Full text of "Markers"

See other formats

MARKERS XXI

•

Gary Collison

Markers XXI

Annual Journal of
the Association for Gravestone Studies

Edited by
Gary Collison

Association for Gravestone Studies
Greenfield, Massachusetts

Association for Gravestone Studies

278 Main Street, Suite 207
Greenfield, Massachusetts 01301

ISBN: 1-878381-14-8
ISSN: 0277-8726
LCN: 81-642903

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the

American National Standard for Information Sciences — Permanence of Paper

for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.

Cover Illustration: Malakiah Bonham (1811), Linganore U. M. Cemetery,

Unionville, Frederick County, Maryland. Backdated gravestone carved by

African American stonecarver Sebastian "Boss" Hammond.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Obituary: Theodore Chase (1912-2003) 1

Laurel Gabel

Obituanj: Terry Jordan (1938-2003) 8

Richard Francaviglia

Carving a Path to Freedom: The Life and Work of

African American Stonecarver Sebastian "Boss" Hammond 12

Mary Ann Ashcraft

Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War 40

Tom and Brenda Malloy

Judah Monis's Puzzling Gravestone as a Reflection

of his Enigmatic Identity 66

David Mayer Gradwohl

In the Bronx with Melville 98

Henry Hughes

Museum in the Garden: Mount Auburn Cemetery

and American Sculpture, 1840-1860 100

Elise Madeleine Ciregna

"In the Palm of Nature's Hand": Ralph Waldo Emerson's

Address at the Consecration of Sleepy Hollow Cemetery 148

Introduced and edited by Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson

Subject Index for Markers I-XX 174

Compiled by Gary Collison

The Year's Work in Cemetery and Gravemarker Studies:

An International Bibliography 198

Compiled by Gary Collison

Contributors 212

Index 214

MARKERS: ANNUAL JOURNAL OF
THE ASSOCIATION FOR GRAVESTONE STUDIES

EDITORIAL BOARD

Gary Collison, Editor
Perm State York

June Hadden Hobbs

Assistant Editor

Gardner-Webb University

Tom Malloy

Assistant Editor

Mount Wachusett Community College

Jessie Lie Farber

Editor, Markers I,

Mount Holyoke College

Richard Francaviglia
University of Texas at Arlington

Laurel Gabel

Richard E. Meyer

Editor, Markers X-XX,

Western Oregon University

Barbara Rotundo

State University of New York
at Albany

Julie Rugg
University of York (UK)

James A. Slater

University of Connecticut

David H. Watters

Editor, Markers II-IV

University of New Hampshire

Wilbur Zelinsky
The Pennsylvania State University

With this issue, Markers begins a new era. When Dick Meyer took
over as editor from Ted Chase following Markers IX (1992), our journal
had already matured into one of the most distinguished publications
in the relatively new field of material culture studies. Under Dick's
guidance, it grew to include an increasing range of topics reflecting
the diverse interests of AGS's growing membership. In 1995 he
inaugurated an annual bibliography of recent scholarship, "The Year's
Work in Gravemarker/ Cemetery Studies," which instantly became an

indispensable aid to researchers. The eleven issues that Dick edited
have set a standard of scholarly excellence that AGS can be proud of.
It is a daunting task to follow Dick Meyer as editor. It is an equally
daunting task to take over as editor in the first year that Markers is being
distributed to all AGS members. It is also exciting.

Although entirely by accident, the articles in this issue nicely reflect
the diversity of interests which AGS has come to represent. Mary Ann
Ashcraft's lead article belongs to the major strand of gravestone studies,
the identification and study of the work of individual stonecarvers.
Her study of Maryland slave and ex-slave stonecarver Sebastian "Boss"
Hammond represents an important new discovery. Not only is Hammond
one of the few Maryland stonecarvers to have been studied but he is also
the first enslaved African American gravestone carver whose work has
been positively identified.

Two other essays demonstrate how the study of history and bio-
graphy can be aided by the study of gravemarkers. Tom and Brenda
Malloy use gravemarkers to tell the story of King Phillip's War, when
thousands of New England settlers and Native Americans died, and
how the war has been remembered at burial sites. David Gradwohl's
essay on the gravemarker of Judah Monis shows how it is emblematic
of Monis's complex life. A Jewish convert to Christianity, a member
of the Harvard faculty, and a friend of the great Puritan divine Cotton
Mather, Monis occupied a unique and enigmatic position in colonial
New England society.

Two other essays in this issue reflect the interest of many members
in nineteenth-century rural cemeteries. Elise Ciregna's study of the role
of sculpture in the early years of Mount Auburn Cemetery adds a new
chapter to the story of our nation's cultural aspirations. The other essay
highlights the delightful rural cemetery in Concord, Massachusetts,
where the "Authors' Ridge" graves of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry
Thoreau, Louisa May Alcott, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and other writers
have become a site of pilgrimage for tens of thousands. Every member
of AGS can cite (and some can even recite) the most famous American
address at the dedication of a cemetery, Abraham Lincoln's address at
Gettysburg National Cemetery. It is the most famous piece of American
oratory. But even members of AGS would be hard pressed to name
another prominent dedicatory address. Joel Myerson and Ron Bosco,
two distinguished literary scholars, will change this with their edition of

Ralph Waldo Emerson's "Address at the Consecration of Sleepy Hollow
Cemetery." Their introduction places the Address and dedication
ceremonies in the context of Emerson's extraordinary life. The Address
itself offers a provocative reflection on the history and meaning of
cemeteries that reminds us of why Emerson was known as the "Sage
of Concord." Who else but Emerson could have surveyed the history of
burial from the Egyptians to the modern era in a few pages?

There are a number of visible and invisible changes in this issue of
Markers. One change that anyone familiar with recent issues of Markers
will recognize immediately is that Markers XXI has slimmed down
considerably. To make it possible to send Markers to all members and for
AGS to plan its total budget, it will be necessary to keep costs for Markers
under or close to an annual budgeted amount. This means that unless
the AGS membership grows substantially, future issues of Markers will
probably run no more than 224 pages. To insure that each issue provides
a good range of articles on a variety of topics, Markers will continue to
seek manuscripts in the range of "fifteen to twenty-five double-spaced
pages, inclusive of endnotes and appendices." As in the past, longer
submissions "may be considered if they are of exceptional merit and if space
permits." Given the new page limitation, however, it will be much more
difficult to find room for significantly longer articles. Authors of longer
studies are advised to consult with me well in advance of submitting
a manuscript. (For details, see the revised "Notes for Contributors" at
www.gravestonestudies.org/Markers. Queries, proposals, suggestions,
and comments are welcome. Send them to Gary Collison, Markers Editor,
PennState/ York J031Edgecomb Ave., York,PA17403;email: glc@psu.edu;
fax: 771-717-4022. Email messages will usually get the most timely
response.)

Another significant change in Markers XXI will be found in the
annual bibliography of scholarship, "The Year's Work in Cemetery and
Gravemarker Studies," which filled more than fifty pages in Markers
XX and was threatening to grow even larger (and even more costly to
produce). For a description of the changes, see the explanation at the
beginning of this year's bibliography.

Markers is indexed in America: History & Life, Historical Abstracts,
the Bibliography of the History of Art (a Research Library Group Eureka
database), and the MLA International Bibliography. Coverage in the

Bibliography of the Histoiy of Art began with Markers XVII (2000) and
includes very brief abstracts.

Looking over the subject index for volumes I through XX near the
end of this year's issue, I feel very proud of the great range and high
quality of scholarship published in Markers over the years. I need hardly
add that Markers would not exist without the continuing support of
the AGS membership and board of trustees and the wise guidance
of the board of editors of Markers. I thank the members of the board
of editors and other scholars for their generous and conscientious
assistance in evaluating manuscripts. For invaluable support both
tangible and intangible, I am grateful to Drs. Diane Disney, Dean of
the Commonwealth College of the Pennsylvania State University, and
Sandy Gleason, Associate Dean; and also to Drs. Joel Rodney, CEO, Perm
State York, and Joseph P. McCormick III, Director of Academic Affairs.
For assistance of various kinds, I am indebted to Andrea Carlin, Deirdre
Folkers, Shawn Foley, Greg Knapp, Brenda Malloy, Jim O'Hara, Susan
Olsen, Joseph P. Royer, Dave Turocy, Carole Wagner, Valerie White, and
Leslie Perrin Wilson. Finally, I owe special thanks to Dick Meyer, whom
I have called on more times than I can remember for assistance and
guidance during this transition year.

G.C.

Theodore Chase (1912-2003)

Obituary: Theodore Chase (1912-2003)

Laurel Gabel

Theodore (Ted) Chase, past president of the Association for
Gravestone Studies, editor of Markers, author, legal advisor, and long-
time friend and benefactor of AGS, died on January 20th, 2003, at his
home in Dover, Massachusetts. His death, following a rapid decline
caused by congestive heart failure, occurred just three days short of his
ninety-first birthday.

Dover, Massachusetts, Summer, 1980

No impatient husband waited in an overheated car while I attempted
a hasty gravestone photograph; no whining children kept up their
running accusation: "Five minutes, Mom, you promised we would only
stop for FIVE minutes!" Instead, on this pleasant midsummer morning
I was alone inside the old stone walls of Dover's first burying ground.
The leaning slates were silent and patient companions, watching while I
worked leisurely to catalog the eighteenth-century carvings of John New,
Daniel Hastings, John Dwight, and the ubiquitous Lamsons. By twelve
o'clock, however, it was meltingly hot and heading toward muggy. Time
to pack up scattered gear and return to the car.

Dover's Highland Cemetery sits across from the Town Green on a
slight hill that rises up to become a continuation of the older, street-facing
graveyard. The newer and larger section of the cemetery was laid out in
the nineteenth-century pattern, with winding, tree-lined roads and large
family lots defined by single upright monuments of marble and granite,
bearing familiar old New England names: Sargent, Sears, Cabot, Tisdal.
The appeal of massive shade trees and green grass lured me up the hill
toward the cool labyrinth of the newer section — a scenic circuit that
eventually loops back down to the level of the original ancient burying
ground and the cemetery's only exit gate.

A small dark slate headstone made me stomp on the brakes. It sat
alone along the back fringe of grass, away from the road. Even from afar
the graceful calligraphic bird design of the tympanum looked familiar.
It proved to be copied from the little 1775 Ann Cunningham stone (in

Theodore Chase (1912-2003)

Laurel Gabel

Spencer, Massachusetts, illustrated in Harriette Forbes' s Gravestones of
Early New England and the Men Wlw Made Them). The gravestone's acorn
borders were borrowed from Boston-area markers carved in the early
1700s. Whoever had commissioned this stone had to have had more than
a passing familiarity with eighteenth-century New England gravestones!
I jumped out of the car and headed toward the slate, but was again
stopped short by the stone's unfinished inscription: "In Memory of /

Theodore Chase / born 23 January 1912, / died / and his wife /

Dorothea Newman / born 2 July 1911 / died . " Might one or the

other of this couple still be alive to explain their new "old" stone and the
story behind its charming motif?

A cemetery workman suggested that I try the nearby Town Hall.

Ted Chase? The clerk smiled. Why, yes, Ted was most definitely
alive. A town favorite, a former Dover Selectman and member of the
Town Council in years past, Mr. Chase was always talking about old
graveyards; "not everyone's cup of tea," added the clerk. Ted would
probably enjoy meeting anyone who shared his fascination with
cemeteries. I raced home to call the number listed for Theodore and
Dorothea Chase. The gentleman who answered the phone confirmed
that he was indeed an alive and lively version of the very same Theodore
Chase of the slate gravestone in question and, yes, he would be happy to
tell me all he knew about early gravestones. He was a bit taken aback to
be confronted — a mere twenty minutes later — by a middle-aged house-
wife carrying a suitcase full of gravestone "show and tell" and bearing
no trace of the young high school coed that (he later confessed) he had
envisioned at the other end of the phone line.

Before the day was out, Mr. Chase and I had spent a delightful
afternoon and evening talking non-stop while we viewed slides of
gravestones, pored over photo albums of gravestones, discussed every
gravestone book in print at the time, and made amateur attempts to
identify the carvers of each gravestone in his collection of rubbings,
which by early evening had spread out over every inch of floor space
in his library. With Dottie Chase's patient indulgence, gravestone
conversation bubbled non-stop through the family's ritual four o'clock
tea and was threatening a late dinner hour when I finally packed up
my "visuals" and went home in the dark. It was the beginning of an
enduring friendship.

Theodore Chase was born January 23, 1912, in Concord, Mass-

Theodore Chase (1912-2003)

achusetts, where his family lived opposite the Old Manse, within easy
walking distance of Concord's Old North Bridge and other historic
landmarks. He was the youngest of three children born to Frederick
Hathaway Chase, a local judge, and his wife Theodora Kyle. The infant
Theodore was named in honor of his mother. In 1924, at the age of
twelve, Ted left home to enter the Groton School, a rigorous preparatory
school for boys. Looking back, he often credited those early formative
years at Groton with his life-long love of learning. Homesick for family
and hopeless at sports, he spent more and more time with his books.
The result was a scholar. After his Groton graduation in 1930, Ted went
on to Harvard (magna cum laude in 1934), and Harvard Law School (cum
laude in 1937). He began his law career with the firm of Palmer and
Dodge in Boston. Mr. Robert Dodge, the firm's founding partner, seeing
something special in the new law graduate, described young Theodore
as "a comer." In 1942, when just thirty years old, Ted fulfilled Mr.
Dodge's expectations by becoming a partner in the well-respected law
firm. He was to spend his entire law career in this firm. His much prized
seventh-floor corner office looked out over King's Chapel Burying
Ground, Boston's first place of burial. It was the perfect view.

During World War II, Ted served with the United States Navy as a
Lieutenant, and ultimately as Lieutenant Commander, attached to the
Office of General Counsel for the Finance Division, which managed
financing for U.S. Navy contracts.

To many, Ted Chase was a holdover from a simpler, more gracious
era. He was a true gentleman in every sense of the word. Honest,
frugal, hard working, a child of privilege and its accompanying sense
of responsibility, and overflowing with common sense, Ted was widely
respected and admired for his intellect and integrity. Colleagues
remember him as charming and persuasive, a wise man with a
commanding presence, a leader who "spoke softly but usually got what
he wanted." "He was maddeningly reasonable," one friend told me,
"always confident that logic would lead the way."

His grandson spoke lovingly of a grandfather who was "delightfully
stalled in history." Ted had scant regard for the popular culture that
swirled outside his orbit. "Doggie bags," self-serve gas pumps, fast
food "roadhouses," computers, and other "new-fangled" gadgetry
were unnecessary to his enjoyment of life. He was a man of Old World
manners who dressed for dinner and received afternoon callers over tea.

Laurel Gabt

Ted lived his life with a Spartan discipline formed during his character-
building years at Groton School. Even in his extreme old age, when a
steamy shower might have eased the aching joints in his frail frame,
Ted stuck to his old Groton School regime of short, bracing cold water
constitutionals. "They do the trick," he insisted. He swam whenever he
got the chance, played tennis well into his eighties, and enjoyed nothing
more than his daily walks in the wooded acres surrounding his home.
Eighty-five acres of Ted's woods were recently deeded to the Trustees
of Reservations as a public woodland and wildlife area. Known as the
Chase Woodland Preserve, the network of gently sloping paths winds
for more than two miles through groves of native trees and along stone
walls that mark former farm fields.

Ted was a student of the country's early canal system, cathedral
misericords, woodland management, modern art, antique firearms,
history of any kind — and human nature. He and Dottie traveled
frequently and his journals of these vacation explorations are
colorful and informative reading. When he was delighted by
something, it was "really swell" or just "peachy"; displeasure was
registered with an exaggerated scowl and a disgusted, but usually
private, "damn!"

Ted's character, presence, and personality made him a leader in
many community organizations such as the Greater Boston United
Way and the United Community Services of Boston. As a member of
the Massachusetts Board of Regional Community Colleges, he was
instrumental in establishing fifteen junior colleges in the state during his
tenure, an accomplishment of which he was especially proud. He served
as a trustee of Northfield Mount Hermon School and of the Groton
School, chairing the committee that voted to convert the all-male school
to a co-educational institution. Other committee members remember
him as a leader who allowed for all points of view — a consensus builder.
He was "a pleasure to work with and a privilege to know."

Ted was a life-long member of the Massachusetts and Boston Bar
Associations and president of the Council of the Boston Bar Association
from 1965 to 1987.

For many years he took leadership roles in committees and councils
of his alma mater: chairman of the Harvard Fund Council, proud chief
marshal at his Harvard 25th reunion in 1959, and a Harvard University
overseer from 1982 to 1988. He served for many years on the council

Theodore Chase (191 2-2003 )

for the Massachusetts Historical Society and as a trustee of the New
England Historic Genealogical Society. Ted's active leadership role in
The Trustees of Reservations, one of the nation's oldest conservation
organizations, which now protects more than 48,000 acres of scenic,
historic, and ecological property within Massachusetts, brought him
great satisfaction and pride. It was to The Trustees of Reservations that
contributions in Ted's memory were directed following his death.

Ted's interest in gravestones came about as a result of his travels in
Great Britain, where he became fascinated with brass rubbing. When he
and Dottie returned from one of their trips to England, Ted tried his
hand at rubbing the old gravestones in the burying grounds close to
home. It was an enjoyable hobby and he began to make a collection of
rubbings that illustrated the various styles and motifs in the graveyards
around Boston. He found books by Harriette Forbes and Allan Ludwig
and, as the AGS bumper sticker warns, his Ford Escort would "brake for
old graveyards."

Ted Chase served as trustee and then president of the Association for
Gravestone Studies from 1983 to 1986 during some of the organization's
most difficult years of growth. His vast experience and firm leadership
helped AGS emerge as a viable national association. He worked tirelessly
on the original by-laws and drafted important model legislation, still
valid today, aimed at protecting historic gravemarkers and cemeteries.
These were crucial years in the history of the organization. Taking on
the editorial duties of Markers in 1987, Ted oversaw the publication
of Markers V through IX and helped maintain and further enhance
the journal's reputation for excellence. He was a steadfast advocate
for Markers, seeing the scholarly journal as the most important lasting
legacy of the organization's existence. He was also exceedingly proud
of the many articles and the two books about New England gravestone
carvers and their work that he co-authored with Laurel K. Gabel. The
research and writing of Gravestone Chronicles I: Some Eighteenth-Century
New England Carvers and Their Work (Boston: 1990, reprinted 1997) and
Gravestone Chronicles II: More Eighteenth-Century New England Carvers
and an Exploration of Gravestone Heraldica (Boston: 1997) followed Ted's
retirement, at the age of seventy, in 1982. Shortly before his death he
described that period of his life to a friend: "Those were wonderful years.
There was always some mystery to solve with these [carver] fellows. Was
Maxcy a rogue or just a poor, unlucky business man? What happened to

Laurel Gabel

'our man' after he disappeared from Boston? Laurel and I explored all
over New England on those research trips. My, those were swell times."
Every research day was an adventure: to old court houses, town libraries,
hundreds of burying grounds, abandoned logging roads, ancient barns
with gravestones hiding in the foundation, long hidden deeds and receipts
or letters that hinted at some linking clue or suggested another trail to
follow. Without Ted's confident enthusiasm, considerable expertise, and
patient perseverance, none of the resulting studies would ever have
been published. For his many outstanding contributions to the field of
gravestone studies, Theodore Chase was named the 1990 recipient of the
Forbes Award, the Association for Gravestone Studies' highest honor.

Dover, Massachusetts, Winter, 2003

As I approached the old Dover burying ground again on the cold
but gloriously sunny January 25th, the large American flag flying over
the cemetery was waving at half-staff. In the newer section of Highland
Cemetery, on the hill just beyond the ancient graveyard, Ted's simple
wooden coffin rested on a bier poised above the gaping grave. Almost
obscured by artificial grass and clods of winter earth, his old slate
stone was a mute, but timelessly appropriate, observer of the simple
committal service. In the picturesque old Dover Church just beyond
the Village Green, hundreds of Ted's friends, young and old, had come
together to rejoice in his life and, with hymns and prayers and a final sad
tolling of the old steeple bell, mark the passing of an extraordinary man
and a very dear friend. With the carving of his death date, the long-
standing gravestone inscription was finally complete: "In Memory of
Theodore Chase, 1912-2003."

Terry Jordan (1938-2003)

Obituary-. Terry Jordan (1938-2003)

Richard Francaviglia

With the passing of Terry Jordan on October 16, 2003, the field of
cultural geography lost one of its most productive scholars. Those of
us who seriously study cemeteries also lost a colleague who authored a
book on cemeteries — Texas Graveyards (1982) — that has become a classic
in regional literature. Terry Jordan was a sixth-generation Texan —
and proud of it. Born in Dallas, Jordan staked out his early intellectual
territory in his home state, where he originally taught at (and later
chaired) the geography department at the University of North Texas.
At this time — the early to mid-1970s — Jordan broke new ground with
pioneering studies on Germans in Texas and the log cabin architecture
of North Texas. Jordan loved the Lone Star State and spent his entire
career there, ultimately holding the prestigious Walter Prescott Webb
Professorship of History and Ideas at the University of Texas at Austin.

Like many Texans, Jordan was at home in his native state but also
loved to travel. Jordan not only visited 65 countries but also seriously
studied the cultural geography of every place he visited. He wrote or
contributed to more than thirty books on places as diverse as Australia,
Finland, and Siberia. With an eye tuned to everything cultural —
landscape, dialects, foodways, folklore — Jordan was the consummate
field geographer. Where others might be content to read only the written
historical resources about places, Jordan contended that as much —
actually more — could be learned by experiencing those places first
hand. That is what made his book Texas Graveyards stand out: it was
based on extensive first-hand field observation. More than twenty years
has passed since Jordan published that book, which set the standard
for what a regional treatment of cemeteries should cover. That book's
simplicity and eloquence have not been duplicated elsewhere for other
regions. However, it should ultimately inspire others to use the cultural
geographer's techniques in describing and interpreting the cemeteries of
other states and regions. Jordan taught his readers and students to see
both the details and the big picture, a remarkable accomplishment in an
age of specialization.

Terry Jordan (1938-2003)

Jordan possessed another Texas trait that endeared him to many but
put off some: He was positively fearless in expressing his opinions. He
loved to shatter long-held but unsupported opinions, and his sometimes
irreverent interpretations of subjects caused some misunderstandings.
For example, in North American Ranching Frontiers (1993), Jordan
challenged the commonly held belief that western American ranching
was primarily inspired by Texan and Spanish/ Mexican sources,
concluding that its origins revealed strong British roots through the
eastern United States. That prompted some scholars to brand Jordan as
anti-Hispanic, but those who knew Jordan knew the claim to be absurd.

Jordan is best known for his productive scholarship, but he was also
an avid stonemason. This fact is not really surprising given his deep
appreciation of the gravemarkers that appear in his Texas Graveyards.
With his talented hands shaping rock walls in Texas and his inquiring

Richard Francaviglia 1 1

mind shaping two generations of geographers, Jordan was above all an
inspiration. After his marriage to Russian geographer Bella Bychkova in
1997, Jordan hyphenated his name, so do not be surprised to see him also
identified as Terry Jordan-Bychkov. That is the name that appears on the
last book that he published — The Upland South: Tlte Making of an American
Folk Tradition and Landscape (2003). The Upland South stretches from the
Appalachian Highlands down through the Cross Timbers and Hill
Country of Texas, a region that Jordan knew intimately. Symbolically
enough, the last chapter in this beautifully written and wonderfully
illustrated book is entitled "Upland Southern Graveyards." It seems a
fitting tribute to the man who studied the world but never lost his love
for his native land.

Friends in Austin told me about Jordan's incredibly tough fight
against pancreatic cancer, a fight that was both heartbreaking and
inspirational. He would come to class while receiving chemotherapy
and still deliver wonderful lectures — a fighter to the very end. That, too,
should come as no surprise, for Terry Jordan-Bychkov fought for the
things he knew were important. Education was his calling, and he lived
it to the end.

Carving a Path to Freedom

^wsJljP^PPr*

Frontispiece: William Baile (1836), Pipe Creek ("Brick")

Methodist Church between Westminster and New Windsor, MD.

Carved by Sebastian "Boss" Hammond.

Carving a Path to Freedom:
The Life and Work of African American
Stonecarver Sebastian "Boss" Hammond

Mary Ann Ashcraft

In 2001, owners of land lying along the border between Carroll, and
Frederick Counties in central Maryland discovered the gravestones of
two children lying face up in dense undergrowth. The beautifully carved
stones bore dates from the mid-1830s. Around them were strewn slabs of
local rock with straight edges and the distinct marks of saw blades. The
landowners also remembered seeing numerous small stone foundations
scattered over the area when they moved there many years ago. Without
realizing it, they had stumbled upon the site where a former slave named
Sebastian "Boss" Hammond carved more than one hundred elegantly
lettered gravestones for nearly three decades in the nineteenth century.1
His reputation as a stonecutter was widespread during his lifetime,
but because he did not sign his work, the memory of Hammond faded
rapidly after his death. His rediscovery makes him one of the earliest
documented black craftsmen in central Maryland.

Sebastian Boss/ Boston/ Bostion Hammond was born a slave some-
time between 1795 and 1804, probably on a farm belonging to one of the
Hammonds of Liberty District, Frederick County, Maryland. This area
was home to many large landowners who moved westward from the
tidewater region of Maryland during the second half of the eighteenth
century, bringing along slaves to work their large holdings. Some of
these families were "land-rich, cash-poor": they owned thousands of
acres and some slaves but little else. Their homes were usually plain
and functional compared to the elegant estates of the Hammonds and
Carrolls who lived around Baltimore and Annapolis. In 1824, Boss
Hammond's owner, the young widow Area Hammond, promised him
freedom on January 8, 1844, and filed the manumission in the Frederick
County Courthouse.2 According to her estimate, Boss was about twenty
years old. No doubt she felt she would ensure his loyalty and assistance
with this promise. Area soon remarried, but in 1830 she was widowed
again and her cousin Colonel Thomas Hammond, the brother of her
first husband, purchased Boss at the estate sale of her second husband,

Carving a Path to Freedom

John Walker.3 Colonel Hammond had extensive land holdings in eastern
Frederick County which he farmed using slave labor.

Boss Hammond was approximately thirty years old when Colonel
Hammond acquired him and apparently already possessed some
stonecarving skills. Colonel Hammond, a politically prominent member
of the upper class in Frederick County, may have helped advertise Boss's
carving talents to people with whom he came in contact. As Thomas
Hammond's slave from 1830 until 1839, Boss Hammond turned out
dozens of gravestones. The mid-1830s were his most productive years
based upon death dates on the gravestones (Fig. 1). Administration
accounts from this period reveal he charged between $10 and $14 for
a headstone and footstone, the same price demanded by most other
stonecutters working in central Maryland at the time (see Appendix I).
It appears the payments were made directly to Boss, not to his owner.
There is no way to determine how much of the money he was allowed to
keep, but judging from the number of stones he produced, he could have
amassed a considerable sum over the nine-year period.

Year Number

[1811] 1

[1814] 1

[1815] 1

[1818] 1

[1821] 1

[1823] 1

[1825] 1

[1828] 1

[1829] 3

1830 3

1831 2

1832 6

Year Number

1833 6

1834 10

1835 13

1836 10

1837 8

1838 5

1839 4

1840 4

1841 5

1842 3

1844 2

1845 3

Year Number

1846 3

1847 4

1848 2

1849 3

1850 0

1851 1

1852 0

1853 0

1854 0

1855 1

1856 0

1857 1

Hammond gravestones per year; [ ] = presumably backdated

Fig. 1. Death dates on Hammond gravestones.

Mary Ann Ashcraft 1 5

On July 29, 1839, Colonel Thomas Hammond granted Boss his
freedom nearly five years ahead of the date set by Area Hammond.4 In
the new manumission, his age was given as thirty-eight. That document
states he was freed for "divers good causes and considerations," a
standard phrase used in most manumissions; no mention is made of
specific conditions such as payment of a sum of money. Boss's obituary,
written in 1893, says he bought his freedom for $700.5 If this figure is
correct, it was an unusually high price to ask for the release of a man
approaching the age of 40. Colonel Hammond may have recognized
he was liberating a valuable slave and sought to be compensated
accordingly, but it is also possible that oral history was corrupted
during the fifty-four years between Boss's manumission and his death.
Regardless of the sum, Boss undoubtedly used money he earned carving
gravestones toward purchasing his freedom.

Within a year, Boss Hammond had purchased nine acres along the
Carroll-Frederick border. He was to live there the remainder of his life
(Fig. 2).6 Between 1841 and 1850 he acquired sixty additional acres, and
by 1857 he had bought his wife, Marcella, and eleven children out of
slavery.7 The 1850 census listed his occupation as "stonecutter," but in
later years his principal sources of income became farming and lime
burning.8 His land, livestock, and income from the crops he raised
would have made him one of the most prosperous African Americans
living in the area. Family tradition says he was a leader in his small,
primarily black community of Newport and often helped less fortunate
families through difficult times.

Because white marble was the most popular material for gravestones
in Carroll and Frederick Counties during the nineteenth century,
Hammond's dark greenish-gray metabasalt markers are easy to spot
from a distance in old cemeteries.9 According to local residents, he
quarried most of his stone less than half a mile from his home. Farmers
called it "greenstone" and often used it for foundations, walls, and entire
buildings. Hammond may have cut the stone into slabs at a sawmill
located near his rock source and then, using his horses, hauled the
slabs to his worksite for further preparation. Relatives say he was also a
blacksmith, an important skill for someone who constantly needed sharp
stonecutting tools at his disposal. Greenstone is ideal for markers as it is
relatively soft and easy to carve; doesn't split like slate; is usually free of

Carving a Path to Freedom

Fig. 2. Portion of 1873 map of eastern Liberty District,

Frederick County, Maryland, showing location of

B. Hammond's property (center) along the border

with Carroll County.

Mary Ann Ashcraft ] 7

lichen growth; and weathers imperceptibly, even in the climate of central
Maryland. Hammond must have chosen his raw material carefully
because his markers are generally free of imperfections although color
variations and small inclusions are common. Several were found with
bits of white filler he apparently used for minor surface repairs.

The headstone of Malakiah Bonham bears the earliest death date
(1811) of any Hammond stone, although it could not have been made
until many years later (cover; Fig. 7). Hammond markers with death
dates prior to 1830 were probably made during the 1830s or early 1840s
when he was at the height of his carving career and his reputation was
spreading. It is John Walker's gravestone with a death date of 1830 that
helps establish the beginning of Boss Hammond's stonecarving career
(Fig. 3). Walker and his wife, Area Hammond, owned Boss in 1830,
making it somewhat more likely that the marker was carved near the
time of Walker's death. It is shaped like other Hammond headstones and
bears his trademark motifs, but it differs in many important respects.
Although "SACRED" dominates the stone, it is less bold than usual
and the word "Age" is also somewhat tentative in its execution. The
incised border is well done, but most of the words are poorly spaced,
the punctuation is nonstandard, and many letters and numerals are ill-
formed (Fig. 4). Hammond's interlace motif in the lobe is rather lopsided
and is surrounded by tiny dots — a treatment not seen elsewhere (Fig. 5).
The workmanship on Walker's headstone is clearly that of a beginner.
None of his other gravestones shows so many signs of inexperience; in
fact, it seems remarkable that all the others, regardless of the death dates
on them, are so expertly carved in his mature style.

Although Hammond produced scores of markers during his carving
career, his name rarely appears in administration accounts. Carroll
County's administration accounts were searched from 1837 (the year
the county was formed) until 1850, yet only a few listed Hammond as
receiving payment for gravestones (see Appendix 1). Hammond's name
is equally scarce in Frederick County's records. No known Hammond
marker bears a death date after 1857, with the exception of a few
"recycled" ones which he or a family member may have sold years later.
If he continued carving after 1857, he must have drastically changed his
style and begun using marble, but it seems more probable he turned his
energies to farming, lime burning, and blacksmithing for the remainder
of his long life.

Carving a Path to Freedom

; ^ii^toh

*■-

Fig. 3. John Walker (1830), Fairmount Cemetery,
Libertytown, Frederick County.

Mary Ann Ashcraft

o f

: p a i < c. <1 Jt II i ^ L f

< li • ' >r c a. i:

-~>

CY"' c

Fig. 4. Crudely executed lettering on John Walker gravestone (1830),

Fairmount Cemetery, Libertytown, Frederick County,

appears to reveal Hammond's inexperience.

Hammond created distinctive greenstone markers in two basic
shapes that vary in proportion and size. From the 1830s until the mid-
18405, he produced the shape seen in the John Lindsay gravestone (1833)
with its prominent central lobe and concave shoulders (Fig. 6). A few
stones in this style have very exaggerated concave shoulders which
extend far down the sides (Fig. 7). No other carver in the vicinity used
this shape, although many others produced the simple rectangle with
small concave shoulders Hammond began cutting in the mid-1840s
(Fig. 8). All of his later gravestones are in this shape.

Hammond laid out his markers with an artist's sense of balance
between lettering and ornamentation. Every gravestone has a simple but
elegant incised double border formed by chiseling a wide, half-round
gutter about one inch from the edge of the stone and an inner narrow
groove which also follows the stone's contour. This double border
creates a beautiful frame for his text and decorative elements.

Carving a Path to Freedom

Fig. 5. Detail of lobe of John Walker gravestone (1830),

Fairmount Cemetery, Libertytown, Frederick County, with interlace

surrounded by small dots (not seen on other stones).

Mary Ann Ashcraft

Fig. 6. John Lindsay (1833), Linganore U. M. Cemetery, Unionville,

Frederick County, showing the standard shape of gravestones

Hammond carved in the 1830s and early 1840s.

Carving a Path to Freedom

'\j

ffT1 <22;

-f>

Fig. 7. Malakiah Bonham (1811) at Linganore U. M. Cemetery,

Unionville, Frederick County, with exaggerated

concave shoulders. Presumably backdated.

Mary Ann Ashcraft

THE MiEIWOIlX

Vt no tlcpuvtetl slii.v ii to

~P .» v cav ell :Tt V '-€vi*'v x Vtl .v .
TXf.i.»f l "i^vuvt lie,

T i 1 1 c li v x s t a p t* fc .1 •»» s .

Fig. 8. Amy Nusbaum (1849), Linganore U. M. Cemetery,

Unionville, Frederick County, squared top

typical of Hammond's later work.

24 Carving a Path to Freedom

What really distinguishes Boss Hammond's gravestones is their
dramatic lettering and appealing decorative motifs borrowed from
calligraphy. The word "SACRED" is boldly and deeply carved in capital
letters spanning the entire width of the stone. It dominates all other
features, including the name of the deceased, and creates a striking three-
dimensional effect. Each letter has prominent serifs; those on the "S" are
curled and ornate, while those on the other letters are strictly angular,
created by deep, straight cuts of the chisel (Fig. 9). The execution of this
word leaves little doubt that Hammond thoroughly enjoyed his craft. In
a raking light, "SACRED" takes on an almost sculptured appearance.
None of his work has been found with the familiar weeping willows,
urns, mourning figures, or other representational designs occasionally
used by central Maryland carvers during the 1830s and 1840s.

On lobe-style gravestones, Hammond usually carved a lovely
calligraphic ornament called an "interlace" within the lobe (Figs. 6,7,9).
The design, one of his trademarks, doesn't appear on any other stones
in north-central Maryland, but a similar interlace has been found on
gravemarkers in an adjacent Pennsylvania county.10 The shallow,
delicate carving of the interlace enhances the lobe and contrasts with
the deeply chiseled "SACRED" beneath. Hammond occasionally used
another interlace resembling the infinity symbol, but this design was less
skillfully executed (Fig. 9). He frequently carved pairs of small motifs
resembling curved, interlaced arrows to fill the large empty space on
either side of the word "OF." The strong v-cut of his chisel is particularly
evident in these unusual designs. Many of the same decorative elements
used on his lobe-style gravestones also appear on the rectangular ones.
His ornamentation was chiefly curvilinear, and the contrast between it
and his crisp, rather angular lettering gives great vibrancy to his work.

The text of Hammond's gravestones follows the standard bio-
graphical formula, beginning with "Sacred to the memory of," then the
name of the deceased, and finally the date of death and age in years,
months and days. Hammond based his block lettering on commonly
used eighteenth- and nineteenth-century typefaces; however, it is
far more dynamic and exciting than that of contemporary carvers in
the area. He created a very personal style which carried variations in
thickness of each letter to the extreme. The exaggeration is most obvious
in the word "SACRED," but it appears whenever he used capital letters

Mary Ann Ashcraft

"2hPfr

Fig. 9. Ludwick Greenwood (1844), Greenwood Cemetery,

New Windsor, Carroll County, illustrating the three-dimensional

effect Hammond created with his deeply carved letters.

26 Carving a Path to Freedom

such as in the name of the deceased or the month of death. Unlike most
carvers of the period, his capital letters are much bolder and thicker than
his lower case letters. His serifs are also very pronounced. Letters are
well spaced and nicely proportioned. In most instances, he planned each
line carefully so words did not require hyphenation and letters were of
uniform size. He always placed the name of the deceased on a line of its
own, never adding other words to detract from it. His use of punctuation
to abbreviate dates or age was sophisticated and included extra strokes
not usually added by other carvers (Fig. 10). His numerals are beautifully
executed with the same variation in thickness he created for letters.

The inscriptions on some of Boss Hammond's most attractive
markers end with the word "Age" greatly enlarged near the bottom of
the stone and surrounded with lovely calligraphic ornaments (Fig. 10).
"Age" is a comparatively light and delicate design which complements
and offsets the boldness of the word "SACRED" (Fig. 6). It ensures that a
viewer's eyes will sweep across the entire surface of the stone from top to
bottom. These dominant elements frame the several lines of biographical
text and balance the entire composition. While Hammond's beautifully
formed letters and skillfully executed calligraphic devices prove he was
a master carver, the composition of the stones proves he was an artist
as well.

Fewer than a dozen of Hammond's gravemarkers end with verse
epitaphs. These stones tend to be less aesthetically pleasing than verseless
ones because the attractive balance of text and decorative elements
is destroyed when four, eight, or even twelve extra lines are added
at the bottom. Nevertheless, the verses are technically well executed
with accurate spelling and punctuation and usually with appropriate
capitalization. He used several different conventional verses, the most
common being:

Kind angels watch the sleeping dust,

Till Jesus comes to raise the Just.

Then may she (he) wake with sweet surprise

And in her (his) Saviour's image rise.

Hammond's footstones match the shape of the headstones and
always include the characteristic incised border plus bold initials

Mary Ann Ashcraft

IiliUeS^^ai of Iiis

*•••■"

Fig. 10. Detail showing calligraphic ornamentation, Nathan Magruder
(1836), Linganore U. M. Cemetery, Unionville, Frederick County.

(Fig. 11). A few add the death date. The price for a headstone and
footstone eventually reached $21.00 in the 1840s (see Appendix I). There
was probably no cost involved in obtaining the raw material, so the
charges covered his labor to quarry the stone, then shape, polish, and
letter the markers. Nicholas Benson, a master stonecarver and the owner
of the John Stevens Shop in Newport, Rhode Island, estimated it would
take approximately a week to letter a stone similar to the one made for
John Lindsay (Fig. 6).11

Boss Hammond also lettered a few marble markers. A handful
of stones have been found with his bold "SACRED" and unique
method of punctuating ages and dates (Fig. 12). Their shape is typical
of early nineteenth-century gravestones erected in central Maryland,
but very different from Hammond's markers. One Frederick County
administration record shows he was paid $4.05 for the lettering, less than
half the sum he received when he made a stone from start to finish.12

According to his obituary, Hammond "did not know one letter from
another/' and the census records also indicate he could neither read nor

Carving a Path to Freedom

■"tZ&^K

■■•■■_; /•> ' V

.u(%.Jh *j n ■

Fig. 11. J. H. Warfield footstone (unknown date),
Bethel U. M. Cemetery, Marston, Carroll County.

Mary Ann Ashcraft

write.13 If this is true, the caliber of his work is truly astonishing. Names
and dates are spelled correctly on almost every stone and complex verses
are perfectly reproduced. Perhaps he relied upon occasional help from
a literate neighbor when he was in doubt, but his accuracy also was the
result of his close attention to detail as he worked. It is also possible the
census records and obituary were incorrect. By the late 1840s, significant
spacing problems, misspellings, and other errors appear on two or three
of his markers. About the same time, he began utilizing another kind of
stone for some of his markers — a dark gray to black slate-like material.

8 S»

Fig. 12. William M. Worman (1836), Linganore U. M. Cemetery,

Unionville, Frederick County. Hammond appears to

have lettered this lichen-encrusted marble stone.

30 Carving a Path to Freedom

The lettering on markers made from this stone is not as crisp as that on
the greenstone markers, but it may be less a function of carving skill than
of differences in the stone's resistance to weathering over the past 150
years or the texture of the stone itself.

Although Hammond's style changed very little over the course of
his career and he did not follow the trends of other local carvers, his
work was in demand judging by the number of families who purchased
multiple gravestones from him. Five members of the Kiler family are
buried beneath his markers at St. Luke's (Winter's) Lutheran Cemetery
near New Windsor in Carroll County. Other local families such as the
Greenwoods, Drachs, Bailes, Warfields and Bennetts also purchased
multiple markers (see Appendix II). Of six gravestones found in the
Michael Haines Family Cemetery, four were carved by Hammond.
The only known marker he made specifically for an African American
was that for Rosanna Cassell. Her estate was administered by a local
white farmer named Levi Devilbiss, who lived near Hammond and
undoubtedly knew of his craftsmanship.14

There is no direct evidence that explains how Hammond learned his
trade. When he was a young slave, his owner could have apprenticed
him to a stonecutter, but it is more probable he was engaged in farming
until he was in his mid- to late twenties. He might have obtained some
experience working with stone by being hired out to a stonemason; it
was a common practice to hire out slaves temporarily to local craftsmen
such as carpenters, blacksmiths, shoemakers, and stonemasons.

A carver who put the initials "J.N." on his markers and lived near the
Carroll/ Frederick County border during the 1820s may be the person
who taught Boss Hammond to make gravestones. Three of J.N.'s stones
appear in the same cemeteries with Hammond's. J.N.'s work, which
predates the period when Boss Hammond probably began carving by
about five years, shares many features with Hammond's. Both craftsmen
carved their markers from local greenstone, and although they shaped
the tops of their markers very differently, the multiple border and
calligraphic ornaments link J.N.'s 1820s stone for Frederick Buser
with Hammond's stones (Fig. 13). As on Hammond markers, block
Roman capitals are followed by text in upper and lower case. On the
Buser gravemarker, J.N. not only used a matching pair of calligraphic
ornaments almost identical to those Hammond carved, but he also used

Mary Ann Ashcraft

Fig. 13. Fred'k Buser gravestone (1822?), signed "J.N./'

St. Luke's (Winter's) Lutheran Cemetery, New Windsor,

Carroll County. Some elements of J.N.'s stones

link them to Hammond's work.

Carving a Path to Freedom

o»

Ham
work
site

■

= >

t 3
CO o

i-h

tt*

0
H

-J
5

Q
-

H
Z»

NION
RIDGE

NEW WIN
•

a s

1 2

• >>

/ -J

En
-*•

SCO /

• ** "
/

§ '

-J

& z

>• *

?•

\ *" V

^ —

Ed '

1
/

5
o

1-9

• o

• 2

Ed
Z

i*i

os»

o
"ZZ

CD
T3
0

C
3
O

<4H

;»

•i-l

• 1-H

Cfi

■*=>

rfl

•*->

"rfl

fcj

0»

Mary Ann Ashcraft 33

them in the same way to fill out a short line of text. No other carvers in
the region used these calligraphic devices. J.N.'s work is delicate and
sophisticated, with shallowly-incised lettering in mixed typefaces as well
as calligraphic script. His calligraphic ornaments are equally shallow. In
contrast, Hammond's stones appear more flamboyant with their boldly
executed block lettering and calligraphic devices that are deeply incised
and eye-catching. Although the carvers' styles are very different, there
are enough similarities to suggest that a working relationship existed
between them at one time.

Although Boss Hammond ceased carving gravestones around 1860,
he continued to farm and burn lime in the Newport area for many more
years. In 1880 he was forced to sell most of his land to settle an old debt.
His wife and oldest son preceded him in death. Hammond passed away
March 31, 1893, and was buried in the cemetery at Fairview, a historic
African American church on the border between Carroll and Frederick
Counties. His gravestone lists his age as ninety-eight. In the American
Sentinel [Carroll County] of April 8, 1893, his obituary noted that "the
funeral of 'Boss' Hammond was very largely attended by both white
and colored."15 The same day another Carroll County newspaper,
the Democratic Advocate, called Hammond "a worthy colored man, of
Frederick county," and commented that "many graveyards in Frederick
and Carroll counties bear evidence of his skill as a workman, some of his
lettering having been done over seventy-five years ago. He at one time
was well off, but lost his property and died poor."16 Hammond left no
will or record of the disposition of his household furnishings or carving
tools. If his sons ever helped him with stonecutting as young men,
there is no evidence they continued after their father gave up his craft.
Hammond's small gravestone at Fairview is a recycled one he originally
carved for someone else. He hardly needed a memorial, however,
for over one hundred gravestones scattered principally in cemeteries
along the Carroll and Frederick County border (Fig. 14) bear eloquent
testimony to the man and his talent.

34 Carving a Path to Freedom

NOTES

The author is indebted to George and Ann Parry Horvath for their assistance in
researching many aspects of this subject and for their constant and enthusiastic
support. Staff at the Carroll and Frederick County Courthouses were always
helpful and cooperative. For more than seven years, friends in the Carroll
County Genealogical Society, the Historical Society of Carroll County, and the
Historical Society of Frederick County listened kindly to new developments
in Boss Hammond's story and offered leads. A somewhat different version of
this essay appeared under the title "Sacred to the Memory: The Stonecarving of
Sebastian Hammond" in Catoctin History (Spring 2003), pp. 20-27.

[Editor's note: A few other African American stonecarvers or gravestone makers
have been identified. Vincent Luti, "Case for a Black Stone Carver," in his Mallet
and Chisel: Gravestone Carvers of Newport, Rhode Island in the 18th Century (Boston:
NEHGS, 2002), pp. 297-300, sifts the evidence of the claims about African
Americans working in the famous Steven's Shop of Newport. There are several
books as well as articles on William Edmondson, who created gravemarkers and
sculptural pieces in Tennessee until just before his death in 1951; the most recent
is Robert Farris Thompson, et al., The Art of William Edmondson (Nashville, TN:
Cheekwood Museum of Art; and Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1999).
See also Patricia Brady, "Florville Foy, F.M.C.: Master Marble Cutter and Tomb
Builder," Southern Quarterly 31:2 (Winter 1993): 8-20; and Barbara Rotundo, "A
Modern Gravestone Maker: Some Lessons for Gravestone Historians," Markers
XIV (1997): 86-109, which discusses the work of Merry E. Veal of Mississippi.
Veal produced gravestones of cast cement beginning in the 1960s. Rotundo
also includes references to a few other African American stonecarvers and folk
sculptors. M. Ruth Little's Sticks and Stones: Three Centuries of North Carolina
Gravemarkers (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), pp. 239-
258, describes African American traditions, particularly the cast cement work of
Renial Culbreth, Issiah McEachin, and several anonymous folk craftsmen. Ted
Delaney, Archivist & Curator of the Old City Cemetery, Lynchburg, Virginia,
reports that William Henry Jefferson (also known by the last name "Taylor" or
"Tayloe" before c. 1855) "carved about 50 or 60 stones in the Old City Cemetery"
for fellow African Americans (email to the editor, February 25, 2004).]

