Full text of "The cultivation & manufacture of tea"

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THE

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE

TEA.

THE

CULTIVATION & MANUFACTURE

TEA,

LIEUT.-COL. EDWARD MONEY,

THE ORIGINAL MANUSCRIPT OF WHICH SECURED THE PRIZE OF THE

GRANT GOLD MEDAL AND Rs. 300, AWARDED BY THE AGRICULTURAL

AND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

IN THE YEAR 1871.

FOURTH EDITION,

REVISED AND SUPPLEMENTED BY ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS.

LONDON :
W. B. WHITTINGHAM & CO., 91, GRACECHURCH STREET.

CALCUTTA : THACKER & CO.
1883.

PREFACE

THE FOURTH EDITION.

Six new Chapters are added. So much has been done in
Tea since I last wrote, I found it impossible to embody all
in the former book, and so preferred to give it separately.
The new Chapters treat of

COUNTRIES OUTSIDE CHINA AND INDIA THAT PRODUCE TEA.

TEA STATISTICS.

MARKETS FOR TEA OUTSIDE GREAT BRITAIN.

MAKING INDIAN TEA KNOWN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

TEA MACHINERY.

WEIGHING AND BULKING OF INDIAN TEAS AT CUSTOM
HOUSE.

A separate and full Index of the subjects treated of in
the additions to this Fourth Edition will be found at the
end of the Book.

EDWARD MONEY.

EAST INDIA CLUB, ST. JAMES'S SQUARE,

, 1883.

M372107

PREFACE

THE THIRD EDITION,

THE experience of four more years, which includes six
months' residence in the Neilgherries, is embodied in the
following, while the whole of the letter-press of the Second
Edition has been corrected and revised.

EDWARD MONEY.

LONDON,

April, 1878.

PREFACE

TO
THE SECOND EDITION,

THREE years' further experience, and visiting two Tea dis-
tricts I had not seen before, have enabled me to amend
whatever was faulty in the First Edition. The whole has
been revised, and much new matter is added throughout. A
new Chapter at the end on the Past, the Present, and the
Future of Indian Tea will, it is hoped, be found interesting.
An Index (a great want to the First Edition) is added, so
that all information on any point can be at once found.
The manufacture of Green Tea, of which I was ignorant
when I last wrote, is given, and the advisability of that
manufacture is discussed.

In its present form I hope and believe this little work will
be found useful and interesting to all connected with Tea.

EDWARD MONEY.

DARJEELING,

May, 1874.

PREFACE

THE FIRST EDITION

THE following Essay was written with, firstly, the object of
competing for the Gold Medal and the Money Prize offered
by the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India for
the best treatise on the cultivation and manufacture of Tea ;
and, secondly, with the view of arranging the hundreds of
notes on these subjects, which, in the course of eleven years,
I had collected.

During all these years I have been a Tea planter, making
first for myself and others a garden in the Himalayas, and
for the last six years doing the same thing for myself in the
Chittagong district.

Whenever I have visited other plantations (and I have
seen a great number in many districts), I have brought away
notes of all I saw. Up to the last, at every such visit, I have
learnt something if rarely nothing to follow, something at
least to avoid. I have now tested all and everything con-
nected with the cultivation and manufacture of Tea by my

XIV PREFACE.

own experience, and I can only hope that what I have
written will be found useful to an industry destined yet, I
believe, in spite of the late panic the natural result of wild
speculation to play an important part in India.

I have endeavoured to adapt this Essay to the wants of
a beginner, as there are many of that class now, and may
yet be more in days to come, who must feel, as I often have,
the want of a really practical work on Tea.

To those w^ho have Tea properties in unlikely climates
and unlikely sites, I would say two words. No view I have
taken of the advantages of different localities can in any way
affect the results of enterprises already entered upon. But
if the note of warning, sounded in the following pages,
checks further losses in Tea, already so vast, while it fosters
the cultivation on remunerative sites, I shall not have written
in vain.

EDWARD MONEY.

SUNGOO RIVER PLANTATION,
CHITTAGONG,

November, 1870.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER PAGE

I. PAST AND PRESENT FINANCIAL PROSPECT OF TEA . .'.. v * / i

II. LABOUR, LOCAL AND IMPORTED . . ,:,- 10

III. TEA DISTRICTS AND THEIR COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES.

CLIMATE, SOIL, &c., IN EACH . , ,,.,, , J , , v . ; ,< ... - f ^ 13

IV. SOIL . ..,,,... , }i , ,,..,,,',,; : y ; ,, v ,. ; .* .-,-,.. ;,...,. /x; 3i
V. NATURE OF JUNGLE ... . ;iv . : . . \ 34

VI. WATER AND SANITATION .,. ., ' ,. ; , fV v . . , . ; . 35

VII. LAY OF LAND . . . . . . ^. ; , . . . 37

VIII. LAYING OUT A GARDEN . . . i . . . . 42

IX. VARIETIES OF THE TEA PLANT . . . V . , . 47

X. TEA SEED . . .,.,.,. .....*< . . 54

XI. COMPARISON BETWEEN SOWING IN NURSERIES AND IN SITU . 57

XII. SOWING SEED IN SITU, ID EST, AT STAKE .... 59

XIII. NURSERIES 62

XIV. MANURE . . . . ^ . . ' .- ... . 67
XV. DISTANCES APART TO PLANT TEA-BUSHES . . .V . 71

XVI. MAKING A GARDEN . . . ....... . 73

XVII. TRANSPLANTING . . . . . ... . 76

XVIII. CULTIVATION OF MADE GARDENS .-.'... . . 81

XIX. PRUNING . . . . . . ... . 86

XX. WHITE ANTS, CRICKETS, AND BLIGHT . . . . . 89

XXI. FILLING UP VACANCIES ... . . . . . 92

XXII. FLUSHING AND NUMBER OF FLUSHES ..... 97

XXIII. LEAF-PICKING . . . . . '. . , . . 102

XXIV. MANUFACTURE. MECHANICAL CONTRIVANCES . . . 109

XVI CONTENTS.

CHAPTER PAGE

XXV. SIFTING AND SORTING . 134

XXVI. BOXES. PACKING 147

XXVII. MANAGEMENT, ACCOUNTS, FORMS . . . . 152

XXVIII. COST OF MANUFACTURE, PACKING, TRANSPORT, &c. . . 160

XXIX. COST OF MAKING A 300-ACRE TEA GARDEN ; ;:.-. ; v . 163

XXX. How MUCH PROFIT TEA CAN GIVE . . . ....'. J 68

XXXI. THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF INDIAN TEA . ,. 174
XXXII. COUNTRIES OUTSIDE CHINA AND INDIA THAT PRODUCE

TEA 183

XXXIII. STATISTICS REGARDING INDIAN TEA 194

XXXIV. MARKETS OUTSIDE GREAT BRITAIN . V' 7M r-" ; '. - . 207
XXXV. MAKING INDIAN TEA KNOWN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM . 218

XXXVI. TEA MACHINERY 222

XXXVII. WEIGHING AND BULKING OF INDIAN TEAS AT CUSTOM

HOUSE 272

ADDENDA TO THIRD EDITION . . . . . . 293

INDEX 299

PRIZE ESSAY

ON THE

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE
OF TEA IN INDIA.

PREMIUM, THREE HUNDRED RUPEES AND THE GRANT GOLD MEDAL.

CHAPTER I.

PAST AND PRESENT FINANCIAL PROSPECTS OF TEA.

Will Tea pay ? Certainly, on a suitable site, and in a good
Tea climate ; equally certainly not in a bad locality
with other drawbacks. *

Why, then, has Tea only paid during the last few years (?)
Simply because nothing will pay, which is embarked
on without the requisite knowledge ; and this was pre-
eminently the case with Tea.

Nothing was known of Tea formerly, when everybody
rushed into it ; not much is known even now. Still, with
those drawbacks and many others, the enterprise has
survived, and it is very certain the day will never come that
Tea cultivation will cease in India.

I believe there is nothing will pay better than Tea, if
embarked on with the necessary knowledge in suitable

2 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

places, but failing either of these success must not be hoped
for.

It was madness to expect aught but ruin, under the con-
ditions which the cultivation was entered on in the Tea-
fever days. People who had failed in everything else were
thought quite competent to make plantations. 'Tis true
Tea was so entirely a new thing at that time, but few could
be found who had any knowledge of it. Still, had managers
with some practice in agriculture been chosen, the end
would not have been so disastrous. But any one literally
any one was taken, and tea planters in those days were a
strange medley of retired or cashiered army and navy
officers, medical men, engineers, veterinary surgeons,
steamer captains, chemists, shop-keepers of all kinds, stable-
keepers, used-up policemen, clerks, and goodness knows
who besides !

Is it strange the enterprise failed in their hands ? Would
it not have been much stranger if it had not ?

This was only one of the many necessities for failure. I
call them " necessities" as they appear to have been so indus-
triously sought after in some cases. I must detail them
shortly, for to expatiate on them would fill a book.

No garden should exceed 500 acres under Tea. If highly
cultivated one of even half that size will pay enormously,
far better than a larger area with low cultivation. Add, say,
400 acres for charcoal, &c., making 900 or say 1,000 acres
the outside area that can be required, and the outside that
should ever have been purchased for any one estate. Instead
of this, individuals and Companies rushing into Tea bought
tracts of five, ten, fifteen, and twenty thousand acres. The
idea was that, though it might not be all cultivated, by
taking up so large an area all the local labour where there
was any would be secured. Often, however, these large
tracts were purchased where local labour there was none,

PAST AND PRESENT FINANCIAL PROSPECTS OF TEA. 3

and what the object there was is a mystery. I conceive,
however, there was a hazy idea that if 500 acres paid well,
1,000 would pay double, and that eventually even two or
three thousand acres would be put under Tea and make the
fortunate possessor a millionaire. In short, there were no
bounds, in fancy, to the size a garden might be made, and
thus loss No. 2 took place when absurdly large areas were
bought of the Government and large areas cultivated.

The only fair rules for the sale of waste lands were those
of Lord Canning, which the Secretary of State at home,
who could know nothing of the subject, chose to modify and
upset. Instead of Rs. 2-8 per acre for all waste lands (by
no means a low price, when the cost of land in the Colonies
is considered) and that the applicant for the land (who had,
perhaps, spent months seeking for it) should have it, the
illiberal and unjust method of putting the land up to auction
with an upset price of Rs. 2-8 was adopted, the unfortunate
seeker, finder, and applicant, through whose labour the
land had been found, having no advantage over any other
bidder. The best, at least the most successful plan in those
days, though as unfair and illiberal as the Government
action, was to wait till some one, who was supposed to
know what good Tea land was, applied for a piece, and then
bid half an anna more than he did, and thus secure it. It
paid much better than hunting about for oneself, and it was
kind and considerate on the part of Government to devise
such a plan !

In those fever days, with the auction system, lands
almost always sold far above their value. The most absurd
prices, Rs. 10 and upwards per acre, were sometimes paid
for wild jungle lands. Tracts, which natives could have,
and in some cases did lease from Government for incon-
ceivably small sums, representing, say, at thirty years'
purchase, 4 annas per acre, were put up for auction with a

4 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

limit of Rs. 2-8, and sold perhaps at Rs. 8 or 10 per acre.
Had the Government given land gratis to Tea cultivators
the policy would have been a wise one. To do what
they did was scarcely acting up to their professed wish " to
develope the resources of the country."

Since the above was written, new rules have been pub-
lished for the sale of waste lands. The objectionable auction
system is continued, and the upset price is much enhanced,
as follows :

Schedule of Rates of Upset Prices.

Upset price per acre.

Districts of the Assam Division . -. j Rs. 8
Districts of Cachar and Sylhet . + . v 8
Districts of the Chittagong Division T; 6
Districts of the Chota Nagpore Division . 5
The Soonderbuns . ,> v , i-it. : ! ? v 5
All other Districts . . * . .10

It is not likely that Government will sell much land at
such exorbitant rates.*

Security of title, it is generally thought, is one of the
advantages of buying land from the State ; but I grieve to
state my experience is that the reverse is the case, and will
so remain until the following is done :

First. The Government should learn what is and what is.
not theirs to sell. Such an absurdity, then, as Government
ascertaining, years after the auction, that they had sold
lands they had no right to sell, coulH not be.

Secondly. That before land is sold it be properly surveyed
and demarcated ; and what might so easily have been done,
and which alone would have compensated for much of bad
procedure in other respects, that the simple and obvious
plan before the sale, of sending a European official to show

* Since the Second Edition went to press, further Rules for Waste Lands
have been enacted. Generally speaking, they are only now leased to applicants.

PAST AND PRESENT FINANCIAL PROSPECTS OF TEA. 5

the neighbouring villagers and intending purchasers the
boundaries of the land to be sold, be resorted to.

This last simple expedient would have saved some
grantees years of litigation, and many a hard thought of the
said grantees against the Government. It would naturally
occur to any one at all conversant with the subject ; but,
alas ! in India this is often not the condition under which
laws are made.

But there is another difficulty at the back of all this.

Though the Waste Land Rules enact that the Govern-
ment, and not the grantee, shall be the defendant in any
claim for land within a lot sold, practically the said enact-
ment in no way saves grantees from litigation. Claimants
for land always plead that it is not within the boundaries of
the land sold, and ergo the grantee is made the defendant to
prove that it is. The villagers never having been shown the
boundaries by any Government official (for it is not enacted
in the Waste Land Rules), the question whether the land
claimed is within or without the boundaries is an open
one, not always easily decided, and the suit runs its course.

I even know of cases where, though survey has been
charged for at the exorbitant rate of four annas an acre, the
outer boundaries of the lot have never been surveyed at all,
but merely copied from old Collectorate maps, which showed
the boundaries between the zemindaree and waste lands.*
Is it strange, then, if buying lands from Government is
often buying litigation, worry, loss of time and money.

In many countries, for example Prussia (there I know it
is so, for I have tested it again and again), there are official
records which can and do show to whom any land in ques-
tion belongs. This may scarcely be practicable in India,
but surely the question of title being, as it is, in a far worse

* I need scarcely observe it is impossible to define lands from maps alone
without the field-book.

6 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

state in India than in most countries, any change would be
for the better. Anyhow, the present mode the Government
adopts in selling lands is a grievous wrong to the purchasers.
Words cannot describe the worry and loss some have
suffered thereby, and it might all be so easily avoided.

I have above detailed two of the drawbacks Tea had to
contend with in its infancy ; the absurdly high price paid
for land was the third.

Again, companies and proprietors of gardens wishing to
have large areas under cultivation gave their managers
simple orders to extend, not judiciously, but in any case.
What was the result ? Gardens might be seen in those
days with 200 acres of so-called cultivation, but with 60 or
even 70 per cent, vacancies, in which the greater part of the
labour available was employed in clearing jungle for 100
acres further extension in the following spring. I have seen
no garden in Assam or Cachar with less than 20 per cent,
vacancies, many with far more ; and yet most of them were
extending. I do not believe now any garden in all India
exists with less than 12 per cent, vacancies, but a plantation
as full as this did not exist formerly.

As the expenditure on a garden is in direct proportion
to the area cultivated, and the yield of Tea likewise in
direct proportion to the number of plants, it follows the
course adopted was the one exactly calculated to entail the
greatest expenditure for the smallest yield. This unneces-
sary, this wilful extension, was the fourth and a very serious
drawback.

Under this head the fourth drawback may also be in-
cluded the fact that the weeds in all plantations were
ahead of the labour ; that is to say, that gardens were not
kept clean. This is more or less even the case to-day ; it
was the invariable rule then. The consequence was two-
fold first, a small yield of Tea ; secondly, an increased

PAST AND PRESENT FINANCIAL PROSPECTS OF TEA. 7

expenditure ; for it is a fact that the land fifty men can keep
always clean, if the weeds are never allowed to grow to
maturity and seed, will take nearer one hundred if the
weeds once get ahead. The results, too, differ widely : in
the first case the soil is always clear ; in the second
clear only at intervals. The first, as observed, can be
accomplished with fifty, the latter will take nearly double
the men.

The fifth drawback I shall advert to again later, viz., the
selection of sloping land, often the steepest that could be
found, on which to plant Tea. The great mischief thus
entailed will be fully described elsewhere. It was the fifth,
and not the least, antagonistic point to success.

Number six was the difficulty in the transport of seed to
any new locality, for nine times out of ten a large proportion
failed ; and again the enormous cost of Tea seed in those
days, Rs. 200 a maund (Rs. 500 at least, deducting what
failed, was its real price). This item of seed alone entailed
an enormous outlay, and was the sixth difficulty Tea cultiva-
tion had to contend with. It was, however, a source of
great profit to the old plantations, and principally accounts
for the large dividends paid for years by the Assam
Company.

Again, many managers at that time had no experience
to guide them in the manufacture of Tea ; each made it his
own way, and often turned out most worthless stuff. There
is great ignorance on the subject at the present time, but
those who know least to-day, know more than the best
informed in the Tea-fever period. Indian Tea was a new
thing then ; the supply was small, and it fetched com-
paratively much higher prices than it does now. Still
much of it was so bad that the average price all round
was low.

Tea manufacture, moreover, as generally practised then,

8 CULITVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

was a much more elaborate and expensive process than it is
now.

This will be explained further on, under the head of
" Tea Manufacture ; " I merely now state the fact in support
of the assertion that the bad Tea made in those days, and
the expensive way it was done, was the seventh hindrance
to successful Tea cultivation.

Often in those days was a small garden made of 30 or 40
acres, and sold to a Company as 150 or 200 acres ! I am
not joking. It was done over and over again. The price
paid, moreover, was quite out of proportion to even the
supposed area. Two or three lakhs of rupees (2o,ooo/. or
30,000^.) have been often paid for such gardens, when not
more than two years old, and 40 per cent, of the existing
area, vacancies. The original cultivators "retired" and the
Company carried on. With such drags upon them (apart
from all the other drawbacks enumerated) could success be
even hoped for ? Certainly not.

I could tell of more difficulties the cultivation had to
contend with at the outset, but I have said enough to show,
as I remarked, " that it was not strange Tea enterprise
failed, inasmuch as it would have been much stranger if it
had not."

Do any of the difficulties enumerated exist now ? And
may a person embarking in Tea to-day hope, with reason-
able hope, for success ? Yes, certainly, I think as regard the
latter the former let us look into.*

People who understand more or less of Tea are plentiful,
and a good manager, who knows Tea cultivation and Tea
manufacture well, may be found. It will scarcely pay to

* Note to Third Edition. Since the above was written, Teas, both Indian
and Chinese, have had a heavy fall, due to the simple fact that the supplies
have exceeded the demands. But with increased knowledge and experience,
producers can afford to sell cheaper, and the present absurdly low prices
ruling will, I think, work their own cure.

PAST AND PRESENT FINANCIAL PROSPECTS OF TEA. Q

buy land of the Government at the present high rates, but
many people hold large tracts in good Tea localities, and
would readily sell.

There is plenty of flat land to be got, so no evil from
slopes need be incurred.

Tea seed is plentiful and cheap.

The manufacture of Tea (though still progressing) is
simple, economical, and more or less known. Anyhow a
beginner now will commence where others have left off.

Of course to buy a made garden cheap is better than to
make one ; but the result in this case is of course no criterion
of what profit may be expected from Tea cultivation.

As many of the items to be calculated under the heads
of cultivation, manufacture, and receipts will be better under-
stood after details on these subjects are gone into, I shall
reserve the consideration of " how much profit Tea can
give" to the end of this treatise.

10 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER II.

LABOUR, LOCAL AND IMPORTED.

WHEN the very large amount of labour required to carry on
a plantation is considered, it is evident that facilities for it
are a sine qua non to success. Assam and Cachar, the two
largest Tea districts, are very thinly populated, and almost
entirely dependent on imported labour.* The expense of
this is great, and it is the one, and consequently a great
drawback to those provinces. The only district I know of
with a good Tea climate and abundance of local labour is
Chittagong.t Several other places have a good supply of
local labour, but then their climates are not very suitable.

Each coolie imported costs Rs. 30 and upwards (it used
to be much more) ere he arrives on the garden and does
any work. After arrival he has to be housed ; to be cared
for and physicked when sick ; to be paid when ill as when
working ; to have work found for him, or paid to sit idle
when there is no work ; and in addition to all this every
death, every desertion, is a loss to the garden of the whole
sum expended in bringing the man or woman. Contrast
this with the advantages of local labour. In many cases no
expense for buildings is necessary, as the labourers come
daily to work from adjacent villages, and in such cases no
expense is entailed by sick men, for these simply remain at
home. There is no loss by death or desertions. When no

* Not so much so now as when this was first written.

t Note to Third Edition. A portion of the Western Dooars may perhaps
be added, but the labour, though adjacent, is not strictly local. Up to the
present, however, I have had but little expense in importing coolies to the
gardens there in which I am interested.

LABOUR, LOCAL AND IMPORTED. II

work is required on the garden, labour is simply not
employed. All this makes local labour, even where the rate
of wages is high, very much cheaper than imported.

The action of Government in the matter of imported
labour has much increased the difficulties and expense
necessarily attendant on it. It is a vexed and a very long
question which I care not to enter into minutely, for it has
been discussed already ad nauseam; still I must put on
record my opinion, after looking very closely into it, that the
Government has not acted wisely, inasmuch as any State
interference in the relations of employer and employed (out-
side the protection which the existing laws give) is a radical
mistake. As for the law passed on the subject to the effect
that a coolie who has worked out his agreement and volun-
tarily enters into a new one shall be, as before, under
Government protection, and his employer answerable as
before to Government, for the way he is housed, treated
when sick, &c., it is not easy to see why such enactments
are more necessary in his case than in that of any other
hired servant or labourer throughout all India.

All evidence collected, all enquiries made, tend to show
that coolies are well treated on Tea estates. It is the
interest of the proprietors and managers to do so, and self-
interest is a far more powerful inducement than any the
Government can devise. The meddling caused by the
visits of the " Protector of Coolies" * to a garden conduces
to destroy the kind feelings which should (and in spite of
these hindrances often do) exist between the proprietor or
manager and his men. I do not hesitate in my belief that
imported coolies on Tea plantations would be better off in
many ways were all Government interference abolished.

* What a designation ! Who invented it, I wonder ? A clever man, doubt,
less, for Government interference was probably his hobby, and he quickly
perceived the very title would, more or less, render the office necessary.

12 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

I do not decry Government action to the extent of seeing
the coolies understand their terms of engagements, and are
cared for on their journey to the Tea districts ; but once
landed on the garden, all Government interference should
cease.

The idea of the State laying down how many square
yards of jungle each coolie shall clear in a day, how many
square feet he shall dig, &c., &c. ! Can any certain rates
be laid down for such work ? Is all jungle the same, all soil
the same ; and even if such rates could be laid down, how
can the rules be followed ? Bah ! they are not, never will
be, and the whole thing is too childish for serious discussion.

It is not difficult to sit at a desk and frame laws and
rules that look feasible on paper. It is quite another thing
to carry them out. Over-legislation is a crying evil in India,
but there is still a worse, namely, legislation and official
action on subjects of which the said officials are utterly
ignorant.

I have said enough to show imported labour cannot vie
with local, nor would it do so were all the evils of Govern-
ment interference removed. I therefore believe Tea property
in India will eventually pay best where local labour exists.
This will naturally be the case when other conditions are
equal, but so great are the advantages of local labour,
I believe it will also be the case in spite of moderate
drawbacks.

CHAPTER III.

TEA DISTRICTS AND THEIR COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES,
CLIMATE, SOIL, ETC., IN EACH.

THE Tea districts in India, that is, where Tea is grown in
India to-day, are *

1. Assam.

2. The Dehra Dhoon.

3. Kumaon (Himalayas).

4. Darjeeling (Himalayas).

5. Cachar and Sylhet.t

6. Kangra (Himalayas).

7. Hazareebaugh.

8. Chittagong.

9. Terai below Darjeeling.

10. Neilgherries (Madras Hills).

11. Western Dooars.

In fixing on any district to plant Tea in, four things
have to be considered viz., soil, climate, labour, and
means of transport. When the district being selected a
site has to be chosen, all but the second of these have to be
considered again, and the lay of land, nature of jungle,
water, and sanitation are also of great importance in choos-
ing a site.

I will first, then, discuss generally the Tea districts given

* Note to Third Edition. I give them, as far as I know, in the order they
became Tea districts. Though in the said order there is, I believe, no great
error, I may be open to correction in one or two instances.

f These are virtually one, and I shall allude to both as Cachar.

14 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

above as regards the advantages of each for Tea cultivation.
I have seen and studied Tea gardens in all the districts
named, except No. 2. What I know of the Dehra Dhoon
is from what I have read, and what is generally known of
the climate.

Before, however, comparing each district, we should
know what are the necessities of the Tea plant as regards
climate and soil. Tea, especially the China variety, will
grow in very varying climates and soils, but it will not
flourish in all of them, and if it does not flourish, and flourish
well, it well certainly not pay.

The climate required for Tea is a hot damp one. As a
rule, a good Tea climate is not a healthy one. The rainfall
should not be less than 80 to 100 inches per annum, and
the more of this that falls in the early part of the year the
better. Any climate which, though possessing an abundant
rainfall, suffers from drought in the early part of the year is
not, cater is paribus, so good as one where the rain is more
equally diffused. All the Tea districts would yield better
with more rain in February, March, and April ; and there-
fore some, where fogs prevail in the mornings at the early
part of the year, are so far benefited.

As any drought is prejudicial to Tea, it stands to reason
hot winds must be very bad. These winds argue great
aridity, and the Tea plant luxuriates in continual moisture.

The less cold weather experienced where Tea is, the
better for the plant. It can stand, and will grow in, great
cold (freezing point, and lower in winter, is found in some
places where Tea is), but I do not think it will ever be
grown to a profit on such sites. That Tea requires a tem-
perate climate was long believed and acted upon by many
to their loss. The climate cannot be too hot for Tea if the
heat is accompanied with moisture.

Tea grown in temperate climes, such as moderate eleva-

TEA DISTRICTS AND THEIE ADVANTAGES, ETC. 15

tions in the Himalayas, is quite different to the Tea of hot
moist climates, such as Eastern Bengal. Some people like
it better, and certainly the flavour is more delicate ; but it is
very much weaker, and the value of Indian Tea (in the
present state of the home market, where it is principally
used for giving " body " to the washy stuff from China) con-
sists in its strength. Another all-important point in fixing
on a climate for Tea is the fact, that apart from the strength
the yield is double in hot, moist climes, what it is in com-
paratively dry and temperate ones. A really pleasant climate
to live in cannot be a good one for Tea. I may now discuss
the comparative merits of the different Tea districts.

ASSAM.

This is the principal home of the indigenous plant. The
climate in the northern portions is perfect, superior to the
southern, as more rain falls in the spring. The climate of
the whole of Assam, however, is very good for Tea. The
Tea plant yields most abundantly when hot sunshine and
showers intervene. For climate, then, I accord the first
place to Northern Assam. Southern Assam is, as observed,
a little inferior.

The soil of this province is decidedly rich. In many
places there is a considerable coating of decayed vegetation
on the surface, and inasmuch as in all places where Tea has
been or is likely to be planted it is strictly virgin soil, con-
siderable nourishment exists. The prevailing soil also is
light and friable, and thus, with the exception of the rich
oak soil in parts of the Himalayas, Assam in this respect
is second to none.

As regards labour we must certainly put it the last
on the list. The Assamese, and they are scanty, won't
work, so the planters, with few exceptions, are dependent

l6 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

on imported coolies ; and inasmuch as the distance to bring
them is enormous, the outlay on this head is large, and
a sad drawback to successful Tea cultivation.

The Burhampootra that vast river which runs from
one end of Assam to the other gives an easy mode of
export for the Tea, but still, owing to the distance from the
sea-board, it cannot rank in this respect as high as some
others.

CACHAR.

The indigenous Tea is also found in a part of this
province. The climate differs but little from Assam. In
one respect it is better ; more rain falls in the spring.

The soil is not equal to Assamese soil ; it is more
sandy, and lacks the power. Again, there is much more
flat land fit for Tea cultivation in Assam, and there can be
no doubt as to the advantage of level surfaces.

As regards transport Cachar has the advantage, for it
has equally a water-way, and is not so distant from
Calcutta.

The labour aspect is much the same in the two
provinces, both being almost entirely dependent on im-
ported coolies ; but Cachar is nearer the labour fields than
Assam.

However, after discussing separately the advantages of
each province, I propose to draw up a tabular statement,
which will show at a glance the comparative merits of each
on each point discussed.

CHITTAGONG.

This is a comparatively new locality for Tea. The
climate is better than Cachar in the one respect that there

TEA DISTRICTS. IJ

is less cold weather, but inferior in the more important
fact that much less rain falls in the spring. In this latter
respect it is also inferior to Assam, particularly to Northern
Assam. There is one part of Chittagong, the Hill Tracts
(Tea has scarcely been much tried there yet), which, in the
fact of spring rains, is superior to other parts of the pro-
vince, as also in soil, for it is much richer there. On the
whole, however, Chittagong must yield the palm to both
Assam and Cachar on the score of climate, and also, I
think, of soil. For though good rich tracts are occasionally
met with, they are not so plentiful as in the two last-named
districts. Always, however, excepting the Hill Tracts of
Chittagong ; there the soil is, I think, quite equal to either
Assam or Cachar.

As regards labour (a very essential point to successful
Tea cultivation), Chittagong is most fortunate. With few
exceptions (and those only partial) all the plantations are
carried on with local labour, which excepting for about
two months, the rice-time is abundant.

For transport (being on the coast with a convenient
harbour, a continually increasing trade, ships also running
direct to and from England), it is very advantageously
situated.

Chittagong possesses another advantage over all other
Tea districts in its large supply of manure. The country
is thickly populated, and necessarily large herds of cattle
exist. The natives do not use manure for rice (almost the
sole cultivation), and, consequently, planters can have it
almost for the asking. The enormous advantages of manure
in Tea cultivation are not yet generally appreciated : it
will certainly double the ordinary yield of a Tea garden.
A chapter is devoted to this subject.

l8 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

TERAI BELOW DARJEELING.

I have seen this, and the Tea in it, since I wrote the
first edition of this Essay.

The soil is very good for Tea. The climate is also a
good one, but there is not as much rain in the early part of
the year as planters could wish. Much difficulty exists
about labour, owing to the very unhealthy climate. As the
jungle is cleared, however, this last objection will be in a
measure got over. As it stands now, it is perhaps the most
unhealthy Tea locality in India.

Communication will be very easy when the Northern
Bengal Railway is finished, which it will be immediately.

Except in the point of salubrity (which is, however, an
important one), I think this locality a favourable one for
Tea.

THE DEHRA DHOON.

I have heard the first Tea in India was planted here.
The lucky men, two officers, who commenced the planta-
tion, sold it, I believe, in its infancy, to a company for five
lakhs of rupees. What visions did Tea hold forth in those
days !

In climate the Dehra Dhoon is far from good. The hot
dry weather of the North-west is not at all suited to the
Tea plant. Hot winds shrivel it up, and though it recovers
when the rains come down, it cannot thrive in such a
climate. One fact will, I think, prove this. In favourable
climates, with good soil and moderate cultivation, 18
flushes or crops may be taken from a plantation in a season.
With like advantages, and heavy manuring, 22 or even more
may be had. In the " Selections from the Records of the
Government of India" on Tea, published in 1857 (a book

TEA DISTRICTS. IQ

to which many owe their ruin), the following appears,
showing how small are the number of flushes in the North-
west :

Method of gathering Tea Leaves. The season for gathering
leaves generally commences about the beginning of April, and
continues until October ; the number of gatherings varies
depending on the moistness and dryness of the season. If the
season be good, that is to say, if rain falls in the cold weather
and spring, and the general rains be favourable, as many as

five gatherings may be obtained. These, however,
^ShlriSgs? 1 ma Y be reduced to three general periods for

gathering viz., from April to June, from July to
August 15, and from September to October 15. If the season
be a dry one, no leaves ought to be taken off the bushes after
October i, as by doing so they are apt to be injured. If, how-
ever, there are good rains in September, leaves can be pulled
until October 15, but no later, as by this time they have got
hard and leathery and not fitted for making good Teas, and it
is necessary to give the plants good rest in order to recruit.
Some plants continue to throw out new leaves until the end of
November ; but those formed during this month are generally
small and tough.

When this was written, the experience detailed related
to Dehra Dhoon, the Kumaon, and Kangra gardens, and
we see that five flushes or gatherings are thought good. It
however makes matters in this respect (far from a general
fault in the said " Records") worse than they are. Ten and
twelve flushes, with high cultivation, can be got in the
North-west. But what is this as against twenty and twenty-
five ?

Labour is plentiful and cheap. The great distance from
the coast makes transport very expensive.

KANGRA.
This is a charming valley, with a delightful climate

2O CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

more favourable to Tea than the Dehra Dhoon, still it is
not a perfect Tea climate. It is too dry and too cold.
The soil is good for Tea, better than that of the Dhoon,
but inferior to some rich soils in the Himalayan oak forests.
Local labour is obtainable at cheap rates. Distance makes
transport for export very difficult ; but a good local market
now exists in the Punjab, and a good deal of Tea is bought
at the fairs, and taken away by the wild tribes over the
border. With the limited cultivation there, I should hope
planters will find a market for all their produce. Manure
must be obtainable (manure had not been thought of for
Tea when I visited Kangra), and if liberally applied, it will
increase the yield greatly.

Kangra is strictly a Himalayan district, but the
elevation is moderate, if I remember right, about 3,000
feet, and the land is so slightly sloping it may almost
be called level. A great advantage this over the steep
lands, on which most of the Himalayan gardens, many
in Cachar, and some in Assam and Chittagong, are
planted.

Kangra is not the best place for a man who wants to
make money by Tea ; but for one who would be content to
settle there, and content to make a livelihood by it, a more
desirable spot with a more charming climate could not be
found. Land, however, is not easily procured.

The Teas produced in Kangra are of a peculiarly deli-
cate flavour, and are consequently highly esteemed in the
London market.

DARJEELING.

This, too, I have seen since I published the first
edition of this Essay. The elevation of the station, 6,900

TEA DISTRICTS. 21

feet, is far too great ; but plantations lower down do
tolerably well (that is, well for hill gardens). The climate,
like all hill climates, is too cold. As regards transport the
Darjeeling plantations will be well situated when the rail-
road now constructing is finished. Like elevations in
Darjeeling and Kumaon are in favour of the former, first,
because the latitude is less; secondly, because Darjeeling
has much more rain in the spring. I believe, therefore,
that the hill plantations of Darjeeling have a better chance
of paying than the gardens in Kumaon, but, as stated
before, no elevated gardens, that is, none in the Himalayas,
have any chance in the race against plantations in the
plains, always providing the latter are in a good Tea
climate.

In two respects, however, Darjeeling is behind Kumaon.
The soil is not so good, and the land is much steeper. It
is more than absurd, some of the steeps on which Tea is
planted in the former ; and such precipices can, I am sure,
never pay. Gardens, barely removed above the Terai (and
there are such in Darjeeling), can scarcely be called "ele-
vated," and for them the remarks applied to the Terai are
more fitting. As a broad rule it should be recognised that
the lower Tea is planted in the Himalayas the better
chance it has.

All the plants in the Darjeeling gardens, with but few
exceptions, are China.

The China plant makes by far the best Green Tea, and
I believe the Darjeeling gardens would pay much better
than they do if they altered their manufacture from black
to green. (See further on, under the head of Hazareebaugh,
what has been done in this way.) All Himalayan gardens
should, in my opinion, make Green Tea (Kumaon has
awoke to the fact), for all have China plants, and
can therefore make far better Green Tea than can be

22 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

produced from the Hybrid which is so general in plain
gardens.*

KUMAON.

It was in this district (a charming climate to live in,
with magnificent scenery to gaze at) I first planted Tea in
India, and I much wish for my own sake, and that of others,
I had not done so. I knew nothing of Tea at the time, and
I thought a district selected by Government for inaugurating
the cultivation must necessarily be a good one. No hill
climate can be a good one for Tea ; but the inner part of
Kumaon, very cold, owing to its elevation, high latitude,
and distance from the plains, is a peculiarly bad one. Yet
there it was Government made nurseries, distributed seed
gratis, recommended the site for Tea (see the " Records"
alluded to), and led many on to their ruin by doing so. The
intention of the Government was good, but the officers in
charge of the enterprise were much to blame, perhaps not
for making the mistake at first (no one at the first knew what
climate was suitable), but for perpetuating the mistake,
when later very little enquiry would have revealed the
truth. I believe it was guessed at by Government officials
long ago, but it was easier to sing the old tune ; and a very
expensive song it has proved to many.t

I need scarcely, after this, add that I do not approve
of Kumaon for Tea. An exhilarating and bracing climate
for man is not suited to the Tea plant. The district has

* When this was written the demand for Green Teas in Europe was
greater than it is now. Still Kumaon has found a local market for Green
Tea over the border, that is, among the Asiatic tribes, and Darjeeling might
do the same.

f Is it possible that the continued deception (it was nothing less) was
owing to the fact that Government had gardens to sell there ? They were
advertised for sale a long time at absurd prices.

TEA DISTRICTS. 23

one solitary advantage rich soil. I have never seen richer,
more productive land than exists in some of the Kumaon
oak forests, but even this cannot in the case of Tea counter-
balance the climate. Any crop which does not require
much heat and moisture will grow to perfection in that soil.
Such potatoes as it produces ! Were the difficulties of
transport not so great, a small fortune might be made by
growing them.

Could any part of Kumaon answer for Tea it would be
the lower elevations in the outer ranges of the hills, but
these are precisely the sites that have not been chosen.
Led, as in my own case, partly by the Government
example, partly by the wish to be out of sight of the
" horrid plains," and in sight of that glorious panorama the
snowy range, planters have chosen the interior of Kumaon.
Some wisely (I was not one of them) selected low sites,
valleys sheltered from the cold winds ; but even their choice
has not availed much. The frost in winter lingers longest
in the valleys, and though doubtless the yield there is
larger, owing to the increased heat in summer, the young
plants suffer much in the winter. The outer ranges, owing
to the heat radiating from the plains, are comparatively
free from frost, but there again the soil is not so rich. Still
they would unquestionably be preferable to the interior.

Labour is plentiful in Kumaon and very cheap Rs. 4
per mensem. Transport is very expensive. It costs not a
little to send Tea from the interior over divers ranges of
hills to the plains. It has then some days' journey by cart
ere it meets the rail, to which 1,000 miles of carriage on
the railroad has to be added.

Since the above was written, Kumaon has secured a
good local market, and I believe sells most of its Tea un-
packed to merchants who come from over the border to
buy it.

24 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

It has also improved its position greatly by making
Green Teas, for which, as observed before, the China plant
is so well fitted. With those two advantages, though the
climate is inferior, I suspect that Tea there now pays better
than in Darjeeling.

Gurhwall is next to Kumaon, and so similar that I have
not thought it necessary to discuss it separately. The
climate is the same, the soil as a rule not so good. There
is one exception though, a plantation near " Lohba," the
Teas of which (owing, I conceive, to its peculiar soil) com-
mand high prices in the London market. The gardens,
both in Kumaon and Gurhwall, have been generally much
better cared for than those in Eastern Bengal. As a rule
they are private properties managed by the owners.

HAZAREEBAUGH.

This district I have resided in since I wrote the first
edition of this Essay. The climate is too dry, and hot
winds are felt there. A great compensation, though, is
labour ; it is more abundant and cheaper in this district
than in any other. The carriage is all by land, and it is
some distance to the rail. But the Tea gardens at Haza-
reebaugh can never vie with those in Eastern Bengal, inas-
much as the climate is very inferior. The soil is very poor.

NEILGHERRIES.

The climate is superior to the Himalayan, for the frost
is very slight. Were, however, more heat there in summer,
it would be better.

Some of the Teas have sold very well in the London

TEA DISTRICTS. 25

market, for as regards delicacy of flavour they take a high
place.

The soil is good, but the temperate climate which holds
on these " blue mountains " is not favourable to a large
produce.

WESTERN DOOARS.

When the second edition of this work was printed, this
district was unknown as a Tea locality.

My attention was directed to it in 1874 ; I was the
second who planted Tea in it, and I have now completed a
garden there.

As regards climate, soil, and lay of land, it is perfect,
and I believe it will eventually prove the most paying dis-
trict in India for Tea.

The Northern Bengal Railway, just opened, gives it
great advantages for transport.

Having now discussed each district, all of which, except
the Dehra Dhoon, I have seen, I give, in further elucidation,
Meteorological Tables. For those not mentioned in the
tables I have failed to acquire the necessary information.

My thanks are due to Dr. Coates, at Hazareebaugh, for
his kindness in supplying me with much of the data from
which the following tables are framed :

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

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CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

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CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

I will now endeavour to draw up a tabular statement of
the respective advantages of the various Tea districts as
regards climate, labour, lay of land, soil, facilities of pro-
curing manure and transport.

In importance I regard them in the order given. I place
labour before soil, because the fact is, in all the provinces
suitable and good soil for Tea can be found somewhere ; and
therefore, while soil is all important in selecting a site, it is
secondary to labour in deciding on a district. Lay of land
comes after labour. When my information on any point is
not sure I place a note of interrogation. Where advantages
are equal, or nearly so, I give the same number, and the
greater the advantage of a district on the point treated in
the column the smaller the number. Thus, under the head
of Climate, Assam is marked I.

As the following table gives no information as to which
of all the districts possesses the greatest advantages, all
things considered, but only gives my opinion of each under
each head, and the subject closed in this way would be
unsatisfactory, I may state that, in my opinion, the choice
should lie between the three first and the last on the list ;
and my choice would be the last.

Comparative advantages of the Tea Districts in India as regards
climate, labour, lay of land, soil, manure, and transport.

Tea Districts

Climate

Labour

~T)
>->C
rt rt
i-W

Manure

Transport

Assam . "~~~... '- .( " . U IE

1 '

Cachar . \ .; " . 2 4

Water

Chittagong . .

carriage

Chittagong Hill Tracts

i ;

Terai below Darjeeling

Darjeeling ...

Hazareebaugh . i

Kangra

Land

Dehra Dhoon .

5 i 3

H carriage

Kumaon

i .

Neilgherries

Western Dooars

3 i

f ..

CHAPTER IV.

SOIL.

To pronounce as precisely on soil as to climate is not
easy. The Tea plant will grow on almost any soil, and will
flourish on many. Still there are broad general rules to be
laid down in the selection of soils for Tea, which no one
can ignore with impunity.

When first I turned my attention to Tea, I collected
soils from many gardens, noting in each case how the
plants flourished. I then sat down to examine them, never
doubting to arrive at some broad practical conclusions. I
was sadly disappointed. I found the most opposing soils
nourished, apparently, equally good plants. I knew not
then much about Tea, and judged of the Tea bushes mostly
by the size (a very fallacious test) ; still, after-experience
has convinced me I was more or less right in the conclusion
I then came to, that several soils are good for Tea.

Nothing, then, but broad general rules can be laid down
on this point, for I defy anyone to select any one soil as
the best for Tea, to the exclusion of others.

A light sandy loam is perhaps as good a soil as any out
of the Himalayas. It ought to be deep, and the more
decayed vegetable matter there is lying on its surface the
better. If deep enough for the descent of the tap-root, say
3 feet, it matters not much what the subsoil is, otherwise a
yellowish red subsoil is an advantage. This subsoil is
generally a mixture of clay and sand. Much of Assam,
Cachar, and Chittagong is as the above, but, as a rule, it is
richest in Assam, poorest in Chittagong.

32 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Where the loam is of a greasy nature (very different to
clay), with a mixture of sand in it, it is superior to the
above, for it has more body. All good Tea soils must have
a fair proportion of sand, and if not otherwise apparent, it
may be detected by mixing a little of the soil with spittle
and rubbing it on the hand. If the hand be then held up
towards the sun, the particles of sand will be seen to
glisten.

The soil so common in Kumaon, that is, light rich loam
with any amount of decayed vegetable matter on it, and
with a ferruginous reddish yellowish subsoil, is, I consider,
the finest soil in the world for Tea. The rich decayed
vegetable matter is the produce for centuries of oak leaves
in the Himalayan forests, and, as all the world knows, oak
only grows in temperate climes.

It was long believed that Tea would thrive best on poor
soil. The idea was due to the description of Tea soils in
China to be found in the first books that treated of Tea.
But the fact that Tea, as a rule, is only .grown in China on
soil which is useless for anything else quite alters the case.
If a soil is light and friable enough, it cannot be too rich
for Tea.

Ball's book " On the Cultivation and Manufacture of
Tea in China" has much on Tea soils, but the opinions the
author collected are sadly at variance, and on the whole
teach nothing.

In conclusion, I will attempt to point out the qualities
in soils in which the Tea plant delights, as also the qualities
it abhors.

It loves soils friable, that is, easily divided into all their
atoms. This argues a fair proportion of sand, but this
should not be in excess, or the soil will be poor. The soil
should be porous imbibing and parting with water freely.
The more decayed vegetable matter on its surface the better.

SOIL. 33

To be avoided are stiff soils of every kind, as also those
which when they dry, after rain, cake together and split.
Avoid also black-coloured, or even dark-coloured earths.
All soils good for the Tea plant are light coloured. If,
however, the dark colour arises from decayed vegetation,
that is not the colour of the soil, and, as observed, vegetable
matter is a great advantage. Judge of colour when soil is
dry for even light-coloured soil looks dark when wet. Soil
which will make bricks will not' grow Tea ; and though I
have sometimes seen young plants thrive on stiff soil, I do
not believe in any stiff soil as a permanence.

Stones, if not in excess, are advantageous in all soils
inclined to be stiff, for they help to keep them open. But
then they must not be large, as if so they act as badly as a
rocky substratum preventing the descent of the tap-root.

The reason, I take it, why Tea thrives best in light soils
is that the spongioles or ends of the feeding roots are very
tender, and do not easily penetrate any other.

There is more nourishment in stiffer soils, but for this
reason the Tea plant cannot take advantage of it.

If a chosen soil be too stiff, it may be much improved
for Tea by mixing sand with it. However, even where
sand is procurable near, the expense of this is great. When
done, the sand should be mixed with the soil taken out of
the holes in which the plants are to be placed (see Trans-
planting), and it may be done again later by placing sand
round the plants and digging it in. All this though is extra
labour and very expensive, so none but a good Tea soil
should ever be selected, and it is very easily found, for it
exists in parts of all the districts discussed.

34 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER V.

NATURE OF JUNGLE.

I HAVE not much to say under this head. I have heard
many opinions as to the kind of trees and jungle that should
exist in contemplated clearances, but I attach little or no
weight to them, at all events in Bengal.

In the Himalayas it is somewhat different. There oak
trees should be sought for ; their existence invariably makes
rich soil.* Fir, on the contrary, indicates poor soil. At
elevations, however, the desideratum of a warm aspect
interferes, for the best oak forests are on the colder side. I
speak of course of elevations practicable, say three or four
thousand feet ; above this it is a waste of money to try and
cultivate Tea.

In Bengal I do not think the nature of the jungle on land
contemplated signifies much. As a rule, the thicker the
jungle the richer the soil ; but in seeking for a site large
trees should not be a sine qua non. Much of the coarse grass
land is very good, and large trees add enormously to the
expense of clearings. t It is not cutting them down which
is so expensive, it is cutting them up and getting rid of
them by burning, or otherwise, after the former is done.

I have discussed soil fully already, and need only add here
that if the knowledge to do so exists, it is better to judge of
soil from the soil itself than from the vegetation on it, though
doubtless a fact that luxuriant vegetation indicates rich soil.

* The oak tree leaves cause a rich deposit of vegetable matter.
f The Western Dooars are in many parts covered with this coarse grass,
and nowhere is there better soil.

CHAPTER VI.

WATER AND SANITATION.

THESE may be discussed together and shortly.

Of course adjacent water-carriage is a great advantage
for a garden, and it should be obtained, if possible, in
selecting a site. The expense of land-carriage, where there
is no rail, is great, and Tea cultivation requires all advan-
tages to make it pay well.

But it is water for a garden that particularly concerns
us now. It is not easy to find land that can be irrigated
(this is discussed elsewhere), but no labour or expense in
getting such land would be thrown away. Irrigation, com-
bined with high cultivation in other respects, will give a
yield per acre undreamt of.

In no case should a plantation be made except where a
running stream is handy. Water is a necessity for seedlings,
and a plentiful adjacent supply of it is a great desideratum
for the comfort and health of every soul on the garden. We
all know how dependent the natives are on water, and it is
evident facilities in this respect will conduce much (whether
the labour be local or imported) both to get and keep
coolies. Norton's tube wells a cheap and most efficient
mode of procuring water will, I doubt not, be eventually
much used on Tea plantations.

It has been observed that, as a rule, a good Tea climate
is not a healthy one. There is no getting over the fact,
and we can only make the best of it. The house, the
factories, and all the buildings should be placed as high as
possible, and not very close to each other, both for the

36 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

sake of health and in the event of fire. The locality should
be well drained, and cleanliness be attained in every
possible way. Give the coolies good houses, with raised
mechans to sleep on, and sprinkle occasionally carbolic
acid powder in your own house and those of others.

Sanitation is, however, a large subject. It can be
studied elsewhere. General ideas on it, and on the pro-
perties of the commonest medicines, are a great advantage
to any intending Tea planter.

CHAPTER VII.

LAY OF LAND.

THE first idea prevailing about Tea was that it should be
planted on slopes. It was thought, and truly, that the
plant was impatient of stagnant water, and so it is, but it is
not necessary to plant it on slopes in consequence. Pictures
of Chinese, suspended by chains (inasmuch as the locality
could not be otherwise reached), picking Tea off bushes
growing in the crevices of rocks, somewhat helped this
notion ; and when stated, as it was, that the Tea produced
in such places was the finest, and commanded the highest
price which was not true intending planters in India
went crazy in their search for impracticable steeps ! Much
of the failure in Tea has arisen from this fact, for a great
part of many, the whole of some, gardens have been planted
on land so steep that the Tea can never last or thrive on it.
This is especially the case in parts of the Darjeeling district.

Sloping land is objectionable in the following respects.
It cannot be highly cultivated in any way (I hold Tea will
only pay with high cultivation), for high cultivation consists
in frequent digging, to keep the soil open and get rid of
weeds, and liberal manuring. If such soil is dug in the
rainy season, it is washed down to the foot of the hill, and
if manure is applied at any time of the year, it experiences
the same fate when the rain comes. As it cannot be dug,
weeds necessarily thrive and diminish the yield by choking
the plants.

The choice is therefore of two evils: "low cultivation
and weeds," or "high cultivation which bares the roots of

38 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

the plants in a twelvemonth." Of the two, the first must be
chosen, for if the latter were pursued, the plants, getting
gradually more and more denuded of soil, would simply
topple over in two or three years. But choosing the lesser
evil, the mischief is not confined to the bad effects of low
cultivation. Dig the land as little as you will, the great
force of the rains washes down a good deal of soil. The
plants do not sink as the soil lowers, and the consequence
is that all Tea plants on slopes have the lower side bare of
earth and the roots exposed. This is more and more the
case the steeper the slope. These exposed roots shrivel up
as the sun acts on them, the plant languishes and yields
very little leaf.

Attempts are made to remedy the mischief by carrying
earth up from below yearly, and placing it under the plant ;
but the expense of doing this is great, and the palliation is
only temporary, for the same thing occurs again and again
as each rainy season returns.

The mischief is greater on stiff than on sandy soils, for
on the former the earth is detached in great pieces and
carried down the hill. I know one garden in Chittagong, a
large one, where the evil is so great, that the sooner the
cultivation is abandoned the better for the owners.

A great many gardens in India, indeed the majority,
are on slopes ; a few in Assam, the greater number in Cachar,
some in Chittagong, and almost all the Himalayan planta-
tions. Such of these as are on steep slopes will, I believe,
never pay, and instead of improving yearly (as good gardens,
highly cultivated, should do even after they have arrived at
full bearing) such, I fear, will deteriorate year by year.

Plantations on moderate slopes need not fail because of
the slopes. The evils slight slopes entail are not great, but
the sooner the fact is accepted that sloping cannot vie against
flat land for the cultivation of Tea the better.

LAY OF LAND. 39

Where only the lower parts of slopes are planted, the
plants do very well. The upper part being jungle the wash
is not great, and the plants benefit much by the rich
vegetable matter the rain brings down from above. I have
often seen very fine plants on the lower part of slopes,
where the upper has been left in jungle, and I should not
hesitate to plant such portions if the slope was moderate.

Where teelah land, in Eastern Bengal, or sloping land
in the Himalayas, Chittagong, or elsewhere, has to be
adopted, aspect is all-important. A good aspect in one
climate is bad in another. In Assam, Cachar, Chittagong,
and all warm places, choose the coolest ; at high elevations
(temperate climes), the warmest.

In the Himalayas, moreover, the warmer aspects are, as
a rule, the most fertile ; vice versa in warm localities. Many
a garden, which would have done very well on the moderate
slopes chosen had only the proper aspects been planted,
has been ruined by planting all sides of teelahs or hills
indiscriminately. The southern and western slopes of
plantations in warm sites are generally very bare of plants.
Not strange they should be so, when the power of the
reflected rays of the afternoon sun is considered. Again,
in cold climates plants cannot thrive on northern aspects,
for their great want in such climes is heat and sunshine.
Let the above fault, then, be avoided in both cases, for
though doubtless a garden is more handy, and looks better
in one piece planted air over without any intervening jungle,
even patches of jungle look better, and are decidedly
cheaper, than bare cultivated hills.

Of flat land, after what I have written, I need not add
much. It is of two kinds, table and valley land ; the former
is very rare in Tea districts, at least of any extent, which
makes it worth while to plant it. There are two gardens
in Chittagong on such flat table land, and they are both

40 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

doing very well. Table land cannot be too flat, for the
natural drainage is so great no stagnant water can lie.*

Valley land is not good if it is perfectly flat. It will then
be subject to inundation and stagnant water. There is
nothing that kills the plant so surely and quickly as the
latter. Even quite flat valleys can be made sweet by
artificial drainage, but to do this a lower level, not too far
distant, must exist, and the danger is not quite removed
then. Valleys in which no water-course exists, and which
slope towards the mouth alone, are to be avoided, for the
plants near the mouth always get choked with sand. The
best valleys are those with a gentle slope both ways, one
towards the lowest line of the valley, be it a running water-
course, or a dry nullah which carries off rain, the other
towards the mouth of the valley. Such valleys drain them-
selves, or at least very little artificial drainage is necessary.
A valley of this kind, with a running stream through it, is
most valuable for Tea, and if the other advantages of soil
and climate are present it is simply a perfect site. Such
however are not frequent. If in such valleys, as is generally
the case, the slope from the head to the mouth is enough,
the running stream can be "bunded" (shut up) at a high
level, and brought along one side at a sufficient elevation to
irrigate the whole.

I have never seen but one garden in a valley that fulfils
all these conditions exactly. It is in Chittagong ; the soil is
good, labour plentiful, and manure abundant. It ought to
do great things, for the possibility of irrigating plants in
the dry season (which, as observed, is very trying in Chitta-
gong) will give several extra flushes in the year.

Of course in the wet season on such land the water
must be allowed to resume its natural course.

* I am now commencing a second garden in the Western Dooars on flat
table land, and the site is an exceptionally favourable one.

LAY OF LAND. 41

Narrow valleys are not worth planting. No narrow
tracts of land, with jungle on both sides, are worth the
expense of cultivation, for the continual encroachment of
the jungle gives much extra work. The plants, moreover,
in very narrow valleys get half-buried with soil washed
down from the adjacent slopes. Narrow valleys are there-
fore, in any case, better avoided.

To conclude shortly, flat lands can be highly cultivated,
steep slopes cannot. Tea pays best (perhaps not at all
otherwise) with high cultivation ergo, flat lands are
preferable.

42 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER VIII.

LAYING OUT A GARDEN.

BY this I mean, so dividing it when first made into parts,
that later the said parts shall be easily recognised, and
separately or differently treated, as they may require it.

The usual custom is to begin at one end of a plantation,
and dig it right through to the other. In the same way
with the pruning and plucking, and I believe the system is
a very bad one. Different portions of gardens require
different treatment, inasmuch as they differ in soil, and
otherwise. One part of a plantation is much more prolific
of weeds than another how absurd that it should be cleaned
no oftener ! This is only one exemplification of difference
of treatment, but in many ways it is necessary, most of all
in plucking leaf.

All parts of a plantation, owing in some places to the
different ages of the plants, in others to the variety in the
soil and its productive powers, in others to slopes or to
aspect, do not yield leaf equally, that is, flush does not
follow flush with equal rapidity. In some places (supposing
each part to be picked when the flush is ready) seven days'
interval will exist between the flushes, in others nine, ten,
or twelve ; but no attention, as a rule, is paid to this. The
pickers have finished the garden at the west end, the east
end is again ready, and when done, the middle part will be
taken in hand, be it ready or be it not ! It may be that
the middle part flushes quicker than any other ; in this
case the flush will be more than mature when it is taken,
in fact it will have begun to harden ; or it may be the

LAYING OUT A GARDEN. 43

middle part does not flush as quickly as the others ; in
this case it will be picked before it is ready, that is,
when the flush is too young, and the yield will consequently
be smaller.

I believe the yield of a plantation may be largely in-
creased by attending to this. Every Tea estate should be
divided into gardens of, say, about five to ten acres each.*
If no natural division exists, small roads to act as such
should be made. More than this cannot be done when the
plantation is first laid out, but when later the plants yield,
any difference between the productive powers of different
parts of the same garden should be noted, and these divided
off into sections. To do this latter with roads would take
up too much space, and small masonry pillars, whitewashed,
are the best. Four of these, one at each corner of a section,
are enough, and they need not be more than 3 feet high and
i foot square. Thus each garden may, where necessary, be
divided into two sections, which, in a 3Oo-acre estate, par-
titioned off into thirty gardens, would give about forty to
sixty sections. No matter where a section may be, directly
the flush on it is ready it should be picked. Where the
soil on any one garden is much the same, and observation
shows the plants all over it flush equally, it may be left all
in one. I only lay down the principle, and I am very certain
it works well, the proof of which is that, where I have
practised it, some sections during the season give three,
four, and five flushes more than others. Had the usual
plan of picking from one end to the other been adopted,
they would have been all forced to give the same number ;
in other words, the said extra flushes would have been lost,

* A garden I have just finished in the Western Dooars is 300 acres in
extent, all on flat land without any breaks in the cultivation, and all divided
into sections of 5 acres each. Being in one large block it is not divided into
gardens at all, only sections.

44 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

and further loss occasioned by some flushes being taken
before they were ready, others after a portion of the tender
leaf had hardened.

The best plan is simply to number the gardens from i
upwards, and the sections in each garden the same way.
Thus supposing No. 5 garden is divided into three sections,
they will be known respectively as 5-1, 5-2, and 5-3. This
is the best way for the natives, and I find they soon learn
to designate each section. I have a man whose special duty
(though he has other work also) it is to see each day which
sections are ready to pick the following, and those, and those
alone, are picked. Practice soon teaches the number of
pickers required for any given number of sections, and that
number only are put to the work. If a portion is not
completed that day, it is the first taken in hand the next,
and if any day on no sections is the flush ready, no leaf is
picked the following.

Apart from leaf-picking, the garden and section plan
detailed is useful in many ways. Each garden, if not each
section which most requires it, is dug, pruned, or manured
at the best time, and any spot on the plantation is easily
designated. The plan facilitates the measurement of work,
and enables correct lists of the flushes gathered to be kept.
It is thus seen which gardens yield best, and the worst can,
by extra manuring, be brought to equal those.

In short, the advantages are many, too numerous to
detail.

Of course all this can be better done on a flat garden
than on one planted on slopes, and though it may not be
possible to work it out as much in detail on the latter, still
a good deal in that way can be done, and I strongly
recommend it.

