contains 4 atoms of carbon, 6
of hydrogen, and 2 of oxygen. The specific gra-
vity at 60 Fah. is 0-793. When the barometer
stands at 30 inches it boils at 173 Fah. From
this we may infer that the weaker a mixture of
alcohol and water is, the nearer will be the ap-
proach of its specific gravity to 1, and of its boil-
ing point to 212 Fah. The distiller obtains
strong spirits by successive distillations. During
the first distillation, the first products are the
strongest in alcohol ; and the boiling point of the
liquid in the still rises gradually. By paying
attention to this fact, the distiller is able by the
first distillation to obtain several liquids of differ-
ent but well known alcoholic strength. These
are called technically "whiskys" or "high wines."
The name whisky in ^this country is generally
given to products arising from the fermentation
of a mixture of grain in which the rye predomi-
nates ; while in high wines, the maize exceeds
the rye in the mashing process.
Towards the close of the distillation the fusel
oil comes over in greater abundance than at the
commencement. This unwelcome liquid is found
in larger quantity in spirits distilled from potato
or maize than from rye, barley, &c. It is not ob-
128 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
jectionable to the vinegar maker, because it is
transformed in his process into aromatic ethers,
which impart a fine flavor to his product. It is
removed to a great extent from spirits by filtra-
tion through thick layers of charcoal, a process
called technically, but improperly, "rectifying."
Rectifying properly speaking consists in sub-
mitting the first portions of the first distillation
to another distillation, in which we obtain first
products of higher alcoholic per centage.
No number of rectifications will remove all of
the water from spirits. The strongest rectified
spirits of wine contain from 10 to 14 per cent of
water, which is in the proportion of one atom of
water to one atom of absolute alcohol. The last
portion of water may, however, be removed by
chloride of calcium, or by quick lime, substances
having a great affinity for water and not injuring
alcohol. The following is the process : Quicklime
is obtained in a fine powder. This may be ef-
fected by slaking lime with just enough water to
enable it to fall into a fine powder, which is then
heated to redness in a crucible to drive off again
the water. This dry powder is agitated frequently
with the strongest rectified spirits for twenty-four
hours. The alcohol is then distilled off, collect-
ing the first portions. A repetition of this treat-
ment will bring the alcohol to a high degree
of strength. To deprive it of the last traces of
water, it is necessary to add to it a sufficient
quantity of freshly fused (cold) caustic potassa,
PROPERTIES OF ALCOHOL. 129
and at once distil it over a naked fire until three-
fourths of the liquid have passed over. It is now
absolute alcohol.
Another and a simple method of strengthening
alcohol, consists in exposing to the air a tightly
closed bladder containing the spirits. The pores
of the bladder permit the passage (and consequent
evaporation) of a large portion of the water, but
oppose that of the alcohol. Absolute alcohol is
colorless, of a biting taste and pleasant smell. It
has never been fairly frozen by the greatest arti-
ficial cold. It has a great affinity for water, which
it greedily attracts from the air. This property
makes it a violent poison, for when swallowed it
deprives of water whatever it touches. Its affinity
in this respect is shown by the heat evolved and
by the contraction which takes place when alco-
hol and water are mixed. The greatest contrac-
tion is perceived when 53.7 measures of absolute
alcohol are added to 49.8 measures of water. The
sum, which is 103J measures, contracts to 100
measures. It is necessary to take this contraction
into consideration when making alcoholic mix-
tures by measure. If we make them ~by weight,
it of course differs not. The following experi-
ment illustrates this contraction of alcohol and
water: Take a long, thin tube, closed at one end,
and carefully measure into it successively two
fluid ounces of water, making a mark at each
level. Pour out the last portion of two ounces,
and add instead strong alcohol, (colored with tur-
130 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
meric, so that it may be seen,) to the upper mark.
This additio'n must be made carefully, so that the
alcohol does not mix but floats upon the water.
Now close the tube, and invert it several times,
until the two fluids be perfectly mingled, and it
will be perceived that the mixture does not reach
the level of the upper mark, demonstrating that
a contraction has taken place.
Alcohol expands very much by heat and con-
tracts by cold ; which, added to its property of
not freezing, makes it valuable for thermometers
which are to be exposed to great cold. The dila-
tibility by heat, boiling point and specific gravity,
afford three methods for determining the alco-
holic strength of wines and spirits.
ALCOHOLIC STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS.
1st. By the dilatometer test. This test is founded
upon the difference of dilatability of absolute al-
cohol and pure water. The small quantity of
sugar and extraneous matters existing in the li-
quids under examination does not sensibly in-
fluence the correctness of the results. The dila-
tometer consists of a cylindrical glass vessel, re-
sembling in appearance a glass hydrometer. The
body of the vessel terminates below in a hair
opening, which may be closed by a vulcanized
pad and spring; above, it connects with a thermo-
meter tube. The liquor to be tested is brought to
the initial temperature for which the dilatometer
has been graduated, say 77 Fah., and introduced
ALCOHOLIC STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS. 131
into the instrument by plunging the latter, (with
its lower aperture open,) therein. By suction the
liquor is caused to fill the vessel, so that it rises
in the thermometer tube to exactly the level of
the line marked 0. The lower aperture is then
closed by releasing the spring, and the instrument
is brought into a vessel of water of the higher
temperature for which it is graduated, say 145.
The point to which the liquid rises in the ther-
mometer stem will exhibit a number which will
indicate the alcoholic strength of the liquor.
These different per centage points are obtained
by careful experiments performed upon alcoholic
mixtures of different and accurately determined
strength.
2d. By the thermometer test. This method gives
accurate results, which are not influenced mate-
rially by the sugar and salts of the liquors exper-
imented upon. It requires a very delicate ther-
mometer, which is graduated between the boiling
points of alcohol and water. Tables have been
constructed, or may be constructed by any one
possessing such a thermometer, by taking the
boiling point of alcoholic mixtures of known
strength. By taking the boiling point of an un-
known sample of liquor, its alcoholic strength is
at once known upon reference to the table. Since
the pressure of the atmosphere influences the
boiling point of liquids, a table of corrections for
the barometer must be used whenever the atmos-
pheric pressure varies from 30 inches of mercury.
132 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
3d. By the specific gravity test. This is the me-
thod in universal use. It is simple, accurate,
speedy and not costly. The sugar, salts, &c., ex-
isting in fermented liquors influence its results
and must be attended to. The specific gravity is
taken either directly by comparing the weight of
equal bulks of the liquid and water, or as is gen-
erally the custom, by means of the hydrometer,
which gives the specific gravity by simple in-
spection. Since specific gravity enables us to
test the strength of alcohol of saccharine solutions
and of vinegar, it is important at this place to
give a particular exhibition of the whole subject
of specific gravity and hydrometers.
In ordinary language, the words "specific
gravity" and " density," convey exactly the
same idea, viz : the difference of weight of
equal bulks of all bodies. Water is taken as
the standard for this comparison, (for solids and
liquids,) because it is universally accessible, and
from the principle of Archimedes, to which allu-
sion will be made directly. If, therefore, we
weigh a cubic inch of every solid and liquid, and
divide each result by the weight of the cubic inch
of water, we will have a series of numbers, repre-
senting the specific gravity of the respective sub-
stances. In this series the specific gravity of
water will be one, that of some bodies will be less
than one, and that of the remainder greater than
one. Thus :
ALCOHOLIC STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS. 133
The specific gravity of water, . . . 1.000
" lead, . . . 11.350
" rolled platinum, . 22.070
" marble, . . 2.840
" oak wood, . . 1.170
" cork, . . . 0.240
" sulphuric acid, . . 1.848
" ether, . . . 0.715
The most accurate method of taking specific
gravities, is by actual weighing, which any one
may readily perform with a " specific gravity bot-
tle," and a sufficiently delicate balance. The fol-
lowing is a convenient way of making such a
bottle where the regular one cannot be obtained.
Take a glass stoppered bottle, of say two fluid
ounces capacity, and file a longitudinal groove in
the stopper. When the bottle is filled to the
brim with liquid and this stopper gently dropped
in, the excess of fluid will escape through the
channel of the groove, and the stopper may be
firmly set. One object to be gained is accom-
plished, this bottle will always measure exactly
the same bulk of any liquid. By the aid of such
a bottle, an apothecary's balance of ordinary
delicacy, and accurate weights, any one can, by
strictly following the directions which I shall
give, determine the percentage of sugar, alcohol
and acetic acid, in their respective aqueous solu-
tions.
In weighing with such a balance, care should
be taken to first test its accuracy, by bringing it
into equilibrium with weights in each scale pan.
12
134 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
"When these weights are shifted to opposite scale
pans, the balance should be still in equilibrium ;
if it is not, the arms of the beam are of unequal
length. We can, however, still use it, provided
it be sensible to a small weight, by recourse to
the system of double weighing. By this method,
we place the bottle to be weighed in, let us say,
the right hand scale pan, and counterbalance it
exactly with shot and pieces of paper ; then re-
move the bottle and add in its stead enough
weights to bring the balance to equilibrium. The
weights necessary will be the exact weight of
the bottle.
In taking specific gravities by the bottle, it is
imperative to have, once for all, the accurate
weight of the dry empty bottle,* and that of the
bottle full of pure water, (rain or distilled,) at the
temperature of 39 Fah. This temperature of
water is taken to determine specific gravities,
because at it water possesses its greatest density.
Below 39 Fah., water expands again, becomes
less dense, until it is converted into ice. If this
be not already known, a little reflection will show
that it must be so, for otherwise ice would not
float upon water. We can readily by means
of ice and a thermometer, bring the water to be
weighed in the specific gravity bottle to the tem-
perature of 39. Now, whenever we need to
* If wet the bottle may be dried by warming it. and sucking the
air from it by a glass tube or a straw.
ALCOHOLIC STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS. 135
determine the specific gravity of any liquid, we
have only to weigh our specific gravity bottle full
of it. Then,
A. The difference of weight between the bot-
tle full of water and empty, is the weight of one
measure of water.
B. The difference of weight between the bottle
full of the liquid under examination and the
empty bottle, is the weight of one measure of
said liquid.
Hence B divided by A, (t. e. p) equals the spe-
cific gravity of the liquid in question.
In performing this process, the temperature of
the liquid to be examined is brought to the tem-
perature of 60 Fah., that being an ordinary tem-
perature. In the different specific gravity tables
which I shall give, the temperature to which the
liquid must be brought to agree with them will
be stated at the head of the table. If not so
stated, 60 Fah. is understood.
I shall now give the method of obtaining the
density of solids by the specific gravity bottle,
because the principle upon which hydrometers
depend, viz: "the principle of Archimedes," is
directly concerned in it. At the risk of being con-
sidered trite, let me repeat the circumstances
which, (it is said,) gave rise to the discovery of
this principle. Archimedes lived B. c. 285-212.
King Hiero, of Syracuse, had given to a gold-
smith gold for the manufacture of a new crown,
and suspected upon the completion of the work,
136 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
that some of the gold had been stolen and silver
added to make up the deficiency of weight. The
matter was placed for investigation in the hands
of Archimedes, who long pondered in vain over
the solution of the problem. At length, one day
upon stepping into a full bath, the water over-
flowed, which conveyed so forcibly to his mind a
method of arriving at the desired information,
that, in the most unphilosophical manner, naked
as he was, (so stated, probably, to give point to
the story,) he rushed home, crying, " Eureka, I
have found it." The principle he discovered, and
upon which hydrometers and the specific gravity
method for solids depend, is, that " when a body
is immersed in a fluid, the weight of the fluid
displaced is equal to the weight which the body
loses by the immersion." It enables us to obtain
the weight of a quantity of water equal in bulk
to the solid, which is all we want for arriving at
the specific gravity. In other words, if we weigh
a solid suspended by a hair, first in air, then in
water, we will have the loss of weight in water,
which is the weight of a quantity of water equal
in bulk to the solid. Consequently, the weight
in air divided by the loss of weight in water, will
give a number which represents the specific grav-
ity of the solid.
We can obtain the same result by the specific
gravity bottle, in which case, we weigh the water
displaced. Take the example of emery. Weigh
some in fragments or powder in the dry bottle.
HYDROMETERS. 137
Xow, without removing the emery, fill the bottle
with pure water of the temperature of 39. We
know then the weight of the bottle full of water ;
the weight of the emery ; and can get, by a simple
calculation, the weight of pure water displaced
by the emery ; which, by the Archimedean prin-
ciple, has a bulk equal to that of the emery ; the
quotient of this divided into the weight of the
emery, gives its specific gravity. An example
will render this plain :
Suppose the bottle holds of water, . . . 1000 grains.
The emery introduced, ..... 100 "
Weight of whole, had no water been displaced, . 1100 "
But the observed weight is only . . . 10YO "
Hence the water displaced by the emery weighs, 30 "
and iJLP = 3-333 specific gravity of the emery.
Archimedes determined the specific gravity of
gold and silver, 19.5 and 10.5 respectively ; and
next that of the crown. The latter, if no silver
had been added, must be 19.5 ; if the suspected
fraud had taken place, it must, of necessity, be
less than 19.5 ; which was found to be the case,
and thus, as in thousands of other instances,
science was enabled to triumph over crime.
HYDROMETERS,
called also areometers, are instruments employed
for determining the specific gravities of liquids.
When prepared for use in particular liquids, they
12*
138
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
bear corresponding names, as the saccharometer,
for solutions of sugar; the alcoholometer, for
spirits ; the acetometer, for vinegar, &c. Hydro-
meters must be made of a material unaffected by
the liquid in which they are to be employed, as
of glass for acids; silver, or hard rubber, for
spirits, &c. The following is a representation of
a glass hydrometer.
B
o\
Like all the members of its class, it contains
three parts : the body, A; the graduated stem, B;
and the weight, C, which, by lowering its centre
of gravity, enables it to float vertically in a liquid.
In glass hydrometers, this weight is a bulbous
extension of the body, and contains sufficient
mercury, or small shot, to effect its purpose.
HYDROMETERS. 139
Let the instrument be so constructed that in
pure water, of temperature 39 Fah., it sinks to
0. In sinking, it displaces water until, by the
principle of Archimedes, a bulk of water equal in
weight to the instrument is displaced. The
weight of this bulk of displaced water and of the
instrument hold each other in equilibrium ; the
hydrometer floats immersed to the point 0.
If we place the hydrometer in alcohol, which is
specifically lighter than water, as its own weight
and form are unchanged, it will sink deeper, or
until the alcohol displaced equals the weight of
the hydrometer, suppose to x. In vinegar, it will
not have to sink as far as 0, but only let us say
to y, for the specific gravity of that fluid is greater
than water. The different volumes of alcohol dis-
placed by the hydrometer sinking to x ; of water
when it sinks to o ; of vinegar when it sinks to y ;
all weigh the same, viz : as much as the hydro-
meter weighs in air. It will readily be perceived,
that we may graduate the stem so that the point
to which it will sink will indicate the specific
gravity of a fluid in which it is immersed. In the
method of determining the specific gravities of
fluids by the bottle, we compare different weights
of the same volume. By the hydrometer, we com-
pare the different volumes which the same weight
of the respective fluids occupies, from which we
infer their specific gravity, i. e. relative weights
of the same volume. There are several methods
of graduating the stem. In some, the degrees
140 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
refer to a table, which gives the corresponding
specific gravities ; in others, the specific gravities
are expressed directly upon the instrument; and,
in others, the per centage of sugar, alcohol, acetic
acid, &c., are marked upon the stem. The larger
the body is in proportion to the stem, the more
delicate is the hydrometer.
There are several methods by which the gradu-
ation points are obtained for hydrometers. The
least philosophical of these is that of Beaume,
whose hydrometers have attained a universal use,
especially in this country. They are used with
tables, which give the specific gravity correspond-
ing to every degree.
Beaume"s hydrometers are of two classes, one
called " pese-acides" " pese-sels," &c., for liquids
heavier than water; the other, " pese-ether," for
liquids lighter than water. This obviates the
necessity for instruments with a long delicate,
and, consequently, fragile stem. The hydrome-
ters of the first class, have the degrees numbered
from below upward ; in those of the second class,
they run downward. It is useful at times to em-
ploy instruments of which the stem contains only
a portion of either of these scales. This enables
the stem to be more slender in proportion to the
body, which gives a more sensitive instrument, as
the degrees are thereby farther apart. The fol-
lowing are Beaume^s tables complete :
HYDROMETERS.
141
BEAUME S HYDROMETER TABLE FOR LIQUIDS HEAVIER
THAN WATER.
Temperature of liquid 54 Fah.
i-ooe
38
1-359
1
1-007
39
1-372
2
1-014
40
1-384
3
1-022
41
1-398
4
1-029
42
1-412
5
1-036
43
1-426
6
1-044
44
1-440
7
1-052
45
1-454
8
1-060
46
1-470
9
1-067
47
1-485
10
1-075
48
1-501
11
1-083
49
1-516
12
1-091
50
1-532
13
1-100
51
1-549
14
1-106
52
1-566
15
1-116
53
1-583
16
1-125
54
1-601
17
1-134
55
1-618
18
1-143
56
1-637
19
1-152
57
1-656
20
1-161
58
1-676
21
1-171
59
1-695
22
1-180
60
1-714
23
1-1
61
1-736
24
1-199
62
1-758
25
1-210
63
1-779
26
1-221
64
1-801
27
1-231
65
1-823
28
1-242
66
1-847
29
1-252
67
1-872
30
1-261
68
1-897
31
1-275
69
1-921
32
1-286
70
1-946
33
1-298
71
1-974
34
1-309
72
2-002
35
1-321
73
2-031
36
1-334
74
2-059
37
1-346
75
2-087
142
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
BEAUME'S HYDROMETER TABLE FOR LIQUIDS LIGHTER
THAN WATER.
Temperature of liquid 54 Fah.
60
0744
34
0-856
59
0-748
33
0-862
58
0-762
32
0-867
57
0-756
31
0-872
56
0-760
30
0-877
55
0-764
29
0-882
54
0-768
28
0-888
53
0-772
27
0-893
52
0-776
26
0-899
51
0-780
25
0-906
50
0-784
24
0-911
49
0-788
23
0-917
48
0-792
22
0-923
47
0-795
21
0-929
46
0-799
20
0-935
45
0-803
19
0-941
44
0-806
18
0-947
43
0-812
17
0-953
42
0-817
16
0-959
41
0-821
15
0-966
40
0-826
14
0-973
39
0-831
13
0-979
38
0-836
12
0-986
37
0-841
11
0-993
36
0-846
10
1-000
35
0-851
The following is a good rule for converting the
degrees of Beaume* for liquids denser than water
into specific gravities, when the table is not at
hand:
Let B = the ascertained degree of Beaum ;
then specific gravity of liquid = 1 -^ s
For example, suppose the liquid indicates 66
B., then ^ = = 1-846 its specific gravity.
HYDROMETERS. 143
Cray Lussacs volumeter, is a hydrometer with a
rational graduation. In it, the additional volume
of liquid displaced by the instrument when it
sinks one degree, bears a known ratio to the
volume displaced by the instrument in water.
This hydrometer deserves to be employed more
generally than it is in our country. It is made
in series of several instruments suited to liquids
of different densities, thereby avoiding the fran-
gibility of a single instrument with a long and
delicate stem. The specific gravity is found by
dividing one hundred by the number of degrees
to which the' volumeter sinks in the liquid under
examination.
For example, in a certain liquid, heavier than
water, it sinks to 80 ; then specific gravity
100 1.O
= 80 = X Zb *
In another liquid, less dense than water, it
sinks to 116 ; then, specific gravity = J-S? = 0-862.
Thus may a table be prepared to use with the
volumeter, which will avoid even this simple
calculation. This instrument, if correct, sinks
in water of 39 Fah. to 100 of its scale.
The hydrometers in the market are often very
false. In buying one, it should always be tested
in some suitable fluid, of which the density has
been accurately determined by the specific grav-
ity bottle. Beaume"s hydrometer for dense fluids
should sink in water to 0, and that for lighter
fluids should float at 10.
The saccharorr.eter is a hydrometer of which the
144 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
degrees indicate the per centage of sugar existing
in aqueous solutions of this substance. Thus,
14 saccharometer indicates that the solution
contains 14 per cent, by weight of sugar. On
page 121 I have given a table in which the sac-
charometer degrees are translated into specific
gravities.
The acetometer is a hydrometer for determining
the per centage by weight of acetic acid in vinegar.
The instrument has two scales, one indicating the
per centage of anhydrous acetic acid, the other
that of hydrated acetic acid. Specific gravity is
a poor test for vinegar. A chemical acetometer
will be described in the chapter on acetic acid.
The alcoholometer is a hydrometer which indi-
cates the per centage of absolute alcohol by volume
in spirits. I shall give tables, by means of which,
the per centage by volume may be translated
into per centage by weight, and vice versa.
The liquor merchant buys and sells by measure ;
the vinegar maker calculates the per centage in
acid of his manufactured article by weight, and
hence it is important to learn in alcohol both
kinds of per centage. Liquor dealers employ
alcoholometers graduated differently from that
just described. In them, the point of departure
is not water, but " proof spirits " that is, a certain
definite mixture of alcohol and water, established
by law, and differing in different countries. A
stronger spirit is of so many degrees over proof,
and a weaker one, of so many degrees under
HYDROMETERS. 145
proof. English proof spirit has at 60 Fah. a den-
sity of 0-9186, containing a per centage of abso-
lute alcohol = 49-50 by weight, and 57-27 by mea-
sure. The proof spirit of New York and of many
other States, has at 60 Fah. a density of 0.9335,
and contains in one hundred measures fifty of
absolute alcohol and fifty of water. The proof
spirit of Ohio has at 60 Fah., specific gravity,
0-9367 = 49 per cent., by volume, of absolute
alcohol. The whole system of proof is cumber-
some, and descends from an age, when the king's
thumb measured the inch, and the weight of his
fist the pound. In old times, spirits were poured
upon gunpowder and set on fire ; if the powder
ignited, they were over-proof, and if not, they
were called under-proof. The vinegar maker
should be entirely ignorant of proof, and should
test the spirits which he purchases with his own
alcoholometer, which may be that either of Tralles
or of Gay Lussac. Remember that the expression
30 Tralles, or 30 Gay Lussac, indicate that in
one hundred gallons of the said spirits at 60 Fah.,
thirty gallons of absolute alcohol are contained.
In applying hydrometers, the liquid is placed
in a tall cylindrical glass, and the hydrometer
lowered gradually into it without wetting that
portion of the stem rising above the liquid, which,
by increasing the weight of the instrument, would
give false results. The hydrometer must not
adhere to the side of the vessel.
13
146 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
The ordinary style of alcoholometers will not
do for testing weak solutions of alcohol. The
lower degrees are too close together. For this
purpose, a more delicate instrument should be
employed, which, with a stem several inches long,
contains only from 0-12. I will now give the
tables of corrections for temperature, to enable a
speedy and certain alcoholometer test. If the
temperature of the spirits be exactly 12-5 Be'au-
mer = 60-1 Fah., a simple inspection of the
Tralles or Gay Lussac alcoholometer immersed
therein, gives its per ceiitage, by volume, of abso-
lute alcohol. If the temperature varies from this
point, the temperature of the spirits must be very
carefully noted, and the proper correction of the
table applied. Ke'aumer's thermometer is not
employed in our country, but its degrees are
given in the table because a very excellent Berlin
Tralles instrument is made, of which the coun-
terpoise or weight is the bulb of a Re'aumer ther-
mometer.*
* Bullock and Crenshaw, or McAllister & Bro., of Philadelphia,
can furnish all of the instruments described in this work. A good
Tralles instrument with Fahrenheit thermometer as described,
costs $3.00.
HYDROMETERS.
147
ALCOHOLOMETER TABLE, CORRECTIONS FOR TEMPERATURES.
For temperatures below 12-5 Reaumer = 60-1 Fah,
Degrees
of Tralles
read.
Nos. of degrees for which
1 per cent, of alcohol
must be added.
Degrees
of Tralles
read.
Nos. of degrees for which
1 per cent, of alcohol
mast be added.
Reaumer.
Fah.
Reanmer.
Fah.
40
41
42
43
44
45
2-0
2-1
2-2
4-5
4-7
4-9
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
2-6
2-7
5-8
6-1
6-1
6-3
2-7
2-8
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
2-2
4-9
81
82
83
84
85
2-9
3-0
6-5
6-7
2-3
5-2
86
87
88
89
90
3-0
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
6-7
7-0
7-2
7-4
7-6
56
57
58
59
60
2-3
2-4
5-2
5.4
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-9
4-0
4-2
4-5
7-8
8-1
8-3
8-7
9-0
9-4
10.1
61
62
63
64
65
2-4
2-5
5-4
5-6
66
67
68
69
70
2-5
2-6
5-6
5-8
148
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
ALCOHOLOMETER TABLE, CORRECTIONS FOR TEMPERATURE.
For temperatures above 12-5 Reaumer = 60-1 Fah.
Tralles
degrees
read.
Number of degrees for
which 1 per cent, oi
alcohol must be sub-
tracted.
Tralles
degrees
read.
Number of degrees for
which 1 per cent, of
alcohol must be sub-
tracted.
K6aumer.
Fah.
Eeaumer.
Fah.
40
2-0
4-5
71
2-5
5-6
.
72
41
2-0
4-5
73
42
74
43
A A
75
2.6
5-8
45
76
2-6
5-8
77
46
2-0
4-5
78
47
2-1
4-7
79
2-7
6-1
48
4.0
80
50
81
82
2-7
6-1
51
2-1
4-7
83
2-8
6-3
52
84
53
2.2
4-9
85
54
55
86
2-9
6-5
87
56
2-3
5-2
88
57
89
3-0
67
58
KG
90
3-1
7-0
60
91
3-1
7-0
QO
q.q
*7-d.
61
2-3
5-2
93
62
94
3-4
7-6
63
95
64
65
96
q7
3-6
8-1
66
2-4
5-4
98
3-7
8-3
67
99
4-2
9-4
68
100
4.4
9-9
69
2.5
5-6
70
"
~
HYDROMETERS. 149
Iii these tables, the hyphens refer to the num-
bers immediately preceding, to avoid repetition
and to catch the eye ; thus, in the second table,
for 72 - , read 72 2-5 Re'aumer, 5-6 Fah.,
&c.
Let me now illustrate, by example, the employ-
ment of the tables. Suppose that in winter we
test a spirit at the temperature of 8 Reaumer,
and find its strength 83, i. e. 83 per cent, of ab-
solute alcohol. This per centage is too low, be-
cause the temperature is below the normal point
of 12-5, the spirits are denser at 8 than at 12-5.