1 Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Malatt donated the gravestones to the Historical
Society of Carroll County and the Maryland Historical Society.

2 Frederick County (MD) Land Records, Liber JS 19, Folio 288. Two male
slaves in the age category between 14 and 25 were listed as the property of
Upton Hammond, Area Hammond's first husband, in the 1820 Census.
One of these slaves may have been Boss. See 1820 Census, Liberty District,
Frederick County, MD, 211.

3 Frederick County (MD) Land Records, Liber HS 9, Folio 322-323. The
manumission reads in part, "and by these presents do hereby release from
slavery liberate manumit and set free my Dark Mullatto (sic) man named
Boss, being of the age of thirty eight years which Slave I purchased at the sale

Mary Ann Ashcraft 35

of the personal property of John Walker dec'd in 1830, to serve until the 8th day
of January 1844 Said Slave being heretofore manumitted to serve until said
8th January 1844 by Mrs. Area Hammond who afterwards intermarried with
the said John Walker, reference being had to the said deed of manumission
recorded in the office of the Clerk of Frederick County Court."

4 Ibid.

5 Democratic Advocate (Westminster, Carroll County, MD), 28:23 (April 8, 1893).

6 Frederick County (MD) Land Records, Liber HS 11, Folio 528.

7 Mary Fitzhugh Hitselberger and John Philip Dern, Bridge in Time: The
Complete 1850 Census of Frederick County, Maryland (Redwood City, CA:
Monocacy Book Co., 1978), 436; Frederick County Land Records, Liber ES 7,
Folio 302.

8 Hitselberger and Dern, 554-555; 1860 Census, Liberty District, Frederick Co.,
MD, 75; 1880 Census, Linganore District, Frederick Co., MD, 14.

9 The metamorphic rock formation known as Sam's Creek Metabasalt appears
frequently as outcroppings of dark gray-green schistose to massive rock along
the border between Carroll and Frederick Counties. Hammond would have
preferred to work with the massive variety of metabasalt because it was less
likely to split when shaped into gravestones than the schistose variety. The
formation received its name from Sam's Creek, which flows near Hammond's
home and forms part of the Carroll-Frederick border for several miles. Not all
of Hammond's markers are cut from metabasalt; he also used other local, dark
stone more closely resembling slate.

10 Gary Collison reported that a stonecarver who used very similar calligraphic
devices worked in the German-speaking area of northern Adams County,
Pennsylvania, during approximately the same period as Boss Hammond.
Adams County forms part of the northern border of Carroll County; the areas
are separated by roughly fifty miles. See Jacqueline Kimball, "Gravestones,
Carvers and Ethnic Pride (Interview with and photography by Gary Collison),"
Stone in America (July 1999): 18-23.

11 Personal communication, Nicholas Benson.

12 Frederick County Administration Accounts, Liber GME 12, Folio 130-135.

13 Democratic Advocate.

14 Frederick County Administration Accounts, Liber GME 14, 217-218.

15 American Sentinel (Westminster, Carroll County, MD), 61:14 (April 8, 1893).

16 Democratic Advocate.

36 Carving a Path to Freedom

Appendix I
Probate Payments to Sebastian "Boss" Hammond

John Lindsay -Frederick Co. GME 10, 174-178. Account dated May 13, 1834.

"For d° paid Boss Hammond for a pair of tombstones . . . $14.00." Stone at Linganore
U. M. Cemetery, Unionville, Frederick County.

Conrad Duderer -Frederick Co. GME 10, 539-541. Account dated February 2, 1835.

"For d° paid Boss Hammond for pr tombstones . . . $12.00." Stone last seen in 1930 on
Dudderar Farm near Oak Orchard, Frederick County.

Michael Baile -Frederick Co. GME 11, 280-281. Account dated September 28, 1835.

"For d° paid Boss Hammond for pair of tombstones . . . $12.00." Stone at Baile Family
Cemetery near Marston, Carroll County.

Henry Bond - Frederick Co. GME 11, 441-443. Account dated February 8, 1836.
"For d° paid Boss Hammond for a pair of Tomb stones . . . $10.00." Stone at Pipe
Creek Church of the Brethren Cemetery near Uniontown, Carroll County.

William Worman -Frederick Co. GME 12, 130-135. Account dated October 25, 1836.
"For D° Paid Boss Hammond [for lettering] . . . $4.05." Stone at Linganore U. M.
Cemetery, Unionville, Frederick County.

Rosannah Shuey -Carroll Co. JB 1, 279-280. Account dated May 11, 1840.

"D° paid Boss Hammond for pair of tombstones . . . $11.00." Stone at St. Luke's
(Winter's) Lutheran Cemetery near New Windsor, Carroll County.

Simon Kiler -Carroll Co. JB 1, 334-335. Account dated Nov. 16, 1840.

"D° Paid Boss Hammond for a pair of tomb stones . . . $11.50." Stone at St. Luke's
(Winter's) Lutheran Cemetery near New Windsor, Carroll County.

Rosanna Cassell (col'd) -Frederick Co. GME 14, 217-218.

Account dated February 22, 1841. "For d° pd Boss Hammond for a pair of tombstones
. . . $13.00." Location of stone unknown.

Charles Franklin -Carroll Co. JB 2, 9-10. Accounted dated Jan. 23, 1843.

"Paid Boss Hammon for tombstones . . . $10.00." Stone in Franklin Family Cemetery
near Taylorsville, Carroll County.

Casper Devilbiss -Frederick Co. GME 15:258. Account dated May 22, 1843.

"For this sum paid Bostion Hammond for tombstones . . . $11.00." Stone in Devilbiss
Family Cemetery near Oak Orchard, Frederick County.

Ludwick Greenwood -Carroll Co. JB 2, 345-346. Account dated Dec. 22, 1845.
"For d" Paid Boston Hammond for pair of Tomb stones . . . $21.00." Stone at
Greenwood Church Cemetery near New Windsor, Carroll County.

Susannah Devilbiss -Carroll Co. JB 2, 400-401. Account dated April 20, 1846.

"Paid Bostion Hamon for gravestones . . . $15.00." Stone in Devilbiss Family Cemetery
near Oak Orchard, Frederick County.

Mary Haines -Carroll Co. JB 2, 429-430. Account dated Aug. 10, 1846.

"Pd Boss Hammond for grave stones . . . $21.00." Location of stone unknown.

Mary Ann Ashcraft

Appendix II

Location of Gravestones
Cut and/or Lettered by Sebastian "Boss" Hammond

Date given is the year of death. Stones with dates prior to 1830 are presumably
backdated. Probated stones are underlined. Locations are current as of 2003, but are
not necessarily the original ones. All are in Carroll County unless designed "FC"
(Frederick County), or "BC" (Baltimore County).

Unknown Location (likely CC or FC)

Cassell, Rosanna (col'd) ca 1839

Haines, Mary ca. 1846

Baile Family Cemetery near Marston

Baile, Michael 1834

Bethel United Methodist Cemetery
near Marston

W., J. H unknown date

Warfield, Caroline unknown date

Howard, Juliet 1829

Warfield, Francis H 1830

Dorsey, Richard G 1832

Warfield, Evelina H 1833

Warfield, Hannah Y 1835

Warfield, Dennis 1835

Warfield, Alexander 1835

Gosnell, Christena 1838

Bennett, Elizabeth 1846

Wright, John D. E 1847

Wright, Hannah C 1847

Wright, Eliza J 1847

Crawmer, Rachel 1848

Miller, Deborah H 1848

Sebier, Sarah T 1871 (recycled)

Buckingham Family Cemetery
near Taylorsville

Buckingham, Esther 1829

Cassell Family Cemetery
near Westminster

Cassell, Jonathan 1828

Cassell, Mary 1834

Roop, Susannah 1845

Devilbiss Family Cemetery
near Oak Orchard, FC

Devilbiss, Caspar 1835

Devilbiss, Susannah 1840

Dudderar Family Cemetery
near Unionville, FC

Duderer, Conrad 1831

(stone last seen ca. 1930)

Ebenezer United Methodist
Cemetery near Winfield

Shipley, Areaminta 1815

Shipley, John 1840

Fairmount Cemetery, Libertytown, FC

Walker, John 1830

Fairview United Methodist
Cemetery near Taylorsville

Hammond, Marcella 1890 (recycled)

Hammond, Cora E 1891 (recycled)

Hammond, Sebastian 1893 (recycled)

Hammond, Lina U 1896 (recycled)

Franklin Family Cemetery
near Taylorsville

, Frederick unknown date

Carving a Path to Freedom

, Susanna unknown date

, Rachel 1832

Barnes, George W 1832

Buckingham, Upton B 1833

Franklin, Charles 1840

Greenwood Church Cemetery near
New Windsor, CC

James, Mary 1833

Greenwood, Washington 1838

Greenwood, Lewis 1842

Greenwood, Ludwick 1844

James, Nancy 1846

Greenwood, Jacob 1849

Haines Family Cemetery near Marston

Baile, Nancy 1818

Haines, David 1821

Baile, Eliza 1835

Hooper, John 1837

Historical Society of Carroll County,
210 E. Main Street, Westminster

Picket, John T. W 1834

Historical Society of Frederick County,
24 E. Church Street, Frederick

Gosnell, Margaret 1834

Johnsville United Methodist Cemetery,
Johnsville, FC

Repp, Solomon 1835

Lineanore United Methodist Cemetery,
Unionville, FC

Bonham, Malakiah 1811

Bonham, Mary W 1832

Barnes, Sarah Ann 1832

Greentree, Hannah C 1832

Coomes, Finetta 1833

Dell, Fransanah 1833

Lindsay, John 1833

Worman, Charles W 1834 (marble)

Worman, William M 1835 (marble)

Worman, William 1835 (marble)

Danner, Catharine 1836

Ecker, John, Jr 1836

Magruder, Nathan 1836

Mercer, double stone for
2 children 1837

Miller, James Augustus 1838

Shafer, James H 1838

Miller, Elizabeth Jane 1839

Hartsock, Kitty Ann 1845

Nusbaum, Amy 1849

Dorsey, Sarah (recycled in 1902)

Maryland Historical Society,
201 W. Monument Street, Baltimore

Parsons, John Marshall 1835

Middletown Union Cemetery,
Middletown, BC

Bull, Susannah 1837

Bull, William Henry 1837

Nicodemus Family Cemetery
near New Windsor

Nicodemus, Ann Mariah 1839

Pipe Creek "Brick" United Methodist
Cemetery near New Windsor

Baile, William 1836

Hooper, Mary 1836

Pipe Creek Church of the Brethren
Cemetery near Uniontown

Bond, John 1814

Bond, William H 1823

Zimmerman, Jacob 1834

Bond, Henry 1835

Snader, Mary 1835

Snader, Joseph Englar 1836

Engle, Elizabeth 1841

Mary Ann Ashcraft

Hess, Noah 1845 (recycled)

Snader, Ami Maria 1846

Snader, Jacob 1847

Englar, Daniel 1849

Nusbaum, Elizabeth 1851

St. John's Roman Catholic Cemetery,
Westminster

Williams, Hannah 1831

St. Luke's (Winter's) Lutheran Cemetery
near New Windsor

Townsend, Samuel 1825

Drach, Catharine 1834

Townsend, David 1835

Drach, Adam 1835

Drach, Catharine 1835

Kiler, Elizabeth 1836

Drach, Catharine 1837

Kiler, Sarah Ann 1838

Kiler, Simon 1839

Shuey, Rosanna 1839

Hanna, Mary Magd 1841

Long, Barbara 1841

Smith, Eliza Ann 1841

Kiler, Andrew 1842

Kiler, Jacob 1844

St. Peter's Rocky Hill Lutheran Cemetery
near Woodsboro, FC

Renner, Mary 1829

Fogle, Mary 183?

Lock, Susanna 1837

Lock, Margaret Custy 1837

Salem United Methodist Cemetery
near Winfield

Bennett, Benjamin 1834

Bennett, Polly 1836

Sam's Creek Church of the Brethren
near Marston

Young, Ann 1834

Young, George 1834

Taylorsville United Methodist Cemetery,
Taylorsville

Young, Benjamin F 1841 (marble)

Tener/Hooper Family Cemetery
near Taylorsville

Zile, Conrad 1830

Collins, John C 1837

Hooper, Julia Ami 1855

Hooper, Joseph T. F 1857

Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

Engraving of King Philip as imagined long after

his death by silversmith patriot Paul Revere.

Courtesy, American Antiquarian Society.

Gravemarkers and Memorials
of King Philip's War

Tom and Brenda Malloy

On June 20, 1675, warriors under the command of King Philip
attacked Swansea, Massachusetts, thus initiating a war that would
result in the destruction of twenty-five towns or about one-fourth
of the English settlements in New England. King Philip, the son of
Massasoit, was the Christian name given to Metacom, the sachem of
the Pokanoket-Wampanoags. For additional forces Philip allied himself
with Narragansett, Nipmuck, and Abenaki Indians for a war that, in
proportion to population, inflicted greater casualties than any other war
in American history. The conflict became known as King Philip's War.
This essay provides a narrative of events in the war that are documented
by existing memorials and gravemarkers (Fig. 1).

The day after the initial attack on Swansea, a relief force was sent to
aid the town. The colonial soldiers established a command post at the
settlement's Myles Garrison House and began to engage the Indians.
During the next two days, nine men were killed and two were mortally
wounded. Today, the approximate location of the Myles Garrison House
is marked by a bronze tablet affixed to a large boulder. The top of the
tablet reads:

Myles Garrison House

Site

Near This Spot Stood

The John Myles Garrison House

The Place Of Meeting Of The Troops Of

Massachusetts Bay And Plymouth Colonies

Commanded By

Major Thomas Savage And James Culsworth

Who Marched To The Relief Of Swansea

At the Opening Of King Philip's War

A. D. 1675

The bottom of the tablet reads, "These Fell In Swansea Slain By The
Indians," followed by a listing of the names of eleven men. Because on

Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

4-<

-4-

4->

4-1

4->

flS

4->
0)

-n

</)

'—

Tom and Brenda Malloy

many occasions soldiers and victims of King Philip's War were buried
in unmarked graves where they fell, this boulder and plaque could be
considered a cenotaph for these eleven men.

A gravemarker for an early victim of the war can be found on the
front lawn of a home in Berkley (Fig. 2), which is three towns to the
east of Swansea. It marks the grave of Edward Bobbett. Bobbett lived
in a home here with his wife and nine children. Upon hearing of the
attack on Swansea, he began moving his family to the safety of nearby
Taunton. With his family some distance ahead of him, Bobbett realized
that they were being pursued by some Wampanoag. Edward, who was
accompanied by a family dog, hid himself in a tree, but his position was
given away by the dog's barking. The Indians fired into the tree and
killed Bobbett. Soon after, he was buried where he fell and the location
is now marked by a plaque on a small boulder. The plaque reads: "In
Memory of Edward Bobbett, Slain Here by Indians, June 25, 1675 and
Buried Near This Spot." Family descendants erected this replacement

Fig. 2. Plaque marking Edward Bobbett's grave,
Berkley, Massachusetts.

44 Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

marker in 1911. At the same time as the replacement marker was erected,
the crude headstone that originally marked the location was placed in
the hands of a local historical society.1

The following month Wampanoags attacked Middleborough, burn-
ing the settlement and forcing its evacuation. Evidence of this flight can
be found on the Miller family marker in the Middleborough cemetery.
On the side of the marker is inscribed: "Francis Miller Was One Of The
Householders Driven Back To Plymouth From Middleborough By The
Indians In 1675." The front of the monument provides evidence of the
family's return:

In Memory Of

JOHN MILLER

Died May 11, 1720, In The 97th Year Of His Age

He Was One Of The Householders Who
Returned To Middleborough From Plymouth

After King Philip's War And At Their First

Meeting in June, 1677 Resolved To Repossess

Their Estates

A week after the attack on Middleborough, Nipmuck allies of the
Wampanoag attacked Mendon, a town about thirty miles northwest of
Middleborough. Today, at a traffic intersection, a boulder with a bronze
tablet marks the approximate location of the assault. Not much is known
about this attack, nor about the half dozen or so victims who were killed
while at work in their fields. However, the tablet does list some of those
who died:

Near This Spot

The Wife And Son Of

Mathias Puffer

The Son Of John Rockwood

And Other Inhabitants Of Mendon

Were Killed By Nipmuck Indians

14 July 1675

The Beginning Of King Philip's War

In The Colony Of Massachusetts

Tom and Brenda Malloy 45

The marker notes that this attack began King Philip's War in the Colony
of Massachusetts because the earlier attacks took place in Plymouth
Colony.

During the first week of August, at the central Massachusetts town
of New Braintree, the Nipmucks launched an ambush. The attack,
which has become known as Wheeler's Surprise, is described on a West
Brookfield historical marker:

One mile to the southwest, off the North Brookfield Road,
Edward Hutchinson's Company seeking a parley with the
Nipmucks was ambushed by Indians August 2, 1675, and
more than half were slain. Captain Hutchinson died from
his wounds. Captain Thomas Wheeler was wounded
but escaped.

Captain Edward Hutchinson, noted in the marker as dying from
his wounds, expired seventeen days after the battle in the town of
Marlborough while attempting to reach his home in Boston. Ironically,
he died thirty-two years to the month after his mother, Ann Hutchinson,
was killed by Indians on Long Island. Edward Hutchinson was the
first burial in Marlborough's Spring Hill Cemetery, where his grave is
marked by a plaque attached to a simple field stone.2 The plaque, which
wasn't placed until 1921, reads: "Captin Edward Hutchinson, Aged
62 Yeares, Was Shot By Treacherous Indians August 2, 1675. Dyed 19
August 1675."

Four weeks after Wheeler's Surprise, another Indian ambush took
place at a location just south of Northfield, a town on the New Hampshire
border. Here a granite monument states: "On this plain Captain Richard
Beers and his men were surprised by Indians Sept. 4, 1675." Captain
Beers was in the command of thirty-six men who were attempting to
evacuate the Northfield settlement that had been attacked by Indians
two days previously. During the fight, twenty-one men were killed,
including the captain. On September 6, another military unit was able
to evacuate the dead from the Beers force. A historical marker located
near the ambush site states: "Grave of Captain Richard Beers, killed by
Indians on September 4, 1675. His monument is on the mountain side
above." Today a modern marker on the front lawn of a private school

46 Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

marks the burial spot. It reads: "The Grave of Capt. Richard Beers killed
near this spot by Indians Sept. 4, 1675." This marker identifies only the
proximity of Beers' s grave because it had been moved from its original
location near the foundation of the school's main building. Prior to the
erection of the modern stone, the grave was marked by two stones set as
foot and head stones.3

Just two weeks after the Beers engagement, another ambush with
even a greater loss of lives took place in the western Massachusetts
town of Deerfield. Because of the high number of casualties, the location
became known as Bloody Brook. On September 18, Captain Thomas
Lathrop of Essex, Massachusetts, was in command of a sizeable military
force, most of whom were in their teens and none of whom were over the
age of twenty-two. The unit was escorting carts of food supplies south to
the town of Hadley, which at that time was the western command post
for the war. At what was originally known as Muddy Brook in South
Deerfield, Lathrop stopped the head of the convoy to rest and to allow
the back of the column to catch up. The soldiers relaxed their vigilance,
placed their guns in the carts, and began to collect grapes growing on
the side of the road. At this point, they were attacked by a large party
of Nipmuck warriors. Lathrop was killed almost immediately. During
the course of the fight, more than forty soldiers and eighteen teamsters
were killed. Soon after the ambush, a relief force arrived on the scene
and the fighting continued with the second force losing eleven men. The
engagement finally ended with the arrival of a third force of colonial
soldiers, who drove the Indians from the battlefield.

In 1838 the Bloody Brook Monument was dedicated at the site of the
battle. An inscription on the monument reads:

On this ground Capt. Thomas Lathrop and
eighty-four men under his command including
eighteen teamsters from Deerfield, conveying stores
from that town to Hadley were ambuscaded
by about 700 Indians and the Captain and
seventy-six men slain September 18th 1675 (old style)
The soldiers who fell were described by a
contemporary Historian as "a choice Company
of young men, the very flower of the County of

Tom and Brenda Malloy

Fig. 3. Mass gravemarker for Captain Thomas Lathrop and soldiers

under his command slain at Bloody Brook,

South Deerfield, Massachusetts.

48 Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

Essex none of who were ashamed to speak
with the enemy in the gate."

"And Sanguinetto tells you where the dead
Made the earth wet and turned the unwilling
waters red."

"The Same of the slain is marked by a stone slab
21 rods southerly of this monument."

At the present time the stone slab that marks the grave "of the slain"
is located on the front lawn of a home that is on the same street as the
monument (Fig. 3). An inscription carved into the stone reads: "Grave
of Capt. Lathrop and Men Slain by the Indians 1675." On the morning
after the ambush, soldiers from the relief forces had returned to bury
their dead comrades. A local historian relates that "scouts were sent out,
sentinels stationed to prevent a surprise, and the melancholy duties of
the day begun. Parties were detailed to gather the dead and workmen
to prepare a common grave. Tenderly the mangled bodies of the victims
were borne to the spot, and slowly and reverentially they were laid in the
bosom of mother earth."4

Because the early owners of the property had moved the stone slab
several times, in 1835 a committee was formed to locate the precise
location of the mass grave. Guided by hearsay, the committee was able
to locate the grave, which contained the bones of about thirty men. This
was all that remained of the estimated sixty originally interred bodies.
Thus this marker probably stands as the oldest monument to veterans in
America. It should also be noted that at the same time that the committee
verified the location of this grave, they also reported finding, half a mile
away, a grave containing the remains of ninety-six Native Americans.
It was assumed that this was a burial spot for Indians killed at Bloody
Brook. However, this was never proven and the location remains
unmarked.5

During the autumn following the battle of Bloody Brook, a com-
mission of the United Colonies planned an attack on the Narragansett
fortification in what is now South Kingston, Rhode Island. The
fortification was located in an area known as The Great Swamp and the

Tom and Brenda Malloy 49

ensuing battle became known as The Great Swamp Fight. Located near
the site, a historical marker reads:

Three quarters of a mile to the
southward on an island in the Great
Swamp The Narragansett Indians were
Decisively defeated By the United
Forces of the Massachusetts Bay,
Connecticut and Plymouth Colonies,
Sunday, December 19, 1675.

As the historical marker directs, one can walk down a dirt road to where
the actual site of the battle is designated by a large rough-hewn granite
monolith that was unveiled during a dedication ceremony in 1906 (Fig.
4).6 On the monolith is inscribed:

The Great Swamp Fight
19 December 1675

Around the monolith are four large granite blocks, each inscribed
with the name of one of the four colonies that participated in the battle:
"Massachusetts," "Plymouth," "Connecticut," and "Rhode Island." The
Indian fortification that stood on this location consisted of a five-acre
village of about 500 wigwams. The whole area was surrounded by a
timber palisade with spiked stakes and a water moat. Within the seem-
ingly impregnable fort was a population of about 3,000 Narragansett and
Wampanoag men, women, and children.

On December 19, a 1,000-man unit of the united colonial forces
attacked the stronghold. After breaking through the palisade, the
soldiers set the village on fire. During the course of the battle, several
hundred Indians were killed, less than half of whom were warriors.

The English casualties consisted of 68 killed and 150 wounded, and
more were to die during an eighteen-mile trek through a snowstorm
to Wickford, or what is now North Kingston, Rhode Island. In North
Kingston, soldiers marched to the safety of Smith's Block House, which
had been the staging area for the attack at The Great Swamp. Here they
buried some of their dead in a mass grave, which is now marked by a

Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

Fig. 4. Granite monolith marking the site of The Great Swamp Fight,

South Kingston, Rhode Island. Four smaller granite blocks

around the monolith are each inscribed with the name of

one of the colonies represented in the battle.

tablet on a boulder (Fig. 5). The tablet reads:

HERE

WERE BURIED

IN ONE GRAVE

FORTY MEN

Who Died In The Swamp Fight

Or On The Return March

Richard Smith's Block House

December 1675

Tom and Brenda Malloy

Near this monument is a second boulder with a tablet that
memorializes one of the individuals in the mass grave. This tablet
reads:

To The Memory Of

CAPTAIN

JOHN GALLUP

Killed In The

Swamp Fight

1675

Erected By The

Gallup Family

Association

1969

John Gallup emigrated from England to become the first sheriff of
the Plymouth Colony. He eventually settled, in 1654, in Stonington,

Fig. 5. Plaque marking the mass grave of forty soldiers killed during
The Great Swamp Fight, North Kingston, Rhode Island.

52 Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

Connecticut, on a grant of land that was given to him for his services
in the earlier Pequot Indian War. He became familiar with the regional
Native American language to the point that he was able to become the
commander of Mohegan allies during King Philip's War. Gallup, who
was over sixty years old, was commanding the Mohegan unit during the
Swamp Fight and became one of six captains killed in the battle.7

The first major Indian attack of the new year came on February 10
when a combined force of Nipmuck, Narragansett, and Wampanoag
warriors attacked the central Massachusetts town of Lancaster. The
town consisted of about fifty families clustered around six garrison
houses. One of the garrison houses was the home of the minister Joseph
Rowlandson, who, ironically, at the time of the attack was in Boston
seeking military support for his community. English casualties from the
attack included twenty-six killed and twenty-four captured. Amongst
the captives were Mary Rowlandson, the minister's wife, and her three
children. During the attack, Rowlandson and her six-year-old daughter
received a wound from the same bullet. The captives spent their first
night about a mile away from the Rowlandson Garrison. A historical
marker near the location reads:

On the crest of George Hill
nearby is situated Rowlandson
Rock where the captives from
the Rowlandson Garrison House
passed their first night after
the burning of Lancaster by
the Indians February 10, 1675-76

Later in her published narrative entitled "The Sovereignty and
Goodness of God," Rowlandson wrote that on the first night, "There
remained nothing to me but one poor wounded babe and it seemed
at present worse than death that it was in such pitiful condition."8 The
"poor wounded babe" died eight days later near this previously used
campsite in what is now the town of New Braintree. A marker near the
burial location reads:

Tom and Brenda Malloy 53

Sarah P. Rowlandson

Born Sept. 15, 1669

Shot By Indians At Lancaster

Feb. 10, 1676

Taken to Winnimissett Camp

Died Feb. 18, 1676

In her narrative Rowlandson commented:

I asked them what they had done with it? They told me it
was upon the hill: Then they went and shewed me where
it was, where I saw the ground was newly digged, and
there they told me they had buried it. Then I left my child
in the wilderness, and must commit it, and myself in this
wilderness-condition to him who is above all.9

After nearly three months of captivity, Mary Rowlandson would be
redeemed for a ransom of twenty pounds at the base of Mount Wachusett
in central Massachusetts. Here a historical marker states:

REDEMPTION ROCK
Upon this rock fifty feet west
of this spot Mary Rowlandson
wife of the first minister of
Lancaster, was redeemed from
captivity under King Philip. The
narrative of her experience is
one of the classics of colonial
literature.

Redemption Rock, where the ransom was paid, is engraved with:

Upon this rock May 2nd 1676

was made the agreement for the ransom

of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson of Lancaster

between the Indians and John Hoar of Concord

King Philip was with the Indians but

refused his consent.

54 Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

Mary would be reunited with her husband, son, and daughter, who
were also captured in the attack on Lancaster, and two years later her
narrative would be published.

The month following Mary Rowlandson's capture, a force of Ply-
mouth Colony soldiers was pursuing a large band of Narragansetts in
the area of Pawtucket Falls, Rhode Island. The English force numbered
sixty-three men and twenty-nine native allies under the command of
Capt. Michael Pierce of Scituate, Massachusetts. The two forces engaged
at this location in Central Falls, and the battle site is presently a public
park named after the English commander. The park is also an unmarked
burying ground for forty-two colonial soldiers who were killed during
the ensuing battle.10 A historical plaque at the site describes the day's
events:

Due to land disputes and broken peace treaties between
the local natives and early English settlers, King Philip's
War took place for fourteen months during 1675 and 1676.
Captain Michael Pierce's fight with the natives occurred on
this spot in March of 1676 From Dexter' s Ledge . . . native
scouts saw Pierce's troops approaching. One hundred
natives and seventy settlers perished in the battle. Ten
settlers escaped to what are now the Monastery Grounds in
Cumberland. Only one lived to tell the tale.

The inscription states that ten settlers escaped to nearby Cumberland,
Rhode Island, but that only one would survive. In Cumberland a
monument marks the common grave of nine men who survived Pierce's
fight but were later executed by the Indians. The location has become
known as Nine Men's Misery. However, the plaque in Cumberland
gives a somewhat different version of the story. This plaque reads:

Nine Men's Misery

On This Spot

Where They Were Slain By

The Indians

Were Buried The Nine Soldiers

Captured In Pierce's Fight

March 26, 1676

Tom and Brenda Malloy 55

This inscription states that the soldiers were captured and were brought
to the location, whereas the one in Central Falls states that the men
escaped to this spot and were then killed. Either way, it was several
weeks before the bodies were discovered and buried with their grave
marked by a rock wall. The present mound of stones marking the grave
was erected in the early twentieth century, and the granite marker and
plaque in front of the mound was placed there by the Rhode Island
Historical Society in 1928. When the land that the monument stands
on was purchased by the Cistercian Order as part of their monastery
grounds, the remains of the nine men were exhumed and given to the
Rhode Island Historical Society. During the 1976 bicentennial celebration,
the remains were reburied on the original site, which now belongs to the
town of Cumberland.11

To the west of Boston, Marlborough was attacked on the same day
as Pierce's Fight. One settler was killed in the raid, but there is no burial
marker for this individual. However, a historical marker in the cemetery
next to where the town's meeting house once stood provides information
about the day's events:

HIGH SCHOOL COMMON
Site Of First Meeting House Completed In 1662,
Rev. William Brimsmead Minister It Was Built Within The
Limits Of The Indian Planting Field Which Was Part Of The
Ockoocangansett Plantation, And Was A Source Of Hostile
Feelings Toward The Settlers. It Was Attacked And Burned
March 26, 1676 By King Philip While A Meeting Was In
Progress. The Inhabitants Securing Safety In The Nearby
William Ward House One Of The Designated Garrisons.
During The Raid 13 Houses, 11 Barns And A Large Portion
Of The Livestock Were Destroyed.

The attack on Marlborough had caused the town to become partially
evacuated, leaving its neighboring settlement of Sudbury vulnerable.
In the early morning of April 21, just four weeks after the assault on
Marlborough, a combined force of about 500 warriors attacked Sudbury.
At first the strike was directed towards the Deacon Haynes Garrison
House. A site marker reads:

56 Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

Site Of The

Haynes Garrison House

Home Of Deacon John Haynes

Here The Settlers

By Their Brave Defense

Helped Save The Town

When The Indians Tried

To Destroy Sudbury

18-21 April 1676

The inhabitants of the Haynes Garrison were able to fend off the
warriors, who then turned their attention on the town's second most
important fortification:

The Goodenow Garrison House
Portion Of The Goodenow Garrison
House In Which Settlers
Took Refuge From King Philip's
Indians During The Battle Of
April 18-21, 1676

In the meantime, coming to the town's relief was a combined force
that had been stationed in Marlborough. It included seventy men under
the command of Captain Samuel Wadsworth and fifty in the command
of Captain Samuel Brocklebank. Upon its arrival in Sudbury, the relief
force found heavy resistance, and a historical marker tells the rest of the
story:

Sudbury Fight
One-Quarter Mile North
Took Place The Sudbury Fight
With King Philip's Indians On
April 21, 1676. Captain Samuel
Wadsworth Fell With Twenty-
Eight Of His Men; Their Monument
Stands In The Burying Ground.

Tom and Brenda Malloy 57

The monument referred to on the historical marker stands in the
Wadsworth Cemetery, named after the colonial commander. It is a large
granite obelisk surrounded by a Victorian cast iron fence. Erected in
1852, it stands on the second burial site of the men in the Sudbury Fight.
Their original burial site was a mass grave fifty feet south of the obelisk.
A local historian described the burial:

Thus were the slain soldiers buried on that April morning,
in the stillness of the forest, far away from their kindred,
friends and homes . . . though scattered, they were borne
to one common place of burial and a rough heap of stones
was all that marked that lone forest grave. Such was that
soldiers' sepulchre, a mound in the woods, left to grow gray
with the clustering moss of years.12

When the grave was opened for the reinterment, it was described as
being "about six feet square, in which the bodies were placed in tiers at
right angles to each other. Some of the skeletons were large, and all well
preserved."13 An inscription on the monument reads:

This Monument Is Erected By The Commonwealth Of
Massachusetts And The Town Of Sudbury In Grateful
Remembrance Of The Service And Suffering Of The
Founders Of The State And Especially In Honor Of

Capt. S. Wadsworth of Milton

Capt. Brocklebank of Rowley

Lieut. Sharp of Brookline
And Twenty Six Others, Men Of Their Command, Who Fell
Near This Spot On The 18th Of April 1676 While Defending
The Frontier Settlements Against The Allied Indian Forces
Of Philip Of Pokanoket.

1852

At the base of the monument is a gravestone that was erected in 1730
at the original gravesite by Samuel Wadsworth's son, Benjamin (Fig. 6).14
It reads:

Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

Capt. Samuel Wadsworth of
Milton, His Lieut. Sharp of
Brookline, Capt. Brocklebank
of Rowley, With about
Twenty -Six Other Souldrs
Fighting for Ye Defence Of
their COUNTRY Were Slain
By Ye Indian Enemy, April 18th
1676, & lye Buried in this Place

On the Rhode Island border, several towns south of Sudbury, is
the town of North Attleborough, where the Woodcock Garrison House
stands (the present structure is a replacement of the original building).
During King Philip's War, this site was used on various occasions as
a staging area for colonial troops. Across the street from the garrison
is the Woodcock Historic Burial Ground. Here in April of 1676 John

M /ft A* W*^ j*~'**» € > / \ v '

C^pl SAMl JO, WAI^ORTH' of
MllJfON, His* I>U* SHAJ1P of
KlioOKJJNSta^ BroclSANK
of Pxbf^n With about
Twenty-Six Other Sauicl1'*
Fitting, for %f vdf iSfce of
thfeir COUNTRY, Were flaip
By^ lnclia.n Siemy April 18
1676. b) lye Buried imihis Pla

Fig. 6. Original marker for the mass grave of soldiers killed during
The Sudbury Fight, Sudbury, Massachusetts.

Tom and Brenda Malloy

Fig. 7. Granite marker commemorating the first King Philip's War

burials in what later became the Woodcock Historic Burial Ground,

North Attleborough, Massachusetts.

Woodcock's son Nathaniel "was shot by Indians and was buried where
he fell, nearly in the centre of the yard."15 Eventually other victims of
the war were buried at the location, and in 1694 John Woodcock deeded
the parcel to the town, providing for the community's oldest cemetery.16
Presently there are over 100 stones in the cemetery, but none of them

Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

identify any victims of the war. The only recognition for the original
interments is a small granite marker with the date "1676" (Fig. 7).

About a month after the Sudbury Fight and the shooting incident
in North Attleborough, the colonial authorities became concerned over
a large Indian encampment on the Connecticut River in northwestern
Massachusetts. Captain William Turner led a unit of about 140 mounted
men to what was called the Peskeompskut camp in the present town
of Montague. Here, during the night of May 19 at what is now known
as Turner's Falls, the captain launched an attack on the sleeping Indian
camp. A monument at the attack site (Fig. 8) states:

Captain William Turner

With 145 Men Surprised And

Destroyed Over 300 Indians

Encamped At This Place

May 19, 1676

s»? i i

W£*

a ftit^m®. mi. \i

Fig. 8. Falls Fight Monument, town border,
Montague-Gill, Massachusetts.

Tom and Brenda Malloy

WILLIAM ^ TURNEi

A MUTANT CQHHAI8EI BIJtISG UK

mum mun.mm was miles

»EAl BFJE IS A tETUAI AFTU LEAJJK
AKASSACtEOFIXBtAXSHSlllKAT
TUBE* FAUS IS Sill OS KAY ffl 1676

Fig. 9. Two markers at the gravesite of Captain William Turner,
Greenfield, Massachusetts.

62 Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

During the initial attack, many of the warriors fled, leaving the
soldiers to kill mostly women, children, and the elderly. However, the
warriors were able to regroup, counterattack, and force a colonial retreat.
Turner fled to what today is the present town of Greenfield, where he
was fatally shot on the bank of the Green River. Next to the river, the
location of Turner's death is identified by a historical sign and by a
plaque on a boulder (Fig. 9). The sign reads:

Capt. William Turner
A Military Commander During King
Philip's War. Capt. Turner Was Killed
Near Here In A Retreat After Leading
A Massacre Of Indians Fishing At
Turner Falls In Gill On May 19, 1676.

The plaque reads:

CAPTAIN WILLIAM TURNER OF BOSTON

A Soldier In King Philip's War

Was Mortally Wounded

While Crossing The Pukcommeacon River

And Fell On The West Bank May 19, 1676

On The Retreat After The "Falls Fight"

At Peskeompskut (Turner's Falls)

Forty Men Of His Command Fell That Day

Captain Samuel Holyoke With The Survivors

Fought Their Way Back to Hatfield

Sometime after the Falls Fight, a scouting party discovered and
buried Turner's body. According to a Greenfield town historian, in 1874,
almost two hundred years after the burial, a local individual by the name
of Judge Thompson uncovered human bones that he believed were
Captain Turner's remains. The bones were placed in a box and stored in
a nearby mill. However, several years later these remains were lost when
the mill was destroyed by a fire.17 Consequently, these markers stand as
Turner's cenotaph.

By August, troops in Rhode Island under the command of Captain
Benjamin Church were in direct pursuit of King Philip. On August 12,

Tom and Brenda Malloy 63

Church and his troops were able to surround and attack Philip's camp
in a Bristol, Rhode Island, swamp. Philip and five of his men were
killed. Philip himself was shot by a colonial native ally. Church pulled
Philip's body from the mud, and stating that the Pokanoket sachem had
been responsible for many English bodies to lie unburied, he ordered
it beheaded, halved, and quartered. The quarters were hung in trees
and Philip's head was sent to Plymouth, where it was placed on a pole
and remained for the next twenty years. One of Philip's hands, with a
distinguishing scar, was provided as a reward to the Indian who shot
him.18

Dying forty-two years after King Philip was killed, Benjamin Church,
in contrast to his antagonist, was provided with a very respectable
burial. His box tomb stands next to similar tombs for other members of
his family in the burying ground of Little Compton, Rhode Island (Fig.
10). A tablet in front of Church's tomb reads:

This Tablet

Erected By The Rhode Island Society

Of Colonial Wars

In Recognition Of The Exceptional

Service Rendered By

COL. BENJAMIN CHURCH

His Fearless Leadership

And Effective Command During

King Philip's War

1675-1677

The top of the box tomb is inscribed,

Here lyeth interred the body

Of the Honorable

Col. Benjamin Church, Esq.

Who departed this life, January 17, 1717-8 in

The 78 year of his age

Next to the inscription a metal logo of the United States Rangers has
been riveted to the tomb in what appears to be a misguided attempt to
recognize Church's innovative use of guerilla war tactics.

Gravemarkers and Memorials of King Philip's War

Fig. 10. Commemorative marker,

Little Compton, Rhode Island, at the foot of the

matching box tombs of Captain Benjamin Church and his wife.

Estimates for the death count during King Philip's War run as high
as 2,500 for the English, or five percent of the New England population,
and 5,000 for the Native Americans, or forty percent of their population.19
With a death toll of as many as 2,500 colonists, one might think that there
would be more extant gravemarkers, but not if one considers that at the
time of the war the erection of permanent gravemarkers was just coming
into practice, and if one had been erected, it would have had to survive
over three hundred years. As a result, only a handful of gravestones
from this time period remains. Also, there is the fact that, according
to Benjamin Church's own words, many of the War's victims went
unburied. Consequently, most of the markers mentioned in this article
are replacement stones or memorial markers that were erected well
after the events. Further, it should be noticed that except for a couple
of somewhat sympathetic historical markers, there are no markers
for Native Americans, which leaves us to ponder the concept that the
history of a war is written by the victors.

Tom and Brenda Malloy 65

NOTES

All photos are by the authors.

I Eric B. Schultz and Michael Tougias, King Philip's War: Vie History and Legacy
of America's Forgotten Conflict (Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, 1999), 95.

: Charles Hudson, Histon/ of the Town of Marlborough (Boston, 1862), 69.

3 Schultz and Tougias, 166-8.

4 George Sheldon, A History ofDeerfield, Massachusetts (Deerfield, MA, 1895),
104.

5 Schultz and Tougias.

6 Jill Lepore, Vie Name of War: King Philip's War and the Origins of American
Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), 237.

7 Patricia Sabin, http://wivzo.rootszveh.com/--ctnewlonAnos/lohiiGalhifiBio.html
New London County, CT Gen Web, "John Gallup Biography," n.d.,

(1 December, 2002). "

8 Neil Salisbury, ed., Vie Sovereignty and Goodness of God by Mary Rozvlandson
with Related Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 71.

9 Salisbury, 75.

10 Douglas Leach, Flintlock and Tomahaivk (New York: Norton, 1958), 167.

II Schultz and Tougias, 281-82.

12 Alfred Sereno Hudson, Vie Histon/ of Sudbury, Massachusetts (Sudbury, MA,
1889), 250.

13 Alfred Hudson, 251.

14 Alfred Hudson, 250.

15 John Daggett, A Sketch of the History of Attleborough From Its Settlement to the
Division (Boston, 1894), 107.

16 Daggett, 108.

17 Schultz and Tougias, 225.

18 Lepore, 173.

19 Salisbury, 1. Schultz and Tougias place the death toll at a much lower figure
of 800 English colonists.

Judah Monis's Puzzling Gravestone

Fig. 1. First Parish Church, Northborough, Massachusetts.

Judah Monis's Puzzling Gravestone as a
Reflection of his Enigmatic Identity

David Mayer Gradwohl

Introduction

Northborough, Massachusetts, is located some thirty miles west
of Boston. The community and its First Parish Church congregation
date back to colonial times. With its stately Georgian facade and
imposing bell tower, the present First Parish Church structure speaks
quintessentially to the early Christian traditions of New England (Fig. I).1
Adjacent to the church is an old burying ground where the graves of the
town's founding residents are marked by slate headstones exhibiting
a genre of iconography, scripts, and epitaphs abundantly reported in
the literature for colonial period cemeteries in the northeastern United
States.2 A slate ledger stone, elevated on a mortared stone foundation in
the manner of a box tomb or raised tomb, signifies the grave of Rev. John
Martyn, the first minister of First Parish Church (Fig. 2). Nearby is the
monument identifying the grave of his brother-in-law, Judah Monis.

Fig. 2. Burying ground of the First Parish church showing the box

tomb of Rev. John Martyn (center). The slate headstone of Judah

Monis is visible on the far left in the front row of gravestones.

Judah Monis's Puzzling Gravestone

In his tome chronicling the history of Northborough, Josiah C. Kent
commented: "We seldom see anyone wandering around in our old
churchyard. Yet it is worth visiting, for it contains at least one gravestone
of rare interest — that of Rabbi Judah Monis, the first Christian Jew in
North America. An occasional visitor comes to see it; but we fear that
it is entirely unknown to most of our townspeople."3 Over the years,
however, various scholars have taken an interest in Judah Monis and
the inscription on his gravestone. As of 1997, 1 had found six published
sources that include differing transcriptions of the text carved on Monis's
headstone.4 Curious about these varying renditions and intrigued by
the person oxymoronically described as "the first Christian Jew in
North America," I made my own journey to Northborough during the
spring of 1998, wandered around the impressive old churchyard, and
(with the help of my wife, Hanna Rosenberg Gradwohl) documented
the gravestone of Judah Monis. I found that none of those previously
published transcriptions of the carved text is complete or accurate.
Furthermore, none of those published sources describes the gravestone
form or its mortuary symbolism.5 Neither do any of these sources relate
the data on the gravestone to the enigmas of Judah Monis's life.

To the anthropologist interested in the relationship between material
culture and identity, this paradox is a clarion call for analysis and
explanation. In the following discussion, I first briefly describe the
gravestone of Judah Monis in its temporal and cultural context. Second,
I summarize what has been documented or suggested concerning the life
of Judah Monis and his interesting role in colonial American history. This
background is necessary to fully evaluate the inscription and symbols on
the gravestone. Third, I provide a detailed analysis of the monument
including its form, mortuary symbols, and complex inscription. Finally,
I discuss the significance of Judah Monis's gravestone in terms of
his identities that stem from his own actions, the perceptions of his
contemporaries, and assessments by subsequent scholars.

The Gravestone at First Glance

The casual observer might stroll past the gravestone of Judah Monis
without a second glance, so familiar are its overall form, mortuary
symbols, and style of script (Fig. 3). The headstone would seem to
represent just another deceased First Parish congregation member who
had been an accepted and integrated member of the living community.

David Mayer Gradwohl

Fig. 3. Judah Mortis, 1764, Northborough, Massachusetts.
Carved by William Park.

70 Judah Monis's Puzzling Gravestone

A typical gravestone form for this time period, Monis's monument
has a tripartite shape with a large central arch or tympanum and two
smaller side panel arches or shoulders. The relatively elaborate carved
designs occur in both positive high relief and negative bas-relief. In
addition, there is a rather long and elaborate inscription. As noted by
Harriette Merrifield Forbes in her classic book, Gravestones of Early New
England and the Men Who Made Them, 1653-1800, first published in 1927,
"The gravestones of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries carried a
message to the passer-by both by the epitaphs and even more by the
designs."5 In Graven Images: New England Stonecarving and its Symbols,
1650-1815, Allan Ludwig notes that "Puritan funerary art shows a deep
strain of passion and a naive delight in mystical symbolism. Between
1668 and 1815 this art slowly deepened in meaning and ripened into
forms and symbols which in any other culture would be immediately
interpreted as the visual manifestations of a deeply mystical religion."7
Most of the symbols and artistic conventions employed on early New
England gravestones were reinforced in the minds of Puritans by
imagery in woodcuts and illustrations in Bibles as well as by verbal
imagery heard in sermons.8

As I discuss in a subsequent section of this essay, the message on
Monis's gravestone integrates artistic symbols clearly recognizable
in colonial times with an inscription written in the manner of that
period. Monis's headstone caught Harriette Forbes's eye because it is
so typical of gravestone art and epitaphs of early New England. Forbes
included a brief description and photograph of Monis's headstone in
her well-known study. Referring to the location of Monis's gravestone
in Northborough, she commented: "His grave is in the little burying-
ground there back of the Unitarian Church, marked by the stone made
without doubt by William Park, which cost his estate three pounds,
an architectural stone not shunning at all the terrible fact of death,
but suggesting something beyond the drawn curtains and also the full
fruition of grain, 'sown in corruption, and raised in incorruption.'"9 A
closer look at Monis's gravestone will reveal some puzzling ideological
and material associations reflecting a unique person of complex and,
indeed, conflicting identities.

