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GIFT OF
HORACE W. CARPENT1EI

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SETH GOBIND DAS, C.S.I.

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MATHUKA:

1JI8TEICT irBMOIE;

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.

F. S. GROWSE, B.C.S.;

M. A., OxON; C.I. E.;

Magistrate and Collector of Bulandshahr ;

Felloio of the Calcutta University.

Though the groves of Brinda, in with Krishna disported with the Gopis, no
longer resound to the echoes of his flute; though the waters of the Jauiuna are
daily polluted with the blood of the sacred kine ; still it is the holy laud of
the pilgrim, the sacred Jordan of his fancy, on whose banks he may sit and
weep, as did the banished Israelite of old, for the glories of Mathura, his
Jerusalem. — Tod.

THIRD EDITION.

Revised and Abridged.

18S3.

PB1NTED AT TUE NOETH-WESTEBN PEOVINCK3 AND OCDH GOYEBNMBNT PBESS.

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T\7R\m %m xim ciwg T=Rsam

/IS

PREFACE.

This Memoir was originally intended to form one of the uniform series of
local histories compiled by order of the Government. Its main object was
therefore to serve as a book of reference for the use of district officers ; thus
it touches upon many topics which the general reader will condemn as trivial and
uninteresting, and in the earlier chapters the explanations are more detailed and
minute than the professed student of history and archaeology will probably deem
at all necessary. But a local memoir can never be a severely artistic perform-
ance. On a small scale it resembles a dictionary or encyclopaedia and must, if
complete, be composed of very heterogeneous materials, out of which those who
have occasion to consult it must select what they require for their own purposes,
without concluding that whatever is superfluous for them is equally familiar or
distasteful to other people.

As good libraries of standard works of reference are scarcely to be
found anywhere in India out of the presidency towns, I have invariably given in
full the very words of my authorities, both ancient and modern. And if I have
occasion to mention any historical character — though he may have achieved some-
what more than a mere local reputation — I still narrate succinctly all the mate-
rial facts of his life rather than take them for granted as already known. Thus,
before quoting the Chinese Pilgrims, I explain under what circumstances they
■wrote : and when describing the Mathura Observatory, I introduce an account
of the famous royal astronomer by whom it was constructed. Hence my pages
are not unfrequently overcrowded with names and dates which must give them
rather a repellent appearance ; but I shall be compensated for this reproach if
residents on the spot find iu them an answer to all enquiries, without occasion
to consult other authorities, which, though possibly far from obscure, may still
under the circumstances be difficult to obtain.

I dwell at considerable length on the legends connected with the deified
Krishna, the tutelary divinity of the district : because, however puerile and com-
paratively modern many of them may be, they have materially affected the whole
course of local history and are still household words, to which allusion is con-
stantly made in conversation, either to animate a description or enforce an
argument.

The great years of famine and the mutiny of 1857, though the latter
was a. calamity much more bghtly felt in this neighbourhood than in many other

520 19

11 PREFACE.

parts of India, yet form the eras, by which the date of all domestic occurrences
is ordinarily calculated, and both subjects have therefore been duly noticed.
But there has been no need to enter much into general history, for Mathura
has never been a political centre, except during the short period when it formed
the theatre for the display of the ambitious projects of Siiraj Mall and his
immediate successors on the throne of Bharat-pur. All its special interest is
derived from its religious associations in connection with the Vaishnava sects* —
far outnumbering all other Hindu divisions— of whom some took birth here, all
regard it as their Holy Land. Thus, the space devoted to the consideration of
the doctrines which they profess and the observances which they practise could
scarcely be curtailed without impairing the fidelity of the sketch by suppression
of the appropriate local colouring. It may also be desirable to explain that the
long extracts of Hindi poetry from local writers of the last two centuries have
been inserted not only as a propos of the subject to which they refer, but also
as affording the most unmistakeable proofs of what the language of the country
really is. No such specimens could be given of indigenous Urdu literature,
simply because it is non-existent and is as foreign to the people at large as English.

So much irreparable damage has been done in past years from simple
ignorance as to the value of ancient architectural remains, that I have been
careful to describe in full every building in the district which possesses the
slightest historical or artistic interest. I have also given a complete resume of
all the results hitherto obtained in archaeological research among the relics of
an earlier age, and have added a sketch of the development of the local style
of architecture, as it exists at the present day.

Besides noting the characteristics of peculiar castes, I have given an
account of the origin and present status of all the principal residents in the
district, mentioning every particular of any interest connected with their family
history or personal qualifications. Only a few such persons of special repute
will be found included in the general narrative ; the remainder have been
relegated to the more strictly topographical sequel, where they are noticed in
connection with their estates. Upon purely agricultural statistics I touch
very briefly ; all such matters have been most ably discussed by the officer in
charge of the hist settlement.

The village lists, which occupied a considerable space in the first and
second editions, have now been omitted in consequence of my inability — here at
Bulandshahr — to obtain the detailed results of the last census. I believe they
had been found useful by district officials. No one who has not had experience
in matters of the kind eau form any idea of the labour and vexation involved in

PREFACE. lil

the preparation for the first time of such tables, when the materials on which they
are based consist exclusively of manuscripts written in the Persian character.
An attempt to secure accuracy induces a feeling of absolute despair ; for the
names of the places and people mentioned can only be verified on the spot,
inasmuch as they are too obscure to be tested by reference to other authorities,
and the words as written, if not absolutely illegible, can be read at least three
or four different ways.

A remark, originally consisting of no more than three or four lines in my
first edition, has been expanded into a thorough discussion on the etymology
of local names, which occupies the whole of Chapter XII. It incidentally
disposes of several crude theories on the subject, which have been advanced by
scholars of more or less distinction under a misconception as to the historical
growth of the modern vernacular of Upper India. The conclusions at which
I arrive can scarcely be disputed, but they will probably be ignored as too fatal
to whimsical speculation.

In the matter of transliteration I have been more consistent than was
prescribed of necessity, in the belief that compromise is always an evil, and in
this matter is exceptionally so ; for with a definite orthography there is no
reason whatever why in the course of two or three generations the immense
diversity of Indian alphabets, which at present form such an obstacle to literary
intercourse and intellectual progress, should not all be abolished and the Roman
character substituted in their stead.

As to the word ' Mathura' itself, the place has had an historical existence
for more than 2,000 years, and may reasonably demur to appearing in its old
age under such a vulgar and offensive form as ' Muttra,' which represents
neither the correct pronunciation nor the etymology. Though it has been
visited by Europeans of many different nationalities, it was never so mutilated
till it fell into the hands of the English, now eighty years ago. Even the
Chinese, with a language that renders transliteration all but impossible, repre-
sent it, more correctly than we have hitherto done, under the form Mothulo.
Mathura Das, or some similar compound, is a name very frequently given by
Hiudus to a child who has been born after a pilgrimage to the holy city, and
it is always so spelt. Hence results the egregious absurdity that in any
official list ' Mathura Das of Mathura' appears as ' Mathura Das of Muttra,'
with two utterly different spellings for one and the same word.

BULANDSHAHE, ")

£■ F. S. GROTYSE.

April 21st, 1882. J

RULES FOR PRONUNCIATION.

a unaccented is like

a in India.

d accented is like

a „ bath.

e is always long, like

$ „ fete.

i unaccented is like

i „ India.

i accented is like

i „ elite.

u unaccented is like

u „ put.

u accented is like

u ,, rural.

o is always long, like

o „ oval.

ai is like

ai „ aisle.

au is like

ou „ cloud.

The consonants are pronounced as in English: th as in boot-hook, never as in
father ; g is always hard, as in gag ; y is always a consonant, and c, (/ and x
are not used at all. The fixed sound of each letter never varies ; and it is,
therefore, impossible for any person of the most ordinary intelligence to hesitate
for a moment as to the correct way of pronouncing a word the first time he sees
it. Without the slightest knowledge of the language, he may read a page of a
Romanized Sanskrit or Hindustani book to an Indian audience, and be perfectly
intelligible, if he will only take the trouble to remember the few simple rules
given above.

CONTENTS.

Page.

Chapter I.— Tho modern district ; its conformation, extent, and
divisions at different periods. The character of the
people and their language. The predominant castes :
the Jats and their origin; the Chaubes; the Ahivasis ;
the Gaurua Tbakurs. The Jains and their temples.
The principal families; the Seth; the Raja of Hathras ;
the Rais of Sa'dabad. Agricultural classification of
■ - land; canals; famines. The Delhi road and its Sarais 1

CHAPTER II.— Mathura sacked by Mahmud of Gbazni, 1017 A. D.
Its treatment by the Delhi emperors. Rise and pro-
gress of the Jat power. Massacre at Mathura, 1757
A.D. Battle of Barsana, 1775. Execution of Ghulam
Kadir, 1788. British occupation, 1803. Battle of
Dig, 1801. Mutiny, 1857... ... ... 32

CHAPTER III. — The story of Krishna, the tutelary divinity of Mathura 50

Chapter IV. — The Braj-mandal, the Ban-jatra and the Holi ... 71

CHAPTER V.— The Buddhist city of Mathura and its antiquities ... 103

Chapter VI. — The Hindu city of Mathura ... ... 126

Chapter VII. — The city of Mathura (concluded) : its European insti-
tutions and museum ... ... ... 159

Notes on Chapter VII—

1. List of local Governors in the 17th century ... ... 175

2. Names of the city quarters, or mahallas ... ... 176

3. Principal buildings in the city of Mathura ... ... 177

4. Calendar of festivals ... ... ... ... 179

Chapter VIII. — Brindaban and tho Vaishnava reformers. The four
Sampradayas. The Bengali Vaishnavas. The Radha-
vallabhis. The Rddhd-sudhd-nidhi and the Chaurdsi
Pada of Swami Hari Vans. Swami Hari Das and
the Sddhdran Siddhdnt. The Maluk-Dasis. The
Pran-nathis and the Khjdmat-ndma. The Byom Sdr
and Suni Sdr ... ... ... ... 184

( 2 )

Page.

Chapter IX. — Brindaban and its temples. The temple of Gobind
Deva ; of Madan Mohan ; of Gopinath ; of Jugal-
Kishor ; of Radha-Ballabh. The Lala Babu's temple :
the Seth's temple ; the Sah's temple ; the Rani of
Tikari's temple ; the Maharaja of Gwalior's temple.
The Bharat-pur Kunjes. The municipality ... 241

Notes to Chapter IX. —

1. Calendar of local festivals at Brindaban ... ... 267

2. List of river-side Ghats ... ••• ... 270

3. Names of mahallas or city quarters ... ... 271

Chapter X. — Mahaban ; Gokul and the Vallabhacharis ; Baladeva

and its Pandes ... ... ••• 272

Notes to Chapter X. —

1. Vallabhacharya literature ... ... ••• 295

2. Specimen of the Chaurasi Varta ... ... ••• »&•

Chapter XL — The three hill-places of Mathura: Gobardhan, Barsana,

and Nandgamv ... ... ... 299

Chapter XII.— The etymology of local names in Northern India, as

exemplified in the district of Mathura ... ... 318

Chapter XHT. — Pargana Topography—

Pargana Kosi ... ... ... 357

Pargana Chhata ... ... ... 371

Pargana Mathura ... ... ... 379

Pargana Mat ... ... ... 385

Pargaua Mahaban ... ... ... 396

Pargana Sa'dabad ... ... ... 403

Appendices —

A. Casto : its origin and development ... ^ 407

B. The Catholic Church ... ... ... ... 417

C. Indigenous trees ... ... ... ... 421

Glossary ... ••• ••• ••• ••■ 426

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Seth Gobind Das, C.S.I, (frontispiece).

Seth Raghunath Das ...

Seth Lachhman Das ... ... ...

Raja Hari Narayan Sinh, of Hathras
Environs of Mathura ... ...

The Siva Tal, Mathura

The Visrant Ghat ...

Tho Sati Burj

Cenotaph in tho Seth's garden •••

The City Gate, Mathura

The Catholic Church ...

The Museum

Bacchanalian sculpture from Pali Khera (two plates)

Group of antiquities ... ... ...

The Seth's temple

Temple of Gobind Deva, Brindaban

Ditto ditto, showing side chapel

Ditto ditto, ground-plan ...
Temple of Madan Mohan

Ditto ground-plan ...

Temple of Gopi-nath ...
Temple of Jugal-kishor ... ...

Temple of Radha Ballabh (ground-plan)
Tho Idol-car

Temple of Radha Gopal (ground-plan) ...

The Manasi Ganga, Gobardhan ... u.

The temple of Harideva, Gobardhan (ground-plan)
The tomb of Maharaja Baladeva Sinh, Gobardhan
The Kusum Sarovar, Gobardhan ...
Map of the district ... ...

The school, Auraugabad ...

Interior of the Catholic Church ...

Page.

••a

»••

• ••

• ■•

* . •

• ••

. ••

106

• ••

• ■•

136

...

• •*

142

...

148

• ••

•*•

150

• ••

157

• ••

...

161

•••

*••

163

...

168

• ••

172

• ••

192

• ••

•••

242

•••

• ••

246

...

Mi.

248

...

»••

250

• ••

252

...

• ••

254

• ••

...

ib.

••»

...

256

• ••

* •

261

• •

• ••

263

*••

...

303

• ••

»•»

304

•••

• •*

306

•••

• ••

308

...

• ••

357

•••

...

381

■•«

• ••

418

MATHU R A.

CHAPTER I.

THE MODERN DISTRICT ; ITS CONFORMATION, EXTENT AND DIVISIONS AT DIF-
FERENT PERIODS. THE CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LANGUAGE.
THE PREDOMINANT CASTES; THE JA'TS AND THEIR ORIGIN; THE CHAD-
BES; THE AHIVXSIS ; THE GAURUA THXlvURS. THE JAINIS AND THEIR
TEMPLES. THE PRINCIPAL FAMILIES; THE SETH ; THE RXJA OF HXTHRAS ;
THE RXlS OF SA'DXBXD. AGRICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF LAND ; CAN-
ALS ; FAMINES; THE DELHI ROAD AND ITS SARAHS.

The modern district of Mathura is one of the five which together make up the
Agra Division of the North West Provinces. It has an area of 1,453 square
miles, with a population of 671,690, the vast majority of whom, viz., 611,626,
are Hindus.

In the year 1803, when its area was first included in British territory, part
of it was administered from Agra and part from Sa'dabad. This arrangement
continued till 1832, wdien the city of Mathura was recognized as the most fitting
centre of local government and, superseding the village of Sa'dabad, gave its
name to a new district, comprising eight tahsilis, viz., Aring, Sahar, and Kosi,
on the right bank of the Jamuna, ; and on the left, Mat, Noh-jhil, Mahaban,
Sa'dabad, and Jalesar. In 1860, Mat and Noh-jhil were united, with the former
as the head-quarters of the Tahsildar ; and in 1868 the revenue offices at Aring
were transferred to Mathura, but the general boundaries remained unchanged.

The district, however, as thus constituted, was of a most inconvenient shape.
Its outline was that of a carpenter's square, of which the two parallelograms
were nearly equal in extent; the upper one lying due north and south, while
the other at right angles to it stretched due eastward below. The capital, situ-
ated at the interior angle of junction, was more accessible from the contiguous
district of Aligarh and the independent State of Bharat-pur than from the
greater part of its own territory. The Jalesar pargana was the most remote
of all ; its two chief towns, Awa and Jalesar, being respectively 55 and 43
miles from the local Courts, a greater distance than separated them from the
capitals of four other districts.

2 THE MODERN DISTRICT.

This, under any conditions, would have boon justly considered an inconve-
nience, and there were peculiar circumstances which rendered it exceptionally
so. The transfer of a very large proportion of the land from the old proprietary
village communities to wealthy strangers had created a wide-spread feeling of
restlessness and impatience, which was certainly intensified by the remoteness
of the Courts and the consequent unwillingness to have recourse to them for
the settlement of a dispute in its incipient stages. Hence the frequent occur-
rence of serious outrages, such as burglaries and highway robberies, which were
often carried out with more or less impunity, notwithstanding the number of
people that must have been privy to their commission. However willing the
authorities of the different districts were to act in concert, investigation on the
part of the police was greatly hampered by the readiness with which the crimi-
nals could escape across the border and disperse themselves through the five
districts of Mathura, Agra, Mainpuri, Eta, and Aligarh. Thus, though a local
administrator is naturally jealous of any change calculated to diminish the im-
portance of his charge, and Jalesar was unquestionably the richest portion of the
district, still it was generally admitted by each successive Magistrate and Col-
lector that its exchange for a tract of country with much fewer natural advan-
tages would be a most politic and beneficial measure.*

The matter, which had often before been under the consideration of Gov-
ernment, was at last settled towards the close of the year 1874, when Jalesar
was finally struck off from Mathura. At first it was attached to Agra ; but six
years later it was again transferred and joined on to Eta, which was then raised
to the rank of a full district. No other territory had been given in compensa-
tion till 1879, when 84 villages, constituting the pargana of Farrah, were
taken from Agra and added on to the Mathura tahsili. The district has thus

* In the ffrst edition of this work, written before the change had been effected, I thus sum-
marized the points of difference between the Jalesar and the other parganas :■ — The Jalesar
pargana affords a marked contrast to all the rest of the diBtric% from which it differs no less
in soil and scenery than in the character and social status of the population. In the other six
parganas wheat, indigo, and rice are seldom or never to be seen, here they form the staple
crops ; there the pasturage is abundant and every villager Iims his herd of cattle, here all the
land is arable and no more cattle are kept than are barely enough to work the pkugh; there
the country is doited with natural woods and groves, but has no enclosed oichards, here the
mango and other fruit trees are freely planted and thrive well, but there is no jungle; there
the village communities still for the most part retain possession of their ancestral lauds, here
they have been ousted almost completely by modern capitalists ; there the Jats constitute the
great muss of the population, here they occupy one solitary village ; there the Muhammadans
have never gained any permanent footing and every spot is impregnated with Hindu traditions,
here what, local history there is is mainly associated with Muhammadau families.

ITS TWOFOLD CHARACTER. 3

been rendered much more manageable and compact. It is now in the sha] i
an imperfect crescent, with its convex side to the south-west and its horns and
hollow centre on the left bank of the river looking upwards to the north-east
The eastern portion is a lair specimen of tin/ land ordinarily found in the Doab.
It is abundantly watered, both by wells and rivers, and is carefully cultivated.
Its luxuriant crops and fine orchards indicate the fertility of the soil and render
the landscape not unpleasing to the eye; but though far the more valuable parr
of the district for the purposes of the farmer and the economist, it possesses
few historical associations to detain the antiquary. On the other hand, the west-
ern side of the district, though comparatively poor in natural products, is rich
in mythological legend, and contains in the towns of Mathura and Brinda-han
a series of the master-pieces of modern Hindu architecture. Its still greater
wealth in earlier times is attested by the extraordinary merit of the few speci-
mens which have survived the torrent of Muhammadan barbarism and the more
slowly corroding lapse of time.

Yet, widely as the two tracts of country differ in character, there is reason
to believe that their first union dates from a very early period. Thus, Varaha
Mihira, writing in the latter half of the fifth century of the Christian era, seem-
to speak of Mathura as consisting at that time also of two very dissimilar por-
tions. For, in the 16th section of the Brihat Sanhita, he includes its eastern
half, with all river lands (such as is the Doab), under the protection of the planet
Budha— that is, Mercury ; and the western half, with the Bharatas and Purohits
and other managers of religious ceremonies (classes which still to the present
day form the mass of the population of western Mathura, and more particularly
so if the Bharatas are taken to mean the Bharat-pur Jats) under the tutelage of
Jiva — that is, Jupiter. The Chinese pilgrim, Hwen Thsang, may also be adduc-
ed as a witness to the same effect. He visited India in the seventh century
after Christ, and describes the circumference of the kingdom of Mathura as
5,000 U, i. e., 950 miles, taking the Chinese It as not quite one-fifth of an English
mile. The people, he says, are of a soft and easy nature and delight to per-
form meritorious works with a view to a future life. The soil is rich and fertile
and specially adapted to the cultivation of grain. Cotton stuffs of fine texture
are also here obtainable and gold ; while the mango trees* are so abundant that
they form complete forests — the fruit being of two varieties, a smaller kind,
which turns yellow as it ripens, and a larger, which remains always green.
From this description it would appear that the then kingdom of Mathura

♦The fruit intended is prohibit/ the mango, dmra ; but the word as given in Chinese is
an-mo-lo-ho, which might also stanJ for dmlikd, the tamarind, or timid, the Pliyllanthus embliea.

4 MATHl'RX in the time of akbar.

extended east of the capital along the Doab in the direction of Mainpnri ; for
there the mango flourishes most luxuriantly and almost every village boasts a fine
grove ; whereas in Western Mathura it will scarcely grow at all except under
the most careful treatment. In support of this inference it may be observed
that, notwithstanding the number of monasteries and stupas mentioned by the
Buddhist pilgrims as existing in the kingdom of Mathura, comparatively few
traces of any such buildings have been discovered in the modern district, ex-
cept in the immediate neighbourhood of the capital. In Mainpuri, on the con-
trary, and more especially on the side where it is nearest to Mathura, fragments
of Buddhist sculpture may be seen lying in almost every village. In all pro-
bability the territory of Mathura, at the time of Hwen Thsang's visit, included
not only the eastern balf of the modern district, but also some small part of Agra
and the whole of the Shikohahad and Mustafabad parganas of Mainpuri ; while
the remainder of the present Mainpuri district formed a portion of the kingdom
of Sankasya, which extended to the borders of Kanauj. But all local recollec-
tion of this exceptional period has absolutely perished, and the mutilated effigies
of Buddha and Maya are replaced on their pedestals and adored as Brahma and
Devi by the ignorant villagers, whose forefathers, after long struggles, had tri-
umphed in their overthrow.

In the time of the Emperor Akbar the land now included in the Mathura
district formed parts of three different Sarkars, or Divisions — viz., Agra, Kol, and
Sahar.

The Agra Sarkar comprised 33 mahals, four of which were Mathura, Ma-
holi. Mangotla, and Maha-ban. Of these, the second, Maholi, (the Madhupuri
of Sanskrit literature) is now quite an insignificant village and is so close to
the city as almost to form one of its suburbs. The third, Mangotla or Magora,
has disappeared altogether from the revenue-roll, having been divided into four
pattis, or shares, which are now accounted so many distinct villages. The
fourth, Maha-ban, in addition to its present area, included some ten villages of
what is now the Sa'dabad pargana and the whole of Mat ; while Noh-jhil, lately
united with Mat, was at that time the centre of pargana Noh,* which was in-
cluded in the Kol Sarkar. The Sa'dabadf pargana had no independent exist-
ence till the reign of Shahjahan, when his famous minister, Sa'dullah Khan,

* There is another large town, bearing the smue strange name of Noli, at no great distance,
but west of the Jaumna, in the district of Gur^auw. It is specially noted for its extensive
salt works.

t Dr. Hunter, in his Imperial Gazetteer, has thought proper to represent the name of this
pargaua as Saidabad, which he corrects to Suyyidabad '.

LOCAL DIALECT. 5

founded the town which still hears his name, and subordinated to it all the sur-
rounding country, including part of Khandauli, which is now in the Agra dis-
trict.

The Sahar Sarkar consisted of seven mahals, or parganas, and included the
territory of Bharat-pur. Its home pargana comprised a large portion of the
modern Mathura, district, extending from Kosi and Shergarh on the north to
Aring on the south. It was not till after the dissolution of the Muhammadan
power that Kosi was formed by the Jilts into a separate pargana ; as also was
the case with Shahpur, near the Gurganw border, which is now merged again
in Kosi. About the same unsettled period a separate pargana was formed of
Gobardhan. Subsequently, Sahar dropped out of the list of Sarkars alto-
gether ; great part of it, including its principal town, was subject to Bharat-
pur, while the remainder came under the head of Mathura, then called Islam-
pur or Islamabad. Since the mutiny, Sahar has ceased to give a name even to
a pargana ; as the head-quarters of the Tahsildar were at that time removed,
for greater safety, to the large fort-like saitie at Chhata.

As might be expected from the almost total absence of the Muhammadan
element in the population, the language of the people, as distinct from that of
the official classes, is purely Hindi. In ordinary speech 'water' is jal ; 'land'
is dharti; ' a father,' pita; ' grandson,' ndti (from the Sanskrit naptri), and 'time'
is often samay. Generally speaking, the conventional Persian phrases of com-
pliment are represented by Hindi equivalents, as for instance, ikbdl by pratdp
and tashrif land by kripd karnd. The number of words absolutely peculiar to
the district is probably very small ; for Braj Bhasha (and Western Mathura is
coterminous with Braj), is the typical form of Hindi, to which other local varie-
ties are assimilated as far as possible. A short list of some expressions that
might strike a stranger as unusual has been prepared and will be found in the
Appendix. In village reckonings, the Hindustani numerals, which are of sin-
gularly irregular formation and therefore difficult to remember, are seldom
employed in their integrity, and any sum above 20, except round numbers, is
expressed by a periphrasis — thus, 75 is not pachhattar, but punch ghat assi, i.e.,
80 — 5 ; and 97 is not sattdnaice, but tin ghat sau, i.e., 100 — 3. In pronun-
ciation there are some noticeable deviations from established usage ; thus — 1st,
s is substituted for sh, as in sdmil for shdmil ; sumdr for shumdr : 2nd, eh
takes the place of « as in Chita for Sitd, and occasionally vice versa; as in charsa
for charcha : and 3rd, in the vowels there is little or no distinction between a
a.nd i, thus we have Lakshmin for Lakshman. The prevalence of this latter

0 HINDI TERMINOLOGY.

vulgarism explains the fact of the word Brahman being ordinarily spelt in
English as Brahmin. It is still more noticeable in the adjoining district of
Mainpuri ; where, too, a generally becomes 6, as dado gayo, " he went," for
ehald gaya—a provincialism equally common in the mouths of the Mathura
peasants. It may also, as a grammatical peculiarity, be remarked that kari,
the older form of the past participle of the verb karnd, ' to do,' is much more
popular than its modern abbreviation, H ; ne, which is now generally recognized as
the sign of the agent, is sometimes used in a very perplexing way, fur what it
originally was, viz., the sign of the dative ; and the demonstrative pronouns
with the open vowel terminations, ta and wd, are always preferred to the sibilant
Urdu forms is and us. As for Muhammadan proper names, they have as foreign
a sound and are as much corrupted as English ; for example, Wa-dr-ud-diu,
Hiddyat-ullah and Tdj Muhammad would be known in their own village only
as Waju, IJatu anil Taju, and would themselves be rather shy about claiming
the longer title ; while Mauja, which stands for the Arabic Mauj-ud-din, is
transformed so completely that it is no longer recognized as a specially Muham-
madan name and is often given to Hindus.

The merest glance at the map is sufficient proof of the almost exclusively
Hindi character of the district. In the two typical parganas of Kosi and
Chhatsi there are in all 172 villages, not one of which bears a name with the
elsewhere familiar Persian termination of -dbdd. Less than a score of names
altogether betray any admixture of a Muhammadan element, and even these are
formed with some Hindi ending, as pur, nagar, or garh ; for instance, Akbar-
pur, Sher-nagar, and Sher-garh. All the remainder, to any one but a philo-
logical student, denote simply such and such a village, but have no connotation
whatever, and are. at once set down as utterly barbarous and unmeaning. An
entire chapter further on will be devoted to their special elucidation. The
Muhammadans in their time made several attempts to remodel the local nomen-
clature, the most conspicuous illustrations of the vain endeavour being the sub-
stitution of Islampur for the venerable name of Mathura and of Muminabad for
Brinda-ban. The former is still occasionally heard in the law Courts when
documents of the last generation have to be recited ; and several others, though
almost unknown in the places to which they refer, are regularly recorded in the
register of the revenue officials. Thus, a village near Gobardhan is Parsoli to
its inhabitants, but Muhammad-pur in the office ; and it would be possible i,
live many years in Mathura before discovering that the extensive gardens oi
the opposite side of the river were not properly described as being at Hans*
ganj, but belonged to a place called Isa-pur; A yet more curious fact, and one

THE JKTS. 7

which would scarcely he possible in any country but India, is this, that a name
lias sometimes been changed simply through the mistake of a copying clerk.
Thus, a village in the Kosi pargana had always been known as Chacholi till the
name was inadvertently copied in the settlement papers as Piloli and has remained
so ever since. Similarly with two populous villages, now called Great and Liti le
Bharna, in the Chhata pargana : the Bharna Khurd of the record-room is Lohra
Mama on the spot ; lohra being the Hindi equivalent for the more common chhotd,
'little,' and Mama being the original name, which from the close resemblance
in Nagari writing of m to bh has been corrupted by a clerical error into Bharna.

As in almost every part of the country where Hindus are predominant, the
population consists mainly of Bralnnans, Thakurs, and Baniyas ; but to tin-
three classes a fourth of equal extent, the Jats, must be added as the specially
distinctive element. During part of last century the ancestors of the Jat Raja,
who still governs the border State of Bharat-pur, exercised sovereign power
over nearly all the western half of the district ; and their influence on the country
has been so great and so permanent in its results that they are justly entitled
to first mention. Nothing more clearly indicated the alien character of the
Jalesar pargana than the fact that in all its 203 villages the Jats occupied only
one ; in Kosi and Maha-ban they hold more than half the entire number and in
Chhiita at least one-third.

It is said that the local traditions of Bayana and Bharat-pur point to Kanda-
har as the parent country of the Jats, and attempts have been made* to prove
their ancient power and renown by identifying them with certain tribes men-
tioned by the later classical authors — the Xanthii of Strabo, the Xuthii of
Dionysius of Samos, the Jatii of Pliny and Ptolemy — and at a more recent
period with the Jats or Zaths, whom the Muhammadans found in Sindh when
they first invaded that country.! These are the speculations of European
scholars, which, it is needless to say, have never reached the ears of the persons
most interested in the discussion. But lately the subject has attracted the
attention of Native enquirers also, and a novel theory was propounded in a
little Sanskrit pamphlet, entitled Jatharotpati, compiled by Sastri Angad
Sarmma for the gratification of Pandit Griri Prasad, himself an accomplished

*Cunumghiim's Arehajological Survey, Vol. II., page 56.

fTod, however, considered the last-mentioned tribe quite distinct. He write9 : "The Jats
or Jits, far move numerous than perhaps all the Rajput tribes put together, still retain their
ancient appellation thruughout the whole of Sindh. They are amongst the oldest converts to
Intern,"

8 THE JA'THARAS.

Sanskrit scholar,* and a Jat by caste, who resided at Beswa on the Aligarh
border. It is a catena of all the ancient texts mentioning the obscure tribe of
the Jatharas, with whom the writer wishes to identify the modern Jats and so
bring them into the ranks of the Kshatriyas. The origin of the Jatharas is
related in very similar terms by all the authorities ; we select the passage from
the Padma Parana as being the shortest. It runs as follows : — " Of old,
when the world had been bereft, by the son of Bhrigu, of all the Kshatriya race,
their daughters, seeing the land thus solitary and being desirous of conceiv-
ing sons, laid hold of the Brahmans, and carefully cherishing the seed sown in
their womb (jathara) brought forth Kshatriya sons called Jatharas. "t Now,
there is no great intrinsic improbability in the hypothesis that the word Jathara
has been shortened into Jat ; but if the one race is really descended from the
other, it is exceedingly strange that the fact should never have been so stated be-
fore. This difficulty might be met by replying that the Jats have always been,
with very few exceptions, an illiterate class, who were not likely to trouble them-
selves about mythological pedigrees ; while the story of their parentage would
not be of sufficient interest to induce outsiders to investigate it. But a more
unanswerable objection is found in a passage which the Sastri himself quotes
from the Brihat Sanhita (XIV., 8). ThisJ places the home of the Jatharas
in the south-eastern quarter, whereas it is certain that the Jats have come from
the west. Probably the leaders of Jat society woidd refuse to accept as their
progenitors either the Jatharas of the Beswa Pandit or the Sindhian Zaths of
General Cunningham ; for the Bharat-pur princes affect to consider themselves
as the same race with the Jadavas, and the Court bards in their panegyrics
are always careful to style them Jadu-vansi.

However, all these speculations and assumptions have little basis beyond a
mere similarity of name, which is often a very delusive test ; and it is certain

* He is the author of a Hiudi commentary on the White Yajur Veda.

f^TSfU^Zlf ^T^' i^I^crf ^%^W. II

sJT^TOT^ 5JJIi|FnSPT? q^TrTIT^qra^gT II

513* yTRrf JTH tV??l fcfnjcjrqJT II

T3T? SUTTER ^^ir mZlT^l ^T^T? II

THE CHA0BES OF MATnURA*. 9

that whatever may have been the status of the Jats in remote antiquity, in
historic times they were no way distinguished from other agricultural tribes, such
as the Kurmis and Lodhas, till so recent a period as the beginning of last century.

Many of the largest Jat communities in the district distinctly recognize the
social inferiority of the caste, by representing themselves as having been degrad-
ed from the rank of Thakurs on account of certain irregularities in their mar-
riage customs or similar reasons. Thus, the Jats of the Godha sub-division, who
occupy the 18 villages of the Ayra-khera circle in the Malta-ban pargana, trace
their pedigree from a certain Thakur of the very ancient Pramar clan, who
emigrated into these parts from Dim- in the Dakhin. They say that his sons,
for want of more suitable alliances, married into Jat families in the neighbour-
hood and thus came to be reckoned as Jats themselves. Similarly the Dangri
Jats of the five Madera villages in the same pargana have a tradition, the accu-
racy of which there seems no reason to dispute, that their ancestor, by name
Kapiir, was a Sissodiya Thakur from Chitor. These facts are both curious in
themselves and also conclusive as showing that the Jits have no claim to pure
Kshatriya descent : but they throw ao light at all upon the origin of the tribe
which the new immigrants found already settled in the country and with which
they amalgamated : and as ihe name in its preseni form, does not occur in any
literary record whatever till quite recur days, there must always remain some
doubt about the matter. The sub-divisions are exceedingly numerous: one of
the largest of them all being the Nohwsir, who derive their name from the town
of Noh and form the bulk of the population throughout the whole of the Noh-
jhil pargana.

Of Brahmaus the mosl numerous class is the Sanadh, frequently called
Sanaurhiya, and next the Gaur : but these will be found in every part of India,
and claim no special investigation. The ( lhaubes of Mathura however, number-
ing in all some 6,000 persons, are a peculiar race and must not be passed over
so summarily. They are still very celebrated as wre tiers and. in the Mathura
Mahatmya, their learning and other virtm - also are extolled in the most extra-
vagant terms ; but either the writer was prejudiced or time has had a sadly de-
teriorating effect They are now ordinarily described by their own country-
men as a low and ignorant horde of rapacious mendicants. Like the Prag-
walas at Allahabad, they are the recognized local ciccrones ; and they may
always be seen with their portly forms lolling about near the most popular ghats
md temples, ready to bear down upon the first pilgrim that approaches. One
of their most noticeable peculiarities is that they are very reluctant to make a

10 THE AHIVXSIS.

match with an outsider, ami if by any possibility it can be managed, will always
find bridegrooms for their daughters among the residents of the town.* Hence
the popular saying —

TWIT SRT ^?T Jtra^T SRT *TT9

Wm ^Z rJT =SR?T 5ITZJ
which may be thus roughly rendered—

M.tthura girls and Gokul cows
Will never move while fate allows:

because, as is implied, there is no other place where they are likely to be so
well off. This custom results in two- other exceptional usages : first, that mar-
riage contracts are often made while one, or e^en both, of the parties most con-
cerned are still unborn ; and secondly., that little or no regard is paid to relative
age ; thus a Chaube, if his friend has no available daughter to bestow upon him,
will agree to wait for the first grand-daughter. Many years ago, a consider-
able mi oration was made to Mainpuri, where the Mathuriya Chaubes now form
a large and wealthy section of the community and are in every way of better
repute than the parent stock.

Another Brahmanical, or rather pseudo-Brahmauical, tribe almost peculiar
to the district, though found also at the town of Hathras and in Mewat, is that
of the Ahivasis, a name which scarcely any one beyond the borders of Mathura
is likely to have heard, unless he has had dealings with them in the way of
business.! They are largely employed as general carriers and have almost a
complete monopoly of the trade in salt, and some of them have thus accpuired

* Tieffentlialler mentions this as a peculiarity of the women of Gokul. He says : "Vis a vis
d'Aurcngabad est un village nomme Gokul, ou l'on dit que demeuraient size mille femmes avec
lcs quelles Krishna etait marie. Les femmes de ce village se distinguent in ce qutlles n'en sor-
tent pas et ne se marient pas ailleurs." The writer, Father Joseph Tieffentlialler, a native of
Bolzmo, in the Austrian Tyrol, came out to India as a Jesuit missionary in 1743 and remained
in the country all the rest of his life, nearly 42 years. As he never resided long in any one
place, his travels eventually extended over nearly the whole continent and supplied him with
matter for several treatises which he composed in Latin. None of them have been published
in that language ; but a French translation of his Indian Geography, from which the above
extract is taken, appeared in 1736 at Berlin as the first volume of Bernoulli's Description de
l'lnde. He died at Lucknow in July, 17S5, but was buried at Agra, where on the stone that
covers his grave may still be read the words: " Pater Joseph Tieffenlhalhr, obnt Lucnoi 5 Juliif
1785." This is at the back of the old Catholic Church (built by Walter Eeinhard), which stands
in the Bame enclosure as the modern Cathedral, but has been long disused. I quote from him
on several occasions rather on account of the rarity than the intrinsic value of the book.

+ They are not mentioned either by Wilson or Elliot in their Glossaries. They have as many
as seventy-two sub-divisk'nB, two of the principal of which are called Dighiya and Bajravat.

TTIE GATJRUA'S. 1JL

considerable substance. They are also the hereditary proprietors of several vil-
lages on the west of the Jamuna, chiefly in the pargana of Chhata, where they
rather affect large brick-built houses, two or more stories in height and covering
a considerable area of ground, but so faultily constructed that an uncracked wall
is a noticeable phenomenon. Without exception they are utterly ignorant and
illiterate, and it is popularly believed that the mother of the race was a Ohamar
woman, who has influenced the character of her offspring more than the Brah-
man father. The name is derived from alii, the great 'serpent' Kaliya, whom
Krishna defeated ; and their first home is stated to have been the village of
Sunrakh, which adjoins the Kali-mardan ghat at Brinda-ban. The Pandes of
the great temple of Baladeva are all Ahivasis, and it is matter for regret that
the revenues of so wealthy a shrine should be at the absolute disposal of a com-
munity so extremely unlikely ever to make a good use of them.

The main divisions of Thakurs in Mathuni are the Jadon and the Gaurua
The former, however, are not recognized as equal in rank to the Jadons of Raj-
putana, though their prinicipal representative, the Raja of Awa,* is one of the
wealthiest landed proprietors in the whole ofk Upper India. The origin of the
latter name is obscure, but it implies impure descent and is merely the generic

*Now that Jalesar, the Raja's residence, lias been included in the Eta district, he can no
longer be reckoned among the gentry of Mathura: but as part of his estate still lies here, it
may be convenient to give, in the form of a note, a brief sketch of the family history. The
pedigree begins only in the reign of Muhammad Shah (1720 — 1748 A. D.), when Thakur
Chaturbhuj, a zarnindar of Nari in the Chhata pargana, came and settled at Jalesar, and
was employed by the local governor in the professional capacity of a physician. His son,
Bijay Sinn, for a short time also followed the vocation of his father, but was afterwards
appointed toasmal! military command. The Jadon zamindars of some adjacent villages, having
become involved in pecuniary difficulties, were assisted by Chaturblmj, now become a wealthy
man, and his son, themselves also members of the Jadon clan. They thus acquired consider-
able local influence, which was further extended by Bijay Sinh's eldest son, Bhakt Sinh.
He was for a time in the service of Jawahir Sinh, the Maharaja of Bharat-pur, and also lent
some support to Thakur Bahadur Sinh of Umargarh, from whom he received a grant of the
village of Misa. A number of other villages, belonging to different Thakur clans, also passed
into his hands ; and this accession of revenue enabled him to enlist under his standard a troop
of marauding Mewatis, with whose aid he established himself, according to the custom of the
time, as an independent free-booting chief. Finally he obtained a sanad from the Mahrattas
authorizing him to build a fort at Awa. This was simply a yurhi with a circuit of mud walls.
The present formidable stronghold was built by his successor, Hira Sinh. In the Mahratta
war the latter was able to render some good service to the English ; and in 1838' it is said that
his son, l'itambar Sinh, waB recognised as Raja by the then Governor-General, Lord Auckland.
He died in 1845, leaving no issue of his own Bave one daughter, who was married to a Rajput
chief in the Gwaliar territory. His son by adoption, Raja Prithi Sinh, a descendant of Thakur
Bijay Sinh, the second of the family, died in July, 1876, leaving an infant heir, the present
Riij.i, Chitra Ml Sinh, born 12th August, 1874 ; his mother being a member of the branch of
the Nepal royal family residing at Banaras. The estate pays a Government revenue of
Rs. 3,67,515. The sanad conferring the title is not forthcoming, nor is it known when it was
conferred. It is said to have been given by a Rana of Udaipur.

12 THE SARXUGIS.

title which has as many subordinate branches as the original Thakur stock.
Thus we have Gauruas, who call themselves — some Kachhwahas, some Jasawats,
some Sissodiyas, and so on, throughout the whole series of Thakur clans. The
last named are more commonly known as Bachhals from the Bachh-ban at Sehi,
where their Guru always resides. According to their own traditions they emi-
grated from Chitor some Ton or 800 years ago, but probably at rather a later
period, after Alu-ud-din's famous siege of 1303. As they gave the name of
Runera to one of their original settlements in the Mathura district, there can be
little doubt that the emigration took place after the year 1202, when the Sove-
reign of Chitor first assumed the title of Edna instead of the older Rdval. They
now occupy as many as 24 villages in the Chhata pargana, and a few of the
same clan — 872 souls in all — are also to be found in the Bhauganw and Bewar
parganas of the Mainpuri district.

The great majority of Baniyas in the district are Agarwalas. Of the Sarau-
gis, whose ranks are recruited exclusively from the Baniya class, some few be-
long to that suli-di\ i-ion. but most of tliem, including Seth Raghunath Das, are
of the Khandel gachchha or got. They number in all 1593 only and are not
making such rapid progres3 here as notably in the adjoining district of Mainpuri
and in some other parts of India. In this centre of orthodoxy ' the naked gods'
are held in unaffected horror by the great mass of Hindus, and the submission
of any well-to-do convert is generally productive of local disturbance, as has
been the case more than once at Kosi. The temples of the sect are therefore
few and far between, and only to be found in the neighbourhood of the large
trading marts.

The principal one is that belonging to the Seth, which stands in the suburb
of Kesopur. After ascending a flight of steps and entering the gate, the visitor
finds himself in a square paved and cloistered court-yard with the temple
opposite to him. It is a very plain solid building, arranged in three aisles,
with the altar under a small di me in the centre aisle, one bay short of the end,
so as to allow of a processional at the back. There are no windows, and the
interior is lighted onh by the three small doors in the front, one in each aisle,
which is a traditional feature in Jaini architecture. What with the want of
light, the lowness of the vault, and the extreme heaviness of the piers, the
general effect is more tha! oi a crypt than of a building so well raised above
the ground as this really i •, It is .-aid that Jambu Swami here practised
penance, and that his name is recorded in an old and almost effaced inscription
on a stone slab tiiat is still preserved under the altar. He is reputed the last
of the Kevalis; or divinely inspired teacher.-, being the pupil of Sudharma, who

SETH RAGHU NATH DAS

THE MUHAMMADANS. 13

was the only surviving disciple of Mah&vira, the great apostle of the Digam-
baras, as Parsva Nath was of the Svetambara sect. When the temple was built
by Mani Ram, lie enshrined in it a figure of Chandra Prabhu, the second of
the Tirthaukaras ; but a few years ago Seth Raghunath Das brought, from a
ruined temple at Gwaliar, a large marble statue of Ajit Nath, which now
occupies the place of honour. It is a seated figure of the conventional type,
and beyond it there is nothing whatever of beauty or interest in the temple,
which is as bare and unimpressive a place of worship as any Methodist meeting-
house. The site, for some unexplained reason, is called the Chaurasi, and the
temple itself is most popularly known by that name. An annual fair is held
here, lasting for a week, from Kartik 5 to 12 : it was instituted in 1870 by
Nain-Sukh, a Saraugi of Bharat-pur. In the city are two other Jain temples,
both small and both dedicated to Pad ma Prabhu — the one in the Ghiya mandi,
the other in the Chaubes' quarter. There are other temples out in the district
at Kosi and Sahpau.

The Muhammadans, who number only 58,088 in a total population of
071,690, are not only numerically few but are also insignificant from their
social position. A large proportion of them are the descendants of converts
made by force of the sword in early days and are called Malakanas. They are
almost exclusively of the Sunni persuasion, and the Shias have not a single
mosque of their own, either in the city or elsewhere. In Western Mathura they
nowhere form a considerable community, except at SMhpur, where they are
the zamindars and constitute nearly half of the inhabitants of the town, and at
Kosi, where they have been attracted by the large cattle-market, which they
attend as butchers and dealers. To the east of the Jamuna they are rather
more numerous and of somewhat higher stamp ; the head of the Muhammadan
family seated at Sa'dabad ranking among the leading gentry of the district,
There is also, at, Maha-ban, a Saiyid clan, who have been settled there for
several centuries, being the descendants of Sufi Yahya of Mashhad, who
recovered the fort from the Hindus in the reign of Ala-ud-din ; but they are
not in very affluent circumstances and, beyond their respectable pedigree, have
no other claim to distinction. The head of the family, Sardar Ali, officiated
for a time as a tahsildar in the Mainpuri district. The ancestral estate consists,
in addition to part of the township of Maha-ban, of the village of Goharpur
and Nagara Bharu ; while some of his kinsmen are the proprietors of Shahpur
Ghosna, where they have resided for several generations.

Though more than half the population of the district is engaged in agricul-
tural pursuits, the number of resident country gentlemen is exceptionally small.

14 THE MATHCRA' SF.TH.

Two of the largest estates are religious endowments ; the one belonging to the
Seth's temple at Brinda-ban, the other to the Gosain of Gokul. A third is
enjoyed by absentees, the heirs of the Lala Babu, who are residents of Cal-
cutta ; while several others of considerable value have been recently acquired
by rich city merchants and traders.

For many years past the most influential person in the district has been
the head of the great banking firm of Hani Ram and Lakhmi Chand. The
house has not only a wider and more substantial reputation than any other in
the Norths-Western Provinces, but has few rivals in the whole of India. "With
branch establishments in Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay, and all the other great cen-
tres of commerce, it is known everywhere, and from the Himalayas to Cape
Comorin a security for any amount endorsed by the Mathura Seth is as readily
convertible into cash as a Bank of England Note in London or Paris. The
founder of the firm was a Gujarati Brahman of the Vallabhacharya persuasion.
As he held the important post of ' Treasurer' to the Gwaliar State, he is thence
always known as Parikh Ji, though, strictly speaking, that was only his official
designation, and his real name was Gokul Das. Being childless and on bad
terms with his only brother, he, at his death in 1826, bequeathed the whole of
his immense wealth to Mani Bam, one of his office subordinates, for whom he
had conceived a great affection ; notwithstanding that the latter was a Jaini,
and thus the difference of religion between them so great, that it was impossible
to adopt him formally as a son. As was to be expected, the will was fiercely
disputed by the surviving brother ; but after a litigation which extended over
several yeai-s, its validity was finally declared by the highest Court of appeal,
and the property confirmed in Mani Ram's possession. On his death, in 1836,
it devolved in great part upon the eldest of his three sons, the famous million-
aire, Seth Lakhmi Chand, who died in 1866, leaving an only son, by name
Raghunath Das. As the latter seemed scarcely to have inherited his father's
talent for business, the management of affairs passed into the hands of his two
uncles, Radha Krishan and Gobind Das. They became converts to Vaish-
navism. under the influence of the learned scholar, Swami Rangacharya, whom
they afterwards placed at the head of the great temple of Rang Ji, which they
founded at Brinda-ban ; the only large establishment in all Upper India that is
owned by the followers of Ramanuja.

On the death of Radha Krishan in 1859, the sole surviving brother,
Gobind Das, became the recognized head of rhe family. In acknowledgment of
his muny distinguished public services, he was made a Companion of the

SETH LACHHMAN DAS.

TH15 MATHURX SETn. 15

Star of India on the 1st of January, 1877, when Her Majesty assumed the
Imperial title. Unfortunately he did not live long to enjoy the well-merited
honour, but died only twelve months afterwards, leaving as his joint heirs his
two nephews, Raghunath Das, the son of Lakhmi Chand, and Lachhman Das,
the son of Radha Krishan. For many years past the business has been mainly
conducted by the head manager, Seth Mangi Lai, who is now also largely
assisted by his two sons, Narayan D.'is and Srinivasa Das. The latter, who has
charge of the Delhi branch, is an author as well as a man of business, and has
published a Hindi drama of some merit entitled ' Randhir and Prem-mohini.'
Narayan Das is the manager of the Brinda-ban Temple estate, and a very active
member of the Municipal Committee, both there and at Mathura. For his per-
sonal exertions in superintending the relief operations during the late severe
famine he received a khilat of honour from the Lieutenant-Governor in a pub-
lic Darbar held at Agra in the year 1880.

At the time of the mutiny, when all the three brothers were still living,
with Seth Lakhmi Chand as the senior partner, their loyalty was most con-
spicuous. They warned the Collector, Mr. Thornhill, of the impending out-
break a day before it actually took place ; and after it had occurred the)'' sent
such immediate information to the authorities at Agra as enabled them to dis-
arm and thus anticipate the mutiny of the other companies of the same Native
Regiments, the 41th and the 67th, which were quartered there. After the
houses iu the station had been burnt down, they sheltered the Collector and the
other European residents in their house in the city till the 5th of July, when,
on the approach of the Nimach force, they took boat and dropped down the
river to Agra. After their departure the Seths took charge of the Government
treasure and maintained public order. They also advanced large sums of
money for Government purposes on different occasions, when other wealthy
firms had positively refused to give any assistance ; and, so long as the disturb-
ances lasted, they kept up at great expense, for which they never made any
claim to reimbursement, a very large establishment for the purpose of procur-
ing information and maintaining communication between Delhi and Agra. In
acknowledgment of these services, the title of Rao Bahadur was conferred upon
Seth Lakhmi Chand, with a khilat of Rs. 3,000. A grant was also made him
of certain confiscated estates, yielding an annual revenue of Rs. lb", 123, nut-
free for his own life and at half rates for another life.

During the more than 20 years of peace which have now elapsed since those
eventful days, the Seths, whenever occasion required, have shown themselves

1(3 tha'kur data ra'm of hatiiras.

equally liberal and public spirited. Thus, when Sir William Muir started his
scheme for a Central College at Allahabad, they supported him with a subscrip-
tion of Rs. 2,500 ; and in the famine of 1874, before the Government had put
forth any appeal to the public, they spontaneously called a relief meeting and
headed the list with a donation of Rs. 7,100. x\gain, when the construction of
the Matbura and Hathras Light Railway was made conditional on its receiving
a certain amount of local support, they at once took shares to the extent of a
lakh and-a-half of rupees, simply with the view of furthering the wishes of Gov-
ernment and promoting the prosperity of their native town : profit was certainlv
not their object, as the money had to be withdrawn from other investments,
where it was yielding a much higher rate of interest. In short, it has always
been the practice of the family to devote a large proportion of their ample means
+o works of charity and general utility. Thus their great temple at Brinda-ban,
built at a cost of 45 lakhs of rupees, is not only a place for religious worship,
but includes also an alms-house for the relief of the indigent and a college
where students are trained in Sanskrit literature and philosophy. Again, the
city of Mathura, which has now become one of the handsomest in all Upper
India, owes much of its striking appearance to the buildings erected in it by
the Seths. It is also approached on either side, both from Delhi and from Agra,
by a fine bridge constructed at the sole cost of Lakhmi Chand. To other
works, which do not so conspicuously bear their names, they have been among
th.e largest contributors, and it would be scarcely possible to find a single
deserving institution in the neighbourhood, to which they have not given a
helping hand. Even the Catholic Church received from them a donation of Rs.
1,100, a fact that deserves mention as a signal illustration of their unsectarian
benevolence.

The JYit family of highest ancestral rank in the district is the one repre-
sented by the titular Raja of Hathras, who comes of the same stock as the Raja
of Mursan. His two immediate predecessors were both men of mark in local
history, and his pedigree, as will be seen from the accompanying sketch, is one
of respectable antiquity.

Makhan Sinh, the founder of the family, was an immigrant from Rajpu-
tana, who settled in the neighbourhood of Mursan about the year I860 A. D..
His great-grandson, Thakur Nand Ram, who bore also the title of Faujdar.
died in 1696, leaving 14 sons, of whom it is necessary to mention two only
viz., Jaikaran Sinh and Jai Sinh. The great-grandson of the former was Raja
Bhagavant Sinh of Mursan, aud of the latter Thakur Daya Rim of Hathras

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tha'kur data. b^m of ha'thras. 17

who, during the early years of British administration, were the two most power-
ful chiefs in this part of the country. From a report made by the Acting
Collector of Aligarh in 1808, we learn that the Mursan Raja's power extended
at that time over the whole of Sa'dabad and Sonkh, while Mat, Maha-ban,
Sonai, Raya Hasangarb, Sahpau and Khandauli, were all held by his kinsman
at Hathras. Their title, however, does not appear to have been altogether un-
questioned, for the writer goes on to say: — "The valuable and extensive par-
ganas which they farmed were placed under their authority by Lord Lake, im-
mediately after the conquest of these Provinces ; and they have since continued
in their possession, as the resumption of them was considered to be calculated
to excite dissatisfaction and as it was an object of temporary policy to conciliate
their confidence."

This unwise reluctance on the part of the paramount power to enquire into
the validity of the title, by which its vassals held their estates, was naturally
construed as a confession of weakness and hastened the very evils which it
was intended to avert. Both chieftains claimed to be independent and assumed
so menacing an attitude that it became necessary to dislodge them from their
strongholds ; the climax of Daya Ram's recusancy being his refusal to surren-
der four men charged with murder. A force was despatched against them
under Major-General Marshall, and Mursan was reduced without difficulty.
But Hathras, which was said to be one of the strongest forts in the country, its
defences having been improved on the model of those carried out by British
Engineers in the neighbouring fort of Aligarh, had to be subjected to a regular
siege. It was invested on the 21st of February, 1817. Daya Ram, it is said,
was anxious to negotiate, but was prevented from carrying out his intention by
Nek Ram Sinh (his son by an akiri concubine), who even made an attempt to
have his father assassinated as he was returning in a litter from the English
camp. Hostilities, at all events, were continued, and on the 1st of March fire
was opened on the fort from forty-five mortars and three breaching batteries
of heavy guns. On the evening of the same day a magazine exploded and
caused such general devastation that Daya Ram gave up all for lost and fled
away by night on a little hunting pony, which took him the whole way to
Bharat-pur. There Raja Randhir Sinh declined to run the risk of affording
him protection, and he continued his flight to Jaypur. His fort was dismantled
and his estates all confiscated, but he was allowed a pension of Rs. 1,000 a
month for his personal maintenance.

On his death in 1841, he was succeeded by his son, Thakur Gobind Sinh,
who at the time of the mutiny in 1857 held only a portion of one village,

18 R.OX GOBIND SINH OF HATHRAS.

Shahgarh, and that merely in mortgage. " With his antecedents," writes Mr.
Bramley, the Magistrate of Aligarh, in his report to the Special Commissioner,.
dated the 4th of May, 1858, " it would, perhaps, have been no matter for sur-
prise had he, like others in his situation, taken part against the Government.
However, his conduct has been eminently loyal. I am not aware that he at any
time wavered. On the first call of the Magistrate and Collector of Mathuni, he
came with his personal followers and servants to the assistance of that gentleman,
and was shortly afterwards summoned to Aligarh ; there he remained through-
out the disturbed period, ready to perform any services within his power ; and
it was in a great measure due to him that the important town of Hathras was
saved from plunder by the surrounding population. He accompanied the force-
under Major Montgomery to Kol, and was present with his men in the action
fought with the rebel followers of Muhammad Ghos Khan at Man Sinh's Bagh
on the 24th of August. On the flight of the rebel Governor of Kol, he was put
in charge of the town and was allowed to raise a body of men for this service.
He held the town of Kol and assisted in collecting revenue and recovering
plundered property till September 25th, when he was surprised by a Muham-
madan rabble under Nasim-ullah and forced to leave the town with some loss
of men. This service was one, I presume, of very considerable danger, for he
was surrounded by a low and incensed Muhammadan population and on the
high road of retreat of the Delhi rebels, while the support of Major Montgomery's-
force at Hathras was distant and liable itself to be called away on any exigency
occurring at Agra.

" On the re-occupation of the Aligarh district Gobind Sinh resumed his
post in the city, and by his good example rendered most important .aid in
the work of restoring order. His followers have at all times been ready for
any service and have been extremely useful in police duties and in escort-
ing treasure to Agra and Bulandshahr ; in guarding ghats and watch-
ing the advance of rebels ; in performing, indeed, the duties of regular
troops. His loyalty has exposed him to considerable pecuniary loss ; his
losses on September 25th being estimated at upwards of Es. 30,000, while
his house at Brinda-ban was also plundered, by rebels returning from
Delhi, to a much larger amount of ancestral property that cannot be re-
placed."

In compensation for these losses and in acknowledgment of the very valua-
ble services which he had rendered to Government by his family influence and
personal energy, he received a grant of Rs. 50,000 in cash, together with a

RAJA HARI NARAYAN SINH, OF HATHRAS.

bXjX hari kXua'van sinh of hXthras. 19

landed estate* lying in the districts of Mathura and Bulandshahr, and was also
honoured with the title of Raja ; the sanad, signed by Lord Canning, being
dated the 25th of June, 1858.

Raja Gobiud Sinh was connected by marriage with the head of the Jut
clan ; his wife, a daughter of Chaudhari Charan Sinh, being sister to Chaudhari
Ratan Sinh, the maternal uncle of Maharaja Jasvant Sinh of Bharat-pur.
This lady, the Rani Sahib Kunvar, is still living and manages her estate with
much ability and discretion through the agency of Pandit Chitar Sinh, a very
old friend of the family. At the time of her husband's decease in 1861, there
was an infant son, but he died very soon after the father. As this event had
been anticipated, the Raja had authorized his widow to adopt a son, and she
selected for the purpose Hari Narayan Sinh, born in 1863, the son of Thakur
Riip Sinh of Jatoi, a descendant, as was also Raja Gobind Sinh himself, of
Thakur Nand Ram's younger son, Jai Sinh. This adoption was opposed by
Kesri Sinh, the son of Nek Ram, who was the illegitimate offspring of Thakur
Daya Ram. But the claim that he advanced on behalf of his own sons, Slier
Sinh and Balavant Sinh, was rejected by the Judge of Agra in his order dated
November, 1872, and his view of the case was afterwards upheld by the High
Court on appeal. At the Dalhi Assemblage of the 1st of January, 1877, in
honour of Her Majesty's assumption of the Imperial title, Raja Gobind Sinh's
title was formally continued to Han Narayan Sinh for life. He resides with
his mother, the Rani Sahib Kunvar, at Brhida-l>3n, where he has a handsome
house on the bank of the Jamuna, opposite the Kesi ghat, and here, on the occa-
sion of his marriage in February, 1877, he gave a grand entertainment to all
the European residents of the station, including the officers of the Xth Royal
Hussars. Though only 14 years of age, he played his part of host with perfect
propriety and good breeding — taking a lady into dinner, sitting at the head
of his table — though, of course, not eating anything — and making a little speeeh
to return thanks after his health had been proposed.

The only Muhammadan family of any importance is the one seated at
Sa'dabad, This is a branch of the Lal-Khaai stock, which musters strongest in
the Bulandshahr district, where several of its members are persons of high dis-
tinction and own very large estates.

* The estate consists — 1st, of the zarnindari of the township of Kol and some thops and gar-
dens at Hathras, valued at Ks. 3,000; 2nd!y, of eight confiscated Giijar villages in the Chhata and
Kosi parganas of the Mathura district, now assessed at over Us. 10,000; and 3rdiv, of five
villages in the Bulandshahr district, assessed at Bs. 7,000.

20 THE lXl-khXni family.

They claim descent from Kunvar Pratap Sinh, a Bargujar Thakur of
Rajaur, in Raj pu tana, who joined Prithi R;\j of Delhi in his expedition against
Mahoba. On his way thither he assisted the Dor Raja of Kol in reducing a
rebellion of the Minas, and was rewarded by receiving in marriage the Raja's
daughter, with a dowry of 150 villages in the neighbourhood of Pahasu. The
eleventh in descent from Pratap Sinh was Lai Sinh, who, though a Hindu,
received from the Emperor Akbar the title of Khan ; whence the name Lal-
Khani, by which the family is ordinarily designated. It was his grandson,
Itimad R:ie, in the reign of Aurangzeb, who first embraced Muhaimnadanism.
The seventh in descent from Itimad Rae was Nahar Ali Khan, who, with his
nephew, Dunde Khan, held the fort of Kumona, in Bulandshahr, against the
English, and thus forfeited his estate, which was conferred upon his relative,
Mardan Ali Khan.

The latter, who resided at Chhatari, which is still regarded as the chief
seat of the family, was the purchaser of the Sa'dabad estate, which on his death
passed to his eldest son, Husain Ali Khun, and is now held by the widow, the
Thakurani Hakim-un-nissa. It yields an annual income of Rs. 48,569, derived
from as many as 26 different villages. The Thakurani being childless, the pro-
perty was long managed on her behalf by her husband's nephew, the late Kun-
var Irshad Ali Khan. He died in 1876 and was succeeded by his son, Itimad
Ali Khan, who is the present head of the family in this district. Several of
bis relatives have other lands here. Thus his uncle, Nawab Sir Faiz Ali Khan,
k. c.s.i. , owns the village of Nsinau ; and the villages of Chhava and Dauhai,
yielding a net income of Rs. 1,993, belong to Thakurani Zeb-un-nissa, the widow
of Kamr Ali Khan, Sir Faiz's uncle. Two other villages, Bahardoi and Narayan-
pur, are the property of a minor, Grhulam Muhammad Khan, the son of Hidayat
Ali Khan, who was adopted by Zuhur Ali Khan of Dharmpur on the failure of
issue by his first wife ; they yield an income of Rs. 3,555. The relationship
existing between all these persons will be best understood by a glance at the
accompanying genealogical table.

The family, in commemoration of their descent, retain the Hindu titles of
Kunvar and Thakurani and have hitherto, in their marriage and other social
customs, observed many old Hiudu usages. The tendency of the present gene-:
ration is, however, rather to affect an ultra-rigid Muhammadanism ; and the
head of the house, the Nawab of Chhatari, is an adherent of the Wahabis.

Of the smaller estates in the district, some few belong to respectable old
families of the yeoman type ; others have been recently acquired bv speculating

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TIIE AGRA CANAL. 21

money-lenders ; but the far greater number are split up into infinitesimal Trac-
tions among the whole village community. Owing to this prevalence of the
Bhaiyachari system, as it is called, the small farmers who cultivate; their own
hinds constitute a very large class, while the total of the non-proprietary
classes is proportionately reduced. A. decided majority of the latter have no assured
status, but are merely tenants-at-will. Throughout the district, all the land
brought under the plough is classified under two heads,— -first, according to its
productiveness ; secondly, according to its accessibility. The fields capable of
artificial irrigation — and it is the supply of water which most influences tho
amount (if produce — are styled chdhi, all others khaki; those nearest the village
are known as bard, those rather more remote as manjhd, and the furthest away
baihd* The combination of the two classes gives six varieties, and ordinarily
no others are recognized, though along the course of the Jamuna the tracts
of alluvial land are, as elsewhere, called hhddai — -the high sterile banks are
hangar, and where broken into ravines behar ; a soil exceptionally sandy is
bluer, sand-hills are pMh, and the levels between the hills pdlaj.

The completion of the Agra Canal has been a great boon to the district.
It traverses the entire length of Western Mathura, passing close to the towns
of Kosi, Sahar, and A ring, and having as its extreme points Hathana to the
north and Little Kosi to the south. It was officially opened by Sir William
Muir on the 5th of March, 1874, and became available for irrigation purposes
about the end of 1875, by which time its distributaries also had been con-
structed. Its total length from Okhla to the Utangan river at Bihari below
Fatihabad is 140 miles, and it commands an area of three-quarters of a million
acres, of which probably one-third — that is 250,000 acres — will be annually
irrigated. The cost has been above £710,000, while the net income will be
about £58,000, being a return of 8 per cent. It will be practicable for boats
and barges, both in its main line and its distributaries, and thus, instead of the
shallow uncertain course of the Jamuna, there will be sure and easy naviga-
tion between the three great cities of Delhi, Mathura, and Agra. One of the
most immediate effects of tho canal will probably be a large diminution of the
area under bajra and joar, which, by reason of their requiring no artificial irriga-
tion, have hitherto been almost the only crops grown on much of the land. For,

* It is exactly the same in Kussia. " All the arable land of the commune is divided into
three concentric zones, which extend round the village: and these three zones are again
divided into three fields according to the triennial arrangement of crops. More regard is
paid to proximity than to fertility, as this varies very little in the same district in. llussia.
The zones nearest the village are alone manured." — Lavehye's Primitive Property,

22 IRRIGATION SCHEMES.

with water ordinarily from 40 to 60 feet below the surface and a sand}' subsoil,
the construction of a well is a costly and difficult undertaking. In future, wheat
and barley, for which the soil when irrigated is well adapted, will be the staple
produce ; indigo and opium, now almost unknown, will be gradually introduced;
vegetables will be more largely cultivated and double-cropping will become the
ordinary rule. Thus, not only will the yield per acre be increased by the facili-
ties for irrigation, but the produce will be of an entirely different and much
more valuable character.

A scheme for extending the irrigation of the Ganges Canal through the
parganas on the opposite — that is to say, the left — side of the Jamuna has long
been held in view. The branch which takes off from the main canal at Dehra
in the Merath district has by anticipation been termed the Mat branch, though
its irrigation stops short in the Tappal pargana of Aligarh, one distribu-
tary only irrigating a few villages north of Noh-jhil. The water-supply in
the Ganges Canal is limited, and would not have sufficed for any further exten-
sion ; but now that the Kanhpur branch is supplied from the new Lower
Ganges Canal, a certain volume of water has become available, a portion of which
has been allotted for the Mat branch extension. If the project be sanctioned
in its entirety, the existing sub-branch will be widened to carry the additional
supply and extended through the Tappal pargana, entering Noh-jhil in the vil-
lage of Bhurc-ka. The course of the main supply line will pass along the water-
shed of the Karwan and Jamuna Doab to the east of Bhure-ka, and then by the
villages of Dandi>ara, Barnaul, Nasithi, and Arua till it crosses the Mat and
Biiya road and the Light Railway. Thence it will extend to Karab, South, and
Pachawar, where at its 40th mile it will end in three distributaries, which will
carry the water as far as the Agra and Aligarh road. The scheme thus pro-
vides for the irrigation of the parganas of Noh-jhil, Mat, Maha-ban, and that
portion of Sa'dabad which lies to the west of the Karwan nadi. About five
miles of the main line were excavated as a famine relief work in 1878; but
operations were stopped inconsequence of financial difficulties, and it is doubtful
whether they will be resumed. There is also a considerable amount of well-
irrigation in Maha-ban and Sa'dabad, which renders the extension into those
parganas a less pressing necessity.

The district is one which has often suffered severely from drought. In
1813-14 the neighbourhood of Sahar was one of the localities where the distress
was most intense. Many died from hunger, and others were glad to sell their
wives and children for a few rutees or even for a single meal. In 1825-26 the

THE FAMINE OF 1837-38. 23

whole of the territories known at that time as the Western Provinces were
afflicted with a terrible drought. The rabi crops of the then Sa'dadad district
wer3 estimated by Mr. Boddam, the Collector, as below the average by more
than 200,000 mans; Maha-ban and Jalesar being the two parganas which suf-
fered most. But the famine of 1837-38 was a far greater calamity, and still
forms an epoch in native chronology under the name of ' the chaurdnawe,' or
'the 94'; 1894 being its date according to the Hindu era. Though Matlmni.
was not one of the districts most grievously afflicted, distress was still extreme,
as appears from the report submitted by the Commissioner, Mr. Hamilton,
after personal investigation. About Raya, Mat, and Maha-ban he found the
crops scant}-, and the soil dry, and cultivated only in the immediate vicinity of
masonry wells. About Mathura, the people were almost in despair from the
wells fast turning so brackish ami salt as to destroy rather than refresh vege-
tation. " All of the Aring and Gobardhan parganas (he w-rites) which came
under my observation was an extensive arid waste, and for miles I rode over
ground which had been both ploughed and sown, but in which the seed had not
germinated and where there seemed no prospect of a harvest. The cattle in
Aring were scarcely able to crawl, and they were collected in the village and
suffered to pull at the thatch, the people declaring it useless to drive them forth
to seek for pasture. Emigration had already commenced, and people of all
classes appeared to be suffering."

Of the famine of 1860-61 (commonly called the uth-sera, from the pre-
valent bazar rate of eight sers only for the rupee) the following narrative was
recorded by Mr. Eobertson, Officiating Collector : — " Among prosperous agri-
culturists,'' he says, " about half the land usually brought under cultivation is
irrigated, and irrigated lands alone produce crops this year. But though only
half the crop procured in ordinary years was obtained by this class of cultiva-
tors, the high price of com enabled them, while realizing considerable profits,
to meet the Government demand without much difficulty. The poorer class of
cultivators were, however, ruined, and with the poorest in the cities, taking
advantage of the position of Mathura as one of the border famine tracts, they
abandoned the district in large numbers, chiefly towards the close of 1860.
Bather more than one-fourth of the agricultural emigrants have returned, and
the quiet, unmurmuring industry with wdiich they have recommenced life is not
a less pleasing feature than the total absence of agrarian outrage during the
famine. The greatest number of deaths from starvation occurred during the'
first three months of 1861, when the average per mensem was 497. During

2-4 THE FAMINE OF 1860-61.

the succeeding three months this average was reduced to 85, while the deaths

in July and August were only five and six respectively. The total number of
deaths during the eight months has been 1,758. Viewing the universality of
the famine, these results sufficiently evidence the active co-operation in mea-
sures of relief rendered by the native officials assisted by the police, and the
people everywhere most pointedly express their obligation to the Government
and English liberality. No return of the number of deaths caused by starva-
tion seems to have been kept from October, 18G0, to January, 1861, but judg-
ing by the subsequent returns, 250 per mensem might be considered as the
highest average. Thus, the mortality caused by the famine in this district in
the year 1860-61 may approximately be estimated at 2,500."* If such a large
number of persons really died simply from starvation — and there seems no
reason to doubt the fact — the arrangements for dispensing relief can scarcely
have merited all the praise bestowed upon them. There was certainly no lack
of funds towards the end, but possibly they came when it was almost too late.
In the month of April some 8,000 men were employed daily on the Delhi road ;
the local donations amounted to Rs. 16,227, and this sum was increased by a
contribution of lis. 8,000 from the Agra Central Committee, and Rs. 5,300
from Government, making a total of Rs. 29,528. An allotment of Es. 5,000
was also made from the Central Committee for distribution among the indi-
g mt agriculturists, that they might have wherewithal to purchase seed and

cattle.

At the present time the district has scarcely recovered from a series of
disastrous seasons, resulting in a famine of exceptional severity and duration,
which will leave melancholy traces behind it for many years yet to come.
Both in 1875 and 1876 the rainfall was much below the average, and the crops
on all unirrigated land proportionately small. In 1877 the entire period of
the ordinary monsoon passed with scarcely a single shower, and it was not till
the beginning of October, when almost all hope was over, that a heavy fall of
rain was vouchsafed, which allowed the ground to be ploughed and seed to be
sown for the ensuing year. The autumn crops, upon which the poorer classes
mainly subsist, failed absolutely, and for the most part had never even been
sown. As early as July, 1S77, the prices of every kind of grain were at
famine rates, which continued steadily on the increase, while the commoner
sorts were before long entirely exhausted. The distress in the villages was

* Mr. Robertsou'B narrative has been copied from the original paper in the District Office.
The other particulars have been extracted fro n Mr. Girdlcstone's ltcpurt on Past Famines,
published by Government in isos.

THE FAMINE OF 1877-78. 25

naturally greatest among the agricultural labourers, who were thown out of all
employ by the cessation of work in the fields, while even in the towns the petty
handicraftsmen were unable to purchase sufficient food for their daily subsist-
ence on account of the high prices that prevailed in the bazar. In addition to
its normal population the city was further thronged by crowds of refugees from
outside, from (he adjoining native states, more especially Bharat-pur, who were
attracted by the fame of the many charitable institutions that exist both in the
city itself and at Brinda-ban. No relief works on the part of the Government
were started till October, when they were commenced in different places all
over the district under the supervision of the resident Engineer. They con-
sisted chiefly of the ordinary repairs and improvements to the roads, which are
annually carried out after the cessation of the rains. The expense incurred
under this head was Rs. 17,71)2, the average daily attendance being 5,519.
On the 25th of November in the same year (1877) it was found necessary to
open a poorhouse in the city for the relief of those who were too feeble to work.
Here the daily average attendance was 890 ; but, on the 30th July, 1878, the
number of inmates amounted to 2,139, and this was unquestionably the time
when the distress was at its highest. The maximum attendance at the relief
works, however, was not reached till a little later, vis., the 19th of August,
when it was 20,483, but it would seem to have been artificially increased by
the unnecessarily high rates which the Government was then paying.

The rabi crops, sown after the fall of rain in October, 1877, had been fur-
ther benefited by unusually heavy winter rains, and it was hoped that there
would be a magnificent outturn. In the end, however, it proved to be even
below the average, great damage having been done by the high winds which
blew in February. Thus, though the spring harvest of 1878 gave some relief,
it was but slight, and necessarily it could not affect at all the prices of the
common autumn grains. The long-continued privation had also had its effect
upon the people both physically and mentally, and they were less able to strug-
gle against their misfortunes. The rains for 1878 were, moreover, very slight
and partial and so long delayed that they had scarcely set in by the end of
July, and thus it was, as already stated, that this month was the time when
the famine was at its climax. In August and September matters steadily im-
proved, and henceforth continued to do so ; but the poorhouse was not closed
till the end of June, 1879. The total number of inmates had then been
395,824, who had been relieved at a total cost of Rs. 43,070, of which sum
Rs. 2,990 had been raised by private subscription and Rs. 3,500 was a grant
from the Municipality.

THE FAMINE OF 1877-78.

Beside the repairs of the roads the other relief works undertaken and
their cost were as follows: the excavation of the Jait tank, Rs. 6,787 ; the
deepening of the Balbhadra tank, Rs. 5,770 ; and the levelling of the Jamalpur
mounds, Rs. 7,238 : these adjoined the Magistrate's Court-house, and will be
frequently mentioned hereafter as the site of a large Buddhist monastery. On
tin! 11th of May, 1878, the earthwork of the Mathura and Achnera Railway
was taken in hand and continued till the beginning of September, during which
time it gave employment to 713,315 persons, at an expenditure of Rs. 56,G39.
An extension of the Mat branch of the Ganges Canal was also commenced on
the 30th July, and employed 570,351 persons, at a cost of Rs. 43,1-12, till its
close on the 16th of October. There should also be added Rs. 6,370, which
were spent by the Municipality through the District Engineer, in levelling
some broken ground opposite the City Police Station. The total cost on all
these relief works thus amounted to Rs. 1,80,630. No remission of revenue
was granted by the Government, but advances for the purchase of bullocks and
seed were distributed to the extent of Rs. 35,000.*

The following tabular statement shows the mortality that prevailed during
the worst months of this calamitous period : the total population of the district
being 778,839 :—

fcc

fa
J3

f-s

1-5

3
>"5

1877-78..

373

1,126

932

1,337

1,579

1,373

1,869

1,725

2,018

2,511

2,183

3,672

1878-79...

2,502

2,370

0,579

10,414

8,643

4,710

2,431

1,474

1,143

1,511

1,891

1,661

The metalling of the Delhi road, which has been incidentally mentioned as
the principal relief work in 1860, was not only a boon at the time, but still con-
tinues a source of the greatest advantage to the district. The old imperial
thoroughfare, which connected the two capitals of Agra and Labor, kept closely
to the same line, as is shown by the ponderous kos minars, which are found
still standing at intervals of about three miles, and nowhere at any great

* 1 saw nothing of the famine myself, as I left the district in April, 1S77, before it had
begun. Selfishly, I am glad to haye escaped the sight ol so much misery; though, possibly,
if I li:t 1 be< ii on the spot, my local experience might have proved useful both to the Government
and the people.

TTTE DELHI ROAD. 27

distance from the waysid'6. Here was the " delectable alley of trees, the most
incomparable ever beheld," which the Emperor Jahangir enjoys the credit of
having planted. That it was really a fine avenue is attested by the language
of the sober Dutch topographer, John de Laet, who, in his India Vera, written
in 1631, that is, early in the reign of Shahjahan, speaks of it in tho following
terms : — » The whole of the country between Agra and Labor is well-watered
and by far the most fertile part of India. It abounds in all kinds of produce,
especially sugar. The highway is bordered on either side by trees which bear
a fruit not unlike the mulberry,* and," as he adds in another place, " form a
beautiful avenue." " At intervals of five or six coss," he continues, " there are
saraes built cither by the king or by some of the nobles. In those travellers
can find bed and lodging ; when a person has once taken posses-ion he cannot
be turned out by any one." The glory of the road, however, seems to have
been of short duration, for Bemier, writing only thirty years later, that is, in
1G63, says : — " Between Delhi and Agra, a distance of fifty or sixty leagues, the
whole road is cheerless and uninteresting ;" and even so late as 1825, Bishop
Heber, on his way down to Calcutta, was apparently much struck with what
he calls " the wildness of the country," but mentions no avenue, as he certainly
would have done had one then existed. Thus it is clear that the more recent
administrators of the district, since its incorporation into British territory, are
the only persons entitled to the traveller's blessing for the magnificent and
almost unbroken canopy of over-arching boughs, which now extends for more
than thirty miles from the city of Mathura to the border of the Gurganw district,
and forms a sufficient protection from even the mid-day glare of an Indian
summer's sun.

Though the country is now generally brought under cultivation, and can
scarcely be described as even well wooded, there are still here and there many
patches of wraste land covered with low trees and jungle, which might be consi-
dered to justify the Bishop's epithet of wild-looking. The herds of deer are so
numerous that the traveller will seldom go many miles in any direction along a
b)re-road without seeing a black-buck, followed by his harem, bound across the
path. The number has probably increased rather than diminished in late years,

* In the original Latin text the word is morus, which Mr. Lethbridgc, in his scholarly
English edition, translates by ' fig;' but I think 'mulberry ' a more accurate rendering, and
that to be the tree intended. It is to this day largely used for roadside planting at Lahor, and
still more so in the Peshawar valley and in Kabul and on theOxus. De Laet says it was only
like the mulberry, and not that it positively was the mulberry, on account of the difference of
the two varieties of the fruit, the Indian and the European, which is very considerable. In the
Kashmir valley both are to be seen.

28 de xaet's itinerary.

as the roving and vagabond portion of the population, who used to keep
them in check, were all disarmed after the mutiny. Complaints are now
frequent of the damage done to the crops ; and in .some parts of the district
yet more serious injury is occasioned by the increase in the number of
wolves.

The old Customs hedge, now happily abolished, used to run along the whole
length of this road from Jait, seven miles out of Mathura, to the Gurganw
border. Though in every other respect a source of much annoyance to the
people living in its neighbourhood, the watchmen, who patrolled it night and
day, were a great protection to travellers, and a highway robbery was never
known to take place ; while on the corresponding road between Mathura and
Agra they were at one time of frequent occurrence.*

The quautity of sugarcane now grown in this part of the district is very
inconsiderable. The case may have been different in De Laet's time ; but on
other grounds there seems reason for believing that his descriptions are not
drawn from actual observation, and are therefore not thoroughly trustworthy.
For example, he gives the marches from Agra to Delhi as follows: — "From
Agra, the residence of the king, to Rownoctan, twelve coss : to Bady, a sarae,
ten ; to Achbarpore, twelve (this was formerly a considerable town, now it is
only visited by pilgrims, who come on account of many holy Muhammadans
buried here) ; to Hondle, thirteen coss ; to Pulwool, twelve ; to Fareedabad, twelve ;
to Delhi, ten." Now, this passage requires much manipulation before it can be
reconciled with established facts. Rownoctan, it may be presumed, would, if
correctly spelt, appear in the form Raunak-than, meaning " a royal halting-
place," and was probably merely the fashionable appellation, for the time, of
the Hindu village of Rankata, which is still the first stage out of Agra. Bady
or Bad, is a small village on the narrow strip of Bharat-pur territory which so
inconveniently intersects the Agra and Mathura road. There has never been
any sarae there ; the one intended is the Jamal-pur sarae, some three coss further
on, at the entrance to the civil station. The fact that Mathura has dropt out of
the Itinerary altogether, in favour of such an insignificant little hamlet as Bad,

* This Inland Customs Line, which had uo parallel in the world except the great wall of
China, was about ],2iiO miles in length, from the Tiipti to the Indus, and was maimed by an
establishment of between 8,000 and 9,000 officers and men. It consisted of a barrier, chiefly in
the form of a, thick, thorny hedge, along which were placed at short intervals more than 1,300
guard posts. The cost was about £100,000 per annum, and the revenue realized about a
million sterling ; the yearly import of salt from Kajputana being about 80,000 tons, of which
on an average one-half came from the Bharat-pur State.

THE IMPERIAL SARA'ES. 2D-

is a striking illustration of the low estate to which the great Hindu city had
been reduced at the time in question.* Again, the place with the Muhammadan
tombs is not Akbar-pur, but the next village, Dotana ; and the large saraes at
Ko-i and Chhata are both omitted.

These saraes arc tine fort-like buildings, with massive battlemented walls

and bastions and high-arched gateways. They are five in number: one at the
entrance to the civil station ; the second at 'Azamabad, two miles beyond the
city on the Delhi road ; another at Chaumuha ; the fourth at Chhata, and the
fifth at Kosi. The first, which is smaller than the others and has been much
modernized, f has for many years past been occupied by the police reserve, and
is ordinarily called 'the Damdama.' The thn e latter arc generally ascribed by
local tradition to Slier Shah, whose reign extended from 1540 to 1545, though
it is also said that Itibar Khan was the name of the founder of the two at
Mathura and Kosi, and A"?af Ivhan of the one at Chhata. It is probable that
both traditions are based on facts : for at Chhata it is obvious at a glance that
both the gateways are double buildings, half dating from one period and half
from another. The inner front, which is plain and heavy, may be referred to
Sher Shah, while the lighter and more elaborate stone front, looking towards
the town, is a subsequent addition. As A'saf Khan is simply a title of honour
(the ' Asaph the Eecorder' of the Old Testament) which was borne by several
persons in succession, a little doubt arises at first as to the precise individual
intended. The presumption, however, is strongly in favour of Abd-ul-majid,
who was first Humayun's Diwan, and on Akbar's accession was appointed
Governor of Delhi. The same post was held later on by Khwaja Itibar Khan,
the reputed founder of the Kosi sarae. The general style of architecture is in
exact conformity with that of similar buildings known to have been erected in
Akbar's reign, such, for example, as the fort of Agra. The Chaumuha sarae|

* Similarly, it will be seen that Tavernier, writing about 1650, recognizes Mathura as the
name of a temple only, not of a town at all.

f A range of vaulted chambers flanking the central gateway were pulled down by the Pub-
lic Works Depart icnt in 187G, to make way for some modern buildings intended to answer
the Bime purpose, but necessarily of much less substantial construction. The old cells had
been rendered unsightly by the mud walls with which the arches ha 1 been closed ; but these
excrescences could a!l have been cleared away at very slight expense.

% Chaumuha is distorted by Tieffenthaler into Tschaomao. He speaks of its sarae as
*: hotellerie belle et commode."

30 THE CHATJMTJHi SARAE.

is, moreover, always described in the old topographies as at Akbarpur.* This
latter name is now restricted in application to a village some three miles dis-
tant ; but in the 16th century local divisions were few in number and wide in
extent, and beyond a doubt the foundation of the imperial sarae was the origin
of the village name which has no-.. I 1 the spot that suggested it. The

separate ce of Chaumuha is known to date from a very recent period,

when the name was bestowed in consequence of the discovery of an ancient
Jain sculpture, supposed by the ignorant rustics to represent the four-headed
(chaumuha) god, Brahma.

Though these sanies were primarily built mainly from selfish motives on
the line of road traversed by the imperial camp, they were at the same time
enormous boons to the general public ; for the highway was then beset with
gangs of robbers, with whose vocation the law either dared not or cared not to
interfere. On one occasion, in the reign of Jahangir, we read of a caravan
having to stay six weeks at Mathura before it was thought strong enouo-h to
proceed to Delhi ; no smaller number than 500 or 600 men being deemed ade-
quate to encounter the dangers of the road. Now, the solitary traveller is so
confident of protection that, rather than drive his cart up the steep ascent that
conducts to the portals of the fortified enclosure, he prefers to spend the night
unguarded on the open plain. Hence it con- 's that not one of the saraes is
now applied to the precise purpose for which it was erected. At Chhata, one
corner is occupied by the school, another by the offices of the tahsildar and
local police, and a street with a double row of shops has recently been con-
structed in the centre ; at Chaumuha the solid walls have in past years been
undermined and carted away piecemeal for building materials ; and at Kosi,
the principal bazar lies between the two gateways and forms the nucleus of the
town.

Still more complete destruction has overtaken the 'Azamabad sarae, which
seems to have been the largest of the series, as it certainly was the plainest and
the most modern. Its erection is ordinarily ascribed by the people on the spot
to Prince 'Azam, the sou of Aurangzeb, being the only historical personage of

* At Akbarpur, by the roadside is a large and very deep bauli approached by a flight of
70 steps, once cased with stone, which has now been almost all stripped ofil and applied by the
villagers to other purposes. Immediately adjoining are the ruins of a mosque aud tomb, and
masonry tank 12 bighas in extent. The boundary walls of the latter are now for the most part
broken down, and of the eight kiosques that crowned the extremities of the ghats only one
remains. These extensive work- are said to have been constructed some two centuries ago by a
converted Thakur named Dhakmal. A rftjbaha of the Agra Canal passes through the village
lauds, an 1 a rest-house is being built at the point where it crosses the high road.

the 'azamaba'd sara'e. 31

the name with whom they are acquainted. But, as with the other buildings of
the same character, its real founder was a local governor. 'Azam Khan Mir
Muhammad Bakir, also called Iradat Khan, who was faujdar of Matlmra from
1642 to 1645. In the latter year ho was superseded in office, as his age had
rendered him unequal to the task of suppressing the constant outbreaks against
the Government, and in 1648 he died.* As the new road does not pass im-
mediately under the walls of the sarac, it had ceased to be of any use to tra-
vellers ; and a few years ago, it was to a great extent demolished and the ma-
terials used in paving the streets of the adjoining city. Though there was little
or no architectural embellishment, the foundations were most securely laid,
reaching down below the ground as many feet as the superstructure which
they supported stood abovo it. Of this ocular demonstration was recently
afforded, for one of the villagers in digging came upon what he hoped would
prove the entrance to a subterranean treasure chamber ; but deeper exeava; i
showed it to be only one of the line of arches forming the foundation of tlio
sarae wall. The original mosque is still standing, but is little used for reli-
gious purposes, as the village numbers only nine Muhammadans in a population
of 343. They all live within the old ruinous enclosure.

* For this and several other facts gathered from the Persian chronicles, I was indebted to
the late Mr. Blochmann, the Secretary of the Calcutta Asiatic Society, a gentleman whose know-
ledge of Muhammadan history and literature was as unlimited as was the courtesy with which he
communicated it.

CHAPTER II.

mathura' SACKED BY MAHMVJD of ghazni, 1017 A.D. its treatment by the

DELHI EMPERORS. RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE JAT POWER. MASSACRE AT
MATHURA', 1757. BATTLE OF BARSANA, 1775. EXECUTION OF GHULXM
KAdIR, 1788. BRITISH OCCUPATION, 1803. BATTLE OF DtG, 1801.
MUTINY, 1857.

Atart from inscriptions and other fragmentary archaeological vestiges of its
ancient glory, the first authentic contemporary record of Mathura, that we find
in existing literature is dated the year 1017 A.D., when it was sacked by
Mahmiid of Ghazui in his ninth invasion of India. The original source of
information respecting Mahmiid's campaigns is the Tarikh Yamini of Al Utbi,
who was himself secretary to the Sultan, though he did not accompany him in
his expeditions. He mentions by name neither Mathura nor Maha-ban, but
only describes certain localities, which have been so identified by Firishta and
later historians. The place supposed to be Maha-ban he calls " the Fort of
Kulchand," a Raja, who (he writes) " was, not without good reason, confident
in his strength, for no one had fought against him and not been defeated. lie
had vast territories, enormous wealth, a numerous and brave army, huge ele-
phants, and strong forts that no enemy had been able to reduce. 'When he saw
that the Sultan advanced against him, he drew up his army and elephants
in a 'deep forest'* ready for action. But finding every attempt to repulse the
invaders fail, the beleaguered infidels at last quitted the fort and tried to cross
the broad river which flowed in its rear. When some 50,000 men had been
killed or drowned, Kulchand took a dagger, with which he first slew his wife
and then drove it into his own body. The Sultan obtained by this victory 185
fine elephants besides other booty." In the neighbouring holy city, identified
as Mathura, " he saw a building of exquisite structure, which the inhabitant
declared to be the handiwork not of men but of Genii. f The town wall was
constructed of solid stone, and had opening on to the river two gates, raised on
high and massive basements to protect them from the floods. On the two sides
of the city were thousands of houses with idol temples attached, all of masonry
and strengthened with bars of iron ; and opposite them were other buildings
supported on stout wooden pillars. In the middle of the city was a temple,
larger and finer than the rest, to which neither painting nor description could

* These words may be intended as a literal translation of the name " Mah;'t-lian."
•(■ 1'ossibly "Jina," the name both of the Buddhist and Jaini deity, was the word actually
used, which was mistaken for the Arabic "Jinn."

MAHlltfD's SACK OF MATHURA. 1017 A.D. 33

do justice. The Sultan thus wrote respecting it : — ' If any one wished to
construct a building equal to it, lie would not be able to do so without expend-
ing a hundred million dinars, and the work would occupy two hundred years,
even though the most able and experienced workmen were employed.' Orders
were given that all the temples should be burnt with naphtha and fire and
levelled with the ground." The city was given up to plunder for twenty days.
Among the spoil arc said to have been five great idols of pure gold with eyes
of rubies and adornments of other precious stones, together with a vast number
of smaller silver images, which, when broken up, formed a load for more than
a hundred camels. The total value of the spoil has been estimated at three
millions of rupees ; while the number of Hindus carried away into captivity
exceeded 5,000.

Nizam-ud-din, Firishta, and the other late Muhammadan historians take for
granted that Mathura was at that time an exclusively Brahmanical city. It is
possible that such was really the case ; but the original authorities leave the
point open, and speak only in general terms of idolaters, a name equally appli-
cable to Buddhists. Many of the temples, after being gutted of all their valu-
able contents, were left standing, probably because they were too massive to
admit of easy destruction. Some writers allege that the conqueror spared them
on account of their exceeding beauty, founding this opinion on the eulogistic
expressions employed by Mahmiid in his letter to the Governor of Ghazni quoted
above. It is also stated that, on his return home, he introduced the Indiana
style of architecture at his own capital, where he erected a splendid mosque,
upon which he bestowed the name of ' the Celestial Bride.' But, however much
he may have admired the magnificence of Mathura, it is clear that he was influ-
enced by other motives than admiration in sparing the fabric of the temples : for
the gold and silver images, which he did not hesitate to demolish, must have
been of still more excellent workmanship.

During the period of Muhammadan supremacy, the history of Mathura is
almost a total blank. The natural dislike of the ruling power to be brought
into close personal connection with such a centre of superstition divested the
town of all political importance ; while the Hindu pilgrims, who still continued
to frequent its impoverished shrines, were not invited to present, as the priest -
were not anxious to receive, any lavish donation which would only excite the
jealousy of the rival faith. Thus, while there are abundant remains of the
earlier Buddhist period, there is not a single building, nor fragment of a
building, which can be assigned to any year in the long interval between the

34 ITS TREATMENT BY THE DELHI EMPEKOES.

invasion of Mahmiid in 1017 A.D. and the reign of Akbar in the latter half
of the sixteenth century ; and it is only from the day when the Juts and
Mahrattas began to be the virtual sovereigns of the country that any continuous
series of monumental records exists.

Nor can this be wondered at, since whenever the unfortunate city did
attract the Emperor's notice, it became at once a mark for pillage and desecra-
tion : and the more religious the sovereign, the more thorough the persecution.
Take for example the following passage from the Tarikh-i-Daiidi of Abdullah
(a writer in the reign of Jahangir), who is speaking of Sultan Sikandar Lodi
(1 188 — 1516 A.D.), one of the most able and accomplished of all the occupants
of the Delhi throne : " He was so zealous a Musalmau that he utterly destroyed
many places of worship of the infidels, and left not a single vestige remaining
of them. He entirely ruined the shrines of Mathura, that mine of heathen-
ism, and turned their principal temples into sanies and colleges. Their stone
images were given to the butchers to serve them as meat-weights, and all the
Hindus in Mathura were strictly prohibited from shaving their heads and beards
and performing their ablutions. lie thus put an end to all the idolatrous rites
of the infidels there ; and no Hindu, if he wished to have his head or beard
shaved, could get a barber to do it." In confirmation of the truth of this nar-
rative, it may be observed that when the Muhammadan Governor Abd-un-Nabi,
in 1661, built his great mosque as a first step towards the construction of the
new city, of which he is virtually the founder, the ground which he selected
for the purpose, and which was unquestionably an old temple site, had to be
purchased from the butchers.

During the glorious reign of Akbar, the one bright era in the dreary
annals of Imperial misrule, there was full toleration at Mathura as in all other
parts of his dominions. Of this an illustration is afforded by the following
incident, which is narrated by Badauui : Among the persons held in high
favour at the Court was a Shaikh, by name Abd-uu-Nabi, who occupied the
distinguished position of Sadr-us-Sadur. A complaint was made to him by
Kazi Abd-ur-Bahim of Mathura that a wealthy Brahman had appropriated
some materials that had been collected for the building of a mosque, and not
only used them in the construction of a temple, but, when remonstrated with,
had, in the presence of a crowd of people, foully abused the Prophet and all
his followers. The Brahman, when summoned to answer the charge, refused
to come ; whereupon Ab-ul-FazI was sent to fetch him, and on his return re-
ported that all the people of Mathura agreed in declaring that the Brahman

AURAKGZEB AT MATHURA', 1(358 A.D. 35

had used abusive language. The doctors of the law accordingly gave it as
their opinion — sonic that he should be put to death, others that he should be
publicly disgraced and fined. The Shaikh was in favour of the capital punish-
ment, and applied to the Emperor to have the sentence confirmed : but the
latter would give no definite reply, and remarked that the Shaikh was respon-
sible for the execution of the law and need not apply to him. The Brahman
meanwhile was kept in prison, the Hindu ladies of the royal household using
every endeavour to get him released, while the Emperor, out of regard for
the Shaikh, hesitated about yielding to them. At last Abd-un-Nabi, after
failing to elicit any definite instructions, returned home and issued orders for
the Brahman's execution. "When the news reached the Emperor, he was
very angry, and though he allowed Abd-un-Nabi to retain his post till his
death, which occurred in 1583, he never took him into favour again.

Jahangir, on his accession to the throne, continued to some extent his
father's policy of religious tolerance ; but in the following reign of Shahjahan,
we find Murshid Ali Khan, in the year 1636, made a commander of 2,000
horse, and appointed by the Emperor Governor of Mathura and Maha-ban,
with express instructions to be zealous in stamping out all rebellion and
idolatry. The climax of wanton destruction was, however, attained by Aurang-
zeb, the Oliver Cromwell of India, who, not content with demolishing the most
sacred of its shrines, thought also to destroy even the ancient name of the city
by substituting for it Islampur or Islamabad.

Mathura was casually connected with two important events in this Empe-
ror's life. Here was born, in 1639, his eldest son, Muhammad Sultan, who
expiated the sin of primogeniture in the Oriental fashion by ending his days in
a dungeon, as one of the first acts of his father, on his accession to the throne,
was to confine him in the fortress of Gwaliar, where he died in 1665. In the
last year of the reign of Shahjahan, Aurangzeb was again at Mathura, and
here established his pretensions to the crown by compassing the death of his
brother Murad. This was in 1658, a few days after the momentous battle of
Samogarh,* in which the combined forces of the two princes had routed the
army of the rightful heir, Dara. The conquerors encamped together, being
apparently on the most cordial and affectionate terms ; and Aurangzeb, pro-
testing that for himself he desired only some sequestered spot where, un-
harrassed by the toils of government, he might pass his time in prayer and

* Samogarh is a village, one march from Agra, since named, in honour of the event, Fatih-
abad, ' the ji'.ace of victory.'

36 REBELLION IN 1668 A.Di

religious meditation, persistently addressed Murad by the royal title as the
recognized successor of Shahjahan. The evening was spent at the banquet ;
and when the wine cup had began to circulate freely, the pious Aurangzeb,
feigning religious scruples, begged permission to retire. It would have been
well for Murad had he also regarded the prohibition of the Kurdn. The
stupor of intoxication soon overpowered him, and he was only restored to
consciousness by a contemptuous kick from the foot of the brother who had
just declared himself his faithful vassal. That same night the unfortunate
Murad, heavily fettered, was sent a prisoner to Delhi and thrown into the
fortress of SaHm-garh.* He, too, was subsecpiently removed to Gwaliar and
there murdered.

In spite of the agreeable reminiscences which a man of Aurangzeb's
temperament must have cherished in connection with a place where an act of
such unnatural perfidy had been successfully accomplished, his fanaticism was
not a whit mitigated in favour of the city of Mathura. In 1(168, a local
rebellion afforded him a fit pretext for a crusade against Hinduism. The
insurgents had mustered at Sahora,-f a village in the Maha-ban pargana, where
(as we learn from the Maasiri-i-Alamgiri) the Governor Abd-un-Xabi advanced
to meet them. " He was at first victorious, and succeeded in killing the ring-
leaders ; but in the middle of the fight he was struck by a bullet, and died the
death of a martyr." It was he who, in the year 1661, had founded the Jama
Masjid, which still remains, and is the most conspicuous building in the city
which has grown up around it. He was followed in office by Saff-Shikan
Khan ; but as he was not able to suppress the revolt, which began to assume
formidable dimensions, he was removed at the end of the year 1669, and Hasan
Ali Khan appointed Faujdar in his place. The ringleader of the disturbances,
a Jat, by name Kokila, who bad plundered the Sa'dabad pargana, and was
regarded as the instrument of Abd-un-Nabi's death, fell into the hands of the
new Governor's Deputy, Shaikh Razi-ud-din, and was sent to Agra and there

* Bernier, on whose narrative the above paragraph is founded, calls Salim-garh by the very
English-looking name ' Slinger ;' a flue illustration of the absurdity of the phonetic system.
By phonetic spelling I mean any arbitrary attempt to represent by written characters the sound
of a word as pronounced by the voice without reference to its etymology. This would seem to be
the most natural use of the term ; but as critics have objected, I add this explanation.

■f As is always the case when an attempt is made to identify the local names mentioned by
any historian who writes in the Persian character, it is extremely uncertain whether Sahora is
really the village intended. The word as given in the manuscript begins with s and ends with a,
and has an r in the middle ; but beyond that much it is impossible to predicate anything with
certainty about it.

DESTRUCTION' OF THE TEMPLE OF KESAVA DEVA, 1669 A.D. 37

executed.* A few months earlier, in February of the same year, during the
fast of Bamazan, the time when religious bigotry would be must inflamed,
Aurangzeb had descended in person on Mathura. The temple specially
marked out for destruction was one built so recently as the reign of Jahangir,
at a cost of thirty-three lakhs, by Bir Sinh Deva, Bundela, of Urcha. Beyond all
doubt this was the lasi of the famous shrines of Kesava Deva, of which further
mention will be made hereafter. To judge from the language of the author of
the Maasir, its demolition was regarded as a death-blow to Hinduism. lie
writes in the following triumphant strain : — " In a short time, with the help of
numerous workmen, this seat of error was utterly broken down. Glory be to
God that so difficult an undertaking has been successfully accomplished in the
present auspicious reign, wherein so many dens of heathenism and idolatry
have been destroyed 1 Seeing the power of Islam and the efficacy of true
religion, the proud Rajas felt their breath burning in their throats and became
a- dumb as a picture on a wall. The idols, large and small alike, all adorned
with costly jewels, were carried away from the heathen shrine and taken to
Agra, where they were buried under the steps of Nawab Kudsia Begam s
mosque, so that people might trample upon them for ever." It was from tlii-
event that Mathura was called Islamabad.

In 1707 Aurangzeb died, and shortly after began the rule of the Jats
of Bharat-pur.

The founder of this royal house was ;l robber chief, by name Chura-mani,
who built two petty forts in the villages of Thi'in and Sinsini,f a little south of
Dig, from which he organized marauding expeditions, and even ventured to
harass the rear of the imperial army on the occasion of Aurangzeb's expedition
to the Dakhin. This statement is contradicted by Thornton in his Gazetteer,
under the word Bharat-pur ; but his reasons for doing so are not very conclu-
sive. He writes : — " Chura-mani did not become the leader of the Jats until after
the death of Aurangzeb. Besides, the scene of the operations of the Jats was
widely remote from that of the disasters of Aurangzeb, which occurred near
Ahmad-nae\ar. According to the Sair-i-Muta-akhkhirin, during the strun-gle
between Aurangzeb's sons, 'Azam and Muazzim, Chura-mani beset the camp of
the latter for the purpose of plunder." This correction, if it really is one, is so
slight as to be absolutely immaterial ; the army, which was led into the Dakhin

* His son ami daughter were both brought up as Muhamrnndans, and eventually the girl
married Shah Kuli, and the boy, who had received the name of Fiizil, became famous for his skill
in reciting the Kuran.

f From this place the Bharat-pur Raja's family derives its name of Sinsinwar.

38 TILta'R BADAN SLNII.

by Aurangzeb, was brought back by 'Azam after the Emperor's decease, and
both fatber and sou died within four months of each other.

A little later, Jay Sinh of Amber was commissioned by the two Saiyids,
then in power at Delhi, to reduce the Jat freebooters. He invested their two
strongholds, but could not succeed in making any impression upon them, and
accordingly retired : only, however, to return almost immediately ; this time
bringing with him a larger army, and also a local informant in the person of
Badan Sinh, a younger brother of Chura-mani's, who, in consequence of some
family feud, had been placed in confinement, from which be had contrived to
escape and make his way to Jaypur. Thiin was then (1712 A.D.) again in-
vested, and after a siege of six months taken and its fortifications demolished.
Chura-inani and his son Muhkani lied the country, and Badan Sinh was for-
mally proclaimed at Dig as leader of the Jats, with the title of Thakur.

He is chiefly commemorated in. the Mathura district by the handsome
mansion he built for himself at Sahar. This appears to have been his favour-
ite residence in the latter years of his lii'e. Adjoining it is a very large tank,
of which one side is faced with stone and the rest left unfinished, the work
having probably been interrupted by his death. The house was occupied as a
tahsili imiler the English Government till the mutiny, when all the records
were transferred for greater safety to Chhata, which has ever since continued
the head of the pargana, and the house at Sahar is now unoccupied and falling
into ruin. He married into a family seated ;it Kamar, near Kosi, where also
i~ a large masonry tank, and in connection with it a walled garden containing
three Chhattris in memory of Chaudhri Maha Ram, Jat, and his wife and
child. The Chaudhri was the Thakurani's brother, and it appears that her
kinsmen were people of some wealth and importance, as the Castle Hill at
Kamar is still crowned with several considerable edifices of brick and stone
where they once resided.

For some years before his death, Thakur Badan Sinh had retired alto-
gether from public lite. To one of his younger sons, by name Pratap
Sinh,* he had especially assigned the newly erected fort at Wayar, south-
west of Bharat-pur, with the adjoining district, while the remainder of the
Jat principality was administered by the eldest son, Suraj Mall. On his
father's death, Suraj Mall assumed the title of Baja and fixed bis capital at
Bharat-pur, from which place he had ejected the previous governor, a kinsman.

* Two other sons were nimud Sobha 1! iiu and Bir Narayan.

MASSACRE AT MATHCRA', 1757 A.D. 39

by name Khoma. The matrimonial alliances which he contracted indicate his
inferiority to the Rajput princes of the adjoining territories, for one of his wives
was a Kurmin, another a Malin, and the remainder of his own cast.', Jatnis.
Yet, even at the commencement of his rule, he had achieved a conspicuous
position, since, in 1748, we find him accepting the invitation of the Emperor
Ahmad Sluih to join with Holkar, under the general command of the Vazir,
Safdar Jang, in suppressing the revolt of the Itohillas. In the subsequent dis-
pute that arose between Safdar Jang and Ghazi-ud-din, the grandson of
old Nizam, the former fell into open rebellion and called in the assistance of
the Jats, while his rival had recourse to the Mahrattas. Safdac, seeing the
coalition against him too strong, withdrew to his vice-royalty of Audh, leaving
Suraj Mall to hear alone the brunt of the battle. Bharat-pur was besieged,
but had not been invested many days when Ghazi-ud-din, suspecting a secret
understanding between his nominal allies, the Mahrattas and the Emperor, dis-
continued his operations against the Jats and returned hastily to Delhi, where
he deposed Ahmad Shah and raised Alamgir II. to the throne in his stead.
This was in 1751.

Three years later, when the army of Ahmad Shah Durani from Kan-
dahar appeared before Delhi, Ghazi-ud-din, by whose indiscretion the invasion
had been provoked, was admitted to pardon, in consideration of the heavy tri-
bute which he undertook to collect from the Doab. Sardar Jahan Khan was
de-patched on a like errand into the Jit territory ; but finding little to he
gained there, as the entire populace had withdrawn into their numerous petty
fortresses and his foraging parties were cut off by their sudden sallies, he fell
back upon the city of Mathura, which he not only plundered of all its wealth,
but further visited with a wholesale massacre of the inhabitants.

In the second invasion of the Durani, consequent upon the assassination
of the Emperor Alamgir II. in 1759, the infamous Ghazi-ud-din again
appeared at the gates of Bharat-pur ; this time not with a hostile army, but as a
suppliant for protection. By his unnatural persuasions a powerful Hindu
confederacy was formed to oppose the progress of the Muhammadan, but was
scattered for ever in the great battle of P;inipat, in January, 1761, when the
dreams of Mahratta supremacy were finally dissolved. Siiraj Mall, foreseeing
the inevitable result, withdrew his forces before the battle, and falling unex-
pectedly upon Agra, ejected from it the garrison of his late allies and adopted
it as his own favourite residence. Meanwhile, Shah Alam was recognized by
the Durani as the rightful heir to the throne, but continued to hold his poor

40 DEATH OF StfRAJ MALL, 17(14 A.D.

semblance of a Court at Allahabad ; and, at Delhi, his son Mirza Jawan Bakht
was placed in nominal charge of the Government under the active protectorate
of the Rohilla, Najib-ud-daula. With this administrator of imperial power,
Siiraj Mall, emboldened by past success, now essayed to try his strength. Ho
put forth a claim to the Faujdarship of Farrnkh-nagar ; and when the envoy,
sent from Delhi to confer with him on the subject, demurred to the transfer, he
dismissed him most unceremoniously and at once advanced with an army to
Shahdara on the Hindan, only six miles from the capital. Here, in bravado,
he was amusing himself in the chase, accompanied by only his personal retinue,
when he was surprised by a flying squadron of the enemy and put to death.
His army coming leisurely up behind, under the command of his son Jawaliir
Sinh, was charged by the Mughals, bearing the head of Siiraj Mall on a horse-
man's lance as their standard, the first indication to the son of his father's
death. The shock was too much for the Jats, who were put to flight, but still
continued for three months hovering about Delhi in concert with Holkar.
This was in 17(i4."r

In spite of this temporary discomfiture, the Jats were now at the zenith
of their power ; and Jawaliir had not been a year on the throne when he re-
solved to provoke a quarrel with the Raja of Jaypur. Accordingly, without
any previous intimation, he marched his troops through Jaypur territory
with the ostensible design of visiting the holy lake of Pushkara. There his
vanity was gratified by the sovereign of Marwar, Raja Bijay Sinh, who met
him on terms of brotherly equality ; but he received warning from Jaypur
that if he passed through Amber territory on his return, it would be considered
a hostile aggression. As this was no more than he expected, he paid no regard
fo the caution. A desperate conflict ensued ou his homeward route (1765
A.D.), which resulted in the victory of the Kachhwahas, but a victory accom-
panied with the death of almost every chieftain of note. Soon after, Jawaliir
Sinh was murdered at Agra, at the instigation, as is supposed, of the Jaypur
Raja.

Siiraj Mall had left five sons, viz., Jawaliir Sinh, Rate Sinh, Naval Sinh,
and Ranjit Sinh, and also an adopted son, Eardeva Bakhsh, whom.be is said
to have picked up in the woods one day when hunting. On the death of
-Jawaliir, iiatn succeeded, buthis rule was of very short duration. A pretended

* A magnificent cenotaph was erected by Jawaliir binh in honour of his fattier ou the mar-
gin of the Kusuin Sarovar, an artificial lake a short distauce from Gobardhan, and will be des-
cribed in connection with that town.

THE MAHRATTAS. 41

alchemist from Brinda-ban had obtained large sums of money from the
credulous prince to prepare a process for the transmutation of the meaner
metals into gold. When the day for the crucial experiment arrived and detec-
tion had become inevitable, he assassinated his victim and fled.*

His brother, Naval Sinh, succeeded, nominally as guardian for his infant
nephew, Kesari, but virtually as Raja. The Mahrattas had now (1768) reco-
vered from the disastrous battle of Panipat, and, re-asserting their old claim
to tribute, invaded first Jaypur and then Bharat-pur, and mulcted both territo-
ries in a very considerable sum. They then entered into an understanding
with the Delhi Government which resulted in the restoration of Shah Alain to
his ancestral capital. But as the only line of policy which they consistently
maintained was the fomentation of perpetual quarrels, by which the strength
of all parties in the State might be exhausted, they never remained long faith-
ful to one side ; and, in the year 1772, we find them fighting with the Jats
against the Imperialists. Naval Sinh, or, according to some accounts, his
brother and successor, Ranjit Sinh, laid claim to the fort of Ballabhgarh held by
another Jat chieftain. The latter applied to Delhi for help and a force was
despatched for his relief; but it was too weak to resist the combined armies of
Sindhia and Bharat-pur, and was driven back in disorder. The Mahrattas
then pushed on to Delhi ; but finding the Commander-in-Chief, Niyaz Khan,
ready to receive them, they, with incomparable versatility, at once made terms
with him and even joined him in an expedition to Rohilkhand.

Meanwhile, the Jilts, thus lightly deserted, espoused the cause of Najaf s
unsuccessful rival, Zabita Khan. But this was a most ill-judged move on their
part : their troops were not only repulsed before Delhi, but their garrison was
also ejected from Agra.f which they had held for the last 13 years since its
occupation by Suraj Mall after the battle of Panipat in 17G1. From Agra the
Vazir Najaf Khan hastily returned in the direction of the capital, and found
Ranjit Sinh and the Jats encamped near Hodal. Dislodged from this position,
they fell back upon Kot-ban and Kosi, which they occupied for nearly a fort-

* It was probably this Ratn Sinh, for whom was commenced the large cbhattri near the
Madan Mohan temple at Brinda-ban, where it is still to be seen in its unfinished state, as left at
the time of his sudden death.

t The commander of the Jat garrison in Agra was Dan Sahay, brother-in-law (sala) of
Na^al Sinh.

42 BATTLE OF BARSA'NA, 1775 AD.

night, and then finally withdrew towards Dig ; but at Barsana were overtake!
by the Vazir and a pitched battle ensued. The Jut infantry, 5,000 strong, wen
commanded by Smnroo, or, to give him his proper name, Walter Reinhard, an
adventurer who had first taken service under Ran jit's father, Suraj Mall.'
The ranks of the Imperialists were broken by bis impetuous attack, and the Juts,
feeling assured of victory, were following in reckless disorder, when the enemy
rallied from their sudden panic, turned upon their pursuers, who were too si
fcered to offer any solid resistance, and effectually routed them. They contriv-
ed, however, to secure a retreat to Dig,f while the town of Barsana, which was
then a very wealthy place, was given over to plunder, and several of the stately
mansions recently erected almost destroyed in the search for bidden treasure.

* He was a native of the Electorate of Treves and came out to India as a carpenter in the
French navy. After serving under several native chiefs, but staying with none of them long, he
joined one Gregory, an Armenian, who was high in the favour of Mir Kasim, the Nawabof Bengal.
It was after the fall of Mongir that he did his employer the base service of putting to death all
the English prisontrs who had l>een collected at l'atna ; a deed for which his name will ever be
held in abhorrence. He next joined the Bharat-pui chief, and from him finally went over to
Najaf Khan, from whom he received a grant of the pargana of Sardhana, then valued at
six lakhs a year, and to whom he remained faithful for the rest of his life. He died in
17?8. and was buried in the cemetery at Agra, where is also a church that he built, now disused,
adjoining the new cathedral. The Begum, who had livid with him (she is said to have been
originally a Kagrniri dancing girl) was recognized as his widow and succeeded to all his estate.
In 1781 she was received into the Catholic Church, and in 17'.t2 married a French adventurer, a
M. Le Yaisseau. He, however, inade himself so unpopular that her people revolted, under the
leadership of a son of Reinhard's, Zafar-yab Khun. By an artifice, that she practised upon her hus-
band, the latter was induced to commit suicide, and the disturbance was soon after quelled by the
interventi' n of one of her. old servants, the famous George Thomas. In 1802 Zafar-ydb died,
having a daughter, whom the Begam gave in marriage to a Mr. Dyce, an officer in her army.
The issue was a son and two daughters, of whom the one married Captain Kose Troup, the other
the Marquis of Briona. The son, David Ochterlony Dyce Sombre, wai adopted by the Begam, an 1
on her de-.th in is:;u, succeeded to the estate. He married Mary Anne, the daughter of VI —
count St. Vincent, and die! at Paris, in 1851. His widow, in 1802, married the Hon'ble George C.
Weld Forester, who has now succeeded his brother as third Baron Forester. The Begam by her
will left to the Catholic Cathedrals of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, and Agra, Rs. 32,000
i:s. 31800, Rs. 31,000, and Rs. 28,700, respectively ; to the Sardhana Cathedral which she
herself had built, Rs. 95,000 ; to the school or .seminary there, called St. John's College, Rs. 05 Coo.
to the poor of the place Rs 47,800, and to the Merath Chapel, also of her foundation, Rs. 12,50(1;
The administration of the Sardhana endowments has for several years past formed the aubject of
a dispute between the Roman Catholic Bishop of Agra, who had for some time acted us solo
trustee, and Lady Forester, who, as the Begam's legal representative, claims to act as a trustee
also: until it is settled the interest on the money cannot be drawn.

t According to local tradition, Naval Sinh died some 20 days after the battle of Barsana

SIEGE OF AGRA, 1738 A.D. 43

Dig was not reduced till March of the following year, 1776, the garrison escap-
ing to the neighbouring castle of Kumbhir. The value of the spoil taken is
said to have amounted to six lakhs of rupees. The whole of the country als<
was reduced to subjection, and it was only at the intercession of the Rani
Kishori, the widow of Siiraj Mall, that the conqueror allowed Eanjit Sinh to
retain the fort of Bharat-pur with an extent of territory yielding an annual
income of nine lakns.

In 1782, the great minister, Najaf Khan, died ; and in 1786 Sindhia,
who had been recognized as his successor in the administration of the empire,
proceeded to demand arrears of tribute from tin: Rajputs of Jaypur. His claim
was partly satisfied ; but finding that he persisted in exacting the full amount,
the Rajas of Jaypur, Jodh-pur, and Udav-pur, joined by other minor chiefs,
organized a formidable combination against him. The armies met at Lai
and a battle ensued which extended over three days, but without any decisive
result, till some 14,000 of Sindhia's infantry, who were in arrears of pay, went
over to the enemy. In consequence of this defection, the Mahrattas fell back
upon the Jats and secured the alliance of Ranjit Sinh by the restoration of Dig,
which had been held by the Emperor since its capture by Najaf Khan in 1776,
and by the cession of eleven parganas yielding a revenue of ten lakhs of rupees.
The main object of the new allies was to raise the siege of Agra, which was
then being invested by Ismail Beg, tic Imperial captain, in concert with Zab
Khan's son, the infamous Ghulam Kadir. In a battle that took place near
Fatihpur Sikri, the Jats and Mahrattas met a repulse, and were driven back
upon Bharat-pur ; but later in the same year 1788, being reinforced by troo
from the Dakkhin under Rami Khan, a brother of the officer in command of
the besieged garrison, they finally raised the blockade, and the province of Agra
ao-ain acknowledged Sindhia as its master.

Ghularn Kadir had previously removed to Delhi and was endeavouring
to persuade the Emperor to break off intercourse with the Mahrattas. Failinc-
in this, he dropped all disguise and commenced firing upon the palace, and
having in a few days taken possession of the city, he indulged in the most
brutal excesses, and after insulting and torturing his miserable and defencele^
sovereign in every conceivable way, completed the tragedy by, at last, with his
own dagger, robbing him of bis eye-sight. Sindhia, who had before been
urgently summoned from Mathura, one of his favourite residences, on hearing
of these horrors, sent a force to the relief of the city. Ghulam Kadir, who

a EXECUTION OF GHULXM KXD1R AT MATHURX.

atrocities had disgusted all his adherents, fled to Merath, and endeavouring io
escape from there at night alone on horseback, fell into a well from which he
was unable to extricate himself. There he was found on the following morn-
ing by a Brahman peasant by name Bliikha, who had him seized and taken to
the Mahratta camp. Thence he was despatched to Sindhia at Mathura, who
first sent him through the bazar on an ass with his head to the tail, and then
had him mutilated of all his members one by one, his tongue being first torn
out, and then his eyes, and subsequently his nose, ears and hands cut off. _ In
this horrible condition he was despatched to Delhi ; but to anticipate his death
from exhaustion, which seemed imminent, he was hanged on a tree by the road-
side. It is said that his barbarous treatment of the Emperor, for which he
suffered such a condign penalty, was in revenge for an injury inflicted upon
him when a handsome child by Shah Alam, who converted him into a haram
page.

It was in 1803 that Mathura passed under British rule and became a mili-
tary station on the line of frontier, which was then definitely extended to the
Jamuna. This was at the termination of the successful war with Daulac Rao
Sindhia ; when the independent French State, that had been established by
Perron, and was beginning to assume formidable dimensions, had been extin-
guished by the fall of Aligarh ; while the protectorate of the nominal sovereign
of Delhi, transferred by the submission of the capital, invested the administra-
tion of the Company with the prestige of Imperial sanction. At the same time
a treaty was concluded with Ranjit Sinh, who with 5,000 horse had joined
General Lake at Agra and thereby contributed to Sindhia's defeat. In return
for this service he received a part of the districts of Kishangarh, Kathawar,
Rewiiri, Gokul and Sahar.

In September of the following year Mathura was held for a few days by the
troops of Holkar Jasavant Rao ; but on the arrival of reinforcements from Agra,
was re-occupied by the British finally and permanently. Meanwhile, Holkar
had advanced upon Delhi, but the defence was so gallantly conducted by
Ochterlony that the assault was a signal failure. His army broke up into two
divisions, one of which was pursued to the neighbourhood of Farrukhabad,
and there totally dispersed by General Lake ; while the other was overtaken by
General Fraser between Dig and Gobardhan and defeated with great slaughter.
In this latter engagement the brilliant victory was purchased by the death of
the officer in command, who was brought into Mathura fatally wounded, and

TREATY WITH BHARAT-PUR, 1805 AD. 45

survived only a few days. He was buried in the Cantonment Cemetery, where
a monument* is orected to his memory with the following inscription : —

" Sacred to the memory of Major-General Henry Fraser, of His Majesty's nth Regiment -:
Foot, who commanded the British Army at the battle of Deig on the 13th of November, 1804,
ml liy his judgment and valour achieved an important and glorious victory. He died in con-
sequence of a wound he received when leading on the troops, and was interred here on the a.itb
of November, 1804, in the 40th year of his age. The army lament his loss with the deepest
sorrow ; his country regards his heroic conduct with grateful admiration ; history will record
his fame and perpetuate the glory of his illustrious deeds."

Holkar, who had fled for refuge to the fort of Bharat-pur, was pursued
by General Lake and his surrender demanded ; but Ranjit refused to give
him up. The fort was thereupon besieged ; Ranjit made a memorable defence,
and repelled four assaults with a loss to the besiegers of 3,000 men, but finally
made overtures for peace, which were accepted on the 4th of May, 1805. A
new treaty was concluded, by which he agreed to pay an indemnity of twenty
lakhs of rupees, seven of which were subsequently remitted, and was guaran-
teed in the territories which ho held previously to the accession of the British
Government. The parganas granted to him in 1803 were resumed.

Ranjit died that same year, leaving four sons, — Randhir, Baladeva,
Harideva, and Lachhman. He was succeeded by the eldest, Randhir, who
died in 1822, leaving the throne to his brother, Baladeva. t After a rule of
about 18 months he died, leaving a son, Balavant, then six years of age. He
was recognized by the British Government, but his cousin, Durjan Sal, who
had also advanced claims to the succession on Randhir's death, rose up against
him and had him cast into prison. Sir David Ochterlony, the Resident at
Delhi, promptly moved out a force in support of the rightful heir, but their
march was stopped by a peremptory order from Lord Amherst, who, in
accordance with the disastrous policy of non-interference which was then in
vogue, considered that the recognition of the heir-apparent during the life of
his father did not impose on the Government any obligation to maintain him
in opposition to the presumed wishes of the chiefs and people. Vast prepara-
tions were made, with the secret support of the neighbouring Rajput and
Mahratta States, and at last, when the excitement threatened a protracted war,
the Governor-General reluctantly confirmed the eloquent representations of

* To judge from the extreme clumsiness both of the design and execution, the irregular
spacing of the inscription, and the quaint shape of some of the letters, this must have been one
of the very first attempts of a native mason to work on European instructions.

t Randhir Siuh and Baladeva Sinh are commemorated by two handsome chhattries on the
margin of the Mauasi Ganga at Gobardhan.

46 STORMING OF BHARAT-PUR, 1826 A.D.

Sir Charles Metcalfe and consented to the deposition of the usurper. After
a siege that extended over nearly six weeks, Bharat-pur was stormed by Lord
Combermere on the 18th of January, 1826. Durjan Sal was taken prisoner
to Allahabad, and the young Maharaja established on the throne under the
regency of his mother and the superintendence of a political agent.* He
died in 1853 and was succeeded by his only son, Jasavant Singh, the present
sovereign, who enjoys a revenue of about Its. 21,00,000 derived from a territory
of 1,974 square miles in extent, with a population of 650,000.

With 1801 began a period of undisturbed peace and rapid growth of pros-
perity for the city of Mathura, which in 1832 was made the capital of a new
district, then formed out of parts of the old districts of Agra and Sa'dabad ;
nor does any event claim notice till we come down to the year 1857. It was
on the 14th of May in that eventful year that news arrived of the mutiny at
Merath. Mr. Mark Thornhill, who was then Magistrate and Collector of the
district, withGlmlam Husain as Deputy Collector, sent an immediate requisition
for aid to Bharat-pur. Captain Nixon, the political agent, accompanied by
< 'haudhari Rata Sinn, chief of the five Sardars, and Gobardhan Sinh, the
Faujdar, came with a small force to Kosi on the northern border of the district
and there stayed for a time in readiness to check the approach of the Mewaris
of Gurgaon and the other rebels from Delhi. Mr. Thornhill had meanwhile
removed to Chhata, a small town on the high-road some eight miles short of
Kosi, as being a place which was at once a centre of disaffection, and at the
same time possessed in its fortified sarue a stronghold capable of long resistance
against it. The first outbreak, however, was at Mathura itself. The sum of
money then in the district treasury amounted to rather more than 5i lakhs,
and arrangements had been made for its despatch to Agra, with the exception
of one lakh kept in reserve for local requirements. The escort consisted of a
company of soldiers from the cantonments, supported by another company
which had come over from Agra for the purpose. t The chests were being put

* The Iiani of Balavaat Sinh was a native of Dhadhu in the Sa'dabad pargana, where in
a garden with a double chhaitri erected by her in memory of two of her relatives.

f There were present at the time Mr. Elliot Colvin. the son of the Lieutenant-Governor,
xhu had been sent fro n Agra to supersede Mr. Clifford, laid up by severe fever ; Lieutenant
( rraham, one of the officers of the Treasury Guard ; Mr. Joyce, the head clerk, and two of his
ibordinates, by name Hashman, As they werecutotf from the civil station by the rebels, who
c ccupied fie' intermediate ground, they made their way into the city to the Seth, by whom they
were helped on to Mr. Thornhill's camp at Chhata. Mr. Nicholls, the Chaplain, with his w n,
and child and a Native Christian nurse, took refuge in the Collector's house, and wailed there
for some time in hopes of being joined by the others ; but ou hearing that the jail was broken
open, they lied to Agra.

OUTBREAK OF THE MUTINY, 1857 A.D. 47

on the carts, when one of the stibadars suddenly called out ' hoshiydr, sipdhi,'
' look alive, my man,' which was evidently a preconcerted signal ; and at onco
a shot was fired, which killed Lieutenant Burlton, commandant of the escort,
dead on the spot.* The rebels than seized the treasure, together with the pri-
vate effects of the residents in the station, which were also ready to be trans-
ported to Agra, and went off in a body to the Magistrate's Court-house, which
they set on fire, destroying all the records, aud then took the road to Delhi.
But first they broke open the jail and carried all the prisoners with them as far
as the city, where they got smiths to strike off their fetters. Besides Lieutenant
Burlton, one of the treasury officials also was killed. An attempt was made to
check the rebel body as it marched through Chhata, but it was quite ineffectual,
and on the 31st of May they entered the towii of Kosi. There, after burning
down the Customs bungalow and pillaging the police-station, they proceeded to
plunder the tahsili. But some Rs. 150 was all they could find in the treasury,
and most of the records also escaped them. The townspeople and most of the
adjoining villages remained well-affected to the Government ; and subsequently,
as a reward, one year's revenue demand was remitted and a grant of Rs. 50
made to each headman. Mr. Thoruhill and the other Europeans with him now
determined to abandon their position at Chhata and return to Mathura, where
they took refuge in the city in the house of Seth Lakhmi Chand. While there
a report came that the Jats had set up a Raja, one Devi Sinn, at Raya, on the
other side of the Jamuna. His reign was of no long continuance, for the Kota
Contingent, which happened to be on the spot at the time, seized and hanged
him with little ceremony. But as soon as this was accomplished, they them-
selves mutinied ; and Mr. Thoruhill, who had accompanied them to Raya, had
to make a hasty flight back to Mathura, bringing some small treasure in tin-
buggy with him.

On the 6th of July, the mutineers of Montr and Niinach, on their retreat
from Agra, entered the city. In anticipation of their arrival, Mr. Thornhill,
disguised as a native and accompanied by a trusty jamadar, Dilawar Khan,
started to flee to Agra. When they reached Aurangabad, only some four
miles on the way, they found the whole country on both sides of the road in

* The site of the old Court-house is now utterly out of the beaten track aud is all over-
grown with dense vegetation, among which may be seen a plain but very substantial stoue table
tomb, with the following inscription : " Sacred to the memory of Lieutenant F. H. C. Burlton,
67th Native Infantry, who was shot by a detachment of his regiment and of the 11th Native
Infantry near this spot on the 30th of May, 1857. This tomb is erected by his brother
officers."

THE EEBELS IN MATHURA".

the possession of the rebels. The men whom the Seth had despatched as
m escort took fright and decamped ; but the jamadar, by his adroit answers
to all enquiries, was enabled to divert suspicion and bring Mr. Thornhill safely
through to Agra. On the suppression of the disturbances, he received, as a
reward for his loyalty, a small piece of land on the Brinda-ban road, just out-
side Mathura, called after the name of a Bairagi who had once lived there,
Dudhadhari.

Though the rebels stayed (wo days in Mathura before they passed on to
Delhi, the city was not given up to general plunder, partly in consequence of
the prudent management of Seth Mangi Lai, who levied a contribution, accord-
ing to their means, on all the principal inhabitants. At this time Seth Lakh-
mi Chand was at Dig, but the greater part of his establishment remained
behind and rendered Government the most valuable assistance by the des-
patch of intelligence. Order in the city was chiefly maintained by Mir Imdad
Ali Khan, tahsildar of Kosi, who had been specially appointed Deputy Col-
lector.

On the 2Gth of September, the rebels, in their retreat from Delhi, again
issed through Mathura. Their stay on this occasion lasted for a week, and
creat oppression was practised on the inhabitants, both here and in the neigh-
bouring town of Brinda-ban. They were only diverted from general pillage
by the influence of one of their own leaders, a subadar from Nimach, by name
Hira Sinh, who prevailed upon them to spare the Holy City. For a few days
there was a show of regular government ; some of the chief officers in the
Collector's court, sueh as the Sadr Kanungo, Rahmat-ullah, the Sarishtadar,
Manohar Lai, and Wazir Ali, one of the muharrirs, were taken by force and
compelled to issue the orders of the new administrators ; while Maulvi Karamat
Ali was proclaimed in the Jama Masjid as the Viceroy of the Delhi Emperor.
It would seem that he also was an involuntary tool in their hands, as he was
subsequently put on his trial, but acquitted. He is since dead. It is said that
during their stay in the city the rebels found their most obliging friends
among the Mathuriya Chaubes, who, perhaps, more than any others, have grown
rich and fat under the tolerance of British rule. After threatening Brinda-ban
with their cannon and levying a contribution on the inhabitants, they moved
uway to Hathras and Bareli. Mir Imdad Ali and the Seth returned from
Bharat-pur; and in October Mr. Thornhill arrived from Agra with a company
of troops, which in the following month he marched up to Chhata. There the
rebel zamindars had taken possession of the fortified sarde, and one of its

SUPPRESSION OF THE MUTINY. 49

bastions had to be blown up before an entry could be effected: at the same time
the town was set on fire and partially destroyed, and twenty-two of the lead-
ing men were shot. A few days previously, Mir Imdad Ali with Nathu Lai,
tahsildar of Sahtir, had gone up into the Kosi pargana and restored order among
the Giijars there, who alone of all the natives of the district had been active
promoters of disaffection. While engaged in their suppression, Imdad Ali
received a gun-shot wound in the chest, but fortunately it had no fatal result.
He is now Deputy Collector of Muradabad, with a special additional allowance
of Rs. 150 per mensem, and has been made a C.S.I. By the end of November
general tranquillity was restored ; but it was not till July, 1858, that the
treasury was transferred from the Seth's house in the city to the Police lines in
the civil station.* In Christmas week of the following year, 1859, the Viceroy
held a Darbar, in which many honours were conferred upon different individuals,
and in particular the ten villages, which the Gujars had forfeited by their open
rebellion, were bestowed upon Raja Gobind Sinh of Hiithras, in acknowledg-
ment of his distinguished loyalty and good services. The value of this grant
has been largely diminished by the persistent lawlessness of the ejected Gujars,
who have always sullenly resented the loss of their estates.

"Here it remained till after the completion, in 1861, of the new Court-house and district
offices, which, with important results to archaeological research, as will hereafter be shown, were
rebuilt ou a new site.

CHAPTER III.

THE STORY OF KRISHNA, THE TUTELARY DIVINITY OF NATHURA'.

Of all the sacred places in India, none enjoys a greater popularity than the
capital of Braj, the holy city of Mathuni. For nine months in the year festival
follows upon festival in rapid succession, and the ghats and temples are daily
thronged with new troops of way-worn pilgrims. So great is the sanctity of
the spot that its panegyrists do not hesitate to declare that a single day spent at
Mathuni is more meritorious than a lifetime passed at Banaras. All this cele-
brity is due to the fact of its being the reputed birth-place of the demi-god
Krishna ; hence it must be a matter of some interest to ascertain who this famous
hero was, and what were the acts by which he achieved immortality.

