Marine fire prevention, firefighting, and fire safety / Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce

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ITiarine

f ire Prevention

firefighting

and
fire Safelu

Maritime Administration
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Maritime Training Advisory "Board

Linked with the National Transportation Apprenticeship and Training Conference

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2012 with funding from

LYRASIS Members and Sloan Foundation

http://www.archive.org/details/marinefireprevenOOmari

rHarine

f ire Prevention

firefighling

and
fire Safelu

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This publication was researched, developed,
and produced by the Robert J. Brady Co. for
the National Maritime Research Center, under
Contract No. MA- 2-4362.

Content*

PART I

1

FIRE PREVENTION

1

Causes and Prevention of Fire A board Ship 3

Design Safety Features 3

Careless Smoking 3

Spontaneous Ignition 6

Faulty Electric Circuits and Equipment 7

Unauthorized Construction 9

Cargo Stowage 10

Galley Operations 1 1

Fuel Oil Transfer and Service Operations 12

Welding and Burning Operations 13

Shoreside Workers Aboard for Cargo Movement, Repair and Maintenance 16

Shipyard Operations 17

Tanker Loading and Discharging Operations 18

Collisions 21

Bibliography 21

Fire Prevention Programs 23

Responsibility for the Program 23

Elements of Effective Programs 25

Formal and Informal Training 25

Periodic Inspections 29

Preventive Maintenance and Repair 33

Recognition of Effort 36

Bibliography 37

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires 41

Morro Castle 41

Normandie 43

Lakonia 45

Rio Jachal 46

Yarmouth Castle 49

Alva Cape, Texaco Massachusetts, Esso Vermont, and Texaco Latin American 51

San Jose 54

San Francisco Maru 57

African Star 59

Hanseatic bl

Bibliography 68

PART II
4

FIREFIGHTING

69

Fire 71

Chemistry of Fire 71

The Fire Triangle 72

The Fire Tetrahedron 75

Extinguishment Via the Fire Tetrahedron

Fire Spread 77

The Hazardous Products of Combustion

Bibliography 80

76
78

Classification of Fires 81

NFPA Classes of Fire 81

Class A Fires Involving Materials Commonly Found Aboard Ship

83

111

IV Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Class B Fires Involving Materials Commonly Found Aboard Ship 88

Class C Fires Involving Electrical Equipment Aboard Ship 95

Class D Fires Involving Metals Found Aboard Ship 97

Bibliography 99

6 Fire Detection Systems 101

Automatic Fire Detection Systems 102

Heat-Actuated Fire Detectors 102

Smoke Detection Systems 108

Flame Detectors 1 10

Manual Fire Alarm Systems 1 10

Supervised Patrols and Watchmen's Systems 1 10

Examples of Detection Systems Used Aboard Ship 112

Testing Fire Detection Equipment 115

Gas Detection Systems 115

Pyrometers 118

A Comment on Ship Safety 1 18

Bibliography 1 19

7 Extinguishing Agents 121

Classes (and Combinations) of Fires 121

Water 124

Foam 130

Carbon Dioxide 136

Dry Chemical 138

Dry Powders 139

Halogenated Extinguishing Agents 140

Sand 141

Sawdust 141

Steam 141

Shipboard Use of Extinguishing Agents 142

Bibliography 142

8 Portable and Semiportable Fire Extinguishers 143

Portable Fire Extinguishers 143

Water Extinguishers 144

Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers 148

Dry Chemical Extinguishers 149

Dry Powder Extinguishers 152

Halon Extinguishers 154

Semiportable Fire Extinguishers 155

Carbon Dioxide Hose-Reel System 155

Dry Chemical Hose System 155

Halon Hose-Reel System 156

Portable Foam Systems 156

Bibliography 159

9 Fixed Fire-Extinguishing Systems 161

Design and Installation of Fixed Systems 161

Fire-Main Systems 162

Water Sprinkler Systems 170

Water Spray Systems 173

Foam Systems 174

Carbon Dioxide Systems 181

Marine Halon 1301 System 189

Dry Chemical Deck Systems 191

Galley Protection 193

Inert Gas System for Tank Vessels 196

Steam Smothering Systems 197

Bibliography 198

10 Combating the Fire 199

Initial Procedures 199

Firefighting Procedures 200

Fire Safety 206

Fighting Shipboard Fires 209

Container Fires 222

Summary of Firefighting Techniques 228

Bibliography 229

Contents

11 Protection of Tugboats, Towboats, and Barges 231

Safety 231

Fire Protection Equipment for Tugboats and Towboats 233

Fighting Tugboat and Towboat Fires 236

Fire Protection for Barges 238

Fighting Barge Fires 240

Bibliography 247

12 Protection of Offshore Drilling Rigs and Production Platforms 249

Safety and Fire Prevention 249

Fire Detection Systems 251

Firefighting Systems and Equipment 253

Special Firefighting Problems 257

Bibliography 259

PART III FIRE SAFETY 261

13 Organization and Training of Personnel for Emergencies 263

Organization of Personnel 263

The Station Bill 264

Emergency Squad 267

Crew Firefighting Training 268

Bibliography 271

14 Emergency Medical Care 273

Treatment of Shipboard Injuries 273

Determining the Extent of Injury or Illness 274

Evaluating the Accident Victim 277

Triage 279

Head, Neck and Spine Injuries 280

Respiration Problems and Resuscitation 283

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) 287

Bleeding 290

Wounds 294

Shock 297

Burns 298

Fractures and Injuries to the Bones and Joints 303

Environmental Emergencies 311

Techniques for Rescue and Short-Distance Transport 315

Bibliography 325

15 Breathing Apparatus 327

The Standard Facepiece 327

Types of Breathing Apparatus 331

Self-Generating (Canister) Type OBA 335

Self-Contained, Demand-Type Breathing Apparatus 340

Air-Module-Supplied Demand-Type Breathing Apparatus 351

Fresh-Air Hose Mask 352

Gas Masks 355

Bibliography 355

16 Miscellaneous Fire Safety Equipment 357

Bulkheads and Decks 357

Doors 358

Fire Dampers 360

Fire Safety Lamp 361

Oxygen Indicator 363

Portable Combustible-Gas Indicator 363

Combination Combustible-Gas and Oxygen Indicator 365

Fireaxe 365

Keys 366

Fireman's Outfit 366

Proximity Suit 366

Entry Suit 367

Conclusion 368

Bibliography 368

Glossary 369

Index 377

foreword

Throughout history mariners have gone to sea in all types of watercraft, and, more often
than not, with very limited protection against the threat of shipboard fires. In the event of
fire, persons ashore often have available the immediate assistance of well-trained firefighting
professionals. Mariners are alone aboard ship, and. when fires occur at sea they must remain
onboard and cope with these incidents to the best of their own abilities. These efforts, often
because of lack of knowledge, training, and experience, have produced less than satisfactory
results and at times have resulted in tragedy. Because of the many technological advances in
ship design and operation, today's mariner must possess more knowledge than his
predecessors in many special areas. Fire prevention, control, and extinguishment is one of
these areas.

While government agencies have through the years effected changes and promulgated
regulations that have greatly reduced the ever-present danger of fire aboard vessels, fire
tragedies have continued to occur. It therefore must be the mariner's responsibility to be as
well-trained as possible and to understand the causes of fires so as best to prevent them.
Furthermore, mariners must have a good working knowledge of the approaches that will
best restrict the spread of fires and eventually extinguish them.

Maritime institutions haye been doing their part in the training of individuals toward these
ends. Until now, however, they have been at a disadvantage since no comprehensive marine
firefighting textbook was available. With the publication of this book, the mariner will now
have a comprehensive firefighting text for study and ready reference.

I salute all those who have given their time and effort to produce this manual, and I am
certain that the men and women aboard our vessels, to whose protection this important work
is dedicated, also will share in my appreciation.

SAMUEL B. NEMIROW

Assistant Secretary

for Maritime Affairs

Department of Commerce

vn

Preface

The objective of this manual is to fill a long-standing need for comprehensive source material
in the specialized field of prevention, control, and extinguishment of fires aboard commercial
vessels — in the safest and most expeditious manner.

Fire prevention, control, and extinguishment are similar for all types of water craft.
However, so that no segment of the waterborne industry is neglected or left wanting for
explicit instructions, special chapters have been included that deal directly with such other
trades as the offshore oil drilling operations and their vessels and the tow boats on the inland
waterways. This book, therefore, was written to provide detailed information concerning
vessels of the deepsea oceans, the offshore drilling industry, and the boats in domestic
waterborne trade - - whether they are on the Great Lakes, inland waterways or domestic
oceans.

This book should serve all present and future shipboard personnel by providing exhaustive
source and reference material that may be used when dealing with the varied and
complicated aspects of fire control and fire fighting. Furthermore, the book contains the
most definitive information on fire, which can be used extensively by maritime training
institutions throughout the country. As students prepare for service aboard merchant vessels,
this manual will serve as a comprehensive study text. It will be useful to seamen, wiper or
deck utility personnel, and Masters and Chief Engineers.

Because this book fills an important need within the industry, it is expected that it will be
recommended reading for all personnel, kept in the reference libraries aboard ships, and
available to all seamen. We further expect the manual to provide shoreside maritime
executives with information that will assist them in their decisionmaking concerning fire
fighting material, equipment, and requirements aboard vessels. It will also provide an
understanding of the fire fighting training required for ship personnel to assure the greatest
possible protection of crew, cargo and vessel.

So that this manual would fulfill these needs for a long period of time, the authors have
researched the latest fire fighting equipment used aboard vessels today with an eye to future
developments in the field. Countless hours were spent aboard all forms of water craft, in
addition to time spent working with the manufacturers of fire detecting and fire fighting
equipment, and fire fighters who have first hand knowledge of the subject. Finally, the
manual was reviewed extensively by numerous people in the maritime industry who have
made a career of teaching fire fighting to active shipboard personnel and to those aspiring to
service within the industry.

In an ideal situation, it is most important to understand the nature of fires so that every
effort may be made to prevent them. Failing this, important steps must be put into effect to
control and thereby limit the spread of fires and finally to extinguish them. This three-fold
approach is used effectively by the authors. They also point out the physical dangers caused
by fires and the appropriate medical care that must be provided.

Much can be learned from the study of past fire tragedies that occurred aboard merchant
vessels. These fires took a terrible toll in human lives and in material. Of course, these losses
are irreversible, but the tragedies can be utilized positively - - to change regulations in order
to prevent similar accidents, and as a learning tool. The authors have skillfully included an
in-depth study of past shipboard fires, dissecting and analyzing the events, to avoid repeating

IX

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

the mistakes of the past. These case studies provide a breakdown of the conditions that led to
the problem - - the inaction or untimely action taken, with an analysis of actions that should
have been taken to limit the spread of the fire and to extinguish it. This manual is expected to
be the "bible" on fire fighting and fire safety throughout the maritime industry, both ashore
and afloat.

Captain Pasquale Nazzaro,
U.S. Maritime Service Master Mariner

Project Director

Acknowledgment*

The preparation of a manual of this magnitude and scope would have been beyond the
capacities of any one person, particularly since it was necessary that it be produced without
delays and available quickly for use throughout the industry. Therefore, this project involved
not only the authors, but numerous individuals who gave unselfishly of their time and special
expertise gained through years of dedicated maritime service. Their work included
proofreading the manual and making whatever changes or corrections were necessary to
assure technical accuracy. They gladly contributed their services because of a strong belief in
this manual and a desire to bring to the maritime industry a monumental book that would
help to save the lives of their fellow seafarers.

The original concept for publication of a firefighting manual was that of the Maritime
Training Advisory Board (MTAB) a nonprofit organization of maritime people from
both labor and management, whose interest is the advancement and improvement of training
among practicing mariners. To all members of the MTAB we extend special appreciation for
providing the impetus for the writing of this text.

We acknowledge the National Maritime Research Center, Kings Point, New York, for
their funding of this project and for their continued assistance and cooperation.

In addition, very special thanks go to the following members of the MTAB who reviewed
the manual at various stages in its production.

Pasquale Nazzaro

Frank J. Boland

Edwin M. Hackett

Christopher E. Krusa

Arthur Egle (deceased)

Preston Harrison

R. T. Sommer

Captain, USMS

Assistant Head and Professor

Department of Nautical Science

U.S. Merchant Marine Academy

Kings Point, NY 11024

Training Director

N.M.U. Upgrading and Retaining Plan

346 West 17th St.

New York, NY 10011

Training Specialist

Office of Maritime Labor and Training
Maritime Administration
Washington, DC 20230

Manpower Development Specialist

Maritime Administration

Washington, DC 20230

Maritime Institute of Technical and Graduate Studies

Linthicum Heights, MD 21090

Assistant Dept. Head, General Dept.

Calhoon MEBA Engineering School

Baltimore, MD 21202

Captain, U.S. Coast Guard

MarAd Liaison Officer

Maritime Administration

Washington, DC 20230

XI

xil Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

Howard W. Patteson Manpower Development Officer

Maritime Administration
Washington, DC 20230

William H. Sembler Professor of Marine Transportation

Maritime College - - SUNY
Fort Schuyler, NY 10465

Joseph Wall Supervisor, Administrator Services

Harry Lundeberg School
Piney Point, MD 20674

William F. Fassler Executive Director

National River Academy of USA
Helena, Arkansas

James Prunty Mobil Oil Corporation

New Orleans, LA

The Robert J. Brady Co. gratefully acknowledges the help of the following companies and
organizations who allowed the use of printed matter and photographs from their
publications or gave technical advice.

American District Telegraph
American Waterways Operators, Inc.
Ansul Company (dry chemical sk-3000)
Avondale Ship Building Corporation

Beckman Instruments, Inc. (gas detection system)
Bethlehem Steel Ship Repair Yard
City of New York Fire Department
Curtis Bay Towing Company

Delta Steamship Lines, Inc.

Detex (Newman portable watch clock)

Farrell Lines, Inc.
Fyrepel

Gaylord Industries, Inc. (galley duct washdown system)
Gulf Oil Corporation, Marine Division

C. J. Hendry Company (fireman's protective clothing)
Henschel Corp. (Henschel control unit)

Lykes Brothers Steamship Co., Inc.

Marine Chemists' Association

Merchant Marine Technical Division

Military Sealift Command

Mine Safety Appliances (gas detection system/ breathing apparatus)

Mobil Oil Corporation (offshore oil drilling platforms)

Moore McCormack Steamship Lines

National Foam (foam systems and appliances)
Norris Industries

Offshore Marine Service Association
Offshore Operations Committee

Penniman and Browne, Inc.

Robertshaw Controls Company
Rockwood (foam systems and appliances)

Sea— Land Service, Inc.
Ships Operational Safety, Inc.

Walter Kidde and Company (CO2 systems)
Walz and Krenzer, Inc. (watertight doors)

Contributing Author*

Gilbert W. O'Neill

Battalion Chief

Marine Division, Fire Department

New York City

Thomas J. Rush, Jr.
Deputy Chief in Charge
Marine Division, Fire Department
New York City

William J. Lanigan

Deputy Chief of Department

Fire Department, New York City

Francis P. McCormick

Deputy Chief of Dept. (Retired)

Fire Department, New York City

Assistant Professor

New York City Community College

Edwin J. Byrnes
Battalion Chief
Fire Department
New York City

Adolph S. Tortonello

Chief in Charge, Fire Academy

Fire Department, New York City

Joseph F. Connor

Assistant Chief of Dept. (Retired)

Fire Prevention Consultant

Fire Department, New York City

George D. Post
Vice President
Fire Training Programs
Robert J. Brady Co.

J. David Bergeron
Educational Technologist
Robert J. Brady Co.

Dale E. Green

Beckman Instruments, Inc.

Somerset, New Jersey

Harvey D. Grant
Claymont, Delaware

Robert H. Murray, Jr.

Winchester, New Hampshire

Consultant*

Walter M. Haessler, P.E.
Firefighting Specialist
Ocala, FLA

John Smith, Senior Instructor
Delaware State Fire School

XIII

fire Prevent ion

Part

Aboard ship as well as ashore, fire can be either a friend or an enemy. Har-
nessed and controlled, fire is so much a part of our everyday lives that we
take it and its uses for granted. But uncontrolled fire brings disaster — loss of
lives and millions of dollars in property damage. For example, in 1974 there
were 198 fire incidents involving foreign and domestic vessels in American
ports. These incidents resulted in an estimated fifty million dollars in losses.
Moreover, the figures represent only incidents in which fire and explosion
were the primary causes of the losses; fires resulting from collisions are not
included. In some cases, fires that followed collisions have done much more
damage than the collisions themselves.

Vessels are subject to all the fire hazards of land installations, and more.
Passenger vessels may be likened to moving hotels, with spaces for sleeping,
recreation, cooking and dining; these spaces and their occupants present as
much of a potential fire problem at sea as they do on land. Tankers are mobile
storage facilities for petroleum products and other hazardous fluids. Cargo,
container, lash, and roll on-roll off ships are moving warehouses that often
carry hazardous materials. Below deck are tons of fuel oil, engine rooms, boiler
rooms and machinery spaces where many serious fires have originated.

The problems of fire prevention and firefighting become even more acute
once a vessel leaves port. Then, rough seas and navigation difficulties may also
increase the hazards. Assistance is far away, and the crew and vessel must
provide their own fire protection. This lack of assistance makes shipboard fire
prevention extremely important, a matter that must be of great concern to
officers and crew alike.

This first part of the book on fire prevention contains three chapters.
Chapter 1 deals with the major causes of fire aboard ship, and presents
specific ways in which these causes can be eliminated. Chapter 2 deals with
the organization and implementation of shipboard fire prevention programs.
Chapter 3 presents the histories of a number of ship fires. All three chapters
deal with reality, with actual experience and not with contrived situations.
They show that fire prevention must be a continuing process on every vessel.
There is no such thing as "It can't happen on this ship." Fires have occurred
and probably will continue to occur on vessels that never had a fire before.
It is up to the crew to minimize the possibility of fire and to minimize the
damage that a fire can do if one occurs.

Causes &
Prevention of fire
Aboard Ship

The major causes of shipboard fire are discussed
in this chapter, along with actions that crew mem-
bers can take to reduce the possibility of fire.
These causes of fire — these situations and ac-
tions— are common to all vessels and are the
responsibility of all crews.

Some fires may be purely accidental, and oth-
ers may be caused by circumstances beyond con-
trol. But many fires have resulted from the acts
or omissions of crew members. Carelessness and
irresponsible or ill-advised actions have caused
disastrous fires. And omissions — not taking the
proper preventive measures when hazardous situ-
ations are discovered — have allowed many fires
to "just happen."

No matter how a shipboard fire starts, it could
result in the loss of the ship, and perhaps the loss
of lives. It is therefore extremely important that
crew members be constantly alert for situations
that could cause fire aboard ship.

DESIGN SAFETY FEATURES

Before discussing the causes of shipboard fires,
we should note that ships flying the U.S. flag are
designed and built according to very detailed
regulations. These regulations are, for the most
part, based on maritime experience — in some
cases tragic experience that resulted in loss of life
and property. They provide uniform minimum
requirements for the construction of vessels. The
regulations, and the safety standards they repre-
sent, are continually being upgraded in the light
of increased experience. Of course, the desire for
absolute safety must be balanced against the
cost of attaining it. Fire safety is well represented
through the following design regulations.

1. Structural fire protection (hull, super-
structure, bulkheads and decks)

2. Restrictions on the use of combustible
materials

3. Insulation of exhaust systems

4. Venting of cargo spaces, fuel tanks and
pump rooms

5. Means of escape

6. Minimum stairway sizes

7. Fire detection and alarm systems

8. Firemain systems

9. Fixed fire extinguishing systems

10. Portable and semiportable extinguisher
requirements

1 1 . Approved machinery, equipment and in-
stallation.

Each bulkhead, deck, hatch, ladder, and piece
of machinery is built and located to serve a spe-
cific purpose or purposes including, wherever
possible, fire safety. But good design is only the
beginning; it must be combined with good con-
struction and good workmanship to make a safe
vessel. Then it is up to the crew to keep the ves-
sel safe. Stated another way, safety begins on the
drawing board and is completed only when the
vessel is decommissioned.

CARELESS SMOKING

At the top of every list of fire causes — aboard
ship or on land — is careless smoking and the
careless disposal of lit cigarettes, cigars, pipe
tobacco and matches.

Smoking is a habit. For some people it is so
strong a habit that they "light up" without even

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

realizing they are doing so. For others, nothing
can quiet the urge to smoke; they will do so with-
out regard for the circumstances or location.
And some simply don't care or don't realize that
smoking can be dangerous. Such people must be
made aware of the risks of careless smoking.

Disposing of Butts and Matches

Glowing ashes and glowing tobacco contain
enough heat to start a fire in such materials as
dunnage, paper, cardboard, excelsior, rope and
bedding. Therefore, matches, and ashes from
cigarettes, cigars and pipes, butts and glowing
pipe tobacco must be discarded in noncombusti-
ble receptacles. These receptacles should be
placed throughout the vessel, wherever smoking is
permitted. It is also a good idea to soak a ciga-
rette or cigar butt with water before discarding it.
The soaking provides added protection against
fire.

Ashtrays should be emptied only when they
contain no glowing embers. (A soaking under a
faucet will ensure this.) Then they should be
emptied into covered, noncombustible containers.

Smoking in Bed

Smoking in bed is dangerous at any time. After

a busy day, when the smoker is tired, it can mean
disaster (Fig. 1.1). A smoldering fire can be
started just by touching the glowing tobacco to
the bedding. The resulting smoke can cause
drowsiness and possible asphyxiation before the
fire is discovered.

Such fires can be prevented by following one
simple but important rule: Don't smoke in bed,
under any circumstances.

Smoking and Alcohol

A person who has been drinking alcohol tends
to become careless. If that person is also smoking,
he can be extremely dangerous. After one or two
drinks, a few glowing embers that have dropped
from a pipe may not seem important. Nor will a
cigar butt that isn't quite extinguished, or a lit
cigarette that someone has left on an ashtray.
But these are actually small shipboard fires. If
they come in contact with nearby flammable ma-
terial, the fires will not stay small for very long
(Fig. 1.2).

A smoker who is "under the influence" should
be observed very carefully. Everyone should be
responsible for seeing that the smoker's actions
do not jeopardize the safety of the ship and its
crew.

Figure 1.1. Smoking in bed is dangerous and unnecessary.

Causes and Prevention of Fire Aboard Ship

Figure 1.2. Drinking and smoking are a dangerous combi-
nation.

No Smoking Areas

Open flames and glowing embers can be very
dangerous in certain parts of a ship. Smoking
must be prohibited in these spaces, and they
should be clearly marked as No Smoking areas.
Every crew member should know where smoking
is prohibited and why it is prohibited there.

Visitors, longshoremen and other shoreside
workers should be informed or reminded of
smoking regulations whenever they come aboard.
These people are not as concerned as crew mem-
bers about fire safety. When the vessel sails, the
shoreside people stay behind. If fire is discovered
after the ship leaves port, only the crew is en-
dangered, and the crew alone must fight the fire.
For this reason, crew members must feel a strong
responsibility to ensure that No Smoking regula-
tions are followed by everyone on board their
ship. Most people will comply with the regula-
tions, and will not smoke in restricted areas.
Those who persist in smoking after being told of
the danger should be reported to the proper
authorities.

Cargo Holds and Weather Deck. Smoking in
the holds of cargo vessels, or on the weather deck
when the hatches are open, is an invitation to
disaster. Such smoking is strictly forbidden.

Break-bulk cargo vessels are especially vul-
nerable to cargo-hold fires during loading (Fig.
1.3). Such a fire may not be discovered for several
days — after the vessel is well out to sea. By that
time, much of the cargo may be involved in the
fire, and the fire may be difficult to extinguish or
control. To add to the problem, a number of port
cities are reluctant to give refuge to a ship on

Figure 1.3. Smoking and careless disposal of smoking ma-
terials have caused many serious fires in cargo holds. Smok-
ing must be prohibited in cargo spaces, and these spaces
should be monitored during cargo handling.

fire. This is understandable: These cities do not
have either the capability or the experience to
combat ship fires.

The best way to deal with cargo-hold fires is
to prevent them. This means 1) smoking must be
prohibited in cargo holds at all times; 2) cargo
holds should be posted as No Smoking areas; and
3) holds should be monitored closely during load-
ing and unloading operations.

Engine and Boiler Rooms. Engine rooms and
boiler rooms contain relatively large amounts of
petroleum products, such as fuel oil, lubricating
oil and grease. Even the thickest of these products
tends to vaporize and mix with the warm air of
the engine room or boiler room. A lighted match
or glowing tobacco can ignite this flammable
air-vapor mixture. Carelessly discarded smoking
materials can start fires in oily rags or other
flammable materials.

Once ignited, an engine room fire is difficult to
extinguish and very hazardous for the engine
room crew. If the fire is serious enough, it could
mean loss of propulsion and control of the ves-
sel— an extremely dangerous situation. For these
reasons, engine room and boiler room smoking
regulations should be followed carefully.

Storage and Work Spaces. Smoking should be
prohibited in storage rooms and work rooms, and
this prohibition should be strictly enforced. These
spaces — for example, paint and rope lockers and
carpenter shops — contain large amounts of flam-
mable materials. A stray ember or a hot match
could easily ignite such materials.

Marine Fire Prevention. Firefighting and Fire Safety

SPONTANEOUS IGNITION

Spontaneous ignition is often overlooked as a
cause of fire aboard ship. Yet many common
materials are subject to this dangerous chemical
phenomenon. They include materials that are
carried as cargo and materials that are used in
running the ship. An example of spontaneous
ignition that could easily occur aboard a vessel
might be a rag soaked with vegetable oil or paint
that has been discarded in the corner of a work-
shop, storage area or engine room. The area is
warm, and there is no ventilation (Fig. 1.4). The
oil on the rag begins to oxidize — to react chemi-
cally with the oxygen in the warm air around it.
Oxidation is a natural process that produces heat.
The heat causes the remaining oil to oxidize faster
and produce still more heat. Since the heat is not
drawn away by ventilation, it builds up around
the rag. After some time, the rag gets hot enough
to burst into flames. It then can ignite any nearby
flammable substances, perhaps other rags or
stored materials, so that a major fire is very pos-
sible. All this can and does occur without any
outside source of heat.

Materials Subject to Spontaneous Ignition

Ship's Materials. As noted in the previous sec-
tion, oily rags and paint-soaked rags are subject
to spontaneous ignition. In this case, fire preven-
tion is simply a matter of good housekeeping
(Chapter 2). However, some materials that are
not usually subject to spontaneous ignition will
ignite on their own under certain conditions.
Wood is one such material.

Wood, like every other substance, must be
heated to a certain temperature before it will
ignite and burn. And most steam pipes do not
get hot enough to ignite wood. Yet if a piece of
wood is in constant contact with a steam pipe or
a similar "low-temperature" heat source, it will
ignite spontaneously. What happens is that wood
is first changed to charcoal by the heat (Fig. 1.5).
Then the charcoal, which burns at a lower tem-
perature than wood, is ignited by the steam pipe.
Even though the change from wood to charcoal
may take several days to occur, it could easily go
unnoticed. The first sign of a problem would be
smoke or flames issuing from the wood.

To prevent such fires, combustible materials
should be kept away from any heat source. If
they cannot be moved, they can be protected with
heat-insulating materials.

Cargo. Many materials that are carried as
cargo are subject to spontaneous ignition. Igni-
tion occurs through the chemical interaction of
two or more substances, one of which is often air
or water. Precautions for stowing many of these
substances are included in the Hazardous Ma-

Figure 1.4. Careless disposal or storage of materials can
lead to spontaneous ignition.

Figure 1.5. A hot steampipe can change wood to charcoal,
ignite the charcoal and cause a fire.

Causes and Prevention of Fire Aboard Ship

terials Regulations of the Department of Trans-
portation (DOT), which are enforced by the U.S.
Coast Guard. These regulations may be found in
Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(CFR). Additionally, many items that may ignite
spontaneously are mentioned in the current edi-
tion of the National Fire Protection Association's
(NFPA) Fire Protection Handbook.

Types of Combustible Cargo. Chlorine pro-
duces a violent reaction when it combines with
finely divided metals or certain organic materials,
particularly acetylene, turpentine and gaseous
ammonia. Title 49 CFR 172.101 cautions: "Stow
in well-ventilated space. Stow away from organic
materials."

The metals sodium and potassium react with
water. Hence, 49 CFR 172.101 cautions: "Segre-
gation same as for flammable solids labeled
Dangerous When Wet."

Metal powders such as magnesium, titanium,
calcium and zirconium oxidize rapidly (and pro-
duce heat) in the presence of air and moisture.
Under certain conditions they can produce suffi-
cient heat to ignite. The NFPA cautions "Mois-
ture accelerates oxidation of most metal pow-
ders." In the DOT regulations, metallic aluminum
powder is listed with the following requirements:
"Keep dry. Segregation same as for flammable
solids labeled Dangerous When Wet."

According to the NFPA, dry metal turnings
do not tend to ignite spontaneously. However,
piles of oily metal borings, shavings, turnings and
cuttings have caused fires by igniting spontane-
ously. As in the case of oily rags, heat is produced
by oxidation of the oil within the pile of shavings.
Eventually enough heat is produced and held in
the pile to ignite the most finely divided metal.
Then the coarser shavings and other combustible
materials, if present within the pile, ignite and
compound the fire problem.

Soft coal may heat spontaneously, depending
on several factors.

1 . Geographic origin

2. Moisture content

3. Fineness of particles and ratio of fine parti-
cles to lump coal

4. Chemical makeup, including impurities

5. Whether or not the coal is newly crushed.

Both coal and metal shavings are regulated cargo,
which means they must be handled and trans-
ported according to regulations in Title 49 CFR.
In addition, the following present a danger of
fire through spontaneous heating: alfalfa meal,
charcoal, codliver oil, colors in oil, cornmeal

feeds, fish meal, fish oil, fish scrap, linseed oil,
oiled and varnished fabrics of all kinds, redskin
peanuts, and tung-nut meals. (Note the number
of oils.)

A good rule of thumb in preventing the spon-
taneous ignition of cargo is to separate fibrous
materials from oils. Other methods of preventing
cargo fires are discussed under Cargo Stowage
in this chapter as well as in Chapter 2.

FAULTY ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
AND EQUIPMENT

For properly insulated and wired equipment, elec-
tricity is a safe and convenient source of power.
However, when electrical equipment wears out,
is misused or is poorly wired, it can convert
electrical energy to heat. Then the equipment
becomes a source of ignition and thus a fire
hazard. For this reason, electrical equipment
must be installed, maintained, tested and repaired
in accordance with existing regulations, and only
by qualified personnel.

Replacement Parts and Equipment

Standard residential or industrial electrical equip-
ment does not last very long at sea. The salt air
causes corrosion; the ship's vibration breaks
down the equipment; and the steel hull can cause
erratic operation or short-circuiting. As a result,
the equipment or its wiring may overheat or arc,
causing a fire if flammable materials are located
nearby.

Approved electrical equipment is, however,
specially designed and constructed for shipboard
use. Given reasonable maintenance, it will with-
stand the strenuous conditions at sea. Thus, only
approved replacement parts and equipment
should be installed aboard ship — and only for
the use for which they have been approved. The
chief engineer should be consulted if there are
any doubts concerning the installation, repair,
use, or maintenance of this equipment.

Wiring and Fuses

The insulation on electrical wiring, particularly
the type used for appliances, electric hand tools
and cargo and drop lights, will not last forever.
With age and use, it can become brittle and
crack. It may be rubbed through or broken by
abuse or by the vibration of the vessel. No matter
how it happens, once the insulation is broken,
the bare wire is dangerous. A single exposed wire
can arc to any metal object. If both wires are
exposed, they can touch and cause a short circuit.
Either could produce enough heat to ignite the

8

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

insulation on the wiring or some other nearby
flammable material.

Further, if the fuse or circuit breaker in that
particular circuit is too large, it will not break
the circuit. Instead, an increased current will
flow, and the entire circuit will overheat. Even-
tually the insulation will begin to burn and ignite
combustible material in its vicinity.

This type of fire can be prevented by replacing
wires that have bad insulation and by installing
only fuses and circuit breakers of the proper size
for their circuits.

Jury-Rigging

The "jury-rigging" of electrical outlets to serve
additional appliances, particularly in crew's quar-
ters and galleys, is a dangerous practice (Fig.
1.6). The wiring in every electrical circuit is
designed to carry a certain maximum load. When
this wiring is overloaded with too many operating
appliances, it can overheat and burn its insula-
tion. The hot wiring can also ignite flammable
materials in the area. Cabins have been burned
out by such fires, even though the need for jury-
rigging can easily be avoided by planned use of
appliances.

Exposed Light Bulbs

An exposed, lighted electric bulb can ignite com-
bustible material by direct contact. A number
of shipboard fires have started when a crew mem-
ber left a lamp lit in unoccupied quarters. As the
ship rolled, curtains or other flammable material
came in direct contact with the hot bulb and
ignited. The result in most cases was destruction
of the crew member's quarters.

Figure 1.7. Covers left in place over floodlights can be ig-
nited by the heat of the lamp.

On weather decks, high-intensity floodlights
are usually protected from the elements by can-
vas or plastic covers. The covers are desirable
when the lights are not in use. However, if a
cover is left in place while the light is on, the
heat of the lamp can ignite the material (Fig. 1.7).

Improperly protected drop-light or cargo-light
bulbs could similarly ignite flammable materials,
by contact or by breaking and arcing (Fig. 1.8).
They should never be permitted to burn while
unattended. What appears to be a safe situation
in a calm sea could quickly become dangerous
in a rough sea.

Vaportight Fixtures

Vaportight fixtures are protected against the ef-
fects of sea air. The vapor protection is designed
to keep moisture out, but it also holds heat in.

Figure 1.6. Overloading is dangerous. Only one appliance should be connected to each outlet in an electric circuit.

Causes and Prevention of Fire Aboard Ship

figure 1.8. An unprotected drop-light bulb can easily break,
allowing the live electric circuit to ignite nearby flammable
material.

This causes the insulation to dry out and crack
more rapidly than in standard fixtures. Thus,
vaportight fixtures should be examined frequently
and replaced as required, to prevent short circuits
and possible ignition.

Electric Motors

Faulty electric motors are prime causes of fire.
Problems may result when a motor isn't properly
maintained or when it exceeds its useful life.

Motors require regular inspection, testing, lu-
brication and cleaning. Sparks and arcing may
result if a winding becomes short-circuited or
grounded, or if the brushes do not operate
smoothly. If a spark or an arc is strong enough,
it can ignite nearby combustible material. Lack
of lubrication may cause the motor bearings to
overheat, with the same result. (Lubrication is
discussed further in Chapter 2.)

Engine Rooms

Engine rooms are particularly vulnerable to
electrical hazards. Water dripping from ruptured
sea-water lines can cause severe short-circuiting
and arcing in electric motors, switchboards and
other exposed electrical equipment. This, in turn,
can ignite insulation and nearby combustible ma-
terials. Probably even more serious are ruptured
fuel and lubrication lines above and near electri-
cal equipment. The engineering staff must con-
stantly monitor oil lines for leaks.

Charging Storage Batteries

When storage batteries are being charged, they
emit hydrogen, a highly flammable gas. A mixture
of air and 4.1% to 74.2% hydrogen by volume
is potentially explosive. Hydrogen is lighter than
air and consequently will rise as it is produced.
If ventilation is not provided at the highest point
in the battery charging room, the hydrogen will
collect at the overhead. Then, any source of
ignition will cause an explosion and fire.

To prevent hydrogen fires batteries should be
charged in a well-ventilated area. Smoking and
other sources of ignition should be strictly pro-
hibited. The area should contain no machinery
that might produce sparks.

UNAUTHORIZED CONSTRUCTION

Space for stowage is always at a premium aboard
ship. There should be "a place for everything,
and everything in its place." This in itself is a
fire prevention measure, provided the stowage
is safe to start with. But fires have resulted when
stowed materials came loose and fell or slid across
a deck in rough weather. Loose equipment can
rupture fuel lines, damage essential machinery
and smash electrical equipment, causing short
circuits. In addition, it is difficult and dangerous
to try to gain control of heavy equipment that has
come loose during a heavy sea.

When unskilled personnel attempt to build
stowage facilities, the results are usually less than
satisfactory. In fact, jury-rigged stowage racks
can be extremely dangerous. Generally, they are

10

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Figure 1.9. Unauthorized construction is usually poorly de-
signed and engineered. Materials falling from a jury rigged
stowage rack can damage equipment or cause a fire.

too weak to support the material to be stowed,
or they are poorly designed, so they allow ma-
terial to fall or slide from the structure (Fig. 1.9).
The locations of unauthorized construction proj-
ects are usually chosen without regard for safety.
For example, one of the worst places to stow
angle iron is directly above a large item of electri-
cal machinery, such as a generator; the dangers
are obvious. Yet records show that serious fire
was caused by falling materials in just such a
situation.

CARGO STOWAGE

Even the most dangerous cargo can be trans-
ported safely if it is properly stowed. On the other
hand, supposedly "safe" cargo can cause a fire
if it is stowed carelessly. As noted earlier, shore-
side personnel leave the ship after loading the
holds. Only the crew remains to fight a fire that
is discovered after their ship leaves port. For this
reason, the master or his representative should al-
ways monitor the loading — even when stowage
plans have been prepared in advance by port
personnel prior to the ship's arrival.

Regulated Cargo

Materials carried as cargo aboard vessels can be
divided into two general classifications — regu-
lated cargo and nonregulated cargo. Regulated
cargo is more generally referred to as hazardous
cargo. Rules governing the classification, descrip-
tion, packaging, marking, labeling, handling and
transporting of regulated cargo are given in de-
tail in the Hazardous Materials Regulations, Sub-
chapter C, Title 49, Code of Federal Regulations.

These regulations serve one purpose: to safe-
guard the carrier and its personnel. Ultimately,
the master of the vessel is responsible for com-
pliance with these regulations; however, every
member of the crew should be aware of their
purpose and the consequences of noncompliance.
Among other things, the regulations define very
clearly where dangerous materials may be stowed,
on both passenger and cargo vessels. They in-
clude details concerning segregation from other
cargo, and the proper humidity, temperature and
ventilation.

With few exceptions, hazardous cargo requires
special labels that define the particular hazard.
The labels are discussed in Chapter 2 and shown
in Figure 2.8.

Nonregulated Cargo

Cargo that is not specifically covered by Depart-
ment of Transportation regulations is referred to
as nonregulated cargo. Nonregulated cargo can
present a fire hazard if it or its packing is com-
bustible. It may be subject to spontaneous igni-
tion, and it may be ignited by careless smoking
or faulty electrical equipment. It could then act
as a fuse if hazardous cargo is stowed nearby.

Loading and Unloading

Loading and unloading operations should be
closely supervised by the ship's deck officers.
Leaking cargo should be rejected immediately
(Fig. 1.10); any liquid that has leaked into the
hold should be removed or otherwise rendered
harmless. (Remember, a vegetable oil that leaks
onto baled cotton, rags or other fibrous material
could cause spontaneous ignition.) When cargo
is handled, it should not be allowed to bump
hatch coamings or other cargo, or to land so
heavily in the hold that the packaging is dam-
aged. Such damage could go undetected and
cause serious problems after the ship leaves port.
Even in home ports, loading and unloading
should be carefully observed. In other ports,
especially foreign, vigilance and close monitoring
are of great importance.

Causes and Prevention of Fire Aboard Ship

11

Figure 1.10. Leaking cargo should not be permitted aboard
any vessel.

Shoring

At sea, a ship can move in many different direc-
tions. Proper shoring of cargo to keep it from
shifting in rough seas is, of course, important for
stability. It is also important from a fire safety
standpoint. If stowed cargo is allowed to shift,
hazardous materials that are incompatible can
mix and ignite spontaneously or release flammable
fumes. Further, metal bands on baled goods can
produce sparks as they rub against each other —
and one spark is enough to ignite some fumes.
Heavy machinery, if not properly shored, can
also produce sparks; or it can damage other pack-
aging and thus release hazardous materials. As a
precaution, hazardous material should be in-
spected frequently during the voyage for shifting,
leakage and possible intermixing with other ma-
terials.

Bulk Cargo

Combustible bulk cargo such as grain can be
extremely hazardous if required precautions are
not followed. Title 46 CFR 97.55 outlines the
master's responsibilities in connection with this
type of cargo.

Before loading, the lighting circuits in the
cargo compartments that are to be filled must be

deenergized at the distribution panel or panel
board. A sign warning against energizing these
circuits must be posted at the panel. In addition,
periodic inspections must be made to guard
against reenergizing.

Containers

The loading of containers is, at present, receiving
increased attention. Ship's personnel have little
control over the contents, because they are usu-
ally stuffed many miles from the point where they
are finally loaded aboard ship. This lack of con-
trol makes container safety a matter of great
concern. The following precautions will reduce
the chance of fire involving containers and their
contents.

1 . Containers with hazardous contents should
be stowed aboard the vessel according to
U.S. Coast Guard regulations.

2. If a container shows any sign of leakage or
shifting cargo, it should not be allowed
aboard the vessel.

3. If a container must be opened for any
reason, extreme caution should be used,
in case a potentially dangerous fire condi-
tion has developed inside.

GALLEY OPERATIONS

On a small harbor tug or a large passenger liner,
a ship's galley is a busy place, and it can be a
dangerous place. The intense activity, the many
people, the long hours of operation, and the basic
hazards — open flames, fuel lines, rubbish and
grease accumulations — all add to the danger of
fire due to galley operations. For these reasons,
it is extremely important that the galley never be
left unattended when it is in use.

Energy Sources

For cooking, the most common energy source is
electricity. Diesel oil is used to a lesser degree,
and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is used on
some smaller vessels, such as harbor tugs. Elec-
tric ranges are subject to the same hazards as
other electrical equipment. These include short
circuits, brittle and cracked insulation on wiring,
overloaded circuits and improper repairs.

When liquid fuels are used for cooking, ex-
treme care should be taken to avoid accidental
damage to fuel lines. All personnel should be
alert to leaks in fuel lines and fittings. In the event
of a leak, the proper valves should be closed at
once; repairs should be made by competent per-

12

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

sonnel. Galley personnel should know the loca-
tions of fuel-line shutoff valves. These shutoff
valves must be readily accessible.

Ranges

Ranges present a twofold fire danger: The heat
of the range can cause a galley fire, and its fuel
can be involved in one. Galley personnel should
exercise extreme care when they are in the vicin-
ity of an operating range. Clothing, towels, rags
and other fabric or paper used in the galley can
be ignited through carelessness. No material
should be stowed above a range. At sea, the range
battens should be used at all times (Fig. 1.11).

Pilot lights must be operative, and the main
burners must light when they are turned on.
Otherwise, fumes will leak into the galley, and
any source of ignition will cause an explosion
and fire. If a gas leak is discovered, all burners,
pilot lights and other sources of ignition must be
extinguished; then the emergency shutoff valves
must be closed.

Deep Fryers

Deep fryers can also be a source of both heat and
fuel for a galley fire. They must be used with
caution and monitored carefully during opera-
tion. The fryer should be stationary, so that it
cannot shift with vessel movement. Food that is
too wet should not be placed in the fryer, and
the basket should never be filled so full that the
grease splatters or overflows. Once ignited, the
grease will burn rapidly. Nothing should be
stowed above the fryer. Most important, the fryer
should never be left unattended while it is
operating.

Housekeeping

The activities within a galley generate plenty of
fuel for carelessly caused fires. Thus, good house-

Figure 1.11. When underway, range battens should be
used to keep pots from sliding off the cooking surface.

keeping is of the utmost importance. Used boxes,
bags and paper, and even leftover food, should
be placed in covered, noncombustible refuse cans
where they cannot be ignited by a carelessly dis-
carded butt or match.

Grease accumulations in and around the range,
particularly in the hoods, filters and ductwork,
can fuel a galley fire. If the ductwork becomes
involved and there are heavy grease accumula-
tions, the fire can extend to other areas and decks.
Therefore, hoods, filters and ductwork should
periodically be thoroughly cleaned. Fixed auto-
matic extinguishing systems for ductwork are
extremely valuable and most efficient in extin-
guishing grease fires. Some automatic duct clean-
ing systems are capable of protecting the galley
ductwork from fire (Chapter 9).

FUEL OIL TRANSFER AND
SERVICE OPERATIONS

Fuel oil for the ship's propulsion is stored in double-
bottom tanks, deep tanks, and tanks in the vicinity
of the engine room. The capacity of these tanks
can be as high as 3,800,000 liters (4550 tonnes)
(1,000,000 gal (5000 tons)), depending on the
size of the vessel. The types of fuels most com-
monly used are No. 6 fuel oil, bunker C and
diesel oil. Bunker C and No. 6 fuel oil are both
heavy, tarry substances that require preheating
before they can be transferred or burned. Both
have flash points of approximately 65.6°C
(150°F) and ignition temperatures of 368.3-
407. 2°C (695-765 °F). (See Chapter 4 for the
exact definitions of flash point and ignition tem-
perature.) Double-bottom tanks and deep tanks
are fitted with steampipe grids and coils near the
suction pipe, to preheat the oil. Diesel oil does
not require heating to be transferred and burned.
Its flash point is 43.3°C (110°F), and its ignition
temperature is 260°C (500°F).

Transfer of Fuel

When fuel is taken aboard, it is stored in double-
bottom or deep tanks. If necessary, the fuel is
heated, and then it is pumped to the service tanks
or settling tanks. From there, it moves to a grav-
ity or day tank, or to a fuel oil service pump,
from which it is pumped to the fuel oil burners
or diesel engines.

During this transfer of fuel under pressure, the
liquid fuel itself is not a fire hazard if there are
no mistakes. However, the fuel vapors that may
be given off are very hazardous. Both the over-
filling of fuel tanks and leaks in the transfer sys-
tem can increase the danger of fire.

Causes and Prevention of Fire Aboard Ship

13

T7

OXYGEN-VAfOR
^'.•Uto-RMIX

FUEL LEAK

Electrical Gear

Motor
SOURCE OF IGNITION

Figure 1.12. Fuel line leaks can spray vaporized fuel far enough to be ignited by steam lines or electrical equipment.

Overfilling. If a tank is overfilled, the fuel will
rise through the overflow pipe, and eventually
through the vent pipe that terminates topside.

The engine room crew should monitor the
transfer process carefully and constantly, to pre-
vent overfilling. However, if a tank is overfilled,
strict control of flames, sparks and smoking
should be put into effect until the danger of fire
has passed.

Leaks in the Transfer System. If there is a leak
in the transfer piping, the pressurized fuel will be
sprayed out through the break. Spraying tends to
vaporize the fuel, and the vapors are easily ig-
nited. Thus, line breaks can be very hazardous if
there are steam pipes, electric motors, electric
panel boards and so forth in the area (Fig. 1.12).
(This is also true of lubricating oil leaks near
steam pipes). A diesel oil line break resulted in a
serious engine room fire in a passenger liner in
New York harbor several years ago. (See SS
Hanseatic, Chapter 3.) It spread upward from the
engine room and involved every deck of the
vessel.

Before fuel is transferred, the system should be
checked to ensure that strainers are in place and
all flanged joints are properly tightened. During
the pumping, the system should be continuously
checked for leaks.

Oil Burner Maintenance

For proper atomization and operation, oil burner
tips require regular cleaning and maintenance.
An improperly operating oil burner tip can cause
incomplete burning of the fuel and a buildup of
unburned fuel in the windbox of the boiler. This
fuel will eventually ignite. If sufficient fuel is
present, the flames can spread away from the
boiler and involve other materials and equipment.
Oil burner tips should therefore be cleaned and

maintained regularly. They should be installed
with care, since improper installation can also
cause fuel buildup and ignition.

Bilge Area

Fires occur in bilge areas because of excess accu-
mulations of oil. Most often, the oil leaks into the
bilge from an undetected break in a fuel or lube-
oil line. The oil vaporizes, and the flammable
vapors build up in and around the bilge area.
Once these vapors are mixed with air in the right
proportion, a carelessly discarded cigarette or
cigar butt, a match or a spark can ignite them
and cause a fire (Fig. 1.13). Bilge fires can move
very quickly around machinery and piping, and
for this reason they are not easily controlled. They
are more difficult to extinguish than most engine
and boiler room fires.

Bilge areas should be watched closely. Excess
oil almost always indicates a leak, and the oil
lines should be checked until it is found. Oil/
water bilge separators should also be checked
frequently to prevent overflow, which can also
be a source of large accumulations of oil in the
bilges.

WELDING AND BURNING
OPERATIONS

Welding and burning operations are hazardous
by their very nature. This can best be appreciated
by noting that the flame from an oxyacetylene
torch can reach a temperature of 3315.5°C
(6000°F).

Welding temperatures are reached either by
burning a mixture of gas and oxygen or by using
electricity. The most common welding gas is
acetylene; others include hydrogen, LPG and
natural gas. In electric welding, commonly called

14

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Figure 1.13. A disastrous combination not uncommon on vessels: Fuel from a leaking line collects in the bilge. Combustible
fuel vapors from the bilge mix with air as they move toward the arcing motor. Ignition of the fumes by the motor can cause
an explosion followed by fire.

arc welding, the required heat is produced by an
electric arc that is formed at the workpiece. In
either type of welding, dangerous, high-tempera-
ture sparks and slag are thrown off.

Burning is a gas-fueled operation and is more
hazardous than welding. In gas burning, or gas
cutting, the temperature of the metal is raised to
the ignition point, and a jet of oxygen is intro-
duced. This forms a metal oxide which melts,
and the oxygen jet removes the molten metal.

Unsafe Burning and Welding Practices

The high temperatures, molten metal and sparks
produced in welding and burning operations can
be an extremely serious fire hazard. During these
operations, shipboard fires may be caused by the
following.

1 . Failure to provide a competent fire watch
in the immediate work area, below the
work area and on the opposite side of a
bulkhead that is being welded or burned.
The fire watch should have no other duties
and should inspect and reinspect the area
for at least one-half hour after the opera-
tion. This is crucial, as hot metal and slag
retain heat for a long time.

2. Failure to move combustible materials (or
to protect them if they cannot be moved).
Materials in the work area and the areas
below deck and on the opposite side of a
bulkhead should all be protected (Fig.
1.14). Hot sparks and slag can travel great
distances, and heat moves quickly through
metal decks and bulkheads.

Figure 1.14. Failure to remove combustible materials or to establish a fire watch are major causes of fires during burning and
welding operations.

Causes ami Prevention of Fire Aboard Ship

15

3. Burning near heavy concentration of dust
or combustible vapors such as those
emitted by fuel oil, lubricating oil and
other flammable liquids.

4. Failure to remove flammable vapors,
liquids or solids from a container, pipe or
similar workpiece and to obtain the proper
clearance (including a certificate) from an
NFPA-certified marine chemist or an
officially designated "competent person."

5. Failure to have the proper type of fire ex-
tinguisher at the scene, along with a hose-
line charged with water to the nozzle and
ready for immediate use.

6. Failure to secure oxygen and gas cylin-
ders in an upright position.

7. Failure to protect the gas and oxygen
hoses from mechanical damage, or dam-
age from the the flying sparks, slag and
hot metal resulting from the operation.

8. Failure to provide a shutoff valve for gases
outside a confined space.

9. Failure to remove hoses from confined
spaces when the torches have been dis-
connected.

Safety Measures

Equipment and Personnel. Welding and burn-
ing equipment should be of an approved type and
in good repair. Oxygen and gas cylinders are
equipped with regulators that prevent excess
pressures and provide for proper mixing of oxy-
gen and gas. These regulators should, therefore,
be handled with extreme care. Only standard gas
hoses (oxygen is green, and acetylene, red) and
fittings should be used. Repairs should not be
improvised (as in the use of tape to seal a leak in
a line), and all gas line connections should be
tight.

Because welding and burning are hazardous
operations, only well-trained, qualified operators
should be permitted to handle the equipment. Be-
fore allowing the work to begin, the master or his
representative should ensure that the person using
the equipment — either crewman or shoreside
worker — has the proper knowledge and experi-
ence. Welding-permit laws and other local regu-
lations can be of aid in determining whether an
operator is qualified. In any case, it is important
to remember that a safe welding or burning op-
eration begins with a qualified operator and prop-
erly maintained equipment.

Federal Regulations. Welding and burning op-
erations are well regulated, but regulations do
not ensure safety unless they are complied with.
Title 33 CFR 126.15(c), Subchapter L, states
that:

Oxyacetylene or similar welding or burning or
other hot work including electric welding or the
operation of equipment is prohibited on waterfront
facilities or on vessels moored thereto, during the
handling, storing, stowing, loading, discharging, or
transporting of explosives. Such work may not be
conducted on waterfront facilities or vessels
moored thereto while either the facility or vessel
is handling, storing, stowing, loading, discharging,
or transporting dangerous cargo without the spe-
cific approval of the Captain of the Port.

Approval of the U.S. Coast Guard is granted by
the issuance of a Welding and Hot- Work Permit.
formCG-4201 (Fig. 1.15).

Additional safety and fire prevention require-
ments for welding and burning are included in
Title 29 of the Safety and Health Regulations for
Maritime Employment of the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) of the De-
partment of Labor, Section 1915.32. These regu-
lations are primarily for the protection of per-
sonnel. However, they include many of the re-
strictions and precautions that are part of the
U.S. Coast Guard Welding and Hot-Work Per-
mit.

Local Regulations. Many port communities in
the United States have strict regulations govern-
ing welding and burning. The requirements of
some communities are more severe than federal
regulations. In some cities, workmen must pass
qualifying examinations before they are licensed
to operate burning equipment. Therefore, in the
interest of safety, it is a good idea to check local
regulations before permitting shoreside workers
aboard for welding or burning operations.

The issuance of a permit means only that the
hot work may be performed, not that it will be
done safely. For that, the operator and his assist-
ants must comply with all the safety requirements
that are part of the permit. Fire prevention pro-
cedures and common sense must be an integral
part of every welding or burning operation. No
welding or burning should be performed by
shoreside workers or crew members without the
knowledge and approval of the master or his rep-
resentative, who should ensure that safety regu-
lations are followed.

16

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

DEPARTMENT OF
TRANSPORTATION
U. S. COAST GUARD
CG-4201 (Rev, 11-70)

WELDING AND HOT-WORK PERMIT

(Electric Welding, Oxyacelylene Welding, Burning
and Other Hot-Work)

CAPTAIN OF THE PORT,
U.S. COAST GUARD

PERMIT NUMBER

This permit, issued in accordance with 33 CFR 126.15(c), authorizes the below described welding, burning or other hot-work
to be performed on the waterfront facility or on vessels moored thereto while dangerous cargo other than explosives is being
handled, stored, stowed, loaded, or discharged there, subject to the requirements listed hereafter.

DESCRIPTION OF WORK

FROM

A qualified operator shall be in charge.

All persons using any welding or hot-work equipment shall be fully qualified in its use and associated safety procedures.

All equipment shall be in good condition.

Oxygen and acetylene cylinders shall be placed in an upright position and properly secured. Hose shall be free of leaks.

In confined spaces mechanical ventilating equipment shall be supplied to exhaust fumes to the outer atmosphere.

Each electric welding machine shall be properly grounded to prevent arcing.

Welding machines driven by liquid fuel shall be equipped with drip pans and shall be fueled off the pier.

All flooring in the area of operation shall be swept clean. Wooden planking shall be wet down.

All combustible material shall be removed 30 feet from the work area or protected with an approved covering such as,
asbestos, baffles, metal guards, or flameproof tarpaulins.

The welding foreman and the pier superintendent or his authorized representative shall make a joint inspection of the
area and adjoining areas before any hot-work is started.

The pier superintendent or his authorized representative shall notify the welder of all fire hazards in the area.

A competent fire watch shall be maintained and, if the hot-work is on the boundary of a compartment (i.e., bulkhead,
wall or deck) an additional fire watch shall be stationed in the adjoining compartment.

The fire watch shall have immediately available at least one UL approved fire extinguisher containing an agent appropri-
ate to existing conditions. The minimum rating of the extinguisher shall be not less than 4A or 4B as defined by National
Fire Code 10. A fire hose shall be available, already led out, and with pressure at the nozzle.

Fire watches shall have no duties except to watch for the presence of fire and to prevent the development of hazardous
conditions. The fire watch shall be maintained for at least one half hour after completion of the hot-work.

Flammable vapors, liquids or solids must first be completely removed from any container, pipe or transfer line subject
to hot-work. Tanks used for storage of volatile substances must be tested and certified gas free prior to starting hot-work.
Proper safety precautions in relation to purging, inerting, or venting shall be followed f"r hot-work on containers.

All safe practices, local laws and ordinances shall be observed. See NATIONAL FIRE CODE 5 IB.
In case of fire or other hazard, all equipment shall be completely secured.

ADOITIONAt SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS

DATE

ISSUED IY

I acknowledge receipt of this welding and hot-work permit and agree to comply and to require my employees to comply with
its requirements. I understand that failure to comply with these requirements will result in cancellation of the permit and may
subject the responsible person to the penalties prescribed by Section 2, Title II of the Act of June 15, 1917 as amended (50 USC
192) I FURTHER UNDERSTAND THAT THIS PERMIT IS NOT VALID AND THAT NO WELDING, BURNING, OR
OTHER HOT- WORK MAY BE UNDERTAKEN WHEN ANY EXPLOSIVES ARE BEING HANDLED, LOADED, DIS-
CHARGED, OR STORED ON THE WATERFRONT FACILITY OR ON VESSELS MOORED THERETO.

DATE

L

SIGNATURE

GPO 947-574

PREVIOUS EDITION MAY BE USED

U.S. Coast Guard Welding and Hot-Work Permit, form CG-4201.

but it is not excusable. Their indifferent attitude
and lack of interest in fire prevention measures
can result in shipboard fires. This must be com-
pensated for by extremely close supervision and
extraordinary alertness on the part of the crew.

Figure 1.15

SHORESIDE WORKERS ABOARD FOR
CARGO MOVEMENT, REPAIR
AND MAINTENANCE

Generally, shoreside personnel do not have as
much concern for, or interest in, the vessel as do
members of the crew. This is perhaps understand-
able, because many shoreside workers do not
fully realize the dangers involved in a fire at sea,

Cargo Movement

Because of the frequency with which they come
aboard, the nature of their duties, their access to

Causes and Prevention of Fire Aboard Ship

17

the ship's holds and the materials they handle,
longshoremen require the closest supervision. The
hazards involved in cargo handling have already
been discussed, but they are important enough to
be repeated here:

1 . Careless and illegal smoking in the hold or
on deck during loading and unloading.

2. Careless discarding of butts and matches.

3. Careless handling of cargo and the loading
of damaged cargo.

4. Improper stowage of cargo so as to cause
shifting under rough sea conditions. This
is particularly dangerous if two types of
cargo are incompatible and can ignite
spontaneously when mixed.

Repairs and Maintenance

Contractors who come aboard to do repair work,
particularly welding and burning, also require
close and intensive supervision. The safety meas-
ures discussed in the previous section should be
followed, and crew members should be assigned
to watch for and report any of the unsafe prac-
tices listed there.

Any repair contractors or individuals who
come aboard should be suspect, wherever their
work is to be done. A member of the crew should
be assigned to accompany every work party. The
following are among the general safety precau-
tions the crew should take.

1. Monitor the observance of No Smoking
regulations.

2. Thoroughly test any machinery or equip-
ment that has been worked on by a con-
tractor. Improperly repaired equipment,
particularly electrical equipment, can be
a source of later trouble.

3. Check handheld power tools for the proper
type of grounding plug and for frayed
wiring.

4. Ensure that the work area is free of com-
bustible rubbish and waste material when
the job is completed.

5. If any fixed fire extinguishing system has
been repaired check that the repairs were
done properly.

Shoreside personnel who are working aboard
should never be left unsupervised. Again we note
that it is the ship's crew that is endangered by a
fire at sea. Therefore, it is the ship's crew that
must assume the responsibility for seeing that
fire prevention procedures are followed by ship-
board workers.

SHIPYARD OPERATIONS

The hazards of shipyard operations are closely
related to the hazards of repair operations per-
formed by shoreside workers, but on a much
larger scale. A vessel is normally placed in a ship-
yard for major repairs, refitting or conversion —
operations beyond the capability of the crew.
Thus, the ship may be swarmed with shoreside
workers, whose poor housekeeping habits and
indifferent attitude can contribute to the fire haz-
ards. In addition, shipyard work usually implies
that:

• Welding and burning operations are being
performed throughout the ship.

• Fire detection and extinguishing systems
may be temporarily shut down for modifi-
cation or to allow other repair operations.

• Very few crew members remain on board to
monitor the observance of safety precau-
tions by workers.

Coast Guard and OSHA Regulations

All this adds up to a different situation in terms
of fire prevention, both in the shipyard and at
sea. However, the picture is not completely bleak.
United States Coast Guard and OSHA regulations
provide some protection during shipyard opera-
tions.

The U.S. Coast Guard regulations are aimed at
ensuring the safety of the ship, as far as is pos-
sible. They require that the Coast Guard also be
notified before anyone makes any repairs that
affect the ship's safety, and drawings must be
submitted before any alteration work is begun.
No exception is made for emergency repairs, even
if they are performed in a foreign shipyard.

The OSHA regulations are primarily for the
protection of employees. Fire safety is only one
part of the overall safety picture, but an impor-
tant one. The regulations include safety require-
ments for shipyards and personnel engaged in
ship repairs. They make excellent reference ma-
terial for officers.

Hazardous Practices

As mentioned earlier, the existence of regulations
does not ensure that they will be followed.
Through carelessness, indifference, lack of knowl-
edge, oversight or deliberate violation of the regu-
lations, hazardous conditions can be created at
shipyards. Among the practices that can lead to
such conditions are:

18

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

1. Drydocking the vessel or making major
alterations without prior U.S. Coast Guard
approval, or not requesting an inspection
following repairs or alterations.

2. Installation of unapproved or substandard
equipment, not designed for use aboard
ship.

3. Improper or poor workmanship on bulk-
heads and decking, which destroys their
resistance to fire.

4. Concealing poor repairs to tanks, bulk-
heads and so forth by conducting inade-
quate pressure tests.

5. Failure to complete repairs on the firemain
system or CO2 system before the vessel
leaves the shipyard.

6. Failure to replace watertight doors follow-
ing repairs, or making openings in bulk-
heads, in violation of fire safety standards.

7. Failure to take the proper precautions to
free tanks and piping of flammable gas be-
fore welding or burning.

8. Dismantling fuel pipes that are under pres-
sure.

9. Improper electrical wiring practices, such
as

a. Using wire of a gauge insufficient to
carry the intended load.

b. Bypassing overload protection.

c. Running wires through bilges or other
areas in the vicinity of water piping.

If this list makes you feel uncomfortable, then it
has served at least part of its purpose. The crew's
only defense against such practices is vigilance —
while the work is being done, immediately after
it is completed, and for as long as the ship is in
service.

TANKER LOADING AND DISCHARGING
OPERATIONS

Each year billions of gallons of flammable and
combustible liquid cargo move into our ports and
on the waters of the United States. They repre-
sent the most important commodity moved by
vessel. For example, no other cargo has as much
financial impact or is so vital to our national
economy as petroleum products. Yet, these prod-
ucts are extremely hazardous to transport and
transfer.

Responsibilities

The movement of combustible or flammable cargo
from ship to shore, shore to ship, or ship to ship

is an awesome responsibility. Carelessness, neg-
lect, inattention to duties, poor equipment or
violation of the regulations can have dire conse-
quences. Tanker accidents have led to the destruc-
tion of vessels and the loss of lives; the resulting
fires and explosions have been of such severity
that shoreside installations have also been seri-
ously affected. The licensed officer or tanker-
man as the person-in-charge must, therefore,
know his duties and responsibilities and dis-
charge them to the letter.

The rules and regulations governing the opera-
tion of tank vessels are contained in Title 46 CFR,
Parts 30-40 inclusive, Subchapter D, Chapter I.
For convenience, they have been extracted and
published in Coast Guard manual CG-123, which
also includes Parts 154-156 of Title 33 CFR
(Pollution Prevention Regulations). Other excel-
lent sources of information (required reading for
tanker officers) are listed in the bibliography at
the end of this chapter. (In reading this material,
it is important to note that the terms "flammable"
and "inflammable" are used interchangeably in
the U.S. Coast Guard regulations.)

Title 33 CFR 156.150 requires that the per-
sons-in-charge jointly and independently inspect
both the vessel and the shoreside facility before
any combustible or flammable liquid or other
hazardous products are transferred. This is a very
formal inspection during which a form containing
22 items must be completed and signed by both
parties.

Hazardous Liquids

Over 500 types of flammable and combustible
liquids and liquefied gases are carried as cargo
on inland and ocean-going vessels. The regula-
tions define these products as follows.

Combustible Liquid: Any liquid having a flash
point above 26.7°C (80°F). There are two grades
within this category: 1) Grade D — any com-
bustible liquid having a flash point above 26,7°F
(80°F) and below 65.5°C (150°F), and 2) Grade
E — any combustible liquid having a flash point
of 65.6°C (150°F) or above.

Flammable Liquids: Any liquid that gives off
flammable vapors at or below a temperature of
26.7 °C (80°F) as determined by flash point with
an open-cup tester, used for testing burning oils.
There are three grades within this category: 1)
Grade A — any flammable liquid having a Reid

Causes and Prevention of Fire Aboard Ship

19

vapor pressure* of 96.5 kilopascals (14 psia) or
more; 2) Grade B — any flammable liquid hav-
ing a Reid vapor pressure above 58.6 kilopascals
(8.5 psia) and below 96.5 kilopascals (14 psia);
and 3) Grade C — any flammable liquid having a
Reid vapor pressure of 58.6 kilopascals (8.5 psia)
or less and a flash point of 26.6°C (80°F) or
below.

Causes of Tanker Fires

The following errors or omissions could result in
fire and explosion during the movement of com-
bustible and flammable liquids.

Improper Fendering. Improper or inadequate
tendering can generate sparks. This is particu-
larly true during vessel-to-vessel operations. Since
the vapors given off by petroleum products are
heavier than air, they tend to drift down to the
water. There they can be ignited by sparks caused
by metal-to-metal contact.

Lack of Coordination During Transfers. Every
transfer should be well planned, with close co-
ordination throughout the operation. No transfer
operation can begin without a person-in-charge
at each end of the operation. Emergency shut-
downs and the means of communication between
persons-in-charge must be tested and found in
order before the transfer is started. The person-
in-charge on the vessel must be able to shut down
the flow or request shutdown through a communi-
cation system that is used for no other purpose.
Emergency shutdowns must be provided on the
vessel.

Transfer systems are only as effective as the
people who are charged with the responsibility
for using them. Even a momentary lapse can per-
mit an overflow with resultant spill on the vessel,
at the terminal, in the water or at all three loca-
tions.

Cargo Expansion. Another cause of overflows
is failure to allow for expansion of the product
caused by temperature increases. There are tables
that can be checked for the proper fill levels,
when a vessel is headed for a warmer climate.
These tables should be consulted to ensure that
tanks are not overfilled.

Pump Room Hazards. Because it is subject to
vapor accumulation, the pump room is the most
hazardous area on a tank vessel. To ensure that
vapors are removed during loading or unloading,
the vent systems in pump rooms should be op-
erated continuously. As a safety precaution, be
sure the vent system is working before entering a
pump room. No repair work should be permitted
in the pump room unless absolutely necessary.
In fact, proper maintenance will help to avoid
both repairs and vapor accumulation through
leaks in piping and pump seals. Any piece of
equipment that might cause a spark should, of
course, be prohibited, because of the possibility
of ignition of vapor accumulations. This includes
spark-producing tools, unapproved electrical
equipment, and flashlights. Bilge areas should be
well maintained and kept free of flammable ma-
terials. Smoking in the pump room would be in-
viting disaster.

r

Ship Connection

Cargo Hose from Dock

Spill Containment Tank

Figure 1.16. An electrical bond between the vessel and the shoreside facility (right) prevents sparks caused by static electricity
(left). The bonding should be completed before the cargo hose is connected to the shore connector.

*The Reid vapor pressure is a measure of the vola-
tility, or tendency to vaporize, of a liquid. A small
amount of the liquid is placed in a container that has a

pressure gauge. The container is closed tightly, the liquid
is heated to 37.8°C (100°F), and the pressure in the
vapor above the liquid is read on the gauge.

20

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Static Electricity. Static electricity is not an ob-
vious cause of fire, but it is dangerous. Thus, pre-
cautions must be taken to prevent the generation
of static sparks. During transfers, the usual
method is to provide an electrical bond between
the vessel and the shoreside facility (Fig. 1.16).
This can be done in several ways, and the per-
sons-in-charge are responsible for ensuring that
it is done properly.

Certain cargos such as kerosene jet fuels and
distillate oils can generate static electricity as
they are moved. Water suspended in these cargos
increases the possibility of static spark genera-
tion. To reduce the hazard, the operation should
be started with a low loading rate. This permits
the water to settle to the bottom of a tank more
easily. The use of steel ullage tapes, metal sam-
pling cans and metal sounding rods should be
avoided when these static-producing cargos are
being loaded. Only nonconductive devices should
be used until the tanks have been topped off for
at least 30 minutes. This waiting time permits
suspended water to settle and static electricity
to dissipate.

Oil that is splashed or sprayed may become
electrostatically charged. For this reason, oil
should never be loaded into a tank through an
open hose. Oil splashing about the opening could
generate static electricity.

Open Flames or Sparks. Ignition of flammable
vapors by an open flame or a spark is the most
obvious fire hazard during transfer operations.
Some sources of sparks and flames are:

• Smoking and matches

• Boiler and galley fires

• Ship's radio equipment

• Welding and burning

• Machinery operation

• Electrical equipment in living quarters

• Unapproved flashlights or portable electrical
equipment

• Sharp abrasion of ferrous metal.

The ship's person-in-charge is responsible for
ensuring the safety of the transfer operation. This
responsibility extends to areas around the ship,
as well as to shore installations and other vessels.
It includes the posting of signs indicating when
radio equipment and boiler and galley fires may
operate; the control of, and granting of, permis-
sion for hot work and other repair work; the se-
curing of ventilation and air-conditioning intakes;

and the securing of doors and ports on or facing
cargo-tank areas. The entire crew is required to
cooperate with the person-in-charge during trans-
fer procedures.

Improper Use of Cargo Hose. Either the vessel
or the shoreside facility may supply the hose
used in a transfer. However, both persons-in-
charge must inspect it to ensure its quality and
stability. The importance of this inspection is
obvious. If the hose is in good condition, the fol-
lowing precautions should be taken to prevent
its rupturing during the transfer.

1. Position the hose so it cannot be pinched
between the vessel and the dock.

2. Allow sufficient slack for tide conditions
and lightening of the load.

3. Do not place the hose near a hot surface.

4. Support the hose properly, to prevent
chafing.

5. Inspect the hose for leaks frequently dur-
ing the transfer, and be prepared to shut
down if necessary.

Vessel-to-Vessel Transfers

When vessel-to-vessel transfers are under way,
several additional precautions must be taken.

1. Adequate fendering must be provided.

2. Changes in weather, sea and current con-
ditions must be anticipated.

3. There must be a clear understanding as to
which vessel is in charge of the operation.

4. The effect of drifting vapors on both ves-
sels must be considered.

Cargo Heating System

High-viscosity cargos become so thick at low
temperatures that heating is required before they
can be pumped. The liquids are heated by steam
pipes or coils that run through the bottoms of
the tanks. The temperature to which they are
heated is critical. Overheating can be hazardous,
since dangerous flammable gases can be gen-
erated and released.

The tank heating system must be well main-
tained. A steam leak at the tank bottom can lead
to the same problem as overheating — chemical
reactions and the production of dangerous flam-
mable gases. The cargo could also leak into the
steam coils, with equally dangerous results. Title
46 CFR limits the heating of fuel oil in storage
tanks to a maximum of 48.9°C (120°F).

Causes and Prevention of Fire Aboard Ship

21

COLLISIONS

Fires caused by collisions, particularly when
tankers were involved, have resulted in serious
damage and great losses of property and life.
Some of these incidents were beyond the capacity
of the crew to prevent. However, many impor-
tant lessons have been learned; as a result of
these lessons, it is expected that the incidence of
these casualties will be reduced in the future.

No incident aboard ship emphasizes the im-
portance of training and organization more than a
collision followed by fire. The crew is faced with

multiple problems: control of the vessel, control
of the fire, and institution of damage control pro-
cedures after determination of the most imme-
diate danger to the vessel. Ship's officers must en-
sure that all crew members know their duties in
accordance with the station bill and know how
to perform these duties.

If the fire cannot be controlled but stability is
not a problem, it may be possible to take refuge
aboard the ship, especially if assistance is not too
far away. Previous drills and training will reduce
the hazards of abandoning ship, if that procedure
becomes necessary.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CG-174, A Manual for the Safe Handling of Inflam-
mable and Combustible Liquids and Other Haz-
ardous Products

CG-329, Fire Fighting Manual for Tank Vessels

CG-388, Chemical Data Guide for Bulk Shipment
by Water

CG-446-1, Chemical Hazards Response Informa-
tion System (CHRIS), A condensed guide to
chemical hazards

fire Prevention
Programs

If most shipboard fires can be prevented, then
who is responsible for preventing them? The an-
swer is that fire prevention is the shared duty of
each and every member of the crew — not just the
master, or the chief engineer, or any particular
individual or group of individuals. No fire pre-
vention effort or program can be successful unless
it involves everyone aboard ship.

Fire prevention is not easily defined, perhaps
because it is primarily a matter of attitude, and
its benefits are not easy to measure until after
they are lost. For these reasons fire prevention is
difficult to sell, and it requires continuing effort
and strong guidance and leadership.

Every seaman probably fears the consequences
of a serious fire at sea, but, unfortunately, aware-
ness of the possibility of fire does not always lead
to the attitudes and actions necessary to prevent
it. Some individuals may be sensitive to the
hazards of fire and to the means of preventing it.
Others may be completely irresponsible, perhaps
because of indifference; only good luck keeps
these people from becoming victims of their own
carelessness. Somewhere between these extremes
is the majority who are in some respects very
careful — in others, foolishly careless — perhaps
from lack of knowledge.

Each member of the crew should analyze his
own attitude toward safety, and toward fire pre-
vention in particular. This may only require the
answers to two simple questions: "Do I know the
causes of shipboard fires?" "Have I considered
the damage and loss of life that can result from a
fire?" A carefully planned and conducted fire
prevention program can help ensure that both
questions are answered with a strong, uncondi-
tional "yes."

RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE PROGRAM

(WHAT WE OWE EACH OTHER)

We have noted that every crew member is re-
sponsible for the prevention of fire aboard ship.
Similarly, every crew member has a role in the
ship's fire prevention program. Because attitude
is so much a part of fire prevention, it is also a
most important part of the fire prevention pro-
gram. To a great extent, the attitude of the crew
will reflect that of the master.

The Responsibilities of the Master

The master of a vessel is responsible for develop-
ing the attitudes and cooperation required for the
best operation of his ship. This responsibility
obviously extends to fire safety. During formal
meetings, informal discussions, casual conversa-
tions and training sessions, the master should
convey his concern for fire prevention. There
should be no doubt that he wants a fire-safe ship,
and that he expects every member of the crew to
assist in reaching this goal.

In most cases, the ship's safety committee will
develop and implement the formal aspects of
the fire prevention program. The master should
participate in the management of this committee.
He should contribute to its agenda and approve
its programs. Most important, he must exhibit
his continued interest, without which no program
can be effective.

The Role of Supervisory Personnel

Department heads should take an active part in
the work of the safety committee since they are
responsible for the actions of the personnel under
their supervision. Initially, they should evaluate

23

24

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Figure 2.1. On-the-job training gives supervisory personnel the opportunity to teach safe practices. It ensures that crewmen
get correct information, and it establishes an avenue of communication.

each subordinate for fire prevention attitude and
level of training. This evaluation is especially
important when there is a high turnover of crew
personnel.

Daily on-the-job training and supervision will
help develop good attitudes and habits in sub-
ordinates. These are probably the most effective
means of communicating the details of the fire
prevention program. Informal instructional ses-
sions, given during the actual performance of
routine duties, can be valuable learning experi-
ences (Fig. 2.1). Unsafe actions may be corrected
immediately, so that they do not become unsafe
habits. Where needed, repeated corrections will
reinforce the learning process.

Day-to-day training also provides an excellent
opportunity for teaching (and learning) how reg-
ulations are developed to minimize fire hazards,
and why they must be a part of the ship's fire
prevention program. Often a crewman's duties
will include the operation of equipment. Com-
petence in its use and handling should be en-
couraged and checked, particularly as it relates
to fire safety.

Supervisors should try to instill in subordinates
a sense of pride in earning and maintaining a

fire-safe record. This can develop unity among
the crew and help bring a new crewman
"aboard." At the same time, it tends to motivate
individual crewmen to think in terms of fire
safety and to incorporate this thinking in their
actions.

It is important for department heads to keep up
to date on the causes of recent fires aboard ves-
sels. Then, if a crewman is observed doing some-
thing that once resulted in a fire, the supervisor
can immediately call this fact to his attention.
This is practical fire prevention at its best.

Responsibilities of Crewmen

The details of shipboard operation are the re-
sponsibility of the crew, and fire prevention duties
are no exception. Every crewman is responsible
for eliminating or reporting hazardous conditions
in his quarters, his work area and wherever else
he may find them. Crewmen are responsible for
safely operating the ship's equipment. When a
crewman is assigned to operate machinery with
which he is not familiar, he should ask for in-
struction in its use; his inability to operate the
equipment could cause an accident resulting in
fire or injuries.

Fire Prevention Programs

25

Perhaps the most important responsibility of
crewmen in a fire prevention program is to de-
velop and maintain the proper attitude. The
crewmen who are interested and involved in the
program will make it work. They will learn well
and operate well, individually and as a crew, to
prevent fires aboard their ship. The crewmen who
are indifferent to the program will soon be won-
dering why so many fires "happen" on their ship.

ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE PROGRAMS

To be successful a fire prevention program must
be carefully planned and structured. The details
of the program should be tailored to the ship for
which it is developed. Thus the fire prevention
program for a tug would be much less formal
than that for a tank vessel; but each program
would reflect the master's concern for fire safety,
be developed by the safety committee, be con-
ducted by the master and department heads and
receive the high priority that it merits.

On any vessel, the fire prevention program
should include the following elements:

1 . Formal and informal training

2. Periodic inspections

3. Preventive maintenance and repair

4. Recognition of effort.

These are discussed in some detail in the re-
mainder of this chapter. First, however, it is im-
portant to emphasize that the fire prevention
program itself should be the subject of continual
review by the master and the safety committee.
Both the scope and the conduct of the program
should be modified as necessary to improve fire
safety. That is, the safety committee cannot relax
once they have developed and implemented a fire
prevention program. They should question their
program every time an unsafe situation is discov-
ered, and extend the program to ensure that such
a situation cannot occur again. To wait until a
fire breaks out is to await disaster.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL TRAINING

The education of crew members may be difficult
and, at times, frustrating, but it is a most impor-
tant factor in any fire prevention program. It must
be a continuing process that includes both formal
training sessions and informal discussions. No
opportunity should be missed and no effort spared
to develop an awareness of fire safety. The ob-
jective of this training should be to teach every
crew member to think fire prevention, before,

Figure 2.2. Formal training sessions are the foundation of
a fire prevention program.

during and after every action. Each crewman
must ask himself, "Is it safe? Could it cause a
fire?" This attitude toward fire prevention might
be called "taking one second for safety."

Formal Training Sessions

Formal training sessions should be conducted on
a regular basis during each voyage (Fig. 2.2). For
the benefit of new crew members, it is essential
that these training sessions be started as soon as
possible. Until the first session can be held, de-
partment heads should convey the master's atti-
tude toward fire safety to their subordinates.

The safety committee should plan and sched-
ule the formal training sessions. (This book could
serve as the basis for the fire prevention curricu-
lum.) In addition, each vessel should build its
own fire prevention and firefighting library, and
crew members should be encouraged to use it.
The library should be kept current to promote
its use. Some of the publications listed in the
bibliographies in this book would be excellent
additions to such a library.

Training aids, films, slides and the new video
tape cassettes (when available) should be used to
add interest to the sessions. While repetition is
sometimes necessary, it should be avoided when-
ever possible. People lose interest in (and pay
little attention to) material that is presented over
and over again in the same way. The sessions
should vary as to topics, presentation and ap-
proach as much as possible. Practice sessions
(equipment maintenance and inspections, for ex-
ample) should be scheduled along with the re-
quired drills. They will help relieve the sameness
of "sit-down" training sessions.

Schedules should be posted in advance. Ses-
sions should be held at different times of day (for
example, morning and afternoon) so that all

26

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

watches can be accommodated. Total participa-
tion is just as important to these training ses-
sions as it is to the overall fire prevention pro-
gram.

Informal Training

Informal training can be a very effective teaching
tool. When crewmen talk things over in a relaxed
atmosphere, everyone gets a chance to speak and
to listen. There is a free interchange of informa-
tion and ideas (Fig. 2.3). This can lead to a better
understanding of the responsibilities of crew
members relative to their specific skills, the gen-
eral safety of the ship and fire prevention in
particular.

Visual reminders, posters, warning signs
and personal messages to the crew can also be
effective informal education media. Here again,
it is important to vary the message and the media.
The same posters or messages left in the same
locations week after week indicate a lack of in-
terest on the part of the program's planners. This
lack of interest can easily become contagious.

Training Curriculum

The training should be focused primarily on the
prevention of fires. A secondary goal should be
to teach the crew how to isolate and then extin-
guish small fires. Toward these ends, the curricu-
lum should include the following eight topics.

Theory of Fire. When they understand what
fire is, crewman are better equipped to prevent
it. {See Chapter 4 for a discussion on fire theory.)

Classes of Fires. The importance of this topic
stems from the fact that different classes of fires
(that is, different flammable materials) require
different extinguishing agents. {See Chapter 5 for
a discussion of classes of fires.)

Maintenance and Use of Portable Fire Extin-
guishers. Portable fire extinguishers can con-

trol a fairly large fire if they are used promptly
and properly. Through training, crewmen should
develop confidence in these appliances. They
should check to see that fire extinguishers are in
their proper places, in good condition and ready
for use. Additionally, every crew member should
be absolutely certain about the proper use of the
different types of extinguishers. {See Chapter 7
for a discussion of portable fire extinguishers. See
Chapter 8 for a discussion of extinguishing agents
used in portable appliances.)

Good Housekeeping. Basically this means
cleanliness. However, from the fire prevention
standpoint it means the elimination of sources of
fuel for fires, that is, the elimination of fire
"breeding grounds." {See Chapter 1 for a discus-
sion of some potential fire hazards.) These and
other housekeeping problem areas are listed be-
low. Almost every one of them can be elimi-
nated with a minimum of effort.

1 . Cleaning rags and waste should be stored
in covered metal containers.

Figure 2.3. Informal discussions provide an opportunity for
crew members to learn from each other, to stimulate interest
in fire prevention, and help to establish the proper attitude
toward safety.

Figure 2.4. Oily rags should be placed in covered metal
containers to prevent fires by spontaneous ignition.

Fire Prevention Programs

27

2. Accumulations of oily rags should be
placed in covered metal containers (Fig.
2.4) and discarded as soon as possible.

3. Accumulations of packaging materials
should be disposed of immediately.

4. Dunnage should only be stored in the
proper area.

5. Accumulations of sawdust (especially oil-
or chemical-soaked sawdust), wood chips
or shavings should be disposed of prop-
erly.

6. Accumulations of flammables in crew or
passenger quarters should be avoided.

7. Oil-soaked clothing or other flammables
should never be stored in crew lockers.

8. Paints, varnish and so forth should be
stored in the paint locker when not in
use — even overnight.

9. Leaks in product, fuel-oil or lubricating-
oil piping and spilled oil or grease should
be cleaned up; also oil in bilges or on tank
tops and floor plates.

10. Kerosene and solvents should be stored in
appropriate containers and in approved
locations.

1 1 . Oil-burner cleaning substances should not
be left in open containers in the boiler
room.

12. Oil-soaked clothing should not be worn
by crew members.

13. .Grease filters and hoods over galley

ranges should be cleaned regularly.

14. Avoid accumulations of dust in holds and
on ledges in holds, and accumulations of
lint and dust on light bulbs.

15. Avoid soot accumulations in boiler up-
stakes and air heaters,

Elimination and Control of Ignition Sources.

The safety committee should be aware of the
causes of recent fires on other vessels. "Proceed-
ings of the Marine Safety Council," published by
the U.S. Coast Guard, maritime-oriented publica-
tions and newspapers are excellent sources of such
information.) Discussions of actual ship fires have
the most impact and help crewmen to realize that
fires still can and do occur aboard vessels {see
Chapter 3).

As was pointed out, cleanliness can eliminate
sources of shipboard fires. Good training, a good
attitude and alertness can assist immeasurably in
eliminating another necessary ingredient of fires,
namely, the source of heat or ignition. (The major
sources of ignition aboard ship are discussed in
Chapter 1 .) These can be eliminated by:

Figure 2.5. "Smokes" that are discarded carefully cannot
become sources of ignition.

1. Not smoking in restricted areas; discard-
ing ashes, butts and matches carefully
(Fig. 2.5); using only saftey matches on
tank vessels; closely observing longshore-
men working in holds

2. Not overloading electrical circuits; pro-
tecting circuits with the proper fuses or
circuit breakers; proper maintenance and
repair of electrical equipment; following
instructions and regulations for wiring
(Fig. 2.6)

Figure 2.6. Inspection, maintenance and use of approved
components reduce the possibility of fire in and around
electrical equipment.

28

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

3. Keeping flammable materials clear of
steam pipes, light bulbs and other sources
of ignition.

4. Thoroughly cleaning cargo holds before
any cargo is loaded. (Otherwise, there is a
possibility of mixing incompatible cargos
such as vegetable oil and fibers and caus-
ing a fire through spontaneous ignition.)

5. Careful loading operations (particularly
the loading of baled fibers), so that bales
do not strike coamings, machinery or
other steel structures; care by longshore-
men not to strike bands with their hooks
(Fig. 2.7)

6. Removing cargo lights from holds when
loading is completed; replacing receptacle
watertight caps after portable lights are
unplugged

7. Observing all precautions when welding
or burning — including the posting of a
fire watch — or seeing that shoreside
workers do so. (Welding and burning are
among the most hazardous operations per-
formed aboard ship.)

8. Eliminating the causes of static electricity.
(This is extremely important on tank ves-
sels, especially when butterworthing.)

9. Awareness of the possibilities of spontan-
eous ignition, and how to avoid it. (Again,
this is basically good housekeeping.)

10. Using approved flashlights and portable
lights and nonsparking tools on tank ves-
sels

1 1 . Not using electric tools where a fire haz-
ard may exist, and using only tools in
good condition

12. Following the instructions of the senior
deck officer on tank vessels when loading
or discharging cargo, especially regarding
smoking, boiler and galley fires and other
possible sources of ignition; proper bond-
ing of the vessel; ensuring the integrity of
cargo hose and couplings

13. Continually observing cargo pumps dur-
ing transfer operations. (Loss of suction
or prolonged operation when tanks are
empty may overheat the pump and result
in explosion and fire.)

Preparation for Emergencies. Except for the
knowledge and experience gained in actually
fighting a fire, no training is as effective as live,
well-conducted fire drills. The experience gained
through drills can help prevent a major tragedy.
This same experience can reduce the possibility of
injuries during an actual emergency, and equip-
ment deficiencies that show up during drills can
be corrected before they become problems {see
also Chapter 10).

The station bill is very important to the conduct
of fire drills. The master and department heads

Figure 2.7. Cargo that is damaged during loading can leak
and cause a fire several days later.

Fire Prevention Programs

29

should ensure that it is up to date. All crew mem-
bers should be aware of and familiar with their
duties and responsibilities.

Fire drills should be conducted weekly (at
least), and at irregular intervals to avoid expecta-
tions. Fire conditions should be staged in different
parts of the vessel to add interest and create chal-
lenges. Each drill should begin with the sounding
of the alarm and end with a constructive discus-
sion and analysis.

Respiratory Protection Devices. The proper use
of respiratory protection devices is a most impor-
tant part of the rescue and firefighting education
of every crewman. Masks are designed for differ-
ent purposes, and each has certain limitations. It
is important that the proper mask be chosen for
the task to be performed. Manufacturers' instruc-
tions make excellent guidelines {see also Chapter
15).

Crewmen should practice donning masks; face-
pieces in particular must fit properly. Constant
practice and training are required to develop pro-
ficiency, and breathing with a mask in place will
develop confidence in its use. However, overde-
pendence on a mask can be dangerous and can
jeopardize the wearer. Close supervision and life-
lines are essential for safety during operations in
which respiratory protection devices are used.

Knowledge of Cargo. The crew should be fa-
miliar with the types of cargo carried on their ship.
The crew is the ship's firefighting force, and
knowledge of potential fire hazards is important
information. An item-by-item review of the cargo
manifest will provide the crew with information
on the amounts of each cargo on board. To
acquaint the crew with particular characteristics
of hazardous cargos, they should refer to "Chem-
ical Data Guide for Bulk Shipment by Water,"
CG-388. They should also review classifications
of fires and the types of extinguishing agents they
require.

Comparison of the flash points, ignition tem-
peratures and explosive ranges of dangerous
liquids and gases is of help in understanding their
relative hazards. The Hazardous Materials Regu-
lations of the U.S. Coast Guard are the best source
of such information. They are contained in Title
49 CFR (Transportation); Parts 100-199. Where
necessary, the information in those regulations
can be supplemented with data supplied by the
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).

Title 49 CFR 172.101 contains a list of the
materials classed as hazardous by the U.S. Coast
Guard. It is important that these substances be
easily recognized when they are being transported.

For this reason, they are marked with distinctive
labels to indicate their particular hazard.

These hazardous material warning labels (Fig.
2.8) are authorized by the U.S. Department of
Transportation (DOT). United States Coast Guard
regulations require that they be placed on the out-
side of every container in which a hazardous
material is to be transported by ship. Placards
similar to the labels are required for trailer-type
shipments. In addition, hazardous material class
numbers are required by some foreign govern-
ments. These numbers are also referred to as UN
class numbers and are endorsed by the Inter-
Governmental Maritime Consultative Organiza-
tion (IMCO). The class number is located at the
bottom corner of the DOT label. Most of the
hazards indicated by the labels in Figure 2.8 are
obvious. Two that are less obvious are: 1) oxi-
dizer: A substance that gives off oxygen readily
to aid in the combustion of organic matter; and
2) organic peroxide: a flammable solid or liquid
that will increase the intensity of the fire. Many
peroxides can be broken down by heat, shock or
friction. They are widely used in the chemical
and drug industries.

The labels are, of course, visible during loading.
However, during a fire, they may be obscured by
smoke or destroyed by flames. Here again, the
ship's dangerous cargo manifest is extremely im-
portant. It is the only positive indicator of the
type of materials involved in the fire.

PERIODIC INSPECTIONS

Inspection is one of the most important parts of
the shipboard fire prevention program. Its purpose
is to find and eliminate fuels and ignition sources
that could cause fires. A number of these possible
fire causes were listed earlier in this chapter. As
noted, the elimination of these sources is not a
technical matter, but mainly common sense and
"good housekeeping."

Because vessels are large and complex, the
responsibility for inspection cannot rest with any
individual or group of individuals. Instead, every
crewman should be an informal inspector, check-
ing for fire hazards at all times, on and off duty,
wherever he may be on the ship. This is a matter
of attitude, and an extension of the idea of "one
second for safety."

In addition, the master, chief officer and chief
engineer should make a joint formal inspection of
the entire vessel at least once each week. This
should be a complete inspection, from bow to
stern and bilge to bridge. The formal inspection
should be systematic; a checklist should be used

30

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

SPONTANEOUSLY
COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL

UN CLASS 4

W^ BLACK ON
// RED AND WHITE

WATER-REACTIVE
MATERIAL

NOTE: May be used in
addition to other
required labels.

UN CLASS 4

BLACK ON BLUE

POISONOUS MATERIAL

UN CLASS 2 or 6

BLACK ON WHITE

CORROSIVE MATERIAL

UN CLASS 8

RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

BLACK ON YELLOW (TOP)
V/ BLACK ON WHITE (BOTTOM)

^ RED NUMERALS

ETIO LOGIC AGENT

Required for domes- Note: A Poison Label
tic shipments includ- may be used on inn-
ing the domestic por- port/export shipments
tion of import and in addition to this
export movements. label.

ETIOIOGIC AGENTS

BIOMEDICAL
MATERIAL

IN CASE OF DAMAGE
OR LEAKAGE

NOTIFY OIOKIOO CDC
ATLANTA GfORGIA
404/633-5313

RED ON WHITE

Figure 2.8. Hazardous material warning labels. Note the UN class number on each label.

Fire Prevention Programs 31

Hazardous Materials
Warning Labels

IRRITATING MATERIAL

UN CLASS 6

EXPLOSIVES

CLASS A

CLASS B

DOMESTIC

N IMPORT/EXPORT

RED ON WHITE

V

CLASS C

FLAMMABLE
LIQUID

UN CLASS 3

UN CLASS 1

BLACK ON ORANGE BACKGROUND

UN CLASS 2

COMPRESSED GASES „

'/ \>

/J

v

V /'

r v

BLACK BLACK ON GREEN
ON RED

OXIDIZING MATERIAL

UN CLASS 5

BLACK ON RED

FLAMMABLE
SOLID

UN CLASS 4

BLACK ON RED AND
WHITE STRIPES

EMPTY

BLACK ON YELLOW \SS/~

EMPTY

BLACK ON WHITE

32

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

to assure that no area is overlooked. A sample
checklist, included at the end of this chapter, can
be used as a guide for informal inspections as well.

Requirements Prior to Repairs
and Alterations

United States Coast Guard regulations, in Title 46
CFR (Shipping) require inspections before rivet-
ing, welding, burning or such fire-producing oper-
ations are undertaken in certain portions of a ves-
sel. They also require that the provisions of NFP A
standard No. 306, Standard for the Control of Gas
Hazards on Vessels to Be Repaired, be used as a
certified guide. Regulations state that the inspec-
tions be made by a marine chemist. If one is not

available, then consideration will be given to other
persons. The marine chemist makes a crucial judg-
ment, based on his findings, as to whether or not
burning, welding and other hot work may be per-
formed. The master, chief officer and chief engi-
neer should be familiar with the services of ma-
rine chemists and the certificates they issue
(Fig. 2.9).

NFPA standard No. 306 requires the use of
special designations to describe the conditions
found during marine chemists' inspections. These
are "Safe for Men" or "Not Safe for Men" and
"Safe for Fire" or "Not Safe for Fire." Briefly,
the "Safe for Men" conditions are defined as
follows:

1. The compartment contains at least 18%
oxygen by volume.

PHONE 301/875-4131

PENNIMAN & BROWNE, INC.,

MEMBEtS OF N. t. t. A.

MARINE CHEMIST'S CERTIFICATE

6J5J FAUS to AD
BAlTIMOaE. MO. II1M

Survey Requested By:

Vessel:

Type of Vessel:

Location:

Owner or Agent:

Harbor Towing Co.

BARGE SHAMROCK

Barge

Harbor Towing Yard

Harbor Towing

Date: January 21 , 1978
Time of Completion: 8:30 AM
Certificate No.: HT-1

Last Cargo: Gasoline & #2 Fuel Oil
Test Method: MSA Explosimeter a.
Inspection

Forward Rake .... SAFE FOR MEN
Cargo Tanks Nos. 1-2, Port & Stbd
Cargo Tanks No. 3, Port & Stbd . .

Cargo Tank No. 4, Port & Stbd . .

SAFE FOR FIRE

. . .SAFE FOR MEN - SAFE FOR FIRE

. SAFE FOR MEN - NOT SAFE FOR FIRE
(These tanks have been cleaned and
are to serve as buffer tanks)

SAFE FOR MEN - NOT SAFE FOR FIRE
(These tanks have been butterworthed
but not mucked)

In the event of any physical or atmospheric changes affecting the fas-free condition* of the above space*, or if in ar.y doubt, immediately stop all
hot work and contact the undersigned.

i.goaint (») The i.»eco
J>d thai, fb) To... materials

nana* fir

Standard Safety Designations NFPA lot - 19TS

Scum roa Mi. Means thai ia ihe compartment or ipaci
catalcni at the nm.-^i.fn is «< least 19 0 pejteat by .(.'. n.

ra the eicnoaphcre arc within pcrmisaable loncenirsbons; and (c) la the lurLsmer.r ol iSe
Manaa Chemist, the lasidura vt not capable of pciiducins toeic materials under r..it.n«
etsDOsphcric conditions while main' air eel m directed on ihe Mmnt Chimm'i Certificate.

Sart aaa Fiea M.uu that 10 the compartment •
«4 lunouM. materials in the eimmpherc u rwlow 10 |

aaat that, ( b ) la the judgment ol the Marine Chemist, iht cesidurs ace eot capable of pro
•twang a higher concentration than pe-mitied by 1-5 2 (a) under raitting aiiiiccuhctic
cood.uooj in the presence of nre and -lulc maintained ai duectrd on the Marine Chemist's
Certihesis; nod luriher, (c ) All ad|irmi ipun have eithei been cleaned auffir irnuy la pre-
vavit the spread ad tire, arc taTisfartonlr meried. or, in the case ol fuel tanks, nave been
traeiad as deemed r by the Marine Chcmaet.

SAav. roa S.iniijciin Mi.v thai the cr.mpsxrmeet an dra.gr.aicd (a) Shall rod
the rveiiau-cincnu of IS I. and. (b) la tlic judgment ol the Mann- Chemist, the rvaiduaJ
eoeeivuai.ble nxaienala designated are noi capable et pruducmg hies beyond the eeunguuhing
caavabtLuea at* the equipoacoi oa hand, and, (e) All adjacent cor -
eaeet the rve*uLrcsarae» af I-S.2 (c).

Qualiti rations

Tcanafer el ballast or manipulation of valves or closure oqi
dona ia p.pe lines, larju or comparimrnu subject la gaa ai
approved m fhu Certificate. rcqu.ro inspection acid crdoiiroi.
lSc spaces so acfecied. A" Lines. «i
ancca shall bra considered not sale'

pra.ni tending to alter condi-
."ii, iai.no. unless specifi-eJty
i' ..r rcissui o( Crri-ficalc lor
1 Sunilari. enclosed appurlen-
otherwise sprccfically designated.

compartments ae i

i"sh'2li

Toe undersigned shipyard representative acknowledge* receipt of this
Certifccsie and understands the conditions and limitations under which ,. wu
Uatieej.

Qssrstasat's Eudorsrment

This it to certify that 1 have personally determined that si; spaces in the
foregoing list are in accordance svith the Standard For the Control of Gaa
Hasarcts on Vesseb to Be Repaired, adopted bj' ihe National Fire Protection
Aasociation. and have found the condition of each o be in accordance with iu
assigned designation.

This-Gcj-tifitjie is baaed on conditions existing at the t.me the inspection
herein get forth was crrmpletrd and is issued tubjecl lo compliance with all
qualifications aJihVirutructiona.

Sauaysuel It

a .^f.A?jy7§c^^.£,:

tj-yi
•i

$.[3emA.¥-

7

434

Marine Chemiit

Figure 2.9. Certificate issued by marine chemists after an inspection according to NFPA stand-
ard No. 306.

Fire Prevention Programs

33

2. Toxic materials are within permissible con-
centrations. The permissible limits are given
in the current Table of Threshold Limit
Values of the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists.

3. If the area is maintained as directed, resi-
dues will not produce toxic materials.

"Safe for Fire" conditions are defined as:

1. The concentration of flammable gas in the
compartment is less than 10% of the lower
flammable limit. (The lower flammable lim-
it of a gas is the minimum flammable con-
centration of that gas in air.)

2. If the area is maintained as directed, the
the residues are not capable of producing
concentrations greater than 10% of the
lower flammable limit.

3 . Adjacent spaces have been properly cleaned
or made inactive to prevent the spread of
fire.

The meanings of the "Not Safe" categories are
obvious from these definitions.

Regulations provide that, if a marine chemist is
not available, The Officer in Charge, Marine In-
spection Office, upon the recommendation of the
vessel owner and his contractor or their repre-
sentative, shall select a person who, in the case of
an individual vessel, shall be authorized to make
the inspection.

If this authorized person is not available, the in-
spection is made by the senior officer present. For
this purpose, several types of testing instruments
are carried on board.

Combustible-Gas Indicator. Under Title 46 CFR
35.30-15, U.S. flag vessels (manned tank barges
and tank ships) authorized to carry flammable and
combustible liquid cargos at any temperature
are required to carry combustible-gas indicators
{See Chapter 1 for a description of these hazard-
ous liquids.)

A combustible-gas indicator (sometimes re-
ferred to as an explosimeter) is used to determine
whether there is a flammable atmosphere in any
area of a vessel {see Chapter 16). The instrument
should be a type that is approved by Underwriters
Laboratories, Factory Mutual Engineering Divi-
sion or some other agency acceptable to the U.S.
Coast Guard. The manufacturer's operating and
maintenance instructions should remain with the
instrument. All officers should be thoroughly
familiar with the instrument and know how to use
it. The combustible-gas indicator is a safeguard
against fire; if it is used improperly, an unsafe
environment may appear to be safe. If it is not

used at all, there is no way to know whether an
environment is safe.

Flame Safety Lamp. United States Coast Guard
regulations require that all cargo, miscellaneous
and passenger vessels on international voyages
carry flame safety lamps as part of their fireman's
outfits.

The flame safety lamp is used to test only for
oxygen deficiency. Its operating principle is sim-
ple: If there is enough oxygen in the surrounding
atmosphere to keep the flame burning, then there
is enough oxygen to support life. It is important to
remember that this instrument contains a source
of ignition and must be in good condition. Like
the combustible-gas indicator, it must be used
correctly, or it might give false results {see
Chapter 16).

Oxygen Indicator. Some vessels carry oxygen
indicators, although these instruments are not re-
quired by U.S. Coast Guard regulations. There
are several different types, but all serve the same
purpose as the flame safety lamp. That is, they are
used to determine whether the atmosphere con-
tains sufficient oxygen (15% or more) to sustain
life. This is particularly important in spaces that
have been closed for a long time, for example,
cofferdams, deep tanks, double bottoms and chain
lockers.

The oxygen indicator is preferred over the
flame safety lamp. It has the advantage of being
equipped with a meter so that the actual amount
of oxygen in the atmosphere can be determined.
The instrument can also be used to determine
whether a "nominally inert" gas is free of oxygen,
that is, contains less than 5% oxygen.

Like the combustible-gas indicator and the flame
safety lamp, the oxygen indicator must be used
and cared for properly. An incorrect reading on
the meter can provide a false sense of security that
may result in asphyxiation and death, or an incor-
rect reading can result in a fire if, for example, hot
work is allowed in an atmosphere that is believed
to be inert but actually isn't. Operators should
carefully check the manufacturer's manual sup-
plied with the instrument for proper operation and
maintenance procedures.

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE •
AND REPAIR

The collision and resulting fire of the SS C. V. Sea
Witch and SS Esso Brussels in New York harbor
on June 2, 1973, was a major tragedy resulting in
loss of life and in damages totaling approximately
$23 million. In its marine casualty report released

34

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighling and Fire Safely

March 2, 1976, the Department of Transporta-
tion listed the following two contributory causes:

The modification to the differential gear mech-
anism stub shaft and connecting universal ... on
23 April 1973, approximately six weeks prior to the
collision, was improper. The milling of the stub
shaft for the fitting of a square key to replace the
originally designed captured or locked-in Woodruff
key without a provision for securing the key al-
lowed the new square key tos slip out of position
and permit free rotaton of the shaft.*

The extensive loss of life of the crew on the SS
Esso Brussels may not have occurred or may have
been greatly reduced had there been no delay in
releasing the lifeboat falls and had the hand
cranked lifeboat engine immediately started.

On September 26, 1974, the SS Transhuron
stranded at Kiltan Island, and the vessel had to be
left for salvors. The stranding followed a loss of
propulsion as the result of a fire in the engine
room. The Department of Transportation, in its
marine casualty report released December 30,
1976, stated:

The loss of main propulsion power was due to a
fire in the main propulsion control desk caused by
the action of sea water directed onto high voltage
components in the control circuitry. Contributing
to the fire were:

a. Failure of a pipe nipple in a gauge connection
in the circulating water header of the freon
condenser of the air conditioning unit.

b. Wasting of the material of the pipe nipple due
to the connection of dissimilar metals in a salt-
water environment.

Firefighting efforts with semiportable CO2 extin-
guishers were reported in part as follows: "The
hose burst in way of its connection to the shut-off
valve at the horn and the horn separated from its
threaded connection at the valve and blew off."
The report concludes: "Cause of the failure of the
hose of the B-V semiportable CO2 extinguisher is
unknown."

The March 1 977 issue of the Proceedings of the
Marine Safety Council recounts the death of the
chief engineer of a U.S. tanker, the SS Thomas Q.
There was no fire, although all the ingredients
were present. The tanker was undergoing ballast-
ing after completing discharge of a cargo of
naphtha. The pumpman entered the pump room
against orders and was overcome. The chief engi-
neer attempted a rescue and was also overcome by
the naphtha. Both were finally removed, but it was

*This refers to the C.V. Sea Witch.

too late for the chief engineer. Five causes contri-
buted to the unfortunate incident, the first of
which was equipment failure. According to the
report, "The cargo pump seals were faulty and
leaked naphtha."

These documented incidents clearly indicate
the relationship between poor preventive mainte-
nance and fire. Consideration of the possible losses
in both human life and dollars leaves no doubt
that preventive maintenance and repair programs
can return dividends well beyond their cost.

Programs Require Supervision

Strong leadership and the backing of management
are necessary ingredients of preventive mainte-
nance programs. Information should be channeled
from the master through department heads to the
members of each department. A preventive main-
tenance and repair program is a form of discipline;
to be effective, it must be carefully supervised and
controlled.

It would be beyond the scope of this book to
outline complete programs for preventive mainte-
nance on typical vessels. (Such programs should
already exist on all ships.) Instead, we shall dis-
cuss the basic elements of a program for the care
of machinery and equipment, and its relation to
fire prevention. A well-run program can become
the first line of defense against fire.

Elements of a Preventive Maintenance
Program

The four basic elements of a preventive mainte-
nance program are 1) lubrication and care,
2) testing and inspection, 3) repair or replacement,
and 4) record keeping.

The first three should be performed according
to definite schedules that depend on the equip-
ment in question. For example, some equipment
might be serviced at various intervals during each
watch. Other equipment might require mainte-
nance once each watch, or daily or weekly, on up
to annually or at even longer intervals. The manu-
facturer's manual is the best guide for establishing
the schedules for periodic maintenance proce-
dures.

This is by no means a new approach to preven-
tive maintenance. However, it does imply that
maintenance schedules must provide the answers
to such questions as: What controls have been
established to ensure that the schedule is being
followed? Have provisions been made for turnover
in both supervisory and other personnel? Many
existing schedules have left such questions un-
answered. Standardized maintenance schedules

hire Prevention Programs

35

are absolutely necessary, but they are effective
only when they are implemented.

Lubrication and Care

Machinery and Equipment. Probably the most
basic element in a preventive maintenance pro-
gram for machinery and equipment is regular and
proper lubrication. Scheduling alone is not suffi-
cient to ensure this, because personnel may tend
to neglect machinery that is difficult to reach. Con-
trols must be instituted to ensure that manufac-
turers' lubrication recommendations are followed,
and the lubrication schedule should be watched
closely by supervisory personnel.

Machinery should be lubricated carefully to
avoid spillage because most lubricants are flam-
mable. A spark or other source of ignition could
quickly transform some spilled lubricant into a
fire problem.

Boilers and Appurtenances. Title 46 CFR (Ship-
ping) requires that boilers, pressure vessels, pip-
ing and other machinery be inspected and tested
at regular intervals. If emergency repairs are re-
quired between inspections, the nearest Officer in
Charge of Marine Inspection, U.S. Coast Guard,
must be notified of this fact as soon as possible
after the repairs are completed.

Because they involve heat and high pressure,
boilers and appurtenances require very special
care. Perhaps no other type of equipment pays
higher dividends for proper preventive mainte-
nance. On the other hand, neglect of this equip-
ment can result in poor operation, explosion and
fire.

Chemical treatment and testing of water and
fuel systems are recommended to reduce corro-
sion, prevent slag, scale and sludge buildups in
boilers and protect diesel engines from fuel con-
taminants. Excessive corrosion can cause tube
failure and an explosion. Then, if the fuel supply
is not shut down, a fuel oil fire, which can be
difficult to control, may follow. Fuel contaminants
can eventually lead to inefficient burning with
resultant soot buildup on tubes and in the stack.
A heated piece of carbon could then ignite the
soot.

Proper maintenance of burning equipment will
prevent fuel oil from collecting in the furnace.
Burner tips (atomizers) should be cleaned and the
assembly adjusted periodically, for efficient opera-
tion and proper combustion. When not in use, a
burner should not be left in place; it should be
removed completely to prevent oil from dripping
and collecting in the fire box. Any burner that has

been shut off should be completely removed to
preventing anyone from inadvertently attempting
to light it.

As a precaution, the boiler should be inspected
regularly when it is out of service. Oil accumula-
tions can be an indication of a malfunction or a
leak somewhere in the system.

Piping and Fittings. Piping and fittings that
carry fuel, chemicals, flammable products, water
or steam should not be abused or misused. They
should not be used for handholds or footholds or
for securing chain falls. The results of such misuse
may not be evident immediately, but continued
misuse can only weaken the equipment. It can
lead to a slow leak or a sudden rupture.

Leaks in piping and fittings should be repaired
immediately. In some cases, it is only necessary
to tighten a gasket or some screw threads. In
others, a section of piping may have to be replaced.
Whatever the repair, care should be taken to
ensure that it is done properly. The repair should
leave the piping properly aligned and supported.

Bearings. Overheated bearings have caused a
number of shipboard fires. Such fires can be pre-
vented by following a few simple rules:

1. Bearings should be lubricated with the
appropriate amount of the proper lubricant,
using the correct pressure.

2. No piece of machinery should be started
unless the operator is sure that its bearings
have been lubricated with the proper lu-
bricant.

3. Unless absolutely necessary, no piece of
machinery should be used if its bearings are
in poor condition.

4. The operator should know the approximate
normal running temperature of the bear-
ings and should check during operation to
determine if they are running too hot.

Testing and Inspection

Fire Protection Equipment. Coast Guard regu-
lations require owners, masters or persons-in-
charge to ensure that portable fire extinguishers,
semiportable fire extinguishing systems and fixed
fire extinguishers are tested and inspected "at
least once in every 12 months." The required tests
are described in the appropriate USCG regula-
tions corresponding to the service of the vessel.
Records of such tests should be maintained in or
with the logbook.

No voyage should begin unless all fixed systems
are known to be in working order, and all portable

36

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

extinguishers are usable and in their proper places.
United States Coast Guard regulations require
that the master conduct drills and inspections to
familiarize the crew with the operation of all
emergency equipment. The crew is the ship's
firefighting team, but they can't be any more
effective than the tools they are given. The crew
should therefore share the concern of the mas-
ter for the maintenance of this equipment. There
are many case histories in which extinguishing
systems and portable fire extinguishers failed
when they were needed. In many respects, fire
protection equipment that fails is worse than no
protection at all.

Fixed Systems. Frequent testing and inspection
are the only means of detecting the need for re-
pairs to fixed systems. As is true for other equip-
ment, these preventive maintenance procedures
must be scheduled at definite intervals. The fire
and boat drills required by USCG regulations pro-
vide an excellent opportunity for testing and in-
spection. The following checks are suggested; any
problems that are found should be corrected
immediately.

1. Check the capacity of the pumps by
charging and utilizing a sufficient number
of hoses. Check for proper volume and
pressure and the integrity of the piping
and fittings.

2. Inspect the hoses for cuts and abrasions,
proper stowage and marking. Test them
at 45 kg (100 lb) or the highest pressure
to which each hose will be subjected in
service, whichever is greater.

3. Inspect all threads and clean them with a
wire brush if necessary. Keep the threads
lubricated; replace gaskets when neces-
sary.

4. Operate the all purpose nozzle, and clean
it when necessary. Check the holes for
clogging and corrosion.

5. Operate the hydrant valves to ensure that
they are ready for use.

6. Check the stowage of applicators and
clear the holes and internal strainer where
necessary. Lubricate the threads and make
sure the applicator fits the nozzle. Do not
use lubricant on the heads.

7. Ensure that nothing is connected to the
system that shouldn't be.

8. Check for proper operation of the relief
valve, remote control pump starting and
the pressure alarm where these controls
are required.

9. In foam systems, check the quantity and
quality of the foam; operate the foam
proportioners and driving equipment.

10. Visually check all CO2 lines and dis-
charge outlet heads.

Every piece of equipment aboard ship should
be inspected and tested before the vessel leaves
port. No aircraft is taken from its hangar before
all systems are checked, and before takeoff the
pilot runs through an extensive checklist. The
status of the equipment on a vessel prior to its
sailing is just as critical as that on an aircraft.
Vessel management should require a careful
check, and the master should ensure that it is
performed. The results of this testing and inspec-
tion should be the subject of a formal report to
management.

Repair or Replacement

It is important that repairs be performed by com-
petent and knowledgeable people. Whether these
are ship's personnel or shoreside contractors
aboard or in a shipyard, controls should be estab-
lished to ensure that repairs are done properly.
An improper repair to an electric range in the
galley, to a leaky joint in a fuel line or to a defec-
tive boiler can have the same results — fire at sea.
Regulations requiring that the U.S. Coast
Guard be notified when equipment is repaired or
replaced should be followed. Replacements
should be only approved types of machinery and
equipment. Approval is based on past perform-
ance, and safety is an important criterion.

Record Keeping

The history of each major piece of machinery
should be recorded. The record should include
all tests, inspections, malfunctions, repairs, ad-
justments, readings and casualties. A card file
with a separate card for each piece of equipment
has worked well on many ships. Such a file can
provide new personnel with the history of each
piece of equipment from the day it was installed.
It can be of great help in diagnosing problems
and in deciding when to replace machinery.

RECOGNITION OF EFFORT

Vessel owners and operators cannot expect the
people who operate their ships to participate in
a continuing fire prevention program unless they,
the owners and operators, demonstrate their in-
terest in the program. Active participation, ob-
vious concern for fire safety and recognition of
effort will demonstrate such interest.

Fire Prevention Programs

37

One way in which owners can recognize fire
prevention efforts is by awarding a plaque to each
vessel that achieves a certain number of "fire-
free" years. The plaque might first be awarded for
a five-year period. Then it would be updated for
each successive fire-free year. The plaque would
be mounted prominently on the vessel, where it
could easily be viewed and admired.

Crew members who complete firefighting and
fire prevention training courses should receive
recognition from both ship owners and unions.
This recognition could be in the form of a cer-

tificate, along with a writeup in company and
union publications.

If a vessel is unfortunate enough to have a fire,
its crew should be rewarded for noteworthy fire-
fighting efforts. The particular situation will usu-
ally indicate the most effective method of recog-
nition.

As noted at the beginning of this section, fire
prevention is difficult to sell. Recognizing effort
on an individual basis, by ship or crew member,
will help provide the incentive to maintain a good
record.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

U.S. Coast Guard. CG-115, Marine Engineering

Regulations
U.S. Coast Guard. CG-123, Rules & Regulations

for Tank Vessels

U.S. Coast Guard. CG-174, A Manual for the Safe
Handling of Inflammable and Combustible
Liquids and Other Hazardous Products

U.S. Coast Guard. CG-190, Equipment Lists

U.S. Coast Guard. CG-239, Security of Vessels &

Waterfront Facilities
U.S. Coast Guard. CG-257, Rules & Regulations

for Cargo and Miscellaneous Vessels

U.S. Coast Guard. CG-329, Fire Fighting Manual
for Tank Vessels

U.S. Coast Guard. CG-388, Chemical Data Guide
for Bulk Shipment by Water

U.S. Coast Guard. CG-466-1, Chemical Hazards
Response Information System (CHRIS)

U.S. Coast Guard. Hazardous Materials Regulations,
Title 49 CFR, Parts 171-177

U.S. Coast Guard. Marine Casualty Report — MAR-
76-2 — SS Transhuron

U.S. Coast Guard. Marine Casualty Report — MAR-
75-6— SS CV Sea Witch— SS Esso Brussels

U.S. Department of Labor. Safety & Health Regu-
lations for Maritime Employment, OSHA,
Title 29

Preventive Maintenance in the Boiler Room Helps
Prevent Breakdowns at Sea. Marine Engineering/
Log, June 1977

Mine Safety Appliance Co. — Supplementary Inspec-
tions, MSA Explosimeter.

NFPA. Fire Protection Handbook. 14th ed.

Control of Gas Hazards on Vessels to be Repaired.
Bulletin No. 306, National Fire Protection Asso-
ciation, Boston.

38 Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

MASTER'S INSPECTION CHECKLIST
Accommodation Areas

Crew Quarters Yes No

1. Direct and uncluttered means of escape - — —

2. General alarm system in good order

3. Area free of combustible rubbish

4. Area free of combustibles close to sources of heat

5. Area free of overloaded electric circuits

6. Area free of unauthorized repairs to electrical wiring

7. Area free of jury-rigged electrical wiring

8. Electrical equipment properly grounded

9. a. Extinguishers in place and unobstructed

b. Extinguishers of proper type and size

c. Extinguishers properly charged

d. Date of last examination noted

10. Noncombustible ashtrays, adequate in number and size, and properly placed

Galley

1. Area free of combustible rubbish

2. Noncombustible receptacles with covers provided

3. a. Oven hood and ducts clear and free of grease

b. Date of last cleaning recorded

4. Extinguishing system properly marked

5. a. Extinguishers in place and unobstructed

b. Extinguishers of proper type and size

c. Extinguishers properly charged

d. Date of last examination noted on inspection tag

6. Area free of leaking pipes and fittings

7. Area free of overloaded electrical outlets

8. Electrical appliances in good repair

9. Electric oven and ranges dry

10. Oven free of cracks or crevices

11. Oven burners secured

12. Noncombustible ashtrays, of adequate number and size, and properly placed

Mess Rooms and Lounges

1. Noncombustible ashtrays

2. a. Extinguishers in place and unobstructed

b. Extinguishers of proper type and size

c. Extinguishers properly charged

d. Date of last examination noted

3. Fireproof containers with covers provided

Deck Department

1. Decks free of combustible rubbish

2. Decks free of oil and grease

3. Decks free of leaking pipes and fittings

4. Electrical deck machinery in good repair

5. Holds clean and dry before loading

6. Cargo lights removed after loading

7. Dangerous cargo properly stowed

8. Cargo stowed to avoid shifting

9. Decks free of damaged or leaking containers

10. Dangerous-cargo manifest and cargo stowage plan in order

11. Fuel for lifeboats properly stored

hire Prevention Programs 39

12. No Smoking signs posted

13. Paints and flammables properly stowed

14. Bos'n stores properly secured

Tankers

1. Pump room free of leaks

2. Expansion trunks properly secured

3. Cargo valves properly marked

4. Venting system and screens

Engineering Department

1. Clear of rubbish, waste, oily rags

2. Noncombustible receptacles with covers provided

3. Noncombustible ashtrays of adequate number and size properly placed

4. Decks, tank tops, clear of oil and grease

5. Area free of leaking pipes and fittings

6. Out-of-service boilers free of oil accumulations

7. No combustible liquids in open containers

8. Paints and varnishes in proper storage room

9. Lumber in proper storage room

10. Area free of unapproved or jury-rigged wiring

11. Area free of unsafe or homemade stowage

12. No unapproved electrical fixtures in paint lockers, battery rooms, etc.

13. Warning signs (High Voltage-Keep Clear) posted

14. Switchboard area clear and free of obstructions

15. Area free of improper fusing or bridging

16. Motors free of lint and dust

17. Motors clear of combustible material

18. Ladders clear and unobstructed

19. No combustible runners on deck plates

20. a. Extinguishers in place and unobstructed

b. Extinguishers of proper type and size

c. Extinguishers properly charged

d. Date of last examination noted

Fire Protection Equipment

Ft remain System Yes No

1. Hose in place and free of cuts and abrasions .

2. Nozzle in place, and applicator provided (if required)

3. Valves unobstructed and easily operated

4. Hose spanner in place

5. Station properly marked

CO 2 System

1. CO2 room clear of debris and improper stowage

2. Operating control valves unobstructed

3. Alarms and indicators in good order

4. Operating controls set for proper operation

5. Required number of CO2 cylinders on hand and connected

6. Pipes and fittings in good condition

7. Discharge outlets in good condition

8. Operating instructions posted

9. Signs posted at all CO2 alarms

40

Marine Fire Prevention, Fire fighting and Fire Safety

Foam System

1. Hose in place and free of cuts and abrasions

2. Nozzles and equipment ready for use

3. Sufficient supplies of solution and/or powder

4. Foam containers free of leaks

5. No leaking pipes or fittings

6. Valves in operating condition

7. Valves and controls properly marked

8. Operating instructions posted

9. Monitor stations properly marked

Steam Smothering System

1. Pipes and fittings in good condition

2. Operating controls properly set

3. Operating instructions properly posted

4. Valves marked to indicate the protected compartments

5. Discharge outlets in good condition

Water Spray System

1. Apparatus marked

2. Control valves marked to indicate the protected compartments

3. Spray heads in place and unobstructed

Emergency Equipment

1. Storage space properly marked

2. Gas mask or self-contained breathing apparatus properly located outside
refrigeration equipment space

3. Self-contained breathing apparatus in good condition

4. Firefighter's outfits in good condition and stored in widely separated,
accessible locations

a. Self-contained breathing apparatus in good condition

b. Lifeline free of tangles and ready for immediate use

c. Explosion-proof flashlight with spare batteries

d. Flame safety lamp (except tank vessels)

e. Helmet

f. Boots — electrically nonconducting material

g. Gloves — electrically nonconducting material
h. Protective clothing

i. Fire axe

NOTE: A no answer to any of the above items requires positive action.

Submitted by

Signature

Title

Date

-j

Case Histories of
Shipboard fires

Maritime history includes many accounts of fire
aboard ship. In some cases, efficient seamanship
and the firefighting efforts of the crew saved the
ship, its cargo and everyone aboard. In others,
mistakes were made; inadequate firefighting could
not prevent the loss of lives and property. This
chapter contains several brief episodes of both
types.

These case histories make fascinating reading,
but they have a very serious purpose: They are
presented so that seamen who have not had per-
sonal experience with shipboard fires may bene-
fit from the experiences — both good and bad — of
those who have. (See Chapters 1 and 2 for a dis-
cussion of safety measures that could have pre-
vented at least some of the fires that are described
here.) The remainder of this book should be read
in the light of these accounts. They are, in a
sense, demonstrations of correct and incorrect
firefighting techniques. As such, they are valuable
to seamen who face the possibility of having to
fight fire in a very wide range of shipboard situa-
tions.

MORRO CASTLE

The Morro Castle, 508 feet in length, 70 feet
wide, 1 1,520 gross tons and propelled by turbine
electric drive, was considered one of the most at-
tractive Caribbean cruise ships of the Ward Line.
Every Saturday, for 173 voyages, she had em-
barked from New York for a 7-day round-trip
cruise to Havana. In addition to passengers and
crew, she also transported mail and cargo on
these weekly voyages.

The Morro Castle, carrying 318 passengers
and a crew of 231, representing six different na-
tionalities, sailed from Havana on Wednesday,
September 5, 1934. She was due to arrive in New

York on Saturday morning and to sail for Havana
again that same evening. However, 135 persons
were to die as a result of a fire on that return
voyage to New York.

On the evening of Friday, September 7, the
master became seriously ill while dining in his
cabin. The ship's doctor administered a heart stim-
ulant, but to no avail; the master died of heart
failure. This misfortune placed the chief officer
in command of the vessel and moved other officers
upward by one rank.

The Fire

At 0245 on Saturday, September 8, 1934, smoke
and possibly flames were detected by several pas-
sengers and crewmen coming from the writing
room on B (promenade) deck. At approximately
the same time the night watchman detected smoke
issuing from the cargo ventilating system. He was
unfamiliar with the ventilating system but left to
find the cause of the smoke, without notifying
the bridge. He never reached hold 2 or 3, where
he believed the fire to be located; he was stopped
at the promenade deck by fire in the writing room
and two forward suites.

Stewards were vainly attempting to fight the
fire with portable fire extinguishers. Fire hoses
were then advanced. However, there was a con-
siderable delay, owing to the master's prior order
to remove certain hoses and cap some firemain
hydrants. Hoselines had to be brought to the fire
scene from two decks below. The master's order
had been prompted by a lawsuit brought against
the company by a passenger who was injured be-
cause other passengers were playing with the fire
hose.

The writing room had a locker in which 1 00 or
more blankets were stored. -The blankets had

41

42

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

been cleaned commercially with a flammable
substance, and it was in this locker that the fire
actually started. A steward reported that the
locker was a mass of flames when he opened its
door.

There was a large quantity of highly polished
paneling in the writing room, corridors, salon,
stairways and other passenger accommodations.
The fire spread rapidly along this paneling, into
the corridor, to adjoining salons and down the
staircase to the deck below.

The vessel had an electric fire sensor system
capable of lighting a monitoring panel in the
wheelhouse. The system could detect fire in 217
staterooms, officer and crew quarters; however,
there were no fire detectors in the lounge ball-
room, library, writing room or dining room. At
0256 lights began flashing on the monitoring
panel. Every stateroom was either afire or hot
enough to transmit an alarm. Smoke conditions
were becoming worse, as smoke was being forced
throughout the accommodations by the ventilat-
ing system which had not been shut down.

Most of the telephones were unserviceable at
the time. Thus, the first officer had to run five
decks below to the engine room, to order an in-
crease in pressure on the firemain.

At 0257 the acting master gave the signal to
stand by the lifeboats.

The ship's Lyle gun and powder were stored
directly above the writing room. Shortly before
0300 there was a huge explosion as the Lyle gun
and 100 pounds of powder for charges became
involved. The explosion blew out many windows
in the immediate area, increasing the flow of
oxygen to the fire.

The seas were choppy, with winds of approxi-
mately 20 knots; yet the acting master continued
straight into the wind, thereby driving the fire
aft. Finally, at 0300, the acting master called for
a left rudder, turning the vessel toward shore.

By 0310 the electric wiring was damaged by
fire, and the ship was thrown into darkness. The
gyrocompass, electric steering apparatus and
standby hydraulic system were all out of action.
There was an emergency steering system at the
stern that could have been reached through the
shaft tunnels. However, the acting master never
issued an order to utilize this equipment.

Slow speed was ordered by the acting master,
and he began to steer the ship with the engines.
He headed toward shore on a zigzag course. The
order to stop all engines came at 0321. There was
a delay when the order came to drop anchor, be-
cause the crewmen at the release levers were un-
familiar with their operation. The anchor was

finally dropped by a ship's officer and the signal
was then given to abandon ship.

The Mono Castle's chief radio operator heard
the Andrea Luckenbach calling WSC, the radio
station at Tuckerton, requesting information
about a ship on fire. He then transmitted a CQ
(stand by for an important message) without or-
ders from the bridge. The reply from Tuckerton
was to stand by for 3 minutes, in compliance with
the 3-minute silent period observed each half
hour so that emergency messages could be re-
ceived. Finally, at 0318, the acting master gave
the order to transmit an SOS.

Of the 12 lifeboats carried, only 6 were
launched. These 6 lifeboats, with a capacity of
408 persons, carried only 85 people, mostly crew-
men. The chief engineer left in the first lifeboat
with 28 other crewmen and only 3 passengers.
The officers in the lifeboats that were lowered
made no effort to remain close to the ship, to
offer assistance to persons in the water or still
aboard. Passengers had to jump or lower them-
selves into the water by means of ropes.

The Andrea Luckenbach was the first vessel
to arrive at the scene, and she rescued 62 people
in the water. At least three other vessels arrived
and assisted in the rescue.

Lack of Fire Protection

The Morro Castle was fitted with 42 firemain
outlets, thousands of feet of hose and many port-
able fire extinguishers. She had enough lifeboats,
rafts, life buoys and life preservers to accommo-
date more than three times her maximum capacity
of passengers and crew. Her cargo holds had a
smoke detection system that was monitored in the
wheelhouse. The cargo holds and engine room
had fixed fire-extinguishing systems. The vessel
had automatic fire doors, installed every 130
feet, in addition to such doors in public areas.
One might have believed that she was a very safe
ship.

However, most of these safety features were
rendered ineffective by alterations to the equip-
ment and/or a lack of proper training. The mas-
ter had ordered the cargo hold smoke detector
system vented outside the wheelhouse because of
the offensive odor of some of the cargo. The auto-
matic fire doors had become manual doors when
the automatic trip wires were removed.

The crew was not trained in the handling of
fire emergencies — either in fighting fire or in
evacuating passengers. The capping of many fire-
main hydrants caused a delay in advancing and
charging hoselines and getting water to the fire.

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

43

Proper lifeboat drills were not held during the
cruise, as they would have disturbed the passen-
gers. Many passengers did not know how to don
a life jacket properly. The policy seemed to be
that the passengers' enjoyment came first.

Some Conclusions

Among the many lessons to be learned from the
Mono Castle disaster are are following:

1. The entire crew must be thoroughly
trained in order to provide the discipline
needed to function promptly, efficiently
and effectively both in their normal as-
signments and in any emergency that may
arise.

2. The master must have enough confidence
in his officers and crewmen to train them
for positions higher in rank than their
normal assignments. (When the master
died, the chief officer did not have the
knowledge required to perform the duties
of the master.)

3. Well planned and well conducted training
is absolutely necessary, not only in sea-
manship but also in the handling of
emergencies — especially in preventing
and combating fire and in abandoning
ship.

4. Drills must be held for the benefit of the
crew and passengers. Passengers do not
need to be frightened, but should be made
to realize that an emergency may arise
during which they may have to abandon
ship.

5. Officers must guide, direct and assist pas-
sengers, and lead and supervise crew
members. There were complaints from
passengers about the crew, but many com-
plimented stewards and bellboys for
their handling of the situation without
leadership.

6. A sprinkler system, or a continuously
monitored smoke and fire detection sys-
tem, should be installed throughout every
passenger vessel. Interior structural mem-
bers, bulkheads, overheads and decks
should be fire resistive, noncombustible
or fire retardant.

7. Firestops should be installed in horizontal
and vertical voids, wherever smoke, heat
and fire can move from one space to an-
other. Ducts should be equipped with
dampers that can be controlled both re-
motely and locally.

8. The alarm must be sounded without de-
lay whenever smoke or fire is detected.

9. Fire detection and firefighting systems
and equipment should not be altered, re-
moved or changed in any way that re-
duces their effectiveness.

10. Firefighting plans and drills should in-
clude methods for controlling ventilation
systems during firefighting operations.

11. Flares and other pyrotechnics should be
isolated and stored in a fire resistive space
on the highest deck.

12. Every effort should be made to keep pas-
sengers and crew informed during an
emergency, to guide them and to allay
their fears.

NORMANDIE

The Normandie was France's entry in the trans-
atlantic crossing competition of the 1930s. She
was a quadruple-screw electric steam turbine
vessel slightly over 1000 feet in length, 80,000
gross tons and capable of a speed of 30 knots.
She mustered a crew of 1300 officers and men
and could carry about 2000 passengers. There
were 7 decks (A to G) below the main deck and
3 decks (promenade, boat and sun) above the
main deck, for a total of 1 1 decks.

Since shortly before the commencing of hos-
tilities between France and Germany in 1939,
she had been tied up at Pier 88, North River,
New York. Her French crew maintained the
boilers, machinery and other equipment neces-
sary for a ship in idle status. In May 1941, a
U.S. Coast Guard detail was placed aboard the
vessel "to provide safety and prevent sabotage."
Should the United States enter the war, which she
did some 7 months later, the Normandie would
become the USS Lafayette, a large, fast, troop
carrier. One week after this country entered the
war against the Axis powers, the French crew
was removed and the Coast Guard took over the
ship's maintenance.

Plans were made, scrapped, remade and made
again to refit the ship and have her ready to pro-
ceed to Boston within two months for further
work. Since no drydock was available, a ship re-
pair company was contracted to do the work at
Pier 88. Thousands of men climbed aboard, some
as the new crew but most as workmen. Tons of
equipment and stores were hoisted aboard. In-
cluded in these stores was an item that would
seal the doom of this fine ship — almost 20 tons
of kapok in the form of canvas-covered life pre-

44

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Sa/eiy

servers. Kapok is a highly flammable, oily fiber
that is very apt to produce quick-spreading flash
fires. It also has a high combustibility; once ig-
nited, it supports an intense fire that is difficult
to extinguish.

When the vessel was in the Port of New York
as the French Line's Normandie, she had a direct
telephone line to the American District Tele-
graph Company (ADT). The company is a cen-
tral supervisory agency that receives fire alarm
signals from subscribing customers and relays
them to the New York City Fire Department. As
the USS Lafayette, the ship had no fire alarm con-
nection to a shore receiver. The French Line, no
doubt feeling that the safety of the ship was no
longer their responsibility, had, a month prior
to the fire, discontinued the ADT fire alarm serv-
ice. No government agency made any effort to
continue or renew the fire alarm coverage.

At the time of the fire, the vessel's elaborate
fire detection system, with 224 fire alarm stations,
was not working. Fire guards were employed by
the contractor in accordance with the govern-
ment contract, but they had been given little or
no training. As a result, they were practically use-
less when the fire occurred. Many of the fire ex-
tinguishers aboard were empty, while others had
instruction labels that were written in French.
It would be safe to say that not many of the peo-
ple aboard the ship that day spoke French. Hose
connections aboard ship were in the process of
being converted from the French coupling to the
American hose thread. There was a U.S. Coast
Guard fire brigade aboard but, to accommodate
conversion work, they were relocated to a part
of the ship remote from the central fire control
station. So, while it appeared that fire protection
features were maintained, in truth these features
were of a cosmetic nature: They looked good on
the surface but they only covered up the hor-
rendous vulnerability of the ship.

Every comparable French liner had been de-
stroyed earlier by fire; the Normandie was to be
no exception. On the afternoon of February 9,
1942, sparks from a burner's blowtorch started
a fire that would, within the next 12 hours, leave
the ship a helpless wreck. Lying on her side, she
denied the use of the pier to other vessels in the
busiest wartime port in the United States.

The Fire

Normally a fire occurs when heat is introduced
into an area containing sufficient oxygen and
fuel. The oxygen (in the air) and the fuel (in this
case the highly flammable kapok) were present
when the high temperature of the cutting torch
was brought into the area. Hot work, that is,
welding and cutting with heat, calls for the great-
est of surveillance. If heat in the form of an oxy-
acetylene flame is brought into a space, one of
the other alternatives is to remove the fuel. Re-
moving the fuel, tons of kapok, would have been
a difficult and time consuming operation, so an
attempt was made to separate the kapok from the
burner's torch. Portable equipment was used; fire
guards would place a 2 X 3 ft asbestos board and
a 36-inch semicircular metal shield between the
hot work and the kapok.

During the last 20 seconds before completion
of the job, the people holding the protective
shields in place started to walk away. A flame
appeared at the base of the surrounding kapok
pile. Workmen attempted to extinguish the fire
with their hands. Extinguishers were either un-
available or ineffective, and nearby fire hose con-
tained no water. The untrained fire guards were
useless; the one nearby fire bucket was kicked
over by a clumsy workman. The alarm had to be
sent to the isolated fire brigade by messenger.

About 15 minutes after the start of the fire,
the New York City Fire Department was finally
alerted via a street fire alarm box. The heavy

Origin of Fire (Grand Salon

Main Stairway

Figure 3.1. Profile of the Normandie, showing the grand salon where the fire originated.

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

45

smoke had chased the fire watchmen, fire brigade
members and others who tried to control the fire
away from the grand salon, where the fire had
started (Fig. 3.1). The heavy smoke also forced
the evacuation of the engine room. The city fire-
fighters ran hoses aboard. (Fire departments pre-
fer to use their own hose from their own pumpers,
rather than rely on ship's hose, mains or pumps.)
Fireboats directed their deck guns onto the burn-
ing ship, and private tow boats added their fire
streams. The sheer amount of water had a good
and a bad effect. By 0630 the fire was declared
under control; however, the ship had a 10° list to
port, i.e., away from the pier. The list became
progressively worse; at about midnight it was 35°,
with water pouring in through open ports and a
garbage chute that had been left open on the port
side of the hull. The Normandie capsized 2 hours
and 45 minutes later.

The Causes

What was the cause of this disaster? A quick an-
swer might be "carelessness in handling hot
work"; but there was more to it than that. In fact,
there was no single cause. The destruction of this
valuable ship was the result of many faults of
omission and commission. Some of the more ob-
vious were the following:

1 . Poor planning. Within a few short months
the ship had been under the jurisdiction of
the French Line, the Army, the U.S. Coast
Guard and the Navy. Only 2 days before
the fire, the Maritime Commission affirmed
that the Navy had assumed full responsi-
bility for the ship. A congressional investi-
gative committee made an unsuccessful
attempt to find out who (which individual)
was actually responsible for the safety of
the ship before and during the fire. Re-
sponsibility for the ship was respectfully
declined by everyone questioned. The com-
mittee found that the lines separating the
responsibilities of the various levels of
command, staff and support agencies and
the ship repair people were too hazy to be
defined.

