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IC-NRLF

LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

GIFT OF

Class :

PRICE 25 CENTS.

Water Works

. . . AND . . .

Pipe Distribution

FRANCIS C. MOORE

President of
THE CONTINENTAL INSURANCE COMPANY

NEW YORK

Your property represents money, and
your mercantile credit is based on what
you own. In ten minutes fire will wipe out
the savings of years. Then you look to
your fire insurance.

Had you not better make sure. NOW that
you have a strong company ?

One hundred companies failed as a result
of the Chicago and Boston conflagrations,
but the CONTINENTAL paid its losses in full.

Over forty-seven millions of dollars
paid for losses since organization.
Agents everywhere.

CONTINENTAL FIRE INS. CO.,

46 Cedar Street, New York.

Rialto Building, Chicago, Ills.

" Insure In an American Company."

WATER WORKS

PIPE DISTRIBUTION.

BY F. C. MOORE,

PRESIDENT CONTINENTAL INSURANCE Co.

NEW YORK, APRIL x, 1895.

—PREFACE.—

In preparing this pamphlet it has been my aim to collate, in
condensed form and by systematic arrangement, such important
nformation regarding water-works and street mains as is usually to
)e found scattered throughout the pages of extensive treatises on
nydraulics and water supply, whose authors generally and, perhaps,
naturally give more attention to domestic service, potableness, etc.,
than to fire service.

Technical phraseology has been, as far as possible, avoided, in
order that the property-holders of a city may understand its
recommendations when considering the introduction or improvement
of water-works. Impressed with the value of a thorough canvass for
the criticism and opinions of others, such as was made in the case of
the Universal Mercantile Schedule, the writer decided to send the
pamphlet "in proof" to Hydraulic Engineers, Fire Chiefs and other
experts throughout the country, with the result that he is under
obligation not only to the gentlemen quoted throughout the pamphlet
but, also, to many others and especially to Mr. Freeman, to whom he
has been largely indebted, as numerous references throughout the work
indicate. Indeed, so wide has been the writer's canvass for criticism
and so materially has the article been improved by drafts made upon
the wisdom of others that he feels more like a compiler than an
author. Whatever he may lose in credit for originality, however,
will be compensated by the gratification of an honest desire to
furnish valuable and reliable information, in a concise form, and by
the conviction that those who make use of the treatise will rely
more thoroughly upon its statements, for the reason that it involves
the consensus of judgment of many able experts, rather than the
individual opinions of one man.

F. C,M.
New York, April i, 1895.

112690

WATRR WORKS

AND

PIPE DISTRIBUTION

The best system of water-works for fire-extinguishing
purposes is a gravity system, with the reservoir at a suffi-
cient elevation to ensure, with full draught, an effective
head or pressure at the hydrants of 80 Ibs. to the square
inch or not less than 40 Ibs. to the square inch at the
base of the nozzle with 250 feet of hose.

The force of gravity acting with an ample reservoir
differs from pump pressure for forcing water through pipes,
in the important respect that it is always ready for instant
use without notification by means of electric wires, tele-
phones, etc., and is not liable to break down or get out of
order like pumps or other direct pressure appliances. It,
moreover, exerts, at all times, a steady pressure on the
pipe system, reducing the liability of breakage to a mini-
mum. A gravity system has a decided advantage over a
direct pressure pumping system in that (if pipes are of
proper size ) the full volume of flow is instantly available
without waiting to fire up extra steam boilers.

To secure an effective head or pressure, the reservoir
should be elevated about 200 feet above the general level
of the city and near enough to prevent serious loss of head.
Such an elevation is, of course, not often found near a city;
where it is, no other system should be considered as a
substitute for pressure purposes. There should be two
force or delivery mains of heavy cast-iron pipe leading into
the general network of pipes within the city, so that one
pipe at least will always be available in case workmen are

WATER-WORKS.

repairing the other or cutting branches upon it ; and these
mains should be of such ample size that not more than
twenty feet head will be lost by friction even when the
full number of hydrant streams are in play. A single line
of supply main is especially objectionable if of the so-called
cement lined variety, which consists of a thin sheet of
wrought iron, covered with cement mortar, and which
after ten or fifteen years is liable to be broken by rust and
is, at any time, liable to be instantly ruined by a stroke of
lightning.