In laying out a plantation keep it all as much together as
possible, the more it is in one block the easier it is

LAYING OUT A GARDEN. 45

supervised, the cheaper it is worked. Still do not, with a
view to this, take in any bad land, for bad land will never
pay.

Let your lines of Tea plants, as far as practicable, run
with geometrical regularity. You will later find, both in
measuring work and picking leaf, great advantages there-
from. In gardens where the lines are not regular portions
are continually being passed over in leaf-picking, and there-
by not only is the present flush from such parts lost, but
the following is also retarded.

If your different gardens are so situated that the roads
through them, that is from one garden to the other, can be
along the side of any garden without increasing the length
of the road, by all means adopt that route. There is no
such good boundary for a garden as a road that is being
continually traversed. It will save many rupees by prevent-
ing the encroachment of jungle into a garden, and more
space is thus also given for plants. It is, however, of no
use to do it if a road through the middle of a garden is
shorter, as coolies will always take the shortest route.

The lines of plants on sloping ground should neither run
up and down, nor directly across the slope. If they run up
and down, gutters or water-courses will form between the
lines, and much additional earth will be washed away
thereby. If they run right across the hill the same thing
will occur between the trees in each line, and the lower side of
each plant will have its roots laid very bare. It is on
all slopes a choice of evils, but if the lines are laid diagonally
across the hill, so that the slope along the lines shall be a
moderate one, the evil is reduced as far as it can be by
any arrangement of the plants. No, I forgot ; there
is one other thing. The closer the lines to each other,
and the closer the plants in the lines to each other,
in short, the more thickly the ground on slopes is planted

46 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

the less will be the wash, for stems and roots retain
the soil in its place, and the more there are the greater the
advantage.

Where slopes are steep (though, remember, steep slopes
are to be avoided) terracing may be resorted to with advan-
tage, as the washing down of the soil is much checked by it.

On flat land, of course, it does not really signify in which
directions the lines run, but such a garden looks best if,
when the roads are straight, the lines run at right angles
to them.

In laying out a garden, choose a central spot with water
handy for your factory, bungalow, and all your buildings ;
let your Tea-houses be as close to your dwelling-house as
possible, so that during the manufacturing time you can be
in and out at all hours of the day and night. Much of your
success will depend upon this. Let all your buildings be
as near to each other as they can, but still far enough
apart, that any one building may burn without endangering
others. You need not construct any Tea-buildings until the
third year.

CHAPTER IX.

VARIETIES OF THE TEA PLANT.

THESE are many, but they all arise from two species : the
China plant, the common Tea-bush in China ; and the in-
digenous plant, first discovered some forty years ago in
Assam.

These are quite different species of the same plant.
Whether the difference was produced by climate, by soil, or
in what way, no one knows, and here we have only to do
with the facts that they do differ in every respect. A purely
indigenous plant or tree (for in its wild state it may more
properly be called the latter) grows with one stem or trunk,
and runs up to 15 and 18 feet high. It is always found in
thick jungle, and would thus appear to like shade. I believe
it does when young ; but I am quite sure, if the jungle were
cleared round an indigenous Tea-tree found in the forest, it
would thrive better from that day. The China bush (for it
is never more) after the second year has numerous stems,
and 6 or 7 feet would seem to be its limit in height. The
lowest branches of a China plant are close to the ground,
but in a pure cultivated indigenous, from 9 inches to i foot
above the soil the single stem is clean.

The indigenous grows quicker after the second or third
year than the China, if it has not been over-pruned or over-
plucked when young. In other words, it flushes quicker,
for flushing is growing.

The indigenous does not run so much to wood as the
China. Indigenous seedlings require to be watered oftener
than China, for the latter do not suffer as quickly from

48 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

drought. The indigenous tree has a leaf of 9 inches long
and more. The leaf of the China bush never exceeds 4 inches.
The indigenous leaf is a bright pale green, the China leaf a
dull dark green colour. The indigenous " flushes," that is,
produces new tender leaf, much more copiously than the
China, and this in two ways : first, the leaves are larger,
and thus if only even in number exceed in bulk what the
China has given ; and secondly, it flushes oftener. The
infusion of Tea made from the indigenous species is far
more "rasping" and "pungent" than what the China
plant can give, and the Tea commands a much higher
price. The young leaves, from which alone Tea is made,
are of a much finer and softer texture in the indigenous
than in the China ; the former may be compared to satin,
the latter to leather. The young leaves of the indigenous,
moreover, do not harden so quickly as those of the China ;
thus, if there is any unavoidable delay in picking a flush,
the loss is less with the former. In the fact that unpruned
or unpicked plants (for picking is a miniature pruning) give
fewer and less succulent young leaves which harden quicker
than pruned ones, the two varieties would seem to be alike.
The China variety is much more prolific of seed than the
indigenous ; the former also gives it when younger, and as
seed checks leaf, the China is inferior in this as in other
respects. The China is by far the hardier plant ; it is
much easier to rear, and it will grow in widely differing
climates, which the indigenous will not.

A patch of indigenous with a mature flush on it is a
pretty sight. The plants all appear as if crowned with gold
(they are truly so if other advantages exist), and are a
great contrast to the China variety if it can also be seen
near.

I have now, I think, pointed out the leading charac-
teristics of the two original varieties of the Tea plant, and

VARIETIES OF THE TEA PLANT. 49

it stands to reason no one would grow the China who could
get indigenous. But the truth is, a pure specimen of either
is rare. The plants between indigenous and China are
called " hybrids." They were in the first instance produced
by the inoculation, when close together, of the pollen of
one kind into the flower of the other, and the result was a
true hybrid, partaking equally of the indigenous and China
characteristics ; but the process was repeated again and
again between the said hybrid and an indigenous or China,
and again later between hybrids of different degrees, so
that now there are very many varieties of the Tea plant
100 or even more and no garden is wholly indigenous or
wholly China. So close do the varieties run, no one can
draw the line and say where the China becomes a hybrid,
the hybrid an indigenous. Though as a rule the young
leaves are light green or dark green, as the plant approaches
the indigenous or China in its character, there are a certain
class of bushes all hybrid, whose young leaves have strong
shades of crimson and purple. Some even are quite red,
others quite purple. These colours do not last as the leaf
hardens, and the matured leaves of these plants do not
differ from others. Plants with these coloured leaves are
prolific.

The nearer each plant approaches the indigenous, the
higher its class and excellence, ergo one plantation is com-
posed of a much better class of plants than another. Had
China seed never been introduced into India, a very different
state of things would have existed now. The cultivation
would not have been so large, but far more valuable. The
propagation and rearing of the indigenous, as observed, is
difficult ; the China is much hardier while young. So
difficult is it to rear successively the pure indigenous,
perhaps the best plan, were it all to come over again, would
be to propagate a high-class hybrid and distribute it, never

50 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

allowing any China seed or plants to leave the nursery,
which should have been a Government one. But we must
take things as they are. The Government nurseries in the
Himalayas and the Dehra Dhoon (there have never been any
elsewhere, and worse sites could not have been chosen)
were planted entirely with China seeds, the seedlings dis-
tributed all over the country, and thus the mischief was
done. The Indian Tea is vastly superior to the Chinese,
and commands a much higher price at home, but it is still
very inferior to what it would have been, had not Chinese
seed been so recklessly imported and distributed over the
country.

The home of the indigenous Tea tree is in the deep luxu-
rious jungles of Assam and Cachar.* There it grows into
a good-sized tree. I have seen it 20 feet high. These are
of no use, except for seed, until they are cut down. When
this is done, they throw out many new shoots, covered with
young tender leaves, fit for Tea. They are, of course, far too
big to transplant, but on some sites w r here they were nume-
rous, that spot was chosen for the plantation, and some of
these are the best gardens in Assam and Cachar.

The indigenous plant and high-class hybrid require a hot
moist climate, and will not therefore flourish in any parts of
India outside Eastern Bengal. I have tried them in the
Himalayas, there the cold kills them. In Dehra Dhoon and
Kangra the climate is far too dry; besides, the hot winds
in the former, and the cold in the latter, are prejudicial. The
Terai under Darjeeling suits them. In Assam, Cachar, and
Chittagong, the indigenous and the highest class hybrids will
thrive, for the climate of all three is suitable, but perhaps
Northern Assam possesses the best climate of all for such
plants.

* It is a singular fact that none exists in Northern Cachar, that is, on the
northern side of the river.

VARIETIES OF THE TEA PLANT. 51

The Himalayan gardens consist entirely of Chinese plants
mixed occasionally with a low class of hybrid. They were
all formed from the Government Nurseries where nothing
but Chinese was reared. Occasional importations of Assam
and Cachar seed will account for the sprinkling of low class
hybrids which may be found. The same may be said of
Dehra Dhoon and Kangra. In some gardens in the Terai
below Darjeeling a high class of plant exists. In Assam,
Cachar, and Chittagong the plantations vary much, but all
have some indigenous and high class hybrids, while many
gardens are composed of nothing else.

It is evident, then, that the value of a garden depends
much on the class of its plants, and that a wise man will
only propagate the best. Only the seed from good varieties
should be selected, and gradually all inferior bushes should
be rooted out and a good kind substituted. When this shall
have been systematically done for a few years on a good
garden, which has other advantages, the yield per acre will
far exceed anything yet realised or even thought of.

Government action in the matter of Tea has been pre-
judicial in many ways, but in none more so than when they
were doing their best to foster the cultivation by distributing
Chinese seed and seedlings gratis. No one can blame here
(would the Government were equally free from blame in all
Tea matters !), but the mischief is none the less. It will
never be possible to undo the harm then done.

The seed of indigenous, hybrid, and Chinese is like in
appearance, and cannot be distinguished. Thus, when seed
formerly was got from a distance, the purchaser was at the
mercy of the vendor.

High cultivation improves the class of a Tea plant. Thus,
a purely China bush, if highly cultivated and well manured,
will in two or three years assume a hybrid character. High
cultivation will therefore improve the class of all the plants

52 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

in a garden ; but the cheapest and best plan with low class
Chinese plants is to root them out and replace them with
others, as will be explained hereafter. Low class seedlings
should also be rooted out of nurseries.

I cannot conclude this chapter better than by giving an
extract from the " Government Records " alluded to in a pre-
vious chapter, and I add a few remarks at foot, as otherwise
the reader might be puzzled with some opinions expressed
which are so much at variance with the generally received
opinions on Tea to-day.

Kinds of Tea Plants cultivated. " When Government resolved on
trying the experiment of cultivating Tea in India, they deputed Dr.
Gordon to China to acquire information respecting the cultivation
and manufacture of Teas, and to procure Tea seeds. Aided by Dr.
Gutzlaff he procured a quantity of seeds from the mountains in the
Amoy districts. These seeds were sent to the Calcutta Botanical
Garden, where they were sown in boxes. On germinating they were
sent up the country in boats, some to Assam and some to Gurhmuk-
tesur, and from thence to Kumaon and Gurhwal. From these plants
date the commencement of the Tea plantations in the Himalayas.*
Tea was first made in Kumaon in 1841, and the samples sent to
England, and were pronounced to be of good quality, fitted for the
home markets, and similar to the Oolong Souchong varieties. Thus
Messrs. Thompson, of Mincing Lane, report on a sample sent by us
to Dr. Royle in 1842 : * The samples of Tea received belong to the
Oolong Souchong kind, fine-flavoured and strong. This is equal to
the superior black Tea generally sent as presents, and better for the
most part than the Chinese Tea imported for mercantile purposes.'!
By many it was supposed that there were different species of the Tea
plant, and that the species cultivated in the south districts of China
was different from that met with in the north. To solve this mystery,
and at the same time procure the best varieties of the Tea plant,
Mr. Fortune was deputed to China. By him large numbers of Tea

* And also the introduction of a bad class of plants. E. M.

f A single small sample of Tea very carefully made, and with an amount
of labour which could never be bestowed on the mass, is little or no criterion.
Tea is better made in Kumaon in 1878 than it was in 1842, but Kumaon Tea
does not vie in price with Eastern Bengal produce. All the Himalayan Tea
is weak, though of a delicate flavour ; all Tea grown at high elevation must
be so. E. M.

VARIETIES OF THE TEA PLANT. 53

plants were sent from different districts of China celebrated for their
Teas, and are now thriving luxuriantly in all the plantations throughout
the Kohistan of the North-west Provinces and Punjab. Both green
and black Tea plants were sent, the former from Whey Chow,
Mooyeen, Chusan, Silver Island, and Tein Tang, near Ningpo, and
the latter from Woo-e San, Tein San, and Tsin Gan, in the Woo-e
district. But so similar are the green and black Tea plants to each
other, and the plants from the Amoy districts, that the most practised
eye, when they are mixed together, cannot separate

Several varieties. _ J

them, showing that they are nothing more than mere
varieties of one and the same plant, the changes in the form of the
leaf being brought about by cultivation. Moreover, throughout the
plantation fifty varieties might easily be pointed out ; but they run so
into each other as to render it impossible to assign them any trivial
character, and the produce of the seed of different varieties does not
produce the same varieties only, but several varieties, proving that the
changes are entirely owing to cultivation ; nor do the plants, cultivated
at 6,000 feet in the Himalayas, differ in the least in their varieties from
those cultivated at 2,500 feet of altitude in the Dehra Dhoon.

" That the Assam plant is a marked species' is true, it being distin-
guished bv its large membranous and lanceolate leaf.

Assam species.

small flower, and upright growth.

" It is a very inferior plant for making Tea, and its leaves are there-
fore not used.* Though the plants received from the different districts
of China do not differ from those first sent to the plantations, it is
highly important to know that the Tea plants from well-known green
and black Tea districts of China now exist in the plantations, as it is
stated that local causes exert a great influence in the quality of the
Teas as much as the manufacture does. The expense, therefore,
incurred in stocking the Government plantations with the finest kinds
and varieties of Tea plants procurable in China, though great, will be
amply repaid. From them superior kinds of Tea are produced."

The above extract is a sample of the said " Records."
They abound in errors and highly coloured statements, which
induced many to embark in Tea on unfavourable sites, and
"the red book" (it is bound in a red cover) is not exactly
blessed by the majority of the Himalayan planters !

* A little enquiry would have shown this was not true, even when it
was written. All Tea planters, brokers, and all interested in Tea, know now
(many knew it then) that the " Assam species," viz., the indigenous, makes the
most valuable Tea produced. E. M.

54 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER X.

TEA SEED.

THOUGH there is a great difference in Tea plants (see last
chapter) the seed of all is the same, and it is therefore
impossible to say from what class of plants it has been
gathered.

When Tea seed was very valuable (it has sold in
the Tea-fever days as high as Rs. 200 and Rs. 300 per
maund) it was the object of planters to grow as much as
possible.

High class plants do not give much seed, a plantation
therefore with much on it should be avoided in purchasing
seed.

The Tea flower (the germ of next year's seed) appears in
the autumn, and the seed is ripe at the end of the following
October or early November.

It takes thus one year to form.

Seed is ripe when the capsule becomes brown, and when
breaking the latter the inner brown covering of the seed
adheres to the seed and not to the capsule.

One capsule contains I, 2, 3, and sometimes even 4 seeds.

Though the mass ripens at the end of October, some
ripen earlier ; the capsule splits and the seed falls on the
ground. If, therefore, all the seed from a garden is required,
it is well to send round boys all October to pick up such

When the seed is picked at the end of October or
early November the mass is still in capsules. It should be
laid in the sun for half an hour daily for two or three

TEA SEED. 25

days until most of the capsules have split. It is then
shelled, and the clean seed laid on the floor of any building
where it will remain dry. Sunning it after shelling is
objectionable.

The sooner it is sown after it is shelled the better.

If for any reason it is necessary to keep it, say a fortnight
or three weeks before sowing, it is best kept towards germi-
nating in layers covered with dry mould. But if to be kept
longer leave it on the dry floor as above, taking care it is
thinly spread (not more than one seed thick if you have
space) and collected together, and re-spread every day to
turn it.

For transport to a distance it should be placed in coarse
gunny bags only one-third filled. If these are shaken and
turned daily during transit a journey of a week will not very
materially injure the seed.

For any long journey it is best placed in layers in
boxes with thoroughly dry and fine charcoal between the
layers, and sheets of paper here and there to prevent the
charcoal running to the bottom.

It is scarcely necessary to consider how Tea seed can be
utilized when not saleable, for seed prevents leaf, and there-
fore it should not be grown if there is no market for it. It
will, however, make oil, but the price it would fetch for this
purpose would not compensate for the diminished yield of
leaf it had caused. It is also valuable as manure mixed
with cattle-dung, but it would not pay to grow it for this
purpose either.

My advice therefore is to allow no more seed on the
garden than you require for your own use (even the fullest
gardens require some yearly) or than you can sell at a
remunerative price.

If the object is to produce a considerable quantity of
seed, set apart a piece of the plantation for it, and do not

56 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

prune it at all. A large number will then be produced on
that piece.

If the object is to grow as little seed as possible after the
pruning in the cold weather, which destroys the greater
part, send round boys to pick off such of the germs as
remain.

If this is done ever so carefully, some will escape, enough
say to give one maund seed from 10 acres of garden, and
this as a rule is enough to fill up vacancies in a good garden.

The following figures regarding seed will be found useful,
but remember the higher the class of plant the less durable
the seed :

Seven maunds seed, with capsules, give 4 mds. clean
seed.

One maund clean seed (fresh) =26,000 seeds.

,, ,, (ten days old) =32,000 ,,

,, ,, (one month old) =35,000 ,,

Say therefore, in round numbers, that one maund Tea
seed=3o,ooo seeds.

With good Tea seed, sown shortly after it is picked,
about 20,000 will germinate.

If you get 8,000 to germinate with seed that has come a
long distance, you are lucky.

After a two months' journey 3,000 is probably the out-
side which will be realised.

My experience, with seed imported into another District
from Assam or Cachar, is that more than 4,500 Seedlings
cannot be expected from each maund.

CHAPTER XL

COMPARISON BETWEEN SOWING IN NURSERIES AND
IN SITU.

IN the one case the seed is placed in nurseries at the close
of the year, and the young plants transplanted into the
garden at beginning of the following rains.

In the other the seed is (at the same time, viz., close of
the year, if you can get it so soon) sown at once in the
plantation where the plants are intended to grow.

Each of these plans has its advocates, who don't believe
in the other plan at all ! The question is which is the better ?

Their respective advantages may be shortly summed up
as follows :

NURSERIES.

Advantages. The seed may be made to germinate early
by watering. After it germinates the plants can be watered
from time to time as they require it. Artificial shade
(a great help to the germination of Tea seed) can be given.
The soil can be frequently opened, and the plants in every
way better tended in nurseries.

Disadvantages. The plants lose at least three months'
growth when transplanted, and may die. The trans-
planting necessitates labour at the time of the year it is
much wanted for other work. The expense is greater than
the other plan, for there are the nurseries to make and the
labour of transplanting.

IN SITU.

Advantages. The plants gain some three months in
growth by not being moved. It saves labour at the busy

58 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

time, viz., early in the rains. It saves all the labour of trans-
planting, that is, it saves labour absolutely, and gives labour
when, as stated, it is much required.

Disadvantages. If the early rains (that is, rain in Decem-
ber, January, and February) fail, but few seeds germinate.
In the case of a new garden, the soil must be kept clean six
or seven months before it would be necessary by the nursery
plan. No artificial shade can be given.

It will thus be seen that the advocates of both plans
have much to urge in their respective favours. Which is
better ?

The advocates of each plan are guided by the climate
they have planted Tea in, and the truth is simply that the
better plan for one place is not adapted to another. Planting
in situ where it will succeed is by far the cheaper and better,
and it will do so wherever there are certainly cold weather
and spring rains. Thus (see rain table) it will often succeed
in Assam, Cachar, Darjeeling, the Western Dooars, and
perhaps the Terai below Darjeeling. It will fail in Chitta-
gong, Dehra Dhoon, Kumaon, Kangra, and Hazareebaugh.
In Chittagong, for instance, a garden could never be made
by planting in situ, or, as it is generally called, at stake.*

In this and other matters adapt your operations to the
existing climate.

I will now describe the above two methods of sowing
seed.

* In no climate is the success of it certain, for early rains often fail, and
then it is all loss. I would, therefore, in all cases advise nurseries in reserve.

CHAPTER XII.

SOWING SEED IN SITU, ID EST, AT STAKE.

IT is named "at stake" because stakes are put along in
lines to show where the Tea trees are to be, and the seed is
sown at those spots.

The modus operandi is very simple. A month before the
sowing time (which should be as soon as you can get the
seed), at each stake dig a hole at least 9 inches diameter and
12 inches deep, put the soil taken out on the sides, taking
care, however, if it be on a slope, to put none above the
hole. Do not put the soil near enough to the pit to make it
likely it will be washed back. Such soil as should be washed
in ought to be the new rich surface soil. For this reason
the upper side of the hole should be left free on slopes.
The pits are made a month beforehand to admit of this, and
to allow the action of the air on the open sides to improve
the mould.

If lucky enough to have one or two falls of rain during
the month, the holes will be more or less filled up with soil
eminently calculated to instigate rapid growth. Just before
sowing fill up the pit with surrounding surface soil. Whether
to mix a little manure with it or not is a question. If it is
virgin soil, and rich in decayed vegetation, I say no ; if not
virgin soil, and rather poor, yes ; but it must be strictly in
moderation not more, say, than a man can hold in both
hands to each hole. In filling up the hole, press the soil
down lightly two or three times, or it will all sink later, and
your seeds be far too deep.

When the above is all done, there is a perfect spot for

60 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

the reception of the seed. The tap-root can readily descend
in search of moisture, and the lateral rootlets can spread
likewise. They (the latter) will not reach the outer walls of
the pit for six months, and will then be strong enough to
force their way through.

Now sow the seed. Put in, say, two or three, as the
seed is good or bad, six inches apart ; push them into the
soft soil one inch, and put up the stake in the centre to
mark the spot.

Keep the place clean till following rains, but allow only
hand-weeding near the young seedlings, and occasionally
open the soil with some light hand - instrument, as a
" koorpee," to the depth of half-an-inch.

If all the seeds germinate, and the seedlings escape
crickets, and all live, at commencement of the rains leave
the best and transplant the others to any vacant spot. You
will succeed with some, not with others ; but do not be too
anxious to take up the spare ones with earth round the
roots, and thus endanger the one plant left. That the seed-
ling left be not injured is the great point, the others must
take their chance.

Some people believe in two, or even three seedlings
together, and would thus advise them to be all, or perhaps
two, left. I do not approve of the plan, except, perhaps,
with Chinese plants. Plant as close as you will in the lines,
but give each plant its own home.

There is another mode of planting at stake, which is, I
think, better than the above.

Lay the seed in alternate layers of seed and mould in
beds. The seeds may be laid close to each other, but not
above each other, with mould, say, two inches thick, above,
and then seed again. When they begin to burst, ready to
shoot out their roots, examine the seeds, by taking off the
soil from each layer, every three or four days. Take out

SOWING SEED IN SITU, ID EST, AT STAKE. 6l

those that have burst, and plant with the eye or root side of
the seed downwards. Put all that have not burst back
again. Repeat the operation again and again every second
or third day. Be careful and take them up before the root
projects that is, directly the coating has cracked.

By this means only one seed need be put at each stake,
for it is certain to germinate, and seed may thus be made
to go much further. Great care is, however, necessary in
this operation.

62 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XIII.

NURSERIES.

CHOOSE a level site, with, if possible, the command of water
at a higher level anyhow with water handy. Either irri-
gating or hand-watering for seed beds is a necessity if vigorous
and well-developed plants are to be looked for.

The soil should be of the light, friable kind recommended
for the Tea-plant (see " Soil ") and of the same nature as the
soil of the garden, the ultimate home of the plants. This
latter is all-important, for seedlings will never thrive (pro-
bably not live) transplanted into a new kind of mould,
particularly a poorer kind.

If possible, the soil of the seed beds should be poorer
than the soil of the garden on no account richer. Taking
care it is of the same nature as the garden soil, choose the
poorest you can find. The principle is well known in
England, and it applies equally to India. From poor to
rich soil plants thrive, but never the other way.

For the above reason, if you manure seed beds, do it very
sparingly.

Artificial shade for seed beds is a necessity ; at least very
many more seeds will germinate when it is given.

Natural shade over seed beds is very bad ; for, firstly, " the
drippings " are highly injurious ; and, secondly, shade is only
required till the plants are two or three inches high ; after
that any shade is bad, for plants brought up to the time of
transplanting in shade are never very hardy.

Seed beds, where water is handy, should not be dug deep.
If so dug, and the soil is consequently loose a long way down,

NURSERIES. 63

the tap-root will descend quickly, and will be too long when
transplanted. As water can be given when it is necessary,
there is no need for the tap-root to go down low in search of
moisture.* A long tap-root is generally broken in " lifting "
the seedling from the bed.

Seed beds raised, as is the usual custom, above the paths
that run between them, are objectionable. They part with
moisture too freely. They should, on the contrary, be below
the level of the paths, and there is another advantage in
this, for the said paths can then be used partly as supports
for the artificial shade, and thus do away with the expense
of long wooden stakes.

As the seed beds are only required until the beginning of
the following rains, there is no possibility of their suffering
from excessive moisture. When they are required to remain
later, of course this plan of making the beds lower than the
paths will not do.

Seed is best sown in drills, six inches apart, and each
seed two, or if space can be got, even three inches from its
neighbour. This facilitates each seedling being taken up
later, with more or less of a ball of earth round the roots
an all-important point (see Transplanting, page 76).

The length of the beds does not signify, but the breadth
must not be more than five feet, so that a man on the path
on either side can reach to the middle while hand-weeding
or opening the soil.

After what has been said no lengthy directions for making
the beds are necessary.

Cut down, burn, or carry off all jungle, and then take out
all roots, whether grass or other. Now make the surface

* In planting " at stake " (see last Chapter) the conditions are different.
There the plant is in its permanent home, and the more quickly and deeper
the tap-root descends the better, as the plant will then draw moisture from
low down when the soil is dry.

64 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

level. After this mark off the beds and paths, the latter one
foot broad only, with string and pegs. Then raise the path
six inches above the spots marked off for the beds. This
latter must not be done by earth from the beds, but by earth
from outside the intended nursery. Next dig and pulverise
the soil of the beds to a depth of six or seven inches, no
more, and level the surface.

All is now ready for the seed. A string, five feet long,
with a small peg at either end, is given to two men who
stand on the path at either side of the bed. Each man has
a six-inch measure. The string is laid across the bed,
beginning at one end and pegged down on either side. A
drill is then made along the string about one inch deep, and
this done the string is, by means of the six-inch measure on
either side, removed, and pegged down again in the place
for the next drill. Seeds are then sown or placed along the
first drill made, two or three inches apart, and the earth
filled in. This is repeated again and again till the whole
bed is sown.

If the character of the seed is doubtful it must be laid in
thicker, but with good seed two-and-a-half to three inches is
the best distance.

The sowing finished the artificial shade has to be given.
Along the paths, at five feet apart, put in forked stakes, two
feet long viz., six inches into the path, and eighteen inches
above it. Connect these with one another by poles laid in
the forks ; now lay other (but thinner) poles attached to the
first poles at either end across and above the bed ; and again
across these latter, that is along the length of the beds, split
bamboos, and then bind the whole framework here and
there. The said framework made will then be two feet above
the beds viz., eighteen inches of stake support, and the six-
inch raised paths. The eighteen inches of opening all round,
under the frame, that is, between the frame and the path,

NURSERIES. 65

allows the necessary air to circulate ; while the expense,
danger from high winds, and the objectionable entrance of
the sun at the sides, all of which high artificial shade is
subject to, are avoided by this low frame-work.

Mats are the best to cover the frame-work. In case of
accidental or incendiary fire they are not so objectionable as
grass, for they burn less and slower, but mats are expensive.
Any coarse grass (freed from seed) will answer, and it should
be laid on as thin as will suffice to give shade.

The beds may be watered, if there is no rain, a fortnight
after the seed is sown, and from time to time during the dry
season, whenever the soil at a depth of three or four inches
shows no moisture.

The soil should also be kept free of weeds, and after the
plants are three or four inches high, the spaces between the
drills should be slightly stirred every now and then.

After the seed has germinated, and the seedlings have,
say, four leaves on them, the artificial shade should be taken
away. But it must be done gradually, taking off portions of
the grass first, so that the young seedlings may by degrees
be inured to the hot sun.

Though cultivation, as described, by watering and opening
the soil at times is well, these should not be done much, or
the seedlings will be too large when the time comes to trans-
plant them. Large seedlings do not, as a rule, thrive as
well as moderate-sized ones, after being transplanted.

Among the many very absurd mistakes made in the
cultivation of the Tea plant, none exceeds the ridiculous
way Tea seed used to be sown in the Government planta-
tions in the North-western Himalayas. The seed was
sown in drills, as I have advised, but in six linear inches of
the drills, where it is right to put two, or at most three,
seeds, perhaps thirty were placed ! I do not exaggerate ;
the drill, six inches deep, was filled with them. Many and

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

many lacs of seed, in those days worth many thousand
rupees, were thus sacrificed. Private planters in the Hima-
layas, taught by the Government method, once did the same.
I believe the absurd practice is exploded now.

Seed cannot be sown too soon after being picked. It is
ripe early in November, so the beds should be all ready by
November, and if the seed has not far to come it can thus
be sown early that month.

To each maund there are in round numbers 30,000 seeds,
(see page 56). The number of plants it will take to fill an
acre depends, of course, on the distances they are set apart
(see page 72), but having decided this point, also the area
to be planted, and consequently the number of maunds of
seeds to be sown (see page 56), the following table will be
found useful in calculating the size of nursery required :

Table showing the size of nursery required for one maund and
ten maunds seed, the drills being 6 inches apart, and each
seed 3 inches or 2 inches from its neighbour.

Distance each seed
is set apart in the
drill.

Area in sq.
inches each seed
will occupy.

Area, in sq. feet, of
beds without paths
required for
each md.

Area, including
paths required lor
each md.

Size of nursery,
including the paths
to take in for
10 mds.

3 inches .

3,763

4,513 sq. feet

100 yards

501 sq. yards.

50 yards.

2 inches .

2,500

2,995 sq. feet

100 yards

332 sq. yards.

33 yards.

If nurseries for more than ten maunds are required, then
allow 100 yards to be the breadth, and for each extra ten
maunds add respectively for 3 or 2 inches (see ist column)
50 or 33 yards to the length. Thus fifty maunds will require
nurseries 100 yards by 250 yards, or 100 yards by 165 yards,
according as it is decided to plant the seed 3 inches or 2 inches
apart in the lines.

6 7

CHAPTER XIV.

MANURE.

AN idea existed formerly got, I believe, from stray China-
men, who I don't think knew much about Tea in any way
that manure, though it increased the yield, spoilt the flavour
of Tea. The idea is opposed to all agricultural knowledge,
for high cultivation, which in no case can be carried out to
perfection without manure, much improves the strength and
flavour of all edibles, the product of mother-earth.

My first experience of manure to the Tea plant was
obtained in the Chittagong district from a small garden
close to the station, w r hich has been for some years highly
manured. I w r as struck with the frequency and abundance
of the flushes and the strength and flavour of the Tea. My
high opinion of the Tea was later borne out by the Calcutta
brokers. I allude to the " Pioneer " garden, close to the
Chittagong station. During the best Tea months flush
succeeded flush at intervals of less than a week, while eight
to ten maunds (640 to 800 Ibs.) w r as the yearly yield per acre !
The soil was very sandy and poor.

After-experience showed me that manuring nearly doubles
the yield of plants, and that so far from injuring the flavour
of Tea it improves it, while it adds greatly to the strength.

I shall therefore beg the question that manure is an
advantage. If any planter doubts, let him try it, and his
doubts will soon be solved.

Any manure is better than none, but I believe one of the
best manures for the Tea plant (always excepting night-soil
and the excrements of birds, w r hich cannot be procured) is

68 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

cattle manure. It is not heating, like horse-dung, and may
be applied in large quantities without any risk. The fresher
it is applied, in my opinion, the better, for it has then far
more power. If mixed with any vegetable refuse, the bulk
being increased, it will go further, but I do not think it is
intrinsically any the better for it.

There are several chemical manures advertised for Tea
plants. " Money and Ponder's Chemical Manure," lately
patented by Mr. Ponder and myself, is said to have been
very successful on several gardens. It is manufactured by
Mr. J. Thompson, Kooshtea, Bengal, who will supply all
details.

All garden refuse should be regarded as manure and
buried between the plants. I allude to the prunings of the
bushes and the weeds at all times from the land. To carry
these off the ground, as I have sometimes seen done, is
simply taking off so much strength from the soil. The
greener, too, all this is buried the better.

When it is considered how much is taken from the Tea
plant, it is evident the soil will be exhausted, sooner or
later, if no means are adopted to repair the waste. Where
manure cannot be got the waste must be made up, as far as
possible, by returning all other growth to the soil. But
manure should be got if possible, for it will double the yield
of a garden ; and highly concentrated chemical manures
will, I am sure, be eventually much used on Tea gardens.

The best way to apply it, if enough manure is procurable,
is round each plant ; not close to the stem (the rootlets by
which the plant feeds are not there) but about i foot from
it. Dig a round trench with a kodalee, about 9 inches wide
and 6 inches deep, at the above distance from the stem, lay
in the manure, and replace the soil at top. If the plants
are young the trench should be narrower, shallower, and
6 inches, instead of i foot, from the stems.

MANURE.

If enough manure is not procurable for this (the best)
plan, the most must be done with what can be got, as
follows : If the plants are full grown, and there is say 4 feet
between the lines, dig a trench down the centre and lay in
the manure. The plants will then be manured on two sides.
If the plants are young lay the manure near them on two
sides, if possible, but failing that even on one side. The
principle is to lay the manure at the distance the feeding
rootlets are, and the older the plant the greater distance
these are from its stem.

As to the quantity of cattle manure. Say for plants four
years old and upwards (if younger, less will be an equi-
valent) one maund to 20 trees is a moderate dose, one maund
to 15 trees a good dose, and one maund to 10 trees highly
liberal manuring, and as much as the plants can take up.

Say in round numbers each acre contains 2,500 plants
(4 by 4 a usual distance gives 2,722 plants, as shown at
page 72), and say the manure is procurable at three annas a
maund.*

The following table shows the expense of each degree of
manuring, viz., 10, 15, and 20 trees per maund :

Table showing the possible cost and result of manuring with
cattle manure.

Rate of Manuring

Maunds of manure
per acre at 2,500
plants per acre

Cost of manure at 3
annas per maund
N.B. Ans. omitted

Probable extra yield
of Tea per acre

Value of extra yield
of Tea at Rs. 50 per
maund

Profit by manuring
per acre

Deducting the pro-
bable cost of putting
in the manure, the
following profit is 1
snown per acre

Mds .

Rs.

Mds.

Rs.

Onemd. to 10 plants

250

2 i

125

One md. to 15 plants

1 66

3 1

100

One md. to 20 plants

125

* It is brought and placed between the lines, in one garden in the Chit-
tagong district, for one to two annas a maund !

7O CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

It is not too much to calculate that this will add respec-
tively i, 2, and 2 J maunds of Tea per acre to the yield, and
I have carried this out in the table and shown the results.

I quite believe the results shown will be obtained by
manuring, and I base my opinion on practice not theory.

N.B.l have deducted Rs. 8 for the first, Rs. 7 for the
second, and Rs. 6 for the third, as the probable cost of put-
ting in the manure, as it may have to be carried from the
factory to the garden. If purchased after being placed
between the lines (and if manure is bought of adjacent
villagers they will so place it), the cost would be less.

The above table, of course, only applies to localities
where cattle manure can be purchased at 3 annas per
maund, including carriage to the factory.

The value of the extra yield of Tea is estimated at only
Rs. 50 per maund in the above table, because the leaf which
will give one maund of Tea is worth no more, as follows :

Rs. A. P.
Probable price obtainable for one maund or

80 Ibs. Tea in Calcutta, at 14 annas a Ib.
all round (a fair calculation, one year with
the other, if it is well manufactured) ~..y-.-, 70 o o
Deduct cost, manufacture, packing, transport,
and broker's charges as set out in the
chapter on " cost manufacture," page 162 16 9 o

Value of leaf which will make one maund Tea 53 7

But I prefer estimating it at Rs. 50 only, to be on the
safe side.

CHAPTER XV.

DISTANCES APART TO PLANT TEA BUSHES.

WHEN the idea existed, which it did once, that ploughs
could be used to cultivate a garden between the lines, these
latter, with this object, were placed unnecessarily wide apart.

All distances may be seen in different gardens, viz.,
6 x 6, 6 x 3, 6 x 4, 5 x 4, 5 x 5, 4 x 3, &c., &c.

The plough idea has nowhere been found to answer, and
is exploded.* Still, even for hand labour to cultivate, and for
facilities in picking leaf, it is necessary there should be room
enough one way to pass along. Cultivation here means
digging, and space enough for this must be left between
the lines. Giving so much, what is then the principle that
should guide us ? Clearly, with a view to the largest yield
obtainable, to place as many plants on the land as it will bear.

Four or 4^ feet are, I think, the best distances between
the lines.

They give space enough for air to cultivate, and to pass
along, even when the trees are full grown.

Where manure is obtainable and the soil can be kept up
to a rich state by yearly applications, a garden can scarcely
be planted too close.

I see no objection to trees touching each other in the lines.

On considerable slopes, to prevent the wash of soil, the
plants should be placed as close as possible, say 3^ feet
between and 2 feet in the lines.

* Land before it is planted can be cultivated with ploughs. My manager
is using them largely in the Western Dooars, the land being there all flat. He
uses English ploughs, bought of Ransomes and Sims, Ipswich, with bullocks,
and often an elephant. He finds the latter the best. After ploughing he uses
English harrows.

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

A closely planted garden will grow less weeds than a
widely planted one, and will consequently be cheaper to
work.

As the expenditure on a garden is in direct proportion to
the area, and the yield in direct proportion to the number of
plants (always supposing there is power enough in the soil
to support them), it follows that a closely planted garden
must be very much more profitable than the reverse.

Hybrid plants grow to a larger size than Chinese, and
should therefore have more room.

The following is a useful table :

Table showing the Plants to an Acre, and the Area one lakh of
seedlings will cover, at the distances named.

Distances in feet

Square ft. to
each plant

Plants in one acre

The area in acres
one lakh of seed-
lings will cover

REMARKS

6 by 6

I,2IO

82j\

6 5

6* 4
5 5

30
26

1.452
1,675
1,742

69 1

59fr
57*

Too wide for any
plants.

6 4

1,815

55 J

6 3i
5 4

21
20

2,074
2,178

48 }

49U

For Hybrids, but
still I think too
wide.

6 3

4 4
5 3

18
16
15

2,420
2,722
2,904

4*t]
&\
34*]

Good distances
for Hybrids.

4 3

3,630

27i}

Chinese for early
return.

3i 3i
3i 3

12;
10

3.555
4,148

28 }

24 r

Chinese.

6 3ir

sgj

2,233

Hybrid.

5 3i
5 3i

I6 i

17;

2,726
2,489

36ft
40 j

Chinese.

3i 2

6,223

Best distance for

Chinese on steep

slopes.

On flat lands I advise

Hybrid, if high-class . 4 x 3^ or 4^ x 4

Chinese 3x3

All the following equal one acre :

4 roods. 4,840 square yards.
160 poles. 43,560 feet.

CHAPTER XVI.

MAKING A GARDEN.

I HAVE not very much to say on this head, as most of the
operations entailed are treated separately. Still a few
directions on primary matters are required.

Having selected a site and made arrangements for the
Tea seed required for the first year's planting, you should
commence operations early in October, either by constructing
the nursery, or clearing land on the proposed site of the
garden, as you may decide which mode of planting, viz.,
" nurseries," or " sowing at stake," to adopt.*

If the latter, you should begin to cut the jungle somewhat
earlier, but it is no use beginning to do this before the middle
of September in any case, for before that the jungle would
spring up again so soon that it would be labour lost.

Before you do anything decide how much you will culti-
vate the first year, and make your arrangements for seed
accordingly. Here let me advise you in no case to attempt
more than 100 acres. If you do 100 really well the first
year you will have done very well. Remember you have also
buildings (though few) to construct, and trying to do too
much you may simply fail in all.

Previous to October you should have made yourself
thoroughly acquainted with all your land, so that you can
then fix with knowledge on the best sites for your buildings,
nursery, and Tea plantation.

You will find much on these matters in other chapters
which should be read carefully.

These respective sites having been fixed upon, and sup-

* In no case trust to the latter alone.

74 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

posing you are going to plant in both ways, from nurseries
and in situ, construct the nurseries as advised under that head,
page 62, and also cut the jungle on the intended garden site.

There is not much to say about cutting jungle. Cut all
the brushwood first near the ground, and the big trees later,
so that when they fall they may lie on the underwood. In
the portion you intend to plant at stake you will not have
time to cut down the big trees, and had better simply " ring "
them. If this is properly done, that is, if the ring is broad
enough and deep enough (less than one foot broad and five
inches deep for large trees is not safe), they will certainly
die in a twelvemonth, and will not give objectionable shade
more than half that time. In the part to be planted " at
stake" you must burn all the cut jungle by the end of October,
and it will be well, if you have labour enough, to send men
up the big trees to cut off the branches beforehand, so that
they will more or less burn with the rest. Doing this, and
piling up the underwood to be burnt round the base of the
big trees, will cause earlier death, and diminish the objec-
tionable shade.

Having burnt the jungle, that is, as much as will burn,
and carried off the rest from the parts to be planted at stake,
dig out all the small roots, and that done, dig the whole
some 4 or 5 inches deep. Then stake it off with small bamboo
stakes 18 inches long, showing where the Tea trees are to be
(see page 72 as to the best distances), and then make your
holes and plant your seed at each stake as directed at page 59.

See the way it is recommended to stake land as regards
its lay at pages 45 and 46.

You will probably not have the ground ready before the
end of November (do not attempt more than you can do to
that date), and then take care and keep the seed, as directed
at page 55, until it is sown.

For the part to be planted from nurseries the following
June you have plenty of time. Nowhere have I, or anyone,

MAKING A GARDEN. 75

seen large vigorous Tea plants under trees. It is therefore
evident trees are hurtful, and no more should be left in a
garden than are required for the labourers to sit under occa-
sionally, and to collect leaf under before it is taken to the Tea-
house. The trees that are left should be those on the sides of
roads. One to every two or three acres is ample. After
therefore cutting down all the low jungle, cut down all but the
said few trees (it is cheaper in the end than ringing them),
and then cut off and cut up all the branches into sizes that
will burn readily. Cut up the large trunks also into lengths, for
all that will not burn must be carried off later. Leave all so
lying until February, then choose a day with a high w r ind and
fire it from the windward side. It may burn some days.
Then collect all unburnt into heaps, and fire again and again
until nothing more will burn. Now take out all roots, big and
small, and when well dry, stack all these, and what was left
before, and fire again and again. The land should now be
tolerably clear, and can be dug at once. The roads should
be marked off before this, for they are better not dug.

Now stake the land at the distances determined on, and
a month before the rains, or even more, if you are so far
advanced, make holes for the young seedlings at each stake,
precisely like those recommended for " planting at stake,"
page 59. Only, if possible, these should be a little larger
each way than there advised, say 10 inches diameter and 15
inches deep.

Read carefully the direction as to those pits, and follow
them out here. Much of the success of your planting
depends on these holes.

At the first commencement of the rains transplant, as
directed under that head in the next chapter.

Any large heavy trunks, which cannot be easily carried off
the land, may be placed longways between the lines, but the
less of dead timber you leave lying about the gardens the
better.

76 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XVII.

TRANSPLANTING.

IF the pits for the plants have been all prepared, as directed
at pages 59 and 75, this operation is simple enough.

A fortnight or so before it commences tip all the seedlings
in the nursery. Take off only the closed leaf at the head of
each young plant (see a leaf diagram, page 104), so that the
bud at the base of the next leaf be not injured. Doing this
will make the seedlings hardier and enable them earlier to
recover the transplanting.

On the day you intend to take up the seedlings from any
bed, if you have water enough at command, flood the bed.
This, as you take up each seedling, will cause the soil, being
moist, to adhere better to the roots.

The difference between young plants transplanted with a
ball of earth round the roots, and those moved with their
roots bare, is no less than three months' growth, if even it
does not make the difference between life and death.

Proceed thus to ensure the former. At one short end of
the bed, the lowest if it is on a slope, dig close to the first
row of seedlings a trench so deep that its base shall be lower
than the lowest end of the tap-roots. Then with a five or
six-pronged steel fork (this is better than a spade, for it does
not cut the rootlets) put in between the first and second row,
and pressed down with the foot to its head, force carefully so
much of the row down into the trench. Then with the hand
take up each seedling separately, helping the soil with a very
light pressure (so light that it shall not change the lateral
direction of any of the rootlets) to adhere, and place it in a

TRANSPLANTING. 77

low basket sloping. Do this again and again, till two
baskets are full, when they will be carried, banghy fashion,
to the garden.

When the first row is finished clear away the loose soil,
so that a similar trench to the first shall be formed, and
then proceed as above with the second row, and so on.

No further directions for lifting the seedlings out of the
nurseries are required.

All is ready for their reception in the garden if the direc-
tions at pages 59 and 75 have been followed out. The work
now to be detailed must be done by careful men well
superintended.

In the soft soil of the lately filled up pit, described at
page 59, a hole is made either with the hand or a narrow
kodalee (the former, if the soil has not settled much, will
suffice), large enough and deep enough to take in the seed-
ling with all the earth attached to it. The seedling is then
put in and the. soil filled in and round it, which completes
the operation.

The manner, though, in which this is done is of great
consequence. Four things are all important : (i) That
the tap-root shall not be turned up at the end because the
hole is too shallow. (2) That any rootlets projecting outside
the attached earth shall be laid in the hole, and shall pre-
serve, when the soil is filled in, their lateral direction.
(3) That the collar of the plant (the spot where the stem
entered the earth in the nursery) shall be, when the pit is
filled up, about ij inch higher than the surface of the sur-
rounding earth. (4) That in filling in the hole the soil is
pressed down enough to make it unlikely to sink later, but
not enough to "cake" the mould.

The following is the consequence of failure in these four
points :

i. Probably death, in any case very much retarded

78 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

growth. I have planted some seedlings so purposely, the
majority died ; those that lived recovered very slowly, and
digging them up later the tap-root w r as found to have gone
down after all by assuming the shape of the letter S, the
growth downwards being from the head of the letter.

2. Rootlets, turned away from their lateral direction,
interfere with other rootlets, and though they eventually
grow right if the plant lives, they retard it.

3. Fill in as you may (unless you " cake " the soil, which
induces worse evils) the plant sinks a little ; thus, if not
placed a little high, it will eventually be too deep. If on the
other hand placed too high, the rootlets and collar will be
exposed, which is an evil.

4. Unless this is attended to the plant will sink too much
and the collar be buried ; likewise an evil, which it takes
the young seedling some time to recover.

Only first teaching and then practice will enable either
European or Native to plant well. This is how it should
be done.

Take the seedling in the left hand, holding it by the
stem just above the collar ; then take the very end of the
tap-root between the second and third fingers of the right
hand, and thus put it down into the hole (you thus insure
the tap-root being straight). Now judge exactly the height
of the collar that it be as directed. Rest the left arm then
on the ground to keep the plant steady, release the tap-root,
and fill up the hole about one-third, pressing the soil lightly.
The plant w r ill then be fixed, and you can employ both hands
to fill up the remainder, and keep the rootlets in a lateral
position. Press the soil lightly as you do so, and when all
is filled up press it down a little harder round the stem of
the plant.

All the transplanting should be finished as early in the
rains as possible. A seedling, planted in the first fifteen

TRANSPLANTING. 79

days of June, is worth two planted in July, and after the
latter month it is generally a case of seedlings and labour
lost.

Days with heavy rain are not good to plant in. Those
with showers or light drizzling rain are best. When there
is very heavy rain the soil " cakes" much. Fine days, if
the ground is wet, and if more rain may soon be looked for,
are good, better though if cloudy than sunny.

Where much planting has to be done, of necessity plant-
ing must be carried on daily, for, as observed, it must all be
finished by end of July at latest.

In case of a sunny break in the weather, stop planting
after the second day, for early rain to young transplants is
a necessity.

In making a garden too much care cannot be given to
the way seedlings are placed in their homes.

Just before sending the third edition to press, I saw in
the Indian Tea Gazette some details of " new transplanting
and transporting tools," patented by Mr. Jeben. I hope
these will prove a success, for such are much wanted, and
if they will do all it is said they can do, a great boon will
have been conferred by Mr. Jeben on the Tea industry.

Mr. J. W. Mountjoy, of Pandawbrang, Arracan, writes as
follows regarding these tools :

" The Transplanter has, in working, proved to be a complete
success. Almost all the remaining seedlings have been transplanted
by the aid of your instrument, without the slightest injury to their roots
or check to their growth. The fact is, the young plants do not know
that they have been transplanted, and now that sunshine has suc-
ceeded the late very heavy rains, new and vigorous growth is * bursting
out ' from all the seedlings that were transplanted by means of your
Transplanter. No manager of a Tea or Coffee plantation, who had
once seen this instrument at work, would ever again be likely to recur
to transplanting by hand, and not a single seedling should die when
removed from the nursery and carried to its place of ultimate growth

8O CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

by means of your Transplanter. Your transplanting apparatus is better
than baskets, and has moreover the great recommendation of being
very economical. Your Transplanter will, with moderate care, last
for many years, and combines thorough economy with thorough
efficiency."

I am glad to give the above extract, for I look on the
invention, if successful, as a most important one.

CHAPTER XVIII. 5.^

CULTIVATION OF MADE GARDENS.

As manuring, which is part of this, is treated separately, we
have here only to consider the best means of stirring the
soil to give air to the roots of the plants, and to keep down
weeds, which, if allowed, injure the yield vastly.

Unless when plants are full blown and in full bearing
(and not even then unless they are planted close) it is not
only not necessary, but a waste of labour and money, to open
the soil all over the garden with a view of stimulating or
cultivating the plants. Much money has been wasted in this
way : for instance, in a garden planted 6 by 6 or 6 by 5,
and the plants but two years old, I have seen the whole dug
many times in the year. The roots of the said plants did
not protrude at that age more than I foot or so, what good
could they possibly derive from the extra space dug ?

The soil over the rootlets of Tea plants cannot be stirred
too often. The oftener it is done the oftenerthe trees flush,
and when young the more vigorously will they grow. What
is the best way to do it ?

I believe simply by digging round each plant. I go to
show why this is, I believe, the best.

Putting aside the waste incurred in digging a whole garden
when not necessary, the way the soil is then dug near
the plants is, I think, objectionable. The ground is dug in
a straight line up to the plant, and in doing so, if the digging
is deep, roots are very apt to be cut. Again, when the work
is task-work, the men shirk as much as possible digging
close up to the stems under the branches, and thus the soil

82 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

over much of the roots, is not stirred at all. This is not
easy to detect, for you must look under the branches of
each tree to see how the work has been done.

In " digging round plants " the men should follow the
kodalee round the tree, and the position of the blade in the same
line as the roots makes any injury very unlikely. Even if
tasked, as when the work is examined, it is only round the
plants, it is more readily perceived if the ground has not
been stirred close up to the stems.

I therefore prefer digging round plants, with the view
of cultivating them, to digging the whole garden. I believe
the object is better attained. That it is much cheaper is
evident.

The annulus, or space to be dug round, beginning 9
inches from the stem, varies with the age of the plant. Up
to two years one kodalee in width will do, and after that say
2 feet.

The draw-hoe of 8 inches wide is a better tool for the
above than the kodalee, especially as it is work well suited
to boys, and the " draw-hoe " is a lighter tool.

Till plants from seed at stake are a year old, and till
seedlings from nurseries are the same age, calculating in the
latter case from the transplanting, no kodalee or even draw-
hoe should come near them. The soil round for 6 inches
should be slightly opened once a month or so, but it should
be done with the " koorpee."

We have now discussed the cultivation of the plants.
The above often done, say once a month, if possible, during
the season, with judicious pruning and liberal manuring,
constitutes high cultivation. Did weeds not grow there
would be no need to do more, but weeds do grow, and must
not be allowed. The richer the soil the more weeds, the
more manure you apply the more weeds also.

Weeds choke the plant and diminish the yield. Weeds

CULTIVATION. 83

take from the soil, and from manure, when given, the
strength you want for your constantly recurring flushes.
If, therefore, you have a large crop of weeds you have a
small yield of Tea.

How to stop this ? There is one golden rule, " never
let them get ahead of you." This, it is true, argues ample
labour ; but unless you have ample labour for the area you
cultivate, better let your money lie in the Bank and not
grow Tea. Reduce your area until you can keep ahead of
your weeds, for keep ahead you must if you wish for success.

The secret of keeping ahead of weeds is to destroy them
when young, to do this again and again, as often as they
come up, never allowing them to bear seed. The kodalee,
an excellent digging tool, is not good for this : you want a
lighter instrument, which can go over more ground and will
not open the soil in the dry season to any depth. The
Dutch hoe, the widest procurable in the blade, with a long
lithe handle of 6 feet, is perfect for this.

With weeds at the height fit for a Dutch hoe, viz., 3 or 4
inches, and not numerous (which they will not be if you have
" kept ahead "), a man will easily do 45 square nulls, id est,
720 square yards. He would not do more than 30 nulls
with a kodalee.

The Dutch hoe must be well known. It is used for
weeding drives and walks in England.

To conclude shortly, for "hoeing and weeding" I
recommend as follows :

Dig the whole garden thrice in the year, viz., spring,
rains, and autumn. Bury all weeds as you dig in trenches
between the lines.

In the intervals use the Dutch hoe as often as weeds
appear.

Cultivate the plants by digging round them once a month
if possible.

8 4

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Do all this and you will find your garden is kept clean
and well cultivated, at far less cost than you incurred for
cultivation when it was choked with weeds for months
together, while your yield will be at the same time much
increased.

If you keep your garden thus clean, and do not allow
the weeds to get ahead of you, the following table shows
about the cost of each cultivation operation each time you
do it :

Detail of work

Headman
at

Men
at

Women
at

Boys
at

Total cost

Say in

4^ annas

3^ annas

3 annas

aj annas

Digging the whole surface.

Digging round plants

. .

Dutch hoeing or weeding .

If weeds get ahead the cost in each case will be nearly
double the above.

The following table, which is as near the mark as any
such estimate can be, will be found useful. It will also be
made use of when calculating the cost of making a garden
in Chapter XXIX., pages 164, 165, and 166.

Table showing the cost per annum of keeping up at its best
100 acres of Tea from the year it is planted until the
sixth year inclusive.

Year

Rate per acre per
annum

Per loo acres

Remarks

Rs.

First

5,000

The year the seed is sown at stake

Second

6,000

Third

7,000

Fourth

8,000

Fifth

9,000

Sixth

100

10,000

The plants should be large plants

now, but they will not be at full

bearing until the eighth year.

CULTIVATION. 85

The above rates in the case of a 3oo-acre garden making
will include everything but buildings.

The rates are progressive, because the expenditure on
the following increases, or should increase, yearly.

1. Manager's pay (say every second year).

2. Assistant (first entertained, say third year).

3. Cost and wear of tools.

4. Cost of pruning.
5.. Cost of cultivation.

6. Cost of manure.

7. General expenses.

No cost for Tea manufacture is included in the above,
as this is estimated for separately. See table at pages 160,
161, and 162.

Keeping up high cultivation in every way and manuring
liberally, a made garden in full bearing can be kept up to
its highest producing powers (including the pay of the
manager, establishment, and everything else) for Rs. 100
per acre per annum.

An acre of Tea may, I am aware, be kept up in a manner
for Rs. 50 or so yearly, but the profit on such a plantation
must be nil.

On the contrary, with the above expenditure per acre,
on a good and favourably located garden, the profit will be
very large. See table at page 172.

It is with Tea as with all other cultivation. It has been
proved in England, and in all other countries where really
high cultivation is followed out, that the higher the system
followed the greater the profit.

86 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XIX.

PRUNING.

IT is stated elsewhere at length (page 102) why I conceive
pruning to be necessary for the Tea plant. Whether I am
right or not, the fact is certain that without pruning very
little leaf is produced.

Pruning must be done in the cold weather when the
plant is hybernating, that is to say, when the sap is down.
The sooner after the sap goes down it is done the better,
for the sooner the tree will then flush in the spring.

There have been many theories about pruning Tea
bushes, but none, I think, worth much practically, for the
simple reason that it is impossible to prune 250,000 plants
(the number in a loo-acre garden, at 2,500 to the acre)*
with the care and system a gardener prunes a favourite
fruit tree. The operation must be a coarse one, done by
ignorant men, in large numbers at one time, who can in a
measure be more or less taught, and the nearer they do
right the better : still, really careful and scientific pruning
can never be carried out on a Tea plantation.

The time to do it, too, is very limited. It cannot be
begun before the trees have done flushing, say, at the
earliest, middle of November, or continued, if early flushes
and a large yield next season is looked for, beyond end of
January, at the latest. Thus at the most two months and
a half is all the time given.

I shall confine myself therefore to giving such directions
as will be practically useful.

* In a 500-acre garden the number is 1,250,000, which ought all to be
pruned in two months !

PRUNING. 87

The best instrument is the common " pruning knife."
It cuts far cleaner than the " shears," besides which the
natives very seldom use the latter well. What is called in
England a " hedge-bill " is useful to trim the outsides of the
trees. If required it must be got from England, as I do not
think it is procurable in Calcutta. Whatever instruments
are used should be kept very sharp, and for this purpose,
besides sharpening them every morning on the grinding
stone, each pruner should be provided with a small pocket
" hone."

The theory, and it is correct, is in pruning, to cut near
above a bud or branch, but not near enough to injure them.
The cut should be quite clean and sloping upwards, so that
nothing can lodge on it. This theory can be, and must be,
strictly carried out in cutting the thick stems and branches,
but it is quite impossible to do it with the slender branches
or twigs of the tree.

Prune so as to cause lateral growth. A Tea plant should
never be allowed to exceed, say, 4 feet in height, but the
wider it is the better.

Prune off all lower branches tending downwards,* for
the plant should, if possible, be clean underneath to a height
of, say, 6 inches. This clean stem high class plants have
naturally, not so the Chinese, or the Chinese cast of
hybrid.

Plants should be more or less pruned out in the centre.
In the following spring young wood is then formed in the
heart of the tree, and it is only young wood and shoots that
give leaf.

Plants, if above two years old (see foot note next page),
exceeding 2 J feet in height at the end of the season (and all
plants of any age will) may be pruned down to 20 inches,

* The best plan with the lowest branches is to pull them off, with a sharp
downward action, as then they will not grow again.

88 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

but the thick wood must be pruned down to varying heights
several inches lower.

Small plants must naturally be more lightly pruned.

The best plan is, I think, to have two gangs :

The first to go ahead and cut out the thick wood (here
judgment is necessary, so let them be the best men) to
varying heights, from about n to 18 inches. The second
gang to follow, each with a rod 20 inches long, to cut down
all the light wood left to that level.

All plants, how low or how young soever they may be,
must be pruned somewhat.* The lower their stature and
the less their age the less pruning they require.

Of the two extremes, at least with the Tea plant, it is
probably better to over than to under-prune. The treat-
ment of the plants, with reference to the leaf to be taken in
the spring, must be a good deal regulated by the way, or
rather the extent, to which they have been pruned. On
this point see page 103.

The cost of pruning depends on whether it is high or
low, and whether the plants are large, middling, or small.
The greatest cost is about Rs. 6, the least about Rs. 3 per
acre.

Let all prunings be buried between the lines of plants, if
possible, before the leaves have even withered. They make
capital manure, but much of the virtue escapes if they are
allowed to lie on the ground any time before they are buried.

* But not before the end of 18 months after transplanting, as the object at
first is to get a long tap-root to draw moisture from low down, and this is best
attained by allowing the plant to grow as it will. I look on this as all-
important. I care not how high a plant may grow, for 18 months I would in
no way interfere with its growth.