Biographical Sketch of Judah Monis

Although numerous students of history and religion have written

David Mayer Gradwohl 7 1

about Judah Monis, many aspects of his life and motivations remain
sketchy and controversial. The enigmas concerning Monis begin with
the place and date of his birth. Various sources suggest that he was born
in Italy (some specify Venice) or Algiers.10 Others, however, say Morocco
or "one of the Barbary states."11 On the basis of his Iberian name and
the fact that he knew Spanish, Monis is thought by many authorities to
have been descended from Spanish or Portuguese parents as reported
in Vie New England Courant on April 2, 1722.12 Perhaps, as some scholars
speculate, his family was among those Sephardic Jews who were expelled
from Iberia in the fifteenth century.13 Or possibly, others theorize, they
were among the so-called Conversos, Marranos, or Crypto Jews who in
public masqueraded as Christians.14 Scholars usually cite Monis's birth
date as February 4, 1683, a computation arrived at from data (which they
presume to be correct) included on his gravestone, which says that Monis
died on April 25, 1764, at the age of 81 years, 2 months, and 21 days.

Monis is said to have been a rabbinical student at Jewish academies in
Italy — at Leghorn (Livorno) and possibly Venice — and also Amsterdam,
Holland.15 The origin of this information appears to be the 1722 article in
The New England Courant, which states that Monis "commenced Mashkil
Venabon, in the Jewish academies of Leghorn and Amsterdam, etc." That
title has been identified as originating in Italy to denote a student who
has achieved some proficiency in Jewish law (Halakhah) as opposed to
the title Hakam, which the Sephardim used for a fully-ordained rabbi.16
Nevertheless, Tlie New England Courant article also stated that Monis had
served as a rabbi for synagogues in Jamaica and New York after leaving
Europe. The epitaph on Monis's gravestone identifies him as a rabbi. This
matter is disputed, however, by no less an authority than the late Rabbi
Jacob R. Marcus, often acknowledged as the dean of American Jewish
history. Of Monis's credentials Marcus wrote: "Although he received a
good Jewish education, it is doubtful that he was a rabbi, as his Christian
associates assumed and as his epitaph claims. Actually, it would seem,
he had been a scribe and ... a teacher in Jewish communities."17

Documentary evidence shows that Monis was admitted as a freeman
in New York City on February 28, 1715/ 16.18 Sources differ as to his
occupation there. He is variously described as a merchant, proprietor of
a store, teacher of Hebrew to both Jews and Christians, rabbi, hazzan (a
cantor or sexton), and schochet (ritual slaughterer).19 In terms of his skills
and knowledge as well as the needs of those around him, it is possible

72 Judah Morris's Puzzling Gravestone

that Monis could have served in all these capacities.

Meanwhile, Monis was apparently working on a Hebrew grammar
and corresponding with Christian clergymen regarding the study of
Hebrew. By 1720 he had moved to Boston and attracted the notice of
Christian luminaries including Increase Mather (minister of Boston's
Second Church and early president of Harvard College) and his son
Cotton Mather.20 In June of 1720, Monis submitted a letter to the Harvard
Corporation with the hope that the college might hire him as a teacher
and adopt his grammar as a textbook.21 At that time, Hebrew was a
required subject at Harvard and some other colleges in New England
as a mark of Biblical scholarship and intellectual achievement.22 The
seals of Harvard as well as Columbia and Dartmouth even contained
Hebrew inscriptions. Hebrew was taught at Harvard by Christian tutors
(as opposed to instructors or professors) who had varying proficiencies
in the language. Probably because hiring a Jewish faculty member was
unprecedented, the Harvard Corporation delayed making a decision
for nearly two years. Harvard, it should be noted, was not alone in this
situation. As Samuel Eliot Morison observed in his Three Centuries of
Harvard, 1636-1936 : "At Oxford and Cambridge at this time, and in most
of the universities of Christendom, no Jew could be admitted to a degree,
on account of the religious tests and oaths that went with it."23

The intervening period, however, was not idle time for Monis. He
apparently ran a small store and taught Hebrew to Harvard tutors
and other interested individuals.24 He also studied, or at least gained
a greater familiarity with, Christianity through his association with
various clergymen in Cambridge and the Boston area.25 Monis was a
particularly enticing prospect to Increase and Cotton Mather, who were
obsessed with the idea of converting Jews to Christianity. They were
ecstatic, therefore, when Monis formally embraced Protestantism and
was publicly baptized on March 27, 1722, at a service held in College
Hall at Harvard.26 In fact, Increase Mather had been scheduled to deliver
the sermon at this service. Due to the aging Mather's ailing health,
however, the Reverend Benjamin Colman (pastor of the Brattle Street
Church) delivered the sermon, entitled "Moses, A Witness Unto our
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ." Monis's own discourse, "The Truth,"
argued that Jesus was indeed the messiah presaged in the Pentateuch.
Monis subsequently produced two essay sequels in the next few months.
In "The Whole Truth" Monis endeavored to prove the divinity of Jesus;

David Mayer Gradwohl 73

in "Nothing but the Truth" he pleaded the case for the doctrine of the
Trinity. Later on in 1722, the Daniel Henchman Shop published and sold
a booklet containing a preface by Increase Mather, the sermon by Colman,
and the three discourses "written by Mr. Monis himself." Some scholars
have questioned the complete veracity of the latter statement given the
facts that (a) the discourses are well written and Monis' s command of
English was reportedly weak, and (b) the Christian theological concepts
are expressed at a level of sophistication beyond Monis' s expected
proficiency. Marcus even speculated that Monis's published discourses
"were surely ghostwritten for him."27 Whatever the case may be, Monis's
conversion and baptism were newsworthy enough to be reported in 77ie
New England Courant on April 2, 1722. Monis was referred to as "learned
and ingenious," and his discourses were carefully deliberated over
throughout Boston's religious community.

Scholars — then and now — have been divided on the question of
whether Monis's conversion was sincere or opportunistic.28 On one
hand, Monis was a participant in religious services at the First Church in
Cambridge and outwardly professed his Christian faith. Though some
members of the Christian community remained skeptical of Monis's
motives, the majority accepted his conversion as a testament to the
truth of their religion. Monis's conversion from Judaism to Christianity
certainly supported the millennial thoughts of Puritan times in that such
actions by Jews were assumed to be the precursor of the reappearance
of the Christian messiah.29 On the other hand, it is said that Monis
continued to observe the Sabbath on Saturday.30 Unfortunately, the
writers who make this claim do not explain what these observances
were. Monis reportedly taught Hebrew classes on Saturday. But did he
otherwise "rest" on that day? Was the Sabbath welcomed by the lighting
of candles in his home? Did he usher in the Sabbath by blessing wine?
Did he engage in prayers? Did he study the Torah? While no explicit
evidence exists for any of these or other specific Sabbath observances
by Monis, one writer argued that "his observance of the Jewish Sabbath
is proof enough of his adherence to the ancestral creed, and that, like
the Marranos of Spain, Portugal, and South America, he remained
loyal to Israel at heart, whilst apparently devoted to Christianity."31
Understanding this whole matter is further complicated by the fact that
some Christian ministers and lay people in America and Europe during
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries observed Saturday as a day of

74 Judah Morris's Puzzling Gravestone

rest and prayers. Most Protestant ministers of the day not only studied
Hebrew, but some also wore skullcaps and emulated rabbinical practices
in other ways.

The genuineness of Monis's motivations for converting to Christianity
may remain debatable. The results of his action, however, are clear. At
its meeting held on April 30, 1722 (just 26 days after Monis's public
baptism), the Harvard Corporation voted "that Mr. Judah Monis be
improved as an Instructor of the Hebrew Language in the College, and
that he be allow' d out of the College Treasury £50 for one Year from this
day."32 Monis negotiated for a higher salary. The Corporation considered
this request and at their meeting on June 13, 1722, the Overseers officially
appointed Monis with an annual salary of £70.33

Monis's conversion to Christianity also provided opportunities
to find a wife. On January 18, 1723/4, he married Abigail Marrett.34
She was the daughter of Hannah Marrett and Edward Marrett, the
glazier for Harvard College.35 Monis received a grant of land from
the municipal corporation and acquired a home on a lot adjacent to
that of the Marrett family.36 Over the years, to supplement his salary
from Harvard, Monis ran a small shop and served individuals and
governmental offices as a Spanish translator and interpreter. In 1740
the royal governor of Massachusetts nominated Monis for justice of the
peace for Middlesex County, but he may never have actually held that
judicial appointment.37

In 1723 Monis was granted an M. A. degree by Harvard College. Many
authors assert that the degree was granted in 1720.38 This seems highly
unlikely, however, since there is no evidence of Monis's arrival in Boston
until that year. Other more compelling reasons for the 1723 conferral
date are carefully argued by Clifford K. Shipton in his Biographical
Sketches of Those Who Attended Harvard College in the Classes 1722-1725.39
First, Monis's name appears to have been added "at the foot of the
Class of 1720, the members of which took the MA in 1723" [emphasis
added]. Second, the catalog for 1721 does not list Monis's name. Third,
Monis's M.A. degree is not mentioned in newspaper articles or on the
title pages of his books printed in 1722. His degree is listed, however, on
publications after 1723.40

The chronology summarized above is important in terms of the
assertions made by most scholars that Monis was the first Jew to obtain
an academic degree at Harvard, the first Jew to obtain an academic

David Mayer Gradwohl 75

degree in North America, and the first Jew on the Harvard College
faculty. Monis converted to Christianity on March 27, 1722; he was hired
by Harvard College later that year; and he did not receive his honorary
M.A. degree until 1723. Therefore it could, and I think should, be argued
that Monis can not be credited with any of these "firsts." Neither, inci-
dentally, can he be regarded as the first Jew to convert to Christianity
in North America, although he is perhaps the best known of the early
Jewish apostates. Samuel Sewall, for example, recorded in his diary
that "Simon, the Jew" was baptized in Charlestowne by Rev. Bradstreet
on September 17, 1702.41 A Jew in South Carolina is also said to have
converted to Christianity about the same time on the basis of Cotton
Mather's writings.42 There may have been others whose conversions
were not recorded.

Beyond these matters, however, Monis was certainly the first in-
structor of Hebrew at Harvard College. As mentioned above, Hebrew
was a required subject at Harvard and had been the teaching respon-
sibility of the tutors. Whether Monis was actually a rabbi or not is
less important than the fact that his credentials no doubt surpassed
the skills of anyone else in Boston at that time. And there were many
contemporary pretenders to that throne of knowledge. For example,
Cotton Mather, who wore a skullcap in his study and frequently referred
to himself as a rabbi, used Hebrew words and phrases.43 Many local
Christian clergymen prided themselves on their knowledge of Hebrew,
but they almost uniformly acknowledged Monis' s greater proficiency in
that subject. Reverend Colman, for example, described Monis not only
as "a learned and pious Jew" but also as a "great Master and Critick in
the Hebrew Tongue."44

Judah Monis taught Hebrew at Harvard College for thirty-eight
years. Opinions vary concerning his adeptness as a teacher. The Harvard
Corporation records for April 1723 note that the Overseers were "greatly
satisfied with his assiduity and faithfulness in his instruction, ye
surprising effects of them having been laid before the corporation."45
One writer flatly stated that "Monis was popular with his students."46
Another source proclaimed that Monis was considered "a fine Hebrew
scholar" who "took unmeasured pains with a small class to perfect them
in the language he loved, and took great pride in their successes."47
However, Monis has had many detractors. One modern scholar has
stated that it was obvious that Monis "was not a successful teacher and

76 Judah Morris's Puzzling Gravestone

that his course was something less than captivating."48

Widely varying student evaluations should not come as a surprise
to anyone who has ever taught (as I have) a required course in a subject
students do not regard as popular. The behavior of some of Monis's
students, however, seems excessive. They reportedly shunned his
classroom, penned nasty annotations into their grammar books, broke
into Monis's cellar, were constantly "bulraging" [bullyragging] their
instructor, and threw bricks, sticks, and ashes at his classroom door.49 In
all fairness to Monis, Morison indicates that the teaching of Hebrew at
Harvard in those days probably never was popular regardless of which
instructor was assigned the task: "The [Harvard] Corporation soon had
occasion to invite Mr. Monis to revise his teaching methods, which were
'thought so tedious as to be discouraging,' but he had no better success
than the tutors who preceded him, or the professors who followed, in
making Hebrew interesting to the average undergraduate."50

Monis also achieved a first, at least for British North America, in
publishing his Hebrew grammar textbook in 1735. The book was entitled
Dickdook Leshon Gnebreet: A Grammar of the Hebrew Tongue, Being an Essay
To Bring the Hebrew Grammar into English to Facilitate the Instruction of All
Tliose Wlio are Desirous of Acquiring a Clear Idea of this Primitive Tongue by
Their Own Studies. This text was welcomed by most students because it
spared them the task of copying Monis's dictation into their notebooks.
Still, some students despised his class and resented having to study
Hebrew. Material evidence for this disgust includes one student's
textbook in which the title page reading "Composed and accurately
corrected by Judah Monis, M.A." was modified to read "Confuted and
accurately corrupted by Judah Monis, M.(aker of) A.(sses)."51

In addition to Monis's published discourses and textbook, he
wrote at least one manuscript that remained unpublished at the time
of his death. The treatise was entitled Nomenclatura hebraica and is a
dictionary of selected nouns in Hebrew and English.52 Although Monis's
contemporaries were impressed with the scholarship of this manuscript,
modern writers are quite critical. Eisig Silberschlag minced no words
in his evaluation, although he may have overlooked the lack of certain
standardizations during the eighteenth century: "The vocalization is
sloppy, shoddy and defective; even the spelling of English words leaves
much to be desired; the translations into Hebrew are imprecise and often
erroneous. Instances of defective vocalization are too numerous to cite

David Mayer Gradwohl 77

. . . The erudition, displayed in the Nomenclatura, is not of a high and
immaculate character."53 Another scholar described Monis's grammar
textbook as "riddled with inaccuracies and inconsistencies."54 Jacob
Marcus was also doubtful of Monis's erudition, particularly in reference
to the Nomenclatura: "Errors in this vocalized vocabulary make it clear
that Monis was no meticulous scholar."55 On the other hand, Marcus
pointed out that Monis was familiar with scholarly Hebrew texts
written in Europe and was probably a better grammarian than some
of his contemporaries (including Stephen Sewall, Monis's successor at
Harvard) wanted to admit.56 Furthermore, Marcus conceded that "it may
be, indeed, that Monis, through his knowledge of the medieval Jewish
commentators, supplied a more accurate interpretation of the Bible than
did his colleagues, who were dependent on Christologically-oriented
interpreters."57 In sum, if Monis were going up for tenure at an American
college or university today, his scholarship and publications would be
a subject of acrimonious debate perhaps not entirely unlike the ordeals
faced by some professors today.

On October 21, 1760, Abigail Marrett Monis died in Cambridge and
was buried there. Her grave is marked by a beautiful and elaborately
carved headstone (Fig. 4). Laurel Gabel, who is familiar with gravestones
and carvers from this area, identifies this gravestone as produced by
Charlestown's Lamson shop.58 The arched tympanum bears floral
designs and the representation of a human face with wings. Further
ornamentations of the gravestone consist of floral side border panels
and a basal border panel. The inscription reads:

Here lyes Buried ye Body of

Mrs. ABIGAIL MONIS, consort

to Mr. JUDAH MONIS (Hebrew

Instructer in Harvard College)

Who Departed this Life

Octor. ye 27th, 1760, in ye

60th Year of Her Age.

At the time of his wife's death, Judah Monis was seventy-seven years
old. His years at Harvard had not been entirely enjoyable.59 Shalom
Goldman observed of Monis that he "never received the full recognition
of his students or peers. Monis remained a poorly paid instructor, never
gaining the rank of professor."60 Being childless and without any family

Judah Morris's Puzzling Gravestone

c lyes l\iirh;l y Body ol

*|Ml? Al.UCrAlL^Kf0NlS, Coiilorr

t o , M1; J I TD.&B j\ lONIS: ( / lehrcw

■ Inf?rn£icr in //ttrtKirct i ii/fr^c)

Who n^3cirted. iLm Liffe-\

'»

), y V. 52* y .. l.t y 0 o - f tv y?

Fig. 4. Abigail Monis, 1760, Northborough, Massachusetts.

in the Boston area, Monis resigned from Harvard, and subsequently
moved to Northborough in order to reside with Rev. lohn Martyn,
who was married to Mary Marrett Martyn, Abigail's sister.61 Monis's
extensive library would have been a welcome resource for his brother-in-
law and former Harvard associate. Monis was active in Northborough's
First Parish Church, was voted a seat of honor in its meeting house, and
donated a silver communion service to the congregation, ludah Monis
died on April 25, 1764, and was interred in the burying ground of First
Parish Church.

David Mayer Gradwohl 79

A Second Look at the Gravestone: Analysis and Interpretation of
Symbolic, Ideational, Biographical, and Historical Factors

The headstone marking the grave of Judah Monis is a handsomely
carved slate monument measuring 48" in height above the ground, 32
3/4" in width, and 2 3A" in thickness. Laurel Gabel supports Forbes's
identification of the Monis headstone as an exceptional example of the
work of the well-known carver William Park, a skilled Scottish stone
worker who had come to the United States circa 1756. The slate is thought
to have come from the Pin Hill Quarry at Harvard, Massachusetts,
where the Park family carvers obtained their stone.62 Forbes noted that
Park employed specific designs recognized at that time to portray not
only the "terrible fact of death" but also the promise of resurrection.
Among the familiar attributes of William Park's gravestones carved
between 1756 and 1788, Forbes noted (a) "an architectural quality
which we might expect from a family of stonecutters who were builders
as well," (b) carving in high relief as well as bas-relief, (c) deeply cut
anthropomorphic and floral ornamentations, and (d) "a curious type
of death symbol which suggests a bulldog."63 All of these attributes are
observed on the headstone of Judah Monis.

So, from one perspective, we see that Monis' s gravestone, along
with its context in the burying ground of First Parish Church at
Northborough, is quite conventional. It is a material personification of an
individual who was an accepted and integrated member of a community
sharing ideological values and a commonly recognized repertoire of
artistic and verbal symbols representing life and death. Forbes was
quite cognizant of this fact as well as of the challenge to the carver of
this headstone, given Monis's unusual life history. She wrote: "When
William Park received the order to carve a stone for Judah Monis, it must
have taxed his ingenuity to the utmost. A man of such an interesting
history and important position required something both dignified and
unique. Judah Monis had been a very unique person ever since the days
when Cotton Mather had written of his conversion to Christianity, 'A
Jew rarely comes over to us but he brings Treasure with him.'"64 With
these matters in mind, we can analyze the headstone in further detail
and better appreciate William Park's integrated sculpting skill and
intellectual ingenuity, regardless of whether the stonecarver was indeed
conscious of the complexity of meaning of Monis's gravestone.65

In looking at Monis's headstone, one's attention is immediately

Judah Morris's Puzzling Gravestone

Fig. 5. Tympanum of Judah Monis headstone.

drawn to the carving in high relief of a human skull and crossed long
bones (Fig. 5). This symbol of the aforementioned "terrible fact of death"
literally jumps out from the stone. Stylistically, this projected artistic
design is an example of what Forbes referred to as "bulldog"-like in
appearance. As Ludwig has noted, skulls (along with coffins, picks,
shovels, and hourglasses) represent the "triumph of death." For readers
of our times, he adds that "for the Puritans these symbols held less dread
than for us today because for them the passing away of the flesh was as
much a part of life as birth and the renewal of life after the death of the
body."66 Even more than commemorating the dead, these death symbols
are reminders to the living that they, too, are going to die, and hence
they should try to lead exemplary moral lives.67 Sprouting from the
skull are three intertwined stems of wheat or a wheat-like plant.68 Forbes
interpreted this motif as the full fruition of grain "sown in corruption,
and raised in incorruption" — i.e., a symbol of a sinful or vulnerable
human life that was mature or "ripe"; that life has died but can live
again in purity and piety. Ludwig interprets the combination of the

David Mayer (iradwohl

skull and the growing plant as a powerful "symbol of transformation"
representing "death's giving way to new life."69 The idea of death and
resurrection is certainly strengthened by the Latin word RES UR GAM,
meaning "I shall rise again," that appears directly above the plant motif
at the top of the tympanum.

On either side of the skull are large scrolls terminating in decorative
disks. These scrolls (simulating the form of a split, curved pediment)
extend up from a base suggestive of a corniced entablature with dentil
molding. This decorative unit as a whole is very architectural in its form,
echoing the curved pediments seen on some Georgian and neoclassical
buildings.70 As mentioned above, William Park came from a background
of builders and stone masons, so it is not surprising that he employed
architectural motifs often in his gravestone designs. But the symbolism
certainly goes beyond this fact. Ludwig discussed "architectural
symbolism" (such as arches, portals, columns, and passageways) on
early New England gravestones as representing the Puritan conception
of the journey from life to heaven or from death to the unknown.71
David Watters also stressed this point in saying that "the grave was the
passageway between the earthly temple and the heavenly temple . . .
Carvers adopted the basic themes of the tomb-temple relationship to
a two-dimensional carving space, and some of the earliest stones may
have been seen by Puritans as symbolic of 'living stones.'"72 Even more
specifically, following Watters' reasoning concerning entrance to heaven
and resurrection, the architectural motifs on Monis's headstone may
well refer to the tripartite Old Testament temple in which "only the High
Priest was permitted to enter the Holy of Holies, so Puritans saw him as
a foreshadowing of Christ who would lead mankind into heaven."73 The
fact that Monis converted to Christianity certainly suggests this inter-
pretation. It may well be that the Puritan fellowship perceived Monis as
a "priest" and that his conversion was a validation of their aspirations
for the coming of the Millennium that stemmed back to the writings of
the Apostle Paul.74

The visual references to priest and temple are echoed in the side
border panels of Monis's headstone. At the top of each side arch border
panel is a sculptured rosette functioning as a border finial (Fig. 6). The
rosettes and border panels are edged with a decorative beading or rope-
like design. Gently folded drapes with fringes and tassels are delicately
carved on the side panels. Watters elucidates the probable meanings of

Judah Morris's Puzzling Gravestone

Fig. 6. Detail of border of Judah Monis gravemarker.

David Mayer Gradwohl

the drapes and ropes with tassels vis-a-vis the Old Testament temple
and the idea of resurrection: "The veil separating the inner court from
the Holy of Holies becomes a symbol for Christ's flesh which has to
be rent before believers can enter heaven. . . . The tassels are literal
representations of those commonly hung from the pulpit and the pall
held over the coffin, but they are also symbolic of the veil of flesh
opening into heaven."75

Inset at the base of both side panels are architectural embellishments,
each consisting of three short vertical columns holding up a horizontal
element with banded molding (Fig. 7). The function or symbolism of
these motifs is not clear. They may simply serve as foundations or
footings for the side border panels. Another possibility is that the carver
intentionally designed these elements to represent raised ledger stones
or tablestones as a symbol of Monis's ascribed clerical status. Rev.
John Martyn's gravestone, for example, is the only raised ledger stone
in the cemetery. Still another possibility is that these motifs represent
communion tables along the lines described by Ludwig and Watters.76

In addition to the decorated disks and rosettes mentioned above,
Monis's headstone has other stylized floral and geometric designs.

!U%.v

Fig. 7. Detail of lower border of Judah Monis gravemarker showing
an architectural form (possibly representing a table-stone).

Judah Monis's Puzzling Gravestone

Scrolled plant-like motifs form a decorative border across the top of
the tympanum. The background surface for designs at the top of the
gravestone is textured with lines of small stipple marks. The border
at the base of the gravestone consists of a central pinwheel-like disk
and scrolled plant-like motifs against a stippled background, repeating
elements on the upper border of the tympanum. Although similar
motifs are frequently found on early New England gravestones, their
connotations are less obvious than the other conventional artistic
symbols previously discussed. Flowers and garlands are generally
associated with ideas of the ephemeral life of humans and also the
victory of eternal life.77 But, as Ludwig observes, stylized rosettes and
other such geometric motifs, typically part of an interlocking network of
designs, were "used with some degree of consistency in New England,
although in no case are the meanings literally spelled out."78

The Monis headstone bears the following inscription, reproduced
here in its entirety and with all its idiosyncratic conventions:

RESURGAM
Here lies buried the Remains of RABBI
IUDAH MONIS, M.A. late HEBREW
Instructer at HARVARD College in
Cambridge in which Office He continued 40
years. He was by Birth and Religion a jew but
embrac-d the Christian Faith & was publickly
baptiz-d at Cambridge AD 1722 and
departed this Life April 25, 1764, Aged
81 years 2 months and 21 days
A native branch of Jacob see!
Which, once from off its olive brok,
Regrafted, from the living tree Rom. XI. 17-24.

Of the reviving sap partook

From teeming Zion's fertile womb, Isai. LXVI. 8.
As dewy drops in early morn, Psal. CX. 3.

Or rising bodies from the tomb, Iohn V. 28, 29

At once be Isr'els nation born! Isai. LXVI. 8.

David Mayer Gradwohl 85

This inscription has a number of conventions (perhaps customary for
that time and place, or perhaps idiosyncrasies of the carver) that are
ignored in most of the published transcriptions (Fig. 8). Monis's first
name, for example, is carved with a capital "I," which substitutes for a
capital "J"; the same can be seen in the citation of the gospel of John. This
substitution is not particularly unusual for that time period, although the
capital "J" is used in Jacob's name. Curiously enough, the initial letters in
the words "Christian Faith" are capitalized, but the "j" in "jew" is not.79
Despite some corrected published versions, the words "publickly" and
"brok" appear here as they were carved on the stone; likewise, there is a
grammatical error in the first line of the biographical section and in the
last line of the poem. The letter "e" is represented by a dot in the words
"embrac-d" and "baptiz-d" and an apostrophe substitutes for the letter
"a" in the word "Isr'els."

The inscription can be divided into four units (Fig. 9). The first unit,
which appears curved at the top of the tympanum, consists of the single
Latin word "Resurgam," meaning "I shall rise again." This part of the
gravestone's carved text appears in none of the published versions I
have found prior to Gabel's printed transcription in 2002. It is perhaps
worth noting that the tablet inscription for Monis, first instructor of
Hebrew at Harvard, contains no words in Hebrew but rather a word in
Latin. Thus, in addition to the important concept of resurrection, this one
word in Latin highlights the significance to the Puritan world of Monis's
conversion from Judaism to Christianity by emphasizing the movement
from Old Testament to New Testament beliefs.80

The other three units of the inscription are carved in the rectangular
space below the sculpture of the human skull and crossed bones. Only
one of the earlier published versions makes any attempt to reproduce
all three of these sections.81 The second unit, consisting of nine lines,
contains biographical information. Monis is identified as a rabbi (and
apparently he served one or more congregations in that role although,
as discussed above, he may never have been ordained or awarded
that specific status in Judaism). He is further identified as a Hebrew
"Instructer" [sic] at Harvard College for a period of forty years. In point
of fact, Monis was on the Harvard staff for thirty-eight years, extending
from his appointment in 1722 to his resignation in 1760. His public
baptism and conversion to Christianity are acknowledged as well as his
date of death and his presumed exact age at the time he died.

Judah Morris's Puzzling Gravestone

CO II

JCH* III?

Fig. 8. Detail of inscription of Judah Monis's gravemarker .

The third and fourth units of the inscription consist of an eight-line
poem or epitaph directly below the biographical section and, to the
right, five citations to Biblical passages that inspired the poem. Verses
in Romans, Isaiah, Psalms, and John are cited. This poem is full of
allusions to Monis's Jewish background, his acceptance of Christianity,
the promise of resurrection, and the vision of a messianic kingdom. The
poem and Biblical citations echo and elucidate the word "Resurgam"
at the top of the tympanum. Several of the published versions of this
epitaph refer only to the poem and then comment that it hints at Monis's

David Mayer Gradwohl

RESURGAM

Here lies buried the Remains of RABBI
IUDAHMONIS, MA. late HEBREW
Instructer at HARVARD College in
Cambridge in which Office He continued 40
years. He was by Birth and Religion a jew but
embrac'd the Christian Faith & was publickly
baptiz.d at Cambridge AD 1722 and
departed this Life April 25, 1764, Aged
81 years 2 months and 21 days

A native branch of Jacob see!
Which, once from off its olive brok,
Regrafted, from the living tree
Of the reviving sap partook
From teeming Zion's fertile womb,
As dewy drops in early morn,
Or rising bodies from the tomb,
At once be Isr'els nation born!

Rom. XI. 17-24.

Isai. LXVI. 8.

Psal. CX. 3.
Iohn V. 28, 29

Isai. LXVI. 8.

Fig. 9. Diagram showing the four units of the text
carved on the gravemarker of Judah Monis.

Judaic background.82 Isaac Landman did not quote the poem but
mentioned that the verse and its figurative allusions point to Monis' s
Jewish origins.83 Of course those facts are stated unambiguously in the
biographical section of the inscription. Monis' s Jewish origins and the
impact his conversion to Christianity had on his Puritan associates are
repetitive themes that reverberate throughout the entire inscription.

The poem, its Biblical allusions, and the potent graphic symbols
provide the key to understanding the message on Judah Monis's
headstone. In The Logic of Millennial Thought: Eighteenth-Century New
England, James W. Davidson emphasizes the centrality of millennialism
in Puritan religion as forcefully espoused and preached, for example,
by Increase and Cotton Mather.84 Millennialism is deeply rooted in

Judah Monis's Puzzling Gravestone

the biblical symbols and allusions on Monis's gravestone, especially
in the passage from Romans. The millennial thread extending from
Protestantism back to Catholicism and Judaism centers on concepts of
the "chosen people," the messiah, and the manner in which a "Kingdom
of God" might be established.

The life and writings of the Apostle Paul are the crucial element
here in understanding the growth of Christianity out of Judaism and
the early development of millennial thought.85 Saul of Tarsus in Cilicia
was originally a member of the Pharisees, a religious faction of Jews
who maintained the validity of oral law in addition to the Torah; they
also believed in the resurrection of the dead and a life after death.86 As a
persecutor of Christians, Saul was sent to Damascus to apprehend what
followers of Jesus he could find and bring them to trial in Jerusalem.
Along the road, Saul had his celebrated epiphanic vision and was called
(or converted) to Christianity. Subsequently, as the Apostle Paul, he
became a proselytizer for Christianity. The fact that the early Christians
had, in fact, been Jews, figured largely in the Puritans' straightforward
desire to convert Jews and to venerate Judah Monis's conversion to
Christianity.

The questions regarding the identification of "chosen" people, the
role of conversions, and the anticipated appearance of a messiah or
messianic age, however, are more complex, as revealed in Paul's Epistle
to the Romans and alluded to on the headstone of Judah Monis.87 The
problem of salvation and the second appearance of Christ is bound up,
to a large degree, in whether Jews (as stated in the Old Testament) or
Christians were actually "chosen" to spread the word of God and thus
usher in the advent of the messianic age or millennial reign of Christ.
Jews were not responding well to the missionary efforts of Paul and
other followers of Jesus. Krister Stendahl explains what motivated
Paul to write his Epistle to the Romans: "The glorious secret that was
whispered into the ear of Paul the Apostle, the Jewish apostle to the
Gentiles, was that God in his grace had changed his plans. Now it was
the 'No' of the Jews, their non-acceptance of the Messiah, which opened
up the possibility of the 'Yes' of the Gentiles. Particularly in Romans 11
does Paul point out that ultimately when the full number of Gentiles
have become God's people, then by jealousy (Rom. 11:11) the Jews will
also be saved (11:15, 25-27). The central issue claiming Paul's attention
is that of the inclusion both of Gentiles and Jews." 88 As E. P. Sanders

David Maver Gradwohl

notes: "Paul required faith in Christ not only of Gentiles but also of Jews.
... In Romans 11 he uses the image of an olive tree. Many of the native
branches had been lopped off. They can be grafted back only on the basis
of faith."89 This verbal imagery of the broken olive branch regrafted to
the living tree is what we observe carved into stone in Judah Monis's
epitaph. The metaphor, of course, refers to the fact that Judah Monis
was born a Jew but converted to Christianity. Thus the poem further
reinforces the biographical portion of the headstone's inscription: the
conversion of Monis was, indeed, "good news." In the times of Paul
as well as in the Puritan period, Jews were not exactly rushing to
conversion. Hence we can understand Increase and Cotton Mather's
sense of urgency in their proselytizing efforts and also their near rapture
in the conversion of Judah Monis. To the Puritan community, reaching
back to Paul's Epistle to the Romans, a life had been saved and they were
just that much closer to attaining their promised millennial goal.

Conclusions

As discussed above, Judah Monis was not a man without accom-
plishments. He was, indeed, the first instructor of Hebrew at Harvard
and his Hebrew grammar was the first published in North America. On
this basis, one writer labeled Monis as a "Colonial American Hebraist";90
another as an "American scholar."91 Many details of Monis's life,
however, remain enigmatic. There are conflicting statements concerning
his place of birth, the religious tradition of his parents, the places where
he was educated, the titles which may or may not have been conferred
upon him, the reasons and motivations for his conversion, and his skill
and popularity as a teacher. Contrasting references to Monis's identity
occurred not only during his lifetime, but have continued in the writings
of subsequent scholars. Monis is referred to as a rabbi, a "former rabbi,"
a "converted rabbi," and a "Christian rabbi," and he is also designated
a Jew, a "learned and pious Jew," a "Jewish scholar and Hebraicist/'
a "convert from Judaism," a "converted Jew," a "Jewish Christian," a
"Christianized Jew," a "Christian Jew," and a "terminal Jew."9:

Jewish scholars, in particular, seem deeply ambivalent about Judah
Monis: they cannot afford to ignore him, but they realize the irony
of discussing him within the context of American Jewish history. In
The Colonial American Jew, for example, Jacob Marcus pointed out that
Monis was a convert to Protestantism. Immediately following that

90 Judah Monis's Puzzling Gravestone

statement, Marcus proceeded to exclaim: "Morris was also the first Jew
in North America to receive an academic degree — an honorary one in
this instance — from an American college."93 This statement presents
problems not only in terms of the chronological events of Monis's life but
also in the manner in which his personal identity is described. Similarly,
Monis and his complex identities figure prominently in The Jews of
Boston, a series of essays edited by Jonathan D. Sarna and Ellen Smith.94
In this book, Stephen J. Whitfield juggled the disparate information
about Monis awkwardly: "It is fitting that the first noteworthy Jew to
settle in Boston was not a merchant but an academic: Judah Monis, the
author of a Hebrew grammar (1735) and the recipient of a Harvard M.A.
degree — the first college degree a Jew received in the American colonies.
But Boston's first consequential Jew was also a terminal Jew, a convert,
though Monis might not have been a Christian by choice. Baptism was
a condition of employment at Harvard . . ."95 But if Monis "terminated"
his Judaism prior to his receiving the M.A. degree, the assertion that
he was the first Jew to receive a college degree in the American colonies
falls flat.

An understanding of the socio-cultural and religious context of
colonial America helps identify the conflicting and enigmatic aspects
of Judah Monis's identity and explain how he has been perceived by
others. As Arthur Hertzberg wrote, "the Puritans of New England were
obsessed by the Jewish Bible, but they were not hospitable to Jews, or to
Judaism."96 Jews were seen as subjects to be converted to Christianity
by leading clergymen such as Increase Mather and Cotton Mather. They
reveled in the occasion of Monis's baptism and conversion. According
to Hertzberg, "Christianity thus stood confirmed in Boston, out of the
mouth of a Jew who even sometimes claimed to have been a rabbi. What
a joy this was for [Cotton] Mather. . . . Mather left College Hall that day
in the sure and certain faith that the Second Coming was near."97

Given these conflicting perceptions of identity and historical facts, we
can better comprehend the portrayal of Monis in the recently published
book on the history of Boston's Jews: "Monis's life presents one example
— if an extreme example — of how a Jewish individual made a place for
himself in Boston history. Without the support of Jewish institutions, a
Jewish community, or even other Jewish individuals, Monis entered the
life of Cambridge as a Christian. He consciously chose to do so. Having
voluntarily left a mature Jewish community in New York City, Monis

David Mayer Gradwohl 91

came to Cambridge to teach the Hebrew tongue as a Christian. He
seems never to have looked back."98 The incongruity is that the author
of this passage acknowledges that Monis was a Christian during his
employment at Harvard and yet includes him in the historical review of
the Jews of colonial Boston.

Even in death (which occurred in 1764), Monis remains somewhat
of a paradox. The epitaph on Monis' s headstone in the graveyard of
Northborough's First Parish Church proclaims that he "was by Birth
and Religion a jew." However, Jewish burials did not occur, and were
apparentlv not allowed, in Massachusetts until the 1840s." Jews who
resided in colonial Boston, for example, were transported to final resting
places in Newport, Rhode Island, or one of Shearith Israel Synagogue's
early cemeteries in New York City. Thus not only the imagery
and language but even the location of Judah Monis' s gravestone is
expressive of his enigmatic and conflicted Judeo/ Christian identity. The
magnificently carved headstone in the burying ground of First Parish
Church in Northborough marks the grave of a person important not only
in the history of that community but also in the history of Cambridge,
Boston, and the larger realm of colonial America. The integrated imagery
on this gravestone, manifested in artistic designs and verbal symbols in
the tablet inscription, however, reflect a complex person whose life still
challenges our understanding today.

92 Judah Morris's Puzzling Gravestone

NOTES

I would like to acknowledge the support of a Touro National Heritage Trust
Fellowship (administered through the John Carter Brown Library at Brown
University in Providence, RI) during the fall of 1997. As an ancillary to my main
research project at Newport, RI, I ran across references to Judah Monis and the
epitaph on his gravestone. During the spring of 1998, 1 traveled to Northborough,
Massachusetts, to visit the First Parish Church burying ground and document
Monis's gravestone. My wife, Hanna Rosenberg Gradwohl, assisted me with both
the archival research and field recording of Monis's gravestone. I am indebted
to Laurel Gabel not only for sharing her extensive knowledge of colonial New
England gravestones, but also for specific information regarding Judah Monis's
gravestone and its carver, William Park; in addition, she brought the gravestone
of Abigail Marrett Monis to my attention. I also thank the following individuals
for their help: Rabbi Judith Bluestein, Rev. Kent Organ, Nancy Osborn Johnsen,
Jane G. Nash, Justin M. Nash, Curtis Nepstad-Thornberry, Rev. Richelle Russell
(minister of Northborough's First Parish Church), and Leroy Wolins. I also
appreciate the assistance of personnel at the American Jewish Historical Society
(Waltham, MA), the John Carter Brown Library and Rhode Island Historical
Society (Providence, RI), and the Redwood Library (Newport, RI). Aaron
Greiner kindly prepared Figure 8. I thank the American Antiquarian Society,
Worcester, Massachusetts, for making available the images of the gravestones
of Judah Monis and Abigail Monis from the Daniel and Jessie Lie Farber
Collection of Gravestone Photographs. Photographs for Figures 1 and 2 were
taken by the author. Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the annual
meeting of the American Culture Association in San Diego, California, on April
1, 1999, and at the conference of the National Association for Ethnic Studies in
Boston, Massachusetts, on March 23, 2000. Lastly, I gratefully acknowledge the
assistance of Gary Collison and two anonymous reviewers as I prepared the final
revision of this essay.

1 The present building is a smaller replica of a church that was constructed in
1808 and destroyed by fire in 1945. That structure, in turn, replaced the original
church built during colonial times.

2 Harriette Merrifield Forbes, Gravestones of Early Neio England and the Men
Who Made Them, 1653-1800 (1927; Barre, VT: Barre Granite Association, 1989);
David D. Hall, "The Gravestone Image as a Puritan Cultural Code," in Puritan
Gravestone Art— The Dublin Seminar for Nezo England Folklife, Annual Proceedings
1976, ed. Peter Benes (Boston, MA: Boston University, 1977), 23-32; Allan
Ludwig, Graven Images: New England Stonecarving and Its Symbols, 1650-1815
(1966; Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1999); David H. Watters, "A
Priest to the Temple," in Puritan Gravestone Art II— The Dublin Seminar for New
England Folklife, Annual Proceedings 1978, ed. Peter Benes (Boston, MA: Boston
University), 25-36.

3 Josiah Coleman Kent, Northborough History (Newton, MA: Garden City Press,
1921), 286.

4 Lee M. Friedman, "Judah Monis, First Instructor at Harvard University,"

David Maver Gradwohl 93

Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society 22 (1914): 19; Kent,
Northborough Histon/, 288; Milton M. Klein, "A Jew at Harvard in the 18th
Century," Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 97 (1985): 144;
George Foot Moore, "Judah Monis," Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical
Society 52 (1919): 300-301; Eisig Silberschlag, "Judah Monis in Light of an
Unpublished Manuscript," Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish
Research 46-47 (1980): 496; Ellen Smith, "Strangers and Sojourners: The Jews of
Colonial Boston," in The Jews of Boston: Essays on the Occasion of the Centenary
(1895-1995) of the Combined Jewish Philanthropies of Greater Boston, ed. Jonathan
D. Sarna and Ellen Smith (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1995),
34.

5 Subsequently, however, a complete and accurate transcription has been
published along with some description of the mortuary symbolism represented
on the gravestone of Judah Monis; see: Laurel K. Gabel, "'By this you see we are
but dust': The Gravestone Art and Epitaphs of our Ancestors," in Art of Family:
Genealogical Artifacts in New England, ed. D. Brenton Simons and Peter Benes
(Boston, MA: New England Genealogical Society, 2002), 150-175.

6 Forbes, Gravestones of Early New England, 113.

7 Ludwig, Graven Images, 5.

s Watters, "A Priest to the Temple," 25-26.

9 Forbes, Gravestones of Early New England, 74 and Figure 95.

10 Clifford K. Shipton, Biographical Sketches ofTliose Who Attended Harvard
College in the Classes 1722-1725, 7 (1945): 639, quoting the New Hampshire
Gazette, May 4, 1764; Klein, A Jew at Harvard, 139; Kent, Northborough History,
286; Jacob R. Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1492-1776 (Detroit, MI: Wayne
State University Press, 1970): 1096; Samuel Eliot Morison, TJiree Centuries of
Harvard, 1636-1936 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963), 57;
William H. Mulligan, Jr., Northborough: A Town and Its People (Northborough,
MA: Northborough American Revolution Bicentennial Commission, 1982),
224; Cecil Roth and Geoffrey Wigoder, "Judah Monis," TJte New Standard Jewish
Encyclopedia (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1970): 1363.

11 George Alexander Kohut, "Judah Monis, M.A., the First Instructor at
Harvard University (1683-1764)," Tlie American Journal of Semitic Languages
and Literatures 14:4 (1898): 219, quoting Benjamin Peirce; Shalom Goldman,
"Biblical Hebrew in Colonial America: The Case of Dartmouth," in Hebrew and
the Bible in America: The First Two Centuries, ed. Shalom Goldman (Hanover,
NH: University Press of New England, 1993): 201; Arthur Hertzberg, "The New
England Puritans and the Jews," in Hebrew and the Bible in America: The First
Two Centuries, ed. Shalom Goldman (Hanover, NH: University Press of New
England, 1993): 108.

12 Moore, "Judah Monis," 287.

13 Several authors have commented that the family name Monis is unusual if
not unique among Jews. See, for example, Moore, "Judah Monis," 286-287; and
Kohut, "Judah Monis, M.A.," 217. This name, however, is not an uncommon

94 Judah Morris's Puzzling Gravestone

Iberian family name in its Spanish spelling (Monis) or its Portuguese spelling
(Moniz). Current telephone directories, for example, list more than 150 Moniz
residences and one Monis in Providence, RI; Boston has 3 listings for Monis
and 25 for Moniz; and there are 140 Moniz listings and 1 Monis in Fall River,
MA. Perhaps few or none of these contemporary families identify as Jews.
Given the historical factor of forced conversions in Iberia during the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries, however, it is not impossible that some of these
contemporary families may have had Jewish ancestors in pre-Inquisition Iberia.

14 Smith, "Strangers and Sojourners," 131; Marcus, The Colonial American Jew,
1096; Moore, "Judah Monis," 287.

15 Shipton, Biographical Sketches, 639; Klein, "A Jew at Harvard," 139.

16 Moore, "Judah Monis," 287; Leah Borenstein, "The Jewish Religious
Leadership in the Muslim East," Encyclopedia Judaica 13 (1972): 1450-1451.

17 Marcus, Vie Colonial American Jew, 1096. See also Klein, "A Jew at Harvard,"
139.

18 Moore, "Judah Monis," 288-289.

19 Shipton, Biographical Sketches, 639; Klein, "A Jew at Harvard," 139; Louis
Meyer, The First Jewish Christian in North America— Judah Monis (Hopkinton,
Iowa, circa 1890): 3; Smith, "Strangers and Sojourners," 31; Dagobert D. Runes,
"Judah Monis," in Concise Dictionary of Judaism (New York, NY: Philosophical
Library, Inc., 1969): 171.

20 Shipton, Biographical Sketches, 639; Klein, "A Jew at Harvard," 139-140.

21 Moore, "Judah Monis," 290; Friedman, "Judah Monis, First Instructor," 2.

22 The purposes and rationales for teaching Hebrew are elucidated in
Goldman, ed., Hebrew and Tlie Bible.

23 Morison, Three Centuries of Harvard, 57.

24 Shipton, Biographical Sketches, 643; Moore, "Judah Monis," 299-300;
Friedman, "Judah Monis, First Instructor," 15-16.

25 Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1097.

26 Shipton, Biographical Sketches, 641; Hertzberg, "The New England Puritans,"
108-109; James West Davidson, Tlie Logic of Millennial Tliought: Eighteenth-
Century New England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977); Michael
G. Hall, The Last American Puritan: Tlie Life of Increase Mather, 1639-1723
(Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988).

27 Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1099.

28 Kohut, "Judah Monis, M.A.," 218-219; Marcus, The Colonial American Jew,
1097-99; Moore, "Judah Monis," 301; Smith, "Strangers and Sojourners,"
34; Steven J. Whitfield, "The Smart Set: An Assessment of Jewish Culture,"
in Jonathan D. Sarna and Ellen Smith, eds., Tlie Jews of Boston: Essays on the
Occasion of the Centenary (1895-1995) of the Combined Jewish Philanthropies of
Greater Boston (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1995), 308.

David Mayer Gradwohl 95

29 Davidson, T)\e Logic of Millennial Tlwught; M. Hall, Tlie Last American Puritan.

30 Shipton, Biographical Sketches, 641; Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1098;
Frederick T. Haneman, "Judah Mortis," Tlie Jewish Encyclopedia 8 (1904): 657;
Isaac Landman, "Judah Monis," T/?e' Universal Jewish Encyclopedia 7 (1969): 622.

31 Kohut, "Judah Monis, M.A," 218.

32 Moore, "Judah Monis," 294.

33 Shipton, Biographical Sketches, 642.

34 Also spelled Marret.

35 Mulligan, Northborough, 225.

36 Klein, "A Jew at Harvard," 142.

37 Shipton, Biographical Sketches, 643; Friedman, "Judah Mortis, First Instructor,'
15-16; Moore, "Judah Mortis," 299-300.

38 Moore, "Judah Mortis," 290; Leon Hiihner, "Jews in Connection with
the Colleges of the Thirteen Original States Prior to 1800," Publications of the
American Jewish Historical Society 19 (1910):109; Landman, "Judah Mortis," 622;
Kent, Northborough History, 286; Friedman, "Judah Monis, First Instructor," 2.