2. Poor use of water. If care is not used in di-
recting hose streams onto the upper parts
of a ship, the water can and will affect the
stability of the vessel. In the case of the
Normandie, many tons of water were
thrown onto the fire, 10 decks above the
keel. The water could not run off, and it
caused the ship to capsize. (See Chapter 8
for a discussion of the problem of free sur-
face water.)

3. Welding and burning. Hot work — burning
and welding — has been the cause of dis-
astrous fires, both ashore and at sea. (See
Chapter 1 for a discussion of the regula-
tions governing hot work.) In general, re-
pairs involving hot work should be kept to
a minimum. The method of burning and
the so-called precautions taken in the grand
salon of the Normandie left much to be
desired. The carelessness exhibited there
was the immediate cause of the fire. Even
so, if a charged hoseline had been avail-
able, or if the material in the vicinity had
been something other than kapok, there
might not have been a disaster. The ob-
vious conclusion is that hot work should
be done aboard a vessel only under the
personal supervision of a ship's officer, who
must ensure that real safety precautions
are observed.

4. Surveillance — fire protection. Ships require
greater surveillance and more fire protec-
tion when undergoing repairs and altera-
tions than at any other time.

5. Previous fire experience. Those in authority
should have been aware that every com-
parable French liner was lost through fire.
In addition, the Normandie, like other
ocean greyhounds, was a "tender" ship;
with its low metacentric height, the shift-
ing of a small amount of weight from one
side to the other could cause it to list. When
ships of a certain class are subject to the
same hazards or have suffered the same un-
fortunate fate, steps should be taken to
counteract the vulnerabilities.

SS LAKONIA

The 20,314-ton Lakonia was built at Amsterdam
in 1930 for the Dutch Nederland Line and origi-
nally named the Johan van Olbenbarnevelt. She
was rebuilt in 1951 and again in 1959. In 1962
she was purchased by the Greek Line and con-
verted to a first-class cruise liner. At this time
she was renamed Lakonia.

On the evening of December 19, 1963, the
Lakonia sailed from Southampton. The crew con-
sisted of men of various nationalities, including
Greek, British, Italian, German and Cypriot,
which probably created a communication prob-
lem. The passengers were mostly British, includ-
ing a large percentage of older persons looking
forward to a holiday cruise.

A boat drill was held on December 20. As was
usual on cruise ships during the period, this drill

46

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

was completed as quickly as possible. Passengers
were assembled at their stations, but no boats
were lowered; the passengers were not properly
instructed in the use of their life jackets.

The Fire

The captain was notified by a crew member at
2250 that smoke was issuing from the main for-
ward staircase and the main ballroom. Passengers
stated that approximately 10 minutes earlier they
observed the stewards breaking down the door to
the hairdressing salon. The stewards attempted to
control the fire using portable fire extinguishers,
but their efforts were unsuccessful. No fire alarm
was sounded before the attempt to extinguish the
fire, and this delay consumed precious time. As
soon as he was notified of the fire, the master
ordered the radio officer to send an SOS giving
their position, approximately 180 miles north of
Madeira. This order, even though precautionary,
was proper.

An order was given for passengers to assemble
in the restaurant, which was three decks below
the promenade deck and had only one staircase.
Fortunately, many passengers refused to obey
this order, which would have created a great deal
of congestion and possibly panic. Some commo-
tion was caused by passengers looking for rela-
tives and friends, but no real panic.

The master ordered the boats lowered at 2400.
The sea was calm, help was on the way and the
24 lifeboats were more than adequate to handle
the 1036 persons aboard. However, 95 passen-
gers and 33 crewmen lost their lives in this ma-
rine casualty. How and why did it happen?

Probable Causes for the Tragedy

The public address system broke down, causing
a lack of communication and creating much con-
fusion. Uniformed deck officers were not present
to supervise the loading of the lifeboats. Many
seamen were fighting the fire, so the lowering of
the boats was left to untrained stewards.

Many boats were not properly stocked with
equipment. Their launching gear was in disre-
pair— jammed and improperly lubricated. Seven-
teen boats were lowered successfully, but many
of these were not fully loaded. Some passengers
were reluctant to enter boats after seeing one
dump its passengers into the water. The absence
of uniformed leaders also influenced passengers'
behavior.

Many passengers and crewmen were still
aboard when fire disabled the remaining lifeboats.
To survive, these people had to go over the side,

relying on their life jackets and floating objects
for support.

British and American aircraft dropped life
rings and rafts to people in the water, greatly re-
ducing the number of casualties. The Argentine
liner Salta, British freighter Montcalm, United
States Rio Grande and Pakastani Mahdi re-
sponded to the scene and assisted in rescue
work. This, no doubt, was a result of the prompt
transmission of the SOS on the orders of the
master.

Among the lessons to be learned from this in-
cident are the following:

1. Crew members must receive training in
firefighting operations that will not hamper
Abandon Ship procedures. Hoselines
should be operated from positions between
the fire and the lifeboats, to enable passen-
gers to safely reach and use the boats.

2. Lifeboat drills should require passenger
participation under the direction of knowl-
edgeable crewmen.

3. Uniformed crew members must be at their
assigned positions, in accordance with the
station bill, to function as a trained team.

4. During training, emphasis must be placed
on the importance of sounding the alarm
at the earliest possible moment.

5. Effective communication throughout a ves-
sel is essential, to keep passengers and crew
informed and to coordinate crew opera-
tions.

6. Passenger and crew accommodations
should be free of combustible structural
material and furnishings.

7. Smoke detection devices and sprinkler sys-
tems provide excellent protection for pas-
senger and crew accommodations.

8. Lifeboats, davits and jackets must be in-
spected frequently to ensure serviceability
during an emergency.

MV RIO JACHAL

The Rio Jachal was a cargo and passenger ship
of Argentine registry, 527 feet in length, with a
65-foot beam and 18,000-ton displacement. It
had completely air-conditioned accommodations
for 116 passengers, and four cargo holds with a
4000-ton capacity. It had been placed in service
in 1950.

On the morning of September 28, 1962, the
Rio Jachal left the Todd Shipyard in Brooklyn
for Pier 25, North River, to take on 3000 tons of

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

47

cargo and about 70 passengers for a September
30 sailing. She tied up on the north side of Pier
25. Late that evening, two U.S. Customs port in-
vestigators having business on the pier learned
that there was a fire on board the Rio Jachal. The
alarm was relayed to a pier watchman who left
the pier and crossed a wide street to send an
alarm from a city fire alarm box, bypassing tele-
phones on the vessel and pier. The alarm had
been seriously delayed on the vessel and was fur-
ther delayed by the watchman.

The passenger space aboard the Rio Jachal
could be described as a combustible, wooden
framed, floating hotel within steel bulkheads.
These steel bulkheads were covered with wood
studding and plywood paneling, which concealed
voids varying to 12 inches in depth. The hanging
plywood ceilings covered voids up to 24 inches.
The passageways were also covered with plywood
panels, and the staterooms had wood veneer doors
that were not self-closing. The staterooms them-
selves were separated by combustible partitions
of wood studding and plywood. However, these
staterooms, in groups of 2, 3 or 4, were located
within steel transverse bulkheads. Readily ignit-
able furnishings were used throughout the state-
rooms and public spaces.

The Fire

Crew members discovered dense smoke in unoc-
cupied stateroom number 309 on B deck at ap-
proximately 2120. The ship was equipped with
an automatic fire detection system. The involved
stateroom (Fig. 3.2) was equipped with a thermo-
static device, actuated at 140°F, that registered
an audible and visual alarm on the bridge. Un-
fortunately, the bridge was unoccupied and
locked when the ship was in port, so the system
was not monitored.

In attempting to put out the fire, the crew first
employed fire extinguishers and then hoselines.
However, the fire developed in intensity and vol-
ume and forced the crewmen to retreat so rapidly
that they were unable to close the watertight
doors in the area near the fire site (Fig. 3.2).
There were 1 1 watertight doors on the vessel, 9
of them on B deck. However, the locations of the
doors were untenable, owing to the rapid exten-
sion of the fire. The crew did manage to close
two watertight doors immediately forward of the
fire area on B deck, with control wheels located
on the deck directly above. This effectively
stopped the forward advance of the fire.

The fire extended from stateroom 309 to the
passageway and then moved fore and aft. The

FORWARD^

.Promenade Deck

Stateroom 309

o o o o o

A

s'sss'JS's 77TfrFJfI}JJJJ}f f / 7~J J * I > 1 1 1 I '

■tf^ir-lfitf

imZZZZZD

4 *

V ivvj I I- // ,/

— ~ — - — . r gscOpen Waterzzgjzzzzz Closed^ Water-tight

-tight Door

i r

: DoorJI 1

Figure 3.2. Cutaway view of part of the Rio Jachal. The arrows show the extension of the fire from stateroom 309 (the site
of the fire) to the bridge.

48

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

strongest draft was aft. The fire moved through
the open watertight door and up the unenclosed
semicircular stairway to A deck. From there, it
extended from deck to deck, along passageways
and stairways, until it reached the bridge.

On the main deck one fire door was closed,
but the other three fire doors in the passageways
did not close. One switch on the bridge could
have closed all these doors simultaneously, but
the crew was unable to reach it. In fact, the bridge
area was burned out, so that all above-deck
power, pump, and fuel-transfer control systems
were inoperative. In all, six deck levels were afire
through the midship section.

There was no evidence of fire spread other than
through stairways and passageways. Even the 29
individual air conditioning systems, with ducts
concealed in the dropped ceiling, communicated
little or no fire. Spread was horizontal and verti-
cal— essentially a surface fire feeding on the com-
bustible frame interior and furnishings. Con-
cealed spaces were not a major problem.

Firefighting Operations

The first-arriving firefighters promptly stretched
hoselines down the pier and then to A deck and
the main deck, in an attempt to confine the fire.
Other firefighters checked the holds and engine
room for fire, removed passengers, and awakened
crew members asleep in cabins. Aboard at the
time were 12 officers, 40 crew members and 7
passengers who were using the ship as their hotel.

Firefighters were met by the master, officers
and crew members, but they encountered lan-
guage difficulties and had trouble communicating
effectively. However, one of the firemen spoke
fluent Spanish, and he was immediately enlisted
as an interpreter. Because of the length of time
taken to transmit the alarm, the fire had a good
start and was difficult to control. Not long after
arrival, the firefighters had to call for additional
help.

A decision was made to leave the ship at the
pier, rather than move it. Though the ship was
not fully loaded, it could not be considered light.
It was, however, in stable condition, with the bal-
last tanks filled, diesel fuel close to capacity and
935 tons of cargo in the four holds.

Firefighters were ordered to reach the heart of
the fire on B deck and to advance lines into posi-
tion on the upper decks. Many hoselines were
brought into the ship, as an aggressive interior
attack was essential. Water from the streams was
trapped on the upper decks, creating an unfavor-
able stability condition.

Ventilation of the fire area had to be very

closely coordinated with advancement of lines,
to ensure that drafts did not draw fire into unin-
volved spaces. Each deck had to be vented hori-
zontally; the prevailing wind, blowing across the
vessel from starboard to port, was a factor in vent-
ing through the exterior windows. The only verti-
cal ventilation was through the stairways, which
ended at the bridge.

Three fireboats were moored to the port side
of the Rio Jackal. After the initial hoselines from
the first-arriving firefighting units were in posi-
tion, all water could have been supplied by the
fireboats. Fireboat deck pipes were not generally
used. Their heavy streams would have extin-
guished very little interior fire, but would have
added large volumes of water to the decks, wors-
ening the stability problem. They also could have
seriously hampered personnel operating in the in-
terior. Deck pipes were used only to prevent ex-
tension of the fire to wooden lifeboats, when
flames issued from the portholes. Even then, they
were used only momentarily.

The Starboard List

During these firefighting operations, the ship's
stability had to be monitored continually. Before
the fire, the ship was in balance, with the center
of gravity and the center of buoyancy on the
same vertical plane. As tons of water collected on
the starboard side, the center of gravity shifted
causing the ship to list toward the pier; when the
list reached an angle of about 15°, the master and
fire chief became very concerned.

Good progress had been made in controlling
the fire. However, the master, the fire chief and
their staffs knew that final extinguishment could
not be accomplished until the list was corrected,
otherwise the continued use of water would cause
the ship to capsize and spread fire to the pier.
They decided to shut down all water as a first
step in correcting the list. For safety, all person-
nel were ordered off the vessel. Then a few men
equipped with breathing apparatus returned to
the ship to contain the fire with minimal use of
water.

Meanwhile, three crew members and six fire-
fighters, all equipped with breathing apparatus,
descended into the engine room to try to correct
the list. (The clinometer at the operations plat-
form showed a 15° list to starboard when they
reached the smoke-filled engine room.) The list
was to be corrected by discharging ballast
water — a hazardous operation requiring knowl-
edge and skill. Since the ship was without power, a
generator had to be started. The party in the en-
gine room located the compressed-air tank; after

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

49

about 10 minutes they succeeded in turning over
the generator. Immediately the bowels of the ship
lit up as power was supplied to the lighting sys-
tem. Once power was available, the transfer and
ballast pumps could be operated, and work could
be started on correcting the list.

Five hundred tons of water were discharged
from the starboard ballast tanks by one pump
operating for 15-20 minutes. Only 2.5 tons of
diesel fuel could be transferred from the star-
board to the port tanks because the latter were
almost filled to capacity. Now the clinometer read
6° to starboard. Measures were then taken to
relieve the upper decks of water, e.g., removing
stateroom windows and setting up eductors.

As the ship was righted, the previously burned-
out portions of the upper decks afforded less fuel
for fire extension. All firefighters then returned
to their lines. The strategically placed personnel
readily extinguished the remaining fire. Within
2 hours after the first alarm was sounded the fire
was under control and the Rio Jackal was very
close to an even keel.

Successful Conclusion

The crew and professional firefighters had worked
valiantly and efficiently to confine the fire and
thereby . save the vessel. Although some areas
were severely damaged, the fire was confined to
the midship section of the vessel. This successful
operation emphasizes several important factors:

1 . Early detection of smoke and/or fire is vital
for the protection of passengers, crew, ves-
sel and cargo. This is true at sea, at an-
chorage, moored at a pier or in a shipyard.
It is therefore important to monitor all
smoke and fire detection devices at all
times. At sea, this fire may have been de-
tected earlier and suppressed quickly. The
fire detection system would have been
monitored, the bridge and engine room
fully manned and a trained fire party ready
to respond to room 309 on B deck.

2. Remote locations for the control of water-
tight doors must be readily accessible to
crew members.

3. The stability of the vessel is of paramount
importance. During a firefighting opera-
tion, water must be used wisely because of
the adverse effect it may have on stability.

4. When language difficulties are encoun-
tered, an interpreter should be found; com-
plete and reliable communication is ex-
tremely important.

5. When a vessel in drydock, at anchorage or
at a pier experiences a fire, the local fire
department will probably assist with, or
take over, the firefighting operations. The
master should be prepared to provide gen-
eral arrangement plans and other plans that
may be needed, and to assign crew mem-
bers to guide and assist the professional
firefighters.

6. Professional firefighters coming aboard a
vessel usually will not use the ship's fire-
main. They prefer to employ their own
equipment, since it is more familiar and
they are certain that it is dependable.

7. In passenger ship fires, it is important to
locate and control stairways to contain the
vertical extension of smoke, heat and fire.

8. Whenever possible, hoselines should be
advanced to the fire from below or along
the same deck level to avoid the rising heat
of the fire. Hoselines should not be
stretched down ladders in the vicinity of
the fire, because they may be enveloped in
heat and smoke.

9. A delay in transmitting the fire alarm gives
the fire more time to extend and to increase
in severity.

YARMOUTH CASTLE

From the time she was constructed in 1927 for
the Eastern Steamship Company, the Evangeline,
as she was originally named, sailed under several
national flags and ownerships. This 379-foot,
5000-gross ton, 2474-net ton vessel also served
as a troopship during World War II. In 1965 she
was renamed the Yarmouth Castle and sailed as
a cruise ship for the Chadade Steamship Com-
pany of Panama.

Under the command of a 35-year-old master
the Yarmouth Castle sailed for Nassau on the
evening of November 12, 1965, on a regular bi-
weekly cruise. The ship carried 165 crew mem-
bers and 376 passengers, including 61 members
of the North Broward, Florida, Senior Citizens
Club. This organization was to lose 22 of its
members as a result of the fire that ensued.

The Fire

At approximately 0100 Saturday, November 13,
as the Yarmouth Castle was in Northwest Provi-
dence Channel abeam of Great Stirrup Bay, the
odor of smoke was detected in the engine room.
The smoke was thought to be coming from the
galley bakeshop area via the ventilating system.
This area was searched, but no fire was found.

50

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Within minutes passengers and other crew
members smelled smoke and began searching for
the source. Many believed the fire to be in the
men's toilet on the promenade deck, since smoke
was issuing from that location. Unknown to the
search party, which was increasing in size, the
fire was in storage room 610, one deck below on
the main deck. There was considerable confusion
among the search party, which now included the
master and the cruise director.

When the fire was finally located in room 610,
members of the crew fought the fire with hand
fire extinguishers. When this proved futile, hose-
lines were advanced, and the engine room was
ordered to start the fire pumps. This too proved
ineffective, and fire spread into the corridors and
toward the stairwells. The inexperienced fire-
fighters were driven back by the intense heat and
smoke. At this point the master returned to the
bridge.

No alarm had been sounded yet, but some pas-
sengers were awakened by the noise, and more
became aware of the odor of smoke. The pas-
sengers in the ballroom were among the last to
learn of the problem as a woman dashed into the
room screaming "Fire."

The bridge ordered the engines and ventilating
system shut down at 0120. Watertight doors in
the engine room were closed. On orders of the
master, an SOS was transmitted. Because the
radio shack was afire, the message had to be sent
by blinker to two ships that were sighted.

The order to abandon ship was given at 0125,
however, it could not be transmitted because the
wheelhouse was burning and had been abandoned.
At this time the fire was very heavy amidships,
with flames leaping high into the air. Only 4 of
the 14 lifeboats were lowered, and the master
was in one of the first boats to leave. He later re-
turned to the Yarmouth Castle and explained
that he left to get assistance. One of the early
boats to leave had mostly crew aboard; only four
passengers were lowered with the boat.

At 0155 the U.S. Coast Guard was notified by
the Finnish ship SS Finnpulp that she had sighted
a ship afire. Aircraft were dispatched from Miami
for confirmation, observation and rescue if pos-
sible. The Finnpulp and the Panamanian liner
Bahama Star both steamed toward the Yarmouth
Castle to offer assistance. One passenger stated
that the Bahama Star put 14 boats into the water.
The Finnpulp put both her boats into the water.

The master returned to his ship at approxi-
mately 0300, after most of the passengers and
crew had left the vessel. Many had to jump into
the water, hoping to be picked up by lifeboats
from the two rescue ships.

The Yarmouth Castle sank at approximately
0600. The toll in lives was 85 passengers and
2 crewmen. If the Finnpulp and Bahama Star had
not been close by at the time of the disaster, many
more lives would have been lost.

Room 610, where the fire originated, was not
equipped with a sprinkler system. Even a mini-
mal system would have resulted in early detec-
tion and confinement, and possibly extinguish-
ment. This storage room contained mat-
tresses, chairs, paneling and other combustible
materials — a relatively high fire loading for a
small space.

Lack of Fire Protection

There are many lessons to be learned from a
tragedy of this magnitude. Among them are the
following:

1. Early detection of fire and the prompt
sounding of the alarm are most essential.

2. The crew must be aware of the importance
of fire prevention. A crew with the proper
attitude toward fire prevention would not
have stored so much combustible material
in a room without the protection of a
sprinkler system.

3. It is the responsibility of the master and
other officers to continually train and drill
crew members, so that they will function
effectively in an emergency. Practical train-
ing in the use of portable fire extinguishers,
hoselines and breathing apparatus is essen-
tial.

4. The orders to transmit an SOS and to
abandon ship cannot be delayed until it is
no longer possible to do either safely and
effectively.

5. A smoke detecting and/or sprinkler sys-
tem should be required in passenger and
crew accommodations.

6. Combustible interior construction and fur-
nishings should be eliminated wherever
they can be replaced with fire resistive,
noncombustible and fire retardant ma-
terials.

7. The master should never have left his ship.
His responsibility was to direct and lead
his crew in containing the fire and safely
evacuating the passengers and themselves.

8. This fire might have been confined and
extinguished by the crew if they had been
trained to report the fire immediately, or-
der the fire pump started, use portable fire
extinguishers skillfully and quickly advance
hoselines while wearing self-contained

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

51

breathing apparatus. In other words,
prompt and efficient firefighting could have
been successful in this case.

MV ALVA CAPE AND SS TEXACO
MASSACHUSETTS; TUGBOATS ESSO
VERMONT AND TEXACO LATIN
AMERICAN

The Kill Van Kull is a narrow estuary connecting
Newark Bay with the Upper Bay of New York
harbor; it lies between the southern tip of Bay-
onne, New Jersey, and the north shore of Staten
Island. On the afternoon of June 16, 1966, visi-
bility in the channel was excellent, the tempera-
ture was 85 °F, the wind was in a southwesterly
direction at 8 knots and the water temperature
was approximately 62 °F. It was hardly a day on
which a nautical catastrophe would be likely to
occur. Yet, before the sun set that evening, one
of the worst ship disasters ever experienced in
New York harbor took place; 33 men lost their
lives, and 64 were injured.

A collision between the tankers MV Alva Cape
and SS Texaco Massachusetts resulted in an ex-
plosion and fire that involved these two vessels
and two tugboats, the Esso Vermont and the
Texaco Latin American. The story will long be
remembered, not only by those fortunate enough
to survive the holocaust, but also by the men who
fought the blaze. Their valiant efforts were suc-
cessful in subduing the four separate ship fires
that raged almost simultaneously.

The Collision

At 1357, the Massachusetts left her berth at Tex-
aco's Bayonne Terminal, having just discharged
2,242,800 gallons of gasoline, bound for Port
Arthur, Texas. At this time her 27 cargo tanks

were tightly closed and empty except for seawater
ballast in her nos. 3, 5 and 7 center and no. 5
wing tanks. The tug Latin American, alongside
on her port bow approximately 150 feet aft, was
no longer assisting the tanker to maneuver out
into the channel. Aboard the Massachusetts were
a total of 41 persons — a crew of 39 and 2 pilots.

The Alva Cape was heading up the Kill Van
Kull with 132,854 barrels (5,579,868 gallons) of
naphtha in 21 tanks. The naphtha was to be dis-
charged at Bayway, New Jersey. The majority of
the 44 men aboard the Alva Cape were orientals
from the British Crown Colony of Hong Kong.

By 1407 the Alva Cape was just under the Bay-
onne Bridge, slightly to the right of the middle
of the channel (Fig. 3.3). The Vermont was mov-
ing up fast astern of the Alva Cape, along her
starboard quarter, in an effort to overtake her.
The Massachusetts reduced her speed from Slow
Ahead to Dead Slow Ahead; 2 minutes later the
Massachusetts went from Dead Slow Ahead to
Full Astern. The two vessels were now approxi-
mately X¥i ship lengths apart. Because a col-
lision seemed certain, both vessels dropped an-
chor. Contact was made at 1412; the prow of the
Massachusetts sliced the no. 1 starboard wing
tank of the Alva Cape 10 feet deep and 15 feet
below the waterline.

Explosion and Fire

The Massachusetts, with her engines full astern,
immediately began to back away from the Alva
Cape. For about 3 minutes there was no evidence
of any smoke or fire. However, as naphtha cas-
caded from the ruptured tank, a mist of vapor
could be seen spreading over the water, encircling
the two vessels.

Shortly thereafter a tremendous explosion was
heard near the Alva Cape, and then a second

ELIZABETHPORT

Bayonne Bridge

B&OR.R
— \/' /y \Y-GoethaIs Bridge

STATEN ISLAND

Figure 3.3. The area of the collision between the Massachusetts and the Alva Cape. The Massachusetts had left from point
A, and the Alva Cape was headed for point B. The ships are shown in their final positions after the collision.

52

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighiing and Fire Safety

blast near the Massachusetts. The water between
the two tankers, approximately 450 feet apart at
this time, was engulfed in flames. The current
quickly carried the flames around the starboard
side of the Massachusetts. Within a few minutes,
a third explosion was heard. Most probably the
Vermont was the source of ignition for the ex-
plosion near the Alva Cape, and the explosion
near the Massachusetts was caused by the Latin
American.

Via radio, a Moran tugboat captain reported
to his dispatcher that two tankers had collided
and were afire. The dispatcher immediately tele-
phoned the Marine Division of the New York
City Fire Department. A tall dark column of
smoke, clearly observed in the vicinity of Bay-
onne, New Jersey, confirmed the fire. Immedi-
ately, orders were transmitted to three fireboats,
the Smith (Marine Company 8), the McKean
(Marine Company 1) and the Firefighter (Marine
Company 9), to respond to the fire.

Conditions Upon Arrival

The first land units to arrive observed two tank-
ers and two tugboats afire beyond their immediate
reach. The Alva Cape was pivoting on her anchor
in a clockwise direction, because of the current
and wind. The water surrounding the Alva Cape
was covered with flaming naphtha; the paint was
burning off her hull above the waterline, from
bow to stern. Considerable fire was visible on the
main deck, in the midship and after superstruc-
tures, and from the hole in the hull (Fig. 3.4). The
intensity of the fire made survival seem hopeless
for those who had not already abandoned ship.
Both vessels drifted toward the tank farm at
Bayonne, with the Vermont between them. The
Alva Cape dropped her starboard anchor and the
Massachusetts dropped her port anchor, which

limited their movement. They came to a tempo-
rary halt with the Massachusetts' starboard stern
alongside the port stern of the Alva Cape, and
here they continued to burn. The Massachusetts
was burning mainly in and around the stern super-
structure, with paint burning on the hull and
gasoline vapors aflame at tank vents. It was
learned later that because of her deep draft and
the mud flats in the immediate area, the Alva Cape.
could not drift closer to Bayonne.

Obviously, the first land-based firefighters to
arrive had to wait for the fireboats before starting
an attack. The ships were beyond the reach of
land apparatus, and the fire was too large for any
equipment that could be transported by police
launch or tugboat. All available U.S. Coast Guard
and police launches, tugboats and private boats
were fully occupied with the recovery of persons
in the water.

When the fireboats pulled up to the burning
tankers, firefighters attempted to determine what
specific liquid was burning. The flames coming
from the hole in the Alva Cape indicated a very
volatile substance. Other questions arose. Was
there just one kind of liquid, or was this a "drug-
store" tanker, carrying a wide variety of liquid
cargo? How much did each tanker carry? From
the way they rode in the water, it was evident that
the Alva Cape was carrying near capacity, while
the Massachusetts was carrying a minimum load.
The scent of naphtha vapors was not discern-
ible until members approached close to the star-
board side of, or boarded, the Alva Cape. Then
they knew what the cargo was! Naphtha has a
flash point (closed cup) below — 25 °F and an
initial boiling point of 105°F. It is lighter than
water and is not soluble in water. Its flamma-
bility limits are approximately 1% and 6%.

Poop Deck

am

g

3

Bridge Deck

Forecastle

u

I

\o

O;

.'O

Upper Deck

mnHjtmmrfi|j^

IMPACT POINT

Figure 3.4. Superstructure and tank decks for the Alva Cape. Arrow marks the point of impact.

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

53

Extinguishment

The fireboat Smith, when it arrived at the scene
of the collision, proceeded directly to the burn-
ing vessels. The Firefighter first pulled into a
Staten Island pier to take firefighters aboard, and
then also went to the fire. The fireboats' first op-
eration was to separate the two tankers, to pro-
tect the Massachusetts from becoming further in-
volved in fire. The Smith was ordered to operate
as a wedge between the tankers, using all moni-
tors to extinguish fire and cool down both tankers.

The Smith maneuvered between the two tank-
ers, followed by the Firefighter. The full water
discharge capacities of both boats were needed
to protect the firefighters aboard the Smith from
the intense heat. With the fireboats in position,
tugs were able to raise the Massachusetts' anchor
and tow her away from the Alva Cape. The fire-
boat Harvey (Marine Company 2) was dispatched
to accompany the Massachusetts to anchorage.
Enroute, her crew extinguished the remaining
fire on the tanker.

When the Massachusetts was towed off, all
fireboats maneuvered to the ruptured starboard
side of the Alva Cape. Fireboats amidships and
astern concentrated their monitor attacks to make
the Alva Cape tenable for boarding with hand-
lines. The Smith employed a foam attack to con-
trol the fire on the water and in the no. 1 star-
board wing tank. Once the fire in the gaping hole
in the bow was controlled, firefighters from the
three fireboats boarded the burning tanker with
fog and foam handlines. Aboard the vessel, the
firefighters were faced with four fires of major
proportion; these were located in

1. The forward storage tanks and the hole in
the starboard wing tank

2. The amidship storage tanks

3. The amidship superstructure

4. The stern crew quarters.

Two fire attack teams were formed — one to
handle the fire in the forward storage tanks and
damaged starboard wing tank, and one to handle
the amidship storage tanks. Fog streams were
used to cool the deck plates and protect the men
while they introduced foam into the ullage open-
ings (inspection holes) and through breaks in the
steel combings of the expansion tanks, to control
the fires in the storage tanks.

At this time, the naphtha issuing from the hole
in the wing tank reignited and burned several of
the firefighters. This second fire was more diffi-
cult to control than the first but eventually was
brought under control by alternately using fog
streams and foam lines.

To ensure extinguishment, the heat in the tanks
and deck plates had to be dissipated, and the rate
of vaporization of the naphtha reduced. The gas-
kets of the hatch covers on the storage tanks were
smoldering and had to be quenched and removed.
The covers of the expansion tanks were then
opened for better access to the storage tanks; the
foam streams were redirected to seal the foam
blanket. Opening the tank covers also allowed
the heat to dissipate more quickly by convection.

During this period, the naphtha vapors con-
tinued to penetrate the foam blanket; when a
hatch cover fell and created a mechanical spark,
the escaping vapors were reignited. However, the
foam blanket restricted the fire to a limited area,
and it was quickly controlled. At this point, a
holding force could control the tanks, and the
main firefighting force could direct their atten-
tion to the bridge and amidship quarters.

While the major problem had been solved, the
most punishing one remained — the control and
search of the after crew quarters. Even though
considerable time elapsed before firefighters at-
tempted to enter this area, the heat was unbeliev-
able. The fire in this area had been particularly
intense, and the furnishings and contents of the
compartments were completely incinerated. Self-
contained breathing apparatus and frequent ro-
tation of personnel were required, even in the
upper-deck compartments. Progress was very
slow, particularly in penetrating the rope locker
and other below-deck areas. Through effective
leadership, close control, rotation of forces and
the determination and courage of the men, con-
trol was achieved around midnight.

The tugboats Latin American and Vermont
were towed to Shooters Island and a Staten Island
shipyard. They were carefully examined, and all
fire was extinguished by land-based firefighters.

The fire was declared under control fairly early.
However, it took approximately 12 hours to un-
cover and extinguish the very last traces of fire
and ensure that there was no reignition of vapors,
in or out of the tanks.

Stability was never a serious problem, even
though the Alva Cape developed a list to star-
board as the tide receded. Her port side was up
against the mud flats, with the starboard side
floating. A tugboat was used to keep the Alva
Cape against the mud flats, to help maintain sta-
bility. Eductors were used in the two superstruc-
tures, but the water that collected there did not
adversely affect stability.

Conclusions

1. If the vessels involved had communicated

54

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

with each other via radiotelephone, this
tragic accident might have been prevented.

2. Once a fire involving flowing volatile and
combustible liquids is extinguished, pre-
cautions must be taken against reignition.
Reignition can cause serious injuries, and
the fire may be more difficult to extinguish
the second time. Flotation rings, hose
streams, emulsifiers and foam blankets
must be employed to prevent reignition.

3. In this kind of situation, where flammable
vapors can exist over a large area, the ac-
tions of each individual must be closely
supervised. A carelessly dropped tool, a
nail in a shoe, a short in some emergency
electrical equipment or a disturbance in
the pool of flammables can cause an explo-
sion and loss of life. Caution and discipline
are imperative.

4. Traffic control in the vicinity of such a fire

is critical. Collisions, the ignition of escap-
ing vapors and interference with the ma-
neuvering of marine firefighting units must
be prevented.

5. In a situation as hazardous and potentially
explosive as this one, only minimal man-
power should be committed. To minimize
the risk to firefighters, the fire problem can
be separated into parts and the parts at-
tacked in sequence on a priority basis.

6. In salvage operations involving tankers,
flammable products should only be re-
moved by methods that safeguard against
the formation of explosive atmospheres.

7. Firefighting can be very punishing physi-
cally. Crewman fighting a fire of this cali-
ber should wear full protective clothing
and breathing apparatus. They must be
rotated to minimize their exposure time.

SS SAN JOSE

The SS San Jose was on a voyage from San Fran-
cisco to Viet Nam, via Guam. Approximately 95
miles west-northwest of Guam, on November 11,
1967, at 1850, there was a fire in the vessel's
boiler room. The vessel subsequently lost all
power and had to be abandoned. However, she
was reboarded later and towed to Guam. There
were no deaths as a result of the incident, and
only one crew member was slightly injured.

The vessel was classed as a freighter (reefer),
was 6573 gross tons and 3410 net tons, and had
a length of 433 feet and a beam of 61.2 feet. Pro-
pulsion was by steam, at 12,000 horsepower. She

was built in Alabama in 1945 and was owned by
the United Fruit Company.

At the time of the casualty, there was a north-
easterly wind at 20-25 knots, with a moderate
northeasterly sea and swell. The air temperature
was 80°F, and the water temperature 82°F. The
sky was overcast, with visibility limited only by
dusk and darkness. Typhoon Gilda was located
approximately 440 miles southwest of Guam,
moving westerly at 12 knots.

On July 19, 1967, the ship's firefighting equip-
ment was serviced and found to be in proper
working order. Remote shutdowns for the ves-
sel's fuel and ventilation systems were tested on
July 25, 1967, and found to be satisfactory. Out-
lets for the fixed CO2 system in the boiler room
were located both below the floor plates and
around the boiler room perimeter, at a height of
about 8 feet above the floor plates. The CO2
manifold was recessed in the boiler room casing
in the port passageway of the crew quarters.

At San Francisco, the vessel loaded 3400 tons
of refrigerated cargo and 6308 barrels of bunker
C fuel oil. The fuel was carried in double-bottom
and deep tanks. Its specific gravity was 1.027 and
its flash point between 225° to 230°F. The San
Jose left for Guam on October 27, 1967. During
the passage to Guam, oil was consumed from nos.
1, 2 and 3 double-bottom tanks and was trans-
ferred daily to the port and starboard settling
tanks in the boiler room.

The San Jose arrived at Apra Harbor, Guam,
on November 10, 1967, at 1300, and discharged
350 tons of cargo. Five tons of ammunition was
loaded on deck abreast of each side of the fore-
mast, and 5766 barrels of fuel, commonly re-
ferred to as "Navy special," was taken on board
via the port fueling station. This fuel has a spe-
cific gravity of 0.878, and a flash point of 192°F.
The San Jose left Guam before 1200 on Novem-
ber 11,1967.

The port and starboard settling tanks each had
a capacity of. 615 barrels of oil. The height of the
oil in a full tank was 23 feet, 8 inches. Operating
procedures aboard the San Jose required pump-
ing the oil to a height of 22 feet, or about 570
barrels. Each tank terminated in a raised hatch
or expansion trunk with a hinged cover secured
by nuts. The pipe nipple at the center of the cover
was fitted with a non-self-closing gate valve whose
disk was manually operated by a horizontal lever.
Next to the trunk and rising from the top of the
tank was a 3-inch sounding pipe, about 2Vz feet
high. The sounding pipe was fitted with a
weighted lever-operated device for opening and
closing the line.

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

55

It was the duty of the second assistant engineer
and junior engineer to fuel the ship and transfer
fuel oil. They pumped up the settling tanks daily,
using electric pumps that were situated against
the aft bulkhead of the boiler room. Both had
been at sea in the engine departments of merchant
ships for many years.

The chief engineer required that the oil level
be checked in two ways when the settling tanks
were pumped up: 1) by observing the height of
the column of mercury in the pneumercator for
each tank, and 2) by obtaining ullage readings.
The pneumercators were located on the side of
the starboard settling tank. Above the pneumer-
cators was an oil high-level audible alarm panel.
No program was established for periodic testing
of the audible alarm, and there was no valid rec-
ord as to when it was last tested.

The Fire

The first assistant engineer obtained an ullage
reading from the port settling tank and instructed
the junior engineer to commence pumping. He
then performed other work that took him away
from the port fueling station, but not out of the
machinery spaces. The junior engineer took a
pneumercator reading of 11 feet 9 inches, and
then started the transfer pump at about 1810.
He adjusted the speed of the pump with the rheo-
stat until the pump was running at about one-
third capacity. He did not remain at the pump or
the pneumercator but attended to other duties in
the boiler room. None of these duties took him
away from the pneumercator or pump for more
than 5 minutes.

The junior engineer, in addition to transferring
oil, was engaged in blowing tubes on all three
boilers. Since this was an almost fully automated
operation, it required very little of his attention.
At the time of the casualty he had started blowing
tubes on the starboard boiler.

About 2 or 3 minutes before the fire, the fire-
man/watertender noted that the pneumercator
registered 20 feet 6 inches. He gave this informa-
tion to the junior engineer, who "pumped" the
pneumercator and took a reading of 20 feet, 9
inches-21 feet even. The fluctuation was attrib-
uted to the rolling of the ship.

The first assistant engineer went down a ladder
in the engine room. As he walked toward the port
side, the vessel took a moderate roll and he saw
oil flowing on the walkway adjacent to the open
doorway of the port fueling station. The oil over-
flowed the walkway coaming, cascaded down into
the boiler room and flashed into fire. He quickly
shouted a warning to the junior engineer and

fireman/watertender on watch below and then
ran to advise the chief engineer, who was in the
engineer's office. The time was estimated to be
1850.

The fireman/watertender looked to port and
saw "balls of fire" falling down around the Bailey
board. The fire appeared to be coming from
above, but he could not see exactly where. The
junior engineer read the pneumercator. He im-
mediately shut down the fuel oil transfer pump
and electric ventilation system and closed the
valves at the fuel oil manifold. No audible alarm
was heard.

The junior engineer and fireman/watertender
rapidly unreeled the hose on the semiportable CO2
system (two 50-pound cylinders) and directed the
CO2 gas at the fire around the Bailey board. They
were able to extinguish fire at their level, but it
kept reigniting as it was fed by burning oil from
above. They continued to fight the fire until the
chief engineer ordered them from the boiler room.
The boiler fires were secured by the fireman/
watertender before he left the boiler room.

Believing that it was impossible to fight the
fire using semiportable and portable fire extin-
guishers, the chief engineer ordered the boiler
room evacuated, all doors closed and all ventila-
tion secured. He then activated the remote con-
trols for the fixed CO2 system in the boiler room,
releasing the entire 5600 pounds of CO2. No
attempt was made to fight the fire in the boiler
room with water.

The chief engineer arrived on the bridge and
reported to the master that the port settling tank
had overflowed and the oil was burning in the
boiler room. He also informed the master that he
had ordered the plant secured and all ventilation
to the boiler room closed, and that he had re-
leased CO2 from the fixed system into the boiler
room. The master then activated the remote con-
trols that closed all fire doors and stopped the
mechanical ventilation to quarters and cargo
holds. He sounded the general alarm.

All accessible ventilation and access openings
to the boiler room had been closed, but the space
could not be totally cut off from outside air. There
was a circular opening to the atmosphere be-
tween the inner and outer stacks, and no means
was available to secure this opening.

Approximately 10 minutes after the fire broke
out, the master sent an advisory message to
MSTS, Guam, apprising them of the situation
and requesting assistance. Two nearby vessels,
the USS Hissem and the SS Coeur D'Alene Vic-
tory, were alerted and sent to the San Jose's posi-
tion.

56

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

The chief engineer returned to the engine room
on several occasions to check on the effectiveness
of the CO2 he had released. He looked into the
boiler room through the glass port in the fire door
between the lower engine and boiler rooms. He
also checked by cracking the watertight door
from the machine shop to the boiler room. He was
not able to see clearly because of the dense smoke,
but he did not observe any actual flames.

The master directed that the ammunition on
the fore deck be thrown overboard. He ordered
crewmen to fight the fires in the quarters and at
the stack with portable extinguishers and fire
hoses. The portable extinguishers did little to
contain the fire and the fire pump stopped when
the ship's generators tripped off because of the
falling steam pressure. The water pressure in the
firemain and fire hoses soon was reduced to a
trickle.

The emergency diesel generator was located on
the deck below the wheelhouse, forward of the
boiler room. It started automatically and pro-
vided power for topside emergency circuits. The
power cables that ran from the emergency gen-
erator switchboard to the machinery spaces
passed through the boiler room. The cables were
burned out, so that no power was available in
these spaces to operate emergency lighting and a
fire pump. The emergency diesel generator con-
tinued to run properly under the control of the
ship's electrician. However, when the area began
to fill with smoke, the master ordered it secured.

Decision to Leave the Ship

A little over an hour after the start of the fire,
unable to control it, the master decided to trans-
fer most of his crew to the Hissem and Coeur
D'Alene Victory, which were now standing by.
This was accomplished with two lifeboats; 21
men went to the Coeur D'Alene Victory, 19 men
to the Hissem and 13 men remained aboard the
San Jose.

Various attempts were made by the Hissem
to send damage control parties and firefighting
equipment to the San Jose. However, they were
all unsuccessful, owing to worsening weather and
sea conditions. About midnight, when it appeared
that the fire was burning itself out, the master
requested that the Hissem tow the San Jose out
of the path of the approaching typhoon Gilda.
The Hissem began towing the San Jose at about
0700 on November 12, 1977. After 2 hours, a
broaching sea caused the loss of the towing wires.

The master received instructions from the
Commander, Naval Forces, Marianas, and from
his employer, United Fruit Company, to abandon

the San Jose. Typhoon Gilda seemed to be headed
straight for the ship and the extremely rough sea
made it inadvisable to use either of the two re-
maining lifeboats to leave the San Jose. The
master therefore elected to use an inflatable life
raft. The passage of the life raft to the Hissem
was without incident. The Hissem then took ac-
tion to clear the course of typhoon Gilda.

The San Jose was subsequently relocated by
aircraft. The master and several members of his
crew were placed aboard by the USS Joaquin
County on November 16, 1977. The vessel was
riding easily, and no fire was observed. The USS
Cree, a U.S. Navy salvage tug, arrived on No-
vember 1 7 and towed the San Jose to Apra Har-
bor, Guam.

Discharging of the San Jose's refrigerated
cargo was begun immediately, so as to salvage
as much as possible. The unloading proceeded
without incident until no. 2 lower hold was
opened. At that time fire, which had been smol-
dering undetected behind insulation, broke out
anew. It was extinguished by flooding the lower
hold with water.

Conclusions

1. The fire was caused by an unsafe but
common practice. The second assistant
engineer on the San Jose failed to close
the ullage opening in the port settling
tank after taking his initial ullage meas-
urement. As a result, the oil in the topped-
up tank overflowed through the open
ullage pipe. The overflowing oil struck an
uninsulated superheated steam line, flange
or fitting and quickly flashed into fire.

2. A contributing cause was a malfunction
in the operation of the pneumercator for
the port settling tank. It failed to indicate
the true level of the oil in the tank.

3. A further contributing cause was the fail-
ure of the junior engineer to realize fully
that the lighter "Navy special" would
pump faster than bunker C oil, and to
closely observe the pneumercator and
transfer pump.

4. The fire in the boiler room continued to
burn after the fixed CO2 system was ac-
tivated. This was due primarily to the fact
that the source of fuel for the fire was
approximately 12 feet above the CO2 dis-
charge outlets in the boiler room. In addi-
tion, oxygen was available through the
space between the inner and outer stacks.

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

57

5. Because of the intensity and location of
the fire, water could not be used effec-
tively. The releasing of CO2 from the
fixed system by the chief engineer was
warranted and proper under the existing
conditions.

6. Except for portable fire extinguishers, the
San Jose lost its firefighting capability
with the loss of the turbine generators and
the activation of the fixed CO2 system.

7. The high-level alarm for the port settling
tank did not sound a warning. This could
have been due to a malfunction in the
sensing element in the tank. If so, the
malfunction would not necessarily have
been revealed by periodically testing the
alarm with the test switch on the panel.

8. Only the approach of typhoon Gilda
necessitated the abandoning of the San
Jose by her crew.

9. All the required firefighting and lifesaving
equipment on the San Jose operated sat-
isfactorily and as intended.

10. The crew was not properly indoctrinated
on the limitations of CO2 as an extinguish-
ing agent, or the fire extinguishing ability
of water streams from the fog nozzles and
applicators provided in the engineering
spaces.

MV SAN FRANCISCO MARU

Early Saturday afternoon, March 30, 1968, the
MV San Francisco Maru entered New York har-
bor and tied up to the Mitsui O.S.K. Line pier in
Brooklyn. The vessel, launched in Japan only
9Vi months earlier had an overall length of 511
feet, a beam of 71 feet, net tonnage of 5794, gross
tonnage of 10,087, diesel engines and one pro-
peller. There were 34 Japanese crewmen man-
ning the vessel.

At 1508, as crewmen were working in hold
no. 5 preparing cargo for offloading, they de-
tected smoke in the hold. The alarm was given
to alert the master and crew. The ship was
equipped with a smoke detecting and CO2 ex-
tinguishing system, with the monitoring cabinet
on the bridge. Unfortunately, when the ship was
in port and moored to a pier, the bridge was un-
occupied.

Extinguishment

The smoke condition was investigated, and heat
and heavy smoke were found in the lower hold.
Crewmen were ordered out of the hold, hatches

were closed by 1520 and a decision was made to
call the local fire department and to use the ship's
CO2 extinguishing system. At 1536 the CO2 ex-
tinguishing system was activated, and CO2 was
discharged into lower hold no. 5.

When the professional firefighters came aboard,
they requested the stowage plan for holds 4 and
5 and the general arrangement plan for the ves-
sel. These were provided by the master and
studied by the fire officers and ship's officers.

At the same time, fire department personnel
checked the main deck hatch covers and venti-
lators, to ensure a tight seal, preventing the en-
trance of air and the escape of CO2. The MV
San Francisco Maru was a new vessel, so the four
hydraulically operated hatch covers over hold no.
5 were rather tight. Crewmen had shut down ven-
tilating fans, closed dampers, covered ventilators
and dogged hatch covers. Owing to the excellent
condition of the hatch covers, it did not appear
necessary to fill or cover the joints, but they were
examined for escaping smoke or CO2.

The master and a fire chief inspected the CO2
room and discussed the initial discharge of CO2
into lower hold no. 5. The instructions for the
CO2 system were in Japanese; and, although they
were set up so that a person unfamiliar with the
language could determine how CO2 was to be
applied initially and periodically to the various
protected spaces, it was determined that CO2 was
not being applied in accordance with the instruc-
tions. Therefore, it was advisable to start anew.
The fire department requested that the master
order more CO2. It had to be ordered as soon as
possible, so that the supplier would have time to
make the delivery before the ship's supply was
exhausted.

Crewmen and firefighters worked together to
attach four thermometers to bulkheads in hold
no. 4, as follows:

1 . Lower hold aft

2. Lower 'tween deck aft

3. Upper 'tween deck aft

4. Lower hold forward.

The exterior of the hull on the port and star-
board sides was examined and watched for dis-
coloration and blistering. One location at the
lower hold level, where heat and discoloration
were detected, was marked with white chalk. The
forward bulkhead of the engine room, immedi-
ately aft of hold no. 5, was also examined and
watched for discoloration and blistering, espe-
cially at the lower hold level.

58

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

At about 1600, a chart (similar to that in Fig.
10.16) was started. The time of day and the tem-
perature reading of each thermometer were re-
corded, along with the atmospheric temperature
and the number of 100-pound CO2 cylinders dis-
charged into the lower hold.

Examination of the bulkheads and hull plates
surrounding hold no. 4 and the temperatures ob-
tained from the thermometers soon confirmed
that the seat of the fire was in the lower hold.
Moreover, the temperature was not rising. By
2100, thermometers 1, 2 and 3 showed a decline
in temperature. This indicated that CO2 was be-
ing discharged into the correct level of the hold;
the oxygen content was being reduced below
10% thereby inhibiting combustion.

Examination of the stowage plan revealed that
the lower hold contained cardboard, wood, plas-
tics, rubber, fabrics and other combustible items.
These were ordinary combustible materials, not
extremely hazardous, as was to be expected in a
lower hold. Firefighters advanced two hoselines
to holds 4 and 5, and both lines were charged to
the nozzle. This was a precautionary measure;
there was little expectation that they would be
used.

Several hours after the master ordered the ad-
ditional CO2, the supplier's truck arrived with a
large number of 100-pound cylinders. It also
contained the equipment and tools needed to dis-
charge CO2 from the cylinders on the pier di-
rectly into the ship's system. No attempt was
made to replace the empty cylinders in the CO2
room; that could be done after the fire was ex-
tinguished. Now it was essential to maintain the
tight seal on hold no. 5; continue the periodic
discharge of CO2 into the lower hold; keep chart-
ing the temperatures obtained from the four
thermometers; continue to examine the hull and
engine room bulkhead for signs of heating; and,
most important, exercise patience.

The temperatures indicated by thermometers
1 , 2 and 3 had dropped sharply by 0900 on Sun-
day, March 31. However, they were still higher
than the outside temperature. Therefore, the mas-
ter and his staff, Mitsui's port captain, and the
fire chief and his officers held a conference to
plan for the opening of hold no. 5. If it were
opened too soon, the fire might rekindle when
fresh air reached an area that was not completely
extinguished. That would require a repeat of the
entire CO2 extinguishing procedure.

It was decided to open the hold on Monday,
April 1, at 0900, after the stevedores had re-
ported for work and firefighting personnel had
been changed. When that time arrived, the tem-

perature was about 60 °F on all thermometers —
a very favorable condition.

Before the hatch was opened, a company of
firefighters was sent into the hold. They wore self-
contained breathing apparatus, used a lifeline,
and carried flashlights, portable hand radios, and
an oxygen meter. Their objective was to reach
the lower hold if cargo stowage permitted, to de-
termine if there was any fire, smoke or heat in
the vicinity of the fire. The fire officer reported
by radio and then in person on the main deck
that no fire, smoke or heat was found. The oxy-
gen meter registered approximately 6 % oxygen —
too low for the combustion of ordinary materials.

The forward port section of the hydraulic
hatch cover over hold no. 5 was opened at 1011.
No forced ventilation was employed. Firefighters
wearing breathing apparatus and carrying an
oxygen meter entered to the upper 'tween deck, to
offload containers that were on the upper 'tween
deck hatch cover. When the oxygen content of
the atmosphere was 21% the firefighters were
able to work without the breathing apparatus.
After the hatch cover was clear of cargo, it was
time to open that cover.

Firefighting personnel were rotated from the
hold to the main deck and vice versa. The fire-
fighters donned their breathing apparatus when
the hatch cover was opened. The atmosphere in
the lower 'tween space was tested and found to
be about 6% oxygen. The procedure employed
in the upper 'tween space was repeated in the
lower 'tween space. When cargo was removed
from the lower 'tween hatch cover, the discolora-
tion and warping of the hatch cover and deck
plates readily revealed that the fire had been in
the hold below.

Two charged hoselines were lowered into the
hold, in case water was needed to extinguish any
remaining fire or to reduce heat in the fire area,
but not one drop of water was needed. When the
lower 'tween deck hatch cover was opened, it ex-
posed a large area of charred cargo but no fire,
smoke or heat. It was 1145, and the fire was
definitely extinguished.

Extensive investigation and legal action could
not determine the cause of the fire. Though sev-
eral possible causes were discussed, there was not
sufficient evidence to support any one of them.

Conclusions

This general cargo hold fire was successfully ex-
tinguished with CO2, without the use of water.
The method can be used on other vessels equipped
with CO2 extinguishing systems and manned by

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

59

well-trained crews. Certain factors, including the
following, should be remembered:

1. Crewmen must be thoroughly trained in
the use of CO2 for extinguishing fire, so
that they have confidence in the fire pro-
tection equipment and their own capa-
bilities.

2. Early detection of smoke and/ or fire is
vital. Therefore, the automatic smoke de-
tection system must be monitored at all
times.

3. Frequent drills must be conducted with the
CO2 extinguishing system, to avoid errors
when an actual fire occurs. Errors such as
discharging the incorrect amount of CO2
or discharging it into the wrong space have
been made in the past.

4. CO2 is the safest and most efficient ex-
tinguishing agent for hold fires. Water is
not as effective as CO2, may create a sta-
bility problem and could seriously damage
cargo. CO2 will not damage cargo.

5. A temperature chart showing the extin-
guishing process is helpful at the time of
the fire, for the record and later for drill
purposes.

6. In port the CO2 supply can be replenished,
so more CO2 can be used in the periodic
applications. At sea, the fire can be con-
tained and extinguished with a very tight
seal on the involved space, the correct ini-
tial application and smaller periodic appli-
cations. However, the space may have to
remain sealed for a longer period of time.

7. Premature opening of the hold, and a re-
sulting rekindling of the fire, can be dis-
astrous. Crewmen may lose confidence in
the CO2 extinguishing method and resort

to water hoselines — a more dangerous and
less effective method of extinguishment.

8. Thermometer 4 should have been placed
on the forward bulkhead in the engine room
at the lower hold level. The temperature of
the forward bulkhead of hold no. 4 was
not important in this case.

9. Patience is extremely important when CO2
flooding is used to extinguish a hold fire.

SS AFRICAN STAR

On the morning of March 16, 1968, at about
0340, the dry-cargo vessel SS African Star col-
lided in a meeting situation with the tank barge
Intercity no. 77 in the lower Mississippi River, in
the vicinity of mile 46 Above Head of Passes
(AHP). The African Star's bow penetrated the
Intercity no. 11 on the after port side, at an angle
of 45°. The motor towing vessel Midwest Cities
was pushing two tank barges, Intercity no. 11
and Intercity no. 14 (the forward barge). The ves-
sels are described in Table 3.1. The two tank
barges were identical.

A few minutes before the collision, the African
Star was making about 16 knots on a 140° true
course; the Midwest Cities was making 6 knots
on a 320° true course with a relative closing speed
of 22 knots (Fig. 3.5). Visibility was good and
each vessel had been advised of the other vessel's
movements on its own radio frequency. Because
of the lack of a common radiotelephone frequency,
direct communication between the vessels was
not possible.

Both vessels were equipped with marine radar
units. Both units were in operation prior to and
at the time of the casualty, but neither unit was
being continuously observed by watch personnel.
The pilot of each vessel sighted the navigation

Table 3.1. Descriptions

of the Vessels.

African Star

Midwest Cities

Intercity nos. 77 and 14

Service

Freight vessel

Tug

Tank barge

Gross tons

7971

165

1319

Net tons

4624

129

1319

Length

468.6 ft

83.2 ft

264 ft

Breadth

69.6 ft

24 ft

50 ft

Depth

29.2 ft

7.2 ft

11.1 ft

Propulsion

Steam

Diesel

None

Horsepower

8500

850

Owner

Farrell Lines, Inc.

Natural Marine

Intercity Barge Co. Inc.

Service

Inc.

60

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

r

468.6'

AFRICAN STAR

IV

I
»

I 16 Knots

♦

O

BARGE 14
Adrift After
Collision

Combustible v.
Vapor

AFRICAN STAR
Grounded

Mile46(AHP)

Mile 45.8 (AHP)

Mile45.7(AHP)
,/V, BARGE 11

S.E.Wind

Grounded and Sank

\ ♦

611'

L@

6 Knots

BARGE 14

BARGE 11

MV MIDWEST CITIES

&

MV MIDWEST CITIES
Escaped With Minor Damage

50'

Figure 3.5. A. The situation before and during the collision between the African Star and Intercity no. 77. B. The results
of the collision.

lights of the other vessel at about 1 Vi miles, and
later sighted the other vessel on radar.

Witnesses in passing vessels reported that they
could easily see the navigation lights on the Mid-
west Cities, Intercity no. 14 and African Star.
The movements of the vessels were not materially
affected by wind or current. The steering gear
and machinery of both vessels were in good op-
erating order.

The African Star had a licensed pilot, but the
Midwest Cities had an unlicensed pilot; however,
both pilots had extensive experience on the Mis-
sissippi River. There was a lookout on the bow
of the African Star, but none on the Midwest

Cities. The master, third mate and helmsman
were also on the bridge of the African Star.

The Collision

Different versions of the maneuvers were given by
personnel on each of the two vessels.

Midwest Cities Version. The Midwest Cities
was running parallel to the side of the river, about
250 feet from the east bank. The pilot considered
it to be a head-and-head meeting situation, and
the pilot sounded the appropriate one-blast
whistle signal for a port-to-port passing. The
African Star responded with one blast. He as-

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

61

sumed a safe passage until the African Star
sounded two blasts when her bow was abeam the
lead barge. He saw the African Star's green side-
light and responded with one blast. He then blew
four blasts on the whistle, backed full astern from
full ahead and put the rudder hard right. How-
ever, it was too late to avert a collision between
the African Star and barge Intercity no. 11.

African Star Version. The pilot of the African
Star stated that his vessel was slightly west of mid-
river when he sighted the Midwest Cities' two
white tow lights and green sidelights on his star-
board bow. The tow appeared to be favoring the
west bank and running parallel to it. It appeared
to him to be a normal starboard-to-starboard
meeting situation, not a head-and-head meeting.
When the Midwest Cities tow was V2 to 3A mile
ahead, he sounded two short blasts on the whistle,
but no reply was heard. As the pilot headed for
the radar, the third mate called his attention to
the tow crossing his starboard bow showing red
sidelights. This was about 2 minutes after the
two-blast signal was sounded. Hard right rudder,
one blast and then emergency full astern were
ordered and executed. By this time, the situation
was beyond the point of corrective action — a col-
lision was unavoidable. Full astern was in effect
a minute before the collision.

In his analysis of the incident, the commandant
of the U.S. Coast Guard concluded that the wit-
nesses gave such conflicting testimony that it was
impossible to reconstruct the events leading up
to the collision.

The Fire

Intercity no. 11 was loaded to a draft of about
9 feet 6 inches, corresponding to approximately
19,000 barrels of crude oil. An analysis of the
Louisiana "sweet" crude it carried revealed a
30.6° API a flash point (Pensky Martens) of
80.0°F, and a Reid vapor pressure of 3.2 psia,
which categorized the product as a grade C flam-
mable liquid.

When the collision occurred, the general alarm
was sounded on the order of the master of the
African Star. At this time, the oncoming watch
personnel were in varying degrees of readiness
and, except for those on watch, all crew members
and passengers were asleep or resting in their
quarters.

In less than a minute, fire broke out and sev-
eral explosions occurred. The most likely source
of ignition was high heat due to metal-to-metal
friction or sparks, produced when the barge was
sheared by the bow of the African Star. Another

possible source of ignition was sparks generated
by the severing of the electrical cable leading to
the navigation lights on Intercity no. 14.

When fire broke out on the barge and in the
surrounding water, the pilot of the Midwest Cities
backed full to break the port wire and to clear
the intense fire. He estimated it took about a min-
ute to get free; his vessel was backing toward the
west bank. Intercity no. 11 grounded and sank
near the west bank at mile 45.7 (AHP). The Mid-
west Cities was downwind of the point of collision
and escaped with only minor damage.

The southeasterly wind carried flammable
vapors over the African Star from bow to stern
(because of the vessel's position relative to the
wind direction). The flammable vapors ignited,
engulfing the vessel in flames. The pilot backed
clear and intentionally grounded the vessel on the
west bank at mile 45.8 (AHP). The tarpaulins
had been ignited, and there were fires in holds 2,
4 and 5. Containers and other deck cargo were
burning, as was the paint on the ship. Dense
smoke filled the engine room and accommoda-
tion spaces.

Firefighting and Rescue

Problems were encountered in lowering the life-
boat and launching the inflatable life raft; the
boat cover and man ropes had burned, and the
plastic cover of the life raft had ignited. The in-
tense fire, heat and smoke in the quarters gutted
the passageways, and a number of passengers and
crew members were trapped. Several people tried
to escape through portholes when they found that
the passageways outside their quarters were im-
passable. Others were burned when their life
preservers and clothing ignited.

For a while the fire and heat on the port side
were too intense to endure. There was some minor
confusion during the first few minutes after the
alarm was sounded. However, this was quickly
dispelled under the leadership of the master and
his officers. After the African Star was grounded,
the master went to the cabin deck to see to the
safety of the passengers and crew. During this
time, he became seriously burned about the feet,
face and hands. As a result, he was immobilized
and had to be carried back to the bridge by the
crew.

At first, burning oil on the water surrounding
the vessel prevented personnel from jumping
overboard to get away from the burning vessel.
The second mate gathered a number of passen-
gers and crew into a small room on the African
Star for refuge until the fire subsided. He then
supervised the extinguishment of small fires in

62

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

and around no. 1 lifeboat. By this time, the cur-
rent and the movement of the African Star had
separated the vessel from the oil burning on the
water, the lifeboat was lowered to the edge of the
deck and the injured crew members and pas-
sengers were assisted into the boat and lowered
to the water's edge. Other crewmen and passen-
gers were able to climb or jump into the water
and swim ashore.

The second mate observed large fires burning
aft on the main deck. He organized a firefighting
team that advanced hoselines to the area. They
were successful in confining the deck fires and
cooling the flammable-liquid cargo.

An oiler in the engine room was forced to leave
because of difficulty breathing in the smoke. How-
ever, the chief engineer, third assistant engineer,
and fireman/ watertender continued to maintain
the engine room plant in full operation. Power
was maintained to keep the vessel aground, the
lights on and the fire and bilge pumps in opera-
tion.

Rescue operations had commenced swiftly fol-
lowing the Midwest Cities request for immediate
assistance via the marine operator in New Or-
leans. Badly burned victims were quickly evacu-
ated by U.S. Coast Guard helicopters. This
operation is credited with saving the lives of a
number of people injured on the African Star.
The Midwest Cities, a New Orleans fireboat and
a local ferry with fire apparatus on board assisted
Coast Guard boats in fighting the fire.

Firefighting was complicated by inaccessibility
to the cargo manifest of hazardous materials lo-
cated in the chief mate's room. In addition, a
number of deck fire hoses had been burned. The
combustibles on deck and in the holds continued
to burn after the vapor and oil spray fires had
subsided.

Firefighting by the African Star crew controlled
the fire until the U.S. Coast Guard vessels and
other help arrived. The fire in hold no. 5 was con-
tained by use of the ship's C02 extinguishing
system.

At about 0530, the fires on board the African
Star had been brought under control, and the
Midwest Cities departed to retrieve Intercity no.
14, adrift in the river. Intercity no. 14 was un-
damaged.

Consequences

The many fatalities and injuries sustained on
board the African Star were due to the rapid
spread of fire, the heat and smoke in living spaces
and the burning oil on the water surrounding the
vessel, which kept most personnel from imme-
diately jumping overboard. Of a total of 1 1 pas-

sengers and 52 crewmen on the freighter, 2 pas-
sengers were killed and 9 were injured; 15 crew
members were killed, 4 were missing and pre-
sumed dead, 31 were injured, and 2 escaped in-
jury. Many more lives would have been lost, but
for the gallant efforts and bravery of African Star
crewmen and others involved in the rescue and
firefighting operations.

A collision and fire of this magnitude must
point up both weaknesses (i.e., areas where sea-
men can learn from the mistakes of others) and
strengths (i.e., examples of leadership, teamwork
and heroism). Some of the more important les-
sons to be learned include the following:

1 . Whistle signals are not of themselves a re-
liable means of communicating a vessel's
passing or turning intentions. Bridge-to-
bridge radiotelephone communication on
a single frequency would probably have
prevented this tragedy. It is now required
by law.

2. Uncertainties and difficulties are experi-
enced in applying the inland rules of the
road to arrange a safe passing. Passing
requires the use of visual and verbal com-
munication in both directions, plus good
judgment.

3. A properly equipped vessel can withstand
a serious collision and fire. A disciplined
and well-trained crew can keep the vessel
afloat, maintain control of the wheelhouse
and engine room and successfully combat
the fire.

4. Leadership, courage and discipline are
essential traits for officers and crewmen in
the merchant marine. The value of these
traits becomes most evident in an emer-
gency situation such as a serious fire.

SS HANSEATIC

At approximately 0730 on September 7, 1966,
while the German passenger vessel SS Hanseatic
was docked at Pier 84, North River, New York,
a fire started in the diesel generator room on B
deck level. Fuel from a leaking line on No. 4
diesel generator ignited and burned. The fire then
extended up an intake ventilator through seven
decks and was finally brought under control by
the New York City Fire Department at approxi-
mately 1430 the same day. There were no report-
able personal injuries, but as a result of the fire,
the vessel suffered damage estimated at one mil-
lion dollars.

The SS Hanseatic was a passenger vessel 674
feet in length, 48.6 feet in depth and 30,300

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

63

gross tons. The vessel, a twin-screw turbine owned
by the Hamburg- Atlantic Lines, was built in 1930
at Glasgow, Scotland. The weather was clear and
fair and was not a factor in the casualty. The SS
Hanseatic underwent alterations and renovations
in the passenger areas upon her transfer to the
German flag in 1958. At the time the fire oc-
curred, the vessel was maintained in class with
the American Bureau of Shipping and German
Lloyds. Her last quarterly inspection completed
on August 11, 1966, at New York, indicated
that the vessel was in compliance with the safety
certificate required by the International Conven-
tion for Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS 60).

The vessel was constructed with 1 1 watertight
bulkheads and 6 main vertical fire zones. Her
machinery spaces included boiler room no. 1,
boiler room no. 2, the diesel generator room and
the main engine (turbine) room. There were four
generators in the diesel generator room, located
forward of the turbine room. The vessel also was
equipped with two steam-driven turbogenerators,
one on either side of the turbine room. The two
turbogenerators were capable of carrying the
ship's electrical load; however, it was normal op-
erating practice to split the load between the two
turbogenerators and two diesel generators.

The four diesel generators were supplied with
air by mechanical means. Vent ducts starting on
either side of the after funnel passed straight
down through all the decks and terminated in
branches over each diesel engine. The blower
motors were located on the navigating deck. Each
duct was fitted with balancing dampers where it
branched over the diesel engines and with a posi-
tive closing damper at the navigating deck level.
The ducts measured approximately 4 X 4Vi ft
in cross section. From the A deck to a location
between the upper and promenade decks, they
passed up the outboard after corners of an escape
trunk, measuring 10 X 20 ft, located abaft the
bulkhead at frame 100. At the upper deck level
the escape trunk passed forward of frame 100
into the fiddley, but the vent ducts continued
straight up to the navigating deck. From A deck
to the upper deck, the escape trunk was insulated
with sheet asbestos except on its forward bulk-
head, which was common to the boiler casing.
The insulated areas included the inboard and for-
ward sides of the vent ducts. The outboard and
after sides of the vent ducts faced the passenger
areas and were not insulated.

The Fire

The SS Hanseatic had arrived in New York at
1200 on September 6, 1966. She was scheduled

to sail at 1 1 30 on September 7, with embarkation
of passengers to commence at 0800. The watch-
standing fourth engineer was in charge of the
watch in the turbine and diesel generator rooms.
At 0730 he heard a knock in the no. 4 diesel
generator, located on the starboard side of the
diesel generator room. At this time the no. 1 and
no. 4 diesel generators were on the line with the
turbogenerators. He told the two engineer cadets
then on watch to shut down the no. 4 diesel gen-
erator. He called the switchboard room and told
the watch electrician to take no. 4 diesel generator
off the line. He then proceeded immediately to
the diesel generator room and saw that, although
the cadet had attempted to shut down the diesel
engine, it continued to run. Diesel fuel was spurt-
ing from the low-pressure gravity-feed fuel line
above no. 5 cylinder onto the no. 4 diesel gen-
erator and igniting. The fourth engineer sounded
the engineer's alarm, and all three men attempted
to extinguish the flames with the portable dry
chemical and foam fire extinguishers immedi-
ately available in the area.

The engineer's alarm sounded in the engineer's
office and quarters located on the sun deck. The
staff chief engineer proceeded below and observed
the fire from the turbine room doors aft of the
diesel generator room. He then went forward
through the diesel generator room to the door to
boiler room no. 2. From this position, he and
other crew members attempted to extinguish the
fire with semiportable foam extinguishers ob-
tained from the two boiler rooms. When he started
using this portable equipment, the fire was con-
centrated at the upper level; the foam was di-
rected onto the flames from the lower level,
through the gratings at the engine head level.
However, the fire continued to spread. The staff
chief engineer then proceeded to A deck. With
the chief engineer, he began to shut off the diesel
fuel and bunker oil tanks at the remote stations
located in the port and starboard passageways.

At approximately 0745, while the staff chief en-
gineer was in the process of shutting off the fuel
tanks, all power was suddenly lost on the vessel.
The staff chief engineer proceeded to the emer-
gency generator room located aft on the main
deck, leaving the chief engineer to finish closing
the remote shutoffs. Although the emergency gen-
erators were in operation within 5 minutes, the
emergency lighting was not energized in the ma-
chinery spaces or any other areas forward of the
diesel generator room. Sometime during the
morning, the vessel's boilers were secured be-
cause of heavy smoke entering the ventilation
system.

64

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

The fire was reported to the bridge by tele-
phone approximately 10 minutes after it started.
The quartermaster on watch called the first offi-
cer, who in turn notified the staff captain and the
master. The first officer and the staff captain pro-
ceeded to the scene of the fire by different routes.
The first officer started into boiler room no. 2
and was proceeding toward the door of the diesel
generator room when the power failure occurred.
He retraced his steps and met the staff captain in
the A deck port passage, outside the switchboard
room. The staff captain ordered the first officer
to sound the fire alarm and notify the shoreside
fire department. Following the sounding of the
alarm on the vessel's whistle, the crew reported to
their fire stations, securing ventilation and closing
fire doors. The crew did not attempt to charge
the ship's firemain by means of the emergency
bilge and fire pump, because the fire department
preferred to use its own hose equipment. How-
ever, the emergency bilge and fire pump ener-
gized by the emergency diesel generator were
used later to pump out the machinery space
bilges.

Fire Department Operations

The New York City Fire Department received
the first alarm at 0746; fire apparatus and fire-
fighters arrived on the pier at about 0750. By this
time the heat was increasing in the vent ducts and
in the escape trunk. The paint on the two unin-
sulated vent duct faces in the passenger spaces
on all decks began to smolder. Fire department
personnel were led to the scene of the fire and
were assisted by crewmen who were familiar with
the arrangement of the vessel. As soon as the
nature of the fire was known to the fire depart-
ment, it was evident that quantities of foam would
be required. They immediately arranged to bring
the necessary equipment to the scene.

Sometime during the first hour, after additional
firefighting help responded, they became aware
that the diesel generator room was equipped with
a fixed CO2 extinguishing system. However, that
system had not yet been utilized. All doors to the
diesel generator room were then closed, after per-
sonnel were evacuated. At approximately 0940,
the CO2 system was activated. It failed to ex-
tinguish the fire.

Up to this time, the primary fire was contained
within the machinery spaces by the steel bulk-
heads of the escape trunk and the vent ducts.
However, secondary fires had started in the pas-
senger and service areas on all decks, by direct
conduction of heat through the steel bulkheads.
Smoke was generated on all decks and became

so dense that breathing apparatus had to be used.
As noted earlier, the vent ducts at frame 100
passed through all the decks; they were not in-
sulated on the two sides that faced the passenger
spaces. The joiner construction consisted of wood
furring bolted directly to the bare steel of the
bulkhead. Plywood and pressed-wood paneling
was attached to the furring to provide the interior
decor. Similarly a plywood false ceiling was at-
tached to wood furring suspended below the steel
overhead. There was direct communication be-
tween the concealed spaces behind the bulkhead
paneling and the hanging ceiling.

The furring strips began to smolder where they
butted against the uninsulated faces of the vent
ducts. On R deck, in way of the vent duct at
frame 97, the crackling of fire was heard behind
the plywood panels. The paneling in this area
was removed from the bulkhead and the over-
head. Water was directed on the burning wood to
extinguish the fire. This was the most serious out-
break of fire reported outside the machinery
space. By this time conditions on all other decks
were generally the same: heavy smoke, smolder-
ing furring strips and blistering paint. On each
deck a number of firefighters were removing the
combustible ceiling and linings.

Although a sprinkler system was installed
throughout the accommodation and service areas,
it was activated only in the starboard passageway
on A deck, frames 90 to 100. The sprinkler dis-
charge ceased when the gravity storage tank was
exhausted and the automatic pump did not start
because of the power failure.

The fire department had three foam lines in
service in an attempt to smother the fire in the
diesel generator room. With sufficient personnel
on all decks to cool the hot bulkheads, fire depart-
ment personnel in the turbine room advanced
their foam lines closer to the seat of the fire. By
1430 the fire was extinguished, although the
residual heat on all decks and in the diesel gen-
erator room remained intense.

The use of water was generally limited to cool-
ing hot bulkheads and extinguishing small blazes
and smoldering woodwork. As a consequence,
firefighting water did not rise above the door sills
in the upper decks in the fire area, or above the
floor plates in the machinery spaces. During the
course of the fire there was no appreciable change
in the vessel's draft or trim, and the list never
exceeded V-W20.

Postfire Analysis

The vessel's fixed CO2 system consisted of a cen-
tral supply of about 3300 pounds of CO2 gas and

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

65

the piping connecting this supply to the forward
holds, no. 1 boiler room, no. 2 boiler room, the
diesel generator room and the after holds. Valves
located in three manifolds on A deck controlled
the distribution of all or part of the supply to any
of these spaces. The CO2 room was located on
the sun deck. Two manually operated release
mechanisms were provided, either of which could
activate the system. One was located on a bulk-
head directly outside the CO2 room; the other
was located at one of the distribution manifolds.
The system was not used in the initial firefighting
effort because it was believed to be a bilge flood-
ing system, and the seat of the fire was several
feet above the bilge. Later the cylinders were
triggered by pulling the release cable within the
CO2 room instead of at one of the release stations.
Subsequent examination of the system indicated
that all 50 cylinders had not been discharged. It
was also determined that about half the available
CO2 would have been sufficient for total flooding
of the diesel generator room.

Following the casualty, examination of the
electrical circuits revealed the following: The
main feed cable from the starboard turbogenera-
tor passed straight up to A deck and then forward
into the switchboard room, located immediately
over the diesel generator room. The main feed
cable from the port turbogenerator passed across
the turbine room to the vessel's centerline. It then
passed forward to a point over the forward end
of no. 3 diesel generator, and then vertically
through the deck into the switchboard room. The
fire had originated approximately 10 feet away
from the point where the cables passed through
the deck. Apparently, the heat had melted these
cables within 15 minutes after the fire started.
This caused a dead short in the port turbogen-
erator. The loss of this generator, and of no. 1
and no. 4 diesel generators after their fuel was
shut off, overloaded the starboard generator, trip-
ping it and causing the power failure. Further
investigation revealed that some of the circuits
from the emergency generator passed through
the diesel generator room enroute to the main
switchboard; these were also destroyed.

All mechanical and electrical equipment in the
diesel generator room was exposed to extreme
heat and flame and suffered considerable damage.
In addition, the steel bulkhead between boiler
room no. 2 and the escape trunk was buckled at
the A deck and restaurant deck levels. Fire dam-
age in the accommodation and service areas on
all decks was limited to an area within a few feet
of the ventilation ducts to the diesel generator
room and consisted primarily of charred and

burned furring strips and plywood. Firefighting
efforts caused additional damage to the ceilings
and linings on all decks, broken glass in windows
and port lights, and general damage due to smoke
and water.

Some conclusions may be drawn from fire-
fighters' and crew members' experience with this
fire:

1. The fire originated in the vicinity of the
no. 5 cylinder-head pump on the no. 4
diesel generator when a low-pressure feed
pipe failed. Diesel oil was sprayed di-
rectly onto the engine head and exhaust
manifold.

2. Due to subsequent fire damage, the cause
of the failure of the fuel line could not be
determined. However, the probable cause
was one or both of the following:

a. A malfunction in no. 4 diesel gen-
erator had created excessive vibration,
which caused the fuel line to fail.

b. A rubber fuel line in the diesel gen-
erator room failed owning to deteri-
oration and/or embrittlement.

3. The flames and heat of the initial fire
cracked the gauge glasses on the diesel
oil tanks located immediately forward and
above the diesel generators. This leaking
oil fed the fire with approximately 5Vi
tons of liquid fuel, causing the fire to
spread throughout the bilges of the diesel
generator room and to continue to burn
until this fuel supply was consumed.

4. The primary fire passed vertically through
the ship from the bilges to the navigation
deck. However, it was contained within
the steel bulkheads forming the bound-
aries of the vent ducts and the escape
trunk extending above the diesel genera-
tor room.

5. Secondary fires, smoke and fumes were
generated on all decks by direct conduc-
tion of the heat of the primary fire through
the steel bulkheads of the vent ducts to
the wood furring and linings which were
fitted to these bulkheads.

6. The horizontal spread of the secondary
fires was restricted to the immediate vi-
cinity of the vent ducts on each deck by
the following:

a. The prompt efforts of firefighters in
uncovering and combating the sec-
ondary fires before they were able to
extend.

66

Marine Fire Prevention, tire fighting and Fire Safety

b. The action of firefighters in cooling
down the hot steel bulkheads and re-
moving all combustibles attached di-
rectly to these bulkheads.

c. The action of firefighters in directing
the opening of the vent dampers and
other closures on the navigation deck,
directly above the primary fire, to vent
the heat and smoke of the primary
fire.

d. The fire resistive insulation fitted in
certain areas of the escape trunk,
which effectively prevented the con-
duction of sufficient heat to cause fire
or smoldering in the combustible ma-
terials attached to the steel bulkheads
in these locations.

7. The primary fire produced sufficient heat
to melt a section of the main power cables
where they passed through the diesel gen-
erator room. This disconnected all the
generators from the main switchboard
except for the starboard turbogenerator.
The latter became overloaded and tripped
out, resulting in a total power failure ap-
proximately 15 minutes after the fire
started.

8. The power failure deenergized two of the
vessel's three fire pumps. This resulted in
a complete loss of pressure in the fire-
main throughout the vessel. The vessel's
emergency bilge and fire pump was ener-
gized from the emergency generator. Be-
cause the fire department supplied its own
firefighting water, the pump was not
utilized.

9. The sprinkler system functioned initially,
both by discharging in the involved area
and by indicating the existence of the fire.
However, due to the power failure, the
sprinkler system did not continue to op-
erate as it should. Because of the circum-
stances, this did not contribute to the
severity of the casualty because areas of
fire extension were adequately protected
by hoselines.

10. The initial firefighting efforts of the crew
were ineffective for the following reasons:

a. The flammable liquid fire was not
sufficiently confined to be brought
under control with portable dry chem-
ical extinguishers.

b. The two portable foam extinguishers
that were used could not distribute a
cohesive blanket over the fire area be-

cause the foam stream had to be di-
rected onto the fire from underneath
and through a deck grating.

c. The vessel's CO2 system, which had
sufficient capacity to totally flood the
diesel generator room, was not used
when the fire was first discovered.

1 1 . Subsequent efforts of the vessel's crew in
assisting the fire department were orderly,
efficient and well directed. Their perform-
ance contributed materially to the suc-
cessful extinguishment of the fire.

12. It was the opinion of the Marine Board
of Investigation, U.S. Coast Guard, that
the vessel's crew could not have success-
fully combated the fire had it occurred
while the vessel was at sea. The intense
heat of the primary fire, the effect of the
power failure on the vessel's firefighting
capability, and the combustible interior
paneling in the accommodation and serv-
ice areas would have made extinguish-
ment extremely difficult.

13. The delay of 10 minutes in reporting the
fire to the master and the delay in notify-
ing the local fire department were evi-
dence of a weakness in the firefighting
training of the crew.

14. If the crew had been alerted earlier, si-
multaneous firefighting operations could
have been instituted. While the fire was
being attacked with portable fire ex-
tinguishers, other crewmen could have
run out hoselines with fog nozzles and/or
applicators. Other members of the fire
party could have prepared to activate the
CO2 system and shut down ventilation
promptly in the event the direct attack
was not successful.

Comparative Study

A detailed comparison of the structural and equip-
ment standards that were applicable to the SS
Hanseatic with those applicable to large ocean-
going passenger vessels of the United States was
conducted by the Technical Division of the Office
of Merchant Marine Safety. This comparison was
limited to the locations involved in or affected by
the fire. It was undertaken to find ways in which
United States flag vessels could be improved. The
most critical items were felt to be the following:

1 . Materials within accommodation and serv-
ice spaces

2. Ventilation ducts

Case Histories of Shipboard Fires

67

3. Automatic sprinkler systems

4. CO2 extinguishing systems

5 . Tubing used in fuel lines

6. Gauge glasses on diesel oil tanks

7. Routing of main turbogenerator cables

8. Emergency power and lighting systems.

The following are some of the results of the
comparison.

1. The Hanseatic was constructed and reno-
vated in accordance with method II fire
protection as described in the International
Convention for Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS 1948), which permitted extensive
use of combustible materials. United States
vessels are, and have been since 1936, con-
structed essentially in accordance with
method I fire protection. Method I protec-
tion severely limits the use of combustible
materials and requires internal divisional
bulkheading capable of preventing the pas-
sage of flame for extended periods.

2. The primary fire in the Hanseatic passed
vertically from the diesel generator room
via the ventilation ducts. Apparently there
were no automatic fusible-link dampers in
these ducts, nor was insulation fitted to the
ducts where they faced passenger spaces.
A U.S. vessel of the same vintage and his-
tory would probably have ducts from ma-
chinery spaces insulated with fire resistive
insulation, and automatic fire dampers
would likely be fitted.

3. The Hanseatic was equipped with an auto-
matic sprinkler system for the protection
of passenger accommodation and service
spaces in accordance with construction
standards under method II of the 1948
SOLAS convention. A similar U.S. vessel
would have employed method I standards,
relying on containment by incombustible
fire barriers; an automatic sprinkler system
would not have been fitted.

4. The quantity of CO2 protecting the aux-
iliary machinery space was sufficient to
totally flood the space. However, to be ef-
fective, this system had to be activated as
soon as the fire was discovered. The delay
of more than 2 hours in actuating the sys-
tem was critical and rendered the system
ineffective. It is doubtful that systems pres-

ently installed on U.S. vessels would be
capable of extinguishing a fire of such mag-
nitude after a similar delay.

5. The tubing used in the fuel line that failed
was evidently a short length of rubber.
Rubber tubing is not permitted on U.S.
vessels for this type of service. Where short
lengths of flexible nonmetallic hose are per-
mitted, they must be wire reinforced and
have a fire resistive cover.

6. There was no testimony as to whether or
not the gauge glasses on the diesel oil tanks
were constructed of heat resistant glass or
were equipped with automatic closure de-
vices. In light of what was observed after
the fire, it would appear that they had
neither. Both heat resistant materials and
automatic closure devices, to protect
against spillage if the gauge glass ruptures,
are required on U.S. vessels.

7. The failure of normal power was evidently
due to the routing of the main turbogen-
erator cables through the forward diesel
generator room, where the fire originated,
and then vertically through the deck to the
switchboard room. The SOLAS and U.S.
Coast Guard regulations governing the
relative positions of main generators, cable
runs and switchboards are minimal. Ar-
rangements similar to those on the Han-
seatic may possibly be found in U.S. pas-
senger vessels.

8. After the power failure, which occurred
within 15 minutes of the start of the fire,
the emergency generators came into op-
eration satisfactorily. However, emergency
power and lighting did not come on in the
machinery spaces or other areas forward
of the diesel generator room at frame 100.
Cables running forward from the emer-
gency switchboard must have been routed
through the diesel generator room to the
boiler room so that they were destroyed by
the fire. Moreover, it was necessary to en-
ergize the emergency lighting and power
system manually. Manual systems are per-
missible on older U.S. passenger vessels.
However, those contracted for since No-
vember 19, 1952, are equipped with a self-
contained power source with automatic
transfer equipment, or diesel generators
with automatic starting and transfer equip-
ment.

68

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SS San Jose: Report, Officer in Charge, USCG, Ma-
rine Inspection, San Francisco, Calif. 94126,

28 January 1968.
SS Hanseatic: Report, Commander, 3rd Coast Guard

District, U.S. Custom House, New York, N.Y.

10004, 22 September 1966.
MV Rio Jackal: WNYF Magazine, Fire Department

City of New York, 1st Issue 1963. Fire Report,

NYFD.
MV Alva Cape and SS Texaco Massachusetts:

WNYF Magazine, Fire Department, City of New

York, Fire Report, NYFD.
SS African Star: Report, Officer in Charge USCG,

New Orleans, La.
Barnaby KC: Mono Castle: Some Ship Disasters

and their Causes.

Great Ship Disasters, by A. A. Hoehling.

Fire Aboard, by Frank Rushbrook.
Barnaby KC: <SS Lakonia: Some Ship Disasters and

their Causes.

Great Ship Disasters by A. A. Hoehling.

SS Yarmouth Castle: Report, Commander, 7th Coast
Guard District, Miami, Florida, 23 February
1966.
Great Ship Disasters by A. A. Hoehling.

MV San Francisco Maru: Fire Reports, Fire Depart-
ment City of New York, March 30, 1968 and
April 1, 1968.

SS Normandie: Investigation Committee Report, US
Congress.

Some Ship Disasters and their Causes by K.C.
Barnaby.

Great Ship Disasters by A. A. Hoehling.
Fire Aboard, Frank Rushbrook.

Other Valuable Sources of Information:

Proceedings of the Marine Safety Council (U.S.
Coast Guard)

Marine Casualty Reports (U.S. Coast Guard)

National Transportation Safety Board Reports

firefighting pQfj

// the first part of this book makes only one point, it is this: The surest way to
protect a ship and its crew from fire is to prevent shipboard fires. At sea or in
port, ship fire of any size will result in damage to the ship, its cargo or both.
If the fire has gained headway and is difficult to control, it may also cause
injuries or deaths. An uncontrolled fire may mean loss of the vessel and a life-
or-death situation for the crew and passengers. In port, such a fire could spread
to land installations.

In Part I, Chapters 1 and 2 discuss this first line of defense against fires —
prevention — and Chapter 3 shows that shipboard fires do occur. Fires start
small but grow quickly. Damage and the danger of injuries and deaths can
be minimized by early detection, control and extinguishment, all of which
will be discussed in Part II.

To fight fire effectively, it is important to know the enemy. Chapter 4, the
first chapter in this part, is a discussion of what fire is and how it destroys.
Chapter 5 covers the four classes, or types, of fires. Fires are classified accord-
ing to the properties of the materials involved and, thus, according to the
most effective means of control and extinguishment.

The earlier a fire is discovered, the less chance it has to spread, and the
sooner the crew can begin to fight it. Several different types of fire detection
systems are used aboard ships. Chapter 6 covers these systems, from patrols
to sophisticated automatic alarms.

The next four chapters cover firefighting equipment and techniques once
fire is discovered. Extinguishing agents are covered in Chapter 7; portable
and semiportable equipment in Chapter 8; fixed, or built-in, equipment in
Chapter 9; and crew firefighting operations in Chapter 10. The last two chap-
ters deal with specialized firefighting problems. Chapter 11 covers tugboats
and towboats, and Chapter 12 covers offshore installations.

The information contained in Part II represents the work and the experience
of many people, including shipbuilders, equipment manufacturers, seamen,
engineers, professional firefighters and scientists. Yet the information alone
is almost useless in the event of a shipboard fire. It must be combined with a
knowledge of the ship's construction features, firefighting equipment and
cargo if it is to be used effectively. In other words, the success of a firefighting
operation — and perhaps survival — will depend on how well the crew has been
trained, and how well they know and maintain their vessel and its firefighting
systems.

69

fire

Once a fire starts, it will continue to burn as long
as there is something to burn. But what causes
a fire to start, and how does it burn? Why are
some substances more or less flammable than
others? Those questions are answered in this
chapter. In addition, we look at how fires spread
and how they can be kept from spreading.

CHEMISTRY OF FIRE

Oxidation is a chemical process in which a sub-
stance combines with oxygen. During this proc-
ess, energy is given off, usually in the form of
heat. The rusting of iron and the rotting of wood
are common examples of slow oxidation. Fire, or
combustion, is rapid oxidation; the burning sub-
stance combines with oxygen at a very high rate.
Energy is given off in the form of heat and light.
Because this energy production is so rapid, we
can feel the heat and see the light as flames.

The Start of a Fire

All matter exists in one of three states — solid,
liquid or gas (vapor). The atoms or molecules of
a solid are packed closely together, and those of
a liquid are packed loosely. The molecules of a
vapor are not packed together at all; they are
free to move about. In order for a substance to
oxidize, its molecules must be pretty well sur-

rounded by oxygen molecules. The molecules of
solids and liquids are too tightly packed to be
surrounded. Thus, only vapors can burn.

However, when a solid or liquid is heated, its
molecules move about rapidly. If enough heat is
applied, some molecules break away from the
surface to form a vapor just above the surface.
This vapor can now mix with oxygen. If there is
enough heat to raise the vapor to its ignition
temperature, and if there is enough oxygen pres-
ent, the vapor will oxidize rapidly — it will start
to burn.

Burning

What we call burning is the rapid oxidation of
millions of vapor molecules. The molecules oxi-
dize by breaking apart into individual atoms and
recombining with oxygen into new molecules. It
is during the breaking-recombining process that
energy is released as heat and light.

The heat that is released is radiant heat, which
is pure energy. It is the same sort of energy that
the sun radiates and that we feel as heat. It radi-
ates, or travels, in all directions. Thus, part of it
moves back to the seat of the fire, to the "burn-
ing" solid or liquid (the fuel).

The heat that radiates back to the fuel is called
radiation feedback (Fig. 4.1). Part of this heat

Outward Radiation

i

Radiation Feedback

Figure 4.1. Radiation feedback is heat that travels back to the fuel from the flames. It releases vapor from the fuel, then
ignites it.

71

72

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Oxygen

\

Increased Molecule
Chain Reaction

o o
o o

E^*9 "^cPtfcP

o j. o o" o

^ -~_ oo o g> o lJC^

Figure 4.2. The chain reaction of combustion. A. Vapor from heated fuel rises, mixes with air and burns. It produces
enough heat to release more vapor and to draw in air to burn that vapor. B. As more vapor burns, flame production in-
creases. More heat is produced, more vapor released, more air drawn into the flames and more vapor burns. The chain
reaction keeps increasing the size of the fire.

releases more vapor, and part of it raises the
vapor to the ignition temperature. At the same
time, air is drawn into the area where the flames
and vapor meet. The result is that the newly
formed vapor begins to burn. The flames increase.

The Chain Reaction

This is the start of a chain reaction: The burning
vapor produces heat which releases and ignites
more vapor. The additional vapor burns, pro-
ducing more heat, which releases and ignites still
more vapor. This produces still more heat, vapor
and combustion. And so on (Fig. 4.2). As long as
there is plenty of fuel available, the fire continues
to grow, and more flame is produced.

After a time, the amount of vapor released
from the fuel reaches a maximum rate and begins
to level off producing a steady rate of burning.
This usually continues until most of the fuel has
been consumed. Then there is less vapor to
oxidize, and less heat is produced. Now the proc-
ess begins to break down. Still less vapor is re-
leased, there is less heat and flame, and the fire
begins to die out. A solid fuel may leave an ash
residue and continue to smolder for some time.
A liquid fuel usually burns up completely.

Although we have discussed only solid and
liquid fuels, there are, of course, flammable gases.
Gases burn more intensely than solids or liquids,
because they are already in the vapor state. All
the radiation feedback goes into igniting the
vapor, so it is more fully ignited. Gases burn with-
out smoldering or leaving residues. The size and
intensity of a gas fire depend on the amount of
fuel available — usually as a flow from a gas pipe
or bottle.

THE FIRE TRIANGLE

From the preceding section, it is obvious that
three things are required for combustion: fuel
(to vaporize and burn), oxygen (to combine with
fuel vapor), and heat (to raise the temperature of
the fuel vapor to its ignition temperature). The
fire triangle (Fig. 4.3) illustrates these require-
ments. It also illustrates two facts of importance
in preventing and extinguishing fires:

1 . If any side of the fire triangle is missing, a
fire cannot start.

2. If any side of the fire triangle is removed,
the fire will go out (Fig. 4.4).

Solid Fuels

The most obvious solid fuels are wood, paper and
cloth. These are found aboard ship as cordage,

Oxygen

All Sources of
Ignition Aboard

Fuel

All Flammable Materials Aboard
Ship Including the Ship Itself

Figure 4.3. The fire triangle: fuel, oxygen and heat are
necessary for combustion.

Firefighting

73

Figure 4.4. Fire cannot occur (or exist) if any part of the
fire triangle is missing or has been removed.

canvas, dunnage, furniture, plywood, wiping rags
and mattresses. The paint on bulkheads is also
a solid fuel. Vessels may carry a wide variety of
solid fuels as cargo, from baled materials to goods
in cartons, and loose materials such as grain.
Metals such as magnesium, sodium and titanium
are also solid fuels that may be carried as cargo.

Pyrolysis. Before solid fuel will burn, it must
be changed to the vapor state. In a fire situation,
this change usually results from the initial appli-
cation of heat. The process is known as pyrolysis,
which is generally defined as "chemical decom-
position by the action of heat." In this case, the
decomposition causes a change from the solid
state to the vapor state (Fig. 4.5). If the vapor

Vaporization

Molecule

Heat

Figure 4.5. Pyrolysis: The conversion of solid fuel to flam-
mable vapor by heat.

mixes sufficiently with air and is heated to a high
enough temperature (by a flame, spark, hot motor,
etc.), combustion results.

Burning Rate. The burning rate of a solid fuel
depends on its configuration. Solid fuels in the
form of dust or shavings will burn faster than
bulky materials (that is, small wood chips will
burn faster than a solid wooden beam). Finely
divided fuels have a much larger surface area ex-
posed to the heat. Therefore, heat is absorbed
much faster, and vaporization is more rapid.
More vapor is available for ignition, so it burns
with great intensity and the fuel is quickly con-
sumed. On the other hand, a bulky fuel will burn
longer than a finely divided fuel.

Dust clouds are made up of very small par-
ticles. When a cloud of flammable dust (such as
grain dust) is mixed well with air and ignited, it
burns extremely quickly, often with explosive
force. Such explosions have occurred on ships
during the loading and discharging of grains and
other finely divided materials.

Ignition Temperature. The ignition tempera-
ture of a substance (solid, liquid or gas) is the
lowest temperature at which sustained combus-
tion will occur without the application of a spark
or flame. Ignition temperatures vary among sub-
stances. For a given substance, the ignition tem-
perature also varies with bulk, surface area and
other factors. The ignition temperatures of com-
mon combustible materials lie between 149°C
(300°F) and 538°C (1000°F).

Liquid Fuels

The flammable liquids most commonly found
aboard ship are bunker fuel, lubricating oil, diesel
oil, kerosene, oil-base paints and their solvents.
Cargos may include flammable liquids and lique-
fied flammable gases.

Vaporization. Flammable liquids release vapor
in much the same way as solid fuels. The rate of
vapor release is greater for liquids than solids,
since liquids have less closely packed molecules.
In addition, liquids can release vapor over a wide
temperature range. Gasoline starts to give off
vapor at — 43 °C (— 45 °F). This makes gasoline
a continuous fire hazard; it produces flammable
vapor at normal temperatures (Fig. 4. 6 A). Heat-
ing increases the rate of vapor release.

Heavier flammable liquids such as bunker oil
and lubricating oil must be heated to release suffi-
cient vapor for combustion. Lubricating oils can
ignite at 204°C (400°F). A fire reaches this tem-
perature rapidly, so that oils directly exposed to a

74

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Oxygen

Figure 4.6. Vaporization of a flammable liquid. A. Many flammable liquids produce vapor without being heated. When
such a liquid is stored in an open container, it can easily be ignited. B. Once the vapor-air mixture is ignited, radiation feed-
back causes a massive release of fuel vapor.

fire will soon become involved. Once a light or
heavy flammable liquid is burning, radiation feed-
back and the chain reaction quickly increase
flame production (Fig. 4.6B).

The vapor produced by a flammable liquid is
heavier than air. This makes the vapor very dan-
gerous, because it will seek low places, dissipate
slowly, and travel to a distant source of ignition.
For example, vapor escaping from a container
can travel along a deck and down deck openings
until it contacts a source of ignition (such as a
spark from an electric motor). If the vapor is
properly mixed with air, it will ignite and carry
fire back to the leaky container. The result can
be a severe explosion and fire.

Burning. Pound for pound, flammable liquids
produce about 2.5 times more heat than wood.
This heat is liberated 3 to 10 times faster from
liquids than from wood. These ratios illustrate
quite clearly why flammable liquid vapor burns
with such intensity. When flammable liquids
spill, they expose a very large surface area, re-
lease a great amount of vapor and thus produce
great amounts of heat when ignited. This is one
reason why large open tank fires and liquid-spill
fires burn so violently.

Flash Point. The flash point of a liquid fuel is
the temperature at which it gives off sufficient
vapor to form an ignitable mixture near its sur-
face. An ignitable mixture is a mixture of vapor

and air that is capable of being ignited by an
ignition source, but usually is not sufficient to
sustain combustion.

Sustained combustion takes place at a slightly
higher temperature, referred to as the fire point
of the liquid. The flash points and fire points
(temperatures) of liquids are determined in con-
trolled tests.

Gaseous Fuels

There are both natural and manufactured flam-
mable gases. Those that may be found on board
a vessel include acetylene, propane and butanes.

Burning. Gaseous fuels are already in the re-
quired vapor state. Only the proper intermix with
oxygen and sufficient heat are needed for ignition.
Gases, like flammable liquids, always produce a
visible flame; they do not smolder. Radiation
feedback is not necessary to vaporize the gas;
however, some radiation feedback is still essen-
tial to the burning process, to provide continuous
reignition of the gas (Fig. 4.7).

Explosive Range (Flammable Range). A flam-
mable gas or the flammable vapor of a liquid
must mix with air in the proper proportion to
make an ignitable mixture. The smallest percent-
age of a gas (or vapor) that will make an ignitable
air-vapor mixture is called the lower explosive
limit (LEL) of the gas (or vapor). If there is less
gas in the mixture, it is too lean to burn. The

Firefighting

75

o°o
uo 6>

Radiation
Feedback

o o

° o °#.
o „ o o.

oo
o

,0°o 8

0°

6>o°°
o o oa

oo9o

Gas

Figure 4.7 Flammable gases are always in the ignitable
state. Radiation feedback sustains the combustion.

greatest percentage of a gas (or vapor) in an ig-
nitable air-vapor mixture is called its upper ex-
plosive limit (UEL). If a mixture contains more
gas than the UEL, it is too rich to burn. The range
of percentages between the lower and upper ex-
plosive limits is called the explosive range of the
gas or vapor.

Table 4. 1 gives the LEL and UEL for a num-
ber of substances. It shows, for example, that a
mixture of from 1.4% to 7.6% gasoline vapor
and from 98.6% to 92.4% air will ignite. How-
ever, a mixture of 9% gasoline vapor and 91%
air will not ignite, because it is too rich (above
the UEL). Thus, a large volume of air must inter-
mix with a small amount of gasoline vapor to
form an ignitable mixture.

Table 4.1. Typical upper and lower flammable limits.*

Lower explosive

Upper explosive

Product

limit (LEL)

limit (UEL)

Gasoline

1.4

7.6

Kerosene

0.7

6.0

Propane

2.1

9.5

Hydrogen

4.0

74.2

Methane

5.0

15.0

Ethylene Oxide

2.0

100.0

Ammonia

15.5

27.0

Naphtha

0.9

6.7

Butane

1.8

8.4

Benzene

1.4

8.0

Percent by volume in air.

A mixture of a gas or vapor in air that is be-
low the LEL may burn under some special cir-
cumstances. This fact is the basis of certain
devices that utilize a Wheatstone bridge to detect
the presence of potentially hazardous concentra-
tions of hazardous or explosive gases. Such de-
vices as the combustible-gas indicator (Chapter
16) make it unnecessary to memorize the explo-
sive ranges of fuels. It is much more important
to realize that certain ranges of vapor-air mix-
tures can be ignited, and to use caution when
working with these fuels.

The explosive ranges of specific types of fuels
are published in the NFPA Fire Protection Hand-
book and the US Coast Guard Chemical Data
Guide for Bulk Shipment by Water, CG388.

Oxygen

The oxygen side of the fire triangle refers to the
oxygen content of the surrounding air. Ordinarily,
a minimum concentration of 16% oxygen in the
air is needed to support flaming combustion.
However, smoldering combustion can take place
in about 3% oxygen. Air normally contains about
21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% other gases,
principally argon.

Heat

Heat is the third side of the fire triangle. When
sufficient heat, fuel and oxygen are available, the
triangle is complete and fire can exist. Heat of
ignition initiates the chemical reaction that is
called combustion. It can come from the flame
of a match, sparks caused by ferrous metals strik-
ing together, heat generated by friction, lightning,
an oxyacetylene torch cutting or welding metal,
an electric short circuit, an electric arc between
conductors, or the overheating of an electric con-
ductor or motor. Sufficient heat may also be pro-
duced internally, within the fuel, by a chemical
reaction (see Spontaneous Ignition, Chapter 1).

THE FIRE TETRAHEDRON

The fire triangle (Fig. 4.3) is a simple means of
illustrating the three requirements for the exist-
ence of fire. However, it does not explain the
nature of fire. In particular, it does not include
the chain reaction that results from chemical re-
actions among the fuel, oxygen and heat.

The fire tetrahedron (Fig. 4.8) is a better rep-
resentation of the combustion process. (A tetra-
hedron is a solid figure with four triangular faces.
It is useful for illustrating and remembering the
combustion process because it has room for the
chain reaction and because each face touches

76

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefig filing and Fire Safety

Figure 4.8. The fire tetrahedron.

the other three faces.) The basic difference be-
tween the fire triangle and the fire tetrahedron is
this: The tetrahedron illustrates how flaming com-
bustion is supported and sustained through the
chain reaction. In a sense, the chain reaction face
keeps the other three faces from falling apart.
This is an important point, because the extin-
guishing agents used in many modern portable
fire extinguishers, automatic extinguishing sys-
tems and explosion suppression systems directly
attack and break down the chain reaction se-
quence.

EXTINGUISHMENT VIA THE FIRE
TETRAHEDRON

A fire can be extinguished by destroying the fire
tetrahedron. If the fuel, oxygen or heat is re-
moved, the fire will die out. If the chain reaction
is broken, the resulting reduction in vapor and
heat production will extinguish the fire. (However,
additional cooling with water may be necessary
where smoldering or reflash is a possibility.)

Removing the Fuel

One way to remove the fuel from a fire is to
physically drag it away. In most instances, this is
an impractical firefighting technique. However, it
is often possible to move nearby fuels away from
the immediate vicinity of a fire, so that the fire
does not extend to these fuels.

Sometimes the supply of liquid or gaseous fuel
can be cut off from a fire. When a fire is being
fed by a leaky gasoline or diesel line, it can be
extinguished by closing the proper valve. If a
pump is supplying liquid fuel to a fire in the en-
gine room, the pump can be shut down to remove
the fuel source and thereby extinguish the fire.

Fire in a defective fuel-oil burner can be con-
trolled and extinguished by closing the supply
valve. Fire involving acetylene or propane can
often be extinguished by shutting the valve on
the cylinder.

Removing the Oxygen

A fire can be extinguished by removing its oxy-
gen or by reducing the oxygen level in the air to
below 16%. Many extinguishing agents (carbon
dioxide and foam, for example) extinguish fire
with a smothering action that deprives the fire
of oxygen.

This extinguishment method is difficult (but
not impossible) to use in an open area. Gaseous
smothering agents like carbon dioxide would be
blown away from an open deck area, especially
if the ship is under way. On the other hand, fire
in a galley trash container can be snuffed out by
placing a cover tightly over the container, block-
ing the flow of air to the fire. As the fire consumes
the oxygen in the container, it becomes starved
for oxygen and is extinguished.

Tank vessels that carry petroleum products
are protected by foam systems with monitor noz-
zles on deck. When used quickly and efficiently,
the foam is capable of extinguishing a sizable
deck fire.

To extinguish a fire in an enclosed space such
as a compartment, engine room or cargo hold,
the space can be flooded with carbon dioxide.
When the carbon dioxide enters the space and
mixes with the atmosphere, the percentage of
oxygen in the atmosphere is reduced below 16% ,
and extinguishment results. This method is used
to combat fires in cargo holds. For the technique
to be successful, the hold must be completely
sealed to keep fresh air out. (For further discus-
sion of this method of extinguishment, see Chap-
ter 10.)

Oxidizing Substances. An oxidizing substance
is a material that releases oxygen when it is
heated or, in some instances, when it comes in
contact with water. Substances of this nature in-
clude the hypochlorites, chlorates, perchlorates,
nitrates, chromates, oxides and peroxides. All
contain oxygen atoms that are loosely bonded
into their molecular structure. That is, they carry
their own supply of oxygen, enough to support
combustion. This oxygen is released when the
substances break down, as in a fire. For this rea-
son, burning oxidizers cannot be extinguished by
removing their oxygen. Instead, large amounts
of water, limited by ship stability safety needs,
are used to accomplish extinguishment. Oxidizers

Fire fighting

11

are hazardous materials and, as such, are regu-
lated by the U.S. Coast Guard.

Removing the Heat

The most commonly used method of extinguish-
ing fire is to remove the heat. The base of the fire
is attacked with water to destroy the ability of
the fire to sustain itself. Water is a very effective
heat absorber. When properly applied, it absorbs
heat from the fuel and absorbs much of the radi-
ation feedback. As a result, the chain reaction is
indirectly attacked both on the fuel surface and
at the flames. The production of vapor and ra-
diant heat is reduced. Continued application will
control and extinguish the fire.

When fire is attacked with a hoseline, water in
the proper form must be directed onto the main
body of fire to achieve the quickest heat reduc-
tion. Water spray can be a highly efficient ex-
tinguishing agent. For complete extinguishment,
water must be applied to the seat of the fire. (See
Chapter 10 for a discussion of the uses of water
as an extinguishing agent.)

Breaking the Chain Reaction

Once the chain reaction sequence is broken, a
fire can be extinguished rapidly. The extinguish-
ing agents commonly used to attack the chain
reaction and inhibit combustion are dry chemi-
cals and Halons. These agents directly attack the
molecular structure of compounds formed during
the chain reaction sequence. The breakdown of
these compounds adversely affects the flame-
producing capability of the fire. The attack is
extremely rapid; in some automatic systems the
fire is extinguished in 50 to 60 milliseconds. Be-
cause of their ultrafast action, Halons and dry
chemicals are used in automatic explosion sup-
pression systems.

It should be borne in mind that these agents
do not cool a smoldering fire or a liquid whose
container has been heated above the liquid's ig-
nition temperature. In these cases, the extinguish-
ing agent must be maintained on the fire until the
fuel has cooled down naturally. Otherwise, a
cooling medium such as water must be used to
cool the smoldering embers or the sides of the
container. In most situations, it is best to use
water for cooling along with extinguishing agents
that attack the chain reaction only.

FIRE SPREAD

If a fire is attacked early and efficiently, it can
easily be confined to the area in which it started.
If it is allowed to burn unchecked, it can gen-

erate great amounts of heat that will travel away
from the fire area, igniting additional fires wher-
ever fuel and oxygen are available. And both are
in plentiful supply throughout most ships. Steel
bulkheads and decks and other fire barriers can
stop or delay the passage of heat to some extent,
but not completely. As the original fuel source is
consumed, the heat, and thus the fire, will extend
to new fuel sources.

Heat from a fire is transferred by one or more
of three methods: conduction, radiation and con-
vection.

Conduction

Conduction is the transfer of heat through a solid
body. For example, on a hot stove, heat is con-
ducted through the pot to its contents. Wood is
ordinarily a poor conductor of heat, but metals
are good conductors. Since most ships are con-
structed of metal, heat transfer by conduction
is a potential hazard. Fire can move from one
hold to another, one deck to another, and one
compartment to another via heat conduction
(Fig. 4.9).

In many cases the skillful application of water,
particularly in the form of a spray, will retard or
halt the transmission of heat by conduction. The
water cools the affected structural members, bulk-

Figure 4.9. Heat is
being conducted
from the fire to ad-
joining spaces by the
metal decks and
bulkhead. The bulk-
head paint is blister-
ing because vapori-
zation has already
begun.

78

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

heads and decks. A water spray pattern absorbs
heat more efficiently than a solid stream, because
the smaller water droplets present more surface
to the heat source. At the same time, less water
is used, so there is less of a water runoff problem
and less danger of affecting the stability of the
vessel.

Radiation

Heat radiation is the transfer of heat from a
source across an intervening space; no material
substance is involved. The heat travels outward
from the fire in the same manner as light, that is,
in straight lines. When it contacts a body, it is
absorbed, reflected or transmitted. Absorbed heat
increases the temperature of the absorbing body.
For example, radiant heat that is absorbed by an
overhead will increase the temperature of that
overhead, perhaps enough to ignite its paint.

Heat radiates in all directions unless it is
blocked. Radiant heat extends fire by heating
combustible substances in its path, causing them
to produce vapor, and then igniting the vapor
(Fig. 4.10).

Within a ship, radiant heat will raise the tem-
perature of combustible materials near the fire
or, depending on the ship's design, at quite some
distance from the fire. Intense radiated heat can
make an approach to the fire extremely difficult.
For this reason, protective clothing must be worn
by firefighters, and the heat reduced through the
use of a heat shield such as water spray or dry
chemical.

Convection

Convection is the transfer of heat through the
motion of heated matter, i.e., through the motion
of smoke, hot air, heated gases produced by the
fire, and flying embers.

When it is confined (as within a ship), con-
vected heat moves in predictable patterns. The
fire produces lighter-than-air gases that rise to-
ward high parts of the ship. Heated air, which is
lighter than cool air, also rises, as does the smoke
produced by combustion. As these heated com-
bustion products rise, cool air takes their place;
the cool air is heated in turn and then also rises
to the highest point it can reach (Fig. 4.11). As
the hot air and gases rise from the fire, they begin
to cool; as they do, they drop down to be re-
heated and rise again. This is the convection
cycle.

Heat originating at a fire on a lower deck will
travel horizontally along passageways, and then
upward via ladder and hatch openings. It will
ignite flammable materials in its path. To prevent
fire spread, the heat, smoke and gases should be
released into the atmosphere. However, the struc-
tural design of a ship makes it next to impossible
to rapidly cut openings through decks, bulkheads
or the ship's hull for ventilation. Thus, it is im-
perative that the fire be confined to the smallest
possible area. For this purpose, doors and hatch-
ways should be kept closed when they are not in
use. If a fire is discovered, attempts should be
made to close off all openings to the fire area
until firefighting personnel and equipment can be
brought into position to fight the fire.

THE HAZARDOUS PRODUCTS OF
COMBUSTION

Fire produces flames, heat, gases and smoke.
Each of these combustion products can cause
serious injuries or death.

Flames

Direct contact with flames can result in totally
or partially disabling skin burns and serious dam-

Figure 4.10. Radiated heat travels in straight lines to combustible materials, igniting them and spreading the fire.

Firefighting

79

***\_.

Wa^*%<

Figure 4.11. Convection carries heated air, gases and smoke upward through the ship. When vertical passage is blocked, they
move horizontally.

age to the respiratory tract. To prevent skin burns
during a fire attack, crewmen should maintain a
safe distance from the fire unless they are prop-
erly protected and equipped for the attack. Pro-
tective clothing (Chapter 15) should be worn
when combating a serious fire.

Respiratory tract damage can be prevented by
wearing breathing apparatus. However, firefight-
ing personnel must remember that breathing ap-
paratus does not protect the body from the
extreme heat of a fire.

Heat

Fire generates temperatures in excess of 93 °C
(200°F) very rapidly, and the temperature can
build up to over 427 °C (800°F) in an enclosed
area. Temperatures above 50°C (122°F) are haz-
ardous to humans, even if they are wearing pro-
tective clothing and breathing apparatus. The
dangerous effects of heat range from minor in-
jury to death. Direct exposure to heated air may
cause dehydration, heat exhaustion, burns and
blockage of the respiratory tract by fluids. Heat
also causes an increased heart rate. A firefighter
exposed to excessive heat over an extended period

of time could develop hyperthermia, a danger-
ously high fever that can damage nerve centers.
{See Chapter 14 for a detailed discussion of burns
and methods of treatment.)

Gases

The particular gases produced by a fire depend
mainly on the fuel. The most common hazardous
gases are carbon dioxide (C02), the product of
complete combustion, and carbon monoxide
(CO), the product of incomplete combustion.

Carbon monoxide is the more dangerous of
the two. When air mixed with carbon monoxide
is inhaled, the blood absorbs the CO before it
will absorb oxygen. The result is an oxygen de-
ficiency in the brain and body. Exposure to a
1.3% concentration of CO will cause uncon-
sciousness in two or three breaths, and death in
a few minutes.

Carbon dioxide works on the respiratory sys-
tem. Above normal C02 concentrations in the air
reduce the amount of oxygen that is absorbed in
the lungs. The body responds with rapid and
deep breathing — a signal that the respiratory sys-
tem is not receiving sufficient oxygen.

80

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

When the oxygen content of air drops from its
normal level of 21 % to about 15% , human mus-
cular control is reduced. At 10% to 14% oxygen
in air, judgment is impaired and fatigue sets
in. Unconsciousness usually results from oxygen
concentrations below 10%. During periods of
exertion, such as firefighting operations, the body
requires more oxygen; these symptoms may then
appear at higher oxygen percentages.

Several other gases generated by a fire are of
equal concern to firefighters. Therefore, anyone
entering a fire must wear an appropriate breath-
ing apparatus. {See Chapter 15.)

Smoke

Smoke is a visible product of fire that adds to the
problem of breathing. It is made up of carbon

and other unburned substances in the form of
suspended particles. It also carries the vapors of
water, acids and other chemicals, which can be
poisonous or irritating when inhaled.

Smoke greatly reduces visibility in and above
the fire area. It irritates the eyes, nose, throat
and lungs. Either breathing a low concentration
for an extended period of time or a heavy con-
centration for a short time can cause great dis-
comfort to a firefighter. Firefighters who do not
wear breathing apparatus in the fire area will
eventually have to retreat to fresh air or be over-
come by smoke.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fire Chief's Handbook

CG-329 Fire Fighting for Tank Vessels

NFPA Handbook 14th Ed.

Engine Company Fireground Operations
Richman, R. J. Brady Co.

Basic Fireman's Training Course, Md. Fire

& Rescue Inst. Univ. of Md. College Park, Md. 1969

Classification of f\c€$

Title 46 CFR requires the master of a vessel to
post a station bill outlining the duties and duty
station of each crew member during various
emergencies. The master also is required to con-
duct drills and give instructions to ensure that all
hands are familiar with their emergency duties.
One of these emergencies is fire aboard ship.

To extinguish a fire successfully, it is necessary
to use the most suitable type of extinguishing
agent — one that will accomplish the task in the
least amount of time, cause the least damage and
result in the least danger to crew members. The
job of selecting the proper extinguishing agent
has been made easier by the classification of fires
into four types, or classes, lettered A through D.
Within each class are all fires involving materials
with similar burning properties and requiring
similar extinguishing agents. Thus, knowledge of
these classes is essential to efficient firefighting

CLASS

operations, as well as familiarity with the burning
characteristics of materials that may be found
aboard ship.

NFPA CLASSES OF FIRE

The fire classification scheme used by the U.S.
Coast Guard was originally devised by the Na-
tional Fire Protection Association (NFPA). In
this scheme, fires are classed according to the
fuel and the most effective extinguishing agents,
as follows:

• Class A fires: Fires involving common (ash-
producing) combustible materials, which
can be extinguished by the use of water or
water solutions. Materials in this category
include wood and wood-based materials,
cloth, paper, rubber and certain plastics
(Fig. 5.1).

COMMON COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS

Figure 5.1. Class A fires are those involving common combustible materials.

81

82

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

CLASS

FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS AND GASES

Figure 5.2. Class B fires are those involving flammable liquids, gases and petroleum products.

Class B fires: Fires involving flammable or
combustible liquids, flammable gases,
greases and similar products (Fig. 5.2). Ex-
tinguishment is accomplished by cutting off
the supply of oxygen to the fire or by pre-
venting flammable vapors from being given
off.

Class C fires: Fires involving energized elec-
trical equipment, conductors or appliances
(Fig. 5.3). Nonconducting extinguishing
agents must be used for the protection of
crew members.

Class D fires: Fires involving combustible
metals, e.g., sodium, potassium, magnesium,

titanium and aluminum (Fig. 5.4). Extin-
guishment is effected through the use of
heat-absorbing extinguishing agents such as
certain dry powders that do not react with
the burning metals.

The main objective of this classification scheme
is to aid crew members in selecting the appro-
priate extinguishing agent. However, it is not
enough to know that water is best for putting out
a class A fire because it cools, or that dry chemi-
cal works well in knocking down the flames of a
burning liquid. The extinguishing agent must be
applied properly, and sound firefighting tech-
niques must be used.

Figure 5.3. Class C fires are those involving energized electrical equipment and wiring.

Classification of Fires

83

CLASS

COMBUSTIBLE
METALS

Magnesium

Sodium

Potassium

Titanium

Aluminum

aluminium
powder.

Figure 5.4. Class D fires are those involving combustible
metals.

In the remainder of this chapter, the fuels
within each fire class are discussed in some de-
tail. Further information regarding extinguishing
agents and firefighting techniques may be found
in Chapters 7-10.

CLASS A FIRES INVOLVING MATERIALS
COMMONLY FOUND ABOARD SHIP

The materials whose involvement leads to class
A fires may be placed in three broad groups:
1) wood and wood-based materials, 2) textiles
and fibers, and 3) plastics and rubber. We shall
discuss each of these groups of fuels individually.

Wood and Wood-based Materials

Wood is very often involved in fire, mainly be-
cause of its many uses. Marine uses include deck-
ing and the interior finish of bulkheads (on small
boats only), dunnage and staging, among many
others. Wood-based materials are those that con-

T

v v::81

- — y.

v V""

x --.

Figure 5.5. Flashover. A. Radiant heat or heat conducted
through the bulkhead causes the wood paneling to produce
combustible vapor. B. Once the vapor is properly mixed
with air, any ignition source will ignite the entire vapor-air
mixture.

tain processed wood or wood fibers. They include
some types of insulation, ceiling tiles, plywood
and paneling, paper, cardboard and pressboard.

The properties of wood and wood-based ma-
terials depend on the particular type involved.
For example, seasoned, air-dried maple (a hard-
wood) produces greater heat on burning than does
pine (a softwood) that has been seasoned and
dried similarly. However, all these materials are
combustible; they will char, smolder, ignite and
burn under certain heat conditions. Normally
self-ignition does not occur. A source of ignition
such as a spark, open flame, contact with a hot
surface or exposure to heat radiation is usually
necessary. However, wood can be pyrolyzed to
charcoal, which has a lower ignition temperature.

Wood is composed mainly of carbon, hydro-
gen and oxygen, with smaller amounts of nitrogen
and other elements. In the dry state, most of its
weight consists of cellulose. Some other ingre-
dients found in dry wood are sugars, resins, gums,
esters of alcohol and mineral matter (from which
ash is formed when wood burns).

Burning Characteristics. The ignition tempera-
ture of wood depends on many factors, such as
size, shape, moisture content, and type. Gen-
erally, the ignition temperature of wood is about
204°C (400°F). However, it is believed that
100°C (212°F) is the maximum temperature to
which wood can be subjected over a long period
of time without self-ignition taking place.

The rate of combustion of wood and wood-
based materials depends heavily on the physical
form of the material, the amount of air available,
the moisture content and other such factors. How-
ever, the wood must be vaporized by heat before
complete combustion can proceed.

A slowly developing fire or a source of radiant
heat may gradually transmit enough energy to
begin the pyrolysis of wood products at bulkhead
or overhead surfaces. The combustible vapor that
is released will mix with the surrounding air.
When this mixture is within the flammable range,
any source of ignition may ignite the entire mass
almost instantly. This condition is called flash-
over (Fig. 5.5). Crewmen must guard against
flashover while fighting fires involving such com-
bustible solids as wood-paneled walls and furni-
ture in the confined spaces of older ships. In mod-
ern ships, noncombustible materials are used in
cabins, passageways and other confined spaces.

Flames move slowly across most combustible
solids. Before the flame can spread, flammable
vapor must be released by the solid fuel. Then
the vapor must be mixed in the proper proportion
with air.

84

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Thick Bulky Fuels Burn Slowly

Large Surface Areas Burn Rapidly

Finely Divided Fuels Burn Extre
Sometimes With Explosive

-."<<■>*

wt&te

<

Figure 5.6. The burning rate increases with the surface area of the fuel.

Bulky solids with a small surface area (for
example, a heavy wood beam) burn more slowly
than thinner solids with a large surface area (for
example, a sheet of plywood). Solids in chip,
shaving or dust form (wood, metal shavings, saw-
dust, grains and pulverized coal) burn most rap-
idly, since the surfaces of the individual particles
add up to a very large total area (Fig. 5.6). In
general, the thicker the fuel is, the more time it
requires to release vapor into the air. Therefore
it will burn longer. The larger the surface area,
the more rapidly the fuel burns: The larger sur-
face allows combustible vapor to be released at
a greater rate and to mix more quickly with air.
(This is also true of flammable liquids. A shallow
liquid spill with a large area will burn off more
rapidly than the same volume of liquid in a deep
tank with a small surface area.)

Products of Combustion. Burning wood and
wood-based materials produce water vapor, heat,
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, as dis-
cussed in Chapter 4. The reduced oxygen levels
and the carbon monoxide present the primary
hazard to crew members. In addition, wood and
wood-based materials produce a wide range of
aldehydes, acids and other gases when they burn.
By themselves or in combination with the water
vapor, these substances can cause severe irritation
at least. Because of the toxicity of most of these
gases, the use of breathing apparatus should be
mandatory in and near the fire area (Fig. 5.7).

Burns can be caused by direct contact with
flames, or by heat radiated from the fire. Flames
are rarely separated from the burning material
by any appreciable distance. However, in certain
types of smoldering fires, heat, smoke and gas can

.*.. 'W*A

Figure 5.7. The products of combustion subject firefighters to burns, oxygen depletion, heat exhaustion and dehydration,
respiratory tract irritation, and poisoning.

Classification of Fires

85

develop without visible flames. Air currents can
carry them far in advance of the fire.

As is true of many organic substances, wood
and related materials can produce large quantities
of smoke in the beginning stages of fire. In some
very special circumstances, materials can burn
without producing visible combustion products;
however, smoke generally accompanies fire and,
like flame, is visible evidence of fire.

Smoke frequently provides the early warning
of fire. At the same time, its blinding and irritat-
ing effects can contribute to panic.

Textiles and Fibers

Textiles in the form of clothing, furniture, car-
pets, canvas, burlap, ropes and bedding are used
extensively in the marine environment; others are
carried as cargo. Almost all textile fibers are com-
bustible. These two facts explain the frequency
of textile-related fires and the many deaths and
injuries that result.

Natural-Fiber Textiles. Vegetable fibers con-
sist largely of cellulose. They include cotton,
jute, hemp, flax and sisal. Cotton and the other
plant fibers are combustible (the ignition tem-
perature of cotton fiber is 400°C (752°F)). Burn-
ing vegetable fibers produce heat and smoke,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water.
They do not melt. The ease of ignition, rate of
flame spread, and amount of heat produced de-
pend on the construction and finish of the tex-
tile and on the design of the finished product.

Animal fibers such as wool and silk are solid
and are chemically different from cotton. They
do not burn as freely, and they tend to smolder.
For example, wool is basically protein. It is more
difficult to ignite than cotton (the ignition tem-
perature of wool fiber is 600°C (1 1 12°F)), burns
more slowly, and is easier to extinguish.

Synthetic Textiles. Synthetic textiles are fabrics
woven wholly or mainly of synthetic fibers. Such
fibers include rayon, acetate, nylon, polyester,
acrylic and plastic wrap. The fire hazards involved
with synthetic textiles are sometimes difficult to
evaluate, owing to the tendency of some of them
to shrink, melt or drip when heated. Rayon and
acetate resemble plant fibers chemically, whereas
most other synthetic fibers do not. Most are com-
bustible to varying degrees but differ in ignition
temperature, burning rate and other combustion
features.

Burning Characteristics. Many variables affect
the way in which a textile burns. The most im-
portant are the chemical composition of the tex-

tile fiber, the finish on the fabric, the fabric weight,
the tightness of weave and any flame retardant
treatment.

Vegetable fibers ignite easily and burn readily,
giving off large amounts of heavy smoke. Par-
tially burned vegetable fibers may present a fire
risk, even after they have been extinguished.
Half-burned fibers should always be removed
from the fire area to a location where reignition
of the material would not create an additional
problem. Most baled vegetable fibers absorb
water readily. The bales will swell and increase
in weight when large quantities of water are used
to extinguish fires in which they are involved.

Wool is difficult to ignite; it tends to smolder
and char rather than to burn freely unless it is
subjected to considerable external heat. It will,
however, contribute toward a fierce fire. Wool
can absorb a large amount of water — a fact that
must be considered during prolonged firefighting
operations.

Silk is the least dangerous fiber. It is difficult to
ignite, and it burns sluggishly. Combustion usu-
ally must be supported by an external source of
heat. Once set on fire, silk retains heat longer
than any other fiber. In addition, it can absorb
a great amount of water. Spontaneous ignition is
possible in wet silk. There may be no external
evidence that a bale of silk has ignited, until the
fire burns through to the outside.

The burning characteristics of synthetic fibers
vary according to the materials used in their
manufacture. The characteristics of some of the
more common synthetics are given in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1. Burning Characteristics of Some Common
Synthetic Fibers.

Synthetic

Burning
characteristics

Acetate

Acrylic

Nylon

Polyester

Plastic wrap
Viscose

Burns and melts ahead of the flame;
ignition about the same as cotton.

Burns and melts; ignition temperature
560°C (1040°F); softens at 235-330°C
(455-626° F).

Supports combustion with difficulty;
melts and drips; melting point, 160-
260°C (320-500°F); ignition tempera-
ture 425°C (797°F) and above.

Burns readily; ignition temperature,
450-485 °C (842-905 °F); softens at
256-292°C (493-558°F) and drips.

Does not support combustion. Melts.

Burns about the same as cotton.

86

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

These characteristics are based on small-scale
tests and may be misleading. Some synthetic
fabrics appear to be flame retardant when tested
with a small flame source, such as a match. How-
ever, when the same fabrics are subjected to a
larger flame or a full-scale test, they may burst
into flames and burn completely while generating
quantities of black smoke.

Products of Combustion. As noted above and
in Chapter 4, all burning materials produce hot
gases (called fire gases), flame, heat and smoke,
resulting in decreased oxygen levels. The pre-
dominant fire gases are carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide and water vapor. Burning vegetable fibers
such as cotton, jute, flax, hemp and sisal give
off large amounts of dense smoke. Jute smoke is
particularly acrid.

Burning wool gives off dense, grayish-brown
smoke. Another product of the combustion of
wool is hydrogen cyanide, a highly toxic gas.
Charring wool forms a sticky, black, tarlike sub-
stance.

Burning silk produces a large amount of
spongy charcoal mixed with ash, which will con-
tinue to glow or burn only in a strong draft. It
emits quantities of thin gray smoke, somewhat
acrid in character. Silk may produce hydrogen
cyanide gas under certain burning conditions.

Plastics and Rubber

A wide variety of organic substances are used in
manufacturing plastics. These include phenol,
cresol, benzene, methyl alcohol, ammonia, for-
maldehyde, urea and acetylene. The cellulose-
based plastics are largely composed of cotton
products; however, wood flour, wood pulp, paper
and cloth also play a large part in the manufac-
ture of many types of plastic.

Natural rubber is obtained from rubber latex,
which is the juice of the rubber tree. It is com-
bined with such substances as carbon black, oils
and sulphur to make commercial rubber. Syn-
thetic rubbers are similar to natural rubber in
certain characteristics. Acrylic, butadiene and
neoprene rubbers are some of the synthetic types.

Burning Characteristics. The burning charac-
teristics of plastics vary widely. They depend to
a significant extent on the form of the product —
solid sections, films and sheets, foams, molded
shapes, synthetic fibers, pellets or powders. The
fire behavior of plastic materials also depends on
their shape, their end use, the manner in which
they are exposed to ignition and their chemical
makeup. All the major plastic materials are com-
bustible, and, in a major fire, all contribute fuel.

Plastics may be divided roughly into three
groups as regards burning rates:

1 . Materials that either will not burn at all or
will cease to burn if the source of ignition
is removed. This group includes asbestos-
filled phenolics, some polyvinyl chlorides,
nylon and the fluorocarbons.

2. Materials that are combustible, burn rela-
tively slowly, but may or may not cease to
burn when the source of ignition is re-
moved. These plastics include the wood-
filled formaldehydes (urea or phenol) and
some vinyl derivatives.

3. Materials that burn without difficulty and
can continue to burn after the source of
ignition is removed. Included in this group
are polystyrene, the acrylics, some cellu-
lose acetates and polyethylene.

In a class of its own is the oldest well-known
form of plastic, celluloid, or cellulose nitrate
plastic. It is the most dangerous of the plastics.
Celluloid decomposes at temperatures of 121 °C
(250°F) and above with great rapidity, and with-
out the addition of oxygen from the air. Flam-
mable vapor is produced by the decomposition.
If this vapor is allowed to accumulate and is then
ignited, it can explode violently. It will burn vig-
orously and is difficult to extinguish.

The caloric value of rubber is roughly twice
that of other common combustible materials. For
example, rubber has a heating value of 17.9 X
106 kilojoules (17,000 BTU/lb); pine wood, a
value of 8.6 X 10° (8200 BTU/lb). Most types
of rubber soften and run when burning and may
thus contribute to rapid fire spread. Natural rub-
ber decomposes slowly when first heated. At about
232°C (450°F) or above, it begins to decompose
rapidly, giving off gaseous products that may re-
sult in an explosion. The ignition temperature of
these gases is approximately 260°C (500°F).

Synthetic rubbers behave similarly, though the
temperature at which decomposition becomes
rapid may be somewhat higher. This temperature
ranges upward from 349 °C (660°F) for most
synthetics, depending on the ingredients. Latex
is a water-based emulsion and so does not present
fire hazard.

Products of Combustion. Burning plastic and
rubber produce the fire gases, heat, flame and
smoke described in Chapter 4. These materials
may also contain chemicals that yield additional
combustion products of a toxic or lethal nature.
The type and amount of smoke generated by
a burning plastic material depend on the nature

Classification of Fires 87

of the plastic, the additives present, whether the
fire is flaming or smoldering and what ventilation
is available. Most plastics decompose when
heated, yielding dense to very dense smoke. Ven-
tilation tends to clear the smoke, but usually not
enough for good visibility. Those plastics that
burn cleanly yield less dense smoke under condi-
tions of heat and flame. When exposed to flam-
ing or nonflaming heat, urethane foams generally
yield dense smoke; in almost all cases, visibility is
lost in a fraction of a minute.

Hydrogen chloride is a product of combustion
of chlorine-containing plastics such as polyvinyl
chloride, a plastic used for insulating most elec-
trical wiring. Hydrogen chloride is a deadly gas,
but it has a pungent and irritating odor. No one
would be likely to inhale it voluntarily.

Burning rubber produces dense, black, oily
smoke that has some toxic qualities. Two of the
noxious gases produced in the combustion of rub-
ber are hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide. Both
are dangerous and can be lethal under certain
conditions.

Usual Locations of Class A Materials
Aboard Ship

Although vessels are constructed of metal and
may appear incombustible, there are many flam-
mable products aboard. As noted in Chapter 1,
practically every type of material (class A and
otherwise) is carried as cargo. It may be located
in the cargo holds or on deck, stowed in con-
tainers or in bulk stowage (Figs. 5.8 and 5.9). In
addition, class A materials are used for many
purposes throughout the ship.

According to Coast Guard regulations, bulk-
heads, linings and overheads within a room, ex-
cluding corridors and hidden spaces, may have a
combustible veneer not exceeding 0.18 cm
(2/28 in.) in thickness. These veneers are usu-
ally constructed of some type of plastic material
with a backing of wood-based materials. In addi-
tion, the furnishings found in passenger, crew
and officer accommodations are usually made of
class A materials. Lounges and recreation rooms
may contain couches, chairs, tables, bars, tele-
vision sets, books and other items constructed
wholly or partly of class A materials.

Combustible veneers, trim, or decoration may
not be used in corridors or hidden spaces, accord-
ing to Coast Guard regulations. However, deck
coverings not exceeding 0.95 cm (¥s in.) are not
restricted. It is probable that tiles used for deck
covering would be affected by fire. Title 46 CFR
164.006, Subchapter Q, contains Coast Guard

Figure 5.8. Cargo holds contain a wealth of fuel for al
classes of fires.

requirements for deck coverings for U.S. mer-
chant vessels.

Other areas in which class A materials may be
located include the following:

• The bridge contains wooden desks, charts,
almanacs and other such combustibles.

• Wood in many forms may be found in the
carpenter shop.

• Various types of cordage are stowed in the
boatswain's locker (Fig. 5.10).

• The emergency locker on the bridge wing
contains rockets and/ or explosives for the
line throwing gun.

• The undersides of metal cargo containers
are usually constructed of wood or wood-
based materials.

• Lumber for dunnage, staging and other uses
may be stored below decks.

• Large numbers of filled laundry bags are
sometimes left in passageways, awaiting
movement to and from the laundry room.

• Rubber and plastics are used extensively for
the insulation on electrical wiring.

Extinguishment of Class A Fires

It is a fortunate coincidence that the materials
most often involved in fire, class A materials,
may best be extinguished by the most available

88

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

Figure 5.9. Containers also may be filled with a variety of
fuels.

extinguishing agent, water. U.S. Coast Guard
regulations specify a system whereby water will
be available for firefighting purposes by requiring
that a firemain system be installed on self-pro-
pelled vessels. Firemain systems and other fixed
systems are described in Chapter 9. The use of
water and other extinguishing agents in fighting
class A fires is discussed in Chapters 7, 8 and 10.

CLASS B FIRES INVOLVING MATERIALS
COMMONLY FOUND ABOARD SHIP

The materials whose involvement leads to class
B fires may be grouped as flammable and com-
bustible liquids, paints and varnishes, and flam-
mable gases. Again we shall discuss each group
individually.

Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Flammable liquids as defined by Title 46 CFR
(30.10-22) are those that give off flammable
vapors at or below 26.7 °C (80°F) and having a
Reid vapor pressure not exceeding 40 pounds
per square inch absolute (psia) at 37.8°C (100°F).
There are three grades of flammable liquids; their
definitions are given in Chapter 1. Examples of
common flammable liquids are ethyl ether, gaso-
line, acetone and alcohol. All flash at or below
26.7°C(80°F).

Combustible liquids are those with a flash point
above 26.7°C (80°F). There are two grades of
combustible liquids; their definitions are given in
Chapter 1 . The heavier petroleum products, such
as kerosene, diesel oil and fuel oil, are considered
to be combustible liquids; their flash points range
from 26.7°C (80°F) to 65.5°C (150°F). Some
other combustible liquids are acids, vegetable oils
and lubricating oils, all of which have flash points
above 65.5°C (150°F).

Burning Characteristics. As noted in Chapter 4,
it is the vapor of a flammable or combustible
liquid, rather than the liquid itself, that burns or
explodes when mixed with air and ignited. These
liquids will vaporize when exposed to air — and
at an increased rate when heated. They should
be stored in the proper type of closed containers
to minimize the fire hazard; even in use they
should be exposed to air as little as possible.
Flammable vapor explosions most frequently

Figure 5.10. The boatswain's locker contains rope and many other class A materials.

Classification of Fires

89

occur within a confined space such as a container,
tank, room or structure. The violence of a flam-
mable vapor explosion depends upon

• The concentration and nature of the vapor

• The quantity of vapor-air mixture present

• The type of enclosure in which the mixture
is confined.

The flash point is the commonly accepted and
most important factor determining the relative
hazard of a flammable or combustible liquid.
However, it is not the only factor involved. The
ignition temperature, flammable range, rate of
evaporation, reactivity when contaminated or ex-
posed to heat, density and rate of diffusion of the
vapor also determine how dangerous the liquid
is. However, once a flammable or combustible
liquid has been burning for a short time, these
factors have little effect on its burning charac-
teristics.

The burning rates of flammable liquids vary
somewhat, as do their rates of flame travel. The
burning rate of gasoline is 15.2-30.5 cm (6-12
in.) of depth per hour; for kerosene, the rate is
12.7-20.3 cm (5-8 in.) of depth per hour. For
example, a pool of gasoline 1.27 cm i}A in.)
deep could be expected to burn itself out in 2.5
to 5 minutes.

Products of Combustion. In addition to the
usual combustion products, there are some that
are peculiar to flammable and combustible
liquids. Liquid hydrocarbons normally burn with
an orange flame and give off dense clouds of
black smoke. Alcohols normally burn with a clean
blue flame and very little smoke. Certain terpenes
and ethers burn with considerable ebullition
(boiling) of the liquid surface and are difficult to

extinguish. Acrolein (acrylic aldehyde) is a highly
irritating and toxic gas produced during the com-
bustion of petroleum products, fats, oils and
many other common materials.