8 9

CHAPTER XX.

WHITE ANTS, CRICKETS, AND BLIGHT.

THESE insects (for blight, too, is said to be an insect) are very
destructive to the Tea plants. ' The cricket, however, only
injures it when quite young, so we will consider that little
pest first.

When Tea seed germinates, and the young seedling is 2
or 3 inches high, the cricket delights to cut the stem and
carry, or try to carry, the two or three green leaves
attached to the upper part into its hole. Even after seed-
lings are planted out, if the stems are slender, it cuts
them. To the young seedlings, in nurseries or planted " at
stake," they often do great harm, killing in some places
one-third or so.

It is much easier to prevent their ravages in nurseries
than in this latter case, simply because the spot in which they
must be sought and destroyed is circumscribed in the one,
almost unlimited in the other.

Only one thing can be done. Employ boys (they soon
get clever enough at the work) to hunt for their holes and
dig them out. The holes are minute, but run down a long
way. The only plan to follow them is to put in a thin pliable
stick and remove the soil along it. On getting to the bottom
of the stick, if it is not the bottom of the hole, you repeat the
operation till you do get to the bottom, and there you will
generally find the cricket.

Early in the morning they can be often found and caught
outside their holes. The boys employed should be paid for
them by the number they catch. They can be placed alive

QO CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

I and brought to the factory in a hollow bamboo, and then
killed in some merciful way.

/ When once a Tea plant has got a stem as thick as a thick
pencil no cricket can hurt it.

They are much worse in some places than others, and in
my experience I have found them worse on low lands.

The white ant is a much more formidable enemy than the
cricket. They do (as all planters know) attack and destroy
living bushes.* Whether they first attack some small dead
portion or not is a question, but practically it does not
signify the least, for if they do they manage to find such in
about one-third of the trees in a garden. Beginning with the
minute dead part they kill ahead of them as they go, and will,
eventually, in many cases, if left alone, kill the largest trees.

They have a formidable enemy in the small black ant
which exists in myriads, and kills the white ant whenever the
latter is not protected by the earthen tunnels he constructs.
In many places so great is the pest that, did this small black
ant not exist, I believe no Tea Garden could stand.

From the close of the rains to the cold weather is the
worst time for white ants, and the time the planter should
guard particularly against their ravages. At that time if he
examines his trees closely he will very likely find white ants
on a quarter of the whole.

Digging round the plant where they are disturbs their
runs and does much good. At the same time they should be
brushed off any part of the tree they have attacked, and the
tree should be well shaken.

All this, however, only does temporary good, for they
often are found as thick as ever on the plant a week later.

Tobacco water is beneficial, but in wet weather it is soon
washed off.

* A long controversy on this point lately took place in the papers ; that is
to say, the point discussed was, whether white ants do or do not attack living
tea trees.

WHITE ANTS, CRICKETS, AND BLIGHT. QI

Kerosene oil is very efficient. A little is put round the
stem, but it is expensive. The next best thing I know is
the earth oil (petroleum) from Burmah, and this is cheap
enough. It is thick, but used from a bottle it gets heated
by the sun and is then quite limpid.

When white ants are found on a tree, a little with a
small brush is put on the part they have attacked. They
are also well shaken off, and a ring of oil is placed round
the stem. My experience is that they will not attack that
tree again for a longtime. I was at first fearful that both
it and the kerosene (the one, I believe, is only a manu-
facture of the other) would injure the trees, but both are
safe. I strongly recommend others to try it, if they doubt,
on a small spot only in the first instance.

Whatever is used, or whatever is done, white ants must
not be left to work their will in the autumn. All the trees
shonld then be examined once at least, and once again, if
possible, the following spring.

Blight (a serious matter, I hear, in Cachar) I know but
little of. I do not remember hearing anything about it
when I was there, now some fourteen years ago. It is rare
in the Chittagong district, but I have seen one or two trees
attacked with it. Under its influence the young leaves get
covered with brown spots and shrivel. It is most destruc-
tive to the yield of a garden.

From one or two experiments made I believe pruning
off all the diseased branches, and scraping back the soil for
a space of 2 feet round the stem, so as almost to lay the
roots bare, will be found beneficial, but I do not speak with
certainty.

All the Himalayan gardens are free from these three
pests detailed, except that occasionally a few crickets have
been seen.

92 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XXI.

FILLING UP VACANCIES.

So difficult is this to do, that I have heard several planters
declare they would attempt it no further, but, on the con-
trary, accept the vacancies in their gardens as an unavoid-
able evil.

That it is difficult I, too, can certify. Seedlings put into
vacant spots year after year die, either in the rains they
are planted or in the following spring. If, however, a few
yards off a fresh piece of land is taken in and planted, the
plants live. What is the reason ? It can be nothing con-
nected with the soil, for on adjacent spots they live and die.

It puzzled me a long time, but I believe I can now explain
it. First, seedlings planted in vacant spots in a garden are
never safe. When in the rains there are many weeds in the
gardens, and it is being dug, the young seedlings are not
observed, are either dug up, or injured so by the soil being
dug close to them, that they shortly after die. This is, I
believe, the principal cause of the failure, and it may be in
a great measure, if not entirely, obviated by putting, first, a
high stake on either side of the seedling, and taking care it
remains there all through the rains. Secondly, as an ad-
ditional precaution, and a very necessary one, before any
such land is dug, send round boys with " koorpies" to clean
away the jungle round the young plants, and at the same
time open the soil slightly over their roots. Doing this
"cultivates" them, and the plants being apparent, with the
newly-stirred vacant spaces round them, are seen by the
diggers, and are not likely to be damaged.

FILLING UP VACANCIES. 93

The second cause of failure I attribute to the old plants
on either side of the young seedling, taking to themselves
all the moisture there maybe in the soil during any drought.
The young seedling, whose tap-root at the time is not a
long one (for it is in the spring of the year following the
year of planting that this occurs), is dependent for life
entirely on the small amount of moisture that exists in the
soil, at that insignificant depth (say 8 inches). But on two
sides of the said seedling's tap-root, and in fact surrounding
it, if the neighbouring Tea bushes are full grown, are the
feeding rootlets of the big plants, sucking up all the
moisture attainable (the necessities of all plants being then
great), and leaving none for the poor young seedling, which
consequently dies in the unequal contest.

This last evil (in climates where there is a deficiency of
spring rains, and, in fact, more or less in all Tea localities,
for in none is there as much rain as the plants require in
the spring) there is no means of avoiding as long as seedlings,
after transplanting, lose time, the effect of the transplanting,
and thus fail to attain a good depth before the said dry
season.

In fact, unless something is devised, I believe with many,
trying to fill up vacancies is a loss of time and money.

The pits to plant in, advised at page 59, should of course
be made in these vacant spots, for they help much towards
the early descent of the tap-root. Still they can scarcely
avail sufficiently to avoid the evil, if the plant is lying inert,
as is generally the case for two or three months after
planting ; this delay being, moreover, in the rains, the best
growing time.

If we can devise any means to avoid this delayed growth
in the young seedling after it is transplanted, then the tap-
root, before the drought of next spring, will have descended
low enough to gather moisture for itself; that is, from

94 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

lower depth than the greater number of the rootlets of the
neighbouring big plants traverse. Could this be done, and
if the means above detailed are resorted to, to prevent the
young plants being injured when the gardens are dug, I see
no reason why vacancies should not be successfully filled up.
Then might be seen, what nowhere can be seen now, a Tea
garden full of plants, that is, with no vacancies.

When it is considered that many gardens in all the
districts have 30 or even 40 per cent, vacancies, none less
than say 12 per cent., we may strike a fair average and
roughly compute the vacancies in Tea gardens throughout
the country at 20 per cent. In other words, the yield of
Tea from India, with the same expenditure now incurred,
wonld be one-fifth more were plantations full !

I have shown how the first evil can be obviated. I think
the following will obviate the second.

Get earthen pots made 7^ inches diameter at the head
and 7^ inches deep, like the commonest flower pots, only
these should be nearly as wide at the bottom as at the top.
A circular hole, 2 inches diameter, must be left in the
bottom. Fill these with mould of the same nature as the
soil of the garden where the vacancies exist. Put two or
three seeds in each, all near the centre, and not more than
half an inch below the surface. Place these pots, so filled,
near water, and beneath artificial shade, as described in
Chapter XIII.

When the seeds have germinated, and the seedlings
have two or three leaves, so that you can judge which is
the best class of seedlings in each pot,* root out all but one,
the best one. Now remove the shade gradually, water
from time to time, and let the seedlings grow in the
pots till the rains. Having, before the rains, made the
holes at the vacancies as before described, after the first

* By " best class" I mean the most indigenous class.

FILLING UP VACANCIES. 95

fall carry the pots to the garden and place each one near
a hole.

Then plant as follows. Stand the pot on the brink of the
hole, having previously with a hammer broken the bottom.
Then crack the sides also gently, and deposit pot and all in
the hole at the proper depth. If not enough broken, the sides
of the pot may now be further detached, nay, even partially
removed. Now fill up with earth to the top. Pieces of the
pot left in the hole will do no harm ; but it, the pot, must be
sufficiently broken at the bottom to allow of the free descent
of the tap-root, as also enough broken at the sides to allow of
the free spreading of the rootlets.

If all this has been carefully done, so that the mould in
the pot shall not have been shaken free of the rootlets, the
seedlings will not even know it has been transplanted. Its
growth will not be delayed for a day, instead of two or three
months ; and by the time the dry season comes, the tap-root
will have descended far enough to imbibe moisture.

Another plan to effect the same object. Instead of pots,
use coarse bamboo open wicker-work baskets. The split
bamboo forming the said wicker-work about half an inch
wide, the interstices about one quarter of an inch square.
Let the diameter of the basket be the same at top and
bottom, viz., 9 inches; the depth of the basket 10 inches.

When the seedlings in the nursery are large enough to
enable you to select a good class of plant, transplant one into
each basket previously filled with soil.* This being done when
the plants are very young, and there being then no difficulty
in taking them up with earth attached to their short tap-roots
and rootlets, they will scarcely be thrown back at all. Being
near water they can also be well tended. Put basket and all
into the vacant hole at the beginning of the rains, and fill up
as directed for the pots. The interstices will allow the feeding

* Mind again this be of the same nature as the garden soil.

96 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

rootlets to pass through, besides the basket rots quickly under
ground, so quickly it cannot impede the plant.

Seed is not sown at once in the baskets as in the pots,
because the baskets would not last so long. Even putting
the seedling in it during (say) February, the basket, with the
occasional watering necessary, will, more or less, have rotted
before it is put into the hole.

I have concluded a contract for ten thousand pots and
five thousand baskets at half an anna each for both kinds.
Two pice, to ensure the rilling up of a vacancy, is not a large
outlay.

Since writing the above I have had experience of both
the above plans. The pot system is far the better, and
answers very well.* I am now trying to improve this still
further by making the pots a little larger, and placing a thin
inner lining of tin inside each about half an inch from the
sides. This space is first filled with sand, then the pot is
filled with mould, and the tin pulled out. The same tin
will therefore do for any number of pots. The seed is then
put in.

I think by this plan if, when about to plant, the mould
in the pot is well wetted, that it, with the seedling, can be
turned out whole in one piece, and then put in the hole
without the pot.

The same pots would then answer year after year, and
the expense would be quite nominal.

If well done, the seedling in this, as in the former case,
would not even know it had been transplanted. t

* The baskets are too frail; being often wetted, they fall to pieces before
the planting time.

f It may be that the transplanting and transporting tools invented by
Mr. Jeben (see page 79) will solve the difficulty of filling up vacancies.

CHAPTER XXII.

FLUSHING AND NUMBER OF FLUSHES.

THE Tea plant is said to flush when it throws out new
shoots and leaves. The young leaves thus produced are
the only ones fit to make Tea, and the yield of a plantation
depends therefore entirely on the frequency and abundance
of the flushes.

The way a flush is formed is fully explained under the
head of " leaf picking" (pages 103, 104, and 107).

The number of flushes in different plantations varies
enormously, owing, first, to climate ; secondly, to soil ; thirdly,
to the pruning adopted ; fourthly, to the degree of cultiva-
tion given ; and fifthly, though not least, to the presence or
absence of manure.

How to secure all these advantages to their fullest
extent is shown under those heads, and we have here only
to consider what is a low, a medium, and a high rate of
flushing per season.

In doing this we must speak of elevated (as Himalayan)
gardens separately. The cool climate of heights makes it
impossible for Tea to flush there as on the plains.

Speaking generally of elevated gardens (the higher they
are the shorter the period, and vice versa), seven months
may be considered as the average producing period, viz.,
from beginning of April to end of October, and during that
time twelve to fifteeen flushes may be obtained, which,
I believe, with high cultivation and liberal manuring, can
be increased to eighteen.

In all localities, with favourable Tea climates, the plants

98 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

flush both for a longer period and oftener. Speaking
generally also, in this case, of the five best localities, viz,,
Assam, Cachar, Chittagong, the Terai below Darjeeling,
and the Western Dooars (for even in these districts many
advantages exist in one garden which do not in another),
the following is an approximation to the flushing periods :

Upper Assam. February 25th to November i5th.

Lower Assam. February 20th to November 2Oth.

Cachar. February 2oth to November 2oth.

Chittagong. March loth to December 2oth.

Terai below Darjeeling and Western Dooars. March 1st
to November 2oth.

The opening period is a little late in Upper Assam on
account of the cold, and closes a little earlier for the same
reason.

Lower Assam and Cachar are much alike.

The opening in Chittagong is later than in the two just
mentioned from want of early rains, but the season con-
tinues longer on account of the low latitude and consequent
deferred cold weather.

Roughly, then, rather more than nine months may be
assumed as the flushing period for these districts. The
next point is how often do gardens in these localities flush
in that time.

Not very many planters can say, certainly, how often
their gardens have flushed in a season, because they are
picked so irregularly, and no account of the different flushes
kept. Enquiring on this point, when I was in Cachar some
thirteen years ago, 9 to 24 were the minimum and maximum
numbers given me at different gardens, showing how little
was really known about it.

Such knowledge as I have on the subject is mostly
derived from carefully kept records of my own garden in
the Chittagong district. The plantation is all worked in

FLUSHES.

sections, in the way described previously, and the dates
given in the table below are the days each flush was finished
(that is, the picking was finished) during the seasons 1869
and 1870 ; 1869 being carried up to the end of the season,
1870 up to the date I wrote the first edition of this Essay.

In the table it will be observed there is a great difference
between the two years. The section for which the dates
are given was planted from seed beds in the month of
June, 1866. In 1869 it was therefore only three years old.
This will partly account for the first flush occurring a month
earlier in 1870, as it was then a year older; but fortunate
early rains in 1870 had also much to do with it.

Flushes

1869

Interval in
days

1870

Interval in
days

Dates

March 22

February 22

May 6

March 30

April 13

June ii

May 5

July 5

June 4

August 10

,, 12

,, 22

Sept. 2

July i

October 9

25 ft

,, 22

AugUSt 2 v .;

Nov. 2

,, II */

,1 II

21 , *..

Dec. 4

Sept. 7 .)

. .

October 5 .

Average intervals between

Nearly 14

Very little

Flushes.

days.

over 10 days.

In 1869 there was no flush between March 22nd and
May 6th, a period of 44 days ; and in 1870, none between

IOO CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

February 22nd and March soth, a period of 35 days, a very
long time in both cases, which is entirely accounted for by
the dry weather prevailing at Chittagong in the spring (see
under head of Climate), for in Cachar, Assam, and the
Western Dooars two or three flushes would have occurred
in that time.

There were 19 flushes in all in 1869, and 22 in 1870, up
to the time I wrote, so there were probably in all 27 in the
latter year.

In the table I give the intervals between each flush. It
shows an average of 14 days in 1869 to 10 days in 1870 ;
the difference is due to the increased age of the plants, and
the liberal manuring given in the cold weather 1869-70.

Such a result as is shown for 1870, and the probable
result of 27 flushes to the end of that season, could not be
obtained without high cultivation and liberal manuring.
The land in question had been manured every year since
it was planted, but an extra dose was given in the cold
weather of 1869-70. The ground was therefore very rich,

I think, therefore, 25 flushes in the season may be looked
for on gardens in good Tea climates, when high cultivation
and liberal manuring are resorted to. Where manure
cannot be obtained, I think, even if in other respects the
land is highly cultivated, more than 22 flushes will not be
obtained. Where neither manure nor high cultivation is
given, above 18 flushes will not be got.

It seems to be a general idea with planters (see diagram,
page 104) that when a flush is picked the succeeding flush,
at an interval of say seven to ten days, consists of shoots
from the axis of the leaf down to which the previous flush
was picked. Thus in the diagram, supposing the shoot to
be picked down to the black line above 2, the idea is the
next flush will be a shoot springing from the same place,
viz., the axis of leaf d. But it is not so. In the above case

FLUSHES. IOI

it will take a whole month, after the said shoot has been
picked, before the new shoot from the base of the leaf d is
ready to take, probably six weeks in Himalayan gardens.

'Tis true the flushes in favourable Tea climates follow at
about seven to ten days from each other, but these are other
shoots. The replacement of the actual shoot taken is a
whole month in developing. I have carefully watched this,
and am sure I am right.

With similar treatment, gardens in Cachar, Assam, and
the Western Dooars would probably give two or three more
flushes in the season than Chittagong, because there the
spring rains are much more abundant ; and I am very certain
that, if the day ever comes that manure in large quantities
is procurable in those districts and is applied, the yield on
those gardens will be very large.*

The difference between very small and very large profits
is represented by 18 and 25 flushes, so I strongly advise all
planters to cultivate highly, and to get all the manure they
possibly can. If even procured at a high figure, it (the
manure) will pay hand over hand.

* Where new gardens are made on rich virgin soil, to manure them at all
for the first few years is, I think, unnecessary. But the richest soils on Tea
gardens get exhausted in time, and manure should be applied before this point
is arrived at.

102 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XXIII.

LEAF PICKING.

THE first consideration is how to get the largest quantity of
leaf without injuring the trees.

To a certain extent, it is true that the more a Tea bush
is pruned and picked the more it will yield. It appears as
if Nature were always trying to repair the violence done to
the tree by giving new mouths or leaves to breathe with in
place of those taken away. I may exemplify my meaning
in another way. A Tea bush which has as many leaves on
it as it requires will throw out tardily new shoots, and their
number will be small. In other words, a plant which is not
pruned, and from which the young leaves are not taken,
grows gradually large and bushy, and then gives up flushing
altogether. It has all the leaves it requires, and it has no
necessity to throw out more.

If, however, Nature is too much tried, that is, if too
much violence is done to her, she sulks and will exert herself
no more. Up to this point, therefore, it is well to urge her.
How can we know when we have reached it ?

Only general rules can be laid down. Experience is the
great desideratum on this and many other subjects connected
with Tea.*

If the plant can always be kept in such a state that the
foliage, without being very much so, is still less than Nature
requires, I conceive the object will be attained.

The greatest violence is done to the plant when it is

* See foot-note, page 86, which shows that for 18 months after transplant-
ing, young bushes should not be pruned or picked at all.

PICKING. IO3

pruned, and reason would seem to argue that when this vio-
lence is repairing, that is, when the first shoots in the spring
show themselves, and until new mouths (or leaves) in
sufficient quantities exist, until then but little leaf should
be picked.

Fortunately, moreover, while in the interests of the plant
this is the best plan, it also is the mode by which the largest
yield of leaf will be secured in the season. I go to show this.

The ordinary size of a good full-grown Tea plant, at the
end of the season, is, say, 3^- or 4 feet high, and 5 feet
diameter. It is pruned down, say, to a height of 2 feet, with
a diameter of 3 feet. It is then little more than wooden
stems and branches, and to anyone ignorant of the modus
operandi in Tea gardens, it would appear as if a plantation so
pruned has been ruined. The tree remains so during all its
hybernating period, that is, during the time it is resting and
the sap is down (this period is longer or shorter, as the
climate is a warm or cold one, and it is always during the
coldest season), but on the return of spring new shoots start
out from the woody stems and branches in the following
way : At the axis or base of each leaf is a bud, the germ of
future branches, these develop little by little, until a new
shoot is formed of, say, five or six leaves, with a closed bud
at top. Then if it be not picked the said bud at top hardens.
At the axis or base of each of the said five or six leaves are
other buds, and the next step is for one, two, or three of
these to develop in the same way and form new shoots. The
original shoot grows thicker and higher until it becomes a
wooden branch or stem. The same process, in their turn, is
repeated with the new shoots. A diagram (see next page)
will make my meaning clear. We here have a shoot fully
developed, of six leaves, counting the close leaf a at top as
one, viz., the leaves a, b, c, d, e,f. The shoot has started and
developed from what was originally a bud at K, at the axis

104 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

or base of the leaf H . In the same way as formerly at K a
bud existed, which has now formed the complete shoot or
flush K a, so at the base of the leaves c, d, e, f, exist buds

i, 2, 3, 4, from which later new shoots would spring. These
again would all have buds at the base of the leaves, destined
to form further shoots, which again would be the parents of
others, and so on tp the end of the season, or until the tree
is pruned.

It will readily be seen the increase is tremendous. It is
only limited by the power of the soil to fling out new shoots,
and the necessities of the plant, for, as I have explained, when
as much foliage exists as the plant requires, but few new
shoots are produced.

Now supposing the shoot in the diagram to be (with per-
haps another not shown at L) the first on the branch / / in
the spring (the said branch having been cut off or pruned at
the upper 7). It is then evident the said shoot is destined to
be the parent and producer of all the very numerous branches
and innumerable shoots into which the plant will extend in

PICKING. 105

that direction. It is, in other words, the goose which will
lay all the future eggs. If, eager to begin Tea making
early, the planter nips it off, the extension on that part of
the tree is thrown back many weeks. It may be taken off
at i, 2, or 3 (the back lines drawn show the proper way to.
pick leaf) ; the least damage will be done if it is taken off at
i, the most at 3.

The said shoot K a is the first effort of Nature to repair
the violence done to the tree by pruning. It is the germ of
many other branches and shoots, and it ought never to be
taken. I have, I hope, made so much plain.

There is, however, another consideration. Any shoot,
left to fully develop and harden, does not throw out new
shoots from the existing buds i, 2, 3, 4 so quickly as one
checked in its upward growth by nipping off its head. For
instance, supposing the shoot under consideration not to be
the first of the season, but on the contrary to be a shoot
when the plant has developed sufficiently to make picking
safe, if taken off at 2, then the new growth from 2, 3, 4 will
be much quicker than it would be had the whole shoot been
left intact.

Our object then with first shoots should be to secure
this advantage without destroying any buds, and this we
can do by taking off simply the closed leaf at the top a.
This must be done so as not to injure the bud at the base
of the second leaf b (I 'have not numbered it, for there is no
room in the diagram to do so), and we shall thus leave all
the buds on the shoot intact.

Again here the interests of the plant, and profit to the
planter, go hand in hand. The closed bud a in this case
will be found very valuable. I go to show this.

The value of Tea is increased when it shows " Pekoe
tips." Only the leaves a b make these. They are covered
with a fine silky whitish down, and, if manufactured in a

IO6 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

particular way, make literally white or very pale yellow Tea,*
which, mixed with ordinary black Tea, show as " Pekoe tips."
In ordinary leaf-picking these two leaves are taken with all
the others, but unfortunately, when manufactured with
them, they lose this white or pale yellow colour, and come
out as black as all the other Tea.

As the season goes on, this is less and less the case, till
towards the end nearly all the a b leaves show orange-
coloured in the manufactured Tea. Still they are not white
(the best colour) as they can be made when treated sepa-
rately. No means have yet been devised to separate them
before manufacture from the other leaf, and though some-
times picked separate, the plan has serious objections (see
next page). In the case, however, of the first two or three
flushes the welfare of the plants demands that no more
should be taken, and though the quantity obtained will be
small, it will, if carefully manufactured so as to make " white
Pekoe tips," add one or two annas a Ib. to the value, when
mixed with it, of one hundred times its own weight of black
Tea!

More will be found under this head in the Tea manufac-
turing part. I now beg the question that the said downy
leaves taken alone are very valuable.

In detailing the mode of picking I advocate, it would be
tedious to go minutely into the reasons for each and every-
thing. I have said enough to explain a good deal, but will
add anything of importance. Of the latter are the following.

Tea can be made of the young succulent leaves only.
The younger and more succulent the leaf the better Tea it
makes. Thus a will make more valuable Tea than 6, b than
c, and so on ; e is the lowest leaf to make Tea from, for
though a very coarse kind can be made from /, it does not
pay to take it. The stalk also makes good Tea, as far as it
is really succulent, that is, down to the black line just above 2.

* I mean manufactured Tea. The infusion is called liquor.

PICKING. 107

The leaves are named as follows from the Teas it is
supposed they would make :

a. Flowery Pekoe.
b. Orange Pekoe,
c, Pekoe.
d. Souchong, ist.
e. 2nd.

/. Congou.

,,. , , ., a, b, c Pekoe.

Mixed together ...

a. b, c, d, e Pekoe Souchong.

If there be another leaf below/, and it be taken, it is
named, and would make Bohea.

Each of these leaves was at first a flowery Pekoe leaf (a),
it then became 6, then c, and so on.

That is to say, as the shoot developed, and a new flowery
Pekoe leaf was born, each of the leaves below assumed the
next lowest grade.

Could the leaves fit to make each kind of Tea it is pro-
posed to make be picked and kept separate, and each be
manufactured in the way most suitable to its age, and the
Tea to be produced, the very best of every kind could easily
be manufactured. But this cannot be ; the price of Tea
will not allow it, and the labour to do it would moreover
fail. It has been attempted again and again to do it, partly
to the extent of taking the Pekoe leaves a, b, c separate
from the others (for the manufacture best suited to these
upper leaves is not suited to the lower), but it has been as
often abandoned, and I doubt if it is now practised any-
where. I am sure it will never pay to do it.

Picking leaf is a coarse operation. It is performed by
80 or 100 women and children together, and it is impossible
to follow each, and see it is done the best way. They must
be taught, checked, and punished if they do wrong, and
then it will be done more or less right ; but perfection is not
attainable.

IO8 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

I advise the following plan in picking. Please refer to
the diagram :

If the garden has been severely pruned (as it ought to
be) take only the bud a for two flushes ; then for two more
nip the stalk above i, taking the upper part of leaf c, as
shown (done with one motion of the fingers). But from the
fifth flush take off the shoot at the line above 2, and by
a separate motion of the fingers take off the part of leaf e
where the black line is drawn. By this plan, when the rains
begin, the trees will show a large picking surface, for plenty
of buds will have been preserved for new growth. After the
month of August you may pick lower if you like, as you
cannot hurt the trees. For instance, you may nip the stalk
and upper part of leaf e together, and separately the upper
part of/.

The principle of picking is to leave the bud at the axis
of the leaf down to which you pick intact.

Some planters pick all through the season at the line
above i, and take the d and perhaps the e leaf separately. I
do not like the plan, for though it will make strong Teas, the
yield will be small. Moreover, the plants will form so much
foliage ; they will not flush well ; and again, they will grow
so high that boys who pick will not readily reach the top.

Shortly, the principle I advocate is to prune severely, so
that the plant in self-defence must throw out many new
shoots ; to be sparing and tender with these until the
violence done to the tree is in a measure, but not quite,
repaired ; then, till September, to pick so much that the
wants of the plant in foliage are never quite attained ; and
after September to take all you can get.

I believe this principle (for the detailed directions given
may be varied, as for instance when trees have not been
heavily pruned) will give the largest yield of leaf, and will
certainly not injure the plants.

CHAPTER XXIV.

MANUFACTURE. MECHANICAL CONTRIVANCES.

To manufacture your leaf into good Tea is certainly one of
the first conditions for success. It will avail little to have a
good productive garden if you make inferior Tea. The
difference of price between well and ill-manufactured Tea is
great, say 4 as. or 6d. a lb., and this alone will, during a
season, represent a large profit or none.

Fortunately for Tea enterprise, the more manufacture is
studied the more does it appear that to make good Tea is
a very simple process. The many operations or processes
formerly considered necessary are now much reduced on all
gardens. As there was then, that is formerly, so there is
now, no one routine recognized by all, or even by the
majority ; still simplicity in manufacture is more and more
making its way everywhere ; and as the real fact is that to
make the best Tea, but very few, and very simple, processes
are necessary, it is only a question of time ere the fact shall
be universally recognised and followed out.

For instance, panning the " roll " * was formerly
universally practised. Some panned once, some twice,
some even three times ! But, to-day, pans are not used in
most gardens at all ! ! Other processes, or rather in most
cases the repetition of them, have been also either discarded
or abridged. But a short statement of manufacture in old

* In describing manufacture I shall call the leaf brought in " Leaf," until it
enters on the rolling process ; from that time until the drying over charcoal
is concluded, " Roll ; " and after that, " Tea."

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

days, and the simplest mode of manufacture, will best
illustrate my meaning :

One and a common old plan

One plan to-day by which the best Tea
can be made

Number

Days

Detail

Days

Detail

operations

ISt

Withering.

ISt

Withering.

ist Rolling.

Rolling.

2nd ,,

Fermenting.

2nd "|

Sunning (if sun).

ist Panning.

Firing (Dholing).

2nd *

3rd Rolling.

2nd Panning.

4th Rolling.

Sunning.

ist Firing (Dholing).

3rd

Cooling and crisping.
2nd Firing (Dholing).

Total days and
operations.

Total days and
[operations.

So much for simplicity, and I affirm that no more than
the five operations detailed are necessary. I shall try to
show this further on.

In studying Tea manufacture I first tried, in order to
get reliable data to go on, to ascertain the effect of each
and every operation, and not only that, but the effect on the
made Tea of each operation exaggerated and diminished. It
would be tedious, and of no use, to set out in detail all the
experiments I conducted, the results only I will try to give.

I began at the beginning. Why wither at all ? I made
Tea (following out in each case all the other processes
detailed in the old plan) of ist, totally unwithered leaves ;
2nd, of leaves but little withered ; 3rd, of leaves medium-
withered ; and 4th, of leaves over-withered.

I arrived at the following results : Unwithered or
under-withered leaves break in the rolling and give out

MANUFACTURE. Ill

large quantities of a light green coloured juice during the
same process. The Tea is much broken and of a reddish
grey colour. The liquor is very pale in colour, cloudy,
weak, soft, and tasteless.

Over-withered leaf on the other hand takes a good twist
in the rolling, gives out but little juice, which is of a thick
kind, and of reddish yellow colour. The tea is well twisted,
" chubby" in appearance, and blacker than ordinary. The
liquor of an ordinary depth of colour, clear, with a mawkish
taste.

The medium-withered leaves make good Tea, but I
found the withering should be rather in excess of what is
generally done to ensure strength. I will show later to
what extent I think leaf should be withered.

The next point was rolling. I knew some planters rolled
the leaf hard, others lightly. That is, some rolled with
force till much juice was expressed, others with a light
hand, allowing little or no juice to be pressed out. Which
was the better ?

After many experiments I arrived at the following :
Hard rolling gives darker coloured and stronger liquor than
light rolling. Hard rolling destroys Pekoe tips,* inasmuch
as the juice expressed stains them black.

Light rolled Tea has therefore many more Pekoe tips
than hard rolled.

Hard rolled Tea is somewhat blacker than light rolled.

In all, therefore, but the point of Pekoe tips hard rolling
is better.

The next question was, what is the advantage of repeated
rolling? I rolled twice, panning once between, vide old
plan, and found the Tea as well made and as strong as
that rolled three or four times. I then decided to roll no

* Pekoe tips are the whitish or orange-coloured ends that may be seen in
Pekoe Tea. See pages 105, 106, and 116.

112 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

more than twice. The second time was, I then thought,
necessary, as I found the leaf of the roll opened in the pan,
and a second rolling was requisite to twist it again.

But what did panning do ? I heard pans had been dis-
continued in some gardens. In what way was panning an
advantage ? I made Tea, fermenting it between the two
rollings, but not panning it, and it was equally good. I
tried again and again, but never could detect that panning
caused any difference to either the Tea, the liquor, or the
out-turn.* In short, though I never found panning did any
harm, I equally found it never did any good. Its use is, in
fact, simply barren of all results.

I therefore dispensed with it. Having done so, why roll
the second time at all ? I experimented, and found the
second rolling as barren of results as the panning.

I had now got rid of operations 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 in the
old plan. The next was No. 9 " sunning." I made Tea
with and without it, and found as follows :

Sunning between the fermenting and firing processes has
no effect whatever on the liquor or the out-turn, but it
makes the Tea rather blacker, and as it drives off much of
the moisture in the roll, the firing process after it is shorter
and does not consume so much charcoal. What little effect
therefore it has is good (for if not continued too long, it
does not make the Tea too black) and it is economical. I
therefore decided on retaining it.t

Next came the operations 10, n, and 12, viz., " first
firing, cooling and crisping, and second firing." Where
these are done (and they are done in some gardens now)
the usual thing is to half-fire the roll the same afternoon and

* The out-turn consists of the Tea leaves after infusion.

t At the end of the season, however, sunning has more than the above
effect. It then make^ the Tea " Chubby" in form, of a reddish colour, and
improves the strength of the liquor.

MANUFACTURE. 113

evening it is made, then allow it to " cool and crisp" all
night, and finish the firing next day. I tried this plan, and
also the plan I have now adopted, of doing the whole firing
at one time the same evening. I tried the experiment again
and again, and always found the Tea, the liquor, and the
out-turn were the same in both cases. In short, that the
three operations did no more and no less than the one. As
the three entail extra labour and extra expense in charcoal
I abandoned them.

I thus reduced the twelve operations detailed to five,
and naturally by so doing much decreased the cost of
manufacturing Tea. I in no way lay claim to having
devised this simplicity myself. Part had been done by
others before I even turned my attention to it, and I have
done no more than help with many to make the manu-
facture of Tea a simple process.

I was now convinced that (though I had still much to
learn regarding the said five processes) success was com-
prised therein, and that to multiply them could not avail.

The next consideration is What are the qualities
desired in Tea to enable it to command a good price at the
public auctions either in Calcutta or London ? The brokers
in these cases judge of the Tea first, value it, and give their
report and valuation to intending purchasers and sellers.
From what appearances and qualities do they judge ?

They judge from three things, first, the Tea; secondly,
the liquor ; thirdly, the out-turn.

The Tea. The colour should be black, but not a dead
black, rather a greyish black with a gloss on it. No red leaf
should be mixed with it, it should be all one colour. The
Tea should be regular : that is, each leaf should be about
the same length, and should have a uniform close twist, in
all but " broken Teas." (These latter are called " broken "
because the leaf is more or less open and broken.) The Tea

114 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

should also be regular of its kind, that is, if Pekoe all Pekoe,
if Congou all Congou ; for any stray leaves in a Tea of
another kind, if even of a better kind or class, will reduce its
value. In the higher class of Teas, viz., Pekoes and broken
Pekoes, the more Pekoe tips that are present the higher, in
consequence, will its price be.

The Liquor. In taste this should be strong, rasping, and
pungent, with, in the case of Pekoes, a " Pekoe flavour."
There are other words used in the trade to particularise
certain tastes, but the words themselves would teach
nothing. Tea tasting cannot be learnt from books. // the
liquor is well flavoured, as a rule, the darker it is in the cup
the better. But to judge of Teas by the colour of the liquor
alone is impossible, for some high-class Teas have naturally
a very pale liquor.

The Out-turn. A good out-turn is generally indicative of
a good Tea. It should be all, or nearly all, one colour. No
black (burnt) leaves should appear in it. A greenish tinge
in some of the leaves is not objectionable, and is generally
indicative of pungent liquor, but the prevailing colour
should be that of a bright new penny.

Every planter should be more or less of a Tea-taster,
and should taste his Teas daily. After a time (particularly
if he gets other Teas to taste against his own) he will learn
to recognise, at all events, a good as against a bad Tea, a
strong as against a weak Tea, &c. No Tea should be put
away with the rest until it has been tasted. It may be
burnt or have other defects, not apparent till infused, and
one day's bad Tea will bring down considerably the value
of a whole bin of good Tea.

The fancy, amongst brokers and dealers, for " Pekoe
tips," in all Pekoe Teas, constitutes the one great difficulty
in Tea manufacture. If the leaves which give " Pekoe tips "
(see page 106) are separated from the other leaves, and

MANUFACTURE. 115

manufactured separately and differently, that is rolled very
little and very lightly, not allowed to ferment at all, but
sunned at once after rolling, and, if there is sun enough,
finished in the sun, otherwise by a very light and gradual
heat best placed above the drawers in the Dhole-house ; if
this is done, I say, these will come out perfect " Pekoe
tips" of a white colour, which is the best.

If not separated from the other leaf, but manufactured
with it, the sap from the other leaves, expressed in the
rolling, stains these said leaves, which are covered with a
fine white silk down, and makes them black like all the rest
of the Tea ; the whole of which is then valued lower because
there are no " Pekoe tips."

Now, in the latter case the " Pekoe tips" are there all
the same, only they don't showi The Tea is really just as
good, in fact a shade better, with black than with white or
orange tips,* but it does not sell so well, and as we cannot
argue the brokers or dealers into a rational view of the case,
we must humour their fancy (they are virtually our masters)
and give them the Pekoe tips if we can.

How are we to do it ? The plan of picking these small
leaves separately, in order to manufacture them separately,
does not answer ; it is too expensive ; it diminishes the yield
of a garden, and labour for it fails. All this is shown at
pages 107 and 130. Is there any other way ?

It may be done during some periods of the season when
there is not leaf enough on the garden to employ all the leaf-
pickers, by setting a number of them to separate the said
two leaves from the others after the whole leaf is brought to
the factory. This is expensive, but it pays when there is
labour to do it, for then the Teas can be made very showy
and rich with white Pekoe tips.

* It is better, because the " tips" having been hard-rolled give stronger
liquor.

Il6 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

An ingenious planter, a Mr. McMeekin, in Cachar, in-
vented a rolling table with the object of separating the said
leaves. It is constructed of battens, and while rolling the
leaf on it, many of the small leaves fall through. The said
table is now well known in Cachar, and is in use in several
gardens. I have tried it and find that it in a great measure
answers its object, but the objection to it is that the leaf
must be rolled lightly, and lightly-rolled leaf, as observed,
does not make strong Tea.

The Pekoe tips may be, in a great measure, preserved
by rolling all the leaf lightly on a common table. But then
again the Tea is weak, and the plan will not give so many
Pekoe tips as McMeekin's table.

In short, in the present state of our knowledge, except by
the hand process (a tedious and expensive one for separating
the leaf), strong Teas and Pekoe tips are incompatible.

The difficulty is just where it was, and will so remain
until dealers give up asking for Pekoe tips (not a likely
thing), or till a machine is invented to separate quickly and
cheaply the two said small leaves from the others after they
have been all picked together. That such a machine is
possible I am certain, and the inventor would confer a boon
on the Tea interest far beyond the inventor of any other
machine, for all the other processes can be done by hand
without much expense, this cannot.

I may here notice such machines and contrivances as
exist for cheapening the manufacture of Tea, or rather such
as I know of.

Rolling-machines have for their object the doing away with
hand labour entirely for rolling the leaf. Kinmond's rolling-
machine is first on the list, for it is the best yet invented.*

* It was the best, but is superseded by a new rolling-machine (Jackson's)
I have seen quite lately.

Note to Third Edition. Jackson's rolling-machine, by a late Calcutta

MANUFACTURE. 117

Kinmond's consists of two circular wooden discs, the
upper one moving on the lower, which is stationary, with an
eccentric motion. The adjacent faces of the said discs are
made rough by steps in the wood, cut in lines diverging
from the centre to the circumference, and over these rough
faces is nailed coarse canvas.

The leaf is placed between the discs and rolled by the
motion described. The lower disc is arranged by means of
weights running over pulleys, so that it shall press against
the upper with any force desired.

The motive power, as designed by the inventor, is either
manual, animal, or steam.

Mr. Kinmond showed me this machine, just after he had
invented it, at the Assam Company's Plantations in Assam,
and I have since seen it working by manual and steam
power. With the former it is quite useless, for by no
arrangement can sufficient or regular force enough be
applied. With the latter it does very well, and on a large
garden which will render the outlay for the machine and
engine justifiable (the former is, for such a simple machine,
very expensive), it may probably eventually prove an
economy.

Not having seen it under animal power, I can give no
positive opinion as to how it would answer, but I see no
reason why it should not do well. I believe wind or water
power might, on suitable sites, be easily applied to it, and
they would certainly be the cheapest of any.

Another rolling-machine was invented by a Mr. Gibbon,
and a good deal used in Cachar. I have never seen it.

Kinmond's is, I believe, the best rolling-machine yet

legal decision, is declared to be simply Kinmond's, with alterations. As
Jackson is now prohibited from selling his machines, I presume the two
inventors will come to some understanding as to the alterations, which are
most certainly improvements.

Il8 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

invented (though it is fair to state I know no other except
by report), but I do not believe in any Tea rolling-machine
superseding entirely the necessity of hand-rolling.* A rolling-
machine may be, and is, very useful to roll the leaves partly,
that is, to break the cells, and bring the leaf into that soft
mashy state that very little hand labour will finish it. No
rolling-machine yet invented can, I think, do more than
this, and it is, I think, doubtful if any will ever be invented
that will do more. Machines do not give the nice final
twist which is obtained by the hand. I was told lately that
most of the gardens in Cachar that had machines had
dropped them and gone back to hand-rolling. I cannot
help thinking this is a mistake. They should use both, the
hand-rolling for the final part alone. Very few rolling-men
would then suffice, with the aid of the machine, to manu-
facture a large quantity of leaf.

I only know of one other Tea rolling-machine, which
is Nelson's. It does not profess to do more than prepare
the green leaf for rolling, which, as stated above, is, I think,
all that any machine will ever do. I have never seen it
working, but it appears simple, being nothing more than a
mangle. The leaf is placed in bags, and then compressed
under rollers attached to a box, weighted with stones. The
prospectus states, it will prepare 80 Ibs. green leaf in fifteen
minutes, and that one man can then finish as much of such
prepared leaf in three minutes as would occupy him twelve
minutes if the same had not been prepared. I see nothing
unlikely in this. The machine, though inferior to Kinmond's
in its arrangement, ought to be cheap enough to bring it
within the reach of all. f

* I had not seen Jackson's machine when I thought as above.

f Unfortunately it is not. It is advertised at Rs. 300, with a yearly
royalty of Rs. 50 the first year and 20 after. The royalty should be dropped,
and the machine sold for Rs. 150, which would give the inventor a good
profit.

MANUFACTURE. IIQ

I have already spoken of one of McMeekin's inventions.
His chest-of-drawers for firing Tea is, I think, superior to
his batten table. It is now so well known, and in such
general use, that I shall describe it very shortly. It is
nothing more than a low chest-of-drawers, or trays fitted in
a frame one above the other, the bottom of each tray being
fine iron wire, so that the heat of the charcoal, in the
masonry receptacle over which it is placed, ascends through
all the drawers and thus dries or fires a large quantity of
" roll " at the same time. By the old plan, a single wicker
sieve was inserted inside a bamboo frame called a " dhole,"
which was placed over a charcoal fire made in a hole in the
ground. On the sieve the roll was placed, and all the heat,
after passing through this one sieve, was wasted. Mr.
McMeekin's idea was to economise this heat by passing it
through several drawers.

Most planters use these drawers, and there is no doubt
in the space saved, and the economy of heat : it is a great
step in advance over the old barbarous method, where not
only was the heat wasted after passing through one sieve,
but a great deal was lost through the basket work of the
"dhole" itself.

Still I do not advocate four, still less five drawers one
above the other. I think the steam ascending from the
lower drawers must, more or less, injure the roll in the upper
ones. I confine myself to two, and even then in the top
tray leave a small circular space vacant by which the steam
from the lower drawer can escape. I utilize the heat that
escapes, partially, by placing " dhallas " in tiers above, with
roll in them. These are supported by iron rods let into the
wall, and are useful not only for partly drying the roll, but
also for withering leaf when there is no sun.

Some planters have proposed to do away with charcoal
altogether under McMeekin's drawers, supplying its place

I2O CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

by hot air. The first point in considering this invention is
the question whether the fumes of charcoal, as some assert,
are necessary to make good Tea. If they are not necessary
(that is, if they produce no chemical effect on the Tea, and
therefore heat from wood devoid of smoke would do as well)
there can be no doubt such heat would be cheaper, and
more under command, by this or some other plan. Are
then the fumes of charcoal necessary ?

I do not know that anyone can answer the query. I
certainly cannot, for I have never made Tea with any other
agent than charcoal, and I have never met with more than
one planter who had. He said the Tea was not good. Still
it would, I think, require very careful and prolonged experi-
ments to establish the fact either way. Speaking theoreti-
cally, as it appears, the only effect of charcoal is to drive all
the moisture out of the roll and thus make it Tea, I cannot
but believe other heat would do as well. It is, however, a
question that only experience can solve.*

I have now (four years since the above was written, and
at the time I am preparing the second edition of this essay)
been for some time employed on experiments with a view
to settle the above question. Whether I shall be able to
devise a simple apparatus to effect the manufacture of Tea
without charcoal is doubtful, but I can, I think, now safely
affirm that the fumes of charcoal are not necessary to make
Tea. On this point I am myself quite satisfied. The
advantages of making Tea with any fuel (wood, coal, or
anything else) would be numerous :

i. Economy.

2. Absence of charcoal fumes.

3. Less chance of fire in Tea Houses.

4. Probably reduced temperature in Factories.

* Note to 3rd edition. It is a question no longer. Many besides myself
have now proved that charcoal fumes are in no way necessary.

MANUFACTURE. 121

5. Great saving of labour.

6. Saving of fuel for it takes much wood to make a
given weight of charcoal. -

In addition to all the above, the wholesale destruction of
forests that now takes place in all Tea Districts, in order to
supply the charcoal for Tea, would be much lessened.*

I have seen a machine advertised for packing Tea, that
is to say, for so pressing it down that a large quantity shall
go into a chest. I have never seen the machine, and so
cannot say how it works, but I do not think such a machine
at all necessary. By the mode of packing, described at page
150, as much Tea as a chest will hold with safety can be put
into it. If more were forced in, the chest would probably
come to pieces in transit.

I see a sifting machine is now being advertised " Jack-
son's sifting machine." I have seen drawings of it, but not
the machine itself. In the one respect, that it is much larger
than anything used hitherto, it is more likely to succeed.

There is a machine for sifting and fanning Tea at one
and the same time. I know not who invented it. It is a
simple winnowing machine with sieves placed in front of the
fan. By means of a rod and crank attached to the axle of
the revolving fan the sieves are made to shake from side to
side when the fanners are turned. The Tea is put into the
upper sieve, a coarse one, and passing successively through
finer ones, is thus sorted into different Teas. The open leaf
at the same time is blown out by the fan.

I purchased one, but I do not find it does the work well.
Sifting Tea is a nice process, and I did not find it sorted
the Teas with any nicety. I have taken out the sieves, and
use it now only for fanning, which it does very well, though
no better than an apparatus which could be constructed at
one-third the cost.

* See this subject further discussed in the Addenda.

122 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

I do not believe in any present or future machine for
sifting Tea, inasmuch as it is an operation which, to be well
done, has to be continually varied. More will be said on
this head further on.

I have now detailed shortly all the Tea machines or
contrivances I know, or have heard of, and I think there is
plenty of room yet for inventors.* The machine, as before
observed, most to be desired is one to separate the small
Pekoe leaves from the others, ere the rolling of the leaf is
commenced. If such a machine existed, it would much
increase the value of all Indian Teas, and if the Agricultural
and Horticultural Society are inclined to offer a prize for
any machine, it should be this.

At the point where the separation should take place, the
stalk is much tenderer than elsewhere, and this led me to
think a blow or concussion on the mass of green leaf might
effect the object. I attached a bow by the centre to an
immovable board, placed at right angles to the plane of a
table (like the back of a dressing table), and then, causing
leaf to drop from above, subjected it to sharp strokes from
the string of the bow. It effected the object partially, for
many Pekoe ends were detached, but it bruised and cut the
other leaf too much also. I believe a revolving barrel, with
blunt but thin narrow iron plates inside, which would strike
the leaf placed within, as the barrel was turned, would
perhaps answer. I give the above idea for what it is worth,
for any inventive genius to improve on.

As it is impossible, as far as I can see, to construct any
machine which should cut the stalk only in the right place,
ergo, I believe some arrangement which would take advan-
tage of the fact, that the stalk is tenderer there than else-
where, is the only one that could answer.

* I now believe Jackson's rolling-machine, previously alluded to, will finish
the rolling entirely.

MANUFACTURE. 123

Now to return to the manufacture of Tea. I will consider
each of the five operations detailed, which I believe are all
that are necessary to make good Tea, separately.

Withering. There are several tests to show when leaf is
withered. Fresh leaf squeezed in the hand, held near the
ear, crackles, but no sound should be heard from withered
leaf. Again, fresh leaf, pressed together in the palm of the
hand, when released, springs back to nearly its original
bulk, but withered leaf, in like circumstances, retains the
shape into which it has been pressed. The stalk of withered
leaf will bend double without breaking, but fresh leafstalks,
if bent very little, break. Practice, though, soon gives a
test superior to all these, viz., the feel of the leaf. Properly
withered leaves are like old rags to lay hold of, and no further
test, after a time, than the feel of the leaf is necessary.

The agents for withering leaf are sun, light, heat, and
air. Of these the most powerful is sun, for it combines
all the others with it. Light is a powerful agent, for if some
leaf be placed in a partially dark room, and some in a well-
lighted verandah, the latter will wither in half the time the
former will take. If light and moderate ventilation be
present, heat is a rapid accessory to rapid withering.

There is often great difficulty in withering leaf in the
rain. It can be withered in Tea pans, but " the out-turn "
is then more or less injured, for after infusion the out-turn
comes out green instead of the proper " new penny " colour.
Withering in dholes is also objectionable for the same
reason, though if the heat is moderate the green effect is
less. It is further a long and tedious operation.

Space and light are the great wants for withering leaf in
wet weather. Bamboo mechans, tier above tier, should be
constructed in every available space. Large frames, covered
with wire mesh, may also be made (by means of weights
running over pulleys) to run up to the roof of any Tea

124 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

building. The leaf withers well in such frames, for heat
ascends, and much heat is given out by dholes.

It signifies not though where leaf is spread as long as
there is space and light. Houses made of iron and glass
would be far the best for withering leaf, for, if well
ventilated, all the necessary agents for withering, detailed
in the last page, would be present. I do not doubt the day
will come when these will be used, for properly withered
leaf is a necessity for good Tea.*

In dry weather, when leaf comes in from the garden,
spread it thinly anywhere and turn it once early in the
night. It will generally be withered and ready to roll next
morning. If not quite ready, then put it outside in the sun.
Half an hour's sunning will probably finish it.

In wet weather, if there is any sun when it comes in, or
any time that day, take advantage of the sun to wither the
leaf partly, so much that, with the after withering all night
under cover, it will be ready next morning. If not ready
next morning, put it out in the sun, if there is any, till it is
ready.

In very wet and cloudy weather, when there is no sun
and continual rain, so that the leaf cannot be put outside
(for remember that outside, when there is no sun, the light
alone will wither it), artificial withering of some kind must
be resorted to. I have mentioned the only means I know of
for doing this.

As properly withered leaf is an important point in
making good Tea, it is well worth while to keep one or two
men, according to the quantity of leaf, for that work alone.
They soon learn the best way to do it, and if made
answerable the leaf is properly ready for the rollers, the

* Note to 3rd edition I am now sending out the glass necessary for a
glass withering house to be erected on the garden just finished in the Western
Dooars.

MANUFACTURE. 125

object is generally attained. In this and every thing else in
Tea manufacture, give different men different departments,
and make them answerable. Much trouble to the manager,
who should supervise all, and much loss to the proprietor
from bad Tea, will then be avoided.

Rolling. This is a simple operation enough when the
men have got the knack of it. Some planters advocate a
circular motion of the hands when rolling, under the
impression it gives the leaf a better twist. Some like
rolling it forward, but bringing it back without letting it
turn during the backward motion. I believe in neither way,
for it appears to me to be rolled no better, or no worse, by
these plans than by the ordinary and quicker mode of simply
rolling it any way. The forward and backward motion is
the simplest and quickest, and the way all rollers adopt,
who are given a certain quantity of leaf (say 30 Ibs. a fair
amount) to roll for their day's work. In this ordinary roll-
ing the ball in the hand, 'tis true, does not turn much in the
backward motion, for 'tis more or less pulled back, but
whether it turns or not does not, I believe, signify the least.

Rolling in hot pans was formerly extensively practised.
It is not much done now. I have tried the plan, but found
no advantage in it.

Rolling on coarse mats, placed on the floor, might be
seen also. When I visited the Assam Company's gardens
near Nazerah, in Assam, I saw it done there. It is a great
mistake. The coarse bamboo mat breaks the leaf sadly,
and much of the sap or juice from the leaf, which adds
much to the strength of the Tea, runs through the coarse
mat, and is lost.

One and the principal reason why Indian Tea is stronger
than Chinese is that in India the sap or juice is generally
retained, while in China it is, strange to say, purposely
wasted !

126 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

A strong immovable smooth table, with the planks of
which it is formed well joined together, so that no apertures
exist for the juice of the leaf to run through, is the best
thing to roll on. If covered with a fine seetul pattie mat,
nailed down over the edges of the table, a still greater
security is given against the loss of any sap, and I believe
the slightly rough surface of the mat enables the leaf to roll
better. An edging of wood one inch above the surface of
the table should be screwed on to the edges over the mat, if
there is one, to prevent leaf falling off.

The leaf is rolled by a line of men on each side of such a
table (4^ feet is a good width for it) passing up from man to
man, from the bottom of the table to the top. The passage
of each handful of roll from man to man is regulated by the
man at the end, who, when the roll in his hand is ready
(that is, rolled enough), forms it into a tight compressed
ball (a truncated shape is the most convenient) and puts it
away on an adjacent stand. When he does this, the roll
each man has passes up one step.

The roll is ready to make up into a ball, when it is in a
soft mashy state, and when in the act of rolling it gives out
juice freely. None of this juice must be lost, it must be
mopped up into the roll, again and again in its passage up
the table, and finally into the ball, when made up.

There will be some coarse leaves in the roll which
cannot be twisted. These, if left, would give much red
leaf in the Tea. They should be picked out by, say, the
third or fourth man from the head of the table, for it is only
when the leaf has been partly rolled that they show. The
man who picks out the coarse leaf should not roll at all.
He should spread the roll, and pick out as much as he can,
between the time of receiving and passing it on. In no case
allow roll to accumulate by him, for if so kept it hardens
and dries, and gives extra work to the last rollers to bring it

MANUFACTURE. 127

into the mashy state again. Besides which I rather think,
any such lengthened stoppage in the rolling helps to destroy
Pekoe ends, and is certainly injurious to the perfect after-
fermentation, inasmuch as it (the fermentation) partly takes
place then.

This finishes the rolling process. Each man as stated
can do 30 Ibs., but there is further work for him to be now
described.

Fermenting. The balls accumulated are allowed to stand
until fermented. I look on this being done to the right
extent and no more, as perhaps the most important point
in the whole manufacture.

Some planters collect the roll after rolling in a basket,
and there let it ferment, instead of making it up into balls
for that purpose as described. I much prefer the ball system
for the following reasons : When a quantity is put into a
basket together and allowed to ferment a certain time, what
was put in first is naturally more fermented than what was
put in last, the former probably over, the latter under-done.
The balls, on the contrary, can be each taken in succession
in the order they were laid on the table, and thus each receive
the same amount of fermentation. I think further the twist
in the leaf is better preserved by the ball plan, and also that
a large quantity in a basket is apt to ferment too much in the
centre.

It is impossible to describe, so that practical use shall
be made of it, when the balls are sufficiently fermented. The
outside of the ball is no good criterion. It varies much in
colour, affected by the extent the leaf was withered.* You
must judge by the inside.

* The more the leaf is withered the thicker in consistency and the smaller
in quantity the juice that exudes, as also the yellower in colour. Further, the
more the leaf is withered the darker the outside of the balls. Bright rusty red
is the colour produced with moderately withered leaf; very dark greenish red
with much withered leaf.

128 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Perhaps as good a rule as any is that half the twisted
leaves inside shall be a rusty red, half of them green.
Practice^alone, however, will enable you to pronounce when
the balls are properly fermented. There is no time to be
fixed for it. The process is quicker in warm than cool
weather.

The fermentation should be stopped in each ball just at
the right time. Great exactitude in this is all-important,
and therefore, as I say, the balls should be taken in rotation
as they were laid down.

The fermentation is stopped by breaking up the ball.
The roll is spread out very thin, and at the same time any
remaining coarse leaves are picked out.

This concludes the fermenting process.

Sunning. The roll is then without any delay put out in
the sun, spread very thin on dhallas or mats. When it has
become blackish in colour it is collected and re-spread, so
that the whole of it shall be affected by the sun. With
bright sunshine, an hour or even less suns it sufficiently. It
is then at once placed in the dholes, which must be all
ready to receive it.

If the weather is wet, it must, directly the balls are broken
up, and the coarse leaf is picked out, be sent to the dholes.
This is the only plan in wet weather, but the best Tea is
made in fine weather.

Firing or Dholing. In the case of wet weather, unless
you have very many dholes, fresh roll will come in long
before the first is finished. The only plan in this case is to
half do it. Half-fired the roll does not injure with any delay,
but even half an hour's delay, between breaking up the balls
and commencing to drive off the moisture, is hurtful.

In any but wet weather necessitating it the roll can be
fired at one time, that is, not removed from the drawer until
it has become Tea.

MANUFACTURE.

The roll in each drawer must be shaken up and re-spread
two or three times, in the process of firing. The drawer
must be taken off the fire to do this, or some of the roll
would fall through into the fire, and the smoke thus
engendered would be hurtful. If the lowest drawer is made
to slide in and out a framework covered with zinc should be
made to run into a groove below it, and this zinc protector
should be always run in before the lower drawer is moved.
This is part of Mr. McMeekin's invention, and is very
necessary to prevent roll from the lowest drawer falling into
the fire when it (the lower drawer) is moved.

The roll remains in the drawers, subject to the heat of
the charcoal below, until it is quite dry and crisp. Any
piece then taken between the fingers should break with the
slightest attempt to bend it.

The manufacture is now completed. The roll has
become Tea.

All the above operations should be carefully conducted,
but I believe the secret of good Tea consists simply in, first,
stopping the fermentation at the right moment ; and, secondly,
in commencing to drive off the moisture immediately after.

I do not say that the manufacture here detailed may not
be improved upon later, but I do say that in the results of
economy, strong liquor, and well twisted leaf, its results are
very satisfactory, and not surpassed by any other mode at
present in vogue. I do not pretend that it will give Teas
rich in Pekoe tips. To attain this, light rolling as shown
must be resorted to, but just as far as Pekoe tips are
procured so far must strength be sacrificed. Until the
small Pekoe leaves can be detached and manufactured
separately, this must always be the case.

From the Tea made as described by sifting and sorting,
all the ordinary black Teas of commerce, as detailed at
page 137, can be produced, excepting " Flowery Pekoe."

130 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

To make Flowery Pekoe the closed bud and the one
open leaf of the shoot are alone taken, and these are
manufactured alone. It does not, as a rule, pay to make
this Tea at all, though it fetches a long price. It does not
pay for the following reasons :

1. After the head of the flush is taken the pickers that
follow do not readily recognise the remainder of the shoot,
and consequently omit to pick many of them. A heavy loss
in the yield is thus entailed.

2. The after Teas, made without these small leaves,
are very inferior, as they are much weaker, and totally
devoid of Pekoe tips.

3. The labour, and ergo the expense of picking the
flush, is double.

The manufacture of Flowery Pekoe is simple enough.
When the two leaves from each shoot of which it is made
are collected they are exposed to the sun, spread out very
thin, until they have well shrivelled. They are then placed
over small and slow charcoal fires, and so roasted very
slowly. If the above is well done, the Pekoe tips (and
there is little else) come out a whitish orange colour. The
whiter they are the better. If the leaf is rolled very lightly
by the hand before sunning, the liquor will be darker and
stronger, but the colour of the tips will not be so good.