The attempt to extract a grain of historical truth from an accumulation of
mythological legend is an interesting, but not very satisfactory, undertaking :
there is always a risk that the theorist's kernel of fact may be itself as imaginary
as the accretions which envelop it. However, reduced to its simplest elements,
the story of Krishna runs as follows : — At a very remote period, a branch of
the great Jadav clan settled on the banks of the Jamuna and made Mathuni
their capital city. Here Krishna was born. At the time of his birth, Ugrasen,
the rightful occupant of the throne, had been deposed by his own son, Kansa,
who, relying on the support of Jarasandha, King of Magadha, whose daughter
he had married, ruled the country with a rod of iron, outraging alike both o-ods
and men. Krishna, who was a cousin of the usurper, but had been brought up
in obscurity and employed in the tending of cattle, raised the standard of revolt,
defeated and slew Kansa, and restored Ugrasen to the throne of his ancestors.

All authorities lay great stress on the religious persecution that had prevail-
ed under the tyranny of Kansa, from which fact it has been surmised that he
was a convert to Buddhism, zealous in the propagation of his adopted faith; and
that Krishna owes much of his renown to the gratitude of the Bnihmans who
under bis championship, recovered their ancient influence. If, however 1000
B. C. is accepted as the approximate date of the Great War in which Krishna
took part, it is clear that his contemporary, Kansa, cannot have been a Bud-
dhist, since the founder of that religion, according to the now most fenerally
accepted chronology, died in the year 477 B. C, being then about 60 years of ao-e.

THE HISTORICAL KRISHNA. 51

Possibly lie may have been a Jaini, for the antiquity of that religion* is now
thoroughly established ; it has even been conjectured that Buddha himself was a
disciple of Mahavira, the last of the Jaini Tirthankaras.f Or the struggle may
have been between the votaries of Siva and Vishnu ; in which case Krishna, the
apostle of the latter faction, would find a natural enemy in the King of Kash-
mir, a country where Saivism has always predominated. On this hypothesis,
Kansa was the conservative monarch, and Krishna the innovator: a position
which has been inverted by tbe poets, influenced by the political events of their
own times.

To avenge the death of his son-in-law, Jarasandha marched an army against

Mathura, and was supported by tbe powerful king of some western country.

who is thence styled Kala-Yavana : for Yavana in Sanskrit, while it corresponds

originally to the Arabic Yiindn (Ionia) denotes secondarily — like Vildi/at in the

modern vernacular — any foreign, and specially any western, country. The

actual personage was probably tbe King of Kashmir, Gonanda I., who is

known to have accompanied Jarasandha ; though the description would be

more applicable to one of the Bactrian sovereigns of the Panjab. It is true thej

had not penetrated into India till some hundreds of years after Krishna : but

their power was well established at the time when the Mahabharat was written

to record his achievements : hence the anachronism. Similarly, in the Bhagavat

Purana, which was written after the Muhammadan invasion, the description

of the Yavana king is largely coloured by the author's feelings towards the

only western power with which he was acquainted. Originally, as above

stated, the word denoted the Greeks, and the Greeks only.f But the Greeks

were the foremost, the most dreaded of all the Mlechhas (i. e., Barbarians) and

thus Yavana came to be applied to the most prominent Mlechha power for the

time being, whatever it might happen to be. When the Muhammadans trod in

the steps of the Greeks, they became the chief Mlechhas, and they also were

consequently styled Yavanas.

* The oldest Jain inscription that has as yet been discovered is one from the hill Indra-
giri at Sravana Belgola in the South of India. It records an emigration of Jainis from Ujayin
under the leadership of Swiimi Bhadra Bahu, accounted the last of the Sruta Kevalis, who was
accompanied by Chandragupta, King of Pataliputra. As the inscription gives a list of Bhadra
Bahu's successors, it is clearly not contemporary with the events which it records; but it may
be inferred from the archaic form of tbe letters that it dates from the third century B. C.

f More recent research, however, has revealed the fact that the Gotania Swimi, who was
Mahavira's pupil, was not a Ksbatriya by caste, as was Sakya Muni, the Buddha, but a Brahman
of the well-known Gautama family, whose personal name was lndra-hhuti.

% This, however, is stoutly denied by Dr. Kajendra Lai Mittra. See his IndvAryans.

32 1EGKNDARY AUTHORITIES.

Krishna eventually found it desirable to abandon Mathura, and withthe whole
clan of Yadavs retired to the Bay of Kachh. There he founded the flourishing
city of Dwaraka, which at some later period was totally submerged in the sea.
While he was reigning at Dwaraka, the great war for the throne of Indrapras-
tha (Delhi) arose between the five sons of P;indu and Durjodhan, the son of
Dhritarashtra. Krishna allied himself with the Pandav princes, who were his
cousins on the mother's side, and was the main cause of their ultimate triumph..
Before its commencement Krishna had invaded Magadha, marching by a cir-
cuitous route through Tirhiit and so taking Jarasandha by surprise : his capital
was forced to surrender, and he himself slain in battle. Still, after his death,
Kama, a cousin of Krishna's of illegitimate birth, was placed on the throne of
Mathura and maintained there by the influence of the Kauravas, Krishna's ene-
mies : a clear proof that the hitter's retirement to Dwaraka was involuntary.

Whether the above narrative has or has not any historical foundation, it is

certain that Krishna was celebrated as a gallant warrior prince for many ages

before he was metamorphosed into the amatory swain who now, under the title

of Kanhaiya, is worshipped throughout India. He is first mentioned in the

Mahabharat, the most voluminous of all Sanskrit poems, consisting in the

printed edition of 91,000 couplets. There he figures simply as the King of

Dwaraka and ally of the Pandavs ; nor in the whole length of the poem, of which

he is to a great extent the hero, is any allusion whatever made to his early

life, except in one disputed passage. Hence it may be presumed that his boyish

frolics at, Mathura and Brinda-ban, which now alone dwell in popular memory,

are all subsequent inventions. They are related at length in the Harivansa,

which is a comparatively modern sequel to the Mahabharat,* and with still

greater circumstantiality in some of the later Puranas, which probably in their

present form date no further back than the tenth century after Christ. So rapid

has been the development of the original idea when once planted in the congenial

soil of the sensuous East, that while in none of the more genuine Puranas,

even those specially devoted to the inculcation of Vaishnava doctrines, is so

much as the name mentioned of his favourite mistress, Radha: she now is jointly

enthroned with him in every shrine and claims a full half of popular devotion.

Among ordinary Hindus the recognized authority for his life and exploits is

* Though many episodes of later date have beeu interpolated, the composition of the main
body of the Mahabharat may with some confidence be referred to the second or third century
before Christ.

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THE TYRANNY OF KANSA. 53

the Bhagavat Purana,* or rather its tenth Book, which has been translated into
every form of the modern vernacular. The Hindi version, entitled the Prei I
Sagar, is the one held in most repute. In constructing the following legend
of Krishna, in his popular character as the tutelary divinity of Mathura, the
Vishnu Purana has been adopted as the basis of the narrative, while many
supplementary incidents have been extracted from the Bhagavat, and occasional
references made to the Harivansa.

In the days when Kama was king of Ajodhya, there stood near the bank of
the Jamuna a dense forest, once the stronghold of the terrible giant Madhu,
who called it after his own name, Madhu-ban. On his death it passed into the
hand of his son, Lavana, who in the pride of his superhuman strength sent an
insolent challenge to Rama, provoking him to single combat. The god-like
hero disdained the easy victory for himself, but, to relieve the world of such an
oppressor, sent his youngest brother, Satrughna, who vanquished and slew the
giant, hewed down the wood in which he had entrenched himself, and on its
sitet founded the city of Mathura. The family of Bhoja, a remote descendant
of the great Jadu, the common father of all the Jadav race, occupied the throne
for many generations. The last of the line was King Ugrasen. In his house
Kansa was born, and was nurtured by the king as his own son, though in truth
he had no earthly father, but was the great demon Kalanemi incarnate. Aa
soon as he came to man's estate he deposed the aged monarch, seated himself
>n the throne, and filled the city with carnage and desolation. The priests and
sacred cattle were ruthlessly massacred and the temples of the gods defiled
with blood. Heaven was besieged with prayers for deliverance from such a
monster, nor were the prayers unheared. A supernatural voice declared to
Kansa that an avenger would be born in the person of the eighth son of
his kinsman, Vasudeva. Now, Vasudeva had married Devaki, a niece of
King Ugrasen, and was living away from the court in retirement at the hill
of Gobardhan. In the hope of defeating the prediction, Kansa immediately
summoned them to Mathura and there kept them closely watched. $ From

* The Bh&gavat is written in a more elegant style than any of the other Puranas,and is
traditionally ascribed to the grammarian Bopadeva, who flourished at the Court of Hemadri,
Rr,.ja of Devagiri or Daulatabad, in the twelfth or thirteenth century after Christ.

| The present Madhu-ban is near the village of Maholi, some five miles from Mathura and
from the bank of the Jamuna. The site, however, as now recognized, must be very ancient, since
it is the ban which has given its name to the village ; Maholi being a corruption of the original
form, Madhupuri.

t The site of their prison-house, called the Kara-grah, or more commonly Janm-bhumi, t> e.,
'■ birth-place,' is still marked by a email temple in Mathura near the Potara-knnd.

54 THE BIRTH CF KRISHXA.

year to year, as each successive child was born, it was taken and delivered to
the tyrant, and lay him consigned to death. When Devaki became pregnant
for the seventh time, the embryo was miraculously transferred to the womb of
Kohini, another wife of Vasudeva, living at Gokul, on the- opposite bank of the
Jamuna, and a report was circulated that the mother had miscarried from the
effects of her long imprisonment and constant anxiety. The child thus marvel-
lously preserved was first called Sankarshana,* but afterwards received the
name of Balanim or Baladcva, under which he has become famous to all
posterity.

Another year elapsed, and on the eighth of the dark fortnight of the month
of Bhadonf Devaki was delivered of her eighth son, the immortal Krishna.
Vasudeva took the babe in his arms and, favoured by the darkness of the night
and the direct interposition of heaven, passed through the prison guards, who
were charmed to sleep, and fled with his precious burden to the Jamuna. It
was then the season of the rains, and the mighty river was pouring down a
wild and resistless flood of waters. But he fearlessly stepped into the eddying
torrent : at the first step that he advanced the wave reached the foot of the
child slumbering in his arms ; then, marvellous to relate, the waters were stilled
at the touch of the divine infant and could rise no higher,} and in a moment
of time the wayfarer had traversed the torrent's broad expanse and emerged in
safety on the opposito shore. § Herej he met Nanda, the chief herdsman of
Gokul, whose wife, Jasoda, at that very time had given birth to a daughter,
no earthly child, however, save in semblance, but the delusive power Joganidr.'i.
Vasudeva dexterously exchanged the two infants and, returning, placed the
female child in the bed of Devaki. At once it began to cry. The guards
rushed in and carried it off to the tyrant. He, assured that it was the very
child of fate, snatched it furiously from their hands and dashed it to the

* Signifying • extraction,' ;'. e., from his mother's womb. The word is also explained to mean
'drawing furrows with the plough,' and would thus be paralleled by Balarama's other names of
Halayudha, Haladhara, and Ilalabhrit.

t On this day is celebrated the annual festival in honour of Krishna's birth, called Janm
Ashtami.

% This incident is popularly commemorated by a native toy called ' Vasudeva Katora ' ot
which i;rcat numbers are manufactured at Mathura. It is a brass cup with the figure of a man iu
it carrying a child at his side, and is so contrived that when water is poured into it it cannot rise
above the child's foot, but is then carried off by a hidden duet and runs out at the bottom til!
the cup is empty.

The landing-place is still shown at Gokul and called 'Utt .rcsvar Ghat.'

KP.ISHKA AT GOKUL, 55

ground : but how great his terror when he sees it rise resplendent in celestid
beauty and ascend to heaven, there to be adored as the great goddess Di
Kansa started from his momentary stupor, frantic with rage, and cursing the
gods as his enemies, issued savage orders that every one should be put to death
who dared to offer them sacrifice, and that diligent search should be made
for all young children, that the infant son of Devaki, wherever concealed,
might perish amongst the number. Judging these precautions to be sufficient,
and that nothing further was to be dreaded from the parents, he set Vasudeva
and Devaki at liberty. The former at once hastened to see Nanda, who had
come over to Mathura to pay his yearly tribute to the king, and after congra-
tulating him on Jasoda's having presented him with a son, begged him to take
back to Gokul Rohini's boy, Balaram, and let the two children be brought np
together. To this Nanda gladly assented, and so it came to pass that the I
brothers, Krishna and Balaram, spent the days of their childhood tog. '
Gokul, under the care of their foster-mother Jasoda.

They had not been there long, when one night the witch Piitana, hove :
about for some mischief to do in the service of Kansa, saw the babe Krishna
lying asleep, and took him up in her arms and began to suckle him with her
own devil's milk. A mortal child would have been poisoned at the first drop,
but Krishna drew the breast with such strength that her life's blood was drain-
ed with the milk, and the hideous fiend, terrifying the whole country of Braj with
her groans of agony, fell lifeless to the ground. Another day Jasoda had gone
down to the river-bank to wash some clothes, and had left the child asl
under one of the waggons. Ho all at once woke up hungry, and kicking out
with his baby foot upset the big cart, full as it was of pans and pails of milk.
When Jasoda came running back to see what all the noise was about, she
found him in the midst of the broken fragments quietly asleep again, as if
nothing had happened. Again, one of Kansa's attendant demons, by name
Trinavart, hoping to destroy the child, came and swept him off in a whirlwind,
but the child was too much for him and made that his last journey to Braj.f

The older the boy grew, the more troublesome did Jasoda find him ; he
would crawl about everywhere on his hands and knees, getting into the cattle-
sheds and pulling the calves by their tails, upsetting the pans of milk and whey,
sticking his fingers into the curds and butter, and daubing his face and clothes

* The scene of this transformation is laid at the Jog Ghat in Mathura, so called from the
child Joganidra.

f The event is commemorated by a small cell at Mahaban, in which the demon whirlwind
is represented by a pair of enormous, wings overshadowing the infant Krishna.

55 RRISKNA AT BRINDX-BAN.

all over; and one day she got so angry with him that she put a cord round his waist
and tied him to the great wooden mortar* while she went to look after her house-
hold affairs. No sooner was her back turned than the child, in his efforts to get
loose, dragged away with him the heavy wooden block till it got fixed between two
immense Arjun trees that were growing in the court-yard. It was wedged tight
only for a minute, one more pull and down came the two enormous trunks with
a thundering crash. Up ran the neighbours, expecting an earthquake at least,
and found the village half buried under the branches of the fallen trees, with
the child between the two shattered stems laughing at the mischief he had
caused, t

Alarmed at these successive portents, Nanda determined upon removing to
some other locality and selected the neighbourhood of Brinda-ban as affording
the best pasturage for the cattle. Here the boys lived till they were seven
years old, not so much in Brinda-ban itself as in the copses on the opposite bank
of the river, near the town of Mat ; there they wandered about, merrily disport-
ing themselves, decking their heads with plumes of peacocks' feathers, string-
ing long wreaths of wild flowers round their necks and making sweet music
with their rustic pipes.f At evening-tide they drove the cows home to the pens,
and joined in frolicsome sports with the herdsmen's children under the shade
of the great Bhandir tree.§

But even in their new home they were not secure from demoniacal
ression. When they had come to five years of age, and were grazing their

* From this incident Krishna derives his popular name of Damodar, from dam a cord, and
udar, the body. The mortar, or nlukhula, is generally a solid block of wood, three or four feet
high, hollowed out at the top into the shape of a basin.

f The traditionary scene of all these adventures is laid, not at Gokul, as might have been
anticipated, but at Mahaban, which is now a distinct town further inland. There are shown the
jugal arjun k: ihaur, ' or site of the two Arjun trees,' and the spots where Putana, Trinavart, and
Sakatasur, or the cart demon (for in the Bhagavat the cart is said to have been upset by the
'.itirveution of an evil spirit), met their fate. The village of Koila, on the opposite bank, is
said to derive its name from the fact that the ' ashes' from Putana's funeral pile floated down
there; or that Vasudeva, when crossing the river and thinking he was about to tink, called out
for some one to take the child, saying ' Koi le, koi le.'

t From these childish sports, Krishna derives his popular names of Dan-mdli, ' the wearer
of a chaplet of wild flowers,' and Bansi-dluir and Murli-dhar, ' the flute-player.' Hence, too, the
strolling singers, who frequent the fairs held on Krishna's fete days, attire themselves in high-
crowned caps decked with peacocks' feathers.

§ The Bhiindir-ban is a dense thicket of ber and other low prickly shrubs in the hamlet of
Chhihiri, a little above Mat. In the centre is an open space with a small modern temple and
well. The Bhandir bat is an old tree a few hundred yards outside the grove.

trauma's submission. .37

cattle on the bank of the Jamuna the demon Bachhasur made an open onset
against them.* When he had received the reward of his temerity, the demon
Bakasur tried the efficacy of stratagem. Transforming himself into a crane of
gigantic proportions he perched on the hill-side, and when the cowherd's child-
ren came to gaze at the monstrous apparition, snapped them all up one alter fchi
other. But Krishna made such a hot mouthful that he was only too glad to
drop him ; and as soon as the boy set his feet on the ground again, he seized
the monster by his long bill and rent him in twain.

On another day, as their playmate Toshf and some of the other children
were rambling about, they spied what they took to be the mouth of a great chasm
in the rock. It was in truth the expanded jaws of the serpent-king Aghasur,
and as the boys were peeping in he drew a deep breath and sucked them all
down. But Krishna bid them be of good cheer, and swelled his body to such
a size that the serpent burst, and the children stept out upon the plain un-
injured.

Again, as they lay lazily one sultry noon under a Kadamb tree enjoj
their lunch, the calves strayed away quite out of sight.| In fact, the jealous
god Brahma had stolen them. When the loss was detected, all ran off in differ-
ent directions to look for them ; but Krishna took a shorter plan, and as .--
as he found himself alone, created other cattle exactly like them to take their
place. He then waited a little for his companions' return ; but when no signs
of them appeared, he guessed, as was really the case, that they too had been stol
by Brahma ; so without more ado he continued the work of creation, and call-
ed into existence another group of children identical in appearance with the
absentees. Meanwhile, Brahma had dropped off into one of his periodical dozes,
and waking up after the lapse of a year, chuckled to himself over the for-
lorn condition of Braj, without cither cattle or children. But when he got.
there and began to look about him, he found everything just the same as before :
then he made his submission to Krishna, and acknowledged him to be his lord
and master.

One day, as Krishna was strolling by himself along the bank of the Jamuna,
he came to a creek by the side of which grew a tall Kadamb tree. He

* This adventure gives its name to the Bachh-ban near Sehi.

f Hence the name of the village Tosh in the Mathura pargana.

X The scene of this adventure is laid at Khadira-ban, near lihaira. The kftadira is a species
of acacia. The Sanskrit word assumes in Prakrit the form hhmra.

58 KBISHNA'S DEFEAT OF THE SERPENT KA'LIYA.

climbed the tree and took a plunge into the water. Now, this recess was the
haunt of a savage dragon, by name Kaliya, who at one started from the depth,
coiled himself round the intruder, and fastened upon him with his poisonous
fangs. The alarm spread, and Nanda, Jasoda and Balaram, and all the neigh-
bours came running, frightened out of their senses, and found Krishna stiD and
motionless, enveloped in the dragon's coils. The sight was so terrible that all
stood as if spell-bound ; but Krishna with a smile gently shook off the serpent's
folds, and seizing the hooded monster by one of his many heads, pressed
it- down upon the margin of the stream and danced upon it, till the poor
wretch was so torn and lacerated that his wives all came from their watery
cells and threw themselves at Krishna's feet and begged for mercy. The
dragon himself in a feeble voice sued for pardon ; then the beneficent divinity
not only spared his life and allowed him to depart with all his family to the
island of Ramanak, but further assured him that be would ever thereafter bear
upon his brow the impress of the divine feet, seeing which no enemy would
dare to molest him.''

After this, as the two boys were straying with their herds from wood to
wood, they came to a large palm-grove (tal-ban), where they began shaking
the trees to bring down the fruit. Now, in this grove there dwelt a demon,
by name Dhenuk, who, hearing the fruit fall, rushed past in the form of an
ass and gave Balaram a flying kick full on the breast with both his hind legs.
But before his legs could again reach the ground, Balaram seized them in his
powerful grasp, and whirling the demon round his head hurled the carcase
on to the top of one of the tallest trees, causing the fruit to drop like rain.
The bovs then returned to their station at the Bhiindir fig-tree, and that
very night, while they were in Bhadra-banf close by, there came on a
violent storm. The tall dry grass was kindled by the lightning and the
whole forest was in a blaze. Off scampered the cattle, and the herdsmen too,
but Krishna called to the cowards to stop and close their eyes for a minute.

* One of the ghats at Brinda-ban is named, in commemoration of this event, Eali-mardan,
or Kali-dah, and the, or rather u, Kadanib tree is etill shown there.

f Bliadra-ban occupies a high point on the left bank of the Jamuna, some three miles
above Mat. With the usual fate of Hindi words, it is transformed in the official map of the
district into the Persian Bahddur-ban, Between it and Bhandir-ban is a large straggling wood
called mekh-ban. This, it is said, was open ground, till one day, many years ago, some great
man encamped there, and all the stakes to which his horses had been tethered took root and
grew up.

balara'm. .">9

When they opened them again, the cows wore all standing in their pens,
and the moon shone calmly down on the waving l'orest trees and rustling
reeds.

Another day Krishna and Balaram wore running a race up to the Bhandir
tree with their playmate Sridama, when the demon Pralamba came and asked to
make a fourth. In the race Pralamba was beaten by Balaram, and so, accord-
ing to the rules of the game, had to carry him on his bar!; from the goal to
the starting-point. No sooner was Balaram on his shoulders than Pralamba
ran off' with him at the top of his speed, and recovering his proper diabolical
form made sure of destroying him. But Balaram soon taught him differently,
and squeezed him so tightly with his knees, and dealt him such cruel blows on
the head with his fists, that his skull and ribs were broken, and no life left in
the monster. Seeing this feat of strength, his comrades loudly greeted him
with the name of Balaram, ' Rama the strong,'* which title he ever after
retained.

But who so frolicsome as the boy Krishna ? Seeing the fair maids of Braj
performing their ablutions in the Jamuna, he stole along the bank, and picking
up the clothes of which they had divested themselves, climbed up with them
into a Kadamb tree. There ho mocked the frightened girls as they came
shivering out of the water ; nor would he yield a particle of vestment till all
had ranged before him in a row, and with clasped and uplifted hands most
piteously entreated him. Thus the boy-god taught his votaries that submis-
sion to the divine will was a more excellent virtue even than modesty.t

At the end of the rains all the herdsmen began to busy themselves in pre-
paring a great sacrifice in honour of Indra, as a token of their gratitude for
the refreshing showers he had bestowed upon the earth. But Krishna, who
had already made sport of Brahma, thought lightly enough of Indra's claims

* Balaram, under the name of Belus, is described by Latin writers as the Indian Hercules
and said to be one of the tutelary divinities of Mathura. Patanjali also, the celebrated Gram-
marian, a native of Gonda in Oudli, whose most probable date is 150 B. C, clearly refers to
Krishna as a divinity and to Kansa's death at his hands as a current tradition, both popular and
ancient ; the events in the hero's life forming the subject of different poems, from which he
quotes lines or parts of lines as examples of grammatical rules. Thus, whatever the date of the
eighteen Puranas, as we now have them, Pauranik mythology and the local cultus of Krishna
and Balaram at Mathura must be of higher antiquity than has been represented by some Euro-
pean scholars.

t This popular incident is commemorated by the Chir Ghat at Siyara ; chir meaning clothes.
The same name is frequently given to the Chain Ghat at Brinda-ban, which is also so called iu
the Vraja-bhakti-vildsa, written 1553 A.D.

CO KEISUNA AT GOBARDJIAX.

and said to Nanda : — " Tho forests where we tend our cattle cluster round si
foot of the hills, and it is the spirits of the hills that we ought rather to
worship. They can assume any shapes they please, and if we slight them, will
surely transform themselves into lions and wolves and destroy both us and our
herds." The people of Braj were convinced by these arguments, and taking
all the rich gifts they had prepared, set out for Gobardhan, where they solemnly
circumambulated the mountain and presented their offerings to the new divi-
tity. Krishna himself, in the character of the mountain gods, stood forth on
the highest peak and accepted the adoration of the assembled crowd, while a
fictitious image in his own proper person joined humbly in the ranks of tin
devotee

When Indra saw himself thus defrauded of the promised sacrifice, he was
very wrath, and summoning the clouds from every quarter of heaven, bid them
all descend upon Braj in one fearful and unbroken torrent. In an instant
the sky was overhung with impenetrable gloom, and it was only by the vivid
flashes of lightning that the terrified herdsmen could see their houses and cattle
beaten down and swept away by the irresistible deluge. The ruin was but
for a moment ; with one hand Krishna uprooted the mountain from its base,
and balancing it on tho tip of his finger called all the people under its cover.
There they remained secure for seven days and nights and the storms of In-
dra beat harmlessly on the summit of the uplifted range : while Krishna stood
erect and smiling, nor once did his finger tremble beneath the weight. When
Indra found his passion fruitless, the heavens again became clear ; the people
of Braj stepped forth from under Gobardhan, and Krishna quietly restored it
to its original site. Then Indra, moved with desire to behold and worship tin
incarnate god, mounted his elephant Airavata and descended upon the plains of
Braj. There he adored Krishna in his humble pastoral guise, and saluting
him by the new titles of Upendra* and Gobind placed under his special
protection his own son the hero Arjun, who had then taken birth at Indra-
prasthain the family of Pandu.

* The title Upeudra was evidently conferred upon Krishna before the full development oi
the Vaishnava School ; for however Pauranik writers may attempt to explain it, the only gram-
matical meaning of the compound is 'a lesser Indra.' As Krishna has long been considered
much the greater go J of the two, the title h;;s fallen into disrepute and is now seldom used.
Similarly with ' Gobind'; its true meaning in not, as implied in the text, ' the Indra of cows,'
I ut simply ' a finder, or ' tender of cows,' from the root ' vid.' The Hindus themselves prefer to
explain Upendra as meaning simply Indra's younger brother,' Vishnu, in the dwarf incarnation,
i ag been born as the son of Kasyapa, who was also Indra's father.

KRISHNA AND THE GOPfS. fit

When Krishna had completed his twelfth year, Nanda, in accordance with
a vow that he had made, went with all his family to perform a special devotion
at the temple of Devi. At night, when they were asleep, a huge boa-con-
strictor laid hold of Nanda by the toe and would speedily have devoured him ;
but Krishna, hearing his foster-father's cries, ran to his side and lightly set his
foot on the great serpent's head. At the very touch the monster was trans-
formed and assumed the figure of a lovely youth ; for ages ago a Ganymede of
heaven's court by name Sudarsan, in the pride of beauty and exalted birth, had
vexed the holy sage Angiras, when deep in divine contemplation, by dancing
backwards and forwards before him, and by his curse had been metamorphosed
into a snake, in that vile shape to expiate his offence until the advent of the
gracious Krishna.

Beholding all the glorious deeds that he had performed, the maids of Braj
could not restrain their admiration. Drawn from their lonely homes by the
low sweet notes of his seductive pipe, they floated around him in rapturous
love, and through the moonlight autumn nights joined with him in the circling
dance, passing from glade to glade in ever increasing ecstasy of devotion. To
whatever theme his voice was attuned, their song had but one burden — his per-
fect beauty ; and as they mingled in the mystic maze, with eyes closed in the
intensity of voluptuous passion, each nymph as she grasped the hand of her
partner thrilled at the touch, as though the hand were Krishna's, and dreamed
herself alone supremely blest in the enjoyment of his undivided affection.
Radha, fairest of the fair, reigned queen of the revels, and so languished in the
heavenly delights of his embraces, that all consciousness of earth and self was
obliterated.*

One night, as the choir of attendant damsels followed through the woods
the notes of his wayward pipe, a lustful giant, by name Sankhehiir, attempted
to intercept them. Then Krishna showed himself no tirnorous gallant, but cast-
ing crown and flute to the ground pursued the ravisher, and seizing him from
behind by his shaggy hair, cut off his head, and taking the precious jewel
which he had worn on his front presented it to Balaram.

* Any sketch of Krishna's adventures would be greatly defective which contained no allusion
to his celebrated amours with the Gopis, or milkmaids of Braj. it is the one incident in his
life upon which modern Hindu wi iters love to lavish all the resources of their eloquence. Yet
in the original authorities it occupies a no more prominent place in the narrative than that which
has been assigned it above. Iu pictorial representations of the ' circular dance'or Basmandal,
whatever the number of the Gopis introduced, so often is the figure of Krishna repeated. Thus
each Gopi can claim him as a partner, while 3gain, in the centre of the circle, he stands iu la^er
form with his favourite Kadha.

<32 KRISHNA'S COMBAT WITH THE BULL ARISHTA.

Yet once again was the dance of love rudely interrupted. The demon
Arishta, disguised as a gigantic bull, dashed upon the scene and made straight
for Krishna. The intrepid youth, smiling, awaited the attack, and seizing him
by the horns forced down his head to the ground; then twisting the monster's
neck as it had been a wet rag, he wrenched one of the horns from the socket
and with it so belaboured the brute that no life was left in his body. Then all
the herdsmen rejoiced; but the crime of violating even the semblance of a bull
could not remain unexpiated. So all the sacred streams and places of pilgrim-
age, obedient to Krishna's summons, came in bodily shape to Gobardhan and
poured from their holy urns into two deep reservoirs prepared for the occasion.*
There Krishna bathed, and by the efficacy of this concentrated essence of sanc-
tity was washed clean of the pollution he had incurred.

When Kansa heard of the marvellous acts performed by the two boys at
Brindii-ban he trembled with fear and recognized the fated avengers, who had
eluded all his cruel vigilance and would yet wreak his doom. After pondering
for a while what stratagem to adopt, he proclaimed a great tournay of arms,
making sure that if they were induced to come to Mathuni aud enter the lists as
combatants, they would be inevitably destroyed by his two champions Chanur
aud Mushtika. Of all the Jadav tribe Akrur was the only chieftain in whose
integrity the tyrant could confide : he accordingly was despatched with an
invitation to Nanda and all his family to attend the coming festival. But though
Akriir started at once on his mission, Kansa was too restless to wait the result :
the demon Kesin, terror of the woods of Brinda-ban, was ordered to try his
strength against them or ever they left their home. Disguised as a wild horse,
the monster rushed amongst the herds, scattering them in all directions. Krishna
alone stood calmly in his way, and when the demoniacal steed bearing down
upon him with wide-extended jaws made as though it would devour him, he
thrust his arm down the gaping throat and, with a mighty heave, burst the
huge body asunder, splitting it into two equal portions right down the back
from nose to tail.f

* These are the famous tanks of Radhu-kund, which is the next village to Gobardhan ; while
Aring, a contraction for Arishta-gauw, is the scene of the combat with the bull.

t There are two ghats at Brinda-ban named after this adventure : the first Kcsi Ghat, where
the monster was slain ; the second Chain Ghat, where Krishna ' rested' and bathed. It is from
this exploit, according to Tauranik etymology, that Krishna derives his popular name of Kesava.
The name, however, is more ancient than the legend, and ;signifies Bimply the long-haired,
' crinitus,' or radiant, an appropriate epithet if Krishna be taken for the Indian Apollo.

Krishna's return to mathura'. 63

All unconcerned at this stupendous encounter, Krishna returned to his
childish sports and was enjoying a game of hlind-rnan's buff, when the demon
Byom.isur came up in guise as a cowherd .and asked to join the party. After
a little, he proposed to vary the amusement by a turn at wolf-and-goats, and
then lyino- in ambush and transforming himself into a real wolf he fell upon
the children, one by one, and tore them in pieces, till Krishna, detecting his
wiles, dragged him from his cover and, seizing him by the throat, beat him to
death.

At this juncture, Akrur* arrived with his treacherous invitation: it was at
once accepted, and the boys in high glee started for Mathura, Nanda also and
all the village encampment accompanying them. Just outside the city they
met the king's washerman and his train of donkeys laden with bundles of
clothes, which he was taking back fresh washed from the river-side to the
palace. What bettor opportunity could be desired for country boys, who had
never before left the woods and had no clothes fit to wear. They at once made
a rush at the bundles and, tearing them open, arrayed themselves in the finery
just as it came to hand, without any regard for fit or colour; then on they went
again, laughing heartily at their own mountebank appearance, till a good tailor
called them into his shop, and there cut and snipped and stitched away till he
turned them out in the very height of fashion : and to complete their costume,
the mdli Sudaina gave them each a nosegay of flowers. So going through the
streets like young princes, there met them the poor hump-backed woman
Kubja, and Krishna, as he passed, putting one foot on her feet and one hand
under her chin, stretched out her body straight as a dart.f

In the court-yard before the palace was displayed the monstrous bow, the test
of skill and strength in the coming encounter of arms. None but a giant could
bend it ; but Krishna took it up in sport, and it snapped in his fingers like a twig.
Out ran the king's guards, hearing the crash of the broken beam, but all perished
at the touch of the invincible child : not one survived to tell how death was dealt.

When they had seen all the sights of the city, they returned to Nanda, who
had been much disquieted by their long absence, and on the morrow repaired
to the arena, where Kansa was enthroned in state on a high dais overlooking

* Akrur is the name of a hamlet betwsen Mathura and Brinda-ban.

t "Kubja's well" in Mathura commemorates this event. It is on the Delhi road, a little
beyond the Katra. Nearly opposite, a carved pillar from a Buddhist railing has been set up and
is worshipped as Parrati.

04 THE DEATH OF KANSA.

the lists. At the entrance they were confronted by the savage elephant Kuvala-
yapida, upon whom Kansa relied to trample them to death. But Krishna, after
sporting with it for a while, seized it at last by the tail, and whirling it round
his head dashed it lifeless to the ground. Then, each bearing one of its tusks,
the two boys stepped into the ring and challenged all comers. Chanur was
matched against Krishna, Mushtika against Bahrain. The struggle was no
sooner begun than ended : both the king's champions were thrown and rose
no more. Then Kansa started from his throne, and cried aloud to his guards
to seize and put to death the two rash boys with their father Vasudeva — for his
sons he knew they were — and the old King Ugrasen. But Krishna with one
bound sprung upon the dais, seized the tyrant by the hair as he vainly sought
to fly, and hurled him down the giddy height into the ravine below.* Then
they dragged the lifeless body to the bank of the Jamuna, and there by the
water's edge at last sat down to 'rest,' whence the place is known to this day
as the ' Visrant' Ghat.t Now that justice had been satisfied, Krishna was too
righteous to insult the dead ; he comforted the widows of the fallen monarch,
and bid them celebrate the funeral rites with all due form, and himself applied
the torch to the pyre. Then Ugrasen was reseated on his ancient throne, and
Mathura once more knew peace and security.

As Krishna was determined on a lengthened-stay, he persuaded Nan da to
return alone to Brind;i-ban and console bis foster-mother Jasoda with tidings of
his welfare. He and Balaram then underwent the ceremonies of caste-initia-
tion, which had been neglected during their sojourn with the herdsmen ; and,
after a few days, proceeded to Ujjayin, there to pursue the prescribed course
of study under the Kasya sage Sandipani. The rapidity with which they
mastered every science soon betrayed their divinity ; and as they prepared to
leave, their instructor loll at their feet and begged of them a boon — namely, the
restoration of his son, who had been engulfed by the waves of the sea when on
a pilgrimage to Prabhasa. Ocean was summoned to answer the charge, and
taxed the demon Panchajana with the crime. Krishna at once plunged into
the unfathomable depth and dragged the monster lifeless to the surface. Then

* Kansa's Hill and the Rang-Bhumi, or 'arena,' with an image of IiangCBvar Maliadeva,
where the bow was broken, the elephant killed and the champion wrestlers defeated, are still sacred
sites immediately outside the city of Mathura, opposite the new dispensary.

f The Visrant Ghat, or Resling Gluit, is the most sacred spot in all Mathura. It occupies
the centre of the river frost, and is thus made a prominent object, though it has no special
architectural beauty.

JARA'SANDHA's SIEGE OF MATHtRA'. (J5

with Balaram lie invaded the city of the dead and claimed from Jama the
Brahman's son, whom they took back with them to the light of day and
restored to his enraptured parents. The shell in which the demon had dwelt
(whence his title Sankhasur) was ever thereafter borne by the hern as his
special emblem* under the name of Panchajanya.

Meanwhile, the widows of King Kansa had fled to Magadha, their native
land, and implored their father, Jarasandha, to take up arms and avenge theii
murdered lord. Scarcely had Krishna returned to Mathura when the assem-
bled hosts invested the city. The gallant prince did not wait the attack ; but,
accompanied by Balaram, sallied forth, routed the enemy and took Jarasan-
dha prisoner. Compassionating the utterness of his defeat, they allowed him
to return to his own country, where, unmoved by the generosity of his victors,
•he immediately began to raise a new army on a still larger scale than the pre-
ceding, and again invaded the dominions of Ugrasen. Seventeen times did
Jarasandha renew the attack, seventeen times was he repulsed by Krishna.
Finding it vain to continue the struggle alone, he at last called to his aid King
K:ila-yavana,t who with his barbarous hordes from the far west, bore down
upon the devoted city of Mathura. That very night Krishna bade arise on
the remote shore of the Bay of Kachh the stately Fort of Dvvaraka, and
thither, in a moment of time, transferred the whole of his faithful people : the
first intimation that reached them of their changed abode was the sound of the
roaring waves when they woke en the following morning. He then returned
to do battle against the allied invaders ; but being hard pressed by the barba-
rian king, he fled and took refuge in a cave, where the holy Muehkunda was
sleeping, and there concealed himself. "When the Yavana arrived, he took the
sleeper to be Krishna and spurned him with his foot, whereupon Muehkunda
awoke and with a glance reduced him to ashes. $ But meanwhile Mathura had

* The legend has been invented to explain why the sankha, or conch-shell, is employed as a
religious emblem: the simpler reason is to be found in the fact of its constant nse as an auxi-
liary to temple worship. In consequence of a slight similarity in the name, this incident is popu-
larly connected with the village of Sonsa in the Mathura pargana, without much regard to the
exigencies of the narrative, since l'rabhasa, where 1'anchajana was slain, is far away on the
shore of the Western Ocean in Gujarat.

f The soul of Kala-yavana is Bupposed in a second birth to have animated the body of the
tyrannical Aurangzeb.

X The traditional scene of this event is laid at Muchkund, a lake three miles to the
west of Dholpur, where two bathing fairs are annually held : the one in May, the other at the
beginning of September. The lake has as many as 114 temples on its banks, though none are
of great antiquity. It covers an area of 41 acres and lies in a natural hollow of great depth,

66 KRISHNA AT DWA'RAKA*.

fallen into the hands of Jarasandha, who forthwith destroyed all the palaces
and temples and every memento of the former dynasty, and erected new build-
ings in their place as monuments of his own conquest.*

Thenceforth Krishna reigned with great glory at Dwaraka ; and not many
days had elapsed when, fired with the report of the matchless beauty of the
princess Rukmini, daughter of Bhishmak, king of Kundina in the country
of Vidarbha, he broke in upon the marriage feast, and carried her off before
the very eyes of her betrothed, the Ghanderi king Sisupal.f After this he
contracted many other splendid alliances, even to the number of sixteen thou-
sand and one hundred, and became the father of a hundred and eighty thou-
sand sons.t In the Great War he took up arms with his five cousins, the
Pandav princes, to terminate the tyranny of Duryodhau ; and accompanied
by Bhima and Arjuna, invaded Magadha, and taking Jarasandha by surprise,
put him to death and burnt his capital : and many other noble achievements
did he perform, which are written iu the chronicles of Dwaraka ; but Mathura
saw him no more, and the legends of Mathura are ended.

To many persons it will appear profane to institute a comparison between
the inspired oracles of Ghristianity and the fictions of Hinduism. But if we

filled in the rains by the drainage of the neighbourhood and fed throughout the year by a num-
ber of springs, which hare their source iu the surrounding sand-stone hills. The local legend
is that Raj;i Muchkund, after a long and holy life, desired to find rest in death. The gods de-
nied his prayer, but allowed him to repose for centuries in sleep and decree! that any one who
disturbed him should be consumed by fire. Krishna, in his flight from Kala-yavana, chanced
to paBS the place where the Raja slept and, without disturbing him, threw a cloth over his face
and concealed himself close by. Soon after arrived Kila-yavana, who, concluding that the
sleeper was the enemy he sought, rudely awoke him and was iustantly consumed. After this
Krishna remained with the Raja tor some days and finding that no water was to be had nearer
than the Chambal, he stamped his foot and so caused a depression in the rock, which immedi-
ately filled with water and now forms the lake.

* As Magadha became the great centre of Buddhism, and indeed derives its latter name
of Bihar from the numerous Viharas, or Buddhist monasteries, which it contained, its king Ja-
rasan.iha and his son-iu-law Kansa have been described by the orthodox writers of the Maha*
bh.irat and Sri Bhagavat with all the animus they felt against the professors of that religion,
though in reality it had not come into existence till BO;ne 400 years after Jarasandha 's death.
Thus the narrative of Krishna's retreat to Dwaraka and the subsequent demolition of Hindu
Mathura, besides its primary signification, represents also in mythological language the great
historical fact, attested by the notices of contemporary travellers and the results of recent an-
tiquarian research, that for a time Brahmanism was almost eradicated from Central India and
Buddhism established as the national religion.

t Sisupal was first cousin to Krishna; his mother, Srutadcvi, being Vasudeva's sister.

X These extravagant numbers are merely intended to indicate the wide diffusion and power
of the great Jadava (vulgarly Jadou) clan,

CONNECTION OF KRISHNA WITH CHRIST. 67

fairly consider the legend as above sketched, and allow for a slight element or*
the grotesque and that tendency to exaggerate which is inalienable from
Oriental imagination, we shall find nothing incongruous with the primary idea
of a beneficent divinity manifested in the flesh in order to deliver the world
from oppression and restore the practice of true religion. Even as regards the
greatest stumbling-block, viz., the ' Panchadyaya,' or five chapters of the Bhaga-
vat, which describe Krishna's amours with the Gopis, the language is
scarcely, if at all, more glowing and impassioned than that employed in ' the
song of songs, which is Solomon's;' and if theologians maintain that the latter
must be mystical because inspired, how can a similar defence be denied to tho
Hindu philosopher? As to those wayward caprices of the child-god, for which
no adequate explanation can be assigned, the Brahman, without any deroga-
tion from his intellect, may regard them as the sport of the Almighty, the
mysterious dealings of an inscrutable Providence, styled in Sanskrit termino-
logy mdyd, and in the language of Holy Church sapientia — sapientia ludens
Omni tempore, ludens in orbe terrarum.

Attempts have also been made to establish a definite and immediate
connection between tho Hindu narrative and at least the earlier chapters of
S. Matthew's Gospel. But I think without success. There is an obvious simi-
larity of sound between the names Christ and Krishna ; Herod's massacre of
the innocents may be compared with the massacre of the children of Mathura
by Kansa ; the flight into Egypt with the flight to Gokul ; as Christ had a
forerunner of supernatural birth in the person of S. John the Baptist, so had
Krishna in Balaram ; and as tho infant Saviour was cradled in a manger and
first worshipped by shepherds, though descended from the royal house of
Judah, so Krishna, though a near kinsman of the reigning prince, was brought
up amongst cattle and first manifested his divinity to herdsmen.* The infer-
ence drawn from these coincidences is corroborated by an ecclesiastical tradi-
tion that the Gospel which S. Thomas the Apostle brought with him to India

♦Hindu pictures of the infant Krishna in the arms of his foster-mother Jasodd, with a
glory encircling the heads both of mother and child and a background of Oriental scenery,
might often pass for Indian representations of Christ and the Madonna. Professor Weber
has written at great length to argue a connection between them. But few Bcenes (as remarked
by Dr. Kajendralala Mitra) could be more natural or indigenous in any country than that of a
woman nursing a child, and in delineating it in one country it is all but utterly impossible to
design something which would not occur to other artists in other parts of the world. The
relation of original and copy in such case can be inferred only from the details, the technical
treatment, general arrangement and style of execution; and in these respects there is no simU
larity between the Hindu painting and the Byzantine Madonna quoted by Professor Weber.

68 SIMILARITY OF NAMES.

was that of S. Matthew, and that when his relics were discovered, a copy of it
was found to have been buried with him. It is further to be noted that the
special Vaislmava tenets of the unity of the Godhead and of salvation by faith
are said to have been introduced by Narada from the Sweta-dwipa, an
unknown region, which if the word be interpreted to mean ' White-man's land,'
might well be identified with Christian Europe. It is, on the other hand,
absolutely certain that the name of Krishna, however late the full development
of the legendary cycle, was celebrated throughout India long before the Chris-
tian era ; thus the only possible hypothesis is that some pandit, struck by the
marvellous circumstances of our Lord's infancy as related in the Gospel, trans-
ferred them to his own indigenous mythology, and on account of the similarity
of name selected Krishna as their hero. It is quite possible that a new life of
Krishna may in this way have been constructed out of incidents borrowed
from Christian records, since we know as a fact of literary history that the
converse process has been actually performed. Thus Fr. Beschi, who was in
India from 1700 to 1742, in the hope of supplanting the Kamayana, composed,
on the model of that famous Hindu epic, a poem of 8,615 stanzas divided into
30 cantos, called the Tembavani, or Unfading Garland, in which every adven-
ture, miracle and achievement recorded of the national hero, Rama, was elabo-
rately paralleled by events in the life of Christ. It may be added that the
Harivansa, which possibly is as old* as any of the Vaishnava Puranas, was
certainly written by a stranger to the country of Braj ;| and not only so, but
it further shows distinct traces of a southern origin, as in its description of the
exclusively Dakkini festival, the Punjal: and it is only in the south of India that

* It is quoted by Biruni (born 970, died 1038 A. D.) as a standard authority in his time.

t The proof of this statement is that all his topographical descriptions are utterly irrecon-
cilable with facts. Thus lie mentions that Krishna and Balarama -were brought up at a spot
selected by Nanda on the bank of the Jamuna near the hill of Gobardhan (Canto 61). Now.
Gobardhau is some fifteen miles from the river ; and the neighbourhood of Gokula and Mahaban,
which all other written authorities and also ancient tradition agree in declaring to hare been the
scene of Krishna's infancy, is several miles further distant from the ridge and on the other side
of the Jamuna. Again, Tal-ban is described (Canto 79) as lying north of Gobardhan —

^f^TrT rfrlT CRT l*Q rTT^H S^rl

It is south-east of Gobardhan and with the city of Mathura between it and Brinda-ban, though
in the Bluigavat it is said to be close to the latter town. 8o also Bhandir-ban is represented
iu the Harivansa as being on the same side of the river as the Kali-Jlardan Ghat, being in reality
nearly opposite to it.

EARLY INDIAN CHRISTIANITY. 69*

a Brahman would be likely to meet with Christian traditions. There the Church
has had a continuous, though a feeble and struggling existence, from the very
earliest Apostolic times*'' down to the present : and it must he admitted that
there is no intrinsic improbability in supposing that the narrative ot the Gospel
may have exercised on some Hindu sectarian a similar influence to that which
the Pentateuch and the Talmud had on the founder of Islam. Nor are the
differences between the authentic legends of Judaism and the perversions of them
that appear in the Kuran very much greater than those which distinguish the
life of Christ from the life of Krishna. But alter all that can be urged there
is no historical basis for the supposed connection between the two narratives,
which probably would never have been suggested but for the similarity of
name. Now, that is certainly a purely accidental coincidence ; for Christos is
as obviously a Greek as Krishna is a Sanskrit formation, and the roots from
which the two words are severally derived are entirely different.

The similarity of doctrine is perhaps a yet more curious phenomenon, and
Dr. Lorinser, in his German version of the Bhagavad Gita, which is the most

* According to Eusebius, the Apostle who visited India was not Thomas, but Bartholomew
There is, however, no earlier tradition to confirm the latter name ; while the' Acts of S. Thomas' —
though apocryphal— are mentioned by F.piphanius, who was consecrated Bishop of Salamis about
3GS A.D., and are attributed by Photiua to Lucius Charinas, by later scholars to Bardesanes at the
end of the second century. Anyhow, they are ancient, and as it would hare been against the
writer's interest to contradict established facts, the probability is that his historical ground-
work— S. Thomas' visit to India — is correct. That Christianity still continued to exist there,
after the time of the Apostles, is proved by the statement of Eusebius that Pantanus, the teacher
of Clemens Alexandrious, visited the country in the second century and brought backwi.h
him to Alexandria a copy of the Hebrew Gospel of S. Matthew. S. Chrysostom also speaks of a
translation into the Indian tongue of a Gospel or Catechism ; a Metropolitan of Persia and India
attended the Council of Nice ; and the heresiarch Mani, put to death about 272 A.D., wrote an
Epistle to the Indians. Much stress, however, must not be laid on these latter facts, since India
in early times was a term of very wide extent. According to tradition S. Thomas founded seven
Churches iu Malabar, the names of which are given and are certainly old ; and in the sixth cen-
tury, Cosmas Indico-pleustes, a Byzantine monk, speaks of a Church at Male (Malabar) with a
Bishop in the town of Kalliena (Kalyin) who had been conscecrated in Persia. The sculptured
crosses which S. Francis Xavierand other Catholic Missionaries supposed to be relics of S. Thomas
have Pahlavi inscriptions, from the character of which it is surmised that they arc not of earlier
date than the seventh or eighth century. The old connection between Malabar and Edessa is proba-
bly to be explained by the fact that S. Thomas was, as Eusebius and other ecclesiastical iiistorians
describe him, the Apostle of Edessa, while Pahlavi, which is an Aramean dialect of Assyria, may
well have been known and used as far north as that city, since it was the language of the Persian
Court. From Antioch, which is not many miles distant from ancient Edessa, and to which the
E lessa Church was made Bubject, the Malabar Christians have from a very early period received
their Bishops.

70 CONNECTION BETWEEN CHRIST AND KRISHNA IMAGINARY.

authoritative exponent of Vaishnava tenets, has attempted to point out that it
contains many coincidences with and references to the New Testament. As
Dr. Muir has very justly observed, there is no doubt a general resemblance
between the manner in which Krishna asserts his own divine nature, enjoins
devotion to his person and sets forth the blessing which will result to his votaries
from such worship on the one hand, and the language of the fourth Gospel on
the other. But the immediate introduction of the Bible into the explanation of
the Bhagavad Gita is at least premature. For though some of the parallels are
curious, the ethics and the religion of different peoples are not so different
from one another that here and there coincidence should not be expected to
be found. Most of the verses cited exhibit no very close resemblance to Biblical
texts and are only such as might naturally have occurred spontaneously to an
Indian writer. And more particularly with regard to the doctrine of ' faith'
bhakti may be a modern term, but sraddha, in much the same sense, is found
even in the hymns of the Rig Veda.

A striking example of the insufficiency of mere coincidence in name and
event, to establish a material connection between the legends of any two
reigions, is afforded by the narrative of Buddha's temptation as given in the
Lalita Vistara. In all such cases the metaphysical resemblance tends to prove
the identity of the religious idea in all ages of the world and among all races
of mankind ; but any historical connection, in the absence of historical proof, is
purely hypothetical. The story of the Temptation in the fourth Chapter of
S. Matthew's Gospel, which was undergone after a long fast and before the
commencement of our Lord's active ministry, is exactly paralleled by the cir-
cumstances of Buddha's victory over tho assaults of the Evil One, after he had
completed his six years of penance and before he began his public career as a
national Reformer. But the Lalita Vistara is anterior in date to the Christian
revelation, and therefore caunot have borrowed from it ; while it is also certain
that the Buddhist legend can never have reached S. Matthew's ears, and there-
fore any connection between the two narratives is absolutely impossible. My
belief is that all the supposed connection between Christ and Krishna is equally
imaginary.

CHAPTER I V.

THE BRAJ-MANDAL, TIIE BAN-JXTKA, AND THE HOLI.

Not only the city of Mathuni, but with it the whole of the western half oi'ili
district, has a special interest of its own as the birth-place and abiding home of
Vaishnava Hinduism. It is about 42 miles in length, with an average breadth
of 30 miles, and is intersected throughout by the river Jamuna. On the risrht
bank of the stream are the parganas of Kosi and Ghhata — so named after their
principal towns — with the home pargana below them to the south ; and on the
left bank the united parganas of Mat and Noh-jhil, with half the pargana of
Maha-ban as far east as the town of Baladeva. This extent of country is almost
absolutely identical with the Braj-mandal of Hindu topography ; the circuit of
84 kos in the neighbourhood of Gokul and Brinda-ban, where the divine
brothers Krishna and Balaram grazed their herds.

The first aspect of the country is a little disappointing to the student of San-
skrit literature, who has been led by the glowing eulogiums of the poets to antici-
pate a second vale of Tempe. A similarly unfavourable impression is generally
produced upon the mind of any chance traveller, who is carried rapidly alono-
the dusty high-road, and can scarcely see beyond the hideous strip of broken
ground which the engineers reserve on either side, in order to supply the
soil required for annual repairs. As this strip is never systematically levelled,
but is dug up into irregular pits and hollows, the size and depth of which are
determined solely by the requirements of the moment, the effect is unsightly
enough to spoil any landscape. The following unflattering description is that
given by Mons. Victor Jacquemont, who came out to India on a scientific
mission on behalf of the Paris Museum of Natural History, and passed through
Agra and Mathura on his way to the Himalayas in the cold weather of 1829-30.
" Nothing," he writes, " can be less picturesque than the Jamuna. The soil is
sandy and the cultivated fields are intermingled with waste tracks, where scarce-
ly anything will grow but the Capparis aphi/lla and one or two kinds of
zysyphus. There is little wheat ; barley is the prevailing cereal, with peas,
sesamum, and cotton. In the immediate neighbourhood of the villages the
Tamarix articulata gives a little shade with its delicate foliage, which is super-
latively graceful no doubt, but as melancholy as that of the pine, which it
strangely resembles. The villages are far apart from one another and present
■every appearance of decay. Most of them are surrounded by strong walls

72 CHARACTER OF THE SCENERY.

flanked with towers, but their circuit often encloses only a few miserable cot-
tages." After a lapse of 50 years the above description is still fairly appli-
cable. The villages are now more populous and the mud walls by which fchej
were protected, being no longer required, have been gradully levelled with tho
ground. But the general features remain unchanged. The soil, being poor
and thin, is unfavourable to the growth of most large forest trees ; the mango
and shisham, the glory of the lower Dual), are conspicuously absent, and their
place is most inadequately supplied by the nim, fards, and various species ul
the tig tribe. For the same reason the dust in any ordinary weather is deep
on all tho thoroughfares and, if the slightest air is stirring, rises in a dense cloud,
and veils tho whole landscape in an impenetrable haze. The Jamuna, the one
great river of Braj, during eight months of the year meanders sullenly, a mere
rivulet, between wide expanses of sand, bounded by monotonous flats of arable
land, or high banks, which the rapidly expended force of contributory torrents has
cracked and broken into ugly chasms and stony ravines, naked of all vegetation.

As the limits of Braj from north to south on one side are defined by the
high lands to the east of the Jamuna, so are they on the other side by the hill
ranges of Bharat-pur; but there are few peaks of conspicuous height and the
general outline is tame and unimpressive. The villages, though large, are meanly
built, and betray the untidiness characteristic of Jats and Giijars, who form the
bulk of the population. From a distance they are often picturesque, being
built on the slope of natural or artificial mounds, and thus gaining dignity
by elevation. But on nearer approach they are found to consist of labyrinths of
the narrowest lanes winding between the mud walls of large enclosures, which
are rather cattle-yards than houses. At the base of the hill is ordinarily a
broad circle of meadow land, studded with low trees, which afford grateful
-hide and pasturage for the cattle ; while the large pond, from which the earth
was dug to construct the village site, supplies them throughout the year with
water. These natural woods commonly consist of pilu, cJthonkar, and hadamb
trees, among which are always interspersed clumps of hard with its leafless
evergreen twigs and bright-coloured flower and fruit. Tho pasendit, pdpri,
ami, hingot, 'join!:, barna, and dim also occur, but less frequently ; though the
last-named, the Sanskrit dhava, at Barsana clothes the whole of the hill-side.
At sun-rise and sun-set the thoroughfares are all but impassable, as the strag-
gling herds of oxen and buffaloes leave and return to the homestead: for in the
straitened precincts of an ordinary village arc stalled every night from 500 or
600 to 1,000 head of cattle, at least equalling, often outnumbering, the human,
population.

THE SCENERY AT ITS BEST.

The general poverty of the district forms the motif of the following popular
Hindi couplet, in which Krishna's neglect to enrich the land of his birth with
any choicer product than the karil, or wild caper, is cited as an illustration of
his wilfulness:

^1T ^W X^^H sift If ^r#T TJTTl I
5FT^ *1 WW cfifT S2T Sal 3H TTlff 1!

which may be thus done into English :

Krishna, you see, will never lose his wayward whims and vapours ;
For Kabul teeu:B with luscious fruit, while Braj boasts only capers.

In the rains however, at which season of the year all pilgrimages are made,
the Jamuna is a mighty stream, a mile or more broad; its many contributory
torrents and all the ponds and lakes, with which the district abounds, are filled to
overflowing; the rocks and hills are clothed with foliage, the dusty plain is trans-
formed into a green sward, and the smiling prospect goes far to justify the warm-
est panegyrics of the Hindu poets, whose appreciation of the scenery, it must be
remembered, has been further intensified by religious enthusiasm. Even at all
seasons of the year the landscape has a quiet charm of its own ; a sudden turn in
the winding lane reveals a grassy knoll with stone-built well and overhanging
pipal; or some sacred grove, where gleaming tufts of karil and the white-blossomed
ariisa weed are dotted about between the groups of weird pilu trees with their
clusters of tiny berries and strangely gnarled and twisted trunks, all entangled
in a dense undergrowth of prickly her and tens and chhonkar: while in the centre,
bordered with flowering oleander and nivdra, a still cool lake reflects the modest
shrine and well-fenced bush of tulsi that surmount the raised terrace, from which
a broad flight of steps, gift of some thankful pilgrim from afar, leads down to
the water's edge. The most pleasing architectural works in the district are the
large masonry tanks, which are very numerous and often display excellent tasti
in design and skill in execution. The temples, though in some instances of
considerable size, are all, excepting those in the three towns of Mathura,
Brinda-ban and Gobardhan, utterly devoid of artistic merit.

To a very recent period almosttho whole of this large area was pasture and
woodland and, as we have already remarked, many of the villages an' .-till
environed with belts of trees. These are variously designated as ghana, jhdri,
r.akhyu, ban, or khandi* and are often of considerable extent. Thus, the Koki-

* When the last term is used, the name of the most prevalent kind of tree is always added,
as for instance Itadamb-hhandi,

74 LOCALIZATION OF LEGENDS.

Ia-ban at Great Bathan covers 723 acres ; the rakliya at Kamar more than
1,000; and in the contiguous villages of Pisaya and Karahla the rakliya and
kadamb-khandi together amount to nearly as much. The year of the great
famine, 1838 A. D., is invariably given as the date when the land began to be
largely reclaimed ; the immediate cause being the number of new roads which
were then opened out for the purpose of affording employment to the starving
population.

Almost every spot is traditionally connected with some event in the life of
Krishna or of his mythical mistress Badha, sometimes to the prejudice of an
earlier divinity. Thus, two prominent peaks in tbe Bharat-pur range are crowned
with the villages of Nand-ganw and Barsana : of which the former is venerated
as the home of Krishna's foster-father Nanda, and the latter as the residence
of Badha's parents, Vrisha-bhanu and Kirat.* Both legends are now as impli-
citly credited as the fact that Krishna was born at Mathura ; while in reality,
the name Nand-ganw, the sole foundation for the belief, is an ingenious substi-
tution for Nandisvar, a title of Maha-deva, and Barsana is a corruption of
Brahma-sanu, the hill of Brahma. Only the Giri-raj at Gobardhan was, accord-
in or to the original distribution, dedicated to Vishnu, the second person of the
tri-murti, or Hindu trinity; though now he is recognized as the tutelary divi-
nity at all three hill-places. Similarly, Bhau-ganw, on the right bank of the
Jamuna, was clearly so called from Bhava, one of the eight manifestations of
Siva ; but the name is now generally modified to Bhay-ganw, and is supposed
to commemorate the alarm {Ohay) felt in the neighbourhood at the time when
Nanda, bathing in the river, was carried off by the god Varuna. A masonry
landing-place on the water's edge called Nand-Ghat, with a small temple, dat-
ing only from last century, are the foundation and support of the local legend.
Of a still more obsolete cultus, viz., snake-worship, faint indications may be
detected in a few local names and customs. Thus, at Jait, on the highroad to
Delhi, there is an ancient five-headed Naga, carved in stone, by the side of a
small tankt which occupies the centre of a low plain adjoining the village. It
stands some four feet above the surface of the ground, while- its fail was sup-
posed to reach away to the Kali-mardan Ghat at Brinda-ban, a distance of seven
miles. A slight excavation at the base of the figure has, for a few years at

* Kirat is the only name popularly known in the locality ; in the Padma Purana it appears
in its more correct form as Kirttida: in the Brahma Vaivarta she is called Kalavati. Iv may also
be mentioned that Vrisha-bhanu is always pronounced Brikh-bhan.

t This tank was re-excavated as a famine relief work in the year 187S at a cost of lis. 0,787.

EXPLANATION OP LOCAL NOMENCLATURE. 75

least, dispelled the local superstition. So again, at the village of Paigiinv, a
grove and lake called respectively Pai-ban and Pai-ban-kund are the scene of
an annual fair known as the Barasi Ndga ji mcla. This is now regarded more
as the anniversary of the death of a certain Mahant; but in all probability it
dates from a much earlier period, and the village name would seem to be
derived from the large offerings of milk (payas) with which it is usual to pro-
pitiate the Naga, or serpent-god.

Till the close of the lGth century, except in the neighbourhood of the one
great thoroughfare, there was only here and there a scattered hamlet in the
midst of unreclaimed woodland. The Vaishnava cultus then first developed
into its present form under the influence of Rupa and Sanatana, the celebrated
Bengali Gosains of Brinda-ban ; and it is not improbable that they were the
authors of the Brahma Vaivarta Parana,* the recognized Sanskrit authority for
all the modern local legends. It was their disciple, Narsiyan Bhatt, who first
established the Ban-jatra and Ras-lila, and it was from him that every lake and
grove in the circuit of Braj received a distinctive name, in addition to the some
seven or eight spots which alone are mentioned in the earlier Puranas. In the
course of time, small villages sprung up in the neighbourhood of the different shrines
bearing the same name with them, though perhaps in a slightly modified form.
Thus the khadira-han, or ' acacia grove,' gives its name to the village of Khaira;
and the anjan polJtar, on whose green bank Krishna pencilled his lady's eye-
brows with anjan, gives its name to the village of Ajnokh, occasionally written
at greater length Ajnokhari. Similarly, when Krishna's home was fixed at
Nand-ganw and Radha's at Barsana, a grove half-way between the two hills
was fancifully selected as the spot where the youthful couple nsed to meet to
enjoy the delights of love. There a temple was built with the title of Radha-
Raman, and the village that grew up under its walls was called Sanket, that is,

* The Brahma Vaivarta Purana is, as all critics admit, an essentially modern composition,
and Professor Wilson has stated his belief that it emanated from the sect of the Vallabhacharis,
or Gosains of Gokul. Their great ancestor settled there about the year 1489 A. D. The popular
Hindi authority for Radha's Life and Loves is the Braj Bilas of Braj-vasi Das. The precise date
of the poem, sambat 1800, corresponding to 1743 A. D., is given in the following line—

gp=m Jem titim tjjct sit^t

so -o

Another work of high repute is the Sir Sagar of Sur Das Ji (one of the disciples of the
great religious teacher Ramauand) as edited and expanded by Krishninand Vyasa.

76 OLD LOCAL NAMES.

'place of assignation.* Thus we may readily fall in with Hindu prejudices,
and admit that many of the names on the map are etymologically connected with
events in Krishna's life, and yet deny that those events have any real connec-
tion with the spot, inasmuch as neither the village nor the local name had any
existence till centuries after the incidents occurred which they are supposed to
commemorate.

The really old local names are almost all derived from the physical
character of the country, which has always been celebrated for its wide extent of
pasture land and many herds of cattle. Thus Gokul means originally a herd of
kine ; Gobardhan a rearer of kine ; Mat is so called from mat, a milk-pail : and
Dadhigunw (contracted into Dah-ganw) in the Kosi pargana, from dadhi, 'curds.'
Thus, too, ' Braj' in the first instance means ' a herd,' from the root vraj, ' ro
go,' in allusion to the constant moves of nomadic tribes. And hence it arises
that in the earliest; authorities for Krishna's adventures, both Vraja and Gokula
are used to denote, not the definite localities now bearing those names, but any
chance spot temporarily used for stalling cattle ; inattention to this archaism
has led to much confusion in assigning sites to the various legends. The word
' Mathura' also is probably connected with the Sanskrit root math, 'to churn ;'

* The temple dedicated to Radha Rauian, which was built by Rup Ram, of Barsana, is in
precisely the same style as the one at Nand-ganw, though ou rather a smaller scale. The exterior
has an imposing appearance, and is visible from a considerable distance, but there is nothing
worth seeing inside, the workmanship being of a clumsy description, and the whole of the clois-
tered court-yard crowded with the meanest hovels. There is, however, a pretty view from the top
of the walls. The original shrine, which Rup Ram restored, is ascribed to Todar Mall, Akbar's
fiinou3 minister. The little temple of Bihari (otherwise called Sija, Mahal), built by a
Raja of Bardwan, seems to be accounted much more sacred. It stands in a walled garden, all
overgrown with hins jungle, in which is a high J/iuld with several baitkaks and other holy spots
marked by inscribed commemorative tablets set up by one of Sindhia's Generals (as at Paitha and
other places in the neighbourhood) in sambat 1885. It is here, on the occasion of any jdtra, that
ths spectacles of Krishna's marriage is represented as a scene in the Ras Lila. The Krishna-kund
is a large sheet of water, fifty yards square, with masonry steps on one of its sides. In the
village are three large and handsome dwelling-houses, built in the reign of Siiraj Mall, by one of
his officials, Jauhari Mall of Fatihabad, and Baid to have been reduced to their present ruinous
condition by the succeeding occupant of the Bharat-pur throne, the Raja Jawahir Sinh. The
Vihvala-kuud is a few hundred yards from the village on the road to Karahla. It is of stone, and
has on its margin a temple of Devi, built by a Maharaja of Gwalior. The Douian-bau is within
the boundaries of Nand-ganw, but is about the same distance from that town as it is from Bijwari
and Sanket. It is a very pretty spot, of the same character as Pisaya, and of considerable extent ;
the name being always explained to mean ' the double wood,' as if a corruption of do van. At
either extremity is a large pond embosomed in the trees, the one called Puran-inasi, ' the full
moon,' theother Rundki jhuudki, 'jingle jingle.' A few lields beyond is the Kamal-pur grove.

MYTHOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 77

the churn forming a prominent feature in all poetical descriptions of the local
scenery. Take, for example, the following lines from the Harivansa, 33'J5 : —

cf3JFH5TTSHi|?T 3fqH5^I5^m* I

n^R^RXfT^ll Sfpfjqi ^HrJ^R II

" A fine country of many pasture-lands and well-nurtured people, full ot
ropes for tethering cattle, resonant with the voice of the sputtering churn, and
flowing with butter-milk ; where the soil is ever moist with milky froth, and
the stick with its circling cord sputters merrily in the pail as the girls spin it
round."

And, again, in section 73 of the same poem —

gijTj =q f5TCRJ!J HJRTSKlif^Tl il

" In homesteads gladdened by the sputtering churn."

In many cases a false analogy has suggested a mythological derivation-
Thus, all native scholars see in Mathura an allusion to Madhu-mathan, a title of
Krishna. Again, the word Bathan is still current in some parts of India to
designate a pasture ground, and in that sense has given a name to two exten-
sive parishes in Kosi ; but as the term is not a familiar one thereabouts, a
legend was invented in explanation, and it was said that here Balarama ' sat
down' (baithen) to wait for Krishna. The myth was accepted ; a lake imme-
diately outside the village was styled Bal-bhadra kund, was furnished with a
handsome masonry ghat by Riip Ram, the Katara of Barsana, and is now regard-
ed as positive proof of the popular etymology which connects the place with
Balarama. Of Rup Ram, the Katara, further mention will be made in connec-
tion with his birth-place, Barsana. There is scarcely a sacred site in the whole
of Braj which does not exhibit some ruinous record, in the shape of temple or
tank, of his unbounded wealth and liberality. His descendant in the fourth
degree, a worthy man, by name Lakshman Das, lives in a corner of one of his
ancestor's palaces and is dependent on charity for his daily bread. The present
owners of many of the villages which Riip Ram so munificently endowed
are the heirs of the Lala Babu, of whom also an account will be given
further on.

2.0

78 EXTENT OF THE BRAJ-MANDAL.

In the VaraM Parana, or rather in the interpolated section of that work
known as the Mathura Mahatmya, the Mathura Mandal is described as twenty
yqjanas in extent.

xhi 3^ ^t: ^tht iram s^mcil.: u

" My Mathura circle is one of twenty yojanas ; by bathing at any place
therein a man is redeemed from all his sins."

And taking the yojana as 7 miles and the kos as If mile, 20 yqjanas would
be nearly equal to 84 kos, the popular estimate of the distance travelled by the
pilgrims in performing the Pari-krama, or ' perambulation' of Braj. It is pro-
bable that if an accurate measurement were made, this would be found a very
rough approximation to the actual length of the way ; though liberal allowance
must be made for the constant ins and outs, turns and returns, which ultimately
result in the circuit of a not very wide-spread area. There can be no doubt
that the number 81, which in ancient Indian territorial divisions occurs as fre-
quently as a hundred in English counties, and which enters largely into every
cycle of Hindu legend and cosmogony, was originally selected for such general
adoption as being the multiple of the number of months in the year with the
number of days in the week. It is therefore peculiarly appropriate in connec-
tion with the Braj Mandal ; if Krishna, in whose honour the perambulation is
performed, be regarded as the Indian Apollo, or Sun-God. Thus, the magnifi-
cent temple in Kashmir, dedicated to the sun under the title of Martand, has a
colonnade of exactly 84 pillars.*

It is sometimes said that the circle originally must have been of wider extent
than now, since the city of Mathura, which is described as its centre, is more
than 30 miles distant from the most northern point, Kotban, and only six from
Tarsi to the south ; and Elliot in his glossary quotes the following couplet as
fixing its limits : —

frl cJT^ct f cl %H15 3cl gTJ|q 5RT Ufa II

g-31 %ITTCt ifiTS *I *^T TT^ WW II

" On one side Bar, on another Sona, on the third the town of Surasen ;
these are the limits of the Braj Chaurasi, the Mathura circle.'*

* Mr. Fergusson, iii his Indi'ln Architecture, doubtB whether this temple was ever really dedi-
cated to the sua. In so doing he only betrays his wonted linguistic ignorance. Martand is not,
as he supposes, simply a place-name, without aDy known connotation, hut is the actual dedi-
cation title of the temple itself.

THE RXs-LIXX 79

According to tliw authority the area has been diminished by one half ; as
Bar is in the Aligarh district, Sona, famous for its hot sulphur spring*, is in
Gur-ganw ; while the ' Surasen ka ganw' is supposed to be Batesar,* a place of
some note on the Jamuna and the scene of a large horse fair held on the full
moon of Kartik. It might equally mean any town in the kingdom of Mathura,
or even the capital itself, as King Ugrasen, whom Krishna restored to the
throne, is sometimes styled Surasen. Thus, too, Arrian mentions Mathura as
a chief town of the Suraseni, a people specially devoted to the worship of Her-
cules, who may be identified with Balarama : and Manu (II., 19) clearly in-
tends Mathura by Surasenaf when he includes that country with Kuru-kshetra,
Panchala and Matsya, in the region of Brahmarshi, as distinguished from
Brakmavarta. But though it must be admitted that the circle is sometimes
drawn with a wider circumference, as will be seen in tho sequel to this chapter,
still it is not certain which of the two rests upon the better authority. In any
case, the lines above quoted cannot be of great antiquity, seeing that they con-
tain the Persian word hadd;% and, as regards the unequal distances between
the city of Mathura and different points on the circumference, it has only to
be remembered that the circle is an ideal one, and any point within its outer
verge may be roughly regarded as its centre.

As the anniversary of Krishna's birth is kept in the month of Bhadon, it is
then that the perambulation takes place, and a series of melas is held at the dif-
ferent woods, where the rds-lild is celebrated. This is an unwritten religious
drama, which represents the most popular incidents in the life of Krishna, and
thus corresponds very closely with the miracle plays of mediasval Christendom.
The arrangement of the performances forms the recognized occupation of a
class of Brahmans residing chiefly in the villages of Karahla and Pisaya who
are called Rasdharis and have no other profession or means of livelihood. The
complete series of representations extends over a month or more, each scene

* Father Tieffenthaler, in his Geography of India, makes the following mention of Batesar : —
"Lieu celebre et bien bati sur le Djemna, 28 milles d'Agra. Une multitude de peuple B'y
rassemble pour se laver dans ce fleuve et pour celebrer une foire en Octoljre. On rend un culte
ici dans beaucoup de temples batis but le Djemna, a Mahadeo taut revert1 de tout l'univers
adonne a la luxure; car Mahadeo est le Priape des anciens qu'encensent, ah quelle honte! toutes
les nations."

% It is however possible, though I think improbable, that had may here stand for the Sanskrit
lirada, a lake.

80 THE BAN-JA'TRA.

being acted on the very spot with which the original event is traditionally con-
nected. The marriage scene, as performed at Sanket, is the only one that
I have had the fortune to witness : with a garden-terrace for a stage, a grey stone
temple for back-ground, the bright moon over head, and an occasional flambeau
that shot a flickering gleam over the central tableau framed in its deep border
of intent and sympathizing faces, the spectacle was a pretty one and was marked
by a total absence of anything even verging upon indecorum. The cost of
the whole perambulation with the performances at the different stations on the
route is provided by some one wealthy individual, often a trader from Bombay
or other distant part of India ; and as he is always accompanied by a large
gathering of friends and retainers, numbering at least 200 or 300 persons, the
outlay is seldom less than lis. 5,000 or Ks. (5,000. The local Gosain, whom he
acknowledges as his spiritual director, organizes all the arrangements through
one of the Rasdharis, who collects the troupe (or mandali as it is called) of
singers and musicians, and himself takes the chief part in the performance,
declaiming in set recitative with the mandaliiov chorus, while the children who
personate Rad'ha and Krishna act only in dumb show.

The number of sacred places, woods, groves, ponds, wells, hills, and
temples— all to be visited in fixed order — is very considerable ; there are
generally reckoned five hills, eleven rocks, four lakes, eighty-four ponds,
and twelve wells ; but the twelve bans or woods, and the twenty-four upaban.s
or groves, are the characteristic feature of the pilgrimage, which is thence
called the Ban-Jatra. The numbers 12 and 24 have been arbitrarily selected
on account of their mystic significance ; and few of the local pandits, if
required to enumerate either group offhand, would be able to complete the
total without some recourse to guesswork. A little Hindi manual for the
guidance of pilgrims has been published at Mathura and is the popular
authority on the subject. The compiler, however great his local knowledge and
priestly reputation, has certainly no pretensions to accuracy of scholarship.
His attempts at etymology are, as a rule, absolutely grotesque, as in the
two sufficiently obvious names of Khaira (for Khadira) and Sher-garh (from
the Emperor Sher Shah), the one of which he derives from khedna, ' to
drive cattle,' and the other, still more preposterously, from sihara, <a marriage
crown.' The list which he gives is as follows, his faulty orthography in some
of the words being corrected : —

The 12 Bans : Madhu-ban, Tal-ban, Kumud-ban, Bahula-ban, Kam-ban
Khadira-ban, Brinda-ban, Bhadra-ban, Bhandir-ban, Bel-ban, Loha-ban and
Maha-ban.

MADHU-BAN. <sl

The 24 Upabans : Grokul, Gobardhan, Barsana, Nand-ganw, Sanket, Para-
madra, Aring, Sessai, Mat, Uncha-ganw, Khel-ban, Sri-kund, Gandharv-ban,
Parsoli, Bilcbiu, Bachh-ban, Adi-badri, Karahla, Ajnokh, Pisaya, Kokila-ban,
Dadbi-ganw, Kot-ban, and Raval.

This list bears internal evidence of some antiquity in its want of close
correspondence with existing facts ; since several of the places, though retaining
their traditionary repute, have now nothing that can be dignified with the name
cither of wood or grovo ; while others are known only by the villagers in the
immediate neighbourhood and have been supplanted in popular estimation by
rival sites of more easy access or greater natural attractions.

Starting from Mathura, the pilgrims made their first halt at Madhu-ban,
in the village of Maboli, some four or five miles to the south-west of the city.
Here, according to the Puranas, Rama's brother, Satrughna, after hewing down
the forest stronghold of the giant Madhu, founded on its site the town of
Madhu-puri. All native scholars regard this as merely another name for
Mathura, regardless of the fact that the locality is several miles from the river,
while Mathura has always, from the earliest period, been described as situate
on its immediate bank. The confusion between the two places runs apparently
through the whole of classical Sanskrit literature; as, lor example, in the
Harivansa (Canto 95) we find the city founded by Satrughna distinctly called,
not Madhu-puri, but Mathura, which Bhima, the king of Gobardhan, is repre-
sented as annexing : —

^TTT^rlXIT^I UTJI^rW^ ^ II

" When Sumitra's delight, prince Satrughna, had killed Lavana, he cut-
down the forest of Madhu, and in the place of that Madhu-ban founded the
present city of Mathura* Then, after Rama and Bharata had left the world,
and the two sons of Sumitra had taken their place in heaven, Bhima, in order
to consolidate his dominions, brought the city, which had formerly been inde-
pendent, under the sway of his own family."

82 BAHPLA-BAK.

Some reminiscence of the ancient importance of Maholi would seem to have
long survived ; for though so close to Mathura, it was, in Akbar's time and
for many years subsequently, the head of a local division. By the sacred
wood is a pond called Madhu-kund and a temple dedicated to Krishna under
his title of Ohatur-bhuj, where an annual mela is held on the 11th of the dark
fortnight of Bhadon.

From Maholi, the pilgrims turn south to Tal-ban, ' the palm grove,' where
Balarama was attacked by the demon Dhcnuk. The village in which it is
situated is called Tarsi, probably in allusion to the legend ; though locally the
name is referred only to the founder, one Tara Chand, a Kachhwaha Thakur,
who in quite modern time moved to it from Satoha, a place a few miles off on
the road to Gobardhan. They then visit Kumud-ban, ' of the many water-lilies,'
in Uncha-ganw, and Bahula-ban in Bathi, where the cow Bahula, being seized
by a tiger, begged the savage beast to spare her life for a few minutes, while she
went away and gave suck to her little one. On her return, bringing the calf
with her, the tiger vanished and Krishna appeared in his stead ; for it was the
<rod himself who had made this test of her truthfulness. The event is comme-
morated by the little shrine of Bahula Clue, still standing on the margin of the
Krishna-kund.* They next pass through the villages of Tos, Jakhin-ganw,
and Mukharai, and arrive at Radha-kund, where are the two famous tanks

* The village of Bathi, has long been held mu;ifi, by the Gurus of the Raja of Bharatpur,
for the use of the temple of Sita Ram, of which they are the hereditary mahants. The shrine
stands within the walls of the village fort, built by Mahant Ram Kishan Das in the time of Su-
raj Mall. The first zamindars were Kalais, but more recently Brahman'; and Kachhwahas. They
have sold 8 biswas of their estate to the muifidar, which have now been made a separate mahal.
The sacred grove of Bahula-ban. from which the place derives its name (originally Bahulavati)
is separated from the village by a large pond, which has three broad flights of masonry steps in
front of the little cell called the Go Maudir. In this is a bas-relief of the famous cow and its
calf with their divine protector. Close by is a modern temple of liadha Krishan or Bihari Ji.
On the other side of the water is a ruinous temple in the old style of architecture, dedicated to
Murli Manohar, with a sikhara of curvilinear outline over the god, and a mandap with three
open arches on either side to serve as the nave. The buildings in the fort are of substantial cha-
racter and comprise, besides the temple and ordinary domestic offices, a court-room with stone
arcades, the roof of which conmands a very extensive view of the country round as far as Ma-
thura, Brindaban, and Nandgawn. The front of the temple of Sita Ram is an interesting and
successful specimen of architectural eclecticism ; the pillars being thoroughly Hindu in their
proportions, but with capitals of semi-Corinthian design ; not unlike some early adaptations of
, Greek models found in the ruined cities of the Euzufzai. The Gosain belongs to the Sri Sam-
pradiiya. The ban is one of the stations of the Bau-jatia, and the mela is held in it on Bhadon
.badi 12.

CHAXDRA-SAROVAR. 83

prepared for Krishna's expiatory ablution after he had slain the hull Arishta.*
Thence they pass on to Gobardhan, scene of many a marvellous incident, and
visit all the sacred sites in its neighbourhood ; the village of Basai, where the
two divine children with their foster-parents once came and dwelt (basde) ; the
Kallol-kund by the throve of Arin£ ; Madhuri-kund ; Mor-ban, the haunt of the
peacock, and Chandra-sarovar, ' the moon lake ;' where Brahma, joining with
the Gopfs in the mystic dance, was so enraptured with delight that, all uncon-
scious of the fleeting hours, he allowed the single night to extend over a period
of six months. This is at a village called Parsoli by the people, but which
appears on the maps and in the revenue-roll only as Muhammad-pur. The
tank is a fine octagonal basin with stono ghats, the work of Raja, Nahar Sinh
of Bharat-pur. After a visit to Paitha,f where the people of Braj 'came in'
(paithd) to take shelter from the storms of Indra under the uplifted range,
they pass along the heights of the Giri-raj to Anyor,| ' the other side,' and so by
many sacred rocks, as Sugandhi-sila, Sinduri-sila, and Sundar-sila, with its
temple of Gobardhan-nath, to Gopal-pur, Bilchhu, and Ganthauli, where the
marriage 'knot' {gdnth) was tied, that confirmed the union of Radha and
Krishna.

* Aring, which is on the road from Mathura to Gobardhan, and only a few miles distant from
Rridha-kund, is supposed to have been the place where the bull was slain, and to have derived is
name, originally Arishta-ganw, fro'n the event.

f At Paitha the original temple of Chatur-bhuj is said to have been destroyed by Aurangzeb.
Its successor, which also is now in ruins, was probably built on the old foundations, as it com-
prised a nave, choir, and sacrarium, each of the two latter cells being surmounted by a sihhara.
It thus bore a general resemblance to the temples of Akbar's reign at Brinda-ban. The nave
is unroofed, aud both the towers partly demolished ; what remains perfect is only of brick and
quiteplain and unornamented. It stands in the kadamb-khandi (107 bighas). which spreads over
the low ground at the foot of the village Kliera ; its deepest hollows forming the Narayan
Sarovar, which is only a succession of ponds with here and there a flight of masonry steps.
A cave is shown, which is believed to reach the whole way to Gobardhan, and to be the one that
the people of Braj went into (paitha) to save themselves from the wrath of Indra. On the road
to Gohardhan near Parsoli is the Moha-ban, and in it a lingam called Mohesvar Mahadeva, that is
said to be simk an immense depth in the ground, and will never allow itself to be covered over.
Several attempts have been made to build a temple over it ; but whenever the roof began to he put
on, the walls were sure to fall in This and several other of the sacred 6ites in the neighbourhood
are marked by inscribed tablets set up last century by an officer under Sindhia.

J Here aTe two ancient temples dedicated to Gobind Deva and Baladeva, and a sacred tank,
called Gobiud kund, ascribed to Rani Padmavati, the waters of which are supposed lo be very
efficacious in the cure of leprosy. The Pind-dan, or offerings to the dead, in the ceremonials of
the Sraddh, have as much virtue here as even at Gaya. There are 40 acres of woodland. The
original occupants are said to have been Krrars. After the mutiny the village was conferred
for a time onChaudhari Daulat Sinh, but eventually restoted to the existing zamindir.

84 barsXna.

Then, following the line of frontier, the pilgrims arrive at K;im-ban, now
the head-quarters of a tahsili in Bharat-pur territory, 39 miles from Mathura,
with the Luk-luk cave, where the boys played blind-man's buff ; and Aghasur's
cave, where the demon of that name was destroyed ; and leaving Kanwaro-
ganWj enter again upon British ground near the village of Uncha-ganw, with
its ancient temple of Baladeva. High on the peak above is Barsana, with its
series of temples dedicated to Larliji, where Radha was brought up by her
parents, Brikhhbhan and Kirat ; and in the glade below, Dohani-kund near
Chaksauli, where as Jasoda was cleansing her milk-pail (dohani) she first saw
the youthful pair together, and vowed that one day they should be husband and
wife. There too is Preni Sarovar, or love lake, where first the amorous tale
was told : and Sankari Khor, ' the narrow opening ' between the hills, where
Krishna lay in ambush and levied his toll ot milk on the Gopis as they came
in from Gahvarban, the ' thick forest' beyond. Next are visited Sanket, the
place of assignation : Rithora, home of Chandra vali, Badha's faithful attendant :
and Nand-ganw, long the residence of Nanda and Jasoda, with the great lake
Pan-Sarovar at the foot of the hill, where Krishna morning and evening drove
his foster-father's cattle to water [pan): Next in order come Karahla,* with
its fine kadamb trees ; Kamai, where one of Ktidha's humble friends was
honoured by a visit from her lord and mistress in the course of their rambles :
Ajnokh,t where Krishna pencilled his lady's eyebrows with anjan as she
reclined in careless mood on the green sward : and Pisaya,} where she found

* Karahla, or, as it is often spelt, Karhela, is locally derived from har hilna, the movements
of the hands in the rds-Uld. At the Tillage or Little Marna, a pond bears the same name — kar-
heli-kund — which is there explained as harm hilna, equivalent to pap mochan. But in the Mainpuri
district is a large town called Karhal — the same word in a slightly modified form — where neither
of the above etymologies could hold. The name is more probably connected with a simple natural
feature, viz., the abundance of the hard plant at each place.

t Ajnokb, or, in its fuller form, Ajnokhari, is a contraction for Anjan Pokhar, 'the anjan
lake.'

t Bhdhho pisdyo is, in the language of the country, a common expression for 'hungry and
thirsty.' But most of these derivations are quoted, not for their philological value, but as show-
ing how thoroughly the whole country side is impregnated with the legends of Krishna, when
some allusion to him is detected in every village name. In the Vraja-biiakti vihlsa l'isayo is
called Pipasa-vana; but it would seem really to be a corruption oipaxaiya. it is one of the most
picturesque spots in the whole district, beirg of very great extent, and in the centre consisting of
a series of open glades leading one into the other, each encircled with a deep belt of magnificent
kadamb trees, interspersed witli a few specimens of thepdpri, pasendu, dhdk and sahora, of lower
growth. These glades, which are often of such regular outline that they scarcely seem to be of
natural formation, art popularly known as the bdvan cltauk or '52 courts,' though they are not.

CONTINUATION OF THE PILGRIMAGE. 85

him fainting with ( thirst,' and revived him with a draught of water. Then
still bearing due north the pilgrims come to Khadira-ban, ' the acacia grove,"
in Khaira; Kumar-bam and Javak-ban in Jau, where Krishna tinged his lady's
feet with the red Javak dye, and Kokila-ban, ever musical with the voice of
'the cuckoo' ; and- so arrive at the base of Charan Pahar in. Little Bathan, the
favoured spot, where the minstrel god delighted most to stop and play his
Mute, and where Indra descended from heaven on his elephant Airavata, to do
him homage, as is to this day attested by the prints- of the divine ' feet' charan,
impressed upon the rock.

Thev then pass on through Padhi-gamv, where Krishna stayed behind to
divert himself with the milk-maids, having sent Baladeva on ahead with the cows
to wait for him at Bathan : and so reach Kot-ban, the northernmost point of
the perambulation. The first village on the homeward route is Sessai (a hamlet
of Hathana), where Krishna revealed his divinity by assuming the emblems of
Narayan and reclining under the canopying heads of the great serpent Sesha,
of whom Baladeva was an incarnation ; but the vision was all too high a mysterj
for the herdsmen's simple daughters, who begged the two boys to doff such fan-
tastic guise and once more, as they were wont, join them in the sprightly dance.*
Then, reaching the Jamuna, at Khel-ban by Shergarh,f where Krishna's tem-
ples were, decked with ' the marriage weath' (sihara), they follow the course of
the river through Bihar-ban in Pir-pur, and by Chirghat in the village of Siyara,
where the frolicsome god stolef the bathers' ' clothes' (clrir), and arrive at Nand-
ghat. Here Nanda, bathing one night, was carried off by the myrmidons of the
sea-god Varuna, who had long been lying in wait for this very purpose, since

really bo many. They all swarm with troops) of monkeys. On the eastern border the jungle is
of more ordinary character, with rigged pilu and renja trees and karil bushes ; but to the west,
where a pretty view is obtained of the temple-crowned heights of Bars;ina in the distance, almost
every tree is accompanied by a stem of the ami, which here grows to a considerable height and
scents the whole air with its masses of flower, which both in perfume aud appearance much
resemble the English honeysuckle. Adjoining the village is a pond called Kishori-kund and two
temples, visited by the Ban-jatra pilgrims, Bhadon sudi 9.

* According to the Vishnu Purina, this transformation was not effected for the benefit of
the Gopis, but was a vision vouchsafed to Akrur on the bank of the Jamuna the day he fetched
the boys from Brinda-ban to attend the tourney at Mathura.

f This is a curious specimen of perverted etymology, illustrating the persistency with which
Hindus and Muhammadans each go their own way and ignore the other's existence. The town
unqestionably derives its name from a large fort, of which the ruins still remain, built by the
Emperor Sher Shah.

X In the Vishnu Puiana this famous incident is not mentioned at all.

86 THE NARI-SEMRI FAIR.

their master knew that Krishna would at once follow to recover his foster-father,
and thus, the depths of ocean, too, no less than earth, would be gladdened with
the vision of the incarnate deity. The adjoining village of Bhay-ganw derives
its name from the 'terror' (bhay) that ensued on the news of Nanda's disappear-
ance. The pilgrims next pass throngh Bachh-ban, where the demon Bach-
hi'isur was slain; the two villages of Basai, where the Gopis were first 'subdued'
(bas-di) by the power of love ; Atas, Nari-semri,* Chhatikra, and Akriir, where
Kansa's perfidious invitation to the contest of arms was received; and wend
their way beneath the temple of Bhatrond, where one day, when the boys' stock
of provisions had run short, some Brahmans' wives supplied their wants, though
the husbands, to whom application was first made, had churlishly refused."f So

* A large fair, called the Nau Durga, is held at the village of Nari-Semri during the dark
fortnight of Chait. the commencement of the Hindu year. The same f« stival is a'so celebrated
at Sanchauli in the Kobi pargana and at Xagar-Kot in Gtii-gSnw, though not on precisely the
same days. The word Semri is a corruption of Syaniala-k:, with reference to the ancient shrine
of Devi, who has Syatnala for one of her names (compare ximikn, 'an ant-hill,' for syamikaX
The present temple is a small modern budding, with nothing at all noteworthy about it. It
stands on the margin of a fine large piece of water, and in connection with it are two small
dharmsdlas, lately built by pilgrims from Agra. A much larger building for the same purpose
was commenced by a baniya before the mutiny, but the work was stopt by his death. The offer-
ings ordinarily amount to at least Es. 2,000 a year, and are enjoyed in turn by three groups of
shareholders, »«., the zamindars of Sernri old village, of Birja-ka-nagara and of Devi Sinh-ka-
nagara, to each of whom a turn conies every third year. They had always spent the whole of the
money on their own private uses, but at my suggestion they all agreed to give an annual sum of
Rs 150 to expend on conservancy during the fair time and on local improvements. The first
work to have bi en taken in hand was the completion of the baniya's rest-house. I estimated the
cost at Kb. 1,050 and had begun to collect bricks and stone and mortar, when my transfer from
the district took place, and the project immediately fell through. If the work had once been
started, the pilgrims would have gladly contributed to it ; and in addition to the dharmsdla, which
was of very substantial construction, so far as it had gone, there would soon have been a masonry
ghat to the pond and a plantation of trees round about the temple. But Dii< aliier visum e.-l. The
principal fair begins on the new moon of Chait and lasts for nine days On the sixth there is a very
large gathering at the rival shrine of the same goddess at Sanchauli : but during all the remain-
der of the time the Agra and Delhi road is crowded day and night with foot passengers and vehi-
cles of every description. Fortunately none of the visitors for religious purposes stay more than
a few hours: and thus, though it is the most popular melfi in the whole district, there is never
any very great crowd at any one particular time, for as one set of people comes, another goes.
Special days are even assigned to particular castes and localities: thus the Agra people have one
day, the Jadons of the neighbourhood another, the Gauruas a third, and so on. The second fair
is held on the Akh-tij, the third day of the bright fortnight of Baiaakh.

t To commemorate the event, a fair called the Bhatmela is held on the spot on the full
moon of Kartik. Compare the Btory of David repulsed by the churlish Nabal, but afterwards
succoured by his wife Abigail.

IOHA-BAN. 87

thoy arrive at Brinda-ban, where many a sacred ghat and venerable shrine claim
devout attention.

The pilgrims then cross the river and visit the tangled thickets of Bel-ban
in Jahangi'r-pur; the town of Mat with the adjoining woods of Bhadra-ban,
scene of the great conflagration, and Bhandir-ban, where the son of Rohini
first received his distinctive title of Bala-rama, i.e., Rama the strong, in conse-
quence of the prowess he had displayed in vanquishing the demon Pralamba ;
Dangoli, where Krishna dropt his ' staff (dang)* and the fair lake of Man-
sarovar,f scene of a fit of lover's 'pottishness' (man). Then follow the villages
of Piparauli, with its broad spreading pipal trees; Loha-ban, perpetuating the
defeat of the demon LohasurJ ; Gopalpur, favourite station of the herdsmen, and
Raval, where Radius mother, Kirat, lived with her father, Surbhan, till she went
to join her husband at Barsana. Next comes Burhiya-ka-khera, home of the

* The name Dingoli is really derived ftom the position of the village on the ' liiuii rivir
hank,' which is also called dang.

f The name is probably derived from the tree lodha 01- lodhra. The demon slain by Krishna
is styled Loha-jangha in late local Sanskrit literature, but apparently is not mentioned at all in any
ancient work. Here is a pond called Krishna-kund, and a temple of Gopinath, built in the old
style with a shrine and porch, each surmounted by a siihttra, the one over the god being much
the higher of the two. The doorways have square lintels and jambs of stone witli a band of
carving. The date assigned to the bnilding is 1712, which is probably not far from correct.
Outside is the lower part of a red sandstone figure set in the ground, called Lohasur Daitya, the
upper part much worn by the knives and mattocks that are sharpened upon it. Here are made
offerings of iron (/«/«i) which become the perquisite of a family of Maha Brahmans living in
Mathura. The Sanadh Brahman at the temple has only the offerings that are made specially
there. About the Krishna-kund is a Kadamb-khandi of rather stunted growth, and some very
fine pipal trees. Immediately under the roots of one of them is a small well, called Gop kua,
■which always has water in it, though the pond dries up in the month of Jeth. Over it is a
stone rudely carved with two figures said to represent Gopis. A small shrine on the opposite
side of the kund has beeu erected over some sculptures of no great antiquity, which were found
in the pond. I arranged with the Goktil Gosiins to have the ban planted with trees, which
when grown up would be a great boon to the pilgrims. They were getting ou well when I left,
but probably no further care will now be taken for their maintenance.

J The M.in-s irovar on the borders of Piini-ganw is a lake of no great depth or extent and in
the hot weather most of it dries up. Lakhrni Das, a Gosain of the Ridha Ballabh persuasion,
owns the whole of the village and has a little hermitage on the bank, prettily situated
in the midst of some venerable jaman trees, the remains of an old garden, said to have
beeu planted by a Raja of Ballabh-garh, to whom is also ascribed a chhalln, with a ribbed
stone roof. There are two small and plain modern shrines, one of which was built by Mohani,
the Rani of Suraj Mall, who is commemorated by the Ganga Mohan Kiatj at Brinda-ban.
The adjoining ghana, or wool, spreads over several hundreds of acres and is quite differ-
ent in character from any other in Braj, the trees being all, with scarcely an exception, babul,

88 END OF THE PILGRIMAGE.

old dame whose son had taken in marriage Radha's companion, Manvati. The
fickle Krishna saw and loved, and in order to gratify his passion undisturbed,
assumed the husband's form. The unsuspecting bride received him fondly to
her arms ; while the good mother was enjoined to keep close watch below and,
if any one came to the door pretending to be her son by no means to open to
him, but rather, if he persisted, pelt him with brick-bats till he ran away. So
the honest man lost his wife and got his head broken into the bargain.

After leaving the scene of this merry jest, the pilgrims pass on to Bandi-
sanw, a name commemorative of Jasoda's two faithful domestics, Bandi and Anan-
di, and arrive at Baladeva, with its wealthy temple dedicated in honour of that
divinity and his spouse, Revati. Then, beyond the village of Hathaura, are the
two river landing-places, Ckinta-baran, ' the end of doubt,' and Brahnianda,
'creation,' ghat. Here Krishna's playmates came running to tell Jasodd that
the naughty boy had filled his mouth with mud. She took up a stick to
punish him, but he, to. prove the story false, unclosed his lips and showed her
there, within the compass of his baby cheeks, the whole 'created' universe with
all its worlds and circling seas distinct. Close by is the town of Maha-ban
famous for many incidents in Krishna's infancy, where he was rocked in the
cradle, and received his name from the great pandit Garg, and where he put
to death Pritana and the other evil spirits whom Kansa had commissioned to
destroy him. At Gokul, on the river-bank, are innumerable shrines and tem-
ples dedicated to the god under some one or other of his favourite titles, Madan
Mohan, Madhava Rae, Brajesvara, Gokul-nath, Navanit-priya, and Dwaraka-nath:
and when all have been duly honoured with a visit, the weary pilgrims finally
recross the stream and sit down to rest at the point from which they started,
the Visrant Ghat, the holiest place in the holy city of Mathura.

remja, or chlionkar, three kindred species of acacia. Part of it lies within the borders of-
Arua and Piparauli ; but by far the greater part is in lJani-ganw and is the property of the
Maharaja of Bharatpur, who has frequently bcem tempted to sell the timber and convert it
into firewood. It is much to be hoped that he will always withhold his consent from an
act which would destroy all the beauty of the scene and be so offensive to the religious
sentiments of his fellow Hindus. There are no relics of antiquity, nor indeed could there
be ; for both lake and wood are all in the k'iddnr, or alluvial land, which at no very
distant period must have been the bed of the Jamuua ; it is still flooded by it in the rains.
Though a legend has been invented to connect the place with Kadha and Krishna, the name as
originally bestowed probably bore reference to the Miinasa lake on Mount Kailas in the Ilirna-
lay as, sacred to Mahadeva.

rXdhX's homes, . 89

As may be gathered from the above narrative, it is only the twelve bans
that, as a rule, are connected with the Pauranik legends of Krishna and Bala-
nima, and these are all specified by name in the Mathura Mahatmya. On the
other hand, the twenty-four upabans refer mainly to Radha's adventures, and
have no ancient authority whatever Of the entire number, only three were, till
quite recent times, places of any note, viz., Gokul, Gobardhan, and Radha-kund,
and their exceptional character admits of easy explanation: Gokul, in all classi-
cal Sanskrit literature, is the same as Maha-ban, which is included among the
bans ; Gobardhan is as much a centre of sanctity as Mathuni itself, and is only
for the sake of uniformity inserted in either. list ; while Radha-kund, as the
name denotes, is the one primary source from which the goddess derives her
modern reputation. It is now insisted that the parallelism is in all respects
complete; for, as Krishna has four special dwelling-places, Mathura, Malm-ban,
Gobardhan, and Nand-ganw, so has Puidha four also in exact correspondence,
viz., Brinda-ban, Raval,* Radha-kund, and Barsana.

The perambulation, as traced in the foregoing sketch, is the one ordinarily
performed, and includes all the most popular shrines; but a far more elaborate
enumeration of the holy places of Braj is given in a Sanskrit work, existing
only in manuscript, entitled Vraja-bhakti-vilasa. It is of no great antiquity,
having been compiled, in the year 1553 A.D., by the Narayan Bhatt, who has
been already mentioned.! He is said to have been a resident of Uncha-ganw near
Barsana, but he describes himself as writing at Sri-kund, i. e., Radha-kund. It
is divided into 13 sections extending over 108 leaves, and is professedly based
on the Paramahansa Sanhita. It specifies as many as 133 bans or woods, 91 on

* Rival is still included in the perambulation of Gokul, and till the foundation of the new
temple of Larli Ji at Barsana was a much more popular place of pilgrimage than it is now.
Probably the whole of old Rival has been washed away by the Jamuni, and a similar fate
threatens before long to overtake the present temple of Larli Ji, built by Kushil, Seth, in the
early part of this century. The river wall, by which it was protected, has already in great
measure fallen. The Pujiri, Chhote Lai, has a sanad dated the 20th year of Muhammad Shah
(1739 A.D.) in which the Vazir Karm-ud-din Khan assigns Rup Chand, the then Pujiri, one
rupee a day for his support from the revenues of the Mahi-ban tahsil. There is a garden sur-
rounded by a substantial wall, from the top of which there is a good view of the City and
Cantonments of Mathura. In its centre is a pavilion with stone arcades in the same style as
the temple and built by the same Seth. About one-half of the village land is cut up by ravines
and unculturable. Some years ago there used to be a ferry here and a large colony of boatmen,
wh ) were all thrown out of employ when the feny was closed and a pontoon bridge substituted
for the old bridge of boats between Malhuri and Hansganj.

f The colophon of the Vraja-bhakti-vilasa runs as follows : — Srirnad Bhaskar-atmaja-Nari-
yana Bhatta-virachite Vraja-bhakti-vilase Paramahansa-sanhitodaharane Vraja-Mahitmya-niru
pane Vana-yitra-prasange Vraja-yatra-prasangike trayodasV dhyayah.

90 THE YRAJA-BHAKTI-VILASA.

the right bank of the Jamnna and 42 on the left, and groups them under differ-
ent heads as follows: —

I.— The 12 Bans : 1, Maha-ban ; 2, Kiimya-ban ; 3, Kokila-ban ; 4, Tal-ban;
5, Kumud-ban ; 6, Blmndir-ban ; 7, Chhatra-ban ;* 8, Khadira-ban ;9, Loha-
ban, 10, Bhadra-ban ; 11, Bahula-ban ; 12, Vilva-ban, i. e., Bel-ban.

II. — The 12 Upabans: 1, Brahma-ban; 2, Apsara-ban ; 3, Vihvala-ban ;
4, Kadamb-ban ; 5, Svarna-ban ; 6, Surabhi-ban ; 7, Prem-ban ;■(• 8, Mayiira,
i.e., Mor-ban ; 9, Manengiti-ban ; 10, Sesha-saiyi-ban ; 11, Narada-ban ; 12,
Paramananda-ban.

III.— The 12 Prati-bans: 1, Ranka-ban; 2, Varta-ban; 3, Karahla; 4,
Kamya-ban ; 5, Anjana-ban ; 6, Kama-ban ; 7, Krishna-kshipanaka ; 8, Nanda-
prekshana ; 9, Indra-ban; 10, Siksha-ban ; 11, Chandravati-ban; 12, Lohaban.f

IV. — The 12 Adhi-bans: 1, Mathura; 2, Radha-kund; 3, Nanda-grama.;
4, Gata-sthana ; 5, Lalita-grama ; (!, Brisha-bhanu-pur ;§ 7, Gokul ; 8, Baladeva ;
9, Gobardhan ; 10, Java-ban ; 11, Brinda-ban; 12, Sanket.

V.— The 5 Sevya-bans; VI. the 12 Tapo-bans; VII. the 12 Moksha-bans;
VIII. the 12 Kama-bans ; IX. the 12 Artha-bans ; X. the 12 Dharma-bans ;
XI. the 12 Siddhi-bans — all of which the reader will probably think it unne-
cessary to enumerate in detail.

To every ban is assigned its own tutelary divinity; thus Halayudha
(Baladeva) is the patron of Maha-ban ; Gopimith of Kam-ban ; Nata-vara of
Kokila-ban ; Damodar of Tal-ban ; Kesava of Kumud-ban ; Sridhara of Bhandir-
ban ; Hari of Chhatra-ban; Narayan of Khadira-ban; Hayagriva of Bhadra-
ban ; Padma-nabha of Bahula-ban ; JanardaJia of Bel-ban ; Adi-vadrisvara of
Paramananda ; Paramesvara of Kam-ban (prati-ban) ; Jasoda-nandan of Naiul-
ganw; Gokulchandrama of Gokul ;Murlidhar of Karahla ; Lila-kamala-lochana
of Hasya-ban ; Lokesvara of Upahara-ban ; Lankadhipa-kula-dhvansi of Jahnu-
ban; and Srishatsilankshyana of Bhuvana-ban.

* Chhatra-ban represents the town of Chhata. The only spot mentioned in conned ion with
it is the Suraj-kund, a pond which still exists and bears the same name, but is not now held
in much regard.

t Surabhi-ban adjoins Gobardhan. Near Prem-ban is the l'rem-Barovar.

t The one Loha-ban on the right bank of the river is described as the scene of the destruction
of Jaiiirandha's armies; the other, on ihe left bank, is more correctly styled Loha-jungha-ban.

§ Bi isha-bhauu-pur is intended ub the Sanskrit original of Barsana, but incorrectly so.

THE HOU. 91

The four last-named woods are given as the limits of the Braj Mandal in
the following sloka, and it is distinctly noted that the city of Mathura is at the
same distance, viz., 21 kos, from each one of them : —

The Pandits, who were asked to reconcile these limits with those mentioned
in the Hindi couplet previously quoted, declared Hasya-ban in the east to be
the same as Barhadd in Aligarh: Upahara-ban in the west as Sona in Gurganw-
Jahnu-ban to the south the same as Siirasen-ka-ganw, or Batesar; and Bhuvana-
ban to the north, Bhiikhan-ban near Shergarh. The identification is probably
little more than conjectural ; but a superstition, which is at once both comparatively
modern and also practically obsolete, scarcely deserves a more protracted inves-
tigation than has already been bestowed upon it.

Next to the Ban-jatra, the most popular local festvity is the Holi, which is
observed for several days in succession at different localities. Several of the usages
are, I believe, entirely unknown beyond the limits of Braj, even to the people of
the country ; and, so far as I could ascertain by enquiries, they had never been
witnessed by any European. Accordingly, as the festival fell unusually early
in 1877, while the weather was still cool enough to allow of a mid- day ride without
serious inconvenience, I took advantage of the opportunity thus afforded me and
made the round of all the principal villages in the Chhata and Kosi parganas where
the rejoicings of the Phiil Dol, for so these Hindu Saturnalia are popularly termed,
are celebrated with any peculiarities, visiting each place on its special fete-day.
The following is an account of what I saw : —

Feb. 22nd, Barsdna, the Ramjila Holi. — In the middle of the town is a
small open square, about which are grouped the stately mansions and temples
built by the great families who resided here during the first half of the 18th
century. A seat in the balcony over the gateway of the house still occupied
by the impoverished descendants of the famous Katara, Riip Ram, the founder
of Barsana's short-lived magnificence, commands a full view of the humours
of the crowd below. The cheeriness of the holiday-makers as they throng the
narrow winding streets on their way to and from the central square, where
they break up into groups of bright and ever-varying combinations of colour ;
with the buffooneries of the village clowns and the grotesque dances of the
lusty swains, who with castanets in hand caricature in their movements the
conventional graces of the Indian ballet-girl,

92 SHAM FIGHT AT BARSXNA.

Crispum sub crotalo docta movere lalus,

all make up a sufficiently amusing spectacle ; but these are only interludes
and accessories to the great event of the day. This is a sham fight between
the men from the neighbouring village of Nand-gadw and the Barsana ladies,
the wives of the Gosains of the temple of Larli Ji, which stands high on the
crest of the rock that overlooks the arena. The women have their mantles
drawn down over their faces and are armed with long heavy bambus, with
which they deal their opponents many shrewd blows on the head and shoulders.
The latter defend themselves as best they can with round leather shields and
stags' horns. As they dodge in and out amongst the crowd and now and
again have their flight cut off and are driven back upon the band of excited
viragoes, many laughable incidents occur. Not unfrequently blood is drawn,
but an accident of the kind is regarded rather as an omen of good fortune and
has never been known to give rise to any ill-feeling. Whenever the fury of
their female assailants appears to be subsiding, it is again excited by the men
shouting at them snatches of the following ribald rhymes. They are not
worth translation, since they consist of nothing but the repetition of the
abusive word sdld, applied to every person and thing in Barsana. That town
being the reputed home of Radhtl, the bride, its people are styled her brothers ;
while the Nand-ganw men account themselves the brothers of Krishna, the
bridegroom: —

H=I HIT eTCSRalTT TT^=ITT HTT I
^IT^T^ HIcU HTT ^ 3THH3TT »

^pnfaxri ^?rc sbstc hit % hjthihstt i

lm 3|t H=*fl HTT ^IT qrTUcin; ||
SITU clifraT HWl HT* HTT HpqHelTT I
TSKcRrl %1T TiafTITI STT c^i HrTHIcIIT II
ctT^ra't VlTHitslK *IIT fl!JTOTI^T5IIT I
mjZ HSIFIT Hclll HIT ^T^T ^^W HIT II
^IFITXtrT Hl^TUrl HIT HIT *sW milT I
WmiT N^TT HIT H?I THT7T HTT II

THE HOLI BONFIKE AT FBXLEN. 93

Feb. 23rd, Nand-gdnw.— Another sham fight, as on tho preceding day,
only with the characters reversed ; the women on this occasion being tho
wives of the Gosains of the Nand-ganw temple, and their antagonists the
men of Barsana. The combatants are drawn up more in battle-array, instead
of skirmishing by twos and threes, and rally round a small yellow pennon that
is carried in their midst ; but the show is less picturesque in its accessories,
being held on a very dusty spot outside the town, and was more of a Phallic
orgie.

Feb. 21th, the Holi. Phdlen. — Hero is a sacred pond called Prahlad-
kund, and the fact of its having preserved its original name gives a clue,
as in so many parallel cases, to the older form of the name now borne by the
village. Local pandits would derive the word phdlen from the verb phdrna,
" to tear in pieces,'' with a reference to the fate of Prahlad's impious father,
Iliranya-Kasipu : but such a formation would be contrary both to rule and to
experience, and the word is, beyond a doubt, a corruption of Prahlada-grama.

Arriving at the village about an hour before sunset, I found a crowd of
some 5,000 people closely packed in the narrow spaces on the margin of the
pond and swarming over the tops of the houses and the branches of all the
trees in the neighbourhood. A large bonfire had been stacked half-way
between the pond and a little shrine dedicated to Prahlad, inside which the
Khera-pat, or Panda, who was to take the chief part in the performance of the
day, was sitting tell«% his beads. At 6 p. M. the pile was lit, and, being com-
posed of the most inflammable materials, at once burst into such a tremendous
blaze that I felt myself scorching, though the little hillock where I was seated
was a good many yards away. However, the lads of the village kept on
running close round it, jumping and dancing and brandishing their lathis,
while the Panda went down and dipped in the pond and then, with his
dripping pagri and dhoti on, ran back and made a feint of passing through
the fire. In reality he only jumped over the outermost verge of the smoul-
dering ashes and then dashed into his cell again, much to the dissatisfaction
of the spectators, who say that the former incumbent used to do it much
more thoroughly. If on the next recurrence of the festival the Panda shows
himself equally timid, the village proprietors threaten to eject him, as
an impostor, from the land which he holds rent-free simply on the score of his
being fire-proof.

Feb. 28th, Kosi*— After sitting a little while at a nach of the ordinary
character, given, by one of the principal traders in the town, I went on to see

94 THE HOLI AT KOSI.

the chaupdis, or more special Holi performances, got up by the different bodies
of Jat zamindars, each in their own quarter of the town. The dancers, exclu-
sively men and boys, are all members of the proprietory clan, and are
all dressed alike in a very high-waisted full- skirted white robe, reaching to
the ankles, called a jhagd, with a red pagri, in which is set at the back of the
head a long tinsel plume, kalangi, to represent the peacock feathers with which
Krishna was wont to adorn himself as he rambled through the woods. The
women stand at one end of the court-yard with their mantle drawn over their
faces and holding long lathis, with which, at a later period of the proceedings,
they join in the Holi sports. Opposite them are the bandsmen with drums,
cymbals and timbrels, and at their back other men with sticks and green
twigs, which they brandish about over their heads. The space in the
middle is circled by torch-bearers and kept clear for the dancers, who are
generally six in number, only one pair dancing at a time. Each performer,
in the dress as above described, has a knife or dagger in his right hand and
its scabbard in his left. At first, darting forward, they make a feint of thrust-
ing at the women or other spectators, and then pointing the knife to their own
breast they whirl round and round, generally backwards, the pace growing
faster and more furious and the clash of the band louder and louder, till at
last they sink down, with their flowing robe spread out all round them, in
a sort of curtsey, and retire into the back ground, to be succeeded by another
pair of performers. After a pair of men comes a pair of boys, and so on
alternately with very little variation in the action. Between the dances a
verse or two of a song is sung, and at the end comes the Holi khelna. This is
a very monotonous performance. The women stand in a line, their faces
veiled, and each with a lathi ornamented with bands of metal and gaudy
pendents, like the Bacchantes of old with the thyrsus, and an equal number
of men oppose them at a few yards' interval. The latter advance slowly with
a defiant air and continue shouting snatches of scurrilous song till they are
close upon the women, who then thrust out their lathis, and without uttering
a word follow them as they turn their back and retreat to their original stand-
ing-place. Arrived there, they let the women form again in line as they were
at first and then again advance upon them precisely as before, and so it
goes on till their repertory of songs is exhausted, or they have no voice left
to sing them. To complete my description I here give some specimens
of these sdkhis or verses, and have added notes to all the words that seemed
likely to require explanation. They are many of them too coarse aud at the
same time too stupid to make it desirable for me to translate them in full.

HOLI SONGS. 95

=P*T XT7T1 ^1 ^Jfl I

g| 5i«R H W s*i*|ziT ^TT^ftTTrl ^ifl II <t II

1T^*T ^ft TTTTU I

Iw tTk spsn ^ is in ^i?r hm s^itt n
^tt gfa ^i f n 1 1 5ia a irare ^rct i
%r ijt are* h *mf\ %jjt1 sircnft ^t^t muft h

^fa 1TTITT 31 *3T3T rTTJ ofm ^J} ll6 II * II

Tl^ $til 3^inff *r *( I

li 3*1 WW %5T ^ ^iq If XJ^TtI ^ *I5R si II ? II

fi*3T=R % 5R ^lf 5*3»lfa § Ufa I

W^T ^TUsl ^tT^i *3K Ufa f^T^f snn I
5J3T=R ^ ^"^2^ ^T^TT^T -*ZJ\m II l| II

tt^ 5iw srel wt I

li 3M ^ ^Tlf SRlD 3JH irfl^T W II £ II

JT^ ^TIH %^ lT<t I

SIT 3T FT SRclI sr ^T# 'StRl *HRi %tCt II

rTT^T 5R3JT ffiTO ^H ojj^ SN1 ^'iR 5r7T %lff II
3^cT ti^i^ ^n^r w 3T3T Sis* TUHX. ^T^O II ^ II

1. Krishna says to Udho : Ask her if she will come. She set the kardhi on the Are the firBt

thing in the evening and will slip out at midnight.

2. Jabi, then: jaycgi laj tihdri. you will be put to shame.

3. Dilyiri, sadness.

6. Whether you give or whether vou refnse

7. Apni apni jori, in pairs, two and two : morchang, or mohchang, a Jew'B-narp. Gdgar, ajar:

GAori for ghdli, mixed.

96 HOLI SONGS.

tiT^i % ira TjRT ^Tl l»PTO ^ f^SiRl II
StT^J TfraT S3W S^RT I

W ^m T5RT efr^ 3i'f^ I

*^ ^T WW, § T,| *^ srasjjfi ^3.1?? I! 10 n

5fa ^ JITIT U^falTT win ^R utt^ t^tl 'I St D

5fd w *ara s^rut xRttf i^ra crr^r 5gn^ n

5?T^3 ^^T ^ ^ TU^T *f.U^ ~H II <R I!

sJSJ^im^ §i 33? SPFF W SIT V* W^ SjiTT I)
SJSii Fi^ 5IST S?TT Ulrli 31*5 FR ^i 3^tj II t? II

531 ^fJT Q^ %mX cfi^ST 5^5 %K TP3T *ITfT II 18 II

8. Kautian for 'faun sd ; Adna, clothes ; garix d, a pot.

9. I'ija, for i>ijiye dl.ar.

10. A'u/, happiness .

11, Baiyin, for fcdn/i, arm.

12. Khaela, au ornament that hangs percent from the elbow.

13, Muhero, a mess of rice aud sour milk.

HOLI SONGS. 9T

fq JT?^SR 7K\ ^7T?T tRTT^T *l m ^W^ ^TT mm ^TT II RM II

rT of efiifT fftff STOra* 5T»ft ^^ ^ ^ 1 3Tf 2(TT H II 15 II

£fi=l R^i^r TAX "3% ^T^I I

JlKl^ %T^T H^T^T^T TreXTT^ fa^ =KT^T fll^t II 1© H

%Tfi Wr\ XT Tim T.m 33if! I

in j*%?\ mj traT t^^^it i fi ^t %m ^z ^iff n tc n

^JT ^ITTl^cin 3JW XW\ WTrft I

nT3t ins^ il *si3i% fi ^fT ^ii jtCt ItKt II qa II

March 1st, Kosi. — Spend an hour or two in the afternoon as a spectator
of the Holi sports at the Goinati-Kund. Each of the six Jut villages of the
Denda Pal* has two or more chaupdis, which come up one after the other in a
long procession, stopping at short intervals on the way to dance in the manner
above described, but several at a time instead of in single pairs. One of the
performers executed a pas de seul mounted on a daf, or large timbrel, which was
supported on the shoul lers of four other men of his troupe. Bands of mummers
(or twangs) were also to be seen, oneset attired as Muhammadan fakirs; another
(ghdyalon led sivdng) as wounded warriors, painted with streaks, as it were of
blood, and with sword-blades and daggers so bound on to their neck and arms

15. St/ahi, a woman's dopaita.
Jliagd, a man's dre6S.

16. Adhbar, in the middle.

Bard, an ornament worn by women on the elbow.

17. Suk, the planet Venus, which is regarded as auspicious .
Chalan, the same as the more common gauna.

18. Jori, for zori, zabrdasti.
Jam, lust, passion.

19. Dyaus, the day-time.
Khaddna, a clay pit.
* Any subdivision of a Jat clan is called a Pal, and the town of Kosi is the centre of one
such sub-division, which is known as the Denda Pal.

SS THE HOLANGA MELA.'

and other parts of the body that they seemed to be transfixed by them. Some
long iron rods were actually thrust through their protruded tongue and their
cheeks, and in this ghastly guise and with drawn swords in their hands, with
which they kept on dealing and parrying blows, the pair of combatants peram-
bulated the crowd.

March2nd. — At 2 p.m. ride over toBathen for the Holanga mela, and find a
place reserved for me on a raised terrace at the junction of fourstreets in the cen-
tre of the village. Every avenue was closely packed with the densest throng,
and the house-tops seemed like gardens of flowers with the bright dresses of the
women. Most of them were Jats by caste and wore their distinctive costume, a
petticoat of coarse country stuff worked by their own hands with figures of birds,
beasts, and men, of most grotesque design, and a mantle thickly sewn all ovei
with discs of talc, which flash like mirrors in the sun and quite dazzle the
sight. The performers in the chaupdi could scarcely force their way through tin-
crowd, much loss dance, but the noise of the band that followed close at their
heels made up for all shortcomings. There was a great deal of singing, of a
very vociferous and probably also a very licentious character ; but my ears
were not offended, for in the general din it was impossible to distinguish a
single word. Handfuls of red powder (abir) mixed with tiny particles of
glistening talc were thrown about, up to the balconies above and down on the
heads of the people below, and seen through this atmosphere of coloured
cloud, the frantic gestures of the throng, their white clothes and faces all
stained with red and yellow patches, and the great timbrels with bunches of
peacocks' feathers, artifical flowers and tinsel stars stuck in their rim, borne
above the players' heads and now and again tossed up high in the air, com-
bined to form a curious and picturesque spectacle. After the music came a
posse of rustics each bearing a rough jagged branch of the prickly acacia,
stript of its leaves, and in their centre one man with a small yellow pennon on
a long staff, yellow being the colour appropriate to the Spring season ami the
God of Love. The whole party slowly made its way through the village to an
open plain outside, where the crowd assembled cannot have numbered less
than 15,000. Here a circular arena was cleared and about a hundred of the
Bathen Jatnis were drawn up in a line, each with a long bambu in her hands,
and confronting them an equal number of the bough-men who are all from the
neighbouring village of Jan. A sham fight ensued, the women trying to beat
down the thorny bushes and force their way to the flag. A man or two got a
cut in the face, but the most perfect good humour prevailed, except when an

VEESES BY StfR D^g. 99

outsider from some other village attempted to join in the play ; he was at once
hustled out with kicks and blows that meant mischief. The women were
backed up by their own husbands, who stood behind and encouraged them by
word, but did not move a hand to strike. When it was all over, many of the
spectators ran into the arena and rolled over and over in the dust, or streaked
themselves with it on the forehead, taking it as the dust hallowed by the feet
of Krishna and the Gopis.

The forenoon had been devoted to the recitation of Hindi poems appro-
priate to the occasion. I was not on the spot in time enough to hear any of
this, but with some difficulty I obtained for a few days the loan of the volume
that was used, and have copied from it three short pieces. The actual M.S. is
of no greater antiquity than 1776 A. D., the colophon at the end, in the curious
mixture of Sanskrit and Hindi affected by village pandits, standing thus :

Sambat 1852 Bhadrapad audi 2 dwitiya, rabibdr, likhitam idam pustakam,
Sri Gopdl Das CJiaran-Pahari*-madhye parhan drthi Sri Seva Das Bari
Bathain vdsi :

but probably many successive copies have been made since the original was
thumbed to pieces. The first stanzas, which are rather prettily worded,
ire, or at least profess to be, the composition of the famous blind poet Stir
•Das.

II ^ II
=3HT^T<3 l^R 3TgJR Rif ^JTT VZ tR II

^urc*i wix zOk^k *z%feM Ck m ii

HTW^f Cm ^J7^T XKUT^ *\?m WR ^ II

* Charan-Fahfiri is the name of a small detacheil rock, of the same character as the
Bharat pur range, that crop* up above the grouml in the village of Little Buthen.

100 VERSES BY DXMODAR DXS.

*rc urn?* faf^snir ra^srai ^ vy 5?r ^ "

" Thy ways are past knowing, fall of compassion, Supreme Intelligent
unapproachable, unfathomable beyond the cognizance of the senses, movin
in fashion mysterious.

" A lion, most mighty in strength and courage, dies of hunger ; a snake
fills his belly without labour and without exertion.

" Now a straw sinks in the water, now a stone floats : he plants an ocean
in the desert, a flood fills it all round.

" The empty is filled, the full is upset, by his grace it is filled again ; the
lotus blossoms from the rock and fire burns in the water.

" A king becomes a beggar and again a beggar a king with umbrella
over his head : even the guiltiest (says Sur Das) in an instant is saved, if the
Lord helps him the least."

The second piece, in a somewhat similar strain, is by Damodar Das :

II V$ II

^1 37^11 T^t f%^ "^T3i TISnTrl ^flff tJc^T II
^5 tR-J^T JJ7SU $T W^T srm ^TTf WIT I
T3R T5^ =?ScI HrJT^ ^T^T §TO ^^^T II

Translation,

"Come, my soul, adore Nand-lala (i. c, Krishna), whether living in the
house or in the woods (i. e., whether a man of the world or a hermit), there is
no other help to lay hold of.

" The Veda, the Pun'mas, and the Law declare that nothing is better than
this ; every day honour increases four-fold, like the moon in its degrees..

THE DIVINITIES COMMEMORATED AT THE HOLI. 101

" Who has wealth ? who has house and fortune ? who has son and wife ?
says Damodar, nought will remain secure in the world : it is gone in a
moment."

The third piece, an encomium of the blooming Spring, is too simple to
require any translation :

^TT WT II

7m& craft ^cFT a^T^R ^3^ XR3 TEST I
^3^ ^T^f ^^^ S«T TflTft mrf r\ *&\c\^ II

^^^ 3TH 5|cJIT3 SWSiITT ^TCFI =ra^ ^m^ I

5^ wz srI ^rafteRT fl^fi iwra g?i 11

qg^ft oJT% ^T^ »5im3 5FTra5T li f H II

The only divinities who are now popularly commemorated at the Holi
Festival are Radha, Krishna, and Balarama ; but its connection with them
can only be of modern date. The institution of the Ban-jatra and the
Ras-lila, and all the local legends that they involve is (as has been already
stated) traceable to one of the Brinda-ban Gosains at the beginning of the 17th
century A. D. The fact, though studiously ignored by the Hindus of Mathuni,
is distinctly stated in the Bhakt-mala, the work which they admit to be of
paramount authority on such matters. But the scenes that I have described
carry back the mind of the European spectator to a far earlier period and are
clearly relics, perhaps the most unchanged that exist in any part of the world,
of the primitive worship of the powers of nature on the return of Spring. Such
were the old English merry-makings on May Day and, still more closely paral-
lel the Phallic orgies of Imperial Rome as described by Juvenal. When I was
listening to the din of the village band at Bathen, it appeared to be the very
scene depicted in the lines —

Plangebant alias proceris tympana palmis,
Aut tereti tenuis tinnitus asre ciebant ;
Multis raucisonos efflabant cornua bombos,
Barbaraque horribili stridebat tibia canta.
26

102 GREEK AND ROMAN PARALLELS TO THE HOLI.

Or, again, in the words of Catullus —

Leve tympanum remugit, cava cymbala recrepant,
Ubi sacra sancta acutis ululatibus agitant,
Quatiuntque terga tauri teneris cava digitis:
while the actors in the chaupdi with dagger in hand recalled the pictures of the
G'orybantes or Phrygian priests of Cybele, the very persons to whom the poet
refers. In Greece the Indian Holi found its equivalent in the Dionysia, when
the phallus, the symbol of the fertility of nature, was borne in procession, as it
now is here, and when it was thought a disgrace to remain sober. In like
manner the Gosains and other actors in the Indian show are quite as much
inspired in their frenzied action by their copious preliminary libations as by the
excitement of the scene and the barbarous music of the drums, cymbals, and
timbrels that accompany them.

CHAPTER V.

THE BUDDHIST CITY OF MATHURA' AND ITS ANTIQUITIES.

Apart from its connection with the deified Krishna, the city of Mathura has
been a place of note from the most distant antiquity. In Buddhist times it
was one of the centres of that religion, and its sacred shrines and relics at-
tracted pilgrims even from China, two of whom have left records of their travels.
The first, by name Fa Hian, spent, as he informs us, three years in Western
Asia, visiting all the places connected with events in the life of the great teacher
or of his immediate successors ; his main object being to collect authentic
copies of the oldest theological texts and commentaries, to take back with him
to his own country. Commencing his journey from Tibet, he passed succes-
sively through Kashmir, Kabul, Kandahar, and the Panjab, and so arrived in
Central India, the madliya-des of Hindu geographers. Here the first kingdom
that he entered was Mathura, with its capital of the same name situate on the
bank of the Jamuna. All the people from the highest to the lowest were staunch
Buddhists, and maintained that they had been so ever since the time of Sakya
Muni's translation. This statement must be accepted with considerable reserve,
since other evidence tends to show that Hinduism was the prevalent religion
during part of the interval between Buddha's death and Fa Hian's visit, which
was made about the year 400 A. D. He assures us, however, that many of
the ecclesiastical establishments possessed copper plates engraved with the ori-
ginal deeds of endowment in attestation of their antiquity. In the capital —
where he rested a whole month — and its vicinity, on the opposite banks of the
river, were twenty monasteries, containing in all some 3,000 monks. There
were, moreover, six relic-towers, or stiipas, of which the most famous was the
one erected in honour of the great apostle Sari-putra. The five other stiipas
are also mentioned byname ; two of them commemorated respectively Ananda,
the special patron of religious women, and Mudgala-putra, the great doctor of
Samddhi or contemplative devotion. The remaining three were dedicated to
the cultus of the Abhi-dharma, the Sutra, and the Vinaya divisions of the
sacred books, treating respectively of Metaphysics, Beligion, and Morality,
and known in Buddhist literature by the collective name of the Tri-pitaka
or ' three baskets.'

104 HWEN THSANG's DESCRIPTION OF MATHCRA".

Some 200 years later, Hwen Thsang, another pilgrim from the Flowery-
Laud, was impelled by like religious zeal to spend sixteen years, from 62i) to
G45 A.D., travelling throughout India. On his return to China, he compiled,
by special command of the Emperor, a work in twelve Books entitled ' Memoirs
of Western Countries,' giving succinct geographical descriptions of all the
kingdoms, amounting in number to 128, that he had either personally visited,
or of which he had been able to acquire authentic information. After his death,
two of his disciples, wishing to individualize the record of their master's adven-
tures, compiled in ten Books a special narrative of his life and Indian travels.
This has been translated into French by the great Orientalist, Mons. S. Julien.
Mathurd is described as being 20 li, or four miles in circumference, and as con-
taining still, as in the days of Fa Hian, 20 monasteries. But the number of
resident monks had been reduced to 2,000, and five temples had been erected to
Brahmanical divinities ; both facts indicating the gradual decline of Buddhism.
There were three stupas, built by King Asoka, and many spots were shown
where the four former Buddhas hud left the marks of their feet. Several other
Mitpas were reverenced as containing relics of the holy disciples of Sakya Muni,
viz., Sari-putra, Mudgalayana, Purna-maitrayani-putra, Upali, Ananda, Rahula,
Manjusri, and other Bodhi-satwas. Every year (he writes) in the months of
the three long fasts (the first, fifth, and ninth) and on the six monthly fasts the
religious assemble in crowds at these stupas, and make their several offerings
at the one which is the object of their devotion. The followers of Abhi-dharma
offer to Sari-putra, and those who practise contemplation (dht/una) to Mudgal-
ayana. Those who adhere to the Sutras pay their homage to Purna-maitra-
yani-putra ; those who stud}- the Vinaya honour Upali ; religious women
honour Ananda ; those who have not yet been fully instructed (catechumens)
honour Rahula ; those who study the Maha-yana honour all the Bodhi-satwas.*
Banners enriched with pearls float in the air, and gorgeous umbrellas are
grouped in procession. Clouds of incense and constant showers of flowers
obscure the sight of the sun and moon. The king and his ministers apply
themselves with zeal to the practice of meritorious Avorks. Five or six li — i.e.,
about a mile and a quarter— to the east of the town is a monastery on a hill,
the sides of which have been excavated to allow of the construction of cells.
The approach is by a ravine. It is said to have been built by the venerable
Upagupta. In its centre may be seen a stupa which encloses some nail-parings

* A BoJhi-Batwa is defined as a being who haB arrived at Buprenie wisdom (iuaVii), and yet
consents to remain as a creature (sadoo) for the good of men.

IMPORTANCE OF MATHURA' IN BUDDHA'S LIFETIME. 105

of the Tathagata. At a hill to the north of this monastery is a cave in the
rock, twenty feet high and thirty feet broad, where had been collected an
immense number of little bambu spikes, each only four inches long. When a
married couple, whom the venerable Upagupta had converted and instructed,
obtained the rank of Arhat, * he added a spike. But he took no note of other per-
sons, even though they had attained the same degree of sanctity. Twenty-four
or 25 li to the south-east of this cave was a large dry tank with a stiipa by its
side, where it was said that one day as Buddha was pacing up and down, he was
offered some honey by a monkey, which he graciously told him to mix with water
and divide among the monks. The monkey was so charmed at the condescension
that he forgot where he was, and in his ecstasy fell over into the tank and was
drowned : as a reward for his meritorious conduct, when he next took birth, it
was in human form. A little to the north of this tank was a wood with seyeral
stt'ipas to mark the spots that had been hallowed by the presence of the four
earlier Buddhas, and where 1,250 famous teachers of the law, such as Sari-
putra and Mudgala-putra, had given themselves up to meditation. When the
Tathagata (he adds) lived in the'world, he often travelled in this kingdom, and
monuments have been erected in every place where he expounded the law.