Usual Locations Aboard Ship. Flammable and
combustible liquids of all types are carried as
cargo by tank vessels. In addition to this bulk
stowage, these liquids are transported in portable
tanks that, according to U.S. Coast Guard regu-
lations, can be "barrels, drums or other packages"
having a maximum capacity of 416 liters (110
U.S. gallons). Flammable and combustible liquids
in smaller packages may be found in holds and
in large shipping containers.

Large quantities of combustible liquids, in the
form of fuel and diesel oil, are also stowed aboard
ship, for use in propelling and generating elec-
tricity. The hazards involved in stowing and
transferring these fuels are covered in Chapter 1 .
Figures 5.1 1-5.13 show typical stowage locations.

Fuel and diesel oil are most hazardous when
they have been heated prior to feeding into the
burners. Cracks in the piping will then allow the
oil to leak out, exposing it to ignition sources. If
the resultant spill is large, an extensive, hot fire
will result.

Other locations where combustible liquids
may be found include the galley (hot cooking oils)
and the various shops and spaces where lubricat-
ing oils are used and stored. Fuel and diesel oil
may also be found as residues and films on and
under oil burners and equipment in the engine
room.

Extinguishment. U.S. Coast Guard regulations
provide for the installation of firemains and fixed
fire-extinguishing systems using foam, carbon

I 1 I I I I I I I I M I I I

Fuel Tanks

Double Bottom Tanks Deep Tanks

Figure 5.11. Location stowage of combustible liquid aboard break bulk cargo vessel for shipboard use.

90

Marine Fire Prevention. Firefighting and Fire Safely

T=f

Machinery

Space | Hold No. 4

Hold No 3

Double Bottom Tanks' Deep Tanks Settling Tanks

T

iEEr^ii-^r^

^s

Hold No 1

Hold No 2

Double Bottom Tanks

Deep Tanks
I Fuel Oil
I Cargo Oil

Figure 5.12. Location of liquid cargo and bunker tanks aboard

dioxide, steam and water spray in appropriate
locations. In addition, foam, dry chemical, car-
bon dioxide and water extinguishers of various
size and portability must be placed in specified
areas throughout the ship. These appliances are
discussed in Chapters 8 and 9.

The source of the flammable or combustible
liquid involved in fire should be cut off as soon
as possible (and if possible). This will halt the
supply of fuel feeding the fire, and allow fire-
fighters to employ the following general methods
of extinguishment:

• Cooling. Using water from the firemain sys-
tem, in spray or solid-stream form, to cool
tanks and exposed areas.

• Smothering. Using foam to blanket the
liquid and thus shut off the supply of oxygen
to the fire; discharging steam or carbon
dioxide into burning areas; eliminating oxy-
gen by sealing off the ventilation to the fire.

• Inhibiting flame propagation. Applying dry
chemicals above the burning surfaces.

It is difficult to establish rigid procedures for
extinguishing specific types of fires, since no two

dry cargo vessel.

fires are alike. However, the following general
guidelines apply for fires involving flammable
and combustible liquids:

• Minor spills: Use dry chemical or foam ex-
tinguishers, or water fog.

• Large spills: Use large dry chemical extin-
guishers, backed up by foam or fog lines.
Use water streams to protect objects that are
exposed to fire.

• Spills on water: If contained, use foam to
smother fire. Otherwise use large-volume
fog stream.

• Sighting or ullage ports: Apply foam, dry
chemical or high- or low-velocity water fog
horizontally across the opening until it can
be closed.

• Cargo tanks: Use the deck foam system
and/or carbon dioxide or steam smothering
system, if so equipped. Water fog may be
used for heavy oils.

• Ship's galley: Use carbon dioxide or dry
chemical extinguishers.

• Oil-burning equipment: Use foam or water
fog.

Double Bottom Deep Tanks
Tanks

Pump Room

I Fuel Oil Tanks

I I Oil Storage Tanks

Figure 5.13. Location of liquid cargo and bunker tanks aboard tanker vessel.

Classification of hires

91

Additional information is given in Chapters 7-10.

Paints and Varnishes

Most paints, varnishes, lacquers and enamels,
except those with a water base, present a high
fire risk in storage or in use. The oils in oil-base
paints are not themselves very flammable (linseed
oil, for example, has a flash point of over 204°C
(400 °F)). However, the solvents commonly used
in these paints are flammable and may have flash
points as low as 32°C (90°F). The same is true
for enamels and oil varnishes. And, normally, all
the other ingredients of most paints and varnishes
are combustible.

Most paints and varnishes are still combustible
after they have dried, though their flammability
is much reduced when the solvent has evaporated.
In practice, the flammability of dry paint depends
on the flammability of its base. Thus, the usual
oil-base paints are not very flammable.

Burning Characteristics and Products of Com-
bustion. Liquid paint burns fiercely and gives
off much heavy black smoke. It also, obviously,
can flow, so that a paint fire resembles an oil fire
in many ways. Because of the dense smoke and
the toxic fumes given off by liquid paint and var-
nish, breathing apparatus should always be used
by crewmen fighting a paint fire in an enclosed
area.

Explosions are another hazard of liquid paint
fires. Since paint is normally stored in tightly
sealed cans or drums (of up to 150-190 liters
(40-50 gal.) capacity), fire in any paint storage
area may easily heat up the drums and burst
them. The contents are likely to ignite instantly
and with explosive force on exposure to air.

Usual Locations Aboard Ship. Paints, varnishes,
enamels, lacquers and their solvents are stored in

paint lockers. These are usually located either
fore or aft, in compartments below the main deck.
U.S. Coast Guard regulations require that paint
lockers be constructed of steel or wholly lined
with metal. Such spaces must also be serviced by
a fixed carbon dioxide extinguishing system or
other approved system. (As indicated previously,
paint is still combustible after drying, and it will
burn in a fire.)

Extinguishment. Because liquid paints contain
low-flash-point solvents, water is not a suitable
extinguishing agent. Foam must be used if any
substantial quantity of paint is involved. Sur-
rounding materials may have to be cooled with
water. On small quantities of paint or varnish,
a carbon dioxide or dry chemical extinguisher
may be used in place of a foam extinguisher.
Water is the proper extinguishing agent for dry
paint (Fig. 5.14).

Flammable Gases

In the gaseous state, the molecules of a substance
are not held together, but are free to move about.
As a result, a gas has no shape of its own, but
rather takes the shape of its container. Most
solids and liquids can be vaporized (become
gases) when their temperature is increased suffi-
ciently. However, we shall use the term gas to
mean a substance that is in the gaseous state at
so-called normal temperature and pressuie
(NTP) conditions. These are approximately 21°C
(70°F) and 101.4 kilopascals (14.7 psia).

Any gas that will burn in the normal concen-
trations of oxygen in air is a flammable gas. As
with other gases or vapors, a flammable gas will
burn only when its concentration in air is within
its combustible range and the mixture is heated
to its ignition temperature.

Figure 5.14. Extinguishment of paint and varnish fires. A. Apply foam to large fires. B. Carbon dioxide or dry chemical may
be used on small fires. C. Dry paint is a class A material; water is the primary extinguishing agent.

92

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Flammable gases are usually stored and trans-
ported aboard vessels (Fig. 5.15) in one of three
ways:

• Compressed. A compressed gas is one that,
at normal temperatures, is entirely in the
gaseous state under pressure in its container.

• Liquefied. A liquefied flammable gas is one
that, at 100°F has a Reid vapor pressure of
at least 40 psia. At normal temperatures it
is partly in the liquid state and partly in the
gaseous state under pressure in its con-
tainer.

• Cryogenic. A cryogenic gas is one that is
liquefied in its container at a temperature
far below normal temperatures, and at low
to moderate pressures.

Basic Hazards. The hazards presented by a gas
that is confined in its container are different from
those presented when the gas escapes from its
container. We shall discuss them separately, even
though these hazards may be present simultane-
ously, in a single incident.

Hazards of confinement. When a confined gas
is heated, its pressure increases. If enough heat
is applied, the pressure can increase sufficiently
to cause a gas leak or a container failure. In addi-
tion, contact with flames can reduce the strength
of the container material, possibly resulting in
container failure.

To prevent explosions of compressed gases,
pressure relief valves and fusible plugs are in-
stalled in tanks and cylinders. When gas expands
in its container, it forces the relief valve open
allowing gas to flow out of the container, thereby
reducing the internal pressure. A spring loaded
device closes the valve when the pressure is re-

duced to a safe level. A plug of fusible metal that
will melt at a fixed temperature is also used. The
plug seals an opening in the body of the container,
usually near the top. Heat from a fire, threaten-
ing the tank or cylinder, causes the metal plug to
melt allowing the gas to escape through the open-
ing. Explosive pressure within the tank is pre-
vented. However, the opening cannot be closed,
therefore, the gas will continue to escape until
the container is empty.

Explosions can occur when these safety devices
are not installed or should they fail to operate.
Another cause of explosion is a very rapid build-
up of pressure in a container. The pressure can-
not be relieved through the safety valve opening
fast enough to prevent pressure buildup of ex-
plosive force. Tanks and cylinders are also sub-
ject to explosion when flame impinges on their
surface causing the metal to lose its strength.
Flame impingement above the liquid level is more
dangerous than impingement on the container
surface area that is in contact with the liquid.
Heat from flames above the liquid line is absorbed
by the metal itself; below the liquid line most of
the heat is absorbed by the liquid. This is not to
be construed as a safe condition because absorp-
tion of heat by the liquid also causes a dangerous,
although less rapid, pressure increase. Spraying
the surface of the container with water can help
keep the pressure from building up to explosive
force. Cooling with water is not a guarantee an
explosion can be averted, especially when flame
impingement is occurring.

Container failures. Compressed or liquefied gas
represents a great deal of energy held in check
by its container. When the container fails, this
energy is released — often very rapidly and vio-

COMPRESSED GAS

LIQUEFIED GAS

CRYOGENIC LIQUID

m

m

mi

/ (NTP)

/ (NTP)

^

\ GAS

\ GAS

/ Ll

/

/

LJ^

■

— - —

Figure 5.15. The differences among compressed, liquefied and cryogenic gases.

Classification of Fires

93

lently. The gas escapes and the container or con-
tainer pieces are thrown about.

Failures of liquefied flammable gas containers
from fire exposure are not rare. This type of fail-
ure is called boiling liquid-expanding vapor ex-
plosion, or BLEVE (pronounced "blevey"). In
most BLEVEs, the container fails at the top,
where it is in contact with gas (see Fig. 5.16).
The metal stretches, thins out, and tears length-
wise, until it finally gives way.

The magnitude of the explosion (BLEVE) de-
pends mainly on how much liquid vaporizes when
the container fails and on the weight of the con-
tainer pieces. Most BLEVEs occur when con-
tainers are from slightly less than half full to about
three-fourths full of liquid. A small, uninsulated
container can experience a BLEVE in a very few
minutes, and a very large container in a few hours,
in the absence of water cooling.

Uninsulated liquefied gas containers that are
exposed to fire can be protected from BLEVEs
by applying water. A film of water should be
maintained on the upper portion of the container,
the portion that is in the internal contact with
vapor.

Hazards of gases released from confinement.
The hazards of a gas that has been released from
its container depend on the properties of the gas
and where it is released. All gases except oxygen
and air are hazardous if they displace breathing
air. Odorless and colorless gases such as nitrogen
and helium are particularly hazardous, as they
give no warning of their presence.

Toxic, or poisonous, gases are obviously haz-
ardous to life. When released in the vicinity of a
fire, they will prevent access by firefighters or
force firefighters to use breathing apparatus.

Oxygen and other oxidizing gases are nonflam-
mable. However, these gases can cause com-
bustible substances to ignite at lower than usual
temperatures.

Contact with liquefied gas can cause frostbite,
which can be severe if the exposure is prolonged.
In addition, many structural materials can be-
come brittle and fail when exposed to low tem-
peratures. Carbon steel and plastics are affected
in this way.

Released flammable gases present the danger
of explosion or fire or both. A released flammable
gas will explode when enough gas has collected
and mixed with air in a confined space before it
is ignited. It will burn without exploding if a suffi-
cient quantity of gas-air mixture has not accu-
mulated— either because it ignited too quickly
or because it is not confined and can dissipate.
Thus, when a flammable gas escapes into open

deck positions, the result is usually fire. However,
if a massive release occurs, the surrounding air
or the ship's superstructure can confine the gas
sufficiently to cause an explosion. This type of
explosion is known as an open air explosion or
space explosion. Liquefied noncryogenic gases,
hydrogen and ethylene are subject to these open
air explosions.

Properties of Some Common Gases. The im-
portant properties of a number of flammable
gases are discussed in the following pages. These
properties lead to varying degrees and combina-
tions of hazards when the gases are confined or
released.

Acetylene. Acetylene is composed of carbon
and hydrogen. It is used primarily in chemical
processing and as a fuel for oxyacetylene cutting
and welding equipment. It is nontoxic and has
been used as an anesthetic. Pure acetylene is
odorless, but the acetylene in general use has an
odor due to minor impurities mixed in with the
gas.

Acetylene is shipped and stored mainly in cyl-
inders. For safety acetylene cylinders are filled
with a porous packing material usually diatoma-
ceous earth containing very small pores or cellu-
lar spaces. In addition, the packing material is
saturated with acetone, a flammable liquid in
which acetylene dissolves easily. Thus acetylene
cylinders contain much less of the gas than they
appear to hold. A number of safety fuse plugs
are installed in the top and bottom of the cylin-
der. The plugs release the gas to the atmosphere
in case of a dangerously high temperature or pres-
sure within the container.

Acetylene is subject to explosion and fire when
released from its container. It is easier to ignite
than most flammable gases, and it burns more
rapidly. This increases the severity of explosions
and the difficulty of venting to prevent explosion.
Acetylene is only slightly lighter than air, which
means it will mix well with air upon leaving its
container.

Anhydrous ammonia. Anhydrous ammonia is
composed of nitrogen and hydrogen. It is used
primarily as fertilizer, as a refrigerant, and as a
source of hydrogen for the special atmospheres
needed to heat-treat metals. It is a relatively toxic
gas, but its sharp odor and irritating properties
serve as warnings. However, large clouds of an-
hydrous ammonia, produced by large liquid leaks,
have trapped and killed people before they could
evacuate the area.

Anhydrous ammonia is shipped in cylinders,

94

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

cargo trucks, railroad tank cars and barges. It is
stored in cylinders, tanks, and in cryogenic form
in insulated tanks. BLEVEs of uninsulated anhy-
drous ammonia containers are rare, mainly be-
cause of the limited flammability of the gas.
Where BLEVEs have occurred, they have resulted
from exposure to fires involving other combus-
tibles.

Anhydrous ammonia is subject to explosion
and fire (and presents a toxicity hazard) when re-
leased from its container. However, its high LEL
and low heat of combustion tend to minimize
these hazards. In unusually tight locations such
as refrigerated process or storage areas, the re-
lease of the liquid or a large quantity of gas can
result in an explosion.

Ethylene. Ethylene is composed of carbon and
hydrogen. It is used principally in chemical proc-
essing, for example the manufacture of poly-
ethylene plastic; smaller amounts are used to
ripen fruit. It has a wide flammable range and
burns quickly. While nontoxic, ethylene is an
anesthetic and asphyxiant.

Ethylene is shipped as a compressed gas in
cylinders and as a cryogenic gas in insulated
cargo trucks and railroad tank cars. Most
ethylene cylinders are protected against overpres-
sure by frangible (bursting) discs. (Medical cylin-
ders may have fusible plugs or combination safety
devices.) Tanks are protected by safety relief
valves. Cylinders are subject to failure from fire
exposure but not BLEVEs, as they do not con-
tain liquid.

Ethylene is subject to explosion and fire when
released from its container. Its wide flammable
range and high burning rate accentuate these haz-
ards. In a number of cases involving rather large
outdoor releases, open air explosions have oc-
curred.

Liquefied natural gas (LNG). LNG is a mixture
of materials, all composed of carbon and hydro-
gen. The principal component is methane, with
smaller amounts of ethane, propane and butane.
LNG is nontoxic but is an asphyxiant. It is used
as a fuel.

LNG is shipped as a cryogenic gas in insulated
cargo trucks by Department of Transportation
(DOT) permit, and in tank vessels under U.S.
Coast Guard authorization. It is stored in insu-
lated tanks, protected against overpressure by
safety relief valves.

LNG is subject to explosion and fire when re-
leased from its container into an enclosed space,
such as inside a hatch. Test data and experience

indicate that escaping LNG is not subject to
open air explosions.

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). LPG is a
mixture of materials, all composed of carbon
and hydrogen. Commercial LPG is mostly either
propane or normal butane, or a mixture of these
with small amounts of other gases. It is nontoxic
but is an asphyxiant. It is used principally as a
fuel and, in domestic and recreational applica-
tions, sometimes known as "bottled gas."

LPG is shipped as a liquefied gas in uninsu-
lated cylinders and tanks and in cargo trucks,
railroad tank cars and vessels. It is also shipped
in cryogenic form in insulated marine vessels.
It is stored in cylinders and insulated tanks. LPG
containers are generally protected against over-
pressure by safety relief valves. Some cylinders
are protected by fusible plugs and, occasionally,
by a combination of these (Fig. 5.16). Most con-
tainers are subject to BLEVEs.

LPG is subject to explosion and fire when re-
leased from its container. As most LPG is used
indoors, explosions are more frequent than fires.
The explosion hazard is accentuated by the fact
that 3.8 liters (1 gal) of liquid propane or butane
produces 74.7-83.8 cubic meters (245-275 cubic
ft) of gas. Large releases of liquid-phase LPG
outdoors have led to open air explosions.

Usual Locations Aboard Ship. Liquefied flam-
mable gases such as LPG and LNG are trans-
ported in bulk on tankers. Flammable gases in
cylinders may be carried only on deck on cargo
vessels. Additionally, such flammable gases as
acetylene will be found stored in cylinders for
use on board.

The Department of Transportation regulates
the shipment of hazardous materials on cargo
vessels, and flammable gases are in this category.
According to Coast Guard regulations, flam-
mable gas cylinders may be stowed on deck or
under deck (meaning in a compartment or hold),
depending on how hazardous the gas is. Acety-
lene, for example, can only be stowed on deck,
and it must be shaded from radiant heat. Anhy-
drous ammonia, on the other hand, is classified
as a nonflammable gas and may be stowed on
deck or under deck. Ethylene and LPG are flam-
mable and can also be stowed on deck or under
deck. LNG, however, may be shipped only after
a thorough case review and authorization by the
Department of Transportation.

Extinguishment. Flammable gas fires can be
extinguished with dry chemicals. Carbon dioxide

Classification of Fires 95

PRESSURE FORMS A
TORCH FIRE

Pressure Relief Valve

Figure 5.16. A. When a fusible disc or plug melts, it cannot be
will burn if ignited. Water should be applied to cool the conta
the container should be cooled with water. This will reduce the
close automatically.

and vaporizing liquids may extinguish certain gas
fires. However, these fires present a severe radiant
heat hazard to firefighting forces. Additionally,
there is the danger of the gas continuing to escape
after the fire is extinguished, thus creating an-
other fire and explosion problem. Dry chemical
and water spray offer good heat shields from the
radiant heat of gas fires while CO2 and vaporizing
liquid do not.

The standard procedure for control is to allow
the gas to burn until the flow can be shut off at
the source. Extinguishment should not be at-
tempted unless such extinguishment leads to
shutting off the fuel flow. Until the flow of gas
supplying the fire has been stopped, firefighting
efforts should be directed toward protecting ex-
posures. {Exposures are combustible materials
that may be ignited by flames or radiated heat
from the fire. Water in the form of straight streams
and fog patterns is usually used to protect ex-
posures.) When the gas is no longer escaping
from its container, the gas flames should go out.
However, where the fire was extinguished before
shutting off the gas flow, firefighters must be care-
ful to prevent the ignition of gas that is being
released.

Fires involving liquefied flammable gases (such
as LPG and LNG) can be controlled, and often
extinguished, by maintaining a thick blanket of
foam over the surface area of the spilled fuel.

CLASS C FIRES INVOLVING ELECTRICAL

EQUIPMENT ABOARD SHIP

Electrical equipment involved in fire, or in the
vicinity of a fire, may cause electric shock or

closed. The entire contents of the container will escape and
iner and prevent explosion. B. When a relief valve opens,
pressure within the container, allowing the relief valve to

burn to firefighters. In this section we discuss
some electrical installations found aboard ship,
their hazards and the extinguishment of fires in-
volving electrical equipment.

Types of Equipment

Generators. Generators are machines that pro-
duce electrical power. These machines are usu-
ally driven by machines which utilize steam as
produced in an oil-fired boiler or internal com-
bustion engine burning a fuel in its cylinders.
The electrical wiring in the generator is insulated
with a combustible material. Any fire involving
the generator or its prime mover will involve a
high risk of electrical shock to the firefighter.

Panelboards. A panelboard has fuses and auto-
matic devices for the control and protection of
lighting and power circuits. The switches, fuses,
circuit breakers and terminals within a panel-
board all have electrical contacts. These contacts
may develop considerable heat, causing danger-
ously high temperatures and unnecessary opera-
tion of overcurrent devices, unless they are main-
tained in good condition. Overcurrent devices
are provided for the protection of conductors
and electrical equipment. They open a circuit if
the current in that circuit produces an excessively
high temperature.

Switches. Switches are required for the control
of lights and appliances and for disconnecting
motors and their controllers. They are also used
to isolate high voltage circuit breakers for main-
tenance operations. Switches may be of either the

96

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

air-break or the oil-break type. In the oil-break
type, the device that interrupts the circuit is im-
mersed in oil.

The chief hazard is the arcing produced when
the switch is opened. In this regard, oil-break
switches are the more hazardous of the two types.
The hazard increases when a switch is operated
much beyond its rated capacity, when its oil is
in poor condition or when the oil level is low.
Then the arc may vaporize the remaining oil,
rupture the case and cause a fire. However, if
properly used and maintained, these switches
present no hazard.

Electric Motors. Many fires are caused by elec-
tric motors. Sparks or arcs, from short circuiting
motor windings or improperly operating brushes,
may ignite the motor insulation or nearby com-
bustible material. Other causes of fires in motors
include overheating of bearings due to poor
lubrication and grimy insulation on conductors
preventing the normal dissipation of heat.

Electrical Faults that May Cause Fires

Short Circuits. If the insulation separating two
electrical conductors breaks down, a short circuit
occurs. Instead of following its normal path, the
current flows from one conductor to the other.
Because the electrical resistance is low, a heavy
current flows and causes intense local heating.
The conductors become overloaded electrically,
and they may become dangerously overheated un-
less the circuit is broken. If the fuse or circuit
breaker fails to operate, or is unduly delayed,
fire can result and spread to nearby combustible
material.

Overloading of Conductors. When too large an
electrical load is placed on a circuit, an excessive
amount of current flows and the wiring overheats.
The temperature may become high enough to
ignite the insulation. The fuses and circuit break-
ers that are installed in electric circuits will pre-
vent this condition. However, if these safety de-
vices are not maintained properly, their failure
may result in a fire.

Arcing. An arc is pure electricity jumping
across a gap in a circuit. The gap may be caused
intentionally (as by opening a switch) or acci-
dentally (as when a contact at a terminal becomes
loose). In either case, there is intense heating at
the arc. The electrical strength of the arc and
amount of heat produced depend on the current
and voltage carried by the circuit. The tempera-
ture may easily be high enough to ignite any com-

bustible material near the arc, including insula-
tion. The arc may also fuse the metal of the con-
ductor. Then, hot sparks and hot metal may be
thrown about, and set fire to other combustibles.

Hazards of Electrical Fires

Electric Shock. Electric shock may result from
contact with live electrical circuits. It is not neces-
sary to touch one of the conductors of a circuit
to receive a shock; any conducting material that
is electrified through contact with a live circuit
will suffice. Thus, firefighters are endangered in
two ways: First, they may touch a live conductor
or some other electrified object while groping
about in the dark or in smoke. Second, a stream
of water or foam can conduct electricity to fire-
fighters from live electrical equipment. Moreover,
when firefighters are standing in water, both the
chances of electric shock and the severity of
shocks are greatly increased.

Burns. Many of the injuries suffered during
electrical fires are due to burns alone. Burns may
result from direct contact with hot conductors or
equipment, or from sparks thrown off by these
devices. Electric arcs can also cause burns. Even
persons at a distance from the arc may receive
eye burns.

Toxic Fumes from Burning Insulation. The in-
sulation on electrical conductors is usually made
of rubber or plastic. The toxic fumes given off
by burning plastics and rubber have been dis-
cussed previously. One plastic deserves special
attention because of its widespread use as elec-
trical insulation and its toxic combustion prod-
ucts. This is polyvinyl chloride, also known as
PVC. This plastic releases hydrogen chloride,
which attacks the lungs with serious conse-
quences. It is also believed that PVC contributes
to the severity and hazards of fires.

Usual Locations of Electrical Equipment
Aboard Ship

Electric power is essential to the operation of a
modern vessel. The equipment that generates,
controls and delivers this power is found through-
out the ship. Some of this equipment, such as
lighting devices, switches and wiring, is common
and easily recognized. The locations of some of
the less familiar and more hazardous electrical
equipment are covered here.

Engine Room. The source of the ship's electric
power is its generators. Two generators are lo-

Classification of hires

97

cated in the engine room. One is always in use,
and the other is available in case the first is shut
down. The generators supply power to the main
electrical panelboard, which is in the same area
as the generators in the engine room. The main
panelboard houses the generator control panel
and the distribution panels. If fire breaks out in
the vicinity of the generator switches or the main
panelboard, the ship's engineer can stop the gen-
erator by mechanical means. This will deenergize
the panelboard and switches. Also nearby is the
engine room console, which contains controls for
the fire pumps, ventilating fans, engineer's signal
alarm panel, temperature scanner system and
other engine room equipment.

Emergency Generator Room. An emergency
generator and switchboard are available for use
on most ships in case the main generator fails.
It will provide power for emergency lighting and
equipment only. They are located in the emer-
gency generator room, which is always at some
distance from the engine room. In case of fire
this generator shuts down automatically when
carbon dioxide from the total flooding extinguish-
ment system is released into the room.

Passageways. Electrical control lockers are sit-
uated at the ends of some passageways. (Controls
shall be outside the space protected.) Electrical
distribution panels for the ventilation system and
for boat and ladder winches are placed in these
lockers. Lighting panelboards are located along
passageway bulkheads. Much of the ship's elec-
trical wiring is placed in the passageway over-
heads. Access panels are provided in these over-
heads to allow work on the wiring; these panels
can be removed to check the area for fire exten-
sion.

Other Locations. The bridge contains much
electrical equipment, including the radar appa-
ratus, bridge console, smoke detector indicating
panel and lighting panelboards. Below decks, in
the bow and stern, are electrical control panels
for the capstan and winch motors. A power
panelboard in the machine shop controls the
electric-arc welding machine, buffer and grinder,
drill press and lathe. There is still much more
electrical equipment located throughout every
vessel. The important point is that the hazards of
live electrical equipment must be considered
whenever a shipboard fire is being fought.

Extinguishment of Class C Fires

"When any type of electrical equipment is in-
volved with fire, its circuit should be deenergized.

However, whether the circuit is deenergized or
not, the fire must be extinguished using a non-
conducting agent, such as dry chemical, CO2 or
Halon. Firefighters should always consider an
electrical circuit to be energized. The use of water
in any form is not permitted. Firefighters must
wear appropriate breathing devices when enter-
ing spaces where electrical equipment has been
burning since toxic gases are given off by burning
electrical insulation.

Crew members must remember two things
when combating electrical fires: First, all elec-
trical equipment in the fire area must be treated
as "live" until it is known that the deenergizing
process has been completed. Second, breathing
apparatus must be worn because of the toxic
gases given off by burning insulation and metal
wiring.

CLASS D FIRES INVOLVING METALS
FOUND ABOARD SHIP

Metals are commonly considered to be nonflam-
mable. However, they can contribute to fires and
fire hazards in a number of ways. Sparks from
the ferrous metals, iron and steel, can ignite
nearby combustible materials. Finely divided
metals are easily ignited at high temperatures.
A number of metals, especially in finely divided
form, are subject to self-heating under certain
conditions; this process has caused fires. Alkali
metals such as sodium, potassium and lithium
react violently with water, liberating hydrogen;
sufficient heat is generated in the process to ignite
the hydrogen. Most metals in powder form can
be ignited as a dust cloud; violent explosions have
resulted. In addition to all this, metals can injure
firefighters through burning, structural collapse
and toxic fumes.

Many metals, such as cadmium, give off nox-
ious gases when subjected to the high tempera-
tures of a fire. Some metallic vapors are more
toxic than others; however, breathing apparatus
should be used whenever fires involving metals are
fought.

Hazards and Characteristics of
Some Specific Metals

Aluminum. Aluminum is a light metal with
good electrical conductivity. In its usual forms
it does not present a problem in most fires. How-
ever, its melting point of 660°C (1220°F) is low
enough to cause the collapse of unprotected
aluminum structural members. Aluminum chips
and shavings have been involved in fire, and

98

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

aluminum dust is a severe explosion hazard. Alu-
minum does not ignite spontaneously and is not
considered to be toxic.

Iron and Steel. Iron and steel are not considered
combustible. In the larger forms, such as struc-
tural steel, they do not burn in ordinary fires.
However, fine steel wool or dust may be ignited,
and iron dust is a fire and explosion hazard when
exposed to heat or flame. Iron melts at 1535°C
(2795 °F), and ordinary structural steel at 1430°C
(2606°F).

Magnesium. Magnesium is a brilliant white
metal that is soft, ductile and malleable. It is
used as a base metal in light alloys for strength
and toughness. Its melting point is 648. 8 °C
(1200°F). Dust or flakes of magnesium are easily
ignited, but in solid form it must be heated above
its melting point before it will burn. It then burns
fiercely with a brilliant white light. When heated,
it reacts violently with water and all moisture.

Titanium. Titanium is a strong white metal,
lighter than steel, that melts at 2000°C (3632°F).
It is mixed with steel in alloys to give high work-
ing temperatures. It is easily ignited in smaller
forms (titanium dust is very explosive), though
larger pieces offer little fire hazard. Titanium is
not considered toxic.

Usual Locations of Class D Materials
Aboard Ship

The metal principally used in the construction of
vessels is steel. However, aluminum, its alloys
and other lighter metals are used to build the
superstructures of some ships. The advantage of
aluminum lies in the reduction of weight. A dis-
advantage, from the firefighting viewpoint, is the

comparatively low melting point of aluminum as
compared to that of steel.

In addition to the material used for the ship
itself, metals are carried in most forms as cargo.
Generally, there are no stowage restrictions re-
garding metals in solid form. On the other hand,
the metallic powders of titanium, aluminum and
magnesium must be kept in dry, segregated areas.
The same rules apply to the metals potassium and
sodium.

It should be noted here that the large containers
used for shipping cargo are usually made of alu-
minum. The metal shells of these containers have
melted and split under fire conditions, exposing
their contents to the fire.

Extinguishment of Class D Fires

Fires involving most metals present an extinguish-
ment problem to firefighters. Frequently there is
a violent reaction with water, which may result
in the spreading of the fire and/or explosion. If
only a small amount of metal is involved and the
fire is confined, it may be advisable to allow the
fire to burn itself out. Exposures should, of
course, be protected with water or another suit-
able extinguishing agent.

Some synthetic liquids have been employed in
extinguishing metal fires, but these are not usu-
ally found aboard ship. The ABC or multipur-
pose dry chemical extinguisher has been used
with some success on fires involving metals. Such
extinguishers may be available to shipboard fire-
fighters.

Sand, graphite, various other powder extin-
guishing agents and salts of different types have
been applied to metallic fires with varying suc-
cess. No one method of extinguishment has proven
effective for all fires involving metals.

Classification of Fires

99

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Opera-
tions, 6th Ed. Chicago, National Safety Council,
1974.

Coast Guard Rules and Regulations for Cargo and
Miscellaneous Vessels. Department of Transpor-
tation, Washington, D.C., 1973.

Coast Guard Rules and Regulations for Tank Ves-
sels, 1973.

Coast Guard Rules and Regulations, Subchapter J,
Electrical Engineering, 1977.

Eyres, D. J.: Ship Construction. London, England,
Heinemann, 1974.

Fire Protection Handbook, 14th Ed. Boston, Na-
tional Fire Protection Association, 1976.

Guides for Fighting Fires in and Around Petroleum
Storage Tanks. Washington, D. C, American Pe-
troleum Institute, 1974.

Haessler, Walter M.: The Extinguishment of Fire,
Boston, Mass., National Fire Protection Associa-
tion, 1974.

Hazardous Materials Regulations. Department of
Transportation, Materials Transportation Bureau,
Federal Register, 1976.

Ifshin, Sidney, Deputy Chief, New York Fire De-
partment: Symposium: Products of Combustion
of (Plastics) Building Materials. Lancaster, Pa.,
Armstrong Cork Company Research and Devel-
opment Center, 1973.

International Oil Tanker and Terminal Safety Guide,
2nd Ed. Oil Companies International Marine
Forum. New York, Halsted Press, John Wiley
and Sons, 1974. (17) pp. 177-178.

Manual of Firemanship, Part 6-C. London, England,
Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1964.

Rushbrook, Frank: Fire Aboard. New York, Sim-
mons— Boardman, 1961.

fire Detection Sqstems

A fire detector is a device that gives a warning
when fire occurs in the area protected by the de-
vice. The fire detection system, including one or
more detectors, relays the alarm to those endan-
gered by the fire and/ or those responsible for
firefighting operations. Ashore, a fire detector
sounds an alarm so that occupants can leave a
burning building promptly, and the fire depart-
ment can be summoned. The detection system
can also activate fire extinguishing equipment.
At sea, however, there are no fire escapes, and
no professional fire department to call. A ship-
board fire detection system alerts the ship's crew,
who must cope with the emergency using the re-
sources they have on board.

Early discovery of fire is essential. The fire
must be confined, controlled and extinguished in
its early stages, before it gets out of control and
endangers the ship and the lives of those on
board. A well designed fire detection system,
properly installed and maintained, and under-
stood by those who must interpret its signals, will
give early warning of a fire in the area it protects
and its location.

Fire detection systems on board a ship are so
arranged that in case of a fire, both a visible and
audible alarm is received in the pilothouse or fire
control station (normally the bridge) and for ves-
sels of over 150 feet in length there should be an
audible alarm in the engine room. The receiving
equipment (or consoles) indicates both the oc-
currence of a fire and its location aboard the ship.
Consoles are located on the bridge and in the
C02 room. The CO2 room is the space that con-
tains the fire extinguishing mechanisms. Only a
bell is required in the engine room to alert the
engineer to an emergency outside the machinery
space.

Upon hearing a fire alarm, the watch officer
on the bridge sounds the general alarm to call

the crew to their fire and emergency stations as
listed on the station bill. However, in all cases
the master must be alerted immediately and the
cause of the alarm must be investigated. If the
alarm was for an actual fire, action should be
taken to confine, control and extinguish it. The
crew must respond as per the station bill, under
the direction of the master. If it was a false alarm,
its cause should be investigated and corrected, if
possible. In either event the fire detection system
should be checked and the system put back in
service after the proper action is taken. Losses
have occurred when a system was not reactivated
after an alarm, and hence did not send a signal
when a subsequent real fire or reflash occurred.
The types of fire protective systems approved
for use aboard ship include the following:

1 . Automatic fire detection systems

2. Manual fire alarm systems

3. Smoke detection systems

4. Watchmen's supervisory system

5. Combinations of the above.

Coast Guard regulations (title 46 CFR) require
that certain types of detecting equipment be used
in specified spaces aboard certain ships. The
USCG permits other types of systems where the
equivalent protection is demonstrated. They may
also allow the installation of systems that are not
actually required by law or regulation. Approved
types of fire protective systems are carried in the
Coast Guard Equipment Lists (CGI 90). If any
doubt exists as to whether any item of fire protec-
tion equipment may be installed or carried aboard
ship, inquiries can be made at a Coast Guard
marine inspection or marine safety office. These
offices should be consulted for clarification or
permission to install unlisted equipment.

101

102

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

AUTOMATIC FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS

Automatic fire detection systems consist of nor-
mal and emergency power supplies, a fire detec-
tion control unit, fire detectors and vibrating bells.

Normal Power Supply

The normal power may be supplied either by a
separate branch circuit from the ship's main
switchboard or by storage batteries. When the
power is supplied by storage batteries, they must
be used only for the fire alarm and fire detection
systems. The storage batteries must be in pairs,
with one of each pair in use, and the other being
charged. Otherwise, single batteries, connected
to a charging panel, may be used.

Emergency Power Supply

Emergency power may be supplied by a separate
branch circuit taken from the temporary emer-
gency lighting and power system switchboard or
by storage batteries. If duplicate storage batteries
supply the normal power, the battery being
charged may serve as the emergency power
source.

Fire Detection Control Unit

The fire detection control unit consists of a drip-
proof enclosed panel containing the fire alarm
signaling, trouble-alarm and power-failure alarm
devices. These devices must register both a visual
and an audible signal. The visible signals are
lights:

• A red light indicates fire or smoke.

• A blue light indicates trouble in the system.

• A white light indicates that the power is on
in the system.

The control unit also contains a power supply
transfer switch to engage the emergency power
supply if the normal power supply fails. Over-
current protection devices are incorporated into
the system to prevent damage in the event of an
electrical malfunction. If battery charging equip-
ment is employed, it may be located in the con-
trol unit.

Fire Detectors

Fire detectors sense (and initiate a signal in re-
sponse to) heat, smoke, flame or some other indi-
cation of fire. Not all types of detectors are used
aboard ship — some are not practicable, and some
are not necessary. The types of detectors that are
in common use aboard vessels are discussed in
the next few sections.

Vibrating Bells

Vibrating bells are, like the red lights on the con-
trol unit, fire alarm signals. The operation of any
automatic fire detection system (or manual fire
alarm in a manual fire alarm system) must auto-
matically cause the sounding of

1. A vibrating-type fire bell with a gong
diameter not smaller than 15.24 cm (6 in.)
on the control panel

2. A vibrating-type fire bell with a gong
diameter not smaller than 20.32 cm (8 in.)
located in the engine room.

These signals must be sounded in addition to the
red light on the control panel and an indication
of the fire detection zone from which the signal
originated.

Light and Bell Signals

When fire is detected, the alarm lights stay on
and the bells keep ringing until a resetting device
is operated manually. A shutoff device may be
used to silence the bells. However shutting off
the bells will not extinguish the alarm lights. The
alarm lights can be shut off only with the manual
resetting device. Like the modern fire alarm boxes
on land, shipboard fire alarms are noninterfering;
any number of alarms can be received simul-
taneously. An alarm that is being received on one
circuit will not prevent an alarm from being
received on another circuit.

Power Failure

A power failure in the system is announced by
the ringing of a bell, which is reserved for this
purpose in the control panel. The emergency
power source provides the power to actuate the
bell. The power failure bell can be shut off by
switching its signal to a visible lighted indicator.
An open circuit in the wiring from the control
unit to the detectors or in the wiring from the
normal source of power is indicated in two ways:
A blue signal light comes on in the control unit
and the trouble bell rings. In some cases, an open
circuit may result in a fire alarm. Such a false
alarm can be received when there is a break in a
circuit of a system that uses closed circuit series-
connected detectors.

HEAT-ACTUATED FIRE DETECTORS

As their name implies, heat-actuated fire detec-
tors sense (and are activated by) the heat of a
fire. The main classes of heat-actuated devices
are fixed-temperature detectors and rate-of-rise
detectors. Some devices are combinations of both.

Fire Detection Systems

103

Fixed-Temperature Detectors

A fixed-temperature detector initiates a fire alarm
when the temperature of the device reaches a
preset value. Note that the device operates only
when the detector itself, not the surrounding air,
reaches the preset temperature. The difference
between these two temperatures, that of the sur-
rounding air and that necessary to actuate the
detector, is called the thermal lag. It results be-
cause heat must be transferred from the surround-
ing air to the detector, to bring the detector up
to its operating temperature. This heat transfer
takes time; it is never so perfect that the air and
the detector are at the same temperature. Thus,
when a fixed-temperature detector is actuated,
the surrounding air is always hotter than the de-
tector. The thermal lag, or delay, is proportional
to the speed at which the temperature is rising
in the area.

Temperature Classifications. Title 46 CFR
161.002-1 1(c) classifies fixed-temperature detec-
tors according to use as follows:

1 . Ordinary degree, for use where the normal
temperature at the device does not exceed
38°C(100°F).

2. Intermediate degree, for use where the nor-
mal temperature at the devices exceeds
38°C (100°F) but not 66°C (150°F).

3. Hard degree. For use where the normal
temperature at the device exceeds 66°C
(150°F) but not 107°C (225°F).

Note that the temperatures listed are not the tem-
peratures that will actuate the detectors, but rather

the expected normal temperatures of the area in
which the detectors are placed.

These fixed-temperature detectors should be
actuated within the temperature limits given in
Table 6.1.

By comparing their normal and actuating tem-
peratures, it can be seen that fixed-temperature
detectors are designed to operate when there is
a substantial increase of temperature over the nor-
mal temperature in the protected area. This is
exactly what takes place when a fire occurs.

Types of Fixed-Temperature Detectors. Fixed-
temperature detectors differ in their design and
how they function. More specifically, they differ
in how their sensing elements detect and react to
heat. The common types are bi-metallic, electric
(resistance- or cable-type), fusible metal and
liquid expansion. Some authorities may include
the bi-metallic with the electric type, while others
may consider fusible metal and liquid expansion
detectors as a single type.

Bi-metallic Strip Detector. In a bi-metallic strip
heat detector, the sensing element is made up of
two strips of different metals, welded together.

Table 6.1. Limits of Rated Temperature of Operation,
°C (°F).

Rating

Maximum

Minimum

Ordinary

Intermediate

Hard

74°C(165°F)
107°C (225°F)
149°C (300°F)

57°C(135°F)

79°C(175°F)

121°C(250°F)

Power Source

ooo

Alarm Panel

Circuit Open

Metal With a Low Coefficient of Expansion
Metal With a High Coefficient of Expansion

Figure 6.1A. The bi-metallic strip heat detector. At normal temperatures, the strip is straight.

104

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Power Source

Q_

t§ ©OO

Alarm Panel

Circuit Closed

leat Frbm Fire

Figure 6.1B. As temperature rises, the strip bends upward, be
temperatures within its activating range, the strip bends enou

The two metals have differing coefficients of ex-
pansion— one expands faster than the other when
heated.

At normal temperatures, the strip is straight
(Fig. 6.1 A). When the temperature increases, the
bi-metallic strip bends because one metal expands
faster than the other. This bending causes the
metal strip to touch a contact point, closing an
electric circuit and transmitting an alarm
(Fig. 6. IB.)

An advantage of the bi-metallic strip is that it
returns to its original shape after the heat is re-
moved. If it is not destroyed by fire, it can remain
in place and be used again. A disadvantage of
this type element is that it is prone to false alarms.
When the strip is close to the contact, but the
temperature is less than the minimum fire alarm
rating, ship vibrations or a physical shock to the

To Alarm

Circuit Open

Bimetallic Strip

cause the lower metal expands more than the upper metal. At
gh to touch the contact and complete the alarm circuit.

detector housing could cause the circuit to close
and there is no permanent indication of which
detector operated.

Snap-Action Bi-metallic Disk. Like the bi-
metallic strip, the snap-action disk changes its
shape when it is heated sufficiently. However, it
does so with a surer, more positive movement.
Instead of slowly approaching the electrical con-
tact, the disk snaps against the contact at its ac-
tivating temperature.

In Figure 6.2A, the disk is at its normal tem-
perature and is concave upward. The circuit is
open. In Figure 6.2B, the temperature has in-
creased to the detector's actuating temperature.
The disk has snapped so it is convex upward,
closing the contacts and completing the alarm

Figure 6.2A. The snap action bi-metallic disk. The disk at
normal temperatures.

Figure 6.2B. The activated disk closes the circuit to initiate
the alarm.

Fire Detection Systems

105

Circuit to Source of Energy

5:

^

Wires

Circuit to Alarm

Zs

^Cellophane
Plastic

Figure 6.3. The thermostatic cable. The top wire is electrically energized; the bottom wire is not. At the activating tempera-
ture, the insulating material melts, allowing the two wires to touch and complete the alarm circuit.

circuit. The snap-action disk returns to its origi-
nal shape when the temperature is reduced.

Bi-metallic strips and disks are spot detectors,
in that each device senses the temperature at a
single location. A number of detectors housed in
small cases are placed in the protected area and
wired to the control unit.

Thermostatic Cable. The thermostatic cable is
an electrical heat-actuated detector. It consists
of two wires, enclosed in a protective cover, with
an insulating material between them. One wire
is electrically energized; the other is not. At a
preset temperature the insulating material melts;
the energized wire then contacts the second wire,
completing an electrical circuit (Fig. 6.3).

The thermostatic cable is a /me-type detector.
A single length of cable, enough to protect an
entire area, is strung through that area. The full
length of the cable acts as the detecting element.
This type of detector must be replaced if it is
actuated since the actuated portion of the cable
is destroyed in the process.

Metallic Cable. Another electrical line-type de-
tector is composed of a metallic cable enclosing
a nickel wire. The cable and wire are separated
by a heat-sensitive salt. When the temperature
increases to the detector's actuating range, the
resistance of the salt decreases enough to allow a

Figure 6.4A. The fusible metal link. At normal tempera-
tures, the link keeps the spring-loaded movable contact
from moving to the right.

current to flow from the outer cable to the nickel
wire. The current in the nickel wire initiates an
alarm at the control unit. If it is not damaged by
fire, this detector automatically readjusts itself
when the temperature decreases to the normal
range.

Fusible Metal. A fusible metal is one that melts
at some preset temperature. In a fire detector, a
fusible metal part is used to hold back a movable
switch contact (Fig. 6.4A). When the fusible part
melts, the contact moves to close the circuit and
sound the alarm (Fig. 6.4B).

Fusible metals are also used in sprinkler heads.
When the metal melts, the water is released and
an alarm is activated. Fusible metal devices must
be replaced when the fire detection system is put
back in service.

Liquid Expansion. Liquid expansion devices
are similar in operation to fusible metal devices.
They are used to restrain something — the water
in a sprinkler head or a movable contact in an
electric switch. A frangible (breakable) glass bulb
is partly filled with a liquid. An air bubble is left
above the liquid (Fig. 6.5A). As the temperature
rises, the liquid expands. If the temperature con-
tinues to rise, the liquid expands further. At a
preset temperature, the bulb bursts, allowing
whatever action it had been holding back (Fig.

Figure 6.4B. When the link melts, the movable contact is
free to complete the alarm circuit.

106

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safet v

Figure 6.5A. The liquid expansion bulb. At normal tempera-
tures, the bulb holds back the spring-loaded plunger.

6.5B). The bulb must be replaced when the sys-
tem is put back in service.

Rate-of-Rise Detectors

Rate-of-rise detectors sense temperature changes
rather than the temperature itself. They are ac-
tuated when the temperature increases faster than
a preset value. For example, suppose a detector
is set for a rate of increase of 8.3 °C (15°F) per
minute. If the temperature of the detector were
to rise from 38°C to 46°C (100°F to 115°F) in
1 minute, the alarm would be sounded. However,
if the temperature rose from 41°C to 46°C
(105°F to 1 15°F) in a minute, this detector would
not be actuated. The temperature rate of rise that
actuates this type of detector depends on its de-
sign, which in turn depends on where it is being
used. For instance, the pneumatic detectors ap-
proved for passenger and cargo vessels are set
to actuate when the temperature rises at approxi-
mately 22 °C (40°F) per minute at the center of
the circuit.

Advantages. Among the advantages of the rate-
of-rise detector are the following:

1. Slow rises in temperature will not activate
the device.

2. It can be used in low-temperature areas
(refrigerated spaces) as well as in high-tem-
perature areas (boiler rooms).

3. It usually responds more quickly than
fixed-temperature devices.

4. Unless destroyed by fire, it quickly adjusts
for reuse.

Disadvantages. The disadvantages of the rate-
of-rise detector include these:

1. It may sound a false alarm when a rapid
increase in temperature is not the result of
fire. This may happen when a heating ele-
ment is turned on, or welding or burning
operations in the immediate area cause a
rapid rise in temperature.

Figure 6.5B. At a preset temperature, liquid in the bulb
has expanded enough to break the bulb. The plunger drops
to complete the alarm circuit.

2. It may not be activated by a smoldering fire
that increases the air temperature slowly,
such as in baled cotton or other tightly
packed cargo.

Types of Rate-of-Rise Detectors. Two types of
rate-of-rise detectors, pneumatic and thermo-
electric, are in common use.

Pneumatic. The pneumatic-type detector op-
erates on the principle that an increase in tem-
perature causes an increase in the pressure of a
confined gas. There are two forms of pneumatic
detectors, line and spot. In the line type, a small
diameter copper tube is strung high in the com-
partment to be protected. An increase in the tem-
perature of the tube raises the pressure of air
within the tube. A small vent allows some of this
air to escape (Fig. 6.6), reducing the pressure in
the tube. But if the temperature of the device
rises at or faster than a preset rate, the pressure
builds up faster than the vent can reduce it. This
stretches a diaphragm that closes a pair of con-
tacts to trigger the alarm.

The spot detector is usually employed in small
spaces or rooms. Increased air pressure in the
spot detector may be conveyed by a tube to a
remote control point. Otherwise, the pressure
actuates a switch close by or in the detector,
which in turn sends an electric signal to the con-
trol point.

Thermoelectric. When heat is applied to the
junction of two dissimilar metals, the rise in tem-
perature produces a small but measurable electric
current. Thermoelectric detectors are based on
this fact. The thermoelectric spot detector ac-
tually contains two sets of junctions; one set is
exposed, and the other is insulated against heat
(Fig. 6.7). When the temperature rises, the ex-
posed set is heated while the other set remains
cool. As a result, different currents flow in the
two sets of junctions. The difference between the
currents is monitored. If it increases at a preset
rate or above it, an alarm is actuated.

Fire Detection Systems

107

Expanded Diaphragm

Alarm Circuit

Line- Type Pneumatic Detector

Continuous Loop of Copper Tubing

Temperature

Alarm Circuits
to the Bridge
and Engine Room

Alarm Circuit

Diaphragm

Figure 6.6. Pneumatic rate-of-rise detectors. Heat expands the air inside the tube or bulb, increasing its pressure. If the
expansion is slow, the vent releases enough of the pressure to keep the detector from being actuated. If the expansion is fast,
pressure builds up enough to stretch the diaphragm and complete the alarm circuit.

Line-type thermoelectric detectors are also
available. Two pairs of wires are enclosed in a

Insulated
junctions

Clear Plastic

Exposed Junctions

Figure 6.7. Thermoelectric spot rate-of-rise detector, with
its two sets of junctions of dissimilar metal wires.

sheath (to protect them from physical damage).
One of each pair has a high coefficient of heat
resistance, and the other has a low coefficient of
heat resistance. Two wires with the same coeffi-
cient of heat resistance (one from each pair) are
insulated against heat. The other two wires are
open to temperature changes in the protected
space. The wires are connected to a device that
measures the resistance of the wires. An increase
in temperature in the protected space shows up
as an unbalance in the resistance of the wires. A
high enough rate of unbalancing causes the alarm
to be activated.

The Combined Fixed-Temperature and
Rate-of-Rise Detector

The combined-type detector contains both a fixed-
temperature device and a rate-of-rise device. It
is activated when the temperature rises at, or
faster than a preset rate. However, if the tem-
perature rises slowly but continuously, the rate-

108

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

Figure 6.8A. Combined heat-actuated detector. The rate-
of-rise device is a diaphragm that is stretched upward to
close the contacts, when heat increases the pressure in the
shell.

Figure 6.8B. The fixed-temperature device is a spring that
is released when a fusible metal melts. The spring pushes
up on the diaphragm and the contacts to transmit the alarm.

of-rise device may not be activated. Then the
fixed-temperature device will eventually initiate
an alarm.

A combination spot-type detector is shown in
Figure 6.8. Heat absorbed on the shell raises the
temperature of the enclosed air. The air expands,
as in a pneumatic detector. If the temperature
increases at a high enough rate, the diaphragm
stretches up. It pushes the contacts together to
close the alarm circuit (Fig. 6.8A). The fixed-
temperature feature comes into play as follows:
One end of a piece of spring metal is permanently
affixed to the shell. The other end is held against
the opposite side of the shell by a fusible-metal
seal. When the activating temperature is reached,
the fusible metal melts and releases its end of the
strip (Fig. 6.8B). The strip presses the diaphragm
up, which again closes the contacts to complete
the alarm circuit.

The main advantage of the combined detector
is the added protection: The fixed-temperature
device responds to a slowly building fire that may
not activate the rate-of-rise device. In addition,
one combined detector could protect a space that
might otherwise require both the fixed-tempera-
ture and rate-of-rise types.

The rate-of-rise device in the detector resets
itself, but the fixed-temperature, fusible metal
part does not. Thus, the only disadvantage is that
the entire device must be replaced if the fixed-tem-
perature part is activated. Some combination
detectors utilize a bi-metallic strip as the fixed-
temperature device, so that replacement is not
necessary. However, these detectors are subject
to false alarms, as noted above.

Automatic Sprinkler Systems

Automatic sprinkler systems are considered to be

both fire detection and fire extinguishing systems
because they fulfill both functions. The system
piping is usually charged with water to the sprinkler
heads. The water is held back by a fixed-tempera-
ture seal in each head. The seal is either a piece of
fusible metal or a liquid-expansion bulb. Either
one will allow water to flow through the sprinkler
head when the temperature reaches a preset value.
Aboard ship, automatic sprinkler systems are
arranged so that the release of water from a
sprinkler head automatically activates visible and
audible alarms in the pilot house or fire control
station. On vessels over 45.7 m (150 ft) in length,
there must also be an audible alarm in the engine
room.

SMOKE DETECTION SYSTEMS

A smoke detection system is a complete fire de-
tection system. Aboard ship, smoke detection
systems consist generally of a means for continu-
ously exhausting air samples from the protected
spaces; a means of testing the air for contamina-
tion by smoke of all colors and particle sizes, and
a visual (or visual and audible) means for indi-
cating the presence of smoke.

Smoke Sampler

A smoke sampler can be used with any smoke
detection device that draws samples of air out of
the protected space. This sampled air usually
moves through tubing to the detection device. A
tee connection in the system leads part of the
sampled air, through additional tubing, to the
wheelhouse. At the wheelhouse, this tubing is
normally uncovered. Thus, any smoke in the
sampled air would be noted by the watch officer,
as well as by the detection device. The wheel-
house tubing has a cap. It can be placed over the

tubing to keep heavy smoke from a fire out of
the wheelhouse.

Combinations of detectors and detection sys-
tems are frequently used. The most common are
photoelectric smoke detectors combined with a
smoke sampler.

Types of Smoke Detectors

The smoke detector is the device that tests the
air samples for smoke. The available types include
photoelectric, ionization, smoke sampler, resist-
ance bridge, and cloud chamber detectors. Of
these, some lend themselves to shipboard use,
while others are more suitable to large buildings
on land.

Photoelectric. Photoelectric smoke detectors are
employed on ships and in land installations. In
the beam-type photoelectric smoke detector, a
light beam is usually reflected across the protected
space. In some cases, air from the protected space
is blown into a sampling chamber, and the light
beam is reflected across the chamber. The beam
of light shines on a photoelectric receiving sur-
face. The receiving surface does not activate the
alarm as long as it senses the light beam. How-
ever, when smoke particles are present in the air,
they obscure the path of the light beam. This
reduces the amount of light falling on the receiv-
ing surface, which then activates the alarm
(Fig. 6.9).

The refraction-type smoke detector contains a
light source and a photoelectric receiving element
that is not in the path of the light beam (Fig. 6. 10).
If the air is clear, no light falls on the receiving
surface; this is the normal condition. However, if
particles of smoke pass in front of the light beam,
they refract (deflect) light onto the receiving ele-
ment. When the receiving element senses the
light, it actuates the alarm.

Ionization. Ionization smoke detectors are now
approved for shipboard use. In operation, sam-
pled air passes through the detector. As it does,
a small amount of radioactive material at
the inlet of the detector ionizes (adds or removes

To Alarm

Smoke

=z~^z I3k

Photoelectric
Cell Receiver

Light Source

Figure 6.9. Beam-type photoelectric smoke detector. The
receiving surface activates the alarm only when it senses a
decrease in the intensity of the light beam.

Fire Detection Systems 109

electrons from) the air. This causes a small elec-
tric current. Smoke in the air interferes with the
flow of ionized particles and the current is de-
creased; an alarm is triggered by this decrease in
current. The minute amount of radioactive ma-
terial used in the detector is not considered a
health hazard.

Resistance Bridge. Resistance-bridge smoke de-
tectors are activated by an increase in smoke
particles or in moisture. (Water vapor is given off
during the early stages of a fire.) These detectors
are more applicable to land installations than to
ships.

Cloud Chamber. The use of a cloud chamber
(sometimes called the Wilson cloud chamber) as
a smoke detector is relatively new. This detector
tests sampled air. If smoke particles are present,
moisture causes them to form a cloud that is
denser than normal air. A photoelectric device
scans the sampled air. It sets off an alarm when
the air is denser than some preset value.

Federal Specifications

Title 46 CFR 161.002-15 specifies that the type
of smoke detection system be one of the follow-
ing:

1. Visual detection, where the presence of
smoke is detected visually and by sense of
smell

To Alarm

Photoelectric Cell

&;. Deflected Path of Light

Normal Path of Light ./c-?Ma$J—

•:'V'd-v;v Smoke

Figure 6.10. Refraction-type photoelectric smoke detector.
Smoke in the air causes light to fall on the photoelectric
sensor, which then activates the alarm.

110

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

2. Audible detection, where the presence of
smoke is detected visually and audibly and
by sense of smell

3. Visual or aural type combined with a car-
bon dioxide extinguishing system

4. Other types that may be developed and
approved

FLAME DETECTORS

Flame detectors are designed to recognize cer-
tain characteristics of flames — the light intensity,
the flicker (pulsation) frequency or the radiant
energy. While flame detectors are used in shore
installations such as warehouses, piers and air-
craft hangers, they are unlikely to be found
aboard ships for a number of reasons. First, a
flame must be directly in front of the detector to
be recognized. If the flame is off to the side or
obscured by smoke, the detector will not activate.
Second, some flame detectors transmit a false
alarm when subjected to radiant energy from a
source other than a fire. Some activate when they
sense flickering light reflections (for example,
light reflected off the water surface) or arcs from
welding operations. Third, some flame detectors
respond to the flickering of flames. Electric lamp
bulbs aboard vibrating ships could imitate this
flickering closely enough to cause a false alarm.

MANUAL FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS

Manual fire alarm systems consist of normal and
emergency power supplies, a fire control unit to
receive the alarm and the necessary fire alarm
boxes. The fire control unit is similar to the auto-
matic fire detection control unit; it must contain
means for receiving alarm signals and translating
these signals into audible and visible alarms. It
must also have provision for registering trouble
signals. And, as with automatic systems, vibrating
bells are required for engine room notification.

Combined Manual and Automatic
Systems

Where both manual and automatic alarm systems
are installed on a ship, the U.S. Coast Guard may
approve a single console capable of receiving
the signals of both systems. In fact, manual alarm
systems are usually combined with automatic de-
tection systems. If the automatic system fails, a
crewman who discovers a fire can promptly send
an alarm via the manual alarm system. In addi-
tion, the manual system is important even when
the automatic system is functioning properly. If
a manual alarm is received on the bridge shortly
after an automatic alarm, the watch officer can be

fairly certain that there is an actual fire and not
a false alarm.

Automatic extinguishing systems (see Chapter
9) have provision for manual operation. With one
exception, automatic extinguishing systems trans-
mit an automatic alarm when they are operated
manually. The one exception is the automatic
sprinkler system. An automatic sprinkler system
cannot operate until the heat of a fire activates a
sprinkler head. The opening of the sprinkler head
releases the water and, at the same time, activates
the alarm.

Manual fire alarm stations may be superim-
posed on and connected as an integral part of
the wiring of an automatic fire detection system.
An electrical system using manually operated
fire alarm boxes may also be employed. Here
again, the U.S. Coast Guard could approve other
arrangements that may be developed.

Alarm Boxes

There must be at least one manual fire alarm box
in each fire zone on the vessel. Framed charts or
diagrams in the wheelhouse and fire control sta-
tion, adjacent to the fire alarm receiving equip-
ment, should indicate the locations of the fire
zones in which the alarm boxes are installed.

Manual fire alarm boxes are usually located in
main passageways, stairway enclosures, public
spaces and similar areas. They should be readily
available and easily seen in case of need. Manual
alarm boxes must be placed so that any person
evacuating a fire area will pass one on the way out.

All new alarm boxes must be clearly marked:
IN CASE OF FIRE BREAK GLASS. Older
alarm boxes not so marked must be identified
with the same instruction printed on an adjacent
bulkhead in 1.27-cm (Vi-in.) letters. Every alarm
box must be numbered to agree with the number
of the fire zone in which it is located. The box
must be painted red, with the operating instruc-
tions printed in a contrasting color.

Newer boxes are equipped with an operating
lever. When the lever is pulled, the glass is broken
and the alarm box mechanism transmits the
alarm. Older boxes may not have a lever; instead,
they may have a small hammer, attached with a
chain, to be used in breaking the glass. Once the
glass is broken, the lever must be operated to
sound the alarm.

SUPERVISED PATROLS AND
WATCHMEN'S SYSTEMS

The purpose of a supervised patrol is basically
the same as that of a system — to guard against

Fire Detection Systems

111

fire and sound an alarm if fire is discovered. The
difference between the two systems is the way in
which the vigilance is maintained. The supervised
patrol system is similar to a system of police offi-
cers walking their beats. Each ship's patrolman
follows a prescribed route, designed to ensure
that he visits each station on his round. The
watchman, on the other hand, is more of a fixed
sentry. He is stationed in a specific area and
remains in that area.

Supervised Patrols

Supervised patrol systems are required on pas-
senger vessels whenever passengers are on board.
Cargo vessels are not required to have super-
vised patrol systems. However, if they are in-
stalled, they must meet the requirements set down
for passenger vessels. On these vessels, supervised
patrols must be maintained between the hours
of 10 pm and 6 am. Patrolmen must cover all
parts of the vessel accessible to passengers and
crew, except occupied sleeping accommodations
and machinery and similar spaces where a regular
watch is maintained.

To verify that patrolmen make their appointed
rounds, recording apparatus is installed in the
zones that must be visited. Generally, the appa-
ratus can be either of two types:

1. A mechanical system consisting of a port-
able spring-motor-driven recording clock
and key stations located along each patrol.

2. An electrical system consisting of a re-
corder located at a central station and key
stations along each patrol route.

In the mechanical system, there is a key at each
station along the patrolman's route. On reaching
a key station, the patrolman inserts the key into
his portable clock. This causes the time and the
station to be recorded on a tape within the sealed
clock. The entries on these tapes should be ex-
amined regularly, to ensure that the prescribed
visits were made at the proper times. The port-
able clocks have antitampering devices that auto-
matically register any unauthorized opening
(Fig. 6.11).

In the electrical system, each patrolman carries
a key. When he reaches a key station, he inserts
his key into the station mechanism. The placing
of the key in the mechanism registers on a re-
corder at the central station. When a signal is
not received from a key station within a reason-
able time, there may be a problem. The patrol-
man may not be making his rounds, or he may
have become ill or had an accident. An immedi-
ate investigation should be made.

Figure 6.11. A patrolman's portable clock for recording the
stations visited and the times of the visits.

When a ship is not equipped with an electrical
recording apparatus, patrolman must report to
the bridge at least once an hour. However, where
there are two or more patrol routes, one patrol-
man may contact the others and make a joint
report.

Watchmen's Systems

Watchmen are used on vessels that are not re-
quired to have supervised patrols. At night, a
suitable number of watchmen must be stationed
in the passenger accommodation areas on each
deck. The watchmen are under the direct control
of the master or watch officer and must report
to that officer at fixed intervals not exceeding
one hour.

Duties of Patrolmen and Watchmen

Patrolmen and watchmen should be given spe-
cific instructions concerning their duties. They
must be made aware that their primary duty is to
transmit an alarm on discovering fire, or even on
seeing or smelling smoke. Their first action should
be to use the nearest manual fire alarm box. Val-
uable time may be lost if a patrolman or watch-
man suspects that an alarm is unnecessary and
instead goes to the bridge to report his findings.

After transmitting the alarm, the patrolman or
watchman should take such action as is necessary:
awaken passengers and crew in the area, use a
fire extinguisher or simply report to the officer
in charge of the emergency squad.

The patrolman, watchman or other crew mem-
ber who first discovers a fire is very important to

f

112

Murine Fire Prevention. Firefighting and Fire Safety

the investigation of the cause of the fire. He should
be encouraged to write down what he knows
about the fire as soon as possible while the facts
are fresh in his mind. Important items include:

• Time of discovery

• Exact location where smoke or fire wa$ seen

• What doors were open or closed

• Who, if anyone, was in the area prior to the
discovery

• The condition of any fire extinguisher he
used

• Any other condition or circumstance that
might have a bearing on the fire.

It might be well to take statements from all wit-
nesses on a recording device.

The watchman's uniform is conspicuously dif-
ferent from the clothing of other crewmen so
that it can readily be identified. A rating badge
marked "Watchman" should be worn on the left
sleeve; the front of the hat should be marked sim-
ilarly. Patrolmen may either wear a distinctive
uniform or be identified by a distinctive badge.
Both patrolmen and watchmen must carry flash-
lights; notebooks could also be of use.

EXAMPLES OF DETECTION SYSTEMS
USED ABOARD SHIP

Air Sampling Smoke Detection System

An automatic air-sampling apparatus designed to
sense the presence of smoke in protected cargo

BRIDGE

Repeater Cabinet
and Odor
Detection
Line

MANUAL ALARM BOXES

ENGINE ROOM

Figure 6.12. Simplified schematic drawing of the automatic smoke-sampling system. The apparatus has detected smoke in
an air sample from space 3. That number is indicated on the main cabinet and the repeater cabinet. The alarm is sounded
at those cabinets and in the engine room.

Fire Detection Systems

113

areas is installed on most vessels. It is equipped
with a photoelectric smoke detector and three
visual smoke detectors. Air samples are continu-
ally drawn from each protected space and con-
veyed to the main cabinet through an individual
1.9-cm (3/4-in.) pipe. Since each protected space
has its own sampling pipe, positive identification
of the location generating smoke is ensured.

A photoelectric smoke detector examines the
air sample from each pipe individually and in
sequence, for a period of 5 seconds, by means of
an automatic selector valve. When smoke is
sensed by the photoelectric detector, both visible
(red light) and audible (gong) alarms are acti-
vated, and a vibrating bell is sounded in the en-
gine room. The selector valve stops and locks in
on the code number identifying the space from
which the smoke is coming (Fig. 6.12).

Air samples from each pipe may be examined
individually, at any time, by observation of the
visible smoke detectors in the main cabinet. The
three visual detectors allow simultaneous ob-
servation of air drawn from three different spaces.
Smoke that might be too weak to be noticed by
a single detector becomes conspicious when con-
trasted with smoke-free air from adjacent detec-
tors. A translucent cylinder mounted on the
selector valve rotor carries a series of numbers.
When the visual detector switch is depressed,
these numbers are illuminated by a lamp and
made visible by three mirrors mounted inside the
number cylinder. These numbers visually align
below the smoke detector viewing field to desig-
nate the space that is delivering air to the cor-
responding detector.

Power Switch

Line Number Indicator
Re-check Switch

Cong Cut-off Switch

Smoke Alarm Lamp

Power Failure Lamp

Power Failure Buzzer Control Switch
Fault Lamp

Fault Buzzer Control Switch
Sync Fault Lamp

Re-Sync Control Switch
Blower Transfer Switch -

The main cabinet, in which the receiving ap-
paratus is housed, is usually remote from the
wheelhouse. In most cases, it is located in the CO2
room. A repeater cabinet (Fig. 6.13), wired from
the main cabinet, is located in the wheelhouse.
The mechanisms in this cabinet repeat the signals
received in the main cabinet, activate the alarms
signals and lock the selector on the same zone
number registering on the main cabinet. Close to
both the main cabinet and the repeater cabinet
are framed charts under glass or a transparent
laminate covering. They show the space asso-
ciated with each code number. If a fire alarm
signal is sounded in the wheelhouse, the watch
officer notes the code number held stationary on
the selector. By checking this code number on
the chart, he determines the fire zone or space
from which the smoke is coming.

To ensure that a fire does exist and its location
has been accurately determined, the detecting
system may be reactivated by pushing the reset
button. This causes the smoke detector to repeat
the complete cycle of air sampling. If the original
information was correct, the alarm should again
sound, and the same code number should be indi-
cated on the selector.

The ability to visually examine air samples
from various spaces is especially useful during a
fire. For example, Figure 6.12 shows fire in hold
no. 3. The detection system has indicated that
there is fire in that zone. By monitoring air
samples on the visual detectors, it could be deter-
mined whether there was smoke in hold no. 4 or
no. 2. Smoke in either of these two holds would
indicate that the fire was extending or there was

© e>

0 0

".*.*!" S*.°*!. DETECT^

Figure 6.13. Repeater cabinet, located in the wheelhouse.

114

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

seepage of smoke into an adjoining space. How-
ever, the absence of smoke in either adjoining
hold would be a fairly good indication that the
fire was contained in hold no. 3.

The equipment described is available in two
sizes: one will monitor 32 zones, and the other
48 zones. Each zone has at least one sampling
pipe, although large zones may have more. In
some installations, a pipe is run to the wheelhouse
(or equivalent) to discharge a portion of the
mixed air drawn from all protected spaces, per-
mitting smoke detection by smell. In addition to
the alarm signals at the main and repeater cabi-
nets, some installations have additional signals,
such as gongs, howlers or lights, located in par-
ticular areas.

A carbon dioxide extinguishing system (see
Chapter 9) may be coupled into the smoke detec-
tion system. In this arrangement, the pipes that
transmit air samples to the main cabinet are also
used to carry CO2 to the protected spaces. Carbon
dioxide gas cylinders are stowed in the CO2 room
and are connected to distribution lines leading
to the protected spaces. When a fire is detected, its
location determined, and CO2 is to be used to
control the fire, a three-way valve located at the
distribution manifold is operated. This closes the
line to the main cabinet while connecting the
burning space with the CO2 gas supply lines. A
chart in the CO2 room indicates the number of
CO2 cylinders to be discharged initially into the
space to create an inert atmosphere. The chart
also indicates the number of additional cylinders
to be periodically discharged into the space to
maintain this inert atmosphere. (The use of CO2
in fighting cargo hold and engine room fires is
detailed in chapter 10).

Supervised Fire Alarm System

Another system approved by the Coast Guard
is designed to receive alarms of fire from manual
fire alarm boxes and from automatic heat detec-
tors. The system is a two-wire supervised system
that operates from two banks of 24-V batteries.
One set of batteries supplies power to the system
while the other is being charged. The system
includes a centrally located (usually in the wheel-
house) control unit consisting of a main control
panel and zone modules, along with audible and
visible signals and control and test equipment.
Each zone module is electrically connected to a
particular fire zone. Within each zone are several
thermostatic fire detecting sensors and at least
one manually operated fire alarm box. The ther-
mostats and alarm boxes are strategically placed
about the zone.

The zone modules are mounted in the control
unit, beneath the main panel. One control unit
can accommodate up to 40 zone modules. The
components of each module are mounted on a
bracket and consist of two lights, two lever
switches, associated relays and a terminal bar.
One light indicates red for fire alarms; the other
indicates blue for trouble in its circuit. Below
these lights are corresponding lever switches,
with TEST and RESET positions. Each module
is identified with its fire zone number. A chart
showing the locations of all fire zones is kept near
the control unit, readily visible, for quick refer-
ence.

The main control panel (Fig. 6.14) is mounted
above the zone modules. The panel consists of
five lever switches, four indicator lights, a volt-
meter and a rotary switch, with associated relay
coils and terminal bars. Two of the lever switches
are used to perform ground tests. A third switch
is used to test and reset the engine room gong
circuit. The remaining two switches are cutout
switches. One is used to silence the trouble buz-
zer and transfer to light indication. The other
performs the same funcion for the power failure
bell. Two of the four indicator lights are asso-
ciated with the cutout switches. Another light is
for the trouble bell in the engine room gong cir-
cuit. The fourth light, designated "fire alarm off,"
is a warning light that indicates that the audible
signal is not operative and the system is in a silent
alarm condition. When the cover door of the unit
is opened, a switch disconnects the fire alarm
bell and energizes the warning light. The unit
must never be left unattended in this condition.

The voltmeter has a range of 30-0-30 v. It
has two functions: First, it indicates the voltage
of the batteries in use, and second, it is used to

Figure 6.14. Main control panel of the supervised fire
alarm system. The 40 individual zone modules are located
below this panel.

Fire Detection Systems

115

perform ground tests of the positive and negative
lines of each zone. The rotary switch is a two-
position switch that is used to transfer the bat-
teries from "in service" to "on charge," and vice
versa. This also allows the voltage of each battery
to be checked.

The fire detectors used in the system are fixed-
temperature detectors. The alarm boxes are the
standard shipboard manual fire alarm boxes de-
scribed earlier in this chapter.

TESTING FIRE DETECTION EQUIPMENT

At each annual inspection, all fire detection (and
extinguishing) systems, piping controls, valves and
alarms must be checked to ensure that they are
in operating condition. Smoke detection systems
must be checked by introducing smoke into the
accumulators. Fire detection and manual alarm
systems must be checked by means of test sta-
tions or by actuating detectors or pull boxes.
Sprinkler systems must be checked by means of
test stations or by opening heads.

In addition to the annual or biannual inspec-
tions required for the issuance of a certificate of
inspection, fire detection systems must be tested
at regular intervals. For instance, it is the duty
of the master to see that the smoke detection sys-
tem is checked at least once in each 3 months.
Smoke inlets in cargo holds must be examined to
determine if the inlets are obstructed by corrosion,
paint, dust or other foreign matter. Smoke tests
must be made in all holds; the system must be
found operable or made operable. The date of the
test and the conditions found must be entered in
the log. Title 46 CFR 111.05-10 requires that
fire detecting thermostats be tested at regular in-
tervals. The intervals are not spelled out, but the
regulations specify that 25% of the thermostats
(heat sensitive detectors) be tested annually. The
regulations further suggest how a thermostat may
be tested:

A portable handlight with an open end sheet metal
shield (such as a No. 3 fruit can) replacing the
usual guard and globe would serve as a source of
heat to operate the thermostat without damage to
paint work or the thermostat itself. Any thermo-
stat requiring a time to operate materially different
from the average when covered with the heating
device should be suspected of being defective and
forwarded to Coast Guard Headquarters for further
testing.

The operating instructions issued by manufac-
turers of detection systems usually contain in-
structions for the periodic testing (monthly and
weekly) of some components. Records of all tests

must be maintained — if not in the log then in a
record book kept in the vicinity of the main cabi-
net. Title 46 CFR, part 76, Fire Protection Equip-
ment, requires that an officer of the ship make
the inspection and initial the entry in the record
book.

GAS DETECTION SYSTEMS

Two types of systems are used on ships to warn
of dangerous concentrations of combustible gas.
These are the catalytic detection system and the
infrared gas monitor. While they are not fire de-
tection systems as such, they do detect the pres-
ence of situations that could lead to explosion and
fire. The catalytic type requires an air-enriched
atmosphere; the infrared monitor will operate
within any atmosphere. Both systems can be man-
ufactured and installed to monitor combustible
gases at a single location or at several locations.

Catalytic Combustible-Gas
Detection System

The catalytic system is designed to continuously
sample the atmosphere of the protected space
and to detect the presence of flammable gases or
vapors up to the lower explosive limit (LEL).
The components of the system are one or more
detector heads, a control-indicating unit and
alarms.

How the System Works. The detector head con-
tains two electrically heated elements; each ele-
ment forms one half of a balanced electrical cir-
cuit (a Wheatstone bridge). When a combustible-
gas mixture is drawn across the circuit, it burns.
This changes the resistance of the circuit and,
therefore, its electrical output. The output is
transmitted to the control-indicating unit, where
it is calibrated and displayed on a meter. A read-
ing on the meter between 0 and 100% shows
how closely the atmosphere being monitored ap-
proaches the minimum concentration required for
a flammable mixture. When dangerous gas con-
centrations accumulate, warning lights, bells or
horns are activated (Fig. 6.15).

To operate properly, catalytic detectors require
air that contains enough oxygen to support com-
bustion. For this reason, the catalytic system is
not used to detect the presence of combustible
gases in inert atmospheres or steam-saturated
spaces. The system is usually used in dead air,
void spaces, bilges and pump rooms on tank ves-
sels carrying LNG or other combustible gases.

116

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Detector

Power In

Signal Out
(up to 5000 ft.)

^

100 Volt Power Supply

Indicating Meter

I

O

Warning Lamp

Alarms

2

Recording (Optional)

Figure 6.15. Schematic drawing of a catalytic combustible gas detection system.

Infrared Combustible-Gas Leak Detector
and Air-Monitoring System

The infrared system automatically detects either
toxic noncombustible gases or combustible gases.
It may be used to monitor either inert or air-
filled atmospheres. For instance, the system can
be used to detect methane gas in an inert nitrogen
atmosphere, such as that used to protect LNG
tanks. As another example, it could be used to
monitor the level of carbon monoxide in the air-
filled hold of a roll on-roll off vessel. While the
system is adaptable to many gases, it can only be
set up to detect one particular gas at any given
time. Moreover, it will not detect gases, such as
nitrogen and oxygen, that do not absorb infrared
radiation.

A sample of the atmosphere of each protected
space is pumped to a central station through its
own sampling line. At the central station, a non-
dispersive infrared gas analyzer screens the
sample for abnormal gas concentrations. If it de-
tects a dangerous level of gas, the system sounds
an audible alarm and lights an indicator that
shows which protected space is involved.

How the System Works. Figure 6.16 is a block
diagram of the infrared monitoring system. There
is one sample line, or stream, for each point to
be monitored. The stream is a tube through which
a sample is drawn from the protected space. The
filter on the end of each stream keeps dust from
entering the system; it should be replaced periodi-
cally.

The stream-selector manifold contains a set
of electrically operated valves that are used to
connect individual streams to the sample pump.
The valves are controlled by the stream selector.
The stream selector operates the valves so that
the streams are connected to the sample pump in
turn, at fixed intervals. After the last stream has
been sampled, the cycle begins again with the
first stream. The stream selector also identifies
the particular stream that is being sampled at
any time, through the alarm and indicator unit.

The bypass pump maintains samples in all the
streams, up to the stream-selector manifold valves.
This reduces the time needed to draw each sample
up to the infrared gas analyzer. It thus reduces the
length of the complete sampling cycle. The sam-
ple pump sends the selected sample to the gas-
selector manifold. Normally, the sample passes
immediately to the gas analyzer. (The zero gas
and span gas shown in Fig. 6.16 are used to cali-
brate the analyzer periodically. They do not enter
into the sampling cycle.)

In the infrared gas analyzer, an infrared beam
is passed through the sample. The amount of in-
frared radiation absorbed by the sample indicates
the concentration of the toxic or combustible gas
of interest. It is measured and shown on a meter
on the analyzer (Fig. 6.17). The information is
also transmitted to the alarm and indicator unit.

The alarm and indicator unit visually displays
the results of each sample analysis. It also sounds
an audible alarm and flashes an indicator light
if the concentration of gas in a sample is above

Fire Detection Systems

117

Vent Zero Gas Vent

Span Gas i

Vent

Filters

€^

Sample Lines

a*-

Stream-
Selector
Manifold

Bypass
Pump

J

Sample
Pump

_

Gas- Selector
Manifold

Nondispersive

Infrared Gas

Analyzer

t

Span Gas

Stream Selector

Alarm and
Indicator Unit

Gas Flow
Electrical Signal

Figure 6.16. The main components of an infrared shipboard
Mountainside, N.J.)

a preset value; the light indicates which stream
the sample was drawn from. The watch officer
may push a button to silence the audible alarm.
Once he notes which indicator is flashing, he may
push a second button to stop the flashing (the
indicator light simply remains lit).

The watch officer then must take the neces-
sary corrective action. This may include evacu-
ating the area, shutting off valves in pipe lines
running through the area, turning on exhaust fans
and shutting down electrical equipment. If the
problem is corrected, the indicator light auto

Figure 6.17. Nondispersible infrared gas analyzer. The
meter indicates the concentration of gas in each sample as it
is being analyzed.

gas-monitoring system. (Courtesy Beckman Instruments, Inc.,

matically shuts off the next time the atmosphere
of the involved space is sampled. If the problem
remains, the light remains on but the audible
alarm does not sound.

The alarm and indicator light can be set to
respond to varying concentrations of the gas of
interest. Usually, for safety, they are set for some
fraction of the lower explosive level. The system
also checks itself once during each cycle, as fol-
lows: It analyzes a sample of gas whose concen-
tration is high enough to cause an alarm. How-
ever, in this case, the system sounds the alarm
only if the high concentration goes undetected.
That is, if the system is working correctly and
detects the high concentration, no alarm is
sounded. The stream selector simply selects the
next sample.

Maintenance. As with all safety devices, main-
tenance is important to the proper operation of
the infrared analyzer. Proper maintenance in-
cludes

• Periodic calibration as detailed in the man-
ufacturer's operating manual

• Replacement of calibration-gas cylinders
when their pressure falls below the minimum

• Periodic checks of equipment operation, in-
cluding light bulbs

• Lubrication and cleaning of pumps

118

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

• Periodic replacement of stream filters

• General cleaning of cabinets and other
equipment and the areas occupied by this
equipment.

PYROMETERS

A pyrometer is an instrument for measuring tem-
peratures too great for an ordinary thermometer.
It is used to find the temperature of a fire. An
important use of pyrometers is in checking the
progress of a fire that cannot be seen, e.g., a fire
that has been confined in a closed compartment
or hold. By taking readings at the same location
at various times, one can tell if the fire is gaining
or lessening in intensity. By moving the pyro-
meter to different locations along a bulkhead or
deck, one may determine if the fire is extending
laterally.

Pyrometers are attached to, or embedded in,
either of two types of bases. The usual type base
may be placed on the deck over the fire space.
The magnetic type can be "slapped" onto the out-
side of a bulkhead of a burning space. A chain
should be attached to the base of the pyrometer.
It can be used to pull the instrument across a
deck that is too hot for personnel. It is also useful
in lowering the pyrometer into a hot area.

A pyrometer can be useful in evaluating the
success or lack of success when flooding a burn-
ing compartment with carbon dioxide. It must
be remembered that great patience is needed to
successfully extinguish cargo hold fires with
carbon dioxide. One cannot "take a peek" to see
how things are going. Opening up would sig-
nificantly dilute the extinguishing gas within the
cargo compartment, thereby destroying its effec-
tiveness. Using a pyrometer and checking the
variations in temperature should give meaningful
information. A rising temperature after carbon
dioxide has been introduced would indicate two
possibilities: 1) the amount of carbon dioxide
introduced is insufficient and more is required, or
2) the carbon dioxide is not reaching the fire (di-
rected to the wrong fire zone, a control valve is
closed or malfunction of the system). A steady
lowering of the temperature would indicate that
the carbon dioxide has either extinguished the
fire or has it under control. However, though a
steady lowering of the temperature is observed
or even if the temperature reading is down to
66°C (150°F) or less, these encouraging readings
should not be interpreted as a signal to open the
compartment for examination. At the risk of
being repetitive, it is stated again that great pa-
tience is needed with carbon dioxide. There

should be no need to open a cargo hatch until
port is reached. After all, the damage to the cargo
has already been done by the fire; carbon dioxide
can cause no further damage.

A COMMENT ON SHIP SAFETY

Shipboard fire detection systems make use of
people, devices or both to detect a fire before it
does damage to people, the ship or both. The
International Convention of Seafaring Nations
(London, 1960) recognized the validity of this
basic principle and embodied it in their regula-
tions. The participating nations agreed to pro-
mote laws and rules to ensure that, from the point
of view of safety to life, a ship is fit for the service
for which it was intended. But long before such
a convention, the regulatory bodies of the United
States enacted laws and regulations for safety at
sea; for instance, a sprinkler law for passenger
ships was passed as early as 1936. Some ship
owners had already voluntarily installed fire safety
equipment and procedures. Today, ships flying
the flag of the United States are the safest in the
world. To keep them the safest, the applicable
parts of the Code of Federal Regulations are con-
stantly being revised by the Coast Guard. The
object is to stay abreast of current needs, based
upon experience and the expertise, inventiveness
and productiveness of engineers and manufac-
turers in the fire protection field. Current regula-
tions require that ships be equipped with certain
devices or personnel procedures (patrols and
watchmen) as a minimum standard for safety.
Wise ship owners and masters insist upon greater
protection than the minimum standards require.
They want the best equipment that can be pro-
vided; crews that have been instructed in fire pre-
vention, fire protection and firefighting; frequent
and meaningful fire drills; and present equipment
tested and maintained to the highest obtainable
standard of perfection.

The detecting systems and devices described
in this chapter are those currently available. Some,
such as the smoke detector and the electric (ther-
mostat) detector, are particularly applicable for
shipboard use. Others, such as the flame detector,
resistance bridge and cloud chamber, are more
applicable to land installations. The infrared gas
monitor is a very new system; others have been in
use for some time.

The Coast Guard leaves open the possibility of
using fire detection equipment that may be de-
veloped in the future. However before any new
type of fire detection equipment may be installed
aboard ship, it must be subjected to thorough and

Fire Detection Systems

119

exhaustive examination. If it is found to comply
with government specifications, it may then be
approved by the Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard,
for use aboard vessels.

Regardless of the type or age of a system in-
stalled aboard a vessel, all ship's personnel must
be familiar with its operation and maintenance.
Instruction and maintenance manuals must be
available and kept near the signal receiving equip-

ment. If a manual is lost, or an additional copy
is desired, the manufacturer will gladly supply
one. When requesting a manual from a manufac-
turer include all information, such as the name,
type and model number of the equipment. This
information is stamped or printed on the receiving
cabinet. The addresses of equipment manufac-
turers may be found in the U.S. Coast Guard
Equipment Lists (CGI 90), obtainable at any
Coast Guard inspection office.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bryan JL: Fire Suppression and Detecting Systems.

Beverly Hills, Glencoe Press, 1974
Detex Corporation: Detex Newman Watchclock

System. New York, 1977
Haessler WM: Systems Approach Vital to Design

of Early Alert Detection Installation. In Fire En-
gineering. New York, January, 1975
Henschel Corporation: Henschel Instruction Book

#574. Amesbury, Mass, 1976
Johnson JE: Concepts of Fire Detection. Cedar

Knolls, NJ, Pyrotronics, 1970
W. Kidde and Co.: Operation and Maintenance of

the Kidde Marine Smoke Detector. Belleville, NJ
Lein H: Automatic Fire Detecting Devices and

Their Operating Principles. In Fire Engineering.

New York, June, 1975
McKinnon CP: Fire Protection Handbook. 14th ed.

Boston, NFPA, 1976

National Fire Protection Association: Automatic Fire
Detectors. NFPA Standard No. 72E. Boston,
1974

Osbourne A A, Neild AB: Modern Marine Engi-
neer's Manual. Cambridge, Md, Cornell Mari-
time Press, 1965

Underwriters Laboratories, Inc: Standards for Smoke
Detectors. Combustion Products Type for Fire
Protective Signaling Systems. UL 167, Melville,
NY, 1974

Instruction Manuals, Norris Industries. Marine
Smoke Detector, Newark, N.J.

Beckman Instruments Inc. Operation and Mainte-
nance Manuals for Gas Detection Systems. Moun-
tainside, NJ.

Mine Safety Appliances. Operation and Maintenance
Manuals for Gas Detection Systems. Pittsburgh,
Pa.

Extinguishing Agents

An extinguishing agent is a substance that will
put out a fire. Every extinguishing agent operates
by attacking one or more sides of the fire tetra-
hedron (Fig. 4.8). The specific actions involved
are the following (Fig. 7.1):

• Cooling: to reduce the temperature of the
fuel below its ignition temperature. This is
a direct attack on the heat side of the fire
tetrahedron.

• Smothering: to separate the fuel from the
oxygen. This can be considered as an attack
on the edge of the fire tetrahedron where
the fuel and oxygen sides meet.

• Oxygen dilution: to reduce the amount of
available oxygen below that needed to sus-
tain combustion. This is an attack on the
oxygen side of the tetrahedron.

• Chain breaking: to disrupt the chemical
process that sustains the fire (the chain re-
action side of the tetrahedron).

Eight extinguishing agents are in common use.
Each is applied to the fire as a liquid, gas or solid,
depending on its extinguishing action and physi-
cal properties (Fig. 7.2). Some may be used on
several types of fires, whereas others are more
limited in use. We shall discuss the agents listed
in Figure 7.2 (and some others) in the remainder
of this chapter, after a brief discussion of the
classes of fires that may be encountered aboard
ship.

CLASSES (AND COMBINATIONS)
OF FIRES

Fires are grouped into four classes labeled A
through D, according to their fuels (see Chapter
5). However, some fuels are found in combina-
tions, and electrical fires always involve some

solid fuel. Thus, for firefighting purposes, there
are actually six possible combinations of fire
classes:

1. Class A fires (common flammable solid
fuel)

2. Class B fires (flammable liquid or gaseous
fuel)

3. Combined class A and B fires (solid fuel
combined with liquid or gaseous fuel)

4. Combined class A and C fires (solid fuel
combined with electrical equipment)

5. Combined class B and C fires (liquid or
gaseous fuel combined with electrical
equipment)

6. Class D fires (combustible-metal fuel).

This list includes every known type of fire. Note
that the environment of a fire, i.e., where it oc-
curs, does not affect its classification. For ex-
ample, class B fires are class B fires whether they
occur in an engine room or on a pier. The choice
of extinguishing agent depends on the class of
fire, the hazards involved and the agents available
(Fig. 7.3).

Class A Fires

Fires involving common combustible solids such
as wood, paper, cloth and plastics are most effec-
tively extinguished by water, a cooling agent.
Foam and dry chemical may also be used; they
act mainly as smothering agents.

Class B Fires

For fires involving oils, greases, gases and other
substances that give off large amounts of flam-
mable vapors, a smothering agent is most effec-
tive. Water fog, dry chemical, foam and carbon
dioxide (CO2) may be used. However, if the fire

121

122

Marine Fire Prevention, Fireflghting and Fire Safety

2 SMOTHERING

3 OXYGEN DILUTION

4 BREAKING THE
V CHAIN REACTION

/

Combined Class A and B Fires

Water spray and foam may be used to smother
fires involving both solid fuels and flammable
liquids or gases. These agents also have some

Figure 7.1. A. Cooling agents absorb heat from the fire. B. Smothering agents separate the fuel from its oxygen supply.
C. Oxygen diluting agents reduce the amount of oxygen available. D. Chain breakers attack the chemical process that keep
the fire going.

is being supplied with fuel by an open valve or
a broken pipe, a valve on the supply side should
be shut down. This may extinguish the fire or, at
least, make extinguishment less difficult and allow
the use of much less extinguishing agent.

In a gas fire, it is imperative to shut down the
control valve before you extinguish the fire. If
the fire were extinguished without shutting down
the valve, flammable gas would continue to
escape. The potential for an explosion, more dan-
gerous than the fire, would then exist. It might
be necessary to extinguish a gas fire before shut-
ting down the fuel supply in order to save a life
or to reach the control valve; however, these are
the only exceptions.

LIQUIDS

1. WATER SPRAY

2. FOAM

GASES

3. CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2 )

4. HALON 1211, 1301

SOLIDS (dry chemical)

5. MONOAMMONIUM PHOSPHATE

6. BICARBONATE

7. POTASSIUM BICARBONATE

8. POTASSIUM CHLORIDE

Figure 7.2. The eight common extinguishing agents.

Extinguishing Agents

123

Extinguishing Method, COOLING
Fuel Class of Fire

Solid

A©

Liquid

or
Gas

z^\

B

B

^)

Metal

Extinguishing Agent

Water

Water Spray
Foam

Carbon Dioxide

Halon

DRYCHEMICAL

Sodium or Potassium Base (Regular)
Ammonium Base (All Purpose)

Dry Powder

Extinguishing Method, SMOTHERING
Fuel Class of Fire

Solid

Liquid

or
Gas

Metal

Extinguishing Agent

L

Water

Water Spray
Foam

[

F-

f-

Carbon Dioxide

■—

Halon

■-

DRYCHEMICAL

Sodium or Potassium Base
Ammonium Base

r

h-

Dry Powder

Extinguishing Method, OXYGEN DILUTION

Fuel

Class

of Fire

Solid

i

A

A

©

Liquid

or
Gas

/■ — v

B

B

(s)

Metal

Extinguishing Agent

Water

Water Spray
Foam

Carbon Dioxide

Halon

DRYCHEMICAL

Sodium or Potassium Base
Ammonium Base

Dry Powder

Extinguishing Method, INTERRUPT CHAIN REACTION

Fuel

Class of Fire

»

Extinguishing Agent

Solid

A
A©

Water

Water Spray
Foam

Carbon Dioxide

Halon

Liquid

or

Gas

B

DRYCHEMICAL

Sodium or Potassium Base
Ammonium Base

B

/■ — x

Cc)

\zJ

Metal

\

°r

Dry Powder

Figure 7.3. The actions of extinguishing agents on the different classes of fires.

124

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

cooling effect on the tire. Carbon dioxide has also
been used to extinguish such fires in closed spaces.

Combined Class A and C Fires

Because energized electrical equipment is in-
volved in these fires, a nonconducting extinguish-
ing agent must be used. Carbon dioxide, Halon
and dry chemical are the most efficient agents.
Carbon dioxide dilutes the oxygen supply, while
the others are chain breaking agents.

Combined Class B and C Fires

Here again, a nonconducting agent is required.
Fires involving flammable liquids or gases and
electrical equipment may be extinguished with
Halon or dry chemical acting as a chain breaker.
They may also, in closed spaces, be extinguished
with C02.

Class D Fires

These fires involve combustible metals such as
potassium, sodium and their alloys and mag-
nesium, zinc, zirconium, titanium and powdered
aluminum. They burn on the metal surface at a
very high temperature and often with a brilliant
flame. Water should not be used on class D fires,
as it may add to the intensity or cause the molten
metal to spatter. This, in turn, can extend the fire
and inflict painful and serious burns on those in
the vicinity.

Fires in combustible metals are generally
smothered and controlled with specialized agents
known as dry powders. Dry powders are not the
same as dry chemicals, although many people use
the terms interchangeably. The agents are used
on entirely different types of fires: Dry powders
are used only to extinguish combustible-metal
fires. Dry chemicals may be used on other fires,
but not on class D fires.

WATER

Water is a liquid between the temperatures of
0°C and 100°C (32°F and 212°F); at 100°C
(212°F) it boils and turns to steam. Water weighs
about 1 kg/liter (8.5 lb/gal); fresh water weighs
slightly less, and seawater slightly more. Being
fluid and relatively heavy, water is easily trans-
ported through firemains and hoses when it is
placed under pressure. The velocity of the water
is increased by forcing it through a restricted
nozzle at the working end of the hose. The water
stream can be thrown a fairly good distance if
sufficient pressure is available.

Extinguishing Capabilities of Water

Water is primarily a cooling agent. It absorbs
heat and cools burning materials more effectively
than any other of the commonly used extinguish-
ing agents. It is most effective when it absorbs
enough heat to raise its temperature to 100°C
(212°F). At that temperature water absorbs still
more heat, turns to steam, and moves the ab-
sorbed heat away from the burning material. This
quickly reduces the temperature of the burning
material below its ignition temperature, and the
fire goes out.

Water has an important secondary effect: When
it turns to steam, it converts from the liquid state
to the gaseous (vapor) state, and in so doing, it
expands about 1700 times in volume. This great
cloud of steam surrounds the fire, displacing the
air that supplies oxygen for the combustion proc-
ess. Thus, water provides a smothering action as
well as cooling.

Seawater is just as effective in fighting fires as
fresh water. In fact, hard water, soft water, sea-
water and distilled water are all equally effective
against class A fires.

Moving Water to the Fire »

At sea the supply of water is limitless; however,
moving the water is another matter. The amount
of water that can be moved to a shipboard fire
depends on the number of pumps carried and their
capacities. If the total pump capacity is 946
liters/min (250 gal/min), then that is the maxi-
mum water flow rate that can be delivered through
the ship's firefighting water system. This is one
reason for using firefighting water judiciously.
But even when water is available in huge quan-
tities, it still must be used economically and
wisely. If it isn't, its weight can affect the equi-
librium of the ship. This is especially true if large
amounts of water are introduced into, and re-
main at, a high point in the ship: The weight of
the water raises the center of gravity of the ves-
sel, impairing its stability (Fig. 7.4). In many
cases the vessel will list or even capsize. Water
that is not confined but can run to lower portions
of the ship may affect the buoyancy of the ship.
Ships have capsized and sunk because excessive
amounts of water were used during firefighting
efforts. Every 1 m3 (35 ft3) or about 946 liters
(250 gal) of water adds another tonne to be reck-
oned with.

Aboard ship, water is moved to the fire in two
ways: 1) via the firemain system, through hose-
lines that are manipulated by the ship's personnel,
and 2) through piping that supplies a manual or
automatic sprinkler or spray system. Both are

Extinguishing Agents

125

Figure 7.4. Water confined high on the ship has a detri-
mental effect on the ship's stability.

reliable methods for bringing water to bear on a
fire, provided the pumps, piping and all compo-
nents of the system are maintained. These sys-
tems are covered in Chapters 9 and 10.

Automatic fire suppression systems are impor-
tant to the safety of every vessel. Crewmen should
understand how they operate and know how to
maintain them. However, the mobility of a hose-
line is an equally important asset in most fire-
fighting operations. The hose and nozzle com-
plete the job of moving water to the fire in the
proper form. Moreover, hoseline operations rep-
resent a much greater involvement of crew mem-
bers in combating the fire.

This human involvement — and the possibility
of human error — make drills of paramount im-
portance. Through periodic drilling, crewmen
should become proficient in the use and mainte-
nance of water-moving equipment. U.S. Coast
Guard regulations require that each fire station
be equipped with a single length of hose, with
the nozzle attached. The hose must be situated
at its proper location and maintained in good
working order. More than one small fire has be-

come a major fire owing to poor maintenance
practices.

Straight Streams

The straight stream, sometimes called the solid
stream, is the oldest and most commonly used
form of water for firefighting. The straight stream
is formed by a nozzle that is specially designed
for that purpose. The end from which the water
is thrown is tapered to less than one half the
diameter of the entry or hose end (Fig. 7.5). The
tapering increases both the velocity of the water
at the discharge end and the reach.

Efficiency of Straight Streams. The distance
that a straight stream travels before breaking up
or dropping is called its reach. Reach is impor-
tant when it is difficult to approach close to a fire.
Actually, despite its name, a straight stream is
not really straight. Like any projectile, it has two
forces acting upon it. The velocity imparted by
the nozzle gives it reach, either horizontally or
at an upward angle, depending on how the noz-
zleman aims the nozzle. The other force, gravity,
tends to pull the stream down, so the reach ends
where the stream encounters the deck. On a ves-
sel, the nozzle pressure is usually below 690 kilo-
pascals ( 100 psi). The maximum horizontal reach
is then attained with the nozzle held at an upward
angle of 35°-40° from the deck. The maximum
vertical reach is attained at an angle of 75°.

Probably less than 10% of the water from a
straight stream actually absorbs heat from the
fire. This is because only a small portion of the
water surface actually comes in contact with the
fire — and only water that contacts the fire absorbs
heat. The rest runs off, sometimes over the side;
but more often the runoff becomes free surface
water and a problem for the ship.

Using Straight Streams. A straight stream
should be directed into the seat of the fire. This
is important: For maximum cooling the water

2Vi" Hose Opening

1 " Nozzle Opening

Figure 7.5. The taper greatly increases the velocity of the
water coming from the nozzle.

126

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

Figure 7.6. A straight stream can be bounced off the overhead to hit a fire located behind an obstruction.

must contact the material that is actually burn-
ing. A solid stream that is aimed at the flames
is ineffective. In fact, the main use of solid streams
is to break up the burning material and penetrate
to the seat of a class A fire.

It is often difficult to hit the seat of a fire, even
with the reach of a solid stream. Aboard ship,
bulkheads with small openings can keep fire-
fighters from getting into proper position to aim
the stream into the fire. If the stream is used be-
fore the nozzle is properly positioned, the water
may hit a bulkhead and cascade onto the deck
without reaching the fire. The nozzleman must
not open the nozzle until he is sure it is positioned
so that the stream will reach into the fire.

In some instances, there may be an obstruc-
tion between the fire and the nozzleman. Then
the stream can be bounced off a bulkhead or the
overhead to get around the obstacle (Fig. 7.6).
This method can also be used to break a solid
stream into a spray-type stream, which will ab-
sorb more heat. It is useful in cooling an ex-
tremely hot passageway that is keeping firefighters
from advancing toward the fire. (A combination
fog-solid nozzle could be opened to the fog posi-
tion to achieve the same results.)

Fog Streams

The fog (or spray) nozzle breaks the water stream
into small droplets. These droplets have a much
larger total surface area than a solid stream (Fig.
7.7). Thus, a given volume of water in fog form
will absorb much more heat than the same vol-
ume of water in a straight stream.

The greater heat absorption of fog streams is
important where the use of water should be lim-
ited. Less water need be applied to remove the
same amount of heat from a fire. In addition,
more of the fog stream turns to steam when it
hits the fire. Consequently, there is less runoff,
less free surface water and less of a stability prob-
lem for the ship. Figure 7.8 compares straight
and fog streams as extinguishing methods.

High-Velocity Fog Streams. The high-velocity
fog stream can be used effectively to reduce heat
in compartments, cabins and cargo spaces. In
spaces where there is an overhead, the nozzle
should be directed upward at an angle of 20-30°
from the plane of the deck. This directs the fog
toward the overhead, where the most heat is con-
centrated (Fig. 7.9). The foglike spray quickly

Figure 7.7. A. Straight stream. B. Fog stream. The fog stream droplets present a greater water surface area to the fire and
can absorb more heat.

Ext ingu ish ing A gents

127

STRAIGHT STREAM

Has Good Reach

Must Hit Seat of Fire to Cool Efficiently
Run-off of Water May be Excessive
Generates Very Little Steam

Difficult to Aim
Limited Reach
Excellent Cooling Abilities
Generates Steam
Has Small Amount of Run-off
Pushes Fire and Smoke
Does Not Have to Hit Seat of Fire
to be Effective

^m&r.

Figure 7.8. Advantages and disadvantages of straight and fog streams.

absorbs heat, allowing firefighters to enter or ad-
vance to the fire.

The high-velocity fog stream can also be used
to move air in passageways and to drive heat and
smoke away from advancing firefighters (Fig.
7.10). This operation can be used to facilitate
the rescue of persons who are trapped in state-
rooms, cabins or other spaces. If at all possible,
the far side of the passageway should be opened
and kept clear of people. However, if there is no
opening in a passageway other than the one from
which the nozzle is being advanced, the heat and
smoke have no place to go and may burst through

Overhead

fe#v^-v<

Heat Concentration

20° to 30°

1

Figure 7.9. The fog nozzle should be directed upward at
an angle of 20°-30° to hit heat concentrations at the over-
head.

or around the fog stream (blow back) and en-
danger those advancing the nozzle (Fig. 7.11).
Therefore, in such a passageway, short bursts of
fog should be aimed at the overhead to knock
down the flame while minimizing the chance of
blowback, or it may be better to use a solid
stream.

Low-Velocity Fog Streams. Low-velocity fog is
obtained by using an applicator along with a com-
bination nozzle. Applicators are tubes, or pipes,
that are angled at 60° or 90° at the water outlet
end. They are stowed for use with the low-velocity
head already in place on the pipe. Some heads
are shaped somewhat like a pineapple, with tiny
holes angled to cause minute streams to bounce
off one another and create a mist. Some heads
resemble a cage with a fluted arrow inside. The
point of the arrow faces the opening in the appli-
cator tubing. Water strikes the fluted arrow and
then bounces in all directions, creating a fine
mist.

For 3.8 cm (IVi-in.) nozzles, 1.2 m (4-ft)
60°-angle and 3 m (10-ft) 90°-angle applicators
are approved for shipboard use. For 6.4 cm
(2*6 -in.) nozzles, 3.7 m (12-ft) 90°-angle appli-
cators are approved (Fig. 7.12). Other lengths
with different angles are sometimes found. The
1.2 m (4-ft) applicator is intended for the 3.8 cm
(IVi-in.) combination nozzles fitted in propul-
sion machinery spaces containing oil-fired boilers,
internal combustion machinery or fuel units.

128

Marine Fire Prevention, Fire/ighting and Fire Safet

'IV

Figure 7.10. A high velocity fog stream can be used to drive heat and smoke ahead of firefighters when there is an outlet
for these combustion products.

Low-velocity fog is effective in combating class
B fires in spaces where entry is difficult or im-
possible. Applicators can be poked into areas that
cannot be reached with other types of nozzles.
They are also used to provide a heat shield for
firefighters advancing with foam or high-velocity
fog. Low-velocity fog can be used to extinguish
small tank fires, especially where the mist from
the applicator can cover the entire surface of the
tank. However, other extinguishing agents, such
as foam and carbon dioxide, are usually more
effective.

Limitations of Fog Streams. Fog streams do not
have the accuracy or reach of straight streams.
Improperly used, they can cause injury to per-
sonnel, as in a blowback situation. While they
can be effectively used on the surface of a deep-
seated fire, they are not as effective as solid
streams in soaking through and reaching the heart
of the fire.

Combination Nozzle Operation

The combination nozzle will produce a straight
stream or high-velocity fog, depending on the

position of its handle. Combination nozzles are
available for use with 3.8- and 6.4-cm (IV2- and
2Vi-in.) hose. Reducers can be used to attach a
3.8-cm (lV^-in.) nozzle to a 6.4-cm (2Vi-in.)
hose.

A straight stream is obtained by pulling the
nozzle handle all the way back toward the op-
erator (Fig. 7.13A).

A fog stream is obtained by pulling the handle
back halfway (Fig. 7.13B). In other words, the
handle is perpendicular to the plane of the noz-
zle.

The nozzle is shut down, from any opened
position, by pushing the handle forward as far
as it will go (Fig. 7.1 3C).

The low-velocity fog applicator must be at-
tached with the nozzle shut down. First, the high-
velocity "button" or tip is removed. Then the
straight end of the applicator is snapped into the
fog outlet and locked with a quarter turn. A
low-velocity fog stream is obtained with the noz-
zle handle in the fog position (halfway back).

When any nozzle is to be used, the handle
should be in the closed position until the water

Figure 7.11. If there is no outlet for combustion products that are being pushed ahead, they may blow back and engulf
advancing firefighters.

Extinguishing Agents

129

2Vi Inches

Fog Applicators

KHh

12-Foot Applicator
Using

1 V2-lnch Diameter

itasib

"I 1 V4 Inches

10-Foot Applicator 1-Inch Diameter

90°

4-Foot Applicator ^qo
1-Inch Diameter x^??)

Figure 7.12. Low-velocity fog applicators approved for shipboard use.

Figure 7.13. A. Nozzle open for straight stream. B. Nozzle
open for high-velocity fog (or low-velocity fog if applicator
is attached). C. Nozzle shut down.

reaches the nozzle. The hose will bulge out, and
the nozzleman will feel the weight of the water.
Before pushing the handle to an open position,
he should let the entrained air out of the nozzle.
This is done by turning a bit sideways with the
nozzle and slowly opening it until a spatter of
water comes out. Now the nozzle is directed at
the target. The backup man closes up to the noz-
zleman and takes some of the weight of the hose
and the back pressure from the nozzle. The nozzle
is opened to the desired position, and the fire is
attacked.

Straight and fog streams can be very effective
against class A fires in the hands of skilled op-
erators. Fog streams can also be used effectively
against class B fires. However, it is important that
crewman have actual experience in directing
these streams during drills. Applicators should
also be broken out at drills so crewmen can get
the feel of these devices.

Other Types of Water for Firefighting

Wet Water. Wet water is water that has been
treated with a chemical agent to lower its surface
tension. The treated water penetrates porous ma-
terials, such as baled cotton and rolls of fabric,
more easily than plain water. Thus it can sink in
and extinguish fires that have extended into the
interior of the bale or roll.

Thick Water. Thick water is water that has been
treated to decrease its ability to flow. It forms a
thick wall that clings to burning material and re-
mains in place longer than plain water. How-
ever, it does not penetrate as easily as wet or un-
treated water. Thick water is slippery and makes
walking on wet decks difficult.

Rapid or Slippery Water. Rapid water is water
to which small quantities of polyethylene oxide
have been added. This chemical reduces the vis-

130

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

cosity of the water and the friction loss in hose-
lines. The result is an increase in the reach of
the stream.

FOAM

Foam is a blanket of bubbles that extinguishes
fire mainly by smothering. The bubbles are
formed by mixing water and a foam-making agent
(foam concentrate). The result is called a foam
solution. The various foam solutions are lighter
than the lightest of flammable oils. Consequently,
when applied to burning oils, they float on the
surface of the oil (Fig. 7.14).

Foam concentrates are produced in two
strengths, 3% and 6% . These percentages do not
have the usual meaning. They are the percentages
of the concentrate to be used in making the foam
solution. Thus, if 3% concentrate is used, 3 parts
of concentrate must be mixed with 97 parts of
water to make 100 parts of foam solution. If 6%
concentrate is used, 6 parts of concentrate must
be mixed with 94 parts of water. The 3% foam
solution is just as effective as the 6% solution.
The difference is in shipping and storing the
products. Five containers of 3% concentrate
make as much foam as 10 similar containers of
6% concentrate.

Extinguishing Effects of Foam

Firefighting foam is used to form a blanket on
the surface of flaming liquids, including oils. The
blanket prevents flammable vapors from leaving
the surface and prevents oxygen from reaching
the fuel. Fire cannot exist when the fuel and oxy-
gen are separated. The water in the foam also has
a cooling effect, which gives foam its class A ex-
tinguishing capability.

The ideal foam solution should flow freely
enough to cover a surface rapidly, yet stick to-

gether enough to provide and maintain a vapor-
tight blanket. The solution must retain enough
water to provide a long-lasting seal. Rapid loss
of water would cause the foam to dry out and
break down (wither) from the high temperatures
associated with fire. The foam should be light
enough to float on flammable liquids, yet heavy
enough to resist winds.

The quality of a foam is generally defined in
terms of its 25% drainage time, its expansion
ratio and its ability to withstand heat (burnback
resistance). These qualities are influenced by

• The chemical nature of the foam concentrate

• The temperature and pressure of the water

• The efficiency of the foam-making device.

Foams that lose their water rapidly are the
most fluid. They flow around obstructions freely
and spread quickly. Such foams would be of use
in engine room or machinery space fires; they
would be able to flow under and around ma-
chinery, floorplates and other obstructions.

There are two basic types of foam, chemical
and mechanical.

Chemical Foam

Chemical foam is formed by mixing an alkali
(usually sodium bicarbonate) with an acid (usu-
ally aluminum sulfate) in water. When chemical
foam was first introduced, these substances were
stored in separate containers; they are now com-
bined in a sealed, airtight container. A stabilizer
is added to make the foam tenacious and long-
lived.

When these chemicals react, they form a foam
or froth of bubbles filled with carbon dioxide gas.
The carbon dioxide in the bubbles has little or
no extinguishing value. Its only purpose is to
inflate the bubbles. From 7 to 16 volumes of
foam are produced for each volume of water.

Foam

Oil

Figure 7.14. A. Water is heavier than oil and sinks below its surface. B. Foam is lighter than oil and floats on its surface.

Extinguishing Agents

131

PRODUCING CHEMICAL-TYPE FOAM

Chemical-Type
Concentrate
(A and B Premix)

Pressure Gauge

Hopper

Reaction of Concentrate With Water Forms Foam

Figure 7.15. Production of chemical foam with a foam hopper.

The premixed foam powder may be stored in
cans and introduced into the water during fire-
fighting operations. For this, a device called a
foam hopper (Fig. 7.15) is used. Or, the two
chemicals may be premixed with water to form
an aluminum sulfate solution and a sodium bi-
carbonate solution. The solutions are then stored
in separate tanks until the foam is needed. At that
time, the solutions are mixed to form the foam.

Many chemical foam systems are still in use,
both aboard ship and in shore installations. How-
ever, they are being phased out in favor of the
newer mechanical foam or, as it is sometimes
called, air foam.

Mechanical (Air) Foam

Mechanical foam is produced by mixing a foam

concentrate with water to produce a foam solu-

tion. The bubbles are formed by the turbulent
mixing of air and the foam solution (Fig. 7.16).
As the name air foam implies, the bubbles are
filled with air. Aside from the workmanship and
efficiency of the equipment, the degree of mixing
determines the quality of the foam. The design
of the equipment determines the quantity of foam
produced.

There are several types of mechanical foams.
They are similar in nature, but each has its own
special firefighting capabilities. They are pro-
duced from proteins, detergents (which are syn-
thetics) and surfactants. The surfactants are a
large group of compounds that include deter-
gents, wetting agents and liquid soaps. Surfactants
are used to produce aqueous film-forming foam,
commonly referred to as AFFF.

Figure 7.16. Production of mechanical (air) foam by mixing foam concentrate with water and air.

132

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Water Film Blocks Vapor

®®®®®®®®®®®®®

Flammable Liquid

In Water

In Water and Fu

-p>

Figure 7.17. The AFFF surfactant molecule holds water at one end and flammable liquid fuel at the other end. It thus forms
a thin layer of water on top of the burning fuel.

Protein Foams. The usual protein foams are
produced from protein-rich animal and vegetable
waste that is hydrolyzed (subjected to a chemical
reaction with water that produces a weak acid).
Mineral salts are added to increase their resist-
ance to withering, making the foams resistant to
burnback. The foam concentrate can produce
foam in all types of water, except water that is
contaminated with oil. When antifreeze is added,
foam can be produced in subfreezing tempera-
tures down to -23.3°C (-10°F).

Protein foam is the oldest type of foam and
has been used since its development during
World War II. The concentrate is available in
3% and 6% concentrations. Protein foam is not
compatible with dry chemical extinguishing agents.

Fluoroprotein is a foam similar to hydrolyzed
protein foam, with a fluorinated compound
bonded to the protein. This foam can be injected
below the liquid surface in a tank. It also works
very well with dry chemical agents. Fluoropro-
tein is available in both 3% and 6% concentra-
tions; with antifreeze, it produces foam in sub-
freezing temperatures.

Alcohol Foams. Alcohol-resistant protein foam
is similar to standard protein foam. However, it is
blended with an insoluble soap, to permit its use
on water-soluble organic flammable liquids, such
as alcohol, ketones, ethers and aldehydes. These
water-soluble liquids will break down ordinary
protein foam. Tankers that carry such liquids may
be equipped with alcohol foam. The application
rate depends on the vessel design, products car-
ried and foam system used. Instructions for using
the system are posted in each vessel.

Synthetic Foam. Synthetic detergent-based foam
is made up of alkyl sulfonates. This form has less
burnback resistance than protein formulas, but
may be used with all dry chemicals. It foams more
readily than the proteins and requires less water.
This is important where the water supply is lim-
ited.

Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF). This
foam was developed by the U.S. Naval Research
Laboratory to be used in a twinned system: A
flammable liquid fire would be quickly knocked
down with a dry chemical; then AFFF would be
applied to prevent reignition. However, the AFFF
proved more effective than expected, and it is now
used without the dry chemical. AFFF controls
the vaporization of flammable liquids by means
of a water film that forms as the foam is applied.
Like other foams, it cools and blankets. This
double action gives a highly efficient, quick-act-
ing foam cover for combustible-liquid spills.

The foam is made from surfactants, through a
fairly complex chemical process. The result is an
extinguishing agent that is highly effective when
used according to the manufacturer's directions.

One end of a surfactant molecule is polar
(water soluble), whereas the other end is nonpolar
(oil soluble but not water soluble). (This is what
gives detergents the ability to clean away grease
and oil, which do not dissolve in water.) In use,
the surfactant is mixed with water before it
reaches the nozzle (Fig. 7.17). As the surfactant
mixes with the water, the polar end dissolves; the
nonpolar end remains intact.

When the surfactant reaches the surface of the
flammable liquid, the nonpolar end dissolves in

Extinguishing Agents

133

the fuel. The polar end drags water along with
it. Thus, a thin film of water floats on top of the
water-insoluble flammable liquid (such as gaso-
line, kerosene or jet fuel). It remains on the sur-
face even though it is heavier than the burning
fuel; the surface tension holding the nonpolar
end is greater than the force of gravity. The film
is very thin, less than 0.003 cm (0.001 in.) thick.
The remainder of the water sinks below the sur-
face of the fuel, to the bottom of the container
(Fig. 7.17).

Because AFFF works through surface tension,
it spreads the water thinly, but over a larger
surface area than untreated water could cover.
The thin water film, spread across the flammable
liquid, keeps the flammable vapors beneath its
surface. When vapor cannot reach the flames,
flame production ceases.

The water film can be broken if it is agitated.
It may also be broken by the roll and pitch of a
ship that is under way, especially in heavy
weather.

AFFF is similar in some respects to wet water.
It has a low viscosity and spreads quickly over
the burning material. Water draining from this
type of foam has a low surface tension, so AFFF
can be used on mixed class A and B fires. The
draining water penetrates and cools the class A
material, while the film blankets the class B ma-
terial.

AFFF can be produced from fresh water or
seawater. As noted above, AFFF can be used
with, before or after dry chemicals. AFFF con-
centrates should not be mixed with the concen-
trates of other foams, although in foam form they
may be applied to the same fire successfully.

Low-Temperature Foams. Most foam concen-
trates can be purchased with additives that pro-
tect them against temperatures as low as — 6.7°C
(20°F) during storage and use. However, the
water that is mixed with the concentrate must be
above 0°C (32°F) or it will freeze. But as long
as the water is above freezing and is running, an
effective foam ^an be produced with either fresh
water or seawater.

Foam Supplies

Enough foam concentrate should be available to
produce foam solution at the rate of 6.5 liters/
min for each square meter (1.6 gal/min for each
10 ft2) of area protected, for at least 3 minutes
for spaces other than tanks and at least 5 minutes
for tanks. The same discharge rate applies to
fixed foam extinguishing systems in tank vessels;
there should be enough concentrate on hand to

produce foam at this rate for at least 3 minutes.
Deck foam systems on tankers carrying the usual
petroleum products should produce foam solu-
tion at the rate of at least 6.5 liters/min for each
square meter (1.6 gal/min for each 10 ft2) of
cargo area, or 9.7 liters/min for each square
meter (2.4 gal/min for each 10 ft2) of the hori-
zontal sectional area of the single tank having
the largest area, whichever is greater. Enough
concentrate must be available to supply deck
foam systems on tankers at this rate for at least
15 minutes.

There need not be enough foam concentrate
aboard to supply the maximum amount required
by all systems. Instead, the total available amount
need only be sufficient to supply the space re-
quiring the greatest amount.

Before foam is used, it is necessary to ensure
that there is enough to do the job. There must
be a sufficient amount to cover the entire surface
of the fuel and to completely extinguish the fire.
If not enough foam is available, there is no sense
in using foam at all. Half measures do not work
with foam. Incomplete coverage allows the fire
to burn around the foam and destroy it.

High-Expansion Foams

High-expansion foams are those that expand in
ratios of over 100:1 when mixed with air. Most
systems produce expansion ratios of from 400:1
to 1000: 1. Unlike conventional foam, which pro-
vides a blanket a few inches thick over the burn-
ing surface, high-expansion foam is truly three
dimensional; it is measured in length, width,
height and cubic feet.

High-expansion foam is designed for fires in
confined spaces. Heavier than air but lighter than
water or oil, it will flow down openings and fill
compartments, spaces and crevices, replacing the
air in these spaces. In this manner it deprives the
fire of oxygen. Because of its water content, it
absorbs heat from the fire and cools the burning
material. When the high-expansion foam has ab-
sorbed sufficient heat to turn its water content to
steam at 100°C (212°F), it has absorbed as much
heat as possible; then the steam continues to re-
place oxygen and thus combat the fire.

Uses of High-Expansion Foam. High-expansion
foam is effective on both class A and class B fires.
On class A fires its effectiveness stems from its
cooling capability, on class B fires from its
smothering action. Class A fires are controlled
when the foam covers the burning material. For
complete extinguishment, the foam cover must
be continuously replenished, to replace water that

134

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

has been spent in absorbing the heat of the fire.
It is the water content of the foam that is impor-
tant here.

Cooling is also involved in class B fires in-
volving high flash point oils and liquids, such as
lubricating oils and cooking oils. Here, the cool-
ing reduces the surface temperature of the liquid
below the temperature at which flammable vapors
are given off. Class B fires involving low flash
point liquids such as gasoline and naphtha are
extinguished by high-expansion foam in the same
manner as by conventional foam. The fire is de-
prived of oxygen (smothered); the flammable
vapors are prevented from joining with oxygen
in the air.

Automatic High-Expansion Foam Systems.

Automatic high-expansion foam systems auto-
matically flood the protected space with foam.
Such systems are available but are not yet used
on vessels. An automatic system requires a fire
detector such as those discussed in Chapter 6.
It must be wired to sense the fire, sound an alarm
and actuate a mechanism to start generating and
sending high-expansion foam into the protected
space. In addition, the detector must actuate an
evacuation alarm to warn people who may be in
the space that it is about to be flooded. Automatic
foam systems generate foam very quickly. A per-
son who does not leave the area immediately
could be inundated or cut off from escape.

While the foam itself is not considered toxic,
it blocks vision, impairs hearing and makes
breathing difficult. It is thus dangerous for any-
one to be within the foam; the only valid reason
for entering or remaining in a foam buildup is to
rescue someone who might be trapped. When it
is absolutely necessary for someone to enter the

foam to save a life, a lifeline must be attached to
the rescuer. A canister-type breathing mask
should not be used, because the foam will mix
with the chemicals in the mask and suffocate the
wearer. Either a fresh-air hose mask, a demand-
type compressed-air or OBA self-contained unit
may be used.

A coarse water fog stream can be used to cut
a path through high-expansion foam. However,
it is difficult to cut a path if the foam is higher
than about 1.8 m (6 ft), as the foam tends to
slide down into the path. All this leads to one
valid conclusion: Everyone must get out of the
area as soon as the evacuation alarm sounds.

Flooding a Compartment with a Portable Foam
Generator. With the approval of the Coast
Guard, portable high-expansion foam generators
may be used for firefighting aboard ship. To flood
a compartment, a hose is run out on the deck
above, the generator is attached to the hose, and
the foam concentrate is connected to the genera-
tor pickup tube. All personnel must leave the
space to be flooded, if the fire has not already
driven them out.

A hole, through which the foam is to be ap-
plied, is cut in the deck (Fig. 7.18). A charged
hoseline must be available at this time. (When-
ever an opening is made into a fire area, an
additional hoseline, charged with water, must be
available in case the fire pushes through the open-
ing. The charged line is then used to protect the
opening.) Before the high-expansion foam is di-
rected into the opening, another opening must
be made. The second opening, some distance
away but still over the same space, allows the
escape of steam that is generated when the high-
expansion foam hits the fire (Fig. 7.18). If the

Opening for Application
of High-Expansion Foam

Openings to Vent Smoke, Cases and Heat to Atmosphere

DD

V I

^>k^s^^

High-Expansion Foam

Figure 7.18. Flooding a cargo hold with high-expansion foam. Here, hatches are being used to apply the foam (left) and to
vent the products of combustion including the hot steam that is produced (right).

Extinguishing Agents

135

second opening (the vent) is made on an open
deck, the steam and heat will dissipate into the
open air. If it is impossible to place the vent in
the open, then it must be made in a passageway
that leads to the open air. Once firefighters are
sure that the passageway is open, no one should
remain in the path of the escaping steam. When
the foam is applied, it will generate steam that is
hot enough to scald.

Steam leaving the vent hole is a good indica-
tion that the foam is reaching its target and doing
its work. If no steam is seen within a few minutes,
either the foam is not reaching its objective or
the vent hole is improperly placed.

Production of High-Expansion Foam. An as-
pirating nozzle is used to produce high-expansion
foam. In the nozzle, a solution of foam concen-
trate and water is sprayed over a meshed screen.
Air is drawn into the nozzle and through the
screen at high velocity. The air mixes with the
solution at the screen. Bubbles are formed at the
screen, and high-expansion foam leaves the noz-
zle at the far side of the screen (Fig. 7.19). If air
that has been heated or contaminated by the fire
is used to produce foam, the result is a poor grade
of foam. Also, soot can clog the openings in the
screen and affect the quantity and quality of the
foam. The air should be as clean and fresh as
possible.

Limitations on the Use of Foam

Foams are effective extinguishing agents when
used properly. However, they do have some limi-
tations, including the following:

1. Because they are aqueous (water) solutions,
foams are electrically conductive and
should not be used on live electrical equip-
ment.

2. Like water, foams should not be used on
combustible-metal fires.

3. Many foams must not be used with dry
chemical extinguishing agents. AFFF is an
exception to this rule and may be used in a
joint attack with dry chemical.

4. Foams are not suitable for fires involving
gases and cryogenic (extremely low tem-
perature) liquids. However, high-expan-
sion foam is used on cryogenic liquid spills
to rapidly warm the vapors to minimize the
hazards of such spills.

5. If foam is placed on burning liquids (like
asphalts) whose temperatures exceed
100°C (212°F), the water content of the
foam may cause frothing, spattering or
slopover. Slopover is different from boil-
over, although the terms are frequently con-
fused. Boilover occurs when the heat from
a fire in a tank travels down to the bottom
of the tank and causes water that is already
there to boil and push part of the tank's
contents over the side. Certain oils with a
high water content, such as crude oil, have
a notorious reputation for boilover. Slop-
over occurs when foam, introduced into a
tank of hot oil (surface temperature over
100CC (212°F)) sheds its water content due
to the high heat. The water forms an emul-
sion of steam, air and the foam itself. The
forming of the emulsion is accompanied
by a corresponding increase in volume.
Since tanks are three dimensional, the only
place for the emulsion to go is over the
sides of open tanks or into the vents of
enclosed tanks.

6. Sufficient foam must be on hand to ensure
that the entire surface of the burning ma-
terial can be covered. In addition, there
must be enough foam to replace foam that
is burned off and to seal breaks in the foam
surface.

Figure 7.19. Production of high-expansion foam. High-velocity air strikes the water-foam concentrate solution at the screen,
producing the foam.

136

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Advantages of Foam

In spite of its limitations, foam is quite effective
in combating class A and class B fires.

1 . Foam is a very effective smothering agent,
and it provides cooling as a secondary
effect.

2. Foam sets up a vapor barrier that pre-
vents flammable vapors from rising. The
surface of an exposed tank can be cov-
ered with foam to protect it from a fire in
a neighboring tank.

3. Foam is of some use on class A fires be-
cause of its water content. AFFF is espe-
cially effective, as are certain types of
wet- water foam. Wet- water foam is made
from detergents; its water content quickly
runs out and seeps into the burning ma-
terial. It is not usually found aboard ves-
sels; a more likely use is in protecting
bulk storage in piers or warehouses.

4. Foam is effective in blanketing oil spills.
However, if the oil is running, an attempt
should be made to shut down a valve if
such action would stop the flow. If that is
impossible, the flow should be dammed.
Foam should be applied on the upstream
side of the dam (to extinguish the fire)
and on the downstream side (to place a
protective cover over any oil that has
seeped through).

5. Foam is the most effective extinguishing
agent for fires involving large tanks of
flammable liquids.

6. Foam can be made with fresh water or
seawater, and hard or soft water.

7. Foam does not break down readily; it
extinguishes fire progressively when ap-
plied at an adequate rate.

8. Foam stays in place, covers and absorbs
heat from materials that could cause re-
ignition.

9. Foam uses water economically and does
not tax the ship's fire pumps.

10. Foam concentrates are not heavy, and
foam systems do not take up much space.

CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide (CO2) extinguishing systems have,
for a long time, been approved for ship installa-
tion as well as for industrial occupancies ashore.
Aboard ship, carbon dioxide has been approved
for cargo and tank compartments, spaces con-
taining internal combustion or gas-turbine main
propulsion machinery and other spaces.

Properties of Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide is normally a gas, but it may be
liquefied or solidified under pressure. At — 43 °C
(— 1 10°F), carbon dioxide exists as a solid, called
"dry ice." The critical temperature of carbon
dioxide is 31°C (87.8°F). Above that tempera-
ture, it is always a gas, regardless of pressure.
Carbon dioxide does not support combustion in
ordinary materials. However, there are some ex-
ceptions, as when CO2 reacts with magnesium
and other metals.

Carbon dioxide is about 1 .5 times heavier than
air. This adds to its suitability as an extinguishing
agent, because CO2 tends to fall through air and
blanket a fire. Its weight makes it less prone to
dissipate quickly. In addition, carbon dioxide is
not an electrical conductor; it is approved for
extinguishing fires in energized electrical equip-
ment.

Extinguishing Properties of
Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide extinguishes fire mainly by smoth-
ering. It dilutes the air surrounding the fire until
the oxygen content is too low to support com-
bustion. For this reason it is effective on class
B fires, where the main consideration is to keep
the flammable vapors separated from oxygen in
the air. CO2 has a very limited cooling effect. It
can be used on class A fires in confined spaces,
where the atmosphere may be diluted sufficiently
to stop combustion. However, CO2 extinguish-
ment takes time. The concentration of carbon
dioxide must be maintained until all the fire is
out. Constraint and patience are needed.

Carbon dioxide is sometimes used to protect
areas containing valuable articles. Unlike water
and some other agents, carbon dioxide dissipates
without leaving a residue. As mentioned above,
it does not conduct electricity and can be used
on live electrical equipment. However, fire parties
must maintain a reasonable distance when using
a portable CO2 extinguisher or hoseline from a
semiportable system on high voltage gear.

Uses of Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide is used primarily for class B and
C fires. It may also be used to knock down a class
A fire. It is particularly effective on fires involving

1 . Flammable oils and greases

2. Electrical and electronic equipment, such
as motors, generators and navigational de-
vices

3. Hazardous and semihazardous solid ma-
terials, such as some plastics, except those

Extinguishing Agents

137

that contain their own oxygen (like nitro-
cellulose)

4. Machinery spaces, engine rooms and paint
and tool lockers

5. Cargo spaces where total flooding with
carbon dioxide may be accomplished

6. Galleys and other cooking areas, such as
diet kitchens

7. Compartments containing high value
cargo, such as works of art, delicate ma-
chinery and other material that would be
ruined or damaged by water or water-based
extinguishing agents

8. Spaces where after-fire cleanup would be
a problem.

cations maintain the concentration of CO2 for
periods varying from hours to days. CO2 works
well in confined spaces, but it works slowly; pa-
tience is the watchword.

If a flooded space is opened before the fire is
completely extinguished, air entering the space
may cause reignition. Carbon dioxide cannot be
purchased at sea. Reignition requires a second
attack, at a time when less CO2 is available.

Hazards. Although carbon dioxide is not pois-
onous to the human system, it is suffocating in
the concentration necessary for extinguishment.
A person exposed to this concentration would
suffer dizziness and unconsciousness. Unless re-
moved quickly to fresh air, the victim could die.

Limitations on the Use of Carbon Dioxide

Effectiveness. CO2 is not effective on substances
that contain their own oxygen (oxidizing agents).
It is not effective on combustible metals such as
sodium, potassium, magnesium and zirconium.
In fact, when CO2 is used on burning magnesium,
it reacts with the magnesium to form carbon,
oxygen and magnesium oxide. The fire is intensi-
fied by the addition of oxygen and carbon, a fuel.

Outside Use. To be fully effective, the gas must
be confined. For this reason, CO2 is not as effec-
tive outside as it is in a confined space. This does
not mean that it cannot be used outside. Portable
CO2 extinguishers and hoselines have extin-
guished many fires in the open. An outside fire
should be attacked from the windward side; the
CO2 should be directed low with a sweeping mo-
tion for a spill fire, or down at the center of a con-
fined fire. The effective range for a portable CO2
fire extinguisher is about 1.5 m (5 ft).

Possibility of Reignition. Compared with water
carbon dioxide has a very limited cooling ca-
pacity. It may not cool the fuel below its ignition
temperature, and it is more likely than other ex-
tinguishing agents to allow reflash. (Its main ex-
tinguishing action, as noted above, is oxygen
dilution.) When portable CO2 extinguishers or
hoselines from semiportable extinguishers are
used, additional backup water hoselines should
be brought to the scene. In case of live electrical
equipment, an additional nonconducting agent
must be brought to the scene.

When a space is flooded with CO2 the concen-
tration must be kept up to a certain level. After
the initial application of a set number of CO2
cylinders, additional cylinders must be discharged
into the space periodically. These backup appli-

Carbon Dioxide Systems

Carbon dioxide extinguishing systems aboard
vessels are usually not automatic. However auto-
matic systems may be installed in certain ships
and towing vessels with Coast Guard approval.
In the manual system, a fire detector senses fire
and actuates an alarm. The engine room is alerted,
and the bridge and CO2 room are notified as to
the location of the fire (see Chapter 6). After it
is verified that a fire actually exists, the amount
of carbon dioxide required for the involved space
is released from the CO2 room.

Coast Guard regulations require that an evacu-
ation alarm be sounded when CO2 is introduced
into a space that is normally accessible to persons
on board, other than paint and lamp lockers and
similar small spaces. However on systems installed
since July 1, 1957, an alarm is required only if
delayed discharge is used. Delayed discharge is
required where large amounts of CO2 are released
into large spaces. Delayed discharge may also be
required for smaller spaces from which there are
no horizontal escape routes.

The alarm sounds during a 20-second delay
period prior to the discharge of carbon dioxide
into the space. It uses no source of power other
than the carbon dioxide itself. Every carbon
dioxide alarm must be conspicuously identified
with the warning "WHEN THE ALARM
SOUNDS VACATE AT ONCE. CARBON DI-
OXIDE IS BEING RELEASED."

Portable and semiportable CO2 extinguishers
may be located in certain spaces. Small systems,
consisting of one to four CO2 cylinders, a hose
and a nozzle, are often provided to protect against
specific hazards. Those who work in the areas
protected by these appliances should be familiar
with their operation.

138

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

DRY CHEMICAL

Dry chemical extinguishing agents are chemicals
in powder form. Again we note that they should
not be confused with dry powders, which are in-
tended only for combustible-metal fires.

Types of Chemical
Extinguishing Agents

At the present time, five different types of dry
chemical extinguishing agents are in use. Like
other extinguishing agents, dry chemical may be
installed in a fixed system or in portable and
semiportable extinguishers. Such systems may be
installed aboard ship with the approval of the
Coast Guard commandant.

Sodium Bicarbonate. Sodium bicarbonate is the
original dry chemical extinguishing agent. It is
generally referred to as regular dry chemical and
is widely used because it is the most economical
dry chemical agent. It is particularly effective on
animal fats and vegetable oils because it chem-
ically changes these substances into nonflam-
mable soaps. Thus, sodium bicarbonate is used
extensively for galley range, hood and duct fires.
There is one possible problem with sodium bi-
carbonate: Fire has been known to flash back
over the surface of an oil fire when this agent is
used.

Potassium Bicarbonate. This dry chemical was
originally developed to be used with AFFF in a
twinned system. However it is commonly used
alone. It has been found to be most effective on
liquid fuel fires in driving flames back and has a
good reputation for eliminating flashback. It is
more expensive than sodium bicarbonate.

Potassium Chloride. Potassium chloride was
developed as a dry chemical that would be com-
patible with protein-type foams. Its extinguishing
properties are about equal to those of potassium
bicarbonate. One drawback is its tendency to
cause corrosion after it has extinguished a fire.

Urea Potassium Bicarbonate. This is a British
development, of which the NFPA says, "Urea
potassium bicarbonate exhibits the greatest effec-
tiveness of all the dry chemicals tested." It is not
widely used because it is expensive.

Monoammonium Phosphate (ABC, Multipur-
pose). Monoammonium phosphate is called a
multipurpose dry chemical because it can be ef-
fective on class A, B and C fires. Ammonium
salts interrupt the chain reaction of flaming com-
bustion. The phosphate changes into metaphos-

phoric acid, a glassy fusible material, at fire tem-
peratures. The acid covers solid surfaces with a
fire retardant coating. Therefore, this agent can
be used on fires involving ordinary combustible
materials such as wood and paper, as well as on
fires involving flammable oils, gases and electrical
equipment. However, it may only control, but not
fully extinguish, a deep-seated fire. Complete ex-
tinguishment may require the use of a hoseline.
In fact, it is always prudent to run out a hoseline
as a backup when any dry chemical extinguisher
is used.

Extinguishing Effects of Dry Chemical

Dry chemical agents extinguish fire by cooling,
smothering, shielding of radiant heat and, to the
greatest extent by breaking the combustion chain.

Cooling. No dry chemical exhibits any great
capacity for cooling. However, a small amount of
cooling takes place simply because the dry chem-
ical is at a lower temperature than the burning
material. Heat is transferred from the hotter fuel
to the cooler dry chemical when the latter is in-
troduced into the fire. (Heat is always transferred
from a hotter body to a cooler body. The greater
the surface area and the temperature difference,
the greater the heat transfer.)