Flowery Pekoe is quite a fancy Tea, and for the reasons
given above it can never pay to make it.

Green Tea.

The pans for this should be 2ft. gin. diameter and nin.
in depth. They should be thick pans, which will not,
therefore, cool quickly. Many are required for this manu-
facture, four or five for every maund of Tea to be made
daily. They should be set up in a sloping position, and the
arrangement of the fireplaces such that the wood to burn

MAN U FACTU RE .

under them can be put in through apertures leading into
the verandah. One chimney will do for every two pans,
and it should be built high so as to give a good draught,
for hot fires are necessary.

Flat-bladed sticks are used to stir both the leaf and the
Tea in the pans, for the hand cannot bear the heat.

The men when working the Tea in the pans should have
high stools to sit on, for it is a nine hours' job.

The bags in which " the roll " is placed at night should
be made of No. 3 canvas, 2 feet long and i foot broad.

I will now detail the manufacture.

To make Green Tea the leaf must be brought in twice
in the day. What comes in at one o'clock is partly made
the same day. The evening leaf is left till the following
morning, laying it thick (say 6 inches), so that it will not
wither. But if the one o'clock or the evening leaf comes in
wet, they must both be dried, the former before being put
into the pans, the latter before being laid out for the
night.

The manufacture thus begins twice daily, viz., morning
and one o'clock, but "the roll" of both these is treated
together up to the time " the roll " is ready to place in the
bags.

The leaf having no moisture in it is placed first in hot
pans, at a temperature of say 160, and stirred with sticks
for about seven minutes, until it becomes moist and sticky.
It is then too hot to hold in the hand.

It is then rolled for two or three minutes on a table
until it gets a little twisted.

Then lay it out on dhallas in the sun (say 2 inches thick)
for about three hours, and roll it thrice during that time,
always in the sun. It is ready to roll each time when " the
roll" has become blackish on the surface. It is not rolled
more than three minutes each time, and then spread out as

132 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

before. If you put on a proper number of men to do this
they do each dhalla in succession, and when they have
done the last, "the roll" in the first dhalla will be blackish
on the surface again, and ready to roll again.

When three rollings are done, the roll should have a
good twist on it.

It is then placed in the pans, at the same heat as before,
and worked with sticks as before for two or three minutes,
until it becomes too hot to hold.

It is then stuffed, as tight as it can be stuffed, into the
bags described above, putting as much into each bag as you
can possibly get it to hold. The mouth is then tied up and
the bag beaten with a flat heavy stick to consolidate the
mass inside, and so it is left for the night.

Next morning it is taken out of the bags, and worked
with the flat sticks as before in the pans for nine hours
without intermission. The temperature 160 at first down
to 120 at the last.

During and owing to this last process the green colour is
produced.* It is worked quicker and quicker as the hours
pass.

The following are the kinds of Tea into which it is best
sorted :

1. Ends ...

2. Young Hyson ..

3. Hyson ...

4. Gunpowder

The relative value is in the order
in which they are numbered.

5. Dust

6. Imperial

The sorting of Green Tea is a nicer operation, and takes
twice as long as sorting Black Tea.

If there are pans enough, and the work is well arranged,
there should be no night-work with Green Tea, for all

* Much Green Tea is coloured, but none from India has been so treated.

MANUFACTURE. 133

should be over by 5 P.M. ; whereas with Black Tea night-
work is generally a necessity.

The price obtained for Green Tea is more dependent on
its appearance than in the case of Black.

It is not easy to make Black and Green Tea in the same
factory.

Green Tea, if well made, pays much better than Black
Tea ; and, as before observed, I think all gardens with
Chinese plants should adopt the manufacture.* When
once the building is fitted for it, and the routine established,
the Green Tea manufacture is always preferred by those
who have tried both.

The Hybrid plant makes the best Black, the Chinese
the best Green Tea.

* Note to Third Edition. Since this was written Green Teas have gone
down considerably in value. They are still much used in America, but in
Great Britain there is but little demand for them.

134 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XXV.

SIFTING AND SORTING.

SIFTING is a very important item in the manufacture of
Tea. Careful and judicious sifting, as contrasted with the
reverse, may make a difference of two or three annas a Ib.
in the sale of Teas.

I was shown some Tea quite lately which, as regards
" liquor," was valued by the brokers at Re. 1-3 per Ib., but
the " Tea" at only 14 annas ! This was entirely owing to
faulty sifting and sorting.

I dotft believe in any machine for Tea sifting, simply
because it is not a regular process.* For example, you
cannot say that, to make Pekoe, you must first use one
sieve, then another, and so on. The sizes of sieves to be
used, and the order in which they are to be used, will vary
continually, as both are decided by varying causes, viz.,
the comparative fineness or coarseness of the Tea made
daily, the greater or less presence of red leaf in it, and
(because Tea varies much during the season, and gets
coarse towards the end) by the time of the year. These
points all necessitate changes in the sizes, and the order of
the sieves.

'Tis true sieves might be changed in a machine as
required, but the only machine that could even pretend to
save labour would be one in which all the sieves were
arranged one below the other, and thus the Tea would fall
through each alternately, the motion being common to all.
But this won't do for Tea sifting. Judgment must be used

* We have yet to see what Jackson's machine can do.

SIFTING. 135

to decide the length of time each sieve is to be shaken ;
further, with how much motion it shall be shaken, &c., &c.
But this is simply impossible with any machine, though all
necessary to sift Tea well.

The cost of Tea sifting by hand (see page 161) is not
eight annas per maund, including picking out red leaf, which
must be hand-work. Good and bad sifting will affect the
value three annas per Ib. or Rs. 15 per maund !

With all parts of Tea manufacture it is well to employ
the same men continually in each department, but above
all, perhaps, should this be done in Tea sifting. A good
sifter is a valuable man. He knows each kind of Tea by
name ; he knows what sieves to use, and the order in which
to use them for each Tea ; what the effect a larger or
smaller mesh will have on each kind, &c., &c. In fact, he
knows much more of the practical part of sifting than his
master can, though the latter is, probably, a better judge
how far the Teas are perfect when made.

Tea sieves are of two kinds, both round. One made of
brass wire, with wooden sides, 3^ inches high, the other
cane, with bamboo sides, ij inches high only. The latter
are called " Chinese sieves," and though the brass ones are
used in many places, there is no possible comparison
between them, for the labour required in the use of the brass
ones is much greater, and the results, as regards well sorted
Tea, much better with the Chinese.

Both kinds are numbered according to the number of
orifices in one linear inch. Thus a No. 6 sieve has six
orifices to the inch in both ; but in the brass kind, a
No. 6 has six orifices including the wire ; in the Chinese
kind, the cane between each aperture is not included in the
measure. Thus the orifice in a No. 6 Chinese sieve is
exactly i-6th of an inch square, but somewhat less in a
brass sieve.

136 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

As I well know brass sieves cannot remain in favour
after the others have been only once tried, I shall confine
my directions to the Chinese kind.*

I practise, and I advise, Tea to be sifted daily. The
Tea made one day, sifted the day after, and in fact stored
away in the bins ready sifted. I find it is more carefully
done this way, for by the other plan a larger quantity being
done at once by several men, they cannot, from want of
practice, be expert. But by the daily plan one, two, or
three men, as necessary, can always be kept on the work,
and consequently they learn and do it well.

To sift the following, Chinese sieves are required ; and
if daily sifting is resorted to, they will be found ample for
any ordinary-sized garden :

4 of No. 4
6 of No. 6
6 of No. 7

9 of No. 9
9 of No. 10
6 of No. 12

4 of No. 16.

Previous to sifting all red leaf should be picked out of
the Tea. This, as stated under the head of " Manufacture,"
should be done twice before the " roll" is fired ; but towards
the end of the season especially, some will still remain in
the made Tea, and this must be carefully separated.

From what I have said it is evident that no rules can be
laid down as to what sieves to employ to get out certain
Teas. Only practice can teach this.

Further, practice can only enable you to judge in a Tea
broker's point of view of different classes of Tea. This
essay would, however, be incomplete did it not contain a
description of these. Such a description has been ably
given by Mr. J. H. Haworth in his " Information and

* Even to break Tea on them it is a mistake to use brass sieves. Tea is
best broken by a wooden roller, heavily weighed with lead, run in. The glaze
or gloss on Tea is thus preserved.

SORTING. 137

Advice for the Tea Planter from the English Market"
(Journal, A. & H. Society of India, Vol. XIV.), and, as his
knowledge on the subject is far in advance of mine, and
consequently more to the point than any description I could
give, I will close this chapter with the following extract
from his valuable pamphlet, and trust he will excuse my
doing so :

Of the Different Classes of Tea.

Teas are arranged in various classes according to the. size, make,
and colour of the leaf. I treat first and principally of the Black
descriptions, as Green Teas are manufactured in only a few of the Tea-
.growing districts of India.

The following classes come under the name of Black Tea :

Flowery Pekoe. g f Broken Pekoe.

Orange Pekoe. g Pekoe Dust.

Pekoe. ^ ' N : Broken Mixed Tea.

Pekoe Souchong. o ^ "^ Broken Souchong.

Souchong. J5 TJ Broken Leaf.

Congou. 'J2 I Fannings.

Bohea. ^ Dust.

We occasionally meet with other, names, but they are generally
original, and ought not to be encouraged, as a few simple terms like
the above are sufficiently comprehensive to describe all classes manu-
factured.

Perhaps before entering into a detailed description of the various
classes it will be well to explain the term " Pekoe " (pronounced
Pek-oh), which as we see occurs in so many of the names above quoted.
It is said to be derived from the Chinese words " Pak Ho," which are
said to signify white down. The raw material constituting Pekoe when
manufactured is the young bud just shooting forth, or the young leaf
just expanded, which on minute examination will be found to be
covered with a whitish velvety down. On firing these young leaves,
the down simply undergoes a slight change in colour to grey or greyish
yellow, sometimes as far as a yellowish orange tint.

When the prepared Tea consists entirely of greyish or greenish

138 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

greyish Pekoe, with no or very little dark leaf mixed, it is called
Flowery Pekoe.

Flowery Pekoe is picked from the shrub entirely separate from the
other descriptions of Tea, only the buds and young leaves being taken.
In the preparation it is not subjected so severely to the action of heat
as the other classes of Tea, and generally preserves a uniform greenish
grey or silvery grey tint. Its strength in liquor is very great, flavour
more approaching that of Green Teas, but infinitely superior, having
the strength and astringency, without the bitterness, of the green
descriptions. The liquor is pale, similar to that of Green Tea, and
the infused leaf is of a uniform green hue. In many instances, where
too much heat has been employed, we find dark leaves intermixed,
and the prevailing colour, green, is sprinkled with leaves of a salmony
brown tinge, which is the proper colour for the out-turn of any other
ordinary black leaf Tea. A very common mistake is to call an ordinary
Pekoe, that may contain an extra amount of Pekoe ends, Flowery Pekoe.
When this class of Tea is strong and of Flowery Pekoe flavour, it is
called by the trade a Pekoe of Flowery Pekoe kind. In England
Flowery Pekoe sells, as a rule, from 45. 6d. to 6s. 6d. per Ib. One parcel
has sold as high as 75. 6d.

By many people the expediency of making Flowery Pekoe is much
doubted. The true Flowery Pekoe leaf is the one undeveloped bud at
the end of each twig. To pick this alone, without any ordinary Pekoe
leaves, involves a great deal of trouble and expense, and I think though
the Flowery Pekoe be very valuable, that the account would hardly
balance when we consider the deterioration of the Pekoe by the
abstraction of the young leaves.

The ordinary Pekoe is a Tea of blackish or greyish blackish aspect,
but dotted over with greyish or yellowish leaves which, on close
inspection, will be found to possess the downy appearance which gives
the name to Pekoe. In general we do not find the whole leaf covered
with down, but only part of it, which in its growth has been
developed later than the other parts. These are called by the trade
"Pekoe ends" when very small Pekoe tips. A Pekoe is generally of
good to fine flavour, and very strong, and its liquor dark. Its value is
from is. gd. to 35. 8d. per Ib. \,-

When the Pekoe ends are of yellowish or orange hue, and the leaf
is very small and even, the Tea is called Orange Pekoe. In flavour it
is much the same as an ordinary Pekoe, and many growers do not

SORTING. 139

separate the two varieties, but send them away in the finished state
mixed together. Its value is from zd. to 4^. per Ib. more than Pekoe.

The term Pekoe Souchong is generally applied to a Pekoe that is
deficient in Pekoe ends, or to a bold, Souchong class leaf with a few
ends mixed. We often meet with it applied to an unassorted Tea,
including perhaps Souchong, Congou, a few Pekoe ends, and some
broken leafs. Prices range from 2s. 3^. to 2s. lod.

The name of Broken Pekoe indicates at once what class of Tea
it is, namely, Pekoe which has been broken in the manipulation or
otherwise. It possesses the strength and fine flavour of a full leaf of
Pekoe, being therefore only inferior to it in point of leaf. In value
it is very little inferior to Pekoe, sometimes as valuable, or even more
so, as owing to the frangibility of the tender Pekoe ends, they are
sometimes broken off in very large quantity, thus adding to the value
of the broken Tea, though at the same time deteriorating the Pekoe.
Prices from 2S. 6d. to 35.4^.

Pekoe dust is still smaller broken, so small in fact as actually to
resemble dust. It is of great strength, though often not pure in flavour,
as frequently any dust or sweepings from other Tea is mixed with it to
make the lot larger. The price of Pekoe dust may range from is. 6d.
to 25. Sd.

A Tea only slightly broken is often called by the planter Pekoe
Dust ; again an Orange Pekoe is often called Broken Pekoe, and the
converse. A knowledge of the signification of these and other terms
would teach the grower to be very careful in marking his Teas, as the
nomenclature influences to a great extent the sale in the home market.

Having described the finer Teas, we now come to the considera-
tion of the classes of Tea which form the bulk of the manufacture of
a garden.

Souchong may be taken as the medium quality, and when expe-
rience and skilled labour are employed in the manufacture as the bulk
of the produce of an estate. The qualifications for being comprehended
under this term are just simply an even, straight, or slightly curved
leaf, in length varying say from inch to i inch. It has not the deep
strength of Pekoe, but is generally of good flavour and of fair strength.
The prices of Souchong are from is. lod. to as. Sd.

Congou comes next. It may be either a leaf of Souchong kind,
but too large to come under that class, or though of smallish-sized
leaf, too unevenly made, or too much curled (so as to resemble little

140 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

balls) to be so classified. The flavour is much the same as that of
Souchong, but the Tea has not so muqh strength. Some of the lower
and large leaf kinds may be only worth perhaps from is. 3^. to 15. 6d.,
whereas the finer qualities sell as high as 2S. to 2$. $d. per Ib.

Bohea is again lower than a Congou. It may be either of too
large a leaf to be called Congou, or, as is generally the case, it may
consist principally of old leaf, which on being fired does not attain the
greyish blackish colour which is so desirable for all the black leaf kinds
except Flowery Pekoe, but remains of a brownish or even pale yellowish
hue. It has scarcely any strength, and is generally of coarse flavour,
sometimes not, but is never of much value unless of Namuna kind (a
term which will be described hereafter). We may quote prices at from
3^. to is. zd. per Ib.

We now come to the broken descriptions of these middle and
lower classes of Tea.

Broken Mixed Tea is, as its name imports, a mixture of the various
kinds of Tea broken. It may have a very wide range, include some of
the lower classes or approach Broken Pekoe in character and value,
but the kind usually thus named is a Tea worth from is. 3d. to zs. 6d.,
generally of a blackish aspect, and containing a few Pekoe ends.

The term Broken Souchong is commonly and appropriately
applied to a Tea which, though broken, has some approach to a full
leaf, and that of the even Souchong character. Its value may vary,
say from is. 6d. to zs. zd.

Broken leaf is a term of great comprehensiveness, but generally
is used to signify a Tea worth from 8^. to is. id. per Ib. It may be of
a brownish, brownish blackish, or blackish colour. Its strength is
seldom great, but its flavour may be fair or good, but in the lower
qualities it is generally poor, thin, or coarse. It would be better to
employ this term only as a general name of Broken Tea, and not to
use it to signify any particular class, as it is very indefinite.

Fannings is similar in colour and class of leaf to broken leaf as
described above ; in value also much the same, perhaps on the average
a little lower. I suppose, in most cases, the mode of its separation
from the other classes of Tea is, as its name implies, by fanning.

Dust is a very small broken Tea, so small, in fact, as to approach
the minuteness of actual dust. It is often very coarse, or " earthy " in
flavour, owing perhaps to sweepings and dust having become mixed
with it. Its value is from 6d. to is. 6d. In any Tea of this class worth

SORTING. 141

more than these quotations, a few Pekoe ends or tips will generally be
found, which bring it under the name of Pekoe Dust.

We will now look at Black Teas in a body, and point out what is
desirable and what is objectionable in them.

We have seen that all Teas which contain Pekoe fetch higher
prices than others, consequently we infer that Pekoe is a desideratum.
If we glance at the descriptions of the various classes of Tea which
have been given above, we shall find that it is an element of strength
and good flavour. I do not mean to say that any Pekoe is stronger
or of better flavour than any Tea which does not contain Pekoe, as
the soil, the climate, the cultivation, the manufacture, and various
other causes, may influence the strength and flavour of different Teas ;
but, as a rule, in Teas that are produced under the same circum-
stances, the classes containing Pekoe are stronger and of better
flavour than those without it.

There is another class of Tea which I have not yet described that
possesses very great strength and very fine flavour. This is the class
known as the " Namuna " kind. All readers of these pages who have
been connected with India any time will recognise the word,* though
they may not quite see how it comes to occupy the position in which
we consider it. It is said that its first application in this manner arose
from a planter having sent to England some sample boxes of Tea with
the ticket " namuna " on them. These Teas happened to be of the
peculiar description which now goes by that name, and which I
proceed to describe. The London brokers have always since then
applied the name " namuna " to this class of Tea. The leaf may have,
perhaps, the ordinary greyish blackish aspect, with generally a
greenish tinge. In the pot it produces a very pale liquor, but on
tasting it its quality belies the poor thin appearance of the infusion.
It is very strong, stronger by far than ordinary Pekoe ; in flavour, say,
about half-way between a Flowery Pekoe and a Green Tea, quite
distinct from the Flowery Pekoe flavour, possessing somewhat of the
rasping bitterness of the Green Tea class with the flavour a little
refined. The out-turn is generally green, sometimes has some brownish
leaves mixed. Any of the black leaf Teas may be of this Class, from
the Pekoe to the lowest dust, and all throughout the scale, if the

* I need hardly remark that the Hindustani word Namuna (pronounced
Nemoona) means sample.

142 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

flavour be distinct and pure, may have their value enhanced from ^d.
to lod. per Ib.

Similar in every respect, except one, is the Oolong kind. The
one wanting quality is the strength, sometimes, by-the-bye, the flavour
is a little different. It may have the greenish, greyish blackish leaf
(though generally the green leaves are distinct from black ones, the
Tea thus being composed of greyish blackish leaves with a few green
ones intermixed), always has the pale liquor, generally the greenish
infused leaf; but sometimes it is sadly intermingled with black leaves,
as it is a Tea whose flavour is frequently burnt out, though its weak-
ness and green appearance are no doubt often caused by deficient
firing. Teas of this kind on the average sell below the ordinarily-
flavoured Teas of the same class of leaf.

In Teas of ordinary flavour the following rules hold good : The
darker the liquor the stronger the Tea, and the nearer the approach
of the colour of the infused leaf to a uniform salmony brown, the purer
the flavour. Whenever we see any black leaves mixed with it (the
out-turn) the Tea has been over-fired, and we may either expect to
find the strength burnt out of it, or else to find it marred by having a
burnt or smoky flavour incorporated with it. When you come across
an altogether black or dirty brown out-turn, you may be certain of
pale liquor containing little or no strength and no flavour to speak of,
unless sometimes it be sour. This is a quality which I shall now
touch upon, and regret that I cannot with any certainty give any
reliable information whereby the planter may guard against this
greatest of faults. It may have various grades, slightly sourish,
sourish, and sour, depreciating the value of the Tea, say, from 3^. to
is. 6d. per Ib. The flavour of a sour Tea is hardly capable of descrip-
tion. It is not so acid as sour milk, in fact, not acid at all, rather a
sweet flavour than otherwise being blended with the sourness. It is
extremely unpleasant in its more developed grades, and cannot be
easily understood except by actual tasting. To the uninitiated fhis
fault is only perceptible in the more strongly marked instances, but to
one of the trade the least tendency to it not only condemns the parcel
at once, but also causes him to suspect any other lots made at the
same or any other time by the same grower, and it is a curious but
unaccountable fact that some two or three gardens (or growers ?)
almost always produce Teas having this fault. I will not cite all the
different explanations that have been offered on this subject ; I will

SORTING. 143

simply quote the one which seems to have gained most ground, and
leave those more competent than myself to express any opinion on the
subject. The cause assigned to which I refer is that the Tea leaf after
being picked is allowed to remain too long in the raw state before
being fired, during which time it undergoes a process of fermentation ;
some then say that this causes sourness, while others maintain that
the fermentation is absolutely necessary for the production of a Black
Tea. The fact that we never meet with sourness in a Green Tea, one
feature in the preparation of which being that it is fired almost imme-
diately on being gathered, goes to corroborate this view.

Burntness I have already referred to. As I said before, it may
either destroy the strength and flavour altogether, or sometimes,
without destroying the strength, add an unpleasant burnt flavour to
it. When the Tea has the flavour of smoke about it, it is called
smoky or smoky burnt. By being burnt, a Tea may be deteriorated
in value, say from 2d. to is. per Ib. The symptoms of burntness are
a dead black leaf (as opposed to the greatly-desired greyish, blackish
colour) having a burnt smell which often entirely neutralises the
natural aroma of the Tea. In looking over a broker's character of a
parcel of Teas, you may occasionally meet with the terms ''fresh
burnt," " brisk burnt," or " malty burnt." These phrases do not carry
a condemnatory meaning with them. The meaning of the word
burnt, as used here, would be better expressed by the term " fired."
The term " malty " means of full rich flavour, perhaps from the aroma
of this class of Tea resembling somewhat that of malt. Teas of the
three above descriptions, you may have noticed, often fetch very good
prices. The meaning of the word " full," applied to a liquor, is hardly
appreciable except by tasting. It does not signify strength or flavour,
but is opposed to thinness. A Green Tea may be strong or of good
flavour, but its liquor is never full. Fulness is generally characterised
by a dark liquor. The quality known as " body "in a wine is some-
what akin to fulness in a Tea. We speak of a " full " leaf Tea in
contradistinction to a broken leaf. " Chaffy " is generally used in
connection with Bohea and other brown leaf classes of Tea. A light
(in weight) brown, open or flat leaf, in fact, one resembling chaff,
would be called chaffy. The lower classes of Tea, especially the
dusts, are often described as " earthy " in flavour. By this a coarse
low flavour is understood, perhaps often caused by the admixture of
real dust.

144 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

When the make of a Tea is spoken of as a " well made," " fairly
made," &c., leaf, the effect of the manipulation or rolling is referred
to. We may have a " well made even," or a " well made mixed large
and small," leaf. We may have a " straight " or " curled," or, as the
latter is generally expressed when applied to a large leaf Tea,
"twisted" leaf. It may be " flattish made," indicating that though
the leaf is not open it wears a flattish aspect, or it may be open, which
betrays a want of sufficient or skilful manipulation. A "wiry" leaf is
small, perfectly rolled, and very thin (in diameter), generally rather
curled, so as in fact to resemble small pieces of bent wire. It will be
seen at once that only the finer Teas can have a wiry leaf, principally
the Orange Pekoes and Pekoes. Sometimes we meet with a fine
Souchong that may be thus described.

Green Teas.

As in the North-west Provinces Green Teas form the bulk of the
produce, it will be well to give a short description of them, though the
tenor of my remarks below will show the general opinion as to the
desirability of making them.*

Gunpowder is the most valuable description, its price ranging
from 2S. 8d. to 35. 8d. per Ib. Instead of possessing the long and thin
finished leaf, which is the desideratum of Black Teas, it is rolled into
little balls more or less round, varying from one-eighth to one-quarter
of an inch in diameter. Sometimes it is not altogether composed of
round leaf, but has some long leaf mixed.

When the Tea is of the shape of Gunpowder, but is larger than
the size above quoted, it is called Imperial. Prices of Imperial are
from iod. to zs. 6d.

Amongst Green Teas Hyson may be taken as the parallel of
Souchong of the black leaf descriptions. Undoubtedly there is often
much young Pekoe leaf in it, but all chance of discriminating it in the
finished leaf is done away with by the change in colour. Hysons sell
from is. zd. to 35. 6d.

* I think I need hardly pause to correct the popular error that the Green
and Black Teas are made from two different species of plant. Most of my
readers will know that they are both made from the same leaf, the difference
lying only in the manufacture.

SORTING. 145

Young Hyson is smaller than Hyson, occasionally slightly broken.
It fetches from yd. to 2s. 6d.

Hyson skin consists of the bold broken leaf of Hyson and Young
Hyson. A small broken Green Tea is seldom sent on the home
market. The reason of this is obvious. When we consider that
Hyson skin only fetches from yd. to is., it is apparent that anything
approaching a dust would give very little chance of a profit. I have
seen one or two parcels, too much broken to come under the title of
Hyson skin, sell at 3^. to 6d. per Ib. in London. It would be well if
some of the Indian planters would take a lesson from the Chinese, and
not send home their very low Teas, black or green, as they are very
difficult of sale in London, and in many cases cannot pay the cost of
packing and shipping. The Chinese make a great quantity of their
broken Teas into Brick Tea, and send it into the Central Provinces of
Asia, where it meets with a ready sale. I do not see why this should
not be done by the Indian growers. There is a large consumption of
Tea on the other side of the Himalayas, not very far from Darjeeling
and Assam. I hear also that in the neighbourhood of the growing
districts, especially in the North-west Provinces, the natives are
beginning to consume largely, and will pay 8 as. to i rupee for a Tea
that could not possibly fetch more than is. to is. 6d. per Ib. in England.
Whether the natives of India, as a whole, do or do not take to drinking
Tea will have a material effect on the future prospects of the article.

Before dropping the subject of Green Teas, I will say a word or
two as to the expediency of making Green Tea. I have questioned
several experienced people on the subject, but none can tell me their
especial object in manufacturing their leaf into Green Tea. One
gentleman told me that he thought it was because their Tea-makers
(Chinamen) knew better how to make greens than blacks. I have
carefully examined the leaf of several of the North-west Green Teas,
and, noticing their English sale prices, consider that they would
have sold on the average at least $d. per Ib. higher had they been
made into Black Tea. The best way to test this would be to have a
Green and a Black Tea made from the same leaf, and then to value
the one against the other. I regret that I have never had the oppor-
tunity of doing this. We notice that the largest and most experienced
producers never make Green Tea.*

* Note to Third Edition. As previously stated in foot-note page 133,
Green Teas are now but little used in Great Britain.

146 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

I must not pass over Caper without a short description. It is
a Tea which is made in large quantity in China, though I have only
seen one parcel of Indian growth. It forms a link between the black
and green descriptions. The colour of the leaf is a very dark green ;
in form it is similar to a gunpowder, Imperial, or round leaf Congou.
The liquor is pale, and the out-turn green ; flavour perhaps nearer to
that of a green than of a Black Tea.

CHAPTER XXVI.

BOXES. PACKING.

BY far the best Tea boxes are the teak ones made at
Rangoon. The wood is impervious to insects of all kinds,
even white ants. Sawn by machinery the pieces sent to
compose each box are very regular. The plank is half inch,
and each chest made up measures inside 23 by 18 by i8J
inches, and necessarily outside 24 by 19 by 19^ inches. The
inner cubical contents are 7,659 cubic inches, and this
suffices for above one maund of fine, and under a maund of
coarse Tea.

Each box is composed of fourteen pieces viz., for the
two long sides three each, for the two short sides two each,
two for the bottom, and two for the lid. By the arrange-
ment of three pieces in the long sides, and two only in the
short sides, the centre piece of each long side is attached to
both the short end pieces, and thus great strength in the
box is ensured, there being no place where it can possibly
separate at the joints.

These boxes are not made to " dovetail." Each piece
(and they are sawn with mathematical regularity as to
length, breadth, and thickness) must be nailed to its neigh-
bour. The best nails for this are the kind called " French
Pins," if inches long.

The wood is sold at Rangoon in bundles, and could be
landed in Calcutta for about Re. 1-8 or 1-12 per box. The
boxes need not be made up till shortly before they are
wanted, and in this form, of compact bundles of short
pieces, are very convenient for transport and stowage.

148 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Of course in many districts these boxes are not pro-
curable, and local ones must be made. If so, use hard
wood, and make your boxes about the size given above, for
small boxes add much to the cost of freight.

Let the planks be f inch thick, for J inch, that is, f inch
boards are not strong enough, except they are of teak or
any other very good wood.

Take care the joints of the several pieces composing the
sides and ends do not coincide at the corners, for if they do
the box is very apt to come asunder.

The best way to arrange the pieces is as described above
in the Rangoon boxes.

"A form " must be made on which the inner leaden case
shall be constructed, that is, a well-made smooth box, to fit
exactly into the box you pack in. It must be some 3 inches
higher than the interior of the original box, and have bars
running across inside, for handles to lift it up, and let the
lead case slip off it, after it (the lead case) is finished.

Solder your lead case, over your form, in the way to
waste least lead. In the Rangoon boxes described, two
large, two small sheets,* and one piece, 22 by 9 inches (let
in between the two large sheets) suffices, and there is little
or no waste.

The lead case ready, hold up the form by the inner rods,
and let the case slide off. Put it at once into the packing-
box, taking care no nails protrude inside, or anything else
which will hurt it, and thus prepare all the boxes for the
break of Tea you are about to pack.

One great advantage the Rangoon boxes, and in fact all
machine-sawn boxes, have is their equal, or nearly equal,
weight. Purchasers of Teas, at the public auctions, require
"the tare" of boxes to be as near the same weight as
possible. If the tares differ, say more than half-a-pound,
* Large lead is 37 by 22 inches ; small lead, 25 by 19 inches.

PACKING. 149

the Tea will be depreciated in value.* It is well there
should be about the same weight of Tea in all the boxes
that contain any one kind, but this is not essential, which
equality in tares is.

Your boxes all ready and lined with lead, choose a fine
day for packing. Do this whether you finally dry the Tea in
the sun or over the dholes ; for even in the latter case it is
well to avoid a damp day.

But before you pack you must bulk. That is, you must
mix all the Tea, of any one kind, so intimately together
that samples taken out of any number of chests shall agree
exactly. This can be done b}' turning out all the Tea on a
large cloth placed on the floor, and turning it over and
over. No two days' Teas are exactly alike, and you have
perhaps a month's Teas to pack ; it is therefore necessary
to mix them well.

Though I know many planters think the fumes of
charcoal necessary and beneficial for the last drying, I do
not. I have tried both sun and charcoal, and no difference
was perceptible. The former costs nothing, is more com-
modious, and I always apply it when possible. The sun
cannot burn the Teas ; the charcoal, if the heat is too
great, may.

Whether you use sun or charcoal, put the Tea hot into
the boxes. The only object of the final drying is to drive off
the moisture, which the Tea will certainly, in a more or less
degree, have imbibed since its manufacture. Even the large
zinc-lined bins which should be fitted up in all Tea stores,
and in which the Tea is placed after manufacture, will not
entirely prevent damp, so in all cases a final drying is
necessary.

* Note to Third Edition. This matter of equal tares is very important.
If they differ more than half-a-pound all the Tea is turned out and re- weighed
in London, which is a great loss in many ways.

150 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Keep it in the sun, or over the charcoal, until it is hot
throughout, hot enough to ensure all the moisture having
been driven off. Then put into the box enough to about
one-quarter fill it. Now let two men rock the box, over a
half-inch round iron bar, placed on the ground, until the
Tea has well settled. Then place a piece of carpet over
the Tea, the exact size of the box, and let a man stand
inside and press it down a minute or two with his feet.
Now fill up nearly another quarter, and press it again over
the carpet as before. Repeat this, putting less and less
into the box each time, as you near the top, until it is quite
full, but do not rock it at all the last two or three times,
only press it with the feet as described. No patent screw
press, or anything else, will pack the Tea better or more
closely than this plan, and when the men are practised
at it, you will find there will not be a difference of more
than two or three Ibs. in the Teas of any one kind put into
the boxes.*

The box full, just even with the top, and well pressed
down to the last, lay over the Tea a piece of the silver
paper, which is found inserted between each sheet in the
lead boxes. This prevents any solder or resin getting on
the Tea when soldering the top. Now fit on the lead sheet
top, solder, and nail on the wooden lid.

Weight of Tea in each box. The boxes ready lined, with
a lead cover loose, must be all weighed before the Tea is
packed, and again after they are filled and soldered down,
but before the wooden lid is put on. The difference of these
weights, minus the weight of the little solder used in fasten-
ing down the top lead (for which allow say one pound to
give a margin also), will be the net weight of Tea in each
box.

* It is not essential that the same quantity of Tea shall be in each box.

PACKING. 151

Thin iron hooping, put round both ends of the boxes,
much increases their strength, and is not expensive.*

Stamp each box on its lid and on one end.t Use for
this zinc plates, with the necessary marks cut out in them.
A brush run over these with the colouring matter does the
work well and quickly.

Let the stamp comprise the kind of Tea, the plantation
or owner's mark, the number of the box, and the year ; for

instance

Pekoe.

No. 80 1871

The invoice you send with the break must give for each
box the number, the gross weight, the tare, the net Tea, and
the kind of Tea, with a declaration at foot that the Teas of
each kind have been respectively well bulked and mixed
together before packing.

Remember the larger the quantity of Tea, of any one
kind, to be sold at one auction, the higher the price it will
probably fetch. Sell, if possible, twenty or thirty chests of
one kind of Tea at the same time, for small quantities as a
rule sell below large, both in Calcutta and London.

Equality of tares is the most important point to attend
to in packing Teas. It may be difficult, but with machine-
sawn boxes, nearly the same weight, any difference must be
made up with extra hooping, lead, solder, or nails. Anyhow
it must be done, so that no tares shall differ more than half-
a-pound (see foot-note page 149).

* This should, except the lid part, be put on the boxes before the Tea is
packed.

f The object of stamping the end, as well as the lid, is that when the
boxes are piled one above the other the mark can be read.

152 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XXVII.

MANAGEMENT. ACCOUNTS. FORMS.

SYSTEM and order, a good memory, a good temper, firm-
ness, attention to details, agricultural knowledge, industry,
all these, combined with a thorough knowledge of Tea
cultivation and Tea manufacture, are the requisites for the
successful management of a Tea plantation.

To find men with all these qualities is, I allow, not very
easy, still they do exist, and such a one must be had if
success in Tea is looked for.

Before the work is given out each day, the manager
should decide exactly what is most required, and apply it
to that. He should write down, when distributing the men,
the works, and the number employed on each. This paper
he should carry in his pocket, and he can then verify the
men at work at each or any place when he visits it during
the day.

The writer, the moonshee, and the jemadar (if there is
one), should write similar papers when the coolies are
mustered in the morning, and the manager should detail
to each of these men which work they are particularly
responsible for. This should also be shown in the " Morning
Paper."

Each of the above men then measures out the work to
the coolies ; visits it once or oftener in the day, and
measures all that remains undone at night. A daily report
of the work is kept, written by the writer in the evening.

The two forms given below are those I have adopted.
The latter is suited to local labour paid daily, but it can

MANAGEMENT.

153

easily be altered to suit either local labour paid monthly or
imported coolies.

This is the Morning Paper.

Work to be done on

188

Detail

d
5

i on the >

Total Coolies . .

The column of "Probable numbers" is given so that
before it is known exactly how many men will be present
for work they can be divided in the most likely way.

Each headman (called " Mate," " Mangee," &c., in dif-
ferent districts) is best designated by a letter or number. In
neither form would there be room to put in names at length.

The form below written in the evening is made into a
book for each month. The advantages of it for after
reference are great, and it can of course be altered to suit
the kind of labour employed on any garden.

154

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Work on

for

Detail of Work

No. oi Garden

Mangees

Coolies

Measurement and
Remarks

As.

Total at Work.

x 3 =

Command

X 2

Sick

X 2

Absent . . ,

X I^=

Total . -V ' : -'*:-

X I =

Picking Leaf =
Making Tea =
Tea Sorting =

Cut =

Total

The following is the plan I recommend for the leaf-pick-
ing and the Tea accounts.

The leaf of each picker is best measured in the field,
and, as loads are collected, brought to the factory by one or
two men throughout the day. It entails a loss of time, and
further a depreciation in the leaf, if it is kept long in a close

MANAGEMENT. 155

mass in one basket, which is the case when each picker
brings his or her leaf to the factory twice a day. The
pickers are paid so much per basket, holding in any case
2\ Ibs. I find the most convenient plan is to give the
mangee in charge of the pickers tickets of any kind for this,
which tickets are changed for money in the evening. As
each load of leaf comes in through the day it is weighed,
and this gives a check on the tickets given by the mangee
or mate. This is the meaning of the two columns in the
form below, " tickets by leaf" and " tickets paid."

In the form the first column of " leaf results" shows the
condition of the leaf when picked, whether wet (W) or dry
(D). Unless this were noted the proper amount of Teas
the leaf ought to make could not be known, and there would
be no check against theft, which is carried on to a great
extent in many gardens.

As explained previously, only the sections ready in each
garden are picked. The sections are not entered in the
form, only the number of the garden. The flushes now
noted are the 2Oth, in some the 2ist, or 22nd in others.

The Tea is calculated from the leaf. It should be 25 per
cent, if the leaf is picked dry, and 22 per cent, if picked
wet. As each load comes in a memorandum is made as to
whether it is dry or wet, and the figures in the column " Tea
should be" are thus found.

The Tea is weighed the morning after it is made and
entered in the column " Tea made." The percentage it
bears to the leaf is then calculated and entered in the
account column.

After sifting the w r hole is weighed again, and the result
entered in the column " Tea after sifting." Doing this is
very important, for it checks theft. Directly after it is
weighed this second time it is put in the bins in the store.

156 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Daily Leaf and Tea Account.

TEA RESULTS.

LEAF RESULTS.

'55

Tickets

Flushes

Date

.Q
3

a
C

'o
a

'rt

C/5

October . -4*

220W

310

I 7

Sunday, ist

6ooD

410

3 60 1

112

(

228

820

Monday, 2nd

198

2OO

2 4

199

462

440 j

410

515

925

Tuesday, 3rd .

231

230

233

2OO

i8o|

430

1 6O

2IO

800

Wednesday, 4th

Thursday, 5th .

Friday, 6th

Saturday, 7th .

Total for the week

en vo

If this system is carried out, no Tea (exceeding a pound
or so) can be stolen without its being at once missed, and
the importance of this cannot be exaggerated. Tea pro-
prietors do not guess how much is lost in this way. Maunds
upon maunds might be stolen in many gardens, and unless
the theft were accidentally discovered there is nothing in
the Tea accounts to show it to the manager.

I have suppositiously filled up the three first days of the
form. The 820 Ibs. leaf picked on Sunday is made into
Tea on Monday. The 198 is written down Sunday evening.
On Tuesday morning, when the Tea is weighed and found
to be 200 Ibs., that is entered in the Monday line, as also
the percentage. On Tuesday evening, after it is sifted and
made into different Teas, it is weighed again and found to
be 199 Ibs., and so entered.

MANAGEMENT. 157

111 dry weather after sifting, owing to dust flying off, it
is always a little less. In wet weather, on the contrary, it
increases in weight. In the Tuesday line where "W"
shows it was a wet day and the Tea 230 Ibs. before sifting
it, is 233 afterwards. This is owing to moisture imbibed,
and it is the only objection to sifting daily, whatever the
weather. The advantages of the plan, though, are so great,
as explained, that I put up with this, and practically I do
not find it detrimental. Of course, as previously explained,
all moisture is driven off before the Tea is packed. How-
ever, to make all quite safe, after a very wet damp day, the
Teas might be re-dried for a few minutes over charcoal
before being put into their respective bins. I do not do this
myself though, and do not think it necessary.

I hope now I have made the above form plain. It is in
a book, and each page will hold one week. The total of the
Tea made in the week is added up and shown at foot, and
that amount is then transferred to the credit side of the
Tea store account. Thus (see both forms) 16 maunds
32 Ibs. is credited.

The form given on the next page is also kept in a book,
and the total of right-hand side subtracted from the left
gives at any time the quantity of Tea in store.

158 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Tea Store Account.

RECEIPTS

EXPENDITURE

Weekending
on Saturday

Total

Date

No. of Invoice

To whom

Tea in each
Invoice

Total
Mds.| Ibs.

Mds.

Ibs.

Mds.

Ibs.

Mds. Ibs.

Brought
over
October

2ISt

28th

15
17
14

32
O
10

405
63

October

3
20

15
16

Brought
over .

40
33

351
73

Carried over

Carried over .

Regarding accounts between the manager and his em-
ployers, I think they should be of the simplest kind. If a
man can be trusted he should be trusted ; if he cannot, no
system of accounts will restrain him, and he should be
kicked out. A simple account current, furnished monthly,
showing under few heads the receipts and expenditure, is all
that can be required. It is not by any papers received from
a manager that an opinion can be expressed as to how he
does his work, and how the plantation progresses. A com-
petent person visiting the garden can easily ascertain, and

MANAGEMENT. 159

in default of this, and combined with this, the* only true test
is the balance sheet at the end of each season.

Shortly, it is not by the form, the nicety, the detail of
accounts between manager and employer, that success is
ensured or even forwarded. It is, as far as accounts are
concerned, by the forms and system the manager adopts as
between him and his subordinates, and these he should be
able to show are good to the employer, or anyone deputed
by him to visit the garden.

The profit shown yearly, whether it is large or small,
all things considered, is, however, the only true ultimate
test.

l6o CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

COST OF MANUFACTURE, PACKING, TRANSPORT, ETC.

THESE are as follow: They will vary more or less according
to the district, rate of wages, &c., but in the form the tables
are given, if not suitable to any case, they can easily be
made so.

I have added sorting, packing, freight to Calcutta, and
broker's charges in Calcutta, to the cost, so that all is
included from the moment the green leaf is picked off the
trees till the hammer falls at the public auction.

Table cost of Manufacture, Sorting, Packing, Transport to
Calcutta, and Broker's Charges for each maund of Tea.

Manufacture. R S . AS. P. Rs. As. P.

I head man with the pickers, say . .040
320 Ibs. green leaf picked, at i pice

per lb.* . . ,_ , , ... .500
I man withering above leaf, at say 4

annas .. . . .040
J share head man in rolling house .020
lof men rolling above, at 30 Ibs. leaf

per man, and say 4 annas per man 2 10 8
J boy clearing out ashes of Dhole house,

at say 2 annas .' . . .006
share head man in Dhole house .020

Carried over . .872

* In practice the basket in which the leaf is measured being made to hold
2 Ibs., for which a ticket is given, representing 2 pice, the leaf to make a
maund of Tea does not really cost so much.

COST OF MANUFACTURE. l6l

Rs. As. P. Rs. As. P.

Brought forward . r . ! * .872
i man firing " Dhole work " say . .040
f maund charcoal for Dhole work, at 8

annas .. . . . .060

Lights for night work, viz., turning green

leaf and dholing, say _. . .040
Wear and tear of dhallas, baskets,

picking baskets, fuel for artificial

withering, &c. ;' '; '" '^'S . o i 10

970

Sifting and Sorting.
ij boys to pick out red leaf, at say 2

annas % L /*t -. : ; :' , v ; .030
i sifting man, at say 4 annas *';.' .040
Wear and tear of sieves, say . .003

073

Packing.

i box i 13 o

4 sheets lead, viz., 2 large and 2 small .166

Labour of lining box with lead, solder,
closing lead, closing wooden box,
stamping, and cost of nails . .009

Labour of drying previous to packing,
whether in sun, or over dholes,
including charcoal, if the latter are
used . . . . . .009

Labour of filling the box, shaking it well,

and pressing down the Tea (2 men) 006

3 5 6

Transport.
Freight to Calcutta for one maund Tea,

say . . . . . . i 12 o

i 12 o

l62 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Rs. As. P. Rs. As. P.

Brought forward t I 4 J 5 9

Broker's Charges in Calcutta.
Landing, lotting, and advertising per

chest . . . , . . o 14 o
Brokerage at I per cent, on the amount

sale, say Rs. 70 for the maund .on 3

1 9 3

Total for one maund of Tea* 16 9 o

N.B. If more than two maunds Tea are made per day,
some of the items under head of " Manufacture " would be
a little less. See page 70, where it will be seen that each
maund of Tea is worth to the manufacturer (after deducting
all costs) Rs. 50.

* After, experience has shown me this amount, when any quantity of Tea
is made, is too high Rs. 12 to 13 would be nearer the mark.

i6 3

CHAPTER XXIX.

COST OF MAKING A 3OO-ACRE TEA GARDEN.

IN the following estimate 100 acres are supposed to be
planted the first year, 100 acres the second, and 100 acres
the third.

To elucidate a table I shall draw up in the next chapter
showing the probable receipts and expenditure on such a
garden for a series of years, I shall suppose this plantation
to be begun in 1875, and number the years accordingly.

The expenditure would truly, in the supposed case, begin
in the latter part of 1874, but it is more convenient to
regard it as commencing ist January, 1875.

I estimate all new cultivation as planted " at stake,"
that is, the seed sown in situ. Nurseries are only to fill up
vacancies.

I shall not pretend in this to go into minute details, such
as are given at page 84, for it is simply impossible to do so.
The cost of making a plantation must vary greatly, being
determined by climate, available labour and its rates, lay of
land, nature of jungle to clear, &c., &c. In this estimate
only round numbers can be dealt with. The prices I assume
are average ones, neither suited to very heavy jungle, and
very expensive labour, or the reverse :

ist year (1875). Rs. R s .

Purchase 700 acres land, at Rs. 8 per acre . 5,600
40 maunds seed, at Rs. 70* . / . 2,800

Carried over Rs. . 8,400

* The cost for seed, nurseries, and transplanting increases each year as
the area over which vacancies may exist enlarges.

164

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Brought forward Rs. . 8,400
Nurseries for vacancies and labour trans-
planting* . . ... . 200

First temporary buildings . . . . 1,000

All expenditure to plant 100 acres, at

Rs. 80 per acret > v>- ^ ? . . 8,000
Cultivating the said 100 acres first year, at

Rs. 50 per acre* ,. . . . 5,ooo

22,600

2nd year (1876).

60 maunds seed, at Rs. 70* . . . 4,200
Nurseries and labour transplanting* . ' . 300
Repairs, buildings and some new ones still

of a temporary nature . . . 500
All expenditure to plant the second 100

acres, at Rs. 70 per acret . '*. ' . 7,000
Cultivating first 100 acres, at Rs. 60,

second 100 acres, at Rs. 50 per acret 11,000

23,000

yd year (1877).

70 maunds seeds, at Rs. 70* r ; : '. . 4,900
Nurseries and labour transplanting* . ( * 400
Buildings for Tea manufacture (temporary)

and repairs to buildings ' . '. . 3,000

Carried over .

8,300
53,900

* See note * p. 163.

f The expenditure for planting the 100 acres each year includes cutting
and clearing jungle, removing roots, digging, staking, pitting, and sowing the
seed. In fact all expenditure including part of the pay of Manager and
Establishment. The rate per acre decreases each year, because each year
there is more expenditure of other kinds, which helps to pay for the Manager
and Establishment.

J The reason why the rate for cultivation on the 100 acres planted each of
the three first years increases each year is given in the table and remarks at
pages 84 and 85.

COST OF MAKING A GARDEN. 165

Brought forward Rs. . 53>QOO

All expenditure to plant the third 100 acres,

at Rs. 60 per acre * . r _ ., ,. 6,000
Cultivating first 100 acres, at Rs. 70, second

at Rs. 60, third at Rs. 50 per acre t . 18,000

24,000
Interest on first year's outlay, two and a

half years, second year's outlay, one
and a half years, thirdyear's outlay half
year, at Rs. 5 per cent, per annum . 5>357

Total expense to make the 3Oo-acre garden 83,257

The garden is now made at a cost, including interest on
all outlay of Rs. 83,257, and I am very confident that a good
3oo-acre garden can, as set out, be made for that sum. The
rates assumed are so liberal that a fair margin is allowed for
bad seed or any other misfortune.

ar (1878).

20 maunds seed, at Rs. 70 % . . . 1,400
Nurseries and labour transplanting % . 500
Repairs, buildings . ^ , ; ; .. .. . 500
Cultivating first 100 acres, at Rs. 80, second

at Rs. 70, third at Rs. 60 per acre || . 21,000

23,400

* See note -(-, p. 164. f See note J, p. 164.

J The seed to be bought is now less each year, as it is produced on the
garden, and after the fifth year no more has to be purchased. From the
fourth, and all subsequent years, nurseries for vacancies are calculated at
Rs. 500, which is enough, as the garden has been previously yearly replenished.
This expenditure will be continual as long as the garden lasts, for there will
always be some vacancies to replace.

Rupees 500 is a fair sum to estimate for ordinary annual repairs to build-
ings, and it will be required as long as the garden lasts. A temporary Factory
was made in 1877, and a permanent building is now allowed for in 1881. Per-
manent Manager's and Assistant's houses are also allowed for in 1882. The
garden can afford this now, for the profits are large. (See table at page 172.)

|| For the rates assumed here see page 84.

i66

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

5th year (1879).

10 maunds seeds, at Rs. 70* . . . 700
Nurseries and labour transplanting* . 500

Repairs, buildings t . . . c . . 500
Cultivating first 100 acres, at Rs. go, second

at Rs. 80, third at Rs. 70 per acre % . 24,000

6th year (1880).

Nurseries and labour transplanting* . . 500
Repairs buildings t . r ; . . . 500
Cultivating first 100 acres, at Rs. 100,
second at Rs. go, third at Rs. 80 per
acre % ." .''"./ - . . 27,000

jth year (1881).

Nurseries and labour transplanting* . 500

Building a permanent Tea Factory and Tea

Store and repairs to buildingt . . 12,500
Cultivating first 100 acres, at Rs. 100,
second at Rs. 100, third at Rs. go per
acre % . ' '. 4 . '; . . . 2g,ooo

8th year (1882).

Nurseries and labour transplanting* . . 500
New permanent houses for Manager and

Assistant, and repairs to buildings t . 8,500
Cultivating first, second, and third 100

acres, at Rs. 100 per acre I . . 30,000

* See Note J, p. 165.
t See Note , p. 165.
J See Note ||, p. 165.

25,700

28,OOO

42,OOO

39,000

COST OF MAKING A GARDEN. 167

gthyear (1883), and all years after.

Nurseries, at Rs. 500* )

\ 1,000
Repairs to buildings, at Rs. 500 t

Cultivating the 300 acres, at Rs. 100 per

acre J 30,000

31,000

Nothing is allowed for interest after the third year, for
soon after that, viz., fifth year, the garden begins to give
profits on the yearly operations.

All the above figures are carried out in the table in the
next chapter, page 172, and how large the profits on Tea
may be will there be seen.

In none of the estimates of cost, up to this, is the
expense of manufacturing the Tea included. It would have
been very inconvenient to do so. The cost is so much per
maund of Tea, and I prefer estimating the Tea at its
market rate minus the cost of manufacture shown at pages
70 and 162.

* See note J, p. 165.
f See note , p. 165.
J See note H, p. 165.

l68 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XXX.

HOW MUCH PROFIT TEA CAN GIVE.

WE have already estimated the cost of making and cultivat-
ing a plantation of 300 acres. We must now ascertain how
much Tea that area will give yearly.

It is a very wide question what produce an acre of Tea
will give.

The following is an extract from the " Report of the Com-
missioners appointed to enquire into the state and prospects
of Tea cultivation in Assam and Cachar," addressed to the
Government of Bengal, and dated March, 1868 :

"Average produce per acre. "

" The returns of actual produce of gardens in 1867 which we have
obtained are so few in number that it is impossible to take any general
average from them. "The produce in these varies from three-and-a-
half maunds to one-and-a-half maunds per acre, omitting the more
recently formed gardens.

" From information received during our tour we have reason to
believe that some gardens produce more than the highest rate per acre
here mentioned ; but, in the absence of returns of exact acreage and
out-turn, we cannot notice these instances.

" Mr. Haworth, in his pamphlet already quoted, speaks of the
produce of Cachar gardens as follows :

" * I believe that three maunds per acre is fully one-third more
than the present average yield of gardens in Cachar, after deducting
the area of plant under yielding age.

" ' There is no reason, that I am aware of, why the yield of Tea
should not soon be raised to four maunds, and more gradually six
maunds per acre, equal to twenty-four maunds of leaf per acre (less
than one ton per acre for a green crop, which is still a very small one).
Even now there are gardens in Cachar which give an average of from five

PROFIT. 169

to six maunds per acre this season. Some of these gardens have really
no apparent advantage over their less fortunate neighbours, beyond
that of a somewhat better system of cultivation and pruning ; and
these improvements even are to such a small degree ahead of the
general practice, that I feel justified in saying I cannot place a limit on
what the increased yield should be under a more rational system of
cultivation, and the application of manures on a liberal scale, leaving
out of consideration altogether what might reasonably be expected
from a good system of drainage in addition.'

" Mr. James Stuart, Manager of the Bengal Tea Company's
gardens in Cachar, has also given two maunds an acre as the general
average of Cachar gardens for the past season, including young
gardens of two, three, and four years old.

" We do not think it necessary to quote in detail the opinions of
all the gentlemen examined by us on the subject of average produce
per acre. A garden that can give four maunds per acre is undoubtedly
a good one, and we have no doubt there are such, or even better ; but
we do not think they are so common as to warrant our taking more
than three maunds as a safe average."

Mr. A. C. Campbell, Extra Assistant Commissioner at
Burpettah, in his " Notes on Tea Cultivation in Assam," pub-
lished in the Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural
Society of India, part 3, vol. xii., page 309, says : " Good
Tea land can be made to yield as high as seven maunds per
poora." I forget exactly how much a poora is, but I believe
it is nearly an acre.

In the Report to Government by the Commissioners,
quoted above, at page 9, Mr. T. Burland, after estimating
the cost of cultivation per acre per mensem at Rs. 9-10-2,
adds : " With the above expenditure per acre it is probable
that much more than five maunds of Tea will be obtained
from an acre of fair plant." *

All these estimates, however, are based on the cultivation

* See my estimate for cultivation at page 84. I there estimate Rs. 100 per
acre per annum from the sixth year, so that Mr. Burland six years ago had
come to the same opinion about high cultivation that I hold.

170

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

of Tea as carried on hitherto with few exceptions, that is

to say, on gardens covered with weeds for many months in

the year, and to which no manure has ever been given.

With such cultivation, particularly on gardens planted on

slopes, I think myself that the yield will not exceed four

maunds at the outside.

High cultivation and liberal manuring will, I believe, at

least double the above, if the plants are of a high class.

However, here I give a table on the subject which I have

carefully framed.

Estimate of probable yield per acre on flat land, good soil, in a
good Tea climate, and with hybrid plants, if really high
cultivation and liberal manuring is carried out.

Year

Supposed Year

Estimated yield per
acre in maunds*

ISt

1875

2nd

1876

3rd

I8 77

4 th

1878

5 th

i8 79 t

6th

1880

7 th

1881

8th

1882

gth

1883

loth

1884:

* Calculating Tea by maunds is convenient, inasmuch as pounds
necessitate such lengthy figures for all calculations. The maund here
employed is, however, quite an arbitrary measure. It is not the Indian
maund, it equals and is represented exactly by 80 Ibs. Any number of
maunds multiplied by 80 will naturally give the Ibs. of Tea.

f Up to this point, viz., the fifth year inclusive, the figures given have
been much more than realised, and that on a garden with 15 per cent, vacancies.
It has been, though, highly cultivated and liberally manured from the first.

| From the fifth to the tenth year is assumption, except that I know one
garden which, to my certain knowledge, has given more then ten maunds an
acre, and this in spite of about 15 per cent, vacancies. The garden is an old
one, planted about 18 years ago. It is also a very small one. The soil is very
poor, but the plants are of the highest class. It was much neglected till
about eight years ago. From that time it has been highly cultivated in every
way except in the point of irrigation, for it has not that advantage. It has
been most liberally manured.

PROFIT. 171

I do not think plants reach to perfect maturity under
eight or ten years.

That eight maunds per acre as estimated in the table
just given can be realised, under the conditions stated, I
have no doubt whatever, but I am equally certain that the
size of some gardens in India must be much reduced if even
five or six maunds are looked for.* Not only must they be
reduced in size, but they must be highly cultivated, must
be manured, and no vacancies allowed. However, I have
dwelt on all these points before, and need not repeat here,
for unless the reader is convinced before this that a large
area and low cultivation won't pay, it were waste to write
more.

I now give a table showing the result for twelve years of
a plantation such as I have advised.

* Note to Third Edition. With high cultivation on a favourable site and
in a really good Tea climate, I now believe 10 maunds per acre will eventually
be realised.

172

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

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REMARKS.

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PROFIT. 173

The necessities for success in Tea are :

1. A good climate.

2. A good site.

3. Perfect knowledge in Tea cultivation and Tea

manufacture on the proprietor's part or that
of his manager.

4. Seed from a high class of plants.

5. Local or cheap imported labour.

6. Facilities for manuring.

7. Cheap transport.

Do not dispense, though, with even one of the seven points
named, for the truth is simply, that Tea will pay very well
with all the above advantages, but will utterly fail without
them.

Such is my advice to intending beginners. To those who
have gardens, I say, reduce your areas till of the size you
can really cultivate them highly, and procure manure at any
cost.

I shall not have written in vain, and Tea enterprise in
India will flourish, if the motto of planters in future be

" A full area, highly cultivated."

174 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XXXI.

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF INDIAN TEA.

A FEW words on the past, the present, and the future of
Indian Tea will now conclude this Essay, and will, I hope,
be acceptable to the reader.

The subject is one of growing importance, but being a
new one, there are points connected with it on which the
public are very ignorant, and should be enlightened.

To begin with, the following facts are not disputed by
those who know anything of the subject :

1. Indian Teas have far more body, that is strength,
than Chinese Teas.

2. Indian Teas consequently command a higher price
at the London sales than Chinese Teas.

3. In spite of its higher price, it is far more economical
than the Chinese produce, as, generally speaking, one-third
of the quantity suffices.

4. There are lands enough in India to grow all the Tea
required for England's use, and, indeed, for all her colonies.

If these are facts, and I confidentially affirm they are so,
how is it that the following holds in England ?

1. Indian Tea is not known to the public.

2. Except in one or two shops in London and Glasgow,
unknown to the mass of the people, not an ounce of pure
Indian Tea can be bought in all England.

3. That India is even a Tea-producing country is
scarcely known in England.*

* Note to Third Edition. The above three statements, quite true when
written, are not so now. The heavy fall in the value of both Indian and

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF INDIAN TEA. 175

I think I can explain some of these anomalies.

Tea is an acquired taste : by which I mean, not only
that the adult who had never tasted Tea would not like it
when first offered to him, but also that, with those who
consume it regularly, any Tea that differs in flavour from
what is habitually drunk is not relished.

It matters not whether it is intrinsically better or worse,
enough that the flavour is different, for that reason it is not
liked.

Indian Tea differs widely from Chinese Tea, and for that
reason is rarely appreciated by those accustomed to the latter.

For a long time it appeared as if this difficulty would be
a bar to the general introduction of Indian Teas in England,
and so indeed it would have proved, had the short-sighted
policy adopted at the commencement by one or two Indian
Companies that their Teas should be sold retail and pure,
that is, unmixed with Chinese, been followed out. It did
not avail to tell John Bull it was better Tea, that it was far
stronger, that it was in no way adulterated ; for he simply
shook his head, the flavour was different to what use had
made him familiar with, and he would none of it.