The Lalita Vistara, which is the oldest and most authentic record that the
Buddhists possess, gives a most elaborate account of Ssikya Muni's early
adventures, and of the six years of preliminary penance and seclusion that he
spent in the woods of Uruvilva (now Buddh Gaya) before he commenced
his public ministry ; but the narrative terminates abruptly with his departure
for Bamiras, which was- the first place to which he betook himself after
he had attained to the fulness of perfect knowledge. There is no equally
trustworthy and consecutive record of the second and more important half o£
his life — the 40 years which he spent in the promulgation of his new creed — and
it is therefore impossible to say at what period he paid those frequent visits to
Mathura of which Hwen , Thsang speaks. There is, however, no reason to
doubt that they were paid ; for the place was one of much importance in his
time and, like every other new teacher, it was the great centres of population
that he laboured most, to influence. In Beal's translation of the Chinese ver-
sion of the Abhinishkramana Sutra we find Mathura styled the capital of all
Jambu-dwipa, and on that account it was one of the first suggested as a fit
place for Buddha to take birth in. He rejected it, however, on the ground that
the king by whom it was ruled, a powerful monarch, Subahu by name, was a

* Aa Arhat is a saint who lias attained to the fourth grade in the scale of perfection.

106 TIRST DISCOVERY OF BUDDHIST REMAINS.

heretic. The objections to other large cities were, either that the king's pedi-
gree had some flaw ; or that he was a Brahman, not a Kshatriya by caste ;
or that he had already a large family ; or that the people were insubordinate
and self-willed. Bananas and Ujaiyin were considered unworthy for a similar
reason as Mathura, viz., that at the former there were four heretical schools of
philosophy, and that the king of the latter did not believe in a future state.
The use of the word ' heretical ' is to be noted, for it clearly indicates that
Buddha did not intend to break entirely with Hinduism ; or rather, like the
English ' Eeformers ' of the 16th century, and Dr. Dollinger and his "old Catho-
lics" on the continent of Europe at the present day, or Balm Kesav Chandra
Sen in Calcutta, or, in short, like all subverters of established systems, he found
it politic to disguise the novelty of his theories by retaining the old terminology,
and thus investing them with the prestige of a spurious antiquity.

In consequence of the changes in religion and the long lapse of time, the
whole of the ancient Buddhist buildings described by the Chinese pilgrims had
been overthrown, buried, and forgotten, till quite recently, when some fragments
of them have been again brought to light. The first discovery was made by
( reneral < 'unningham, in 1853, who noticed some capitals and pillars lying about
within the enclosure of the Katra, the site of the Hindu temple of Kesava
Deva. A subsequent search revealed the architrave of a gateway and other
sculptures, including in particular a standing figure of Buddha, three and-a-
half feet high, which was found at the bottom of a well, with an inscription
at its base recording the gift of the statue to the ' Yasa Vihara,' or ' Convent
of Glory,' which may be taken as the name of one of the Buddhist establish-
ments that had existed on the spot. The date of the presentation was recorded
in figures which could not be certainly deciphered.'*

A far more important discovery was made in 1860, in digging the foun-
dation of the Magistrate and Collector's new court-house. The site selected for
this building was an extensive mound overhanging the Agra road at the en-
trance to the civil station. It had always been regarded as merely the remains
of a series of brick-kilns, and had been further protected against exploration
by the fact that it was crowned by a small mosque. This was, for military
reasons, blown down during the mutiny ; and afterwards, on clearing away the
rubbish and excavating for the new foundations, it was found to have been
erected, in accordance with the common usage of the Muhammadan conquerors,
upon the ruins of a destroyed temple. A number of Buddhist statues, pillars,

* Tiiis ttatue was oue of those removed by Dr. l'luyfair to the Museum at Agra.

Darvasuj IttL tUa
Hans-gwij

JolW

ENVIRONS

MATHUKA

Vasje>

106

■oUactcr's Edi'je-

Note.— This sketch has been drawn by eye only, and makes no claim to absolute accuracy j but it
is correct enough to be useful for visitors.

DATE OP THE INSCRIPTIONS. 107

and basso-relievos, were disinterred ; and the inscriptions, as partially deci-
phered, would seem to indicate that the mound was occupied by several dif-
ferent monasteries ; three of which, according to General Cunningham, bon
the names of Sarrghamittra-sada Yiliara, Huvishka vihara, and Kundokhara,'
or as it may he read, Kmida-Suka Vihara. On the pedestal of a sealed figure
was found recorded the first half of a king's name, Vasu ; the latter part
was broken away, but the lacuna should probably he supplied with the word
' deva," as a group of figures inscribed with the name of King Vasudeva
and date 87 was discovered in 1871 at a neighbouring mound called
the ' Kankali tila.' The most numerous remains were portions of stone railine
of the particular type used to enclose Buddhist shrines and monuments. The
whole were made over to the Agra museum, where the railings were roughly put
together in such a way as to indicate the original arrangement. The entire
collection has since been again removed elsewhere, I believe to Allahabad ; but
as there is no proper building for their reception there, nobody appears to
know anything about them, and it is very much to be regretted that they were
ever allowed to be taken from Mathura. Many of the pillars were marked
with figures as a guide to the builder ; and thus we learn that one set, for they
were. of various sizes, consisted of at least as many as 129 pieces. There were
also found three large seated figures of Buddha, of which two were full, the
third a little less than life-size ; and the bases of some 30 large columns. It was
liiefly round these bases that the inscriptions were engraved. One of the most
noticeable fragments was a stone hand, measuring a foot across the palm, which
must have belonged to a statue not less than from 20 to 24 feet in height.

Most of the sculptures were executed in common red sandstone and were
of indifferent workmanship, in every way inferior to the specimens more
recently discovered at other mounds in the neighbourhood. The most artistic
was the figure of a dancing-girl, rather more than half life-size, in a tolerably
natural and graceful attiiude.f Like the so-called figure of Silenus, discovered
by James Prinsep in 1836, of which a detailed description will be given fur-
ther on, it was thought that it might have been the work of a Greek artist.
This conjecture, though I do not accept it myself, involves no historical diffi-
culty, since in the Yuga-Purana of the Gargi-Sanhita, written about the yea*

* It must be admitted that Kundokhara, i.e., Kunda-pushkara, is a. very questionable com-
pound, since the two members of which it is composed would bear each precisely the same
meaning.

t Two representations of this figure are given in Cunningham's Archaeological Survey,
Vol. I., page 240.

108 mathurX conquered by the greeks.

50 B. C, it is explicitly stated that Mathura was reduced by the Greeks, and that
their victorious armies advanced into the very heart of Hindustan, even as far
as Patali-putra. The text is as follows: — -

clef; ^T^irWT^RJ tt^T^T^ TTZTCfrreiT i

" Then those hateful conquerors., the Greeks, after reducing Saketa,* tli-
country of Panchala and Mathura, will take Kusuma-dhvaja (Patali-putra) ;
and when Pushpa-pura (i. e., Patali-putra) is taken, every province will assuredly
become disordered."

In close proximity to the mound where the antiquities, which we have des-
cribed above were discovered is a large walled enclosure, called the Damdama,
for some years past occupied by the reserves of the district police, but originally
one of a series of sanies erected in the time of the Delhi Emperors along the
road between the two royal residences of Agra and Delhi. Hence the adjoin-
ing hamlet derives its name of Sarae Jamalpur ; and for the sake of conver-
nience, when future reference is made to the mound, it will be by that title.
As it is at some distance to the south-east of the katra, the traditional site of
ancient Mathura, and so far agrees with the position assigned by Hwen Thsang
to the stupa erected to commemorate Buddha's interview with the monkey,
there is plausible ground for identifying the two places. The identification is
confirmed by the discovery of the inscription with the name Kundo-khara or
Kundasuka ; for, whichever way the word is read, it would seem to contain a
reference to a tank (Jmnda), and a tank was the characteristic feature of Hwen
Thsang's monkey stupa. It at first appears a little strange that there should
be, as the inscriptions lead us to infer, four separate monasteries on one hill,
but General Cunningham states that in Parma, where Buddhism is still the
national religion, such juxtaposition is by no means uncommon.

* The siege of Saketa is ascertained to have taken place early in the reign of Menander,
who ascended the throne in the year 144 B. C, Pushpa-mitra being at that time King of Patali-
putra. The Girgi Sanhita is an ancient and extremely rare work, of which only five M.SS —
all apparently imperfect— are as yet known to be in existence. Three are in European
libraries ; one belongs to Dr Kern, who was the first to call attention to the work in the Preface

to his edition of Varaha Mihira's ljrihat Sanhita, in which it is frequently quoted; and

the fifth haB been recently discovered by Or. B.uhler.

THE VIKRAMA'DITYA ERA. 109

Transcripts and translations of many of these inscriptions have been since
made by different scholars and have been published by General Cunningham in
Volume III. of his Archaeological Survey ; but they are for the most part of a
very tentative character and leave much room for uncertainty, both as regards
reading and interpretation.* They are all brief votive records, giving only the
name of the obscure donor, accompanied by some stereotyped religious formula.
The dates, which it would be specially interesting to ascertain, are indicated by
figures, the value of which has been definitely determined ; but the era to which
they refer is still matter of dispute. Dr. Rr.jendra-lala Mitra has consistently
maintained from the first that it is the Saka era, beginning from 76 A. D. ; and
if so, the series ranges between 120 and 206 A. D. But the era intended
might also be that of Vikramaditya, or of the Seleucida?, or of Buddha's
Nirvana, or of the particular monarch whose name is specified.

Before the discovery of these and similar inscriptions, the history of India,
from the invasion of Alexander the Great to that by Mahmud of Ghazni, was
almost an absolute blank, in which however the name of Vikramaditya, the repu-
ted founder of the era still most in vogue among Hindus, enjoyed such universal
celebrity that it seemed impossible for any question to be raised regarding
him. This solitary stand-point has completely given way under the weight
of modern researches, and not only Vikramaditya's paramount sovereignty,
but even his existence, is now denied, and that by disputants who will scarcely
find a single other matter on which to agree. Mr. Fergusson writes t '' No
authentic traces exist of any king bearing the name or title of Vikramaditya
having lived in the first century before Christ ; nor" — though here his assertion
will be disputed — " has it been possible to point to any event as occurring B. C.
56, which was of sufficient importance to give rise to the institution of an era
for its commemoration." Similarly, Professor Bhau Daji, of Bombay, declared
that he knew of no inscription, dated in this Sambat, before the eleventh cen-
tury of the Christian era ; and, though this appears to be carrying incredulity
a little too far, General Cunningham, upon whose accuracy every reliance can
be placed, says that the earliest inscription of the Vikramaditya era, that he
has seen, bears date 811, that is A. D. 754. Now, if the era was really

* It may be hoped that Dr. Hoernle of the Calcutta Madrasa will at some time find leisure to
revise and translate the whole series of these early inscriptions. There is no one in India, or even
among European scholars, who is equally qualified for the task by his knowledge of Sanskrit,
of literary Vrakrit and of the modern vernacular, which last is often of the greatest service in
supplying parallel examples of colloquial usage. His corrected readings of the inscriptions from,
the Bhaihat stupa, as published in the Indian Antiquary, are a triumph of scholarly ingenuity.

110 KANISHKA, KING OF KASHMIR.

established before the birth of Christ, it is difficult to understand why it should
have lain so long dormant and then have become so curiously revived and so
generally adopted.

Various solutions of the difficulty have been attempted. It has been
definitely ascertained that the title Vikramaditya was borne by a king Sri
Harsha, who reigned at Ujaiyin, in the first half of the sixth century A. J).,
and General Cunningham conjectures with some probability that it was he
who restored the general use of the old era (which had been to a great extent
superseded by the introduction of the Saka era in 70 A. D.) and made it
his own, simply by changing its name to that which it now bears. The king
by whom it was really established about the year 57 B. C. he conceives to have
been the Indo-Scythian Kanishka.

This is a personage who as yet scarcely figures at all in histories intended
for 'the general reader ; but it is certain that he was one of the greatest sover-
eigns that ever held sway in Upper India and, if not the first to introduce Bud-
dhism, was at least the one who definitely established it as the state religion.
The Sanskrit Chronicle, entitled the Raja-Tarangini, mentions among the
successors of the great Asoka, in the latter half of the century immediately
preceding the birth of Christ, three kings of foreign descent named Hushka
(or Huvishka), Jushka, and Kanishka. The later Muhammadau writers
represent them as brothers : but it is not so stated in the original text, the
words of which are simply as follows :—

<o no

vim T,}^mm hut nmi: 3iraRJH!ia i

i( There, too, the three kings, Hushka, Jushka, and Kanishka, bom
of Turushka descent, monarchs of eminent virtue. In their exalted reign a
great part of the region of Kashmir was occupied by peripatetic Buddhist
ascetics."

Their dominions are known to have included Kabul, Kashmir, and the
Panjab ; and recently discovered inscriptions imply that their sway extended
thence as far south as Mathura. It is true that many of the religious buildings
in holy places have been founded by foreign princes, who had no territorial

CONNECTION BETWEEN MATHURA' AND KASHSlfR. HI

connection with the neighbourhood ; but there seems to have been some special
bond of union between Mathura and Kashmir. Incredible as it has been deemed
by most geographers, it is yet within the range of possibility, as pointed out
by Professor Wilson, that Ptolemy intended, by the close similarity of
names, to indicate a connection between Kaainjpta vtro ras tov Bt,od o-nvu koI toO
"2,ai>ho/3a\ kcll tov PoaBtos -ny/ds — that is, Kasperia, or Kashmir, at the
sources of the Vitasta, the Chandra-bhaga, and the Ravi— and the Kash-
peircei, dwelling lower down on the Vindhva range and the banks of the
Jamuna, one of whose chief towns was Mathura. For, further, Ptolemy repre-
sents ?;' wavlwov X<I/pa ' the country of Pandu,' as lying in the neigbour-
hood of the Vitasta, or Jhelam ; while Arrian, quoting from Megasthenes, says
it derived its name from Pandoea, the daughter of Hercules, the divinity
specially venerated by the Suraseni on the Jamuna. Thus, as i.t would seem, he
identifies Mathura, the chief town of the Suraseni, with Pandoea. Balarama,
one of its two tutelary divinities, may be certainly recognized as Belus, the
Indian Hercules ; while, if wo allow for a little distortion of the original
legend, Pritha, another name of Kunti, the mother of the Pandavas and sister
of Krishna and Balarama's father, Vasudeva, may be considered the native
form which was corrupted into Pandosa.

In historical illustration of the same line of argument, it may be remarked
that Gonauda I., the king of Kashmir contemporary with Krishna, is related
(Raja-Tarangini, I., 59) to have been a kinsman of Jarasandha and to have
assisted him in the siege of Mathura.* He was slain there on the bank of the
Kalindi, i.e., the Jamuna, by Balarama. His son and successor, Damodara, a
few years later, thinking to avenge his father's death, made an attack on a party
of Krishna's friends, as they were returning from a wedding at Gandhara near
the Indus, but himself met his death at that hero's hands. The nest occupant
of the throne of Mathura in succession to Jarasandha was Kama, the faithful
ally of the Kauravas, against whom the great war was waged by Krishna and
the Pandavas. Gonanda II., the son of Damodara, was too young to take any

" Gonauda, the king of Kashmir, having been summoned by bis relation, Jarasandha, to his
assistance, besieged with a mighty army Krishna's city of Mathura."

112 INSCRIPTIONS OF KANISHKA AND HUVISHKA.

part in the protracted struggle ; but the reigning houses of Mathura and Kash-
mir acknowledged a common enemy in Krishna, and the fact appears to have
conduced to a friendly feeling between the two families, which lasted for many
generations. Thus we read in the Raja-Tarangini (IV., 512)* that when
Jayapida, who reigned over Kashmir at the end of the eighth century after
Christ, built his new capital of Jayapura, a stately temple was founded there
and dedicated to Mahsideva uuder the title of Achesvara, by Acha, the son-in-
law of Pramoda, the king of Mathura. f

Three inscriptions have been found bearing the name of Kanishka.f Of
these one is dated 9, another 28 ; in the third the year has unfortunately been
broken away. The memorials of his successor, the Maharaja Huvishka,§ are
more numerous, and the dates range from 33 to 50. In one instance, however,
the gift is distinctly made to the king's Vihara, which does not necessarily
imply that the king was still living at the time ; and the same may have been
the intention of the other inscriptions ; since the grammatical construction of
the words, which give the king's name and titles in the genitive case, is a little
doubtful, the word upon which they depend not being clearly expressed.
Huvishka was succeeded by Vasudeva, who, notwithstanding his purely Indian
name, must be referred to the same dynasty, since ordinarily he is honoured
with the same distinctive titles, Maharaja Rdjatirdja Devaputra ; and for
Devaputra is in one legend substituted Shdhi, by which the Indo-Scythian
Princes were specially distinguished. On gold coins, moreover, his name is
given in Greek characters, Bazodeo.

irsrarr: jmis^ ^urnm h^tctch: i

•f I have not been able to trace king Pramoda's name elsewhere. He may have been one of
the seven Naga (or, according to another MS., Mauna) princes, whom the Vayu Purana men-
tions as destined to reign over Mathura —

umi ^ tjfi ?izri ^t*TT ^fT^fl^rl HJJ § 1

-Li <t '

" The seven Nagas will possess the pleasant city of Mathura."
X On his coins his name appears in the form Kanerki.
§ On coins the name Huvishka is given as Ooerki.

THE ERA OF THE SELEUCID.E. 113

In an article contributed to the Indian Antiquary for 1881 Dr. Oldenberg
of Berlin seeks to identify the great Kanishka, not, as General Cunningham has
done, with the mythical Vikramaditya, but with the founder of the Saka era in
78 A.D., thus supporting the same chronological theory as Dr. Mitra. The
Kuskana dynasty, to which Kanishka belonged, seems to have first established
itself about 24 B.C. in the person of Hermaens. The coins of this Prince, in
which he is styled Basilevs Soter, are well known to numismatists, as also are
those of his three successors, who bear the barbarous names of Kozulokad-
phises, Kozolakadaphes and Ooemakadphises. The Chinese speak of this dynasty
as of great power in India in 159 A.D., but after the death of Vasudeva c. 178
A.D. it rapidly declined and was altogether extinguished about the year of our
era 220. After a century of darkness, regarding which nothing is known, the
Guptas rose to power in 319 A.D. and held the throne, for five generations,
till about 480 A.D., when they were deposed by the Vallabhis, who, however,
continued to date events by the same era as their predecessors. The Satrapas
or Kshatrapas, who are commemorated by an inscription at Mathura, dated in
the reign of the Satrap Saudasa, probably employed a local era of their own
dynasty. This appears to have been founded in Gujarat about 100 A.D. and
to have continued in power for three centuries, when it was overthrown by
the Guptas.

Mr. Thomas, the celebrated numismatist, has broached a theory that the
era intended is that of the Seleucidaj, which commenced on the last of Octo-
ber, 310 B. C. The long interval of time between this date and either the
Vikramaditya or the Saka initial year would seem to render his hypothesis
altogether untenable, as being utterly subversive of accepted chronology.
But from such an inscription as that of Kanishka with the date Sambat 9 he
does not deduce the year 303 B. C. (that is 312-9), but rather supposes that
as we ourselves ordinarily write 75 for 1875, so the Indo-Scythians wrote 9
for 309 ; and thus Sambat 9 might correspond with the year 3 B.C. A
curious confirmation of this view may be observed in the fact that the inscrip-
tions, in which the dates range from 9 to 98, employ a division of the year
into the three seasons, Grishma, Varsha, and Hemanta — that is to say, the hot
weather, the rains and the winter ; and the day is specified as (for example)
the 11th of the 4th month of the particular season. In only one of the
Mathura inscriptions is the date above a hundred, viz., 135 ; and here the
division of time is according to the Hindu Calendar still in use, the particular
month named being Pushya, Hence it may be inferred that this inscription

114 THE ERA OF THE INSCRIPTIONS AN UNSOLVED MYSTERY.

belongs to an entirely different series and may very probably refer to the
Saka era.

The Seleucidan era is obionsly one that might have recommended itself
to a dynasty of mixed Greek descent ; but another that might with equal or
even greater probability have been employed is the Kashmffian era used by
Kalhana in the last three books of his Raja-Tarangini, and which is still familiar
to the Brahmans of that country. It is otherwise called the era of the Sap-
tarshis and dates from the secular procession of Ursa Major, Chaitra sudi 1 of
the 2Gth year of the Kali-yuga, 3076 B.C. It is known to be a fact and is
not a mere hypothesis that when this era is used, the hundreds are generally
omitted. The chronological difficulties involved in these inscriptions seem
therefore almost to defy solution; for the era may commence either in March,
3076 B.C., or in October, 312 B.C., or in 57 B.C., or in 78 A.D. There is
further a difficulty in considering that any one era can be intended ; for one
inscription has been found, dated 47, mentioning Huvishka as king, while
two others bearing Vasudeva's name are dated respectively 44 and 83, which
would thus make Vasudeva at once the predecessor and the successor of
Huvishka. The simplest way of meeting this difficulty would be to refer the
figures to the year of the king's reign, and a small fragment of an inscrip-
tion that I found in the Jamalpur mound bears the words... shkasya rdji/a-
samvatsare 28 Hemant 3 div., of which the most obious translation would
be ' On the day of the third winter month of the 28th year of the

reign of Kanishka' (as the name it would seem must have been). Nor
need any difficulty be occasioned by the use of the word Sambat to
denote the year of a monarch's reign. For though modern practice resi
tricts the term exclusively to the Vikramaditya era, such was not always the
case : witness the inscription on the temple of Gobind Deva at Brinda-ban —
Sambat 34 Sri Sakabandh Akhar Shah raj — ' in the 34th year of the reign of
the Emperor Akbar.' But the height to which the figures run is fatal to this
theory, and a final solution to the mystery has yet to be sought.

About half-a-mile due west of the Jamalpur mound is a small one on the
edge of the Circular Road, where I found the lower extremities of two large
seated figures, in red sandstone : the one a Buddha, with an inscription at the
base, of which the only words legible are : varsha mdse 2 divas 6, ' on the 6th
day of the 2nd month of the rains.' The other is almost a facsimile of a
sculpture figured at page 36 of Mr. Oldham's Memoir of Ghazipur, among
the antiquities found at a place called Aonrihar. It is well executed and

RECENT DISCOVERIES AT THE JAMA'LPIjR MOUND. 115

represents a woman with her left hand clasping an infant in her lap. One
foot rests on an elaborately ornamented stool, the other is doubled under her
body. There are five small accessory figures, one in front and two on either
side at the back.

Between this mound and Jamalpur is an extensive ridge, which I spent some
days in exploring, but found nothing of interest. The most likely place in this
immediate neighbourhood that yet remains to be examined is a mound at the
back of the. jail and within its outer precincts. I brought away one figure
from it. Close by is an enormous pit out of which earth was taken to con-
struct the mud walls of the enclosure. As this is objectionable from a sanitary
point of view as well as unsightly, prison labour might with advantage be
employed in levelling the mound and using the earth to fill up the pit ; by which
means two objects would be obtained.

After my transfer from the district, the Jamalpnr mound, which had
so often been explored before with valuable results, was completely levelled,
at a cost of Its. 7,236, the work having been sanctioned by Government
as a famine relief operation. A largo number of miscellaneous sculptures
was discovered, of which I have received no definite description. But the
more prominent object is a life-size statue of Buddha, which is very finely
executed and, when found, was in excellent preservation, though unfortunately
broken in two pieces by a fracture just above the ankles.* On the base is an
inscription in Tali characters, of which a transcript has been sent me by
a clever native draughtsman. I decipher it as follows : —

" Deyadharmayam Sakya-bhikshu Yasa-dittasya. Yad atra punyam, tad
bhavatu mata-pitrok sukka rya pdddliya yatam cha sarvva-satv-anuttarajnana-
vaptaye."

I have probably misread some of the letters printed in italics, for as they
stand they yield no sense. The remainder I translate as follows :

" This is the votive offering of the Buddhist monk Yasa-ditta. If there
is any merit in it, may it work for the good of his father and mother and
for the propagation of perfect knowlege throughout the world."

* The face of this statue was a really beautiful piece of sculpture, of far more artistic
character than in auy other figure that has yet been discovered. However, not the slightest
care was taken to preserve it from injury; and the nose was soon broken off, either by some
bigoted iconoclastic Muhamuiadan, or by some child in the mere spirit of mischief. The
disfigurement is irreparable, aud that it should have been allowed to occur is not very creditable
to the local authorities.

116 INSCRIPTIONS FROM THE JAMA'LPUR MOl'ND*

In Sanskrit the primary meaning of dei/a-dharma is ' the duty of giving ;'
but in Pali it ordinarily stands for 'the gift' itself. The literal signification
of tho monks' name, Yasa-ditta is ' Resplendent with glory' ; ditto, being
the Pali, Prakrit, or Hindi form of the Sanskrit dipta, by a rule of Vararuchi's,
under which tho example given is sutta (the modern sotci) for supta. Vdpti,
' the propagation,' is from the root vap, to sow ; from which also comes the
Hindi word bap, a father,' like the Latin sator from sero.

A second inscription of some length commences with the words Mahd-
rdja,v/a Devaputrasya Huvishkasya Samvatsare 51 Hemanta mdsa 1 div. ...,
but I have not been able to read further, as the only transcript that I have
received is a very imperfect one. A great number of fragmentary sculptures
of different kinds were also discovered, as I understand, and some of them
have been photographed for General Cunningham, who spent several days at
Mathura for the purpose of exmamining them. An account may possibly
appear in some future volume of his Archaeological Survey ; but already four
years have elapsed and not a sign has been made.

After General Cunningham's visit a third inscribed slab was found of which
a transcript was made and sent. It begins with the word siddham ; then appa-
rently followed the date, but unfortunately there is here a flaw in the stone,
After the flaw is the word etasya* The second line begins with Bhagavat.
In the third line is the name Mathura ; at the end of the sixth line mdtapi-
troh ; in the middle of the seventh line lhavatu sarvva.

Incidental allusion has already been made to the Kankali, or, as it is occa-
sionally called, the Jaini Tila.f This is an extensive mound on the side of the
Agra and Delhi road, between the Bharat-pur and Dig gates of the city. A frag-

* The word following etasya begins with the letters pu — the remainder being defaced —
and was probably purvai/e. This phrase etasya purvatje is of frequent occurrence in these in-
scriptions and is translated by General Cunningham 'on this very date'. I do not think it
can bear such a meaning. It might be literally rendered 'after this;' but it is really an
expletive like the Hindi ilgc, or occasionally the Sanskrit tad-anantaram, with which an Indian
correspondent generally begius a letter— after the stereotyped complimentary exordium — and
which, in the absence of full stopB and capital letters, serves to indicate a transition to a new
subject.

t By the roadside, between the Kankali Tila and the Siva Tal, there is a handsome chhatri
built in 1873, in memory of Chaubc Genda, Purohit to the Raja of Jhalrti-pattan. It was
intended to add a rest-house ; but, in consequence of a complaint made by the District Engineer,
the design was abandoned and the chhatri itself has never been thoroughly completed. The
building is so ornamental that I hoped an encroachment of a few inches on to the side of the
road might have been pardoned, but my suggestion to that effect was summarily scouted.

THE KANKAll TfLA. 117

ment of a carved Buddhist pillar is set up in a mean little shed on its summit and
does duty for the goddess Kankali, to whom it is dedicated. A few years ago,
the hill was partially trenched, when two colossal statues of Buddha in his
character of teacher were discovered. They are each seven and-a-half feet in
height, and are probably now in the Allahabad museum. Whatever else was found
was collected on the same spot as the remains from the Jamalpur mound, and
it is therefore possible (as no accurate note was made at the time) that some of
the specimens referred to the latter locality were not really found there ; but
there is no doubt as to the inscriptions, and this is the only point of any
importance. Further excavations resulted in the discovery of several muti-
lated statues of finer stone and superior execution, and it was thought that
many more might still remain buried ; as the adjoining fields for a considerable
distance were strewn with fragments applied to all sorts of vile purposes. A
large figure of an elephant— unfortunately without its trunk — standing on the
capital of a pillar and in all respects similar to the well-known example at San-
kisa, but of much coarser work, was found in 1871 in a neigbouriug garden.
On the front of the abacus is engraved an inscription with the name of King
Huvishka and date ' Sambat 39.' Another inscription, containing the name of
King Kanishka, with date ' Sambat 9,' was discovered the same day on the
mound itself below a square pillar carved with four nude figures, one on each
face. This is of special interest, inasmuch as nude figures are always con-
sidered a distinctive mark of the Jain sect, which was supposed to be a late
perversion of Buddhism ; an opinion, however, which most scholars have now
abandoned. Mahavira the 21th and last of the great Jinas died in 526 B.C.,
while the Nirvana, or death, of Buddha, the founder of the rival faith, has
finally been determined as having taken place in 477 B.C. Indeed, it was sug-
gested by Colebrooke, though further research would seem to have disproved
the theory, that Buddha was actually a disciple of Mahavira's.

Among other sculptures found here while I was in the district may be
mentioned the Hollowing : — ■

1st. — A life-size seated figure with an elaborately carved nimbus and long
hair flowing over the shoulders and down the back. The head is lost. 2nd. —
A teacher of the law standing between two tiers of small figures seated in the
attitude of contemplation, with a Caliban-like monster sprawling over the top
of the canopy above his head. The arms and feet of the principal figure are
missing : but with this exception the group is in good preservation and is well
executed. 3rd. — A spandril of a doorway carved with the representation of a

11$ SCULPTURES FOUKD AT THE KANKA'LI TTLA.

triumphal column with a bell capital surmounted by winged lions supporting
the figure of an elephant. The reverse has an ornamental border enclosing a
short inscription in which the name of the donor is given as Mugali-putra.
4th.— A chaumukhi, or pillar of four (headless) Buddhas, seated back to bark,
well executed in fine white stone. 5th. — A chaumukhi. of four standing nude
figures, roughly carved in coarse red sandstone. 6th.— A pair of columns,
iH feet high, characteristically carved with three horizontal bands of conven-
tional foliage and festoons, which are slightly suggestive of a classic model.
1th. — A cross-bar of a Buddhist railing with a sculptured medallion on either
side. 8th. — A small seated figure with six persons standing in a line below,
three on each side of a chakra which they are adoring. There is an inscription
in one line as follows : —

Siddham. Jivikasya datta SJiikshusya viharasya ;

Which I would translate thus : ' May it prosper ; the gift of Jivika, a
mendicant, for the monastery."

It is worthy of remark that no definite line of foundation has ever bee]
brought to light nor any large remains of plain masonry superstructure : but only
a confused medley of broken statues without even the pedestals on which they
must have been originally erected. This suggests a suspicion that possibly
there never was a temple on the site, but that the sculptures were brought
from different places in the neighbourhood and here thrown into a pit by the
Muhammadans to be buried. They clearly belong to two very different periods.
The more ancient are roughly carved in coarse red sandstone and. whenever
there is any lettering, it is in Pali ; the more modern display much higher
artistic skill, are executed in much finer material, and all the inscriptions are in
the Nagari character, one being apparently dated in the twelfth century after
Christ. But upon the whole I conclude that the discovery of no foundations
in situ is rather to be explained by the fact that the mound has long served as a
quarry, and that bricks and small blocks of stone, being more useful for ordinary
building purposes, would all be removed, when cumbrous and at the same time
broken statues might be left undisturbed.

It is possible that here may have stood the Upagupta monastery, mentioned
by Hwen Thsang. As there is no trace of any large tank in ii^ immediati
] roximity, it was more probably the site of a monastery than of a stiipa. For a
tank was almost a necessary concomitant of the latter : its excavation sup] lying
the em Hi for the construction of the mound, in the centre of which the relics
were deposited. Hence a different procedure has to be adopted in exploring a

THE UPAGUPTA MONASTERY. 11"

mound believed to have been a stupa from what would be followed in other
cases. Unless the object be to discover the relics, it is ordinarily a waste of
labour to cut deep into its centre ; for the images which surmounted it must
have fallen down outside its base, where they have been gradually buried by
the crumbling away of the stupa over them and will be found at no great depth
below the surface. But, in the case of a temple or monastery, the mound is
itself the ruined building ; if Muhammadans were the destroyers, it was
generally utilized as the substructure of a mosque. The Upagupta monas-
tery, it is true, is said to have comprised a stupa also, but it would appeal- from
the way in which it is mentioned to have been comparatively a small one : it
may well have formed the raised centre of the Kankali Tila, into which I dug
and found nothing.

But whatever the purpose of the original buildings, it i< clear that the hill
was frequented as a religious site tor upwards of a thousand years. Some of
the statues are unmistakeably Buddhist and about coeval with the institution
of Christianity ; while others are as clearly Jain and one of these is dated
Sambat 1134. Either the Jains succeeded the Buddhists in the same way as
Protestants have taken the place of Catholics in our English Cathedrals ; or
the two rival sects may have existed together, like Greek and Latin Christians
in the holy places of Jerusalem.

Hwen Thsang describes the Upagupta monastery as lying to the east of
the town and the Kankali Tila is a little to the east of the katra, which was
certainly the centre of the old Buddhist city, the local tradition to that effect
having been confirmed by the large number of antiquities recently found in its
neighbourhood. The only difficulty in so considering it arises from the fact
that Mathura has at all times been represented as standing on the bank of
the Jamuna, while the katra is nearly a mile away from it. Popularly, this
objection is removed by an appeal to the appearance of the ground, which has
evidently been affected by fluvial action, and also by the present habits of the
river, which is persistent in endeavouring to desert its present channel in favour
of one still more to the east. The stream, it is said, may have so worked its
way between the natural hills and artificial mounds that the temples, which
once stood on its east bank, found themselves on the west, while those that
were originally on the western verge of the river were eventually left far in-
land. This was the view taken by Tavcrnier more than two centuries ago,*
who was so far influenced by the popular tradition and the appearance of the

* The edition from which I translate was published at Faria in 1577,

120 tavernier's mention of the old course of the river.

country as to assert positively, not only that the course of the river haci
changed, but that the change, had taken place quite recently. His words are
as follows:— "At Cheka Sera" (by which he must intend the Shahganj sarae,
then recently built) " may be seen one of the largest pagodas in all India. Con-
nected with it is a hospital for monkeys, not only for those that are ordinarily
on the spot, but also for any that may come from the surrounding country,
and Hindus are employed to feed them. This pagoda is called Matura, and
was once held in much greater veneration by the heathen than it is now ;
the reason being that the Jamuna used to flow at its foot, and so the
Hindus, whether natives, or strangers who had come from a distance on a
pilgrimage for purposes of devotion, had facilities for bathing in the river
both before they entered the pagoda and also before eating when they went
away. For they must not eat without bathing, and they believe that their
sins are best effaced by a dip in flowing water. But for some years past
the river has taken a turn to the north, and now flows at the distance of a
Jcos or more ; whence it comes about that the shrine is less frequented by pil-
grims than it used to be."

The third of the principal Buddhist sites is the vicinity of the katra. Here,
at the back of the temple of Bhiitesvar Mahadeva, is rather a high hill of very
limited area, on the top of which stood, till removed by the writer, a Buddhist
pillar of unusually large dimensions. It is carved in front with a female
figure, nearly life-size, bearing an umbrella, and above her head is a grotesque
bas-relief representing two monkeys, a bird, and a misshapen human dwarf.
Immediately opposite the temple is a large ruinous tank, called Balbhadra
Kund, with a skirting wall, into which had been built up some good specimens
of the cross-bars of a Buddhist railing. From an adjoining well was recovered
a plain pillar neasuring four feet seven inches in height by eleven inches in
breadth, carved in front merely with two roses. The elliptical holes in the sides
of the pillar were too large for the cross-bars, which must have belonged to a
smaller range. They measure only one foot three inches in length, and are
enriched with various devices, such as a rose, a lotus, some winged monster,
&c. These were eleven in number : four of the most perfect were taken away
by General Cunningham, the rest are still in situ. Built into the verandah
of a chavpdl close by were five other Buddhist pillars of elaborate design and
almost perfect preservation. It is said that there was originally a sixth, which
some years ago was sent down to Calcutta ; there it has been followed by two
more ; the remaining three were left, by the writer, for the local museum,

ANTIQUITIES FOUND AT THE BALBHADRA KUND. 121

where possibly they may now have been placed. They are each four feet four
inches in height and eleven inches broad ; the front is carved with a standing
female figure, wiiose feet rest upon a crouching monster. In an upper com-
partment, divided off by a band of Buddhist railing, are two demi-figures, male
and female, in amorous attitudes, of very superior execution. On one pillar
the principal figure is represented as gathering up her drapery, in another as
painting her face with the aid of a mirror, and in the third as supporting with
one hand a wine-jar and in the other, which hangs down by her side, holding
a bunch of grapes. Each of these figures is entirely devoid of clothing : the
drapery mentioned as belonging to one of them is simply being gathered up
from behind. They have, however, a profusion of ornaments — karas on the
ankles, a belt round the waist, a mohan mala on the neck, kam-phuls in the
ears, and bdju-banJ, chiiri, and pahunehi on the arms and wrists. There are also
three bas-reliefs at the back of each pillar ; the subject of one is most grossly
indecent ; another represents Buddha's mother, Maya Devi, with the sal tree
under which she gave birth to her son. A fragment of a pillar from one of
the smaller concentric circles of this same set was at some time sent to Labor,
and is now to be seen in the museum there.

General Cunningham, in his Archaeological Report, has identified the
Upagupta monastery with the Yasa Vihara inside the katra ; but in all
probability he would not now adhere to this theory. At the time when
he advanced it, he had never visited the Kankali Tila, and was also under
the impression that the Fort had always been, as it now is, the centre
of the city. Even then, to maintain his theory, he was obliged to have
recourse to a very violent expedient and in the text of the Chinese pilgrim
alter the word ' east' to ' west,' because, he writes, " a mile to the east would
take us to the low ground on the opposite bank of the Jamuna, where no ruins
exist ;" forgetting apparently Fa Hian's distinct statement that in his time
there were monasteries on both sides of the river, and being also unaware
that there are heights on the left bank, at Isapur* and Mahaban, where Bud-
dhist remains have been found. The topographical descriptions of the two
pilgrims may be reconciled with existing facts without any tampering with
the text of their narrative. Taking the katra, or the adjoining shrine of

* At Isapur, almost facing the Visrant Ghat is the Duvasa tila, a high mound of artificial
formation, with some modern buildings on its summit, enclosed within a bastioned wall, part of
■which has been lately restored. A small nude Btatue of a female figure has been found here, and
there are also the remains of a bduli constructed of large blocks of red Bandstone fitted together
without cement and therefore probably of early date.

"i22 LINE OF THE OLD CITY "WALL.

Bhiitesvar, as the omphalos of the ancient city and the probable site of the
great stupa of Sariputra, a short distance to the east will hring us to the
Kankali Tiki, i. e., the monastery of Upagupta ; the Jamalpur mound has
already been identified with the monkey stupa ; while some mounds to the
north, that will shortly be mentioned, may have been " the stiipas of the four
earlier Buddhas and other great teachers of the law."

Close at the back of the Balbhadra Kund and the katra is a range of hills
of considerable elevation, commonly called dhtil hot, literally ' dust-heaps,' the
name given to the accumulation of refuse that collects outside a city, and so
corresponding precisely to the Monte Testaccio at Borne. Some of these are,
however, clearly of natural formation and probably indicate the old course of
the Jamuna or its tributaries. Others are the walls of the old city, which in
places are still of great height. They can be traced in a continuous line from
the Rangesvar Mahadeo on the Kans ka tiki outside the Holi gate of new
Mathura, across the Agra road, to the temple of Bluitesvar, and thence round
by an orchard called the Uthaigira ka bagh, where the highest point is crowned
by a small Bairagi's cell, at the back of Ivesav Dev and between it and tlie Seth s
Chaurasi temple, to the shrine of Gartesvar, 'the God of the Moat,' and so on
to the Mahavidya hill and the temple of Gokarnesvar near the Sarasvati Sangam.

At the distance of about a mile to the south-west of these ancient ram-
parts, at the junction of the boundaries of the township of Mathura and the vil-
lages of Bakirpur and Giridharpur, is a group of some twelve or fourteen cir-
cular mounds, commonly known as the Chauwara mounds, from a rest-house
that once stood thei'e ; Chauwdva and Chaupdl being different forms of the same
word, like gopdla and gwala. They are strewn with fragments of brick and
stone and would seem all to have been stiipas. As they are to the north of the
Jamalpur mound, they may with great probability be identified with the stupas
described by Hwen Thsang as lying to the north of the monkey tank and mark-
ing the spots that had been hallowed by the presence of the 1,250 famous
teachers of the law.

In the year 1868, the new road to Sonkh was carried through one of these
mounds, and in the centre was disclosed a masonry ceil containing a small gold
reliquary, the size and shape of a pill-box. Inside was a tooth, the safe-guard
of which was the sole object of box, cell, and hill ; but it was thrown away as
of no value. The box was preserved on account of the material and has been
given to the writer by Mr. Hind the district engineer, whose workmen had
discovered it.

THE CnAUWA'RA MOUNDS. 123

Another mound was, as I am informed, examined, by General Cunningham
in 1872, when, on sinking a well through its centre, he found, at a depth of 13i
feet from the summit, a small steatite relic casket imbedded in a mass of un-
burnt bricks. Here I found subsequently the head of a colossal figure of very
Egyptian cast of features with a round hole in its forehead, in which was once
set a ruby or other precious stone. The lower part of a large seated Buddha
was also unearthed with an inscription in the Pali character on the ledge
beneath, of which the first three words read Mahdmjasi/a Devaputrasya Huvish-
kasya, i. e., 'of the great king, the heaven-born Huvishka,' followed by the date
sam 33, gri 1, di 8, 'the 8th day of the 1st summer month of the 33rd year.'
The remainder has not been deciphered with any certainty. I found also seve-
ral cross-bars and uprights of Buddhist rails of different sizes and a great number
of small fragments of male and female figures, animals, grotesques, and decora-
tive patterns, showing that the sculptures here must have been far more varied
in design than at most of the other sites. One of the uprights has a well-executed
and decently draped figure of a dancing-girl, with the right hand raised and
two fingers placed upon her chin. The lower part of the post has been broken
away, carrying with it her feet and the third of the three groups at the back. Of
tin- two groups that remain, the upper one represents two seated figures, appa-
rently a teacher and his disciple, with two attendants standing in the back-ground,
and has a single line of inscription below, recording the donor's name. The
second group shows a sacred tree, enclosed with the conventional rails, and a
pilgrim on either side approaching in an attitude of veneration. The only
other sculpture deserving special notice is a small bas-relief that represents a
capacious throne resembling a garden chair of rustic wood-work, with a foot-
stool in front of it and some drapery spread over the seat, on which is placed
a relic casket. In the back-ground are two figures leaning over the high back
of the chair. Their peculiarly furtive attitude is characteristic of the style ;
almost every group includes one or more figures peeping over a balcony, or a
curtain, or from behind a tree. On this stone was found a copper coin so much
corroded that no legend was visible, but bearing in its centre a running figure,
which was the device employed both by Kanishka and Huvishka. I had gteal
hopes of discovering another inscription here, as I had picked up a small frag-
ment with the letters , that is, 'Budhanam,' cut very clear and deep ; but
my search was unsuccessful. Digging in the field some twenty paces from
the base of the mound, I came upon the original pavement only two or three
feet below the surface, with three large square graduated pedestals, ranged in
close line, one overthrown, the other two erect. A capital, found by General

124 DISCOVERY OF THE COUNTERPART OF COLONEL STACEy's ' SILENUS.'

Cunningham in 1872, measuring 3ft. X 2 X 2, and carved with four winged lions
and bulls conjoined, probably belonged to one of the pillars that had surmount-
ed these pedestals. Thay have been put in the local museum, together with the
antiquities above described and the knee of a colossal statue found by General
Cunningham in sinking the well through the centre of the mound. A large dry
tank, adjoining the mound, is proved to be also of Buddhist construction, as I had
anticipated ; for I found in one of the mounds on its margin a broken stone
inscribed with the letters jU.\l that is, 'Danain Chh.'

Between the Kankali Tila and these Chauwara mounds, all the fields are
dotted with others, so close together and so much worn by time that they can scarcely
be distinguished from the natural level of the ground. One that I searched,
after an exploration extending over several days, yielded nothing beyond a
few arabesque fragments and, at a depth of six feet below the surface, a small
pediment containing in a niche, flanked by fabulous monsters and surmounted
by the mystic wheel, a figure of Buddha, canopied by a many-headed serpent
and seated on a lion throne. A mound immediately adjoining the pillar that
marks the boundary of the township of Mathura and the villages of Maholi
and Pali-khera, lying due south of the Kankali Tila and east of the Girdhar-
pur mound, has yielded a strange squat figure of a dwarf, three feet nine
inches high and two feet broad, of uncertain antiquity ; and at another mound,
just outside the Pali-khera, village site, I came upon the counter-part of Colo-
nel Stacey's so-called Silenus, which he found in 183(3 and placed in the Asiatic
Society's Museum in Calcutta, where it still is. A full description of this
curious sculpture will be given in another chapter. On further excavating the
mound, in which I found it, I discovered in situ three bell-shaped bases of large
columns at 13 feet distance from one another, at the three corners of a square ;
the fourth had completely disappeared. In clearing the space between them I
came upon some small figures of baked clay, glazed, of a bluish colour, similar
in character to the toys still sold at Hindu fairs ; also a few small fragments
of carved stone and some corroded pieces of metal bangles. According to
village tradition this khera was the fort of a demon, Nonasur ; the exploration
proves it to have been a Buddhist site; it adjoins a temple court, of the early
part of the 17th century, now occupied by a married Bairagi as an ordinary
dwelling-house. Close by, on the border of the hamlet of Dhan Sinh, is a
small Buddhist rail (now reverenced as the village Devi) with the usual figure of
Buddha's mother under the sal tree on its front, and three roses at the back.
A few paces further on is the central portion of a very large Buddhist pillar,
with a head on either side, the exact counter-part of one that I extracted from
the Chhatthi Palna at Mahaban.

TITE THREE SUCCESSIVE SITES OF THE CITT. 125

The hill known as the Kans ka Tila just outside the south, or, as it is called,
the Holi Gate of the city, is supposed to be the one from the summit of which
the tyrant of that name was tumbled down by Krishna. General Cunningham
suggests that this might be one of the seven great sttipas mentioned by the
Chinese pilgrims, and adds that oh the north of the city there are two hills still
bearing the names of Anand and Vinayaka, titles which they specify. But in
this it appears that he was misinformed, as no such localities can be traced.
Of the hills to the north of Mathura, the most conspicuous are the Kailas and
Mahal* or Jaysinhpu-ra khera, sometimes called the Ganes from the Ghat of that
name which is immediately below it. An Anant tirtha, easily to be confounded
with Anand, is noted in the Mathura Mahatraya ; and the fact that Vinayaka,
besides its Buddhist meaning, is also an epithet of Ganes, may have given rise
to an error in the other name. The Kans ka Tila certainly appears to be pri-
marily of natural formation and hence to have been selected as the river
boundary of the old city wall. The whole country, indeed, has been broken up
into heights and hollows of indefinite number and extent : but most ancient
Buddhist sites must be looked for at a greater distance from the river and out-
side the modern city, in what is now open country at the back of the katra,
and in the direction of Maholi, the ancient Madhu-puri, where the aboriginal
Madhu held his court. Subsequently to his defeat, the Aryan city was
built in the neighbourhood of the present Katra and the temple of Bhiitesvar ;
and, being the seat of the new Government, it appropriated in a special way
the name which formerly had denoted, not the capital, but the whole extent of
territory. This view is confirmed by observing that, philologically, ' Mathura '
appears a more fitting name for a country than for a city, and one that could
be applied to the latter only inferentially. The present city is the third in
order and has for its centre the Fort ; as the second had the temple of Bhutesvar,
and the first the grove of Madhu-ban. Thus, speaking generally, the further
we move back from the city in the direction of Maholi, the older will probably
be the date of any antiquities that may be discovered.

* So called from a dwelliag-kouse that was built there by Sawae Jay Sink.

CHAPTER VI.

THE HINDU CITY OF MATHURX.

On the decline of Buddhism, Mathura acquired that character for sanctity
which it still retains, as the reputed birth-place of the deified Krishna. Or,,
more probably, the triumph of Buddhism was a mere episode, on the conclu-
sion of which the city recovered a character which it had before enjoyed at a,
much earlier period ; for it may be inferred from the language of the Greek
geographers that Bxahrnanism was in their time the religion of the country,,
while Hindu tradition is uniform in maintaining its claims both to holiness and,
antiquity. Thus it is represented, as the second of the capitals of the Lunar
race, which were in succession Prayag, Mathura, Knsasthali, and Dwaraka :
and in the following well-known couplet it is ranked among the seven sanc-^
tuaries of Hindustan : —

Kasi Kanti cha Mdydkhya twayedhyi Dwaravatyapi
Mathuravantika chaita sapta puryo tra mokshadah.

"Kasi (i.e., Banaras), Kanti (probably Kanchi), Maya {i.e.,. Haridwar)^
with Ayodhya, Dwaravati, Mathura, and Avantikii, are the seven cities of.
salvation."

At the present day it has no lack of stately edifices, with which, as described
of old in the Harivansa, " it rises beautiful as the cresent moon over the dark
stream of the Jamuna ;* but they are all modern. The neighbourhood is
crowded with sacred sites, which for many generations have been reverenced'
as the traditionary scenes of Krishna's adventures ; but, thanks to Muhammadan-
intolerance, there is not a single building of any antiquity cither in the city itselt
or its environs. Its most famous temple — that dedicated to Kesava Deva — was
destroyed, as already mentioned, in 1669, the eleventh year of the reign of the
ienoclastic Aurangzeb. The mosque erected on its ruins is a building of little
architectural value, but the natural advantages of its lofty and isolated position
render it a striking feature in the landscape. The so-called katra, in which it
stands, a place to which frequent allusion has been made in the previous chapter,
is an oblong enclosure, like a sarde, 104 feet in length by 653 feet in breadth.
In its centre is a raised terrace, 172 feet long and 86 feet broad, upon wnicl

* ^^^TTrfi^IIJT ZJ*RTrfirJ3Tfri?IT II Uariyansa, 3,J0O.

TEMPLE OF KESAVA DEVA IN 1650 A. D; 127

now stands the mosque, occupying its entire length, but only 60 feet of its
breadth. About five feet lower is another terrace, measuring 286 feet by 268.
There may still be observed, let into the Muhammadan pavement, some votive
tablets with Nagari inscriptions, dated Sambat 1713 and 1720, corresponding
to 1656 and 1663 A. D. In the latter year the temple attracted the notice of
the traveller Bernier, who writes : — " Between Delhi and Agra, a distance of
fifty or sixty leagues, there are no fine towns ; the whole road is cheerless and
uninteresting ; nothing is worthy of observation but Mathura, where an an-
cient and magnificent pagan temple is still to be seen." The plinth of tho
temple-wall may be traced to this day at the back of the mosque and at right
angles to it for a distance of 163 feet ; but not a vestige of the superstruc-
ture has been allowed to remain.

The following description of this famous building is given by Tavernier,
who visited it about the year 1650. He writes : — " After the temples of Jagre-
nath and Banarous, the most important is that of Matura, about 18 kos* from
Agra on the road to Delhi. It is one of the most sumptuous edifices in all
India, and the place where there used to be formerly the greatest concourse of
pilgrims ; but now they are not so many, the Hindus having gradually lost
their previous veneration for the temple, on account of the Jamuna, which
used to pass close by, now having changed its bed and formed a new channel
half a league away. For, after bathing in the river, they lose too much time
in returning to the temple, and on the way might come across something to
render them unclean.

" The temple is of such a vast size that, though in a hollow, one can see it five
or six kos off, the building being very lofty and very magnificent. The stone
used in it is of a reddish tint, brought from a large quarry near Agra. It splits
like our slate, and you can have slabs 15 feet long and nine or ten broad and only
some six inches thick ; in fact, you can split them just as you like and according
to your requirements, while you can also have fine columns. The whole of the
fort at Agra, the walls of Jehanabad, the king's palace, and some of the
houses of the nobles are built of this stone. To return to the temple. — It is set
on a large octagonal platform, which is all faced with cut stone, and has round
about it two bands of many kinds of animals, but particularly monkeys, in relief ;

* Here he states the distance correctly ; but in another place he gives the Btages from Delhi
to Agra as follows :— " From Delhi to Badelpoura, 8 Ao.« ; from Badelpoura to l'clwel ki sera,
18 ; from Pelwel ki sera to Cot ki sera (Kosi) 15 ; from Cot ki sera to Chcki sera (Mathura, « Cheki'
standing for 'Shihki') 16; from Cheki sera to Goodki sera, 5 ; from Gooki sera to Agra.
One stage must have been oaiitted at the end.

128 TEMPLE OF KESAVA DEVA IX 1650 A. D.

the one band being only two feet off the ground level, the other two feet from
the top. The ascent is by two staircases of 15 or 16 steps each ; the steps
being only two feet in length, so that two people cannot mount abreast. One of
these staircases leads to the grand entrance of the temple, the other to the back
of the choir. The temple, however, occupies only half the platform, the other
half making a grand square in front. Like other temples, it is in the form of a
cross, and has a great dome in the middle with two rather smaller at the end.
Outside, the building is covered from top to bottom with figures of animals,
such as rams, monkeys, and elephants, carved in stone : and all round there are
nothing but niches occupied by different monsters. In each of the three towers
there are, at every stage from the base to the pinnacle, windows five or six feet
high, each provided with a kind of balcony where four persons can sit. Each
balcony is covered with a little vault, supported some by four, others by eight
columns arranged in pairs and all touching. Round these towers there are yet
more niches full of figures representing demons ; one has four arms, another
four legs ; some, human heads on bodies of horned beasts with long tails twining
round their thighs. There are also many figures of monkeys, and it is quite
shocking to have before one's eyes such a host of monstrosities.

" The pagoda has only one entrance, which is very lofty, with many columns
and images of men and beasts on either side. The choir is enclosed by a screen
composed of stone pillars, five or 6 inches in diameter, and no one is allowed
inside but the chief Brahmans, who make use of a little secret door which I could
not discover. When in the temple, I asked some of the Brahmans if I could
see the great Ram Ram, meaning the great idol. They replied that if I would
give them something, they would go and ask permission of their superior :*
which they did as soon as I had put in their hands a couple of rupees After
waiting about half an hour, the Brahmans opened a door on the inside in the
middle of the screen — outside, the screen is entirely closed — and, at about 15 or
16 feet from the door, I saw, as it were, a square altar, covered with old gold

* Regarding the veneration paid to the head of the temple. Tavemier, in another place,
relates the following anecdote : — " While I was at Agra, in the year 16-42, a very odd thing hap-
pened. A Hindu hroker in Dutch employ, by name Voldas, some SO or so years of age, received
tidings of the death of the chief Brahman, that is to say, the high priest of the temple of
Mathura. He at once went to the head of the office and begged him to take his accounts and
finish them off, for as his high priest was dead he wished to die too, that he might serve the holj-
man in the other world. Directly his accounts had been inspected, he got into his carriage
together with some relations who followed him, and as he had taken nothing cither to eat or
drink since the news had reached him, he died on the road, without ever expressing a wish
for any food."

ANTIQUITY OF TIIE SITE. 120

and silver brocade, and on it the great idol that they call Ram Earn. The head
only is visible and is of very black marble, with what seemed to be two rubies
for eyes. The whole body from the neck to the feet was covered with an
embroidered robe of red velvet and no arms could be seen. There were two
other idols, one on either side, two feet high, or thereabouts, and got up in the
■same style, only with white faces ; these they Called Becchor. I also noticed in
the temple a structure 15 or 16" feet square, and from 12 to 15 feet high,
covered with coloured clothes representing all sorts of demons. This structure
was raised on four little wheels, and they told me it was the moveable altar
on which they set the great god on high feast days, when he goes to visit the
other gods, and when they take him to the river with all the people on their
chief holiday."

From the above description, the temple Would seem to have been crowded
with coarse figure-sculptures, and not in such pure taste as the somewhat older.
temple of Govind Deva at Brinda-ban ; but it must still have been a most
sumptuous and imposing edifice, and we cannot but detest the bigotry of the
barbarian who destroyed it. At the time of its demolition it had been in exist-
ence only some fifty years, but it is certain that an earlier shrine, or series of
shrines, on the same site and under the same dedication, had been famous for
many ages. Thus it is said in the Varaha Purana—

Na Kesava samo deva na Mathura sarno dvija,
" No god like Kesava, and no Brahman like a Mathuriya Chaube. "

In still earlier times the site now wrested by the Muhammadans from the
Hindus had been seized by the Hindus themselves to the prejudice of another
religion, as is attested by the Buddhist remains which we have already describ-
ed as found there.

With regard to the change in the course of the stream, all engineers whom
I have consulted are unanimous in declaring that the main channel of the
Jamuna can never in historic time have been at the foot of the temple, as
Tavernier imagined. The traces of fluvial action, which he observed, are
uumistakeable, but they date from the most remote antiquity. This, however,
need not occasion any difficulty : for, as Madhu-puri, the first capital, was
established at a point which clearly the Jamuna could never have reached, there
is no improbability in supposing that the second capital also, though much
nearer the stream, was not actually on its bank. The temples which Fa Hian
mentions as being on the other side of the river were probably situate at Isapur
and Maha-ban. It is also to be noted that a tributary stream, the bed of which

130 THE ANCIENT IMAGE NOW AT NXTH-DWA'RA.

is now partly occupied by the Delhi road, did certainly flow past the katra. This
being joined, at the point still called the Sangam, or ' confluence, ' by another
considerable water-course from the opposite direction, fell into the channel now
crossed by the Seth's bridge, and so reached the Jarnuna.

In anticipation of Aurangzeb's raid, the ancient image of Kesava Deva
was removed by Ram Raj Sinh of Mewar, and was set up on the spot where,
as they journeyed, the wheels of the chariot sank in the deep sand and refused
to be extricated. It happened to be an obscure little village, then called Siarh,
on the Bansis, 22 miles north-east of Udaypur. But the old name is now lost
in the celebrity of the temple of Nath Ji, ' the Lord," which gives its designation
to the town of Nath-dwara, which has grown up round it.* This is the most
highly venerated of all the statues of Krishna. There are seven others of great
repute, which also deserve mention here, as a large proportion of them came
from the neighbourhood of Mathura, viz., Nava-nita, which is also at Nath-dwara ;
Mathura-nath at Kota ; Dwaraka-nath at Kankarauli, brought from Kanauj ;
Bal Kishan at Surat, from Maha-ban ; Bitthal-nath or Pandu-rang at Kota,
from Banaras ; Madan Mohan from Brinda-ban ; and Gokul-nath and Goknl
chandrama, both from Gokul. These two last were at Jaypur till a few years
ago, when, in consequence of the Maharaja's dislike to all the votaries of
Vishnu, they were removed to Kam-ban in Bharat-pur territory. In all pro-
bability before very long they will be brought back to their original homes.

At the back of the katra is the modern temple of Kesava Deva, a cloistered
quadrangle of no particular archtectural merit and, except on special occasions.

* It is described, iu the lately published report of the Indian Survey Department, as "a
large walled city on the right bank of the Bands river. On the north-east and south it is surround-
ed by hills, but to the west, across the river, which here takes a very sharp bend, it is fairly
open. It has the reputation of being an enormously wealthy city, which I have no doubt is
true, as it is a great place of pilgrimage ; every pilgrim giving what he can as an offering at the
shriue of Srinath. Amongst the more valuable presents given to the Brahmans, are elephants
and cattle ; large herds of the latter graze on the hills to the east of the city, where there is a
regular cattle farm surrounded by a high wall and guarded by sepoys ; the cows in milk receive
a daily ration of grain, all sorts mixed, which is boiled in an immense iron caldron. About
two years ago the Mahant, or head Go^ain, of Nath-dwara, became troublesome, ignoring all
orders of the Darbar, and otherwise misconducted himself to such an extent (hat it was found
necessary to send a force against him. It was supposed that he would resist, but on seeing some
gunB commanding his city, he gave in ; he was banished to Mathui a and his sou allowed to take
his place; but at the same time 300 sepoys, under the orders of a Kamdar, appointed by the
Darbar, were stationed there toensure his good behaviour. Even now it is a place rather to be
avoided, as the Brahmans are a very independent set and apt to he insolent on very small
provoca'ion. All fishing and shooting is strictly prohibited within the ground belonging to
this city.

THE POTAIU KUKD. 131

little frequented, in consequence of its distance from the main town. It is
supported by an annual endowment of Its. 1,027, the rents of the village of
Undi in the Chhata pargana. Close by is a very large quadrangular tank of
solid masonry, called the Potara-kund, in which, as the name denotes, Krish-
na's ' baby linen' was washed. There is little or no architectural decoration,
but the great size and massiveness of the work render it imposing, while the
effect is much enhanced by the venerable trees which overhang the enclosing
wall. Unfortunately, the soil is so porous that the supply of water is rapidly
absorbed, and in every season but the rains the long flights of steps are drv to
their very base. Its last restoration was made, at considerable cost, in 1850, by
the Kamdar of the Gwaliar Raj. It might now be easily filled from the canal.
A small cell on the margin of the tank, called indifferent! v Kara-grab., 'the
prison-house, ' or Janm-bhumi, ' the birth-place, ' marks the spot where Yasu-
deva and Devaki were kept in confinement, and where their son Krishna was
born. The adjoining suburb, in its name Mallpura, commemorate-, it is said,
Ivansa's two famous mallas, i. e., ' wrestlers, ' Chanura and Mushtika. At the
back of the Potara-kund and within the circuit of the Dhul-kot, or old ramparts
of the city, is a very large mound (where a railway engineer had a house
before the Mutiny) which would seem to have been the site of some large Bud-
dhist establishment. It is strewn with broken bits of stone and fragments of
sculpture, and I found in particular two large but headless and armless and other-
wise mutilated figures of Buddha seated and fully clothed. In this respect they
agreed with all the figures found in this particular neighbourhood, as also in
the position of the han'ds, which are not crossed on the feet, but the right is
raised in admonition, while the left rests on the thigh. At the Kankali tila the
statues are mostly nude ; and at the Jamalpur mound they are more commonly
standing than seated.

In connection with the discovery of Buddhist antiquities, allusion has already
been made to the temple of Bhutesvar Mahadeva, which overlooks the old and
ruinous Balbhadra-kund. In its present form it is a quadrangle of ordinary
character with pyramidal tower and cloister built by the Mahrattas towards the
end of last century. The site has probably been occupied by successive reli-
gious buildings from most remote antiquity, and was at one time the centre of
the town of Mathura, which has now moved away from it more than a mile to
the east. In the earlier days of Brahmanism, before the development of the
Krishna cultus, it may bo surmised that Bhutesvar was the special local
divinity. There are in Braj three other shrines of Mahadeva, which are also of
high traditional repute in spite of the meanness of their modern accessories,

1-32 THE BAL-BHADRA KUND.

viv., Kamesvar at Kama, Chakresvar at Gobardban, and Gopesvar at Brinda*
ban. A mela is held by the Balbhadra-kund on the full moon of Sravan, the
feast of the Saliino. The pond was partially cleaned out and repaired as a relict
work during the late famine, and, as the Aring navigation channel terminates
in a reservoir close by, there will now be no difficulty in keeping it always filled
with water. This branch of the canal has a length of eight or nine miles,
with two locks, one at Ganesra, the other immediately opposite the Chaurasi
temple. For some little distance it runs directly under the Dhiil-kot, or old
city wall.

Of the many little shrines that cluster about the Balbhadra-kund, one is
dedicated to Balarama under his title of Dau-ji, ' the elder brother ;' another
to Ganes, and a third to Nar-Sinha, ' the man-lion,' the fourth incarnation
of Vishnu. According to the legend, there was an impious king, by name
Hiranya Kasipu, who claimed universal sovereignty over all powers on earth,
in heaven, and hell. No one had the hardihood to oppose him, save his own
son, the pious prince Prahlad, who was for ever singing the praises of the
great god Vishnu. " If," said the king, " your god is everywhere present,
let him now show himself in this pillar which I strike." At the word the
pillar parted in twain and revealed the god in terrible form, half lion half
man, who seized the boastful monarch and tore him in pieces and devoured him.

In an adjoining orchard called the Kazi's Bagh is a small modern moscpie,
and in connection with it a curious square building of red sand-stone. It now
encloses a Mubammadan tomb, and in all probability was originally constructed
for that purpose, though it has nothing Saracenic about it and is a good
specimen of the pure Hindu style of architecture, with characteristic columns and
square architraves supported on brackets instead of arches. Similarly, almost all
the oldest buildings that now remain in and about the city are houses or tombs,
that were constructed for Muhammadans by Hindus and in purely Hindu style.
At the present day all the new buildings are intended for Hindu use, but
their architectural forms have been greatly modified by Mubammadan influ-
ences.

After leaving the great entrance to the katra, the Dehli road passes a ma-
sonry well* called ' Kubja's' in commemoration of tho miracle which Krishna
wrought in straightening the hump-backed maiden who met him there. The

* Immediately opposite the well a fragment of a sculptured Buddhist pillar has beeu set up, and
receives religious honours as representing the Hindu goddess Devi.

SHRINE OF GOKARNESVAR. 133

tan to the right loads into the city by the Brinda-ban gate, under the Ambarisha
hill, and past the Shahganj sarae, which has a once handsome, but now sadly
ruinons, stone front. In the Muliainmadan burial-ground, on the opposite side
of the street, is a fine large stone Chhattri, similar to the one near the Idgah at
Maha-bau, which commemorates Ali Khan, the local Governor of that town. It
is probably of the reign of Akbar, and is said to cover the ashes of a certain
Khwaja. Nearer the roadside is an unfinished square stone building with very
eleo-aut tracery, which is said to have been commenced as the monument
of some grandee of Darbhanga. The handsome bridge which here crosses the
natural water-course known as the Sarasvati Sangam, or ' confluence of the
Sarasvati,' was built by Seth Lakhmi Chand in 1849.

To the right of it is a temple of Mahadeva, which forms a very conspicuous
object. It was built in the year 1850 by Ajudhya Prasad of Lucknow, and
the court-yard is in the debased style of architecture for which that city is no-
torious. Close by is a walled garden with another temple to the same divinity
and a much frequented stone ghat on the river-bank, all constructed at the cost
of Sri Gopal, the head of tbe money-changers in the city, who is now represent-
ed by his son Radha Krishan. Round the garden wall on the inner side are
frooms for the accommodation of pilgrims, the arches being filled in with doors
and panels of reticulated tracery, in wood. A daily distribution of grain is here
■made to the poor. The adjoining hill is called Kailas, and on its slope is the
shrine of Gokarnesvar, who is represented as a giant seated figure, with enormous
eyes and long hair and beard and moustaches. In one hand is what appears to
be a wine cup, in the other some flowers or grapes. The stone is much worn.
The figure is certainly of great antiquity and might have been originally intend-
ed to represent some Indo-Scythian king. In a niche in the wall are two small
statues, about 1£ foot high, called by the Brahmans Sati and Parvati. They
really are both well executed and early figures of Buddha, seated and preaching.
One has lost the right hand. In the same set of buildings is the tomb of Gauta-
ma Rishi. Now, Gokarna is the name of a place near the Malabar coast where
Bhagirath practised austerities before he brought down the Ganges from
heaven, and Gotama (not Gautama) is the author of some of the hymns in
the Rig Veda $ so that both names might be connected with Hinduism ; but
•both are also Buddhist, and this fact, combined with the existence of unmis-
takeably Buddhist sculptures on the spot, may be taken as proof that this is
one of the old Buddhist sites. Gautama, it need scarcely be said, is one of the
■commonest names of Buddha himself, and Gokarnesvar is one of the eight great
Vita-ragas, or passionless deified saints.

134 TIIE SARASVATI KUND.

Immediately under the bridge is a shrine hearing the singular name of
Gargi S&rgi, or as it is sometimes called the Great and Little Pathawari.
They are said to have been the two wives of Gokarn, who when translated
to heaven became the equal of Mahadeva. The mantra to be repeated in honour
of the younger lady runs as follows : —

WR 3T3 ^TK S^T re^5TTO?ft il

" Honour to thee, 0 divine Sargi, the Rishi's beautiful wife, happy mother;
beneficent incarnation of Gauri, ever bestowing success."

Here are several other groups of rude vermilion-stained stones, some in.
the open, some housed in shrines of their own, which do duty for Bhairav,
Sitala Devi, and Masani. Two fragments are of Buddhist type : one a rail, the
other a sculpture of Maya Devi standing under a pillar with bell-shaped capi-
tal. Opposite the Kailas hill, across the road, is an open plain, where the
sports of the Earn Lila are celebrated on the festival of the Dasahara. Close
by is a tank called the Sarasvati-kund, measuring 125 feet square. Owing to
some fault in the construction, it is almost always dry, and the adjoininc build-
ings have also rather a ruinous and deserted appearance. "We learn, however
from the following inscription, which is on a tablet over the entrance to the
temnle, that the last restoration was completed so recently as the year 1846 :

3Scli <g# T$ rJTUrl ^qZJT ^JM Wfffl SnlFFST 7JO q^ go <j£0? ||

The above, which exhibits several peculiarities, both in style and phraseo-
logy, may be rendered as follows : — " Baladeva Gosain, resident of the Da-
savatar Gali of Mathura, the devoted servantofthe venerable contemplative ascetic
the right reverend Swami Paramhans, thoroughly restored from ruin the Saras-
vati-kund, and built this new tomple and iu due form set. up a god in it. His agents

THE TEMrLE OF MAHX VIDTX DEVI. .135

were Chhote Lai and Mannii Lai, Samidhs ; the head of the works Chunni :
the cost Rs. 2,735. Kiirtik audi 13th, Sambat 1903." TheSwaini's actual name
was Narayan, and his disciple, Baladeva, was a foundling whom he picked up
in the street. Both were Pandits of high local repute.

At no great distance is the temple of Maha Vidya, Devi. The original image
with that dedication is said to have been set up by the Pandavas ; the present
shrine, a Sikhara of ordinary character in a small quadrangle, was built by the
Peshwa towards the end of last century. The hill upon which it stands is ascended
by flights of masonry steps between 30 and 40 in number. At the foot is a small
dry tank, completely overgown with a dense jungle of her, pUu, and kins. In the
court-yard, which occupies the entire plateau, is a karil tree said to be of enormous
age, under which were to be seen, among other fragments, a Buddhist pillar
carved with the figure of Maya Devi under the sal-tree, and a square stone box
with a seated Buddha on each of its four sides. Two melas are held here on
the 8th of the light fortnight of Chait and Kuwar. This again, like Gokarnesvar,
is unquestionably one of the old Buddhist sites, with its name still unchanged ;
for Mahavidya or Vidya Devi is, strictly speaking, a Buddhist goddess.

The Jaysinh-pura Khera, which overlooks the Sarasvati Sangam and is sepa-
rated by a deep ravine from the Mahavidya hill, is of great extent and has been
tunnelled all over in search for bricks. Several Buddhist sculptures have been
found at different timeo and collected at a shrine of Chamund Devi, which is
immediately under the khera at the back of Seth Mangi Lai's new garden,
whence I brought away some of the best for the museum. Across the road,
under Jay Sinh's old palace, I found, in the bed of the river, near the ghat
erected by one of Sindhia's generals and hence called the Senapati's, a draped.
Buddhist figure of the earliest period,, with a Pali inscription at the base, so
much obliterated by the washermen, who had used it for beating linen upon,
that only a few letters here and there were legible. The figure had lost both
head and hands, but was otherwise in good preservation;

At several of the holy places, as we have had occasion to remark, a large tank
forms one of the principal features ; but the only one that can be called a success
is the Siva tal, not far from the Kankali tila. This is a spacious quadrangular
basin of great depth and always well supplied with water. It is enclosed in
high boundary wall with corner kiosques and a small arched doorway in the-
centre of three of its sides. On the fourth side is the slope for watering cattle
or. ' go-ghat,' with two memorial inscriptions facing each other, the one in.

136 THE SIVA TXL.

Sanskrit, the other in Persian ; from which we learn that the tank was con*
structed by order of Raja Patni Mall (of Banaras) in the year 1807 A.D. :—

ssfm^TTTjTUjrgFf m^ri ^mm^t fajw

rlWIr^lTf%ra: firlT Tw vzwi Iff ^ TT^lf^:

" In the holy circuit of Mathnra, reverenced by the gods, pure home of the
Votaries of Siva, is a sacred place, whose virtues are told in the Varaha Parana,
inaccessible by men save through the efficacy of virtuous deeds performed in a
previous state of existence ; chief of all sacred places, giver of special graces :
a pellucid lake, whose praises no length of time would suffice fully to tell. After
a careful survey and employing the best of architects, who adorned it with
tracery of varied design, the ceremony of its donation was performed by Raja
Patni Mall through the Brahmans, causing gladness like that which arises from
the touch of the foot of Vishnu, rejoicing even the gods. In the year of the
(4) oceans, the (6) members, the (8) elephants, and the (solitary) moon (that is,
Sambat 1804) on Friday, the 10th of the light fortnight of the month Jeth."

cyli-e JU «..».*•• ^> tj^^/^i ^'j * |»^£ iJ-M^l C^y* f^~ lj*' u^^u*^

" He is the one who is asked for help and who is constantly worshipped. The
famous remains of this ancient shrine in the neighbourhood of Mathnra, the
place of pilgrimage from all six quarters, have now been renewed. When the

ID
I
H
<

I
h

R/JA TATNI MALL. L37

old buildings of the Siva tal were restored by that generous and benevolent
founder, the goal of good deeds, the b'estower of benefits on all the people of the
world, the centre of public gratitude, Raja Patni Mall, Bahadur, fountain of
excellent virtue ; then the year pf its construction — for the remembrance of all
the world — was found to be 1222. Thought (or the poet Zaka) suggested the
following tarikk according to the abjad reckoning [illegible] water of life."

The design and execution are both of singular excellence and reflect the high-
est credit on the architect whom he employed ; the sculptured arcades, which pro-
ject far into the centre of the basin and break up the long flights of steps into
three compartments on each side, being especially graceful. The place is visited
by a large number of bathers from the neigbourhood every morning and is
the scene of an annual mela held on the 11th of the dark fortnight of the month
Bhadon. Outside the enclosure is a small temple in the same style of architec-
ture dedicated to Mahadeva under the title of Achalesvar. In the Manoharpur
quarter oi the city is a large temple of this Raja's foundation, bearing the title
of Dirgha Vishnu. The name is unusual and refers to the 'gigantic' stature
which the boy Krishna assumed when he entered the arena to fight with Kansa's
champions, Chanura and Mushtika. The Raja's dwelling-house is still stand-
ing, on the Nakarchi tila, and was recently occupied for a time as a normal
school for the training of female teachers. He is further commemorated by
another small shrine near the Holi gate of the city, which he rebuilt in honour
of Vira-bhadra, the terrible being created by Siva and Devi in their wrath, to
disturb the sacrifice of Daksha, a ceremony to which they had not been invited.
His great ambition was to rebuild the ancient temple of Kesava Deva, and
with this view he had gradually acquired a considerable part of the site. But
as some of the Muhammadans, who had occupied the ground for nearly two
centuries, refused to be bought out and the law upheld them in their refusal,
he was at last, and after great expense had been incurred, reluctantly obliged
to abandon the idea. Should a stranger visit the tank early in the morning
and enquire of any Hindu he meets there by whom it was constructed, he will
find considerable difficulty in eliciting a straightforward answer. The Raja,
it is said, was a man of such delicate constitution that he never could take at
one time more than a very few morsels even of the simplest food ; hence arises a
belief that any one, who mentions him by name the first thing in the morning,
will, like him, have to pass the day fasting.

From the katra, the centre of all the localities which we have hitherto been
describing, a fine broad road has been carried through the high ridge, which

138 INSCRIPTION FOUND NEAR THE MANOIURPUR MOSQUE;

appears to have been at one time part of the mediaeval city wall, down to the
ed<-re of the river. On the right-hand side is the stone-cutters' quarter with the
small old temple of Bankhandi Mahiideva, near which is a high mound, lying back
from the main streets between the dispensary and the kotwali, and now crown-
ed by a ruinous little shrine dedicated to Bihari ; from this I brought a Bud-
dhist pillar, bearing the figure of a dancing-girl, with a leonine monster at her
feet and over her head a group representing a teacher of the law seated under an
umbrella addressing an audience often persons. To the left of the road is the
suburb of Manoharpur, with a mosque which, as we learn from the following
inscription over the centre arch, was erected hi the year 1158 Hijri, i. e. 1745
A.D., during the reign of Muhammad Shah : —

•■•; &-. . - , ' S / ' ^_-) kJ

" In the reign of Shah Muhammad Shah, Abdurrashid built this mosque :
thought suggested the tdrikh, ' He built a beautiful mosque.' '' [A. H. 1158 ;•
or A.D. 1745].

From an adjoining street, where it had been built up into a mud wall, I
removed to the museum a stone fragment of exceptional interest. It is only a
small headless seated nude figure and, to judge from the style of the sculpture
and the ill-formed letters in the Pali inscription at the base, is of no very
great antiquity. Under it is a row of six. standing figures, three on either
side of a central chukra. The inscription records nothing whatever beyond
the date, but this is given both in words and figures as follows : Samnatsare
sapta panydse 57 hemanta tritiye divase trayadasc asya purvayam, that is to
say ' in tin; year fifty-seven (57) on the thirteenth day of the third winter
month.' It is curious in two ways : first, because it definitely fixes, beyond
any possibility of doubt, the value of the symbol representing 50 ; and
secondly, because if the date is really the year 57 of the same era as that
employed in the inscriptions of Kanishka and Huvishka, it is the earliest
unmistakeable Jaina figure yet found in the neighbourhood. The computation
by seasons certainly favours the idea of antiquity and the argument for its
modern date, derived from the character of the sculpture and of the lettering,
may be deceptive ; for at any period different styles both of carving and writing
may exist simultaneously ; yet probably the solution of the difficulty is to be
found in Mr. Thomas's theory already mentioned, according to which the date
is not given in full, hut specifies only the year of the century, omitting the
century itself, as being at the time well known.

THE PONTOON BRIDGE. 1S9

Tn the streets are many broken Buddhist pillars and other sculptures. Tho-
road was constructed in the collectorate of Mr. Best, and in the progress of the
work a column was found bearing an inscription in some ancient character ; to
reduce the size of the stone, the inscribed face was ruthlessly cut away, and it
was then converted into a buttress for a bridge. As it approaches the river, the
road opens out into a fine square, with graceful arcades of carved stone.
These are the property of the Maharaja of Bharat-pur and Gosain Purushottam
Lai, and, though ordinarily they have rather a deserted appearance, on the
©casion of any great local festival they let for as much as Rs. 2 to 3 each a
day- On the other side of the square opposite the road' is a pontoon bridge,
which was opened for traffic in 1870. The tolls were farmed for the large sum
of Rs. 40,500 a year: whence it is obvious that any reasonable outlay incurred
in its construction- would' soon have been repaid. But, unfortunately, everything
was sacrificed to a false economy ; it was made so narrow that it could not
allow of two carts passing, and so weak that it could not bear even a single cart
if heavily laden. Thus it was no sooner opened than it broke down ; and
repairs were in constant progress, till the- night of the 13th of August, 1871,
when it was completely swept away by a heavy flood. It was immediately re-
constructed ; but it is impossible that it should ever present a satisfactory ap-
pearance, while at the same time its cost has been excessive. It may be hoped
that it will, before many years are over, be superseded by a masonry bridge in
connection wath the railway, which at present pays for its use a fixed annual
sum of Rs. 4,044 : its original value having been put at Rs. 1,15,566.

The city stretches for about a mile and-a-half along the right bank of
the Jamuna, and from the opposite side has a very striking and picturesque
appearance, which is owing not a little to the broken character of the ground on
which it is built. AVere it not for this peculiarity of site, the almost total
absence of towers and spires would be felt as a great drawback ; for all the
large modern temples have no sikharas, as are usually seen in similar edifices,
but are simple cloistered quadrangles of uniform height. The only exceptions-
are the lofty minarets of the Jama Masjid on the one side, and the campanile of
the English Church seen through the trees in the distance below.

Looking up the stream, the most prominent object is the old Fort, or rather
its massive sub-structure, for that is all that now remains, called by the people
Kans-ka-kila. Whatever its legendary antiquity, it was rebuilt in historical
times by Raja Man Sinh of Jaypur, the chief of the Hindu princes at Akbar's
Court. At a later period it was the occasional residence of Man Siuh's still more-
famous successor on the throne of Amber, the great astronomer Sawai Jay

140 SAW^E JAY SINH OF AMBER.

Sinh, who commenced his long reign of 44 years in 1&99 A.D. Till the day
of his death he was engaged in almost constant warfare, but is less known to pos-
terity by his military successes, brilliant though they were, than by his enlight-
ened civil administration and still more exceptional literary achievements. At
the outset he made a false move ; for in the war of succession that ensued upon
the death of Aurangzeb, he attached himself to prince Bedar Bakht and fought
by his side in the fatal battle of Dhol-pur. One of the firsb acts of Shah Alam,
on his consequent elevation to the throne, was to sequester the principality of
Amber. An Imperial Governor was sent to take possession, but Jay Sinh drove
him out sword in hand, and then formed a league with Ajit Sinh of Marwar for
mutual protection. From that day forward he was prominently concerned in all
the troubles and warfare of that anarchic period, but never again on the losing
side. In 1721, ho was appointed Governor of the Province of Agra and later of
Malwa ; but he gradually loosened his connection with the Court of Delhi, from
a conviction that the dissolution of the Muhammadan empire was inevitable, and
concluded terms with the Mahrattas. At his accession, Amber consisted only of
the three parganas of Amber, Deosa, and Barsao, as the Shaikhawats had made
themselves independent and the western tracts had been attached to Ajmer.
He not only recovered all that his ancestors had lost, but further extended his
frontiers by the reduction of the Bargtijars of Dcoti and Rajaur and made his
State worthy to be called the dominious of a Raja— a title which he was the
first of his line to assume. The new capital, which lie founded, he called after
his own name Jaypur, and it is still to the present day the only native city in
India built upon a regular plan ; the only one also, it must unfortunately
be added, in which the street architecture is absolutely bad and systematically
false and pretentious ; though it is the fashion for Anglo-Indians to admire it.
He is said to have been assisted in the execution of his design by an architect
from Bengal.

In consequence of his profound knowledge of astronomy, he wasentrusted by
Muhammad Shah with the reformation of the calendar. To ensure that amount
of accuracy which he considered the small instruments in ordinary use must
always fail to command, he constructed observatories with instruments of his
own invention on a gigantic scale. One of these was on the top of the Mathura
Fort, the others at Delhi, Jaypur, Ujaiyin, ami Banaras. His success was
so signal that he was able to detect errors in the tables of De la Hire, which
had been communicated to him by the King of Portugal. His own tables wore
completed in 172.S and are those still used by native astronomers. He died

THE MATHURX OBSERVATORY. Ml

in 1743. His voluminous correspondence is said by Tod* still to exist and
his acts to be recorded in a miscellaneous diary entitled Kalpadruma and a
collection of anecdotes called the Eksau nau <jun Jay Sink M.

The whole of the Mathura observatory has now disappeared. A little be-
fore the mutiny the buildings were sold to the great Government contractor,
Joti Prasad, who destroyed them for the sake of the materials. Certainly, they
had ceased to be of any practical use ; but they were of interest, both in the
history of science and as a memorial of one of the most remarkable men in
the long line of Indian sovereigns and their inconsiderate demolition is a
matter for regret. The old hall of audience, which is outside the actual Fort,
is a handsome and substantial building divided into three aisles by ranges of
red sand-stone pillars. Soon after the mutiny it was converted into a school
and, in order to render it as unsightly as such Government buildings ordinarily
are, the front arches were all blocked up with a mud wall which concealed
every trace of them. Quite by an accident I discovered their existence and, after
opening them out again, filled in their heads with iron bars set in a wooden
frame and the lower part with a slight masonry wall, thus preserving all the
architectural effect without any sacrifice of convenience.

About the centre of the river front is the most sacred of all the ghats,
marking the spot where Krishna sat down to take ' rest ' after he had slain
the tyrant Kansa and hence called the ' Visrant' Ghat. The small open court
has a series of marble arches facing the water, which distinguishes it from all the
other landing-places ; and on the other three sides are various buildings erected
at intervals during the last century and-a-half by several princely families ;
but none of them possesses any architectural beauty. The river here swarms
with turtles of an enormous size, which are considered in a way sacred, and
generally receive a handful or two of grain from every visitor. Close by is a
natural water-course, said to have been caused by the passage of Kansa's
giant body, as it was dragged down to the river to be burnt, and hence called
the ' Kans Khar/ The following lines in the Vishnu Purana are alleged in
support of the tradition : —

" By the trailing body of Kansa, with its prodigious weight, a channel was
made as by the rush of a mighty stream. "

* From whom all the facts in the above narrative of Jay Sinn's life are borrowed,

142 THE visrXnt gha't.

It is now arched over, like the Fleet river in London* and'for many years
formed one of the main sewers of the town ; a circumstance which possibly did
not affect the sanctity, but certainly detracted somewhat from the material
purity of this favourite bathing place. It is now being closed, as it was
ihxoueht to have contributed not a little to the abnormal sickness which has
lately prevailed in the city.

Wite reference to this spot a story is told in the Bhakt Mala, of Kesav
Bhatt, one of the most celebrated of the Vaishnava teachers. After spreading
his doctrines through all the chief cities of India and demolishing every
argument that the most learned Pandits could bring against him, he was him-
self unable to reply to the questions put him by Chaitanya, though at the time
a child only seven years of age. Thereupon he abandoned the career of a
controversialist and retired to his native country Kashmir, where he remained
in solitude, absorbed in humble and devout meditation, till roused to action
by news of the tyranny that prevailed at Mathura. For the Muhammadans
had set up a diabolical engine at the Visrant Ghat, which perforce circumcised
every Hindu who went there to' bathe. Hearing this, he gathered together
a thousand of his disciples and on arriving at Mathura, went straight to the
spot, where the Governor's myrmidons set upon him and thought to bring him
too under the yoke of Islam. But he broke the engine in pieces and threw it
into the river. An army was then sent against him, but not a man of it
escaped ; for he slew the greater number with the sword and the rest were dri-
ven into the Jamuna and drowned.

For this legend it is possible there may be some slight historical foundation ;
the next to be told can at the best be regarded as only a pious fiction. It is
given in the Mathura Mahatmya, or Religious Chronicle of Mathura, which
is an interpolation on the Varaha Purana, though of sufficient extent to be
itself divided into 29 sections. After expatiating in the most extravagant
terms on the learning, piety and other virtues of the Mathuriya Chaubes,
and the incomparable sanctity of the city in which they dwell, it briefly
enumerates the twelve Vanas, or woods, that are included in the perambulation
of the land of Braj, and then at greater length describes the principal shrines
which the pilgrim is bound to visit in the capital itself. As a rule, no attempt
is made to explain either the names borne by the different holy places, or the
origin of their reputed sanctity; but their virtue- is attested by the recital of
some of the miracles, which have been worked through their supernatural
influence, such as the following : — ■

z>
I

T
C3

DC
CO

LLl

I-

THE VISR^KT GII^T. 143;

" Once upon a time there was a Brahman living at Ujjaiyin, who neg-
lected all his religious duties, never bathed, never said a prayer, never went
near a temple. One night, when out with a gang of thieves, he was surprised
by the city watchmen, and in running away from them fell down a dry well
and broke his neck. His ghost was doomed to haunt the place, and was so
fierce that it would tear to pieces and devour every one who came near it.
This went on for many years, till at last one day a band of travellers happened
to pitch their tents by the well, and among their number was a very holy and
learned Brahman. So soon as he knew how the neighbourhood was afflicte I,
he had recourse to his spells and compelled the evil spirit to appear before him.
Discovering, in the course of his examination, that the wretched creature had
in his lifetime been a Brahman, he was moved with pity for him and promised
to do all in his power to alleviate his sentence. Whereupon the ghost begged
him to go straight to Mathura, and bathe on his behalf at the Visrant Ghat,
1 for,' said he, ' I once in my life went into a temple of Vi-hnu, and heard the
priest repeat this holy name and tell it< wondrous saving power.' The Brah-
man had often bathed there and readily agreed to transfer the merit of on"
such ablution. The words of consent had no sooner passed his lips than the
guilty soul was absolved from all further suffering."*

* To a devout Hindu, who believes that Krishna was an incarnation of the Deity, and that
he hallowed with his presence the place now called the Visrant Ghat, there is no intrinsic ab-
surdity in the legend as above quoted. It can be paralleled in all its particulars by manv that
have been recorded for the edification of the faithful by canonized saints of the Church. That
the merit of good deeds can be transferred — the point upon which the story mainly turns is a
cardinal Catholic doctrine; and as to the dying in Bin and yet being saved through the efficacy
of a formal act of devotion, take the following example from the page-: of Ci. Alphonsus Liguori : —
" A certain Canon was reciting some prayers in honour of the Divine Mother, and, whilst doing
so, fell into the river Seine and was drowned. Being in mortal sin, the devils came to take
him to hell. In the same moment Mary appeared and said, 'How do you dare to take possession
of one who died in the act of praising me ? ' Then addressing herself to the sinner, she sail,
« Now change thy life and nourish devotion to my Conception.' He returned to life and became
a Keligious." Here the concluding words correspond precisely with the finale of the story of
the barber Tinduk, as told on the next page. In short, the Hindu in his ideas of divine worship,
of the religious life, of the efficacy cf faith and good works, of the earnest sympathy of the
Divine Being with human distress, and His occasional miraculous intervention for its relief, falls
little, if at all, short of Catholic truth. Unhappily he has no clear perception of the true God to
whom the devotion, which he understands so well, should alone be paid : yet for all this draw-
back, Hinduism remains in one aspect divine, which is more than can be said either of Islam
or of Protestantism. They are both essentially human inventions in direct antagonism to the
truth, while Hinduism is a genuine natural religion, which only needs to be sustained aud com-
pleted by Revelation. Thus S. Augustine says of the heathen of old : " Res ipsa qua; nunc

144 THE TWENTY-FOUR GHXTS.

On the other Side of this sacred spot, a number of minor ghats stretch Up and
down the river, those to the north being called the uttar kot and those to the
south the dakshin kot. They are invariably represented as twenty-four in all,
twelve in either set ; but there is a considerable discrepancy as to the parti-
cular names. The following list was supplied by a Pandit of high local repute,
Makhan Misr, a Gaur Brahman, from whose extensive library of manuscripts I
was able to procure almost every Sanskrit work that I had occasion to consult.

To the north : Ganes Ghat ; Manasa Ghat ; Dasasvamedha Ghat, under the
hill of Ambarisha ; Chakra-tirtha Ghat ; Krislma-Ganga Ghat, with the shrine
of Kalinjaresvar Mahadeva ; Som-tirtha Ghat, more commonly called Vasudeva
Ghat or Shaikh Ghat ; Brahmalok Ghat ; Ghantabharan Ghat : Dhara-patan
Ghat ; Sangaman-tirtha Ghat, otherwise called Vaikunth Ghat ; Nava-tirtha
Ghat ; and Asikunda Ghat.

To the south : Avimukta Ghat ; Visranti Ghat ; Prag Ghat ; Kankhal
Ghat ; Tinduk Ghat ; Siirya Ghat ; Chinta-mani Ghat ; Dhfuva Ghat ; Rishi
Ghat ; Moksha Ghat ; Koti Ghat ; and Buddh Ghat.

The more common division is to include the Avimukta Ghat in the first,
set, from which the Manasa is then omitted ; to except the Visrant Ghat alto-
gether from the number of the twenty-four ; and to begin the second series
with the Balabhadra and the Jog Ghat. By the former of these two are the
Satghara or ' seven chapels,' commemorating Krishna's seven favourite titles,
and the shrine of Gata Sram or ' ended toil.' The Jog Ghat is supposed to
mark the spot where Joga-Nidra, the infant daughter of Nanda and Jasoda,
whom Vasudeva had substituted for his own child Krishna, was dashed to the
ground by Kansa and thence in new form ascended to heaven as the goddess
Durga. Between it and the Piiig Ghat (where is the shrine of Beni Madho)
is one of more modern date called Sringar Ghat, with two temples dedicated
respectively to Pipalesvar Mahadeva and Batuk-nath : by Prag Ghat is also
the shrine of Ramesvar Mahadeva. Two other ghats occupy far more con-
spicuous sites than any of the above, but are included iu no list, as being
devoid of any legendary reputation. The first bears the name of Sami Ghat,

Christiana religio nuncupatur, erat apud antiquos, uec defuit ab initio generis humani quouBque
Christ us veuiret in earue, nude vera religio, quoe jam erat, ccepit appellari Christiana." It is upon
this principle that the Church has admitted into the calendar, among her canonized saints,
certain worthies of the old dispensation, such as the Machabees, with reference to whom S. Gregory
Nazianzen, in a sermon preached on their feast day, declares it to be a pious opinion " ueminem
corum, qui ante christi adventum martyrio consumuiati Bunt, id sine fide in Christum consequi
potuisse."

THE TWENTY-FOUR GHA'TS. 145

not, as might be Supposed, a corruption of swdmi, but of Sdmhne, l opposite,' as
it faces the main street of the city, where is a mansion of carved stone built by
the famous Rup Ram, Katara, of Barsana. The second is the Bengali Ghat, at
the foot of the pontoon bridge and close to a large house, the property of the
Raja of Jhalra-patfcan. It is so called from having been built by the Gosain of
the temple of Gobind Deva at Brinda-ban, the head of the Bengali Vaishnavas,
who has a residence on the opposite side of the street. The end of the ghat adjoining
the Raja of Jhalra-pattan's house has been left unfinished, as the right to the
<*round forms the subject of ;; dispute between the Raja and the Gosain.

Most of the ghats refer in their names to well-known legends and are of no
special historical or architectural interest. The list is appropriately headed
by one dedicated to Ganes, the god invoked at the commencement of every
undertakin ■■- ; the second and third are both sacred to Siva — the one com-
memorating the Manasa lake, a famous place of pilgrimage on mount Kailas
in the Himalayas ; the other the Dasasvamedh Ghat, the holiest spot in Siva's
city of Banaras. The fourth or Chakra-tirtha,. with the hill of Ambarisha,
refers to Vishnu's magic discus, chakra, with which he defended his votary
Ambarisha against the assaults of the Sivite Durvasas. The hill is between
60 and 70 feet high, and according to popular rumour there is in the centre
of it a cave containing an enormous treasure. I did not expect to discover
this, but as General Cunningham had told me of a gold coin of Apollodotus
that had been found there, I got some men to dig, thinking it not unlikely
something might turn up. The only reward for my trouble was a small
fragment of Buddhist sculpture representing a devotee under a niche with
the rail pattern below and the capitals of the pillars of Indo-Ionic type. This
however was sufficient proof of the great antiquity and also of the Buddhist
oceupation of the mound.

The temple of Mahadeva at the Ganga Krishan Ghat has some very rich and
delicate reticulated stone tracery, and all the work about this ghat is exception-
ally good, both in design and execution. It was done, a little before the mutiny,
under the immediate superientendence of the Brahman then in charge of the
shrine, Baladeva Byas by name. The title Kalinjaresvar would seem to be a
mistake for Kalindisvar : Kalindi being a name of the Jamuna, which takes its
rise in the Kalinda range. A little above the ghat is an old red stone chhattri,
which has a singularly graceful finial.

A little below the Sami Ghat is a small mosque and group of tombs com-
memorating a Muhammadan saint, Makhdiim Shah Wilayat, of Hirat. The

146 THE TWENTY-FOUR GHXTS.

tombs date apparently from the sixteenth century and the architecture is in
all its details so essentially of Hindu design that, were it not for the word
' Allah' introduced here and there into the sculptured decorations, there would
be nothing to distinguish them from Hindu chhattris. The Muhammadans
call this the Shaikh Ghat, while the Hindus maintain that the word is not
Shaikh, but Shesh, the name of the thousand-headed serpent that forms
Vishnu's couch and canopy. This is probable enough, for the final cerebral
sibilant is vulgarly pronounced and indeed often written as the guttural
kh. After long dispute between the two parties as to who should have
the privilege of rebuilding the ghat, the work was taken in hand in 1875
by Vilayat Husain, the Seth's house agent, who also added a mosque and
gave no little offence thereby. He died in 1871), leaving one minaret of the
mosque still unfinished.

The word Ghantabharan (which would be derived from glianta, 'a bell.
and hharan, 'bearing,') is in the Vraj-bhakti-vilas perhaps more correctly
written Ghantabhan, bhan meaning ' sound.' The allusion is to the bell, by ■
the ringing of which Vishnu is roused from his four months' slumber on the
11th of the month Kartik.

The name Dkarapatan (from dhard, ' a stream,,' and patan, ' falling,') pro-
bably referred primarily to the position of the ghat, which is on a projecting
point where it bears the full force of the ' fall of the stream.' But in the Mahat-
mya it is explained by the following legend : — " Once upon a time, a woman,
whose home was on the bank of tbe Gauges, came on a pilgrimage to Mathura
aud arrived there on the 12th of Kartik. As she was stepping into a boat near
tlie place where now is the Dhara-patan Ghat, she fell over and was drowned.
By virtue of this immersion in the sacred flood, she was born again in an exalted
position as the daughter of the king of Banaras, and, under the name of the Rani
Pivari, was married to Kshatra-dhanu, the king of Sunishtra, by whom she
had seven sons and five daughters. Upon one occasion when the royal pair
were comparing notes, it came to light that he too had undergone a very simi-
lar experience : for, originally he had been a wild savage who had come over
to Mathura from the Naimisha forest and was crossing the Jamuna with his
shoes balanced on the top of his head, when they fell off into the water. He
dipped down to recover them and was swept away by the torrent and
drowned. Every stain of sin being thus washed out of his body, when he again
took birth it was no longer as a barbarous Nishadha, or wild man of the woods,
but as a noble Kshatriya king."

THE DHRUVA TfLA.. 147

Dhruva who gives a name to one of the most southern of the ghats was,
according to the legend, the son of a king by name Uttana-pada. Indignant
at the slights put upon him by his stepmother, he left his father's palace to make
a name for himself in the world. By the advice of the seven great Rishis,
Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Kratu, Pulaha, and Vasishta, he repaired to
Madhu-ban near Mathura, and there, absorbed in the contemplation of Vishnu,
continued for seven years a course of the severest penance. At last the god
appeared to him in person and promised to grant him any boon he might desire.
His request was for a station exalted above every station and which should en-
dure for ever ; whereupon he was translated to heaven as the polar star togethei
with his mother Suniti.

On the Dhruva tSa, or hill at the back of the ghat, is a small temple, built
Samhat 189A, in place of an older shrine, of which the ruins remain close by,
dedicated to Dhruva Ji. Here I found a set of Buddhist posts, with the cross
rails and top bar all complete, cut out of a single slab of stone, measuring two
feet two inches square. The Pujuris, or priests in charge, by name Damodar
Das and Chhote Lai, belong to the Sanakadi or Nimbarak Sampradaya of
Vaishnavas, and produce a manuscript pedigree in Sanskrit in proof of their
direct spiritual descent from Kesava Bhatt, one of Niinbarak's successors, who
is regarded as the head of the secular, or Grihastha, sub-division of the sect, as
his brother-in-law, Hari Vyasa, was of the celibate, or Virakta, order. In
the temple are figures of Radha Krishan, whom the Nimbaraks have adopted
as their special patrons. The list of superiors, or Guru-parampara, as it is
called, runs as follows : —

I.— 1 Hansavatar ; 2 Sanakadi ; 3 Narada; 4 Nimbarak Swami: all deified
characters.

II.— 1 Srinivasacharya ; 2 Biswacharya ; 3 Purushottam ; 4 Bilasa ; 5
Sariipa ; 6 Madhava ; 7 Balbhadra ; 8 Padma ; 9 Syama ; 10 Gopala ; 11 Kri-
pala ; 12 Deva : all distingushed by the title of Acharya.

HI.— 1 Sundar Bhatt ; 2 Padma-nabha ; 3 Sri Rama-chandra ; 4 Baman ;
5 Sri Krishna ; 6 Padmakara ; 7 Sravan ; 8 Bhuri ; 9 Madhava ; 10 Syama ;
11 Gopala ; 12 Sn-bal, or Balbhadra ; 13 Gopinath ; 14 Kesava ; 15 Gangal ;
16 Kesava Kashmiri ; 17 Sri Bhatt ; 18 Kesava Bimani : all bearing the title
of Bhatt.

IV.— 1 Giridhar Gosain ; 2 Ballabh Lai ; 3 Mukund Lai ; 4 Nand Lai ; 5
Mohan Lai ; 6 Rain Ji Lai ; 7 Manu Lai ; 8 Radha Lai ; 9 Kanhaiya Lai ; and
10 Damodar Das : all bearing the title of Gosain.

148 THE SATI BL'RJ.

The Nimbaraks have also a temple at Brindaban, dedicated to Rasak
Bihari, and some account of their tenets will be given in connection with that
town. Their distinguishing sectarial mark consists of two white perpendicular
Streaks on the forehead with a black spot in the centre. The natural parents of
their founder are said to have been named Aruna Risfbi and Jayanti.

The Tinduk Ghat, according to the Mahatmya, is so called after a barber
who lived at Kampilya, the capital of Panchala, in the reign of King Devadatta.
After losinc all his family, he came to live at Mathura and there practised such
rigorous austerities and bathed so constantly in the sanctifying stream of the
•Tamuna, that after death he took birth once more as a high-caste Brahman.

The legend of the Asikunda Ghat is told on this wise : — A pious king, by
name Sumati, had started on a pilgrimage, but died before he was able to com-
plete it. His son, Vimati, on succeeding to the throne, was visited by the sage
Narad, who, at the time of taking his departure, uttered this oracular sentence :
' A pious son settles his father's debts.' After consulting with his ministers,
the prince concluded that the debt was a debt of vengeance, which he was
bound to exact from the places of pilgrimages, which had tempted his father to
undertake the fatal journey. Accordingly, having ascertained that every holy
place paid an annual visit in the season of the rains to the city of Mathura, he
assembled an army and marched thither with full intent to destroy them all.
They fled in terror to Kalpa-grama to implore the aid of Vishnu, who at last
yielded to their entreaties, and assuming the form of a boar joined in combat
with King Vimati on the bank of the Jamuna and slew him. In the fray, the
point of the divine sword, ia,si,, snapped off and fell to the ground ; whence the
ghat to this day is called Asi-kuuda Ghat, and the plain adjoining it Varahu
Kshetra, or ' the field of the boar.'

Before finally leaving the river-side, one other building claims a few words
viz., ' the Sati Burj.' This is a slender quadrangular tower of red sand-stono
commemorating the self-sacrifice of some faithful wife. According to the best
authenticated tradition, she is said to have been the queen of Raja Bihar Mai
of Jaypur and the mother of the famous Raja Bhagavan Das, by whom the
monument was erected in the year 1570 A.D. It has, as it now stands, a total
height of 55 feet and is in four stories: the lowest forms a solid basement ; the
second and third are lighted by square windows and are supplied with an inter-
nal staircase. The exterior is ornamented with rude bas-reliefs of elephants
and other devices, but -is in a very ruinous condition. The tower was originally

cr
D

D
DO

(-
<

I-

THE TUVER-SIDE. ] 19

of much greater height ; but all the upper part was destroyed, it is said, 1>\-
Aurangzeb. The exceedingly ugly and incongruous plaster dome, which now
surmounts the building, was apparently added about the beginning of the pre-
sent century. It no doubt helps to preserve what yet remains of the original
work, but it sadly detracts from its architectural effect. I had hoped that the
reigning Maharaja might be induced to undertake the complete restoration of
this interesting family monument, and if the matter had been properly repre-
sented to him, lie would in all probability have consented to do so. It is not at
all likely that anything will be done now ; but the design that I had prepared
may be thought worthy of preservation. No small amount of time and thought,
was bestowed upon it : and I hoj>e that architects will consider it both a
pleasing objeot in itself and also a faithful reproduction of the destroyed
original.

At the time when it was built, that is, at the end of the 16th century, it
may be presumed that, the city of Mathura occupied its old position in the
neighbourhood of the katra, and that the river-bank was used as the ordinary
place for the cremation of the dead. Several cenotaphs of about the same
period still remain, being mostly in old Hindu style, with brackets of good
and varied design. The two largest bear the dates 1638 and 1715 Sambat,
coresponding to 1 5 S 1 and 1638 A.D. They had all been taken possession of
by the Chaubes. who blocked up the arches with mud or rough brick-work
and converted them into lodging-houses, which they rented to pilgrims. In
1875 I had them all opened out when widening and paving the street along the
river-bank. This work was left unfinished, but enough had been done to ren-
der the street, though still narrow, the most picturesque in the city. Many
of the ghats had been repaired, while the removal of a number of obstructions
had opened out a view not only of the river but also of the houses and temples
on the land site. Some of these are very graceful specimens of architecture,
in particular the house of Purnshottam Lai, the Gokul Gosain, close to the
Bengali ghat, which has a most elaborate facade and a balcony displaying a
great variety of patterns of reticulated tracery.

Immediately below the last of the ghats and opposite (lie Sadr Bazar,
which has a population of some 6,000 souls and forms a small town by itself,
entirely distinct both from the city and the European quarter, are two large
walled gardens on the river-bank. One of these, called the Jamuna bagh, is
the property of the Seth. It is well kept up and contains two very handsome
chhattris, or cenotaphs, iu memory of Parikh Ji, the founder of the family, and

150 COLONEL SUTHERLAND.

Mani Ram, his successor. The latter, buffi; in the year of the chauranawe
famine, 1837 A.D., is of exceedingly beautiful and elaborate design : perhaps
the most perfect specimen ever executed of the reticulated stone tracery, for
which Mathura is famous. It has been purposely made a little lower and
smaller then the earlier monument, the eaves of which at one corner complete-
ly overhang it. The adjoining garden, which may be of even greater extent,,
has a small house and enclosed court-yard, in the native style, on the bank of
the river, and, in the centre, an obelisk of white stone raised on a very high and
substantial plinth of the same material with the following inscription : " Erect-
ed to the memory of Robert Sutherland, Colonel in Rlaharaj Daulat Rao Scin-
dia's service, who departed this life on the 20th July, 1804, aged 36 years.
Also in rememberance of his son, C. P. Sutherland (a very promising youth),
who died at Hindia on the 14th October, 1801, aged 3 years. " The monu-
ment is kept in repair by the grandson, Captain S. S. Sutherland, of the
Police Department. Colonel Sutherland was the officer whom De Boigne, on
his retirement in 1795, left in command of the brigade stationed at Mathuni, one
of three that he had raised in the service of Madho Ji Sindhia. The Mahratta
Commander-in-Chief, who also had his head-quarters at Mathura, was at that
time one Jagu Bapu, who was probably the Senapat of whom local tradition
still speaks. In 1797 he was superseded by Perron, to whom Daulat Rao
had given the supreme command of all his forces and who thereupon establish-
ed himself at Kol, as virtual sovereign of the country. In the following year
he discharged Sutherland for intriguing with the other Mahratta chiefs, but not
long after he recovered his post through the interest of his father-in-law,
Colonel John Hessing, to whose memory is erected the very fine monument in
the Catholic cemetry at Agra, which Jacquemont considered superior to the Taj.
In 1813 Sutherland, like the other British officers in Sindhia's service,
received a pension from the Government, but he lived only one year to enjoy
it.

On a rising ground in the very heart of the city stands the Jama Masjid,
erected in the year 1661 A.D., by Abd-un-Nabi Khan, the local Governor.
The following inscription seems very clearly to indicate that it was erected on
the ruins of a Hindu temple : —

LXJ

I
h

Q-
<

H
O

AED-UN-NABl'S MOSQUE.- l&l

1. In the reign of Shah Alamgir Muhiuddia Walmillah, the king of
the world, Aurangzeb, who is adorned with justice,

2. The lustre of Islam shone forth to the glory of God ; for Abd-un-Nabi
Khan built this beautiful mosque.

3. This second ' Holy Temple' caused the idols to bow down in worship.
You will now see the true moaning of the text, ' Truth came and error vanished.
['Koran, XVII. 83'.]

4. Whilst I searched for a tdriJch, a. voice came from blissful Truth,
ordering me to say ' Abd-un-Nabi Khan is the builder of this beautiful
mosque.' A.II. 1071, or 1660-61.

ota| .Uu(,j lii^L Jo f*. \c:U * iiUi; ^.jL& ,*--«ts. <isuw» ^v>|

1. l\lay this Jama Masjid of majestic structure shine forth for ever like
the hearts of the pious !

2. Its roof is high like aspirations of love ; its court-yard is wide like
the arena of thought. *

The founder is first mentioned by tho Muhammadan. historians as fighting,
on the side of Dara Shikoh at the battle of Samogarh in 1(>58. About a
week after the defeat, he joined Aurangzeb and was immediately appointed
faujdar of Itawa. This office he retained only till the following year, when
he was transfered to Sirhind and thence, after a few months, to Mathura.
Here he remained from August, 1660, to May, 1068, when, as we have already
mentioned, he met his death at Sahora, a village in the Maha-ban pargana
on the opposite side of the Jamuna, while engaged in quelling a popular
dmeute. The author of the Maasir-i-Alamgiri says of him: — " He was an
excellent and pious man, and as courageous in war as successful in his admin-
istration. He has left a mosque in Mathura as a monument, which, for a long
time to come, will remind people of him. Muhammad Anwar, his nephew,
received from His Majesty a mourning dress of honour ; but the property of
the deceased lapsed (according to custom) to the State, and the Imperial
Mutasaddis reported it to be 93,000 gold muhrs, 13,00,000 rupees, and

* For this and other translations from, the Persian I am indebted to the kindness of the
late Mr. Blochmann, whose immense fund of information was always at the service of all
eaquirers, and whose untimely death is an irreparable loss to the Calcutta Branch of the. Asiatic
Society, of which he was for many years the Secretary.

152 EARTHQUAKE OF 1803 A. D.

14,50,000 rupees' worth of property." The architecture of his mosque is not
of particularly graceful character, but there are four lofty minarets, and as
these and other parts of the building were originally veneered with bright-
coloured plaster mosaics, of which a few panels still remain, it must at one
time have presented a brilliant appearance.*

It was greatly injured by an earthquake which took place, strange to say,
in 1803, the very year in which the country was first brought under British
rule. The following account of this most exceptional event is copied from
pages 57 and 58 of ' The Asiatic Annual Register ' for 1804 : —

Dreadful Earthquake.

Mathurd, September 24, 1803.

" On the night between the 31st August and the 1st of September, at
half-an-hour after midnight, a severe shock of an earthquake was felt at this
place, which lasted for many minutes and was violent beyond the memory of
man. Probably not a living creature in the place but was roused from his
slumbers by the alarm and felt its effects. Many of the pucka buildings
were cast down and zans'.nas, hitherto unassailed by violence were deserted,
and their fair inhabitants took refuge in the streets and in the fields, seek-
ing protection with men, whose visages it would otherwise have disgraced
them to behold. The night was calm and enjoyed the full influence of a
bright moon.

" In the morning very extensive fissures were observed in the fields, which
had been caused by the percussion of the night before, through which water
rose with great, violence and continues to run to the present date, though its
violence has gradually abated. This has been a great benefit to the neighbour-
ing ryots, as they were thence enabled to draw the water over their parched
fields.

* Father Tieft'enthaller, who visited Mathura in 1745, after meutioniug the two mosques,
says that Abd-un-Nabi was a convert from Hinduism, a statement for which there seems to be
no authority. He describes the mosaics as " un ouvrage plombe en diverscs eouleurs et incruste
i la manure dont sont vernis les poeles in Allemagne." " La ville," he says, " est entoure d'une
levee de terre, et obeit aujourdhui an Djit. Auparavant elle etait sous lea ordrea du Raja di
Djepour a qui I'empereur Mogo) en avait confie le gouvernement :" i. e., Raja Jay Sinh, who
died 1743. He goes on to describe the streets as narrow and dirty and most of the buildings
as in ruins; the fort very large and massive, like a mountain of hewn stone, with an observa-
tory, which was only a feeble imitation of the one at Jaypur, but with the advantage of being
much bitter raised. The only other spot that he particularises is the Viarant ghat. Jaeque-
mont's description is in very similar terms : be Bays : " The streets are the narrowest, the crook-
edest, the steepest aud dirtiest that 1 have ever seen.''

ABD-UN-NABI THE FOUNDER OF MODERN MATHTRA'. 153

" The principal mosque of the place, erected on an eminence by the
famous Ghazi Khan, as a token of his triumph over the infidelity of the Hindus,
has been shattered to pieces, and a considerable part of the dome was swallowed
up during the opening of the earth.

"Several slighter shocks have since occurred, but I do not hear they have
occasioned any further damage."*

The above description certainly exaggerates and also to some extent mis-
represents the effects of the shock upon the mosque. The gateway was cracked
from top to bottom, the upper part of one of the great minarets was thrown
down and one of the little corner kiosques of the mosque itself was also destroyed,
but the dome was uninjured. In 1875 the Sa'dabad family started a sub-
scription for the repairs of the building and over Rs. 5,000 were collected.
This sum I expended on the restoration of the fallen minaret andkiosque and of
the two hujras or alcoves at the sides of the court-yard. Several of the shops
that disfigured the approaches were also bought up and demolished. As soon
as I left, the work came to a standstill.

The mosque now appears out of place as the largest and most conspicuous
edifice in what is otherwise a purely Hindu city, and there is also every rea-
son to suppose that it was founded on the ruins of a pagan temple. But at
the same time it should be observed that all the buildings by which it is now
surrounded are of more modern date than itself. It was not planted in the
midst of a Hindu population ; but the city, as we now see it, has grown up
under its shadow. Old Mathura had been so often looted and harried by the
Muhammadans that, as has been noted in other parts of this work, it had
actually ceased to exist as a city at all. It was a place of pilgrimage, as it
had ever been ; there were saraes for the accommodation of travellers and
ruins of temples and a few resident families of Brahmans to act as cicerones,
living for the most part in the precincts of the great temple of Kesava Deva, or
still further away towards Madhuban ; but it was as much a scene of desolation
as Goa with its churches and convents now is, and on the spot where the pre-
sent Mathura stands there was no town till Abd-un-Nabi founded it. The
whole of the land was in the possession of Muhammadans. The ground,
which he selected as the site of his mosque, he purchased from some butchers,
and the remainder he obtained from a family of Kazis, whose descendants
still occupy what is called the Kushk Mahalla, one of the very few quarters

* For the knowledge of thiB curious letter I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. A. Constable,
of the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway, who sent me a copy of it.

154 PROPRIETORY RIGHTS IN THE CITY.

of the city that are known by a Persian name. They continued to be regard-
ed as the zamindars of the township till the time of the Juts, when Saiyid
Bakir, their then head, quarrelled with the local governor, and being afraid
of the consequences made over all his rights to some Chaubes and others.
When the English Government took possession, the Chaubes' title was alone
recognized and the first settlement was made with one of their number, Shio
Lai, as mukaddam. A claim was brought forward by Imam Bakhsh, a son of
the Saiyid abovenamed, but he died before it could bo heard, and the suit thus
faHing through has never since been revived. In 1812, the then Ghaube land-
holders, Bishna, Ajita, Shio Lai, Ghisa and Jwala, styling themselves mukad-
dams, made over their rights to the Lala Babu, who engaged to pay them Rs. 150
a year and 5 per cent, on his collections. The area so transferred, according
to the settlement of 1841, was only 568 bighas 11 biswas ; but in the revision
of records the Lala Babu's widow had herself entered as owner of every rood
of land, excepting only such as was or had been rent-free, and the agreement
was with her as sole zamindar of the township of Mathura. On the strength
of this she claimed to exercise over the whole city the same rights that a
zamindar can claim in any petty village ; but, after oft>renewed litigation,
these extravagant claims have been set aside, and by the new settlement the
property of her heirs is shown as a separate thok, the muafi and resumed muafi
grants forming another, while the Jamuna sands, used for melon cultiva-
tion, all nazul lands and the streets and city generally are shown as Govern-
ment property.*

From the mosque as a central point diverge the main thoroughfares, lead-
ing respectively towards Brinda-ban, Dig, Bharat-pur.f and the civil station.
They are somewhat broader than is usual in Indian cities, having an average
breadth of 24 feet, and were first opened out at the instance of Mr. E. F.
Taylor hi 1843. A number of houses were demolished for the purpose, but,
in every instance, all claim to compensation was waived. Seth Lakhmi
(Jhand's loss, thus voluntarily sustained for the public good, was estimated at
a lakh of rupees, as he had recently completed some handsome premises,
which had to be taken down and rebuilt.

* Vide a report on the Proprietory Rights claimed by the heirs of the Lala Babu, drawn
up by Mr. Whiteway, Settlement Utfieer, in 1875.

•f Close to the mosque on the left-hand si.io of the Bhsrat-pur gate bazar is a high hill with
very stefp ascent, all built over. On the summit, which is called Sit.ila ghat, may be seen many
fragments of Bu-idhist pillars and bas-reliefs, and an armless seated figure, the size of life.

THE CITY STREETS. 155

These streets have now, throughout their entire length and breadth, been
paved by the municipality with substantial stone flags brought from the Bharat-
pur quaries.* The total cost has been Rs. 1,38,663. Many of the towns-
people and more particularly the pilgrims, who go about barefooted, are by no
means pleased with the result ; for in the winter the stone is too cold to be
pleasant to tread upon, while in the summer again, even at sunset, the streets
do not cool down as they used to do aforetime, but retain their heat through
the greater part of the night. As is the custom in the East, many mean tumble
down hovelsf are allowed here and there to obtrude themselves upon th>-
view ; but the majority of the buildings that face the principal thoroughfares
are of handsome and imposing character. With only two exceptions all have
been erected during the seventy years of British rule. The first of the two
exceptional buildings is a large red sandstone house, called Chaube Ji ka Burj,
which may be as old as the time of Akbar. The walls are divided into square
panels, in each of which, boldly carved in low relief, is a vase filled with flowers,
executed in a manner which is highly effective, but which has quite gone out of
fashion at tho present day, when pierced tracery is more appreciated. The
second is a temple near the turn to the Sati Burj. This is remarkable for along
balcony supported on brackets quaintly carved to represent elephants. Many
of these had been built up with masonry, either by the Hindus to protect the
animal form from iconoclastic bigotry, or else by the Muhammadans themselves
to conceal it from view. This unsightly casing was at last removed in 1875.

In all the modern buildings, whether secular or religious, the design is
of very similar character. The front is of carved stone with a grand central
archway and arcades on both sides let out as shops on the ground floor. Storey
upon storey above are projecting balconies supported on quaint corbels, the
arches being filled in with the most minute reticulated tracery of an infinite
variety of pattern, and protected from the weather by broad eaves, the under-
surface of which is brightly painted. One of the most noticeable buildings in
point of size, though the decorations perhaps are scarcely so elegant as in some
of the latter examples, is the temple of Dwarakadhis, founded by the Gwaliar
treasurer, Parikh Ji, and visited in 1825 by Bishop Heber, who in his journal
describes it as follows .■ — " In the centre, or nearly so, of the town, Colonel

• This important work was commenced in November, 1857.

t As an indication that many of the houses are not of the most substantial construction.it
may be observed that, after three days of ex. tptionally heavy rain in the month of August, 1873 ,
aB many as 6 OOD were officially reported to have come down; 14 persons, chiefly children, having
been crushed to death under the ruins.

156 THE SETH'S TEEPLE OF DWXRAKXDHIS.

Penny took us into the court of a beautiful temple or dwell'ng-house, for it
seemed to be designed for both in one, lately built and not yet quite finished,
by Gokul Pati Sinh, Sindhia's treasurer, and who has also a principal share in
a great native banking-house, one branch of which is fixed at Mathura. The
building is enclosed by a small but richly carved gateway with a flight of steps
which leads from the street to a square court, cloistered round, and containing
in the centre a building, also square, supported by a triple row of pillars, all
which, as well as the ceiling, are richly carved, painted, and gilt. The effect
internally is much like that of the Egyptian tomb, of which the model was
exhibited in London by Belzoni ; externally, the carving is very beautiful. The
cloisters round were represented to me as the intended habitations of the Brah-
mans attached to the fane ; and in front, towards the street, were to be apart-
ments for the founder on his occasional visits to Mathura." To show how differ-
ently the same building sometimes impresses different people, it may be men-
tioned that Jaequemont, only four years later, describes the temple as like no-
thing but a barrack or cotton factory : but possibly he may have seen it soon
after the festival of the Diwali, when, according to barbarous Hindu custom,
the whole of the stone front is beautified with a thick coat of whitewash. This
gentleman's architectural ideas were, however, a little peculiar. Thus he says,
of the Jama Masjid at Agra, that the bad taste of the design and the coarseness
of the materials are good reason for leaving it to the ravages of time ; that the
tomb of Itimad-ud-daula is in the most execrable taste ; that the Taj, though
pretty, cannot be called elegant ; and that the only building in Agra which is
really a pure specimen of oriental architecture is the tomb of Colonel Hessing
in the Catholic cemetery, the work of ' a poor devil' called Latif. His theolo-
gical views would seem to have been equally warped, for in another place he
thus expresses himself.- — " Of all the follies and misfortunes of humanity, reli-
gion is the one which is the most wearisome and the least profitable to study."'

The Dwarakadhis temple has always been in the hands of the Vallabha-
eharyas, the sect to which the founder belonged. It is now administered by
the Grosain who is the hereditary lord of the much older and yet wealthier shrine
with the same name at Kankarauli in Udaypur (see page 130). Hitherto the
expenses of the Mathura establishments have been defrayed by annual grants
from the Seth's estate; but the firm has lately made an absolute transfer to the
Gosain of landed property yielding an income of Rs. 2-5,000 ; thus religiously
carrying out the intention of their ancestor, though in so doing they further the
interests of a sect not a little antagonistic to the one of which they themselves
are members.

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THE HOLI GATE. 157

On the opposite side of the street is the palace of the princes of Bharat-pur.
The lofty and highly enriched entrance gateway was added by Raja Ralavant
Sinh, and the magnificent brass doors by the present Raja. Close by is the
mansion of Seth Lakhmi Chand, built at a cost of Rs. 1,00,000. The latest of
the architectural works with which the city is decorated, and one of the most
admirable for elegance and elaboration, is a temple near the Chhata Bazar built
by Deva Chand Bohra, and completed only at the end of the year 1871. What-
ever other buildings there are of any note will be found enumerated in the list
at the end of the next chapter. In most cases the greatest amount of finish has
been bestowed upon the street front, while the interior court is small and con-
fined ; and the practice of having only a single gate both for entrance and exit
occasions great, and sometimes dangerous, crowding on high feast days. It is,
as before remarked, a peculiarity of the Mathura temple architecture to have no
tower over the seat of the god.

If the new city was ever surrounded by walls, not a vestige of them now
remains, though the four principal entrances are still called the Brinda-ban, Dig,
Bharat-pur, and Holi gates. The last-named is the approach from the Civil
Station, and here a lofty and elaborately sculptured stone arch has been erected
over the roadway, in accordance with an elegant design in the local style, sup-
plied by Yusuf, the municipal architect, a man of very excepiional tasto and
ability. As the work was commenced at the instance of the late Mr. Bradford
Hardinge, who was for several years Collector of the district, and took a most
lively interest in all the city improvements, it is named in his honour* ' tho
Hardinge arch," though it is not very often so called. Since his death, it has been
surmounted by a cupola, which was intended at some future time to receive a
clock, with four corner kiosquas, the cost of these additions being Rs. 3,493.
Two shops in uniform style were also built in 1875, one on either side, at a
further cost of Rs. 1,<521, in order to receive and conceal the ponderous staged
buttresses, which the engineers in the Public Works Department had thought it
necessary to add. The expenditure on the gate itself was Rs. 8,617, making
a total of Rs. 13,731.

As may be inferred from the above remarks stone-carving, the only indi-
genous art of which Mathura can boast, is carried to great perfection. All the
temples afford specimens of elegant design in panels of reticulated tracery
[j'ili), as also do the chhatris of the Seth's family in the Jamuna bagh. The

* The littic marble tablet, on which the name has been inscribed iu the straightest and most
uncompromising Kom n capitals, is a conspicuous disfignrement and looks exactly like an auction
ticket. The Engineer who inserted it cannot have had much of an eye for harmony oi effect.

158 LOCAL MANUFACTURES.

only other specialities are of very minor importance. One is the manufac-
ture of little brass images, which, though of exceedingly coarse execution, com-
mand a large sale among pilgrims and visitors, especially the religious toy
called Vasudeva Katora (described at page 54); the other the manufacture
of paper. This is made in three sizes. The smallest, which is chiefly in demand,
is called Man-Sinhi and varies in price, according to quality, from Rs. 1-8 to
Rs. 2-6 a fjaddi or bundle ; the medium size, called Bichanda, sells for Rs. 4 a
g-addi ; and the larger size, called Syalkoti, for Rs. 10. The factories are some
100 in number and can turn out in the course of the day -150 gaddis, every
ftaddi containing 10 dastas of 24 takhtas, or sheets, each. There is also a
kind of string made which is much appreciated by natives. It is chiefly used
for lowering lotas, the ordinary brass drinking cups of the country, into wells
to draw water with. The price is about three or four anas for 40 yards. A
coloured variety is made for temple use.

CHAPTER VII.

The City of Mathura' {concluded) : its European institutions and

MUSEUM.

A light railway, on the metre gauge, 29i miles in length, which was opened
for traffic on the 19th of October, 1875, now connects the city with thi
East India Line, which it joins at the Hathras Road station., The cost was
Rs. 9,55,868, being about Rs. 30,000 a mile, including rolling stock and every-
thing else. Of this amount Rs. 3,24,100 were contributed by local shareholders,
and the balance, Rs. 6,31,763, came from Provincial Funds. Interest is
guaranteed at the rate of 4 per cent, per annum, with a moiety of the surplus
earnings that may at any time be realized. The line has proved an unques-
tionable success and its yearly earnings continue to show a steady increase. But
the principal shareholders — including the Seth, who invested as much as a lakh
and-a-half in it — were certainly not attracted by the largeness of the pecuniary
profit ; for 12 per cent, is the lowest return which Indian capitalists ordina-
rily receive for their money. They were entirely influenced by a highly com-
mendable public spirit and a desire to support the local European authorities,
who had shown themselves personally interested in the matter.* The ultimate
success of the line has now been secured by its junction with the Rajputana
State Railway. The distance being only some 25 miles, the earthwork was car-
ried out during the late famine, and the scheme is now completed but for the
bridge over the Jamuna. In the design that has been supplied there are 12
spans of 98 feet each, with passage both for road and railway traffic and two
foot-paths, at an estimated cost of Rs. 3,00,000. As the receipts from tolls
on the existing pontoon bridge are about Rs. 45,000 per annum, even a larger
expenditure might safely be incurred. Cross sections of the river have been
obtained, and a series of borings taken, which show a flood channel of 1,000
feet and clay foundations underlying the sand at 33 feet. The site is in every
way well suited for the purpose and presents no special engineering difficulties ;
but the construction of so large a bridge must necessarily be a work of time, and
before it is completed it is probable that the line will have been extended from
its other end, the Hathras terminus, to Farukhabad and so on to Cawnpur, the

* Next to the Seth — longo intervallo — the largest number of shares were taken up by my-
self; for at that time I never expected to be moved from the district.

160 THE MATHURA' municipality.

groat centre of the commerce of Upper India. As yet, the line labours under very
serious disadvantages from being so very short and from the necessity of
breaking bulk at the little wayside station of Mendu, the Hathras Road junc-
tion. Consequently, traders who have goods to despatch to Hathras find it
cheaper and more expeditious to send them all the way by road, rather than
to hire carts to take them over the pontoon bridge and then unlade them at
the station and wait hours, or it may be days, before a truck is available to
carry them on. Thus the goods traffic is very small, and it is only the passen-
gers who make the line pay. These are mostly pilgrims, who rather prefer to
loiter on the way and do not object to spending two hours and fifty minutes
in travelling a distance of 21)^ miles. As the train runs along the side of the
road, there are daily opportunities for challenging it to a race, and it must be
a very indifferent country pony which does not succeed in beatino- it.

The Municipality has a population of 55,7u'3, of whom 10,00(> are Muham-
madans. The annual income is a little under Rs. 00,000 ; derived, in the absence
of any special trade, almost exclusively from an octroi tax on articles of food
the consumption of which is naturally very large and out of all proportion to the
resident population, in consequence of the frequent influx of huge troops of pil-
grims. The celebrity among natives of the Mathura peri, a particular kind of
sweetment, also contributes to the same result. Besides the permanent main-
tenance of a large police and conservancy establishment, the entire cost of pav-
ing the city streets has been defrayed out of municipal funds, and a fixed pro-
portion is anually allotted for the support of different educational establish-
ments.

The High School, a large hall in a very un-Oriental style of architecture.
was opened by Sir William Muir on the 21st January, 1870. It was
erected at a cost of Hs. 13,000, of which sum Rs. 2,000 were collected by
voluntary subscription, Rs. 3,000 were voted by the municipality, and the
balence of Rs. 8,000 granted by Government.* The City Dispensary, imme-
diately opposite the Kans-ka-tila and adjoining the Munsif's Court, has
accommodation for 20 in-door patients ; there is an ordinary attendance per

* The School, Court-house, and Trotestant Church are — fortunately, as I think — the only local
buildings of any importance, in the construction of which the Public Works Department has bad
any hand. I have never been able to understand why a large and costly staff of European en<*i-
mcrs should be kept up at all, except for Bueh Imperial undertakings as Railways, Military Roads
air I Canals. The finest buildings in the country date from before our arrival in it, and the descend-
ants of the men who designed and executed them are still employed by the natives themselves for
their temples, tanks, palaces, and mosques. If the Government utilized the same agency, there
would be a great saving in cost and an equal gain in artistic result.

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THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 101

diem of 50 applicants for out-door relief, and it is in every respect a well -mana-
ged and useful institution.

The Cantonments, which are of considerable extent, occupy some broken and
undulating ground along the river-side between the city and the civil lines.
In consequence of the facilities for obtaining an abundant supply of grass in the
neighbourhood, they are always occupied by an English cavalry regiment. The
barracks are very widely scattered, an arrangement which doubtless is attended
with some inconveniences, but is apparently conducive to the health of the troops,
for there is no station in India where there is less sickness* — a happy result, which
is also due in part to the dryness of the climate during the greater part of the
year and the excellence of the natural drainage in the rains.

The English Church, consecrated by Bishop Dealtry in December, 1856, is
in a nondescript style of architecture, but has a not inelegant Italian campanile,
which is visible from a long distance. The interior has been lately enriched by
a stained-glass window in memory of a young officer of the 10th Hussars, who
met his death by an accideut while out pig-sticking near Shergarh.

The adjoining compound was for many years occupied by a miserably
mean and dilapidated shed, which was most appropriately dedicated to
St. Francis, the Apostle of Poverty, and served as a Catholic Chapel. This was
taken down in January, 1874, and on the 18th of the same month, being the
feast of the Holy Name, the first stone was laid of the new building, which bears
the title of the Sacred Heart. The ground-plan and general proportions arc in
accordance with ordinary Gothic precedent, but all the sculptured details,
whether in wood or stone, are purely Oriental iu design. The carving in the
tympanum of the three doorways, the tracery in the windows, both of the aisles
and the clerestory, and the highly decorated altar iu the Lady Chapel, may all
be noted as favourable specimens of native art. The dome which surmounts
the choir is the only feature which I hesitate to pronounce a success, as seen
from the outside ; its interior effect is very good. I originally intended it to
be a copy of a Hindu sikhara, such as that of the temple of Madan Mohan at
Briudaban ; but fearing that this might prove an offence to clerical prejudices,
I eventually altered it into a dome of the Russian type, which also is distinctly
of Eastern origin and therefore so far in keeping with the rest of the building.
As every compromise must, it fails of being entirely satisfactory.

The eastern half of the Church, consisting of the apse, choir, and two
transepts, was roofed in and roughly fitted up for the celebration of Mass by

* Occasional}'/ it has so happened that erery single ward in the hospital has been empty.

162 OPENING OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.

All Saints' Day, 1874, only nine months after the work had been commenced.
The nave and aisles were then taken in hand, and on the recurrence of the
same feast, two years later, in 1876, the entire edifice was solemnly blessed by
the Bishop of Agra. On that occasion the interior presented a very striking
appearance, the floor being spread with handsome Persian carpets, and a profu-
sion of large crystal chandeliers suspended in all the inter-columniations ; while
the Bishop's throne of white marble was surmounted by a canopy of silk and
cloth of gold ; magnificent baldaciiinos, also of gold embroidery, were suspend-
ed above the three altars, and the entire sanctuary was draped from top to bot-
tom with costly Indian tapestry. These beautiful accessories, several thousands
of rupees in value, were kindly lent by the Seths, the Raja of Hathras and
other leading members of the Hindu community, many of whom had also assist-
ed with handsome pecuniary donations. As a further indication of their liberal
sentiments, they themselves attended the function in the evening — the first
public act of Christian worship at which the)r had ever been present — and ex-
pressed themselves as being much impressed by the elaborate ceremonial and the
Gregorian tones, which latter they identified with their own immemorial Vedic
chants. In consequence of my transfer from the district, the building, though
complete in essentials, will ever remain architecturally unfinished. The west-
ern facade is flanked by two stone stair-turrets (one built at the cost of Lala
Syam Sundar Das) which have only been brought up to the level of the aisle
roof, though it was intended to raise them much higher and put bells in them.
There were also to have been four kiosques at the corners of the dome, for the
reception of statues, but two only have been executed ; the roof of the transepts
was to have been raised to a level with that of the nave, and the plain parapet
of the aisles would have been replaced by one of carved stone. The High Altar,
moreover, is only a temporary erection of brick and plaster. I was at work up-
on the Tabernacle for it, when I received Sir George Couper's orders to go ; and
naturally enough they were a great blow to me. The total cost had been
lbs. 18,100.