Any discussion of water-works for fire-extinguishing
purposes would waste time in treating of those matters
which usually, from the standpoint of potableness, occupy
so much space in engineering works on hydraulics, such as
filtration, etc., etc. It makes little difference by what means,
natural or artificial, by springs or rainfall on water-sheds or
pumps, the water is impounded at the elevation needed.
If ground at 200 feet elevation is not available, or if the
elevated reservoir is necessarily at considerable distance
from the centre of the town, so that but 50 Ibs. pressure,
from the gravity supply, for instance, is available, then it may
happen to be a decided advantage to have the supply pump-
ed to the reservoir from some neighboring river or lake,
for then, in case of a great fire, the pumps can supplement
the reservoir supply by direct pumping at a higher pressure.
The pumps being connected with the street mains with a
check-valve to prevent backward flow to the reservoir, a
combined "gravity" and "direct-pressure" system would be
secured. Where drainage or water shed area is relied upon,
the impounding reservoir should be of sufficient capacity to
supply the maximum domestic demand and fire draft dur-
ing a season of drought. The distributing reservoir, also,
should be large enough for several days' domestic consump-
tion, and with a sufficient reserve in addition for fire purposes.
In some instances distributing reservoirs are large enough
only to supply a day's average demand for domestic purposes,
and a break in one or both of the supply mains, or stoppage
for necessary repairs, may leave the city without water.

Where a gravity supply is insufficient and the system is
reinforced by direct pumping from a neighboring river or
lake, it should be remembered that while this reserve may

WATER-WORKS.

be excellent for purposes of domestic supply it may prove
unreliable in case of an extensive conflagration unless such
pumping system is so arranged and managed as to bring
the reserve plant into full action whenever needed — a feature
of such duplex systems which should always be carefully
investigated.

Where the lay of the land does not permit of an elevated
reservoir and reliance is necessarily placed upon direct pump-
ing systems and standpipes, direct pumping or the so-
called Holly system, has given excellent service in many
cases ; in other cases it has failed to respond properly, and
since of necessity it must depend upon some device to1
transmit the alarm of fire and a notification that extra pres-
sure is needed, and relies moreover on there being a surplus-
of steam and a pump capacity available instantly, it cannot
compare with first-class reservoir service in point of security.

If the pumping station on the Holly system is in close
proximity to the city (but not liable to be destroyed by a
conflagration) it is more reliable than when several miles
distant. There should be duplicate pumping engines — three
would be better still — with at least three force mains.

The pumping station should be connected electrically
with the Fire Department, so that when an alarm of fire is
received at the engine-house the intelligence will reach the
pumping station at the same moment.

There should be a liberal distribution of relief valves to
prevent water-hammer.

Head or Pressure. The weight of a cubic foot of
water, (7^ gallons*) the equivalent of a column of water
12 inches square and 12 inches high, would be 62.4 Ibs.
This divided by 144 (the number of square inches in the
base of the column) would give a pressure of .43 Ibs., or near-
ly £ Ib. per square inch of base surface for each foot of vertical
depth, which, if the loss by "frictional head" hereafter
explained, be say 15 feet, would yield, for a "static head"
of 200 feet, an "effective head" or pressure of 185 feet at the
hydrant, or say 80 Ibs. to the square inch. The effective
head for fire purposes in the absence of steamers, whether"
reliance is placed upon the "direct pressure" system or a-
gravity reservoir system, should be at least from 40 to*
~*Oue cubic foot of water= 7.48 U. S. gallons.

WATER-WORKS.

50 pounds per square inch at the base of 'the nozzle and the
static hydrant pressure must be enough greater to allow for
friction in the pipes and for friction in the hose.

This pressure of 40 or 50 Ibs. will force a i \ inch stream
for effective work to the top of a four-story building of usual
height — say 60 feet — and from 230 to 300 gallons per minute
will be discharged. A i £ inch nozzle under like pressure
would discharge 20 <f> more, but a i -J- inch nozzle is gen-
erally regarded as the most practical for general use. To
force the main body of a i •£• inch stream 80 feet vertically
would require a pressure of the main body of 55 pounds per
square inch or a head of about 130 feet at the nozzle. The
extreme drops may go 40 % higher, but could not put out
any noteworthy fire at that elevation. And we may here re-
mark that the height and distance reached by fire streams
as measured at firemen's musters, are sometimes wholly
misleading as applied to practical work, for in such cases
they measure the extreme point touched by the farthest
drop.