39 Shipton, Biographical Sketches, 642 and footnote 12.

40 Most scholars on this subject concur with the 1723 date for Monis's M.A.
degree. See Klein, "A Jew at Harvard," 142; Isadore S. Meyer, "Judah Monis,"
Encyclopedia Judaica 12 (1972): 257; Silberschlag, "Judah Mortis in Light," 495;
Marcus, Tlie Colonial American Jew, 1099; Mulligan, Northborough, 224.

41 Moore, "Judah Monis," 302; Smith, "Strangers and Sojourners," 32.

42 Hertzberg, "The New England Puritans," 107.

43 Ibid., 105.

44 Klein, "A Jew at Harvard," 135.

45 Friedman, "Judah Mortis, First Instructor," 7.

46 Hiihner, "Jews in Connection with the Colleges," 109.

47 Kent, Northborough History, 286.

48 Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1099.

49 Shipton, Biographical Sketches, 643.

50 Morison, Tliree Centuries of Harvard, 58.

51 Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1099.

52 Moore, "Judah Mortis," 310; Silberschlag, "Judah Mortis in Light," 498-499.

53 Silberschlag, "Judah Mortis in Light," 499-500.

54 Goldman, "Biblical Hebrew in Colonial America," 202.

96 Judah Morris's Puzzling Gravestone

55 Marcus, Tlte Colonial American Jew, 1102.

56 Ibid., 1101-1103. Steven Sewall had been a student of Judah Monis and
was not laudatory of his former instructor's teaching skills. In 1764, Sewall
was appointed the Hancock Professor of Hebrew, Harvard's first endowed
chair of Hebrew. See Thomas J. Siegel, "Professor Stephen Sewall and the
Transformation of Hebrew at Harvard," in Goldman, ed., Hebrew and the Bible,
233.

57 Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1103.

58 Laurel Gabel, personal communication, April 5, 1999.

59 Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1100.

60 Shalom Goldman, "Introduction," in Goldman, ed., Hebrew and the Bible: xxi.

61 Kent, Northborongh History, 287; Mulligan, Northborongh, 225.

62 Laurel Gabel, personal communication, March 16, 1999; see also Gabel, " 'By
this you see," 162.

63 Forbes, Gravestones of Early New England, 72-73.
h4 Ibid., 74.

65 Ludwig, Graven Images, 4-6.
bb Ibid., 77.

67 Hall, Vie Last American Puritan, 29.

68 To this author, the three stems of the plant motif are suggestive of at least a
covert representation of the Trinity; but that association may not have been a
conscious symbol in the mind of William Park, his patrons, or other people in
Colonial Northborough.

69 Ludwig, Graven Images, 77.

70 Laurel Gabel observes that William Park came from Scotland and further
notes that the strong architectural details in his carvings are similar to those in
Scotland during that period (personal communication, March 16, 1999).

71 Ludwig, Graven Images, 139.

72 Watters, "A Priest to the Temple," 26.

73 Ibid., 25.

74 Davidson, Tlie Logic of Millennial Thought ; E.P. Sanders, Paul (Oxford,
England: Oxford University Press, 1991); Krister Stendahl, Paul Among Jews and
Gentiles (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1976).

75 Watters, "A Priest to the Temple," 25, 35.
7,1 Ibid., 35; Ludwig, Graven Images, 176.

77 Ibid., 142-155.

78 Ibid., 232.

David Mayer Gradwohl 97

79 While I find this distinction pejorative, it may only reflect the somewhat
capricious attitude toward capitalization exhibited by gravestone carvers
during the colonial period.

80 1 thank an anonymous reviewer for suggesting this specific paradigm.

81 Kent, Northborough History, 288.

82 Silberschlag, "Judah Monis in Light," 496; Smith, "Strangers and
Sojourners," 34.

83 Landman, "Judah Monis," 622.

84 Davidson, Tlie Logic of Millennial TJiought; M. Hall, Tlte Last American Puritan.

85 Sanders, Paul; Stendahl, Paul Among Jews and Gentiles.

86 David Flusser, "Paul of Tarsus," Encyclopaedia Judaica 13 (1972): 190-192;
Menahem Mansoor, "Pharisees," Encyclopaedia Judaica 13 (1972): 363-366.

87 Robert W. Wall, "Introduction to Epistolary Literature," Tlte Neiv Interpreter's
Bible (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2002); 10: 369-375; N. T. Wright, "The
Letter to the Romans: Introduction, Commentary and Reflections," The New
Interpreter's Bible 10: 395-699.

88 Stendahl, Paul Among Jews and Gentiles, 28.

89 Sanders, Paul, 117.

90 1.S. Meyer, "Judah Monis," 256.

91 Haneman, "Judah Monis," 657.

92 Klein, "A Jew at Harvard," 135; Smith, "Strangers and Sojourners," 34; Rev.
Robert Wodrow quoted in Klein, "A Jew at Harvard," 137; Ibid., 135; Smith,
"Strangers and Sojourners," 30; Kohut, "Judah Monis, M.A.," 217; Smith,
"Strangers and Sojourners," 34; L. Meyer, Tlie First Jewish Christian, 3; Smith,
"Strangers and Sojourners," 34; Kent, Northborough Histon/, 286; Whitfield, "The
Smart Set," 308.

93 Marcus, Tlte Colonial American Jew, 1096.

94 Sarna and Smith, Tlie Jews of Boston.

95 Whitfield, "The Smart Set," 308.

96 Hertzberg, "The New England Puritans," 105.

97 Ibid. ,109.

98 Smith, "Strangers and Sojourners," 34.

99 Ellen Smith, "Israelites in Boston, 1840-1880," in Tlte Jews of Boston, 53-54;
American Jewish Historical Society, On Common Ground: Tlte Boston Jewish
Experience 1649-1980 (Waltham, MA: American Jewish Historical Society,
1981): 15.

In the Bronx with Melville

•

Belmont mausoleum, a replica of the

Chapel of Saint Hubert at Chateau Amboise, France.

Courtesy, Woodlawn Cemetery, Bronx, NY.

In the Bronx with Melville

Henry Hughes

I'm trying to stay alive, jogging

my heart into an island of smooth industry,

paving lumpy streets, squaring sagging doorways

with the bright brick of muscle. Something like the Bronx,

a running race over those strip-car shoulders

and burned-out projects on the way to Yankee Stadium

and the sooty zoo.

But it's a fine morning

along Bedford's dewy ball fields

with the African elite, the muscled Latinos and smooth women

in sports bras and tights. And after all those inspiring rear miles

I turn the corner and keep going, down railrattled Jerome

up to Woodlawn Cemetery

where the mausoleums outsize the banks —

Woolworth's Egyptian tomb, Zeigler's Parthenon,

Belmont's Chapel of St. Hubert—ensuring time's stranger

that sweating awe of Wow, he must've been something.

Faith darts across a path

and in the cool oak groves to the east, lichen prints

the dress of a weeping girl in worn granite.

Her bare legs tease the beach, her delicate hand holds a book

almost finished. Oh, sweet reader, all the love in the world

won't keep us young or famous, though sadness

sings softly for our loss, I think, lying

before the blank scroll of Melville's headstone

in the shelled calm he cannot hear.

But I'm just tired enough to talk, to tell him the meaningless

all meaning of a marathon

run again and again against the gravity

of time and money, of family and a good name. Manuscripts

roll offshore, salt dries on my face,

and there's the bright breach in an open sea, a glistening paperback

pulled from a sports bag,

a notebook and a pen. Now, Melville, I say —

stretching across his Elizabeth —

Let's see where you've been.

100

Museum in the Garden

Fig. 1. Strolling through the garden cemetery.

View from Mount Auburn, engraving by James Smillie, 1847.
Courtesy, Mount Auburn Cemetery.

Iiil

Museum in the Garden:

Mount Auburn Cemetery and

American Sculpture, 1840-1860

Elise Madeleine Ciregna

In the four quarters of the globe, who . . .
looks at an American picture or statue?

— Reverend Sydney Smith
Tlie Edinburgh Review, 1820

Colonial Americans found little time for pursuits other than the
immediate concerns of everyday life. By the early nineteenth century,
critiques from abroad, such as the Reverend Sydney Smith's oft-
quoted, famously withering comment, highlighted what had become
a matter of national urgency for prominent intellectuals across
America: the development of a distinct artistic culture.1 Clearly, the
most underdeveloped American art form was academic sculpture, or
work produced by formally trained artists. In 1814, the Boston Spectator
lamented: "It is probably a fact, and not one very flattering to us as a
refined people, that not a single attempt has ever been made, in this
country, to give to marble the 'human form divine.'"2 Already, a number
of American painters working from European academic traditions had
emerged during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, artists
such as John Singleton Copley, Benjamin West, John Trumbull, Gilbert
Stuart and Washington Allston. These painters had all left America (some
permanently, like Copley and West) to take advantage of opportunities
to study abroad with trained European artists, furthering the view that
America could not sustain artistic endeavor. In America, chiseled or
carved work was still bound by earlier folk and craft traditions. Largely
produced by anonymous native woodcarvers and stonecutters, it was
utilitarian in nature — ship figureheads, shop signs, marble mantelpieces,
and gravestones. When American academic sculpture finally began to
appear on these shores, one of the first places it was prominent was at a
new institution: the garden cemetery (Fig. 1).

1 02 Museum in the Garden

This article considers garden cemeteries not only as America's earliest
public repositories of academic sculpture but also as a crucial catalyst for
the development of academic sculpture in America. The study focuses
on Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, America's
first rural, or garden, cemetery, founded in 1831. Mount Alburn not only
provided the inspiration for the movement that helped to create scores of
garden cemeteries throughout the country, but it also provided the model
for how it introduced the American public — in this case, the largely
white, upper and middle class, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant segment of the
population that had the time and interest to pursue cultural activities —
to viewing and appreciating sculpture produced by America's first
professionally trained American artists. Mount Auburn's founders and
lot owners, among the earliest American patrons of an emerging school
of American sculpture, helped to advance the careers of numerous
artists. In an age before public park systems and public art museums,
sculptural works placed in cemeteries provided the American public
with access to works by trained sculptors. Previous generations were
familiar only with gravestones carved by little known or anonymous
craftsmen and placed in graveyards that had little aesthetic appeal.
Garden cemeteries brought a new awareness and appreciation of artistic
accomplishment. As one art historian has noted, "marmoreal," or marble,
works at Mount Auburn transformed the cemetery into "an out-of-door
sculpture museum and botanical park given special meaning by the vast
and distinguished company underground." The same writer stated, "It
may be taken for granted that almost all of the patrons of sculptors drew
a large part of whatever understanding and familiarity they had with
the art of sculpture from the . . . exhibits in the cemetery."3 The public's
enthusiasm for visiting Mount Auburn invested that cemetery with the
status of a museum and helped to introduce a taste for sculpture long
before the founding of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston in 1870.

The garden cemetery movement in America has long been the subject
of scholarship by historians of landscape, urban planning, public health,
society, and culture. Mount Auburn Cemetery has itself been the focus of
much scholarship, most importantly by historian Blanche Linden- Ward,
whose 1989 book entitled Silent City on a Hill: Landscapes of Memory and
Boston's Mount Auburn Cemetery is the only comprehensive social and
cultural history of that cemetery. Other scholars such as David Charles

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 103

Sloane and Barbara Rotundo have also dealt with Mount Auburn and the
nineteenth-century rural cemetery movement. But although connections
between the nascent field of American academic sculpture and cemeteries
have occasionally been noted in the literature, scholars have largely
overlooked Mount Auburn's specific contribution to the development of
an American school of sculpture. One notable exception is art historian
Frederic A. Sharf, whose 1961 article entitled "The Garden Cemetery
and American Sculpture: Mount Auburn" also argued that Mount
Auburn acted as a catalyst for sculpture commissions.4 Sharf, however,
felt that the importance given to American "expatriate" sculptors had
overshadowed the accomplishments of those who remained in this
country and limited his discussion to the latter, consequently ignoring
what I feel is the much larger and more convincing view of Mount
Auburn's far-reaching influence on American sculpture. Despite
Sharf s narrow focus, his art historical focus on Mount Auburn is a
refreshing exception to the scholarship on American sculpture, which
in general focuses on later sculptors who found their greatest fame in
the latter part of the nineteenth century and beyond.5 A recent small
but perceptible resurgence of interest in the earlier period of American
sculpture — often referred to as "Neoclassical" for the classically-derived
representations and characteristic use of white marble — has produced
several dissertations and works on topics closely related to my research,
although even in these works the role of the American cemetery receives
little or no attention.6

A related difficulty with studying nineteenth-century cemetery
sculpture is the lack of archival records that deal specifically with
the sculptural works themselves. While historic cemeteries may keep
accurate records of prominent personages buried within their boundaries,
the sculptor or stone cutter who executed the original monument is often
not recorded as part of routine lot records. Any paper trail connecting
the lot owner or patron to the sculptor or carver rarely survives, unless
either the patron or the sculptor was so celebrated that his (or her) papers
were preserved in an archive. Retrieving this information, if an original
monument is still extant (not always the case), involves inspecting
the stone or bronze for a signature, searching for documentation, and
possibly researching the artist involved. For obvious reasons, such a
labor-intensive undertaking is never high on a cemetery's priority list

104 Museum in the Garden

that includes the more pressing issues of maintenance and preservation.
Comprehensive inventories of American sculpture such as the one at the
Smithsonian Institution Research Information System (SIRIS) also tend
to be incomplete, especially for cemetery works, since the inventories are
compiled mostly from museum and art historical sources.

If historians have seldom dealt with sculpture specifically, they
nevertheless have often considered Mount Auburn Cemetery an institu-
tion that provided its public with the same cultural attributes one might
associate with visiting a museum. Historian Stanley French, in an article
published in 1974, first termed Mount Auburn a "cultural institution"
and even alluded to the Reverend Smith's comments to bolster his
argument that the rural, or garden, cemetery movement helped to
prevent America from being considered a "cultural wasteland."7
French's article, however, concentrated on attitudes towards death,
burial, and mourning practices. It had little to do with art with a capital
"A," that is, the fine arts of painting and sculpture. One of the first places
Americans would begin to view and appreciate the fine arts would be in
the garden cemetery, with Mount Auburn in the vanguard.

The reasons for sculpture's relatively late arrival in America are
complex and still contested, but one major factor was the dearth
of training and study opportunities in America. Woodcarvers and
stonecutters often followed templates, or pre-arranged designs, in
the wood or stone they carved, producing abstracted or repetitive
ornamental designs. Rarely were they required to produce original or
figural work, except in the case of ship figureheads, virtually the only
call for carved figures. Several artisans influenced by the works of
famous European sculptors and imported engravings — among them the
master ship figurehead woodcarver William Rush and the stonecutter
John Frazee — attempted the transition to artist in the early nineteenth
century with little or no formal training but found only limited success.8

A critical deficit that retarded the early development of sculpture
in America was the lack of exposure to classical statuary. While some
European sculptors enjoyed modest success with commissions from
the American government during the eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries — the most notable being the Frenchman Jean-Antoine
Houdon and his full-length statue of George Washington (a commission
suggested by Thomas Jefferson) — academic sculpture was known

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 105

almost exclusively only to wealthy Americans who had taken the
Grand Tour and visited the great art collections of Europe. By the early
nineteenth century, limited collections of plaster casts of antique busts
and sculptures were owned by private cultural institutions such as the
Boston Athenaeum and the American Academy of Fine Arts in New
York, but there were few possibilities for the public at large to view
statues or paintings. Academic art, or art produced by professionally
trained artists, in general remained unknown to the large majority of the
populace before the mid-nineteenth century.

An anecdote related by Frances "Fanny" Trollope, the indefatigable
English tourist and critic of America in the 1820s and 1830s, provides
a telling insight about the American lack of experience with sculpture
during this period. At the "Antique Statue Gallery" (an exhibit of
plaster casts of antique statues) at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine
Arts in 1830, Trollope was initially annoyed by the policy of segregating
male and female viewers, who were sent in separately. Upon gaining
admittance to the gallery, Trollope was not encouraged by what she saw.
Confronted with the casts of nudes, several of which had been defaced
with lewd graffiti by (presumably male) visitors, she later declared: "Till
America has reached the degree of refinement which permits of [viewing
sculpture appropriately], the antique casts should not be exhibited . . .
at all. I never felt my delicacy shocked at the Louvre."9 Clearly, she
believed Americans in general lacked the ability to view nude statues
with any degree of sophistication, at least compared to the more
"refined" Europeans.

American garden cemeteries would play a crucial role in helping the
first generations of native sculptors develop successful careers. The first
objective for an aspiring sculptor consisted of obtaining the skill and
experience that would attract both patrons and commissions. Horatio
Greenough, often called America's first sculptor, helped to set the course
of American sculpture in 1825 when he became the first American to
seek training in Italy with Europe's leading masters of sculpture. Well-
educated and articulate, Greenough was highly admired for this bold
move. The American press helped to ensure his success by reporting
on his projects and commissions and by constant praise for his high-
quality work, considered in America as rivaling the work of the best
contemporary European artists. In the decades that followed, aspiring

106 Museum in the Garden

American sculptors imitated Greenough's example, including Thomas
Crawford, Randolph Rogers, Richard Saltonstall Greenough (Horatio's
brother), Thomas Ball, William Wetmore Story, Harriet Hosmer, and
Edmonia Lewis, all of whom eventually gained commissions for
placement at Mount Auburn Cemetery.

An aspiring sculptor with the means to travel abroad usually
chose Italy for his training. The superb art collections of ancient Greek,
Roman and Renaissance sculpture, the many funerary monuments
and memorials to the celebrated and the wealthy, and the sculpture
that decorated public and private settings throughout Italy provided
unlimited opportunities for study. The great European masters of
sculpture, including the Italian Lorenzo Bartolini in Florence and the
Danish Bertel Thorwaldsen in Rome, were settled permanently in
Italy and accepted promising students into their workshops. Horatio
Greenough studied under both men. Other masters of sculpture such
as the Englishman John Flaxman, known for his work with Josiah
Wedgwood's manufactories and a highly admired sculptor in his
own right, were also based professionally in Italy to some degree. In
addition to the collections of antique statuary and the master studios,
medical schools welcomed the participation of artists in the dissection of
cadavers, allowing artists to obtain scientific, anatomical knowledge of
the human body crucial to the work of a serious sculptor. Other practical
reasons for choosing Italy abounded, including the availability of the
fine white Carrara marble and Italian workmen to carve the marble.
Unlike the artisan stonecutters of America, Italian stonecutters were
proficient technicians who could be relied on to carve the final version
of a statue using an age-old mechanical transfer technique called the
"point" system. The sculptor was therefore free to express his creative
genius through his modeling of the malleable clay into its final form but
did not necessarily learn to carve in stone or marble himself, although
most of the American sculptors discussed here did.

Other aspiring artists stayed in America and became professional
sculptors with limited training through sheer force of talent, deter-
mination, and luck; these included Henry Dexter, Erastus Dow Palmer,
and Edward Augustus Brackett. Dexter and Brackett both received
multiple commissions from patrons and lot owners at Mount Auburn
Cemetery. Regardless of where the training, formal or not, took place,

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 107

most sculptors sought out or received commissions for works at
cemeteries, suggesting that the links between American sculpture, art
appreciation, and cemeteries in nineteenth-century America was much
stronger than has been heretofore acknowledged.

Patronage was a crucial element to the development of American
sculpture. Patronage in any form, whether through civic or philanthropic
activities, has since Antiquity been the foundation of an artist's success.
The important patrons of sculpture in Boston and Cambridge were
largely the well-educated and wealthy men who comprised Boston's
cultural and intellectual elite. By and large the same men who helped
to found Mount Auburn Cemetery and purchased lots there — such
notables as Joseph Story, Jacob Bigelow, Charles Sumner, Edward
Everett, and Thomas Handasyd Perkins — comprised a select group
who founded, headed, or funded the cultural and civic institutions,
including the Boston Athenaeum and Mount Auburn, that made Boston
the "Athens of America."

An oil painting of the sculptor Erastus Dow Palmer's studio, done
in 1857 by the artist Tompkins H. Matteson, presents a "typical"
interior of a professional sculptor's studio (Fig. 2). Possibly produced
as an elaborate advertisement since all of the sculptures depicted were
well-known works by Palmer, the painting also provides a somewhat
romanticized view of the career of a professional American sculptor in
the mid-nineteenth century.10 Although Palmer himself never trained or
worked professionally in Italy, the activities and people in his studio are
clearly based on those found in the studios and workshops of American
sculptors in Italy. The main figure in the forefront is the sculptor (Palmer),
a former carpenter and cameo cutter, who wears the garb of the serious
artist: a smock to protect his street clothes and a velvet cap. The sculptor
is at work on the wet clay model of a woman's bust, apparently giving
instruction to the younger sculptor seated next to him. In the background
a technician or workman uses calipers, or pointing machine, to measure
a work in preparation to making a copy; another workman busies
himself in the next room. The technicians produced copies of Palmer's
most popular works for sale — a clue that the distinctions we make today

108

Museum in the Garden

Fig. 2. Tompkins H. Matteson (1813-1884), A Sculptor's Studio (Studio

of Erastus Dow Palmer), oil on canvas, 1857. Courtesy, Albany

Institute of History & Art. Gift of Walter Launt Palmer in memory of

his mother, Mary Jane Seamans (Mrs. Erastus Dow) Palmer.

between "fine art" and "popular art" were much more fluid during the
first decades of America's popular interest in sculpture.

Throughout Palmer's studio are sculptures representative of the three
main types of commissions a working sculptor could expect to receive:
portrait busts, "ideal" sculpture, and memorial sculpture. Portrait
busts — showing just the head, shoulders and breast — were the bread
and butter of any working sculptor. While they provided a steady source
of income, the repetitive, formulaic portrait busts (in an era just before
the widespread availability of portrait photography) could frustrate an
artist's more creative ambitions. Commenting on the unvarying nature

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 109

of these commissions from Americans on the Grand Tour, Horatio
Greenough complained to his brother Henry in 1844: "I have refused to
make busts at less than one hundred napoleons. I care not if I never get
any more orders of that sort. Our good folk think statues can be turned
out like yards of sheeting."11

Greenough and other ambitious sculptors preferred to concentrate
their energies on the more prestigious commissions of ideal sculpture.
Ideal sculpture was the work that separated the merely proficient
sculptor from the artist of true "genius," that necessary quality of truly
great American men, whether politican, scholar, or artist. Distinct from
portrait sculpture, public monuments, and genre pieces, subject matter
for ideal sculpture was drawn from history, literature, the Bible, or
mythology, and was usually commissioned by either a wealthy private
patron or an institution (for example, a court seeking allegorical figures
of Truth and Justice).12 The training of an aspiring sculptor in Italy often
meant learning first how to produce copies of classical Greek and Roman
sculpture. An artist was considered to have reached his early maturity
as a sculptor when he was not just a competent portraitist or copyist,
but when he finally produced an entirely original ideal sculpture, taking
a moment, event, or figure from a literary or historical source and
interpreting it for the first time or in a way no other artist had before.
A solid education in classical literature and history was a tremendous
asset for the sculptor seeking out new and original ideas, often the first
challenge in producing an entirely original sculpture.

In Matterson's painting of Palmer's studio, portrait busts and several
ideal sculptures, including the low-relief medallions, amply represent
these two common types of commissions. Another important type of
commission, cemetery or memorial sculpture, is also represented in the
painting. The arched plaque on the back wall between the two medallions
is the Elizabeth W. Meads Memorial of 1852, installed in St. Peter's Church,
Albany. More visible is the dramatically displayed sculpture of a sleeping
girl and cross, the Grace Williams Memorial, a work Palmer executed in
1856 as a commission from the young girl's parents. The centrally placed
sculpture is one of the most prominent works in the painting, not only
representing the favorable reception the sculpture received when it was
completed, but also suggesting that Palmer was as interested in cemetery
commissions as he was other types of commissions. We will return to the

1 1 0 Museum in the Garden

Grace Williams Memorial later in this article, since the possible inspiration
for this sculpture was a monument at Mount Auburn Cemetery.

Founded in 1831, Mount Auburn Cemetery introduced several new
concepts to American burial practice: that a cemetery would provide a
permanent place for gravesites (in an age when urban burial grounds
were full, and grave pits were periodically recycled); that gravesites
would become part of a beautiful and natural landscape; and that
burial space would be affordable and available to everyone, without
regard to economic means or religious affiliation. Virtually from its
inception, Mount Auburn was a tremendous success, proudly included
in guidebooks as a "must-see" for Bostonians as well as out-of-town
guests.13

Nineteenth-century visitors to Mount Auburn were presented with
a complex, many-layered experience. As historian Blanche Linden-
Ward has discussed, visitors came for a wide range of reasons besides
mourning. Mount Auburn's purpose was to provide visitors with a
"didactic, soothing, restorative place for all ages, all religions, and all
classes," experiences that were confirmed in contemporary accounts of
visits to it and to other cemeteries built on Mount Auburn's model. The
cemetery was to be a place for melancholy reflection, for admiration of
the "natural" (designed) romantic landscape, for uplift and renewal, and
for moral and religious instruction directly applicable to one's personal
conduct and beliefs. Guidebooks emphasized appropriate ways to tour
the sights and attractions of the cemetery.14 (Much to the dismay of
founders and managers, however, Mount Auburn and other cemeteries
also often became a place of recreation, a situation that led to the
enactment of strict policies regulating visitation at many cemeteries.)15

An important part of Mount Auburn's appeal lay in the public
viewing of gravestones and monuments (Fig. 3). The original concep-
tion of the cemetery included the idea that restrained, solemn classical
monuments would present moral qualities to the living.16 In his
consecration address, Justice Joseph Story stated: "It should not be
for the poor purpose of gratifying our vanity or pride, that we should
erect columns, and obelisks, and monuments to the dead; but that we

Elise Madeleine Cireena

111

may read thereon much of our duty and destiny."17 In addition, some
observers also saw the act of erecting cemetery monuments as having
the potential for improving America's taste in the arts. In Boston, where
America's inferiority in this regard was keenly felt, one regular writer for
the Boston Evening Transcript commented in November 1841: "We have
not the temples, marbles, or pictures of Greece and Italy, by which to
guide our judgment or educate our taste. . . . We are erecting buildings,
adorning them with pictures and statuary, building monuments in our
cemeteries, [etc.], and we get laughed at by foreigners for many of our
clumsy failures." He concluded: "Let our citizens educate their taste, so
that they can criticize all matters belonging to the fine arts with learning
and skill [and] our city will be [tastefully] adorned."18 The "monuments
in cemeteries" were to be part of this new age of American "fine arts."
My use of the term "museum" to describe Mount Auburn is meant to
suggest the fact that sometimes visitors went to the cemetery just to view
sculptural works.

The first figural sculpture to pique the public's interest was installed

Fig. 3. Viewing the Hannah Adams Monument at Mount Auburn

Cemetery. Central Square, engraving by James Smillie, 1847.

Courtesy, Mount Auburn Cemetery.

112

Museum in the Garden

at Mount Auburn with little fanfare sometime in 1840 (Fig. 4).19 The
sculpture was of a sleeping child with crossed arms on her breast and
crossed bare feet, lying peacefully on her back in her bed, protected by
a canopy supported by fluted columns. Henry Dexter, a blacksmith-
turned-sculptor, executed the carving with assistance from Alpheus
Cary, a well-established Boston stonecutter. The work memorialized
four-year-old Emily Binney, who had died in May 1839 of diphtheria,
a common enough occurrence in the nineteenth century. What was not
so common was that Emily's family commissioned a full-length figural
sculpture to mark her grave instead of ordering a traditional small
child's marker from a stonecutter.20

The selection of Henry Dexter by the Binney family, a seminal
occurrence in the history of American sculpture, is worth a closer look.
A successful blacksmith, Dexter so desperately wanted to be an artist
that he left his family in Connecticut behind (with their blessing) to
move to Boston and train under his wife's uncle, the modestly successful
portrait painter Francis Alexander. Dexter's painting career did not
take off, but an early attempt at modeling clay convinced him that he
was much better suited to the art of sculpture. Alexander's professional

Fig. 4. Henry Dexter, Vie Binney Child, 1840.

In Nathaniel Dearborn's Guide Through Mount Auburn (1875).

Courtesy, Mount Auburn Cemetery.

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 1 13

connections in Boston benefited Dexter. Probably with some help from
stonecutters such as Cary (who had also provided Horatio Greenough
with early training in carving), the former blacksmith essentially taught
himself the art of modeling and carving. Within a short time he had
earned a reputation as a competent, hard-working sculptor.

In a city that had seen its great son Horatio Greenough leave to seek
training and professional opportunities from abroad, the news spread
through Boston that a native, self-taught sculptor was in residence
in Boston. Over the next few years, Dexter received commissions for
portrait busts (almost all in clay or plaster) from illustrious Bostonians,
including the Reverend Hubbard Winslow, Peter Harvey (a close friend
of Daniel Webster), Colonel Handasyd Perkins, and Samuel Eliot, then
Mayor of Boston.

Either shortly before or soon after Emily Binney's death, Alexander
completed a portrait of the little girl, dated 1839 (now in a private
collection). The girl is depicted with cropped hair, shorn most likely due
to her illness. It seems likely that as the Binney family mourned Emily,
the relative lack of available sculptors to execute a commission, or a
suggestion from Alexander, led them to Dexter. Little is known today
about the specific circumstances of the commission or possible sources
of inspiration. However, my research as well as the work of other
historians suggests that either the educated and well-traveled Binneys,
or Dexter (perhaps at the Binney family's request) may have looked for
inspiration to English funerary sculpture of children such as the work of
Francis Chantrey or Thomas Banks, or else to depictions of children by
Italian sculptors such as Lorenzo Bartolini.21

The Binney family could hardly have anticipated the intense
public interest the sculpture soon generated. Newspapers reported
(erroneously) that the sculpture was the first full-length figural work in
marble produced by a native artist on American soil (Horatio Greenough
and others had already found fame with works produced in Italy and
shipped back to the United States). Vie Binney Child soon became a great
attraction. One biographer of Dexter wrote: "This pathetic figure . . .
drew throngs to Mount Auburn. It was the principal attraction of that
celebrated cemetery, and largely helped to make its early fame. I can
myself recall the time when it was a common excursion, if one wished to
take a walk or entertain a friendly stranger, to go out to Mount Auburn

1 14 Museum in the Garden

to see The Binney Child."22 The reference to the sculpture as having been
the most important factor in the cemetery's early fame was, of course,
a genial bit of hyperbole to memorialize Dexter and should be read as
such. Still, written nearly sixty years after the fact, these words do point
to the far-ranging celebrity of this one small sculpture in its time. Emily
Binney' s memorial would be Dexter' s best-known work.

The fame of The Binney Child was destined to last only a few decades,
after which the marble sculpture apparently deteriorated significantly.
By the 1930s Tlie Binney Child had been removed (current location, if any,
unknown) and today a small headstone marked simply "Emily" remains,
lined up with the headstones of other family members. It is difficult today
to assess the quality of the sculpture, since no photographic record is
known to exist, and only two drawings, neither particularly satisfactory,
survive.23 However, it is clear that The Binney Child inspired writers as
diverse as Nathaniel Hawthorne and Lydia Sigourney to refer to the
memorial in their writings. Hawthorne even featured the sculpture in his
1843 short story entitled "The New Adam and Eve." The story, a fantasy
tale, tells of a husband and wife, a couple of wide-eyed innocents, who
wander for a day through Boston and its environs. Finally, at the end of
the day, they reach the grounds of Mount Auburn Cemetery. Hawthorne
writes of the couple's reactions:

The idea of Death is in them, or not far off. But, were
they to choose a symbol for him, it would be the butterfly
soaring upward, or the bright angel beckoning them aloft,
or the child asleep, with soft dreams visible through her
transparent purity. . . . Such a Child, in whitest marble, they
have found among the monuments of Mount Auburn.24

The influence of The Binney Child reached well beyond the boundaries
of local interest. The sculpture (with a few modifications) was most
likely the inspiration for Erastus Dow Palmer's Grace Williams Memorial
of 1856 (Fig. 5), a work in the Grace Church in Utica, New York, and
the one featured in Matteson's painting, discussed earlier (Fig. 2). The
popularity of the Williams memorial eventually led Palmer to market
another version of the sculpture with a different face but similar pose.
That sculpture was called, simply, Sleep. It was also popularized through

Elise Madeleine Ciregna

115

stereoviews, photographic images that were viewed in the home for
edification and entertainment (the early version of today's ViewMaster).
While it is unknown exactly how many commissions Palmer may have
received for cemetery installations during his career, Palmer completed
at least seven different commissions for other funerary sculptures and
bas-reliefs, mostly for cemeteries in the Albany area where he spent most
of his professional life. He also produced at least one work for a Vermont
cemetery. Unsigned copies or near replicas of Palmer's work have also
been noted in other cemeteries.25

Henry Dexter's success was assured with the overwhelming re-
sponse to Tlie Binney Child. Subsequent commissions for nearly 200
known works included several more full-figure sculptures such as the
one of General Joseph Warren for the Bunker Hill Monument. In 1842,

Fig. 5. Erastus Dow Palmer, Grace Williams Memorial, 1856,

Grace Church, Utica, NY. Courtesy, The Winterthur Library:

Joseph Downs Collection of Manuscripts and Printed Ephemera.

1 1 6 Museum in the Garden

Dexter again received much praise, this time for his portrait bust of
Charles Dickens, who was then touring America while he conducted
research for the book eventually published as American Notes for General
Circulation. Dickens and his wife were pleased with the bust, and the
Boston Transcript had nothing but praise for the sculptor: "It is known
to many that during Mr. Dickens's visit to our city, Mr. Dexter, a
gentleman whose merit as a sculptor is equalled only by his worth and
modesty as a man, modeled a fine bust of him. ... It is one of the finest
busts of modern times, and in after years will give a high character of
the state of the arts in this city at the time in which it was produced."26
Dexter received a number of commissions from patrons located in other
parts of the country, including South Carolina and Kansas, but patrons
in Massachusetts, particularly Boston and Cambridge, remained his
greatest source of commissions. In 1847, several prominent Bostonians,
including Thomas Handasyd Perkins, David Sears, and Francis Calley
Gray, helped raise the funds to finance the transfer to marble of Dexter' s
ambitious sculpture entitled The Backwoodsman, which was exhibited at
the Boston Athenaeum in 1848 and later owned by Wellesley College.27
In ensuing years Dexter produced more sculptures for patrons at Mount
Auburn Cemetery, including a statue of Frank Gardner (1851), the
Mountfort Monument (1853), and even the elaborate granite curbing at
his own family's lot. Dexter was also commissioned to sculpt a dog for
a grave at Forest Hills Cemetery (1854). All of these works are extant
today.

The popularity of Tlie Binney Child probably inspired other lot
owners to commission sculptures for family graves. Commissions for
works destined for placement — and viewing — at Mount Auburn began
to increase. Philocosmos, the regular correspondent of the Boston Daily
Evening Transcript, having just viewed a work in progress destined
for Mount Auburn Cemetery, commented in 1842: "If those who
have lots in Mount Auburn will but employ the genius of American
artists, undoubtedly the first in the world, they may soon make it
as remarkable for the treasures of art collected there, as it is now for
its scenery."28 That prediction was coming true even as he wrote
those words.

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 1 1 7

One of the most notable of the early works to grace Mount Auburn's
landscape was a sculpture of a dog (Fig. 6). In the mid-1830s Horatio
Greenough, already hailed as America's most celebrated sculptor,
received a commission from the Perkins family for a sculpture to be
placed at Mount Auburn Cemetery. More than any other figure of early
nineteenth-century Boston, Thomas Handasyd Perkins (1764-1854), the
patriarch of that family, had already helped to promote what one scholar
has called the "spirit of collecting" in Boston.29 Known as "The Merchant
Prince" for his extremely successful enterprise in the China Trade and
his many other business ventures, Perkins often put his wealth to use for
the betterment of Boston institutions and society. An early and lifelong
patron of the arts, Perkins was one of Horatio Greenough' s earliest
supporters. He provided the twelve-year-old Horatio with access to the
private collections of the Boston Athenaeum to study its plaster casts
and statuary, and, later on, with passage (on one of his merchant ships)
to Italy, where Greenough continued his studies and embarked on his
professional career. In 1835 Perkins, his son Thomas Handasyd Perkins,
Junior, and his grandson Thomas Handasyd Perkins, Tertius, visited
Greenough at his studio in Florence, where they approvingly viewed
Greenough's works in progress. These included a large sculpture of
George Washington, which would later become Greenough's most
controversial work.

The two Perkins men may also have met Greenough's new pet
greyhound Arno, who would become the subject of one of Greenough's
few animal sculptures, completed around 1839 and exhibited at the
Boston Athenaeum in 1840 (now in the collection of the Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston). A commission for a sculpture of a dog may have been
extended at that time by one of the Perkins men to Greenough. It is not
known if the commission was from Perkins Senior, who owned a crypt in
a Boston church and a lot (never used and later sold) at Mount Auburn,
or his son, who actually owned the lot at Mount Auburn where the dog
was eventually placed.31 It is also not known if the Perkins sculpture was
meant to represent a family pet. Greenough mentions his work on the
"Perkins dog" only once, in connection with his difficulty in finding a
suitable live model. There is no indication he found one; his solution
was "to send to Paris for a good lithograph, which, with a St. Bernard
specimen, must answer."31

118

Museum in the Garden

Fig. 6. Horatio Greenough, Dog, Perkins Family gravesite, circa 1844.
Photograph by author.

Fig. 7. Joseph Gott, English Setter, Francis Calley Gray gravesite
(1837, placed circa 1856). Photograph by author.

Elise Madeleine Ciregna

119

Greenough's final result was a delightful representation of a New-
foundland, a popular nineteenth-century breed of dog. The dog has an
animated expression and a thick, curly coat that is more characteristic of
a Saint Bernard dog. Since Greenough acknowledged he planned to use
a Saint Bernard as a live model, this is not surprising, but the fact that
Saint Bernards, another popular breed during the Victorian era, were
sometimes crossbred with Newfoundland dogs to produce the hardy
combination of physical qualities that still persists in both breeds helps
to explain Greenough's conception and the visual characteristics of the
final result. The sculpture proved to be a favorite at the cemetery from
its placement sometime in the 1840s. Nathaniel Dearborn's 1848 Guide
Tluvugh Mount Auburn stated that the Perkins Dog "is much admired;
— and as history makes records of so many acts of fidelity, watchfulness
and sagacity of the Dog, it is here considered appropriate to place him, as
an apparent guard to the remains of the family who were his friends; — it
was beautifully sculptured in Italy from the purest Italian marble." In

Fig. 8. Thomas A. Carew, Dog, Harnden Monument, circa 1866.
Photograph by author.

120 Museum in the Garden

later years the Perkins Dog would be joined by other dogs commissioned
from sculptors, including the reclining dog at Francis Calley Gray's grave
(Fig. 7), commissioned from English sculptor Joseph Gott (completed
1837, placed at Mount Auburn in 1856 or 1857), the bulldog guarding
the Harnden Monument (Fig. 8), sculpted by the stonecutter Thomas
Carew (circa 1866), and a small dog by sculptor Martin Milmore (1866).
Henry Dexter and Erastus Dow Palmer were also among the artists who
sculpted dogs and animals for gravesites at other American cemeteries.
By the late 1830s, garden cemeteries based on the model of Mount
Auburn began to appear throughout America. Laurel Hill Cemetery
was founded in Philadelphia in 1836, and Green-Wood Cemetery in
New York (Brooklyn) was founded just two years later, in 1838. In
Massachusetts, Forest Hills Cemetery near Boston (1848) and Worcester's
Hope Cemetery (1849) were founded within months of each other. By
1849, the great nineteenth-century landscape designer Andrew Jackson
Downing could assert that "scarcely a city of note in the whole country"
lacked a rural cemetery. Writing in his magazine, The Horticulturist,
Downing stated:

The three great leading cities of the north, New York,
Philadelphia, Boston, have, each of them, besides their
great cemeteries — Greenwood, Laurel Hill, Mount Auburn
— many others of less note . . . any of which would have
astonished and delighted their inhabitants twenty years
ago. The great attraction of these cemeteries is not in the fact
that they are burial places ... all these might be realized
in a burial ground planted with straight lines of willows
and sombre avenues of evergreens. The true secret of the
attraction lies in the natural beauty of the sites, and in the
tasteful and harmonious embellishment of these sites by art.
. . . Indeed, in the absence of great public gardens, such as we
must surely one day have in America, our rural cemeteries
are doing a great deal to enlarge and educate the popular
taste in rural embellishment.32

As they had at Mount Auburn Cemetery, sculptors received
commissions from patrons at many of the newer cemeteries, and the
public continued to receive an education in "the tasteful and harmonious

Elise Madeleine Cireena 1 2 1

embellishments" of American sculpture. Smith's Illustrated Guide To and
Through Laurel Hill Cemetery (1852) announced in its introduction that
its purpose was to show the visitor "every object of interest in both the
North and South Laurel Hill Cemeteries, pointing out the beauties and
merits of the many scenes and works of art with which they abound."
The guide instructed arriving visitors to head first toward the statues
of Old Mortality, His Pony, and Sir Walter Scott that are still in place just
inside the main entrance, since these were "exquisite specimens of art"
and "superb in design, execution and finish." The author also noted that
the pony and Scott statues were carved of "American stone."33 Although
an observer today, with a more jaded eye, might consider the sculptures
somewhat awkward in execution, they helped to attract visitors to the
cemetery and probably introduced many to their first view of formal
sculpture.

While Greenough's Perkins Dog was a relatively minor — albeit
popular — work by a major artist, the Amos Binney Monument by Thomas
Crawford proved to be one of America's most important funerary
works (Fig. 9). Crawford, based in Rome, had already found acclaim
in Boston with his sculpture of Orpheus and Cerberus, paid for with
funds raised by the patrons of the Boston Athenaeum, of which Amos
Binney was an active member (though it is not known if the two men
ever met). The Orpheus and Cerberus had been exhibited several years
earlier in its own specially constructed and decorated exhibit space,
generating much public interest and admiration.34 Charles Sumner,
the young Boston lawyer who would later gain fame as a United
States senator and staunch abolitionist, was Crawford's earliest and
most committed patron, initiating the subscription fund to purchase
the Orpheus and personally attending to the construction and finish
details of the exhibit space.

Mary Ann Binney commissioned the monument from Crawford
after her husband died in 1847 in Rome, where the couple was travelling.
The sculpture was destined for placement on Binney' s grave at Mount
Auburn, where his remains were interred. Discussed in detail by scholar
Lauretta Dimmick in an article in Markers IX, the memorial to Amos
Binney — little Emily Binney's uncle — was, as classical scholar Cornelius
C. Vermeule III has stated, "Mount Auburn's dramatic entry into the
world of American Neo-Classic, Neo-Roman sculpture."35 As Dimmick

122

Museum in the Garden

Fig. 9. Thomas Crawford, Male Soul Ascending, The Amos Binney

Monument, 1850. Photograph, courtesy of Meg Winslow,

Curator of Historical Collections, Mount Auburn Cemetery.

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 123

has described, the large and elegant white marble sculpture incorporated
classical motifs of death and mourning.36 The most striking features of
the monument were the figures carved in relief on either side. The side
referring to Amos Binney represented an ascending soul. The other side
depicted the grieving widow as a classical Christian pilgrim (Fig. 10). 37

The depiction of the ascending soul as male was a completely
original departure from the usual classical representation of the soul
as female. Staying away from strict neoclassical tenets that males be
depicted as nude, Crawford, acting perhaps on a request from Mrs.
Binney or in deference to American public taste, clothed Binney' s spirit
figure in diaphanous, rippling drapery, tastefully outlining the male
form clearly beneath the cloth (Fig. 11). Crawford was not just being
overly cautious or deferring to his patron's taste, however. In a society
that still regarded the nude figure with shock or disgust — as Fanny
Trollope found out during her excursion in Philadelphia — Crawford
would have had plenty of reasons to be concerned about depicting
a contemporary male as a nude figure. The controversy surrounding
the 1841 unveiling of Horatio Greenough's George Washington was one
reason. Greenough's high-minded conception of George Washington
as a Zeus-like figure dressed only in a toga and Roman sandals had
provided years of sarcastic comments and comic fodder for critics and
cynics at Greenough's expense. The American public was appalled at
the sculpture of a bare-chested, nearly nude American hero, and the
sculpture was finally laughed out of its prominent outdoor location
to a less visible situation. Greenough had also endured criticism for a
sculpture depicting nude cherubs, prompting concerned citizens to tie
aprons around the small sculptures' waists.

Sensitive to these concerns, Crawford had avoided incurring similar
criticism with his very first important sculpture of Orpheus by giving
his otherwise nude hero a fig leaf and a cape, covering all the physical
attributes of the god that his public might have found objectionable.
Similarly, the male ascending spirit of the Amos Binney monument
was moderately covered. The nude figure — particularly the female
nude figure — definitely became part of the nineteenth-century popular
American sculptural canon, as celebrated works such as Hiram Powers'
Tlie Greek Slave (1844) and Erastus Dow Palmer's The White Captive (1859)
attest. But sculptural works installed at cemeteries in nineteenth-century
America were unfailingly draped, clothed, and robed, reserving the nude

124

Museum in the Garden

Fig. 10. Thomas Crawford, Female Mourner, The Amos Binney

Monument, 1850. Arthur C. Haskell photograph, circa 1937.

Courtesy, Mount Auburn Cemetery.

Elise Madeleine Ciregna

125

Fig. 11. Detail of Amos Binney monument.

figure for other types of commissions and public exhibits. Crawford and
generations of fellow sculptors carefully navigated the waters of public
ignorance and morality to obtain American patrons.

Anticipating another masterwork from the creator of the Orpheus,
the American public excitedly awaited the arrival of Tlw Amos Binney
Monument from Italy. Finally, three years after Binney's death, the
New-York Commercial Advertiser announced on June 4, 1850: "We inform
the lovers of the fine arts that another admirable work by our gifted
countryman, Crawford . . . has arrived in this city from Rome. It has been
expected for some time, but owing to its great size considerable difficulty
occurred in finding a vessel at Leghorn that would receive it on board."3'
The monument was soon on its way to Boston, where as expected, it was
received with great public approval. The Boston Daily Evening Transcript
pronounced T)ie Amos Binney Monument a "work of rare merit,"39 and
guidebooks listed "the splendid mausoleum of two fronts to Dr. Binney"
as one of the main points of interest in the cemetery.40 Although Crawford
had designed other funerary monuments and actively competed for

126 Museum in the Garden

commissions of these, his death of brain cancer at forty-four years of
age in 1857, at the height of his artistic mastery and fame, prevented
him from executing any more. At his death he was working on another
work, discussed below, for Mount Auburn Cemetery. Vie Amos Binney
Monument remains one of his most recognized works and his only
realized funerary monument. A daguerreotype made by the Boston firm
of Southworth and Hawes soon after the monument's installation shows
a glossy white marble sculpture that fairly glows in its surroundings.
Though now badly weathered, The Amos Binney Monument is today still
considered a masterpiece of early American sculpture.41

The importance of the cemetery to patronage of American sculpture
is highlighted by one of the most extraordinary acts of Mount Auburn's
trustees. In 1840, as the trustees discussed plans for a chapel (now known
as the Bigelow Chapel), the minutes record the idea that the proposed
building should also "become the repository of Marble Busts and Statues
and other Sepulchral [monuments] which may from time to time be
placed there by liberal Benefactors and Friends in memory of the Dead,
and which would not bear the exposure of the open air in our Climate."42
The suggestion was controversial and generated heated debates about
the propriety of using funds for the purpose of commissioning sculpture
(a notion which seems also to have been part of these discussions).
Recorded comments from several trustees in favor of the sculpture
show they felt strongly about the necessity of "embellishments": "Rich
dresses are embellishments of the person, virtue is an embellishment
of the mind, and liberal arts are an embellishment of society. And we
think commemoration statues are an embellishment of a Cemetery."43 The
argument in favor of sculpture prevailed.