Smothering. When dry chemical reacts with the
heat and burning material, some carbon dioxide
and water vapor are produced. These dilute the
fuel vapors and the air surrounding the fire. The
result is a limited smothering effect.

Shielding of Radiant Heat. Dry chemical pro-
duces an opaque cloud in the combustion area.
This cloud reduces the amount of heat that is
radiated back to the heart of the fire, i.e., the
opaque cloud absorbs some of the radiation feed-
back that is required to sustain the fire (see Chap-
ter 4). Less fuel vapor is produced, and the fire
becomes less intense.

Chain breaking. Chain reactions are necessary
for continued combustion (see Chapter 4). In
these chain reactions, fuel and oxygen molecules
are broken down by heat; they recombine into
new molecules, giving off additional heat. This
additional heat breaks down more molecules,
which then recombine and give off still more heat.
The fire thus builds, or at least sustains itself,
through reactions that liberate enough heat to set
off other reactions.

Dry chemical (and other agents such as the
halogens) attacks this chain of reactions. It is
believed that it does so by reducing the ability of

Extinguishing Agents

139

molecular fragments to recombine. It may itself
combine with the fragments of fuel and oxygen
molecules, so that the fuel cannot be oxidized.
Although the process is not completely under-
stood, chain breaking is the most effective extin-
guishing action of dry chemical.

Uses of Dry Chemical

Monoammonium phosphate (ABC, multipurpose)
dry chemical may, as its name implies, be used
on class A, B and C fires and combinations of
these. However, as noted above, ABC dry chem-
ical may only control, but not extinguish, some
deep-seated class A fires. Then an auxiliary ex-
tinguishment method, such as a water hoseline,
is required.

All dry chemical agents may be used to extin-
guish fires involving

1 . Flammable oils and greases

2. Electrical equipment

3. Hoods, ducts and cooking ranges in gal-
leys and diet kitchens

4. The surfaces of baled textiles

5. Certain combustible solids such as pitch,
naphthalene and plastics (except those that
contain their own oxygen)

6. Machinery spaces, engine rooms and paint
and tool lockers.

Limitations on the Use of Dry Chemical

There are limitations on the use of dry chemical.

1. The discharge of large amounts of dry
chemical could affect people in the vicinity.
The opaque cloud that is produced can
reduce visibility and, depending on its den-
sity, cause breathing difficulty.

2. Like the other extinguishing agents that
contain no water, dry chemical is not effec-
tive on materials that contain their own
oxygen.

3. Dry chemical may deposit an insulating
coating on electronic or telephonic equip-
ment, affecting the operation of the equip-
ment.

4. Dry chemical is not effective on combusti-
ble metals such as magnesium, potassium,
sodium and their alloys, and in some cases
may cause a violent reaction.

5. Where moisture is present, dry chemical
may corrode or stain surfaces on which it
settles.

Compatibility with Other
Extinguishing Agents

Any dry chemical may be applied to a fire with
any other dry chemical. However, different types
of dry chemical should not be mixed in containers.
Some have an acid base, and others an alkali base.
Mixing could cause excess pressure in the con-
tainer or cause the chemicals to lump.

Many foam extinguishing agents break down
when attacked by dry chemical. AFFF may be
used with dry chemical, since it was developed
for use with potassium bicarbonate in a twinned
system. In that system, hoses from an AFFF tank
and a dry chemical tank led to twin nozzles.
AFFF could be directed at the fire from its noz-
zle, and dry chemical from its nozzle, either in-
dividually or simultaneously.

Today, large combined agent systems are used
to protect petroleum refineries and oil storage
tank farms. On vessels with foam systems, only
foam-compatible dry chemicals may be used. If
a dry chemical is not listed in the Coast Guard
Equipment Lists (CGI 90), the Coast Guard com-
mandant should be consulted before it is stowed
aboard ship.

Safety

Dry chemical extinguishing agents are considered
nontoxic, but they may have irritating effects
when breathed. For this reason a warning signal,
similar to the one used in carbon dioxide systems,
should be installed in any space that might be
totally flooded with dry chemical. In addition,
breathing apparatus and lifelines must be avail-
able in case crewmen must enter the space before
it is entirely ventilated.

Dry chemical extinguishing agents are very
effective on gas fires. However, as he s been noted
several times in this book, gas flames should not
be extinguished until the supply of fuel has been
shut down upstream of the fire.

DRY POWDERS

Dry powders were developed to control and ex-
tinguish fires in combustible metals, i.e., class D
fires. As mentioned earlier, dry chemical and dry
powders are not the same. Only dry powders are
intended for combustible-metal fires, i.e., those
involving magnesium, potassium, sodium and
their alloys, titanium, zirconium, powdered or
fine aluminum, and some lesser known metals.

Dry powders are the only extinguishing agents
that can control and extinguish metal fires with-
out causing violent reactions. Other extinguishing
agents may accelerate or spread the fire, injure

140

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

personnel, cause explosions or create conditions
more hazardous than the original fire. Dry pow-
ders act mainly by smothering, although some
agents also provide cooling.

Water and water-based agents such as foam
should not be used on combustible-metal fires.
The water may cause an explosive chemical re-
action. Even when there is no chemical reaction,
water droplets that move below the surface of
the molten metal will expand with explosive vio-
lence and scatter molten material. However,
water has been prudently used in some cases; for
example, on large pieces of burning magnesium,
water was applied to a portion not actually burn-
ing, to cool this part sufficiently so that the fire
did not extend. In general, water should not be
applied to molten metals themselves, but it can
be used to cool down threatened areas.

Types of Dry Powders

Two commercially available dry powders are
composed mostly of graphite. The graphite cools
the fire and creates a very heavy smoke that helps
smother the fire. These agents are effective on
all metals listed above. They are applied with a
scoop or shovel.

Dry powder with a sodium chloride (salt) base
is propelled from portable extinguishers by car-
bon dioxide, and from large containers or fixed
systems by nitrogen. The powder is directed over
the burning metal; when it drops, it forms a crust
on the metal and smothers the fire. Like the
graphite types, it is effective on the combustible
metals mentioned above.

Dry powder with a sodium carbonate base is
intended for sodium fires. The powder may be
scooped from buckets or propelled from a pres-
surized extinguisher. It forms a crust on the sur-
face of the burning sodium to smother the fire.

There are a number of other extinguishing
agents for combustible-metal fires. Most are spe-
cialized, intended for one or perhaps two kinds
of metal. The National Safety Council, in Chi-
cago, and the Manufacturing Chemists' Associa-
tion, in Washington, D.C., issue data sheets con-
cerning specific combustible metals. The data
sheets include extinguishment methods and
agents. It would be wise for owners (and masters)
who might expect their ships to carry combustible
metals to secure data sheets for these metals.
The Coast Guard regulations require that appro-
priate extinguishing appliances be provided when-
ever a merchant vessel carries hazardous material
whose extinguishment is beyond the firefighting
capability of the ship's normal outfitting.

HALOGENATED EXTINGUISHING
AGENTS (Halon)

Halogenated extinguishing agents are made up
of carbon and one or more of the halogen ele-
ments: fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.

Two halogen extinguishing agents are recog-
nized for use in the United States, bromotrifluor-
omethane (more familiarly known as Halon 1301)
and bromochlorodifluoromethane (Halon 1211).
The NFPA has set up standards (No. 12A for
1301, and No. 12B for 1211) for systems using
these agents. The Coast Guard Equipment Lists
(CGI 90) include equipment for Halon 1301 sys-
tems and extinguishers, but not for Halon 1211.
Thus, the permission of the Coast Guard com-
mandant must be obtained before a Halon 1211
system or extinguisher is installed aboard a
vessel.

Both Halon 1301 and Halon 1211 enter the
fire area as a gas. Most authorities agree that the
Halons act as chain breakers. However, it is not
known whether they slow the chain reaction,
break it up or cause some other reaction.

Halon 1301 is stored and shipped as a liquid
under pressure. When released in the protected
area, it vaporizes to an odorless, colorless gas and
is propelled to the fire by its storage pressure.
Halon 1301 does not conduct electricity.

Halon 1211 is also colorless, but it has a faint
sweet smell. Halon 1211 is stored and shipped as
a liquid and pressurized by nitrogen gas. Pres-
surization is necessary since the vapor pressure
of Halon 1211 is too low to convey it properly
to the fire area. It does not conduct electricity.

Uses of the Halons

The extinguishing properties of Halon 1211 and
Halon 1 301 allow their use on a number of differ-
ent types of fire. These include

1. Fires in electrical equipment

2. Fires in engine rooms, machinery spaces
and other spaces involving flammable oils
and greases

3. Class A fires in ordinary combustibles.
However, if the fire is deep seated, a longer
soaking time may be needed, or a standby
hoseline may be used to complete the ex-
tinguishment.

4. Fires in areas where articles of high value
may be stored and thus damaged by the
residue of other agents

5. Halon 1301 is recommended for fires in-
volving electronic computers and control
rooms. Halon 1211 carries no such recom-
mendation.

Extinguishing Agents

141

There are few limitations on the use of Halons.
However, they are not suited for fighting fires in

1) materials containing their own oxygen and

2) combustible metals and hydrides.

Safety

When inhaled, both Halon 1301 and Halon 1211
may cause dizziness and impaired coordination.
These gases may reduce visibility in the area in
which they are discharged. At a temperature
slightly below 500°C or about 900°F the gases
of both Halons will decompose. The normal
vapors below that temperature are not considered
very toxic; however, the decomposed gases may
be very hazardous, depending on a) the concen-
tration, b) the temperature and c) the amount that
has been inhaled.

Halon 1211 is not recommended for the total
flooding of confined spaces. If Halon 1301 is to
be used for the total flooding of normally occu-
pied spaces, an evacuation alarm must be pro-
vided. Personnel should leave the area promptly
on hearing the alarm. Similarly, when a Halon
1301 extinguisher is used, those not directly in-
volved in the operation should leave the area
immediately. The extinguisher operator should
step away as soon as the appliance is discharged.
The area should be vented with fresh air before
it is reentered. If it is necessary to remain in or
enter an area where Halon 1301 has been dis-
charged, breathing apparatus and lifelines should
be used. The only valid reason for such entry
would be to save life or to maintain control of the
ship.

SAND

Sand has been used on fires since time imme-
morial. However, it is not very efficient when
compared to modern extinguishing agents.

The function of sand is to smother an oil fire
by covering its surface. But if the oil is more than
an inch or so in depth, the sand will sink below
the oil surface. Then, unless a sufficient amount
of sand is available to cover the oil, it will be in-
effective in extinguishing the fire. However, when
properly applied, sand can be used to dam or
cover an oil spill.

Sand must be applied to a fire with a scoop or
shovel. Its minimal effectiveness may be further
reduced by an unskilled user. After the fire, there
is a cleanup problem. In addition to these defi-
ciencies, sand is abrasive and has an ingenious
way of getting into machinery and other equip-
ment.

Title 46 CFR, Parts 34 and 95, lists require-
ments for sand as an extinguishing substance in

the amount of 0.28 m3 (10 ft3) for spaces contain-
ing oil-fired boilers. However, an additional class
B extinguisher may be substituted for the sand.
The class B extinguisher is a good alternative to
sand.

1. The extinguisher is more effective, pound
for pound and cubic foot for cubic foot.

2. The extinguisher is easier to use.

3. The extinguisher has greater range.

4. Use of the extinguisher requires little or no
cleanup.

5. The extinguisher occupies less space:
5.7 x 10"2 m3 (2 ft3) at most, as compared
to 0.28 m3 (10 ft3) for sand.

6. The extinguisher is lighter in weight:
22.7 kg (50 lb) or less, as compared to
0.45 tonne (Vi ton) for sand.

Suitable substitutes for the required sand are a
9.5-liter (2Vi-gal) foam extinguisher, a 6.8-kg
(15-lb) carbon dioxide extinguisher, and a 4.5-kg
(10-lb) dry chemical extinguisher.

It is difficult to smother combustible-metal fires
with sand because the extremely hot temperature
of the fire extracts oxygen from the sand. Any
water in the sand will increase the intensity of the
fire or cause such reactions as steam explosions;
it would be very unusual to find completely dry
sand aboard ship. Sand may be used to dam up
running molten metal, but an approved dry pow-
der should be used to extinguish the fire.

SAWDUST

Sawdust impregnated with soda is sometimes used
to smother small oil fires. Like sand, it must be
scooped up and placed at close range. The de-
ficiencies of sawdust as an extinguishing agent are
similar to those of sand. The alternative, a class
B extinguisher, is more effective than sawdust
for the reasons given in the discussion of sand.
Although sawdust is considerably lighter than
sand, the amount required — 0.28 m3 (10 ft3) —
weighs more than an extinguisher.

STEAM

Steam was one of the earliest extinguishing agents
used aboard vessels. It was readily available for
firefighting once the ship's boilers were lighted.
Steam extinguishes fire by smothering, e.g., by
forcing air away from the fire and by diluting
the air around the fire. As long as the steam
blanket is maintained, it will prevent reignition.
However, there are several disadvantages in using
steam, especially in comparison with other ex-
tinguishing agents.

142

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Obviously steam is applied to the fire in the
vapor state. Thus, most of its heat-absorbing
ability is lost before it is applied, and it does
little cooling. (Water fog, on the other hand,
cools as it turns to steam.) Additionally, steam
condenses when the supply is shut off. Its volume
decreases substantially, and combustible vapors
and air rush in to displace it. There is, then, a
very good chance that the fire will reflash if it
has not been completely extinguished and cooled.
The temperature of the steam itself is high enough
to ignite many liquid fuels. Finally, steam is haz-
ardous to personnel; the heat it carries can inflict
c^vere burns.

If a ship is equipped with a steam smothering
system, the crew must, of course, use that system
in case of fire. Some older ships may have fixed
steam smothering systems for the protection of
cargo; however, since January 1, 1962, such in-
stallations have not been allowed on new ships.

The use of the steam soot blowers on the boiler
to extinguish uptake-type fires is extremely haz-
ardous and should not be attempted. The high
velocity and high temperature of the steam reacts
with the powdered soot (mostly carbon) to form
an explosive mixture. Several explosions have oc-
curred as a result of this practice.

SHIPBOARD USE OF
EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

Some extinguishing agents such as carbon dioxide
and foam are required in ships. Some, like dry
chemical and the halogenated agents, are ap-
proved for shipboard use in the Coast Guard
Equipment Lists (CGI 90). Any extinguishing
agent that is neither required nor specifically
listed may be installed or carried if it is approved

by the Coast Guard commandant. Sprinkler sys-
tems of any type must be approved by the Coast
Guard commandant before they are installed. In
short, the Coast Guard has the final say on fire
extinguishing systems and appliances.

A fire extinguishing system consists of a supply
of the extinguishing agent, an actuation device
(manual or automatic), and the piping, valves
and nozzles necessary to apply the agent. A fire
extinguisher is a self-contained unit, portable or
semiportable, consisting of a supply of the ex-
tinguishing agent, an expellant gas (if the appa-
ratus is not pressurized) and a hose with a nozzle.

Officers and crewmen should familiarize them-
selves with the extinguishing agents, systems and
appliances carried aboard their ships. They should
be aware of the relative advantages of the vari-
ous agents and the limitations on their use. For
instance, they should remember that when a space
is totally flooded with carbon dioxide, patience
is not only a virtue but a necessity. They should
also be aware of the toxic or suffocating proper-
ties of some agents used in total flooding systems,
and the need for proper and sufficient ventilation
before anyone enters a space that has been totally
flooded with an extinguishing agent. A test of
the atmosphere in such a space should be made
with an oxygen indicator (see Chapter 16) to de-
termine if the space is safe to enter. Officers and
crewmen should realize that, although a space
may look and smell clean or clear, it may contain
sufficient carbon monoxide to render them help-
less or insufficient oxygen to support life. Breath-
ing apparatus and lifelines should be used when
entering a compartment or tank whose contents
are unknown. (See Chapters 8 and 9 for a dis-
cussion of the appliances, systems and equipment
that use extinguishing agents.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

National Fire Codes. NFPA. Boston, Mass, 1977

Fire Service Training. Ohio Trade & Industrial Ed.
Services. Columbus, Ohio, 1977

Basic Fireman's Training Course. Md. Fire & Res-
cue Inst., Univ. of Md. College Park, Md, 1969

Fire Fighting — Principles & Practices. William Clark,
New York, NY, 1974

Fire Control. California State Dept. of Ed. Sacra-
mento, Ca, 1964

Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials.
NFPA. Boston, Mass, 1973

Fire Chiefs Handbook, 4th Ed. Dunn-Donnelly Pub.
Company. New York, NY, 1977

Portable &

Semiportabk
fire Extinguishers

Since some fires start small, a fire discovered early
and attacked quickly, usually can be extinguished
easily. Portable fire extinguishers are used for a
fast attack that will knock down the flames; semi-
portable extinguishing systems bring larger
amounts of extinguishing agent to the fire. Both
can be effective when used properly.

PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Portable extinguishers can be carried to the fire
area for a fast attack. However, they contain a
limited supply of extinguishing agent. The agent
is quickly expelled from the extinguisher; in most
cases, continuous application can be sustained
for only a minute or less. For this reason, it is
extremely important to back up the extinguisher
with a hoseline. Then, if the extinguisher does not
have the capacity to put the fire out completely,
the hoseline can be used to finish the job. How-
ever, a crewman who is using an extinguisher
cannot advance a hoseline at the same time. Thus,
the alarm must be sounded as soon as fire is dis-
covered, to alert the ship's personnel to the situ-
ation.

There is a right way to use a portable fire ex-
tinguisher, and there are many wrong ways. Crew-
men who have had little training with these ap-
pliances waste extinguishing agent through im-
proper application. At the same time, untrained
personnel tend to overestimate their extinguish-
ing ability. Periodic training sessions, including
practice with the types of extinguishers carried on
board, are the best insurance against inefficient
use of this equipment. Extinguishers that are due
to be discharged and inspected may be used in
these training sessions.

Classes of Fire Extinguishers

Every portable extinguisher is classified in two
ways, with one or more letters and with a nu-

meral. The letter or letters indicate the classes of
fires on which the extinguisher may be used.
These letters correspond exactly to the four
classes of fires (see Chapter 5). Thus, for ex-
ample, class A extinguishers may be used only
on class A fires — those involving common com-
bustible materials. Class AB extinguishers may
be used on fires involving wood or diesel oil or
both.

The numeral indicates either the relative effi-
ciency of the extinguisher or its size. This does
not mean the size of fire on which to use the ex-
tinguisher; rather, the numeral indicates how well
the extinguisher will fight a fire of its class.

The National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) rates extinguisher efficiency with Arabic
numerals. The Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
tests extinguishers on controlled fires to deter-
mine their NFPA ratings. A rating such as 2A
or 4A on an extinguisher would be an NFPA
rating. (A 4A rating will extinguish twice as much
class A fire as a 2A rating; a 20B rating will ex-
tinguish four times as much class B fire as a 5B
rating.)

The Coast Guard uses Roman numerals to in-
dicate the sizes of portable extinguishers. The
numeral I indicates the smallest size, and V the
largest. Thus, a Bill Coast Guard rating indi-
cates a medium-sized extinguisher suitable for
fires involving flammable liquids and gases. The
Coast Guard ratings of the different types of ex-
tinguishers are given in Table 8.1.

Test and Inspection

The Coast Guard requires owners, masters or
persons in charge to have portable and semiport-
able fire extinguishers and fixed fire-extinguish-
ing systems tested and inspected "at least once in
every twelve months." More detailed maintenance

143

144

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Table 8.1. United States Coast Guard Extinguisher Classification.

Water

Foam

Dioxide

Chemical

Type

Size

Gallons

Gallons

Pounds

Pounds

A

II

B

I

B

II

B

III

B

IV

B

V

C

I

C

II

2V2

2V2

—

—

VA

4

2

2V2

15

10

12

35

20

20

50

30

40

100

50

—

4

2

—

15

10

instructions are included with some of the dis-
cussions that follow.

Upon the completion of required tests, a tag
should be placed on each extinguisher, showing
the date and the person who completed the tests.
Many ship owners have contracts with commer-
cial fire protection companies to have their fire
equipment tested and maintained. This does not
relieve the master or officer-in-charge of fire pro-
tection from the responsibility of carrying out
Coast Guard regulations regarding the mainte-
nance of firefighting equipment.

General Safety Rules for Portable
Extinguishers

1 . When you discover a fire, call out your dis-
covery, sound the fire alarm and summon
help.

2. Never pass the fire to get to an extinguisher.
A dead-end passageway could trap you.

3. If you must enter a room or compartment
to combat the fire, keep an escape path
open. Never let the fire get between you
and the door.

4. If you enter a room or compartment and
your attack with a portable extinguisher
fails, get out immediately. Close the door
to confine the fire and prepare to fight the
fire while waiting for previously summoned
help. Your knowledge of the situation will
aid those responding.

WATER EXTINGUISHERS

Extinguishers that use water or a water solution
as the extinguishing agent are suitable only for
class A fires. There are five types of water extin-
guishers, but only two are currently produced.
In 1969, the manufacture of the inverting types
of extinguishers (the soda-acid, foam and car-
tridge-operated) was discontinued. However,

since a large number of inverting extinguishers
are still in use, they will be discussed along with
the two currently produced types: the stored-
pressure and pump-tank water extinguishers.

Soda-Acid Extinguisher

The soda-acid extinguisher (Fig. 8.1) comes only
in a 9.5 liter (21/2-gal) size that carries an NFPA
rating of 2A. It weighs about 13.6 kg (30 lb)
when charged, has a reach of from 10.7 m to
12.2 m (30-40 ft) and expends itself in about
55 seconds. The shell of the extinguisher is filled
with a solution of 0.7 kg (W2 lb) of sodium bi-
carbonate in 9.5 liters (2x/2 gal) of water. The
screw-on cap contains a cage that holds a 0.23-kg
(8-oz) bottle, half filled with sulfuric acid, in an
upright position. A loose stopper in the top of
the acid bottle prevents acid from splashing out
before the extinguisher is to be used.

Operation. The extinguisher is carried to the
fire by means of the top handle. At the fire, the
extinguisher is inverted, the acid mixes with the
solium bicarbonate solution forming carbon
dioxide gas and the pressure of the CO2 propels
the water out through the nozzle. The stream
must be directed at the seat of the fire and moved
back and forth to hit as much of the fire as pos-
sible. The nozzle should be aimed at the fire
until the entire content of the extinguisher is dis-
charged (Fig. 8.2). Remember, water is available
for less than a minute!

The extinguishing agent, sodium bicarbonate
solution mixed with acid, is more corrosive than
plain water. The operator should avoid getting
the agent on his skin or in his eyes, as the acid
could cause burning. Moreover, soda-acid ex-
tinguishers must be carefully maintained. When
the extinguisher is inverted, a pressure of 896
kilopascals (130 psi) or more is generated. If the
container is corroded or otherwise damaged, this
pressure could be sufficient to burst the container.

Portable and Semiportable Fire Extinguishers

145

WATER (Soda- Acid)

Sulphu

Bicarbor
of Soda
and
Water

Invert to Use

Figure 8.1.

only.

Soda-acid fire extinguisher used for class A fires

Maintenance. Soda-acid extinguishers should be
stowed at temperatures above 0°C (32°F) to keep
the water from freezing. They should be re-
charged annually and immediately after each use.
During the annual recharging, all parts must be
carefully inspected and washed in fresh water.
The hose and nozzle should be checked for de-
terioration and clogging. The proper chemicals
must be used for recharging. The sodium bicar-
bonate solution should be prepared outside the ex-
tinguisher, preferably with lukewarm fresh water.
The recharging date and the signature of the per-
son who supervised the recharging must be placed
on a tag attached to the extinguisher.

Several times a year, each extinguisher should
be inspected for damage and to ensure that the
extinguisher is full and the nozzle is not clogged.

Cartridge-Operated Water Extinguisher

The cartridge-operated water extinguisher (Fig.
8.3) is similar in size and operation to the soda-
acid extinguisher. The most common size is 9.5
liters (2Vz gal), with an NFPA rating of 2 A. It
has a range of from 10.7-12.2 m (30-40 ft). The
container is filled with water or an antifreeze

Aim at Base of Fire
Work From Side to Side
Wet Thoroughly

Figure 8.2. The soda-acid extinguisher is inverted, and the
nozzle is swept back and forth across the base of the fire.

WATER (Cartridge Operated)

Carbon

Dioxide

Cartridge

Water

Handle

Figure 8.3. Cartridge-operated water extinguisher used for
class A fires only.

146

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

solution. The screw-on cap contains a small cyl-
inder of CO2; when the cylinder is punctured, the
gas provides the pressure to propel the extinguish-
ing agent.

Operation. The extinguisher is carried to the
fire, then inverted and bumped against the deck.
This ruptures the CO2 cylinder and expels the
water. The stream should be directed at the seat
of the fire. The nozzle should be moved back and
forth, to quench as much of the burning material
as possible in the short time available (Fig. 8.4).
The discharge time is less than one minute. The
entire content of the extinguisher must be dis-
charged, since the flow cannot be shut off.

As with the soda-acid extinguisher, the con-
tainer is not subjected to pressure until it is put
to use. Thus, any weakness in the container may
not become apparent until the container fails.

Maintenance. The pressure cartridge should be
inspected and weighed annually. It should be
replaced if it is punctured or if its weight is
14 gm i}A oz) less than the indicated weight. The
hose and nozzle should be inspected to ensure
that they are clear. The container should be in-
spected for damage. Water should be added, if
necessary, to bring the contents up to the fill
mark.

Pin-Type Cartridge-Operated Extinguisher. A

newer version of the cartridge-operated water ex-
tinguisher need not be inverted for use. Instead,
a pin is pulled out of the cartridge, with the ex-
tinguisher upright. A lever is squeezed to dis-
charge the extinguishing agent (water or anti-
freeze solution).

The cartridge is fitted with a pressure gauge.
The gauge should be checked periodically to en-
sure that the cartridge pressure is within its op-
erating range. Otherwise, maintenance is similar
to that for the inverting-type cartridge extin-
guisher.

Stored-Pressure Water Extinguisher

The stored-pressure water extinguisher (Fig. 8.5)
is the most commonly used portable firefighting
appliance. The 9.5-liter (2V2-gal) size has an
NFPA rating of 2 A. It weighs about 13.6 kg
(30 lb) and has a horizontal range of 10.7-12.2 m
(35-40 ft). In continuous operation, it will ex-
pend its water in about 55 seconds. However, it
may be used intermittently, to extend its opera-
tional time.

The container is filled with water or an anti-
freeze solution, to within about 15 cm (6 in.)
of the top. (Most extinguishers have a fill mark

©

Crasp Bottom

nvert

Bump on Deck

Figure 8.4. The cartridge-operated extinguisher is inverted
and bumped on the deck. The stream is moved across the
base of the fire.

stamped on the container.) The screw-on cap
holds a lever-operated discharge valve, a pres-
sure gauge and an automobile tire-type valve.
The extinguisher is pressurized through the air
valve, with either air or an inert gas such as
nitrogen. The normal charging pressure is about
690 kilopascals (100 psi). The gauge (Fig. 8.5)
allows the pressure within the extinguisher to be
checked at any time. Most gauges are color coded
to indicate normal and abnormal pressures.

Portable and Semipurtable Fire Extinguishers

147

STORED PRESSURE

Water

2Vi Gallons

Figure 8.5. Stored-pressure water extinguisher used for
class A fires only.

Operation. The extinguisher is carried to the
fire, and the ring pin or other safety device is
removed. The operator aims the nozzle with one
hand and squeezes the discharge lever with the
other hand. The stream should be directed at the
seat of the fire. It should be moved back and
forth to ensure complete coverage of the burning
material. Short bursts can be used to conserve
the limited supply of water.

As the flames are knocked down, the operator
may move closer to the fire. Then, by placing the
tip of one finger over the nozzle, the operator
can obtain a spray pattern that will cover a wider
area.

Maintenance. Inspect gauge for loss of pres-
sure, check for leaks and check condition of hose
and overall condition of the tank.

Pump-Tank Extinguisher

Pump tanks are the simplest type of water ex-
tinguishers. They come in sizes from 9.5-19 liters
(2i/2 to 5 gal), with NFPA ratings of 2 A to 4 A.
Ships do not carry pump-tank extinguishers and
are not required to do so. However, in port, shore-
side personnel often bring them aboard for fire
protection during burning and welding operations.
The tank is filled with water or an antifreeze

solution. A hand-operated piston pump is built
into the extinguisher and is used to discharge
water onto the fire. The pump is usually double
acting, which means it discharges on both the up
and down strokes. The range of the stream de-
pends on the strength and ability of the operator,
but is usually 9.2-12.2 m (30-40 ft). The 9.5
liter (2J/2-gal) size holds enough water for about
55 seconds of continuous operation.

Operation. The tank is carried to the fire and
placed on the deck. It is steadied by placing one
foot on the extension bracket. The operator uses
one hand to operate the pump, and the other to
direct the stream at the seat of the fire. If the
operator must change position, he has to stop
pumping and carry the pump tank to the new
location.

If more than one person is at the fire scene,
and there are no other extinguishers available, a
joint operation is more effective. One person
should direct the stream, and one should do the
pumping. Other available personnel should bring
additional water to keep the tank full. They
should also relieve the pumpman periodically.

Maintenance. The pump-tank hose should be
inspected periodically to ensure that it is clear.
The efficiency of the pump should be checked
by throwing a stream. The tank should be checked
for corrosion and refilled to the fill mark.

Foam Extinguisher

Foam extinguishers (Fig. 8.6) are similar in ap-
pearance to those discussed previously, but '.hey
have a greater extinguishing capability. The most
common size is 9.5 liters (2Vz gal), with an NFPA
rating of 2A:4B. This indicates that the extin-
guisher may be used on both class A and class B
fires. It has a range of about 9.2-12.2 m (30-40
ft) and a discharge duration of slightly less than
a minute.

The extinguisher is charged by filling it with
two solutions that are kept separated (in the ex-
tinguisher) until it is to be used. These solutions
are commonly called the A and B solutions; their
designations have nothing to do with fire classifi-
cations.

Operation. The foam extinguisher is carried to
the fire right side up and then inverted. This
mixes the two solutions, producing a liquid foam
and CO2 gas. The CO2 acts as the propellant and
fills the foam bubbles. The liquid foam expands
to about 8 times its original volume; this means
the 9.5 liter (2!/2-gal) extinguisher will produce
68-76 liters (18-20 gal) foam.

148

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

FOAM

^=W

A Solution:

Aluminum

Sulfate

B Solution

Water With

Sodium

Bicarbonate

and a

Foam

Stabilizer

Figure 8.6. Cutaway of foam extinguisher used for class A
and class B fires showing

The foam should be applied gently on burning
liquids (Fig. 8.7). This can be done by directing
the stream in front of the fire, to bounce the foam
onto the fire. The stream also may be directed
against the back wall of a tank or a structural
member to allow the foam to run down and flow
over the fire. Chemical foam is stiff and flows
slowly. For this reason, the stream must be di-
rected to the fire from several angles, for complete
coverage of the burning materials.

For fires involving ordinary combustible ma-
terials, the foam may be applied in the same way,
as a blanket. Or, the force of the stream may be
used to get the foam into the seat of the fire.

Foam extinguishers are subject to freezing and
cannot be stowed in low temperatures below
4.4°C (40°F). Once activated, these extinguishers
will expel their entire foam content; it should all
be directed onto the fire. As with other pressur-
ized extinguishers, the containers are subject to

rupture when their contents are mixed, and are
a possible cause of injury to the operator. Main-
tenance consists mainly of annual discharging,
inspection, cleaning and recharging.

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) EXTINGUISHER

Carbon dioxide extinguishers are used primarily
on class B and class C fires. The most common
sizes of portable extinguishers contain from
2.3-9.1 kg (5-20 lb) of CO2 not including the
weight of the relatively heavy shell. The CO2
is mostly in the liquid state, at a pressure of
5.86 x 106 pascals (850 psi) at 21°C (70°F). The
2.3 kg (5-lb) size is rated 5B:C, and the 6.8 kg
(15-lb) size has a rating of 10B:C. The range
varies between 1.8-2.4 m (3-8 ft), and the dura-
tion between 8-30 seconds depending on the size.

Operation

The extinguisher is carried to the fire in an up-
right position. (The short range of the CO2 ex-
tinguisher means the operator must get fairly close
to the fire.) The extinguisher is placed on the
deck, and the locking pin is removed. The dis-
charge is controlled either by opening a valve or
by squeezing two handles together. Figure 8.8
shows the two-handle type.

The operator must grasp the hose handle, and
not the discharge horn. The CO2 expands and
cools very quickly as it leaves the extinguisher.
The horn gets cold enough to frost over and cause
severe frostbite. When a CO2 extinguisher is used
in a confined space, the operator should guard
against suffocation by wearing breathing appa-
ratus.

Class B Fires. The horn should be aimed first at
the base of the fire nearest the operator. The dis-
charge should be moved slowly back and forth
across the fire. At the same time, the operator
should move forward slowly. The result should
be a "sweeping" of the flames off the burning sur-
face, with some carbon dioxide "snow" left on
the surface.

Whenever possible, a fire on a weather deck
should be attacked from the windward side. This
will allow the wind to blow the heat away from
the operator and to carry the CO2 to the fire. Gen-
erally, CO2 extinguishers do not perform well in
a wind. The blanket of CO2 gas does not remain
on the fire long enough to permit the fuel to cool
down.

Class C Fires. The discharge should be aimed
at the source of a fire that involves electrical
equipment. The equipment should be de-ener-

Portable and Semiportable Fire Extinguishers

149

Grasp Hose and Ring
. . . LiftOff Hanger

Carry in Upright
Position to Fire

Turn Over to Operate

OPEN SPILL

FLAMMABLE LIQUID FIRES

J v

CONTAINED

• Stand back . . . Curve Stream Upward

• Foam Should Fall Lightly on
Burning Surface

• Cover the Entire Surface

Figure 8.7. Steps in operating a foam extinguisher on flammable liquid fires.

gized as soon as possible to eliminate the chance
of shock and the source of ignition.

Maintenance

CO2 extinguishers need not be protected against
freezing. However, they should be stowed at tem-
peratures below 54°C (130°F) to keep their in-
ternal pressure at a safe level. (At about 57°C
(135°F), the safety valves built into CO2 extin-
guishers are activated at approximately 18.62 x
106 pascals (2700 psi), to release excess pressure.)

Several times each year, CO2 extinguishers
should be examined for damage and to ensure
that they are not empty. At annual inspection,
these extinguishers should be weighed. Any ex-
tinguisher that has lost more than 10% of its

CO2 weight should be recharged, by the manu-
facturer. A CO2 extinguisher should also be re-
charged after each use, even if it was only partly
discharged.

DRY CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHER

Dry chemical extinguishers are available in sev-
eral sizes, with any of five different extinguishing
agents. All have at least a BC rating; the mono-
ammonium phosphate extinguisher carries an
ABC rating. The different dry chemical agents
have different extinguishing capabilities. If so-
dium bicarbonate is arbitrarily given an extin-
guishing capability of 1, then the relative capa-
bilities of the other dry chemical agents are as
follows.

150

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

CARBON DIOXIDE

Range: Small, 6 Feet; Large, 8 Feet

Figure 8.8A. Steps in operating the CQ2 extinguisher used for class B and class C fires.

Figure 8.8B. Extinguishing galley range fire with COs port-
able extinguisher.

Table 8.2. Relative Extinguishing Capabilities of
Dry Chemical Agents.*

Monoammonium phosphate (ABC)
Potassium chloride (BC)
Potassium bicarbonate (BC)
Urea potassium bicarbonate (BC)

1.5
1.8
2.0
2.5

*When sodium bicarbonate is classified as 1.

Thus, for example, potassium bicarbonate is twice
as effective as sodium bicarbonate.

Cartridge-Operated Dry Chemical
Extinguisher

Portable cartridge-operated, dry chemical extin-
guishers range in size from 0.91-13. 6 kg (2-3 0 lb) ;
semiportable models contain up to 22.7 kg (50 lb)
of agent. An extinguisher may be filled with any
of the five agents, and its rating will be based on
the particular agent used. A small cylinder of
inert gas is used as the propellant (Fig. 8.9).
Cartridge-operated, dry chemical extinguishers
have a range of from 3-9.1 m (10-30 ft). Units
under 4.5 kg (10 lb) have a discharge duration
of 8-10 seconds, while the larger extinguishers
provide up to 30 seconds of discharge time.

Operation. The extinguisher is carried and used
upright. The ring pin is removed, and the punc-
turing lever is depressed. This releases the pro-
pellant gas, which forces the extinguishing agent
up to the nozzle. The flow of dry chemical is con-
trolled with the squeeze-grip On-Off nozzle at
the end of the hose. The discharge is directed at
the seat of the fire, starting at the near edge. The
stream should be moved from side to side with

Portable and Semiportable Fire Extinguishers

151

CARTRIDGE

DRYCHEMICAL

n r

/ \

Pull Pin . . . Press Lever

Squeeze Nozzle

Figure 8.9. Operating the cartridge-operated dry-chemical extinguisher.

rapid motions, to sweep the fire off the fuel. On
a weather deck, the fire should be approached
from the windward side if possible.

The initial discharge should not be directed
onto the burning material from close range
(0.91-2.4 m (3-8 ft)). The velocity of the stream
may scatter the burning material.

If the propellant gas cylinder is punctured but
the extinguisher is not put into use or is only
partially discharged, the remaining gas may leak
away in a few hours. Thus, the extinguisher must
be recharged after each use or activation. How-
ever, the agent may be applied in short bursts by
opening and closing the nozzle with the squeeze
grips.

Dry chemical extinguishers extinguish class B
fires by chain breaking, with little or no cooling.
Thus, a reflash is possible if the surrounding sur-
faces are hot. Additional dry chemical or another
appropriate extinguishing agent must be avail-
able as backup, until all sources of ignition are
eliminated.

Dry chemical extinguishing agents may be used
along with water. Some dry chemical extin-
guishers are filled with an extinguishing agent
that is compatible with foam.

Stored-Pressure Dry Chemical
Extinguishers

Stored-pressure dry chemical extinguishers are
available in the same sizes as cartridge-operated
types. They have the same ranges and durations
of discharge and are used in the same way. The
only difference is that the propellant gas is mixed
in with the dry chemical in the stored-pressure
type. And the extinguisher is controlled with a
squeeze-grip trigger on the top of the container
(Fig. 8.10). A pressure gauge indicates the con-
dition of the charge.

Class A Extinguishment Using
ABC Dry Chemical

Only one dry chemical extinguishing agent, mono-
ammonium phosphate (ABC, multipurpose) is

STORED PRESSURE

(

/*A

Pull Pin . . . Aim

Squeeze Trigger

Figure 8.10. Operating the stored-pressure dry-chemical extinguisher.

152

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

approved for use on class A fires. This agent ex-
tinguishes fire by chain breaking, as do the other
dry chemical agents. In addition, it softens and
clings to the surfaces of burning materials to form
a coating that deprives the fuel of air. As with
the other agents, this dry chemical should be di-
rected at the seat of the fire and swept from side
to side to knock down the flames. However, once
the fire has been knocked down, the operator
should move close to the burning debris. Then all
fuel surfaces should be thoroughly coated with the
chemical agent. For this, the operator should use
short, intermittent bursts.

Class B Extinguishment Using BC or
ABC Dry Chemical

A flammable-liquid fire should be attacked as
noted above. The agent should first be directed
at the edge nearest the operator. The nozzle
should be moved from side to side, with a wrist
action, to cover the width of the fire. The op-
erator should maintain the maximum continuous
discharge rate, remembering that the extinguisher
has a range of from 1.6-13.1 m (10-30 ft). The
operator must be very cautious, moving in toward
the fire very slowly. A liquid fire can flank an
operator who moves in too rapidly, or reflash
around an operator who is too close.

When all the flames are out, the operator should
back away from the fire very slowly, being alert
for possible reignition. Many types of flammable
liquids will reflash under normal atmospheric
conditions. A hot spot that the operator has
missed could cause reignition, resulting in a dupli-
cate of the original fire. For this reason it is
always a good idea to have reserve units or addi-
tional extinguishers ready to move in to assist
in the extinguishment of the fire.

In using dry chemical to approach a pressure
gas fire to close off the fuel flow, the heat shield
afforded by the dry chemical should be main-
tained constantly in front of the operator's face.
When extinguishment is desired, the dry chemical
stream must be directed into the gas stream
nearly parallel to the gas flow, with approxi-
mately 10 degrees to the right or left side entry.
If dry chemical is directed into the stream at too
great an angle, the dry chemical will not pene-
trate the full stream and will be unsuccessful.
Conversely, if the chemical stream does not have
a slight right or left angle, the dry chemical will
be deflected by the gas pipe.

Once the gas is shut off or extinguished, the
operator should slowly back away. Remember,
never extinguish a pressure gas fire unless by so
doing the fuel flow can be controlled.

Class C Extinguishment Using BC or
ABC Dry Chemical

When electrical equipment is involved in a fire,
the stream of dry chemical should be aimed at
the source of the flames. In small spaces, the
smoke and the cloud produced by the dry chem-
ical will limit visibility (and may cause choking).
The chance of electrical shock is also increased.
For this reason, electrical equipment that may
be involved in a fire should be deenergized at its
source, if at all possible, before any attempt is
made to extinguish the fire.

Dry chemical extinguishing agents leave a coat-
ing on materials involved in the fire. This coating
must be cleaned off electrical equipment before it
can be used. Monoammonium phosphate (ABC)
dry chemical leaves a sticky coating that is very
difficult to remove. This coating also penetrates
and sticks to circuit breakers and switching com-
ponents, making them virtually useless. For that
reason, ABC dry chemical is not recommended
for use on electrical fires.

Dry chemical agents that contain sodium can
contaminate or corrode brass and copper elec-
trical fittings. Electric fires are best extinguished
with carbon dioxide or Halon, which are "clean"
extinguishing agents.

Maintenance of Dry Chemical
Extinguishers

Dry chemicals and their propellants are unaf-
fected by temperature extremes and may be
stowed anywhere aboard ship. They do not de-
teriorate or evaporate, so periodic recharging is
not necessary. However, the cartridges in cart-
ridge-operated extinguishers should be inspected
and weighed every 6 months. Cartridges that are
punctured or weigh 14.2 gm i}A oz) less than
the indicated weight should be replaced. At the
same time, the hose and nozzle should be checked
to ensure that they are not clogged.

Stored-pressure extinguishers manufactured
after June 1, 1965, have pressure gauges that in-
dicate whether the internal pressure is within the
operating range. These should be checked vis-
ually at intervals. (The gauge is located on the
bottom of some extinguishers.)

DRY POWDER EXTINGUISHER )

Dry powder {not dry chemical) is the only extin-
guishing agent that may be used on combustible-
metal (class D) fires. The one available class D
extinguisher is a 13.6 kg (30-lb) cartridge-op-
erated model that looks very much like the car-
tridge-operated dry chemical extinguisher (Fig.

Portable and Semiportable Fire Extinguishers

153

tosnnn LB

■f tf

kWf *

1

1 • • -^ 1
1 * • r'-
1 V

1
I W

DRY POWDER

the desired rate of flow, to build a thick layer of
powder over the entire involved area. The opera-
tor must be careful not to break the crust that
forms when the powder hits the fire (Fig. 8.12).

A large amount of dry powder is sometimes
needed to extinguish a very small amount of
burning metal. A brown discoloration indicates
a hot spot, where the layer of dry powder is too
thin. Additional agent should be applied to the
discolored areas. When the fire involves small
metal chips, the agent should be applied as gently
as possible, so the force of the discharge does not
scatter burning chips.

Class D dry powder also comes in a container,
for application with a scoop or shovel (Fig. 8.13).
Here, too, the agent should be applied very gently.
A thick layer of powder should be built up, and
the operator should be careful not to break the
crust that forms.

Figure 8.11. Dry-powder extinguisher used for class D fires
only.

Aim at Burning Area

Squeeze Nozzle . . . Adjust Crip to

Change Flow Rate

Build up Thick Layer of Agent Over

Entire Burning Area

Do Not Break Crust

Press Puncture Lever Aim . . .

Squeeze Nozzle Gently

Combustible Meta

Figure 8.12. The dry-powder extinguisher is operated in an upright position. The agent must be applied gently, to maintain
a crust on the burning metal.

8.11). One difference is that the class D extin-
guisher has a range of only 1.8-2.4 m (6-8 ft).
The extinguishing agent is sodium chloride, which
forms a crust on the burning metal.

Operation

The nozzle is removed from its retainer, and the
puncture lever is pressed. This allows the propel-
lant gas (CO2 or nitrogen) to activate the extin-
guisher. The operator then aims the nozzle and
squeezes the grips to apply the powder to the
surface of the burning metal.

The operator should begin the application of
dry powder from the maximum range 1.8-2.4 m Figure 813 Application of dry powder with a shove, or

(6-8 ft). The squeeze grips may be adjusted for scoop.

154

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

HALON EXTINGUISHERS

Halon 1211 extinguishers are available in several
sizes; Halon 1301 in only one size. All the Halon
extinguishers look alike (Fig. 8.14) and are used
in the same way.

Bromochlorodifluoromethane (Halon 1211) ex-
tinguishers contain from 0.91-5.44 kg (2-12 lb)
of extinguishing agent and carry NFPA ratings
of 5B:C to 10B:C. Their horizontal range is
from 2.7-4.6 m (9-15 ft), and they discharge
their contents in 9-15 seconds. Halon 1211 is
more effective than CO2, leaves no residue and is
virtually noncorrosive. However, it can be toxic,
and its vapors should not be inhaled.

Bromotrifluoromethane (Halon 1301) is avail-
able only in a 1.1 -kg (2V2-lb) portable extin-
guisher, with an NFPA rating of 5B:C. Its hori-

HALON (1211/1 301)

To Use:

• Pull Pin

• Point Nozzle

• Squeeze Handle

zontal range is from 1.2-1.8 m (4-6 ft), and its
discharge time is 8-10 seconds.

Both extinguishing agents are pressurized in
a light weight steel or aluminum alloy shell. The
cap contains the discharge control valve and dis-
charge nozzle.

Operation

The extinguisher is carried to the fire, and the
locking pin is removed. The discharge is con-
trolled by squeezing the control valve-carrying
handle. The Halon should be directed at the seat
of a class B fire, and applied with a slow, side-
to-side sweeping motion. It should be directed at
the source of an electrical fire (Fig. 8.15).

Figure 8.14.

class C fires.

Halon extinguisher for use on class B and

ATTACK METHODS FOR HALON
Direct Discharge at Near Edge
Sweep Agent Back and Forth . . . Advance
Slowly to Far Edge

Apply Heavy Layer Over Entire Surface
Wind Can Blow Agent Away From Fire
• Flashback is Possible

De-Energize
Equipment

CAUTION

• High Voltage

• Air Depletion
in Small Spaces

Figure 8.15. Operation of Halon extinguishers.

Portable and Semiportable Fire Extinguishers

155

SEMIPORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

A semiportable fire extinguisher (or extinguish-
ing system) is one from which a hose can be run
out to the fire. The other components of the sys-
tem are fixed in place, usually because they are
too heavy to move easily.

Semiportable systems provide a way of getting
a sizable amount of extinguishing agent to a fire
rapidly. This allows the operator to make a sus-
tained attack. However, a semiportable system is
also a semifixed system. One disadvantage is that
the protected area is limited by the length of hose
connected into the system. Extinguishing agents
are applied to the fire in the manner described
for portable extinguishers. The main differences
are a slight increase in the effective range (from
nozzle to fire) and the increased amount of ex-
tinguishing agent available.

Semiportable systems are usually set up to pro-
tect the same areas as fixed systems. Where pos-
sible, a fire is first attacked with the semiportable
system. If this attack controls or extinguishes the
fire, then the large fixed system need not be ac-
tivated. Semiportable systems may also be used
as primary extinguishing systems. Since they are
initial attack systems, it is essential that they be
backed up with additional firefighting equipment.

CARBON DIOXIDE HOSE-REEL SYSTEM

The carbon dioxide hose-reel system is employed
in engine rooms and in spaces containing elec-
trical equipment. The system consists of one or
two C02 cylinders, a 1.27-cm (Vi-in.) diameter
hose that is 15.2-22.9 m (50-75 ft.) in length, a
reel for the hose and a CO2 discharge horn with
an On-Off control valve.

Operation

The system is activated manually, by use of a con-
trol lever mounted on top of the CO2 cylinder.
If the system uses two cylinders, only one lever
need be operated; pressure from the first cylinder
opens the valve of the second, so both will be
used.

Here is the general procedure to be followed:

1. Activate the cylinders by removing the
locking pin and operating the lever of the
control cylinder (Fig. 8.16).

2. Run out the CO2 hoseline to the fire area.

3. Open the horn valve by pushing the handle
forward.

4. Direct the CO2 at the near edge of the fire
(Fig. 8.17). For a bulkhead fire, direct the
CO2 at the bottom and work up. As the

Figure 8.16. The activating lever on one C02 cylinder is
operated after the locking pin is removed.

flames recede, follow them slowly with
C02.

5. Continue the discharge until any smolder-
ing materials are covered with snow.

6. To temporarily stop the flow of CO2, close
the horn valve by pulling the handle back.

To attack a bilge fire, it may be necessary to
remove some floor plates to gain access to the
fire. As few plates as possible should be removed.
If it is necessary to drop the horn to attack an
inaccessible fire, the horn valve may be locked
in the open position. This is done by pushing the
lock against the notch in the handle, with the
handle forward (Fig. 8.18).

In an attack on an electrical fire, the gas should
be directed into all openings in the involved
equipment. After the fire is extinguished, the CO2
discharge should be continued until the burned
surfaces are covered with "snow." Although car-
bon dioxide is a poorer conductor than air, the
equipment should be deenergized as soon as pos-
sible to prevent the fire from spreading.

DRY CHEMICAL HOSE SYSTEM

The dry chemical semiportable system consists
of a storage tank containing the agent, pressur-
ized cylinders containing nitrogen gas, a rubber
hose and a nozzle with a control valve. The nitro-
gen is used as the propellant for the dry chemical.
Systems employing sodium bicarbonate, potas-
sium bicarbonate or potassium chloride can be
located where class B and class C fires may be

156

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighling and Fire Safety

Figure 8.17. The COz is first directed at the near edge of the fire. It is then directed at the receding flames until the fire is
knocked down.

some systems may also be activated by a remote-
cable device (Fig. 8.19). When the system is ac-
tivated, the nitrogen flows into the dry chemical
tank. It fluidizes the chemical and propels it into
the hoseline, up to the nozzle. The hose is run
out to the fire attack position, and the nozzle is
opened to commence the attack. The full length
of the hose should be run out to ensure an even,
continuous flow of extinguishing agent.

HALON HOSE-REEL SYSTEM

The semiportable Halon system is very similar
to the carbon dioxide system and is employed to
combat class B and class C fires. Most semiport-
able systems use Halon 1301. The system consists
of one or two pressurized cylinders containing
the extinguishing agent, a hoseline and a nozzle
with an On-Off control valve.

Operation

The system is activated by operating a release
mechanism at the top of the cylinder, similar to
the CO2 release device. If two cylinders are used,
they are both opened when the pilot cylinder is
activated. When the agent is released, it travels
through the hose up to the nozzle. The hose is
then run out to the fire, and the agent is applied
as required.

PORTABLE FOAM SYSTEMS

A foam system using an in-line proportioner or a
mechanical foam nozzle with pickup tube can be

Figure 8.18. The C02 horn valve may be locked in the open
position as shown.

expected. Systems employing monoammonium
phosphate may be approved for any location on
the ship. However, they should not be used to pro-
tect electrical gear, because of the sticky residue
this dry chemical leaves.

Operation

The system is activated by pulling the release
mechanism in the head of the nitrogen cylinder;

Portable and Semiportable Fire Extinguishers 157

DRYCHEMICAL HOSE LINE SYSTEM

Manual Release

Nitrogen

=H} Pull Handle

Bulkhead

Alarm

a

Figure 8.19. Dry chemical hose system with a remote-cable activating device. In some installations, the entire system is lo-
cated in one space.

MECHANICAL FOAM PICK-UP NOZZLE

Figure 8.20. How foam is produced by the mechanical foam nozzle with pickup. The nozzle itself is a very efficient foam
producer. However, the nozzleman's movements are restricted by the need to keep the pickup tube in the foam-concentrate
container.

158

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

carried to various parts of the ship. The foam
system is used with the ship's firemain system.
It is an efficient method for producing foam, but
it requires more manpower than semiportable
systems employing other extinguishing agents.

Mechanical Foam Nozzle with
Pickup Tube

In use, the mechanical foam nozzle with pickup
tube is attached to a standard hoseline from the
firemain system. It draws air in through an as-
pirating cage in its hoseline end. At the same
time it introduces mechanical foam concentrate
into the water stream through a pickup tube (Fig.
8.20). When the air and foam solution mix, foam
is discharged from the nozzle.

One type of nozzle consists of a 533-mm
(21 -in.) length of flexible-metal or asbestos-com-
position hose, 51 mm (2 in.) in diameter, with a
solid metal outlet. A suction chamber and an
air port in the hoseline end form the aspirating
cage. The pickup tube is a short piece of 16-mm
(%-in.) metal pipe with a short piece of rubber
hose on one end. It is used to draw up the con-
tents of a 19-liter (5-gal) container of foam con-
centrate. The pickup tube operates on suction
created in the suction chamber of the nozzle.

Operation. The mechanical foam nozzle is
screwed onto the fire hose, and the pickup tube
is screwed into the side port in the base of the
nozzle. The metal pipe at the end of the pickup
tube is inserted into the foam-concentrate con-
tainer. When water pressure is applied to the
hose, foam concentrate is drawn up to the noz-
zle, where it mixes with the air and water. The

resulting foam is applied in the usual manner. As
Figure 8.20 shows, the mobility of the foam noz-
zle is improved if one firefighter operates the
nozzle while another follows with the concentrate
container.

Portable In-Line Proportioner

The portable in-line foam proportioner, or educ-
tor, allows the nozzlemen more freedom of move-
ment than the nozzle with pickup tube. The
proportioner may be installed anywhere in the
hoseline, between the firemain and the foam
nozzle. It, too, feeds mechanical foam to the noz-
zle, but it may be placed at a convenient distance
from the heat of the fire (Fig. 8.21).

The in-line proportioner is a light weight ven-
turi device. It uses the water-stream pressure to
draw foam concentrate from a 19-liter (5-gal)
container, through a pickup tube, and into the
water stream, in the proper proportion.

Operation. The male end of the hoseline feed-
ing water to the proportioner is screwed into the
female (gauge) end of the proportioner. The pick-
up tube is screwed into the top center of the pro-
portioner. The female end of the firefighting hose
is screwed into the male end of the proportioner.
The male end of the firefighting hose is advanced
to the fire, and the mechanical foam nozzle is
screwed on. The firefighting hose should not be
longer than 45.7 m (150 ft) from proportioner
to nozzle.

The hoselines are now charged from the fire-
main. When the water pressure on the inlet side
of the proportioner reaches 448 kilopascals (65
psi) as shown on the gauge, the suction end of

Fire Station

Foam Nozzle

N-LINE PROPORTIONER

Figure 8.21. Production of me-
chanical foam by an in-line
proportioner, or eductor. The
proportioner can be placed in
the hoseline away from the fire,
so the nozzleman has more
mobility.

Portable and Semiportable Fire Extinguishers 159

the pickup tube is inserted into the foam-concen-
trate container. Mechanical foam is discharged
from the nozzle and directed onto the fire.

Foam Supply

Whether a mechanical nozzle with pickup tube or
a proportioner is being used, extra containers of
foam concentrate should be opened and kept on
hand. This will allow the pickup tube to be quickly
transferred from an empty container to a full one,
so there is no break in the foam discharge. The
19-liter (5-gal) containers of foam concentrate
are used up quickly. At 345 kilopascals (50 psi)
water pressure, one 19-liter (5-gal) container
lasts approximately 2!/2 minutes; at 689 kilo-
pascals (100 psi) water pressure, a container lasts
about 1 Vi minutes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Instructor's Guide, Fire Service Extinguishers. G. IFSTA Fire Extinguisher, Oklahoma State Univer-

Post, J. Smith, R. J. Brady visual teaching aid pro- sity, Stillwater, Okla. NFPA 14th Ed.

gram, unit 3, 1978, Bowie, Md.

fixed

fire-fxtinguishing

Systems

The primary objective of firefighting is quick
control and extinguishment. This objective can
be achieved only if the extinguishing agent is
brought to the fire rapidly and in sufficient quan-
tity. Fixed fire-extinguishing systems can do ex-
actly that. Additionally, some of these systems
are also capable of applying the agent directly to
the fire — without the assistance of crew members.
The Coast Guard regulates the installation of
fixed firefighting systems aboard U.S. vessels. In
its Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular
6-72, Guide to Fixed Fire-fighting Equipment
aboard Merchant Vessels, the Coast Guard states:

Fire extinguishing systems should be reliable and
capable of being placed into service in simple,
logical steps. The more sophisticated the system is,
the more essential that the equipment be properly
designed and installed. It is not possible to antici-
pate all demands which might be placed upon fire
extinguishing systems in event of emergency. How-
ever, potential casualties and uses should be con-
sidered, especially as related to the isolation of
equipment, controls, and required power from pos-
sible disruption by a casualty. Fire protection sys-
tems should, in most cases, serve no function other
than fire fighting. Improper design or installation
can lead to a false sense of security, and can be
as dangerous as no installation.

Fixed extinguishing equipment is not a substitute
for required structural fire protection. These two
aspects have distinct primary functions in U.S.
practice. Structural fire protection protects pas-
sengers, crew, and essential equipment from the
effects of fire long enough to permit escape to a
safe location. Firefighting equipment, on the other
hand, is for protection of the vessel. Requirements
for structural fire protection vary with the class of
vessel and are the most detailed for passenger
vessels. However, approved fixed extinguishing
systems are generally independent of the vessel's
class.

Coast Guard regulations ensure that shipboard
firefighting systems are properly designed and

installed to provide reliable protection for the
ship and its crew. The material presented in this
chapter reflects Coast Guard thinking on the sub-
ject. However, the chapter is not intended to be
a digest of their regulations, but rather a discus-
sion of fire protection systems aboard U.S. flag
vessels. Title 46 CFR contains specific fire pro-
tection requirements for ships, based on age, ton-
nage, service and other factors.

DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF
FIXED SYSTEMS

Fire extinguishing systems are designed and in-
stalled in a ship as a part of its original construc-
tion. The ship's master, officers and crew mem-
bers rarely have any influence on the type of
firefighting systems employed. Marine and fire
protection engineers generally make these deci-
sions to conform with Coast Guard Regulations.
The crew's duties require them to learn how the
systems operate, perform proper maintenance and
conduct required tests and inspections.

Many factors must be analyzed when a fixed
extinguishing system (or combination of systems)
is installed on a ship. A study is made of the over-
all ship design and the potential fire hazards.
Among the things considered are

• Fire classes (A, B, C and D) of potential
hazards

• Extinguishing agent to be employed

• Locations of specific hazards

• Explosion potential

• Exposures

• Effects on the ship's stability

• Methods of fire detection

• Protection of the crew.

Generally the fire class of the hazard deter-
mines the type of system to be installed. Aboard

161

162

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

ship, there are exceptions to this rule. For ex-
ample, ship's spaces are normally protected
against class A fires by systems using water as the
extinguishing agent. The cooling effect of water
makes it the logical extinguishing agent for fires
involving ordinary combustible materials. Yet
water is not used to protect cargo holds, even
though they contain class A materials. Water
would not be effective in a hold because the
closely packed cargo would probably prevent the
water from reaching the seat of the fire, and the
use of excessive amounts of water could cause
the ship to lose stability and develop a list. The
system used for cargo hold protection is the car-
bon dioxide flooding system, which controls and
extinguishes fire by smothering.

Shipboard extinguishing systems are thus de-
signed to be consistent with both the potential
fire hazards and the uses of the protected space.
Generally,

• Water is used in fixed systems protecting
areas containing ordinary combustibles,
such as public spaces and passageways.

• Foam or dry chemical is used in fixed sys-
tems protecting spaces subject to class B
(flammable liquid) fires. Flammable gas fires
are not extinguished by fixed systems; con-
trolled burning is recommended until the
fuel source can be shut off.

• Carbon dioxide, Halon or a suitable dry
chemical is used in fixed systems that pro-
tect against class C (electrical) fires.

• No fixed extinguishing system is approved
for use against class D fires involving com-
bustible metals.

The design of shipboard extinguishing systems
is also consistent with the ship's purpose: a cargo
vessel, tanker, grain ship, LNG carrier or pas-
senger vessel. Each system is tailored to the con-
figuration of the ship and the spaces to be pro-
tected. Because of the many variables that must
be considered, the selection, design and installa-
tion of an automatic fire extinguishing system is
a highly complex process. It requires expertise in
a variety of technical disciplines. The unauthor-
ized alteration or jury-rigging of a fire extinguish-
ing system could render it incapable of controlling
afire.

United States ships use seven major types of
fixed fire-extinguishing systems:

1 . Fire-main systems

2. Automatic and manual sprinkler systems

3. Spray systems

4. Foam systems

5. Carbon dioxide systems

6. Halon 1301

7. Dry chemical systems

The first four systems use liquid extinguishing
agents; the next two use gaseous agents; the last
uses solid agents. Each of these systems is dis-
cussed in the sections that follow.

FIRE-MAIN SYSTEMS

The fire-main system is the ship's first line of de-
fense against fire. It is required no matter what
other fire extinguishing systems are installed.
Every crew member can expect to be assigned to
a station requiring knowledge of the use and op-
eration of the ship's fire main.

The fire-main system supplies water to all areas
of the vessel. Fortunately, the supply of water at
sea is limitless. The movement of water to the
fire location is restricted only by the system itself,
the effect of the water on the stability of the ship
and the capacity of the supply pumps.

The fire-main system is composed of the fire
pumps, piping (main and branch lines), control
valves, hose and nozzles. The fire pumps provide
the power to move water through the piping to
fire stations located throughout the vessel. The
valves, hose and nozzles are used to control the
firefighting water and direct it onto the fire.

Hydrants and Piping

The piping directs firefighting water from the
pumps to hydrants at the fire stations. The piping
must be large enough in diameter to distribute
the maximum required discharge from two fire
pumps operating simultaneously. The water pres-
sure in the system must be approximately 345
kilopascals (50 psi) at the two hydrants that are
highest or furthest (whichever results in the great-
est pressure drop) for cargo and miscellaneous
vessels, and 517 kilopascals (75 psi) for tank
vessels. This requirement ensures that the piping
is large enough in diameter so that the pressure
produced at the pump is not lost through friction
in the piping.

The piping system consists of a large main pipe
and smaller branch lines leading off to the hy-
drants. The main pipe is usually 102-152 mm
(4-6 in.) in diameter. The branch lines are gen-
erally 37-64 mm (lVi-21/^ in.) in diameter. Al-
though the smaller branch lines reduce the flow
of water, they make it easier to maintain the re-
quired pressure at the fire stations. Branch lines
may not be connected into the fire-main system
for any purpose other than firefighting and deck
washing.

Fixed hire- Extinguishing Systems

163

SINGLE FIREMAIN SYSTEM

Fire Station

Main Supply

Fire Pumps

@ Cut-Out Valve

Figure 9.1. Typical single main system.

All sections of the fire-main system on weather
decks must be protected against freezing. For this
purpose, they may be fitted with isolation and
drain valves, so that water in the piping may be
drained in cold weather.

There are two basic main-pipe layouts, the
single main and the horizontal loop.

Single Main System. Single main systems make
use of one main pipe running fore and aft, usu-
ally at the main deck level. Vertical and hori-
zontal branch lines extend the piping system
through the ship (Fig. 9.1). On tankers, the main
pipe usually runs the length of the vessel, down
its centerline. On grain vessels of the Great Lakes

LOOPED FIREMAIN SYSTEM

Looped Main Supply Line

Fire Station

Fire Pumps
Sea Chest

Shore Connection

@ Cut-Out Valve

Figure 9.2. Typical horizontal loop fire-main system.

164

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

or similar configuration, the main pipe is located
along the port or starboard edge of the vessel's
main deck. A disadvantage of the single main
system is its inability to provide water beyond a
point where a serious break has occurred.

Horizontal Loop System. The horizontal loop
system consists of two parallel main pipes, con-
nected together at their furthest points fore and
aft to form a complete loop (Fig. 9.2). Branch
lines extend the system to the fire stations. In the
horizontal loop system, a ruptured section of the
main pipe may be isolated. The system can then
be used to deliver water to all other parts of the
system. Isolation valves are sometimes located
on the main pipeline, forward of each hydrant
location; they are used to control the water flow
when a break occurs in the system. Some single
loop systems have isolation valves for the fore
and aft decks only.

Shore Connections. At least one shore connec-
tion to the fire-main system is required on each
side of the vessel. Each shore connection must
be in an accessible location and must be fitted
with cutoff and check valves.

A vessel on an international voyage must have
at least one portable international shore connec-
tion (Fig. 9.5) available to either side of the vessel.
International shore connections may be connected
to matching fittings that are available at most
ports and terminals throughout the world. They
enable the crew to take advantage of the pump-
ing capability of the shore installation or fire de-
partment at any port. The required international
shore connections are permanently mounted on
some vessels.

wnwrsssrSKF""1*""*™

#:■:»

V. > I ■

e-nw vi

Figure 9.3. Portable international shore connection for

ship's fire-main system.

Fire Pumps

Fire pumps are the only means for moving watei
through tne fire-main system when the vessel is at
sea. The number of pumps required and their
capacity, location and power sources are gov-
erned by Coast Guard regulations. In brief, the
minimum requirements are as follows.

Number and Location. Two independently
powered fire pumps are required on a tank ship
76 m (250 ft) or more in overall length or 1016
metric tons (1000 gross tons) and over on an
international voyage. A cargo or miscellaneous
vessel of 1016 metric tons (1000 gross tons) and
over also requires at least two independently pow-
ered fire pumps, regardless of its length. All pas-
senger vessels up to 4064 metric tons (4000 gross
tons) on international voyages must have at least
two fire pumps, and those over 4064 metric tons
(4000 gross tons) must have three pumps, regard-
less of their lengths.

On vessels that are required to carry two fire
pumps, the pumps must be located in separate
spaces. The fire pumps, sea suction and power
supply must be arranged so that fire in one space
will not remove all the pumps from operation and
leave the vessel unprotected. Any alternative to
the two separate pump locations requires the ap-
proval of the Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard,
and the installation of a C02 flooding system to
protect at least one fire pump and its power
source. This arrangement is permitted only in the
most unusual circumstances. Generally, it is used
only on special ships, where safety would not be
improved by separating the pumps.

The crew is not usually responsible for ensur-
ing that their ship carries the correct number of
pumps, located and powered as required. Ships
are designed, built and, when necessary, refitted
to comply with Coast Guard regulations. How-
ever, the crew is directly responsible for keeping
the pumps in good condition. In particular, engi-
neering personnel are usually charged with the
responsibility for maintaining and testing the
ship's fire pumps, to ensure their reliability during
an emergency.

Water Flow. Each fire pump must be capable
of delivering at least two powerful streams of
water from the hydrant outlets having the great-
est pressure drop, at a pitot-tube pressure of 517
kilopascals (75 psi) for tanker vessels and 345
kilopascals (50 psi) for passenger and cargo ves-
sels. These requirements match those for the fire-
main piping. They must be met when the system
is tested.

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

165

Safety. Every fire pump must be equipped with a
relief valve on its discharge side. The relief valve
should be set at 862 kilopascals (125 psi), or at
172 kilopascals (25 psi) above the pressure neces-
sary to provide the required fire streams, which-
ever is greater. A pressure gauge must also be
located on the discharge side of the pump.

Other firefighting systems (e.g., a sprinkler
system) may be connected to the fire-main pumps.
However, the capacity of the fire pumps must
then be increased sufficiently so they can supply
both the fire-main system and the other system
with the proper water pressure at the same time.
A pump that is connected to an oil line should
not be used as a fire pump. The pump could pos-
sibly pump a flammable liquid, rather than water,
through the fire main. In addition, the pump
could contaminate the system with oil, which
would clog applicator and nozzle openings. Oil
in the water would also rot the linings in hoses.

Use of Fire Pumps for Other Purposes. Fire
pumps may be used for purposes other than sup-
plying water to the fire main. However, one of
the required pumps must be kept available for
use on the fire main at all times. This does not
mean that one pump must be reserved exclusively
for the fire main. The reliability of fire pumps is
probably improved if they are used occasionally
for other services and are then properly main-
tained. When control valves for other services
are located at a manifold adjacent to the pump,
any other service may be readily secured if the
valve to the fire main must be opened.

The fire-main piping is a tempting source of
"free" water, already installed in most spaces.
However, improper or careless use quickly re-
duces the reliability of the system. If the fire-main
pumps are used for purposes other than firefight-
ing, deck washing and tank cleaning (on tankers),
connections should be made only to a discharge
manifold near the pump. The fire-main piping
may be used only when specific exceptions are
granted. The fire main may be used for deck
washing and tank cleaning simply because, in
those cases, someone knows that the system is in
use, and crewmen are usually in attendance.

Connections to the fire main for low-water-
demand services in the forward portion of the
vessel (such as anchor washing, forepeak eductor
or chain-locker eductor) have frequently been
allowed. In such cases, each fire pump must be
capable of meeting its water flow requirements
with the other service connection open. This
ensures that the effectiveness of the fire-main
system is maintained if the other service connec-
tion is accidentally opened.

Fire Stations

The purpose of the fire-main system is to deliver
water to the fire stations that are located through-
out the ship. A fire station consists basically of a
fire hydrant (water outlet) with valve and asso-
ciated hose and nozzles. It is important that all
required firefighting equipment be kept in its
proper place.

Fire stations and hoses must be highly visible
and easily put into service. However, this visi-
bility makes them vulnerable to misuse and dam-
age. One type of misuse is washing down decks
and bulkheads. The valve or piping can be dam-
aged if it is used as a cleat for typing a line.
Hydrant valve stems can also be damaged during
the handling of cargo or the moving of heavy ma-
terials through passageways. Hydrants located on
weather decks may become corroded or en-
crusted with salt, causing their valves to freeze in
position and become inoperable. When a section
of hose or a nozzle is borrowed for use at another
station, at least one fire station is made useless
as a firefighting unit. Couplings and hoses that
are abused (as by being dropped or dragged on
the deck) may fail in use or, at least, become diffi-
cult to connect.

Crew members should make every effort to
protect all parts of the fire-main system and avoid
unauthorized use of the system. Weekly visual
inspection of fire stations should be a standard
procedure to ensure that all required equipment
is in its proper place.

Different hydrants should be opened during
succeeding weekly fire drills to ensure that water
is allowed to flow from each hydrant at least once
every 2 months. This will reduce crusting and
rust. Whenever the opportunity arises, the fire-
main system should be flushed out with fresh
water to destroy any marine growth in the lines.

Fire Station Locations. Fire stations are located
to ensure that the water streams from at least two
hydrants will overlap. U.S. Coast Guard regula-
tions specify hydrant locations as follows:

• Fire hydrants shall be sufficient in number
and so located that any part of the vessel,
other than main machinery spaces, is acces-
sible to persons on board while the vessel
is being navigated, and all cargo holds may
be reached with at least two streams of
water from separate outlets. At least one of
these streams shall be from a single length
of hose.

• In main machinery spaces, all portions of
such spaces shall be capable of being reached
by at least two streams of water, each of

166

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

which shall be from a single length of hose
and from separate outlets.

• Fire stations should be numbered sequen-
tially as required by regulations on all ves-
sels to be certified by the Coast Guard.

If deck cargo is carried, it must be stowed so
that it does not block access to the fire station
hydrant.

Hydrants. The fire station hydrant (Fig. 9.4)
has three major components: 1 ) a control valve;

2) the hose connection, either 38.1 or 63.5 mm
(Wi or 2l/i in.) with appropriate threads; and

3) a hose rack.
Regulations require that:

• Each fire hydrant outlet must have a valve
that allows the hose to be removed while
there is pressure in the fire-main system.

• The fire hydrant outlet may be in any posi-
tion, from horizontal to pointing vertically
downward. It should be positioned to mini-
mize the kinking of the fire hose.

• The threads on the fire hydrant outlet must
be National Standard fire-hose coupling
threads. These standard threads allow all
approved hose to be attached to the hydrant.

• On interior hydrants in certain passenger
vessels, a 63.5-mm (2Vi-in.) outlet may be
wyed for two 38.1 -mm (lV^-in.) hoses with
a wye gate connection.

• A rack must be provided for the proper
stowage of the fire hose. The hose must be
stowed in the open or where it is readily
visible.

Control Valve
Hose Connection
Hose Rack

Figure 9.4. The three required components of a fire station
hydrant.

All water enters the fire-main system through
the sea chest, which is frequently covered with
marine growth. It would thus be a good practice
to fit all hydrant outlets with self-cleaning
strainers. These strainers remove matter that
might clog the nozzle, particularly the fine holes
in combination nozzles and low-velocity appli-
cators (see Fig. 9.5). Combination nozzles in-
stalled since 1962 must allow the free flow of
foreign matter through nozzle orifices up to
9.53 mm (% in.) in size. On vessels that are not
required to carry such combination nozzles, self-
cleaning strainers should be installed on the hy-
drant, or combination nozzles with internal
strainers must be used.

Fire Hose, Nozzles and Appliances. The effi-
ciency of a fire station depends largely on the
equipment stowed at the station and its condi-
tion. A single station should have the following
equipment.

Hoses. A single length of hose of the required
size, type and length: 63.5-mm (2Vi-m.) diam-
eter hose is used at weather-deck locations;
38.1 -mm (\V2-\n.) diameter hose is used in en-
closed areas. The hose must bear the Under-
writers Laboratory (UL) label or comply with
federal specification JJ-1 1-571 or ZZ-ll-451a.
Unlined hose may not be used in machinery
spaces. The hose couplings must be of brass,
bronze or a similar metal and be threaded with
National Standard fire-hose coupling threads.

The hose must be 15 m (50 ft) in length, ex-
cept on the weather decks of tankers. There, the
hose must be long enough to permit a single
length to be goosenecked over the side of the
tank ship. Goosenecking is directing a stream of
water over the vessel's side, perpendicular to the
water surface.

The fire hose must be connected to the hydrant
at all times, with the appropriate nozzle attached.
However, when a hose is exposed to heavy
weather on an open deck, it may be temporarily
removed from the hydrant and stowed in a nearby
accessible location. Fire hose may also be tempo-
rarily moved when it might be damaged by the
handling of cargo. (When fire hose is removed,
the exposed threads of the hydrant should be
covered with a thin coating of grease and a pro-
tective screwcap. If a screwcap is not available, a
heavy canvas, lashed over the threads, gives some
protection.)

Fire hose may not be used for any purpose
other than firefighting, testing and fire drills.

Nozzles. A nozzle, preferably of the combina-
tion type, so that water flow may be controlled

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

167

15.24m (50') Hose

Spanner

«

FIRE ALARM
When Bell Rings
Report to Your
Fire Station

Figure 9.5. Shipboard fire station equipment

must be connected to the hose at all times. The
following regulations apply to vessels contracted
or built after May 26, 1965: Tank vessels must
be equipped with combination nozzles through-
out. Cargo and miscellaneous vessels must be
equipped with combination nozzles in machinery
spaces and may use smooth-bore solid-stream
nozzles in other spaces.

The combination nozzle must be fitted with a
control that permits the stream to be shut off and
to be adjusted for solid stream or high-velocity
fog. On a 63.5-mm (2Vi-in.) combination nozzle,
the solid-stream orifice must be at least 22.2 mm
(% in.) in diameter; on a 38.1 -mm (lVi-in.)
nozzle, the opening must be at least 15.8 mm
(% in.) in diameter.

At this writing, the Coast Guard is consider-
ing a regulation that would eliminate the use of
smooth-bore solid-stream nozzles on U.S. flag
vessels. If the regulation is put into effect, the
Coast Guard may allow the continued use of
smooth-bore nozzles on ships that currently carry
them; however, approved nozzles would have to
be substituted when the smooth-bore nozzles are
replaced in normal service.

Fog applicator. A low-velocity fog applicator
for use with the required combination nozzle
must be provided at each station. On exterior

decks, applicators should be 3.0-3.6 m (10-12
ft) in length. In machinery spaces, applicators are
limited to 1.8 m (6 ft) in length. Where combi-
nation nozzles are not required but are installed,
the low-velocity applicator need not be furnished.
On container ships, a bayonet-type applicator
should be provided. This applicator is similar to
the fog applicator, but it has a sharp tip that can
cut and penetrate the metal skin of a container.

Other Useful Tools. A spanner wrench whose
size matches the hose coupling, or an adjustable
spanner wrench. Depending on the location of the
fire station, a pickhead axe may also be required.
A fully equipped fire station is shown in
Figure 9.5.

Fire Hose

A fire hose is a flexible tube that is used to trans-
port water from the hydrant to the fire. Most of
the hose in use is lined to stand up under high
water pressure and minimize frictional loss. The
lining is usually constructed of a rubber or syn-
thetic material. Its inner surface is very smooth,
so water will flow through it with a minimum of
friction. The outer covering of the hose is a jacket
of heavy cloth or synthetic material. The hose
has a male coupling at one end and a female
coupling at the other; these couplings are some-

168

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

LINEDFIRE HOSE

Female Coupling
Gasket 1 /Swivel

Linings

Outer Covering (Jacket) ^ Male Coupling

Figure 9.6. Lined fire hose and hose couplings.

times called butts. The female coupling is at-
tached to the hydrant, and the male coupling to
the nozzle. (Fig. 9.6).

The fire hose is the most vulnerable part of the
fire-main system. It is easily damaged through
misuse. Failure to remove dirt, grease, abrasives
and other foreign substances from the outer sur-
face of a hose can cause it to fail under pressure.
Fire hose may be cleaned by washing with fresh
water and mild detergent, using a soft brush.
Abrasive cleaners should not be used as they cut
into the outer covering of the hose and weaken it.

Hose that is dragged across metal decks can
be permanently damaged. The jacket may be cut,
or the coupling threads may be bent or broken.
Failure to drain hose thoroughly, prior to rack-
ing, allows trapped moisture to cause mildew and
rot; possibly resulting in failure under pressure.
In addition, cold, heat and seawater tend to
weaken the hose.

Fire hose should be inspected visually each
week. Every hose on board should be tested
monthly, through actual use under the pressure
required to produce a substantial water stream.
This can de done by alternating weekly fire drills
from station to station, or through a rotating
testing schedule.

Fire hose should be taken from the rack peri-
odically and visually inspected for dry rot and
other damage. If the hose is sound, it should be
replaced on the rack with the bight folds at dif-
ferent locations. This prevents cracking of the
hose liner and the friction loss that is caused by
deep bends.

Racking and Stowage Procedures. Most ship-
board racks for the stowage of hose at fire sta-
tions require that the hose be faked. The pro-
cedure should include the following steps:

1. Check the hose to make sure it is com-
pletely drained. Wet hose should not be
racked.

2. Check the female coupling for its gasket.

3. Hook the female coupling to the male out-
let of the hydrant. (The hose should al-
ways be connected to the hydrant.)

4. Fake the hose so that the nozzle end can
be run out to the fire (see Fig. 9.5).

5. Attach the nozzle to the male end of the
hose, making sure a gasket is in place.

6. Place the nozzle in its holder or lay it on
the hose, so that it will not come adrift.

There are several different types of hose racks.
One type consists of a half round plate, over
which the hose is faked. A horizontal bar swings
into position, holding the hose snug. Reels are
used in engine rooms. They are also used for
rubber hose, such as that found on a semiportable
CO2 extinguisher.

Rolling Hose. After spare hose is used, it should
be rolled and replaced in stowage. The hose must
first be drained and dried. Then it should be
placed flat on the deck with the female coupling
against the deck. The hose is next folded back on
itself, so the male coupling is brought up to about
1.2 m (4 ft) from the female couplings. The ex-
posed thread of the male coupling should be lay-
ered between the hose when the roll is completed.
The roll should be tied with small stuff to keep
it from losing its shape.

Nozzles and Applicators

Two types of nozzles are used on merchant ma-
rine vessels, combination nozzles and smooth-bore
nozzles. Both have been mentioned earlier in
this chapter. (See Chapter 10 for a description of
their operation.)

Nozzles are quite rugged but are still subject
to damage. For example, the control handle can
become stuck in the closed position, owing to the
corrosive action of seawater. Combination noz-

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

169

zles and applicators are often clogged by minute
pieces of dirt that enter and collect around open-
ings. Periodic testing and maintenance will help
detect and correct deficiencies.

The combination nozzle has a spring latch that
allows the high-velocity tip to be released (Fig.
9.7). The latch often freezes into position from
misuse. During inspections and drills, the tip
should be released and the applicator inserted
into position for proper operation. The high-
velocity tip should be attached to the nozzle by
a substantial chain, so that it cannot be com-
pletely separated from the nozzle.

Applicators {see Fig. 9.5) are strong, but not
strong enough to be used as crowbars, levers or
supports for lashing. If misused, the applicator
can be crimped or bent along its length. The bay-
onet end can be damaged so that it cannot fit
in the nozzle receptacle. Applicators should be
stowed in the proper clips at the fire station, and
used for firefighting and training only. When
stowed, applicator heads should be enclosed in
sock-type covers to keep foreign matter out. {See
Chapter 10 for a description of the proper use
of applicators.)

Spanner Wrenches

A spanner wrench is a special tool designed spe-
cifically for tightening or breaking apart fire-hose
connections. The spanner should match the hose
size and butt configuration. Hose-butt lug de-
signs change over the years, making some span-
ner wrenches obsolete. When new hose is ordered,
the available spanner wrenches must be corn-

Control Handle

Straight Stream
Orifice

Spring Latch

High-Velocity
Fog Tip

Tip is Removable to Allow
for Insertion of
Low-Velocity Fog Applicators

patible with the new hose couplings, or new span-
ner wrenches must also be ordered.

Most hose connections can be made handtight
and do not require excessive force.

Wye Gates and Tri-Gates

It is sometimes advantageous to have two smaller
38.1 -mm (IVi-in.) hoselines available, rather
than one large 63.5-mm (ZVi-in.) line. Devices
called wye gates and tri-gates are used to reduce
the hoseline size and separate the lines.

A wye gate is a connector in the shape of a
"Y" (Fig. 9.8). It has one female 63.5-mm (2V&-
in.) inlet butt and two 38.1-mm (P/i-in.) male
outlet butts. The large inlet butt is attached to
a 63.5-mm (2V/2-in.) fire hydrant outlet so that
water flows out through the two smaller outlets.
A hose may be attached to each outlet.

The device is gated, which means it has valves
that can be used to shut off the flow of water. The
two valves, or gates, are independent of each
other, so that one can be closed while the other

Figure 9.7. The outlet end of a combination nozzle.

Figure 9.8. Wye gate attached to a hydrant outlet. Left,
closed valve; right, open valve.

170

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

is open. The gates are opened or closed with a
quarter turn. When a gate handle is parallel with
the waterway, it is in the open position (Fig. 9.8).

If two hoses are connected to a wye gate, both
gates should be closed when the hoses are not in
use. If one hose is connected, its gate should be
closed. The other gate should be open, allowing
leakage from the hydrant to drip out the opening.

The U.S. Coast Guard permits the use of wye
gates at fire hydrants under certain conditions.
The tri-gate is similar to the wye gate, but it pro-
vides three 38.1 -mm (IVi-in.) outlets. While
these devices may allow additional lines to be
directed onto a fire, they result in a large pres-
sure drop at the nozzle. Even the reduction of a
63.5-mm (21^ -in.) line to two smaller lines could
drop the water pressure to the point where both
streams are ineffective for firefighting. It is better
to have one good firefighting stream that can pene-
trate into the fire than two poor streams.

WATER SPRINKLER SYSTEMS

United States ships are constructed in accord-
ance with Method I of the Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS) convention. Method I calls for fire pro-
tection through the use of noncombustible con-
struction materials, rather than reliance on auto-
matic sprinkler systems. For this reason, sprinkler
systems are not widely used on U.S. merchant
vessels. They are generally used only to protect
living quarters, adjacent passageways, public
spaces, and vehicular decks on roll-on/ roll-off
(ro-ro) vessels and ferryboats.

Sprinkler systems may extinguish fire in these
spaces. However, their primary function is to
protect the vessel's structure, limit the spread of
fire and control the amount of heat produced.
They also protect people in these areas and main-
tain escape routes.

Components of Sprinkler Systems

All sprinkler systems consist of piping, valves,
sprinkler heads, a pump and a water supply.

Piping. The piping must comply with stand-
ards developed for such systems. The piping size
and layout are chosen to deliver the proper
amount of water to the sprinkler heads. The main
supply line from the pump carries the water to
branch lines. The diameters of the branch lines
decrease as they extend further from the source
of the water. The branch lines supply the water
to the sprinkler heads.

Valves. Valves are located at the pump mani-
fold and outside the protected spaces. They should

be readily accessible in case of fire. Control valves
should be clearly marked as to their function,
e.g., "Control Valve for Automatic Sprinkler
System." They should also be marked as to their
normal position: "Keep Open at All Times" or
"Close Only to Reset the System." If the sprinkler
system is divided into separate zones, the control
valves should be clearly identified with their zone
numbers.

Sprinkler Heads. The heads are actually valves
of special design. They release water from the
system and form the water into a cone-shaped
spray. A sprinkler head is made up of a threaded
frame (for installation in a branch pipe), a water-
way and a deflector for forming the water spray
pattern. Sprinkler heads for automatic systems
may be equipped with a fusible link. The link
keeps the head closed normally. Heads for man-
ual systems are open normally; they do not in-
clude a fusible link.

Coast Guard regulations require that each pro-
tected space have sufficient heads located so that
no part of an overhead or vertical projection of
a deck is more than 2.1 m (7 ft) from a sprinkler
head.

Fusible Links. A fusible link is a pair of levers,
held within the sprinkler head frame by two links.
The links are connected by eutectic alloy or a
similar low melting-point metal (Fig. 9.9). The
levers hold a valve cap in place over the sprinkler
head outlet, preventing the flow of water. Since
the sprinkler head is closed, the piping may be
charged with water up to the head. {See Chapter
6 for a discussion of other types of heat detectors.)
When heat from a fire increases the temperature
of the eutectic alloy enough to melt it, the links
come apart. This releases the levers, opening the
sprinkler head waterway (Fig. 9.9).

Temperature Ratings of Fusible Links. Sprin-
kler heads on some ships may be color coded to
indicate the temperature at which the fusible
metal (solder) will melt and activate the head.
Table 9.1 gives the standard operating tempera-
tures of sprinkler heads and the corresponding
color codes. The color is painted on the frame
arms of the sprinkler head. No other part of a
sprinkler head should be painted — especially not
the fusible element. The paint would insulate the
fusible metal from the heat of the fire and keep it
from melting at its operating temperature.

The sprinkler heads normally used on ships are
-these that operate 57.2°C-73.8°C/or 100°C
(135°F-165°F/or 212°F) (uncolored or white).
Heads with lower operating temperatures are

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

171

Table 9.1. Operating Temperatures and Color Coding
of Fusible Metal links for Sprinkler Heads.*

Figure 9.9. A. Heat from fire melts solder, allowing links
to separate. 8. The levers come apart and C. water pressure
pushes the valve cap off the sprinkler outlet. D. Water
flows up against the deflector, forming a spray that falls
onto the fire.

used in spaces where normal temperatures can be
expected, such as living spaces. Higher tempera-
ture heads are used where temperatures above
normal are expected, such as galley areas. A
sprinkler head must always be replaced with a
head that has the same temperature rating. A
higher temperature head will not protect the
space properly; a lower temperature head could
be operated by a heat source other than a hostile
fire.

Spray Patterns. The spray deflector on a
sprinkler head is designed to direct the water in
a specific direction. The upright deflector in Fig-
ure 9.9 directs water down toward the deck. The
pendant deflector also directs water downward,
but it is placed differently in the piping. The side-
wall deflector directs water away from bulkheads,
toward the center of the protected space. The
position in which a sprinkler head should be in-
stalled is stamped on the frame or deflector. Pen-
dant heads should not be installed as replacements

Operating temperature

°C(°F)

Color code

57.2 (135); 65.5 (150); 71.1 (160);

Uncolored

73.8 (165)

79.4 (175); 100 (212)

White

121 (250); 138 (280); 141 (286)

Blue

163 (325); 171 (340); 177 (350);

Green

182 (360)

232 (450); 260 (500)

Orange

"Color coding may be found on some vessels.

for upright heads, and vice versa. Improper instal-
lation can destroy the firefighting capability of a
sprinkler head.

Automatic Sprinkler Systems

Automatic sprinkler systems are not used exten-
sively on U.S. merchant ships. The automatic
sprinkler makes use of closed sprinkler heads
(Fig. 9.9), so the piping can be charged with
water. The fusible links serve as the fire detectors
and the activating devices. A pressure tank serves
as the initial water source. The pressure tank is
partially filled with fresh water (usually to two
thirds of its capacity). The remainder of the tank
is filled with air under pressure. The air pressure
propels the water to and through the sprinkler
heads when they open. The pressure tank must
hold enough water to fill the piping of the largest
zone, and in addition, force out at least 757 liters
(200 gal) at the least effective head in the zone
at a pitot tube pressure of at least 103.42 x 103
pascals (15 psi). Fresh water is used in the system
to avoid the breakdown of metal by electrolysis.

How the System Works. Heat from the fire
melts the fusible links of one or more sprinkler
heads. The heads open, allowing water to flow.
The initial supply of water comes from the piping,
and then from the pressure tank. As water flows
out of the tank, its pressure is reduced. This pres-
sure drop causes a pressure-sensitive switch to
electrically activate the sprinkler water pump and
the alarm bells. The sprinkler pump takes over as
the water source, supplying water from a fresh
water holding tank (Fig. 9.10). Check valves in
the piping ensure that the water flows from the
pump to the sprinkler heads, rather than into the
pressure tank. When the holding tank water sup-
ply is depleted, the pump suction must be man-
ually shifted to seawater.

172

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

® Check Valve
i Control Valve
T5- Sprinkler Head

Sprinkler Heads

Branch Line

Sea Chest

Fresh-Water Holding Tank

Pressure Switch (Activates
_ Sprinkler Pump and
Alarm Circuits)

Figure 9.10. Shipboard automatic sprinkler system. The sprinkler pump is started automatically by a switch in the pressure
tank.

Crewmen should not depend on an automatic
sprinkler system as the sole method of extinguish-
ment. As in all fire attack operations, the initial
attack (by the sprinkler system) should be backed
up with charged hoselines.

An activated sprinkler system should not be
shut down until the fire is at least knocked down
and hoselines are in position to extinguish any
remaining fire. It is important to prevent unneces-
sary water accumulation, but the primary objec-
tive is to get the fire out. If an automatic sprinkler
system is shut off too soon, heat from the con-
tinuing fire can cause many more sprinkler heads
to open. The additional open heads can put an
excessive load on the system, beyond the capa-
bility of the sprinkler pump. The result would
be reduced pressure in the system and insufficient
water flow from the sprinkler heads. The heads

then would not be able to form the spray pattern
necessary to achieve extinguishment.

After the fire is extinguished, the sprinkler
system should be restored to service. The sprin-
kler heads that were opened should be replaced
with heads of the same temperature rating and
deflector type. A supply of heads of the proper
types should be kept on board for this purpose.
The pressure tank should be refilled and pressur-
ized, and the valves reset.

Manual Sprinkler Systems

The manual sprinkler system differs from auto-
matic systems in two respects: 1) the sprinkler
heads are normally open and 2) the piping does
not normally contain water. Water is supplied to
the manual system by the ship's fire pumps; no
pressure tank is required.

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

173

The system is composed of the piping, open
sprinkler heads, control valves, fire pumps and
water supply. It may be used along with a fire
detection system. However, the fire detectors do
not activate the system automatically; they sound
alarms so that the system can be put into action
manually.

How the System Works. When fire is discovered
or the alarm is sounded, the fire pumps are started.
A control valve is manually opened to allow water
to flow into the system. The control valve is lo-
cated either at the fire-pump manifold or near
(but not in) the protected area. Water is dis-
charged out of all the sprinkler heads, so the
entire area is covered with water spray. The area
is thus saturated with a large volume of water,
capable of knocking down a sizable fire.

With manual systems, there is a delay in get-
ting water onto the fire, and then an excessive
amount of water is applied, well beyond that
needed for extinguishment. Manual systems are,
however, effective protection for vehicular decks
on ro-ro vessels and ferryboats. The large amount
of water is effective in knocking down the fire and
protecting the vessel and exposed vehicles. It will
also dilute and carry off flammable liquids, if they
are involved. Manual sprinkler systems are also
used in cargo spaces that are accessible to the
crew when the vessel is under way.

Free surface water is a constant threat to a
ship's stability. A sprinkler system with open
heads can easily flow 1.89 m3/min (500 gal/min).
Where large systems are used, as on ro-ro vessels,
provisions are made to drain the water off
through scuppers or internal drains. Scuppers
drain the water overboard; internal drains direct
the water to bilges in the ship's bottom. However,
bilges can overflow during firefighting operations,
spilling the water into the cargo holds. Therefore,
the vessel's bilges should be pumped out while
water is draining into them; otherwise, the free
surface water would simply be moved from the
fire area to the bilge, possibly resulting in a seri-
ous list.

Reliability of Sprinkler Systems

Land-based sprinkler systems are very reliable.
In most instances, fires are controlled or extin-
guished as soon as one or two heads are opened.
The water supply to these systems is clean and
free of debris. However, shipboard systems are
not as reliable, because they are supplied with
water through sea chests. In most instances, this
water contains solid matter of sufficient size to
clog the system, especially at the sprinkler head
openings.

To help ensure some measure of reliability,
sprinkler systems must be tested periodically. The
testing procedure must conform with Coast Guard
regulations.

Zoning of Sprinkler Systems

When a large portion of a passenger ship is to be
protected by sprinklers, several small subsystems,
rather than one large system, are used. The sub-
systems are placed within spaces separated by
fire-retarding bulkheads; these spaces between
bulkheads are called fire zones. Fire zones extend
across the beam of the vessel and are confined
between main vertical zones (class A bulkheads).
Zones may not exceed 40 m (131 ft) in length.
The bulkheads are fitted with doors of the same
fire-retarding capability as the bulkheads. (Class
A bulkheads must be capable of retarding the
passage of smoke and flame for 1 hour.)

This arrangement has two advantages: 1) No
subsystem is very large, so it will not overtax the
water supply and 2) when the bulkhead doors are
closed, the fire is confined in an area that is de-
signed to keep it from spreading.

Two separate subsystems may be installed
within a single fire zone, e.g., one to protect the
port size, and the other the starboard side. How-
ever, the coverage of the two subsystems must
overlap, to ensure full protection of the fire zone.
The sprinkler systems on ro-ro vessels are zoned
but do not require bulkheaded divisions.

Sprinkler Zone Chart. A chart must be posted
(in the wheelhouse or control station, adjacent to
the detecting cabinet) showing the arrangement
of the fire zones, their identification numbers and
the sprinkler system layout within the zones. The
chart must also show the piping system, including
the locations of control valves and water supply
pumps (Fig. 9.11).

WATER SPRAY SYSTEMS

Water spray systems are similar to sprinkler sys-
tems but make use of a different type of head
and a different piping arrangement.

Spray Heads

Spray heads are open heads (Fig. 9.12) that shape
the discharged water into a spray pattern. How-
ever, unlike some sprinkler heads, which dis-
charge hollow spray patterns, spray heads dis-
charge a solid cone of water, giving them superior
cooling capabilities. In addition, a spray head
can be aimed to hit a specific target area.

174

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Figure 9.11. Zone valves and zone chart for a shipboard
sprinkler system.

Water Supply

Water can be supplied to the spray system by a
separate pump or by one of the ship's fire pumps.
A fire pump may be used if it can adequately
supply both the fire main and the spray system
when both are in operation at the same time. An
extensive spray system needs a substantial water
supply and would most likely require a pump
other than a fire pump.

The spray system piping is normally empty,
because the spray heads are open. When fire is
discovered, the system is activated manually by
opening the proper valves and starting the water
pump. The spray heads provide a very finely di-
vided water spray that blankets the protected
area.

...

J

Figure 9.12. Typical spray head. There is no fusible link;
the head is open at all times.

Applications

Water spray systems are used to protect the piping
and exposed sections of storage tanks on vessels
transporting cryogenic gases such as LNG. They
are also used to protect loading stations and
manifolds. In the event of a gas leak with fire,
their primary functions are to cool exposed tanks
and piping and to confine the fire until the leak
can be stopped. If a leak occurs without fire, the
water spray could be effective in diluting the
leaking vapors. The water spray also helps pro-
tect metal surfaces directly exposed to the leak
from fracture, and it can be used to dissipate the
vapors under the right conditions.

In addition, water spray can be used to protect
the superstructure of the vessel from radiant heat
in the event of a massive fire. When used for this
purpose, the spray is cascaded directly onto the
surfaces of bulkheads and decks (Fig. 9.13), tak-
ing the most advantage of the cooling capabili-
ties of the water.

The water spray is not normally used to ex-
tinguish the fire, dry chemical extinguishing units
are employed on LNG and LPG vessels for this
purpose. Crewmen should, however, realize that
extinguishing such a fire may create a greater
hazard — a flammable vapor cloud. It is usually
best to allow the LNG to burn under controlled
conditions until the fuel is exhausted.

FOAM SYSTEMS j

Foam is used mainly in fighting class B fires, al-
though low-expansion foam (with a high water
content) can be used to extinguish class A fires.
Foam extinguishes mainly by smothering, with
some cooling action. (See Chapter 7 for a dis-
cussion of foam as an extinguishing agent.)

Foam may be generated chemically or me-
chanically. Chemical foam is produced by chem-
ical reactions taking place in water. The foam
bubbles are filled with CO2. Mechanical foam is
produced by first mixing foam concentrate with
water to produce a foam solution, then mixing
air with the foam solution. The bubbles are thus
filled with air.

Foam systems are acceptable as fire protection
for boiler rooms, machinery spaces and pump
rooms on all vessels. Mechanical foam systems
may be installed in these spaces instead of other
approved systems such as CO2. Deck foam sys-
tems must be installed on tankers constructed
after January 1, 1970, as fire protection for flam-
mable-liquid cargo. Some older vessels may have
foam systems protecting flammable-liquid cargo
holds; foam systems are no longer employed for
this purpose.

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems 175

Figure 9.13. LNG and LPG burn cleanly with little smoke, but do produce massive quantities of radiant heat. The spray sys-
tem can provide protection by cooling exposed decks, tanks, pipelines and superstructure through a continuous cascade of
water.

Foam systems must meet Coast Guard require-
ments. Other guidance regarding fixed systems
can be found in the recommendations of the Inter-
governmental Maritime Consultative Organiza-
tion (IMCO). The Coast Guard regulations are
usually consistent with, but more stringent than,
IMCO recommendations.

Chemical Foam Systems

Chemical foam is produced by the reaction of
bicarbonate of soda with aluminum sulfate (or
ferric sulfate). A foam stabilizer is added to im-
prove its extinguishing properties. Chemical foam
has more body than mechanical foam and will
build a stouter blanket.

Continuous-Type Generator. A continuous-
type chemical foam generator is shown in Figure
9.14. The generator may be fixed or portable. It
consists of a hopper with a foam ejector at the
bottom; its function is to dissolve the dry foam
chemicals in a stream of water. The generator
inlet is connected to a hoseline or piping to the
fire main; the outlet is connected to a 63.5-mm
(21/2-in.) hoseline. After water at 517-689 kilo-
pascals (75-100 psi) has been started through the
generator, the mixture of dry foam chemicals is
poured into the hopper. The chemical reaction
takes place downstream of the ejector.

The temperature of the water governs the speed
of foam production (it is slower at lower tempera-
tures), and the length of the outlet hose should be
varied accordingly. At temperatures above
32.2°C (90°F), 15.24 m (50 ft) of hose is ade-
quate; from 10°C to 32.2°C (50°F to 90°F),
30.48 m (100 ft) of hose should be used; at tem-
peratures below 10°C (50°F), 45.72 m (150 ft)
is required. The hose should have a 3 8.1 -mm
(IVi-in.) diameter nozzle for the most effective
foam discharge.

The continuous-type generator uses foam
chemical at a rate of about 45.4 kg/min (100
lb/min) with either fresh or salt water at 21.1 °C
(70°F). Since 0.45 kg (1 lb) of foam powder
produces about 30 liters (8 gal) of foam, the unit
produces about 3000 liters/min (800 gal/min) of
foam. In one minute, this quantity of foam can
cover an area of 37 m- (400 ft2) to a thickness of
76.2 mm (3 in.). This area is equivalent to a
square, 6.1 m (20 ft) on each side.

CHEMICAL FOAM GENERATOR

Flushout Hose for Cleanup

^=^

Waten
Valve

Pressure.
Gauge

Flush- rl

out
Valve

^-Inch-
Inlet.

Hopper

Hopper Locking
Nut Handle

-Strainer
•Water
Connection

21/2-lnch

Discharge
Foam Connection

Figure 9.14. Continuous-type chemical foam generator. A.
The generator is connected to a hoseline or piping to the
fire main. B. Foam chemicals are discharged into water
flowing through the bottom of the generator. C. Chemical
foam is produced downstream of the generator.

176

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

The continuous-type foam generator is also
available with two separate hoppers. The dry
foam chemicals are dissolved separately in two
streams of water. The two solutions are brought
together at the discharge outlet to produce foam.

Hopper-Type Generator. In the large hopper-
type generator, the chemicals are stored sepa-
rately, in powder form, in twin compartments in
the hopper. The chemicals are thus always ready
for use. This type of generator is usually equipped
with a mechanical turning device that should be
turned occasionally to keep the chemicals from
settling and packing. When the generator is to
be used, control levers are operated to release the
chemicals into the water stream.

Extra chemicals are usually stored in con-
tainers holding 22.7 kg (50 lb) each. These con-
tainers must be kept sealed and must be stored
in a cool dry place until used.

Twin-Solution Generator. In the twin-solution
foam generator, a solution of bicarbonate of soda
and foam stabilizer is contained in one cylinder,
and an aluminum sulfate solution in the other.
The contents of the two cylinders are pumped
separately to discharge outlets. At the outlets,
the solutions mix to produce and discharge foam
on the protected area.

Mechanical versus Chemical Foam

Chemical foam generators have been replaced by
mechanical foam generators on almost all vessels.
Chemical foam systems are no longer approved
for installation by the U.S. Coast Guard. How-
ever, older ships may still use chemical foam sys-
tems provided they are in good condition and
operate properly. Whichever system is installed
aboard a vessel, crewmen should be well trained
in its use. Periodic drills build efficiency and help
to avoid mistakes when a fire occurs.

Mechanical Foam Systems

Mechanical foam concentrate is available in 3%
and 6% concentrations {see Chapter 7). It may
be mixed with either fresh or salt water to produce
foam solution:

• 12 liters (3 gal) 3% concentrate, mixed with
367 liters (97 gal) of water produces 379
liters (100 gal) foam solution.

• 23 liters (6 gal) 6% concentrate, mixed with
356 liters (94 gal) water, produces 379 liters
(100 gal) foam solution.

When the foam solution is mixed with air, it
expands. The expansion ratio of the foam indi-
cates the proportions of air and water it contains.

Thus, for example, a 4:1 foam expansion ratio
is defined as the quantity of moisture contained
in a given quantity of foam. In 1000: 1 high ex-
pansion foam there is one gallon of moisture in
1000 gallons of the high expansion foam. A
100:1 expansion ratio means the foam contains
99 volumes of air for each volume of water. The
air is introduced into the foam solution at a foam
spray nozzle, monitor or turret nozzle.

In fixed foam extinguishing systems the air-to-
water ratio is set to obtain the desired foam prop-
erties. In general, the lower the expansion ratio,

• The wetter the foam

• The more fluid the foam

• The heavier the foam

• The more heat resistant the foam (for a given
type of concentrate)

• The less the foam adheres to vertical surfaces

• The more electrically conductive the foam

• The less the foam is subject to movement
by wind.

The foams used in engine rooms should be
soupy, mixed at about a 4:1 expansion ratio. A
mixture of this consistency is capable of flowing
rapidly around obstructions. It has good cooling
qualities (for foam) and resists heat (holds up
longer). However, the actual ratio may vary. Be-
cause a 4: 1 ratio foam is loaded with water, there
is a fairly rapid water runoff. It is difficult to
build up a deep layer of 4:1 foam, unless it is
confined in a limited area.

High-expansion foam, with a ratio of 100:1
or more, is stiff, does not flow rapidly and is
easily pushed around by the wind in open areas.
It builds up a deep layer of foam rapidly — up to
0.9 m (3 ft) in open, unconfined areas, and up
to 5.9 m (20 ft) in a confined space. High-expan-
sion foam is a poor conductor of electricity since
it contains little water.

Low-Expansion Mechanical Foam System

One low-expansion foam system used on ships
is the balanced-pressure proportioning system.
The system gets its name from the action of the
proportioning device: The water and the foam
concentrate are pumped into the proportioner
separately, under pressure. Monitoring devices in
the proportioner regulate (balance) these two
flows to produce the desired foam solution.

A typical system is shown in schematic form
in Figure 9.15. The major components are

• A water supply

• The fire pump

• The foam-concentrate pump

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

177

TYPICAL BALANCED PRESSURE
PROPORTIONING ARRANGEMENT

To Pump Room
To Tank Top
To Flat
To Cargo Deck

This Distance
to be Straight
and
Unobstructed

'HX

SYMBOLS:
Foam Liquid
Foam Solution

Gate Valve

Check Valve

Globe Valve, Regulating

Side Outlet Strainer With Valve (1 Size Larger

than Piping)
Flushout Connection (Valved Hose Fitting, 1 Vi

Female Swivel, Plug & Chain)
Reducer

Figure 9.15. Schematic diagram of a typical balanced-pressure proportioning system. A. Water supply valve (normally closed).
B. Ratio-flow proportioner. C. Water balance line. D. Foam concentrate balance line. E. Balance line valves (normally open).
F. Diaphragm control valve (automatic bypass). G. Block valves (normally open). H. Regulating globe valve (manual bypass;
normally closed). I. Water and foam concentrate pressure gauge. J. Foam-concentrate storage tank. (Courtesy National Foam
System, Inc.)

• A holding tank for the foam concentrate

• The proportioning device

• The discharge foam spray nozzles or moni-
tors

• The piping, control and check valves.

How the System Works. The system must be
activated manually when fire is discovered in the
protected area. First the water and foam-concen-
trate supply pumps are started. Then the proper
control valves are opened to allow the water and
foam concentrate to flow to the proportioner. If
central foam-producing equipment furnishes
foam solution to more than one piping system,
then the control valve to the proper system must
be opened. It is important that the crew member
reporting the fire give the fire's exact location,
so the proper valves may be opened without delay.

When the necessary valves are open and the
pumps are activated, foam concentrate and water
are pumped into the proportioner and mixed in
preset proportions. The foam solution then flows
through piping to the desired location for dis-
charge. In a fixed system, the foam is discharged
through nozzles located in the protected area.
As the solution flows into each nozzle, it passes
through an aspirator and is mixed with air to
form the foam bubbles. In most fixed systems the
nozzles are aimed at a bulkhead or metal de-
flector, so the foam flows gently onto the surface
of the burning liquid. All the spray nozzles in the
system discharge foam at the same time, to cover
the area rapidly with a blanket of foam.

The system will continue to operate and pro-
duce foam until the foam-concentrate supply in
the storage tank is depleted. When this occurs,

178

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

water will continue to flow through the system
and out the foam nozzles. If the water is allowed
to flow more than 2 or 3 minutes, it will start to
dilute the foam blanket and break it down. There-
fore, it is important to shut off the system when
it is no longer producing foam.

Foam-Concentrate Supplies. The rate of appli-
cation affects the ability of foam to control flam-
mable-liquid fires; it is essential that the required
amount of foam be discharged in 3 minutes. The
pumps, piping and nozzles are designed to do
this. However, sufficient foam concentrate must
be carried to produce the required amount of
foam solution, which is 6.5 liters/min per m2
(1.6 gal/min/per 10 ft2) of protected area. The
total available supply of foam concentrate must
at least be sufficient for the space requiring the
greatest amount. In conjunction with the deck
foam system which requires a 20-minute supply,
this will automatically cover the requirements
for other spaces.

Most foam concentrates have a storage life of
5-20 years, depending on the manufacturer.
However, the concentrate must be stored prop-
erly, on sturdy racks, where the containers will
not become damaged. The storage space should
be ventilated and fairly dry, with an ambient
temperature not exceeding 38°C (100°F). The
foam should be kept away from steam pipes and

hot bulkheads. Excessive temperatures deteriorate
the liquid concentrate and reduce its foam-mak-
ing capability.

Foam-Concentrate Tanks. In the diaphragm-
tank foam system shown in Figure 9.16, the foam-
concentrate tank is fitted internally with a flex-
ible rubber diaphragm. The diaphragm is one
half the size of the tank and is fastened to a metal
lio around the tank midsection. As the tank is
filled with foam concentrate, the rubber dia-
phragm is pressed against the walls of the tank.
When the foam system is activated, the foam
svstem pump supplies water to both the propor-
tioner and the tank at a predetermined pressure.
The water enters the tank on the diaphragm side.
It pushes against the diaphragm with enough
pressure to force foam concentrate out of the
tank and into the foam proportioner. An adjust-
able metering valve provides a measured flow of
foam concentrate to the proportioner; this as-
sures the proper proportions of water and con-
centrate to produce the foam solution. After
operation, the water is drained from the tank.
The tank is then refilled with the appropriate
type and amount of foam concentrate. The sys-
tem is very reliable and does not require the
separate foam-concentrate pump.

Another type of foam-concentrate tank is
shown in Figure 9.17. Here, water moving

BALANCED PRESSURE PROPORTIONER

Foam Concentrate

Flexible Rubber Diaphragm

(Diaphragm Tank Type)

Metering Valve

Foam Concentrate Flow to Proportioner

Water Flow to Tank

Foam Solution

Water From Ship Foam System Pump

Proportioner

Water Flow to Proportioner

Figure 9.16. Schematic diagram showing the operation of a diaphragm-type foam concentrate tank. (Courtesy Rockwood
System Corporation)

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

179

Water Supply

Line
Proportioners

Concentrate

<^U>

Foam
Solution

Figure 9.17. Venturi-affect foam tank with dual propor-
tioners. This type of tank does not require a separate foam
concentrate pump. (Courtesy National Foam System, Inc.)

through the proportioner creates a slight vacuum.
The vacuum draws a metered amount of foam
concentrate up from the tank and into the water
stream. Note the two separate water lines, with
proportioners in Figure 9.17. Each line has its
own water control valve and can serve a differ-
ent foam piping system.

Foam-concentrate storage tanks must be kept
filled, with liquid halfway into the expansion dome
to ensure prolonged storage life. The tank should
be kept closed to the atmosphere, except for the
pressure vacuum vent. When a tank is partially
empty, there is a larger liquid surface area to
interact with air. This allows excessive evapora-
tion and condensation, which degrade the foam
concentrate and permit corrosion of the tank
shell.

Nozzle Placement. Once the foam solution is
produced, it can be piped to supply a deck-system
turret, handline nozzles or fixed marine floor or
overhead spray deflectors (Fig. 9.18). The supply
can also service high-expansion foam devices if
proper concentrate is used.

Nozzles are located so that no point in the
protected area is more than 9 m (30 ft) from a
nozzle. If there is an obstruction to the flow of
foam, additional nozzles must be employed.

The nozzles protecting boiler flats are posi-
tioned to spread the foam under the floor plates
on the lower boiler flat. The foam will then fol-
low the path of a fuel-oil spill, providing it does
not have to travel very far from the nozzle. In
machinery spaces the nozzles are placed to pro-
tect the bilge. U.S. Coast Guard regulations re-

quire that the distance from the bilge nozzles to
the bilge be no less than 152 mm (6 in.). When
the foam system is used to protect an oil-fired
boiler installation on a boiler flat that can drain
to the lower engine room, both spaces should be
protected simultaneously. Nozzles should be lo-
cated near the boiler flat and near the floor plates.

Hydrant Requirement — Additional Protection.

According to Coast Guard regulations, "two addi-
tional fire hydrants are required outside of ma-
chinery spaces to extinguish residual fires above
the floor plates." These two hydrants are addi-
tional to those required for the fire-main system.
If the foam system is blanketing a fire below
the floor plates, fire above the floor plates should
be attacked with the low-velocity applicator.
Water usage should be kept to a minimum to
prevent excessive drainage into the bilge and
dilution of the foam. A straight stream should
definitely not be used. It could "dig into" the
foam blanket, break it up and allow the fire to
reflash.

Valves and Piping. A diagram of the piping
system and control valves should be posted in
the foam supply room. It should show which
valves are to be opened in the event the system
must be activated. The diagram should explain
thoroughly and clearly all the steps necessary to
put the system into operation. Color coding the
valves aids in identification, e.g., all valves that
are to be opened when a fire alarm is received
might be painted some distinctive color. Each
valve could also be labeled as to its function;
this would be of help in operating, restoring and
maintaining the system.

Deck Foam Systems (Tankers)

Deck foam systems are required on all tank ves-
sels by the 1970 Tank Vessel Regulations. The
foam system replaces the fixed-pipe, inert-gas
smothering system, for improved fire protection.
With a fixed-pipe, inert-gas system, the rupture
of a key inert-gas line would make it impossible
to get inert gas to the fire. The rupture of a tank
would make it impossible to maintain an inert-gas
concentration.

The deck foam system is intended to protect
any deck area with foam applied from stations
(monitors or hose stations) located aft of the area.
At least 50% of the required rate of application
must come from mounted devices (deck foam
monitors). Mounted appliances have greater ca-
pacity and range, require fewer personnel, and
can be put into operation in a much shorter time
than handheld devices. Title 46 CFR 34.20 re-

180

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

High Expansion Foam

Handline Nozzle

3

■pH&x

V^

Foam Concentrate

mMSSZSZZZnZSZZ2ZZZZZZZZZ3S22ZZnZZZSZZZZZL

WW///A

WMt

v>vw^ ^ssss^^sssss^ jESS^^^^s^)^^gs^y

Foam Solution
- Proportioner

Water Supply

Figure 9.18. Fixed mechanical foam systems can supply turret and handline nozzles, foam discharge heads and high-expan-
sion foam devices. (Courtesy Rockwood Systems, Inc.)

quires that each foam monitor have a capacity
of at least 3 liters/min per m2 covered (0.073
gal/min per ft2 covered). At least one handheld
device must also be provided at each foam station
for flexibility during the final stages of extinguish-
ment. The system piping and the foam stations
must be arranged so that a ruptured section of
piping may be isolated during a fire. With this
arrangement, it is possible to fight a fire effec-
tively by working forward from the after house
(assuming the machinery and foam generating
equipment is aft).

The system is supplied from a central station
that houses the foam-concentrate tank, propor-
tioning unit, foam pump and control valves. Pip-
ing carries the foam solution from the central
station to foam stations located on deck, above
the cargo tanks. Each foam station is equipped
with a foam turret nozzle and may have one or

two foam-dispensing handlines. The stations are
generally located so that the foam pattern from
each station overlaps the foam patterns from
adjacent stations.

How the System Works. The foam system and
each foam station are activated manually. The
first step is to activate the foam pumps and open
the proper valves in the foam supply room. This
starts the flow of foam solution to the fire station
through the main piping. The turret nozzle is put
into operation by opening a valve that is usually
located in the supply pipe at the base of the
turret. The handlines at the foam station also
must be put into operation manually. When the
foam solution passes into the foam turret or hand
nozzle, air is drawn in; it mixes with the foam
solution to produce low-expansion mechanical
foam.

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

181

Rate of Foam Flow. The required foam solu-
tion rate is 0.65 liter/min per m2 (0.016 gal/min
per ft2) of the entire tank surface, for 15 minutes.
The entire tank surface is defined as the maxi-
mum beam of the vessel times the longitudinal
extent of the tank spaces. The required rate is
based on the typical T-2 tanker configuration
shown in Figure 9.19. Note: The term "water
rate" is used by USCG; its meaning is synony-
mous with that of "foam solution rate" for 3%
and 6% concentrate systems.

For the usual petroleum products, the foam
solution rate must be at least 0.65 liter/min per
m2 (0.016 gal/min per ft2) of cargo area or 9.8
liters/min per m2 (0.24 gal/min per ft2) of the
horizontal sectional area of the single tank having
the largest area, whichever is greater. The quan-
tity of foam available must be sufficient for 15
minutes of operation, or 20 minutes of operation
without recharging on installations after January
1, 1975. The cargo area is defined as the maxi-
mum beam of the vessel times the longitudinal
extent of the tank spaces.

The foam solution rate was determined by as-
suming fire in hold no. 3C, and probable and
possible fire areas as shown in Figure 9.19. The
total possible fire area is approximately one third
of the total tank area of the vessel. The time of
application of the required rate (15 minutes) was
based upon two considerations:

1 . If the fire were to burn longer than 15 min-
utes, it is improbable that it could be con-
tained and extinguished by the vessel's
crew.

2. The previous requirement for fixed systems
protecting cargo tanks was to apply foam
for 5 minutes per tank. Since the possible
fire area covers three tanks, the required
application time is 3 X 5 = 15 minutes.

Fire extinguishment does not always depend
on the thickness of the foam blanket. What is im-
portant is to maintain an effective vaportight
cover on the fire. Some foams require thick
blankets to accomplish this. Other foams can do
an equally effective job with thinner blankets.
Thus, the rate of application, as related to some
standard rate, is the important factor.

Pumps. The use of the deck foam main must
not interfere with simultaneous use of the fire
main. The ship's fire pumps may be used to pro-
vide water for foam generation if, in a fixed sys-
tem, the pumps are located outside the protected
space. If the foam system water supply is taken
directly from the fire main, a single fire pump
must be capable of meeting the fire-main and
foam system requirements simultaneously.

The foam system piping may not be used for
any other purpose. If it were, complex operating
instructions would be required. This would make
the foam system something other than a versatile
fire protection system that can be put into imme-
diate use. In addition, there would be a possibility
of pumping the foam out through the ballast con-
nection rather than the monitors and handline
nozzles.

CARBON DIOXIDE SYSTEMS

Carbon dioxide (CO2) systems are used to pro-
tect cargo spaces, pump rooms, generator rooms,
storage spaces such as paint and lamp lockers,
galley ranges and duct systems. They are also used
in engine rooms and to protect individual gen-
erators.

As an extinguishing agent, CO2 is especially
adaptable to shipboard use: It will not damage
expensive cargo or machinery. It leaves no unde-
sirable residue to be cleaned off equipment and

9C

8C

7C

6C

5C

j I Probable Fire

[[ Possible Fire

Figure 9.19. Tanker configuration used to determine the required rate of foam flow.

182

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

decks. It does not conduct electricity, and so can
be used on live electrical equipment. It is re-
leased as a liquid under pressure and expands to
a dense gas at atmospheric pressure. It will re-
main at the lower levels of a space until it dif-
fuses with time and a temperature rise.

There are some disadvantages to CO2. The
amount that can be carried on a ship is limited,
because it must be stored in cylinders under pres-
sure. CO2 has little cooling effect on materials
that have been heated by the fire. Instead, CO2
extinguishes fire by smothering, i.e., by displacing
the oxygen content in the surrounding air to
15% or lower. Thus, materials that generate their
own oxygen as they burn cannot be extinguished
by CO 2.

CO2 is hazardous to humans. The minimum
concentration sufficient to extinguish fire does
not reduce the oxygen content of the air to a haz-
ardous level. However, when inhaled, the CO2
raises the acidic level of the blood. This prevents
the hemoglobin from absorbing oxygen in the
lungs, which can lead to a respiratory arrest.
Thus, it is extremely dangerous to enter any com-
partment in which CO2 has been discharged, with-
out proper breathing apparatus. This applies even
to supposedly short periods of time, e.g., a crew-
man might be tempted to hold his breath while
darting into a compartment to rescue a person
lying unconscious on the floor.

CO2 is especially effective against fires involv-
ing flammable liquids. It will also control fires
involving class A combustibles in confined spaces.

Types of Marine Systems

Two fixed CO2 systems are used for the vessel's
protection: The total-flooding system for ma-
chinery space and the cargo system. A total-
flooding system for machinery space is activated
only as a last resort, after all other extinguishing
methods have been tried and have failed to con-
trol the fire. This system for machinery spaces
expels 85% of its total CO2 capacity within 2
minutes to achieve rapid saturation of the air
with CO2 and quick extinguishment. This rapid
release of the CO2 is necessary in spaces such as
engine rooms, where fast-burning flammable
liquids must be extinguished quickly. Smaller
versions of the total-flooding system are used in
generator rooms, pump rooms and paint lockers.
The systems designed for these spaces may be
supplied by the main system, or they may be com-
plete, independent systems.

The cargo system is not activated immediately
upon discovery of the fire. The involved space
(usually a cargo hold) is first sealed. Then the

agent is introduced into the space at a preset rate,
to reduce and maintain the oxygen content at a
level that will not support combustion. Cargo
systems are used in a break-bulk, ro-ro and
stacked-container cargo holds. The cargo tanks
aboard cargo and passenger vessels may be pro-
tected by a type of CO2 cargo system. Tank ves-
sels contracted prior to January 1, 1962, may
have CO2 systems in their cargo tanks. Tank ves-
sels contracted on or after January 1, 1970, must
be equipped with a deck foam system and may
have an approved inert-gas or water spray system
for cargo tank protection.

All CO2 systems consist basically of piping,
discharge nozzles of a special configuration,
valves and CO2 cylinders. The cylinders are ar-
ranged to discharge their contents into the system
through a manifold. The CO2 is also used to
activate alarm devices and pressure switches that
shut down ventilation systems. Total-flooding
systems and cargo systems are activated manu-
ally. Smaller systems (those using less than 136 kg
(300 lb) of CO2) for paint lockers and other small
spaces may be automatically activated by heat
sensitive devices or may be operated manually.

Actuating a Typical
Total-Flooding System

The total-flooding system is actuated manually
by pulling two cables. The cable pulls are housed
in pull boxes. They are connected through corner
pulleys to controls in the CO2 room. Coast Guard
regulations require that the pull boxes be located
outside the area being protected, for example,
outside an engine room doorway that would be
a normal route of escape. The cable pulls are
protected by glass to prevent tampering. To op-
erate the glass must be broken with the hammer
that is provided. Then each cable must be pulled
straight out. The cables must be pulled in the re-
quired sequence. Instructions explaining how to
actuate the system should be posted over the pull
boxes (Fig. 9.20).

One cable is connected to the control heads
on the pilot cylinders; the other is connected to a
control head mounted on the pilot port valve.
When both cables are pulled, CO2 discharges
from the two pilot cylinders and opens the pilot
port valve. The CO2 is delayed from discharging
into the fire area by a stop valve. During the de-
lay, the CO2 is routed through the pilot port
valve to the discharge delay device, into piping
where it actuates pressure switches. About 20
seconds is required for the CO2 to pass through
the discharge delay device. During this time,
ventilation svstems are shut down and alarm de-

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

183

FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM

Break Glass and Pull Handle of
Valve Control Pull Box
Immediately Break Glass and Pull
Handle of Cylinder Control Pull
Box. Alarm Sounds 25 Seconds
Prior to Gas Discharge
Warning Personnel to Evacuate Area

CYLINDER
CONTROL

Figure 9.20. The pull cables used to activate the total-flooding COa system. The cables must be pulled in the proper order
(valve control first) as noted in the posted instructions.

vices are actuated. After the 20-second delay,
the CO2 acts on a pressure control head mounted
on the stop valve. The valve opens, permitting
the C02 to discharge into the protected space.

Carbon Dioxide Warning Alarm. An approved
audible alarm must be installed in every space
protected by a CO2 extinguishing system (other
than paint and lamp lockers and similar small
spaces) and normally accessible to persons on
board while the vessel is being navigated. The
alarm must be arranged to sound automatically
for at least 20 seconds prior to the discharge of
CO2 into the space. It must not depend on any
source of power other than the CO2. The alarm
must be conspicuously and centrally located and
marked "WHEN ALARM SOUNDS VACATE
AT ONCE. CARBON DIOXIDE IS BEING
RELEASED" (Fig. 9.21).

Actuation Procedure. In case of fire in the en-
gine room, once the decision to release the fixed
CO2 system is made, the following procedure
should be followed:

The alarm is a warning that the carbon dioxide
system has been activated. Once it sounds, you
have about 20 seconds to get out of the space.
Do not delay — leave immediately: If you delay,
the CO2 will flood the space and reduce the oxy-
gen content below the level required to sustain
life. Failure to evacuate immediately could result
in loss of life.

WHENAL
AT ONCE. CA.

Figure 9.21. Carbon dioxide alarm and posted warning.

184

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

1. Warn personnel to evacuate the space.

2. Close all doors, hatches and other openings.

3. Secure main and auxiliary machinery.

4. Go to the pull boxes at the engine room
exit.

5. Break the glass and pull the handle of the
pull box marked "valve control" (Fig.
9.20).

6. Immediately break the glass and pull the
handle of the pull box marked "cylinder
control" (Fig. 9.20).

The system may also be activated from within
the CO2 room. Here the procedure is to remove
the locking pins and operate the levers of the
control heads mounted on the two pilot cylinders
and the pilot port valve. The discharge delay may
be bypassed by removing the locking pin and
operating the lever of the pressure control head
mounted on the stop valve. {See Chapter 10 for
a discussion on using CO2 total-flooding system
to combat an engine room fire.)

Combination Smoke Detection —
Carbon Dioxide System

Smoke detection systems are often installed in
cargo spaces, along with carbon dioxide extin-
guishing systems. When the presence of fire is
detected by the smoke detection system, it sounds
alarms in the CO2 room, bridge and engine room.
The line number indicator locks on the monitor-
ing line from which smoke is detected. The CO2
extinguishing system must then be activated man-
ually. {See Chapter 6 for a discussion of smoke
detection systems.)

Recheck and Initial Discharge. The following
procedure should be used when the smoke de-
tection system signals a cargo space fire:

1. Confirm the presence of smoke. To do so,
depress the recheck (or reset) button on
the main detecting cabinet, and note
whether the indicator locks on the same
line again. Then visually inspect all moni-
toring lines for smoke.

2. Check the number of the line showing
smoke against the line index chart, to de-
termine which space is involved.

3. Make certain no one is in the space.

4. Shut off all mechanical ventilation; seal all
ventilators, ports, sounding pipes and
hatches leading to the space.

5. Refer to the line index chart or profile
chart for the number of cylinders to be
discharged into the involved space.

6. Open the three-way valve whose number
(on the handle) is indicated on the line
index chart. To do so, pull the handle down
so the word "extinguishing" is visible.
When more than one line is installed in a
space, open all the three-way valves for
that space (Fig. 9.22).

7. Discharge the required number of cylin-
ders, in pairs. To do this, remove the lock-
ing pin and operate the lever of the control
head mounted on one cylinder of each pair.
Caution: Do not operate the control heads
mounted on the pilot cylinders until all
other cylinders have been discharged. Op-
erating the pilot cylinders first will activate
all the cylinders connected to the manifold
(Fig. 9.23).

If fire occurs in two spaces simultaneously,
only one three-way valve is opened; the required
number of clinders is discharged into the space
served by that valve. When this first space has
been charged with CO2, the first valve is closed.
The second three-way valve is then opened, and
the required number of cylinders is discharged
into the second space. Carbon dioxide should be
discharged into the lowest involved space first,
then into the next higher space, and so on.

Delayed Discharge. To maintain the proper
CO2 level, additional cylinders should be dis-
charged into the involved space at intervals rang-
ing from 30 minutes to 6 hours. If the smoke in-
creases in intensity or the surrounding plates and
bulkheads get hotter, shorter intervals are indi-
cated; if conditions are favorable, longer intervals
are acceptable. The number of cylinders to be
discharged and the intervals are shown on the
line index chart and profile chart, as delayed dis-
charges.

Because the supply of CO2 is limited, it should
be used carefully. The distance of the ship from
port and the possibility of obtaining additional
CO2 at a port should be taken into account. Cargo
hold fires usually are not extinguished quickly;
they often require days to extinguish. {See Chap-
ters 3 and 10 for detailed discussions of cargo
hold fires.)

Lash and Seabee Barge-carrying Ships. Combi-
nation smoke detection-carbon dioxide systems
are used in the cargo holds of Lash and Seabee
barge carrying ships. When fire is detected in the
hold of a Lash vessel carrying barges, the CO2
is released into the entire hold — not into indi-
vidual barges. On Seabee vessels, a smoke detec-
tor monitoring line is attached to each barge.
When fire occurs, the smoke detector identifies

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

185

Figure 9.22. The proper three-way valve (or valves) must be pulled down to route CO? to the involved space. Here, the
involved space is served by four lines.

the barge. CO2 is manually released into the in-
volved barge through the smoke detector moni-
toring line attached to that barge. The specific
amount of CO2 to be released is given in the CO2
discharge instructions.

Independent Carbon Dioxide Systems

The paint locker, lamp locker, engineer's paint
locker and generator rooms can be protected by
independent fixed CO2 systems, i.e., each system
has its own CO2 supply, independent of other
CO2 systems. If the space requires less than 136
kg (300 lbs) of C02, the cylinders may be installed
inside each protected space provided they are
capable of automatic operation. These systems
are manually operated, in addition to being ac-
tivated automatically by heat detectors.

Independent Automatic System. An independ-
ent automatic system is composed of heat detec

tors, one or more CO2 cylinders, piping, valves
and discharge nozzles. The heat detectors are
usually of the pneumatic type. They are located
on 'the overhead of the protected space and are
connected by tubing to a pneumatic control head
mounted on the pilot cylinder. Air contained in
the heat detector expands as the temperature
rises; the resulting pressure increase is transmitted
to the control head through the tubing. The con-
trol head is vented so that normal increases in
temperature will not activate the system. How-
ever, the sudden increase in pressure caused by a
fire cannot be vented off fast enough. This in-
creased pressure operates a diaphragm-lever ar-
rangement in the control head and releases the
contents of the CO2 cylinder. The carbon dioxide
then discharges into the space through approved
nozzles. When the system goes into operation,
it sounds an audible alarm to alert crew members
to begin evacuation immediately.

186

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

TYPICAL CO, CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT

C3=4t

Lever for

Manual

Operation

Releases

Entire

Cylinder

Bank

&

Pilot Cylinders

Control Head

Cable

Releases

Entire

Cylinder

Bank

Local Lever

Releases

Entire

Cylinder

Bank

Local Control
Levers for
:, Release of
Two Cylinders

Top View of Cylinder Bank

Figure 9.23. The pilot C02 cylinders must be activated last when COa is routed to a cargo space fire. Otherwise, all the cyl-
inders in the bank will be opened at once. (Courtesy Walter Kidde and Company)

1

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

187

Independent Manual System. To activate an
independent manual system, one or two pull
cables (depending on the manufacturer) must be
operated. The cables are, as usual, located in pull
boxes outside the protected space.
To activate a manual system

1 . Make sure no one is in the protected space.

2. Close all doors, hatches and other openings
to the space.

3. Operate the pull cable (or cables) accord-
ing to the posted instructions.

The involved space should remain buttoned
up for several hours, if possible. Then, if no heat
buildup is evident on decks or bulkheads, a hose-
line, charged with water and ready for use, should
be positioned outside the door. The door should
then be opened slightly. If fire is not evident, the
door should be left open, but no one should enter
the space. First, a breathable oxygen level must
be allowed to build up. If the CO2 has extin-
guished the fire, the atmosphere in the space may
be tested for oxygen content after some time has
passed. It is important not to rush in before mak-
ing sure that the space will support life.

Carbon Dioxide Protection for Rotating Elec-
trical Equipment. Carbon dioxide systems are
used to protect generators with CO2 discharge
nozzles located inside the casing. The piping leads
from the casing to a cylinder of CO2. Most units
of this type are activated manually. The need for
evacuation of personnel should be evaluated when
the system is designed, by determining the degree
of oxygen depletion caused when CO2 is dis-
charged. Since the CO2 does not flood the engine
room, evacuation may not be required.

Inspection and Maintenance of
Carbon Dioxide Systems

Carbon dioxide systems are reliable when they
are maintained properly. Almost all malfunctions
are due to neglect. When CO2 systems have failed
to control or extinguish fire, it was usually be-
cause they were used incorrectly, owing to a lack
of knowledge. These fire extinguishing systems
require only normal care to ensure proper opera-
tion when they are needed. However, they should
be inspected on a regular basis, to combat the
tendency to neglect emergency equipment of this
kind.

Monthly Inspection. At least once a month,
each fixed CO2 system should be checked to en-
sure that nothing has been stowed so as to inter-
fere with the operation of the equipment or with

access to its controls. All nozzles and piping
should be checked for obstruction by paint, oil
or other substances. The semi-portable hose-reel
horn valve should be operated several times. Any
damaged equipment must be replaced immedi-
ately.

Annual Inspection. It is recommended that a
qualified fire protection technician or engineer
make the annual inspection. Each year all the
cylinders should be weighed, and the weights re-
corded on the record sheet. If a weigh bar is not
installed above any cylinder, the cylinder must
be placed on a scale for weighing. The full and
empty weights of each cylinder are stamped on
the cylinder valve. A cyclinder is considered satis-
factory if its weight is within 10% of the stamped
full weight of the charge.

Removing Charged Cylinders. When charged
cylinders are to be removed from service, the dis-
charge must be disconnected first. This eliminates
the possibility of accidentally discharging the
cylinders. Here is the recommended procedure
for a typical system:

1 . Remove the discharge heads from all cylin-
der valves by loosening the mounting nuts,
which have right-hand threads. On instal-
lations of more than one cylinder, allow
the discharge heads to hang on the loops.

2. Remove all the control heads from the cyl-
inder valves by loosening the right-hand-
threaded mounting nuts.

3. Screw a large top protection cap onto the
threads on top of the cylinder valve. Screw
a side protection cap onto the cylinder-
valve control-head outlet.

4. Remove the cylinder rack.

5. Remove the cylinder. It is recommended
that the cylinder cap be screwed on to pre-
vent damage to the cylinder valve during
removal.

Installing Charged Cylinders. When charged
cylinders are placed in service, the discharge
heads are replaced last. Here is the recommended
procedure for a typical system:

1. Place the fully charged cylinder in the cyl-
inder rack before removing the cylinder
cap.

2. Install the cylinder rack, and handtighten
the bolts so that the cylinder may be ro-
tated in place.

3. Remove the cylinder cap and the top and
side protection caps.

188

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

INSTRUCTIONS FOR WEIGHING PRESSURE OPERATED CYLINDERS

21 "-Not Including

Clearance for Operator

Weighing Angle

Adjustment Sleeve

Sleeve ,

_ — — — -- -TO

Discharge Head
Yoke

Control Heads
Coupling Nut

Initial Position
Final Position

8Va " Diameter Weighing
Scale — Rotated 90°
for Clearness

Pointer Initial Position

Finger Grip Ring

Figure 9.24. Carbon dioxide cylinder weigh bar and its use. (Courtesy Walter Kidde and Company)

4. Turn the cylinder so that the control-head
outlet points in the proper direction.
Tighten the cylinder rack bolts securely.

5. Make certain that all control heads have
been reset, as follows:

a. Cable-operated control head:

(1) Remove the cover from the control
head.

(2) Make sure the plunger is retracted
below the surface of the control-
head body. Then engage a few
threads of the mounting nut onto
the cylinder valve.

(3) Retract the actuating roller as far
as possible from the direction of
pull.

(4) Replace the cover and locking pin,
and install a new seal wire. (Note:
When two control heads are con-
nected in tandem, make certain
both are completely reset before
assembling them to the cylinder
valves.)

b. Lever-operated control head:

(1) Return the lever to the set position,
with the plunger fully retracted
into the control-head body.

(2) Replace the locking pin, and install
a new seal wire.

c. Pneumatic control head:

(1) Insert a screwdriver into the reset
stem. Turn it clockwise until the
stem locks in position with the ar-
row on the reset stem lined up with
the set arrow on the nameplate.
The plunger should be fully re-
tracted into the control head body.

(2) Replace the locking pin, and install
a new seal wire.

Reinstall the control head on the cylinder
valve, tightening the mounting nut securely.

Connect the discharge head to the cylin-
der valve, tightening the mounting nut with
a wrench that is at least 457 mm (18 in.)
long.

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

189

Replacing Damaged Discharge Nozzles. If a

discharge nozzle in a total-flooding system must
be replaced, it should be replaced with a nozzle
of the same size and discharge rate. Each dis-
charge nozzle is installed to achieve a set dis-
charge rate, and to ensure saturation of the space
it protects in a certain length of time. The wrong
nozzle can destroy the effectiveness of the system
in the affected space.

MARINE HALON 1301 SYSTEM

A halogenated extinguishing agent, Halon 1301,
has been accepted by the Coast Guard for lim-
ited use in fixed firefighting systems aboard U.S.
ships. Halon 1301 is a very efficient extinguishing
agent for fires involving flammable liquids and
gases and live electrical equipment. It is a clean
agent; its residue does not contaminate electrical
contacts or circuits. It is a nonconductor of elec-
tricity.

Halon 1301 is a colorless, odorless gas. It may
be toxic when exposed to flames. (This is taken
into consideration in the engineering of Halon
1301 systems.) When the flames are extinguished
quickly, a minimal amount of toxic material is
produced. Slow extinguishment allows increased
production of toxic materials at levels that could
be dangerous to personnel.