In the civil station most of the houses are large and commodious and, being
the property of the Seth, the most liberal of landlords, are never allowed to
offend the eye by falling out of repair. One built immediately after the mutiny
for the use of the Collector of the district is an exceptionally handsome and sub-
stantial edifice. The Court-house, as already mentioned on page 106, was com-
pleted in the year 1861, and has a long and rather imposing facade; but though
it stands at a distance of not more than 100 yards from the high road, the
ground in front of it has been so carelessly planted that a person, who had no

THE MUSEUM

COMMENCEMENT OF THE MUSEUM. 163

professional business to take him there, might live within a stone's throw for
years and never be aware of its existence. In immediate proximity are the offi-
ces of the Tahsildar, a singularly mean and insignificant range of buildings, as
if purposely made so to serve for a fcil to another building which stands in
.•aine enclosure.

This is now used, or (as perhaps it would be more correct to say) at the
time of my leaving the district was intended to be used, as a Museum. It was
commenced by Mr. Thornhill, the Magistrate and Collector of the district, who
raised the money for the purpose by public subscription, intending to make of
it a rest-house for the reception of native gentlemen of rank, whenever they had
occasion to visit head-quarters. Though close to the Courts, which would be a
convenience, it is too far from the bazar to suit native tastes, and even if it had
been completed according to the original design, it is not probable that it would
ever have been occupied. After an expenditure of lis. 30,000, the work wa
interrupted by the mutiny. When order had been restored, the new Collector,
Mr. Best, with a perversity by no means uncommon in the records of Indian
local administration, set himself at once, not to complete, but to mutilate, his
predecessor's handiwork. It was intended that the building should stand in ex-
tensive grounds of its own, where it would certainly have had a very pleasing
architectural effect ; but instead of this the high road was brought immediately
in front of it, so as to cut it off entirely from the new public garden ; the offices
of the Tahsildar were built on one side, and on the other was run up, at a most
awkward angle, a high masonry wall ; a rough thatched roof was thrown over
its centre court ; doorways were introduced in different places where they were
not wanted and only served as disfigurements, and the unfortunate building
was then nick-named " Thornhill's Folly" and abandoned to utter neglect.

It remained thus till 1874, when the idea of converting it into a Museum
received the support of Sir John Strachey, who sanctioned from provincial
funds a grant-in-aid of lis. 3,500. The first step taken was to raise the centre
court by the addition of a clerestory, with windows of reticulated stone tracery,
and to cover it with a stone vault, in which (so far as constructional peculiari-
ties are concerned) I reproduced the roof of the now ruined temple of Harideva,
at Gobardhan. The cost amounted to Its. 5,336. A porch was afterwards
added at a further outlay of Rs. 8,494 ; but for this I am not responsible. It is
a beautiful design, well executed, and so far it reflects great credit on Yusuf,
the Municipal architect ; but it is too delicate for an exterior facade on the side
of a dusty road. Something plainer would have answered the purpose as well,
besides having a more harmonious effect. After my transfer, operations at once

164 ITS ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER.

came to a stand-still and the valuable collection of antiquities I had left behind
me remained utterly uncared for, till I took upon myself to represent the
matter to the local Government. I was thereupon allowed to submit plans and
estimates for the completion of the lower story by filling in the doors and win-
dows, without which the building could not possibly be used, and my proposals
were sanctioned. When I last visited Mathura, the work had made good
progress, and I believe has now been finished for some time ; but many of
the most interesting sculptures are still lying about in the compound of my old
bungalow.

Though the cost of the building has been so very considerable, nearly
Es. 44,000, it is only of small dimensions ; but the whole wall surface in the
central court is a mass of geometric and flowered decorations of the most artis-
tic character. The bands of natural foliage — a feature introduced by Mr. Thorn-
hill's own fancy — are very boldly cut and in thernselvei decidedly handsome
but they are not altogether in accord with the conventional designs of native
style by which they are surrounded.

The following inscription is worked into the cornice of the central hall : —

l)l!j«a*«ijj i_5atJ;}>'*;5' <*^* (J^^* ^fr- * u:^*,*'5 ; *>s~«»j ^&* ■=£*"] ^>\ (J'****] li33^
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,»*«•** I A 0 1 i^w JUas IMC ii-

" The State having thought good to promote the ease of its subjects, gave
intimation to the Magistrate and Collector, ; who then, by the co-operation of
the chief men of Mathura, had this house for travellers built with the choicest
carved work.* Its doors and walls are polished like a mirror ; in its sculpture
every kind of flower-bed appears in view ; its width and height were assigned
in harmonious proportion ; from top to bottom it is well shaped and well
balanced. It may very properly be compared to the dome of Afrasyab, or it may

* Upon the word munubbat, which is used here to denote arabesque carving, the late Mr.
Blocumunn communicated the following note:— "The Arabic nabata means 'to plant,' and the
intensive form of the verb has either the same signification or that of 'causing to appear like
plants' : hence munabbat comes to mean ' traced with flowers,' and may be compared with mus-
hajjar, ' caused to appear like trees,' which is the word applied to silk with tree-patterns on
ii," like the more common ' biita-ddr.'

ORDINARY FATE OF ANCIENT INSCRIPTIONS. 105

justly bo styled the palace of an emperor. One who saw its magnificence
(or the poet Shaukat on seeing it) composed this tarikh, so elegant a rest-houso
makes even the flower garden envious. "

As the building afforded such very scant accommodation, I proposed to
make it not a general, but simply an architectural and antiquarian museum,
arranging in it, in chronological series, specimens of all the different styles that
have prevailed in the neighbourhood from the reign of the Indo-Scythian K.i-
nishka, in the century immediately before Christ, down to the Victorian period
which would be illustrated in perfection by the building itself.

It cannot be denied that it is high time for some such institution to bo
established ; for in an ancient city like Mathura interesting relics of tho past,
even when no definite search is being made for them, are constantly cropping
up ; and unless there is some easily accessible place to which they can be con-
signed for custody, they run an imminent risk of being no sooner found than
destroyed. Inscriptions in particular, despite their exceptional value in the
eyes of the antiquary, are more likely to perish than anything else, since they
have no beauty to recommend them to the ordinary observer. Tims, us already
mentioned, a pillar, the whole surface of which is said to have been covered
with writing, was found in 18(!0 in making a road on the site of the old city
wall. There was no one on the spot at the time who took any interest in such
matters, and the thrifty engineer, thinking such a fine large block of stone ought
not to be wasted, had it neatly squared and made into a buttress for a bridge.
Another inscribed fragment, which had formed the base of a large seated statue,
had been set up by a subordinate in the Public "Works Department to protect a
culvert on the high road through cantonments, from which position I rescued it.
It bears the words Ma/idrajasya Deva-putrasya Humshkasya rdjya sam. 50
lie 3 di 2, and is of value as an unquestionably early example of the same
symbol, which in tho inscription of doubtful age given at page 138 is
explained in words as denoting ' fifty.' A third illustration of official indiffer-
ence to archaeological interests, though here the culprit was not an engineer,
but the Collector himself, is afforded by the base of a pillar, which, after it
had been accidentally dug up, was plastered and whitewashed and imbedded
in one of the side pillars of the Tahsili gateway, where I re-discovered it,
when the gateway was pulled down to improve the approach. The words are
cut in bold clear letters, which for the most part admit of being deciphered with
certainty, as follows: Ayam kumbliaka ddnam bhikshunam Survyasya Buddha-

mkshitasya clia prakitakdnam. Anantyam(!) deya dharmma pa nam.

Sarvasa prakitakdnam arya dakshitaye bhavatu. The purport of this would be:

166 the pa'li-khera sculpture.

" This base is the gift of the mendicants Surya and Buddha-rakshita, pra7iita-
kas. A religious donation in perpetuity. May it be in every way a blessing to
the prahitakas." A question has been raised by Professor Kern, with reference
to another inscription, in which also a bhikshu was mentioned as a donor, on
the score that a mendicant was a very unlikely person to contribute towards
the expenses of any building, since, as he says, ' monks have nothing to give
awav, all to receive.' But in this particular instance the reading and meaning
are both unmistakeably clear, nor is the fact really at all inconsistent with
Hindu usage. In this very district I can point to two large masonry tanks,
costing each some thousands of rupees, which have been constructed by men-
dicants, bairagis, .nit (if alms that they had in a long course of years begged for
the purpose. The word prahitaka, if I am right in so reading it, is of doubtful
signification. It might mean either ' messenger' or ' committee-man ;' a com-
missioner or a commissionaire.

The other inscriptions have for the most part been already noticed in the
preceding chapters, when describing the places where they were found.

As a work of art, the most pleasing specimen of sculpture is the Yasa-ditta
statue of Buddha, noticed at page 115 ; but archteologically the most curious
object in the collection is certainly the large carved block which I discovered at
Palikhera in the cold weather of 1873-74. On one side is represented a group
of six persons, the principal figure being a man of much abdominal development,
who is seated in complete nudity on a rock, or low stool, with a large cup in
in his hand. At his knee is a little child ; two attendants stand at the back ; and
in the front two women are seen approaching, of whom the foremost bears a
cup and the second a bunch of grapes. Their dress is a long skirt with a
shorter jacket over it ; shoes on the feet and a turban on the head. The two
cups are curiously made ; the lower end of the curved handle being attached
to the bottom of the stem instead of the bowl. On the opposite side of the
block the same male figure is seen in a state of helpless intoxication, supported
on his seat from behind by two attendants, the one male, the other female.
By his right knee stands the child as before, and opposite him to the left was
apparently another boy, of somewhat larger growth, but this figure has been
much mutilated. The male attendant wears a mantle, fastened at the neck by
a fibula and hanging from the shoulder in vandyked folds, which are ven
suggestive of late Greek design.

The stone on which these two groupsare carved measures three feet ten inches

in height, three feet in breadth and one loot lour inches in thickness, and the top

INTENTION OF THE SCt'LPTURE. 167

has been scooped out so as to form as it were a shallow circular basin. A block, of
precisely the same dimensions ami carved with two similar groups, was discovered
somewhere near Mathura, the precise locality not having been placed on record,
by Colonel Stacy in the year L836, who deposited it in the < lalcutta museum, where
it still is. His idea was that the principal figure represented Silenus, that the
sculptors were Bactrian Greeks, and that their work was meant to be a tazza, or
rather a pedestal for the support of a tazza or large sacrificial vase. These
opinions were endorsed by James Prinsep, and have prevailed to the present
day. I believe them however to be erroneous, though not unnaturally suggest-
ed by a general resemblance to some such a picture as is given in Woolner's
Pygmalion of —

" Weak-kneed Si'e iub puffin?, on both sides
Uph lil by grinning slaves, who plied the cup
Wherein two nymphs squeezed juice of dusky grapes."

Of the two groups on the Stacy stone one represents the drunkard after he
has drained the cup, and is almost identical with that above described. The
other exhibits an entirely different scene in the story, though some of the
characters appear to be the same. There are four figures— two male and two
female — standing under the'shade of a tree with long clusters of drooping flow-
ers. The first figure to the right is a female dressed in a long skirt and upper
jacket, with a narrow scarf thrown over her arms. Her right hand is grasped
by her male companion, who has his left arm round her neck. He is entirely
naked, save for a very short pair of drawers barely reaching to the middle of
the thigh, and a shawl which may be supposed to hang loosely at his back, but
in front shows only the ends tied loosely in a knot under his chin. Behind him
and with her back to his back is another female dressed as the first, but with
elaborate bangles covering nearly half the fore-arm. Her male companion
seems to be turning away as if on the point of taking his leave. He wears light
drawers reaching to the ankles and a thin muslin tunic, fitting close to the body
and terminating a little below the knees. On the ground at the feet of each of
the male figures is a covered cup.

As to the names of the personages concerned and the particular story which
the sculptor intended to represent, I am not able to offer any suggestion. Pro-
bably, when Buddhist literature has been more largely studied, the legend thus
illustrated will be brought to light. The general purport of the three scenes
appear to me unmistakeable. In the first the two male conspirators are per-
suading their female companions to take part in the plot, the nature of the plot
being indicated by the two cups at their feet. In the second the venerable

Il58 NATIONALITY OF THE SCULPTORS.

ascetic has been seduced by their wiles into tasting the dangerous draught; one
of the two cups is in his hand, the other is ready to follow. In the third one,
of which there are two representations, the cups have been quaffed, and he is
reeling from their effects.

Obviously all this has nothing to do with Silenus ; the discovery of the
second block, which supplies the missing scene in the drama, makes it quite
clear that some entirely different personage is intended. The tazza theory may
also be dismissed ; for the shallow bason at the top of the stone seems to be
nothing more than the bed for the reception of a round pillar. A sacrificial
vase was a not uncommon offering among the Greeks ; and if the carving had
been shown to represent a Greek legend, there would have been no great
improbability in supposing that the work had been executed for a foreigner
who employed it in accordance with his own national usage. But in dedicat-
ing a cup to one of his own divinities, he would not decorate it with scenes from
Hindu mythology ; while, on the other hand, the offering of a cup of such
dimensions to any monastery or shrine on the part of a Buddhist is both
unprecedented and intrinsically improbable.

Finally, as to the nationality of the artist. The foliage, it must be ob-
served, is identical in character with what is seen on many Buddhist pillars found
in the immediate neighbourhood and generally in connection with figures of Maya
Devi ; whence it may be presumed that it is intended to represent the sal tree,
under which Buddha was born, though it is by no means a correct representa-
tion of that tree. The other minor accessories are also, with one exception, either
clearly Indian, or at least not strikingly un-Indian : such as the earrings and
bangles worn by the female figures and the feet either bare or certainly not shod
with sandals : the one exception being the mantle of the male attendant in
the drunken scene. Considering the local character of all the other accessories, I
find it impossible to agree with General Cunningham in ascribing the work to a
foreign artist, " one of a small body of Bactrian sculptors, wdio found employ-
ment among the wealthy Buddhists at Mathura, as in later days Europeans were
employed under the Mughal emperors. " The thoroughly Indian character of
the details seems to me, as to Br. Mitra, decisive proof that the sculptor was a
native of the country ; nor do I think it very strange that he should represent
one of the less important characters as clothed in a modified Greek costume, since
it is an established historical fact that Mathura was included in the Bactrian
Empire, and the Greek style of dress cannot have been altogether unfamiliar to
him. The artificial folds of the drapery were probably borrowed from what he
saw.on coins.

1. BACCHANAL AN SCULPTURE FROM PALI-KHERA

2. BACCHANALIAN SCULPTURE FROM PALI-KHERA.

OTHER BACCHANALIAN BOTJLPT1 I IGtJ

Ih th'e Hindu Pantheon tlie only personage said to have been of wine-bib-
Biiig propensities is Balar&ma himself, one of the tutelary divinities of Ma-
th ura ; and it is probably he who was intended to be represented by a second
Bacchanalian figure included in the museum, collection. This is a mutilated
statue brought from the village of Kukargama, in the Sa'dabad pargana.* He
stands under the conventional canopy of serpents' heads, with a garland of
wild-flowers (ban-main) thrown across his body ; his right hand is raised above
his head in wild gesticulation and in his left hand he holds a cup very similar
to the one shown in the Pali-khera sculpture. His head-dress closely resem-
bles Krishna's distinctive' ornament, the mukut ; but it may be only the spiral
coil of hair observable in the Sanchi and Amaravati sculptures. In any case,
the inference must not be presed too far ; for, first, the hooded snake is as con-
stant an accompaniment of Sakya Muni as of Balarama ; and secondly, a third
sculpture of an equally Bacchanalian character is unmistakeably Buddhist.
This is a rudely executed figure of a fat little fellow, who has both his hands
raised above his hand, and holds in one a cup, in the other a bunch of graj
The head with its close curling hair leaves no doubt that Buddha is the person
intended ; though possibly in the days of his youth, when " ho dwelt still in his
palace and indulged himself in all carnal pleasures."' Or it might be a cari-
cature of Buddhism as regarded from the point of view of a Brahmanical
iscetic.

*At Kukargama is an ancient shrine of Kukar Devi, where a incla is held on the festival
of the Phul-dol, Chait badi 7. Though in a dilapidated condition, the building is quite a modern
cue, a small dome supported on plain brick arches; but on the floor, which is raised several feet
above the level of the ground, is a plinth, 4 feet 8 inches square, formed of massive blocks of a
hard and closely grained grey stone. The mouldings are bold and simple, like what may be seen
in the oldest Kashmir temples. One side of the plinth is imperfect an 1 the stone has also been
removed from the centre, leaving a circular hollow, which the villagers think was a well. But
more probably the shrine was originally one of Mahadeva, an 1 this was the bed in which a
round lingam had been set. In a corner of the building were two mutilated sculptures of similar
design, and it was the more perfect of these two that I removed to Mathura. A sketch of it
may be seen in Volume XLIV. of the Journal of the Calcutta Asiatic Society's Journal for ISTo.
A few paces from the shrine is a small brick platform, level with the grouud, which is said
to cover the grave of the dog (Kuhura) from whom the village is suppose 1 to derive its name :
and pc-r-ons bitten by a dog are brought here to be cured. The adjoining pond called Kurha (for
Kuhum-ha) is said to have been constructed by a Banjara. Very large bricks are occasionally
dug up out of it, as also from the village Khera ; one measured 1 foot 5 inches in length by 10
inches in breadth and :s in thickness, another 1 font 7 inc'ies x 9 inches x 2\ inches. It is of
interest to observe that on the west coast of the Gulf of Cambay, 20 miles south of Bhaonagar,-
is another place now called Kukar, the ancient name of which, as appears from an inscription
found there, was. Kokata; but the derivation is uncertain. The old Jit zaminiars are Gahlot,
or Sisodiya, Thakurs from Sahpau.

170 CORRUPTION OF BUDDHISM.

However, Buddhism itself, thoagh originally a system of abstractions
and negations, was not long before it assumed a concrete development.
In one of its schools, which from the indecency of many of the figures
that have been discovered would seem to have been very popular at Ma-
thura, debauchery of the most degrading description was positively inculcat-
ed as the surest means for attaining perfection. The authority for theso
abominable doctrines, which, in the absence of literary proof might have
been considered an impossible outcome of such teaching as that of Sakya
Muni, is a Sanskrit composition called Tathdgata Guhjnka, or Guhya sama.'
gha, 'the collection of secrets,' of which the first published notice is thai
given by Dr. Rajendra Lala Mittra in the introduction to his edition of
the Lalita Vistara. He describes it as having all the characteristics of the
worst specimens of the Hindu Tantras. The professed object, in either case,
is devotion of the highest kind — absolute and unconditional — at the sacrifice
of all worldly attachments, wishes, and aspirations ; but in working it out
theories are indulged in and practices enjoined, which are at once the most
revolting and horrible that human depravity could imagine. A shroud of
mystery alone seems to prevent their true character from being seen ; but
divested of it, works of this description would deserve to be burnt by the com-
mon hangman. Looking at them philosophically, the great wonder is that a
system of religion, so pure and so lofty in its aspirations as Buddhism, could
lie made to ally itself with such pestilent dogmas and practices. Perfection is
described as attainable not by austerity, privations and painful rigorous obser-
vances, but by the enjoyment of all the pleasures of the world, some of which
are described with a minuteness of detail which is simply revolting. The
figures of nude dancing-girls in lascivious attitudes with other obscene repre-
sentations, that occur on many of the Buddhist pillars in the museum, are
clear indications of the popularity which this corrupt system had acquired in
the neighbourhood. The two figures of female monsters, each with a child in
its lap, which it is preparing to tear in pieces ami devour, are in all probabi-
lity to be referred to the same school : though they appear also in the Hindu
Tantras and under the same name, that of Dakini. In the oldest sculptures the
figures are all decently draped, and it has been the custom to regard them
only as Buddhist, and all the nude or otherwise objectionable representations
as Jaini. But this is an error arising out of the popular Hindu prejudice
against what they call in reproach ' the worship of the naked gods.' The on,
cry is simply an interested one and has no foundation in fact : for though
many Hindu temples, especially in Bengal, are disfigured by horrible obscenities,

EARLIER STYLES OP ARCHITECTURE. 171

I know of no Jaini templo in which there is anything to shock the most
sensitive delicacy ; while the length to which some of the recognized followers
of Buddha could go in the deification of lust has been sufficiently shown by
Dr. Mitra's description of the Guhya samagha. And this, it should be added,
though hitherto almost unknown to European students, is no obscure treatise,
but is one of the nine most important works to which divine worship is con-
stantly offered by the Buddhists of Nepal.

Of the different styles of architecture that have prevailed in the district, the
memory of the earliest, the Indo-Greek, is preserved by a single small fragment,
found in the Ambarisha hill, where a niche is supported by columns with Ionic
capitals.' Of the succeeding style, the Indo-Scythian, there are a few actual
architectural remains and a considerable number of sculptured representa-
tions. No complete column has been recovered ; but the plain square bases,
cut into four Mops, found at the Chauwara mounds, belong to this period, as
also the bell-shaped capital, surmounted by an inscribed abacus with an ele-
phant standing upon it, brought from a garden near the Kankali tila. It is
dated the year 39, in the reign of Huvishka. In the sculptures, where an
arcade is shown, the abacus usually supports a pair of winged linns, crouch-
ing back to back ; but in a fragment from the Kankali tila, where the column i.s
meant for an isolated one, it. bears an elephant. In this last example the
shaft appears to be round, but it is more commonly shown as octagonal. The
round bases, of which such a large number were unearthed from the Jamalpur
mounds, many of them inscribed with the names of the donors, would seem
to have been used for the support of statues. The name by which they are
designated in the inscriptions is Kumbhaka. The miniature pediments, carved
as a diaper or wall decoration, show that the temple fronts presented the same
appearance as in the Nasik caves. This was peculiarly the Buddhist style and
died with the religion to whose service it had been dedicated. After it came
the mediaeval Brahmanic style, which was prevalent all over Upper India in
the time of Prithi Raj and the Muhamnradan conquest. In this the bell-
shaped capital appears as a vase with masses of dependent foliage at its four
corners. These have not only a very graceful effect, but are also of much
constructional significance, since they counteract the weakness which would
otherwise have resulted from the attenuation of the vase at its base and neck.
The shaft itself frequently springs from a similar vase set upon a moulded
base. In early examples, as in a pair of columns from the Kankali tila and
a fragment from Shergarh, the shaft has a central band of drooping lily-like
flowers, with festoons dependent from them. Later on, instead of the band

172 THE BOIiECTIC STYLE OF THE lC'I'H • CEKTCJHTv

a frrotesque face is introduced, with the moustaches prolonged into fanciful
arabesque continuations, and strings of pearls substituted for the festoons,
or a knotted scarf is grasped in the teeth and bangs half down to the base with
a bell attached to its end. < tecasionally the entire shaft or some one of its faces
is enriched with bands of foliage. Probably for the sake of securing greater
height, a second capital was added at the top, either in plain cushion shape,
or carved into the semblance of two squat monsters supporting the architrave
on their head and upraised hands. For still loftier buildings it was the prac-
tice to set two columns of similar character one on the other, crowning the
uppermost with the detached capital as above described ; and afterwards it
became the fashion to make even short columns with a notch in the middle, so
as to give them the appearance of being in two pieces. Examples of this
peculiarity may be seen in the Chhatthi Palna at Maha-ban and the Dargah
at Noh-jhil. The custom, which prevailed to a very late period, of varying
the shape of a shaft by making it square at bottom, then an octagon, and then
polygonal, is probably of different origin and was only a device for securing
an appearance of lightness.

From about the year 1200 A.D. the architectural history of Mathura is an
absolute blank till the middle of the 16th century, when, under the beneficent
sway of the Emperor Akbar, the eclectic style, so characteristic of his own
religious views, produced the magnificent series of temples, which even in their
ruin arc still to be admired at Brinda-ban. The temple of Radha Ballabh, in that
town, built in the next reign, that of Jahangir, is the last example of the style.
Its characteristic note can scarcely be defined as the fusion, but rather as the
parallel exhibition of the Hindu and Muhammadan method. Thus in a facade
one story, or one compartment, shows a succession of multifoil saracenic arches,
while above and below, or on either side, every opening is square-headed with
the architrave supported on projecting brackets. The one is purely Muham-
madan, the other is as distinctly Hindu ; yet, without any attempt made to
disguise the fact beyond the judicious avoidance of all exaggerated peculiarities
in either style, the juxta position of the two causes no sentiment of incongruity.
If in any art it were possible to revive the dead, or if it were in human nature
ever to return absolutely upon the past, this style would seem to be the one for
our architects to copy. But simple retrogression is impossible. Every period
has an environment of its own, which, however studiously ignored in artificial
imitations, must have its effect in any spontaneous development of the artistic
faculty. The principle, however, is as applicable as ever, though it will deal with
altered materials and be manifested in novel phenomena. Indian architecture, as

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THE JXT STYLE OF AliCniTECTUKZ. 173

now in vogue at Mathura, is the result of Muhammadan influences working upon
a Hindu basis. The extraordinary power that resulted from the first introduc-
tion of the new element is all but exhausted ; the system requires once more to
be invigorated from without. A single touch of genius might restore it to more
than all its pristine activity by wedding it to the European Gothic, to which it
has a strong natural affinity. The product would be a style that would satisfy
all the practical requirements of modern civilization, and at the same time
display the union of oriental and western idea, in a concrete form, which both
nationalities could appreciate. The combination of dome and spire, the dream'
of our last great Gothic architect, but which he died without accomplishing,
would follow spontaneously ; and Anglo-Indian architecture, no longer a bye-
word for Philistinism and vulgarity, might spread through the length and
breadth of the empire with as much success as Indo-Greek art in the days of
Alexander, or Hindu-Saracenic art in the reign of Akbar.

The eclecticism of the last-named period, which has suggested the above
remarks, was followed by the Jat style, of which the best examples are the
tombs and palaces erected by Suraj Mall, the founder of the Bharatpur dynasty,
and his immediate successors. In these the arch is thoroughly naturalized ;
the details are also in the main dictated by Muhammadan precedent, but they
are carried out with much of the old Hindu solidity and exuberance of fanci-
ful decoration. The arcade of the Ganga Mohan Kunj at Brinda-ban is a
very fine specimen of this style at its best. In later buildings, as in those
on the bank of the Manasi Ganga at Gobardhan, the mouldings are shallower
and the wall-ornamentation consists of nothing but an endless succession of
niches and vases repeated with wearisome uniformity. The Baugala, or ob-
long alcove, with a vaulted roof of curvilinear outline, is always a prominent
feature iu this style and is introduced into some part of every facade. From
the name it may be inferred that it was borrowed from Bengal and was pro-
bably intended as a copy of the ordinary cottage roof made of bent bainbus.
It does not appear in Upper India till the reign of Aurangzeb ; the earliest
example in Mathura being the alcoves of the mosque built by Ahd-un-
Nabi in 1661 A.D.

The style in vogue at the present day is the legitimate descendant of tho
above, and differs from it in precisely the same way as Perpendicular differs-
from Decorated Gothic. It has greater lightness, but less freedom : more elabora-
tion in details, but less vigour in conception. The panelling of the walls and
piers is often filled in with extremely delicate arabesques of intricate design ;

174 THE STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE NOW IN VOGUE.

but the effect is scarcely in proportion to the labour expended upon them ; for
the work is too slightly raised and too minute to catch the eye at any distance.
Thus the first impression is one of flatness and a want of accentuation ; artis-
tic defects for which no refinement of detail can adequately compensate. The
pierced tracery, however, of the screens and balconies is as good in character
as in execution. The geometrical patterns are old traditions and can be classi-
fied under a few well-defined heads, but they admit of almost infinite modi-
fications under skilful treatment. They are cut with great mathematical nicety,
the pattern being drawn on both sides of the slab, which is half chiselled
through from one side and then turned over and completed from the other.
The temples that line both sides of the High Street in the city, the monument
to Seth Mani Rain in the Jamuna bagh and the porch of the museum itself
are fine specimens of the style, and are conclusive proofs that, in Mathura at
all events, architecture is, to this day, no mere galvanized revival of the past,
but is still a living and progressive art. If a model of some one of the best
and most typical buildings in each of the late styles were added to the
museum collection of antiquities, as was my intention, the series would give
• a complete view of the architectural history of the district, from which a
student would be able to gather much instruction. A specimen of modern
official architecture (?), as conceived by our Engineers in the Public Works
Department, should further be placed in juxtaposition with them, as a model
also, but a model of everything to be avoided.

Immediately opposite the museum is the Public Garden, in which the museum
itself ought to have been placed. It contains a considerable variety of choice
trees ami shrubs, but unfortunately it has not been laid out with much taste,
and its area is too large to be kept in good order out of the funds that are
allowed for its maintenance. It was extended a few years ago, so as to include
the site of a large mound and tank. The former was levelled and the latter
filled up. During the progress of the work a number of copper coins were dis-
covered, which may very possibly have been of the same date as the adjoining
Buddhist monastery ; but being of no intrinsic value, there was no one on the
spot who cared to preserve them. A little further on is the Jail, constructed
on the approved radiating principle, and sufficiently strong under ordinary
circumstances to ensure the safe-guard of native prisoners, though an European
would probably find its walls not very difficult either to scale or breakthrough.
This exhausts the list of public institutions and objects of interest ; whence it
may be rightly inferred that the English quarter of Mathura is as dull
and common-place as most other Indian stations. Still, in the rains it has a

GOVERNORS OF MATHURA' IN THE 17TH CENTURY. 175

pleasant park-like appearance with its wide expanse of green sward, reserved
for military uses from the encroachments of the plough ; its well-kept roads
with substantial bridges to span the frequent ravines ; and the long avenues
of trees that half conceal the thatched and verandahed bungalows that lie
behind, each in its own enclosure of garden and pasture land ; while in the
distant back-ground an occasional glimpse is caught of the broad stream of the
Jamuna.

NOTES ON CHAPTER VII.
I.— 'List of Governors of Mathura' in the 17th Century.

1629. Mirza Isa Tarkhan ; who gave his name to the suburb of Isa-
pur (now more commonly called Hans-ganj), on the opposite bank of the
river.

1636. Murshid Kuli Khan, promoted, at the time of his appointment, to
be commander of 2,000 horse, as an incentive to be zealous in stamping out
idolatry and rebellion. From him the suburb of Murshid-pur derives its
name.

1630. Allah Virdi Khan. After holding office for three years, some
disloyal expressions to which he had given utterance were reported to the emperor,
who thereupon confiscated his estates and removed him to Delhi.

1642. Azam Khan Mir Muhammad Bakir, also called Irsidat Khan. He
is commemorated by the Azam-abad Sarae, which he founded (see page 31),
and by the two villages of Azam-pur and Bakir-pur. He came of a noble
family seated at Sawa in Persia, and having attached himself to the service of
Asaf Khan Mirza Jafar, the distinguished poet and courtier, soon after became
his son-in-law and was introduced to the notice of the Emperor Jahangir. He
thus gained his firsr appointment under the Crown ; but his subsequent promo-
tion was due to the influence of Yamin-ud-ilaula, Asaf Khan IV., the father of
Mumtaz Mahall, the favourite wife of Shahjahan. On the accession of that
monarch he was appointed commander of 5,000, and served with distinction in
the Dakhiu in the war against the rebel Khan Jahan Lodi and in the opera-
tions against the Nizam Shahi's troops. In the fifth year of the reign, he was
made Governor of Bengal in succession to Kasiin Khan Juwaini. Three
years later he was transferred to Allahabad, but did not remain there long,
bein"' moved in the very next year to Gujarat, as Subadar. In the twelfth year
of Shahjahan his daughter was married to prince Shuja, who had by her a son
named Zain-ul-abidin. From 1642 to 1645 he was Governor of Mathur&, but

176

THE CITY MADALLAS.

in the latter year, as he did not act with sufficient vigour against the Hindu
malcontents, his advanced age was made the pretext for transferring him to
Bihar. Three years later he received orders for Kashmir ; but as he objected
to the cold climate of that country he was allowed to exchange it for Jaun-pnr,
where he died in 1648, at the age of 7(3. He is described in the Naasir-ul-
I'mara as a man of most estimable character, but very harsh in his mode of
collecting the State revenue. Azamgarh, the capital of the district of that name
in the Banaras Division, was also founded by him.

1645. Makramat Khan, formerly Governor of Delhi.

1658. Jafar, son of Allah Virdi Khan.

1659. Kasim Khan, transferred from Muradiibad, but murdered on his
way down.

1660. Abd-un-Nabi, founder of the Jama Masjid (see page 150).

1668. Saft-Shikan Khan. Fails in quelling the rebellion.

1669. Hasan Ali Khan. During his incumbency the great temple of
Kesava Deva was destroyed.

1676. Sultan Kuli Khan,

II. — Names of the City Quarters, or Mahallas.

1 Mandavi Rani.

2 Bair&g-pura.

3 Khirki Bisati.

4 Naya-bas.

5 Arjun-pura.

6 Tek-narnaul.

7 Gali Seru Kasera.

8 Gali Ravaliya.

9 Gali Ram-pal.

10 Tek Rami Khati.

11 Gali Mathura Me-

gha.

12 Bazar Ohauk.

13 Gali Bhairon.

O 9

14 Gali Thathera.

15 Lai Darwaza.

16 Gali Lohiva.

17 Gali Nanda.

18 Teli-para

19 Tila Chaubc.

Brindaban Darwaza,

Gher Gobindi.
Gali Gopa Shah.
Shah-ganj Darwaza
Halan-ganj.
Chakra Tirath.
Krishan Ganga.
Go-ghat.
Kans k;'i kila.
Hanuman tila,
Zer masjid.
Kushk.
^;imi Ghat.
Makhdiim Shah.
Asi-kunda Ghat.
Visrant Ghat.
Kans-khar.
Gali Dasavatar.
Gor-para
Gosain (J hat.

40 Kil-math.

41 Syam Ghat.

42 Ram Ghat.

43 Ramji-dwara.

44 Bihari-pura.

45 Ballabh Ghat.

46 Maru Gali.

47 Bengali Ghat.

48 Kala Mahal.
•19 Chuna kankar.

50 Chamarhana.

51 Gopal-pura.

52 Sarai Raja Bha-

dauria.

53 Sengal-pura.

54 Chhonkar-para,

55 Mir-ganj.

56 Holi Darwaza.

57 Sitala Gali.

58 Kampu Ghat.

PRINCIPAL BUILDINGS IN THE CITY OF MATHTHA'.

177

II. — Names of the City Quarters or

Mauallas — {concluded).

Dharmsala Raja

76" Gujarhana.

/ 93 Manik chauk.

Awa (built by Raj6

77 Roshan-ganj.

94 Gaja Paesa.

Pitambar Sinh).

78 Bhar-kigali.

95 Ghati Bitthal Rae.

Dhruva Ghat.

79 Kliii-ki Dalpat Rao.

96 Sitala Ghati.

i;i

Dhruva ti'la.

80 Taj-pura.

97 Nakarchi tila.

Bal tila.

81 Chaubachcha.

98 Guiar Ghati.

Bar.'i Jay Kam Das.

82 Sat Ghara.

99 Gali Kalal.

til

General-ganj.

83 Chhathi Bazar.

100 Kaserat.

Anta-parfi

84 Gali Pathakan.

101 Gali Durga Chand.

Gobind-ganj.

85 Mandar Parikh

Ji.

102 Bazaz.i.

( Ihhagan-purai

86 Kazi-para.

103 Mandavi Ghiya.

Santokh-pura.

87 Nava Bazar (from

104 Gali Dhiisaron ki.

Chhah kathauti.

Mr. Thorn ton's time).

105 Manohar-pura.

Kotwali.

88 Ghati chikne r

>at-

106 Ka~-ai-]iara.

Bharatpur Darwaza.

haron ki.

107 Kesopura,

Lala-gnnj.

89 Gali Gotawala.

108 Mandavi Ram D

Sitala Paesa.

90 Gata sram.

109 Matiya Darwaza.

Maholi Pol.

91 Ratn kund.

110 Dig Darwaza.

7.5

Nagra Paesa.

92 Chhonka-par.'i.

Ill Mahalla khakroban.

III. — Principal Buildings in the City of Mathura'.

1. Hardinge Arch, or Holi Darwaza, forming the Agra gate of the city,
erected by the municipality at a cost of Rs. 13,731.

2. Temple ofRadha Kishan, founded by Deva Chand, Bohra, of Tenda-
Khera near Jabalpur, in 1870-71. Cost Rs. 40,000. In the Chhata Bazar.

3. Temple of Bijay Gobhid, in the Satghara Mahalla, built in 1867 by
Rijay Ram, Bohra, of Dattia, at a cost of Rs. 65,000.

4. Temple of Bala Deva, in the Khans-khar Bazar, built in 1865 by Kush-
ali Ram, Bohra, of Sher-garh, at a cost of Rs. 25,000.

5. Temple of Bhairav Nath, in the Lobars' quarter, built by Bishan Lai,
Khattri, at a cost of Rs. 10,000. It is better known by the name of Sarvar
Sultan, as it contains a chapel dedicated in honor of that famous Muhammadan
saint, regarding whom it may be of interest to subjoin a few particulars. The
parent shrine, situate in desert country at the mouth of a pass leading into
Kandahar, is served by a company of some 1,650 priests besides women and
children ; who, with the exception of a small grant from Government yielding
an annual income of only Rs. 350, are entirely dependent for subsistence on the
charity of pilgrims. The shrine is equally reverenced by Hindus, Sikhs, and
Muhammadaus, and it is said to be visited in the course of a year by as many

178 PRINCIPAL BUILDINGS IN THE CITY OF MATuTr.X.

as 200,000 people of all castes and denominations, who come chiefly frdm the
Panjab and Sindh. The saint in his lifetime was so eminent for his universal
benevolence and liberality (whence his title of sakki) that he is believed still
to retain after death the power and will to grant every petition that is present-
ed to him. A,t the large fair held in February, March and April, the shrine is
crowded with applicants, many of whom beg for aid in money. As the shrine
is poor and supported by charity, this cannot be given on the spot ; but the
petitioner is told to name some liberal-minded person, upon whom an order is
then written and sealed with the great seal of the temple and handed to the
applicant. When presented by him to the person, on whom it was drawn, it is
not unfrequently honoured. Such a parwiina, drawn on one Muhammad Khan
Afghan, was found on the fakir Nawab Shah, who in 1871 made a murderous
attack on the Secretary of the Labor Municipality. A report on the peculiar
circumstances of the case was submitted to Government, and it is from it that
the above sketch has been extracted in explanation of the singular fact that a
Muhammadan saint has been enthroned as a deity in a Hindu temple in the
most exclusive of ad Hindu cities.

f!. Ternple of G-ata-sram, near the Visrant Ghat, built by Pran-nath
Sastri, at a cost of Es. 25,000, about the year 1800.

7. Temple of Dwarakadhis commonly called the Setlvs temple, in the
Asikunda Bazar, built by P;irikh Ji, in 1815, at a cost of Ks. 20,000.

8. House of the Bharat-pur Rajas, with gateway added by the late Raja
Balavant Sinh.

9. House of Scth Lakhmi Chand, built in 1845 at a cost of Rs. 1,00,000.

10. Temple of Madan Mohan, by the Sami Ghat, built by Seth Anant
Ram of Chiiri by Ram-garb, in 1859, at a cost of Rs. 20,000.

11. Temple of Gobardhan Nath, built by Seth Kushal, commonly called
Seth Babti, kamdar of the Barodara Raja, in 1830.

12. Temple of Bihari Ji, built by Chhakki Lai and Kanhaiya Lai, bankers
of Mhow near Nimach, in 1850, at at a cost of Rs. 25,000, by the Sami Ghat :
has a handsome court-yard as well as external facade.

13. Temple of Gobind Deva, near the Nakarchi tila, built by Gaur Sahay
Mall and Ghan-Syam Das, his son, Seths of Chiiri, in 1848, with their resi-
dences and that of Ghau-Syam's uncle, Ramchandra, adjoining.

14. Temple of Gopi-nath, by the Sai.ii Ghat, built by Gulraj and Jagan-
nath, Seths of Chun, in 18(>6, at a cost of Rs. 30,000.

FESTIVALS "OBSERVED IN MATRTRA'. 17'.'

15. Temple of Baladeva, near the Hardinge Arch, built by Bala, Ahir, a
servant of Seth Lakhmi < 'hand, an a dwelling-house, about the year 1820, at a
cost of Rs. 50,000, and sold to Rae Bai, a baniya's wife, who converted it
into a temple.

16. Temple of Mohan JSin the Satghara Mahalla, built about 70 year--
ago by Kripa Ram, Bohra : more commonly known as Daukala Kunj, after
the Chaube who was the founder's purohit.

I 7. Temple of Madan Mohan, in the Asikunda Mahalla, built by Dhanraj,
Bohra, of Aligarh.

18. Temple of Gobardhan Nath, in the Kans-khar, built by Devi Das,
Bohra, of Urai.

19. Temple of Dirgha Vishnu, by the street leading to the Bharat-pur
gate, built by Raja Patni Mall of Banaras.

20. The Sati Burj, or ' faithful widow's tower,' built by Raja Bhagavan
Das in 1570.

21. The mosque of Abd-un-Nabi Khan, built 1662.

22. The mosque of Aurangzeb, built 1669, on the site of the temple of
Kcsava Deva.

IV. — Calendar of Festivals observed in the City of Mathura\

Chait Sudi [April 1-15).
1 . Chait Sudi 8. — Durga Ashtami. Held at the temple of Mahavidya Devi.
•>. Chait Sudi 9. — Ram Navami. Held at the Ram Ji Dwara.
Baisdkh {April — May).

3. Baisdkh Sudi 14. — Nar Sinh lila. Held at Gor-para, Manik Chauk,
and the temple cf Dwarakadhis.

4. Baisdkh full moon. — Perambulation of Mathuni, called Ban-bihar, start-
ing from the Visniut Ghat; tho only one made in the night.

5. Jeth Sudi 10. — The Jeth Dasahara. In the middle of tho day, bath-
ino- at the Dasasvamedh Ghat ; in the evening kite-flying from the Gokarnes-
var hill.

6. Jeth full moon.— Jal-jatra, All the principal people bring the water
for the ablution of the god into the temples on their own shoulders in little
silver urns.

ISO FESTIVALS OBSERVED IN MATnTIU.

Asdrh [June — July)\

7. Asdrh Sudi 2. — Rath-jatra.

8. Asdrh Sudi 11.— Principal perambulation of Mathura and Brinda-ban
before the god takes his four months' sleep ; called jugal jori ki parikramd.
The people start early in the morning either from the Visrant, or some other
Ghat nearer their home, and after passing by the Sarasvati kund continue
their way for about a mile along the Delhi road. The majority then make a
straight cut across to Brinda-ban, while the others go on first to the Garur
Gobind shrine at Chhatikra. This is the longest perambulation made and is
said to be of 20 kos. All return to Mathura the same day ; any one who fails to
do so being thought to lose the whole benefit of his pilgrimage.

!>. Asdrh full moon. — Byas-puno. In the morning the Guru is formally
reverenced ; in the evening there are wrestling matches, and the Pandits
assemble on the hills or house-tops for the ; pavan pariksha,' or watching of
the wind ; from which they predict when the rains will commence and what
sort of a season there will be. When tho wind is from the north, as it was in
1879, it is thought to be a good sign ; and certainly the rain that year
superabundant.

Srdvan (July — August).

lOi Srdvan Sudi 3. — Commonly called Tij ka mela. Wrestling matches
near the temple of Bhiitesvar Mahadeva.

11. Srdvan Sudi 5. — The Panch Tirath mela begins. A pilgrimage starts
from the Visrant Ghat for Madhu-ban ; proceeds on the next day to San-
tanu kund at Satoha and the Gyan-bauli near the Katra; on the third day to
Gokarnesvar ; on the fourth to the shrine of Garur Gobind at Chhatikra* and
on the fifth to the Brahm kund at Brinda-ban,

12. Srdvan Sudi 11.— Perambulation of Mathura and Pavitra-dharan, or
offering of Brahmanical threads to the Tliakur.

13. Srdvan full moon. — The Saluno or Raksha-bandhan. Wrestling
matches in different orchards near the temple of Bhutesvar.

Bhddon (August — September).

14. Bhddon Badi 8.— Janni Ashtami ; Krishna's birthday. A fast till
midnight.

* Chhatikra, on the Dehli road, was founded by Maim, Jam.i, mid Ror, three Kachwahas,

who are said to have come from Rjl fourteen geuerations, i.e., about 300 years ago. Their

FESTIVALS OBSERVED IK MATHURA*. 181

15. Bhdilon Sudi 11. — A special pilgrimage to Madhu-ban, Tal-ban, and
Kumud-ban. The general Ban-jatra also commences and lasts for 15 days.

16. Bhddon Sudi 14. — The Anant Chaudas. The Pairaki, or swimming
festival, is held every Thursday in Sravan and Bhadon, but the principal day
is the last Thursday before the Anant Chaudas, when there is a, very great
concourse of people, occupying the walls of the old fort and all the river-side
ghats. Then" is no racing : but the swimmers, almost all of whom have with
them large hollow gourds, or inflated skins for occasional support, perform
a variety of strange antics in the water ; while some are mounted upon
grotesque structures in the shape of horses, or peacocks, or different kinds of
carriages. The scene, which is an amusing one, is best witnessed from a barge
towed up the stream to the highest ghat near Jaysinghpura, where the swim-
mers start, and allowed to drop down with the current to the pontoon bridge.
About sunset there is a rude display of fireworks accompanied with much
smoke and noise ; but the swimmers remain in the water some two or three
hours longer, when the proceedings terminate with music and dancing in the
streets of the city.

Kuvdr ( September — October).

17. Kuvdr llnli 8. — Perambulation of the city followed by five days' festi-
vities, during which it is customary to make a great number of little pewter

descendants now retain only 1 i biswa, the rest having been sold to the mahant of the temple of Syam
Sundar at Brinda-ban, who is also muafidar. They say that the name of the place, when their
ancestors first occupied it, was the same as now, and that it refers to the six (chlta) sakhis, or
companions of Kadha, whose gupt bhavan, or unseen abode, is one of the sites visited by pilgrims.
Another local explanation of the name is that it refers to the six villages, each of which had to
cede part of its land to form the Kachhwahds' new settlement. There is a rakhya, wherein the
trees are chiefly kadambs of small growth, though old, mixed with dhak, nirn, karil, and hins,
and in it is a highly venerated shrine, dedicated to Garur Gobind. The present building, which
is small and perfectly plain, enshriaes a black stone image of the god Gobind mounted on Garur.
Close by is a cave with a longish flight of winding steps simply dug in the soil, but no one can
penetrate to the end on account of the fleas with which the place swarms. On Sivan Sudi 8.
during the panch lirat/t ki mela, the temple is visited by the largest number of pilgrims. There
is a second fair on the day after the Holi, and a third on the full moon of Jetli. The revenue of
the village all goes to the temple of Syam Sundar at Brinda-ban. The local shrine Inn no endow-
ment. In a field immediately adjoining the homestead are some fragments of Buddhist rails.
These were probably brought from the Gobind-kund, about a mile away, where some ancient
building irust once have stood. For digging the foundations of the small masonry ghat there,
20 years or so ago, it is said that some large sculptures were discovered ; but as they were muti-
lated, no one took the trouble to remove them. I told Kurha — the Pujari— to let me know when
the tank was dry enough to allow of excavations being made, but I left the district before any
such opportunity occurred.

182 FESTIVALS OBSERVES IN JfATHURA'.

figures called sdnjhi, representing Krishna and the GopiS, in whose honour
also there are performances, all through the night, of the Ras dance.

18. Kuvdr Sudi 8. — Meghnad Lila, or representation of the death of Ba-
van's son Megh-nad". This is the first of the three great days of the Ram
Lila, which is held on the open plain near the temple of Mahavidya. The
entire series of performances, which commences from the new moon, includes
most of the leading events in the Biimayaua, such as the tournament, the
defeat of Taraka, the departure into exile, Bharat's expedition to Chitra-kiit,
the mutilation of Surpa-nakha, the rape of Sita, the meeting with Sugriv, and
the building of the bridge. A separate day is assigned to each incident, but the
first six or seven acts of the drama are not invariably the same, and it is only
on the 8th, 9th, and 10th days that many people assemble to see the show.

19. Kuvdr Sudi 9. — Kumbhakaran Lila, with representation of the death
of Ravan's brother, Kumbhakaran.

20. Kuvdr Sudi 10. — Last day of the Dasahara, with representation of
Rama's final victory over Ravan. Though this fete attracts a large concourse of
people, the show is a very poor one and the display of fireworks much inferior
to what may be seen in many second-rate Hindu cities.

21. Kuvdr Sudi 11. — Bharat Milap. A platform is erected in the street
under the Jama Masjid, on which is enacted a respresentation of the meeting at
Ajudhya between Prince Bharat and Rama, Sita and Lakshman, ou their re-
turn from their wanderings. For the whole distance from that central spot
to the Holi Gate not only the thoroughfare itself, but all the balconies and
tops of the houses are crowded with people in gay holiday attire ; and as the
fronts of all the principal buildings are also draped with party-coloured hang-
ings, and the shops dressed up to look their best, the result is a very picturesque
spectacle, which is more pleasing to the European eye than any other feast in
the Hindu calendar ; the throng, however, is so dense that it is rather a
hazardous matter to drive a carriage through it.

22. Kuvdr full moon — Sarad-puno. Throughout the night visits ace paid
to the different temples.

Kdiiik (October — November).

23. Kdrtik neio moon— Diwali, or Dip-dan — feast of lamps.

24. Kdrtik Sutli 1. — Anna-kut. The same observances as at Gobardhan,
but on a smaller scale.

FESTIVALS OBSERVED IN MATIIURA'. 183

25. Kdrtik Sitdi — Dhobi-maran Lila. Held near the Brinda-ban gate to
commemorate Krisbna'a spoliation of Kansa's washerman.

2G. Kdrtik Sudi 8. — Gocharan, or pasturing the cattle. Held in tho
evening at the Gopal Bagh on the Agra Eoad,

27. Kdrtik Sudi 9.— Akhay-Navami. The second great perambulation of
the city, beginning immediately after midnight.

28. Kdrtik Sudi 10. — Kans badh ka mela, at the Rangesvar Mahadeva,
Towards evening, a large wicker figure of Kans is brought out on to the road,
when two boys, dressed to represent Krishna and Baladeva, and mounted either
on horses or an elephant, give the signal, with the staves all wreathed with
flowers that they have iu their hands, for an assault upon the monster.
In a few minutes it is torn to shreds and tatters by the Chaubes and a proces-
sion is then made to the Visrant Ghat.

22. Kdrtik Sudi 11. — Deotthan. The awakening of the god from his four
months' slumber. A similar perambulation as on Asarh (Midi 1 1.

Mdgh (January — February) .
30. Magh Sudi 5.— Basant Panchami. The return of spring ; correspond-
ing to the English May-day.

Phdlgun (February — March).
31 Phdlgun full moon. — The Holi, or Indian saturnalia.
Chait badi (March 15— DO).

32, Chait Badi 1. — Gathering at tho temple of Kesava Deva.

33. Chait Badi 5.— Phul-dol. Processions with flowers and music ami
dancing.

CHAPTER VIII,

brinda-ban and the vaishnava reformers.

Some six miles above Mathura is a point where the right bank of the Jamun4
assumes the appearance of a peninsula, owing to the eccentricity of the stream,
which first makes an abrupt turn to the north and then as sudden a return upon
its accustomed southern course. Here, washed on three of its sides by the
sacred flood, stands the town of Brinda-ban, at the present day a rich and
prosperous municipality, and for several centuries past one of the most holy
places of the Hindus. A little higher up the stream a similar promontory
occurs, and in both cases the curious formation is traditionally ascribed to the
resentment of Baladeva. He, it is said, forgetful one day of bis habitual
reserve, and emulous of his younger brother's popular graces, led out the
Gopis for a dance upon the sands. But he performed his part so badly, that
the Jamuna could not forbear from taunting him with his failure and recom-
mending him never again to exhibit so clumsy an imitation of Krishna's agile
movements. The stalwart god was much vexed at this criticism and, taking
up the heavy plough which he had but that moment laid aside, he drew with
it so deep a furrow from the shore that the unfortunate river, perforce, fell into
it, was drawn helplessly away and has never since been able to recover its
original channel.

Such is the local rendering of the legend ; but in the Puranas and other
early Sanskrit authorities the story is differently told, in this wise ; that as
Balarama was roaming through the woods of Brinda-ban, he found concealed
in the cleft of a kadamb tree some spirituous liquor, which he at once con-
sumed with his usual avidity. Heated by intoxication he longed, above all
things, for a bathe in the river, and seeing the Jamuna at some little distance,
he shouted for it to come near. The stream, however, remained deaf to his
summons ; whereupon the infuriated god took up his ploughshare and breaking
down the bank drew the water into a new channel and forced it to follow
wherever he led. In the Bhagavata it is added that the Jamuna is still to be
seen following the course along which she was thus dragged. Professor Wilson,
in his edition of the Vishnu Purana, says, " The legend probably alludes to
the construction of canals from the Jamuna for the purpose of irrigation ; and
the works of the Muhammadans in this way, which are well known, were no
Ion lii proceded by similar canals dug by the order of Eindo princes." Upon this

THE ROAD BETWEEN MATni'RA' AND BRINDA'-BAN. 1S5

suggestion it may be remarked, first, that in Upper India, with the sole excep-
tion of the canal constructed by Firoz Shah (1351-1388 A.D.) for the supply of
the city of Hisar, no irrigation works of any extent are known ever to have been
executed either by Hindus or Muhammadans : certainly there are no traces of
any such operations in the neighbourhood of Brinda-ban ; and secondly, both
legends rrpn -nit the Jamuna itself as diverted from its straight course into a
single winding channel, not as divided into a multiplicity of streams. Hence
it may more reasonably be inferred that the still existing involution of the river
is the sole foundation for the myth.

The high road from Mathura to Brinda-ban passes through two villages,
Jay-sinh-pur and Ahalya-ganj, and about half way crosses a deep ravine by a
bridge that bears the following inscription : — Sri. Pul Banwdyd MaMrdj Dex
mukh Bdld-bai Sahib beti Mahdrdj M&dho Ji Saindhiya Bahadur Ki ne marfat
KhazdncM Mdnik Chand ki, Jisukh kdrkun, ffumdshta Mahtdb Rde ne sambat 1890,
mahina asdrh badi 10 guruvdsare. Close by is a masonry tank, quite recently
completed, which also has a commemorative inscription as follows: Taldb
banw&yd Laid Kishan Ldl beta Fakir Chand Sahukdr, jdt Dhusar, Rahnewala
Dilli ke ne, sambat 1929 mutabik san 1872 Tsvi. That the bridge should have
been built by a daughter of the Maharaja of Gwaliar and the tank constructed
by a banker of Delhi, both strangers to the locality, is an example of the benefits
which the district enjoys from its reputation for sanctity. As the road between
the two towns is always thronged with pilgrims, the number of these costly
votive offerings is sure to be largely increased in course of time ; but at present
the country on either side has rather a waste and desolate appearance, with
fewer gardens and houses than would be expected on a thoroughfare connecting
two places of such popular resort. An explanation is afforded by the fact that
the present road is of quite recent construction. Its predecessor kept much closer
to the Jamuna, lying just along the khddar lands — which in the rains form
part of the river bed — and then among the ravines, where it was periodically
destroyed by the rush of water from the land. This is now almost entirely
disused ; but for the first two miles out of Brindaban its course is marked by
lines of trees and several works of considerable magnitude. The first is a large
garden more than 40 bighas in extent, surrounded by a masonry wall and sup-
plied with water from a distance by long aqueducts.* In its centre is a stone
temple of some size, and among the trees, with which the grounds are ever-

* By some extraordinary misconception Dr. Hunter in his Imperial Gazetteer speaks of this
garden aqueduct as if it were an elaborate system of works for supplying the whole town with
drinking-water;

18G ETYMOLOGY OF BITAT-ROND AND BIUXDA'-BAN.

crowded, some venerable specimens of the khirni form an imposing avenue.
The garden bears the name of Kushal, a wealthy Seth from Gujarat, at whose
expense it was constructed, and who also founded one of the largest temples
in the city of Mathura. A little beyond, on the opposite side of the way, in a
piece of waste ground, which was once an orchard, is a large and handsome
bduli of red sand-stone, with a flight of 57 steps leading down to the level of
the water. This was the gift of Ahalya Bai, the celebrated Mahratta Queen of
Indor, who died in 1795. It is still in perfect preservation, but quite unused.
Further on, in the hamlet of Akriir, on the verge of a cliff overlooking a wide
expanse of alluvial land, is the temple of Bhat-rond, a solitary tower containing
an image of Bihari Ji. In front of it is a forlorn little court-yard with walls
and entrance gateway all crumbling into ruin. Opposite is a large garden
of the Seth's, and on the roadway that runs between, a fair, called the Bhat-mela,
is held on the full moon of Kartik ; when sweetmeats are scrambled among the
crowd by the visitors of higher rank, seated on the top of the gate. The word
Bhat-rond is always popularly connected with the incident in Krishna's life
which the mela commemorates — how that he and his brother Balaram one day,
having forgotten to supply themselves with provisions before leaving home, had
to borrow a meal of rice {bhdt) from some Brahmans' wives — but the true
etymology (though an orthodox Hindu would regard the suggestion as heretical)
refers, like most of the local names in the neighbourhood, merely to physi-
cal phenomena, aud Bhat-rond maybe translated 'tide-wall,' or 'break-
water.'

Similarly, the word Brinda-ban is derived from an obvious physical feature,
and when first attached to the spot signified no more than the ' tulsi grove ;'
brindd and tulsi being synonymous terms, used indifferently to denote the sacred
aromatic herb known to botanists as Ocymum sanctum. But this explanation
is tar too simple to find favour with the more modern and extravagant school
of Vaishnava sectaries ; and in the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, a mythical per-
sonage has been invented bearing the name of Vrinda. According to thai.
spurious composition (Brah. Vai, v. iv. 2) the deified Radha, though inhabit-
ing the Paradise of Goloka, was not exempt from human passions, and in a fit
of jealousy condemned a Gopa by name Sridama to descend upon earth in the
form of the demon Sankhachura. He, in retaliation, sentenced her to become
a nymph of Brinda-ban and there accordingly she was born, being, as was
supposed, the daughter of Kedara, but in reality the divine mistress of Krishna :
and it was simply his love for her which induced the god to leave his solitary
throne in heaven and become incarnate. Hence in the following list of Radha's

THE TOWN OP BRINDA-BAN QUITE MOriERX. 187

titles, as given by the same authority (Brah. Vai., v. iv. 17), there are three
which refer to her predilection for Brinda-ban : —

RdrUut, Riiscxniri. HasuriWnu, Rdxikesvari,
Krishna-pranddhikd, Krishna-priyd, KrisJina-sicariipini,
Krishnd, 1 rinddvani, Vrindd, Vrinddvana-vinodini}
Chanddvati, < 'hdndra-kdntd, Sata-chandra-nihhdnand)
A rishna- vdmdnga-sambhiHtd, Paramdnanda-rilpini*

In the Padma Purana, Radha's incarnation is explained in somewhat differ-
ent fashion; thai Vishnu being enamoured of Vrindd, the wife of Jalandhara,

the gods, in their desire to cure him of Ids guilty passion, begged of Lakshmi
the gift of certain seeds. These, when sown, came up as the tulsi, mdlati and
dhdtri plants, winch assumed female forms of such beauty that Vishnu on seeing

them lost all regard for the former object of his affections.

There is no reason to suppose that Brinda-ban was ever the seat of any
large Buddhist establishment ; and though from the very earliest period of Brah-
manical history it has eiy'oyed high repute as a sacred place of pilgrimage, it
is probable that for many centuries it was merely a wild uninhabited jungle, a
description still applicable to Bhandir-ban, on the opposite side of the river, a
spot of equal celebrity in Sanskrit literature. Its most ancient temples, four
in number, take us back only to the reign of our own Queen Elizabeth; the
stately courts that adorn the river bank and attest the wealth and magnificence
of the Bharat-pur Rajas, date only from the middle of last century; while the
space now occupied by a series of the largest and most magnificent shrines ever
erected in Upper India was, fifty years ago, an unclaimed belt of wood-land and
pasture-ground for cattle. Now that communication has been established with
the remotest parts of India, every year sees some splendid addition made to
the artistic treasures of the town ; as wealthy devotees recognize in the stability
and tolerance of British rule an assurance that their pious donations will be
completed in peace and remain undisturbed in perpetuity.

"When Father Tieffenthaler visited Brinda-ban, in 1754, he noticed only one
long street, but states that this was adorned with handsome, not to say magnifi-
cent, buildings of beautifully carved stone, which had been erected by different
Hindu Rajas and nobles, cither for mere display, or as occasional residences, or
as embellishments that would be acceptable to the local divinity. The absurdity

* " Ridha, queen of the dance, constant at the dance, queen of the dancer ; dearer than
Krishna's life, Krishna's delight, Krishna's counter-part; Krishna, Brinda, Brinda-ban born,
sporting at Brinda-ban ; moon-like spouse of the moon-like go.l, with face bright as a hundred
moons ; created as the left half of Krishna's body, incarnation of heavenly bliss."

1 SS MONS. JACQUEMONT's DESCRIPTION OF BRTNDA'-BAN;

of people coming from long distances merely for the sake of (lying on holy
ground, all among the monkeys — which he describes as a most intolerable
nuisance — together with the frantic idolatry that he saw rampant all around, and
the grotesque resemblance of the Bairagis to the hermits and ascetics of the ear-
lier ages of Christianity, seem to have given the worthy missionary such a shock
that his remarks on the buildings are singularly vague and indiscriminating.

Mons. Victor Jacquemont' who passed through Brinda-ban in the cold
weather of 1829-30, has left rather a fuller description. Ho says, "This is a
very ancient city, and I should say of more importance even than Mathura. It
is considered one of the most sacred of all among the Hindus, an advantage
which Mathura, also possesses, but in a less degree. Its temples are visited by
multitudes of pilgrims, who perform their ablutions in the river at the differ-
ent ghats, which arc very fine. All the buildings are constructed of red sand-
stone, of a closer grain and of a lighter ami less disagreeable colour than that
used at Agra : it comes from the neighbourhood of Jaypur, a distance of 200
miles. Two of these temples have the pyramidal form peculiar to the early
Hindu style, but without the little turrets which in the similar buildings at
Benares seem to spring out of the main tower that determines the shape of
the edifice. They have a better effect, from being more simple, but are half
in ruins." (The temples that he means are Madan Mohan and Jugal Kishor).
" A larger and more ancient ruin is that of a temple of unusual form. The
interior of the nave is like that of a Gothic church ; though a village church
only, so far as size goes. A quantity of grotesque sculpture is pendent from the
dome, and might be taken for pieces of turned wood.* An immense number of
bells, large and small, are carved in relief on the supporting pillars and on the
walls, worked in the same stiff and ungainly style. Many of the independent
Rajas of the west, and some of their ministers (who have robbed them well no
doubt) are now building at Brinda-ban in a different style, which, though less
original, is in better taste, and are indulging in the costly ornamentation of
pierced stone tracery. Next to Benares, Brinda-ban is the largest purely Hindu
city that I have seen. I could not discover in it a single mosque. Its suburbs
are thickly planted with fine trees, which appear from a distance like an island
of verdure in the sandy plain." (These are the large gardens beyond the tem-
ple of Madan Mohan, on the old Delhi road.) " The Doab, which can be seen

* The description of the temple of Gobind Deva in Thornton's Gazetteer contains
the following sentence, which had often puzzled me. He says: — "From the vaulted roof
depend numerous idols rudely carved in wood. " He has evidently misunderstood Mons.
Jacquemont's meaning, who referB not to any idols, but to the curious quasi-pendentives, like fir-
;anes, that ornament the dome.

CHAUTTAHLE ENDOWMENTS OF BRINDJSi-BAN. 180

from the 'top of'ths temples, stretching away on the opposite side of the Jamuna
i.s still barer than the country 0ii 'I'" right bank.'

At the present time there are within the limits of the municipality about a
thousand temples, including, of course, many which, strictly speaking, are mere-
ly private chapels, and thirty-two ghats constructed by different princely bene-
factors. The tanks of reputed sanctity are only two in number. The first is
the Brahm Kuad at the back of the Seth's temple ; it is now in a very ruinous
condition, and the stone kiosques at its four corners have in part fallen, in part
been occupied by vagrants, who have closed up the arches with mud walls and
converted them into dwelling-places. I had begun to effect a clearance and make
arrangements for their complete repair when my transfer took place and put an
immediate stop to this and all similar improvements. The other, called Goviud
Kund, is in an out-of-the-way spot near the Mathura road. Hitherto it
had been little more than a natural pond, but has latclj' been enclosed on
all four sides with masonry walls and flights of steps, at a cost of Rs. 30,000,
by Chaudharani Kali Sundari from Rajshahi in Bengal. To these may be
added, as a third, a masonry tank in what is called the Kewar-ban. This is a
grove of pipal, gular, and kadamb trees which stands a, little off the Mathura
road near the turn to the Madaa Mohan temple. It is a halting-place in the
Banjatra, and the name is popularly said to be a corruption of Tdn vdrl, l who
lit it ?' with reference to the forest conflagration, or davdnal, of which the
traditional scene is more commonly laid at Bhadra-ban, on the opposite bank
of the river. There is a small temple of Davanal Bihari, with a cloistered
court-yard for the reception of pilgrims. The Gosain is a Nimbarak. A
more likely derivation for the name would be the Sanskrit word kaivalya,
meaning final beatitude. Adjoining the ban is a large walled garden, belonging
to the Tehri Raja, which has long been abandoned on account of the badness
of the water. The peacocks and monkeys, with which the town abounds, enjoy
the benefit of special endowments bequeathed by deceased Rajas of Kota ami
Bharat-pur. There are also some fifty chhattras, or dole-houses, for the distri-
bution of alms to indigent humanity, and extraordinary donations are not unfre-
quently made by royal and distinguished visitors. Thus the Raja of Datia, a
few years ago, made an offering to every single shrine and every single Brahman
that was found in the city. The whole population amounts to 21,000, of which
the Brahmans, Bairagis and Vaishnavas together make up about one half. In
the time of the emperors, the Muhammadans made a futile attempt to abolish
the ancient name, Brinda-ban, and in its stead substitute that of Muminabad ;
but now, more wisely, they leave the place to its own Hindu name and devices and

IDA THE HTXDt5 'REFORMERS.

keep themselves as clear of it as possible. Thus, besides an occasional official,
there are in Brinda-ban no followers of the prophet beyond only some fifty fami-
lies, who live close together in its outskirts and an* all of the humblest order,
such as oilmen, lime-burners and the like. They have not, a single public
mosque nor even a karbala in which to deposit the tombs of Hasan and Husain
on the feast of the Muharram, but have to bring them into Mathura to be
interred.

It is still customary to consider the religion of the Hindus as a compact
system, which has existed continuously and without any material change ever
since the remote and almost pre-historic period when it finally abandoned the
comparatively simple form of worship inculcated by the ritual of the Vedas.
The real facts, however, are far different. So far as it is possible to compare
natural with revealed religion, the course oi Hinduism and Christianity has
been identical in character ; both were subjected to a violent disruption, which
occurred in the two quarters of the globe nearly simultaneously, and which is
still attested by the multitude of uncouth fragments into which the ancient
edifice was disintegrated as it fell. In the west, the revival of ancient litera-
ture and the study of forgotten systems of philosophy stimulated enquiry into
the validity of those theological conclusions which previously had been unhesi-
tatingly accepted — from ignorance that any counter-theory could be honestly
maintained by thinking men. Similarly, in the east, the Muhammadan inva-
sion and the consequent contact with new races and new modes of thought
brought home to the Indian moralist that his old basis of faith was too narrow :
that the division of the human species into the four Manava castes and an outer
world of barbarians was too much at variance with facts to be accepted as satis-
factory, and that the ancient inspired oracles, if rightly interpreted, must dis-
close some means of salvation applicable to all men alike, without respect to
colour or nationality. The professed object of the Reformers was the same in
Asia as in Europe — to discover the real purpose for which the second Person
of the Trinity became incarnate ; to disencumber the truth, as He had revealed
it, from the accretions of later superstition ; to abolish the extravagant preten-
sions of a dominant class and to restore a simpler and more severelv intellec-
tual form of public worship.* In Upper India the Tyranny of tin' Mahamma-
dans was too tangible a fact to allow of the hope, or even the wish, that the con-
querors and conquered could ever coalesce in one common faith : but in the

*• Thus, as it may be interesting to note, the r.ralitua Sum , i of I le pre.s nt day is no i-olated
movement, but only the most modern of a long scries o£ similar reactions against current Buoer-
fctitiona.

MODERN HINDUISM. UU

Dakhin and the remote regions of Eastern Bengal, to which the sword of Islam
had scarcely extended, and where no inveterate antipathy had been created, the
contingency appeared less improbable. Accordingly, it was in those parts of
India that the great teachers of the reformed Vaishnava creed first meditated
and reduced to system those doctrines, which it was the one object of all their
later life to promulgate throughout Hindustan. It was their ambition to elabo-
rate a scheme so broad and yet so orthodox that it might satisfy the require-
ments of the Hindu and yet not exclude the Muhammadan, who was to be ad-
mitted on equal terms into the new fraternity ; all mankind becoming one great
family and every caste distinction being utterly abolished.

Hence it is by no means correct to assert of modern Hinduism that it is
essentially a non-proselytizing religion; accidentally it has become so, but only
from concession to the prejudices of the outside world and in direct opposition
to the tenets of its founders. Their initial success was necessarily due to their
intense zeal in proselytizing, and was marvellously rapid. At the present day
their followers constitute the more influential, and it may be even numerically
the larger half of the Plindu population: but precisely as in Europe so in
India no two men of the reformed sects, however immaterial their doctrinal
differences, can be induced to amalgamate; each forms a new caste more
bigoted and exclusive than any of those which it was intended to supersede,
while the founder has became a deified character, for whom it is necessary to
erect a new niche in the very Pantheou he had laboured to destroy. The
only point upon which all the Vaishnavas sects theoretically agree is the rever-
ence with which they profess to regard the Bhagavad Gita as the authoritative ex-
position of their creed. In practice their studies — if they study at all — are direct-
ed exclusively to much more modern compositions, couched in their own verna-
cular, the Braj Bhilsha,. Of these the work held in highest repute by all the
Brinda-ban sects is the Bhakt-mala, or Legends of the Saints, written by
Nabha Ji in the reign of Akbar or Jahangir. Its very first couplet is a
compendium of the theory upon which the whole Vaishnava reform was based :

Bkakt-bhakti-Bhagavant-guru, chatura mini, vapu ek :

which declares that there is a divinity in every true believer, whether learned
or unlearned, and irrespective of all caste distinctions. Thus the religious
teachers that it celebrates are represented, not as rival disputants — which their
descendants have become — but as all animated by one faith, which varied only
in expression ; and as all fellow-workers in a common cause, viz., the moral and
spiritual elevation of their countrymen. Nor can it be denied that the writing

192 THE bhakt mXlX.

•of many of the -actual leaders of the movement are instinct with a spirit of
asceticism and detachment from the world and a sincere piety, which are very
different from the ordinary outcome of Hinduism. But in no case did this
catholic simplicity last for more than a single generation. The great teacher
had no sooner passed away than his very first successor hedged round his little
band of followers with new caste restrictions, formulated a series of narrow
dogmas out of what had been intended as comprehensive exhortations to holiness
and good works ; and substituted for an interior devotion and mystical love —
which were at least pure in intent, though perhaps scarcely attainable in practice
by ordinary humanity — an extravagant system of outward worship with all the
sensual accompaniments of gross and material passion.

The Bhakt-mala, though an infallible oracle, is an exceedingly obscure one.
and requires a practised hierophant for its interpretation. It gives no legend
at length, but consists throughout of a series of the briefest allusions to legends,
which are supposed to be already well-known. Without some such previous
knowledge the poem is absolutely unintelligible. Its concise notices have
therefore been expanded into more complete lives by different modern writers,
both in Hindi and Sanskrit. One of these paraphrases is entitled the Bhakt
Siudhu, and the author, by name Laksliman, is said to have taken great pains
to verify his facts. But though his success may satisfy the Hindu mind, which
is constitutionally tolerant of chronological inaccuracy, he falls very far below
the requirements of European criticism. His work is however useful, since it
gives a number of floating traditions, which could otherwise be gathered only
from oral communications with the Gosains of the different sects, who, as ;i
rule, are very averse to speak on such matters with outsiders.

The four main divisions, or Sampradayas, as they are called, of the reformed
Yaishnavas are the Sri Vaishnava, the Nirnbarak Yaishnava, the Madhva
Vaishnava, and the Vishnu Swami. The last sect is now virtually extinct ;
for though the name is occasionally retained, their doctrines were entirely re-
modelled in the sixteenth century by the famous Gokul Gosain Vallabhucluirya,
after whom his adherents are ordinarily styled either Vallabhacharyas or
Gokulastha Gosains. Their history and tenets will find more appropriate place
in connection with the town of Gokul, which is still their head-quarters.

The Sri Sampradaya was altogether unknown at Brinda-ban till quite re-
cently, when the two brothers of Seth Lakhmi Ohand, after abjuring the Jaini
faith, were enlisted in its ranks, and by the advice of the Guru, who had re-
ceived their submission, founded at enormous cost the great temple of Bang Ji.

T
h-
LU
CO

I
I-

TWOFOLD DIVISION OF THE snr samit.apXya. i:>,:

It is the most ancient and the most respectable of the four reformed Vaishnava
communities, and is based on the teaching of Ramanuja, who flourished in the
11th or 12th century of the Christian era. The whole of his life was spent in
the Dakliin, where he is said to have established no less than Tim monasteries,
of which the chief were al K&nchi and Sri Ranga. The standard authorities
for his theological system are certain Sanskrit treatise.- of his own composition
entitled the Sri Bh&shya, Gita Bhashya, Vedartha Sangraha, Vedanta Pradipa
and Vedanta Sara. All the more popular works are composed in the dialects
of the south, and the establishment at Brinda-ban is attended exclusively by
foreigners, (he rites and ceremonies there observed exciting little interest among
the Hindus of the neighbourhood, who are quite ignorant of their meaning.
The sectarial mark by which the Sri Vaishnavas may be distinguished consists
of two white perpendicular streaks down the forehead, joined by a cross line at
the root of the nose, with a streak of red between. Their child' dogma, called
A isishthadwaita, is the assertion that Vishnu, the one Supreme God, though
invisible as cause, is as effect, visible in a secondary form in material creation.

They differ in one marked respect from the mass of (he people at Brinda-
ban, in that they refuse to recognise Radha as an object of religious adoration,
In this they arc in complete accord with all the older authorities, which either
illy ignore her existence, or regard her simply as Krishna's mistress and
Rukmini as his wife. Their mantra or formula of initiation, corresponding to the
Innomine Patris, &c, of Christian Baptism, is said to be Om R&m&yanarnflh, that
is, ' Om, reverence to Rama.' This Sampradaya is divided into two sects, the
Tenkalai and the Vadakalai. They differ on two points of doctrine, which
however arc considered of much less importance than what seems to outsiders a
very trivial matter, viz., a slight variation in the mode of making the sectarial
mark on the forehead. The followers of the Tenkalai extend its middle line
a little way down the nose itself, while the Vadakalai terminate it exactly at
the bridge. The doctrinal points of difference are as follows : the Tenkalai
maintain that the female energy of the god-head, though divine, is still a finite
creature that serves only as a mediator or minister {purusfta-kdra) to introduce
the soul into the presence of the Deity ; while the Vadakalai regard it as
infinite and uncreated, and in itself a means (upai/a) by which salvation can
be secured. The second point of difference is a parallel to the controversy
between the Calvinists and Arminians in the Christian Church. The Vada-
kalai, with the latter, insist on the concomitancv of the human will in the work
of salvation, and represent the soul that lays hold of God as a young monkey
which grasps its mother in order to be conveyed to a place of safety. The

194 THF, NlJIl'.XUAK VAtSHNAVAS.

Tenkalai, on the contrary, maintain the irresistibility of divine grace and tile
utter helplessness of the soul, till it is seized and carried off like a kitten by its
mother from the danger that threatens it. From these two curious but apt
illustrations the one doctrine is known as the mankata U&hora-nydya, the other as
the marjalctrkishora-wyaya : that is to say ' the young monkey theory,' or 'the
kitten theory.' The habitues of the Seth's temple are all of the Tenkalai persua-
sion.

The Nimbarak Vaishnavas, as mentioned in a previous chapter, have one
of their oldest shrines on the Dhruva hill at Mathura. laterally interpreted, the
word Nimbarak means 'the sun in a nim tree ;' a curious designation, which is
explained as follows. The founder of the sect, an ascetic by name Bhaskara-
charya, had invited a Bairagi to dine with him and had prepared everything
for his reception, but unfortunately delayed to go and fetch his guest till after sun-
set. Now, the holy man was forbidden by the rules of his order to eat except in
the day-time and was greatly afraid that he would be compelled to practise an
unwilling abstinence : but at the solicitation of his host, the sun-god, Suraj
Narayan, descended upon the nim free, under which the repasl was spread, and
continued beaming upon them fill the claims of hunger were fully satisfied.
Thenceforth the saint was known by the name of Nimbarka or Nimbaditya.
His special tenets are little known ; for. unlike the other Sampradayas, his
followers fso far as can be ascertained) have no special literature of their own>
either in Sanskrit or Hindi ; a fact which they ordinarily explain by saying that all
their books were burnt by Aurangzeb, the conventional bite noire of Indian
history, who is made responsible for every act of destruction. Host of the
solitary asci tie.; who have their little hermitages in the different sacred groves,
with which the district abounds, belong to the Nimbarak persuasion. Many of
them are pious, simple-minded men, leading such a chaste and studious life,
that it may charitably be hoped of them that in the eye of God they are
Christians "by the baptism of desire, i. e., according to S.Thomas Aquinas, by
the grace of having the will to obtain salvation by fulfilling the commands of
God, even though from invincible ignorance they know not the true Church.
The one who has a cell in the Kokila-ban assured me that tin- distinctive doc-
trines of his sect were not absolutely unwritten (as i.-. ordinarily supposed), but
are comprised in ten Sanskrit couplets that form the basis of a commentary in
as many thousands. One of his disciples, a very intelligent and argumentative
theological student, gave me a sketch of his belief which may be here quoted
a- a proof that the esoteric doctrines of the Vaishnavas generally have little in
lommon with the gross idolatry which the Christian Missionary is too often

THE CREED OF THE NIJir.A'RAK VATSTIN'AVAS. 195

content to demolish as the equivalent of Hinduism. So far is this from heing
the case, that many of their dogmas are not only ol an eminently philosophical
character, bul arc also much less repugnant to Catholic truth than either tho
colourless abstractions of the Brahma Samaj, or the defiant materialism into
which the greater part, of Europe is rapidly lapsing.

Tims their doctrine of salvation by faith is thought by many scholars to have
been directly borrowed from the Gospel ; while another article in their creed,
which is less known, but is equally striking in its divergence from ordinary
Hindu sentiment, is the continuance of conscious individual existence in a future
world, when the highest reward of the good will be, not extinction, hut the en-
joyment of tin' visible presence of the divinity, whom they have faithfully
served while on earth : a stale therefore absolutely identical with heaven, as our
theologians define it. The one infinite and invisible God, who is the only real
existence, is, they maintain, the only proper object of man's devoul contemplar '
tion. 13 ut as the incomprehensible is utterly beyond the reach of human faculties,
lie is partially manifested for our behoof in the book of creation, in which
natural objects are the letters of the universal alphabel and express the senti-
ments of the Divine Author. A printed page, however, conveys no meaning to
anyone hut a scholar, and i< liable to lie misunderstood even by him ; so, too,
with the book of the world. Whether the traditional scenes of Krishna's
adventures have been rightly determined is a matter oi' little consequence, if only
a visit to them excites the believer's religious enthusiasm. The places at-' mere
symbols of no value in themselves : tin.' idea they convey is the direct emanation
from the spirit of the author. But it may be equally well expressed by different
types ; in the same way as two copies of a book may be word for word the
same in sound and sense, though entirely different in appearance, one being
written in Nagari, the other in English characters. To enquire into the cause
of the diversity between the religious symbols adopted by diffei ?nt nationali-
ties may be an interesting study, but is not one that can affect the basis of faith.
And thus it matters little whether Radha and Krishna were ever real personages ;
the mysteries of divine love, which they symbolize, remain, though the symbols
disappear ; in tho same way as a poem may have existed long before it was
committed to writing, and may be remembered long after the writing has been
destroyed. The transcription is a relief to the mind ; but though obviously
advantageous on the whole, still in minor points it may rather have the effect of
stereotyping error : for no material form, however perfect and semi-divine, can
ever be created without containing in itself an element of deception ; its
appearance varies according to the point of view and the distance from which.

196 THE MADHVA VAISHNAVAS.

it is regarded. It is to convictions of this kind that must be attributed the
utter indifference of the Hindu to chronological accuracy and historical research.
The annals of Hindustan date only from its conquest by the Muharnmadans —
a people whose faith is based on the misconception of a fact, as the Hindus"
is on the corrupt embodiment of a conception. Thus the literature of the
former deals exclusively with events ; of the latter with ideas.

At Bathi another Bairagi of the same Sampradayaj by name Gobardhan
Das, who knew most of the Bhagavad Gita by heart, told me that their chief
seat was at Salimabad in Jodhpur territory, where the Gosain had a complete
library of the literature of the sect. He quoted some of the books by name,
the Siddhanta Batnanjali, the Girivajra, the Ratna-mala, the Setukti, the Jahna-
vi, and the Ratna-manjusha ; but he could not specify the authors, or give any
definite information as to their contents. Neither could he give a clear expla-
nation of any difference of doctrine between his own sect and the Sri Vaishnavas.
Like Ram Das, the Pandit at Kokila-ban, the great point on which he insisted
was that all visible creation is a shadow of the Creator and is therefore true in
a measure, though void of all substantial and independent existence. A view
which is aptly represented by the lines : —

" The -mi, (he moon, the stars, the seas, the hills and the plains?
Are not these, 0 soul, the vision of him who reigns ?
Is not the vision He ? tho' He be not that which He seems ?
Dreams are true while they last, and do we not live in dreams ?
All we have power to see is a straight staff bent in a pool :"

the illustration given in the last line being the very one which these Hindu
dreamers most frequently bring forward.

The Madhva Vaishnavas form a scattered and not very numerous commu-
nity, and none of their temples, either at Brinda-ban or elsewhere in the district,
are of any note. Their founder, Madhvacharya, was a native of Southern
India, born in the year 1199 A. D. The temple where he ordinarily resided is
still in existence at a place called LTdipi. Here he had set up a miraculous image
of Krishna, made with the hero Arjun's own hands, which had been casually
thrown as ballast into a ship from Dwaraka, which was wrecked on the Malabar
coast. He is said to have been only nine years of age when he composed the
Bhasha or commentary on the Gita, which his disciples accept as of divine
authority. Their distinctive doctrine is the assertion of an essential Duality
(Dwaita) between the Jivatma, or principle of life, and the Paramatma, or
Supreme Being. Their scctarial mark consists of two perpendicular white lines

TIIE BENGALI VAISHNAVAS. 197

down the forehead, joined at the root of the nose and with a straight black
streak between, terminating in a round mark made with turmeric.

In addition to these four original Sampradayas, then' are three schools of
more modern origin, called respectively Bengali, orGauriya Vaishnavas, liadha
Vallabhis and the disciples of Swdmi Hari Das.

The first-named community has had a more marked influence on Brinda-ban
than any of the others, since it was ( 'haitanya, the founder of the sect, whoso
immediate disciples were its first temple builders. He was born at Nadiya in
Bengal, in 1485 A. D., and in his youth is said to have married a daughter of
VallabMcharya. However that may be, when he had arrived at the age of 24
he formally resigned all connection with secular and domestic affairs and com-
menced his career as a religious teacher. After spending six years in pilgrim-
ages between Mathura and Jagannath, he finally settled down at the latter place,
where, in 1527 A.D., being then only 42 years old, he disappeared from (he
world. There is reason to believe that he was drowned in the sea, into which
he had walked in an ecstasy, mistaking it for the shallow waters of the Jamuna,
where he saw, in a vision, Krishna sporting with the Gopis. His life and
doctrines are recorded in a most voluminous Bengali work entitled Chaifcanya
Charitiimrita, composed in 1590 by one of his disciples, Krishna Das. Two of
his colleagues, Adwaitanand and Nityanand, who, like himself, are styled Maha
Prabhus, presided over his establishments in Bangal ; while other six Gosains
settled at Brinda-ban. Apart from metaphysical subtleties, which naturally have
but little hold on the minds of the populace, the special tenet of the Bengali
Vaishnavas is the all-sufficiency of faith in the divine Krishna; such faith being
adequately expressed by the mere repetition of his name without any added
prayer or concomitant feeling of genuine devotion. Thus roughly stated, the
doctrine appears absurd; and possibly its true bearing is as little regarded by
many of the more ignorant among the Vaishnavas themselves as it is by the
majority of superficial outside observers. It is, however, a legitimate deduction
from sound principles .• for it may be presumed that the formal act of devotion
would never have been commenced had it not been prompted at the outset by
a devotional intention, which intention is virtually continued so long as the act
is in performance. And to quote from a manual of a purer faith, " it is not
necessary that the intention should be actual throughout ; it is sufficient if we
pray in a human manner; and for this only a virtual intention is required;
that is to say, an intention which has been actual and is supposed to continue,
although, through inadvertence or distraction, we may have lost sight of it."

198 THE brindX-ban gosXins.

The sectorial mark consists of two white perpend icular streaks down the
forehead, united at the root of the nose and continued to near the tip. Another
characteristic is the use of a rosary of 108 beads made of the wood of the tulsi.

The recognized leaders of the Brinda-ban community were by name Riipa
and Sanutana, the authors of several doctrinal commentaries and also, as is said,
of the Mathura Mahatmya. With them were associated a nephew, named
Jiva, wdio founded the temple of Radha Damodar, and Gopal Bhatt, founder of
the temple of Radha Raman, together with some others of less note, whose
names vary in different lists.* In the Bhakta Mala they are enumerated as
follows : —

XllWi ^U3R XliR WZ ^^T: f%cl 5T^I I

<z. 0

^!R5=lf? ^JT^T^ "^IT'3i^ra HWT*TH W'l STRTT I

f mzw tifas^i ^ ^ra-^TfT ir ^m

*The Tuzuk mentions another famous Gosain of somewhat later date, 1619 A. D., by name
Jadu-Kup, who came from Ujjaiyin to Mathura, and who had been visited both by Akbar and
Jahangir.

•f Hasldmat would be literally 'a plum in the palm of the hand,' that is to say, a little
thing completely in one's grasp. A similar phrase occurs in the Kam;iyana of Tulsi Das, Book I.,
30. Kartal-gat dmalak samdn.

the ra'dha' vallabhis. 199

Translation.

" Sri Riipa and Sanatan and Sri Jiva Gosain wore as a deep lake filled with
water of devotion. With (hem prayer was ever ripe and in season and never
bitter to the taste. Firmly fixed at Brinda-ban, full of devotion to the feet of
the dual god, with their hands writing hooks and with their soul fixed on the
formless idea, they held in their grasp all the essence of divine love, able to
resolve the mysteries of the scriptures, worshippers of the all-blissful, ever
staunch in faith. Sri Rupa and Sanatan and Sri Jiva Gosain were as a deep
lake filled with water of devotion.

" These are they who met together at Brinda-ban and tasted all its sweet-
ness. Gopal Bhatt, who beautified the temple of Radha Raman with all that
he possessed ; Hrishikes and Bhagavan Das and Bithal-vipul, that ocean of
grace : Jagannath of Thanesar ; the great sage Loknath ; Madhu and Sri
Rang ; the two Pandits named Krishan Das, who had mastered Hari in all his
parts ; Ghamandi, servant of Jugal Kishor, and Bhiigarbha, the rigid ascetic.
These are they who met together at Brinda-ban and tasted all its sweetness."

The founder of the Radha Vallabhis was by name Hari Vans. His father,
Vyasa, was a Gaur Brahman of Deva-ban in the Saharanpur district, who had
long been childless. He was in the service of the Emperor and on one occa-
sion was attending him on the march from Agra, when at last his wife, Tara,
gave birth to a son at the little village of Bad, near Mathura, in the Sambat
year 1559. In grateful recognition of their answered prayers, the parents
named the child after the god they had invoked, and called him Hari Vans, i.e.,
Hari's issue. "When he had grown up, he took to himself a wife, by name
Rukmini, and had by her two sons and one daughter. Of the sons, the elder,
Mohan Chand, died childless ; the descendants of the younger, Gopinath, are
still at Devaban. After settling the daughter in marriage, he determined to
abandon the world and lead the life of an ascetic. With this resolution he set
out alone on the road to Brinda-ban and had reached Charthaval, near Hodal,
when there met him a Brahman, who presented him with his two daughters and
insisted upon his marrying them, on the strength of a divine command, which
he said he had received in a vision. He further gave him an image of Krishna

* In the above passage the words underlined are proper names.

200 THE GOSXlN HARI VANS.

with the title of Radha Vallabh, which on his arrival at Brinda-ban was set np
by Hari Vans in a temple that he had founded between the Jugal and the
Koliya ghats on the bank of the Jam una. Originally he had belonged to the
Madhvacharya Sampradaya and from them and the Nimbaraks, who also claim
him, his doctrine and ritual were professedly derived. But in consequence of
the mysterious incident, by which he had been induced to forego his intention
of leading a celibate life and take to himself two now wives ; or rather in con-
sequence of his strong natural passions, which he was unable to suppress and
therefore invented a fiction to excuse, his devotion was all directed not to
Krishna himself, except in a very secondary degree, but to his fabled mistress
Radha, whom he deified as the goddess of lust. So abominable a system was
naturally viewed at first with no little amazement, as is clear from the language
of the Bhakt Mala, which is as follows : —

II *T^ II

^liRcraTTqii *T3R srt fim san stra srrfa w u

SRoi^f^T ZHm r\%\w\ cRTrT W3T II

Tkva TWa tff 3T3 ^R^ZT 3^3 ^rl^irj ||

sstlK^^^fif WT5R 5RT fffl 3?irT ^T3i oJTR 1 II
Translation of the text of K\bha Jr.

" The Grosain Sri Hari Vans : who can understand all at once his method
of devotion? with whom the feet of blessed Radha were the highest object of
worship ; a most staunchrsouled devotee ; who made himself the page in wait-
ing on the divine pair in their bower of love ; who gloried in the enjoyment of
the remnants of all that was offered at their shrine ; a servant who never pleaded
obligation or dispensation : a votary of incomparable zeal. Account him blessed
who follows in the path of Vyasa's greal son, the Gosain Sri Hari Vans ; who
can understand all at once his method of devotion ?"

In the gloss, or supplement of Priya Das, composed in the year Sunbat
1709, the same sentiment is expanded and a reference made to the legend of
the Brahman and his two daughters.

HIS DEVOTION TO RXDHX. 201

II 2MT H

sfr5T3fT fftn ^T3i 5HUR*! *I3T <5fR
Trail fl^T^ TTT^t UTS? ffOU T<2JT! 3f I

3^ Zfi) fftlT^fg ^SFf T3ig mf 5 I
fara ilT fa^l ^5 ^TT HR^R fwaf

f%m fa^i ara Hg f^^T ^1 *tt|^ I

TTTJ5 =qTT* ^3 TT%5F faf^ ^flJfi
fan ^vn*T IK^raT 5l "3TTf^g I

ml 3^txr §fiT sriw s^t ^ttt ^tt

3^3>"T %IT =TTl U^ SIH WR^ I

cRWl it^ ^TTrl XfW ~R^m H ^IRsf I
Tlfa=fiT^*WT?T ^raT ^T T^T^T st

3l| fa^R gtraTC c^I^q fq^TT
T33T *fe f%R f^T HT^ ^TJT ^T I
fafa T3^l TH TT4 HT^tT 3tT m^T 3T

JT^ TIT ^5RH 3ifl ^RTlti ^tt cfi^

^1 UH flT5 ^if ^TT flf ^m ^T II
51

202 THE TEMPLE OF EXDhX-VALLABH.

Translation.

" Would you kuow the one point in a thousand of Sri Hit Ji's ways ? he
adored Radha first and after her Krishna. A most strange and unnatural
fashion, that none could even faintly comprehend save by his favour. He obli-
terated all distinction between obligation and dispensation ; his beloved was in
his heart : he lived only as her servant, singing the praises of the divinity
night and day. All the faithful know his many edifying and holy actions ;
why tell and repeat them, since they are famous already.

" He left his home and came ; his passion for Radha anil Krishna had so
grown : but you must know Hari had given an order to a wealthy Brahman :
' Bestow your two daughters in marriage, taking my name, and know that their
issue shall be famous throughout the world. By their means my worship shall
spread among my faithful people, a path for the pathless, of high renown.'
Obedient to the loving order he went home ; the delight of all was past telling,
for it was more than the mind could even conceive. Radha's dear spouse gave
the gracious command : ' Publish abroad my worship and the delights of my
sylvan abode.' He drank in with his very eyes the essence of bliss and gave
it to every client who supported the cause of the female divinity. Night and
day imbibing the honeyed draught of sweet song and cherishing it in his soul,
with no thought but for Syama and Syarn. How is it possible to declare such
incomparable merit ? the soul is enraptured at the sound more than at that of
any other name."

By his later wives he had two sons, Braj Chand and Krishan Chand, of whom
the latter built a temple to Radha Mohan, which is still in the possession of his
descendants. The former was the ancestor of the present Gosains of the temple
of Radha Vallabh, the chief shrine of the sect. This was built by one of his
disciples, a Kayath named Sundar Das, who held the appointment of treasurer
at Delhi. One of the pillars in the front gives the date as Sambat 1683. An
earlier inscription, of 1641, was noticed by Professor Wilson, but this would
seem to have been over the gateway leading into the outer court, which since
then has fallen down and been removed. On the opposite side of the street is a
monument to the founder, which however the present generation of Gosains
are too ungrateful to keep in repair. They are the descendants of Braj Chand's
four sons, Sundar-Bar, Radha Ballabh Das, Braj-Bhukhan and Nagar Bar Ji ;
and the heads of the four families so derived are now Daya Lai, Mauohar
Ballabh, Sundar Lai and the infant son of Kanhaiya Lai.

the rXdhX-sudhX-nidhi. 203

Hari Vans was himself the author of two poems ; the one, the Chaurdsi Pada,
or ' 84 Stanzas,' in Hindi ; the other the Rddhd Surf/id Nidhi, or ' Treasury
of Radha's Delights,' in 170 Sanskrit couplets. The latter, though not much
read, is held in great esteem and, regarded solely as a piece of highly impas-
sioned erotic verse, it is a spirited and poetic composition. There is a good
Hindi commentary upon it by one Bansidhar, dated Sambat 1820. As MSS.
are scarce and Sanskritists may like to see a specimen of the text, I subjoin the
first 25 and the last couplet in the original, followed by a translation:—

II ^T5R II

1 O "00 ^ n£> s*j

^3W5RTOI^ra^r!Sli|R fi TTf^^T^TJUT^Ri *RXjm II 3 II

Cfl nO n^ nO n*> <J

SrlTOinf cl§*n3§^rc*M TT^TIWT^Wl T3SaRr<4R*lf^T B c ||

204 the bXdhX-sudhX-nidhi.

cmzjv. sfi^T^ flfarTT wu 3^pg^^T3^WR|f^rf Tfa^sari: n qq II

?r«i fif!^ HMT^ig^ ?1 ^TOUH SR3T ^^fa^^^Tci II 18 II

gig ^c^nm ^ftrfTWTmr ^f1T52^^ ^ ^fw wm n qy n

nO NO s*> ^ ^>

HT ^T^^^ft^SW^: THrlT qR^^FT TTT IWT^tHt II q<= II

sO no so X nO ° nO-O

THE rXdiiX-stjdh^-nidhi. 205

STTlfaifi clef gpJ^T HoRTIT^j Tl'Sgjm WJfqTR T^Irin^rT^ II ^ II

x nO o ^* o x

t3^HlTTfcI3i^T%^T?WlT TT^frm^ 7W H^TSra-.gKSTT II ^ «

^rl^TvSa 5R^5B^51Tr^I TflXTrlT ^TC II 1 Q 0 li
f%*!^rU ^ITrSTO^raifafa: ^HIW II o ||

NO G- >.

Translation.

1. " Hail to the home of Vrisha-bluinu's daughter, by whom once and again
even Madhn-suclan — whose ways are scarce intelligible to the greatest sages — ■
was made happy, as she playfully raised the border of her robe and fanned hirn
with its delicious breeze.

2. "Hail to the majesty of Vrisha-bhanu's daughter, the holy dust of whose
lotus feet, beyond the conception of Brahma, Siva and the other gods, is alto-
gether supcrnaturally glorious, and whose glance moistened with compassion
is like a shower of the refined essence of all good things.

3. " I call to mind the dust of the feet of Radhika, a powder of infinite
virtue, that incontinently and at once reduces to subjection the great power, that
was beyond the ken even of Brahma, Rudra, Sukadeva, Nurada, Bhishnia and
the other divine personages.

4. " I call to mind the dust of the feet of Radhika, which the noble milk-
maids placed upon their head and so attained an honour much desired by the

206 THE RA'DHX-SUDHX-NIDHr.

votaries of the god with the peacock crest, dust that like the cow of heaven yields
the fullness of enjoyment to all who worship with rapturous emotion.

5. " Glory to the goddess of the bower, who with an embrace the quintes-
sence of heavenly bliss, like a bountiful wave of ambrosia, sprinkled and restored
to life the son of Nanda, swooning under the stroke of Love's thousand arrows.

6. " When will there visit us that essence of the ocean of delight, the face
of Radha with sweet coy glances, bewildering us with the brilliance of ever
twinkling sportive play, a store-house of every element of embodied sweetness ?

7. " When shall I become the handmaid to sweep the court-yard of the
bower of love for the all-blissful daughter of Vrisha-bhanu, among whose servants
oft and again every day are heard the soft tones of the peacock-crested god?

8. " 0 my soul, leave at a distance all the host of the great, and affection-
ately hie to the woods of Brindii-ban : here Radha's name is as a flood of nectar
on the soul for the beatification of the pious, a store-house of all that is divine.

9. " When shall I hear the voice of blessed Radha, that fountain of delights
crying 'Nay, Nay,' with knitted brows, as some gallant suitor, fallen at her feet,
begs for the rapturous joy of her embrace ?

10. " When, oh when, will Radhika show me favour, that incarnation of
the fullness of the ocean of perfect love, the marvellous glory of the glistening
splendour of whose lotus feet was seen among the herdsmen's wives ?

11. "When shall I attain to the blissful vision of the golddess of the-
blooming bowers of the woods of Brinda-ban, her eyes all tremulous with love,
and the different members of her body like the waves of an overflowing ocean
of delight ?

12. "0 queen of Brinda-ban, I betake me to thy lotus feet, fraught with
the honeyed flood of love's ambrosia, which planted in Madhu-pati's heart,
assuaged by their grateful coolness the fierce fever of desire.

13. " Fain would my soul loiter in the woods sacred to Radha's loves,
where the sprays of the creepers have been plucked by Radha's hands, where the
fragrant soil blossoms with Radha's footprints, and where the frequent birds
are madly garrulous with Radha's praises.

14. " When, 0 daughter of Vrisha-bhanu, shall I experience the conceit
induced by excess of voluptuous dalliance, I your handmaid, charged with the
message, ' Come and enjoy Krishna's dainties, ' and answered with the smile,
' Only stay, friend, till night comes.'

THE RtonX-SUDH^-NIDHI. 207

15. " Ah ! when shall I behold Radha, with downcast eyes,bashfully steal-
ing a distant "-lance at the moon-like orb of the face of the lord of lovers, as she
trips with twinkling feet, all graceful in her movements, to the music of her
own bangles ?

16. " When, 0 Radha, will you fall asleep, while my hands caress your
feet, after I have tenderly bathed you and fed you with sweet things, wearied
with your vigil through a night of dalliance in the inmost bower, in the
delicious embrace of your paragon of lovers ?

17. " 0 that the ocean of wit, the singular ocean of love's delights, the
ocean of tenderness, the ocean of exuberant pitifulness, the ocean of loveliness,
the ocean of ambrosial beauty and grace, the ocean of wantonness, blessed
Radhika, would manifest herself in my soul !

18. "0 that the daughter of Vrisha-bhanu, looking up all tremulous and
glistening in every limb like the flowering champa, would clasp me in her arms,
charmed by my chanted praises of Syam-sundar, as she listens for the sound of
his pipe !

19. " Blessed Radhika, cool me with the multiplicity of love that breathes
in the swan-like melody of the girdle that binds your loins reddened with
dalliance, and in the tinkling of the bangles, like the buzzing of bees, clustered
round your sweet lotus feet.

20. " Blessed Radhika, wreathed with the surge of a Ganges wave of
heavenly dalliance, with lovely lotus face and navel as a whirl in the stream,
hastening on to the confluence with Krishna, that ocean of sweetness, draw
near to me.

21. " When, 0 blessed Radhika, shall I rest upon my head your lotus feet,
Govind's life and all, that ever rain down upon the faithful abundant torrents
of the honeyed flood of the ocean of perfect love ?

22. " When, 0 Radha, stately as an elephant in gait, shall I accompany
you to the bower of assignation to show the way, bearing divinely sweet sandal
wood and perfumes and spices, as you march in the excitement of love's rapture?

23. " 0 blessed Radha, having gone to some secluded slope of the
Jamuna and there rubbing with fragrant unguents your ambrosial limbs, the very
life of Love, when shall I see your prince of lusty swains, with longing eyes,
mounted on some high kadamb tree ?

208 the chaurXsi pada.

24. "When, 0 blessed Radhika, shall I behold your heavenly face, clustered —
as if with bees — with wanton curls, like some lotus blossoming in a lake of
purest love, or a moon swelling an ocean of enjoyment, an ocean of delight.

25. " Ah ! the name of Radlni, perfection of loveliness, perfection of delight,
sole perfection of happiness, perfection of pity, perfection of honeyed beauty
and grace, perfection of wit, perfection of the rapturous joys of love, perfection
of all the most perfect that my soul can conceive !

170. " 0 ye wise, if there be any one desirous of transcendental happiness,
let him fill the pitcher of his ears and drink in this panegyric, called the JRasa-
sudhd-nidhi, or ' Treasury of Love's delights."

The Hindu poem, the Chaurdsi Pada, is much more popular, and most of
the Gosains know at least some of its stanzas by heart. There is a commentary
upon it by Lok-nath, dated Sambat 1855, and another in verse, called the Rahasya
artha-nirujiana by Rasik Lai, written in Sambat 1734. Neither of the two,
however, is of much assistance to the student ; all the simple passages being
paraphrased with wearisome prolixity, while real difficulties are generally skip-
ped. I subjoin the text and translation of the first 12 stanzas: —

TW PWW II

II % II

ill! %T? ^T^T SnT %l| W\k Wll
wt ^TT% inf T4l| T4t! 5nT T3TTT I
Wirt m W3rfl 3T* XZHTSi ^hlR *j
12JRI VFXTT ^TW AK ^R3i cUT I

at ^t r\^ ir vm r infw fnxr

^TR 3UfS3i THHI TflrW flfli WIT I
^ll liH Si*! ^cTCJTR ^?R II

THE chaurXsi pada. 209

II 3 II
Jiti^ Trains, ff ttt? ruift ^ upt ^ 5W1 srr srw^t n

if ssRmfllRBi^r ^^R §=Irl WlfT TTTVJSRRSr^ln W^l JlaPTITi^Rt II

II 5 II

am *w ^t^ ts Fias *Kci sre Itaf! ^mura i

w^s. twI fairer rasm 'srasRicjfsT ^^ira jjrt <*?t^*t?t i

v3 ^ O

% sTiti rrircsj sr JT3^n Tm *i ^q sfa wfe mwz s^ »

vSCn

II 8 II

^TST ^T S^rfl FITT ^SR ^T^5 W^T fas^ ^fJTO5& *H3rI *Ttr§ ?f j
^\^ ST^cT ^ §*IR*T ERTfal T^^fofifl ^*U 3^ ^P3i H^ I!
^fa* m^5R ^g fa^cl g??p 3ig f%T ^TJTrf gfafT J?T^T £f ^
5&W ^R 33K TTUrT Efi^ ^ ^R 3*R 3g=T ^UTrT 51=1 ^ ||

gnitlT ^ttH rifc u^3 THrrrT =€ft =ra rail ^rirr f%l sci etc }

II % II
=35^ JWTcl ?mfflf3* *i *TC cRTJcl fllffl 1^ ^TTT^T 3T I

* NO S3 N3

^T^^rin ^w*m vioiflt *&ik Fi3f% xm *Rcf ^r=if% u* I!

=K^ Steffi* TT%Irl HMT^f^ *TCcRT2J ^Tl^TH VJTJTCTC |

NO NO NO "NO

THITT JTO % 3RT Wficl f^cjrl =3rR TSTfflf*!I Vtt 3R II

sum ^m 'sriit nfsci sr^i jtr ^tft jm wxn mmx I

W »snflrJlRsi^- Tim UtTIR *TT?^ ^fa HT 3<1 R^TrfT It.:

53,

210 THE CHAUE^SI PADA,

ii S n

5RH ^c\T ^^rfl TPTOT «1TTW m^rT ^T^ %TT| *R I

so SO ""

3^ojffF ^§ra 3* *IR ^I* T*m JTl^ ^*l ^ H

VO so so

s3T ^trg^ t%TH ^3 ^3H3 ^ i^ I

ii xm T^TT3?T II

W^\ R^lTSffl ^rt ^^Mtu* ^=Tr M^ITCT I

si» ^a ^ii

^jffl *5Rim ^SRTTJT TIT^T* ?RR ^Wcl *TfTFt tlT %ffl ||

so so SO cs t>

ra3*r xfiT3*f TMlra Rfflri ^rc ^^^^^ttit ^ ind i

>o Cs

%TB^T TSTCFni ^R *PR^ rTT^^ ^JW Rafael *tl€ II

m^R ure hkw tr trcra^ tTm ^t^t brit^ m; ^tCt i

?TK ^fTJT WaT 5R5if TRTfT HT^I *^R ^T^rT Itft II

!Rs3* nsjfi: R^fTRi ^^r^t raw ras^ ttr^cT w€t I
fgg^ tt^t^ h^t? u^Tfari ftra htM^st orti ri tCt ii

^m %ffl =I=g^rarJ *fR STR ^T^rlTfafsR 3;UfI 3K%rfr I

<■ so so so

% stiff elf R=I3I cfiTcl 5fir<RH 1RET ^TXl JTT^igf^ ^l6 II

II c ||

Will ^m m ?R ^?5R Cl I

^SoTft ^cKJcl TJR?f *TS RT^m* TWR HT5R d II

r^t trcrtj s33r! Tfi^^mm i^'cwf ^ti^ gn s^ci ^f^ ^t ft i

THE CHAURXSI PAD A. 211

II 5. II
*ira mm^i ra^R ift itwh f%5Frs3 f%g tt€t i

JT^T ^Tf«R IW ^M TRJ3R Jim fWR f^Kl II

^Tt^ t%%^t «rofm ^ti^t us^rft ^m re?: ^r<t i

II 1.0 ||
=Ftrl Sif?I 5F3 Trra ^TTf ^^ jf^S if^

&j'm wzv fiiirc sjthCt Jj^JTrrrc

sO CO s3

ir w 3;tifd iR^m ^tm f^m^t wiw ^tt^

^TK ^R3;m UUU 51 if 3TfT II

II 11 II
Tm^ w,^{ sF^rafr TraTlR firos^r

S3 s3

TT5RRW SRHSefa ^fT5 -STTW^t I

^fTT5 JR7 ^51 TT^ZI ?1SrT SlfjRT I

v S3CS S3 cs

llTWsm del ^R^T W51IW=fi I

212 THE chaubXsi pada.

fifi3Ii?ra3?Rf%cT sfa ^T^fT fqit ^1? ^

j*pt sfici afcms nm^ sRim^t I

flTl^TR STOrf TTR tl^cl ^T^ ^fl^T IK
tqSTaTcI ^m ^f^T ^5H *m*RT I

%ono <a

n ^ ii

=3^T1 TTT^I^ ST^IT5* m flrl TTUH^R

SO NO

so Cs Cs

SJloIrl i-M^H UTT^T ^RT3=ft I

On so

gretsre: f%^2 ^it inwrai*im Hit

SSRSWH3 USUI ^1 =Jm tf^sft I

s*> vO

fci^rew Wai ifiof ^5T hiFhr ^rara^ i^f^

so sO> S3 so

Translation of the first twelve Stanzas of the ChaurXsi pada.

I . " Whatever my Beloved doeth is pleasing to me ; and whatever is pleasing
to me, that my Beloved doeth. The place where I would be is in my Beloved's
eyes ; and my Beloved would fain be the apple of my eyes. My Love is dearer
to me than body, soul, or life ; and my Love would lose a thousand lives

TOE chaueXsi pada. 213

for me. Rejoice, Sri Hit Hari Vans ! the loving pair, one dark, one fair, are
like two cygnets ; tell me who can separate wave from water ?*

II. " 0 my Beloved, has the fair spoken ? this is surely a beautiful night :
the lightning is folded in the lusty cloud's embrace. 0 friend, where is the
woman who would quarrel with so exquisite a prince of gallants ? Rejoice, Sri
Hari Vans ! dear Radhika hearkened with her ears and with voluptuous emotion
joined in love's delights, t

III. "At day-break the wanton pair, crowned with victory in love's conflict,
were all-exuberant. On her face are frequent beads of labour's dew, and all
the adornments of her person are in disarray, the paint-spot on her brow is all
but effaced by heat, ami the straggling curls upon her lotus face resemble
roaming bees. (Rejoice, Sri Hit Hari Vans !) her eyes are red with love's
colours and her voice and loins feeble and relaxed.

IV. " Your face, fair dame, to-day is full of joy, betokening your happi-
ness and delight in the intercourse with your Beloved. Your voice is languid
and tremulous, your cheeks aflame, and both your weary eyes are red with
sleeplessness ; your pretty tiluh half effaced, the flowers on your head faded,
and the parting of your hair as if you had never made it at all. The Bounti-
ful one of his grace refused you no boon, as you coyly took the hem of
your robe between your teeth. Why shrink away so demurely ? you have
changed clothes with your Beloved, and the dark-hued swain has subdued you
a- completely as though ho had been tutored by a hundred Loves. The
garland on his breast is faded, the clasp of his waist-belt loose (Rejoice, Sri
Hit Hari Vans !) as he comes from his couch in the bower.

V. " To-day at dawn there was a shower of rapture in the bower, where
the happy pair were delighting themselves, one dark, one fair, bright with all
gay colours, as she tripped with dainty foot upon the floor. Great Syam, the
glorious lord of love, had his flower wreath stained with the saffron dye of her
breasts, and was embellished with the scratches of his darling's nails : she too
was marked by the hands of her jewel of lovers. The happy pair in an ecstasy

* That is to say, it is nothing strange that Radha and Krishna should take such mutual
delight in one another, since they are in fact one and are as inseparable as a wave and the water
of which the wave is composed.

t The first line is a question put to Krishna by one of Kadha's maids, asking him if her mis-
tress had promised him an interview. The second line is a remark whicli she turns and makes to
one of her own companions.

214 THE CHAUR^SI PADA.

of affection make sweet song, stealing each other's heart (Rejoice, Sri Hit Hari
Vans !) the bard is fain to praise, but the drone of a bee is as good as his in-
effectual rhyme.

VI. " Who so clever, pretty damsel, whom her lover comes to meet,
stealing through the night ? Why shrink so coyly at my words ? Your
eyes are suffused and red with love's excitement, your bosom is marked with
his nails, you are dressed in his clothes, and your voice is tremulous. (Rejoice,
Sri Hit Hari Vans !) Radha's amorous lord has been mad with love.

VII. " To-day the lusty swain and blooming dame are sporting in their
pleasant bower. 0 list ! great and incomparable is the mutual affection of
the happy pair, on the heavenly* plain of Brinda-ban. The ground gleams
bright with coral and crystal and there is a strong odour of camphor. A
dainty couch of soft leaves is spread, on which the dark groom and his
fair bride recline, intent upon the joys and delights of dalliance, their lotus
cheeks stained with red streaks of betel juice. There is a charming strug-
gle between dark hands and fair to loose the string that binds her skirt.
Beholdiuo- herself as in a mirror in the necklace on Hari's breast, the silly
girl is troubled by delusion and begins to fret, till her lover wagging his
pretty chin shows her that she has been looking only at her own shadow.
Listening to her honeyed voice, as again and again she cries ' Nay, nay,'
Lalita and the others take a furtive peep (Rejoice, Sri Hit Hari Vans!) till
tossing her hands in affected passion she snaps his jewelled necklet.

VIII. " Ah, red indeed are your lotus eyes, lazily languishing and
inflamed by night-long watch, and their collyrium all faded. From your
drooping eyelids shoots a glance like a bolt, that strikes your swain as it
were a deer and he cannot stir. (Rejoice, Sri Hit Hari Vans !) 0 damsel,
voluptuous in motion as the swan, your eyes deceive even the wasps and bees.

IX. " Radha and Mohan are such a dainty pair, he dark and beautiful
as the sapphire, she with body of golden lustre : Hari with a tilak on his
broad forehead and the Fair with a roll streak amidst the tresses of her
hair : the lord like a stately elephant in gait and the daughter of Vrisha-
bhanu like an elephant queen : the damsel in a blue vesture and Mohan in
yellow with a red khaur on his forehead (Rejoice, Sri Hit Hari Vans !)
Radha's amorous lord is dyed deep with love's colours.

X. " To-day the damsel and her swain take delight in novel ways.
What can I say ? they are altogether exquisite in every limb ; sporting

Abhut, not created, self-produced, divine.

the chaurXsi pada. 215

together with arms about each other's neck and cheek to cheek, by such
delicious contact making a circle of wanton delight. As they dance, the
dark swain and the fair damsel, pipe and drum and cymbal blend in sweet
concert with the tinkling of the bangles on her wrists and ankles and the
girdle round her waist. Sri Hit Hari Vans, rejoicing at the sight of the
damsels' dancing and their measured paces, tears his soul from his body and
lays them both at their feet.

XL " The pavilion is a bright and charming spot ; R&dha and Hari
are in glistening attire and the full-orbed autumnal moon is resplendent in
the heaven. The dark-hued swain and nymph of golden sheen, as they toy
together, show like the lightning's flash and sombre cloud. In saffron ves-
ture he and she in scarlet ; their affection deep beyond compare ; and the
air, cool, soft and laden with perfumes. Their couch is made of leaves and
blossoms and he woos her in dulcet tones, while coyly the fair one repulse3
his every advance. Love tortures Mohan's soul, as he touches her bosom,
or waist-band, or wreath, and timorously she cries 'off, off.' Pleasant is
tho sporting of the glorious lord, close-locked in oft-repeated embrace, and
like an earth-reviving river is the flood of his passion.

XII. " Come Radhii, you knowing one, your paragon of lovers has
started a dance on the bank of the Jamuna's stream. Bevies of damsels
are dancing in all the abandonment of delight ; the joyous pipe gives forth
a stirring sound. Near the Bansi-bat, a sweetly pretty spot, where the
spicy air breathes with delicious softness, where the half-opened jasmine fills
the world with overpowering fragrance, beneath the clear radiance of the
autumnal full moon, the milkmaids with raptured eyes are gazing on your
glorious lord, all beautiful from head to foot, quick to remove love's every
pain. Put your arms about his neck, fair dame, pride of the world, and
lapped in the bosom of the Ocean of delight, disport yourself with Syam in
his blooming bower."

If ever the language of the brothel was borrowed for temple use, it has
been so here. But, strange to say, the Gosains, who accept as their Gospel
these sensuous ravings of a morbid imagination, are for the most part highly
respectable married men, who contrast rather favourably, both in sobriety
of life and intellectual acquirements, with the professors of rival sects that
are based on more reputable authorities. Several of them have a good know-
ledge of literary Hindi ; but their proficiency in Sanskrit is not very high ;
the best informed among them being unable to resolve into its constituent

216 OTHER POEMS BY HARI VANS'S DISCIPLES.

elements ami explain the not very recondite compound suduruha, which will be
found in the second stanza of the Radha-sudhi.

To indicate the fervour of his passionate love for his divine mistress,
Hari Vans assumed the title of Hit Ji and is popularly better known by
this name than by the one which he received from his parents. His most
famous disciple was Vyas Ji of Orchha, of whom various legends are report-
ed. On his first visit to the Swami he found him busy cooking, but at
once propounded some knotty theological problem. The sage without any
hesitation solved the difficulty, but first threw away the whole of the food
he had prepared, with the remark that no man could attend properly to two
things at once. Vyas was so struck by this procedure that he then and
there enrolled himself as his disciple, and in a short space of time conceived
•such an affection for Brinda-ban that he was most reluctant to leave it even
to return to his wife and children. At last, however, he forced himself to
go, but had not been with them long before he determined that they should
themselves disown him, and accordingly he one day in their presence took
and ate some food from a scavenger's hand. After this act of social excom-
munication he was allowed to return to Brinda-ban, where he spent the
remainder of his life and where his samc'ulh, or tomb, is still to be seen.

Another disciple, Dhruva Das, was a a voluminous writer and composed
as many as 42 poems, of which the following is a list: 1, Jiv-dasa; 2, Baid-
gyan ; 3, Man-siksha ; 4, Brindaban-sat ; 5, Bhakt-namavali ; 6, Brihadbaman
Puran ; 7, Khyal Hulas ; 8, Siddkant Bichar ; !), Priti-chovani ; 10, Anand-
ashtak; 11, Bkajanashtak; 12, Bhajan-kundaliya; 13, Bhajan-sat; 14, Sringar-
: 15, Man-sringar; Hi, Hit-sringar ; 17, Sabha-mandal ; 18, Bas-mukta-
vali; 19, Ras-hiravali ; 20, Ras-ratnavali ; 21, Premavali; 22. SriPriyaJiki
namavali; 23, Rahasya-manjari ; 24, Sukh-manjari ; 25, Rati-manjari ; 26,
Nek-man jari : 27, Ban-bihar; 28, Ras-bihar ; 29, Rang-hulas ; 30, Rang-
bihar: 31, Rang-binod; 32, Anand-dasa; 33, Rahasya-lata ; 34, Anand-lata; 35,
Anurag-lata; 36, Prem-lata; 37, Ras-anand ; 38, Jugal-dhyan; 39, Nirtya-
bilas;40, Dan-lila; 41, Man-lila ; 42, Braj-lila.

Other poems by different members of the same sect are the Sevak-bani,
the Ballabh-rasik ki bani and the Guru-pratap, by Damodar Das; the Hari-
nam-mahima by Damodar Swami: the Sri Rap Lai Ji ka ashtaka, by Hit
Ballabh ; and the Hari-nam-beli, the Sri Lai Ji badhai ami the Sri Liirili Juki
badhai by Brinda-ban Das.

swXmi hari dXs. 217

The only one of the three more important modern schools which yet remains
to be mentioned is that founded by Swami Hari Das. The Gosains, his des-
cendants, who now, with their wives and children, number some 500 persons, own
one of the most conspicuous of the modern temples, which is dedicated to Krishna
under his title of Bihari Ji, or in more popular phrase Banke Bihari. This is
not only their head-quarters, but appears to be the only temple in all India of
which they have exclusive possession. It has lately been rebuilt at a cost of
Ks. 70,000 ; a sum which has been raised in the course of 13 years by the
contributions of their clients from far and near. It is a large square red sand-
stone block of plain, but exceedingly substantial, character, with a very effective
central gateway of white stone. This has yet to be completed by the addition
of an upper story ; but even as it stands, the delicacy of its surface carving,
and the extremely bold projection of its eaves, render it a pleasing specimen of
the style of architecture now in vogue at Brinda-ban — one of the few places in
the civilized world where architecture is not a laboriously studied reproduction
of a dead past, but a still living art, which is constantly developing by a process
of spontaneous growth. The estate is divided into two shares or bats, according
to the descent of the Gosains. Their founder was himself a celibate; but his
brother Jagannath had three sons, Megh Syam, Murari Das and Gopinath Das,
of whom the third died childless, the other two being the ancestors of the pre-
sent generation. As is usual in such cases, the two families are at war with
one another, and have more than once been obliged to invoke the assistance of
the law to prevent a serious breach of the peace. Beyond the saintliness of
their ancestor, but few of them have any claim to respect, either on account of
their learning — for the majority of them cannot even read — or for the correct-
ness of their morals. There are, however, two exceptions to the general rule

one for each bat — in the person of the Gosains Jagadis and Kishor Chand;
both of whom are fairly well read, within the narrow limits of their own sec-
tarian literature, beyond which they have never dreamed of venturing

In the original Bhakt-mala of Nabha Ji, the stanza referring to Hari Das
stands as follows:

?^ I
^ST^fefR 3gYcI SRI Tf%=R ^1U lR3ra 3iT II

218 swXmi hari da's.

»JttTFT gTC 3T3 TW 3T7R ^TSJT <5TO sfi II

3ITWft 3^TrI ER TRW W^ ?K5T^ Sfil II

which may be tlms translated:

"Tell we now of Hari Das, the pride of Xsdhir, who sealed the list of the
saints; who, bound by a vow to the perpetual repetition of the two names of
Kunj-bihari, was ever beholding the sportive actions of the god, the lord of the
Gopis' delights; who was a very Gandharv in melodious song and propitiated
Syam and Syama, presenting them with tbe daintiest food in daily sacrifice and
feeding the peacocks and monkeys and fish; at whose door a king stood waiting
in hope of an interview; Hari Das, the pride of Asdhfr, who sealed the list of
the saints."

This is followed by the Gloss, or Supplement of Priya Das:

ifagmraf? ^m %tI «mi *rra ml 1 11

^IZTI $ira TOT BJT^T *tf?l **=* W3JT. ofW

^rczh ^ tr^f^f xii tot f%xr "«mS »
onfall Haifa 5B^t h tstoi Hi^rariT

si*

*lf%5R 3^1TT U3 *m^ STST^ II

sO -<i NO •

fsfi^i rra mm sref ^t^t fara *tt?zt ii

which may be thus rendered:

" Who can tell all the perfections of Sri Swami Hari Das, who by ever
muttering in prayer the sacred name came to be the very seal of devotion.
Some one brought him perfume that ho valued very highly; he took and threw
it down on the bank; the other thought it wasted. Said the sage, knowing his
thoughts: 'Take and show him the god:' he slightly raised the curtain; all

LEGENDS OF HARI DA'S. 219

was drenched with perfume. The philosopher's stone he cast into the water,
then gave instruction: many are the legends of the kind."

Probably few will deny that at least in this particular passage the disciple
is more obscure than his master; and the obscurity, which is a sufficiently pro-
minent feature in the English translation, is far greater in the Hindi text, where
no indication is given of a change of person, and a single form answers indiffer-
ently for every tense of a verb and every case of a noun. The Bhakt-Sindhu
expands the two stanzas into a poem of 211 couplets and supplies a key to all
the allusions in the following detailed narrative :

Brahm-dhir, a Sanadh Brahman of a village now called Haridaspur, near
Kol, had a son, Gyandhir, who entertained a special devotion for Krishna under
his form of Giridhari — ' the mountain-supporter' — and thus made frequent pil-
grimages to the holy hill of Gobardhan. On one such occasion he took to him-
self a wife at Mathura, and she in due time bore him a son, whom he named As-
dhir. The latter eventually married a daughter of Ganga-dhar, a Brahman of
Raj pur — a small village adjoining Brinda-ban — who on the 8th of the dark fort-
night of the month of Bhadon in the samba t year 1441 give birth to Hari Das.
Form his earliest childhood he gave indications of his future sanctity, and instead
of joining in play with other children was always engaged in prayer and religious
meditation. In spite of his parents' entreaties he made a vow7 of celibacy, and at
the age of 25 retired to a solitary hermitage by the Man Sarovar, a natural lake
on the left bank of the Jamuna, opposite Brinda-ban. He afterwards removed
to the Nidh-ban in that town, and there formally received his first disciple,
Bithal-Bipul, who was his own maternal uncle. His fame soon spread far and
wide, and among his many visitors was one day a Khattri from Delhi, by name
Dayal Das, who had by accident discovered the philosopher's stone, which trans-
muted into gold everything with which it was brought in contact. This he
presented as a great treasure to the Swami, who however tossed it away into the
Jamuna ; but then seeing the giver's vexation, he took him to the margin of the
stream and bade him take up a handful of sand out of the water. When he
had done so, each single grain seemed to be a facsimile of the stone that had
been thrown away and, when tested, was found to possess precisely the same
virtue. Thus the Khattri was made to understand that the saints stand in no
need of earthly riches, but are complete in themselves ; and he forthwith joined
the number of Hari Das's disciples.

Some thieves, however, hearing that the sage had been presented with the
philosopher's stone, one day when he was bathing, took the opportunity of

220 LEGENDS OF HARI DXS".

stealing his sdlagrdm, which they thought might be it. On discovering it to be
useless for their purpose, they threw it away under a bush, and as the saint in
his search for it happened to pass by the spot, the stone itself found voice to tell
him where it lay. From that time forth he received every morning by mira-
culous agency a gold coin, out of which he was to provide the temple-offerings
(bho'/) and to spend whatever remained over in the purchase of grain wherewith
to feed the fish in the Jamuna and the peacocks and monkeys on its banks.

One day a Kayath made him an offering of a bottle of atar worth Rs. 1,000,
and was greatly mortified to see the Swami drop it carelessly on the ground, so
that the bottle was broken and the precious essence all wasted. But on being
taken to the temple he found that his gift had been accepted by the god, for the
whole building was fragrant with its perfume.

Again, a minstrel at the court of the Dehli Emperor had an incorrigibly
stupid son, who was thereupon expelled in disgrace. In his wanderings he
happened to come to Brinda-bun, and there threw himself down on the road to
sleep. In the early morning the Swami, going from the Nidh-ban to bathe,
stumbled over him, and after hearing his story gave him the name of Tan-sen,
and by the mere exercise of his will converted him at once into a most accom-
plished musician. On his return to Delhi, the Emperor was astonished at the
brilliancy of his performance, and determined himself to pay a visit to Brinda-ban
and see the master under whom he had studied. Accordingly, when he was
next at Agra, he came over to Mathura, and rode out as far as Bhat-rond —
half-way — whence he proceeded on foot to the Nidh-ban. The saint received
his old pupil very graciously, but took no notice of his royal companion, though
he knew perfectly well who he was. At last, as the Emperor continued beg-
ging that ho might be of some service, he took him to the Bihari ghat close by,
which for the nonce appeared as if each one of its steps was a single precious
stone set in a border of gold ; and there showing him one step with a slight flaw
in it, asked him to replace it by another. This was a work beyond the capacity
even of the great Emperor, who thereupon contented himself with making a
small endowment for the support of the sacred monkeys and peacocks and then
went his way after receiving a most wearisome amount of good advice.

No further incident is recorded in the life of Hari Das, the date of whose
death is given as Sambat 153-7. He was succeeded as Mahant by his uncle
Bithal-Bipul ; and he by Bihari Das. The latter was so absorbed in enthu-
siasm that a Sarasvat Brahman, of PanjaW extraction, by name Jagannath,
was brought over from Kol to administer the affairs of the temple ; and after

THE DATE OF FIARI DA'S. 221

his death the succession was continued through several other names, which it
seems unnecessary to transcribe.

Thus far the narrative of the Bhakt-Sindhu ; which, it will be seen, affords
an explanation of the obscure allusions in the Bhakt-Mala to the two presenta-
tions of the atar and the philosopher's stone, the daily feeding of the monkeys
and peacocks and the Emperor's visit. In other matters, however, it is not at
all in accord with the traditions accepted by the Swami's descendants ; for they
say that he was not a Sanadh by caste, but a Sarasvat ; that his family came not
from Kol or Jalesar, but from Uchch near Multan, and that he lived not four
centuries ago, but at the most only three. It would seem that the author of the
Bhakt-Sindhu was the partisan of a schism in the community, which occurred
about 50 years or so ago, and that he has moulded his facts accordingly ; for
the Jajiannath whom he brings over from Kol is not named in a genuine list
of the Mahants, which will be given hereafter. That he is utterly at fault in
his dates, Sambat 1441 — 1537, is obvious at a glance ; for the Emperor who
visited Brinda-ban was certainly Akbar, and he did not ascend the throne till
Sambat 1612. It is true that Professor Wilson, in his Religious Sects of the
Hindus, where he mentions Hari Das, describes him as a disciple and faithful
companion of Chaitanya, who was born in 1485 and died in 1527 A. D. But
although Hari Das had imbibed the spirit of Chaitanya's teaching, I know of
no ground for maintaining that there was any personal intercourse between the
two ; had it been so, that fact would scarcely have escaped record in the Bhakt-
Mala or some one of its modern paraphrases. Moreover, I have by me a small
pothi of 6S0 leaves, which gives a complete list of all the Mahants and their
writings from the founder down to the date of the MS., which is Sambat 1825.
The list is as follows : Swami Hari Das, Bithal Bipul, Biharini Das, Nagari
Das, Saras Das, Naval Das, Narhar Das, Rasik Das, and Lalit-Kishori, other-
wise called Lalit-mohani Das. Allowing 20 years for each incumbency, which
is rather a high average, since only an elderly man would be elected for the post,
the date of Hari Das's death is thrown back only as far as Sambat 1665. His
writings, moreover, are not more archaic in style than the poems of Tulsi Das,
who died in Sambat 1680 ; and therefore on all grounds we may fairly conclude
as an established fact that he flourished at the end of the 16th ami the beinuniufl:
of the 17th century A. D., in the reigns of the Emperors Akbar and Jahangir.

Each of the Mahants named in the above list is described as being the dis-
ciple of his immediate predecessor, and each composed some devotional poems,
which are known as sakhis, chaubolas, or padas. The most voluminous writer
is Bihariui Das, whose padas occupy G84 pages. In many of them he expresses

222 THE POEMS OF BTHA'RINI DA'S.

the intensity of his mystical devotion in terms of exaggerated warmth, which
are more suggestive of an earthly than a divine passion. But the short extract
that follows is of a different character, and is of special interest as confirming
the conclusion already stated as to the date of Hari Das ; since it mentions by •
name both the Emperor Akbar and also the death of his famous friend Birbar,
which occurred in 1590 A.D.

II TTJT Ttlfl II

9if T Tlf T lJcT3i ^T II

ssifa ^tr m mm urn ?^ iffs ^ci ^ ft^tot f^rg* u

Xti ^otfcl =J¥ M?rT ^JT 31VR =lf «XT cfTTorr ||
7Kr\ Sm\ fllfr ^ T%13IT fiff^T ^ ^ITf sifi 'srasrr l»

T&rom fazmn * m <%wt. tiq Tins t ^t^ zktcit. ii

frlfW ^ 3rlfl d^lt *I^5l 1 TOTcI #iR % ^T II
Tjm^ ^tTq IRt^^H^ *?Rl SUT5 T^nTc, «2>3irl q^r It

Translation.
" Why boastest thou thyself, 0 mortal man ? thy body shall be the prey of
dogs and jackals, though without shame or fear thou now goest delicately. This
is known throughout the world to be the end of all : a great man was the Brah-
man Birbar, yet he died, and at his death the Emperor Akbar was sad of heart,
nor himself longer lived nor aught availed. When gods or demons breathe out
their life, Death holds them in his maw, suspended, neither here nor there, but
in an intermediate state. All astray and swelling with pride, on whom is thy
trust ? Adore Hari's blessed lotus feet ; to roam and wander about from house
to house is all vanity. By the strong aid of Hari Das, Biharini Das has found
and laid hold of the Almighty."