The difference in temperature is 12 -5 8 = 4-5.
Now, by the table, for 83, we must add 1 per
cent, of alcohol for every 3 of Reaumer below
12 -5, hence for 4 -5 Reaumer, we must add
4|o _ -^0.5 Hence the correct strength of the
alcohol is 83 + l-5 = 84-5 per cent, of absolute
alcohol.
Here is the same example in degrees of Fah-
renheit. The temperature = 50 Fah., the indi-
cation 83 per cent. Fifty degrees is 10 -1 below
60-1. If for 6-7 Fah., we add 1 per cent,
alcohol; for 10-1, we must add l j$ = l-5
Hence 83 per cent, + l-5 = 84-5 as before. If
we were selling this sample of spirits by the alco-
holometer, without making the correction for
temperature, we would lose one and a half gal-
lons of absolute alcohol on every one hundred
gallons of the spirits.
Let us take another example, where the tem-
13*
150
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
perature is above the normal one, say 20 Rdau-
mer, or 77 Fah., and let the alcoholic indication,
(first column,) be 89. In this case, we must,
according to the table, diminish 89, the observed
per centage ; thus, 20 Re'aumer, 12'5 Re'au-
mer, = 7 -5. By table, we must subtract 1 per
cent, absolute alcohol for every 3 above 12 -5,
and, hence, for 7-5 ^ = 2-5. 2-5 Tralles, are
therefore to be subtracted from 89, which leaves
86 -5 as the correct per centage of alcohol in the
spirits.
With Fahrenheit degrees, the same example
would be thus worked out :
77 60-1 = 16-9; = 2-5; 89 2-5 = 86-5.
The following useful table enables us to obtain
the per centage strength of alcoholic solutions, by
determining the specific gravity either with the
hydrometer, or by the specific gravity bottle :
SPECIFIC GRAVITY TABLE.
Of alcoholic mixtures (with water} by weight and volume, at tempera-
lure 60-1 Fah.
Percentage
of absolute
alcohol.
Specific gravity for
Per centage
of absolute
alcohol.
Specific gravity for
Volume per
cent.
Weight per
cent.
Volume per
cent.
Weight per
cent.
1
0-9985
0-9981
9
0-9878
0-9855
2
0-9970
0-9965
10
0-9866
0-9841
3
0-9956
0-9947
11
0-9854
0-9828
4
0-9942
0-9930
12
0-9843
0-9815
5
0-9928
0-9913
13
0-9832
0-9802
6
0-9915
0-9898
14
0-9821
0-9789
7
0-9902
0-9884
15
0-9811
0-9778
8
0.9890
0-9869
16
0-9800
0-9766
HYDROMETERS.
151
SPECIFIC GRAVITY TABLE, CONTINUED.
Percentage
of absolute
alcohol.
Specific gravity for
Per centage
of absolute
alcohol.
Specific gravity for
Volume per
cent.
Weight per
cent.
Volume per
cent.
Weight per
cent.
17
0-9790
0-9753
59
0-9156
0-8979
18
0-9780
0-9741
60
0-9134
0-8956
19
0-9770
09728
61
0-9112
0-8932
20
0-9760
0-9716
62
0-9090
08908
21
0-9750
0'9704
63
0-9067
0-8886
22
0-9740
0-9691
64
0-9044
0-8863
23
0-9729
0-9678
65
0-9021
0-8840
24
0-9719
0-9665
66
0-8997
0-8816
25
0-9709
0-9652
67
0-8973
0-8793
26
09698
0-9638
68
0-8949
0-8769
27
0-9688
0-9623
69
0-8925
0-8745
28
0-9677
0-9609
70
0-8900
0-8721
29
0-9666
0-9593
71
08875
0-8696
30
0-6655
0-9578
72
0-8850
0-8672
31
0-9643
0-9560
73
0-8825
0-8649
32
0-9631
0-9544
74
0-8799
0-8625
33
0-9618
0-9528
75
0-8773 08603
34
0-9605
0-9511
76
0-8747 | 0-8581
35
0-9592
09490
77
0-8720 0-8557
36
0-9579
0-9470
78
0-8693
0-8533
37
0-9565
0-9452
79
0-8665
0-8508
38
0-9550
0-9434
80
0-8639
0-8483
39
0-9535
0-9416
81
0-8611
0-8459
40
0-9519
0-9396
82
0-8583
0-8434
41
0-9503
0-9376
83
0-8555
08408
42
9487
0-9356
84
0-8526
08382
43
0-9470
0-9335
85
0-8496
08357
44
0-9452
0-9314
86
0-8466
0-8331
45
0-9435
0-9292
87
0-8436
0-8305
46
0-9417
0-9270
88
0-8405
0-8279
47
0-9399
09249
89
0-8373
0-8254
48
0-9381
0-9228
90
0-8339
0-8228
49
0-9362
0-9206
91
0-8306
0-8199
50
0-9343
0-9184
92
0-8272
08172
51
0-9323
0-9160
93
8237
0-8145
52
0-9303
0-9135
94
0-8201
0-8118
53
09283
0-9113
95
0-8164
0-8089
54
0-9263
09090
96
0-8125
0-8061
55
0-9242
0-9069
97
0-8084
0-8031
56
0-9221
0-9047
98
0-8041
0-8001
57
0-9200
0-9025
99
0-7995
0-7969
58
0-9178
0-9001 100
0-7946
0-7938
152 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
The specific gravity column of the volume per
cents, is by Brix, calculated according to Tralles,
where the specific gravity of water is taken equal
to 1 at 60 -1 Fah., and whence that of absolute
alcohol is 0-7946. The column of weight per
cents, is by Fownes. In it the specific gravity of
water is taken 1 at the proper temperature 39
Fah., and becomes 0-9991 at 60 Fah., whence the
specific gravity of absolute alcohol on that basis
is at 60-1 = 0-7938. This accounts for the very
small discrepancies between the two columns.
To illustrate the use of this table, suppose we
talk of an alcohol of 46 per cent. ; if we mean per
centage by volume, its density = 0-9417 ; if we
understand per centage by weight, its specific
gravity would be 0-9270.
Again : suppose that we have determined the
specific gravity of an alcohol to be 0-8825 ; refer-
ence to the table will show that its per centage
strength of absolute alcohol is 73 by volume, and
between 65 and 66 by weight.
Finally : suppose, knowing that a spirit contains
44 per cent, absolute alcohol by volume, we desire
to learn what per centage by weight this would
be equivalent to. Opposite 44 in the first column
we find in the second column 0-9452. This num-
ber in the third column corresponds to a per
centage of 37, which is a weight per centage.
Weight per cents, are converted into volume per
cents, by a similar manner.
There are rules for mutually transforming
HYDROMETERS.
153
weight and volume per cents, from the table with
groat accuracy, thus :
Rule. To change volume per cent, to weight per
cent. Multiply the volume per cent. (i. e. degrees
of Tralles,) by 0-794, i. e. the specific gravity of ab-
solute alcohol, and divide by the specific gravity
which corresponds to the volume per centage.
Example. For 82 volumes per cent., how many
weights per cent ?
82x0-794
= 75-85 per centage by weight.
0-8583
Rule. To transform weight per cents, to volume
per cents. Multiply the weight per cent, by its
corresponding specific gravity and divide by 0-794,
i. e. by the specific gravity of absolute alcohol.
Example. What per centage by volume does
76 per centage by weight correspond to ?
Answer.
76x0-8581
0-794
= 8'2-l
In the following short tables this calculation is
performed for the lower per cents, of spirits of
the strength employed by the vinegar maker.
TABLE I.
TABLE
II.
Vol. per
Ct. =
Weight per ct.
080
Weight
per ct. =
Vol. per ct.
1-25
2
z=r
1-60
2
2-50
3
S
2-40
3
3-75
4
=
3-20
4
5-00
5
=
4-00
5
6-25
6
=
4-80
6
7-50
7
=
5-60
7
=
8-70
8
=
6.40
8
9-56
9
51
7-24
9
11-20
10
8-03
10
.
12-40
11
=
8-88
12
=
9-70
154 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
For example 6 per cent, by volume corresponds
to 4*8 per cent, by weight. 5 per cent, by weight
corresponds to 6-25 per cent, by volume.
Some alcoholometers have upon the same stem
two scales, that of Tralles, which indicates per
centage by volume, and that of Richter, which
tells weight per cents. The latter scale is worth-
less, being constructed upon a false principle.
THE CALCULATION FOR MAKING DEFINITE MIXTURES
OF ALCOHOL AND WATER.
The manufacturer of vinegar who employs
spirits, buys them of a certain strength, paying
according to the quantity of absolute alcohol
which they contain. He dilutes them with water
to a definite point, according to the acid strength
which the vinegar must have. He must, by all
means, know how much water to add in any
given case.
Alcohol and water contract when mixed. The
liquor dealer takes this contraction in account,
but not so the vinegar maker, because the error
involved is trifling on account of the weakness
of his alcoholic solutions.
Suppose it is required to obtain one hundred gal-
lons of spirits of 5%* Tralles by diluting alcohol
of 80% Tralles. How much alcohol and how
much water must be taken ?
Rule. Multiply the number of gallons of the
required mixture by its required alcohol per cent-
* The sign % indicates per centage.
MIXTURES OF ALCOHOL AND WATER. 155
age and divide by the alcohol per centage of the
spirit used. The quotient gives the number of
gallons of the alcohol which must be taken for
the mixture.
Thus, in the above case, !^5 = 6-25. Then
take 6*25 gallons of 80% alcohol, and add
1006-25 = 93-75 gallons of water to it; or add
water to the above quantity of spirits until we
have a hundred gallons of the mixture. There is
another way of obtaining the same result :
Rule. Divide the per centage (Tralles) of the
strong spirits by the required per centage of the
mixture. The quotient will express the number
of gallons of mixture which one gallon of the
strong spirits will afford. Thus, in the last ex-
ample, f = 16. That is one gallon of 80%
spirits will make sixteen gallons of 5% mixture.
Ten gallons of the former will make one hundred
and sixty of the latter, or in general terms :
16 : 1 : : a : x = i
where x denotes how much spirits must be taken,
and a represents the required number of gallons
of the mixture. In the former example, one hun-
dred gallons of mixture were desired, then
= = 6-25. Hence 6-25 gallons of 80% spir-
its must be mixed with enough water to make one
hundred gallons, as obtained by the former rule.
Suppose thirty-eight gallons of the mixture
were wanted, then | = 2~. Add water to 2^ of
80% spirits to make, the mixture measure 38
gallons.
156 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
ALCOHOL TEST FOR WINES AND BEER.
These beverages contain sugar, gum, mineral
salts, &c., which affect the specific gravity of the
liquid ; consequently the alcoholometer will not
immediately indicate their alcoholic strength.
The desired information may he obtained in two
ways.
I. Three hundred measures (any convenient
measure) are distilled in a little still of tinned
copper, heated by a spirit lamp. This still is
made for the purpose, and its worm must be per-
fectly cooled, so as not to lose any alcohol. The
distilled liquid is caught in a vessel graduated on
the same scale as that by which the beverage was
measured. As soon as 100 measures of spirits
have passed over, they are tested with the alcoho-
lometer, and J its per centage found indicates the
alcoholic strength of the beverage under exami-
nation. If the liquid tested is poor in alcohol,
distill off only 50 measures, and take J its alcoho-
lometer indications. If it is very rich, distill off }
or f , and take J or f the per centage given by the
alcoholometer.
II. METHOD. This method is not absolutely
accurate ; but sufficiently so for practical purposes.
Filter a portion of the beverage, and determine
its specific gravity very accurately at 60 Fah. by
the sp. gr. bottle. Now weigh out more than
enough of the filtered liquid to fill the sp. gr.
bottle ; boil off all the alcohol, and add pure
water to restore exactly its original weight. De-
SACCHAROMETER TEST FOR ALCOHOL. 157
termine the specific gravity of this result also by
the bottle. Subtract from 1 the difference of these
two specific gravities, the remainder will be a
specific gravity from which the alcoholic strength
of the beverage may be inferred by using the
Table on page 150.
For example, suppose the fermented liquid have
a specific gravity before boiling = 1-0016 ; after
boiling 1-0088.
The difference of these numbers=0-0072 ; 1
less, 0-0072=0-9928.
Now by the Table on page 150, 0-9928 is nearest
to 0-9930 in column 3, which corresponds to 4 per
cent, by weight of absolute alcohol. In column
2d, it corresponds to 5 per centage by volume.
THE SACCHAROMETER TEST FOR ALCOHOL.
There is a method of ascertaining the alcoholic
value of fermented liquids by the use of the saccha-
rometer during the fermenting process. I have
postponed the consideration of this subject to the
present place where it may be more conveniently
set forth.
The subject is called the " attenuation of worts."
The saccharometer placed in beer worts (of the
temperature for which the instrument is gra-
duated,) immediately after the addition of yeast,
will float at so many degrees. In solutions of
pure sugar, these degree would indicate the per
centage by weight of sugar in the solution, but
not so in beer wort, which contains, besides sugar,
14
158 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
gum, diastase, mineral salts, &c. In proportion
as the fermentation proceeds, whether in sugar
solutions or in beer worts, the specific gravity
falls, because the denser sugar disappears, and the
specifically lighter alcohol takes its place. Con-
sequently, after fermentation, the saccharometer
will indicate a lower per centage. This diminu-
tion of density is called the "apparent attenuation
of the worts." It does not indicate absolutely how
much alcohol is formed, but how much more in
one case than in another. For instance, suppose
that a wort indicating 12 saccharometer is fer-
mented in two portions and that after fermentation,
one portion indicates 1 by the saccharometer, the
other portion 3. The " apparent attenuation" of
the first portion would be 12 1=11, and of
the second portion 12 3=9.
In other words, the greater apparent attenua-
tion would indicate a more perfect fermentation.
To arrive at a knowledge of the real alcoholic
strength of the fermented liquor, w r e must learn
the "real attenuation of the worts" i. e. how much
sugar has really disappeared in the fermentation.
We can then calculate the alcohol formed, for we
know that a pound of sugar will yield a half a
pound of absolute alcohol.
The real attenuation is readily ascertained by
the following simple experiment. Take the sac-
charometer indication before fermentation. After
fermentation, boil down to about one-half an accu-
rately weighed portion of the clear malt wine,
SACCHAROMETER TEST FOR ALCOHOL. 159
taking pains that none is lost by spirting; then
restore to the exact weight taken by the addition
of water. Test this at the proper temperature, by
the saccharometer. In the latter fluid nothing is
gone from the original worts but the alcohol. The
last saccharometer result is due to the gum, salts,
and other heavy substances in the malt wine,
which were of course also present in the unfer-
mented wort. Consequently the difference be-
tween the two saccharometer indications gives the
per centage of sugar that has disappeared during
fermentation. For example, suppose the worts
indicated 12 saccharometer, the boiled malt wine
2-4, then 12 2-4=:9 -6 is the real attenuation.
In other words, 9 -6 per cent, of sugar have been
converted into absolute alcohol. Since sugar
yields one-half its weight of alcohol, the fermented
liquid contains 9 -^ = 4-8 per cent, by weight of
alcohol. By the Table on page 153, 4 -8 per cent.
by weight corresponds to 6 per cent, by volume.
The resulting beer then contains 6 per cent, by
volume of absolute alcohol. This rule, though
simple and sufficiently correct for practice, is not
absolutely so ; for it leaves out of calculation the
specific gravity of the new yeast formed during
the fermentation. Balling has prepared the fol-
lowing table of factors which obviates the error.
100
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
REAL ATTENUATION TABLE.
Alcohol factors for "REAL ATTENUATION."
Saccharometer strength
of the worts before
fermentation.
For solutions of crystal-
For solutions of beer
line sugar.
worts.
6
0-5265
0-4993
7
0-5292
0-5020
8
0-5319
0-5047
9
0-5346
0-5074
10
0-5373
0-5102
11
0-5401
0-5130
12
0-5429
05158
13
0-5457
0-5187
14
0-5486
0-5215
15
0-5515
0-5245
16
0-5545
0-5274
To use this table, take the former example, in
which the "real attenuation' was 9-6. Now, in-
stead of dividing by two, multiply by the factor
opposite the first saccharometer indication, which
was 12 in our example. Multiply the real atten-
uation then, since it is beer worts, by 0-5158, and
we have 9-6 x 0-5158=4 -95, the alcoholic per cent-
age (by weight) of the malt wine. It will be seen
that this result does not differ very much from
4 -8 as obtained by the division of the real atten-
uation by 2, as per last rule. Had the wort been
made with pure sugar, we must multiply by a
factor* from the second column, viz. : (in the same
example) by 0-5429. Here is another table by
Balling, which gives the alcoholic strength from
the " apparent attenuation" i. e. without resorting
to the boiling experiment.
SACCHAROMETEE TEST FOR ALCOHOL. 161
APPARENT ATTENUATION TABLE.
Alcohol factors for " APPARENT ATTENUATION."
Saccharometer strength
of the worts before
fermentation.
For solutions of crystal-
For solutions of beer
line sugar.
worts.
6
0-4312
0-4073
7
0-4330
0-4091
8
0-4348
0-4110
9
0-4267 *
0-4129
10
0-4376
0-4141
11
0-4405
0-4167
12
0-4424
0-4187
13
0-4444
0-4206
14
0-4464
0-4226
15
0-4484
0-4246
16
0-4504
0-4267
Suppose the saccharometer indicates 12 and 1
respectively before and after fermentation, 12 1
= 11 is the apparent attenuation. Multiply this
number (for beer worts) by the factor opposite 12
in the table, 0-4187 x 11=4-6 per centage by weight
of absolute alcohol in the fermented liquid.
Suppose, again, the indication of the worts be-
fore fermentation being 12, that the apparent
attenuation were 9, then 0-4187x9=3-76 per cent,
by weight of the malt wine.
14*
CHAPTER IV.
ACETIC ACID.
ACETIC ACID is derived from alcohol by an oxi-
dation process, which confines its action to the
hydrogen, in consequence of which no separation
of carbon takes place. This effect is brought about
when weak alcohol, in contact with certain fer-
ments, (of which vinegar is the best,) or in contact
with spungy platinum, is subjected to the action of
air at a slightly elevated temperature. The fol-
lowing is Liebig's theory of the vinegar process.
One atom of absolute alcohol is changed to one
atom of hydrated acetic acid by the action of four
atoms of ox}^gen of the air. Of these 4 oxygen
atoms, 2 unite with 2 of the hydrogen of the alco-
hol, forming 2 atoms of water, and leaving a body
called aldehyde, which unites with the two re-
maining oxygen atoms to form the acetic acid.
In the presence of plenty of oxygen, the alde-
hyde is never observed in the free state, as it is
immediately transformed into acetic acid ; but
when there is too little air, its presence is quickly
detected in the vinegar room by a penetrating
aroma pervading the apartment, and by the eyes
smarting.
The following symbols illustrate the vinegar
process.
ACETIC ACID. 163
Alcohol C 4 H 6 2
Less H 2 (which -f O^HO or water) . . H 2
Leaves aldehyde, which .... C 4 H 4 2
Plus oxygen 2
Gives rise to hydrated acetic acid . . C 4 H 4 4
Here is the same process expressed numerically.
From 100 pounds of absolute alcohol which con-
sist of
Pounds Carbon, . . . 52-2
" Hydrogen, . . 13-0
" Oxygen, . . . 34-8
100-0
4-3 pounds of hydrogen are withdrawn by 34-8
pounds of oxygen from the air, giving rise to 39-1
pounds of water, and leaving aldehyde, which
consists of:
Pounds Carbon, . . . 52-2
" Hydrogen, . . 8-7
" Oxygen . . . 34-8
95-7
With the aldehyde, 34-8 pounds of oxygen from
the air unite, giving rise to hydrated acetic acid,
which contains :
Pounds Carbon, . . . 52.2
" Hydrogen, . . 8-7
" Oxygen, . . . 69-6
130-5
From this it is seen that 100 pounds of absolute
alcohol give rise to 130J pounds of hydrated acetic
acid, that is the strongest possible acetic acid, which
contains :
Anhydrous acetic acid, . . 85
Water, 15
100
164 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
These 15 parts of water cannot be removed un-
less they are replaced by some base. In symbols
Hydrated Acetic Acid = C 4 H 4 4 -
i= Anhydrous Acetic Acid, C 4 H 3 3
Plus water HO
C 4 H 3 3 +HO
In anhydrous acetate of soda, soda takes the
place of the water of hydra ted acetic acid. Its
composition is (C 4 H 3 3 -f NaO.)
130J pounds of hydrated acetic acid contain
110-92 pounds of anhydrous acid, or in round
numbers, 111 pounds ; consequently we may say
that every 100 pounds of absolute alcohol yield
111 pounds of anhydrous acetic acid.
One pound of hydrated acetic acid is generated
from 0-77 pounds of absolute alcohol.
One pound of anhydrous acetic acid arises from
0-9 pounds of absolute alcohol.
These results are theoretical ; in practice less
strength is obtained for the vinegar, owing to a
loss of alcohol by evaporation during the process.
In the quick vinegar process three particulars
are to be observed.
1. The nature of the ferment. Ready made vine-
gar is the best ferment; but sour beer, bread
steeped in vinegar, leaven, &c., are also used. In
these it is the nitrogenized or albuminous sub-
stance, which, with the vinegar, forms the fer-
ment ; chemically pure vinegar does not alone act
as a ferment in the vinegar process.
2. The strength of alcohol in the vinegar mixture.
ACETIC ACID. 165
In general terms the weaker the mixture (within
certain limits) the more profitable is the manu-
facture. It should not exceed 10 per cent, alcoholic
strength. In a strongly alcoholic mixture, not
only is the loss by evaporation of the alcohol
greater ; but this body appears to neutralize the
energy of the vinegar fermentation.
3. The limits of temperature for success are
72 Fah. and 100 Fah.
Within these limits the higher the temperature
and the more air brought to the alcoholic solution,
the quicker is its transformation to vinegar. This
of course involves a loss of alcohol by evaporation,
which loss is balanced by the speed of the process,
enabling the capital invested to be the more fre-
quently turned. The vinegar maker aims to con-
vert his alcohol to vinegar as quickly as possible,
with the least loss of alcohol by evaporation, and
with the least remainder of unchanged alcohol in
his product. The vinegars are weak solutions of
acetic acid, flavored with certain aromatic ethers,
which arise during the alcoholic and acetic fer-
mentations. The strongest acetic acid crystalizes
in flaky crystals, and is called " glacial acetic
acid;" also, "radical vinegar." This is hydrated
acetic acid with the least possible water. It boils
at 248 Fah., volatilizing unchanged. It is color-
less ; has a peculiar sharp penetrating smell and
burning taste. Its vapor may be kindled, giving
a pale blue flame. It is heavier than water, its
sp. gr. being at 59 Fah., 1-057 according to Yan
der Toorn, and 1-063 according to Mollerat. Its
166
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
aqueous solutions have the peculiarity that the
one containing between 67 69 per cent, of the
anhydrous acid has the greatest specific gravity,
as may he seen from the following tahle :
TABLE OF DENSITY
Of aqueous solutions of Acetic Acid at 59 Fah.
Anhydrous acetic
acid per centage
by weight.
Specific gravity.
Anhydrous acetic
acid per centage
by weight.
Specific gravity.
^1
00 "5
3 ?-i bo
||1
|1J?
<!
Specific gravity.
1
1-0019
30
1-0485
58
1-0740
2
1-0037
31
1-0498
59
1-0745
3
1-0055
32
1-0510
60
1-0749
4
1-0072
33
1-0522
61
1-0753
5
1-0089
34
1-0537
62
1-0756
6
1-0107
35
1-0546
63
1-0759
7
1-0124
36
1-0558
64
1-0762
8
1-0141
37
1-0569
65
1-0764
9
1-0159
38
1-0580
66
1-0765
10
1-0177
39
1-0591
67
1-0766
11
1-0194
40
1-0601
68
1-0766
12
1-0211
41
1-0611
69
1-0766
13
1-0228
42
1-0621
70
1-0765
14
1-0245
43
1-0631
71
1-0763
15
1-0261
44
1-0640
72
1-0759
16
1-0277
45
1-0649
73
1-0754
17
1-0293
46
1-0658
74
1-0748
18
1-0310
47
1-0667
75
1-0741
19
1-0326
48
1-0675
76
1-0732
20
1-0342
49
1-0685
77
1-0722
21
1-0358
50
1-0691
78
1-0710
22
1-0373
51
1-0698
79
1-0696
23
1-0389
52
1-0705
80 '
1-0681
24
1-0404
53
1-0711
81
1-0664
25
1-0419
54
1-0717
82
1-0646
26
1-0433
55
1-0723
83
1-0626
27
1-0447
56
1-0729
84
1-0603
28
1-0460
57
1-0735
85
1-0574
29
1-0472
ACETIC ACID. 167
Note that the solutions containing respectively
37 and 85 per centage of acetic acid have about
the same density.
In testing stronger solutions of Acetic acid than
those of 36 per cent., by the specific gravity, there
will be a doubt as to the correct per centage value,
as there may be two such values (see Table) to
the ascertained specific gravity, In such cases
we must ascertain whether a little water added to
a portion increases or diminishes the found specific
gravity. If it increases the same, then the vine-
gar is of the higher per centage.
The vinegar maker avoids this ambiguity, as
he deals with solutions under 10 per cent. A
hydrometer may be employed to ascertain the
specific gravity, and consequently (by the fore-
going table) the acid per centage of pure vinegar.
Beaume's instrument will not answer; it is not
sufficiently delicate. A particular one, an Aceto-
meter, must be procured, having the stem gra-
duated between specific gravity 1 and 1-0177.
The vinegar hydrometer is generally graduated
to indicate at once the per centage of acetic acid ;
and it should be stated on the instrument whether
the per cents, are of hydrated or of an hydrous
acid. The temperature should also be stated on
the instrument. It is generally 60 Fah. The
vinegar before testing must be brought to this
temperature, or else its temperature noted, and
the indication corrected by the table of correc-
tions, which generally accompanies the instru-
ment.
168 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
The vinegar hydrometer, or specific gravity
Aeetometer, however, has a very restricted appli-
cation, and is of much less use than the public
generally believe.
It will not indicate the true strength of vinegars
made from beer, wine, or cider, as these contain
gum, sugar, mineral salts, &c., which increase the
specific gravity. If such a vinegar contains 3 per
cent, of acid, and 1 per cent, only of sugar, it will
have a specific gravity which will give it an ap-
parent strength of 6 per cent, acid by the Aceto-
meter. The manufacturer, by the quick process,
has a difficulty of an opposite nature to contend
with, by reason of which the Acetometer some-
times makes his product to appear weaker than
it really is. This vinegar sometimes contains un-
changed alcohol, which lowers its specific gravity.