Among firemen and engine men pressure is commonly
stated in pounds per square inch. The following table gives
the equivalent in pounds per square inch of pressure stated
in feet head or vertical height of an equivalent water column
in feet. It will be observed that the popular estimate that
two feet of head are equal to one pound of pressure will lead
to serious error ; for instance, on that basis 80 pounds hy-
drant pressure would call for only 160 feet head, whereas it
would actually need an elevation of 185 feet of water column
to produce the same pressure. Eighty pounds or 185 feet
head at the hydrant may be regarded as the least pressure
giving strictly good fire service, and with this head it is still
imperative that the pipe be large enough so that this pres-
sure will not be drawn down greatly when fire streams are
flowing. A few feet less would make the difference between
a good fire department and an inefficient one.

The friction in 300 feet length of the best and smoothest
hose will absorb about one-half of the available fire pressure
at the hydrant.*

*This loss may be reduced by Siamesing two lines of hose into one
nozzle, which would save a large proportion of the pressure usually
wasted in friction between the hydrant and the nozzle.

WATER-WORKS.

TABLE FOR CONVERTING PRESSURE GIVEN IN FEET HEAD OF
WATER INTO PRESSURE IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH :

Feet Head,

Pounds per Square Inch.

Ft.

0-43

2.17

4-33

6.50

8.66

3°

12.99

17.32

5°

21.65

^5-99

30-32

34.65

TABLE FOR CONVERTING PRESSURE GIVEN IN POUNDS PER
SQUARE INCH INTO FEET HEAD OF WATER:
Pounds per Square Inch. Feet Head.

i Lbs. 2.31

10 " 23.09

20 " 46.18

40 " 92.36

5° " 115.45

60 " 138.54

70 " 161.63

80 " 184.72

100 " 230.90

Test of Water Pressure. The head exhibited by a
pressure gauge attached to a hydrant or to a fire pipe with-
in a building may often be very misleading as to the pressure
available for projecting a fire stream from a hose nozzle.
There are towns where the static pressure, or pressure with
the water at rest, may be 90 pounds per square inch, but if
two hose streams be put in play the pressure will be pulled
down to 15 or 20 pounds per square inch or scarcely suffi-
cient to send water into a second story window. In one
such instance the town had a gravity supply from a reservoir
about five miles distant, and it was the friction in this long
line which made the hydrant pressure practically worthless
when sufficient water for one or two good fire streams was
added to the domestic consumption. In many towns the
result of drawing simultaneously half a dozen fire streams

WATER-WORKS.

from the public mains is never found out until a disastrous
conflagration occurs. Both citizens and underwriters, rely-
ing upon the static pressure without taking the trouble to
investigate what the flowing pressure will be when a large
number of streams are drawn, learn of the inadequacy of the
fire department only after millions -of dollars have been
destroyed.

No general statement can be made as to the amount of
the loss of pressure by friction per mile of pipe, although
it can be readily computed for any particular case. At the
present day there is little excuse for ignorance of these mat-
ters, when a practical test by a number of fire streams at once
will answer the whole question in so certain and satisfactory a
manner. Engineering science is competent to answer ques-
tions as to pressure when a diagram showing the length and
diameters of the pipes and their condition regarding rust is
at hand, but the practical test is more convincing and reliable.
The best test, therefore, of effective pressure of hydrants
for any city level is to attach lines of hose and turn on tJie
water ; and this is the test which inspectors of water- works
and underwriters fixing rates and hydrant deductions for
any section should, in my judgment, rely upon.

Frictional Head. \\ hat is known as the '-static head,"
or the head of a body of water at rest in the reservoir, is
diminished by the "frictional head" or loss of pressure
from friction in flowing through the pipes, which increases
proportionally to the square of the velocity of the water and
is increased greatly, also, by the smallness, roughness or
tuberculation of pipes. For a similar reason pipes, where
located in undulating ground, causing the collection of
sediment should be "blown off" frequently. "Dead ends"
should be avoided, if possible, by completing the parallelo-
grams and connecting the ends by an additional sub-main
or pipe — a comparatively inexpensive precaution in the line
of a true economy, since the growth of a city would eventu-
ally require such additional, pipe. It is not always possible
to connect dead ends by cross sections of pipe to complete
parallelograms, since the uneven growth of a city may carry
one main for blocks beyond parallel mains, and there must
of necessity, therefore, be some dead ends in such a system.
In the city of Detroit an admirable system is followed,

WATER-WORKS.

that of placing a cistern at the end of each street where
water pipes are laid. This reservoir serves not only as a
*'blow off" for the main, but enables the engines to do
effective service by pumping from the reservoir, which they
could not do from a hydrant on such a dead end, as with
the latter they would soon "run away" from the water in
the main.