The effectiveness of Halon 1301 as an extin-
guishing agent comes from its ability to chemi-
cally interrupt the combustion process. When ap-
plied in the proper concentration and at the
proper delivery rate (usually in less than 10 sec-
onds), it extinguishes flames very rapidly. {See
Chapter 7 for a discussion of the other properties
of Halon 1301.)

Halon 1301 System Requirements

To be acceptable for use on U.S. ships, a Halon
1301 system must be at least as reliable and effec-
tive as the system it replaces. Most of the Halon
1301 systems approved by the U.S. Coast Guard
protect machinery spaces, turbine enclosures and
pump rooms, where the usual petroleum products
may be found. Halon 1301 systems are not yet
approved for installation in the holds of ships
carrying general cargo (usually class A materials.)
The spaces for which Halon 1301 systems have
been approved are those normally protected by
COo systems. Thus, Halon 1301 systems must
meet all the design requirements for CO2 total-
flooding systems. These include

1. Evacuation of all personnel from the pro-
tected space before the extinguishing agent
is discharged. (A warning alarm, audible

above operating machinery, is required.
Personnel must be protected from both
Halon 1301 and its toxic decomposition
products.)

2. Stowage of the extinguishing agent outside
the protected space except for space less
than 169.9 m3 (6000 ft3) and modular sys-
tems.

3. Performance of two separate actions to
activate the system. (Two pull boxes are
used; one activates the pilot cylinders and
one controls the stop valve, as in the CO2
system.)

4. Manual activation of the system, except
for spaces with a volume less than 169.9 m3
(6000 ft3). (Systems for these smaller
spaces may be activated automatically, and
the extinguishing agent may be stowed
within the protected space. However, an
automatic system must also be capable
of manual operation.)

5. Posting of detailed instructions for activat-
ing alternate means of discharging the sys-
tem at the remote release station.

Two types of Halon 1301 fire extinguishing
systems have been approved by the Coast Guard.
One, the preengineered type, includes a system
approved for limited installation in unmanned
spaces on hydrofoil craft (maximum volume of
63.7 m3 (2250 ft3) and uninspected pleasure
craft. The other, the engineered type, includes
systems installed on merchant vessels.

Engineered Halon 1301 Systems

The engineered system is a total-flooding system.
The Halon 1301 extinguishing agent is contained
in cylinders in liquid form. It is pressurized with
dry nitrogen to a pressure of 2482 or 4137 kilo-
pascals (360 or 600 psi) at 21°C (70°F). The
cylinders are stowed outside the protected space,
in an area whose temperature is maintained be-
tween -29°C and 54.4°C (-20°F-130°F). The
bulkheads if contiguous separating the cylinders
from the protected space must be A-60 bulk-
heads.

The cylinders are connected to a manifold that,
in turn, is connected to piping leading to the pro-
tected space. All cylinders on a common manifold
must be of the same size and must contain the
same quantity of Halon 1301. This ensures equal
flows from all cylinders. The cylinders should be
adequately supported. Each cylinder must have
a pressure relief device and a pressure gauge.
Figure 9.25 shows one of the general arrange-
ments of Halon 1301 cylinders approved by the
U.S. Coast Guard.

190

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

HALON1301 CYLINDER ARRANGEMENT

Cable

Discharge Manifold

Halon
(50lb./Min. Per Cylinder)

Halon

Figure 9.25. A U.S. Coast Guard approved arrangement for Halon 1301 cylinders in a manually operated engineered extin-
guishing system. 1) Line to pressure-operated alarm. 2) Line to pressure-operated switches. 3) Time delay. 4) Valve capable of
manual operations. 5) Pressure-operated valve (cannot be operated manually). 6) Check valve.

Extinguishing-Agent Discharge Requirements.

Enough Halon 1301 must be available to provide
a minimum concentration of 6% of the gross
volume of the protected space. A concentration
of 7% may be required for the effective extin-
guishment of fires involving most marine fuels.

Both liquid and gaseous Halon 1301 flow
through the piping to protected areas. Thus, the
flow rates and piping sizes must be carefully com-
puted when the system is designed. In addition,
the system must be "balanced" so that all spaces
that may require simultaneous discharge are ade-
quately served.

Controls. A remote release (pull-box) station is
required for each protected space. It should be
located close to one exit from that space. Posted
instructions at the release station should describe
how to activate the system from the station. They
should also describe an alternative means of ac-
tivating the system in case the remote release fails.
The instructions should be in large print and
easily understood.

A warning device, actuated by pressure from
the Halon 1301 system, must sound an alarm
when the agent is about to be discharged into the
protected space. The discharge must be delayed,
to give personnel sufficient time to evacuate the
space before the Halon 1301 is released. A sign

should be posted at the warning device, explain-
ing its purpose. In addition, a sign must be posted
at each entrance to each protected space. The
sign must warn crew members not to enter the
space without breathing apparatus after the sys-
tem has been activated.

A schematic diagram of the entire system
should be posted in the Halon 1301 storage room.
Each section of the system should be numbered,
color coded or identified by name. The valves
controlling these sections should be similarly
identified. Instructions for activating the system
should be posted in the storage room and at each
pull box or stop valve. Again, the instructions
should be in large print and easily understood.
They should indicate which valves must be op-
erated to activate each section of the system.

Ventilation. If a protected space is ventilated
mechanically, the ventilation system must be
automatically shut down by the release of the
Halon 1301. Time must be allowed for fans and
motors to stop rotating before the agent is re-
leased into the space. There must be some pro-
vision for sealing off points where the Halon
1301 could escape from the protected space. If
this is not done, the concentration of the agent
can be reduced below the effective level. Addi-
tional Halon must be provided, to make up for
any leakage.

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

191

If a diesel or gasoline engine draws air from
the protected space, the engine must be shut
down before the extinguishing agent is released.
Otherwise, the Halon 1301 would be decomposed
by the high pressure and temperature within the
engine. An automatic shutoff, activated by the
extinguishing system, is required.

Inspection and Maintenance. If any system is
to perform properly in an emergency, it must be
inspected at intervals and maintained as neces-
sary. Halon 1301 systems should be checked as
follows

1. The cylinders should be weighed periodi-
cally. A weight loss of 5% or more indi-
cates that the affected cylinder should be
replaced or recharged.

2. The cylinder pressures should also be
checked periodically. Table 9.2 gives nor-
mal pressures for a range of ambient tem-
peratures. A pressure loss of 10% or more
(for a given temperature) indicates that
the affected cylinder must be recharged or
replaced.

3. Remote release levers, cables and pulleys
should be checked to ensure smooth opera-
tion.

4. Automatic switches and warning alarms
should be checked to verify that they are
operating properly.

5. Halon 1301 cylinders should be hydro-
statically tested every 12 years.

DRY CHEMICAL DECK SYSTEMS

Ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk are now
being fitted with a dry chemical fire extinguishing
system to conform with IMCO and U.S. Coast
Guard recommendations and regulations. The
system is used to protect the cargo deck area and
all loading-station manifolds on the ship (see Fig.
10.19). Each deck system is actually made up of

several independent skid-mounted units (Fig.
9.26). The units are placed on deck so that they
protect overlapping areas. The units are self-
contained firefighting systems that use dry
chemical.

Components of the Skid-Mounted Unit
(A Typical System)

Each unit consists of a large capacity storage
tank holding up to 1361 kg (3000 lb) of dry
chemical 11.3 m3 (400-ft3) capacity nitrogen
cylinders (6-8 per skid) and 30.5-45.7 m (100-
150 ft) of lined, round rubber hose on reels. The
unit can be fitted with a turret nozzle and several
handlines. In some systems, handlines are used
exclusively; in this case, up to six handline sta-
tions can be supplied, by each unit. Generally,
the hose reels are mounted on the unit. However,
in some installations, remote handlines are con-
nected to the unit via piping. The hoselines are
equipped with special On-Off controlled nozzles.

IMCO requires that monitor turrets have a
discharge rate of not less than 10 kg/sec (22 lb/
sec), and handline nozzles not less than 3.5
kg/sec (7.7 lb/sec). The maximum nozzle dis-
charge rate is set by the requirement that one man
be able to control the handline. The U.S. Coast
Guard has adopted the recommendations of
IMCO as at least its minimum standards.

The monitor-turret range required by IMCO
is based on the discharge rate:

Monitor-turret

maximum capacity

Maximum reach

kg/sec (lb/sec)

m(it)

10 (22)

10 (33)

25 (55.4)

30 (99)

45 (99)

40(132)

A handline is considered to have a range equal
to its length. The actual coverage is affected when
the target is above the nozzle. Wind conditions
also affect coverage.

Table 9.2. Normal Halon 1301 Extinguishing System Cylinder Pressure as Related to Temperature.

Temperature
°C(°F)

Cylinder pressure

2482-kilopascals (360-psi) 4137-kilopascals (600-psi)

system system

4.4 (40)

10 (50)

16 (60)

21 (70)

27 (80)

32 (90)

38 (100)

1896(275)
2068 (300)
2275 (330)
2482 (360)
2723 (395)
2965 (430)
3241 (470)

3447 (500)
3654 (530)
3896 (565)
4137 (600)
4413 (640)
4688 (680)
5033 (730)

192

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Figure 9.26. Typical skid-mounted dry chemical deck unit. (Courtesy Ansul Company)

A sufficient quantity of dry chemical should be
stored on each unit to provide at least 45 seconds
of continuous discharge through all its monitors
and handline.

How the System Works

When fire is discovered, each skid-mounted unit
is activated manually. The nitrogen cylinder
valve is opened to release the nitrogen propel-
lent. The nitrogen flows into the dry chemical
storage tank through a perforated aerating tube.
The holes in the tube are covered with rubber, so
that nitrogen can flow into the tank but dry chem-
ical cannot enter the tube. The action is similar
to that of a check valve. The nitrogen cylinder
valve is calibrated to release dry chemical to the
nozzles at the proper rate. The hose should always
be stowed with the nozzle in the closed position,
since the dry chemical flows to the nozzle as soon
as the nitrogen is released.

Activating and operating details vary with dif-
ferent units and manufacturers. In each case, the
manufacturer's instructions should be followed
carefully. Most important, and common to all sys-
tems, is the need to get the skid units into opera-
tion quickly when fire occurs. For this, standard
activation procedures must be practiced. Emer-
gency procedures, which are used in case the
nitrogen valve does not operate properly, must
also be practiced.

Firefighting Operations

If a handline is to be used, its entire length should
be pulled off the reel. This ensures a smooth flow
of dry chemical and provides enough hose for
maneuvering at the fire. The handline-nozzle
lever has two operating positions: When the lever
is pushed forward, the nozzle is closed. When the
lever is pulled back, the nozzle is open.

The flow of dry chemical into the turret noz-
zle is controlled by a turret control valve. The
valve must be opened by the turret nozzleman
when he is in position. (Some turret nozzles can
be activated and controlled from a remote sta-
tion. Remote operating procedures are given in
the manufacturer's instruction manual.) Streams
from both handlines and turrets are directed onto
fires in the same way.

To fight a spill fire, the stream should be aimed
at the base of the fire and moved back and forth
in a sweeping action. When a turret and hand-
lines are used together, the turret stream should
be used to quickly knock down the bulk of the
flames. The handlines should be directed at the
flanks of the fire.

Hoselines from the fire-main system should be
run out and charged with water. However, water
streams should not be directed into the fire unless
it is absolutely necessary. Initially, they should be
used to protect personnel from the radiant heat,
which can be very intense. If possible, the flames

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

193

should be extinguished or confined to a small
area by the use of dry chemical only. Then, water
streams can be directed into the area to cool hot
surfaces.

In combating a combustible liquid or gas pres-
sure fire, the streams should be directed into the
source of the escaping fuel. The velocity of the
fuel will carry the extinguishing agent to the
flames. It is important, however, to remember
that gas leak fires are usually not extinguished,
but only controlled until the leak can be stopped.
The flames may have to be extinguished if they
block the path to the shutoff valve or when lives
are in jeopardy. If the flames are extinguished,
the area should be kept saturated with water fog
until the leak is stopped.

Blowdown and Recharging

After the fire is completely extinguished and the
master has declared the area safe, the skid units
should be restored to "standby" condition. Dry
chemical should be blown out of all handlines
and piping. Otherwise, it will cake up within the
lines and restrict the flow of agent during the next
use. The dry chemical tank should be refilled
with the proper agent. The nitrogen cylinders
should be replaced, and the remote and pneu-
matic actuators reset.

It is very important that this blowdown and
recharging procedure be performed exactly as
described by the manufacturer. Some parts of
the procedure can be dangerous if the operating
manual is not followed carefully.

Inspection and Maintenance

Every skid-mounted unit should be checked each
week to ensure that it is in operation condition.
The weekly inspection should include the follow-
ing:

1. Check the dry chemical tank and all com-
ponents subjected to the weather for me-
chanical damage and corrosion.

2. Check the readability of the plates that give
operating instructions.

3. Ensure that the cylinder gauges register
properly, according to the operating man-
ual.

4. Check the dry chemical level to ensure that
the tank is filled properly. The fill cap, if
provided, should be hand-tightened only
when it is replaced.

5. Check that all reels are in the unlocked
position. Pull several feet of hose off each
reel, to ensure that the reel moves freely.

6. Check the handline nozzles for obstruc-
tions, and operate their levers to check for
free movement. In replacing a hose on the
reel, make sure the nozzle is secured and
the lever is in the closed position.

7. Make sure all tank valve handles have their
ring pins and are sealed in the operating
position.

Other inspection and maintenance steps may be
detailed in the operating manual. Replacement
parts should be installed in strict compliance with
the manufacturer's instructions.

GALLEY PROTECTION

Three areas within the galley are especially sub-
ject to fire. These are

1. The cooking area, including the frying
griddles, broilers, deep-fat fryers and ovens.

2. The area immediately behind the filter
screens, called the "plenum"

3. The duct system that vents heated gases.

Fires in the cooking area can be serious. How-
ever, since they are out in the open, they usually
can be extinguished completely. Fires in the
plenum and the duct system are of most concern.
Even after such fires are apparently extinguished,
there may still be some fire hidden from view, or
the fire may have extended out of the duct and
into nearby compartments. For this reason, auto-
matic fire extinguishing systems should be in-
stalled to protect all parts of the range, plenum
and ducts. Three types of systems are discussed
in this section.

Fire Prevention

Ventilation plays a critical part in protecting the
range area against fire. The function of the ex-
haust blower is not simply to remove odors; its
main function is to move sufficient air to keep
the entire facility at a safe operating temperature.
The blowers and the airflows (under the hood and
in the ducts) are designed to keep the temperature
from exceeding 93 °C (200°F).

Maintenance and cleanliness are also very im-
portant. Electric circuits and gas lines must be
kept in good condition. Filters should be cleaned
often. The filters remove grease and oils from the
smoke generated by the cooking process. When
these substances remain on the filters, they react
chemically. The reactions produce flammable sub-
stances, which are a fire hazard. In addition,
clogged filters restrict the flow of ventilating air,

194

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

so that the temperature rises above the safe level.
The result is usually a fire.

Dry Chemical Galley Range System

The dry chemical galley system is composed of a
pressurized dry chemical cylinder, piping, noz-
zles and detectors. There are two sets of piping,
one in front of the filters over the cooking sur-
face, and one behind the plenum and in the duct-
ing (Fig. 9.27). The proper types and locations
of piping and nozzles are determined by fire pro-
tection engineers. The nozzles are covered with
blowout seals so that they cannot become clogged
with grease.

Several types of fire detectors can be used. The
system in Figure 9.27 has several fixed tempera-
ture fusible links connected by stainless steel
cable. The links and cable are connected to a
stretched spring. If any fusible link melts, the
cable releases the spring, which closes an electric
circuit. The resulting current opens the valve of
the dry chemical cylinder, releasing its entire con-
tents into the system.

Such galley range systems can usually be acti-
vated manually, as well as automatically. Manual

controls are normally located near the range and
at a remote location, preferably near an exit door.
Either manual or automatic activation should
also trigger alarms in the galley and in the engine
room.

The exhaust blower should not be shut down
when the system is activated. It helps to dis-
tribute the dry chemical through the ducting,
thereby increasing the fire coverage. However,
the burner gas or electrical system should be shut
down when the extinguishing system is activated.

Carbon Dioxide Galley System

The carbon dioxide system may be used to pro-
tect galley ranges, deep-fat fryers and ducting.
The system is composed of one of two CO2 cyl-
inders, detectors, piping and discharge heads.
Most automatic CO2 galley systems use fusible-
link detectors. As with all shipboard systems, a
manual activating device must be provided; it is
usually placed at an exit from the galley.

Fires in the enclosed ducting or plenum are
extinguished mainly by smothering. However, a
range top or deep-fat fryer fire cannot be extin-
guished by smothering alone, because the fire is

AUTOMATIC DRY CHEMICAL (Galley Range)

Exhaust Duct

Control Panel

Power Shut-Off

Dry Chemical

Manual

Figure 9.27. Typical automatic dry-chemical galley range system.

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

195

not confined. The required CO2 concentration
cannot be maintained in these cases. Rather than
smothering alone, the CO2 system extinguishes
fire by a combination of oxygen dilution and
high-velocity discharge of the gas. (The latter
action may be compared to blowing out the flame
of a match with your breath.)

The position and height of the nozzle over the
stove, its angle, the velocity of the CO2 discharge
and the number of nozzles installed are quite
critical to the effectiveness of the system. It is
essential that the nozzles are not moved or tamp-
ered with in any way.

When activated, some CO2 systems automati-
cally shut off the supply of power or fuel to the
galley range; others do not. This supply must be
shut off in case of fire. If it is not done automati-
cally, then galley personnel should do so man-
ually, as part of their emergency procedures.

Galley Ventilator Washdown System

The main function of the ventilator washdown
system is to prevent ducting fires by keeping the
galley ductwork clean. In the event of a range
fire, the system also protects the ductwork from
fire spread. It is, thus, both a fire prevention and
firefighting system that can help eliminate a
troublesome fire hazard.

Ductwork Cleaning Action. When the range is
being used for cooking, grease-laden air from
the cooking area enters the ventilator duct. The
air is forced to curve back and forth around sev-
eral baffles at high speed (Fig. 9.28). This zigzag
motion tends to throw the grease and any lint and
dust out of the airstream and onto the ducting
and baffles. From there, it flows to a grease-col-
lecting gutter. When the day's cooking is done,
the grease is automatically washed out of the col-
lecting gutter. Nozzles in the ducting spray a solu-
tion of detergent in hot water onto the gutter.
The scrubbing action of this spray washes the
grease through a drain to a holding tank. The net
result is ductwork that is free of fuel for a fire.

Ductwork Fire Protection. If fire occurs on the
range, heat detectors actuate a damper and turn
on the washdown spray system. These actions
prevent the fire from entering the ductwork. Ac-
tivation of a thermostat causes the following
(Fig. 9.29):

1. The fire damper baffle is closed. This stops
the natural draft through the ventilator
duct and prevents flames and hot gases
from entering the duct.

2. The exhaust blowers are automatically
shut down.

Thermostat

Baffles

Grease

Drain

Baffles

Figure 9.28. Galley ventilator washdown system. During
normal operation, grease-laden air passes around a series of
baffles, where the grease is removed.

Thermostat

Water
Spray

Damper Control

Figure 9.29. The fire damper system. A. Normal operation.
B. During a fire. When the thermostat senses fire, the fire
damper baffle is closed and the spray nozzles are activated.
This keeps fire out of the ductwork. (Courtesy Gaylord
Industries, Inc.)

196

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

3. Water is sprayed through the interior of the
ventilator duct, to smother any fire that
may have extended into the duct. The
cleaning system spray nozzles are used for
this purpose. The water spray continues as
long as the temperature in the duct is over
121 °C (250°F). When the duct cools be-
low that temperature, the spray system
goes through one normal wash cycle and
then shuts off automatically.

After the fire is extinguished, the system is put
back into operation by resetting the fire damper
baffle and turning on the exhaust blowers.

INERT GAS SYSTEM FOR
TANK VESSELS

Although the inert gas system is not a fire extin-
guishing system, it is designed to prevent fires
and explosions. With few exceptions, every tank
ship of 100,000 or more dead weight tonnage,
and with a keel-laying date of January 1, 1975,
or later, must have an inert gas system. The sys-
tem must be capable of supplying to the cargo
tanks a gas mixture with an oxygen content of
5% or less by volume. It must be operated as
necessary to maintain an inert atmosphere in the
cargo tanks except during gas freeing operations.
The system must eliminate fresh air in the cargo
tanks except when they are being freed of gas.
It must be capable of maintaining an inert at-
mosphere in tanks that are being mechanically
washed.

The inert gas system is composed of a gas gen-
erator, a scrubber, blowers, distribtuion lines,
valves, instrumentation, alarms and controls.

Inert Gas Generator

The inert gas generator may be an automatic oil-
fired auxiliary burner. It must be capable of sup-
plying inert gas at 125% of the combined maxi-
mum rated capacities of all cargo pumps that can
be operated simultaneously. It must also be able
to maintain a gas pressure of 100 mm (4 in.) of
water on filled cargo tanks during loading and
unloading operations.

Gas Scrubber

If the inert gas produced by the generator is
heated or contaminated, scrubbers are required.
The scrubbers (or other similar devices) must be
installed to cool the gas and reduce its content
of solid and sulphurous combustion products.
Water for the scrubbers must be supplied by at
least two sources. The use of this water must not
interfere with the simultaneous use of any ship-
board firefighting system.

Blowers

The system must include at least two independ-
ent blowers. Together, the blowers must be
capable of delivering inert gas at 125% of the
combined maximum rated capacities of all cargo
pumps that can be operated simultaneously. They
must be designed so that they cannot exert more
than the maximum design pressure on the cargo
tanks.

Gas Distribution Line and Valves

The inert gas main must be fitted with two non-
return devices, one of which must be a water
seal. This water seal must be maintained at an
adequate level at all times.

There must be an automatic shutoff valve fitted
to the gas main where it leaves the production
plant. Every shutoff valve must be designed to
close automatically if the blowers fail.

Stop valves must be fitted in each branch pipe
at each cargo tank. These valves must give a
visual indication as to whether they are opened
or closed.

Instrumentation

Sensors must be fitted downstream of the blowers
and connected to the following instruments:

1. An oxygen-concentration indicator and
permanent recorder

2. A pressure indicator and permanent re-
corder

3. A temperature indicator.

Each of these instruments must operate continu-
ously while inert gas is being supplied to the tanks.
Readouts of oxygen concentration, pressure and
temperature must be provided at the cargo con-
trol station and at the location of the person in
charge of the main propulsion machinery.

Each ship that has an inert gas system must
carry portable instruments for measuring concen-
trations of oxygen and hydrocarbon vapor in an
inert atmosphere.

Alarms and Controls

Every inert gas system must include the following
alarms and automatic controls; the alarms must
sound at the location of the controls for the main
propulsion machinery:

1. An alarm that gives audible and visual
warnings when the oxygen content of the
inert gas exceeds 8% by volume.

2. An alarm that gives audible and visual
warnings when the gas pressure in the inert
gas main downstream of all nonreturn de-
vices is less than 101.6 mm (4 in.) of
water.

Fixed Fire- Extinguishing Systems

197

3. An alarm that gives audible and visual
warnings (and a control that automatically
shuts off the blowers) when the normal
water supply at the water seal is lost.

4. An alarm that gives audible and visual
warnings (and a control that shuts off the
blowers) when the temperature of the inert
gas being delivered to the cargo tanks is
higher than 65.6°C (150°F).

5. An alarm that gives audible and visual
warnings (and a control that automatically
shuts off the blowers) when the normal
cooling water supply to any scrubber is
lost.

STEAM SMOTHERING SYSTEMS

Steam smothering systems for firefighting are not
installed on U.S. ships contracted on or after Jan-
uary 1, 1962. Vessels equipped with these sys-
tems may continue to use them. The systems may
be repaired or altered, provided that the original
standards are maintained.

Steam for a smothering system may be gen-
erated by the main or auxiliary boilers. The steam
pressure should be at least 690 kilopascals (100
psi). The boilers should be capable of supplying
at least 1.3 kg of steam per hour per m3 (1 lb of
steam per hour per 12 ft3) of the largest cargo
compartment.

Piping

The steam supply line from the boiler to any
manifold must be large enough to supply all the
branch lines to the largest compartment and all
adjacent compartments. The distribution piping
from the manifold to the branch lines must have
a cross-sectional area approximately equal to the
combined cross-sectional areas of all the branch

lines it serves. There must be provisions for drain-
ing the manifolds and distribution lines to prevent
them from freezing.

The steam piping must not run into or through
spaces that are accessible to passengers or crew
members while the vessel is being navigated. The
piping may, however, run through machinery
spaces and corridors. Wherever possible, the pip-
ing for dry-cargo spaces, pump rooms, paint and
lamp lockers and similar spaces must be inde-
pendent of the piping for bulk cargo tanks.

Valves and Controls

The steam supply line to each manifold must be
fitted with a master valve at the manifold. The
branch line to each compartment must be fitted
with a shutoff valve. The valve must be clearly
marked to indicate the protected space.

On vessels the valves leading to cargo tanks
must be open at all times. Thus, in case of fire,
it is only necessary to open the master valve to
ensure a flow of steam into each tank. The valves
leading to tanks not involved in the fire may then
be closed. On cargo vessels, the master valve is
always open, and the valves leading to individual
compartments are closed.

All controls and valves for operating the steam
smothering system must be located outside the
protected space. They may not be located in any
space that might be cut off or made inaccessible
by fire in the protected space. The control valves
for the pump room extinguishing system must be
located next to the pump room exit.

Steam Outlets

In the pump room, the steam outlets must be
located just above the floor plates. In cargo holds,
the outlets must be placed in the lower portion
of each cargo hold or 'tween deck.

198

\

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Navigation and Vessel Circular No. 6-72|Change 1).
United States Coast Guard. February 28, 1977

Fire Fighting Manual For Tank Vessels. CG-329.
United States Coast Guard. January 1, 1974

National Fire Protection Association Standard 12-A,
Boston, Mass., 1977

National Fire Protection Association Handbook.
14th ed. Boston, NFPA, 1976

A Manual for the Safe Handling of Inflammable and
Combustible Liquids and other Hazardous Pro-
ductions. CG-174. United States Coast Guard.
June 1, 1975

Bahme, CW: Fire Officer's Guide to Extinguishing
Systems. Boston, NFPA, 1970

Bryan, JL: Fire Suppression and Detection Systems.
Los Angeles, Glencoe Press, 1974

Haessler, WM: What You Should Know About Car-
bon Dioxide Fire Extinguishing Systems. Norris

Industries Fire and Safety Equipment Division.
Newark, N.J., 1969

Kidde Instruction Manuals for Smoke Detecting Sys-
tems and Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguishing Sys-
tem. Walter Kidde and Co., Inc. Belleville, N.J.

Foam Protection for Tank Vessels (Section X), Na-
tional Foam System, Inc. Lionville, Pa.

Design Manual for SK-3000 Dry Chemical Extin-
guishing System. The Ansul Company. Marinette,
Wis., 1976

Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular No. 6-72:
Guide to Fixed Fire-Fighting Equipment Aboard
Merchant Vessels. U.S. Coast Guard. Washing-
ton, D.C., 1972

Ansul Company Operating and Maintenance Man-
uals. Marinette, Wise.

National Foam Systems, Inc. Technical Bulletins,
Operating and Maintenance Manuals. Lionville,
Pa.

Combating th€ fire

Ship fires are among the most difficult to control.
The variety of fuels aboard ship and the ways in
which their combustion products can hamper
firefighting operations have already been dis-
cussed. In addition, the ship's configuration com-
plicates extinguishment. If the fire is located in a
below-deck compartment, it will be surrounded
by steel decks and bulkheads; the space will be
difficult, if not impossible, to ventilate. Materials
burning in a lower cargo hold may be impossible
to reach, since everything stowed above the fire
would have to be removed. This is very imprac-
tical, especially if the ship is at sea. Fires located
on weather decks may be easier to reach, but fire-
fighting operations could be complicated by ad-
verse wind conditions.

What is actually burning determines the appro-
priate type of extinguishing agent, but the location
of the fire dictates the method of attack. In some
instances the fire location determines both the
extinguishing agent and the attack method. Cargo
hold fires are an obvious example; they are fought
with CO2 rather than water, even when class A
fuels are involved. The method of attack is an
indirect one that is somewhat unique to cargo
hold fires.

An important question is: How should the crew
attack a certain type of fire in a certain location
aboard ship? Part of the answer has been pre-
sented in the last two chapters; part is presented
in this chapter. No one answer or set of answers
will fit every ship exactly. Instead, the master
must answer that question for his own ship; and,
based on the ship's configuration, her crew size
and the firefighting equipment she carries, a pre-
fire plan must be developed for each space on the
ship. A prefire plan is exactly what its name in-
dicates— a plan for fighting fire that is worked out
before a fire actually occurs. The concept of pre-
fire planning is hard to disagree with, yet many
ships do not have such a plan.

The firefighting procedures discussed in this
chapter require teamwork, which can only be
developed through constant drill. Prefire plans
should be the basis for weekly fire drills and, thus,
for developing coordination among personnel.
This is especially important on ships with a large
turnover of personnel.

INITIAL PROCEDURES

The initial procedures are those that must be
performed before actual firefighting operations
begin. The most important are, obviously, sound-
ing the alarm and reporting the location of the
fire.

Sounding the Alarm

The crew member who discovers the fire or the
indication of fire must sound the alarm promptly.
This point has been stressed in previous chapters,
but it bears repeating. A delay in sounding the
alarm usually allows a small fire to become a
large fire. Once a fire gains intensity, it spreads
swiftly. No crew member — no one on a ship —
should ever attempt to fight a fire, however small
it may seem, until the alarm has been turned in.
Of course, if two or more people discover the fire,
only one is required to sound the alarm. The
others should stay and attempt to extinguish the
fire with available equipment. A small fire in a
metal wastebasket could be covered with a non-
combustible lid, if readily available, before the
crewman who discovered it leaves to report the
fire.

All fires must be reported, even if self-extin-
guished (that is, the fire goes out by itself from
lack of fuel or oxygen). The resulting investiga-
tion could uncover defects or conditions which,

when corrected, would prevent future fires.

199

n

200

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Reporting the Fire Location

The crewman who sounds the alarm must be
sure to give the exact location of the fire, includ-
ing compartment and deck level. This is important
for several reasons. First, it confirms the location
for the ship's fire party. Second, it gives them
information regarding the type of fire to expect.
Third, the exact location may indicate the need
to shut down certain ventilation systems. Finally,
it indicates what doors and hatches must be closed
to isolate the fire.

Precautionary Measures. If flames can be seen,
the location of the fire is obvious. However if
only smoke is evident, the fire may be hidden be-
hind a bulkhead or a compartment door. Then,
certain precautions must be observed during at-
tempts to find its exact location.

Before a compartment or bulkhead door is
opened to check for fire, the door should be ex-
amined. Discolored or blistered paint indicates
fire behind the door. Smoke puffing from cracks
at door seals or where wiring passes through the
bulkhead is also an indication of fire (Fig. 10.1).
The bulkhead or door should be touched with a
bare hand. If it is hotter than normal, it is prob-
ably hiding the fire.

Once a hidden fire has been located, the door
to the area should not be opened until help and
a charged hoseline are at hand. A fire burning in
an enclosed space consumes the oxygen within
that space. The fire seeks additional oxygen, and
a newly opened door presents it with a generous
supply. When the door is opened, air is pulled

through the opening to feed the fire. As a result,
the fire usually grows in size with explosive force.
Flames and superheated gases are then forced
violently out through the opening. Anyone in its
path could be severely burned. If the fire is not
attacked with a hoseline, it can travel through the
area uncontrolled. The longer the fire has been
burning, undetected, the more dangerous the situ-
ation will be. Therefore, cool the door with water
before opening. Have everyone stand clear of
the door to the side opposite the hinges. Always
open the door from a position clear of the open-
ing and opposite the hinges.

FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURES

Fire travels via the radiation, conduction and
convection of heat {see Chapter 4). For the most
part, these processes will extend the fire laterally
and upward: laterally along passageways and
ducting, and upward through hatches and stair-
ways. In certain situations, fire will also travel
downward, through ducting or through deck
plates (by conduction). Burning embers, dropping
from one deck to another, provide a more dan-
gerous method of downward fire extension
(Fig. 10.2).

Every fire will extend to new sources of fuel
and oxygen if these sources are available. In this
respect, all fires are similar. However, the path
through which a particular fire extends will de-
pend on the location of the fire and the construc-
tion features of surrounding spaces. These factors
must, therefore, be taken into account when the

Door is Warped
Smoke is Pushing Through Cracks

Bulkhead is Hot to Touch

Paint is Discolored or is Blistering

Figure 10.1. Some signs of hidden fire. The door should not be opened if any of these signs is found.

Combating the Fire

201

j UPWARD
By Convection

DOWNWARD
By Conduction

DOWNWARD
By Dropping
Embers

Figure 10.2. The processes by which fire travels aboard ship. Fire will spread upward and laterally where possible, and down-
ward in some situations.

fire is attacked. In addition, the fuel and its com-
bustion products will affect firefighting operations.
For these reasons, no fire can be fought rou-
tinely, although all fires must be fought system-
atically. The procedures described in the next
several sections should be part of every firefight-
ing operation. The particular fire situation will
dictate the order in which they are to be per-
formed, whether some must be performed simul-
taneously, and the amount of effort that should
be devoted to each procedure.

Sizeup

Sizeup is the evaluation of the fire situation. The
on-scene leader should determine, as quickly as
possible,

1. The class of fire (what combustible ma-
terials are burning)

2. The appropriate extinguishing agent

3. The appropriate method of attack

4. How to prevent extension of the fire

5. The required manpower and firefighting
assignments.

A small fire might be extinguished by the first
few crewmen to arrive; they would probably per-
form a partial sizeup and begin the attack instinc-

tively. Larger fires would require a coordinated
attack, efficient use of manpower and equipment,
thus, a more thorough assessment. During sizeup,
or as soon thereafter as possible, communications
and a staging area should be set up.

Communications. Communications with the
master should be established by phone or by mes-
senger. Communications with firefighting teams
must also be established and maintained. Mes-
sengers would be best for this purpose, since tele-
phone lines might be destroyed by the fire, and
firefighters would be moving constantly. An in-
ternal two-way radio system, if available, could
be used to coordinate firefighting efforts.

Staging Area. The staging area should be estab-
lished in a smokefree area, as near as possible to
the fire area. An open deck location, windward
of the fire, would be ideal. However, if the fire is
deep within the ship, the staging area should be
located below deck. A location near a ship's
telephone, if feasible, would be helpful in estab-
lishing communication links. However, the stag-
ing area should not be located where it might be
endangered by the spread of fire.

All the supplies needed to support the fire-
fighting effort should be brought to the staging

202

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

area. These would include backup supplies of
hose, nozzles and axes; spare cylinders for breath-
ing apparatus; and portable lights. The staging
area should also be used as the first aid station.
The equipment required to render first aid to in-
jured crewmen should be set up there.

Attack

The attack should be started as soon as possible,
to gain immediate control and to prevent or mini-
mize the extension of fire to exposures. (Expo-
sures are the areas of the ship that are adjacent
to the fire area on all four sides and above and
below.) The attack will be either direct or indi-
rect, depending on the fire situation. Direct and
indirect attacks differ widely in how they achieve
extinguishment; both are efficient when properly
employed.

Direct Attack. In a direct attack, firefighters ad-
vance to the immediate fire area and apply the
extinguishing agent directly into the seat of the
fire. There may be no problem in getting to the
immediate fire area if the fire is small and has
not gained headway. However, as a fire increases
in intensity, the heat, gases and smoke increase
the difficulty of locating and reaching the seat of
the fire. Once the fire has gained headway, a di-
rect attack should be coupled with venting pro-
cedures (see section on Ventilation).

Indirect Attack. An indirect attack is employed
when it is impossible for firefighters to reach the
seat of the fire. Generally this is the case when
the fire is in the lower portions of the vessel. The
success of an indirect attack depends on complete
containment of the fire. All possible avenues of
fire travel must be cut off by closing doors and
hatches and shutting down ventilation systems.
The attack is then made from a remote location.

One technique involves making a small open-
ing into the fire space, inserting a nozzle, and
injecting a spray (fog) pattern into the space.
Heat converts the fog to steam, which acts as a
smothering agent. Two things are essential for a
successful attack of this type. First, the fire must
be completely enclosed, so that the steam will
reduce the oxygen content of the air around the
fire. Second, the fire must be hot enough to con-
vert the water to steam.

Another indirect technique employs a smoth-
ering agent such as carbon dioxide. The use of
this technique in fighting cargo hold fires has
already been mentioned. It is discussed in detail
later in this chapter.

Ventilation

Ventilation is the action taken to release com-
bustion products trapped within the ship and vent
them to the atmosphere outside the ship. Most
fire fatalities do not result from burning, but
rather from asphyxiation by combustion gases or
lack of oxygen. Before smoke or heat becomes
apparent, deadly carbon monoxide and other
noxious gases seep into compartments. People
who are asleep are easily overcome by these gases.
However, if the fire is vented promptly and prop-
erly, the smoke, heat and gases can be diverted
away from potential victims and from uninvolved
combustibles.

Ventilation is used only when a direct attack
is made on the fire. During an indirect attack the
fire area must be made as airtight as possible, to
keep oxygen out and the extinguishing agent in.

Vertical Ventilation. The smoke and hot gases
generated by the fire should be vented to the out-
side air if possible. As a fire intensifies, the com-
bustion gases become superheated; if they are
ignited, they will spread the fire very quickly. In
the ideal situation, the gases are released at a
point directly above the fire, as the extinguishing
agent is brought to bear on the fire (Fig. 10.3).
This ideal vertical ventilation is just about im-
possible to achieve aboard ship, since there is
rarely a direct upward route from the fire to the
outside. In most instances, at least some hori-
zontal ventilation is required.

Horizontal Ventilation. Horizontal ventilation
is achieved by opening windward and leeward
doors to create an airflow through the spaces in
which the combustion products are collecting.
Fresh air flowing in through a windward doorway
moves the combustion products out through the
leeward doorways (Fig. 10.4). The leeward doors
should always be opened first. Portholes should
also be opened; however, small portholes are not
very effective in removing smoke and heat.

Combination Vertical and Horizontal Ventilation.

When the fire is below deck, there may be some
difficulty in moving smoke and heat out of the
ship. In some instances, a combination of vertical
and horizontal ventilation will work. A horizontal
flow of air may sometimes be created over a hatch
on the deck above the fire. This airflow can pro-
duce a venturi effect that pulls smoke and heat
upward from the lower deck (Fig. 10.5)!"A prop-
erly placed portable fan will help move the air
more rapidly. The doors to uninvolved areas

Combating the Fire

203

Figure 10.3. Vertical ventilation, directly upward from the fire to the atmosphere.

Fresh Air

Figure 10.4. Horizontal ventilation. Fresh air entering through windward doorways and portholes pushes heat and smoke out
leeward doorways and portholes.

204

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighling and Fire Safely

Line Above Fire to Stop
Fire From Traveling Upward

Figure 10.5. Combination venting. An airflow is created above the fire. It pulls combustion products up from the involved
deck and out the doorway.

should be closed, to keep out contaminated air.
These doors should remain closed until venting
has been completed.

Mechanical Ventilation. Smoke-contaminated
air can be moved out of compartments, along
passageways and up through deck openings with
properly positioned portable fans (red devils).
The fans should be placed to push and pull the
air in order to establish an airflow from the con-
taminated area to the outside. In some instances
the ship's mechanical air intake system can be
used in conjunction with portable fans. An
alternative, if power fans are not available, is the
use of a windsail. The windsail can be rigged to
force clean air into the contaminated area while
the ship is under way. The smoke then would ex-
haust through natural "down stream" opening.

Protecting Exposures

Protecting exposures means preventing the fire
from extending beyond the space in which it
originated. If this can be accomplished, the fire
can usually be controlled and extinguished with-
out extensive damage. To protect exposures, the
fire must virtually be surrounded on six sides;
firefighters with hoselines or portable extin-
guishers must be positioned to cover the flanks

and the spaces above and below the fire. The offi-
cer in charge must also consider fire travel
through the venting system. Crewmen must be
dispatched to examine and protect openings in
the system through which fire might enter other
spaces.

Rescue

The rescue of trapped personnel is an extremely
important aspect of every firefighting operation.
Rescue may be the first step in the operation, or
it may be delayed because of adverse circum-
stances. For example, suppose someone is trapped
in a compartment that is located beyond the fire.
If some firefighters can get past the fire while
others control it, the rescue may be accomplished
immediately. If the fire cannot be controlled
easily, it may be best to attack and control the
fire before attempting the rescue.

The decision as to when to attempt a rescue is
a difficult one. If the rescue attempt is delayed, a
direct attack with fog could push the fire into the
area where personnel are trapped; an indirect at-
tack could generate enough steam to scald them.
On the other hand, a holding action may be
feasible while an alternative route is used to make
the rescue. The decision involves the twofold
problem of protecting lives and protecting the

Combating the Fire

205

vessel. This problem is not always solved by
assuming that the lives of trapped persons are
more important than the vessel. The vessel is,
above all, the sanctuary of the crew. A delay in
controlling the fire, due to imprudent rescue at-
tempts, could result in an uncontrollable fire,
loss of the vessel and forced abandonment. The
fire situation could force a decision to attack the
fire in a manner that might be detrimental to
trapped personnel, but that would save the vessel
and other crew members.

Overhaul

Overhaul is begun after the main body of fire is
extinguished. It is actually a combination of two
procedures, an examination and a cleanup op-
eration.

Overhaul can be a dangerous procedure. Rec-
ords show that land-based firefighters are injured
more during overhaul than during any other op-
eration. This is attributed to a letdown after the
fire is controlled, leading to a degree of careless-
ness and a lack of regard for personal safety.

Examination and Extinguishment. The objec-
tives of the examination are to find and extinguish
hidden fire and hot embers and to determine
whether the fire has extended to other parts of
the ship. This is an important aspect of firefight-
ing that should be conducted as seriously as the
attack on the fire. Overhaul personnel should
make use of four senses — hearing, sight, touch
and smell. They should trace the length of all duct
systems, look into them, and touch and smell
them, to determine the extent the fire has traveled.
They should inspect all overhead spaces, decks
and bulkheads in the same manner. They must
be thorough and especially watchful where wiring
or piping penetrates through bulkheads or decks;
fire can travel through the smallest crevice.

Any materials that might have been involved
with fire, including mattresses, bales, crates and
boxes should be pulled apart and examined. Ma-
terials that might reignite, especially bedding,
baled cotton and bolts of fabric, should be re-
moved from the fire area. They should be placed
on a weather deck, with a charged hoseline
manned and ready to extinguish any new fire.

Smoke-blackened seams and joints should be
checked carefully. Areas that are charred, blis-
tered or discolored by heat should be exposed
until a clean area is found. If fire is discovered,
the area should be wet down until it is completely
extinguished.

Cleanup. At the same time debris should be
cleaned up and free water should be removed.

Any unsafe conditions should be corrected. For
example, hanging lagging should be removed;
boards with exposed nails should be picked up
and placed in containers; hanging wires should
be secured; and all debris should be removed, to
make the fire area as safe as feasible.

Dewatering. Free water can impair the stability
of a vessel. Every effort should be made to limit
the accumulation of water in large compartments
and cargo holds. These efforts should begin with
the use of water patterns that allow maximum
cooling with minimal quantities of water; prefer-
ence should be given to fog sprays over solid
streams. Only as much water as is absolutely
necessary should be used.

As soon as water is used for extinguishment,
unwatering procedures should be started. The
lack of portable dewatering equipment on mer-
chant ships may create a problem. If debris clogs
the fixed piping system, it may be necessary to
follow a rather complex backflooding procedure
to clear the suction strainers.

Structural Weakness. Steel plating and support
members can be weakened considerably by high
temperatures. This weakening may not be appar-
ent unless there is visible deformation. In all cases
where structural weakness is suspected, a careful
inspection should be made. Weakened members
should be supported by shoring or strongbacks.

Fire Under Control

A fire may be considered to be under control
when

1 . The extinguishing agent is being applied to
the seat of the fire; i.e., streams from initial
lines (and backup lines if they were re-
quired) have been able to penetrate to the
seat of the fire and have effectively begun
to cool it down. At this point, men with
shovels should be able to turn over burned
material to expose hidden fire.

2. The main body of fire has been darkened.
At this point, the fire cannot generate
enough heat to involve nearby combustible
materials.

3. All possible routes of fire extension have
been examined or protected. This is, basi-
cally, a combination of the exposure pro-
tection and overhaul procedures discussed
earlier.

4. A preliminary search for victims has been
completed. The preliminary search should
be conducted at the same time as the fire
attack, ventilation and exposure protection

206

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

procedures, if possible. As soon as the fire
is under control, a second and more com-
prehensive search should be undertaken.
Areas that were charged with smoke and
heat must be closely examined. Searchers
must look in closets, under beds, behind
furniture and drapes and under blankets.
An unconscious person must be removed
to fresh air immediately. If the person is
not breathing, rescue breathing must be
started immediately.

Fire Out

Before a fire can be declared completely out, the
master of the vessel must be assured, by the on-
scene leader, that certain essential steps have been
taken. These include

1. A thorough examination of the immediate
fire area, to ensure that

a. All paths of extension have been ex-
amined and opened where necessary.

b. Ventilation has been accomplished, and
all smoke and combustion gases have
been removed.

c. The fire area is safe for men to enter
without breathing apparatus. This can
be verified by the use of a flame safety
lamp or an oxygen indicator. (While
an oxygen concentration of 16% will
support life, it is wise to wait until a
reading of 21% is obtained.)

2. A complete overhaul of all burned material.

3. The establishment of a rekindle watch.
One crew member (more if the fire has been
extensive) must be assigned to do nothing
but check for reignition, and to sound the
alarm if it occurs. A second crewman can
be assigned to patrol the exposures and the
paths of possible extension.

4. The replacement or restoration of firefight-
ing equipment. Used hose should be re-
placed with dry hose. The used hose should
then be cleaned, flushed, dried and rolled
for storage. (This is especially important
with unlined hose, which may be used any-
where aboard ship except in machinery
spaces.) Nozzles should be cleaned and in-
stalled on the dry hoses.

Portable extinguishers, whether partially
or fully discharged, should be recharged
or replaced.

Breathing apparatus should be cleaned,
facepieces sterilized and cylinders or can-
nisters replaced. The entire unit should be
stowed, ready for the next emergency. Ad-

ditional cylinders or cannisters should be
ordered at the first opportunity.

If the sprinkler system was activated, the
sprinkler heads (automatic type) should be
replaced, and the system restored to serv-
ice. Activated detection systems that must
be reset should likewise be restored to
service.

5. A damage control check. A thorough ex-
amination should be initiated to determine
if the vessel has been damaged by the fire.
The high temperatures associated with fire
can cause decks, bulkheads and other struc-
tural members of the ship to warp or be-
come structurally unsound. When this
occurs, temporary support should be pro-
vided by shoring. Any other repairs neces-
sary to the well-being of the vessel should
be undertaken immediately. Any necessary
dewatering operations should be started.

6. A muster should be conducted to account
for all ship's personnel.

Critique

Soon after the fire is out and the fire protection
equipment has been restored to service, a critique
should be held. The critique need not be a formal
affair; in fact, a good time to hold it is while
crew members are having a cup of coffee before
going back to their normal duties.

The crew has just put out a fire on a ship at
sea. This is quite an accomplishment, and they
have every reason to be proud. However, while
the details are still fresh in their minds, they
should consider several questions: How could
they have done better? More important, how
could the fire have been prevented? If they had
the same fire again tomorrow, would they fight
it the same way? Could they have accomplished
the same result with less physical punishment to
firefighters? With less damage to the ship?

All this should be discussed, along with any-
thing else pertaining to the fire. The officer in
charge should encourage suggestions and recom-
mendations, and write them down. Worthwhile
ideas should then be made a part of the prefire
plan.

FIRE SAFETY

Coast Guard regulations require that a fire party
be organized and trained on every U.S. flag ves-
sel. The fire party may be broken up into several
teams with different duties. The leader of the fire
party should be an experienced officer with the
authority to administer fire prevention training
programs and to direct firefighting operations.

Combating the Fire

207

Hose Team

One of the most important units within the fire
party is the hose team. A hose team ideally should
have four members to operate proficiently; the
Coast Guard recommends at least two people for
a 3.8-cm (IVi-in.) hoseline, and three people for
a 6.4-cm (2Vi-in.) hoseline.

The key member and leader of the hose team
is the nozzleman, who controls the nozzle and
directs the stream onto the fire. In many instances,
the nozzleman must make decisions before an
officer arrives on the scene. The nozzleman must
have the training and discipline to advance the
team close to the fire, to ensure that the water is
directed into the seat of the fire. This is a respon-
sible position, and it should be assigned to a crew
member who has received training in firefighting
at a maritime facility. The nozzleman should also
be thoroughly familiar with the ship's design and
construction features.

The backup man is positioned directly behind
the nozzleman. He takes up the weight of the hose
and absorbs some of the nozzle reaction, so that
the nozzle can be manipulated without undue
strain. To be able to maintain his position, he
must work in unison with the nozzleman. The
other hose team members are positioned along
the hose to assist in maneuvering and advancing
the nozzle.

It is a good idea to use engine room personnel
to handle the hoselines assigned to protect engi-
neering spaces, since they understand the ma-
chinery and are familiar with that part of the ship.
In addition, these crewmen will more likely be in
the vicinity of the fire when it occurs. By the same
reasoning, the other crew members should be as-
signed to fire stations near their work stations,
when possible.

Advancing the Hoseline. When an emergency
occurs, the hose should be run out before the fire
station hydrant is opened. Without water, the
hose is light and easy to handle; it can be ad-
vanced quickly. Once the hose is charged with
water, it becomes heavy and difficult to advance.
Firefighters become tired from moving the addi-
tional weight of the water, especially if the hose
must be manhandled up or down ladders and
along narrow passageways. If they are wearing
breathing apparatus, their labored breathing de-
pletes the oxygen supply more rapidly than
normally.

The hose should be run out as follows: The
nozzleman and backup man pick up the first sec-
tion of hose and advance toward the fire. The
third team member picks up the center section
and advances it. The fourth team member re-
mains at the fire station to open the hydrant.
When the nozzleman is in position, he asks for
water. As the water fills the hose, the third and
fourth team members should straighten out any
kinks and check hose couplings for leaks. Leaky
couplings should be tightened with a spanner.
Upon calling for water, the nozzleman should
open the nozzle slightly, to allow trapped air to
escape. The nozzle should be closed when water
begins to flow. The hoseline is then ready for use.

During drills, hose should be run out, and the
nozzle should be positioned to attack a simulated
fire. The training should be as realistic as pos-
sible. Hose teams should practice maneuvering
the hose below decks, through passageways, and
up and down accommodation ladders and nar-
row hatches.

Using the Hose Stream. The manner in which
hose streams are applied depends on the fire situ-

Figure 10.6. A fog stream is used to push flames, heat and smoke ahead of an advancing hose team. Firefighters must keep
low to allow the heat to pass above their bodies.

208

Marine Fire Prevention. Firefighting and Fire Safety

ation. The nozzleman must know what type of
stream to use, and how to use it, under different
fire conditions.

Passageway— Compartment Fire. When flames
have traveled out of a compartment and into a
passageway, it is essential that the compartment
be reached. The hose stream must be directed
into the seat of the fire. The flames in the passage-
way must be knocked down before the nozzle can
be positioned properly. This is best accomplished
by advancing as close to the flames as possible
and keeping low to the deck (Fig. 10.6). Then
the nozzle should be opened to the fog position.
The stream should be moved up and down so
that the water bounces off the bulkhead and the
overhead, and into the flames. This will push the
heat and flames ahead of the nozzleman, who
should continue to advance until he reaches his
objective.

Steam will be produced when the stream hits
the flames and hot gases. This and the smoke will
make visibility very poor. A backup hoseline
should be brought into position behind the first
attack line as quickly as possible. The backup
line can be used to protect the advancing hose
team, or it can be directed onto the fire if a larger
volume of water is required to gain control of the
situation.

Fire in a passageway must never be attacked
from opposite directions. If it is, one of the hose-
lines will push flames, heat and smoke directly at
the other hose team (Fig. 10.7).

Hidden Compartment Fire. To attack a sub-
stantial fire behind a closed door, the charged
hoseline should first be positioned outside the
door. Then the door should be opened only
enough to insert the nozzle. Using the door to
protect his body, the nozzleman should sweep a
fog stream around the compartment. Both the
nozzleman and the backup man should crouch

as low as possible, to allow the heat and steam to
pass overhead (Fig. 10.8). After a few seconds,
the door may be opened a bit more. If conditions
permit, the team should enter the compartment
and advance until they can hit the seat of the fire
with a straight stream.

Other Fire Party Personnel

Other crewmen in the fire party are assigned to
specific duties or teams. Several crewmen must
be available to act as searchers. Under the cover
of hoselines, they search for trapped personnel.
Still other crew members are assigned to check
for fire extension, to ventilate the fire area or to
act as messengers if necessary.

Protective Clothing

If a fire has been burning for any length of time,
it can reach temperatures exceeding 538°C
(1000°F) and produce severe concentrations of
smoke and noxious gas. Firefighters who are not
sufficiently protected against these hazards can-
not press their attack against the fire. They may
have to retreat or be burned or overcome. If they
become casualties, then they reduce an already
limited firefighting force.

At a minimum, each member of the hose team
should be equipped with a water resistant coat
or jacket, rubber boots, a hard hat and work
gloves. This clothing will help protect against
heat, hot water and steam. The approved fire-
man's suit shown in Figure 10.9 will provide ade-
quate protection and is recommended as suitable
for shipboard firefighting operations.

Respiratory protection is best provided by self-
contained breathing apparatus. Members of the
hose team must be trained in the use of this equip-
ment. They must know its limitations but have
confidence in its ability to protect them in a hos-
tile atmosphere. {See Chapter 15 for a discussion
of breathing apparatus.)

Figure 10.7. When two hose teams attack a fire from opposite sides, the team with the weaker stream is placed in jeopardy.

Combating the Fire 209

Figure 10.8. Fighting a fire in a closed compartment. The door is opened slightly and used as a shield. The fog stream is
swept back and forth across the compartment. The hose team crouches low.

In some situations, the first hose team at the
fire will not have time to don protective clothing
or breathing apparatus. They may have to make
the initial attack immediately to keep the fire
from progressing beyond control. In such situa-
tions, they must use common sense. It would be
poor judgment to abandon a firefighting position
where they were not experiencing any difficulty.
The position could be held for a short but essen-
tial time without protective gear. However, if they
cannot knock down the fire, and heat and smoke
are threatening their position, they should back
away from the fire. The nozzleman should use a
fog stream to block the heat. The team should
continue to back away until they reach a position
they can hold without undue hardship. Mean-
while, a backup team should be donning protec-
tive clothing and breathing apparatus. The back-
up team should relieve the men on the line as
soon as possible.

FIGHTING SHIPBOARD FIRES

In this section, 15 different shipboard fire situa-
tions are described. The recommended procedures
for fighting each fire are then detailed, from the
alarm through overhaul.

Cabin Fire

The Fire. The burning material is in a waste-
basket in a far corner of the cabin. The flames
have spread to a desk and have ignited drapes
at a porthole. The cabin door opens into the cabin
from an inboard passageway.

Confining the Fire. Upon seeing smoke seeping
from the door, a crewman sounds the alarm. The
alarm is acknowledged by another crewman. The
door is cool to the touch, indicating that the fire
has not spread across the cabin. The crewman
who discovered the fire opens the door, notes the
fire situation and determines that no one is in
the cabin. He then leaves the cabin and closes
the door, being careful not to lock it. He has
taken the first step in confining the fire.

Sizeup. The crewman's quick assessment of the
fire situation reveals that 1) rescue is not a prob-
lem and 2) the burning materials are ordinary
combustibles, best extinguished by water.

Attack. The fire station near the cabin includes
a 9.5-liter (2Vi-gal) water extinguisher. The
crewman activates the extinguisher outside the
closed door. When he is sure the extinguisher is

210

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

:

\

• —

-

■Hard
Hat

» »><

ra

Hooded
Vinyl-Coated
Parka
(Orange)

Cloves

Vinyl-Coated
Trousers

Boots

Figure 10.9. An outfit that meets U.S. Coast Guard require-
ments for protection against water and heat. (Courtesy C. J.
Hendry Co.)

operating, he opens the door, directs the stream
at the base of the flames first then moves the
stream upward to hit the higher flames. By plac-
ing his finger over the tip of the nozzle, he de-
velops a spray stream that may be a little more
effective. Because he cannot completely extin-
guish the fire, he leaves the cabin, again closing
the door.

Backup. The firefighting team assigned to the
location runs out the hoseline and brings the
nozzle into position outside the cabin door. Upon
being notified that the fire was not completely
extinguished, they charge the hoseline with water,
open the door and direct water into the remain-

ing flames. This is very important. Whenever
possible, the initial attack should be backed up
with a secondary means of attack (Fig. 10.10).

Protecting Exposures. During the attack, the
officer in charge sends crewmen into adjacent
spaces, around, above and below the fire area,
to check for fire extension. This fire does not ex-
tend out of the cabin, because it was discovered
early and extinguished properly.

Overhaul. The drapes and all other burned or
charred materials are placed in buckets and thor-
oughly soaked with water. Other debris and the
water are cleaned up and removed from the cabin.
During overhaul, the cabins above, below and
adjacent to the fire cabin are again carefully in-
spected for fire travel.

Engine Room Fire

The Fire. A bucket of oil spills on solid decking
and ignites when it contacts a hot manifold. The
liquid covers about a 0.93-m2 (10-ft2) deck.
Flames cover the entire spill and are beginning
to travel up a bulkhead.

Attack. The alarm is sounded. The initial attack
is made with a portable extinguisher (dry chem-
ical, CO2 or Halon). The objective is to quickly
knock down the flames (Fig. 10.11 A).

Confining the Fire. The fire party immediately
shuts down the venting systems and closes hatches
and doors in the vicinity of the fire.

Backup. The engine room is equipped with a
semiportable extinguishing system. Its hose is run
out and used to continue the attack if necessary.
In addition, hoselines from the water-main sys-
tem are advanced into position to assist in the
attack.

Dry chemical, CO2 and Halon extinguishing
agents have very little cooling power. It is highly
probable that metals in direct contact with the
fire will retain enough heat to reignite the oil
spill. To ensure cooling and prevent reignition,
water in the form of low velocity fog is directed
onto the metal surfaces (Fig. 10.1 IB). This is
done carefully to keep the oil from splashing and
to prevent water from being directed into nearby
electrical equipment.

Protecting Exposures. While the attack on the
fire progresses, a second hoseline is run out from
the fire main. This second line is advanced into
the boiler room and positioned to cool areas di-
rectly exposed to the fire. The bulkhead is hot
to the touch; it is cooled with water fog, for maxi

Combating the Fire

211

4

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y

r

■i

%i

■

:

1 t

h> **ji

4

-'**

\

=v^8t'

'.V '

» -ft

i

Figure 10.10. Whenever possible, the initial attack should be backed up with another means of attack.

mum absorption of heat with minimum runoff.
The stream is directed onto the bulkhead as long
as steam is produced when the water hits the
bulkhead. Other spaces adjacent to the fire area
are protected similarly.

Ventilation. As the attack is made, doors and
hatches in the upper parts of the engine room
(preferably those opening directly to weather
decks) are opened to vent the products of com-
bustion. Once the fire is completely out and sur-
rounding structural members have been cooled,
mechanical venting is used to remove the com-

bustion gases and draw in cool air. This is per-
missible, since the duct is vented directly to the
outside. In most cases, operation of the exhaust
fan at the top of the engine room on low speed
would accomplish the necessary venting.

Bilge Fire

The Fire. Flammable liquid in the engine room
bilge has ignited, creating a substantial body of
fire that is increasing in size.

Sizeup. The location of the fire indicates a flam-
mable-liquid fuel requiring CO2, fog or foam as

Figure 10.11. Engine room spill fire. A. Initial attack is made with a portable or semiportable dry chemical, COz or Halon
; extinguisher. Figure 10.11. B. The attack is backed up with a hoseline used to cool metal surfaces to prevent reignition.

212

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

the extinguishing agent. Because the liquid fuel
is free to spread as the vessel rolls and pitches,
the crewman discovering the fire is careful to
protect his flanks and rear. The fire is large
enough so that it is beyond the capability of small
portable extinguishers.

Attack. The alarm is sounded. The initial attack
is made with the semiportable CO2 extinguishing
system. One crewman runs out the line while
another activates the system. The agent is di-
rected below the deck plates and into the bilge,
as close to the fire as possible. To cover the entire
width of the fire, the nozzle is swept back and
forth. As the flames in one area are knocked
down, the stream is directed onto a new area.
The nozzleman is extremely careful to protect
his flanks and rear as he advances the nozzle.

It is essential that all the flames be extinguished
before the supply of CO2 runs out. If manpower
is available, portable CO2 extinguishers can be
used to supplement the primary attack and to
protect the nozzleman.

Confining the Fire. During the attack, all doors
and hatches to the engine room are closed. All
engine room ventilators are shut down. This con-
fines the fire and ensures that it will not travel
outside the engine room. With the engine room
sealed off, the crew is prepared to use the fixed
CO2 total-flooding system, should this become
necessary.

Backup. The fire party runs out hoselines from
the fire-main system. The nozzles are positioned
to protect those fighting the fire, and the lines are
charged with water. A carefully applied fog pat-
tern will be used to cool hot metal surfaces re-
ducing the possibility of reignition.

The CO2 attack fails to extinguish the fire. The
hoselines, already in position, are used to attack
the fire with low-velocity fog applicators. The
low-velocity fog dilutes the oxygen above the fire,
knocks down flames, cools metal surfaces and
generates steam, all of which contribute to ex-
tinguishment. The applicators can be directed
through small openings and poked into confined
areas. In addition, the fog applicator can be
manipulated so that water is not sprayed on ma-
chinery unnecessarily.

Attacks with the semiportable CO2 system and
fog streams will control and extinguish a bilge
fire. If they do not, a very serious condition exists:
The ship's power plant is threatened. Then the
fixed CO2 extinguishing system must be used.
The fixed system is regarded as a last resort. How-
ever, when it must be used, the decision to acti-
vate the system should not be delayed. It is better

to make an early decision to use the CO2 flooding
system than to allow the fire to do extensive dam-
age to the engine room. If flooding with CO2
extinguishes the fire, then the engine room is
lost only temporarily; it can be restored to op-
erating order. On the other hand, a delay may
allow the fire to damage machinery and electrical
equipment beyond repair. The results then are a
disabled engine room and loss of propulsion.

Fixed CO2 System. Before the fixed CO2 sys-
tem is activated, all personnel are evacuated from
the engine room. Saturation with CO2 will reduce
the oxygen content below the level required to
sustain life. The engine room should have been
sealed during the initial attack. If not, all openings
should be closed, and ventilation systems shut
down, at this time. The CO2 system is activated
on the order of the master or, when designated,
the officer in charge of the fire party.

Protecting Exposures. The areas adjacent to
the fire are continuously observed for fire exten-
sion and to ensure that CO2 is not leaking from
the engine room. The crewmen assigned to spaces
fore and aft of the engine room wear breathing
apparatus. This precaution is necessary because
the spaces to be examined may be contaminated
by smoke and/or CO2. These crewmen are also
equipped with handlights (flashlights) to improve
visibility.

Reentry. The C02-saturated area is reentered
with caution. Although there are no hard and
fast rules concerning reentry, many factors must
be considered. How hot was the fire? If oxygen
is allowed to reach the fire area, will metal in that
area be hot enough to cause reignition? Is it essen-
tial that the engine room be restored as fast as
possible because of heavy seas? Or are the seas
calm and without navigational hazards, so that
entry may be delayed? The engine room should
not be entered for at least an hour, primarily to
allow the heat to dissipate. The injection of CO2
into a sealed area will extinguish a flammable-
liquid fire almost immediately. However, since
CO2 has no cooling effect, metal surfaces remain
hot. It is a "damned if you do and damned if you
don't" situation; the fire is out, but the threat of
reignition makes the area dangerous.

After an hour, entry is attempted by a two-
man search team dressed in protective clothing
and using breathing apparatus with lifelines at-
tached (Fig. 10.12). They enter through the high-
est access door into the engine room. If they find
the heat excessive, they will leave the area imme-
diately and wait at least another 15-30 minutes
before their next attempt. When they are able to

Combating the Fire 213

Figure 10.12. Reentering a space that has been flooded with CCX The breathing apparatus is tested before the space is
entered. Protective clothing and a lifeline are used. Firefighters work in two-man teams. They move through the entryway
quickly and close the door immediately to prevent C02 from escaping.

tolerate the temperature, the team proceeds to the
lower level of the engine room. They use the hose-
lines from the unsuccessful fire attack to cool
metal surfaces near the fire. They do not remove
the facepieces of their breathing apparatus, since
the atmosphere will not support life. Removal of
the facepiece would result in almost instantaneous
collapse and death. (Fig. 10.12). The team keeps
track of the time they spend in the engine room
to ensure that they leave before their air supplies
run out. They are also timed by crewmen outside
the fire area. After cooling the metal surfaces, the
men leave the area the same way they entered.
They remove their facepieces only after leaving
the engine room and shutting the access door.

The crewmen selected for this task are thor-
oughly familiar with the engine room. They are
so chosen because visibility may be restricted by
smoke. Visibility will be further reduced by the
steam generated when the cooling water hits the
hot metal surfaces.

Entry at the highest level is recommended be-
cause CO2 is heavier than air. Entry through a
door that is level with the fire could allow exces-
sive amounts of CO2 to be lost when the door is
opened. The high entry level also immediately
exposes the crewmen to the highest temperatures
they will encounter, since the heat rises to the
upper parts of the engine room. If the men can
tolerate the heat at the upper level, it will not
present a problem as they move down. A disad-
vantage of high level entry is that it forces the
crewman to climb down and then up ladders. It
also makes rescue of the team more difficult if
something should go wrong. As this discussion
implies, the entire process is dangerous. Crew-
men engaged in the operation must thoroughly
understand their duties and ihe problems in-
volved. They must be fully aware of all safety
requirements.

Once the metal has been cooled down, the
engine room is ventilated with the mechanical

214

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

venting system. If there was any reason to keep
an inert atmosphere in the lower portion of the
engine room, then natural ventilation would be
employed, and after a short time the upper area
of the engine room would support life. Since we
have cooled the potential source of ignition and
want to regain control of the engine room, me-
chanical ventilation is indicated. After the space
has been vented for a reasonable time, a portable
gas detector is used to determine whether any
fuel vapors remain. Since none are present, a
flame safety lamp or portable oxygen meter is
used to ensure that the engine room contains suf-
ficient oxygen for breathing. The lamp burns in
all parts of the engine room, so the crew is al-
lowed to enter without breathing apparatus.

Overhaul. The oil remaining in the bilges is
blanketed with a layer of foam to prevent reig-
nition until it can be removed. The source of the
oil leak is found and repaired.

Boatswain's Locker Fire

The Fire. A member of the deck gang notices
smoke coming out of a deck hatch opening in the
forward section of the vessel. He turns in the
alarm.

Sizeup. This hatch leads to the boatswain's
stores, other storage areas and the chain locker.
The only access to the area is down a ladder and
through a passageway. This section of the vessel
is not protected by a fixed fire-extinguishing sys-
tem. The smoke is heavy, and visibility is limited.
Exactly what is burning cannot be determined,
but the area is used primarily for the storage of
class A materials.

Confining the Fire. The crewman closes the
deck hatch to reduce the supply of oxygen to the
fire.

Precautions. The fire party is dressed in full
protective clothing and breathing apparatus, since
heavy smoke and extreme heat can be expected.

Attack. Hoselines are advanced to the hatch
and charged. The hatch cover is cooled with
water and then opened. The nozzleman and
backup man climb down the ladder with the noz-
zle, and crewman on deck assist in advancing the
hose down the ladder. The nozzle is advanced
toward the glow of the fire. The advancing fire-
fighters keep low, for better visibility and a lower
heat concentration. The nozzleman uses short

bursts of water fog to reduce the heat. Heated
gases and steam pass over the firefighters' heads
and move out through the access hatch. When
the nozzleman is in a position from which the
stream can reach the fire, he uses a solid stream
to penetrate into the seat of the fire. When the
stream hits the fire, steam is generated and visi-
bility is greatly reduced. He shuts off the nozzle
to permit the steam and smoke to lift. When visi-
bility is regained, he moves in and completes the
extinguishment of the fire.

Backup. An additional hoseline is positioned
at the hatch opening and charged. This line can
be used to protect the initial attack team if they
are forced to withdraw because of a burst hose
or excessive heat.

Protecting Exposures. While the attack is under
way, other crewmen examine the compartments
adjacent to the fire. Combustible materials are
moved away from bulkheads. Heated bulkheads
are cooled with water in the form of fog.

Ventilation. The fire area is ventilated after the
fire is out. Since the area is not served by a me-
chanical ventilation system, portable fans are
employed.

Overhaul. Because of the quantity and nature
of the materials stowed in a boatswain's locker,
overhaul is extensive. All charred material is
moved to weather decks and thoroughly soaked.

Paint Locker Fire

The Fire. Smoke is discovered issuing from a
paint locker in the machinery spaces, through a
partially opened door. This paint locker has a
manual CO2 system.

Sizeup. If there is not much smoke, the fire is
in the early stages. Large volumes of dense smoke
indicate that the fire has been burning for some
time.

Attack 1 (Light Smoke). The alarm is sounded.
The door is opened further, and the locker is
visually examined to determine what is burning.
A smoldering class A fire (rags, rope, paint
brushes) is extinguished with a multipurpose port-
able dry chemical or water extinguisher.

Backup. A hoseline is run out and charged with
water, to be used to wet down any smoldering
material.

Combating the Fire

215

Attack 2 (Heavy Smoke). The door and vents
are closed, and the manual CO2 system is acti-
vated.

Backup. A hoseline is run out and charged with
water, as a precautionary measure, for the pro-
tection of exposures and to cool off paint locker
bulkheads.

Confining the Fire.

the door was closed.

The fire was isolated when

Protecting Exposures. All sides of the paint
locker are continuously examined to ensure that
the fire is not extending.

Ventilation. The locker is not opened or venti-
lated until all bulkheads, decks and overheads
are cool to the touch. Then, with a charged hose-
line in position, the door is opened and the com-
partment is allowed to ventilate long enough for
a normal level of oxygen to return to a small
space. Test for a safe oxygen level.

Overhaul. Fire-damaged material is removed
from the locker. Expended CO2 cylinders are
replaced. The hoseline is kept in readiness until
overhaul is complete and CO2 protection is re-
stored.

Galley Fire

The Fire. A fire involving the deep fryer on the
galley stove has extended to the duct system.

Sizeup. The alarm is sounded. Sizeup indicates
that a class B fuel is involved. There is an ex-
posure problem, because the fire has entered the
venting duct.

Attack. Using an appropriate portable extin-
guisher (CO2, dry chemical or Halon), galley per-
sonnel first direct the extinguishing agent onto
the burning oil. They are careful not to spatter the
burning liquid. Then, with a sweeping motion,
they direct the agent into the hood and duct area
(Fig. 10.13). Since the range is fueled with gas,
they shut off the fuel supply to the pilot lights
and the burners. (The pilot light was extinguished
in the attack.)

The firefighters do not shut off the exhaust fan
in the duct over the range. They use it to pull the
extinguishing agent into the duct and spread it
through the duct. However, once the flames are
knocked down, they turn the exhaust fan off. If
CO2 is used, the exhaust fan must be secured.
After the flames are out, water spray must be
used to cool metal surfaces.

Backup. A hoseline is run out to the galley
door and charged with water. The hoseline is thus
in position to support the attack or to cool down
hot metal surfaces.

Confining the Fire. All ventilation to and from
the galley is shut down.

Protecting Exposures. The galley exhaust duct
system is examined, from beginning to end, for
fire travel inside and outside the ducting. Every
compartment through which it passes is checked.
A hoseline is positioned where the duct vents to
the outside, in case fire shows at that point.

After the visible flames are extinguished and
the metal surfaces have been cooled, the duct
power venting system is turned on. Since the fire-
fighters suspect that there is fire in the duct, they
remove the grease filters. With the fan in opera-
tion, they direct a fog stream up the duct. The
fan helps pull the water into the duct. This cools
the metal ducting and pushes heat and smoke
out of the duct. The duct inspection plates are
opened t^ check for fire.

Ventilation. After the fire is completely out, the
smoke and heat are removed from the galley by
mechanical ventilation.

Overhaul. All grease residues are cleaned off
the stove, hood and ducting. The filters are
cleaned or replaced. The range is restored to
operation.

Fire in an Electrical Control Panel

The Fire. Smoke is discovered issuing from the
rear of the main electrical control panel in the
engine room. The alarm is sounded.

Sizeup. This is a class C fire. The rear of the
panel is not readily accessible because of the
sheet metal construction of the cabinet. The in-
sulation on live electrical wires is burning. As the
wires get hotter, their resistance increases* and
additional heat is generated; this can extend the
fire and cause irreparable damage to electrical
components.

* The resistance of pure metals — such as silver, cop-
per and aluminum — increases as the temperature in-
creases. {Electricity for Marine Engineers, p. 68, pre-
pared by the MEBA Training Fund.)

216

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Grease on Wall of Duct Provides
Fuel for Fire

Blisters and Hot Surface
Indicate Fire Traveling
Through Duct

Inspection Plate

Deck

Exhaust Fan

Grease-Saturated (or Missing)

Screens Allow

Fire to Enter the Duct

When Using C02 Shut Off Exhaust Fan.

Attack the Fire at the Surface
First. Then Direct the Extinguishing
Agent into the Duct. When Using Halon or
Dry Chemical do not Shut Off Exhaust
Fan.

If Fire Continues into the Duct
System, Flush the System
With Water

Figure 10.13.

the duct.

Fighting a galley range fire. 1. Attack the fire at the surface first, then 2. direct the extinguishing agent into

Attack. The fire party immediately attempts to
deenergize the circuit or the equipment. This
serves the double purpose of protecting fire-
fighters from electrical shock and reducing the
ability of the fire to extend.

The initial attack is made with a CO2 or Halon
extinguisher, either portable or semiportable (Fig.
10.14). There are several reasons for using these
agents. First, the person charged with deenergiz-
ing the equipment may not have completed his
assignment. Since COu and Halon are not con-
ductors of electricity, those attacking the fire are
protected from electrical shock, provided they do
not touch the equipment. Second, these agents do

not leave a residue and will not damage delicate
electrical components. Third, firefighters cannot
easily get at the fire, because of the cabinet; the
extinguishing agent must be applied through the
ventilation slots. A gas will more readily flow
through these small openings. If CO2 or Halon is
not available, a dry chemical extinguisher may be
used. However, dry chemical leaves a residue that
could damage electrical contacts and could be
difficult to clean up.

Backup. The initial attack is backed up with
additional portable or semiportable extinguishers
approved for use in class C fires. The Coast Guard

Combating the Fire

217

Figure 10.14. Fire in an enclosed electrical cabinet should be attacked with C02 or Halon. The agent should be directed into
the unit through the cabinet vents.

regards any fire involving electrical equipment
as a class C fire, even if the equipment is de-
energized.

Confining the Fire. The fire is isolated by deen-
ergizing the equipment and knocking down the
flames.

Protecting Exposures. All wiring and equip-
ment near the fire is checked for fire extension.
All equipment that is electrically connected to the
involved panel is also examined. Electric cables
are traced along their entire length, especially
where they pass through decking and bulkheads.
It is found that the fire was confined by quick
deenergizing of the electrical equipment, extin-
guishment of the flames and natural cooling of
hot components.

Ventilation. The burning insulation has given
off irritating and toxic fumes. The ventilation
system was shut down when the alarm was
sounded. It is reactivated as soon as the fire is
out. If this cannot be readily accomplished, the
firefighter should be equipped with protective
breathing apparatus.

Caution. If the machinery space is small and
several semiportable CO2 extinguishers are used,

the oxygen content in the air may be reduced
enough to make breathing difficult. Then protec-
tive breathing apparatus should be used during
the attack, until ventilation has been accom-
plished. If the ventilation system cannot be re-
activated, anyone entering the fire area should
wear such breathing apparatus.

Overhaul. Overhaul procedures are carried out
by engine department personnel. These crewmen
are best able to open up fire-damaged equipment
with minimum damage to that equipment. After
overhaul, when the fire is completely out, the in-
volved equipment is inspected and repaired. Then
the power is restored.

Cargo Hold Fire on a Break-Bulk
Cargo Ship

The Fire. The smoke detection system alarm in-
dicates smoke in no. 2 hold, lower 'tween deck.
The vessel is 3 days out of port and 4 days from
her destination. There are no nearer ports. Fair
weather is the forecast for the next 48 hours.

Sizeup. The ship's manifest and cargo stowage
plan are consulted. They disclose the following
information regarding no. 2 hold:

218

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

• The lower hold contains heavy machinery
in wood crates.

• The lower 'tween deck contains baled rags,
cartons of paper products and bags of resin.
(The alarm system indicates this area as the
fire location.)

• The upper 'tween deck contains cartons and
crates of small automotive parts and rubber
tires.

Smoke is observed coming out of the ventila-
tors for no. 2 hold. The main deck over the for-
ward port section of the hold is much warmer
than the surrounding deck areas.

The sizeup points out several important con-
siderations regarding cargo hold fires and how
they should be fought. For a direct attack with
hoselines, the cargo above the fire must be moved
so that the lower hatches can be opened. This
would take at least several hours; and time is
important! Every second of delay allows the fire
to gain in intensity. It could become uncontrol-
lable while the cargo is being moved. Suppose
CO2 were injected into the fire hold while crew-
men were attempting to reach it for a direct at-
tack. Eventually, the cargo hatch would have to
be opened for the hoselines. Some CO2 would

escape, air would enter the hold, and the smother-
ing effect of the CO2 would be destroyed.

In a direct attack, it would be difficult to bring
water to bear on the seat of the fire. If the fire
were below the top layer of cargo, then more
cargo would have to be moved to reach the fire.
Pouring large amounts of water onto the burning
area would not ensure extinguishment. In addi-
tion, the runoff could cause a stability problem
and could damage cargo.

For all these reasons, fire in a loaded cargo
hold should be fought indirectly, using a carbon
dioxide flooding system. The agent can be brought
to bear on the fire rapidly. When properly used,
CO2 has exhibited a high success rate for con-
trolling and, in many instances, totally extinguish-
ing hold fires. The master must have patience
and confidence that the fire can be contained and
extinguished with CO2.

Attack. An indirect attack is employed. The
hold is first sealed off; the seal will be maintained
until the vessel reaches port, where shoreside fire-
fighting units are available. The following actions
are taken (Fig. 10.15):

• All hatch covers are checked to ensure that
they are securely dogged down.

• Air Exhaust

Air Supply

Motor-Driven Air Supply
Controllable From Bridge

Smoke Accumulator
and Discharge
Outlet for C02

Figure 10.15. Cargo hold layout.

Combating the Fire

219

TIME-TEMPERATURE GRAPH

(Fire in Lower Tween Deck, #2 Hold)

DAY 1 DAY 2

F°

7nn

1QO

I oU

170

• —

• -

• ^

i en .- -

r->»

i

150 -

^^

» ^^/ m

140

• ^i

• _

1 on

i Ai
1 1 n

1 nn

nn

Qf|

7n — — —

•

i •

•

• ■

» •

> •

' •

>
•

-

•

60

' •

■

•

► •

70

CO2

>#

#i

DO

#,

DO

#1'

DO

#!<

)0

TIME 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 ( #1400 1500 1600 1700

• — THERMOMETER #1 LOWER TWEEN DECK

« t t JucDMnmcTCD Jto iiddcd tiaiccm r\cn\s

• • • • A

JVIBIAIV

IT TEM

PERA1

URE

Figure 10.16. Temperature graph for recording information regarding an indirect attack on a hold fire with the C02 total-
flooding system.

• One or more hoselines are run out on deck
and charged. The lines will be used to cool
hot spots on deck and (if necessary) on the
exterior of the hull.

• Ventilator dampers are closed, and openings
are covered with canvas that will be wetted
down at frequent intervals.

• Instructions for the ship's C02 system are
studied to ensure that the proper number
of CO2 cylinders are discharged into the
right compartment.

As the CO2 is discharged into the lower 'tween
deck, crew members are stationed at vents, hatch
covers and entrances to adjacent holds. They
check for heat or smoke that is being pushed out
by the CO2. These signs indicate points where
CO2 could leak out or air could leak in. The leaks
are sealed with duct seal or strong cargo tape.
When the attack is started, the time, temperatures
(readings from thermometers placed on hot spots
on bulkheads of adjoining holds and/ or compart-

ments) and amount of CO2 discharged are re-
corded on a line graph (Fig. 10.16). This infor-
mation will be used to check the progress of the
fire and determine how well it is being controlled.
Temperatures will be entered on the graph hourly,
and the time and amount of each additional CO2
discharge will be recorded.

Patience is required when a fire in class A ma-
terials is being extinguished with CO2. The proc-
ess is slow. The oxygen content of the atmosphere
in the hold must be reduced to 15% to extinguish
flaming fire, and much lower to extinguish smol-
dering materials. The temptation to take a peek
and see how things are going must be avoided;
no opening must be made to release heat or
smoke. If the hatches are opened, air is allowed
to enter the hold and precious CO2 will escape.
This changes the atmosphere in the hold, per-
mitting the fire to rekindle. Since the supply of
CO2 on a ship at sea is limited, none can be
wasted. Crew members must be continually alert
to detect any leaks from the involved cargo space.

220

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Confining the Fire. By sealing the hold, the
crew took the first step in confining the fire. The
holds fore and aft of the fire are now checked. If
any bulkheads are hot, combustibles located near
or against them are moved, or the bulkheads are
cooled with water fog (Fig. 10.17).

Exterior bulkheads (in this case the hull of the
ship) are checked visually from the deck. Any
blistering or discolored paint is investigated by a
crewman in a boatswain's chair, lowered over the
side (sea conditions permitting). Some of the hull
plating is hot, indicating it is in contact with fire.
A stream of water is allowed to flow down the
side of the ship to cool these spots.

The deck over the fire is watched, especially
where containers are stored over the hot spots.
Hazardous cargo stored on deck near the fire is
moved to a safer area. If this were not possible,
the deck would have to be cooled constantly.

It is not possible to check the area directly
under the fire, except by checking the bulkheads
in the adjacent holds.

Protecting Exposures. The holds fore and aft
of the fire were checked for hot spots before the
CO2 was discharged. However, the application of
CO2 was not delayed for this examination. Pyro-
meters are placed on the hottest spots on decks
and bulkheads, at each level of the hold (Fig.
10.17C). Where hot spots are not present but the
bulkhead is to be monitored for temperature, the
pyrometers are placed midway between the deck
and the overhead. The temperatures are read
hourly, to monitor the progress of the fire. Pyrom-
eters are secured to the bulkhead with cargo
tape or duct seal if they are not of the magnetic
type. Hoselines are positioned on deck, ready to
be used in cooling bulkheads if required.

Once the CO2 is discharged, leakage from the
fire hold may make the adjacent holds untenable
without breathing apparatus. The oxygen content
of these holds is checked continually, to ensure
the safety of crewmen performing monitoring
tasks.

Ventilation. Absolutely no ventilation is at-
tempted until the ship is in port and additional
help is available. By the time the ship arrives in
port, temperatures in the hold will have abated
and will have remained fairly constant for a period
of 24 hours. The hatch cover is then partially
(and cautiously) opened. Charged hoselines are
in position, and men with breathing apparatus are
ready to advance the hoselines if some smoldering
fire still exists.

Natural ventilation is employed to make the
upper 'tween deck tenable. The inert atmosphere
in the lower 'tween deck and lower hold is main-
tained.

Overhaul. After the upper 'tween deck has been
declared safe for men by a marine chemist (or a
qualified ship's officer if a marine chemist is not
available), offloading is begun. Charred material
is kept separate from other cargo, placed on a
noncombustible deck and wet down if necessary.
The upper 'tween deck is cleared of all material
involved in the fire, and the area over the hatch
covers is cleared. Then the lower 'tween deck is
opened. Again men with breathing apparatus
stand by, ready to advance charged hoselines if
necessary.

When the hold is declared safe, the cargo in-
volved in the fire is offloaded. Sufficient addi-
tional cargo is offloaded to ensure that there is
no hidden fire. The hold is completely ventilated,

1

Hot Spot

Thermometer

<

Figure 10.17. A. If possible, cargo should be moved away from hot bulkheads. B. Hot bulkheads may be cooled with water
fog, applied until steam is no longer produced. C. Pyrometers are placed halfway between the deck and overhead.

Combating the Fire

221

and the CO2 system is restored. The fire area is
carefully examined for structural damage. Then
the hold is reloaded with cargo that was not in-
volved in the fire.

Tanker Fire

The Fire. During the transfer of gasoline from
no. 3 center tank to a shoreside facility, a cargo
hose ruptures at the flange on the ship. The gaso-
line spills on deck and immediately catches fire.

Sizeup. The cargo transfer was just started, so
the cargo tanks are nearly full. The wind is light
and blowing across the starboard quarter, toward
shore. The scuppers have been plugged, and as
yet no gasoline has entered the water. The alarm
was given promptly, and all crew members are
aware of the fire and have manned their firefight-
ing stations.

Attack. The general alarm and the ship's whistle
are sounded to alert shoreside personnel and
nearby ships. Help is immediately requested from
local fire departments.

At the same time, the cargo pumps are shut
down to stop the flow of fuel to the fire. Although
some fuel will continue to drain from the cargo
hose and pipelines, the amount is small compared
to what the pumps would feed into the fire.

Crewmen activate the nearest foam monitor
between the fire and the deckhouse, on the wind-
ward side of the fire. The monitor has a greater
reach and volume than the handlines. The op-
erator directs the foam onto a nearby vertical

surface, so it runs down and forms a blanket on
the burning gasoline. An alternative method is to
lob the foam onto the near edge of the fire and
move the nozzle slowly from side to side. This
also allows the foam to build up a continuous
blanket. A foam handline is run out and used to
blanket any area that the monitor cannot reach.
A hoseline equipped with a fog nozzle is run out
and charged to protect the crewmen on the foam
monitor from excessive heat (Fig. 10.18). Fire-
fighters are careful not to destroy the foam blan-
ket by haphazardly directing water into the foam.
An unbroken blanket of foam is maintained over
the gasoline spill until all sources of ignition are
eliminated.

If small open patches of fuel are allowed to
continue burning, their heat will start to break
down the foam blanket. The patches will grow in
size, and eventually fire will again cover the en-
tire surface of the spill. The same thing will hap-
pen if the fire is not completely extinguished be-
fore the supply of foam is depleted. Thus, the
entire surface of the flammable liquid must be
blanketed with foam, and the blanket must be
maintained until the fire is out.

It may be difficult to maintain a full foam
blanket where the foam can spread out in all di-
rections, as on a weather deck. If the spill is large,
a lot of foam will be needed; a shipboard foam
system does not provide an inexhaustable supply.
This problem can be solved, at least partially, by
shutting off the fuel source as quickly as possible.

If the fire is extinguished by the foam, crew-
men should be careful not to disturb the foam

Figure 10.18. 1. With the cargo pumps shut down, the spill fire is attacked from the windward side with a foam monitor.
2. Foam handlines are used to cover areas that the monitor cannot reach. 3. A water fog nozzle is used to protect personnel.

222

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

blanket by walking through it unnecessarily.
Hoselines should be kept available for immediate
use; deck plates and other structural metal will
be hot, and reignition could occur. Any burning
paint, hose or gaskets should be extinguished with
a fog stream applied carefully so as not to break
up the foam blanket.

If the foam attack is not successful, the fire can
be controlled and extinguished with fog streams.
Several hoselines should be positioned to sweep
the burning area with fog. The attack should be
started from the windward side; this allows the
wind to carry the fog into the fire, providing
greater reach. The wind also carries heat and
smoke away from the firefighters. As the streams
are swept from side to side, they should be kept
parallel with the deck. The nozzlemen should
advance slowly; they must not move into the fire
too rapidly, or the flames may get around their
flanks and behind them. They must not advance
to the point where reflash could envelop them in
flames. Water fog will knock down and push
flames away, but it will not provide a smothering
blanket. The possibility of reignition must be con-
sidered at all times.

Even after the fire is extinguished, the fog
streams should be used to sweep the fire area and
other hot surfaces, to cool them down. The water
will flow over the side, so it can be used without
restriction. It is better to apply too much water
fog than to risk reignition. The water must be
applied until three things are accomplished:
1) the supply of fuel to the fire is shut off, 2) all
metal surfaces are cool to the touch and 3) the
flammable liquid is diluted or washed overboard.

If the foam and fog attacks both fail and the
fire continues to increase in size, the safety of the
crew must then become the prime consideration.
The attack should be abandoned, and the ship
evacuated. Firefighting operations should not be
continued to the point at which crewmen are
trapped and have no avenue of escape.

Confining the Fire. The fire is isolated by
quickly covering it with a blanket of foam and
promptly securing the ship's cargo pumps. As
soon as the fire in the vicinity of the cargo valves
is extinguished, crew members, protected by fog
streams, close all valves and ullage openings.
Openings in the deckhouse are closed and pro-
tected with hoselines. Ventilation intakes drawing
air from the vicinity of the fire are shut down.
Electrical equipment in the vicinity of the fire is
deenergized.

Protecting Exposures. The ship and the shore-
side complex are threatened by the fire. Other

ships tied up at the same or adjacent docks are
also jeopardized. These ships began preparations
to get under way when the general alarm was
sounded.

At the oil storage depot, water spray and foam
systems were activated to cool tanks and piping.
Hoselines with fog nozzles were advanced and
charged for the same purpose. Additional foam
equipment and foam concentrate were requested
by the involved ship and were brought to the
scene.

Overhaul. Once the fire is extinguished and the
leak secured, the remaining spilled gasoline is
cleaned up. The foam blanket is maintained until
the gasoline is removed or recovered. Then, all
cargo hoses are checked or replaced. Shoreside
fixed and portable foam monitors are kept in posi-
tion until all gasoline fumes have dissipated.

To allow an examination of the spill area under-
neath the pier, the tanker is warped to another
position away from the cargo handling area. The
foam supply is replenished without delay, and the
ship's fire protection system is restored to duty.
Then cargo offloading operations are resumed.

CONTAINER FIRES

A fire involving ordinary combustibles in a mod-
ern, well-built container will frequently extinguish
itself by consuming all of the oxygen in the con-
tainer. In the following examples we will assume
that this did not happen.

Container Fire on Deck

The Fire. A 12.2-m (40-ft) aluminum container
stowed on deck in the forward section of the ship
is giving off smoke. The aluminum is discolored
from heat.

Sizeup. The container is in the center of a three-
tier stack and is surrounded on three sides by
other containers. It was packed at a stuffing shed
at the terminal and can be expected to contain
a variety of materials, none reported to be
hazardous.

Attack. The alarm is sounded. Crewmen check
the container labels and the cargo manifest to
determine the contents of the involved container
and adjacent containers. At the same time, a hose-
line is advanced to the involved container and
charged. It is used to cool down the container
with fog. The nozzleman stands back so he will
not be scalded by the steam that is generated. A
second hoseline is run out to the adjacent con-
tainers. Neither hose stream will reach the seat

Combating the Fire

223

of the fire; however, they will help contain the
fire while preparations are made for final extin-
guishment.

The cargo manifest indicates that water is the
proper extinguishing agent. Now crewmen chisel
to punch a hole about 2.54 cm (1 in.) in diameter
near the top of one side of the container, close to
the hottest area. A piercing applicator (Fig. 9.5)
or the pike end of a fireaxe could also be used. A
short applicator is attached to a combination noz-
zle, and the low-velocity head is removed. The
applicator is inserted into the hole, and the nozzle
is opened. The nozzleman floods the entire con-
tainer, even though this may not always be
necessary.

If the cargo in the container is very valuable
and can be damaged by water, C02 or Halon can
be introduced into the container through the
opening. Six or more portable 6.8-kg (15-lb) CO2
extinguishers should be used for the initial dis-
charge. The opening should then be plugged, and
additional CO2 discharged hourly, until the fire
is out.

Confining the Fire. The fire is confined as long
as it does not extend from the container. Hose-
lines are used to cool the outside of the container
and prevent the fire from burning through until
the proper extinguishing agent has been applied
to the inside of the container.

Protecting Exposures. The cargo in adjacent
containers and the cargo in the hold below the
main deck are exposed to the heat of the fire. A
hoseline is used to protect the adjacent containers
and to cool the deck. If the fire were intense and
a container located right on the deck were in-
volved, it would be advisable, as a precautionary
measure, to inspect the compartment immediately
below the main deck. The fire could extend down-
ward by conduction.

Overhaul. The container is opened, and its con-
tents are removed and examined. Any fire that is
discovered is soaked with water. This step may be
delayed until the container has been unloaded in
port. However, the crew must ensure that the fire
is completely out. This would require the use of
additional water, directed into as well as on the
outside of the container.

Container Fire in a Hold

The Fire. The smoke detection system indicates
smoke in no. 4 hold, lower section, starboard
side. The ship is at sea, and the nearest port is
3 days away.

Sizeup. The no. 4 hold is fully loaded with con-
tainers, and there are two tiers of containers on
top of the hatch cover.

Attack. The alarm is sounded. The fire party
opens the emergency escape hatch and notes a
minimum of smoke and no heat. Visibility within
the hold is fair (15 m (50-ft)). The on-scene
leader declares that the hold can be entered. Two
crew members, familiar with the stowage of con-
tainers on the ship, are equipped with breathing
apparatus, lifelines and portable lights.

The crewmen enter the hold. When they reach
the lower level, they still encounter light smoke
and no heat so they decide to proceed. A hoseline
is lowered to them, and crewmen on deck are
ready to pay out additional hose as needed.

The two-man team locates the burning con-
tainer. They first cool the outside of the container
with water fog. Then they make an opening into
the container, insert the applicator and discharge
water into the container. The applicator is held
in place until sufficient water has entered the con-
tainer. Then the team examines the involved con-
tainer and adjacent containers for hot spots. Since
several hot spots are found, the involved container
is flooded again with water; an additional hoseline
is advanced into the hold, and water fog is used
to cool the hot spots on adjacent containers. When
additional examinations indicate that the fire is
out, the hoselines are withdrawn, the hold is se-
cured and the detection system is restored to
service.

If the initial examination had disclosed a con-
siderable amount of smoke and heat, with less
than 15 m (50 ft) of visibility, the hold would
have been sealed. It then would have been flooded
with CO2 as previously described.

The fire confinement, exposure protection and
ventilation procedures are the same as for the
cargo hold fire described earlier in this chapter.

Overhaul. No attempt is made to overhaul the
containers until the ship is in port. At the dock,
the containers are unloaded without the need for
crewmen to enter the hold to attach the lifting
mechanism. If the CO2 total-flooding system had
been activated, the inert atmosphere could be
maintained during the unloading. Charged hose-
lines are positioned at dockside to fight any reig-
nition that might occur when the containers are
opened.

LNG Spill Involving a Leak

Liquefied natural gas t is a hydrocarbon fuel com-
posed mostly of methane. It burns cleanly, with

224

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

little or no visible smoke. The flame height is
greater than that of other hydrocarbon fuels, and
the radiant heat produced is much more intense.
In the liquid state, LNG weighs about half as
much as water; its liquefication temperature is
approximately — 162°C (— 260°F). Its volume in-
creases 600 times as it changes from a liquid at
its boiling temperature to a gas at atmospheric
pressure and 15.6°C (60°F). When the tempera-
ture of the vapor rises to approximately — 112°C
(— 170°F), it weighs the same as air. It is trans-
ported in the liquid state for economic reasons.

LNG is colorless, odorless and severely dam-
aging to the eyes and throat. The liquid causes
frostbite on contact with the skin. It causes em-
brittlement fractures in ordinary steel but may be
safely handled in stainless steel, certain nickel
steel, certain copper alloy and aluminum con-
tainers. It is usually odorized by adding methyl
mercaptan as an aid in detecting leaks of the
vapor. The ambient vapor is not irritating to the
eyes or throat.

Many safeguards are built into ships that trans-
port LNG, to combat spills and fires. These ves-
sels are equipped with deck water spray systems
to control spills, prevent brittle fracture of the
deck plating and facilitate fast warmup of the
vapors to minimize the fire hazard from cloud
drift. The spray system is also used to help pre-
vent ignition. If ignition does occur, the spray
system will provide a water curtain to protect
vital areas, such as the bridge and gas control
room, from the intense radiant heat of the fire.
It also will cover most piping and tanks with a
cooling barrier of water. The radiant heat could
build up enough pressure in uncooled tanks and
piping to cause them to rupture.

Every LNG ship is equipped with enough large
dry chemical skid units (Fig. 10.19) to protect the
entire weather deck area in case a fire occurs and
extinguishment is desired. The dry chemical
would be used to extinguish a small spill fire where
the LNG spill could be controlled. If a large spill
were to occur, as from a high energy impact (col-
lision), fire would be almost a certainty. The
spread of fire would be controlled with dry chem-
ical, while the fire was allowed to burn itself out.
The water spray system would be used to prevent
other tanks from becoming involved.

t See Chapter 5 for a discussion of liquefied natural
gas (LNG) and Chapter 9 for a discussion of the spe-
cial fire protection systems installed on LNG tankers.
Because LNG constitutes an almost unique spill or fire
hazard, the material in those chapters will be reviewed
and enlarged upon here.

Special protective clothing must be worn by
personnel handling LNG spills. This clothing
must consist of at least rubber gloves, a face shield
and protective clothing. At least two self-con-
tained breathing apparatus should be available
on the vessel. Proximity- and entry-type suits for
approaching an LNG fire, closing a valve or other
necessary actions may also be provided. Such
equipment should be readily available, and per-
sonnel should practice donning the gear quickly
as preparation for emergency situations.

The Spill. During offloading, a section of pip-
ing develops a leak. A quantity of LNG spills
onto the deck.

Sizeup. The spill is small, and the liquid is being
vaporized rapidly by the continuous flow of water
spray on the decking below the loading arm.
(This is standard practice while LNG is being
loaded or discharged.) The wind is blowing off-
shore, taking the vapors away from the vessel and
the shore installation. There are no other vessels
in the vicinity.

Confining the Spill. The source of the spill is
isolated by means of control valves on each side
of the leak. Ignition is prevented by actuating the
water spray system. The crew and the shore in-
stallation are alerted to the emergency, and all
pumping equipment and ventilation intakes are
shut down.

Protecting Exposures. The steel deck and shell
plating are protected by the water spray system.
Personnel involved in controlling the leak don
protective clothing. Other crew members run out
and charge hoselines, and place water monitors at
the ready. The dry chemical hose reels are ad-
vanced but not pressurized. (They will be pres-
surized only if the LNG ignites.)

Attack and Overhaul. With the source of the
spill shut off, the water spray vaporizes the liquid
and/or flushes it over the side. When all the LNG
has been removed, the leak is repaired. Then all
emergency equipment is secured, and normal off-
loading operations are resumed.

LNG Spill Involving Fire

Let us now suppose that fire occurs on the same
vessel, at the same dock, with the wind blowing
from the water and exposing the shore facility.

The Fire. During offloading, a pipe on the ves-
sel ruptures. The subsequent spill catches fire.

Sizeup. The fire is small but spreading. A light
wind is blowing the flames across the deck of

Combating the Fire

225

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226

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

the ship toward the shore installation. There are
other ships in the vicinity. Under present regu-
lations, no other ships would be permitted at the
same dock while LNG is loaded or unloaded.

Confining the Fire. The alarm is sounded. The
cargo pumps are shut down, and the deck water
spray system is activated. The crews of other
ships at the pier and shore personnel are alerted
to take emergency measures to protect their ves-
sels and facilities. The proper valves are shut
down to stop the leak and hoselines are run out
and charged with water. Two teams using water
fog advance along with the person designated to
close the isolation valves, to protect him from the
radiant heat. All deck openings are closed, and
all ventilation intakes are secured.

Attack. The hose reels and the dry chemical
system nearest the spill are run out and charged
with dry chemical to the nozzle. Since extinguish-
ment is desired, the dry chemical hoselines are
used. To extinguish a spill on the loading arm,
the turret monitor for the dry chemical unit on
the dock side of the ship is used. It can be actu-
ated locally or remotely, to discharge the agent
from the turret in a fixed pattern.

Protecting Exposures. The deck water spray
system protects the cargo tanks, piping and deck-
house. The protective spray system on the shore
installation is also activated.

The ship's cargo hoses are disconnected. The
master requests a tug to move the vessel. If the
fire is extinguished, the request can be cancelled.
However, it is important that the ship be ready
to move as soon as possible.

Overhaul. Once the leak is isolated and the fire
is extinguished, the remaining LNG is washed
overboard. If the spill is very large and the wind
is blowing toward the terminal facility or the ves-
sel's housing, it may be desirable to let the fire
burn under controlled conditions until all the
LNG is consumed. However, a small spill would
not normally present a hazard after extinguish-
ment, if the water spray system is operating.
Moreover, the longer the structural metal is ex-
posed to high heat, the greater is the chance of
structural damage. Thus, a small spill would usu-
ally be extinguished immediately.

LNG Spill due to a High Energy Impact
(Collision)

As of this writing, there has not been a recorded
high energy impact involving an LNG ship. How-
ever, given the planned construction of 100 LNG
ships worldwide within the next decade, it is con-

ceivable that such a collision could occur. We do
not know what would actually happen during and
after such a collision, so the following case is
mostly speculation. In this hypothetical case, very
little is said concerning the second vessel involved
in the accident. The type of vessel, its cargo and
the experience and training of its crew would, of
course, affect firefighting efforts. For example, we
assume below that the two vessels become locked
together. The crew of the second vessel would
actually do everything in their power to move
away from the LNG vessel. Moreover, they would
attempt to fight the fire on their ship with the
firefighting systems and devices carried on board.
However, given these limitations to our hypo-
thetical situation, we can suggest what might
happen.

The Fire. An LNG vessel is hit broadside with
sufficient force to penetrate the double hull and
LNG container. It is believed that the second
vessel would have to be moving at a speed of at
least 28-37 km/hr (15-20 knots). The two ves-
sels remain locked together. The escaping LNG
fills the void space surrounding the tank and, in
contacting seawater, commences to boil very vio-
lently. It produces a gas overpressure in excess of
the pressure that can safely be relieved through
the void relief valves on spherical tank ships only
and the hull opening. At the time of the collision,
the LNG gas is ignited. Shortly thereafter, the
pressure buildup results in further rupture of the
hull, with fire spreading into the sea with the
spilled LNG. The second vessel is totally engulfed
in flames from the LNG, while the LNG vessel
experiences fire only in the area of the collision.

Sizeup. Of the five LNG tanks on the vessel,
only one tank is breached. Each tank contains
25,000 m3 (approximately 150,000 barrels) of
LNG. The wind is blowing across the LNG ship
and down the length of the other vessel. The ves-
sels are in open sea, with no land or other vessels
in the vicinity. The alarm is sounded.

Confining the Fire. The deck water spray sys-
tem is activated. Hoselines are run out and
activated with high-velocity fog to supplement
the fixed-spray system. Hose-reel lines are run
out from the dry chemical units but are not
pressurized at this time. Since the other vessel
is engulfed in flaming vapors and must be as-
sumed to be immobilized, the LNG vessel main-
tains its propulsion and steering systems in opera-
tion. They are needed to jockey the two vessels
as necessary to alter the present relative wind
position temporarily to effect a rescue, if possible,

Combating the Fire

227

of the other crew. This action could also increase
the intensity of heat and flame hitting the unin-
volved LNG tanks, perhaps beyond the ability
of the water spray system to protect these tanks.
As a result, additional LNG tanks could become
involved.

Protecting Exposures. Four LNG tanks are in
danger of becoming involved. At present, they
are being protected by the water spray system.
Not much can be done to aid the other vessel,
beyond rescue of its crew. The fire on the second
vessel cannot be combated until the spilling LNG
is completely consumed. The rate of release of
LNG from the hull will determine how long it
will take for the contents of the involved tank to
be consumed.

Attack. The situation requires that efforts be
directed toward controlling the spread of the fire,
while the LNG from the involved tank is con-
sumed. This is accomplished by 1) effecting a
position for rescue of the other crew, and then
maneuvering to change the relative wind more
toward the beam (to decrease the heat intensity
on the uninvolved tanks; and 2) continuing
to cool adjacent structures. Additional cooling is
provided by fire-main hoselines and deluge water
flow from the fire-main monitors. No attempt is
made to extinguish the fire.

At least several hours will be required for all
the LNG in the involved tank to burn up. During
this time, there is no relaxation of efforts to con-
trol the fire and keep it from spreading.

Overhaul. Eventually, the spill rate begins to
decrease. When this becomes evident, the fire-
fighters advance as many water fog applicators
as possible to the fire. The fog streams are di-
rected at the breach in the hull, so that flames
will not flash into the double hull as the liquid
flow diminishes. Further, they use the vessel's
inert gas system to make the breached void inert
(as well as the LNG tank as it is draining). This
minimizes the danger of explosion when all the
liquid has drained and only gas is left. They con-
tinue this cooling after the flames on both vessels
have been extinguished, and until all metal struc-
tures are too cool to cause reflash.

As the two vessels move against each other,
the friction could provide sufficient heat for re-
flash, so the contact area is carefully observed.
Water is sprayed until all danger of reflash has
passed. Maintaining the tank and void inert also
aids in preventing reflash.

When it is considered safe to do so, the two
vessels are separated. During this operation, the
crews again carefully guard against explosion.

The LNG vessel is able to maintain stability
within a safe range; its structural integrity is not
decreased by the lengthy burnout. These are, of
course, predictions. They may be valid only if
maneuvering and structural cooling procedures
are accomplished as described above.

Comments on High Energy Impact without Fire.

It is highly unlikely such an impact could occur
without a fire. Since it is conceivable, we must
consider the effect of the vapor cloud drifting
toward an inhabited area. All present predictions
of possible effects of vapor cloud drift are based
on instantaneous release of the total content of
the tank. This in itself is unrealistic, as the breach
in the hull would not normally release all the
LNG at once. If it did happen, a drifting vapor
cloud of such magnitude could present a fire
hazard to large inhabited areas. However, it is
more likely that a small cloud would form and
would dissipate within a few hundred yards of
the vessel. Deliberate ignition of the vapor cloud
to prevent a catastrophe might well be a self-
sacrificing gesture (ignition stops the forward
drift of the vapor cloud). It probably would not
be necessary, though, given the present design of
LNG vessels and the existing navigational safe-
guards.

Fire on a Passenger Ferry

The Fire. Fire in a passenger vehicle is filling
the vehicular alley with smoke. Some people are
leaving their cars, while others are blowing their
horns to attract attention.

Sizeup. The car is on the main deck of a drive-
on-drive-off passenger and vehicle ferry. The fire
is in the engine compartment of the car. There
are 7 cars in front of the involved car, and 10
cars behind. Three passengers in the involved
car are able to leave it. There are two passenger
decks above the main deck. The vehicular alley is
open at either end, with two crossovers to adja-
cent vehicular alleys. There is a walkway running
the entire length of the vehicular alley.

Attack. The alarm is sounded. The water spray,
or manual sprinkler, system for the involved
alley is activated. This suppresses the fire while
hoselines are advanced into position. It also re-
duces visibility and tends to keep the passengers
in their cars. One crewman immediately takes a
portable extinguisher (CO2, dry chemical or
Halon) to the involved auto. He cannot readily
open the hood, so he directs the stream into the
engine compartment through the radiator grill
and from below on either side of the engine. A

228

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

hoseline is run out and charged. Under its pro-
tection, the passengers are removed from the car
and taken to the forward part of the vessel (into
the wind).

Confining the Fire. The cars to the rear are the
most threatened, but neither they nor the burning
car can be moved. The fire can best be prevented
from spreading by quick extinguishment using
portable extinguishers and hoselines.

Protecting Exposures. The water spray system
and the hoselines provide sufficient protection for
exposed vehicles. The passengers of exposed cars
are taken from the vehicle alley until firefighting
operations are completed.

Ventilation. The ferry's speed is reduced, and it
is maneuvered broadside to the wind. This re-
duces the draft that would tend to accelerate the
fire. Once the fire is out, the original course is
resumed; the natural draft quickly removes the
smoke and heat.

Overhaul. The engine compartment is over-
hauled by disconnecting the battery, ungrounded
strap first. Any smoldering insulation is wet down.
Hot spots are cooled with spray from a partially
opened nozzle. Some gasoline has spilled, and it
is flushed from the deck. Upon docking, if there
is any suspicion of flammable vapors in the alley,
the cars should not be driven off the ferry. In-
stead, they should be pushed or pulled off by the
crew or shoreside help.

SUMMARY OF FIREFIGHTING
TECHNIQUES

A comprehensive fire prevention program is of
prime importance in the day-to-day operation of
any vessel. However, there may be a time when,
in spite of all the crew's precautions, they are
faced with a hostile fire aboard ship. Weekly fire
drills should have provided crewmen with the
skills they need to control and extinguish the fire
and conclude their voyage successfully.

At the first indication of fire, the alarm must
be sounded. Then the fire must be located; some-
times this will be easy and at other times it may
be quite difficult. However, the alarm will bring
people to help locate the fire.

After the fire is located, the firefighters must
determine what is burning to know what extin-
guishing agent or agents to employ. The extent
of the fire and the best method of attack must
also be determined. Whatever the method of
initial attack may be, it should be backed up with

a second, and more substantial, means of attack.
For example, a small fire might be attacked ini-
tially with portable extinguishers. Then charged
fire-main hoselines or a semiportable system
would be advanced as backup if the initial attack
fails to control the fire. An initial attack with a
semiportable system would be backed up with
charged hoselines; an initial attack with hoselines
would be backed up with more or larger hose-
lines. However, water must be used prudently on
a vessel, because of the stability problems that it
can cause.

The fixed extinguishing system is, in most
cases, a backup that should be used only as a
last resort. This is especially so in the case of an
engine room fire. Use of the fixed CO2 system
requires that the engine room be evacuated, and
the loss of power and steering for a long period
of time may lead to worse problems than the fire.
However, when the last resort is the only remain-
ing hope, it must be used. Fixed systems may be
used for the initial attack on cargo hold fires be-
cause they are effective in such confined spaces
and because it is not essential that anyone enter
the holds during a voyage.

Fires directly involving hazardous materials
generally produce dangerous fumes. The ma-
terials may also react violently to normal extin-
guishing agents. When a ship's fire party is in
doubt as to the correct procedures for fighting a
fire involving a hazardous substance, the Coast
Guard may be consulted. The Coast Guard will
provide information concerning the proper pro-
cedures and safety precautions. Here are three
organizations that may be contacted:

• The National Response Center, located in
Coast Guard headquarters in Washington,
D.C. The tollfree telephone number is
(800)424-8802.

• The Chemical Transportation Emergency
Center (CHEMTREC). The tollfree tele-
phone number is (800) 424-9300.

• The Chemical Hazards Response Informa-
tion System (CHRIS) of the Coast Guard,
located in Washington, D.C. The telephone
number is (202) 426-9568.

The fire must be confined to the space in which
it originated. This may be accomplished by con-
trolling the flow of air to and from the fire area;
by cooling the adjacent bulkheads, deck and over-
head; and by directing an extinguishing agent
onto the fire to reduce its intensity or its ability
to radiate heat to other combustibles. Trapped
victims must be found and removed to safety or
protected with hoselines or ventilation until the

Combating the Fire

229

fire is under control. The exposures, the six sides
of the box that contains the fire, must be checked
and protected.

Then, finally, after the fire is out, the overhaul-
ing begins. The fire debris must be examined,
bit by bit, to ensure that there are no smolder-
ing embers. All paths of extension must be

checked. If the fire has been extensive, a fire
watch should be set. All firefighting equipment
must then be placed back in service, and any
structural damage must be rectified. The cause
of the fire should be determined, as a first step
in preventing the recurrence of the same type of
fire.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fire Fighting Manual for Tank Vessels, C.G. 329
U.S. Coast Guard, Department of Transportation,
Washington, D.C.

Marine Officers' Handbook, Edward A. Turpin and
William A. MacEwen, Cornell Maritime Press,
Inc., Cambridge, Maryland. 1965.

Damage Controlman, U.S. Navy Training Manual,
U.S. Navy Training Publication Center, Wash-
ington, D.C. 1964.

Fire Fighting — Ship, Bureau of Ships Manual, Chap-
ter 93, U.S. Navy, Washington, D.C.

Proceedings of the Marine Safety Council, CG-129,
U.S. Coast Guard, Department of Transportation,
Washington, D.C.

Fire Chiefs Handbook, 4th ed., James Casey, Dun-
Donnelley Publishing Corporation, New York,

N.Y.

Protection of TugboaU,
TouiboaU & Barges

Millions of tons of cargo are transported on rivers,
lakes, canals and intercoastal waterways each day.
The vast majority is carried on unmanned barges
without propulsion, pushed or pulled by tugboats
or towboats (Figs. 11.1 and 11.2). Barge trans-
portation has become international with the intro-
duction of Lash and Seabee vessels. These ships
carry barges and their contents to almost every
corner of the world. More and more freight is
being transported by ocean-going barges and tug-
boats, and both tugs and barges are increasing in
size, carrying capacity and speed (Fig. 11.2).

Every conceivable raw material, commodity
and manufactured product is transported by
barge. Many of these materials are highly com-
bustible; other types of hazardous cargo include
explosives, radioactive materials, corrosives, irri-
tants and poisonous materials. The remainder are
mostly ordinary class A combustibles, which can
easily become involved with fire. Yet with all
these millions of tons of cargo, carried day in and
day out in all weather conditions, there is a very
low incidence of major accidents and fires.

SAFETY

Safety is a matter of vital and continuing concern
to the barge and towing industry — concern for
the welfare of the men and women employed
aboard towboats; concern for the general public
living and working along waterways; and concern
for the safety and integrity of the cargo. Although
the industry has a remarkable safety record, it
continues to work toward improving that record.
Industry representatives cooperate fully with the
responsible agencies, particularly the U.S. Coast
Guard. Towboat and barge personnel are trained
in the practical aspects of safety and fire preven-
tion. General safety and firefighting theory and
tactics are an important part of the curriculum

at industry training schools. Many barge and
towboat owners conduct private safety training
schools along with on-the-job training sessions;
some arrange for crewmen to take courses at
state fire training schools for "hands-on" learning.
In addition, the American Waterways Operators,
Inc., publishes basic safety and fire prevention
literature, safety posters and checkoff forms for
barge safety inspections {see Table 11.1 at end
of this chapter).

The teaching of safety is essential if crewmen
are to have the proper attitude toward safety; it
is the crew who must make safety work, day after
day. Some of the ways in which crewmen can
help make tugboats, towboats and barges safer
for all concerned are as follows:

1. Avoid exposure to dangerous situations
whenever possible. Lost or broken equip-
ment can be replaced — you cannot.

2. Do not unnecessarily expose yourself to
the chance of falling overboard. When-
ever possible, work where you are pro-
tected.

3. Don your life jacket and work vest prop-
erly; keep them fully fastened when there
is any chance you may fall overboard.

4. Never stand when riding in a skiff or
small boat.

5. Avoid going out on the tow alone after
dark. If you must do so, advise the pilot-
house watch before going out, and report
your return.

6. Keep guardrails and lifelines in place and
pulled up snugly. Do not hang or sit on
lifelines.

7. Do not lean against lock walls, docks or
other shore structures while you are on
the boat or the barges.

231

232

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Figure 11.1. Towboats and barges move millions of gallons of combustible petroleum products on rivers, lakes and waterways
every day. (Courtesy American Waterways Operators, Inc.)

8. Always carry loads on your outboard side.

9. Use a pike pole to handle lines or wire
beyond the edge of the boat or barge.

10. Observe "No Smoking" areas carefully.
Smoking is never allowed in bed, in paint
lockers, at oil or fueling docks or on the
decks of petroleum or flammable-cargo
vessels. Discard cigarette butts in the
proper receptacles. Never throw burning
material over the side.

1 1 . Learn the locations of fire hydrants and
portable extinguishers, and know how to
use them. Report every fire immediately
upon discovery.

Figure 11.2. Each year there is an increase in the amount
of cargo moved along coastal waters by ocean-going tug-
boats and barges. (Courtesy American Waterways Operators,
Inc.)

12. Except in an emergency, never run or
jump on the job. Never engage in horse-
play on the boat or tow.

13. Stay alert at all times. Watch for tripping
hazards, open hatches and slick spots on
deck.

14. Always close open manhole covers, or
place guards around them if they must
remain open.

15. Never walk on dry cargo barge hatch
covers.

16. Keep your hands and feet away from
places where they are liable to be crushed.

17. Always wear goggles or eyeshields when
you are chipping, burning, grinding or
scraping, or when your eyes are exposed
to wind-blown dust or other irritants.

18. Do not wear loose and ragged clothing
around rotating or moving machinery.

19. Make sure portable ladders are securely
set. Watch out for cracked or broken
rungs and rails.

20. Keep all areas of the deck (including
gangways, walkways and outside stair-
ways) free of oil, grease, debris, ice and
other foreign substances.

21. Stand clear of all lines and cables under
tension. Do not straddle lines that are
being tightened.

22. Always place ratchets to tighten lines
pulling inboard.

Protection of Tugboats, Towboats & Barges

233

23. Do not make a line fast to a bitt or tim-
berhead on which there is already a line.

24. Keep your fingers out from between bitts
or timberheads and the wires or ropes
being handled.

25. When you are feeding a line onto a bitt
or timberhead, always work from the
"dry" side. Stay clear of "working" lines.

26. Do not stand in the bight of a line at any
time.

27. Never swim off a boat or barge.

28. Always lift loads by bending your knees.
If the load is too heavy, get some help!

29. Know the safe and proper way to do your
job. If in doubt, ask your supervisor.

30. Report all injuries immediately to the
proper authority.

3 1 . Always use your approved flashlight when
you are on deck after dark.

32. Keep all portable gangways and walk-
ways secured so they will not slip when
used.

33. If you notice that any item of equipment
is damaged, or discover any hazardous
or dangerous condition, report it to your
immediate supervisor.

34. Beware of hanging fenders from moving
towboats as they come alongside station-
ary tows, docks, pilings or sea walls.

FIRE PROTECTION EQUIPMENT FOR
TUGBOATS AND TOWBOATS

Tugboats and towboats are both used to move
barges, in addition to their harbor duties. Owing
to their construction, tugboats are better adapted
to the towing of barges in open water, where they
are subjected to heavy winds and waves. Ocean-
going tugboats range in size up to 356 metric tons
(350 gross tons). Their lengths range from 30.5-
45.7 m (100-150 ft), and their engines from
1120-6710 kilowatts (1500-9000 hp). Tows are
normally pulled, but in the newer integrated tug-
barge configurations the barges are pushed {see
Fig. 11.2).

Towboats are the power units that propel single
barges or multiple-barge tows made up of 40 or
more barges. These vessels are designed to work
in the protected waters of rivers and canals. Spe-
cial rudder arrangements, and one to four pro-
pellers (powered by individual diesel engines) in
a Kort nozzle, provide the control necessary to
navigate the restricted channels of rivers and
canals. A tow of about 10 tank barges represents
about 13,600,000 liters (3,000,000 gal) of pe-

troleum products; this is a common towing as-
signment for such vessels.

Some of the most common sizes of towboats
and tugboats are shown in Figure 11.3, and tow-
boats up to 58 m (190 ft) in length, with 16.5-m
(54-ft) beam, 2.6-m (8.6-ft) draft and up to 7.5
megawatts (10,000 hp) have recently been put in
service. Modern tugboats and towboats are pow-
ered by diesel engines. They are both outfitted
with the same basic types of fire protection equip-
ment.

Automatic Fire Detection Systems

While not normally used, the fire detectors used
on tugboats and towboats are almost always set
up to activate an alarm rather than a fire extin-
guishing system. There are two reasons for not
installing automatically operated extinguishing
systems in engine rooms:

1. A system that automatically floods the en-
gine room with an extinguishing agent can
jeopardize the lives of personnel in that
space.

2. The flooding of an engine room would
cause the loss of propulsion. During a criti-
cal navigating maneuver, this could result
in a serious accident.

Detectors are sometimes used to trigger fire-
fighting systems in such spaces as paint lockers,
lamp lockers and small storage rooms, as these
spaces are not usually occupied. Wherever an
automatic system is used, the proper warning de-
vices should be installed, and warning signs
posted {see Chapter 9).

On tugboats and towboats, automatic fire de-
tection systems are used primarily in engine
rooms. The detectors most often employed are
pneumatic detectors and combination heat and
smoke detectors.

Pneumatic Detectors. In the pneumatic detector,
heat from a fire causes air within a diaphragm
or hollow metal tube to expand. The resulting
pressure is used to actuate switches that will turn
on alarm bells, shut off power venting systems
and close dampers. Pneumatic detectors are very
reliable, because they have few moving parts.
They should be tested at least quarterly to ensure
proper operation.

Heat and Smoke Detectors. Some newer ves-
sels are equipped with combination heat and
smoke detectors. These devices are extremely
sensitive, and they react faster than the pneumatic-
type detectors. The detectors are placed in engine
rooms and in living areas. In some systems, the

234

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safet v

INTEGRATED TUG BARGE COMBINATION

m

*5J-

Locking Device

THE TUG FITS AROUND AN EXTENSION OF THE BARGE
RATHER THAN INTO A NOTCH.

Figure 11.3. A modern integrated Tug Barge system.

detectors transmit an electrical signal to an
annunciator when they sense fire or smoke. The
annunciator display board indicates, with lights,
the location of the detector that sent the alarm
and the cause of the alarm. Smoke is indicated
by an amber light, and flaming combustion by a
red light. An audible alarm is sounded simultane-
ously. The detectors and circuits can be moni-
tored. A breakdown in the system is indicated on
the annunciator display board by a blue or white
light and a buzzer that is distinctly different from
the audible fire alarm.

Combination heat and smoke detectors are
sometimes installed as individual self-contained
units. When such a unit senses smoke or fire, it
sounds an audible alarm and flashes a light. {See
Chapter 6 for a detailed discussion of fire detec-
tors and detection systems.)

Fixed Fire-Extinguishing Systems

Fire-Main System. The fire-main system is the
basic firefighting system for tugboats and tow-
boats. In most systems, 6.4- or 7.6-cm (2J/2- or
3-in.) piping carries water from the pumps to the
fire stations. The water pumps have capacities
ranging from 570-1900 lit/min (150-500 gal/
min). Generally, two pumps are installed, with
one in service and one as a backup pump. Be-

cause tugboats and towboats do not always have
enough space to separate the pumps, they may
both be located in the same general area.

The fire stations are usually located at the
main deck level, on exterior bulkheads. Each fire
station has a water outlet with a control valve
and a 3.8-cm (1 1/2 -in.) connector. The connector
is often fitted with a wye gate so that two 3.8-cm
(lV^-in.) hoselines can be connected into the fire
station. A wide variety of nozzles are used since
some towboats are not required to carry specific
nozzles.

The most widely used nozzle is similar in op-
eration to a garden hose nozzle; it produces a
good fog stream and a straight stream. Plastic
combination nozzles are also being used on some
vessels. They can provide a solid stream and 30°
and 60° fog streams. The ability to vary the width
and type of stream is advantageous in firefighting
operations. Straight streams have greater reach
and penetration which allow the attack to be
made from a distance. Fog streams have excellent
heat absorption qualities, and their conical shape
protects firefighters from the fire's heat when a
close-in attack is necessary.

Some older vessels still carry smooth-bore noz-
zles that are both inefficient and dangerous. If the
smooth-bore nozzle of a charged hoseline is
dropped and becomes free, the nozzle will whip

Protection of Tugboats, Towboats & Barges

235

back and forth and can cause injury if it hits a
crew member. If the nozzleman is forced to re-
treat and abandon the hose, he may not be able
to shut off the water flow. There is a proposal to
do away with this type of nozzle in the marine
services.

Some towboats and tugboats do not have a
fire-main system (see Chapter 9). Their only
firefighting water supply is a pipe outlet with a
connection for a deck washdown hose. While this
setup is very ineffective, it can be used to extin-
guish fire if the attack is made early, while the
fire is small. Firefighters would have to advance
close to the fire, because the nozzle will probably
produce a poor water stream. (See Chapter 10 for
a description of the use of water streams to at-
tack fire.)

Engine Rooms. Fixed carbon dioxide (CO2) or
Halon 1301 total-flooding systems are installed
in the engine rooms of some tugboats and tow-
boats. These systems are similar to those de-
scribed in Chapter 9, but are smaller in scale.
When fire is discovered, the system is activated
from outside the engine room by pulling two re-
lease cables in the proper sequence. The cable
pulls are usually located just outside the door-
way(s) leading from the engine room to the main
deck or passageway. Before the CO2 is released
into the engine room, a warning horn sounds.
The engine room must be evacuated at that time,
because the CO2 will lower the oxygen content
below the level necessary to sustain life. For effec-
tive extinguishment, openings to the engine room
must be secured and made as airtight as possible.
This is especially important on towboats, where
there are large windows in the bulkheads and sky-
light vents in the overhead. (See Chapter 10 for
a description of the use of the CO2 total-flooding
system in an engine room.)

Paint and Lamp Lockers. Small CO2 or Halon
1301 flooding systems are often used to protect
paint and lamp lockers and deck gear-storage
spaces. These small systems may or may not be
activated by fire detectors. Normally, they are
activated manually. However, if a system can be
operated automatically, a discharge warning horn
or bell must be part of the system. If a space is
protected by an automatic extinguishing system,
its doors should be kept closed when it is unoc-
cupied. An open door would allow the gas to
flow out of the space if the system were activated.
If a locker is protected by a manual system, a
separate detection system sounds the alarm when
it senses fire. Then the space must be checked for
occupants before all openings are closed to con-

tain the extinguishing agent. An external means
of closing vents and louvers and an excess pres-
sure release device are required for each small
compartment protected by gas extinguishing
agents. The system is activated with the usual pull
cables. (If the fire is small, crewmen should at-
tempt to extinguish it by some means other than
the gas flooding system, which will discharge
45.4 kg (100 lb) CO2 or Halon into the locker.)

Semiportable Systems

Semiportable carbon dioxide extinguishing sys-
tems are used to fight fires in engine rooms. The
usual system consists of one or two 22.7- or
45.4-kg (50- or 100-lb) cylinders, a length of hose
and a horn-type discharge nozzle. The nozzle
handle is long, and the nozzle control lever can
be locked in the open or closed position. With
the lever locked in the open position, the long
horn can be used to discharge CO2 into places
that are difficult to reach.

Semiportable Halon systems are also used. This
system usually consists of one or two cylinders
of agent at a pressure of about 1310 kilopascals
(190 psi) at normal temperatures. For faster re-
lease, as in the case of explosion suppression sys-
tems, the gas is pressurized with nitrogen to pres-
sures as high as 6900 kilopascals (1000 psi). The
agent is directed onto the fire with an on-off noz-
zle connected to the cylinders by a length of
rubber hose. (See Chapter 8 for a detailed de-
scription of both CO2 and Halon semiportable
systems.)

Cautions. Small tugs and towboats have small
engine rooms. The rapid discharge of several
CO2 cylinders into a confined space could lower
the oxygen content to a dangerous level. The per-
son using the extinguisher could pass out and be
injured as he falls. Humans are also affected by
exposure to small concentrations of CO2, even
though the oxygen content of the air may not be
reduced to the danger level. If a fire persists and
CO2 must be used in a small area, crewmen must
wear breathing apparatus, and work in two-man
teams if possible.

Carbon dioxide extinguishers must not be used
to purge fuel tanks. Recently an explosion oc-
curred when a CO2 extinguisher was used to
purge a small fuel tank. It has been known for
some time that the flow of CO2 through the dis-
charge nozzle produces static electricity. Usually
this is not considered to be dangerous during fire-
fighting operations, however, during the purging
the discharge horn was close enough to the fuel
tank rim to permit a static spark to jump from

236

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

the horn to the tank, ignite the vaporized fuel and
cause the explosion.

Portable Extinguishers

Tugboats and towboats are required to carry port-
able fire extinguishers capable of extinguishing
class A, B and C fires. (See Chapter 8 for a full
description of such extinguishers.)

FIGHTING TUGBOAT AND
TOWBOAT FIRES

In this section, two fire situations and the recom-
mended firefighting procedures are described
from the alarm to overhaul. The terminology and
the procedures detailed in the Firefighting Pro-
cedures section of Chapter 1 0 should be reviewed
at this time.

Electrical Fire on a Harbor Tugboat

The Fire. The main generator is giving off
dense smoke, and the insulation on the windings
is starting to burn.

Sizeup. The vessel is under way with a tow.
The generator is supplying electricity for the tug's
lighting, radar and communication needs. The
generator is located in the engine room on the
port side aft.

Attack. The alarm is sounded. The circuit
breaker is tripped to take the generator off the
line. This should be done from the engine room,
if possible; otherwise, the breaker on deck or in
the pilothouse can be tripped. The diesel engine
driving the generator is shut down to protect
crew members attacking the fire. The auxiliary
generator is started to provide electricity for the
engine room lights, the navigation equipment and
the general service pump.

One crewman advances a portable CO2, dry
chemical or Halon extinguisher as close as pos-
sible to the generator. He directs the stream into
the generator windings.

Confining the Fire. The fire was confined by re-
moving the electrical load and shutting down the
generator drive engine. This prevents the produc-
tion of additional heat and the overheating of
wires that run to other areas.

Protecting Exposures. Crewmen remove what-
ever combustibles they can carry from the vicinity
of the generator. Since the entire engine room is
exposed, the best protection is to quickly knock
down the flames and cool the generator. Once
the generator is taken off the line and the driving
mechanism secured, the fire can be controlled.

Ventilation. The burning insulation gives off
large quantities of irritating smoke. Mechanical
ventilation is used to clear the engine room after
the fire is extinguished.

Overhaul. A great deal of heat remains in the
copper generator components. This is absorbed
by wet canvas and burlap, placed on the outside
of the generator housing.

Fire in a Deck Gear-Storage Space

The Fire. Cordage, wooden tackle and burlap
waste are burning on the deck inside the storage
space. The fire is extending up the forward bulk-
head. The alarm is sounded.

Sizeup. The storage space is on the main deck;
it runs 7.62 m (25 ft) across the beam of the
vessel and is about 4.6 m (15 ft) wide with a
2.4 m (8 ft) overhead. It is entered through port
and starboard doors. A small vent is located in
the overhead. In addition to deck gear, the stor-
age space contains cartons of toilet tissue and
paper towels and some lumber. The main body
of the fire is located about 2.4 m (8 ft) from the
starboard doorway. The space is not equipped
with a CO2 or Halon flooding system.

Attack. Since firefighters are able to enter the
space, an attack is made with a portable extin-
guisher. A dry chemical extinguisher could
quickly knock down the flames if properly ap-
plied. However, it might not extinguish the fire
completely, because class A combustibles tend to
smolder. A portable water extinguisher could do
the job if the stream is properly applied, but an
extensive fire may be beyond the extinguisher's
capability.

Backup. Hoselines are positioned at the two
doorways to back up the extinguisher. The hose-
lines are charged to the nozzle. The fire is so in-
tense that the crewman with the extinguisher is
forced to retreat. An attack must be made with a
hose stream. The port-side hoseline will be used,
so that the stream does not push the fire across
the entire compartment.

The port-side line (line 1 in Fig. 11.4) is ad-
vanced to the space. The nozzleman uses a spray
pattern and crouches low. He sweeps the overhead
with a short burst as he enters, to cool off the
hot gases. Then he advances into the space, di-
recting short bursts of fog at the base of the
flames. The starboard door is opened to allow the
heat and smoke to vent outside. The starboard

Protection of Tugboats, Towboats & Barges 237

TOWBOATS

Length
(Feet)

117
142
160

Breadth
(Feet)

30
34

40

Draft
(Feet)

7.6

8

8.6

Horsepower

1000-2000
2000-4000
4000-6000

Length

Breadth

Draft

(Feet)

(Feet)

(Feet)

Horsepower

65-80

21-23

8

350-650

90

24

10-11

800-1200

95-105

25-30

12-14

1200-3500

125-150

30-34

14-15

2000-4500

Figure 11.4. Standard dimensions and power of towboats and tugboats (including ocean-going
tugs). (Courtesy American Waterways Operators, Inc.)

hoseline (line 2) is used to knock down any flame
that is pushed out the door. It is not at any time
directed into the door. Its function is only to pre-
vent the extension of flames outside the door.

Protecting Exposures. All areas adjacent to the
fire are checked. If fire has entered these areas
this fire must also come under attack. If fire has
not entered the area but bulkheads are hot, com-
bustibles must be moved away from the bulk-

head and the bulkhead cooled with a fog stream.

Overhaul. Once the fire is knocked down and
darkened, the burning material is pulled apart
and wet down. When it can be picked up, it is
taken out on the deck and saturated with water.
The spaces adjacent to the storage space are care-
fully inspected for fire extension. All materials
that are stowed against or near the bulkheads are
moved to allow a complete inspection.

238

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

FIRE PROTECTION FOR BARGES

At one time or another, barges carry almost every
conceivable type of flammable cargo. A tow may
consist of similar barges that are all carrying the
same commodity, or a variety of different types
of barges carrying different cargoes. In the latter
case, the diversity of cargoes and storage methods
can complicate firefighting operations.

Types of Barges

The hulls of most inland waterway barges are
similar in length, width and draft because they
all must be able to navigate the same waterways.
The final configuration of a barge is, however,
determined by the cargo it will carry and the size
of the locking system.

Open-Hopper Barge. This type of barge is used
primarily to move sand, gravel, rock, coal, logs,
lumber and fertilizer. With slight modifications,
it can be used to transport almost any solid com-
modity, in bulk or packaged. The hopper barge
is usually a double-skinned, open-top box; the
inner shell forms a long hopper or cargo hold
(Fig. 11.5).

Covered Dry-Cargo Barge. This barge is simi-
lar to the open-hopper barge, but it is equipped

Figure 11.5. Location of the fire and placement and use of
hoselines. Note that line 2 is directed so that its stream
does not block the flow of combustion products out of the
compartment.

with watertight covers for the entire cargo hold
(Figs. 1 1.5 and 1 1.6). It is generally used to carry
grain products, coffee, soybeans, paper and paper
products, lumber and building materials, cement,
iron and steel products, dry chemicals, aluminum
and aluminum products, machinery and parts,
rubber and rubber products, salt, soda ash, sugar
and sometimes packaged goods.

Tank Barges. Three basic types of tank barges
(Fig. 11.5) are used for the transportation of
liquids. On single-skin tank barges, the bow and
stern compartments are separated from the mid-
ship by transverse collision bulkheads. The entire
midship shell of the vessel constitutes the cargo
tank. For strength and stability, this huge tank is
divided by bulkheads. The structural framing for
the hull is inside the cargo tank.

Double-skin tank barges have, as the name
implies, an inner and an outer shell. The inner
shell forms the cargo tanks; the tanks are free of
internal structural members and thus are easy to
clean and to line. Double-skin barges are used
to transport poisons and other hazardous liquids
that require the protection of a void space be-
tween the outer and inner shells.

Barges with independent cylindrical tanks (Fig.
1 1.7) are used to transport liquids under pressure
or liquids that are offloaded by pressure. In some
cases, cylindrical tank barges are used to carry
cargoes at or near atmospheric pressure when spe-
cial tank lining or insulation is required. The
barge itself is generally of the open-hopper type,
with the tanks nested in the hopper. The tanks
are then free to expand or contract, independently
of the hull. For this reason, cylindrical tank
barges are preferred for high temperature cargoes
such as liquid sulphur and refrigerated cargoes
such as anhydrous ammonia.

The three most common sizes of tank barges
are shown in Figure 11.5. More than 3200 tank
barges, with a total cargo capacity of over
(6,300,000 tons) are in service today. The ma-
jority are used for the transportation of petroleum
and petroleum products — approximately (214,-
000,000 tons) annually.

Since 1946, movements of bulk chemicals by
barge have been increasing steadily. Chemicals
now comprise one of the most important liquid
commodities transported by water. The U.S.
Coast Guard lists approximately 400 chemicals
that are transported or proposed for transport by
barge. Some examples are anhydrous ammonia,
which is transported under a pressure of 1724
kilopascals (250 psi) or refrigerated to — 33°C
(— 28°F); liquefied sulphur, which is moved at
127-138°C (260-280°F); and liquefied methane,

Protection of Tugboats, Towboats & Barges 239

OPEN HOPPER BARGE

Length Breadth

(Feet) (Feet)

179
195
290

26
35
50

Draft
(Feet)

9
9
9

Capacity
(Tons)

1000
1500
3000

^=^

"lJ

COVERED DRY CARGO BARGE

Length

Breadth

Draft

Capacity

(Feet)

(Feet)

(Feet)

(Tons)

175

26

9

1000

195

35

9

1500

LIQUID CARGO TANK BARGE

Bngth

Breadth

Draft

Capacity

Capacity

Feet)

(Feet)

(Feet)

(Tons)

(Gallons)

175

26

9

1000

302,000

195

35

9

1500

454,000

290

50

9

3000

907,000

Figure 11.6. Three common barge configurations. (Courtesy American Waterways Operators, Inc.)

which is transported at — 161 °C (— 258°F).
Barge-mounted tanks are used to transport liquid
hydrogen at -252°C (-423°F) and liquid oxy-
gen at -183°C (-297°F).