The founder of the sect has himself left only two short poems, filling 41
leaves, entitled Sddhdran Siddhdnt and Ris he pada. The former is here given
both in the original text and in a translation. Most of the habitues of the

* One MS. for svasan nikusat reads tras ni/iasi na sukat.

f Rtmthna has the same meaning as the more common term jugdli harnd, 'to ruminate,'
like a cow.

the sXdhXran siddhXnt. 223

temple know the greater part of it by heart, though I have ascertained that very
few of them have more than the vaguest general idea of the meaning. Even the
best-informed of the Pujaris — Kishori Chand — who went over it carefully with
me, supplied an interpretation of some passages which after consulation with
other Pandits I could see was quite untenable and was obliged to reject. The
connection of ideas and the grammatical construction are often so involved that
it is highly probable my version may still be not altogether free of errors,
though I have done my best to eliminate them. The doctrine inculcated does
not appear to differ in any essential point from the ordinary teaching of the
other Vaishnava sects : the great duties of man, by the practice of which he
may have an assured hope of attaining to ultimate salvation, being defined as
submission to the divine will, detachment from the world, and an unquestioning
faith in the mystery of the incarnation.

II o || ^ sTt^WTI I^T^flrT fTT^TT^m^ffT T^cT II o ||

ii ^mriwra II

•ggiwr wilt cm Tumii r^iil r^til TTiacli 11 IK II

tiK m ^^ ura wi §m 3iiT I\t^ ^ *fe yfix. ii

^qn ii =*m^T *twt fswr ^Tii tit ^R slri %i cm *wt wft n

fq^TT ^ aRW ^1 rKTJTCTIT *1T Sf%^^I tlficlT3? ZiK II q II
^iTf^T =ra ^tfl HI^lfT fi m^ ^3 1T3 ^TTiHTfT T^IFH II

mx mszuinN to^t vuvtv m cfr i iRm ii

Sllfl rW^i fir! rniH rW flcT efiU 3S[ ^tr^TTR II

so SO so

4Ttfft3T33t ^rtfll 5IITTTl^^f%lTfT JJRfaSi ^T^TTR II * II
efic}^ ^[Sli JFR afl s3rl WcT UI^ ^3 5RR ^ ^fa^T WJ II

Cv C? so

sflrT WTcT mjr\ ^tf% TTWT ^ifl^I T*^ HT ^tf II

sO so

ifife ^ro^i^^r fgiT<r rim ^li^iT S«I §H f?I3 Tlfl ^ 0

224 THE SXDHXRAN SIDDHXKT.

IK W%T iR *T^T ?5tf% R JJH «TC rR ^T II

i%R ^Ik t^r ctI^t ra^ra?! 'smtii n
^r^jq^ ^fr ^t=fft ^t xr^i r^in traifi ii

efiff 1R313 JTN WT '^T^ r^I ^^ 1 •SHTJ^^I » « C

Ii ?pi F?^T=T?T II

% ir ^t^t ^ f%*TK^5n ?trai ^ s^rc^sfti ^ifi mfi sfl ti? *

liRsn "sfl^ iftfasH lit qK55T R %T"p II

rTJITfi TTTXtTSH^t TOTTl T3T%^ WW JUR 5iT^ W ^T"3 II

5RT1 wTtSTS WJT afl^ ITT rW cli| R ^T^ II ij II

ai5 ^ttoqn; *f;t 11

f%rl R ^Ic| ^TI=T ^RTra 1l\r\X R 111 ^TIT^T U

R TOt 5T5T H^TSX. R WTW ^"tfrTT II

Efifl fR^ra 3RclT T3TZIT %T f^l §flPC ^^ ^T II £ II

ff H HT 9^ SRSJc'R^rai *IT ft^ 3i ^T*T ^Jl ffrl ^ ^1^ qfllsl II

^ firr gft^r srr^rancnti **ii ^niii ^it3 ^ni»T »

IR^I flri S^T ir!r TJT TT^TS II

^T* flrt ^T ^T T*T ^*TEf T3R Scft^T II

«RTW 1K3TO Tlrl 5R1^ f^WRl^l ^TC R^Tl ^l^T " s »

ffR^T =^K 9» «ra II

5EIT Wll c£IT 3"3TX[ ^m ^J<R TO »

g^j^ra Ri^i^t ^tt ^t^ ^ra 11

cfil ^TITT^TH f^^TT 3<TT T5RT f5TlT<1 Riff *re II c II

^raK ^raa; i^rar *fra ^ ipr ^TC *fa ^w^r^ra u

NO -O ^

tr gztTT at ^rw ite ^^ra II

the sXdhXran siddhXnt. 225

a>fg ?R5ig ^| w\^ UTTO?} ^ iff ti ^TTj ^T^^'^ra 11 a u

m Zfi^T <*■% ^fff oII^Trf 'qSlfr fa?*?* I cfiTO ||
ClU ^Wr\ oT^TTf ^% ^WT *13T l^rfT 5^1^ If
3iTW ^T1R3T?J JTW^W 3RrTT cR^T^T fl| II
cl=T cfi^ ^ ^?TfT oT5T ^Tcfct ^d ^ITO II 10 ||
3^T f fa FITTR SRT ^U^lfa II

swirl ^tii iR^^n^i fqwr ■st^fi if =n~ffa II

3)1 ^I1K5T^ cUIfT TTOfil ^olf^lITt f^rU^fa II 11 II

^st^rIit sr3i=rIt if^mT^ wrei ^Ti^ft n

TTI 5tT§H^rei gift ^WrR^T ^R rR ^SR ^ ift^TfJ »

sOTlfKSre^ ^W ^TRT ^^II^ITff ^T facl dfl m^T ^TI^fT II Is? I!

II U*I SR53JH

WTT^T^HTf ^=1 *sR II

^RJT3 ^T3=m3 TTaW5 ^H lif^T fl 1*1 II

^1 sntftsra xtt f%n 3tt^t ntroiti^i ^ ii ib n

Hl| Ttffa ^ gift % gm5R=TtiT vfari ^tR ^q'W flCrlR^ gff fl II
^ifa ^ nifg^ 3f ii ^SJUT xffacl J$T=R 3RI "ssii ^IT? ^ elf cl II
4sTr lifl wfaaR %rt 3icT §5f?f T5^r 5RTJT ^T^ ^m tff rl II

§fa »!niK3T5 1J?K Uffi H cfifs^ TT 5iR t* f ^ WH Ulcf II 18 ||

226 the sAdhXran siddhXnt.

cTf^ ETC S^JoRT ^TW^n II

TTT^n ^ITrT TTlff T^t <T ^TT flTT, HUW^ ^fl RRT ^TW^T II

sfiiR^ralf ^iiff fit ^rail *srra w xrj ^jit] t%r cR}t Ct giw^ft n <w n

II *PT SRT^TT II
WS) cJTfT ST^ cfiR T3tJT=frIll IK m*K II
f^fg T5^r =RcT 3^rrlll alp* TUT^IiT WHX II

*tRj wR^ra ^rl f%|II *T1^T STO^T^T *n»TC II IS II

smrrcfim srR ^xfi =ttti ^u 2tt>i ins n

f?^ of ira g^ri ^i^^ifi iiifT ^T^r fsR ^T^i II

gRl lR3m Jflrl ^T <JWT fsriTft ^^ ^It ^3 ^T35 II 1^ II

^rm ht *t^»t vr^ *rdn ?m rim *tln w^t^Ri n
^tw urn ^ifs ^rRhIt ?m sol srcwi srct n

^ITfT SItrl % bTtoI ^i?( RlWtl iniiT f%H ^SXt *T^Rt II

5RTW 1K5TO ora 53m facl^lii 31**11 *TT^ ii tc ii

SfTFfT ^ ^T^T IK fl^I * *R 3»TT ^TrT *15J 3TI5 II

^ra =3R% W^l^^T « ^ SRIT 3>*h ^TI5 II

'cRUS ifT=RH3 TI5W3 W3JT ^PPC Rp*TT5 II

BRfl 55TlR2Tg ^T« ^THZWIT SRT^I ^*t TOTTT3 II IS. II

iingjj^tra ifw£ lis *nft ^T3 ii

THE SiDIIA'RAN SIDDHAXT. 227

ER?1 J5niTT5ra aJTTR 3T^ fifllfl fl^ffl ^ ^T21T3 II '« II
Translation of the SiddhXnta of SwA'mr Hari DXs.

Rag Bibhds.

1. " 0 Hari, as thou disposest, so all things abide. If I would shape my
course in any different fashion, tell me whose tracks could I follow. If I would
do my own will, how can I do it, if thou boldest me back ? (The lords of Sri
Hari Das are Syama, and Kunj-bihari). Put a bird in a cage, and for all its
fluttering it cannot get away.

2. " 0 Bihari, Biharini, none else has any power ; all depends on your
grace. Why babble of vain systems of happiness ? they are all pernicious. To
him who loves you, show love, bestowers of happiness (the lords of Sri Har Das
are Syama and Kunj-bihari), the supporters of all living creatures.

3. " At times the soul takes flight hither or thither ; but it finds no greater
joy. Discipline it in every way and keep it under, or you will suffer.
Beautiful as a myriad Loves is Bihari ; and Pleasure and all delights dwell in
his presence (the lords of Sri Hari Das are Syama and Kimj-bihiiri) be ever
contemplating his manifold aspects.

4. " Worship Hari, worship Hari, nor desert him out of regard for thy
mortal body. Covet not, covet not the least particle of wealth. It will come
to you unsought, as naturally as one eyelid droops upon the other. Says Sri
Hari Das, as comes death, so comes wealth, of itself (or like death, so is
wealth — an evil).

Rag BildvaU.

5. " 0 Hari, there is no such destroyer as I am, and no such restorer as
thou art :* betwixt me and thee there is a contest. Whichever wins or loses,
there is no breaking of the condition. Thy game of illusion is wide-spead in
diverse ways : saints are bewildered by it and myriads are led astray. Says
Hari Das, I win, thou losest, but there is no change in thy love.

* For a similar expression of the same sentiment compare the following lines of Siir D.is;
Mere pdpan so, Hari, hari hau— Main garua, turn men lial tlwra,nthahMii pichimari hau. 'OHari,
you are vanquished by my sinfulness ; I am so heavy and you so slight, that you get badly
thrown.'

228 the sa'dhXran siddha'nt.

(?. " 0 ye faithful, this is a good election : waver not in mind ; enter into
yourselves in contemplation and be not stragglers. Wander not from house to
house, nor be in doubt as to your own father's door. Says Sri Hari Das, what
is God's doing, is as fixed as Mount Sumeru has become.

7. " Set your affection on the lotus-eyed, in comparison with whose love
all love is worthless ; or on the conversation of the saints : that so the sin of
your soul may be effaced. The love of Hari is like the durable dye of the mad-
der ; but the love of the world is like a stain of saffron that lasts only for two
days. Says Hari Das, set your affection on Bfhari, and he knowing your heart
will remain with you for ever.

8. " A straw is at the mercy of the wind, that blows it about as it will and
carries it whither it pleases. So is the realm of Brahma, or of Siva, or this
present world. Says Sri Hari Das : this is my conclusion, I have seen none
such as Bihari.

9. " Man is like a fish in the ocean of the world, and other living creatures
of various species are as the crocodiles and alligators, while the soul like the
wind spreads the entangling net of desire. Again, avarice is as a cage, and the
avaricious as divers, and the four objects of life as four compartments of the cage.
Says Hari Das, those creatures only can escape whoever embrace the feet of the
son of bliss.

10. " Fool, why are you slothful in Hari's praises ? Death goeth about with
his arrows ready. He heedeth not whether it be in season or out of season, but
has ever his bow on his shoulder. What avail heaps of pearls and other jewels
and elephants tied up at your gate ? Says Sri Hari Das, though your queen
in rich attire await you in her chamber, all goes for nothing when the darkness
of your last day draweth nigh.

11. " See the cleverness of these people: having no regard for Han's lotus
feet, their life is spent to no purpose ; when the angel of death comes and
encompasses them he does what seemeth him good. Says Sri Hari Das : then is
he only found long-lived, who has taken Kunj-bihari to his soul.

12. " Set your heart upon securing his love. With water-pot in hand per-
ambulate the ways of Braj and, stringing the beads of your rosary, wander
through Brinda-ban and the lesser groves. As a cow watches her own calf and
a doc its own fawns and has an eye for none other (the lords of Sri Hari Das
are Syama and Kunj-bihari) be your meditation on them as well balanced as
a milk-pail on the head.

the sXdha'ran siddha'nt. 229

Rdfj Kalydn.

13. " All is Hari's mere sport, a mirage pervading the universe without
either germ or plant. The pride of wealth, tho pride of youth, the pride i
power, are all like the crow among birds. Says Sri Hari Das, know this of a
surety, all is but as a gathering on a feast-day, that is quickly dispersed.

14. "0 sister, how happy arc the docs who worship the lotus-eyed, each with

her own lord. Happy too tho calves that drink in the melody of his pipe in

their ears as in a cup from which no drop can be spilt. The birds too are like

holy men, who daily do him service, free from lust, passion, and avarice.

Hearken, Sri Hari Das, my husband is a difficulty ; he will not let me go, but

holds mo fast.

Rdg Bardri.

15. " 0 friend, as I was going along the road, he laid hold of my milk-pail
and my dress ; I would not yield to him unless he paid me for luck. ' O
clever milk-maid, you have bewitched my boy with the lustre of the go-rochan
patch on your forehead' (0 lord of Sri Hari Das), this is the justice we get
here ; do not stay in this town, pretty one.*

Rag Kanlirau.

16. " 0 clever Hari, thou makest the false appear true ; night and day thou
art weaving and unweaving : thou art an ocean of deceit. Though thou afi'ectest
the woman f in form and name, thou art more than man. Hearken ye all to
Hari Das and know of a truth it is but as when one wakes out of sleep.

17. " The love of the world has been tested ; there is no real accord. See,
from the king to the beggar, natures differ and no match can be found. The days
of many births are past for ever ; so pass not thou. Hearken to Hari Das,
who has found a good friend in Bihari ; may all find the like.

18. " People have gone astray ; well they have gone, but take thy rosary and
stray not thou. To leave thy own lord for another is to be like a strumpet
among women. Syama declares : those men rebel against me who prefer another,
and those too (says Hari Das) who make great sacrifice to the gods and per-
form laboured funeral rites for departed ancestors, j

* In two of the three MSS. of the poem that I have consulted, stanzas 14 and 15 are omitted
and they appear clearly to he an interpolation by some later hand, being quite out of keeping
with the context. They must be regarded as a dialogue between two of the Gopis and Jasoda.

f In this stanza it is the god's illusive power, or Maya, that is addressed, rather than the god
himself.

% Thus the Vaishnavas, when they perform a Sraddh, do not repeat the names of their owa
ancestors, but substi'ute the names of Krishna, Pradyumna, and Aniruddh.

230 THE malt5k dXsis.

19. " Worship Hari from the heart as long as you live ; all thing3 else are
vain. It is only a matter of four* days, what need of much baggage. From
pride of wealth, from pride of youth, from pride of power, you have lost your-
self in mere village squabbles. Says Hari Das, it is greed that has destroyed
you ; where will a complaint lie.

20. " In the depth of the delights of an ocean of love how can men reach a
landing-place ? Admitting his helplessnessf he cries, What way of escape
is open ? No one's arrows fly straight, for all his boasting in street and market-
place. Says Sri Hari Das : know Bihari to be a god who overlooks all defects
in his votaries."

The Maliik Dasis, another modern sect of limited importance, have one of
their religious houses at Brinda-ban, with a temple dedicated to Bam Ji, near
the Kesi ghat. Their founder, according to the most probable tradition, lived
in the reign of Aurangzeb, and was a trader by occupation. He is said to have
written a Hindi poem called the Dasratna, together with a few short Sdkhis
and Padas in the same language ; but no specimen of his composition has ever
been published, nor is it known what, if any, are the distinctive tenets of the
sect. Probably, they will be found to differ in no material respect from the
doctrines of faith and quietism as inculcated by Hari Das ; though, an impor-
tant practical difference consists in the recognition of Bama, rather than Krishna,
as the incarnation to be specially worshipped. I had intended to visit their
Guru and collect from him the materials for a brief sketch of their history and
literature, in order to complete this chapter ; but unfortunately I neglected to
do so while at Mathura, and have now lost the opportunity of supplying the
omission.

Another small and obscure sect, that of the Pran-nathis, is again one of the
few, of whose literature Professor Wilson, in his essays on the religion of the
Hindus, was unable to furnish a specimen. The sect has a single representa-
tive at Mathura, and from him, before I loft, I obtained a copy of one of the
poems of Pran-nath himself.

It is very curious, both from the advanced liberalism of its theological ideas
and also from the uncouthness of the lanffuage, in which tho construction of
the sentences is purely Hindi, while tho vocabulary is mainly supplied from

* The number ' four ' seems to be an allusion to the four stages of life : childhood, youth,
manhood, and old age.

t The word btkaryau is doubtful and probably corrupt, though given in all three MSS.

THE WORKS OF rRXN-NXTH. 231

Persian and Arabic sources. The writer, a Kshatriya by caste, lived at the
beginning of the eighteenth century, and was under the special patronage of
Chhattrasal, the famous Raja of Panna in Bundelkhand, who is commonly said
by the Muhammadans to have been converted to Islam, though in reality he
only went as far as Pran-nath, who endeavoured to make a compromise between
the two religions. His followers are sometimes called Dhamis, from Dhdm, a
name of the supreme spirit, or Parmatma, and like the Sikhs and several of
the later Hindu sects are not idolators, so far that they do not make or rever-
ence any image of the divinity, but if they have any temple at all, the only
object of religious veneration which it contains is a copy of the works of the
founder. His treatises, which, as usual, are ail in verse, are fourteen in num-
ber, none of them of very great length, and bear the following titles :— 1, The
book of Puis ; 2, of Prakas ; 3, of Shat-rit ; 4, of Kalas ; 5, of Sanandh ; 6, of
Kirantan ; 7, of Khulasa ; 8, of Khel-bat ; 9, of Prakrama Illahi Dulhan (an
allegory in which the Church, or ; Bride of God,' is represented as a holy city) ;
10, of Sugar Singar ; 11, of Bare Singiir ; 12, of Sidhi Bhasa ; 13, of Marafat
Sagar ; 14, of Kiyamat-nama. The shortest is the last, of which I now pro-
ceed to give the text, followed by an attempt at a translation, which I am
afraid is not altogether free from error, as I am not much versed in Kuranic
literature and may have misunderstood some of the allusions. The owner of
the MS., Karak Das by name, though professing so liberal a creed, was not a
particularly enlightened follower of his master, for I found it impossible to
convince him that the Isa of the Kuran, so repeatedly mentioned by Pran-nath,
was really the same as the incarnate God worshipped by the English. Like
most of the Bairagis and Gosains with whom I have talked, his idea was that
the fiery and impetuous foreign rulers of the country were Suraj-bansis, or
descendants of the sun, and that the sun was the only God they recognized, as
■was evidenced by their keeping the Sunday holy in his honour.

But, without further preface, to proceed to the text of the poem. It stands
as follows :—

n #fK ii

^IrfTl UTO3i SFTfa rWT^ W* *% 33JH II 1 II

%t *t% ^ra 3*m flrcsrc *if *wt it f rank u

^WarRW ^ Sfa ^'HTC ScO WTST ^T=R II ^ II

232

THE KIYA'MAT-NXMA.

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jrc ni^T^ it€t ^*i ii

?m 3iTf T3id 5RT ^Tl^ ^3 II 8 II
RR^ eEJmcleRT ^n% t cfi^T II

t^tot rtor ^stI^i ii y II
nsf ^sr ^ii^ mfa ii

^ Rl^R 3^T f%rl ^fa II 5 II
rloT l^Rc! ^3T ^TS ?a II
Jrf^TTO oJTcT SiW^T^Tl IIs II

x&m'i strait lii? ir? n

WW ^tT^T SIT** 3^T rllt II <= I!

m^^n ?iwr sr^ ^d ii

f^T UT?reTt 5R3 •STHta lie II
%I ?IT TT^T *RTf# =RW II
*RT3i| W ^T%3RT Wc* II qo ||
13 f^ra RT^%T 3T^3i 5Rlt II

mi. w£ Hit w^ xjr ii ii ii

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T3f^T T5^T t^l T%rT T<a<l II 18 II

THE KIYXMAT-NXMA.

233

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no ^ e»

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ffi^fi vTt 5fiT^3 ^^t; ii ss a

234 THE

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the kiya'mat-na'ma. 235

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^ ft*3 1I3T^ 11$ STTOrag Silt cf^I$ || 81 ||

Translation.

The Day of Judgment.

" Go tell the chosen people ; arise ye faithful, the day of judgment is at hand.
I speak according to the Kuran and make my declaration before you. All ye
heads of the chosen people, stand up and attend. The Testament ( Wasiyat-
ndma)* gives evidence : Eleven centuries shall he completed after the blessing
of the world by the Kuran and by him who was merciful to the poor. A voice
shall come from the tabernacle and Gabrielf shall take them to the appointed
place. For three days, there shall be gloom and confusion, and the door of re-
pentance shall be closed. And what ? shall there be any other way ?| Nay,
no one shall be able to befriend his neighbour. §

" Say now what shall be the duration of this life, and what the clear signs of
the coming of the last day. Christ shall reign for forty years, as is written in
the 28th Sipara. Hindus and Musalmans shall both alike bring their creed to
the same point. And what shall come about, when the Kuran has thus been
taken away ? this is a matter which I would have you now attentively con-
sider.

" When 991 years are past, then the Lord Christ will come. This is written
in the 11th Sipara: I will not quote a word wrongly. || The spirit of God

* Wadyat-ndma is, I believe, a general name, including both the Kuran and the Hadis, which
together make up the Muhammadan rule of faith ; but I have not been able to trace the parti-
cular tradition, to which reference is here made, as specifying the exact number of years that
are to elapse before Christ's second coming.

t Gabriel is accounted God's ordinary messenger: but here, I should rather have looked for
Israfil, whose duty it will be to sound the trumpet at the last day.

J Iteves may possibly stand for ravish.
§ Khcs is for khwesh, ' a kinsman.'

I) In spite of this emphatic assertion, the quotation would appear to be incorrect, for the
llth Sipara contains no bucIi prophecy.

236 the kiya'mat-na'ma.

{i.e., Christ) shall be clothed in vesture of two different kinds ; so it is stated
in the Kuran. This is in the 6th Sipara ; whoever doubts me may see it there
for himself. These now are the years of Christ, as I am going to state in de-
tail. Take ten, eleven, and twelve thirty times (that it is say 10 + 11 + 12 X 30
=990). Then Christ shall reign 40 years. The other 70 years that remain
(after 990 + 40, to make up 1,100) are for the bridge Sirat. The saints will
cross it like a flash of lightning ; the pious with the speed of a horse ; but as
for the merely nominal believers who remain, for them there are 10 kinds of
hell ;* the bridge Sirat is like the edge of a sword, they fall or they get cut in
pieces — none cross over. This is stated in the Amiyat Salum ; go and look at
it carefully. The statement is clear, but your heart is too blind to see it. Christ
stands for 10, f the Imam for 11, and in the 12th century, then shall be the
perfect day-break. This is written in the Am Sipara, which is the 30th.

" When Christ, Muhammad, and the Imam are come, every one will come
and bow before them. But you should see not with the eyes of the body, but,
after reflection, with the eyes of the soul. Azazil saw in person, but would not
bow to Adam. Though he had done homage times without number, it all went
for nothing. When they saw his pride,t the curse was pronounced and he
became an outcast. Then Azazil asked a boon : ' Adam has become my enemy.
I will pervert the ways of his descendants and reign in the hearts of them all.'
Thus it was between Adam and Azazil, as is clearly stated in the 8th Sipara. You
take after him in sense, but what can you do, since you are his offspring. You
look for Dajjal § outside, but he sits at your heart, according to the curse.

" You have not understood the meaning of the above ; listen to me now with
the ears of the spirit. In like manner as He has always come, so will He come
again. All the Prophets have been of Jewish race — look through them with
the eyes of the soul— that is, they have sprung from the midst of Hindus,
whom you call Kafirs. Search now among your own people ; the Lord ha3
never been born among them. The races whom you call heathen will all
be sanctified through him. The Lord thinks scorn of no man, but is compas-
sionate to all who are humble. A veil is said to bo over the Lord's face.
What ? do you not know this ? By the veil is meant ' among Hindus ;' mere

* This is the Hindu computation ; the Muhanimadans reckon only seven hells,
t This is intended to explain the curious calculation given ahove, ' ten, eleveD, and twelre
multiplied hy thirty.'

% Ak&T here would seem to stand for Ahavkdr.

§ Dii/jdl, here the spirit of evil generally, ia properly the name of anti-Christ.

THE KIyXMAT-NA'MA. 237

reading Joes not convey the hidden intention ; if you look only to the letter,
how can you grasp the spirit ? Thus is declared the glory of the Hindus, that
the last of the Prophets shall be of them. And the Lord Christ, that great
Prophet, was the king of the poor Jews. This is stated in the 5th Sipara ; if
you do not believe me, go and examine the Kuran yourself. It is also stated in
the Hindu books that Budh Kalauki will assuredly come. When he has come,
he will make all alike ; east and west will both be under him. Some one will
say, ' will both be at once ?' this, too, I will clear up, explaining the intention
to the best of my ability ; without a guide you would not get at the truth.
Kalanki, it is said, will be on a horse — this every one knows — and astrologers
say that Vijayabhinand will make an end of the Kalijug. Now, the Gospel says
that Christ is the head of all and that he will come and do justice. The Jews
say that Moses is the greatest and that all will be saved through him. All
follow different customs and proclaim the greatness of their own master. Thus
idly qarrelling they fix upon different names ; but the end of all is the same,
the supreme God. Each understands only his own language, but there is
no real difference at bottom. All the scriptures bear witness that there are
different names in different languages ; but truth and untruth are the two in-
compatibles, and Maya and Brahm have to be distinguished from one another.
In both worlds there was confusion ; some walking by the law of Hindu, others
by the law of Muhammadan ceremonial. But knowledge has revealed the truth
and made clear both heaven and earth : as the sun has made manifest* all crea-
tion and harmonized the whole world, so the power of God bears witness to
God ; he speaks and all obey. All who perform acts of religious worship do
them to the Lord ; the word of the Most High has declared it so. It is writ-
ten in the third Sipara that he opened the gates of the highest heaven.

" The Lalit-ul-kadr (or night of power) has three contentions : on the third
dawn the judgment will commence. The spirits and angels will appear in
person, for it was on that night that they descended:! the blessings of a
thousand months descended also. The chiefs will be formed into two compa-
nies ; God will give them his orders and through them there shall be salvation.

* For Kheluya. I propose to read Khulaya ; but even so the meaning elicited is not very
satisfactory.

t The allusions are to the chapter of the Kuran called the Siirat-ul-kadr, which is as follows :
" Verily we have caused the Kuran to descend on the night of power. And who shall teach thee
what the night of power is ? The night of power exceedeth a thousand months ; therein descend
the angels and the spirit by permission of their Lord in erery matter; and all is peace till the
breaking of the morn."

238 THE byom sjLr of bakhta'war.

This is abundantly attested by the Kuran ; the statement is in the Inn anzal nd
chapter. After the third contention will be the dawn ; in the eleventh cen-
tury it will be seen.

And what is written in the first Sipara ? You must have seen that. They
who accept the text kun* are to be called true believers. Now, if any one is a
true believer, let him bear witness and prove the fact. Put off sloth ; be vigi-
lant ; discard all pride of learning. He who hears with perfect faith t will
be the first to believe. Afterwards, when the Lord has been revealed, all will
believe. Heaven and hell will be disclosed, and none will be able to profit
another. Lay your soul at your master's feet ; this is what Chhatrasal tells
you."

From the doctrine as laid down by Pran-Nath, that any one religion is as
true as another, it is easy to advance to the conclusion that all religions are
equally false. This is the view taken in the ' Byom Sar ' and ' Suni Sar,' two
short poems written in the time of Thakur Daya Ram of Hathras, by one of
his retainers, named Bakhtawar. Their purport is to show that all is vanity
and that nothing, either in earth or in heaven, either visible or invisible, natural
or supernatural, has any real existence. Several of the lines are almost literally
translated from the Sanskrit Vedanta Sara of Sadananda Parivrajakaeharya,
from which it would seem that the author, for all his atheism, did not contemplate
any pronounced rupture with Hindu orthodoxy. He can scarcely be said to
have founded a sect, though Professor Wilson speaks of his followers under the
name of Sunya-vadis ; but in every age of Hinduism there have been a few
isolated individuals, such as Jabsili and Charvaka, to whom such notions have
recommended themselves. The following extracts are taken from a manuscript
in the possession of Raja Hari Narayan Singh, the present representative of the
chief, under whose patronage the poems were composed,

Commencement of the Byom Sar.

QjTsreR jji jcN 1 suit qz. It 35H ^\ziwi 3?nm si m^r a*ra f^TC h '( u

^Tsm 3ST*ra ni ^qm m. ?mg rnir 5,3 njrim hr $to *tPt ^ i§r? ii 3 h
Irr % ~z\ ^ra 1 t*pr It im^ sil s^i mrim jjr Tsrfa fgrfizrr It ^ n « i|

*The text kun is the parallel of the MoBaic phrase, "and God said 'let there be light,'
and there was light."

•f//a -id- Yahin, 'perfect faith' is faith without seeing, which alone is meritorious; for all who
see must perforce believe.

THE BTOM S1&. 239

wgnmi 5R 5bth i ?*ir rn?f cjh c?n3 ^zngr faiqr 55$ grift antral ^ h i ii
jfr ^r §iTr ^r ft ^mi %r% fsmj ajra ^tt m^ ejr|iii =?R*ig % wrr^ n ^ 11
s&fa ^q ^c? 5rrfw 1 afrcff % *rf if sin ^Tqfe ^ |f%q ^ttt ^Tq^n 5if% ii q ii

3tTt 3TSI ^T i5! rlfl ^351^ | ^fa ^"3 ^i Silt ^fl%S qi^ ^r?^ ^3 II £ II
=5Tf^ ^3R 5pT qTT^m ^?T qit% 3fTT?; TOT| ^ |R qifa | l^FT t^ ^| gffT^H ?0||
33 ^ 3T3T qTT^ 1 igsf H ^T^r qi% *R3|^2RqTf^l5?r2»icFif^^|-%T%ii ^||

qT^re ^ ^qt si qraff ^ fsricT qra m^\ :?rn*T'q If mli ^F^ =i ^ n ^ »

=5T? ^T STT^T 1 5F5 ^ 1 ^f IT? ^f H3R ^ Tf ?T 1 qT% ^^t! ST? II ^3 II
" This book is called the Byom Sar and contains the essence of the Vedas,
excogitated by Sri Thakur Daya Ham. Between the Jamuna and the Sursari,
(i. e., the Ganges) stands Hathras in the midst, in the holy land of Antarbed,
where nought ill can thrive. There Thakur Daya Ram holds undisturbed sway,
the fame of whose glory has spread through the whole universe — a thorn in the
breast of his enemies, a root of joy to his friends, ever growing in splendour
like the crescent moon. One Bakhtawar came and settled there and was fa-
voured by the Thakur, who recognized his fidelity. Under the light of his
gracious countenance, joy sprung up in his soul and he wrote the Science of
Vanity for the enlightenment of the understanding. Be assured that all things
are like the void of heaven, contained in a void, as when you look into yourself
and see your own shadow. After long ruminating, the noble Thakur has elicited
the cream of the matter. In accordance with his teaching, I publish these
thoughts. Listen, ye men of sense, to my array of arguments ; first understand,
then reply. The beginning of all things is in hollowness, hollow is also the
end and hollow the middle ; so says the preacher. The highest, the lowest, and
the mean are all hollow ; so the wise man has expounded. From nothing all
things are born ; in nothing all things perish ; even the illimitable expanse of
gky is all hollowness. What alone has no beginning, nor will ever have an end,
and is still of one character, that is vacuum."

Specimens of the Suni Sdr.

T%rl 2%T fori §^T1 31% §3T1 1 S3 1^1 ^RT§ II

*rafw mm *igf% sra ^m *i sw f3i wq 11 q n

^ "*& ^O

240 the suni sAnt

s£» . O sO c*<

*raf¥ tot farair rfi^ii tt^tw sw vf?7 Ct sfcn n

sO ^> sO NO Cs Cv

^r^ifw ts; ^ra wr %^T ti^t wt 3W sfst ^%fit n ? n

TI^TTl ^5FT ^I^J m 3^T S3T1 3i* 71^7 5RT %^T II

Cs Cs '■O C^

wi 5R^ st^j ^t otti sum ^ jre % m;crm n « »

SO ^- ^O

" All that is seen is nothing and is not really seen ; lord or no lord it is all
one. Maya is nothing ; Brahm is nothing ; all is false and delusive. The
world is all emptiness ; the egg of Brahma, the seven dwipas, the nine khands,
the earth, the heaven, the moon, the glorious sun, all, all are emptiness ; so are
Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahadeva ; so are Kurma and Seshnag. The teacher
is nothing, the disciple nothing ; the ego and the non ego are alike nothing. The
temple and the god are nought ; nought is the worship of nought and nought
the prayer addressed to nought ; so know they who are enlightened by the
influence of the Guru."

53v?T 5mrT %1 WJT 33T5T 71^1 ^TT^ Tft S3T favWH II

^r*3 nn^i^T fa^Tfu 331 tit ^nm rr3 Wr\j 11 q 11
^rai ^T3^r ^fi s^i sw ^fi ti=t ^ isn 11

=5111 ^1T UT^rTT TJ^fT tlrf^T 5H ^ TT^T 3oiT II S II
ilT^^t^iJTH^HpIT T1W 35TR ^^Ff *ffl oTRJ ||
flfl ?KT mZ *t! *T<?T TT 3i^ 3»3 ^TT SR^ XfT^T II 3 II

O NO SO sO O

^g i?% ^r^ are. m ml ^ifs ^^ ^ *r^ ^toi! n

$|| TI^ HTJ\Z | Vf if WSim 3STKFT ^*R^ II 8 0
" The whole word was disconsolate, but is now gladdened for ever by the
doctrine of Nihilism : it is plunged in joy and ecstatic delight, drunk with the
wine of perfect knowledge. I enunciate the truth and doubt not ; I know
neither prince nor beggar ; I court neither honour nor reverence ; I take a
friend by the hand and seek none other ; what comes easily I accept and am
contented ; a palace and a thicket to me are all the same ; the error of mmeand
thine is obliterated ; nothing is loss, nothing is gain. To get such a teacher of
the truth puts an end to the errors of a million of births. Such a teacher as
has now been revealed— the incomparable Thakur Daya Bam."

CHAPTER IX.

ERINDA-BA.N AND ITS TEMPLES.

On their arrival at Brinda-ban, the first shrine which the Gosains erected
was one in honour of the eponymous goddess Brinda Devi. Of this no traces
now remain, if (as some say) it stood in the Seva Kunj, which is now a large
walled garden with a masonry tank near the Ras Mandal. Their fame spread so
rapidly that in 1573 the Emperor Akbar was induced to pay them a visit, and
was taken blindfold into tho sacred enclosure of the Nidhban,* where such
a marvellous vision was revealed to him, that he was fain to acknowledge the
place as indeed holy ground. Hence the cordial support which he gave to tho
attendant Rajas, when they expressed their wish to erect a series of buildings
more worthy of the local divinity.

Tho four temples, commenced in honour of this event, still remain, though in
a ruinous and hitherto sadly neglected condition. They bear tho titles of
Gobind Deva, Gopi-nath, Jugal-Kishor and Madan Mohan. The first named is
not only the finest of this particular series, but is the most impressive religious
edifice that Hindu art has ever produced, at least in Upper India. The body
of the building is in the form of a Greek cross, the nave being a hundred feet
in length and the breadth across the transepts the same. The central compart-
ment is surmounted by a dome of singularly graceful proportions ; and the four
arms of tho cross are roofed by a waggon vault of pointed form, not, as is usual
in Hindu architecture, composed of overlapping brackets, but constructed of
true radiating arches as in our Gothic cathedrals. The walls have an average-
thickness of ten feet and are pierced in two stages, the upper stage being a
regular triforium, to which access is obtained by an internal staircase, as in the
somewhat later temple of Radha Ballabh, which will be described further on.
This triforium is a reproduction of Muhammadan design, while the work both
above and below it is purely Hindu, t It should be noted, however, that the

* This is the local name of the actual Brinda grove, to which the town owes its origin. The
spot so designated is now of very limited area, hemmed in on all sides by streets, but protected
from further encroachment by a high maBonry wall. The name refers to the nine nidhis, or
treasures, of Kuvera, the god of wealth. They are enumerated as follows : the Padma, Mahi-
padma, Sankha, Makara, Kachhapa, Mukunda, Naud;i, Nila, and Kharva ; but it is not known in
what precise sense each separate term is to be taken. For example, Padnia may mean simply
a ' lotus,' or again, as a number, ' 10,000 millions,' or possibly, ' a ruby,'

t Thus eclecticism, which after all is only natural growth directed by local circumstances,
has for centuries past been the predominant characteristic of Mathura architecture. In most of

242 THE TEMPLE OF GOBIND DEYA.

arches are decorative only, not eonstructural : the spandrels in the head might
be — and, as a fact, for the most part had been — struck out, leaving only the
lintel supported on the straight jambs, without any injury to the stability of
the building. They have been re-inserted in the course of the recent resto-
ration. At the east entrance of the nave there is a small narthex fifteen feet
deep ; and at the west end, between two niches and incased in a rich canopy of
sculpture, a square-headed doorway leads into the choir, a chamber some
twenty feet by twenty. Beyond this was the sacrarium,* flanked on either
side by a lateral chapel ; each of these three cells being of the same dimen-
sions as the choir, and like it vaulted by a lofty dome. The general effect of
the interior is not unlike that produced by Saint Paul's Cathedral in London.
The latter building has greatly the advantage in size, but in the other, the
central dome is more elegant, while the richer decoration of the wall surface
and the natural glow of the red sandstone supply that relief and warmth of
colouring which are so lamentably deficient in its western rival.

The ground-plan is so similar to that of many Europeau churches as to
suggest the idea that the architect was assisted by the Jesuit missionaries, who
were people of considerable influence at Akbar's court : were this really the
case, the temple would be one of the most eclectic buildings in the world, having
a Christian ground-plan, a Hindu elevation, and a roof of modified Saracenic
character. But the surmise, though a curious one, must not be too closely
pressed; for some of the temples at Khajurao, by Mahoba, are of similar design
and of much earlier date ; nor is it very likely that the Jesuits would have
interested themselves in the construction of a heathen fane. Such action on
their part, supposing them to have taken it, would find a parallel in the persist-
ency with which the Duke of York (afterwards James II.) stood out for the
provision of two side chapels in Wren's design for the Protestant cathedral of
St. Paul's, — a building which he hoped in the course of his reign to recover for
the Catholics.

It would seem that, according to the original design, there were to have
been five towers ; one over the central dome, and the other four covering

the new works that I took in hand, and notably in the Catholic Church, which I left unfinished,
I conformed to the genius loci, and showed my recognition of its principles, not by a servile
imitation of older examples, but rather by boldly modifying them in accordance with later re-
quirements, and so developing novel combinations.

* The Sanskrit terms for the component parts of a temple are— the nave, mandapa; the choir,
antardla, and the sacrarium garbka griha. The more ordinary Hindi substitutes are — for the
nave sabhd, and for the choir, jag-mohan ; while majidir, the temple, specially denotes the sacra-
rium, and any side chapel is styled a mahall.

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DATE OF THE TEMPLE OF GOBIND DEVA. 243

respectively tho choir, sacrarium, and two chapels.* The sacrarium has been
utterly razed to the ground, f the chapel towers were never completed, and that
over the choir, though the most perfect, has still lost several of its upper stages.
This last was of slighter elevation than the others, occupying the same relative
position as tho spirelet over the sanctus bell in western ecclesiologv. The loss
of the towers and of the lofvy arcaded parapet that surmounted tho walls has
terribly marred the effect of the exterior and given it a heavy stunted appear-
ance ; while, as a further disfigurement, a plain masonry wall had been run
along the top of the centre dome. It is generally believed that this was built
by Auraugzeb for the purpose of desecrating the temple, though it is also said
to have been put up by the Hindus themselves to assist in some grand illumi-
nation. It either case it was an ugly modern excrescence, and its removal was
the very first step taken at the commencement of the recent repairs.^

Under one of the niches at the west end of the nave is a tablet with a lono-
Sanskrit inscription. This has unfortunately been too much mutilated to allow
of transcription, but so much of it as can be deciphered records the fact that
the temple was built in sambat 1047, i.e., A.D. 1590, under the direction of
the two Gurus, lviipa and Sanatana. As it was in verse, it probably com-
bined a minimum of information with an excess of verbosity, and its loss is
not greatly to be regretted. The following is taken from the exterior of the
north-west chapel, where it is cut into tho wall some ten feet from the ground,
and is of considerable interest : —

* The south-west chapel encloses a subterranean cell, called Fatal Devi, which is said by
some to be the Gosains' original shrine in honour of the goddess Brinda.

\ The sacrarium was roughly rebuilt in brick about the year 1854, and contains an image of
Krishna in his character of Giridhari (the mountain-supporter), with two subordinate figures
representing, the one Maha Frabhu, i.e., Chaitanya, the other Nityanand.

X One section of this work originally appeared in the " Calcutta Review," and a correspond-
ent, who saw it there, favoured me with the following note of a tradition as to the cause of the
wall being built. He writes :— " Anrangzeb had often of an evening remarked .a very bright
light shining in the far distant south-east horizon, and, in reply to his enquiries regarding it, was
told that it was a light burning in a temple of great wealth and magnificence at Brinda-ban.

244 THE FOUNDER OF THE TEMPLE.

<-.

" In the 34th year of the era inaugurated by the reign of the Emperor
Akbar, Sri Maharaj Man Sinh Deva, son of Maharaj Bhagavan Das, of the
family of Maharaj Prithiraj, founded, at the holy station of Brinda-ban, this
temple of Gobind Deva. The head of the works, Kalyan Das, the Assistant
Superintendent, Manik Chand (Jhopar (?), the architect, Gobind Das of Delhi,
the mason, Gorakh Das." There is some mistake in the engraving of the
last words, which seem to be intended for Subham bhavatu, like the Latin
' Felix, faustumque sit.'

The Riio Frithi Singh mentioned in the above was one of the ancestors of
the present Maharaja of Jaypur. Ho had seventeen sons, of whom twelve
came to man's estate, and to each of them he assigned a separate appanage,
which, collectively, are known as the twelve hothris of Amber. Raja Man
Sinh, the founder of the temple, was his great-grandson.

He was appointed by Akbar successively Governor of the districts along
the Indus, of Kabul, and of Bihar. By his exertions the whole of Orisa
and Eastern Bengal were re-annexed ; and so highly were his merits appre-
ciated at court, that, though a Hindu, he was raised to a higher rank than any
other officer in the realm. He married a sister of Lakshmi Narayan, Raja of
Koch Bihar, and at the time of his decease, which was in the ninth year of the
reign of Jahangir, he had living one son, Bhao Sinh, who succeeded him upon
the throne of Amber, and died in 1621, A.D.* There is a tradition to the
effect that Akbar, at the last, jealous of his powerful vassal and desirous to rid
himself of him, had a confection prepared, part of which contained poison ; but
caught in his own snare, he presented the innoxious portion to the R;ija and
ate that drugged with death himself. The unworthy deed is explained by
Man Sinh's design, which apparently had reached the Emperor's ears, to alter
the succession in favour of Khusrau, his nephew, instead of Salim.f

He accordingly resolved that it should be effectually put out, and soon after sent some troops
to the place, who plundered and threw down as much of the temple as they could, and then
erected on the top of the ruins a mosque wall, where, in order to complete the desecration, the
Emperor is said to have offered up his prayers."

* Vide ProfesBor Blochmann's Ain-i-Akbari, p. 341.

t The above tradition is quoted from Tod's Eajasthan. De Lait, as translated by Mr.
Letbbridge, for Man Sinh substitutes the name of Mirza Gbizi Beg.

ITS RUINOUS AND NEGLECTED CONDITION. 245

In anticipation of a visit from Aurangzeb, the image of the god was
transferred to Jaypur, and the Gos;iiu of the temple there has ever since been
regarded as the head of the endowment. The name of the present incumbent
is Syam Sundar, who has two agents, resident at Brinda-ban. There was
said to be still in existence at Jaypur the original plan of the temple, showing
its five towers, but on inspection I [found that the painting, which is on the
wall of one of the rooms in the old palace at Amber, was not a plan of the
temple at all, but an imaginary view of the town of Brinda-ban, in which all the
temples are represented as exactly alike, distinguishable only by their names,
which are written above them. However, local tradition is fully agreed as to
the number and position of the towers, while their architectural character can be
determined beyond a doubt by comparison with the smaller temples of the
same age and style, the ruins of which still remain. It is therefore not a little
strange that of all the architects who have described this famous building, not
one has noticed its most characteristic feature — the harmonious combination
of dome and spire — which is still quoted as the great crux of modern art, though
nearly 300 years ago the difficulty was solved by the Hindus with character-
istic grace and ingenuity.

From the reign of Aurangzeb to the present time not a single step had ever
been taken to ensure the preservation from further decay of this most interesting
architectural monument. It was looked upon by the people in the neighbour-
hood as a convenient quarry, where every house-builder was at liberty to excavate
for materials ; while large trees had been allowed to grow up in the fissures of
the walls, and in the course of a few more summers their spreading roots would
have caused irreparable damage. Accordingly, after an ineffectual attempt to
enlist the sympathies of the Archaeological Department, the writer took the op-
portunity of Sir William Muir's presence in the district, on tour, to solicit the
adoption on the part of the Government of some means for averting a catastrophe
that every student of architecture throughout the world would have regarded as
a national disgrace. Unfortunately he declined to sanction auy grant from Pro-
vincial funds, but allowed a representation of the ruinous condition of the tem-
ple and its special interest to be made to the Government of India, for communica-
tion to the Maharaja of Jaypur, as the representative of the founder.* His

• This line of action was, if I may be allowed to say so, extremely ill-advise. 1, since it amounted
to a quasi-recognitiou of the Maharaja's proprietary right in the temple. This yea r, (1882,) one of his
local agents, on the occasion of a we Iding in his family, gave an entertainment to his friends in the
central space under the dome and thought nothing of whitewashing the walls and pillars of the
interior up to about half their height, thus ruining the architectural effect, which depeuds so much

246 COMMENCEMENT OF ITS RESTORATION.

Highness immediately recognized the claim that the building had upon him and
made no difficulty about supplying the small sum of Rs. 5,000, which had been
estimated by the Superintending Engineer as sufficient to defray the cost of all
absolutely essential repairs.* The work was taken in hand at the beginning of
August, 1873. The obtrusive wall erected by the Muhammadans on the top of
the dome was demolished ; the interior cleared of several unsightly party-walls
and other modern excrescences ; and outside, all the debris was removed, which
had accumulated round the base of the building to the astonishing height of eight
feet and in some places even more, entirely concealing the handsomely moulded
plinth ; a considerable increase was thus made to the elevation of the building—
the one point in which, since the loss of the original parapet and towers, the
design had appeared defective. Many of the houses which had been allowed to
crowd the courtyard close up to the very walls of the temple were taken down,
and two broad approaches opened out from the great eastern portal and the
south transept. Previously, the only access was by a narrow winding lane ;
and there was not a single point from which it was possible to obtain a com-
plete view of the fabric.

The next thing undertaken was the removal of a huge masonry pillar that
had been inserted under the north bay of the nave to support a broken lintel.
This was effected by pinning up the fractured stone with three strong iron bolts ;
a simple and economical contrivance, suggested by Mr. Inglis, Executive
Engineer on the Agra Oanal, in lieu of the costly and tedious process of insert-
ing a new lintel and meanwhile supporting the wall by a masonry arch, which,
though temporary, would have required most careful and substantial construc-
tion, on account of the enormous mass resting upon it.

On the south side of the choir stood a large domed and pillared chhattri of
yery handsome and harmonious design, though erected 40 years later than the
temple. The following inscription is rudely cut on one of its four pillars : —

sfufmaft ft thut m wrarefi %T*nst tiui iN! n

on the rich glow of the red Band-atone. No notice was taken by the local authorities ; but, on my
representing the matter to Government, prompt orders were issued to have the mischief as far as
possible undone.

* A revised estimate was afterwards prepared by the District Engineer, who put it at
Be. 75,01)0 for the exterior and 3s. o~,857 for the interior, making a total of lis. 1,32,857.

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RX.TX BETA'S CHIUTTRT. 247

"In the year Sambat 1693 (i. e., 1836 A.D.), on an auspicious day,
K.irtik Badi 5, in the reign of the Emperor Shahjahan, this monument was
erected by Rani Rambhavati, widow of Raja Bhiin, the son of Rana Amar
Sinh. "

This Rana Amar Sinh, though one of the most gallant princes of his
line, was the first sovereign of Me war who had to stoop to acknowledge himself
a vassal of the Delhi Emperor : not without a manful struggle, in which
it is said that he fought against Jahangir's forces in as many as seventeen
pitched battles. He was succeeded on the throne, in 1621 A. D., by his eldest
son, Karan Sinh ; while the younger, the Bhim of the inscription, being high in
the favour of Prince Khuram, received also the title of Raja with a grant of
territory on the Bands, where he built himself a capital, called Rajmahal. He
did not, however, long enjoy his honours ; in his friendship for the young
prince he induced him to conspire against his elder brother, Parviz, the right-
ful heir to the throne, and, in the disturbances that ensued lie was slain ;
while Prince Khuram took refuge at the court of Udaypur till his father's
death, in 11)28 A. D., summoned him to ascend the throne of Delhi with the
title of Shahjahan.

As the monument was in a very ruinous condition and had been rendered
still more insecure by reducing the level of the ground round its foundations,
it was taken down and re-erected on the platform that marks the site of
the old sacrarium, where it serves to conceal the bare rubble wall that rises
behind it.

These works had more than exhausted the petty sum of Rs. 5,000, which
( as remarked at the time ) was barely enough to pay for the scaffolding required
for a complete restoration ; but in the meantime Sir John Strachey had succeeded
to the Government of these Provinces, and he speedily showed his interest in
the matter by making a liberal grant from public funds. With this the roof
of the entire building was thoroughly repaired ; the whole of the upper part of
the east front, which was in a most perilous state, was taken down and rebuilt ;
and the pillars, brackets, and eaves of the external arcades on the north and
south sides, together with the porches at the four corners of the central dome,
were all renewed. A complete restoration was also effected of the jag-mohan
(<»■ choir) tower, excepting only that the finial and a few stages of stone-work
immediately under it were not added ; for they had entirely perished and, in
the absence of the original design, Sir John Strachey would not allow me to
replace them. As a general principle the introduction of any new work under

248 THE RESTORATION STOfT BY SIR GEO. COUPEE.

such circumstances is much to be deprecated, but in this particular case there
could not be any doubt as to the exact character and dimensions of the missiug
portions, since the stages of the tower diminish from the bottom upwards in
regular proportion and all bear the same ornamentation. Certainly, the pic-
turesque effect would have been immensely enhanced by giving the tower the
pyramidal finish intended for it, instead of leaving it with its present stunted
appearance.

The work was conducted under my own personal supervision without
any professional ass'stance, except Mr. Inglis's suggestion, which I have duly
chronicled, up to March, 1877, when Sir George Couper, who had two months
previously been confirmed as Sir John Strachey's successor, suddenly ordered
my transfer from the district. The restoration would most assuredly never
have been undertaken but for my exertions, and as I had been engaged upon
it so long, it was naturally a disappointment to me not to be allowed to com-
plete it. However, all that was absolutely essential had been accomplished and
for the comparatively modest outlay of Rs. 38,365, nearly a lakh less than the
Public Works estimate.*

Mr. Fergusson, in his Indian Architecture, speaks of this temple as " one
of the most interesting and elegant in India, and the only one, perhaps, from
which a European architect might borrow a few hints. I should myself have
thought that ' solemn' or ' imposing' was a more appropriate term than ' elegant'
for so massive a building, and that the suggestions that might be derived from
its study were ' many' rather than ' few ;' but the criticism is at all events in
intention a complimentary one. It is, however, unfortunate that the author
of a book which will long and deservedly be accepted as an authority was
not able to obtain more satisfactory information regarding so notable a chef
d'eeuvre. The ground-plan that he supplies is extremely incorrect ; for it
gives in faint lines, as if destroyed, the choir, or jag-mohan, which happens to
be in more perfect preservation than any other part of the fabric, and it
entirely omits the two chapels that flank the cella on either side and are integral
portions of the design. The cella itself is also omitted ; though for this there

*A Government Resolution on 'the Restoration of Temples in the Mathura District ' was pub-
lished by Sir John Strachey on the 1st April, 1870, and iB exclusively occupied with my doings.
The 6th paragraph begins as follows : " In respect of the work on the temple of Govind Ji at
Brinda-ban, His Honor feels that the Government is much indebted to Mr. F. S. Growse for the
able and ecnomical manner in which its partial restoration has been effected, and has no hesita-
tion iu confiding to him its completion, without interference by any officer of the l'ublie Works
Department subordinate to the Chief Engineer."

Jtyv 2*8.

TEMPLE OF GOBIND DEVA

BRINDA-BAN.

5\ s%

-!7tW

Scale &0 feet = I inch.
4-0 20 o 4-Q /est.

THE TEMPLE NEVER COMPLETED. 249

was more excuse, since it was razed to the ground by Aurangzeb and not a
vestige of it now remains ; though the rough rubble wall of the choir shows
whore it had been attached.

These two parts of the building, the sacrariurn and the choir, were cer-
tainly completed, towers and all. They alone were indispensably necessary
for liturgical purposes and were therefore the first taken in hand, in the same
way as in mediaeval times the corresponding parts of a cathedral were often in
use for many years before the nave was added.

In clearing the basement, comparatively few fragments of carved stone
were discovered imbedded in the soil. There are some built up into the ad-
joining houses, but chiefly corbels and shafts, which were clearly taken from
the lower stories of the temple. No fragments of the upper stages of the towers
have been brought to light ; from which fact alone it might reasonably be con-
jectured that they were never finished. This was certainly the case with the
two side chapels ; and the large blocks lying on the top of their walls, ready to
be placed in position, are just as they were left by the original builders, when
the work for some unexplained reason was suddenly interrupted. Probably,
as in so many other similar cases, it was the death of the founder which brought
everything to a stand-still. The tower over the central dome was also, as I
conjecture, never carried higher than we now see it ; but the open arcades,
which crowned the facade, though not a fragment of them now remains, were
probably put up, as the stones of the parapet still show the dents of the pillars.
The magnificent effect which they would have had may be gathered from a
view of the temple in the Qwaliar fort ; which, though some 600 years earlier
in date, is in general arrangement the nearest parallel to the Brinda-ban fane,
and would seem to have supplied Man Sinh with a model. It has been sub-
jected to the most barbarous treatment, but has at last attracted the attention
of Government, and is now being restored under the superintendence of Major
Keith, an officer of unbounded archchajological enthusiasm. There is no more
interesting specimen of architecture to be found in all India.

A modern temple, under the old dedication, has been erected within the pre-
cincts and absorbs the whole of the endowment. The ordinary annual income
amounts to Rs. 17,500 ; but by far the greater part of this, viz., Rs. 13,000, is
made up by votive offerings. The fixed estate includes one village in Alwar
and another in Jaypur, but consists principally of house property in the town
of Brinda-ban, where is also a large orchard, called Radha Bagh. This has
been greatly diminished in area by a long series of encroachments ; and a temple,
dedicated to Ban Bihari, has now been built in it, at a cost of Rs. 15,000, by

250 FOUNDATION OF THE TEMPLE OF MADAN MOHAN.

Raja Jay Sinh Deova, Chief of Charkhari, in Bundelkhand. About a hundred
years ago it must have been very extensive and densely wooded, as Father
TieffenthaUer, in his notice of Brinda-ban, describes it in the following terms : —
" L'endroit est couvert de beaucoup d'arbres et resemble a uu bois sacre des
ancieus ; il est triste par le morne silence qui y regne, quoiqu' agreable par
l'ombre epaisse des arbres, desqiiels on n'ose arracher un rameau, ni meme
une feuille ; ce serait an grand delit."' The site of the Seth's temple was also
purchased from the Gobind Deva estate, and a further subsidy of Rs. 102 a
year is still paid on its account.

The next temple to be described, viz., that of Madan Mohan, one of Krish-
na's innumerable titles, stands at the upper end of the town on a high cliff
near the Kali-mardan, or as it is more commonly called, the Kali-dab. Gh.it,
where the god trampled on the head of the great serpent Kali. The story of
its foundation is given as follows in the Bhakt Sindhu of Lachman Das, which
is a modernized version of the Bhakt Mala. In this poem it is stated that the
image of Gobind Ji was found by Rupa and Sanatan at Naud-ganw, where they
had dug it up in a cattle-shed (Go-khirk men se nikar dye, tote Gobind nam
dharaye), thence they brought it to Brinda-ban and erected it on the site of the
present temple near the Brahm kund. They went daily to the neighbouring
villages (Brinda-ban being at that time an uninhabited forest) and to Mathura to
beg ; and one day a man in the city gave Sanatan an image of Madan Mohan,
which he took and set up near the Kali-dah Ghat on the Duhsasan hill. There,
too, he built for himself a little hut to live in and gave the place the name of the
Pasukandan Ghat, because the road was so steep and bad that no cattle could
go along it* (nicliau unvhau dekhi bisheshan Pasu-kandan wah Ghat kahdi, talidn
baithi mansukh lahdi). One day a merchant from Multan in the Panjab, a
khattri by caste, named Ram Das, but more familiarly known as Kapuri, came
down the river with a boat-load of merchandise bound for Agra, but stuck on a
sand-bank near the Kali-dah Ghat. After trying in vain for three days to get off,
he determined to discover the local divinity and implore his assistance. So he
came on shore, climbed up the hill, and there found Sanatan, who told him to
address his prayer to Madan Mohan. He did so, and his boat immediately be-
gan to float. When he had sold all his goods at Agra he came and brought the
price to Sanatan, who told him to build a temple with it. This he did and
added the Ghat also, all of red stone.

* This derivation is a very absurd one, Kandan being a Persian word. The real name of the
Ghat is the Sanskrit Frashandana, taken cither as a name of Siva, or as an epithet of the cliff,
' Standing out.'

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PRESENT STATE OF THE TEMPLE. 251

The tomple, as we now see it, consists of a nave 57 feet long, with a choir
of 20 feet square at the west end, and a sanctuary of the same dimensions
beyond. The nave has three openings on either side and a square door at the
«ast end, immediately outside of which the ground has a precipitous drop of
some 9 or 10 feet ; thus the only entrance is from the side. Its total height
would seem to have been only about 22 feet, but its vaulted roof has entirely
disappeared ; the upper part of the choir tower has also been destroyed. That
surmounting the saera-ium is a plain octagon of curvilinear outline tapering to-
wards the summit. Attached to its south side is a tower-crowned chapel of
similar character, but much more highly enriched, the whole of its exterior sur-
face being covered with sculptured panels; its proportions are also much more
elegant. Over its single door, which is at the east end, is a Sanskrit inscription,
<nven first in Bengali and then in Nagari characters, which runs as follows : —

it ?^ TT^cf^tT vfrnni TUT^T
TrnrnifiJiRsr xrti xrej tt^jt man: i

vo -a

" Of Guru descent, a compeer of Malnideva, whose father was Rnmchandra,
whose son was Radha Vasant, jewel of good men ; that mass of virtue, by name
Sri Gunanand, dedicated in approved fashion this temple to the son of Nanda
(Naudkishor, i. e., Krishna)."

The above had never been copied before, and as the letters were raised,
instead of incised, and also much worn, a transcript was a matter of some little
difficulty. The Brahman in charge of the shrine had certainly never troubled
himself to take one, for he declared the inscription to be absolutely illegible or
at least unintelligible, even if the letters could be deciphered. The information
given is not very perspicuous except as to the name of the founder, and there
is no indication of a date, but it would certainly be later than that of the main
building (which was the work of Ham Das). The court-yard is entered, after
the ascent of a flight of steps, through a massive square gateway with a pyrami-
dal tower, which groups very effectively with the two towers of the temple. As
the buildings are not only in ruins, but also from peculiarities of style ill-adapt-
ed to modern requirements, they are seldom, if ever, used for religious service,
which is ordinarily performed in an elegant and substantial edifice erected on the
other side of the street under the shadow of the older fane. The annual income

252 IMPROVEMENTS EFFECTED IN 1875.

is estimated at Rs. 10,100, of which sum, Rs. 8,000 are the voluntary offerings
of the faithful, while only Rs. 2,100 are derived from permanent endowment.*
A branch establishment at Radha Kund with the same dedication is also suppor-
ted from the funds of the parent house.

The nave, ruinous as it is, was evidently to a great extent rebuilt in com-
paratively recent times, the old materials being utilized as far as possible, but
when they ran short, the place of stone being supplied by brick. A side post
of one of the doors on the south side of the nave bears an inscription with the
date Sambat 1681 ( A.D. 1827 ), but it simply records a successful pilgrimage
made by a native of Kanauj in that year. In 1875 I greatly improved the
appearance of the temple by reducing the level of the ground round the chapel,
the plinth of which had been completely buried, and by removing a number of
buildings from inside the nave and from the front of the chapel door. A bound-
ary wall was also thrown down, and a new approach to the courtyard opened
out from the east with a flight of masonry steps up the ascent. The latter
were constructed by the municipality at a cost of Rs. 200 : the rest of the
expense was borne by the Gosain.

The original image of Madan Mohan is now at Karauli, where Raja Gopal
Sinh, who reigned from 1725 to 1757 A D., built a new temple for its reception,
after he had obtained it from his brother-in-law, the Raja of Jaypur. The
Gosain whom he placed in charge was a Bengali from Murshidabad, by name
RAm Kishor ; the name of the present incumbent is Mohan Kishor. He has an
endowment in land which brings in a yearly income of Rs. 27,000. The god
is fed seven times a day, the two principal meals being the rdj-bhog at mid-
day and the sayana at sleeping time. At the other five only a light repast is
offered, of sweetmeats, &c. ; these are called the mangal arti, which takes place
at dawn ; the dhup, at t) a.m. ; the eringar, at 11 a. m. ; dMp, again at 3 p. m. ;
and sandhyarti, at dusk.

With reference to this temple, a curious anecdote is told in the Bhakta
Mala of a devout Vaishnava, by name Sur Das. He was Governor (Amin) of
Sandila in Akbar's reign, and on one occasion consumed all the revenues of his
district in entertaining the priests and pilgrims at the temple. The treasure chests
were duly despatched to Delhi, but when opened were found to contain nothing
but stones. Such exaggerated devotion failed to commend itself even to the
Hindu minister, Todar Mall, who threw the enthusiast into prison ; but the

* Ob the road from Brinda-ban to Jait, within the boundaries of the Tillage of Sunrakh is a
walled garden with a tank, called Earn Tal, part of tlie property of the temple of Madan Mohan.

Tbye 25%.

TEMPLE OF MADAN MOHAN

B R I N D A-B A N.

NEW TEMPLE

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L,;i bVM L.vi . ■■■ ■/■. ■ ij^.^,^.^^.^^7^^^-

100-feeir.

THE TEMPLE OF GOPINXTH. 253

grateful god could not forget bis faithful servant and speedily moved the indul-
gent emperor to order his release. The panegyric on Stir Das Btands thus in
the text of the original poem .- the explanatory narrative, as added by Priya
Das, is too long to copy : —

^w tt^j rerrc f%f%er ^rim^r =rk ifh i

S(5H 3^Tfi ^r g^g m?^ j ^twr II

jgl us^wtw^ srcsre sn ^rrn ^N^t %t€t ^?t ii

Translation. — " Joined together like two links in a chain are the god Madan
Mohan and Siir Das, that paragon of excellence in verse and song, incarnation
of the good and beneficent, votary of Radha Krishan, master of mystic delights.
Manifold his songs of love ; the muse of love, queen of the nine, came dancing
on foot* to the melodies that he uttered ; his persuasiveness as unbouuded as
that of the fabled twin brothers. f Joined together like two links in a chain are
the sod Madan Mohan and Siir Das."

The temple of Gopinath, which may be slightly the earliest of the series,
is said to have been built by Raesil Ji, a grandson of the founder of the Shaikh-
&wat branch of the Kachhwaha Thakurs. He distinguished himself so greatly
in the repulse of an Afghan invasion, that Akbar bestowed upon him the title
of Darbari, with a grant of land and the important command of 1,250 horse.
He also accompanied his liege lord, Raja Man Sinh of Amber, against the
Mewar Rana Pratap, and further distinguished himself in the expedition to
Kabul. The date of his death is not known. The temple, of which he is the
reputed founder, corresponds very closely both in style and dimensions with
that of Madan Mohan, already described, and has a similar chapel attached to
the south side of the sacrarium. It is, however, in a far more ruinous condition ;

* Each Ras (the Hindu equivalent for the European Muse) has a special vehicle of its own,
and the meaning appear* to be that the Ras Sringdr, or Erotic Muse, alighted on foot the better
to catch the sound of his voice.

f The fabled twin brothers are probably the two Gandharvas (heavenly musicians), who
were metamorphosed into arjun trees till restored by Krishna to their proper form.

254 THE TEMPLES OF JTJGAL KISHOR.

the nave lias entirely disappeared ; the three towers have been levelled with
the roof; and the entrance gateway of the court-yard is tottering to its fall.
The special feature of the building is a curious arcade of three bracket arches,
serving apparently no constructural purpose, but merely added as an ornamental
screen to the south wall, which already had a fine boldly moulded plinth and re-
quired no further adornment. The terrace on which this arcade stands has a
carved stone front, which had been buried for years, till I uncovered it. The
choir arch is of handsome design, elaborately decorated with arabesque sculp-
tures. It was partly concealed from view by mean sheds which had been built
up against it, all of which I caused to be pulled down ; but the interior is
still used as a stable, and the north side is blocked by the modern temple. This
was built about the year 1821 by a Bengali Kayath, Nand Kumar Ghos, wdio
also built tin' new temple of Madan Mohan. The votive offerings here made
are estimated at Rs. 3,000 a year, in addition to which there is an endowment
yielding an annual income of Rs. 1,200.*

The temple of Jugal Kishor, the fourth of the old scries, stands at the lower
end of the town near the Kesi Ghat. Its construction is referred to the year
Sambat. 16.S4, i. e., 1<>27 A. D., in the reign of Jahangir, and the founder's name
is preserved as Non-Karan. He is said to have been a Chauhan Thakur ; but
it is not improbable that he was the elder brother of Raesil, who built the
temple of Gopinath. The choir, which is slightly larger than in the other
examples, being 25 feet square, has the principal entrance, as usual, at the east
end, but is peculiar in having also, both north and south, a small doorway under
a hood supported on eight closely-set brackets carved into the form of elephants.
The nave has been completely destroyed. The choir arch is an interesting
composition with a fan-light, so to speak, of pierced tracery in the head of the
arch, and a group above representing Krishna supporting the Gobardhan hill.
I had caused the whole of the building to be cleared out, removing from the
upper room of the tower an accumulation of pigeons' dung more than four feet
deep ; and at my suggestion the municipal committee had rented the temple for
a rupee a month to ensure its always being kept clean and unoccupied for the
ready inspection of visitors. As soon as I left the district, the new magistrate
vetoed this arrangement, and I suppose the place is now once more a cattle shed.

The somewhat later temple of Radlni Ballabh has been already mentioned
in the previous chapter. It is in itself a handsome building and is further of
special architectural interest as the last example of the early eclectic style.

* The Seth's Garden, where stands the Brahmotsava Pavilion, wub purchased from the tem-
ple of Goyinith, and is still liable to an annual charge of lis. 18.

AuTOTYPt.

TEMPLE OF GOPI-NATH, BRINDA-BAN

THE TEMPLE OF JUGAL-KISHOR. B^INDA-BAN

THE TEMPLE OP RA'DnX BALLABH. 255

The ground plan is much the same as in the temple of Harideva at Gobardhan
and the work is of the same character, but carried out on a larger scale. The
nave has an eastern facade, 34 feet broad, which is in three stages, the upper
and lower Hindu, and the one between them purely Muhammadan in character.
The interior is a fine vaulted hall (63 ft. X20 ft.) with a double tier of open-
ings north and south ; those in the lower story having brackets and architraves
and those above being Muhammadan arches, as in the middle story of the front.
These latter open into a narrow gallery with small clerestory windows looking
on to the street. Below, the three centre bays of the colonnade are open door-
ways, and the two at either end are occupied by the staircase that leads to the
upper gallery. Some of the carved panels of the stone ceiling have fallen ; but
the outer roof, a steep gable, also of stone, is as yet perfect. Some trees how-
ever have taken root between the slabs and unless carefully removed must event-
ually destroy it. The actual shrine, or cella, as also at the temple of Gobind
Deva. was demolished by Aurangzeb and only the plinth remains, upon which 3
room has been built, which is used as a kitchen. As no mosque was ever erected
at Brinda-ban, it is not a little strange that Mr. Fergusson in his History of
Indian Architecture, when speaking of this very locality, should venture to say:
" It does not appear proven that the Moslems did wantonly throw down the
temples of the Hindus, except when they wanted the materials for the erection
of mosques or other buildings." A thorough repair of roof, eaves and east front
would cost Us. 4,500, and as a typical example of architecture, the building is
worth the outlay. A modern temple has been erected on the south side, and
the nave of the old fabric has lonor been entirely disused. In fact this is the
last temple in the neighbourhood in which a nave was built at all. In the
modern style it is so completely obsolete that its distinctive name even is
forgotten.

These five temples form a most interesting architectural series, and if
Mr. Fergusson had ever been able to visit Brinda-ban or to procure photographs
of them, it is possible that he would not have found the origin of the Hindu
sikhara such an inscrutable mystery as he declares it to be. He conjectures that
the external form may have been simply a constructural necessity resulting
from the employment internally of a very tall pointed horizontal arch, like that
of the Treasury at Mycenae. But so far as my experience extends, no such
arch was ever used in a Hindu temple. On the contrary, the cella, over which
the sikhara is built, is separated from the more public part of thw building by
a solid wall pierced only by a doorway small enough to be eashv closed; while
the chamber itself is of no great height and is covered in with a vaulted ceiling,
as to the shape of which nothing could be learnt from a view oi the sikhara

256

ORIGIN OF THE HINDU SIKHARA.

outside ; and vice versa. Thus at the great temple of Gobind Deva the central
dome of the nave (or porch as Mr. Fergusson very inappropriately calls it) is
perfect; but it is impossible to determine from thence with any certainty what
would have been the outline and proportions of the tower that the architect
proposed to raise over it. I have no question in my own mind that the origin
of the sikhara is to be found in the Buddhist stiipa. Nor do I detect any vio ent
break in the development. The lower story of the modern temple which, though
most commonly square, is occasionally, as in the Madan Mohan and Radha
Ballabh examples, an octagon, and therefore a near approach to a circle, is repre-
sented by the masonry plinth of the relic-mound ; the high curvilinear roof by
the swelling contour of the earthen hill, and the pinnacle with its peculiar base
by the Buddhist rails and umbrella on the top of a Dagoba. From the original
stiipa to the temple of Parsvanath at Khajurao of the 11th century, the towers
of Madan Mohan and Jugal Kishor at Brinda-ban of the Kith, and the temple
of Vishveshvar at Banaras, the gradation seems to be easy and continuous.

From a note at the foot of page 32 of his ' Cave Temples' it appears that
Mr. Fergusson has been rather nettled by my exposure of his frequent inaccu-
racies and — having no excuse to offer— attempts to divert attention from them
by ridiculing the view I have here advanced as to the origin of the sikhara.
From the nature of the case it is simply a theory,— and whether it be right
t I — — i or wrong — in its integrity it must be incap-
able of positive proof. He is therefore not
bound to accept it ; but it certainly is rash of
him to maintain, as a counter-theory, that the
Brindaban sikharas are the result of an
attempt on the part of Hindu architects to
assimilate with their own traditional forms
the novel beauty of the Muhammadan dome.
The suggestion is absurd and admits of the
easiest refutation, nor do I for a moment sup-
pose that Mr. Fergusson ever seriously enter-
tained it : it is simply employed as a polemical
diversion. The type of an Orissan temple in
the 6th and 7th centuries A.D., while Bud-
dhism was still a power in the land and long
before the Muhammadaiis had ever entered
it, is illustrated by Dr. R;ijendra Lai Mitra
in his 'Indo-Aryans,' by a wood-cut which is
, I copied in the margin. It will be seen that the

Page; Z56.

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'55 P*

^ROUNDPUN OP THE TEMPLE OF EADHA BALIABH,
AT BRIHBABAH.

THE TEMPLE OF B.X.DUK D^MODAR. 257

general contour is identical with that of the Brinda-ban shrines : and in the
facades of the Jain caves at Gwaliar similar sikharas are everywhere to
be seen.

Of the smaller temples some have been casually mentioned in connection
with their founders. Though of ancient date, they have been often renewed
and possess no special architectural merit. The same may be said of the Bengali
temple of Sringar Bat, near the Madan Mohan, which, however, enjoys an
annual income of Its. 13,500, divided among three shareholders, who each take
the religious services for four months at a time. The village of Jahangirpur
on the opposite bank of the river, including the sacred grove of Bel-ban, forms
part of the endowment.

The temple of Radha Damodar has a special claim to distinction from the
fact that it contains the ashes of Jiva, its founder, as also of his two uncles,
the Gosains liiipa and Sanatan, the founders of the temple of Gobind Deva,
who in their life-time had expressed a wish to be buried together within its
precincts. Their joint anniversary is celebrated in the month of Sawan, when
the three shrines are visited by great crowds of Bengalis, who, according to
custom, make each some small offering. The proceeds used to be divided
between the priests of the two temples ; but in 1875, the Radha Damodar Mahant
made an attempt to engross the whole by excluding the Gobind Deva people
from any participation in the ceremony. The plea advanced was that they
were renegades from Vaishuavism since the time that they had complied with
the Jaypur Maharaja's order and marked their foreheads with the three horizon-
tal lines that indicate a votary of Siva. This exclusion was naturally resented
by the Gobind Deva Mahant, who claimed the immemorial right of free access
to his founder's tomb, and as there seemed cause to anticipate that the two rival
factions would come co blows, precautions were taken to suppress all external
manifestations whatever, much to the chagrin of the Radha Damodar claimants,
who had prepared to signalize their triumph by a display of exceptional magni-
ficence.

Of the modern temples, five claim special notice. The first in time of erec-
tion is the temple of Krishna Chandrama, built about the year 1810, at a cost
of 25 lakhs, by the wealthy Bengali Kayath, Krishna Chandra Sinh, better
known as the Liila Babu. It stands in a large court-yard, which is laid out,
not very tastefully, as a garden, and is enclosed by a lofty wall of solid masonry,
with an arched gateway at either end. The building is of quadrangular form,
1(30 feet in length, with a front central compartment of three arches and a

258 THE hlhA bXbu.

lateral colonnade of five bays reaching back on either side towards the cella.
The workmanship throughout is of excellent character, and the stone has been
carefully selected. The two towers, or sikharas, are singularly plain, but have
been wisely so designed that their smooth polished surface may remain unsul-
lied by rain and dust.

The founder's ancestor, Babu Murli Mohan Sinh, son of one Har Krishna
Sinh, was a wealthy merchant and landed proprietor at Kandi in Murshidabad.
His heir, Bihari Lai Sinh, had three sons, Badha Gobind, Ganga Gobind, and
Badha Charan : of these, the last-named, on inheriting his share of the paternal
estate, broke off connection with the rest of the family and has dropped out of
sight. Badha Gobind took service under Allah Virdi Khan and Sinij-ud-daula,
Nawabs of Murshidabad, and was by them promoted to posts of high honour.
A rest-house for travellers and a temple of Badha Ballabh, which he founded,
are still in existence. He died without issue, leaving his property to his brother,
Ganga Gobind, who took a prominent part in the revision of the Bengal settle-
ment under Lord William Bentinck, in 1828. He built a number of dharmsdlds
for the reception of pilgrims and four temples at Bamchandrapur in Nadiya.
These latter have all beim _ washed away by the river, but the images of the gods
were transferred to Kandi. He also maintained several Sanskrit schools in
Nadiya; and distinguished himself by the extraordinary pomp with which he
celebrated his father's obsequies, spending, moreover, every year on the anni-
versary of his death a lakh of rupees in religious observances. Ganga Gobind's
son, Pran Krishan Sinh, still further augmented his magnificent patrimony
before it passed in succession to his son, Krishan Chandra Sinh, better known
under the soubriquet of ' the Lala Babu. He held office first in Bardwan and
then in Ori'sa, and, when about thirty years of age, came to settle in the holv
land of Braj. In connexion with his temple at Brinda-ban ho founded also a
rest-house, where a largo number of pilgrims are still daily fed; the annual cost
of the whole establishment being, as is stated, Bs. 22,000. He also enclosed
the sacred tanks at Badha-kund with handsome ghats and terraces of stone at the
cost of a lakh. When some forty years of age, he renounced the world, and in the
character of a Bainigi continued for two years to wander about the woods and
plains of Braj, begging his bread from day to day till the time of his death, which
was accidentally caused by the kick of of a horse at Gobardhan.* He was

» The following Hindi couplet is current in the district with reference to the death of the two
millionaires, the Lala Babu and Tdrikh Ji : —

Lala Balm margaya, ghora dosh lagrivc,
Parikh ka kira pari; Bidhi sou ko bauae ?

TnE LA"lX BABE'S ESTATE. 259

frequently accompanied in his rambles by Mani Earn, father of the famous Seth
Lakhmi Ohand, who also had adopted the life of an ascetic. In the course of
the ten years which the Lala Babu spent as a worldling in the Mathura dis-
trict, ho contrived to buy up all the villages most noted as places of pilgrim-
age in a manner which strikingly illustrates his hereditary capacity for busi-
ness. The zamindars were assured that he had no pecuniary object in view,
but only the strict preservation of the hallowed spots. Again, as in the days
of Krishna, they would become the secluded haunts of the monkey and the
peacock, while the former proprietors would remain undisturbed, the happy
guardians of so many new Arcadias. Thus the wise man from the East picked
up one estate after another at a price in every case far below the real value,
and in some instances for a purely nominal sum. However binding his fair
promises may have been on the conscience of the pious B.ibu. they were never
recorded on paper, and therefore are naturally ignored by his absentee descend-
ants and their agents, from whom any appeal ad misericor liam on the part of
the impoverished representatives of the old owners of the soil meets with very
scant consideration. The villages which he acquired in the Mathura district
are fifteen in number, viz., in the Kosi Pargana, Jau ; in Chhata, Nandganw,
Barsana, Sanket, Karhela, Garhi, and Hathiya ; and in the home pargana,
Mathura, Jait, Mah'oli, and Nabi-pur ; all these, except the last, being more
or less places of pilgrimage. To these must be added the four Giijar villages of
Pirpur, Gulalpur, Chamar-garhi, and Dhiinri. For Nandganw he gave Rs. 900 ;
for Barsana, Rs. 600 ; for Sanket, Rs. 800 ; and for Karhela, Rs. 500 ; the annual
revenue derived from these places being now as follows : from Nandganw,
Rs. 6,712 ; from Barsana Rs. 3,109 ; from Sanket, Rs. 1,642 ; and from Karhela,
Rs. 1,900. It may also be noted that payment w'as invariably made in Brinda-
ban rupees, which are worth only thirteen or fourteen anas each. The Babu
further purchased seventy-two villages in Aligarh and Bulandshahr from
Raja Bir Sinh, Chauhan ; but twelve of these were sold at auction in the time
of his heir, Babu Sri Narayan Sinh. This latter, being a minor at his father's
death, remained for a time under the tutelage of his mother, the Rani Kaithani,
who again, on his decease, when only thirty years old, managed the estate till
the coming of age of the two sons whom his widows had been specially autho-
rized to adopt. The elder of the two, Pratap Chandra, founded an English
school at Kiindi and a dispensary at Calcutta. He was for some time a Mem-
ber of tho Legislative Council of Bengal, received from Government the title
of Bahadur, and was enrolled as a Companion of the Star of India. He died
in 1867, leaving four sons, Giris-chandra (since deceased), Puran-chandra,

260 the seth's temple.

Kanti-chandra, and Sarad-chandra. Tho younger brother, Isvar-chandra, who
died in 1863, left an only son, Indra-chandra, who now enjoys half the estate,
the other half being divided between his three cousins. During their minority
the property was under the control of the Court of Wards ; the General
Manager being Mr. Robert Harvey of Calcutta. The gross rental of the lands
in the Mathura district is Rs. 70,738, upon which the Government demand,
including the 10 per cent, cess, is Rs. 49,496. The value of the property when
taken in charge was estimated at Rs. 2,40,193 ; it has now increased to
Its. 3,80,892.

The great temple, founded by Seths Gobind D;is and Radha Krishan,
brothers of the famous millionaire Lakhmi Ohand, is dedicated to Rang Ji, or
Sri Ranga Nath, that being the special name of Vishnu most affected by
Ramanuja, the founder of the Sri Sampradaya. It is built in the Madras
style, in accordance with plans supplied by their guru, the great Sanskrit
scholar, Swami Rangacharya, a native of that part of India.*

The works were commenced in 1845 and completed in 1851, at a cost
of 45 lakhs of rupees. The outer walls measure 773 feet in length by 440 in
breadth, and enclose a fine tank and garden in addition to the actual temple-
court. This latter has lofty gate-towers, or (jopuras, covered with a profusion
of coarse sculpture. In front of the god is erected a pillar, or dhvaja stambha,
of copper gilt, sixty feet in height, and also sunk some twenty-four feet more
below the surface of the ground. This alone cost Rs. 10,000. The principal
or western entrance of the outer court is surmounted by a pavilion, ninety-
three feet high, constructed in the Mathura style after the design of a native
artist. In its graceful outlines and the elegance of its reticulated tracery, it
presents a striking contrast to the heavy and misshapen masses of the Madras
Gopura, which rises immediately in front of it. A little to one side of the
entrance is a detached shed, in which the god's rath, or carriage, is kept. It
is an enormous wooden tower in several stages, with monstrous effigies at the

* He translated some of Ramanuja's works from the language of Southern India into
Sanskrit, and was also the author of two polemical treatises in defence of the orthodoxy of
Vaislmavism. The fir-t is a pamphlet entitled Dtirjana-kari-panchanana, which was written
as an answer to eight questions propounded for solution by the Saivite Pandits of Jaypur. The
Maharaja, not being convinced, had a rejoinder published under the name of Sajjana mano-
nuranjana, which elicited a more elaborate work from the Swami, called Vyamoha-vidravanam,
in which lie brought together a great number of texts from the canonical Scriptures of the
Hindus in support of his own views and in refutation of those of bis opponents. He died on
the 26th of March, 1874.

THE IDOL CAR.

THE BRAHMOTSAV FESTIVAL. 261

corners, and is brought out only once a year in the month of Chait during tho
festival of the Brahinotsav. The mela lasts for ten days, on each of which the
god is taken in state from the temple along the road, a distance of 690 yards,
to a garden where a pavilion has been erected for his reception. The proces-
sion is always attended with torches, music, and incense, and some military
display contributed by the Raja of Bharatpur. On the day when the rath is
used, the image, composed of the eight metals, is seated in the centre of the car,
with attendant Brahmans standing on either side to fan it with cliauries. Each
of the Seths, with the rest of the throng, gives an occasional hand to the ropes by
which the ponderous machine is drawn ; and by dint of much exertion, the
distance is ordinarily accomplished in the space of about two and-a-half hours.
On the evening of the following day there is a grand display of fire-works, to
which all the European residents of the station are invited, and which attracts
a large crowd of natives from tho country round about. On other days when
the rath is not brought out, the god has a wide choice of vehicles, being borne
now on a palki, a richly gilt ' tabernacle' (punya-kothi), a throne (sinhasan), or
a tree, either the kadamb, or the tree of Paradise (kalpa-criksha); now on
some demi-god, as the sun or the moon, Gartira, Hanuman, or Sesha ; now
again on some animal, as a horse, an elephant, a lion, a swan, or the fabulous
eight-footed Sarabha. The ordinary cost of one of these celebrations is about
Rs. 5,000, while the annual expenses of the whole establishment amount to no
less than Rs. 57,000, the largest item in that total being Rs. 30,000 for the bhog
or food, which after being presented to the god is then consumed by the priests
or given away in charity. Every day 500 of tho Sri Vaishnava sect are fed
at the temple, and every morning up to ten o'clock a dole of flour is given to
anyone of any denomination who chooses to apply for it.

Tho endowment consists of thirty-three villages, yielding a gross income
of Rs. 1,17,000, on which the Government demand amounts to Rs. 64,000.
Of the thirty-three villages, thirteen, including one quarter of Brinda-ban, are
in the Mathura, and twenty in the Agra district. The votive offerings amount
on an average to Rs. 2,000 a year, and there is further a sum invested in the
funds which yields in annual interest as much as Rs. 11,800. In 1868, the
whole estate was transferred by the Swami — the deed of transfer bearing a
stamp of Rs. 2,000 — to a committee of management, who on his death wrere
bound to appoint a successor. This arrangement was necessitated by the bad
conduct of his son Srinivasaeharya — named according to family custom after
the grandfather — who, far from being a scholar like his father, is barely edu-
cated up to the ordinary level of his countrymen : while his profligacy is open

2(52 MANAGEMENT OF THE SETH's TEMPLE.

and notorious. Immorality and priestly dignity, it is true, are not universally
accounted as incompatible qualities ; but the scandal in his case is augmented
by the ceremonial pollution he incurs from his habit of familiar intercourse
with the lowest classes of the people, while his reckless extravagance knows
no bounds. Since his father's death he receives a fixed allowance for his
maintenance ; but another Guru has been brought up from Madras to conduct
the temple services, and the estate is entirely under the control of the commit-
tee. This consists of six members, of whom the most active is Seth Naniyan
Das. He is also appointed general attorney for the trustees, and all the temple
property, valued at about 20 lakhs, is entered in his name. Since the new
arrangement, there has been no falling off in the splendour of the festivals or
in the liberality with which the different charities are maintained, while at the
same time the estate has been improved and the cost of establishment reduced.

Of the villages that form the endowment, three in Mahaban and two in
Jalesar were conferred on the temple by Raja Man Siuh of Jaypur. Though
the lawful heir to the throne, he never took his seat upon it. He was the
posthumous son of Raja Prithi Sinn, on whose death, in 1779 A. D , the surviv-
ing brother, Pratap Sinh, claimed the succession. The nephew's right was sub-
sequently upheld by Daulat Rao Sindhia, but the young prince was devoted
to letters and religion, and on being assured of an annual income of Rs. 30,000,
ho gladly relinquished the royal title and retired to Brinda-ban. Here he spent
the remainder of his days in the practice of the most rigid austerities, till death
overtook him at the age of 70, in 1848. For 27 years he had remained sitting
cross-legged in one position, never moving from his seat but once a week when
nature compelled him to withdraw. Five days before his death he predicted
his coming end and solemnly bequeathed to the Seth the care of his old ser-
vants ; one of whom, Lakshmi Narayan Byas, was manager of the temple estate,
till his death in 1874.

If the effect of the Seths' lavish endowment is impaired by the ill-judged
adoption of a foreign style of architecture, still more is this error apparent in
the temple of Radhi'i Raman, completed within the last few years. The founder
is Sah Kundan Lai, of Lakhnau, who has built on a design suggested by the
modern secular buildings of that city. The principal entrance to the court-
yard is, in a grandiose way, decidedly effective; and the temple itself is con-
structed of the most costly materials and fronted with a colonnade of spiral
marblo pillars, each shaft being of a single piece, which though rather too
attenuated are unquestionably elegant. The mechanical execution is also good;

J'ag& 263.

TEMPLE OF RADHA GOPAL

BRINDA-BAN.

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THE TEMPLE OF RXDHX GOrXL. 203

but all is rendered of no avail by the abominable taste of the design. The
facade with its uncouth pediment, flanked by sprawling monsters, and its row
of life-size female figures in meretricious, but at the same time most ungrace-
ful, attitudes, resembles nothing so much as a disreputable London casino :
a severe, though doubtless unintended, satire, on the part of the architect, on the
character of the divinity to whom it is consecrated. Ten lakhs of rupees are
said to have been wasted on its construction.*

In striking contrast to this tasteless edifice is the temple of Radha
Indra Kishor, built by Rani Indrajit Kunvar, widow of Het Kam, Brahman
zatnindar, of Tikari by Gaya. It was six years in building, and was completed
at the end of 1871. It is a square of seventy feet divided into three aisles of
five bays each, with a fourth space of equal dimensions for the reception of the
god. The sikliara is surmounted with a copper kalas, or finial, heavily gilt,
which alone cost Rs. 5,000. The piers are composed of four conjoined pillars,
each shaft being a single piece of stone, brought from the Paharpur quarry in
Bharatpur territory. The building is raised on a high and enriched plinth,
and the entire design is singularly light and graceful. Its cost has been three
lakhs.

The temple of Radha Gopal, built by the Maharaja of Gwaliar under the
direction of his guru Brahmachari Giridhari Das, is also entitled to some special
notice. The interior is an exact counterpart of an Italian church and would be an
excellent model for our architects to follow, since it secures to perfection both
free ventilation and a softened light. It consists of a nave 58 feet long, with
four aisles, two on either side, a sacraium 21 feet in depth and a narthex of the
same dimensions at the entrance. The outer aisles of the nave, instead of beino-
closed in with solid walls, have open arches stopped only with wooden bars ; and
the tier of windows above gives on to a balcony and verandah. Thus any glare
of light is impossible. The building was opened for religious service in 1860
and as it stands has cost four lakhs of rupees. The exterior has a mean and un-
sightly appearance, which might be obviated by the substitution of reticulated
stone tracery for the wooden bars of the outer arches below and a more sub-
stantial balcony and verandah in lieu of the present ricketty erection above. An
entrance gateway is now being added.

* In imitation of the bad example thuB set, a new temple dedicated to Kadha Gopal was built
in 1873 by Lala Braj Kishor, a wealthy resident of Shahjahanpur, where he is district treasurer.
It has a long frontage facing one of the principal streets, with a continuous balcouy to the upper
story, in which each pillar is a clumsily carved etone figure of a Sak/ii, or * dancing girl.'

264 THE BHAIUT-PUR BUILDINGS AT BRINDA'-BAN.

There are in Brinda-ban no secular buildings of any great antiquity. Th«
oldest is the court, or Ghera, as it is called, of Sawai Jay Sinh, the founder
of Jaypur, who made Brinda-ban an occasional residence during the time
that he was Governor of the Province of Agra (1721-1728). It is a large
walled enclosure with a pavilion at one end, consisting of two aisles divided into
five bays by piers of coupled columns of red sandstone. The river front of the
town has a succession of ghats reaching for a distance of about a mile and a-half.
Their beauty has been greatly marred by the religious mendicants who have
taken possession of all the graceful stone kiosques and utilized them for cooking-
places, blocking up the arches with mud walls and blackening the carved work
with the smoke of their fires. I cleared out a great many, but left the task
unfinished. The one highest up the stream is the Kali-mardan Ghat with the
kadamb tree from which Krishna plunged into the water to encounter the great
serpent Kaliya ; and the lowest at the other end is Kesi Ghat, where he slew the
equine demon of that name. Near the latter are two handsome mansions built
by the Ranis Kishori and Lachhmi, consorts of Ranjit Sinh and Randhir Sinh,
two successive Rajas of Bharatpur. In both the arrangement is identical
with that of a mediaeval college, carried out on a miniature scale, but with
extreme elaboration of detail. The buildings are disposed in the form
of a quadrangle, with an enriched gateway in the centre of one front and
opposite it the chapel, of more imposing elevation than the ordinary domestic
apartments, which constitute tho two flanks of the square. In Rani Lachhmi's
kunj (such being the distinctive name for a building of this character), the temple
front is a very rich and graceful composition. It has a colonnade of five arches
standing on a high plinth, which, like every part of the wall surface, is covered
with the most delicate carving and is shaded above by unusually broad eaves
which have a wavy pattern on their under-surface and are supported on bold
brackets. The work of the elder Rani is of much plainer character ; and a third
kunj, which stands a little lower down the river, close to the temple of Dhir
Samir,* built by Thakur Badan Sinh, the father of Siiraj Mall, the first of the
Bharatpur Rajas, though large, has no architectural pretensions whatever. The
most striking of the whole series is, however, the Ganga Mohan Kunj, built in

* In explanation of the title »f this temple, which means literally 'a soft breeze,' take the
following line from the Gita GobinJa of Jayadeva : —

Dhira-samire Yumund-lire vasatt vane vana-mdlit
which may be thus translate.! —

lie is waiting, flower-begarlanded, beneath the forest trees,
White cool across the Jamuni steals the s-oft delicious brieve.

MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS. 265

the next generation by Ganga, Suraj Mall's Rani. The river front, which is
all that was ever completed, has a high and massive basement story, which on
the land side, as seen from the interior of the court, becomes a mere plinth for
the support of a majestic doublo cloister with broad and lofty arch and massive
clustered pier. The style is precisely the same as that which prevails in the
Garden Palace at Dig, a work of the same chief ; who, however rude and un-
cultured himself, appears to have been able to appreciate and command the ser-
vices of the highest available talent whether in the arts of war or peace. His son,
Ratn Sinh, would seem to have inherited his father's architectural proclivities, for
he had commenced what promised to be a very large and handsome mausoleum
for the reception of his own funeral ashes, but died before the work had advanced
beyond the first story. This is in one of the largo gardens outside the town
beyond the Madan Mohan temple, and has not been touched since his
death.

A few years ago the town was exceedingly dirty and ill kept, but this state
of things ceased from the introduction of a municipality. The conservancy
arrangements are now of a most satisfactory character, and all the streets of any
importance have been either paved or metalled. This unambitious, but most
essential, work has, up to the present time, absorbed almost all the surplus in-
come; the only exception being a house, intended to serve both for muni-
cipal meetings and also for the reception of European visitors, which
I had not quite completed at the time of my transfer. It is in Indian style
with carved stone pillars and arches to the verandahs and pierced tracery in
the windows. As the ground about it had also been taken up for a garden,
the whole would have formed a conspicuous ornament to the official quarter of
the town, where all the other buildings are on the conventional and singularly
prosaic D. P. W. type. Education, as conducted on European principles, has
never made much way in the town, in spite of the efforts of the committee to
promote it by the establishment of schools of different grades. Some of these
have been closed altogether. The Tahsili school, completed in 1868 at a cost of
Rs. 3,710, which included a donation of Rs. 500 from Swami Rangaeharya, the
head of the Seth's temple, still continues and has a room also for some anglo-ver-
nacular classes ; but the number of pupils, through variable, is never very large.
The children find it more lucrative and amusing to hang about the temples and
act as guides to the pilgrims and sight-seers. The dispensary, also opened in
1868, cost the small sum of only Rs. 1,913 ; but as yet it has no accommo-
dation for in-door patients. As such a large number of people come to Brinda-
ban simply for the sake of dying there, while of the resident population nearly

266 MUNICIPAL INCOME.

one-half are professed celibates, the proportion of births to deaths is almost in
inverse ratio to that which prevails elsewhere ; a circumstance which might well
startle any one who was unacquainted with the exceptional character of the loca-
lity. The population by the recent census was 21,467, of whom 794 only were
Muhammadans, The municipal income for the year 1871-72 was Rs. 17,549,
and this may be regarded as a fair average. Of this sum Rs. 16,666 were derived
from octroi collections ; the tax on articles of food alone amounting to Rs. 13,248.
These figures indicate very clearly, what might also be inferred from the preced-
ing sketch, that there is no local trade or manufacture, and that the town is
maintained entirely by its temples and religious reputation. There was a mint
(Taksdl) established here by Daulat Rao Sindhia, in 1786, whence the name of
the street called the Taksal-wali-Gali. When the Jats were in possession of
the country, they transferred it to Bharatpur, where what are called Brinda-
bani rupees are still coined. They are especially used at weddings, and when
there are many such festivities going on, the coin is sometimes valued at as
much as 13 anas, but ordinarily sells for 12.

NOTES TO CHAPTER IX.

I. — Calendar of Local Festivals at Brinda'-ban.

Chait Sudi (April 1 — 15).

1. Chait Sudi 3. — Gangaur; adoration of Ganpati and Gauri. In the
older Sanskrit calendars this day is generally named Saubhagya Sayana, and
is appropriated to a special devotion in honour of the goddess Arundhati,
which is recommended to be practised by all women who desire to lead a happy
married life and escape the curse of early widowhood. At the present day
the oblations to Gauri are accompanied by the repetition of the following un-
couth formula, in commemoration of a Rani of Udaypur, who, after enjoying
a life of the utmost domestic felicity, had the further happiness of dying at the
same moment as her husband : —

% %rt m\z 5RTfeRT it feiTSRT ^ tr! mn *t ^J^Z. *RT 3*cT 5R^

^TT *TOT m^HITT 13TT ^ TT^ RUT I

2. Chait Sudi 9. — Ram Navami. Rama's birthday.

3. Chait Sudi 11.— Phiil dol.

Baiadkh {April — May).

4. Baisakh Sudi 3. — Akhay Tij . Among agriculturists, the day for set-
tling the accounts of the past harvest. Visits are paid to the image of Bihari,
which on this festival only has the whole body exposed. The ceremony is hence
called ' Chandan baga ka darsan,' as the idol, though besmeared with sandal wood
(chandan), has no clothing (bdga). The temple bhog on this day consists exclu-
sively of kahris (a kind of cucumber), ddl, and a mash made of wheat, barley,
and chand ground up and mixed with sugar and ghi.

5. Baisdkh Sudi. 9 — Janaki Navami. Held at Akrur. Sita's birthday.

6. Baisdkh Sudi 10. — Hit ji ka utsav: at the Ras Mandal. Anniversary
of the birth of the Gosain Hari Vans.

7. Baisdkh Sudi 14. — Narsinh avatar.

Jeth (May — June).

8. Jeth Badi 2. — Perambulation, called Ban bihtir ka parikrama. The
distance traversed is between five and six miles, each pilgrim starting from the
point which happens to be most convenient.

268 BRINDA'-BAN CALENDAR.

9. Jeth Badi 5. — The same, but at night.

10. Jeth Badi 1 1 .— Ras Mandal.

11. Jeth Sudi 5. — Jal Jatra.

On the full moon of Jeth, Gaj-graha ka mela .• representation of a fight
between an elephant and a crocodile in the tank at the back of the Seth's
temple.

Asdrh [June — July).

12. Asdrh Sudi 2. — Rath Jatra. The god's collation, or hhog, consists on
this day only of mangoes, jdman fruit and chand.

13. Asdrh full moon. — Dhio dhio ka mela at Madan Mohan, followed by
the Pavan Pariksha.

Srdvan (July — August).

14. Srdvan Badi 5. — Radha Raman Ji ka dhio dhio. Mourning for the
death of Gosain Gopsil Bhatt, the founder of the temple.

15. Srdvan Badi 8. — Gokulanand ka dhio dhio. Mourning for the death
of Gosain Gokulanand.

16. Srdvan Sudi 3. — Hindol, or Jhul- jatra. Swinging festival.

17. Srdvan Sudi 9. — Fair at the Brahm Kund.

18. Srdvan Sudi 11. — Pavitra-dharan, or presentation of Brahmanical
threads.

19. Srdvan full moon. — Fair at the Gyan-gudari.

Bhddon (August — September.)

20. Bhddon Badi 8. — Janm Ashtami. Krishna's birthday.

21. Bhddon Badi 9. — Climbing a greasy pole, which is set up outside the
temple of Rang Ji, with a dhoti, a lota, five sers of sweetmeats, and Rs. 5 on the
top, for the man who can succeed in getting them. This takes place in the after-
room. In the evening, the Nandotsav, or festival in honour of Nanda, is
held at the Sringar-bat, and continued through the night with music and
dancing.

22. Bhddon Sudi 8. — Radha Ashtami. Radha's birthday. A large
assemblage also at the Mauni Das ki tatti by the Nidh-ban, in honour of a saint
■who kept a vow of perpetual silence.

23. Bhddon Sudi 11. — Jal Jholni mela, or Karwatni, ' the turning of the
god' in his four months' sleep.

brinda'-ban calendar. 260

Kuvdr (September — October).

24. Kuvdr Badi 11. — Festival of the Sanjhi, lasting for five days ; and
mela at the Bratim kund.

25. Kuvdr Sudi 1. — Dan Lila at the Gyan-gudari and mela of the Kalpa-
vriksha.

:><!. Kuvdr Sudi 10. — The Dasahara. Commemoration of Rama's conquest
of Lanka.

27. Kuvdr Sudi 11. — Perambulation.

Kdrtik (October — November).

28. Kdrtik new moon. — Dipotsav, or festival of lamps.

29. Kdrtik Sudi 1. — Anna kiit, as at Gobardhan.

30. Kdrtik Sudi 8. — Perambulation and Go-charan.

31. Kdrtik Sudi 12. — Festival of the Davanal, or forest-conflagration.

32. Kdrtik Sudi 13. — Festival of Kesi Danav.

33. Kdrtik Sudi 14.— Nagdila : at the Kali-mardan Ghat with procession
of boats.

34. Kdrtik full moon. — Fair at Bhat-rond.

Agahn (Xovember — December) .

35. Agahn Badi 1.— Byahle-ka-mela, or marriage feast, at the Ras
Mandal and Chain Ghat.

36. Agahn Badi 3. — Ram lila.

37. Agahn full moon. — Dau ji-ka-mela, in honour of Balaram.

38. Agahn Sudi 5. — Bihari janmotsav, or birth of Bihari ; also the Bha-
rat-milap.

Pus (December — January).

39. Pus Sudi 5 to 11. — Dhanur-mas otsav, observed at the Seths' temple
with processions issuing from the Vaikunth gate : ' Dhanur' being the sign
Sagittarius. Throughout the month distribution of khichri (pulse and rice) is
made at the temple of Radha Ballabh.

Mdgh (January — February).

40. Mdgh Sudi 5. — Basantotsav. The spring festival.

41. Phdlgun Badi 11. — Festival at the Man-sarovar.

270

brindX-ban gha'ts.

Phdlgun (February — March).

42. Phdlgun Sudi 11.— Phul dol.

43. Phdlgun full moon. — The Holi or Carnival.

Chait Badi (March 15th to 31st).

44. Chait Badi 1. — Dhurendi or sprinkling of the Holi-powder, and Dol jatra.

45. Chait Badi 5. — Kali dahan and plnil dol.

46. Brahmotsav. Festival at the Seth's temple, beginning Chait Badi t
and lasting ten days.

II. — List of River-side Gha'ts at Brinda'-ban.

1 Madan Ter Ghat, built by Pandit

Moti Lai.

2 Ram-gol Ghat, built by the Gosain

of the temple of Bihari Ji.

3 Kali-daha Ghat, built by Holkar

Rao.

4 Gopal Ghat, built by Madan Pal,

Raja of Kurauli.

5 Nabhawala Ghat, built by Raja

Hira Sinh of Nabha.

6 Praskandan Ghat, re-built by

Gosains of temple of Madan
Mohan.

7 Siiraj Ghat.

8 Koriya Ghat, said to be named

after certain Gosains from Kol.

9 Jugal Ghat, built by Hari Das and

Gobind Das, Thakurs.

10 Dhusar Ghat.

11 Naya Ghat, built by Gosain Bha-

jan Lai.

12 Sriji Ghat, built by Raja of Jay-

pur.

13 Bihar Ghat, built by Appa Ram

from the Dakhin.

14 Dhnrawara Ghat, built by Raja

Randhir Sinh of Dlnira.

15 Nagari Das.

16 Bhim Ghat, built by the Raja of

Kota.

17 Andha (i.e., the dark or covered)

Ghat, built by Raja Man of
J ay pur.

18 Tehriwara Ghat, built by the Raja

of Tehri.

19 Imla Ghat,

20 Bardwan Ghat, built by a Raja of

Bardwan.

21 Barwara Ghat.

22 Ranawat Ghat, built by the Rana

of Udaypur.

23 Singar Ghat, built by the Gosain

of the temple of Singar-
bat.

24 Ganga Mohan Ghat, built by

Ganga, Rani of Siiraj Mall, of
Bharatpur.

25 Gobind Ghat, built by Raja Man

of Jaypur.
2b' Himmat Bahadur's Ghat, built by
Gosain Himmat Bahadur (see
Chapter XI.)

27 Chir Ghat or Chain Ghat, built by

Malhar Rao, Holkar.

28 Hanuman Ghat, built by Saw.ii

Jay Sinh of Jaypur.

29 Bhaunra Ghat, built by Sawai Jay

Sinh of Jaypur.

30 Kishor Rani's Ghat, built by Kis-

hori, Rani of Siiraj Mall, of
Bharatpur.

31 Pandawara Ghat, built by Chau-

dhari Jagaunath, of Lakh-
nau.

32 Kesi Ghat, built by the Bharatpur

Rani, Lachhmi.

BRINDA-BAN MAHAIXAS.

271

III.— Names of Mahallas, or City Quarters at BrindX-ban.

1 Gyan Gudari.

2 Gopesvar Mahadeva.

3 Bansi-bat.

4 Gopinath Bagh.

5 Bazar Gopinath.

6 Brahin-kund.

7 Bad ha Nivas.

8 Kesi Ghat.

9 Radha Raman.

10 Nidh-ban.

11 Pathar-pura.

12 Nagara Gopinath.

13 Ghera Gopinath.

14 Nagara Gopal.

15 ChirGhat.

16 Mandi Darwaza.

17 Ghera Gobind Ji.

18 Nagara Gobind Ji.

19 GaliTaksar.

20 Ram Ji Dwara.

21 Bazar Kanthiwara {i.e., sellers of

rosaries and necklaces).

22 Sewa Kunj.

23 Kunj Gali.

'24 By ;is ka Ghent.

25 Singar-bat.

26 Ras Mandal.

27 Kishor-pura.

28 Dhobiwari Gali.

29 Rangi Lai ki Gali.

30 Sukhan Mata Gali (i.e., street of

dried-up small-pox),

31 Purana Shahr {i.e., old town).

32 Lariawara Gali.

33 Gabdua ki Gali.

34 Gobardhan Darwaza.

35 Ahir-para.

36 Dusait (the name, it is said, of a

sub-division of the Sanadh
tribe).

37 Mahalla Barwara (from the number

of bar trees).

38 Ghera Madan Mohan.

39 Bihari-pura.

40 Purohit-wara.

41 Mani-para.

42 Gautam-para.

43 Ath-khamba.

44 Gobind bagh.

45 Loi Bazar, (the blanket mart).*

46 Retiya Bazar.

47 Ban-khandi Mahadeva.

48 Chhipi kiGali.

49 Raewari Gali (occupied by Bhats,

or bards, who are always distin-
guished by the title Rae).

50 Bundele ka Bagh. Bundela is the

god propitiated in time of cholera.
He is always represented as
riding on a horse. When small-
pox, the twin scourge of India,
is raging, an ass is the animal
to which offerings are made.

51 Mathura Darwaza.

52 Ghera Sawai Jay Sinh.

53 Dhir Samir.

54 Mauni Das ki tatti.

55 Gahvar-ban.

56 Gobind kund.

57 Radha Bagh.

* There is a large sale of Loi, or country blanketing, at Brinda-ban. The material iB
imported chiefly from Marwar and Bikaner in an old and worn condition, bat is worked up
again so thoroughly that natives count it as good as new.

CHAPTER X.

maha'-ban, gokul, and baladeva.

The town of Maha-ban — population 6,182 — is some five or six miles from
Mathnra, lower down the stream and on the opposite bank of the Jainuna.
Though the country in its neighbourhood is now singularly bare, the name
indicates that it must at one time have been densely wooded ; and so late as the
year 1634 A,D. we find the Emperor Shahjahan ordering a hunt there and
killing four tigers. It stands a little inland, about a mile distant from Gokul ;
which latter place has appropriated the more famous name, though it is in
reality only the water-side suburb of the ancient town. This is clearly indicated
by the fact that all the traditional sites of Krishna's adventures, described in
the Puranas as having taken place at Gokul, are shown at Maha-ban ; while the
Gokul temples are essentially modern in all their associations : whatever celebrity
they possess is derived from their having been founded by the descendants of
Vallabha-charya, the great heresiarch of the sixteenth century. The existence
of Gokul as a distinct town was no doubt long antecedent to its religious
aggrandizement, and probably dates from the time when the old Hindu fort
was occupied by a Muhammadan garrison and the Hindus expelled beyond its
immediate precincts.

Taking, then, Maha-ban as equivalent to the Gokul of Sanskrit literature,
the connection between it and Mathnra has always been of a most intimate
character. For, according to the legend, Krishna was born at the one and
cradled at the other. Both, too, make their first appearance in history together
and under most unfortunate circumstances, having been sacked by Mahmiid of
Ghazni in the year 1017 A.D. From the effects of this catastrophe it would
seem that Maha-ban was never able to recover itself. It is casually mentioned
in connection with the year 1234 A.D., by Minhaj-i-Siraj, a contemporary
writer, as one of the gathering places for the imperial army sent by Shams-ud-
din against Kalanjar; and the Emperor Babar, in his memoirs, incidentally
refers to it, as if it were a place of some importance still, in the year 1526 A.D. ;
but the name occurs in the pages of no other chronicle ; and at the present day,
though it is the seat of a tahsili, it can scarcely be called more than a consider-
able village. Within the last few years, one or two large and handsome private
residences have been built, with fronts of carved stone in the Mathura style ;
but the temples are all exceedingly mean and of no antiquity. The largest and

TIIE FORT AT MAHA-BAN. 273

also the most sacred is thai dedicated to Mathura-nath, which boasts of a
pyramidal tower, or sikhara, of some height aud bulk, but constructed only of
brick and plaster. The Brahman in charge used to enjoy an endowment of
Rs. 2 a day, the gift of Sindhia, but this has long lapsed. There are two other
small shrines of some interest : in the one, the demon Trinavart is represented
as a pair of enormous wings overhanging the infant god; the other bears the
dedication of Maha Mall Rae, ' the great champion prince,' a title given to
Krishna after his discomfiture of the various evil spirits sent against him by
Kansa.

Great part of the town is occupied by a high hill, partly natural and partly
artificial, extending over more than 100 bighas of land, where stood the old
fort.* This is said to have been built by the same Rana Katehra of Mewar to
whom is also ascribed the fort at Jalesar. According to a tradition current in
the Main-puri district, he had been driven from his own country by an invasion
of the Muhammadans, and took refuge with the Raja of Maha-ban, by name
Digpal, whose daughter his son, Kanh Kunvar, subsequently married and by
her became the ancestor of the tribe of Phatak Ahirs. It would seem that, on
the death of his father-in-law, he succeeded to his dominions ; for he made a
grant of the whole of the township of Maha-ban to his Purohits, or family
priests, who were Sanadh Brahmans, of the Parasar clan. Their descendants'
bear the distinctive title of Chaudhari, and still own two shares in Maha-ban,
called Thok Chaudhariyan. The fort was recovered by the Muhammadans in the
reign of Ala-ud-diu, by Sufi Yahya of Mashhad, who introduced himself and a
party of soldiers inside the walls in litters, disguised as Hindu ladies who wished
to visit the shrines of Syam Lala and Rohini. The Rana was killed, and one-
third of the town was granted by the sovereign to Saiyid Yahya. This sharef

* With the exception of the liila, or keep, the rest of the hill is known as the iot.
f The division of proprietary rights in Maha-ban is of very perplexing character, the
several shares being very different in extent from what their names seem to indicate. The
total area is 6,529 bighas and 10 biswas, distributed as follows : —
The 11 biswa Thok Chaudhariyan
The 9 ditto ditto

The Thok Saiyidat
Free lands resumed by Government
Common laud ... .... ... •••

Total

One-third of the profits of the common land goes to the Saiyids ; the remaining two-thirds
are then again sub-divided into three, of which one part goes to the 9 biswa thok and two to
the 11 biswas.

Bighas.

Bis.

1,397

703

570

i,?.:o

2,107

6,5 29

274 the rXnX katehra.

is still called Tliok Saiyidat, and is owned by his descendants ; the present head
of the family being Sardar Ali, who officiated for a time as a Tahsildar in the
Mainpuri district. The place where his great ancestor was buried is shown at
the back of the Chhatthi Palna, but is unmarked by any monument.

The story as told in different localities is so identical in all its main features
Unit it may reasonably be accepted as based on fact ; but it is difficult to deter-
mine an exact date for the event, or decide which of the Sissodia Princes of
Chitor is intended by the personage styled 'the Rana Katehra.' Still, though
certainty is unattainable, a conjectural date may be assigned with some amount
of probability ; for as the Rana Katehra is represented as still living at the time
when the fort of Maha-ban was recovered by Ala-ud-din, his flight from his
own country cannot have occurred very long previously, and may plausibly
be connected with Ala-ud-din's memorable sack of Chitor, which took place in
the year 1303. If so, he can scarcely have been more than a cadet of the
royal line ; for, according to accepted tradition, the actual Rana of Mewar and
all his family had perished in the siege, with the exception only of the second
son and his infant nephew, Hamir, the heir to the throne, who eventually not
only recovered the ancient capital of his forefathers, but made it the centre of
a far wider dominion than had ever previously acknowledged the Sissodia rule.
The stratagem of introducing armed men disguised as women in closed litters
into the heart of the enemy's camp had been successfully practised against Ala-
ud-din himself after a former siege of Chitor, and had resulted in the escape of
the captured Rana. This may have suggested the adoption of the same expedi-
ent at Maha-ban, either in fact to the Sufi, who is said to have carried it into
execution, or to the local legend-monger, who has used it as an embellishment
to his narrative.

The shrine of Syam Laid, to which allusion has been made above, still
exists as a mean little cell, perched on the highest point of the fortifications on
the side where they overlook the Jamuna. It is believed to mark the spot where
Jasoda gave birth to Maya, or Joga-nidra, substituted by Vasudeva for the in-
fant Krishna. But by far the most interesting building is a covered court
called Nanda's Palace, or more commonly the Assi-Khamba, i.e., the eighty
pillars. In its present form is was erected by the Muhammadans in the time of
Aurangzeb out of older materials, to serve as a mosque, and as it now stands,
it is divided, by five rows of sixteen pillars each, into four aisles, or rather into
a centre and two narrower side aisles, with one broad outer cloister. The
external pillars of this outer cloister are each of one massive shaft, cut into many

THE ASSI-KIMMBA. 275

narrow facts, with two horizontal bands of carving : the capitals arc decorated
either with grotesque heads or the usual four squat figures. The pillars of the
inner aisles vary much in design, some being exceedingly plain and others as
richly ornamented with profuse and often graceful arabesques. Three of the
more elaborate are called respectively the Satya, Treta and Dwapar Yug ; while
the name of the Kali Yug is given to another somewhat plainer. All these
interior pillars, however, agree in consisting as it were of two short columns set
one upon the other. The style is precisely similar to that of the Hindu
colonnades by the Kutb Minar at Delhi ; and both works may reasonably be
referred to about the same age. As is it probable that the latter were not
built in the years immediately preceding the fall of Delhi in 1194, so also it
would seem that the columns at Maha-ban must have been sculptured before the
assault of Mahmud in 1017 ; for after that date the place was too insignificant
to be selected as the site of any elaborate edifice. Thus, Mr. Fergusson's con-
jecture is confirmed, that the Delhi pillars are to be ascribed to the ninth or
tenth century. He doubts whether the cloister there now stands as originally
arranged by the Hindus, or whether it had boen taken down and re-arranced
by the conquerors ; but concludes as most probable that the former was the case
and that it was an open colonnade surrounding the palace of Prithi Raj " If
so," he adds, " it is the only instance known of Hindu pillars being left undis-
turbed." General Cunningham differs from this conclusion, and considers it
utterly incredible that any architect, designing an original building and wishing
to obtain height, should have recourse to such a rude expedient as constructing
two distinct pillars, and then, without any disguise, piling up one on the top of
the other. But such a design, however strange according to modern ideas did
not, it is clear, offend the taste of the old Maha-ban architects, since we find
them copying it for decorative purposes even when there was no constructural
necessity for it. Thus some of the inner columns are really monoliths, and yet
they have all the appearance of being in two pieces.

A good illustration of this Hindu fancy for broken pillars may be seen at
Noh-jhil, a town across the Ganges in the extreme north of the district. Here
also is a Muhammadan dargah, constructed out of the wreck of a Hindu temple.
The pillars, twenty in number, are very simple in character, but exceptional in
two respects ; first, as being all of uniform design, which is quite anomalous
in Hindu architecture ; secondly, as being, though of fair height, each cut out
of a single piece of stone. The only decoration on the otherwise plain shaft
consists of four deep scroll-shaped notches half-way between the base and
capital ; the result of which is to make each column appear as if it were in

276 THE GWALIAR TEMPLES.

two pieces. The explanation is obvious. In earlier days, when large blocks
of stone were difficult to procure, there was also lack of sufficient art to con-
ceal the unavoidable join in the structure. In course of time the eye became
accustomed to the defect, and eventually required its apparent introduction
even where it did not really exist. A similar conservatism may be traced
in the art history of every nation, and more especially in religious art. In
breaking up his columns into two pieces, and thus perpetuating, as a decora-
tion, what in its origin had been a signal defect, the Hindu architect was
unconsciously influenced by the same motive as the Greek, who to the very
last continued to introduce, as prominent features in his temple facades, the
metopes and triglyphs which had been necessities in the days of wooden con-
struction, but had become unmeaning when repeated in stone.

The two ancient Brahmanical temples on the Gwaliar rock, commonly
known as the Sas Bahu, illustrate still more remarkably than the Noh-jhil dar-
gah the way in which what was originally a constructural make-shift has subse-
quently been adopted as a permanent architectural feature. In the larger of
these two buildings the interior of the spacious nave is disfigured by four enor-
mous columns, which occupy a square in the centre of the area and obstruct the
view in every direction. It is evident at a glance that, though the work of the
same architect as the rest of the fabric, they are utterly out of harmony with
his first design. Necessity alone can have compelled him to introduce them as
props for a falling roof ; while the shallowness and unfinished state of their sur-
face sculpture further suggest that they were erected in great haste in order to
avert a catastrophe which appeared imminent. They were as little contemplated
at the outset as the inverted arches in Wells Cathedral, or as the rude struts in-
serted by General Cunningham in this very same building to support the broken
architraves of the upper story. In the smaller temple, which is of somewhat
later date, the internal arrangement follows precisely the same lines, though
here the lesser span of the roof rendered the detached pillars unnecessary, the
massive walls being quite sufficient by themselves to support the small flat
dome and the low tower that surmounted it. The central columns, however,
are here so artistically treated, and are in such excellent proportion to the other
parts of the building, having been designed with them and not subsequently
intruded, that they are really decorative and add beauty to the interior.

Both these temples, like that of Gobind Deva at Brinda-ban, to which they
form a most valuable and interesting complement, originally consisted of three
compartments— a fact which has not been previously noticed by any archaeologist

THE ASSI-KHAMBA. 277

In the larger Gwaliar temple the nave and the choir remain, but the sanctum,
as is usually the case, has been totally destroyed by the Muhammadans.
That it once existed, however, is evident from the fact that the choir is seen
from the interior to have communicated with an apartment beyond, though
the opening is now closed with blocks of stone. In the smaller of the two tem-
ples the nave alone is perfect : the choir has utterly perished ; but the end wall
of the sanctum still exists in situ, built up into the ramparts of the fort. Gene-
ral Cunningham, in describing these buildings, has followed Mr. Fergusson in
using, instead of 'nave,' the misleading word 'porch,' and has thus failed to
notice the triple arrangement which otherwise could not have escaped him.*

To return to the Chhatthi Palna. On a drum of one of the pillars is an
inscription— now upside down— which I read as Hum ddsa kas ehiavi kam,
meaning, it would seem, ' Column No. 91, the gift of Ram Das.' This would
rather lead to the supposition that the pillars were all originally of one set and
belonged to a single building, though it is quite possible that they may be the
wreck of several different temples, all of which were overthrown by Mahunid of
Ghazni, when he captured the fort in 1017. In either case there can be no
question as to the Buddhist character of the building, or buildings, for I found
let into the wall a small seated figure of Buddha, as also a cross-bar and a
large upright of a Buddhist railing. The latter is ornamented with foliated
circular disks, on one of which is represented a head with a most enormous
chignon, and — what is unusual — has four oval sockets for cross-bars on either
side instead of three. These columns and other fragments had probably
been lying about for centuries till the Muhammadans, in the reign of
Aurangzeb, after demolishing a modern Hindu temple, roughly put them
together and set them up on its site as a makeshift for a mosque. When
Father Tieffenthaller visited Maha-ban about the middle of last century,
it seems that Hindus and Muhammadans were both in joint possession of the
building, for he writes : " On voit a Maha-ban dans une grande maison portee
par 80 colonnes, une peinture qui represente Krishna volant du lait en jettant
le clair et jouant avec d'autres. Cet edifice a ete converti en partie en une
mosquee, en partie en une pagode." But the connection of the building with

* I would here notice, as I may nothave a better opportunity and it is afactof interest, that
the third of the Gwaliar temples, commonly called the Tell hi mandir, about which General
Cunningham hesitates to express an opinion, is certainly a Jain building. This is shown by the
enormous height of the doorway, a feature peculiarly unbrahmanical, and by the two upper
stories of the tower — as in the Buddh Gaya temple — which no Brahman would ever have thought
■A allowing over the head of the god.

278 THE ASSI-KHAMBA.

Krishna or his worship, even at any earlier period, is entirely fictitious. That
is to say, so far as concerns the actual fabric and the materials of which it is
constructed : the site, as in so many other similar cases, has probably been
associated with Hindu worship from very remote antiquity. In Sir John
Strachey's time I obtained a grant of lis. 1,000 for the repair of the building,
which had fallen into a very ruinous condition, and in digging the foundations
of the new screen- walls (the old walls had been simply set on the ground without
any foundation at all) I came upon a number of remains of the true Hindu
temple, dating apparently from no further back than about the year 1500 A.D.
The Iconoclast would not use these sculptures in the construction of his mosque,
since they had too recently formed part of an idolatrous shrine, but had them
buried out of sight ; while he had no scruple about utilizing the old Buddhist
pillars. Whatever I dug up, I either let into the wall or brought over to
Mathuni, for the local Museum. The roof of the present building, as constructed
by the Muhammadans, is made up of any old slabs and broken pillars that
first came to hand ; but two compartments are covered in with the small flat
domes of the old temple, which are similar in character to the beautiful examples
at Ajmer and Mount Abu.

Mothers come here for their purification on the sixth day after childbirth
— chhatthi pdja — whence the building is popularly known as the Chhatthi Palna,
and it is visited by enormous crowds of people for several days about the anni-
versary of Krishna's birth in the month of Bhadon. A representation of the
infant god's cradle {palna) is displayed to view, with his foster-mother's churn
and other domestic articles. The place being regarded not exactly as a temple,
but as Nanda and Jasoda's actual dwelling-house, all persons, without regard
to the religion they profess, are allowed to walk about in it with perfect freedom.
Considering the size, the antiquity, the artistic excellence, the exceptional
archaeological interest, the celebrity amongst natives, and the close proximity to
Mathuni of this building, it is strange that it has never before been mentioned
by any English writer.

It is said that whenever foundations are sunk within the precincts of the
fort, many fragments of sculpture — of Buddhist character, it may be presumed
— have been brought to light ; but they have always been buried again or bro-
ken up as building materials. Doubtless, Maha-ban was the site of some of
those Buddhist monasteries which the Chinese pilgrim Fa Hian distinctly
states existed in his time on both sides of the river. And further, whatever
may be the exact Indian word concealed under the form Klisoboras, or Cliso-

IDENTIFICATION OF MAHA-BAN WITH CLISOBORA. 279

bora, given by Arrian and Pliny as the name of the town between which and
Mathura the Jamunsi flowed — Amnis Jomanes in Gangem per Palibotliros decur-
rit inter oppida Methora et Clisobora, Pliny, Hist. Nat. vi., 22 — it may be con-
cluded with certainty that Maha-ban is the site intended.* Its other literary
names are Brihad-vana, Brihad-aranya, Gokula, and Nandagrama ; and no one
of these, it is true, in the slightest resembles the word Clisobora. But this
might well be a corruption of ' Krishna- pura,' ' the city of Krishna,' a term used
by the speaker as a descriptive title — and it would be a highly appropriate one
— but taken by the foreign traveller for the ordinary proper name of the place.
Colonel Tod thought Clisobora might be Batesar, and most subsecment English
topographers seem to have blindly accepted the suggestion. There is, however,
really no foundation for it beyond the surmise that Clisobora and Mathura were
quoted as the two principal towns in the country, and that Batesar must have
been a place of importance, because its older name was derived from the Siirasen,
after whom the whole people were called Sauraseni. General Cunningham, in
his ' Ancient Geography,' has thrown out a new theory and identifies Clisobora
(read in one MS. as Cyrisoborka) with Brinda-ban, assuming that Kalikavartta,
or 'Kalika's Whirlpool,' was an earlier name of the town, in allusion to Krish-
na's combat with the serpent Kalika. But in the first place, the Jamunii does
not flow between Mathura and Brinda-ban, seeing that both are on the same
bank ; secondly, the ordinary name of the great serpent is not Kalika, but
Kaliya ; and thirdly, it does not appear upon what authority it is stated that
" the earlier name of the place was Kalikavartta." Upon this latter point, a
reference was made to the great Brinda-ban Pandit, Swami Rangacharya, who,
if any one, might be expected to speak with positive knowledge, and his reply
was that in the course of all his reading, he had never met with Brinda-ban
under any other name than that which it now bears.

The glories of Maha-ban are told in a special (interpolated) section
of the Brahmanda Purana, called the Brihad-vana Mahatmya. In this,

* The parallel passage in Arrian's India is as follows -.—Tovtov tov HpaicXia paXitrra
irpis 2ovpat77)vuip -yEpaiptaOai, IvSikoV i'&vfos, Sv'o Tidk/ts /isydXai,, MeBopa. re
kal kXtLCafiopa., kdi irora/xos laifiupms nXouroQoic/p'pei rrjr; xuio^v avTcvV . Ab
both authors seem to be quoting from the same original, the insertion of the words per
Palibothros in Pliny must be due to an error on the part of some copyist, misled by the frequent
mention of Palibothra in the preceding paragraphs. The mistake cannot be credited to Pliny
himself, who Axes the site of Palibothra as 415 miles to the east of the confluence of the Ganges
and the Jamuna. The gods whom Arrian proceeds to describe under the names of Dionysui
and Hercules correspond closely with Krishna and Balar una, who are still the local divinitieB
of Mathura.

THE TWENTY-ONE TIRTHAS OF MAHABAN.

its tirthas, or holy places, are reckoned to be twenty-one in number as
follows : —

Eka-rinsati-tirthena ynktam bhurvpindnvitam,
Yamid-iirjiina punyatamam, Nanda-kiipam tathaiva chat
Ghintd-harana Bruhmdndam, kundam Sarasvatam tathd,
Sarasvati sild tatra, Vishnu-kunda-samdnvitam,
Karna-hipam, Krhluia-kundam, Gopa-k'Jpam tathaiva char
Ramanam-ramana-sthdnam, Ndrada-sih&nam eva cha,
JPutand-pdtana-sthdnam, Tiindvarttdkhya pdtanam,
N anda-harmyam, Nanda-gcham, Ghdtam Ramana-samjnakam,
Mathurdndthodbhavam kshetram puny am pdpaprandsanam,
J anma-sthdnam tu Sheshasya, jananam Yoyamdyaya.

The Piitana-patana-sthanam of the above lines is a ravine, commonly called
Putana khar, which is crossed by the Mathura road a short distance outside the
town. It is a mile or more in length, reaching down to the bank of the Jarnuna
and, as the name denotes, is supposed to have been caused by the passage of
Piitana's giant body, in the same way as the Kans Khar at Mathura.

At the Brahmand ghat, where a rds, or 'sacred dance,' is held every Sunday,
there is a small modern shrine of Mrittika Bihari and the remains of a chhattri
built by one Mukund Sinh, the greater part of which has been washed away by
the river. A Jaini sculpture, probably brought from the Chhatthi P&ina, is
let into the front of the little platform, on which are placed balls of sand in
the shape of the pera sweetmeat, to represent the lump of earth that the child
Krishna stuffed into his mouth, and which Jasoda saw develope into a minia-
ture universe. These are called the Brahmand he pera and are taken away by
pilgrims as souvenirs of their visit. A pretty walk under the trees along the
high bank of the river leads to the Chinta-haran ghat, a quarter of a mile lower
down the stream, a secluded spot, where a Puis is held every Monday. There
are no buildings save a Bairagi's cell. The Hindu cicerones never fail to speak
with much enthusiasm of the liberality of Mir Sarfaraz AH, grandfather of
Sardar AH, who never cut any of the timber for his own profit and allowed the
pilgrims to make free use of it all : the property has now changed hands and
the landlord's manorial rights are more strictly enforced.

Between the town aud the sandy expanse called the Raman Reti is a small
grove known as the Khelan Ban, with several trees of the Paras Pipar kind,
which I have not seen elsewhere in this part of India, though in Bombay there

MAHA'-BAN festivals. 281

are avenues of it in some of i 1 1 < - streets of the city. The largest, which is in front
of the Bairagi's cell, flowers profusely in the cold weather from November to
February : the flowers, much resembling those of the cotton plant in form, are
on first opening yellow and afterwards change their colour to red. The bud is
exactly like an elongated acorn ; the leaves resemble those of the pipal, but are
smaller. On the high bank overlooking the Raman Reti (where is held a fair
on the 11 th of each Hindu month) are two handsome chJwitris to members of Ali
Khan's family, of the same design as the one on the other side of the town, but
in a more ruinous condition. The well close by is called the Gop Kiia. On the
opposite bank, on what is an island in the rains, is the Koila Sarae, of much the
same size as the one at Chaumuha. The gateways still retain their original
wooden doors and are surmounted by corner chhattris as at Chhata. The whole
area was occupied till 1871, when it was flooded by the river, which rose to an
unusual height and carried away the city bridge, 18 pontoons of which were
stranded here. Since then the site has been deserted, the villagers having all
removed to higher ground. Outside one of the gates is a mosque and there are
ruins of other edifices also — undermined and partly washed away by the
river — including a square building said to have been a temple of Mahadeva,
erected by Jawabir Sinh of Bharatpur : the foundations have been Laid bare to
a depth of some six or seven feet

The principal Hindu festivals observed in Maha-ban are the Rim Lila in
the month of Kuvar, first set on foot by a late Tahsildar, Munshi Bhajan Lai ;
the Putana mela, Kartik Sudi 6th ; the Jakhaiya mela, held on the Sundays of
the month of Magh (there is a similar festival held at Paindhat in the Mustaf-
abad pargana of the Mainpuri district, which is believed to have great influence
on the fall of rain in the winter season) the Raman Reti, held on the sands of
the Jamuna, Phalgun Sudi 11th ; and the Parikama, or Perambulation, Kartik
Sudi 5th ; this includes the town of Gokul and village of Raval, at which latter
place Radha's mother is said to have lived.

The Muhammadans, who are only 1,704 in number, have several small
mosques and two festivals. One of these, the Chatiyal Madar, is held on the 3rd of
Jamada'l-awwal, in honour'of Saiyid Badia-ud-din, better known as Shall Madar,
whose principal shrine is at Makhanpur on the Isan. His festivals, wherever
held, are distinguished by the name of Chatiyal, meaning ' an open place,' and
the hereditary hierophants bear the title of Khalifa. The second Muhammadan
mela is the Urs Dargah of Shah Gilan, or Saiyid Makhdum. The dargah was
built about a century ago by Nawab Sulaiman Beg.

282 THE TOWN OF GOKLtJ.

GOKUL.