There is a material loss of "head" where the water main
is not of proper capacity and where the water has to travel
great distances. The loss of head for each thousand feet
of travel, in a new, straight, clean water main 14 inches in
diameter, is about 7^ feet per thousand feet of length of pipe,
the velocity of flow being 5 feet per second, or say a loss of
40 feet head per mile. Pipes are seldom or never laid
straight, and they do not long remain new and free of rust,
and where the reservoir is, say, two miles distant from the
operating hydrant it may safely be assumed that if the
domestic draft, plus the fire draft, amounts, at any moment,
to 2400 gallons per minute, then even with a nearly new
pipe the pressure at the hydrant will be at least a hundred
feet less head, or fully 43 pounds less pressure, than at
the reservoir.

" The rule that the loss of head by ftirtion is proportional to the sqtitire
of the velocity, applies not only to a simple pipe, but is substantially
true for combinations of pipes of different sizes joined either by taper
reducers or by sudden contractions, or for pipes containing obstruc-
tions and curves. It is also useful to keep in mind that for cases of a
pipe system in combination wit ha discharging orifice or with a series
of discharging orifices, so long as all the discharging orifices lie at
Substantially the same elevation, the opposite of the above proposi-
tion is true and of wide application :

viz., the quantity discharged through a given pipe system and the
orifices in connection therewith is very nearly proportional to th* squat e
root of the pressure measured at any convenient point anywhere along
the pipe system, providing the pressure be reckoned from the level
of the orifices."

There is a popular misunderstanding among mechanics
in supposing that the carrying capacity of a pipe increases
exactly in proportion 10 its area or to the square of its
diameter. Really the carrying capacity increases faster
than this, by reason of the lessened influence of skin friction
in a larger pipe, or, stated in mathematical language, the
capacity to convey water is proportional to the square root of
the fifth pouter of the diameter.

WATER-WORKS.

TABLE SHOWING CAPACITY OR DISCHARGE OF PIPES OP DIFFERENT

DIAMETERS FOR VARIOUS VELOCITIES OF FLOW

AND FRICTIONAL HEAD IN FEET

PER 1000 FEET OF LENGTH,

for new, clean, straight pipe.

DIAMETER
OF PIPE IN

INCHES.

VELOCITY
OF FLOW IN

FEET PER
SECOND.

LOSS BY FRICTIONAL
HEAD PER 1000 FT. L TH.

APACITY OR DISCHARGE

IN FEET
HEAD.

IN LBS. PKR
SQ. INCH.

IN GALLONS
PER MIN.

IV GALLONS PER
DAY (24 HOURS).

4
6

~T~

10
12
14

4
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
5
3
5
3
5
3
5

10
17

7
11

4.33

7.81
3.01
4.76

113

150
260
340

165,000

215,000
375,000
485,000

5.4
9

2.32

3.87
1.73
3.01

490
640
750
975

700,000
915,000
1,075,000
1,450,000

3
9
3
7.3

1.29
3.87
1.29
8.14

1,050
1,800
1,500
2,400

1,500,000
2,600,000
2,150,000
3,500,000

2.5
6
2
5.5

1.07
2.58
.86
2.36

1,875
3,200
2,400
4,100

2,700,000
4,600,000
3,500,000
5,925,000

20
24

3
6
3
5
6

1.7
7
1.3

.73

3.01
.56
1.73

3,000
6,000
4,125
7,125

4,300,000
8,600,000
5,900,000
10,240,000

5.5
1
3
5.6

2.36
.43
1.29
2.40

8,625
11,250
19,000
27,250

12,340,000
16,150,000
27,200,000
37,500,000

N. B. The number of streams which a pipe would supply can
easily be determined by dividing the quantities of above table by
200 or 250, according to the size or number of gallons per minute
of the stream, it being remembered that under the gridiron system,
or where the pipe is supplied at both ends, double the quantity of
water in the above table may be secured.

The above table and those commonly given in the text-
books for friction loss in pipes are apt to be misleading for
the reason that they state the friction loss per hundred feet
in new, clean pipe. The actual loss in practice will often be
found double the loss as tabulated for new, clean pipe, by
reason of the bunches of rust which forms on the interior
surface even of the best pipe with nearly all waters. Care-
ful experiments on corroded pipe as compared with clean
pipe have shown that a very moderate amount of corrosion
will nearly double the frictional loss, and to prepare the
table below, the frictional loss as stated in the excellent and
convenient table prepared by Mr. Edmund B. Weston, Civil

WATER-WORKS.