Chemicals and chemical products now make
up about 3% of the total cargo transported by
barge. The number of chemicals and the volume
carried are both expected to continue to increase.

Deck Barge. This is a hull box, generally with
a heavily plated, well-supported deck. Deck
barges usually carry machinery, vehicles and
heavy equipment (Fig. 11.8).

Other Barges. Among the various other types
of barges (Fig. 1 1.8) are rail carfloats, scows and
barges of special construction. The latter include

240

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Figure 11.7. Typical covered dry-cargo barge with rolling
weathertight hold cover. (Courtesy American Waterways
Operators, Inc.)

Figure 11.8. Giant independent cylindrical tanks are nested
into open-hopper barges for transporting chemicals. (Cour-
tesy American Waterways Operators, Inc.)

self-unloading barges for cement and grain, der-
rick and crane barges and those designed to carry
special cargo such as the Saturn space vehicle.

Lash and Seabee barges are, essentially, inland
waterway barges of the hopper type, with cargo
hold hatch covers. They carry almost every type
of material except bulk liquids. They are equipped
with special fittings with which they are loaded
into ocean-going vessels especially designed to
carry barges.

Ocean-going barges are similar in configura-
tion to inland barges. They are usually larger
than inland barges, since they are not restricted
by the need to navigate inland waterways.

Fire Protection

The fire protection equipment carried aboard
barges is very limited. In almost every case, it
consists only of two portable fire extinguishers.
Barge owners try to conform to the Coast Guard
regulation requiring that these extinguishers be
provided and maintained. However, the barges
are often left unattended at dockside, where they
are subject to vandalism and theft. As a result,
the portable extinguishers are often missing, and
the barge is left without any fire protection.

On some large fuel barges, the small pump
room is protected by a CO2 flooding system. The
system usually consists of two 22.7-kg (50-lb)
cylinders, piping and discharge horns. The cylin-
ders are secured to the outside pump room bulk-
head. When fire is discovered, the system is ac-
tivated manually.

Early discovery of a barge fire is another prob-
lem, since barges are unmanned and do not have
fire detection systems. A fire that starts after a
barge is loaded will probably not be discovered
until it has reached an advanced stage. (See Chap-
ters 1 and 2 where fire prevention and safety
practices during loading are outlined.)

A fuel barge must be loaded and unloaded in
strict compliance with all safety regulations. The
barge must be manned and properly grounded,
and all spark-producing tools must be removed.
Smoking and the use of open lights are absolutely
forbidden. All hatch covers should be closed.
Open hatches allow volatile fumes to cascade over
the coaming onto the deck (Fig. 11.9). If the
fumes are ignited, fire could flash back into the
tank, causing a massive fire and explosion.
Soundings should be taken through the ullage
ports, where the flame screen which must always
be installed will help prevent fire from flashing
back into the tank.

FIGHTING BARGE FIRES

There are two situations in which a tugboat or
towboat crew should fight a barge fire:

1. When the fire is small, so that it can be
fought with portable extinguishers or with
a hoseline from the tow vessel

2. When the involved barge is so positioned
in the tow that the fire is an immediate
threat to the tow vessel

Small Barge Fire

A small fire involving barge cargo can usually be
extinguished with portable appliances. The fire
debris should be thoroughly overhauled. Any ma-

Protect ion of Tugboats, Tow boats & Barges

241

DECK BARGE

Length

Breadth

Draft

(Feet)

(Feet)

(Feet)

110

26

6

130

30

7

195

35

8

Capacity
(Tons)

350

900

1200

poy»j*

f *—- ||B55fiS55

t^jQjII

pi[J ! ill 1 1 J|H

CARFLOATS Length

Breadth

Draft

Capacity

(Feet)

(Feet)

(Feet)

(Railroad Cars)

257

40

10

10

366

36

10

19

■••^£tffi& ^=%i

. ~ -M^^jifta'

^c<£t^iB^^^&w a *

SCOWS

Length

Breadth

Draft

Capacity

(Feet)

(Feet)

(Feet)

(Tons)

90

30

9

350

120

38

11

1000

130

40

12

1350

Figure 11.9. Three less common barge configurations. (Courtesy American Waterways Operators,
Inc.)

terial or section of the barge in the vicinity of the
fire should be carefully examined and wet down
with water. This is vital, to ensure that no smol-
dering embers are left to reignite the fire. If the
material that was burning can be carried easily,
it should be taken to the towboat deck and wet
down with a hoseline. As another precautionary
measure, a crewman should be stationed at the
site of the fire for several hours to watch for signs

of active fire.

If there is any doubt about the fire being com-
pletely out, the barge should be dropped from
the tow as soon as possible. If there is a choice,
the barge should be towed to a terminal, where
land-based firefighters can position their appa-
ratus and equipment. The local fire department
and the U.S. Coast Guard should be notified, so
they can prepare to receive the barge.

242

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Protecting the Tow Vessel

When flames from a burning barge jeopardize the
tow vessel, that vessel must be protected; it is the
only source of power for maneuvering the tow.
Hoselines should be positioned to attack the main
body of fire and protect the tow vessel itself. Two
lines should be used to knock down the flames;
a third line should be positioned to protect the
other firefighting personnel with a fog pattern
and to cool exposed surfaces on the tow vessel
(Fig. 11.10).

If possible, the tow should be maneuvered so
that the flames, heat and smoke are carried away
from the tow vessel. If the hoselines cannot keep
the fire from the tow vessel and maneuvering is
restricted, the tow vessel should release the tow
and then move to control it from another position.
The tow must be controlled until it can be
grounded. A tow that is burning out of control
can be disastrous to other vessels and to shore
installations.

Extensive Barge Fire

If a barge fire cannot be extinguished by the tow
vessel's crew, the barge should be grounded or
secured to the shoreline if possible. This action
will

1. Isolate the barge from the towboat. (If the
burning barge can be separated from the
other barges in the tow, the fire will be
isolated and confined to one barge.)

2. Minimize the danger of the barge becom-
ing a navigational hazard.

3. Make the barge accessible to land-based
firefighters if it is grounded on or close to
the shore.

When an involved barge is to be grounded, the
tow operator should notify his company, the U.S.
Coast Guard (captain of the port) and the local
land-based fire department. The exact location
of the burning barge and, if possible, the nature
of the burning cargo should be provided. This
information is very valuable to responding Coast
Guard and fire department units as well as other
emergency and environmental agencies.

The location should be given in as much detail
as possible; e.g., "The barge is tied against the
east bank of the river at the 98.7 mile marker.
We can see a gravel road." On the basis of this
information, the local fire department may be
able to determine whether they can reach the site
with fire apparatus. If the location cannot be
reached by land, the fire department can notify
the U.S. Coast Guard of that fact.

Figure 11.10. Volatile fumes can be seen leaving the open
fuel-barge hatch. Hatches must be closed during loading
and offloading.

Knowledge of the fuel is important for two
reasons. First, it indicates the extinguishing agent
that must be used. Water could be drafted
(pumped) at the site to fight a class A fire. But
for a class B fire, foam would have to be carried
to the site. Second, the fuel type indicates the
need for special precautions; e.g., if the burning
material were a chemical that produced toxic
fumes, protective clothing and breathing appa-
ratus would have to be provided for firefighters.
If the burning barge were near a populated area,
emergency evacuation procedures might have to
be initiated; or, if the barge were carrying ex-
plosives, the area would be evacuated and other
vessels would be warned to stay clear of the area.

Fires on Ocean-Going Barges

Ocean-going barges can become involved with
fire, and shore line communities are rarely willing
to allow a burning barge to be grounded on their
beaches. The firefighting equipment carried by a
large sea-going tug is only slightly more effective
than that of a large towboat. The difference is
simply the tug's ability to pump water at a greater
volume and pressure.

Being in open water is of some help, since the
tow can be maneuvered freely to take advantage
of the wind. However, a rough sea can make
maneuvering difficult and dangerous.

It is extremely important that the fire and the
tug's position be reported immediately, whether
the fire is on the tugboat itself or on a barge. If

Protection of Tugboats, Towboats & Barges

243

Figure 11.11. When fire threatens the tow vessel, it must be protected. Lines 1 and 2 attack the fire directly; line 3 protects
firefighters and the tow vessel. Quick beaching of the tow is imperative.

assistance is required, it will be on its way as
soon as possible. Meanwhile, other vessels can
be warned to keep clear if a burning barge or
loose barges present a navigation hazard.

Tugboat in Pushing Position. Fire on a barge
that is being pushed can endanger the tugboat.
The fire is fairly close to the tug, and it has a
path by which to travel to the tug. If a decision
is made to fight the fire, the barge should be posi-
tioned so the wind carries the flames, heat and
smoke away from the tug. If the fire is at the far
end of the barge, away from the tug, then the tug
should be positioned to bring the wind directly
from the stern (Fig. 11.11). This should force
the fire away from the tug and slow its travel
along the barge. At least two handlines from the
tug should be run out to attack the fire. If the tug
is equipped with a deck monitor, it can be used
in the attack.

When the fire is near the tug end of the barge,
the wind should be brought across the tug's beam
or from the stern quarter (Fig. 11.12). Handlines
should be run out to attack and flank the main
body of fire. The deck monitor can also be used,
if available.

When there is no wind, the tow should first
be brought to a stop. Then it should be moved
slowly to create a slight airflow that causes the

flames, heat and smoke to move in a direction
favorable to firefighting and away from the tug-
boat (Fig. 11.13).

During the firefighting operation, the tug
should be prepared for a stern tow. If the fire
cannot be controlled, the tug should break away
from the pushing position and take the barge on

Figure 11.12. When the fire is at the far end of the barge,
the wind should be brought astern of the tug. The fire
should be attacked with at least two hoselines.

244

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Figure 11.13. When the barge fire is near the tug, the
barge should be maneuvered so the wind pushes the fire
away from the tug and toward the shortest paths of pos-
sible fire travei.

so that the fire does not endanger the tug. The
burning barge may be released from these tow
positions, but a towline should be maintained to
keep the barge under control. Nearby tugs with-
out tows can assist in this by approaching from
windward and getting lines on the barge.

The tug should move out of the main channel.
The burning barge may be grounded if there is
shallow water nearby that can be reached without
jeopardizing the tug, other vessels or shore in-
stallations. The barge may be grounded on an
empty beach. However, if explosives, volatile
fuels or toxic chemicals are involved, this may
be unwise; the beaching could endanger nearby
buildings and people.

The important thing is to control the burning
barge — with a towline or by grounding or beach-
ing— until a fireboat reaches the scene. If no fire-
boat is available and there is nowhere to ground
the burning barge safely, the barge should be
towed to open water and allowed to burn itself
out.

a towline astern. The barge must be kept under
control with a towline so that it does not become
a navigation hazard.

Towline Astern. Fire on a barge on a long tow-
line astern does not threaten the tugboat. The
fire is essentially isolated. It may consume the
cargo on the barge, but it is not a threat to life.
The tugboat crew should not attempt to attack
the fire, for several reasons. Since it is important
to keep the towing rig intact, the tug cannot
maneuver freely. Even if the tugboat managed to
reach the barge, the transfer of crewmen to the
barge would be dangerous and it would be diffi-
cult to get hoselines into position. Because of the
risks involved, the crew should not attack the fire.
Instead, they should report the fire and their posi-
tion and request assistance.

In Harbor. The fire and the tug's position should
be reported immediately. If the tow is being
pushed or is alongside, it should be maneuvered

No Wind

Bring Tow
to a
Dead Stop

Figure 11.14. If there is no wind, the tug must be maneu-
vered to create a favorable air movement.

Protection of Tugboats, Towboats & Barges 245

Table 11.1. Standard Vessel Safety Inspection Checkoff Form.*

VESSEL DATE . — INSPECTED BY

QUARTERS YES NO ACTION

Floors in good condition — free of slippery spots, slippery rugs or

other articles

Stairtreads in good condition & adequately non-slip

Handrails in place & secure

Electrical equipment grounded

Fan blades guarded

Adequate number of ash trays

"No Smoking" areas clearly defined

First aid cabinet adequately stocked

General housekeeping satisfactory

GALLEY

Floors in good condition — free of slippery spots, slippery rugs or
other articles

Stairtreads in good condition & adequately non-slip

Handrails in place & secure

Stove in good working order, free of grease & stove guard in use

Electrical equipment grounded

All utensils & related items safely stored

Ice box alarm tested — or does door open outward

Stores stacked safely — heavy items toward bottom

General housekeeping satisfactory

ENGINE ROOM

Decks & steps clear of oil and grease

Stairtreads in good condition & adequately non-slip

Handrails in place & secure

Bilges clean

Equipment guards in place

Tools in good repair & properly stored

Power tools grounded

Lifting gear functioning properly

Goggles provided at grinder with instructions to use

Container provided for rags

Engine room supplies properly stored

Escape hatches clear & accessible

Any unnecessary tripping hazards

General housekeeping satisfactory

FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Extinguisher provided at each designated station
Extinguishers tested annually (note date & recharge on each)
Extinguishers weighed periodically (note date on each)
Fixed CO2 system inspected & tested (note date last tested)
Fire hose & nozzle provided & connected at each station
Fire hose in good condition
Spanner wrench provided at each hydrant
Fire axes in good repair & properly positioned

"Courtesy, American Waterways Operators, Inc.

246

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Table 11.1. Standard Vessel Safety Inspection Checkoff Form.* — continued
BARGE DATE INSPECTED BY

YES NO

ACTION

Are warning signs in good condition & properly located?

a. No Smoking

b. No Visitors

c. No Open Lights

Are decks kept clean, oil-free & clear of hazards?

Are void hatch/manhole covers securely dogged?

Are tank hatches in good condition with good paint-free packing
to ensure a gas-tight seal?

Are butterworth plates & other deck openings in good condition
with all bolts or camlocks in place and with a proper gasket?

Are there sufficient ullage screens in good condition on board for
each ullage opening?

Are pressure/vacuum valves in good working order with flame
arrestors in place & in good condition?

Are adequate number of portable fire extinguishers aboard &
in good condition & properly charged?

Are fire hoses of sufficient number & length, properly stowed

and in good condition?

Are proper number & type of nozzles aboard, in correct location &

in good condition?

Are proper number of fire axes, suitably located and

in good condition?

Are cargo pump emergency stops in good operating condition?

Are they clearly marked?

Are machinery guards in place & in good condition?

Are mooring lines in good condition & of sufficient length?

Are proper gangways/access ladders aboard, of sufficient length,

clean & in good condition?

Are running lights, mooring lights & warning signals in good

condition & properly displayed?

Is electric wiring, including electrical portable cords, and
speaker wires in good condition?

Are sufficient portable fenders provided?

Where fitted, are pump room ventilators in good operating order?

Are pump engine spark arrestors properly maintained?

Are storage spaces free of an accumulation of flammable material?

Is absorbent material available to control minor deck spills?

Are cargo pump glands & seals tight and in good condition?

Are tank ladders in good condition?

Are all handrails & stanchions in place and in good condition?

FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT

YES NO

ACTION

Alarm bells & lights tested

Fire stations properly marked & numbered

Fire pumps functioning properly

Fire station bill properly posted

Note date of last fire drill

DECK

All decks & stairways free of slippery areas

All ladders & stairway treads in good repair and adequately non-slip

Handrails in place & secure

Protection of Tugboats, Towboats & Barges 247

Table 11.1. Standard Barge Safety Inspection Checkoff Form.* — continued

VESSEL DATE INSPECTED BY —

YES NO ACTION

Lifelines in good condition & in place

Manhole covers in good condition & in place

Life boat in good condition

Life boat boom operable & in good condition

Life rings in good condition & in place

Life ring lights operable & properly secured

Equipment guards in place

Stores stacked safely — heavy items toward bottom

Any unnecessary tripping hazards

If fresh air breathing apparatus is required: is it in good condition

(note date last tested)

Work vests & life jackets in good condition and in sufficient number

Deck fittings in good condition

Deck wires, ratchets & lines in good condition

All navigation lights operable

Gasoline storage in safe, open area

General housekeeping satisfactory

REMARKS:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Big Load Afloat, American Waterways Operators, Fire Protection Handbook, 14th edition, National

Inc., 1973. Washington, D.C. Fire Protection Association. 1976. Boston, Mass.

Safety Manual, American Waterways Operators, Waterfront Fires, Robert E. Beattery, National Fire

Inc., 1977. Washington, D.C. Protection Association. 1975. Boston, Mass.

Protection of Offshore
Drilling Rigs &
Production Platforms

Offshore oil-drilling rigs and production rigs have
varied configurations. The size and shape of each
unit and the components that make it up depend
on its function, the site at which it will be used
and how it will be transported to that site. Off-
shore units are generally divided into two broad
classes, mobile drilling units and fixed drilling or
production platforms.

Mobile units are rigs that can be towed or can
move under their own power from one location to
another. When a self-propelled mobile unit is
under way, the U.S. Coast Guard considers it to
be subject to all maritime regulations, including
navigational and fire protection regulations. Thus,
the discussions and descriptions contained in the
first 10 chapters of this book apply to all self-
propelled mobile units.

Fixed units are rigs that are permanently se-
cured to the seabed (Fig. 12.1), e.g., artificial
islands, fixed structures and mobile units that are
resting on the seabed. Thus, an offshore platform
whose jacket (steel base) is secured to the seabed
is a fixed unit. Fixed units are governed by (and
must conform with) the Rules and Regulations
for Artificial Islands and Fixed Structures on the
Outer Continental Shelf (U.S. Coast Guard pub-
lication CG320) and regulations contained in
Oil, Gas, and Sulphur Leases in the Outer Conti-
nental Shelf, Gulf of Mexico Area (U.S. Depart-
ment of the Interior).

SAFETY AND FIRE PREVENTION

A manned offshore unit is the workplace, home
and recreational area for its crew. The machinery
spaces, processing and support equipment and
the living, recreation and galley spaces are com-
pacted into the smallest, most effective area pos-
sible. This is a potentially dangerous situation,

since the crew is always close to hazardous drill-
ing or production operations. Yet a safe environ-
ment must be maintained for and by the people
who work on the unit. Every member of an off-
shore crew must think safety, work safely and
remain constantly conscious of the hazards of his
environment.

Safety

Safety is more than simply being careful. It in-
cludes knowing what is unsafe and how to avoid
the careless actions and inactions that can make
an area unsafe. Poor safety practices result from
a lack of safety knowledge; carelessness results
from a disregard for that knowledge. Both can
lead to disaster.

A crewman who operates a piece of welding
equipment without training may not know the
safety rules. A person who smokes in a "no
smoking" area may be acting in direct violation
of safety rules he knows and understands. A
supervisor who sees that a valve is leaking but
does nothing to ensure that it is repaired may
only be accused of inaction. However, the fires
and injuries that can result from these practices
will not be affected by any subtle differences in
intent. Safety requires the full and continuous
participation of every offshore worker.

Fire Prevention

Fire prevention on a drilling or production unit
requires a twofold effort. The unit is subject to
both the hazards of a ship and the hazards of
similar land-based installations. As on a ship,
careless smoking, hot work (burning and weld-
ing), and improper maintenance and electrical
malfunctions are the most common causes of fire.
Safety rules and regulations, common sense
and complete cooperation in fire prevention pro-

249

250

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Figure 12.1. A fixed offshore unit of recent design. The
platform is supported by a steel base fastened to the seabed.

grams are the crew's main defenses against the
outbreak of fire (see also Chapters 1, 2 and 4).
A continuing education program and visual re-
minders will help maintain an awareness of the
need for extreme care at all times.

The main causes of fire can be eliminated.
Workers can refrain from smoking in bed and in
restricted areas. They can ensure that all safety
regulations (including an inspection of the area
and providing a fire watch) are followed before
and during burning and welding operations (Fig.
12.2). These operations should conform to Coast
Guard regulations and the recommendations set
forth in the Manual of Safe Practices in Offshore
Operations. The offshore unit and its machinery
can be maintained properly and carefully. All
maintenance work should conform to the require-
ments of the owner and recognized industrial
organizations such as the American Association
of Oilwell Drilling Contractors (AAODC), the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers
(AIEE), the American Petroleum Institute (API)
and the American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers (ASME). These nonprofit organizations can
provide up-to-date technical data and recom-
mended safe practices for the operation and
maintenance of all mechanical and electronic
equipment.

Oil Spills*

As Fire and Safety Hazards. It is hardly neces-
sary to remind anyone in the petroleum industry

* The discussion on oil spills is adapted from the
Manual of Safe Practices in Offshore Operations, 2nd
revision. Offshore Operators Committee, 1972.

Figure 12.2. Heat and sparks from welding and burning
operations could cause a fire if proper precautions are not
taken.

that any oil outside a pipeline or other equipment
designed to contain, process or use oil is a fire
hazard and can result in serious injury, loss of
life and/or extensive property damage. It must
also be recognized that leaking or spilled oil on
floors, decks, ladders, stairways or walkways
presents slipping and falling hazards that can lead
to serious injuries or fatalities.

Prevention of Spills. Pollution prevention de-
mands individual effort. Pollution may occur
through accident or the malfunction of equip-
ment, but it often occurs because of poor house-
keeping or failure to follow good operating prac-
tices. Here are some guidelines that will help
prevent injuries and fires:

1. Good housekeeping — keep it clean. As
previously mentioned, loose oil is a fire
and safety hazard. Oil on decks in open
sumps, in buckets, dripping from loose
connections — any oil outside its proper
container — is a fire hazard and can easily
be ignited by sparks from various sources.
Whenever any oil is spilled, it should be
cleaned up immediately; oil on walkways
can cause serious, and sometimes fatal, ac-
cidents. Oily rags should not be left lying

Protection of Offshore Drilling Rigs & Production Platforms

251

4.

around or be allowed to accumulate any-
where but in a suitable container.
Connections. All pipeline and hose con-
nections should be made in accordance with
the best oil field practice. A leak in either
a pipeline or a hose should be repaired
immediately. Otherwise, the pipeline or
hose should be taken out of service until it
can be repaired or replaced. Open-ended
lines should be closed by blind flanges or
bull plugs to prevent accidental discharge;
if this is not practical, drip pans and sumps
should be provided.

Drip Pans. Drip pans or their equivalents
should be placed under any equipment
from which pollutants may escape into the
surrounding water. This equipment should
include, but should not be limited to,
pumps, prime movers, broken connections
and sampling valves. Permanent drip pans
must be piped to sumps that are protected
against the occurrence of fire and pollu-
tion.

Sumps. Adequate sumps and drainage sys-
tems must be installed wherever there is a
possible source of pollution. Drip pans,
bleed-off lines, gauge columns and such
devices should be piped to sumps. Sumps
should be designed to accommodate normal
drainage. They should be located as far as
practical from any source of ignition.
Sumps should be covered, so that no spark

can fall into or ignite the oil they contain.
Satisfactory means must be provided to
empty the sumps to prevent overflow.

Emergency Remote Shutoffs

The emergency remote shutoff system is, in es-
sence, a fire and spill prevention system. Remote
shutoff stations are located throughout the off-
shore rig. If a production pipeline is ruptured
allowing the production to escape, the lever at
any remote station may be pulled and automati-
cally closes a set of valves, shutting down the
production flow. At the same time, the produc-
tion pumps are deenergized and a second set of
valves is opened to allow vapors to bleed into the
atmosphere.

FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS

Since fire is a continuous threat to offshore units
and to those who man them, most units have
automatic fire detection systems. The detection
devices in these systems are usually pneumatic
tube detectors, heat and smoke detectors and
combustible-vapor detectors. In most cases, the
detectors are wired to sound the alarm when they
are actuated; they are also set up to activate
automatic fire extinguishing systems in unat-
tended spaces. Manual fire alarm systems are also
installed on most offshore rigs, and fire can be
reported via the telephone and intercom systems.

FIRE DETECTION LOOP SYSTEM

Flexible Plastic Tubing

Hole in Tubing Filled With
Air or Gas Under Pressure

Loop

Pressure

Switches

and

Electrical

Circuits

Loop
Severed
by^rigfV •

Extinguishing
System o

Pump
Generator

Figure 12.3. Fire detection loop system. A. Plastic tubing whose hollow core is filled with gas or air under pressure. B. When
the tubing is severed, the pressure is lost. The reduced pressure allows switches to activate emergency equipment, including
alarms, extinguishing systems, generators and product control valves.

252

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Fire Line Automatic System
(Pneumatic Tube Fire Detector)

The fire line automatic system is used to detect
fire in open spaces and to activate alarms and/or
firefighting equipment automatically. A fire line
system is a flexible plastic or metal tubing that
is strung around the outside of the entire struc-
ture, to form a loop. The tubing has a hollow core,
which is filled with gas or air under pressure
(206.84 x 103 pascals (30 psi)). The ends of the
tubing are connected to pressure switches that
can activate alarms and other devices electrically
(Fig. 12.3).

How the System Works. When any portion of
the tubing is burned through by fire, the air or
gas inside the hose is released. The pressure in
the tubing decreases, allowing pressure switch
contacts to move and close electric circuits. These
circuits may be set up to activate the fire alarm
system, automatically shut down valves in pipe-
lines, shut off remote emergency valves to in-
coming product, deenergize product pumps and
energize fire-main pumps.

The fire line system is simple in design and
very reliable. Its primary drawback is its vulner-
ability to false alarms. It will activate the equip-
ment that it controls whenever the plastic hose
is severed; e.g., when it is accidentally cut or
damaged by abrasion.

Several fire line loop systems may be installed
on an offshore unit. The additional loops would
be used to protect specific areas; e.g., if the plat-
form has several deck levels, a separate loop
may be used for each deck. The pressures within
the loops can be supervised individually at a cen-
tral console (Fig. 12.4).

A separate fire line loop can be used at the
well head location. The well head loop can be set

Figure 12.4. A central console is used to monitor all the
fire loop systems installed on a rig.

Figure 12.5. A spray nozzle primed to discharge a large
volume of water into the well head area in case of fire.

up to activate the fire pumps and open a deluge
valve, allowing a large volume of water to be
pumped to the well head area and discharged
through water spray nozzles (Fig. 12.5). (Well
head protection is discussed in more detail later
in this chapter.)

Other areas that may be protected by indi-
vidual fire line loops are compressor and gen-
erator rooms. The loops in these rooms are
made up of metal tubing rather than plastic tub-
ing, and use fusible metal plugs. When fire oc-
curs, the plugs melt, allowing the air or gas to
escape and the pressure in the tubing to drop. In
addition to sounding the alarm, the loss of pres-
sure can be used to shut down machinery and
equipment in the protected space.

Heat and Smoke Detection System

Heat and smoke detectors are not used on all
manned units. When they are used, they are in-
stalled primarily in living spaces, spaces housing
electronic gear and storage areas. They cannot be
used in outside areas, where winds might carry
away the heat and smoke of a fire.

In living spaces, heat and smoke detectors are
normally used only to actuate an alarm when
they sense fire. In an electronic gear room, they
may be used to activate an automatic Halon or

Protection of Offshore Drilling Rigs & Production Platforms

253

CO2 flooding system, in addition to sounding the
alarm. In the latter case, the detection system can
also be wired to cut off the power, shut down
exhaust fans and close ventilation openings.

Combustible-Gas Detection System

Combustible-gas detectors are used extensively
on drilling and production units. These sensors
are placed in such areas as switch gear, compres-
sor and generator rooms, as well as in living
spaces (Fig. 12.6) and galleys. They can also be
installed to protect product pipelines, manifolds
and well heads. Briefly, the combustible-gas de-
tection system sounds the alarm when it senses
the buildup of dangerous concentrations of flam-
mable vapors. (See Chapter 6 for a more detailed
description of the system.)

Manual Fire Alarm System

Whether or not fire detection systems are in-
stalled on an offshore rig, it is imperative that the
crew be watchful for the occurrence of fire. Many
times, an alert crewman discovers fire before even
the most sophisticated fire detector is actuated.
In spaces that are not protected by such devices,
the crewman is the fire detector. When fire is dis-
covered, the alarm should be sounded immedi-
ately, and firefighting procedures begun. Every

GENERAL ALARM
ACTUATOR

Figure 12.6. A combustible gas detector installed in living
space. The detector senses the presence of flammable vapors
in the surrounding air.

Figure 12.7. Emergency alarm box. The Fire and Abandon
alarms can be sounded by pushing the proper buttons.

new crew member should be shown the locations
of emergency alarms and taught how to use them.

The fire alarm system most commonly used on
offshore units is an electrical system powered by
the generator. Batteries serve as the emergency
power source. Fire alarm boxes (Fig. 12.7) are
located on all levels of the unit, in open and en-
closed spaces. Each alarm box has three buttons —
yellow (or orange), red and black.

The yellow (or orange) button is pushed to
sound the fire alarm. This activates a siren that
produces a warble, or double-pitch sound. At the
sound of the alarm, each crewman should report
directly to his fire emergency station, as given in
the station bill.

The red button activates a steady pitched siren
that alerts the crew to prepare to abandon the
unit. Crew members must proceed to the posi-
tions assigned them in the station bill for this
purpose.

The black button shuts off the emergency sig-
nal. It is used only in the event of a false alarm or
accidental activation of an alarm.

Telephones are usually located near alarm
boxes; they can be used to communicate the de-
tails of the emergency to the person in charge or
the fire control team. A public address system
can also be used to communicate with most parts
of the rig.

FIREFIGHTING SYSTEMS
AND EQUIPMENT

In general, the fire protection systems installed
on self-propelled mobile units are similar to those

254

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

installed on ocean-going vessels. The propulsion
plant space may be protected by a CO2 flooding
system and a semiportable system. A fire-main
system must be installed, and it must conform in
all respects to Coast Guard regulations govern-
ing similar systems on ships. (See Chapter 9.)

The systems installed on fixed offshore units
tend more to automatic detection and extinguish-
ment than the systems that protect their land-
based counterparts. The reason is obvious: There
is no land-based fire department to respond to an
alarm from an offshore rig. The crew must fight
the fire alone, using the equipment installed on
the rig.

Actually, as compared to land-based installa-
tions, the typical manned drilling or production
unit is well protected against fire. Most of the
firefighting equipment described in Chapters 8-
10 is available on most rigs. If this equipment is
used properly, the crew should be able to control
most fires. Many oil and gas companies conduct
comprehensive training in both fire safety and
fire control. Personnel assigned to offshore units
are generally required to demonstrate a knowl-
edge of firefighting equipment and an ability to
use the equipment against various types of fire.

Fire-Main System (Fixed Units)

The fire-main system is a system of piping that
carries water from the pumps to fire stations lo-
cated throughout the unit. In warm climates, the
piping is filled with water. In cold climates, the
piping is either dry or filled with a mixture of wa-
ter and antifreeze. Although a single-main system
may be used, most units have loop-type systems.
(See Chapter 9.) Two diesel-powered pumps (one
as the primary supply, and the second as backup)
supply seawater to the system at sufficient vol-
umes and pressures to produce good hose streams
for firefighting.

Fire stations are located so that the hose stream
from one station will overlap the hose stream of
the adjacent station for complete coverage of a
fire at any point on the unit. At each fire station,
a 152-305 m (50-100 ft) length of 3.8- 6.4 cm
(1 V2- or IVi-'m.) hose, with a nozzle, is connected
to the pipe outlet. A valve at the outlet controls
the flow of water to the hose; during use, the
valve should be fully opened.

Adjustable fog nozzles are used on most fixed
units. (Note: These nozzles are not currently per-
mitted by USCG regulations. A regulation has
been proposed, but to date, nothing has been
finalized.) This type of nozzle can deliver a solid
stream or either of two fog patterns. When the
control lever is pushed all the way forward, the
nozzle is closed (Fig. 12. 8 A). When the lever is
pulled back, water is discharged from the nozzle;
the further back the lever is pulled, the greater
the water volume (Fig. 12.8B). The water stream
pattern is selected by rotating the nozzle barrel;
a straight stream is obtained by rotating the bar-
rel clockwise and fog patterns are obtained by
rotating the barrel counterclockwise to the 30°
or 90° setting (Fig. 12.8C).

The fog cone discharged from the nozzle is a
fine spray that can knock down a sizable fire when
properly applied. Although the cone is hollow, it
can absorb large amounts of heat, which makes
it ideal for cooling down hot surfaces. A wide fog
cone is also excellent protection for firefighters
approaching an extremely hot fire. In open areas,
the fog pattern can be used continuously during
the approach to the fire. However, in enclosed
passageways, a continuous fog stream will push
the fire ahead into unburned areas of the struc-
ture. In such a case, the fog stream should be
applied intermittently, in short bursts. (See
Chapter 10.)

Figure 12.8. The adjustable fog nozzle can deliver a solid stream or two different fog patterns. A. The fully closed position.
B. The fully open position with the stream selector set for a solid stream.

Protection of Offshore Drilling Rigs & Production Platforms

255

Figure 12.8C. The adjustable fog nozzle will deliver a 30c
or 90° fog pattern as well as a solid stream.

Foam Stations. Foam stations (Fig. 12.9) are
sometimes located at fire-main stations, so that
either water or foam may be applied from the
station. If foam is to be used, the fog nozzle is
removed from the hose and replaced with an
aspirating-type foam nozzle. (See Chapter 8 for a
discussion of the operation of this nozzle.) The
water control valve is opened; then the eductor
valve is rotated to the foam position so that foam
concentrate is picked up and mixed with water
in the hoseline.

Monitor Nozzles. Monitor nozzles are placed in
fire-main systems to produce heavy streams of
water for fire attack or for cooling exposures. A
monitor nozzle can be operated easily by one
crewman and can produce a 1892-7570 1pm
(500-2000 gpm) fog stream. A stream of that
size can knock down and extinguish an extensive
fire and can also be used to cool metal supports
and deck surfaces during a fire, to prevent weak-

ening and buckling of the structure. Monitor
nozzles can attack and control a large fire from
a relatively safe distance, especially from the
windward side of the fire. They can also be used
to protect firefighters who are advancing to the
fire with handlines. On units with expanded-metal
decks, the use of large volumes of water is not
dangerous, since the water runs off rapidly and
does not cause a weight problem.

A distinct advantage is gained when monitor
nozzles are positioned so they can reach the heli-
copter pad (Fig. 12.10). In the event of an acci-
dent involving a helicopter fire on the pad, heavy
streams (preferably fog streams) can be directed
from one or more monitors to blanket the entire
landing pad in water. The water will either ex-
tinguish the flames or keep them under control
until hoselines or dry chemical extinguishers can
be advanced for a close-in attack.

Carbon Dioxide and

Halon 1301 Flooding Systems

Carbon dioxide (C02) and Halon 1301, total
flooding systems are generally installed in gen-
erator and compressor rooms and spaces housing
electronic equipment. These systems are also oc-
casionally used to protect storage spaces on plat-
form structures. Either system consists of a group
of cylinders containing the extinguishing agent,
a manifold, piping, valves and discharge nozzles.
The system may be set up for manual activation or
automatic activation by fire detectors.

Figure 12.9. Some fire stations have a foam concentrate
storage tank as an integral part of the fire-main system. By
opening the eductor valve the hoseline is supplied with
a foam solution.

Figure 12.10. Monitor nozzles, positioned
helicopter pad, can apply large volumes of
safe distance.

to reach the
water from a

256

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

When the system is activated (either manually
or automatically), the extinguishing agent is first
discharged into a time delay. This delays the dis-
charge of the agent into the protected space for
about 20 seconds. During this period, a warning
alarm sounds. All personnel must evacuate the
space immediately, closing the door tightly as
they leave. In most systems, exhaust fans and
dampers are closed automatically by pressure
switches that are actuated by the agent when it is
discharged. The reasons for evacuating and totally
closing the protected space prior to the discharge
of the agent have been discussed in earlier chap-
ters.

Foam Systems

Oil storage tanks, including the "gun barrel" tank,
can be protected by any of several types of foam
systems. The tank construction usually deter-
mines which system affords the best protection.
Fixed roof storage tanks (the tanks used on off-
shore units) can be protected by either subsurface
foam injection systems or tankside foam chamber
systems.

Subsurface Foam Injection System. In the sub-
surface system, mechanical foam is produced by
a high-back-pressure foam maker located at a dis-
tance from the tank site. The foam is forced
through piping into the bottom of the tank. It
bubbles up to the surface of the stored liquid
product, where it forms a floating vaportight blan-
ket (Fig. 12.11). The foam blanket extinguishes
the fire.

Subsurface systems can only be used to pro-
tect tanks containing petroleum products. Polar

solvents and water-miscible fuels will break down
the foam, destroying its effectiveness.

Foam Chamber System. This system makes use
of one or more foam-dispensing chambers. The
chambers are installed on top of the shell of the
tank, near the roof joint. Two types of chambers
are used. One type deflects the foam onto the
inside wall of the tank, so it cascades down onto
the surface of the burning liquid. The other type,
called a Moeller chamber, directs the foam onto
the liquid surface via a flexible tube.

Piping connects the foam chambers to a foam
house at a remote location; the chambers are nor-
mally empty. When a fire is to be extinguished,
foam solution is produced at the foam house and
pumped to the foam chambers. The foam is
aerated in the chambers to form a mechanical
foam and is then dispensed onto the burning fuel.

Fires involving polar solvents must be extin-
guished with a foam that is compatible with these
liquids. The foam manufacturer's recommenda-
tions regarding the type of foam concentrate, its
strength (3% or 6%) and the rate of injection
should be followed carefully.

Fighting Storage Tank Fires. If fire develops in
a storage tank, the foam system should be used
for the initial attack. Monitor or handline water
streams should be directed onto the tank shell as
soon as possible. Cooling the tank shell helps
prevent the temperature of the liquid product
from increasing rapidly. It also cools the metal at
the liquid surface; this helps the foam blanket
form a tight seal. If the metal in this area is ex-
cessively hot, the water in the foam will boil off
and the foam blanket will break down.

HIGH BACK PRESSURE
FOAM MAKER

\ II

I / / Air Inlet

Intake

Foam Solution

Discharge
Mechanical Foam

CBflEv,

Figure 12.11. In the subsurface foam injection system, mechanical foam is forced up through the contents in the tank to
form a floating blanket that smothers the fire.

Protection of Offshore Drilling Rigs & Production Platforms

257

Water Spray System

Water spray systems are used on some offshore
units to protect the well head and adjacent areas.
Each system consists of a piping arrangement,
valves, spray discharge heads and water pumps.
For manual operation, the water flow control
valve must be opened, and the water pumps
started. These are time-consuming operations
that allow the fire to increase in size and intensity.
Automatic operation is thus desirable; it can be
attained by using a fire loop detection system to
activate the water spray system.

When fire is detected by an automatic system,
the fire pumps are activated and a deluge valve
is simultaneously opened. (A deluge valve is a
fast opening device that allows the full volume
of water to flow without delay.) Water pumped
into the system is discharged through spray heads
in a pattern that provides an umbrella of water
over the area. Exposures are protected from
radiant heat by water that is directed onto walls
and/or equipment to keep their surfaces cool.

If a fire involves product that is escaping from
a ruptured pipeline or a leaky connection, the
spray system should not be shut down until the
flow of product is stopped. Even if the spray sys-
tem extinguishes the fire, it should be allowed to
operate as long as product is moving to the site
of the fire. This serves two purposes: It prevents
the product from reigniting, and it cools metal
structures in the fire area.

Automatic Sprinkler System

The living, recreation, office and galley spaces on
a fixed offshore unit can be protected by an auto-
matic sprinkler system. The system would consist
of piping, fusible-link sprinkler heads, valves,
pumps and a pressure tank.

When fire causes one or more sprinkler heads
to open, the initial water supply comes from the
pressure tank. As the water flows out of the tank,
alarms can be actuated by the water itself or by
the pressure drop in the tank. The same action is
used to start the fire pump, which supplies addi-
tional water to the system. Most fires can be
brought under control by the water discharged
from one or two sprinkler heads. The system
should not be turned off until the fire is definitely
out or until a hoseline can be positioned to handle
any remaining fire. After a system has been used,
it should be restored to operation according to
the manufacturer's directions.

Sprinkler systems are very reliable if they are
well maintained. When a system fails to operate
properly, it is usually because the wrong valves
are closed. To avoid this, all valves should be

marked with their operating positions (such as
"Keep open at all times") and, if necessary, sealed
in the proper position.

SPECIAL FIREFIGHTING PROBLEMS

Offshore units are unique in their structural de-
sign, and they present special firefighting prob-
lems. In land-based structures and on ships, the
floor or decking is generally solid; this structural
feature prevents or slows the vertical travel of
fire. Most platforms have expanded-metal sup-
ports and decks, often four or five levels high.
This open decking not only allows fire to travel
upward, but it also allows fire to drop downward.

The problem can be a very serious one. For
example, suppose a fire originates in some oil
drums stored on a middle deck level. The fire
will travel upward by convection and radiation
and extend to structures and materials above the
fire area. At the same time, burning liquid can
drop through the decking and ignite combustibles
on the deck below. Moreover, expanded metal is
highly susceptible to heat, and the decks may ex-
pand, warp out of shape and lose their strength.

Such a fire must be attacked rapidly at its point
of origin. However, the crew should also position
hoselines above and below the fire deck, to ex-
tinguish fire that might extend to those areas and
to keep the metal decking cool. If monitor nozzles
are available, a "blitz" attack can be made. In a
blitz attack, firefighters hit the fire with every-
thing at their disposal. Finesse is not important
in this situation; getting the fire out is the impor-
tant goal. Water damage need not be considered,
since the large volumes of water will simply
plunge into the sea.

Helicopter Fires

Serious fires can originate on the helicopter pad,
which is often placed directly above living and
office spaces. The deck of the pad is solid metal or
wood, and access is usually by a single staircase.
A crash, with a resulting fire, could cause burn-
ing fuel to spill off the pad. The fuel would run
down the side walls of the structure, carrying fire
downward for several decks. Such a fire would
test the knowledge and experience of even the
best-trained firefighters.

The fire should be attacked at each burning
level, preferably with fog streams. The streams
should be directed first at deck level and then
worked upward, with a sweeping motion, across
the flames. Dry chemical can also be used to
knock down the flames quickly, but water streams
are necessary to cool hot surfaces (to prevent re-

258

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

flash). A combined dry chemical and water at-
tack would be effective, since the two agents are
compatible. The fire on the pad must be attacked
and extinguished, since it is the source of the
fire and the spilling fuel. As long as the pad fire
continues to burn, any spilled fuel will cause
problems as it runs downward.

If anyone is trapped in the helicopter or iso-
lated on the landing pad, the attack at the pad
level becomes imperative. If a rescue is possible,
the initial attack on the pad fire can be made with
portable dry chemical or AFFF (Aqueous Film-
Forming Foam) extinguishers. The dry chemical
or foam can be used to knock down flames and
open a path to the aircraft. The firefighters should
advance at a steady pace, with the wind at their
backs, directing the agent with a sweeping mo-
tion. They must be wary of reflash, and not move*
in so fast that the fire burns behind them. The
use of dry chemical alone to fight the fire is an
emergency measure; handlines should be ad-
vanced and placed in operation as quickly as
possible. The cooling effect of water is essential
to extinguish the fire and to minimize reflash.

A good standard procedure is to station per-
sonnel with portable dry chemical or AFFF extin-
guishers at the ready for all landings and takeoffs.
An immediate attack on a fire resulting from a
crash could save lives and keep the fire from
increasing in size and intensity. Helicopter and
landing deck operations should conform to the
recommendations published in the Manual of
Safe Practices in Offshore Operations.

Fires in Living Spaces

Fires in living spaces on an offshore unit should
be attacked basically as described in Chapter 10.
The only difference would be in the confinement
and overhaul procedures. There are "dead spaces"
in walls and partitions and between ceilings and
roofs on offshore units. These spaces provide a
channel for fire travel not usually found on ships.
They must be checked carefully for fire extension,
since they can allow fire to persist undetected for
some time. Dead spaces must be opened fully
during overhaul if they show any signs of heat
or fire.

Well Head Fires

Some well head fires are readily controlled by the
crew, especially when down hole safety devices
function properly. When safety devices fail, the
fire may be beyond the capability of platform
crews to extinguish. Destructive explosions, usu-
ally damaging to the structure, often accompany
the outbreak of the fire. Fire detection and fire

extinguishing systems may be disrupted; for ex-
ample, automatic valve-closing devices may fail
to work, or the fire main may be damaged beyond
use. When the situation threatens the crew's
safety, abandonment procedures should be ini-
tiated without delay.

Even when the firefighting systems survive the
explosions, they may be incapable of extinguish-
ing a well head fire. The escaping fuel results in
an extremely intense fire, like a gigantic blow-
torch. If the flames are directed horizontally to-
ward the platform, the situation is untenable.
However, if the flames are directed upward, heat
will be convected up and away from the platform.
Even then, the radiant heat is intense enough to
endanger all exposures. If a decision is made to
stay on the platform, the exposures must be pro-
tected by cooling with water streams. The water
should be applied directly onto the surfaces of
the exposures. Heavy stream monitor nozzles
should be used to protect exposures wherever pos-
sible. The water spray system at the well head
(if there is one) should be used to keep that area
cool. If the flames are extinguished but the flow
of fuel is not stopped, additional explosions could
occur as the fuel reignites.

There is no easy way to determine when to
abandon an offshore rig, and when the crew can
safely stay to fight a fire. Many factors must be
considered. However, one rule should remain
foremost during the decision-making process:
Protect the lives of the crew. If the situation is
judged to be dangerous to personnel, then the
unit should be abandoned. In any case, it may
be wise to evacuate all personnel who are not
needed to combat the firp

Support Vessels

The supply and rig tender vessels that service off-
shore units carry portable fire extinguishers, fire-
main systems, CO2 flooding and semiportable
systems and dry chemical semiportable systems.
Most of these systems are manually operated, al-
though newer vessels may have automatic extin-
guishing systems activated by detection devices.
Fire detectors may be found on some rig tender
vessels, primarily in paint and lamp lockers. They
are wired to sound the alarm when fire occurs
and, in some instances, to activate a 22.7 or 45 kg
(50 or 100 lb) CO2 cylinder to flood the locker.
(Automatic fire extinguishing systems are not in-
stalled in rig tender engine rooms for the reasons
given earlier in this book — the need to evacuate
the space and the loss of propulsion. For these
same reasons, the manual CO2 flooding system
is used only as a last resort. See Chapters 6, 8 and

Protection of Offshore Drilling Rigs & Production Platforms

259

9 where all these fire protection systems have been
described.)

Dry Chemical Semiportable Extinguisher. Rig

tender vessels often carry combustible products
and liquids on their open deck spaces, aft of the
bridge. Among these combustible materials are
drilling mud, lubricating oils for machinery and
a wide array of supplies. On some rig tenders, a
226.8 kg (500-lb) dry chemical semiportable ex-
tinguisher is located on the main deck, near the
cargo. This extinguisher is used as the primary
attack unit for fires involving the deck cargo.

Before the dry chemical extinguisher is acti-
vated, the hose should be run out to its full length,
with the nozzle closed. Then the nozzle should
be positioned to attack the fire. The unit may
be activated by pulling the manual release lever,
allowing nitrogen to flow from its cylinder into
the dry chemical tank. The nitrogen pressurizes
the dry chemical, but a "burst-disk" delays the
release of the chemical to give it time to become
fluidized. When the tank pressure reaches 1379 x
103 pascals (200 psi) the disk bursts, and both
nitrogen and dry chemical are released into the
hoseline. (Nitrogen is an inert gas that contributes
to the extinguishment of the fire.)

The attack should be made from windward, if
possible. The nozzle should be directed with a
wrist-flicking motion, to sweep the agent across
the flames. It should be kept parallel to the deck
or pointed slightly downward. If the nozzle is
pointed upward, the dry chemical will block the
nozzleman's vision; in addition, some of the agent
will pass over the flames and do no good. Smaller
portable extinguishers can be directed onto the
flames on either side of the main attack path.

Dry chemical can knock down a fire quickly,
which makes it an ideal initial attack agent. How-
ever, the dry chemical attack must be backed up
with a secondary means of extinguishment. The
compatibility of dry chemical and water makes
hoselines the obvious choice as a backup. (Al-
though foam is usually recommended for class
B fires, water, especially when applied in a fog
pattern with sufficient volume, has the capacity to
extinguish sizable flammable liquid fires.) If the
burning material and the deck are not cooled with
hoselines, a reflash may occur. Since the fire is
on an open deck with drainage into the sea
through scuppers, large amounts of water can be
applied from several hoselines without affecting
the vessel's stability.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fire Protection Handbook. 14th ed. NFPA, Boston,
1976

Manual of Safe Practices in Offshore Operations.
2nd revision. Offshore Operators Committee, 1972

Bryan, JL: Fire Suppression and Detection Systems.
Los Angeles, Glencoe Press, 1974

Rules and Regulations for Artificial Islands and
Fixed Structures on the Outer Continental Shelf
(No.CG320)

Oil, Gas and Sulphur Leases in the Outer Conti-
nental Shelf, Gulf of Mexico (U.S. Department
of the Interior Publication)

fire SaMij

Pari III

The four chapters in this final part deal with the safety of ship's personnel
during and after emergencies. Chapter 13 covers the organization and train-
ing of personnel to handle emergencies in an orderly and efficient manner.
This is an extremely important first step toward minimizing the hazards of
any emergency situation and ensuring the safety of those involved. Chapter
14 is a fairly complete discussion of first aid techniques that may be applied
aboard ship. Chapters 15 and 16 cover the personal safety equipment and
safety devices carried on U.S. flag vessels. The equipment and devices de-
scribed in those chapters have been mentioned in several earlier chapters.

Organization &
Training of Personnel
for Emergencies

Every land-based emergency service, such as a
fire department or police department, is carefully
organized to accomplish its goals. These goals
are accomplished when certain people properly
perform certain assigned tasks. Thus, the emer-
gency service must first be organized in terms of
personnel; responsibilities and duties must be
clearly set forth and a chain of command, with a
single, ultimately responsible chief officer, must
be established. Then the service must be organized
in terms of tasks; personnel must be trained to
know what to do in an emergency, when to do
it and how to use the necessary equipment.

Aboard a ship, the crew constitutes the emer-
gency services — in particular, the fire department.
There already is a normal chain of command on
every vessel — from the master through his offi-
cers to their departments. This chain of command
does not change during emergency situations;
the master and his department heads remain re-
sponsible for the efforts of the crew. The station
bill lists the duties of crew members during emer-
gencies; drills and training sessions are held to
ensure that the crew will be capable of performing
these duties properly if the need should arise. The
equipment needed to carry out these duties is
carried on board. Thus, all the elements of an
emergency service are available. The effectiveness
of the crew as a firefighting force depends only
on how well these elements are assembled.

ORGANIZATION OF PERSONNEL

The organization of personnel aboard ship re-
sembles in many ways the organization of a large
industrial plant. In an industrial plant the general
manager is the top executive; he carries out the
policies of the owners — the corporation. How-
ever, he and the corporation are subject to federal,
state and local laws affecting the plant and its

employees. The plant manager is assisted by his
subordinates and is responsible for their perform-
ance. These subordinates are the heads of such
departments as personnel, production, transpor-
tation, engineering and security.

Aboard ship, the master is the top "executive."
Like the plant manager, the master follows the
instructions of the owners. He, too, is subject to
applicable laws. The laws that govern the mas-
ter's operations are the maritime laws as set forth
in the laws Governing Marine Inspection and
U.S. Coast Guard rulings and regulations. Since
the maritime laws and regulations are designed
to provide safety at sea for passengers, crew and
ship, they are quite strict; inevitably the master
is charged with the responsibility for violations.

Aboard ship, the master's authority is second
only to God's (an old mariner once said that is so
only because God has seniority). The master's
authority is derived from government regulations
and the instructions of the ship owners. However,
the ship owners can in no way authorize a ship's
master to act contrary to any federal regulations.

The responsibilities of the master are tremen-
dous. Under ancient but still valid laws of the sea,
he is responsible for practically every action taken
aboard his ship, by himself or by his subordinates.
While he may delegate his authority, he cannot,
in any way, relieve himself of responsibility for
the acts of those whom he authorized to act.

The master is not, however, alone as he paces
the bridge of his ship. As assistants, he has the
chief mate and other deck officers and the chief
engineer and other engineering officers. These
people demonstrated their competence and ability
in difficult and searching examinations, before
they were granted licenses. In addition, each offi-
cer was required to serve in various subordinate
ranks before sitting for the Coast Guard license
examination. Although a master must have

263

264

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

proven qualifications, he may depend on com-
petent assistants to help him in carrying out his
many duties. In this regard, the law holds each
licensed or documented seaman responsible for
his actions in carrying out his duties.

Like an industrial plant, a ship is organized
into various departments, each under control of
a department head — the chief mate, chief engi-
neer and chief steward (Fig. 13.1). The chief
mate is second to the master in the chain of com-
mand. Aside from being responsible for carrying
out the orders of the master, he is usually in
charge of safety, lifesaving and firefighting equip-
ment and the training of the crew. He coordinates
the work of his department and the lifesaving
and firefighting drills. However, instructional ses-
sions and training drills are planned with the
master, who is responsible for training in the use
of firefighting, lifesaving and other emergency
equipment. The master should place in the log
an entry indicating that he has reviewed and ap-
proved the training plans. Another entry should
be made to note that the actual drills have been
completed.

During the planning of drills and training ses-
sions, the chief mate should consult with the chief
engineer, especially when the engine room is se-
lected as the location of a fire drill. The chief

engineer is jointly responsible, with the master,
for training the crew in the use of all emergency
equipment.

THE STATION BILL

The station bill is a muster list required by federal
regulations. It lists the special duties and duty
station of each member of the crew during emer-
gencies, and the signals for these emergencies
(Fig. 13.2). In one column are listed the duty
station and duty assignment of each member of
the crew during a fire or other emergency situa-
tion; in another column are listed the boat station
and duty assignment of each crew member during
an abandon ship procedure.

Normally, the master draws up the station bill
when he takes command of a vessel. The station
bill is then used for all voyages of that vessel
under his command. The master makes an intro-
ductory statement and signs the station bill be-
fore sailing. He then ensures that copies are
posted in conspicuous locations in the vessel, par-
ticularly in the crew quarters.

Locator Numbers

The makeup of a ship's crew changes somewhat
with each voyage, but the emergency duties and

MASTER

RADIO OPERATOR
PURSER

DECK DEPT.

ENG. DEPT.

STEWARD DEPT.

CH. MATE

CH. ENG.

CH. STEWARD

1

2nd MATE

1st ASST.

COOKS

3rd MATE

2nd ASST.

MESS MEN

UNLICENSED
DECK

3rd ASST.

UNLICENSED
ENGINE

Figure 13.1. The chain of command aboard ship.

Organization & Training of Personnel for Emergencies

265

CO 848 (Ilev. 10-5*))
U. S. COAST GUARD

UNITED STATES COAST GUARD

SPECIMEN OF A STANDARD STATION BILL PREPARED FOR FREIGHT AND
TANK SHD?S CARRYING PERSONS IN ADDITION TO CREW

STATION BILL

SIGNALS

(Name of ship) (Name of company)

FIRE AND EMERGENCY— Continuous blast on ship's whistle and general alarm bells for a period of at least 10 seconds.
ABANDON SHIP — More than 6 short blasts and 1 long blast on the whistle and the same signal on the general alarm bells.
MAN OVERBOARD— Hail, and pass the word "MAN OVERBOARD" to the bridge.
DISMISSAL—From FIRE AND EMERGENCY stations, 3 short blasts on the whistle and 3 short rings on the general alarm bells.

WHERE WHISTLE SIGNALS ARE USED FOR HANDLING BOATS

Lower boats — 1 short blast on whistle

Stop lowering boats — 2 short blasts on whistle

Dismissal from boat stations — 3 short blasts on whistle

INSTRUCTIONS

1 . Entire crew shall familiarize themselves with the location and duties of their emergency stations immediately upon reporting on board.

2. Each crew member shall be provided with an individual supplementary station bill card which must show in detail the special duties to perform.

3. Entire crew shall be instructed in the performance of their special duties and crew on watch will remain on watch on signal for emergency drill.

4 Every person participating in the abandon-ship drill will be required to wear a life preserver and entire boat crew shall assist in removing covers
and swinging out boats.

5. Emergency Squad will assemble with equipment at scene of action immediately upon the emergency signal.

6. Stewards' department will assemble ana direct passengers, properly dressed and wearing life preservers, to embarkation stations.
Person discovering FIRE shall immediately notify the bridge and fight the fire with available equipment.
Immediately upon the FIRE AND EMERGENCY signal, fire pumps to be started, all watertight doors, ports, and air shafts to be closed, and all

fans and blowers stopped. Fire hose to be led out in the affected area as directed.
Upon hearing the signal, "MAN OVERBOARD," throw life ring buoys overboard, stop engines and send lookout aloft. Emergency boat crew

consisting of all seamen shall immediately clear lee boat for launching.
During periods of low visability, all watertight doors and ports below the bulkhead deck shall be closed, subject to the Master's orders.

8.

9.

10.

No. |

HATING

I

FIIiE AND EMERGENCY STATIONS

No.

I

ABANDON SHIP— BOAT STATIONS

DECK DEPARTMENT

15.
16.
17.

Master

Chief Mate.

2d Mate

3d Mate

Radio Operator...

Boatswain

Able Seam »"

..uie Seaman.

Ordinary Seaman
Ordinary Seaman
Ordinary Seaman

On the bridge. In command, all operations.
At scene of emergency. In charge.
On the bridge. Relieve the watch.
Prepare all lifeboats for launching. In charge.
Radio room. At instruments.
Emergency squad. Provide life lines,
—"squad. Relieve the wheel.

^-ovide extra length of hose «nd spanner.
j&mcr&w.

Assist 3d Mate pi^r
Bridge. Act as messenger.
Emergency squad. Act as messenger.
Assist 3d Mate prepare lifeboats for launching.

A.

Lifeboat No. 1..

1.

Lifeboat >to. 2_.

2.

Lifeboat No. 3—

3.

Lifeboat No. 4..

4.

Lifeboat No. 1..

5.

Lifeboat No. 1__

G.

Lifeboat No. 2..

7.

T-

.^uoat No. o-

15.

Lifeboat No. 4..

16.

Lifeboat No. 1__

17.

Lifeboat No. 2..

In command. On bridge in charge all operations.
In command. In charge launching lifeboats amidship.
In command. On the bridge. Relieve the watch.
In command. In charge launching lifeboats aft.
Attend Master's orders and instructions.
2d in command. Attend forward gripes and falls.
2d in command. Attend forward gripes and falls.

— ... .. <*ua attend du&i r
Release boat chocks and secure drain cap.
Lead out and attend boat painter.
Lead out and attend boat painter.

ENGINE DEPARTMENT

18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27

44.
45.
46.
47.

48.

Chief Engineer..

1st Assistant

2d Assistant

3d Assistant

Jr. Engineer

Jr. Engineer

Jr. Engineer

Pumpman

2d Pumuin"-

fireman

Storekeeper

Wiper.. _

Wiper

Wiper

Wiper

In charge of Engine Department.

Engine room. In charge.

In charge of fire room and steam smothering apparatus.

Attend main steam smothering line.

Attend CO2 or foam smothering system.

Attend CO2 or foam smothering system.

Engine room. At fire pumps.

Assist 2d Assistant Engineer m fire room.

T-'mprGency squad. Assist with f»-

* * rn«i" *■

x .._ _ -..gineer.

Fire room. Assist -_ ..distant Engineer.
Emergency squad. Provide inhalator.
Engine room. Act as messenger.
Assist 3d Officer prepare lifeboats for launching.
Emergency squad. Assist with fresh air mask.
Emergency squad. Assist with inhalator.

18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.

43.
44.
45.
46.

47.
48.

Lifeboat No

1_

Lifeboat No

2..

Lifeboat No

3-

Lifeboat No

4_.

Lifeboat No

1__

Lifeboat No

2..

Lifeboat No

3..

Lifeboat No

l._

■. .. - ~T,

4 .

i^neboat iNo. ■».
Lifeboat No. 3.
Lifeboat No. 2.
Lifeboat No. 1.
Lifeboat No. 1.
Lifeboat No. 2.
Lifeboat No. 1.

Assist in general operations.

Assist in general operations.

Assist in general operations.

Assist in general operations.

Turn out forward davit and assist at forward falls.

Turn out forward davit and assist at forward falls.

Turn out forward davit and assist at forward falls.

Release after gripes and attend after falls

Lead out and attend ^n^t painter.

Turn out davits and assist at tai*^.
Turn out davits and assist at falls.
Turn out after davit.
Stand by life ring buoy, ready for use.
Stand by life ring buoy, ready for use.
Turn out davits and assist at falls.

STEWARDS'

DEPARTMENT

49.
50.
51.

Chief Steward

Chief Cook

2d Cook

Arouse, warn, and direct passengers.
Secure galley.

Assist Chief Cook secure galley.
Close all ports and rlom- - ' '-••-.<•

In charge.

49.
50.
51.

Lifeboat No. 1..
Lifeboat No. 3..
Lifeboat No. 4..
T ifehnot *T- '

Arouse, warn, and direct passengers.
Lead out and attend boat painter.
Lead out and attend boat painter.

J ''n.vit.

In charge.

52.

!vT»~-

57.

58.

utuityman.
Utilityman.
Galleyman..

...uuae, ... — ^-'a'

.— o alt.

56.

LiteDoat No. 4..

Turn out after davit.

Assist 3d Mate prepare lifeboats for launching.

57.

Lifeboat No. 3..

Stand bv life ring buoy, ready for use.

Assist 3d Mate prepare lifeboats for launching.

58.

Lifeboat No. 4..

Stand by life ring buoy, ready for use.

Note.— For additional information see notice entitled STATION BILLS, DRILLS AND REPORTS OF MASTERS, Form 809 A.

Matter.

This specimen station bill has been prepared for freight and tank ships that carry a crew of 35 to 58 persons, which vessels are equipped with 4
lifeboats. In view of the various types of fire fighting and lifesaving equipment on board vessels of this class, this specimen is to be used only as a guide
in making up suitable station bills in compliance with the regulations. Copies of this specimen may be obtained from the office of the Officer in Charge
Marine Inspection, U. S. Coast Guard. '

U. ■- GOVERNMENT MINTING OFFICE

lft- 34270-3

Figure 13.2. Typical ship's station bill.

266

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

station assignments remain the same. Thus, sta-
tion bill assignments are not made by name, but
by locator number. As a crewman signs aboard
a ship, he is given a number; his emergency duties
and station are then the ones that are listed on
the station bill for that number. Some steamship
lines call the locator number the articles number.
At least one line refers to it as bunk number,
feeling perhaps that a crewman might forget his
articles number but would remember his bunk
number. Whatever it may be called, this number
identifies the duties and station of each officer
and crewman in emergency situations.

Emergency Stations and Duties

Thus the particular station to which an officer
or crew member reports and the duties he is ex-
pected to perform depend on both his locator
number and the type of emergency that must be
dealt with. The loud ringing of general alarm
bells and the sounding of the whistle indicate
whether he is to report to his fire and emergency
station or his abandon ship station.

The emergency duties assigned to a particular
crewman should, whenever possible, be similar
to the normal work activity of that person. For
instance, stewards department personnel should
be assigned to assist passengers; deck department
personnel should be assigned to run out hose and
lifeboats; and the engineering department should
be assigned to run out hoses in the machinery
space, with which they are most familiar.

Signals

Fire and Emergency Stations. The fire signal is
a continuous blast of the ship's whistle for not less
than 10 seconds supplemented by the continuous
ringing of the general alarm bells for not less
than 10 seconds (Fig. 13.3). The NFPA recom-
mends that a vessel in port and not under way

ADDITIONAL SIGNAL
IN PORT

and

Continuous Ringing
of Ceneral Alarm for
at Least 10 Seconds

■po- iy

Figure 13.3. Ship's fire signal.

sound five prolonged blasts on the whistle or siren
to alert other ships and shore authorities that
there is fire aboard. However, the proper fire sig-
nal is prescribed by the authorities of each port.
When fire is discovered aboard a ship that is in
port, it is imperative that the local fire depart-
ment be summoned. Ship-to-shore radio, tele-
phone or a pierside fire alarm box may be used for
this purpose.

Ship's officers should be aware of the fire alarm
procedures at each of the ports visited by their
ship. When a ship is approaching port with fire
aboard, the port's fire department and the U.S.
Coast Guard should be notified by radio of that
fact as contained in 33 CFR 124.16. The Coast
Guard might want to give the ship special moor-
ing instructions and the fire department can have
specialized firefighting equipment ready, if
necessary.

Dismissal from fire and emergency stations is
signaled by the sounding of the general alarm
three times supplemented by three short blasts on
the whistle.

Boat Stations and Abandon Ship. The fire and
emergency signal is sounded by the officer of the
deck when fire is discovered. However, the sound-
ing of the boat stations and abandon ship signal
should be authorized only by the master (or by
his replacement in case of illness or injury). The
abandon ship signal is more than six short blasts
and one long blast on the ship's whistle and on
the general alarm bell. The master designates
which boats are to be used. His instructions are
communicated to officers and crew either by
loudspeaker or by passing the word, or both.

The sounding of the boat stations and abandon
ship signal does not authorize the lowering of
boats. On the sounding of the alarm, those as-
signed to boat stations (by the station bill) must
move quickly to those stations and await further
instructions. One short blast on the whistle is the
signal to lower away. Two short blasts on the
whistle is the signal to stop lowering the boats.
Dismissal from boat stations is signaled by three
short blasts on the whistle. The U.S. Coast Guard
Manual for Lifeboatmen, Able Seamen and
Qualified Members of the Engine Department
(CGI 75) contains detailed information on aban-
don ship procedures and lifeboat operation.

A decision to abandon ship because of fire
should not be made hastily, even when the fire
is severe. Vigorous and intelligent firefighting,
maneuvering of the ship to take advantage of the
wind until help arrives and the use of CO2 flood-
ing systems are alternatives to abandon ship pro-
cedures. In its Fire Fighting Manual for Tanker-

Organization & Training of Personnel for Emergencies

267

men (CG329), the U.S. Coast Guard cautions
against recklessly abandoning a burning vessel.
The manual points out that more lives have been
lost by launching the boats too soon and by crew-
men going over the side in panic than by remain-
ing on board. It continues with the advice to fight
the fire always, even if only as a rear guard action
to increase the chances of survival.

Man Overboard. The man overboard signal is
a hail and shout by the person who saw the vic-
tim fall: "Man overboard, port (or starboard)
side!" The word should be quickly passed to the
bridge. The person who witnessed the fall should
try to keep the victim in sight while heaving life
rings overboard in his general direction. Standard
procedures for recovering a person overboard are
described in the Merchant Marine Officers' Hand-
book, Knight's Modern Seamanship and Manual
for Lifeboatmen, Able Seamen and Qualified
Members of the Engine Department (CGI 75).

EMERGENCY SQUAD

An emergency squad is a group of crewmen se-
lected by the master for their special training to
deal with emergencies. The chief mate (assisted
by the boatswain) is normally in command of the
emergency squad. The rest of the squad should
be made up of crewmen trained in the use of fire,
emergency and rescue equipment. Candidates for
the emergency squad would be crew members
who are highly knowledgeable in emergency pro-
cedures and have earned certificates for their
proficiency.

A mustering location for the emergency squad
should be included in the station bill. The mus-
tering location could be on either wing of the
bridge, at a designated position on the main deck
or wherever the master feels would be best. How-
ever, the chosen location should be one that the
members of the squad can reach promptly — i.e.,
in less than 2 minutes. On larger vessels with
more than one emergency squad, there should
be a mustering location for each squad.

Mustering Signals

A special signal should be designated by the
master to assemble the emergency squad. This
signal should be one that will not be confused with
the general alarm and navigational signals. Coded
signals may be used to summon the emergency
squad without alarming passengers. Coded sig-
nals also permit the use of a terminal number to
designate one of several possible mustering loca-
tions. For instance, suppose the mustering signal
is the sounding of the numbers 2-2-2. Then a

fourth number, from 1-5, could indicate in which
of five possible locations the emergency squad is
to muster. (The use of more than five location
numbers is not recommended, because of the in-
creased possibility of a miscount.) Of course it is
important that all squad members know the loca-
tions indicated by the terminal number. These
should be posted with the station bill, in the areas
where squad members usually work and on cards
attached to their berths.

Signals of all sorts can be misinterpreted, and
today most ships have loudspeaker systems. The
use of these systems to muster the emergency
squad avoids the possibility of misinterpreted
signals. Even when the squad is summoned ver-
bally, a code can be used to avoid alarming pas-
sengers. All that is required is a simple, easily
recognized (and somewhat bland) name for the
emergency squad, such as the "ready team" or
"squad fire." Then an announcement like "The
ready team will assemble on the port side of hatch
number 3" would mean that the emergency squad
should report promptly to that location with their
equipment.

Training

An emergency squad is a team. A team is a group
of people brought together to accomplish a com-
mon goal. The word team brings to mind the
words coordination, cooperation and training.
Training is absolutely essential, since without it
there can be little coordination or cooperation.
Training consists basically of two parts, which
must come in the following order:

1. A teaching-learning process, in which the
necessary knowledge is communicated to
the trainee

2. Practice and demonstration of the neces-
sary skills, using the proper equipment.

As an example, fire drills are practice and dem-
onstration sessions. They must come after crew-
men have learned what to do; otherwise, they can
serve no purpose except to reinforce bad habits.

Under an able and understanding leader,
proper training will gradually produce coordi-
nation and cooperation among members of the
emergency squad. After several practice sessions
they will indeed be operating as a team.

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the mas-
ter is responsible for all ship's functions, including
those he assigns to subordinates. Thus, although
the master assigns the training of the emergency
squad (and the rest of the crew, for that matter)
to his chief mate, he should review and approve
the plans for proposed lessons and drills. These

268

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

sessions are made more meaningful when the
master personally observes them and then dis-
cusses them with the persons in charge.

The members of the emergency squad should
attend periodic instructional sessions dealing with
the variety of emergencies that could occur aboard
ship. At each session, a problem could be pre-
sented, solutions discussed until a satisfactory
one is found and the necessary tools and equip-
ment handled for familiarity. Then the regularly
scheduled fire drills would be demonstrations of
efficiency rather than training sessions.

CREW FIREFIGHTING TRAINING

The emergency squad may be called upon to deal
with many emergencies, such as collision, man
overboard and a lost or damaged rudder; but
when the fire signal is sounded, all hands are in-
volved. The station bill lists an assigned task and
station for each member of the crew. Therefore,
all crew members should receive some training
in firefighting.

All crewmen should receive instruction in how
to transmit a fire alarm (Fig. 13.4). The type of
alarm equipment carried and its locations will
vary from ship to ship and may not be familiar
to new members of the crew. The ship's interior
phone system, its use for reporting fires and plans
for its use to maintain communications during
emergencies should be explained. Ships in port
are usually in the greatest danger of fire, for a

number of reasons (see Chapter 1 and 2). For
the ships safety, every crew member must know
how to summon land-based fire departments when
in port. Since many crew members may be ashore,
manpower is at its lowest and there may be no
power available for the ship's pumps.

Everyone aboard should know how and when
to use each type of fire extinguisher. Crewmen
who are assigned to hoselines or to activate fixed
firefighting systems require additional training.
For example, a crewman assigned to a fire sta-
tion should know how to couple hose, attach and
operate a nozzle with spray and solid streams and
use fog applicators.

The Coast Guard recently expanded its licens-
ing and certification examinations to include more
questions on firefighting and emergency equip-
ment. Furthermore, the witnessing of fire drills
conducted by the crew and the testing of firefight-
ing equipment are vital parts of the vessel inspec-
tion procedure. Therefore, Coast Guard marine
inspectors will require that crew members dem-
onstrate their knowledge of the proper operation
of the firefighting systems installed on their ship
(Fig. 13.5). These are additional reasons for en-
suring that every crewman is fully trained in fire-
fighting procedures, as far as they affect his as-
signed duties.

A master can consider himself fortunate if his
crew includes hands who have received formal
hands-on firefighting training. However, regard-
less of the background of the crew, shipboard

Deck Officer's Quarters (Tanker)

Figure 13.4. Crewmen must know how to (A) operate the ship's manual fire alarm system, (B) report a fire via the ship's
telephone and (C) summon the land-based fire department when the ship is in port.

Organization & Training of Personnel for Emergencies

269

Figure 13.5. Knowledge of a firefighting system includes
how to operate it, how it works, where it is used and when
to use it.

training is necessary for both the emergency
squad and the crew as a whole. Since the chief
mate is usually in charge of the crew member
assigned to handle an emergency situation, he is
usually the training leader or instructor. How-
ever, when someone with experience in firefight-
ing or teaching is available, that person might be
assigned to direct firefighting instructional ses-
sions. Then the chief mate and the instructor
should together draw up lesson plans for the in-
structional sessions and prefire plans for com-
bating fires in the various parts of the ship.

The Four-Step Instructional Method

There are, of course, a number of ways to fa-
miliarize students with firefighting equipment
and teach the required skills. The four-step
method outlined below has been used success-
fully on a number of ships. The instructor works
through all four steps whenever a new topic is
discussed or a new piece of equipment is operated.
The key points are the basic steps in an opera-
tion. A half dozen or so key points, in the proper
order, may have to be learned for the operation
to be successful. Failure to perform one step
properly might ruin the operation.

Step 1: Preparation. Find out how much the
crew member (trainee) knows about the subject
or the equipment under discussion. Arouse his
interest. Encourage discussion.

Step 2: Presentation. Explain, illustrate and
demonstrate the operation. Use the most effec-
tive types of instructional materials to discuss
each part of the operation. Emphasize and illus-
trate the key points.

Step 3: Confirmation. Have the crew member
actually handle the tool or equipment. Have him
explain its operation. Make sure he repeats the
key points.

Step 4: Demonstration. Have the crew member
demonstrate what he has learned. He should use
the tool, operate the equipment or (if the lesson
is not concerned with manual operation) describe
it aloud or in writing. The training session is not
over until the crew member has demonstrated that
he has learned what the lesson was supposed to
teach (Fig. 13.6).

In teaching or in monitoring a crew member's
work, the instructor must correct errors as they
occur. This criticism must not be of a personal
nature; there should be no "bawling out." Criti-
cism should be directed at the work, not at the
worker.

Guidelines for Course Planning

Even the most experienced teacher should pre-
pare carefully for each lesson. The amount of
preparation will depend on the subject matter
and the type of lesson. However, the preparation
should include the following:

1. The instructor acquires a list of the crew
members who are to attend the session, by
name and rating. He must have assurance
that these crew members will not be called
away for routine chores during the training
session. He should set up the training ses-
sion to last no more than 1 hour; training
sessions become boring after an hour, and
crew members end up learning little.

2. The instructor lists the information to be
presented and picks out the key points.
(Safety precautions are always key points.)

3. The instructor assembles everything he
will need for the session. He selects the
training area, perhaps on deck or in a
cabin; if the lesson involves a particular
space on the ship, he might have the ses-
sion there. (If he wishes to use the engine
room, he should first secure the permission
of the chief engineer. Chief engineers, as
a rule, do not welcome basket parties or
conventions within their domain.) He then
assembles the tools or equipment to be dis-
cussed at the session, a blackboard and
other appropriate teaching aids. Finally,
he ensures that pencils and notebooks will
be available to all crew members attending
the session.

4. Prior to the actual training session the in-
structor reviews the material he intends to
present.

270

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

PREPARE

THE

CREWMEN

DEMONSTRATE.

• Key Points

• Safety

Figure 13.6. The four steps in the suggested instructional technique. The instructor performs the first two; seamen perform
the last two under the direction of the instructor.

Sample Lesson

(Oxygen Breathing Apparatus)

The following sample lesson illustrates the four-
step instructional method and the pre-session
preparation required of the instructor. Although
the lesson deals specifically with breathing appa-
ratus, the applicability of the method to other
topics should be obvious. Prior to the session, the
instructor assembles the following materials:

• One oxygen breathing apparatus, complete
with canister and carrying case

• One lifeline

• Copies (one for each crew member) of a
diagram of the operating cycle, showing how
exhaled breath reaches the chemicals and
produces oxygen

• At least one copy of this book. (Chapter 15
contains the information that the instructor
will discuss.)

Step 1: Preparation. The instructor tells the
crew members that he intends to teach the safe

operation of the oxygen breathing apparatus. (For
simplicity, in this lesson the apparatus will be
referred to as the OB A.) He spells out the per-
formance objectives of the lesson, and how he in-
tends to measure them.

The instructor then asks whether any of the
students have any knowledge of the OBA, what
it is, what its purpose is and where it might be
used. He encourages discussion by asking if any-
one has had experience with the OBA in school,
aboard this ship or on a previous ship. Through-
out, he tries to arouse interest and get the crew
members talking.

Step 2: Presentation. The instructor shows the
OBA to the crew members, describes its construc-
tion and explains its operation. He uses a diagram
to show the airflow through the device, and dons
the OBA while explaining the procedure. He
notes that a copy of the complete operating in-
structions is located on the inside cover of the
carrying case, then emphasizes the key points:

Organization & Training of Personnel for Emergencies

111

1. The OB A must be donned properly. The
fitting of the facepiece is critical — neither
smoke nor gases can be permitted to enter.

2. A lifeline must always be attached to any-
one entering a smoke-filled or oxygen-
deficient compartment.

3. A canister must be inserted into the mask
after its protective cap is removed.

4. The timer must be set and when its alarm
sounds the crew member must leave the
contaminated atmosphere.

5. The used canister must be removed and
disposed of properly. A canister is good
for one use only.

6. The OBA must never be used in a com-
partment that may contain flammable or
combustible gas.

Step 3: Confirmation. Each crew member is
allowed to examine the OBA and canister. Each
is asked to repeat the key points. The instructor
encourages seamen to ask questions and take part
in the discussion of the device.

tv~~"rr~

? x> ^ iyV_

^fM$u^

3P^

" * — nr w ■ Birll

1

9

f^trf

Figure 13.7. Instruction and practice in the use of breath-
ing apparatus help develop confidence in the equipment.

Step 4: Demonstration. Each crew member is
required to don the OBA, starting with removal of
the device from its container. He then performs
each of the steps recommended by the manufac-
turer of the OBA. The instructor corrects any
errors as they are made (Fig. 13.7).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Faria LE: Protective Breathing Apparatus. Bowie,
Md, Robert J. Brady Co., 1975

Fire Department, City of New York. Training Bul-
letins.

Noel JV, Capt. USN: Knight's Modern Seamanship.
13th ed. Princeton, Van Nostrand, 1960

National Fire Protection Association. National Fire
Codes. Standard No. 311: Ship Fire Signal. Bos-
ton, NFP A, 1977

Turpin EA, Mac Ewen WA: Merchant Marine Offi-
cers' Handbook. Cambridge, Md, Cornell Mari-
time Press, 1965

United States Coast Guard. Fire Fighting Manual
For Tank Vessels. CG-329. Washington, DC,
GPO, 1974

United States Coast Guard. Manual For Lifeboat-
men, Able Seamen and Qualified Members of the
Engine Department. CG-175. Washington, DC,
GPO, 1973

United States Coast Guard. Manual For the Safe
Handling of Flammable and Combustible Liquids
and Other Hazardous Products. CG-174. Washing-
ton, DC, GPO, 1976

United States Coast Guard. Proceedings of the Ma-
rine Safety Council. Vol. 33. 10:177, 1976

fmergencq
Medical Care

The medical emergencies that arise in firefighting
situations are not limited to burns. They may
range from simple skin scratches to life-threaten-
ing problems. The fire itself is, of course, a source
of thermal burns. Inhaling smoke from the fire
can poison the victim, but all the types of injuries
normally associated with any accident situation
can occur during firefighting, owing to the re-
stricted work space, the rolling of the vessel, poor
footing in water-soaked compartments and poor
visibility due to smoke. In addition, smoke may
cause respiratory arrest, and firefighters under
strain may have heart attacks. Both require im-
mediate action on the part of the rescuer. Even
drowning in water-filled compartments is a pos-
sibility.

The rescuer must protect the patient from ad-
ditional harm, correct life-threatening conditions,
treat minor injuries and keep the patient stable
until medical help can be reached. The rescuer's
role includes :

• Removing the patient (victim) from any
situation threatening his life or the lives of
rescuers

• Correcting life-threatening problems and
immobilizing injured parts before transport-
ing the patient

• Transporting the patient in a way that mini-
mizes further damage to injured parts

• Administering essential life support while
the patient is being transported

• Observing and protecting the patient until a
medical staff can take over

• Administering care as indicated or in-
structed.

• The material in this chapter has been adapted from
Grant H, Murray R: Emergency Care. 2d ed. Bowie,
Md, Robert J. Brady Co, 1978.

United States Coast Guard regulations ensure
the presence of qualified rescuers aboard each ves-
sel. The Coast Guard requires that every appli-
cant for an original license as deck or engine
officer aboard a U.S. merchant vessel possess a
first aid certificate issued by the U.S. Public
Health Service or a certificate of satisfactory com-
pletion of the American National Red Cross
course in standard first aid and personal safety.
Further, the applicant must have a currently valid
card certifying that he has satisfactorily completed
a course in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
These cards are issued by the American National
Red Cross and the American Heart Association.

TREATMENT OF SHIPBOARD INJURIES

The officer on watch should administer first aid
in the case of a life-threatening injury aboard
ship. Otherwise, this officer should send the
injured person to the ship's medical officer for
treatment. The officer on watch should deter-
mine as nearly as possible the cause of the acci-
dent or the reason for the injury. He should enter
the particulars in the watch log, along with the
names of any witnesses. Additionally, an entry
must be made in the ship's records of every injury
reported to him, the patient's signs and symptoms,
and the treatment administered.

Most steamship companies provide their ships
with forms for reporting accidents that result in
injuries to crew members. These forms must be
made out by the officer investigating the accident.
If an injury results in loss of life or in an incapaci-
tation for more than 72 hours, the master must
notify the nearest Marine Inspection Office of the
U.S. Coast Guard. This notice must be followed
by a report in writing and in person to the officer
in charge of marine inspection at the port in

273

274

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

which the casualty occurred or the port of first
arrival.

Every shipboard injury should be investigated,
at least with respect to its cause and possible cor-
rective actions. The investigating officer should
take statements from witnesses as part of this in-
vestigation. The master and the ship owner should
ensure that any corrective action indicated by the
investigation be taken promptly.

Emergency Care Supplies

First aid kits and emergency care supplies* should
be carried on every vessel at all times. The ship's
medicine chest should include at least the follow-
ing items:

1. Splints for Immobilizing Fractures, i.e.,
padded boards of 4-ply wood, 7.6 cm
(3 in.) wide, in lengths of 38, 91.6 and
137.2 cm (15, 36 and 54 in.), cardboard,
plastic, wire-ladder, canvas-slotted, lace-
on and inflatable splints.

a. Triangular bandages for fractures of the
shoulder and upper arm

b. Short and long spine boards and acces-
sories for safe removal of victims and
immobilization of spinal injuries

2. Wound dressings

a. Sterile gauze pads in conventional sizes
for covering wounds

b. Soft roller bandages 15.2 cm (6 in.)
wide and 4.57 m (5 yd) long, for the
application of large dressings, for secur-
ing pressure dressings to control hem-
orrhage, and for securing traction
splints or coaptation splints (to join the
ends of broken bones)

c. Sterile nonporous dressings for closing
sucking wounds of the chest (either
plastic wrap or aluminum foil)

d. Universal dressings, approximately
25.4 X 91.4 cm (10 X 36 in.), folded
to 25.4 X 22.9 cm (10 X 9 in.), for
covering large wounds including burns,
and for compression, padding of splints,
or application as a cervical collar

e. Adhesive tape in widths of 2.5, 5.1 and
7.6 cm (1,2 and 3 in.)

f . Large safety pins

g. Bandage shears

* For additional information regarding emergency care
supplies, see Chapter 6 of "The Ships Medicine Chest
and Medical Aid at Sea," HEW (H.S.A.) 78-20-24, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

3. Sterile saline (for burns)

4. Supplies for acute poisoning:

a. Activated charcoal

b. Syrup of ipecac

5. Potable water for eye and skin irrigation

6. Oropharyngeal airways

7. Bag-mask resuscitators

8. Blood pressure monitoring apparatus.

DETERMINING THE EXTENT OF \

INJURY OR ILLNESS

Before the rescuer can begin emergency care, he
must rapidly but effectively examine the patient
to determine the seriousness of the illness or the
extent of the patient's injuries. Many poorly
trained attendants base emergency care only on
the obvious injuries. This approach can be quite
dangerous for the patient: an obvious injury may
be relatively minor and pose no real threat to life,
while a hidden and undetected injury may result
in the patient's death.

The information available to the rescuer con-
sists of 1) what the patient tells him; 2) what the
crew and other witnesses tell him; 3) what he is
able to observe about the patient's obvious in-
juries; and 4) what he is able to observe about
how the injury was produced. Information from
these sources is combined with a thorough check
of the patient. The rescuer then may judge the
extent of the injuries and prepare to administer
the emergency care.

Classifying Injuries

Although accidents occur in many ways and for
many reasons, each type of accident commonly
produces certain "standard" injuries. For ex-
ample, a firearms accident is generally expected
to produce a soft-tissue injury, while broken bones
usually result from falls. One seldom thinks of a
fire as producing anything but a burn, and the
only injury usually connected with poisoning is
damage to internal organs. These are, however,
only the obvious injuries. They often result from
the accident, but they may not be the only types
of injuries to have occurred.

Many secondary injuries, partially or com-
pletely concealed, may result from any accident
if it is serious enough. For the rescuer to recog-
nize all the patient's problems, he must have a
complete understanding of the types of injuries,
both obvious and hidden, that may be produced
in an accident. Table 14.1 lists these injuries. The
rescuer must realize that several injuries may be
produced in any accident. He must look to the

Emergency Medical Care

275

Table 14.1. Types of Accidents and the Injuries
They Produce

Table 14.2. Interpretation of Respiratory Observations

. . „ „.„„,„,,.«. THE EXPECTED INJURY OTHER POSSIBLE INJURIES

TYPES OF ACCIDENTS (USUALLY OBVIOUS) (NOT NECESSARILY OBVIOUS)

FALLS

2,3

4

FIRES. EXPLOSIONS

1

2.3.4

SWIMMING AND BOATING

4 (DROWNING)

1.2.3

FIREARMS

1

2.4

POISONING BY SOLIDS,
LIQUIDS. GASES

4

1

MACHINERY AND
MOVING OBJECTS

1,2,3,4

ELECTRIC SHOCK

4 (CARDIAC
ARREST)

1.2,3

1 SOFT riSSUf INJUBIti 2 EBACTUBES 3 DISlOCATIONS
4 INTERNA! INJURIES

Diagnostic Sign

Observation

Indication

Respiration

None

Respiratory arrest

Deep, gasping, labored

Airway obstruction,
heart failure

Bright red, frothy
blood with each exha-
lation

Lung damage

per minute. Pulse readings are generally taken at
the wrist. However, this may be difficult in an
emergency situation where there is a great deal
of movement, or where shock has resulted in an
extremely weak pulse.

mechanism of injury for clues as to the extent of
physical damage. Thus, for example, a rescuer
must never assume burns to be the only firefight-
ing injury.

Diagnostic Signs and Their Significance

Diagnostic signs are a set of indicators that the
rescuer should use in evaluating the patient's con-
dition. With training and practice crewmen can
use these signs to determine how best to provide
emergency care. The basic diagnostic signs are

• Respiration

• Pulse

• Blood pressure

• Skin temperature

• Skin color

• Pupils of the eyes

• State of consciousness

• Ability to move

• Reaction to pain.

Each sign or combination of signs indicates some-
thing about the patient and what should be done
to help him. The signs can be observed quickly,
with minimal equipment.

Respiration. The normal adult breathing rate is
about 12 to 15 breaths per minute. Both the rate
and the depth of breathing are important. To de-
termine the patient's breathing rate and depth,
look, listen and feel for air exchange. Look for
movement of the chest, and listen and feel for
air exchange at the mouth and nose. Table 14.2
lists several respiration observations and the con-
ditions they indicate.

Pulse. The pulse is an indication of heart action.
The normal pulse rate in adults is 60 to 80 beats

Table 14.3. Pulse Observations and Indications

_,..„„„_, ._..,. — ,

Diagnostic Sign

Observation

Indication

Pulse

Absent

Cardi.JC arrest, death

Rapid, bounding

Fright, hypertension

Rapid, weak

Shock

To determine the pulse rate, place the fingers
(not the thumb) over the carotoid artery in the
neck or the femoral artery in the groin. Both these
arteries are quite large, and both lie close to the
surface. If no pulse can be detected at these
points, listen to the patient's heart by placing your
ear directly on the patient's chest or by using a
stethoscope. Table 14.3 lists the major pulse ob-
servations and indications.

Blood Pressure. Blood pressure is the pressure
that circulating blood exerts against the walls of
the arteries. There are actually two different blood
pressures, systolic and diastolic. Systolic pressure
is the pressure exerted while the heart is con-
tracted (when blood is being pumped through the
arteries). Diastolic pressure is the pressure ex-
erted while the heart is relaxed (when blood is
returning to the heart). Both blood pressures are
measured by a device called a sphygmomanom-
eter, which is used in conjunction with a stetho-
scope.

The rescuer should take blood pressure read-
ings as soon as he can after checking for and
correcting any life-threatening emergencies. He
should record the pressures and the time when
they are first taken. If at all possible, he should
continue taking blood pressure readings until he

276

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

turns the patient over to the medical officer,
physician or onshore rescue squad. Such a record
is of help to the physician in determining the
proper treatment.

Blood pressures are read in millimeters of mer-
cury (mm Hg). Although blood pressure levels
vary with age and sex, there is a useful rule of
thumb: Normal systolic pressure for men is 100
plus the age of the patient; their normal diastolic
pressure is 65 to 90. For women, both pressures
are usually 8 to 10 mm lower than those of the
man.

To measure blood pressure, secure the cuff of
the sphygmomanometer around either arm of the
patient, just above the elbow. Follow the direc-
tions on the cuff for the proper placement of the
pressure diaphragm over the artery. Find the
brachial artery by palpating the arm in front of
the elbow.

Close off the valve on the bulb. Inflate the cuff
with the rubber bulb until the needle of the dial
stops moving with the pulse. (This is usually a
point between 150 and 200 on the dial.)

Place the stethoscope diaphragm over the
artery in front of the elbow, and slowly release air
from the bulb by opening the valve. The point on
the dial at which the first sounds of a pulse are
heard through the stethoscope is the systolic pres-
sure.

Continue to release air from the bulb slowly,
while listening through the stethoscope. The point
on the dial at which the pulse sound begins to
fade and disappear is the diastolic pressure. Re-
cord the pressures by writing the systolic pressure
over the diastolic pressure, as in 140/70 (Table
14.4).

Table 14.4. Blood Pressure Observation and Indication

Table 14.5. Skin Temperature Observations
and Indications

Diagnostic Sign
Blood Pressure

Observation

/larked drop

Indication

Shock

Skin Temperature. Because the skin regulates
the body temperature, changes in skin tempera-
ture indicate changes occurring within the body.
To determine the patient's skin temperature,
feel his skin surface at several locations with your
hand. Use the back of your hand, since it is more
sensitive to temperature changes than the rough-
ened fingers (Table 14.5).

Skin Color. Skin color is determined mainly by
the blood circulating in blood vessels just below
the skin. Thus, changes in color reflect an in-
crease or decrease in the blood flow, or changes

Diagnostic Sign

Skin Temperature

Observation

Hot, dry

Cool, clammy
Cold, moist
Cool, dry

Indication

Excessive body heat
(as in heat stroke),
high fever

<

Shock

Body is losing heat

Exposure to cold

in the blood chemistry. However, darkly pig-
mented skin will obscure color changes.

Carefully examine the patient's face and hands
for areas of abnormal skin color. Note whether
the skin appears red, white or blue (Table 14.6).

Table 14.6. Skin Color Observations and Indications

Diagnostic Sign

Observation

Red skin

Indication

Skin Color

White skin

Blue skin

High blood pressure,
carbon monoxide poi-
soning, heart attack

Shock, heart attack,
fright

Asphyxia, anoxia,
heart attack, poisoning

Pupils of the Eyes. The pupils of the eyes are
good indicators of the condition of the heart and
central nervous system. When the body is in a
normal state, the pupils are the same size, and
they are responsive to light. Changes and varia-
tions in the size of one or both pupils are impor-
tant signs for the rescuer, especially in determin-
ing whether or not the patient is in cardiac arrest.
In examining the patient's pupils, the rescuer
should always consider the possibility that the
patient wears contact lenses or has a glass eye.

Examine the pupils by gently sliding back the
upper lids. Note whether the pupils are dilated
(wide) or constricted (narrow). Examine both
pupils, since some medical problems cause the
pupils to be unequal in size. If the pupils are
dilated, check their response to stimuli by flashing
a light across them. In death, the pupils will not
respond to light (Table 14.7).

Level of Consciousness. The normal, healthy
person is alert, oriented, and able to respond to
vocal and physical stimuli. A patient who is alert
at first and then becomes unconscious may have
suffered damage to the brain.

Carefully note the patient's level of conscious-
ness when you first see him. Record any changes

Emergency Medical Care

277

Table 14.7. Pupil Observations and Indications

Diagnostic Sign

Observation

Indication

Pupils of the Eyes

Dilated

Unconsciousness,
cardiac arrest

Constricted

Disorder affecting the
central nervous
system, drug use

Unequal

Head injury, stroke

Table 14.8.

Levels of Consciousness

Diagnostic Sign

Observation

Indication

State of Consciousness

Brief unconsciousness

Simple fainting

Confusion

Alcohol use, mental
condition, slight blow
to the head

Stupor

Severe blow to the
head

Deep coma

Severe brain damage,
poisoning

Table 14.9. Paralysis Observations and Indications

Diagnostic Sign

Observation

Indication

Paralysis or Loss of
Sensation

Lower extremities

Injury to spinal cord
in the lower back

Upper extremities

Injury to spinal cord
in the neck

Limited use of extrem-
ities

Pressure on spinal cord

Paralysis limited to
one side

Stroke, head injury
with brain damage

in consciousness, and relay this information to
the physician (Table 14.8).

Paralysis or Loss of Sensation. When a con-
scious patient is unable to move his limbs volun-
tarily, or if they do not move when stimulated,
the patient is said to be paralyzed. Paralysis may
be caused by certain medical disorders (such as
stroke) or by injury to the spinal cord. A patient
suffering from paralysis does not feel or respond
to pain in the affected parts. With some injuries
paralysis is not complete, and the patient may
have limited use of his extremities. In these cases,
the limbs feel numb or there is a tingling sensa-
tion. It is important for the rescuer to remember
that paralysis and loss of feeling are signs of prob-
able injury to the spinal cord (Table 14.9). The
patient should not be moved until he is rigidly
immobilized, since to do so might worsen the
spinal injury.

To determine if there is any paralysis, first ask
the patient whether he has any feeling in his arms

or legs; then ask him to move them. Do not move
his limbs for him; see if he can do it by himself.

Reaction to Pain. Pain is a normal reaction to
injury and a good indication of the location of
an injury. However, certain injuries and medical
disorders may interrupt this normal reaction. Ask
the patient where he feels pain or discomfort.
This information, along with observation of the
patient and knowledge of the mechanism of in-
jury, can indicate the type of injury (Table 14.10).

Table 14.10. Reaction to Pain: Observations
and Indications

Diagnostic Sign

Observation

Indication

Reaction to Pain

General pain present at
injury sites

Injuries to the body,
but probably no dam-
age to the spinal cord

Local pain in the ex-
tremities

Fracture, occluded ar-
tery to extremity

No pain, but obvious
signs of injury

Spinal cord damage,
hysteria, violent shock,
excessive drug or alco-
hol use

EVALUATING THE ACCIDENT VICTIM

The rescuer must be able to 1) rapidly evaluate
the seriousness of obvious injuries, and 2) analyze
all other information to determine whether or not
the patient has other, less obvious injuries. Here
again, the rescuer must understand accidents and
the injuries they can produce, the mechanisms of
injury and the diagnostic signs and their signifi-
cance.

One other tool is available to the rescuer — an
actual survey of the patient. By combining the
results of this survey with the other available in-
formation, the rescuer can analyze the patient's
total condition accurately. The survey is divided
into two parts. The primary survey is a search
for immediate life-threatening problems. The
secondary survey is an evaluation of other in-
juries, which do not pose a threat to life.

The Primary Survey

While several conditions can be considered life-
threatening, two require immediate attention:
respiratory arrest and severe bleeding. The need
for immediate action in both these cases is ob-
vious. Respiratory arrest sets off a vicious chain
of events leading to cardiac arrest and then to

278

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

death. Severe and uncontrolled loss of blood leads
to an irreversible state of shock and again to
death. In both instances, death will occur in a
very few minutes if no attempt is made to help
the patient. Thus the rescuer should begin the
primary survey as soon as he reaches the patient.
No diagnostic equipment is required for the sur-
vey; if one or more of the life- threatening condi-
tions are found, the rescuer can start basic life-
saving measures without delay.

Throughout the primary survey, the rescuer
should be especially careful not to move the pa-
tient around any more than is absolutely neces-
sary to support life. Unnecessary movement or
rough handling might worsen undetected frac-
tures or spinal injuries.

Check for Adequate Breathing. First, establish
an open airway. Then look for the chest move-
ments associated with the breathing process. At
the same time, listen and feel for the exchange of
air at the patient's mouth and nose.

If there are no signs of breathing, begin arti-
ficial ventilation immediately by the mouth-to-
mouth or mouth-to-nose method. Do not leave
the patient to get a resuscitator or other device.
Every second is critical to the patient. If the pa-
tient does not start to breathe after three to five
ventilations, go immediately to the next step in
the primary survey.

Check for a Pulse. Check for heart action by
feeling for the cartoid pulse in the patient's neck.
The cartoid artery is a large vessel that lies close
to the surface; it is easy to find in an emergency
situation. If a pulse is present, continue artificial
ventilation until the patient starts to breathe again.

If there is no pulse, immediately start cardio-
pulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Once again, do
not hesitate; the patient's condition is very criti-
cal. Every second that the brain is without oxy-
genated blood, the chances for recovery decrease
sharply.

At this point, the rescuer may decide to trans-
fer the patient to ship's hospital, owing to his grave
condition. CPR should be continued without in-
terruption while the patient is being transported.
However, if resuscitation efforts are immediately
successful, the rescuer can go on to the next step
in the primary survey.

Check for Severe Bleeding. Examine bleeding
injuries carefully to determine whether they are
actually as severe as they may appear. Many
bleeding wounds that seem serious may be trivial.
Control serious bleeding by direct pressure or by
finger pressure on a pressure point. Use a tourni-

quet only as a last resort, when all other attempts
to control the bleeding have failed.

Check for Other Obvious Injuries. At this point,
life-support measures should have stabilized the
patient; in most cases, the emergency will be over.
Of course, there may still be problems that could
later pose a threat to life, but they will not be as
pressing as respiratory arrest and severe bleeding.
Attention should now be directed to the other
obvious injuries, in the order of their importance.
Chest or abdominal wounds should be sealed,
lesser bleeding wounds dressed, open fractures
immobilized, and burns covered. The watchword
is still "careful handling," so that unseen injuries
are not worsened. When the obvious injuries are
treated, the secondary survey begins.

The Secondary Survey

The purpose of the secondary survey is to find
the additional unseen injuries that can often be
worsened by mishandling. Examples are the
closed fracture that is converted to an open frac-
ture when the patient is moved to a litter, and the
spinal injury that causes damage to the spinal
cord when the patient is helped to his feet. Ac-
tually, the secondary survey is a head-to-toe ex-
amination during which the rescuer checks very
carefully for specific injuries. It is conducted in
the following manner.

Check for Scalp Lacerations and Contusions.

Look for blood in the hair. If blood is present,
separate the hair strands gently to determine the
extent of the bleeding. Be very careful not to
move the head while checking for scalp wounds,
in case the neck has been injured. To check the
part of the scalp that is hidden as the patient lies
on his back, first place your fingers behind his
neck. Then slide them upward toward the top of
his head. This action develops a little traction,
which is helpful if there is a neck injury.

Check the Skull for Depressions. Gently feel for
depressions and protruding bone fragments.
Again, be very careful not to move the patient's
head any more than absolutely necessary.

Check the Ears and Nose for Fluid and Blood.

Look in the ears and nose for blood or clear,
waterlike fluid. The presence of either or both of
these liquids indicates a possible skull fracture
and damage to the brain. Blood, of course, comes
from the lacerated brain tissue. The clear fluid
is the cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds the brain
and cushions it from shock. Blood in the nose
alone, however, may mean only that the nasal
tissue has been damaged.

Emergency Medical Care

279

Check the Neck for Fractures. Look and feel
gently for deformities or bony protrusions in the
neck. Normally the neck is symmetrical (even on
both sides). However, sharp movement from side
to side can separate the bony structures of the
spinal column in the neck. In this case, you will
notice that the head is in an abnormal position.
If so, do not continue any further with this check.
Immediately stabilize the patient's head with a
cervical collar, rolled towels or a similar restraint.
If the patient is conscious, tell him not to move
his head, even slightly. A further check will pro-
vide information as to whether or not the spinal
cord is damaged.

Check the Chest for Movement on Both Sides
and for Fractures. From a position at the head
of the patient, look to see if the chest is rising and
falling in the normal manner. If the sides are not
rising and falling together (one side may not be
rising at all), there may be rib and lung damage.
Gently feel the chest cage for broken ribs. Besides
the depressions that are felt easily, a grating feel-
ing may be caused by the movement of broken
rib ends against each other.

Check the Abdomen for Spasms and Tenderness.

Gently press against the abdomen. A "rocklike"
abdomen or spasms indicate internal bleeding or
a condition in which the contents of the internal
organs have spilled into the abdominal cavity.

Check the Pelvic Area for Fractures. Look for
swelling and discoloration, which are signs of a
closed fracture. Feel for lumps and tenderness.
Look for anything abnormal, for example the leg
twisted too far to the side. Ask the patient if he
has any intense pain in a particular area.

Check for Paralysis of the Extremities. Paralysis
is a sign of spinal-cord damage. As a general rule,
if there is no paralysis in the arms, but the legs are
paralyzed, the back is broken. Otherwise, the
spinal cord is intact. There are four ways to test
a conscious patient for spinal-cord injury.

First, ask the patient if he has any sensation
in his arms and legs. If he is able to feel the touch
of your hand on his arms and legs, he probably
does not have any spinal-cord damage. However,
if he complains of numbness or a tingling sensa-
tion in his arms and legs, you should immediately
suspect spinal-cord damage. In either case, carry
out the rest of your survey.

Next, have the patient move both feet. If he
can do so, it is a good indication that there is no
spinal-cord damage. To be sure, ask him to raise
his legs slightly, one at a time (only, of course, if
he has no leg fractures). If he cannot, you must

assume that he has suffered injury somewhere
along the spinal cord.

To locate the general area of the injury, ask
the patient to wiggle his fingers. If he can, have
him raise his arms one at a time (again, only if
no fractures are present). Then ask him to grip
your hand as though he were going to shake it.
If the patient cannot do this, his spinal cord is
probably injured in the area of the neck. Lack of
feeling and movement in the legs indicates spinal-
cord damage in the lower back.

When paralysis points to some type of spinal-
cord injury, immobilize the patient's entire body
immediately. Use a long spine board, an ortho-
pedic stretcher or some other long, rigid device.
Remember that this is a very dangerous situation;
any wrong movement might result in permanent
paralysis or death.

Naturally, an unconscious patient cannot re-
spond in the tests just described. However, you
can check the condition of the spinal cord by
pricking the skin of the hands and the soles of
the feet (or the skin of the ankles above shoes)
with a sharp object such as a pin. If there is no
cord damage, the muscles will react and the arm
or leg will jump. If the cord is damaged, there
will be no reaction. As in the case of the con-
scious patient, a lack of reaction in the arms and
hands indicates damage to the spinal cord in the
neck. A reaction in the arms but not in the legs
and feet indicates damage in the lower back.

Check the Buttocks for Fractures or Wounds.

In many accident cases the buttocks go un-
checked, even though they may have suffered
serious injury. Feel carefully for irregularities in
the body structure. Check for bleeding wounds
that might not be obvious if the patient is lying on
his back. If the check for paralysis has indicated
possible spinal-cord damage, check the buttocks
with as little movement of the body as possible.
Otherwise, you may shift the patient slightly to
allow a closer check.

TRIAGE

Triage is the sorting of accident victims accord-
ing to the severity of their injuries. The reason for
triage is simple: If patients are selected for treat-
ment at random, those with minor injuries may
be treated before those who have life-threatening
problems. Some rescuers, when confronted with
several accident victims, make the mistake of
automatically caring first for the one who screams
the loudest. However, the loud patient may have
only minor cuts, while the quiet patient may be
seriously injured or dying due to respiratory ar-

280

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

rest, internal bleeding or deep shock. Another
common error in a multiple patient situation is
treating first the injuries that appear to be the
most serious. A patient whose head is completely
covered with blood looks grotesque and seems
very seriously injured. In fact, he may have noth-
ing more than a small, superficial cut on the
scalp. On the other hand, a patient who appears
to have only a slight chest wound may really have
a punctured lung, which could cause him to bleed
to death internally.

Accident victims should be sorted into three
groups and treated according to their injuries:
I) Those with high priority injuries; 2) those with
second priority injuries, and 3) those with low
priority injuries.

High Priority Injuries

• Airway and breathing difficulties

• Cardiac arrest

• Uncontrolled bleeding

• Severe head injuries

• Open chest or abdominal wounds

• Severe medical problems, such as poisoning
or heart attacks

• Severe shock.

Second Priority Injuries

• Burns

• Major multiple fractures

• Back injuries with or without spinal-cord
damage.

Low Priority Injuries

• Minor fractures

• Other minor injuries

• Obviously mortal wounds in which death
appears reasonably certain

• Obvious death.

HEAD, NECK AND SPINE INJURIES

Serious head, neck and spine injuries can result
during shipboard firefighting operations, espe-
cially as compartments become soaked with
water. The risk of such injuries is increased if
firefighters are not wearing protective headgear.
If the vessel is rolling, firefighters may be thrown
against bulkheads, equipment and cargo; this
type of accident often causes head and neck in-
juries. In addition, one firefighter can injure an-
other by the improper use of firefighting equip-
ment. As the intensity of the fire situation in-
creases, the chance for such injuries increases
dramatically.

Signs of Skull Fracture

Many skull fractures can be diagnosed only with
X rays. However, there are several important
signs you can look for if a head injury is sus-
pected but there are no obvious wounds:

• A deformity of the skull must be considered
to be the result of a fracture until it is proved
otherwise.

• Blood or a clear, waterlike fluid in the ears
and nose is a good sign of a skull fracture.

• Discoloration of the soft tissues under the
eyes may be present.

• Unequal pupils are an important sign of
brain damage.

Evaluating a Patient for Brain Injuries

If the mechanism of an accident is sufficient to
cause a skull injury, it is probably also sufficient
to cause an injury to the brain. Several factors
must be considered in determining whether the
patient has suffered brain damage.

State of Consciousness. If the patient was un-
conscious immediately after the accident but then
regained consciousness, he probably suffered only
a brain concussion. Further damage to the brain
is indicated if the patient gradually lost con-
sciousness, or if he regained and then lost con-
sciousness again. A blood clot may be causing
pressure on the brain.

Awareness of Surroundings. Pressure on cer-
tain brain centers due to the injury may interrupt
their function, causing disorientation, amnesia,
or other similar reactions.

Condition of Pupils. Normally the pupils of the
eyes are equal in size, and they constrict when
exposed to bright light. Their unequal size or
failure to react to light indicates that the brain
is not functioning properly. If one pupil remains
large when exposed to light while the other pupil
constricts, damage to one side of the brain is in-
dicated. A small flashlight (penlight) can be used
to test the patient's pupils.

Emergency Care for Injuries
to the Skull and Brain

In the case of a suspected or known skull or brain
injury, the rescuer should proceed as follows.

• Maintain an open airway.

• Check for and stabilize associated neck in-
juries.

• Do not attempt to control drainage.

• Cover open wounds, but use little pressure.

Emergency Medical Care

281

• Do not remove impaled objects.

• Transport the patient without delay, but
very carefully, to minimize movement and
avoid bumping the head.

• Administer 100% oxygen during transpor-
tation (qualified personnel only).

The maintenance of an open airway is of pri-
mary importance for all injuries. It is doubly
important in the case of the patient with a head
injury, since this injury involves loss of the oxygen-
carrying blood where it is needed most. Since the
accident that caused the brain injury may also
have produced a neck injury, the usual method
of establishing an airway cannot be attempted.
Tilting the head back too far might cause the
death of a patient who has suffered a broken neck.
The proper method is described below.

Neck Injury

A patient who has a head injury must always be
suspected of having a neck injury as well. If the
patient is unconscious, he should be treated as
though he actually had a broken neck.

Surveying the Patient for Spinal Damage

The survey may be limited by the position in
which the patient is first found. If he is found on
his side, for example, the work of the rescuer is
uncomplicated. The rescuer can closely examine
the spine for deformity, lacerations and contu-
sions, tenderness and other physical signs of in-
jury. When the extent of the injury has been
determined, the patient can be rolled very care-
fully into the proper position for immobilization
and transportation. However, if the patient is
found lying on his back, it is impossible to see
many of the signs of injury. Moreover, it would
be very dangerous to move him just for the pur-
pose of visual examination. Instead, he should
be examined for paralysis as described earlier in
the section, under Check for Paralysis of the Ex-
tremities.

The rescuer may not find any obvious signs
of spinal-cord injury but still suspect that there
is one. If there is any question at all, the patient
should be immobilized and transported as though
he had a known spinal fracture, especially if he
is unconscious. The following signs and symptoms
are associated with spinal injuries.

Pain and Tenderness. The conscious patient
feels pain and is able to point out the injury site.
If the patient is on his side or stomach, run your
fingers gently over the area of the suspected in-
jury. When the fingers are directly over the in-
jured area, the patient usually will complain of

an increase in pain. If the patient attempts to
move the injured area, the pain may also increase
sharply. If there is no pain upon movement, there
is probably no fracture or dislocation. (Observe
this sign only if you have the opportunity to do
so. Do not ask the patient to move merely to de-
termine if there is pain. This action may worsen
the injury.) If the patient is unconscious, the res-
cuer must rely on other means of determining the
extent of the injury.

Deformity. In some cases the spine may appear
crooked and bent out of shape. Of course, this
sign usually may be observed only if the patient
is on his side or stomach. If the patient is in the
proper position, and heavy clothing does not con-
ceal the injury site, run your fingers gently up
and down the spine, feeling for bony protrusions.
Do this carefully, so that the spine is not twisted
further. Deformity is usually a very reliable sign
of spinal injury; in the unconscious patient it may
be the only reliable sign available. Remember,
however, that there may be a spinal injury with-
out obvious deformity.

Cuts and Bruises. Cuts and bruises on the face
and neck are commonly associated with spinal
fracture or dislocation. A patient who has bruises
over his shoulders, or lower back and abdomen,
may also have injuries to the spine. These signs
may be observed in both conscious and uncon-
scious patients. Again, bear in mind that there
may be a spinal injury without these signs.

Paralysis. Probably the most reliable sign of
spinal injury is paralysis of the extremities. To
determine the presence and extent of paralysis,
the rescuer should perform the tests listed under
Check for Paralysis of the Extremities, or refer
to Table 14.11.

T^lp1i11

A SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Legs

Arms

Legs

Arms

Legs

Arms

Observations

Can feel touch
Can wiggle toes
Can raise legs

Can feel touch
Can wiggle fingers
Can raise arms

Cannot feel touch
Cannot wiggle toes
Cannot raise legs

Can feel touch
Can wiggle fingers
Can raise arms

Cannot feel touch
Cannot wiggle toes
Cannot raise legs

Cannot feel touch
Cannot wiggle fingers
Cannot raise arms

Conclusions

Patient may not have a cord injury

Patient probably has an injury to the cord
below the neck.

Patient probably has an injury to the cord
in the area of the neck.

282

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Emergency Care for Injuries
to the Neck and Spine

In the case of a known or suspected neck or spine
injury, the rescuer should proceed as follows.

• Apply and maintain traction on the head.

• Restore the airway and ensure adequate
breathing.

• Control serious bleeding by direct pressure.

• Make a complete body survey.

• Immobilize the patient before moving.

• Take sufficient time.

• Administer 100% oxygen during transpor-
tation (qualified personnel only).

Apply and Maintain Traction. Regardless of
the position in which the patient is found, one
rescuer should immediately station himself at the
head, where he can apply traction. He should
grasp the patient's head with his fingers under
the chin, and exert a steady pull upward and
slightly to the rear. The upward pull helps to
keep any broken bone fragments from overriding
and severing or doing further damage to the spinal
cord. The slight backward pull helps to open and
maintain the patient's airway. The rescuer apply-
ing traction must remain in this position until the
patient is completely immobilized or until it has
been determined that he has no spinal injuries.

A cervical collar should be applied at the same
time that the head is placed in the traction posi-
tion. The collar ensures that the patient's head
does not fall forward or roll to the side if the
rescuer must remove his hands for any reason. If
a cervical collar is not available, a substitute col-
lar can be fashioned from a bath towel, a folded
multitrauma dressing or a folded blanket. When
applying a substitute collar, the rescuer should
ensure that the patient's head is not moved any
more than is absolutely necessary.

Restore the Airway and Ensure Adequate Breath-
ing. The usual method of tilting the head as far
back as possible to establish the airway may
worsen a spinal injury. Instead, when traction has
been applied, resuscitation measures can be
started if necessary. First attempts should be di-
rected toward ventilating the patient's lungs. With
one rescuer holding the patient's head in the trac-
tion position, another should try to ventilate the
patient by the mouth-to-mouth technique or with
a positive-pressure device such as a bag-mask
resuscitator. Even though the head is not tilted
in the best airway position, ventilation may be
successful.

If the airway is not opened sufficiently to allow
ventilation, do not attempt to increase the open-
ing by tilting the head further back. Instead, use
either the chin-lift method or the jaw-lift method
of creating an airway. Both methods can be per-
formed by the rescuer who is maintaining trac-
tion, and they will actually aid in the traction
efforts.

If the patient is unconscious, an oropharyngeal
airway such as the S tube can be inserted. This
will ensure a proper exchange of air and mini-
mize the problem of the relaxed tongue blocking
the throat. Great care must be taken while in-
serting the airway, to avoid undue neck move-
ment. The airway can be left in place during
transportation, and it will be useful if the patient
must be resuscitated. It should be remembered,
however, that when the patient regains conscious-
ness the airway must be removed immediately.
Left in place, it will cause the patient to gag and
vomit, creating additional problems and placing
an added strain on injured parts. The throat of
an unconscious patient should be suctioned peri-
odically, to remove collected fluids.

Control Serious Bleeding by Direct Pressure.

When breathing problems have been corrected,
attention should be directed to any seriously
bleeding wounds. Pressure dressings should be
placed on these wounds, but with as little move-
ment of the body as possible. If the bleeding can-
not be stopped by pressure dressings, one rescuer
may have to maintain manual pressure on the
wound while the patient is being immobilized. No
attempt should be made to dress less serious
wounds before immobilization is completed.

Make a Complete Body Survey. While one res-
cuer is holding the patient's head in the traction
position, another rescuer should make a com-
plete body survey using the method described ear-
lier. If the survey indicates that there is no cord
damage anywhere along the length of the spine,
attention can be given to other injuries, and the
normal treatment sequence can be followed. On
the other hand, if the survey shows spinal-cord
damage, the patient must be rigidly immobilized
before anything else is done.

Immobilize the Patient Before Moving. The

method of immobilization depends upon the cir-
cumstances of the accident. If the patient is lying
on the deck and is easily accessible, there is little
problem in preparing him for transportation. An
orthopedic stretcher or a full backboard is the
most desirable device for immobilization. The

Emergency Medical Care

283

patient can be immobilized on either of these
stretchers with a minimum of body movement.
More detailed information on the removal of
victims with neck and spine injuries is given later
in this chapter.

RESPIRATION PROBLEMS
AND RESUSCITATION

If for some reason the air supply to the lungs is
restricted or stopped, the brain does not get
enough oxygen to survive. Then the brain signals
that regulate heart and lung activity slow down
and stop. As the actions of the brain, heart and
lungs cease, so does life itself. Thus, rescuers
must act promptly when they find that a patient's
respiration is blocked or stopped.

Airway Obstructions

The most obvious airway obstruction is an ac-
cumulation of foreign matter in the mouth, throat
or windpipe. Vomit, blood, phlegm, and foreign
objects that cannot be coughed up or swallowed
tend to create dangerous obstructions.

A less obvious but equally dangerous airway
obstruction results from unconsciousness. During
unconsciousness, regardless of the cause, the
muscles that control the lower jaw and tongue
relax. This usually leads to an obstruction of the
throat when the patient's neck is bent forward.
The bending of the neck causes the lower jaw to
sag. Since the tongue is attached to the lower jaw,
it drops against the back of the throat and over
the voice box, blocking the airway.

Recognition of Airway Obstruction

A rule of thumb that may be used to survey a
patient for airway obstruction is to tilt the pa-
tient's head backward and

• Look for breathing movements.

• Listen for airflow at the mouth and nose.

• Feel for air exchange.

The rescuer should not assume that a patient
is breathing adequately unless he can hear and
feel an exchange of air through the mouth and
nose, and see that the chest is rising and falling.
For this, he should place his ear close enough to
the patient's mouth and nose to hear and feel the
exchange. In cases of complete obstruction, there
will be no detectable movement of air. Cases of
partial obstruction are easier to detect and may
be identified by listening. Noisy breathing is a
sign of partial obstruction of the air passages.

"Snoring" usually indicates air-passage obstruc-
tion by the tongue, as in the case of a bent neck.
"Crowing" indicates spasms of the larynx (voice
box). A "gurgling" sound indicates foreign mat-
ter in the windpipe. Under no circumstances
should a "noisy" breathing condition go un-
treated.

Cyanosis

A dependable sign that the brain is getting too
little oxygen is cyanosis. This condition is char-
acterized by a noticeable blue or gray color of
the tongue, lips, nail beds and skin. In blacks
and other patients with dark complexions, the
blue or gray color may be noted at the tongue
and nail beds only.

Treatment of Airway Obstructions

The head should be kept tilted back throughout
all the following steps. If any step opens the air-
way, it is not necessary to go any further. But it
is necessary to ensure that the patient continues
to breathe properly.

Step 1: Quickly Clean Out the Patient's
Mouth. Using your finger, quickly sweep the
patient's mouth clear of foreign objects, broken
teeth or dentures, sand or dirt, and so forth.

Step 2: Tilt the Patient's Head Back. Place
the patient on his back with his face up. Tilt the
patient's head backward as far as possible, so
that the front of the neck is stretched tightly
(Fig. 14.1). If necessary, elevate the patient's
shoulders with a blanket roll, to keep the head
tilted back. Never put a pillow, rolled blanket
or other object under the patient's head. This
will defeat the purpose of the head tilt by bend-
ing the neck forward and perhaps blocking the
airway even more.

Figure 14.1. Tilt the patient's head back as far as possible
to open the airway.

284

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

If the airway opens and the patient starts to
breathe alone when the head is tilted back, go
no further. Otherwise go on to step 3.

Step 3: Force Air into the Lungs. If the head
tilt does not open the airway, try to force two
or three good-size breaths quickly into the
patient's lungs through the mouth, while hold-
ing the nostrils pinched shut (Fig. 14.2). This
forced ventilation may be enough to start spon-
taneous respiration, or it may dislodge a partial
obstruction that has been restricting breathing.

Watch the patient's chest for movement in-
dicating that your breaths are reaching his
lungs. If the patient's chest rises and falls with
two or three quick breaths, the airway is un-
obstructed. If forcing air into the patient's
mouth does not open the airway, it is necessary
to go on to the following steps.

Step 4: Lift the Jaw. If both the head tilt
and the forced ventilation fail to get air into
the patient's lungs, it may be necessary to in-
crease the stretch of the neck to get the tongue
out of the way. A jaw-lift method can be used.

To pull the tongue as far forward as possible,
insert your thumb between the patient's teeth,
with your fingers under his chin. Pull his jaw
forward, allowing the lower teeth to be posi-
tioned higher than the cutting edges of the
upper teeth (Fig. 14.3). Take care not to hold
or depress the tongue during this procedure.

If it is not possible to insert your thumb in
the patient's mouth because of clenched teeth,
try the two-hand jaw lift. Grasp the angles of
the patient's jaw. With both hands just below
the earlobes, lift the jaw forcibly upward so
that the lower teeth are in front of the upper
teeth. Be sure that you do not flex the head

Figure 14.3. Jaw lift and chin lift.

forward when you attempt to pull the jaw
forward.

The tongue is now in the extreme forward
position, and it is unlikely to be blocking the
air passage. Another quick breath into the
patient's mouth will determine whether or not
the airway is clear. If it is clear, artificial ven-
tilation may be carried out. If the airway is
still not open, go on to step 5.

Step 5: Clear the Airway. When steps 2-4
all fail, an object is probably lodged so deeply
in the patient's throat that the quick sweep of
the mouth in step 1 failed to reach it. Try to
reach the object with your extended index
finger. If this fails, attempt to dislodge the ob-
ject by concussion.

Turn the patient on his side, and administer
a few sharp slaps to his back between the
shoulders. Once again, sweep your fingers in-
side the patient's mouth to see if the object has
been dislodged.

If sharp slaps between the shoulders fail to
clear the obstruction, you can attempt the ab-
dominal thrust shown in Figure 14.4. How-
ever, if the patient is in desperate condition, do

Figure 14.2. Force several good-size breaths into the pa-
tient's lungs while pinching his nostrils closed.

Figure 14.4. Abdominal thrust (Heimlich maneuver). A.
Positioning the hands. B. Applying the force. C. The ma-
neuver for a patient in the prone or supine position.

Emergency Medical Care

285

not waste time trying to clear foreign matter
from the airway. Forcing air into his lungs is
more important, and this often succeeds de-
spite some blockage. Speed is of the essence.
If it is obvious that efforts to open the airway
will not be immediately successful, radio for
medical assistance and arrange for transport
of the patient to a medical facility without de-
lay. Surgical procedures will most likely be
needed to save his life. Meanwhile, repeat the
five-step procedure.

Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation

This technique has been proved both experi-
mentally and clinically to be the most effective
means of artificially ventilating a nonbreathing
patient.

With the air passage maintained by maximum
extension of the head (as described in the pre-
ceding section), pinch the patient's nose shut with
your thumb and forefinger. This will prevent air
from escaping when you blow into the patient's
mouth. Take a deep breath, open your mouth
wide, and place it over the mouth of the patient,
making a tight seal (Fig. 14.5). Quickly blow

MOUTH TO MOUTH RESUSCITATION
EXTEND HEAD

SEAL NOSE WITH THUMB
AND FOREFINGER

SEAL YOUR MOUTH OVER
PATIENT'S MOUTH

QUICKLY BLOW FULL BREATH
INTO PATIENT'S MOUTH

WATCH FOR CHEST TO RISE

REMOVE YOUR MOUTH TO
ALLOW EXHALATION

Figure 14.5. Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation is the most ef-
fective way to ventilate a patient.

your full breath into the patient's mouth until you
can feel the resistance of the expanding lungs and
can see the chest rise. Remove your mouth from
the patient's mouth, and allow him to exhale.

Repeat this breathing cycle every 5 seconds,
or about 12 times per minute. Each breath should
provide at least 100 cc (about 2 pints) of air. This
is twice the amount of air in a normal breath. Ex-
pired air contains about 16% oxygen and from
4% to 5% carbon dioxide. Thus, the double-size
breaths ensure adequate oxygenation of the blood
and removal of the carbon dioxide from the
patient's lungs.

Experience has shown that the three most com-
mon errors committed by rescuers while perform-
ing mouth-to-mouth resuscitation are:

1 . Inadequate extension of the patient's head,
so that the airway is not properly estab-
lished

2. Failure to open the patient's mouth wide
enough

3. Forgetting to seal the patient's mouth and
nose.

If the patient's stomach becomes distended
(bulged) with air from the inflations, turn his head
to the side. Compress his stomach gently to expel
the air. The bulging results when air slips past
the epiglottis into the esophagus and stomach.

After resuscitation has been started, it should
be continued until the patient is transported to a
hospital, until he starts to breathe spontaneously,
or until a physician pronounces him dead.

Mouth-to-Nose Resuscitation

This alternative method may be used if the patient
has serious injuries to the lower jaw, or if he has
a severely receding chin due to the lack of nat-
ural teeth or dentures.

The mouth-to-nose resuscitation technique is
essentially the same as the mouth-to-mouth tech-
nique. Clamp the patient's jaw shut with your
fingers, and cover his nose with your mouth. Blow
your full breath into his nose. After each breath,
allow the patient's mouth to open, to provide
quick and effective exhalation.

Oropharyngeal Airways

Oropharyngeal airways are curved breathing
tubes. They are inserted in the patient's mouth
to hold the base of the tongue forward so it does
not block the air passage. The rescuer cannot
depend completely upon this type of device, how-
ever; the head must be tilted backward to provide
the maximum opening.

286

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

There are two basic guidelines that determine
whether or not an airway should be used:

1. If the patient is conscious and breathing
normally, an airway should not be inserted
because it will cause him to vomit.

2. If the patient is unconscious with breath-
ing obstructed, an airway should be inserted
if breathing remains obstructed after head
tilt and artificial ventilation are attempted.

If the patient reacts by swallowing, retching or
coughing after an artificial airway is in place, the
airway must be removed quickly. Otherwise, it
may make him vomit, increasing the likelihood
of airway obstruction. Artificial airways should
be employed only when the rescuer is trained in
their use.

To insert an oropharyngeal airway, proceed as
follows: Use one hand, with the thumb and index
finger crossed, to pry the patient's teeth apart and
hold his mouth open. With your other hand, in-
sert the airway between his teeth. The curve
should be backward at first, and then turned to
the proper position as you insert it deeper (Fig.
14.6). This twisting maneuver prevents the
tongue from being pushed further back into the
throat, since the airway must be inserted over
the tongue. If you have difficulty with the tongue,
hold it forward with your index finger.

If the jaws are too firmly clenched for the ma-
neuver described above, try to wedge them apart
as follows: Insert your index finger between the
patient's cheek and teeth, forcing the tip of your
finger behind his teeth. If you have difficulty get-
ting the teeth apart or inserting the airway, do
not keep forcing. Instead, hold the head back and
use mouth-to-mouth or mouth-to-nose resusci-
tation.

Mouth-to-Airway Ventilation

The mouth-to-airway unit (commonly called the
S tube) and various similar devices have been in-
troduced to overcome objections to direct mouth-
to-mouth contact. These tools should be em-
ployed only if the rescuer is trained in their use,
and only if they are immediately available.

To use a mouth-to-airway device, proceed as
follows: Tilt the patient's head back, and insert
the airway in the manner described for oropha-
ryngeal airways (Fig. 14.6). When using the S
tube, make sure that the cupped flange is posi-
tioned properly. Prevent air leakage by pinching
the patient's nose closed and pressing the flange
firmly over his mouth. Hold his chin up so that
the front of the neck is stretched. Then follow
all of the other steps required for the mouth-to-
mouth technique, such as rate and size of breaths.

Figure 14.6. Inserting the oropharyngeal or S-tube airway.

Bag-Mask Resuscitators

Another valuable tool for artificial ventilation is
the bag-mask resuscitator. This device consists
of a facepiece fitted to a self-inflating bag. A spe-
cial valve arrangement allows the bag to refill
and the patient to exhale without removal of the
unit from his face. A common problem with this
device is failure of the operator to hold the face-
piece firmly enough against the patient's face.
The result is then a poor seal.

The bag-mask resuscitator should be used as
follows: Hold the facepiece over the patient's
face, and clamp it securely in place with one
hand. Press your thumb over the rim of the mask,
with your index finger over the chin part (Fig.
14.7). Use your third, fourth and fifth fingers to
pull the chin upward and backward. Take a firm
grip, but never poke your fingers into the patient's
neck. Never push the mask down on the patient's
chin, as this may bend the neck and obstruct the
air passage.

Emergency Medical Care

287

Hold Mask Firmly
in Place

Pull Chin Upward
and Back

Squeeze Bag

Once Every 5 Seconds

BAG-MASK RESUSCITATION

Figure 14.7. Proper positioning and use of the bag-mask
resuscitator.

While holding the mask with one hand, squeeze
the bag with your other hand about once every
5 seconds. The bag should be squeezed until the
chest rises, and then released to allow exhalation.
If you hear leakage, hold the mask more tightly
and squeeze the bag more forcefully.

When the bag is released, the air inlet at the
tail of the bag opens to allow it to refill. The valve
at the mask prevents the patient from exhaling
back into the bag. The bag should be released
quickly to allow prompt valve action.

Be especially watchful for signs of vomiting.
If the patient starts to vomit, discontinue the
bag-mask operation immediately. Continuing the
operation will force vomitus into the patient's
windpipe, causing him to draw the fluids into the
lungs, or creating a massive obstruction.

Mechanical Resuscitators

While many emergency care units carry mechani-
cal pressure-cycled resuscitators as part of their
equipment, the use of these devices is not recom-
mended. Effective artificial ventilation depends
on the volume of air introduced into the lungs,
not the pressure that delivers it. Because the lungs
are very elastic, the back pressure increases as
they fill with air, and more and more pressure is
required to deliver the proper amount of air.
Moreover, if there is a partial obstruction of the
airway, or if the patient's lungs have lost some
of their elasticity, even more pressure is required
to inflate them properly.

The problem with pressure-cycled resuscitators
is that they inflate the lungs to a certain set pres-

sure and then allow exhalation. But the machines
have no way of knowing whether or not the proper
amount of oxygen has been delivered. That is,
they cycle from inflation to exhalation when they
sense a certain back pressure, regardless of the
amount of oxygen delivered. Often, they deliver
an insufficient amount of oxygen, which is of little
value to the patient.

Some mechanical resuscitators are equipped
with override valves that deliver a constant flow
of oxygen as long as a special valve is held open.
The flow of oxygen bypasses the pressure-sensing
device in the regulator. The operator is able to
continue inflating the patient's lungs until the
rising chest indicates that the proper amount of
oxygen has been delivered.

Rescuers should remember that valuable time
must be spent in obtaining a mechanical resusci-
tator and setting it up for operation. And the
nonbreathing patient does not have much time.
In addition, the mechanical resuscitator requires
constant attention and, like any machine, may
fail when it is needed most. It is best not to rely
on a purely mechanical device to save a life.

CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is another
name for heart-lung resuscitation, or a combined
effort to restore breathing and circulation arti-
ficially. Artificial circulation is produced when
the chest is compressed by 3.8 to 5.1 cm {Wi to
2 inches), which squeezes the heart between the
sternum and the spine. When the heart is squeezed
in this fashion, blood is forced into the pulmonary
circuit to the lungs (where it is oxygenated) and
into the systemic circuit (through which it travels
to all parts of the body). When the pressure is
released (Fig. 14.8), the elastic chest wall causes
the sternum to spring outward to its original posi-
tion. The release of pressure on the heart results
in a sucking action that draws blood into the
heart from the veins and the lungs.

The blood is kept in constant motion as long
as the heart is squeezed and released by the ex-
ternal chest compressions. The result is quite
close to the circulation that is produced by a nor-
mally operating heart.

Signs of Cardiac Arrest

A heart attack can occur at any time. Under ex-
treme physical and emotional stress, the risk of
heart attack is much greater. Those responsible
for emergency care should be aware that heart
attacks are a common medical problem in fire-
fighting situations. Both the physical exertion re-
quired of firefighters and the lack of oxygen due

288

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

to smoke add to the probability of cardiac arrest.
You can determine rapidly and easily whether
or not cardiac arrest has occurred by checking
for three signs, all of which must be present if
heart action has stopped.

No Respiration. Check for breathing as de-
scribed above: Look for movement of the chest.
Listen and feel for air exchange at the mouth and
nose. If there are signs of breathing, there is no
possibility of cardiac arrest. If there are no signs
of breathing, there may be cardiac arrest. At any
rate, the patient will need some sort of artificial
ventilation as the minimum treatment.

No Pulse. Check for heart action by feeling for
either the cartoid pulse in the neck or the femoral
pulse in the groin. The cartoid and femoral ar-
teries are quite large, and normally their pulses
are easily felt if there is sufficient heart action to
circulate blood. If a pulse can be felt, the patient
is not in cardiac arrest and may need only to
have his breathing restored or supported. How-
ever, if a pulse cannot be found, cardiac arrest is
indicated. To be sure, check for the third sign.

Dilated Pupils of the Eyes. Check the pupils of
the patient's eyes to see if they are dilated. Con-
stricted (narrow) pupils indicate that there is
blood circulation. Dilated (quite large) pupils in-
dicate that blood circulation has stopped. Within
45 to 60 seconds after circulation to the brain
ceases, the pupils begin to dilate. Within another
minute the dilation is complete. Thus, if the
pupils appear dilated, no oxygenated blood is
being circulated to the brain. This sign, coupled
with the first two, calls for immediate reestab-
lishment of breathing and heart action by cardio-
pulmonary resuscitation.

The CPR Technique

The sequence of operations required in cardio-
pulmonary resuscitation is best remembered as
the ABC technique.

• A stands for airway: Ensure that the patient
has a clear airway, that the head is in the
proper position, and that the throat is free
of foreign objects.

• B stands for breathe: Inflate the patient's
lungs immediately with four quick, good-
size breaths, using the mouth-to-mouth
technique, or mouth-to-nose if necessary.
This provides the lungs with a high concen-
tration of oxygen that is immediately avail-
able for circulation to the brain. If the estab-
lishment of a clear airway and the four quick

ventilations do not start spontaneous breath-
ing, check for the other two signs of cardiac
arrest (no pulse, dilated pupils). Then go on
to the next step.

• C stands for circulate: For this, the rescuer
must

1 . Situate the patient properly.

2. Locate the pressure point.

3. Place his hands properly.

4. Apply pressure.

5 . Interpose ventilations .

Any deviation from the proper procedure for
placing the hands may result in damage to the
ribs and underlying organs.

Locate the Pressure Point. Run one hand along
the lower rib cage to a point in the center of the
chest, where a flexible point called the xiphoid
process is located. (See Figs. 14.8 and 14.9.)
Measure three fiinger widths up (toward the neck)
from the tip of the xiphoid. To do this, lay three
fingers of one hand flat on the patient's chest,
with the fingers touching each other and the low-
est finger on the xiphoid tip.

Place Your Hands. Place the heel of your hand
on the chest so that it is touching the third "meas-
uring" finger. This hand should now be about
three finger widths from the xiphoid tip. Its fin-
gers should be pointing approximately across the
chest. Remove the "measuring" hand, and place
it on top of the other hand (Fig. 14.9).

PHYSIOLOGY OF CPR

ClavicW

Sternum

COMPRESSION

Lung

Xiphoid process

Figure 14.8. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The compres-
sion and release of the heart cause blood to be pumped to
the lungs and throughout the body.

Emergency Medical Care

289

LOCATE PRESSURE
POINT

PLACE HANDS

APPLY PRESSURE

Figure 14.9. Finding the pressure point, placing the hands
and applying the pressure in CPR.

Apply Pressure. With your shoulders directly
above the victim's chest, press straight down,
compressing the chest by 3.8 to 5.1 cm (IY2 to
2 inches). Your elbows must not bend or flex.
Pivot at the hips, making use of the weight of
your head and shoulders to obtain the proper
compression. A poor technique could result in
fatigue and limit the time you are able to per-
form CPR.

Ventilate. Chest compressions without ventila-
tion are of little value to the patient, since the
only air exchange is that resulting from the chest
movements caused by the compressions. This lim-

ited exchange is not sufficient to oxygenate the
blood. (The proper ventilation procedures are
given below.)

CPR with One Rescuer

When it is necessary to perform cardiopulmonary
resuscitation without assistance, the following
steps should be taken:

1. Place the patient on his back on a hard
surface, preferably the deck.

2. As soon as you determine that the patient
is in cardiac arrest (by checking the three
signs), establish the airway. Ventilate the
patient with four double-size breaths, with-
out pausing between breaths.

3. Shift to the patient's side, and compress
his chest 15 times, at a rate of 80 compres-
sions per minute. Be sure that your hands
are always in the proper position.

4. After the 15th compression, quickly pivot
back to the patient's head. Inflate his lungs
two times, again without any pause be-
tween ventilations.

5. Return to the chest, and again compress
the chest 15 times, at the rate of 80 com-
pressions per minute. Then perform two
ventilations.

6. Continue the cycles of 15 chest compres-
sions and 2 ventilations without interrup-
tion until the patient shows signs of recov-
ery, or until you are relieved by competent
medical personnel.

CPR with Two Rescuers

The most effective cardiopulmonary resuscitation
can be accomplished by two rescuers working to-
gether. The two-man method is more effective
and far less tiring than the one-man technique.
The following steps should be taken:

1. Place the patient on his back on a hard
surface.

2. Determine the patient's condition by check-
ing for the three signs of cardiac arrest.

3. The first rescuer now positions himself at
the patient's head. He establishes an open
airway and quickly ventilates the patient
with four double-size breaths.

4. The second rescuer positions himself at
the patient's side. He starts manual chest
compressions at the rate of one every sec-
ond (60 per minute) as soon as the patient
is ventilated.