But little by little, in spite of the above, it made its way.
Grocers soon found that the worst, id est, the weakest class
of Chinese Teas received body and were made saleable by an
addition of Indian Tea. It was not long after this that the
trade discovered that pretty well all Chinese Teas were im-
proved, if proportions of Indian Teas were mixed with them.
In short, the fact was recognised by Tea vendors that Chinese
Teas were weak, and much improved if mixed with Indian.

The public were thus educated to relish the superior

Chinese Teas in 1877, while pressing hard on the Indian producer, has
certainly had the one good effect for him of making Indian Teas more widely
known. They are generally known now, in many cases sold pure as Indian
Tea, and used by all retail dealers to give the body or strength lacking in
most Chinese kinds.

176 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

flavour of Indian Tea, and did so, when the quantity mixed
with the Chinese was not so great as to make the new
flavour too pro-nonce. Little by little the custom of so
mixing became very general, so much so that it may almost
be said to-day that if Indian Teas cannot be purchased
pure, no more can Chinese. A mixture of Chinese and
Indian Tea, the latter small as compared with the former,
is what is now generally used in Great Britain.

This is the case to-day. What will it be in the future ?

As the English palate is educated to like the flavour of
Indian Tea, more and more of it will be demanded in the
mixture made up for the public, and though the day is
distant, nay, may never arrive, on account of its greater cost,
when it will be generally drunk pure, I do not myself doubt
that the demand for it will go on steadily increasing for years
to come, as it has for years past.*

It is an important query if, with a largely increased
demand, the supply will be equal to it. Very far from all
India has a good Tea climate, which is a peculiar one, and
only exists in perfection in Assam, Cachar, Chittagong, and
lands in Bengal close to the foot of the Himalayas.

But in these districts alone there are lands sufficient to
supply nearly the whole world with Tea, so that it is not the
lands which are wanting, though the Government prices for
the lands are prohibitory and will check cultivation. But in
Assam, Cachar, and the Terai below the Himalayas labour
is very scarce, while in Chittagong the area fit for Tea is not
large, so that I do not anticipate any very sudden increase of

* Note to Third Edition. Yes; the demand has largely increased, but, alas!
production has increased in a greater ratio. In short, the supply exceeds the
demand, and hence the low prices now ruling. As regards the use of Indian
Teas, so much have the English public been now made familiar with their
flavour, they, as a rule, reject any Teas which have it not more or less. In
fact, the English public, as I predicted years ago, have now begun to like the
new flavour, and even pure Indian Teas are now relished by many.

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF INDIAN TEA. 177

the cultivation, though year by year it is on the increase and
will so continue.

On the other hand, I do not for the reasons stated,
viz., that Tea is an acquired taste and thus a new kind is not
at first palatable anticipate any very sudden increase in the
demand. If, however, I am wrong, and from a largely
increased demand the prices of Indian Teas rise, I do not
doubt that the cultivation will be greatly extended, and that
after an interval of four years (it takes that time for the Tea
plant to produce) the supply will be equal to the then wants
of the English market.

The future of Indian Tea is, I think, a bright one, and
I know nothing in which capital can be more profitably in-
vested if the business is conducted with knowledge and
experience, but to embark in it without these two requisites
is ruin.

A few figures may be given here. The imports into
Great Britain of Indian Teas have been yearly increasing,
till in 1873 they amounted to 18,367,000 Ibs., and, judging
from the estimate out here of^the produce this year, viz.,
1874, the imports into Great Britain in 1874 w ^ n t be far
short of 20,000,000 Ibs.*

But as the annual consumption of Tea in the United
Kingdom is not less than 130,000,000 Ibs., India is still very
far from supplying enough to give a mixture of three-fourths
Chinese and one-fourth India Tea.t

* Note to Third Edition. The imports have been as follows during the
last three years :

1875 . . ..,...,. ,\ -|i . 25,615,000.

1876 Y . ' . . . ". 29,384,000.

1877 . . ' V ; '. '."' ''. 31,882,000.

f Note to Third Edition. The annual consumption of all Teas in Great
Britain in 1877 was

Chinese . . ' V . . . 158,000,000

India 28,000,000

Total . . "; '' V . 186,000,000

178 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

The finest Chinese Tea sells in London in bond at zs. \d.
to 2s. 6d., while the finest Indian in bond fetches 35. to
35. 6d*

What, then, will be the future of Indian Tea ? It is an
important query. The industry is one which, if successful,
might attain to wide limits, and help not a little to relieve
the Indian State Exchequer, while it would afford occu-
pation to many a class of Englishmen who at present look
about in vain for employment.

Tea speculation has passed through the first two pre-
liminary phases to which most new ventures are liable.
First, we had the wild rush, the mad fever, when every man
thought that to own a few Tea bushes was to realise wealth.
In those days existing plantations were bought at eight and
ten times their value ; nominal areas of 500 acres were paid
for which, on subsequent measurement, proved to be under
100 ; new gardens were commenced on impossible sites,
and by men as managers who not only did not know a Tea
plant from a cabbage, but who were equally ignorant of the
commonest rules of agriculture. Boards highly paid, with
secretaries still more liberally remunerated, were formed
both in Calcutta and London to carry on the enterprise ;
and, in short, money was lavished in every conceivable way,
while mismanagement ran rampant in each department. It
is not strange that the whole thing collapsed : the wonder
is it did not do so earlier.

The second stage was then entered upon. Numbers had
been bitten, and the idea, once formed, grew apace, that
Tea could not pay at all. Everyone wanted to sell, and
down went all Tea shares to a figure which only increased
the general panic. Many companies, and not a few indi-
viduals, unable to carry on, had to wind up and sell their

* Note to Third Edition. In 1876 the average prices of the two kinds in
bond were : Chinese, is. id. ; Indian, 15. 10^. per Ib.

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF INDIAN TEA. 179

estates for whatever they would fetch. Gardens that had
cost lakhs were sold for as many hundreds, and the very
word "Tea" stank in the nostrils of the commercial public.
A few of the best companies held on, as also such individuals
embarked in the speculation as could weather the storm ;
but some of the companies were bowed down with heavy
debts, and it has been with many, from that cause, a losing
race ever since.

This great smash occurred in 1867. I purpose, therefore,
to examine into the future prospects of the industry, now
that time has been given to test its vitality. Naturally the
mistakes made at the first have not been repeated since, so
the speculation has had more or less of a fair chance to
show what it can do.

In the first place, the share list of Tea companies in the
public prints does not at all represent the true position of
Tea property to-day. It only gives the dividends declared
and the value of the shares in those few limited liability
companies which were able to weather the storm, but who,
in common with all the others, were bowed down with
debt, and are suffering up to the present time, both from
that and the numberless mistakes made at the commence-
ment of the enterprise. There are a few notable exceptions,
even among the Tea companies. Some of these have done
very well, pay large dividends, and are quoted at a high
premium, which shows that Tea can and will pay even with
the disadvantages attached to limited liability companies.
I mean that in these latter work is always expensively done,
and that much of the profits are swallowed up by secretaries,
directors, &c., besides which, generally from interested
motives, the Teas are sent home for sale which private
planters know from experience is not the best plan.

But to return to the share list. The very many gardens
held by firms or private individuals are absent, and inasmuch

l8o CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

as many of these were begun more lately, and consequently,
the blunders made in other gardens were avoided, it is
evident that their position, if it could be ascertained, would
give the true picture needed.

There is one class of plantations which it would be by no
means fair to include. I mean those gardens bought for a
mere song during the panic. On many of these necessarily
enormous profits have been made, but it proves nothing,
inasmuch as the profits, to be legitimate profits for criticism,
should on the debit side include the whole cost incurred in
making the plantation. To form a fair appreciation of the
profits Tea planting can give, we must select gardens con-
structed after knowledge on the subject was attained, where
good management, combined with economy in all details,
has been carried out, and where the necessary natural
conditions for success exist and such are rare.

But first let me explain what I mean by the " necessary
natural conditions for success." Manageable areas ; flat or
nearly flat land for the garden ; a good class of indigenous
and hybrid plants; local labour, or anyhow a good pro-
portion of this; facilities for manuring; a good soil; a good
Tea climate ; and cheap means of transport constitute
these, and where they exist I hold Tea must, and does, pay
well. I don't believe in plantations of 600 or 800 acres ;
some of these pay, but they would pay much better if
reduced in size. A garden of 300 acres, yielding even at
the rate of four maunds an acre, will pay much better than
another of 500 acres, yielding but two and a-half or three
maunds.

The reason is obvious, the larger produce is against a
smaller expenditure. Were I to commence a Tea plantation
to-day, it should not exceed 300 or 400 acres in size. This
passion for large areas is the rock on which, more than any
other, Tea Companies have wrecked themselves; experience

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF INDIAN TEA. l8l

has already shown this, and will show it more, as time
goes on.

Flat land for Tea gardens is a great desideratum. Steep
lands are difficult to cultivate ; the soil is continually
washing away from the roots of the plants ; it is impossible
to manure them successfully, and the consequence of all
this is that the Tea bushes do not thrive.

The Chinese plant gives a small and inferior produce,
the indigenous and hybrid kind a larger and very superior
one; thus I think the latter one of the "necessary conditions
for success." On the other points, with the exception of
manuring, nothing need be said, inasmuch as their necessity
i.s evident ; but on the point of manure I must say a few
words. The Tea plant is being continually denuded of its
leaves ; nothing is returned to the soil ; and consequently in
process of time that soil is exhausted. It was held once
that manure destroyed the flavour of Tea. This idea, at
variance with all agricultural experience, is now completely
exploded, like many others received from the Chinamen
who first came from the Flowery Land to teach the art
of Tea cultivation and Tea manufacture to the Indian
public. Many of them had never perhaps seen a Tea bush,
anyhow in many respects theirs was faulty teaching, and all
experienced planters are convinced, and it is truth, that
more knowledge on Tea exists in India than China at the
present time.

But to return to the subject of manure. It is, and is
now generally allowed to be, a necessity to the lengthened
and successful maintenance of a plantation. Means for its
production are now largely adopted in Assam and Cachar,
and the results will be a yield per acre the most sanguine
have never dreamt of. Chittagong, on this head, has great
advantages ; manure in any quantity can there be procured
for a trifle, and the results have shown its great value.

182 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

We have scarcely yet entered on the third stage to
which any new speculation, after the two first (the wild
venture, and the unreasoning panic have passed), tends; but
as knowledge of the financial results of Tea plantations in
the hands of private firms and private individuals increases,
that third stage will dawn, if it has not done so already. It
consists in a sober appreciation of the subject opposed to
both the extremely exulting and depressing views passed
through, and when it arrives, the great and successful future
of Indian Tea will be only a question of time.

ADDITIONS TO THE FOURTH EDITION.

CHAPTER XXXII.

COUNTRIES OUTSIDE CHINA AND INDIA THAT
PRODUCE TEA.

So much has the industry marched since the Third Edition
was published in 1878 that I think it well to add the follow-
ing pages to my book.

I will first consider the countries outside India and China
which produce Tea, or wish to do so.

CEYLON.

This is likely to prove a formidable competitor. As far
as I can gather, Tea plants (of both the Assam and China
kinds) were introduced into Ceylon in 1841, but it is only
during the last few years Tea planting has been taken up in
earnest. A Mr. Shand, who seems to have studied Tea in
Ceylon, estimates 500 Ibs. per acre as the produce when in
full bearing. This is 6^ maunds, and though less than the
best Indian gardens give, it is considerably above the
average all over India. Ceylon Tea finds a ready market
in London. The parcels vary much, as they do from India,
but in the past year (1882) many very desirable lots were
sent home. I believe, take it all in all, Ceylon Tea is no
better, and no worse, than Indian Tea.

With Tea prices as they are to-day, I would not myself
commence Tea cultivation in India, Ceylon, or anywhere. I
feel sure, therefore, if Ceylon planters rush into Tea, as
they did in India in times past, they will regret it. But I

184 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

hear that made Tea gardens can be bought there cheap,
and under these circumstances Tea will probably pay the
purchasers well.

JOHORE.

H.H. the Maharajah there has started a small Tea garden,
but as there are in it only two acres of Tea, the whole thing
is quite an experiment yet. The climate is said to be
favourable, and land easily acquired. Cheap labour is the
difficulty. May it long continue so ! There is too much
Tea already ; the low prices ruling result simply from
supply exceeding demand. Thus I hope Johore will not
produce Tea. The following is from the Tea Gazette :

TEA IN JOHORE.

We have lately published several articles on the subject of Tea in
Johore and the prospects of Tea plantations in the Malay Peninsula.
The soil and climate are all that can be desired for the successful
cultivation of the Tea plant ; there is abundance of land lying idle
which can be obtained on advantageous terms ; but all hopes of
establishing the Tea industry on a prosperous footing are frustrated by
the want of cheap Indian labour. A correspondent writes on this
subject to the Ceylon Observer as follows :

" I was pretty well disgusted with Johore at first. I got such
fever as nearly finished me up twice. A new comer from Ceylon says
he had Wellawaya fever and all other fevers in Ceylon, but he never
felt anything to come near the severity of Johore fever. Liberian
coffee does first-class in the low country. Cocoa is being tried with
apparent success. Tea is also promising. You may have seen about
some samples sold in London, at a high figure. All this is nice
enough, but what's the good of it when we have not a plentiful supply
of labour over which we can have complete control ? So you see, the
burden of my letter is an indefinite supply of labour."

. Strenuous efforts are, however, being made to arrange with the
Government for the importation of labourers from this country, which,
if successful, will inevitably result in the cultivation on a large scale of
the Tea plant in Johore. In another column will be found a description
of the Maharajah of Johore's experimental Tea plantation at Tanjong
Putri, Johore.

TEA PRODUCING COUNTRIES. 185

JAPAN

Sends its Teas principally to America. The Tea is of a
greenish nature, and experiments to manufacture black
Tea have not, it seems, been successful. The following should
give a hope to Indian Tea planters :

JAPAN TEA.
To the Editor of the Japan Herald.

Dear Sir, I read your article on Tea contained in last Saturday's
paper, anent the deterioration in quality of one of the country's
principal articles of export, and can fully confirm the chief points
contained therein.

But in addition, from my personal experience, there appears to
exist a steadily increasing disregard of care in the preparation of the
leaf up country, and the evil, though existing for the last three or four
years, is much more manifest this season, and is worthy of being
brought under the especial notice of parties interested in the welfare
of this country's produce.

I submit for your inspection a sample of coarse leaf sifted out of a
parcel of good quality, and the proportion of similar stuff in the chop
amounts to fully 3 per cent., very much affecting the good appearance
of the fired leaf. This defect no doubt arises from the attempted
production of too great an amount of cured leaf for each hand
employed per diem in the process, to be attributed no doubt to the
enhanced cost of labour in the interior. But the defect is of vital
importance for the future of Japan Teas in America. The buyer for
distribution amongst consumers in that country is greatly influenced
by the " appearance '' of the leaf, despite its relative intrinsic quality
in infusion, in comparison with a Tea of worse appearance, hence
the high facing and colouring at present so much in vogue. If the
Japanese producers continue the present style of manufacturing the
leaf up country, so surely will Japan Teas decline in favour in America,
as the foreign shipper here cannot make up the leaf prepared up
country to the standard required by the American buyers, and with
the prospect of a possibility of Oolongs and even blacks becoming ere
long dangerous rivals with consumers in the United States, it behoves
the Japanese Tea growers to turn their attention towards an improve-

l86 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

ment in production in their own country before they attempt to rival
foreign competitors at this side. Yours faithfully, YAMATO.

Yokohama, Aug. 19, 1881.

[We have inspected the sample of coarse leaf referred to in the above
letter, and though we cannot pretend to any critical knowledge of Tea, we can
confirm the statements of our correspondent, and hold the specimen at our
office, where it can be seen by anyone desirous of doing so. Editor, Japan
Herald.}

I know not where this next extract came from, but it
appears they understand adulteration in Japan :

Mr. Yanagiya might, however, have gone a step farther, and have
given particulars of the various analyses, and have mentioned that the
"leaf" of the various samples showed a large proportion of leaves
quite different to those of the Tea shrub, and for the presence of which
not even the astute foreigner that bugbear of Japanese commerce
can be held accountable.

We have heard this season loud complaints of the presence of
leaves entirely distinct from those of the Tea plant amongst purchases.
These consisted principally of wisteria, willow and a species of ash, but
the native growers were impartial, and several other species of shrubs
also contributed their quota to the frauds practised by the Japanese.

The probable reason of the falling off in the quantity of one of the
leading articles of export from Japan is not difficult to guess at, nor
can the Japanese say that they have not received full and timely warn-
ing of the danger threatening the popularity of Japan Tea. A reckless
over-production, excessive and close picking of the shrubs, and great
carelessness in pruning and manuring the tree caused, no doubt, in
no small degree by the high rate of wages in the interior is militating
against the realisation of a good crop, and the peasant is too intent
upon immediate profits to forego the picking of the third crop of a
season under existing circumstances. The result of all this has been
that at the close of last season a quantity of worthless leaf was
poured upon the market, finally sold at almost nominal figures, and
shipped across to the United States, where it remains an incubus on
the figures of stock, and a source of future abhorrence to any un-
fortunate purchaser towards anything bearing the name of Japan
Tea.

TEA PRODUCING COUNTRIES. 187

The following is from the report of the Japanese
Consul at San Francisco. I should have thought the
Americans were too sensible "to prefer coloured Teas :"

It has however come to my knowledge that in the Eastern States
the Tea was analyzed, and adulteration was discovered ; such as the
admixture of other leaves and poisonous ingredients which are^sed for
colouring the Tea before it is exported, and that the markets in the
Eastern States being overstocked, no Tea, unless of the best quality,
can find purchasers. This is a very deplorable state of affairs. The
colouring is made by the foreign merchants residing in Japan, for
Americans prefer coloured Tea, and a few Japanese merchants may
have imitated them, and exported on their own account.

The exports of Japan Tea to America have declined
from seventeen to fourteen million in one year ! Not strange
if all the above is true.

The following from the Tea Gazette bears out what I
say above as to Japan black Tea :

JAPAN BLACK TEA.

Mr. Consul Euslie writes from Kanagawa (Japan) as follows
concerning black Tea : This has, on the whole, proved a failure,
although the production continues on a limited scale. The climate
and soil of this country appear unfitted to the growth of plants
producing a leaf of the quality necessary to make good black. Teas
resembling good leaf congous can be made with good and even
handsome leaf, several samples being in appearance very similiar to
Indian Teas of pekoe class, but lacking strength, and not being nearly
equal to good Chinese Foochow Teas in that respect. A small amount
of these Teas has been shipped to Germany on native account, a German
financier providing the necessary funds ; but thus far the outcome of
these shipments has not transpired. The results generally of 1881 have
not proved as satisfactory as those of the preceding year ; the whole
crop, and more particularly the first picking, shows signs of hasty
and careless preparation. The amount of Tea exported from Japan
was decidedly in excess of the requirements of the United States and
Canada, and a considerable portion of the shipments for the year had
to be sacrificed at prices which did not cover laying down cost.

l88 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

All this is hopeful for our Indian Teas, as we can manu-
facture the greenish Tea they like that is, we can do it if
they won't take our black, but they have begun to do so.

The above mode of manufacture in Japan is new to us
in India.

The process of steaming the Tea is as follows : As soon as
picked it is at once steamed, all damp or wet leaves being thrown on
one side, excepting those that may be a little wet with dew. In order
to obtain the proper application of heat, a few leaves are put into a
shallow basket, spread out evenly, and the lid put on ; the basket is
then placed over a charcoal fire box or stove, a perfume is at once
perceived. When the greeny smell has subsided, the leaves are
removed, spread on a piece of new matting, and fanned briskly so as to
draw out the heat. After the lapse of some little time the Tea is placed
in a tray, and then undergoes a firing process, the length of which
is regulated either by the minute hand of a watch or the beats of a
pulse, and depends a good deal on the manipulator's own ideas.

JAVA.*

. Much of this Tea goes to Holland and Northern Germany.
I know Tea cultivation in Java is carried out very carefully
and very successfully, but this one fact is all I know as to
Java or its Teas.

AMERICA.

That the proper climate for Tea can be found there (a
huge Continent to choose from !) goes without saying. But
equally sure is it that Tea will not pay except labour is
cheap.

By the extract below, it appears Georgia has been
selected for experimental Tea cultivation, and I doubt not
it is a good selection :

* Much about Java and its Teas can be found in a book entitled "Java,
or How to Manage a Colony," by J. W. B. Money. Crown 8vo, 2 vols.
Hurst and Blackett.

TEA PRODUCING COUNTRIES. 189

TEA PLANTING IN AMERICA.

Successful experiments have been made in this branch of
cultivation in the United States, as is shown by a report just published
by Mr. Jackson, a Scotch gentleman now settled in America, who was
at one time manager of the estates of the Scottish Assam Company.
The Commissioner of Agriculture has, at Mr. Jackson's advice, selected
a tract of land in Georgia for an experimental farm, on which the
raising of Tea on an extended scale will be carefully and thoroughly
tried. Samples of the Teas already produced by Mr. Jackson have
been sent to Messrs. Thompson, tea merchants, Mincing Lane, London,
to be examined. The reply was that " They represented Teas of a
high type. The flavour, though not strong, is remarkably fragrant.
In appearance they resemble Indian Tea, but the flavour is more like
that of the finest Chinese black Tea, or of the hill Teas of India."

No reason why the Teas should not be good, but the
labour difficulty will, I think, prevent Tea paying there,
as elsewhere in America, for Mr. Jackson himself, who
continues the above, asks further on, " Can we afford to pay
our labourers four times as much as they pay in India and
still make Tea a success ? " He, strange to say, tries to
prove " yes," I say no, a thousand times no, in spite of all
Mr. Jackson says. I like, however, to give both sides
of a question, and so will let Mr. Jackson speak for
himself:

The stock cry continually raised against Tea culture in this country
is, how can you raise Tea in a country where wages are so high ? You
can cultivate Tea at a profit only in a country where labour is at the
lowest possible minimum, and so on. And so it is taken for granted
that the Tea culture is to be allowed to retain its antiquated forms
and systems for all time, and that the skill and intelligence of a
civilized nation can do nothing to raise it to a level with corresponding
branches of agriculture, such, for instance, as rice growing. What
would the people of South Carolina say if told that the only way to
cultivate rice at a profit was to sow all their seed in nursery beds and,
when sprouted, to transplant their entire crop, seed by seed, by hand,

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

as is done in India ? What would a Minnesota farmer say if told that
the only implement with which he could profitably rear a crop of corn
was the hoe, wielded by an attenuated skeleton of a man ? If the
hundreds of wealthy Tea planters in Assam were told that they must
return to the original system of manufacturing their Teas by hand,
they would throw up their farms in despair. Seventy million pounds
of Tea are now annually manufactured by machinery in India and Java,
and I have satisfied myself that green Teas, suitable for the American
market, can be manufactured at one-third the cost of the black Teas
prepared by machinery for the English market. There is but one
division of Tea culture into which the labour question would enter at
all, and that is the picking of the leaves. Everything else can be
carried on with the mechanical precision of the cultivator, reaper, and
floutring mill. Is not the real truth of the matter to be found in the
fact that the American people know nothing absolutely nothing of
the modern system of Tea culture and manufacture, and are therefore
in no position to form a sound judgment of the possibilities of their
country and countrymen in regard to Tea ? I say again, as I have
often said before, that the question of labour will prove no barrier to
successful Tea culture in America. Let any who are interested enough
in this subject to feel sceptical about it favour me with a call at No.
229 East Fourth Street and I will take pleasure in showing them what
achievements modern skill and mechanical genius have already
attained and what may very easily be accomplished in America. I
believe that then there is a bright future in store for successful Tea
culture.

In another place Mr. Jackson says he has always culti-
vated with ploughs, and done it successfully. Naturally
this would make his cultivation much cheaper, and it is
high time, as I say elsewhere, that we in India should try
and do the same thing.

We, all the world knows, how ingenious, how inventive
the Americans are, and thus it is possible they may by the
use of machinery for all branches of manufacture, by
improved steam-ploughs and other agricultural instruments
which shall dispense with hand labour for cultivation, so
cheapen the cost of Tea that its production will pay in

TEA PRODUCING COUNTRIES. IQI

spite of the high rate of wages ruling. Only in this way,
however, can the industry succeed in America, and if it be
done (I hope it may, for we in India shall then benefit by
the ideas carried out), the United States will add one more
laurel to the many they have achieved already in other
branches of commerce.

NATAL.

Tea here too ! Where, alas ! is it not ? The following is
in a report from Natal :

We have glanced at the past and seen the present condition of
the Tea enterprise. The most important matter is still before us the
future of Tea in Natal. It must be remembered that an industry may
be profitable to encourage for local consumption, and yet fail when it
comes to be exported. This production (Tea) must be looked at as
one which, if it progresses, must shortly be exported. Three hundred
acres of Tea in full bearing will supply to the full the present need of
the Colony and its surroundings, i.e., taking the import returns as our
guide ; and even with increasing demand, that demand can soon be
met. Therefore the importance attaching to the question, " Can we
in Natal grow Tea to pay, so as to compete with other countries in
the markets of the world ? " The Tea-growing districts of India, till
lately confined to Assam, Cachar, and neighbourhood, have now been
extended to the Neilgherries and Ceylon, and these places, till lately
confining themselves to coffee, are leaving that most precarious crop
and growing Tea and cinchona. Both these districts at present export
Tea to England. It is said that Tea is to be introduced into Queens-
land and the northern territory of Australia ; and that the Southern
States of the Union and California contemplate Tea growing. Are we
justified, then, in believing that Tea may be profitably exported from
Natal ? Before considering this, we have to bear in mind that Tea is
placed in the London market in large quantities at a very low price ;
China Teas as low as 5^. per Ib. in bond, and Indian Teas as low as 8d.
per Ib. in bond ; but again the price extends to 35. and even 45. per Ib.
in bond. All these things have to be weighed and well considered by
anyone before embarking in this enterprise to any great extent. In all

IQ2 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

matters of agriculture the labour question is the foremost, after it is
known that the plant will flourish. To attempt to base the success
of this particular industry upon any other than that of coolie labour
would be foolish, as we all know that Kafirs are not to be relied upon;
therefore the cost of labour has to be considered. We well know that
all the Tea estates of India have to be supplied with imported coolies
the natives of the districts concerned will not work unless casually
but the cost of coolies in Natal must be more than the cost of coolies
in Assam therefore in that item the advantage must be in favour of
the Indian planter. Countries such as Queensland and the United
States of America must either import labour, or pay a much higher
rate than we do ; hence so far as these countries are concerned, Natal
will hold its own.

I have not done yet. Here is another place where it
seems they mean to try Tea. I do hope that climate, soil,
labour, something will be found unsuitable.

FIJI TEA.

Mr. J. E. Mason, of the Alpha Tea and Coffee Estate, Taviuni,
Fiji, has ^forwarded to Mr. J. O. Moody, the expert, of Melbourne,
samples of the first Fijian Tea produced in his part of the
world ; at the same time writing that early next year he hoped to
pluck off 30 acres planted with Tea, and that the samples sent were
hastily made in a barrel with a frying-pan of charcoal. Mr. J. O.
Moody reports: "Fiji Pekoe leaf: Handsome, small, even, golden
tipped, evenly and well fermented. Fiji Pekoe liquor : Very strong,
full, rich, and pungent pekoe flavour, thick, with deep red infusion.
An invaluable Tea for mixing, and worth about 2s. 6d. per Ib. in bond.
Fiji Pekoe Souchong leaf: Well made, wiry, twisted, rich, black tippy
leaf, evenly and well fermented Fiji Pekoe Souchong flavour, with
good, bright, red infusion. A fine Tea to drink alone, and worth about
is. gd. per Ib. in bond. These Teas have the character of good
Ceylon growths, and are in every respect suitable Teas for general
consumption, and such samples are sure to meet with ready sale in
Australasia or Great Britain."

Here again, I am told, the labour question is the doubtful
point. Tea cannot be made to pay without cheap labour,
and the sooner all these new Tea countries learn the lesson

TEA PRODUCING COUNTRIES. .193

the better for the pockets of the projectors. I may add, the
better for the Indian planter's pocket too, for any increase
in the supply is hurtful.

In closing this chapter, I would give one word of advice
to intending Tea planters in India, or indeed anywhere.
There is too much Tea already, why plant more ? If
you must "go into Tea" you may do so and probably
make money, but it will not be by planting it. If you look
about you can buy a plantation ready made for far less than
you could make such, and in doing so there is no reason why
it should not pay, and pay well. If you make a garden you
will have five or six years to wait for any return ; you attempt
what requires knowledge and experience to succeed in, and
begging your success, who can say what the market will be
then?

I have far from exhausted the subject of these new Tea
fields, but my space is limited, and several other points
demand attention.

194

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

STATISTICS REGARDING INDIAN TEA.

As early as 1780 a few Chinese plants were to be seen in
Calcutta cultivated by a Colonel Kyd.

The possibility of cultivating Tea in India was first
mooted in 1835-36, and the Indian Government started an
experimental garden at Lukimpore (Assam) at that time.

Indigenous Tea was first discovered in Assam by a
Mr. Bruce in 1830.

In 1845 and following years the Government imported
large quantities of China seed and established nurseries on
the Himalayas.

Tea planting was commenced in India by the Assam
Company about 1840, and the cultivation was undertaken
in other districts in the following years: Kumaon and
Gurwhal, 1850 ; Cachar, 1855 ; Dehra-Dhoon, 1855 \ Sylhet,
1857 ; Kangra, 1858 ; Darjeeling, 1860 ; Terai, 1860 ; Chitta-
gong, 1860 ; Neilgherries, 1862 ; Chota Nagpore, 1872 ;
Dooars, 1875.

Thus it may be said Tea planting in India dates from
1840 by one Company, but 1850 by individuals.

The following figures show the imports of Indian Teas
into Great Britain since 1870 in millions of pounds :

Millions

Year

Pounds

I7i

54i

j si

2 5i

38^

29^

18*

3ii

43i

STATISTICS REGARDING INDIAN TEA. IQ5

I may here remark that while the imports of Indian Teas
have, since 1877, increased by 23 million pounds, the imports
of China Teas have increased by 4 million pounds only
in the same time.

The deliveries and stocks were as follows for 1881 and
1882 in millions of pounds :

1881. 1882.

Deliveries 48! 50^

Stocks on 3ist December i8J 2if

During the last 3 months of 1882 the deliveries averaged
5 million pounds per month. In January, 1883, they were
5^ millions, and in February (I write in March) 5 millions.

Deliveries at this rate mean 60 millions a year.

I estimate Indian produce for 1883 a * about 62 millions.

Deduct the probable quantity to be sent ]
to countries outside the United Kingdom, j- 5^ ,,
and local consumption in India J

Leaving available for the ) ~

, . I- 5of millions,
home market j

Thus, if deliveries continue at the present rate, demand
must soon equal, if not exceed, supply, and the consequence
naturally must be enhanced prices, which, however, will
surely to some extent check the deliveries.

There is, however, a hopeful feature regarding Indian
Teas. The taste for them is increasing greatly. 'A very
small per centage of the public drink them pure (a large
per centage in Ireland), but the public generally are now
accustomed to the strength attained only by mixing, say one
third of Indian to two thirds China, and will nothing weaker.
Thus retail dealers must continue to use them, and thus
though, as remarked, increased prices will check deliveries,
they will not do so with Indian Teas to the same extent
they would with China.

196 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Another hopeful feature is (for details see further on)
a growing demand for Indian Tea is now established in
Australia, and has quite lately commenced in America.
Thus, I think, the increased produce from India (which in
no case can be large for some years *) will probably be met
by this outside demand, leaving no greater quantity than
now available for the home market. True Ceylon (a new
field) will increase the supply, but it will not be by much
for some time. Take it all in all, I look hopefully at the
prospects of Indian Tea in the future. I never anticipate a
range of prices as good even as ruled in 1881, but a good
deal better than we had in 1882, and thus enough to make
the industry a paying one.

I have lately received a valuable paper on Indian Tea
statistics from Messrs. Gow and Wilson, Indian Tea
brokers. I cannot transcribe the diagram they allude to,
but otherwise I give the complete paper as sent me :

19, Little Tower Street, Mincing Lane,

London, i$th February, 1883.

" INDIAN TEA STATISTICS."

Dear Sir, Now that the annual figures are made up, we
beg to submit a statement showing the continued progress
made by Indian Tea in public estimation, together with com-
parative figures relating to the consumption of China and
Indian Teas, And remain, dear Sir, yours faithfully,

Gow AND WILSON, Indian Tea Brokers.

The very considerable increase in the home consumption
of Indian Tea during the last quarter of 1882, and January this
year, once more attracts attention to the growing importance

* It will not be large because much in the way of extensions has not been
executed lately. A higher range of prices will doubtless cause more land to be
cultivated, but no produce from such will be available for four or five years.

STATISTICS REGARDING INDIAN TEA. IQ7

of India as a field of production, and the increasing apprecia-
tion of the British public for Indian Teas, whether used alone
or mixed with China sorts. Notwithstanding the check to
consumption in the early part of 1882, when Indian medium
and common Teas were just 50 per cent, dearer than they now
are, the average monthly deliveries of the first three months
were 3,670,000 Ibs., or 230,000 Ibs. a month more than the
average of the first quarter of 1880, with prices much the same
at both periods. Quotations last year receded step by step,
and, as prices dropped, so we found the consumption grew, till
for the last quarter of 1882, with its very low range of prices,
the average monthly deliveries reached the unprecedented
figures of over 5^ million pounds.

The average monthly deliveries in each quarter of the last
five years have been as follows :
(In thousands of Ibs., ooo's omitted.)

Jan. -Mar. April-June. July-Sept. Oct. -Dec.

1878

... 3,216

3.129

2,869

3.04 1

1879

3>444

2,688

2,461

3> J 55

1880

... 3,441

34^8

3>522

4,228

1881

... 4,197

4,172

3,824

4,094

1882

... 3,670

4> I2 5

4,116

5*254

During the year 1878, out of -every 100 Ibs. of all descriptions
of Tea consumed in this country, 23, or one in about four-and-
a-third, was Indian Tea. Last year the proportion was 31 per
cent., or nearly one in three.

These figures show, in the clearest manner, how steadily
Indian Tea is becoming popular.

The unevenness of the quarterly deliveries of China Tea in
the year 1878 and 1879 * s due to the apprehensions felt in those
years that the duty would be increased. In consequence,
clearances were hastily made before the Budget announcement,
and the deliveries immediately after sank to very low figures,
increasing again as stocks of retailers were depleted. In
March, 1880, again there was a pressure to clear Teas, which

ig8 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

brought up the total deliveries of the first quarter to a high
level. A considerable check was given to deliveries of Indian
Teas during the latter part of 1881 and the early part of 1882
through the rise of prices during that period.

The most noticeable feature of the last three calendar years
is the stationariness of deliveries of China Teas at the reduction
from the level of both 1878 and 1879. Approximately the
deliveries of China and Indian Teas in the five years ending
3ist December in each case may be given, in millions of pounds,
as follows :

1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882.
China ... 121 125 115 in 113
Indian ... 37 35 44 49 51

The deliveries of China Tea have receded from 125 million
pounds in 1879 to 113 million pounds in 1882, while the home
consumption of Indian Tea has increased from 35 million pounds
to 51 million pounds in the corresponding years.

Notwithstanding the supply of Indian Tea for the season
1882-3 i s estimated at the unprecedented figure of 55 million
pounds against the actual imports in the previous two season
years of about 50 million and 46 million pounds respectively, it
appears not unlikely the consumption of 1882-3 will once again,
as in 1 880-8 1, overtake the supply and reduce the stocks by
July next to the equivalent of less than three months' deliveries.

We find that there has been received to the 3ist December
last, 33,218,000 Ibs., leaving to arrive 21,782,000 Ibs. for the six
months ending 3oth June next, to make up the estimated supply
of 55 million pounds which, according to Indian advices, will
be available for shipment to this country. The imports of the
current six months, therefore, will be but slightly in excess of
those of the corresponding half-year, when 20,948,000 Ibs. were
received ; for although the shipments of 1882-3 are expected to
show an excess of more than five million pounds over 1881-2,
exporters this season have hurried forward their Teas early
and in the six months ended December 3ist the arrivals in the

STATISTICS REGARDING INDIAN TEA.

199

United Kingdom were 32, 21 8,000 Ibs. against only 28,947,000 Ibs.
in the corresponding half of 1881.

The significant feature of the movement, however, is the
very agreeable surprise, month by month, caused by the pub-
lication of the delivery figures. These compare for the last few
months as follows :

Deliveries of the last Four Months compared with corresponding
Months.

October.
Ibs.

November.
Ibs.

December.
Ibs.

January.
Ibs.

1882-3

... 5,132,000

5,174,000

4,457,000

5,502,000

i88i-2

... 4,353,000

4,205,000

3,724,000

4,104,000

Increase ... 779,000 969,000 733,000 1,398,000

A continuance of similar large increases is most probable,
especially as we compare with the relatively small deliveries
of February to April inclusive of last year, when only
10,489,000 Ibs. were taken from warehouse, against I2,782,ooolbs.
in the same months of 1881 a decrease of 2,293,000 in three
months. Part of the decrease may be attributed to the then
higher range of medium and common Indian Teas.

The net result of the above statistics is that with no mate-
rially larger arrivals visible, even with the liberal allowance of
5,000,000 Ibs. increased shipments for the crop year the
deliveries give every promise of showing very considerable
expansion, and, as we have said, threaten for the complete
year to more than absorb the extra supply.

To enable anyone to check and form an independent opinion
on the forecast we venture to give, we present below the
imports and deliveries, half-year by half-year, for the four
seasons 1879-80 to 1882-83 inclusive, with the totals of each
crop year :

200 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

IMPORTS OF INDIAN TEA.

1879-80. i 880-81. 1881-82. 1882-83.

Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.

2 3,537,000 29,142,000 28,947,000 33,218,000

I 5> S6S > 16,819,000 20,948,000 *2i,782,ooo

Season year 39,405,000 45,961,000 49,895,000 ^55,000,000

DELIVERIES OF INDIAN TEA.

1879-80. i 880-1. 1881-2. 1882-3.

Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.

ISt 3^t Y Dec.} l6 > 8 47>ooo 24,352,000 23,755,000 27,109,000
ISt 3 oth June } ^^ooo 25,106,000 23,386,000 128,802,000

Season year 36,312,000 49,458,000 47,141,000 {55, 911,000

These figures show an estimated supply to the end of June
next of 21,782,000 Ibs., and an estimated consumption of
28,802,000. The former is based on the statements that the
available supply for the United Kingdom will be 55 million
pounds, and the latter on the actual delivery to January in-
clusive, and estimated average deliveries of 4,500,000 Ibs. a
month for the remainder of the half-year. Having these figures
before us, we can proceed to calculate the effect on stocks.

At 3 ist December last we had in warehouse ibs.
a stock of ............... 21,716,000

Add six months' imports to June 3oth ... 21,782,000

Total supply ... ... ... 43,498,000

Deduct estimated deliveries six months ... 28,802,000

Leaving probable stock at 3oth June ... 14,696,000
Which will compare with (at 3oth June,

1882)... ... ... ... ... ... 15,991,000

* Estimated on basis of 55,000,000 Ibs. available for shipment to the
United Kingdom.

t Estimated on average monthly deliveries, February to June inclusive,
of 4,500,000 Ibs.

STATISTICS REGARDING INDIAN TEA.

201

In stating the deliveries at an average of 4,500,000 Ibs. for
the next five months, we have taken this amount merely for the
purpose of arriving at a conclusion. In case the deliveries of
the months of February to June inclusive average, as is gene-
rally expected, 5,000,000 Ibs. a month, the stocks at ist July
next will be under 12,200,000 Ibs., or 3f million Ibs. less than at
the corresponding date.

We can but consider this a very healthy outlook, especially
as it is simultaneous with the estimated decrease in the supply
of China Tea, and the possibility that the shipments to the
United Kingdom may not reach the estimate. With respect to
the latter contingency, we must recollect that new markets
are being rapidly developed for Indian Tea. Australia, America,
and other parts than the United Kingdom took over three
million pounds from ist May to 3ist December last year, com-
pared with less than a third of that quantity shipped thence
from India in the corresponding period of 1881. A continuance
of this rapid rate of outside demand would considerably curtail
our supply, and develope the growing Indian industry.

Gow AND WILSON,
19, Little Tower Street, London, E.G.

The diagram omitted shows as follows : it gives the
results quarterly, I only give them yearly in millions of
pounds.

CONSUMPTION OF CHINA AND INDIAN TEAS IN THE UNITED
KINGDOM FOR THE LAST FIVE YEARS.

1878.

1879.

1880.

1881.

1882.

China
Indian

I28J

I2 5 |

35i

H4i
43t

I Hi
48*

II 4

5*i

| All are Millions
j of Pounds.

TOTALS.

i6 4

i6of

I58J

159!

i6sj

Thus, while China Tea consumption has decreased in

2O2 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

five years by fourteen and a-half millions of pounds, Indian
has increased by fifteen and a-half millions !

It must be remembered that the former table given at
page 194 deals with imports, this with consumption, and
thus the difference in the figures.

The following extract from the Tea Gazette (January,
1883) is interesting in a statistical point of view :

The exports to Australia (which, as it is well known, have increased
more than twenty-fold in six years) now occupy a position only second
to that of the United Kingdom; and if the P. and.O. Company would
see its own interest, it would facilitate by every means in its power so
important a development of a great industry.

The Straits Settlements, in spite of their proximity to China, took
last year ten times the quantity they took six years ago ; and Persia,
strange to say, has taken 54,712^5. against 334lbs. in 1876-77 Turkey
in Asia and Egypt, together, having taken also 2i,4881bs. against
8861bs. in the same period.

Mr. Liotard is of opinion that these are not a tithe of the openings
that might be found; and it is^to be hoped that at the Amsterdam
Exhibition and elsewhere the Tea Syndicate will in no way relax its
efforts.

The imports of China Tea to India have, in the six years also above
referred to, increased about 60 per cent. Speaking on this point, we
are of opinion that the Syndicate might well make efforts to increase
the local consumption of Indian Tea to the replacement of Chinas, and
we feel sure that such organised exertion would be followed by very
satisfactory results.

The re-export of China Tea from India shows four times the quan-
tity of six years ago by far the greater quantity going to Persia and
Turkey in Asia. Mr. Liotard thinks that the N.-W. P. and the Punjab
might appropriate a good deal of this trade ; and from the character
of the Teas of these districts we are disposed to agree with him. The
great increase of export from Karachi shows that this, to some extent,
is being done.

The abolition of the duty on China Tea imported to India, under
the recent free trade policy, appears to have had a prejudicial effect
on the planters in Northern India who can ill afford it. The figures
given at the commencement of the pamphlet show that the number of

STATISTICS REGARDING INDIAN TEA. 203

plantations in Northern India has increased in six years from 851 to
1,422, and the area from 4,246 to 7,466 acres ; the outturn from 1,311,113
Ibs. to 2,271,773105. These figures speak of great activity in production,
and show the necessity for every exertion being employed to open out
new markets. A combined Syndicate for all the districts in Northern
India, on the lines of the one now established in Calcutta, is suggested,
but how far this is practicable we are not at present prepared to say.

The following, too, from the Tea Gazette this year is in
some respects hopeful :

We see from the North China Herald that the exports of Tea from
Shanghai and the Yang-tse ports to England during the current year
have fallen off some six and a-half million pounds (8| per cent.), and
that there is also a decrease of some six million pounds in the quantity
sent to America this last year making a difference of nearly thirty per
cent.

On the other hand, there has been an increase of nearly three
million pounds (45 per cent.) in the direct export to Russian ports.
Two large cargoes one of nearly three million pounds destined for
England, and one of almost two million pounds bound for Russia were
lost, so that the real increase of China Tea sent to Russia is only one
million pounds, which would reduce the increase to about 15 per cent.
The decrease of Tea sent to England becomes even greater, reducing
the receipts as compared with last year by nearly ten million pounds.
Another aspect of the question must, however, be considered . namely,
that the real displacement, i.e., in the amount of Tea destined for the
English market, would be only six and a-half million pounds, and it is
not safe to reckon on a recurrence of loss of such a heavy quantity by
shipwreck.

The decrease of China Tea sent to America is almost entirely in
green Teas, there being only a falling off of 4O,ooolbs. in black, as
compared with one of over six millions in green Tea. The falling off
as regards the English market is much more evenly distributed
between the two varieties, the difference being greater in that of black
than of green Tea.

While America takes from the Shanghai ports over four times as
much green as black Tea, England, on the other hand, takes eleven
times as much black Tea as it does of green Tea.

These last facts might make it worth the while of planters in the

204 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

North- West Provinces and in the Punjab to combine to exploit the
American markets with half-chests of green Tea, for the manufacture
of which those districts are famous, and for which there is so little
demand at present in the Central Asian market. We merely throw out
the suggestion, knowing that most of the planters in these parts could
ill afford to risk much in such an experiment. It is possible that the
Syndicate here, which already ships largely to America, might arrange
to ship green Tea for such of the planters in Northern India as cared to
join the Calcutta body.

The American demand for green Tea is so large, that a quantity
representing the entire outturn of Northern India would form but a
small percentage of the whole, and if Indian green Tea from the Hima-
layas were taken up in that market, a demand for the whole quantity
produced might easily arise. Whether it would ever be able to compete
with China green Tea in the matter of price we do not know, and we
should think it would be up-hill work, and attended with some loss
in the first instance at any rate.

The more Tea each individual drinks, the better doubt-
less for the producers. It is satisfactory therefore to find
the consumption per head is increasing in the United
Kingdom as follows :

1870. 1875. 1880.

Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.

3.81 4.44 4.59

Nearly i Ib. per head more in 1880 than 1870 !

A few figures as to Indian Teas in Australia and America
will finish this Chapter of Statistics.

The consumption of Indian Tea in Australia and
the Colonies stands as follows :

1880-81 Little under f of a million Ibs.

1881-82 ... ... Nearly i million ,,

1882-83 ... ... Estimated 2 million

This is a satisfactory increase, but when we consider
how vast is the great Australasian field, it stands to reason

STATISTICS REGARDING INDIAN TEA. 205

two millions is but a small fraction of what it eventually
may be.

The outdoor rough life, led more or less in the Colonies,
makes its inhabitants the largest Tea drinkers in the world.
For instance, each white denizen in New Zealand drinks
nearly three times as much Tea as each person in Great
Britain !

The following was the consumption in Ibs. per head in

1878 :

Victoria - N.S.Wales. Queensland.

4.66 6.92 7.53 9.16 11.05

Inow give, in millions of Ibs., the consumption in 1880
in the same Colonies :

Victoria. N. S. Wales. Queensland. New Zealand.

5i 5 23

But what vast tracts exist outside these. The total con-
sumption of all the Colonies must be very large. We make
the best Tea in the world in India, why should we not have
a large share of the market ?

The population of Australia is nearly 23- millions, and of
Tasmania and New Zealand nearly f million, say three
millions in all, or say three-quarters of the population of
London. What a field exists there for Indian Tea !

AMERICA.

The yearly consumption (Canada is included) is over
eighty million pounds, nearly all supplied by China and
Japan. It is quite lately Indian Teas have been sent to
America ; so far, their reception has been favourable. But
the Americans are accustomed to a greener Tea than we
make in India, and this will prove a difficulty. Still we can

206 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

make the Tea they like, if they will buy it. It is early to
speculate much as to America, but I think we shall succeed
little by little, especially as in the States they are awaking
to the fact that both China and Japan Teas are adulterated.
In closing this chapter I must put on record the fact,
known to all in India, that the great success achieved in
Australia, and the opening thus early attained in America,
is entirely due to the labours of the Calcutta Tea
Syndicate, and that I firmly believe, much as they have
done, they would have done still more had they been
properly supported by larger supplies of Tea by the planters
in India, who, as a class, are strangely blind to the advan-
tages of co-operation. I can only hope in this respect they
will do better in future.

207

CHAPTER XXXIV.

MARKETS OUTSIDE GREAT BRITAIN.

I HAVE forestalled a good deal on the above in the last
chapter, so this will be short, but, I hope, cheering.

AUSTRALIA.

This, from the correspondent of the Tea Gazette in Mel-
bourne, as to the size of chests, should be attended to :

If the planter wishes to get his Tea direct into consumption, the
packages must be small, to suit buyers. In the Colonies a large trade
is done in 381b. half-chests. They are within the purchasing power of
a numerous class, and are easy to handle.

A fierce fight has been going on in Melbourne between
the advocates of China and Indian Tea. The latter say
China Tea is often adulterated, but this is disputed by the
former. Of course I cannot say which is right, but chemical
analysis, to which China Teas have been subjected in Mel-
bourne, would seem to prove that in some cases they are.
not pure. We all know China Teas in London have, in
several instances, been pronounced unfit for consumption,
so it is possible, of course, that similar Teas are sent to
Australia.

The Tea trade in China has taken alarm at our attempts
on the Australian market. This is what the North China
Herald (an organ of the China Tea trade) said lately :

There are no squeezing mandarins in India; there is European
supervision in the packing and firing of the leaf, and the plantations
are connected with civilisation by the railway and the telegraph.
Everything is done to give India an unfair advantage over China.
Consequently, India tea of the same quality is far cheaper in London

2O8 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

than the ill-regulated produce of Hankow and Foochow, and it is only
the conservatism of the consumer, who is not yet entirely habituated to
the Indian flavour, that prevents our losses being much heavier than
they are. Every year this preference for the leaf that has been longer
known is wearing away, and our buyers will soon have to reckon with
its disappearance. As yet, Indian Tea is hardly taken on the con>
tinent of Europe at all ; but here, too, it will penetrate sooner or later,
as it is doing into America and Australia, and then there will be no
corner of the earth where the sway of China Tea will be undisputed.
Until foreigners can supervise the packing of the leaf in China as they
do in India, the produce of the latter country will continue to have an
unfair advantage. The time no doubt will come when we shall be able
to go up and buy the raw leaf on its native hills, pack it by our own
methods, and bring it down by railway to Shanghai for shipment ; but
for years yet we labour under the disadvantage of having to buy it just as
the Chinamen choose to prepare it, without any real knowledge of the total
crop at any time, or any immediate power to manipulate the Teas to suit
the tastes of consumers.

Mark you, this is an enemy's opinion. May his prog-
nostications be accomplished to the letter !

The following is from the Tea Gazette lately received :

THE CALCUTTA TEA SYNDICATE.

We are glad to learn that this most useful body intends to continue
its operations in opening up, wherever possible, new markets, although
there will be no more soliciting supplies of Tea for Australia the
feeling being that the trade in this direction may now be left to take
care of itself.

The Tea Syndicate has done a great good, and those able to
ship to Australia should at once arrange to take the fullest advantage
of the opening made for them. We would have wished that the
Syndicate had continued actively its operations there, but perhaps
they are right in leaving, now, the further development of the trade
they have so successfully founded to private enterprise. It will be
the fault of owners themselves if they do not take advantage of the
large market opened to them.

I conclude my notice of Australia as a market by the

MARKETS OUTSIDE GREAT BRITAIN. 2OQ

following, also from the Tea Gazette. Matters there certainly
look promising for the Indian planter :

THE NEW AUSTRALIAN TEA ASSOCIATION.

Our friends in Australia, now that they are convinced of the purity
and good quality of our Indian Teas, have determined, we are glad
to see, to follow in the wake of the Calcutta Tea Syndicate, and push
by united effort Indian Teas throughout the Australian Colonies. Know-
ing full well that no half-hearted measures would be likely to succeed,
and that the efforts of a few individuals would not meet the require-
ments of the market, our friends in Victoria and New South Wales
have combined, and formed an association under the title of the
" Calcutta Tea Association," for the sale of pure and unadulterated
Indian Teas to wholesale merchants, storekeepers, and customers in
general. Large and handsome premises have been taken in King
Street, Melbourne, and Charlotte Place, Sydney, in which the opera-
tions of the Association are to be carried on on a large scale.

AMERICA.

The following is from the Daily News a Calcutta
paper :

We were glad to note that our American cousins were being
induced to give some orders. If only Indian Tea was once taken up,
and became popular, its future would be secured. The teeming
masses of people in the States would consume more Tea we should
imagine than all the English public, provided Indian Tea took the
place of China. Australia so far has done well, but the market there
would be easily glutted, whereas, if its use became general, it would
be almost impossible to glut the American market. The millions of
settlers in America and in Canada all use Tea at their meals very
much as an Englishman takes his beer, so that the inland consumption
must be very large. In Australia, every shepherd carries his pannikin
of Tea, and the amount he swallows in twelve months must be pretty
considerable. In the backwoods of America and Canada, each wood-
cutter consumes nearly half a pound of Tea weekly, so that, with its
millions of people, America could easily dispose of millions of pounds
of Tea, which would not only clear off all the surplus Tea in the

210 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

London market, but would probably cause a deficit. We wonder if in
our time this golden era will take place.

This from the Tea Gazette :

TEA IN AMERICA.

A petition has been presented to the United States Congress
asking for the prohibition of the importation of adulterated Teas from
China and Japan, which are at present extensively sold. This, it is
thought, will lead to increased attention being paid to Indian Teas,
which are well known to be pure and unadulterated.

Again from same paper :

The circular lately addressed to the local Tea planting interest by
the Committee of the Calcutta Syndicate, reporting the results of -Mr.
Sibthorp's efforts to create a market for Indian Teas in America, opens
up a vista of unprecedented prosperity in the future.

That the population of America, the bulk of which consist of the
same races among whom Indian Tea has grown in favour so rapidly in
the United Kingdom, should persist in rejecting it after a fair trial was
d priori highly improbable. It was, therefore, reasonably to be
presumed that whatever difficulty might beset the opening up of this
new market would consist chiefly in the obstacles to securing such a
trial.

Mr. Sibthorp's report not only bears out this view of the case, but
justifies a confident expectation that the obstacles in question, so far
as they have any real existence, will speedily disappear. In Chicago,
so far from having had to encounter any of those strong trade
prejudices which were met with at first in Australia, Mr. Sibthorp
found the leading importers, Messrs. J. Doane and Co., ready to render
every assistance and confident of being able to dispose of five thousand
half chests the first season, without forcing the market. Similar
success seems to have attended his efforts in New York, and a tele-
gram has been received from him ordering a thousand half chests for
shipment to that port.

The importance of this new market is immensely enhanced by the
circumstance that the American consumption of Tea is destined to
increase, owing to mere growth of population, at a rate not to be
looked for in any other country ; at such a rate, in fact, that if India
could only secure the annual addition to the demand from this cause,

MARKETS OUTSIDE GREAT BRITAIN. 211

she would probably have to double her production in less than a
generation to enable her to meet it.

So far from seeing any reason why she should not secure this
amount of custom in the New World, we see none why the proportion
of India to other Teas consumed in America should not ultimately be
as large as in England, where there was once a strong prejudice
against Indian Tea.

What possible foreign markets have we besides Australia
and America ? Russia and many European countries are
on the cards, and if the Calcutta Syndicate will continue its
work great results may ensue. Those who know the Con-
tinent often say, and it is true, that no good Tea can be
had in France, Germany, or Italy (it is not so in Russia),
and retail dealers have offered again and again (made the
offers to me) to take large quantities of the Indian Tea of
which I have shown them samples. As this is so, why not
supply them ? But it cannot be done well to any extent
by individual planters. The Calcutta Syndicate could easily
do it, and I quite believe they would find the work in Europe
easier than in America.

The Amsterdam Exhibition, so soon to take place, affords
a great opening, and from all I hear it will be taken advan-
tage of. Inhabitants from all countries will be there, and
the fame of our Teas should thus spread throughout Europe.
The Tea Gazette says :

THE AMSTERDAM EXHIBITION.

It is intended to have Indian Tea well represented at the forth-
coming Exhibition at Amsterdam ; and we trust that the most will be
made of the opportunity. There is no reason why we should not
succeed in Holland as well as we have succeeded in America and
A ustralia. The rapid strides going on in production must be met by
exceptionally active exertions to open out new markets, and to see
that those recently opened out are not allowed to drop for want ot
fostering.

212 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

The effect of this opportunity will be by no means limited to
Holland, as in all probability thousands will flock to the Exhibition from
adjacent countries, and many from all parts of the world.

We hope that every advantage will betaken of future International
Exhibitions in any part of the world by an adequate quasi-permanent
organization in Calcutta, and we sincerely trust that the existing
Calcutta Tea Syndicate will not cease its most useful operations until
all the world bows to the great god Indian Tea. The operations in
countries other than Great Britain during the last few years show what
important developments in the Tea trade of this country are now
taking place, and every exertion is necessary to maintain these suc-
cessful results for which the industry is so much indebted to the
Syndicate.

THIBET.

This is a large, mountainous, and table land country on
the northern side of the Himalayas. It is at a very high
elevation, intensely cold, and very thinly populated. The
Thibetans drink much Tea per head, but they use Brick
Tea ; this is made of the coarsest leaves compressed with
some glutinous substance.

There is no difficulty in its manufacture. At present it is
supplied by China, which is close by, but not nearer than
India. Many think much of our coarse Tea (particularly
from the Himalayan gardens) might find a market in Thibet,
and I incline to the belief they are right. The quantity
would not be very large, " but every little helps."

Formerly much Tea was sold to the native tribes over
the northern border by the gardens in Kumaon, Gurwal,
and Kangra. Why I know not, but I hear the trade has
fallen off to some extent ; the Teas are taken to the Central
Asian markets.

I have done with foreign markets, but there is yet
another and a very large one regarding which nothing has
yet been done : I allude to the market among the natives of
India, in other words

MARKETS OUTSIDE GREAT BRITAIN. 213

THE LOCAL MARKET.

The following is from the Calcutta Englishman on the
subject :

The letter of our correspondent " A. E. T." calls attention for the
hundredth time to the failure of the planting interest to make the most
of the local demand for Indian Teas. It is only necessary to compare
the prices realised at the public auctions with those at which even the
most liberal of our retail firms offer to supply their customers with such
Teas to see that but a very small fraction of the difference between the
prime cost of the Tea and what the consumer has to pay for it goes
into the pocket of the planter. It is probably no exaggeration to say
that while the consumer pays, on the average, from twelve annas to a
rupee per pound more than the actual cost of the Tea laid down in
Calcutta, the planter may think himself fortunate if he can appropriate
from half an anna to an anna of this sum. By whatever course of
argument the fact may be justified, it is certainly not justifiable by the
equity of the case as it appears to ordinary minds. For it is the planter
who has borne the heat and burden of the day, and the proportion
which the capital invested by him bears to the ultimate return is
immensely greater in his case than in that of the retail dealer.

On whom does the blame for the continuance of this state of things,
if blame there be in the matter, rest ? Hardly on the public. They
would only be too glad to allow the Tea planter, say, four times his
present profit instead of allowing twelve times that profit to a middle-
man or a series of middlemen. The public, however, can give their
custom only to those who bid for it, and who consult their convenience
in the arrangements they make to secure it.

It is evidently the planter, and the planter alone, who can move in
the matter. But whether out of regard for the interests of the retail
dealer, or from a belief that the game is not worth the candle, he does
not move. If there were a retail Tea trade worthy of the name, in the
proper sense of the term, in Calcutta, it would probably not be to the
interest of planters to enter into competition with it. But though we
have many retail establishments who deal in Tea, its sale is, in the
great majority of cases, only one item of a very multifarious business,
the profit on which, as a whole, is probably not excessive under all the
circumstances of the case.

214 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

As to the game not being worth the candle, that is possibly the
case if only the present demand is considered. But we are persuaded
that it is otherwise if regard is had to the expansion of which that
demand is capable.