I have seen vinegar hydrometers sink out of sight
in vinegars of considerable acid strength. The spe-
cific gravity Acetometer must therefore be used,
if at all, intelligently. The vinegar manufacturer
who employs the quick process, and uses nothing
but alcohol and water, may ascertain by the vine-
gar hydrometer whether much unchanged alcohol
exists in his vinegar by determining its acid
strength by one of the accurate methods about to
be described, and then testing with the vinegar
hydrometer, to see whether the corresponding
specific gravity is indicated.
As the per centage of Acetic Acid in vinegar
refers sometimes to hydrated, sometimes to an-
ACETIC ACID.
169
hydrous acid, it becomes necessary to know how
to convert one of these values into the other.
The following ratio between the two is sufficiently
accurate for practical purposes.
Hydrated Acetic : Anhydrous Acetic :: 13 : 11.
Whence Hydrated Acetic = Anhydrou3 ll AccticX13
and Anhdrous Acetic =
Example. How many per cents, of Anhydrous
Acetic Acid do 6 per cent, of Hydrated Acid cor-
respond to ? Answer, 6 ~ = 5-1 = per cent.
Anhydrous Acid. The following Tables save the
trouble of this calculation.
TABLE I.
Hydrated acid per cent, to Anhy-
drous acid per cent.
Hydrated acid ) , $ Anhydrous
per cent. $ ^ ai \ acid per cent.
Hydrated acid per cent, to Anhy-
drous acid per cent
Hydrated acid ) , S Anhydrous
percent $ eq ai \ acid per cent.
1
0-85
16
13-60
2
1-70
17
14-45
3
2-55
18
15-30
4
3-40
19
16-15
5
4-25
20
17-00
6
5-10
21
17-85
7
5-95
22
18-70
8
6-80
23
19-55
9
7-65
24
20-40
10
8-50
25
21-25
11
9-35
26
22-10
12
10-20
27
22-95
13
11-05
28
23-80
14
11-90
29
24-60
15
12-75
30
25-50
15
170
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
TABLE II.
Anhydrous acid per cent, to Hydrated
acid per cent.
Anhydrous ) , \ Hydrated acid
acid per cent. j. H \ percent.
Anhydrous acid per cent, to Hydrated
acid per cent.
Anhydrous ) , $ Hydrated acid
acid per cent. $ eq \ per cent.
1
1-17
14
16-46
2
2-35
15
17-63
3
3-52
16
18-80
4
4-70
17
19-98
5
5-88
18
21-16
6
7-06
19
22-34
7
8-23
20
23-52
8
9-40
21
24-70
9
10-58
22
25-88
10
11-76
23
27-05
11
12-94
24
28-22
12
14-11
25
29-40
13
15-29
26
30-58
TESTS OF VINEGAR.
As vinegar is a substance entering so largely
into the food of mankind, it becomes important
to be able to ascertain whether it contains any
deleterious matter through careless management
or by fraudulent adulteration. The latter is un-
fortunately of frequent occurrence, since it is so
easy to increase its acidity by the addition of some
mineral acid. The following acids have been
employed for the purpose.
Sulphuric Acid, (oil of vitriol.) Detected by
boiling some of the vinegar in a porcelain or glass
vessel, with a little solution of chloride of cal-
cium. If this acid be present, a white precipitate
of sulphate of lime will fall. Chloride of calcium
solution is made by adding some water to pure
TESTS OF VINEGAR. 171
hydrochloric acid, and then powdered limestone
or chalk, until no effervescence is perceived by
the further addition of chalk or limestone. The
solution is filtered. Solutions of chloride of ba-
rium and nitrate of baryta, are also employed to
test vinegar ; but it must be borne in mind that
they cause precipitates with certain sulphates
which are always present in some vinegars. These
sulphates exist in the water employed in the manu-
facture, or in the juices of the fruit from which
the wine, cider, malt wine, &c., were made. By
weighing a portion of the vinegar, adding a little
free hydrochloric acid, and then the baryta salt,
if any precipitate occur, we may filter it, and de-
termine its weight by the process of analytical
chemistry, to ascertain whether it is of unusual
quantity.
Sulphurous acid may be detected by precipitat-
ing the sulphuric acid of the sulphates and free
sulphuric of the vinegar by baryta water, (solu-
tion of hydrated oxyde of barium,) and then after
filtering off these, by adding to the clear solution
arsenic acid, which converts the sulphurous acid
into sulphuric. The latter may then be deter-
mined by precipitation with chloride of barium.
Nitric acid is not often used to adulterate vine-
gar. Its presence may be detected by boiling
the vinegar with a little indigo, or preferably with
a few drops of indigo solution. The blue color is
converted into a yellow one by nitric acid.
Hydrochloric acid, which is not often used for
172 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
adulteration, may be detected in the vinegar by
the addition of nitrate of silver. If this acid be
present, a white 'curdy precipitate, blackening in
the light, falls. If the vinegar contains soluble
chlorides, the same precipitate falls.
The presence of copper or lead in vinegar is
perceived by passing through it a current of sul-
phuretted hydrogen gas, when a black precipitate
takes place. Separate this precipitate by filtra-
tion, and dissolve it by heating with a few drops
of pure nitric acid, then add a little water. To
half of this add solution of yellow prussiate of
potassa, which gives a brown precipitate when
copper is present. To the rest add iodide of po-
tassium, which yields a yellow precipitate with
lead salts.
Certain acrid vegetable substances, such as
grains of paradise, mustard seed, pepper, &c.,
are occasionally used for adulterating vinegar.
Their biting acrid taste may be perceived by
evaporating some of the vinegar to an extract.
ACETOMETRY.
The methods by which we are enabled to de-
termine accurately the acetic acid strength of vine-
gar are the subjects of Acetometry. The specific
gravity test, except that of Balling and others,
which will be given towards the close of this
chapter, is totally unworthy of use. The tests
depending upon chemical principles, have been so
improved within the last few years that they are
ACETOMETRY. 173
undoubtedly by far the most reliable, and they are
so simple that any one possessing the requisite
instruments may perform them with great facility,
speed and accuracy.
I have thought proper, therefore, in the re-
mainder of this chapter, to set forth, in detail, the
several methods of chemical Acetometry,* and it
will be unfortunate if any one interested, find not
among them one suited to his purpose.
Chemical Acetometry depends upon the well-
known fact that a given weight of the same
alkali is always neutralized by a known weight
of acetic acid. We are able by the dye litmus
to tell when the point of neutralization has
been reached. If then, to a certain weight of
vinegar we add known weights of some alkali,
until neutralization has been effected, we are able,
from the weight of the alkali employed, to calcu-
late the acetic acid strength of the vinegar.
There are several methods of performing this
test. Those that enable us to arrive at the res-
pective weights by the aid of measures, are in prac-
tice the most readily carried out.
The various alkalies employed are crystalized
carbonate of soda ; anhydrous, or dry carbonate
of soda; carbonate of potassa and caustic am-
monia.
By the different methods, the ingredients are
either all weighed, or one only is weighed and the
rest are measured. In weighing, an apothecaries'
*From Otto's excellent Lehrbuch der Essig Fabrikation.
15*
174 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
prescription scales, and weights of good quality
are required. In the following descriptions, the
weights employed are the ounce, (apothecaries'
weight,) which equals 480 grains, and the French
gramme, 1 gramme = 15-44 grains.
I. METHOD BY DRY ALKALIES.
1. By Crystalized Carbonate of Soda. These
crystals contain carbonate of soda combined with
water of crystalization. They must be glossy,
clear, and all white powder (effloresced salt) should
be scraped off. They must be rubbed into a
coarse powder and placed in a wide-mouthed, glass
stoppered bottle of 2 ounces capacity which is
small and light enough to be weighed upon the
balance employed. 100 grains of crystalized car-
bonate of soda will neutralize 35-7 grains of anhy-
drous acetic acid, and 42 grains of hydrated acetic
acid. If, therefore, we weigh out 2 ounces, (i. e.
960 grains) of vinegar, every 27 grains of the soda
will neutralize in it 1 per cent, of anhydrous acetic
acid; and 22 ,V (in round numbers 23) grains of
the soda will neutralize 1 per cent, of hydrated
acetic acid.
We have then only to observe the weight of
carbonate of soda employed to neutralize the acid
in two ounces of vinegar, and divide that weight
by 27 to get the percentage of anhydrous acid;
or by 23 to obtain the percentage of hydrated acid
in the vinegar. For example, suppose that 2
ounces by weight of the vinegar require 135 grains
of crystalized carbonate of soda for neutralization.
ACETOMETRY. 175
The vinegar then contains ^ = 5 percent, anhydrous acetic acid.
" " ^ = 6 per cent, hydrated acetic acid.
The principle involved in this method is very
simple ; the main difficulty in practice is to ascer-
tain the exact point of neutralization. To effect
this purpose, solution of litmus and litmus papers
are employed. Commercial litmus is in the shape
of little blueish dice which are composed of chalk
or sulphate of lime, impregnated with a blue dye
which may be extracted by water. This blue color
is reddened by acids ; alkalies restore to blue the
reddened litmus. Solution of litmus is made by
soaking an ounce of litmus in several ounces of
o
water, and filtering. Litmus paper is made by
dividing in halves a solution of litmus, and stir-
ring one-half with a glass rod touched repeatedly
in a drop of oil of vitriol until the color just begins
to turn red, and then adding the other half; the
object of this is to render the litmus more sensi-
tive to acids, by neutralizing one-half of its na-
tural alkali. Strips of unsized paper are dipped
in this solution until distinctly blue, drying them
in the intervals; this gives "blue litmus paper."
To the rest of the solution, enough oil of vitriol
is added on a glass rod, with which it is stirred
until it is just fairly red ; with this the red litmus
paper is prepared.
In testing vinegar by this process, two ounces
of it are weighed in a beaker glass, which is a
chemical vessel, in shape not unlike a tumbler,
176 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
and with a thin bottom, so that it may bear the
application of heat. The beaker, with the vine-
gar is placed upon a support, upon two pieces of
wire gauze, (to diffuse the heat,) and heated by a
spirit lamp underneath. The object of warming
is to drive off the carbonic acid, liberated from the
carbonate of soda, since this gas is soluble in cold
water, of acid nature, and if present would pre-
vent our ascertaining when the exact point of neu-
tralization was reached, by its reddening action
upon the litmus paper. A little solution of litmus
is now added to the vinegar in the beaker, which
at once turns red. It is important not to add too
much litmus, as, approaching the point of neu-
tralization it would assume a violet hue, which
would be difficult to distinguish from red or blue.
The bottle of carbonate of soda is now counter-
poised upon the balance, and small portions of
the salt taken from it by a little spoon and added
to the warm vinegar, when the effervescence of
the carbonic acid is at once perceived. Care must
be taken that no liquid spirt upon the little
spoon, which would cause the powdered carbon-
ate of soda to adhere to it. Should this accident
take place, the spoon must be washed with a little
distilled or rain water, (which is added to the
vinegar,) and then dried; to prevent some of the
vinegar being projected by the effervescence, the
beaker should be covered with a glass plate, from
which the drops are washed into the vinegar when
approaching the point of neutralization. As we
ACETOMETRY. 177
near this point, the dyed vinegar begins to expe-
rience a change of color; the soda must now be
added cautiously, in very small portions, stopping
after each addition until the effervescence ceases,
and before adding fresh soda, dipping a strip of
red and one of blue litmus paper in the solution.
As soon as the blue paper is not reddened, and
when the red paper just begins to be slightly
blued, the point of neutralization is reached.
We now ascertain how many grains must be
added to the scale-pan holding the bottle of soda ;
the requisite number gives the quantity of soda
used for neutralization. This number is divided
by 27 to get the percentage of anhydrous acetic
acid in the vinegar, or by 23 to obtain its percent-*
age of hydrated acid.
2d. By dry Carbonate of Soda. This salt may
be employed exactly as described for the crystal-
ized carbonate. I will give directly the quantity
of it which corresponds to 1 per cent, of acetic
acid when operating upon two ounces of vinegar.
Dry carbonate of soda is made by heating upon a
plate in a very hot stove the pure bi-carbonate
of soda. By the heat half the carbonic acid
and all the water escape, leaving dry neutral car-
bonate of soda.
3d. By dry Carbonate of Potassa. This salt
may also be employed in the same manner. It
must be perfectly pure, and is prepared preferably
from cream of tartar. Before using, it must be
strongly heated, and suffered to cool in a glass
178 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
stoppered bottle ; because it has the property of
attracting moisture from the air. This property
renders it an unpleasant test for vinegar.
The following table embraces the different alka-
lies employed in the preceding methods :
TABLE OF VINEGAR TESTS.
Employing 2 ounces, (960 grains) of vinegar.
For Crystaline Carbonate Soda,
" Dry " "
" Dry Carbonate Potassa,
For 1 per cent, of acid in the vinegar
are required for neutralization.
As Anhydrous
acetic acid.
27 grains,
10 "
13 "
As Hydrated
acetic acid.
23 grains.
8J "
11 "
For example, suppose that thirty-five grains of
dry carbonate potassa were taken to neutralize
the acid in two ounces of vinegar ; to get its per
centage of hydrated acetic acid, we would divide
g = 3-18 per cent.
II. METHOD BY WEIGHING ALKALINE CARBONATED
SOLUTIONS.
This method is carried out as the preceding
ones ; but instead of weighing the dry salts we
weigh their definite solutions. One part by weight
of crystalized carbonate of soda or of dry carbon-
ate of potassa, is dissolved in three parts by weight
of distilled or rain water, making solutions con-
taining one-quarter part by weight of salt. As the
ACETOMETRY. 179
solution does not change, a sufficient quantity may
be made once for all, and kept in well stoppered
bottles. The operation is carried on as by salts,
but with much greater facility. A small bottle
of the solution is counter-balanced, and the quan-
tity needed for any experiment ascertained by
loss of weight.
The divisors for getting the per cents, are four
times as large as those given for the methods by
dry salts. The following tables spare even this
small calculation. The tables may serve for the
dry process by multiplying the results of the dry
'process by four.
Examples from the tables. Suppose that 540
grains of the solution of crystalized carbonate
soda were needed to neutralize the acid in 2
ounces of vinegar. The vinegar (by Table I.)
contains 5% of anhydrous acetic acid, and (by
Table II.) not quite 6% of hydrated acetic acid.
If 156 grains of solution carbonate potassa were
employed, then the vinegar contains (Table I.)
3% anhydrous acetic acid, and (Table II.) 3-5%
hydrated acetic acid. Tables III. and IV. are for
those wfco prefer to use the French weights. To
employ them, 50 grammes of vinegar must be
operated upon, and the weight of the solutions
necessary for neutralization determined in gram-
mes.
180
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
TABLE I.
TABLE II.
In 2 ounces (960 grains] vinegar.
In 2 ounces (960 grains') vinegar.
Grains employed of solu-
tions containing ,% salt.
Per centage
Anhydrous
Grains employed of solu-
tions containing % salt
Per centage
of Hydrated
Of Cryst.
Carb. Soda.
Of Dry
Carb. Totas.
Acetic Acid.
Of Cryst.
Carb. Soda.
Of Dry
Carb. Potas.
Acetic Acid.
108
52
1
91
44
1
135
65
1-25
114
55
1-25
162
78
1-50
137
66
1-50
189
91
1-75
159
77
1-75
216
104
2
182
88
2
243
117
2-25
205
99
2-25
270
130
2-50
228
110
2-50
297
143
2-75
251
121
2-75
314
156
3
273
132
3
351
169
3-25
296
143
3-25
378
182
3-50
319
154
3-50
405
195
3-75
342
165
3-75
432
208
4
365
176
4
459
221
4-25
387
187
'4-25
486
234
4-50
410
198
4-50
513
247
4-75
432
209
4-75
540
260
5
455
220
5
567
273
5-25
478
231
5-25
594
286
5-50
500
242
5-50
621
299
5-75
513
253
5-75
648
312
6
546
264
6
675
325
6-25
569
275
6-25
702
% 338
6-50
592
286
6-50
729
351
6-75
614
297
6-75
756
364
]
637
308
7
783
377
7'25
660
319
7-25
810
390
7'50
683
330
7-50
837
403
7-75
706
341
7'75
864
416
8
728
352
8
891
429
8-25
751
363
8-25
918
442
8-50
774
374
8-50
945
455
8-75
797
385
8-75
972
468
9
820
396
9
999
481
9-25
842
407
9-25
1026
494
9-50
865
418
9-50
1053
507
9-75
888
429
9-75
1080
510
10
911
440
10
ACETOMETRY.
181
TABLE III.
TABLE IV.
In 50 grammes of vinegar.
In 50 grammes of vinegar.
Grammes of the solutions
Grammes of the solutions
employed containing % Per centage
H*- Anhydrous
\ employed containing >
i salt.
Per centage
of Hydrated
Of Cryst.
Carb. Soda.
Of Dry
Carb. Potas.
Acetic Acia.
Of Cryst. Of Dry
Carb. Soda. Carb. Potas.
Acetic Acid.
5-6
2-7
1
4-7
2-3
1
7-0
3-4
1-25
5-9
2-8
1-25
8-4
4-0
1-50
7-1
3-4
1-50
9-8
4-7
1-75
8-3
3-9
1-75
11-2
5-4
2
9-5
4-5
2
12-6
6-1
2-25
10-7
5-0
2-25
14-0
6-7
2-50
11-9
5-6
2-50
15-4
7-4
2-75
13-1
6-2
2-75
16-8
8-1
3
14-3
6-8
3
18-2
8-8
3-25
15-4
7-4
3-25
19-6
9-4
3-50
16-6
8-0
3-50
21-0
10-1
3-75
17-8
8-5
3-75
22-4
10-8
4
19-0
9-1
4
23-8
11-5
4-25
20-2
9-7
4-25
25-2
12-2
4-50
21-4
10-2
4-50
26-6
12-8
4-75
22-6
10-8
4-75
28-0
13-5
5
23-8
11-4
5
29-4
14-2
5-25
25-0
12-0
5-25
30-8
14-9
5-50
26-2
12-5
5-50
32-2
15-5
5-75
27-3
13-1
5-75
33-6
16-2
6
28-5
13-7
6
3c-0
16-9
6-25
29-7
14-3
6-25
36-4
17-6
6-50
30-9
14-8
6-50
37-8
18-2
6-75
32-1
15-4
6-75
39-2
18-9
7
33-3
16-0
7
40-6
19-6
7-25
34-5
16-6
7-25
42-0
20-3
7-50
35-7
17-2
7-50
43-4
21-0
7-75
36-9
177
7-75
44-8
21-6
8
38-1
18-3
8
46-2
22-3
8-25
39-2
18-9
8-25
47-6
23-0 8-50
40-4
19-5
8-50
49-0
23-7 8-75 || 41-6
20-0
8-75
50-4
24'3
9
42-8
20-6
9
51-8
25-0
9-25
44-0
21-2 9-25
53-2
25-7
9-50
45-2
21-8 9-50
54-6
2C-4
9-75 46-4
22-4 9-75
56.0
27-0 10 I 47-6
23-0 10
16
182 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
III. METHOD BY MEASURING ALKALINE CARBONATED
SOLUTIONS.
By the preceding methods everything was
weighed ; by that about to be described only one
weighing is necessary. Employing this method,
an analysis of vinegar may be made in a few
minutes. I have used in the description the
French weights and measures, which are gene-
rally employed by scientific men of all countries ;
but any other weights may be used by maintain-
ing the same proportions. I may remark here,
that by the French system the metre is the unit
of length, and is the ten millionth part of a quar-
ter of the earth's meridian. It is divided into
tenths, (decimetres,) hundredths, (centimetres
cubes,) and thousandths, (millimetres). Com-
pared with our measure, the metre equals 39-371
inches. The weight of the volume of one cubic
centimetre of distilled water at 39 Fah. is the
gramme ; it corresponds to 15.434 of our grains.
If we desire to measure the volume of 1 cubic
centimetre in a tube, we have only to weigh
therein one gramme of distilled water, bring it
to 39 Fah., and mark its level on the tube. The
litre is 1000 cubic centimetres.
Figure 2 represents a litre measure; a flask
which filled to the mark on the neck, will mea-
sure one litre very exactly. It may be made by
counterpoising a suitable flask, and weighing into
ACETOMETRY. 183
FIG. 2.
it of pure distilled water of temperature 39 Fah.
1000 grammes or 15434 grains, which equal 2
pounds 8 ounces 1 drachm 14 grains, apotheca-
ries' weight. The weights of course must be
accurate. This litre measure is employed for
making a test solution of carbonate of soda of
definite strength, as follows : On the supposition
that two weighed ounces of vinegar be always
taken for analysis; then weigh 2690 grains of
crystalized, or 1000 grains of dry carbonate of
soda. This weight may be made once for all of
brass or even of block tin, and given to an apoth-
ecary to weigh the soda with, if the vinegar
maker, unfortunately, does not possess a balance.
Introduce the soda into the litre flask, which
must then be f filled with rain or distilled water,
and placed in a warm situation, occasionally
agitating it, but not getting any of the liquid
upon the neck, until the salt be completely dis-
solved. When the solution is perfectly cold, add
184 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
pure water to the mark, and shake the flask
well. Observe that 10 cubic centimetres of
this solution contain 27 grains of crystalized,
or 10 grains of dry carbonate of soda, which, in
saturating two ounces of vinegar, is equal to one
per cent, of anhydrous acetic acid. If it be desi-
rable to indicate the acetic acid in the hydrated
state, then, in preparing the test solution, use
2280 grains of crystalized, or 850 of dry carbonate
of soda. Operating upon 2 ounces of vinegar, 10
cubic centimetres will indicate 1 per cent, of hy-
drated acetic acid.
The analysis is performed as described for Me-
thod IT., except that the test solution is poured
from a measure graduated in cubic centimetres.
The number of cubic centimetres of the test solu-
tion requisite for neutralizing 2 ounces of vinegar,
if divided by 10, gives the acid per centage with-
out further calculation. Example. Suppose 48
cubic centimetres were required, then ff 4-8 per
cent, of acetic acid in the liquid tested.
If we analyze 1 ounce of vinegar, (480 grains,)
the number of cubic centimetres, divided by 5,
gives the per centage of acid.
The vinegar employed for the analysis need
not be weighed; it can be measured, which will
enable this test to be carried on without any
weighing at all, having once prepared the test
solution.
The measure is made by weighing 2 ounces of
vinegar (of the strength usually tested) in a small
ACETOMETRY. 185
flask, shaped like the litre flask, making a mark
at the level on the neck. A more convenient
means is the pipette, fig. 3.
Having a glass pipette large enough to hold 2
ounces of vinegar rising to a level in the
upper stem, fill it with vinegar, let the same
drain out, and close the lower aperture with
a little pellet of wax ; then counter balance
it exactly, and weigh into it two ounces of
vinegar, marking the level to which the
liquid rises in the stem. With this instru-
ment, it is easy to measure accurately two
ounces of vinegar, by introducing the lower
end into the vinegar, and applying suction
at the upper end, until the liquid rises
above the mark. The pipette is then re-
moved with the finger closing the upper
aperture, and air admitted until enough vinegar
drops to bring the level of the liquid to the mark.
The graduated measure for the test solution is
called a " burette." There are several varieties
of this instrument.
Here are two kinds. Figure 4 explains itself.
If the glass tube be reasonably cylindrical the
graduation may be made by weighing successively
into it portions of 10 grammes (154-34 troy grains)
of distilled water to obtain the points 10 20
30, &c., cubic centimetres, and by dividing the
spaces thus obtained into ten degrees.
Fig. 5 represents Mohr's burette, which has
found universal favor with chemists, and can be
16*
186
Fio. 4.
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
Fia. 5.
recommended as the best. It consists of a tube
graduated from above downward; open above,
and drawn out below cylindrical, of the thick-
ness of a straw for half an inch, and then con-
stricted to an opening sufficiently fine to permit
a liquid to pass in a very thin stream. Mohr's
invention consists in a spring clip, or " compressor,"
which enables an admirable cock for chemical
purposes to be made from a piece of vulcanized
rubber tube.*
* Quettier, 193 Greenwich Street, New York, imports from
France the only article of vulcanized tubing really suited to chemi-
cal use.
ACETOMETRY. 187
Fro. 6.
Figure 6 represents the compressor. It is made
of steel, well tempered. By pressing the buttons,
a 6, the jaws, c d, are opened for the insertion of
the rubber tube, which is squeezed flat on releas-
ing the jaws. When it is required to permit a
passage of gas or liquid through the tube, the
buttons are compressed to the required degree.
This compressor may be applied to either end of
the burette. If applied, as in the figure, the
vulcanized tube is tied to the half-inch cylindri-
cal portion ; then, sufficient space being allowed
for the compressor, a small bit of glass tube drawn
to so fine an opening that liquid will remain in it
by capillary attraction when the compressor is
shut, is tied to the other end of the rubber tube.
To fill the burette, a vessel containing the test
liquid is placed below, and releasing the com-
pressor, suction is applied to the top of the burette
to fill it above the mark. Enough liquid is
188 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
then permitted, by manipulating the compressor,
to escape until the level stands accurately at 0,
care being taken that no air lurks in the lower
part of the instrument.
When the compressor is applied above, it pinches
a long piece of vulcanized rubber tube tied to the
upper end of the burette, which then of course
contains no addition at the lower end. It is filled
and manipulated as before, and when the com-
pressor is closed, exclusion of the atmospheric
pressure from above keeps the liquid in the tube.
In the foregoing description, I have employed
grain weights for the analysis, and French weights
and measures for graduating the instruments.
The reason of this apparently incongruous union
is, because excellent litre flasks and cubic cen-
timetre graduates may be purchased ready made
at the philosophical instrument makers, having
which nothing is required but apothecaries weights
in carrying on the analysis as described. As I
have given the equivalents of grammes in grains
in describing the graduates, it is easy to make
them with apothecaries weights.
Finally, if gramme weights are employed alto-
gether, the test liquid is prepared in the litre flask
by taking 104 grammes of dry, or 280 grammes of
crystalized carbonate of soda, and by operating
upon 50 grammes of vinegar. The measuring
pipette for the vinegar will then be made by
weighing in it 50J- grammes of water, and mark-
ing its level. The volume of the additional half
ACETOMETRY. 189
gramme of water is on account of the superior
density of the vinegar ; 50J cubic centimetres of
vinegar of the strength usually examined, will
weigh about 50 grammes.