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Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

5. After every five chest compressions, the
first rescuer ventilates the patient with one
quick, double-size breath. The rescuers
must closely coordinate their efforts, so
that the first rescuer will not attempt to
ventilate the patient just as the second res-
cuer is compressing the chest.

6. Continue the cycles of one breath and five
chest compressions without interruption.

If it is necessary to change rescuers during the
resuscitation efforts, the switch should be made
with as little interruption as possible. An effective
means is to position the incoming rescuers on
the opposite side of the patient. Thus, they can
take over as soon as the outgoing rescuers tire.

Determining the Effectiveness
of CPR Efforts

If the patient can be successfully resuscitated
(that is, if biological death has not occurred), the
effectiveness of CPR efforts can be measured by
certain changes in the patient's condition. If the
efforts are successful, the following changes must
occur.

1 . The pupils must constrict.

2. The patient's color must improve.

3. A pulse must be felt at the carotid artery
with each heart compression.

The rescuer should realize that CPR has its
limitations. It is doubtful that CPR will be of
any help if there have been extreme crushing in-
juries to the chest, if large internal arteries have
been cut open, if the skull has been crushed, or
if the heart has ruptured.

The longer CPR is carried out without a posi-
tive response from the patient, the smaller his
chances for survival. Rescuers (applying two-man
CPR whenever possible) should not attempt more
than 1 hour of continuous CPR. After 1 hour,
there is no hope for the patient to recover. Res-
cuers should not feel guilty if they stop CPR after
an hour; nothing more can be done for the pa-
tient.

Possible Complications of CPR

Damage to the rib cage and the underlying or-
gans can be caused by improper placement of the
rescuer's hands during chest compression. When
the hands are placed too far to the right, the ribs
may be fractured. They can then lacerate the
lungs, and possibly the heart muscle itself. When
the hands are placed too low on the sternum
(breastbone), the bony xiphoid may be depressed

too far, thus lacerating the liver. When the hands
are placed too high, the collarbone may be broken
where it joins the sternum.

Even with the hands placed in the proper posi-
tion, the force required to compress the chest
may be sufficient to break ribs. However, it is far
better for the patient to suffer a few broken ribs
than to die because the rescuer refused to per-
form CPR through a fear of inflicting injury.

BLEEDING

Depending on the mechanism of injury, a patient
may develop external or internal bleeding or both.
Because internal bleeding is the less obvious of
the two, it may be the more dangerous. We shall
discuss them separately.

Types of External Bleeding

Arterial bleeding is bleeding from an artery. It
is characterized by a flow of bright red blood
leaving the wound in distinct spurts. At times,
the flow may be alarmingly heavy. Arterial bleed-
ing is not likely to clot unless it is from a small
artery or unless the flow of blood is slight. Ar-
teries have a built-in defense mechanism: If they
are cut through completely, they tend to constrict
and seal themselves off. However, an artery that
is not cut through, but is torn or has a hole in it,
will continue to bleed freely.

Venous bleeding is bleeding from a vein. It is
characterized by a steady flow of blood that ap-
pears to be dark maroon or even blue in color.
Bleeding from a vein may also be heavy, but it is
much easier to control than arterial bleeding. A
real danger associated with venous bleeding in
injuries to the neck is a condition known as air
embolism. The blood in the larger veins is drawn
to the heart by a sucking action that develops as
the heart contracts and relaxes. This action may
draw an air bubble into the open vein. If the air
bubble is large enough, it can reduce the ability
of the heart to pump properly. The heart may
even fail completely. Even though venous bleed-
ing may not appear heavy, it should be controlled
quickly and effectively.

Capillary bleeding is bleeding from capillaries.
It is characterized by the slow oozing of blood,
usually from minor wounds such as scraped knees.
Since the bleeding is from the smallest vessels, it
can be controlled easily. However, because of the
large amount of skin surface involved, the threat
of contamination may be more serious than the
blood loss.

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291

Methods of Controlling External Bleeding

The most effective method of controlling external
bleeding is direct pressure on the wound. In the
case of an arm or leg wound not involving a frac-
ture, direct pressure and elevation of the limb
are recommended. There are few instances of
bleeding where the flow of blood cannnot be con-
trolled by this quick and efficient means.

Direct Pressure. When the bleeding is relatively
mild, apply pressure to the wound with a sterile
dressing, clean cloth or handkerchief (Fig. 14.10).
Firm pressure on the wound for 10-30 minutes
will, in most cases, stop the bleeding. To allow

IRECT PRESSURE (MILD BLEEDING)

APPLY PRESSURE

WITH STERILE DRESSING

APPLY ADDITIONAL
DRESSINGS IF NECESSARY

BANDAGE WOUND

Figure 14.10. Controlling mild external bleeding with
pressure. Once the dressing is in place, it should not be
removed.

the patient some movement while the bleeding is
being controlled, bind the dressing in place with
a bandage.

Do not attempt to replace the dressing once
it is held in place, even if it becomes blood-
soaked. Replacing a dressing releases the pres-
sure on the cut blood vessels, interferes with nor-
mal coagulation and increases the likelihood of
contamination. Instead of replacing the dressing,
add another one on top of the soaked dressings,
and hold them all in place. Continue this pro-
cedure until the patient is delivered to a medical
facility.

If the bleeding is heavy, place your hand di-
rectly on the wound and exert firm pressure. If
a cloth or handkerchief is immediately available,
use it. But don't waste time trying to find a cloth
or dressing; the patient's blood loss may have
reached the critical point. If the bleeding con-
tinues, insert your fingers directly into the wound
and attempt to compress the artery. Either squeeze
it between your fingers or press it against a bony
portion of the body.

Pressure Points. If the bleeding continues in
spite of efforts to control it by direct pressure,
the rescuer can apply finger pressure at a pres-
sure point. The six major arterial pressure points
are shown in Figure 14. 1 1 :

• The brachial artery controls bleeding from
the arm.

• The femoral artery controls bleeding from
the leg.

• The carotid artery controls bleeding from
the neck.

• The temporal artery controls bleeding from
the scalp.

• The facial artery controls bleeding from the
face.

• The subclavian artery controls bleeding from
the chest wall or armpit.

For Bleeding from the Arm. Apply pressure to
a point over the brachial artery. To find the
brachial artery, hold the patient's arm out at a
right angle to his body, with the palm facing up.
Between the elbow and the armpit, you will find
a groove created by the large biceps muscle and
the bone (Fig. 14.12). With your hand cradling
the upper arm, press your fingers firmly into this
groove. This will compress the brachial artery
against the underlying bone. If the pressure is
applied properly, you will not be able to feel a
pulse at the patient's wrist.

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Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

PRESSURE POINTS

Temporal Artery
Facial Artery
Carotid Artery
Subclavian Artery

Brachial Artery
Femoral Artery

Pressure Point

Bone

Skin Surface

Figure 14.11. The six major pressure points. The inset
shows how pressure at the pressure point squeezes the
artery against a nearby bone to stop the flow of blood.

USE OF PRESSURE POINTS TO CONTROL
BLEEDING

CAROTID

FEMORA

BRACHIAL

Figure 14.12. The femoral (leg), brachial (arm) and caro-
tid (neck) pressure points.

For Bleeding from the Leg. Apply pressure to
a point over the femoral artery. Locate the
femoral artery on the inside of the groin, just
below where the thigh joins the torso (Fig. 14.12).
You will be able to feel pulsations at this point.
Place the heel of your hand over the pressure
point. Exert pressure downward toward the bone
until it is obvious that the bleeding has been con-
trolled. If the patient is very muscular or obese,
you must exert considerable force to compress the
artery.

For Bleeding from the Neck. Locate the wind-
pipe at the midline of the neck. Slide your fingers
around to the bleeding side of the neck and feel
for the pulsations of the large artery. Place your
fingers over the artery, with your thumb behind
the patient's neck (Fig. 14.12). Exert pressure
between your fingers and thumb so that the artery
is squeezed against the vertebrae of the neck.
Never apply pressure to both carotid (neck)
arteries at the same time.

In most cases where major vessels are not in-
volved, bleeding from the neck can be controlled
by placing a dressing over the wound and apply-
ing direct pressure. However, when the pressure
point must be used, extreme care must be taken
to avoid producing unconsciousness by restricting
the flow of blood to the brain. In addition, some
patients may faint quite readily when pressure is
exerted on a little bundle of nerve tissue in the
neck. Care must also be taken not to squeeze the
windpipe.

Tourniquet Pressure. If direct pressure and the
use of pressure points do not effectively control
the bleeding, a tourniquet should be used. How-
ever, a tourniquet should be considered only as
a last resort. It must be used intelligently, with
certain precautions and a full understanding of
its function. If used improperly, a tourniquet may
prove more harmful than effective, increasing the
danger to the part to which it is applied.

In the past it was believed that a tourniquet
should never be applied for more than 20 minutes
at a time. However, it is now known that a tourni-
quet, once applied, should be left in place until it
can be loosened where immediate care is avail-
able, as in a hospital. There are two reasons for
this change in accepted practice. First, frequent
loosening of a tourniquet may dislodge clots and
allow sufficient bleeding to cause severe shock
and death. Second, so-called "tourniquet shock"
is now recognized as a very real danger to pa-
tients to whom a tourniquet has been applied.
This type of shock is thought to be caused by

Emergency Medical Care

293

harmful substances released by the injured tis-
sues. These substances are held back by the tour-
niquet and then released into the general circu-
lation when the tourniquet is loosened. Unless
this shock is controlled, loosening of the tourni-
quet may prove fatal. Studies have shown that
leaving the tourniquet in place causes more limbs
to be lost, but more lives to be saved.

To apply a tourniquet, follow these steps (Fig.
14.13):

1. Select a place for the tourniquet between
the heart and the wound — as close to the
wound as possible, but not right at the
edge of the wound.

2. Place a pad made from a dressing or a
folded handkerchief over the main supply-
ing artery. The pad will add to the pressure
on the main artery and make the tourniquet
more effective.

APPLYING A TOURNIQUET

Place Pad Over
Main Artery

Knot the Material
and Insert a Device
to Tighten Tourniquet

Tighten Only Enough
to Stop Bleeding

Mark Time Tourniquet
was Applied

Use of material
that is too thin
may injure
blood vessels
and underlying
tissue

Figure 14.13. The steps in applying a tourniquet.

Place the constricting band around the
patient's limb and the pad. If a commercial
tourniquet is used, pull the loose end of
the band through the buckle or friction
catch, and draw it up tightly. If a cravat
or other piece of material is used, knot the
material. In the knot, insert a stick, rod or
similar device that can be used to tighten
the tourniquet.

Tighten the tourniquet just enough to con-
trol the bleeding. If it is too loose, it will
be of no value. If it is unnecessarily tight,
it will cause further damage to the limb.

Attach to the patient a notation indicating
that a tourniquet has been applied. If a tag
is not available, mark the patient's fore-
head with a pen or even blood. The mark-
ing will alert medical personnel that a
tourniquet is in place; this fact might go
unnoticed if the patient is covered with a
blanket or if medical facilities are extremely
busy.

Signs and Symptoms of Internal Bleeding

Internal bleeding may be suspected when the
mechanism of injury indicates internal damage
and classic signs of shock are present, but there
is no obvious injury. The signs of shock are:

• Rapid and weak pulse

• Pale, moist and cold skin

• Shallow and rapid breathing

• Thirst

• A weak and helpless feeling

• Shaking and trembling

• Dilated pupils.

In addition to these signs, the patient with internal
bleeding may cough up bright red blood, or
vomit blood that has the appearance of coffee
grounds. The latter is an indication of bleeding
in the abdominal organs; the abdomen will also
become very stiff or develop muscle spasms. To
estimate blood loss from closed wounds, figure
an approximate 10% blood loss for each area
of badly bruised tissue the size of a man's fist.

The problem of internal bleeding should not
be taken lightly. Any patient exhibiting the signs
described above should be considered a high pri-
ority patient. If the patient is unconscious and
the mechanism of injury indicates that internal
bleeding could have been produced, he should be
treated accordingly.

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Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Controlling Internal Bleeding

Patients with suspected internal bleeding should
be treated in the following general manner.

1 . Treat the patient for shock.

2. Expect the patient to vomit, and give him
nothing by mouth.

3. If the bleeding is in an extremity, apply
pressure to the injury site with a pressure
dressing (a snug bandage over a bulky
pad).

4. Transport a patient with abdominal or
chest-cavity injuries immediately, but
safely, to a medical facility. Such injuries
represent a true emergency.

5. Administer oxygen (qualified personnel
only).

WOUNDS

Wounds are injuries to the soft tissues of the
body; they are classified as closed or open. Closed
wounds, as the name implies, are injuries in which
the skin surface is not broken and there is no
external bleeding. Open wounds are injuries
where the skin is torn and the underlying tissues
are exposed. Bleeding may vary from slight to
heavy.

Closed Wounds

The injury resulting from the impact of a blunt
object is called a bruise or contusion. Although
the skin is not penetrated, there may be a great
deal of crushed tissue beneath the skin. Some
bleeding always occurs at the time of the injury,
and frequently for a few hours thereafter. Swell-
ing generally develops 24 to 48 hours after the
injury. A blood clot almost always forms at the
injury site; the blood seeps into the surrounding
tissues, causing a bluish discoloration, the "black
and blue" mark.

Small contusions generally do not require
emergency care unless they are associated with
more serious problems such as internal injuries
or fractures. A pressure dressing will reduce the
bleeding and assist the natural healing processes.

Open Wounds

There are several categories of open wounds.

Abrasion. An abrasion is the least serious type
of open wound. It is a scratching of the skin sur-
face in which not all the layers of the skin are
penetrated. A small amount of bleeding may re-
sult from an abrasion, but rarely more than a
few drops. A great deal of dirt may be ground

into the wound, so the possibility of contamina-
tion should be considered.

Incision. An incision is a wound that is made
by a sharp object such as a knife or razor blade.
The cut edges of the skin and tissue are smooth
because of the sharpness of the object inflicting
the injury. Obviously, if such a wound is deep,
large blood vessels and nerves may be severed.
Because the blood vessels are cut cleanly, in-
cisions bleed freely. The bleeding from long and
deep incisions is often quite difficult to control.

Laceration. A laceration results from the snag-
ging and tearing of tissue, leaving a jagged wound
that bleeds freely. It is usually impossible to see
what important structures have been damaged by
looking at the outside of the wound, since the
jagged edges of the wound tend to fall together
and obscure the depth. If important vessels have
been torn, there is considerable bleeding, al-
though usually less than from an incision. This
is because the blood vessels are stretched and
torn in a laceration. The cut ends curl and fold,
which aids in rapid clot formation. An example
of a laceration is the wound caused by a jagged
piece of metal.

Puncture Wound. A puncture wound results
from the disruption of the skin and tissue by a
sharp, pointed object, such as a nail, ice pick or
splinter. There is usually no severe external bleed-
ing. However, in more serious puncture wounds,
internal bleeding may be quite heavy.

Puncture wounds are classed as either pene-
trations or perforations. A penetration is a shal-
low or deep wound that damages tissue and blood
vessels; it may result from a wide metal strip or
a long, pointed shard of glass. A perforation is
a deep puncture wound, such as a through-and-
through gunshot wound that passes through
nerves, bones and organs and causes great inter-
nal damage. A perforation differs from a pene-
tration in that it results in an exit wound as well
as an entrance wound.

Avulsion. Avulsions are wounds from which
large flaps of skin and tissue are torn loose or
pulled off. Avulsions might involve the eyeballs,
ears or fingers. A common injury is the glove
avulsion, caused when the hand is caught in a
roller or other type of pinching hazard; the skin
is stripped off much like a glove. In any accident
that results in an avulsion, the rescuer should
make every effort to preserve the avulsed part and
transport it with the patient. It may be possible
to restore the part with surgical techniques or at

Emergency Medical Care

295

least to use the skin for grafts. The emergency
treatment for avulsions requires application of
large, bulky pressure dressings.

Traumatic Amputation. A traumatic amputa-
tion involving a finger, hand, arm or leg generally
occurs when the extremity is torn off in an acci-
dent. Jagged skin and bone edges characterize
the wound, and there may or may not be massive
bleeding. As for other external bleeding, the most
effective method of control is to use a snug pres-
sure dressing over the stump. A tourniquet is
rarely necessary.

Crushing Injury. Crushing injuries are caused
when the extremities of the body are caught in
some mechanical device. Open fractures are com-
mon in such accidents. There is usually a surface
laceration of the bursting type, with extensive
damage to the underlying tissues. Large, bulky
dressings are required for emergency care. In
cases where a limb has been severed by an ex-
tremely heavy crushing force, there is usually
very little bleeding. The crushing action tends to
close off the bleeding vessels as they are severed.

Emergency Care for Open Wounds

Emergency care for open wounds is directed to-
ward stopping the bleeding and keeping the
wounds clean:

1. Control the bleeding with direct pressure,
the use of pressure points or, as a last re-
sort, a tourniquet.

2. Prevent contamination of the wound by
applying a sterile dressing.

3. Immobilize and elevate the injured part in
the event of serious bleeding, if this will
not worsen other injuries.

Dressing and Bandaging Materials

While the two terms are often confused, dressings
and bandages are two separate items of supply.
Dressings are applied to the wound to control
bleeding and prevent contamination. Bandages
are used to hold the dressings in place. A dressing
should be sterile, but bandages need not be sterile.
Usually, a variety of dressings are carried as
emergency care supplies. Separately wrapped
sterile gauze pads, 10.2 cm2 (4 inches2), are the
most common dressings. Large bulky dressings
such as multitrauma and combination dressings
are valuable where bulk is required for heavy
bleeding, or where large areas must be covered.
These dressings are especially useful for stabiliz-
ing impaled objects. Sanitary napkins are well

suited for emergency care work because of their
absorbent properties. While they are not usually
sterile, they may be obtained separately wrapped,
thus ensuring a clean surface at all times.

Do not apply the bandage too tightly, as this
may restrict the blood supply to the affected part,
resulting in grave complications. Do not apply
the bandage too loosely (the most common error
in bandaging), or it will not hold the dressing in
place. The bandage must be applied rather snugly,
since it stretches after a short time, especially
when the patient can move the bandaged part.
In bandaging extremities, leave the fingers and
toes exposed wherever possible, so that color
changes may be noted. Pain, pale skin, numbness
and tingling are signs that a bandage is too tight.

Impaled Objects

Occasionally the rescuer will be confronted with
a wound from which a piece of glass, a knife, a
stick, or some other pointed object is protruding.
When dealing with such an injury,

• Do not remove the object.

• Use a bulky dressing to stabilize the object.

• Transport the patient to a medical facility
very carefully.

The removal of an impaled object may cause
severe bleeding by releasing the pressure on the
severed blood vessels; or, it may cause further
damage to nerves and muscles. Occasionally,
however, a portion of the object will have to be
removed to allow transportation of the patient.
Clothing may also have to be removed from the
area of the injury, to make the wound more ac-
cessible. No attempt should be made to lift the
clothing over the wound in the usual manner; in-
stead, the clothing should be carefully cut away
from the injury (Fig. 14.14). The rescuer must
be extremely careful not to move the object while
removing the clothing.

Bleeding around an impaled object may be
controlled first by hand pressure if the bleeding
is profuse. While one rescuer is applying pressure
with his hand, another should be preparing dress-
ings for the wound. The wound may be dressed
in either of two ways. One method is to place
several layers of a bulky dressing over the injury
site, so that the edges of the dressings butt up
against the object from both sides (see Figure
1 4. 1 4). Another method is to cut a hole in a bulky
dressing, slightly larger than the object, and then
to pass the dressing very carefully over the ob-
ject. In both cases, the bulky dressings keep the
object from moving and exert direct pressure on

296

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

IMPALED OBJECT

Do Not Remove Object

Stabilize Object With
Bulky Dressing

Cut Clothing Away
From Injury Site

Apply Bandage and
Tape Paper Cup Over
Object to Prevent
MovemenlL|^^

Figure 14.14. Emergency care for an open wound with an
impaled object.

the bleeding vessels. Self-adhering bandaging ma-
terial is well suited for use with this type of dress-
ing. A paper cup taped over the object may help
prevent accidental movement.

Objects Impaled in the Cheek. A foreign object
impaled in the cheek presents a dangerous situ-
ation. It is the only case in which a foreign object
should be removed from a wound. The cheek wall
is fairly thin, and bleeding into the mouth and
throat may be heavy. This bleeding cannot be
controlled by pressure on the outside of the
wound.

Carefully examine the wound. With your
fingers, probe inside the patient's mouth to see
if the object has passed through the cheek wall.
If the object has come through the wall, care-
fully remove it by pulling it out toward the direc-
tion from which it entered the cheek. If the object
will not come loose easily, leave it in place and
pack compresses around it. In either case, be sure
to place the head in a good position for drainage
of blood.

When the object has been removed, pack the
inside of the patient's cheek (between the cheek
wall and the teeth) to prevent additional bleed-
ing. This packing will not present too much of an
obstruction if the patient has to vomit. Dress the
outside of the wound in the usual manner, with
a pressure dressing and bandage.

Objects Impaled in the Eye. Large foreign ob-
jects impaled in the eye should be removed only
by a physician. Until medical assistance is avail-
able, such objects should be protected from acci-
dental movement or removal. The following
method is suggested.

Make a thick dressing of several layers of
sterile gauze pads or multitrauma dressings. Cut
a hole in the center of the dressing approximately
the size of the eye opening. Carefully pass the
prepared dressing over the impaled object, and
position it so it is centered over the injury site
(Fig. 14.15). This pad will serve as a cushion for
a rigid shield that will be used to protect the eye.

Next, select a cup or cone of sufficient size to
fit over the impaled object without the object
touching the sides or top of the cup. A disposable

Make Thick Dressing and Cut Hole
in Center the Size of Eye Opening

Pass Dressing Over Impaled Object

Position Crushed Cup Over
Dressing and Bandage in Place

Figure 14.15. Emergency care for an eye wound with an impaled object.

Emergency Medical Care

297

drinking cup or a styrofoam hot-beverage cup
usually works well. Position the cup over the pad,
and fasten it carefully in place with soft, self-
adhering roller bandage. This rigid protection
will shield the object against accidental move-
ment or inadvertent removal. It will also call
attention to the fact that the patient has suffered
a serious eye injury.

After the eye is protected against further injury
by bandaging, the good eye should be securely
bandaged also. This will reduce the movement of
the injured eye that may be caused by constant
movement of the good eye. (When one eye is at-
tracted to a light source, the second eye moves
with the first.)

SHOCK

Shock is the failure of the cardiovascular system
to provide sufficient blood circulation to every
part of the body. It can be caused in several dif-
ferent ways.

Types and Causes of Shock

Hemorrhagic Shock. This is caused by blood
loss. The blood volume may be reduced by 1)
external bleeding, 2) internal bleeding, or 3) loss
of plasma (the liquid part of the blood), as in the
case of burned or crushed tissues.

Respiratory Shock. This is caused by insuffi-
cient oxygen in the blood. Respiratory shock
results from an inability to fill the lungs com-
pletely, and is often seen in cases of severe smoke
poisoning. Breathing may be impaired for other
reasons as well:

• An open sucking chest wound, ribs broken
away from the sternum, fractures to indi-
vidual ribs and collapsed lungs can interfere
with normal lung operation.

• An airway obstruction can prevent a suffi-
cient amount of air from reaching the lungs.

• Spinal-cord damage can paralyze the mus-
cles of the chest wall, causing the patient to
breathe with his diaphragm alone.

The rescuer should be aware that respiratory
shock, unlike the other types of shock, is not
caused by impairment of circulation. At the out-
set the heart is operating normally, with the
proper amount of blood. The blood vessels are
constantly adjusting to keep the system full. How-
ever, the oxygen supply available for exchange in
the lungs is not normal, and consequently the
blood is not properly oxygenated. Inadequate air
exchange in the lungs can produce shock as
quickly as blood loss.

Neurogenic Shock. This is caused by loss of
control of the nervous system. When the spinal
cord is damaged in an accident, nerve pathways
between the brain and the muscles are interrupted
at the point of injury. As a result, the muscles
controlled by the damaged nerves are paralyzed.
These include the muscles in the walls of the
blood vessels. The blood vessels can no longer
change size in response to signals from the ner-
vous system. They remain wide open, so a greater
amount of blood is required to fill the vessels.
Since the cardiovascular system contains only
enough blood to fill the vessels in the normal state,
circulation is impaired and shock develops
quickly.

Psychogenic Shock. This is commonly known
as fainting. Simple fainting is a reaction of the
nervous system to such stimuli as fear, bad news,
the sight of blood or a minor injury, rapid tem-
perature changes and overexertion. Unless other
problems are present, fainting is usually self-cor-
recting. As soon as the head is lowered, blood
circulates to the brain and normal functions are
restored. Fainting can often be prevented if the
head is lowered before loss of consciousness (by
sitting down and placing the head between the
knees). There are times when bystanders may
tease the patient who has fainted. The rescuer
should clear the area whenever possible to pro-
tect the patient from such abuse.

Cardiogenic Shock. This type is caused by in-
adequate functioning of the heart. Proper blood
circulation depends on efficient and continuous
heart operation. However, certain diseases and
disorders weaken the heart muscle and cause it
to operate at a reduced output. When the heart
can no longer develop the pressure required to
move blood to all parts of the body, circulation
is impaired and shock results.

Signs and Symptoms of Shock

The signs of shock were listed briefly in an earlier
section. In more detail, they are as follows:

• The eyes are dull and lackluster, a sign of
poor circulation.

• The pupils are dilated, another reliable sign
of reduced circulation.

• The face is pale and may be cyanotic. Cya-
nosis is an important sign of oxygen defi-
ciency, in this case caused by reduced cir-
culation.

• Respiration is shallow, possibly irregular or
labored. The vital centers that regulate

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Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

breathing are slowing down, as are all life
processes.

• The pulse is rapid and weak. The heart is
working faster to make up for the reduced
blood pressure and volume.

• The skin is cold and clammy. Blood has
stopped circulating actively in the extremi-
ties and is collecting in the vital organs.

• There may be nausea, collapse, vomiting,
anxiety and thirst.

Emergency Care for Shock

1. Ensure adequate breathing. If the patient
is breathing, maintain an adequate airway
by properly positioning the head. If the
patient is not breathing, establish an air-
way and restore breathing through some
means of pulmonary resuscitation. If both
respiration and circulation have stopped,
start CPR.

2. Control bleeding. If the patient has bleed-
ing injuries, use direct pressure, pressure
points or a tourniquet as required.

3. Administer oxygen. An oxygen deficiency
will result from the reduced circulation.
Administer 100% oxygen to the patient
to compensate for this loss (qualified per-
sonnel only).

4. Elevate the lower extremities. Since blood
flow to the heart and brain may have been
diminished, circulation can be improved
by raising the legs slightly. It is not recom-
mended that the entire body be tilted down
at the head, since then the abdominal or-
gans may press against the diaphragm and
interfere with breathing. Exceptions to the
rule of raising the legs are cases of head
and chest injuries, where it is desirable to
lower the pressure in the injured parts. In
these cases, the upper part of the body
should be elevated slightly. Whenever there
is any doubt as to the best position, the
patient may be placed perfectly flat with-
out adverse results.

5. Avoid rough handling. Handle the patient
as gently and as little as possible. Body
motion tends to worsen shock.

6. Prevent loss of body heat. Keep the patient
warm, but guard against overheating,
which can worsen shock. Place a blanket
under the patient, as well as over him, to
prevent loss of heat into the deck.

7. Keep the patient lying down. This avcids
taxing the circulatory system at a time

when it should be at rest. However, some
patients, such as those with heart disorders,
will have to be transported in a semisitting
position.

8. Give nothing by mouth.

Anaphylactic Shock

Anaphylactic shock (or anaphylactic reaction)
deserves special emphasis since it is a condition
that should be considered a true emergency.
Anaphylactic shock occurs when a person con-
tacts or ingests something to which he is extremely
allergic. The anaphylactic reaction may occur
within a few seconds after exposure to an allergic
substance. Thus, prompt recognition and treat-
ment of the problem are vitally important.

The signs and symptoms of anaphylactic shock
are:

• Itching or burning skin, especially about the
chest and face (the skin may also be flushed)

• Hives over large areas of the body

• Swelling of the face and tongue

• Cyanosis visible at the lips

• Tightening or pain in the chest, wheezing,
difficulty in breathing

• Weak or imperceptible pulse, dizziness,
faintness or even coma.

Anaphylactic shock is a true emergency because
it requires the injection of medication to combat
the allergic reaction. Initial emergency care efforts
should be directed toward life support.

Transport the patient to a hospital immediately
and notify the hospital by radio. If the informa-
tion is available, notify the hospital of the sub-
stance that caused the reaction and the means of
contact (inhalation, injection or ingestion). Pro-
vide life-support measures as required, including
pulmonary and cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
Administer oxygen (qualified personnel only),
and treat for shock.

BURNS

Many physiological effects result from exposure
to heat. These include dehydration, heat exhaus-
tion, blockage of the respiratory tract (edema)
and burns.

Burns are damage to the skin (and underlying
tissue) caused by high temperatures. The damage
almost always arises from heat generated within
the body by metabolic processes, rather than
from heat directed at the body from outside. That
is, the high temperature of the surroundings usu-
ally interferes with the elimination of heat pro-

Emergency Medical Care

299

duced within the body, thereby causing a rise in
body temperature. There are relatively few in-
stances in which the temperature of the surround-
ings is severe enough to cause a transfer of heat
to the body.

The Skin

There are three layers of skin: the epidermis, the
dermis, and the subcutaneous layer. The epi-
dermis is made up of cells that are unusual be-
cause they can endure wear and tear; they are
waterproof, and they contain sensory nerve end-
ings. The dermis is the second layer of skin, made
up of dense connective tissue that gives the skin
its strength and elasticity. In this layer are hair
follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. The
subcutaneous layer is a layer of fatty tissue.

Classes of Burns

Burns may be classified according to cause and
depth (or degree). The six major classes of burns
by cause are:

• Thermal burns (caused by heat, including
both flame and radiated heat)

• Chemical burns

• Electrical burns

• Cryogenic burns (caused by cold)

• Nuclear radiation burns

• Light burns (eye injuries).

Relative to depth, some physicians classify
burns as either partial or full thickness. However,
burns are usually classified by degree.

First-degree burns are burns involving the
outer layer of skin (Fig. 14.16). A first-degree
burn is a superficial injury, characterized by red-
dening of the skin. The reddening may be quite
intense. A sunburn or mild scald is an example
of a first-degree burn. While it may be quite pain-
ful, it will not cause scarring and will heal on
its own.

Second-degree burns are burns involving a
partial thickness of the skin. A second-degree
burn is characterized by deep reddening and
blistering, caused by the injury of deeper layers
of the skin and the capillaries found there. Plasma
seeps into the tissues, raising the top layers of
skin to form a blister. A second-degree burn,
while deeper than a first-degree burn, does not
injure the tissues to such an extent that they can-
not heal themselves when treated with reasonable
care. This is an important point that is not always
recognized. Burns that are entirely second degree
cause little scarring and do not require skin graft-
ing. Sometimes, owing to the large body surface

involved, they make the patient very ill and pre-
sent a serious problem.

According to the NFPA, the following combi-
nations of temperature and exposure produce
second-degree burns of equal intensity:

Time of Exposure

Temperature

1 sec or less

1093-1 649 °C (2000-3000° F)

3 sec

371-482° C (700-900° F)

15 sec

100°C (212°F)

20-60 sec

71-82°C (160-180° F)

Inhalation of air at these temperatures is said to
produce burns of the respiratory tract with
slightly longer exposure.

Third-degree burns are burns involving all
layers of the skin, and sometimes underlying fat,
muscle and even bone. These burns are also
called full-thickness burns. A third-degree burn
involves the entire thickness of the skin, with or
without charring. Such a burn can never heal by
itself, but requires the best surgical care. Lack of
proper care may cause the patient to suffer
months and even years of infection, disability and
scarring.

Extensive third-degree burns can be extremely
difficult surgical problems, requiring skin graft-
ing of the involved areas at the earliest possible
moment. Without grafting, the only way the
wound can heal itself is by contracture, or draw-
ing undamaged skin together to cover the dam-
aged areas; the part that has been destroyed can-
not be replaced except by dense scar formation.
Third-degree burns may be the least painful of
all types because of the extensive damage to
nerve endings in the skin.

Determining the Severity of Burns

The amount of skin surface involved in a burn
can be calculated quickly by using the "Rule of
Nines." Each of the following areas represents
9% of the body surface: the head and neck; each
arm; the chest; the upper back; the abdomen; the
lower back and buttocks; the front of each leg;
the back of each leg. The genital region is re-
garded as 1 % of the body surface.

When the degree of the burn and the amount
of body surface involved have been determined,
the injury can be classified as to severity.

Critical (severe) burns are :

• Second-degree burns covering more than
30% of the body surface

• Third-degree burns covering more than
10% of the body surface

300

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

First Degree
Partial Thickness

Skin Reddened

Second Degree
Partial Thickness

Blisters

Third Degree
Full Thickness

Epidermis
Dermis

Fat
Muscle

Charring

Figure 14.16. Classification of burns according to severity.

• Third-degree burns involving the critical
areas of the hands, face or feet

• Burns complicated by respiratory tract in-
jury, major soft-tissue injury, and fractures.

Moderate burns are:

• Second-degree burns covering 15% to 30%
of the body surface

• Third-degree burns covering less than 10%
of the body surface, including the hands,
face and feet.

Minor burns are:

• Second-degree burns covering less than 1 5 %
of the body surface

• Third-degree burns covering less than 2%
of the body surface

• First-degree burns covering less than 20%
of the body surface, excluding the hands,
face and feet.

Emergency Medical Care

301

Emergency Care Supplies

To give the burn patient the best possible care
during treatment on the scene and transportation
to a medical facility, the following equipment
should be carried in the ship's medicine chest:

• Oropharyngeal airways of assorted sizes

• A bag-mask resuscitator with facepieces of
various sizes

• Universal body dressing (a bed sheet is ac-
ceptable and is actually preferred because it
can cover large areas, is economical and is
easy to maintain)

• Universal extremity dressings (a sterile or
clean terrycloth or turkish towel is pre-
ferred)

• At least 1000 cc of normal saline solution,
including infusion tubes (without needles)
for continuous treatment of chemical burns
of the eyes and irrigation of the eyes when
the eyelids are destroyed

• Sterile dressings in assorted sizes, for the
head, face and neck, and between the fin-
gers and toes

• Small suction cups to remove contact lenses
from the eyes

• Bandage scissors

• Thermal blankets to maintain body heat.

Emergency Care of Burns

Burns are not treated, but rather cared for until
medical attention can be obtained. Hospitals and
physicians have particular courses of treatment
for burns of different types. Any first aid treat-
ment involving the application of ointments or
sprays may make the physician's task more diffi-
cult. In any case, sprays or ointments that are
applied by rescuers must be cleaned from the pa-
tient's body when he arrives at a medical facility.
This is a long, tedious and often painful process.

Thermal Burns. General emergency care for pa-
tients with thermal burns is as follows: First make
sure that the patient can breathe. Establish and
maintain an open airway, and provide pulmonary
resuscitation as required.

Check the patient for other injuries. A patient
who has been burned may have fractures and
lacerations caused by an explosion or the attempt
to escape from the fire area. Lacerations and
fractures must be treated as if no burns were
present.

Cover the patient with a sterile or clean dress-
ing (Fig. 14.17). Coverings such as blankets or
other materials with a rough texture should not
be used, because they can contaminate the wound.
When the hands and feet are involved, dressings
should be applied between the fingers and toes
to minimize skin separation. Use sterile gauze

PARTIAL-THICKNESS BURNS

Cover Entire Area With Sterile Burn;Pad

FULL-THICKNESS BURNS

• Wrap Area With Dry Sterile Dressings

• Transport Patient Lying Flat

• Treat for Shock

Figure 14.17. Emergency care for thermal burns.

302

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

pads for this purpose, and moisten them if sterile
water is available. Moistened pads should also
be used to cover burned eye areas.

Treat the patient for shock, and maintain his
body heat. Do not delay transportation to a medi-
cal facility, but accomplish it smoothly and care-
fully.

Minor burns, such as first-degree and small
second-degree burns, can be made less painful
by the application of cold towels or immersion of
the burned parts in cold water. This procedure
minimizes pain and reduces blistering. The burned
part should be kept in the cold water until all
pain subsides.

Respiratory difficulties should always be ex-
pected when there are burns about the face, or
when the patient has been exposed to hot gases
or smoke. Even when there is very little external
evidence of a burn, a flash fire could expose the
larynx to sufficient heat and chemical irritants to
cause laryngeal edema (a swelling of the tissues
of the larynx due to the buildup of fluids). This
complication can develop quite rapidly. Any pa-
tient exposed to a fire of this nature should be
taken to a medical facility for observation, even
though there may be no external signs of damage.
Huskiness of the voice, mild respiratory distress
or slight cyanosis should alert the rescuer to the
problem. In some cases, the condition develops
so quickly that the only relief possible is an emer-
gency tracheostomy. When there are burns about
the face of an unconscious patient, or evidence
that he has been exposed to hot fumes or gases,
an S tube or other oropharyngeal airway should
be inserted. It will ensure adequate breathing
during transportation to a medical facility.

Chemical Burns. Corrosive chemicals fall into
two general groups: acids and alkalis. Either can
burn the skin, mouth, eyes and other parts. Gen-
erally speaking, alkali burns are more serious
than acid burns, because alkalis penetrate deeper
and burn longer.

The first emergency action to be taken is to
remove all contaminated clothing, especially the
shoes and socks, and flood the affected areas
with water. There are, however, two exceptions
to this course of action. Mixing water with dry
lime creates a corrosive substance. Thus dry lime
should be brushed away from the skin and cloth-
ing, unless large amounts of water are available
for rapid and complete flushing. In acid burns
caused by phenol (carbolic acid), the affected
area should be washed with ethyl alcohol or some
other alcohol, since phenol is not soluble in
water. Then the burn may be washed with water.

It is difficult to specify exactly how long a
burned area should be irrigated with water. The
water should be allowed to flow over the area
long enough to ensure that all the chemical is
flushed from the skin. The aftercare for chemical
burns is similar to that for thermal burns. The
area should be covered with a burn sheet, and
the patient transported to a medical facility.

The rescuer should be careful not to get any
of the hazardous chemicals on his own skin and
clothing, and especially in his eyes. He should
quickly remove any contaminated clothing as
soon as his responsibilities to the patient are
completed.

Electrical Burns. (Caution: See Techniques for
Rescue and Short-Distance Transport, following
in this chapter.) Electrical burns may be more
serious than they first appear, since they often
involve deep layers of skin, muscles and even
internal organs. Basic emergency care for an
electrical burn is to cover the site with a clean
(preferably sterile) cloth and transport the patient
to a medical facility. It is important to look for
a second burn, which may have been caused by
the path of the current through the body. The
rescuer should also remember that in electrical
accidents, the shock is likely to affect the pa-
tient's heart and lung action. In most cases the
electrocuted patient will require CPR if he is to
live.

Cryogenic and Nuclear Radiation Burns. These
burns are discussed in the section on Environ-
mental Emergencies, later in this chapter.

Special Care for the Eyes (Light Burns). Imme-
diate emergency care is extremely important for
chemical burns of the eyes. If acid or alkali burns
are not treated immediately, irreparable damage
may occur. The only emergency treatment pos-
sible is to dilute the chemical by flushing the eyes
with large amounts of water. Sterile water is pre-
ferred, but if this is not available, ordinary run-
ning tap water should be used. (When chemicals
are splashed into the eyes of a patient wearing
contact lenses, the lenses should be removed im-
mediately. Otherwise, they will prevent the water
from getting to the corneal portions of the eye.)

Hold the patient's head, face up, under the
running water. Have him hold his eyes open so
that the globe and the undersides of the lids may
be thoroughly irrigated. Tilt the head slightly to
allow washing action from the nasal corner of
the eye to the outside corner.

If running water is not available, have the pa-
tient hold his face down in a basin of water. Ask

Emergency Medical Care

303

him to blink his eyes continually so that the neces-
sary washing action is provided. Because it is
natural to close the eyes when they are irritated,
the patient may find it difficult to keep his eyes
open during the irrigation. You may have to
assist him by applying slight traction to the lids
while the eyes are being flushed.

In port, irrigation of the eyes may be carried
out during transportation to the hospital, using
the fluids available in the ambulance. This will
mean that the patient can be given medical treat-
ment much sooner. At sea, the eyes should be
irrigated immediately and repeatedly until a
physician can be contacted by radio. In some
cases, irrigation of the eyes may have to be con-
tinued all the way into port.

When a person suffers burns of the face from
a fire, his eyes usually close rapidly due to the
heat, thus protecting the globes. However, the
eyelids remain exposed, and they may be burned
along with the rest of the face. Since the treat-
ment of burned eyelids requires specialized tech-
niques, it is best to transport the patient without
further examination of the eye. The eyelids should
be covered with loose dressings during transpor-
tation to the nearest medical facility.

Light injuries are generally very painful. Some
of the pain can be relieved by covering the eyes
with dark patches.

If a patient is unconscious and his eyes remain
open, the corneas may dry out, and ulcers will
form. This condition will cause blindness, even
though there are no other injuries to the eyes.
Protect the eyes of an unconscious patient by
maintaining their natural moisture. Close the lids
and keep them closed, using tape if necessary.
Normal tearing action will keep the surfaces of
the globes moist. Be careful not to let the tape
touch the globes.

FRACTURES AND INJURIES
TO THE BONES AND JOINTS

There are three types of bone and joint injuries:
fractures of bones, dislocations of bones, and
sprains (injuries to ligaments). Strains, which are
not injuries to the bones or joints, are often con-
fused with sprains. Strains are injuries to muscles,
caused by overexertion. The muscle fibers are
stretched and sometimes partially torn. In most
cases intense pain is the only sign of a strain.

Causes and Types of Fractures

In a fracture that is caused by direct violence, the
bone is broken at the point of contact with an
object. In a fracture caused by indirect violence,

the bone is broken at a point other than the point
of contact. The force that caused the break was
transmitted along the bone from the point of im-
pact. For example, a person who falls and lands
on his hands or feet may suffer a broken arm or
leg. A blow to the knees may fracture a hip.
Severe twisting forces may cause fractures. For
instance, a foot may be caught and twisted with
sufficient force to fracture one of the leg bones.
Powerful muscular contractions may cause pieces
of bone to be pulled away. In addition, disease or
agiig may weaken bones sufficiently so that only
a small force is needed to cause a break.

Fractures are divided into two basic categories,
depending on whether a soft-tissue injury ac-
companies the fracture. An open fracture is asso-
ciated with an open wound that extends between
the fracture and the skin surface (Fig. 14.18).
The soft-tissue injury may result from the tearing
action of the broken bones, or from the object
or force that caused the break. A closed fracture
is a fracture without an accompanying soft-tissue
injury. The injury must be determined by ob-
serving certain signs and symptoms. This injury
is commonly called a "simple" fracture.

Signs and Symptoms of Fractures

Fractures are not always indicated by visible out-
ward signs. Thus, the rescuer must be able to
recognize other reliable signs before deciding on
a course of treatment. However, whenever the
mechanism of an accident is such that a fracture
could exist, the rescuer should assume that it does
exist.

Exposed bone ends are, of course, the surest
sign of a fracture. Also, a severe open wound
may have been caused by a force strong enough
to fracture the bone directly under the wound
at the same time.

Deformity is always a good sign of a fracture
or dislocation. The rescuer should compare the
suspected part with the unbroken similar part on

CLOSED

No Associated
Soft-Tissue Injury

OPEN

Associated Soft-
Tissue Injury

Figure 14.18. The two basic types of bone fractures.

304

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

the opposite side of the body. This helps in de-
tecting differences in size or shape. Any depres-
sion of the skull should lead the rescuer to suspect
a fractured skull; any depression of the rib cage
is usually a sign of fractured ribs.

The patient's information is usually accurate.
Sometimes the victim of a fracture has heard the
bone snap or felt it break. Pain and tenderness,
along with the patient's information, are usually
reliable signs of a fracture. The site of a closed
fracture can be found by gently pressing along
the line of the bone; this is a helpful indicator
when other more obvious signs are not present.

Grating is a sensation that can be felt by the
rescuer when the broken ends rub together. How-
ever, this sign should not be sought intentionally,
as it often increases discomfort and adds to the
tissue damage.

Loss of use (disability) is a good sign of a frac-
ture. The patient will not be able to use his in-
jured arm or walk on his fractured leg. However,
he should not be asked to try this only to deter-
mine whether a break has occurred. The patient
often guards the injured part. In the case of a
broken arm, he usually tries to hold it in the most
comfortable position.

Dislocations

A dislocation is the shifting of a bone end that
forms part of a joint, with injury to the surround-
ing ligaments and soft tissues. The joints most
often affected by dislocations are the shoulders,
elbows, fingers, hips and ankles. The signs of a
dislocation are generally the same as those for a
fracture. They always include

• Pain in the joint

• Deformity at the joint

• Loss of movement and pain when the patient
attempts to move the joint.

A fracture or a dislocation may cause damage
to nerves and blood vessels. In a dislocation, the
bone end may be shifted a considerable distance
from the joint. As it shifts, the bone end may
move some nerves and blood vessels, or pinch
others against other bones, resulting in paralysis
or blood deficiency in the affected part. Numb-
ness or paralysis below the dislocation site indi-
cates a pinched or cut nerve. Loss of a pulse or
coldness in the extremity is evidence of a pinched
or severed blood vessel. If there is an indication
that a blood vessel has been affected by the dis-
location, immediate medical attention should be
sought; the limb could be irreparably damaged
by the reduced blood supply.

Sprains

Sprains are injuries in which ligaments are torn,
usually by a forced motion beyond the normal
range of the joint. Ankle sprains, for example,
are caused when the body weight is thrown
against a turned ankle. The areas of the body
most commonly affected by sprains are the ankles
and the knees.

Severe sprains often exhibit signs and symp-
toms similar to those of fractures and disloca-
tions; sprains are sometimes mistaken for those
more serious injuries. A dislocation almost al-
ways results in a deformity at the joint, while a
sprain causes no such deformity. Other signs of
sprains are:

• Pain during movement

• Swelling

• Discoloration.

Because dislocations and sprains exhibit the
same basic signs as fractures, and because the
rescuer does not have the formal training or the
equipment necessary to make an exact diagnosis,
he should treat all injuries to bones and joints as
if they are fractures.

Emergency Care for Injuries
to the Bones and joints

Most fractures, especially those of the open type,
appear gruesome and extremely dangerous, but
they are rarely a threat to life. Unhurried and
effective action by the rescuer may mean the dif-
ference between quick, complete recovery or a
long, painful period of hospitalization and re-
habilitation. No matter how short the distance
to a medical facility, all fractures should be
splinted before the patient is transported since
the patient may not be treated immediately upon
arrival at the medical facility.

In the case of a bone or joint injury, the res-
cuer should first care for the patient as a whole:

1 . Ensure that the patient has an open airway
and that he is breathing normally.

2. Stop any bleeding, and dress all wounds.
In the case of an open fracture, the wound
is dressed before the fracture is splinted.
Bleeding wounds associated with open
fractures may be controlled by direct pres-
sure or, in extreme cases, by a tourniquet.
Pressure-point control alone is not recom-
mended, unless it is used only until a pres-
sure dressing is applied.

3. Prevent shock.

Emergency Medical Care

305

When the patient's condition is stable, the res-
cuer should care for the bone or joint injury:

• Straighten any severely angulated fracture
that can be straightened safely.

• Do not attempt to push back any bone ends.

• Immobilize the extremity before moving the
patient.

• Immobilize the joints above and below the
fracture.

• Immobilize dislocated joints, but do not at-
tempt to reduce or straighten any disloca-
tion.

• Apply slight traction during the splintering
process.

• Splint firmly, but do not splint tightly enough
to interfere with circulation.

• Suspect an injury to the spine in any acci-
dent that could cause such an injury, as well
as obvious fractures or dislocations else-
where.

Straightening Angulated Fractures. Slightly
angulated fractures of the extremities do not usu-
ally present a problem. They can be immobilized
in place with little trouble. On the other hand,
severely angulated fractures pose a serious prob-
lem for both the rescuer and the patient. The
angulation may make transportation to a medical
facility quite difficult. The severe angle of the
limb may be pinching or even cutting nerves and
blood vessels at the injury site. Thus the rescuer
should attempt to straighten all severely angu-
lated fractures of the upper and lower extremities,
with one exception: Do not attempt to straighten
fractures of the shoulders, elbows, wrists or knees.
Because major nerves and great blood vessels
pass close to these joints, attempts to straighten
fractures may actually increase the possibility of
permanent damage.

The idea of straightening a severely angulated
fracture may be quite distasteful because of a fear
of causing additional pain. It is true that pain
may be increased during the straightening pro-
cedure. However, it will be temporary, and it
should decrease considerably after the splint is
applied. It may be far more painful for the patient
if he is transported with the limb in a severely
angulated position. For angulated fractures other
than those at the shoulders, elbows, wrists or
knees, the rescuer should proceed as follows.

Cut or tear away the clothing that lies over
the fracture site. If it is necessary to tear the cloth-
ing, do so very carefully to avoid moving the
limb. Work slowly and deliberately. Make every

effort to ensure that the broken ends of bone are
not forced through the skin.

Grasp the extremity gently but firmly (Fig.
14.19). One hand should be directly below the
break, and the other further down the limb for
support. Have another rescuer provide counter-
traction by holding the patient firmly in place,
especially the part of his body closest to the frac-
ture site.

Apply traction steadily and smoothly. If any
firm resistance is felt, do not attempt to correct
the angulation forcibly. When the limb has been
straightened, maintain traction on the extremity
until the splinting device has been applied.

Do not attempt to straighten a dislocation.
Movement of the displaced bones may damage
nerves and blood vessels that lie close to the joints.

The Reasons for Splinting. When nature's sup-
porting structure (the bone) is broken, some sub-
stitute support must be provided to prevent fur-
ther injury and shock. When properly applied, a
splint should:

1. Reduce the possibility that a closed frac-
ture will become an open one.

2. Minimize the damage to nerves, muscles
and blood vessels that might otherwise be
caused by the broken bone ends.

3. Prevent the bone ends from churning
around in the injured tissues and causing
more bleeding.

4. Lessen the pain that is normally associated
with the movement of broken bone ends.

Types of Splints. Any material or appliance
that can be used to immobilize a fracture or dis-
location is a splint. There are many types of com-
mercially made splints, such as wooden splints,
scored cardboard splints, molded aluminum
splints, soft-wire splints and inflatable plastic
splints.

The lack of a commercially made or specially
prepared splint should not keep the rescuer from
immobilizing a fracture or dislocation. A piece
of wire or a tongue depressor inside a bandage
may be sufficient to immobilize a fractured finger.
An injured leg may be immobilized by bandag-
ing it to the good leg, or by binding it in a pillow
or blanket roll. A cane, umbrella or similar object
may be used to splint a broken arm. Rolled-up
newspapers also make good splints. A ladder may
be used as a stretcher for transporting a patient
with an injured back or spinal injury.

Splints are of two basic types: rigid and trac-
tion. Backboards, notched boards, molded splints,

306

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Gently Grasp Extremity Above and Below Break

Apply Traction Steadily and Smoothly

Maintain Traction While Splint is Applied

Figure 14.19. Straightening a severely angulated fracture. Dislocations and fractures of the shoulders, elbows, wrists and
knees should not be straightened.

cardboard splints and inflatable splints are all
rigid splints. A rigid splint, whatever its construc-
tion, must be long enough so that it can be se-
cured well above and below the fracture site, to
immobilize the entire bone.

Applying a Rigid Splint. To apply a rigid splint,
grasp the affected limb gently but firmly, with
one hand above the fracture and the other below
it (Fig. 14.20). Apply slight traction by moving
your hands apart. Have another rescuer place a
padded splint under, above or alongside the limb.
(There should be enough padding to ensure even
contact and pressure between the limb and the
splint, and to protect all bony prominences.)

Wrap the limb and splint with bandaging ma-
terials so that the two are held firmly together.
Self-conforming, self-adhering roller bandage is
especially well suited for this purpose. Make sure
the bandaging material is not so tight that it
affects circulation. Leave the fingers or toes of the
splinted extremity uncovered, so that circulation
can be checked constantly.

It is important to remember that rigid splints
are effective only if they are long enough to im-
mobilize the entire fractured bone; if they are
padded sufficiently; and if they are secured firmly
to an uninjured part.

Grasp Limb Above and Below Break and
Apply Slight Traction

K

Place Padded Splint in Position and
Secure Limb to Splint With Bandage

Figure 14.20. Applying a rigid splint. The splint should be
long enough to be secured well above and below the frac-
ture.

Emergency Medical Care

307

Inflatable splints are effective in immobilizing
fractures of the lower leg or the forearm. They
are of little value for fractures of the humerus
(upper arm), or the femur (upper leg), since they
do not extend past the upper joint in either case.

To apply an inflatable splint, gather the splint
on your arm, so that the bottom edge of the splint
is above your wrist (Fig. 14.21). With the hand
of that arm, grasp the hand or foot of the affected
extremity. Have another rescuer grasp the injured
extremity above the fracture site. Apply gentle
traction between your hand and the hand of the
other rescuer.

While you maintain the traction, have the other
rescuer slide the air splint over your hand and
onto the patient's limb. See that it is properly
positioned and free from wrinkles. While you
continue to maintain traction, have the other

• Gather Splint on Your Own Arm

• Grasp Patient's Hand While Second EMT
Grasps Limb Above Fracture

• Apply Traction

Slide Splint Onto Limb
Inflate Splint by Mouth

~r

Figure 14.21. Applying an inflatable splint. The splint
should be inflated only to the point where it can be pressed
in easily with a thumb.

rescuer inflate the splint by mouth. It should be
inflated to the point where your thumb will make
a slight dent when you press it against the splint.

When an inflatable splint is applied in cold
weather and the patient is moved to a warmer
area, the air in the splint will expand. This may
cause too much pressure in the splint and on the
injured part. It may be necessary to deflate the
splint until the proper pressure is reached.

If the splint is of the zipper type, it is neces-
sary to lay the limb in the unzippered splint and
then to zip it up and inflate it. It will not be pos-
sible to maintain traction on the injured limb
during the operation. Again, the splint should be
inflated only by mouth, and only to the point at
which you can make an indentation in the splint
with your thumb.

Other Immobilization Techniques. An arm sling
made from a triangular bandage or other soft ma-
terial is valuable for use with splints of the upper
extremities. The sling serves several purposes: It
helps immobilize the injured limb; it helps ease
pain by taking some of the weight off the injured
part; and it supports and further protects the limb
during transportation.

To apply an arm sling, first place the splinted
limb in a comfortable position. Then fashion the
arm sling by placing the long edge of the triangu-
lar bandage along the patient's side opposite the
injury (Fig. 14.22). Bring the bottom end of the
bandage up over the forearm, and tie the two
ends together. Make sure that the knot is not
directly behind the patient's neck. Pin or tie the
pointed end of the sling so that it forms a cradle
at the elbow.

Another immobilization device is the sling and
swathe. It is most effective when the patient has a
fractured collarbone. To apply a sling and swathe,
first apply an arm sling in the manner just de-
scribed. Make a long swathe from 15.2-cm
(6-inch) bandaging material. Circle the body and
the arm sling with the swathe, and draw it up
snugly to hold the injured part firmly to the body
(Fig. 14.23).

Emergency Care for Injuries
to the Upper Extremities

Injury to the Clavicle (Collarbone). The patient
with a fractured clavicle typically sits or stands
with the shoulder of the injured side bent for-
ward. He generally has his elbow bent, with his
forearm placed across his chest and supported by
the other hand. The patient complains of pain in
and around the shoulder. Any movement of the

308

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Place Splinted Limb in Comfortable Position
Place Long Edge of Triangular Bandage Along
Patient's Side Opposite Injury
Bring Bottom End Over Forearm and Tie Ends
Secure Corner to Form Cradle

Fold Triangular Bandage
to Form Sling

Base
Corners

Figure 14.22. Applying an arm sling. A. Standard sling.
B. Alternative sling.

shoulder or the arm on the injured side is painful.
There may be swelling or an obvious lump in the
area of the injury.

Have the patient fold the arm of the injured
side across his chest in a comfortable position.

SLING AND SWATHE

Apply Arm Sling

Circle Body and
Arm Sling Snugl
With Swathe

Figure 14.23. Applying a sling and swathe.

Place the arm in a sling, and hold the sling against
the patient's body with a snug swathe.

Injury to the Humerus (Upper Arm). When the
humerus is fractured, swelling and deformity may
not be as evident as in other types of fractures.
The patient complains of pain, especially when
he moves the arm. The arm is tender when it is
touched gently in the area of the fracture.

First correct any severe angulation. Immobilize
the arm by securing it to a short board splint with
two cravats or roller bandages, one just above
the elbow and one just below the armpit (Fig.
14.24). Place the arm in a sling that supports only
the wrist. The weight of the forearm will thus
provide slight traction on the arm. If a short board
is not available, use a sling and swathe to im-
mobilize a fractured humerus.

Injury to the Elbow. Because bone movement
could damage nerves and blood vessels, a frac-

Immobilize
Arm With
Short Splint

Painful
Movement

Tenderness
in Fracture
Area

Place Wrist
In Sling
and Bind to
Body With
Swathe

Figure 14.24. Emergency care for a fractured humerus.

Emergency Medical Care 309

ture of the elbow must be immobilized in the posi-
tion in which it is found. It should not be twisted,
straightened or bent in any direction.

If the extremity is found in a straight-out posi-
tion, immobilize the limb in a well-padded splint
that extends from the armpit to the fingertips
(Fig. 14.25). If a splint of this length is not avail-
able, a rolled blanket may be used quite effec-
tively. If the extremity is found in a bent position,
immobilize the limb in the bent position with a
wire ladder splint, a padded board bandaged to
both the arm and forearm, or a sling and swathe
(Fig. 14.25).

Injury to the Forearm and Wrist. When there is
no angulation, splint the forearm in a well-padded
rigid splint that includes both the elbow and the
hand (Fig. 14.26). Place a rolled bandage or
similar material under the palm to maintain the
natural position of the hand. Secure the splinted
arm in a sling.

When there is severe angulation of the bones
of the forearm, straighten the angulation care-
fully with manual traction. Then splint the ex-
tremity in the manner just described. Inflatable

Straight
Position

Bent
Position

Secure Forearm
in Splint

Secure Arm
in Sling

If Forearm is Angulated, Straighten Carefully
With Manual Traction Before Splinting

Figure 14.25. An injured elbow should be immobilized in
the position in which it is found.

Figure 14.26. Emergency care for a forearm fracture. Note
the rolled bandage between the splint and the patient's
palm.

splints are especially well suited for immobiliz-
ing fractures of the forearm.

Injury to the Hand. A patient with a fractured
hand experiences acute pain and tenderness. The
joints of the injured bone appear much larger
than the other knuckles.

The hand should be secured to a board splint
that extends from beyond the fingertips to above
the wrist. The hand itself should be bandaged so
that it is maintained in the position of function.
The arm should be placed in a sling to help lessen
the pain. A fractured finger can be effectively
splinted with a padded tongue depressor. The end
of the wooden blade should extend well back into
the palm to minimize movement at the joints.

Emergency Care for Injuries
to the Lower Extremities

Injury to the Hip. A fractured hip may be im-
mobilized with a long board splint, such as the
long fracture board carried on ambulances. Use
a well-padded board that reaches from the pa-
tient's armpit to his ankle (Fig. 14.27). Using
cravats, tie this board to the ankle, lower leg,
thigh, trunk and chest, so that the entire leg,
pelvis and spine are immobilized.

A full backboard may also be used to immo-
bilize a fractured hip. Slide the backboard very
carefully under the patient, moving him as little
as possible (Fig. 14.27). Place a blanket between
the patient's legs, and bandage the legs together
from the thighs to the ankles. Using long straps,

310

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Traction Splinting

Well-Padded Board Splint

Full Backboard

Tying the Legs Together

Figure 14.27. Methods of immobilizing a fractured hip.

secure the patient to the backboard from head
to toe to ensure proper immobilization.

Dislocations of the hip are characterized by
obvious deformity about the hip joint, and by the
patient's resistance to attempts to correct the de-
formity. The leg is usually bent to some extent
and turned inward.

To care for a dislocation of the hip, slide a
long spine board very carefully under the patient.
Move him as little as possible. Keep the leg on
the injured side bent, using padding such as pil-
lows to maintain it in the position in which it was
found. Immobilize the patient on the board by
securing him with straps.

Injury to the Femur (Upper Leg). Swelling may
not be evident in the case of a fractured femur,
because there is so much soft tissue in the thigh.
However, pain and tenderness almost always ac-
company this injury. The patient may be in shock,
owing to the amount of blood that has been lost
into the tissues surrounding the fracture. The pain
that comes with any movement of the injured
extremity may contribute to the shock. There
may be either severe angulation or relatively little
deformity, depending on what caused the injury.
Severe angulation should be corrected by steady
traction. Continue the traction by applying a

half-ring splint, if available. If not, immobilize
the injured extremity with a long board splint or
a backboard, as in the case of a fractured hip.

Injury to the Knee. A fractured knee is painful,
tender and swollen. If it is bent, the patient will
not be able to straighten it. It may be possible to
feel the gap between fragments of bone. The knee
should be immobilized in the position in which
it is found, to prevent further damage to nerves
and blood vessels.

Improvise a means to immobilize the knee
with available materials. Use a padded board
splint to hold the leg in the position in which it
was found. Make sure that all spaces between
the splint and the leg are well padded.

A pillow can be used effectively to immobilize
a fractured knee. Mold the pillow around the
knee, in the position in which it is found. Use
cravat bandages or belts to secure the pillow to
the extremity. In moving the patient, take care
to shift the injured limb as little as possible.

Injury to the Lower Leg. In a fracture of the
lower leg, the usual pain and swelling are present,
even if there is no deformity. Severe angulation
should be corrected as previously described. In-
flatable splints are especially well suited for im-
mobilizing the lower leg.

To apply an inflatable splint to the lower leg,
slide the splint over your arm until the lower end
clears your wrist. Apply traction at the ankle
and foot while another rescuer holds and sup-
ports the extremity above the fracture. Continue
to maintain the traction while the other rescuer
slides the splint over your hand and onto the pa-
tient's leg (Fig. 14.28). Make sure that the splint

Figure 14.28. Emergency care for a fracture of the lower
leg.

Emergency Medical Care

311

is wrinkle-free and that it covers the fracture site.
Inflate the splint to the proper pressure.

If a board splint is to be used, take the toes of
the injured leg in one hand, and the heel in the
other. Pull gently to apply traction while another
rescuer applies a well-padded board splint to the
underside of the injured leg. Make sure that all
spaces between the leg and the splint are well
padded. Bandage the splint securely from the
knee to the ankle.

Effective splints for the lower leg may also be
made from pillows and blanket rolls.

Injury to the Ankle and Foot. It is often diffi-
cult to distinguish between a fracture and a sprain
of the foot or ankle. Local swelling and pain char-
acterize both types of injury. If it is impossible
to tell the difference, splint the injured part.

A simple pillow splint is a quick and effective
means of immobilizing an injured ankle or foot.
The pillow should be molded carefully around
the foot, and the edges secured with pins or
cravats.

ENVIRONMENTAL EMERGENCIES

Environmental emergencies are injuries caused
by the patient's surroundings. In firefighting situ-
ations, rescuers may have to deal with emergen-
cies caused by exposure to heat and cold, radia-
tion and air-borne poisons, as well as drowning.

Emergencies Caused by Heat

Normally, the body produces heat at a certain
rate. If this heat can leave the body as it is formed,
there is no change in body temperature. If heat
leaves the body too rapidly, the body cools down.
Heat is then produced at a greater rate, to bring
the body temperature back to normal.

If heat leaves the body too slowly, the body
temperature rises. As a result, the person is said
to have a fever. The excess heat speeds up certain
body processes, and additional heat is produced.
Then, the body must eliminate not only the nor-
mal heat, but also the additional heat.

Heat produced within the body is brought to
the surface mainly by the bloodstream. It es-
capes to the cooler surroundings by conduction
and radiation. If air movement or a breeze
strikes the body, additional heat is lost by con-
vection. However, when the temperature of the
surrounding air becomes equal to or rises above
the body temperature, all the heat must leave by
vaporizing moisture (sweat) from the skin. As the
air becomes more humid (contains more mois-
ture), the vaporization rate slows down. Thus, on

a very humid, hot day, when the temperature is
about the same as the body temperature, and
there is little or no breeze, too much heat may be
retained within the body. On such a day, or dur-
ing several such days (a heat wave), medical
emergencies due to heat are likely to occur.

Emergencies caused by heat are classified as
heat cramps, heat exhaustion or heat stroke.

Heat Cramps. Heat cramps usually affect peo-
ple who work in hot environments and perspire
a great deal. Loss of salt from the body causes
very painful cramps of the leg and abdominal
muscles. Heat cramps may also result from drink-
ing ice water or other drinks too quickly or in too
large a quantity. The signs of heat cramps are

• Muscle cramps in the legs and abdomen

• Pain accompanying the cramps

• Faintness

• Profuse perspiration.

To provide emergency care for heat cramps,
remove the patient to a cool place. Give him
sips of salted drinking water (5 ml salt per liter
(1 tsp salt per qt)). Apply manual pressure to
the cramped muscle. Transport the patient to a
medical facility if there is any indication of a
more serious problem.

Heat Exhaustion. Heat exhaustion also occurs
in individuals working in hot environments; it
may be associated with heat cramps. It is brought
about by the pooling of blood in the vessels of
the skin. The heat is transported from the interior
of the body to the surface by the blood. Blood
vessels in the skin become dilated, and a large
amount of blood collects in the skin. In addition,
blood collects in the lower extremities when the
patient is in an upright position. These two effects
may lead to the inadequate return of blood to the
heart, and eventually to physical collapse. Heat
exhaustion can be prevented if the crew takes
adequate water and salt tablets. Loose-fitting
garments that allow cooling by evaporation can
also aid in preventing heat exhaustion. However,
firefighters should not shed their protective gear.
The signs of heat exhaustion are

• Weak pulse

• Rapid and usually shallow breathing

• General weakness

• Pale, clammy skin

• Profuse perspiration

• Dizziness

• Unconsciousness

312 Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safely

• The appearance of having fainted (the pa-
tient responds to the treatment for fainting).

To provide emergency care for heat exhaus-
tion, remove the patient to a cool place and re-
move as much clothing as possible. Have the
patient drink cool water in which some salt has
been dissolved, if he is conscious. If possible, fan
the patient continually to remove heat by con-
vection, but do not allow chilling or overcooling.
Treat the patient for shock, and transport him to
a medical facility if there is any indication of a
more serious problem.

Heat Stroke. Heat stroke is a severe disturbance
of the heat-regulating mechanism, leading to high
fever and collapse. Sometimes this condition re-
sults in convulsions, unconsciousness and even
death. Direct exposure to the sun, poor circula-
tion, poor physical condition, and advanced age
bear directly on the tendency toward heat stroke.
It is a serious threat to life and carries a 20%
mortality rate. Alcoholics are extremely suscep-
tible.

The symptoms of heat stroke are

• Sudden onset

• Dry, hot and flushed skin

• Dilated pupils

• Early loss of consciousness

• Full and fast pulse

• The breathing is deep at first, but later shal-
low and even almost absent

• Twitching muscles, growing into convulsions

• Body temperatures reaching 40.5-41 °C
(105-106°F) or higher.

The rescuer must realize that heat stroke is a
true emergency. Transportation to a medical fa-
cility should not be delayed. Remove the patient
to a cool environment if possible, and remove as
much of his clothing as possible. Make sure there
is an open airway. Reduce the patient's body
temperature promptly by dousing his body with
water, or preferably by wrapping him in a wet
sheet. If cold packs are available, place them
under the arms, around the neck, at the ankles,
and any place where blood vessels that lie close
to the skin can be cooled. Protect the patient
from injury during convulsions, especially from
tongue biting.

Hyperthermia. In all cases of high body tem-
perature (hyperthermia), rescuers should avoid
extensive cold-pack treatment unless they are
trained to administer it.

Radio contact with a physician and constant
monitoring of the body temperature are critical
when cold packs are used. Never allow ice or
ice-filled objects to come into direct contact with
the patient. The patient should be covered, and
the cold packs placed around him. These cold
packs should in turn be covered to help maintain
their low temperature. The administering of cold
packs should be a slow process. If the tempera-
ture is lowered too rapidly, the patient may go
into shock. (This is why radio contact with a
physician is strongly recommended.)

Emergencies Caused by Cold

General Cooling (Hypothermia). General cool-
ing of the body is a true emergency. The patient
should be transported to a medical facility as
soon as possible.

Replace any wet clothing with dry clothing,
and warm the patient. Since the body cannot gen-
erate adequate body heat, it is necessary to pro-
vide heat externally. All body surfaces should be
warmed. To accomplish this, a hot water bottle,
heating pads and the like may be useful, but no
artificial heat should be placed next to the bare
skin. If the patient is inside a warm place and is
conscious, a hot bath will be most helpful. Hot
liquids (again, only if the patient is conscious)
will also speed the warming process.

Carefully monitor the patient's respiration and
heartbeat. For a severely cooled patient, pul-
monary or cardiopulmonary resuscitation may be
required in the event of cardiac arrest.

Local Cooling. Local cooling injuries, affecting
particular parts of the body, fall into two cate-
gories: frostbite and freezing. The parts most
commonly affected by frostbite are the ears, nose,
hands and feet. The symptoms of frostbite are
progressive. First, the exposed skin reddens.
Then, as exposure continues, the skin takes on a
gray or white blotchy appearance, especially at
the earlobes, cheeks and the tip of the nose. The
exposed skin surfaces become numb, owing to
reduced circulation. If the freezing process con-
tinues, all sensation is lost and the skin becomes
dead white.

Gradually rewarm the frozen part by immers-
ing it in warm water (specifically 39.4-41.7°C
(103-107°F)). Make sure the affected part does
not touch the container. In addition to rewarm-
ing, make every effort to protect the frozen area
from further damage. Very gently remove any-
thing that may cause constriction, such as boots,

Emergency Medical Care

313

socks or gloves. Obviously, if the feet are in-
volved the patient should not be allowed to walk.
Carefully and thoroughly dry the warmed area to
prevent recooling by evaporation.

The general condition and comfort of the pa-
tient are improved by hot, stimulating fluids such
as tea and coffee. Coffee is especially good, since
it both stimulates and helps to dilate the blood
vessels. In many cases, as the part begins to thaw
the pain is severe enough to require drugs for
relief.

After thawing is complete, raise and lower the
part rhythmically to stimulate the return of cir-
culation. Avoid pressure on any part of the frost-
bitten area. Cover the affected part with a dry,
sterile dressing. Do not allow the patient to smoke,
as tobacco constricts the blood vessels and re-
stricts circulation.

Deep frostbite, or freezing, is much more seri-
ous than frostbite. Like general cooling of the
body, it should be considered a true emergency.
Deep freezing of body tissues is characterized by
a waxy, white appearance; the skin surface is
quite hard and unyielding. It is likely that sub-
cutaneous tissues are injured, and may actually
be destroyed.

Arrange to transport the patient to a medical
facility without delay. Keep the affected parts
dry. Provide external body heat if possible, and
provide pulmonary assistance or CPR as required.

Emergencies Caused by Poisoning

Poisons can enter the system in four ways:

• Ingestion (by mouth)

• Inhalation (by nose)

• Absorption (through the skin)

• Injection (into the body tissues or blood-
stream).

In firefighting situations, it is rare to find a case
of poisoning by ingestion or injection. Proper
protective gear will eliminate these dangers. As
an added safety measure, those at the fire scene
should avoid gloved or bare hand contact with
their mouths. Care should be taken to avoid in-
gesting any foods that were stored open in the
fire area. Food containers and utensils should be
cleaned before use.

Inhaled Poisons. Inhaled poisons may produce
respiratory symptoms such as shortness of breath,
coughing and cyanosis. The patient may pass into
cardiac arrest if the respiratory problems are not
corrected. The patient should be removed from

the poisonous atmosphere and carried into fresh
air. If he is breathing, his lungs should be flushed
with oxygen (qualified personnel only). If he is
not breathing, pulmonary resuscitation or CPR
should be applied. A patient may show a tempo-
rary recovery from toxic gas poisoning and then
go into respiratory arrest when left unattended.
Anyone exposed to a toxic atmosphere should
be kept under close observation.

Usually there is no indication of carbon mon-
oxide poisoning until the patient collapses. The
gas is odorless, tasteless and colorless, so the
danger is not recognized until the patient passes
out. He may have headaches and dizziness, but
these are usually attributed to other causes and
thus overlooked. There is only one sign of carbon
monoxide poisoning that is usually reliable and
unmistakable: The skin takes on a cherry-red
color that is unlike any other symptom of illness.
Since this color change may not be obvious with
patients having dark complexions, assume the
toxic gas is carbon monoxide and treat as fol-
lows.

Remove the patient to fresh air, and start re-
suscitation immediately. If possible, use a bag-
mask resuscitator, so that the oxygen is admin-
istered as effectively as possible. If the patient is
breathing spontaneously, a mechanical inhalator
may be used. Transport the patient to a medical
facility as soon as possible.

Absorbed Poisons. Absorbed poisons may cause
irritation of the skin and mucous membranes and
inflammation of the eyes.

To care for a patient who has absorbed poison
through the skin, remove the contaminated cloth-
ing, including shoes, watches and rings. Flood
the contaminated surface with water for at least
15 minutes. Do not use medication on the skin
unless ordered to do so by a physician. If the
poison has contacted the eyes, flush them with
large amounts of water. Observe the patient
closely for signs of shock, and be alert for changes
in respiration and circulation.

Emergencies Caused by Explosions

An explosion is a very rapid release of energy.
The magnitude of an explosion depends on sev-
eral factors, including the type of explosive agent,
the space in which the agent is detonated, and
the degree of confinement of the explosion. The
damage done by an explosion results from a shock
wave that is generated by the release of energy.
As the wave extends outward in all directions,
two types of pressure are generated almost si-

314

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

multaneously. An overpressure (an increase over
normal atmospheric pressure) surrounds each ob-
ject as the shock wave hits it, tending to crush it
inward. At about the same time, dynamic pres-
sure (like a strong wind) strikes the object and
tends to push it over and tear it apart. Any loose
debris is picked up and propelled outward by the
shock wave.

As the shock wave passes, the pressure de-
creases slightly (to below normal), and the air-
flow is reversed. This suction phase may cause
further damage, although considerably less than
that resulting from the shock wave.

Within the area of the blast, certain injuries
may result from the shock wave itself. These in-
clude ruptured eardrums, ruptured internal or-
gans, internal bleeding, and contusions of the
lungs caused by the rapid changes in pressure.
The lung injuries may cause pulmonary edema
and hcmofrage. The resulting fluid congestion
may decrease the amount of oxygen available for
transfer to the blood, causing anoxia.

As explosive material detonates, a great deal
of heat is generated. Although this heat is rap-
idly dissipated, people close to the point of deto-
nation may be burned. The severity of burns,
like other blast-related injuries, depends a great
deal on the distance of the victim from the ex-
plosion. Unprotected skin areas, such as the face
and hands, are especially vulnerable.

Since the shock wave causes loose materials
and debris to be propelled outward, people may
be injured by flying objects. These objects may
cause abrasions, contusions and lacerations. If
the objects are traveling at sufficient speed, they
may also cause fractures or penetrate the extrem-
ities and vital organs. Heavy falling objects may
cause typical crushing injuries, including severely

bleeding wounds and fractures.

Rescuers should be prepared to deal with
multiple and widely varied injuries in each pa-
tient. They should ensure an adequate airway,
support respiration as required, control external
bleeding, and splint fractures. Patients should be
transported to a medical facility without delay,
and the probability of severe internal injuries
must be considered.

Drowning Emergencies

In drownings, the type of water entering the lungs
is an important factor. In fresh-water drowning,
the water in the lungs is absorbed into the blood-
stream through the capillary walls. Two things
happen: The blood vessels swell and in some
cases burst, and the blood chemistry is thrown
badly out of balance. The chemical imbalance is

so great, in fact, that the heart goes into ventricu-
lar fibrillation. This is probably the principal
cause of death in fresh-water drownings.

When a victim drowns in salt water, the proc-
ess is reversed. Salt water is more concentrated
than blood, so fluid is drawn from the blood into
the lungs, causing pulmonary edema, or satura-
tion of the lung tissues. As much as one-quarter
of the blood volume may be lost into the lungs
in a salt-water drowning; the victim may actually
drown in his own fluids.

In all drowning cases, resuscitation measures
must be started within a very few minutes if the
patient is to survive. No effort should be made
to drain water from the lungs; getting air into the
patient without delay is of prime importance.
Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation should be started
even before the patient is removed from the water,
if at all possible. If there are signs of cardiac
arrest, CPR should be initiated when the patient
can be placed on a firm surface. As soon as it is
available, oxygen should be administered under
positive pressure by a qualified professional.

Even if the patient has apparently recovered
at the scene, he should be transported to a medi-
cal facility without delay. Delayed deaths after
apparent recovery are common. They may be
caused by pulmonary edema (fluid in the lungs)
or other complications. In some cases, involved
medical procedures are required to save the
patient.

Special techniques for water rescue are dis-
cussed in the next section.

Emergencies Caused by Atomic Radiation

Radiation is a general term describing the trans-
mission of energy. It takes several forms, includ-
ing light, heat and sound. Ionizing radiation, the
type to be discussed here, is dangerous because
it cannot be seen, felt or heard. A person sub-
jected to harmful ionizing radiation may be una-
ware of his exposure until instruments detect the
radiation or until symptoms appear some time
later.

There are three types of ionizing radiation.
Alpha rays do little damage; they can be stopped
by minimal shielding, such as clothing or even
newspaper. Beta rays are more dangerous, but
they still may be stopped by heavy clothing.
Gamma rays are extremely dangerous. Gamma
radiation can pass through clothing and com-
pletely through the body, inflicting great damage
to body cells. However, the danger of alpha and
beta rays should not be underestimated. They can
enter the body via inhalation, consumption of
contaminated food or through open wounds. Once

Emergency Medical Care

315

radioactive particles are in the body, they con-
tinue to inflict cell damage until they are removed
or until they decay.

Since ionizing radiation cannot be seen, felt
or heard, some sort of detection instrument must
be used to measure it. A Geiger counter is the
device most commonly used, although ionization
chambers and other devices may also be em-
ployed. The rate of radiation is measured in
roentgens per hour.

If rescue is required, it should be performed
quickly. Rescuers should wear protective clothing
and breathing apparatus. The heavy clothing will
shield them from alpha and beta radiation, and
the breathing apparatus will prevent inhalation
of radioactive particles. The victim should be ap-
proached away from the direction of smoke and
air movement, as far as is possible. Radioactive
particles may be carried in dust or in smoke. In
a fire, smoke-borne radioactive particles will be
a problem. Everyone should be removed from the
path of the smoke.

The patient should be removed immediately,
even if speedy evacuation violates the rules of
good emergency care. Rescuers should remove
their protective clothing and store it on the scene
in a safe place. A radiological monitoring team
can then evaluate it and decontaminate it.

Emergency Care for Patients Exposed to Radia-
tion. There are four types of patients in radia-
tion accidents.

1. The patient who has received external
radiation over all or part of his body. Even
if this patient has received a lethal dose,
he presents no hazard to the rescuer, other
patients or the environment.

2. The patient who has suffered internal con-
tamination through inhalation or ingestion.
This patient is not a hazard to the rescuer,
other patients or the environment. The res-
cuer should clean away minor amounts of
contaminated material deposited on the
body surface during air-borne exposure.
Then the patient should be treated for
chemical poisoning, such as lead poison-
ing.

3. The patient who has suffered external con-
tamination of the body surface and/or
clothing by liquids or dirt particles, with
problems similar to vermin infestation.
Here, there is a potential hazard, and surgi-
cal isolation techniques must be used to
protect rescuers. Cleansing measures must
be used to protect other patients and the
environment.

4. The patient with an open wound. When
external contamination is complicated by
a wound, care must be taken to avoid the
cross-contamination of surrounding sur-
faces from the wound, and vice versa. The
wound and surrounding surfaces should be
cleaned separately, and sealed off when
clean.

The general rules for handling radiation acci-
dent victims are as follows: Give lifesaving emer-
gency assistance if it is needed. Determine
whether physical injuries or open wounds are in-
volved. Cover any open wounds with clean dress-
ings, held in place with bandages; do not use ad-
hesive tape. Place the victim on a stretcher if he
is not already on one. Cover the stretcher, includ-
ing the pillow, with an open blanket. Wrap the
patient in the blanket, to limit the spread of con-
tamination. If possible, obtain pertinent informa-
tion, including rough radiological measurements,
from those in attendance.

Decontamination. Rescuers should follow strict
decontamination procedures after an exposure to
radioactive materials, whatever the source.

Remove and save all clothing for evaluation
by a radiological monitoring team. Do not burn
the clothing, since that could release contami-
nated particles into the air in the form of radio-
active smoke. Shower immediately, paying close
attention to your hair, body orifies and body-fold
areas. Decontaminate all emergency equipment
under the supervision of the decontamination
team.

TECHNIQUES FOR RESCUE AND
SHORT-DISTANCE TRANSPORT

In most emergency situations, the victim must
be removed from the accident site before he can
be given complete emergency care. A victim over-
come by carbon monoxide must be quickly moved
to fresh air, a victim whose leg is pinned under
wreckage must be disentangled and moved away
from danger before his leg can be examined and
splinted, and so on.

The actions required of rescuers in removing
a victim will, of course, depend on the circum-
stances. However, these actions should be per-
formed in the proper sequence. Although removal
is discussed last in this chapter, it is the rescuer's
first duty to his patient.

Rendering Aid

On reaching the victim, the rescuer should imme-
diately evaluate him for life-threatening problems.

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Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

The first consideration is establishment and
maintenance of an open airway. If the patient is
not breathing, a simple head tilt may open his
airway and start respiration; or, it may be neces-
sary to insert an S tube or oropharyngeal airway.
If an open airway has been ensured but the pa-
tient is still not breathing, he must be ventilated
without delay. The most effective method is
mouth to mouth (or mouth to S tube). A bag-
mask resuscitator may be used if one has been
carried to the disaster site. Under no circum-
stances should the rescuer wait for a mechanical
resuscitator before starting artificial ventilation.

When the patient is breathing, the rescuer's
attention can be directed to controlling any seri-
ous bleeding that poses a threat to life. Until help
is available, bleeding must be controlled by direct
pressure, or, if limbs have been severed, by a
tourniquet. If the patient has gone into cardiac
arrest, CPR must be started and continued during
revival attempts.

The rescuer providing the initial care should
check carefully for signs of spinal injury, espe-
cially in the patient's neck. If such signs are pres-
ent (as determined by examining the patient or
from the mechanism of injury), the rescuer should
try to stabilize the patient's head until additional
rescuers arrive to assist in immobilization pro-
cedures.

Disentanglement

Once rescuers have gained access to him, the
patient should be disentangled from wreckage,
debris, and so forth. This activity is carried on
while emergency care is being rendered.

Disentanglement, like gaining access to the
patient, may be simple or highly complex. It may
involve no more than cutting a patient's shoe
away to release his trapped foot; or, it may re-
quire the removal of a great deal of material that
surrounds him. Rescuers should be thoroughly
familiar with the tools used in the disentangle-
ment phase of rescue work, including hand tools,
hydraulic rescue tools, power saws and acetylene
equipment.

Preparation for Removal

When wreckage and other obstacles have been
removed from around the patient and he is ac-
cessible, he can be prepared for removal. If the
patient has been severely injured, extensive prep-
arations are required. In this case, the patient
should be "packaged as a unit."

The purpose of packaging is to minimize the
danger of further damage to existing injuries. It
involves procedures such as applying splints to

fractured limbs, dressing and bandaging soft-
tissue injuries and stabilizing impaled objects.
Packaging also includes immobilization of the
patient on a long or short spine board if there is
evidence of spinal injury. In some cases, this pro-
cedure is more important than all other emer-
gency care measures (except the control of life-
threatening problems), because of the danger of
worsening the spinal injury. If immobilization is
necessary, fractures and lesser injuries can be
treated after the patient is removed from the
wreckage. The rescuer should be alert for changes
in respiration while preparing the patient for re-
moval.

Removal

Removal, too, may be either quite simple or very
complex. The rescuer may only be required to
walk with the patient, or he may have to raise a
patient to another deck with ropes and a basket
stretcher.

A number of techniques may be employed to
remove patients. Several are described in the last
part of this section. Which one is used in a par-
ticular situation will depend on the situation and
the equipment available. Mechanical devices,
however, are only as good as the people using
them. Rescue personnel must have mechanical
aptitude and knowledge, and those characteristics
must be supported with ingenuity and a large
measure of common sense.

Removing Victims from Electrical Hazards. The

rescuer who finds a victim in the vicinity of live
electrical equipment or wiring should immedi-
ately call for assistance and support. The engi-
neering officer should be notified, so that elec-
trical power in the area can be shut down before
rescue begins. Then a danger zone should be
established. The danger zone is the area around
the accident that may be hazardous to both spec-
tators and rescue personnel.

Rescue personnel should carefully check the
area for exposed wires. If any wires are down or
have been displaced, a close visual check should
be made to determine what the wires are touch-
ing. The downed conductors may be contacting
the deck, pools of water or other conducting sub-
stances. Unless the wires are touching the victim,
are close enough to present an immediate hazard
or are lying in water, it is probably safe to ap-
proach the victim and carry out emergency care
procedures. However, the rescuer should not ap-
proach the victim if the deck or area surrounding
the victim may be energized. If the victim is con-
scious and able to respond, he can be warned to

Emergency Medical Care

317

remain in position until the area is electrically
secure.

Energized wires should be handled only with
the proper safety equipment. It would be fool-
hardy for rescuers to attempt to handle wires
while wearing ordinary fireman's gloves and rub-
ber boots. If rescuers must move wires, they
should wear special lineman's gloves and use a
tool called a "hot stick." Even with this equip-
ment, they must work carefully and deliberately.

An alternative tool for removing an energized
wire is a weighted rope. It is preferable to use a
rope made of a synthetic fiber; otherwise, a good
quality rope without metal strands, and absolutely
dry, may be substituted. Dryness is a necessity
because a wet rope can conduct electricity as well
as a wire. The rope should be 0.64 cm i}A inch)
in diameter and 30.48 m (100 feet) long, with a
weight of about 230 gm (y2 pound) attached to
each end. One end of the weighted rope should
be thrown over the wire, and the other end flipped
under the wire. A rescuer should then take hold
of both ends of the rope, and carefully pull the
wire free, making sure that the wire does not whip
during the procedure. No attempt should be made
to cut the wire, since it may whip during the cut-
ting, or arc and seize the cutting tool. When the
electrical hazard has been removed, the patient
can be treated for his injuries. If the patient has
contacted the live wire, the rescuer should check
for signs of life and begin CPR immediately, if
necessary.

Electrical energy affects the body in two ways.
The heart is usually stimulated by a minute elec-
trical current, which causes the muscle to con-
tract and the heart to "beat." When an outside
electrical current passes through the body, the
natural heart stimulation is interrupted. The nor-
mal heartbeat is altered, and the shocked victim
generally goes into cardiac arrest.

Electricity also destroys body tissue. In high-
voltage, high-amperage accidents, the tissue dam-
age may be massive. In fact, large chunks of
tissue may be burned away, leaving a gaping
wound that extends inward to bone or to vital
organs. A patient who has contacted a high-
voltage source usually has two burned areas —
one at the point where he contacted the electrical
source, and one at the point where the current
passed from his body to the ground.

Removing a Victim with a Neck Injury from Deep
Water. One rescuer should approach the pa-
tient from the head. He should place one arm
under the patient's body so that the patient's head
rests on the rescuer's arm and the patient's chest

is supported by the rescuer's hand. The rescuer
should then place his other arm over the patient's
head and back, splinting the patient's head and
neck between the rescuer's arms. In one move-
ment, the patient should be rolled over, with his
head and neck supported between the rescuer's
arms. The rescuer can, at this point, begin mouth-
to-mouth resuscitation, if necessary. As in the
case of other patients with neck injuries, the head
should be tilted all the way back.

During this operation, another rescuer should
enter the water with a backboard, plank or other
similar support. While the first rescuer holds the
patient's head in a stable position, the second
should slide the support device under the patient's
body. The rescuers should exercise caution dur-
ing this move. Most rigid devices are very buoy-
ant and can slip loose and cause serious injury
to the patient.

While the first rescuer continues to hold the
patient's head in a stable position, the second
should fasten a cervical collar, neck roll or other
immobilizing device around the patient's neck
for support. Additional support can be provided
by rolled wet towels placed firmly against the
patient's head. The board (or other rigid support)
may then be floated and removed by other res-
cuers with a minimum of patient movement.

Emergency One-Man Carries

The Blanket Drag. To use the blanket drag,
first gather half a blanket lengthwise in pleats.
Place the pleated portion against the side of the
patient (Fig. 14.29). Smooth the other half of
the blanket away from the patient.

Extend the patient's arm, on the side away
from the blanket, over his head in a straight line.

Figure 14.29. The one-man blanket drag. The steps in get-
ting the patient onto the blanket are shown at the bottom,
from left to right.

318

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

The outstretched arm will provide a cushion for
the patient's head and allow his body to be rolled
quite easily.

Now roll the patient onto his side, maintaining
his body in as straight a line as possible. While
holding the patient on his side with one hand,
push the pleated portion of the blanket against
the patient's back. Roll the patient back onto the
blanket, on his back.

To spread the blanket, extend the patient's
other arm in a straight line over his head, and
roll him in the opposite direction. Now smooth
out the pleats, and return the patient to the
blanket, on his back. With his arms at his sides,
wrap him snugly in the blanket.

The Clothes Drag. Firmly grasp the patient's
shirt or coat collar so that his head is resting on
your forearm. Pull him to safety, keeping his
head as close to the deck as possible, and keeping
his body in a straight line. Make sure that the
collar is not pulled so tightly around his neck
that it creates an airway obstruction.

A patient can be moved down inclined ladders
by the clothes drag, with a shift in the position of
your hands. When you are ready to descend the
ladder, place your hands under the patient's
shoulders, with your palms up. Cradle his head
in your arms, and slide him as close to the plane
of the ladder as possible.

The Fireman's Drag. To move a patient by the
fireman's drag, place him on his back, with his
arms above his head. Tie his hands together with
a piece of rope, a cravat, a piece of sheeting or
some similar material. Straddle the patient's body,
and pass your head through the patient's trussed
arms. By raising the upper part of your body,
you can lift the patient's shoulders just clear of
the deck. Then you can crawl on your hands and
knees to safety, dragging the patient along with
you.

The Fireman's Carry. This technique is not
used a great deal except in dire emergencies,
since the patient's entire weight is on the rescuer,
tending to unbalance him. Balance and coordi-
nation are very important in the fireman's carry.
Place the patient on his back with his knees
flexed. Grasp the patient by his wrists, with his
palms down. Place your feet against his, and pull
him forward and upward at the same time (Fig.
14.30). As you continue to pull the patient for-
ward, crouch so that you can duck under his
raised arm. Allow the patient to fall on your
shoulders and, as you feel his weight, return to a
standing position.

Figure 14.30. The fireman's carry. The entire lifting pro-
cedure must be performed in one continuous motion.

It is important that this sequence of move-
ments be accomplished in an unbroken sweep.
If you stop during the raise, the patient's dead
weight may be too much to handle; it may then
be necessary to lower him and start over again.

The Pack-Strap Carry. If the patient is con-
scious, and existing or suspected injuries will not
be worsened by the movement, assist him to a
standing position. While standing in front of the
patient and supporting him, turn your back to
him. Lift the patient's arms over your shoulders,
and cross them over your chest. Make sure his
arms are straight and his armpits are directly over
your shoulders. With the patient resting on your
back in this fashion, bend forward and hump him
well up onto your back. By keeping the patient's
arms straight and crossed over your chest, you
will be able to keep him riding high on your back.
Hold both his wrists with one hand, keeping the
other hand free to open doors or push past ob-
structions.

The Rope Sling and Long Spine Board. A very
effective tool for dragging a patient from beneath
wreckage is the rope sling. The sling is made
from 7.6-cm (3-inch) manila rope fashioned into
a loop with a long splice. The loop should be
approximately 1.83 meters (6 feet) in diameter.
Two steel rings joined together serve to shorten
the loop so that it will not slide over the patient's
head.

In operation, the sling is slipped over the pa-
tient's chest and under his arms. The rings are
pushed up as close to his head as possible. A long
spine board is positioned at the patient's head, so
that he can be moved directly onto it. The res-
cuer exerts a slow, steady pull on the rope, keep-
ing it close to the deck to maintain the patient's
spine in as straight a line as possible. The patient
is pulled onto the long board, which then serves
as a litter.

Emergency Medical Care 319

A rescuer can move a patient of almost any size
in this manner. Naturally, the rope-sling method
cannot be used until all wreckage is lifted from
the patient; nor should it be used when the pa-
tient has chest injuries. In the event that a rope
sling is not available, one of the 2.74-meter (9-
foot) straps used with the spine board will make
an effective substitute. The strap should be tied
together behind the patient's head with a cravat.

Emergency Two-Man Carries

The two-man carries described below are con-
sidered "emergency techniques." Like the one-
man carries, they are designed primarily to move
sick or injured patients from hostile environments.
Rescuers should remember, however, that neither
of these methods is suitable for moving patients
with spinal injuries.

The Two-Man Seat Carry. In this technique,
the rescuers carry the patient in a seat fashioned
from their arms. Both conscious and unconscious
patients may be transported by the two-man seat
carry.

The rescuers kneel, one on either side of the
patient, near his hips (Fig. 14.31). With the arm
nearest the patient's head, each man helps to
raise the patient to a sitting position. When the
patient is sitting, each rescuer grasps the other's
upper arm with his hand, so that their arms are
locked behind the patient's back. Then each res-
cuer slips his free hand under one of the patient's
thighs and grasps the wrist of his partner. The
rescuers rise slowly together. When they are
standing, they adjust their arms to make a com-
fortable and secure seat. If the patient is con-
scious, he can place his arms around their necks
for security.

The Two-Man Extremities Carry. The patient
is placed on his back, with his legs spread apart
and his knees bent. One rescuer positions himself
at the patient's head, while the other stands be-
tween the patient's legs, facing his head. The res-
cuer at the patient's feet grasps the patient by the
wrists and pulls him to a sitting position (Fig.
14.32). As the patient's upper body is raised from
the deck, the other rescuer can assist by lifting
his shoulders.

As the patient reaches the sitting position, the
rescuer at his head drops to one knee, supports
the patient's back against his other leg and passes
his arms around the torso in "bear-hug" style.
The rescuer at the patient's feet turns, positions
himself between the patient's flexed legs, and
passes his hands under the patient's knees from
the outside. As soon as he is in position, the man

Figure 14.31. The two-man seat carry. 1. Kneel on either
side. 2. Raise the patient to a sitting position. 3. Grasp each
other's arms. 4. Rise slowly.

at the feet gives the command to rise. Both res-
cuers stand, making sure to lift with their backs
and not with their legs. The patient can then be
carried, chair fashion, to safety.

The Standard Two-Man Pickup

To use the two-man pickup, both rescuers posi-
tion themselves at one side of the patient. The
man at the patient's head cradles the head and
shoulders with one arm, and passes his other arm
under the patient's body at about the belt line
(Fig. 14.33). The other rescuer grasps the pa-
tient's legs under the knees, and passes his other
hand over the midsection of the patient so that he
can grasp his partner's hand. The rescuers lock
hands and lift the patient as a unit.

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Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Figure 14.32. The two-man extremities carry. 1. Raise the
patient to a sitting position. 2. Grasp legs and chest. 3. Rise.

Alternative Method

Figure 14.33. The two-man pickup. Note that the res-
cuers' inner hands are locked together.

Carries for Patients with Spinal Injuries

With the exception of the blanket drag and the
clothes drag, none of the lifts and carries de-
scribed so far should be used for patients with
spinal injuries. Even the blanket and clothes drags
provide only the barest minimum of support and
should be used only in the most extreme emer-
gency.

The next two techniques to be described are
among the most commonly used methods for lift-
ing and carrying patients with spinal injuries.
Both are quite effective, since they immobilize the
spine through the use of a long spine board. Since
these procedures must be performed carefully,
and in a certain sequence, they should not be
used to remove a patient from a hostile environ-
ment where speed is required. They should only
be used where no danger is involved and the pa-
tient's condition has been stabilized.

The Four-Man Log Roll. The log roll is most
effective when a minimum of four rescuers are
used to roll the patient. A fifth rescuer should be
available to move the spine board. Three of the
rescuers roll the patient as a unit, while the fourth
maintains constant traction on the head and neck.

If the patient is found on his back, the log roll
is accomplished as follows. One rescuer positions
himself at the head of the patient and applies
gentle traction to the head and neck (Fig. 14.34).
He remains in this position and continues to apply
traction until the patient is firmly secured to the
board and ready for transportation. Again, a
cervical collar or similar device will aid the res-
cuer in maintaining traction. (The rescuer at the
patient's head will be referred to as the "head
man.")

When traction has been applied, another res-
cuer raises the patient's arm (on the side to which
he is to be rolled) over the patient's head. This
will prevent the arm from obstructing the rolling
movement. Then the three rescuers take up posi-
tions in a straight line along the patient's side,
all kneeling on the same knee.

The rescuer at the patient's shoulder (the "top
man") places one hand on the patient's further
shoulder and passes his other hand over the pa-
tient's arm so that he can grasp the body just
above the belt line. The "center man" grasps the
patient's body just below the buttocks, about at
midthigh. The "bottom man" places one hand
behind the patient's knees and the other hand on
the patient's leg, just below the calf.

When the head man is satisfied that proper
traction is being applied and that the other res-
cuers are ready, he gives the signal for his part-
ners to roll the patient toward them. It is impor-
tant for each rescuer to coordinate his movements
with the others, so that the patient's body is moved
as a unit.

While the patient is held carefully in the rolled
position, another rescuer slides the long spine
board next to the patient. He positions it so that
the patient's head and feet will be on the board
when he is rolled back onto it. This fifth man then

Emergency Medical Care

321

Figures 14.34. The four-man log roll for a patient with a
spinal injury. 1. Positions at the start. 2. Grasping the pa-
tient. 3. Placing the patient on the board. 4. Immobilization.

places pads where there may be spaces when the
patient is placed on the board: under the neck,
behind the small of the back, under the knees and
behind the ankles. The pads, which will support

areas of the body that do not contact the board,
may be made from rolled towels, bandaging ma-
terials or multitrauma dressings.

On a signal from the head man, the rescuers
carefully roll the patient onto the board, ensur-
ing that he is moved as a unit. The fifth man can
adjust the pads as the patient is lowered. When
the patient is again on his back, the fifth man
returns the patient's outstretched arm to his side.

The patient should be secured to the board
with snugly applied straps at the chest, thighs and
knees. Movement of the head should be pre-
vented by securing it with a wide cravat applied
over the forehead and passed through the slots
in the side of the board. The head man must be
careful to coordinate his movements with the ac-
tions of the others. He must maintain the traction
until the patient is rigidly immobilized on the
board.

In some accident situations, the patient is found
face down; because of his injuries, it may be best
to transport him in that position. The four-man
log roll may be used for a patient in the prone
position; the same procedure is followed, with the
exception of padding the spaces.

The Straddle Slide. As in all cases where injury
to the spine is suspected, one rescuer moves di-
rectly to the patient's head and applies traction.
In this case, however, he does not kneel. Instead,
he bends at the waist and spreads his feet wide
enough to allow a spine board to pass between
them. A second rescuer straddles the patient (fac-
ing the head man); he places his hands under the
patient's arms, just below his shoulders (Fig.
14.35). A third rescuer also straddles the patient,
placing his hands at the patient's waist. A fourth
man positions the board lengthwise at the pa-
tient's head. His job is to slide the board under
the patient when the other rescuers lift him
slightly.

Figure 14.35. The straddle slide. The spine board is slid under the patient from the head.

322

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

At a signal from the head man, the other res-
cuers lift the patient just enough to allow the
board to pass under his body. The board should
be slid in one smooth and unbroken movement.
If the patient's upper body is lifted high enough
for the board to pass under, the buttocks and
legs offer little resistance to the smooth board.
When the spine board is completely under the
patient, the rescuers lower him carefully and then
strap him firmly in place. Spaces should be pad-
ded as in the log roll technique.

The Traction Blanket Lift. In some cases a long
spine board may not be immediately available.
Blankets and D-ring stretchers can provide the
means for moving a patient with a suspected
spinal-cord injury. It should be remembered,
though, that the traction blanket technique is not
nearly as safe as methods that make use of a long
spine board or similar device. It should be used
only when the patient must be removed from a
hostile environment and rigid devices are not
available.

As in the techniques described previously, one
rescuer immediately stations himself at the pa-
tient's head and applies gentle traction. A cervical
collar or improvised collar will help to maintain
the head in the desired neutral position. While
the head man holds the patient's head stable, two
others pleat a blanket in folds of 30.5-45.7 cm
(12-18 inches). Then they position the blanket
so that the bottom fold is at the patient's shoul-
ders and the top fold is under the knees of the
rescuer who is applying traction (Fig. 14.36).

When the blanket is in place, four rescuers
kneel next to the patient, two on each side. Each
of the top men places one hand flat under the
patient's shoulders and the other hand in the pa-
tient's armpit. As the top men lift the patient's
shoulders slightly (the head man moving the head
accordingly), the bottom men grasp the bottom
fold of the blanket. They start drawing it under
the patient's body in a smooth and continuous
motion. As long as the top men keep the patient's
upper body slightly raised, the bottom men will
be able to draw the blanket under the length of
the body without difficulty. Since the head man
is kneeling on the blanket, it cannot be pulled
down too far.

After the blanket is completely unfolded, the
rescuers on each side of the patient roll the long
edge tightly against the patient's sides, following
the contours of his body. When the edges are
rolled, the top men grasp the rolls at the shoul-
ders and lower back. The bottom men grasp the
rolls at the hips and just below the knees.

At a signal from the head man, the top and
bottom men (who should be on both knees at
this point) lean back. Using their back muscles
and the weight of their upper bodies, they lift the
patient from the deck. As the patient is lifted,
another rescuer should be sliding a D-ring
stretcher (or similar rigid device) under the pa-
tient from his feet toward his head. When the
stretcher is in position, the rescuers maneuver the
patient carefully onto the stretcher. The blanket
can be unrolled and folded over the patient.

Like the log roll, the traction-blanket lift can
also be used for patients found lying face down.

The Short Spine Board. The short spine board
must be used when a seated patient with a sus-
pected neck injury is packaged for removal from
wreckage. Two rescuers are required.

One rescuer takes a position at the side of the
patient or behind him. He immediately applies
gentle traction to the patient's head and continues
to do so until the patient is firmly affixed to the
spine board. The second rescuer carefully secures
a cervical collar around the patient's neck, to
help maintain the head in a neutral position.

After applying the collar, the second rescuer
positions a short spine board behind the patient's
back, making sure that he does not move the pa-
tient any more than absolutely necessary. In some
spaces with low headroom, it may be necessary
to put the board in lengthwise and then rotate it
into the proper position.

The second rescuer secures the patient's head
to the board with either a special head-and-chin
strap or with wraps of self-adhering bandage
(which is especially well suited for the job). The
bandaging material should be well secured over
the patient's forehead and around the chin.

When the head is firmly fixed in place, the res-
cuers fasten the patient's torso to the board with
two 2.74-meter (9-foot) straps. Generally the
straps are passed through the upper handholds,
behind the board, out the lower handholds on the
opposite side, around the thighs from outside to
inside, and finally under and over the thighs to
the chest buckle, as close to the groin as possible.
Other methods of strapping may be used; the
choice of a method may be influenced by the pa-
tient's injuries, especially if they involve the chest.
However, the method described should be used
if at all possible, since the positions of the straps
prevent the patient's body from sagging as he is
lifted.

The patient is now packaged. Removal is ac-
complished by rotating the patient and holding
him upright until another rescuer can place a

Emergency Medical Care 323

Roll Blanket

Lift Patient

Lift Patient and Slide Blanket Under

Grasp Rolls at Shoulders,
Lower Back, Hips, Knees

Slide Stretcher Underneath

Figure 14.36. The traction blanket lift.

long spine board under the patient. When the
long board is in place, the patient can be lowered
onto the board and slid from the accident site.
The long board then serves as a litter. If the straps
tend to keep the patient's legs slightly bent, they
can be adjusted as soon as he is securely on the
long board and away from the wreckage.

Lifting and Moving Devices

Such devices as long and short spine boards have
been mentioned in this section, but not described.
Most of the standard devices used for the rescue
and transport of patients are shown in Figure

14.37. They are described in the remainder of
this chapter, along with some devices that may
be improvised quickly.

Spine Boards. The long spine board is generally
constructed of 1.91 -cm (34-inch) best exterior
grade plywood, 183 cm (72 inches) long by
45.7 cm (18 inches) wide. Handholds and strap-
holes, located along the long edges of the board
are fashioned so that they do not present sharp
or rough edges. The short edges should be tapered
so that they can be slid easily under a patient.
The board should be equipped with runners to

324

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Scoop
Stretcher

Harness

Long Spine Board

D-Ring
Stretcher

Short
Spine Board

Reeves
Stretcher

Figure 14.37. Some standard rescue and patient transportation devices.

reduce the friction between the board and the
deck.

The short spine board is used mostly for the
removal of sitting patients. It is usually 81.3—
86.4 cm (32-34 inches) in overall length, by
45.7 cm (18 inches) wide. It too is provided with
handholds and strapholes; these openings are
spaced to coincide with those in the long boards.
The headpiece of the short board is 20.3 cm
(8 inches) wide by 30.5 cm (12 inches) long. It
is notched so that the material used to hold the
patient's head in place will not slip during trans-
portation.

Spine boards should be sanded smooth and
varnished or highly waxed so that they can be
slid under patients and cleaned with ease.

Split-Frame or Scoop Stretchers. Several types
of stretchers marketed in the past few years are
especially useful for lifting and transporting sick
or injured patients with a minimum of body move-
ment. These devices are made on the split-frame
or scoop principle. They are strong, well con-
structed and easily maintained, and they support
the patient well.

In operation, the split-frame or scoop stretcher
is separted along its long axis (Fig. 14.37). The
two frame halves are slid under the patient from
either side, mated and locked together. To keep
from pinching the patient or his clothing, the
rescuer should carefully lift the patient by his
clothing as the halves are joined and locked.
When the patient is secured with straps, he is
ready to be picked up.

A disadvantage of these devices is that both
sides of the patient must be accessible. Another
is that the stretcher cannot be slid under the pa-
tient in the manner of the long spine board. How-
ever, the advantages of split-frame stretchers far
outweigh the disadvantages, and they should be
included as part of the ship's rescue equipment.

D-Ring Stretcher. The D-ring or army stretcher
(Fig. 14.37) is quite common. Every ship should
carry a number of these stretchers, for use in
disasters or multiple victim accidents. The D-ring
stretcher is useful when patients must be removed
either by lowering ropes or by ladders. Rescue
personnel should be thoroughly familiar with the

Emergency Medical Care

325

ROPE STRETCHER
Hand Grip

FIRE-HOSE
STRETCHER

FOLDED-BLANKET

BaP*' \,

STRETCHER

Figure 14.38. Stretchers may be improvised from rope, fire
hose or a blanket and two poles.

methods of lashing and lowering these versatile
stretchers.

Stokes Basket. Like the D-ring stretcher, the
Stokes basket (Fig. 14.37) is a versatile piece of
rescue equipment. It is useful for removing pa-
tients from heights or over rubble. Its construc-
tion offers a great deal more protection to the
patient than other litters. There are several tech-
niques for lashing and lowering Stokes baskets.
Many emergency squads have developed wire or
rope harnesses that allow the basket to be lowered
with a single line.

Improvised Litters. Rescue personnel are often
required to improvise litters when they are faced
with the problem of transporting a large number
of disaster victims without standard litters. A
good makeshift litter can be fashioned from a
blanket and two poles.

To make a litter, first spread a blanket flat on
the deck. Place one of the poles across the short
dimension, about one-third of the distance from
one end. Fold the blanket over the pole. About
45.7 cm (18 inches) from the first pole, place the
second pole across the first fold. Approximately
15.24 cm (9 inches) of the first fold should extend
past this second pole; it will be rolled back over
the pole when the second fold is made (Fig.
14.38). Fold the blanket back over both poles to
complete the stretcher. Although the blanket
seems loose, the patient's weight will "lock" it in
place. However, the poles can be easily slipped
from the folded blanket when the patient is placed
on a cot or when he reaches a medical facility.

Another improvised stretcher can be fashioned
from a 15.24-meter (50-foot) section of rope or
fire hose. The method of looping and folding the
rope and hose is shown in Figure 14.38. When
this type of litter is used, all the loops must be
held as the patient is lifted; otherwise the litter
will not hold him.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bergeron, J. D., Self-Instructional Workbook for
Emergency Care, The Robert J. Brady Co., Bowie,
Md.

Grant, H. and Murray, R., Emergency Care, The
Robert J. Brady Co., Bowie, Md.

Huszar, R., Emergency Cardiac Care, The Robert
J. Brady Co., Bowie, Md.

The American Red Cross, "Cardiopulmonary Resus-
citation"

-, "First Aid for Foreign Body Obstruction of

the Airway"

U.S. Coast Guard, "Methods of Artificial Respira-
tion," CG 139.

U.S. Public Health Service, "Artificial Respiration,"
HEW.

U.S. Navy, "Standard First Aid Training Course,"
NAVPERS 10081-B.

Breathing Apparatus

* The material in this chapter has been adapted from
Faria, L: Protective Breathing Apparatus. Bowie, Md,
Robert J. Brady Co, 1975.

Although the air encountered at a fire is hot, con-
taminated by smoke and toxic gases, and deficient
in oxygen, crewmen must enter this hostile en-
vironment to fight the fire. Their problem is
simple, direct and urgent — they must breathe.
The equipment discussed in this chapter is de-
signed to enable seamen to enter such a hostile
environment with some degree of protection for
the respiratory system.

Breathing apparatus is available in several
types. Each type is effective if used properly, and
each has certain advantages and disadvantages.
However, no breathing apparatus provides com-
plete protection against poisonous gases that are
absorbed through the skin. Crewmen operating in
atmospheres containing such poisons must wear
special protective clothing (see Chapter 16).

Respiratory protection devices must be car-
ried on every U.S. flag vessel. The specific re-
quirements vary with the type and size of ship.
Freight and tank vessels over 1016 metric tons
(1000 gross tons) must carry at least two breath-
ing devices. Passenger ships up to 10,160 metric
tons (10,000 gross tons) must carry two breath-
ing devices; those from 10,160 to 20,320 metric
tons (10,000 to 20,000 gross tons) must carry
three; and those over 20,320 metric tons (20,000
gross tons) must carry four. A spare charge must
be provided for each breathing device in which
charges are used. The tools necessary for making
each device operational must also be provided.
These requirements are, of course, minimums.
Many ship owners and masters equip their vessels
with one breathing device for each seaman who
may be expected to enter a fire area, and one for

the officer who will lead them. They also ensure
that at least two spare charges are carried for each
device.

Breathing apparatus must be stowed in con-
venient, accessible locations, as determined by the
master. One unit should be stowed near the pilot-
house; the others, outside and adjacent to the
machinery space entrance. Required spare
charges and tools must be stowed with the appa-
ratus. The container for each unit must be marked
to identify its contents. If the container is stored
in a locker, the locker too must be so marked.

Breathing apparatus must be properly main-
tained, and crewmen (especially the emergency
squad) must be trained in its use. Training should
include:

• Instruction on the capabilities and limita-
tions of each type of device carried on board

• Instruction on the selection of the proper
type of device, depending on the hazards

• Handling of the equipment, donning of the
facepiece and testing of the facepiece-to-
face seal

• Drills simulating the emergency use of the
equipment

• Instruction and practice in stowing the
equipment.

THE STANDARD FACEPIECE

A breathing apparatus is a device that provides
the user with breathing protection. It includes a
facepiece, body harness and equipment that sup-
plies air or oxygen. The facepiece is an assembly
that fits onto the face of the person using the
breathing apparatus, forming a tight seal to the
face and transmitting air or oxygen to the user.
The standard facepieces shown in Figures 15.1

327

328

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

and 15.2 are used with most of the breathing ap-
paratus covered in this chapter. Special types of
facepieces will be discussed along with the equip-
ment to which they apply.

Construction

The basic part of the facepiece is the mask. It is
made of oil resistant rubber, silicone, neoprene
or plastic resin. Most facepieces include a head
harness with five or six adjustable straps, a flex-
ible inhalation tube, an exhalation valve and a
wide- view lens (Fig. 15.1). Some models also in-
clude a nose cup or a speaking diaphragm. The
facepiece used with oxygen-generating equipment
has an exhalation tube and an inhalation tube,
each with a mica disk-type valve for airflow con-
trol (Fig. 15.2).

Head Harness. The function of the head har-
ness is to hold the facepiece in the proper position
on the face, with just enough pressure to prevent
leakage around the edge of the mask. Before the
facepiece is stowed, all harness straps should be
fully extended, with the tab ends against the
buckles. This helps ensure that the facepiece can
be donned quickly in an emergency.

Flexible Tubes. The flexible inhalation tube
carries fresh air or oxygen to the facepiece. In
the facepiece with dual hose, the exhalation tube
returns exhaled breath from the facepiece to the
canister. The airflow through these tubes is con-
trolled by the inhalation and exhalation valves.
Like the facepiece, the flexible tubes are made of
oil resistant rubber, neoprene or plastic resin.

Harness

Lens

Exhalation Valve
Inhalation Tube

Figure 15.1. Standard single hose facepiece.

Figure 15.2. Standard dual hose facepiece.

In use, the tubes must be kept free and un-
kinked for the proper flow of air. All unnecessary
strain on these tubes should be avoided. If they
become tangled in any way, they must be freed
carefully. They must not be pulled free.

Exhalation Valve. The exhalation valve on a
single hose facepiece is a simple one-way valve.
It consists of a thin disk of rubber, neoprene or
plastic resin, secured in the center of the face-
piece. It may be contained in a hard plastic mount
located at the front of the chin area. The exhala-
tion valve, commonly referred to as the "flutter
valve," releases exhaled breath from the face-
piece.

Lens. The facepiece may be supplied with a
dual lens (Fig. 15.2) or a full-view single lens
(Fig. 15.1). In some cases, the single lens is avail-
able as an optional item at additional cost. The
lens gives the wearer a wide range of vision. It
is made of a plastic base resin and is attached to
the mask with a removable frame or metal ring.

Breathing Apparatus

329

It must be protected from scratches as much as
possible, in use and during handling and packing.

Nose Cup. The nose cup is an optional remov-
able piece that fits into the exhalation valve. It
is designed to reduce fogging of the lens.

Speaking Diaphragm. The speaking diaphragm
projects the wearer's voice from the facepiece
with little or no distortion. It is located directly in
front of the wearer's mouth and is similar in ap-
pearance to the exhalation valve.

Pressure-Relief Valve. The facepieces used with
canister- and cylinder-type breathing apparatus
include a combination pressure-relief and saliva
valve. The valve is located in the cross tube that
connects the inhalation and exhalation tubes. It
automatically relieves pressure within the face-
piece. By pressing a spring-loaded button, the
wearer may also utilize the valve to get rid of
saliva and to exhaust exhaled air to the outside.

Use and Maintenance

The donning, stowing and maintenance of the
facepiece all affect its efficiency in use. For ex-
ample, poorly stowed equipment is difficult to
put on. Poorly maintained equipment could cause
difficulties in achieving an uncontaminated at-
mosphere within the facepiece. Poorly donned
equipment will simply not protect the wearer
effectively.

Donning. When the facepiece is put on prop-
erly, the chin straps are below the ears. The har-
ness pad is at the back of the head, as close to
the neck as possible. The side straps are above
the ears. The mask portion is snug but not tight.
A mask that fits too tightly is very uncomfortable
and could possibly interfere with the user's circu-
lation. A mask that fits too loosely does not seal
properly; it may allow contaminated air to enter
the facepiece. Long hair, sideburns and beards
that prevent the outer edge of the facepiece from
contacting the skin may also cause leakage.

Two factors are important when the facepiece
is to be put on. First, the wearer must obtain the
proper seal by adjusting the harness. Second,
time is precious when breathing apparatus is
needed; every second counts.

After much testing, the following donning
method has been proved most effective for both
five-strap and six-strap facepieces. For the face-
piece to be donned as recommended, the harness
must be fully extended and pulled over the front
of the lens. The tab end of each strap must be up
against the buckle. If this was not done when the

facepiece was stowed, it must precede the first
step of the donning procedure.

1. Hold the facepiece at the bottom with one
hand (Fig. 15.3). Place your chin in the
pocket at the bottom of the mask, and fit
the mask to your face.

2. Put your other hand between the mask and
the harness. Your palm should be on the
lens, and your fingers and thumb should be
fully extended and spread.

3. In one smooth motion, push the harness
over the top of your head. Push with the
back of your hand and your fingers. Keep
your fingers spread and extended as the
harness slips into place.

4. Tighten the chin straps by gently pulling
them out and back. This places the harness
pad at the back of the head close to the
neck. For the proper fit and seal, tighten
the straps from the bottom up.

5. Tighten the side straps as described in
step 4.

6. Tighten the top straps last, again as de-
scribed in step 4. When steps 4-6 are com-
pleted in the proper order, the harness
should fit tightly against the back of the
head (see step 6 in Figure 15.3).

7. Test the facepiece for leakage as follows:
For demand-type breathing apparatus,
block the end of the inhalation tube with
the palm of your hand while trying to in-
hale. If the facepiece is properly fitted, it
will collapse against your face. For oxy-
gen-generating or oxygen-rebreathing
equipment, grasp both tubes while trying
to inhale. Again, a properly fitted face-
piece will collapse against your face.

Removal. The facepiece should be removed as
follows:

1. Disconnect the inhalation tube from the
supply of air or oxygen (demand-type
breathing apparatus only).

2. With the tips of your fingers, release the
self-locking buckles on the facepiece har-
ness. This allows the straps to slide to the
limits of the buckles, so there is no unneces-
sary strain on the straps.

3. Grasp the mask portion at the chin. Pull it
away from your face and up over your
head.

4. Fully extend all harness straps that are not
already extended. If the facepiece is to be
stowed, pull the harness over the front of

330

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Step 7. Hold the facepiece at the
bottom with one hand and place your
chin in the pocket at the bottom of the
mask.

Step 2. Put your other hand between
the mask and the harness.

Step 3. Push the harness over the top
of your head.

Step 4

>'■■

< i if j

W m

Step 4. Tighten the chin straps from
the bottom up.

Step 5. Tighten the side straps.

Step 6. Tighten the top straps. The
harness should fit tightly against the back
of the head.

Step 7. Test for leakage (see discus-
sion in text).

Figure 15.3. Donning the facepiece.

Breathing Apparatus

331

the mask before placing the unit in the car-
rying case. The facepiece should, however,
be cleaned before it is stowed.

Maintenance. To ensure safe operation when
the facepiece is needed, it must be maintained
properly after every use. Cleanliness is also im-
portant. A dirty facepiece can spread colds and
other respiratory diseases from one wearer to
another; at the very least, it could be unpleasant
to wear.

The equipment required for maintenance is

• A pail of warm water, not exceeding 38°C
(100°F) in temperature, containing some
mild disinfectant (.such as those advertised
for household or hospital use)

• A pail of clean water, not exceeding 38°C
(100°F) in temperature, for rinsing

• A sponge and a soft, lintfree cloth for wash-
ing and drying.

The following maintenance procedure is illus-
trated in Figure 15.4.

1. Rinse the facepiece with plain water, in a
bucket, under a spigot or with a hose, to
remove any loose dirt, salt particles and
foreign material. This initial rinse keeps
the disinfectant solution clean and up to
strength longer, so that several shipboard
units may be cleaned with the same solu-
tion.

2. Scrub the mask, inside and out, with a
sponge that is well saturated with disinfect-
ant solution. Clean the lens with a soft
cloth or sponge; never use abrasive ma-
terials on the lens.

3. Hold the facepiece by the harness, and
submerge the inhalation tube and the ex-
halation valve in the disinfectant solution.
After a few moments, remove them from
the pail. Allow the excess solution to drain.

4. Remove the protective cap from the ex-
halation valve. With a corner of the sponge,
gently lift and clean under the edge of the
rubber valve. This will remove any foreign
particles, which could cause a leak when
the mask is next used.

5. Replace the protective cap on the exhala-
tion valve., Completely submerge the face-
piece in clear water to rinse it. Allow the
excess water to drain off the facepiece.

6. Dry the entire facepiece with the clean,
lintfree cloth. During the drying, check
each part for damage and wear. Carefully
inspect the harness and lens for tears and

cracks. Inspect the inhalation tube by
gently stretching the tube and looking for
cracks.

Restowing. Proper restowing of the facepiece
in its carrying case ensures that it is ready for
its next use. The restowing procedure, shown in
Figure 15.5, is as follows:

1 . Check that all harness straps are extended
to the tab at the buckle.

2. Pull the harness over the front of the mask,
so the facepiece is ready for donning.

3. Place the facepiece in the carrying case as
shown in step 3 of Figure 5. Make sure
the inhalation tube is curled correctly and
is not pinched or kinked. Also make sure
that the lid will not touch the inhalation
tube when the container is closed.

TYPES OF BREATHING APPARATUS

The types of breathing apparatus approved for
use aboard ship can be divided into three groups:

1 . Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCB A).
These devices provide air or oxygen to the
user, who wears the entire device. The
user is thus completely mobile. However,
the device can supply air or oxygen for
only a limited amount of time. There are
two kinds of SCB As:

a. Oxygen breathing apparatus (OBA).
These devices provide oxygen chemi-
cally.

b. Demand units. These devices provide
air or oxygen from a supply carried by
the user.

2. Hose masks (fresh air breathing apparatus).
Here, the user wears a facepiece that is
connected to a pump through a long hose.
Air is pumped to the user, whose mobility
is limited by the length and weight of the
hose. However, the device can be used for
extended periods of time.

3. Gas masks. These devices filter contami-
nants from air that is to be breathed. They
can be used only in atmospheres that con-
tain enough oxygen to support life.

Oxygen breathing apparatus must not be used
in any atmosphere that contains, has contained
or is suspected of containing flammable or com-
bustible liquids or gases. Thus, they may not be
used in cofferdams fouled by fuel oil. They may,
however, be used in machinery spaces on tank
vessels, where the required hose mask might not

332

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Step 7. Rinse the facepiece under a
hose or a faucet.

Step 2. Scrub the mask, inside and
out, with a soft sponge that is well
saturated with disinfectant solution.

Step 3. Submerge the inhalation
tube and the exhalation valve in the
disinfectant solution.

Step 4. Clean under the edge of the
rubber exhalation valve.

Step 5. Submerge the facepiece in
clear water to rinse.

Step 6. Dry the facepiece with a
clean, lintfree cloth and inspect the
harness, lens, and inhalation tube for
damage and wear.

Figure 15.4. Maintenance of the facepiece.

be able to reach all parts of the space. In this
case, the apparatus' container must be marked
"FOR ENGINE ROOM USE ONLY," and the
wearer must also use a lifeline.

The use of fresh air breathing apparatus is lim-
ited mainly by hose length. When the hose is
longer than 40.2 cm (132 ft), the pump may not
be able to supply enough air to the user. Demand-
type apparatus consist of a facepiece, regenerator,

breathing bag, inhalation tube, exhalation tube,
relief valve, high pressure oxygen cylinder, high
pressure reducing valve and pressure gauge, cyl-
inder control valve, and bypass valve. A bumper
plate and a spring-loaded admission valve are
located in the breathing bag (Fig. 15.6).

Demand-type apparatus may be used on all
vessels. They may be used instead of oxygen
breathing apparatus in the machinery spaces of

Step 1. Extend all the harness straps to the tab
at the buckle.

Breathing Apparatus

333

Step 2. Reverse the harness over the lens.

Step 3. Place the facepiece in the carrying case.

tank vessels. However, they may not be used in
place of the hose masks required on those vessels.

The reducing valve reduces the pressure of
oxygen leaving the cylinder and entering the
breathing bag. The pressure is reduced from about
125-135 atmospheres to about 20.7 kilopascals
(3 psi). A safety whistle in the unit warns the
wearer if the reducing valve fails when the pres-
sure increases to about 48.3 kilopascals (7 psi).
Fogging of the lens warns the wearer that oxygen
is entering the bag at less than 20.7 kilopascals
(3 psi) or the cardoxide is used up. In either case,
the wearer must close the cylinder valve, open
the bypass valve and immediately retreat to
safety.

The oxygen cylinder is protected by a combina-
tion plug-rupture disk called a safety cap. The
disk bursts if the oxygen in the cylinder reaches
a temperature of 94°C (201 °F). This releases
the excess pressure in the cylinder.

The oxygen pressure gauge registers in atmos-
pheres of pressure, from 0 to 150. A red zone on
the dial shows pressures of 15 atmospheres. When
the gauge needle enters the red zone, the wearer
must retreat to safety. This is the only signal that
the oxygen supply is nearly depleted — the unit
does not include a timer. The cardoxide in the
regenerator will be almost depleted when the
pressure gauge reads in the red zone.

Figure 15.5. Stowing the facepiece.

Figure 15.6. Oxygen-cylinder type OBA.

334

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Operating Cycle

The operating cycle is started when the wearer
exhales a few breaths of outside air through the
exhalation valve. The warm, moist exhaled air
travels through the exhalation tube and into the
regenerator. There, the exhaled air reacts with
the cardoxide. The CO2 is absorbed, and heat is
released. The warmed breath (now without CO2)
enters the finned cooler, where some of its heat
is dissipated to the outside air. It then enters the
breathing bag, which expands.

At this point, the wearer inhales air from the
breathing bag through the inhalation tube. The
bag collapses, causing the bumper plate to bump
the admission valve off its seat. This admits a
measured amount of makeup oxygen into the
bag from the oxygen cylinder (through the re-
ducing valve). The oxygen, at about 20.7 kilo-
pascals (3 psi), is inhaled along with the regene-
rated breath.

Donning and Use

The body harness consists of two web straps that
cross at the back, which position the unit on the
wearer's chest. A thin web strap that is placed
around the wearer's lower back helps stabilize
the unit. A metal ring is provided for attaching
a lifeline to the harness.

The donning procedure is as follows:

1 . Place your head through the upper opening
in the large web straps, so the unit is on
your chest. The straps should rest on your
shoulders.

2. Bring each snap hook around underneath
your armpits, and attach it to the upper
ring on the side where the strap begins.
(Some people prefer to attach the hooks
to the B ring on the bottom, where the
thin web belt is connected.)

3. Adjust the straps so the unit is balanced
comfortably on your chest.

4. Check the unit by opening the pressure-
gauge valve and the cylinder valve until
the pressure gauge registers the full cylin-
der pressure. Then close the cylinder valve,
and watch the pressure gauge. If the gauge
does not drop, the unit is not leaking and
may be used.

5. Don the facepiece and check it for the
proper fit as described earlier.

6. Place a finger of your right hand under
the facepiece mask, near your right cheek.
Grasp the inhalation tube with your left
hand collapsing the inhalation tube shut,

take a deep breath of outside air. Remove
your finger from the mask, and exhale into
the unit.

7. Repeat step 6 several times, until the
breathing bag is fully inflated. This will
start the absorption of CO2 from the ex-
haled breath by the cardoxide.

8. When you are sure the unit is working
properly, open the oxygen-cylinder valve.

9. Make sure your tender attaches a lifeline
to the ring on the back of the harness. Also
ensure that you and your tender fully
understand and agree upon a set of lifeline
signals. (A recommended set of signals is
given in Table 15.1.)

The wearer of the unit may now enter the con-
taminated area. As he enters it, he should read
the oxygen pressure gauge. He should then pro-
ceed to the furthest part of the contaminated
area and read the gauge again. The difference
between the two readings is the oxygen pressure
he will need to leave the contaminated area. He
should leave the area when the gauge registers
that difference, or the needle reaches the red zone.
He must also retreat from the contaminated area
if the whistle sounds, if the lenses fog up or if he
experiences any discomfort or breathing diffi-
culties.

Recharging

To recharge the unit, a fully charged oxygen cyl-
inder is first installed in its metal strap. It is then
connected to the line leading to the pressure-
reducing valve. Then the connection to the bypass
line (to the breathing bag) must be made. A spe-
cial wrench is provided for this purpose.

Table 15.1. Lifeline Signals between
OBA Wearer and Tender

Tender to Wearer

Pulls on

line

Meaning

1

Are you all right?

2

Advance.

3

Back out.

4

Come out immediately.

Wearer to Tender

Pulls on

line

Meaning

1

I am all right.

2

I am going ahead.

3

Take up my slack.

4

Send help.

Breathing Apparatus

335

The hex-head plug on the regenerator is then
removed with the same wrench. The unit is then
turned over, and the old cardoxide is shaken out
of the unit if not already empty. Finally, the re-
generator is filled with fresh cardoxide, and the
hex-head plug is reinstalled.

The oxygen cylinder must be changed when-
ever the cardoxide is changed, and vice versa.
They are sized to operate for the same length of
time. The 0.45-kg ( 1 -lb) cardoxide charge and
its oxygen cylinder will provide protection for
about 30 minutes; the 0.91 -kg (2-lb) charge and
its cylinder, for about an hour.

SELF-GENERATING (CANISTER)
TYPE OBA

The self-generating, or canister, type OBA is also
a self-contained breathing apparatus. In this unit,
the wearer's exhaled breath reacts with chemicals
in a canister to produce oxygen. This oxygen is
then breathed by the wearer.

Construction

The canister-type unit consists basically of five
parts: a facepiece with an inhalation tube, an
exhalation tube, and a pressure relief valve; a
breathing bag; a canister holder and canister; a
manual timer; and a breast plate with attached
body harness. It is stored in a suitcase-type con-
tainer with room for three canisters. Complete
operating instructions are displayed inside the
cover of the case.

The canister (Fig. 15.7) contains chemicals that
react with moisture in the wearer's exhaled breath

Facepi<

Canister

Breathing
Bag

Canister
Holder

Breathing
Bag

Facepiece
Exhalation Tube

1. Exhaled air
opens exhalat
valve

Breathing Bags ,

Pressure
forces
02 into
breathing
bag

5. 02 flows
into facepiece

Inhalation Tube

Pressure
Relief Valve

4. Inhaled breath
opens inhalation
valve

Chemicals absorb
COa and produce O;

Figure 15.7. Self-generating canister-type OBA.

Figure 15.8. The numbers show the sequence of events
during one operating cycle of the canister-type OBA. The
arrows show the flow of exhaled breath and inhaled oxygen.

to produce oxygen. These chemicals also absorb
carbon dioxide from the exhaled breath. If the
unit is used for a short time and then removed, a
new canister must be inserted before the next
use. The chemicals in the canister continue to
react even after the facepiece is removed and
there is no accurate way of measuring the time
left before the chemicals are used up. The breath-
ing bag holds and cools the oxygen supplied by
the canister and is made of reinforced neoprene.

The manual timer is set when the equipment
is put into operation. It gives an audible alarm
to warn the operator when the canister is nearly
expended. The timer is no more than a clock;
it does not indicate the condition of the canister.
It should always be set to allow the wearer
enough time to leave the contaminated area after
the alarm sounds.

The body harness is a series of web straps that
position and stabilize the apparatus. The breast
plate holds the canister and protects the wearer
from the heat generated by the unit.

Operating Cycle

The operating cycle of the canister-type unit is
shown in Figure 15.8. The wearer's exhaled

336

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

breath passes from the facepiece into the exhala-
tion tube and then into the canister. Moisture and
carbon dioxide are absorbed by the chemicals
in the canister. They produce oxygen, which
passes from the canister to the breathing bag.
When the wearer inhales, the oxygen moves from
the breathing bag to the facepiece via the inhala-
tion tube.

Donning

The wearer can don the canister-type OBA with-
out assistance as follows (Fig. 15.9):

1. Grasp one shoulder strap in each hand,
and lift the harness over your head. This
allows the equipment to rest on your chest
while it is supported by the shoulder
straps.

2. Reach around back to locate the side
straps. Attach the side straps to the D
rings on the breast plate with the hooks
provided, one at a time. Then tighten the
harness so it fits securely and comfortably.

3. Put the waist strap around your neck,
attach the hooks at the D ring, and tighten
the strap.

4. Remove a canister from the carrying
case. (There are two types of canisters:
self-start and manual start. You must
know the type of canister you are using,
for steps 9 and 10. The self-start canister
has a small metal box at the bottom.)

5. To mount either type of canister, first re-
move the protective cap from the top to
expose a thin copper seal.

6. Swing the canister retaining bail forward,
and hold it with one hand. Now insert the
canister in the holder, with the label fac-
ing outward, away from your body.

7. Swing the retaining bail down under the
canister, and tighten the retainer (a heavy
screw with a pad and handwheel) by turn-
ing it clockwise. This secures the canis-
ter in the holder and forms a seal between
the canister and the central casting. The
point of the central casting punctures the
copper seal.

8. If you do not know which type of canister
you have inserted, check the canister
type to determine the correct starting ac-
tion. Then don the facepiece as described
earlier.

9. Start a self-start canister as follows: Lo-
cate the small triangular metal tab on the
metal box at the bottom of the canister.

Grasp the tab with the thumb and index
finger of your right hand, and pull it
downward. The small metal box will come
away from the canister, exposing a lan-
yard. Grasp the lanyard with your index
finger and thumb, and pull it straight out
away from your body. Do not pull down
on the lanyard. The correct action will
activate the chemicals in the canister, fill-
ing the breathing bag With oxygen. If the
lanyard breaks and does not activate the
self-starter, use the manual-start pro-
cedure in step 10.

10. Start a manual-start canister in a safe,
uncontaminated area by inserting one or
two fingers under the facepiece, and
stretching it away from your face. With
the other hand, grasp the inhalation and
exhalation tubes and squeeze them tightly.
Then inhale. Now release the tubes, re-
move your fingers from under the mask,
and exhale. Repeat this procedure sev-
eral times, to inflate the breathing bag.
This will start the chemical action in the
canister. Do not overinflate the breathing
bag! It should be firm but not rock hard.

1 1 . Test the facepiece for leakage by squeez-
ing the inhalation and exhalation tubes
while inhaling. If the facepiece is prop-
erly fitted, it will collapse against your
face.

12. Set the timer by turning the knob clock-
wise. On older units, the timer is set for
30 minutes. This allows the wearer 15
minutes to leave the contaminated area
after the alarm sounds. On new units, the
timer may be set for 45 minutes or less.
The control should be turned to the ex-
treme clockwise position and then reset
to the desired time interval. This ensures
that the alarm will sound for a full 8-10
seconds.

If the lenses fog up, any part of the unit mal-
functions or the wearer experiences any discom-
fort or difficulty in breathing, he must immedi-
ately retreat to safety. One cause of difficulty in
breathing is an overinflated breathing bag. If the
bag is overinflated, it will seem very hard. This
problem can be corrected, in a safe area, by
briefly depressing the button in the center of the
relief valve. The bag should not be allowed to
deflate completely during this process. If the bag
becomes underinflated, the user must repeat step
1 0 above.

Breathing Apparatus 337

Step 1. Lean forward from the waist with feet
spread wide apart.

Step 2. Loosen the retaining screw.

Step 3. Swing the retaining ball forward and
let the canister drop to the deck.

Step 4. Puncture the can several times with
pick end of a fire ax.

Step 5. Submerge the canjster in a pail of water.
A violent boiling action will take place

Step 6. After the boiling action has stopped,
empty the water into a drain or over the side
of the ship. The canister can now be discarded.

Step 4

Step 2

r

&

&

Figure 15.10. Removing and disposing of an expended canister.

Removing the Canister

The removal and disposal of an expended canister
are very hazardous operations that must be per-
formed to avoid injury. The procedure (and the
required precautions) are as follows (Fig. 15.10):

1. Spread your feet wide apart, and lean for-
ward from the waist. (The chemical action
that takes place in the canister generates
sufficient heat to burn bare skin. For this
reason, you must not touch the expended
canister.)

2. Loosen the retaining screw by turning the
handwheel counterclockwise.

3. Swing the retaining bail forward, and let
the canister drop to the deck. It must not

be tossed (or allowed to fall) into the bilge,
or anyplace where oil, water, snow, ice,
grease or other contaminants can enter the
hole in the copper seal. Organic material
may cause a violent reaction. Water and
substances containing water will cause a
rapid chemical action in the canister, creat-
ing more pressure than can be released
through the small neck opening. This pres-
sure could cause an explosion that would
produce flying fragments and injure anyone
in the vicinity.

Puncture the expended canister several
times, front and back, with the pike end of
a fireaxe.

338 Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Step 1

Step 2

_gj

%, w

Step 3

^1 ^HUH

^«:

1 H SI JfX

|L^

^^^jj*i j

^j|i

Step 9a

Step 6

Step 7

Step 9b

Figure 15.9. The procedure for donning a canister-type OBA.

Breathing Apparatus

339

Step 4

Step 5a

a,

<**

:fe*

■:

Step 5b

Step 10

Step 1 . Grasp the
shoulder straps in each hand
and put harness over your
head.

Step 2. Attach the side
straps to the "D" rings on
the breast plate.