The sudden death in 1845 of Joseph Story, one of the founders
of Mount Auburn and the man who had delivered its memorable
consecration address, provided the impetus for the cemetery to
commission a large, figural memorial of the eminent jurist (Fig. 12), the
first major sculpture planned for placement in the new chapel. Story's
son, William Wetmore Story, a lawyer and amateur artist, received the
commission in a surprise decision. The younger Story had long harbored

Elise Madeleine Cireana 127

a desire to become an artist. His father's death, ironically, finally gave
him the freedom to fulfill his dream. Story and his family moved to Italy,
where he pursued his training as a sculptor while working on his first
important commission. The work took nearly ten years to complete, a
remarkable comment on the trustees' willingness to support such an
endeavor. Cemetery trustees thereafter decided to commission three
more figural statues, each meant to represent important men of different
periods in American, and more specifically, Massachusetts history.
To ensure that the commissions would all be completed in a timely
fashion and to provide work for as many deserving American sculptors
as possible, each commission was awarded to a different sculptor, all
of whom lived abroad: the figure of John Winthrop (the first governor
of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, representing the earliest period) to
Richard Saltonstall Greenough (Horatio Greenough's younger brother);
the figure of James Otis (the lawyer and political leader, representing the
first resistance to British power) to Thomas Crawford; and the figure of
John Adams (a founding father and second President of the United States,
representing independence and establishment of republican law) to
Randolph Rogers (Figs. 13-15). The sculpture of Joseph Story represented
the fourth period in American history, an era of the "supremacy of law
and of intellectual, moral, and social progress."44 Horatio Greenough
might have received a commission in place of his brother, who was
at the beginning of his professional success, but Greenough had died
prematurely in December 1852, leaving the field he had pioneered to
others. That the trustees nearly exhausted their possibilities of well-
respected American sculptors for the commissions is a telling comment
on the state of American sculpture in its earliest generations.

There were numerous delays and complications along the way.
The most serious of these were the untimely death of Crawford before
completion of his commission and the loss at sea of Rogers's sculpture.
Rogers, one of Crawford's closest friends, not only finished Crawford's
sculpture but also reproduced another of his own (with the help of the
Italian stonecutters who usually produced Rogers's final versions). By
1859, the sculptures of all four of the "persons distinguished in American
history" were in place in the chapel, where they watched over several
generations of mourners attending services. No record has been found of
public or personal experience with these particular sculptures, although

128

Museum in the Garden

Figure 12. William Wetmore
Story, Joseph Story, 1855. Half
of a stereographic photograph,
circa 1865. Courtesy, Society
for the Preservation of
New England Antiquities.

Fig. 13. Richard Saltonstall

Greenough, John Winthrop,

1857. Half of a stereographic

photograph, circa 1865. Courtesy,

Society for the Preservation of

New England Antiquities.

Elise Madeleine Ciregna

129

H 1

st't

Fig. 14. Thomas Crawford,
James Otis, 1857-58. Half of a
stereographic photograph,
circa 1865. Courtesy, Society
for the Preservation of
New England Antiquities.

Fig. 15. Randolph Rogers,

John Adams, 1857-59. Half of a

stereographic photograph,

circa 1865. Courtesy, Society

for the Preservation of

New England Antiquities.

130 Museum in the Garden

guidebooks clearly included the chapel as one of the recommended
stops for casual visitors, making it difficult to draw any conclusions
about the direct effect of these commissions on each of the sculptors'
future patrons.

Nevertheless, the professional careers of each of the Bigelow Chapel
sculptors flourished (with the obvious exception of Crawford, the most
senior of the four, who was a leading artist of America's pioneering first
generation of sculptors) after these commissions. All became celebrated
artists in their time. Story and Rogers each subsequently executed
important works for placement at other cemeteries. Story's memorial
to his wife, entitled the Angel of Grief, erected at her gravesite in Rome's
Protestant Cemetery, apparently captured the American public's
attention. The sculpture was reproduced in blueprint form by at least
one monument company, the Leland Company in New York City, and
sculpted for the Cassard family gravesite in Green-Wood Cemetery
sometime around 1910.45 A number of reproductions have also appeared
in other cemeteries in various shades of marble as well as granite. A
recent article in the AGS Quarterly by Sybil F. Crawford identifies at least
seven other known reproductions of the Angel of Death, as it is also called,
including works at Calvary Cemetery, St. Louis, Missouri; Cypress
Lawn Cemetery, Colma, California; Forest Park Lawndale Cemetery
and Glenwood Cemetery, both in Houston, Texas; Friendship Cemetery,
Columbus, Mississippi; Oakland Cemetery, Little Rock, Arkansas; and
Scottsville Cemetery, Scottsville, Texas.46 Although angels became fairly
common grave sculpture motifs during the nineteenth century, Story's
creation, the production of a professionally trained artist, seems to have
struck a particularly resonant chord with mourners over the years.

After his work for Mount Auburn Cemetery, Randoph Rogers received
commissions for several more sculptural works placed in cemeteries.
When industrialist Samuel Colt, inventor of the Colt revolver, died in
January 1862, his wife commissioned Rogers to design a monument for
her husband's grave in Cedar Hill Cemetery in Hartford, Connecticut.
Installed in the late 1860s, the elaborate monument entitled the Angel of
Resurrection consists of a large base and tall shaft of granite supporting
a bronze sculpture.47 A memorial sculpture on an entirely different scale
was the one Rogers designed and executed for J.W. Waterman of Detroit
in 1868 (Fig. 16). Titled Flight of the Spirit, the monument is reminiscent

Elise Madeleine Ciregna

131

Fig. 16. Randolph Rogers, Flight of the Spirit (J.W. Waterman
Monument), 1868. Courtesy, Elmwood Cemetery, Detroit.

132

Museum in the Garden

Fig. 17. Thomas Ball, The dickering Monument ("The Realization
of Faith"), 1872. Courtesy, Mount Auburn Cemetery.

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 133

in conception of Thomas Crawford's Amos Binney Monument, executed
twenty years before. Rogers produced another version of his Flight of
the Spirit for his own gravesite in Rome's Campo Verano Cemetery.
Inscribed into the stone is a line from Henry Wadsworth Longfellow:
"Dead is he not, but departed — for the artist never dies."48

As the first generation of American sculptors passed from the scene,
succeeding generations of professional American sculptors continued
to add sculptures to the landscape of Mount Auburn Cemetery. Works
ranging in size from the massive Chickering Monument, also known as
The Realization of Faith (1872), by Thomas Ball, creator of the popular
George Washington statue in Boston's Public Garden, to the delicate figure
of the goddess Hygeia (1875) by Edmonia Lewis, America's first African-
American sculptor, provided allegorical figures and classical references
for the enjoyment of viewers (Figs. 17-18). Thomas Ball also trained some
of America's best-known sculptors, including Martin Milmore and Daniel
Chester French, the creator of the Lincoln Memorial. The sculptor Martin
Milmore may hold the distinction for having produced the widest range
in size of sculptural works at one cemetery. At Mount Auburn, he was
not only commissioned to sculpt a small dog for the grave of two young
brothers and an angel for a different family's daughter's grave, but he
also carved Mount Auburn's largest and best-known work, the great
Sphinx (Fig. 19). Commissioned in the late 1860s by Jacob Bigelow, one of
the founders of the cemetery, and installed with great public fanfare in
the summer of 1872, the Sphinx commemorated the end of the Civil War
and slavery. Milmore had also completed one of his best-known works,
the Roxbury Soldiers' Monument, for the Forest Hills Cemetery outside
Boston (1867). Milmore's legacy as a sculptor would later be highlighted
and linked by Boston's two great garden cemeteries. In 1892, nine years
after Milmore's early death from liver disease, Daniel Chester French
created a memorable memorial to Martin Milmore and his stonecutter
brothers, all of whom had also died tragically young. Now situated at
the entrance to Forest Hills Cemetery, where Milmore is buried, the large
bronze relief is entitled Tlie Angel of Death Staying the Hand of the Sculptor.
The sculpture depicts Milmore interrupted in his work by the winged
figure of Death. In a direct reference to Mount Auburn Cemetery, the
work the sculptor is engaged in is the carving of the figure of the Sphinx
at Mount Auburn (Fig. 20).

134

Museum in the Garden

Fig. 18. Edmonia Lewis, Hygeia
(Harriot Kezia Hunt Monument), 1875. Photograph by author.

Elise Madeleine Ciresna

135

Fig. 19. Martin Milmore, The Sphinx, 1871. One-half of a
stereographic photograph. Courtesy, Mount Auburn Cemetery.

136

Museum in the Garden

Nineteenth-century chroniclers lauded the accomplishments of
Mount Auburn's founders. In a memoir of Jacob Bigelow, published in
1880, one biographer wrote that Bigelow "was the first — we may say, in
Christendom — to conceive, propose, and earnestly and patiently guide
on to a most complete triumph, the plan of an extensive forest-garden
cemetery, combining the wildness of nature with the finish of culture,
with all appropriate arrangements and adornments." The "finish of
culture" included the sophisticated and "appropriate" presentation of
nineteenth-century American sculpture.49

The Civil War and its wrenching aftermath, as historians have noted,
sounded the death knell for American sentimentalism in literature
and art. Death no longer held a romantic, melancholy attraction to
cemetery-goers. In sculpture, the effects were also felt, as war memorials

Fig. 20. Daniel Chester French, Milmore Memorial, 1891, Forest Hills
Cemetery. Courtesy, Forest Hills Cemetery Educational Trust.

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 137

dominated commissions. Milmore's Roxbury Soldiers' Monument of 1867
and Augustus Saint-Gaudens' Shaw Memorial (1884, cast 1897) were part
of a new aesthetic that helped usher in a new era in American memorial
sculpture in which classically-inspired allusions in glowing white marble
gave way to realistic representations of fallen soldiers and patriots,
usually captured in the dark tones of the more robust medium of bronze.
Gravesite commissions extended to late-nineteenth-century American
sculptors — among them the Adams Memorial by St. Gaudens in Rock
Creek Cemetery, Washington, D.C., commissioned by native Bostonian
Henry Adams — also shifted from classical references in white marble
to more contemporary representations in bronze and granite, materials
that were more durable and permanent. Marble gravesite sculpture
became the domain of monument companies producing angels, lambs,
doves, tree stumps, and botanical motifs in great quantities. In an ironic
twist, these often exquisitely carved sculptures were usually produced
by anonymous workmen, harking back to the artisan traditions of an
earlier age (Fig. 21).

As Downing had predicted in 1849, America had developed parks
and gardens, spurred by the successes of Frederick Law Olmsted (1822-
1903) and his design of New York's Central Park.50 Public art museums,
developed with collections formed by earlier generations of patrons
and collectors, also began to proliferate. In 1876, one of America's first
public art museums, Boston's Museum of Fine Arts, opened its doors
to the public in its handsome, elaborately decorated building in Copley
Square. The great entrance hall and rooms were filled with the museum's
collection of American sculptures, some by the same early generations of
sculptors whose works graced the grounds of Mount Auburn Cemetery,
including Thomas Crawford and Horatio Greenough. In other rooms,
white marble sculptures by Randolph Rogers, William Wetmore Story,
and others lined the walls. Technological developments facilitated the
mass production of popular sculptures as small-scale tabletop pieces,
which could be found in nearly every respectable American middle-
class parlor. A much more experienced and urbane public now went to
museums rather than the cemetery to see the latest works by favorite
artists.

In the twentieth century, many of the sculptures that had earlier
generated such public excitement disappeared with time, hastening
their obscurity. Little Emily Binney's memorial survived the harsh

138

Museum in the Garden

Fig. 21. Anonymous, "Father" and "Mother" gravestones,

Mount Auburn Cemetery, late nineteenth century.

Photograph by author.

New England climate for less than a century. Some sculptures made
their way out of Mount Auburn Cemetery for other reasons. The four
"historical figures" in Bigelow Chapel were eventually moved to a new
administration building on the grounds of Mount Auburn in the 1890s
and displayed in its rotunda. In 1935 the sculptures were donated to
Harvard University, which still owns them today. Now separated from
each other, the statue of Joseph Story greets visitors to the Harvard Law
School Library; John Adams and John Winthrop flank the entrance to
Annenberg Hall, the freshman dining room; and James Otis stands to
one side of the stage in Harvard's Sanders Theatre, paired with another,
unrelated sculpture of Josiah Quincy (a sculpture by William Wetmore
Story, lending at least a coincidental connection). Few, if any, of the
students and staff who pass by these statues have any idea of their
origins, or wonder about them at all. Meant to be viewed together, the
sculptures have lost their original context and have become part of the
background.

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 139

Cemeteries and sculpture are largely peripheral to our lives
today. This was not the case during much of the nineteenth century.
Dialogues about proper burial, death and commemoration, nature
and landscapes, democracy and sculpture formed part of the daily
discourse of newspapers, writers, intellectuals, and ordinary people.
Nathaniel Hawthorne was so inspired by American sculpture that
he based the characters in his novel Tlie Marble Faun on his American
sculptor friends living in Italy (the main character of Kenyon was based
on William Wetmore Story). Similarly, Henry James, one of America's
most celebrated authors, became William Wetmore Story's biographer.
Contemporary responses to cemetery sculpture expressed a range of
attitudes and emotions in American society, from nationalistic sentiments
to the grief of losing a child. Famous authors such as Lydia Sigourney as
well as anonymous writers wrote odes to the statuary at Mount Auburn
Cemetery, or memorials to the sculptors who had produced America's
first great works, articulating a popular excitement that no cemetery or
sculpture would likely generate today.

Because of the relative lack of attention and documentation con-
cerning mid-nineteenth-century cemetery sculpture, it is difficult to
assess the quantity of cemetery commissions extended to sculptors
during the early period of American academic sculpture. As far as is
known, Greenough and Crawford never received any commissions for
cemeteries other than the ones discussed here, although it must be
remembered that each of these sculptors died at the height of his fame
and abilities. As noted earlier, Henry Dexter produced more monuments
at Mount Auburn after Tlie Binney Child. Besides the Waterman and Colt
monuments in Detroit and Hartford respectively, Randolph Rogers
also produced memorial and cemetery works for Gettysburg National
Military Park (Pennsylvania), National Memorial Park (Falls Church,
Virginia), and Spring Grove Cemetery in Cincinnati. During his relatively
short career, Martin Milmore also executed commissions installed at
Pine Grove Cemetery in Appleton, Maine, and Chester Rural Cemetery
in Chester, Pennsylvania. Another work in Oak Grove Cemetery, Bath,
Maine, is probably a copy of a Milmore sculpture. Thomas Ball, the
creator of Vie Chickering Memorial at Mount Auburn and part of the
second generation of American sculptors, produced works for patrons
at Forest Hills Cemetery just outside Boston, and Woodlawn Cemetery
in Elmira, New York. Henry Kirke Brown, one of the lesser-known and

140 Museum in the Garden

today under-appreciated sculptors of the nineteenth century, produced
works for Mount Auburn Cemetery and Green-Wood Cemetery
in Brooklyn, New York; another sculpture in Allegheny Cemetery,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is attributed to him.51 Besides the lack of
reliable records, many uncelebrated sculptors worked in near obscurity,
producing copies of works by the better-known artists discussed here.
The bas-relief carved on the 1845 Hurlbert Monument at Mount Auburn
Cemetery is an exact copy taken from funerary designs published in
1844 by Edward Augustus Brackett, the Boston sculptor responsible for
the notable cenotaph of Hosea Ballou (1859) at Mount Auburn. Since the
work is unsigned, it is impossible to know if Brackett himself carved the
work or if his design influenced some other local artist.

For a variety of reasons, some commissions were never completed.
Brackett himself apparently received a commission for a work at
Mount Auburn Cemetery long before the Hosea Ballon, a work that
"Philocosmos" reported on in January 1842 for Boston Daily Evening
Transcript: "I have repeatedly looked into Mr. Brackett's studio to see the
progress he has been making in a model for a piece of statuary intended
for Mount Auburn; as whatever tends to beautify that resting place of
those we have loved, is of interest to us all."32 Nothing further is known
of this work, a sarcophagus, which, as far as is known, never appeared
on Mount Auburn's landscape. Upon the great orator and statesman
Edward Everett's death and burial at Mount Auburn in 1865, the Everett
family commissioned Hiram Powers — who along with Greenough and
Crawford completed the mid-nineteenth-century triumvirate of most
celebrated American sculptors — to execute a sculpture for the gravesite.
Powers had been a close friend of Everett's and had even named one
of his sons, Edward Everett Powers, in his honor. For reasons that are
unclear, the sculpture was never installed but was donated to Harvard
instead. The family then hired sculptor Harriet Hosmer to create an
allegorical figure entitled Eloquence for the Everett gravesite; that
commission was never completed. Everett's grave instead was finally
marked by an elegant, classically inspired sarcophagus.53

Mount Auburn Cemetery's prominent and influential role as one
of America's first truly public cultural institutions and as an early
institutional patron and promoter of American sculpture cannot be
ignored by social and cultural historians of nineteenth-century America.

Elise Madeleine Ciresna 141

American sculpture's first exhaustive historian, Lorado Taft, pointed out
in the early twentieth century that for the first generations of American
sculptors, "immortality seemed to lay through the graveyard."54 But
the most eloquent commentary is from the contemporary sources that
reported on the great happenings at Mount Auburn and recorded the
excitement sculpture generated in Boston society. Thanks in part to the
leading role of the American cemetery in introducing great numbers of
Americans to original academic sculpture, America was not a cultural
wasteland. In spite of the dire predictions of the Reverend Smith and
Fanny Trollope, Americans were, indeed, looking at statues.

142 Museum in the Garden

NOTES

1 Reverend Sydney Smith's statement is excerpted from The Edinburgh
Review 33 (1820): 79. His commentary was part of an on-going series of articles
decrying America's backwardness as a culture. Richard V. McLamore notes
in "The Dutchman in the Attic: Claiming an Inheritance in Tlie Sketch Book of
Geoffrey Crayon," American Literature 72.1 (2000): 31-57, that Smith's attacks on
America were designed to protect England's reputation as an advanced society
and to discourage emigration to the New World.

2 "Ancient Sculpture," Vie Boston Spectator 1.10 (March 5, 1814): 38.

3 Albert TenEyck Gardner, Yankee Stonecutters: Tlie First American School of
Sculpture, 1800-1850 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1945), 10-11. '
Gardner also lists foreign sculptors who migrated to America and documented
stonecutters working in America in the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth
centuries (although today this list can be substantially expanded).

4 Frederic A. Sharf, "The Garden Cemetery and American Sculpture: Mount
Auburn," The Art Quarterly 24 (Spring 1961): 80-88.

5 The study of American sculpture itself has largely suffered in relation to the
vast body of literature that has been written concerning American painting.
Reflective of sculpture's late start in the American consciousness, the first
important work dealing exclusively with American sculpture, Tlie History

of American Sculpture by Lorado Taft, did not appear until 1903 (New York:
The Macmillan Company). Taft's book would remain the only major work
on American sculpture through subsequent editions. The next serious study
of sculpture was Albert TenEyck Gardner's Yankee Stonecutters: Tlie First
American School of Sculpture, 1800-1850 (New York: Columbia University Press,
1945). This study was more limited in scope and relatively short. Another
comprehensive study of sculpture similar in breadth to Taft's would not appear
until 1968, with Wayne Craven's seminal Sculpture in America (New York:
Thomas Y. Crowell Company). More recently, a number of books specializing
in various aspects of sculpture have appeared, including studies of women
sculptors and biographies of various sculptors. However, with the exception of
Gardner's book and another short work by William Gerdts entitled American
Neo-classic Sculpture (1973), the period of early American sculpture, almost
by definition Neoclassical, is routinely passed over in favor of sculptors who
found their greatest fame with Civil War monuments and later works.

6 See, in particular, three fine dissertations, none of which has yet been
published: Jan M. Seidler, "A Critical Reappraisal of the Career of William
Wetmore Story (1819-1895), American Sculptor and Man of Letters," (Ph.
D. diss., Boston University, 1985); Lauretta Dimmick, "A Catalogue of the
Portrait Busts and Ideal Works of Thomas Crawford (18137-1857), American
Sculptor in Rome," (Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh, 1986); and David

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 143

Bernard Dearinger, "American Neoclassic Sculptors and their Private Patrons
in Boston," (Ph.D. diss., City University of New York, 1993). Cultural historian
Joy Kasson's Marble Queens and Captives: Women in Nineteenth-Century American
Sculpture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), is a fascinating study of
nineteenth-century American attitudes toward contemporary representations
of female figures in American Neoclassical sculpture. In the chapter entitled
"Death and Domestication" Kasson looks at some of the associations between
death and cemetery sculpture. See also, Jonathan L. Fairbanks, "Eternal
Celebration in American Memorials," Markers XVI (1999):104-137.

7 Stanley French, "The Cemetery as Cultural Institution: The Establishment of
Mount Auburn and the 'Rural Cemetery' Movement," American Quarterly 26.1
(March 1974): 37.

8 Carved and Modeled, 9; David Bernard Dearinger, "American Neoclassic
Sculptors and Their Private Patrons in Boston," (Ph.D. diss., City University of
New York, 1993), 20. The distinction between "sculptor" and "artisan" becomes
problematic when considering the work of men such as the woodcarver
William Rush (1756-1833) and the stonecutter John Frazee (1790-1852), two
early American artisans who produced sculpture based on classical antecedents
and who were active professionally well before the period under discussion

in this article. Besides his ship figureheads, Rush carved full-size figures in
pine — for example, his pair of statues entitled Comedy and Tragedy (1808) —
based on classical statuary, and meant for display in a public setting. Frazee
also produced marble portrait busts based on classical styles for patrons such as
the Boston Athenaeum. Neither man, however, ever left his career as an artisan
and producer of utilitarian works to engage in a full-time, exclusive career as
"artist" or "sculptor." Throughout his career, Rush listed himself simply as a
"carver" in Philadelphia city directories. Thomas Eakins' paintings entitled
William Rush Carving His Allegorical Figure of the Schuylkill (1877) and William
Rush and His Model (1908) attest to the deep respect Eakins felt for Rush as a
pioneer of early American academic art.

9 Fanny Trollope, Domestic Manners of the Americans, ed. Pamela Neville-
Sington (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1997), 208.

10 1 am indebted to Dr. Elizabeth Roark of Chatham College for alerting me to
the possibility that this painting was produced to advertise Palmer's work. Dr.
Roark notes that Palmer's studio during this period comprised several floors of
a building — and therefore, Matteson's conception of Palmer's studio conflated
activities on several floors into one large area.

11 Frances Boott Greenough, ed., Letters of Horatio Greenough to his Brother,
Henry Greenough (Boston: Ticknor and Company, 1887), 129. One hundred
napoleons was roughly equivalent to $500.00. Greenough resolved his
complaint by raising his fees for portrait busts considerably.

144 Museum in the Garden

12 Joy S. Kasson, Marble Queens and Captives: Women in Nineteenth-Century
American Sculpture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 1.

13 See especially Blanche Linden- Ward's book, the most comprehensive and
authoritative work on Mount Auburn Cemetery.

14 Blanche Linden- Ward, "Strange but Genteel Pleasure Grounds: Tourist
and Leisure Uses of Nineteenth-Century Rural Cemeteries," in Cemeteries &
Gravemarkers: Voices of American Culture, ed. Richard E. Meyer (Logan: Utah
State University Press, 1992), 300.

15 Policies varied from cemetery to cemetery, but at Mount Auburn these
included the issuance of one-time passes to tourists, the banning of non-lot
holders on Sunday, and the banning of horseback riding.

16 French, "The Cemetery as Cultural Institution," 48.

17 Vie Picturesque Pocket Companion and Visitor's Guide, through Mount Auburn
(Boston: Otis, Broaders and Company, 1839), 75.

18 Philocosmos, "The Fine Arts," Boston Daily Evening Transcript (November 27,
1841).

19 Charles J.F. Binney, Genealogy of the Binney Family in the United States
(Albany, NY: Joel Munsell's Sons, 1886), 35. In his 1961 article on American
sculptors' works at Mount Auburn Cemetery, Frederic Sharf mistakenly
identified the date of the installation of the Emily Binney memorial as 1842.
Although Sharf did not cite his reference, I believe he misread an 1842 article
that mentioned the Binney memorial, an error that has been repeated by
successive scholars.

20 My Master's thesis entitled "Museum in the Garden: Mount Auburn
Cemetery and the Development of American Sculpture, 1825-1875" (Harvard
University, 2002) discusses in much greater detail the careers of all of the
sculptors mentioned here. Dexter and the history of The Binney Child is the
topic of Chapter Four. See also Kasson, Marble Queens, 109-116.

21 The 1793 Monument to Penelope Boothby by Banks is in St. Oswald's Parish
Church, Ashbourne, Derbyshire. Chantrey's The Sleeping Children (1817), a
monument to two young sisters who died together, is in Litchfield Cathedral,
Staffordshire. Both sculptures still receive substantial visitation today.

The location of Lorenzo Bartolini's sculpture entitled Innocence (ca.1825) is
unknown; I have only seen a photograph of a plaster cast of this work.

22 John Albee, Henri/ Dexter, Sculptor: A Memorial (Cambridge, MA: privately
printed, 1898), 59-60.

23 One image is the rather crude line drawing used in the guidebooks and
reproduced here; the other is an 1847 engraving by artist James Smillie.
Although Smillie's work was excellent, the distant perspective and odd angle

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 145

he used in his view of Tlie Binney Child makes any assessment of the sculpture's
technical and aesthetic qualities impossible.

24 Nathaniel Hawthorne, "The New Adam and Eve," Mosses from an Old Manse
(New York, NY: Books for Libraries Press, Arno Press, 1970), 301.

23 Kasson, Marble Queens, 114-115; Smithsonian Institution Research
Information System. Works by Erastus Dow Palmer at the Albany Rural
Cemetery in Menands, New York, include The Angel at the Sepulchre at the
Banks lot and a granite monument at the grave of United States Senator and
three-term New York Governor William Learned Marcy. Reports of copies
or near replicas of Palmer's work at other cemeteries have come from
colleagues; I personally am familiar with one in the Brandywine Cemetery
in Wilmington, Delaware.

26 Tlie Boston Evening Transcript (April 9, 1842): 2.

27 Albee, Henry Dexter, Sculptor, 76-77. The present location of the sculpture
is unknown.

28 Philocosmos to Editor, Boston Daily Evening Transcript (January 7, 1842).

29 Dearinger, American Neoclassic Sculptors, 11.

30 Perkins Senior was buried with his wife and family in his crypt at St. Paul's
Cathedral in Boston. His remains and those of other family members were later
reinterred in the Perkins family plot in the early twentieth century.

31 Horatio Greenough to Henry Greenough, February 28, 1844, in Frances
Boott Greenough, ed., Letters of Horatio Greenough to his Brother, Henry Greenough
(Boston: Ticknor and Company, 1887), 169.

32 Ann Leighton, American Gardens of the Nineteenth Century: "For Comfort and
Affluence" (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1987), 140.

33 R.A. Smith, Smith's Illustrated Guide to and Tlirough Laurel Hill Cemetery
(Philadelphia, PA: Willis P. Hazard, 1852), i, 39-41.

34 When the sculpture arrived in Boston in September of 1843, legs of the
Orpheus were shattered and in pieces. The Trustees of the Athenaeum turned to
Henry Dexter for assistance. Dexter pieced the shattered marble pieces together,
filling in lost areas and ingeniously inserting iron bars for strength. Dexter's
background as a blacksmith thus helped to save the Orpheus for posterity.

35 Cornelius C. Vermeule III, "Greek Sculpture, Roman Sculpture and
American Taste: The Mirror of Mount Auburn," Sweet Auburn, Newsletter of the
Friends of Mount Auburn (Fall 1990), n.p.

36 Much of the information on the Amos Binney Monument is from Lauretta
Dimmick, "Thomas Crawford's Monument for Amos Binney in Mount Auburn

146 Museum in the Garden

Cemetery, 'A Work of Rare Merit/" Markers IX, Journal of the Association for
Gravestone Studies (Worcester, MA: 1992), 158-195.

37 Although Mary Ann Binney later remarried, she chose to be buried with her
first husband under the monument she had commissioned.

■ "Monumental Sculpture," New-York Commercial Advertiser (June 4, 1850), 2.

39 "Monumental Sculpture," Boston Daily Evening Transcript (June 5, 1850), 2.

40 R.L. Midgley, Sights in Boston and Suburbs, or Guide to the Stranger
(Boston, 1856), 148.

41 Among Crawford's plans were monuments to mark the grave of the English
poet Percy Bysshe Shelley in the Protestant Cemetery in Rome and another

to mark the Roman house where his mentor and friend Bertel Thorwardsen
lived. Crawford also submitted a proposal to the Burd family for a funerary
monument consisting of five figures in St. Stephen's Church in Philadelphia;
that commission was awarded instead to sculptor Carl Steinhauser in Rome
in 1850, the same year the Amos Binney Monument was installed (Dimmick,
"Thomas Crawford's Monument,"159 and 189n2). Dimmick states that the
recipient of the Burd family commission was "Wolgerbon Steinhausen";
however, the catalog of the Burd family papers, which are in the Special
Collections Department at the University of Delaware Library, indicates the
sculptor's name as "Carl Steinhauser."

42 Mount Auburn Cemetery, "Trustees' Minutes," in "Proprietors' and
Trustees Records," Vol.1 (Friday, September 29, 1843), 99, Mount Auburn
Cemetery Archives.

43 Charles P. Curtis and Henry N. Parker, "Trustees' Minutes," Vol.1
(September 30, 1854), Mount Auburn Cemetery Archives.

44 "Administrative Records-Correspondence Relating to Statuary and
Monuments, 1845-1899," "Consent of Trustees to Vote Appropriating Money,"
September 4, 1854; Trustees' Minutes," I (August 7, 1854), 276, Mount Auburn
Cemetery Archives.

4:1 Jeffrey I. Richman, Brooklyn's Green-Wood Cemetery: New York's Buried
Treasure (Lunenburg, Vermont: The Stinehour Press, 1998), 202-203.

46 Sybil F. Crawford, "Imitation: A World of Cemetery Look-Alikes," AGS
Quarterly: Bulletin of the Association for Gravestone Studies 27:3 (Summer 2003):
8-11.

47 Millard F. Rogers, Jr., Randoph Rogers: American Sculptor in Rome (Amherst:
University of Massachusetts Press, 1971), 89-91.

48 Ibid., 115, 153.

Elise Madeleine Ciregna 147

44 George E. Ellis, Memoir of Jacob Bigelow, M.D., LL.D. (Cambridge: John
Wilson and Son, 1880), 61.

50 As Blanche Linden and other cultural and landscape historians have shown,
Olmsted was not America's first important landscape designer; others, such as
Henry Dearborn, who was in large part responsible for the design of Mount
Auburn, Forest Hills, and countless parks and cemeteries across the country,
were highly influential predecessors to Olmsted.

• ' This information has been compiled front SIRIS inventory records, catalog
records (where available and accessible) of cemeteries, biographies and other
works, and my own field and research notes.

52 Philocosmos to Editor, Boston Daily Evening Transcript (January 7, 1842): 2.

53 Dearinger, American Neoclassic Sculptors, 294-297 and 332-335.

54 Lorado Taft, Tlie History of American Sculpture, 2nd ed. (New York: The
Macmillan Company, 1924), 104.

148

Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

[Frontispiece] Bronze bust of Emerson at about age fifty,
created by Steven H. Maddock of New Mexico for
The Ralph Waldo Emerson Society in celebration
of the bicentennial of Emerson's birth year (2003).

149

"In the Palm of Nature's Hand":

Ralph Waldo Emerson's Address at the

Consecration of Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

Introduced and edited by
Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson

Sleepy Hollow. In this quiet valley, as in the palm of Nature's
hand, we shall sleep well, when we have finished our day.
What is the earth itself but a surface scooped into nooks and
caves of slumber. . . . Nay, when I think of the mystery of
life, its round of illusions, our ignorance of its beginning
or its end, the speed of the changes of that glittering dream
we call existence, — I think sometimes, that the vault of
sky arching there upward, under which our busy being is
whirled, is only a Sleepy Hollow, with path of suns, instead
of footpaths, and milky ways, for truck-roads.1

-from the "Address"

Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Concord, Massachusetts, was consecrated
on 29 September 1855 in a ceremony that included an "Address" bv the
town's most distinguished citizen, Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882).
Noteworthy for lyric prose that captured Sleepy Hollow's undulating
and naturally romantic setting comprised of "scooped . . . nooks
and caves of slumber," Emerson's "Address"— the complete text of
which follows — was ideally suited to the occasion. One of the many
cemeteries established on the outskirts of major American cities during
the nineteenth century, Sleepy Hollow grew out of the garden cemetery
movement that began in America with the founding of Mount Auburn
Cemetery in nearby Cambridge in 1831, which was itself followed by the
design and opening of, for instance, Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn,
New York; Albany Rural Cemetery in Menands, New York; and Rose
Hill Cemetery outside of Atlanta, Georgia.

In an account of the origins of Sleepy Hollow published in 1880,
Concord historian George B. Bartlett reported that the parcel of land

1 50 Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

initially associated with the cemetery was purchased by the town in
1855 from the heirs of Deacon Reuben Brown. The attraction of the
property was, according to Bartlett, the "amphitheatre" in its center,
"which had existed for years . . . and which had borne the name of
Sleepy Hollow long before it was thought of as a place of burial."2 After
acquiring the property and determining its boundaries from surveys of
Brown's land and the surrounding area done by Henry David Thoreau, 3
the town hired landscape architects Horace William Shaler Cleveland
and Robert Morris Copeland to design the cemetery. In short order,
Cleveland and Copeland provided the town with a plan for Sleepy
Hollow. Their plan was a textbook application of the theory governing
garden cemetery design. Instead of "improving" the land by laying
out a grid of regularized burial plots and roads, they preserved the
natural contours and pathways of the landscape as a woodland retreat
from everyday cares for the living and as a welcoming natural site of
repose for the dead (Fig. 1). In her recent article on the founding of the
cemetery, Leslie Perrin Wilson observes: "One only need walk through
the 1855 section of Sleepy Hollow to understand intuitively that its
design was intended to foster tranquility and private contemplation. . . .
Concord's gem of a cemetery originated [in, especially,] Cleveland's
transcendental sense of nature as a tonic for the soul and a catalyst for
human sensibilities."4

Important as the overall theory of garden cemetery design was to the
planning of Sleepy Hollow, two additional facts — one practical and the
other emerging out of American intellectual and literary history — were
also important to the establishment of the cemetery and the particular
application of theory that guided its design. As a practical matter, the
town needed a new cemetery. Founded in 1635, Concord remained a
relatively small rural community well into the nineteenth century, but by
the 1850s, the town's three principal cemeteries were either full or rapidly
approaching capacity. The Old Hill Burying Ground (established ca.
1670) that today can be seen to the right of St. Bernard's Catholic Church
on Monument Square was virtually filled by 1800. Its replacement,
New Hill Cemetery, which is behind and to the right of St. Bernard's,
opened in 1823, but was quickly filling up. The Burial Ground on Main
Street (established ca. 1690, also known as South Burying Place), which
is today to the left of the Middlesex Savings Bank on Main Street and
separated from it by Keyes Road, was already filled (Fig. 2). Anticipating

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Mverson

151

an expansion of population in the near future, Concord's officials knew
that the town would soon need a new burial ground. The availability of
Deacon Brown's property provided them with a ready answer to their
concern, yet even this solution would prove short-lived. Although in his
1855 "Address" Emerson celebrated Sleepy Hollow's "seclusion from the
village in its immediate neighborhood, [which] had marked it to all the
inhabitants as an easy retreat on a Sabbath day, or a summer twilight,"5
by the late 1860s the town was already encroaching on the borders of this
once-secluded site. Sleepy Hollow Cemetery had to be enlarged with
the acquisition of additional land in 1869 — and again in 1932, 1954, 1959,
1960, 1975, and 1998.

1. Ralph Waldo Emerson

2. Henry David Thoreau

3. Nathaniel Hawthorne

4. Louisa May Alcott

5. Mrs. Daniel Lothrop
(Margaret Sidney)

Fig. 1. Map of eastern portion of Sleepy Hollow Cemetery as it

appears today, showing Authors' Ridge graves (upper right)
along Birch and Ridge paths. Courtesy, Concord Public Works.

152 Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

The other influence on the application of theory that guided the
design of Sleepy Hollow Cemetery was the presence in Concord of
Emerson himself. Concord was the Emerson family's ancestral home,
and after moving to the town in 1834, when Emerson and his mother
came to board in the Old Manse then occupied by his step-grandfather,
the Rev. Dr. Ezra Ripley, Emerson considered himself a Concordian
forever. Using language that seems to foreshadow his rise to fame as
a leading influence on American Romanticism and its aesthetic theory
and as the leading light of the Transcendentalist movement that began
in 1836 and quickly became identified with him and with Concord,
Emerson wrote in his journal,

Concord, 15 November 1834. Hail to the quiet fields of my
fathers! Not wholly unattended by supernatural friendship
& favor let me come hither. Bless my purposes as they are
simple & virtuous. . . . Henceforth I design not to utter any
speech, poem, or book that is not entirely & peculiarly my
work. . . .

Respect a man! assuredly, but in general only as the
potential God & therefore richly deserving of your pity[,]
your tears. Now he is only a scrap, an ort, an end & in his
actual being no more worthy of your veneration than the
poor lunatic. But the simplest person who in his integrity
worships God becomes God: at least no optics of human
mind can detect the line where man the effect ceases, & God
the Cause begins.6

Beginning in 1834, when he moved into the Manse, Emerson wrote
and lectured constantly, crafting ever so slowly the prose out of which he
would announce the philosophy that would be "entirely & peculiarly"
his own. Soon, he had settled into his own Concord home, "Bush,"
which he purchased in 1835 and renovated for his family. Ultimately, the
Emerson household would include not only Lydia Jackson, his future
second wife (called "Lidian" after her marriage), and their children, but
also his mother Ruth Haskins Emerson, his itinerant aunt Mary Moody
Emerson, his brother Charles Chauncy Emerson, and, finally, Elizabeth
Sherman Hoar, to whom Charles was engaged.

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson

153

Fig. 2. Gravestone of Rachel Buss (d. 1743), a typical example of

the gravestones in the Main Street Burial Ground, Concord, MA.

Attributed to Jonathan Worster (1707-1754).

154 Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

Emerson's labors culminated in Nature, which, published on 9 Sep-
tember 1836, is his sweeping declaration of the divinity of human
life, the relatedness of all things in the universe, and the universality
of thought. Having assimilated much from his readings in Platonic
thought, Eastern philosophy and religion, and natural history, Emerson
proclaimed nature the resource through which individuals could restore
"original and eternal beauty" to their world and achieve the redemption
of their souls.7 In its appeal to intuition and the senses, its conviction that
language, like any other material fact, is symbolic of a higher spiritual
reality that governs the universe, and its song of the "Orphic poet"
which reminded modern man that he is a figure who before time began
"was permeated and dissolved by spirit" and "filled nature with his
overflowing currents," Nature impressed many early readers as a highly
progressive text.8 Nature also made Emerson's case for the importance
of the intuitive capacity of the observers of nature, and the observers'
ability to move from the factual to the metaphoric or relational meaning
of objects, events, persons, and ideas as they encountered them in nature.
Intuition enabled the observer to see through the ambiguity or remoteness
of words and things to the unifying source of all in the universe: thought.
In Nature, to put the matter simply, Emerson announced a version of
philosophical organicism that informed American literature, aesthetics,
and theories of mind for the remainder of the nineteenth century.

Cleveland's and Copeland's design for Sleepy Hollow echoes
developing Romantic ideals of the time, especially the concept of
organicism that is at the core of Emerson's Nature.9 In his "Address"
at the consecration of Sleepy Hollow delivered nearly twenty years
after Nature first appeared in print, Emerson acknowledged his
influence on and agreement with the practices of these and other
landscape architects:

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Mverson 155

The ground [of Sleepy Hollow] has the peaceful character
that belongs to this town; — no lofty crags, no glittering
cataracts; — but I hold that every part of nature is handsome,
when not deformed by bad art. Bleak sea-rocks, and sea-
downs, and blasted heaths, have their own beauty. . . .
The morning, the moonlight, the spring day, are magical
painters, and can glorify a meadow or a rock.10

Emerson was a member of the town committee that organized the
Sleepy Hollow consecration service and requested that he deliver an
address. Regardless of the role he played in that particular decision
by the committee, Emerson was really the only citizen of Concord to
whom the request could have been made. By 1855, he was the town's
most visible resident, having achieved a reputation as a lecturer, author,
and intellectual presence throughout America and the British Isles
and become the person that public figures from across America and
throughout the world came to visit in Concord.

From the moment he settled in Concord, Emerson was a genuine
citizen of the town, and it is fair to say that of all the public honors
bestowed upon him, he relished none more than his identification with
Concord. He routinely offered his services free of charge as a speaker at
the Concord Lyceum, where he delivered exactly one hundred lectures
over the course of his career, and as early as 1835, when he was selected
to deliver the discourse on 12 September to commemorate the second
centennial anniversary of the incorporation of the town, it was clear that
his voice would be depended upon to help Concord celebrate events
such as this one or to guide the minds and consciences of his fellow
Concordians through dark days such as those that accompanied the
Civil War. Indeed, between 1835 and the last years of his life, Emerson
seems to have played a significant role in every major public event held
in Concord. In 1837, for instance, the town sang his recently completed
"Concord Hymn" during its Fourth of July celebrations; in 1867, he
delivered the address on 19 April at the dedication of the Soldier's
Monument, the town's memorial to its forty-four citizens who died in
the Civil War; and in 1873, he delivered the address on 1 October at the
opening of the Concord Free Public Library. In a lecture that he delivered
only once — at the Concord Lyceum on 2 December 1857 — Emerson
repaid the esteem and kindness that his townsmen routinely directed

156 Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

toward him. With a type of Yankee charm for which he was admired in
Concord, he spoke of the bargain he got when he purchased "Bush" and
the lands around it:

When I bought my farm, I did not know what a bargain
I had in the bluebirds, bobolinks, and thrushes, which were
not charged in the bill: as little did I guess what sublime
mornings and sunsets I was buying, — what reaches of
landscape, and what fields. . . .

Still less did I know what good and true neighbors I was
buying, men of thought and virtue, some of them now
known the country through, for their learning, or subtlety,
or active, or patriotic power, but whom I had the pleasure of
knowing long before the country did; and of other men, not
known widely, but known at home, — farmers, — not doctors
of laws, but doctors of land, skilled in turning a swamp or a
sand-bank into a fruitful field, and, where witch-grass and
nettles grew, causing a forest of apple trees, or miles of corn
and rye to thrive."

Part of Emerson's responsibilities on the town committee that or-
ganized events for the consecration of Sleepy Hollow was to commission
an appropriate hymn that could be sung during the service. While
working on his own "Address," Emerson arranged for Ellery Charming
to provide a suitably romantic and uplifting poem that could be sung
by the local choir; however, when it turned out that Channing's poem
simply could not be sung, Emerson approached Franklin B. Sanborn and
asked him to compose an ode for the occasion. On 29 September, the
exercises began at two o'clock in the afternoon, opening with a prayer by
Concord minister Barzillai Frost, which was then followed by the singing
of Sanborn's "Ode on the Consecration of Sleepy Hollow Cemetery." In
his "Ode," Sanborn sentimentalized death and the Sleepy Hollow setting
that he had been invited to celebrate:

... To holy sorrow — solemn joy,

We consecrate the place
Where soon shall sleep the maid and boy,

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson 157

The father and his race,
The mother with her tender babe,
The venerable face.

These waving woods — these valleys low

Between these tufted knolls,
Year after year shall dearer grow

To many loving souls;
And flowers be sweeter here than blow

Elsewhere between the pole.

For deathless Love and blessed Grief
Shall guard these wooded aisles,

When either Autumn casts the leaf,
Or blushing Summer smiles,

Or Winter whitens o'er the land,
Or Spring the buds uncoils.

At the conclusion of the singing of Sanborn's "Ode," Emerson
delivered his "Address," which was followed by a benediction offered
by L. H. Angier. During the exercises, Channing's "Sleepy Hollow" was
recited. Although it definitely lacked the lyricism of either Emerson's
"Address" or Sanborn's "Ode," Channing's song, as the following
except suggests, drew the audience's attention to the influence of the
landscape, where

. . . the green pines delight, the aspen droops
Along the modest pathways, and those fair
Pale asters of the season spread their plumes
Around this field, fit garden for our tombs.

As a fitting memento of the occasion, broadside programs were
distributed to those who attended the consecration of Sleepy Hollow;
printed on both sides, they included the complete texts of Sanborn's
"Ode" and Channing's "Sleepy Hollow" (Fig. 3).12

Explaining the virtue of arranging cemeteries such as Sleepy Hollow
into park-like settings, Emerson remarked in his "Address" that they

158

Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

; SLEEPY HOLLOW CEMETERY,

CONCORD, SEPT. 29, 1855, 2, P. M.

sailsHHSB, 3? f/Hts flflBJaaia,

BENEDICTION. BY EOT. L. H. ANGIEB. K&

Hem the green pie
Aloog the mode

Ami -hah thou pull
Slow -•■ ■ 1 ■ - = i o'

se to hear
r thy heat
poio, « fe

ouic funeral hul

in this eulru pie
eri>lrkncll.

It sujs, Go. pilgrii

thou nasi h«fo

Louru. from the t<
To-morrow, tlm

Prison thy .oul fro
Nor these pule

l'°«"nor'

his still Geld de

Kitther to thou ns
Where a no'or-s

Eternal, end the in
Of unspent holi

Forgot man's bide

' '::.

leTelea,"-

Fig. 3. Broadside "Order of Exercises," Sleepy Hollow Cemetery,

Concord, September 29, 1855. Courtesy of the Joel Myerson

Collection of Nineteenth-Century American Literature,

University of South Carolina.

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson 159

provided living Americans with a place of refuge from their "anxious,
over-driven" everyday lives, a sense of national identity to rival
Europe's widely touted cultural superiority, and a natural environment
that promoted friendship and, perhaps, that brand of Transcendental
conversation which, as a form of elevated exchange, momentarily
relieved attentive talkers of the sting of their own mortality:

What work of man will compare with the plantation of a
park? It dignifies life; it is a seat for friendship, counsel, taste,
and religion. I do not wonder that they are the chosen badge
and point-of-pride of European nobility. But how much more
are they needed by us, anxious, over-driven Americans, to
staunch and appease that fury of temperament which our
climate bestows!13

Emerson himself often enjoyed Sleepy Hollow's peaceful spaces, as
Kate Douglas (Smith) Wiggin, the author of Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm
(1903), has recorded. Brought to Concord by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody
in the summer of 1880 to attend meetings of the Concord School of
Philosophy, she made the rounds of Concord society under Peabody' s
direction. Then known as Kate D. Smith, Wiggin often spent afternoons
wandering through Sleepy Hollow in the company of Peabody and
other Concord luminaries. In her "Personal Recollections of Emerson,"
which appeared just after Emerson's death in 1882, she recounted one
such afternoon during which Peabody and she were joined by Bronson
Alcott, Ellery Charming, and Emerson:

On a summer day, two years ago, I walked through Sleepy
Hollow burying-ground (it is an anachronism to call it a
cemetery), in company with Mr. Emerson, Mr. Alcott, Mr.
Charming, and Miss Elizabeth Peabody.