The town of Gokul — population 4,012 — being the head-quarters of the Valla-
bhacharyas, or Gokulashta Gosains, is throughout the year crowded with pilgrims,
of whom the majority come from Gujarat and Bombay, where the doctrines of
the sect have been very widely propagated, more especially among the Bhattias
and other mercantile classes. In many of its physical characteristics the place
used to present a striking parallel to the presumed morality of its habitues, its
streets being tortuous and unsavoury, its buildings unartistic, its environs waste
and uninviting ; while to complete the analogy, though only five or six miles
distant from Matlmni, it was cut off from easy access by the river, and was thus
at once both near and remote, in the same way as its literature is modern and
yet obscure. The picturesque appearance, which it presented from the opposite
bank, was destroyed on nearer approach. For the temples, though they amount
to a prodigious number and are many of them richly endowed, are nearly all
modern in date and for the most part tasteless in design ; while the thorough-
fares were in the rains mere channels for the floods which poured down through
them to the Jamuna, and at all other seasons of the year were so rough and
broken that the rudest wheeled vehicle could with difficulty make its way along
them. Efforts were made for many years to improve its sanitation, but without
the slightest result, for the Gosain Mnafidars were quite indifferent to any
reform of the kind, and were well content to let things remain as they were.
However, by personally interesting myself in the matter and putting an active
and intelligent Tahsildar in local charge, 1 succeeded before I left the district
in making it by universal consent one of the cleanest and neatest of towns, instead
of being as formerly the very filthiest. It may be doubtful how long the reform
will last, for constant supervision is necessary in consequence of the number of
cattle driven within the walls every night, which render the place really what its
name denotes, 'a cattle yard/ rather than an abode of men. Its most noteworthy
ornament is a spacious masonry tank constructed some thirty years ago by a
Seth named Chunna. The trees on its margin are always white with Hocks of
large water-fowl of a quite distinct species from any to be found elsewhere in
the neighbourhood. They are a new colony, being all descended from a few
pairs which casually settled there no more than ten or twelve years ago. Their
plumage is peculiar and ornamental, but not at all times easy to obtain, as the
birds are considered to enjoy the benefit of sanctuary, and on one occasion,
when a party of soldiers from the Mathura cantonments attempted to shoot a
number of them, the townspeople rose en masse for their protection. Imme-
diately opposite the tank and between it and the river I had a new school built,

vallabba'cha'rya's career. 283

occupying three sides of a quadrangle with an arched gateway of carved
stone on the fourth side facing the street. The cost was Rs. 2,440, the whole
of which sum was raised by local subscription save only lis. 500, which were
allotted from the balance of the Government cess. A Sanskrit class has since
been started, and so many wealthy pilgrims visit Gokul, who would be glad to
spend their money on local institutions, if there were only some one to call their
attention to them, that the school might easily be maintained as one of the
largest and highest in the district.

The great heresiareh, Vallabhacharya, from whom Gokul derives all its
modern celebrity, was born in the year 1479 A. D., being the second son of
Lakshman Bhatt, a Telinga Brahman of the Vishnu Swami Sampradaya. By
the accident of birth, though not by descent, he can be claimed as a native of
Upper India, having been born at Champaranya, a wild solitude in the neigh-
bourhood of Banaras, whither his parents had travelled up from the south on
a pilgrimage. Their stay in the holy city was cut short by a popular emeute,
the result of religious intolerance ; and the mother, who was little in a condition
to encounter the distress and fatigue of so hasty a flight, prematurely gave birth
on the way to an eight months' child. Either from an exaggerated alarm as
to their own peril, or, as was afterwards said, from a sublime confidence in the
promised protection of Heaven, they laid the babe uuder a tree and" abandoned
it to its fate. When some days had elapsed, and their fears had subsided, they
cautiously retraced their steps, and finding the child still alive and uninjured
on the very spot where he had been left, they took him with them to Banaras.
After a very short stay there, they fixed their home at Gokul, where the child
was placed under the tuition of the Pandit Narayan Bhatt, and in four months
mastered the whole vast range of Sanskrit literature and philosophy. His fol-
lowers, it may be remarked, are conscientious imitators of their founder in
respect of the short time which they devote to their studies ; but the result in
their case is more in accordance with ordinary experience, and their scholarship
of the very slightest. When eleven years of age, he lost his father, and almost
immediately afterwards commenced his career as a religious teacher. His ear-
liest triumphs were achieved in Southern India, where he secured his first con-
vert, Damodar Das ; and in a public disputation at Vijaynagar, the place where
his mother's family resided, he refuted the arguments of the Court Pandits
with such authority that even the King, Krishna Deva, was eonvinced by his
eloquence and adopted the youthful stranger as his spiritual guide. Thence-
forth his success was ensured ; and at every place that he visited, Ujaiyin,
Banaras, Haridwar, and Allahabad, the new doctrines enlisted a multitude of

284 vallabhXcha'rya's doctrines.

adherents. A lifo of celibacy being utterly at variance with his ideas of a
reasonable religion, he took to himself a wife at Banaras and became the father
of two sons, Gopinath, born in 1511, and Bitthalnath in 151(3. His visits to
Braj were long and frequent. There, in 1520, he founded at Gobardhan the
great temple of Sri-nath ; and at Brinda-ban saw in a vision the god Krishna,
who directed him to introduce a new devotion in his honor, wherein he
should be adored in the form of a child under the title of Balkrishna or
Bal Gopal ; which is still the cultus most affected by his descendants at the
present day. His permanent home, however, was at Banaras, where he com-
posed his theological works, of which the most extensive is a commentarv on
the Bhagavad Gita, called the Subodhini, and where he died in the year 1531.

He was succeeded in the pontificate by his seeond son, Bitthalnath, who
propagated his father's doctrines with great zeal and success throughout all the
south and west of India, and himself received 252 distinguished proselytes,
whose acts are recorded in a Hindi work called the ' Do Sau Bavan Varta.'
Finally, in 15(35, he settled down at Gokul and, at the age of seventy, breathed
his last on the sacred hill of Gobardhan. By his two wives he had a family of
seven sons, Giridhar, Gobind, Bal-krishan, Gokulnath, Raghunath, Jadunath
and Ghansyam. Of these, the fourth, Gokulnath, is by far the most famous
and his descendants in consequence claim some slight pre-eminence above their
kinsmen. His principal representative is the Gosain at Bombay.

Unlike other Hindu sects, in which the religious teachers are ordinarily un-
married, all the Gosains among the Vallabhacharyas are invariably family men
and engage freely in secular pursuits. They are the Epicureans of the east and
are not ashamed to avow their belief that the ideal life consists rather in social
enjoyment than in solitude and mortification. Such a creed is naturally des-
tructive of all self-restraint even in matters where indulgence is by common
consent held criminal ; and the profligacy to which it has given rise is so notori-
ous that the late Maharaja of Jaypur was moved to expel from his capital the
ancient image of Gokul Chandrama, for which the sect entertained a special
veneration. He further conceived such a prejudice against Vaishnavas in o-eneral
that all his subjects were compelled, before they appeared in his presence, to
mark their forehead with the three horizontal lines that indicate a votary of Siva.
The scandalous practices of the Gosains and the unnatural subserviency of the
people in ministering to their gratification received a crushing eayposd in a cause
cilibre for libel tried before the Supreme Court of Bombay in 1861, from the
detailed narrative of which 1 have borrowed a considerable amount of information.

THE SIDDHj&TA RAHASYA. 285

The dogma of Brahma-Sambandh, or ' union with the divine, ' upon which
Vallabhacharya constructed his whole system, was, as he declares, revealed to
him by the Deity in person and recorded word for word as it was uttered. This
inspired text is called the Siddhanta Rahasya, and being very brief and of quite
exceptional interest, it is here given in full : —

^minsnjq^r ng jmts^j Uf Tfafib I

^ritmfaifMi ^tut: tNmn: mm n
^mw: w^ts^ ^fwrt^n: sra^ n

fa^fem: wqShs^sRiiiTsfN mm: i

clSUT^lIb s^tara ^h^r q-Rixim I
3rTT<llF^H rl-SIT =3 *5R*i 1^: II

r\m ?im *W3J3 ^ifa ST^nT cm: I
ifjJTriR m^pJSjmjS^TN ^Nf% I

" At dead of night, on the 11th of the bright fortnight of Sravan, what is
here written was declared to me, word for word, by God himself. Every sin,
•whether of body or soul, is put away by union with the Creator ; of whatever
kind the sin may be, whether 1st, original ; 2nd, accidental (i.e., born of time

286 THE SAMARPANA.

and place) ; 3rd, social or ceremonial (i.e., special offences defined by custom
or the Vedas) ; 4th, sins of abetment ; or 5th, sins sensual.* No one of these is
to be accounted any longer existent ; but when there is no union with the Creator
there is no putting away of sin. Therefore, one should abstain from anything
that has not been consecrated ; but when once a thing has been dedicated, the
offerer may do with it what he likes : this is the rule. The God of gods will not
accept any offering which has already been used by the owner. Therefore, at the
outset of every action there should be unreserved offering. It is said by those
of a different persuasion, ' what is once given cannot be taken away ; it is all
God's ;' but as is the practice of servants on earth, so would we act in the
dedication through which everything becomes God's. Ganges water is full of
impurities ; and ' the holy Ganges' may be predicated of bad as well as good.
Precisely the same in our case."

The last four lines are rather obscurely expressed. The idea intended is that
as servants! use what remains of that which they have prepared for their masters,
so what we offer to God we may afterwards use for ourselves ; and as dirty
water flowing into the Ganges becomes assimilated with the sacred stream, so
vile humanity becomes purified by union with God.

The practice of the sect has been modelled strictly in accordance with these
instructions. A child is Krishna-ed (christened) while still an infant by the
Gosain's putting on its neck a string of beads and repeating over it the formula
called the Ashtakshar Mantra, sri Krishna saranam mama (Deus adjutorium
meum), but before the neophyte can claim the privileges of full communion he
has to undergo a rite similar to that of confirmation, and at the age of twelve
or thereabouts, when ready to take upon himself the responsibilities of life, he
initiates his career by a solemn dedication (samarpana) of all that he has and is
to the God of his devotion. This oblation of tan, man, dhan, as it is popularly

* There is a paraphrase cm the Siddhanta Rahasya by Gosain Gokuln&th, called Bhakti
Siddhanta Vivriti; in which, with the characteristic fondneBs of Sanskrit commentators for
scholastic refinements, he explains these terms in a much more narrow and technical sense than
that which I have applied to them. As the text contains an uneven number of lines, it would
appear at first si^ht to be imperfect: but this suspicion can scarcely be well founded, since in
Gokulnath's time it Btood precisely as now.

f Hence sevakdn, ' servants,' is the distinctive name for lay members of the VallabhJcharva
community. The whole system of doctrine is known as ' Pushti milrg,' or way of happiness, and,
its practice as ' Daivi jivan,' the Divine life. Their sectarial n:ark consists of two red perpendi-
cular lines down the forehead, meeting in a curve at the root of the nose, with a red spot between
them.

DOCTMNE OF THE BRAHMA SAMBANDH. 287

expressed — that is, of body, soul, and substance — is couched in the following
terras : —

^ri sFifftair: win wi ^^^rni^r^rxmn^^wri franTsraiTra-

" Om. The God Krishna is my refuge. Distracted by the infinite pain
and torment caused by the separation from Krishna, which has extended over a
s^ace of time measured by thousands of years, I now, to the holy Krishna, do
dedicate my bodily faculties, my life, my soul, and its belongings, with my wife,
my house, my children, my whole substance, and my own self. 0, Krishna ; I
am thy servant."*

Now, all this may be so interpreted as to convey a most unexceptionable
meaning : that man should consecrate to God, wholly and without reserve, his
body, soul, and substance, his every thought, word, and action, and all that he
has, or does, or suffers, that such consecration is sufficient to hallow and ennoble
the meanest actions of our ordinary life and is an effectual preservative from
all evil, while even good works done withont such consecration are unprofitable
and "have even the nature of sin."t This is the doctrine of Christianity, and
it may be deduced from Vallabhacharya's revelation without forcing the sense
of a single word. But though there may be some slight doubt as to his own
views, there can be none as to those entertained by his most immediate succes-
sors and transmitted by them to his disciples at the present day. For Gokul-
nath, who is regarded as the most authoritative exponent of his grandfather's
tenets, repeatedly insists in all his works, with the most marked emphasis, on the
ahsolute identity of the Gosain with the Divinity4 In fact, he goes even a
step beyond this, and represents the Gosain as so powerful a mediator that prac-
tically his favour is of more importance to us than God's : for, if God is dis-
pleased, the Gosain can deprecate his wrath ; but if the Gosain is displeased,

* This formula is, I find, baaed on a passage in the Narada Pancharatra.

■f The final climax states the doctrine of the Anglican, but not of the Catholic Church.

X This extravagant doctrine pervades all the later Vaishnava schools, and is accepted by
the disciples of Cliaitanya no less than by those of Vallabhacharya. The foundation upon which
it rests is a Hue in the Bhagavat, where the Guru is styled Sarva-deva-maya, made up of all
dirioity.'

288 vaixabha'cha'rya theology.

God will be affected towards us in the same way, and conciliation will then be
impossible. When to this it is added that the Gosain obtains his position solely
by birth, and that no defect, moral or intellectual, can impair his hereditary
claim to the adoration of his followers, who are exhorted to close their eyes and
ears to anything that tends to his discredit,* it is obvious that a door is opened
to scandal of a most intolerable description. By the act of dedication, a man
submits to the pleasure of the Gosain, as God's representative, not only the
first fruits of his wealth, but also the virginity of his daughter or his newly-
wedded wife ; while the doctrine of the Brahma Sambandh is explained to
mean that such adulterous connection is the same as ecstatic union with the
God, and the most meritorious act of devotion that can be performed. This
glorification of immorality forms the only point in a large proportion of the
stories in the Chaurasi Varta, or ' Accounts of Vallabhacharya's 84 great pro-
selytes.' One of the most extravagant will be found given in full at the end of
this chapter. The work commences with reference to the Revelation of the
Siddhanta Rahasya, preceded by a brief colloquy between the Deity and the
Gosain, of which the following words are the most important : —

ricf *fi ^T^ra off rriTnvT ^m 95? %t sfN %x

NO
X SO NO

lli=t 1TET rT=J sBT3T3TC5fi ^TH 5R1 %T rTTT ^T5R it

«0 NO

" Vallabha. — You know the nature of life : that it is full of defects ; how
can there be union between it and you ?

" Krishna. — You will effect the union of the divinity with living crea-
tures, and I will accept them. Yon will give your name to them, and all their
sins shall be put away."

Professor Wilson interprets this as merely the declaration of a philosophi-
cal dogma, that life and spirit are identical ; but (it can scarcely be doubted)
the passage means rather that human life can only be purified by bringing it
into intimate connection with God, or in default of God, with God's repre-
sentative, the Gosain.

* ThiB is considered so essential a duty, that in the Dasa marma, or Vallabhacharya Deca-
logue, ' See no faults,' stands as the Tenth Commandment.

GOSXlK PURrsHOTTAM LA'L OF GOKfL. 289

Such being the revolting character of their theological literature, it is easy
to understand why the Vallabhsichiiryas have always shown a great reluctance
to submit it to the criticism of the outer world of unbelievers, who might not
be prepared to accept such advanced doctrines. Though there are several
copyists at Gokul, whose sole occupation it is to make transcripts for the use
of pilgrims, they would ordinarily refuse to sell a manuscript to any one who
was not of their own denomination ; and none of their books had ever been
published till quite recently, when two or three of the less esoteric were issued
from Pandit Giri Prasad's Press at Beswa in the Aligarh district. However,
as in many other forms of religion, and happily so in this case, practice is not
always in accordance with doctrine. Though there may be much that is re-
prehensible in the inner life of the Gosains, it is not at Gokul obtruded on the
public and has never occasioned any open scandal ; while the present head of
the community, Gosain Purushottam Lai, a descendant of Bitthalnath's sixth
son, Jadunath, deserves honourable mention for exceptional liberality and
enlightment. He is the head of the temple of Navanit-Priya, popularly called
by way of pre-eminence, Raja Thakur,* and is the proprietor of the whole of
the township of Gokul. His uncle and predecessor, Gobind Lai, died, leaving
a widow, Janaki Bau Ji, and an only daughter. The latter, according to inva-
riable custom, was married to a Bhatt, and by him had two sons by name
Ran-ckor Ls'il and Gop Ji. But, as by Salic law neither of them could suc-
ceed to the spiritual dignity, the widow adopted her nephew Purushottam, the
son of her husband's brother, Braj Pal. The adoption was disputed by the two
sons, who carried their suit in appeal even up to the Privy Council, and there
were finally defeated. Under their mother's will, they enjoy a maintenance
allowance of Rs. U00 a year, paid to the elder brother by the Gosain, and they
have further retained — though under protest — all the property conferred by
the Maharaja of Jodhpur on their common ancestor Murlidhar, the father of
Gobind Lai and Braj Lai, who was the founder of the family's temporal pros-
perity and was the first muiifidar of Gokul by grant from Sindhia.

Gosain Purushottam Lai has one son, Raman Lai, through whom he is the
grandfather of Braj Lai and Kanhaiya Lai. The latter of these has been
adopted by Lachhman Ji, a descendant of Bitthalnath's fourth son, Gokulnath,
and is now the Gosain of the temple bearing that title. Thus the two princi-
pal endowments have both come into one branch of the family, and the Gosain
is one of the very largest landowners and wealthiest residents in the district ;

* He also presides over two temples dedicated to Baladeva and Madan Mohan near the
Kankhal Ghat m Mathura, where he ordinarily resides.

290 TEMPLK SERVICES AT GoKUL.

while he wields, at the same time, in virtue of his religious character,
an influence which is absolutely unbounded among his own people, and
very considerable in all classes of Hindu society. In the official world, how-
ever, he is barely known even by name, as his estates are too well managed
to bring him before the Courts, and ho is still so far fettered by the traditions
of his order that he declines all social intercourse with Europeans, even of
the highest rank : so much so, that when the Lieutenant-Governor of these
Provinces visited the station in 1873, and being unaware of this peculiarity,
expressed in writing a desire to see him, the invitation was not accepted.
The compliment was prompted by the Gosain's annual gift of a prize of
Rs. 300 for the student who passes first in the general Entrance Examination
for the Calcutta University ; a donation which, under the circumstances,
cannot have been suggested by any ulterior motive beyond a genuine desire for
the furtherance of education. He has since converted it into a permanent
endowment. In the same spirit, though he makes no claim to any high
degree of scholarship himself, ho has maintained for some years past in the
city of Mathura a Sanskrit school, which is attended by a large number of
adults as well as boys, for whom he has secured very competent teachers.
He has also contributed freely to the Gokul new school and — as a further
proof of the liberality of his sentiments — he gave Rs. 400 towards the erection
of the Catholic Church.

At all the Vallabhacharya temples, the daily services are eight in number —
viz., 1st, Mangala, the morning levee, a little after sun-rise, when the God is
taken from his couch and bathed ; 2nd, Sringara, an hour and-a-half later, when
the God is attired in all his jewels and seated on his throne ; 3rd, Gwala, after
an interval of about three-quarters of an hour, when the God is supposed to be
starting to graze his cattle in the woods of Braj ; 4th, Raj Bhog, the mid-day
meal, which, after presentation, is consumed by the priests and distributed
among the votaries who have assisted at the ceremonies ; 5th, Uttapan, about
3 p. m., when the God awakes from his siesta ; (ith, Bhog, the evening
collation ; 7th, Sandhya, the disrobing at sunset ; and 8th, Sayan, the retiring
to rest. Upon all these occasions the ritual concerns only the priests, and
the lay worshipper is simply a spectator, who evinces his reverence by
any of the ordinary forms with which he would approach a human superior.

On the full moon of Asarh there is a curious annual ceremony for the pur-
I ■"-<• of ascertaining the agricultural prospects of the year. The priests placo
little packets of the ashes of different staples, after weighing them, in the sane-.

vallabhXcha'rya temples at gokul. 201

tuary. The temple is then closed, but the night is spent in worship. In the
morning the packets are examined. Should any of the packets have increased
in weight, that particular article of produce will yield a good harvest ; and
should they decrease, the harvest will be proportionately scanty.

As has already been mentioned, none of the buildings present a very im-
posing appearance. The three oldest, dedicated respectively to Gokulnath,
Madan Mohan, and Bitthalmith, are ascribed to the year 1511 A.D. The last
named, which is near the Jasoda Ghnt, has a small but richly decorated quad-
rangle with bold brackets carved into the form of elephants and swans. It is
quite uncared for and is rapidly falling into irreparable ruin. The most notable
of the remainder are Dwaraka Nath, dating from 1546 A.D., Balkrishan, from
1636, with an annual income of Rs. 4,420; Navanit Priya, or Dau Ji, the
latter name being that of the Grosain, whose grandson, Giridhari Ji, is now in
possession, with an income of Rs. 9,382 ; Braj Ratn, under Gosain Gokul Nath
Ji, a descendant of Bitthalnath's younger son, Ghan Syam, with an income
of Rs. 10,650; Sri Chandra ma, with Rs. 4,050, and Navanit Lai, Natwar,
Mathures, Gopal Lai, and Braj es war ; all of these being quite modern. There
are also two shrines in honour of Mahadeva, built by Bijay Sinh, Raja of Jodh-
pur, in 1602. The principal melas are the Janin Ashtami, Krishna's birthday,
in Bhadon, and Annkiit on the day after the new moon of Kartik. The Trimi-
vart mela is also held, Kartik badi 4th, when paper figures of the demon are
first paraded and then torn to pieces. The principal gate of the town is that
called the Gandipura Darwaza. It is of stone with two corner turrets, but has
never been completely finished. From it a road, about half a mile or so in
length, runs between some very fine tamarind trees, which seem specially to affect
the soil in this neighbourhood, down to Gandipura on the bank of the river,
where is a baoli and a large house built by Manohar Lai, a Bhattia, now personal
assistant at the Rewa Court. Below it is Ballabh ghat, with Koila immediately
opposite on the right bank of the stream. This road is much frequented by
pilgrims in the rains, and I had caused it to be widened and straightened, and
the trustees of the Gokulnath temple had promised to metal it ; but probably
this has not been done.

One small speciality of Gokul is the manufacture of silver toys and orna-
ments— figures of peacocks, cows, and other animals and devices — which are
principally purchased as souvenirs by pilgrims. The designs are very conven-
tional, and the work roughly finished ; but some littlo taste is often displayed,
and when better models are supplied, they are copied with much readiness and
ingenuity. The articles being of pure silver, are sold for their weight in rupees

292 THE ORIGIN OF BALADEVA.

with the addition of two anas in the rupee for the work ; unless it is exception-
ally well finished, when a somewhat higher rate is demanded.

Baladeva, or Baldeo.*

Some six miles beyond Maha-ban, a little to the right of the high road lead-
ing to Sa'dabad and Jalesar, is the famous temple of Baladeva, in the centre of
a modern town with a population of 2,835, which also bears the same name.
The original village was called Rirha, and still exists, but only as a mean suburb
occupied by the labouring classes. Adjoining the temple is a brick-built tank?
above 80 yards square, called variously Kshir Sugar, the 'sea of milk,' or Kshir
Kund, or Balbhadra Kund. It is in a dilapidated condition, and the surface of
the water is always covered with a repulsive thick green scum, which, however,
does not deter the pilgrims either from drinking or bathing in it. Here it is
said that Gosiiin Gokulnath was warned in a vision that a god lay concealed.
Immediate search was made, and the statue of Baladeva, that has ever since
been regarded as the tutelary divinity of the place, was revealed to the adoring
gaze of the assembled multitude. Attempts were made to remove it to Gokul ;
but as every cart broke down, either from the weight of the stone, or the reluc-
tance of the God to change his abode, a shrine was erected for his reception on
the spot, and an Ahivasi of Bhartiya, by name Kalysm, constituted guardian.
From his two sons, Jamuua Das and Musiya, or Sukadeva, are descended the
whole horde of Pandas, who now find the God a very valuable property. They
have acquired, by purchase from the Jats, the old village of Rirha,f and are
also considerable landowners in six other villages — viz., Artoni, Nera, Chhibarau,
Kharaira, Nur-pur and Shahab-pur, whence they derive an annual income of
Rs. 3,853. This estate, which was for the most part a grant from Sindhia,
forms, however, but a small part of their wealth, as the offerings made at the
shrine in the course of the year are estimated to yield a net profit of Rs. 30,000
more. The Kshir-Sagar and all the fees paid by pilgrims bathing in it belong
not to the temple Pandas, but to a community of Sanadh Brahmans.

The temple, despite its popularity, is neither handsome nor well appointed.
Its precincts include as many as eleven cloistered quadrangles, where accom-

* The latter name represents the common pronunciation, which (as in all similar words) has
become corrupted by the practice ot writing in Persian characters, which ate inadequate to
express the va termination.

t Besides the entire zamindari, the Pandas hold also 255^ bighas in Kirha as muafidars. Of
this area, 79 bighas are occupied by buildings, while the remainder is either waste or orchard.
As the township has no arable land attached to it, the name Baladeva does not appear at all in
the district rent-roll.

TEMPLE OF BALADEVA. 293

modation is provided for the pilgrims and resident priests. No definite charge

is levied on the former, but they are expected to make a voluntary donation

according to their means. Each court, or kunj, as it is called, bears the name

of its founder as follows : — 1st, the Kunj of Rashk Lai of Agra and Lakhnau,

1817 A.D. ; 2nd, of Bachharaj, Baniya, of Hathras, 1825 ; 3rd, of Naval Karan,

Baniya, of Agra, 1868 ; 4th, of Bhirn Sen and Hulas Bai, Baniyas, of Mathun'i,

1828 ; 5th, of Das Mai, Khattri, of Agra, 1801 ; 6th of Bhathieharya of Jaypur,

1794 ; 7th of Gopal, Brahman, of Jaypur; 8th of Chiman Lai, of Mathura,

1778 ; 9th, of Sada Ram, Khattri, of Agra, 1768 ; 10th, of Chunna, Halwai, of

Bharat-pur, 1808 ; and 11th, of Piiran Chand, Pachauri, of Mana-ban, 1801.

The actual temple, built by Seth Syam Diis, of Delhi, towards the end of last

century, stands at the back of one of the inner courts, and on each of its three

disengaged sides has an arcade of three bays with broad flanking piers. On

each of these three sides a door gives access to the cella, which is surmounted

by a squat pyramidal tower. In addition to the principal figure, Baladeva,

who is generally very richly dressed and bedizened with jewels, it contains another

life-sized statue, supposed to represent his spouse Revati. Apparently she was an

after-thought, as she is put away in a corner, off the dais. In an adjoining court

is shown the small vaulted chamber which served the God as a residence for the

first century after his epiphany. Near tho tank is a shrine dedicated by Bihari

Lai, Bohra, of Mursan, in 1803, to the honour of the god Harideva, and two

stone chhatris in memory of the Pandas, Harideva and Jagannath.

Two annual melas are held at Baladeva, the one Bhadon sudi 6th (commonly
called Deo Chath), the other on the full moon of Agahn ; but there is probably
not a single day in the course of the whole year in which the temple courts are
not occupied by at least as many as a hundred pilgrims, who come from all parts
of Northern India. The cost of the religious ceremonial cannot be much, but a
charitable dole of an ana apiece is given to every applicant ; and as the Pandes
with their families now number between 300 and 400 persons, the annual
cost of their maintenance must be very considerable. After reasonable deduc-
tions on these three heads — viz., temple expenses, charity, and maintenance of
the priests, the balance of profits is calculated at over Rs, 30,000. There is
ordinarily a division among the shareholders at the end of every three months,
when they mako an allotment into twelve equal portions, that being the num-
ber of tho principal sub-divisions of the clan, and then each sub-division makes a
separate distribution among its own members. The votive offerings in the
vast majority of cases are individually of very trifling amount ; but even so,
their collective value is not altogether to be despised. Thus, poorer pilgrims, in

294 THE AHIV/lSI pXndes.

addition to a few copper coins, often present a piece of sugar ; and the heap of
sugar accumulated in three or four days has been sold by auction for as much
as Rs. 80. The shrine is a very popular one among all classes ; scarcely ever
is an important venture made without a vow that the God shall receive a fixed
share of the profits, if he bring it to a successful issue ; and even casual votaries,
who have no special boon to beg, are often most lavish in their donations, either
of money, horned cattle, carriages, horses, or other property. For example, a
few years ago, Surajbh&n, a wealthy merchant of Agra, gave Rs. 4,000 worth
of jewellery for the personal adornment of the God.

It is unfortunate that the hereditary guardians of so wealthy a shrine
should bo such a low and thriftless set as the Ahivasis are. The temple-garden
occupies 52 bighas of land and was once a well-planted grove. It is now a
dirty, unsightly waste, as the Pandes have gradually cut down all the trees for
firewood, without a thought of replacing them. They have thus not only dete-
riorated the value of their property, but also forfeited a grant that used to be
made by the Maharaja of Bharat-pur for its maintenance. It is also asserted
to be a common practice for the younger members of the clan, when they see
any devotees prostrate in devotion before the god, to be very forward in assisting
them to rise and leading them away, and to take the opportunity of despoiling
them of any loose cash or valuable ornaments that they can lay their hands
upon. It is believed that thefts of this kind are frequent ; though the victim
generally prefers to accept the loss in silence, rather than incure the odium
of bringing a charge, that there might not be legal evidence to substantiate,
against a professedly religious community. It appears in every way desirable
that some extra police should be maintained at the expense of the Pandes,
and a constable or two kept permanently on duty in the inner court of the
temple. As an illustration of the esteem in which learning is held in this large
and wealthy Brahmanical town, it may be mentioned that the school is not only
merely a primary one, but is also about the smallest and worst of its class in
the whole district.

NOTES TO CHAPTER X.

1. — Catalogue of Vallabha'cha'rya Literature.

I. — Sanskrit works ascribed to the founder himself, divided into two classes:
First, commentaries of considerable length on older writings of authority, being
four in number, viz., Bhagavata Tika Subodhini, Vyasa Sutra Bhashya, Jaimini
Sdtra Bhashya, and Tattva Dipa Nibandha. None of these have I seen. Second-
ly, seventeen very short original poems entitled — Siddhanta Rahasya, Siddhanta
Muktavali, Pushti Pravaha Maryada, Antah-karanah Prabodha, Nava Ratna,
Viveka Dhairyasraya, Krishnasraya, Bhakti Vardhani, Jala-bheda, Sannyaaa
nirnaya, Nirodha-lakshana, Seva-phala, Bal-bodh, Chatur-sloki, Panch-sloki,
Yamunashtakam, and Purushottama Sahasra-nama. Of all of these, except the
last, I have obtained copies from Gokul.

II. — Sanskrit works ascribed to Vallablmcharya's immediate successors.
These also are, for the most part, very short. The principal are as follows :
Sarvottama-stotram of Agni Kumar, Ratna Vivarna of Bitthalnath, Bhakti
Siddhanta Vivriti of Gokulnath, Vallabhashtakam of Bitthalnath, Krishna
Premamritam of Bitthalnath, Siksha Patram, Gokulasktakam, Prem-Amritam
of Gokulnath, Sri VaUabha-bhavashtakam of Hari Das, Madhur Ashtakam,
Saran Ashtakam, Namavali Acharya, Namavali Goswami, Siddhanta Bhavana,
Virodha Lakshana, Srinagara Rasamandalu, Saranopadesa, Rasa-Sindhu, Kal-
padruma, Mala Prasanga, and Chita Prabodha.

III. — Works in the modern vernacular, i.e., the Braj-Bhasha. Such are the
Nij Varta, Chaurasi Varta, Do Sau Bavan Varta, Dwadasa Kunja Pavitra
Mandala, Purnamdsi, Nitya-sevaprakara, Rasa Bhavana Gokulnath, Vachan-
amrita of Gokulnath, Braj Bilas of Braj-basi Das, Ban-Jatra, Vallabhakyana,
Dhola, Nitya-pada, Sri Gobardhan-nath Ji ka Pragatya, Gosain Ji Pragatya,
Lila Bhavana, Swarupa Bhavana, Guru Seva, Seva-prakara Miila Purusha,
Dasa Marama, Vaishnava Battisi Lakshana, Chaui'asi Siksha, Otsava Pada,
Yamuna Ji Pada, and others.

II.— Specimen of the Tone and Style of popular VallabhIchArya

Literature.

The following story of 'how Krishan Das showed his devotion to the Go-
sains' is extracted from the Chaurasi Varta, and is interesting as a specimen both
of the dialect and religious superstition of the locality. Though written some
two hundred years ago, it might, for all internal evidence to the contrary, have
been taken down only yesterday, word for word, from the mouth of a village

296 STORY OF ERISHAN DA'S.

gossip. It does not contain a single archaic term, and in its nnartifieial
style and rustic phraseology is an exact representation of the colloquial idiom
of middle-class Hindus of the present century ; yet it has absolutely nothing
in common with the language officially designated the vernacular of the
country, either as regards the arrangement of the sentence or the choice of
words ; the latter being all taken from the Hindi vocabulary, with the exception
of three only — viz., haul, a. 'promise;' sauda, 'merchandise;' andkhabr, 'news.'
These are inserted as if on purpose to show that the non-admission of a larger
number was a spontaneous and not a pedantic exclusion. As to its purport,
the eulogy which it bestows on the extraordinary sacrifice of personal decency
and honour, merely for the sake of procuring the Gosains a good dinner, is so
revolting to the principles of natural morality that itcondems the whole tenour
of Vallabhacharya doctrine more strongly than any argument that could be
adduced by an opponent. The style of the narrative is so easy and perspicuous
that it can present no difficulty to the student, who alone will take an interest in
the matter, and therefore I have not considered it necessary to add a translation : —

sn <=sirqra oft *nm*R "^ mm frairareafl sjt^to ffRgfi enm
^ fiansTa urn nm *i ti fi ih ^t wraslxr tra ?xm^ ih »sft

ssfrqrawl R1TH*R ii *te3i 11*1 fl T?H l^f %f mWK IM^SR I3i3TC

w frisra ?5R3T? im^' "sffargnNl hither % zim mi "%%& nm

ER *3&{ %T ^1 liH A f W5re T1H I?t clT JITS II ^f ^T f SU^TO

m m ^ra cm muaz.m ^i ^ in ^ii m^ mm m rair mw 3th
cTt^ nm nm im ciii urn *i *rai ^h ^ik frausTQoff srt sdn ^tt

*FRJ!I 5RT1^ ifTWTrl ^Ta^ 5?H!R ERRER VT R Isr m^ SR jq

^nu* ^rq% n^ ri f^^R ert^ rurn §n ^cr srh ^fr5 ct=t §f%i ^t|

%T ^1 IRRT oRfari W^T RlcZJ ST5R 3RcT I ^R t)lcT 1 ^T

n£>

era in^i toi^t in *i Tumi m% ^r $¥ %t ^t^t cjtCt 53iT^ ^

NO NO NO O CN

STORY OF KRISHAN DA'S. 2!>7

TETTW^T ^lllTr! 1 §T ^3 ^S fa^TX ^RT^fi WR *R *J 311 *fU «cRT
**T SH gR3T 5RT 1T3 3TCT Hi fig gT gfaXTT ^f ITS 3HH; SI^Tt fig

gT sm 5f sjT art^rai ^i wit in li ht%i ^ tsr m^iif! fi win

^Jra ^T5T ^iflt 1 §T 33 fig gi gfaUT ^' cfiWT %T 3iT5I 9R^ fff
|j TTl^JfT rig gT PfJT ^ 13T %T^ =R^I fig gi ^fl ^it ST% ^TW^TT

g^ 3ii TIQ13 f^^mT rlof gtqrgff ¥I5ft *rifcl *TT VQ1Z f^JT HT^ *ri*K

in ffonsra gt ^t^ §t *ra If^ng mf^gi STnggfr eifrcfr irsfifraji
m%$i *ftm tjit fig scTt §i «r?t in stit *ign: w gou^R in ttit-
jtst? fag^n fig ^fff % =fit in jji tests ht T^graT fig fiCfgTrg
ii oRit %t st% mmvt grwi fi ?nt i ^it tmk ftrai frg %t tj«rtt

WZJ IfiT ^T ^g ^W 5T^T fig If^^T^I Sfff % giTR gTlfi ITCTg
«^ HT^ ^oTi J^R 5i^J ^ ^ ST3T JT1TIRT3 T^IT iiT ^TR g?;

jalsT^T^t tHfg ^TTmfi §t irts fsraT et^ ffw^R ^^ g^g^r %
mg =J5iT35K sgfi TTfgsmgfr gmT 3Rci gifitsigsgTTTWjrfig
gg gang ffwsre iraiN^ fig^^R m?iw\ zfc s^rln qif ^m

JT^ *TT^ ^Ti^ ^^ ^TU ^T 5iR TOT^^aTT SRT %gi Sfiftsfi ^JJ^ S!TT-

gfi iiT Txi tiT^ ^R ^ T^il aRR^' ^tsi^toTi ii ^ttt ^rrr jtgi ww
3gTTn ^fT^re^: srk^ wim^is sit% ttwi fig ?fW3Tg sin %f
g^: ^t^ fig ^n srci mTTTHT? z,m m^ ^fji v$v ^ fTt^t mj

^c?J5TH 3 ^oH ^t 5iWt %T fpR gT gf=TUT %i ^Tt^i^T %T^T <$mj

^fii %t %tw qrii ^brt %ra^r frm gT%r %t?t ^t giR§ m «^t t
fig s^jt ^rm 3^^^T giftii ^T^f ^R« xrk %r ^h %r f^JTTT itu
1 ^T ^g ^^ mw?f ii niTg*: ^tjttzi^ ^?f! ^fT g^T ^ f5^ lf>
^Tilig^^ i^t §1 nm ^ eRra wlifn fiT^ fim ^uszm

298 STORY OF KRISHAN DA'S.

^ m\ ^1 5R# %T rW ^T Sfi^-JT 3HR Il3 5tf ^T5R ^TW^TXT ^T^l

mm mvm sTra^i *tr sira"*r m^ *i ^fra «l i^g wi%t

failure 3 3fR*JT 3^ ^STXf^ gi g^UXTT SRT ITS g>tR 3rtR51^T
rig ofT Soft H 3T g^TXlT 3iT W^T UTf^fi 3>WT ilT T5R3F W*?f

fig ^t sinful 3 regR^u^' wm^Rlfra gwwj^prasri

nHI ^ ^T^I ^T Si^Tl %T tJW ^TH flel 5R gT SRI Xli *3T Sfi^j %T

*r xiw ht *ta ^i *R ^tit ci=r ^t stfiral 5i mm ^w\ %t jtr*t
?j efhg *rl 1 ^r v.m srr 5F$T *% rl®l ^^ ^1 ^ 3iWT %t r\

tTT^efi <fiWT SR^I r\ mi ERRl ^K ^=* ^T 3=froT ^ efi^n %T 7J^

srm ^T^i aiflTHl ^ifi^ fig gT ^t ^ ?swl %i ^i wrire ^i^
=5sra jr ?nth w %t i? en?* §h* gT sRtai %t ^reg^ irai ^iR
*ig griifi It ^t sra tf%j %t *ri ^it eRinn i %t sg ^rc ^ft ^wt
fig gi m\ Sf ^g ireiR It %t ^eg efiwi §t ^^ g^frai ^tr

T%R3iT ^T TT^i ST%T W ^TT ^135 im illR^ 5^^'d 6RTT ^R SilJt
%l^T 'SHHTO ^TT 3>rS AT cTC* ^T SfiRl} Irw f?H g^r it ^T$ gi
Sffi l^t ^TRT TilTTXT^ ^MT "3T ^Tl^TTT^ ^5fWT ^R fjW5T^I W ^T

g^Trai W fg^rfT sRRft %t ^tt ^tt ^xttt^ g«T ^R^ m ^Ct g win

1 §!T rITT ^T tl^g IT TTT§ ^W Sf^THl ^t^T^T^Wf JJ!in*R ^

^ig ^g^i «5it ri=i gT g^uxiT ^t ^m JsTrargiii^T nWTTOH
^ ttt^t^^ w&h vi$. ^W g^frai ^5t w^rg^Rr «lfr ^t fW3T?i
ii ^fi^firn *wt riTri ^t ^^T ^t smg^Tzi %l ^iT^t xjt§ g^
g^fixri ■% mzw ill ^^^ *^T ^^^ t1^t ^r gjarj^T^ ert ^ar ^it
iiiFT ^t 4^i^t Ti^t ^ f>on5T^ sat^rT'crra^t jtwthsr ^ ^%
f ttt^t^ flTTg^rxr w rn^ f^5^ ^Rg^^fm gmi | fiiH ^ eft cjtftt
5fill fill T^tQB ^I^T Tl^re H 1 II ^[^^1 tljo gang || 08 n

CHAPTER XI.

the three nill places of mathura' : gobardhan, barsa'na, and

nand-gXnw.

At a distance of three miles from the city of Mathuru, the road to Gobar-
dhan runs through the village of Satoha, by the side of a large tank of very
sacred repute, called Santanu Kund. The name commemorates a Raja Santanu
who (as is said on the spot) here practised, through a long course of years, the
severest religious austerities in the hope of obtaining a son. His wishes were
at last gratified by a union with the goddess Ganga, who bore him Bhishma, one
of the famous heroes of the Mahabharat. Every Sunday the place is frecmented
by women who are desirous of issue, and a large fair is held there on the 6th
of the light fortnight of Bhadon. The tank, which is of very considerable
dimensions, was faced all round with stone, early last century, by Sawai Jay
Sinh of Amber, but a great part of the masonry is now much dilapidated. In its
centre is a high hill connected with the main land by a bridge. The sides of
the island are covered with fine ritha trees, and on the summit, which is
approached by a flight of fifty stone steps, is a small temple. Here it is incum-
bent upon the female devotees, who would have their prayers effectual, to make
eonib offering to the shrine, and inscribe on the ground or wall the mystic device
called in Sanskrit Svastika and in Hindi Sathiya, the fylfot of Western eccle-
siology. The local superstition is probably not a little confirmed by the acci-
dental resemblance that the king's name bears to the Sanskrit word for ' children,'
santdna. For, though Raja Santanu is a mythological personage of much ancient
celebrity, being mentioned not only in several of the Puranas, but also in one
of the hymns of the Rig Veda, he is not much known at the present day, and
what is told of him at Satoha is a very confused jumble of the original legend.
The signal and, according to Hindu ideas, absolutely fearful abnegation of self,
there ascribed to the father, was undergone for his gratification by the dutiful
son, who thence derived his name of Bhishma, ' the fearful.' For, in extreme
old age, the Raja was anxious to wed again, but the parents of the fair girl on
whom he fixed his affections would not consent to the union, since the fruit
of the marriage would be debarred by Bhishma's seniority from the succession
to the throne. The difficulty was removed by Bhishma's filial devotion, who

300 THE GIIU-KX.J AT GOBARDHAN.

took an oath to renounce his birthright and never to beget a son to revive the
claim. Hence every religious Hindu accounts it a duty to make him amends
for this want of direct descendants by once a year offering libations to Bhishma's
spirit in the same way as to one of his own ancestors. The formula to be used
is as follows: — " I present this water to the childless hero, Bhishma, of the race
of Vyaghrapada, the chief of the house of Sankriti. May Bhishma, the son of
Santanu, the speaker of truth and subjugater of his passions, obtain by this
water the oblations due from sons and grandsons."

The story in the Nirukta Vedanga relates to an earlier period in the king's
life, if, indeed, it refers to the same personage at all, which has been doubted.
It is there recorded that, on his father's death, Santanu took possession of
the throne, though he had an elder brother, by name Devapi, living. This
violation of the right of primogeniture caused the land to be afflicted with a
drought of twelve years' continuance, which was only terminated by the recita-
tion of a hymn of prayer (Rig Veda, x., 98) composed by Devapi himself, who
had voluntarily adopted the life of a religious. The name Satoha is absurdly
derived by the Brahmans of the place from sattu, ' bran,' which is said to have
been the royal ascetic's only diet. In all probability it is formed from the word
Santanu itself, combined with some locative affix, such as sthdna.

Ten miles further to the west is the famous place of Hindu pilgrimage,
Gobardhan, i.e., according to the literal meaning of the Sanskrit compound, 'the
nurse of cattle.' The town, which is of considerable size, with a population of
4,944, occupies a break in a narrow range of hill, which rises abruptly from the
alluvial plain, and stretches in a south-easterly direction for a distance of some
four or five miles, with an average elevation of about 100 feet.

This is the hill which Krishna is fabled to have held aloft on the tip of his
finger for seven days and nights to cover the people of Braj from the storms
poured down upon them by Indra when deprived of his wonted sacrifices. In
pictorial representations it always appears as an isolated conical peak which is
as unlike the reality as possible. It is ordinarily styled by Hindus of the present
day the Giri-raj, or royal hill, but in earlier literature is more frequently
designated the Anna-kut. There is a firm belief in the neighbourhood that
as the waters of the Jamuna are yearly decreasing in body, so too the sacred
hill is steadily diminishing in height ; for in past times it was visible from Arin<*
a town four or five miles distant, whereas now a few hundred yards are

THE TEMPLE OF GOKUL-NXtH. 301

sufficient to remove it from sight. It may be hoped that the marvellous
fact reconciles the credulous pilgrim to the insignificant appearance presented
by the object of his adoration. It is accounted so holy that not a particle
of the stone is allowed to be taken for any building purpose ; and even the road
which crosses it at its lowest point, whero only a few fragments of the rock
crop up above the ground, had to be carried over them by a paved causeway.

The ridge attains its greatest elevation towards the south between the vil-
lages of Jatipura and Anyor. Here, on the submit, was an ancient temple
founded in the year 1520 A. D., by the famous Vallabhacharya of Gokul, and
dedicated to Sri-nath. In anticipation of one of Aurangzeb's raids, the image
of the god was removed to Nathdwara in Udaypur territory, and has remained
there ever since. The temple on the Giri-raj was thus allowed to fall into ruin,
and the wide walled enclosure now exhibits only long lines of foundations and
steep nights of steps, with a small, untenanted, and quite modern shine. The
plateau, however, commands a very extensive view of the neighbouring coun-
try, both on the Mathura and the Bharatpur side, with the fort of Dig and the
heights of Nand-ganw and Barsana in the distance.

At the foot of the hill on one side is the little village of Jatipura with
several temples, of which one, dedicated to Gokul-nath, though a very mean
building in appearance, has considerable local celebrity. Its head is the
Gosain of the temple with the same title at Gokul, and it is the annual scene
of two religious solemnities, both celebrated on the day after the Dip-dan at
Gobardhan. The first is the adoration of the sacred hill, called the Giri-raj
Puja, and the second the Anna-kiit, or commemoration of Krishna's sacrifice.
They are always accompanied by the renewal of a long-standing dispute be-
tween the priests of the two rival temples of Sri-nath and Gokul-nath, the one
of whom supplies the god, the other his shrine. The image of Gokul-nath, the
traditional object of veneration, is brought over for the occasion from Gokul,
and throughout the festival is kept in the Gokul-nath temple on the hill, except
for a few hours on the morning after the Diwali, when it is exposed for worship
on a separate pavilion. This building is the property of Giridhari Ji, the Sri-nath
Gosain, who invariably protests against the intrusion. Party-feeling runs so
hi <>h that it is generally found desirable a little before the anniversary to take
heavy security from the principals on either side that there shall be no
breach of the peace. The relationship between the Gosains is explained by the

following table : —

302 PERAMBULATION OF THE GIRI-BXJ.

Damodar Ji, alias Dau Ji,
Gosain of the temple of Sri-natb at Nathdwara.

Lachhinan Ji, Gosain of temple = Chandravali Bau Ji Gobind Rao Ji, Gosain

of Gokul-nath: died 1861

(living). of temples of Navanit-

Priya and Sri-nath, at
Nathdwara.

Kanhaij'a Lai (adopted son), Giridhari Ji.

grandson of Gosain Purushot-
tam Lai.

Immediately opposite Jatipura, and only parted from it by the intervening
range, is the village of Anyor — literally ' the other side' — with the temple of
Sri-nath on the summit between them. A little distance beyond both is the
village of Puchbri, which, as the name denotes, is considered the ' extreme
limit' of the Giri-raj.

Kartik, the month in which most of Krishna's exploits are believed to have
been performed, is the favorite time for the pari-krama, or ' perambulation' of
the sacred hill. The dusty circular road which winds around its base has a length
of seven fcos, that is, about twelve miles, and is frequently measured by devotees
who at every step prostrate themselves at full length. When flat on the ground,
they mark a line in the sand as far as their hands can reach, then rising they
prostrate themselves again from the line so marked, and continue in the same
style till the whole weary circuit has been accomplished. This ceremony, called
Dandavati jmri-krama, occupies from a week to a fortnight, and is generally
performed for wealthy sinners vicariously by the Brahmans of the place, who
receive from Rs. 50 to Rs. 100 for their trouble and transfer all the merit of
the act to their employers. The ceremony has been performed with a hundred
and eight* prostrations at each step (that being the number of Kadha's names
and of the beads in a Vaishnava rosary), it then occupied some two years, and
was remunerated by a donation of Rs. 1,000.

About the centre of the range stands the town of Gobardhan on the
margin of a very large irregularly shaped masonry tank, called the Manasi

* la Christian mysticism 107 is as sacred a number as 108 in Hindu. Thus the Emperor
Justinian's great church of S. Sophia at Constantinople was supported by 107 coluinni), the
numbsr of pillars in the House of Wisdom.

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THE mXnasi gangX. 303

Ganga, supposed to have been called into existence by the mere action of the
divine will (inwiasa). At one end the boundary is formed by the jutting crags
of the holy hill ; on all other sides the water is approached by long nights of
stone steps. It has frequently been repaired at great cost by the Rajas of
Bharat-pur ; but is said to have been originally constructed in its present form
by Raja Man Sinh of Jaypur, whose father built the adjoining temple of
Harideva. There is also at Banaras a tank constructed by Man Sinh, called
Man Sarovar, and by it a temple dedicated to Manesvar : facts which suggest
a suspicion that the name ' Manasi1* is of much less antiquity than is popularly
believed. Unfortunately, there is neither a natural spring, nor any constant
artificial supply of water, and for half the year the tank is always dry. But
ordinarily at the annual illumination, or Dip-dan, which occurs soon after the
close of the rains, during the festival of the Diwali, a fine broad sheet of water
reflects the light of the innumerable lamps, which are ranged tier above tier
along the ghats and adjacent buildings, by the hundred thousand pilgrims with
whom the town is then crowded.

In the year 1871, as there was no heavy rain towards the end of the
season, and the festival of the Diwali also fell later than usual, it so happened
that on the bathing day, the 12th of November, the tank was entirely dry,
with the exception of two or three green and muddy little puddles. To obviate
this mischance, several holes were made and wells sunk in the area of the tank,
■with one large pit, some 30 feet square and as many deep, in whose turbid
waters many thousand pilgrims had the happiness of immersing themselves. For
several hours no less than twenty-five persons a minute continued to descend,
and as many to ascend, the steep and slippery steps ; while the yet more fetid
patches of mud and water in other parts of the basin were quite as densely
crowded. At night, the vast amphitheatre, dotted with groups of people and
glimmering circles of light, presented a no less picturesque appearance than in
previous years when it was a brimming lake. To the spectator from the garden

* In devotional literature mdnasi has the sense of ' spiritual,' as in the Catholic phrase ' spiritual
communion.' Thus it is related in the Bhakt Mala that Kaja Prithiraj, of Bikaner, being on a
journey aDd unable to visit the shrine, for which he had a special devotion, imagined himself to
be worshipping in the temple, and made a spiritual act of contemplation before the image (murli
kd dhyaii mdnasi karte the). I'or two days his aspirations seemed to meet with no response, but
on the third he became conscious of the divine presence. On enquiry it was found that for two
days the god had been removed elsewhere, while the temple was under repair. lie then made a
row to end his days at Mathura. The emperor, to spite him, put him in command of an expedi-
tion to Kabul ; but when he felt his end approaching, he mounted a ca— el and hastened back to
the holy city and there expired.

304 TEMrLE OF HARI-DEVA.

side of the broad and deep expanse, as the line of demarkation between the !-teej>
flights of steps and the irregular masses of building which immediately sur-
mount them ceased to be perceptible, the town presented the perfect semblance
of a long and lofty mountain range dotted with fire-lit villages ; while the clash
of cymbals, the beat of drums, the occasional toll of bells from the adjoining
temples, with the sudden and long-sustained cry of some enthusiastic band,
vociferating the praises of mother Ganga, the clapping of hands that began
scarce heard, but was quickly caught up and passed on from tier to tier, and
prolonged into a wild tumult of applause, — all blended with the ceaseless mur-
mur of the stirring crowd in a not discordant medley of exciting sound. Accord-
ing to popular belief, the ill-omened drying up of the water, which had not
occurred before in the memory of man, was the result of the curse of one
Habib-ullah Shah, a Muhammadan fakir. He had built himself a hut on the
top of the Giri-raj, to the annoyance of the priests of the neighbouring temple
of Dau-Rae, who complained that the holy ground was defiled by the bones and
other fragments of his unclean diet, and procured an order from the Civil Court
for his ejectment. Thereupon the fakir disappeared, leaving a curse upon his
persecutors ; and this bore fruit in the drying up of the healing waters of the
Manasi Ganga.

Close by is the famous temple of Hari-deva, erected during the tolerant
reio-n of Akbar by Raja Bhagawan Das of Amber on a site long previously
occupied by a succession of humbler fanes. It consists of a nave G8 feet in length
and 20 feet broad, leading to a choir 20 feet square, with a sacrarium of about
the same dimensions beyond. The nave has four openings on either side, of
which three have arched heads, while the fourth nearest the door is covered by
a square architrave supported by Hindu brackets. There are clerestory
windows above, and the height is about 30 feet to the cornice, which is
decorated at intervals with large projecting heads of elephants and sea-
monsters. There was a double roof, each entirely of stone : the outer one
a high pitched gable, the inner an arched ceiling, or rather the nearest
approach to an arch ever seen in Hindu design. The centre was really flat,
but it was so deeply coved at the sides that, the width of the building being
inconsiderable, it had all the effect of a vault, and no doubt suggested the
possibility of the true radiating vault, which we find in the temple of Govind
Deva built by Bkagawan's son and successor, Man Sinh, at Brinda-ban. The
construction is extremely massive, and even the exterior is still solemn and
imposing, though the two towers which originally crowned the choir and
sacrarium were long ago levelled with tho roof of the nave. The material

Vage. 3q^

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TEIttTLE OF HAEI-DEVA. 305

employed throughout the superstructure is red sandstone from the Bharat-
pur quarries, while the foundations are composed of rough blocks of the
stone found in the neighbourhood. These have been laid bare to the depth
of several feet ; and a large deposit of earth all round the basement would
much enhance the appearance as well as the stability of the building.

Bihiiri Mall, the father of the reputed founder, was the first Rajput who
attached himself to the court of a Mnhammadan emperor. He was chief of the
Rajawat branch of the Kaehhwaha. Thakurs seated at Amber, and claimed to be
eighteenth in descent from the founder of the family. The capital was subse-
quently transferred to Jaypur in 1728 A.D. ; the present Maharaja being the
thirty-fourth descendant of the original stock. In the battle of Sarnal, Bhagawan
Das had the good fortune to save Akbar's life, and was subsequently appointed
Governor of the Panjab. He died about the year 1590 at Labor. His daughter
was married to prince Salim, who eventually became emperor under the
title of Jahaugir ; the fruit of their marriage being the unfortunate prince
Khusru.

The temple has a yearly income of some Rs. 2,300, derived from the two
villages, Bhagosa and Lodhipuri, the latter estate being a recent grant, in lieu of
an annual money donation of Rs. 500, on the part of the Raja of Bharat-pur, who
further makes a fixed monthly offering to the shrine at the rate of one rupee per
diem. The hereditary Gosains have long devoted the entire income to their
own private uses, completely neglecting the fabric of the temple and its religious
services.* In consequence of such short-sighted greed, the votive offerings at
this, one of the most famous shrines in Upper India, have dwindled down to
about Rs. 50 a year. Not only so, but, early in 1872, the roof of the nave,
which had hitherto been quite perfect, began to give way. An attempt was
made by the writer of this memoir to procure an order from the Civil Court
authorising the expenditure, on the repair of the fabric, of the proceeds of the
temple estate, which, iu consequence of the dispute among the shareholders, had
for some months past been paid as a deposit into the district treasury and had
accumulated to more than Rs. 3,000. There was no unwillingness on the part
of the local Government to further the proposal, and an engineer was deputed

* The estate is divided into twenty-four bats or shares, allotted among seventeen different
families. It appeared that all were agreed as to the distribution, with the exception of one man
by name Nirayan, who, in addition, to his own original share, claimed also as sole representative
of a shareholder deceased. This claim was not admitted by the others, and the zaruindars con-
tinued to pay the revenue as a deposit into the district treasury, till eventually the muafldars
concurred in making a joiut application for its transfer to themselves.

30(3 TOMBS OF THE BHARAT-rUR RA\rXS.

to examine and report on the probable cost. But an unfortunate delay occur-
red in the Commissioner's office, the channel of correspondence, and meanwhile
the whole of the roof fell in, with the exception of one compartment. This,
however, would have been sufficient to serve as a model in the work of restora-
tion. The estimate was made out for Rs. 8,767 ; and as there was a good
balance in hand to begin upon, operations might have been commenced at once
and completed without any difficulty in the course of two or three years. But
no further orders were communicated by the superior authorities from April,
when the estimate was suhmitted, till the following October, and in the interim
a baniya from the neighbouring town of Aring, by name Chhitar Mall, hoping
to immortalise himself at a moderate outlay, came to the relief of the temple
proprietors and undertook to do all that was necessary at his own private cost.
He accordingly ruthlessly demolished all that yet remained of the original roof,
breaking down at the same time not a little of the curious cornice, and in its
place simply threw across, from wall to wall, rough and unshapen wooden
beams, of which the best that can be said is, that they may, for some few years,
serve as a protection from the wreather. But all that was unique and charac-
teristic in the design has ceased to exist ; and thus another of the few pages in
the fragmentary annals of Indian architecture has been blotted out for ever.
Like the temple of Gobind Deva at Brinda-ban, it has none of the coarse
figure sculpture which detract so largely from the artistic appearance of most
Hindu religious buildings ; and though originally consecrated to idolatrous
worship, it was in all points of construction equally well adapted for the public
ceremonial of the purest faith. Had it been preserved as a national monument,
it might at some day, in the future golden age, have been to Gobardhan what
the Pagan Pantheon is now to Christian Rome.

On the opposite side of the Manasi Ganga are two stately cenotaphs, or
chhattris, to the memory of Randhir Sinh and Baladeva Sinh, Rajas of Bharat-
pur. Both are of similiar design, consisting of a lofty and substantial square
masonry terrace with corner kiosks and lateral alcoves, and in the centre the
monument itself, still further raised on a richly decorated plinth. The cella,
enclosed in a colonnade of five open arches on each side, is a square apartment
surmounted by a dome, and having each wall divided into three bays, of which
one is left for the doorway, and the remainder are filled in with reticulated
tracery. The cloister has a small dome at each corner and the curious curvi-
linear roof, distinctive of the style, over the central compartments. In the
larger monument, the visitor's attention is specially directed to tho panels of
the doors, painted in miniature with scenes from the life of Krishna, and to the

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TIIE KUSUM SAEOVAR. 307

cornice, a flowered design of some vitreous material executed at Delhi. This
commemorates Baladeva Sinh, who died in 1825, and was erected by his son
and successor the late Raja Balavant Sinh, who was placed on the throne after
the reduction of the fort of Bharat-pur by Lord Combermere in 1826. The
British army figures conspicuously in the paintings on the ceilings of the
pavilions.* R;'ija Bandhir Sinh, who is commemorated by the companion
monument, was the elder brother and predecessor of Baladeva, and died in the
year 1823. These chhatfcris are very elegantly grouped piles of building and
have an extremely picturesque effect, which is heightened by the sheet of water
in front of them. But from a purely architectural point of view, they are not
of any great merit, and give the idea of having been executed by a contractor,
who scamped the work to increase his own profit. The decorative details are
mostly poor in themselves, and are repeated with a monotonous uniformity,
which contrasts most disagreeably with the rich variety of design that distin-
guishes all the more important buildings either in Mathura or Brinda-ban. Tho
painting on the interior of the domes is also as heavy and tasteless as Hindu
attempts at pictorial art generally are.

A mile or so from tho town, on the borders of the parish of Ridha-kund,
is a much more magnificent architectural group erected by Jawahir Singh in
honour of his father Suraj Mall, the founder of the family, who met his death
at Delhi in 1764 (see page 40). The principal tomb, which is 57 feet square,
is of precisely the same style as the two already described. The best part of
the design is the plinth, which is at once bold in outline and delicate in finish.
With that curious blindness to practical requirements, which appears to have
characterised the Hindu architect from the earliest period to the present tho
decorated panels have been continued all round the four sides of the buildinc,
without a blank space being left anywhere for the steps, which the heio-ht from
the ground renders absolutely necessary. The Raja's monument is flanked
on either side by one of somewhat less dimensions, comineinoratinf his two
queens, Hansiyaf and Kishori. The lofty terrace upon which they stand is
460 feet in length, with a long shallow pavilion serving as a screen at each end,

* In the garden attached to this chhattri the Maharaja has a house, where he stays on his
visits to the town ; but at all other times it is most obligingly placed at the disposal of European
visitors.

t Hans-ganj, on the bank of the Jamuna, immediately opposite Mathura, was founded by this
Kani. In consequence of a diversion of the road which once passed through it, the village is
now that most melancholy of all spectacles, a modern ruin ; though it comprises some spacious
walled gardens, crowded with magnificent trees.

308 GOSAIN HIMMAT baha'dur.

and nine two-storied kiosks of varied outline to relieve the front. Attached to
Eani Hansiya's monument is a smaller one in commemoration of a faithful
attendant. Behind is an extensive garden, and in front, at the foot of the
terrace, is an artificial lake, called the Kusum-Sarovar, 460 feet square ; the
flights of stone steps on each side being broken into one central and four small-
er side compartments by panelled and arcaded walls running out 60 feet into
the water. On the north side, some progress had been made in the erection
of a chhattri for Jawahir Singh, when the work was interrupted by Muhammadan
inroad and never renewed. On the same side, the ghats of the lake are partly
in ruins, and it is said were reduced to this condition, a very few years after
their completion, by the Gosain Himmat Bahadur, who carried away the ma-
terials to Brinda-ban, to be used in the construction of a ghat which still com-
memorates his name there. Such a wanton exercise of power seems a little
startling, and therefore it will not be out of place to explain a little in detail
who this warlike Gosain was. A native of Bundel-khand, he became a pupil
of Mahant Rajendra Giri, who had seceded from the Dasnamis,* or followers of
Sankarachtirya, the most fanatical of all Hindu sectaries, and had joined the
Saiva Nagas, a community characterized by equal turbulence unfettered by
even a pretence of any religious motive. Through his instigations, Ali Baha-
dur, an illegitimate grandson of Baji Rao, the first Peshwa, was induced to
take up arms against Sindhia and establish himself in Bundel-khand as virtu-
ally an independent sovereign. In 1802, Ah Bahadur fell at the siege of
Kalanjar, leaving a son, Shamsher Bahadur. At first the heir was supported
by Himmat, who, however, continued quietly to extend his own influence as
far as possible ; and, on the combination of the Mahratta chiefs against the
British Government, in which they were joined by Shamsher, foreseeing in
their success an immediate diminution of his own authority, he determined to
co-operate with the British. On the 4th of September, 1803, a treaty was
concluded between Lord Wellesley and ' Amip-giri Himmat Bahadur,' by
which nearly all the territory on the west bank of the Jamund from Kalpi to
Allahabad was assigned to him. His death, however, occurred in the follow-
ing year, when the lands were resumed and pensions in lieu thereof granted
to his family.

Other sacred spots in the town of Gobardhan are the temple of Chak-
resvar Mahadeva, and four ponds called respectively Go-rochan, Dharm-rochan,

* The ten names — whence the title Das-nami— arc tirtlw, dsrama, vana, aranya, sarasvati,
pun, bhartxti, giri, parvata, and sdijara, one of which is attached to his personal name by every
member of the order.

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THE GOBARDHAN HERMIT. 309

Pap-moehan, and Rin-mochan. But these latter, even in the rains, are mere
puddles, and all the rest of the year are quite dry ; while the former, in spite
of its sanctity, is as mean a little building as it is possible to conceive.

The break in the hill, traversed by the road from Mathnra to Dig, is
called the Dan Ghat, and is supposed to be the spot where Krishna lay in wait
to intercept the Gopis and levy a toll {dan) on the milk they were bringing
into the town. A Brahman still sits at the receipt of custom, and extracts a
copper coin or two from the passers-by. On the ridge overlooking the ghat
stands the temple of Dan Rae.

For many years past one of the most curious sights of the place has been
an aged Hindu ascetic, who had bound himself by a vow of absolute silence.
Whatever the hour of the day, or time of the year, or however long the inter-
val that might have elapsed since a previous visit, a stranger was sure to find
him sitting exactly on the same spot and in the same position, as if he had
never once stirred ; a slight awning suspended over his head, and immediately
in front of him a miniature shrine containing an emblem of the god. The half
century, which was the limit of his vow, has at length expired ; but his tongue,
bound for so many years, has now lost the power of uttering any articulate
sound. In a little dog-kennel at the side sits another devotee, with his legs
crossed under •him, ready to enter into conversation with all comers, and looking
one of the happiest and most contented of mortals ; though the cell in which he
has immured himself is so confined that he can neither stand up nor lie down in it.

Subsequently to the cession by Sindhia in 1803, Gobardban was granted,
free of assessment, to Knar Laelibman Smb., youngest son of Raja Ranjit Sink
of Bharat-pur ; but on his death, in 182(>, it was resumed by the Government
and annexed to the district of Agra. Of late years, the paramount power has
been repeatedly solicited by the Bharat-pur Raja to cede it to him in exchange
for other territory of equal value. It contains so many memorials of his ances-
tors that the request is a very natural one for him to make, and it must be
admitted that the Bharat-pur frontier stands greatly in need of rectification.
It would, however, be most impolitic for the Government to make the desired
concession, and thereby lose all control over a place so important, both from its
position and its associations, as Gobardban.

The following legend in the Ilarivansa (cap. 94) must be taken to refer
to the foundation of the town, though apparently it has never hitherto been
noticed in that connection. Among the descendants of Ikshvaku, who reigned
at Ayodkya, was Haryasva, who took to wife Madhumati, the daughter of the

310 THE FOUNDATION OF GOBARDHAN.

giant Madhu. Being expelled from the throne by his elder brother, the king
fled for refuge to the court of his father-in-law, who received him most affec-
tionately and ceded him the whole of his dominions, excepting only the capital
Madhuvana, which he reserved for his son Lavana. Thereupon, Haryasva
built, on the sacred Girivara, a new royal residence, and consolidated the king-
dom of Anarta, to which he subsequently annexed the country of Arupa, or (as
it is otherwise and preferably read) Aniipa. The third in descent from Yadu,
the son and successor of Haryasva, was Bhima, in whose reign Kama, the then
sovereign of Ayodhya, commissioned Satrughna to destroy Lavana's fort of
Madhuvana and erect in its stead the town of Mathura. After the departure
of its founder, Mathura was annexed by Bhima, and continued in the posses-
sion of his descendants down to Vasudeva. The most important lines in the
text run thus : —

Haryasvascha mahateja divye Girivarottame
Nivesayamasa puram vasartham amaropamah
Anartam nama tadrashtram surashtram Godhanayutam.
Achirenaiva kalena samriddham pratyapadyata
Anupa-vishayam chaiva vela-vana-vibhushitam.

From the occurrence of the words Girivara and Godhana and the declared
proximity to Mathura, it is clear that the capital of Haryasva must have
been situate on the Giri-raj of Gobardhan ; and it is probable that the country
of Aniipa was to some extent identical with the more modern Braj. Aniipa is
once mentioned, in an earlier canto of the poem, as having been bestowed by
king Prithu on the bard Siita. The name Anarta occurs also in canto X.,
where it is stated to have been settled by king Reva, the son of Saryati, who
made Kusasthali its capital. In the Ramayana, IV., 43, it is described as a
western region on the sea-coast, or at all events in that direction, and has there-
fore been identified with Gujarat. Thus there would seem to have been an in-
timate connection between Gujarat and Mathura, long anterior to Krishna's
foundation of Dwaraka.

BARS ANA AND NAND-GANW.*

BarsXna — population 2,773 — according to modern Hindu belief the home
of Krishna's favourite mistress Radha, is a town which enjoyed a brief period of
great prosperity about the middle of last century. It is built at the foot and
on the slope of a ridge, originally dedicated to the god Brahma, which rises
abruptly from the plain, near the Bharat-pur border of the Chhata pargana, to
a height of some 200 feet at its extreme point, and runs in a south-westerly
direction for about a quarter of a mile. Its summit is crowned by a series of
temples in honour of Larli-Ji, a local title of Radha, meaning 'the beloved.'
These were all erected at intervals within the last two hundred years, and now
form a connected mass of building with a lofty wall enclosing the court in which
they stand. Each of the successive shrines was on a somewhat grander scale
than its predecessor, and was for a time honoured with the presence of the
divinity ; but even the last and largest, in which she is now enthroned, is an
edifice of no special pretension ; through seated, as it is, on the very brow of the
rock, and seen in conjunction with the earlier buildings, it forms an imposing
feature in the landscape to the spectator from the plain below. A long flight
of stone steps, broken about half way by a temple in honour of Radha's grand-
father, Mahi-bhan, leads down from the summit to the foot of the hill, where
are two other small temples. One of them is dedicated to Radha's female com-
panions, called the Sakhis, who are eight in number, as follows : Lalita, Visakha,
Champaka-lata, Ranga-devi, Chitra-lekha, Dulekha, Sudevi, and Chandnivali.
The other contains a life-size image of the mythical Brikh-bhan robed in appro-
priate costume and supported on the one side by his daughter Radha, and on
the other by Sridama, a Pauranik character, here for the nonce represented as
her brother.

The town consists almost entirely of magnificent mansions all in ruins, and
lofty but crumbling walls now enclosing vast, desolate, dusty areas, which once
were busy courts and markets or secluded pleasure grounds. All date from
the time of Rup Ram, a Katara Brahman, who, having acquired great reputa-
tion as a Pandit in the earlier part of last century, became Purohit to Bharat-pur,

* Both these interesting places, as also Baladeva, are entirely omitted by Dr. Hunter in his
Imperial Gazetteer, and all the places in the district that he does mention are described with re-
markable inadequacy and inaccuracy. Apparently his test of the importance of auy locality is his
own personal connection with it : hence the disproportionate length of some of the Bengal articles.

312 Rtip ra'm of barsXna.

Sindhia,* and Holkar, and was enriched by those princes with the most lavish
donations, the whole of which he appears to have expended on the embellish-
ment of Barsana and the other sacred places within the limits of Braj, his
native country. Before his time, Barsana, if inhabited at all, was a mere
hamlet of the adjoining village Ucha-ganw, which now, under its Gnjar land-
lords, is a mean and miserable place, though it boasts the remains of a fort and
an ancient and well-endowed temple, dedicated to Baladeva. Riip Ram was
the founder of one of the now superseded temples of Larli Ji, with the stone
staircase np the side of the hill. He also constructed tha largest market-place
in the town, with as many, is it said, as sixty-four walled gardens ; a princely
mansion for his own residence ; several small temples and chapels, and other
courts and pavilions. One of the latter, a handsome arcaded building of carved
stone, has for some years past been occupied by the Government as a police-
station without any payment of rent or award of compensation, though the
present representative of the family is living on the spot and is an absolute
pauper. Three cenotaphs commemorating Riip Ram himself and two of his
immediate relatives, stand by the side of a large stone tank with broad flights of
steps and flanking towers, which he restored and brought into its present shape.
This is esteemed sacred and commonly called Bhanokhar, that is, the tank of
Brikha-bhan, Radha's reputed father. In connection with it is a smaller
reservoir, named after her mother Kirat. On the margin of the Bhanokhar is
a pleasure-house in three stories, known as the Jal-mahall. It is supported on
a series of vaulted colonnades which open direct on to the water, for the conve-
nience of the ladies of the family, who were thus enabled to bathe in perfect
seclusion, as the two tanks and the palace are all enclosed in one courtyard by
a lofty bastioned and embattled wall with tower-like gateways. f Besides these
works, Riip Ram also constructed two other large masonry tanks, one for the
convenience of a hamlet in the neighbourhood, which he settled and called after
his own name Riip-nagar ; the second on the opposite side of the town, in the
village of Ghazipur, is the sacred lake called Prem Sarovar, which he faced with
octagonal stone ghats. Opposite the latter is a walled garden with an elegant
domed monument, in the form of a Greek cross, to his brother Hem-raj.

* It appears that Barsana was an occasional residence of Madho Iiao Sindhia ; for a treaty
of hia with the Company, regarding trade at Baroch, dated the 3oth of September, 1785, was
signed by him there, as also the supplementary article dated the following Jauuary.

f Both the house and Bhanokhar hare been considerably damaged hy the new proprietor,
who has rei] oved many of the larger slabs of stoue.

THE MISFORTUNES OF BARSXNA. 313

Contemporary with Rup Bam, two other wealthy families resided at Bar-
sana and were his rivals in magnificence. The head of the one family was
Mohan Ram, a Lavania Brahman ; and of the other Lalji, a Tantia Thakur.
It is said that the latter was by birth merely a common labourer, who went off
to Lakhnau to make his fortune. There he became first a harkara, then a
jamadar, and eventually the leading favourite at court. Towards the close of
his life he begged permission to return to his native place and there leave some
permanent memorial of the royal favour. The Nawab not only granted the
request, but further presented him with carte blanche on the State treasury for
the prosecution of his designs. Besides the stately mansion, now much dilapi-
dated, he constructed a large bdoli, still in excellent preservation, and two wells,
sunk at great expense in sandy tracts where previously all irrigation had been
impracticable.

The sacred tank on the outskirts of the town called Priya-kund, or Piri-
pokhar, was faced with stone by the Lavaniyas, who are further commemorated
by a large katra, or market-place, the ruins of the vast and elaborate mansion
where they resided, and the elegant stone chhattris at the foot of the hill. They
held office under the Raja of Bharat-pur. and their present representative, Ram
Naniyan, is now a Tahsildar in that territory.

Barsana had scarcely been built, when, by the fortune of war, it was des-
troyed beyond all hope of restoration, as has already been related in Chapter II
of this memoir, page 42. As if this blow were not enough, in the year 1812 it
sustained a further misfortune, when the Gaurua Thakurs, its zamindars, being
in circumstances of difficulty and probably distrustful of the stability of British
rule, then only recently established, were mad enough to transfer their whole
estate to the oft-quoted Lala Babu for the paltry sum of Rs. 602 and the condi-
tion of holding land on rather more favourable terms than other tenants. The
parish now yields Government an annual rental of Rs. 3,109 and the absentee
landlords about as much, while it receives nothing from them in return. Thus
the appearance now presented by Barsana is a most forlorn and melancholy one.

The hill is still, to a limited extent, known as Brahma-kd-pahdr or Brahma's
hill : and hence it may be inferred with certainty that Barsana is a corruption
of the Sanskrit compound Brahma-sdnx, which bears the same meaning. Its
four prominent peaks are regarded as emblematic of the four-faced divinity,
and are each crowned with some building ; the first with the group of temples
dedicated to Larli Ji, the other three with smaller edifices, known respectively
as the Man-mandir, the Dan-garh and the Mor-kutti. A second hill, of less

314 THE TEMPLE AT NAND-GXNW.

extent and elevation, completes the amphitheatre in which the town is set, and
the space between the two ranges gradually contracts to a narrow path, which
barely allows a single traveller on foot to pass between the shelving crags that
tower above him on either side. This pass is famous as the Sankari-kkor,*
literally ' the narrow opening,' and is the scene of a mela (called the Burhi
Lila) on the 13th of the month of Bhadon, often attended by as many as 10,000
people. The crowds divide according to their sex and cluster about the rocks
round two little shrines, erected on either side of the ravine for the temporary
reception of figures of Radha and Krishna, and indulge to their heart's content
in all the licentious banter appropriate to the occasion. At the other mouth of
the pass is a deep dell between the two high peaks of the Man-Mandir and the
Mor-kutti, with a masonry tank in the centre of a dense thicket called the
Gahnvar-ban. A principal feature in the diversions of the day is the scram-
bling of sweetmeats by the better class of visitors, seated on the terraces
of the ' Peacock Pavilion' above, among the multitudes that throng the margin
of the tank some 150 feet below.

The essentially Hindi form of the title Larlf, equivalent to the Sanskrit
Lalita, may be taken as an indication of the modern growth of the local cultus.
Even in the Brahma Vaivarta, the last of the Puranas and the one specially
devoted to Radha's praises, there is no authority for any such appellation. In
the Vraja-bhakti-vilasa the mantra, or formula of incantation which the pril-
grims are instructed to repeat, runs as follows: —

Lalitu-sanyutam krishnam sarvaishu sakhibhir yutam
Dhyaye tri-veni-kupa-sthani maha-rasa-kritotsavam.

Nand-gXnw — population 3,253 — as the reputed home of Krishna's foster-
father, with its spacious temple of Nand Rae Ji on the brow of the hill over-
looking the village, is in all respects an exact parallel to Barsana. The dis-
tance between the two places is only five miles, and when the kettle-drum is
beaten at the one, it can be heard at the other. The temple of Nand Rae
though large, is in a clumsy style of architecture and apparently dates only from
the middle of last century. Its founder is said to have been one Rup Sinh, a
Sinsinwar Jut, and it has an endowment of 826 bighas of rent-free land. It
consists of an open nave, with choir and sacrarium beyond, the latter being

* A similar use of the local form A'/ior, for Khol, may be observed iu the Tillage of Khaira,
where isa pond ceded Chinta-Khori Kund, corresponding to the more common Sanskrit compound
Cuiut i-haraua.

THE pXn-sarovar. 315

flanked on either side by a Rasoi and a Sejmahall, i.e., a cooking and sleeping
apartment, and has two towers, or sikharas. It stands in the centre of a paved
court-yard, surrounded by a lofty wall with corner kiosks, which command a
very extensive view of the Bharat-pur hill and the level expanse of the Mathura
district as far as Gobardhan. The village, which clusters at the foot and on the
slope of the rock, is, for the most part, of a mean description, but contains a few
handsome houses, more especially one erected by the famous Rup Ram of
Barsana. With the exception of one temple dedicated to Manasa Devi all the
remainder bear some title of the one popular divinity, such as Nar-sinha, Gopi-
nath, Nritya-Gopal, Giridhari, Nanda-nandan, Radha-Mohan, and Jasoda-
nandan. This last is on a larger scale than the others, and stands in a court-
yard of its own, half way up the hill. It is much in the same style and apparently
of the same date as the temple of Nand-Rae, or probably a little older ; an
opinion which is confirmed by its being mentioned in the mantra, which runs as
follows : — Yasodd-nandanam bande nanda-grdma-vanddhipam. A flight of 114
broad steps, constructed of well-wrought stone from the Bharat-pur quarries,
leads from the level of the plain up to the steep and narrow street which termi-
nates at the main entrance of the great temple. The staircase was made at the
cost of Balm Gaur Prasad of Calcutta, in the year 1818 A. D. At the foot of
the hill is a large unfinished square with a range of stone buildings on one side
for the accommodation of dealers and pilgrims, constructed by Siiraj Mall's
Rani, the Rani Kishori. At the back is an extensive garden with some fine
khirni trees, the property of the Raja of Bharat-pur. They are, however, gradu-
ally disappearing, one by one every year, and no attempt is made to replace them.
A little beyond this is the sacred lake now called Pan Sarovar, and supposed to
be the pool where Krishna used to drive the cows to 'water' (pan). It is a
magnificent sheet of water with noble masonry ghats on all its sides, the work
of a Dowager Rani of Bnrdwan in 1747 A. D. It measures 810 feet by 378,
and therefore covers all but six acres. It is said to be designed in the form
of a ship ; but the resemblance is not very apparent to an uninformed observer.
This is one of the four lakes of highest repute in Braj ; the others being the
Chandra-sarovar at Parsoli by Gobardhan, the Prem-sarovar at Ghazipur
near Barsana, and the Man-sarovar at Arua in the Mat pargana. On its
margin is a little temple of Bihari, which bears on its front the following
inscription : Sri Rddhd Gobind, Sri Gadddkar Chaitanya, Sri Rdran-sarovar
Kunj Srimati Hani Rasyesvari Raja Kirtichand ki mdta Sri Raja Tilok Chand
ji ki dddi ji rdj sube Bangdla Baradmdn Sri Sandtan Rup ki jaga men bandwe
Gumdshta Sri Saphalya Rdm Das, Gokul Das sambat 1805. The following

316 INDIAN VICISSITUDES.

commemorates some later repairs in 1849 ; Sri Nandisvar men Ckkajju zamin-
ddr lei patti men san 1155 sal, mail bhadra sudi men, Sri Pdvan wa fcunj paki
bhayi, memdr Mohan Ldl, Chet Ram. Both these inscriptions are noticeable,
since, in spite of their modern date, they preserve the old and now entirely
obsolete name both of the village, Nandisvar (i.e., Mahadeva) instead of Nanda,
and also of the lake, Pavan, 'the purifying,' instead of Pan, 'to drink.' Near
the village is akadamb grove, called Udho ji kit kyar, and, according to popular
belief, there are within the limits of Nand-ganw no less than fifty-six sacred
lakes or hinds; though it is admitted that in this degenerate age all of them
are not readily visible. In every instance the name is commemorative of
Krishna and his friends and their pastoral occupations.

Like Barsana and so many other of the holy places, Nand-ganw is part of
the estate of the representatives of the Lala Babu, who, in 1811 A.D., acquired
it for a merely nominal consideration from the then zamindars. One reason
for their readiness to part with it is probably to be found in the fact, which has
only recently come to my knowledge, that their title was a very questionable
one. For the Pujaris of the temple have in their possession a sanad dated the
30th vear of Alain Shah giving the whole of the village to their predecessors
Paramanand and Rumkishan and their heirs in perpetuity.

If the few squalid buildings which at present disfigure the square at the
foot of the hill were removed, and replaced by a well, or temple, or other pub-
lic edifice, and the line of shops completed on the other side, an exceedingly
picturesque effect might be secured at a comparatively small cost. But it is
needless to expect any local improvements from the absentee landlords, while
the inhabitants are too impoverished to have a thought for anytliing beyond
their daily bread.

The above sketch of two comparatively unimportant places affords a good
illustration of a curious transitional period in Indian history. After a chec-
quered existence of five hundred years, there expired with Anrangzeb all the
vital energy of the Muhammadan empire. The English power, In fated suc-
cessor, was yet unconscious of its destiny and all reluctant to advance any
claim to the vacant throne. Every petty chieftain, as for example Bharat-pur,
scorning the narrow limits of his ancestral domains, pressed forward to grasp
the glittering prize, and spared no outlay in the attempt t<> enlist iu his ser-
vice the ablest men of any nationality, either like Samru to lead his armies in
the field, or like liup Bam to direct his counsels in the cabinet. Thus men,

INDIAN VICISSITUDES. 317

whatever their rank in life, if only endowed by nature with genius or audacity,
rose in an incredibly short space of time from obscurity to all but regal power.
The wealth so rapidly secured was as profusely lavished ; nor was there any
object in hoarding, when the next chance of war would cither increase the
treasure ten-fold, or transfer it bodily to a victorious rival. Thus, a hamlet
became in one day the centre of a princely court, crowded with magnificent
buildings, and again, ere the architect had well completed his design, sunk with
its founders into utter ruin and desolation.

CHAPTER XII.

The Etymology of Local Names in Northern India, as exemplified
in the District of Mathura'.

In this, the concluding chapter of the general narrative, I propose to investi-
gate the principles upon which the local nomenclature of Upper India has been
and still is being unconsciously constructed. The inquiry is one of considerable
importance to the student of language ; but it has never yet been approached
in a scientific spirit, and the views which are here advanced respecting this
terra incognita in the philologist's map must be regarded as a first exploration,
which is unavoidably tentative and imperfect. Many points of detail will pos-
sibly demand future rectification ; but the general outline of the subject, the
fixed limits within which it is contained and some of its more characteristic
features of interior development have, it is hoped, been satisfactorily ascertained
and delineated with a fair amount of precision.

It is not to be inferred from this prelude that a subject of such obvious inter-
est has hitherto been totally neglected. On the contrary, it has given rise to a
vast number of speculations, but all of the most haphazard description. And
this from two causes ; the first being a perverse misconception as to the verna-
cular language of the country ; and the second, the absence up to the present
time of any list of names sufficiently complete to supply a basis for a really
thorough induction.

It seems a very obvious truism, and one that requires no elaborate defence to
maintain, that the names of a country and of the places in it should ■prima facie,
and in default of any direct evidence to the contrary, be referred to the language
of the people who inhabit them rather than to any foreign source. This, how-
ever, is the very point which most writers on the subject have failed to see. In
order to explain why the founder of an Indian village gave his infant settlement
the name, by which it is still known among his descendants, our laborious philo-
logists have ransacked vocabularies of all the obscurest dialects of Europe, but
have left their Sanskrit and Hindi dictionaries absolutely unopened.

A more curious illustration of a deliberate resolve to ignore obvious facts
for the sake of introducing a startling theory based on some obscure and
utterly problematical analogy could scarcely be found than is afforded by
Dr. Hunter in his Dissertation on non-Ayan languages. In this he refers

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 319

the familiar local termination gdnw (which argument! gratia he spells gdng or
gaong, though never so written in any Indian vernacular) to the Chinese Many,
the Tibetan thiong, the Lepcha ki/ong, &c, &c, and refuses to acknowledge any
connexion between it and the Sanskrit grama. Yet as certainly as Anglo-
Saxon was once the language of England, so was Sanskrit of Upper India ; and
it seems as reasonable to deny the relationship between grama and gdnw as be-
tween the English affix bury or borough and the Saxon burg. The formation is
strictly in accord with the rules laid dowu by the Prakrit grammarians centu-
ries before the word gdniv had actually come in existence. Thus by Vararu-
chi's Sutra — Sarvatra la-va-rdm, III., 3 — the letter r when compounded with
another consonant, whether it stands first or last, is always to be elided ; as we
see in the Hindi bat for the Sanskrit vdrta, in Icos for krosa, a measure of dis-
tance, and in pern for preman, love. So grama passes into gduia, and whether
this latter form or gdnw is used depends simply upon the will of the speaker ;
one man calls the place where he lives Naugama, another calls it Nauganw,
in the same way as it is optional to say Edinbro' or Edinborough. For in
Hindi as in Sanskrit a nasal can always be inserted at pleasure, according to
the memorial line — Savinduhdvindukayoh sgdd abhede na kalpanam: and the
distinction between ni and v or w has always been very slightly marked ; for
example, dhimar is the recognized literary Hindi form of the Sanskrit dhivar
and at the present day villagers generally write Bhamdni for Shawdni, though
the latter form only is admitted in printed books. If speculation is allowed
to run riot with regard to the paternity of such a word as gdnw, every step in
the descent of which is capable of the clearest proof, then philology is still a
science of the future, and the whole history of language must be rewritten from
the very commencement.

Perhaps of all countries in the world, northern India is the one which for
an investigation of this kind is the most self-contained and the least in need of
alien analogies. Its literary records date from a very remote period : are, in
fact, far more ancient than any architectural remains, or even than any well-
authenticated site, or definitely established era, and they form a continuous and
unbroken chain down to this very day. From the Sanskrit of the Vedas
to the more polished language of the Epic poems, and through the Prakrit of the
dramatists, the old Hindi of Chand and the Braj Bhasha of Tulsi Das, down to
the current speech of the rural population of Mathura at the present time, the
transitions are never violent, and at most points arc all but imperceptible. The
language, as we clearly see from the specimens which we have of it in all its
successive phases, is uniform and governed throughout by the same phonetic

320 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

laws. And thus, neither from the intrinsic evidence of indigenous literature,
nor from the facts recorded by history, is it permissible to infer the simultaneous
existence in the country of an alien-speaking race at any period, to which it is
reasonable to refer the foundation of places that still bear a distinctive name,
prior to the Muhammadan invasion. The existence of such a race is simply
assumed by those who find it convenient to represent as non- Aryan any forma-
tion which their acquaintance with unwritten Aryan speech in its growth and
decay is too superficial to enable them at once to identify.

As local etymology is a subject which can only be investigated on the spot,
and therefore lies beyond the range of European scholars, its study is necessarily
affected by the prejudices peculiar to Anglo-Indian officials, who are so accus-
tomed to communicate with their subordinates only through the medium of
Urdu that most of them regard that lingua franca as being really what it is call-
ed in official parlance, the vernacular of the country. This familiarity with the
speech of the small Muhammadan section of the community, rather than with
that of the Hindu masses, causes attention to be mainly directed to the study of
Persian and Arabic, which are considered proper to the country, while Sanskrit
is thought to be utterly dead, of no interest save to professional scholars and of
no more practical import in determining the value of current phrases than
Greek or Hebrew.

The prejudice is to be regretted, as it frequently leads writers, even in the
best informed London periodicals, to speak of India as if it were a purely
Muhammadan country, and to urge upon the Government, as highly conciliatory,
measures which — if taken — would most effectually alienate the sympathies of
the vast majority.

Neither Urdu, Persian, nor Arabic, is of much service in tracing the

derivation of local names, and it is hastily concluded that words which are

unintelligible when referred to those recognized sources must therefore be non-
es o

Indian, and may with as much probability be traced up to one foreign language
as another. Any distortion of the name of a town or village which makes it
bear some resemblance to a Persian or Arabic root, is ordinarily accepted as a
plausible explanation ; thus Khanpur is substituted for Kanhpur, and Ghazipur
for Gadhipur, Gadlii, the father of Visvamitra, being a character not very
widely known ; while on the other hand a derivation from tho Sanskrit by the
application of well-established but less popularly known phonetic and gramma-
tical laws, is stigmatized as pedantic and honestly considered to be more far-
fetched than a derivation from tho Basque or the Lithuanian.

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 321

This may seem an exaggerated statement ; but I speak from personal
experience and with special reference to a critic who wrote that he thought
the identification of Maholi with Madhupuri far more improbable than its
connection with the Basque and Toda word uri, which is said to mean ' a village.'

Such philological vagaries have their birth in the unfortunate preference for
Urdu, which the English Government has inherited from the former con-
querors of the country, though without any of their good reasons for the pre-
ference. They are further fostered by a wide-spread idea as to the character
of the people ami the country, which in itself is perfectly correct, and wrong
only in the particular application. The Hindus are an eminently conservative
race, and their civilization dates from an extremely remote period. It is, there-
fore, inferred that most of their existing towns and villages are of very ancient
foundation and, if so, may bear names to which no parallel can be expected
in the modern vernacular. This hypothesis is disproved by what has been said
above as to the continuity of Indian speech : it is further at variance with all
local traditions. The present centres of population, as any one can ascertain
for himself, if he will only visit the spots instead of speculating about them in
his study, are almost all subsequent in origin to the Muhammadan invasion.
When they were founded, the language of the new settlers, whatever it may
have been in pre-historic times, was certainly not TuraniaD, but Aryan, as it
is now; and though any place, which had previously been inhabited, must
already have borne some name, the cases in which that old name was retained
would be very rare. Thus, it may be remarked in passing, the present discussion
supplies no ethnical argument with regard to the original population of the
country. The names, once regarded as barbarous, but now recognized as Aryan,
must be abandoned as evidence of the existence of a non-Aryan race ; but, at
the same time, since they are essentially modern, they cannot be taken as
supporting the counter-theory. The names of the rivers, however, which also
are mostlv Aryan, may fairly be quoted as bearing on the point ; for of all
local names these are the least liable to change, as we see in America and our
Colonies, where it is as exceptional to find a river with an English name as it is
to find a town with an Indian one. And a still stronger and more numerously
attested proof is afforded by the indigenous trees, nearly all of which (as may
be seen from the list given in an appendix to this volume) have names that
are unmistakably of Sanskrit origin.

Moreover, Hindu conservatism, though it doubtless exists, is developed in
a very different way from the principle known by the same name in Europe.
Least of all is it shown in any regard for ancient buildings, whether temples

322 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

or homesteads. Though ( Ihristianity is a modern faith as compared with Hin-
duism, and though the history of English civilization begins only from a time
when the brightest period of Indian history had already closed, the material
evidences of either fact are found in inverse order in the two countries. There
is not a single English county which does not contain a longer and more
venerable series of secular and ecclesiastical edifices than can be supplied by
an Indian district, or it might even be said by an entire Presidency. Thus the
temple of Govind Deva at Brinda-ban, which is popularly known in the neigh-
bourhood as ' the old temple' par excellence, dates only from the reign of Akbar,
the contemporary of Elizabeth, and is therefore far more modern than any
single village church in the whole of England, barring those that have been
built since the revival by the present generation. The same also with MSS.
The Hindus had a voluminous literature while the English were still unable to
write ; but at the present day in India a MS 200 years old is more of a rarity
than one five times that age in England. This complete disappearance from
the surface of all material records of antiquity is no doubt attributable in great
measure to the operation of the two most destructive forces in the known
world, viz., white-ants and Muhammadans ; but the Hindus themselves are not
altogether free from blame in the matter. As if from a reminiscence of their
nomadic origin, with all their modern superstitious dislike to a move far from
home, is combined an inveterate tendency to slip away gradually from the old
landmarks. The movement is not necessitated by growth of population, which,
as in London, for instance, can no longer be contained within the original city
bounds, but is a result of the Oriental idiosyncracy that makes every man
desire, not — in accordance with European ideas — to found a family or restore an
old ancestral residence, but rather to leave some building exclusively comme-
morative of himself, and to touch nothing that his predecessors have commenced,
lest they should have all the credit of it with posterity. The history of Eng-
land, which runs all in one cycle from the time of its first civilization, affords
no ground for comparison ; but in mediaeval Italy the course of events was
somewhat parallel, and, as in India, a second empire was built up on the ruins
of a former one of equal or greater grandeur and extent. In it we find the
modern cities retaining under some slight dialectical disguises the very same
names as of old and occupying the same ground : in India, on the other hand, there
is scarcely an historic site which is not now a desolation. Again, to pass from
political to merely local disturbances : when London was rebuilt after (he Great
Fire, its streets, in spite of all Wren's remonstrances, were laid out exactly as
before, narrow and irregular as they had grown up piece by piece in the course

ETYM0L0C1Y OF LOCAL NAMES. 323

of centuries, and with oven the churches on their old sites, though the lattei

had become useless in consequence of the change in the national religion,
which required one or two large arenas for the display of pulpit eloquence rather
than many secluded oratories for private devotion. When a similar calamity
befell an Indian city, as it often did, the position of the old shrines was
generally marked by rude commemorative stones, but the people made no
difficulty about abandoning the exact sites of their old homes, if equally eligible
spots offered themselves in the neighbourhood.

The same diversity of conservative ideas runs through the whole character :
the Hindu quotes the practice of his father and grandfather and persuades
himself that he is as they were, and that they were as their forefathers, uncon-
scious of any change and ignoring the evidence of it that is afforded by ancient
monuments, both literary and architectural. The former he prizes only for
their connexion with the sect to which he himself belongs ; whatever is illus-
trative of an alien faith he consigns to destruction without any regard for its
history or artistic significance ; and in an ancient building, if it has fallen into
disuse, he sees no beauty and can take no interest ; though this can scarcely
be from the feeling that he can easily replace it with a better, a conviction
which led our mediaeval architects to destroy without compunction any part
of an earlier cathedral, however beautiful in itself, which had become decayed
or too small for later requirments. In all these matters England is far more
critically conservative ; believing in nothing, we tolerate everything ; and
profoundly distrusting our own creative faculties, we preserve as models whatever
we can rescue from the past, either in art or literature.

These reflections may seem to wander rather far from the mark ; but they
explain the curious equipoise that prevails in the Indian mind between a pro-
found contempt for antiquity and an equally profound veneration for it. Tin-
very slight regard in which ancient sites are held is illustrated by the use of
the terms ' Little ' and ' Great ' as local prefixes. Inconsequence of the ten-
dency to shift the centre of population, these seldom afford information as to
the comparative area and importance of the two villages so distinguished : most
frequently the one styled ' Little' will be the larger of the two. In some
cases the prefix ' Great' implies only that when the common property was
divided among the sons of the founder, the share so designated fell to the lot
of the eldest ; but ordinarily it denotes the original village site, which has been
wholly or at least partially abandoned, or so diminished by successive parti-
tions that it has eventually become the smallest and least important of the
group.

324 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

The foregoing considerations will, I trust, be accepted as sufficiently
demonstrating the reasonableness of my general position that local names in
Upper India are, as a rule, of no very remote antiquity, and are prima facie
referable to Sanskrit and Hindi rather than to any other language. Their
formation has certainly been regulated by the same principles that we see
underlying the local nomenclature of other civilized countries, and we may
therefore expect to find them falling into three main groups, as follows : —

I. Names compounded with an affix denoting place.

II. Names compounded with an affix denoting possession.

III. A more indefinite class, including all names without any affix at all;
such words being for the most part either the name of the founder, or an
epithet descriptive of some striking local feature.

Running the eye over the list of villages in the Mathura district, we can
at a glance detect abundant illustrations of each of these three classes. Thus
under Class I. come such names as N:inak-pur, Pati-pura, Bich-puri, where the
founder's name is combined with the local affix pur, pura, or puri, signifying
'a town.' So also, Nau-garna, Uncha-gauw, Badan-garh, Chamar-garhi, Riip-
nagar, Pal-kkera, Brinda-ban, Ahalya-ganj, Radha-kund, Mangal-khoh, Mall-
sarai, and Nainu-patti. In all these instances the local affix is easy to be
recognized as also the word to which it is attached.

Of Class II. the illustrations are not quite so obvious and will mostly require
special elucidation ; but some are self-evident, as for example Bhure-ka,
where the affix is the ordinary sign of the genitive case ; Rane-ra, where it is
the Marwari form of the same ; and Pipal-wara, where it represents the fami-
liar wdld.

Under Class III. come first such names as Siiraj, Misri, and Graju, which
are known to have been borne by the founders ; and under the second sub-divi-
sion, Gobardhan, ' productive in cattle ;' Sanket, ' a place of assignation :"'
Khor, ' an opening between the hills;' Basai, ' a colony ;' and Pura, ' a town,'
indicative of a period when towns were scarce ; with many others of similar
character.

Looking first for names that may be inclnded under Class I., we find that,
by far the most numerous variety are those compounded with the affix pur.
This might be expected, for precisely the same reason that ' ton' is the most
common local ending in England. But we certainly should not expect to find
so large a proportion unmistakably modern, with the former part of the com-
pound commemorating cither a Muhammadan or a Hindu with a Persian name,

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 325

or one who can bo proved in Fume other way to have lived only a few genera-
tions ago, and with scarcely a single instance of a name that can with any pro-
bability be referred to a really ancient date. As this fact is one of considerable
importance to my argument, I must proceed to establish it beyond all possibility
of cavil by yassing in review the entire series of names in which the ending
occurs in each of the six parganas of the district.

The Kosi pargana' comprises 61 villages, of which 9 end in pur ; viz.,
'Aziz-pur, Hasan-pur, Jalal-pur, Lal-pur, Nabi-pur, Fakhar-pur, Ram-pur,
Shah-pur, and Shahzad-pur. Six of these are unmistakably post-Muhammadan,
one is apparently so, and two arc of quite uncertain date.

In the Chhata pargana there are 111 villages, and 16 of them have the pur
ending ; viz., Adam-pur, Akbar-pur, Bazid-pur, Deva-pura — so called from a
'temple' of Gopal, built by Muhkam Sinh, the ancestor of the present proprie-
tors, whose Arabic name proves that he lived not many generations ago — Ghazi-
pur, Gulal-pur, Jait-pur, Jamal-pur, Khan-pur, Lar-pur, Man pur, on the Barsana
range — so called from the Man Mandir, the first erection of which cannot date
from further back than the transfer of Radha's chief shrine from Raval to
Barsana, which took place in the 15th or 16th century A.D. — Pir-pur, Saiyid-pur,
Tatar-pur, Haji-pur, and Kamal-pur. Of these 16 names, 12 are unquestionably
modern, and of the remaining 4, nothing can be said with certainty either one
way or the other.

Of the 163 villages in the Mathura pargana, as many as 32 have the pur
ending ; viz., Alha-pur, said by local tradition to have been founded and so
named only 200 years ago (the founder's descendants are still on the spot and
most unlikely to detract from the antiquity of their family) ; A'zam-pur and
Bakir-pur, both founded by A'zam Khan Mir Muhammad Bakir, who was
Governor of Mathura from 1642 to 1645 ; Bhavan-pur ; Bija-pur, founded 200
years ago by Bijay Sinh, Thakur, on land taken from the adjoining village of
Nahrauli ; Daulat-pur ; Daum-pura, one of 11 villages founded by the sons
of a Jat named Nainu at no very remote period, since the share which fell to
the eldest of the sons is distinguished by the Persian epithet kaldn ; Giridhar-
pur, probably the most ancient of the series, but still dating from times of
modern history, having been founded by Giridhar, a Kachhwaha Thakur of
Satoha, whose ancestors had migrated there from Amber ; Gobind-pur ; Hakim-
pur ; Jamal-pur ; Jati-pura, founded by Gosain Bittkal-nath, the son of Val-
labhacharya of Gokul, commonly called Jati Ji, about the year 1550 A.D. ;
Jay Sinh-pura, founded by Sawae Jay Sinh of Amber about the year 1720 A.D. ;

326 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

Kesopnr, so called from the famous temple of Kesava Deva, a fact which would
sufficiently account for the name remaining unchanged, even though of ancient,
date ; Lalpur, founded by a Thakur named Lalu, a member of the Gauruaclan,
which is confessedly of late origin : Lal-pur, founded only a few generations
ago by a Tartar Thakur, Laram ; Madan-pura, founded by an Ahir from the
old village of Karnaul ; Madho-pur, dating 300 years ago, when it was formed
out of lands taken from the adjoining villages and given to a Hindu retainer
by Sah'm Shah ; Mirza-pur ; Muhammad-pur ; Mukund-pur, so called after a
Mahratta founder ; Murshid-pur, founded by Murshid Kuli Khan, who was
Governor of Mathura in 163(5 A.D. ; Nabi-pur founded by ' Abd-un-Nabi, Go-
vernor from 16(50 to 1668 ; Panna-pur, founded in 1725 A.D. ; Raj-pur, near
Brinda-ban, so named with reference to the Raj-Ghat, by a Sanadh Brahman
from Kamar in the 16th century ; Ram-pur, named after the Ramtal, a place
of pilgrimage there ; Rasul-pur ; Salim-pnr, dating from the reign of Salim
Shah ; Askar-pur, a modern alternative name for Satoha ; Shah-pur ; and
Dhak-pura. Of these 32 names, there are only five as to which any doubt can
be entertained ; all the remainder are clearly modern.

In the Mat pargana are 141 villages, and 41 end in pur; viz., Abhay-pura,
settled by a Jat, Abhay Sinh, from Kauhina ; Ahmad-pur ; Akbar-pur ; Aman-
ullah-pur ; Badan-pur ; Baikunth-pur, founded according to local tradition 300
years ago ; Baland-pur, founded in the 17th century by a Jat named Balavant ;
Bali-pur, founded by Bali, a Jat from Bajana about 1750 A.D. ; Begam-pur ;
Bulakpur ; Chand-pur, of modern Jat foundation ; Daulat-pur ; Faridam-pur ;
Firoz-pur ; Hamza-pur ; Hasan-pur ; ' Inayat-pur ; Ja'far-pur ; Jahangir-pur ;
Jat-pura, a modern off-shoot from the adjoining village of Shal ; Khan-pur ;
Khwaja-pur ; Lal-pur, founded by a Jat from Parsauli ; Makhdiimpur ; Mir-
pur ; Mubarak-pur ; Mu'in-ud-diupur ; Nabi-pur ; Nanak-pur, a modern off-
shoot from Musmina ; Nausher-pur ; Kiir-pur ; Pabbi-pur ; Pati-pura, a mo-
dern colony from the Jat village of Dunetiya ; Rae-pur, recently settled from
Musmina ; Sadik-pur ; Sadr-pur ; Sakat-pur ; Sikandar-pur ; Suhag-pur ; Sul-
tan-pur ; and Udhan-pur. As to the foundation of 6 out of these 41 villages
nothing is known ; the remaining 35 are distinctly ascertained to be modern.

Of the 203 villages in the Maha-ban pargana, 43 have the ending pur ;
viz., ' Abd-un-Nabi-pur ; Ali-pur ; Amir-pur; Islam-pur; Bahadur-pur;
Balaram-pur, recently founded by Sobha Rue, Kayath ; Bainirasi-pur, founded
by a Brahman, Banarasi, who derived his own name from the modern appellation
of the sacred city called of old Varanasi ; Bhankar-pur : Bichpori, of modern
.1 at foundation ; Daulat-pur: Fath-pura; Ghiyas-pur; Gohar-pur; Habib-pur ;

Etymology of local names. ,327

Hayat-pur; Hasan-pur; Ibrahim-pur ; 'Isa-pur, founded by Mirza 'Isa Tarkhan,
Governor of I\la t lnir:'i in 1H2!) A. D.; Jadon-pur ; Jagadia pur, founded by a

Parasar, Jagadeva, whose descendants are still on the spot and claim no great
antiquity; Jamalpur ; Jogi-pur ; Kalyanpur ; Kasim-pur ; Khan-pur ; K ishan-
pur, recently settled from the village of Karab ; Lal-pur ; Manohar-pur ;
Mohan-pur; Mubarak-pur; Muzaffar-pur ; Nabi-pur; Nasir-pur; Niir-pur;
Rae-pur ; Saiyid-pur ; Shahab-pur ; Shah-pur ; Shahzad-pur : Sherpur ; Tay-
yibpnr, and Zakariya-pur. Of these 43 villages, 35 are certainly quite modern :
as to the remaining 8 nothing can be affirmed positively.

The 6th and last pargana, Sa'dabad, contains 129 villages, of which 31
have the ending pur; viz., Abhay-pura, of modern Jat foundation ; Bagh-pur,
founded 300 years ago by a Jat named Bagh-raj ; Bahadur-pur ; Bijal-pur ;
Chamar-pura ; Dhak-pura ; Fathullah-pur ; Ghatam-pur, founded in the reign
of Shahjahan ; Hasan-pur ; Idal-pur : Mahabat-pur ; Makan-pur ; Manik-pur,
of modern Jat foundation ; Mir-pur ; Narayan-pur, named after a Gosain of
modern date, Niirayan Das : Nasir-pur ; Nasir-pur ; Nau-pura ; Rae-pura, of
modern Thakur foundation ; Ram-pura, recently settled from Sahpau, by a
Brahman named Man Mall ; Rashid-pur ; Sala-pur, founded b)ra Brahman named
Sabala ; Salim-pur ; Samad-pur, settled not many generations ago by a Jat
named Savadhan ; Sarmast-pur ; Shahbaz-pur ; Sher-pur, Sithara-pur, a modern
off-shoot of Garumra ; Sultan-pur ; Taj-pur ; and Zari-pura. Of these 31 names,
5 are doubtful, the other 2C are proved to be modern.

Adding up the results thus obtained, we find that there are in the whole
district 172 villages that exhibit the termination pur, and of these as many as
141 are either obviously of modern origin, or are declared to be so by local
tradition. It is also worthy of notice that in the above lists there has frequently
been occasion to mention the name of the parent settlement from which a more
recent colony has been derived ; but in no single instance does the older name
show the pur ending. Yet pura or puri is no new word, nor is its use as a local
affix new ; on the contrary we have the clearest literary proof that it has been
very largely so employed from the very commencement of the Aryan occupa-
tion of India. What, then, has become of all the older names in which it once
appeared ? It is inconceivable that both name and place should in every
instance have been so utterly destroyed as not to leave a trace behind ; and we are
thus forced to accept the alternative conclusion that the affix has in course of
tune so coalesced with the former part of the compound, that it ceases to be
readily distinguishable from it. Now of names that are presumably ancient, it
will be found that a considerable proportion termiuate in oli, auli, aur, auri,

328 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

or aula. Thus, deducting from the 61 villages in the Kosi pargana, the nine
that have the modern termination puri, we have 52 left, and among that number 7
are of this character ; viz., Banchauli, (Jhacholi, Chandauri, Mahroli, Sanchauli.
Sujauli, and Tumaula. Again, of the 95 villages that remain in the Chhata
pargana after deduction of the 1(1 ending in puri, 1 5 have the oli affix ; viz.,
Ahori, Astoli, Baroli, Bharauli, Chaksauli, Darauli, Gangroli, Lodhauli, Man-
groli, Parsoli, Pilhora, Rankoli, Rithora, and Taroli. Without continuing the
list in wearisome detail through the other four parganas of the district, it will
probably be admitted that, in earlier times, oli was as common a local affix as
puri in modern times, and must represent some term of equally general and
equally familiar signification. To proceed with the argument ; these names,
though as a rule older than those ending in puri, are still many of them of no
great antiquity and can be proved to belong to an Aryan period, when the lan-
guage of the country was in essentials the same as it is now and the people
inhabiting it bore much the same names as they do still. Thus Sanchauli is
derived from Sanehi Devi, who has a temple there ; Sujauli from a founder Sujan,
whose descendants are still the proprietors ; and Parsoli and Taroli from found-
ers named respectively Parsa and Tara. It may be presumed with absolute
certainty that these people, bearing such purely Indian names, whether they
lived 5, 10, or 15 generations ago, knew no language but their own vernacular,
and could not borrow from any foreign tongue the titles by which they chose to
designate their new settlements. Thus Dr. Hunter, and those who have fol-
lowed him in his speculations, may be correctly informed when they state that
in Tamil, or Telugu, or Toda, or even in Basque, there is a word uri, or uru, or
ur, which means ' village' ; but yet if this word was never current in the ordi-
nary speech of Upper India, the founders of the villages quoted above cannot
possibly have known of it. The attempt to borrow such a name as Sujauli or
Maholi directly from the Basque is, when viewed under the light of local know-
ledge, really more absurd than to derive Cannington from Kanhai/, or Dalhou-
sie from Dala-hdsi, 'with pleasant foliage.' The misconception, as already
observed, has risen from the erroneous idea that all village names are of remote
antiquity, and may therefore be illustrated by philological analogies collected
from all parts and ages of the world. In truth, uli or uri is simply puri with
the initial consonant elided. Such an elision, removing as it docs the most
distinctive element in the word, may appear at first sight highly improbable: it
is, however, in strict accord with the rules of Hindi formation. The two first
sutras of the second Book of Vararueh'fs Pr&krita-Prakasa in the clearest man-
ner direct it to be made. The text stands thus :

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 329

(1) Ayuktasydnadau. (2) Ka-ga-cha-ja-ta-da-pa-ya-vdm pruyo lopah. That
is to say, the consonants k. g, ch, j, t, d, p, y, ami v, when single and non-
iuitlal. are generally elided. And as a convincing proof that this is no mere
grammatical figment, but a practical rule of very extrusive application, take
the following familiar words, in which its influence is so obvious as to be unde-
niable. By the elision of the prescribed consonant we obtain from the Sans-
krit siikar, the Hindi mar, 'a pig' ; from kokila, koil, 'the cuckoo' ; from siichi,
siii, 'a needle"; from tdtd, tdu, '& father's elder brother' ; from pada, pdo, 'a
quarter' ; from kupa, kua, ' a well' ; from Praydg, Prdg, the Hindi name of
Allahabad ; and from jlva, jia, ' life.' The rule, it is true, provides primarily
that the letter to be elided must be non-initial ; but one of the examples given
in the text is su uriso for su purusha, ' a good man' ; where the p is still elided,
although it is the initial of the word purusha. This the commentator explains
by declaring that " the initial letter of the last member of a compound must be
considered as non-initial." Thus the mystery is solved, and Karnaul is at once
seen to be Karna-pur ; Karauli, Kalyan-pur ; Taroli, Tara-pur ; and Sujauli,
Sujan-puri.

This practical application of the Prakrit grammarian's rule was first stated
in my first edition of this Memoir. In my own mind it was so firmly estab-
lished as an indisputable fact, and possessed in its extreme simplicity at
least one of the great merits of all genuine discoveries, that I stated it very
briefly and thought it unnecessary to bring forward any collateral arguments
in its support. But I find that I much under-rated the strength of inveterate
prejudices ; for with the exception of one reviewer in a London scientific
journal, all other critics seemed to regard my theory as the ruero outcome of
unpractical pedantry. I have therefore on the present occasion taken great
pains to omit nothing, and I cannot believe that anyone, who will submit to the
trouble of following my argument as I have now stated it, will still maintain
'• that the direct derivation from the Turanian roots aid, ur, uri, is more
probable than the forced and far-fetched Sanskrit derivation from one single
root supported only by the theory of a grammarian, which may or may not have
been put in practice in an unlettered age." The writer of the remarks I quote
would seem to imagine that language was the invention of grammarians ; on
the contrary, they are powerless to invent or even change a single word, and
can merely codify the processes which are the result of unconscious action on
the part of the unlettered masses. When Sujan-pur is converted in popular
speech into Sujauli, it is not because in one rule Yararuchi has directed the
elision of the initial p, and in another rule the elision of the final n ; but because

330 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

a Hindu's organs of speech (as the grammarians had noticed to he the invari-
able case) have a natural and unconscious tendency to the change.* This
tendency in still existing in full force, and my observing it to be so in another
local compound first suggested to me the identification of mi with puri. Thus
the beautiful lake at GobarJhan with the mausoleum of the first of the Bharat-
pur Rajas is called indifferently Kusum-sarovar, or Kusumokhar ; and at
Barsana is a tank, called either Bhanokhar or Brikhbhan kti pokhar, after
Radha's reputed father Brikh-bhan. Both in Kusumokhar and Bhanokhar it
is evident that the latter part of the compound was originally pokhar, and in
the same way as the initial p has been there elided, so also has it been in
Sujauli and Maholi. The explanation of the last-mentioned word 'Maholi' is
one of the most obvious and at the same time one of the most interesting results
of my theory. It is the name of the village some four miles from Mathura,
which has grown up in the vicinity of the sacred grove of Madhuban, where
Rama's brother Satrughna destroyed the giant Madhu. On the site of the
captured stronghold the hero is said to have built a city, called indiscriminately
in Sanskrit literature Mathura or Madhu-puri : the fact, no doubt, being that
Mathura was originally the name of the country, with Madhu-puri for its capital.
In course of time the capital, like most Indian cities, gradually shifted its site,
probably in order to follow the receding river ; while Madhu-puri itself, fixed by
the locality of the wood that formed its centre, became first a suburb and finally
an entirely distinct village. Simultaneously with these changes, the name of
the country at large was attached par excellence to its chief city, and Madhu-
puri in its obscurity became a prey to phonetic decay and was corrupted into
Maholi. The transition is a simple one ; the h being substituted for dh by the
rule II. 27 Kha-gha-tha-dha bhdm Halt, which gives us the Hindi bahira tot
the Sanskrit badhira, ' deaf,' and balm for vadhii, ' a female relation.'

It will be observed that Madhu-puri as a literary synonym for Mathura
remains unchanged, and is transformed into Maholi only as the name of an
insignificant village. Thus an easy solution is found for the difficulty raised
by the same critic I have I efore quoted, who objects, "If it is possible in the
lapse of time to elide the p of puri, why have not the oldest towns in India
like Hastina-pur yielded to the change ? and in the case of more modern towns
why do we not find the change half-effected, some middle place in the transition
sta" e ?" To the former of these two questions 1 reply that a name when once

* Thus the Agra shop-keepers, who hare converted Blunt-panj into Be!anganj, liars
probably never heard of Vararuchi, but they have certainly, though unconsciously, followed
hi9 rules.

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 331

petrified in literature is preserved from colloquial detrition. Thus, of two
places originally named alike, one may retain the genuine Sanskrit form, while
the other becomes Prdkritized, according to their celebrity or otherwise. A
parallel is afforded by the names of many English families : the elder branches
retain the old spelling, however much at variance with modern pronunciation,
as, for instance, Berkeley and Marjoribanks ; while the obscurer branches, who
seldom had occasion to attach their signatures to any document, conform their
spelling to the sound and appear in writing as Barkly and Marchbanks. Again,
among those who retain the old form, some no longer pronounce the word in the
old fashioned way, but alter its sound according to the more ordinary value of the
letters in modern pronunciation.* Thus Hastinapur exists unchanged, by vir-
tue of its historical fame ; had it been an obscure village it would probably have
been corrupted into Hathaura. In fine, it may be accepted as a general rule
that when the termination pur, pur a, or puri is found in full, the place is either
comparatively modern, or if ancient is a place of pre-eminent note. The one
exception to the rule is afforded by names in which the first element of the com-
pound is a Persian or Arabic word. Some of them may be much older and yet
not more distinguished than many of pure Hindu descent, from which the p has
disappeared; but the explanation lies in the natural want of affinity betweea
the two members of the compound, which would prevent them from coalescing,
however long they might be bound together.

To say that the actual process of transition can never be detected is not
strictly in accordance with facts. The elision is not restricted to proper names,
but is applicable to all words alike ; and in Hindi books written and printed at
the present day it is optional with the writer to use exclusively either kokila,
or koil ; sukar or siiar; kup or kua, or both indifferently. Again, to take a
local illustration: Gobardhan, being a place of high repute, is always so spelt
by well-informed people, but in vulgar writing it is contracted to Gordhan,
and it is almost exceptional to come across a man whose name is Gobardhan
Das, who does not acquiesce in the corruption.

Next to pur, the local affix of most general signification and the one
which we should therefore expect to find occupying the second place in popular

* A case in point is afforded by ray own name, which is a corruption of the French yros
and is from Ihe same root as the Sanskrit guru (in the nomin-itive case G ■m*) It has come down
to me with the spelling unaltered for more th in 350 years ; but the ow, which was originally
prom unced as in the word 'growth,' or rather as the ou in group, has gradually acquired the
harsher sound which more commonly a taches to the diphthong, as in 'brown.' In Mathuri,
curiously enough, I was always known by the Hindus as ' Guru Sahib,' and so got back to my
original name.

332 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

use is grdma, gama, or game. It occurs, however, far less frequently, at least
in an unmutilated state. Thus of the 61 villages in the Kosi pargana there
are onl)r two with this affix, viz., Dahi-ganw, named from the Dadhi-kund,
and Pai-ganw from the Pai-ban-kund; dadhi and payas both meaning 'milk.'
In the 111 Chhata villages there are four, viz., Bhau-ganw, Nand-ganw, Nati-
gama, and Uncha-ganw. In the 163 Mathura villages there are six, viz.,
Bachh-ganWj Dhan-ganw, Jakhin-ganw, Naugama (properly Na-gama from its
founder Naga), Nim-ganw, and Uncha-ganw. In the 141 Mat villages (here
is only one, Tenti-ka-ganw, and this a name given by Raja Siiraj Mall — on
account of the abundance of the karil plant with its fruit called tenti — to a place
formerly known as Akbar-pur. In the 203 Mahaban villages only two, viz.,
Nim-ganw and Pani-ganwj and in the 129 S'adabad villages, four, viz., Kukar-
gama, Naugama, Risgama, and Tasigau. The proportion is therefore little
more than two per cent., and even of this small number the majority may
reasonably be presumed to be of modern date. Thus Nau-gama in the Chhata
pargana was formed in later Muhammadan times by a moiety of the popula-
tion of the parent village Taroli, who under imperial pressure abandoned their
ancestral faith and submitted to the yoke of Islam. Again the five or six
villages, such as Bachh-ganw, Dahi-ganw, &c, that have sprung up round the
sacred groves and lakes and retain the name of the tiratJi unaltered, simply
substituting gdnw for the original ban or Icund, are almost certainly due to the
followers of Vallabhacharya at the beginning of the 16th century, or to the
Gosain who composed the modern Brahma-vaivarta Purana and first made
these spots places of Vaislmava pilgrimage. It may therefore be inferred that
in older names the termination grdma has, like puri, been so mutilated as to
become difficult of recognition. The last name on the list, viz., Tasigau, is
valuable as suggesting the character of the corruption, which it exhibits in a
transitional stage. The final syllable, which is variably pronounced as gau, go,
or gon, is unmistakably a distinct, word, and can only represent g&nw. The
former part of the compound, which at first sight appears not a little obscure,
is illustrated by a village in the Mathura pargana, Tasiha, a patti, or subdivision
of the township of tSonkh, which is said to bear the name of one of the five sons
of the Jut founder, the other four being Ajal, Asa, Piirna, and Sahjua. As these
are clearly Hindi vocables, it may be presumed that Tasiha is so likewise, and
we shall probably be right if we take it fir the Prakrit form of the .Sanskrit tishya,
one of the lunar mansions, used in the sense of ' auspicious," in the same way
as the more common Piisa, which represents the asterism Piishya. Thus, as the
letter g can be elided under the same rule as the p inpuri, the original termination

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 333

grama is not unfrequently reduced to the form on, in which not one letter of its
older self remains. The niosl interesting example of this mutation isafforded
by the, village Parson. Its meaning has so thoroughly died out that a local
legend has been in existence for some generations which explains it thus : that
two clays after Krishna had slain one of the monsters with which the country was
infested, he was met at this snot by some of his adherents who asked him how
long ago it was that he had done the deed, and he replied parson, 'the day before
jresterday.' This is obviously as absurd as the kal kata, or 'yesterday's cutting,'
told about Calcutta : for apart from other reasons the word in vogue in Krishna's
time would have been not parson, but, its original form parsvas. However, the
true etymology, which is yet more disguised by the fact that office clerks always
change the r into I and call the place Palson, does not appear to have been ever
suggested till now. Clearly the name was once Parasurama-ganw, or in its
contracted form Parsaganw, and thence by regulartransition has passed through
Parsanw into Parson. If proof were required, it is supplied by the fact that a
large pond of ancient sacred repute immediately adjoining the village is called
Parasunim-kund.

The sacred ponds and groves with which the country of Braj abounds
are, as might naturally be expected, ordinarily much older than the villages
on their margin ; and, as illustrated by the above example, it is always of
the utmost importance to the philologist to ascertain their popular names.
These are much less liable to corruption than the name of any village ; for as
the tirath is visited solely on account of the divinity with whom it is tradition-
ally associated, his name is in it preserved intact, while as an element in the
word that designates the village (a place most connected in the mind with
secular matters) its primary import is less considered and in a few generations
may be totally forgotten. Thus the obscure name of a pond,* which can only
be ascertained by a personal visit, often reveals the name of the local deity or
it may be of the founder of the settlement, and in that gives a surer clue to
the process of corruption in the village name than could ever be afforded by
any amount of library research. For example, the resolution of such a word

* Similarly in England it is the traditional names of the petty subdivisions of the village
that are generally of most interest to the philologist. To quote the words of one of the most
charming topographical writers of the present day : " Scores of the most singular names
might be collected in every parish. It is the meadows and pastures which usually bear these desig-
nations ; the p'oughed lands are often only known by their acreage, as the ten-acre piece or the
twelve-acres. Sorae of them arc undoubtedly the personal names of the former owners. But in
others ancient customs, allusions to traditions, fragments of history or of languages now extinct
may survive" (ftouncabout a Great Estate.}

334 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

as Senwa into its constituent elements might seem a hopeless undertaking ; but
the clouds are dispelled on ascertaining that a neighbouring pond of reputed
sanctity is known as Svamkund. Thence it may reasonably be inferred that
the original form was Syam-ganw ; the final m of Syam and the initial g
of gdnw being elided by the rules already quoted, and the consonant y passing
into its cognate vowel. Other names in the district, in which the affix gdnw
may be suspected to lurk in a similarly mutilated condition, are Jaiswa for
Jay-sinh- ganw ; Basaun for Bishan-ganw ; Bhii'm for Bhim-ganw ; Badon for
Badu-ganw* (Badu being for Sanskrit Badava) and Ohawa for Udha-ganw.

Another word of yet wider signification than either puri or grama, and one
which is known to have been extensively used as a local affix in early times,
is Sthdna, or its Hindi equivalent thdna. And yet, strange to say, there is not
a single village name in the whole district in which its presence is apparent.
It probably exists, but if so, only in the very mutilated form of ha. Thus the
village of Satoha on the road between Mathura and Gobardhan is famous for,
and beyond any doubt whatever derives its name from, a sacred pond called
Santanu-kund. The eponymous hero is a mythological character of such
remote antiquity that he is barely remembered at all at the present day, and
what is told about him on the spot is a strauge jumble of the original legend.
The word Satoha therefore is no new creation, and it can scarcely be expected
to have escaped from the wear and tear of ages to which it has been exposed,
without undergoing even very material changes. The local wiseacres find an
etymology in sattu, ' bran,' which they assert to have been Santanu's only
food during the time that he was practising penance. But this is obviously
absurd, and Satoha, I am convinced, is an abbreviation for Santanu-sthana.
Instances are very frequent in which words of any length and specially proper
names arc abbreviated by striking out all but the first syllable and simply
adding the vowel u to the part retained. Thus in common village speech at the
present day Kalyan is almost invariably addressed as Kalu, Bhagav;iu as Bhagu,
Balavant as Balu, and Miilchand as Mulii. In the last example the long
vowel of the first syllable is also shortened, and thus an exact parallel is afforded
to the change from Santanu to Satu or Sato. Sato-thana then by ordinary rule,
if only the th in the compound is regarded as non-initial, becomes Satohana ;
and the further loss of the final na cannot be regarded as an insuperable difficulty.

* Here, as Dr. Hoernlehas pointed out, Badon might be simply a corruption of Badava, as
Jadon is for JYulava. But I think it more probable that, at the time, when the village was
founded, the word Badava was no longer current in vernacular speech and had been superseded
by the Hindi Badu, which by itself would not admit of expansion into Badon.

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 335

An affix which has itself suffered from organic decay has a tendency to
involve its support in the same destruction, and thus I feel no difficulty iu
proceeding a step further and interpreting the word ' Paitha' on the same
principles as in Satoha. It is the name of a large and apparently very ancient
village with a temple of Ohatur-hhuj, rebuilt on tho foundations of an older
shrine, which had been destroyed by Aurangzeb. At the back of the god's
throne is a hollow in the ground, which has given rise to a local etymology of
the usual unscientific character. For it is said to be the mouth of the cave
into which the people of Braj ' entered' {paitha) when Krishna upheld the
Giri-raj hill, which is about two miles distant from the village, in order to
shelter them from the storm of Indra. Absurd as the legend is, it supplies a
suggestion : for paithnd, the verb ' to enter,' is unquestionably formed from
the Sanskrit pracishta ; and if we imagine a some.vhat analogous process in
the case of the local name, and allow for the constant detrition of many cen-
turies, we may recognizo in ' Paitha' the battered wreck of Pratishthana,
which in Sanskrit is not an unusual name for a town.

Sthali, a word very similar in meaning to sthdna, suffers precisely tho
same fate when employed as an affix ; all its intermediate letters being slurred
over, and only the first and last retained. Thus Kosi represents an original
Kusa-sthali ; and Tarsi with the sacred grove of Tal-ban, where, according
to the very ancient legend, Krishna put to death the demon Dhenuk, is for
Tala-sthali.

Karab, the name of a large village in the Mahaban pargana, is a
solitary example of an affix, which I take to have been in full the Sanksrit
vapra, ' a fort,' or ' field.' If so, it has suffered even more than sthali and has
retained only one letter of its original self, viz., tho initial v or b. Since hazard-
ing the above suggestion I have come across a fact which is the highest pos-
sible testimony to its correctness : for a copper-plate grant of Dhruvascna, one
of the Valabhi kings, trausbribed iu the Indian Antiquary, gives, Hastaka-vapra
as the name of the place now called Hathab.

Another termination, which we find occurring with sufficient frequency
to warrant the presumption that it is an affix with a definite meaning of its
own, is oi. There are five examples of it in the district, viz., Gindoi, Majhoi,
Mandoi, Radoi, and Bahardoi. Of these tho most suggestive is the first,
Gindoi. Here is a pond of ancient sacred repute, called Gendokhar-kund,
which is the scene of an annual mela, the Phul Dol, held in the month of Phal-
gun. Hence we may safely infer that Gindoi is a compound word with Genda

336 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

for its first element. This is not an uncommon name for a Hindu, and its
most obvious meaning would be ' a marygold.' So taken it would find a
parallel in such proper names as Gulab, ' a rose ' ; Tulsi, the sacred herb so
called ; Phul, ' a flower ' ; and Puhap, for the Sanskrit push]), with the same
meaning. It may, however, lie doubted whether it did not in the first instance
represent rather the Hindi gainda, for gajendra, ' an elephant. ' Besides pre-
serving the name of the village founder, the term Gendokhar-kund is curious
in another respect, as showing a complete popular forgetfulness of the mean-
ing of the termination okhar at the time when the word kund with precisely
the same import was added. English topography supplies a case exactly in
point ; for Wansbeckwater is composed of three words, which all mean exact-
ly the same thing, but were current in popular speech at different times, being
respectively Danish, German, and English. But to return to Gindoi, which
we have found to be a compound word with Genda for its first element, the
termination oi yet remains to be considered. I take it to be vdpi, ' a pond.'
In confirmation of this view it is worthy of note that in the Ghiror pargana of
the Mainpuri district there is a village called oi, pur ct simple, surrounded on
three sides by the river Arind, which in the rains becomes at that particular
spot an enormous and almost stagnant sheet of water.* For such a place vdpi
would be a highly appropriate name, and for the transition from vdpi to oai no-
thing is required beyond the elision of the p and change of v into its cognate
vowel. Prefixing Genda, we have Genda-oai, Gendavai, and finally Gindoi ; o
being subsituted for au, and i for ai, by the following Sutras of Vararuehi, Auta
ot I. 41, and T<1 dhairye I. 30. The latter rule, it is true, refers strictly only to
the word dhairya, which becomes dhiram in Prakrit, butitseoms not unreasonable
to give it a wider application. The above line of argument would command un-
qualified assent if it could be shown that each of the places with the oi ending was
in the neighbourhood of some considerable pond. There is such a one at Man-
doi, called Acharya-kund ; and Bahardoi, founded at an early period by Tha-
kurs from Ohitor, who only about o() years ago lost their proprietary rights and
and now have all migrated elsewhere, is a, place subject to yearly inundations,
as it immediately adjoins some low ground where a large body of water is
always collected in the rains, lladoi I have never had an opportunity of seeing,
and therefore cannot say whether its physical characteristics confirm or are at
variance with my theory : but at Majhoi, which is a Gujar village on the
bank of the Jamuna, there is certainly no vestige of any large pond, which

* For this curious fact so strikingly illustrative of my theory, I am indebted to Mr. McCo-
naghey, who conducted the last settlement of the Mainpuri district.

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 337

would account for the affix vdpi. This one proved exception cnnnot, however,
be regarded as a fatal objection ; for the same effect may result from very
different causes ; as, for instance, the Hindi word bd r in the sense of ' a day
of the week ' represents the Sankrit vara ; while if taken to mean ' water,*
or ' a child,' it stands in the one case for vdri, in the other bala. Thus in the
particular word Majhoi, the o may belong to the first element of the compound
and the i be the affix of possession.

Ana is another termination of somewhat rare occurrence. This is in all
probability an abbreviation of the Sanskrit ai/ana, which means primarily 'a go-
ing,''a road,' but is also used in the wider sense of simply ' place.' An ex-
ample very much to the purpose is supplied by Vararuchi, or rather
by his commentator Bhamaha, who incidentally mentions munjdna, ' a place
producing the munja plant,' as the Prakrit equivalent for the Sanskrit maunjd-
yana. The district contains nine places which exhibit this ending, viz., Do-
tana, Halwana, Hathana, Mahrana, Sihana, Kaulana, Mirtana, Diwana, and
Bars&na. Bat what was only suspected in the case of the Gindoi group, viz.,
that all the names do not really belong to the same category, is here suscep-
tible of positive proof. But to take first some of the words in which at/ana
seems an appropriate affix ; Sihaua, where is a pond called the ks/rir sdgar, may
be for Kshiruyana ; Dotana, derived on the spot from ddnton, ' a tooth-brush,'
which is suggestive of Buddhist legends and therefore of ancient sanctity, may
well be for Devatayana ; Halwana, where an annual mela is celebrated in honour
of Balarama, may have for its first element Hala-bhrit, a title of that hero, the
final t being elided and the bh changed into v ; while the first syllable in the
three names Hatluina, Kaulana, and Mirtana, may represent respectively
Hasti, Komal, and Amrit ; Amrit Sinh being recorded by tradition as the
founder of the last-named village. Bat the resemblance of Diwana and Bar-
saua to any of the above is purely accidental. The former commemorates
the Jilt founder, one Diwan Singh, whose name has been localized simply by
the addition of the affix a, while Barsuna has a history of its own, and that a
curious one. It is now famous as the reputed birth-place of Eadha, who is the
only divinity that — fur the last two centuries at least — has been popularly as-
sociated with the locality. But of old it was not so : the hill on which the mo-
dern series of temples has been erected in her honour is of eccentric conforma-
tion, with four boldly-marked peaks ; whence it is still regarded by the local
Pandits as symbolical of the four-faced divinity, and styled Brahma kd pahdr,
or ' Brahma's hill.' This lingering tradition gives a clue to the etymology :
the latter part of the word being sdnu, which is identical in meaning with pahdr

t>5

338 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

and the former part a corruption of Brahma. But this, the true origin of
the word, had entirely dropped out of sight even in the lGth century, when
the writer of the Vraja-bliakti-vilasa was reduced to invent the form Brisha-
bhanu-pura as the Sanskrit equivalent for the Hindi Barsana. A somewhat
similar fate has befallen the companion hill of Nand-ganw, which is now
crowned with the temple of Nand Rae Ji, Krishna's reputed foster-father. Its
real name, before Vaishnava influence had become so strong in the land, was
Nandi-grama, by which title it was dedicated to Mahadeva in his charracter
of Nandisvar ; and the second person of the Hindu trinity, who has now appro-
priated all three of the sacred hills of Braj, was then in possession of only one,
Gobardhan.