Five cubic centimetres (Burette degrees) of this
test liquid will denote 1 per cent, of anhydrous
acetic acid.
To prepare the test solution to denote a per
centage of hydrated acetic acid ; take 82-25 gram-
mes of dry, or 238-3 of crystalized carbonate of
soda.
IV. THE AMMONIA PROCESS BY OTTO'S ACETOMETER.
The principal difficulty which the inexperienced
have to contend with in the foregoing methods,
arises from the acid re-action of the carbonic acid
evolved from the alkaline carbonates employed,
rendering the point of saturation, which is judged
of by the color of the litmus, uncertain. Otto
has obviated this difficulty by the employment of
aqua ammonia for the neutralizing or test liquid,
and by the invention of a simple graduated tube,
(which he calls an acetometer,) in which the whole
analysis is performed by the most inexperienced
person. When the test solution is once prepared,
neither weights nor calculation are necessary to
perform, in a few minutes, an analysis of vinegar.
Figure 7, illustrates the acetometer. It is a
truly cylindrical glass tube of J inch bore, 12
inches long, and closed at the end, a. It is gradu-
ated in the following manner: a denotes the
190 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
FIG. 7. point of level of exactly one gramme of
water. Between a and b it contains ten
grammes of water, between a and x five
grammes of water. The volumes b c, c d, d e,
&c., are obtained by the addition succes-
sively of 2-08 grammes of water, if the ace-
tometer shall indicate per centage of hy-
drated acetic acid, and of 2*447 if it shall
indicate anhydrous acetic acid. These vol-
umes are taken, because 2-08 grammes of
water occupy the same space as 2-07 gram-
mes of aqua ammonia, containing 1-369 per
centage of pure ammonia. This quantity
saturates T V of a gramme of liydrated acetic
acid; 2-447 grammes of water occupy the volume
of 2-435 aqua ammonia of the above strength
which saturates T V gramme of anhydrous acetic
acid.
The tube should be marked, " For hydrated
acetic acid," or, "For anhydrous acetic acid," ac-
cording to which kind of per centage it is gradu-
ated for. The volumes b c, c d, d e, &c., may be
each sub-divided into 4 or 8 equal parts.
To employ the acetometer are required ; an am-
monia test solution, the preparation of which will
be given in detail; also, a solution of litmus
made by suffering four ounces of water to stand
for some time upon a drachm of litmus, then fil-
tering off the sediment.
The analysis is performed in the following
simple manner, neglecting the point x for the
present :
ACETOMETRY. 191
1. Fill to a with litmus solution.
2. Fill to b with the vinegar under examination.
3. Add the ammonia test until the red color of
the liquid just begins to turn blue.
4. The level which the liquid now occupies
will designate the per centage. For example,
suppose the tube is graduated for anhydrous
acetic acid, and the level of liquid at the close of
the operation, stand at $r; the vinegar then con-
tains 5 per cent, anhydrous acetic acid. In order
to obtain accurate results, the following precau-
tions are to be taken :
1. After pouring the litmus let the tube rest
awhile to see whether the level is exactly at a ; if
not, add or take away enough to bring it to this
mark. A glass tube of the thickness of a straw,
drawn to a fine opening, is useful in regulating
this level.
2. Use greater precaution in adding the vine-
gar, pouring first nearly enough to bring the level
to by and the rest drop by drop. An excess of
vinegar cannot be removed, for it is now diluted
by the litmus water. 9
3. The acetometer should have a thin edge, and
be readily closed by the thumb.
4. The ammonia solution may be added by a
dropping tube, (which, if large and stationary,
may have compress cock,) or it may be dropped
from a bottle with a thin lip.
5. After each addition of ammonia close the
acetometer accurately with the thumb, holding it
192 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
in the left hand, and mix the solution by invert-
ing it a couple of times, then scrape the liquid
from the thumb on the thin edge of the acetome-
eter, so that none be lost. "When neutralization
takes place, let the instrument stand a short time
before reading its indication, so that the liquid on
the sides flows down into that in the tube.
6. If the strength of vinegar be known within
J per cent., that quantity of the ammonia may be
at once added and mixed, and the remaining por-
tion necessary for neutralization then added very
carefully.
7. Stop when the color has fairly changed to
blue.
8. A second experiment with the same vinegar
will enable great accuracy to be attained, since
we know when we are arriving at the neutraliza-
tion point, and can proceed with due caution.
The point x, is so situated, that a x contains 5
grammes of water, and is for the purpose of ana-
lyzing a vineger stronger than 12 per cent., for
which the instrument is graduated. If the vine-
gar be stronger than ~\g per cent., proceed as
before, but add the vinegar to x only, and pure
water to 5, and double the degrees read after
neutralization. If the vinegar be very weak,
then add an equal volume of water to as much
of the ammonia test solution as may be required,
and proceed as in the first example, taking half
the indication to get the per centage. If the
acetometer be constructed for per centage of
ACETOMETRY. 193
hydrated acetic acid, its corresponding strength
muv be ascertained in anhydrous acid, or vice,
versa by employing the tables on pages 169, 170.
PREPARATION OF THE AMMONIA TEST SOLUTION.
Much of the accuracy of Otto's method depends
upon the ammonia solution employed for neutra-
lization. It is, therefore, necessary to devote
some space to a detailed description of the man-
ner of preparing it. It may be furnished by a
reliable apothecary,* using the directions in this
chapter ; but even then the vinegar maker should
possess the knowledge requisite for testing its
quality. Take a given quantity, say a pound, of
the purest aqua ammonia of commerce. To be
able to dilute this to the strength for testing,
namely, until it contains 1-369 per centage of
ammonia, we must first ascertain accurately how
much of this volatile alkali it contains, which is
effected by taking its specific gravity.
Any of the following methods may be em-
ployed :
1. By the specific gravity, bottle as described
on page 133. This is the best method.
2. By a delicate hydrometer, indicating speci-
fic gravities between 0-951 and 0-978 made for the
purpose.
* Messrs. Bullock & Crenshaw, of Philadelphia, can be recom-
mended to those desiring to purchase pure chemical re-agents. I
name this firm from personal knowledge, and with no desire to
detract from the merits of others.
17
194
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
3. If neither of the above are at hand, an ac-
curate Tralles alcoholometer, (i. e. 7 one of which
the degrees indicate alcoholic percentage hy vol-
ume,) may be used, taking care that the tempera-
ture of the ammonia is exactly 62 Fah., and that
the degrees are read with great precision. The
specific gravity may be ascertained by the fol-
lowing table.
DEGREES OF TRALLES' ALCOHOMETER CONVERTED TO
SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.
TRALLES DEGREES.
SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.
25
0-970
26
0-969
27
0-968
28 0-967
29
0-966
30
0-965
31
0-964
32
0-963
33
0-962
34
0-961
35
0-960
36
0-958
37
0-957
38
0-955
39
0-953
40
0-952
41
0-950
Having determined the specific gravity, the
test solution may readily be made by means of
the data in the following table.
ACETOMETRY.
195
Aqua Ammonia.
To make 1000 parts by weight of a test
solution containing 1*369 per cent, of
Which contains the
ammonia. Take
following per cent-
ages of ammonia.
las the following
specific gravities
Aqua Ammonia.
Water.
12-000
0-9517
114-8 885-2
11-875
0-9521
115-3
884-7
11-750
0-9526
1165
883-5
11-625
0-9531
117-8
882-2
11-500
0-9536
119-0
881-0
11-375
0-9540
120-0
880-0
11-250
0-9545
121-7
878-3
11-125
0-9550
123-0
877-0
11-000
0-9555
124-5
875-5
10-954
0-9556
125-0
875-0
10-875
0-9559
126-0
874-0
10-750
0-9564
127-3
872-7
10-625
0-9569
129-0
871-0
10-500
0-9574
130-4
869-6
10-375
0-9578
132-0
868-0
10-250
0-9583
133-5
866-5
10-125
0-9589
135-0
865-0
10-000
0-9593
137-0
863-0
9-875
0-9597
138-6
861-4
9-750
0-9602
140-4
859-6
9-625
0-9607
142-2
857-8
9-500
0-9612
144-0
856-0
9-375
0-9616
146-0
854-0
9-250
0-9621
148-0
852-0
9-125
0-9626
150-0
850-0
9-000
0-9631
152-0
848-0
8-875
0-9636
154-0
846-0
8-750
0-9641
156-4
843-6
8-625
0-9645
158-7
841-3
8-500
0-9650
161-0
839-0
8-375
0-9654
163-5
836-5
8-250
0-9659
166-0
834-0
8-125
0-9664
168-5
831-5
8-000
0-9669
171-0 829-0
7-875
0-9673
173-8 826-2
7-750
0-9678
176-6 823-4
7-625
0-9683
179-5 820-5
7-500
0-9688
182-5 817-5
7-375
0-9692
185-6 814-4
7-250
0-9697
188-8 811-2
7-125
0-9702
192-0 808-0
196
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
Aqua Ammonia.
To make 1000 parts by weight of a test
solution containing 1/369 per cent, of
Which contains the
ammonia. Take
following per cent-
ages of ammonia.
specific gravities.
Aqua Ammonia.
Water.
7-000
0-9707
195-6
804-4
0-875
0-9711
199-0
801-0
6-750
0-9716
202-8
797-2
6-625
0-9721
206-6
793-4
6-500
0-9726
210-6
789-5
6-375
0-9730
214-7
785-3
6-250
0-9735
219-0
781-0
6-125
0-C740
223-5
776-5
6-000
09745
228-0
772-0
5-875
0-9749
233-0
767-0
5-750
0-9754
238-0
762-0
5-625
0-9759
243-4
756-6
5-500
09764
249-0
751-0
5-375
0-9768
254-7
745-3
5-250
0-9773
260-8
739-2
5-125
0-9878
267-0
733-0
5-000
0-9783
273-8
726-2
The use of the table is very simple. Suppose
the specific gravity of the aqua ammonia be ascer-
tained to be 0-965; find this number in the second
column, and on consulting the numbers opposite
in the 3d and 4th columns, it will be seen that to
make one thousand parts of the test solution, we
must take 161 parts, by weight, of this ammonia,
and mix with 839 parts by weight of pure water.
The first column merely indicates the percentage
of ammonia corresponding to the respective
specific gravities.
We are now able to dilute our pound of am-
monia to the required degree; but we must be
sure that it is an accurate pound, and must know
what kind of a pound it is; for in our country
ACETOMETRY. 197
we weigh, with three different pounds: Troy,
Apothecaries' and Avoirdupois.
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.
Ounces.
Drachms.
Troy grains.
16 =
256 =
7000
OZ. 1 =
16 =
437-5
dr. 1 =
27.34
APOTHECARIES WEIGHT.
Ounces.
Drachms. Scruples. Troy grains.
12 =
96
= 288
=
5760
51 =
8
= 24
=
480
51
= 3
=
60
3 1
=
20
tt> 1
The Imperial Standard Troy weight recognized
by the British Government, corresponds with
Apothecaries weight in pounds, ounces and grains ,
and differs only in the sub-division of the ounce.
In Troy weight, 24 grains = 1 pennyweight, dwt.
and 20 pennyweights, = 1 ounce.
If the ammonia weighed one pound by Avoir-
dupois weight, and had a specific gravity of 0-9650,
we must then dilute 7000 grains, i. e., a pound of
ammonia, with water, in the proportion of 161
ammonia to 839 water, or by the rule of three :
161 : 839 : : 7000 : x = 2^2? = 36478 grains, which
is equal to 5 Ibs. 3 oz. and 167 grains of water to
be added to a pound of the ammonia. The test
liquid may be preserved in small bottles with ac-
curately fitting glass stoppers. After filling the
17*
198 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
bottles, wipe the inside of the neck; and having
inserted the stoppers with moderate friction, pour
melted wax around the cavity between the neck
and the stopper, and tie moist bladder over the
stopper. A bottle may be opened as occasion re-
quires. A few pounds of this test solution will
keep well and last for a considerable length of
time.
Another method of preparing the test solution :
By this method the determination of the
specific gravity of the ammonia is avoided. The
strength of the ammonia solution is ascertained
by the acetometer, by means of a solution of
known strength, either of acetic or tartaric acid.
A. By acetic acid. A vinegar of any known
strength below 12 per cent, may be employed, but
it is better to prepare a solution of pure acetic
acid for the purpose, for if well bottled it will
keep, and may be made use of at any future time
for making ammonia test solution. The acidum
aceticum of the United States Dispensatory has
a specific gravity of 1-06, and contains 40 per cent,
of anhydrous acid; consequently, if we add, by
weight, three times as much water as we take
acid, we will have a 10 per cent, solution. It will
not do, however, to take the strength of the
acidum aceticum on trust, but test the resulting
10 per cent, solution, by the specific gravity bottle,
or by the hydrometer, to see whether it has its
corresponding specific gravity, viz: 1-0177 at 59
Fah. Having thus a vinegar of known per
ACETOMETRY. 199
centage, we next take a pound of ammonia and
mix it with 4 or 5 pounds of rain or distilled
water. With this, perform the analysis of the
known vinegar in the acetometer, as described on
page 190, on the supposition that the known
vinegar contains 10 per cent of anhydrous acid; if
the ammonia solution is correct, which can only
be accidentally the case, the acetometer will give
an indication of 10 per cent; if it give more, add
some strong ammonia to the ammonia, and repeat
the analysis (adding strong ammonia each time)
until it gives less than the known per centage of
the acid, when the difference between the known
and the indicated per centage will inform us how
much water to add to the ammonia to bring it to
the standard proper for testing. For example,
we know that the vinegar contains, in this case, 10
per cent, of acid ; if the acetometer give an indi-
cation of 9J per cent., we have to add 1 per cent,
of water to make these 9J degrees, 10. If, then,
we take 9J pounds of the solution of ammonia,
and add 1 pound of water, it will yield a solution
of the strength required to use with Otto's aceto-
meter. Repeating the analysis with this, we will
find that the acetometer indication will be 10,
corresponding to the known per centage of our
vinegar. Again, suppose the known vinegar con-
taios 6J per cent, acid, and we had an acetometer
indication of 5| per cent. ; then to every 5}
pounds of the ammonia we must add j pound of
water, for 5-J 4- f = 6}.
200 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
B. By Tartar ic Acid. This acid, if pure, may
be very conveniently employed instead of acetic
acid of known strength, for preparing the am-
monia test solution. Take pure dry crystals of
tartaric acid, powder them, and preserve after
pressing between sheets of porous paper in a
stoppered bottle.
1.47* grammes of tartaric acid have the same
neutralizing power as the quantity of ten per cent,
(anhydrous) acetic acid used in the Acetometer.
The litmus solution having been introduced into
the acetometer, the above quantity of tartaric
acid is added, (which an apothecary may weigh
upon his balance with the above weight,) and
then water to the mark b ; see fig. 7. The acid
is dissolved by gently agitating the acetometer.
Proceed with the test as in A, and interpret
the result in the same manner. The difference
between 10 and the indicated per centage, will
give the amount of water to be added to the am-
monia. For example, suppose the indication
were 8 per cent., then to every 8 pounds, ounces,
&c., of the diluted ammonia, we must add 2
pounds, ounces, &c., of water because 8+2 = 10.
Fault having been found with this process, from
the fact that neutral acetates of the alkalies render
blue reddened litmus paper, and consequently the
per centage of any vinegar must be given too low
with the instrument; Otto performed a series
of careful experiments, and ascertained that;
* A weight of this kind should be sold with the Acetometer.
ACETOMETRY. 201
1st. The error in question does not exceed on
an average ^ of one per cent.
2d. That it is counterbalanced by the fact that
in practice always a little more ammonia is added
than for exact neutralization.
3d. If the vinegar be measured by volume, as
when the acetometer is graduated by the volume
a b of 10 grammes of distilled water, its weight is
taken about 1 per cent, higher than it really is by
reason of the difference between the specific gra-
vities of water and vinegar. The result of this
opposition of errors is that even in unpracticed
hands, Otto's method is extremely correct, if the
acetometer be accurate, and the ammonia solution
properly made.
For testing vinegar by this method, the philo-
sophical instrument maker should prepare a box
containing the necessary apparatus, as ;
1st. The acetometer graduated for per centages
of "anhydrous acetic acid," with these words
marked on the instrument.
2d. A weight of 1.47 grammes.
3d. A bottle of litmus solution (1 drachm lit-
mus+4 ounces water) and one of solid litmus for
preparing the solution.
4th. A bottle of pure pulverized tartaric acid.
5th. A bottle containing pure solution of acetic
acid containing 10 per cent, anhydrous acid.
6th. A bottle containing pure aqua ammonia
of the correct strength for testing.
202 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
All of the bottles should have thin lips, that
they may drop well.
It would be well to add a correct but not ex-
pensive balance and weights.
Such a case of apparatus would not be costly
and would place the vinegar maker, or other
interested person, in the position of performing
an accurate analysis of vinegar in a few minutes.
V. Balling's Vinegar Test. This test deter-
mines the acid per centage of vinegar by observ-
ing the increase of specific gravity of the liquid
undergoing acetification. The process is an ana-
logous one to the information of alcoholic strength
gained by watching the attenuation of worts by
the saccharometer. Balling has invented an in-
strument for this purpose, which, improved by
Otto, is constructed in the following manner. It
is a very delicate hydrometer, i. e., one with big
body and slender stem, which is graduated thus:
Three points are marked on the stem (at a tem-
perature of 63 Fah.) viz., a central one to where
it sinks in water ; a superior one to where it sinks
in 10 per cent, alcohol, which has a specific gravity
of 0.9841 ; and an inferior one to where it sinks
in 10 per cent, vinegar, specific gravity of 1.034.
The length on the stem between the central and
superior points is divided into 5 equal parts. The
length between the central and inferior point,
into 10 equal parts. We have thus 15 degrees
which may be further subdivided, and which are
ACETOMETRY. 203
numbered from the top downward, placing at
the superior point. In this instrument every de-
gree indicates an increase of 0.0033 in specific
gravity, or one per cent, anhydrous acetic acid.
If this hydrometer be placed in a liquid of
which the specific gravity is 0.9841, and increas-
ing, it will first sink to 0, and as its specific
gravity increases the stem will rise from the
liquid until 5 degrees have passed, when the
liquid will have the same density as water. It
will continue to rise until 10 more degrees have
passed, when the liquid will have the specific
gravity of 10 per cent, acetic acid.
Its use is very simple. Before acetification
bring the alcoholic mixture to a temperature of
63 Fah., and mark the indication of the (Balling)
hydrometer. Suppose it to be 2J. After aceti-
fication, bring the vinegar to 63 Fah., and ob-
serve again the indication of the instrument.
Suppose it to be 6. Then, since every degree
gained denotes an increase of 1 per cent, anhy-
drous acetic acid, the per centage of the vinegar
in question is found by simply taking the differ-
ence of the two indications. In the example the
per centage is 6 less 2J equals 3J.
THE ACID STRENGTH OF THE VINEGAR COMPARED WITH
THE ALCOHOLIC STRENGTH OF THE MIXTURE.
The following tables are useful to the vinegar
maker.
204 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
TABLE I. FOR WEIGHTS PER CENT. OF ALCOHOL.
Vinegar mixture of
Yields
Per ceiitage
Alcohol.
Water.
Anhydrous
acetic acid.
Water.
Vinegar.
in anhy-
drous acid.
1
99
1-108
99-587
100695
1-100
2
98
2-216
99-174
101-390 j
2-185
3
97
3-324
98-761
102-085
3-251
4
95
4-432
98-348
102-780
4-312
5
95
5540
97-935
103-475
5-354
6
94
6-648
97-522
104-170
6-382
7
93
7-756
97-109
104-865
7-397
8
92
8-864
96-696
105-560
8-399
9
91
9-972
96-283
106-255
9-385
10
90
11-080
95-876
106-950
10-360
TABLE II. FOR VOLUMES PER CENT. OF ALCOHOL.
il!i
i
Is composed by weight of
And yields
ii
iSi!
Total vinegar.
ii
tsfci
Alcohol.
Water.
Acetic acid.
Water.
i 11
i
2
0-795
1-592
99-205
98-408
0-881
1-764
99-671
99-342
100-552
101-106
i 0-876
1744
3
2-392
97-608
2-650
99-012
101-662
2-607
4
3-195
96-805
3-540
98-680
102-220
3-463
5
3-995
96-005
4-426
98-350
102-766
4-306
4-804
95-196
j 5-323
98-066
103-389
5-147
7
5-613
94-387
6-219
97-681
103-900
5-985
8
6-422
93-578
7-115 97-348
101-403
6-811
9
7-234
92-766
8-015 97-012
105-027
7-631
10
8-047
91-953
8-916
96-676
105-592
8-439
11
8-865
91-135
9-822
96-338
106-160
9-252
12
i 9-680
90-320
10-725
96-002
106.727
10-049
Example, Table I. If the alcoholic mixture
with which the vinegar is to be made contain 6
per cent, by weight of alcohol, 100 Ibs. of it will
yield 104.170 Ibs. of vinegar, composed of 6.648
ACETOMETRY. 205
Ibs. of anhydrous acetic acid, and 97*522 Ibs. of
water. Such vinegar has a per centage of 6-382
anhydrous acid.
By Table II. If the alcoholic mixture contain
7 per cent, by volume of absolute alcohol, then
100 Ibs. of it will contain 94-387 Ibs. of water and
5-613 Ibs. alcohol, and will yield 103-9 Ibs. of
vinegar, containing 97-681 Ibs. of water, and
6-219 of anhydrous acetic acid, which corresponds
to a vinegar of per centage of 5-985 anhydrous
acetic acid.
These tables express the theoretical quantity of
vinegar possible from the respective alcoholic
mixtures.
In practice this strength is never attained,
because, 1st, a certain portion of the alcohol and
of the acetic acid are lost by evaporation ; and 2d,
some of the alcohol remains unchanged at the
close of the operation.
The aim of the vinegar manufacturer is to ap-
proach these theoretical results as closely as pos-
sible. In making vinegar, therefore, of a re-
quired per centage strength, it is necessary to
take a stronger alcoholic mixture than the tables
indicate.
Thus, for a vinegar of from 4-6 to 4-8 per cent,
anhydrous acetic acid, an alcohol of 6 Tralles
alcoholometer, i. e., 6 per cent, by volume must
be employed.
18
PART II.
PRACTICAL
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL DETAILS.
HAVING in the first part of this work treated in
detail the theoretical points involved in the
vinegar process, the practical part of the manu-
facture may be developed in a much less space.
By far the greater portion of vinegar consumed
in our country, is made by the " quick process,"
to describe which is in fact the object of this
book. For the sake of greater completeness,
however, it will be necessary to treat briefly the
practical details of the old slow process.
Some general principles of detail affecting the
acetous transformation ; the construction of the
factory building, and the kind of water and alco-
hol employed belong to both processes, and may
be advantageously discussed in the present intro-
ductory chapter.
Let me, therefore, recall from Part I. a few of
the general principles of the acetous transforma-
tion.
I. 1st. Vinegar always arises from the trans-
formation of alcohol to acetic acid under the fol-
lowing circumstances: The alcoholic mixture
18*
210 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
must be weak ; the temperature between 74-86
Fah. ; air must be present and also a ferment.
2d. The higher the temperature and the greater
the quantity of air brought in a given time in
contact with the alcoholic mixture, the quicker is
its transformation to vinegar. If the temperature
be too high, alcohol is wasted by evaporation ; if
too low, the acetification ceases and putrefaction
sets in.
3d. One hundred pounds of absolute alcohol
are capable of yielding one hundred and eleven
pounds of anhydrous, (equivalent to one hundred
and thirty pounds of Tiydrated^) acetic acid. Con-
sequently, the richer in alcohol the mixture, the
stronger in acid will be the vinegar. But note
that in strong alcoholic washes,* the vinegar
transformation is retarded.
4th. The more ferment present, the quicker is
the vinegar process. Vinegar is the best ferment.
Certain others, which are nitrogenized bodies, are
employed. These are, bread soaked in vinegar,
leaven, brewer's yeast, a small portion of dough
made of wheat and rye flour, tartar and vinegar.
These are used in very small proportions, a few
ounces to a barrel of wash. But note well, that
the greater the quantity of these last ferments
present, the more apt the vinegar is to spoil.
They also ruin the shavings in the quick process,
by forming putrefying deposits upon them, and
by rendering them mouldy.
* The word " u-ash" or " mixture," is, technically, the alcoholic
solution which is to be made into vinegar.
GENERAL DETAILS. 211
5th, Saccharine and starchy bodies are capable
of being made into vinegar, by first undergoing
transformation. The sugars must first, by fer-
mentation, become alcohol, and one hundred
pounds of sugar are capable of yielding fifty
pounds of absolute alcohol. The starch must
first become sugar by the mashing process, and
then alcohol by fermentation ; one hundred
pounds of starch yield one hundred pounds of
sugar, which gives fifty pounds absolute alcohol.
The alcoholic fermentation requires the presence
of a certain ferment, and the conditions of a cer-
tain temperature. Some very important consider-
ations arise from No. 5., which may well arrest
our attention. Some manufacturers, with a view
to increase the acid of the future vinegar, add to
their mixture beer, syrup, honey, extract of rais-
ins, juices of sweet fruits, and a variety of other
saccharine substances. Some add these to the
manufactured vinegar, that it may strengthen by
age. These additions are wrong, and proceed
from an imperfect knowledge of the principles of
the vinegar process. They not only by their
sweetness mark the acid taste of the vinegar, but
injure its keeping properties. Vinegar is a weak
solution of acetic acid containing foreign matters.
The weaker it is the more apt it is to spoil. The
spoiling is also dependent upon the nature and
quantity of the foreign substances which it con-
tains. The lowest grades of vinegar contain 2
per cent. ; the better grades from 3 to 6 per cent. ;
212 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
and the best wine vinegar as high as 10 per cent,
of acid. Frequently, in new vinegar, innumerable
animalcules, (tha. vinegar eels) may be seen swim-
ming. During the process of manufacture, and
also when the product is stored, a swollen slip-
pery substance is generated. It is a plant, (My-
coderma aceti,) and is called popularly " mother
of vinegar," because it acts as a powerful vinegar
ferment, which property is due, doubtless, to the
immense amount of vinegar with which it is sat-
urated. These and other foreign substances give,
especially to weak vinegar, a tendency to mould
and putrefy. An added saccharine solution can
never become vinegar without first experiencing
the alcoholic fermentation, which requires its own
ferment of the nature of yeast. Without this
ferment, a portion of the sugar remains un-
changed, the remainder gives rise to slimy pro-
ducts and increases the "mother." If yeast be
added, or, as in the case of juices of sweet fruits,
be generated, certain injurious solid and liquid
nitrogenized products arise in the vinegar, injur-
ing its keeping qualities, and forming deposits,
(in the quick process,) upon the shavings, which
are thereby spoiled. "When added to the vinegar
of storage, the alcoholic transformation is very
slow on account of the low temperature, and the
same injurious products are formed in the vine-
gar. Without doubt the addition of saccharine
with yeasty matter accelerates the speed of the
vinegar manufacture ; but their use is attended
"THE WASH" OR "MIXTURE." 213
by the inconveniences described. Such, there-
fore, should always be well fermented before
being added to the wash.