If Indian Tea were procurable in the bazaars in parcels of moderate
size at a reasonable advance on auction prices, we believe that a large
native demand for it would rapidly grow up. As it is, an extensive
business goes on in China Tea of the most wretched quality, some of
it sold in packets of a few ounces, and some of it loose in still smaller
quantities. Even in Calcutta this Tea is sold at prices which would
pay the Indian Tea planter a handsome profit, while in the interior it
is sold at rates which would have been high fifty years ago.

Surely a Syndicate which extends its efforts for the popularisation
of Indian Tea to such distant and widely separated markets as Aus-
tralia and America might profitably make some systematic effort to
promote its use among the vast population at its doors.

The time may be far distant when the great bulk of this population
will adopt Tea as an ordinary beverage ; but the way in which the
habit of using it has spread during the last ten or fifteen years, among
all classes of the vast population of Calcutta, affords an indication
of possibilities very well worth testing.

When last in India I wrote on this subject largely, but
all to no avail. The following was one of my letters which
appeared in the Tea Gazette :

THE MARKET AT OUR DOORS. CONSUMPTION OF CHINA TEA
IN INDIA.

The Statesman, in a recent article, observes as follows, while dis-
cussing the maritime trade of British India :

" Perhaps the most anomalous import we have is Tea. It is hardly
conceivable that while Indian Tea continues to advance in public esti-
mation at home, we should not only use China Tea in India, but that
in increasing quantities."*

In 1876-77 the imports of China Teas were a little under two
millions, but in 1880-81 as much over three millions ! The Statesman
states, and truly, that the reason of this is simply " that Indian Tea is
sold in too large packets to be easily obtainable by the general public,

* With few exceptions it is bought by the Natives alone and for the
reason given above. E. M.

MARKETS OUTSIDE GREAT BRITAIN. 215

for it seems, as regards Indian Tea, the smallest quantity that can
be bought is one pound, whereas an ounce of China Tea can be pur-
chased."

Further on, the Statesman kindly alludes to my advocacy in the
Tea Gazette of a company to sell Tea in small packages to the natives,
stating also that such a trade is " capable of almost unlimited expansion
at a fair profit," which is exactly what I have, for some time, been
trying to hammer into the heads of those interested in the Tea industry
of India.

Now, Sir, is it not absurd that while the bete noir of our industry is
"supply in excess of demand," and while, with this dread, we are
trying (it seems with success) to open up new markets at the Antipodes
and in America, we are neglecting a market at our very doors, the
limits of which, I hold, no man can foresee, for is it not a market where
the possible buyers number 200 millions ?

Is it not also more than absurd, nay a very shame to those inte-
rested in our industry, that while we have a better article than China
Tea, we allow, by our supineness and lack of enterprise, more than
three million pounds of an inferior article to be sold in the birth place
of the better ? And why ? simply because we will not supply it in the
form the teeming crowd of natives willing, nay anxious, to buy can
avail themselves of it !

Since I advocated in your paper the formation of a company
to sell Tea to natives in small packets, and showed, I thought
conclusively : i That the capital required was not large (say one
and a-half lakhs). 2 That the shareholders might expect very fair
dividends. 3 That there was no assignable limit to the trade which
might be developed. 4 That if such a company was started and
worked well, all fear for the future of Indian Tea would be at an end.
5 That every Tea owner, who became a shareholder, would advance
his own interests by many times more than the dividends he would
receive since then I have obtained from England estimates of all
the machinery required to bulk and pack the Teas, advice from the
best firms as to the mode so successful in England, and I am more than
ever convinced that the company would be a money-making one, and
that, in two words, we shall sadly neglect our own interests if we do
not accomplish it.

Again, since my former articles I have spoken to dozens of Tea
planters and Tea owners on the subject, and all of them think highly
of the scheme, while many only wait for the company to be launched

2l6 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

to take shares. I could name more than one influential native also
who is willing to join, and this is a good sign, for, in my opinion, a
moiety of the directors should be natives. I will myself become a
large shareholder, though I cannot offer my services on the board, for
it must be in Calcutta, and I do not reside there.

I am convinced, if the company is launched, the shares will be
taken up in a week.

But if no one in Calcutta is public-spirited enough to launch such
a company, why should not an association of a few individuals try to
carry out the scheme. I quite believe Tea proprietors would help
them, at starting, by supplying, on reasonable credit, the coarse Teas
suitable. Were this done, the thin edge of the wedge would be driven
in, and, if the association succeeded, they might later transfer the
business at a fair profit to a company.

I had written so far when I saw your remarks on the same subject
in your last issue. I cannot agree with you in thinking an association
would be better than a company, but I say, failing the last let us have
the first in fact, let us make a beginning.

I give here below, to save the trouble of reference, the last part ot
my former article :

" I will now, in conclusion, shortly estimate for how much two and
four ounce packets could be sold to the consumer.

" Supposing suitable Teas could be bought at six annas per Ib. (and
all Tea planters know that a very large supply of broken Teas with
some red leaf would be available at that price), one ounce would equal
4^ pie or 9 pie for 2 ounces. We may then calculate thus for each
2 ounce packet : R. A. p.

Tea ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...009

Tin foil, company's mark, labour of making up packet,

wear and tear, bulking machinery ... ... ... o o 3

Profit to company ... ... ... ... ... ...003

Price at which company could sell 2 ounce packets ... o i 3

Profit to dealer or middleman 003

Profit to retailer ... ... ... ... ... ...003

Cost to consumer for 2 ounce packet o i 9

" As making up a 4 ounce packet would be cheaper in proportion,
and the profit to company, middleman, and retailer need not be
double the 2 ounce rate, we may fairly say that 4 ounce packets could
be sold at 3 annas.

MARKETS OUTSIDE GREAT BRITAIN. 217

"I have sent to England for an estimate of the necessary ma-
chinery, so that if my project meets with favour, there will later be
no delay on that score."

Surely the above figures, and I believe they are sound, have the
look of success about them.

I hear it has been suggested that paper packets would deteriorate
by keeping, but protected by a good wrapper of tin-foil inside, I feel
sure this would not be the case. EDWARD MONEY.

Nothing has been done to this day; and thus, to our
shame be it said, we are allowing a market capable of
indefinite expansion to remain dormant.

2l8

CHAPTER XXXV.

MAKING INDIAN TEA KNOWN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

SEVERAL plans have at times been proposed in India with a
view to make the merits of pure Indian Teas known in
England. When I was last out there I saw the following
letter in the Calcutta Statesman, and it appeared to me the
plan suggested was in every way an excellent one :

How TO PUSH THE SALE OF TEA.
To the Editor " Statesman,"

Sir, Referring to your leader of to-day on the subject of selling
Tea at home, I agree with you that Tea-growers should combine for
retailing, as they have, through the Syndicate, combined for opening
up new markets, but there must be the same spirit of enterprise in the
one case as in the other. Now, the mere opening up of shops for the
sale of Indian Teas, involving, as it would, rents, expensive establish-
ments, and bad debts, would not afford the necessary scope, nor would
it meet the case.

The system of auction in Mincing Lane must with all its drawbacks
continue, but it is surely possible to extract some good from it. Let
agencies for such a combination as you propose be established in all
the large towns in Great Britain, and weekly auctions of packets of
Tea from 2 ounces to 5 Ibs. or so be held in different parts of each
town, so that every day except Sunday there would be an auction
going on somewhere. Let the sales be bond fide to the highest bidder
and for cash on the nail, and I will promise that before a year is over,
as high prices will be paid at these auctions as are at present realised
by Cooper and Cooper, whilst the demand would soon greatly exceed
the supply.

If something of the same kind were done in the bazaars of India,
the taste which so decidedly exists among natives would develop
rapidly. MATT. DREWS.

Calcutta, January ^th, 1882.

MAKING INDIAN TEA KNOWN. 219

I wrote the following remarks on the above to the same

paper :

INDIAN TEA SALES AT HOME.

To the Editor " Statesman:''

Sir, Your article of Wednesday on the above, and a letter from
Mr. Drews in Thursday's paper, have interested me much. As you
truly say, it is more than absurd that the public at home should pay
150 per cent, for our Teas above the prices at which they are sold in
Mincing Lane, and that this tremendous profit, minus 6d. duty, should
all go into the hands of the retail dealer. Absurd as it is, it is still a
great fact, and the absurdity can only be increased in one way, and
that is, if we remain quiet, accept the position, and do nothing.

That we ought to move, and move quickly, is very certain. How
best to act requires serious consideration, and ample discussion.

You advocate a company or association to sell our Teas retail in
all the large towns in Great Britain, and advocate a subscription of
Rs. 10 per month by each garden in India, until the business could
support itself. Nothing can be done unless we all subscribe a small
sum to set it going, and the amount you mention (Rs. 120 for one year;
the necessity would most assuredly last no longer) should frighten no
one, while, if done generally by the Indian gardens, it would be ample. I
would suggest, therefore, that we should begin the matter as set out below.

The following none of the very many interested in Tea can deny :

1. The large profits made on Indian Teas at home are not
realised by the producers, but by the retail dealers.

2. We can easily undersell the said retail dealers, to the tune of
50 per cent, or more, and still work at a large profit.

3. If the retail dealers were so undersold, an enormous custom
would ensue to us, or rather the agents we employed.

4. If Indian Teas were procurable at a fair price all over Great
Britain, because Indian Tea is superior to China, because those who
have drunk Indian never revert to China, because thousands would
then taste our Teas for the first time, and continue their use I say,
because of all this, little by little, the consumption would increase in a
ratio we do not dream of now.

5. The consumption so increased, we should necessarily, because
demand exceeded supply, get good prices at the public marts in
Calcutta and London, and in consequence thereof the value of all Tea
property in India would be greatly enhanced.

220 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

I believe all the above would certainly follow on a general well-
combined movement on our part ; but let us take the worst view. No
one can deny that they might do so. Would Rs. 120 be a large stake
from each garden for even the chance ? Let us begin thus : Open a
list in your office for the names of those gardens willing to join. One
year's subscription, at Rs. 10 per month, should be the limit from each
garden. When enough names are collected to warrant further move-
ment, call a meeting in Calcutta, and let the next steps be decided on,
and in the interval agitate ; I will help to the best of my power, and
collect opinions from all sides.

Open the list with the names of the three gardens I represent (as
per enclosure), equivalent at once to a subscription of Rs. 360.

Now, as to the question how to do -it ? I give you my views, but
let them be criticised and discussed. We want to do it, and to do it
the best way.

What I have been suggesting for months in the Tea Gazette, as the
best thing to do in India viz., to sell Tea by auction in convenient
forms as to quantity for native consumption is really what I advise for
England. I am quite at one with Mr. Drews on this point. (I wish
you would reprint his valuable letter above, and then my allusions to
it would be understood.) Retail shops and all they would entail, viz.,
intricate supervision, rents, establishments, and what not, necessitate
details quite outside our legitimate sphere as producers. No organisa-
tion we could devise would carry on successfully two or three hundred
shops at home. We (that is, the company or the association) could
not efficiently superintend such a complicated business, and we should
be cheated right and left. But let others, I say, do the work for us at
their own risk, as follows :

Sell Teas in whole, half, and quarter chests, in tins of 10, 5, and
i Ibs., in packets of 8, 4, and 2 ounces once a week (the market day)
in country towns ; daily, in different localities in London, Birmingham,
Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dublin, and such like cities all by auction to
the highest bidder for cash, in lots which would suit both retail dealers
and retail purchasers. Nevermind if there be a loss at the commence-
ment ; the quantities sold, till we felt our way, need not be large.

What would be the result ? Retail dealers would shortly sell as
much Indian as China Tea, if they could get it. Our Teas would go
into thousands of houses where it has never been tasted yet. The
demand would increase on all sides ; prices in Mincing Lane, and con-
sequently in Calcutta, would rise, and no fear of a glutted market

MAKING INDIAN TEA KNOWN. 221

could then exist. In two words, Indian Teas would, I believe, six
months after such operations were commenced, become the rage in
England, and we, the owners of Tea property, would add 50 per cent,
to the value of our estates.

Is not even the chance of all this worth an outlay of Rs. 120 for
each garden ? I am proud to head the list with my Rs. 360, and I do
beg of all interested in Tea to follow my lead.

In the plan I have sketched, like Mr. Drews, all the operations
would be simple. The necessary supervision would be small : the
details easily arranged. The Teas would of course be bought in the
open market in London and distributed for public auction to the
different localities. There might be some loss at first (it is for this the
capital is wanted), but if always sold to the highest bidder, there
would be none nay, a handsome profit after a time ; and though I do
not think with Mr. Drews, nor should I wish, that the prices would
eventually equal Cooper and Cooper's, I do think that the said firm
would soon find it useless to advertise their cheapest Indian Tea at
3 shillings a pound Tea for which they certainly paid no more than
13 pence !

I may add that I quite agree with the last paragraph of Mr.
Drews' letter ; but a sale for India and a sale for England are two-
different things, and I will not treat of both together.

EDWARD MONEY.
Western Dooars, January 7, 1882.

Alas ! in this case, like the one of supply of Tea to
natives, nothing practical came of it. A very few gardens
agreed to subscribe, and the matter dropped.

Of all the plans that have been mooted, this of Mr.
Drews I believe to be the best. I wish a small company
in England would try to initiate it. No greater boon, in my
opinion, could be conferred on the Indian Tea industry;
and were such a Company, with good names, launched in
England, a large proportion of the shares would probably
be taken in India. A very moderate capital w^ould suffice.

222 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

TEA MACHINERY.

So much has it been extended and improved since the
Third Edition was published, I have much to say on this
subject,

I will divide it into two headings, " Tea Cultivation "
and " Tea Manufacture." Of course the machines for the
last far outnumber the first, which are very few, but much
of great importance to the industry will find its place under
the first heading

Machinery and Implements for Tea Cultivation.

Formerly, with prices as they ruled, Tea paid under
most circumstances. It is not so now. Unless Tea, and
good Tea, can be made cheap it is hopeless to look for profit
from a Tea garden. To cultivate cheaply, and efficiently,
is therefore all important (far more important than has
hitherto been recognized), and assuredly the more machinery
can be made to take the place of hand labour, the sooner
shall we attain that end. On this point I need only observe
that in most of the Tea districts in India labour has to be
imported at a great cost, varying from Rs. 50 to Rs. 100 per
coolie, and anything which would lessen this want would
materially help to success.

The following, signed " Nil Desperandum," appeared in
the Tea Gazette in August, 1881. I quite agree with the
writer and have myself often expressed the same opinions :

TEA MACHINERY. 223

PLOUGHING AND HOEING MACHINERY.

Dear Sir, On looking over your columns I have been surprised to
see the small attention paid to agricultural machinery : in fact, I can't
find the subject mentioned, although one would imagine it was as impor-
tant if not more so than manufacturing machinery. Various agricultural
instruments, such as ploughs, &c., have, I know, been tried in old times,
and not with the best results to the bushes ; but there is no reason why,
because the ordinary machines have failed, that planters should be
sunk in the belief that that costly article the coolie must endure as
long as Tea does.*

I will now consider the cultivation implements I know of.

Planting Pots. These are made of clay, cow dung, and
cut straw. They are placed in the nurseries and the Tea
seed planted in them. When the seedlings are big enough
to put out, pot and all is buried where the Tea bush is to be.
The pot being broken a little when placed in the ground,
the rain soon destroys it. The seedling does not know it has
been transplanted, and the check of six weeks or more,
experienced by all transplants, is entirely avoided. I know
not who invented the pots, but the idea is an excellent one.

Jebens Transplanter. This is an implement for lifting
seedlings without injuring the rootlets or disturbing the soil
around them. It is noticed at page 79 favourably : since
that time (1878) it has been used more or less in all Tea
districts. I have seen many opinions both for and against
it. I believe the truth is it works very well in light soil, and
with smallish seedlings, but does not answer in hard soil or
with plants above 2^- feet high. Where the soil and size of
seedlings are suitable, it certainly saves much of the check
experienced otherwise by transplants.

I know of no other peculiar implements for Tea
cultivation.

* " Nil Desperandum " evidently foresees what must be sooner or later.
All interested in Tea, owners, planters, and inventors, should aid to achieve
the result.

224 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

The greatest expense connected with cultivation is,
naturally, opening the soil or digging; the spade is never
used in India and would not answer. Coolies dig with a
kodali, a thing something like a spade, with the handle set
at right angles to the blade. Could we dispense with this,
and cultivate between the lines of Tea with ploughs of any
suitable pattern, whether worked by steam or animal power,
an enormous saving would be effected. I am sure the whole
space between two lines of Tea can never be so done, round
each and every bush the soil must be opened by hand ; but
the centre space, say about 2j to 3 feet, could, I am
convinced, be so worked, and I think it is only a question
of time when it will be so treated.

The planting community are gradually appreciating the
fact that something may be done in this way. The following
appeared in the Tea Gazette, end of 1881, re ploughing by
steam :

PLOUGHING v. HOEING.

Dear Sir, I am glad to see by the letter of a "Man in the
Kundah " that some managers have taken up the idea of ploughing
instead of hoeing. It is an idea which I have been dinning into the ears
of Tea planters ever since I saw a Tea garden. Mr. Lyell deserves
credit, and so will everyone who assists to introduce ploughing
instead of hoeing. The saving of labour would be immense. The
gentlemen who are interested in the subject will be glad to learn that
I wrote home last month to several leading agricultural machinery
people asking the fullest particulars as to steam ploughing machinery,
with a view to seeing how far suitable it would be for Tea cultivation.
As soon as all my information arrives, and I have thought the matter
out, I will give the planting community my opinion. I have, as far as
I am personally concerned, already formed it, and am' confident that
at no very distant date the steam plough will supersede the dhangar or
other hand labour. But of course I must make out a strong case for
it, or my opinions would be supposed to arise from a professional
predilection for machinery. F.

Siligoorie, zjth November, 1882.

TEA MACHINERY. 225

Again, " Nil Desperandum," quoted above, continues :
I enclose a report on Darby's Digger from the Times and Pioneer,
which shows that it is an instrument possessing the principle we
require in deep hoeing, viz., turning the earth completely over, and
bringing the subsoil to the surface, although of course far too
unwieldy, costly, and weighty to be used in Tea. It is, however, the
first step in the right direction, as it closely copies spade action ; and
we may hope that before long a machine with that principle, and
capable of being worked in a Tea khet, will be brought out. For
light hoeing, last cold weather I procured from Messrs. Vipan and
Headly, Church Gate, Leicester, England, two expanding horse hoes,
which I worked all the hot weather, and which did their work
admirably and at a much cheaper rate than can be done by hand
labour. Two of these hoes hoe a i2-acre khet in six days up the lines
of Tea and across them, but to make a thorough job it is better to go
over the work again. The total cost of this :

Planted 4' x 4'
( Pay of boy and man 12 days ... =360

For one hoe { Food of bullocks @ 4 as. per )

'- =200

diem, Barley @ 24 per Rupee

Cost of light hoeing i2-acre khet 560

Against 10 12 o

Nirrikh for 136 bildars, light hoeing, 240 spaces, i^^^

4' x 4', per diem @ 0-2-9 each = 23 6 o

Or a saving of more than 100 per cent. ~

I gave one i2-acre khet four of these light hoeings during the hot
weather, which so thoroughly destroyed the grass seeds that, although
heavy rain has fallen here for the last month and a-half, the grass
in this khet is thin and not more than 6" high, a fact which, to those
who know how the jungle springs up in cultivated ground in the Doon
when the rains set in, will be a sufficient proof of the success of these
instruments. The frame of the hoe is only 7" high, and when the
blades are buried in the ground is only 4'.', and as the handle projects
from the centre of the back of the hoe and not from the sides, there is
no danger of the bushes being injured. The hoe will expand from
14" to 20" at back, and from 3" to 7" in front ; and as the standards
of the blades are curved outwards, the hoe in its greatest expansion
cultivates a breadth of 27" of ground. I found that one bullock was

226 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

too weak to drag a hoe, although a good pony was quite equal to the
work, so put in a pair of bullocks. The bullocks and hoe take up
between them three rows of Tea at once, the bullocks on each outside
row and the hoe in the centre one. A boy walking up the centre row
leads the bullocks, which are harnessed to the hoe in the same manner
as bullocks are harnessed to the country ploughs, but with longer
julas of course. These hoes are, I find, useless during wet weather, as
they clog dreadfully, but during hot dry weather they are invaluable.
What we now want is a machine that, either by bullock, horse, or
steam power, will do our deep hoeing as well as the light hoe does the
light hoeing. This is a matter which I consider of vital interest to
owners and shareholders, as, unless in these days of very low prices
we can reduce the cost of production considerably, we cannot hope
that Tea will pay a fair interest on the money expended, and great

length of time lost in getting up a garden.

NIL DESPERANDUM.

In the above, two bullocks to drag the plough or digger
are evidently contemplated. My experience is, that two
draught cattle cannot be used, simply because there is not
room for them between the lines of Tea,* If animal power
is used, it must be a single bullock alone. How to harness
a single bullock to the plough is the question. A collar with
a hinge below, which allows it to open at top, may be put
on from below, and then the sides fastened together at the
top. But I advise another plan, which I have seen most
successfully practised in Austria. The traces, joining
together, and thus becoming one behind the bullock, are
fastened to the horns, and tightly connected with a leather
pad across the animal's forehead. The bullock thus pulls
by his head, and I am sure he can pull in no more efficient
or easier way to himself. Bullocks in pairs, or singly, are
thus harnessed for plough work in Austria, and I have seen
single animals dragging ploughs of much greater weight and
power than we should require in our Tea gardens.

* " Nil Desperandum " takes up three spaces one bullock in each
outside space and the hoe in the centre. I don't like the plan. It could not be
done where the tea plants are high.

TEA MACHINERY. 227

Given a proper plough, and I feel sure a large strong
bullock thus harnessed would be successful.

A really good Tea garden plough has yet to be
invented. All that is necessary is to give some agricultural
machinists here at home the conditions necessary for
success, and I predict what we want would be soon forth-
coming. I will myself try to do so, let others do the same ;
one of us is sure to succeed.

I give all these extracts to show that many think as I do.

Cultivation with ploughs of any kind can never be
feasible except on flat land. The hill gardens in India must
in no case hope to introduce it; but I sincerely trust the
planters in India who own level gardens will not rest till
they have solved the problem, and that Messrs. Kinmond,
Jackson, and other inventors of Tea machinery will give
their valuable aid. The following two letters from the Tea
Gazette show the difficulties to be encountered in steam
cultivation :

STEAM CULTIVATION FOR TEA.

Sir, As promised in your last issue, I now write to say that I have
received from England the catalogues and price lists of Messrs. Howard,
of Bedford, Messrs. Barford and Perkins, and other makers of steam
ploughing machinery. Messrs. Howard seem to think that the greatest
difficulty would be in lifting the return rope over the bushes. This
would be certainly a difficulty, but the idea of steam cultivation for
Tea is so valuable that it is well worth while thinking this out. I will
in your first issue for January give a resume of all the information
gleaned from the illustrated catalogues and the letters from the
engineers at home on the subject of steam ploughing, and will then be
glad to co-operate with any gentlemen interested in Tea by giving my
professional opinion and assistance without fee in endeavouring to
solve this matter. I trust, should I ever have to write another series
of articles on Tea machinery for the Tea Gazette, the steam plough
may figure as one of the machines which I will have to describe as in
use on Tea gardens.

228 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Meanwhile the principal difficulty in the way seems to be the
shifting of the long wire pulling rope over the row of bushes. Let
those interested in the subject try to devise a speedy and economical
method of doing this. Yours, &c., C. B. FERGUS, C.E.

Siligori, ijth December, 1882.

As TO STEAM-PLOUGHING ON TEA GARDENS.

Sir, As promised, I give you a letter regarding the question as to
whether steam-ploughing could be wholly or partially introduced as
a substitute for manual labour in Tea gardens. I have been in com-
munication with several of the leading makers of steam-ploughing
machinery in England, but notably with Messrs. Howard, of Bedford,
and Messrs. Barford and Perkins, of Peterborough. These gentlemen
forwarded me their illustrated catalogues in duplicate, one set of
which I sent to you.

The first question that ensues in regard to the subject is, " Would
it pay, even if found feasible ?"

In Assam, Cachar, Sylhet and other places, where labour is scarce,
it is probable that the introduction of steam cultivation would be a
great boon to the Tea planter. The first cost of a steam-ploughing
apparatus' with ropes, plough, and everything complete as in use in
England on what is called the " single system, " that is, working with
only one engine, is about 950. This is heavy, but as a much lighter
cultivator would be used for Tea, I think the cost might be reduced to
.00 say Rs. 10,000 on the garden. Under moderately favourable
circumstances the machinery, making all allowances for native atten-
dants, and the usual difficulties we have to encounter in India through
their laziness and stupidity, should cultivate 800 to 1,000 acres per
month of twenty working days. The remaining ten days might be
occupied in the rains by taking the engine and gear from place to place
where it might be required ; for, as the expense of a steam-ploughing
engine and apparatus would be too much for any concern, except a
very large one, to bear, I suggest that two, three, or four gardens unite
and purchase one. There need be no clashing or quarrelling about
terms at the end of the season : each should pay his share of the
cost of fuel, up-keep, wages, &c., according to the number of days
it was on each garden. It would thus be to the interest of
each manager to forward it on to the man whose turn was next,

TEA MACHINERY. 22Q

without delay. Remember, please, that in saying that it would
cultivate so many acres in such a time, I mean that it would cultivate
two ways that is up and down and across. There would remain a
little hand-hoeing, &c., round the inner part of the roots of the bushes,
but not much, as the cultivator I would design would go partly under-
neath the laterals and still not hurt the roots, the outer lines being
much shorter than the inner ones.

Now it is a simple matter to calculate, according to the rates of the
district in which the reader may be, the comparative cost of cultivating
1,000 acres of Tea by hand and by the steam-plough. The plough
would be worked for Tea by an 8-H. P. portable engine of any makers
manufacture. Wages for one engineman, one cooly to cut wood,
possibly one pair bullocks and cart-driver to bring barrels of water, two
coolies to shift the anchors, and two more to assist them (possibly) in
shifting the rope, added to the cost of fuel, and 15 per cent, per annum
added for repairs and deterioration, seems to be the cost of working.
This would be lessened by the rope and anchor-men and the wood-
cutter on the days when the plough was not at work. Add, however,
the cost of elephants or bullocks to take the engine, &c., from garden to
garden, and I think it will be found that the saving in expense would be
very great on the side of the steam-plough as regards cooly labour.

Now, as to the feasibility of the scheme. It is difficult, without the
aid of plates, to describe how steam-ploughing is done. The engine
remains stationary at one corner of the field. Near it is a large double
windlass, which, when the cultivator is at work, winds up the dragging
rope with one barrel of the windlass, whilst from the other the rope is
uncoiling, which will drag the plough down the next furrow. When the
plough comes to the end of the furrow, two men, one at each end of the
rope, shift the anchors, on which are the pulleys round which the rope
runs : one furrow breadth forward the plough is double, one set of
coulters and shears being at work, while the other set is tilted up in the
air by the weight of a man who sits on and guides the plough. When
the plough is to return it is not turned round, but the man simply tilts
up into the air the set of ploughs that have done their work, and brings
down the others. Of course ploughs like this would not do for Tea : a
special cultivator would be needed. At the end of the furrow the
motion of the windlass is reversed, and the drag rope becomes in its
turn the following rope. In England there is an ingenious mechanical
contrivance for shifting the anchors, which does away with two men,

230 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

as it works automatically. Now the greatest difficulty in the whole
matter will be best explained to the reader in Messrs. Howard's own
language in their letter to me. They say :

"The obstacle to the use of steam-ploughs through rows of bushes
or trees is the practical difficulty of bringing the slack or following rope
into position for following the implement back on its return journey.
The rope cannot be lifted over the intervening row of bushes, and to
employ draught animals to take the rope up the next alley between the
bushes would add to the expense of the work, and would impede it.' 1
They continue: "If it is important that the land be broken up to a
depth of 9 inches, and the obstacles to effecting this by animal power
are practically insuperable, the steam plough worked on the single
system, with animals to convey the slack from end to end of the land,
would probably be the most effectual and economical method of
working."

Now if this difficulty could be overcome (and I confess it is a
rather formidable one), I quite believe that on fairly straight land, even if
somewhat sloping, with straight rows of bushes, and the land clear of
stumps, steam cultivation would be easy. On hill gardens, or gardens
where the Tea is irregularly planted, on ground much traversed by
nullahs or having stumps left in, the steam cultivator could not work.
There may be some method of lifting the rope over the bushes. Coolies
might be stationed at intervals along the row, and with the aid of a
very light block and tackle might hoist long bights of the rope high
enough to clear the bushes. The block and tackle would be fastened
to the top of a light pole. One man would hold the pole while the
other hove up, and (the pole being midway between the two rows)
might incline it over till above the next row and then lower away. A
strong i oft. bamboo, a pair of light wooden blocks, and an inch and a
half Manilla rope, would be all that would be requisite. Other projects
for effecting this may strike some of your readers, and what I want is,
that those who may think the idea of steam-ploughing of any value
should co-operate together to work it out in a practical form : I will
give every assistance in my power.

We can scarcely hope, in the present depressed state of the Tea
market, that proprietors will club together to subscribe to bring out a
set of steam cultivating apparatus in order to institute experiments on
the subject. Should 1883 bring better times, something of the sort
might be done, and it is as well to have the matter well thought out and

TEA MACHINERY. 231

discussed beforehand, so that should a series of experiments take place,
people would be prepared for any contingencies which might arise, and
perhaps be better prepared to overcome these difficulties through the
matter having been previously well discussed.

It is now the season for opening out Tea gardens, and one piece of
advice I would give to planters that is this. It is quite possible that
steam ploughing for Tea cultivation is a thing of the future, or may
be nearer than you imagine : therefore be careful to have your lines of
Tea very straight, both along and across, so that there would be no
obstacle to the plough or cultivator working. If you object to the
expense of taking out stumps, they may remain in, as they could be
taken out afterwards.

I trust your readers, Mr. Editor, will not view this subject with
indifference, but will co-operate in endeavouring to solve the problem.
I am yours faithfully, " TEA MACHINERY."

Though the signatures differ, I conceive Mr. C. B.
Fergus, C.E., wrote the second as well as the first. He
has evidently pondered the matter well. Let others do so
too, and I foretell that the day is not far distant when flat
Tea gardens will, in a great measure, be cultivated by steam
or animal power. When this is so, even 8 annas (say lod.)
per Ib. for our Tea all round should pay us well.

Tea Manufacturing Machinery.

The processes in Tea manufacture, as generally practised
in India to-day, are

1. Plucking. 5. Fermenting.

2. Withering. 6> Dry i ng or fir i ng .

3. Sorting green leaf in a

measure, and separation 7- Porting.

of Pekoe Tips. 8> Fina i heating before pack-

4. Rolling. ing.

No. 3 is not always done, the others invariably.

232 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

I will consider the machines invented for each process,
in the order of the said processes.

Plucking. No machine has ever been invented for this,
and I do not think any is possible.

Withering. In any but continued wet weather no arti-
ficial means are necessary. The leaf, spread thinly and
exposed to the action of the air below and around (former
attained by any kind of mesh), withers perfectly." In con-
tinued wet weather artificial means are sometimes required.
The various Dryers in use (see further on) are sometimes
supposed to furnish the means, but their use necessitates
much labour, nor is the result satisfactory. A good
withering machine (it must be on a large scale) might, I
think, be easily invented ; there is none at present. 'Why
do none of the inventors of other Tea machinery try to
succeed in this ?

Sorting Green Leaf. This is sometimes attempted in a
rough way by the use of sieves of different meshes. To
separate the fine from the coarse leaf, and in some cases to
eliminate the Pekoe tips, is the object. A machine by John
Greig and Co., of Edinburgh, professes to do the latter.
I have never seen it, but I doubt any machine abstracting
the Pekoe tips alone. A machine which would, however,
separate the fine from the coarse leaf previous to rolling is,
I think, quite feasible, and it would conduce much to good
Tea. This, again, is an opening for inventors.

Rolling. This is perhaps the most important of all
processes in Tea manufacture. The object of it is to
break the cells in the Tea and liberate the sap (fermentation
could not take place otherwise), and further to give a tight

* In wet weather especially the warm air generated in the factory by the
fires in it helps the process.

TEA MACHINERY. 233

roll or twist to the leaf. Formerly this was always done by
hand (it is so done in China, I believe, to this day), but the
process was lengthy, expensive and dirty. I might perhaps
add inefficient, for doubtless machine-rolled Tea is better
done (better in appearance, better in liquor) than hand-rolled.

I will now consider

Tea Rolling Machines.

The inventors are Jackson, Kinmond, Haworth, Lyle,
Greig and Thompson. There may be others, but I have not
heard of them.

Jackson has invented five machines. The details of each,
how much each can do, the testimonials regarding them,
c., would fill many pages. All can be seen in the illustrated
catalogue he supplies, so I will only offer a few general
remarks. All planters know Jackson's rollers, and they are
held in high estimation. His last invention (if I mistake
not) is the Rotary Tea Roller, which is on quite a different
principle to the others. It consists of an elongated revolving
barrel or cylinder, with a polygonal internal surface, and a
roller with a fluted external surface, mounted within the said
barrel its whole length. These revolve in opposite directions
(the roller the quicker) and the leaf is rolled in the annulus
between. It is not yet known what the success of this last
invention will be. Not so with his Cross-action and Excel-
sior Rollers. These are first-rate machines, and all who
have tried speak well of them.

Kinmond invented the first Tea roller (see page 117),
many years ago. Many improvements resulted, eventually,
in his " Improved Double Action Tea Roller," which is
a very good machine and has given satisfaction to the
many who have used it. From all I have heard and seen,

234 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

however, I doubt if, take it all in all, it is equal to Jackson's
Cross Action Excelsior. Kinmond, some two years ago,
invented a " Centrifugal Roller." It was made in two sizes.
The smaller seems to have done well, not so the larger ; one
of the latter on the Phoolbarry garden (in which I am
interested) has proved a failure. But Mr. Kinmond has
quite lately materially altered the said Centrifugal machines ,
and is confident that they will do well. He is now leaving
for India with one, and anticipates good results.

Tea machinery is still so much in its infancy that the
best machines are likely to be improved upon, and perhaps
superseded by others, but as things are now, I think, though
some do not agree with me, that Jackson has carried off the
palm in rollers.

The following two letters on rollers appeared in the Tea
Gazette, and are well worth attention :

KINMOND'S IMPROVED PATENT DOUBLE ACTION TEA
ROLLING MACHINE.

Sir, You have so repeatedly asked planters to supply you with
information regarding " Tea machinery " that it is a matter of surprise
to me you have not been flooded with letters on the subject. I know
very little about Tea machinery, as I am not an engineer, but I gladly
contribute my quota of knowledge on the subject. I have been
rolling leaf for some time past in one of Kinmond's old machines,
styled his " Improved Patent Double Action Tea Rolling Machine. "
A machine for. fine leaf I do not believe there is in existence. I have
seen several machines at work on different factories, and I should say
for fine leaf this machine of Kinmond's cannot be beat.* A few
improvements could no doubt be made, and I feel sure Mr. Kinmond
himself is aware of this, and is quite competent to make them. I have
seen Mr. Kinmond's " Compound Action Centrifugal " at work. I do
not consider it a success. It certainly cannot hold a candle to his
" Patent Double Action." I would strongly recommend Mr. Kinmond
to improve the latter, and forego the former, unless he can make some

* This, after the previous sentence, is obscure. E. M.

TEA MACHINERY. 235

very material alterations to it. The roll from the " Centrifugal "
comes out hot and flat, whereas that from his " Patent Double Action "
is turned out not only perfectly cool, but has a perfect twist.* For
coarse leaf, Jackson's " Excelsior " is a splendid machine. I should
say a factory could not want two better machines than one of
Kinmond's " Patent Double Action " and one of Jackson's " Excelsior"
Rollers the former for fine, the latter for coarse leaf. Will some of
my brother planters kindly give their experience, and thus further
enlighten an anxious ENQUIRER.

TEA ROLLING MACHINERY.

Dear Sir, I will be glad if some of your numerous readers will
kindly furnish results of trials, or of experience, of Kinmond's
Compound Action Centrifugal Tea Rolling Machine. I have tried it
repeatedly, and find it not only heats the green leaf a great deal too
much, but in addition cuts, I may say into mincemeat, about 5^0 of
the leaf in the process of rolling. I am not an engineer, and therefore
cannot state for certain where the fault lies, but I fancy the ribs of the
two revolving plates are somewhat at fault. If they were broader and
bolder, the machine might, perhaps, be a better success. The green
leaf does not come out sufficiently rolled. The major portion of the
roll is too flat. Perhaps Mr. Kinmond will kindly help by giving a
hint or two to a perplexed Tea-house " ASSISTANT."

Haworth's Roller. This machine was invented long ago.
The leaf is placed in bags and so rolled. In some respects
the machine resembles a mangle. It has not been largely
used, and thus is not much known. I have no personal
experience of its worth, but have heard much of it from an
old friend of mine, Mr. Carter, of the Chandpore Tea Estate,
Chittagong. He has, I believe, had one from the first on
his plantation, and thinks very well of it. Mr. Carter is a
first-rate judge on all Tea matters. He conducted some
experiments to test the value of Tea rolled by Jackson's and
Haworth's Rollers, and did it with great care, that the quality
of leaf, the withering, the drying, all but the two modes of

* I agree with " Enquirer" in this. E. M.

236 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

rolling should be exactly the same. The samples were then
sent to Calcutta and valued. Results as below :

Messrs. Carritt and Co.'s report on the samples is dated Calcutta,
29th October, 1881, viz. :

Chandpore leaf rolled by Haworth's machine : Large irregular
open unassorted leaf, brisk, fair flavour, little strong Re. 0-9-9.

Chandpore leaf rolled by Jackson's machine : Leaf preferable,
closer rolled, liquor inferior, not very strong Re. 0-9-0.

Sungoo leaf rolled by Haworth's machine : Rather large irregular
loosely twisted unassorted leaf, flavoury, little brisk Re. 0-9-3.

Sungoo leaf rolled by Jackson's machine : Leaf little preferable,
liquor inferior, wanting briskness Re. 0-8-9.

By above it appears Haworth's gave better liquor, and
Jackson's the best Tea in appearance. From all I have
heard I think it likely Haworth's roller has not received the
attention it deserves.

Lyle's Roller. I have never seen this. From the drawing
before me it has no resemblance to other rollers. The
inventor claims for it simplicity, cheapness, strength,
durability, good rolling, and large outturn with a minimum
of labour. One testimonial I have seen speaks very highly
of its capabilities.

Greig's Roller. This I have not seen or heard of. I can
only give the description sent me by the inventor :

The Greig Link and Lever Tea Rolling Machine, worked by one
man, and suitable for rolling the finest nibs without breaking them, or
to crush the coarsest leaf into broken black at will. It can roll a large
or small quantity equally well. Price 70, delivered in Edinburgh.
Small size suitable for cattle gear, 45. Cattle gear, 20, delivered in
Edinburgh.

The Calcutta Agent of the Luckea Moung Lung Tea Estate,
Sonada, Darjeeling, in sending remittance for a large size machine
which has been working there all the past season, says : " I am
informed the machine does its work in a most satisfactory manner,
rolling better than by hand : I am pleased to have to state this."

TEA MACHINERY. 237

Thompson's Challenge Roller. This (quite lately invented)
though given last is likely, by all I hear, to stand well
among rollers. I have no drawing or description of it, but
why I think well of it is that a Tea engineer, Mr. Ansell, of
Kurseong, who thoroughly understands Tea machinery,
thinks so highly of the machine that he has recommended
its purchase by the Phoolbarry Tea Company. I have every
faith in Mr. Ansell's judgment, and feel confident therefore
the machine must be a good one. One feature and advan-
tage claimed for it is, " free contact of the leaf throughout
the roll with the outer air."

I may conclude my remarks on rollers with a quaint
letter (from Tea Gazette) by a native. If he can judge of
Tea machinery as well as he can write English his opinion
is worth preserving :

TEA ROLLING MACHINERY.

Dear Sir, On the subject of Tea-leaf rolling machinery, the
(to all appearance) strangely opposite results I have obtained from
machines of the same make have led me to the following conclusions,

1. All " genuses " of machines are equally good.

2. There are hardly two "species " of the same genus which give
similar results.

3. Changing the " fixings " of a machine makes all the difference
in the world.

Ergo a good mechanic will have a good machine whether he
patronize Jackson, Kinmond, Haworth, or any other inventor.

I think with your correspondent " A Voice from Assam" that the
machine that gives the roll quickly, and in a continuous supply, is the
best.

I would defy any man to prove that any inventor has it " all his
own way," for I certainly have not found it so in my experience.

Yours truly,

KOL MISTRY.

238 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Before going to press I received drawing and description
of "Thompson's Challenge Roller." It is impossible to
judge of its merits by the drawing, but some very strong
testimonials are appended one much in its favour from
Mr. Ansell, the Tea engineer above mentioned. By the
testimonials (more than one from men I know) the following
advantages appear to have been obtained :

" Balling" of the leaf is avoided.

The tips are kept quite bright.

Heating prevented.

Simplicity of " feed " and " discharge."

One attendant, a minimum of motive power, and low

priced.

A good twist attained.
Simplicity in the machine, and ease of transport and

erection.

If all the above are facts, I quite think the " Challenge "
will prove a great success.

The following, written by me to the Tea Gazette, may be
worth the attention of Tea-rolling machine inventors :

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING THE DRUMS AND THE FACES
OF THE ROLLERS IN TEA ROLLING MACHINERY.

Sir, The following idea, suggested to me by a planter up here,
may be practicable or not, but in any case it is worth letting the
patentees of Tea-rolling machines know it.

In days gone by when iron worked in contact with iron on the
faces of rollers the colour of the outturn (that is the infused Tea
leaves) was quite destroyed. That is now remedied, but there is still
an evil of less importance. The wood on the said faces of the rollers
absorbs the sap of the leaf, and unless they are washed very clean, the
said old sap is apt to contaminate, more or less, the new leaf. Could

TEA MACHINERY.

not this be rectified by making the faces of the rollers of porcelain or
iron (like camp crockery) and the drums of opaque coarse glass ?
Both these, if they would stand, could easily be washed quite clean.

I give the idea, given to me, for what it is worth, and would invite
the opinion of other planters on it. EDWARD MONEY.

Darjeeling, November loth, 1880.

Fermenting is the next process in the list. After the leaf
is rolled it is put together ; some make it up in truncated
balls, some put it in baskets, but in either case it is allowed
to stand until a given amount of fermentation has set in.
This is done in the warm atmosphere of the factory. Natu-
rally no machine is required for this process ; but shelves,
at varying height from the factory floor, are useful to
regulate the fermentation, inasmuch as the higher the shelf
the warmer the air, and warmth hastens the process. This
plan of shelves was devised by Mr. J. Fleming, at the Phool-
barry Garden, and it seemed to me to answer well.

Drying or Firing comes next. Up to this point the leaf
is of a brownish green colour, and soft. After the drying it
is black and crisp, in fact, made Tea. By the drying process
all the moisture in the mass is driven off. For many years
charcoal only was used to fire Tea, and it was an established
belief that the fumes given out by the said charcoal had some
chemical effect on the Tea in fact, that good Tea could
not be made without it. When, twelve years ago, I pub-
lished the First Edition of this Essay, I had begun to doubt
the soundness of the above belief, and four years later I had
thoroughly satisfied myself of its fallacy. It was not, how-
ever, till 1877-78 that I devised a means of firing Teas
without charcoal. The invention was well received, and
thought well of. At all events, it proved what I had long
urged viz., that any fuel, if contact with the smoke was
avoided, would dry Tea. My invention was a very crude

240 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

one, and quickly superseded by far more perfect design s;
still I have the satisfaction of knowing that on this head I
have done much to perfect Tea manufacture, and that the
conviction I had attained to in 1874 * s now general and
practised throughout India. (Pages 119-121, 295, to end of
Addenda, bear out the above remarks.)
I will no\v consider the various

Tea-Drying Machines.

Robertson's Typhoon. This is a late invention : it was
noticed in the Tea Gazette in 1881. It had, however, made
a great noise at end of 1880, and so well was it spoken
of, many, in the early part of 1881, purchased it. The
following was the report as to its merits (Tea Gazette,
September, 1881) ;

ROBERTSON'S TYPHOON.

Mr. J. M. Robertson, manager of the Arcuttipore Tea Company's
Gardens, has invented a new Tea-drying apparatus which he has
named the " Typhoon. " A number of the planters of his district met
at his garden, by invitation, to test the merits of his machine. We
quote the verdict recorded by them in their own words, and also
append the brokers' report on the Teas which were manufactured in
their presence during the trial.

The " Typhoon " is a simple and inexpensive construction of
brick and iron, which can be erected without skilled labour. The
heating material used is coke, and the quantity of coke required for a
maund of Tea is stated to be one quarter of a maund.

The out-turn from the " Typhoon " we found to be at the rate of
one half maund of thoroughly dried Tea per hour, and the manner in
which the work was done was to our entire satisfaction, some of us
thinking that the apparatus was capable of doing more.

The inventor leads us to understand that the entire cost of
construction and material will not be over Rs. 300, and we do not see
that this sum need be exceeded.

TEA MACHINERY. 24!

We are unanimously of opinion that unless the dryers at present
in use are very materially reduced in price, they will be beaten off the
field by the " Typhoon. "

Messrs. William Moran & Co.'s report on the Teas is as follows :

Typhoon Teas. London Cal. Equi.

value. Ex. i-8.
Pekoe, very well made leaf, with ends, good

brisk flavour i 10 14

Orange Pekoe, very well twisted leaf, good

amount of tip, very good brisk flavour ... 2 o 15^

Br. Pekoe, leafy black Br. Pekoe, some

ends strong 21 i

Pekoe Souchong, well twisted leaf, some ends

good flavour 13 9

Souchong, small good even grey leaf, brisk i i y

The above are very desirable Teas as regards leaf and liquor.
The following are some of the chief features and advantages of
this machine :

1. The low cost.

2. Durability, there being nothing except the trays that can
suffer from wear and tear.

3. The small quantity of fuel required about maund of coke
for kutcha firing i maund of Tea.

4. Ease in stoking, the furnace not requiring attention oftener
than once every one and a-half to two hours.

5. Absolute and immediate control over the temperature, which
can be raised or lowered instantaneously.

6. No " getting up heat" required. In fifteen minutes after
beginning to light the fire the apparatus is ready for work.

7. Requires no troublesome cleaning out.

8. Quantity. The apparatus is capable of drying at least 40 Ibs.
an hour, and has frequently dried over 50 Ibs.

9. Quality of Tea is equal to that obtained by any process
hitherto introduced.

Of course all the above was very favourable, and its low
price gained it many purchasers. I think, as a. first success,
it beat any machine yet invented. But, alas ! its fall was
sudden as its rise, for, judging from several letters in the

242 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Tea Gazette, the purchasers were not satisfied with its
capabilities, and I doubt consequently if it is now manufac-
tured ; still I may be wrong.

Allen's Tea Drying Apparatus. I have never seen this, and
have not heard much about it. Advantages claimed for it
are I. Quick drying. 2. Coke can be used as a drying
agent, 10 seers to one maund of Tea. 3. Only manual labour
required. 4. Not necessary to turn the Tea. 5. Perfect
control over temperature. I have three testimonials to its
merits before me, one from an engineer, and all three speak
highly of it.

The following letter from the inventor to the Tea Gazette
gives further information :

ALLEN'S PATENT DRYING MACHINE.

Dear Sir, Some time back your valuable paper contained a
description and rough drawing of my Patent Drying Machine. I now
beg to say that the machine is in the market.

I will simply state here that it can dry one maund of Tea per
hour, or about equivalent to four maunds of leaf.

It cannot burn the Tea as in other machines, yet it thoroughly
* dries it at one fill of the machine.

It takes half a maund of Tea at each fill, and every leaf of this is
done in exactly the same time ; no turning over, changing of trays, or
further looking after the Tea, after the roll has been placed in the
machine on the trays.

Temperature can be lowered from 3008 to 100 in two -or three
seconds, and run up again in five to seven minutes.

It will burn any fuel. Fireplace 2^' x 3', when kept regularly
three quarters full of firewood or coal about 6 to 8 inches thick, while
machine is drying, will suffice (half a maund of fuel to a maund of Tea
should be ample). The appearance and fine flavour of Tea dried in
this machine by fan beats charcoal ; no gloss is lost on the Tea from
shaking up and turning over, and the Tea is black, with glossy appear-
ance and good flavour.

The following are valuation and reports on this machine's dried
Tea, by Messrs. William Moran and Co., to whom some of bulk or
rough Tea was sent. Yours, c., J. C. ALLEN.

TEA MACHINERY. 243

I omitted to extract the broker's reports, but they were
favourable. I think it likely this Dryer is well suited to
small gardens, which cannot afford steam motive power.

Davidson's Sirocco. Many of these, over 200, have been
set up in all the Tea districts ; it has done good work in its
time : had it not done so it would not so long (some years)
have commanded attention. When it came out it was, I
think, the best machine going. I doubt much that being
the case now. It requires no motive power, and is thus, in
that respect, cheap to work. The following letter to the
Tea Gazette in many respects embodies my views of the
machine :

THE SIROCCO.

Dear Sir, As both sides of a question, viz. for and against, should
be stated before the public for their judgment, I think I may say that,
as far as we have seen in print, the " Sirocco " is a " first rate Tea-
drying machine. " I beg to state that all does not appear in print,
though what does appear there may be quite true, and quite right too
for the seller to get as many sales of it as he can, for who would be
such an ass as to cry down his own invention or anything else he
wished to profit by. The " Sirocco," as I have seen (and I have seen
over ten, and amongst them the latest improved ones), does not
thoroughly fire off the Tea without burning it : the Tea must be taken out
of the machine when three parts fired, and allowed to cool, when its own
heat, and the fact of it being gathered in one place, give sufficient heat
to finish the kutcha firing, but pucka batti is required after that. Again,
the advertisement would lead one to suppose that the drying is effected
by means of the draught of hot air entirely : now if this were the case,
when the fires are first lighted in the machine, the hot air would at
once be of sufficient heat to dry Tea ; but this is not the case, for the
whole iron work, in fact, the whole apparatus, iron work, &c., has to
be heated up by fire, and when a litle off red hot, the Tea is put in
and fired. I do not mean to say that hot air does not ascend through
the Tea, but I contend that the heat of the iron has more to do with
the drying; there is no detriment to the Tea, I feel convinced, whether
it is dried by hot iron or hot air, but there is a very considerable

244 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

detriment to the machine. Let purchasers ask any engineer, or even
blacksmith, how quickly iron burns away, and he can tell them.

Up to date no doubt the " Sirocco " has seen its run : over 200
are advertised as in use, but it is now beaten by two machines which
have come out lately, and which beat the " Sirocco " entirely as to
quantity dried and simplicity of working, and for durability should
last any time by careful looking after. One is Robertson's, which is
firebrick, and the other Allen's ; both these machines for durability
cannot be surpassed : the difference in results between the two is, that
one dries every tray of Tea in the same time without turning over, and
the other requires to have the Tea turned over and the trays changed,
&c., as in the " Sirocco."

The " Sirocco," no doubt, was a good Tea-drying machine in its
time, and the inventor deserves the greatest credit for it, but it has
been improved upon, as is always inevitably the case in machinery.

I trust no offence will be taken by the " Sirocco " inventor, as such
is not intended. Any answer of his will be gladly read.

Cachar. Yours faithfully, PUCKA TEA.

There may have been an answer, but I did not see it.

Gibbs and Barry's Tea Dryer. This machine has been
lately invented. I saw it when not as complete as it is
now. I have tried to get details, but failed. It must have
merit, however, for though a late machine, some thirty-six
are now in operation ; I heard one good judge speak very
well of it. More are, I hear, being despatched to India.
No trays are used with this Dryer.

Shand's Dryer. This hails from Ceylon. Steam for
drying Tea is not quite a new idea. I saw an apparatus to
use steam in Cachar years ago. The great advantage
claimed for this Dryer is that Tea cannot be burnt. It is
quite a new invention. This, from the Tea Gazette, describes

it :

A NEW TEA DRYER.

A gentleman in Colombo, Ceylon, a Mr. C. Shand, as we
mentioned in our last, has invented a new patent Tea Dryer. The
following is a description of his invention :

TEA MACHINERY. 245

The barbacue-shaped steam-heated Tea Dryer is the cheapest,
most economical and safest drying machine.

As this machine can be made any length and width, the quantity
of leaf which can be manufactured is only limited by the extent of
drying surface. One, 5 feet wide, and 15 feet long, will admit of about
forty pounds of Tea being spread as thinly as on Sirocco trays, and, if
heated to 1508 Fahrenheit, would dry a maund per hour. The steam
for heating thin galvanized iron drying surface is generated in the
space (3 inches) between it and the thin boiler plate bottom.

The machine, which is made steam-tight, is partially filled with
water, and placed on a fire stove. It is evident that a comparatively
small quantity of fuel will generate sufficient steam to heat a large
surface, especially if the smoke flue is placed under the whole length
of the machine.

As it is impossible to fire-burn the Tea, dried by the steam-heated
Dryer, the enormous advantage of being independent of the care and
judgment of coolies, and of the necessity of uninterrupted European
supervision, is too evident to require comment.

Then comes the figure of the Dryer with the following note :

" Barbacue-shaped Tea Dryer. The far end should be slightly
higher than that over the fire, to allow the space over it to be full
of water.

An apparatus for escape of steam and supplying water is inserted
in the end plate covering the boiler."

The Ceylon Observer, referring to the above, asks the following
questions :

Is it really impossible by means of steam to over-heat, though we
may not, indeed cannot, "fire-burn" Tea? And when a boiler is
employed to generate steam, do we become quite independent of the
care and judgment of coolies, and avoid the necessity of uninterrupted
European supervision ? Will not a thermometer be necessary to
indicate the proper degree of heat, will it not require close watching,
and will there not be danger of the boiler exploding if neglected ? The
danger may be reduced to a minimum, but we should be glad of proof
that it cannot exist.

Mr. Shand in reply writes With reference to your remarks and
queries regarding my Tea-drying machine, will you allow me to mention
that, as it is not intended to sustain any pressure of steam, the drying
surface cannot easily be heated over 150 degrees.

246 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

As a matter of course, the Tea takes a longer time to dry than
when made by Siroccos, in which the temperature is maintained at 275
degrees, but the extent of drying surface available makes this a matter
of secondary importance.

I did not mean that no care or attention is required to keep up fire
and supply boiling water periodically from a cistern placed over the
flue; but you can understand that the same care, judgment and
observation is not required to dry Tea at a comparatively low tem-
perature as at a very high one : for instance, it does not injure coffee
to allow it to remain on the barbacue after it is thoroughly dry ; but
put it in a roaster, and what care and judgment is not required to
perfect the roasting !

No doubt, by the use of Siroccos and other modern appliances,
the risk of fire-burning is now greatly diminished, but these still
require great care in shifting the trays and watching the thermometer.
This constant watching is obviated by the use of my machine, and all
the superintendent has to do is to feel when the Tea becomes crisp and
dry. He has the security that, if this is neglected to be done at the
moment it is sufficiently dry, no injury takes place by its remaining on
the heated surface.

The machine is especially adapted for redrying Tea before packing,
this being an operation carried on at a low temperature, and requiring
a good deal of care.

There are, it is well known, two difficulties connected with the
proper manufacture of Tea, requiring at present the constant super-
vision of the superintendent : these are fermentation and firing. If
the necessity of closely watching the latter can be dispensed with, it
gives the superintendents more time to direct the fermentation, on
which the colour of the infused leaf, and consequently the value, so
greatly depends.

I have now considered all the Dryers I know of except
Kinmond's and Jackson's. I have purposely left these to
the last. While in the case of Rollers I thought Jackson
had done best, in Dryers I most decidedly award the first
place to Kinmond.

Jackson's Dryer. A long and exhaustive report upon it
from Mr. Carter, of the Chandpore Garden, Chittagong,

TEA MACHINERY. 247

appears in the Tea Gazette, November 7, 1881. It is too
long to insert here. No one can read it and doubt that the
trials were most carefully conducted, and without bias of
any kind. The results are not in favour of the machine.
Moreover, were Jackson's Dryers a real success I should
have been aware of the fact long ago. I incline to the
belief Mr. Jackson thinks he can do better, for he has lately
brought out a Self-acting Tea Dryer regarding which the
following appeared in the Tea Gazette :

JACKSON'S NEW SELF-ACTING TEA DRYER.

Messrs. W. and J. Jackson have invented a new apparatus that
will deal with the Tea itself throughout the drying process, and thus,
they submit, secure a perfection in the dessication of the leaf not
hitherto obtained. The objects arrived at by the new invention are
as follows :

i. After the leaf is fed into the machine it requires no more
attention until it is discharged dry.

2. Every individual leaf is simultaneously exposed in precisely a
similar manner to the action of the heated air, thus producing an
unvaried and perfectly even dried leaf.

3. The Tea is steadily but very slowly kept in motion, thereby
dispensing with the tedious and tiring watchfulness of attendants,
hitherto required in Tea drying on the tray system.

4. There are no trays about the machine to handle, and it is,
therefore, thoroughly durable and cannot get out of order.

In operating with the machine, a boy or attendant has simply to
spread the leaf on a slowly moving feeding web or band, which carries
it forward and places it in the machine, where it is steadily but
inactively kept in motion, and in due course is discharged dry and
crisp from a shoot at the delivery end ; so long, therefore, as the
attendant continues to supply the machine with leaf, it will steadily
dry and discharge it, and should he have occasion to leave the
machine at any time, no injury can take place to the leaf in the
apparatus, as it must pass on and be discharged.

The leaf is continuously, but very slowly, turned over, disentangled
and individually presented to the action of the heated air by a peculiar
combination of concentric cylinders, thus ensuring not only the most

248 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

uniform fermentation, but the drying of each leaf being simultaneously
effected alike must produce an unvaried briskness and quality of
liquor not obtainable from any of the methods of drying at present
known.

The machine will dry about forty maunds of green leaf per day,
and will be approximately 9' long, 3^-' wide, and 8' high.

The apparatus will take very little driving, which can either be
effected by steam or hand power. It is very simple, easily erected,
and self-contained.

I know nothing about this new Dryer beyond what is
printed above, and I rather doubt if any have yet been set
up. // the advantages detailed are truly all realised, they
are doubtless of much value.

Kinmond's Dryer. I shall devote extra space to this, for
I believe in it. I have seen it working for a long time on
the Phoolbarry Garden, and I continue since I left India
to receive good reports of it. This is what the inventor
himself says of it recently :

This Tea-drying machine continues to give great satisfaction. The
improvements made last year considerably increased the out-turn of
Tea, and reduced the amount of fuel required. Further improvements
have this year been introduced in fastening the iron plates at the
corners of the trays with copper rivets, and otherwise strengthening the
trays, remedying many small defects suggested by planters who are
using the Dryers, and in improving the arrangement of the fire-bricks
over the furnace. The latter, as well as some of the smaller alterations,
were suggested by Mr. Ansell (inventor of the sifting machine which
bears his name), an engineer who has had great experience in and
around Darjeeling in erecting and working all the three sizes of these
Dryers.

This is the only Tea-drying machine which can keep pace with the
largest rolling machines. It is made in three sizes. The capacity of
the smallest or No. i Dryer is onemaund of pucka Tea per hour. The
capacity of No. 2 Dryer is two maunds per hour, and that of No. 3
Dryer is three maunds per hour. The consumption of fuel is less than
one maund of wood fuel to one maund of pucka Tea dried.

TEA MACHINERY. . 249

One of the great advantages of this Tea Dryer is the facility it
gives for final firing before packing. The enhanced price of Tea which
has been dried and final fired in this Dryer is well shewn in the high
average of is. 6d. per lb., which the Scottish Assam Company's Teas
have fetched this season. See letters annexed from their superin-
tendent in Assam, Mr. Cruickshanks, and their secretary in Edinburgh,
Mr. M off at.