I can recall it as if it were yesterday: the walk in quiet
mood from the hillside chapel, through fragrant orchards,
to the ridge overlooking historic fields . . .

We wandered slowly among the graves of the illustrious
dead, while each of the honored living related happy
anecdotes of the friends passed over and yonder. . . .

I was tired, I remember, for had I not just been precipitated

160

Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

into the full doctrine of platonic philosophy and psychology,
cosmologic and theologic outlines, and the Daemon of
Socrates, that morning? and I sank on the grassy turf beside
the marble stone designed

"By its durability
To perpetuate the memory,

And by its color

to signify the moral character

Miss Abigail Dudley."

I looked up. The day was warm, and they had all bared
their heads to the breeze. Mr. Charming had helped Miss
Peabody to a seat, while Mr. Emerson and Mr. Alcott rested
at the foot of a great, leafy oak tree.

I never shall forget it: the sight of the four aged, benignant
heads ... on which the mellow August sunshine poured its
flood of light. They looked at each other and then at me, and
suddenly the same thought, born perhaps of the place and

Fig. 4. Path to Authors' Ridge, Sleepy Hollow Cemetery.

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson

161

Fig. 5. Emerson's large rose quartz gravemarker in the

Emerson family plot on Authors' Ridge. Photo ca. 1895,

courtesy of the Concord Free Public Library.

162

Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

Fig. 6. Bronze plaque on Emerson's marker. Photo by Jim Fannin.

the glance, flashed into each brain at the same moment, and
Mr. Emerson, in his low, hesitating voice, said:

"We shall leave you behind, child."

And Mr. Channing added, with a half-playful sadness:

"Shall we take a message for you yonder?"

"Yes," cried I, with eyes full of tears. "Say that the beauty

and sacredness and glory of old age never seemed to youth

so divinely honorable as at this moment."14

Today, along with the Old North Bridge, Walden Pond, Orchard
House (the home of the Alcotts), and Emerson's "Bush," Sleepy Hollow
Cemetery is one of the sites most favored by visitors to Concord, but
among these and other local sites of interest, Sleepy Hollow is unrivalled
as a truly romantic landscape. Across the seasons it still retains the
serene natural ambiance that Emerson so prized and that Cleveland

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Mverson

163

and Copeland so successfully preserved. Every spring, as the winter
ice and snow recede, the grounds burst forth with grand splashes of
color as lilacs, rhododendrons, azaleas, dogwoods, and other flowering
shrubs and trees bloom; every summer, the leaves of countless trees
of every description — many dating back to the period before Sleepy
Hollow became a cemetery — provide shade for those who stroll, jog, or
sit and meditate along the paths once frequented by Kate D. Smith and
her companions; and every autumn, Sleepy Hollow's trees put on the
spectacular display of color that Thoreau never tired of describing in his
journal, for he thought such displays transformed a landscape such as
Sleepy Hollow's into "a faery-place" that served as an emblem of "the
immortality of the soul."15

The section of the cemetery just above the rim of the "amphitheatre"
where Emerson delivered his "Address" is now known as Authors'
Ridge, and it is there that he is buried in a large plot with members of
his extended family. The Emersons are certainly not alone on the Ridge;
beside the path that eventually leads to their graves are those of Henry

Fig. 7. Thoreau family plot, Authors' Ridge, Sleepy Hollow Cemetery,
with Henry Thoreau's small individual marker to the far left.

164 Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

Fhoreau, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ellery Charming, Bronson Alcott and
Louisa May Alcott, Harriet Mulford Lothrop ("Margaret Sidney," author
of the children's book, Five Little Peppers and How Tliey Grew [1881]), and
members of their respective families. Nearby are the graves of other once
prominent citizens of Concord: Ephraim Wales Bull, the inventor of the
Concord grape; Edward Waldo Emerson, Emerson's son and editor;
Daniel Chester French, the sculptor whose works include the statue of
the Minute Man in Concord, which has Emerson's "Concord Hymn"
inscribed on its base, and the seated statue of Abraham Lincoln at the
Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.; Samuel Hoar, his son Ebenezer
Rockwood Hoar, and his son Sherman Hoar — all statesmen of distinction;
John Shepard Keyes, Concord's Superintendent of Grounds during the
laying out of Sleepy Hollow Cemetery; Elizabeth Palmer Peabody; and
Franklin B. Sanborn.16 Indeed, the Sleepy Hollow that visitors from all
over the world see today is very much the one Emerson prophesied as
he and his townsmen came together in 1855 to consecrate these grounds:
"When [the] acorns that are falling at our feet are oaks overshadowing
our children in a remote century, this mute green bank will be full of
history: the good, the wise, and the great, will have left their names and
virtues on the trees; heroes, poets, beauties, sanctities, and benefactors,
will have made the air tuneable and articulate."17

Emerson's "Address to the Inhabitants of Concord,
at the Consecration of Sleepy Hollow,

29 September 1855"

Citizens and Friends,

The Committee to whom was confided the charge of carrying out the wishes
of the Town in opening the cemetery, having proceeded so far as to enclose the
ground, and cut the necessary roads, and having laid off as many lots as are likely
to be wanted at present, have thought it fit to call the inhabitants together, to
show you the ground, now that the new avenues make its advantages appear: and
to put it at your disposition. They have thought that the taking possession of
this field ought to be marked by a public meeting, and religious rites: and they
have requested me to say a few words, which the serious and tender occasion
inspires. And this concourse of friendly company assures me that they have
rightly interpreted your wishes.

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson

165

It is the credence of men which, more than race or climate, makes their
manners and customs; and the history of religion may be read in the forms of
sepulture. There never was a time when the doctrine of a future life was not held.
Morals must be enjoined, but among rude men they were rudely figured under
the form of dogs and whips, or, of an easier and more plentiful life, after death.
And as it was impossible for the savage to detach the life of the soul from the
body in his conception, he took great care for his body.

Nature secures the performance of every necessary function by overloading
the tendency. Thus, the whole life of man, in the first ages, was ponderously
determined on death. And, as you know, the polity of the Egyptians, the by-
laws of towns and of streets and houses, respected burial. It made every man
an undertaker; every palace, a door to a pyramid: every king or rich man was
a pjramidaire: a successful general was the lucky candidate for an obelisk. The
labor of races was spent on the excavation of catacombs. The chief end of man
being to be buried well, the arts most in request were masonry and embalming,
to give an immortality to the proper body.

Fig. 8. Henry Thoreau's grave with notes, stones, flowers,
and other offerings left by visitors (July 1995).

166

Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

Fig. 9. Louisa May Alcott's grave with balloons and other visitor

offerings, Alcott family plot, Author's Ridge (July 1995). The

handwritten note leaning against the stone reads, "I'm your

number 1 fan / C. A.D. / My favorite book of yours is Little Women.

The Greek, with his perfect senses and perceptions, had quite another
philosophy. He loved life, and delighted in beauty. He set his wit and taste, like
elastic gas, under these mountains of granite, and lifted them. He drove away the
embalmers: he burnt his body: he built no more of these doleful mountainous
tombs: he adorned death: brought wreaths of parsley and laurel: made it bright
with games of strength and skill, and with chariot races. Nothing can excel the
beauty of his sarcophagus. He carried his arts to Rome, and built his beautiful
tombs at Pompeii. The poet Shelley says, "These white marble cells so delicately
carved, contrasted so strongly with the plain dwelling houses, that they seemed
not so much tombs, as voluptuous chambers for immortal spirits." And the
modern Greeks, in their Romaic songs, ask that they may be buried where the
sun can see them, and that a little window may be cut in the sepulchre from which
the swallow might be seen when he comes back in the spring.

Christianity brought a new wisdom. But learning depends on the learner; no

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson

167

more truth can be conveyed, than the popular mind can bear. And the barbarians
that received the cross, took the doctrine of the resurrection as the Egyptians had
done before. It was an affair of the body, and narrowed again by the fury of sect,
so that grounds were sprinkled with holy water to receive only orthodox dust;
and, to keep the body still more sacredly safe for resurrection, it was put into the
walls of a church: and the churches of Europe are really sepulchres. Meantime,
the true disciples saw through the letter the doctrine of eternity, which dissolved
the poor corpse and nature also, and gave grandeur to the passing hour. They
wished their memory to be sweet, that holiness should perfume their graves.

In these times, we see the defects of our old theology, its inferiority to our
habit of thought. Men go up and down; science is popularized; the irresistible
democracy — shall I call it? — of chemistry, of vegetation, which recomposes for
new life every decomposing particle, — the race never dying, the individual never
spared, — has impressed on the mind of the age the futility of these old arts of
preserving. We give our earth to earth. We will not jealously guard a few atoms
under immense marbles, selfishly and impossibly sequestering it from the vast

Fig. 10. Headstone and f ootstone marking the grave of
Nathaniel Hawthorne in the Hawthorne family plot, Authors' Ridge.

Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

circulations of nature, but, at the same time, fully admitting the divine hope and
love which belong to our nature, and wishing to make one spot tender to our
children, who shall come hither in the next century to read the dates of these
lives adorned also.

Our people, accepting this lesson from science, yet touched by the tenderness
which Christianity breathes, have found a mean in the consecration of gardens.
A simultaneous movement has in a hundred cities and towns, in this country,
selected some convenient piece of undulating ground, with pleasant woods and
waters; every family chooses its own clump of trees; and we lay the corpse in these
leafy colonnades.

A grove of trees, — what benefit or ornament is so fair and great? They make
the landscape. They keep the earth habitable: their roots run down, like cattle, to
the watercourses, their heads expand to feed the atmosphere. The life of a tree
is a hundred and a thousand years; its decays ornamental; its repairs self-made:
they grow when we sleep, they grew when we were unborn. Man is a moth among
these longevities. He plants for the next millennium. Shadows haunt them; all
that ever lived about them, clings to them. You can almost see behind these pines
the Indian with bow and arrow lurking yet, exploring the traces of the old trail.

Modern taste has shown that there is no ornament, no architecture, alone
so sumptuous as well-disposed woods and waters, where art has been employed
only to remove superfluities, and bring out the natural advantages. In cultivated
grounds, one sees the picturesque and opulent effect of the familiar shrubs, —
barberry, lilac, privet, and thorns, — when they are disposed in masses, and m
large spaces. What work of man will compare with the plantation of a park?
It dignifies life; it is a seat for friendship, counsel, taste, and religion. I do not
wonder that they are the chosen badge and point-of-pride of European nobility.
But how much more are they needed by us, anxious, over-driven Americans, to
staunch and appease that fury of temperament which our climate bestows!

This tract fortunately lies adjoining to the Agricultural Society's ground, to
the New Burial Ground, to the Court-House, and to the Town House, making
together a large block of public ground permanent property of the Town and
County, — all the ornaments of either, adding so much value to all. This spot for
twenty years has borne the name of Sleepy Hollow. Its seclusion from the village
in its immediate neighborhood, had marked it to all the inhabitants as an easy
retreat on a Sabbath day, or a summer twilight; and it was inevitably chosen by
them, when the design of a new cemetery was broached, if it did not suggest the
design, as the fit place for their final repose.

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Mycrson

169

Fig. 11. Emerson's rose quartz gravemarker as it appears today,

flanked on the left by the grave of his second wife (d. 1892) and on

the right by the grave of his daughter Ellen (d. 1909).

In all the multitude of woodlands and hillsides, which, within a few years,
have been laid out with a similar design, I have not known one so fitly named.
Sleepy Hollow. In this quiet valley, as in the palm of Nature's hand, we shall
sleep well, when we have finished our day. What is the earth itself but a surface
scooped into nooks and caves of slumber, — according to the Eastern fable, a
bridge full of holes, into one or other of which, all the passengers sink to silence.
Nay, when I think of the mystery of life, its round of illusions, our ignorance of
its beginning or its end, the speed of the changes of that glittering dream we call
existence, — I think sometimes, that the vault of sky arching there upward, under
which our busy being is whirled, is only a Sleepy Hollow, with path of suns,
instead of footpaths, and milky ways, for truck-roads.

The ground has the peaceful character that belongs to this town; — no lofty
crags, no glittering cataracts; — but I hold that every part of nature is handsome,
when not deformed by bad art. Bleak sea-rocks, and sea-downs, and blasted
heaths, have their own beauty; and, though we make much ado in our praises
of Italy, or the Andes, Nature makes not so much difference. The morning, the
moonlight, the spring day, are magical painters, and can glorify a meadow or a
rock.

1 70 Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

But, we must look forward also, and make ourselves a thousand years old;
and when these acorns that are falling at our feet are oaks overshadowing our
children in a remote century, this mute green bank will be full of history: the
good, the wise, and the great, will have left their names and virtues on the trees;
heroes, poets, beauties, sanctities, and benefactors, will have made the air tuneable
and articulate.

I suppose, all of us will readily admit the value of parks and cultivated
grounds to the pleasure and education of the people; but I have heard it said
here, that we would gladly spend for a park for the living, but not for a cemetery;
a garden for the living, a home for thought and friendship. Certainly, the living
need it more than the dead; indeed, to speak precisely, it is given to the dead for
the reaction of benefit on the living.

But if the direct regard to the living shall be thought expedient, that is also
in your power. This ground is happily so divided by nature, as to admit of this
relation between the Past and the Present. In the valley where we stand, will be
the monuments. On the other side of the ridge, towards the town, a portion
of the land is in full view of the cheer of the village, and is out of sight of the
monuments; it admits of being reserved for secular purposes; for games, — not
such as the Greeks honored the dead with, — but for games of education; the
distribution of school-prizes; the meeting of teachers; patriotic eloquence;
the utterance of the principles of national liberty; to private social, literary, or
religious fraternities. There we may establish that most agreeable of all museums,
and agreeable to the temper of our times, — an arboretum, — wherein may be
planted by the taste of every citizen, one tree, with its name recorded in a book;
every tree that is native to Massachusetts, or will grow in it; so that every child
may be shown growing side by side the eleven oaks of Massachusetts; and the
twenty willows and the beech which we have allowed to die out of the eastern
counties; and, here, the vast firs of California and Oregon.18 And hither shall
repair to this modest spot of God's earth, every sweet and friendly influence,
and the beautiful night and beautiful day will come in turn to sit upon the grass.
Our use will not displace the old tenants. The well-beloved birds will not sing
one song the less; the high-holding woodpecker, the meadowlark, the oriole, the
robin, the purple finch, the bluebird, the thrush and the red-eyed warbler, the
heron and the bittern will find out the hospitality and protection from the gun,
of this asylum, and will seek the waters of the meadow; and in the grass, and by
the pond, the locust, the cricket, and the hyla, shall shrilly play.

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson 1 7 1

We shall bring hither the body of the dead, but how shall we catch the
escaped soul? Here will burn for us, as the oath of God, the sublime belief. I have
heard, that death takes us away from ill things, not from good. I have heard, that
when we pronounce the name of man, we pronounce the belief of immortality.
All great natures delight in stability. All great men find eternity affirmed in the
promise of their faculties. Why is the fable of the Wandering Jew agreeable to
men, but because they want more time and land to execute their thoughts in?19
Life is not long enough for art, nor long enough for friendship. The evidence
from intellect is as valid as the evidence from love. The being that can share a
thought and feeling so sublime as confidence in truth, is no mushroom. Our
dissatisfaction with any other solution is the blazing evidence of immortality.

"The air is full of men." Schiller said, "Thoughtest thou, that this infinite
Round is the sepulchre of thine ancestors? that the wind brings thee — that the
perfumes of the lindens bring thee, perhaps, the spent force of Arminius,20 to thy
nostril; that thou, in the refreshing fountain, perhaps tastest the balsamed bones
of our great Henry?"-1

1 72 Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

NOTES

All photographs not attributed in captions are by Gary Collison.

1 Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Address to the Inhabitants of Concord, at the
Consecration of Sleepy Hollow, 29 September 1855," in The Later Lectures
of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1843-1871, ed. Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson,
2 vols. (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001), 2:33. The complete text
of Emerson's "Address" as it appears in Later Lectures, 2:30-34, follows; it is
reprinted here with the permission of the University of Georgia Press. Emerson
left the "Address" untitled; the title used in Later Lectures was supplied by the
editors. For information regarding the practices followed in the preparation of
this edition, see "Historical and Textual Introduction, [Part 2]," Later Lectures,
l:xxxii-lxii. A version of the "Address" arranged by Emerson's son and editor
appeared in The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Edward Waldo
Emerson, 12 vols. (Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company,
1903-1904), 11:429-36. At the outset, we should like to acknowledge Leslie
Perrin Wilson, curator of the Concord Free Public Library Special Collections,
for sharing with us her wealth of Concord lore and her knowledge of Sleepy
Hollow's history.

2 Tlie Concord Guide Book, ed. George Bradford]. Bartlett (Boston: D. Lothrop
and Company, [1880]), p. 18.

3 The originals of Thoreau's surveys are in the Concord Free Public Library
Special Collections. For "Plan of Sleepy Hollow from Plans Made by Cyrus
Hubbard in 1836 & 1852 and the New Road Added by Henry D. Thoreau Feb.
1, 1854," see http://www.concordnet.Org/library//scollect/Thoreau_surveys/
7j.htm on the Concord Free Public Library web site.

4 Leslie Perrin Wilson, "H. W. S. Cleveland provided vision for Concord's
Sleepy Hollow," TJie Concord Journal, 21 November 2002, 14. Quoting from the
Concord town report for 1855-56, Wilson notes that Cleveland and Copeland
were paid $75 for their services.

5 Later Lectures, 2:32-33.

6 The Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. William
H. Gilman, Ralph H. Orth, et al., 16 vols. (Cambridge and London: Harvard
University Press, 1960-1982), 4:335.

7 Nature, in Tlie Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Robert E. Spiller,
Joseph Slater, Douglas Emory Wilson, et al., 5 vols, to date (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1971 — ), 1:43.

8 Nature, 1:42.

9 In "Sleepy Hollow Cemetery: Philosophy Made Substance," Daniel J.
Nadenicek takes this argument even further, asserting that Emerson's
philosophy exerted a direct influence on Cleveland and Copeland's design for
the cemetery; see Emerson Society Papers 5 (Spring 1994): 1-2.

10 Later Lectures, 2:32-33.

" "Country Walks (Concord)," Later Lectures, 2:37.

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson 1 73

12 Broadsides of the program for the consecration of Sleepy Hollow are
preserved in the Concord Free Public Library Special Collections, the Joel
Myerson Collection of Nineteenth-Century American Literature at the
University of South Carolina, and the Houghton Library at Harvard University;
in the Houghton Library, see *AC85.Em345.Z855s. Emerson evidently liked
Sanborn's "Ode" and Channing's poem. He printed both in Parnassus, ed.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin, 1874),

462 and 460 respectively; the excerpts from both poems reprinted here are
taken from Parnassus. For more on the occasion, see Sanborn, "The Sleepy
Hollow Cemetery — Old Graves," Concord Minute Man, 24 November 1915,
reprinted in Sixty Years of Concord, ed. Kenneth Walter Cameron (Hartford, CT.:
Transcendental Books, 1987), 14-15.

13 Later Lectures, 2:32.

14 Kate D. Smith, "Personal Reminiscences of Emerson," Californian 5 (June
1882): 491-92; Smith's later, more elaborately developed version of this
anecdote, which first appeared in Kate Douglas Wiggin, My Garden of Memory:
An Autobiography (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1923), 148-54, is reprinted

in Emerson in His Own Time: A Biographical Chronicle of His Life, Taken from
Recollections, Interviews, and Memoirs by Family, Friends, and Associates, ed.
Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2003),
242-47.

15 See the entry for 9 October 1851, in Tlie Writings of Henry David Thoreau:
Journal, ed. John C. Broderick, et al., 7 vols, to date (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1981 -), 4:135-36.

16 There are even a few surprises to be found among Sleepy Hollow's graves.
For example, James Underwood Crockett, the horticulturist and host of the
once-popular "Crockett's Victory Garden" show, is buried in the cemetery, as is
Anne Rainsford Bush, the first woman licensed (in 1900) to drive an automobile
in America.

17 Later Lectures, 2:33.

18 As documented in the Concord town Reports [Concord: Benjamin Tolman,
1858], p. 16, on 19 April 1856, the town held a "tree bee," during which "more
than a hundred trees were brought and set out by voluntary contribution," in
addition to the "seven hundred trees of various kinds" that had already been
planted. Additionally, the "ladies of the town" raised $116.75 by sponsoring "a
Fourth of July breakfast and floral exhibition at the Town Hall" for the purpose
of "beautifying the Cemetery."

19 The legend of the Wandering Jew, which dates from medieval times,
concerns a man who gave Jesus a blow on the way to the Crucifixion, whom
Jesus then cursed to wander the earth until He returned.

20 Jacobus Arminius (ca. 1559-1609), Dutch theologian opposed to Calvin and
an important precursor of Unitarian liberalism.

21 Friedrich Schiller, "Der Spaziergang unter den Linden" (1782),
http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/schiller/spazlind/spazlind.htm.

1 74 Subject Index, Markers I-XX

Subject Index for Markers I-XX

Compiled by Gary Collison

[EXPLANATORY NOTE: This subject index to the twenty earlier volumes is
designed to be brief and usable but still relatively comprehensive. The general
rule has been to include an article under a state heading if it includes a discussion,
listing, or a photograph of one or more gravemarkers in the state. Studies of
the work of individual stonecarvers are listed under the state or states in which
the carver's work appears. For the first time, it will be easy for researchers
interested in the gravestones of Nova Scotia or Rhode Island, for example, to
discover that Jim Blachowicz and Vincent Luti's article, "William Coye: Father
of the Plymouth Carving Tradition," contains information about Coye stones in
those areas. Anyone perusing the entries for Georgia, Iowa, Vermont, or any
of nine other states will discover that Angelika Kriiger-Kahloula's pathbreaking
article, "Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People
in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," discusses examples of African
American gravemarkers or memorial notices in those states. The index reveals
many similar unexpected connections. Carvers' names do not appear unless
given in the title of an article. With the exception of Boston, no names of cities are
used as subject headings. Copies of volumes VI-XX are available from the AGS
office. Note that some of the earlier volumes are in short supply. See the Markers
tables of contents at the webpage, www.gravestonestudies.org.]

AFRICA

"T Never Regretted Coming to Africa': The Story of Harriet Ruggles Loomis'

Gravestone," Laurel K. Gabel, XVI: 140-173
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Krtiger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100

AFRICAN AMERICAN

"Afro- American Gravemarkers in North Carolina," M. Ruth Little, VI: 102-134

"Under Grave Conditions: African- American Signs of Life and Death in North

Florida," Robin Franklin Nigh, XIV: 158-189
"A Modern Gravestone Maker: Some Lessons for Gravestone Historians,"

Barbara Rotundo, XIV: 86-109
"Slavery in Colonial Massachusetts as Seen Through Selected Gravestones,"

Tom and Brenda Malloy, XI: 112-141
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Kriiger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100

ALABAMA

"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk
Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84

GaryCollison 175

AMERICAN INDIAN (see NATIVE AMERICAN)

ANIMAL

"'Best Damm Dog We Ever Had': Some Folkloristic and Anthropological

Observations on San Francisco's Presidio Pet Cemetery," Richard E. Meyer

and David M. Gradwohl, XII: 160-205

ARCHAEOLOGY

"The Archaeological Significance of Mausoleums [Pittsburgh, PA]," James B.

Richardson III and Ronald C. Carlisle, 1: 156-165
"Gravestones and Historical Archaeology: A Review Essay," David H.Watters,

1: 174-179

ARCHITECTURE

"Poems in Stone: Tombs of Louis Henri Sullivan," Robert A. Wright, V: 168-209
"The Thomas Foster Mausoleum: Canada's Taj Mahal," Sybil F. Crawford, XX:
154-191

ARKANSAS

"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk
Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84

ASIA MINOR (see TURKEY)

AUSTRALIA

"Aboriginal Australian Burials in Christian Missions," Karolyn K. Wrightson,
XV: 234-263

BELGIUM

"Mourning in a Distant Land: Gold Star Pilgrimages to American Military

Cemeteries in Europe, 1930-33," Lotte Larsen Meyer, XX: 30-75
"Stylistic Variation in the Western Front Battlefield Cemeteries of World War I

Combatant Nations," Richard E. Meyer, XVIII: 188-253

BIBLIOGRAPHY

"The Year's Work in Gravemarker/ Cemetery Studies," Richard E. Meyer, XII:

206-219; XIII: 223-231; XIV: 190-216; XV: 318-336; XVI: 242-263; XVII: 206-235;

XVIII: 254-283; XIX: 272-313; XX: 333-390

BIOGRAPHY (see also, OBITUARIES)
"Harriette Merrifield Forbes," VII: vi, 1-2

BLACK (see AFRICAN AMERICAN)

BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS (see also, MASSACHUSETTS)
"Boston's Historic Burying Grounds Initiative: 'Eliot Burying Ground,'

'Dorchester North Burying Ground,' 'Copp's Hill Burying Ground,'" VII:

59-102
"A Common Thread: Needlework Samplers and American Gravestones,"

Laurel K. Gabel, XIX: 18-49

1 76 Subject Index, Markers I-XX

"Seven Initial Carvers of Boston, 1700-1725," Theodore Chase and Laurel K.
Gabel, V: 210-232

BRITISH COLUMBIA

"In the Way of the White Man's Totem Poles: Stone Monuments Among
Canada's Tsimshian Indians 1879-1910," Ronald W. Hawker, VII: 213-232

CALIFORNIA

"'Best Damm Dog We Ever Had': Some Folkloristic and Anthropological

Observations on San Francisco's Presidio Pet Cemetery," Richard E. Meyer

and David M. Gradwohl, XII: 160-205
"Contemporary Gravemarkers of Youths: Milestones of Our Path Through Pain

to Joy," Gay Lynch, XII: 144-159
"The Origins of Marble Carving on Cape Cod, Part I: William Sturgis and

Family," James Blachowicz, XIX, 64-173

CANADA (see BRITISH COLUMBIA, ONTARIO, NOVA SCOTIA)

CARIBBEAN

"Benditcha Sea Vuestra Memoria: Sephardic Jewish Cemeteries in the Caribbean
and Eastern North America," David Mayer Gradwohl, XV: vi, 1-29

CARVER IDENTIFICATION METHODOLOGY AND ISSUES (see also, studies

of individual cavers)
"By Their Characters You Shall Know Them: Using Styles of Lettering to

Identify Gravestone Carvers," Gray Williams, Jr., XVII: 162-205
"Purchase Delay, Pricing Factors, and Attribution Elements in Gravestones

from the Shop of Ithamar Spauldin," John S. Wilson, IX: 105-132
"Seven Initial Carvers of Boston 1700-1725," Theodore Chase and Laurel K.

Gabel, V: 210-232

CARVER STUDIES (see under state entries)

CAST IRON (see IRON)

CEMETERY (GENERAL)

"The Adkins-Woodson Cemetery: A Sociological Examination of Cemeteries as

Community," Gary S. Foster and Richard L. Hummell, XII: 92-117
"The Care of Old Cemeteries and Gravestones," Lance R. Mayer, 1: 118-141
"Mystery, History, and an Ancient Graveyard," Melvin Williams, 1: 166-171
"Protective Custody: The Museum's Responsibility for Gravestones," Robert P.

Emlen, 1: 142-147
"Recording Cemetery Data," F. Joanne Baker, Daniel Farber, Anne G. Giesecke,

I: 98-117
"Resources for the Classroom Teacher: an Annotated Bibliography," Mary

Anne Mrozinski, 1: 172-173

CERAMIC

"'...do not go and leave me behind unwept...': Greek Gravemarkers Heed the

Gary Collison 177

Warning," Gay Lynch, XX: 280-301
"'A Piece of Granite That's Been Made in Two Weeks': Terra-Cotta

Gravemarkers from New Jersey and New York, 1875-1930," Richard Veit,
XII: vi, 1-30

CHILDREN

"'Safe in the Arms of Jesus': Consolation on Delaware Children's Gravestones,
1840-99," Deborah A. Smith, IV: 85-106

CHINESE

"Chinese Graves and Gravemarkers in Hong Kong," Chun-shing Chow and
Elizabeth Kenworthy Teather, XV: 286-317

CHINESE AMERICAN

"The Chinese of Valhalla: Adaptation and Identity in a Midwestern American
Cemetery," C. Fred Blake, X: 53-90

CIVIL WAR

"Quantrill's Three Graves and Other Reminders of the Lawrence Massacre,"

Randall M. Thies, XVIII: vi, 1-29
"'Where Valor Proudly Sleeps': Theodore O'Hara and 'Bivouac of the Dead',"

Thomas C. Ware, XI: 82-111

COLORADO

"Colorado Wooden Markers," James Milmoe, I: 56-61

"The Woodmen of the World Monument Program," Annette Stott, XX: vi, 1-29

CONCRETE/ CEMENT

"A Modern [African American] Gravestone Maker: Some Lessons for
Gravestone Historians," Barbara Rotundo, XIV: 86-109

CONNECTICUT

"The Center Church Crypt of New Haven, Connecticut: A Photographic

Essay," Photographs by Daniel and Jessie Lie Farber; Text by Gray Williams,

Jr., IX: 79-104
"By Their Characters You Shall Know Them: Using Styles of Lettering to

Identify Gravestone Carvers," Gray Williams, Jr., XVII: 162-205
"A Chronological Survey of the Gravestones Made by Calvin Barber of

Simsbury, Connecticut," Stephen Petke, X: vi, 1-52
"A Common Thread: Needlework Samplers and American Gravestones,"

Laurel K. Gabel, XIX: 18-49
"The Disappearing Shaker Cemetery," Thomas A. Malloy and Brenda Malloy,

IX: 257-274
"Eighteenth Century Gravestone Carvers of the Upper Narragansett Basin:

Gabriel Allen," Vincent F. Luti, XX: 76-109
"Eighteenth Century Gravestone Carvers of the Narragansett Basin: John and

James New," Vincent F. Luti, XVI: 6-103
"The Fencing Mania': The Rise and Fall of Nineteenth-Century Funerary

Enclosures," Blanche Linden-Ward, VII: 35-58
"Folk Art on Gravestones: The Glorious Contrast," Charles Bergengren, II:

171-183

1 78 Subject Index, Markers I-XX

"T Never Regretted Coming to Africa': The Story of Harriet Ruggles Loomis'

Gravestone," Laurel K. Gabel, XVI: 140-173
"James Stanclift," Sherry Stancliff, in Jessie Lie Farber, ed., "Stonecutters and

Their Works/' IV: 154-159
"John Huntington, Gravestone Carver of Lebanon, Connecticut," Ann F.

Shepardson, XIII: 142-222
"Jonathan and John Loomis of Coventry, Connecticut," James A. Slater, in Jessie

Lie Farber, ed. "Stonecutters and Their Works," IV: 131-138
"The Joshua Hempstead Diary," Ralph L. Tucker, XII: 118-143
"Jotham Warren, The Plainfield Trumpeter," James A. Slater, XIII: vi, 1-43
"The Lamson Family Gravestone Carvers of Charlestown and Maiden,

Massachusetts," Ralph L. Tucker, X: 151-218
"'Md. by Thomas Gold': The Gravestones of a New Haven Carver," Meredith

M. Williams and Gray Williams, Jr., V: vi, 1-59
"'And the Men Who Made Them': The Signed Gravestones of New England,"

Sue Kelly and Anne Williams, II: 1-103
"Merrimac Valley Style Gravestones: The Leighton and Worster Families,"

Ralph L. Tucker, XI: 142-167
"The Papers of Dr. Ernest J. Caulfield on Connecticut Carvers and their Work,"

VIII: 9-342
"A Particular Sense of Doom: Skeletal 'Revivals' in Northern Essex County,

Massachusetts, 1737-1784," Peter Benes, III: 71-92
"Portfolio of Mrs. Forbes' Cast-Iron Gates," Margot Gayle, VII: 19-34
Review of James A. Slater's TJie Colonial Burying Grounds of Eastern Connecticut

and the Men Who Made Them, Peter Benes, VI: 232-240
"Symbolic Cemetery Gates in New England," Harriette M. Forbes, VII: 3-18
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Kriiger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100
"Wanted: The Hook-And-Eye Man [Gershom Bartlett]," Ernest Caulfield, I:

12-49
"Where the Bay Meets the River: Gravestones and Stonecutters in the River

Towns of Western Massachusetts, 1690-1810," Kevin Sweeney, III: 1-46

CONSERVATION (see PRESERVATION)

CONTEMPORARY DESIGN

"The Example of D. Aldo Pitassi: Evolutionary Thought and Practice in
Contemporary Memorial Design," Robert Prestiano, II: 203-220

CRETE

"Do-It-Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:
110-153

CZECH AMERICAN

"Gravestones and the Linguistic Ethnography of Czech-Moravians In Texas,"
Eva Eckert, XVIII: 146-187

GaryCollison 179

"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133
"Language and Ethnicity Maintenance: Evidence of Czech Tombstone

Inscriptions/' Eva Eckert, XV: 204-233
"From Moravia to Texas: Immigrant Acculturation at the Cemetery," Eva

Eckert, XIX: 174-211

DELAWARE

"'Safe in the Arms of Jesus': Consolation on Delaware Children's Gravestones,

1840-99," Deborah A. Smith, IV: 85-106
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Krliger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100

EGYPTIAN REVIVAL (STYLE)

"Egyptian Revival Funerary Art in Green-Wood Cemetery," Elizabeth Broman,
XVIII: 30-67

ENGLAND

"A Common Thread: Needlework Samplers and American Gravestones,"

Laurel K. Gabel, XIX: 18-49
"Do-It-Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"Mourning in a Distant Land: Gold Star Pilgrimages to American Military

Cemeteries in Europe, 1930-33," Lotte Larsen Meyer, XX: 30-75
"Origins and Early Development of the Celtic Cross," Douglas Mac Lean, VII:

233-275

EPITAPH

"'...do not go and leave me behind unwept...': Greek Gravemarkers Heed the

Warning," Gay Lynch, XX: 280-301
"Do-It-Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"Resurrecting the Epitaph," Diana Hume George and Malcolm A. Nelson, I:

84-95

ETHNICITY/ RACE (see AUSTRALIA, AFRICAN AMERICAN, CHINESE,

CHINESE AMERICAN, CZECH AMERICAN, ITALIAN AMERICAN,
MEXICAN AMERICAN, PENNSYLVANIA GERMAN, SCOTCH-
IRISH)

EUROPE

"Stylistic Variation in the Western Front Battlefield Cemeteries of World War I
Combatant Nations," Richard E. Meyer, XVIII: 188-253

FICTION

"The Old Gravestone," Hans Christian Andersen, XX: 192-195

FENCING

"The Fencing Mania': The Rise and Fall of Nineteenth-Century Funerary

1 80 Subject Index, Markers I-XX

Enclosures," Blanche Linden-Ward, VII: 35-58
"Portfolio of Mrs. Forbes' Cast-iron Gates," Margot Gayle, VII: 19-34

FLORIDA

"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk

Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84
"Under Grave Conditions: African- American Signs of Life and Death in North

Florida," Robin Franklin Nigh, XIV: 158-189

FOLK ART

"Folk Art on Gravestones: The Glorious Contrast," Charles Bergengren, II: 171-
183

FRANCE

"Do-It-Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"Mourning in a Distant Land: Gold Star Pilgrimages to American Military

Cemeteries in Europe, 1930-33," Lotte Larsen Meyer, XX: 30-75
"Stylistic Variation in the Western Front Battlefield Cemeteries of World War I

Combatant Nations," Richard E. Meyer, XVIII: 188-253

FRATERNALISM

"Ritual, Regalia, and Remembrance: Fraternal Symbolism and Gravestones,"

Laurel K. Gabel, XI: vi, 1-27
"The Woodmen of the World Monument Program," Annette Stott, XX: vi, 1-29

FUNERAL RITUAL

"'...do not go and leave me behind unwept...': Greek Gravemarkers Heed the
Warning," Gay Lynch, XX: 280-301

GATES

"Portfolio of Mrs. Forbes' Cast-iron Gates," Margot Gayle, VII: 19-34

"Symbolic Cemetery Gates in New England," Harriette M. Forbes, VII: 3-18

GEOGRAPHY

"Louisiana Cemeteries: Manifestations of Regional and Denominational

Identity," Tadashi Nakagawa, XI: 28-51
"Ontario Gravestones," Darrell A. Norris, V: 122-149
"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk

Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84

GEORGIA

"Benditcha Sea Vuestra Memoria: Sephardic Jewish Cemeteries in the Caribbean

and Eastern North America," David Mayer Gradwohl, XV: vi, 1-29
"Do-It- Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"Eighteenth Century Gravestone Carvers of the Upper Narragansett Basin:

Gabriel Allen," Vincent F. Luti, XX: 76-109

Gary Collison 181

"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk

Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Kruger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100

GERMAN AMERICAN

"Early Pennsylvania Gravemarkers," photographs and text by Daniel and Jessie

Lie Farber, V: 96-121
"John Solomon Teetzel and the Anglo-German Gravestone Carving Tradition of

18th Century Northwestern New Jersey," Richard F. Veit, XVII: 124-161
"Pennsylvania German Gravestones: An Introduction," Thomas E. Graves, V:

60-95
"Language Codes in Texas German Graveyards," Scott Baird, IX: 217-256

GERMANY

"Do-It-Yourself Immortalitv: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:
110-153

GREECE

"'...do not go and leave me behind unwept...': Greek Gravemarkers Heed the
Warning," Gay Lynch, XX: 280-301

HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY

"The Archaeological Significance of Mausoleums [Pittsburgh, PA]," James B.

Richardson III and Ronald C. Carlisle, 1: 156-165
"Gravestones and Historical Archaeology: A Review Essay," David HWatters,

1: 174-179

ILLINOIS

"The Adkins-Woodson Cemetery: A Sociological Examination of Cemeteries as

Community," Gary S. Foster and Richard L. Hummell, XII: 92-117
"Acculturation and Transformation of Salt Lake Temple Symbols in Mormon

Tombstone Art," George H. Schoemaker, IX: 197-216
"Communities of the Dead: Tombstones as a Reflection of Social Organization,"

Paula J. Fenza, VF136-157
"Do-It-Yourself Immortalitv: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"Poems in Stone: Tombs of Louis Henri Sullivan," Robert A. Wright, V: 168-209

INDIAN (see NATIVE AMERICAN)

INDIANA

"Notes on the Production of Rustic Monuments in the Limestone Belt of

Indiana," Warren E. Roberts, VII: 173-194
"Stonecarvers of Monroe County, Indiana 1828-1890," Jennifer Lucas, VII: 195-

212

182 Subject Index, Markers I-XX

"Tree-Stump Tombstones: Traditional Cultural Values and Rustic Funerary
Art," Susanne S. Ridlen, XIII: 44-73

IOWA

"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133

"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Kriiger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100

IRELAND

"Origins and Early Development of the Celtic Cross," Douglas Mac Lean, VII:

233-275

IRON

"The Fencing Mania': The Rise and Fall of Nineteenth-Century Funerary

Enclosures," Blanche Linden-Ward, VII: 35-58
"Portfolio of Mrs. Forbes' Cast-iron Gates," Margot Gayle, VII: 19-34
"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133
"Symbolic Cemetery Gates in New England," Harriette M. Forbes, VII: 3-18
"Wisconsin's Wrought Iron Markers," Julaine Maynard, I: 76-79

ITALIAN AMERICAN

"Death Italo- American Style: Reflections on Modern Martyrdom," Robert

McGrath, IV: 107-113
"Domesticating the Grave: Italian- American Memorial Practices at New York's

Calvary Cemetery," Joseph J. Imguanti, XVII: 8-31

ITALY

"Do-It- Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"Death Italo- American Style: Reflections on Modern Martyrdom," Robert

McGrath, IV: 107-113
"An Early Christian Athlete: The Epitaph of Aurelius Eutychus of Eumeneia,"

Scott T. Carroll, VI: 208-230
"The Protestant Cemetery in Florence and Anglo-American Attitudes Toward

Italy," James A. Freeman, X: 219-242

JAMAICA

"Benditcha Sea Vuestra Memoria: Sephardic Jewish Cemeteries in the Caribbean
and Eastern North America," David Mayer Gradwohl, XV: vi, 1-29

JEWISH

"Benditcha Sea Vuestra Memoria: Sephardic Jewish Cemeteries in the Caribbean

and Eastern North America," David Mayer Gradwohl, XV: vi, 1-29
"The Jewish Cemeteries of Louisville, Kentucky: Mirrors of Historical Processes

and Theological Diversity through 150 Years," David M. Gradwohl, X: 117-

150
"Legendary Explanations: The Protection of the Remu Cemetery during the

Holocaust," Simon J. Bronner, XIX: 40-53

GarvCollison 183

KANSAS

"The New Deal's Landscape Legacy in Kansas Cemeteries," Cathy Ambler, XV:

264-285
"Quantrill's Three Graves and Other Reminders of the Lawrence Massacre,"

Randall M. Thies, XVIII: vi, 1-29
"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133

KENTUCKY

"The Jewish Cemeteries of Louisville, Kentucky: Mirrors of Historical Processes

and Theological Diversity through 150 Years," David M. Gradwohl, X: 117-

150
"Monumental Ambition: A Kentucky Stonecutter's Career," Deborah A. Smith,

XI: 168-185
"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk

Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84

LETTERING

"By Their Characters You Shall Know Them: Using Styles of Lettering to
Identify Gravestone Carvers," Gray Williams, Jr., XVII: 162-205

LIMESTONE

"Notes on the Production of Rustic Monuments in the Limestone Belt of
Indiana," Warren E. Roberts, VII: 173-194

LINGUISTICS

"Gravestones and the Linguistic Ethnography of Czech-Moravians In Texas,"

Eva Eckert, XVIII: 146-187
"Language and Ethnicity Maintenance: Evidence of Czech Tombstone

Inscriptions," Eva Eckert, XV: 204-233
"Language Codes in Texas German Graveyards," Scott Baird, IX: 217-256
"Taylor, Texas, City Cemetery: A Language Community," Scott Baird, XIII: 112-

141

LOUISIANA

"Louisiana Cemeteries: Manifestations of Regional and Denominational

Identity," Tadashi Nakagawa, XI: 28-51
"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk

Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84

MAINE

"The Carvers of Kingston, Massachusetts," James Blachowicz, XVIII: 70-145

"The Disappearing Shaker Cemetery," Thomas A. Malloy and Brenda Malloy,

IX: 257-274
"Eighteenth Century Gravestone Carvers of the Narragansett Basin: John and

James New," Vincent F. Luti, XVI: 6-103
"The Pratt Family of Stonecutters," Ralph L. Tucker, XIV: 134-157

Subject Index, Markers I-XX

MARBLE CARVERS

"Charles Miller Walsh: A Master Carver of Gravestones in Virginia, 1865-1901,"

Martha Wren Briggs, VII: 139-172
"Fifty Years of Reliability: The Stonecarving Career of Charles Lloyd Neale

(1800-1866) in Alexandria, Virginia," David Vance Finnell, X: 91-116
"The Origins of Marble Carving on Cape Cod, Part I: William Sturgis and

Family," James Blachowicz, XIX, 64-173
"The Rule Family: Vermont Gravestone Carvers and Marble Dealers," Ann M.

Cathcart, XIX: 214-239

MASSACHUSETTS

"Boston's Historic Burying Grounds Initiative: 'Eliot Burying Ground/

'Dorchester North Burying Ground,' 'Copp's Hill Burying Ground,'" VII:

59-102
"The Carvers of Kingston, Massachusetts," James Blachowicz XVIII: 70-145
"A Chronological Survey of the Gravestones Made by Calvin Barber of

Simsbury, Connecticut," Stephen Petke, X: vi, 1-52
"The Colburn Connections: Hollis, New Hampshire Stonecarvers, 1780-1820,"

Theodore Chase and Laurel Gabel, III: 93-146
"A Common Thread: Needlework Samplers and American Gravestones,"

Laurel K. Gabel, XIX: 18-49
"Daniel Hastings of Newton, Massachusetts," Daniel Farber, in Jessie Lie

Farber, ed., "Stonecutters and Their Works," IV: 157-159
"The Disappearing Shaker Cemetery," Thomas A. Malloy and Brenda Malloy,

IX: 257-274
"Do-It-Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"Eighteenth Century Gravestone Carvers of the Upper Narragansett Basin:

Gabriel Allen," Vincent F. Luti, XX: 76-109
"Eighteenth Century Gravestone Carvers of the Narragansett Basin: John and

James New," Vincent F. Luti, XVI: 6-103
"Eternal Celebration in American Memorials," Jonathan L. Fairbanks, XVI: 104-

137
"The Feltons of New Salem, Massachusetts," Robert Drinkwater, in Jessie Lie

Farber, ed., "Stonecutters and Their Works," IV: 169-173
"'The Fencing Mania': The Rise and Fall of Nineteenth-Century Funerary

Enclosures," Blanche Linden-Ward, VII: 35-58
"Folk Art on Gravestones: The Glorious Contrast," Charles Bergengren, II: 171-

183
"Gravemarkers of the Early Congregational Ministers in North Central

Massachusetts," Tom and Brenda Malloy, XIV: 34-85
"The Gravestone Carving Traditions of Plymouth and Cape Cod," James

Blachowicz, XV: 38-203
"Ithamar Spauldin, Stonecarver of Concord, Massachusetts," C. R. Jones, I: 50-

55
"James Wilder of Lancaster, Massachusetts, 1741-1794," Laurel Gabel and

Theodore Chase, in Jessie Lie Farber, ed., "Stonecutters and Their Works,"

IV: 166-169
"The JN Carver," David Watters, II: 115-131

Gary Collison 185

'John Anthony Angel and William Throop: Stonecutters of the Narragansett

Basin," Vincent F. Luti, in Jessie Lie Farber, ed., "Stonecutters and Their

Works," IV: 148-153
'The John Dwight Workshop in Shirley, Massachusetts, 1770-1816," Eloise

Sibley West, VI: vii, 1-31
'Joseph Barbur, Jr.: The Frond Carver of West Medway," Michael Cornish, II:

133-147
'The Lamson Family Gravestone Carvers of Charlestown and Maiden,

Massachusetts," Ralph L. Tucker, X: 151-218
"And the Men Who Made Them': The Signed Gravestones of New England,"

Sue Kelly and Anne Williams, II: 1-103
'Merrimac Valley Style Gravestones: The Leighton and Worster Families,"

Ralph L. Tucker, XI: 142-167
'The Mullicken Family Gravestone Carvers of Bradford, Massachusetts, 1663-

1768," Ralph L. Tucker, IX: 23-58
'Murder in Massachusetts: It's Written in Stone," Tom and Brenda Malloy, XVI:

210-241
'The Origins of Marble Carving on Cape Cod, Part I: William Sturgis and

Family," James Blachowicz, XIX, 64-173
'The Origins of Marble Carving on Cape Cod, Part II: The Orleans and

Sandwich Carvers," James Blachowicz, XX: 196-279
'A Particular Sense of Doom: Skeletal 'Revivals' in Northern Essex County,

Massachusetts, 1737-1784," Peter Benes, III: 71-92
'Portfolio of Mrs. Forbes' Cast-iron Gates," Margot Gayle, VII: 19-34
'The Pratt Family of Stonecutters," Ralph L. Tucker, XIV: 134-157
'Purchase Delay, Pricing Factors, and Attribution Elements in Gravestones

from the Shop of Ithamar Spauldin," John S. Wilson, IX: 105-132
'Seven Initial Carvers of Boston, 1700-1725," Theodore Chase and Laurel K.