6th. The addition of pure alcohol increases the
keeping quality of stored vinegar. Vinegar by
the quick process generally contains a portion of
alcohol ; if not, it is well to add it in the propor-
tion of a pint of spirits or whiskey to the barrel
of vinegar, which is said technically to live upon
the alcohol. In fact, the alcohol in the casks at
their low temperature, is converted very slowly
into acetic acid, and the vinegar is not so apt to
spoil, (other things being equal,) until the alcohol
is all gone. It is well, from time to time, to add
spirits to vinegar long in store, to preserve it.
As elevated temperatures hasten the decomposi-
tion of vinegar, it is best stored in cool but not
mouldy places.
H. The "wash" or "mixture." The nature of
the alcoholic liquid which is to be converted into
vinegar, will depend upon the locality of the fac-
tory. In some countries it is wine ; in others,
cider; in our country, in most places, whisky is
employed ; while in England, owing to the Excise
Laws, malt wine is preferred. It is generally
more profitable to employ the quick process for
whisky or pure alcoholic mixtures, as the shavings
are gradually deteriorated by the slow deposits of
foreign matter upon them from wine or beer mix-
tures.
It must be remembered that pure alcohol and
214 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
water give a colorless vinegar, and destitute of
those agreeable aromatic substances which give
value to fine vinegars. Spirits containing their
natural fusel oil will yield a vinegar of more
pleasant flavor. Indeed, it is sometimes advisable
to add a little, but not too much, fusel oil to the
spirits with which the wash is made ; it is decom-
posed during the vinegar process, giving rise to
pleasant smelling ethers. Vinegars, whether of
pure alcohol or whisky, must be colored with a
harmless substance, as burnt sugar, to give them
the appearance which we naturally expect in
vinegar.
III. The water. Pure water is an important
requisite for the vinegar manufacturer. The
earthy salts of hard water retard the vinegar pro-
cess, and the carbonates of lime, magnesia, &c.,
neutralize a certain proportion of the acid. Water
that contains organic matter putrifies, and yields
a vinegar of inferior keeping qualities. The iron
of other waters unites with the tannin of the
barrels in which the vinegar is stored, giving it
an inky color.
The softer the water the better it is for making
vinegar; hence, pure soft and clear spring or
river water is the best, next purified rain water,
and lastly purified well or spring water.
The vinegar manufacturer may apply to the
water he expects to employ, the following simple
tests. The substances named are dissolved in
pure water and filtered. The water to be tested
THE WATER. 215
is placed in wineglasses, and the tests added and
stirred in with a slip of glass. On adding the
tests a cloudiness, or certain sediments or preci-
pitates occur, from which the nature and hard-
ness of the water may be inferred.
1. Tincture of Soap. Prepared by dissolving a
little Castile or similar soap in weak alcohol. Oc-
casions a cloudiness, owing to lime, magnesia,
iron, &c. The degree of hardness of the water
may be inferred from the quantity of the deposit.
Hard water, as is well known, does not dissolve
soap readily.
2. Solution of carbonate of soda, (common
soda,) precipitates the lime from any sulphate of
lime, or other soluble lime salt present in water.
3. Solution of oxalic acid effects the same pur-
pose.
4. Solution of chloride of barium precipitates
sulphuric acid from soluble sulphates (sulphate of
lime, &c.,) in the water.
5. Nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) indicates the
presence of chlorides (common salt, &c.,) by a
white cheesy precipitate, which becomes black
in the light.
6. Solution of gall nuts colors iron waters
black.
7. When hard water is boiled, the carbonic
acid gas, holding carbonates of lime, magnesia,
and iron in solution, is driven off, causing the
precipitation of these salts. The amount of this
sediment gives a fair indication of tlje relative
216 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
hardness of the water. Sulphate of lime is not
precipitated by boiling, unless much water is eva-
porated.
There are three methods of improving hard
water.
1. By boiling ; which separates the lime, mag-
nesia, and iron, held in solution by carbonic acid.
After settling, the water may be drawn off in a
purified condition. Sulphuretted hydrogen is
also got rid of thus. This method is costly, and
can only be employed under certain favorable
circumstances.
2. By exposure to the air, which produces the
same effect as 1, but more gradually. The ex-
posure of rivers to the atmosphere is one cause of
such water being purer than the spring water of
the same localities, which supplies, in a great
measure, the rivers. As the carbonic acid gra-
dually escapes into the air, the before mentioned
salts are deposited.
3. By filtering. Charcoal in a filter deprives
water of certain injurious organic substances, and
late discoveries have shown that certain mineral
salts are partially removed by the material of
water filters.
Filtering should always be performed upon
waters that are not perfectly limpid, as their sedi-
ment will in the course of time accumulate upon
the shavings to a sufficient extent to deteriorate
them. Rain water is excellent for the vinegar
manufacture; it should, however, be carefully
THE WATER. 217
collected, and the first portions of the showers
which wash the roof, should be rejected. These
precautions should especially he observed with
lead, copper, or zinc roofs, as these metals would
bring poisonous substances into the vinegar. In
coal burning localities, the first rain water is very
dark from soot. Rain should always be filtered
through charcoal to remove organic matter which
it contains, and which is capable of putrefaction.
A filter can be made with very little trouble,
using a large wooden vessel, but the following
one proposed by Dr. Otto leaves nothing to be
desired. A cubical vessel is made by bolting
together slabs of sandstone, the same being ren-
dered water-tight by hydraulic cement. A hole
at the bottom contains a suitable faucet.
The filtering strata are : First, on the bottom,
an eight inch layer of stones or fragments of
brick of the size of an egg, and arranged care-
fully to permit the flow of water through all parts
of the layer.
Next a layer of coarse gravel ; then coarse sand ;
next layers of charcoal in strata of different fine-
ness ; above this a layer of coarse sand, and above
all a good layer of fine sand. The water must
enter the- filter in such a manner as not to disturb
the upper layer of sand. Of course, all of these
materials must be well washed to remove all
muddy or fine particles, and when the filter is
first set in operation, the water flowing through
it must be rejected as long as it continues cloudy.
19
218 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
When the filter, after long usage, ceases to clarify
the water, the top layer of sand must be renewed
by fresh sand or by washing. A filter of this
kind will very soon pay for itself in vinegar fac-
tories where the water on hand is not perfectly
clear, and free from organic matter!
IV. The Factory Building. The minor details
of the building will, of course, vary with taste,
convenience, experience, and the particular kind
of vinegar manufactured ; but some general de-
tails are observed by all. By the slow process,
as will be seen hereafter, a much larger building
is needed. By both processes the preservation
of an equable temperature is desirable, and con-
sequently a southern exposure is generally desir-
able for the building. The ventilation of the
vinegar-room should be under complete control,
by properly placed air-flues and registers. The
violence of the summer's heat may be prevented
by ventilation and by employing cold water for
making the wash with the judicious use of ice.
Double walls to the building, double windows and
a vestibule to the door, are very useful, especially
in the slow process. In winter-time the heating
apparatus should be fed with fuel from without
to avoid a two frequent opening of the vinegar-
room. To save fuel, the height of this room
should be no greater than conveniently to contain
the apparatus, The floor should be dry and tight ;
preferably of brick or stone. The number and
size of the windows should be as small as conve-
THE FACTORY BUILDING. 219
nieuce will allow. The walls and ceiling should
be furnished with a good coating of plaster of
paris, as the acid vapors of the manufacture will
inevitably and speedily attack a lime coat, disinte-
grating it, and causing it to crumble off. For
the same reason all iron and other metallic work
must be kept well painted, or coated with asphal-
tum varnish. Vinegar, should never, during its
manufacture, be brought in contact with any
metal especially with copper, lead or zinc. The
factory should contain conveniences for warming
tiie water and vinegar mixture. When its capa-
city will permit, steam effects the best purpose in
this respect.
CHAPTER II.
THE SLOW PROCESS.
THE difference between the slow and quick
vinegar processes may be illustrated by the fol-
lowing example : Ten gallons of 80 per cent, alco-
hol added to 130 gallons of water, give a wash of
6 per cent, alcoholic strength. If 40 gallons of
vinegar be added, and the wash exposed to air of
the right temperature, 180 gallons or 4J barrels
of vinegar, containing from 4-6 to 4-8 per cent, of
anhydrous acetic acid will result. By the slow
process, this vinegar could be made by placing
the mixture in vessels, and maintaining the tem-
perature between 74 and 86 Fah. The time re-
quired for the manufacture would vary with the
temperature at which the vinegar-room was kept,
and with the size of the acidifying casks. If the
temperature was moderate, and the casks of half
a barrel capacity, the requisite time would be
about 16 weeks. From which it will be seen that
for the manufacture of a large quantity of vine-
gar yearly, an extensive factory building would
be requisite, much capital must be invested in
the fixtures, and four months interest upon a large
amount of material would have to be accounted
for.
By the quick process, the same vinegar mixture
THE HOUSEHOLD MANUFACTURE. 221
would be run through large tubs, called "gene-
rators" or " graduators," filled with beach shav-
ings, arranged so that a current of warm air is
brought in contact with the wash thus diffused
over a large surface. The 4J barrels of vinegar
would be made in 4J days instead of as many
months required by the slow process. Not only is
time saved by the quick method, but fuel also ; for
the heat generated by the oxydation of the 10 gal-
lons of alcohol instead of being lost by extension
over a period of months, is available when con-
densed into as many days, nor has the room to be
heated for so long a period. For the above pro-
portions, the manufacturers by the quick process
would require a small room with two generators
each, capable of transmitting a barrel of wash in
24 hours, for which an insignificant capital would
be needed. Let us now consider the slow process
as practised upon a small scale, and as in large
manufactories.
I. The Household Manufacture. A great deal
of vinegar is thus made from wine, cider, and in
some places from alcohol. In some parts of Eu-
rope the vinegar cask descends through the same
family for several generations. The remainder
of their daily wine is poured into the cask and
vinegar drawn therefrom as required. In our
country cider mixed with water is poured into
a barrel painted black, and the bung-hole left
open. Its color enables all the heat of the sun to
be made available in cool seasons. The best
10'
222 VINEGAR M/NUFACTURE.
cider contains about 9 per cent, by volume of
alcohol, which is equivalent to a per centage by
weight of 7 J anhydrous acetic acid ; as this is a
stronger vinegar than generally needed, water
must be added to the cider. A 6 per cent, alcohol
will yield a vinegar of from 4-6 to 4-8 per cent, acid
strength. The addition of half a gallon of water
to every gallon of the best cider, (in an article
containing 9 per cent, alcohol,) will reduce its
alcoholic strength to 6 per cent. Because by the
rule given on page 155, |=1J, that is one gallon
of 9 per cent, alcohol yields 1J gallons 6 per cent,
alcohol.
The following household vinegar method is to
be recommended as simple, expedient, and fur-
nishing a constant supply of vinegar with scarcely
any trouble, and at trifling cost :
Two barrels are procured, one for making, the
other for storing the vinegar. Those from which
good vinegar has just been drawn are preferable.
The storage barrel is kept always in the cellar,
the generating one in the cellar, or house, accord-
ing to the season. In this latter barrel a small
hole is bored, for the circulation of air, at the top
of one of .its heads. The barrels lie on their side,
and contain each a wooden faucet. Of course
their capacity is regulated by the yearly demand
of vinegar.
We will suppose that the generator, filled to the
level of the ventilating hole, contains 10 gallons,
the manufacture will then be carried on in the fol-
THE FACTORY PROCESS. 223
lowing manner. Seven gallons of good vinegar are
placed in it, and three gallons of a warm alco-
holic mixture, made in the following manner, are
added. If common whisky (50 per cent.) be em-
ployed, have a small measure of 3 pints, and a
large one (a bucket) of 3 gallons. If 86 per cent,
spirits are used, let the small measure be for 2
pints. Put a small measure full of the spirits in
the large measure ; fill quickly to the mark with
boiling water, and pour by a funnel into the gene-
rator. Every two or three weeks, three gallons
of vinegar are withdrawn from the generator,
added to the storage barrel, and three gallons of
alcoholic mixture are placed in the generating
barrel as before.
Another method of working the casks consists
in half tilling the generator with vinegar, and
adding every week so much of the alcoholic mix-
ture that it fills the barrel in from 8 to 16 weeks,
according to the season. Half the vinegar is
then added to the storage cask, and the process
recommenced in the generator. The warmer
the season the more rapid may be the manu-
facture.
II. The Factory Process. The process which I
have just described for the household does not
differ very materially from that of the factory.
In the latter greater care is taken of the tempe-
rature; and as the quantity of material operated
upon is large, and contained in many casks, each
cask is carefully watched, not only to remove the
224 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
vinegar when made, but to conduct the process
with regularity, and to prevent putrefaction arising
in a cask and spreading to its neighbors. The
most celebrated locality for the slow manufacture
is at Orleans, France, where wine vinegar is made.
The following description of their method* will
be instructive, and affords a very good example
of the principles involved in the slow process.
The wine is first clarified by standing for some
time in large vessels filled with beech shavings,
upon which the lees deposit. It is then drawn
oft' gently from the bottom, ready to be converted
into vinegar. The fermenting casks are of 75
gallons capacity, and are arranged upon their
sides in four tiers. They are pierced at the upper
part of their front heads with two holes a large
one for the funnel which introduces the wine,
and for withdrawing the vinegar, and a smaller
one for the access of air. When the process is
commenced the casks are one-third filled with
the very best vinegar, which is the "mother"
of all subsequently made. The casks last for
twenty-five years, but must every ten years be
cleansed and started afresh, on account of the ac-
cumulation of tartar and lees, which retard the
acetification. The temperature of the apartment
is maintained between 75-77 Fah., by means
of wood fires in cast-iron stoves. As the top
rank of casks is in the warmest position, u lazy"
casks, as those are called in which the fermenta-
* From Dr. Ure.
THE FACTORY PROCESS. 225
tion is too slow, are removed to that rank. When
the manufacture is in full operation, a charge of
10J quarts (10 litres) of clarified red or white wine
is added to each cask every 8 days. After four
such charges, 42 quarts of vinegar are withdrawn,
and the operation recommences. Matters are so
arranged that the casks are never more than two-
thirds fulL The workman's skill consists in
managing the temperature, and watching the
casks, so that the fermentation shall proceed
with uniformity. Before the vinegar is with-
drawn the following empirical test is applied to
discover whether the fermentation is complete.
A white stick, curved at one end, is plunged into
the vinegar through the large orifice of the cask,
and withdrawn horizontally. If covered with a
thick white froth, the acetification is perfected ;
if, on the other hand, the froth is red and pearly,
the cask is lazy, and must be brought to a more
vigorous action by increased temperature and by
the addition of more wine.
Let us now consider a factory constructed upon
a similar principle, for the preparation of vinegar
from whisky or other spirits. Let the casks be
arranged in tiers with a hole in each for ventila-
tion and introduction of the wash, and a wooden
faucet for withdrawing the vinegar. The heating
apparatus may be either stoves, a hot-air furnace,
or a similar arrangement to that employe'd for
heating green-houses. In fine, let due attention
be given to the methods of maintaining an equa-
226 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
ble temperature detailed in Part II., Chapter 1st.
There should be appliances for heating water and
also vinegar. The latter may be effected in hot
water baths containing large glass bottles, vitriol
carboys, demijohns, &c.
If the casks are new, they must be prepared
by repeatedly soaking inside with hot water, and
finally several times with warm and strong vine-
gar, to which a little alcohol has been added.
The object being to remove extractive matter
from the pores, and fill them with the vinegar
ferment.
After everything is arranged we must decide
upon the strength of the resulting vinegar.
Table II., page 204, will give the necessary infor-
mation. Column 1 denotes the degrees of Tral-
les alcoholometer the wash should indicate (in
other words its per centage by volume of abso-
lute alcohol) for a corresponding strength of the
vinegar given in column Tth.
On page 154 will be fouud the rule for making
a mixture of required per centage from strong
alcohol and water. Suppose it were required to
make a vinegar containing about 4J per cent, of
anhydrous acetic acid. Theoretically by Table IL,
page 204, the wash should contain a little over 5
per cent, absolute alcohol ; but on account of the
loss by evaporation of alcohol we would have to
take* a wash of 6 per cent. If we employed for
making this wash 80 per cent, spirits, then, since
~ = 13i we would have to dilute the spirits BO
THE FACTORY PROCESS. 227
that every gallon becomes 13^ gallons. In other
words, to 100 gallons of 80 per cent, spirits we
add 1230 gallons of water, equal 1330 gallons of
mixture, which, after the addition of 300 gallons
of vinegar to act as a ferment becomes 1630 gal-
lons of wash. A portion of the water must be
taken sufficiently hot to give a temperature of
from 90-100 Fah. to the wash. The resulting
wash is placed in the fermenting casks to fill each
one two-thirds, and the temperature of the apart-
ment, observed by thermometers placed in dif-
ferent parts of it must be kept between 75 and
100 Fah. At the minimum temperature less
fuel is required, but the time needed for the ace-
tification is extended, and consequently more
casks and a larger apartment are needed to make
the same amount of vinegar. With the maximum
temperature the reverse takes place.
Several days after the addition of the wash, the
aeetification begins, and is indicated by a temper-
ature in the casks elevated slightly above that of
the apartment. A piece of slate laid over the
large hole in the cask, to prevent too great eva-
poration and consequent cooling, is bedewed with
moisture, and the pleasant odor of vinegar is
perceived in the room. As long as these indica-
tions continue, everything is going on well; but
every cask must be examined by itself to at once
restore the action in any "lazy" ones, lest putre-
faction or mouldiness take place and spread to
the neighboring- casks. When this misfortune
228 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
occurs, the bad casks are at once removed from
the apartment, their contents thrown aivay, and the
casks scoured well with brushes and water, and
placed in the sun. After they are dry, they may
be soaked in hot vinegar, and brought into action
again. If only "lazy," they are excited by with-
drawing a portion of their contents, which is
warmed in glass bottles, and with the addition of
a little spirits and vinegar is restored to the casks.
Sometimes too cool a position, or a constant
draught of air will bring a cask out of action.
The remedy is, removal after the acetification is
restored to a warmer position, (an upper tier,)
or by covering with a non-conductor, as, strong
paper pasted over it.
If the staves of the casks, especially of the
lower tier, are thick, the disadvantages of a cool
position are in a great measure overcome.
After a lapse of time depending upon the tem-
perature, which is kept a little more elevated
towards the close, the acetification is complete.
Otto gives the following as the time generally
required.
For temperature, Fah. Weeks required.
100 95 - 4 to G.
95 _ 86 - - - 6 to 10.
8G 80 - - 10 to 12.
80 7 5 - - 12 to 20.
below 73 - - 8 to 10 months.
The close of acetification is indicated by the
diminution of the strong vinegar smell in the
THE FACTORY PROCESS. 229
apartment, by the absence of vapor condensing
upon the slate covers of the holes, and by the
temperature of the inside of the cask becoming
equal to that of the room. In the process just
described, either Otto's acetometer, (page 189) or
Balling's vinegar tester, (page 202) will perform
excellent service to indicate the march and com-
pletion of the acetification. The indications of
the instruments, together with the date of the ex-
periments should be chalked upon the heads of
the respective casks. By this means, the condi-
tion of any cask in the establishment may be
known at a glance.
As soon as the acetification in any one 'cask is
perfected, the vinegar must at once be withdrawn,
barreled and removed to a cooler place than the
vinegar room, in which its tendency to spoil in
the heated atmosphere is very great. The slimy
deposit called "mothers" is removed, and the
vinegar with which it is imbued, employed in
part for the next acetification. If the sediment
from each barrel be placed in a cask, the clear
vinegar may be drawn off after the deposition of
the mothers. It is well, before barreling the vine-
gar, to suffer it to stand for a short time, in a cool
place, in a vessel filled with beech shavings, which
clarify it. When stored, a pint of spirits should
be added to each barrel.
The slow process, thus described, may be
modified in various ways:
1. Thus, instead of bringing the fermentation
20
230 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
to completion in all of the casks at about the same
time, they may be divided into > or 4 groups, so
that J or J of the whole quantity of vinegar may
be withdrawn and stored at intervals of |- or J the
time required for the acetification of the whole
quantity. This modification has the advantage
of a greater distribution of the work ; necessity
for a smaller quantity of vinegar stored for sale ;
and the presence of casks in full action, emitting
strongly acetic vapors, which is of advantage in
keeping up the fermentation in casks just going
into operation. The disadvantages consist of a
greater need for entering and leaving the vinegar
room, involving loss of its heat, and requiring in
consequence, greater attention to its fires. In
addition to this, the heat cannot be increased
towards the close of aeetification, which is useful
in shortening the time required for the manu-
facture.
2. Another modification consists in always
keeping a large quantity of vinegar in the fer-
menting casks, and at short intervals withdraw-
ing small quantities of vinegar, which are re-
placed by fresh wash. This saves time, as aceti-
fication is more rapid in the presence of large
bodies of vinegar. It involves loss of heat
by ii need for a too frequent entering the vinegar
room. It involves, also, a loss of interest upon
the -value of the large quantity of vinegar kept in
the fermenting casks. The intervals at which
vinegar may be withdrawn are closer in propor-
THE FACTORY PROCESS. 231
tion to the heat of the apartment, which bears a
ratio to the amount of fuel consumed.
By this method, only y of the vinegar is re-
moved at one time from each cask; in other
words, at intervals of from one to two weeks, ac-
cording to temperature, 1 gallon of vinegar is
withdrawn from every 5 gallons in the fermenting
casks, and in its stead a gallon of wash is added.
In a large factory, the latter process requires a
large number of barrels of vinegar to commence
operations. This vinegar must be either purchased
or made gradually in the fermenting casks, not
withdrawing any until the casks are sufficiently
full. The advantage consists in the need for a
smaller number of fermenting casks, than by the
method first described. Dr. Otto gives, in his
treatise on vinegar, the following calculation for
the number of fermenting casks required for the
slow process :
Suppose that it be required to furnish a barrel
of vinegar per day excluding Sundays, which
would equal 312 forty-gallon barrels per year, the
fermenting casks would have a capacity of J a
barrel, and since they are not filed with wash,
and on account of unavoidable loss, we may allow
4 such casks to each barrel of vinegar made.
We, of course, do not account as manufactured
vinegar what is added to make the wash, as a like
quantity must be added in the subsequent wash.
From every four fermenting casks we may sell
one barrel of vinegar ; hence, six barrels of vine-
232 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
gar will require 24 such casks. If the vinegar
room be so heated that the operation is completed
in four weeks, we will have to draw off 24 barrels
of vinegar, to do which 96 fermenting casks will
be required. If, however, a lower temperature
be maintained in the apartment, say to complete
the process in sixteen weeks, 4 times 96 = 384
fermenting casks will be required. In the latter
case, the expense of fuel is lessened, but that of
the fermenting casks is increased. Besides, a
larger apartment will be requisite, which will in-
volve a higher rent and greater expense for fuel
in heating it.
If the process be modified, as described, so that
a large body of vinegar is always kept in the fer-
menting casks, their number may, as before stated,
be proportionally decreased.
This calculation affords the very best illustra-
tion of the superiority of the modern quick pro-
cess, over the ancient slow method. To make
one barrel per day by the quick process, a small
room and two " generators" are the sole requisites.
CHAPTER III.
THE QUICK PROCESS.
I. BOERHAVE'S METHOD. After the vinegar pro-
cess was thoroughly comprehended, the discovery
of the quick method was to be expected ; for,
since the action of the air at elevated tempera-
tures performs the acetifieation of alcohol, what
was more natural than to construct vessels by
means of which the alcoholic liquid could be
brought in contact with a larger proportion of air
in a given time than by the old method. The
modern process is not much more than a score of
years old. As, proverbially, coming events are
frequently foreshadowed, so it has been with the
vinegar process ; for, in the 17th century, Boer-
have introduced an improvement upon the vinegar
manufacture of his day, which includes the prin-
ciples of the modern process, and which has ob-
tained considerable employment, especially in
France.
This improvement was as follows : Two roomy
casks of equal size are taken and placed upright
in the vinegar room. The superior heads are re-
moved, and the bungs driven in. They are then
filled with the stems resulting from depriving
bunches of grapes of their fruit. One cask is
20*
234 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
filled, the other half filled with wine, to which J
vinegar has been added. Every 12 or 24 hours
half the liquid of the full cask is poured over the
stems in the half empty cask, which it of course
fills. Thus each cask is alternately full and half
full. The alcoholic mixture spreads itself over
the grape stems, which rise in a porous heap into
the air of the half empty casks ; these stems soon
become coated with ''mothers," and the acetifica-
tion takes places rapidly. This process was sub-
sequently so improved that the mixture was
poured every 3 or 4 hours. By this means a
vinegar was obtained in 14 days that would by
the old process have required months for its
manufacture. Boerhave's method differs from
the modern practice, only that in the latter a
larger porous mass is obtained in the generators,
and care is taken for a circulation of air.
II. DCEBEREINER'S METHOD. Dcebereiner sought
to introduce a method of the vinegar manufacture,
in which the action of finely divided metallic
platinum w r as substituted for a ferment. The
process obtained a trifling application here and
there ; but could not become of universal use on
account of the very large capital which must lie
dead in the platinum. The metal is not dete-
riorated in the process. I will describe briefly
the process from the light it throws upon the
quick process, showing that the vinegar "ferment"
is only one of the instruments of acetification, and
not a sine qua non. Spongy platinum, or plati-
THE QUICK PROCESS. 235
11 urn black, which is the efficient agent -of this
operation, is prepared in the following manner.
Grains of the native metal, or cuttings of the pure
metal are boiled in glass or porcelain vessels with
aqua regia, (3 parts hydrochloric acid, and 1 part
nitric.) The residue is treated in the same man-
ner until complete solution of the metal, which re-
quires for every ounce of platinum from 10 to 15
ounces of aqua regia, according to the size of the
grains. This solution may be effected with less
cost by first melting one part of the platinum
with from 2 to 3 times its weight of zinc, and
granulating the alloy, which is then acted upon
by diluted oil of vitriol, which dissolves the zinc
and leaves the platinum in a state of fine division.