The local name Mai, or Mau, is found occasionally in all parts of Upper
India and appears also in the Mathura district, though not with great fre-
quency.* The one form seems to be only a broader pronunciation of the other
in the same way as ndu is the ordinary village pronunciation for ndi, a barber,'
the Sanskrit nupita, and raw, a flood, or rush of water, is for raya, or red, from
the root ri, ' to go.' Twice the word stands by itself ; twice as an affix,
viz., in Pipara-mai and Ris-mai ; once in connection with a more modern
name of the same place, Mai Mirza-pur ; and twice, as in Bae-pur Mai and
Bara Mai, where the exact relationship with the companion word may be a
little doubtful. In most of these cases I consider it to be an abbreviation of
the Sanskrit mahi, meaning 'land' or 'a landed estate.' The elision of the
h is not according to any definite rule laid down by the Prakrit grammarians,
but certainly agrees with vulgar practice : for example, the word muldna,
' a month,' is always pronounced piaina ; and if it were given its full comple-
ment of three syllables, a rustic would probably not understand what was
meant. At Mai Mirzapur the tradition is that the name commemorates one
Maya Bam ; and in the particular case, this very possibly may be so ; but
obviously instances of this very restricted derivation would be rare.

Nagar, ' a town,' has always been fairly popular as a local affix, and the
Mathura district contains seven examples of the word so used, viz., Rupnagar,
Sher-nagar, a second Biip-nagar, Ma'sum-nagar, Ram-nagar, Birnagar, and
Raj-nagar. But it is hi modern times and as a prefix that it enters most
largely into any catalogue of village names. As a rule, whenever now-a-days
an over-crowded town throws out a branch settlement, which becomes of

* Mr. Blochmann informed me that he had noted, with regard to this word ' Mau,' that it
waB found all over the wide area extending from Western M&lwa to Eastern Audh, but did not
Beem to occur in Bengal, Bihar, or Siudh.

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 339

sufficient importance to claim a separate entry in the Government rent-roll, it
is therein recorded as Nagla so-and-so, according to the name of the principal
man in it. On the spot, Nagla Bali, to take a particular case, is more com«
monly called Bali ka nagara ; and after the lapse of a few generations, if the
new colony prospers, it drops the Nagara altogether, and is known simply as
Bali. The transmutation of the word nagara into Nagla and its conversion
from a suffix into a prefix are due solely to the proclivities of native revenue
officials, who affect the Persian collocation of words rather than the Hindi, and
always evince a prejudice against the letter r. It is interesting to observe that
in England the Teutonic mode of compounding names differs from the Celtic,
in the same way as in India the Hindi from the Urdu : for while the Celts
spoke of Strath Clyde and Abertay, the Teutons preferred Clydesdale and
Taymouth.

The number of sacred woods and lakes in Braj accounts for the termi-
nations ban and hind, which probably are not often met elsewhere. Examples
of the former are Kot-ban, Bhadra-ban, Brinda-ban, Loha-ban and Maka-ban ;
and of the latter, R;idha-kund and Madhuri-kund. The only name in this list,
about which any doubt can be felt as to the exact derivation, is Loha-ban. It is
said to commemorate Krishna's victory over a demon called Loha-jangha, i.e.,
Iron-leg ; and at the annual festival, offerings of ' iron' are made by the
pilgrims. In the ordinary authorities for Krishna's life and adventures I
certainly find no mention of any Loha-jangha, and as we shall see when we
come to speak of the village Bandi, local customs are often based simply on an
accidental coincidence of name, and prove nothing but the prevalent ignorance
as to the true principles of philology. But in the Vrihat-katka, written by
Somadeva in the reign of Harsha Deva, king of Kashmir, A. D. 1059-1071,
Is a story of Loha-jangha, a Brahman of Mathura, who was miraculously con-
veyed to Lanka : whence it may be inferred that at all events in the 11th
century Loha-jangha, after whom the young Brahman was named by the
romancer, was recognized as a local power ; and thus, though we need not sup-
pose that any such monster ever existed, Loha-ban does in all probability derive
its name from him.

The few local affixes that yet remain recmire no lengthened notice ; of
garh, or garhi, there are as many as twenty instances, viz., Nilkanth-garhi, a
settlement of Jaesyar Thakurs ; Sker-garh, a fortress commanding the Jainuna,
built in the reign of Sher Shah ; Chamar-garhi, a colony of the factious Giijar
tribe ;Ahvaran-garhi ; Chinta-garhi and Rustam-garhi, founded by Gahlot Thakurs
in the reign of Aurangzeb; Badan-garh, commemorating Thakur Badan Sinh,

340 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

father of Siiraj Mall, the first Bharatpur Raja; Ikhu-Fath-garh, founded by one
of Siiraj Mall's officers ; Birju-garhi, Chinta-garhi, Inayat-garhi, Kankar-garhif
Lal-garhi, Mana-garhi, Mani-garhi, Ram-garhi, Shankar-garhi, Tilka-garhi,
Bharii-garhi, and Tal-garhi, all founded by Jats during the fiftv rears that
elapsed between the establishment of their brief supremacy and the British
annexation. The name will probably never be used again as a local affix ; and
its extreme popularity during one half-century constitutes an interesting land-
mark in Indian provincial history, as proof of the troubled character of the
country, when no isolated habitation was thought secure unless protected by a
circuit of wall and ditch.

Kherd, as seen in Pali-kheni, Awa-khera, Pal-kheni, Aira-khera, Sar-
kand-khera, and Sel-khera, invariably implies a state of comparative depriva-
tion, which may be cither of people or of land, according as it arises either from
the emigration of the greater part of its inhabitants to some entirely different
locality, or by the formation of a number of subordinate hamlets in the neigh-
bourhood, which divide among themselves all the cultivated area and leave the
old bazar merely as a central spot for common meeting.

Patti ordinarily implies a comparatively modern partition of family lands :
thus the villages, into which the old township of M agora was divided by the
four sons of the Tomar founder, are called after their names, Ajit-patti, Ghatam-
patti, Jajan-patti, and Ram-patti : and similarly Bajana was divided bv the Jats
into three villages known as Dilu-patti, Siii-patti, and Sulhin-patti. The other
four places in the district that have this affix do not, however, bear out the
above rule. They are Lorha-patti, Nainu-patti, Patti Bahrain, and Patti Sakti.
Nether of these has any companion hamlet dating from the same time as itself;
and Nainu-patti is a place of considerable antiquity, which long ago was split
up into eleven distinct villages.

Another word of precisely similar import is Tlwk. Tins is used in the
Maha-ban pargana as an element in the name of five out of the six villages
that constitute the Sonai circle, and which are called Thok Bindavani Thok
Gyan, Thok Sam, and Thok Sumeru.

Khoh is an exceptional affix, which occurs only once, in Mano-al-khoh
the name of a village on a 'creek' of the old stream of the Jamuna. Tata a
bank, is similarly found once only, in Jamunauta, which is a contraction for
Jamuna-tata.

Of Sarde as an affix we have examples in A'zamabad Sarae, Jamal-pur
Sarae, Mai Sarae, Sarae' Ali Khan, Sarae Daiid, and Sarae Salivahau. Only

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 341

at the two first is there any Sarae actually in existence : both of these are
large and substantial buildings creeled by local Governors on the line of tlie
old Imperial road between Agra and Labor. The others were probably mere
ranges of mud huts, like the ordinary Sarae of the present day, and have there-
fore long since disappeared.

The Persian terminations dbdd and ganj, which predominate so largely in

some parts of India, have been little used in Hindi-speaking Mathura. Of dbdd
there are only six examples, being an average of one to eaeh pargana, viz.,
A'zam-abad and Murshid-abad, each commemorating a local Governor in the
reign of Aurangzeb ; Aurang-abad, dating from the same period ; Sa'dahad, the
chief town on the demesne of Shah-jahan's minister Sa'dullah Khan ; and Asaf-
abad, Bir-ali-abad, Gulshan-abad, and Salim-abad, named after founders of less
historical distinction.

Having thus passed in review every affix denoting 'place' that we have
been able to identify, we proceed to consider the second class of names, viz.,
those in which the affix signifies 'possession.' The examples under this head
are equally numerous and in a philological point of view of no less importance ;
but the whole series is traversed by a single clue, and if this is grasped at the
beginning, it is found to lead so directly from one formation to another, that it
precludes all necessity of pausing for lengthy consideration at any particular
stage of the argument. Obviously, the simplest mode of expressing possession
is by attaching to the name of the owner the grammatical particle, whatever
it may be, which in consequence of its familiar use has been selected as the
special sign of the genitive or possessive case. This in modern Hindustani is
led or Id, which we find employed in the following ten words, vie., Barka,
Mahanki, Berka, Marhaka, Bhartiyaka, Bhureka, Kaneka, Marhuaka, Salaka,
and Surka. In the last six names on the list the former part of the compound,
viz., nhartiva, Bhun'i, &c, is known to be the name of the Jat founder of the
village. Thus we have an indisputable proof that about a century ago it was
not at all an uncommon thing to form names of places in this way. If no
earlier examples of the formation occur, it is most reasonable to explain their
absence by inferring, as in the case of puri, that in the course of time the rough
edges, that once marked the place where the word and its affix joined, have
become so worn and smoothed down that they can no longer be felt. Now by
eliding the k — a very simple proceeding and one quite in accordance with rule
— an amalgamation would be effected between the two elements of the com-
pound which would totally alter their original apj larance ; and we have only
to reinsert it to discover the meaning of many names otherwise unintelligible.

So"

342 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

Thus Bhalai, a settlement of Bhal Thakurs, is seen to represent Bhdl-ki (basti) ;
Biighai is for Bagh-ki ; Madanai for Madan-ki ; Ughai for Ugra-ki ; Mahpai
for MaMpa-ki ; Jonai for Jamuna-ki (Jaiuia being mentioned by Vararuchi as
the Prakrit form of Yamuna) ; and Semri, with its ancient temple of Syamala
Devi, for Syamala-ki. Similarly, Indau is for Indra-ka and Karnau for Kar-
na-k;'i : the representation of a + a by au rather than d being almost an invari-
able practice, as we see in rdu, a contraction for raja, pdnw for pada, ?iau for
nam and tau for tdta.

Kd, M, however, are not the only signs of the genitive case in use ; for in
the Marwari dialect their place is occupied by rd, ri. Of this form, too, there
are abundant examples, as might have been anticipated : for some centuries ago,
migrations from Rajpiitana into Mathura were very frequent and in a less
degree continue to the present day. Thus, we have Umraura, Lohrari,
Ganesara, Bhun'iri, Puthri (from puth, a sand-hill), Bhainsara, Garumra (for
Garuda-ra) and Bagharra, &c. At the last-named place the old village site is
called 8her-ka-kherd, which puts the meaning of the word Bagharra beyond a
doubt ; the reduplication of the r being purely phonetic. In other names the
consonant has not been reduplicated, but the same effect has been produced by
lengthening the vowel. Such are Kunjera (where is Kunj-ban), Rahera,
Ranera (founded by Sissodia Thakurs, who named it after the Rand of Chitor,
whence they had migrated), Maghera, Nonera, and Konkera, &c.

The origin of the two particles kd and rd has been much disputed. I would
suggest that they both represent an original kara, or kar. This we find used occa-
sionally by Tulsi Das as a substantive ; as in the line tab kar as; vimoh ab yiahin ;
' then the matter was so ; now there is no delusion.' More frequently it occurs
as the sign of the genitive ; and even in the line quoted it might be regarded in
that light, by supposing an ellipse of some such word as hdl, or vydpdr. The
transition from the one use to the other being so easy, it can scarcely be doubted
that the particle and the substantive are really the same identical word. The
loss of the final r would naturally cause a lengthening of the vowel, and thus
kar becomes kd.

The alternative form rd may be explained by the elision of the initial k,
which would ordinarily take place whenever kara was made the last member of
a compound. Thus Rana-kara becomes Ranara or Ranera ; and the lengthen-
ing of the final a is not at all an exceptional phenomenon.

Not unfrequently, however, instead of being lengthened, the final a of the
affix kara is dropt as well as the initial consonant. There consequently remains

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 343

only the letter r, which we see appearing as a final in such words as Kumar, Sahar,
Udhar, and Surir. Of these; Kaniar (for Kam-raj is probably an offshoot from the
neighbouring town of Kam-ban in Bharatpur territory, a famous place of Vaish-
nava pilgrimage ; while Sahar and Udhar must have been named after their
respective founders, who in the one case is known to have been called Udho, or
Udhan, and in the other was probably some Sabha. In Surir, which presents
peculiar difficulties, we fortunately are not left to conjecture. For a local
tradition attests that the town was once called Sugriv-ka Khera. The resemb-
lance between the two names is slight that the people on the spot and the
unphilological mind generally would not recognize any connection between
them ; but according to rules already quoted Sugriv-ra would pass naturally
into Surir, and the fact that it has done so is a strong confirmation of the
truth of the rules.

Another partiele that is commonly used for investing substantives with a
possessive force is icdla, or ward. Of this, as a component in a village name, we
have two illustrations in the district, viz., Pipalwara and Bhadanwara.* No satis-
factory attempt has hitherto been made to explain the derivation and primary
meaning either of this affix tcdla, or of the somewhat less common hard,
which is used in a precisely similar way. I take the latter to represent the
Sanskrit dhdra (from the root dhri) in the sense of ' holding ' or ' having,'
as in the compounds chhattra- dhdra, 'having an umbrella,' danda-dhdra, ' hav-
ing a stick.' The elision of the d is quite according to rule, as in bahira, ' deaf,'
for badhira. Wdld, again, is I consider beyond any doubt the Sanskrit pdla, with
the same signification of ' keeping or ' having.' The substitution of v for p
is prescribed by Vararuchi in Sutra II., 15, who gives as an example the
Prakrit sdvo for the Sanskrit sdpa, ' a curse.' Thus we have from ijo-pdla, ' a
cow-keeper,' gowdla, and finally gwdla ; from ckaupdl the alternative form
chauwdrd, and from kotta-pdla, ' the governor of a fort,' the familiar kotwdl.

For the formation of adjectives that denote possession, the affix most
frequently employed, both in Sanskrit and modern Hindustani, is i. Thus
from dhan, ' wealth,' comes dhani, wealthy and from mala, ' a floral wreath'
comes mdli, ' a florist.' Dr. Hunter, with much perverted ingenuity, has gone
out of his way to suggest that the latter are an aboriginal and non-Aryan race
and " take their name from the tribal term for man, male, from which many

* It is curious to find in the English of the 9th century a word 'wara' used precisely in the
same way. Thus the Mersewara, or marsh folk, were the dwellers in the reclaimed flats of
Komney marsh : while the Cautwara inhabited the Caint, or open upland which still gives its
name to the county of Kent.

344 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

hill and forest people of northern and central India, possibly also the wholi
Malay race of the Archipelago, are caUed. " I am not aware that in this theory-
he has found any followers : whatever the origin of the Malays, there is no
moro reason to suppose a connection between them and the Malis of our gar-
dens, than between man, the biped, and man, a weight of 40 sers. As the let-
ters of the alphabet are necessarily limited, it must occasionally happen that com-
binations are formed which are quite independent of one another and yet in ap-
pearance are identical. Among examples of the i affix we fiud in Mathura, from
dldmar, 'a fisherman,' Dhimari, a fishing village on the bank of the Jamuna :
from a founder Husain, a village Husaini ; from Pal, the favourite title of a
Thnkur clan, Pali ; from Pingal, Pingari ; from babul, the acacia, Pabiiri ; from
Kkajur, Khajuri : and from kincira, ' the river bank, ' Kinari A lengthened
form of tho same affix is iya, which we find in Jagatiya and Khandiya.

Another affix, which in ordinaiy Sanskrit literature occurs as frequently as
t and with precisely the same signification, is vat, vati. In vulgar pronunciation
the consonant v generally passes into the cognate vowel ; thus Bhagavati becomes
Bhatroti, and Sarasvati, Sarsuti. I am therefore led to suspect that this is the affix
which has been used in the formation of such village names as Kharot, Khatauta,
Ajinothi, Bilothi, Kajirothi, Basonti, Bathi, Junsuthi, Sonoth, Badauth, Barauth,
Dhanoti, and Tatarota. All these places are presumably old, and nothing can
be stated with certainty as to the period of the foundation, but the only one of
them in any way remarkable is Bathi. Here is the sacred grove of Bahula-ban,
with the image of the cow Bahula, who (as told in the Itihas*) addressed such
piteous supplications to a tiger who was about to destroy her, that the savage
beast could not but spare her life. A meld in her honour is still held on the
fourth day of Kuwar, called ' Bahula chaturthi.' In every other instance where
the ban is a place of any celebrity, it has supplied the foundation for the village
name, and has probably done so here too. The transition from Bahula-vati to
Bathi presents no insuperable difficulty; for a similar change of the dental into the
cerebral consonant has occurred in the Hindi pattan, ' a town,' and in murha, ' a
fool,' for the Sanskrit mugdha ; the insertion of the aspirate is the only irregu-
larity which it is not easy to explain.

A third affix which can he more appropriately noticed hero than elsewhere,
though it has a somewhat different force, is a. This implies primarily ' a pro-
duct,' or ' result.' Thus from bo; the fruit, tree, comes (be name of the

* A collection of stoiies supposed to have beeu related I y Bhima-sena while he lay wounded
on the field of battle,

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 345

village Bera, an orchard of her trees : from Nakar, a man's name meaning
' lion,' Nahra ; from Parsu, an abbreviation for Parasu-ram, Parsua ; from Rue
[Sen], Raya ; from Paramesvar Das, Pavesara ; and similarly Bisambbara,
Dandisara, &c.

We may now pass on to the first sub-division of class III., in which are in-
cluded all such village names as originally were identical, without addition or
alteration of any kind, with the names borne by the founders ; though the orgin-
al identity, it must be remembered, is no guarantee against subsequent corrup-
tion. One of the earliest examples in the district is afforded by the village Son,
which is said to have been the capital of a Raja Son — or more probably Sohan
— Pal, a Tomar Thakur from Delhi. Sonkh, Sonsa, and Sonoth, all three places
in the immediate neighbourhood, would also seem to be named after him and to
prove that he was an historical personage of at least considerable local impor-
tance. Another interesting illustration, which must also be of early date, is
found in the name Dham Sinha. Here Dham, which is the obsolete Prakrit
form of dharma and is not understood at the present day, runs a great risk of beinc
altered by people who aim at correctness, but lack knowledge, into the more in-
telligible word dhan. In modern times this style of nomenclature has been so
prevalent that a single pargana — Maha-ban — supplies us with the following ex-
amples, viz., Birbal, Gaju, Misri, Bhiira, Siiraj, Baru, Rausanga, Nauranga,
Mursena, Bansa, Bhojua, Bhi'ma, and Siir,. Of these, Rausanga forRup Sinha
would scarcely have been recognizable but for the aid of local tradition. Occasion-
ally the names of two brothers, or other joint founders, are combined, as we see in
Sampat-jogi, Chiira-hansi, Bindu-bulaki, and Harnaul. The latter is a curious
contraction for Hara Navala ; and as ' the swing' is one of the popular institutions
of Braj, the word not unfrequently passes through a further corruption and is
pronounced Hindol, which means a swing. This will probably before long give
occasion to a legend and a local festival in honor of Radba and Krishna.

Under the same head comes the apparently Muhammadan name Noh ;
which, with the addition of the suffix jJdl, is the designation of a decayed
town on the left bank of the Jamuna to the north of the district. At no
very great distance, but on the other side of the river, in Gurganw, is a
second Noh ; and a third is in the Jalesar pargana, which now forms part of
the Eta district. So far as I have any certain knowledge, the name is not
found in any other part of India, though it occurs in Central Asia ; for I learn
from Colonel Godwin Austen that there is a Noh in Ladak or rather Rudok at
the eastern end of the Pangang Lake, and on its very borders. The Yarkand

346 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

expedition is also stated in the papers to have reached Leh viaKhotan, Kiria,Polu,
and Noli, by the easternmost pass over the Kuen-lun mountains. Upon this point
I may hope to acquire more definite information hereafter ; the best maps
published up to the present time throw no light on the matter, for though they
give the towns of Kiria and Kliotan, they do not show Noh, and its existence
therefore requires confirmation. The three places in this neighbourhood all agree
in being evidently of great antiquity, and also in the fact that each is close to
a large sheet of water. The lake, or morass, at Noh jhil spreads in some years
over an area measuring as much as six miles in length by one in breadth. It is
no doubt to a great extent of artificial formation, having been excavated for the
double purpose of supplying earth, with which to build the fort, and also of ren-
dering it inaccessible when built. Tho inundated appearance of the country
combines with the name to suggest a reminiscence of the Biblical Deluge and the
Patriarch Noah. The proper spelling of his name, as Mr. Blochmann informed
me, is Null, with the vowel ti and the Arabic h, while Baddoni, who twice* men-
tions the town, in both places spells it with the imperceptible h ; in the Xin-i-
Akbari, however, which herein agrees with invariable modern usage, the final
letter is the Arabic h. But if a reference to the Deluge were intended, the
word Noh would not have been used simply by itself ; standing as it does, it
can scarcely be other than the name of the founder. Now (to quote Mr.
Blochmann again) " Muhammadans use the name Null extremely rarely. Xdam,
Musa, Yusuf, and Ayub are common ; but on looking over my lists of saints,
companions of Muhammad, and other worthies of Islam, I do not find a single
person with the name Nub ; and hence I would look upon a connection of Noh
with Noah as very problematical. I would rather connect it with the Persian
nuh, 'nine,' which when lengthened becomes noh, not mih; as the Persian dih,
'a village,' becomes dek, not <7i/«." But if we abandon the Semitic name, it
will be better, considering the purely Hindu character of the country, to try
and fall back upon some Sanskrit root, and I am inclined to regard the name
as a Muhammadan corruption of nava — not the adjective meaning ' now,' but a
proper name— and with the It added either purposely to mark the distinction,
or inadvertently in the same way as raja is in Persian characters incorrectly
written rajah. In the Harivansa (line 1677) mention is made of a king
Ushinara, of the family of Kakshoyu, who had five wives, Nriga, Krimi, Nava,
Darva, and Drishadvati. They bore him each one son, and the boys were

*Once as the scene of a fight between Ikbal Khan and Shams Khun of Bayana (A. H. 802),
and again as the place where Mubarak Shah crossed the Janiuna for Jtrtoli.

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 347

named Nriga, Krimi, Nava, Suvrata and Sivi ; of whom Nava reigned over
Navanishtram ; Krimi over Kumila-puri ; Sivi, who is said to be the author of
one of the hymns of the Rig Veda (X. 179), over the Sivayas, and Nriga over
the Yaudheyas. In the Mahabharat the Usinaras are said to be a lower race
of Kshatriyas. They are mentioned by Panini in a connection which seems
to imply that they were settled in or near the Panjab ; and in the Aitareya
Brahmana, Usinara is collocated with Kuril and Panchala. Again, Drishad-
vati, the fifth of Usinara's wives, recalls to mind the unknown river of the
same name, which is mentioned by Manu as one of the boundaries of Brah-
mavarta, and in the Mahabharat as the southern boundary of Kurukshetra.
From all this it may be inferrred that the Navarashtra, over which Usinara's
third son Nava reigned, cannot have been far distant from Mathura and
Gurganw; and its capital may well have been the very place which still bears
his name under the corrupt form of Noh or Nauh.

The second subdivision of class III. is of an extremely miscellaneous
character and admits of no grouping, each name having a separate individuality
of its own. Some of the more obvious examples have been already quoted :
such as are Basai, 'a colony ;' for the Sanskrit vasati (which at the present day
is more commonly abbreviated by the alternative mode into bast!) ; Chauki, ' an
outpost' on the Gurganw road; Nagariya, 'a small hamlet ;' Barha, ' a
removal;' Garhi, 'a fort;' Mai, 'an estate;' Khor, 'an opening' between the
Barsana hills; Auyor, 'the other end' of the Gobardhan range; Pura, 'a
town ;' Kheriya, 'a hill ;' and Toli, ' an allotment.' Others require more
detailed explanation on account either of their intrinsic difficulty, or of the
mythological disguise put upon them by the local pandits, who think there is no
place in the whole of Braj which does not contain some allusion to Krishna.
Thus they connect the word Mathura with the god's title of Madhu-mathan ;
though the more natural derivation is from the rootmath direct, in its primary sense
of ' churning ;' an exact grammatical parallel being found in the word ' bhidura,
breakable,' a derivative from the root bhid, ' to break.' The name thus interpreted
is singularly appropriate ; for Mathura has always been celebrated for its wide
extent of pasture-land and many herds of cattle, and in all poetical descriptions of
the local scenery ' the churn' is introduced as a prominent feature. I observe that
Dr. Rajendralala Mitra in a learned article on the Yavanas, published in the
Calcutta Asiatic Society's Journal, has incidentally remarked upon a passage in
the Santi Parva of the Mahabharat, in which the word Madhura occurs, that
this is the ancient form of Mathura. Now I should hesitate to dispute any state-
ment deliberately made by so eminent a scholar, but this appears to be a mere

348 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

obiter dictum, and I strongly doubt whether in the whole range of early San-
skrit literature the capital of Braj is ever designated Madhura. In the particular
passage which he quotes, Lassen regards the word as the name of a river,
and that the well-known city in the Dakhin is in the vernacular always spelt
Madhura in no way affects the argument ; for even if the two names are ety-
mologically identical, which is probable but not certain, the dislike shown by
all the languages of the south to the use of hard consonants is quite sufficient
to account for the alteration.

Similarly the name of the country, Braj, or Vraja, has nothing to do
with the Vajra Sena, the son of Anirudh, who is said to have been crowned
king of Mathura on Krishna's death ; but comes immediately from the root
wo/, ' to go,' and is thus a highly appropriate designation for a land of nomadic
herdsmen. Equally at fault is the mythological derivation of ' Bathen,' the
name of two large villages in the Kosi pargana, where Balarama, it is said, ' sat
down' [baithen) to wait for Krishna. Here, again, the real reference is to the
pastoral character of the country, bathan being an archaic term to denote a graz-
ing-ground. A still greater and more unnecessary perversion of etymological
principles is afforded by the treatment of the word Khaira. This is popularly
derived from the root khcdna, ' to drive cattle,' which was Krishna's special occu-
pation as a boy : but it is in fact the regular contraction of the Sanskrit kha-
dira, the Acacia Arabica, more commonly known as the babiil ; as is proved by
the contiguity of the village to the Kliadira-baii, one of the twelve sacred groves.
Other indigenous trees have contributed in like manner to the local nomencla-
ture ; thus the lodhra, or Symplocos, would seem to have furnished a name for
the village of Lohi in the Mat pargana : the Tinduk Ghat at Mathura is pro-
bably so called not in honour of any pious ascetic, but with reference to the
pasendit, or Diospyros, the Sanskrit tinduka, one of the most common trees in
the district : and in the Sakra-ban, which gives its name to the village of Saka-
raya, it would seem that the sakra intended is the tree, the Terminalia Arjuna,
and not the god Indra, though he too is known by that title, which primarily
means the strong or powerful.

The most interesting example of an elaborate myth based solely on the
misunderstanding of a local name is to be found in the village of Bandi. Here
is a very popular shrine, sacred to Bandi Anandi, who are said to have been two
servants of Jasoda's, whose special employment it was to collect the sweepings
of the cow-shed and make them up into fuel. But in the inscription over the
gateway leading into the court-yard of the temple, which is dated Sambat

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 349

1575, there is do mention of Anandi whatever. Part is illegible, bnt the first
words read clearly as follow : Svasti sri Sarvopari bir&jamdn Bandi •//. Tasya
sevak, &c. From this it may be inferred that Anandi has been added in very
recent times simply for the sake of the alliterative jingle, and because there
happened to be a second old figure on the spot that required some distinctive
name. The original word was Bandi alone. The Gokul Gosains support their
theory as to its etymology by making the Gobar Lila at Bandi one of the re<m-
lar scenes in the dramatic performances of the Ban-jatra ; but it is not accepted
by the more old-fashioned residents of the village, who maintain that the local
divinity was a recognized power long before the days of Krishna, who was
brought there to offer at her shrine the first hair that was cut from his head.
Their view as to the relative antiquity of the Bandi and the Mathura god is
certainly correct ; for both the images now believed to represent Jasoda's domes-
tic servants arc clearly effigies of the goddess Durga. In the one she appears
with eight arms, triumphing over the demon Mahishasur ; in the other, which
is a modern facsimile, made at Brinda-ban, after the mutilated original, she has
four arms, two pendent and two raised above the head. Neither of them can
represent a human handmaid ; and thus the}- at once disprove the modern story,
which would seem to be based on nothing more substantial than the resemb-
lance of the word bandi to the Persian banda, meaning ' a servant.' The real
derivation would be from bandi/a, or vandi/a, the future participle of the verb
vand, signifying ' venerable' or ' worshipful.' Thus, what was once an epithet of
a particular image of Devi became after a time its distinctive name ; and event-
ually, being referred by the ignorance of the people to a more ordinary term
of current speech, has originated a legend and a local festival for which in fact
there is no foundation whatever.

The above is one illustration of a general rule that all presumably an-
cient local names are entirely different in origin and meaning from any terms
of current speech with which they may happen to be identical in form.
Thus, as we have already seen, the village Parson has no connection with
parson, the common adverb of time ; neither is Paitha so named, as being
near the mouth of the cave into which the people of Braj ' entered' {jmitha).
Again, Bal, a largo village in the Mathura pargana, is not so called as
being the scene of one of Krishna's ' battles' (ra?-), as local Pandits say ; nor
because the extensive woods round about it abound in rdl, or ' resin :' but
rather it is a contraction of Raja-kula, ' a king's house ;' a compound of
similar character with Gokul, a ' cow house,' the name of the town where

350 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

Krishna was nurtured by the herdsman Nanda. Raval, a village in the same
neighbourhood, the reputed home of Radha's maternal grandfather Surbhan,
may be identical in meaning ; or it may even represent an original Itadha-
kula, in which case it would be curious as affording the earliest authority for
Radha's local existence and pre-eminent rank. Koila, again, is evidently not
the bird called in Sanskrit Kokila and in Hindi Koil ; for who would dream
of calling a place simply Cuckoo without any affix such as in the possible com-
pound Cuckoo-town ? Neither is it the exclamation Koi Id, uttered by Vasu-
deva as he was bearing the infant Krishna across the Jamuna ; for whatever
the language then in vogue, it certainly was not modern Hindi : nor again,
and for a similar reason, does the word Koila mean 'charcoal/ with a reference
to the ashes of the witch Putana, washed across the stream from the town of
Gokul. But it may be taken for granted that the final consonant stands for
rd and has the possessive force of that particle, while the former member of
the compound is either Koi, ' the water-lily,' or Koi, for Krora, ' a wild boar.'
The extensive morass in the neighbourhood, well known to sportsmen as the
Koila jhil, renders either derivation probable and appropriate. If the fact
were not now placed on record, a few more years and the philologists who
look for the origin of Indian names in every language, saving only the vernacu-
lar of the country, would seize the opportunity of declaring Koila to be merely
a mispronunciation of the English ' quail.' Similarly, it may reasonably be
conjectured that Kukar-gama is not so called because a Banjara in his travels
happened to bury beside the village pond a favourite dog (kulcar), though the
slab supposed to cover the dog's grave is still shown ; but rather, as the village
is certainly of ancient date and was colonized by Thakurs from Chitor, it is
probable that its name commemorates the otherwise unknown founder, since
Kukura occurs in the Mahabharat as the proper name of a king, and may
therefore have been at one time in common use. To pass yet more rapidly
over a few other illustrations of the same rule, that apparent identity is equi-
valent to real difference : Kamar does not commemorate Krishna's gift of a
blanket (kamal) to the shivering hermit Durvasas, but rather implies a migra-
tion from the older town of Kama ; ' Aiuch' does not refer to the ' stretching'
of Krishna's tent-ropes, through the real derivation is doubtful ; ' Jau' is not
the imperative verb ' go,' but a corruption of ydva, ' lac ;' Marua, now altered
by office copyists to Bharna, has no relation to the ' death' of one of Krishna's
enemies ; and 'Jait' is not simply an abbreviation for jaitra, but (as shown by
the village pronunciation Jaint) represents an original Jayanta, which occurs
in Sanskrit as the name both of a river and a country.

ETYMOLOGY OP LOCAL NAMES. 351

It must, however, be borne in mind that the application of this rule is
restricted exclusively to local names of ancient date. Thus the name of the
village Sanket is really identical with the Sanskrit word sanket, meaning ' an
assignation' or ' rendezvous ;' the place which lies half-way between Barsana
and Nandganw, the respective homes of Eadhii and Krishna, having been so
called by the Gosains of the 16th century with the special object of localizing
the legend. Similarly, Pisaya with its beautiful forest of kadamb trees, to
which the author of the Vraja-bhakti-vilasa gives the Sanskrit title of Pipasa-
vana, may really bear a name identical with the Hindi word pisaya, ' thirsty,' if
the name was first assigned to the spot by the Gokul Gosains as a foundation
for a story of Radha's bringing a draught of water for the relief of her
exhausted lover. But this is questionable, since it appears that there is a place
with the same name, but without any similar legend, in the Aligarh district :
both are therefore most probably far anterior to the 16th century and
susceptible of some entirely different explanation. The Aligarh Pisaya is,
I find, described as having the largest jungle or grazing ground in that district ;
and this suggests that the word may very well be a corruption of the Sanskrit
pasavya, 'tit for cattle.'

In all these and similar cases it is imposible to arrive at sound conclu-
sions without a largo amount of local knowledge ; while the absurdity of the
explanations advanced by the local Pandits demonstrates the equal necessity
for acquaintance with at least the rudimentary laws of philological science.
Scholastic speculations made without reference to physical features or to the
facts of village history are always liable to summary disproof ; and no one with
any respect for his own reputation should think of pronouncing off-hand upon
the derivation of the name of any place regarding the circumstances of which
he has not very definite information. For example, as the village Jati-pura
is on the border of the Jat state of Bharat-pur, what could be more plausiblo
than to say that it is so called as being a Jat colony ? but, as a fact, it has
always been inhabited by Brahmans, and its founder was the Vallabhacharya
Gosain, Bitthal-nath, who was popularly known by the name Jatiji. Similarly,
while the Naugama in the Chhata pargana really connotes the meaning which
the form of the word most obviously suggests, viz., new town, the Naugama
near the city of Mathura stands for an original ndga-grdma, and commemo-
rates its founder, Naga. As a parallel example in English topography take the
town of Bridge-water ; the latter member of the compound referring not to
nny stream, as would naturally be supposed, but to the Norman chief Walter,
who built his castle there. Again, Lodhauli (in accordance with the principles

352 ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.

stated in the earlier part of this chapter) might be at once set down as equi-
valent to Lodha-puri ; but here, too, the caste of the residents forbids such a
derivation, for they have always been not Lodhas, but Jadons ; and the modern
name- is a perversion of Lalita-pnri. Phalen again and Siyara would be in-
explicable but for the knowledge that they are built, the one on the margin of
a pond, called Prahlad kund, and the other by the Chir Ghat, a very ancient
and now comparatively neglected tirath on the Jamuna. The confusion
between the letters s and ch is one of the peculiarities of the local dialect. Thus
Amar Sinh is frequently called Amarchu ; the village of Parsua, in the mouths
of the villagers on the spot, is indistinguishable from Pilchua ; Chakri, after
becoming Saki, gives a name to Sakitra, where is an ancient shrine of Chak-
resvar ; and so too Chira-hara becomes Siyara.*

Although it may safely be laid down as a general principle of Indian
toponymy that the majority of names arc capable of being traced up to Aryan
roots, it is possible that the rule may have some exceptions. In the Mathura
and Mainpuri districts there is a current tradition that the older occupants of
the country were a people called Kah'irs. The name seems to support a theory
advanced by Dr. Hunter in his Dissertation, where he quotes a statement from
some Number of the Asiatic Society's Journal to the effect that the whole of
India was once called Kolaria. On the strength of a number of names which
he sees in the modem map, he concludes that the race, from whom that name
was derived, once spread over every province from Burma to Malabar. He
finds indications of their existence in the Kols of Central India ; the Kolas of
Katwar; the Kolis of Gujarat; the Kolitas of Asam ; the Kalars, a robber
caste in the Tamil country ; the Kalars of Tinnevelly, and the Kolis of
Bombay, &c, &c. Upon most of these names, as I have no knowledge of the
localities where they exist, I decline to offer any opinion whatever, and can
only express my regret that Dr. Hunter has not exercised a little similar
caution. For he proceeds to give a list of town-names, scattered as he says
over the whole length and breadth of India, which seems to me of the very
slightest value as a confirmation of his theory. No one should be better
conversant than himself with the vagaries of phonetic spelling ; and yet ho
gravely adduces as proof of the existence of a Kol race such names as Kulian-
pur and Kullian ; though it is scarcely possible but that, if correctly spelt, they

* Chira is itself a contraction for chivira, which shows that the elision of a simple conso-
nant, which became the rule in Prakrit, was occasional also in pure Sanskrit. Similarly the
Sanskrit word rija, ' seed,' which lexicographers derive from the root jan with the prefix vi, is,
I conceive, simply a colloquial form of viryu, with which it is identical in meaning.

ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. 353

would appear as Kalyanpur and Kalyan ; the latter being still a popular Hindi
name and the Sanskrit for ' auspicious.' Moreover, if the race was ever so
widely spread as he supposes, it is inconceivable that they should give their
tribal name to the different towns they inhabited ; for such names under the
supposed circumstances would have no distinctive force. For example, if the
Hindus were suddenly to be swept out of India, the race that superseded them
would not find a single village bearing such a name as Hindu-pur, or Hindu-
ganw. Obviously it is only a country that derives its namo from a tribe,
while towns and villages commemorate families and individuals. To ascertain
who the Kalars were is certainly an interesting question, but one upon which
it is as yet premature to speak positively. My own impression is that the
name denotes a religious rather than an ethnological difference, and that they
were — in this neighbourhood at all events — Buddhists or Jains. At many of
the places from which they are said to have been ejected by the ancestors of
the present Jat or Thakui families, I have found fragments of Buddhist or
Jain sculpture, which can only have been the work of the older inhabitants,
since it is certain that the race now in possession have never changed their
religion. It is, of course, possible that these Kalars may have been non-Aryan
Buddhists ; but the old village names, which in several cases remain unchanged
to the present day, such as Aira, Madem, Byonhin, &c, though of doubtful
derivation, have certainly anything but a foreign or un-Indian sound.

These and a considerable number of other names yet require elucidation :
but the words with which I prefaced the first edition of this work, in anticipa-
tion of the present argument, have now, I trust, been so far substantiated that
I may conclude by repeating them as a summary of actual results. "The
study of a list of village names suggests two remarks of some little importance
in the history of language. First, so many names that at a hasty glance
appear utterly unmeaning can be positively traced back to original Sanskrit
forms as to raise a presumption that the remainder, though more effectually
disguised, will ultimately be found capable of similar treatment : a strong
argument being thus afforded against those scholars who maintain that the
modern vernacular is impregnated with a very large non-Aryan element.
Secondly, the course of phonetic decay in all its stages is so strictly in accord
with the rules laid down by the Prakrit grammarians, as to demonstrate that
the Prakrit of the dramas (to which the rules particularly apply), even though
extinct at the time when the dramas were written for the delectation of a
learned audience, had once been the popular language of the country ; and as
Anglo-Saxon imperceptibly developed into modern English, so has Prakrit

354 TRANSMUTATION OF LETTERS.

been transmuted into modern Hindi, more by the gradual loss of its inflections
than by the violent operation of any external influences." Thus the recogni-
tion of Persian or any dialect of Persian as the vernacular of the country
implies an historical untruth as regards the past, and can only be verified in
the future by the obliteration of all existing traditions.

The following list shows the changes of most frequent occurrence in the
conversion of Sanskrit words into Hindi :—

1. a + a, after the elision of a consonant, generally becomes au or ao;
thus from pada we have pdo, or, by insertion of a nasal, pdnio ; from raid, rdo ;
from tdta, 'father,' tdu; from ghdta, 'a wound,' ghdu; and from taddga, ' a pond'
(itself derived from tata, a slope), taldo. So too in the Ramayana Rama occa-
sionally appears in the form Rdu.

2. Not unfrequently, however, a + n becomes e: thus from badara, the
jujube, we have ber ; and from kadala, a plantain, Ma. A similar substitution
of e for d takes place in semal, the cotton-tree, for sdlmali ; in sej, a couch,
for saya ; and in terah, thirteen, for trayodasa.

3. Conversely e+a is sometimes made equivalent to a + a: thus deva,
after elision of the v, becomes ddu.

4. bh becomes h : thus from abhira comes ahir, and from Tirabhukti,
the name of a country, Tirhut.

5. ch is elided : thus siichi, ' a needle,' becomes stii.

6. dh becomes h : thus from badhira, ' deaf,' we have bahira ; from
madhtha, ' the Bassia latifolia,' mahua ; from vadhu, ' a female relation,' bahu ;
and, in the Ramayana, for krodhi, 'angry,' kohi. So too the possessive affix
dhdra becomes lidra.

7. d occasionally becomes I: thus from bhadra, 'good,' after elision of
the conjunct r, we have bhala. This I again may be changed into r : thus
from Vidarbha, the namo of a country, comes Birar.

8. k is elided : thus vardhaki, ' a carpenter,' becomes barhai ; vrischika,
' a scorpion,' bichhua ; and stikara, ' a pig,' suar.

9. k may also become h: thus in the Ramayana aliha stands for alika,
' false.' So also kh : thus mukha, after insertion of the nasal, becomes munh.

10. I in a conjunct is elided : thus ralkala, ' the bark of a tree,' becomes
bdkal. Occasionally also simple I ; as in okhla, ' a mortar,' for ulukhala.

TRANSMUTATION OF LETTERS. 355

11. m and v are interchangeable : thus dhivara, 'a fisherman,' becomes
dldmar ; gauna stands for gamana, Bhamani for Bhavdni, and kunvar for
kumdra. Similarly jun, or jatin, in the sense of ' time,' stands for jdm, the
Sanskrit ydma, the nasal being an insertion. So also in tho Gita Gobinda
vdmana is made to rhyme with pdvana.

12. A nasal can be inserted anywhere, as in game, 'a village,' for grdma,
and in kaun, ' who,' for ho.

13. p simple is elided : as in kua, ' a well,' for hupa ; bM&la, ' a king,'
for bhupdld ; kait, the tree Feronia elephantum, for kapittha ; and aur, the
conjunctive particle, for apara. So also when standing first in a conjunct ;
thus from supta, 'asleep,' comes sota. It may also bo changed into v, as in
gwdla, for gopdld, and kotiudl for kotta-pdla.

14. r becomes n .• thus karavira, ' the oleander,' becomes kanavira,
kanera, kanel.

15. r in a conjunct is elided : thus grdma, ' a village,' becomes gam, or
gdnw ; karma, 'an act,' kdm ; Srdvan, tho month so called, Sdvan; vdrtla,
' business,' bat ; and vartman, ' a road,' bat, where the charge of the dental
into the cerebral t compensates for the loss of the final man.

16. s/» is converted into hh, optionally, whenever it occurs. Similarly
the Greek /Spofo) represents the Sanskrit varsha, and in tho modern Cretan
dialect becomes again vroshd.

17. Cerebral t occasionally becomes r : thus from parkati, 'the Ficus
venosa,' we have pdkar.

18. t, when simple, is elided: thus from jdti-phal, 'a nut-meg,' comes
jai-phal : and from Skald, the goddess of small-pox, siyar. Thus, too, in the
Ramayana, Sitd frequently appears as Sia, or Slya.

19. v when simple is elided : as in upas, 'a fast,' for upavds.

20. Simple y is elided : as in mor, ' a peacock,' for mayura ; Prdg for
Praydg ; and Ojlta, 'a particular caste,' for Upddhydya.

21. The loss of one consonant in a conjunct receives compensation in
the lengthening of the preceding vowel : thus we have nim for nimba ; ndti,
'a grandson,' for naptri; dge, 'before,' for agre; dk, the plant Asclepias
gigantea, for arkd ; ddhd, ' half,' for ardha ; and rita, ' empty,' for rikta.

356 prXkrit philology.

Any philological student who wishes to prosecute further inquiries in this
interesting subject will find all the laws of euphonic mutation most exhaustively
discussed and illustrated in Dr. Hcernle's Comparative Grammar of the Gaudian
Languages, a work that appeared simultaneously with the former edition of this
Memoir. Both for breadth of research and accuracy of analysis it is a book
beyond all praise and may justly be ranked — in its own particular sphere — with
the famous Grammar of Bopp, which forms the basis of all modern comparative
philology.

//' I !,■ 3S7.)

MAP OF THE DISTRICT.

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PRINTED AT THE N.- W PROVINCES AND OUDH GOVERNMENT PRESS, ALLAHABAD.

CHAPTER XIII.

PARGANA TOPOGRAPHY.

I. — Pargana Kosr.

TnE pargana of Kosi is the most northern of the three on the western side of
the Janium'i and borders on the district of Gurgaon. It is the smallest of the
Mathura six, having an area of only 154 square miles. It yields an annual reve-
nue of Rs. 1,52,013, Its villages, sixty-one in number, with six exceptions, are
all bhaiy&chari, divided into infinitesimal shares among the whole of the com-
munity ; so that, barring a few shopkeepers and menial servants, every resident
is to some extent a proprietor. In the ordinary course of events, all would be,
not only members of the same caste, but also descendants of one man, the
founder of the settlement ; but in many instances, in spite of the right of pre-
emption, several of the subordinate shares have been bought up by outsiders.
A fresh assessment is made privately every year ; and, according to the amount
of land actually under cultivation, each tenant proprietor pays his quota of the
revenue at so much per bigha, and enjoys the remaining profits as his private
income. The Government demand is realized through the head-men or lumber-
dars, of whom there are generally several in each village. As a natural result
of this minute sub-division of estates, there is not a single landed proprietor in
the whole pargana of any social distinction. The two wealthiest inhabitants
are both traders in the town of Kosi — Chunni Lai, son of Mohan Lai, and
Kushali Ram, son of Lai Ji Mall — with incomes of Rs. 5,000 and Rs. 4,943 res-
pectively. The former has no land at all, the other owns one small village.

Of the six zamindari villages, only two were so previous to the last settlement;
viz., Pakkar-pur, the property of Kushali Ram above mentioned, and Jau, a
purchase of the Lata Biibu. The other four have acquired their exceptional
character only within the last few years ; Garhi having been bought from the Jats
by Sah Kundan Lai, of Lakhnau; Ma j hoi and Ram-pur having been conferred,
after the mutiny, on Raja Gobind Singh, of Hathras, and Chauki on Shiv Sahay
Mall, of Delhi, at the same time. One niahal of Chaundras has also quite re-
cently been constituted into a zamindari ; and two or three other villages, now
in the hands of money-lending mortgagees, will probably become so before long.

The Muhammadans number only 8,093 out of a total population of 65,293,
and, with the exception of a few scattered families, are almost confined to seven
places, viz., Barha, Bisambhara, Dotana, Jalal-pur, Kosi, Mahroli, and Shahpur.

358 PARGANA KOSI.

At three of these, viz., Bisambhara, Dotana, and Jalal-pur, they even slightly
out number the Hindus.

The predominant Hindu castes ai-e Jats, Jadons and other Gaurua, i.e.,
spurious, Thakur tribes. There are also a considerable number of Giijars,
though these latter have now in every place ceased to be proprietors. They
muster stronger in the adjoining pargana of Chhata, and were ringleaders of
disaffection during the mutiny. In consequence, eight of their villages — Majhoi
and Ram-pur in Kosi, Basai, Husaini, Jatwari, Karahri, Khursi and Ujhani
in Chhata — were confiscated and conferred on Raja Gobind Sinh. They had
previously disposed of their four other Chhata villages, Chamar-garhi, Dhimri,
Gulal-pur and Pir-pur, to the Lala Babii. The course of years has not reconciled
the ejected community to their changed circumstances, and so recently as the
29th of September, 1S72, the widowed Ranf s agent, Jay Ram Sinh, was, in
result of a general conspiracy, barbarously murdered at night while sleeping in
the Jatwari chaupdl. Six of the murderers were apprehended, and, after
conviction of the crime, were sentenced to death, but one escaped from the jail
before the sentence was executed.

In the year 1857, the period, during which there was no recognition of
government whatever, extended from the 12th of July to the 5th of December.
With the exception of the Gujars, who assembled at Sher-garh and distinctly
declared themselves independent, there was little or no ill-feeling towards the
British Crown expressed by any class of the population ; though many persons
took advantage of the favourable opportunity for paying off' old scores against
ill neighbours, and especially for avenging themselves on their natural enemies,
the patwdris, or village accountants, and Bolmis, or money-lenders. Thus
there was a pitched battle between Hathana and the adjoining village of Banswa
in Gurgaon ; the patwaris at Barha and Bisambhara had all their papers des-
troyed ; at Pakharpur, Ganga Dan, bohra, was plundered by the zamindars of
Kadona and Sirthala ; at Kotban, Dhan-raj, bohra, was only set at liberty on
payment of a ransom ; and at Little Bathan, Lekhraj, bohra, after seeing all his
papers seized and burnt, was himself put to death. The Jats of Kaiuar, after
plundering Moti Ram, bohra, proceeded to turn the police out of the place, and
raised a flame which spread across the border into the adjoining district. ; but
they afterwards atoned for this indiscretion by the assistance which they gave to
the Deputy Collector, Imdad AH, in suppressing the Gujars.

The trees most commonly found growing wild in the pargana are the nim
and the pilil, while every piece of waste ground (and there are several such

TARGANA KOSI. 359

tracts of large extent,) is dotted with clumps of karll. The soil is not suited to
the growth of the mango, and there are scarcely any considerable orchards either
of that or indeed of any other fruit tree ; the one at Shah-pur being the only
notable exception. Of the total area of 97,301 acres, there are 71,490 of
arable land ; the crops most extensively grown being jour, chana, and barley.
The wheat sold at the Kosi market comes chiefly from across the Jamuna,.
The number of wells has been much increased in late years and is now put
at 1,379, of which 84b' are of masonry construction. The Jamuna, which forms
the eastern boundary of the pargana, is crossed by ferries at Shah-pur, Khairal,
and Majhoi. The new Agra Canal passes through the villages of Hathana,
Kharot, Hasanpur Nagara, Kosi, Aziz-pur, Tumaula, and Dham Sinha, a length
of ten miles, and is bridged at Kharot, Kosi, Aziz-pur, and Tumaula. The high
road to Delhi traverses the centre of the pargana, passing through the town of
Kosi and the villages of Kotban, Aziz-pur, and Dotana ; and from the town of
Kosi there is a first-class unmetalled road to Sher-garh, a distance of eleven
miles. The Halkabamli, or Primary, schools are twelve in number, being one
for every five villages, an unusually favourable average : the attendance, how-
ever, is scarcely so good as in some other parts of the district ; as it is difficult
to convince a purely agricultural population that tending cattle is not always the
most profitable occupation in which boys can be employed.

In addition to the capital, there are only four places which merit special
notice, viz., Bathan, Dotana, Kumar, and Shah-pur.

Kosi is a flourishing municipality and busy market town, twenty-six miles
from the city of Mathura, most advantageously situated in the very centre of
the pargana to which it gives a name and on the high road to Delhi. As this
road was only constructed as a relief work in the famine of 18(>0, it avoids all
the most densely inhabited quarters, and the through traveller sees little from it
but mud walls and the backs of houses. The Agra Canal runs nearly parallel to
it still further back, with one bridge on the road leading to Majhoi and Sher-garh,
and another at Aziz-pur, a mile out of the town on the road to Mathura.

The zamindars are Juts, Shaikhs, and Brahmans ; but the population,
which amounts to 11,231, consists chiefly of baniyas and Muhammadan kasdbs,
or butchers, who are attracted to the place by its large trade in cotton and
cattle. It is estimated that about 75,000 mans of cotton are collected in the
course of the year and sent on down to Calcutta.

* The outturn of cotton for the whole district was estimated in the year 1872-73 at 225,858
mans ; the exportation therefore must be very considerable.

360 PARGANA EOSI.

The nakhhJids, or cattle market, is of large extent and supplied with every
convenience — a fine masonry well, long ranges of feeding troughs, &c. On every
beast sold the zamindars levy a toll of two anas, and the Chaudharis as much •
in consideration for which payment they are bound to maintain two chaukidars
for watch and ward, and also to keep the place clean and in repair. Prices,
of course, vary considerably, but the following may be taken as the average
rates : — Well-bullocks from Rs. 30 to Rs. 60 each; cart-bullocks from
Rs. 50 to 75 ; a cow from Rs. 15 to 50 ; a calf from Rs. 10 to 30 ; a
buffalo from Rs. 25 to 50 ; and a male buffalo calf from Rs. 2 to 10. There
are two market days every week, on Tuesday and Wednesday ; and in 1868-69,
when a tax of one and a quarter ana was levied on every beast sold, it yielded
as much as Rs. 2,lS8-13-0 ; the zamindars' receipts at two anas a head and the
Chaudharis' at the same rate amounted to Rs. 3,502-2-0 each. Takinrr Rs. 25 as
an average price per head, which would be rather below than above the mark, the
amount of money changing hands in the course of the year was Rs. 7,00,425.
The exports of grain are put at 200,000 mans and there are in the town some 100
hhattas, or cellars, ordinarily well filled with reserve stores for the consumption,
not only of the residents, but also of the numerous travellers passing up and
down the great thoroughfare on which the town stands, and who naturally take
in at Kosi several days' supplies, both for themselves and their cattle.
There is also very considerable business done in country cloth, as all the
villages in the neighbourhood are purely agricultural, and supply most of their
wants from the one central mart.

As the town lies in a hollow, it is liable to be flooded after a few days' con-
tinuance of heavy rain by a torrent which pours in upon it from Hodal.
This was the case in 1873, when much damage was done to house property ; and
the subsequent drying up of the waters — which was a tedious process, there
being no outlet for their escape — was attended with very general and serious
sickness. The only remedy lies in developing the natural line of drainage, and
the necessity of some such operation has forced itself upon the notice of the
canal department ; but no definite steps have yet been taken in the matter.

The income of the municipality is about Rs. 12,000 per annum ; but this
sum is a very inadequate test of the actual trade done, since there is no duty
either on cotton or on cattle, excepting beasts intended for slaughter.

The area of the parish is 2,277 acres, on which the Governmeut demand
used to be Rs. 6,700 ; but the assessment was proved to be too severo by the
distress it caused to the zamindars, and it was reduced to Rs. 4,790.

PARGANA KOSI. 361

The principal annual mela.i, or fairs, are — 1st, the Dasahara, only started
between forty and fifty years ago by Lain Singh, khattri, and Darbari Singh,
baniya ; 2nd, the Miiharram ; and 3rdly, the Phul-dol, on Chait badi 2,
which is a general gathering for all the Jats of the Donda gal from Dah-ganw
Kot-ban, Nabi-pur, Umraura, and Nagara Hasan-pur.

In the centre of the town stands a large Sarae, covering nineaud-a-half biglias
of land, with high embattled walls, corner kiosques, and two arched gateways, all
of stone, ascribed to Khwaja I'tibar Khan, governor of Delhi, in the reign of
the Emperor Akbar. On the inside there are ranges of vaulted apartments all
round, and the principal baz.ir lies between the two gateways. The building
has been partially repaired by the municipality at a cost of Rs. 4,000, and if the
inner area could be better laid out, it might form a remunerative property. At
present it yields only an income of between Its. 300 and 400 a year ; even that
being a considerable increase on what used to be realised. A large masonry
tank, of nearly equal area with the sarae, dates from the same time, and is
called the Ratnakar Kund, or more commonlyr the ' pakka talao.' Unfortu-
nately it is always dry except during the rains. The municipality were desir-
ous of having it repaired, but it was found that the cost would amount to
Rs. 3,500, a larger sum than the funds could afford. The enclosing walls are
twenty feet high and the exact measurement is 620 by 400 feet. Three other
tanks bear the names of Maya-kund, Bisakha-kund, and Gomati-kund, in
allusion to places so styled at the holy city of Dwaraka, or Kusasthali — a cir-
cumstance which has given rise to, or at least confirms, the popular belief that
Kosi is only a contraction of Kusasthali. The Gomati-kund, near which the
fair of the Phul-dol is held, Chait badi 2, is accounted the most sacred and
is certainly the prettiest spot in the town. The pond is of considerable size,
but of very irregular shape and has a large island in the middle. There are
two or three masonry ghats, constructed by wealthy traders of the town, and
on all sides of it there are a number of small shrines and temples overshadowed
by fine kadamb, pipal, and bar trees, full of monkeys and peacocks ; while the
tank itself is the favourite haunt of aquatic birds of different kinds. There are
a few handsome and substantial private houses in the quarter of the town called
Baladeva Ganj ; but as a rule the shops and other buildings have a very mean
appearance ; and though there are a number of Hindu temples and four mosques,
they, too, are all quite modern and few have any architectural pretensions.

A little beyond the town on the Delhi side close to the new canal and not
far from tho Idguh is a tirath called Mabhai, with a masonry tauk and temple,

362 PARGANA KOSI.

which is looked after by a Pandit of the Radha Ballabh sect, called Bal-mukund.
When I went to see him, he would only talk in Sanskrit and derived the name
of the place from Md bhaishih, ' fear not,' the exclamation of Krishna to the
herdsmen when the forest was set on fire. But there was an old fort of the
same name in the Bulandshahr district near the town of Khurja, where no
such legendary explanation would be applicable. The word is a peculiar one,
and I am unable to offer any suggestion regarding it.

The Saraugis, or Jainis, have three temples at Kosi, dedicated respectively
to Padma-Prabhu, the sixth of the Jinas or Tirthankaras ; Nein-mith, or
Arishtanemi, the twenty-second ; and Mahavira, or Varddhamana the twenty-
fourth and last of the series,* who is supposed to have died about the year
500 B. C. A festival is held at the temple of Nem-mith, which is the smallest
and most modern of the three, on the day after the full moon of Bhadon, when
water is brought for the ablution of the idol from a well in a garden at some
little distance. Any processional display, or beating of drums, or uttering of a
party cry is so certain to result in a riot that extra police are always told off to
prevent anything of the kind, and to confine every religious demonstration
strictly within the walls of the temple. The antipathy to the rival faith on the
part of the Vaishnava Hindus is so strong that it is ordinarily expressed by
saying that it would be better, on meeting a mad elephant in a narrow street,
to stand still and be trampled to death than to escape by crossing the threshold
of a Jaini temple.

As regards the essential matters of conservancy, water supply and road
communication, the condition of the town is satisfactory and has been much
improved by municipal action. Most of the streets are either metalled or paved,
and lighted by lamps at night. A neat dispensary has been opened and is well
attended, though as yet it has no accommodation for indoor patients. A small
bungalow has been built for the meetings of the committee and for occasional
use as a rest-house ; the ground between it and the dispensary being laid
out as a garden for the supply of fruit and vegetables and as a decorative
feature at the entrance of the town. Anew market was also designed with
lines of substantial brick-built and stone-fronted shops of uniform character,
arranged on three sides of a square, which was secured end levelled for the pur-
pose. In order to further the speedy completion of a work which it was thought
would so much improve both the appearance of the town and also the finances

* Each Tirthankara has his own distinctive sign: Mahavira, a lion ; PaJma-Prabhu, a
lotus ; Ncui-nath a conch ; Chandra- Prabliu, a moon, &c. ; and it is only by these marks that they
can be distinguished troui one another, as all are sculptured in the ■ami' attitude.

PARGANA KOSI. 363

of the municipality, a loan of Its. 12,000 was contracted, with the sanction of
Government, to be repaid in the course of four years by half-yearly instalments,
beginning from October, 1874. Before application was made for the loan,
Us. (3,000 had been already expended, and with a further allotment, to about
the same extent, from ordinary municipal income, the market might have been
completed by the end of 1878. But unexpected changes in the schedule of
taxation reduced the octroi receipts so considerably that the annual income
was nearly all exhausted by the charges for establishment, repairs, and the
repayment of the loan. Thus the work dragged slowly on ; and since I have
left the district has come, I believe, to a dead stand-still. At its commence-
ment an illustration was afforded of the extraordinary mania with which the
local baniyas are possessed for hoarding large quantities of grain. This they
do in the hope that a year of famine will come when they will be able to
realise a rapid fortune by selling their stores at enormously high rates. As
the grain is simply thrown into a pit sunk in the ground, and no precautions
taken to preserve it from the damp, in a few years the greater part of it be-
comes quite unfit for human consumption, and its sale would only increase the
general distress by spreading disease. This, however, is a consideration which
has no influence on the mind of a baniya : he has a fixed method of squaring
accounts with Providence, and holds that the foundation of a sumptuous temple,
at the close of his life, is an ample atonement for all sins of fraud and peculation,
and the only one which Divine justice is entitled to demand from him. Such
a pit came to light after the heavy rains of 1873. Five of the shops then in
course of construction began to settle and give way to such an extent that they
had to be taken down On digging a few feet below the foundations to ascer-
tain, if possible, the cause of the accident, a subterranean granary was revealed
with an invoice stating that it had been filled in Sambat 1898 (1841 A.D.), and
contained in all 1,303 mans of different kinds of grain. The greater part of
this was so much damaged that it had to be destroyed, and the sale of the
remainder realised only Rs. 324, which did not cover the cost incurred in dig-
ging it out, filling up the pit, and rebuilding the shops.

The tahsili school was built by the Public Works Department at a cost of
Rs. 6,000. The police, maintained by the municipality on an annual grant
ofRs. 1,800, are located in a corner of the sarae, with an entrance made
through the old wall directly on to the high road, opposite the parao. The
latter is the property of private individuals, who levy a toll on every animal or
vehicle driven into its enclosure, —the rates being fixed by the municipality —
and pay Rs. 10 a month for the monopoly.

864 PAROANA KOSI.

On the 31st of May, 1857, the rebels on their march to Delhi stopped at
Kosi and, after burning down the Customs bungalow and ransacking the police
station, proceeded to plunder the tahsili, but lis. 150 was all that they found
in the treasury there The records were scattered to the four winds, but
■were to a great extent subsequently recovered. The Musalmans of Dotana,
the Jats of Aziz-pur, and the Giijars of Majhoi and R.'un-pur lent a willing hand
to any deed of mischief ; but the townspeople and the inhabitants of the ad-
joining villages of Hasan-pur Nagara, Umraura, Dah-ganw and .NaU-pur, gave
what assistance they could in maintaining order, and as an acknowledgment
of their good behaviour one year's jama was remitted and a grant of Rs. 50
made to each lumberdar. The position of the town between Agra and Delhi
and the strength of its fortified sarae have rendered it a place of some impor-
tance at other periods of local disturbance. Thus, in 1774, the Jat Raja,
Ran jit Sinh, on his retreat to Barsana, occupied it for some time and again,
in 1282, after the death of Najaf Khan, his nephew', Mirza Shan , fled to it as a
temporary refuge from before his rival Afrazyab Khan.

Bathan, Great and Little, are two populous and extensive Jat villages
(the former with a Halkabandi school) in the immediate neighbourhood of the
town of Kosi. According to popular belief, the name is derived from the
circumstance that Balarama here sat down ' (fiaithen) to wait for his brother
Krishna' ; but like so many of the older local names, which are now fancifully
connected with some mythological incident, the word is really descriptive simply
of the natural features of the spot,' batJian being still employed in some parts
of India to denote a pasture-ground for cattle. In the same way Brinda-ban,
' the tulsi grove,' is now referred to a goddess Vrinda ; Loh-ban, 'the lodhri
grove,' to a demon Loha-jangha ; and Kotban, ' the limit or last of the groves,'
to a demon Kota, whose head was tossed to Sirthala, and his hands to Hatbana.
On the outskirts of Great Bathan is an extensive sheet of water with a mason-
ry ghat built by Riip Ram, the Katara of Barsana, which, by its name
Balbhadra-Kund, has either occasioned, or at least serves to perpetuate the
belief that Balarama was the eponymous hero of the place. Here, on Choit badi
3, is held the Holanga Fair, when some 15,000 to 16,000 people assemble and
a sham tight takes place between the women of Bathan, who are armed with
clubs, and the men from the neighbouring village of Jav, who defend themselves
with branches of the acacia. At a distance of two miles, between two smaller
groves, each called Padar Ganga, the one in Bathan, the other in Jav, is Kokila-
ban, the most celebrated in Hindi poetry of all the woods of Braj : so much bo,

PARGANA KOSI. 36.5

indeed, that the word is often used as a synonyme for ' the garden of Eden.'
It comprises a wide and densely-wooded area,* the trees becoming thicker
and thicker towards the centre, where a pretty natural lake spreads cool and
clear, and reflects in its deep still waters the over-hanging branches of a magni-
ficent banyan tree. It is connected with a masonry tank of very eccentric
configuration, also the work of Rup Ram ; on the margin of which are several
shrines and pavilions for the accommodation of pilgrims, who assemble here to
the number of some 10,000, Bhadon sudi 10, when the Ras Lila is celebrated.
There is also a walled garden, planted by a Seth of Mirzapur, who employed
as his agent Ghan-pat Ram, one of the Kosi traders. It has a variety of
shrubs and fruit trees ; but, like most native gardens, is rapidly becoming a
tangled and impenetrable jungle. Adjoining it is a bdrah dari, or pavilion,
constructed in 1870, by Nem Ji, another Kosi baniya, out of money left for the
purpose by his brother Bansidhar. A fair is held in the grove every Saturday
and a larger one on every full moon, when the principal diversion consists in
seeing the immense swarms of monkeys fight for the grain that is scrambled
among them. The Bainigi belongs to the Nimbarak Sampradaya.

Between Kokila-ban and the village is another holy place, called Kabir-ban
besides the Padar-Ganga. The origin of the word Padar is obscure: it is inter-
preted by hara, 'green,' and therefore may be a corruption of the Sanskrit
pddapa, ' a tree.'t

At little Bathan, a curious ridge of rock, called Charan Pahar, crops up
above the ground, the stone being of precisely the same character as at Barsana
and Nand-ganw. It was once proposed to utilize some of it for engineering
purposes, but such strenuous objections were raised that the design was never
carried into execution. The name of the present hermit is Radhika Das. This,
it is said, was one of the places where Krishna most delighted to stop and play
his flute, and many of the stones are still supposed to bear the impress of his
' feet,' charan. The hill is of very insignificant dimensions, having an average
height of only some twenty or thirty feet, and a total length of at most a quarter
of a mile. On the rock are several specimens of the tree called Indrajau
IWrigktia tinctoria), which I have not seen elsewhere. In the cold weather it is
almost entirely bare of leaves, but bears bunches of very long slender dark-green

• H is 212 bighas in extent; 64 bighas being held rent-free by the Mahant of the Hermitage
who »1bo haB all the pasturage and fallen timber of the whole area, with a further endowment of
22 bighae of arable land in Jar.

| Ii is mentioned by name in the Vraja-bhakti-rilasa ■i»rU"g TcJ^

366 PARGANA KOSI.

pods, each pair cohering lightly at the tip. There is also an abundance of a
scraggy shrub called Ganger, a species of Grewia (?) and a creeper with white
sweet-scented flowers which may be the zedoavy. Its native name is nirbisi.
In the small belt of jungle, which environs the hill, may also be found almost
every variety of the curious inedible fruits for which Braj is noted, riz., the
karil, piln, pasendu, hingot, barna, and anjan-rukh. A little beyond the neigh-
bouring town of Kamar, just across the Gurgaon border, is a very similar ridge
called the Biclior hill, from a large village of that name.

DotXna, population 1,185, is a Muhammadan village on the high road
between Kosi and Chhata with a number of old buildings which are sure to attract
the traveller's attention. There are seven large tombs dating from the time of
Shahjahan and Aurangzeb if not earlier (there are no inscriptions) three
mosques of the same period, erected respectively by Inayat-ullah Khan,
Kazi Haidar Khan and ltuh-ullah Khan ; a modern mosque founded by Abd-ul
Barkat, and four small gardens.

A masonry tank, which covers an area of 12 bighas and is in good>
repair, though dry for the greater part of the year, is said to have been
constructed by the village founder Kabir-ud-din Auliya. One of his most
illustrious descendants was Sadullah Khan, from whom the town of Sadabad
derives its name, the minister of Shahjahan, in whose reign Dotana is said to
have been a large town. Shernagar originally belonged to the same family, and
three members of it are commemorated by the three Pattis, called respectively
Lai, Ruh-ullah and Malak. A distributary of the canal runs within a few-
yards of the tank, which might easily be filled from it. Near it is the tomb of
Kudus and Anwar, two of the village patriarchs.

Many of the iarge brick houses in the village are in a most ruinous condi-
tion, and the zamindars are now in poor circumstances. In the mutiny they
joined the rebels in plundering the Kosi Tahsili, and part of their estate was
confiscated and bestowed on Kunvar Sham Prasad, a Kashmiri, formerly
Tahsildar of Maha-ban, who has transferred it to his sister, Maharani. The
name Dotana is thought to be derived from Danton, a tooth-brush, and if so,
is rather suggestive of Buddhist legends. The place is mentioned by Bishop
Heber in his Journal, who writes : " January 7th, 1825. — Traversed a wild but
more woody country to Dotana. Here I saw the first instance of a custom
which I am told I shall see a good deal of in my southern journey, a number
of women, about a dozen, who came with pitchers on their heads, dancing and
singing to meet me. There is, if I recollect right, an account of this sort of dance

PARGANA KOSI. 367

in Kehama. They all professed to bo Gopis, or milk-maids, and are in fact, as
the thanadar assured me, the wives and daughters of the Gwala caste. Their
voices and style of singing were by no means unpleasant ; they had all the appear-
ance of extreme poverty, and I thought a rupee well bestowed upon them,
for which they were very thankful." There can be no doubt also that this is the
place to which John de Laet, in 1631, alludes in his India Vera, though he
calls it Akbar-pur, the name of the next village. "This was formerly a consi-
derable town ; now it is only visited by pilgrims who come on account of many
holy Muhammadans buried here." Annual fairs are still held in honor of
three of these holy men, who are styled Hasan Shahid, Shah Xiz;im-ud-din,
and Pir Shakar-ganj, alias Baba Farid. The shrines, however, are merely
commemorative and not actual tombs ; for Hasan, ' the Martyr,' is probably
Ali's son, the brother of Hussain ; Xizamud-din Aulia is buried at Delhi ;
and the famous Farid-ud-din Ganj-i-Shakkar lies at Pak Patan near the
Satlaj.

Ka'mab, population 3,771, six miles from Kosi on the Gurgaon border, is still
a populous Jiit town with a considerable trade in cotton ; but in the early part
of last century was a place of much greater wealth and importance, when a daugh-
ter of one of the principal families was taken in marriage by Thakur Badan Sinh
of Sahar, the father of Suraj Mall, the first of the Bharat-pur Rajas. On the out-
skirts of the town is a large walled garden with some monuments to his mother's
relations, and immediately outside it a spacious masonry tank filled with water
brought by aqueducts from the surrounding raUii/a. This is more than a thou-
sand acres in extent, and according to village computation is three kos long,
including the village, which occupies its centre. For the most part the trees are
exclusively the pilu, or salvadora oleoides, very old, with hollow trunks and
strangely gnarled and distorted branches. The fruit, which ripens in Jeth, is
sweet and largely eaten by the poor, but as a rule not sold, though some is
occasionally dried and exported. A Bairagi of the Nimharak Sampradaya, by
name Mangal Das, has a hermitage with a small temple of Bihari Ji, in the
midst of some fine kadamb trees, which form a conspicuous group at one end of
the rakhya. He has a great reputation for sanctity and the offerings made
during the last 30 years have enabled him to have a fine masonry tank con-
structed, of great depth, at an outlay of Bs. 2,500 ; from its appearance it might
be taken to have cost even more. It is filled to the brim in the rains, but soon
becomes dry again ; a defect which he hopes to obviate by paving it at the bottom.
It is about half a mile from the village and is a pretty spot. Had I remained
in the district, I should have got the tank finished ; arrangements were being

368 PARGANA KOSI.

made when the order came for my transfer. At a rather greater distance in
the opposite direction is a lake with unfinished stone ghats, the work of Raja
Suraj Mall ; this is called Durvasas-kund, after the irascible saint of that name ;
but there is no genuine tradition to connect him with the spot ; though it is
sometimes said that the town derives its name from a ' blanket ' (kamal) with
which Krishna persuaded him to cover his nakedness. Among the trees on the
margin of the lake are some specimens of the Khanddr or Salvadora Punica.
This is less common than the oleoides species, and is a prettier tree and blossoms
earlier. Its fruit, however, is bitter and uneatable. In the town are several
large brick mansions built by Chaudharis Jasavant Sinh and Sita Ram, the
Raja's connections, and one of them has a fine gateway in three stories, which
forms a conspicuous land mark : but all are now in ruins. At the back of the
artificial hill on which they stand, and excavated to supply the earth for its
construction, is a third tank of still greater extent than the other two, but of
irregular outline, and with only an occasional flight of stone steps here and there
on its margin.

A temple of Siiraj Mall's foundation, dedicated to Mad an Mohan, is spe-
cially affected by all the Jats of the Bahin-war pal,* who are accounted its
chelas, or sons, and assemble here to the number of some 4,000, on Chait badi
2 and the following day, to celebrate the mela of the Phul-dol. The school, a
primary one, is not a very prosperous institution. The Chaukidari Act has been
extended to the town ; but it yields a monthly income of only Rs. (JO, which,
after payment of the establishment, leaves an utterly insignificant balance
for local improvements. The only work of the kind which has been carried
out is the metalling of the principal bazar.

ShXh-PUR, under the Jats the head of a pargana, is a large but somewhat
decayed village on the bank of the Jamuna, some ten miles to the north-east
of Kosi. It is one of the very few places in this part of the country where
the population is almost equally divided between the two great religions of
India; there being, according to the census of 1881, as many as 1,137
Muhammadans to 1,08-1 Hindus. The total area is 3,577 acres, of which 2,263
are under the plough and 1,314 are unfilled. Of the arable land 612 acres are
watered by wells, which number in all 63 and are many of masonry construc-
tion. The Government demand is Rs. 3,907. The village was founded

• Pdl is the peculiar name for any subdivision of Jats. In the Kosi Pargana, the principal
Jat Pals in addition to the Bahin-war, who own Kumar and 11 other Tillages, are the Uenda,
Lokana, and Uhatona. Similarly every sub-di vision of McwatiB is called a chhat.

TAUGANA KOSI. 369

towards the middle of the sixteenth century, in the reign either of Sher Shah
or Salim Shah by an officer of the Court known as Mir Ji, of Biluch extrac-
tion, who called it Shahpur in honour of his royal master. The tomb of the
founder still exists not far from the river bank on the road to Chaundras.
It is a square building of red sandstone, surmounted by a dome and divided
on each side into three bays by pillars and bracket arches of purely Hindu
design. By cutting off the corners of the square and inserting at each angle an
additional pillar the tomb on the inside assumes the form of a dodecagon.
On the other side of the village, by the road to Bukharari, is another tomb, in
memory of Lashkar Khan, a graudson of the village founder: it is solidly con-
structed of brick and mortar, but quite plain and of ordinary design. Nearly
opposite is the hamlet of Chauki with the remains of a fort erected by Nawab
Ashraf Khan and Arif Khan, upon whom Shah-pur with other villages, yield-
ing an annual revenue of Rs. 28,000, were conferred as a jagir for life by Lord
Lake. There is a double circuit of mud walls with bastions and two gateways
of masonry defended by outworks, and in the inner court a set of brick build-
ings now fallen into ruin. This was the ordinary residence of the Nawab,
and it was during his lifetime that Shah-pur enjoyed a brief spell of prosperity
as a populous and important town. It would seem that the fort was not entirely
the work of Ashraf Khan, but had been originally constructed some years
earlier by Agha Haidar, a local governor under the Mahrattas, who also planted
the adjoining grove of trees.

The village has continued to the present day in the possession of Mir Ji's
descendants, to one of whom, Fazil Muhammad, the great grandfather of Natha
Khan, now lumberdar, we are indebted for the large bagh, which makes Shah-
pur the most agreeable camping place in the whole of the Kosi pargana. It
covers some sixty or seventy bighas, and, besides containing a number of fine
forest trees, mango, jdman, mahua and labera, has separate orchards of limes
and her trees; while the borders are fenced with the prickly ndg-pliani interspersed
with nims and babiils, having their branches overspread with tangled masses of
the amar-bel with its long clusters of pale and faint-scented blossoms. The
yearly contracts for the different kinds of fruit yield close upon Rs. 1,000.
Though a mile or more from the ordinary bed of the river, it is occasionally, as
for example in the year 1871, flooded to the depth of some two or three feet by
the rising of the stream. The more extensive the inundation, the greater the
public benefit ; for all the fields reached by it produce excellent rabi crops with-
out any necessity for artificial irrigation till, at all events, late in the season.
In the village are three mosques, but all small ; as the Muhammadan population,

370 PARGANA KOSI.

though considerable, consists, to a great extent, merely of kasdbs ; there is also &
temple erected by the Mahrattas. The chief local festivals are the Dasahara for
Hindus and the Muharram for Muhammadans, both of which attract a large
number of visitors from the neighbourhood. There is a weekly market on
Monday and a small manufacture of earthen hdndis. The halkabandi school,
which, for some years, maintained only a struggling existence, has been better
attended of late, since the completion of the new building.

I I.-P ARGANA CHHATA.

The pargana of Chhata lias a population of 84,598 and an area of 256 square
miles. It lies immediately to the south of Kosi, with the same boundaries as
it to the west and east, viz., the State of Bharat-pur and the river Jamuna ;
and, further, resembles its northern neighbour in most of its social and physical
characteristics. Being the very centre of Braj, it includes within its limits
many of the groves held sacred by the votaries of Krishna ; but, with the
exception of these bits of wild woodland, it is but indifferently stocked with
timber, and the orchards of fruit trees are small and few in number. The
principal crops are j oar and chand, there being 63,000 acres under the former,
and 29,000 grown with chand out of a total area of 160,433. A large amount
of cotton is also raised, the ordinary outturn being about 20,000 mans. But
the crop varies greatly according to the season ; and in 1873 did not exceed
1,500 mans, in consequence of the very heavy and continuous rains at the
beginning of the monsoon, which prevented the seed from being sown till it
was too late for the pod to ripen. The coarse sandstone, which can be obtained
in any quantity from the hills of Nand-gtinw and Barsana, is not now used to
any extent for building purposes, but it is the material out of which the impe-
rial saraes at Ohhata and Kosi were constructed, and is there shown to be both
durable and architecturally effective. The western side of the pargana is liable
to inundation in exceptionally rainy seasons from the overflowing of a large jliil
near Kama in Bharat-pur territory ; its waters being augmented in their sub-
sequent course by junction with the natural line of drainage extending down
from Hodal. In 1861, and again in 1873, the flood passed through Uncha-
giinw, Barsana, Chaksauli, and Hathiya, and extended as far even as Gobardhan;
but no great damage was caused, the deposit left on the surface of the land
being beneficial rather than otherwise.

The first assessment, made in 1809, was for Rs. 1,02,906. This was
gradually increased to Rs. 1,77,876, and was further enhanced by the last
settlement. Much land, formerly lying waste for want of water, was brought
under cultivation on the opening of the Agra Canal. This has a total length
of 11 miles in the pargana, from Bhadaval to Little Bharna, with bridges at
each of those places and also at Rahera and Sahar.

Till 1838 Sher-garh and Sahar were two separate parganas, subordinate
to the Aring tahsili : but in that year Sahar was constituted the headquarters of
a tahsildur, and so remained till the mutiny, when a transfer was made to

372 PARGANA CHHXTjf.

Chhata. Tlie latter place has the advantage of being; on the highroad, and is
tolerably equi-distant from east and west, the only points necessary to be con-
sidered, on account of the extreme narrowness of the pargana from north to
south. Thus, its close proximity to the town of Kosi — only seven miles off — is
rather an apparent than a real objection to the maintenance of Chhata as an
administrative centre.

The predominant classes in the population are Jats, Jadons, and Gaurua
Thakurs of the Bdchhal sub-division ; while several villages are occupied almost
exclusively by the exceptional tribe of Ahivasis (see page 10) who are chiefly
engaged in the salt trade. A large proportion of the land — though not quite
to so great an extent as in Kosi — is still owned by the original Bhaiyachari
communities ; and hence agrarian outrage on a serious scale is limited to the
comparatively small area where, unfortunately, alienation has taken place, more
by improvident private sales, or well-deserved confiscation on account of the
gravest political offences, than from any defect in the constitution or adminis-
tration of the law. The two largest estates thus acquired during the present
century are enjoyed by non-residents, viz., the heirs of the Lala Babu (see pa<re
258), who are natives of Calcutta, and the Rani Sahib Knnvar, the widow of
Raja Gobind Singh, who took his title from the town of Hathras, the old seat
of the family, though she now lives with the young Raja at Brinda-ban. Of
resident landlords, the three largest all belong to the Dhiisar caste, and are as
follows : First, Kanhaiya Lai, Sukhvasi Lai, Bhajan Lai, and Biliari Lai, sons of
Ram Bakhsh of Sahar, where they have property, as also at Bharauli and three
other villages, yielding an annual profit of Rs. 3,53(3. Second, Munshi Nathu
Lai, who, for a time, was in Government service as tahsildar — with his son,
Sardar Sinh, also of Sahar, who have an assessable estate of Rs. 3,874, derived
from Astoli, Tatar-pur, and shares in nine other villages ; Nathu Lai's father,
Giridbar Lai, was sometime Munsif of Jalesar, and was descended from one
Harsukh Rae, who received from Raja Suraj Mall tlie grant of Tatar-pur, with
the title of Munshi, by which all the members of the family are still distinguished.
Third in the list is Laid Syam Sundar Das, son of Shiu Sahay Mall, a man of
far greater wealth — his annual profits being estimited at a lakh of rupees. He
is the head of a firm which has branch houses at Kanh-pur, Agra, and Amritsar,
and other places, and owns the whole of the large village of Naugama and half
of Taroli. For many years he was on the worst possible terms with bis tenants;
but the dispute between them has at last been amicably arranged, and during
the recent famine the oldest son, Badri Prasad, came forward as one of the
most liberal landlords in the district.

FARGANA CHHXTA". 373

The two places of most interest in the pargana, Barsana and Nand-ganw,
have already been fully described ; there remain Chaumuha, Chhata, Sahar,
Sohi, and Shergarh, which may each claim a few words of special mention.

Chaumuha1, population 2,275, on the high road to Delhi, 12 miles from tho
Mathura station, was included in the home pargana till the year 1816. It has
the remains of a large brick-built sarae, covering upwards of four bighas of land,
said to have been constructed in the reign of the Emperor Sher Shah. It now
brings in a rental of only some Its. 20 a year, being in a very ruinous state.
This fact, combined with the perfect preservation of the parallel buildings at
Chhata and Kosi, has given rise to a local legend that the work was bad in tho
first instance, and the architect, being convicted of misappropriating the funds
at his disposal, was, as a punishment, built up alive into one of the walls ; tho
corpse, however, has not been discovered. Immediately opposite its upper
gate, though at some little distance from it, stands one of the old imperial kos
minars. Though in itself a clumsy erection, it forms a picturesque object as
seen through the arch from inside the courtyard, and would make a pretty
sketch. When Madho Rao Sindhia was the paramount power, he bestowed this
and other villages in the Agra and adjoining districts on the celebrated pandit,
Ganga-dhar Shastri, who constituted them an endowment for educational pur-
poses. In 1824, one quarter of the estate was assigned to his sons Tika-dhar
and Murli-dhar ; the remainder, yielding an annual rental of Rs. 24,000, of
which Rs. 3,730 come from Chaumuha, is the property of the Agra College.
In the old topographies the sarae is described as situate at Akbar-pur, a name
now restricted to the next village, since the discovery of an ancient sculpture
supposed to represent the four-faced (chaumuha) god Brahma. It is in reality
the circidar pedestal of a Jaini statue or column, with a lion at each corner and
a nude female figure in each of the four intervening spaces : the upper border
being roughly carved with the Buddhist rail pattern. The inhabitants are
chiefly Gaurua Thakurs. A weekly market is held on Tuesday. There is a
primary school : also a bungalow occupied by an assistant patrol in the customs ;
a small new mosque inside the sarae ; a temple of Bihari Ji, built by Kasi Das,
Bairagi, some 200 years ago, and kept in repair by his successors ; and two
ponds known as Bihari-kund and Chandokhar. As a punishment for malpracties
during the mutiny, the village was burnt down, and for one year the Government
demand was raised to half as much again.

ChhAtX, since the mutiny the capital of the pargana, has a population of
6,014. It is on the high road to Delhi, 10 miles from Mathura, with a camping

374 PARGANA CHH^TA1.

ground for troops, about 46 bighas in extent. The principal feature of the town
is its sarae (already noticed at page 29), which covers an area of 20 bighas, its
walls measuring 732 feet by G94. Jacquemont, who saw it in the year 182','.
describes it as " a large fortress, of fine appearance from the outside, but it will
not do to enter, for inside there is nothing but misery and decay, as every-
where else, except perhaps at Mathura and Brinda-ban." He would find matters
improved now, for in 1876 I had a broad street laid out through the centre of
it from the one gate to the other, and at the time of my transfer it had become the
principal bazar in the town. I had also sent up an application to Government
for a grant of Rs. 3,500 for the repair of the gateways, which possess consider-
able architectural merit. The repair of the side walls and cells I had already
taken in hand and nearly completed, by means of small annual allotments out
of the chuukidari fund.

In 1857 the sarae was occupied by the rebel zamindars, and one of the
bastions (now built up square) had to be blown down before an entrance could
be effected. The town was subsequently set on fire and partially destroyed,
and twenty-two of the leading men were shot. It was originally intended to
confiscate the zamindars' whole estate, but eventually the jama was only raised
to half as much again for one year. The population are chiefly Jats, the next
most numerous class being Jadons. The name is derived by the local pandits
from the ClihaUra-dharana-lila, which Krishna is said to have held there ; but
there is no popular legend regarding such an event, nor any very ancient sacred
place in its vicinity ; though the Vraja-bhakti-vilasa (1553 A.D.) mentions,
it is true, a (Jhhattra-ban and a Sunvj-kuud. The latter is still in existence to
the north-east of the town, and is a large sheet of water with one good masonry
ghat built by a Brahman, Bijay Ram, an officer of the Bharat-pur Raj, who also
built the very large brick house adjoining it, now in ruins. All round the tank
are fine old trees and beyond it an extensive rukhya of chhonlcar, pilu, and hingot.
There is another tank on the Mathura road called Chandra-kund, which it
would be an improvement to deepen and embank. The word Chhata probably
refers to the stone chhattris which surmount the sarae gateways, and form
prominent objects in the landscape from a long distance. There is a tahsili
school, and a weekly market on Fridays. The Hindus have nine small temples
and the Muhammadans four mosques.

Saha'r— population 2,776 — seven miles from Chhata and nine from Gobar-
dhan, was, from 1838 to 1857, the headquarters of a tahsili. At the beginning
of last century it was a place of considerable importance under the Jats, being
the favourite residence of Tbakur Badan Sinh, the father of Siiraj Mall, the first

PARGANA CHHXl'X. 3~5

of the Bharat.-pur Rajas. The handsome house which he built for himself is now
unoccupied, and to a great extent in ruins ; and the very large masonry lank which
adjoins it was left unfinished at his death and has never since been completed.
The word Sahar would seem to have been originally either Sabha-ra, or Sabha-pur.
Probably the latter; for in the Mainpuri district there is a place called Sahawar,
which is clearly for Sabha-pur, and from which to Sahar the transition is an
easy one. The township is divided into two thoks, the one of Brahmans, the
other of Muhammadans, and the latter have four small mosques and a dargab.
The Government demand under the present settlement is (including nazal)
Rs. 5,392, collected by 16 lumberdars. Part of the land has been transferred
by the old proprietors to the two Dhiisar families that have been seated here
for some generations and are really the principal people in the place. In the
town are several old houses with carved stone gateways of some architectural
pretension; also a tank, with two masonry ghats, called Mahesar-kund, another
known as Manik-Das-wala-kund, and a small ruined temple of Baladeva.
There are a police station, a post-office, a weekly market held cm Wednesday, and
a very well-attended primary school. For the accommodation of the latter I
had a large and substantial building erected, in the form of a double corridor,
arched and vaulted, running round three sides of an open square, with a low
wall and central gateway on the fourth side or front. The cost was Rs. 1,858.

The Agra Canal runs close to the town and is bridged at the point where it
crosses the Gobardhan road. It would have been much better to have diverted
the road and so brought the bridge, which is now a mile away, nearer to the
town. As matters stand at present, the canal, instead of being a blessing, is an
intolerable nuisance. On account of the depth of its lied and the absence of
any distributary, no water can lie had from it for irrigation, while some hundreds
of acres that used to be close to their owners' doors can now be reached only
after a circuit of some three miles, and are, of course, very much lowered in
value.

In the mutiny there was no disturbance here except that the lock-up was
broken open, a suspected rebel let loose, and the patwiiri's papers seized and
destroyed.

A short time ago a dispute arose between the Muhammadans and the Hin-
dus as to the possession of a site on which they wished to erect, the one party a
mosque, the other a temple. The real fact, as afterwards more clearly appeared,
was that the Hindus had originally a temple there, which the Muhammadans
had thrown down and built a mosque over it. This, too, had fallen, and the

376 PARGANA CHEATA".

ground had for some years remained unoccupied. The case, when brought into
court, was decided in favour of the Hindus, who thereupon set to work and
commenced the erection of a shrine to be dedicated to Radha Ballabh. In die-

ging tho foundations, they came upon the remains of the old temple, which I
rescued and brought into Mathura. They consist of 10 large pillars and pilas-
ters, in very good preservation and elegantly carved with foliage and arabesques,
and also a number of mutilated capitals, bases, &c, the whole series proving an
interesting illustration of the mediaeval Hindu style of architecture. Their
value is increased by the fact that two of the shafts bear inscriptions, in which
the date is clearly given as Sambat 1128 (1072 A. D.) The style that I call
'the mediaeval Hindu,' and of which these pillars afford a good late example,
began about the year 400 A. D., and continued to flourish over the whole of
Upper India for more than seven centuries. It is distinguished by the constant
employment in the capital, or upper half column, of two decorative features, the
one being a flower-vase with foliage over-hanging the corners, and the other
a grotesque mask. The physiognomy of the latter is generally of a very un-
Indian type, and the more so the further we go back, as is well illustrated by a
pillar in the underground temple in the Allahabad Fort. The motif is precisely
the same as may be seen in many European cinque cento arabesques, where a
scroll pattern is worked up at the ends, or in the centre, into the semblance of
a human face. The fashion with us certainly arose out of the classic renaissance,
and in India also may possibly have been suggested by the reminiscence of a
Greek design. But it was more probably of spontaneous and independent
origin ; as also it was among our Gothic architects, in whose works a similar
style of decoration is not altogether unknown. In the earlier examples, such as
that at Allahabad, the face is very clearly marked ; though even there the hair
of the head and the moustaches are worked off into a scroll or leaf pattern. In
later work, of which numerous specimens may be seen in my collection of anti-
quities in the Mathura museum, the eyes are made so protuberant, and the
other features so distorted and confused by the more elaborate treatment of the
foliage and the introduction of other accessories, that the proportions of a human
face are almost and in some cases are altogether destroyed. The tradition
however exists to the present day ; and a Mathura stone-mason, if told to carve
a grotesque for a corbel or string-course of any building, will at once draw a
design in which are reproduced all the peculiarities of tho old models.

Sehi is a place of some note, as being tho centre of a clan of Gaurua, i.e.r
spurious, Thakurs, who derive their distinctive name of ' Baehhal ' from the
Baclih-bun here. They are numerous enough to form a considerable item in the-

TAIIGANA CHHA'TA'. 377

population of the pargana, where they once owned and where they still inhabit as
many as 24 villages, viz., Sehi, Chaumuha, Sihana, Akbarpur, Jaitpur, Bhau-
ganw, Mai, Basi Buzurg, Gangroli, Javali, Dalota, Siyara, Bahta, Kajiroth,
Agaryala, Taroli, Parsoli, Mangroli, Naugama, Undi, Gora, Rnnera, Bharauli
and Baroli. The Baehh-ban is now a ' grove ' only in name, and is accounted
one of the hamlets of the town. In it is the temple of Bihari Ji, to which tho
Bachhals resort ; the Gosains, who serve it, being accounted the Gurus of the
whole community. The name Sehi is probably derived from Sendhna, 'to exca-
vate,' as a great part of the village area (1,442 bighas) consists of broken ground
and ravines (khdr and bclmr). Other 106 bighas are occupied by tanks and ponds,
one of which is called Ritharo, another Bhabhardi, after the name of the Bach-
hal, who dug it in the famine of 1837. In 1842 the village was put up to
auction for arrears and bought in by Government. After being farmed for
some years by Kunvar Faiz Ali Khan, it was sold in 1862 for Rs. 4,800 to
Seth Gobind Das, who, in the following year, sold it to Swami Rangacharya,
the head of his temple at Brinda-ban, for Rs 10,000. The annual Government
demand is Rs. 6,100. There are four other hamlets in addition to the Bachh-ban,
called respectively Odhuta, Garh, Devipura (in the khddar) and Little Hazara.
The old khera bears the name of Indrauli, and is said to have been at one time
the site of a large and populous town. It was certainly once of much greater
extent than now, as is attested by the quantity of broken bricks that strew tho
adjoining fields; but there are no ancient remains nor traces of any large build-
ing. It is still, however, a fairly well-to-do place, most of the houses in the
bazar being of masonry construction, and a few of them partly faced with carved
stone. The school has an attendance of about 40 boys ; the population being
2,211. In the courtyard of the temple of Bihari Ji is a square chhattri of red
sand-stone with brackets carved in the same style as some in the Brinda-ban
temple of Gobind Deva; and of those that support the eaves of the temple itself
six are of the same pattern. The shrine has evidently been rebuilt at a much
later period; and on one of the pillars is cut a rough scrawl with the date Sambat
1805, which is no doubt the year of its restoration. In the village is a small
temple of Hanuman, recently rebuilt ; and outside, a semi-Muhammadan shrine,
erected by a chamar, Khumani, about the year I860. There are two annual
melas held at it, in Baisakh and Kartik, on the day of the full moon. They are
attended equally by Hindus and Muhammadans (as is the case with the shrine
of the Bare Miyan at Jalesar) and of the two ministers one is a Brahman, the
other a Musalman Fakir. A mosque which, seen from a little distance, looks
rather an imposing structure, was built by two Pathaus, Kasim Khan and Alam

378 PABGANA CHHXTA'.

Khan of Panipat, who had a jagir of 24 villages, 12 here and 12 about Sonkh.
Their descendants were reduced to poverty under the Bharat-pur Raj ; but one
of the family, Gulab, has lately in part repaired the mosque.

Sher-garh — population 4,712 — eight miles from Chhata, with which place
it is connected by a metalled road, derives its name from a large fort, now in
ruins, built by the Emperor Sher Sh:ih. The Jamuna, which once washed the
foot of its walls, is now more than a mile distant from it. The Hindus would
derive the name from Sihra, Krishna's marriage wreath ; but though this is
improbable, it is clear that there was a town here long before the time of Sher
Shah ; for in taking down one of the towers of the fort, I came upon a stone
carved with foliage of decidedly early Hindti or Buddhist character, with the
trefoiled circle so common in the Kashmir temples. There were six towers to
the fort and four gates, called the Dehli, the Madar, the Pani or water gate, and
the Khirki or postern. By the latter, which is now the most frequented of all,
is the school which I had built in 1875 at a cost of Rs. 1,933, in the same style
as the one at Sahar. The original zamindars were Pathans, but in 1859. in
execution of a decree held by Kishori Lai, Bohra, the whole of their estate,
excepting 1£ biswa, still held by the sons of the late Asaf Khan, a descendant
of the old family, was put up to auction and sold for Rs. 16,200 to Muhammad
Nur Khan of Merath, from whom it was purchased for Rs. 20,000 by Seth
Gobind Das. It now forms part of the endowment of the temple of Dwarakadhis
in the city of Mathura. In the mutiny, considerable alarm was caused to the
townspeople by the Giijars of the neighbouring villages, who made this their
centre, and whose estates were afterwards confiscated and bestowed on Raja
Gobind Sinh of Hathras. The Hindus have twelve small temples ; the Saraugis
one, dedicated to Parsvanath, and the Muhammadans three mosques. The
weekly market is held on Thursday. There is a police station, a district post-
office, and besides the school for boys there are two for girls, one of the latter
having been supported till his death by Asaf Khan. The town is singularly
well-supplied with roads, for, in addition to the one to Chhata, it has three
others (unmetalled) leading direct to Kosi, to Jait, and, across a bridge of boats,
to Noh-jhil.

III.— PARGANA MATHURA.*

The Mathura pargana is the last of the three lying to the west of the Jamuna.
It is the largest in the district, comprising as many as 247 villages and town-
ships, with a population of 220,307 and an area of 401 square miles. Under
the Jat and Mahratta Governments of last century its present area was in five
divisions — Aring, Sonkh, Sonsa, Gobardhan, and Farrah ; Aring being the
jdgir of Baja Bai, the queen of Daulat Rao Sindhia, who (if local traditions are
to be believed) inherited all the ferocious qualities of her infamous father Gat-
gay Shirzi Rao, the prepctrator of the massacre of Puna. In 1803, when the
country was ceded to the Company, two pari'anas were formed, Mathura and
Arino-, which were put under a single Tahsildar, who was stationed at the latter
place ; and this arrangement continued till 1868, when his office was transferred
to its present more appropriate location at the capital. The 84 villages, that had
previously constituted the Farrah parganah of the Agra district, were added
in 1878.

The first settlement was assessed at Rs. 5,149 for Matliura and Rs. 98,885
for Aring, making a total of Rs. 1,04.034, which was gradually increased to
Rs. 2,14,336 ; the actual area also having undergone considerable change.
For, in 1828, after the conclusion of the war with Durjan Sal, 15 villages on
the Bharatpur border were annexed, and about the same time several mudfi
estates in the neighbourhood of Mathura were resumed. The first contractor
for the Government revenue was a local magnate, whose name is still occasion-
ally quoted, Chaube Rudra-man, who, after one year, was succeeded by Khattri
Beni Ram.

In addition to the City, it includes within its limits some of the most no-
table places in the district — such as Brinda-ban, Gobardhan, and Radha-kund —
as also several large and populous villages which are of modern growth and have
no special characteristic beyond their mere size, as Parson, Phendar, Usphar
and others, each with two or three thousand inhabitants. The principal lauded
proprietors are the trustees of the Seth's temple at Brinda-ban : Gosain Puru-
shottam Lai of Gokul ; the Raja of Awa ; the heirs of the Laid Babii, in

*In Dr. Hunter's Imperial Gazetteer, under the letter S, between an article on Sadiya in
Assam and one on Sadras in the Madras Presidency, there is a brief notice with the curious head-
ing Sadk. This is described as being the south-western tahsil of the Mathura district ; as if
there were not necessarily a sadr, i.e. a home, or head-quarters, tahsil in every district in India.

380 PARGANA MATHURA'.

Calcutta ; and Seths Ghansyam D:is and Gobardhan Das of Mathura ; not one
of whom resides immediately upon his estate.

The predominant classes of the population are Jats, Brahmans, and
Gaurua Kachhwahas. The ancestor of all the latter, by name Jasnij, is
traditionally reported to have come at some remote, but unspecified, period
from Amber, and to have established his family at the village of Kota, whence it
spread on the one side to Jait, and on the other to Satoha, Giridhar-pur, Pali-
khera, Maholi, Nahrauli, Naugama, Nawada, and Tarsi ; which at that time
must have formed a continuous tract of country, as the villages which now
intervene are of much more modern foundation. The estates continued for the
most part with his descendants till the beginning of the present century ; but
seventy years of British legislation have sufficed to alienate them almost
entirely.

The most common indigenous trees are the nim, balul, remja, and kadamb :
and the principal crops tobacco, sugarcane, chand, cotton, and barley ; bajrd
and jour being also largely grown, though not ordinarily to such an extent as
the varieties first named. Wheat, which in the adjoining parganas is scarcely
to be seen at all, here forms an average crop. The cold-weather instalment of
the Government demand is realized principally from the outturn of cotton. An
average yield per acre is calculated at one man of cotton, seven of jour, three
of bdjrd, six of wheat, eight of barley, five of chand, eight of tobacco, and ten
and a half of gur, the extract of the sugarcane. The cost of cultivation per
acre is put at Rs. 7 for the kharif and Rs. 10 for rabi crops. The river is of
little or no use for irrigation purposes ; but after the abatement of the rains
it is navigated by country boats, which are always brought to anchor at night.
Water is generally found at a depth of 49 feet below the surface of the soil ;
and it is thus a matter of considerable expense to sink a well, more especially
as the saudiness of the soil ordinarily necessitates the construction of a
masonry cylinder. The Agra Canal has proved a great boon to the agri-
culturist; it has a length of 16 miles in the pargana, from Kouai to Sonoth,
with bridges at Basonti, Aring, Sonsa, Lal-pur, and Little Kosi.

ArITng — Population 3, 5 79 — nine miles from Mathura, on the high road to
Dig, was, from 1803 to 18f>8, the head of a tahsili, removed in the latter year to
the Civil Station. Near the canal bridge, the navigation channel to Mathura
branches off on the one side and on the other a distributary, that runs through the
villages of Usphar and Little Kosi. Till 1818 the town was a jagir of a Kashmir
Paudit, by name Baba Bisvamith. On his death it was resumed and assessed

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PARGANA MATHURA. 381

at Rs. 6,447, which sum has subsequently been raised to Rs. 10,000. In 1852,
the old Gaurua zamindiirs' estate was transferred at auction to Seth Gobind
Das, who has made it part of the endowment of his temple at Brinda-ban. In
the mutiny the rebels marched upon the place with the intention of plundering
the treasury, but were stoutly opposed by the zamindiirs and resident officials,
and driven back after a few shots had been fired. Lala Ram Bakhsh, the here-
ditary patwari, who also acted as the Seth's agent, was conspicuous for his
loyalty, and subsequently received from the Government a grant of Rs. 1,000
and the quarter jama of the village of Kothra, which he still enjoys. The
Tahsildar, Munshi Bhajan Lul, also had a grant of Rs. 1,200, and smaller
donations were conferred upon several other inhabitants of the town, chiefly
Brahmans. It is much to be regretted that a misunderstanding with regard
to the management of the estate has arisen within the last few years between
the Seth and his agent, the Lala, which threatens to sever entirely the lat-
ter's connection with the place. Aring is generally counted as one of the
24 Upabans, and has a sacred pond called Kilol-kund, but no vestige of
any grove. Various mythological etymologies for the name are assigned by
the local pandits ; but, as usual, they are very unsound. Probably the word is
a corruption of Arishta-gnima ; Arishta being the original Sanskrit form of ritha,
tho modern Hindi name of the Sapindus detergens, or soap-berry tree. The
Gosains would rather connect it with Arishta, the demon whom Krishna slew.
There is a school of the tahsili class (which hitherto has been liberally supported
by Lala Ram Bakhsh), a post-office, a police-station in charge of a Sub-
Inspector, and a customs bungalow, recently moved here from Satoha, Three
small temples are dedicated respectively to Baladeva, Bihari Ji, and Pipalesvar
Mahadeva; and the ruins of a fort constructed last century preserve the name
of Phunda Ram, a Jat, who held a large tract of territory here as a jagir under
Raja Suraj Mall of Bharat-pur. The Agra Canal passes close to the town, and
is bridged at the point where it crosses the main road. The market day is
Sunday. The avenue of trees extending from Mathura through Aring to
Gobardhan was mainly planted by Seth Sukhanand.

Aurangabad — population 2,219 — was originally a walled town. It is four
miles from the city of Mathura on the Agra road, and derives its name from the
Emperor Aurangzeb, who is said to have made a grant of it to one Bhi'm
Bhoj, a Tomar Thakur, with whose descendants it continued for many years.
For some time previously to 1861 it was however held rent-free by a Fakir,
commonly called Bottle Shah, from his bibulous propensities, a grantee of Daulat
Rao Sindhia. On his death it was assessed at Rs. 691, which was subsequently

382 PARGANA MATHURA\

raised to Rs. 898. The place is frequently, but incorrectly, called Naurangabad.
It also has the subsidiary name of Mohanpur, from one Mohan Lai, a Sanadh, a
man of some importance, who came from Mat and settled there last century. On
the bank of the Jamunais an extensive garden, and on some high ground near the
old Agra gate a mosque of the same age as the town, which presents rather
a stately appearance, being faced with stone and approached from the
road by a steep flight of steps. The weekly market is held on Friday, and is
chiefly for the sale of thread and cotton. The Government institutions consist
of a police-station and a school. For the accommodation of the latter, which for
some years past had borne an exceptionally high character, I had a handsome
and substantial building erected, with pillars and tracery of carved stone, which
now forms the most conspicuous ornament of the place. This was the last work
that I completed before I left the district. A view is given of it as an example
of the way in which the indigenous style of architecture can be adapted to
ordinary modern requirements. A reach of sandy and broken ground extends
from the town to the river, where a bridge of boats affords means of communi-
cation with Gokul and Maha-ban on the opposite bank. Aurangabad is the
chief place for the manufacture of wicker chairs and couches, which find a
ready sale among the English residents of the adjoining station.

Farah — population 3,642 — has a camping ground for troops on the high road
to Agra, from which district it has only lately been detached. It was founded
by Hamida Begam, the mother of the Emperor Akbar. About the year 1555,
during the exile of the Emperor Humayun the town was the scene of a battle
between Sikandar Shah (a nephew of Sher Shah) and Ibrahim Shah, in which
the latter was defeated, though he had with him an army of " 70,000 horse
and 200 persons, to whom he had given velvet tents, banners, aud kettle-drums."
Sikandar, whose force did not exceed 10,000 horse, offered peace upon condi-
tion of receiving the government of the Panjab, but on his overtures being
rejected, he joined in battle, and by his victory became sovereign of Agra and
Delhi, while Ibrahim fled to Sambhal.

Sonkh — population 4,126 — is on the road from Mathura to Kumbhir. It is
a very thriving aud well-to-do place, with a large number of substantial brick-
built shops and houses, many of them with carved stone fronts. Under the
Jats it was the head of a local Division. It is said by the Giosains — with their
usual absurdity — to derive its name from the demon Sankhasur ; but, accord-
ing to more genuine local tradition, it was first founded in the time of Anang
Pal, the rebuilder of Delhi, probably by the same Tomar chief who has left

PARGANA MATHURA*.

383

other traces of his name at Son, Sonsa and Sonoth. The ancestor of the pre-
sent community was a Jat, by name Ahlad, whose five sons — Asa, Ajal,
Piirna, Tasiha and Sahjua — divided their estate into as many separate shares,
which still bear their names and are to all intents and purposes distinct villages,
with the Sonkh bazar as their common centre. This lies immediately under
the Khera, or site of the old fort, of which some crumbling walls and bastions
still remain. It was built by a Jat named Hati Singh, in the time of Suraj
Mall of Bharatpur, or Jawahir Singh ; but the khera itself must be many hun-
dreds of years older. There are two market-places in it, the one belonging to
Sahjua, the other to the Piirna zamindars. The market day for the former is
Thursday, for the latter Monday. But a considerable amount of business is
transacted every day of the week ; there being as many as 200 baniyas' shops
and almost enough local trade to justify the incorporation of a Municipality.
In Sahjua there are several extensive orchards of mango and her trees, with an
octagonal stone chhattri (commemorating the grandfather of the present lum-
berdar), and three masonry wells of exceptionally large dimensions ; all attest-
ing the greater wealth and importance of the Jat proprietors during the short
period of the Bharat-pur Hegemony. About a mile from the bazar, just across
the Bharat-pur border, at a place called Gunsara, is a very fine masonry tank,
worthy of a visit from any one in the neighbourhood, being on the same scale
and in much the same style as the Kusum-Sarovar near Gobardhan. This was
the work of the Rani Lakshmi, the consort of Raja Randhir Sinh, who also built
the beautiful kunj that bears her name on the bank of the Jamuua at Brinda-
ban. The tank was not quite completed at the time of her death, and, according
to native custom, has never been touched since. Adjoining it is an extensive
walled garden overgrown with kldrni and other trees that are sadly in need of
thinning. In the centre is an elaborately carved stone plinth for a building that
was designed but never executed. Though the population of Sonkh exceeds
4,000, the school has an attendance of no more than sixty pupils, of whom only
six are the sons of the Jat zamindars. The five pattis stand as follows : —

Name.

Ajal
Ase
Purna

Sahjua

Tasiha

Total

Thoks.

Lumbet-

dars

Wells.

Popula-
tion

195

380

1,104

2,017
415

4,111

4
2

S
3

2
6
o

The Ajal thoks ate called Bhig-
mail, Jagiaj.Sirmaur. and Kunja.

Ase is now divided into two dis-
tinct niahals.

The Piirna thoks are named
Kisana and Isvar.

The Sahjua ; Biluchi and Bewal.

The Tasiha; Taj, Urang and
Manohar.

384 PAROANA MATHURA*.

Where the road branches off to Gobardhan is a towered temple of Maha-
deva, with a masonry tank of no great area, but very considerable depth, which
was commenced twenty years ago by a Bairagi, Ram Das. It is now all but
completed, after an outlay of Rs. 1,300, which ho laboriously collected in small
sums from the people of the neighbourhood, with the exception of Rs. 200 or
300, which were granted him from the balance of the Chaukidari fund. The
avenue of trees along the road between Sonkh and Gobardhan was almost
entirely planted by another Bairagi by name Salagram, who began the work
out of a donation made him by the deceased Raja of Bharat-pur on the birth of
his son and heir.

I V.— P ARGANA MAT.

The pargana of Mat is the most northern of the three on the east of the
Jamuna, and is a long, narrow, straggling tract of country lying between the
river and the Aligarh border. As it abounds in game of various kinds — black
buck, wild boar, and water-fowl — it has considerable attractions for the sports-
man ; but in every other point of view it is a singularly uninviting part of the
district. There are no largo towns, no places of legendary or historical interest,
no roads, no local trade 01 manufacture, and no resident families of any distinc-
tion. The soil also is generally poor, the water bad, and — except quite at the
north — there are few groves of trees to relieve the dusty monotony of the land-
scape. As if to enhance the physical disadvantages of the locality by an arti-
ficial inconvenience, the tahsili has been fixed at the mean little village of Mat
in the extreme south, on the very borders of the Maha-ban pargana ; though the
merest glance at the map will show that Surir — a place with a larger population
than Mat — is the natural centre of the division. Its recognition in that charac-
ter would be an immense boon both to Government officials and to the agricul-
turist. The present arrangement dates from a time when the pargana was of
very different extent, and Mat easily accessible from all parts of it. For, till
1860, it included the whole of tha Raya sub-division to the south ; while in the
north, Noh-jhil formed an entirely separate tahsili. This was more in accordance
with the division of territory existing in the reign of the Emperor Akbar, when
the whole of Mat proper came under Maha-ban, and Noh-jhil made part of
pargana Nob in the Kol Sarkar. Immediately before the cession of 1804, the
latter was the estate of General Perron ; while Mat, with Maha-ban, Sa'dabad,
and Sah-pau was held by General Duboigne.

As now constituted, the pargana has a population of 95,446, and an
area of 223 square miles, comprising 141 villages, which form 153 separate
estates. Of these, the great majority are bhaiyachari, and thus it comes
about that the richest resident landlords are the members of a Brahman family
quite of the yeoman class, living at Chhahiri, a hamlet of Mat. They are by
name Pola Ram and Parasuram, sons of Radha, and Kalhan, son of Bal-kishor,
and have jointly an assessable income of Rs. 9,276 a year, derived from lands
in Mat, Bijauli, Harnaul, Jaiswa, Jawara, Nasithi and Samauli. They have
lately been at considerable expense in building a school in their native place.
Three other men of substance, of much the same social position, are Lachhman,

9<7

386 PARC ANA M^T.

Brahman, of Bhadra-ban ; Serhu, Brahman, of Tenti-ka-ganw, and Lala Ram,
Baniya, of Jdwara. Of non-residents, Rao Abdullah Khan, of Salim-pur in
Aligarh, a connection of the Sa'dabad family, has estates about Kkanwal and
Karahri, on which the annual Government demand is about Rs. 2,000 ; the
Raja, of Mursau enjoys a royalty of Rs. 1,061 from the Dunetiya circle; and
Lalas Mahi Lai and Janaki Prasad own the two largo villages of Arua and
Bhadanwura.

After the mutiny, as many as eighteen villages (eleven in whole and seven
in part), belonging to the rebel leader Umrao Bahadur of Nanak-pur, were
confiscated, and all the proprietory rights conferred on Seth Lakhmi Chand
rent-free for the term of his natural life. On his death, the grant was further
extended to his son, Seth Raghunath Das, on payment of the half jama ; but
the muafi estate (being about Rs. 8,000 a year), which alone he retains in his
own hands, it may be presumed, will lapse entirely on the termination of the
second life. The zamindari was transferred to his uncle, the late Seth Gobind
Das, C.S.I , and by him constituted part of the endowment of the temple of
Dwarakadhis at Mathura. The original proprietor was a member of a family
that had always been in opposition to the British Government, and died fight-
ing against us at Delhi. Their principal seat was at Kumona in Bulandshahr,
where, in 1807, Dunde Khan, with his eldest son, Ran-mast Khan, who is said
to have been possessed of perfectly marvellous and Herculean strength, held the
fort for three months, though the garrison consisted of a mere handful of men.
After the surrender, a pension of Rs. 6,000 a year was settled upon Ran-mast
Khan, which his widow enjoyed till her death, an event which took place a few
years ago ; but the father's whole estate was declared forfeit and bestowed
upon Marrian Ali Khan of Chatari, a scion of the same stock. Umrao Bahadur
was the child by adoption of Dunde Khan's second son, Nawab Ashraf Khan
of Nanak-pur, and, as above mentioned, was killed in the rebel army before
Delhi. With him fell his youngest brother, Mazhar Ali Khan, who left a
son by name Rahim Khan, who is now either dead or at the Andamans ;
the sole surviving representative of the family being a son of Umrao Baha-
dur's— Amir Bahadur — who was too young to be engaged in the rebellion
with his father.

To the south of the pargana the predominant class are Gaurua Thakurs ; while
in the north the agricultural community are almost exclusively Jats, mainly
of the Nohwar sub-division. The principal winter crops are jodr, bdjra, maize
and cotton, the latter occupying some 13,000 acres, while til, arhar, and hemp
are also grown, but ordinarily in the same field with jodr. In the hot weather

PARGANA MAT. 387

about 24,000 acres are under chand, 18,000 under wheat, and 13,000 under
barley. Though there are indigo factories at four places, viz., Lohi, Karahri,
Bhalai and Arua, the first named has almost entirely suspended operations, and
at the other three the plant used is mainly grown in villages across the border
in the Aligarh district. The most productive lands are the alluvial Hats, which,
in the rains, form part of the river bed ; the high bank that bounds them is
generally bare and broken, and the soil further inland poor and sandy, where
the only trees that thrive well are nim, fardx and babul. Connection with the
opposite parganas of Kosi, Chhata, and Mathura, is maintained by two bridges
of boats (the one from Chhin-pahsiri by Noh-jhil to Sher-garh, the other from
Dangoli to Brinda-ban,) and as many as seven ferries, at Itae-pur, Faridam-pur,
Musmina, Surir, Ohawa, Iloli Guzar, and Mat. Scarcely any attempt has been
made to provide for internal communication. In the whole pargana there is
not a single yard of metalled road, except in the Mat bazar, where it has been
constructed out of the Chaukidari tax; the only bit of first-class unmetalled
road is the four miles from Noh-jhil to the Sher-garh bridge ; the remaining
thoroughfares are for the most part narrow, winding cart tracks, sunk so much
below the level of the adjoining fields that in the rains they assume the appear-
ance of small rivers. In 1856, a strip of laud was taken up of sufficient width
for the construction of a good broad road to extend from the Brinda-ban bridge
to the town of Noh-jhil, thus traversing all the southern half of the pargana.
But little was done beyond marking it out ; and as all the lower part of it for
some miles lies across the ravines, where it was annually cut away by the rains,
it was for at least six months in the year all but impassable ; the sum allowed
for its maintenance, Its. 5 a mile, being considered quite inadequate to carry
out more than the most superficial repairs. However, before I left the district,
I was able to accomplish this most desirable work, and that without any addi-
tional grant for the purpose, simply by concentrating the whole of each succes-
sive annual allotment on a particular part of the road, instead of dribbling it
out over the entire length of 22 miles. Every year I built a culvert or two, or
a bridge, burning the bricks and lime on the spot, employing local workmen
and doing nothing by contract ; and the result, after four years, was a perma-
nently good level road, over which it was quite possible to drive in an English
buggy. The road connects three places of some importance in the pargana, viz.,
Mat, Surir and Noh-jhil at the one end with Sher-garh, which is a perfect ter-
minus of roads, and at the other with Brinda-ban and Mathura ; while a short
branch from Mat would bring it in contact with the station on the new line of
railway at Eaya, and another from Noh-jhil with the market of Bujana.

388 PARGANA MA*T.

Manv of the smaller thoroughfares here, as in other parts of the district,
are rapidly being obliterated, and unless speedy measures are taken for their
preservation, very great inconvenience must eventually result. The occupants
of the fields through which they pass encroach upon them year by year, till at
last, in the less frequented tracts, nothing is left but a mere ridge scarcely broad
enough for a foot-path. When the traffic is too considerable to allow of this
complete appropriation, the lane is narrowed till it barely admits the passage of
a single cart ; a high bank is then raised on either side with earth always
excavated from the roadway, which, thus, is sunk several feet below the level
of the country and in the rains becomes a deep water-course. In the dry sea-
son of the year it is rendered equally impassable by huge aqueducts carried
across it at short intervals in order to convey water for irrigation purposes from
a well on one side to lands forming part of the same farm that happen to lie
on the other. A small sum is annually allotted for the maintenance of a cer-
tain number of village roads, and as I have practically demonstrated, this money
might be much more advantageously expended than has hitherto been the
custom, if it were used for the systematic prevention of encroachments and the
construction of occasional syphon drains and culverts.

As a rule, the bhaiyaehari villages have a much more prosperous appearance
than those which have passed into the hands of some one wealthy proprietor.
In the former case every shareholder plants the borders and waste corners of
his fields with quick growing trees, such as the fards, or tamarisk, which he
fells from time to time as he wants timber for his well or agricultural implements,
or for roofing his house, but immediately supplies their places by new cuttings.
Thus the village lands from a little distance often look picturesque and well-
wooded, though possibly there may not be a single grove or orchard on them.
In a zamindari estate, on the other hand, the absentee landlord is represented on
the spot only by an agent, whose sole duty it is to secure as large a yearly
return as possible for his employer. Every manorial right is strictly enforced,
and trees are felled and sold in large quantities, and never replaced, either by the
tenant, who is not allowed to cut a single stick, however urgent his requirements,
and therefore has no object in planting, or by the landlord, who cares nothing
for the well-being of the village, which can be sold as soon as its productiveness
is exhausted. It would be difficult, perhaps impossible, to mention a single
instance in the whole district of one of the new landlords doing anything what-
ever for the permanent improvement of his estate. It never even occurs to
them that their tenants have the slightest claim upon their consideration. Hav-
ing probably amassed their fortune by usury, they are willing to make advances

PARGANA MA"T. 389

at exorbitant rates of interest for any improvements the cultivators may wish to
carry out themselves ; but their ears are closed to any other application.

To prevent the possibility of any individual acquiring a fixed status, leases
are never given but for very short periods ; accumulation of arrears of rent
is encouraged for the three years that the law allows, when immediate action
is taken for the recovery of the full amount increased by interest ; if any pay-
ment has been made in the interim, though the tenant intended it to be on
account of rent, the landlord maintains that it is absorbed in the clearing off
of the advances ; no intimation is given to the patwari of the amount of these
advances, nor, as a rule, is any payment made in his presence ; but after the
lapse of some weeks, when the ignorant boor, who probably did not pay in
cash, but through the intervention of a baniya, has forgotton what the amount
was, the patwari is ordered to write a receipt for such and such a sum, and
this document is accepted by the stolid clown without a question — ordinarily
without even hearing it read — and is at once put away and either lost or
eaten by white, ants, while the counter-part remains as legal evidence against
him. To increase the confusion, the rent is collected not only without
adequate witnesses or any written memorandum, but also at any odd time
and by a variety of different persons, who are ignorant of each other's proceed-
ings ; the agents are changed every six months or so, and (as the patwari can
only read Hindi) are by preference people who know only the Persian
character. The result is, that any adjustment of accounts is absolutely
impossible ; the patwari, the agents, and the tenants, are all equally at fault,
and the latter are solely dependent on the mercy of the landlord, who, at a
fortnight's notice, can eject every single man on the estate. Thus, during a
single month of the year 1873, more than a hundred suits were filed against
the people of one village for arrears contracted in 1870. After the lapse
of three years, the defendants — who are so ignorant that they cannot state
the amount of their liability for the present season, but depend entirely upon
the patwari aud the baniya— can only urge that they know they have paid in
full, but (almost necessarily under the circumstances) they have no oral wit-
nesses to the fact, while the village account-books, which constitute the docu-
mentary evidence, are so imperfect as to form no basis for a judgment. At the
same time, in the hope of producing the impression that an innocent man was
being made the victim of a gigantic conspiracy, actions for fraud and corrup-
tion were instituted against both agent and patwari, and other criminal pro-
ceedings were taken against the villagers for petty infringements of manorial
rights. Virtually, such pseudo-zamindars refuse to accept the position of land-

390 PARGANA MAT.

lords ; they are mere contractors for the collection of the Imperial revenue, and
it seems imperative upon the Government to recognize them only in that inferior
capacity, and itself to undertake all the responsibilities of the real landlord.
Since they have no influence for good, both policy and humanity demand that
at least their power for evil should be restricted within the narrowest possible
limits.

The most noticeable feature of the pargana is the extensive morass, from
which the town of Noh-jhil derives the latter part of its name. Its dimensions
vary very much at different seasons of the year and according to the heaviness
of the rainfall, but it not unfrequently spreads over an area measuring six miles
in length by one in breadth. It is the favoui'ito haunt of large swarms of
water-fowl, which are caught at night in nets, into which they are frightened
by torches and fires lit on the opposite bank. They ordinarily sell for about
Es. 4-8 the hundred. The lands which have a chance of being left dry by the
subsidence of the waters in time to be sown with hot-weather crops, bear the
distinctive name of Ldna, and are formed into separate estates, which it is a
matter of no little difficulty to assess at their average value. When there is
any harvest at all, it is exceptionally good ; but not unfrequently the land
remains flooded till seed-time is over, and the only source of profit then left to
the proprietor is the pasturage. The inundation, though primarily the result
of the natural low level of the country, has been artificially increased by exca-
vations made some centuries ago with the express object of laying the approaches
to the Fort under water : this being one of the special modes of rendering a
stronghold impregnable laid down in Sanskrit treatises on the art of war.
An outlet was provided by a winding channel, some five miles in length, called
the Dhundal Nala, which passed under Firoz-pur and joined the Jamuna near
Mangal-khoh ; but its mouth is now completely blocked for a long distance.
The cost of re-opening it has been estimated at Rs. 2,093 ; an expenditure which
would soon be recovered by the settled revenue of the reclaimed land. A
simpler, but at the same time a less efficient, remedy might be found in the re-
construction of an embankment ascribed to Nawab Ashraf Khan, which formerly
existed near the village of Musmina, and was kept in partial repair by the Jat
zamindars of that place till 1866. In that year the jhil was entirely dry, and
the dam being in consequence neglected, the next heavy flood washed it away.
To provide an exit for the water seems, however, far preferable to blocking its
entrance ; as the temporary submersion has a very beneficial effect on the land,
and its total prevention might result in rendering a large area absolutely
unculturable. A well-devised scheme of drainage for this part of the country,

TARGANA MAT. 391

the transfer of tho tahsili from Mat to Surir, and the completion of the road
between Noh-jbil and the Brinda-ban bridge, are the three great requirements
of the district which urgently demand a speedy settlement.

Mat — population 4,093 — has for some years past given a name to a pargana,
though it is nothing but an exceptionally mean assemblage of mud hovels,
without any bazar or even a single brick-built house. It stands immediately
on the high bank of tho Jamuna, but is separated from the actual bed of tho
stream by a mile of deep sand, and tho ferry which connects it with Sakaraya
on the opposite side is therefore very little used. Four miles lower down the
stream is the Brinda-ban bridge of boats ; the road which leads to it skirting for
some distance the margin of an extensive morass, called the Moti-jhil, which,
though never very broad, sometimes attains a length of nearly two miles. The
township (jamaRs. 8,983) is divided into two thoks, Raja and Mala, and was till re
cently owned entirely by Brahmans and Thakurs, but some Muhammadans are now
in part possession as mortgagees. The Chaukidari Act is in force, but yields an
income of only Rs. 52 a month, which leaves a very small balance for local im-
provements. The school is merely of the primary class, and not so well attended as
the one in the adjoining hamlet of Chhahiri. There is an old mud fort, and
within its enclosure stand the tahsili and police-station, the only substantial
buildings in the place. Though there is no grove of trees to justify the title, it
is still designated as one of the Upabans, and is a station in the Ban-jatra ; the
name being derived from ( the milk-pails ' ( mat ) here upset by Krishna in his
childish sports. At Chhahiri, a little higher up the stream, is the sacred wood
of Bhandir-ban, a dense thicket of ber, kins, and other low prickly shrubs, with
a small modern temple, rest-house and well in an open space in the centre.
Just outside is an ancient fig-tree (bat) which Krishna and his playmates
Bahrain and Sridama are said to have made their goal when they ran races
against each other (see page 59). A large meld, chiefly attended by Bengalis,
is held here, Chait badi 9, and is called the Gwal-mandala. The temple in the
grove is dedicated to Bihari; that under the Bhandir-bat, to Sridama. In the
Tillage are three other small shrines in honour of R;idh:i Mohan, Gopal, and
Mahadeva. Two mosques have also been recently built by the Muhammadans.
In the mutiny the only act of violence committed was the seizure of six grain-
boats passing down the river, for which the zamindars were subsequently fined.

BXjana — population 4,427 — about five miles north-east of Noh-jhil, has from
time immemorial been occupied by Jats. Many years ago, the three leading
men divided it into as many estates, called after their own names, Sultan Patti,

392 PARQANA MA*T.

Dilu Patti, and Sin Patti. These are now to all intents and purposes distinct
villages, each with several subordinate hamlets, where most of the landed
proprietors reside, while the old bazar still remains as a common centre, but is
mainly occupied by tradespeople. In it are the sarai, police-station, built in
1869, and halkabandi school. Here, too, every Saturday, a large market is held ;
all the dealers who attend it having to pay an octroi tax at graduated rates, ac-
cording to the commodities which they have for sale. These duties are farmed
out to a contractor, who in 1865, the year when the last revision of settlement
took place, paid for the privilege Rs. 340, a sum which has now been increased
to Rs. 429. This income certainly is not very large, but as the market is a
popular one, it might, beyond a doubt, be greatly increased, if only the headmen
would recognize the obligation, under which they lie, of occasionally devoting
part of the proceeds to local improvements. Up to the present time they have
done nothing : the market is held in the main street, which is so densely crowd-
ed from one end to the other that all through traffic is obstructed ; the sar.ie is
too small to accommodate one-half the number of visitors, and there is no separate
yard in which to stall horses and cattle ; the clouds of dust that rise from the
unmetalled roadway make it painful to see and breathe, and would seriously
damage any goods of better quality that might be brought; and, in addition to
all this, an open space at the end of the street, where the crowd is the very
thickest, has been selected as a convenient spot for depositine,- all the sweepings
of the town till they are carted away as manure for the fields. Even the two
substantial masonry wells which there are in the bazar have not been con-
structed by the market trustees, but are the gift of one of the resident shop-
keepers.

Another market is held on Thursday, but exclusively for the sale of cattle.
A considerable amount of business is transacted, though the animals offered
for sale are generally inferior in quality to those brought to the Kosi market
on the opposite side of the river. Bajana has also been one of the depots for
Government stallions since 1856, when the establishment was transferred here
from the adjoining village of Shankar-garhi, at Aligarh.

The two pattis of Sultan and Dilu are watered by a short branch of the
Ganges Canal, which enters the district at the village of Ahmad-pur, and passes
also through Shankar-garhi. In Sin Patti (he proprietary shares are not
reckoned by biswas but by wells, which, whether really so or not, are put
at 36 in number. The jama is Rs. 3,400, and the quota of each ' well ' is
Rs. 96, making a total of Rs. 3,456"; (lie surplus of Rs. 56 going to the
lumberdars. Similarly, in Mat, the reckoning is by ploughs and bulls; a

TARCANA MA'T. 393

plough being a share and a bull half a share. Dilu Patti has two hamlets,
Murliya Jawahir and Murliya Badam : Sultan Patti five, viz., Naya-bas, I >:il-
garhi, Prahlad-garhi (of which one biswa was sold 18 years ago to an Athwa-
riya), Ajnot and Idal-garhi ; and Sin Patti three, viz., Jareliya, Maha-ram-garhi,
and Bhut-garhi. At the time of the mntiny Umrao Bahadur was proprietor of
2h biswas in Dilu Patti, was mortgagee of 10 biswas in Thok Badam and farmed
as much of Thok Hira. This was confiscated with the rest of his estates; the 2£
biswas were conferred on Seth Lakhmi Chand, the other parcels of land have
reverted to their original owners. Half of Thok Kamala was also declared
forfeit, but eventually returned on payment of a fine; the zamindars having
joined in the assault on the Fort of Noh-jhil. One of the number, Klniba,
who had been specially forward in attempting the life of the Tahsildar, Sukhvasi
Lai, died in jail before sentence. The Arazi Kasht Sultan Patti and Arazi
Dilu Patti are lands recovered from the jhil and separately assessed — the one
at Rs. 90, the other at Rs. 152.

Noh-jhil — population 2,674 — is a decayed town, 30 miles from Mathura,
which, up to the year 1860, was the head of a separate tahsili now incorporated
with Mat. The original proprietors were Chauhan Thakurs, who were expelled
in the thirteenth century by some Jats from Narwari near Tappal, and others
from Jartuli near Khair, in the Aligarh District, who afterwards acquired the
name of Nohwar, and at the present time are further distinguished by the title
of Chaudhri. They brought with them as purohits some Gaur Brahmans of the
Phatak clan, who received various grants of land, and at the last settlement their
descendants owned 15 biswas of the township, the remaining live being held by
Muhamtnadan Shaikhs. In the seventeenth century some Biluchis were station-
ed here by the emperor, for the express purpose of overawing the Jats ; but
their occupation did not last above 80 years. On the 4th of June, 1857, the
Nohwar Jats of the place with their kinsmen from the neighbouring villages of
Musmina and Parsoli attacked the fort and plundered all the inhabitants except
the Brahmans, with whom, as above shown, they had an hereditary connection.
The lumberdar, Ghaus Muhammad, was killed, and all the Government officials
fled to the village of Thera by Surir. where the Malakana zamindars gave them
shelter, and in acknowledgment of their loyalty subsequent l\ received a dona-
tion of Rs. 151 and a remission of Rs. 100 on the yearly jama, which still con-
tinues. The estate is now held as follows : 12A- biswas by the Brahmans, 3| by
Shaikhs, and 4^ biswas of alluvial land by the Seths. This latter share had
been purchased at auction by Umrao Bahadur's father, and was confiscated with
the rest of his property. Two outlying suburbs are called respectively Toli

304 PAROANA MA'T.

Shaikhan and Toli Kh&dim-i-dargah. The Fort, of wliich incidental mention
lias been already made, is of great extent, covering 31 bighas of land. It was
rebuilt about the year 1740 by Thakur Devi Singh, an officer in the service
of the Bharat-pur Raja. It is now all in ruins, but its crumbling bastions
command a fine view of the extensive lake that spreads for miles beneath it.
Within its enclosure is the old tahsili, built in 1826, now converted into a
police-station, and a lofty tower erected in 1836 for the purposes of the Trigo-
nometrical Survey ; ascent is impossible, as the ladder in the lower story was
deslroyed in the mutiny and has not been replaced.