Step 3. Attach waist har-
ness hooks at the "D" rings.

Step 4. Remove a self-
start or manual start canister
from the carrying case.

Step 5. Remove the pro-
tective cap from the canister
to expose a thin copper seal.

Step 6. Insert the canis-
ter in the holder.

Step 7. Swing the retain-
ing bail under the canister
and tighten the retainer.

Step 8. Check the canis-
ter and determine the cor-
rect starting action: manual
or self-start.

Step 9. To activate the
chemicals in the self-start
canister, remove the metal
box and pull the lanyard
straight forward and away
from your body.

Step 10. For a manual
start, on inhalation, pull
facepiece away from face
and crimp tubes. On exhala-
tion, release facepiece and
tubes. Repeat.

Step 11. Test the mask
for leakage.

Step 12. Set the timer.

Step 12

340

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

5. Fill a pail with clean water, deep enough
to completely submerge the canister. Gently
drop the canister into the water. A violent
chemical reaction will take place. How-
ever, the pressure cannot build up if the
canister has been properly punctured, so
there is no danger of an explosion.

6. After the boiling has stopped, empty the
water (which is now caustic) into a drain
or over the side of the ship. Rinse the pail
thoroughly, and discard the canister.

Maintenance

The oxygen-generating apparatus must be main-
tained carefully. Worn or damaged parts must be
replaced by the manufacturer or his representa-
tive. Periodic inspection and after-use mainte-
nance should be performed faithfully by those
who use the equipment, according to the follow-
ing procedure.

1. Clean the facepiece as described in Figure
15.4. Be especially careful to dry all the
equipment thoroughly.

2. Check the inhalation and exhalation valves
periodically for corrosion; have them re-
placed if necessary.

3. Test the alarm bell to ensure proper opera-
tion.

4. Inspect the breathing bag for signs of dam-
age and wear.

5. Inspect the canister holder and retaining
bail and screw for damage, wear and proper
operation. Check the central casting
plunger that breaks the seal and seals the
canister into the system. This plunger op-
erates by moving in and out about 0.64 cm
(!/4 in.). A spring holds the plunger out.
When the canister is inserted and tightened
down by the bail screw, the plunger is de-
pressed against the spring. This action en-
sures a tight seal. If the plunger does not
work properly, it must be repaired or re-
placed; it should never be lubricated.

Safety Precautions

Certain precautions must be taken when the
oxygen-generating apparatus is used. The user
must be careful not to damage the breathing bag
on nails, broken glass or other sharp objects.
When it is necessary to operate the relief valve,
he must do so carefully, so as not to deflate the
breathing bag too far.

The instructions on the canister must be fol-
lowed to the letter. Foreign material, especially
petroleum products, must be kept from entering

an opened canister. The chemical in the canister
is caustic; it must not come in contact with the
skin.

The apparatus must not be stowed with a canis-
ter already inserted. After one use, regardless of
how short, the canister must be discarded as de-
scribed. For older units without the self-start ac-
tion, three fresh canisters should always be kept
in readiness, with their caps intact, in the storage
case. For newer units with the self-start action,
two fresh canisters may be kept in the case.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The greatest advantage of the oxygen-generating
apparatus is its staying time. The canister pro-
duces sufficient oxygen for comfortable breath-
ing up to 45 minutes. In addition, this unit is
much lighter than other self-contained units.
Thus, it is advantageous for use in large contami-
nated spaces where ventilation may be difficult;
where it is difficult to locate the fire or the source
of contamination; and wherever an uninterrupted
operating time of up to 45 minutes is required.

Among the disadvantages of the canister-type
apparatus are these:

• Approximately 2 minutes is required to start
a manual-start canister and get the equip-
ment into operation.

• If the relief valve is not operated properly,
the breathing bag may lose its oxygen. The
wearer must then return to an uncontami-
nated area to restart the unit.

• The bulkiness of the unit and its location on
the wearer's chest may reduce maneuver-
ability and the ability to work freely.

• The heat produced by the canister, the pos-
sibility of explosion if the canister is not dis-
posed of properly and the explosive reaction
if petroleum products are introduced into the
canister opening make the unit hazardous
if not used properly.

• The unit is not easily used for buddy breath-
ing in rescue work.

• The apparatus cannot be used in an atmos-
phere that has contained or is suspected of
containing flammable or combustible liquids
or gases.

• When the alarm bell sounds, it rings once
and stops. Owing to noise or some other dis-
traction, the wearer may not hear the alarm.

SELF-CONTAINED, DEMAND-TYPE
BREATHING APPARATUS

Demand-type breathing apparatus is being used
increasingly aboard merchant ships. Its popularity

Breathing Apparatus

341

Figure 15.11. Three self-contained, demand-type breathing units.

stems from its convenience, the fact that it sup-
plies the user with cool fresh air, the speed with
which it can be put into service and its versatility.
Figure 15.11 shows three self-contained, demand-
type units produced by three different manufac-
turers. The units are dissimilar enough so that
their components are not interchangeable — ex-
cept for the air cylinders.

The demand-type apparatus gets its name from
the functioning of the regulator, which controls
the flow of air to the facepiece. The regulator
supplies air "on demand"; i.e., it supplies the
user with air when he needs it and in the amount
his respiratory system requires. It thus supplies
different users with air at different rates, depend-
ing on their "demand." Note: Newer model
demand-type breathing apparatus are being sup-
plied with a positive flow to the facepiece. The
slight pressure in the facepiece prevents contami-
nated air from entering the facepiece and getting
into the respiratory tract. This positive air pres-
sure lessens the critical nature of the facepiece fit
against the user's face.

Construction

The self-contained, demand-type apparatus con-
sists of four assemblies: the facepiece with inhala-
tion tube, exhalation valve, head harness and
wide-vision lens; the regulator with pressure
gauge, valves, high-pressure hose and alarm bell;
the air cylinder with valve and pressure gauge;
and the backpack or sling pack with adjustable
harness. (Some manufacturers consider the high-
pressure hose and alarm to be a separate as-
sembly.)

Facepiece. The facepiece used is the standard
full-face type discussed earlier in this chapter.

Regulator. Figure 15.12 is a schematic diagram
of a demand-type breathing apparatus. Air from
the supply cylinder passes through the high-pres-
sure hose and a preset pressure-reducing valve
in the regulator. The admission valve is normally
closed. However, when the user inhales, he pro-
duces a partial vacuum on one side of the admis-
sion valve. This opens the valve, allowing air to

Figure 15.12. Schematic diagram of the self-contained, demand-type breathing apparatus.

342

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

pass into the facepiece. The amount of air sup-
plied depends on the amount of vacuum pro-
duced, which in turn depends on the user's air
requirements.

Figure 15.13 shows four commercially avail-
able regulators. The regulator in Figure 15.13A
does not show an alarm bell. In this model, the
low-air alarm bell is attached to the high-pressure
hose near the threaded tank connection. (Some
older models do not have an alarm bell at all.) In
the regulator in Figure 15.13B, a low-pressure
alarm bell is located in the regulator case. The
low-pressure alarm bell for the regulator in Fig-
ure 15.13C is located near the tank connection
on the high-pressure hose. The regulator in Fig-
ure 1 5. 1 3D has a low-pressure alarm bell attached
to the high-pressure hose. Older models of this
regulator were equipped with a reserve valve. The
reserve-valve lever is placed in the "Start" posi-
tion when the equipment is donned. When the
cylinder pressure falls to approximately 3450
kilopascals (500 psi), breathing becomes difficult.
At this time the wearer must move the reserve
lever to the "Reserve" position. This allows the
wearer 4-5 minutes of reserve air with which to
leave the contaminated area. An alarm bell kit
can be installed on this older regulator model.

Air Cylinder. The air cylinder includes a pres-
sure gauge and a control valve. On most cylinders
the threaded hose connection is a standard size.
Cylinders are rated according to breathing dura-
tion, which depends on the size and pressure of
the cylinder. There are four standard sizes. United
States Coast Guard regulations require an air
supply sufficient for at least 10 minutes of normal
breathing. The IMCO code for tank ships re-
quires a cylinder capacity of 1200 psi (42 ft3) of
air. This should be sufficient to provide breathing
protection for approximately 30 minutes.

Backpack or Sling Pack. The backpack or sling
pack and the harness are designed to hold the
unit securely and comfortably on the wearer.
They differ slightly according to the manufac-
turer, but all makes are donned in about the same
way. However, backpack units are donned and
stowed differently from sling-pack units.

Backpack Unit

The backpack unit is the most commonly used
demand-type breathing apparatus. Its air supply
has a longer duration than that of the sling-pack
unit.

Donning. When a backpack unit has been prop-
erly stowed in its carrying case, it can be donned

Figure 15.13. Four regulators, each of a somewhat different
configuration.

Breathing Apparatus

343

by the user without assistance. The unit should
be stowed with the tank down, backpack up and
harness straps fully extended (Fig. 15.14). The
high-pressure air hose should be lying along the
front of the case, with the regulator at the front
right-hand corner. The harness take-up straps
must be attached to the chest straps. One should
be to the left of the regulator, and the other should
be attached to the metal buckle on the right chest
strap. The waist straps should be rolled or folded
neatly between the backpack and the cylinder
valve. The facepiece should be placed between
the air cylinder and the high-pressure air hose.

When the unit has been stowed as described, it
is donned in this way (Fig.*15.15):

1 . Take a crouched position at the right end
of the open case. With one hand, grasp the
cylinder valve handle, and stand the cylin-
der and backpack on end. Check that the
main-line valve (usually a yellow knob) is
opened and locked in the open position.
Check that the bypass valve (a red knob)
is closed.

2. Check the cylinder gauge to be sure the
cylinder is full. Then open the cylinder
valve three turns. Now check the regulator
gauge; it should read within 1380 kilo-
pascals (200 psi), of the cylinder gauge.
If the difference is more than 1380 kilo-
pascals (200 psi), assume the lower read-
ing is correct. At the first opportunity,
check the gauges for accuracy and make
any necessary repairs.

3. Grasp the backpack with one hand on
either side, making certain that the harness
straps are resting on the backs of your

Figure 15.14. A properly stored backpack unit.

hands or arms. Now, from the crouched
position, lift the unit over your head. Allow
the harness to drop into position over your
arms.

4. After the harness has cleared your arms,
lean forward, still in the crouched position.
Lower the unit to your back. While still in
this position, fasten the chest buckle.

5. Stand, but lean slightly forward to balance
the cylinder on your back. Then grasp the
two underarm adjusting strap tabs. Pull
the tabs downward to adjust the straps. To
get the equipment as high on your back as
possible, bounce the cylinder by moving
your back and legs; at the same time, pull
the tabs to position the cylinder.

6. Locate both ends of the waist harness,
hook the buckle, and tighten the strap.
Once this is done the equipment is secure,
and you may stand erect.

7. Remove the facepiece from the case, and
don it as described earlier. The donning
of the facepiece should be practiced and
mastered before this equipment is used.

8. Insert the quick connect coupling of the
inhalation tube at the regulator, and
tighten it down. To conserve air, this step
should be performed just before you enter
the contaminated area.

The user's breathing should now feel and re-
main normal. If the unit does not supply suffi-
cient air automatically, the main-line valve (yel-
low knob) should again be checked to ensure
that it is fully opened and locked. The bypass
valve (red knob) must be closed at all times; it
is opened only if the regulator malfunctions.
Then the air flows directly to the facepiece, by-
passing the regulator. When the bypass valve
must be opened, the main-line valve should be
closed.

Removal and Restowing. The backpack unit
should be removed as follows (Fig. 15.16):

1. Disconnect the inhalation tube from the
regulator.

2. With the tips of your fingers, release the
self-locking buckles on the facepiece har-
ness. Remove the facepiece as described
earlier.

3. Make sure the facepiece harness straps are
fully extended. Pull the harness over the
front of the facepiece, and place the face-
piece in the carrying case.

4. Unbuckle the backpack waist belt, and ex-
tend the belt fully.

344

Marine Fire Prevention, Firejighting and Fire Safety

Stepl

Step 3

Step 5

Step 1. Taking a posi-
tion at the right end of the
open case, grasp the cy-
linder valve handle with
one hand and stand the
cylinder and backpack on
end.

Step 2. Check the cyl-
inder gauge, open the
valve, and compare the
regulator gauge with the
cylinder gauge (it should
be within 200 psi).

Step 3. Lift the unit
over your head, allowing
the harness to drop down
over your arms.

Step 4. Lower the unit
onto your back and fasten
the chest buckle.

Step 5. Bounce the cy-
linder into position on
your back and pull the
underarm strap tabs to
secure its position.

Step 6. Hook the waist
harness buckle and
tighten the strap.

Step 7. Don the face-
piece.

Step 8. Tighten down
the quick connect cou-
pling of the inhalation
tube at the regulator.

Step 2

Step 4

Step 8

Figure 15.15. Proper stowage of the backpack unit (tank down, backpack up, harness straps fully extended) allows one crew-
man to don the unit without assistance.

Breathing Apparatus

345

Step 2

Step 7

Step 1. Disconnect the inhalation
tube from the regulator.

Step 2. Release the self-locking
buckles on the facepiece harness. Re-
move the facepiece.

Step 3. Pull the harness over the
front of the facepiece and place the
facepiece in the carrying case.

Step 4. Unbuckle the waist belt.

Step 5. Release and hold the under-
arm strap buckles.

Step 2

Step 8

Step 6. Disconnect the chest buckle.

Step 7. Hold the body harness and
regulator in your left hand and slip your
right arm out of the harness.

Step 8. Grasp the harness and regula-
tor in your right hand and remove the
unit from your left arm.

Step 9. Close the valve on the air
cylinder and stow the equipment in the
carrying case as detailed in the text.

Figure 15.16. Removing the backpack unit.

346 Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Figure 15.17. Donning the sling-pack unit.

Breathing Apparatus

347

Charged

Figure 15.18. Cascaded air tanks for refilling breathing apparatus cylinders.

5. With your thumb and index finger, release
and hold the underarm strap buckles, and
extend them fully.

6. Disconnect the chest buckle.

7. Get a firm grip on the body harness and
the regulator with your left hand, at the
point where they are attached. Slip your
right arm out of the harness as if you were
removing a vest.

8. Grasp the harness with your right hand,
above and as close to the regulator as pos-
sible. Then remove the equipment from
your left shoulder and arm. By removing
the equipment this way, you will keep the
regulator from striking nearby objects,
which could damage it.

9. Close the valve on the air cylinder. Remove
the air pressure from the regulator by
cracking the bypass valve open momen-
tarily.

The unit should be thoroughly cleaned, and the
air cylinder should be replaced immediately with
a full cylinder. These procedures will be described
shortly. However, it may be necessary to restow
the equipment before it is cleaned and its cylinder
is replaced. It should then be stowed in its case
as described above. The case should be marked
or tagged "Empty Cylinder."

Sling-Pack Unit

The sling-pack unit is generally stowed in a case.
However, it is donned as follows no matter how
it has been stowed (Fig. 15.17).

1. Lay the facepiece aside, in a clean, dry
place.

2. Grasp the shoulder strap with your right
hand. The air cylinder should be to your
left, and the regulator to your right.

3. In one motion, swing the unit onto your
back while putting your left arm through
the harness. Carry the shoulder strap over
your head, and place it on your right
shoulder.

4. Pull the strap, to take up the slack.

5. Clip the waist straps together; tighten them
by pulling the strap end to your right.

6. Don the facepiece as described previously.

The sling-pack unit is removed by reversing
these steps. Before the unit is stowed, it should be
cleaned and its cylinder should be replaced.

Minipack Unit

The minipack unit (Fig. 15.18) is a small cylin-
der-supplied, demand-type breathing apparatus.
It is most often used with aluminum and asbestos
firefighting and proximity suits. It is worn under

348

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

the suit with a sling-type harness, or carried in a
pocket built into the suit for this purpose. It is
used with a half mask (respirator type) that cov-
ers the nose and mouth only, and is held onto the
face with a lightweight elastic harness.

This unit is not meant for the usual shipboard
duties. It is used for quick "hit-and-run" opera-
tions, such as shutting down tank valves in flam-
mable-liquid fires or possibly rescuing victims
trapped by a flammable-liquid fire.

Changing Air Cylinders

When the alarm bell on a demand-type breathing
apparatus sounds, a 4-5 -minute supply of air
(approximately 3450 kilopascals (500 psi)) re-
mains in the cylinder. If several crewmen
equipped with breathing apparatus are working
together, it may be difficult to tell whose alarm
bell is sounding. A crewman who believes his
bell is sounding should put his hand on the bell.
If it is his alarm bell, the sound will be deadened,
and he will feel the vibration of the bell. He
should immediately leave the contaminated area
to replace his air cylinder.

A second crewman should help change the air
cylinder on a backpack or sling-pack unit while
the equipment is being worn. The exchange of
cylinders should be performed carefully.

1. When you are outside the contaminated
area, remove your facepiece and locate a
full air cylinder. Spare cylinders are usually
stowed with the apparatus. It is important
that you locate a full cylinder. To avoid
confusion with used cylinders, hold onto
the full cylinder until it is placed into your
unit.

2. Someone should be available to assist you
in changing the cylinder. Take advantage
of the cylinder change time to rest. Kneel
on one knee, with your back to your
helper, while he makes the change. Hold
the full cylinder on the ground in front
of you.

3. The helper closes the cylinder valve and
disconnects the high-pressure hose coupling
from the used cylinder. If a wrench is re-
quired, it should be kept in the cylinder
storage compartment, on a length of light
chain.

4. The helper must support the used cylinder
with his left hand while he releases the
cylinder clamp.

5. The helper next removes the empty cylin-
der from your pack and places it on the
ground by his feet.

6. Now place the full cylinder on your shoul-
der. The helper then — and only then —
takes the full cylinder and places it directly
into your pack.

7. When the cylinder is in the proper position,
the helper locks it in place with the locking
device.

8. The helper now checks the opening of the
cylinder valve to ensure that it is free of
foreign material. If it is dirty, he releases
a short burst of air to clear it. When he is
certain the valve opening is clear, he at-
taches the high-pressure hose to the cylin-
der outlet. Again, a wrench may be re-
quired.

9. You or the helper may now open the cylin-
der valve. Then check the pressure gauge
on your regulator, while the helper checks
the pressure gauge on the cylinder. Owing
to the age of the equipment or its design,
the two gauges may not register exactly
the same. A difference of 1380 kilopascals
(200 psi) is acceptable.

Maintenance

Self-contained, demand-type breathing apparatus
must be carefully maintained. Any part of the
unit that fails should be replaced or repaired by
the manufacturer or his authorized representa-
tive. The equipment should be inspected periodi-
cally as recommended by the manufacturer. After
each use, the wearer should clean the apparatus
and replace the used air cylinder with a full one.
If the unit must be stowed with an empty or used
cylinder, the carrying case must be so tagged or
marked.

Cleaning the Apparatus

1. Clean the facepiece as described earlier.

2. Wipe down the entire unit, including the
harness straps, with a sponge soaked in a
mild disinfectant solution or a mild soap-
and-water solution. This will remove any
loose particles and help deodorize the
equipment.

3. Turn the carrying case upside down, to
shake out loose particles. Wipe down the
entire case, inside and out, with a sponge
and disinfectant solution.

4. The following check should be made of
the regulator parts:

a. Inspect the threaded fittings for dam-
aged threads and obstructions.

b. Inspect the gauge for visible damage,
such as dents or a cracked lens.

Breathing Apparatus

349

c. Inspect the main-line valve (yellow
knob) to be sure it is fully open and
locked (if a locking device is pro-
vided).

d. Inspect the bypass valve (red knob) to
be sure it is closed tightly.

e. Inspect the alarm bell by first opening
the cylinder valve to put air pressure
on the regulator. Then close the cylin-
der valve, and breathe the air pressure
off the regulator slowly. The alarm
should sound when you have reduced
the pressure in the regulator to approxi-
mately 3450 kilopascals (500 psi).

5. Inspect the harness for signs of wear and
damage. A worn or damaged harness or
buckle could break the next time the equip-
ment is used, endangering the wearer.

6. Wipe the case and the unit dry with a lint-
free cloth. Restow a backpack unit as de-
scribed earlier in this chapter.

Refilling Air Cylinders. Every vessel that is re-
quired to carry the demand-type breathing ap-
paratus must also carry a spare air cylinder. Some
vessels may have a recharge system of air tanks
shown in Figure 15.19 called a manifold or cas-
cade system. Each tank should be numbered. A
chart should be hung near the tanks, recording
the air pressure in each tank, each date on which
the cascade system was used and the number of
cylinders refilled. (A sample chart is shown in
Table 15.2.) This is very important for the proper
use of the cascade system.

The pack cylinders for the breathing apparatus
are filled from the large tanks in the following
manner.

Table 15.2. Cascade System Air-Pressure
and Usage Chart

Cascade Tanks

Pack

Cyh

nders

Charged

Date

7

2

3

4

5

4/20

2400

2400

2400

2400

2400

—

4/22

1700

2250

2400

2400

2400

5

4/29

1500

1925

2400

2400

2400

6

5/1

1200

1675

2100

2400

2400

6

5/8

800

1250

1600

1950

2400

8

5/20

300

825

1000

1450

1975

6

Charged

X

X

X

—

—

—

5/21

2400

2400

2400

1450

1975

—

5/23

2400

2400

2400

1025

1825

3

5/30

1700

2275

2400

700

1450

7

6/4

1150

1775

2275

275

900

6

Charged

X

—

—

X

X

—

6/5

2400

1775

2275

2400

2400

—

Figure 15.19. Air modules and flow regulation unit for a

module-supplied, demand-type apparatus.

1. Check the cascade system record chart to
find the air pressure in each tank.

2. Connect the charging hose to the cylinder
to be charged.

3. Check the pressure of the cylinder to be
charged. Open the valve on this cylinder.
Then open the valve on the cascade tank
with the least air pressure that is greater
than the pressure in the cylinder to be
filled.

4. Release air into the pack cylinder slowly,
to keep from heating it excessively. Plac-
ing the cylinder in a container of cold
water helps keep the cylinder cool. When
the cylinder and tank pressures have equal-
ized, close the valve on the cascade tank.
Open the valve on the tank with the next
highest pressure. Continue this procedure
until the pack cylinder is filled to the de-
sired pressure.

5. Repeat steps 2-4 for any other pack cylin-
ders that are to be filled.

6. After all the pack cylinders have been
filled, record the pressures remaining in the
cascade tanks on the chart. If the cascade
system is equipped with a compressor, re-
fill all the cascade tanks to their maximum
pressure. Mark the chart "full" or "re-
charged."

Safety Precautions

As with all emergency equipment, the most effec-
tive safety procedure for demand-type breathing
apparatus is training, followed by constant prac-
tice. However, crewmen should take certain pre-

350

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

cautions when using this breathing equipment.
When used properly, a demand-type unit will
protect the wearer in any situation requiring
respiratory protection equipment except under-
water search.

Demand-type equipment should not be used
after running or strenuous work. The air will be
used up rapidly, and the wearer may feel that the
unit is not giving him all the air he needs.

Before donning the equipment, the user should
check the pressure gauges on the air cylinder and
the regulator. As noted above, they should regis-
ter within 1380 kilopascals (200 psi) of each
other. The backpack or sling-pack harness should
be tight; owing to the weight of the unit, a loose
pack can cause injury.

Before entering a contaminated area, the
wearer should check the facepiece for the proper
seal. He should also check to see if his unit has an
alarm bell. If it does not, he must check the regu-
lator gauge frequently while he is in the con-
taminated area. When the gauge reads 3450
kilopascals (500 psi), he must leave the area
immediately.

Whenever possible, crewmen wearing breath-
ing apparatus should work in pairs. In all cases, a
lifeline must be tied to the firefighter using the
demand-type breathing apparatus, especially in
a compartment with large open areas. When a
lifeline is used, someone should monitor the line,
using prearranged signals (Table 15.1). The
weight of the unit changes the wearer's center of
gravity, making it easier to become unbalanced
and fall (especially backward). Wearers must be
aware of this possibility when climbing ladders,
working near the edge of a deck opening and in
other precarious positions.

If it is necessary to operate the bypass valve
(red knob), it should be opened slowly and only
enough so the wearer may breathe comfortably.
If it is opened quickly and too far, the rush of
air could shift the facepiece, cause a leak and
waste valuable air. The main-line valve (yellow
knob) should be closed when the bypass valve
is opened.

If a unit runs out of air in a smoke-filled com-
partment, the wearer should disconnect the
breathing tube from the regulator, push its end
into his shirt or coat through a front opening,
and continue to breathe through the mask. The
fabric may filter the air somewhat, and the face-
piece will protect his face from the extreme heat.
He should, of course, retreat to safety imme-
diately.

Self-contained, demand-type breathing appara-
tus should never be stowed with pressure on the
regulator. To relieve this pressure, the person
stowing the unit should hold the threaded con-
nection of the regulator between his thumb and
index finger. He should then place his mouth
over his thumb and finger, and breathe the pres-
sure off the regulator.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The major advantage of the self-contained, de-
mand-type breathing apparatus is the speed with
which it can be donned and put into operation.
When the equipment is properly stowed in its
carrying case, a well-trained seaman can be ready
for work in 45 seconds. The unit can be donned
and started in smoke, and the facepiece can be
cleared afterward. However, it is far safer to don
the equipment in an uncontaminated atmosphere
and check it according to prescribed procedures,
before assuming that it will function properly in
a hostile atmosphere.

Since the bulk of the equipment is on the
wearer's back, it does not limit his arm move-
ments. The wearer can use all hand tools handle
hose and operate nozzles without interference
from his breathing equipment. Some regulators
have a place where a second facepiece may be
connected, for use in rescue work.

There are two major disadvantages to self-con-
tained, demand-type breathing equipment: the
operating time limitation and problems due to
its size and weight.

The operating times for air cylinders are based
on the normal breathing rate of an average per-
son. However, during firefighting and rescue
operations, air is used up more quickly than
usual, because of the exertion, the psychological
effect of wearing the breathing apparatus and the
extreme heat. For this reason, more severe guide-
lines should be used:

• Backpack units rated by the manufacturer
for 30 or 45-minute duration should not be
expected to last more than 1 minute for each
690 kilopascals (100 psi) of pressure reg-
istered on the cylinder gauge.

• Sling-pack units rated by the manufacturer
for 15-minute duration should not be ex-
pected to last more than 1 minute for each
1380 kilopascals (200 psi) of pressure reg-
istered on the cylinder gauge.

• Minipack units rated by the manufacturer
for 6-8-minute duration should not be ex-

Breathing Apparatus

351

Figure 15.20. Standard facepiece (left) and polyurethane

hood facepiece (right).

pected to last longer than 1 minute for each
2760 kilopascals (400 psi) of pressure reg-
istered on the tank gauge.

These figures are, of course, averages. Some
wearers may exceed these times by several min-
utes. However, to maintain a margin of safety,
crewmen should not expect more than the average
from their breathing equipment.

The second disadvantage results from the size
and weight of the apparatus. The backpack
equipment, which is the most popular, is quite
bulky and weighs over 13.6 kg (30 lb). The
bulkiness makes it difficult for the wearer to work
in confined spaces. The weight adds to the physi-
cal strain on the wearer.

AIR-MODULE-SUPPLIED DEMAND-TYPE
BREATHING APPARATUS

Recently, a manufacturer of demand-type breath-
ing apparatus introduced a model that is supplied
with air by modules. The apparatus consists of
an air supply unit, facepiece, carrying case and
harness.

Air Supply Unit

The air supply unit consists of an air module,
which is made of small diameter, stainless steel
tubing pressurized to 37,920 kilopascals (5500
psi), and a flow regulation unit. The latter in-
cludes a control valve, safety disk, fill valve, pres-
sure gauge and pressure-reducing regulator (Fig.
15.20). The pressure-reducing regulator is
threaded into a start-valve assembly. It reduces

the pressure of air leaving the module, from
37,920 to 483 kilopascals (5500 to 70 psi).

The flow regulation unit (the main-line regu-
lator) is located within the coils of the air mod-
ule. A bypass valve, including a second pressure-
reducing regulator, is also housed within the air
module.

Facepiece

Two types of facepieces can be used with the air
module pack. The first type is of the conventional
design discussed earlier in this chapter; it is con-
structed of yellow silicone.

The second type is a soft polyurethane hood
that seals around the wearer's neck (Fig. 15.21).
The hood type has a hard polycarbonate view
plate. It has a service temperature range of from
-40° C to 121° C (-40° F to 250° F) with no
loss of physical properties. At 177° C (350° F)
there is a 50% loss of physical properties; melting
begins at 218° C (425° F). The hood contains
an aspirator-absorber that reduces carbon diox-
ide levels in the facepiece, directs incoming air
over the nose and mouth during inhalation and
provides a controlled supply of air to the face-
piece. Exhaled breath is pulled out of the face-
piece by the aspirator and is pumped through the
carbon dioxide absorber. It then flows back into
the facepiece. Compressed air from the air mod-
ules replaces the oxygen used in breathing,
powers the aspirator and cools the air coming out
of the absorber.

The facepieces have a quick-connect coupling
assembly at the end of the air supply hose (Fig.
15.22). The assembly contains a quarter turn
shutoff valve and an audible alarm whistle. The
audible alarm has two modes. During main-line
operation, when the pressure in the air modules

Figure 15.21. Quick-connect coupling assembly for module-
supplied apparatus.

352

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Figure 15.22. Harness and carrying case for the module-
supplied apparatus.

drops to 25 % of the normal operating pressure,
the whistle sounds whenever the wearer exhales;
it is silent during inhalations. This allows the
wearer to distinguish his alarm from others in the
area by breathing rapidly or by holding his
breath. During bypass-system operation, the
whistle sounds continuously. It is recommended
that the wearer leave the hazardous area as soon
as the bypass system is activated.

Figure 15.23. The module-supplied, demand-type apparatus.

Harness and Carrying Case

The harness is an adjustable, sling-type assembly
with an adjustable waist strap (Fig. 15.23). The
air supply unit is carried within a lightweight,
high impact case. The start ring, bypass ring,
pressure gauge and quick-connect coupling outlet
are located along the top cover of the carrying
case. The adjustable harness permits the air sup-
ply unit to be carried on the user's front, right
side or back.

Donning

The module-supplied unit should be donned as
follows (Fig. 15.24):

1. Lift the shoulder harness over your head,
and place it on your left shoulder. The air
pack should be resting on your right side.

2. Tighten the shoulder strap by pulling down
on the adjustment strap.

3. Attach the snap hook on the waist strap
to the ring on the carrying case, and pull
the end to adjust it.

4. Don the facepiece. The hood type should
be grasped by the elasticized collar and
pulled over the head. The standard type
should be donned as described earlier.

5. Attach the quick-connect coupling, open
the quarter turn shutoff valve and pull the
main-line start ring. The red start ring
operates the bypass regulator, which
should be used only in an emergency.

Recharging

The air modules can be recharged with a booster
charging station (available from the manufac-
turer). The booster station must be coupled to a
cascade system or a compressor. The cascade
system or compressor supplies an air pressure
between 4140 and 13,790 kilopascals (600 and
2000 psi). The booster station, which is simple
to operate, boosts this pressure to 37,920 kilo-
pascals (5500 psi).

FRESH-AIR HOSE MASK

Hose-mask type protective breathing apparatus
is required on all tank vessels. In this type of
apparatus, a length of hose connects the face-
piece to an electrically driven pump or a hand-
operated blower. The pump or blower supplies
fresh air to the facepiece.

Construction

The fresh-air hose-mask apparatus in Figure
15.25 consists of a facepiece with breathing tubes

Breathing Apparatus 353

Figure 15.24. Crank-driven fresh-air hose mask.

and an exhalation valve; an air hose with body
harness; and a manual blower with a hand crank.
The unit is stored in a suitcase-type container,
completely assembled except for the hand crank.
The crank must be placed in the pump through
a hole in the side of the carrying case.

The facepiece is of the standard full-face type,
although some models have two inhalation tubes.

The wire-reinforced air hose comes in 7.62-m
(25-ft) lengths, with threaded connections on
both ends. One end attaches to the blower, and
the other end attaches to the body harness. The
hose is connected to the harness, rather than the
facepiece, to protect the wearer in case the hose
becomes entangled. If the hose were connected
directly to the facepiece, a snagged hose could
pull the facepiece from the wearer's face.

The blower is a small centrifugal or displace-
ment pump with one air-intake connection and
supply connections for one or two facepieces.
The pump is operated by a hand crank as illus-
trated in Figure 15.25. Electrically driven pumps
are available for some units. At least two men
are required to tend a fresh-air hose mask. One
additional man must operate the hand crank or
supervise the motor-driven pump supplying air
to one or two men wearing the equipment.

Figure 15.25. Typical approved gas mask.

354

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Operation

Perhaps the most important step in putting a
hose-mask apparatus into operation is finding a
good location for the blower or pump. The loca-
tion must be close enough to the contaminated
area to allow the wearer to enter it with the hose.
At the same time, the air surrounding the blower
or pump must be free of contamination, since the
wearer will be breathing air pumped from that
location. Here is the procedure:

1. Select the appropriate location. It should
be close to the contaminated area, to allow
the wearer as much air hose as possible
for his work; upwind of the contaminated
area, so the wind will not spread contam-
ination into the pump area; away from
other sources of contamination such as
operating engines; away from areas where
dust or any other substance, liquid or solid,
could enter the intake opening of the air
pump; and well forward of the smoke
stack.

2. Open the carrying case and remove the
facepiece, harness and hose. The hose
should be faked to ensure against tangling.

3. Attach a lifeline, as long as the air hose,
to the D ring on the harness.

4. Install the hand crank in the pump.

5. The wearer now dons the harness, in the
same manner as a vest or jacket. The buck-
les should be in front, and the hose con-
nection and D ring at the wearer's back.
The facepiece is then passed over the
wearer's head, from back to front. If the
facepiece has two inhalation tubes, one
tube should rest on each shoulder as the
facepiece is brought forward.

6. The wearer dons the facepiece, as de-
scribed earlier in this chapter. The pump
must be started when the facepiece is
tightened, and it must be operated until the
facepiece is removed.

7. Adjust the rotational speed of the blower
to satisfy the wearer before he enters the
contaminated area.

8. Make sure that the lifeline signals (Table
15.1) are fully understood by the wearer
and tenders before the contaminated area
is entered.

Maintenance

Whether or not it is used regularly, the fresh-air
hose mask must be checked periodically for
proper operation and signs of wear. Most im-

portant, after each use and before the equipment
is stowed, the following maintenance procedures
should be performed. The disinfectant solution
used to clean the hose mask is also used for the
case.

1 . Clean and dry the facepiece, head harness,
inhalation tubes and exhalation valve.
Check these components for damage and
wear as described in the section on face-
pieces.

2. Thoroughly inspect the air hose for dam-
age. Wash and dry it before restowing.

3. Inspect all threaded connectors for dam-
aged threads and for missing or damaged
washers or gaskets.

4. Clean and lubricate the air pump accord-
ing to the manufacturer's instructions.

5. Clean the case, inside and out. This helps
keep the equipment clean after it is stowed
in the case.

6. Inspect the hand crank for damage and
wear. Stow the crank in its proper place.
A misplaced crank makes the apparatus
useless.

Safety Precautions

If at all possible, at least two crewmen should
enter the contaminated area together, wearing
similar breathing equipment. This will allow one
to support the other if a problem arises. A lifeline
that is the same length as the air hose should be
attached to each wearer of a hose mask. This is
especially important if a crewman must work
alone in the contaminated area.

The wearer should never remove his fresh-air
hose mask in the contaminated area. He must
remember to leave the area by the route he used
to enter it to keep his hose and lifeline untangled.

The pump or blower must be operated in an
area that is well away from the contaminated air.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The major advantages of the fresh-air hose mask
are its light weight and the unlimited air supply
it provides. The wearer may work as long as
necessary to complete his assigned tasks.

Among the disadvantages of the hose mask
are the need for personnel to operate the blower
and the restrictions due to the long length of hose.
The hose limits the wearer's movements and may
make breathing difficult. In certain compart-
ments, it could become jammed or tangled on
doors, cargo or machinery. In addition, the
wearer must leave a compartment by the route
through which he entered. This could be a prob-

Breathing Apparatus

355

lem if the wearer had to retreat quickly from a
space that was involved with fire. Finally, the
blower or pump must be located as close as pos-
sible to the contaminated area yet in an area that
is itself free of contaminants.

GAS MASKS

Gas masks have been used over the years to pro-
vide protection against certain gases or vapors.
These masks, often referred to as filter, canister
or all-service masks, are air-purifying devices.
They are designed only to remove specific con-
taminants from air that contains sufficient oxygen
for breathing. Gas masks are not approved for
firefighting, but they are approved for use aboard
U.S. merchant ships for protection against toxic
refrigerant vapors. An approved self-contained
breathing apparatus may be substituted for a
required gas mask.

Construction

The filter mask (Fig. 15.26) consists basically of
four parts: a facepiece with an inhalation tube,
exhalation valve, and speaking diaphragm; an
external check valve; a canister; and a harness
(in which the canister is held) with adjustable
neck and body straps. An in-line timer is pro-
vided on carbon monoxide masks and "all-serv-
ice" masks.

Operating Cycle

Inhaled air is first drawn through the timer (when
provided), where the airflow operates a nutating
disk that moves the timer dial needle. It then
flows through the canister, which contains chemi-
cals that remove or neutralize the contaminants.
The air is then drawn through the inhalation tube
and into the facepiece, where it passes over the
lenses before it is taken into the lungs. Exhaled
air leaves the facepiece through an exhalation

valve. The external check valve prevents exhaled
air from passing through the canister.

Donning

To don the gas mask, proceed as follows:

1. Remove the equipment from its case. Re-
move the bottom seal (if present), and
adjust the neck strap for size.

2. Grasp the neck harness in one hand, and
the facepiece in the other. Place the neck
harness over your head, around the back
of your neck.

3. Don the facepiece as described earlier.

4. Test the mask for leaks as follows: First
place the palm of your hand over the open-
ing in the bottom of the canister; inhale,
and hold your breath for 10 seconds. If
there are no leaks, the facepiece will col-
lapse partially. Then exhale, and note
whether air blows out of the sides of the
facepiece. If it does not, the external check
valve is functioning properly. Do not use
the mask unless it passes both these tests.

Limitations

Filter masks are simple and compact. However,
they are useless in atmospheres that do not con-
tain enough oxygen to support life. They may not
be used in atmospheres that contain more than
3% smoke, dust, mist or ammonia, or more than
2% carbon monoxide, acid vapor or organic
vapor.

The canister is reliable for up to 5 years from
the date of manufacture if the seal is unbroken,
but only 1 year after the seal is broken. One
canister can provide up to 2 hours protection in
atmospheres containing the maximum concen-
trations of toxic gases given above. A flame safety
lamp must always be used with the gas mask.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Maryland Fire and Rescue Institute, Basic Fireman's
Training Course, pp. 306—315. University of
Maryland, College Park, Md, 1969.

Ohio Trade and Education Service, Fire Training
Manual, pp. 317-341. State Department of
Education, Columbus, Ohio, 1977.

Miscellaneous

fire Safelq 6quipmen(

The equipment discussed in this final chapter is
not used to detect or fight fire, but rather to pro-
tect personnel in the event of a fire. For example,
construction features such as bulkheads are in-
stalled on vessels for strength, to enable the hull
to withstand the forces of the sea. At the same
time, they are designed to retard the spread of
heat, and thus of fire, through the vessel. Another
category of fire safety equipment might be called
portable devices. Such devices (e.g., the oxygen
indicator) are used to determine whether the at-
mosphere in a space is safe. A third category,
personal equipment, includes equipment that is
worn by crewmen during firefighting operations.

BULKHEADS AND DECKS

Bulkheads and decks divide a vessel into a num-
ber of separate divisions. Heat or flame must pene-
trate through these subdivision bulkheads if the
fire is to spread from an involved space to other
spaces. There are three means by which a fire
might penetrate a bulkhead or deck:

• By igniting the bulkhead. The burning bulk-
head or deck would then spread flames to
combustible materials in the space adjoining
the involved space.

• Through openings in the bulkhead, which
would allow heat, flame and hot combustion
products to travel to uninvolved spaces.

• By the conduction of heat through the bulk-
head to nearby combustible materials.

The U.S. Coast Guard is constantly seeking ways
in which to prevent the extension of fire by these
means.

Structural Fire Protection

Bulkheads and decks must be constructed of ap-
proved noncombustible materials. A noncombus-

tible material is one that will not burn or support
combustion. A number of noncombustible ma-
terials are known, but only a few with suitable
properties have been approved for use in ship
construction. And even these materials cannot
withstand an intense fire for an extended period
of time.

For example, the strength of steel makes it an
ideal shipbuilding material, and it is an approved
noncombustible material. But although steel is
noncombustible, it is affected by heat. The heat
of an intense fire can cause exposed steel decks
and bulkheads to warp, buckle or separate (fail)
completely.

The extent to which a noncombustible sub-
division bulkhead will be affected by heat depends
on the temperature and the exposure time, as well
as on the dimensions of the subdivision. Bulk-
heads and decks are therefore rated as to their
ability to withstand heat in a standard fire test.
Regulations specify where bulkheads with certain
ratings may be located within the vessel.

A class A bulkhead is one that will resist the
passage of flame and smoke for 1 hour when sub-
jected to temperatures up to 927°C (1700°F).
Since the subdivision is noncombustible, it will
not ignite. It will also resist buckling and warping
sufficiently to confine the fire and the combustion
products to the involved space for at least the
1 -hour period.

Class A bulkheads must be made of steel and
are the only class of subdivision that may be used
as main bulkheads and decks.

A Class B bulkhead is one that will resist the
passage of flame and smoke for 30 minutes when
subjected to temperatures up to 843 °C (1550°F).
A class C bulkhead is essentially unrated; it is
not expected to resist flame or smoke for any
length of time.

357

358

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Openings in Subdivision Bulkheads

Fire can travel through any opening that will pass
heat, hot combustion products or flames. No mat-
ter how well a bulkhead or deck resists flames, an
opening in the bulkhead is an invitation for fire
to spread.

Doorways, hatches, ductwork and accommo-
dations for wires and pipes are all openings in
noncombustible bulkheads. They all serve a
purpose, but they also can permit fire to extend
from one space to another. For this reason, stfch
openings should be constructed so that they do
not destroy the fire resistance of the bulkhead
in which they are located. For example, suppose
a ventilation duct passes through a class B bulk-
head. Then the duct and its opening should be
constructed according to the class B standard.
They should be able to resist the passage of flame
and smoke for at least 30 minutes when subjected
to a temperature of 843° (1550°F).

Watertight doors (discussed in the next sec-
tion) are constructed in this way. Although they
do not add to the strength of a bulkhead, they do
not reduce its strength or tightness. However, a
door will resist the spread of fire when it is closed
tightly. The watertight door may be opened while
at sea if required during the normal course of
ship operations.

Conduction of Heat Through
Subdivision Bulkheads

Steel is a very good conductor of heat; aluminum
is an even better conductor. Both metals, when
used as bulkheads, can conduct enough heat
into an uninvolved space to ignite nearby com-
bustible materials. In the early stages of a fire,
conduction can be a much more dangerous source
of fire spread than bulkhead failure. (For this
reason, the protection of exposures was stressed
in the chapters of Part II.) Combustible materials
should be moved away from bulkheads that
separate involved spaces from uninvolved spaces.
Hot bulkheads and decks should be cooled with
water fog.

The materials most liable to be ignited by con-
ducted heat are combustible paneling, furring
and reefer insulation that are installed in direct
contact with bulkheads. (See SS Hanseatic in
Chapter 3.) Present regulations require, with few
exceptions, that all vessels of 4064 metric tons
(4000 gross tons) or more contracted after Janu-
ary 1, 1962, have noncombustible sheathing,
furring and holding pieces. In addition, passenger
vessels are required to be subdivided into main
vertical zones for the purpose of fire control.

These zones shall not generally exceed 131 feet.
The bulkheads forming these zones shall be fire
resisting. Classes A and B shall have insulation
to prevent a temperature rise of more than 121 °C
(250°F) on the unexposed side of the bulkhead
for up to 1 hour, depending on its location within
the vessel. The details are specified in 46 CFR
72.05-10.

Neither of these requirements prevents fires,
but they do restrict its extension — particularly in
concealed or inaccessible locations — giving crew-
men added time to reach and attack the seat of
the fire. However, even on passenger ships, fire
control bulkheads need not be located around
cargo spaces, except where they abut certain types
of spaces. Instead, cargo spaces are generally pro-
tected by fixed fire detecting and fire extinguish-
ing systems.

DOORS

Doors are, of course, installed to allow access to
compartments and passageways. Although they
are not designed specifically for use in fighting
shipboard fires, closed doors will help restrict the
spread of fire from space to space. Some doors
are provided with remote closing mechanisms.
If the smoke and heat of a fire prevent crewmen
from approaching a door, it may be closed from
a remote location.

Watertight Doors

A watertight door is, as its name implies, designed
to prevent the movement of water through the
doorway. Generally, the fire retarding capabili-
ties of a watertight door match those of the bulk-
head in which it is installed.

Classifications. In terms of operation, there are
three classes of watertight doors:

• Class 1 : manually operated hinged doors

• Class 2: manually operated (with hydraulic
assist) sliding doors

• Class 3 : manually and power-operating slid-
ing doors.

All three classes of doors must be capable of being
closed with the ship listed 15° to either port or
starboard.

Class 1 Doors. Class 1 watertight doors are con-
structed of steel. They are hinged, and must be
swung open or closed manually. When a class 1
door is closed, a knife edge on the door fits
against a rubber gasket on the bulkhead. The
door is secured in the closed position by hinged

Miscellaneous Fire Safety Equipment

359

levers called dogs. There are usually six dogs;
when they are hand tightened, they cause the
gasket and knife edge to form a watertight seal.

A class 1 door should be undogged as indicated
in Figure 16.1. First the dog nearest the upper
hinge should be released; then the dog nearest the
lower hinge; and then the center dog on the hinge
side of the door. (The hinges are attached through
slotted or elongated openings.) Then the dogs on
the side opposite the hinges should be released in
the same order — upper, then lower, and center
dog last.

Class 1 doors are used for all exterior deck-
house openings on weather-decic levels. Their use
in these locations provides protection against
inclement weather and heavy seas\ They may also
be used during and after nrefighting operations,
as openings for venting heat and smoke to the
outside.

Class 2 Doors. Class 2 watertight doors are
steel sliding doors used below the waterline. Some
are operated manually, by turning a wheel that
moves the door via a set of gears. However, most
class 2 doors are operated by a manual system
with hydraulic assist. A rotary hand pump pro-
duces the hydraulic pressure that opens or closes
the door. A class 2 door must be capable of op-
eration from either side of its bulkhead and must

Hinges Slotted

WTD1

© ©

Hinges Slotted

Proper Sequence For
Undogging Opening a
Water Tight Door

© ©

Figure 16.1. The numbers show the proper sequence for
releasing the dogs on a watertight class 1 door.

be able to close in 90 seconds or less when the
vessel is not listing.

A second means for closing (not opening) the
door must be provided from an accessible posi-
tion above the bulkhead deck. This is usually a
mechanical means; a wheel valve is turned to
operate gears that slide the door closed. A door
position indicator must be installed at the remote
closing location, so that anyone attempting to
close the door can easily determine its position.

Class 3 Doors. The class 3 watertight door
(Fig. 16.2) is a sliding steel door that may be
operated by either an electric hydraulic system
or a manual hydraulic system. In the former, a
switch activates an electric motor that drives the
hydraulic opening and closing mechanism. The
manual hydraulic system is similar to that in-
stalled on class 2 doors. Both systems must be
capable of operation from both sides of the bulk-
head and must be able to close the door in 90 sec-
onds or less when the ship is in an upright
position.

A manual hydraulic operating system is also
provided at a remote location, usually a deck
above the door. As for class 2 doors, the remote
mechanism is used only to close the door. A door
position indicator must be installed at the remote
closing location.

On passenger vessels, class 3 doors must be
capable of being closed from a central location
on the bridge. The doors must also be capable
of closing automatically if they are opened at the
bulkhead after being closed from the bridge.
When a door control is activated on the bridge, a
warning signal at the door must sounds i mini-
mum time interval of 20 seconds is provided from
the time of the signal until the door reaches the
closed position. Also, there must be at least a
1 second warning signal before the door moves
into the clear opening.

Ships fitted with more than one class 3 door
can be equipped with a central control station
(Fig. 16.3). The doors can be operated simul-
taneously or separately from the control station.
Their positions are monitored, via electric circuits,
on a lighted display board. Display boards are
usually located on the bridge. They allow the
positions of the ship's watertight doors to be
evaluated quickly during a fire, to determine if
CO2 flooding systems can be employed.

Testing. Manually operated doors should be
tested to ensure that they can be opened easily,
that they close properly and that all the dogs
operate freely. The seal can be tested by putting

360

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safet v

Figure 16.2. A horizontal watertight class A (and class 3) door separating the engine room from the shaft alley. (Courtesy
Walz and Krenzer Inc.)

chalk on the knife edge, closing the door and
dogging it down. Chalk marks will show on the
entire rubber gasket if the door closes properly
and the gasket is in good shape. If chalk marks
skip any part of the gasket, it should be adjusted
or replaced. The Coast Guard requires that all
watertight doors be hose tested in the closed posi-
tion during installation.

The testing of hydraulic doors is complex and
requires particular mechanical skills and knowl-
edge. These doors should be tested according to
the manufacturer's recommendations.

Fume Doors

Fumetight (gastight) doors are constructed of
metal. They swing open and shut on hinges and
are dogged down manually to form a gastight
seal. They are almost identical to class 1 water-
tight doors but are of lighter construction.

Fumetight doors and their fittings must pass
more exacting tests for tightness than watertight
doors. They are installed in bulkheads surround-
ing spaces that may contain poisonous or toxic
fumes, such as battery rooms, refrigerated cargo
spaces and paint lockers. Openings into such
spaces (for pipes or wiring) must also be fume-

tight. Ducting is used to direct fumes vertically
from the space to a safe discharge point.

Doors and Firefighting

In brief, a charged hoseline should be available
whenever a closed door is to be opened. The door
should be felt with the bare hands before it is
opened. If it is cool, it may be opened cautiously.
If the door is hot, it should be cooled thoroughly
with water fog before it is opened — and again it
should be opened cautiously. The door should be
reclosed quickly if the fire that is found cannot
be controlled with the extinguishing equipment
at hand. {See Chapter 10 for a discussion of the
techniques for opening doors and using doors
during firefighting operations.

FIRE DAMPERS

A fire damper is a thin steel plate at least 3.2 mm
(Vs in.) thick, and suitably stiffened. It is placed
within a ventilation duct and held in the open
position by a fusible link (Fig. 16.4). With the
damper in the open position, air may flow through
the duct. When the air in the duct reaches a tem-
perature of about 74°C (165°F), or 100°C

Miscellaneous Fire Safety Equipment

361

Figure 16.3. Central control station for watertight doors. (Courtesy Walz and Krenzer Inc.)

(212°F) in hot areas such as galleys, the fusible
link melts, allowing the damper to close. A visible
indicator on the outside of the duct shows whether
the damper is closed or open.

Figure 16.4. Typical fire damper.

Dampers can also be closed manually. They
must be capable of manual operation from both
sides of the bulkhead through which the duct
passes.

Fire dampers will not prevent fires, but they
can help stop fire from spreading. They do this
in two ways: First, they reduce or shut off the
supply of air to the fire. This reduces the rate at
which the fire intensifies and thus reduces the heat
buildup. Second, they block heat, smoke and
flame, so that these combustion products do not
spread the fire through the ducting and into un-
involved spaces.

On passenger ships, all ventilation systems
must have fire dampers, but not all dampers must
be automatic. However, automatic dampers are
required in ventilation ducts that pass through
main bulkheads. On some vessels, ventilation sys-
tem motors can be shut down from the bridge or
from the C02 room. With the ventilation fans
shut down and the dampers closed, the travel of
fire through the ducts is slowed considerably.

FLAME SAFETY LAMP

Air normally contains about 21% oxygen. A
concentration of about 16% is considered suffi-
cient to maintain human life. At concentrations

362

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

of 15% or less, muscular coordination is affected.
Lower concentrations of oxygen in breathed air
will affect judgment and body functioning and
may result in unconsciousness. Death may result
from the breathing of air with less than 6% oxy-
gen, even for a few minutes. Thus, crewmen must
not enter a fire area without breathing apparatus
until its atmosphere has been tested and found
to contain sufficient oxygen.

The flame safety lamp is a portable device that
is used to detect oxygen deficiencies in confined
spaces. The lamp in Figure 16.5 is approved by
the Coast Guard for use on cargo and passenger
ships. The lamp uses naphtha as a fuel for its flame.
Changes in the flame size and brightness indicate
the relative amount of oxygen in the atmosphere
being tested.

The maintenance of flame safety lamps and
the preparation of lamps for use vary with the
model and manufacturer. The manufacturer's in-
structions should be followed carefully. In par-
ticular, instructions regarding the installation of
asbestos washers and the cleaning and replacing
of wire gauzes must be followed to the letter.
Wire gauzes are the main safety feature of the
lamp; they prevent the flame from igniting flam-

Figure 16.5. Flame safety lamp approved only for detecting
oxygen deficiency. (Courtesy Koehler Manufacturing Co.)

mable gases that may be present in the atmos-
phere being tested. For this reason, they must be
in perfect condition.

Using the Lamp

The lamp wick must be ignited (in an uncontami-
nated area, away from the compartment to be
tested) and the flame size adjusted according to
the manufacturer's instructions. Then the lamp
must be allowed to warm for the specified period
(at least 5 minutes).

The space to be tested should be ventilated
before it is tested. The lamp should be vertical,
whether it is being carried or lowered into the
compartment. It should be advanced into the com-
partment slowly. If the lamp is to be carried into
a space, it should be held well ahead of the crew-
man who is carrying it. The crewman entering
the space should wear a self-contained breathing
apparatus or a filter mask. This is especially
important if the atmosphere within the space
could possibly contain toxic gas.

Indications. If the flame continues to burn in
the space being tested, there is enough oxygen in
the space to support life.

If the flame slowly decreases in size and flickers
or goes out, the atmosphere is deficient in oxygen.
The flame is extinguished by a concentration of
oxygen below 16%. This is not enough oxygen
to support life.

If the flame "pops" the atmosphere is explosive.
The lamp must then be withdrawn slowly from
the space. (In case of reignition, rapid movement
could force the flame through the gauze and
cause an explosion.) The lamp should be flushed
thoroughly in a safe atmosphere.

If the flame gets brighter, or a pale blue halo
appears above the orange flame, there is a flam-
mable gas in the atmosphere. If the flame con-
tinues to burn, the concentration of flammable
gas is below the lower explosive limit. If the flame
dies out after brightening, the concentration is
above the upper explosive limit.

Required Actions. If the lamp indicates that the
space contains a breathable concentration of oxy-
gen, the space may be entered without breathing
apparatus. However, if the lamp has been lowered
into the space, it should be lowered all the way
to the deck, to test all levels of the atmosphere.
If a flammable gas is indicated at a lower level,
the lamp should be withdrawn slowly.

If a flammable atmosphere is indicated, the
space should be ventilated after the lamp is slowly
withdrawn. The atmosphere should then be re-

Miscellaneous Fire Safety Equipment

363

tested — first with a combustible-gas indicator and
then with the flame safety lamp. If the lamp shows
an oxygen deficiency, the space should be venti-
lated and retested.

Precautions

Even though it will indicate the presence of flam-
mable gas, the flame safety lamp should not be
used in any space that has contained or is sus-
pected of containing flammable or combustible
gases or liquids. It should not be used in coffer-
dams fouled by fuel oil or in atmospheres that
may contain hydrogen or acetylene gas. If pos-
sible, the space should first be tested with a com-
bustible-gas indicator.

The lamp should be checked for defects such
as a chipped globe, broken seals or gaskets and
damaged gauzes before it is used. A defective
lamp should not be used.

No attempt should be made to relight the lamp
in the compartment being tested.

The flame safety lamp will not indicate the
presence of carbon monoxide. It may not indi-
cate accurately after an explosion or fire, if ex-
cessive amounts of any combustion products are
present. For this reason, the space should be well
ventilated before it is tested with the lamp.

OXYGEN INDICATOR

The oxygen indicator is an instrument that meas-
ures the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere of a
confined space. The device consists of a case
with a meter, an aspirating bulb and a long rub-
ber tube. The end of the tube is placed in the at-
mosphere to be tested; samples of the atmosphere
are drawn into the case by squeezing the bulb.
The percentage of oxygen in the sample is indi-
cated by the meter needle.

Using the Oxygen Indicator

The instrument should be maintained and cali-
brated according to the manufacturer's instruc-
tions, often located on the device itself. The in-
strument should be stowed in the upright position
when it is not in use. The batteries (for instru-
ments that use them) should be stowed separately.
If the meter needle cannot be set to zero, the bat-
teries are weak. All the batteries should be re-
placed at the same time.

The rubber tube should be fed slowly into the
space whose atmosphere is being tested. The cot-
ton filter should be in place in the end of the tube.
The case of the instrument should be level or
nearly level for accurate readings. Liquids should
not be drawn into the instrument, as they destroy

its accuracy; the instrument must then be flushed
before further use.

When a sample of air is drawn into the instru-
ment, the meter needle will move back and forth,
and then settle at a reading. The meter should
therefore not be read immediately; about 10 sec-
onds should be allowed for the meter to stabilize.
All levels and all parts of the space should be
tested. After each reading, the instrument should
be purged by squeezing the aspirating bulb five
or six times, with the tube in fresh air.

A concentration of 16% -21% oxygen
throughout the tested space will sustain life. A
concentration of 15% oxygen or less is consid-
ered inert (will not support combustion).

Limitations

Exposure to certain gases will affect the accuracy
of the oxygen indicator. For example, an ex-
posure of 10 minutes or more to CO2 will cause
the meter to register an incorrect high oxygen
concentration. Exposure to CO2 or flue gas should
be brief; the instrument should be flushed with
fresh air after such exposure. High concentra-
tions of sulphur dioxide, fluorine, chlorine, bro-
mine, iodine and oxides of nitrogen will interfere
with the operation of the device. Strongly acidic
gases may damage the instrument enough so that
it requires an overhaul before it can be used again.

PORTABLE COMBUSTIBLE-
GAS INDICATOR

Combustible-gas indicators detect and register
concentrations of dangerous gases in the air in
confined spaces. Most shipboard explosions oc-
cur when flammable or combustible gases are
ignited in enclosed or partly enclosed spaces. It
is thus extremely important to test the atmos-
pheres of such spaces as tanks after cleaning, or
holds after a fire.

The portable combustible-gas indicator, or ex-
plosimeter, is similar in appearance to the oxy-
gen indicator. It consists of a case with a meter,
an aspirating bulb and a long rubber tube. The
open end of the tube is placed in the atmosphere
to be tested. A sample of that atmosphere is
drawn into the case by squeezing the aspirating
bulb. The meter needle registers the presence of
combustible gas as a percentage of the lower ex-
plosive limit.

There are various types of combustible-gas in-
dicators, including a small instrument about the
size of a flashlight. This model gives visible and
audible indications of gas concentrations. Manu-
facturers provide instructions for the calibration,

364

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

use and maintenance of their instruments; their
instructions should be followed carefully. All
combustible-gas indicators are battery operated.
The batteries should not be stowed with the in-
strument. Instead, a set of fresh batteries should
be installed in the unit whenever it is to be used.

Using the Combustible-Gas Indicator

Before the instrument is used to test a space for
combustible gas, it should be purged. This is
done by squeezing the aspirator bulb five or six
times, plus one additional time for each 1.52 m
(5 ft) of tubing. The open end of the tube should
be in fresh (or at least uncontaminated) air dur-
ing the purging.

As samples are drawn into the instrument, they
are burned within the case. Thus, the atmosphere
being tested must contain sufficient oxygen to
support combustion. The atmosphere must there-
fore be tested with an oxygen indicator before it
is tested with a combustible-gas indicator. The
case itself must remain outside the atmosphere
that is being tested.

Once the instrument has been calibrated and
purged, the open end of the tube is placed in the
space to be tested (Fig. 16.6). The bulb is
squeezed to draw a sample of the atmosphere
into the case. The heat generated during the burn-
ing of the sample is translated into a meter read-
ing through a Wheatstone bridge (a device for
measuring electrical resistance). As noted above,
the meter indicates the concentration of flam-
mable gases as a percentage of the lower explo-
sive limit (LEL). Because of the length of the
sampling hose and the way the device operates,
several seconds must elapse before the meter
shows a reading. The meter scale is red at and
above 60% of the LEL. These high concentra-
tions are dangerous — too close to the explosive
range to be safe for crewmen.

If the meter needle moves to the extreme right
side of the scale and stays there, the atmosphere
is explosive. If the meter moves rapidly across
the scale and then drops near or below zero, the
concentration of flammable gas may be above the
upper explosive limit (UEL). In this case, the
instrument should be flushed out with fresh air
and the atmosphere retested. In fact, each reading
should be rechecked at least once, to ensure its
accuracy. If possible, the instrument should be
flushed with fresh air between readings.

All levels of the space should be tested. Many
flammable gases are heavier than air and will
contaminate only the lowest parts of a compart-
ment. The sampling tube should not, however,
be allowed to contact any liquid as it is lowered
into a space. The liquid will cause a false read-

Figure 16.6. The sampling tube is inserted into the space to
be tested for combustible gas. The instrument itself remains
outside the space.

Miscellaneous Fire Safety Equipment 365

ing. If necessary, a probe can be used to deter-
mine how much freeboard there is above a liquid
surface; the tube may then be inserted only far
enough to sample the atmosphere above the
liquid.

The combustible-gas indicator should be
purged with fresh air after each use.

Limitations

Continued sampling of combustible-gas concen-
trations above the UEL may burn out the testing
mechanism. This is indicated when the meter
needle moves to the extreme right and cannot be
adjusted to zero.

Hot vapors may affect the indicator reading if
they condense inside the instrument. An inhibitor
filter is required for the testing of atmospheres
that may contain leaded gasoline fumes.

Many indicators will show incorrect readings
if the sampled atmosphere contains less than
10% or more than 25% oxygen. Certain indi-
cators are designed for specific contaminants. For
example, different instruments must be used to
test for oxyhydrogen and for oxyacetylene.

The presence of hydrogen sulfide gas or of
silanes, silicates or other compounds containing
silicone in the sampled atmosphere may cause
serious problems. Some of these materials rapidly
"poison" the detector element, so that it does
not function properly. When it is suspected that
such materials are present in the atmosphere be-
ing tested, the instrument must be checked fre-
quently (at least after each five tests). Some man-
ufacturers produce calibration kits for this
purpose.

COMBINATION COMBUSTIBLE-
GAS AND OXYGEN INDICATOR

The instrument in Figure 16.7 measures the con-
centrations of both combustible gas and oxygen.
Each is indicated on a separate meter. A sample
of the atmosphere is drawn into the instrument
by a battery-operated pump. The sample passes
through two separate sections, one for com-
bustible gas and the other for oxygen. Each sec-
tion operates in about the same way as the com-
parable single-purpose indicator.

As is usual with this type of instrument, the
indicator should be purged and calibrated before
each use according to the manufacturer's instruc-
tions. The combustible-gas portion will not meas-
ure the percentage of combustible vapor in steam
because of the lack of sufficient oxygen. It will
not indicate the presence of explosive or corn-

Figure 16.7. Combination portable combustible gas and oxy-
gen indicator. (Courtesy Mine Safety Appliances Company)

bustible mists or sprays formed from lubrication
oils, or the explosive dust produced by grain or
coal.

FIREAXE

The pikehead axe (Fig. 16.8) is a versatile, port-
able firefighting tool. Every vessel is required to
carry two of these fireaxes on international voy-
ages.

Figure 16.8. Pike head fireaxe.

366

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

The pike (pointed) end of the axe may easily
be driven through light metal, including metal-
clad fire doors and some class C bulkheads. It
can be used to make openings quickly, to check
for smoke or fire extension. It is also useful for
tearing apart mattresses and upholstered furni-
ture and for shattering heavy glass (including
tempered glass) when necessary. The broad end of
the axe can be used to pry open hinged doors,
to remove paneling and sheathing to expose re-
cesses and voids (avenues of fire travel), or to
chock doors open.

Crewmen must be cautious when using axes to
force a door or break glass. They should wear
gloves and other protective clothing, if available.
A door should be forced only when necessary.
First, the door should be checked to determine
whether it is unlocked. If it is not, there may be
time to obtain a key, especially if the fire is a
minor one and lives are not in danger. On the
other hand, when a door must be forced, this
should be done without hesitation.

Axes should be inspected periodically and
sharpened, cleaned or repaired as necessary. The
blade and pike ends should be kept sharp and
free of burrs. The handle should be tight in the
axe head and free of splits and splinters. An oc-
casional light oiling will keep the head from
rusting.

KEYS

Emergency equipment that is stowed in foot
lockers or locker spaces must be accessible at all
times. If a storage area is locked, the key must
be placed in a receptacle secured to a nearby
bulkhead. The receptacle is usually a small box
with a glass front. A hammer is provided for use
in breaking the glass in an emergency. The re-
ceptacle is generally painted red, with information
regarding the key stenciled on the bulkhead. A
key for the C02 room must also be available, or
the room may not be locked.

FIREMAN'S OUTFIT

Three types of protective clothing will be dis-
cussed in the remainder of this chapter. The first,
the fireman's outfit, is shown in Figure 16.9. It
consists of

• Boots

• Gloves

• A helmet

• A set of outer protective clothing

• A self-contained breathing apparatus

• A lifeline

• An approved flashlight

• A flame safety lamp

• Afireaxe.

The boots and gloves must be made of rubber or
a similar nonconducting material. The helmet
must provide effective protection against impact.
The outer protective clothing must protect the
wearer's skin from the heat of a fire and from
scalding by steam.

At least two fireman's outfits must be carried
on every U.S. flag vessel on an international voy-
age. However, in the event of a serious fire, the
two required outfits would not be sufficient to
protect all the crewmen involved in firefighting
and rescue operations. Recognizing this fact,
many ship owners provide additional outfits or
additional sets of breathing apparatus and pro-
tective clothing.

PROXIMITY SUIT

An approach suit, or proximity suit, consists of:

• Jumper-type pants that cover the legs and
upper part of the body, including the arms

16.9

Fireman's Outfit

Hardhat

Hood

Self-contained

Breathing

Apparatus

Jacket

Gloves

Pants

(Note: Pants
should be over
boots to keep
out water
and debris.)
Boots

Figure 16.9. Fireman's protective outfit. A lifeline, flashlight,
flame safety lamp and fireaxe must also be carried as part of
the outfit. (Courtesy C. J. Hendry Co.)

Miscellaneous Fire Safety Equipment

367

Figure 16.10. The proximity suit protects the wearer against
high heat but not against direct contact with flames. (Cour-
tesy Globe Firefighting Suits)

• A hood (with a transparent heat-reflecting
vision shield) that covers the entire head,
shoulders and upper part of the body

• Heavy gloves

• Special coverings for the feet.

The outer surface of the suit is covered with a
highly reflective material. (The suit reflects as
much as 90% of the radiant heat.)

When properly donned, the proximity suit en-
cases the wearer in a heat resistant envelope
(Fig. 16.10). It may be used to approach close
to a fire, but it is not designed to protect the
wearer during direct contact with flames. A self-
contained breathing apparatus must be worn
under the proximity suit. Otherwise, the intense
heat near the fire can damage the wearer's respira-
tory tract.

Proximity suits are used in fighting flammable-
liquid and LPG fires, which generate tremendous
amounts of heat. They allow firefighters to ap-
proach close enough to attack the fire effectively.
If a cooling shield of water is used during the ap-
proach, the wearer is reasonably safe. The mod-
ern proximity suit does not require "wetting
down" before the approach to the fire, as earlier
asbestos suits did.

ENTRY SUIT

The entry suit (Fig. 16.11) consists of boots,
trousers, coat and hood. Each of these is con-
structed of nine layers of fiberglass insulating ma-
terial separated by aluminized heat-reflecting
glass fabric. The outermost layer is aluminized
fiberglass. The vision shield is of a special heat-
reflecting material and is sealed into the hood.

Drawstrings and snaps on the suit provide an
airtight seal around the wearer. The hood is at-
tached to the coat with straps when the suit is
donned, so that it cannot be accidently removed.
An air pack (demand-type breathing apparatus)
is worn under the entry suit. The suit, but not the
air pack, is stowed in a suitcase.

The entry suit is adjustable. Designated wearers
should be familiar with the donning procedure
and should practice it until they can don the suit
and the air pack quickly. After each use, the suit
should be cleaned (especially of oil). Tears should
be repaired with the repair kit provided, or ac-
cording to the manufacturer's instructions, before
the suit is restowed. A full air cylinder should be
placed in the air pack.

Figure 16.11. The entry suit allows the wearer to enter
flames for a short time — the shorter the better. (Courtesy
Fyrepel)

368

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

The entry suit will protect the wearer from
direct contact with flames up to a temperature of
815.5°C (1500°F) for a short time. It may be
used to enter flames for rescue, to close a fuel
valve and for similar emergency tasks. However,
the wearer cannot linger in the flames; he must
move in, do what is necessary and move out
quickly. A crewman wearing an entry suit can be
baked like a potato in aluminum foil if he assumes
the suit will provide unlimited protection against
flames.

CONCLUSION

The ships of the U.S. maritime service range from
older, smaller break-bulk cargo vessels to super-
tankers and vessels of unique design. They carry
their cargos to and from all parts of the world,
usually with speed and efficiency. These ships

are durable; when safely navigated and properly
maintained, they can serve their owners and
crews for long periods of time. But they are also
vulnerable to neglect and carelessness.

Throughout this manual, the need for fire pre-
vention has been stressed; it is hoped that the
information presented will help prevent destruc-
tive fires. However, if fire does occur at sea, it
must be extinguished or controlled; there is no
other alternative. The methods of detecting fire
have been thoroughly described, along with the
ship's firefighting capabilities, which are perhaps
limited only by the training and capability of the
crew.

If you are a crewman who will be confronted
by fire at sea, the authors and all who have con-
tributed to this text pray its information will be
instrumental in your survival and the survival of
your ship.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Marine Officers Handbook, Edward A. Turpin and
William A. MacEwen, Cornell Maritime Press, Inc.,
Cambridge, Maryland 1965.

Damage Controlman, U.S. Navy Training Manual,
U.S. Navy Training Publication Center,
Washington, D.C. 1964

Fire Fighting-Ship, Bureau of Ships Manual,
U.S. Navy, Washington, D.C.

IFSTA Air Crash Rescue
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Okla.

GLOSSARY

adapter a hose coupling device for connecting
hoses of the nominal size, but which have
different type threads.

air foam see mechanical foam.

air foam nozzle (mechanical foam nozzle) a
special pick-up tube or nozzle incorporating
a foam maker to aspirate air into the solu-
tion to produce air foam.

air line mask a face mask where the air is
supplied through an air hose attached to a
blower outside of the contaminated space
or area.

all-purpose nozzle (combination) a mechani-
cal device that fits on the end of a hose that
controls the water pressure inside the hose
three ways by operating a single valve. The
three positions of the valve are: 1) FWD —
off, 2) vertical— HV/LV fog and 3) back-
solid stream.

applicator a special pipe or nozzle attach-
ment that fits into the all-purpose nozzle
high velocity outlet. Applicators used aboard
ship are 4', 10' and 12' lengths and are
equipped to change high velocity fog into
low velocity fog. The 4' and 1 0' applicators
fit the standard 1 V2 " nozzles and the 4' has
a 60° curve and the 10' has a 90° curve on
the outlet end. The 12' applicator fits the
standard 2Vz" nozzle and has a 90° curve
at the outlet end.

aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) a fluoro-

carbon surfactant that acts as an effective
vapor securing agent due to its effect on the
surface tension of the water. Its physical
properties enable it to float and spread
across surfaces of a hydrocarbon fuel with
more density than protein foam.

arcing pure electricty jumping across a gap
in a circuit. The intense heat at the arc may
ignite any nearby combustible material or
may fuse the metal of the conductor.

automatic alarm an alarm usually activated
by thermostats, sprinkler valves or other
automatic devices that activate electrical
circuits to the control station located on the
bridge.

automatic sprinkler system a device that ful-

fills both the functions of a fire detecting
system and a fire extinguishing system; the
water is held back normally with a fixed
temperature seal in the sprinkler head, which
melts or shatters at a predetermined tem-
perature.

backup man the man positioned directly be-
hind the nozzleman; he takes up the weight
of the hose and absorbs some of the nozzle
reaction so the nozzle can be manipulated
without undue strain.

bleve (pronounced "blevey") a boiling liquid-
expanding vapor explosion; failure of a
liquefied flammable gas container caused by
fire exposure.

blitz attack firefighters hit the fire with every-
thing at their disposal.

body harness a series of web straps on the
protective breathing apparatus that position
and stabilize the apparatus.

boilover occurs when the heat from a fire in
a tank travels down to the bottom of the
tank causing water that is already there to
boil and push part of the tank's contents
over the side.

breast plate that part of the protective breath-
ing apparatus that holds the canister and
protects the wearer from the heat generated
by the unit.

breathing apparatus a device that provides
the user with breathing protection; it in-
cludes a facepiece, body harness and equip-
ment that supplies air or oxygen.

carbon dioxide (CO2) a heavy, colorless,
odorless, asphyxiating gas, that does not
normally support combustion. It is one and
one-half times heavier than air and when
directed at the base of a fire its action is to
dilute the fuel vapors to a lean mixture to
extinguish the fire. Normally carried on
board in 15 lb portable extinguishers and
50 or 100 cylinders in the installed system.

chain breaking a method of fire extinguish-

ment that disrupts the chemical process that

369

370

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

sustains the fire; an attack on the chain re-
action side of the fire tetrahedron.

chain reaction a series of events, each of
which causes or influences its succeeding
event. For example, the burning vapor from
a fire produces heat which releases and ig-
nites more vapor; the additional vapor burns,
producing more heat, which releases and
ignites still more vapor; and so forth.

check valve a valve that permits a flow in one
direction only and will close to prevent a
flow in the opposite direction.

chemical foam foam formed by mixing an
alkali with an acid in water.

class A fire a fire involving common com-
bustible materials which can be extinguished
by the use of water or water solutions. Ma-
terials in this category include wood and
wood-based materials, cloth, paper, rubber
and certain plastics.

class B fire a fire involving flammable or
combustible liquids, flammable gases,
greases and similar products. Extinguish-
ment is accomplished by cutting off the
supply of oxygen to the fire or by preventing
flammable vapors from being given off.

class C fire a fire involving energized elec-
trical equipment, conductors or appliances.
Nonconducting extinguishing agents must be
used for the protection of firefighters.

class D fire a fire involving combustible
metals, for example, sodium, potassium,
magnesium, titanium and aluminum. Extin-
guishment is accomplished through the use
of heat-absorbing extinguishing agents such
as certain dry powders that do not react
with the burning metals.

combination combustible gas and oxygen indi-
cator an instrument that measures the
concentrations of both combustible gas and
oxygen; each is indicated on a separate
meter.

combination nozzle see all-purpose nozzle.

combustible gas indicator an instrument used
to determine whether the atmosphere of a
particular area is flammable; also called an
explosimeter.

combustion see fire.

compressed gas a gas that, at normal tem-
peratures, is entirely in the gaseous state
under pressure in its container.

conduction the transfer of heat through a
solid body.

convection the transfer of heat through the
motion of heated matter, that is, through the
motion of smoke, hot air, heated gases pro-
duced by the fire and flying embers.

convection cycle the pattern in which con-
vened heat moves. As the hot air and gases
rise from the fire, they begin to cool; as they
do, they drop down to be reheated and rise
again.

cooling a method of fire extinguishment that
reduces the temperature of the fuel below
its ignition temperature; a direct attack on
the heat side of a fire tetrahedron (also see
fire tetrahedron).

cryogenic gas a gas that is liquefied in its
container at a temperature far below nor-
mal temperatures, and at low-to-moderate
pressures.

demand breathing apparatus a type of self-
contained breathing apparatus that provides
air or oxygen from a supply carried by the
user.

dry chemical a mixture of chemicals in pow-
der form that has fire extinguishing prop-
erties.

dry powder an extinguishing agent developed
to control and extinguish fires in combus-
tible metals (class D fires).

dry system an automatic sprinkling system
that has air under pressure throughout in-
stalled piping in areas that might be sub-
jected to freezing temperatures. The opera-
tion of one or more sprinkler heads release
the air pressure and activate the control
valve allowing water to flow into the sys-
tem.

electric fire sensor system a device capable
of lighting a panel in the wheelhouse when
it detects fire in a certain area of the ship.

entry suit protective clothing designed to
protect the wearer from direct contact with
flames for a short time.

exhalation valve a simple one-way valve on
a single-hose facepiece, consisting of a thin
disk of rubber, neoprene or plastic resin

Glossary

371

secured in the center of the facepiece and
designed to release exhaled breath; also
called a flutter valve.

explosimeter see combustible gas indicator.

explosive range flammable range; the range
of the mixture of air and flammable gas or
flammable vapor of liquids that must be
present in the proper proportions for the
mixture to be ignited. The range has upper
and lower limits; any mixture above the
upper explosive limit (UEL) or below the
lower explosive limit (LEL) will not burn.

exposures combustible materials that may be
ignited by flames or radiated heat from the
fire.

extinguisher normally portable equipment
approved for use on certain types and classes
of fires.

extinguishing agent a substance that will put
out a fire and is available as a solid, liquid
or gas.

facepiece an assembly that fits onto the face
of the person using the breathing apparatus,
forming a tight seal to the face and trans-
mitting air or oxygen to the user.

fire a chemical reaction known as rapid oxi-
dation that produces heat and light in the
form of flames, gases and smoke.

fire detector a device that gives a warning
when fire occurs in the area protected by the
device; it senses and sends a signal in re-
sponse to heat, smoke, flame or any indica-
tion of fire.

fire extinguisher a self-contained unit, port-
able or semiportable, consisting of a supply
of the extinguishing agent, an expellant gas
(if the apparatus is not pressurized) and a
hose with a nozzle.

fire extinguishing system a means of putting
out fires consisting of a supply of the ex-
tinguishing agent, an actuation device (man-
ual or automatic), and the piping, valves
and nozzles necessary to apply the agent.

fire gases the hot gases produced by burning
materials.

fire line automatic system the system used to
detect fire in open spaces and to activate
alarms and/ or firefighting equipment auto-

matically, for example, a pneumatic tube
fire detector.

fire-main system a system that supplies water
to all areas of the vessel; it is composed of
the fire pumps, piping (main and branch
lines), control valves, hose and nozzles.

fire point the temperature at which a liquid
fuel sustains combustion.

fire station consists basically of a fire hydrant
(water outlet) with valve and associated hose
and nozzles.

fire tetrahedron a solid figure with four tri-
angular sides illustrating how the chain re-
action sequence interacts with heat, fuel and
oxygen to support and sustain a fire.

fire triangle a three-sided figure illustrating
the three essential components of fire: fuel
(to vaporize and burn), oxygen (to combine
with fuel vapor), and heat (to raise the tem-
perature of the fuel vapor to its ignition tem-
perature).

flame safety lamp an instrument used to test
for oxygen deficiency; if there is enough
oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere to
keep the flame burning, there is enough oxy-
gen to support life.

flammable range see explosive range.

flashover the ignition of combustibles in an
area heated by convection, radiation or a
combination of the two. The action may be
a sudden ignition in a particular location
followed by rapid spread or a "flash" of the
entire area.

flash point the temperature at which a liquid
fuel gives off sufficient vapor to form an
ignitable mixture near its surface.

flexible tubes the part of the facepiece de-
signed to carry fresh air or oxygen from the
canister to the facepiece and, in the face-
piece with a dual hose, to return exhaled
breath from the facepiece to the canister.

flutter valve see exhalation valve.

foam a blanket of bubbles that extinguishes
fire mainly by smothering. The blanket pre-
vents flammable vapors from leaving the
surface of the fire and prevents oxygen from
reaching the fuel. The water in the foam also
has a cooling effect.

foam concentrate liquids of 3% or 6% con-
centrations that are mixed with water to
produce mechanical foam.

foam generators devices for mixing chemical
foam powders with a stream of water to pro-

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Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

duce foam. Pressure type foam generators
are closed devices containing the necessary
chemicals with provision for admission of
water when foam is needed.

foam proportioner a device that regulates
the amount of foam concentrate and water to
form a foam solution.

foam solutions the result of mixing foam con-
centrates with water.

fog (spray) streams a method of projecting a
stream of water in which a specifically de-
signed nozzle causes the water to leave the
nozzle in small droplets, thereby increasing
the water's heat absorption efficiency.

fresh-air breathing apparatus a hose mask;
a facepiece connected to a pump by a long
hose through which air is pumped to the
user. Mobility is limited by the length and
weight of the hose.

fuel any combustible material adding to the
magnitude or intensity of a fire; one of the
essential sides of the fire triangle.

fumes a smoke, vapor or gas given off by a
fire which could be irritating, offensive or
dangerous to the fire fighter.

gas a substance that has no shape of its own
but which will take the shape of, and fill the
volume of its container.

gas free an area, tank or system previously
used to carry inflammable or poisonous
liquids that has been entirely cleared of such
liquids and certified by a chemist as clear
of any danger.

gasket a sealing ring necessary to make a
watertight connection between female and
male hose couplings.

gas mask a device that filters contaminants
from air that is to be breathed; it can only be
used in an atmosphere that contains enough
oxygen to support life.

goosenecking directing a stream of water
over the vessel's side, perpendicular to the
water surface.

GPM the initials for "Gallons Per Minute"
and is a measure of water flow through the
fire main system.

halogenated extinguishing agents Halon;
made up of carbon and one or more of the
halogen elements: fluorine, chlorine, bro-
mine and iodine.

Halon see halogenated extinguishing agents.

hazard a condition of fire potential defined
by arrangement, size, type of fuel and other
factors which form a special threat of igni-
tion or difficulty of extinguishment. A "fire
hazard" refers specifically to fire seriousness
potential and a "life hazard" to danger of
loss of life from fire.

head harness that part of the mask designed
to hold the facepiece in the proper position
on the face, with just enough pressure to
prevent leakage around the edge of the
mask.

heat temperature above the normal atmos-
pheric temperature, as produced by the
burning or oxidation process; one of the
essential sides of the fire triangle; often re-
ferred to as "ignition temperature" in fire
fighting instructions.

heat transfer the movement and dispersion
of heat from a fire area to the outside atmos-
phere. An example of heat transfer would
be fire fighting water being converted into
steam and expanding its volume, thus creat-
ing a slight pressure and carrying the heat
and heated water vapor to the outside at-
mosphere Also see connection, conduction,
and radiation.

high-expansion foam a foam that expands in
ratios of over 100 : 1 when mixed with
water; it is designed for fires in confined
spaces.

high pressure fog (high velocity fog) pro-
duced when using the all purpose nozzle
with the handle in mid-position. It is a high
capacity jet spray produced at very high
pressure and discharged through small holes
of a cage type sprayer tip.

hose a flexible tube used to carry fluid from
a source to an outlet. Standard shipboard
fire hoses are Wi" or 2Vi" in diameter.
They are normally 50 feet in length, with a
female coupling installed on one end and a
male coupling on the other.

hose jackets the covering over the inside liner
of a hose. It is a woven jacket (or jackets)
of cotton or synthetic fibers.

!

Glossary

373

hose mask see fresh-air breathing apparatus.

hose reel a permanently mounted fire hose
installation which stows a fire hose in a
ready position. Normally found in engine
spaces aboard ship.

hose spanner see spanner wrench.

hyperthermia a dangerously high fever that
can damage nerve centers. This condition
can result from exposure to excessive heat
over an extended period of time.

ignitable mixture mixture of vapor and air
that is capable of being ignited by an igni-
tion source, but usually is not sufficient to
sustain combustion.

ignition temperature the lowest temperature
at which a fuel will burn without continued
application of an ignition source.

or "propane" stored under pressure as a
liquid and vaporized and burned as gas.

male coupling an outside threaded hose nip-
ple which fits into the threads of a swivel
coupling of the same pitch and appropriate
diameter. A coupling to which nozzles and
other appliances are attached.

mechanical foam air foam; foam produced
by mixing a foam concentrate with water to
produce a foam solution.

monitor (sentinel) a large stream nozzle, nor-
mally found on tankers, fixed in various lo-
cations above the main deck. They are op-
erated by gear-driven wheels or handles and
have a 360° arc. Can deliver a stream of
water or foam onto a deck type fire.

jury rigging overloading electrical wiring by
trying to operate too many appliances from
it.

lens that part of the facepiece that allows the
wearer a wide range of vision.

liquefied gas a gas that, at normal tempera-
tures, is partly in the liquid state and partly
in the gaseous state under pressure in its
container.

LNG (liquid natural gas) a natural gas, a
hydrocarbon of fossil fuel, consisting mainly
of methane stored as a liquid and vaporized
and burned as gas.

lower flammable limit minimum flammable
concentration of a particular gas in the air.

low velocity fog (low pressure fog) produced
by inserting an applicator into an all pur-
pose nozzle. It is a high capacity, low pres-
sure mist discharged at angles from 60° to
90 degrees; used to cool down an area or to
protect the fire fighting team from flames
or smoke.

LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) any one of
several petroleum products such as "butane"

national standard thread all fire hose fittings
and coupling screw threads are national
standard. The standard 21/2// has IVi threads
to the inch and the outside diameter of the
male couplings is 3 1/1 6".

noncombustible not subject to combustion
under ordinary conditions of temperature
and normal oxygen content of atmosphere.

noncombustible material one that will not
burn or support combustion.

nose cup an optional, removable part of the
facepiece that fits into the exhalation valve
and is designed to reduce fogging of the
lens.

nozzle a device with a control valve attached
to the hose outlet to shape and direct the
stream.

nozzleman the key member and leader of the
hose team who controls the nozzle and di-
rects the stream onto the fire.

overhaul a procedure following a fire whereby
the area is examined for hidden fire and fire
extension and the fire area is cleaned up.

oxidation a chemical process in which a sub-
stance combines with oxygen, giving off en-
ergy usually in the form of heat. The rusting
of iron is an example of slow oxidation; fire

374

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

is an example of rapid oxidation.

oxidizing substance a material that releases
oxygen when it is heated or, in some in-
stances, when it comes in contact with water.
Substances of this nature include: hypo-
chlorites, chlorates, perchlorates, nitrates,
chromates, oxides and peroxides. Burning
oxidizers cannot be extinguished by remov-
ing their oxygen; extinguishment must be
accomplished by application of large
amounts of water.

oxygen a gas present in the atmosphere in
about 21 % concentration, which while not
combustible is an essential element for com-
bustion. It is also the essential gas in respi-
ration since the oxidation process is basic to
life.

oxygen breathing apparatus (OBA) a type of
self-contained breathing apparatus that pro-
vides oxygen chemically.

oxygen deficiency less than 16% oxygen con-
tent in the atmosphere. Oxygen deficiency
can be caused by smoke, heat or gases of a
fire.

oxygen dilution a method of fire extinguish-
ment that reduces the amount of available
oxygen below that needed to sustain com-
bustion; an attack on the oxygen side of the
fire tetrahedron (also see fire tetrahedron).

oxygen indicator an instrument used to de-
termine whether the atmosphere contains
sufficient oxygen (15% or more) to sustain
life.

pay out when hose is fed to the hose team to
prevent excessive strain on the firefighters.
Normally hose is paid out by the backup
men on the hose.

petroleum products oils made by distillation
(heating) of crude petroleum which produce
such products as gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil,
lubricating oil and asphalt.

pick-up unit the small tube with a metal end
used to deliver the foam concentrate from
its storage (can) to the air foam nozzle.

pike-head fire axe a versatile, portable fire-
fighting tool with a blade and a pike end.

portable fire extinguisher one that can be
carried to the fire area for a fast attack; it
contains a limited supply of extinguishing
agent.

portable pump a small gasoline driven pump
used in emergencies to deliver water to a
fire, independent of the ship's fire main sys-
tem.

protective clothing a general term used to de-
scribe the ensemble of gear a firefighter
wears. Includes boots, foul weather gear,
gloves, hat or special heat-resistant suits.

proximity suit protective clothing that en-
cases the wearer in a heat resistant envelope
and is worn when it is necessary to approach
the fire closely; it does not protect the wearer
during direct contact with flames.

pyrolysis the conversion of solid fuel to flam-
mable vapor by heat.

pyrometer an instrument for measuring tem-
peratures too great for an ordinary ther-
mometer; it is used to find the temperature
of a fire.

quench to put out; to extinguish by soaking
the fuel with water or cooling the fuel down
below ignition temperature.

pneumatic tube fire detector

matic system.

see fire line auto-

radiant heat pure energy; the heat that is
released in the burning process. Like the
heat of the sun, it radiates, or travels, in all
directions.

radiation the travel of heat through space.

radiation feedback the heat from a fire that

radiates back to the fuel causing increased
vapor production.

rapid water slippery water; water to which
small quantities of polyethylene oxide have
been added to reduce its viscosity and its
friction in hoselines, thereby increasing the
reach of the stream.

reach the distance a straight stream travels
before breaking up or dropping.

reducer a coupling used to attach a smaller
diameter hose to a larger diameter hose or
outlet and vice versa.

Glossary

375

Reid vapor pressure method method used by
the American Society of Testing Materials
to test vapor pressure. It is a measure of the
volatility, or tendency to vaporize, of a
liquid.

seat of fire the area where the main body of
the fire is located. It is determined by the
outward movement of heat and gases and
where the fire has burned through the
deepest.

self-closing fire door a fire resistant door (nor-
mally kept closed) which, when opened, is
returned to a closed position by a closing
device.

self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) a

device providing air or oxygen to the user
who wears the entire device; thus the user
is completely mobile. However, the device
can supply air or oxygen for only a limited
amount of time.

semiportable fire extinguisher one from which
a hose can be run out to the fire. The other
components are fixed in place.

smoke a visible product of fire made up of
carbon and other unburned substances in the
form of suspended particles. It also carries
the vapors of water, acids and other chem-
icals, which can be poisonous or irritating
when inhaled.

smoke detection system a device that samples
the air to detect the presence of smoke par-
ticles in the monitored area, and then sends
an alarm.

smoldering to burn and smoke without flame,
to exist ill a state of suppressed activity.

smothering a method of fire extinguishment
that separates the fuel from the oxygen; an
attack on the edge of the fire tetrahedron
where the fuel and oxygen sides meet (also
see fire tetrahedron).

solid stream see straight stream.

spanner wrench a special tool designed spe-
cifically for tightening or breaking apart
fire-hose connections.

speaking diaphragm that part of the face-
piece, located directly in front of the wearer's
mouth, that projects the wearer's voice with
little or no distortion.

spill fire when burning flammable liquids

spill onto the deck. Often involves intense
flame and heat due to the relatively large
surface for evaporation of liquids.

spontaneous ignition a fire that occurs with-
out a flame, spark, hot surface or other out-
side source of ignition.

static electricity charges of electricity accu-
mulated on opposing and usually moving
surfaces having negative and positive
charges, respectively. A hazard exists where
the static potential is sufficient to discharge
a spark in the presence of flammable vapors
or combustible dusts.

static pressure the water pressure available
at a specific location where no flow is being
used and where there are no pressure losses
due to friction.

station bill a muster list outlining the special
duties and duty station of each member of
the crew during emergencies, as well as the
signals for these emergencies.

steam smothering an installed system found
on older ships used to protect spaces where
fire was likely to occur, such as engine room,
cargo spaces, paint lockers, and so forth.

slopover an event that occurs when water is
introduced into a tank of very hot liquid,
causing the liquid to froth and spatter.

straight stream solid stream; a method of
projecting a stream of water formed by a
nozzle that is fitted to a fire hose. The nozzle
is tapered to a size less than one-half the
diameter of the hose end. This smaller open-
ing increases the velocity of the water and
gives it greater throwing power.

strainers wire or metal cages installed in the
fire main system to keep debris from clog-
ging up the lines. Some strainers are located
at the fire stations for periodic cleaning out
purposes.

thermal lag the difference between the tem-
perature of the surrounding air and the tem-
perature necessary to activate the fire de-
tector.

thick water water that has been treated with
a chemical to decrease its ability to flow.
It thus forms a thick wall that clings to burn-
ing material and remains in place longer
than ordinary water.

376

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

tri-gate a device used to reduce the hoseline
size and provide three outlets.

wet water water that has been treated with a
chemical agent to lower its surface tension,
thus allowing it to penetrate porous ma-
terials more easily.

wheatstone bridge a device for measuring
electrical resistance.

wye gate a device in the shape of a "Y" used
to reduce the hoseline size and separate the
lines.

Index

Italicized page numbers indicate
illustrations.

Abandon ship, 21, 266-267
case histories, 42, 46, 50, 56, 57, 61
hoseline protection, 46
offshore rigs, 253, 258
signal, 266
ABC dry chemical. See Monoammonium

phosphate
Abdominal wounds, 279, 280
Accidents

reporting, 273—274
types of injuries, 274—275
victims

evaluating, 277-279
triage, 279-280
see also Medical care
Acetate, 85
Acetylene gas, 13, 93, 94

cylinders, 15
Acrolein (acrylic aldehyde), 89
Acrylic, 85

African Star. SS. 59-62
Air sampling systems

combustible gases, 115-118
smoke, 108-109, 112-114
Airway maintenance, 280. 282, 316
burn patients, 302
obstructions, 297

recognition and treatment, 283—285
oropharyngeal airways, 282, 285-286
Alarm boxes, 1 10, 1 14
Alarms

breathing apparatus, 333, 335, 336, 340,

342, 348, 350
evacuation alarms

C02 systems, 137, 183-184, 256
foam systems. 134
Halon systems, 190, 256
fire alarms

manual, 110, 251, 253
supervised, 1 14-1 15
fire detection systems, 101, 102, 1 10
offshore rigs, 252—253
smoke detectors, 113, 114
gas detectors, 115, 1 16-1 17
inert gas system, 195—196
sounding the alarm, 43, 46, 143, 199,

228, 268
sprinkler systems, 105, 108, 110
testing, 1 15
see also Signals
Alcohol foams, 132
Aluminum, 98

fire hazards, 7, 97
Aluminum sulfate, 130
American Association of Oilwell Drilling

Contractors (AAODC), 250
American Conference of Governmental

Industrial Hygienists, 33
American Institute of Electrical Engineers

(A1EE), 250
American Petroleum Institute (API), 250
American Society of Mechanical

Engineers (ASME), 250
American Waterways Operators. 231
Ammonia

anhydrous, 93-94

transport, 238
explosive range, 75
Aqueous Eilm-Forming Foam (AFFF).

131, 132-133, 135, 136, 139. 258
Anaphylactic shock, 298
Arcing, 96

Artificial respiration
mouth— to-airway, 286
mouth— to— mouth, 285
mouth— to— nose, 285
resuscitators

bag-mask, 286-287. 313

mechanical, 287
spinal injuries, 282
when to use

drowning, 314

inhaled poisons, 313

shock, 298
see also Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
Alva Cape. MV, 51-53

Balanced— pressure foam proportioning

system, 176-179
Ballast water

discharging, 48-49
Bandages, 295
application, 295
eye injuries, 297
fractures, 305, 306, 307. 308-309,

310-311
securing pressure dressings, 291
medical supply chest, 274
Barge— carrying vessels, 231

CO: extinguishing system, 184-185
Barges, 23 1
fire protection, 238, 240
firefighting operations, 240-244
case history, 59-62
extensive fire, 242
ocean-going fires, 242-244
protecting tow vessel, 242-243
small fires, 240-241
safety, 231-233, 246
types, 238-240

see also Tugboats and towboats
Bearings, 35
Benzene, 75
Bilges

fires, 13. 14

combat techniques, 155, 21 1-214
extinguishing system. 179
maintenance, 19
pumping water from. 173
Bi-metallic disk heat detector, 104-105
Bi-metallic strip heat detector, 103-104
Bleeding
air embolism danger. 290
control, 278, 292, 316

direct pressure, 282, 291-292
fractures, 304
impaled objects, 295-296
tourniquet pressure, 292-293
from nose and ears. 278
internal
control, 294

signs and symptoms, 293
pressure points, 291-292
shock. 297
types of, 290
Blood pressure, 272-276
Boat stations
signal, 266
Boatswain's locker, 87, 88

fire, 214
Boiler room, 174

extinguishing system, 179
fires, 55-56
smoking in. 5

377

378

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Boilers, 35

Boiling liquid-expanding vapor explosion

(BLEVE), 93, 94
Boilover, 135
Break-bulk cargo ships
fires, 5, 182, 217-221
Breathing apparatus, 79, 80, 97, 134, 139,
142, 208, 212-213, 217, 327. 331-
333
air cylinders

pressure controls, 327, 333
refilling, 347, 349, 352
air supply alarms, 333, 335, 336, 340,

342, 348, 350
face piece, 327—331
construction, 328—329
donning, 329, 330
maintenance, 331, 332
removal, 329, 331
stowage, 331, 333
stowage, 327
training, 327
types, 331-333

demand type, 340—352
fresh-air hose mask, 352-355
gas masks, 355

oxygen breathing (OBA), 331, 333,
334-340
Bromochlorodifluoromethane. See Halon

1211
Bromotrifluoromethane. See Halon 1301
Bulkheads and decks, 357-358
classification, 357

class A bulkheads, 173
heat conduction through, 77-78, 358
openings, 358
Burns, 298-299, 314
chemical burns, 302
classification, 299
cryogenic (frostbite and freezing) 303,

312-313
determining severity, 299-300
electrical burns, 96, 317

emergency care, 302
emergency care, 301-303

supplies, 301
light burns, 303
prevention, 79
"rule of nines," 299
thermal burns, 310-302

Cabin and compartment fires, 209-210,
238
closed door, 200, 208, 209
passageway, 208
Cadmium, 97
Carbon dioxide (C02), 136

extinguishing properties, 76, 136, 181-

182
hazards, 79-80, 137, 182, 235
limitations, 137
uses, 136-137
Carbon dioxide extinguishers, portable,
137, 148-149, 150
maintenance, 149
operation, 148
Carbon dioxide extinguishing systems,

55-59, 64-65, 67, 91, 97, 137, 162,
181-189, 228
alarm, 137, 183-184, 256
cargo system, 182
cylinders

arrangement, 186
installing, 187-188
removing, 187
weighing, 149, 188

delayed discharge, 137, 184

disadvantages, 182

fire temperature checks, 57-59, 1 18,

219, 220
galley range system, 194-195
hazards, 182, 235
independent systems, 185, 187
inspection, 187
checklist, 39
maintenance, 187—189

replacing nozzles, 189
manual use, 215, 235
offshore rigs, 255-256
semiportable, 235

hose-reel system, 155, 156
smoke detector combination, 1 14,

184-185, 186
total-flooding systems, 182-184, 212,
218-220, 235. 240
reentry of flooded area, 212—214
Carbon dioxide room, 101, 113, 1 14, 137
Carbon monoxide, 84, 202
detecting, 1 16
poisoning, 79, 313
Cardiac arrest

signs, 287-288
Cardiogenic shock, 297
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR),
278, 287-290
determining effectiveness, 290
possible complications, 290
technique, 288-289
one rescuer, 289
two rescuers, 289-290
Cargo
bulk, II

leaks, 10, II, 28
loading and unloading, 10, 28
fire hazards, 17
shoreside workers, 16-17
regulated. See Hazardous materials
shoring, I I

spontaneous ignition, 6-7
stowage, 10-11
combustibles, 7
Cargo containers, 87, 88
fires, 222-223
loading, 1 1
Cargo hold. 87, 162
bulkheads, 358
carbon dioxide flooding system, 182,

184
fire prevention, 28, 29
fires, 57-59, 76, 134, 162, 184, 199, 228
break-bulk vessels, 182, 217-221
cargo containers, 223
layout, 218
smoke inlets, 1 15
smoking in, 5

steam smothering system, 197
Carries, 317-323
one-man, 317-319
spinal injuries, 320-323
two-man, 319
Cascade recharge system, 349
air pressure and usage chart, 349
air tanks, 347
Catalytic combustible gas detection

system, 115, 116
Celluloid, 86

Chain of command, 263, 264
Chemical Hazards Response Information

System (CHRIS), 228
Chemical Transportation Emergency

Center (CHEMTREC), 228
Chest wounds, 279, 280, 297

Index

379

Chief engineer, 264
Chief mate, 264, 267, 269
Chlorine, 7
Class A fires, 81, 83-87

extinguishment, 87-88, 121, 126, 129,
130, 136, 209-210, 214
ABC dry chemical, 151-152
high-expansion foam, 133
Class A and B fires, combined, 122, 124,

133
Class A and C fires, combined, 124
Class B fire extinguisher, 141
Class B fires, 82, 88-95

extinguishment, 89-90,91, 94, 121-122,
128, 129, 136, 162, 174
BC or ABC dry chemical, 151, 152
CO-) extinguishers, 148
Halon, 154

high— expansion foam, 133-134
Class B and C fires, combined, 124
Class C fires, 82, 95-97

extinguishment, 97, 136, 162
BC or ABC dry chemical, 152
C02 extinguisher, 148-149
Halon. 154
Class D fires, 82, 97-98

extinguishment, 98, 124, 139, 152-153,
162
Cloud chambers, 109
Coal, 7
Coast Guard

extinguisher ratings, 143
fire classification, 82
information sources, 228
licensing and certification, 268, 273
Marine Inspections Office, 33, 35, 101
permits
liquefied natural gas, 94
welding and hot work, 15, 16
publications, 21, 27, 29, 37, 75. 161, 198,

258, 266, 267
regulations
alarms, 137

breathing apparatus, 327, 342
construction features, 87, 358
equipment list, 101, 119, 139, 140, 142
fire and boat drills, 36
fire protection, 67, 88, 89, 101, 110,
118, 161, 164, 165. 167, 170,
175, 182, 206, 240
flame safety lamp, 33
hazardous materials, 29, 89, 91, 94,

140
offshore rigs, 249, 254
repairs and alterations, 17, 3/, 36
tank vessels, 18
Cold, exposure to

frostbite and freezing, 312-313
hypothermia, 312
Collisions

fires caused by, 1,21, 51-54, 59-61
LNG spill, 226-227
Combustible gas detectors
alarms, 115, I 16-1 17
catalytic, 115, 116
infrared, 116-117
offshore rigs, 253
Combustible gas indicator, 33, 75,
363-365
limitations, 365
use, 364-365
Combustible liquids, 18, 88

burning characteristics, 88-89, 91

combustion products, 89

fires, 51-54

grades, 18

location aboard ship, 89

Combustible materials, class A, 81, 83

bulk cargo, 1 1

interior construction, 47, 50, 64, 67, 358

location aboard ship, 87

plastics and rubber, 86-87

spontaneous ignition, 6—7

textiles and fibers, 85—86

welding operations, 14, 15

wood and wood based materials, 6,
83-85
Combustible metals, 82. 97-98

fires, 124, 139, 141, 153

hazards and characteristics, 97-98

location aboard ship, 98
Combustion. See Fire
Communication

between vessels underway, 53-54, 59, 62

during fire, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 201

language difficulties, 48, 49

shoreside firefighting services, 45, 52,
242

tank vessel cargo transfer, 19
Compressed gas, 92
Conduction, 77

Consciousness, level of, 276-277, 280
Construction features

combustible materials, 47, 50, 64, 67

design safety, 3, 43, 66-67, 161, 357, 358

standards, 87

unauthorized, 9-10

see also Bulkheads and decks; Doors
Convection cycle, 78, 79
Crew

living quarters

inspection checklist, 38, 245
offshore rigs, 252-253. 258

responsibilities. 23, 24-25, 29, 36, 249,
263

supervisory personnel, 23-24

training, 23. 25-26, 43, 268-271
Cryogenic liquids. 92

fire protection, 174

spills, 135
Cyanosis, 283

Deck
extinguishing systems

dry chemical, 191-193

foam systems, 133, 179-181
fires

cargo containers, 222

rig tender vessels, 259

storage space, 236-237
inspection checklists, 38-39, 246-247
Demand type breathing apparatus,
340-352
advantages and disadvantages, 350-351
air cylinders, 342

changing, 348

refilling, 347, 349
air— module supplied, 351-352

air supply unit, 351

donning, 352

facepiece, 351-352

recharging, 352
backpack unit

donning, 342-343, 345

operating time, 350

removal, 343, 345, 347

stowage, 344
construction, 341
facepiece, 341
maintenance, 348-349
minipack unit, 347—348

operating time. 350-351
regulator, 341-342

380

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

safety precautions, 349-350
sling-pack unit, 347
donning, 346, 347
operating time, 350
Detection systems, 42, 43, 46, 47, 49. 50,
101, 102-108, 110, 118, 233-234
air sampling systems, 108-109, 1 12-1 14
alarm signals, 101, 102, 110, 113, 114,

115. 116-117
control units. 101, 102
line-type detectors, 105, 106. 107
power supply, 102, 1 14
offshore rigs, 251-253
spot detectors, 105, 106, 108
testing and inspection, 115
see also specific types. Heat detectors;
Gas detectors, etc.
Dislocations, 304, 305

hip, 310
Distress calls, 42, 46, 50
Doors, 358-360
fume doors. 360

opening during fire, 200, 208, 360
testing, 359-360
watertight, 47-48. 49, 358
classification, 358-359
control station, 359, 361
dogs, 359
Dressings, 295

burns, 301-302, 303
impaled objects, 295-296
medical supply chest, 274, 301
pressure dressings, 282, 292, 295
application, 291
Drills and practice sessions, 25, 28-29. 36.
43. 81, 125, 129, 176, 267
boat drills, 4, 43. 45-46
Drowning, 314

Drv chemical extinguishers, 82, 90, 97, 98,
149-152
cartridge operated, 150-151
maintenance, 152
stored pressure, 151, 152
Dry chemical extinguishing systems. 162,
191-193
galley range system, 194
LNG vessels, 225
semiportable, 259

hose system, 155-156, 157
rig tender vessels. 259
skid-mounted deck unit. 191-193
blowdown and recharge, 193
inspection and maintenance, 193
Dry chemicals, 124, 138
extinguishing capability, 138—139, 150
limitations, 139
safety, 139
types, 138
uses, 77. 1 39
Dry powder extinguishers, 152-153

operation, 153
Dry powders, 124, 139-140
types, 140

Electric motors, 9, 96
Electric shock, 95, 96

burns, 96, 302

prevention, 152

rescue from, 316—317
Electrical circuits and equipment

arcing, 96

engine rooms, 9

exposed light bulbs. 8, 9

faulty, 7-9, 96

galley. 1 1

inspection and maintenance, 27

location aboard ship, 96-97

overloading, 8, 96

panelboards, 95, 97

replacement parts. 7

routing, 65, 67

short circuits, 96

switches, 95-96

vaportight fixtures, 8-9

wiring and fuses, 7-8

see also Generators
Electrical fires, 82, 124. 136, 140, 152, 162

combat techniques, 97, 155, 215-217,
236

hazards, 96
Emergency power systems, 56, 63, 67, 97

automatic fire detection system, 102
Emergency service, 101, 263

organizing personnel, 263—264

station bill, 263, 264-266

stations and duties, 266-267

see also Firefighting operations;

Medical care; Rescue operations
Emergency squad, 267-268

fire party, 206, 208
hose team, 207-209
searchers, 208

mustering signal, 267

training, 28-29, 43, 267-268
Engine room

alarms, 101, 137

electrical equipment, 9, 96-97

extinguishing systems, 235

fires, 76,210-211, 228
bilge, 211-214

foam expansion, 176

inspection list, 245

smoking in, 5
Esso Brussels, SS, 33—34
Esso Vermont, 51—52
Ethylene gas, 94
Ethylene oxide

explosive range, 75
Explosimeter. See Combustible-gas

indicator
Explosion suppression systems, 77, 235
Explosions, 313-314

compressed and liquefied gases, 92-93

flammable dust, 73

flammable vapors, 88-89

hydrogen, 9

open air, 93

paint fires, 91

soot, 142

tank vessels, 51-52

well head fires, 258
Explosive range, 74-75
Extinguishing agents, 121, 122

action. 121, 122-123, 124. 130, 136, 138,

140, 141
choosing, 81

class A fires, 87-88, 121

class B fires, 89-90,91, 121-122

class C fires. 97

class D fires. 98. 124, 139

combination fires, 122, 124

shipboard use, 142

see also specific agents
Eyes

injury

burn treatment, 302-303
impaled objects, 296-297

pupil reaction, 276. 277. 280, 288
Fainting, 277, 297
Federal regulations, 3

emergency drills, 81

fire protection, 101, 103, 109-110, 115.

141, 161

hazardous materials, 6-7. 10. 29, 33, 94

Index

381

inspections

fire extinguishers, 35—36
machinery and equipment, 35
tank vessels, 18
welding and burning, 15, 32
see also Coast Guard
Fendering, 19
Ferryboat

fire, 227-228
Fire

burning, 71-72, 74

rate of, 73
chain reaction, 72, 75-76, 77, 138
classification, 81—82, 121

see also class A fires, etc.
detection. See Detection systems
discovery data, 1 12
extinguishment, 76-77, 90, 121, 122
see also Extinguishing agents; Fire
extinguishers; Firefighting
operations
fire tetrahedron, 75-76
fire triangle, 72, 73
gaseous fuels, 72, 74-75
hazardous products, 78-80, 84, 86-87,

89, 91, 202
liquid fuels, 72, 73-74
location, 199
solid fuel, 72-73

spread, 47-48, 65, 77-78, 200, 201
offshore facilities, 257
secondary fires, 64, 65
start, 71

see also specific fire classifications and
situations
Fire dampers, 43, 67, 360
Fire drills. See Drills and practice sessions
Fire extinguishers, 142
classification, 143, 144
general safety rules, 144
test and inspection, 143-144, 146, 147,

149
training, 26, 143
tugboats and towboats, 236
use, 209-210, 214, 215, 227, 240
see also Extinguishing agents; and
specific types of extinguishers
Fire extinguishing systems, 142, 161, 228
design and installation, 161, 162
inspection and maintenance, 35-36,

checklist, 39-40
major types, 162
offshore rigs, 254-257
semiportable, 155-160, 235
tugboats and towboats, 234—235
see also specific types of system
Fire hose. See Hoseline
Fire-main systems, 88. 124, 162-170
fire pumps, 124, 164-165
fire stations, 165-167
foam feedins, 135, 158-159. 251
hydrants, 162, 165-166
inspection checklist, 39
piping, 162-163

looped main, 163, 164
single main, 163—164
offshore rigs, 254-255
monitor nozzles, 255
shore connections. 164
spanner wrench, 167, 169
tugboats and towboats, 234—235
wye gates and tri-gates, 169—170, 234
see also Hoseline
Fire party. See Emergency squad
Fire point, 74
Fire prevention, 23
education and training, 250

curriculum, 26-29
formal training, 25—26
informal training, 26
on-the-job training, 24
inspections, 29, 32
checklist, 38-40
preventive maintenance, 33-36
program elements. 25, 228
recognition of effort, 36-37
responsibilities, 23-25, 45
crew, 23, 24-25, 29, 36, 50
master, 23, 29, 32, 36
supervisors, 23-24
Fire stations, 165—167
equipment, 125, 166-167
foam stations, 255
hydrants, 165, 166
locations. 165-166
offshore rigs, 254
tugboats and towboats, 234
Fire watch, 229, 250
supervised patrols, 1 10-1 11. 112
watchmen's system, 111-112
welding and burning, 14, 28
Fire zones, 173, 358
alarm boxes, 1 10, 1 14
smoke detectors, 1 14
Fireaxe, 167, 365-366
Fireboats, 45, 48, 52-53
Firefighting operations
attack, 202, 209-210, 212. 214, 215, 216.
221, 222-223, 226, 227, 228, 236
blowback, 127, 128
breaking fire tetrahedron, 76-77, 121.

122
communication, 201
confining the fire, 78, 209, 2 10, 2 1 2, 2 1 5,
217, 220, 222, 223, 226-227, 228,
236
critique, 206

dry chemical deck units, 192-193
fire out, 206

fire under control, 205—206
hidden fires
attack, 208
signs, 200
initial procedures, 66, 199-200, 228
delay, 41, 47

reporting fire location, 200, 228
sounding the alarm, 43, 46, 143.

199, 228
overhaul, 205, 229. 205, 210, 214. 215.
217, 220, 222. 223, 226. 227, 228,
229, 236, 237
prefire planning, 199
protecting exposures. 95, 204, 210, 212,
214.215,217,220,222,223,226,
227, 228. 229. 236, 237
reignition, 53, 54, 137, 152
shoreside fire services, 44-45, 48-49,

52-53. 57-59, 64-67, 242
size up, 201
staging are:i, 201—202
temperature graphs, 57-58, 59, 219
traffic control, 54
training

crew. 43. 46. 50. 254, 268-271
emergencv squad, 267-268
ventilation. 48, 134-135, 202-204, 211.

214, 215, 217. 220, 228. 236
vessel stability, 45. 48-49. 124, 125, 173
see also Hoseline operations; Protective
clothing; Rescue operations; and
specific types and locations of
fire
Firestops, 43

382

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

First aid
certificates, 273
see also Medical care
Flame detectors. 1 10

Flame safety lamp, 33, 214, 355, 361-363
precautions, 363
use, 362-363
Flames, 78-79

Flammable gases, 74-75, 91-95
basic hazards, 92—93

release from confinement, 93, 95
burning, 74

explosive range, 74-75
fires, 12, 82, 94-95. 122, 124, 139, 162
location aboard ship, 94
safe concentrations, 33
storage, 92
Flammable liquids, 18, 73-74, 88

burning characteristics, 74, 84, 88-89,

91
combustion products, 89
extinguishing agents, 130, 132-133, 136,

162, 182
fires, 148, 149. 152. 211-214, 221-222
flash point, 74
grades, 18-19
location aboard ship, 89
spills, 90
vaporization, 73
Flare guns, 42, 43
Flash point, 74, 89
Flashover, 83
Fluoroprotein foam, 132
Foam, 130
advantages, 136
boilover, 135

chemical foam, 130-131, 148, 174, 175
concentrates, 130, 131, 133, 176
storage, 178
tanks, 178-179
expansion ratio, 133, 176
extinguishing effects, 90, 91, 130
high-expansion foam, 133-135, 176
limitations, 135
low-temperature foam, 133
mechanical foam, 131, 174

types, 131, 132-133
slopover, 135
solution, 130

production rate, 133, 181
stabilizer, 130. 175
supplies, 133, 135, 159, 178
see also specific types of foam
Foam extinguishers, 76, 147-148, 149
Foam extinguishing systems, 162,
174-181
chemical foam systems, 175-176
deck foam systems, 174, 179-181,

221-222
inspection checklist, 40
mechanical foam systems, 174, 176-181

low-expansion, 176-179
nozzle placement, 179
offshore rigs, 255, 256
high— expansion foam systems
automatic, 134
portable generators, 134-135
portable foam systems, 156-159

Fractures, 295. 301, 303-31 1,314
checking for, 278-279
emergency care, 304—305, 316
immobilization, 278

slings, 307

splints, 305-307

supplies, 274
priorities, 280

signs and symptoms, 303-304

straightening angulations, 305, 306. 308,309, 310

traction

splinting, 305, 306, 307, 308, 310
types, 303

ankle and foot, 31 1

arm, 305, 306. 307, 308-309

clavicle, 307-308

hand, 309

hip, 309-310

joints, 305, 308-309, 310

leg, 305, 307, 310-311

neck, 279. 281, 282

pelvic area, 279

ribs, 279

skull, 278, 280

spine, 279, 281, see also Spinal injury
Frostbite and freezing, 93. 312-313
Fuel line
leaks. 13, 14

fires caused by, 62-67, 76
standards, 67
Fuel oil, 12, 89

bunker C, 12, 54, 73
crude, 61
diesel. 12

fires. 54-57, 61-62
heating limit, 20
"Navy special," 54, 56
No. Six, 12
Fueling operations, 12-13
leaks. 13
overfilling, 12, 13

case history, 54-57
see also Tank vessels; Cargo transfer
Fusible metal links

heat detectors, 105. 194
sprinkler heads, 108. 170. 171
temperature ratings, 170-171
Fusible metal plugs, 252

Galley, 11-12

carbon dioxide extinguishing system. 194-195

deep fryers, 12

energy sources, 1 1-12

fire protection, 12, 193-196

fires, 90, 138, 193

housekeeping, 12

inspection checklist, 38, 245

maintenance, 194

ranges. 12
dry chemical extinguishing system. 194
fires, 215, 216

ventilator washdown system, 195-196
Gas, 91
Gas burning, 14

see also Welding and burning
Gas detectors, 115-118

catalytic, 1 15

infrared, 116-117
Gas masks, 331. 353, 355
Gas poisoning, 70—80

burning electrical insulation, 96

emergency care, 313
Gasoline, 73

burning rate, 89

explosive range, 75

fires, 134, 221-222
Generator room

emergency, 97

extinguishing system, 185

fires, 62—67
Generators, 95, 96-97

carbon dioxide protection, 187

fire, 236

Index

383

Halon extinguishers. 154

Halon extinguishing systems, 162

cylinders

pressure as related to temperature,
191

inspection and maintenance, 191

offshore rigs, 255-256

requirements
design. 189
discharge, 190

semiportable, 235
hose-reel system, 156

total-flooding system, 189-191, 235,
255-256
controls, 190
cylinder arrangement, 190

ventilation, 190-191
Halons, 77, 97, 140-141

Halon 1301, 140, 141, 154, 156, 189

Halon 1211, 140, 141. 154

limitations, 141

safety, 141

uses, 140
Hansealic. SS, 13

fire. 62-67
Hazardous materials, 10, 1 1

class numbers, 29

fires, 228

information sources, 29

warning labels, 10, 29, 30-31

transport, 18

see also Combustible materials;

Flammable gases and liquids
Head injuries

checking for, 278, 280-281

emergency care, 280-281
Heat

combustion requirement. 75

conduction, 77-78, 358

convection, 78, 79

exposure to. 79, 31 1-312

fire product. 79

radiant heat, 71, 78

removing, 77

temperature classifications, 103
Heat cramps, 3 1 1
Heat detectors, 102-108, 233-234

annunciator display board, 234

carbon dioxide systems, 185

combined fixed temperature— rate of
rise. 107-108

fixed temperature, 103-105, 1 15

offshore rigs, 252-253

rate-of-rise detectors, 106—107

temperature limits. 103. 106

testing thermostat. 115

see also specific types of detectors
Heat exhaustion, 31 1—312
Heat shields. 78, 152
Heat stroke, 312
Helicopter fires, 255. 257-258
High-expansion foam, 134-135

automatic systems, 134

portable generator, 134-135

use, 133-134
Hose masks, fresh air. 331, 332, 352-355

advantages and disadvantages, 354-355

construction, 352-353

maintenance, 354

operation, 354

safety, 354
Hoseline, 166, 167-168

in— line proportioner, 158-159

maintenance, 168

nozzles and applicators, 125, 126. 128-
129. 166-167, 168-169. 223.234

combination, 126, 128-129
fog or spray, 1 26, 129, 254, 255
mechanical foam pickup, 157, 158
smooth bore. 167. 168. 234-235
straight stream, 125
racking and stowage, 168
rolling, 168
Hoseline operations, 48, 49, 125, 172, 210,
212, 238
abandon ship proceedings, 46
advancing hoseline. 207
foam feedin systems 157, 158. 175-

176
hose stream application, 207-208
fog streams, 126-127. 128. 134. 202.

222, 227, 234, 257
straight streams, 125-126, 127, 128,
234
hose team, 207
protective clothing, 208, 210
Housekeeping
fire prevention, 26-27
galley, 12

offshore rigs, 250-251
Hydrants, 162, 166, 179
flushing, 165

number and location, 165
Hydrogen, 9, 13
explosive range, 75
liquid

transport, 239
Hydrogen chloride gas, 87, 96
Hydrogen cyanide, 86
Hydrogen sulfide gas, 87
Hyperthermia, 79, 312
Hypothermia, 312

Ignition sources

electrical, 7-9, 19

elimination and control, 12, 27—28, 29

heat, 75

open flame and sparks, 9, 19, 20

static electricity, 20

see also spontaneous ignition
Ignition temperature, 73
Inert gas systems. 179, 195-196, 227

alarms and controls, 195-196

instrumentation, 195
Infrared combustible-gas leak detector,
116-118

maintenance, 1 17-1 18
Inspections

boilers, 35

checklists, 38-40, 245-247

fire detection systems, 1 15

fire drill procedures, 268

fire extinguisher systems, 35—36,
143-144, 149, 187, 191, 193

fire hose, 168

fire prevention, 29, 32

fire stations, 165

hazardous cargo, 1 1

marine chemist, 32—33

tanker facilities, 18
Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultive
Organization (IMCO), 29, 175.
191, 342
International Convention of Seafaring

Nations, 1 18
Internal injuries

bleeding
control, 294
signs, 293

checking for, 279

384

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Ionization smoke detectors, 109
Iron and steel
fire hazards, 98

Kapok, 43-44

Kerosene, 27
burning rate, 89
explosive range, 75
jet fuel, 20

Keys, 366

Lakonia, SS, 45-46
Lamp lockers. 185, 235
Leadership

importance, 42, 43, 62
Lifeboats, 46

drills. 4, 43, 45-46

maintenance, 46

see also Abandon ship
Lifelines, 134, 139, 350, 354

signals, 334, 354
Liquid expansion seal

heat detectors, 105, 106

sprinkler heads, 108
Liquefied gases, 92, 93

extinguishing system, 191
Liquefied natural gas (LNG), 94, 224

fire, 174

spill

due to collision, 226-227
with fire, 224-226
with leak, 223-224

vapor cloud, 227
Liquefied natural gas vessels

extinguishing systems
dry chemical, 224, 225
water spray system, 174, 175, 224

gas detection systems, 115, 116
Liquefied petroleum gas ( LPG), 11, 1 3, 94,

174
Lower explosive limit (LEL), 74-75, 1 15,

364
Lower flammable limit, 33
Lubricating oils, 73

fires, 134
Lubrication, 9, 35

Magnesium, 7, 98, 137
Maintenance, 250

lubrication and care of equipment, 34,
35-36

neglect, fires due to, 34, 55-56, 57

program elements, 34—36

records, 36

schedules, 34. 35

supervision, 34

testing and inspections, 35-36

see also Repairs
Man overboard, 267
Manufacturing Chemists' Association,

140
Marine chemist certificates, 15, 32

standards, 32-33
Master of the vessel

authority, 263

leadership. 43

responsibilities, 15, 23, 29, 32, 36, 50,
101, 263, 267
Medical care emergencies, 273

classifying injuries, 274—275

diagnostic signs, 275-277

evaluating victim

primary survey, 277-278
secondary survey, 278-279, 282

supplies, 274, 301

triage, 279-280

see also specific injuries or conditions
Metal powders, 7, 97

stowage, 98
Metal turnings, 7
Metallic cable heat detector, 105
Methane

detecting, 1 16

explosive range, 75

liquefied, 238-239
Moeller chamber, 256
Monitor turrets, 76, 179-180, 191, 192,
221-222

fireboats, 53

nozzles, 191, 255
Monoammonium phosphate (ABC dry
chemical), 138, 139, 151-152

extinguishing capability, 150
Monoammonium phosphate

extinguishers, 149
Morro Castle, 41-43

Naphtha, 52
explosive range, 75
fire, 51-52, 53, 134
fumes, 34
National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA), 29
extinguisher ratings, 143
fire classification, 81
publications, 7, 75, 142, 198
standards, 32-33, 140
National Response Center, 228
National Safety Council, 140
Neck injuries, 290, 292
cervical collar, 282, 317, 322
checking for, 279, 281
emergency care, 282
removing victim from deep water, 317
short spine board use, 322
Nitrogen

dry chemical extinguishers, 259
Normandie, 43-45
Nozzles
applicators, 169

fog, 127-128, 129, 167
carbon dioxide systems

replacing, 189
foam systems

aspirating, 135, 255
mechanical foam pickup, 157. 158
placement, 179
hoseline systems
combination, 126, 128-129, 166-167,

168-169
fog or spray, 126, 254, 255
smooth bore, 167, 168, 234-235
straight stream, 125
monitor nozzles, 191, 255
Nylon

burning characteristics, 85

Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA), 15, 17
Offshore drilling and production rigs, 249

abandon unit decisions, 253, 258

alarm system, 253

detection systems

Index

385

combustible-gas, 253
fire, 251-253
emergency remote shutoffs, 251
extinguishing systems, 253-257
automatic sprinkler, 257
carbon dioxide or Halon, 255—256
fire-main, 254—255
foam systems, 256
water spray, 257
fire prevention, 249-250
firefighting operations

helicopter pad, 255, 257-258
living quarters, 258
well head fires, 258
oil spills, 250-251
support vessels, 258-259
well head protection, 252, 258
Oil burners
fires, 76. 90
maintenance, 13, 35
Oil spills, 27, 89, 250
fire, 210-211
foam blanket, 136
prevention, 250-251
Oil storage tanks

fire protection, 256-257
Oily rags

disposal, 26, 250
spontaneous ignition, 6, 7
Organic peroxides, 29
Oxidation, 6, 7. 71
Oxidizers, 29
Oxygen, 75, 93

atmospheric content, 32, 33, 80
deficiency, 362

detecting, 33, 361-362, 363, 365
symptoms, 80
liquid tansport, 239
Oxygen breathing apparatus (OBA), 331
332, 333
donning and use, 334
recharging, 334-335
self-generating type, 335-340

advantages and disadvantages, 340
donning, 336, 338-339
maintenance. 340
operating cycle, 335-336
removing canister, 337, 339
safety precautions, 340
Oxygen indicator, 33, 142, 214, 363
limitations, 363
use, 363

Pain

reaction to, 277, 281
Paint lockers. 91

extinguishing systems, 185, 235

fires, 214-215
Paints and varnishes, 27. 91
Paralysis

indications, 277, 281
Passageways

electrical equipment, 97

firefighting operations
compartment fires, 208
cooling, 126, 127
ventilation use, 135
Passenger vessels

fire, 41-43, 45-46, 49-50

fire dampers, 361

supervised fire patrol, 1 1 1
Petroleum products

foam solution rate, 181

foam, 89

transport, 232, 238

Photoelectric smoke detectors, 109, 1 13
Piping

firemain systems, 162
horizontal loop, 164
single main, 163-164

fixed foam systems, 179, 181

maintenance, 35

sprinkler systems, 170

steam smothering system, 197
Plastics, 86-87

burning characteristics, 86
plastic wrap, 85

combustion products. 86-87
Pneumatic heat detectors, 106, 107, 185,
233

pneumatic tube loop system, 251, 252
Pneumercator, 55
Poisoning

emergency care, 313
Polar solvents, 256
Polyester

burning characteristics, 85
Polyethylene oxide, 129
Polyvinyl chloride, 87, 96
Potassium, 97

stowage, 7, 98
Potassium bicarbonate, 138

extinguishing capability, 150
Potassium chloride, 138

extinguishing capability, 150
Power failures

during fires, 56, 57. 63, 66

fire detection systems, 102
Power supply. See Generators
Propane. 75
Protective clothing, 54, 78, 208-209. 210

entry suit, 367-368

fireman's outfit, 366

LNG spills, 224

proximity suit, 366—367

radiation exposure, 314, 315
Protein foams, 132
Pulse, 275, 278, 288
Pump rooms. 174

fuel barges, 240

vapor accumulation, 19
Pumps

fire— main systems. 164-165
number and location, 164
safety, 165

use for other purposes, 165
water flow, 164

foam systems, 177. 178, 181

oil line, 165

sprinkler systems, 170, 171

water spray systems, 174
Pyrolysis, 73
Pyrometers, 57-59, 1 18. 219. 220

Radiation

atomic, 314-315

heat, 78
Radiation feedback, 71-72, 74, 138
Rapid water, 129-130
Records

fire equipment tests, 1 15

machinery maintenance. 36
Reid vapor pressure. 19
Repairs and alterations

fire hazards, 44, 45

notification of Coast Guard, 35, 36

requirements prior to, 32-33

shipyard operations. 17-18

shoreside personnel, 17

unapproved, 41, 42, 43

see also Maintenance

386

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Rescue operations, 204-205, 315
disentanglement, 316
emergency carries, 317—323

spinal injuries, 320—323
hoseline assistance, 127
lifting and moving devices, 323—325
radiation exposure victims, 315
removal

from burning ships, 42, 46, 50, 62
from electrical hazards, 316-317
from foam, 134

neck injuries, from deep water, 317
preparation for, 316
searchers, 208

see also Medical care emergencies
Resistance bridge smoke detectors, 109
Respiration, 275, 278, 288
difficulties
burns, 79. 302

inhaled poisons, 313. See also Gas
poisoning
shock, 297

see also Airway maintenance; Artificial
respiration
Respiratory protection devices, 29, 327

see also Breathing apparatus
Rig tender vessels, 258-259
Rio Jackal, MV, 46-49
Ro-ro vessels, 173, 182
Rubber, 86
burning characteristics, 86
combustion products, 87
Rules of the Road. 62

Safety, 249

barge and towing operations, 231-233
fire detection, 1 18-1 19
inspection checkoff form, 245-247
portable extinguisher use, 144
shoreside workers, 17
structural design, 3, 357
welding and burning. 15
Safety Committee, 23, 25, 27
Safety of Life at Sea, International

Convention (SOLAS, 1948), 67,
170
Salvage operations, 56

tank vessels, 54
San Francisco Maru, MV, 57-59
San Jose, SS, 54-57
Sand, 98. 141
Sawdust
disposal, 27

extinguishing agent, 141
Sea Witch. SS C.V., 33-34
Self-contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA), 331
demand units, 331, 332-333, 340-352
air— module supplied, 351-352
backpack unit, 342-347
minipack, 347-348
sling-pack, 346, 347
oxygen breathing (OBA), 331-334
self-generating, 335-340
Shipyard operations, 17

hazardous practices, 17-18
Shock, 297-298
anaphylactic, 298
emergency care, 298
signs, 293, 297-298
types, 297
Shoreside personnel
cargo movement, 17-18
firefighters, 44-45, 48-49, 52-53, 57-
59, 64-67, 242

repairs and maintenance, 15. 17

shipyard operations, 17-18
Short circuits, 96
Signals

boat stations and abandon ship, 253,
266-267

emergency squad muster, 267

fire and emergency stations, 266

lifeline, 334, 354

man overboard, 267

visible alarm signals, 102

whistle signals, 60—61, 62

see also Alarms
Silk

burning characteristics, 85

combustion products, 86
Skin, 299

color. 276

temperature, 276

see also Burns
Smoke, 80, 85
Smoke detectors, 108-110, 233-234

alarms, 109, 113, 114

annunciator display board, 234

carbon dioxide combination system,
114, 184-185, 186

federal specifications, 109-110

offshore rigs, 253

reset button, 1 13

smoke samplers, 108-109
automatic, 1 12-1 14

testing, 1 15

types, 109
Smoking, 3-4, 27, 250

no smoking areas, 5, 9, 19
Soda-acid extinguishers, 144-145

maintenance, 145

operation, 144, 145
Sodium, 97

fires, 140

stowage, 7, 98
Sodium bicarbonate

dry chemical agent, 138

extinguishing capability, 149

foam agent, 130

soda-acid extinguishers, 144
Soot buildup, 27, 35

steam soot blowers, 142
Spanner wrench, 167, 169
Spinal injury, 297

artificial respiration, 282

checking for, 279, 281

emergency care, 282

emergency carries, 320—323

immobilization, 282-283

neurogenic shock, 297
Splints

application, 306-307
inflatable. 307

types, 305-306
Spontaneous ignition, 6-7, 28

leaking cargo, 10, 1 1
Sprains, 304

Sprinkler heads, 105, 170. Ill
Sprinkler systems, 43, 46, 50, 64, 66, 67,
118, 124-125, 170-173, 227

automatic, 108, 110, 171-172
offshore rigs, 257

components, 170—171

manual, 172-173

reliability. 173

spray pattern. 171

testing, 1 15

zoning, 173, 174
Static electricity, 20, 28
Station bill, 21, 28-29, 81, 101, 263, 264-267, 268

Inde.y

387

emergency stations and duties, 266—267,
268

locator numbers. 264, 266

signals, 266—267
Steam

extinguishing agent, 124, 141-142
Steam smothering systems, 197

inspection checklist, 40

piping. 197
Storage batteries

automatic fire detection systems, 102

charging, 9
Storage spaces

fire, 50, 236

smoking in. 5
Stowage

unauthorized construction, 9-10

see also Cargo
Stretchers

D-ring, 324-325

improvised, 325

split frame, 324

stokes basket, 325
Structural design. See Construction

features
Subsurface foam injection system. 256
Sulfur

liquefied transport, 238
Sulfur dioxide gas, 87
Surfactants, 131, 132-133
Synthetic foam. 132

Tank Vessel Regulations ( 1970), 179
Tank vessels, 3, 18, 89-90
barges, 238-239
cargo area, 181
cargo expansion, 19
cargo heating system, 20
cargo transfer, 20, 28
coordination, 19

forming an electrical bond, 19, 20
hose use, 19, 20
vessel— to— vessel, 20
extinguishing systems, 90, 174, 181, 182
alcohol foams, 132
deck foams. 76. 133. 179-181
firefighting equipment, 167
fires

causes, 19-20

combat techniques, 221-222
inert gas system, 195—196
inspection checklist, 39
person— in-charge. 18, 19, 20
pump room hazards, 19
salvage operations, 54
Temperature graphs, 57-58, 59, 219
Texaco Latin America, SS, 51. 52
Texaco Massachusetts, SS, 51-53
Textiles and fibers, 85-86
burning characteristics, 85
combustion products, 86
Thermal lag. 103

Thermoelectric heat detectors, 105-106
Thermostatic cable, 105
Thermostats

testing, 1 15
Thick water, 129
Thomas Q. SS. 34
Titanium, 7, 98

Total-flooding extinguishing systems
carbon dioxide (C02), 182-184
actuating, 182-183
reentry into area, 212-214
warning alarm, 183—184
Halon 1301, 189-191
hazards, 134

high-expansion foam, 134

offshore rigs, 255-256

tugboats and towboats, 235
Tourniquet, 292-293
Toxic substances

animal fiber fumes, 86

electrical insulation fumes, 96

flammable gases. 93

metallic vapors, 97

permissible limits, 33

petroleum products, 89

plaster and rubber fumes, 87

poisoning, 79-80, 96, 313
Traction, 282

angulated fractures, 305, 309

rescue removal techniques, 320, 321,
322

splinting, 305, 306, 307. 308, 310
Training

aids, 25, 26

crew, 25-29, 268-269

emergency squad, 267-268

four-step instructional method, 269

instruction and maintenance
manuals, 1 19

lack of result, 42, 50

planning, 264, 269

sample lesson, 270—271
Triage, 279-280
Tugboats and towboats

fire protection equipment, 233-236

firefighting operations, 236-237

safety. 231-233

standard dimensions, 237

see also Barges
Transhuron, SS. 34

Ullage, 20, 55

Underwriters Laboratories (UL). 143
Upper explosive limit (UEL), 75, 364
Urea potassium bicarbonate, 138

extinguishing capability, 150
Urethane foam, 87

Vaporization, 71

liquid fuels, 73-74
Vapors, 12, 13, 71
accumulation

bilge areas, 13, 14
tanker pump rooms, 19
fire. 53, 54, 61
ignition sources, 20
welding near, 15
Vegetable fibers

burning characteristics, 85
combustion products, 86
Ventilation

artificial. See Artificial respiration
battery charging, 9
duct systems

fire dampers, 360-361
standards, 67
during fires, 42, 43, 48, 55, 134-135,

202-204.211,214, 215. 217,220,
228, 236
combination, 202, 204
horizontal, 202, 203
mechanical, 204
vertical, 202, 203
galley, 193
fires, 194

grease accumulations, 12
washdown system. 195-196

388

Marine Fire Prevention, Firefighting and Fire Safety

Halon use, 190-191
Venturi effect, 202
Viscose, 85
Visual smoke detectors, 108,

Watch officer

duties, 101, 111, 113. 117
Water. 124

dewatering procedures, 205

extinguishing agent and coolant, 76, 77,
88, 90, 92, 93, 124

moving to fire, 124—125

spray, 78

types, 129-130

vessel stability, 45, 48-49, 124, 125, 173
Water extinguishers, 144-148

cartridge-operated, 145-146

foam extinguishers, 147-148

pump-tank extinguishers, 147

soda-acid extinguishers, 144—145

stored pressure, 146-147
Water extinguishing systems. See Fire-
main systems; Foam extinguishing
systems; Sprinkler systems
Water spray systems, 173-174, 257

inspection checklist, 40
Weather deck

fires, 148

floodlights, 8

smoking on, 5
Welding and burning, 13-16, 250

Coast Guard permit, 15, 16

fires caused by, 44, 45

safety, 15, 28

unsafe practices, 14-15
Well head fires, 252, 258
Wet water, 129
Wet-water foam, 136
Wheatstone bridge, 75, 1 15, 364
Wheelhouse

smoke detection system, 108-109, 113
Windsail, 204
Wood and wood-based materials, 83-85

burning characteristics, 83-84

combustion products, 84—85

spontaneous ignition, 6
Wool

burning characteristics, 85

combustion products, 86
Wounds

dressing and bandages, 295

emergency care, 295-297

impaled objects, 295-297

types, 294-295

Yarmouth Castle. SS, 49-50

«U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 19790 — 305-705/6631

NOTES

NOTES

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