This powder is further purified by boiling in a
little nitric acid, when it becomes readily soluble
in aqua regia.
When a clear concentrated solution of platinum
is obtained, add to it solution of sal ammoniac,
which throws down, as a yellow crystaline preci-
pitate, the double chloride of platinum and ammo-
nium. These crystals are thrown upon a filter,
and washed with a little water. When heated,
everything is volatilized but metallic platinum,
which is in a very fine state of division, called
platinum sponge or black.
This substance, from a property not yet com-
pletely understood, causes oxygen to unite with
gases having an affinity for it. Thus hydrogen
and oxygen may remain mixed forever without
236 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
combination taking place. If a piece of spongy
platinum be placed in the mixture, the gases at
once unite with explosion.
In the same way alcohol vapor and air will
under the influence of spongy platinum, unite so
as to form vinegar.
Doebereiner's "lamp without flame" illustrates
this action. A thin platinum wire, holding a
ball of spongy platinum, is placed above the wick
of a spirit lamp, that the ball of sponge may be
made red hot by the flame of the lamp. The flame
is then dexterously blown out so as not to cool
the platinum, which continues to glow heated by
the oxydation of the alcohol vapors rising from
the wick, and which thus burn without flame,
giving rise to aldehyde, recognized by its peculiar
smell. The platinum causes the oxydation of the
alcohol so rapidly that, sufficient air to perform
the complete transformation to vinegar cannot be
brought in contact with it, and aldehyde results
instead.
The perfect change may be effected in the fol-
lowing manner.
Fill a saucer with 10 per cent, alcohol, and
place the platinum black in a little vessel, sup-
ported by a glass triangle resting on the saucer.
Cover with a bell glass, standing in the saucer,
and place in a light place, (in the sunshine if con-
venient,) where the temperature is from 68 to
86 Fah. The alcohol vapors will rise, become
mingled with air, and then converted into acetic
THE QUICK PROCESS. 237
acid by action of the spongy platinum. The
vinegar will condense upon the sides of the bell,
and trickle down into the saucer, which will at
the close of the operation be filled with vinegar.
It may be ascertained by a thermometer that the
temperature rises in the bell glass. In order that
the air of the bell glass be constantly renewed,
the bell must be tubulated and closed loosely by
covering the tubulus with a plate of glass. 1000
cubic inches of air can oxydize 110 grains of ab-
solute alcohol, giving rise to 122 grains of acetic
acid, and 64J grains of water.
Dr. Ure estimates that with a box of 12 cubic
feet capacity, and from 7 to 8 ounces of spongy
platinum, 1 pound daily of alcohol can be con-
verted into acetic acid, and that with from 20 to
30 pounds of platinum we may obtain 300 pounds
of vinegar from the same amount of spirits. The
costliness of the operation, as illustrated by this
example of Dr. Ure, lies in the capital buried in
the platinum, and explains readily why Doebe-
reiner's method has found no favor with the
public, especially when we consider the small
outlay for the apparatus of the quick process.
III. THE MODERN PROCESS. A concise and full
description of the quick method of the vinegar
manufacture, would fall naturally into the follow-
ing subdivisions :
I. The apparatus.
II. The details of the operation.
III. The experience of the best factories, and
238 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
IV. Some remarks upon the question of the
expediency of large factories.
I. and II. will be considered in the present, and
III. and IV. in the following chapter.
I. THE APPARATUS.
The requirements for this process consist of a
large room of convenient size, capable of being
maintained naturally or artificially at an equable
temperature, between the limits of 74 86 Fah.
The water should be accessible, good, and
under the circumstances alluded to on a former
page, filtered.
The storage accommodations for the manufac-
tured article should be cool, dry, and free from
mouldiness.
In order to ascertain the exact cost of his pro-
duct, the vinegar-maker may possess
1. Two Tralles alcoholometers one for ordi-
nary, the other for extremely dilute solutions of
alcohol.
2. Otto's Acetometer and its appurtenances.
3. Balling's Vinegar Tester.
The factory should contain at least two " gene-
rators," filled with beech-shavings, and for each
of these, two small tubs of the capacity of a barrel,
one for containing the alcoholic mixture, the
other for the acidified product. There should
also be, according to some methods of perform-
ing the operation, a larger mixing tub, and a
gallon measure for the preparation of the " wash."
THE APPARATUS. 241
Arrangements for heating water to prepare the
wash are necessary, and by some methods, con-
veniences for heating in glass bottles wash that
that has passed a generator, and which contains,
in consequence acetic acid.
The Shavings. If beech-wood shavings of the
required shape and quality cannot be purchased,
the following tool for their manufacture will be
required. (See Fig. 8.) -
It consists of a heavy plane, which by reason
of rebates attached to its sides, is capable of only
a backward and forward motion in a frame. The
floor of the frame is perforated with a longitu-
dinal aperture, in which a beech-wood board of a
foot in length, 1 inch in thickness, and 6 to 8 inches
in breadth, may slip and present its edge to the
plane iron, which cuts from it shavings 1 inch
broad by a foot long. By means of a lever and
weight these beech-boards are pressed upward
with the desired force to enable the plane to cut,
and the plane is never drawn far enough back for
the beech-boards to escape upwards from the
frame. Closely curled shavings are required on
account of their strength, and porousness ; the
close curl prevents the lower layers in the gene-
rators from being crushed by the weight of the
superior layers.
To obtain a shaving of any required spiral, the
plane is doubly ironed. As the sharp iron cuts
tlu 1 wood the shaving is pushed over by the blunt
iron, (to a degree proportional to the proximity
21
242 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
of the blunt iron to the edge of the sharp iron,)
forming a close curl. "With beech boards of the
above dimensions six shavings have the area of
a square foot.
The generators are tubs slightly conical, with
the upper diameter the larger. They are made
of oak or white pine, and may be from 6 to 12
feet in height, and from 3 to 4 feet in diame-
ter. At from 8 to 14 inches above the bot-
tom of the generator, 6 or 8 half-inch air-holes
are bored, at a slightly descending angle, so that
the wash trickling down the inside of the tub may
not escape through them. At the distance of a
couple of inches above the air-holes, a false
bottom, pierced with f inch or inch holes, is
placed to sustain the shavings. From 6 to 8
inches below the top of the generators, a hoop or
else three isolated cleets are fastened with wooden
nails, for the purpose of supporting a horizontal
partition pierced with small holes, through which
the wash rains down upon the shavings. The
holes are of a line in diameter, placed at regular
distances apart of 1J inches. They should be
bored, and be reamed out with a red hot iron
to prevent their swelling shut by the action of
the hot vinegar mixture. The crevices between
this partition and the walls of the generators
should be carefully caulked with oakum. Some
prefer to a partition a shallow tub, fitting in
the top of the generator, and with the bottom
pierced. In both cases, pieces of twine or straw
THE APPARATUS.
243
are drawn through the holes, along which the
alcoholic wash trickles to fall in drops upon the
shavings. Six inches helow the sieve a hole is
bored at a descending angle, for the reception of
a thermometer, of which the scale must be visible
from 75 Fah. upward.
Besides the small holes in the sieve, four larger
ones are bored at equal distances apart. They
provide for the insertion of glass or wooden tubes
of } inch bore, and which reach to within an inch
of the cover of the generator. These are chim-
neys by which the draught of air escapes from the
generator. They must fit water-tight.
Figure 9 represents the sieve-tub seen from
above. The small holes are bored at the angles of
the squares. The sieve-tub or partition must be
made so as not to warp, and must be placed in a
perfectly horizontal position. A cover must fit
well upon the generator, and be caulked, if not
air-tight. In the middle a hole is made for the
introduction of the wash. It must be capable of
244 VINEGAll MANUFACTURE.
being closed to a required degree, to aid in regu-
lating the quantity of air passing through the
generator. It is a lixed principle in the operation
of a vinegar generator to suffer no more air to
traverse it than what is just sufficient to effect the
acetification, as otherwise more alcohol is lost hy
evaporation. The generator contains, near the
bottom, a large wooden faucet for withdrawing
its liquid contents, and also a small hole for the
reception of a goose-neck tube of glass or hard
vulcanized rubber. The upper curve of this tube
must be below the air-holes ; its use will be de-
scribed directly.
FIG. 10.
Figure 10 illustrates a generator as just de-
scribed. Otto gives a couple of modifications of
the generator as follows :
In place of the lower air-holes, the bottom of the
THE APPARATUS. 245
generator is pierced in the centre and furnished
with one air-tube shaped something like a nine-
pin ; (see fig. 11,) its head reaching as high as the
Fio. 11
lower air-holes of figure 10. Below the closed
dome-shaped top, it is pierced with several holes
slanting upward and inward. The shape of the
tube effectually prevents the escape of any drop
of vinegar which may fall upon it, while it fur-
nishes air to the very centre of the shavings, diffus-
ing it more equally than in the generator, figure
10. If it rises above the bend of the goose-neck
no vinegar can escape by it to the floor.
Another practice consists in retaining the lower
air-holes, but fitting in them air-tight glass tubes
at a descending angle to prevent escape of vine-
gar, and reaching nearly to the centre of the tub.
I have seen generators furnished with wooden
tubes of this description, but which entered a
longitudinal box pierced with holes, and extend-
ing through the body of shavings from the bot-
tom to near the top. This arrangement is very
21*
246
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
bad, as the tendency of the air is to draw through
the box which acts like a chimney, and is a
shorter and freer route than the interstices of the
shavings.
Another modification of the generator relates
to the goose-neck. The object of this tube is to
keep constantly in the generator a large body of
warm acidified wash, which stands at the level
of the upper bend of the tube. This utilizes the
heat which the wash has acquired by the acetifi-
cation, and thereby spares fuel.
Figure 12 illustrates the lower portion of a
generator in which is a faucet of which the portion
FIG. 12.
prolonged into the tub answers the object of the
goose neck. This faucet is left open and the
liquid flows from the generator when its level
corresponds to the delivery of the faucet. A
second faucet near the bottom of the generator is
needed to draw off when necessary, all of the
vinegar. Besides the advantage of saving heat,
the vinegar drawn from the bottom of the tub, as
by the action of the goose neck or faucet of figure
DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 247
12, is of stronger quality, for several reasons,
which will be given in the proper place.
The generators should, of course, be so placed
as to permit their liquid contents to flow into the
necessary barrels or other vessels in the course of
the manufacture. They should also have space
above them to facilitate delivering the wash to
the sieve tub, whether by tubs or by hand.
More space than is just sufficient is injurious,
involving a waste of heat; a light gallery or
merely a ladder enables the tops of the generators
to be reached. It is not generally a good plan,
at least in winter, to have tubs delivering the wash
in an upper story ; as the upper portion of a room
is the warmest, heat may be saved by placing the
tubs for delivering the alcoholic mixture near the
ceiling of the vinegar room.
The wash may be elevated by hand or by pumps
of wood, glass, or hard vulcanized rubber.
II. DETAILS OF THE OPERATION.
When everything is ready, the fermentation of
the generators is brought about, as follows : For
a day or more, the vinegar room is kept at a tem-
perature between 75 80, in order that its walls,
the generators, etc., acquire the proper tempera-
ture for the acetic transformation.
The beech-wood shavings must then be boiled
in good strong vinegar and placed in the gene-
rators. This heating with vinegar may be effected
in a wooden tub with a pipe delivering steam into
248 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
it. I have found that as good a way as any is to
boil the shavings in 20 gallons of vinegar in a per-
fectly clean cast-iron cauldron, placing them at
once in the new generators and rejecting the first
vinegar made. While one batch of shavings is
heating in the vinegar, the preceding batch which
was raked out of the cauldron with a pitchfork and
carried to the generator in a basket, is placed care-
fully in the situation it is to occupy, settling it with
a rammer made by fastening a barrel head to a pole.
The ramming is to be gentle so as not to break
the shavings, which are to be arranged as a uni-
formly porous mass, and to leave the air holes
free, remembering that the generator is a stove in
which the shavings are, at the same time, fire-
place and chimney. When the layers of shavings
have reached to within 6 or 8 inches of the sieve
bottom, the same, furnished with its ventilating
tubes and the twine in its holes, is placed in posi-
tion, and the cover fastened down securely.
The shavings at the thermometer hole and at
the lower ventilating holes are then loosened by
means of a stick thrust therein. A wash is now
prepared which contains -J- vinegar and -J of a 3
per cent, solution of alcohol; this, heated to 75
80, is gradually poured through the hole in the
cover of the generator, at the rate of one barrel in
the lapse of 24 hours. At the expiration of this
time, warm the resulting vinegar if necessary, and
having added enough alcohol to make the whole
quantity taken thus far, of 5 per cent, alcoholic
DETAILS OF TUE OPERATION. 249
strength, pour this through the generators as
before. Repeat this operation on the third and
even on the fourth day if it be necessary. Inves-
tigate the temperature of the air escaping from
the generator, and when it exceeds that of the
wash which is running, it is a sign that the aceti-
fication has commenced. When it rises to a
point between 98 104, the generators are in a
proper condition to commence the regular busi-
ness of the manufacture; the fermentation has
been properly established. We then daily pour
through generator, ~No. 1, a wash consisting of a
certain quantity of spirits, vinegar and water,
heated to a temperature between 75 80 Fah.;
and through No. 2 the wash which has passed
through No. 1, to which has been added more
spirits. We draw manufactured vinegar daily
from generator, No. 2. The vinegar resulting
from setting the generators in action, though not
prejudicial to health, is of inferior quality and bad
flavor from extractive matter from the shavings
and tubs and from the iron cauldron. It may be
added in very small quantity to the subsequent
vinegar, if it be not thrown away.
I have thus sketched, in a few words, the result
of my own experience as the most convenient
way of commencing operations with new gene-
rators. Many modifications may be made: in-
stead of shavings, chips of beech wood, corn cobs,
charcoal and several other porous bodies have
been employed. In Germany, especially, the use
250 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
of charcoal has been followed with great success ;
the coal is broken in pieces of the size of a wal-
nut, sifted from dust, washed and dried. When
saturated with vinegar, it acts precisely like beech
shavings the pores of the coal absorb from five
to six times as much vinegar as beech shavings,
which brings a greater amount of ferment in con-
tact with the wash. The air surface is not in-
creased by this porosity, the pores being filled
with liquid.
The following is another and better method
for bringing generators into action, but requiring
more time and labor: the generators, shavings,
and all the vessels employed are, if new, well
soaked in warm water, which is renewed several
times if necessary for the purpose of dissolving
soluble matter. The shavings may be soaked in
the generators, after which, they must be spread
out in some convenient place to dry quickly.
After the generators are also dry, the shavings
are packed in them with the proper precautions,
and every thing is prepared for the manufacture.
The generators may then be acidified in the fol-
lowing manner: the temperature of the apartment
having been kept for a short time between 75-
80 Fah. Hot and strong vinegar is repeatedly
poured upon the sieve bottom in such a manner
that it may drop evenly over the stratum of
shavings. This vinegar may be heated in an
iron cauldron, perfectly scoured; but the best
mode of warming is by large bottles, heated
DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 251
in a hot water apparatus, since salts of iron,
entering the vinegar, would form ink, with the
astringent substance left in the material of the gen-
erator. By this method also, the vinegar extracts
what soluble matter from the shavings and genera-
tors is left undissolved by the water employed in
the soaking, and in consequence the first vinegar
made is of inferior quality. As the generators
begin to become well saturated with vinegar, a
little alcohol may be added to form a wash ; in-
creasing gradually the quantity of alcohol added,
until we thus pass imperceptibly into the vinegar
manufacture. At this juncture, it is well to close
the opening in the cover of the generator for 12
or 24 hours ; if, at the expiration of this time the
thermometer indicates a temperature of 95 to
100 when placed at the opening in the cover, the
generators are in a proper fermentative condition
for proceeding with the manufacture.
The wash may be poured in two ways, either
at intervals, (every hour,) in definite quantities,
according to the size of the generator, and inter-
rupting the process at night; or it may flow un-
interruptedly in a measured stream. The relative
advantages of these plans will be discussed upon
a future page. To make a good, strong vinegar,
three generators should be used. The wash passes
through each in succession, with the addition of
alcohol each time ; by this means a 6 per cent,
alcoholic wash yields a vinegar containing from
4-6 to 4-8 per cent, of anhydrous acetic acid.
252 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
"With a 10 per cent, alcohol passing the shavings
four times, a stronger vinegar may be made, con-
taining about 8 per cent, anhydrous ( = 9J
hydrated) acetic acid.
Practical example of the manufacture. The fol-
lowing example will illustrate practically the
manufacture of vinegar by the quick process.
We will suppose three generators of from 10 to
12 feet high to be employed, and that a wash, re-
ceiving at each time alcohol, passes each gene-
rator in succession, leaving the third in a state of
manufactured vinegar.
As it is immaterial for the example whether
the wash runs uninterruptedly or is poured at
intervals, we will imagine the former case, and
that it runs at the rate of 2J gallons per hour,
that is, yielding 35 gallons every 14 hours. Let
the object be to make a vinegar of 4-6 4-8 per
cent, acid strength, which, as we know, will re-
quire a mixture containing 6 per cent, of absolute
alcohol. Six mixing tubs, of 40 gallons (a vine-
gar barrel) capacity, will be required. This num-
ber will enable the work to proceed without de-
la} 7 in case the wash should flow more slowly in
any of the generators.
Let us first consider the proportions of the
wash. It should contain I of manufactured
vinegar, and |. of a 6 per cent, alcoholic wash.
By the mixture rule, 1 gallon of 80 per cent,
alcohol added to 12-^ gallons of water, yields
13 j% gallons of 6 per cent, alcohol. To make
DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 253
31 gallons of such weak spirits, we require 28 J-
gallons of water, and 2J gallons of 80 per cent,
alcohol; because T ^ of 31 gallons 2 T \, or nearly
2J gallons. To these 31 gallons 4 gallons of
manufactured vinegar must be added, yielding
35 gallons of wash, which has to run during
14 hours. This wash then, to repeat, consists
of
Water, ... 28^ gallons.
Vinegar, . . 4 "
80 per cent, alcohol, . . 2J " = 10 qts.
35 "
The result of three runnings, is vinegar of 4-6
to 4-8 per cent, acid strength. The 2J gallons
of 80 % spirits, are added in three unequal por-
tions one before each running. A moment's re-
flection will show that the division must be
unequal, for not only is a dilute solution acidi-
fied more rapidly, but there is greater loss of
alcohol by evaporation in a stronger solution
dropping through the air current in the generator.
Some unconverted alcohol always passes the
shavings. If, therefore, we divided the 10 quarts
of spirits, into three portions of 3J quarts each,
adding one to each wash, the first wash would
contain 3J quarts of spirits ; the second by means
of unconverted alcohol passing the first genera-
tor, more than 3J, and the last wash still more,
involving in the latter washes, loss and inconve-
nience from the causes stated. The best division
would be
22 -
254 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
To first wash . . . 6 quarts 80$ spirits.
To second wash . . 2J " "
To third wash U " "
10
The mode of operating then would be to run
through the first generator a mixture of 28 J- gal-
lons of water, 4 of vinegar, and 6 quarts of 80 %
spirits. After it had passed, to add 2J quarts of
spirits, and let it traverse the 2d generator ; after
which, with the addition of 1 J quarts of spirits, it
would leave the third generator as 35 gallons of
manufactured vinegar. Since four gallons of this
was added vinegar, the result is 31 gallons of
vinegar made. After every working day of
14 hours, so much vinegar can be stored. It
is equal to 3 T V forty gallon barrels every four
days.
The following scheme will illustrate the mode
of operating the three generators and six mixing
tubs.
1 3 5
ABC
246
The letters denote the generators, and the
numbers their respective mixing tubs. The gene-
rators are furnished with goose-neck tubes to
keep always a body of warm vinegar in them,
consequently when in full operation, for every
drop of wash that falls from 1, 3, and 5, a cor res-
DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 255
ponding drop leaves the goose-neck of A, B, and
C, to fall into 2, 4, and 6. The mixing tubs have
each a mark to indicate the level of 35 gallons.
At the commencement of a day's work, 1, 3,
and 5 are empty, and 2, 4, and 6 contain about
35 gallons each of vinegar of varying strength,
increasing from 2 to 6. That of 6 is stored.
We place then in 1 four gallons of vinegar and
6 quarts 80% spirits, and then add water to the
35 gallon mark, to make the first wash, which
is suffered to run through A. In making
the different washes, a portion of the water is
taken sufficiently hot to bring the wash to the
proper temperature. The vinegar of 2 is then
removed to mixing tub 3, and that of 4 to tub 5.
To No. 3, 2J quarts, and to No. 5, If quarts of
80 % spirits are added, and the washes are set to
running. It is better, however, to add these por-
tions of spirits differently, thus : At the com-
mencement of running the 1st, 2d, and 3d washes,
(the tubs 2, 4, and 6 being empty,) we place 2J
quarts of spirits in No. 2, and 1J quarts in No. 4.
The liquid which then drops from A, is forming
the 2d wash in No. 2, which is made as soon as
No. 2 is filled to the 35 gallon mark, when it may
be transferred to tub No. 3. In like manner the
3d wash is forming in tub No. 4. A little alco-
hol may be evaporated in this manner ; but what
remains is kept longer in contact with the vine-
gar, and besides there is no occasion to delay the
manufacture until the washes have all run from
256 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
1, 3, and 5. If the flow in one generator should
lag a little, the process may go on, and the time
be made up subsequently.
No. 6 may be a supernumerary tub for mixing
the 1st wash, in which case a vinegar barrel,
ready for storage, is placed under the third gene-
rator.
During the operation the vinegar maker tests
the product to ascertain its quality. This is espe-
cially necessary at the commencement of the
manufacture, when the generators are going into
action. If Balling's vinegar tester be employed,
it is applied to the washes in 1, 3, and 5, and the
results are compared with the vinegar flowing
from A, B, and C ; that is before the liquid flow-
ing from A and B is treated with fresh portions
of spirits to make the 2d and 3d washes. If
Otto's acetometer be used, it is applied only to
the vinegar flowing from the three generators.
The generators may also be worked singly, i. e.
the wash passed three times through the same gene-
rator, receiving before its passage its proper por-
tion of alcohol. By this plan the advantage
arising from keeping a body of warm vinegar in
the generators is lost, since all of their liquid
must be drawn before the dose of alcohol for the
next wash can be added. Each generator is, as
it were, set in action afresh after each withdrawal
of manufactured vinegar. The method, however,
permits a small business to be carried on with
one generator. Two pair of large mixing tubs
DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 257
are required. After the last portion of each wash
is added, a delay of an hour takes place to per-
mit all of the vinegar to drain from the shavings.
The proper amount of spirits is then added to the
vinegar to prepare the subsequent wash. The
second pair of mixing tubs is supplementary, and
employed, when operating with three generators
worked singly, to prevent delay arising from a
lagging flow in one generator.
Points to be observed in the quick vinegar process.
Having thus given a practical example of the
process, let us now consider what things are to
be observed to simplify the work, to tell when it
is progressing properly, and to meet and remove
difficulties. The best test of a correct working is
found in the temperature of the air leaving the
generators. It should be uniform, and in the
neighborhood of 100 Fah. It is somewhat higher
during the passage of the first w r ash, and a little
lower during that of the 2d and 3d washes. If
the temperature fall much below this point, the
fermentation has ceased, and immediate steps are
to be taken for its restoration, by pouring on a
wash heated to 100 and letting the generator
stand for a short time with its top ventilating
hole closed. If, on the other hand, the escaping
air possesses a higher temperature, the fermentive
process is indeed quickened, but the vinegar is of
inferior quality, is full of vinegar eels, and of in-
ferior strength ; for not only is alcohol lost by
evaporation, but a portion of acetic acid is decom-
22*
258 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
posed. In order to carry on the quick vinegar
method to the best advantage, a constant super-
vision is to be exercised over the process. Too
much, generally, is expected from it. It requires
much more care and watchfulness than the old
method, in which nothing more was needed than
regulating the temperature of the vinegar room,
and giving the fermenting casks an occasional
inspection. By the quick processes a constant
attention must be bestowed upon many minor
circumstances, upon which its successful opera-
tion depends. It is very easy to obtain vinegar
of irregular acid strength, and with a considerable
and variable loss of alcohol. It is by no means
difficult to manufacture a first-rate article with
the least waste ; but method, workmen to be
depended upon, and the attention' to certain
points, are of paramount importance. These
points are not difficult to comprehend, and must
be learned either by one's own experience or by
that of others. I will set them forth in the fol-
lowing pages, mostly condensed from Otto's work
on vinegar.
The quantity of air entering the generators, and
the changes which it experiences. This subject is
of important consideration. The vinegar gene-
rator is a stove, in w r hich the heat is maintained
by the union of alcohol and oxygen. In order
that the process goes on well the air must leave the
generators at 100 Fah. There are three tilings
which tend to draw the air through the gene-
DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 259
rators. 1st. The heat caused by the acetificatiou
renders it specifically lighter, by which it rises,
cooler air taking its place. 2d. A portion of its
oxygen is liquified, becoming with the alcohol
vinegar and water. This creates a partial vacuum
which is filled with fresh air. 3d. The nitrogen
left is specifically lighter than air, and tends to
escape, being replaced by fresh air. Air contains
20.9 per cent, of oxygen, a portion only of which
is employed in the quick vinegar manufacture.
Knapp found in the air escaping from the gene-
rators, 19.1 per cent, of oxygen, which leaves 1-8
per cent, of this gas used for the acetificatiou.
Otto discovered by numerous experiments that
the air leaving generators in good action, con-
tained from 14 to 16 per cent, of oxygen, equiva-
lent to from 4.9 to 6.9 per cent, of the air's oxygen
employed in the vinegar fermentation. He noted,
also, that in the most successful factories the most
oxygen was absorbed from the air traversing the
generators. Ordinarily not more than one quarter
of the oxygen of the air is absorbed. It is im-
portant to render this absorption as perfect as pos-
sible, since all needless gas traversing the gene-
rators, involves loss by evaporating a portion of
the alcohol. The earlier practice erred in giving
too much air to the generators. A large propor-
tion of air admitted acts injuriously, if the vinegar
room be not very warm, in cooling the shavings,
thus retarding the fermentation. If, to obviate
this difficulty, the room be kept very warm,
260 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
fuel is wasted, alcohol evaporated, and there
is risk of all the disadvantages of too high
a temperature in the generators. The quan-
tity of air needed for the process is ascertain-
ed for each generator by carefully watching it
at the outset, and regulating the current by
closing to the requisite degree the hole left for
this purpose in its cover. Too little air is indi-
cated by aldehyde in the apartment, which is re-
cognized by its penetrating odor, and by its pain-
ful effect upon the eyes. The quantity of air
admitted to the generators should be just suffi-
cient to prevent the formation of this aldehyde.