Outside the town is a Muhammadan makbara or tomb, called the dargah
of Makhdiim Sahib Shah Hasan Ghori, traditionally ascribed to a Dor Raja
of Kol who flourished some 300 years ago. This is not in itself impro-
bable, for about that time all the Aligarh Dors became converts to Islam.*
The buildings are now in a dilapidated condition, but include a covered
colonnade of 20 pillars which has been constructed out of the wreck of a
Hindu or Buddhist temple. Each shaft is a single piece of stone 5£ feet
long, and is surmounted by a capital, which adds an additional foot to the
height. The latter are sculptured with grotesques, of which the one most
frequently repeated represents a squat four-armed monster, who, with his feet
and one pair of hands raised above his head, supports, as it were, the weight of
the architrave. The shafts, though almost absolutely plain, are characteristic
specimens of an eccentricity of Hindu architecture. (See page 275.) Several
other columns have been built up into the roof ; one carved in low relief with
several groups of figures, parted from one another by bands of the pattern
known as the ' Buddhist railing,' has been taken out and transported to
Mathura. The statues which adorned the temple have probably been buried under
ground ; but no excavations can be made, as the place is used for Muhammadan

* When Kol was finally reduced by the Muharouiadans i n the reign of Nasir-ul-din Mahcnud
(1246-12U5), it was under a Dor Kaja, and the tower, which was wantonly destroyed by the local
authorities in 1860, is supposed to have been erected 652A.H. (1274A.D.) on the site of the
principal temple of the old city. Among the Hindus, however, the tradition is somewhat differ-
ent ; they ascribe it to the Dor Raja, Manual Sen, who gave his daughter Padmavati in marriage
to the heir of Kaja Bhim of Mahrara and Etawa, who soon after his accession was murdered by
his younger brothers. The widow then retired to Kol, where her father built the tower for her.
At Noh-khera in the Jalesar pargana there is a local tradition of a Kaja Bhim, and possibly the
above may be the person intended. The father of Mangal Sen was Buddh Sen, who transfer-
red his capital from Jalali to Kol. He was the son of Bijay Kdin (brother of Dasarath Sinh, who
built the fort at Jalesar), the son of Nahar Sinh, who built the Sambhal fort, the son of Gobinl
Sinh, the son of Mukuud Sen, the son of Vikrama Sen, of Baran, now called Bulandshahr.

PARGANA MXT. 395

interments. The saint's urs or mela is held on the 14th of Ramazan, anil his
tomb is visted by some of the people of the neighbourhood every Thursday
evening. There was an endowment of 300 bighas of land and a yearly pension
of Rs. 100, but the latter ceased on the death of Makhduni Bakhsh, the repre-
sentative of the original grantee, and the land was settled at half jama (Rs. 80)
in 1837. In the bazar are a small mosque and two temples built by the
Mahrattas. The proximity of the jhil renders the town feverish and unhealthy,
and the establishment of a branch dispensary would be a great boon to the
inhabitants.

SuRfR — population 5,199 — by its position the natural centre of the pargana,
is a small town on the high road half-way between Mat and Noh-jhil. It is about
a mile from the left bank of the Jamuna, where is a ferry to Bahta on the opposite
side. It is said to have been called at one time Sugriv-khera, after the name of
one of the different founders; this appellation is now quite obsolete, but it explains
the origin of the word Surir, which is thus seen to be a contraction for
Sugriv-ra. The oldest occupants were Kalars (the local name, as it would
seem, for any aboriginal tribe), who were expelled by Dhakaras, and these again
by Raja Jitpal. a Jaes Thakur. His posterity still constitute a large part of
the population, but have been gradually supplanted in much of the proprietary
estate by Bauiyas and Bairagis. The township (jama Rs. 9,619) is divided
into two thoks, called Bija and Kahin ; and there are 11 subordinate hamlets.
Three small temples are dedicated respectively to Mahadeva, Lakshmi .Narayan,
and Baladeva. There is a police station, a primary school, and a weekly market
held on Monday. At the time of the mutinj-, Lachhman, the lumberdar, with
11 others, was arrested on the charge of being concerned in the disturbances
that took place at the neighbouring village of Bhadanwiira, in which the zamin-
d&r, Kunvar Dildar Ali Khan, was murdered, his wife violated, and a large
mansion that he was then building totally destroyed. He was considerably in
the debt of his banker, Nand Ram of Raya, who, when the estate was put up
to auction, bought it in, and has been succeeded as proprietor by his nephew
Janaki Prasad.

V.-P AR6ANA M A II A-B A N .

The Maha-ban pargana has a population of 110,829 and an area of 239
square miles. It forms the connecting link between the two divisions of the
district. Its western half, which lies along the bank of the Jamuna, forms
part of the Braj Mandal, and closely resembles in all its characteristics the
tracts that we have hitherto been describing : its towns are places of consider-
able interest, but the land is poor and barren, dotted with sandhills and inter-
sected with frequent ravines. To the east, beyond Baladeva, the country is
assimilated to the rest of the Doab ; the soil, being of greater productiveness,
has from time immemorial been exclusively devoted to agricultural purposes,
and thus there are no large centres of population nor sites of historic interest.

In area and subordination the pargana has undergone several changes ;
for originally it formed part of Aligarh, and then for some years recognized
Sa'dabad as its capital, before it was finally constituted a member of the dis-
trict of Mathura. In 1861 it made over to Sa'dabad some few villages on the
border, and received instead the whole of the Raya circle, including as many
as eighty-nine villages, which till then had been included in Mat; together
with three others, Baltikri, Birbal, and Sonkh, which were detached from
Hathras. A glance at the map will show that a further rectification of its
boundary line to the north is still most desirable ; as all the 18 villages of the
Ayra-khera circle occupy a narrow tongue of land that runs up along the
Aligarh border, in such immediate proximity to the Mat tahsil that they would
clearly be benefited by inclusion in Mat jurisdiction.

The river forms the boundary of the pargana to the south as well as the
west, and in the lower part of its course is involved in such a series of sinuo-
sities that its length is out of all proportion to the area it traverses, and thus
necessitates the maintenance of no less than eleven crossing places, viz., the
pontoon bridge at the city, a bridge of boats at Gokul, and ferries at Pani-ganw,
Habib-pur or Basai, Baroli, Kanjauli, Koila, Tappa Saiyid-pur, Sehat, Akos,
and Nera. The contracts for all these, excepting the one at Koila, are given
in the Agra district.

Of the 151,846 acres that form the total area, 110,613 are ordinarily
under cultivation. The crops principally grown are jodr, bdjra and the like
on 57,000 acres; wheat and barley on 38,700; cotton on 8,000, and chana
on 4,000. Water-melons are also raised iu large quantities on the river-sands ;

PABGANA MAHA'-BAK. 397

and tho long grass and reeds, produced in the same localities, are valuable as
materials for making ropes, mats, and articles of wicker-work.

The number of distinct estates is 216, of which 18 are enjoyed rent-free by
religious persons or establishments, and 89 are in the hands of sole proprietors,
as distinct from village communities. The castes that muster strongest are Jats
and Bn'ihmans, who together constitute one-half of the entire population. The
great temples at Baladeva and Gokul, though they have also endowments in
land, derive the principal part of their income from the voluntary offerings of
pilgrims and devotees. Of secular proprietors the wealthiest — as in most other
parts of the country now-a-days — are novi homines of the baniya class, who have
laid the foundation of their fortune in trade. First in this order come Mahi
Lai and Janaki Prasad of llaya. Their ancestor, Nand Ram, was a petty
trader of that town, who realized large profits by the sale of grain in the famine
of 1838. In partnership with him was his brother, Magni Lai, who, having no
natural heir, adopted his sister's grandson, Janaki Prasad. In 1840 Nand Ram
died, and as of his two sons, Mahi Lai and Bhajan Lai, the latter was already
deceased, leaving issue, Jamuna Prasad and Manohar Lai, he left his estate in
three equal shares, the one to his son, the second to his two grandsons, and
the third to his adopted nephew. For some years the property was held as a
joint undivided estate ; but in 1866 an agreement was executed contituting three
estates in severalty ; Janaki Pras&d's share being the village of Bhadanwara,
Mahi Lai's that of Arua, both in Mat ; and Jamuna Prasad and Manohar Lai's,
ten smaller villages in the Maha-ban pargana. As the main object of this agree-
ment was simply to get rid of Janaki Prasad, the others continued to hold their
two-thirds of the original estate as one property. But after a time, thinkinf
that the discrepancy between recorded rights and actual possession might lead
to difficulties, in 1870 they executed another deed, by which the two shares were
again amalgamated. This joint estate, including business returns, was assessed
for purposes of the income tax, as yielding an annual profit of Bs. 16,066 ;
the Maha-ban villages, in which they are the largest shareholders, being Acharu,
Chura-Hansi, Dhaku, Gonga, Nagal, and Thana Amar Sinh. Some misunder-
standing having subsequently arisen, the uncle and nephew have again divided
their joint estate. Their kinsman Janaki Prasad, in addition to his Mat village
of Bhadanwara, has shares in Gainra, Kakarari and 15 other villages in Maha-
ban, from which he derives a net income of Rs. 14,260.

Of much the same, or perhaps rather lower, social standing are a family
of Sanadh Brahrnans at Jagadis-pur, money-lenders by profession, who are

100

398 PARGANA MAHA'-BAN.

gradually consolidating a considerable estate out of lands which for the most part
they first held only in mortgage. The head of the firm in their native village,
where they have been settled for many generations, is by name Harideva, with
whom is associated in partnership his nephew, Chunni Lai, son of a deceased
brother, Isvari. Besides owning three parts of Jagadis pur, they have also shares
in Daulat-pur, Habib-pur, Karab, Kakarari, Sahora, Wairanf, and 16 other
villages, producing a net income of Rs 12,572. A brother of Harideva's, by
name Piiran Mall, has a separate estate, being part proprietor of Bahadur-pur
Itauli, &c, while a relative, Baladeva, living at Gokul, has a further income of
Rs. 13,311 derived from trade and lands that he owns at Daghaita and Arhera
in the Mathura pargana. This latter's father, Param Sukh, was the brother
of Hira-mani, Harideva's father ; and it was their father Jawahir — nicknamed
Kuleliya, ' the pedlar' — son of another Harideva, who began in a very small
way to form a nucleus for the fortune which his descendants have so rapidly
accumulated.

The Saiyids of Maha-ban (see page 13), though of inferior wealth, have
claims to a more ancient and honorable pedigree. They have a joint income
of Rs. 6,0X4, drawn chiefly from the township of Maha-ban and the villages of
Nagara Bln'uu, Gohar-pur, Shahpur Ghosna, and Narauli: but the shareholders
are so numerous that no one of them is in affluent circumstances.

The Pachhauris of Gokharauli have a joint income estimated at Rs. 10,695.
The most prominent person among them is Kalyan Sinh, and the actual
head of the family, the Thakunini Pran Kunvvar, his cousin Bakht iwar Sinh's
widow, has adopted one of his sons, by name Ram Chand. They trace their
descent from one Bhiipat Sinh of Savaran-khera in the small central India state
of Bhadaura, who came from thence to settle at Satoha — a village between
Mathura and Gobardhan. There he died and also his son, Parasu-r&m Sinh ;
but the grandson, Piiran Chand, removed to Gokharauli, where he acquired
large possessions in the time of the Mahrattas. At the present day there is
not a single village in the old pargana of Maha-ban, in which his descendants
bave not some share, though it may often be a small one. In several they are
sole proprietors, and they have other estates in the Agra district. At the out-
break of the mutiny, the fort of Gokharauli was surprised and taken in the
absence of the head of the family, Ballabh Sinh, grandson of Piiran Chand.
It was, however, soon after recovered by him and his cousin, Kalyan Sinh, the
Risnldar Major in the 17th Regiment ; and their great local influence further
enabled them to raise a large body of volunteers in pursuit of the rebel army.
When the disturbances were over, Ballabh Sinh was appointed tahsildar of

PARGANA MAHA'-BAN.

399

Kosi, but he soon threw up the appointment, as he had no taste for office work,
and his private property required superintendence. As Pran Kunwar's adoption
of a son has given rise to much litigation on the part of the rival claimants to
the inheritance, it may be of use to add a genealogical table showing clearly
the degrees of relationship : —

BHtlFAT SlNH,

(of Sararan-khera in Bhadaura ; came from there and Bottled at Satoha.)

Parasu-ram Sinh, of Satoha.

I
Puran-chand, of Gokharauli.

Giri''har Sinh,
of Bhadaura.

Mnkund Sinh,
of Gokharauli.

Bansidhar.

Gobind Ram, tahsildai
of Sikandra Rao.

Ballabh Sinh,

talisi Id ;ir of
Kosi, died b. p.

Bakhtawar Sinh = Pran Kunwar,
of 'ookharauli present head
died b. p. of the family.

Gujar Mall.

1 Har Prasad KalyanSinh,

■1 Lai its Prasad of Gokharauli.
3 J am una PraBad

|
Ram-chand, adopted by Priin Kunwar.

Beyond the three towns of Gokul, Maha-ban, and Baladeva, which have
already been fully described, the only other places in the pargana which require
more than the most cursory notice are the four great centres of Jat colonization,
whose history involves that of all the villages subordinate to them.

Ayra-kherA, an old township with no arable land attached to it, is popu-
larly said to be the mother of 360 villages. It is still the recoguized centre of
eighteen which are as follows :— Ayra (or Era), Baron, Bhankarpur, Bhura,
Bibavali, Bindu Buh'iki, Birabna, Birbal, Gainra, Gaju, Kakarari, Lalpur,
Manina Balu, Misri, Nim-ganw, Piri, Sabali, and Sampat Jogi. The founder
is said to have been a Pramar Thakur, by name Nain Sen, who himself came
from Daharua, another village in this pargana, but whose ancestors had migrated
from Dhar in the Dakhan, the Raja of which state is still a Pramar and of a
very ancient family. He had four sons, whose names are given as Rompa (or
Rupa), Sikhan, Birahna, and Inchraj, and among them he portioned out his
new settlement. They again had each issue, viz., Rupa five sons, the founders
of the five northern villages, Bindu-Bulaki, Nim-ganw, Piri, Bibavali, and
Bhura ; Sikhan four sons, who settled the four villages to the south-west,
Kakarari, Birahna, Baron, and Gainra ; Birahna five sons, who founded the
five villages to the east, Sabali, Birbal, Era, Misri, and Gaju ; and Inchraj four

400 PARGANA MAIlX-BAN.

sons, who founded the four villages to the north-west, Manina Balu, Bhankar-
pur, Lalpur, and Sampat Jogi. The bazar is considered the joint property of
Riipa's descendants, and their permission is necessary before any new shop can
be built in it. The market, which is held on a spot close to the bazar, twice a
week, Wednesday and Saturday, is the property of the zamindars of the four
villages founded by Sikhan's sons, who give it out on contract for about Rs. 50
a year to four baniyas, who take a weighing fee from every purchaser, six
chhatanks in each rupee's worth of grain. The land is occupied almost exclu-
sively by the Jat community, with the exception of Lalpur, which is held by
Brahmans, the descendants of the founder's purohit, who belong to the Sanadh
clan. Adjoiuing the village there is a small piece of woodland, 20 bighas 4
biswas in extent, held rent-free by some bairagis, which is called Niwari, i.e.,
Nimwari. It makes a convenient place to camp in, being enclosed iu a belt of
fine old nim and pdpri trees, with a solitary imli and a number of pasendu and
haril bushes in the centre. This is accounted part of Lalpur. The school has
an attendance of about GO boys. The older occupants of the place, whom Nain
Sen dispossessed, are said to have been Kalars, whatever may be the tribe
intended by that ambiguous term. His brethren, whom he left behind at
Daharua, all became Muhammadans, and it may be presumed that it was his
obstinate adherence to the faith of his fathers, which made it necessary for him
to emigrate. The event therefore cannot be referred to any very early period.
Though himself a Thakur, it is curious to observe that his descendants for very
many generations past have been reckoned as Jats of the Godha sub-division.
This they explain by saying that the new settlers, being unable to secure any
better alliances, intermarried with Jat women from Karil in the Aligarh dis-
trict, and the children followed the caste of their mothers. There is a general
meeting for all the members of the clan at the festival of the Phiil Dol, which
is held Chait badi 5.

At Bhiira, which is one of the 18 villages, is an old brick-strewn khera,
locally ascribed to the Kalars. Wells have been sunk all over it for the pur-
pose of irrigating the adjoining fields, but, so far as can be ascertained, no
antiquities have ever turned up. On the top is a cairn, marking the grave of
some Saiyid, name unknown. The soil is so sandy that a well anywhere except
on the khera falls in as soon as dug, unless protected by a masonry cylinder.
For the convenience of revenue officials the whole of the Ayra-khera circle has
been divided into 18 groups, and each group is entered in the records under
the name of some one of its constituent homesteads, which is accounted the
village and the others its hamlets. But, on the spot, each bears its own name,

PARGANA MAHX-BAN. 401

and as they all lie very close together and arc pretty nearly the same size ami
have the same general features, being all occupied by members of the same
clan, the effect upon a ehanee visitor is a little bewildering. Neither do the
fields of one hamlet all lie together, but are intermingled with those of several
others. The tract however is well-wooded with babul trees dotted about the
borders of the fields and frequent small mango orchards. It is also well-culti-
vated, the only bits of waste being the Bairagis' hermitages, green little nooks,
the last remnants of the original jungle.

Xk-Khera is said to have been the parent of twenty-eight villages, eleven
of which are still grouped together under the collective name of the taluka Ar
Lashkarpur. They are as follows :• — Bansa, Basar-Bhikhandi, Bir Aliahad,
Gurera, Khalana, Khajdri, Nigora, Nonera, Favesara, Polua, and Sujanpnr.
The last of these, with an area of 243 acres, is uninhabited and is owned by the
Jat Raja of Mursiin. The Kb era itself has been deserted for very many years
past, and though a mela in honour of Barahi Devi is held there twice a year,
even the goddess does not remain permanently ou the spot, but is merely
brought over for the occasion.

Madem. — This is a circle of five villages occupied by Jits of the Dangri
sub-division. Their ancestor, by name Kapiir, is said to have been a Sissodiya
Thakur from Jaitai in the Sa'dabad pargana, but originally from Chitor, whose
five sons, Chhikara, Bhojua, Jagatiya, Nauranga, and Ransingha, founded the
villages that still bear their names. In consequence of their laxity in allowing
widow re-marriago they lost caste and from Thakurs became Jats. The older
occupants of the locality are represented to have been Kalars. Chhikara and
Ransingha now form the -central settlement. At the styar, or shrine of the
goddess of small-pox, who is specially worshipped once a year in the month of
Asarh, I noticed a small figure apparently Jain, which slightly confirms my
yiew that Kalar is the local name for the older followers of that faith.

Rata — population 2,752 — is a small town on the Aligarh road, seven miles
from Matlmra, and the first station on the Light Railway from that city to
Hathras. It has no arable land of its own, but is the recognised centre of as
many as twentv-one Jat villages which were founded from it. These are as
follows :— (1) Nagal, (2) Gonga, (3) Suraj, (4) Dhabi, (5) Aeharu, (li) Bhain-
sara, (7) Siyara, (8) Banan, (9) Pararari, (10) Saras, (11) Tirwa, (12) Kharwa,
(13) Narwa Hansi, (14) Thana Amar Sinh, (15) Saur, (16) Pokhar Hirday,
(17) Malhai, (18) Khairari, (10) Bhima, (20) Koil, and (21) Chora Hansi.
The first fourteen of these are the older settlements and are called the chaudah

101

402 PAROANA MAHA'-EAN.

taraf ; the other seven are subsequent offshoots. The town is said to derive
its name from its founder Rao Sen, who is regarded as the ancestor of all the
Jats of the Godha clan. There is an old mud fort ascribed originally to one
Jamsher Beg, but rebuilt in the time of Thakur Daya Earn of Hathras. The
principal residents are now Janaki Prasad, Jamuna Prasad, and Main Lai, of
whom mention has been already made. A Bairagi of the Nimbarak persuasion
by name Harnam Das, enjoys a considerable reputation as a Pandit. There is
a large orchard of mango and Jaman trees, twenty-three bighas in extent,
planted by Sri Kishan Das, Baniya, whose son, Jugal Kishor, has also one of
the two Indigo factories in the town ; the other belonged to the late Mr. Saun-
ders. There is also a smaller orchard in the possession of a Bairagi by name
Rup Das. At the back of the police-station is a pond called Khema-ra, after
the man who had it dug, aud on the Mat road, near a Thakur-dwara, another
called Rawa, probably after the founder Rae Sen. Market days are Monday
and Friday. The town is administered under Act XX. of l«o(i, and section 34
of Act V. of 1861 is also in force. The line of railway has been constructed
along the side of the road, and, as at first laid, crossed and re-crossed it so fre-
quently that all road traffic would have been greatly impeded. This defect
was subsequently remedied, and there are now only three crossings in its entire
length of 29 miles ; but the fine avenue of trees has been terribly cut up.

SoNAl — population 2,393 — is a township on the Hathras road which, like
Raya, finds noplace in the Revenue Records, being there represented by its eight
dependent villages. These are Thok Bindavani, Jhok Gyan, Thok Kamal (better
known asKhojua), Thok Saru, Thok Sutnera, Bhurari, Nagara Bari and Nagara
Jangali. The Begam Umrao Shah in 1772 built a fort here, which in 1SU3 was
held by Thakur Daya Ram, of Hathras, and for some years subsequentl}' was
used as a tahsili. Not a vestige now remains of the old buildings, which were
pulled down and the materials used for the construction of the new police-station.
The site is well raised and commands an extensive view. I would have built a
school upon it, but it was represented that the children would be afraid of
ghosts. The sarae was constructed in the time of Tahsildar Zahiir Ali Khan,
one of the Lai Khani family, seated in the Bulandshahr district. Market
davs are Sunday aud Thursday.

VI.— P ARGANA S A ' D A B X D .

The pargana of Sa'dabad is bounded by the districts of Aligarh and Agra
to the north and south, Eta to the east, and the Hathura pargana of Maha-
ban to the west. It has a population of 89,217 and an area of 115,498 acres,
divided into 131 separate estates, of which 52 are held by sole proprietors and
the remainder by communities of shareholders. Though water is ordinarily
found onlv at the considerable depth of 30 feet below the surface and is often
brackish, most of the land is of excellent quality, yielding a good return on
every species of agricultural produce; barley, cotton, jodr, and arhar being
the principal crops, with a considerable amount also of hemp and indigo. The
predominant classes are Jats and Brahmans, who together constitute nearly one
half of the total population. At the beginning of the century, Raja Bhagavant
Sinh of Mursan was one of the largest landed proprietors ; but the estate in
Sa'dabad held by the present Raja consists only of the villages of Bhurka,
Jhagarari, and Nagara Ghariba, which yield an annual income of Rs. 3,000.
Another local magnate of great importance at the same period was also a Jat
by caste, Thakur Kushal Sinh, the brother-in-law of Durjan Sal, the usurper
of the throne of Bharat-pur. His estates, some 10 or 11 villages lying round
about Mahrara, now on the line of Railway, were all confiscated at the close of
the war, when a settlement was made with the former proprietors and some
of the hereditary cultivators. At present the principal people in the pargana
are the Muhammadan family seated at the town of Sa'dabad, at whose head
is the Thakurani Hakim -un-Nissa, the widow of Kunwar Husain Ali Khan.
(See page 20).

The remaining large landowners are of a different stamp, being nouveaux
riches, who have acquired whatever wealth they possess within the last few years
by the practice of trade and usury. The most prominent members of this class
are — 1st, Sri Ram, Bohra, son of Madari Lai, Brahman, of Salai-pur, who returns
his net income at Rs. 15,500, derived from shares in 20 different villages ; 2nd,
Mittra Sen, a Baniya of Hathras, who has an income of Rs. 12,125, arising
from lands in Mirhavali, Samad-pur, and four other places ; and 3rd, Thakur
Das and Sita Ram, the sons of Jay Gopal, Dhiisar, who enjoy an income of
Rs 12, llli, from Jatoi, Kiipa, Nagara Dali aud shares in 11 other villages.
Most of the indigo factories are branches of the Chotua concern, a firm which
lias its head-quarters near Sonai, in the Hathras pargana. Mr. John O'Brien
Saunders, of the Englishman, was the senior partner: he died in 1879.

404 PARGANA SA'DABA'D.

Strictly speaking, there is not in the whole of Sa 'da had a single town :* for
even the capital is merely a largish village with a population of 3,295. It was
founded by a character of considerable historical eminence, Vazir Sa'dullah
Khan —the minister of the Emperor Shahjahan — who died in 1G55, three years
before the accession of Aurangzeh. For some time after the annexation of
1803, it continued to be recognized as the capital of a very extensive district,
which had the Jamuna as its western boundary and comprised the parganas
of Jalesar, Mat, Noh-jhil, Maha-ban, Baya, Khandauli, Sikandra Rao and
Firozabad, in addition to the one named after itself. This arrangment existed
till 1832, when the Mathura District was formed and absorbed the whole of the
Ba'dahad circle, with the exception of Sikandra Rao, which was attached to Aligarh,
and Firozabad and Khandauli, which compensated Agra for the loss of Mathura.
If the size of the place had accorded in the least with its natural advantages,
it would have been impossible to find a more convenient and accessible local
centre ; as it stands on a small stream, called the Jharna, which facilitates both
drainage and irrigation, and it is also at the junction of four important high
roads. Of these, one runs straight to Mathura, a distance of 24 miles ; another
to the Railway Station at Manik-pur, which is nine miles off ; while the remain-
ing two connect it with the towns of Agra and Aligarh. The TahsSli, which
occupies the site of a Fort of the Gosain Himmat Bahadur's, is a small but
substantial building, with a deep fosse and pierced and battlemented walls. As
it has the advantage of occupying an elevated position, and is supplied with a
good masonry well in the court-yard, it might in case of emergency be found
capable of standing a siege. There is in the main street a largish temple with
an architectural facade ; but the most conspicuous building in the town is a
glittering white mosque, erected by the late Kuuwar Irshad Ali Khan, near his
private residence. There are two other small mosques ; one built by Ahmad
Ali Khan, Tahsildar, the other ascribed to the Vazir, from whom the place
derives its name. The zamindari estate was at one time divided between
Brahmans, Jats, and Gahlots, of whom only the former now retain part

* As an il lustrat ion of the curious want of perspective, which characterizes all Dr. Hunter's
notices of this district in his Imperial Gazetteer, I observe that while he totally omits the
towns of Baladeva, Barsana and Nandganw, giveB six lines to Gokul and barely half a page to
Brinda-ban, he devotes special paragraphs to two places \n this Sa'dabSd pargana, vu., Bisawar
and Kursauda, which even in a book like the present devoted exclusively to one particular
district, I can find nothing to say about, except that Dr. Hunter has mentioned them. They
are not towns, nor even villages, but simply two groups of scattered and utterly insignificant
agricultural h;imlets, which for convenience of revenue purposes have been thrown together
uudc-r collective names.

PARGANA SA'nABA'D. 405

possession, the remainder of the land having been transferred to Muhammadana
and Baniyas. The town is not large enough to form a municipality, but is
administered under Act XX. of 1856. The principal meld is the Ram Lila,
started only 40 years ago by Pachauri Mukund Sinh, when Tahsildar. The
oldest temples are two in honour of Mahadeva, one of Hanuman, and a fourth
founded by Daulat Rao, Sindhia, dedicated to Murli Manohar. In the mutiny
the place was attacked by the Jats, and seven lives were lost before they could
be repulsed. A Thakur of Hatkras, by name Samant Sinh, who led the defence,
subsequently had a grant of a village in Aligarh, while two of the Jat ringleaders,
Zalim and Deokaran of Kursanda, were hanged.

Immediately opposite the road that branches off to Jalesar is a neat little
rest-house for the accommodation of the officers of the Public Works Depart-
ment ; and about half a mile from the town on the Agra side is a large and
commodious bungalow of the Kunwar's, which is always placed at the disposal
of his English friends. It is surrounded by extensive mango groves, and
attached to it is a spacious garden, very prettily laid out and well-kept, contain-
ing many choice varieties of trees, flowers, and creepers.

Sahpau (probably for Sah-pura) — population 3,635 — is the largest village
in the pargana, a little off the Sa'dabad and Jalesar road, and close to the Manik-
pur Railway Station. The Thakur zamindars are Gahlots, who trace their
descent from Chitor, and say that at one time they had as many as 52 villages
in this neighbourhood. The elder branch of the family, as at Sahpau, Kukar-
gama, Isaunda, &c, take to themselves the title of Sah ; the second, as at Tehu in
Jalesar, that of Chaudhari ; and the youngest, that of Rao. Thakur Buddh Sinh
of Umargarh now owns 5 bis was of the estate, purchased by his father, Thakur
Tikam Sinh; Bindaban Sah is lumberdar of other 10, and Jhaman Sah of the
remaining 5. But out of these 15 biswas, Chunni Kuar, wife of Panna Lai,
baniya, has acquired 7-J viz., 5 of Bindaban's and 2^ of Jhaman's. Two
families of Sauadh Brahmans have long enjoyed a malikana of Rs. 175, payable
in four shares, two of Rs. 62-8-0 and two of Rs. 25 each, but the liability to
further payment is now disputed by the proprietors, since one share has been sold
and another mortgaged to a baniya, by name Bidhi-chand. There are 5 ham-
lets, called Sukh-ram, Badama, Tika Ram, Kushali, and Mewa. The Banivas
are all either Baraseni Vaishnavas, or Jaeswar Saraugis. The latter say that
they came from Chitor with the Thakurs. They have a modern temple dedicated
to Nem-nath, where a festival is held in the mouth of Bhadon. It stands imme-
diately under the site of the old fort, which is well raised aud occupies an area

102

406 PARGANA SA'DABA'D.

of 13 bighas. It has yielded a large supply of massive slabs of block kankar,
which have served as materials for constructing the basement story of several
of the houses in the bazar. Some late Jaini sculptures, representing each a cen-
tral seated figure with minor accessories, have also been exhumed ; I removed
to Mathura and placed in the museum there one of the most characteristic.
Outside the town near Panna Lai's indigo factory is a raised terrace, now sacred
to Bhadra Kali Mata, which also is partly constructed of kankar blocks, and on
the top of it are placed a great number of late Jaini figures with part of the
large Sinhdsan on which the principal idol had been seated. Here a buffalo is
offered in sacrifice at the Dasahara festival. In the suburbs of the town are
some 12 or 13 mango orchards with small temples and Bairagis' cells, and in a
field by itself a large square domed building, of more architectural pretensions,
which commemorates a Thakur window's self-immolation. The lower part of
the walls at each of the four corners has been almost dug through for the sake
of the bricks, and unless repaired the whole must shortly fall. The town is
administered under Act XX. of 185(3.

APPENDIX A.

Caste : its Origin and Development.

Indian caste is ordinarily regarded as an institution sui generis, which
must be accepted as a potent social influence, but cannot be explained either by
parallel facts in other countries or by an enquiry into its own development,
since that is buried in tho depth of pre-historic antiquity. Such an opinion is
not altogether well-founded, for — whatever may be thought as to the similarity
between the restrictions imposed by caste in India and by other artificial
contrivances in Europe — it is certain that though the broadly-marked separa-
tion of the Brahman from the Thakur dates from an extremely remote period,
the formation of subordinate castes is a process which continues in full opera-
tion to the present day and admits of direct observation in all its stages. The
course of Indian tradition is to all appearance unbroken, and until some breach
of continuity is clearly proved, the modern practice must be acknowledged
as the legitimate development of the primary idea.

It is nothing strange that the Hindus themselves should fail to give any
reasonable explanation of the matter ; since not only are they restricted by
religious dogma, but every society is naturally as blind to the phenomena of
its own existence as the individual man is unconscious of his daily physical
growth. On the other hand, European outsiders, who might be expected to
record simple facts with the accuracy of impartial observers, are misled by the
prejudices which they have inherited from the early investigators of Oriental
literature.

The Code of Mann was among the first, if not the very first Sanskrit
didactic work of any importance made known to the world at large through the
medium of a translation. At that time it was unhesitatingly accepted as the
ultimate authority on all the subjects of which it treated, and hence the fourfold
division of Hindu society into Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra was uni-
versally recognized as an absolute fact. The later discovery of the Vedas, and
the vast reach of antiquity which opened out upon their interpretation, made
the Manava Dharma Sastra appear a comparatively modern production. The
explanations, which it gives of phenomena dating back in their origin to the
remotest past, can only be regarded as theories, not as positive verities ; while,
again, the vast range of later Sanskrit literature, which has now become avail-
able to the student, affords a test of its accuracy in the descriptions which it gives

408 INDIAN CASTE.

of contemporary society. Impartially judged by either standard, the authority
of the Code will be found materially shaken. Its theories of origin are as
devoid of Vedic confirmation as its pictures of existent society are irreconcilable
with the testimony of all independent literature, whatever the age in which it
was produced. If such a clearly defined fourfold division ever existed, how
happens it that one-half of the division remains in full force to the present day
while the other moiety has sunk into absolute oblivion? The Brahmanica]
order is still a living entity, and the Kshatriya is adequately represented
in modern speech by the word Thakur, or Rajput, while the Vaisya and Siidra
have so completely disappeared — both in name and fact — that an unlettered
Hindu will neither understand the words when he hears them, nor recognize
the classes implied when their meaning is explained to him.

And not only is this the case in the present day, but it appears to have
been so all along. In the great epic poems, in the dramas, and the whole
range of miscellaneous literature, the sacerdotal and military classes are every-
where recognized, and mention of them crops up involuntarily in every fami-
liar narrative. But with Vaisya and Sudra it is far different. These words
(I speak under correction) never occur as caste names, except with deliberate
reference to the Manava ('ode. They might be expunged both from the Rama-
vana and the Mahabharat without impairing the integrity of either composi-
tion. Only a few moral discourses, which are unquestionably late Brahmani-
cal interpolations, and one entire episodiacal narrative, would have to be sacri-
ficed ; the poem in all essentials would be left intact. But should we proceed
in the same way to strike out the Brahman and the Kshatriya, the whole
framework of the poem would immediately collapse. There is abundant
mention of Dhivaras and Napitas, Siitradharas and Kumbhakaras, Mahajanas
and Banijes, but no comprehension of them all under two heads in the same
familiar way that all chieftains are Kshatriyas, and all priests and litterateurs,
Brahmans.

It is also noteworthy that Mann, in his 12th book, where he classifies gods
and men according to their quality (c/una), omits the Vaisya altogether ; and,
again, in the Adi Parvan of the Mahabharat (v. 3139) we read —

Brahma -Kshatradayas tasmad Manor jatas tu manarah,
Tato' bhavad, Maharaja, Brahma kshattrena sangatam.*

From which it would seem that the writer recognized a definite connection
between the Brahman and the Kshatriya, while all the rest of mankind were

* " Brahman, Kshatriya and the rest of mankind sprung from this Mann. From him, Sire,
came the Brahman conjoined with the Kshatriya."

INDIAN CASTE. 409

relegated to the indeterminate. And further, if the Vaisyas had ever formed
one united body, they would inevitably, at some period or another, have taken
a more prominent part in Indian politics then there is reason to suppose they
ever did. Investiture with the symbolic cord gave them social position, and the
wealth which their occupation enabled them to amass gave them power. Union
apparently was the only condition required to make them the predominant body
in the State. With far humbler pretensions and less internal cohesion than Manu
assigns to the Vaisyas, the free cities of Germany and the burghers of England
established their independence against an aristocracy and an ecclesiastical system
in comparison with which Kshatriyas and Brahmans were contemptible.

The obvious, and indeed inevitable, inference from this popular ignorance,
literary silence, and historical insignificance appears to be that the two classes
of Vaisya and Sudra never existed (except in Manu's theory) as distinct bodies ;
and that the names are merely convenient abstractions to denote the middle
and lower orders of society, which have indeed distinctive class features engen-
dered by similarity of occupation, but no community of origin, and in reality no
closer blood connection between the component sub-divisions than exists between
any one of these sub-divisions and a Brahmanical or Kshatriya family.

In the whole of the Rig Veda the word Vaisya occurs only once, viz., in the
12th verse of the famous Purusha Siikta. Dr. Muir, Professor Max Muller, and
in fact all Sanskrit scholars, with the solitary exception of Dr. Haug, assign
this hymn to a comparatively late period. It is the only one which mentions
the four different kinds of Vedic composition, rich, adman, chhanda, and yajush,
a peculiarity noticed by Professor Aufrecht, and which seems to be absolutely
conclusive proof of late composition. And not only is the hymn itself more re-
cent than the body of the work, but the two verses which alone refer to the four
castes seem to be a still more modern interpolation. In the first place, there is
nothing the least archaic in their style, and they might stand in any one of the
Puranas without exciting a comment. That this may be apparent they are
quoted in the original :—

Brahmano' sya mukharn asid, bahu Rajanyah Imtah,
Uru tad asya yad Vaisyah, padbhyam Sudro ajayata.*

Secondly, they are irreconcilable with the context ; for while they describe
the Brahman as the mouth of Purusha and the Siidra as born from his feet, the
very next lines speak of Iudra and Agni as proceeding from his mouth and the
Earth from his feet.

*" The Brahman was his mouth : the Rajanaya was made his arms ; what is the Vaisya
was hia thighs ; from his feet sprang the Siidra."

103

410 INDIAN CASTS.

We are, therefore, justified in saying that in the genuine Veda there was
no mention of caste whatever ; nor was it possible that there should be, on the
hypothesis now to be advanced, that the institution of caste was the simple
result of residence in a conquered country. This is confirmed by observing
that in Kashmir, which was one of the original homes of the Aryan race, and
also for many ages secured by its position from foreign aggression, there is to
the present day no distinction of caste, but all Hindus are Brahmans. Thus, too,
the following remarkable lines from the Mahabharat, which distinctly declare
that in the beginning there was no caste division, but all men, as created by
God, were Brahmans : —

Na viBesho' sti varnaniim, sarvam Brahmam idam jagat,
Brahmana purva sriBhtam hi ; karmabhir varnatatn gatam.*

At the time when the older Vedic hymns were written, the Aryan was still
in his primeval home and had not descended upon the plains of Hindustan.
After the invasion, the conquerors naturally resigned all menial occupations to
the aborigines, whom they had vanquished and partially dispossessed, and en-
joyed the fruits of victory while prosecuting the congenial pursuits of arms or
letters. For several years, or possibly generations, the invaders formed only a
small garrison in a hostile country, and constant warfare necessitated the forma-
tion of a permanent military body, the ancestors of the modern Kshatriyas
and Thakurs. The other part devoted themselves to the maintenance of the
religious rites, which they brought with them from their trans-Himalayan home,
and the preservation of the sacred hymns and formulae used in the celebration
of public worship. Of this mystic and unwritten lore, once familiar to all, but
now, through the exigency of circumstances, retained in the memory of only a
few, these special families would soon become the sole depositories. The inter-
val between the two classes gradually widened, till the full-blown Brahman was
developed, conscious of his superior and exclusive knowledge, and bent upon
asserting its prerogatives. The conquered aborigines were known by the name
of Nacas or Mlechhas, or other contemptuous term, and formed the nucleus of
all the low castes, whom Manu subsequently grouped together as Siidras, esteem-
ing them little, if at all, higher than the brute creation. (Hastinas cha turan-
gds cha Sudrd Mlechchhds cha garhitdh — Sinhd vydghrd vardhds cha. XII. 43.)f

•"There ia no distinction of castes; the whole of this world is Brahmanical as originally
created by Brahma; it is only in consequence of men's actions that it has come into a state of
caste divisions."

t " Elephants, horses, Sudras, despicable barbarians, lions, tigers and boars."

INDIAN CASTE. 411

But a society, consisting only of priests, warriors, and slaves could not long
exist. Hence the gradual formation of a middle class, consisting of the off-
spring of mixed marriages, enterprizing natives, and such unaspiring members
of the dominant race as found trade more profitable, or congenial to their
tastes, than either arms or letters. The character of this mixed population
would be influenced in the first instance by the nature of the country in which
they were resident. In one district the soil would be better adapted for pas-
turage, in another for agriculture. But in both it would be worked principally
by aborigines, both on account of the greater labour involved, and also because
the occupation of grazing large flocks and herds (which had been characteristic
of the Aryan race in Vedic times) is incompatible with the concentration which
is essential for the security of a small invading force. The graziers would
receive some name descriptive of their nomadic habits, as for example ' Ahir';
the word being derived from abhi, ' circum' and ir, ' ire,' the ' circumeuntes,' or
wanderers. Similarly, other pastoral tribes — such as the Gwalas and the
Ghosis — derive their distinctive names from go, ' a cow,' combined with pdla,
' a keeper,' and ghosha, ' a cattle station ' In an agricultural district the corres-
ponding class would in like manner adopt some title indicative of their occupa-
tion, as, for example, the Kisans from krishi, ' husbandry,' the Bhunhars from
bhumi, ' the ground,' and in Bengal the Cbasis from chds, ' ploughing. Or (and
the same remark applies to every other class) they might retain the old Indian
name of the district in which they were located, as the Kaehhis from the coun-
try of Kachh. Again, so long as vast tracts of lands were still covered with
forest, the followers of the chase would be at least as numerous as the tillers of
the soil or the grazers of cattle. And, since the Aryan element in the middle
and lower strata of society was composed of those perons who, without any
penchant for learned study like the Brahmans, entertained a preference for
sedentary pursuits rather than those of a more exciting nature such as the majo-
rity of their Thakur kinsmen affected, so the castes that followed the chase, not
as an amusement, but as a means of livelihood, would naturally consist exclu-
sively of aborigines. And as a matter of fact, it is found to be the case that all
such castes have the dark complexion and the other physical characteristics of
the lower race. Such are the Badhaks and Aberiyas, who derive their name—
the one from the root, badh, ' to kill,' the other from the Hindi ahcr, 'game, — so,
too, the Dhanuks and the Lodhas, whose names are contracted forms of Dkan-
ushka,' 'a bowman,' and Lubdhaka, ' a huntsman.' These two tribes have now
abandoned their hereditary avocations, — the Dhanuks being ordinarily village
watchmen, and the Lodhas agriculturists, — though in Oudh the latter were, till

412 INDIAN CASTE.

quite recently, still connected with the forest rather than the fields, being the
wood-cutters, whose business it was to fell timber and transport it by the Gho-
ghra river to Bahram Ghat and other marts.

In this way the majority of the servile or so-called Siidra castes came into
existence, in order to supply the unproductive classes with food ; and subse-
quently, when population grew and towns were built, their number was vastly
increased by the new trades that sprung up to satisfy the more complex re-
quirements of urban life. Then, too, last of all, and by no means simultane-
ously with tho other three, as represented in the legends, the Vaisya order was
produced. For the purpose of facilitating barter and exchange, traders estab-
lished themselves, either on the sea-coast, or at places convenient of access for
the inhabitants of two dissimilar tracts of country, and forming a confederation
among themselves would take a collective name, either from the locality which
they occupied, as Ajudhyavasis, Mathuriyas, or Agarwal&s, or simply from the
special branch of trade which they pursued, as Sonars, Lohiyas, or Baniyas.
From the facility of acquiring wealth and the civilizing influence of social con-
tact, these merchants would soon form a striking contrast to the simple rural
population who brought their produce tor barter, and would receive some vulgar
title indicative of the difference ; hence the name of Mahajans, ' the great people.'
And all such names, having once firmly attached themselves, would be retained,
even when they ceased to be strictly applicable, in consequence of migration
from the original seat, or change in profession or circumstances.

Upon this theory we come to a clear understanding of the popular feeling about
caste — a feeling which unmistakeably exists in the native mind, though opposed
to dogmatic teaching — that below the Brahman and the Thakur there are a num-
ber of miscellaneous divisions, but no two well-defined collective groups. There
is a vague impression that the Vaisya is properly a tradesman and the Siidra a
servant ; while it is definitely ruled that the former is the much more respectable
appellation of the two. Thus a difficulty arises with regard to a family that
is distinctly neither of Brahman nor Thakur descent, and from time immemorial
has been engaged in some specially ignoble trade or exceptionally honourable
service. The latter aspires to be included in tho higher order, in spite of his
servitude ; while the former, though a trader, is popularly ranked in the same
grade as people who, if they are to be known by any class name at all, are
clearly Sudras. This never occurs in precisely the same way with the two
higher Manava castes, though one or two facts may be quoted which at first
flight seem to tell against such an assertion. For example, there are a numerous

INDIAN CASTE. 413

body of carpenters called Ojlias (the word being a corruption of Upiidh-
yaya), who are admitted to be of Brahmanical descent and are invested with
the sacred cord. But common interests forming a stronger bond of union than
common origin, they are regarded rather as a species of the genus Barhai than
of the genus Brahman ; their claim, however, to the latter title never being
disputed if they choose to assert it. Similarly, as the trade of the usurer is
highly incompatible with priestly pretensions, the Brahmans who practise it are
gradually being recognized as quite a distinct caste under the name of ' Bohras
and Athwarayas.' There are also some pseitdo-Briihmamcal and jWMf/o-Thakur
tribes who rank very low in the social scale; but even their case is by no means
a parallel one, for it is admitted on all sides that the original ancestor of — for
example — the Bhats and Ahivasis was a Brahman, and of the Gauruas a Tha-
kur. The douLt is whether the descendants, in consequence of the bend-sinis-
ter on their blazon, have altogether lost their ancestral title or only tarnished
its dignity ; whereas with a Sonar who claims to be a Vaisya, it is not any
suspicion of illegitimate descent, nor any incompatibility of employment, that
raises a doubt, but rather the radical incompleteness of the original theory and
the absence of any standard by which his pretensions may be tested.

In short, excepting only the Brahman and the Thakur, all other Indian
castes correspond, not to the Scottish clans — with which they are so often com-
pared, and from which they are utterly dissimilar — but to the close guilds
which in mediaeval times had so great an influence on European society. As
the Goldsmiths formed themselves into a company for mutual protection, so the
Sonars combined to make a caste ; — the former admitted many provincial
guilds with special customs and regulations, the latter recognized many subor-
dinate gotras ; the former required a long term of apprenticeship amounting
virtually to adoption, the latter made the profession hereditary ; the former
required an oath of secrecy, the latter insured secrecy by restricting social in-
tercourse with outsiders. As the founders of the oompany had no mutual con-
nection beyond community of interest, so neither had the founders of the caste.
When we say that all architects are sons of S. Barbara or all shoemakers of S.
Crispin, those being their patron saints, the expression is quite intelligible.
What more is implied in saying that Sanadhs are sons of Sanat-Kumara ?
To attach any literal meaning to a tradition which represents a Brahmanical
caste as born of the Gayatri ( a Vedic metre ) is a precisely similar absurdity
to saying a company was born of the Pater Noster and Ave Maria, because on
certain days every member was bound to repeat his rosary. A history of caste
in the sense in which the phrase is generally understood, vis., the tracing each

104

414: INDIAN CASTE.

caste to one definite pair of ancestors, is from tbe circumstances of the case an
impossibility.

With Brahmans and Kshatriyas matters stand somewhat differently. Though,
so far as any one subordinate division is concerned, it may often happen that its
individual members never at any time formed one family, yet as all the sub-
divisions are in the main descendants of the early Aryan conquerors, to that
limited extent they have a genuine community of origin . So long as the line of
demarcation which separated them from the aboriginal inhabitants of India re-
mained clearly defined, while the only distinction among themselves lay in the
difference of occupation, the conversion of a Kshatriya into a Brahman would not
be a more unusual occurrence than the retirement of a Christian knieht, when
wearied with warfare, into the peaceful seclusion of the cloister. The most
famous example of such a transformation is that supplied by the legend of
Visvamitra, which must over prove an insuperable difficulty to the orthodox
Hindu, who accepts the Manava doctrine of an essential and eternal difference
between the two castes. At the present day, when Brahmanism has become an
inseparable hereditary quality, the priestly character has been transferred to the
religious mendicants and ascetics who — allowing for the changed circumstances
of time and place — correspond to the Brahmans of antiquity, and like them freely
admit associates from every rank and condition of Hindu society. The apparent
difference is mainly due to the fact that in primitive times the Aryan outsi-
ders were all of one status, while now they are infinite in variety.

Theoretically, the essence of the Kshatriya is as incapable of transfer or
acquisition, except by natural descent, as that of the Brahman, but the practice
of the two classes has always been very different. The strength of a communi-
ty that lays claim to any esoteric knowledge lies in its exclusiveness ; but a
military body thrives by extension, and to secure its own efficiency must be lax
in restrictions. It may be observed as a singular fact that all the very lowest
castes in the country, if interrogated as to their origin, will say that they are
in some way or another Thakur : and this is illustrated by a passage in Manu,
where he mentions several outcast tribes as Kshatriyas by descent. Whence we
may infer that at all times there has been a great freedom of intercourse between
that class and others. Indeed, if we are to accept the legend of Parasuram as
in any sense expressing an historical event, the whole Thakur race has been re-
peatedly extirpated and as often re-formed out of alien elements. Nor is this at
variance with modern usage, for no Hindu rises to the rank of Raja, whatever
his original descent, without acquiring a kind of Thakur character, which in
most instances is unhesitatingly claimed by, and conceded to, his descendants

INDIAN CASTE. 415

in the third or fourth generation, after alliances with older families have given
some colour to the pretension. And the illegitimate sons of Thakurs, who by
the Code of Manu would be Offras — their mothers being Musalmanis or low-
caste Hindu women — are, as is notorious, generally accepted, either themselves
or in the person of their immediate descendants, as genuine Thakurs. Again,
many of the higher Thakur classes acknowledge the impurity of their birth in
the popular tradition of their origin. Thus the Chandels (i.e., the moon-born)
profess to be derived from the daughter of a Banaras Brahman, who had an in-
trigue with the moon-god ; and Gahlots (the cave-born) from a Rani of Mewar,
who took refuge with some mountaineers on the Malya range.

From all this it follows that, whatever the dignity and antiquity of some
particular Thakur families, the Thakur caste is a heterogeneous body, which,
like the miscellaneous communities of lower pretensions which we have already
discussed, is held together more by similarity of circumstances than unity of
origin. The same principle of caste-formation is still actively at work through
all grades of Indian society. The comparatively modern organization of many
so-called castes is attested by the Persian names which they have thought pro-
per to assume, — for example, the Darzis, the Mallahs, the Mimars, <fec. A
large proportion of the first-named are really Kayaths, wdiich shows that the
term 'Dam' is still in a transitional state, and has not vet thorough! v shaken
off its original trade meaning. The older word for a tailor is suji, which, like
so much of the Hindi vocabulary, having become unfashionable, now implies a
workman of an inferior description. Similarly, randl, ' a woman,' has become
a term of reproach for 'a woman of bad character'; and nagara, Hindi for
' a city,' is used at the present day to denote, not even a village, but only a mere
' hamlet.' The desire to dignify a mean calling by a high-sounding name — as
when a sweeper is called mihtar, ' a prince,' and a cook khalifa— has been often
cited as an Oriental idiosyncraey, which to the mind of a European is produc-
tive of ridicule rather than respect. It gives occasion, however, to many a new
caste-iiarae. Thus the kMkrob, or street-sweeper of the town, regards himself
under the Persian designation as the superior of the village bhangi or scavenger ;
and the Mimar, or bricklayer, the Shoragar, or saltpetre manufacturer ; the
Chuna-paz, or lime-burner ; the Kori, or weaver, and even the Mochi or cobbler,
in assuming the name descriptive of his calling, almost forgets that he belongs
to the universally-despised caste of the Chamar.

To judge from the Census Returns, it would seem that these partiallv-
developed castes are only recognized in some few districts and totally ignored

416 INDIAN CASTE.

in others. Thus, Mathura is a great centre of the stone-cutter's art ; but the
men who practise it belong to different ranks, and have not adopted the distinc-
tive trade-name of sang-tarash, which seems to be recognized in Aligarh, Ha-
mirpiir, and Kumaon. Again, in every market town there are a number of
weighmen, who, no doubt, in each plaoe have special guild regulations of their
own ; but only in Banaras do they appear as a distinct caste, with the name of
palle-dars. So too at Saharanpur some fruit-sellers — whose trade, it may be
presumed, has been encouraged by the large public garden at that station — have
separated themselves from the common herd of Kunjrds, or ' costermongers,'
and decorated their small community with the Persian title of Mewafarosh.
As might be expected, this disintegration of society and adoption of a novel
nomenclature prevails most extensively among the lower orders, where the
associations connected with the old name that is discarded are of an unpleasant
nature. But even in the higher classes, where the generic title is one of
honour, it is frequently superseded in common parlance by one that is more dis-
tinctive, though it may be of less favourable import. Thus, among Brahmans
a Bohra sub-caste is in course of formation, and a Chaube of the Mathura
branch, when settled elsewhere, is invariably styled neither Brahman nor
Chaube, but Mathuriya. Illustrations might be multiplied indefinitely ; but
the few now cited are sufficient to prove how caste subdivisions are formed
in the present day, and to suggest how they originated in the first instance.

APPENDIX B.

the Catholic Church.
Subscriptions,

The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Agra

Proceeds of a Lottery, through the Very Rev. Father Sym

Priests of the Mission ...

pliorien

do.
do.
do.
do.

do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.

Lord Ralph Kerr, Lt.-Col., 10th Royal Hussars

Viscount Campden,

Surgeon-Major Cattell,

W. H. Watkins, Captain,

Boyce Combe, Captain,

The Hon. C. C. W. Cavendish, do.

E. A. H. Roe, Surgeon, do.
J. Pembroke, Lieut., Commissariat Officer
Col. Dillon, C.B., C.S.I.
Offertory, All Saints' Day, 1874

Seth Gobind Das, C.S.I.*

H. H. the Maharaja of Chirkhari, Bundelkhand..

Raja Hari Narayan Sinh, of Hathras

Lala Svam Sundar Das

Sri Maharaj Gosain Purushottam Lai, of Gokul

Raja Prithi Siuh, of Awa

F. S. Growse, C. S.
Malcolm Reade, C. S. ...
Percy Wigram, C. S. ...
M. A. MeConaghey, C. S.
C. F. Hall, C. S.
J. H. Twigg, C. S.
Ross Scott, C. S.
H. L. Harrison, C. S. ...

C. G. Hind, District Engineer
D'Arcy McArthy

Messrs. Ellis, Merchants, Agra

H. Neil, Assistant Patrol, Customs ..

Conductor Higher

A. H. Davis, Assistant Supdt. of Police

A. B. Seaman, Civil Surgeon

Mahbiib Masih

R. A. Lloyd, Education Department

Rs.

1,200

1,250

1,150
500
50
50
25
25
20
125
50
25

1,100
500
425
300
400
100

4,700
50
100
50
25
25
20
10

100
100
75
15
15
20
50
50
50

* The sanction of the Government was obtained, in the first instance, before a subscrip-
tion was accepted from any Hindu gentleman.

105

418 SUBSCRIPTIONS TO THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.

W. N. Boutflower, Education Department
H. Prince, Superintending Engineer
Lt.-Col. F. C Anderson...
Captain Ellaby, R A. ...
Offertory, All Saints' Day, 1876

Es.

20
50
50
20
133

13,098

Total

Donations.

Statues of the Sacred Heart, of the B. Virgin and Child, and of S. Joseph,
from the Dowager Marchioness of Lothian and the Duchess of Buccleuch
(through Lord Ralph Kerr).

Life-size crucifix (indulgenced), from Lord Ralph Kerr.

Persian carpeting for the Altar steps, from J. W. Tyler, M.D., F.R.C.S.

A crystal chandelier for the Choir, from Mr. John Ellis, Agra.

A crystal chandelier and a marble chair, from Seth Raglmnath Das.

A marble chair ; from Lala Badri Prasad.

The Font, from Lala Ratn Lai.

The Stations of the Cross, from the Men of the 10th Royal Hussars.

The above lists are inserted in this volume as an interesting record of the
cordiality that prevailed among all classes of the community during my official
connection with Mathura, and as a permanent acknowledgment of the generous
assistance that I received in carrying out a project which I had greatly at
heart. A description of the unfinished building has been given in an earlier
chapter. Any want of cougruity that may be detected in the design is mainly
attributable to the same cause as paralyzes the action of almost every District
Officer in India, viz., his liability at any moment to be transferred to some
entirely diiferent part of the country. As I was not in a position to put down
the whole of the money at once, and did not wish, in case of my sudden
removal, to leave the Mission burdened with a design which it would require a
very large outlay to complete, I commenced the work in a simple and inex-
pensive style, and pushed it on as rapidly as possible. By the end of the year,
when part of it had been roofed in and roughly furnished, I felt myself at
liberty to launch out into more elaborate architecture, which I intended to con-
tinue so lone as I was on the spot, but which could be stopped without serious
practical injury to the fabric, if I were removed. Many of the bald features,

z>
I
o

_l
o
I
I-
<
o

cc
u

THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 419

which now strike the eye unpleasantly, were intended as merely temporary
make-shifts, and, if I had been allowed the time, would gradually have given
way to something better ; carved stone being everywhere substituted for plain
brick and mortar. The interior, with the important exception of the High
Altar, is virtually complete, and is to my mind both religious and picturesque
in its effect. The external facade, as it now stands, conveys a very imperfect
idea of what it was meant to be. The building was intended as a protest
against the standard plans and other stereotyped conventionalities of the Public
Works Department ; and it has at least the one great architectural merit of
being absolutely truthful ; no one on seeing it but would immediately under-
stand that it was a Catholic Church, built in an eastern country for the use of
a mixed congregation of Europeans and orientals. As a proof that in some
quarters at all events my idea was thoroughly appreciated, I cannot resist the
pleasure of appending an extract from a letter which appeared in the correspon-
dence columns of the London Tablet, in its issue for October 2Gth, 1878 : —

" To Mr. E. S. Growse, of the Bengal Civil Service, we owe an ecclesiastical building
which is quite unique of its sort in India, and may in the richness of its details compare favour-
ably with approved European workmanship. The munificence of that gentleman, combined with
rare artistic taste, has enabled him to cull all the rich treasures of a rich neighbourhood in the
service of religion. His knowledge of the district of which he is both the historian and the
renovator pre-eminently fitted him for this labour of love. Mathura chapel is a combination
of Christian and pagan art, and peculiarly interesting as the sole work of native artiBts, whose
chisels have certainly not diminished the beauty and solemnity associated with altar and sanc-
tuary. Finer or more elaborate carving could not be seen anywhere. Men acquainted with the
delicate Bcreen work of India will find it here for the first time engrafted on a Christian church,
conveying the solemnizing effect of stained glass. Kigidly adhering to the idea of employing
native art alone, Mr. Growse has to the smallest item excluded articles of exotic growth, substi-
tuting, for instance, Muradabad vases for the trumpery foreign importations so frequently seen
on other altars.

"The remark of Mr. Fergnsson that 'Architecture in India is a living art' is nowhere
more happily illustrated than in the recent restorations of Mathura, a work also due to Mr. Growse.
Engaged in those restorations, the thought must naturally have arisen in connection with
English buildings, why employ English models, often alike incompatible with the climate and
genius of the people, when there are indigenous ones, and those far more beautiful, near at hand ?
Why disfigure the Oriental landscape with buildings as incapable of appealing to the sympathies
of the people as of meeting the requirements of art and comfort ? Along, too, with considera-
tions about architecture would come the thought— why not employ Indian arts more generally?

"It may be unorthodox to say so, but I confess the most sumptuous English fanes in India
communicate a very different impression to that communicated by a visit to the Pearl Mosque at
Agra. What that impression is any reader of Bishop Heber will easily understand. So great is
it that one may be pardoned for wishing to impregnate an Indian Christian temple with some of
its distinctive features.

420 TnE CATHOLIC CHURCH. -

"This is precisely what Mr. Growse has done at Mathura ; and I cm conceive no more
graceful way of familiarising natives with Christian symbols than bringing them to ornament
them with their own matchless art. Prejudice is at once silenced, and sympathy, if not inquiry,
aroused. An attempt is made to place ourselves in accord with Borne-thing they most cherish in
their affections. We sound a note of nature, and, in doing so, may lay claim to some reciprocal
esteem. It is the same policy that crowned with success the labours of S. Frauds Xavier in
Southern India, and in more recent times illumined the path of the Abbo Dubois. These saintly
men sought the empire of the mind through the empire of the heart.

" Any endeavour to revive such a policy in Northern India ought to be a source of unmixed
satisfaction. Mr. Growse's chapel stands as a speck of the ocean, under the shadow cf the great
Hindu city of KriBhna. May it some day stimulate a work in inverse ratio to its size."

APPENDIX C.

List of Trees that grow in the District.

Adansonia digitata ; no native name : the Baobab or monkey-bread tree; two
fine specimens in one of the gardens in cantonments.

Agasti, from the Hindu saint of that name ; jEschynomene or Sesbania grandi-
flora ; a small soft-wooded tree with large handsome flowers, which are
eaten as a vegetable.

Akol, for Sanskrit ankola ; a small tree with yellow flowers, which I have seen
only in the Konai rakhya, where there are several specimens of it. Apparently
the Alangium.

Am, for Sanskrit dmra ; Mangifera Iudica, the mango tree.

Amalta's, Cassia Fistula ; the Indian Laburnum.

AmlX, from the Sanskrit amla, the Latin amara, with reference to the acidity

of its fruit. Phyllanthus Emblica, or Emblica officinalis.
Arni, Clerodendrum Phlomoides, a shrub with sweet-scented flowers, resembling

the honey-suckle.
Arua, for Sanskrit aralu, Ailanthus excelsa. A fine forest tree, with leaves

from two to three feet long, and panicles of yellowish flowers. Frecpuent

in the avenue along the Mathura and Delhi road.
Asok, Sanskrit asoka ; Saraca Indica or Jonesia Asoka ; indigenous in the

forests of southern India, where it is famous for its magnificent red flowers ;

I have never seen it blossom here.
BXbirang, Embelia robusta, a small tree, called by that name at Naugama in

the Chhata pargana, but apparently known in other villages as the ajdnimkli;

flowers in February and March when almost bare of leaves. It is used as

a remedy for colds and rheumatism {bed), which may be the origin of the

name.
BabTJL, Acacia Arabica.
Bah era, for Sanskrit vibhitaka, Terminalia bellerica. A tall straight-growing

tree with large leaves and greenish yellow flowers of unpleasant smell.

Fruit a large ovoid nut, used in dyeing and tanning, also as a medicine and

for making ink ; the kernels are eaten, but are said to be intoxicating.

Frequent in the avenue on the Mathura and Delhi road.

106

422 INDIGENOUS TREES.

Baka'yan, Melia Azedarach, a small tree, which for a few weeks in the spring
presents a handsome appearance with its large clusters of lilac flowers, but
for the greater part of the year it is leafless and ragged-looking, with
bunches of dry yellow fruit.

Bar, for Sanskrit rata, Ficus Bengalensis, the Banyan tree.

Barna, for Sanskrit varana, Cratoeva religiosa. Flowers and puts forth new

leaves in April, when its large cream-coloured blossoms give it a handsome

appearance.

Bel, for Sanskrit vilva, iEgle marmelos. The pulp of the fruit is used for
making sherbet ; also to mix with mortar. The leaves are sacred to Mahidey.
Ber, for Sanskrit badara; Zizyphus jujuba; cultivated for its fruit.

Chhonkar, Prosopis spicigera ; very common throughout the district; occasion-
ally grows to quite a large tree, as in the Dohani Kund at Chaksauli. It is
used for religious worship at the festival of the Dasahara, and considered
sacred to Siva. The pods (called sangiiiare much used for fodder. Probably
chhonkar and sani/ri, which latter is in some parts of India the name of the
tree as well as of the pod, are both dialectical corruptions of the Sanskrit
sankara, a name of Siva ; for the palatal and sibilant are frequently inter-
changeable.

DhXe, for Sanskrit dagdha, ' on fire,' with reference to its bright flame-
coloured flowers ; Butea frondosa.

Dho, for Sanskrit dhava, covers the whole of the Barsana hill ; is apparently
the Anogeissus pendula or myrtifolia. A small tree, nearly bare of leaves
all through the dry season.

DuKGAL, another name for the Pilu.

Fara's, Tamarix articulata, a graceful tree of rapid growth, readily propagated
from cuttings.

Gondi, Cordia Rothii, a small tree. The fruit, a berry with a yellow, gelatinous,
pellucid pulp, is edible, but insipid. The viscidity of the fruit gives its
name to the tree (from gond, ' gum").

GiJlar, Ficus glomerata, a large tree, the wood of which is specially used for
well frames, as it is all the more durable for being in water. Its fruit grows
in clusters on the branches and trunk ; whence probably the vernacular
name (from </ola a ' ball") : the same peculiarity has suggested its botanical
epithet, glomerata.

Gangek, a small scraggy shrub at Charan Pahar, Barsana and elsewhere,
apparently a species of Grewia.

INDIGENOUS TREES. 423

Kingot, Balanites Roxburghii, a small thorny tree, with a hard fruit, which is
filled with gunpowder and used for fireworks. Its roots spread far and
throw up suckers at a considerable distance from the trunk.

IlfNS, Capparis sepiaria, a very strong, thorny creeper.

Imli, Tamarindus Indica, one of the largest, handsomest, and most valuable
of all Indian trees, but a very slow grower. But for this la~t detect it would
be an excellent avenue tree, as it is never leafless and gives shade all the
year round.

Indrajau, Wrightia tinctoria. At Charan Pahar. Bare of leaves in the cold
weather, at which time it is hung with bunches of long, slender, dark-green
pods, each pair cohering slightly at the tip.

Ja'JIAN, for Sanskrit Jamhu : Eugenia jambolana ; generally planted round the
border of large mango orchards. Is never leafless. The fruit, like a damson
in appearance, has a harsh but sweetish flavour.

Jhau, Tamarix dioica ; a dwarf variety of the Faras, which springs up after
the rains on the sands of the Jamuna, where it forms a dense jungle.

KachnXr, for Sanskrit Kanchandra, Bauhinia variegata ; a moderate sized tree,
which presents a beautiful appearance in March and April, when in full flower.

Kadamb, Sanskrit Kodamba. Abundant in the Chhatd and Kosi parganas,
where it forms large woods, as especially at Pisaya. There are two kinds, the
more common being the Stephigyne parvifolia ; the other, a much finer tree,
the Anthocephalus Cadamba, or Nauclea Cadamba of Roxburgh.

Kait, for Sanskrit Kapittha ; Peronia elephantum ; the elephant or woodapple.
An ornamental tree with a hard round fruit ; the leaves have a slight smell
of aniseed

Katiaiya, Celtis Australis (?) at Pisaya. A middle-sized tree with yellowish-
white flowers and eatable fruit.

Katiya'ri, Xylosma (?). A small tree with dense sombre foliage, long stiff
thorns, and flowers in small yellow tufts like the babul.

KARTL, for Sanskrit Karira ; Capparis aphylla ; the typical fruit of Braj.

KHAJtiR, for Sanskrit Klmjura; Phoenix Sylvestris ; the wild date palm.

Kiiirni, for Sanskrit Kshirini, ' the milky' ; Mimusops Indica ; a large evergreen
tree with a fruit that ripens in May and June and tastes like a dried currant.

KhandXr, Salvadora Persica. A tree very similar to the Pilu, but of more
graceful growth. Its fruit is uneatable.

Labera, and Lasora, two varieties of the Cordia latifolia. A soft-wooded,
crooked-growing tree, with eatable fruit.

424 INDIGENOUS TREES.

Laliya'RI, a middle-sized tree which presents a very handsome appearance with
its large dull-red and yellow flowers, which open in February and March.
The tree appears to be very rare and little known and I cannot trace it in any
botanical work. There is one on the Shergarh and Kosi road, another at
Barsana, and others near Dotana. I tried to rear it in mv own garden, but
the young trees died after I left. The name is obviously derived from the
colour (hil) of the flowers, but natives take the word to be lariyari, ' quarrel-
some,' and have a prejudice against it accordingly.

MahVJA, for Sanskrit madhuka, with allusion to the sweetness of its flowers ;

Bassia latifolia ; scarce in the district.
Ma'lsari, Mimusops elengi, an evergreen tree with sweet-scented starshaped

flowers, which are used for garlands ; whence the name, from mala, a

' garland' and sara, a ' string.'

NfM, for Sanskrit nimba, Melia Indica, the tree which thrives better in the

district than any other.
NfM Chambeli, otherwise called Bilayati Bakayan ; Millingtonia hortensis;

a handsome, fast-growing tree with fragrant white flowers.
Nausath, Erythrina Indica, the Indian coral-tree. Its flowers, of a dazzling

bright scarlet, make a fine show in March, before the new leaves appear.

The name would seem to be a corruption of nava sapta, 16 ; with reference

to the 16 modes of enhancing personal beauty; as if they had all been

exercised upon this beautiful tree.

PXrRi, Ulmus integrifolia ; a large tree, bare of leaves in the cold weather.

PA'RAS-PfrAR, a name which probably means 'the Persian piped.'' A tree
found only at two places in this district, the Dhru-tila at Mattrara and the
Khelan-ban at Maha-ban. The flower closely resembles that of the cotton
plant. There are avenues of it in some of the streets of Bombay.

Pasendu, Diospyros cordifolia ; a small tree with dense foliage, but considered
an unlucky tree to take shade under ; very common in the rakhyas. It has
an uneatable fruit of unpleasant smell and bitter taste.

PfLU, with the same name in Sanskrit ; Salvadora oleoides ; forms large woods
in the Chhata and Kosi parganas. A stunted misshapen-looking tree,
generally with cracked or hollow trunk and exposed roots. It bears an eat-
able fruit.

Pilukhan. Ficus cordifolia ; a large tree rarely found in the district. It may
be seen at Konai and in the Kokila-ban. It is common in the neigbourhood
of Hari-dwar.

INDIGENOUS TREES. 425

PfPAL, for Sanskrit pippala ; Ficus religosa.

Remja, Acacia leucophl;ea ; a thorny tree common in the rakhyas in conjunc-
tion with the Chhonkar.

RfTHA, for Sanskrit arislda ; Sapindus detergens ; the soap berry tree ; found
at Satoha.

Sahajna. For Sanskrit sobhdnjana ; Moringa pterygosperina or Hyperanthera
moringa ; the horse-radish tree.

Sahora, Streblus asper (?). A small scraggy tree with rough dark-green
leaves and eatable fruit, a yellow one-seeded berry. Single trees are
common all over the district.

Shah-tut. Morus Indica ; the mulberry tree.

Semal, for Sanskrit Salmali ; Bombax heptaphyllum ; the cotton tree. Flowers
in March when bare of leaves, like the kachnar, dhak, and nausath.

SlRlS, for Sanskrit sirisha, is the vernacular name both for the Acacia speciosa,
which, in spite of its botanical epithet, is a very unsightly tree for a great
part of the year, when its branches are bare of leaves and hung only with
large, dry, yellow pods, rattling with every breath of wind. The same name
is given to a similar but larger and much handsomer tree, the Albizzia
odoratissima, which has red-brown legumes.

107

GLOSSARY.

A'dham sunn, half.

Aikli-Baikli, incoherent nonsense.

Ainth, pride, conceit.

A'kasi viutt, dependence on the rains ; said of fields where there is no artificial
irrigation.

Ala, wet.

Alal-tappu, incoherent, absurd. >

Alana Batana, strangers.

Alin, a stone jamb of a doorway ; a pilaster, or attached pillar, as distinguished
from Icliambli, a detached pillar.

Amaxa, obstinate ; incredulous.

Amer, delay, late.

Amolak, invaluable ; coal-dust used as a dry colour in making sdnjhis.

An, a curse.

Anakiitota, extraordinary.

Anosak (for an-avasar), want of leisure, domestic work.

Anta chit, senseless.

Anti, an ear-ring.

Athen (for athmana), evening.

Atuii, lire.

A-ud, literally 'waterless;' a term applied to a man who dies childless, with no
son to make him the ordinary funeral libations. It is also the name given
to the little masonry platform often seen near a village, on which twice a year
jars of water are set, in order to lay the ghost of some childless person.

Baithak, the village club and hospice ; also a rest-house at a holy place for
the accommodation of the Gosain on his annual visit on the feast-day.

Bakhar, a house.

Baraii-bas, a term used vaguely with reference to any large and ancient village
to imply that a number of hamlets, though not necessarily exactly twelve,
have been founded from it. Such are Bhadanwara, Barauth, &c, of which a
rustic will say : — Uskc bdrali-bds haln ; aise kahie Jiain ; kuelih base hain ;
Jcuchh ujar hain.

Bardii, an ox.

Barui, a class of weavers.

B.is, a hamlet, as distinguished from kherd, the parent settlement.

GLOSSARY. 427

BnAimr, a brother's wife (for Ihrdtri-vadhu).
Bhagavadi'ya, devout.
Bhainkra, crying, aa of a child.
Biiaena, the capital of a pillar.
Bharota, a bundle of wood or fodder.
Biiayen, to, for, as regards.
Bnon, the first watering of any crop.
Bnu.i, a father's sister.

Bhumiya, a low altar or platform on the outskirts of a village, dedicated to the
local divinity, or rather demon, corresponding to the Gram Devi of the
Mainpuri and other districts. It often resembles in form a Muhammadan
grave, consisting of an oblong block of stone or brickwork with a recessed
pillar at one end ; offerings are made upon it to avert the spells of witch-
craft, &c.
Bhumra, early morning.
Bhusri, of a dull red colour, as a cow.
Birokiia, afternoon.
Bitonda, a stack of cow-dung fuel.
Biyara, supper-time, evening.
Bohr-oat, the trade of a bohrd, or money-lender.
Bot, a flat earthenware flask holding about two sers.
Bundi, tail-less.

Chaciia, a father's younger brother.

Chenta-poti, the young of insects or lower animals generally.

Chhail-kari, a small ring worn in the upper part of the ear.

Chitajja, stone eaves of a house or other building, supported on projecting

brackets.
Chattra, a dole-bouse, where cooked food is given in charity to indigent

applicants.
Chhaha, small, paltry, slight ; as chliari sawdri, * a small retinue.'
Chhaei, the shaft of a pillar.
Chhenkna, to reject, excommunicate.
Chhora, Chhori, a boy, a girl.

Chiua, the capital of a pillar, when it has brackets attached to it.
Chunai, masonry work.

Dadiiaiya, fresh, as a colour.

Danoha. a bullock or other horned animal of inferior quality.

Daei'e, a line.

Daeiya, a coloured shawl worn by married women.

428 GLOSSARY.

Dasa, in architecture, a string-course.

Dehri, a threshhold ,• also a strip of pavement between two piers of an arcade.

Dhab, stature.

Dheeh, a Chatnar.

DnETATi, a daughter's daughter.

DniNG-DnrNGi, force, violence.

Dhuhae (for Sanskrit dhumla), smoke-coloured, dun, as a cow.

Dila, in architecture, a panel.

Dobea, a long piece of cloth of double width, used as a carpet.

Dola-pat, the masonry pillars and stone cross-bar supporting the pulley over a

well worked by bullocks.
Doli hona, to go away.
Dothain", early morning, sunrise.

Elak, a sieve.

Faujdae, a title much affected by Jats and used simply as equivalent to their
caste name.

Gami (for gr&myd) rustic, clownish.

G-abai, the occupation of a grazier (for gwdrai).

Gariyara, or Garara, a cart-track.

Gaeua, a brass drinking vessel.

Gauchii, the moustache.

Gaurua, a name given to certain clans of Thakur descent, that are held in

lower esteem than other branches of the same parent stock, in consequence

of their las views regarding marriage and other social institutions.
Ghtau, used by the Chaubes for gin.
Gohnjo, Gohn.ii, a father-in-law, mother-in-law.
Gokh (for gavdksha), a look-out ; a window on an upper story with a projecting

balcony.
Gola, a bundle of leaves, fodder, &c, and specially of jhar-beri.
Gonana, to escort pilgrims.
Gonawa, an escorter of pilgrims. Brahmans of this description are always

going backwards and forwards between Mathura, and Brinda-ban.
Got (for goshtha, a cattle-pen), an enclosure usually made by a thorn fence and

used for stacking straw, fuel, &c, or stalling cattle.
Guhae, a confederacy.
Gunda, wicked.

Gutii-jana, to close in wrestling.
Habkau, excessive greed.
Hajibai, yes.

GLOSSARY. 429

Hanoi, a fine linen sieve for sifting flour, as distinct from chalni, a coarse sieve

for grain.
Hata-chanti, a dexterous theft from under one's own eye.
Hato, Hate, was, were (for thd and the).
Hay Hay, properly an interjection, but often used as a noun meaning greed ; thus,

usko rupaye hi hay hay rahi hai, 'he is most greedy for money.'
Hej, affection.
Hela parna, to call, shout.

Hilawa, an untrained beast of draught, yoked as an outrigger.
Hun, I, for main or ham : as wahdn hun gayo hato, ' I had gone there.'
Hurdang, a disorderly dance.

I, frequently substituted for a as in Lachhmin for Jjachhman.

Inch, an undertaking on the part of the village baniya to settle the landlord's
demand for rent on the security of the tenant's crops, of which he takes
delivery after harvest. The arrangement, which results in an account of the
most complicated description, is so carried out as totally to fustrate the inten-
tions of some of the main provisions of the Rent Law ; and, as it pauperizes the
tenant without in any way enriching the landlord, it may justly be regarded
as one of the main causes of the prevalent agricultural distress. The institu-
tion of Government banks seems to be the only means of checking the evil.
At present Es. 3-2-0 per cent, per mensem is not an uncommon rate of
interest.

Indhan, properly 'fuel' ; a sluggard.

Itek, so much.

Ittan, this side, this way ; used only by the Chaubes.

Ja, the oblique case of the demonstrative pronoun, as jd samay, ' at that time ;
jdko pita, ' his father.' Those who argue from the existence of this and a few
similar peculiarities that Hindi is only a generic name for a variety of vulvar
dialects that have little or nothing in common, might with equal reason maintain
that in Shakespear's time there was no such language as English ; for even the
greatest writers of that period, when books were few and man untravelled,
occasionally betray by their provincialism the county that gave them birth.

Jag-Mohan, the choir, or central compartment of a Hindu temple, usually sur-
mounted by a sikhara, or tower.

Jaraila, jealous.

Jarailapan, or Jalkokrapan, jealousy.

Jengra, a calf.

Jeri, a wooden pitch-fork, also called lagi.

Jet bear lena, to close with an antagonist in a struggle.

108

430 GLOSSARY.

Jhamel, delay.

Jhaeap, a prop, an attached shaft or pilaster.

Jhera, a blind well.

Jhunjhaeka, early morning.

Jua, a sister's husband.

Jijiya, a sister.

Jirnoddhar, the restoration of a ruined temple or other building.

Jonhar, naughtiness, peevishness, in a child.

Jot, exorcisms and incantations as practised by Jogis.

Jure, near.

Kajra (for Icajjal), lampblack.

Kaka, a father's younger brother.

Kan-vrit, professional begging.

Karkas, a kind of water-fowl abounding at Gokul and Gobardhan.

Kathari, equivalent to gudari, a tattered garment.

Eathaua, a wooden dish.

Kathauta, in the lump; equivalent to the more common gol, or the Arabic

revenue term hilmukia.
Kaura, a morsel.
Khan, time (for ksJ/an).
Kiiandar, brush-wood.
Kiiandi, an instalment.
Khera, the original village site, as distinguished from the subordinate hamlets

of later formation.
Khera-pat, ' the lord of the khera,' the hereditary village purohit.
Khilli, a jest, joke.

Khor, a double sheet or wrapper, as an article of clothing.
Kfiunt, a corner.
Khurka, a noise, like dhat. Thus klmrku so hliaijo, 'there was some sort of a

noise'.
Killa, a great noise, or outcry.

Killi, a cry, alarm, as main ne killi macJtdi, ' I gave the alarm.'
Kitek, how much.

Kohar, a pole set slanting over a well to assist in drawing water by hand.
Komaea chakha, ' easy noon,' a little before noon, Komara being equivalent to

narm, as in the phrase narm Jcos, ' an easy or short kos,' and cMkhd being

the midday collation. The expression is sometimes altered to komara dopalir.
Krita, grace, or favour, used as equivalent to the Persian complimentary phrase

taslrif. Thus dj to dp ne kalian kripd kari ? ' Where has your honor been

to-day?'

GLOSSARY-. 431

Kuitab-gabiia, a piece of ground near a villago set apart for the burial of
children that die as infants, before they have been initiated into Hinduism.

Kunj, a court ; an occasional residence, or rest-house, generally a building of
elaborate architectural design in the form of a cloistered quadrangle.

Kuehna, to be jealous.

Kuskut, sharpening plough-snares; the work of a village smith.

Labaea, young of cattle.

Lakoea, a bundle, as of grass, vetches, &c.

Lang, side.

Langtae, a row,

Lapka, a wheedler, flatterer.

Lash, the Persian word for ' a corpse,' often used of a man who is merely
wounded.

Latak, side, direction, as purab hi latdk, ' to the east ;' also figure, or atti-
tude.

Laudei, a twig or switch.

Litei, worn-out shoes.

Lohsda, a small iron pan.

Malabiya, a small earthen pot.

Maluk, good.

Mami pina, to be a partisan of any one, to support his cause.

Mabaz Mubabak, ' the lucky disease,' a euphemism for ' the itch '.

Mare, bread made of flour mixed with ghi and baked only on the tawa. This
Hindus can eat on a journey with their clothes on, and a Bnihman can eat it,
though it has been baked by a bania. Ordinary bread, roti, must be eaten
with the clothes off, and cannot be eaten at all if baked by a man of inferior
caste.

Maeuaita, a hut.

Maeoe, pride, affectation.

Mathaurita, an earthen pot used in churning.

Muddai, the Arabic law-term for ' a prosecutor ' ; generally used by villagers,
in the sense of ' an enemy,' and thus frequently applied to ' the defendant.'

Mukaena, or MrKAB-JANA, to deny.

Muk-mukka, a blow with the fist.

NamaT, attentive to.

Nasik, a corner of a building, a projection.

Natni, a son's daughter.

Naua, a barber.

432 GLOSSARY.

Nibchhara, leisure, opportunity.

Nikhea, bright and clean.

Nirsa (for ni-ras), bad, worthless, counterfeit (as a coin).

Nohea, a cattle-yard.

0, a frequent substitute for o as a masculine termination in nouns aud
verbs.

Ojha, a Brahman carpenter (for upddhydyd).
Okha, counterfeit, as a coin.

01, a hostage.

Ongna, to oil the wheels of a carriage.

Ob, a class of weaver ■

Ob hthna, to stand up in any one's behalf.

Osae, an out-building (for apasdrita).

Ot, profit.

Ota, a low wall.

Paisa, a quarter of a town, so also para (from pada, a quarter).
Pakhaea, the second watering of any crop.
Palota, an iron-monger.
Pambi, a row.

Pabahatha, a kind of bread, like mare.
Parua, alluvial laud that requires no artificial irrigation ; being flooded by the

river in the rains, it retains its moisture all through the year.
Pataoa, a leaf of a tree.
Patkaea, a slap on the top of the head, as distinct from lhappar, a slap on the

face, and thdp, a slap on any other part of the body.
Pendna, short, stunted in stature.

Phaina, a kind of bread, the same as mare and pardmatha.
Pichkatjea, a single sheet, or wrapper, used as an article of clothing.
Pichhwaea, the back of a house.
Pilla, a little dog, a puppy.

Pita Pabekha, used either separately or together, remorse.
Poli, the entrance hall or door of a house.
Pot, beads, a turn ; thus with apni pot ko gusse men djdtd hai, ' when it comes to

his turn he gets angry.'
Peatap, a term of compliment, like the Latin auspice or Persian ikbdl.
Puchhi, grazing-fees, at so much per head, or rather tail.
Pulaj, low lands lying between sand-hills ; used at Sanket.
Pub, a hide.
Puth, sand-hills.

GLOSSARY. 433

Bafu Chakkab hona, to run away, to skedaddle.

Rakhta, a preserve, a bit of woodland near a village, in which, from a religious
sentiment, no trees are allowed to be cut by any one ; even the dry timber being
generally accounted the perquisite of some Bairdgi who has his hermitage on the
spot. Any villager found cutting a green bough would be excommunicated
from caste privileges for a term of years.

Rani, self-sown. Thus, rukhri rani upaji, ' a weed has come up of itself.'

Rengna, to walk slowly.

Rengta, an ass's foal.

Renuta, a spinning wheel.

Renuti, a wheel for cleaning cotton and separating it from the cotton seed,
banola.

Reni (from the Sanskrit root ri, ' to distill'), any substance from which dye can
be extracted.

RfNGHNA, to languish.

Risna, to leak.

Sabha, the nave of a temple.
Sakabau, early in the morning, betimes.
Santa, a thonged stick for driving cattle.
Sab, a cow-house.
Saue, a quilt, or padded wrapper.
Sel-kiiabi, steatite, soap-stone.

Senhan, or Sehi, a well-digger (from sendhna, to mine).
Seth-ganth, cobbling (from setra, a derivative of si, ' to sew.')
Sohni, a broom.

Son, a substitute for the affix se.
Sun b aetna, to be silent.

Swant relief: thus, dawd dete hi swdnt par gai, ' as soon as the medicine was
given, he got relief.'

Tankhi, a tank, or reservoir for water, when cut out of the natural rock, as on

the Nand-ganw and Barsana hills. Probably from tdnki, ' a chisel.'
Tap, the base of a pillar.
Taeak, a square beam.
Tau, a father's elder brother (for idta).
Tuabi, a shopkeeper's stall.
Thasak, affectation, display.
Tikba, a kind of bread, like mdre.
Tilla, a blow.

Titaea, the third watering of any crop.

109

434 GLOSSARY.

Tippas, pomp.

Ton, a trace.

Toba, in architecture, brackets supporting the projecting eaves or chhajja.

TJllayat, quickness.

Uleta, bread of the kind described under mare.

Unhab, like.

Uttan, that side ; used only by the Chaubes.

TJsaeana, to change or remove, as courses at a dinner.

~Wa, demonstrative pronoun or definite article, as tea baniya ne wd stri son kahi,
' the baniya said to the woman.'

Yun hIn, just so, gratis, for nothing.

ZAiirNDAB, ' a landowner,' used as equivalent simply to a Jat by caste, without
special reference to mode of life.

INDEX.

ABD-ni.-MA.TrD, 29.

Abd-un-Nabi, 3G, 151, 173.

Acha, 112.

Aganvalas, the, 12.

Agra Canal, 21, 359, 375.

Agra Sarkar, 4.

Ahalya Bai, 186.

Ahivaeis, the, 10, 292, 294, 415.

Ahmad Shah, Durani, 39.

Ajnokh, 75, 84.

Akbar, 34, 172, 221, 241.

Akbarpur, 30, 307, 373.

Akrur, 02, 85, 207.

Aligarh, 17, 4 1.

Ambarisha, 145.

Angiras, 61.

Anna-kut, the, 300-301.

Anyor, 83, 301-302.

Aring, 1, 62, 83, 380.

Arishta, 62, 83, 381.

Ar-khera, 401.

Asaf Khan, 29.

Asikunda Ghat, 148.

Asoka, 104, 110.

Aurangahad, 47, 173, 381.

Aurangzeb, 35, 243, 274, 316.

Awa, Raja of, 11, 417.

Ayra Kh'erS, 9, 399.

Azamabad Sarao, 30.

Azam Khan, 175.

BXcnHAts, the, 12.

Bachh-ban, 12, 57, 376.

Badan Sinh, Thakur, 38, 264, 339, 367.

Badanni, 34.

Bajana, 391.

Baladeva, town, 292.

Baladeva Singh, Raja, 45, 306.

Balaram, 54-59, 111, 169, 184.

Balavant Sinh, Raja, 45, 157, 307.

Balbbadra kund, 120, 132.

Banaras, 105, 126.

Bandi, 348.

Ban-jatra,, 75, 81-91.

Banko Bihari, temple of, 217.

Barsana, 42, 74, 84, 91, 311-14, 337, 422, 424.

Batten,' 77, 85, 98, 348, 364.

Bathi, 82, 34 1.

Bengali Vaishnavas, 197.

Bernier, 27, 36, 127.

Beschi, Father, 6S.

Best, Mr., 139. 163.

Bhadra-ban, 58, 87, 189.

Bbagavad Gita, 69, 190.

Bhagavan Das, Raja, 1 IS, 211, 304.

Bhagavat Puiana, 51, 53.

Bhakt-Mila, tbo, 101, 142, 190, 200, 218, 252,

303.
Bhakt-Sindhn, tie, 219, 221.
Bh&ndir-ban, 58, 87, 391.
Bharat Milan, 182.
Bharat-pur, 7.
Bharna, 7, 84, 350.
Bhat-rond, temple of, 8G, 186,
Bhau Daji, Prof., 109.
Bhau-gauu , 74.
Bhima. 81.
Bhim, Raja, 247.
Bhishma, 299.
i: ' mak, 66.

Bhutesvar, temple of, 120, 125, 131.
Bihari Mall, of \tnber, 305.
Biharini Das, 222.
BirDal, 222.

Bitthalndth, Gosain, 284.
Blochmann, Mr., 31, 151, 1G4, 338, 34C.
Brahmanda Ghat, 88, 280.
Brahma Samaj, L90, 195.
Brahma Samhandh, 285.
Brahma-Vaivarta Parana, 73, 186, 314, 332.
Brahm-kund, 189.
Brahmotsav, the, 261.
Braj, ',. 72, 76, -is.
Braj Bl ashi, .".. 319.
Braj-bilas. the, 75.
Braj-mandal, the, 78, 91,
Mriliat Sanhita, 3, 8.
Brinda-han, 184-271.
Budha, 3.

Buddha, 70. 103, 117.
Burlton. Lieut., 47.
Byomasur, 63.
Byom Sar, the, 238.

Cantonments, 161.
Chaitanya, 197, 221, 287.
Chandra-gnpta, 51.
Chanur, 02, 64, 131, 137.

a Pahar, 85, 365, 422, 423.
Chaubes, the, 9,
Chaumuha, 30, 373.
Chanrasi Pada, the, 208.
Chaurasi temple, 13.
Chanrasi Virta, the, 2^8, 295.
Chauw ira mounds, 122, 171.
Chhata, 5, 6, 29, 3S, 47, 90, 373.
Chhataii. 20.

INDEX.

Chhatthi Palna, the, 172, 275.

Gindoi, 335.

Chhatikra, 181.

Giri Prasad, Thakur, 7, 289.

Chhattrasal, Raja, 231, 238.

Giri-raj, the, 300.

Chitor, 9, 12, 342, 405.

Gobard'han, 60, 81, 89, 300.

Churanian, Jat, 37.

Gobind Das, Seth, 14, 200, 377, 378, 417.

Church, Catholic, 161, 417-420.

Gobind-Deva, temple of, 188, 241, 250.

City-wall, 122.

Gobind Singh, Raja, 17, 49.

Constable, Mr. A., 153.

Godwin-Austen, Colonel, 345.

Cunningham, Genl., 8, 106, 107, 103, 116, 120,

Gokarnesvar, 133.

123, 125, 168, 275, 270, 279.

Gokharauli, 398.

Customs line, 28.

Goknl, 10, 54, 56, 76, 89, 272, 282-291.

Gokul-nath, Gosain, 281, 292.

Da'ngoli, 87.

Gokul-nafch, temple of, 301.

Dasnimis, the, 308.

Gonanda, 111.

Daya Ram, Thakur, 16-17, 23S.

Gopis, the, 01.

DeLaet, John, 27-28, 367.

Gopinath, temple of, 253,

Delhi road, 27, 421.

Growse, etymology of, 331.

Devaki, 53, 131.

Gupta dynasty, 113.

Devapi, 300.

Givalior 'temples, 249, 276.

Dharapatan Ghat, 146.

Dhenuk, 58, 82.

Hansg.anj, 6, 307.

Dhir Sarnir, temple of, 261.

Hari Das, Swimi, 217, 223.

Dhruva, 1 17.

Hari Deva, temple of, 304-5.

Dhruva Das, Gosain, 216.

Hari Narayan Sinh, Rija, 19, 417.

Dig, 42, 43, 45.

Hari Vans Gosain, 199,' 203.

Digpal, Raja, 273.

Harivansa, 52, 309, 316.

Dilawar Khan, jamadar, 47.

Hardinge, Mr. Bradford, 157.

Diwali, the, 303.

Tl a , r, Mr. Robert, 260.

Dotana, 29, 337, 366, 424.

Hal i ma, 21.

Dunde Kh:'m, 20, 386.

Hathras, 18, 19, 48.

Durjan Sal, 45. 403.

Hang, Dr., 409.

Durrasas, 145, 368.

Heber, Bishop, 27, 155, 366, 419.

Duryodhau, 52.

Hermseus, 113.

Dwaraka, 52, 65, 126, 310, 3G1.

Hessing, Colonel, 150.

Dwarakadhis, temple of, 156.

Himmat Bahadur, Gosain, 308.

Dyce Sombre, 42.

Hiranya Kasipu, 93, 132.

Hoernle, Dr., 109, 334, 356.

Earthquake, 1813 A.D., 152.

Holanga Mela, 98,

Edessa, 69.

Holi, the, 91.

Eusebius, 69.

Hunter, Dr., 4, 185, 311, 319, 32S, 352, 379,

401.

Fa HrAN, 103, 121, 278.

Huvishka, 110, 112, 111, 123, 171.

Faiz Ali Khan, K.C.S.I., Nawib, 20, 377.

Hwen Thsaug, 3, 101, 108, 118.

Famine years, 23, 24, 25.

Farrah, 382.

Impa'd Ali Kham, c.s.i., 48, 49.

Fergusson, Mr., 78, 109, 248, 253-56, 275, 277,

Indra, 60, 85, 318.

419.

Irshad Ali Khan, 20, 404.

Farishta, 32.

Isa Tarkhin, Mirza, 175.

Firoz Shah, 185.

Isa-pur, 6, 121.

Fraser, Major-Genera!, 45.

Islampur, 6.

Itibar Khan. Khwaja, 29.

Gang-aptuk, Bhastei, 373.

Itimad Ali Khan, 20.

Ganga Mohan Kunj, 173, 265.

Itimad Rae, 20.

Ganges Canal, 22.

Gargi Sargi, 134.

Japqukmont, Mons., 71, 150, 188, 374.

Gargi Sanhita, 107.

Jsdons, the, 11.

Gauruas, the, 11.

Jahangir, 27, 30, 35.

Ghantabharan Ghat, 146.

Jait, 74, 350.

Ghats, the 24, 144-48.

Jalesar, 1, 2, 7, 11.

Ghazipur, 320.

Janialpur Sarae, 108, 115.

Ghazi-ud-din, 39.

Jarnbu Swami, 12.

GUulam Kadir, 43.

Jamuua, the, 71, 120, 129, 184.

INDEX.

ill

Jamuna Bagh, 149, 174.

Jarasandlia, 51, 65, 111.

Jasavant Sinli, Kiija, 19.

Jasoda, 274, 3 18.

Jitharas, the, 8.

Jats, the, 7.

Jau, 85, 350, 364.

Jawahir Singh, Kaja, 40, 308.

Jayapida, 112.

Jajpur, 140, 305.

Jay Sinh, Sawao, 38, 125, 135, 140, 264.

Jngal-Kislior, temple of, 254.

Kachhw^has, the, 380.
Kalars, the, 353.

Kali-mardan Ghat, 11, 58, 74, 250, 264.
Kamar, 74, 343, 350, 307.
Kam-ban, 343, 371.
Kanishka, 110, 112, 114.
KankaHtila, 117, 121, 131.
Kansa, 50, 53, 55, 67.
Kans ka Tila, 1-5.
Kans Khar, 111.
Karab, 335.
Karahla, 74, 79, 84.
Karamat Ali, 48.
Kama, 52, 111.
Kashmir, 51, 110.
Keith, Major J. B., 249.
Kern, Professor, 108, 16G.
Kesava, 62, 129-130.

Kesava Deva, temple of, 37, 106, 126-29, 137.
Kesav Bhatt, 142, I 17.
Kesav Chandra Son, 106.
Kesi Ghat, 02, 264.
Kesin, 62.
Kewar-ban, 189.
Khadira-ban, 57, 85.
Khaira, 57, 80, 85.
Khelan-ban, 2S1, 424.
Kiyamat-nauui, the, 231.
fOisoboras, 279.
Koila, 281, 350.

Kokila-ban, 74, S5, 194, 365, 42 1.
Kol, 394.

Kosi, 5, 6, 29, 41, 47, 94, 359-64.
Knt-ban, 41, 78, 85.
Krishna, 50-70, 111.
Kubja, 63, 132.
Kulchand, Kaja, 32.
Kukar-gama, 169, 350.
Kumona, 20, 386.
Kusum Sarovar, 308, 330.

Lachhman DXs, Seth, 15.

Lakhmi Chand, Seth, 14, 15, 47, 133, 154, 157,

386, 393.
Lake, Lord, 17, 44-45.
Lala Babu, the, 14, 25S, 313, 316, 372.
Lalita Yistara, the, 70, 105, 170.
Lai Khani family, 19, 20.
Lethbridge, Mr., 27.

Loha-ban. 87, 90, 339, 364.
Lodhas, the, 111.
Lorinser, Dr., 69.

Makas Mohan, temple of, 250.

Madem, '.'. 401.

Madlm-baii, 53, 81, 310, 330.

Madhva Vaishnavas, 196.

Magadhs 50, 66

Mahaban, 32, 56, 88, 272-281.

Mahahharat, the, 51, 347, 408, 410.

Mah&vidya Devi, 135.

Mahai ira, 13, 1 17.

Mahinud of Ghazni, 32, 272.

MahoU, 1. 53, 81, 125, 321, 330.

Mainpnri district, 4, 12, 273.

Malakanas, the, 13.

Malik Dasis, the. 230.

M&nasi I langa, 173, 303.

Mangi Lai, Seth, 15, 48.

Mangotla, 4, 341.

Man Sarovar, 87.

Mmi Ram, Seth, 14.

Ma,, Sinh, Raja, 139, 244, 303.

Man Sinh II., Raja, 262.

Mardan AH Khan, 20.

Marshall, Major-General, 17.

MSrtand, temple of, 7S.

Mat. 56, 76, 87, 391.

Mathura City, 103-183.

Mathuva Mahatm ' 125, 112.

M !-i, ;,a Railway, 16, 20, 159.

Matthew's Gos] el, St., 07.

Menander, 108.

Mnchkunda, 65.

Muir, Dr. John, 70, 409.

Muminabad, G.

Mursan, 10-17. 403.

Mnrshid Ali Khan, 35.

Museum. 163-174,

Mushtika, 62, 64, 131, 137.

Mutiny of 1857, 46-49.

Najaf Khan, Vazir. 43.

Nanda, 54, 50. 61, 03. 314.

Nand ganw, 74, 93, 314-17, 338.

Narada, 68.

Nirayan Bhatt, 75, 89, 283.

Nariyan Das, Seth, 15, 262.

Nari Semri, 86, 342.

Nath-dwara, 130.

Naval Singh, Kaja, 41. \

Nidh-ban, the, 219, 241.

Nimbarak Sampradaya, 194.

Nirukta Vedanga, 300.

Noh-jhil, 4, 9, 172, 275, 345, 390, 393.

OCHTEBIONY, SlE DAVID, 45.
Oldenberg, Dr., 113.

PadmaPi-ra'na, 8.
Paiganw, 75.

INDEX.

Pairaki mela, 181.

Paitha, 83, 335.

Pali-khera, 124, 1G6.

Panchajana, 64, 65.

Pan Sarovar, 315.

Parsoli, 83, 328.

Parson, 333.

Patanjali, 50.

Patali-putra, 51, 108.

Patni Mall Raja, 136.

Fhalen, 93, 352.

Pisiya, 74, 70, 84, 351, 423.

Pontoon bridge, 139.

Potara-kund, 131.

Prabhasa, 04, 65.

Prahlad, 132.

Pralamba, 50, 87.

Pramoda, 112.

Pran-nathis, the, 230.

Prom Sagar, 53.

Prinsep, James, 107.

Public Garden, 174.

Purushottam Lai, Gosain, 149, 289, 417.

Purusha Sukta, the, 409.

Putaua, 55.

Putana-kh&r, 2S0.

RXdha', 74, 186, 193, 311, 350.

RadhA Bagh, 240.

Radha P.allahh, temple of, 172, 202, 255.

Radha Dai lar, temple of, 257.

Eadha, Gopal, temple of, 263.

Eadba Krishan, Seth, 14.

Radha-kund, 62, 82, HO.

Radha-Raman, temple of, 262.

Eadha-sudha-nidhi, the, 203.

Eadha-vallabhis, the, 100.

Raghunath Das, Seth, 12, 386.

Eaia-Tarangini, the, 110, 114.

Eajeudra Lai Mitra, Dr., 51, 67, 109, 168, 170,

256, 347.
Ramanak, 58.
Ean.ami.ja, 193, 260.
Earn Lila, 182.
Rana Katehra, 273.
Randhir Sinh, Raja, 17, 45, 306, 383.
Rangacharya, Swami, 14, 260, 265, 279.
Rangii. temple of, 260.
RanjM Binh, Raja, 41, 43, 45, 309, 364.
Rankata, 28.
Rasdharis, the, 79.
Ras-lila, 70.

Rata Si. ib, Raja, 41, 265.
Rival, 87, SO, 350.
Raya, 47, 401.
Reinhard, Walter, 10, 42.
Rupa and Sanatana, 75, 108, 243, 250, 257.
Eup Kam, Katara, 76, 91, 145, 311.

SA'nn<nAN Siddha'nt, tho, 223.
Sadabad, 1, 4, 13, 404.
Sadullah Khan, 4, 401.

Sadr Bazar, 149.
Bafdar Jang, 39.
Sahar, 5, 22, 38, 374.
Sahori, 36, 151.
Sahpau, 405.
Saketa, L08.
Samogarh, 35.
Sankari-Khor, the, 314.
Sankasya, 4.
Banket, 75, SO, 351.
Sankh-ohur, 61, 186.
Santanu, 200,334.
Saraes, imperial, 20, 30.
Sarasvati-kund, 134.
Saraugis, the, 12, 362, 405.
Sardhana, 4 2.
Sari-putra, 103, 105.
Sarvar Sultan, 177.
Sati Burj, 1 is.
Sat, ,!,;,, ij'.i'.i. ;;:j|..
Satrughna, 53, 81, 310.
Seleucidas, era of, 113.
Senva, 331.
Sehi, 12, 370.

li, 85.
Shahganj Sarae, 120.
Shahjahan, 35, 272.
Shahpur. 5, 13, 368.
Shaikh Ghat, 146.
Shergarh, so. 85, 171, 378.
Sikandar Lodi, 34.
Sisupal, 66,
SivaTal, 136.
Biyara, 50, 85, 352.
Bona, 70, 01.
Sonai, 345, 402.
Sonkh, 332, 345, 382.
Sridama, 50, ISO, 311.
Srinath, temple of, 301.
Sringar-bat, 257.
Sri Harsha, 110.
Sri Sampradaya, 102.
Stacey, Colonel, 107, 124, 167.
Straehey, Sir John, 163, 247, 24S, 278.

in, 61.
Sniii Sir, tli,.. 230.
Sunrakh, 1 1.

Suraj Mall. Raja, 30-40, 173, 264, 307, 367.
Surasen, 70.
Bur Das, 75, 99.
Surir, 343, 395.
Sutherland, Colonel 150.

T\i. ban, 58, 82.
Tan Sen. 22(1.
I Tarsi. 78, S2, 335.
Tavernier, 20, 110, 127.
Thomas, Mr. E., 113. I3S.
Thomas. St., the apostle, 67.
Thornhill, Mr. .Mark, 15, 46, 47, 163.
Thornton's Gazetteer, 37, L88.
Tieffenthaller, Fr., 10, 70, 152, 187, 250, 277.

INDEX.

Titan Rani's tomplo, 2G3.

Vasudeva, Raja, 107, 112, 113, 114.

Tosh, 57.

Vikramaditya, 109, 113.

Trinavart, 55, 273.

Vira-hhadra, 137.

Visrant Ghat, 64, 141, 1 43.

Uokaskn, 50, 53, 64.

Vraja-hhakti-vilaaa, 59, 89, 338, 351, 374.

Umrao Bahadur, 386, 393.

Vjas-ji, Gosain, 216.

Upagupta, 105, 118.

Upendra, 60.

Weber, Professor, 67.

Uruvilva, 105.

Woina Kadphises, 113.

Dttanapada, 147.

Wilaon, Professor, 75, 111, 221.

VALtABnA'CHA'RYA, Gosaw, 283, 352.

Tahya, Sufi, 13.

Varaha Mihira, 3.

Varaha Parana, 78.

ZXbita KnA'N, 41, 273.

Vararuchi, 328, 337, 343.

Zafaryab Khan, 42.

Vasudeva, 53, 131, 274.

Zuhur Ali Khan, 20.

NOTICES.

Mathurd : a District Memoir. By F. S. Growse. Second Edition. ( Printed
at the North-Western Provinces and Oudh Government Press.) It has been our
lot not only to see, but also to read through, nearly all the accounts of districts and
of provinces which the example of Dr. W. W. Hunter has drawn in recent years
from so many Anglo-Indian officials. They contain a magazine of local information
which has never been duly appreciated in this country. So far as possible, the
cream of the labour of a hundred willing but unknown workers will be given to the
English public in the forthcoming Imperial Gazetteer of India. But students will
always be anxious to resort to the fountain-head. To such we recommend Mr.
Growse's District Memoir as probably the one among all which is most inspired with
the genuine love of India and the Indian people. A photograph of a great native
banker (now dead), taken by a native, faces the title-page ; and all through the volume
native art, native forms of religion, native manners and customs, are the chief
subjects dealt with. Mr. Growse is not only one of the first of Hindi scholars ; he is
also a sympathetic imitator of Hindu architecture. To turn to his pages and his
numerous photographs, after having dazed our wits in the labyrinthine figures
of an administration or settlement report, is like passing from the glare of a
tropical sun into the cool of some Hindu shrine or Muhammadan tomb. We
feel that we are learning something of the charm which still envelopes the East for
all those who have the faculty to perceive it— Academy.

We wish there were more Indian civil servants like Mr. Growse, with eyea
open to see and intellects cultivated to appreciate the marvels of which the
country where their sphere of duty lies is full. Unhappily, Indian '' civilians "
are as a class Philistine to their hearts' core. A competent observer tells us
that " it is a very exceptional thing for them to possess a real knowledge of the
colloquial vernacular," and that " they know next to nothing really of the
habits, standpoints, and modes of thought of the people." They do not think
these things worth knowing. Contempt for the race they are called upon to
rule is too often the dominant feeling in the awkward, cold, pig-headed, and
narrow-minded young Englishman who goes out to India from an English uni-
versity or an English crammer's establishment. It is a feeling which is absolutely
fatal to an intelligent appreciation of Hindu or Muhammadan art or literature.

The author of this exceedingly interesting district memoir is an official
of a very different type. It may be truly said of him that " he brought an oye

2 mathurX.

for all he saw" when he entered upon the charge of the district which for several years
was subject to his sway. He brought, too, no inconsiderable literary faculty to
describe what he saw. And this interesting volume is the result.

We should add that Mr. Growse's volume is illustrated by a number of
excellent photographs, not the least interesting of which is that representing
the pretty Catholic Church of the Sacred Heart at Mathura, an edifice the
erection of which is mainly due to the author's zeal and liberality.— Tablet.

The lately published second edition of Mr. Growse's Mathura Memoir
shows that, excellent as the first was, improvement was not impossible. That
a trifle gives perfection, though perfection is not a trifle, has been well remem-
bered ; and throughout the volume may be noticed slight fresh touches of
polish which greatly enhance its value. More important additions have been
made to the chapters which deal with Hinduism, the etymology of place-names,
and the development of the local style of architecture. The autotype illustra-
tions are from negatives taken by native photographers of Mathura, and,
except in one case, are remarkably successful. Amongst the photographs is one
of the Catholic Church at Mathura, which, with this book, will be an abiding
proof of how wide a field there is in India for the working of English learning
and culture and taste. A labour of love rather than duty, and therefore unlike
most similar performances, Mr. Growse's work amply proves the superiority
of the man who has something to say over the man who has to say something.
It is a pity, if nothing more, that an officer so intimate with Mathura and its
people should have been transferred to less familiar and less cougenial fields
of administration. With the accession of another king who knew not Joseph,
Mr. Growse found himself compelled to bid farewell to his favourite antiqui-
ties, to leave his restorations unfinished, and to depart for Bulandshahr. He
carried with him, however, the notes which have enabled him to produce this second
edition. — Pioneer (hvo notices).

Some years ago the Government of the North-Western Provinces resolved to pub-
lish a series of local memoirs of the various districts constituting that province. The
Memoir under review is one of that series ; and it is unquestionably the fullest and
most valuable of all that have been hitherto published. Its value is sufficiently shown
by the fact that this is already the second edition after the short interval of six years,
the first edition having been published in 187-1. Good as the latter was, the value
of the second edition has been much increased by the addition of new and important
matter. The best of these additions undoubtedly is the last chapter of the first

mathtjbX. 3

part, which treats of " the etymology of local names in Northern India as exemplified
in the district of Mathura." Mr. Growse has certainly succeeded in proving his
general position that " local names in Upper India are, as a rule, of no very remote
antiquity, and are, prima facie, referable to Sanskrit and Hindi rather than to any
other language," though some of his derivations perhaps will not meet with general
acceptance. Another valuable new chapter is the fourth, which gives probably tho
fullest extant description of the Holi festival of the Hindus ; and the eighth, which
gives a very detailed account of some of the most important Vaishnava reformers.
Of the older portions of the Memoir, the most interesting are the two historical and
archaeological chapters ; one of which narrates the fortunes of Mathura during the
period of Muhammadan supremacy, while the other relates what is known of the
history of that city and its famous monasteries and stupas in the early centuries of our
era, when it was almost wholly given up to Buddhism. The extremely interesting
remains of this period, the discovery and preservation of which are mainly due to the
indefatigable exertions of the author of the Memoir, are carefully and minutely des-
cribed. The whole work is divided into two parts, and the second is wholly devoted to
statistical information which, though unreadable to the general public, will, of course,
be extremely useful to Government officials. The requirements of the former are
liberally consulted by the first and much the larger part, which contains separate
chapters on probably everything of interest connected with Mathura. Not the least
of the merits of the book consists in the many beautiful photographic and other
illustrations of the most notable persons, buildings and antiquities of Mathura.
Altogether it is a model of what a district memoir may be made, and the author is
to be congratulated on the success which he has achieved. — Indian Antiquary.

More fortunate than Lahore ia Mathura in yielding treasures of ancient times
and in possessing a man who has entered heart and soul into its history, past and
present. In 1874 Mr. Growse published the first edition of his interesting work on
Mathura, which formed one of a uniform series of local histories compiled by order
of the Government. To what was a most interesting memoir the author has added
in the second edition, recently published, many important chapters, expanded a few
remarks on the etymology of local names into a thorough philological discussion, and
supplemented topographical notes. The memoir is, moreover, beautifully illustrated
with plates produced by the London Autotype Company, so as to give the reader
a vivid picture of the subject in hand. Mr. Growse points out with justice the
possibility of an Anglo-Indian architecture— but not as carried out by the Public
Works Department — being spread throughout India, with as great a success as Indo-
Greek art in the days of Asoka, or the Hindu-Saracenic art in the reign of Akbar.
The author of Mathura is a man of taste as well as of learning, and has in consequence

110

MATHURA.

produced a memoir winch will not merely serve as a reference with regard to the
district it describes, but is of historical, archaeological, ethnological, philological, and
artistic information besides. — Lahore Civil and Military Gazette.

Mr. F. S. Growse has published a second edition of his Mathura : a District Memoir,
the first edition of which we noticed in this paper when the work first appeared
in 1S74. The author is well known not only as a scholar and archaeologist, but
hy the great service he has done in rescuing from utter ruin and oblivion many of the
interesting remnants of native art and architecture with which the Mathura district —
the classic land of the Hindus — abounds. Of his labours in this direction we have
already spoken at some length iu Vol. IX. of the Indo-European Correspondence (pp.
130 and 1-lS), iu our notice of the first edition of Mr. Growse's work. Since it first
appeared the author has, we regret to say, been transferred from Mathura. where he
was Magistrate and Collector, to Bulandshahr. During the three years' interval
between the first appearance of his Memoir and his removal to another station lie had
added largely to his stock of local information, and being, as he tells us, unwilling
that the fruits of his labour should be lost, he asked and obtained the sanction of
Government for the issue of a second edition from the Allahabad press. The work
now appears much enlarged and enriched— among other things— by upwards of thirty
handsome illustrations.

One of Mr. Growse's acts while he was at Mathura was the erection of a Catholic
chapel, a work which it can hardly be contested is valuable if only as an experiment
of a very sound principle— namely, the utilising of native art to form an appropriate
and characteristic style of Christiau architecture in India. The Mathura chapel,
Mr. Growse says, is intended as " a protest against the ' standard plans and other
stereotyped conventionalities,'" of the Public Works Department; but it seems to us
to be, at all events, implicitly a protest as well against the unfortunate tendency there
is among Europeans in India to Europeanize whatever falls under the influence of
Christianity. We call this tendency unfortunate because it not only unnecessarily
widens the already wide chasm between Christianity and paganism ; not only because
it practically ignores the existence of native art as if it were an essentially uuholy
barharism. hut because the tendency aims at what is really impracticable.

Mr. Growse's lines had fallen on a nursery of Hindu art which survives in
Mathuni to the present day. That art, though pagan, contains much that is really
great and noble in conception and in workmanship, and he has essayed to show how
it may be inado the handmaid of Christian gothic art in the construction of the
Mathura chapel. The photograph of the interior, though it represents the building as
much more sombre than it probably is in reality, justifies the architect's saying that
it is both religious and picturesque in effect. The view is a diagonal one, and shows

MATHTJRA\ 5

us part of the nave and a small section of the chancel arch — the one, we presume,
which offended the splenetic engineer. The roof of the nave is vaulted, and the
clerestory is lighted bj circular windows. It is the pillars, however, which arrest one's
attention, the capitals and shafts being of purelj oriental design. The effect is, to

our mind, most graceful. The south aisle is lighted by pointed windows, and on tho
panels between are the Stations of the Cross, surrounded again bj oriental tracery.
Through a gothic archway in the south-east corner wo catch a glimpse of the Lady
Chapel and its altar. The exterior of the chapel, though complete in essentials, is
architecturally unfinished. We regret that it is likely to remain so, because this
incompleteness detracts considerably from the general effect. In spite, however, of
drawbacks the exterior of the Mathura chape] is singularly pleasing. We fear we
speak somewhat vaguely when we say that there is a peculiar mellowness about it — an
effect which we doubt not is the result of good proportions and an absence of mere
meretricious ornament. — Indo-European Correspondence.

We do not hesitate to affirm that Mr. Growse's work is decidedly the best and
most interesting of the local histories yet published. He is an accomplished scholar
ami a well-known archaeologist and antiquarian ; his long residence at Mathura gave
him ample opportunities for collecting valuable materials. After the publication of
the first edition of bis Memoir Mr. Growse remained at Mathura for nearly three years
longer, during which time ho added largely to his stock of local information. This
information he has utilized by bringing out a revised and enlarged edition of his work.
This edition is adorned with beautiful illustrations, the cost of which, Mr. Growse
tells us in his preface, has been defrayed by the millionaire and public-spirited
Seths of Mathura, — Hindu Patriot.

These two historical and archaeological chapters are unquestionably among the
hest and most interesting of the Memoir ; though, indeed, it is difficult to single out
any particular chapters for special praise, as the subject of almost every chapter has
its own interest, and every one is treated by the author with a fulness and thorough-
ness which seemingly leaves nothing to be desired. One chapter, however, must not
be passed over without special mention. It is the twelfth or last of the first part,
and treats of " the etymology of local names in Northern India, as exemplified in the
district of Mathura," The subject is not altogether new ; on the contrary it has
given rise to a vast number of speculations, but most of those hitherto put forth have
been of the most haphazard description. The present is the first attempt, on a
larger scale, to attack the problem in a scientific spirit and on consistent and well-
founded historical and grammatical principles. The general position that the au-
thor maintains is that " local names in Upper India are, as a rule, of no very remote

6 mathura'.

antiquity, and are, prima facie, referable to Sanskrit and Hindi rather than to any
other language" Mr. Growse very clearly proves this ; and there can be no doubt
that his view is perfectly correct. One thing impresses itself very clearly upon the
mind in reading this chapter — that no one is competent to pronounce an opinion
on the subject unless he possesses an intimate and minute knowledge of the history
of the locality, added to a thorough acquaintance with the phonetic laws that regulate
the development of the modern Indian languages from the Prakrit and Sanskrit.
Mr. Growse is one of the few that possess both these qualifications.

It would be impossible within the space of a short review to do justice to the
great mass of information distributed in the various chapters. The Memoir is a large
quarto volume of upwards of 500 pages, and its external "get up" is creditable to
the Government Press of Allahabad, where it has been printed. Altogether the
work is a model of what a district memoir ought to be, and Mr. Growse is to be
congratulated on the success which he has achieved. — Calcutta Review.

Mr. Growse modestly informs us, in the preface to the first edition, that this is
one of the uniform series of local histories compiled by the order of the Government.
It would, however, be a very fortunate Government that could obtain a series of
district memoirs all prepared with the same accuracy and fulness of detail and in the
same scientific spirit as this one. Mr. Growse has brought to his task an amount of
general and special scholarship and of enthusiasm which few district officers possess,
and he has produced a work which, take it altogether, stands without rival among
local Indian histories. — Calcutta Review.

^rpi t£h=cr m^m m%^ gst grtI ft rrau jfarxu; (Mathura

Memoir) ^TTT W^ f%^5RT fjjcffTl ^^RTT WT ^^T 1 ^^TT^ 3ff
T3T3H WlrU 1 ^3 r!3i %-R fare 3^ *jfq ^ UT^T^ !%5f? ^T f=RT

mathurX. 7

%! 4flfT UT TTFTT ^ifl ^1T f^q^T 3T ifa f 55 TT %I— ill 3^3[TSl

^tt^t ^Tra $5i ^Ct t?t ra*R 3W 2^^r "a *wm 5? mm it—
gur eRt ifim fifo^T utt g^R ?^rim^rTT 1— ^w^ st $?ff srrcl
¥ut€t ^tjj trii t% ww%inr^iT a^r=m«m %t w foifsrt ^ iim
grtti^t sit y4n tft aft 3rmru % ^m tIrxtt ixn w-a^w^
*i f^m sr*^ ^t^t Stare ^tt f ft* swstzit srt sfsn^rc mm f g
ii fa^Trn 1— =w ^ of g sijjft, iin gn, 53 c&t eufo f h ri i— $g!

UCT3R XTT^i ^ T5RJ 5TST rH*T3T*lS» W ^=1 cl3i f%Irl=TT eRXTHT

srt w 3^ 5 ra^rcrai i>T ^5 ^t« ^if iim— at? ?g 55=1^ stt

ST* WTT WW ^ WT aTre ^T 3?rT 3^T 3tJ«RR ?T tf H^WI 3iT FH
<3R3i ^FQ=fT^ ^ ¥ 3JI* "TnOT T^^ ¥ t^f T3T3 U^T* a"5T ^T
3^m 5 3rR TTiraU ^=T rT^T 3r? V^r{ ?% ? 351 U3iK 3* HI
^T5 IT^f *l* Y^iriX fTCI 3Tg *3^T \\—Bharat Bandhu.

A work which is remarkable, no less as a monument of sound scholarship and
patient industry than as giving the fullest information respecting a comparatively
unknown portion of our Oriental dependencies, is " Mathura, a district memoir," by
F. S. Growse, B.C.S. (printed at the North-Western Provinces and Oudh Govern-
ment Press), of which a new and greatly enlarged edition has recently been issued.
The volume in question, which is as sumptuous in appearance as it is interesting in
respect of its contents, forms one of a uniform series of local histories compiled by
order of the Government, and first appeared so long ago as in 1S74. As it is now
seen, however, it has been so much augmented and subjected to such careful revi-
sion as to be practically a new work, and must be recommended to all readers who
take an intelligent interest in the history and present status of the North-West
Provinces of India.

Mr. Growse's explanation of the various systems of mythology which have
prevailed in the district forms not the least valuable portion o( his work to students.
One notable feature is the almost entire absence of Muhammadanism among the
native population in spite of the attempts at Moslem rule made in former days ; side

111

8 mathura*.

by side with this may be noted the author's account of that strange race the Jats, as
well as his history of Eajput caste generally. One section is devoted to an exami-
nation iuto the cultus of the deified here Krishna, and a curious inquiry into the
resemblance which has so often been noticed between the myths attaching thereto
and some of the great truths of Christianity ; Mr. Growse, than whom fow can be
better qualified to judge, is disposed to look on this as merely fortuitous. Equally
worthy of note are his accounts of the annual miracle play, the great pilgrimage of
which it forms a prominent feature, and the peculiar Holi festival, in connection
with which may be studied the history of the intrusion of Buddhism into the pro-
vince, the reform under the Vaishnava sectaries, and the modern introduction of
Catholicism, in which Mr. Growse has taken no small part. All artists must approve
of his plea for the adaptation of native architectural forms to the requirements of
Christian worship, instead of the obtrusion of unsuitable alien styles, and the photo-
graph of the church at Mathura is enough to show how successfully this may be
done by a competent architect. The antiquarian portion of the volume is not the
least important, dealing with the discoveries, by the author and others, of sculpture
inscriptions, and so forth, invaluable alike to artist and historian. The temples at
Brinda-ban and elsewhere are described in a manner which throws almost a new
light on the subject of Indian art, and the several photographs are most beautiful.
Before closing a necessarily brief notice of this important work, we must draw
attention to Mr. Growse's protest against the too common neglect by etymologists
of the Sanskrit element in the various native dialects, and to what he says about
the revolting practices taught and carried out by the more advanced Buddhists ;
these latter may astonish some of those " new light" apostles who are so fond of
eulogising the followers of Gautama and their principles at the expense of Christi-
anity. Altogether the volume is in itself unique and must prove of the greatest
service to the Oriental student. — Whitehall Review.

[By the same tcriter.~\
The

RAMAYANA OF TULSI DAS:

TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL HINDI.

"This is undoubtedly a valuable addition to Anglo-Indian literature. It opens
a new mine of riches to European scholars. The translation is very faithful, literal,
and animated. Mr. Growse, unlike other other translators, has to a great extent
preserved the spirit of the original. His prose sometimes reads like poetry. His
command of the English language is so great that he expresses in simple language
all shades of Indian thought, paying particular attention at the same time to English,
idiom. We would strongly recommend the replacement of some of the books now
fixed for the high proficiency examination in Hindi by the Rdmdi/ana of Tuhi Das.
Mr. Growse has thoroughly entered into the spirit of Tulsi Das, and has very agreeably
succeeded in painting him in a foreign language to the best advantage that wo could
have wished. He has very rarely left out phrases or introduced others of his own.
We have carefully gone through the first half of Book I, the most difficult part of the
translation, and, with the exception of a few solitary passages, we have not met but
faithful translation If space allowed, we could give extracts to show the scholar-
like manner in which Mr. Growse has rendered some of the most abstruse religious
thoughts of the Hiudus into idiomatic and simple English." — Indian Tribune, IS".

" Mh. Growse has done a good service to letters in seeking to atone for the
slight hitherto put by English translators upon a poet of no mean merit, Tulsi Das,
the bard of Rajapur. Translation may not be the grandest of fields, but it is no faint
praise to occupy it with taste, judgment, and discernment. We are wont to hear
Hindi spoken of as a language which will hardly repay the effort of mastering, and,
with the exception of the Prem Sdgar, we doubt whether there is any other passage
of Hindi poetry with which a hundred Englishmen are fairly conversant. The loss
is, however, their own. Even the lead given by Mr. Growse, when he made his first
venture, has failed to encourage others to follow in his footsteps. We have read
with redoubled interest this second instalment of the Eamayana, and there is
nothing in it which grieves us so much as the announcement that Mr. Growse haa
perforce to postpone sine die the completion of his work. The power that removed

10 THE IUMXyANA OF TULSI DA'S.

Mr. Growse from a sphere so peculiarly his own as was that of Mnthura to regions
like those of Bulandshahr, where Sanskrit is uuknown and unappreciated, tempts us
with the men and women who gazed after Kama and Sita on their way to Chitrakiit
to say — "God's doings are all perverse." So much care has been taken to re-
produce in their exact form the similes with which every page of the original abounds
that the book may safely be commended to all who want to make some acquaint-
ance with the inner life and mode of thought of our countrymen. It is only in
poetry so eminently faithful as that of Tulsi Das that this advantage can be obtained.
Officers may mingle for years with the thousands who cross their official path and
be unable to get as clear an insight into real native life as they would by quietly

studying and thinking out this translation in their study chairs Even though

Mr. Growse refuses to give us any promise for the future of this work, we have a
hope that the subject will prove too strong for him, and that a transfer to happier
climes may recall his old love for Tulsi Das and his Ilamayana. So few try a venture
into Indian song land that we cannot afford to let Mr. Growse remain ignorant of
our earnest hope to see him again occupy ground so rich in interest, and to occupy
which so few have the requisite qualities of which Mr. Growse has giveu such abun-
dant proof."— Indian Tribune, 1878.

"We heartily welcome this translation. So far as we have been able to com-
pare passages of it with the original, we have found them to be very faithful and
accurate renderings. Though the style adopted by the translator is prose, which
affords facility for a closer adherence to the original than verse would have done, yet
it has a graceful rhythmical flow. Its idiom, moreover, is pure English. It seems
impossible for the reader to help feeling himself transported into the fairy land of
oriental poetry. The chief value of the work, however, is that it will assist English-
men to become acquainted with the popular epic of the vast mass of Hindus, and
thus enter into their loftiest feelings. Mr. Growse has in a well-written introduc-
tion enhanced the value of the translation by tracing the history of the poem and
of its author. "We trust the public will show such an appreciation of this first
instalment of the epic in an English dress as to encourage Mr. Growse in the task
of completing the remainder." — The Aryan.

" "We gladly welcome this first instalment of an excellent version of the most
popular of Hindi poems .... Of Tul>i Das himself li'.tle is known, but what information
is available has been collected by Mr. Growse in his introduction The transla-
tion appears to be executed in a scholarly style, and is carefully edited throughout
with footnotes explanatory of the mythological allusions. "While thanking the

THE RXMXYANA OF TULSI DA'S. II

translator for this instalment of so important a work, we trust lie will be encouraged
to hasten the completion of it." — Indian Antiquary.

" That the poem itself has been well and worthily translated is sufficiently
vouched for by Mr. Growse's high reputation as a Sanskrit and Hindi scholar ;
while his devout enthusiasm as an antiquarian makes him enter into his work with
a zest which redeems it from much of the dryness which one ordinarily finds in
philological labours. We cannot understand how any man can live in this country
and not be touched by what he sees among the natives, especially the Hindus. To
single out whatever seems to us grotesque and unreasonable in their religious
system, and to ignore the deep religious feeling that underlies these flaws, is surely
ungenerous and prejudiced. The Hindu desire of eternal life, the acknowledgment
of man's sinfulness, the efficacy of atonement for sin, their inveterate idea of a divine
incarnation and the merits of sacrifice, should not be ignored, while all that ia
ludicrous and hideous in the religion of the Hindu people is put forward as its un-
redeeming feature." — Indo-European Correspondence, 1877.

" Mr. F. S. Growse, C.S., continues his translation of Tulsi Das's version of the
Hamaijana, and has just published the Second Book (Ayodhya) of that popular

poem "Wo frankly own to prejudice when we say that in spite of the lofty

thoughts and principles which are embodied throughout the poem, and in spite of
Mr. Growse's wonderful combination of a pure English style and idiom with fidelity
to the text of the original, we seem, as we read through the long string of dohas and
cliaupais, to hear the nasal drone of the Hindu minstrel and the wearisome beat of
the tom-tom. It is prejudice, too, we fear, that throws a colouring of exaggeration
over the expression of feelings on the part of the men, and somewhat of a whining
querulous tone over those of the women. Mr. Growse, however, disarms, or at all
events deprecates, this kind of prejudice. 'The constant repetition,' he says, ' of a
few stereotyped phrases, such as ' lotus feet,' ' streaming eyes,' and ' quivering
frame' (a phrase which, he says, was rendered by a Calcutta Munshi, horripilation,
which word he greatly admired on account of its six syllables), though they find a
parallel in the stock epithets of the Homeric poems, are irritating to modern Euro-
pean taste.' "We think the learned translator would be justified in saying ' pre-
judice' (taste and prejudice are much akin), for there are phrases in the Bible — in
the Song of Solomon for instance — which would strike us as irritating as the Hindu
poet's, had we not been accustomed to the former from our childhood.

"Prejudice and taste apart, the great value of Mr. Growse's translation to
English readers lies in the insight it gives us into the feelings of this mysterious

112

12 THE RXMa'tANA OF TULSI DA'S.

Hindu people, among whom so many of us live for years without fathoming the
depths of the national miud and heart. Of the pathetic parts of Tulsi Das's poem
— precisely those which an English reader would feel inclined to skip — Mr. Growse
says that when puhlicly recited ' there is scarcely one of the audience who will not
be moved to tears.' It certainly is great service to put before us in good English
the sterling equivalent of what touches the hearts of men who seem to us to have
no hearts at all. We often hear it said of the people of this country that when
they congregate, their talk is mostly about bhdt and paisa — rice iind pence. The
most popular of Hindu ballads has been composed— so says Tulsi Das in his epi-
logue— ' for the bestowal of pure wisdom and continence ;' and it would be sheer pre-
judice to deny that the tale which it tells of noble and heroic qualities has not justi-
fied the epilogue. Yet this is the poem which has the strongest hold on the people
of Upper India !

" Mr. Growse's removal from Mathura, where he has done so much to unearth
and restore some of the most interesting remains of Hindu antiquity, has apparently
forced him to postpone ' indefinitely' the completion of the Rdmdyana. In his present
station, Bulandshahr, he is evidently away from the appliances necessary for the con-
tinuation of this useful work. If our conjecture be right, we cannot but regret that
he was removed from a place where his labours were so useful." — Indo-European
Correspondence, 1878.

" Mr. Blochmattn said he was much struck with a passage in Mr. Growse's
translation ; it was an additional proof that religious thought repeats itself, and that
it was not difficult to cull passages from Hindu works that bear the most striking
similarity to passages of the New Testament, thou-'h the authors could not be sup-
posed to have been acquainted with Jewish or Christian writings. He hoped that Mr.
Growse would have leisure and strength to complete the great — he might sav national
— work which he had commenced. Mr. Growse was well known both for the extent
of his researches in Hindi folklore and philology and for the classical taste that
pervades his translations, and there was no one better qualified to bring out a faithful
and truly readable version of Tulsi Bus's Rdmdyana." — Proceedings of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal.

"I hate read the book with very great interest. The language of Tulsi Das is so-
difficult that even most of the Pandits in Hindustan can understand little of many-
passages in his books, especially in the Rdmdyana, almost all sentences of which,
besides allegory or other figure, have a number of colloquial Hindi words. Such bein<*
the case, an English translation must have been wanted by English readers :but now

THE RA'MAYANA OF TtTLSI DA'S. 13

tho author has done it beyond expectation. The version is quite literal and in easy
style; and nothing difficult or figurative in the original text is omitted. So, after
comparing the version with tho original, I expect that this will assist not only English
readers of tho Rdmdgann, but the Pandits also who have to teach English scho-
lars."— Opinion of Pandit Guru Prasad, Read Pandit of the Oriental College, Lahor
{received through Dr. Lcilner).

"The Hindi Rdmdyana is doubly valuable. It is in the first place a key to the
living creed of the modern Hindu who does not know Sanskrit. Secondly, it is in a
style of transition, like our Elizabethan English, which shows the scholar and the
etymologist what the language was three centuries back, as it passed from the Prakrit
of the Suraseni to the modern speech. This is the work to the translation of which
Mr. F. S. Growse has recently addressed himself; and the first book of his excellent

translation (the first that has been made) is now before the public The reputa-

tiou of the translator for accuracy of knowledge and skill is a sufficient guarantee
that none who use it will be disappointed." — Pioneer.

"A very failthful, elegant, and animated translation of the Rdmdyana of Tulsi
Ddsa, by Mr. F. S. Growse, C.S. The translation is executed in a scholarly style, and is
carefully edited throughout with footnotes explanatory of the mythological allusions."
R. T. II. Griffith, Director of Public Instruction, North- Western Provinces and Oudh.

"Mr. Growse has published the second volume of his Rdmdyana of Tulsi Dds
translated from the Hindi. The Hindi Rdmdgana has doubtless had a greater
influence on the popular religious ideas of the Hindus than many more elaborate or
masterly works, and the translation will form, therefore, a very good introduction to
the study of modern Hindu belief. The author states that the seventh and last book
is almost ready for the press, and that he intends next year to republish the whole
work in one volume copiously illustrated with really native art, exhibiting the
conventional teatment of the favourite subjects taken from this poem. This will be
a most interesting method of familiarising English readers with native conceptions of
the beautiful both in art and poetry ; and the English reader will be able to follow
with complete confidence the English version of so accomplished a Hindi scholar as
Mr. Growse." — Academy, December 18, 1S80.

" The second portion of Mr. Growse's translation is in no way inferior to the first,
of which a second edition has, we see, been called for; while the English is through-
out idiomatic, the spirit of the origiual is carefully preserved." — Calcutta Review.

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