Engineer in charge of the Water Supply of Providence,
R. I., has been doubled.

FRICTION LOSS PER ONE THOUSAND FEET IN LENGTH OF

ORDINARY WATER-PIPES after corrosion by 10

to 20 years OF AVERAGE PRACTICAL USE.

GALLONS PER

MINUTE

DISCHARGED.

DIAMETER OF PIPE IN INCHES.

4 in.

6 in.

Sin.

10 in.

12 in.

14 in.

16 in.

PRESSURE LOSS IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH.

250
500
750
1000

41.
168.

20.
44.
76.

4.6
10.8
19.

.37
1.45
3.3
5.9

.58
1.3
2.3

1.1

1250
1500
1750
2000

29.
42.

10.
14.
19.
25.

3.6
6.
3.
10.

1.7
2.7
3.3
4.3

.8
1.2
1.6
2.2

2250
2500
3000

13.
15.

22.

7.
10.

3.
4.
5.

The number of 250 gallon fire streams supplied can be determined
by dividing the quantities of the first column by 250.

It may be assumed that 3,000 population, at their hour
of maximum draft (as at 10 A. M. Monday), will draw for
domestic purposes the equivalent of one fire stream.

It is not generally understood how great is the loss of
head by reason of roughness in the pipes or of sharp, right
angle bends. By the use of curves of moderately long
radius, the loss caused by elbows may be made practically
insignificant. Pipers do not commonly use them, because
they cost a little more.

If the diameter or capacity of the main should be increas-
ed the loss of head would be less; a 1 6-inch main, for
example, would show a loss of not much more than half
the frictional loss of a 14-inch main, the number of gallons-
per minute carried being the same in each case.

We have thus far been speaking of variations between
the carrying capacity of pipes of different sizes. Another
problem is the variation of friction loss with the same pipe
when different quantities are drawn through it. Then the
friction loss varies as the square of the velocity.

Taking a 6-inch pipe for our unit, this being the smallest
that should ever be used for a hydrant main, and comparing
pipes on the basis of their carrying capacity, we find:

10
WATER-WORKS.

One 8-inch pipe is equivalent to 2.05 6-inch pipes.

j .

' 3-58
" 5.65
" 8.32
" 11.60

If we compare the pipes on the basis of cost complete,
as laid in large quantity ( with cast iron and lead at the low
prices of to-day) the relation will stand as follows :

DIAMETER.

COST PER LINEAL
FOOT COMPLETE.

COST COMPARED
WITH 6-inCH.

CARRYING CAPACI

TY COMPARED TO
6-INCH.

8
10

$0.52
0.70
0.90

1.35
1.73

2.05
3.58

12
14

1.20
1.45
1.65

2.30
2.79
3.18

5.65
8.32
11.60

In other words, an 8-inch pipe costs i $ times as much as
a 6-inch pipe and will carry two times as much water ; or,
again, a 1 6-inch pipe costs three times as much as a 6-inch
and will convey eleven times as much water.

STAND-PIPES. In the absence of a sufficient elevation to
secure a gravity head, a "stand pipe" of the tank kind is
used to secure needed pressure and also a supply in case
the pumps should break down. A stand-pipe of the tank
form, 24 feet in diameter by 100 feet high (and there are
some larger ones throughout the country), would hold a
quarter of a million gallons of water which, providing the
last drop could be drawn out and give good pressure, and
providing all was used for fire and none for domestic supply
meanwhile, would supply five hydrant streams of 250 gallons
each for 3 £ hours. A good ordinary steamer would aver-
age 500 gallons per minute, and one-quarter million gallons
would supply two steamers about four hours; but while
such a supply would be, in many instances, sufficient for
extinguishing an ordinary fire, especially if the stand-pipe
or reservoir could, in an emergency, be fed by reserve
pumps — in which case the supply could be regarded as
margin enough to cover the interval while starting the
reserve pumps and boilers — it must be borne in mind that
stand-pipes are seldom of sufficient diameter to afford an
ample fire supply. Their capacity to supply a number of

WATER-WORKS.

hydrant streams is a subject of widespread popular mis-
apprehension. It takes volume of water to put out a fire —
pressure alone will not do it, and it does not follow that a
stand-pipe 20 feet in diameter which exhibits say 80 pounds
static pressure on a gauge when full will afford good fire
service. Ten feet in depth of a stand-pipe 20 feet in di-
ameter, will supply five hose streams only 18 minutes, and a
single fire stream will draw off as much water as the average
domestic consumption of 6,000 people.