When final firing Tea with the Dryer, it is found convenient to
place a fine gauze cover over the top trays in each compartment, to
prevent any of the Tea dust being carried away with the hot air which
passes through the Tea.

In order to get the maximum quantity of work from the Dryer, the
trays must be spread with rolled leaf twice as thick as that used
when Tea is dried over charcoal, where there is no forced current of
air, and after the Tea has been half-dried, then the Tea on two trays
should be spread on one tray, and the drying finished. In the Dryers
now in course of construction, the trays have been made one-half
deeper, so that the half- dried Tea on three trays should be finished in
one tray. The out-turn of the machine is greatly diminished when the
foregoing method is not observed ; and owing to its non-observance,
many of the Dryers in use have never been worked to their greatest
capacity.

The Dryer should be lined outside with one thickness of bricks
they are the cheapest and best non-conductors of heat inferior or
badly-burned bricks may be used. Both ends of the Dryer should be
lined, and both sides and elbows as high as the trays. The top may
either have a lining of bricks, or four inches thick of sand or clay.
When the Dryer is lined round with bricks, it not only greatly reduces
the consumption of fuel, but by preventing the radiation of heat, it
enables the men to increase the out-turn of pucka Tea.

The Dryer is extremely simple and compact the No. 2 size
occupies a space of about 7 feet long and 3 feet wide. The fan of this
Dryer requires about half a horse-power to drive it.

The fan should be driven at a speed of 500 revolutions per minute.
The pulley on the fan spindle is 7^ inches diameter and 4 inches wide.

Owing to the satisfaction given by these Dryers this season, an
exceptionally large number of orders are on hand, and although a
number of each size is generally kept in stock, the patentee will be
obliged to those requiring Dryers for next season to kindly send in their
orders early.

25O CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

No. i Dryer, capable of drying one maund of pucka Tea per hour,
150; No. 2 Dryer, capable of drying two maunds of pucka Tea per
hour, 220 ; No. 3 Dryer, capable of drying three maunds of pucka
Tea per hour, 300. These prices are f.o.b. in London.

London Agents Messrs. Geo. Williamson and Co., 7, East India
Avenue ; Calcutta Agents Messrs. Williamson, Magor and Co.,
4, Mangoe Lane.

The best of the three sizes is No. 3. I have quite lately
sent out two of them, one for the Phoolbarry, one for the
Leesh Company's Gardens, both in the Western Dooars. I
think the prices are much too high, and might with advan-
tage (to both inventor and planters) be reduced ; but as to
the excellence of the machine there can, I think, be no
doubt. My opinion is shared by many. I have before me
many testimonials as to its excellence. Space forbids me
inserting them here, but Mr. Kinmond or his agents will
send them on application.

In March, 1881, so satisfied was I even then with the
Dryer (both the manager, Mr. Pillans, at Phoolbarry, and
I am still more so now), I wrote the following to the Tea
Gazette, and I give it here as details are embodied :

KINMOND'S TEA DRYER.

To all interested in Tea in India, and their name is legion, Tea
manufacturing machinery and its capabilities must be a subject of
great interest.

Though Tea prices may, and I think to a certain extent will,
revive, the old scale which existed previous to the late serious fall
will never probably return. How serious the fall has been will be
appreciated when I state that gardens which previously realised 14
annas to i rupee for their produce think now they do well if they
obtain an average of 10 annas. Thus, an average of 12 annas (even if
the partial rise I hope for takes place) will probably be more than
most Indian plantations will get in the future. In two words, the Tea
industry of India is passing through a period of depression and a crisis
which argues " the survival of the fittest." Not only must plantations,
destined to last, produce largely, they must also make good Teas at a

TEA MACHINERY. 25!

small cost. This latter, I hold, both as regards quality and economy,
can only be attained by the use of machinery ; and thus, what is the
best kind of rolling machine, the best description of dryer, equaliser,
and sifting apparatus, is an all-important point.

Tea machinery is still quite in its infancy. Various as are the
machines in use, and superior as some are to others, perhaps none of
them are yet quite perfect. Still, planters cannot afford to wait for
ultimate perfection, for though any machines bought to-day will
probably be more or less out of date in a few years' time, he who waits
must go to the wall in the meanwhile. Realising this fact, as those
who know the subject do, they (and they are many) ask eagerly :

" Which of the several machines for the different processes in
Tea manufacture shall we buy ? "

I have not now, perhaps, the knowledge to discuss fairly the
several merits of the various machines for each different process, but
as Tea Dryers hold an important place in the list, and I have, perhaps,
an exceptional experience of one kind, I purpose to give your readers
the benefit thereof.

Years ago, when I first mooted the idea that Tea could be fired
without charcoal, it was scouted. It was said, " The fumes of charcoal
had some chemical and necessary effect." " The Chinese would not
have used it from time immemorial had a substitute, and a cheaper
one, been practicable." Such were the objections. It is now no
longer a question. A great part, perhaps the greater part, of the
Indian produce is to-day worked with other fuel, and it is only a
question of time when all of it will be so. It is generally admitted
that Tea prepared in Dryers is more valuable than that fired over
charcoal ; and begging the question that the fumes of charcoal are not
necessary (the old idea is very nearly exploded), it is reasonable that
it should be so ; for, if there is one thing certain in Tea manufacture,
it is that speed is necessary. Charcoal drying took on an average 45
minutes ; Tea is fired in the best Dryers in eight minutes. In respect
of speed, Kinmond's Dryer (which is the one I advocate) is certainly
unequalled.

When, as in large factories, 30 or 40 maunds of Tea have to be
made daily, it is evident that, cceteris paribus, the machine which will
do most in a given time and given space must be the best. In these
respects also Kinmond's Dryer stands well, for the small size (No. i)
will do one maund, and the larger size (No. 2) will turn out two maunds

252 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

per hour. In other words, in a working day of 12 hours (and I allow
no more, for I do not believe in night work) 12 and 24 maunds daily
are the capacities of the two sizes. Considering that the said two
sizes, with necessary stokehole, tables, &c., occupy respectively not
more than 200 and 260 square feet of space in a factory, the satis-
factory results, in both the above respects, are unquestionable.

Tea made at night, both because the colour of it in its different
stages cannot be well seen (let the light be what it will), and also
because superintendence cannot then be so close, is never so good as
day-made Tea. This is why I do not believe in night work ; and it is
also a very important extra reason why machinery (which by its speed
enables all the necessary Tea to be made by daylight) will prove such
a great and lasting advantage.

When Kinmond's Dryer was first constructed, it was proposed to
work it at 300 degrees. Later experience has proved 260 degrees is
better and sufficient ; but of course more time is thus taken, and with
the old sizes one and two maunds per hour could not be turned out at
the lower temperature. The machines are now made one -fifth larger
to obviate this.

The fan is worked at 600 revolutions per minute, and this is found
to be the best speed.

Several alterations, and important ones, have been made since the
first machines were constructed, but I will mention them shortly, for
they will only be understood by those who know the Dryer i. The
trays now take out alternately both sides. 2. The fine Tea or dhole
trays take out independently. 3. Outside bearings are supplied to the
fan shaft or spindle : thus the lubricating oil cannot now run down
into the fan casing. 4. The chimney is moved forward, and thus heats
a larger amount of air and reduces fuel. After the necessary tempe-
rature has once been obtained, one maund of wood will fire one
maund of Tea. This is an outside estimate.

The great feature in Kinmond's Dryer is the fact that a separate
blast of hot air is forced through the Tea on each tray. In all other
Dryers I have heard of, the same hot air passes through each tray
successively, and moisture is consequently more or less carried
upwards through each. It is principally in this respect, and in the
large quantity of work it executes, that I consider the excellence of
Kinmond's Dryer to consist.

TEA MACHINERY. 253

It remains only to give shortly the results of a long series of
experiments with Kinmond's Dryer. The valuations were made by
more than one Calcutta broker :

Class. Charcoal dried. Machine dried.

Pekoe Rs. o n o Rs. o 14 o

Broken Pekoe Rs. o 10 o Rs. i i 6

Pekoe o i 6 o i 10

Broken Pekoe 015 027

These were made from the same leaf, at the same time, with every
care. In one of my gardens, after Kinmond's Dryer was obtained, the
Teas averaged upwards of 2 annas per Ib. more all round.

The Dryer can also be used for withering leaf, but in my opinion
no Tea Dryer is fit for that work, inasmuch as to do a large quantity
takes far too much time.

Artificial withering is only necessary when the weather is wet and
cold, and the machine to do it should do a large quantity at a time.
No Tea Dryer can do this. A machine fitted for that work has yet to be
invented, unless Baker's Wet Leaf Dryer, of which I have heard good

accounts, but have not seen, would answer.

EDWARD MONEY.

Since the above was written, further improvements and
alterations (suggested by Mr. Ansell, the Tea engineer, and
Mr. Pillans, manager at Phoolbarry) have been carried out.
The machine is now very perfect, and I consider it the
best Dryer at present in the market.

Mr. Kinmond has invented quite lately a coke-burning
Dryer. He is now taking this with him to India to try it,
and has sent me the following prospectus of it :

The Coke Burning Tea Dryer has been made to meet the want of
Tea districts where wood fuel is scarce, and coke can be obtained at a
reasonable price. The upper part of the Coke Burning Tea Dryer is
exactly the same as the No. 2 Wood Burning Dryer, which is adapted
to burn any kind of fuel, but its capacity is a little more, being from
2\ to 2^ maunds pucka Tea per hour. One maund of pucka Tea can
be dried with the consumption of about maund of coke. Besides its
large capacity for doing work, and its small consumption of coke, the
Coke Burning Dryer has other advantages. It is nearly one-half

254 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

less in weight than the Wood Burning Dryer, which means one-half
saving in freight. It requires no foundation or brickwork of any kind ;
and taking into consideration the quantity of work it does, it is the
cheapest Dryer in the market costing only 180, f.o.b. in England.

I know nothing of this Coke Dryer. Its price compares
favourably with his other Dryers.

In April, 1881, the following leader, written by me,
appeared in the Calcutta Statesman. Though other Tea
matters are included (all of interest), I give it here as further
testimony to the merits of Kinmond's Dryer :

The days are passed when Tea planters hoped to make a fortune
in a few years. There are mainly two reasons for this. Firstly, the
prices of Tea have fallen greatly, in many cases 30 and 40 per cent.
This is due to the fact that supply, in the case of Indian Tea, has
overtaken demand. Still, there is some comfort to all interested in
the industry to be derived from the low prices which have ruled during
the last two years. So cheap have Indian Teas been that the attention
of the trade has thereby been directed to them, and consequently the
deliveries of the last few months have exceeded any known previously.*
It is calculated by those best able to judge, that if the present rate of
deliveries in London continues, the stock in June next will not exceed
twelve million pounds, and the truth is, strange as it may appear, that
below this point it is not well that the stock in hand should fall,
because, if it does, dealers will not be able to meet their requirements,
and will then perforce buy more China. Low as prices are, we
therefore, nevertheless, consider the statistical position of Tea to-day
as good. There is another point which should give comfort and hope
to the Indian planter, in spite of the fact that we are heavily handi-
capped in our race with China, inasmuch as owing to more expensive
labour our cost of production must exceed theirs. This source of hope
is the great point now generally admitted, that Indian Tea is better
and goes further than China Tea. The experience of each of us can
quote instances of individuals dropping China Tea, and taking to
India ; who knows of anyone doing the reverse ? We admit the taste
for Indian Tea is more or less an acquired one. Still, the public at
home have already been educated to the taste by the yearly increasing
proportion of Indian mixed with China Tea. Speaking generally

* They are still higher now. The last three months they have averaged
five millions. E. M.

TEA MACHINERY. 255

(though the exceptions are many and increase yearly), it is true that
Indian Tea is not obtainable pure, but no more is China. The bulk of
the Tea now sold to the public in the United Kingdom is a mixture,
three parts China and one Indian, and all points to the fact that in a
few more years the general mixture will be half-and-half.

We are thus surely paving the way, in other words, teaching the
English public to like Indian Tea, and the broad fact that, once used,
it is never abandoned for its rival is surely a very hopeful feature.
The truth is that were it possible to make the population of England,
Australia, and America drink Indian Tea for one week only, the
demand after that week would be enormous, and we should hear no
more of " supply exceeding demand;" nay, more, many thousands of
acres would at once be added to the present cultivation in India.

But we have somewhat wandered from the question we set out
with, viz., why Tea does not pay now as it once did. The first reason
we have given ; the second is that there is now no market for Tea
seed. This last reason is little dwelt on, but it is a very important
factor. The days were when Rs. 300 per maund, and even more, were
paid for Tea seed, and though this did not last long, the price for many
years up to 1878 was about Rs. 100. Now it is simply unsaleable.
The receipts for Tea seed, during all these years, formed a large part
of mature garden earnings, and, to quote one instance, thereto in a
great measure were due the big dividends paid by the Assam
Company.

But though Tea prices may, and we think will, improve, it is not
likely we shall ever again see the rates obtainable formerly. This
being so, it is probable that only those plantations in the future will
pay that produce Tea cheaply. How is this to be done ? Those
gardens that are heavily weighted by unsuitable climates, by a bad
class of plant, by slopes which are too steep, by inordinately expensive
labour, or other causes, will have a hard time of it, but plantations
with natural advantages need in no way despair. Though, as we said
above, we cannot, in the matter of cheap labour, vie with China, we
have a great advantage over the Flowery Land as regards economy of
production in another respect. We allude to the use of machinery,
which does much now, and will do more and more as each year passes,
to reduce the cost of production. Machinery in the manufacture of
Tea is, we believe, almost unknown in China. There each and every
operation is performed by hand ; here in India many now do, and

256 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

eventually all will, wither, roll, fire, and sort by the help of machines.
It says not a little for the enterprise and the inventive genius of the
Anglo-Saxon race that, while in China the manufacture of Tea dates
back many centuries, and yet all the Tea is still made by hand, we in
India, who have only planted Tea some forty years, have invented
machines and use them to-day for each and every operation in
manufacture. It is but as yesterday that we imported Chinamen to
teach us the modus operandi. We now know far more than they do on
the subject, and verily the pupil has beaten his master.

Though machinery reduces the cost of production, and in more
than one case improves the quality of Tea, and planters know it, the
difficulty before them to-day is to know which is the best machine for
each operation. Unanimity on this point is not to be expected yet.
One swears by Jackson, another by Kinmond, others by Ansell, Barry,
Lyle, the inventor of the Sirocco, and so on. The machines and
names of inventors are many, and each has its disciples. Perhaps the
most favourite rolling machines are Jackson's and Kinmond 's, but we
see the latter has just produced what he calls a " Centrifugal Rolling
Machine " which he thinks will supersede all others. We have not
seen it, though it is at work on several gardens, and so can give no
opinion about it ; but another of Kinmond's machines, his Dryer, we
know well. It was long a moot point if Tea could be efficiently fired
by any other agent than charcoal. Many affirmed that the fumes of
charcoal were necessary ; and when, years ago, Colonel Money, so
well known by his writings in Tea matters, affirmed from experiments
that charcoal was not necessary, but that any fuel would do the work,
few 'believed him, for people said it was impossible to credit that the
Chinese would have gone on using charcoal (so much more expensive
than other fuel) for centuries, were it not a necessity. What Colonel
Money then predicted has already come to pass. Much of the Tea
now produced in India never sees charcoal at all, and it is very certain
that in two or three years all Indian Tea will be fired by machinery.
We say this is certain simply because, apart from the saving effected
by using other fuel, the value of Teas fired by machinery is increased.
It is natural it should be so because, by the use of the best machines
invented for that purpose, the heat can be regulated to a nicety, an
impossibility by the old mode of charcoal firing.

Kinmond's Dryer is, in our opinion, the best Tea Dryer machine
yet invented. Space forbids our describing it minutely (besides, only

TEA MACHINERY. 257

those, and they are few, who understand Tea machinery would appre-
ciate our description), but its general features we will shortly touch on.
In the comparatively small space it occupies in a factory, and in the
large quantity of work it does in a given time, we think it unrivalled.
This last feature does away with the necessity of night-work, which,
apart from other drawbacks, is prejudicial to the excellence of Tea,
because, among other reasons, its colour cannot then be appreciated
in its several stages. Tea made at night is never very good. With
sufficient motive power, sufficient rolling machinery, and Kinmond's
Dryers, the factory (let the leaf gathered be what it may) can be shut
up at dark. Kinmond's Dryer may yet be improved upon by himself
or by others, but as it now stands it possesses a feature peculiar to
itself, and all important. The hot air, driven by a fan (the speed of
which, under control, regulates the temperature), does not pass
successively through the different trays, for the hot air, drying the Tea
in each tray, has a separate inlet and outlet. By this means is avoided
the objection of carrying the moisture absorbed by the hot air from
one tray to the other. Another peculiarity in the machine is, that the
same air is used again and again, being re-dried and re-heated each
time. By this two advantages are obtained : (i) fuel is saved, it is
easier to heat air which still retains caloric than fresh air ; (2) the
aroma of Tea is very volatile, and when hot air, which dries it, passes
away, some of the essence and strength of the Tea goes with it. But
here the same air being used again and again, the volatile essence
(how much who can say ?) is returned to the Tea. It is reasonable to
suppose that this will increase the value of the Tea ; indeed, we know
it did so materially in one garden last season.

We do not doubt that the unanimity wanting at present amongst
planters as regards machinery will more or less come with time, but
only long experience can settle the merits of rival machinery. One
thing, however, is very certain if the exports of Indian Tea ever vie
in quantity with China, it will be due to the use of machinery in
manufacture.

I may state that Kinmond and some other inventors of
Dryers claim for them that in wet weather green leaf may
be withered by their means. But, as I stated some pages
back, I do not think any Dryers suitable for withering. That

machine has yet to be invented.

258 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

To conclude my remarks on dryers, I give (again from
the Tea Gazette) an estimate of the cost of drying by the old
primitive mode with charcoal, and with machines. There
was no signature to the letter. I cannot say if the figures
assumed are quite correct, but in any case the machines
have much the best of it :

TEA DRYING MACHINERY v. CHARCOAL.

Dear Sir, Tea drying by machinery versus Tea drying by charcoal
fires over choolahs is, I believe, still discussed as to the relative merits
of each. I will try and give you a fair estimate of cost, and speak
from experience as far as I know relative to the merits, ills, &c., &c.,
of both modes of firing.

ist. Charcoal firing and its merits. Except for those who persist
that the fumes of charcoal are necessary to make good Tea, I can see
no merit whatever in charcoal drying, either in cost, quality, rapidity,
saving of labour, or anything else, over machine-dried Tea.

Cost per maund Tea of Tea dried over choolahs by charcoal.

R. A. p.
Charcoal at 8 annas per maund, i maunds ... = 012 o

i Battiwallah at annas 4-6, kutcha firing ... = o 4 6
Do. pucka firing, say = 006

Cost of firing by charcoal ... ... ... Rs. i i o

N.B. Notice the labour staff required for three months in the
year to make charcoal; the immense space (and heat) taken up by
choolahs ; cost of timber used for charcoal ; the number of trays,
gauze, iron, &c., &c., required ; the masonry and carpenter's work
always more or less out of repair ; loss of small tea falling through
trays, &c., &c.

Now let us take

Cost of machine-dried Tea per maund.

R. A. p.

ist. Those machines which dry by coke, say cost

of coke ... ... ... ... ... =080

3 men at annas 4-6 per 5 maunds Tea about 028

Cost of drying per maund Tea for a machine,

drying by coke 5 maunds in 10 hours o 10 8

TEA MACHINERY. 259

I now give an estimate of cost of i maund Tea dried by a machine
of similar capabilities, but drying with any sort of fuel coal, wood,
grass, bamboo, &c., say 2 maunds of firewood at 6 pie per maund = i
anna per i maund Tea.

N.B. Price of firewood at 3 pie per maund should be nearer the
mark.

3 men's pay, annas 4-6 for 5 maunds in 10 hours = annas 2-8 per

maund. The analysis of the above comes to this

R. A. p.

Charcoal drying ... ... ... ... ... = i i o

Coke ,, ... ... ... ... ... = o 10 8*

Wood fire ,, ... ... ... ... ... =038

We read of machines drying with any fuel, and doing double the
Tea of what I have estimated above, and how people can still stick to
charcoal beats me. (No signature.)

Sorting or Sifting is the next process that is to say,
dividing the Tea (by passing it through sieves) into different
kinds, as Pekoe, Broken Pekoe, Pekoe Souchong, and Broken
Tea. All do not divide it thus, for some make other kinds
also. In the body of this Essay (page 122) I say, " I do
not believe in any present or future machine for sifting
Tea." I did not then ; that was in the early days of Tea ;
but I was wrong. A sifting machine, on the large scale on
which Tea is now made, is essential for every garden.

Jackson's Sifter. I have seen this, and heard it well
spoken of, but I have no experience of it.

Greig's Sifter. This I have not seen, but from the
drawing I have I should doubt if it would sift enough per
day for a large garden.

Pridham's Sifter. This is quite a new thing. I know
nothing of it.

The fact is, the manager at Phoolbarry and I have been

* I should be glad to be set right if I have not rightly calculated the
price of coke. (Writer of the letter.}

260 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

so thoroughly satisfied with the Sifter we use there (AnselPs)
I could conceive nothing better, and I have not therefore
looked into the matter of Sifters.

In January, 1881, I sent an article to the Tea Gazette
describing A nsell's Sifter, and as I thought then I think now.
I believe it is by far the best Tea Sifter yet invented. Many
are the testimonials, too, in its favour. The price, 80, is
too high ; but the manufacturers (Ransomes, Head and
Jeffries, of Ipswich) advise me they propose reducing it to
70. Even that, I think, is too much ; but there can be no
question the use of it effects a great saving in a factory.

This is my article :

ANSELL'S SIFTING, SORTING, AND FANNING MACHINE.

January 27, 1881.

In the days gone by, Tea cultivation was, to those commencing a
Tea career, the thing to study. Those days are passed. None are
embarking in new gardens, and but few are extending existing culti-
vation. Prices have fallen so wofully that all that Tea planters think
of to-day is how to make what they have pay. I believe in Tea still.
I think the present low range of prices cannot last, and I think so
simply because I know Tea will not be cultivated year after year at a
loss. But the present crisis is very serious : it means, in five words,
" the survival of the fittest," and even the fittest will not succeed,
unless every advantage is taken of all existing Tea knowledge.

Tea manufacture is now the most important branch in. the industry.
We have advanced greatly in the last few years ; but Tea manufacture,
as regards economy in doing it, is yet comparatively in its infancy.
Still we have done a great deal since the indigenous plant was
discovered in the jungles of Assam, now nearly fifty years ago : we
have advanced more in Tea manufacture than the Chinese, who have
been making Tea many centuries. That is to say, I affirm that the
Indian Tea planter of ordinary intelligence knows more of both Tea
cultivation and Tea manufacture to-day than any of his Chinese
contemporaries. The Chinaman grows Tea, and makes Tea, as he

TEA MACHINERY. 26l

taught MS to do it twenty to thirty years ago. The pupil in this case
has certainly beaten his master. We have made some improvements
in Tea planting and Tea cultivation, but where we have left our
teachers far behind is in manufacture. "Johnny" makes his Tea as
his father made it before him, taught by his grandfather who made it
the same way ; and, for aught we know, no improvements, in that way,
have taken place in the course of many centuries. All is hand labour;
machinery to them is unknown. The most primitive ideas in Tea
manufacture are still adhered to. In support of the latter, I will quote
one instance : Tea, from time immemorial, has always been dried by
charcoal in China ; no other way is known there now. How is it here
in India ? A large proportion of the produce is fired with other fuel,
aided by machinery ; and it is only a question of time (and a very
short time) when the whole of it will be thus prepared. I could quote
other instances : let this suffice, for no comparison can be draw r n
between Tea manufacture as followed out in China and India in this
year 1881. The former is as crude as it was two or five hundred
years ago : the latter (though still far from perfection) in its many
details, in its numerous machines cleverly contrived to save labour and
better the Teas, is a striking illustration of the activity, the energy, the
inventive genius of the Anglo-Saxon race !

An Indian Tea factory, well set up with machinery that is to say
with a green-leaf drying apparatus, rolling machines, Tea dryers,
equalisers, and sifting and sorting machines, all driven by an engine of
i5-horse power offers a wonderful contrast to a Chinese Tea factory,
where all is handwork. But more strange still is the comparison
alongside of the fact, that in the former case the industry dates back
only some thirty years ; in the latter many centuries.

Tea machinery is destined to work great results in India. When
brought to perfection (it is far on the road now), it will so cheapen the
cost of manufacture that, though labour is dearer with us than in
China, we shall, thanks thereto, be able to lay down our Teas at
cheaper rates than the produce of the Flowery Land. If Indian Tea
ever vies in quantity with China in the Tea-consuming countries of the
world, it will be due entirely to the economy effected by our machinery.
I do not myself anticipate that Indian Teas will ever beat China out
of the field, but, inasmuch as our Teas are better, because the taste
for Indian Tea is growing apace, I do believe the day will come (it will
scarcely be in our time) that the Tea exports from India will equal

262 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

those from China ; and, as I said before, to machinery, far more than
to anything else, will that end be due.

There is therefore no question of more importance to the Indian
planter to-day than Tea machinery. It is a difficult question too,
because so many machines, for each of the different necessary pro-
cesses, are vieing in competition for public favour. " Which is the best
machine to buy ? " is the question one hears asked daily. I propose,
with your leave, to write a series of articles on Tea machinery,
pointing out, as far as in me lies, the advantages and defects of those
which commend themselves most to me, for I wish to give planters,
through your paper, the advantage of my experience ; and as my
expressing an opinion in no way precludes others from doing the
same, and I know your columns are open to all, I would invite
discussion on rival merits, and thus certainly benefit the Tea industry.

I will to-day describe what, I think, is the best Tea sifting and
fanning machine extant. It is true it is the last machine used in
manufacture, but that does not signify ; I will take all the others
in turn.

The said machine is the invention of an able man and engineer,
Mr. C. W. Ansell, well known in the Darjeeling district for his
knowledge of Tea machinery. He has been for many years employed
as an engineer in Tea factories. I heard of his machine when I was
lately in England, and went down to Ipswich to the manufactory of
Messrs. Ransomes, Sims, and Head to see it. Though difficult to
judge of it, as there was no Tea wherewith to test it, I was so pleased
with the principle that I ordered one. The cost was 80. It has
now been working on one of my gardens some thirteen months, and
in every way it has proved a great success. But to describe it, as far
as I can, in a few words :

Its length is 19 feet, its breadth 5 feet. The Tea, in bulk, is
delivered through a hopper from an upper floor, on what I will call
the A end of the machine, to distinguish it from the other end, which
I will name B. The principle of all other sifters (except Jackson's), as
far as I know, is, that the succeeding trays of differing wire mesh are
arranged one below the other, the slope all being the same way, that
is from A to B. This plan is objectionable in the following way : if
the Tea has been well rolled and clings together, a good deal of the
fine Teas that are in the mass or bulk often passes some distance
down, perhaps over half the tray or wire-mesh length, before falling

TEA MACHINERY. 263

through. If they do so, and the object is to sift out any particular
class on the next succeeding tray, there is only half the length of mesh
left to traverse to effect the object, instead of the whole length of the
tray. This is obviated in practice by pushing the Teas continually
back up the inclined tray ; but this is done at the expense of extra
labour and making the Teas dusty and grey.

The above objection is obviated in Ansell's machine. It consists
of four slopes, but each of these incline downwards, alternately,
different ways viz.. No. i (the upper), from A to B ; No. 2, from B
to A ; No. 3, from A to B ; No. 4, from B to A, and below the mesh of
each slope is a carrying tin tray, sloping the same way, which carries
all the Tea which falls through each mesh down to the head of the
succeeding slope, while in each case the Tea which will not pass
through the mesh is delivered separately. The above arrangement,
however, does not hold with the upper or No. i slope. This consists
of two wire trays or meshes, with the carrying tray below the lower
one. Such of the bulk as will not pass through the upper tray is
delivered on the head of No. 2 slope, at the B end of the machine.
What passes through the upper tray, but will not pass through the
lower, is delivered by a side shoot at the B end of the machine, and is
" No. i Pekoe." What passes through both sieves on to the carrying
tray is also delivered by an opposite side shoot from the B end of the
machine, and is " Broken Pekoe.'' Between Nos. i and 2 slopes is an
air chamber, which, as the bulk left on the upper sieve of No. i slope
falls on the head of slope No. 2 (a blast 'being sent through it by a fan
at the A end of the machine), drives out of the said falling bulk all red
leaf, stalks, fannings, &c.

No. 2 slope receives the bulk at the B end of the machine, after
the red leaf and fannings are taken out as stated above, and what will
not pass through the mesh is delivered at the back of the A end of the
machine, and is " Congou ;" while what does fall through the mesh
into the carrying tray below it (which is still bulk, consisting of
" Pekoe," " Pekoe Souchong," and " Souchong " mixed) is delivered at
the A end of the machine on to the head of No. 3 slope.

What will not pass through the mesh of No. 3 slope is delivered
at the B end of the machine in front, and is " Souchong ;" while what
does pass through the mesh of No. 3 slope on to the carrying tray below
(still bulk, consisting of" Pekoe " and " Pekoe Souchong") is delivered
on to the head of No. 4 slope at the B end of the machine.

264 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

No. 4 slope has no carrying tray : it would be useless. What will
not pass through the mesh is delivered at the A end of the machine,
and is " Pekoe Souchong ;" while what does pass through the mesh
falls on the floor of the factory and is the remaining " Pekoe," that is,
" Pekoe No. 2."

The sorting is so far finished, and the results are the following
Teas, placed round the machine thus : " Pekoe No. i," at the left side
of B end; " Broken Pekoe, 1 ' at right side of B end ; " Red Leaf and
Fannings," some distance in front of B end ; " Souchong," also in
front of B end, but nearer to the machine ; " Congou," at back of A
end ; " Pekoe Souchong," also at back of A end, but nearer the
machine ; " Pekoe No. 2," on the floor below the machine.

With Teas thus minutely sorted, all possible requirements are
provided for, and the planter can, by mixing or otherwise, make any
number of classes he may choose.

It will be observed that " Pekoe " is taken out twice, resulting in
" Nos. i and 2 Pekoe." These differ slightly, but are better mixed
together. " W 7 hy take them out separately," some exclaim, " to mix
them together again ? " But there are three very good reasons : firstly,
the " Pekoe " is taken out at the commencement, previous to fanning,
to prevent the small or broken Pekoe tips being blown out in that
process ; secondly, the " ist Pekoe " being taken out thus early, its
appearance is not injured by passing over a large amount of seive-
mesh area; and thirdly, all the " Pekoe" is thus extracted, which it
could not be, as far as I can see, by any other process.

From all the kinds detailed above, I make only four viz,
" Pekoe, " " Broken Pekoe, " " Pekoe Souchong, " and " Broken Tea;"
but others can do as they will.' 1 '

The machine is of course driven by steam. f The movement of all
the trays is a backward and forward one of 3 inches longitudinal semi-
circular motion, the latter movement being imparted by the steel
spring hangers. Only a small amount of power is required to drive
the machine, viz., under half horse.

I must here conclude my description.

Now as to the amount of work the machine will do. I speak from
actual experience when I state what follows :

It will sift and fan seven maunds of Tea per hour. The only hand

* I advise only these four kinds. When the trader becomes more sensible,
three or even two would be better, but as it is now four are necessary,
f With a driving belt from the engine shafting.

TEA MACHINERY. 265

labour required to supplement it is a few (a very few) women to pick
out any foreign substances out of the " Congou. "

At our garden in Western Dooars, 1,260 maunds of Tea were made
in 1880, and all sifted by this machine, the hand labour besides
being only 44 women during the whole season, or about one-fifth of a
woman per day.

The machine requires only two men to work it continually, and
one boy to feed it from the upper floor.

I can think of no possible objection to this machine, or even of
any possible improvement. I believe, in the case of a 3oo-acre garden
with a decent amount of produce, the machine, in its saving of
hand labour, pays for itself in one year, whilst the Teas are much
improved in appearance by its use, and fetch higher prices.

EDWARD MONEY.

I add two more letters in favour of the machine from
the same paper :

ANSELL'S PATENT TEA SORTING AND WINNOWING MACHINE.

Sir, In respond to your call for information regarding Tea
machinery, I am happy to supply you with my experience of Ansell's
Patent Tea Sorting and Winnowing Machine. I have been sifting the
whole of my Teas through it this season, and am therefore in a
position to state what I think of it. I consider it a most useful
machine, and a great saver of labour. With four men, I do with it in
one day an amount of work which without it I would have to employ
from twenty to twenty-five men to accomplish. Yours, &c.,

" SIFTER."
ANSELL'S SIFTING MACHINE.

A correspondent writes from London to the Ceylon Observer as
follows : Ansell's Patent Tea Sorter seems to be an article which will
later be much used in Ceylon. In a memo, before me there is an
extract from Messrs. George Williamson and Co., who say : " The
manager of our Majilighur Garden writes : ' I have now had
sufficient experience of Ansell's Sifter to be able to report very favour-
ably upon it. It does its work thoroughly and cleanly, and, owing to
the comparatively small space it occupies, little or no loss occurs even

266 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

of the finest dust. Sixteen maunds in nine hours is what I find to be
about its capabilities, and four boys do all the work connected with it.
It has effected a great saving in the Tea house this year, and has quite
done away with hand-sieving, except equalizing the broken Pekoe and
broken Tea a very trivial operation. ' "

Packing. This is the final process. Unless Teas are
packed directly they are made, they require to be heated
once more to drive off any moisture imbibed. This can be
done in a way in most of the dryers described, perhaps in
Kinmond's best of all.*

This concludes my remarks on Tea machinery; but I
shall not have a more appropriate place than this to mention
the ornamental tin boxes devised by Messrs. Harvey Bros,
and Tyler, as a new mode of packing Teas. The following
is an article of mine on the subject to the Tea Gazette,
written in 1880 :

I saw lately tin Tea boxes made to hold 20 Ibs., which are manu-
factured by Messrs. Harvey Brothers and Tyler, 21, Mincing Lane. I
was much pleased with them, for I foresaw that by their use great
good to the Indian Tea industry would accrue. I went to Mincing
Lane, and had a long talk with the firm, and came away convinced
that the fact of the said boxes should be known far and wide in India.

The boxes measure 15! by 10 i5-i6ths by 10 5-i6ths. They are
handsomely illustrated with Indian Tea plantation subjects. f Each
piece runs into a groove in the adjoining one, so that one minute will
put a box together, and a touch of solder here and there completes it ;
they are then perfectly air-tight. The boxes are very sightly. Price
is now as. 5<f. per box. Boxes sent to Calcutta up to this have been
charged 2S. yd. The price is dependent on the fluctuating price of tin,
which is somewhat lower now. Of course they are sent out in pieces.
Cases holding pieces for 100 boxes weigh 4 cwt. The firm tell me that
Messrs. Schcene, Kilburn and Co., and Messrs. Begg, Dunlop and Co.,

* Heating before packing has to be done on a large scale. None of the
Dryers notified are large enough. A special machine should be devised.

f Top is "The Tea Garden;" front, " Weighing Leaf;" back, " Packing;"
ends, " Elephant with Howdah," or, if desired, the plantation mark.

TEA MACHINERY. 267

in Calcutta, have consignments of the boxes, so any of your readers
can see them.

In my opinion there are several advantages to be derived from
their use :

1. They will help to open up new markets. The ungainly, un-
wieldly packages we have used hitherto are certainly detrimental, at
least where Indian Teas are not known. By the use of these tin boxes
the sale of our Teas would, I am sure, be extended at home, and they
would also give great facilities for successfully introducing Indian Tea
into Australia, Canada, the United States, the Cape, &c. It seems
some Indian Tea has already been sent home in these tins, and I am
told it met with a ready sale, quite to 8d. per Ib. over what it would
have brought in chests. This is, of course, too good to last, but less
than one penny a Ib. increase would pay for their use.

2. The sale of Indian Tea in India would be developed by using
them.

3. The tares of these boxes is and must be exact, viz., 3 Ibs.
15^ oz., so only a few would be opened at the Custom House,* and
the great loss by the deterioration of Tea being exposed (few know
how great it is) would be avoided.

4. There is no doubt Tea will keep better in transit in these boxes
than in our old packages. How often are the latter broken and the
lead torn ! This evil would be quite avoided.

There seems to me to be but one doubtful point. The boxes
cannot be sent loose on board ship : how then are they to be packed ?
Chests holding four tin boxes were recommended, but they do not
smile on me. True, they might be made very light : still they would

* The following are the numbers to be opened by the Custom House
regulations :

From i to 5 . . . . i to be turned out.

i 6 ,, 40 .. .. 3 ,,

41 ,, 80 .. .. 4 ,,

81 ,, 120 .. .. 5 ,,

,, 121 200 .. .. 6 ,,

,, 201 ,, 300 .. .. 8 ,, ,,

301 ,,500 .. .. 10

> 5 01 ., 800 .. .. 12 ,, ,,

,, 80 1 and upwards .. .. 16 ,,

This applies to packages of all sizes and kinds, if the tares are equal or
nearly so. If the difference in the tares are not great, an average is struck. If
tares are various all are turned out !

268 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

add to the size, weight, and cost considerably. I think crates of strong
light battens would answer perfectly, and six, or perhaps eight boxes
might then be placed in each. However, this is a matter of detail,
which experience would quickly decide. To continue the advantages :

5. Teas packed in these boxes, and so sold, would not be used for
bolstering up China rubbish. They would be drunk pure, and thus
the great desideratum of teaching the public, both here and abroad, to
use Indian Tea by itself, would be, in a measure, attained.

I do not say that any planter should pack all his Teas in this new
way. The mass of Indian Tea, do what we may, will still be used to
mix with China. Again, the highest class of Indian Teas are not the
ones to commence with. As a rule they are too expensive for the
public to use them alone. Ordinary Teas, or perhaps a mixture which
could be sold cheaply, and would be a good household Tea, is what I
should recommend. It is just this kind which is now such a drug in
the market, and necessarily the diversion of some of this into other
channels would help us greatly.

6. A considerable saving in the loss of Tea at the Custom House
would result by the use of these boxes, as the following figures will
show. To begin with, the trade allowance of i Ib. per package which
is now allowed the buyer, and which is of course a loss to the producer,
would be avoided ; for this allowance does not apply to any package
under a gross weight of 28 Ibs., and these tins with 20 Ib. 2 oz. of Tea
in them, will weigh gross only 24 Ibs. i^- oz.

To make the figures below clear, I must state that the rule of the
Custom House is to discard fractions of a pound both in the gross and
the tare. But in the gross the number below is written, in the tare the
number above. Thus, if the gross weight of a package is 132^- Ibs., the
gross is written 132. If the tare of a package is 37^ Ibs., it is written 38.
Now to take one extreme case, to show the loss on our ordinary
Indian packages: a chest weighs gross, say, 132 Ibs. 15 oz. ; it is still
written 132 Ibs. The tare of the said package weighs, say, 37 Ibs.
i oz. : it is written 38. The tare deducted from the gross gives the net
weight of Tea. In this case 132 minus 38 equals 94 Ibs., which is all
the producer is paid for. But the net weight of Tea in the box is
132 Ibs. 15 ozs., minus 37 Ibs. i oz., equals 95 Ibs. 14 ozs., and thus on
such a package there is a loss of exactly i Ib. 14 ozs. Add to this the
trade allowance of one pound, and the whole loss is 2 Ibs. 14 ozs.,
which is about 3 per cent.

TEA MACHINERY. 269

It will be observed that by this custom the advantage, as regards
the duty of 6d. per lb., is on the side of the payee, but none the less is
it to the loss of the producer. The case quoted above is, of course,
an extreme one, but in practice I believe the loss of Tea on Indian
packages, including the trade allowance, is not much under 2 Ibs. In
the case of our ordinary Indian packages, if we could regulate our
tares exactly, so as to make the gross weight only one ounce above the
whole number, and the tare one ounce below the whole number,
the loss would necessarily be much decreased. This, however, is
impossible, for, as a rule, the tares are one or two pounds less when
they arrive in England than when they left the garden, owing to the
wood drying in transit ; and thus it is quite a chance what the real
tares come out here.

But, with the tin boxes in question, the tares, that is their weight,
being fixed and equal, and not liable to change, we can so arrange the
weights that the loss will be very trifling, thus :

Ibs. ozs.

The box weighs 3 15^

We put in Tea 20 2

Gross Weight ... ... 24 i^

In the Customs the gross is written 24 Ibs.
And the tare is written 4 ,,

The Tea paid for will be 20 Ibs.

that is a loss of only 2 ounces, or not much above half per cent.,
instead of three per cent., as shown in the old packages.

Shortly, to conclude this point. In the case of the old packages
by no means can we help ourselves ; but, as shown, with the tin boxes,
the loss need be very little.

Roughly, the cost of using these tin boxes would be, all told, from
i$d. to i%d. per lb., and with our lead-lined boxes it averages perhaps
per penny. The difference of a halfpenny, or even three farthings,
one pound would not be much for the advantages detailed.

One point I have forgotten. If 500 boxes are ordered, the
plantation mark is put on the ends of the boxes gratis. If less than
500 are ordered, the additional cost for this would be about 5.

I hope the Syndicate in Calcutta will try these boxes. I shall
certainly do so.

270 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

I enclose the directions for making up the tins, and hope you will
insert them at the foot of this letter.

Reading over the above, there is one point I find not observed on
as regards the loss of Tea at the Custom House. By the mode of
weighing, as explained, the producer often loses 2 or 3 per cent., but
still, strange to say, in practice, this loss is sometimes more than
counterbalanced by the increased weight of the Tea due to the
moisture imbibed while exposed (if boxes are broken in the transit)
anyhow at the Custom House. But I need not point out that this
gain is dearly bought by the deterioration of the Tea. The Custom
House procedure is bad in every way. More on this subject later.

EDWARD MONEY.

The following is also from the Tea Gazette, and is much
in favour of the boxes :

PACKING OF TEA IN TIN BOXES.

In our issue of November yth, 1881, we inserted a short editorial
note questioning, on the authority of certain correspondents, the
advisability of using tin Tea boxes for the packing of Tea, at the same
time asking our readers to favour us with their opinions on the subject,
in case we were misinformed. Our invitation has met with a response
from several quarters, and the correspondence we have received leads
us to alter the opinion we formerly held on the subject. A gentleman
largely interested in Tea, but in no way connected with the manu-
facturers of the patent tin boxes, writes to us from England :

" I made enquiries as to the condition in which Tea packed in
Messrs. Harvey Brothers and Tyler's lacquered tin boxes is turned
out in London. I found that the Tea was not at all injured by this
method of packing, but that its condition is quite as good as that
of Tea packed in chests. Messrs. W. J. and H. Thompson assured
me that you were entirely mistaken in your remarks as to the
contamination, but they thought that an objection to the packing in
the lacquered tin boxes was the labour of putting up in these boxes.
Catalogues were shown me in which I saw that the Teas in the
lacquered tin boxes fetched higher rates than the same Teas packed
in chests, the difference being in one case 3^. per Ib."

This is certainly a most favourable testimony, and coming as it
does from a disinterested party, who writes simply in defence of what

TEA MACHINERY. 2JL

he considers the right, we cannot but accept of his statement in its
entirety.

Another correspondent writes :

" I now give you a few of the sales of these boxes made at public
auction during the last month, shewing the preference of the trade for
Tea so packed, and the higher prices realised.

Public Sale yd November. s. d.

Koliabar. f 28 chests Pekoe ... i 10^ per Ib.

K.Assam. 1 28 cases, each 4 tin boxes 2 f ,,

Public Sale i6th November.

\T r R r> <; A (3 chests p ekoe ... 2

1 30 cases, each 4 tin boxes 2 2j

f 20 chests Souchong ... i 3^ ,,
" 1 20 cases, each 4 tin boxes i 4^ ,,

Public Sale 2yd November.

MT RT p , 20 chests Pekoe .... i 6|

1 19 cases, each 4 tin boxes i gf ,,

" In every case the above Teas were packed out of the same heap
in India, and the difference in the selling price arises chiefly from the
better condition of the Tea on arrival, and the growing preference of the
country trade for Teas so packed."

The following is worth notice :

HOOP IRON.

The Ceylon Observer says : "The planters should note the following
(writes to us a London firm) From quotations lying before us the
prices of 22 gauge iron hooping are as follows: in., 1655. per ton ;
fin., nos. per ton; fin., 706".; gin., 6os. ; iin., 505. Thus by using
one inch hooping, less than one-third the price is paid. The narrower
the hooping, the more difficult is it to manufacture."

It is also not so strong.

272 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

CHAPTER XXXVII.
i

WEIGHING AND BULKING OF INDIAN TEAS AT CUSTOM HOUSE.

ONE misapprehension with some exists on this head.
The weighing is done by the Customs to ascertain the
amount for duty. The bulking is done at the request of
the vendor, the broker who is to sell it, or the purchaser,
and it has to be paid for.

Two distinct injuries are inflicted on the producer by
the present Custom House system

1. The Tea is much damaged by exposure.

2. The quantity found is always less than the actual.

Now as to No. I. When we consider how damp the
London atmosphere is at the best, how in foggy days it
teems with moisture, is it not very certain that Teas
exposed to it, often for days, deteriorate ? What care we
take in India heating before packing carefully with lead
and solder, excluding all air and then the Teas on arrival
here are treated as above ! It is simply monstrous.

The following extract from a letter to Home and
Colonial Mail sets out the case forcibly :

The blame ought not entirely to be laid upon the planter, however,
for certain facts have come to our knowledge during the present week
as regards the manner in which Indian Teas are bulked at some of the
London warehouses, which somewhat explains how depreciation in
quality comes about. We bought several breaks of Tea in the sales
this week, which were stated to be bulked and ready for sampling six
days before the sale ; and yet we know for a fact that some of those
very Teas were not put back into the chest till the day after the sale, if

WEIGHING AND BULKING OF INDIAN TEAS. 273

even then. More or less moisture is always to be found in the London
atmosphere, particularly in rainy weather, and there can be no
question that incalculable injury would be done to a fine Tea by seven
days' exposure on the floor of a warehouse. The damage and loss
falls entirely on the buyer. The effects of it are not seen at once, but
there can be little doubt that a gradual depreciation sets in, conse-
quent on the absorption of moisture. No redrying process follows ;
the Tea is simply filled back into the chests when seven days of
neglect have done what mischief is possible. Is it to be wondered at
that samples drawn from such a break of Tea a few months after it has
been bulked in London will have lost all their freshness and malty
smell ? J. C. TAYLOR AND COLMAN.

I have no reason to think the delay above is very
unusual, and I must add to the above, that when the chests
are closed no attempt is made even to cover the top with
lead, much less to resolder it. Some paper on top is all
attempted. I need say no more to prove that the quality
of Indian Teas is most seriously damaged at the Custom
House.

Now as to No. 2. The loss in quantity to producer.

The following article, which I wrote to the Indian Tea
Gazette in 1881, shows how invariable the loss must be :

The loss of Tea by the mode adopted at the Custom House in
England is great.

When Teas are sold at Calcutta, though the English Custom
House regulations do not then affect us immediately, they do so
indirectly. If purchasers in Calcutta gain by our Teas, they will bid
more ; if they loose, they will bid less. Besides, many Teas are sold
in London.

To understand what follows, it is necessary to remember that
Garden Invoices never go to Custom House. Custom House
arrives at weight of Tea by weighing the package for " gross," and
then turning out Tea, weighing box, lead, nails, iron hooping, in fact all
but Tea, for " tare ;" gross weight, minus tare, is the weight of Tea they
demand duty on, and the weight so found by Custom House is all the

274 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

producer or importer gets paid for.* It follows, therefore, that the
less Tea declared by Customs means a loss to producer and a gain to
buyer. To the latter in two ways, viz., less Tea to pay for than is
really there, and a saving of 6d. per Ib. duty ! But to show, now, how
the loss occurs. When weighing for gross, the fractions of a pound
are discarded ; when weighing for tares, the pounds above the actual
weight are written. The greatest loss that can occur by this method,
on one package, is i pound 14 ounces of Tea. It (this greatest loss)
must always occur when the gross is i ounce short of a pound, and the
tare i ounce more than the pound.

No. i EXAMPLE.

Gross and tare can be put at any figures as to pounds. It will
always come out the same. Say, therefore,

Ibs. oz.

Gross 132 15 1 actual weights taken at

Tare (deducted) ... 37 ij" Custom House.

Actual Tea in chest 95 14

By rule quoted the gross and tare weights are set down at

Custom House

Ibs.

Gross 132

Tare (deducted) ... 38

Actual Tea thus paid for = 94 pounds on which duty is also paid.
Therefore the loss on the chest is i pound 14 ounces.

The least loss that can take place (when ounces occur in gross
and tare) is 2 ounces. To insure this the gross must be i ounce more
than the pound, and the tare i ounce below.

No. 2 EXAMPLE.
Say any figures in pounds.

Ibs. oz.

Gross 133 i) actual weights taken at

Tare (deducted) ... 36 15) Custom House.

Actual Tea in chest 96 2

* If tares are nearly equal, and if Teas are well bulked in India, only
some packages (about 10 per cent.) are opened, and an average tare struck.
But this in no way saves the loss in quantity of Tea. though, of course, less
Tea is thus injured.

WEIGHING AND BULKING OF INDIAN TEAS. 275

But again, by rule quoted, it is written by Customs
Ibs.

Gross 133

Tare (deducted) ... 37

Actual Tea paid for ... 96 pounds, on which duty is also paid.

Therefore the loss on chest is 2 ounces only.

Now did weights turn out the same in London that they were on
the garden, we could, by doing as in last example, insure only the
above trifling 2 ounce loss. But it is not so. The wood dries and
thus makes both the gross and tare less. The loss then comes out
anything between 2 ounces and i pound 14 ounces.

I find the following simple rule will give the exact loss on each
and every weight of both gross and tare.

Rule. Add the ounces above a pound in the gross to the ounces
short of a pound in the tare. The sum of the two, in ounces, will be
the loss of Tea on the package.

This is only part of the article. I break off here to add
a few remarks more appropriate now than what I then
wrote.

There are means by which this varying loss, of which
the maximum is i pound 14 ounces, can be reduced to 4
ounces only on each and every chest.

I admit the procedure is scarcely practical, but as
nothing can demonstrate better the absurdity of the system
as pursued at the Customs, I give it here.

How can we insure the least loss, taking into considera-
tion the fact that the weights of both the gross and tare,
because of the wood drying and lightening in transit, can
never come out the same at the Custom House in London
as they were on the garden.

We can do it thus : the Tea if well packed in a chest
in no way alters in weight during transit. If dry, when put
up, it cannot become lighter ; if the leaden covering is air-
tight, it can absorb no moisture, which would of course

276 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

make it heavier. I therefore beg the question that it is a
fixed quantity, for it must be so if well packed.

We have therefore only to consider the gross and the
tare, and, as shown, the loss in Tea, varying from 2 ounces
to i pound 14 ounces, depends entirely on the weights these
are found to be at the Custom House. In other words, if
we can insure the gross there being but little over any even
number of pounds, and the tare there being but little below
any other even number of pounds, we attain (approximately)
the least loss we can be mulcted in.

Begging the question that we can add to, or detract
from, the gross weight of each chest in the Custom House
(before it is put into the scales by the officer there) by the
addition or subtraction of a few nails if the weight is nearly
what we want, or pieces of hoop iron if the actual varies
much from the desired weight I say, if we can do this, we
can insure approximately the minimum of loss. I go to
show how this is to be done.

Pack the Tea in the usual way, but whatever the quantity
it is desired to put into the chest (it can be varied with each
class, for it matters not what the weight is in pounds) add
to it 4 ounces, and be very careful that the whole weight of
Tea is exactly the number of pounds required, plus 4 ounces
for the whole success of the plan depends on this weight
being exact. Nothing more is required to be done at the
Factory than has been done hitherto, for it matters not one
straw, as regards the success of the plan, what the gross
and tare of each package is, nor what the weight of Tea is,
as long as exactly 4 ounces above an even number of pounds
is there ; neither does it signify how much the wood lightens
in transit, and thus decreases the weights which were found
at Factory for gross and tare.

The next step must be taken at the Custom House in
London. Let the importer or the producer's agent attend

WEIGHING AND BULKING OF INDIAN TEAS. 277

and weigh each package himself nicely, any time before the
weights are to be taken by the Customs. Then let him
make each package 2 ounces above the even number of
pounds. This will be easy enough, by the addition or
subtraction of a few nails or hoop iron. For instance,
suppose the chest to weigh 140 pounds 6 ounces, he would
take away nails or hoop iron weighing 4 ounces. If it
weighed 140 pounds 13 ounces, he would, by adding 5
ounces more nails or hoop iron, make it 141 pounds 2
ounces. All would then be finished, and each and every
package so treated would give a loss in Tea of 4 ounces only.

If my plan could be carried out (as the minimum loss
otherwise is 2 ounces, and the maximum i pound 14
ounces the mean is one pound), we save a loss of the said
pound on each chest, minus the loss we compound for,
viz., 4 ounces. That is to say, we gain 12 ounces on each
package which, in a break of 2 or 3 hundred chests, means
a good deal to the producer or Customs !

I will give one example in figures. Any other possible
figures can be tried : it will always come out the same,
if the weight of Tea is exactly 4 ounces above any given
number of pounds.

No. 3. EXAMPLE.

Ibs. oz.
Results at Garden. Tea, any number of pounds

with 4 ounces added (say) ... ... 100 4

Tare (any figure) (say) ... ... 43 6

Gross at Garden ... 143 10

The wood lightens in transit any amount (it is immaterial),
say 15 ounces.

Ibs. oz.
The weights at the Custom House] Gross ... 142 n

then become { Tare ... 42 7

Weight Tea as before ... 100 4

278 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

At Custom House (as detailed) by adding 7 ounces

of nails or hoop iron make Ibs. oz.

Gross ... 143 2

The tare will thereby necessarily be) ~

J I 1 are ... 42 14

increased 7 oz. and become

Weight tea as before ... 100 4

lbs.~
These weights are written at [ Gross ... 143

Custom House ... | Tare ... 43

Weight of Tea found by Customs is ... 100 pound 8
which is a loss of 4 ounces only as stated.

Were the plan feasible, the gain to the Indian planters
would be large. Say this year (1883), fifty-seven million
pounds are imported, and ninety pounds per chest is taken
as the average, this gives over 600,000 chests, and 12 ounces
saved on each = 450,000 pounds, of Tea, which at 12 annas
per pound, Rs. 3,37,000.

The gain to the Customs would be 450,000 sixpences =
^11,250.

This increase to the Customs would be attained by
simply (though still keeping under the actual weight of
Tea in each chest) taking the contents more correctly.

The above shows, if figures will show anything, that
a great loss to both the producer and Customs takes place
by the system in vogue. As the only object of the Customs
shoidd be to arrive at the true weight of Tea in the most
expeditious and simple way, how very absurd is the system
pursued ! What the tare is can in no way signify to them ;
all they really want is the weight of the Tea. The absurdity
of the system is proved by the fact (demonstrated) that the
results to both producer and Customs can be altered by the
addition or subtraction in the Custom-house of a few nails !
How easy to weigh the Tea itself! What possible objection
can exist ?

WEIGHING AND BULKING OF INDIAN TEAS. 279

The Indian Tea Districts Association having failed to
move the Customs, have quite lately addressed the following
Memorial to the Secretary of State for India :

To THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE EARL OF KIMBERLEY, HER
MAJESTY'S SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA.

The Petition of the Indian Tea Districts Association sheweth

That your Petitioners are a body representing the interests con-
nected with the cultivation of Tea in British India, in which enterprise
British capital to the extent of over fifteen millions sterling has been
invested.

That the industry dates from the year 1838, when the first con-
signment of Indian Tea, consisting of 456 Ibs., reached the London
market.

That the imports of Indian Tea for the year ending 3oth June,
1882, were 49,503,000 Ibs., having a value of more than 3,300,000
sterling; while the estimated importation for the current season is
upwards of 55,000,000 Ibs., or fully one-third of the entire consumption
of the United Kingdom for the year.

That the contribution to the Revenue accruing from Customs'
import duty on the above quantity of Tea will exceed a million and a
quarter sterling. ^

That the whole of this large quantity is manufactured and packed
on between 2,700 and 2,800 separate estates, situated on various parts
of H.M.'s Indian dominions.

That the boxes in which the Teas are packed are in great part
made of such wood as can be obtained on the several estates, or pur-
chased from the neighbouring Forest Department, and it is very
important on economic grounds, as also in the manifest interests of
the districts, that this should be exclusively the case.

That it has been found, under these conditions, practically im-
possible to meet the imperative Custom-house standard of close
uniformity of tare weight when the chests reach the Bonded Ware-
houses here.

That your Petitioners have reason to complain of the system of
weighing the Teas in the said warehouses for the purpose of levying
the duty.

280 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

That the present system of weighing is to weigh each package in
he gross, then to turn out the contents, weigh the empty case, and
thus arrive at the nett weight of the contents.

That the only exception to this rule is when the package, i.e., the
empty cases, in a Break closely approximate in weight.

That by the said system of weighing, two serious injuries are
inflicted on the grower and importer of Indian Tea, viz. :

In the first place, a loss of weight is sustained by the fractions
over the even pound in both gross and tare being given
against the seller, and in favour of the buyer, amounting, it
may be, to i Ib. 15 oz., or an average of about i Ib. in every
package weighing over 28 Ibs. gross, in addition to the usual
trade allowance of i Ib. per package.

Secondly, and by far the more serious grievance, very great
injury is caused to the Teas by the process of turning them
out of the packages, in which they arrive hermetically
sealed, for the purpose of weighing the empty packages.
The Teas are thus exposed to the atmosphere, the humidity
of which they readily absorb, and sustain further serious
injury and depreciation by breakage from rough handling in
the process of repacking : the lead linings also are so torn
in the process as to be rendered comparatively useless for
the purpose for which they were intended, eliciting loud
complaints from the trade of the rapid loss of condition of
the Teas.

That the concession of this Petition, by rendering it unnecessary
to turn out more than a small percentage of the chests to test the
correct weight of contents, would admit of the Teas being bulked in
India ; and while it would free the industry from an injurious and
vexatious restriction, and admit of the Teas reaching the consumer in
a purer and sounder condition, it would also greatly simplify and
reduce the work of the Customs.

That the foregoing statistics significantly demonstrate the import-
ance of the Indian Tea industry to both England and India, and
constitute a claim to the favourable consideration of both Govern-
ments, especially that of India, on the ground of the benefit accruing
to the districts in which it is conducted, and the increment of State
revenue to which it has directly and indirectly conduced.

WEIGHING AND BULKING OF INDIAN TEAS. 2&I

That having regard to the existing close and hardening competi-
tion with China, Japan, and other Tea producing countries, your
Petitioners naturally feel aggrieved that the important industry they
represent should be hampered in the contest by the restrictive and
superfluous impediment forming the subject of their petition.

That your Petitioners have unsuccessfully urged on the Commis-
sioners of Her Majesty's Customs the adoption of this change of
system, and therefore venture to address your Lordship.

That your Petitioners beg to refer to the accompanying copies of
correspondence between the Association and the Commissioners of
Her Majesty's Customs annexed to this Petition.

That the accompanying Memorial signed by the leading mercan-
tile firms and others in Calcutta, interested in the growth and export
of Indian Tea, is an illustration of the feeling in India on the subject
of this Petition.

Your Petitioners therefore pray

That your Lordship will kindly take such steps as may be
necessary to secure for your Petitioners the relief sought for.

And your Petitioners will ever pray, &c.

T. D. FORSYTH,

Chairman of the Association.
ERNEST TYE,

Secretary.

The following reply was received :

INDIA OFFICE, S.W.,

28th February, 1883.