The air current passing the shavings is in a mea-
sure self-regulating, because the more active the
fermentative process the warmer does the air in
the generator become, and the more rapidly is it
deprived of its oxygen. This draws a larger
quantity of air through the generator, and as the
air of the apartment is lower than 100, the shav-
ings are slightly cooled, and the activity of the
fermentation proportionally retarded. If the wash
be excluded from the generators at night, the
vent-holes must be completely closed to prevent
too great cooling of the shavings. Otto proposes,
when the wash is poured not continuously but at
intervals, to perform the following experiment.
After each pouring, close the vent-holes, and espe-
cially all of the lower ones. It is to be expected
that there will be air enough in the generators to
perform the acetification. Immediately before
DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 261
the next pouring give free admission to the air,
and so on.
The Temperature of the Vinegar-room and of the
Wash. If the generators cannot be readily kept
at the proper temperature ; if they are too cool ;
pour less mixture in a given time, make the mix-
ture warmer, or increase the temperature of the
vinegar-room. If the air escaping from the gene-
rators is generally too warm, have a cooler apart-
ment, or cooler wash, and pour more of the wash
in a given time. The relative temperature of the
wash and of the vinegar-room, also the quantity
of wash poured in a given time, is governed by
the size of the generators generally, and indivi-
dually by the manner in which the shavings are
packed in each generator. The quantity of mix-
ture passing must be such that it trickles gently
through the shavings, not washing them off, but
becoming gradually acidified as it nears the lower
layers.
The temperature and quantity of the wash must
bear such a proportion to the temperature of the
vinegar-room that the generators maintain the
temperature of 95-100 Fah., as the most favor-
able to acetification. With the average size of
apartments, and kind of generators, it is enough
to keep the temperature both of the wash and the
vinegar-room at 73-77. If the apartment be
somewhat cooler, the temperature of the wash
must be proportionally greater, and vice versa;
so that during a part of the year the room need
262
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
not be heated. On the other hand, it is requisite
in some localities, at mid summer, to counteract
the heat of the room by some convenient and
cheap method of cooling artificially the wash.
Method of Warming the Wash. The first wash
is made by the addition of warm water to alcohol
and vinegar. The water may be heated in any
convenient way ; not so with the remaining
washes, which contain vinegar, and which should
not be brought in contact with any metal. These
washes are warmed in a water bath, that is, in
glass, stoneware, porcelain, and vessels placed in
a receptacle containing heated water. The fol-
lowing cuts illustrate this method of warming
the washes.
FIG. 13.
That excellent variety of stove made from
earthenware or porcelain, used in Germany for
warming apartments, as represented by (a) ; (b) is a
copper vessel, one side of which is walled in the
DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 263
stove, so that water placed in (b) is warmed by the
fire in the stove ; (c) is a small stove, of which the
pipe ascends and joins (a), for the purpose of
heating water when the weather is not cold
enough to warm the apartment with the large
stove, (d) is a trough, represented in figure 14,
in horizontal section. It contains water, and
FIG. 14.
communicates with (b) by two tubes, in one of
which is a cock for regulating the current. When
the water in (b) is heated, there is a circulation in
(d) through the two tubes ; the cooler water pass-
ing from (d) to (b) by the lower tube, and the hot
water from (b) to (d) by the upper tube. If the
water in (d) gets too hot, it can be regulated by
closing more or less the stop-cock which regulates
the current. The trough (d) is divided into com-
partments to prevent breakage of the bottles by
jarring. The longitudinal compartment enables
the hot water in (d) to be stirred with a wooden
paddle to make its temperature more uniform.
Warm water for making the first wash may be
drawn from (d), but it is better to have a separate
apparatus for heating this water. Such an ap-
paratus is represented by fig. 15, which hardly
needs an explanation. It consists of a double
264
VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
Fia. 15.
cylinder, with water between the cylinders, and
heated by a fire of charcoal, wood, or stone
coal, placed in the inside'of the inner cylinder.
This water compartment connects with a large
barrel of water by an^upper and lower^tube, as in
the cut, and a circulation of hot water is thereby
effected, by which means the water in the barrel
can be speedily brought to the boiling point.
This heater is the only kind needed when work-
ing the generators by Otto's practice, which does
not require any of the acid washes to be heated.
Otto's Practice to Avoid Heating the Acid Washes.
This method requires but one mixing tub, and
obliges a periodical pouring of the washes. The
DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 265
mixing tub must be covered with coarse paper
pasted upon its outside, to enable it to retain its
heat, and the first wash is placed in it sufficiently
warm to maintain a proper temperature in the
first generators.
Let us suppose the same example as on page
253, where the first wash consisted of 28 J gallons
of water, 4 of vinegar, and 6 quarts of 80 % alco-
hol, where the second and third washes were made
from the vinegar which had run through the first
and second generators, with the addition, respec-
tively, of 2J and 1J quarts of 80% alcohol, and
where the washes ran through the shavings at the
rate of 2J gallons per hour. By Otto's practice
the same proportions are retained, but 2J gallons
of each wash are made every hour, and poured at
once on the sieve tubs of the respective generators
A wooden measure, containing 2J gallons, is
procured, and a glass measure, capable of mea-
suring a quart and its fractional parts, fluid ounces
and fluid drachms. Now by the former example,
the wash ran at the rate of 2J gallons per hour
for 14 hours. Therefore, in making a wash of
the same proportions, hourly, we must take ~
part of the whole quantity of the ingredients em-
ployed in the former instance. For example, every
hour we take & part of the 6 quarts of 80 % alcohol,
13 fluid ounces, 5f fluid drachms, to which we add
\ of 4 gallons = 1 quart 4J fluid ounces of vinegar,
and add to these enough water to make 2J gal-
lons altogether. Hence we place in the 2J gallon
23
266 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
wooden measure 1 quart 4J fluid ounces, of vine-
gar, and 13 fluid ounces 5f fluid drachms of 80%
alcohol, and fill to the mark with water to make
the first wash, which is all poured evenly over the
sieve tub of the first generator.
When this is done we place in the wooden
measure 5 fluid ounces, 5f fluid drachms, (that is
7 V of 2J quarts) of 80% alcohol, and draw from
the first generator vinegar enough to fill the mea-
sure to the 2J gallon mark. This is the second
wash, all of which is at once poured into the
sieve-tub of the second generator. We then
place 3 fluid ounces 3J fluid drachms of 80 per
cent, alcohol, ( -j. part of 1J quarts) in the wooden
measure, and fill to the mark with vinegar from
generator No. 2, to make the third wash, which
is at once poured upon the sieve-tub of the third
generator. To save time, a glass measure may
be graduated very carefully for these three quan-
tities of alcohol ; or we may have measures for
each, made of bottles of the proper size.
As will be perceived in Otto's practice, the hot
vinegar of the generators is employed to make
the washes, thereby avoiding the necessity of
warming the second and third washes. Can-
must be taken to arrange the goose-neck tubes
in the first and second generators, so that the
air-space above the liquid shall be sufficiently
large to permit it to cool down to the tempera-
ture of 73 to 77. The temperature of the apart-
ment may be so regulated as to obtain the re-
DETAILS OP THE OPERATION. 267
quired cooling. By this method the vinegar is
not suffered to run in a continuous stream from
any goose-neck, except that of the last generator
which delivers vinegar ready for storage.
To regulate the quantity of Ferment in the Gene-
rators. Schulze observes with respect to the vine-
gar ferment, that it brings about the decomposi-
tion of the alcohol ; while the acetic acid deter-
mines that said decomposition shall be into acetic
acid and water, and not into other products. Of
what this ferment exactly consists we are yet
ignorant ; but that it is generated from certain
nitrogenized products present in the vinegar is
very probable. Some, indeed, deny the idea of a
"ferment" properly so called, and point to the
acetincatiou of alcohol by platinum, for their rea-
son. If this be a correct view, what the others
call a "ferment," the latter characterize as a
" catalytic agent"*
The shavings in a generator may contain too
little ferment or catalytic body, in which case the
acetification takes place imperfectly, and in con-
sequence, the apparatus maintains its heat with
difficulty.
On the other hand they may be coated with too
much ferment, in which case the vinegar made
is proportionally weaker, full of eels, yellowish,
cloudy, and the generators exhibit a very high
* A catalytic agent is one that produces a chemical effect by its
presence, itself undergoing no change, like platinum in the example
cited.
268 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
temperature. If the indications show too little
ferment, the remedy consists in pouring luke-
warm vinegar over and over again at consider-
able intervals, taking care that the temperature
in the generators be maintained at about 106 F.
Ferment is thus generated afresh. The wash,
(at first weak in alcohol) is now added, and the
generators are thus brought quickly into action.
The simplest method of curing a generator
suffering from excess of ferment, consists in pour-
ing at once several buckets full of very clear,
strong, lukewarm vinegar, which washes the ex-
cess of ferment from the shavings.
A general tendency in a generator to form
excess of ferment, may be corrected by the judi-
cious use of ethereal oils or antiseptics which tend
to weaken the fermentative act. Care must be
taken not to arrest it altogether by the use of
these substances. Where the manufacture is pe-
riodical and interrupted at night, a few drops of oil
of cloves, or a little alcoholic mixture which has
stood over cloves, may be added to the last wash.
This effectually prevents the generation of too
much ferment, which is especially apt to take
place at night when the shavings are saturated
with a wash at rest.
The advantage of a Periodical over a Constant
flow of the Wash. I have given examples of
two methods of suffering the w r ash to flow. In
one of them the wash either runs uninterruptedly
day and night, or perhaps during 12 or 14 hours
DETAILS OF THE OPERATION.
resting at night; in the other a certain quantity
of the wash is poured every hour. The latter
practice has been almost universally adopted in
Europe, and excludes many of the difficulties
under which the quick process has hitherto la-
bored. In our country the rule is, " constant
flotv;" but the time will come when, urged by
competition, manufacturers will be obliged either
to resort to a periodical flow of the wash, or
to invent means for overcoming the objections
attending a constant one. The first trouble of
the inexperienced vinegar- maker, generally arises
from difficulties arising from the constant flow.
The sieve-tub or platform at the top of the gene-
rator is intended, like the rose of a watering-pot,
to diffuse the wash equally over the shavings.
For a periodical flow it contains small holes sim-
ply, and the wash is poured all over it. For a
constant flow it contains four large tubes to act
as chimneys, and the holes are filled with twine
along which the wash trickles. In this case the
wash stands at a depth of several inches upon the
sieve bottom. Instead of twine, splinters of wood
have been employed in the holes ; also the heads
of threshed rye or wheat with a couple of inches
of the straw, put through the holes, the head of
the rye or wheat preventing the straw from falling
through. A variety of other substances have
been used to replace the twine, but without any
advantage, for some of the holes soon cease deli-
vering the wash by the accumulation of " mother"
23*
270 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
on the twine. It is difficult to place the sieve-
tub so that it shall remain horizontal, if it warp,
the wash will flow faster through some of the
holes and will not be diffused equally. It is
also difficult to arrange the proportions of the
holes and twine, so that the required amount of
wash drops on the shavings. The best way of
Arranging for a constant flow, consists in boring
the holes with a pod auger, then, after soaking
the tub well so as to swell it, to run a red hot iron
through each hole. The sieve-tub is then again
soaked as well as the pieces of twine, first in hot
water, and then in vinegar. The twine is chosen
of such thickness that the wash covers the bottom
of the sieve apparatus, and drops in a gentle
shower from the twine. The flow is easily regu-
lated by graduating the tub delivering the wash,
suffering the same to flow upon the sieve through
a faucet, and observing that the proper number
of gallons flows per hour. It is not difficult to
attain these objects for a few days, after which
the "mother" begins to collect upon the twine, less-
ening the amount of wash that can pass in a given
time ; more wash flows upon one side of the gene-
rator, and at last the " mother" stops the flow effec-
tually. The twine may be withdrawn, cleansed,
and re-inserted, but the difficulty soon recurs.
The following plan has been tried : A strong
hoop is placed upon the cleets instead of the
sieve-tub. Upon the hoop is tightly stretched a
strong net having apertures of an inch. This
DETAILS OF THE OPERATION. 271
net supports three or four little wooden tubs,
communicating with each other by glass or vul-
canized rubber tubes, and filled from the wash
reservoirs by a tube regulated by a wooden fau-
cet. Pieces of lampwick are so arranged, that
one end of a piece is immersed in the vinegar of
one of the little tubs, while the other end hangs
through a mesh of the net ; taking care that there
is a wick for every mesh. The wash is drawn
over by capillary attraction, and drops by a sy-
phon-like action from every wick. The flow is at
first admirable, but at length the capillarity of
the wicks is destroyed by the accumulation of
"mother." This result may be put off for awhile
by placing a few cloves in each little tub ; but it
arrives eventually.
It would be of great advantage, if a proper con-
stant flow of the wash could be effected. The
wash placed over the generators could be warmed
by the heat escaping from them ; it could be em-
ployed in a cooler state than by the periodical
flow, as the drops would be warmed in their pas-
sage through the upper layers of shavings. This
practice would lessen the labor of attending the
generators, and would permit the manufacture to
go on all night without supervision. I think
that a constant flow, free from the objections to it
as practiced in our country, can be effected with
a little ingenuity, especially in this age of vul-
canized India-rubber.
A large factory in England, employing very
272 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
large generators, through which the air is driven
by steam power, gives the hint upon which to ex-
periment. In this factory the wash flows through
a regulating stop-cock, from a reservoir placed
above the generator, and enters a tube stopped at
the ends, and revolving horizontally by steam
power. This tube is pierced with small holes from
end to end, and in its revolution drops the wash
uniformly over the shavings. It would seem that a
similar tube of hard vulcanized rubber, revolving
by clock-work might afford a ready and constant
flow of wash to an ordinary generator. The
weights of the clock-work might be so arranged
as to be wound up every 12 hours ; which labor
is certainly not equivalent to an hourly pouring
of the wash, while it enables the manufacture to
go on uninterruptedly during the night.
The revolving apparatus should, together with
tubes and faucet, be visited from time to time, to
remove the accumulated " mother." Until such
an apparatus has been invented, I would advise de-
cidedly the adoption of the German practice of a
periodical pouring of the wash. Its good results
are no longer problematical, the matter having
been fully investigated by the most experienced
vinegar-makers of Europe.
CHAPTER IV.
EXAMPLES OF THE PRACTICE OF THE BEST EUROPEAN
VINEGAR FACTORIES.
OTTO has given, in his treatise on vinegar, the
following valuable information respecting the
actual practice in the factories of his country. In
translating and condensing, I have avoided re-cal-
culating the foreign measures into those employed
by us, in order to obviate the slight error arising
from neglecting fractions. It will therefore be
necessary to give the value of the German mea-
sures. In the present chapter, the word "quart"
(qt. qts.) refers to the Prussian measure of that
name. Qr. Qrs. denotes the Brunswick " Quarter."
TABLE.
1 Prussian oxhoft equals 180 Prussian quarts = 206-1 litres.
1 Prussian quart . . . . . . = 1-145 "
1 Brunswick oxhoft equals 240 Brunswick qrs. = 224-5 u
I Brunswick quarter . . . . . = 0-9354 "
II Brunswick quarters equal 9 Prussian qts.
1 English quart imperial . . . . = 1-136 "
1 Wine measure (United States) quart . . 0-947 "
1 quart imperial equals 1 qt.+6 oz.-f-3 dr.-f-
16 minims wine measure.
1 United States vinegar barrel of 40 gallons
wine measure . . . . . = 151 5 "
In this table I have compared the German with
274 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
our measures, by the medium of the French litre.*
It will be seen that:
1. The Prussian quart differs but little from the
Imperial quart.
2. The quart of the United States (wine and
apothecaries measure,) is nearly as large as the
Brunswick quarter.
3. The Prussian oxhoft contains 14 gallons 8
pints (wine measure) more than the United States
vinegar barrel of 40 gallons.
4. That the Brunswick oxhoft contains 19 gal-
lons and 1 qt. more than the United States vine-
gar barrel. In other words, the Prussian oxhoft
equals 54 gallons + 3 pints, and the Brunswick
oxhoft = 59 gallons -f 1 quart wine measure.
VINEGAR PROCESS IN GERMANY.
Scarcely two vinegar factories work precisely
alike, which proves that the quick process has
not yet attained the desirable degree of perfec-
tion ; for otherwise there would be one and the
best method. The following are examples of the
process as carried on in Germany.
1. A factory in the DutcJiy of Brunswick employs
3 generators 12 feet high, and six mixing tubs for
the wash. A lattice work, inside, above the lower
ventilation holes, supports the shavings. A sieve
platform, with holes without twine, serves to
scatter the wash. The cover is air-tight, and con-
tains a funnel for pouring the wash upon the
* 1 litre = 2-1135 pints wine measure.
VINEGAR PROCESS IN GERMANY. 275
sieve. A vent tube in this cover conducts the air
from the generators out of the vinegar room. The
generators have goose-neck tubes for the flow of
the vinegar. Temperature of vinegar room 82
Fah. The flow is periodical. The first washes
prepared by placing in a mixing tub of 1 Bruns-
wick oxhoft (that is 240 quarters) capacity, 15J
quarters of 80 % alcohol ; 12 qrs. of vinegar ; 1 J
pounds of syrup ; and enough water to make up
the 240 qrs. This water is taken sufficiently warm
to give a wash of 100 Fah.
Every hour 8 qrs. of this mixture are poured
upon generator A, and run (as four per cent,
vinegar) into the second mixing tub of B, in which
9 quarters of alcohol have been placed. As soon
as enough vinegar flows from A into this tub to
make up 240 quarters, it becomes the 2d wash,
and is poured through generator B, at the rate
of 8 quarters hourly. It runs from B (as 6 per
cent, vinegar) into the mixing tub of C, in which
7 quarters of alcohol have been placed. As soon
as this tub is filled with 240 quarters, it becomes
the 3d wash which is poured, 8 quarters hourly,
upon generator C. What flows from C is sale-
able vinegar of 8 per cent, acid strength. As has
been seen, the washes are running from three of
the mixing tubs, while the next washes are being
made in the remaining three mixing tubs.
2. Factory in the city of Brunsivick. This fac-
tory employs two generators ten feet high, which
have very small vent holes.
276 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
The first wash consists of 20 quarters of vine-
gar ; 15 of 80 % alcohol ; a little perfectly clear
white beer; and sufficient water of 100 Fah. to
make up 240 qrs.
Every 3 hours 14 qrs. are poured upon the
shavings of A. Every 3 hours 14 qrs. of vinegar
are drawn from A, J qr. of alcohol added, and
the 2d wash thus formed is poured upon B. What
flows from B is manufactured vinegar. It is
placed in a cask filled with beech shavings, stand-
ing in the vinegar room. It clarifies in this cask,
from which it is drawn for storage.
Temperature of vinegar room, 73 79 Fah.
That~of generators 100 102 Fah.
3. A factory in Beuthen works with 4 gene-
tors, which are between 7 8 feet in height.
The 1st mixture contains 14 quarts (Prussian) of
80% alcohol, 5055 qts. beer, 20 qts. vinegar,
and 110 qts. water.
The 2d mixture contains 16 qts. alcohol -f 14
water. Every two hours, say at 5, 7, 9, &c., o'clock,
six^qts. of the 1st mixture are poured upon gene-
rator A. The six qts. which have run from A,
are poured upon B. To the six qts. which have
run from B, f qt. of mixture No. 2 are added, and
poured upon C. To the 6 quarts flowing from
C, | qt. of mixture No. 2 is added, and the wash
thus made is poured upon the last generator, D.
From D, every two hours, six quarts of made
vinegar are drawn.
At the intervening hours, (6, 8, 10, &c., o'clock,)
VINEGAR PROCESS IN GERMANY. 277
10 quarts of vinegar are drawn from generator A,
and poured upon B ; and 10 qts. drawn from B,
are poured upon A. Ten quarts are also poured
from C to D, and from D to C.
The- temperature of the vinegar room is 73
Fah. That of the 1st mixture the same.
That of the vinegar poured from the generators
from 78 86. Consequently the generators B,
C, and D, keep themselves warmer than A. The
quantity of alcohol employed is considerable, and
equivalent to a wash of over 12 per cent, alcoholic
strength.
4. Schulzes Method. Schulze, a very experienced
manufacturer, obtains, by the following method,
a vinegar of which an ounce requires 50 grains of
carbonate of potassa for saturation, which is equal
to an acid strength of 7*7 anhydrous acetic acid.
He employs 3 generators 9 feet high, and two
mixtures; a weak one containing 6% alcohol for
A, and a strong one containing 20 % alcohol for
B and C. These mixtures are simply alcohol and
water.
Each generator is furnished with a goose neck
tube, from which flows cooler vinegar from the bot-
tom of the generator ; and a faucet placed two
inches above the bottom for drawing off warmer
vinegar.
Every day, from 5 A. M. to 9 p. M., 10 Prussian
quarts are poured hourly from wooden buckets
through each generator as follows.
A receives 5 qts. weak mixture and 5 qts. vine-
24
2 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
gar from A. The mixture is first placed in the
bucket, which is then filled to the 10 qts. mark
with vinegar from A.
B is charged as follows : The vinegar which
has run through the goose-neck of A (in quantity
about 5 qts.)^ falls into a 10 qt. bucket, receives
1 qt. strong mixture, and is then filled to the 10
qt. mark with vinegar from B. The wash thus
made is poured upon B.
C is fed in a similar manner. To the vinegar
flowing from B, j qt. of strong mixture is added,
and then enough vinegar is drawn from C to
make 10 qts. of wash, which are poured upon C.
The vinegar which flows from the goose-neck of C,
amounting to about 6 qts. per hour, is ready for sale.
Schulze drawsthe air through his generators from
above doivmvard in a manner to be described
directly. The temperature in A. is from 89
93 Fah. ; in B. and C. from 84 91. The heat
is uniform in each generator, while by the ordi-
nary method of serving the air, the lower portions
of generators are cooler by reason of the upward
current of cold air.
5. A highly prized recipe recommends for vine-
gar requiring from 60 to 70 grains carbonate of
potassa to saturate two ounces, (i. e., 4-6 5-4 acid
strength,) four generators, from C to 7 feet high,
and about 3J feet in diameter. Also for vinegar
requiring from 80 to 90 grains of the same salt
for saturation, (i. e., 6*1 to 7 per cent, acid,) the
same number of generators, but. from 8 to 9 feet
high and 4J feet in diameter.
VINEGAR PROCESS IN GERMANY. 279
For vinegar of the former strength, the process
is carried on as follows. Two mixtures are made;
one consisting of 13 qts. 80 per cent, alcohol and
167 qts. of water. The second mixture is a cer-
tain fermented liquid called technically " the fer-
ment" and is employed in making the different
washes. This "ferment" is prepared in the fol-
lowing manner: forty qts. of boiling water having
been placed in a cask, there are added 3 pounds
purified tartar, 12 ounces tartaric acid, 3 pounds
sugar, 1 pound honey, 40 qts. of beer and the same
quantity of vinegar; six lemons sliced, 12 pounds
of berries of the Mountain Ash, 10 qts. of diluted
wine or cider, and a few cups of yeast. As soon
as fermentation has set in, add daily for every 4 qts.
taken away, 4 qts. of water and J qt. of alcohol;
every third day add 4 qts. of beer and J qt. of cider,
until the cask is full. The ferment is ready for use
in a few days. The cask has one faucet at the
bottom for emptying its contents, and another in
the middle for drawing ferment for the washes.
When ferment is drawn, it is replaced by as
much water, alcohol, beer and saccharine matter.
Otto remarks upon this complicated ferment,
that a cask containing young white beer or malt
wine, vinegar and a little spirits, will answer a
better purpose, taking care to replace what is
withdrawn by diluted alcohol, fresh beer, syrup
and the like.
To return to the vinegar recipe. The washes
are poured every hour, as follows : Upon A, 10J
qts. of first mixture, -f f qt. ferment. Upon B,
280 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
11 qts. from A, -f T 3 g qt. each of alcohol, ferment
and water. Upon C, 11 qts. from B, 4- J qt. respec-
tively of alcohol, ferment and water. Upon D 11
qts. from C, and y 1 ^ qt. each of alcohol, ferment and
water. From D the manufactured vinegar is drawn.
By this recipe, for 180 qts., 18 qts. of alcohol
and the same quantity of ferment are employed,
which is a large proportion of alcohol to make
vinegar of the required strength. Blackboards
are placed upon the generators for the purpose of
chalking their numbers, for they are worked in
rotation. Thus, what is A to-day, is B to-morrow,
and D becomes A. The third day, C begins; the
fourth day D, and the fifth day the series re-com-
mences with A as the first generator.
The first generator receives the most air, the
last generator the least air.
If the fermentation slackens, J the quantity is
poured hourly, a larger proportion of alcohol and
ferment is added to the wash, and the lower venti-
lation holes are opened widely. If the generators
become too hot, colder washes and containing less
alcohol are poured. Beside, the lower vent holes
are opened less than the upper ones. As said
before, stronger vinegar is made with larger gene-
rators, and with more alcohol.
The generators in this recipe are constructed in
a peculiar manner; they contain a lower partition,
pierced with |- inch holes, and covered with
felt, cloth, or linen. Upon this rests a three
inch layer of washed gravel mixed with charcoal,
upon which lies another partition pierced with
. VINEGAR PROCESS IN GERMANY. 281
holes ; this arrangement constitutes a filter.
Between 2J and 3 inches above the top of the
filter, a wooden air tube inclining gently upward,
penetrates the side of the generator and reaches
its centre. The lower side of this air tube in
the generator is pierced with holes. The tube
terminates outside in a funnel of orifice pointing
downward. Upon the air tube, and upon blocks
resting upon the top of the filter are willow
baskets, one placed above the other for receiving
the beech shavings, etc.
These baskets are loosely woven; of the dia-
meter of the generators, and from 2 to 2J feet in
height. They are packed carefully with tightly
curled beech shavings, with lumps of charcoal or
with the felt shavings or cuttings of hat makers.