Gabel, V: 210-232
'Slavery in Colonial Massachusetts as Seen Through Selected Gravestones,"

Tom and Brenda Malloy, XI: 112-141
'Silent Stones in a Potter's Field: Grave Markers at the Almshouse Burial

Ground in Uxbridge, Massachusetts," Ricardo J. Elia, IX: 133-158
'Samuel Dwight: Vermont Gravestone Cutter," Nancy Jean Melin, in Jessie Lie

Farber, ed., "Stonecutters and Their Works," IV: 160-165
'Solomon Brewer: A Connecticut Valley Yankee in Westchester County," Gray

Williams, Jr, XI: 52-81
'Speaking Stones: New England Grave Carving and the Emblematic

Tradition," Lucien L. Agosta, III: 47-70
'Symbolic Cemetery Gates in New England," Harriette M. Forbes, VII: 3-18
'Thomas Crawford's Monument for Amos Binney in Mount Auburn Cemetery,

'A Work of Rare Merit,'" Lauretta Dimmick, IX: 169-196
'Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Kriiger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100
'Where the Bay Meets the River: Gravestones and Stonecutters in the River

Towns of Western Massachusetts, 1690-1810," Kevin Sweeney, III: 1-46
'William Coye: Father of the Plymouth Carving Tradition," James Blachowicz,

in collaboration with Vincent F. Luti, XVII: 32-107

Subject Index, Markers I-XX

"William Young of Tatnuck, Massachusetts," Mary and Rick Stafford, in Jessie
Lie Farber, ed. "Stonecutters and Their Works," IV: 138-148

MAUSOLEUMS

"The Archaeological Significance of Mausoleums [Pittsburgh, PA]," James B.

Richardson III and Ronald C. Carlisle, 1: 156-165
"Poems in Stone: Tombs of Louis Henri Sullivan," Robert A. Wright, V: 168-209
"The Thomas Foster Mausoleum: Canada's Taj Mahal," Sybil F. Crawford, XX:

154-191

METAL (see IRON)

METHODOLOGY

"Applications of Developing Technologies to Cemetery Studies," Gary Foster

and Richard L. Hummel, XVII: 110-123
"Gravestones and Historical Archaeology: A Review Essay," David H.Watters,

I: 174-179
"Recording Cemetery Data," F. Joanne Baker, Daniel Farber, Anne G. Giesecke,

I: 98-117
"Resurrecting the Epitaph," Diana Hume George and Malcolm A. Nelson, I:

84-95

MEXICAN AMERICAN

"Composantos: Sacred Places of the Southwest," Laura Sue Sanborn, VI: 158-

179
"New Mexico Village Composantos," Nancy Hunter Warren, IV: 115-129

MICHIGAN

"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133

MID- WEST (see also, individual states)

"The Adkins-Woodson Cemetery: A Sociological Examination of Cemeteries as

Community," Gary S. Foster and Richard L. Hummell, XII: 92-117
"The Chinese of Valhalla: Adaptation and Identity in a Midwestern American

Cemetery," C. Fred Blake, X: 53-90
"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133
"Tree-Stump Tombstones: Traditional Cultural Values and Rustic Funerary

Art," Susanne S. Ridlen, XIII: 44-73

MILITARY (see CIVIL WAR, WORLD WAR I)

MINISTERS

"Gravemarkers of the Early Congregational Ministers in North Central
Massachusetts," Tom and Brenda Malloy, XIV: 34-85

MINNESOTA

"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133

MINORITIES (see AFRICAN AMERICAN, AUSTRALIA, MEXICAN
AMERICAN, NATIVE AMERICAN)

GaryCollison 187

MISSISSIPPI

"A Modern Gravestone Maker: Some Lessons for Gravestone Historians,"

Barbara Rotundo, XIV: 86-109
"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk

Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Kriiger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100

MISSOURI

"The Chinese of Valhalla: Adaptation and Identity in a Midwestern American

Cemetery," C. Fred Blake, X: 53-90
"Do-It-Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"Poems in Stone: Tombs of Louis Henri Sullivan," Robert A. Wright, V: 168-209
"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133
"Quantrill's Three Graves and Other Reminders of the Lawrence Massacre,"

Randall M. Thies, XVIII: vi, 1-29

MODERNISM

"The Example of D. Aldo Pitassi: Evolutionary Thought and Practice in
Contemporary Memorial Design," Robert Prestiano, II: 203-220

MORMON

"Acculturation and Transformation of Salt Lake Temple Symbols in Mormon

Tombstone Art," George H. Schoemaker, IX: 197-216
"Mormon Temple Reproductions on Cemetery Markers," Jacqueline S.

Thursby, XX: 312-333

NATIVE AMERICAN

"Cemetery Symbols and Contexts of American Indian Identity: The Grave of

Painter and Poet T. C. Canon," David M. Gradwohl, XIV: vi, 1-33
"In the Way of the White Man's Totem Poles: Stone Monuments Among

Canada's Tsimshian Indians 1879-1910," Ronald W. Hawker, VII: 213-232

NEBRASKA

"Mourning in a Distant Land: Gold Star Pilgrimages to American Military

Cemeteries in Europe, 1930-33," Lotte Larsen Meyer, XX: 30-75
"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133

NEVADA

"Mormon Temple Reproductions on Cemetery Markers," Jacqueline S.
Thursby, XX: 312-333

NEW ENGLAND (see also, individual states)

"'And the Men Who Made Them': The Signed Gravestones of New England,"

Sue Kelly and Anne Williams, II: 1-103
"'And the Men Who Made Them': The Signed Gravestones of New England,

1984 Additions," Sue Kelly and Anne Williams, III:
"Resurrecting the Epitaph," Diana Hume George and Malcolm A. Nelson, I:

Subject Index, Markers I-XX

84-95
"Scottish Gravestones and the New England Winged Skull," Betty Wiltshire, II:

105-114
"Speaking Stones: New England Grave Carving and the Emblematic

Tradition," Lucien L. Agosta, III: 47-70

NEW HAMPSHIRE

"The Colburn Connections: Hollis, New Hampshire Stonecarvers, 1780-1820,"

Theodore Chase and Laurel Gabel, III: 93-146
"The Disappearing Shaker Cemetery," Thomas A. Malloy and Brenda Malloy,

IX: 257-274
"Do-It-Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"'Fencing ye Tables': Scotch-Irish Ethnicity and the Gravestones of John

Wight," David H. Watters, XVI: 174-209
"The JN Carver," David Watters, II: 115-131
"From Jonathan Hartshorne to Jeremiah Lane: Fifty Years of Gravestone

Carving in Coastal New Hampshire," Glenn A. Knoblock, XIII: 74-111
"The Lamson Family Gravestone Carvers of Charlestown and Maiden,

Massachusetts," Ralph L. Tucker, X: 151-218
"'And the Men Who Made Them': The Signed Gravestones of New England,"

Sue Kelly and Anne Williams, II: 1-103
"Merrimac Valley Style Gravestones: The Leighton and Worster Families,"

Ralph L. Tucker, XI: 142-167
"A Particular Sense of Doom: Skeletal 'Revivals' in Northern Essex County,

Massachusetts, 1737-1784," Peter Benes, III: 71-92
"Portfolio of Mrs. Forbes' Cast-iron Gates," Margot Gayle, VII: 19-34
"Purchase Delay, Pricing Factors, and Attribution Elements in Gravestones

from the Shop of Ithamar Spauldin," John S. Wilson, IX: 105-132
"Quantrill's Three Graves and Other Reminders of the Lawrence Massacre,"

Randall M. Thies, XVIII: vi, 1-29
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Kruger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100

NEW JERSEY

"Benditcha Sea Vuestra Memoria: Sephardic Jewish Cemeteries in the Caribbean

and Eastern North America," David Mayer Gradwohl, XV: vi, 1-29
"John Solomon Teetzel and the Anglo-German Gravestone Carving Tradition of

18th Century Northwestern New Jersey," Richard F. Veit, XVII: 124-161
"'And the Men Who Made Them': The Signed Gravestones of New England,"

Sue Kelly and Anne Williams, II: 1-103
"The New York and New Jersey Gravestone Carving Tradition," Richard F.

Welch, IV: 1-54
"'A Piece of Granite That's Been Made in Two Weeks': Terra-Cotta

Gravemarkers from New Jersey and New York, 1875-1930," Richard Veit,

XII: vi, 1-30

NEW MEXICO

"Composantos: Sacred Places of the Southwest," Laura Sue Sanborn, VI:

Gary Collison 189

158-179
"New Mexico Village Composantos," Nancy Hunter Warren, IV: 115-129

NEW YORK

"Benditcha Sea Vuestra Memoria: Sephardic Jewish Cemeteries in the Caribbean

and Eastern North America," David Mayer Gradwohl, XV: vi, 1-29
"By Their Characters You Shall Know Them: Using Styles of Lettering to

Identify Gravestone Carvers," Gray Williams, Jr., XVII: 162-205
"The Disappearing Shaker Cemetery," Thomas A. Malloy and Brenda Malloy,

IX: 257-274
"Domesticating the Grave: Italian- American Memorial Practices at New York's

Calvary Cemetery," Joseph J. Imguanti, XVII: 8-31
"Egyptian Revival Funerary Art in Green- Wood Cemetery," Elizabeth Broman,

XVIII: 30-67
"Eternal Celebration in American Memorials," Jonathan L. Fairbanks, XVI: 104-

137
"The Fencing Mania': The Rise and Fall of Nineteenth-Century Funerary

Enclosures," Blanche Linden-Ward, VII: 35-58
"James Stanclift," Sherry Stancliff, in Jessie Lie Farber, ed., "Stonecutters and

Their Works," IV: 154-159
"'And the Men Who Made Them': The Signed Gravestones of New England,"

Sue Kelly and Anne Williams, II: 1-103
"The New York and New Jersey Gravestone Carving Tradition," Richard F.

Welch, IV: 1-54
"'A Piece of Granite That's Been Made in Two Weeks': Terra-Cotta

Gravemarkers from New Jersey and New York, 1875-1930," Richard Veit,

XII: vi, 1-30
"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133
"The Rule Family: Vermont Gravestone Carvers and Marble Dealers," Ann M.

Cathcart, XIX: 214-239
"Samuel Dwight: Vermont Gravestone Cutter," Nancy Jean Melin, in Jessie Lie

Farber, ed., "Stonecutters and Their Works," IV: 160-165
"Scriptural Stones and Barn Mending: At the Grave of Herman Melville,"

Kenneth Speirs, XV: 30-37
"Solomon Brewer: A Connecticut Valley Yankee in Westchester County," Gray

Williams, Jr, XI: 52-81
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Kriiger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100

NORTH CAROLINA

"Afro- American Gravemarkers in North Carolina," M. Ruth Little, VI: 102-134

"Do-It-Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"The Gravestone Carving Traditions of Plymouth and Cape Cod," James

Blachowicz, XV: 38-203
"Openwork Memorials of North Carolina," Francis Y. Duval and Ivan B. Rigby,

I: 62-75
"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk

Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84

190 Subject Index. Markers I-XX

NORTH DAKOTA

"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133

NOVA SCOTIA, CANADA

"The Gravestone Carving Traditions of Plymouth and Cape Cod," James

Blachowicz, XV: 38-203
"'And the Men Who Made Them': The Signed Gravestones of New England,"

Sue Kelly and Anne Williams, II: 1-103
"Research Report on the Graveyards of Kings County, Nova Scotia," Deborah

Trask and Debra McNabb, V:150-167
"William Coye: Father of the Plymouth Carving Tradition," James Blachowicz,

in collaboration with Vincent F. Luti, XVII: 32-107

OBITUARIES

"Daniel Farber (1906-1998)," James A. Slater, XVI: vi, 1-5

"Ernest Joseph Caulfield (1893-1972)," VIII: 1-8-Biographical Sketch

"Ivan B. Rigby (1908-2000)," Jessie Lie Farber, with Katherine M. Noordsij, XIX:

12-17
"James Fanto Deetz (1930-2000)," Kathryn Crabtree and Eugene Prince, XIX: vi,

1-11
"Recollections of a Collaboration: A Tribute to the Art of Francis Duval," Ivan

B. Rigby with Katherine M. Noordsij, IX: vi, 1-22
"Warren E. Roberts (1924-1999)," Simon J. Bronner, XVII: vi, 1-5

OCCUPATION

"Gravemarkers of the Early Congregational Ministers in North Central
Massachusetts," Tom and Brenda Malloy, XIV: 34-85

OHIO

"Quantrill's Three Graves and Other Reminders of the Lawrence Massacre,"
Randall M. Thies, XVIII: vi, 1-29

OKLAHOMA

"Cemetery Symbols and Contexts of American Indian Identity: The Grave of

Painter and Poet T. C. Canon," David M. Gradwohl, XIV: vi, 1-33
"Do-It-Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133
"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk

Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84

ONTARIO, CANADA

"Ontario Gravestones," Darrell A. Norris, V: 122-149

"The Thomas Foster Mausoleum: Canada's Taj Mahal," Sybil F. Crawford, XX:

154-191
"United Above Though Parted Below: The Hand as Symbol on Nineteenth

Century Southwest Ontario Gravestones," Nancy-Lou Patterson, VI: 180-206

OREGON

"'And Who Have Seen the Wilderness': The End of the Trail on Early Oregon

Gary Collison 191

Gravemarkers," Richard E. Meyer, XI: 186-219
"Mormon Temple Reproductions on Cemetery Markers," Jacqueline S.
Thursby, XX: 312-333

PEDAGOGY

"Mystery, History, and an Ancient Graveyard," Melvin Williams, 1: 166-171
"Resources for the Classroom Teacher: an Annotated Bibliography," Mary
Anne Mrozinski, 1: 172-173

PENNSYLVANIA

"The Archaeological Significance of Mausoleums [Pittsburgh, PA]," James B.

Richardson III and Ronald C. Carlisle, 1: 156-165
"Benditcha Sea Vuestra Memorial Sephardic Jewish Cemeteries in the Caribbean

and Eastern North America," David Mayer Gradwohl, XV: vi, 1-29
"Do-It-Yourself Immortalitv: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"Early Pennsylvania Gravemarkers," photographs and text by Daniel and Jessie

Lie Farber, V: 96-121
"The Example of D. Aldo Pitassi: Evolutionary Thought and Practice in

Contemporary Memorial Design," Robert Prestiano, II: 203-220
"Eternal Celebration in American Memorials," Jonathan L. Fairbanks, XVI: 104-

137
"Pennsylvania German Gravestones: An Introduction," Thomas E. Graves, V:

60-95
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Kriiger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100
"'Where Valor Proudly Sleeps': Theodore O'Hara and 'Bivouac of the Dead',"

Thomas C. Ware, XI: 82-111

PET CEMETERIES (see ANIMAL)

POEMS

"A Cemetery," Emily Dickinson, XVIII: 68-69

"Joshua Sawyer," John Fitzsimmons, XVI: 138-139

"Key West Cemetery," Kenneth Pobo, XIX: 212-213

"The Quaker Graveyard," Silas Weir Mitchell, XVII: 108-109

POETRY

"Poets Among the Stones," Kenneth Pobo, XX: 302-311

"'Where Valor Proudlv Sleeps': Theodore O'Hara and 'Bivouac of the Dead',"
Thomas C. Ware, XI: 82-111

POLAND

"Legendary Explanations: The Protection of the Remu Cemetery during the
Holocaust," Simon J. Bronner, XIX: 40-53

PORTUGAL

"Benditcha Sea Vuestra Memorial Sephardic Jewish Cemeteries in the Caribbean
and Eastern North America," David Mayer Gradwohl, XV: vi, 1-29

192 Subj ect Index, Markers I-XX

PRESERVATION

"Boston's Historic Burying Grounds Initiative: 'Eliot Burying Ground/

'Dorchester North Burying Ground/ 'Copp's Hill Burying Ground,'" VII:

59-102
"The Care of Old Cemeteries and Gravestones," Lance R. Mayer, 1: 118-141
"Protective Custody: The Museum's Responsibility for Gravestones," Robert P.

Emlen, 1: 142-147
"Recording Cemetery Data," F. Joanne Baker, Daniel Farber, Anne G. Giesecke,

I: 98-117

RHODE ISLAND

"Benditcha Sea Vuestra Memoria: Sephardic Jewish Cemeteries in the Caribbean

and Eastern North America," David Mayer Gradwohl, XV: vi, 1-29
"A Common Thread: Needlework Samplers and American Gravestones,"

Laurel K. Gabel, XIX: 18-49
"Eighteenth Century Gravestone Carvers of the Upper Narragansett Basin:

Gabriel Allen," Vincent F. Luti, XX: 76-109
"Eighteenth Century Gravestone Carvers of the Narragansett Basin: John and

James New," Vincent F. Luti, XVI: 6-103
'"The Fencing Mania': The Rise and Fall of Nineteenth-Century Funerary

Enclosures," Blanche Linden-Ward, VII: 35-58
"Folk Art on Gravestones: The Glorious Contrast," Charles Bergengren, II: 171-

183
"John Anthony Angel and William Throop: Stonecutters of the Narragansett

Basin," Vincent F. Luti, in Jessie Lie Farber, ed., "Stonecutters and Their

Works," IV: 148-153
"The John Stevens Shop," Esther Fisher Benson, I: 80-83
'"And the Men Who Made Them': The Signed Gravestones of New England,"

Sue Kelly and Anne Williams, II: 1-103
"Portfolio of Mrs. Forbes' Cast-iron Gates," Margot Gayle, VII: 19-34
"Stonecarvers of the Narragansett Basin: Stephen and Charles Hartshorn of

Providence," Vincent F. Luti, II: 149-169
"Symbolic Cemetery Gates in New England," Harriette M. Forbes, VII: 3-18
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Krliger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100
"William Coye: Father of the Plymouth Carving Tradition," James Blachowicz,

in collaboration with Vincent F. Luti, XVII: 32-107

RURAL CEMETERY

"Communities of the Dead: Tombstones as a Reflection of Social Organization,"

Paula J. Fenza, VL136-157
"Egyptian Revival Funerary Art in Green- Wood Cemetery," Elizabeth Broman,

XVIII: 30-67
"Eternal Celebration in American Memorials," Jonathan L. Fairbanks, XVI: 104-

137
"The Example of D. Aldo Pitassi: Evolutionary Thought and Practice in

Contemporary Memorial Design," Robert Prestiano, II: 203-220
"'The Fencing Mania': The Rise and Fall of Nineteenth-Century Funerary

GaryCollison 193

Enclosures," Blanche Linden-Ward, VII: 35-58
"Poems in Stone: Tombs of Louis Henri Sullivan," Robert A. Wright, V: 168-209

SAMOA

"Do-It-Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153

SCOTS IRISH

'"Fencing ye Tables': Scotch-Irish Ethnicity and the Gravestones of John
Wight," David H. Watters, XVI: 174-209

SCOTLAND

"Adam and Eve Scenes on Kirkyards in the Scottish Lowlands: An Introduction

and Gazetteer," Betty Willsher, XII: 31-91
"The Green Man as an Emblem on Scottish Tombstones," Betty Willsher, IX:

59-78
"Origins and Early Development of the Celtic Cross," Douglas Mac Lean, VII:

233-275
"Scottish Gravestones and the New England Winged Skull," Betty Willshire, II:

105-114

SCULPTURE AND SCULPTORS

"Eternal Celebration in American Memorials," Jonathan L. Fairbanks, XVI: 104-

137
"The Example of D. Aldo Pitassi: Evolutionary Thought and Practice in

Contemporary Memorial Design," Robert Prestiano, II: 203-220
"Thomas Crawford's Monument for Amos Binney in Mount Auburn Cemetery,

'A Work of Rare Merit,'" Lauretta Dimmick, IX: 169-196

SHAKERS

"The Disappearing Shaker Cemetery," Thomas A. Malloy and Brenda Malloy,
IX: 257-274

SHORT STORY (see FICTION)

SOCIOLOGY

"The Adkins-Woodson Cemetery: A Sociological Examination of Cemeteries as

Community," Gary S. Foster and Richard L. Hummell, XII: 92-117
"Contemporary Gravemarkers of Youths: Milestones of Our Path Through Pain

to Joy," Gay Lynch, XII: 144-159
"Communities of the Dead: Tombstones as a Reflection of Social Organization,"

Paula J. Fenza, VF136-157

SOUTH (see also, individual southern states)

"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk

Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Krliger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100

1 94 Subject Index, Markers 1-XX

SOUTH CAROLINA

"Eighteenth Century Gravestone Carvers of the Upper Narragansett Basin:

Gabriel Allen," Vincent F. Luti, XX: 76-109
"Folk Art on Gravestones: The Glorious Contrast," Charles Bergengren, II: 171-

183
"The Gravestone Carving Traditions of Plymouth and Cape Cod," James

Blachowicz, XV: 38-203
"'And the Men Who Made Them': The Signed Gravestones of New England,"

Sue Kelly and Anne Williams, II: 1-103
"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk

Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84

SOUTH DAKOTA

"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133

SOUTHWEST (see New Mexico)

STYLES

"Egyptian Revival Funerary Art in Green- Wood Cemetery," Elizabeth Broman,

XVIII: 30-67
"Eternal Celebration in American Memorials," Jonathan L. Fairbanks, XVI: 104-

137
"Louisiana Cemeteries: Manifestations of Regional and Denominational

Identity," Tadashi Nakagawa, XI: 28-51
"Notes on the Production of Rustic Monuments in the Limestone Belt of

Indiana," Warren E. Roberts, VII: 173-194
"Stylistic Variation in the Western Front Battlefield Cemeteries of World War I

Combatant Nations," Richard E. Meyer, XVIII: 188-253
"Tree-Stump Tombstones: Traditional Cultural Values and Rustic Funerary

Art," Susanne S. Ridlen, XIII: 44-73

SYMBOLISM

"Acculturation and Transformation of Salt Lake Temple Symbols in Mormon

Tombstone Art," George H. Schoemaker, IX: 197-216
"Adam and Eve Scenes on Kirkyards in the Scottish Lowlands: An Introduction

and Gazetteer," Betty Willsher, XII: 31-91
"Cemetery Symbols and Contexts of American Indian Identity: The Grave of

Painter and Poet T. C. Canon," David M. Gradwohl, XIV: vi, 1-33
"A Common Thread: Needlework Samplers and American Gravestones,"

Laurel K. Gabel, XIX: 18-49
"Contemporary Gravemarkers of Youths: Milestones of Our Path Through Pain

to Joy," Gay Lynch, XII: 144-159
"The Green Man as an Emblem on Scottish Tombstones," Betty Willsher, IX:

59-78
"Notes on the Production of Rustic Monuments in the Limestone Belt of

Indiana," Warren E. Roberts, VII: 173-194
"Origins and Early Development of the Celtic Cross," Douglas Mac Lean, VII:

233-275

GaryCollison 195

"A Particular Sense of Doom: Skeletal 'Revivals' in Northern Essex County,

Massachusetts, 1737-1784," Peter Benes, III: 71-92
"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133
"Ritual, Regalia, and Remembrance: Fraternal Symbolism and Gravestones,"

Laurel K. Gabel, XI: vi, 1-27
"Say it with Flowers in the Victorian Cemetery," June Hadden Hobbs, XIX: 240-

271
"Scottish Gravestones and the New England Winged Skull," Betty Willshire, II:

105-114
"Speaking Stones: New England Grave Carving and the Emblematic

Tradition," Lucien L. Agosta, III: 47-70
"Symbolic Cemetery Gates in New England," Harriette M. Forbes, VII: 3-18
"Tree-Stump Tombstones: Traditional Cultural Values and Rustic Funerary

Art," Susanne S. Ridlen, XIII: 44-73
"United Above Though Parted Below: The Hand as Symbol on Nineteenth

Century Southwest Ontario Gravestones," Nancy-Lou Patterson, VI: 180-206
"The Woodmen of the World Monument Program," Annette Stott, XX: vi, 1-29
"The Willow Tree and Urn Motif, " Blanche M. G. Linden, 1: 148-155
"'And Who Have Seen the Wilderness': The End of the Trail on Early Oregon

Gravemarkers," Richard E. Meyer, XI: 186-219

TABLE STONES (LEDGER STONES)

"Gravemarkers of the Early Congregational Ministers in North Central
Massachusetts," Tom and Brenda Malloy, XIV: 34-85

TEACHING (see PEDAGOGY)

TECHNOLOGIES

"Applications of Developing Technologies to Cemetery Studies," Gary Foster
and Richard L. Hummel, XVII: 110-123

TENNESSEE

"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk
Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84

TERRA-COTTA

"'A Piece of Granite That's Been Made in Two Weeks': Terra-Cotta

Gravemarkers from New Jersey and New York, 1875-1930," Richard Veit,

XII: vi, 1-30

TEXAS

"Gravestones and the Linguistic Ethnography of Czech-Moravians In Texas,"

Eva Eckert, XVIII: 146-187
"Language and Ethnicity Maintenance: Evidence of Czech Tombstone

Inscriptions," Eva Eckert, XV: 204-233
"Language Codes in Texas German Graveyards," Scott Baird, IX: 217-256
"From Moravia to Texas: Immigrant Acculturation at the Cemetery," Eva

Eckert, XIX: 174-211
"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133

196 Subject Index, Markers I-XX

"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk

Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84
"Taylor, Texas, City Cemetery: A Language Community," Scott Baird, XIII:

112-141
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Krliger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100

TEXTILE DESIGNS

"A Common Thread: Needlework Samplers and American Gravestones,"
Laurel K. Gabel, XIX: 18-49

TREE-STUMP

"Notes on the Production of Rustic Monuments in the Limestone Belt of

Indiana," Warren E. Roberts, VII: 173-194
"Tree-Stump Tombstones: Traditional Cultural Values and Rustic Funerary

Art," Susanne S. Ridlen, XIII: 44-73
"The Woodmen of the World Monument Program," Annette Stott, XX: vi, 1-29

TURKEY

"An Early Christian Athlete: The Epitaph of Aurelius Eutychus of Eumeneia,"
Scott T. Carroll, VI: 208-230

UTAH

"Acculturation and Transformation of Salt Lake Temple Symbols in Mormon

Tombstone Art," George H. Schoemaker, IX: 197-216
"Mormon Temple Reproductions on Cemetery Markers," Jacqueline S.

Thursby, XX: 312-333

VERMONT

"Do-It-Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"Death Italo-American Style: Reflections on Modern Martrydom," Robert

McGrath, IV: 107-113
"Enos Clark, Vermont Gravestone Carver," Margaret R. Jenks, in Jessie Lie

Farber, ed., "Stonecutters and Their Works," IV: 174-176
"Folk Art on Gravestones: The Glorious Contrast," Charles Bergengren, II: 171-

183
"T Never Regretted Coming to Africa': The Story of Harriet Ruggles Loomis'

Gravestone," Laurel K. Gabel, XVI: 140-173
"'And the Men Who Made Them': The Signed Gravestones of New England,"

Sue Kelly and Anne Williams, II: 1-103
"The Rule Family: Vermont Gravestone Carvers and Marble Dealers," Ann M.

Cathcart, XIX: 214-239
"Samuel Dwight: Vermont Gravestone Cutter," Nancy Jean Melin, in Jessie Lie

Farber, ed., "Stonecutters and Their Works," IV: 160-165
"Symbolic Cemetery Gates in New England," Harriette M. Forbes, VII: 3-18
"Tributes in Stone and Lapidary Lapses: Commemorating Black People in

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century America," Angelika Krtiger-Kahloula,

VI: 32-100

GaryCollison 197

"Wanted: The Hook-And-Eye Man [Gershom Bartlett]," Ernest Caulfield, I:
12-49

VIRGIN ISLANDS

"Benditcha Sea Vnestra Memoria: Sephardic Jewish Cemeteries in the Caribbean
and Eastern North America," David Mayer Gradwohl, XV: vi, 1-29

VIRGINIA

"Charles Miller Walsh: A Master Carver of Gravestones in Virginia, 1865-1901,"

Martha Wren Briggs, VII: 139-172
"Do-It- Your self Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph," Karl S. Guthke, XX:

110-153
"Fifty Years of Reliability: The Stonecarving Career of Charles Lloyd Neale

(1800-1866) in Alexandria, Virginia," David Vance Finnell, X: 91-116
"Folk Art on Gravestones: The Glorious Contrast," Charles Bergengren, II: 171-

183
"Funerary Monuments and Burial Patterns of Colonial Tidewater Virginia,

1607-1776," Elizabeth A. Crowell and Norman Vardney Mackie III, VII: 103-

138
"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk

Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84

WASHINGTON, D.C.

"Eternal Celebration in American Memorials," Jonathan L. Fairbanks, XVI: 104-

137
"'Where Valor Proudly Sleeps': Theodore O'Hara and 'Bivouac of the Dead',"

Thomas C Ware, XI: 82-111

WEST VIRGINIA

"Rural Southern Gravestones: Sacred Artifacts in the Upland South Folk
Cemetery," Gregory Jeane, IV: 55-84

WISCONSIN

"The Carvers of Portage County, Wisconsin, 1850-1900," Phil Kallas, II: 187-202

"The Remarkable Crosses of Charles Andera," Loren N. Horton, XIV: 110-133

WOOD

"Colorado Wooden Markers," James Milmoe, I: 56-61

WOODMEN OF THE WORLD (see TREE-STUMP)

WORLD WAR I

"Mourning in a Distant Land: Gold Star Pilgrimages to American Military

Cemeteries in Europe, 1930-33," Lotte Larsen Meyer, XX: 30-75
"Stylistic Variation in the Western Front Battlefield Cemeteries of World War I

Combatant Nations," Richard E. Meyer, XVIII: 188-253

The Year's Work in Cemetery and Gravemarker
Studies: An International Bibliography

Compiled by Gary Collison

Since 1995 (retrospective to 1990), Markers has included Richard E.
Meyer's invaluable annual compilation of scholarship. This year's edition
attempts to provide comprehensive coverage of the most recent English-
language scholarship about gravemarkers, cemeteries, monuments, and
memorials in the modern era (i.e., post-1500). It also includes some pre-
modern subjects and non-English language studies but on a much more
selective basis than in previous years. As in the past, most marginal
materials are necessarily omitted, including entries that would fall under
the heading of "death and dying" as well as compilations of gravemarker
transcriptions, book reviews, items in trade and popular magazines, and
newspaper articles. This year's listing also omits conference papers.
(Note that the bibliography typically covers parts of two years. This
year's bibliography includes items published in 2002 and 2003; items
published in 2003 after this bibliography was compiled will be included
in next year's listing.)

I hope this year's streamlined bibliography is easier to use but still
comprehensive enough to meet the needs of members. Please send me
your comments and suggestions. For coverage before 1990, researchers
should consult the extensive bibliography in Richard E. Meyer's
Cemeteries and Gravemarkers: Voices of American Culture (1989).

Books, Monographs, Pamphlets, etc.

Allen, Stephanie R. Tlie Osteobiography of Four Individuals from the New York
African Burial Ground: Discovering the Life of a Slave. Amherst, Mass:
[s.n.], 2003.

Batignani, Karen Wentworth. Maine's Coastal Cemeteries: A Historic Tour.
Camden, ME: Down East Books, 2003.

Borges, Maria Elizia. Arte Funcrdria no Brasil, 1890-1930: Oficio de Marmoristas
Halianos em Ribeirdo Preto = Funerary Art in Brazil, 1890-1930: Italian
Marble Carver Craft in Ribeirdo Preto. Belo Horizonte: Editora C/ Arte,
2002.

[99

Broderick, Warren F. Botanical and Ecological Resources Inventory ofOakwood
Cemetery. Lansingburgh, NY: Warren F. Broderick, 2002.

Caubert, Annie, and Elisabeth Fontan. Art phenicien: la sculpture de tradition
phenicienne. Paris: Reunion des musees nationaux, 2002.

Climo, Jacob, and Maria G. Cattell. Social Memory and History: Anthropological
Perspectives. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2002.

Cunningham, Arthur S. But Not Forgotten: Lincoln Colored Cemetery. New
Oxford, PA: Arthur S. Cunningham, 2002.

DeBartolo, Sharon. Your Guide to Cemetery Research. Cincinnati, OH: Betterway
Books, 2002.

Der Manuelian, Peter. Slab Stelae of the Giza Necropolis. New Haven, CT: Yale
Egyptological Seminar, 2003.

Detamore, Bree. A Field Guide to Mount Auburn's Fall Foliage. Cambridge, MA:
Friends of Mount Auburn Cemetery, 2002.

. African American Heritage Trail at Mount Auburn Cemetery.

Cambridge, MA: Friends of Mount Auburn Cemetery, 2003.

. Botanists, Horticulturists and Garden Enthusiasts at Mount

Auburn. Cambridge, MA: Friends of Mount Auburn Cemetery, 2002.
. Tlie Poets of Mount Auburn. Cambridge, MA: Friends of Mount

Auburn Cemetery, 2002.

.. A Field Guide to Some of Mount Auburn's Most Interesting

Conifers. Cambridge, MA: Friends of Mount Auburn Cemetery, 2002.
.. Pioneering Spirits: Some Remarkable Women of Letters at Mount

Auburn. Cambridge, MA: Friends of Mount Auburn Cemetery, 2003.

Dressier, Rachel. Of Armor and Men in Medieval England: Tlie Chivalric Rhetoric of
Three English Knights' Effigies. 1952; Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2003.

Effros, Bonnie. Merovingian Mortuary Archaeology and the Making of the Early
Middle Ages. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.

Everett, Holly J. Roadside Crosses in Contemporary Memorial Culture. Denton:
University of North Texas Press, 2002.

Fanthorpe, Lionel, and Richard Pawelko. Talking Stones: Grave Stories and
Unusual Epitaphs in Wales. Llandysul: Gomer, 2003.

Fey, Carola. Die Begrabnisse der Grafen von Sponheim: Untersuchungen zur
Sepulkralkultur des mittelalterlichen Adels. Mainz: Selbstverlag der
Gesellschaft fur Mittelrheinische Kirchengeschichte, 2003.

Garfield, John. The Fallen: A Photographic Journey Through the War Cemeteries and
Memorials of the Great War, 1914-18. Staplehurst: Spellmount, 2003.

Gerding, Henrik. Tlie Tomb ofCaecilia Metetla: Tumulus, Tropaeum and Thymele.

200

Lund: H. Gerding, 2002.

Grasby, Richard. Letter Cutting in Stone. Rev. ed. Greensboro, NC: John Neal
Bookseller, 2002.

Griffiths, Edward R. Dead Interesting Dorset: An Anthology of the Wit and Wisdom
of Dorset's Epitaph Writers and Ecclesiastic Engravers from the 16th to 19th
Centuries. Bournemouth: Green Fields Books, 2003.

Guthke, Karl Siegfried. Epitaph Culture in the West: Variations on a Theme in
Cultural History. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2003.

Hakenson, Donald C. This Forgotten Land: A Tour of Civil War Sites and Other
Historical Landmarks South of Alexandria, Virginia. Alexandria, VA:
Donald C. Hakenson, 2002.

Handley, Mark A. Death, Society and Culture: Inscriptions and Epitaphs in Gaul and
Spain, AD 300-750. Oxford, UK: Archaeopress, 2003.

Harfield, Alan. Christian Cemeteries and Memorials in the State of Malacca. London:
BACSA, 2002.

Harmond, Richard P., and Thomas Curran. A History of Memorial Day: Unity,
Discord and the Pursuit of Happiness. New York: P. Lang, 2002.

Harvey, Bill. Texas Cemeteries: Tlie Resting Places of the Famous, Infamous, and Just
Plain Interesting Texans. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003.

Hewson, Eileen. Himalayan Headstones from Ladakh Kashmir. London: BACSA,
2002.

Hojte, Jakob Munk. Images of Ancestors. Aarhus: Aarhus Universitetsforlag,
2002.

Home, Alistair. Seven Ages of Paris [epilogue on Pere Lachaise]. New York: A. A.
Knopf, 2002.

Ikram, Salima. Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt. White Plains: Longman
Publishing Group, 2003.

Isenberg, Nancy, and Andrew Burstein. Mortal Remains: Death in Early America.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003.

Jeffrey, Jonathan, Mike Wilson, Ray Buckberry, et al. Mt. Moriah Cemetery:
A History and Census of Bowling Green, Kentucky's African-American
Cemetery. Bowling Green, KY: Landmark Association, 2002.

Kutvolgyi, Mihaly, and Laszlo Peterfy. Elso Hdzam Vala [Romanian
woodcarving, incl. gravemarkers]. Budapest: Timp, 2002.

Lack, William, and Philip Whittemore. A Series of Monumental Brasses, Indents
and Incised Slabs from the 13th to the 20th Century. Vol. 1, pt. 3. London:
Lynton, 2002.

Longworth, Philip. The Unending Vigil: The History of the Commonwealth War

201

Graves Commission. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Books, 2003.

Mallenby, Jeremy, Terry, and Patricia. The Orbs of Salem Cemetery: Are They Real
or Not? Montreal: Institute of Psychometric Assessment, Applied
Studies & Investigative Research, 2003.

Mato, Omar. City of Angels: TJie History ofRecoleta Cemetary: A Guide to its
Treasures. Buenos Aires: Mato, 2002.

McCane, Byron R. Roll Back the Stone: Death and Burial in the World of Jesus.
Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2003.

Mills, Cynthia, and Pamela H. Simpson. Monuments to the Lost Cause: Women,
Art, and the Landscapes of Southern Memory. Knoxville: University of
Tennessee Press, 2003.

Misra, Neeru, and Tanay Misra. Tlw Garden Tomb of Humayun: An Abode in
Paradise. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2003.

Morgan, John D., ed. Death and Bereavement Around the World: Death and

Bereavement in Europe. Amityville: Bay wood Publishing Company,
2003.

Murphy, Josephine. Novelli, a Forgotten Sculptor [NY; monuments and
mausoleums]. Boston: Branden Books, 2003.

Northup, A. Dale. Detroit's Woodlaivn Cemetery. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2003.

Orear, Leslie. Mother Jones and the Union Miners Cemetery, Mount Olive, Illinois.
Chicago: Illinois Labor History Society, 2002.

Plunkett, Steven J. Sutton Hoo: Suffolk [Anglo-Saxon ship burial]. London:
National Trust (Enterprises), 2002.

Rathje, Annette, and Marjatta Nielsen. Pots for the Living, Pots for the Dead
[Greek funeral vases]. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press,
University of Copenhagen, 2002.

Rawlings, Keith. Gone but Not Forgotten: Quinette Cemetery, a Slave Burial
Ground, est. 1866. Kirkwood, MO: Youth in Action, Inc., 2003.

Roberts, Alun. Discovering Welsh Graves. Cathays, Cardiff: University of Wales
Press, 2003.

Scholten, Frits. Sumptuous Memories: Studies in Seventeenth-Centun/ Dutch Tomb
Sculpture. Zwolle: Waanders, 2003.

Shah, Syed Shakir Ali. Nawabshah: Tlie Lost Glory. Karachi: Indus Publications,
2002.

Sidinger, Jim. Eternal Companions: Faces of the Pere Lachaise, Paris. Denver:
Catslip Arts, 2003.

Stanton, Scott. Tlte Tombstone Tourist. New York: Pocket [Imprint], Simon &
Schuster, 2003.

202

Strobeck, Louise. Burial Customs in Southern Scandinavia. Portland: Nordic
Academic Press, 2002.

Study on Improvements to Veterans Cemeteries. [Washington, DC]: National
Cemetery Administration, 2002.

Tait, Clodagh. Death, Burial, and Commemoration in Ireland, 1550-1650. New
York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.

Van Voorhies, Christine. A Comprehensive Guide to Preserving Historic Cemeteries
in Georgia. Eufaula: Historic Chattahoochee Commission, 2003.

Watkins, Meredith G. The Cemetery and Cultural Memory, Montreal Region, 1860
to 1900. Ottawa: National Library of Canada, 2002.

Weaver, George Sumner. Lives and Graves of Our Presidents. Murrieta: New
Library Press. Net, 2003.

Weeks, Jim. Gettysburg: Memory, Market, and an American Shrine. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 2003.

Williams, Howard, ed. Archaeologies of Remembrance: Death and Memory in Past
Societies. New York: Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers, 2003.

Williams, Payne. The American Cemetery: Tlie Oldest Cemetery in the Louisiana
Purchase and a Shrine to God and History. Natchichoes, LA: Williams,
2002.

Woollacott, Ron. The Victorian Catacombs at Nunhead: A Short History of the Chapel
Catacombs, Shaft Catacombs and the Eastern Catacomb in the Nunhead
Cemetery of All Saints, Linden Grove, London, SE15. London: Maureen
and Ron Woollacott, 2003.

Worpole, Ken. Last Landscapes: The Architecture of the Cemetery in the West.
London: Reaktion, 2003.

Young, Brian. Respectable Burial: Montreal's Mount Royal Cemetery. Montreal:
McGill-Queen's University Press, 2003.

Articles in Scholarly Journals, Book Collections and Chapters, etc.

Adshead, David. "'Like a Roman Sepulchre': John Soane's Design for a Castello
d'acqua at Wimpole, Cambridgeshire, and its Italian Origins." Apollo
(London, England) 157 (Apr. 2003): 15-21.

Armstrong, Douglas V., and Mark L. Fleischman. "House-Yard Burials of
Enslaved Laborers in Eighteenth-Century Jamaica." International
journal of Historical Archaeology 7:1 (2003): 33-65.

Ascher, Yoni. "Michelangelo's Projects for the Medicean Tombs: Rereading of
the Story of the Medici Chapel." Artibus et Historiae 23:46 (2002): 83-96.

Blachowicz, James. "The Origins of Marble Carving on Cape Cod, Part II: The
Orleans and Sandwich Carvers." Markers XX (2003): 196-279.

203

Bloxham, D. "Britain's Holocaust Memorial Days: Reshaping the Past in the
Service of the Present. Immigrants & Minorities 21:1/2 (2002): 41-62.

Brier, Bob. "The Other Pyramids - A Tour of Ancient Nubia Where Clusters of
Steep, Topless Tombstones' Punctuate a Remote Desert Landscape."
Archaeology 55:5 (2002): 54-59.

Brown, Rebecca M. "The Cemeteries and the Suburbs: Patna's Challenges to
the Colonial City in South Asia." Journal of Urban History 29:2 (2003):
151-172.

Burton, Diana. "Public Memorials, Private Virtues: Women on Classical
Athenian Grave Monuments." Mortality 8:1 (2003): 20-35.

Butterfield, Andrew. "Monuments and Memories." The New Republic (February
03, 2003): 27-31.

Capozzola, Christopher. "A Very American Epidemic: Memory Politics and
Identity Politics in the AIDS Memorial Quilt, 1985-1993." Radical
History Review 82:1 (2002): 91-109.

Carlock, Marty. "Boston: 'Spirits in the Trees'- Forest Hills Cemetery."
Sculpture 22:4 (May 2003): 78-80.

Castro, J. G. "Making the Personal Monumental: A Conversation with Patricia
Cronin; Cronin's Recent Marble Memorial Sculpture is Heroic in Size,
Scale, and Theme." Sculpture 22:1 (2003): 40-45.

Chapman, Robert. "Death, Society and Archaeology: The Social Dimensions of
Mortuary Practices." Mortality 8:3 (2003): 305-312.

Charola, A. E. "Authenticity in the Restoration of Monuments: A

Commented Report on the WTA Colloquium held at the Katholieke
Universiteit Leuven, March 14th, 2003." Internationale Zeitschrift fiir

Bauinstandsetzen = International Journal for Restoration of Buildings and
Monuments 9:2 (2003): 139-148.

Cohn, David. "Between Earth and Sky: A Mortuary Under Water Creates an
Otherworldly Realm for Mourning." Architectural Record 190:7 (July
2002): 92-97.

Crawford, Sybil F. "Gravemarker Symbolism: Emblems of Belief." Stone in

America, 116:2 (March/ April 2003): 15-17, 20-21. [Rpt. from the AGS
Newsletter].

Crawford, Sybil F. "The Thomas Foster Mausoleum: Canada's Taj Mahal."
Markers XX (2003): 154-191.

Cummings, Vicki, and Alasdair Whittle. "Research: Tombs with a View-
Landscape, Monuments and Trees." Antiquity 77:296 (2003): 255-266.

Denton, Margaret Fields. "Death in French Arcady: Nicolas Poussin's The

Arcadian Shepherds and Burial Reform in France c. 1800." Eighteenth-
Century Studies 36:2 (2003): 195-216.

204

Dezso, Andrea. "Not Grey Gardens." Print (New York, N.Y.) 56:3 (2002): 106-111.

Doring, Tobias. "Travelling in Transience: The Semiotics of Necro-Tourism."
In Berghoff, Hartmut, et al., eds. Tlie Making of Modern Tourism: Hie
Cultural History of the British Experience, 1600-2000. London, England:
Palgrave, 2002: 249-266.

Evener, Connie. "Carving a Life from Stone: On a Road Less-Travelled, a

California Memorialist Follows His Bliss [Gene Chapman]. Stone in
America 116:1 (Jan./Feb. 2003): 17-19, 22-24.

. "Etching Symphonies in Stone" [profiles of monument

designers Randy Wesley and Roy Dixon]. Stone in America 116:3 (May/
June 2003): 6-9.

. "Noble in Character, Worthy in Deeds: Equine Mystique and

Memorials Flourish [based on interviews with Lucy Zeh and Gary
Collison]." Stone in America 116:5 (Sept./Oct. 2003): 17-19, 22-23.

'Taps for a Military Cemetery: The Closing of Kansas' Fort

Riley Post Cemetery Marks the End of an Era [based on interview
with Roger Adams]." Stone in America 116:5 (Sept./Oct. 2003): 6-9.

Flake, Kathleen. "Re-placing Memory: Latter-day Saint Use of Historical
Monuments and Narrative in the Early Twentieth Century."
Religion & American Culture 13:1 (2003): 69-109.

Foster, Gary S., and Craig M. Eckert. "Up from the Grave: A Sociohistorical
Reconstruction of an African American Community from Cemetery
Data in the Rural Midwest." Journal of Black Studies 33:4 (2003):
468-489.

Francis, Doris. "Cemeteries as Cultural Landscapes." Mortality 8:2 (2003):
222-227.

Frank, Christoph, et al. "Diderot, Guiard and Houdon: Projects for a Funerary
Monument at Gotha I." The Burlington Magazine 144:1189 (2002):
213-222.

Garval, Michael. "'A Dream of Stone': Fame, Vision, and the Monument in

Nineteenth-Century French Literary Culture." College Literature 30:2
(2003): 82-119.

Geddes, Jane. "The Search for John Tresilian: Jane Geddes Investigates the
Remarkable Ironwork of the Gates of the Tomb of Edward IV."
History Today 52 (April 2002): 40-46.