SIR, I am directed by the Secretary of State for India in Council
to acknowledge the receipt of the Memorial addressed to the EARL OF
KIMBERLEY by the Indian Tea Districts Association, respecting the
method of weighing Indian Tea at the Custom House. In reply, I am
to inform you that the Memorial has been forwarded to the Lords
Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, with the expression of
LORD KIMBERLEY'S hope that whatever is practicable may be done
to remedy the grievance complained of by the memorialists in the
interests of the Indian Tea trade.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

(Signed) J. K. CROSS.

The Secretary, Indian Tea Districts Association.

282 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

It is possible, therefore, that some improvement will
now be accomplished.*

But at the CRUTCHED FRIARS Warehouse (belonging to
the East and West India Docks) a great advance has
already been made. The Tea there is now bulked, and re-
packed by machinery. The Directors most kindly invited
me to come and witness the process. I went, and was
more than pleased with what I saw. The machinery, and
all connected with the process, is so well described in an
article in the Home and Colonial Mail, I cannot do better
than give it here :

TEA BULKING AT THE EAST AND WEST INDIA DOCK COMPANY'S
WAREHOUSES, IN CRUTCHED FRIARS.

IT is not a little strange that the importance of effecting improve-
ments in the present system of Tea bulking, which has exercised the
minds of Tea growers and importers so much of late, should have
hitherto been neglected or ignored by the proprietors of the various
bonded warehouses in London wherein the Tea is bulked and stored.
That Tea may be, and only too commonly is, bulked by an antiquated
and unsatisfactory process is a fact which is well known to all who are
interested in the matter. How this result is arrived at will be seen
later on ; at present we desire to show that at least at one warehouse
the question has received the attention which it deserves, and to
explain, so far as may be possible, the steps which have been taken in
the matter.

It is, then, that old and powerful body, the East and West India
Dock Company, who have taken up the matter. At the instance of
Mr. Du Plat Taylor, the able and energetic secretary of the company,
supported by the equally energetic warehouse superintendent, Mr.
Robert Adams, the arrangements for bulking Tea at the warehouse of
the Company have been very greatly improved. More than this ;
there has been invented and set up a special and very ingenious
machine for the bulking of Tea in a manner which avoids all the fail-
ings of the old system. What this machine is, and what its peculiar
merits are, will best, and perhaps only, be clearly understood by a

* Since I wrote the above the Customs have framed new rules for Indian
Teas. The absurd tare system is done away with.

WEIGHING AND BULKING OF INDIAN TEAS. 283

brief description of the two systems as we lately saw them in operation
at the warehouses of the company in Crutched Friars, which we may
mention are nearer than any others to Mincing-lane, an advantage
securing to planters and importers the certainty that their Teas will be
sampled by the trade generally.

Under the old system, then, each chest of a break, after having been
subjected to; certain preliminary formalities, is opened, and the Tea
turned out in a heap on the floor of the warehouse. When this is
done the Tea is bulked by means of wooden spades, each spadeful
being thrown to the top of the central heap, so that it falls over and
on all sides. Here the Tea lies until it is placed back again in the
chests after they are tared, there being a considerable interval at some
of the London warehouses between the bulking and refilling. The
refilling is thus accomplished. The Tea is first put into bags and
weighed on a machine at the side of the bulk. The bag and chest are
then taken off the weighing machine and the contents of the bag are
emptied into the chest. The Tea, however, requires some pressure to
force it into the chest, and this pressure is obtained by an expedient
of a very primitive kind. When the chest is partly filled a man gets
in and presses down the Tea by treading on it. So soon as the Tea is
all in the chest the package is properly secured, and the operation is
completed.

Now the serious faults of this plan are at once apparent. In the
first place the Tea, being in heaps on the floor of the warehouse with a
large surface exposed to the atmosphere, runs the risk of losing a great
deal of its freshness and aroma, this risk being largely increased by
the doors of the warehouse being kept open in order to discharge or to
receive merchandise in all weathers. No atmospheric influences are
calculated to benefit Tea. Then, again, the shovelling of the Tea by
means of wooden spades, and the treading into the chests, can hardly
do otherwise than injure the Tea the filling in a minor degree and the
treading to a more serious extent, the result being, of course, that the
Tea is depreciated.

The East and West India Dock Company have made the best of
this primitive method of Tea bulking. In the first place it is insisted on
in their warehouses that previous to trampling the Tea into the chests,
a cloth shall be placed over it to preserve it from the dirt of the man's
boots, and to some extent from injury a precaution which, strange as
it may seem, is not taken in every bonded warehouse. Then, again,

284 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Mr. Adams, the warehouse superintendent who could hardly have the
interests of planters and importers more at heart were he " in Tea "
himself uses his best endeavours to refill the boxes with as little delay
as possible, and thus to prevent it from being injured by undue
exposure to the atmosphere. He also -keeps the floors of the ware-
house as clean as practicable. But feeling that the best efforts, how-
ever well devised, and however strenuously carried out, must neces-
sarily be attended with but partial success, the East and West India
Dock Company have erected as has already been mentioned a Tea
bulking machine, a device which is ingenious and meritorious, and
which seems to be, so far as it has been tried, a great success.

This machine, designed by Mr. Tydeman, of the company's
engineering staff, and constructed under his supervision, consists,
firstly, of a large hollow revolving drum weighing nearly two and a-half
tons, and of sufficient capacity to thoroughly bulk about 50 chests of
Tea. The drum is made to hold about 100 chests of Tea, which leaves
ample space for the bulking of the above quantity. Inside this drum
are frames fitted at intervals with iron rods, and extending at varying
angles from the axle of the drum to its extremity. Externally the
drum has two openings for the reception of the Tea, and two smaller
ones for its discharge. In a line with the axle of the drum, some
height from the floor, is a platform to which the chests are conveyed
by a double lift which simultaneously ascends with a full chest and
brings down an empty one. Adjuncts to the machine are a weighing
machine, a presser, and four beaters of the two latter the nature and
object will be immediately apparent. The process of bulking as
effected by this machine is briefly as follows: The drum being revolved
till its receiving openings are level with the platform, a chest of Tea
is raised, as before explained, and the contents examined on the door
of the drum, which falls back into a horizontal position for that purpose,
then by closing the tray or door the Tea is passed into the drum. The
lift then brings up another full chest and takes down the emptied one,
which is at once taken to a scale for taring purposes, and so the
process is continued till the break is exhausted. This filling process
can be carried on at both sides of a drum at once, as there are two
openings and two lifts. The Tea being in, the drum is made to revolve,
when the iron frames thoroughly mix the Tea in a very few revolutions
three would suffice.

The drum has now to be emptied, and this operation is effected

WEIGHING AND BULKING OF INDIAN TEAS. 285

in the following manner : The revolution of the drum is stopped when
the openings through which the Tea is released are brought over the
weighing machines there are two for greater expedition on which
are placed the chests ready to receive it. The delivery doors (worked
by levers) being opened, the Tea is allowed to descend till the chest is
about half full, when the presser and beaters are brought into play by
hydraulic pressure. The presser is a piece of flat iron about an inch
in thickness, removable at pleasure, and varies in size to fit either a
chest or a box. The beaters are four pieces of the same metal, which
support the chest so soon as it is on the weighing machine. When
the chest is partly filled, the beaters are released, and, by the action
of a wheel, are made to strike all four sides of the chest, and thus
shake the Tea down. The presser is also brought down to press the
Tea in. The action of both of these agents can be regulated to any
required degree offeree. Thus by degrees the chest is filled, and (the
supporting beaters having been released and the presser raised)
is weighed and ultimately removed. Such, in brief, is the action
of the new Tea bulking machine. One or two points, however,
remain to be mentioned. The power by which the machine is
actuated is hydraulic. The presser will not injure the Tea. The
beaters serve the triple purpose of holding the chest in position on
the weighing machine, of supporting it should it be of weak
construction, and of materially assisting the repacking of the Tea.
The beating action does not in any way injure the chests. Our readers
will also be pleased to know that certain very marked improvements
even upon the above described are already in hand by this Dock
Company improvements which will greatly increase the value and
usefulness of their machinery for bulking Teas.

To descant on the advantages over the old system of bulking
which are possessed by the machine which has been described would
be little better than a waste of time. Yet some few points may be
briefly referred to. First, cleanliness is secured, for from first to last the
Tea is never touched by hand or foot. Again, the Tea cannot be injured,
nor can it lose its aroma, for it is never exposed to the atmosphere at
all. Instead of being allowed to lie on the floor of the warehouse for
any period, the entire process of bulking is completed without break
or delay. The Directors of the East and West India Dock Company
are not, of course, so sanguine as to imagine that the old system of
bulking will be at once abandoned; indeed, they have, as has been

286 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

mentioned, taken steps to improve that system ; they do, however,
think that it should be abandoned, and to that end have adopted the
Tea Bulking Machinery as an alternative, and an immeasurably
superior process. That they are justified in this view there can be no
doubt in the minds of those who have witnessed both the systems in
operation.

The said machinery is at the CRUTCHED FRIARS Ware-
house alone, and it is, of course, very desirable the machinery
should be adopted in all Tea warehouses. This end will be
quickly brought about if those who send their Tea home,
and the importers here, insist on their Tea being sent to this
one warehouse that has the machinery.

What an advantage to owners and managers of Tea
estates is the fact that Tea bulked by machinery at
CRUTCHED FRIARS is not exposed to the changeable English
atmosphere, or at least not for more than a few minutes,
and consequently is not so likely to be classed as " flat."
How many planters are there who, after taking especial care
in the manufacture of their crop, find to their chagrin that
on arrival in London (and after exposure probably for some
days), the shipment is described as "flat, "and worth so
many pence per Ib. less than if the atmospheric exposure
had not occurred.

It appears to me that very little, added to the help this
new machinery gives, would now do away with all the injury
the producer and the Tea has hitherto borne in the Customs.
So much has now been accomplished by this machinery,
the Tea is well bulked, and receives no injury whatever thereby.
But two further improvements are required :

I. That the actual weight of Tea in each chest (discard-
ing ounces) be recorded, and that thus the loss to
the producer and the Customs, detailed above, be
avoided.

WEIGHING AND BULKING OF INDIAN TEAS. 287

2. That the lead at top of the Tea be carefully replaced
and resoldered, so that every chest shall leave the
Custom House in as good condition as it entered
it.

Very little addition to the machinery detailed above
would accomplish the first. The chest ready to receive the
Tea, plus the lid and top lead (which should have been
carefully removed), might be weighed on the platform at the
side of the big drum (by simply making the said platform a
weighing machine) and weighed again when filled, with the
lid and lead laid on it. The difference of the two weights
would,' of course, be the weight of the Tea.

The second is a question of expense ; it would not be
great if done systematically. The chest should be carefully
opened, and the top lead removed in a square piece nearly
the size of the box. When replaced, a narrow strip of lead,
soldered down on either side, would make the covering
complete.

Justice will not be done to Indian Teas till this last is
accomplished.

Who should bear the expense ? The chests are received
into the Customs for the benefit of the Revenue, and who
can doubt, were the question tried in a Court of Law, that
they are bound to return them in as good condition as they
were received. They do not, and have never done so, and I
only wonder the trade has stood it so long, and has not
sued them. Were the course I advise followed out, there
would remain no cause of complaint, and the trifling cost of
soldering on the lid again should doubtless, therefore, be
borne by the Customs.

But in reality the Customs would sustain no loss in
fact, the other way. I have shown clearly at page 278 that
were the weight of Tea correctly recorded, the Customs would

288 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

receive in duty iipwards of 11,000 each year from Indian Tea
more than it does now. To re-solder the lids on the boxes
would cost nothing like that ; and highly as Indian Tea is
thought of now, how much higher still would it stand were
it not injured to the frightful extent it is in passing through
the Customs.

CONCLUSION.

I lit on the following in the Home and Colonial Mail just
before going to press, and it is too pertinent to much in
preceding pages to omit :

THE CHINA TEA TRADE.

The influence of the expansion of the Indian Tea enterprise on
the trade in China is being felt. We have more than once adverted
to the fact that the growing use of the well-flavoured Teas of India
would diminish the consumption of the better grades of China Tea,
and that the effect of the competition between the two countries would
be first seen in the falling off in the demand for so-called fine China
Tea.

The following letter, which appeared in the Times Money article
lately, confirms this view, and refers to the present unsound condition
of the China Tea trade :

" Sir, In view of the opening of the Tea season in China, a few
remarks upon the present position and future prospects of this im-
portant trade may not be inopportune.

" It is no secret that for some years past the losses of merchants
have been serious, and that while most of the wealthy firms so long
known as connected with China have either entirely ceased to import
Tea, or have reduced their operations to a very small compass, the
trade has been carried on by new houses possessing but little capital,
who are enabled, by the competition of the banks, to do a large
business by drawing bills on China, not only for the whole cost of the
Teas purchased, but also for their commissions on these purchases
that is to say, for an unrivalled profit of 3 per cent. The question,
Who has so far paid the losses of the past two years ? is one that
greatly exercises the minds of the trade. Many suppose that large
balances are being carried over in the books of some of the banks, or
by the Chinese, and that it is the hope of recouping a portion of this

CONCLUSION. 289

loss that induces the banks or the Chinamen to support those who
would otherwise be obliged to relinquish the trade. The Chinese
have also a further inducement to support such firms, since it is partly
through them that those high prices are established in China at the
opening of the season which entail so much loss afterwards. As a
result of these prices, about 30 per cent, more fine Congou is produced
than (on account of the competition of the Indian growth) can be con-,
sumed except at the price of medium Tea. How large the excess is
may be gathered from the fact that, although 5,000,000 Ibs. of this
class of Tea was lost last July in the ' Moskwa ' and the ' Fleurs
Castle,' yet stocks in Russia have increased by about 30,000 half-
chests, and there is still so large a quantity on this market that it can
only be realized at a loss of from 5^. to 6d. per Ib. on the China cost ;
thus some Teas, said to have cost in Hankow is. 8d. to is. gd., have
been recently sold as low as is. 3^., and others costing is. yd. in
Foochow, have been sold at is. id. per Ib.

" It is evident from the above that merchants as a rule do not realize
the immense change that has been brought about in the conditions ot
the trade by the enormous increase in the use of Indian Tea, which
now forms about one-third of the entire home consumption, and com-
petes mostly with the finer qualities of China congou ; nor the fact
that all engaged in the trade are becoming year by year more averse
to holding stock on account of the heavy charges involved, and the
risk of deterioration in quality. Yet, as the whole twelve months'
supply of first crop Tea arrives within three months of the opening o
the season, it is plain that some one must hold the balance, which can
only be done with safety if the Tea be bought at a very low price.

" The one remedy for the present condition of things is that the
great bulk of the so-called fine Teas should be bought in China at their
present value on this market viz., at about $d. to 6d. below the prices
given for them in recent years. With the large accumulated stocks in
Russia, and consequently reduced orders from that country, the yearly-
increasing supply of Indian Tea, and the present prices here, one would
think that such a course would at once be adopted. Unfortunatelv,
however, so much of the Tea is bought on commission, and the
Russian agents seem so reckless as to the prices which they give, that
any such prudent action can hardly be hoped for. It would, therefore,
be wise for holders of shares in Eastern banks, as well as all who have
been in the habit of intrusting orders to buying agents in China, to

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

ponder the foregoing facts, which can be easily verified by a reference to
any of the trade circulars lest their money should be lost in the crash
which must certainly take place if the past policy of Tea buyers in
China be continued. lam, &c., "A. B."

Will those warned be wise in time, and not swamp the
Home Market with China Teas certain to be sold at a loss ?
Who can say? But "A. B." is evidently master of the
subject, and if his advice in not taken, the China Tea
" crash " he predicts will not be a small one.

When China Teas are not sent home to realise a certain
loss, our Indian Teas will have fairer play.

I cannot conclude without acknowledging the great help
I have derived from the pages of the Tea Gazette in writing
these additions to my Fourth Edition.

Since my remarks on Ceylon were printed, I have
acquired much further information regarding the Tea
industry in that island, and the prospects certainly seem
very favourable. Anyhow, there seems to be no doubt that
Ceylon for Tea offers quite as good a field as any part of
India, always supposing that good sites are selected and
the area to choose from is large.

The future market for Tea is really, as regards Ceylon,
the only doubtful point, and consequently (as at page 183)
I advise the planters there to act with caution.

Where it is proposed to put coffee lands under Tea, of
course one great advantage in economy will be gained,
inasmuch as there will be no jungle clearing or previous
cultivation. But here again caution is necessary. Make
sure the soil is not worn out, for Tea, though it will grow,
will not yield largely on such.

NEW RULES REGARDING INDIAN TEAS. 2QI

June, 1883.

P.S. The following are the new rules lately issued by
the Customs regarding the future treatment of Indian
Teas.

The weight of Indian Tea for duty may, if desired by the im-
porters, be ascertained under the following regulations :

1. The Tea on arrival to be weighed to ascertain the gross weight

of each package.

2. With each entry the importer to give an endorsement of the net

contents of each package.

3. To test the accuracy of this endorsement, 10 per cent, of each

break to be turned out and weighed net.

4. If the difference between the weight given of any package and

the weight found exceeds or is less than 3 Ibs., the whole
parcel should be weighed net.

5. Duty to be charged on the average weight of the packages

weighed net, unless the importer elects to weigh the whole
parcel in the usual way.

6. When the average of the packages weighed net amounts to so

many pounds and a-half, an additional pound will be charged
on each of the whole parcel ; when the fraction is less than
half a pound it is to be rejected.

7. The new system to come into operation on July the ist next.

ADDENDA

TO THE THIRD EDITION.

THE following from the Indian Economist, regarding Indian
Teas in general and Neilgherry Teas in particular, is not
out of place here. At the same time I do not agree with
the writer, for I believe that in the strength and pungency
of Indian Teas consists their value :

INDIAN TEA.

"That the Teas of India have at length come to be fully appre-
ciated in England may be taken, we presume, as an admitted fact ;
and it is of importance that planters should direct their attention to
modifying their methods of manufacture so as to suit the public taste,
and, if possible, turn out an article free from the objections still
advanced against the Indian leaf as a daily beverage. There are, we
know, those who argue that enough has been done, and that consumers
will acquire a taste for the produce of our gardens in time ; but we have
daily evidence that in the most trivial matters there is no greater
tyrant than the public. It behoves those then who cater for this tyrant
to consult its taste and satisfy its demands, however exacting and
capricious they may be. The remarks we are about to make are based
on experiments and enquiries extending over some years in this country
and in England, and we leave those engaged in the enterprise to
estimate their value. All Teas grown in the plains of India are known
to the trade in London under the general name of Assam, and are
chiefly used for mixing, seldom reaching the consumer in a pure state.
When they do, the objections raised are that the leaf is too pungent
and rough for most palates ; and purchasers are in the habit of mixing
it with Chinese to tone down those astringent qualities. In other words,
it wants the delicacy of flavour which is the chief characteristic of the
Chinese leaf, meaning of course that vended by respectable houses,
not the abominable trash that formed part of the cargoes of the Lalla,
Rookh and Sarpedon, containing, according to Dr Letheby's Analysis,

294 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

'40 to 45 per cent, of iron filings and 19 per cent, of silica.' Nor is
this lack of delicacy of flavour to be lightly regarded, for the efforts of
our manufacturers have been directed unwittingly and indirectly to
foster the peculiarity, as the test of Indian Tea has hitherto been its
strength and pungency, to fit it for salting weak, thin, inferior sorts of
Chinese. This is what the dealers have demanded, and what,
consequently, brokers in their turn have insisted on, with the result
that the out-turn of our Assam and Cachar plantations is now, if
anything, too powerful to suit public taste. Whether means of
manipulation may be hit upon by which aroma can be retained without
sacrificing strength, we leave those most interested to determine ; but
it is worthy of note that this objection to strength and roughness is
almost confined to women, the sterner sex preferring Assam unmixed,
while the working classes of both sexes are unanimous in favour of the
unadulterated Indian article. Experiments were further tried by
substituting Neilgherry Tea, and after a short interval the verdict of
the majority was in its favour. We need now only point out the
difference in the manufacture between the two Teas, leaving others to
decide questions regarding the bearing of climate or altitude. Up to
the time of finishing rolling, the manipulation of the leaf is identical,
care being taken to retain the juice ; but that made on the hills instead
of being almost immediately placed over choolas was spread out thinly
on tables all night, in a temperature of 54 deg., sustaining consequent
loss of strength by evaporation, but developing an aroma that
established it at once in favour. So successful has this Neilgherry
Tea been at home, that offers are now received by plantation
proprietors for their produce at half-a-crown per Ib. free on board, in
Madras. This would seem to indicate that the aroma is generated by
the action of cold upon the damp leaf while in a state of * suspended
fermentation ; ' for, previous to experimenting with consumers, the
samples were submitted to Mincing Lane brokers and pronounced
sound, in corroboration of which opinion the bulk from which they
were taken sold at auction for 2S. 2^., so that fermentation (i.e.
sourness) had been carefully avoided. We know that the climate of
Assam and temperature of the Tea-houses render the keeping of rolled
leaf even for an hour fatal to soundness ; but should the development
of this aroma be really due to ' suspension of fermentation' is it not
worth while adopting some contrivance for cooling down a chamber
set aside for the purpose of spreading out the rolled leaf to the
temperature required ?

ADDENDA. 2Q5

" The question whether delicacy is due to altitude alone and not
to manufacture might be ascertained by experiment. Let a quantity
of green leaf be sent down from one of the Neilgherry gardens, and
worked up in the plains at the foot of the hills, and an equal quantity
sent up from one of the Assam gardens, say to Shillong, and manu-
factured on the Neilgherry principles there, and the result then
compared. This experiment would cost little and determine a not
unimportant question : for all engaged in Tea are interested in using
their best endeavours to fit it for public consumption, and to guard it
against Chinese in any shape or form whatever."

Note by the Author. That "delicacy of flavour," and " want of
strength " with it, is due to altitude has long ago been admitted, and
any experiments on that head would, I think, be quite unnecessary.
The experiments as to manufacture on the Neilgherries are interesting,
and should be further looked into. E. M.

I have at last completed experiments with a view to do away with
the use of charcoal in Tea manufacture, and I think with success.

The "Furnace Teas," for so I purpose naming them, have in most
cases been pronounced by the Calcutta brokers to be superior to
similar samples of the same day's leaf, made in the usual way over
charcoal.

Nothing but the heat generated by any fuel placed in furnaces
sunk under ground outside the Tea-house is used. No motive power
of any kind is employed. The apparatus is very simple. It is cheap
to erect and very durable in character.

As the apparatus with which the Teas up to the present time have
been made is a rude and imperfect one, having disadvantages which
must tell more or less on the excellence of the Teas so manufactured,
and as, even with these disadvantages, the Teas are pronounced by the
brokers at least equal to charcoal-dried Teas, it is not too much to hope
that with a perfect apparatus (one of which will be erected immediately)
Teas will be improved in value by this new invention. The following
will be shortly the advantages of this new process, even supposing the
Teas are no better :

T. Economy. This will possibly be even greater than what is set
out in the extract of the local paper below ; for the fact that the Tea
is never placed over charcoal until the whole is ignited, and has become
" live charcoal," is not there recognized, much of the caloric thus
escapes.

296 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

2. Cleanliness and absence of charcoal dust.

3. Absence of the objectionable fumes of charcoal.

4. Immunity from fire in Tea-houses.

5. Greater speed in the firing process, and the saving of all the
labour employed to make charcoal.

6. Reduced temperature in Tea-houses.

If all the advantages are, as I expect they will be, attained, the
life of a Tea planter will be more pleasant than hitherto.

The following is the opinion of the new process expressed by the
Darjeeling News of ist August :

" It has long been a question, which all planters were desirous to
solve, if the fumes of charcoal were necessary to make Tea, that is to
say, if any chemical action was produced on the Tea by the said fumes,
and if not, whether it would not be possible to do the firing in some
other and far cheaper way.

" The question has, we believe, been solved by Colonel Edward
Money, and if so, for the invention is quite a new one, a boon of great
magnitude will have been conferred on the Tea interest of India.
We congratulate this district as being the birthplace of the improve-
ment.

" The apparatus at present in use 'at Soom, and which we have
seen working, is a rough and crude one made on the spot. This, and
the more perfect plans from which larger and better ones are to be
made, are readily shown by Colonel Money to anyone visiting Soom ;
but until the invention is patented, it is not well to describe it in print.
Suffice if we say the invention is a remarkably simple one cheap to
erect durable in its character, and the working thereof unattended
with any expense whatever, beyond the cost of the fuel (which may
be of any kind), and which of course will be many times less than
charcoal.

" If true, as we hear, that it takes 3! maunds of wood generally to
make one maund of charcoal, and if also true, as Colonel Money
suggests, that the caloric in one maund of wood equals the caloric in
two maunds of charcoal, it then follows that each maund of wood, put
into Colonel Money's furnace, equals seven maunds of wc>d to make
charcoal.

" Of course the above are more or less random figures, but they
suffice to show that the saving of fuel will be very great a boon of

ADDENDA. 297

course to planters, but a boon also to the Forest Department and to
India.

" We knew of the invention some time back, but we forbore to
notice it until the brokers' reports on the Tea so made had been
received. We have now seen these. Samples of 'charcoal' and
' furnace ' Tea were sent down, made from the same leaf, the same
day, and manufactured in one up to the " firing " process. Two
brokers give the higher value to the furnace Tea, one to the charcoal
kind but the difference is small.

" We believe, as one of our most experienced planters, who has
tasted the Teas, been to Soom, and seen the brokers' reports, says,
that ' the Tea dried by the furnace apparatus will be at least equal to
that prepared over charcoal.'

" As Colonel Money is already known as an authority in Tea, and
as he has stated to us his belief that ' charcoal days ' for Tea are now
at an end, we await with confidence the ultimate success of his
invention, which even if it makes no better Tea will certainly make it
far cheaper, while the dirt from charcoal dust will be done away with,
the temperature of the Tea-houses much reduced, and the deleterious
fumes of charcoal, so very objectionable from a sanitary point of view
in Tea manufacture, will be known no more."

Again, 2gth August, a month later, the Darjeeling News further
remarks :

" We alluded recently to Colonel Money's very ingenious plan for
drying Tea without charcoal. Since then his apparatus has been in
full work at Soom, and has been inspected by numbers of the
Darjeeling planters, one and all of whom have, we understand,
reported most favourably on its working. Samples of Tea manufacture
have been from time to time sent to Calcutta brokers for their opinion,
and reports have been received from fifteen, of whom seven are in
favour of Tea made by the old charcoal process, seven are in favour
of the new furnace process, and one reports that the Tea made by
each process is exactly the same.

" Colonel Money is now taking steps to erect his improved furnace,
which will be in working order by the end of September, and the
whole October crop of Soom Tea will be fired by the new furnace.

" Colonel Money has applied for a patent, and as soon as this is
granted we hope to give our readers a description of the apparatus.

2Q8 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

For obvious reasons it would not be advisable to do so before then.
We may mention here that one of the most intelligent and practical
planters in this district has ordered one of Colonel Money's flues for
his private garden.

" Of the commercial success of Colonel Money's apparatus we
have no doubt whatever, and we trust that Colonel Money will reap
a handsome profit from his very ingenious invention, which will be an
undoubted boon not only to this district, but to all the Tea-producing
districts of India.

" One point which has struck us as good in Colonel Money's
apparatus is that the temperature of the Tea-house is considerably
lowered during the firing process as compared with the open chulas,
and that there is no free carbonic acid gas allowed to escape into the
Tea-house, so that those very unpleasant symptoms of slow poisoning
which often show themselves in planters and Tea-makers will be
unknown in future. At our suggestion Colonel Money has decided to
keep a register of the maximum temperature of the Tea-house, whilst
the open chulas continue in use, and to compare it with the tempera-
ture when the new apparatus has superseded them, also to test for free
carbonic acid gas in the air with each process.

" We are convinced that when the figures are available our
readers will be rather astonished at the difference from a sanitary
point of view.

" On the whole, we think that Colonel Money's invention is by far
the most important application of common sense and scientific know-
ledge to Tea manufacture that we have yet seen, and we are almost
certain that his apparatus will before long be adopted throughout the
Indian Tea districts." *

* Note to Third Edition. No. The furnace has been erected but on two
or three gardens. Other inventions have since been brought forward, and
the whole matter is still in an uncertain state I mean as to which of the
several apparatuses is the best. I believe in mine still, and intend to erect it
on the Western Dooar Gardens in which I am interested, but, of course, I am
not an impartial judge ! One thing, however, I lay claim to, and that is, that
I was the first to show by practical results that the fumes of charcoal are in
no way necessary to make Tea.

Note to Fourth Edition. Since the above note was written (now five
years ago) many Tea Drying Machines have been invented (see pages 240 to
259), and I most willingly admit they are all better than my furnace apparatus-
The first inventor rarely attains perfection, and as in my case, he generally
labours for the benefit of those who come after ! EDWARD MONEY.

INDEX.

PAGE

AREA required for a garden

Districts of Hazareebagh .

. 24

large, a mistake .

of Neilgherries

. 24

of Western Dooars

BOXES . .

147

meteorological table of .

. 26

cost of . J .

161

comparative advantages of . 30

CLIMATE . *. .

I 4

soil of . * .

13 to 25

in each district . . 14 to

2 5

jungle of . ., ?r^,i.'

13 to 25

wanted

lay of land of

13 to 25

rainfall . . . . 14, 28

price waste lands in

m *w:; 4

rain table .... 28

elevation of . . .',Jr..i*

temperature table
elevation table

26
26

temperature of
Distances for plants .

. 26

. 72

cold

table of . . iU

hot winds ....

T 4

regulated by class

. 72

affects flavour of tea

best ....

. 72

good for tea, bad for man 15

> 35

Cultivation ....

what is it .

number of . * }

97 to 101

when a waste of labour

way formed . . ' ' .

. 104

by digging round each plant
weeds not to get ahead ,.* .,..

82
83

differ in districts . ."
intervals between . .

. 98
. 99

Dutch hoe for

HILLS AND PLAINS

cost each operation per acre

cost of, to 6th year

comparison of

chap. iii.

cost of in full bearing .

high elevations bad

. do.

table of elevation .

. 26

DISTRICTS

which best ....

JUNGLE ; 4

rainfall in ; ; - ! ^' :U

what best in Himalayas

cold in

not of much consequence in

of Assam . . . '

Bengal

of Cachar ....

Jungle, coarse grass .

ofChittagong

of Terai below Darjeeling .

of Dehra Dhoon .

LABOUR ,. ; ; ;

of Kangra ....

local ....

IO, II, 12

of Darjeeling

imported . . J V

IO, II, 12

of Kumaon ....

22 ! government action

IO, II

of Gurhwal ....

24 | cost of imported . ; ~ '"."'

300

CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE OF TEA.

Labour in tea districts . chap. iii.
Laying out a garden ... 42
Lay of land and aspect . . 37

flat, sloping, steep . 7, 13, 35

aspect . 39

valleys . . . V . 40

narrow valleys ... 40
Lay of land and selection of steep

land .... 7, 37

disadvantages of steep land . 37

lines on steep land . . 46

plants close on steep land . 45
Leaf-picking * . .102

principles of. .",. . . 102

diagram of shoot . . .104

teas made from each leaf . 107

cannot make separate teas in

practice . . . .107

pruning connected with . 102

mistakes in . . . .42

how shoots form . . . 104

mode of . , . 104

MANUFACTURE . \ ., : . 109

importance of good . . 109

old and new plan . , . , . no

withering . . no, in, 123

rolling . . . .,. . in, 112

panning. . . . 109, 112

sunning. .'.,,. . . 112, 128

tea, how judged . . . 113

Pekoe tips

105, 106, 114, 115, 116, 122

strong teas and Pekoe tips

incompatible . . . 116

fermenting or colouring . 127

firing or dholing ... 128

of flowery Pekoe . ,' ' . 130
Manufacture of green tea . 130, 144

sifting and sorting

134. 135, 136, 161

sieves . ... . 135

Chinese sieves best . . 135

classes of tea ... . 137

cost of 160

ignorance of . . . . 7

PAGE

Manufacture, coarse leaf . .126

burntness . . . . 143
Manure . ' . ... . 67

advantages of . . 17, 67

how to apply .... 68

quantity .... 69

cost of 69

kinds of .... 67

results of . . .69
Management, accounts, forms . 152
what qualities required for a

Manager ... . 152

forms . . : . * * -153

accounts .- *;:.; ' . 158
Making a garden . < . 73

general instructions for. . 73
Mechanical contrivances . .116

Me Meekin's rolling table . 116

Kinmond's rolling machine . 116

Nelson's rolling machine . 118

Jackson's rolling machine . 116

McMeekin's drawers . .119

Money's furnace . . 121, 296

sifting machines . . .121

machine required to separate

the leaves i>~ ^'.;' : - -';' . 122

packing machines - f , - ; . 121
Miscellaneous :

Transport . '. ' ". chap iii.
in each district . . chap. iii.
Green tea . . 21, 130, 144
Stagnant water ... 40
Inundation .... 40
Sections . . . ' . .42
Yield . . . .43, 170
Lines of plants . . 45, 46
Roads . . . *..... 45
Relative price green and black

teas : : &pw^i ' I33

Yield first 10 years . .170
Necessities for tea . . 173, 180
Past, present, and future of

Indian tea . ....,.. . 174
Strange facts about tea . .174
Imports 177

INDEX.

3 OI

i. 6

to 8

Annual consumption . . 177
Collapse of tea speculation . 178
Share list to-day . . . 179
Money matters : will tea pay ? . i
why has it not paid some-
times ? . . -/ . -'
cause of failures . . i

wilful extensions . . ,. ..,..

price paid for gardens . .

faulty area sold . '.., 8
cost of making a 3OO-acre

garden ... .163
how much profit tea can give 168

table, result 300 acres for 12

years J 7 2

PACKING J 47

lead case for . . . *47

larger each break the better

161
59
57
58
59

cost of .
Planting at stake .

advantages of .

disadvantages of .

mode of .

Pruning . ' lf 'i V; -v/o-vi r ' 86

time for ' * . . . 86

instruments for . '' ^ --'- . 87

height to prune . '*" r- r > . 88

cost of . '' ; < : . 88

SALE LANDS, WASTE LANDS

sale waste lands ... 3

auction system ... 3

price waste lands ... 4
title . . ..-_, ... 4

Sanitation ... . -35

Seed 54

transport of . . . -55

price of .... 7

shade, natural ... 62

do. artificial ... 64

how to sow .... 57

when ripe .... 54

treatment of . . . -54

PAGE

Seed as manure. 55

number in i maund . . 56

proportions that germinate. 56

Government gave seed . 51

indigenous hybrid and China

alike ..... 51

how to increase . . . 55

nurseries or stake planting

best . . .'";,
Soil . . . . . . ., /,

only general rules for .

sandy . .. . . .

greasy

poor .....
- Ball on ....

friable and porous

in Tea districts . . 13, 25,

clay . " l ". ' ".. '. ''V

decayed vegetation . >~

for seed beds

TRANSPLANTING .

holes for . ',''>

mode of --. .<*{.'' -<<\ \

results of bad

when to be finished

best days for

. 76
59, 76

77
. 78

VACANCIES ;^ . ; ..-; ;.: ,- . 92

difficult tO fill Up . :.':; . Q2

why difficult ..,.;;- . 92

best plan to fill up . .92

large proportion of . . 6
Varieties of tea plants . . 47

WHITE-ANTS, CRICKETS, BLIGHT 89

harm done by crickets . 89

harm done by white-ants . 90

harm done by blight . . 91

remedies for crickets . . 90

do. white-ants . 91

do. blight . . 91
Weeds 82

ahead of labour ... 83

INDEX

TO THE ADDITIONS IN FOURTH EDITION.

PAGE

Agricultural machinery . . 223
America . . 185, 204, 205, 209
Amsterdam Exhibition 202 to 211
Any fuel versus charcoal . 239, 258
Australia . 201, 202, 204, 205, 207

to 209

Brick tea 212

Calcutta Syndicate . 202, 206, 208
210, 211, 212, 214

China tea trade . . .288
China . 194 to 198, 201 to 207, 210

tO 212, 288

Consumption of China and Indian

Tea . ., >.i ,.> .. . 201
Continent of Europe . 202, 211

Damage to tea by procedure in

London .;;' -- ' . 272, 273
Darby's digger .... 225
Date of commencement of tea cul-
tivation in each district . 194
Deliveries and stocks, '195, 197 to 201
Discovery of indigenous tea . 194
Dryers, by Robertson, the Typhoon,

240, 241

Allen . '"""." ' . 242
,, Davidson, the Sirocco,

243, 244

,, Gibbs and Barry . 244

,, Shand . 244, 245, 246

Jackson . . 246 to 248
,, Kinmond . . 248 to 257

PAGE

Fermenting Shelves . . 239, 258
First tea in India . . .194
Greatest and least possible loss
by Custom House procedure

274 275

Green tea ..'.-, *'..>. . 203, 204
Himalayan gardens . .< . 212
Hoop iron ., >-,..-.--; : . 271
How loss by Custom House pro-
cedure could be avoided

275 to 278

Imports into Great Britain 194, 195,
198 to 200, 203
Increase of Indian Imports into

Great Britain ^5,.-
Indian produce for 1883
Indian versus China tea
Jebens' transplanter .
Local market in India
Loss of tea by procedure in

London . ' . . 272, 273
Loss on China teas . . 288 to 290
Machinery . . . 222 to 271
Making Indian tea known in

United Kingdom . 218 to 221
Manufacturing machinery 231 to 271
Markets outside Great Britain 207

to 217

Money loss to producers and
Customs by method of weigh-
ing in vogue . ' . . 278

195

195
. 219

223
213 to 218

INDEX. .

303

New mode bulking at warehouse

in Crutched Friars . 282 to 286
required further . . 287, 288
New Zealand .... 205
Ornamental tin boxes by Harvey

Bros, and Tyler . 266 to 271
Petition of Indian Tea Districts
Association re mode of
weighing teas . . 279 to 281
Planting pots .... 223
Plantations in Northern India . 203
Ploughing .... 223 to 231
Processes of manufacture. 231 to 271
Rollers by Jackson 233,235,237

Kinmond 233, 234, 235, 237
235, 237
. 236
. 236
. 237, 238

2O3, 211
. 259

,, Haworth
Lyle .
Greig

,, Thomson
Russia .
Sifters, by Jackson
Greig

,, Pridham
Ansell

259

259
260 to 266

Sorter for green leaf by Greig &

Co 232

Statistics of Indian tea 194 to 206
Tea outside China and India,

183 to 192

Ceylon . . . .183
Johore . . . .184
Japan . . 185 to 188, 205, 210

Java 188

America, 188 to 190, 201, 203,
205, 206, 208

Natal 191

Fiji ..... 192
Tea consumption per head 204, 205
Tea Gazette This is alluded to
in most pages (see 290)

Thibet 212

Weighing and bulking by Cus-
toms . . . 272 to 288
Weighing teas by Customs, The

new rules . . . 290, 291
Withering machine . 232, 253, 257

W. B. WHITTINGHAM AND CO.,

PRINTERS,

QI, GRACECHURCH STREET,
LONDON.

RANSOMES, HEAD & JEFFERIES,

IPSWICH & LONDON,

SOLE MANUFACTURERS

ANSELL'S PATENT TEA SORTER.

LATEST REPORT.

(From Mr. D. M. LUMSDEN, Manager of the Borelli Company's Gardens,
through Messrs. J. WILLIAMSON & Co., London, February 8th, 1883.)

"I find that using ANSELL'S Sifter I have spent Rs. 780 less on my sorting
than last year, besides sorting 500 maunds more Tea ; so I may safely calculate
that last season's working paid for the machine."

ziynA-isr-aiF^CTTJi&zEiE&s .A.LSO OIF

Portable and Fixed Engines, for burning Coal, Wood,

and Vegetable refuse,
Ploughs specially suited for Indian Agriculture.

Catalogues and all information on application to RANSOMES,
HEAD & JEFFERIES, 9, Gracechurch Street, London, and Orwell
Works, Ipswich; Mr. C. W. ANSELL, Woodcot, Kurseong, Bengal;
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and Queensland.

The various services of the Company are arranged to correspond with the arrivals and
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London to Colombo, Madras, and Calcutta. Fortnightly.

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91, GRACECHURCH STREET,
LONDON.

*** Agents to Government by Appointment for the Sale of the
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Fourth Edition, with important Additional Chapers.
Price i os. 6d.

TEA CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTUKE,

By Lieut. -Col. EDWARD MONEY.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE THIRD EDITION.

The Saturday Review, in the course of an extended notice,
says : " We think that Col. Money has done good service by throwing
into the form of ^ book an essay which gained the Prize awarded by
the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India, in 1872. The
author is one of a well-known Anglo-Indian family .... He has
had plenty of practical experience, and has tested the labours of other

men Col. Money's general rules and principles, as far as

we can form a judgment, seem to have reason as well as experience
on their side . . . . No tea planter can afford to disregard his
experience."

The Indian Agriculturist says : " Col. Money has advanced
with the times, and the work under review may well be considered the
standard work on the subject, and it ought to be in every tea planter's
hand in India, Ceylon, Java, Japan, China or America ; the merit and
sterling value of his essay has been universally and deservedly
acknowledged We recommend our readers who re-
quire full information and sound advice on the subject to procure
Col. Money's book."

Allen's Indian Mail says: "The particulars of this great
industry, which comprises (Tea) Cultivation and Manufacture, are
given in the work of Col. Money. The Third Edition expanded from
the original prize Essay published in 1872, by the results of the
author's practical experience and observations up to the present time,
supplies full details of the origin and progress of an Indian Tea
Garden, and that in a very lucid and readable form . . . The
publication of so thorough, clear and instructive a directorium as
Col, Money's work is in itself a proof of the attention devoted to this
important industry, which has a great future before it. No one who
desires to understand the condition of its development ; still more no
one who has a pecuniary interest in a Tea Garden, can feel that the
subject of tea is known until this work has been studied."

W. B. IHITTIHGHAM and CO'S PUBLICATIONS.

The China Express says: "The experience gained since
1872 is added to the work, and it now forms a most complete guide to
the tea planter. The great progress the cultivation of tea is making
in India renders a practical Work of this kind very valuable ; and the
method in which Colonel Money deals with the subject shows his
thorough knowledge of it."

The Scotsman says: "With respect to the conditions of
climate and soil necessary for successful tea cultivation, the require-
ments of the plant in the way of water, &c., the varieties best suited
for culture in the various districts, the laying out of the tea garden,
and all the various details of cultivation and manufacture, Colonel
Money writes with the authority derived from many years of experience ;
and in the present edition the fruits of his latest experience are
embodied. To new beginners in tea cultivation this book must be of
the greatest value, while it will be found full of interest by outsiders
who may be desirous of information about the condition and prospects
of an important department of agricultural industry."

The Produce Markets Review says :" Colonel Money
i s a practical tea planter, and his work is the standard work on the
subject, so that it should be procured by all who are interested in the
subject. The new edition is greatly enlarged, and corrected by the
experience of the past six years."

The Planters' Gazette says : " The cultivation of tea in the
British dominions is becoming a rapidly extending industry, and we
are glad to see that Colonel Money's prize essay has reached a third
edition, for it is full of practical information and deserves to be studied
by every tea planter."

The Manchester Examiner says: "During the last few
years the fact that India is a tea-producing country has become more
generally known in England ; but few people know that the finest
Indian teas are more expensive than the best of Chinese growth, and
that the average price of the tea grown in India is higher than that
which comes from the Flowery Land. Another piece of information
given in this book is not less suggestive ; we mean that which assures
us that India is capable of producing as much tea as would meet the
wants of great Britain and all her colonies. But the culture is yet in
its infancy. Colonel Money's treatise is one of the most complete and
exhaustive of the kind we have ever read. He seems to anticipate all
possible difficulties ; his warnings and his counsels embrace every
branch of the subject, and only a practical man could have written
them. One would think that a tea grower of common sense could
scarcely make blunders with such an admirable guide before him ; and
the commercial side of the enterprise is discussed in the same careful
manner as the agricultural."

The Broad Arrow says : " In this work we have the results
of eighteen years' experience of a tea planter in India, and the author
has so written it that the beginner will find it invaluable, for he has
had his wants specially in view. It is, so far as we know, the best,
as it is certainly the most practical, book about tea that has been
published."

91, GEACECHURCH STREET, LONDON.

1. B. WHITTMHAM and CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.

Third Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 35. 6d.

THE ART OF TEA BLENDING.

A Handbook for the Tea Trade ; a Guide to Tea
Merchants, Brokers, Dealers and Consumers,
in the Secret of Successful Tea Mixing.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

The Field, says: "This is a practical and authentic little text
book on the principles involved in Tea Blending."

The Grocer's Chronicle says : " The book ought to be in the
hands of every grocer of the United Kingdom."

The Grocer's Journal says : " We cordially recommend c The
Art of Tea Blending ' to our readers as giving useful instruction and
guidance."

Allen's Indian Mail says :" The author gives full technical
instructions for the professional tea-blender and tea-taster ; and in doing
so, he imparts much information that will be found both valuable and
interesting to the tea-drinking public."

Broad Arrow says: "A trader should be able by its aid
to make a name as a teaman, and realise the result which the house-
wife only needs a gentle hint as to the opportunity of exercising real
judgment and correct taste in a matter of such important family interest
as tea."

The Grocer says : " This is the third edition of a book which we
have previously noticed with favour, and which has met with consider-
able success. Although the art of successful tea-blending is not one
which can well be gleaned from mere book-lore practical experience
being essential to its acquisition there are many young beginners, and
possibly also some older hands, who will derive a good deal of informa-
tion from the work now under notice. It has evidently been prepared
with much care, and in its way is a very useful handbook. "

The Daily Chronicle says: "This capital handbook, which
will prove of great service to merchants, brokers, and all engaged in
the tea trade, has reached a third edition. For consumers we may
extract the information that water for making tea should be soft and
pure ; it should be boiled quickly, and used when at the boiling point ;
the tea will be at its best in rather less than ten minutes, losing part
of its flavour if allowed to stand longer. "

The Grocer's Gazette: "This is a work which has now
reached its third edition, and which fully bears out its claim as an
excellent handbook on the subject. Not only is it a useful book to all
professionally engaged in the trade, but it is also calculated to educate
those who have not had the benefit of a practical experience, by
teaching them how to obtain a knowledge of the different classes of
teas and the proper method of mixing them. To the mature grocer
the work will be of interest, while the uninitiated may by its aid learn
how to select proper teas, please his customer's palate, and sustain
his reputation by keeping up the character of his mixings. ' '

91, GEACECHUECH STEEET, LONDON.

1. B. IHITTIHGHAM and CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.

Price 28s.

THE TEA CYCLOPEDIA.

A Compilation, by the Editor of the Indian Tea
Gazette, of Information on Tea, Tea Science and
Cultivation, Soils and Manures, Statistics, &c.,
with Coloured Plates on Blights. 350 pages.

The Grocer says : " One of the most valuable and exhaustive
contributions to tea literature which we remember to have seen . . .
The cultivation of the plant in the different districts and provinces, the
selection of soils and manures, and buildings for its manufacture, &c.,
are all ably treated in this work ; and as it deals thoroughly with the
scientific, statistical, and domestic branches of the subject, it is a
manual deserving the attention of the tea planter, importer, dealer, and
consumer. The experience of practical growers and cultivators is here
fully narrated, the opinions of the most competent authorities on dis-
puted points are clearly given and explained ; and, in short, every matter
connected with the history of the tea trade, as a growing industry and
a widening channel of commerce, is gone into with a completeness and
precision which leave nothing to be desired."

The American Grocer says : " The Tea Cyclopaedia is one we
can commend to our importers, grocers, and dealers, as being the most
complete work of its kind on Indian teas, as well as furnishing innumer-
able items of interest to those engaged in the sale of China and Japan
teas."

Fancy boards, price 2s. Cloth, 3$. 6d.

WOMAN'S FORTITUDE-

A Tale of the Indian Mutiny. By Lieut. -Col.
EDWARD MONEY.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

Public Opinion says: "The author has managed to convey

the characteristic tone of garrison talk in a very clear manner

There is much good narrative and brilliancy of dialogue."

The Scotsman says : " Written with much spirit . . . it will
be full of interest to anybody who cares to know what European life
and society were in India in the last days of 'John Company.' "

The Daily Chronicle says : "The horrors enacted at Cawnpore
during the Indian Mutiny give a tragic interest to this thrilling tale."

Capital and Labour says : " The plot of the tale is carefully
constructed and well worked out, and while the main purpose is always
kept in view, opportunity is taken to depict some of the phases of
Anglo-Indian life, while the characters in the story are cleverly
portrayed, and the attention of the reader is never allowed to flag."

91, GEACECHUECH STEEET, LONDON.

W. B, WHITTIKGHAM and CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.

Crown 8vo. cloth elegant, bevelled boards, gilt edges.
Price 55. Plain, 35. 6d.

JEMIMA.

A Story of English Family Life. By ADELAIDE.
With Frontispiece.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

The Times says: " 'Jemima,' by Adelaide, is another tale that
girls should care to read, with sufficient proportion of story, and of a
more original type than girls' books generally are. The humour, of
which there is an unusual proportion for such works, is not, perhaps,
of a very subtle or rich quality, but it is easy and simple, and appropriate
to the characters. Any humour, so long as it is neither vulgar nor
obscene, is surely preferable to the long-drawn melancholy which is too
apt to pervade girls' books for what reason we could never under-
stand ; girls are no more naturally prone to sadness than boys."

The Scotsman says : "A better story of its kind than ' Jemima'
cannot easily be met with. The book is written with a freshness
and exuberant buoyancy of manner that suit the subject admirably."

The Academy says: "'Jemima' is a very natural and
charming story of a very natural and charming little girl. It is
exactly what it pretends to be ' a story of English family life ' but
it has a distinctness of quality which is by no means common in stories
of English family life."

The Daily Chronicle says : " The story of English family life
told by Adelaide, under the title of ' Jemima,' is of a much more
realistic character. Lively and amusing throughout, there is also an
element of good sense introduced, which keeps the juvenile escapades
within reasonable bounds, and extracts a lesson even from naughtiness."

Crown Svo. 2 vols. los. each.

VOCABULARY OF THE

ENGLISH-MALAY LANGUAGES-

With Notes. English-Malay Vocal Dialogues.
By FRANK A. SWETTENHAM.

Demy Svo., cloth, price 75. 6d.

HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF

SAVAGE LIFE IN POLYNESIA-

With Illustrative Clan Songs. By Rev. W. W.
GILL, B.A.

91, GBACECHUECH STEEET, LONDON.

W. B. 1HITTIMHAB and CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.

Second and Revised Edition. Crown 8vo. doth elegant.
Price 2s.

SERMONIC FANCY WORK

On the Figures of our First Acquaintances in
Literature. By JOHN PAUL RITCHIE.

I. Little Jack Horner. The Spirit of Self-Satisfaction.

H. Peter White. How we are led by the Nose.

HI. Humpty Dumpty. The Spirit of Exclusiveness.

IV. Little Miss Mufflt. The Education of Fear.

V. Jack Spratt and his Wife. The Perfect Law of Liberty.

VI. Jack and Jill. The Climbing Spirit and its Incumbrances.

VH. Little Bo-peep. The Eecovery of the Lost Sheep.

Vni. Beauty and the Beast. The Union of the Strong and Beautiful.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE FIRST EDITION.

The Literary Churchman says : "Pungent, amusing, and
replete with clever satire."

The Christian says : " In this ingenious and novel experiment,
gravity and mirth go hand in hand. The style is energetic and pointed,
and the matter pregnant and suggestive."

The Sword and Trowel says: "Very clever."

The Nonconformist says: " Under the guise of commentary
on texts from old nursery rhymes and stories, Mr. Ritchie really gives
us some admirable discourses ' Sermonic Fancy Work ' in very deed.
It is astonishing how, by the help of a slight vein of paradox and a
nimble fancy, he can pass, almost imperceptibly, from mild fun to very
sad earnest, touching not a few of our most ingrained faults in the
most efficient way."

The Scotsman says : "A clever, wholesome, readable little
book."

The Homilist says : " The sermons are really good. They have
satire, but it is satire which consumes religious rubbish and nonsense.
They have fun and humour, but you are made to laugh in order that
you may think with more vigour and seriousness."

The Freeman says : " The ' Familiar Texts ' are the old nursery
rhymes treated homiletically. In the styles adopted we fancy we can
trace resemblances to those of some of the popular preachers of our
day. The wit is not without wisdom. The satire is not destitute of
sense. It is the sort of book that a reader with any humour in him
will find it difficult to lay down before he has read it right through."

Capital and Labour says: "A droll book and yet con-
taining much quaint wisdom in searching out and applying prin-
ciples of truth and common sense. ..... As a whole, and

considering its healthy tone and practical scope, we heartily commend
this handsome little volume. It is a fine specimen of the combined
arts of the typographer and bookbinder, and its attractive exterior
ought to draw many readers, who will then be charmed with the
contents and with the unconventional method of treatment."

91, GKACECHUECH STEEET, LONDON.

W. B. WHITTINGHAM and CQ.'S PDBLICATIOHS.

Crown 8vo. Cloth elegant, gilt edges, price 55. Plain, 45. 6d.

WON BY WAITING.

A Story of Home Life in France and England.
By EDNA LYALL. With Frontispiece by FRANK
MURRAY.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

The Daily News says : "The book is full of promise, the story
soon deepens into real interest and develops considerable power of
construction and character drawing."

The Spectator says : " The characters are drawn with con-
siderable skill, with force, and without exaggeration."

The Academy says : "The Dean's daughters are perfectly real
characters the learned Cornelia especially; the little impulsive
French heroine, who endures their cold hospitality and at last wins
their affection, is thoroughly charming ; while throughout the book
there runs a golden thread of pure brotherly and sisterly love, which
pleasantly reminds us that the making and marring of marriage is not,
after all, the sum total of real life."

The Freeman says ; " A very pleasing and well-written tale: full
of graphic descriptions of French and English life, with incidents and
characters well sustained. A book with such pleasant reading, and
with such a healthy tone and influence, is a great boon to the young
people in our families."

Cloth elegant, 55.

POEMS, DOMESTIC MD MISCELLANEOUS,

By JAMES GILES.

The Sheffield Independent says : " Very pretty poems, full
of a dainty and airy melody. It is beautifully got up."

Public Opinion says : " Mr. Giles has evidently a true
poetical instinct."

The Literary "W^orld says: "Full of gentle human feeling,
domestic tenderness, and patient submissive thinking."

8vo. cloth. Price 75. 6d.

OLD CEYLON.

Sketches of Ceylon Life in the Olden Time. By
JOHN CAPPER. With Illustrations by Ceylon
Artists.

" Readable and entertaining sketches."

91, GEACECHUECH STEEET, LONDON.

W. B. WHITTINGHAB and CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.

New and Enlarged Edition. Crown Svo. cloth elegant.
Price 75. 6d.

SEATS AND SADDLES,

Bits and Bitting, Draught and Harness, and the
Prevention and Cure of Restiveness in Horses.
By Major FRANCIS DWYER.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE NEW EDITION.

Bell's Life says : " The work which Major Dwyer has so
successfully carried through the press in two former editions is, for
the third time, presented to the public in a new and enlarged form. In
all the details of horse management the author is perfectly at home,
and the practical way in which he deals with his subject cannot fail
to be appreciated by equestrians or those who keep studs. The first
portion of the volume is devoted to a lengthy dissertation on the all-
important subject of Seats and Saddles. These chapters afford much
valuable information gained by a careful study, i-ot only of the frame-
work of the animal considered from a mechanical point of view, but also
of the influence of the saddle in its relation to the seat of the rider. . . .
We assure our readers that the whole contents of the book are well
worth perusal. It may be well, however, to mention that the question
of bits and bitting is thoroughly considered, while Part III. is taken up
with remarks on the true principles which should be observed in matters
of draught and harness. The concluding portion of the book deals with
that worst of all vices in the horse, restiveness, its prevention and cure."

The Saturday Review says : " It is a book which we should
recommend to the notice of young cavalry officers."

Limp cloth, plain, is. Cloth gilt, gilt or red edges, is. 6d.

THE LIVING EPISTLE; ul^SsBfc

Or, The Influence of Christian Character.

The Christian says : " Unflinching in its loyalty to the highest
of all standards, simple in its delineation of what Christian character
should be, earnest in its appeals to the heart and to common sense, this
little book brings to its readers a draught of clear, pure air, and ought
to send them on their way invigorated and quickened in their desires
after holiness."

The Freeman says: "A really ingenious and beautiful expo-
sition of the inspired description of Christian life. The volume is from
the pen of the late Dr. Jenkyn, formerly of Coward College, and is
worthy of a place by the side of other works we owe him."

91, GEACECHUECH STEEET, LONDON.

W. B. WHITTINGHAM and CO.'S PUBLICATION.

In Large Crown Svo. cloth elegant, bevelled boards.
Price 145.

PERTHSHIRE IN BYGONE DAYS-

One Hundred Biographical Essays. By P. R.
DRUMMOND, F.S.A.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

The Nonconformist says : " The volume is simply full of the
raciest material, on the whole well laid out, and cannot fail to prove of
interest to many beyond the circle of Perthshire men into whose hand
it may have the good fortune to come. Mr. Drummond had no purpose
to serve in writing the book beyond giving vent to his wide knowledge
and his love of the subject. He was a bookseller in Perth, and it is
evident that to nothing in literature or in human life was he indifferent.
All the notables he knew ; and he treasured up ana year by year simply

because it fell in with his tastes and enjoyments to do so The

book is full of delicious morsels."

The Athenaeum says : " It contains a great deal of sound sense,
and many amusing stories."

Price id. Stiff Paper, 2d. With Gold Bead, head and foot, qd.
Oak Bead, 6d. Handsomely Framed, 55. 6d.

THE PEOPLE'S POLITICAL ALMANACK,

A Sheet Calendar, edited by JOHN NOBLE, of the
London and Counties Liberal Union.

The Daily News says: "It is ornamented with an excellent
engraving of the Victoria Tower. It should hang in every Liberal
Club in the Kingdom."

100 Copies, pest free, 85. ; 500 Copies, post free, 1 155. ; 1,000
Copies, post free, 3. If 1,000 copies are taken, the names of the
Officers of Local Societies and their Branches are printed at foot free
of charge.

Price 35. 6d.

SACHS'S GERMAN GRAMMAR-

A Complete Grammar of Pure Modern High-
German. A New and Practical Method of
Learning the German Language. By H. SACHS.

modern

The Daily Telegraph says : " A complete introduction to pure
lern High-German on true principles."

91, GEACECHUKCH STEEET, LONDON.

1. B. WHITTINGHAM and CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.

Price 6d. Cloth, is.

STRAY HINTS ON LAWN TENNIS,

With latest Club Rules. By NEMO.

Including Directions for making the Best and Cheapest
Poles yet invented without Guy Ropes.

Price 75. 6d.

WHITTING-HAM'S

SKELETON TELEGRAPH CODE-

A Secret Expansive Code for ordinary Business
Purposes with CodeWords representing Pounds
Sterling, Numbers, every Date in the Year,
Weights, &c., in addition to Words and Spaces
available for 4,500 Special Messages all Code
Words revised under the latest International
Regulations.

The Standard says : " Appears to us to answer admirably the
purpose for which composed."

8vo., roan, price 55. The " 1881 " Code, I2s. 6d.

THE SOCIAL CODE:

Compiled for Family Use in Telegraphing to
Friends abroad.

" The best of its kind."

Price 55.

THE PREMIUM CALCULATOR-

An Office Manual, with Cut Index, for the use of
Underwriters, &c. By C. McKAY SMITH.

DR. AGER'S TELEGRAPH CODES, tl""

General Commercial, 2 155. ; Standard, 100,000
Words, 5 55.; Shipping, 2is.; Skeleton, 16,000
Words and Spaces, 12s. 6d. ; Corn Merchants,
i us. 6d.

91, GEACECHUECH STEEET, LONDON.

W. B. WHITTINGHAM & CO.,

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3*77

LD 21A-50m-ll,'62
(D3279slO)476B

General Library

University of California

Berkeley