The bottom edge of each basket is furnished with
a strip of felt, fitting closely to it and to the walls
of the generator to prevent an ascending air cur-
rent at that place. An upper partition, pierced
with small holes and covered with felt, rests a
little above the top basket ; immediately below
this upper partition the generator is pierced with
two holes, one for the thermometer, the other for
an air pipe ; this air pipe is of 2J inches dia-
meter in the clear, and is of elbow form ; one
branch penetrating the generator to the centre,
the other rising outside vertically one foot above
the cover ; this branch has a valve of the kind
sometimes used in stove pipes, to enable the
regulation of the air current.
24*
282 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
6. A factory in N. makes .vinegar from 10 per
cent alcohol passing through 4 generators, 11 feet
high. The first wash contains 6 per cent, alcohol ;
the remaining 4 per cent, of alcohol are divided
between the remaining three washes. Returned
pourings are sometimes practiced, i. e., the liquid
from B is poured again through A, etc.
7. A factory in S. employs generators of only
6 feet high and containing 1000 qts. (5J Prussian
oxhoft.) The mixture contains 10 p.er cent, of
alcohol ; to every 200 qts. of mixture, 20 of vine-
gar and 14 of white beer are added. The vinegar
contains 8-4 per cent, anhydrous acetic acid, for
an ounce requires for saturation 55 grains car-
bonate of potassa.
8. A Manufacturer in L. is said to make vine-
gar, an ounce of which requires 68 grains of
carbonate of potassa for saturation, (that is, of
10-4 acid strength,) from a mixture containing 10
per cent, alcohol.* He employs 4 generators, to
which the air is admitted below the shavings by
means of a tube in the shape of a cross, and
pierced underneath with holes. One arm of the
cross is prolonged through the side of the genera-
tor to the external air and terminates there in a
funnel, the larger aperture of which points down-
ward.
The mixture consists of alcohol and water; thus
* There is probably a typographical error at this place in Otto's
work. The wash which follows contains only 9$ absolute alco-
hol by volume, which by Table II, p. 204, cannot yield a vinegar
containing more than 7-6^ alcohol
VINEGAR PROCESS IN GERMANY. 283
for the first wash, 15 qts. of 80% alcohol with 192
qts. of water. The vinegar from this passes the
second generator without further addition of
alcohol ; 9J qts. of alcohol are divided hetween
the third and fourth washes.
9. In some factories a mixture consisting of al-
cohol and water, with some white beer, malt
wine, cider, etc., is poured hourly upon the gene-
rators and returned until the vinegar has acquired
sufficient strength. The lower vent holes are
placed at fifteen inches above the bottom of the
generators, in order to always keep a body of
vinegar in them. For generators of from 6 to 8
feet high, 12 qts. of wash are poured hourly, and
the pouring is frequently crossed; i. ., the vinegar
from B is poured upon A, and that of A upon B,
etc. The temperature of the vinegar room is kept
between 68 77 Fah. In the generators, it is
from 91 100, and rising at night to above 100.
This is in effect a modified Boerhave process.
The following, still more resembling the me-
thod of Boerhave, is also practiced. Very wide
generators, without vent holes, and with tight
covers, through which air may be admitted at
intervals, are employed. The liquid is drawn
from the generators, and poured every twelve to
twenty-four hours. Other factories employ simi-
lar generators, but with lower vent holes, which
are open three or four times a day.
10. Improvements upon the quick vinegar process
in England and Germany. In England large
vinegar factories have come into practice, and
284 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
improvements have been introduced in certain
details of the process. These Trenn and Schulze
have modified and brought into use here and
there in Germany. The English generators are
very large, having for a height of thirteen feet, a
lower diameter of fourteen and an upper diameter
of fifteen feet, equal to a capacit}^ of 2145 cubic
feet. Two and a half feet above the bottom is a
platform pierced with holes. The filling consists
of small blocks, cooper's shavings or chips, which
reach almost to the cover. At a moderate dis-
tance above the cover are situated the wash res-
ervoirs, which deliver their contents by a vertical
tube descending through the cover, where it ter-
minates in a horizontal tube, pierced and revolv-
ing by steam power. The air is delivered to the
generators by means of two floating gasometers,
which alternately rise and fall, operated by steam
machinery. As each gasometer ascends, it draws
its air by a pipe from the space under the false
bottom of the generator. In falling, it delivers
this air by another pipe into a cistern of water,
thereby condensing the alcoholic vapors it con-
tains. This water is used in making the washes.
The fresh air is admitted through the cover of
the generator by the side of the wash pipe,
and proceeds downwards. A small forcing
pump is continually raising the liquor from the
bottom of the generator to the reservoir above.
The acetification is governed by regulating the
warmth of the apartment, and the motion of the
VINEGAR PROCESS IN GERMANY. 285
gasometers which furnish the air. In a few days
a merchantable vinegar of 4-7 % anhydrous acid
is obtained. One of these large generators has
the same power as six of eight feet high and four
feet diameter. Knapp has set forth the compara-
tive advantages of the large over the small gene-
rators as follows :
1st. On account of the greater capacity of the
former, their elevated temperature may be more
readily maintained, which results in such a saving
of heat that fires may be dispensed with in mild
winters. A large generator, as described, con-
tains 611 square feet of stave surface. Six smaller
generators of the above mentioned proportions,
contain 603 square feet of stave surface. The
surfaces are not very different, but the cubic con-
tents are in the ratio of 2287 cubic feet to 603,
that is as 3-79 : 1.
2d. Small, irregularly shaped blocks or chips
distribute the wash more uniformly, and since, on
account of their incompressibility, they do not
change position by time like shavings, the equable
diffusion of the wash is lasting. In some parts of
Germany they employ cubical blocks bored with
three large holes from face to face of the cube.
3d. The diffusion of the wash over the blocks
is more uniform by the English than in the pe-
riodical flow, and it is uninterrupted.
4th. The admission of air is independent of
the temperature of the generator, and may be
altered to suit the nature of the wash and the
strength of its flow.
286 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
5th. The loss of alcohol by evaporation is
almost nothing.
Trenn in Germany, took out a patent for draw-
ing a downward current of air through the gene-
rators by means of a furnace. Schulze improved
upon this process as follows :
The generators are nine feet high and three
feet in diameter. Larger ones become too warm
even when the temperature of the apartment is
very low, and involve thereby a loss of alcohol by
evaporation. At a distance of ten inches above
the bottom, a latticed platform rests upon two
oak cross pieces. An air tube turned of wood,
of one and a half inch bore, penetrates the bottom
of each generator, reaching nearly to the false
bottom, and furnished at the end with a little roof
to prevent intrusion of drops of vinegar. The
generators are furnished with goose neck tubes
of glass or gutta-percha, and with a faucet, which
is placed at two inches above the bottom.
The filling is clean charcoal from soft wood.
The lumps of inferior strata are of the size of wal-
nuts ; the higher ones of hazel nut size ; and the
top layers as small as peas. Placed upon this
stratum is the sieve partition, furnished with four
glass chimney tubes. The coal is removed imme-
diately under these tubes, leaving four small cavi-
ties. The cover of the generator is perfectly air-
tight, and contains a shutter ten inches square, for
the periodical admission of the wash. In this shut-
ter is a vent hole of one and a quarter inches in
diameter. The peculiarity of this process consists
VINEGAR PROCESS IN QEKMANY.
287
in tlie apparatus for feeding the generators with
a downward current of air.
If a suction be effected at the vent tube in the
bottom of the generator, air will be drawn from
the upper part of the vinegar room through the
vent hole in the cover of the generator. This
suction is obtained by means of a furnace repre-
sented by Figure 16.
FIG 16.
288 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
As may be seen, this furnace is constructed
with a double door, and with very thick walls,
and close ash pit door, to retain as much heat as
possible. The flue from the fire place, (represent-
ed in section at d,) is wide but flat, that is, with
two of its walls close together. It communicates
with a chimney by means of another flue (<?),
which rises three inches in the foot. In this in-
clined flue are placed, side by side, and two and
half inches apart, cast-iron tubes (a 6), of one and
a quarter inch bore, three-eighth inch thickness
of metal, and five feet long. There is such a pipe
for every generator. Each tube has a direct
communication (at a\ by means of a wooden
tube covered with a bad conductor of heat, with
one of the generators. These wooden tubes
proceed from a down to the floor, and rise to
unite with the respective vent tubes in the bot-
tom of the generators. A small fire is made
in the furnace only once in twenty-four hours;
for, by reason of the thickness of the walls, the
heat is retained in the furnace, and the cast-iron
tubes are kept warm and continue sucking air
through the generators all day. The cost for fuel
is no greater than for the ordinary way of work-
ing generators, because the excess in summer is
balanced by the saving in winter. The air being
drawn from the top of the apartment where it is
warmer, saves a portion of the fuel required for
heating the vinegar room in the winter time.
CHAPTER V.
CONCLUSION.
IN concluding this work, let us note several
subjects worthy of the attention of the vinegar
manufacturer.
FLAVOR AND ODOR.
Vinegar, made from pure alcohol and water,
does not possess the pleasant aroma of wine or
cider vinegar, and is therefore inferior to them
for table use. Modern discoveries, especially
those of the volatile ethers, enable us to overcome
this objection in a great measure, and it is to be
expected that future experiments will remove it
entirely. Some of these ethers are sold at a very
high price, because they are kept secret for a par-
ticular use. This will not exclude their employ-
ment by the vinegar manufacturer, for, if avail-
able, they may be made by cheaper methods.
Many aromatic substances added to the wash, are
completely changed in the quick process. There
is a case on record where camphor had been dis-
solved in alcohol to defraud the revenue. This
alcohol yielded by the quick process a vinegar
without the slightest smell of camphor.
The disagreeably smelling fusel oil, which
exists in raw spirits obtained from /ye, maize,
25
290 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
wheat, &c., is changed by the acetification into
an agreeably smelling ether.
Potato fusel oil gives a less pleasantly flavored
product. Hence raw spirits give a product resem-
bling cider vinegar more than that from rectified
spirits. And hence the addition to rectified spirits
of a few drops of fusel oil, in making the wash
for the vinegar process is of advantage.
A little added oil of cloves, or extract of this
spice gives, after acetification, a still more plea-
santly flavored vinegar. The addition of a little
butyric ether, valerianic ether, or one of the vege-
table vinegars (to be described directly) to the
last wash, yields a vinegar of very agreeable
flavor. There is room here for experiment.
To give it flavor, vinegar is sometimes stored
in casks containing powdered tartar, crushed
raisins , and raisin stems. A few drops of a mix-
ture of 10 parts acetic ether, and 1 part pear
ether (valerianate of amyle) ; or the addition of a
small quantity of vegetable vinegar, gives to a
large quantity of vinegar a very agreeable flavor.
These additions may also be made to the last
wash .
Finally, a portion of the last wasti may be wine
or cider.
COLOR.
Since the vinegar made by the quick process
is limpid as water, it is necessary, to suit the
public taste, to color it. This coloring is simple,
COLOR CLEARING VINEGAR. 291
perfectly harmless, and, perhaps, not very dif-
ferent from that existing naturally in fruit vinegar.
One method consists in roasting barley malt and
using a sufficiently strong infusion made with
lukewarm water.
An aqueous solution of sugar, that has been
melted in a clean brass or copper kettle until it
acquires a dark color, will effect the same purpose.
A very common coloring in Germany is the
infusion of chicory coffee.
To imitate red wine vinegar, the juice of very
ripe black mulberries may be employed.
CLEARING VINEGAR.
Clearing vessels for vinegar should be found
in every well arranged factory. These may be
upright casks filled with closely curled beech
shavings, and with a wooden faucet at the bottom
for drawing off the vinegar after it has stood for
some time upon the shavings.
The following is a convenient filter for the
same purpose.
Take a cask from 2 to 2J feet in diameter, and
from 3 to 4 feet high. Stand it on end, placing
a faucet at the bottom. Charge then with a 5
to 6 inch layer of charcoal of hazel-nut size, then
with a 3 to 4 inch layer of finer coal. After this
is well leveled, add an inch stratum of paper
pulp, then another layer of fine, and one of coarser
coal, and fill the rest of the vessel with closely
curled spirals of beech shavings. The coal must
292 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
be well washed and soaked in vinegar. If a
vessel be made for the purpose, it had better be
somewhat conical, and placed with the greater
diameter uppermost. It must be kept always
full of liquid or it will act like a generator. In
cleansing the filter, the paper may be used again,
by placing on a fine sieve and pouring boiling
water upon it. This filter yields a perfectly clear
vinegar, and doubtless of better keeping qualities
than if not filtered.
VEGETABLE AND AROMATIC VINEGARS.
These are fancy vinegars, generally infusions of
herbs or spices, and employed for fumigation, for
the toilet, or as additions to the last wash in the
quick process, for the purpose of communicating
an agreeable aroma to the resulting vinegar, ren-
dering it more valuable for table use.
Four Thieves Vinegar. Said to have been in-
vented during a great plague in Marseilles, (some
say during the London plague,) by four thieves,
who employed it to prevent infection during their
predatory visits to the houses of the dead or
absent.
Macerate cloves, sage, rosemary, rue, allspice,
calamus, caraway, nutmegs, of each one ounce,
in two gallons of strong vinegar. Then add half
an ounce of camphor.
Another Way. Wormwood, rosemary, sage,
peppermint, rue, each 2 ounces, lavender blossoms,
6 ounces, calamus, cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs,
VEGETABLE AND AROMATIC VINEGARS. 293
(garlic,) each 1 ounce. Macerate in two gallons
of vinegar; then add a little tincture of camphor.
A Third Method. Rosemary, sage, peppermint,
cloves, of each 4 ounces ; zedoary and angelica
roots, of each 1 ounce. Macerate for several days
in half a gallon of vinegar. Then press and filter.
Tarragon Vinegar. Soak for several days 1
pound of the herb, (Artemesia Dracunculus,) before
blossoming, in from 1 to 2 gallons of very strong
vinegar. Press out the liquid and filter.
The vinegar may be made extemporaneously
by dropping a few drops of the oil of tarragon
upon a lump of sugar, and adding to the vinegar.
For table use the vinegar should not be too
strongly flavored with the herb.
Vinaigre aux fines herbes. Tarragon, (herb,) 12
ounces; basil, (herb,). 4 ounces; laurel leaves, 4
ounces ; shallots, (Allium Ascalonicum,} 2 ounces :
are suffered to stand for a few days in J a gallon
of strong vinegar. Press and filter. A little
added to table vinegar improves it.
Vinaigre a la Ravigote. Tarragon, (herb,) 12
ounces; laurel leaves, 6 ounces; anchovies, 6
ounces ; capers, 6 ounces ; shallots, 4 ounces.
Macerate for several days in J gallon of strong
vinegar, then press and filter. Used as addition
to table vinegars.
Mustard vinegar is also employed as an addition
to vinegar, and is made by soaking from 8 to 12
ounces of black mustard in 1 quart of strong
vinegar. Press and filter.
25*
294 VINEGAR MANUFACTURE.
Raspberry vinegar. Ripe berries are pressed and
suffered to stand for several days, after which the
clear juice may be separated. To every pound of
berries add from 6 to 8 quarts of strong vinegar,
and press after 24 hours. Sweetened with sugar
is used as an agreeable summer drink.
Hose, orange blossom, neroli, bergamot, and clove
vinegars., may be made by adding the respective
oils to vinegar. They may be added to the last
wash in the quick process to yield a finely flavored
vinegar.
Fumigating vinegar. Oils of cloves, 1J drachms ;
bergamot, 3 drachms ; cassia, 1 drachm ; balsam
of Peru, 2 drachms ; tincture of musk, 1 drachm.
Add 24 ounces of 80 per cent, alcohol, and enough
concentrated acetic acid* to keep the oils in
solution.
Aromatic vinegar. Oils of cloves, 3 drachms ;
lavender, 2 drachms ; lemon, 2 drachms ; berga-
mot, 1 drachm ; thyme, 1 drachm ; cinnamon, 30
drops. Dissolved in 6 ounces of concentrated
acetic acid.
Another. Equal parts of concentrated acetic
acid and acetic ether, with a few drops of oil of
cloves.
Oreme de vinaigre. Oils of bergamot, 3 ounces;
lemon, 2 ounces ; neroli, 1 ounce ; mace, -J of an
ounce ; cloves, J of an ounce. Dissolve in two
pounds of strong alcohol, and 5 pounds concen-
trated acetic acid.
* Of 25 30$, acid strength.
INDEX.
Acetic acid, composition 38
conversion of hydrated and anhydrous
per cents 160,170
derived from alcohol 103
density table 106
glacial 10
quantity obtained from alcohol 103
Acetometry 172
Acetometer 144, 107
Otto's 189
Balling's 202
Acidity of fermented drinks 25
Adulterations of vinegar 170
Air, quantity entering generators, and its change 258
ventilation of generators by a furnace 287
composition of. 32
Alcohol, absolute 127
composition of 38
rectification of. 128
tests for wines and beer 156
by the saccharometer 157
Alcoholic solutions, properties of. 126
strength of 130
specific gravity table for 150
transformation of volume and
weight per cents 153
to make definite mixtures of... 154
Alcoholometer 144
tables for temperature 147, 148
mode of applying tables 149
degrees converted to specific gravities 194
Aldehyde 163,236
Ammonia solution, Otto's 193
Analysis, (see tests on under subjects.)
Animalcule of vinegar 212
Archimedes, principal of. 135
Areometers 137
Aroma, of wines 103
of Jargonelle pear 24
of apple, pine apple, quince, whisky 24
Aromatic vinegar 292
Attenuation of worts 157
of real and apparent 158
tables 160, 161
296 INDEX.
Atomic theory , 42
Apparatus for quick vinegar manufacture 238
Apparatus, (see under subjects.)
Beaume's hydrometer tables 141, 142
Beech shavings 241
Boerhave vinegar process 22, 233
Bouquet of wines . t 24, 103
Brewing, art of 106
Burettes 185
Carbon 31
Carbonic acid 32
Cellulose 51
Chemical combination, laws of. 34
Clearing vinegar 291
Color of vinegar to improve 290
Compounds of nitrogen and oxygen 38, 46
Compressor 186
Couching of malt Ill
Cuts, No. 1. Glass hydrometer
2. Litre measure 183
3. Pipette 185
4. Burrette 186
5. Mohr's 186
6. Spring clip
7. Otto's acetometer 190
8. Plane for beech shavings 240
9. Sieve partition
10. Generator 244
11. Ventilating tube
12. Improved generator faucet
13. Warming apparatus for wash 262
14. Hot water trough 263
15. Warming apparatus for wash 264
16. Furnace for drawing air through gene-
rators 287
Dextrine 53,64
Development of plants 61
Diastase 60,109
saccharifying power of.
Dilatometer
Drying of malt
Duration of slow vinegar process
Eels of vinegar
Equi valen t
Factory building for vinegar 218, 225
process by slow method
by quick method 247
Factories, vinegar, in Europe, Part II., Chap. IV.
INDEX. 297
Faucet, to keep body of vinegar in generator 246
Ferments 91
Ferment to regulate in generator "... 267
Fermentation, Liebig's theory of. 92
condition for 93
wine 99
of worts 123
Filter for water '. 217
for vinegar 291
Flavor of vinegar to improve 24,289
Furnace for ventilating generators 287
Generators for vinegars 243,244
to set in action , 247
mode of working three 254
advantage of large ones 285
ventilation of by a furnace 287
Glacial acetic acid 16
Goose-neck tube for generators 244
Gums 63
Gyle-turn 123
History of vinegar 13, 21
Honey added to vinegar 211
Household manufacture of vinegar 221
Hydrogen 33
Hydrometer 137
. mode of using 145
tables 141,142
for vinegar 167
Improved vinegar 25
Knapp's calculation respecting large generators... 285
Law of proportion 36
Laws of chemical combination 34
Lamp without flame 236
Limit of vinegar manufacture 23
Litre measure 183
Malt, characters of good 114
quantity obtained 114
extract from different grains 119
wine 125
Malting process 108
Manufacture of vinegar, (see Vinegar.)
Mashing 115
Mash tun 116
Measures, French 182
German 273
Mixtures definite of alcohol and water 154
Mixture, alcoholic, for vinegar 213, 222,
225, 226, 248, 253, and Part II., Chap. IV.
298 INDEX.
Modifications of slow vinegar process ; 229, 230
in setting generators in action 249
Mother of vinegar 212
Mohr's spring clip 186
My coderma aceti 212
Nitrogen 33
compounds 38,46
Oxygen 32
Orleans vinegar manufacture 224
Periodical flow of the wash, advantages of. 268
Pipette 185
Plane for beech shavings 240
Plants, development 61
Platinum, black or sponge 235
Polarized light
action of sugar on 86
analysis of sugar by 88
Proof spirits 145
Pyroxilic acid 18
Quantity of vinegar made daily by slow process 231
Recipes to prepare fancy vinegars
Saccharometer 143
may be employed for determining
alcohol percentage 157
Saccharoid bodies 49
Shavings for vinegar manufacture 241
Sieve partition for vinegar generators 243
Slow process for vinegar 220-223
Specific gravity to determine
as a test for alcohol
Spring clip 186
Starch 54
preparation 57, 58
chemical nature of. 59
Steeping of malt
Storage of vinegar 229
Sugar, composition of. 38,68
amount used by different nations 67
prepared from cellulose 53
prepared from starch 80
milk 68
cane 71
fruit 75
raisin
analysis of. 79
transformation to alcohol. ...,
quantity of alcohol from
quantity from starch and gum 98
INDEX. 299
Sugar", specific gravity of its solutions 121
as an addition to vinegar 211
Symbols, chemical
Tables saccharoid bodies
sweetness and acidity of wines 100
alcoholic contents of wines 101
specific gravity of saccharometer degrees 121
Beaume's hydrometers 141
corrections for temperature for the alcoho-
lometer 147, 148
specific gravity of alcoholic mixtures 150
transformation of alcoholic weights and
volumes per cent 153
for real attenuation 160
for apparent attenuation 161
density of acetic acid solutions 166
transformation of hydrated and anhydrous
per cents of acetic acid 169, 170
vinegar tests 178
for alkaline carb. solutions 180, 181
alcoholometer degrees converted to specific
gravities 194
to dilute aquae ammonia for Otto's vinegar
test 195
for determining strength of vinegar re-
sulting from definite alcoholic mixtures 204
time required by the slow process of vine-
gar for acetification 228
German measures 272
United States weights 197
Taste of vinegar to improve 25, 289
Temperature of vinegar factories and for the wash 261
Tests for alcoholic strength of solutions 130, 131, 150, 157
for strength of saccharine solutions 79, 88, 121
for the acid strength of vinegar 174, 177, 178, 189, 202
for the adulterations of vinegar 170
for the impurities of water 215
Theory, atomic 42
of the vinegar manufacture 163
Ventilating tube for generators 245
Vinegar, acid strength compared with alcoholic
strength of the wash 203
to clear 291
process depends on 164
quantity resulting by the platinum pro-
cess 237
storage of. 229
vegetable and aromatic 292
300 INDEX.
Vinegar manufacture, general details of. 209
factory building 218
slow process 220-223
in the household 221
in Orleans 224
quantity made per day by
slow process 231
the quick process 233
Boerhave's method 233
Doebereiner's method 234
division of the subject 237
generators '242, 247
details of the operation 247
practical example of. 252
points to be observed in 257
to avoid warming the acid
washes 204
to regulate ferment in gene-
rators 2G7
improvements of in England
and Germany.... 283
in European factories, Part
II., Chap. IV.
Vinegar, tests of, adulteration 170
of acid strength... 166, 174, 177, 178, 189, 202
Wash, (see also mixture, alcoholic.)
pouring the
methods of warming : 262, 2(>.'i
to avoid warming ~C>4
flow of. 208
to effect improved constant flow 271
Water for vinegar manufacture
tests for its purity
to improve 21 <>
to filter for vinegar purposes 217
Weights, American l'J7
French 182
Wines, fermentation 99
table of sweetness and acidity 100
table of alcoholic strength 101
aroma of. , H K>
Wood vinegar 17
Worts, preparation of. 115
concentration 118-120
boiling 122
fermentation 123
attenuation of. lf>7, l ; ~>,s
Yeast, composition of. '.'-
THE APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS MENTIONED IN THIS WORK
WILL BE FURNISHED AT THE PRICES ANNEXED,
ALL THE ARTICLES WILL BE OF THE BEST CHARACTER.
Chemical Thermometer, enclosed in a glass tube, to 212 F. $1 00
Glass Jar for floating hydrometer, 50
Saccharometer, showing per centage of sugar, . . 1 00
Specific Gravity Bottler. 1000 gr., (not stoppered,) in tin
case, with counterpoise weight, 1 25
Specific Gravity Bottles, stoppered, in case, with counter-
poise weight, 3 00
Specific Gravity Bottles, stoppered, 100 gr., in case, with
counterpoise weight, 2 00
Gay Lussac's Volumeters, in setts of five, each, . . 75
Litre Flask, (page 183,) each, 60
Specific Gravity Acetometer, (page 167,) each, . . 1 25
Vinegar Pipette, (page 185,) each, 75
Burette, (fig. 4, page 186,) - . 2 00
" (fig. 5, page 186,) without stand, . . . . 2 50
" ' " with stand, . . . 3 25
Otto's Acetometer, (page 190,) . . . $1 00 to 1 50
Hydrometer graduated between 0-951 and 0-078, (page 193,)
for Ammonia Solution, 1 25
Litmus Paper, per sheet, 5
Pure Acetic Acid, often per cent., (page 198.) . . 50
" Tartaric " (page 200,) . . . . . . 12
Weight of 1*47 grammes, ...... 25
A neat case containing the apparatus described on page
201, without scales, $5 00 : with scales and weights
from 4 oz. Troy, to gr., . . . . . 6 50
Ballings Vinegar Hydrometer, (page 202,) ... 1 50
Test Tube Stand and 12 Tubes,' I 00
Re agents for testing water, (page 215,) viz: Solutions of
Garb, of Soda, Oxalic Acid, Chid, of Barium, Nitrate
of Silver, Tinct. of Galls. In 4 oz. glass stoppered
bottles, . 1 00
lie-agents for testing adulterations in vinegar, (page 171,)
viz: 12 Test Tubes and Stand, 1 Glass Spirit Lamp,
small, Solutions of Chid, of Calcium, Chid, of Barium,
Nit. of Baryta, Baryta Water, Arsenic Acid, Solut. of
Indigo, Nit. of Silver, Sulphuret of Iron, Yellow Pruss.
of Potash, Iodide of Potassium, Flask for generating
Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 4 oz. Porcelain Erass. Dish.
The chemicals in 4 oz. glass stoppered bottles, . . 3 75
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