Glover, Troy. "The Story of the Queen Smith Memorial Garden: Resisting a
Dominant Cultural Narrative." Journal of Leisure Research 35:2 (2003):
190-212.

Gough, P. "Tnvicta Pax' Monuments, Memorials and Peace: An Analysis of the
Canadian Peacekeeping Monument, Ottawa." International Journal of
Heritage Studies 8:3 (2002): 201-223.

205

Guthke, Karl S. "Do-It- Yourself Immortality: Writing One's Own Epitaph."
Markers XX (2003): 110-153.

Hamscher, Albert N. "On Teaching: Talking Tombstones: History in the
Cemetery." Magazine of History 17: 2 (2003): 40-45.

Hope, V. "Burial, Society and Context in the Roman World." The Classical
Review 52:2 (2002): 348-349.

Hope, Valerie M. "Trophies and Tombstones: Commemorating the Roman
Soldier." World Archaeology 35:1 (2003): 79-97.

Horlyck, Charlotte. "Tracking Chronological Change in Korean Burials of the
Koryo Period." Journal of East Asian Archaeology 3:3/4 (2002): 199-218.

Howe, Robert F. "Monumental Achievement: Twenty Years after the Unveiling
of Her Controversial Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Architect Maya Lin
Looks beyond the Wall." Smithsonian 33:8 (2002): 90-99.

Hung, Wu. "A Case of Cultural Interaction: House-shaped Sarcophagi of the
Northern Dynasties." Orientations 33:5 (May 2002): 34-41.

Hutson, Scott R. "Built Space and Bad Subjects: Domination and Resistance at
Monte Alban, Oaxaca, Mexico." Journal of Social Archaeology 2:1 (2002):
53-80.

Imai, Nobuo. "Earthquake: A Consideration of Monuments Erected in the
Stricken Area." Soshioroji 47:2 (2002), 89-127.

Imazhanov, Nurgali. "On the Architecture of the Mausoleum of Hodja Akhmed
Iasavi: Geometric Themes and Motifs." Izvestiia Natsional'noi Akademii
Nauk Respubliki Kazakhstan (Seriia Obshchestvennykh Nauk) 236:1
(2002): 268-79.

Immerzeel, Mat. "A Day at the Sarcophagus Workshop." Visual Resources 19:1
(Mar. 2003): 43-55.

Itzkan, Seth J. "From 'Visionary Vermont' to Robert Hayes Memorial. The

Juxtaposition of Triumph and Terrorism." Futures 35:8 (2003): 883-888.

Janiak, Ann Corcoran. "Carving Letters [profile of Richard Gransby]." Stone in
America 116: 3 (May/June 2003): 31-34.

. "From Heliots to Hill: A Linguist Studies Memorials

of Greek Immigrants to Learn about their Acculturation to America
[based on interview with Cornelia Paraskevas]." Stone in America
116:5 (Sept./Oct. 2003): 25-28.

Johnson, Nuala. "Mapping Monuments: The Shaping of Public Space and
Cultural Identities." Visual Communication 1:3 (2002): 293-298.

Johnston, Steven. "The Architecture of Democratic Monuments." Strategies:
Journal ofTlieory, Culture & Politics 15:2 (2002): 197-218.

Joo, Kang-hyun. "Customs for the Dead: Ancestral Memorial Rites." Koreana
16:4 (Winter 2002): 18-23.

206

Kelleher, Margaret. "Hunger and History: Monuments to the Great Irish
Famine." Textual Practice 16:2 (2002): 249-276.

Kimball, Jacqueline. "A New Look at American Graveyard Humor [based
on interview with Richard E. Meyer]." Stone in America 116:5
(Sept./ Oct. 2003), 11-15.

Kimball, Jacqueline. "A Week, a Workshop, a World of Ideas [profile of The
Carving Studio and Sculpture Center's workshop]." Stone in America
116:3 (May/June 2003), 25-29.

. "Designing on a Budget: Tips for Reining in Costs without

Compromising Design." Stone in America 116:1 (Jan./Feb. 2003), 11-15.

Krzyzanowska, M, et al. "An Atypical Burial at the Gothic Cemetery in

Maslomecz, Lublin Province (Poland)." TJte Mankind Quarterly 43: 4
(2003): 357-376.

Laqueur, Thomas Walter. "The Places of the Dead in Modernity." In The Age of
Cultural Revolutions: Britain and France, 1750-1820, ed. Colin Jones et al.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

Laviolette, Patrick. "Landscape Death: Resting Places for Cornish Identity."
Journal of Material Culture 8:2 (2003): 215-240.

L'Oste-Brown, Scott. "Aboriginal Bark Burial: 700 Years of Mortuary Tradition
on the Central Queensland Highlands." Australian Aboriginal Studies
1 (2002): 43-50.

Low, Polly. "Trophies and Tombstones: Commemorating the Roman Soldier."
World Archaeology 35:1 (2003): 98-111.

Luti, Vincent F. "Eighteenth Century Gravestone Carvers of the Upper
Narragansett Basin: Gabriel Allen." Markers XX (2003): 76-109.

Lynch, Gay. "'...do not go and leave me behind unwept...': Greek Gravemarkers
Heed the Warning." Markers XX (2003): 280-301.

Maritan, L; Mazzoli, C; Melis, E. "A Multidisciplinary Approach to the

Characterization of Roman Gravestones from Aquileia (Udine, Italy)."
Archaeometry 45:3 (2003): 363-374.

Maylam, Paul. "Monuments, Memorials and the Mystique of Empire: The

Immortalisation of Cecil Rhodes in the Twentieth Century." African
Sociological Review/Revue Africaine de Sociologie 6:1 (2002): 138-147.

Merridale, Catherine. "Revolution Among the Dead: Cemeteries in Twentieth-
Century Russia." Mortality 8:2 (2003): 176-188.

Meyer, Harvey. "The Northwest Report: Northwest Granite Association

Members Talk about Significant Industry Trends." Stone in America
116:1 (Jan./Feb. 2003), 26-31.

Meyer, Lotte Larsen. "Mourning in a Distant Land: Gold Star Pilgrimages to

American Military Cemeteries in Europe, 1930-33." Markers XX (2003):
30-75.

207

Meyer, Richard E. "'Pardon Me for Not Standing': Modern American

Graveyard Humor." In Of Corpse: Death and Humor in Folklore and
Popular Culture. Ed. Peter Naravez. Logan, UT: Utah State University
Press, 2003: 140-168; 321-322.

. "The Year's Work in Cemetery/ Gravemarker Studies: An

International Bibliography." Markers XX (2003): 333-390.

Mio, Minoru. "Formation and Its Avoidance of Identity Politics in the

Mausoleums: Ethnographical Considerations on the Mausoleums
Related with the Sufism in the Mewar Region of Rajasthan, India."
Bulletin of the National Museum of Ethnology (Osaka) 26:4 (2002):
603-662. "

Molinari, Luca. "Ripensare lo Spazio Pubblico: due Progetti Cimiteriali /

Rethinking Public Space: Two Cemetery Designs." Abitare 424 (Jan.
2003): 116-121.

Murray, Lisa. "'Modern Innovations?' Ideal vs. Reality in Colonial Cemeteries
of Nineteenth-Century New South Wales." Mortality 8:2 (2003): 129-
143.

Naldi, Ricardo, and Judith Landry. "The Rest of the Warrior: The Cardona
Funerary Monument." FMR 122 (June/July 2003): 103-128.

Nichol, Shannon, Karen May, and Erik Lees. "Are 'Ecocemeteries' a Viable

Option? Pros and Cons." Landscape Architecture 92:12 (Dec. 2002): 9-12.

O'Brien, K. "Language, Monuments, and the Politics of Memory in Quebec and
Ireland." Eire-Ireland: A Journal of Irish Studies 38:1/2 (2003): 141-160.

Pearce, D. G. "The Tierkloof Painted Burial Stones." South African Journal of
Science 99:3 (2003): 125-126.

Petersen, Lauren Hackworth. "The Baker, His Tomb, His Wife, and Her

Breadbasket: The Monument of Eurysaces in Rome." The Art Bulletin
85:2 (June 2003): 230-257.

Pollack, M. S. "Intentions of Burial: Mourning, Politics, and Memorials

Following the Massacre at Srebrenica." Death Studies 27:2 (2003): 125-
142.

Pursell, Timothy. "'The Burial of the Future': Modernist Architecture and

the Cremationist Movement in Wilhelmine Germany." Mortality 8:3
(2003): 233-250.

Purviniene, Marija. "The 20th Century Gravestone Monuments in the District

of Klaipeda [Lithuania]: The Development of Ethnical Traits." Liaudies
Kultura 5 (2002): 27-31.

Queiroz, Francisco, and Julie Rugg. "The Development of Cemeteries in
Portugal C.1755-C.1870." Mortality 8:2 (2003): 113-128.

Richards, Janet. "Time and Memory in Ancient Egyptian Cemeteries."
Expedition 44:3 (2002): 16-25.

Robbins, Michelle. "Rooted in Memory: Are the Old Trees in your Town War
Memorials?" American Forests 109:1 (2003): 38-49.

Roehrig, Catharine H. "The Servant in the Place of Truth." The Metropolitan
Museum of Art Bulletin 60:1 (Summer 2002): 40-57.

Sedore, T. S. "Tell the Southrons We Lie Here': The Rhetoric of Consummation
in Southern Epitaphs and Elegies of Post-Civil War America." Tlie
Southern Quarterly 41:4 (2003): 144-162.

Sharp, Michele Turner. "Elegy Unto Epitaph: Print Culture and

Commemorative Practice in Gray's 'Elegy Written in a Country
Churchyard.'" Papers on Language & Literature 38:1 (2002): 3-28.

Spera, Lucrezia. "The Christianization of Space along the Via Appia: Changing
Landscape in the Suburbs of Rome." American Journal of Archaeology
107:1 (Jan. 2003): 23-43.

Stott, Annette. "The Woodmen of the World Monument Program." Markers XX
(2003): vi, 1-29.

Thompson, J. William. "A Natural Death." Landscape Architecture 92:10 (Oct.
2002): 74-79; 134-137.

. "Almost Another Country." Landscape Architecture 93:7

(July 2003): 66-75, 101-104.

Thursby, Jacqueline S. "Mormon Temple Reproductions on Cemetery
Markers." Markers XX (2003): 312-333.

Tweed, Thomas A. "Our Lady of Guadeloupe Visits the Confederate
Memorial." Southern Cultures 8:2 (2002): 72-93.

Veksler, A. G. "The Tomb-Stone of a 'Boiar-Stol'nik' from the Epoch of Peter the
Great." Rossiiskaia Arkheologiia 1 (2002): 167-168.

Vinitzky-Seroussi, Vered. "Commemorating a Difficult Past: Yitzhak Rabin's
Memorials." Journal of Planning Literature 17:1 (2002): 85-168.

Wang, Renxiang. "Survey and Study of Tubo Mausoleums at Chong-Gye,
Tibet." Kaogu Xuebao 4 (2002): 471-492.

Whitley, James. "Objects with Attitude: Biographical Facts and Fallacies in
the Study of Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Warrior Graves."

Cambridge Archaeological Journal 12:2 (2002): 217-232.

William, J. "Almost Another Country: On the Current State of New Orleans
Parks, Gardens, and Cemeteries." Landscape Architecture 93:7 (2003):
66-75.

Wilson, Jean. "The Authorship of the Fryer Monument at Harlton,

Cambridgeshire, and the Yelverton Monument at Easton Maudit,
Northamptonshire." The Burlington Magazine 144 (Dec. 2002): 735-739.

Wright, Elizabethada. "Reading the Cemetery: Lieu de memoire par
excellance." Rhetoric Society Quarterly 33:2 (2003): 27-44.

209

Young, James. "Germany's Holocaust Memorial Problem — and Mine."
The Public Historian 24:4 (2002): 65-80.

Dissertations and Theses

Borowicz, James Julian. "Images of Power and the Power of Images:

Iconography of Stelae As An Indicator of Socio-Political Events in
the Early Classic Maya Lowlands (Guatemala)." Ph.D. diss., State
University of New York at Buffalo, 2003.

Brooks, Sarah Tyler. "Commemoration of the Dead: Late Byzantine Tomb

Decoration (Mid-Thirteenth to Mid-Fifteenth Centuries)." Ph.D. diss.,
New York University, 2002.

Cassidy, Nora Ruecker. "Landscape and Memory: Thomas Cole's 'The

Architect's Dream' and Woodlawn Cemetery, Toledo, Ohio." M.L.S.
thesis, University of Toledo, 2002.

Cheng, Bonnie. "Fabricating Life out of Death: Sixth Century [Chinese]

Funerary Monuments and the Negotiation of Cultural Traditions."
Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 2003.

Coleman, Sarah Elizabeth. "Healing at the Wall: the Vietnam Veterans
Memorial." Ph.D. diss., Pacifica Graduate Institute, 2002.

Cooney, Kathlyn Mary. "The Value of Private Funerary Art in Ramesside
Period Egypt." Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 2003.

Crowder, Linda Sun. "Mortuary Practices and the Construction of Chinatown
Identity." Ph.D. diss., University of Hawaii, 2002.

Dramer, Kim Irene Nedra. "Between the Living and the Dead: Han Dynasty

Stone Carved Tomb Doors (China)." Ph.D. diss., Columbia University,
2002.

Farhat, May. "Islamic Piety and Dynastic Legitimacy: the Case of the Shrine of
'Ali B. Musa Al-Rida in Mashhad (10th -17th Century) (Iran)." Ph.D.
diss., Harvard University, 2002.

Fauci, Donna J. "Holocaust Memorials: Places of Memory, Sites of Destruction,
Monuments and Museums." M.A. thesis, College of Staten Island,
2003.

Fowkes, Reuben. "Monumental Sculpture in Post-War Eastern Europe, 1945-
1960 (Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria)." Ph.D. diss., University of Essex
(UK), 2002.

Frohne, Andrea E. "The African Burial Ground in New York City: Manifesting
and Representing Spirituality of Space." Ph.D. diss., Binghamton
University, State University of New York, 2002.

Garman, Alex G. "The Cult of the Matronae in the Roman Rhineland." Ph.D.
diss., University of Missouri-Columbia, 2002.

Gerding, Henrik. "The Tomb of Caecilia Metella: Tumulus, Tropaeum and

210

Thymele (Italy, Roman Empire)." Ph.D. diss., Lunds Universitet
(Sweden), 2002.

Goode-Null, Susan Kay. "Slavery's Children: A Study of Growth and

Childhood Sex Ratios in the New York African Burial Ground." Ph.D.
diss., University of Massachusetts/ Amherst, 2002.

Halevi, Leor E. "Muhammad's Grave: Death, Ritual and Society in the Early
Islamic World." Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2002.

Heyn, Maura Keane. "Social Relations and Material Culture Patterning in the
Roman Empire: A Juxtaposition of East and West (Syria, France)."
Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2002.

Klahr, Douglas Mark. "The Kaiser Builds in Berlin: Expressing National

and Dynastic Identity in the Early Building Projects of Wilhelm II
(Germany)." Ph.D. diss., Brown University, 2002.

Lai, Guolong. "The Baoshan Tomb: Religious Transitions in Art, Ritual, and
Text During the Warring States Period (480-221 BCE) (China)."
Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2002.

Laos, Nora Edith. "Provencal Baptisteries: Early Christian Origins and

Medieval Afterlife (France)." Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 2002.

Mc White, Sally Leigh. "Echoes of the Lost Cause: Civil War Reverberations in
Mississippi from 1865 to 2001." Ph.D. diss., University of Mississippi,
2002.

Mitchell, Karen Braden. "Historical Geography Taken from Angelina County
Cemeteries (Texas)." M.I.S. Ph.D. diss., Stephen F. Austin State
University, 2002.

Newstrom, Scott Laine. "Death's Recitation: The Early Modern Epitaph in its
Generic Contexts." Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2002.

Park, Ah-Rim. "Tomb of the Dancers: Koguryo Tombs in East Asian Funerary
Art (China)." Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2002.

Patterson, Allen H. "The Wake Forest Cemetery: Fifty-Two Stones, One

Thousand Years of Service." M.A. thesis, Wake Forest University,
2002.

Pringle, Susanne Ashley. "The Oklahoma City National Memorial Monument:
Making Meaning through Performance." M.A. thesis, University of
Texas at Austin, 2003.

Taylor, Sarah Elizabeth. "Remembering Elderly Women in Early America: A
Survey of How Aged Women Were Memorialized in Late Eighteenth
and Early Nineteenth-Century Tombstone Inscriptions, Death Notices,
Funeral Sermons, and Memoirs." M.A. thesis, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, 2002.

Villareal, Sandra D. "Making Place Out of Space: Memorializing and Mourning

211

Unexpected Roadside Deaths." M.A. thesis, University of Colorado at
Denver, 2002.

Wilford-Hammett, Rebecca E. "Finding Meaning in a Landscape of Stone:
The Women of Bellefontaine Cemetery." M.S. thesis, University of
Missouri-Columbia, 2002.

Witkovsky, Matthew Stephen. " Avant-Garde and Center: Devetsil in Czech
Culture, 1918-1938." Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2002.

Yasin, Ann Marie. "Commemorating the Dead — Constructing the Community:
Church Space, Monuments and Saints' Cults in Late Antiquity." Ph.D.
diss., University of Chicago, 2002.

Video, Cassette Tape, CD, DVD

Gurda, John. Silent City: A History of Forest Home Cemetery. Milwaukee, WI:
Wisconsin Regional Library. Cassette tape.

Hynes, Daniel W. Cemetery and Funeral Consumer Education Program.
Springfield, IL: State of Illinois Comptroller, 2002. VHS tape.

Lambert, David Allen. Beyond the Grave: Using Cemetery Records. Boston, MA:
New England Historic Genealogical Society, 2002. Cassette tape.

Purdy, Rick; Grant, Trevor. Great Cemeteries of the World. Episode 1: Arlington
(Arlington National #1); 2: New York (Greenwood Cemetery);
03: Arlington (Arlington National #2); 4: New York (Woodlawn
Cemetery); 5: Toronto (Mount Pleasant); 6: Chicago (Graceland); 7:
Chicago (Rosehill); 8: San Francisco (Cypress Lawn Memorial Park); 9:
Los Angeles (Hollywood Forever); 10: St. Petersburg, Russia (St.
Peter & St. Paul Cathedral); 11: St. Petersburg, Russia (Alexander
Nevsky Monastery, Tikhvin Cemetery); 12: Stockholm, Sweden
(Nora begravninsplatsen, The Northern Cemetery); 13: Brussels,
Belgium (Ixelles); 14: Paris (Pere Lanchaise Cemetery #1); 15: Paris
(Pere Lachaise Cemetery #2); 16: Vienna (Zentralfriedhof, Central
Cemetery); 17: Florence (Santa Croce); 18: Venice (San Michele
Cemetery); 19: Bradenton, Florida (Manasota Memorial Park); 20:
New Orleans, USA (St. Louis #1, Metairie Cemetery); 21: Indianapolis
(Crown Hill Cemetery); 22: London (Kensal Green Cemetery); 23:
London, UK (Bunhill Fields Cemetery); 24: Edinburgh (A Tour); 25:
Dublin, Ireland (Glasnevin Cemetery); 26: Halifax, Canada (Fairview
Cemetery). Carson City, NV: R.I.P Productions, Inc. [distributed by
Filmwest Associates], 2002. VHS tapes.

Sawatzki, Jim. Here Lies Colorado Springs. Palmer Lake, CO: Palmer Divide
Productions, 2002. VHS tape.

Trapp, C. Michael. Out of Vie Dust: Stories from the Nauvoo Cemetery. Hurricane,
UT: The Studio, 2002. Compact disc.

212

CONTRIBUTORS

Mary Ann Ashcraft, a retired teacher and librarian, is pursuing her
long-time interest in history by volunteering at the Historical Society of
Carroll County, Maryland. A past president and past newsletter editor
of the Carroll County Genealogical Society, she has been chairperson
of the cemetery inscriptions committee since 1981. It was through this
nearly completed inscription project that she first became aware of the
gravestones carved by slave and ex-slave Sebastian "Boss" Hammond.

Ronald A. Bosco, Distinguished Service Professor of English and
American Literature at the University at Albany, State University of New
York, and president of the Thoreau Society, has been an editor of the
Emerson Family Papers at the Houghton Library of Harvard University
since 1977. Past president of the Ralph Waldo Emerson Society, he and
Joel Myerson co-chaired the many celebrations of the bicentennial of
Emerson's birth sponsored by the Society in 2003.

Elise Madeleine Ciregna, a graduate student at the University
of Delaware and Winterthur Museum, wrote her Master's thesis at
Harvard University on nineteenth-century sculpture at Mount Auburn
Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She is continuing her research
on the connections between nineteenth-century American sculpture and
cemeteries, and is researching the stonecutting and monument making
industry in New England, 1780-1880.

Gary Collison, professor of American Studies and English at
Penn State York, has given numerous presentations on gravemarkers
at annual meetings of the American Culture Association and the
Association for Gravestone Studies and is founder and chair of the Death
in American Culture section of the Mid- Atlantic Popular/ American
Culture Association. He is currently researching Pennsylvania German
gravemarkers.

Richard Francaviglia, historian and geographer, has written
numerous books and articles about the way the American landscape
has changed through time and how this change is depicted in maps,

213

literature, and popular culture. He has taught at the University of
Minnesota, Antioch College, University of Arizona, and Wittenberg
University. Currently at the University of Texas at Arlington, he is a
professor of history and director of the Center for Greater Southwestern
Studies and the History of Cartography.

David Gradwohl, professor emeritus of anthropology at Iowa
State University, lists as his principal research interest the relationship
of ethnicity and material culture. A past president of the Plains
Anthropological Society, he is currently a member of the board of
editors of the National Association for Ethnic Studies and of the board
of directors of the Iowa Jewish Historical Society. His articles on the
Jewish cemeteries of St. Louis, the Presidio pet cemetery (with Richard
E. Meyer), American Indian cemetery symbols, and Sephardic Jewish
cemeteries have appeared in Markers X, XII, XIV and XV.

Henry Hughes has run thousands of miles through cemeteries in
New York, Indiana, and Oregon. His first collection of poetry, Men
Holding Eggs, was published this year by Mammoth Press.

Tom and Brenda Malloy have presented many scholarly papers,
individually and jointly, at annual meetings of the American Culture
Association and the Association for Gravestone Studies. Tom holds a
Doctorate of Education from the University of Massachusetts/ Amherst
and is a professor emeritus at Mount Wachusett Community College.
He is currently vice president of the AGS board of trustees. Brenda, a
retired teacher from Westminster Elementary School, has served on the
AGS board. Their co-authored articles have appeared in Markers IX, XI,
XIV, and XVI.

Joel Myerson, Carolina Distinguished Professor of American
Literature at the University of South Carolina at Columbia, is a leading
authority on Emerson and his circle. Past president of the Ralph Waldo
Emerson Society, he and Ron Bosco co-chaired the many celebrations of
the bicentennial of Emerson's birth sponsored by the Society in 2003.

214

INDEX

Boldface page numbers [in brackets] indicate illustrations.

Abenaki Indians 41

Adams Memorial (sculpture) 137

Adams, Henry 137

Albany Rural Cemetery, Menands, NY

145n25, 149
Albany, NY 115
Alcott, Bronson 159, 164
Alcott, Louisa May v, 164, [151, 166]
Alexander, Francis 112
Allegheny Cemetery, Pittsburgh, PA 140
Algiers 71

Allston, Washington 101
American Academy of Fine Arts, NY 105
American Notes for General Circulation 116
Amos Binney Monument (sculpture) 121,

123, 125-126,133, [122, 124, 125]
Amsterdam, Holland 71
Angel at the Sepulchre, Vie (sculpture)

145n25
Angel of Death Staying the Hand (sculpture)

133, [136]
Angel of Grief (or Death) (sculpture) 130,

133
Angel of Resurrection (sculpture) 130
Angier, L.H. 156
Annapolis, MD 13
Annenberg Hall 138
Antique Statue Gallery, Philadelphia, PA

105
Appleton, ME 139
Arminius, Jacobus 171
Atlanta, GA 149
Austin, TX 9, 11
Australia 9
Authors' Ridge, Concord, MA v, 163,

[153, 160, 161, 163, 167]

Backwoodsman, The (sculpture) 116

Baile family 30

Baile, Michael 36

Baile, William [12]

Ball, Thomas 106, 133, 139, [132]

Ballou, Hosea 140

Baltimore, MD 13, 39

Banks, Thomas 113

Bartlett, George B. 149-150

Bartolini, Lorenzo 106, 113
Bath, ME 139

Beers, Captain Richard 45-46, [42]
Belmont Mausoleum, Woodlawn

Cemetery, Bronx, NY [98]
Bennett family 30
Benson, Nicholas 27
Berkley, MA 43
Bible 70, 77, 90, 109
Bigelow Chapel 126, 130, 138
Bigelow, Jacob 107, 133, 136
Binney Child, The (sculpture) 113-116, 137,

139, [112]
Binney, Amos 121, 123, [122, 124, 125]
Binney, Emily 112-114, 137
Binney, Mary Ann 121, 123
Bloody Brook 46, 48, [42, 47]
Bloody Brook Monument 46
Bobbett, Edward 43, [42, 43]
Bonham, Malakiah 17, [cover, 22]
Boston Athenaeum 105, 107, 116-117, 121
Boston Bar Association 5
Boston Daily Evening Transcript 111, 116,

125, 140
Boston Public Garden 133
Boston, MA 3-6, 45, 52, 55, 62, 67, 72-75,

78, 90-91, 101-102, 105, 107, 111-114,

116-117, 120-121, 125-126, 133, 139-141
Brackett, Edward Augustus 106, 140
Bradstreet, Rev. 75
Brattle Street Church, Boston, MA 72
Brimsmead, Reverend William 55
Bristol, RI 63

Brocklebank, Captain Samuel 56-58
Bronx, NY 99, [98]
Brookline, MA 57-58
Brown, Deacon Reuben 150-151
Brown, Henry Kirke 139
Bull, Ephraim Wales 164
Bunker Hill Monument, Charlestown, MA

116
Buser, Frederick 30, [31]
Buss, Rachel [155]
Bychkova, Bella 11

California 130, 170

215

Calvary Cemetery, St. Louis, MO 130
Cambridge, MA 73-74, 77, 84, 91, 103, 107,

116, 117, 149
Cambridge University, UK 72
Campo Verano Cemetery, Rome 133
Carew, Thomas 120, [119]
Carroll County, MD 13, 15, 17, 30, 33, 36,

[19,25,29,31]
Cary, Alpheus 112-113
Cassell, Rosanna 30, 36-37
Cassard family 170

Cedar Hill Cemetery, Hartford, CT 130
Central Falls, RI 54-55
Central Park, New York, NY 137
Charming, Ellery 156-157, 159-160, 162,

164
Chantrey, Francis 113
Chapel of Saint Hubert, Chateau Amboise,

France [98]
Charlestown, MA 77
Chase Woodland Preserve 5
Chase, Dorothea Newman 3, 5-6
Chase, Frederick Hathaway 4
Chase, Theodore (Ted) iv, 1-7 [viii]
Chester Rural Cemetery, Chester, PA 139
Chickering Monument (sculpture) 133, [132]
Church, Captain Benjamin 63-64, [64]
Cincinnati, OH 139
Cistercian Order 55
Civil War 133, 136, 155
Cleveland, Horace William Shaler 150,

154, 162-163
College Hall, Harvard University 72, 90
Colma, CA 130

Colman, Reverend Benjamin 72-73, 75
Colonial American Jew, Tlie 90
Colt, Samuel 130,139
Columbia University 72
Columbus, MS 130
Concord Agricultural Society,

Concord, MA 168
Concord Court House, Concord, MA 168
Concord Free Public Library 155
"Concord Hymn" 155
Concord Lyceum, Concord, MA 155
Concord School of Philosophy 159
Concord, MA v-vi, 3-4, 53, 149-171
Connecticut 49, 52, 60, 112
Connecticut River 60

Copeland, Robert Morris 150, 154, 163

Copley Square, Boston, MA 137

Copley, John Singleton 101

Council of the Boston Bar Association 5

Crawford, Sybil F. 130

Crawford, Thomas 106, 121, 123, 125, 127,

130, 133, 137, 139, 140, [122, 124, 125,

129]
Culbreth, Renial 34n
Culsworth, James 41
Cumberland, RI 54-55
Cunningham, Ami 1
Cypress Lawn Cemetery, Colma, CA 130

Dallas, TX 9

Damascus, Syria 87

Daniel Henchman Shop 73

Dartmouth College 72

Davidson, James W. 87

Deacon Haynes Garrison House 55

Dearborn, Nathaniel 119, [112]

Deerfield, MA 46, [47]

Democratic Advocate 33

Detroit, MI 130, 139

Devilbiss, Levi 30, 36

Dexter, Henry 106, 112-116, 120, 139

Dexter' s Ledge 54

Dickdook Leshon Gnebreet: A Grammar of the

Hebrew Tongue 76
Dickens, Charles 116
Dimmick, Lauretta 121
Dodge, Robert 4
Dover Church, Dover, MA 7
Dover, MA 1-3,7

Downing, Andrew Jackson 120, 137
Drach family 30
Dudley, Abigail 160
Dwight, John 1

Edmondson, William 34n

Egyptian burials vi, 165, 167

Eliot, Samuel 72,113

Elizabeth W. Meads Memorial (sculpture)

109
Elmira, NY 139
Eloquence (sculpture) 140
Emerson, Charles Chauncy 152
Emerson, Ellen [169]
Emerson, Lidian (Lydia Jackson) 152

216

Emerson, Mary Moody 152

Emerson, Edward Waldo 164

Emerson, Ralph Waldo v-vi, 149-171, [148,

157, 161, 162, 169]
Emerson, Ruth Haskins 152
England 6, 51
Essex, MA 46, 48
Everett, Edward 107, 140

Fairmount Cemetery, Libertytown, MD

[19, 20]
Fairview United Methodist Cemetery, MD

33,37
Falls Church, VA 139
Finland 9

First Church, Cambridge, MA 73
First Parish Church, Northborough, MA

67-68, 78-79, 91, [66, 67]
Five Little Peppers and How Tliey Grew 164
Flaxman, John 106
Flight of the Spirit (sculpture) 130, 133,

[131]
Florence, Italy 106, 117
Forbes, Harriette Merrifield 1, 6, 70, 79-80
Forest Hills Cemetery, Boston, MA 116,

120, 133, 139, [138]
Forest Park Lawndale Cemetery, Houston,

TX 130
Foy, Florvill 34n
Frazee, John 104
Frederick County, MD 13-15, 17, 27, 30,

33, 36, 38, [16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 27,

29]
French, Daniel Chester 133, 164, [133]
French, Stanley 104

Friendship Cemetery, Columbus, MS 130
Frost, Barzillai 156

Gabel, Laurel K. 1, 6, 77, 79, 85
Gallup Family Association 51
Gallup, Captain John 51-52
"Garden Cemetery and American

Sculpture: Mount Auburn, The" 103
Gardner, Frank 116
George Hill 52

George Washington (sculpture) 104, 117, 123
George Washington (sculpture by Ball) 133
Gettysburg National Military Park,

Gettysburg, PA 139

Gill, MA 62, [60]

Glenwood Cemetery, Houston, TX 130

Goldman, Shalom 77

Goodenow Garrison House 56

Gott, Joseph 120, [118]

Grace Church, Utica, NY 114

Grace Williams Memorial (sculpture) 109-
110, 114, [115]

Gradwohl, Hanna Rosenberg 68

Graven Images: New England Stonecarving
and its Symbols 70

Gravestone Chronicles I: Some Eighteenth-
Century Neui England Carvers 6

Gravestone Chronicles II: More Eighteenth-
Century New England Carvers 6

Gravestones of Early Neiv England 3, 70

Gray, Francis Calley 116, 120, [118]

Great Swamp, The 48-49, [50, 51]

Greater Boston United Way 5

Greek burial 166, 170

Greek Slave, TJte (sculpture) 123

Green River, MA 62

Greenfield, MA 62, [61]

Greenough, Henry 109

Greenough, Horatio 105-106, 109, 113, 117,
119, 123, 137, 139-140

Greenough, Richard Saltonstall 106, 127

Green- Wood Cemetery, Brooklyn, NY 120,
130, 140, 149

Greenwood Church Cemetery [25]

Greenwood family 30

Greenwood, Ludwick 36, 38, [25]

Groton School 4-5

Guide Through Mount Auburn 119, [112]

Hadley, MA 46

Hammond, Area 13, 15

Hammond, Colonel Thomas 13-15

Hammond, Marcella 15

Hammond, Sebastian "Boss" /"Boston"/

"Bostion" v, 12-33
Harnden Monument 120, [119]
Harriette Merrifield Forbes Award 7
Hartford, CT 130, 139
Harvard Law School 4, 138
Harvard University v, 5, 72, 72, 74-75, 77,

84-85, 138
Harvard, MA 4, 79
Harvey, Peter 113

217

Hatfield, MA 62

Hastings, Daniel 1

Hawthorne, Nathaniel v, 114, 139, 164,

[151, 167]
Haynes, Deacon John 55-56
Hertzberg, Arthur 90
Highland Cemetery, Dover, MA 1, 7
His Pony (sculpture) 121
Hoar, Ebenezer Rockwood 164
Hoar, Elizabeth Sherman 152
Hoar, John 53
Hoar, Samuel 164
Hoar, Sherman 164
Holyoke, Captain Samuel 62
Hope Cemetery, Worcester, MA 120
Horticulturist, TJie 120
Hosmer, Harriet 106, 140
Houdon, Jean-Antoine 104
Houston, TX 130
Hurlbert monument 140
Hutchinson, Ann 45
Hutchinson, Edward 45, [42]
Hygeia (sculpture) 133, [134]

Iberia 71

Italy 106, 117, 121, 127, 166

J.N. (carver) 30, 33, [31]

Jackson, Lydia (see Emerson, Lidian)

Jamaica 71

James Otis (sculpture) 127, 138, [129]

James, Henry 139

Jefferson, Thomas 104

Jefferson, William Henry (Taylor) 34n

Jerusalem 88

Jews of Boston, Tlie 90

John Adams (sculpture) 127, 138, [129]

John Stevens Shop, Newport, RI 27, 34

John Winthrop (sculpture) 127, 138, [128]

Jordan (-Bychkov), Terry 9-11, [8]

Joesph Story (sculpture) 127, 138, [128]

Kansas 116
Kent, Josiah C. 67
Keyes, John Shepard 164
Kiler family 30

King Philip 41, 53, 55-56, 62-63, [40]
King Philip's War 40-65
King's Chapel Burying Ground,
Boston, MA 4

Kyle, Theodora 4

Lamsons/Lamson Shop 1, 77

Lancaster, MA 52-54

Landman, Isaac 87

Lathrop, Captain Thomas 46, 48, [47]

Laurel Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia, PA
120-121

Leghorn (Livorno), Italy 71, 125

Leland Company, NYC 130

Lewis, Edmonia 106, 133, [134]

Liberty District, Frederick County, MD 13,
[16]

Lincoln Memorial, DC 133, 164

Lincoln, Abraham v, 164

Linden-Ward, Blanche 102, 110

Lindsay, John 19, 27, 36, [21]

Linganore U.M. Cemetery, Unionville, MD
[21-23]

Little Compton, RI 63, [64]

Little, M. Ruth 34

Little Rock, AK 130

Logic of Millennial Thought: Eighteenth-
Century New England, Tlte 87

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth 133

Lothrop, Harriet Mulford 164

Louvre, Paris, France 105

Ludwig, Allan 6, 70, 80-81, 83-84

Luti, Vincent 34

Lynchburg, VA 34

Maddock, Steven H. [148]
Magruder, Nathan 38, [27]
Main Street Burial Ground, Concord, MA

150, [153]
Marble Faun, The 139
Marcus, Rabbi Jacob R. 71, 73, 77, 89-90
Marlborough, MA 45, 55-56
Marrett, Edward 74
Marrett, Hannah 74
Marston, MD 36-39, [28]
Martyn, Mary Marrett 78
Martyn, Reverend John 67, 78, 83, [67]
Maryland v, 2, 12-39
Massachusetts Bar Association 5
Massachusetts Bay Colony 127
Massachusetts Board of Regional

Community Colleges 5
Massachusetts Historical Society 6

218

Massasoit 41

Mather, Cotton v, 72, 75, 79, 88-90

Mather, Increase 72-73, 89-90

Matteson, Tompkins H. 107-109, 114, [108]

Maxcy (carver) 6

McEachin, Issiah 34n

Melville, Herman 99

Mendon, MA 44, [42]

Metacom (see King Philip)

Michael Haines Family Cemetery 30

Middleborough, MA 44

Middlesex County, MA 74

Miller, Francis 44, [42]

Miller, John 44, [42]

Milmore, Martin 120, 133, 136, 139, [135,

136]
Milton, MA 57-58
Mississippi 34
Mohegan Indians 52
Monastery Grounds, Cumberland, RI 54-

55
Monis, Abigail Marrett 74, 77, [78]
Monis, Judah v, 67-91, [67, 69, 80, 82, 83,

86, 87]
Morison, Samuel Eliot 72, 76
Morocco 71

"Moses, A Witness Unto our Lord . . ." 72
Montague-Gill, MA 60
Mount Auburn Cemetery v, 101-141, 149
Mount Hermon School, Northfield, MA 5
Mount Wachusett 53
Mountfort Monument 116
Muddy Brook, South Deerfield, MA 46
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA 102,

117, 137
Myles Garrison House 41

Narragansett Indians 41, 48, 49, 52, 54
National Memorial Park, Falls Church,

VA 139
Nature (Ralph Waldo Emerson) 154
"New Adam and New Eve" 114
New Braintree, MA 45, 52
New England Courant 71, 73
New England Historic Genealogical

Society 6
New Hill Cemetery, Concord, MA 150
New Testament 85
New Windsor, MD 30, [12, 25, 31]
New York, NY 71, 91, 120, 130, 140-141

New, John 1

Newport, MD 15,33

Newport, RI 27, 34n, 91

New-York Commercial Advertiser 125

Nine Men's Misery 54

Nipmuck Indians 41, 44-46, 52

Nomenclatura hebraica 76-77

North American Rancliing Frontiers 10

North Attleborough, MA 58-60, [59]

North Carolina 34n

North Kingston, RI 49-51, [51]

Northborough, MA 67-68, 70, 78-79, 91,

[78]
Northfield, MA 5,45
Nusbaum, Amy [23]

Oak Grove Cemetery, Bath, ME 139
Oakland Cemetery, Little Rock, AR 130
Ockoocangansett Plantation 55
"Ode on the Consecration of Sleepy

Hollow Cemetery" 156-157
Old Hill Burying Ground, Concord, MA

150
Old Manse, Concord, MA 3, 152
Old Mortality (sculpture) 121
Old North Bridge, Concord, MA 4, 162
Old Testament 81, 83, 85, 88
Olmsted, Frederick Law 137
Orchard House, Concord, MA 162
Oregon 170

Orpheus and Cerberus (sculpture) 121, 123
Oxford University, UK 72

Palmer and Dodge (law firm) 4
Palmer, Erastus Dow 106-109, 114-115,

120, 123, [108, 115]
Paris, FR 117

Park, William 70, 79, 81, [69]
Paul, Apostle 81, 88
Pawtucket Falls, RI 54
Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer 159-160, 164
Pennsylvania 24
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts,

Philadelphia, PA 105
Pentateuch 75

Perkins Dog (sculpture) 117, 119-121, [118]
Perkins, Colonel Thomas Handasyd 107,

113, 116-117
Perkins, Thomas Handasyd, Jr. 117
Perkins, Thomas Handasyd, III 117

219

Philadelphia, PA 105, 120, 123
Pierce, Captain Michael 54-55
Pin Hill Quarry, Harvard, MA 79
Pine Grove Cemetery, Appleton, ME

139
Pipe Creek Church of the Brethren

Cemetery 36, 38
Pittsburgh, PA 140
Plymouth, MA 63
Plymouth Colony, MA 45, 51, 54
Pokanoket-Wampanoags 41
Pompeii tombs 166
Portugal 73

Powers, Edward Everett 140
Powers, Hiram 123, 140
Protestant Cemetery, Rome, Italy 130
Puffer, Mathias 44
Pukcommeacon River 62

Quincy, Josiah 138

Realization of Faith, Tire (sculpture) 133

Rebecca of Snnnybrook Farm 159

Redemption Rock 53

Revere, Paul [40]

Rhode Island Historical Society 55

Rhode Island Society of Colonial Wars 63

Richard Smith's Block House 50

Ripley, Reverend Dr. Ezra 152

Rock Creek Cemetery, DC 137

Rockwood, John 44

Rogers, Randolph 106, 127, 130, 133, 137,

139, [129, 131]
Rome, Italy 106, 121, 125, 130, 133, 166
Rose Hill Cemetery, Atlanta, GA 149
Rotundo, Barbara 34,103
Rowlandson Garrison House 52
Rowlandson, Joseph 52
Rowlandson, Mary 52-54
Rowlandson, Sarah P. 52-53, [42]
Rowley, MA 57-58
Roxbury Soldiers' Monument (sculpture)

133', 136-137
Rush, William 104

Saint-Gaudens, Augustus 137
Sanborn, Franklin B. 156-157, 164
Sanders Theatre, Harvard University 138
Sanders, E.P. 89
Sanguinetto 48

Sarna, Jonathan D. 90

Saul of Tarsus in Cilicia 88

Savage, Major Thomas 41

Schiller, Friedrich 171

Scituate, MA 54

Scottsville Cemetery, Scottsville, TX 130

Sears, David 116

Second Church of Boston 72

Sephardic Jews 71

Sewall, Samuel 75

Sewall, Stephen 77

Sharf, Frederic A. 103

Sharp, Lieutenant 57-58

Shaw Memorial (sculpture) 137

Shearith Israel Synagogue, NYC 91

Shelley, Percy Bysshe 166

Shipton, Clifford K. 74

Siberia 9

Sidney, Margaret 164, [151]

Sigourney, Lydia 114, 139

Silent City on a Hill: Landscapes of Memory

and Boston's Mount Auburn Cemetery

102
Sir Walter Scott (sculpture) 121
Sleep (sculpture) 115
Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Concord, MA

149-171, [151, 158, 160, 163]
Sloane, David Charles 102-103
Smillie, James [100, 111]
Smith, Ellen 90
Smith, Kate (see Wiggin, Kate)
Smith, R.A. 50

Smith, Rev. Sydney 101, 104, 141
Smith's Illustrated Guide to and Through

Laurel Hill Cemetery 121
Smithsonian Institution Research

Information System (SIRIS) 104
Soldier's Monument, Concord, MA 155
South America 73

South Burying Place, Concord, MA 150
South Carolina 75, 116, 213
South Kingston, RI 48, [50]
Southworth and Hawes 126
Spain 73
Spencer, MA 1
Sphinx (sculpture) 133, [135]
Spring Grove Cemetery, Cincinnati, OH

139
Spring Hill Cemetery, Marlborough, MA

220

St. Bernard's Catholic Church, Concord,

MA 150
St. Louis, MO 130
St. Luke's (Winter's) Lutheran Cemetery,

New Windsor, MD 30, 39, [31]
St. Peter's Church, Albany, NY 109
Steinhauser, Carl (Wolgerbon) 146n41
Stendahl, Krister 88
Stonington, CT 51
Story, Justice Joseph 107, 110, 126-127, 130,

138, [128]
Story, William Wetmore 106, 126-127, 130,

137-139, [128]
Stuart, Gilbert 101
Sudbury, MA 55-58, 60, [42, 60]
Sumner, Charles 107, 121
Swansea, MA 41, 43

Taft, Lorado 141

Texas Graveyards 9-10

Hie Sovereignty and Goodness of God 52

Thompson, Judge 62

Thoreau, Henry David v, 150, 163-164,

[151, 163, 165]
Thorwaldsen, Bertel 106
TJiree Centuries of Harvard, 1636-1936 72
Trollope, Frances "Fanny" 105, 123, 141
Trumbull, John 101
Trustees of Reservations 5-6
"Truth, The" 72

Turner, Captain William 60, 62, [42, 63]
Turner's Falls, MA 60,62

Uniontown, MD 36, 38

United Community Services of Boston 5

United States Navy 4

United States Rangers 63

University of Texas 9

Upland South 11

Utica, NY 114

Walden Pond, Concord, MA 162

Walker, John 13-14, 17, 37, [18, 19, 20]

Wampanoag Indians 41, 43-44, 49, 52-53

Warfield family 30

Warfield, Alexander 36

Warfield, J.H. 36, [28]

Warren, General Joseph 116

Washington, D.C. 137, 164

Washington, George 117, 123

Waterman, J.W. 130, 139, [131]

Watters, David H. iv, 81, 83

Webster, Daniel 113

Wedgwood, Josiah 106

Wellesley College 116

West Brookfield, MA 45

West, Benjamin 101

Westminster, Carroll County, MD 37-39,

[14]
Wheeler, Captain Thomas 45
Wliite Captive, The (sculpture) 123
Whitfield, Stephen J. 90
"Whole Truth, The" 72
Wickford, RI 49

Wiggin, Kate Douglas (Smith) 159-163
William Ward House 55
Wilson, Leslie Perrin 150
Winnimissett Camp 53
Winslow, Reverend Hubbard 113
Woodcock Garrison House 58
Woodcock Historic Burial Ground 53, [42,

59]
Woodcock, John 58-59
Woodcock, Nathaniel 58-59
Woodlawn Cemetery, Bronx, NY 99, [98]
Woodlawn Cemetery, Elmira, NY 139
Woolworth mausoleum, Woodlawn

Cemetery, Bronx, NY 99
Worcester, MA 120
Worman, William M. 36, 38, [29]
Wright, Eliza J. 37

Veal, Merry E. 34n

Venice, Italy 71

Vermeule, Cornelius C, III 121

Vermont 115

Yankee Stadium, NY 99

Zeigler mausoleum, Woodlawn Cemetery,
Bronx, NY 99

Wadsworth Cemetery 57
Wadsworth, Captain Samuel 56-57
Wadswoth, Benjamin 57

'4-

^-^

-** •

^"■BBffli

jm&

Obituary: Theodore Chase (1912-2003)

fry Laurel Gabel

Obituary: Terry Jordan (1938-2003)

by Richard Francaviglia

Carving a Path to Freedom: The Life and
Work of African American Stonecarver
Sebastian "Boss" Hammond

by Mary Ann Ashcraft

Gravemarkers and Memorials of
King Philip's War

by Tom and Brenda Malloy

Judah Monis's Puzzling Gravestone as a
Reflection of his Enigmatic Identity

by David Mayer Gradwohl

In the Bronx with Melville

by Henry Hughes

Museum in the Garden: Mount Auburn
Cemetery and American Sculpture,
1840-1860

by Elise Madeline Ciregna

"In the Palm of Nature's Hand":
Ralph Waldo Emerson's Address
at the Consecration of Sleepy Hollow
Cemetery

Introduced and edited by

Ronald A. Bosco and Joel Myerson

Subject Index, Markers I-XX

Compiled by Gary Collison

The Year's Work in Gravemarker

and Cemetery Studies:

An International Bibliography

Compiled by Gary Collison

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Markers"

See other formats