It should be remembered that the water in the lower part
of a stand-pipe is practically useless for fire purposes so far
as pressure is concerned, and serves only to fill mains for
suction by steam engines, if there be any.

In small towns stand-pipes are often supplied by pump-
ing for a few hours during the morning or even on alternate
days, after which the fires are banked or extinguished and
the water allowed to draw down under domestic draft.
It is unnecessary to suggest that if a fire should happen to
break out when the pipe has been drawn down, the boilers
cold and the engineer asleep or absent, a conflagration is
not likely to be extinguished.

Air and Yacuum Yalves, Blow-off Yalves, Etc.

When water is forced into delivery mains more or less air
is taken along with it, and where the pipes undulate to con-
form with the contour of the ground this air accumulates in
the summits, and in the course of time interferes seriously
with the flow. As a means of relief, air valves should be
located at such points. These valves are now combined in
the same piece of mechanism with vacuum valves, which are
required at the same points for the reason that when the
pipes are drained for repairs or other purposes there is a
tendency to form vacuums at the summits, which will cause
collapse unless relief is given or the pipes and joints are
strong enough to stand the pressure. It may be added
that hydrants when properly located can be made to per-
form the offices of both air and vacuum valves.

Caution must be exercised when filling the pipes to see
that air valves are opened and the water admitted no faster
than the air can escape, as otherwise the compressed air
sets up an aggravated form of water hammer causing the

WATER-WORKS.

water to rush back and forth violently and the weak parts
will suffer.

Attention is again called to the desirability of providing
Blow-off valves at suitable points. Sediment will accumu-
late at the low points of the pipe system and, after a while
will seriously impede the flow unless removed. By having
blow off valves at these points the proper remedy is provided-

An essential condition which is sometimes overlooked is
the necessity of keeping the elevation of the mains below
the Hydraulic Grade Line. Often the contour of the
ground is followed without regard to this all important
feature. Where this point is not considered, not only is
there a tendency towards the formation of air pockets at
the summit but the pressure conditions in the pipe are en-
tirely changed. The water in that part of the pipe between
the reservoir and the point of elevation above the hydraulic
grade line has a velocity due only to the head given by
their difference of elevation. Beyond that point if there is
a greater difference of elevation to the point of outlet the
velocity will be greater and hence the supply from the first
part will not be equal to the capacity of the other part, and
the water in the latter part will not be under pressure at all
but will flow as though in a gutter.

It is sometimes necessary because of the nature of the
ground to go above the hydraulic grade line. In this event,
the diminution of flow caused by reduction of velocity in
the section between the reservoir and the point of elevation
above the hydraulic grade line, may be compensated for by
making the pipe larger in this section than beyond it.

High and Low Service. In the case of cities having
different levels and consequent "high and low service,"
such as Kansas City, Albany, Brooklyn, Cleveland and
others, it is important that the two systems should be con-
nected by means of check and gate valves, which can nearly
always be arranged at slight additional cost so as to make
the high service available for the lower levels in case of fire.
They can be disconnected at any time when the exigency
is removed.

The difference in elevation may be so great in a town
that while the service in the lower part is entirely satisfac-
tory the pressure in the higher portion is so reduced as to

WATER-WORKS.

become practically valueless. It is desirable in such cases
to provide, by some means, for increasing the pressure at
the higher elevation. When this district is small and will
not permit of the introduction of a high service system, or
even the maintenance of a steam pump, a device which is
now in successful operation in the city of New London, Ct.
may be introduced with advantage. This consists of a tank?
having sufficient elevation to give the requisite pressure,
which is supplied by a hydraulic water motor. While it is
not the intention to describe this motor in detail it may be
stated that it is operated by the water consumed in the
lower part of the town. It is located on a supply main, and
receives the power to operate it from the passing water,
which, after performing its work, is carried on, with but
slightly diminished pressure, to be used in the low service
system. By ingenious automatic arrangements the two
systems are made communicating as occasion arises. It is
claimed for the motor that it possesses advantages of cheap-
ness, of consuming no fuel, of working day and night, and
of requiring but little attention. The reduction in pressure
above the motor and below it is inconsiderable, the figures
in the one to which we refer being found from actual test
to be 34.62 Ibs. above the motor and 31.46 Ibs. below. Its
cost was $5000 and it has proven amply sufficient for the
needs of a district requiring from 100,000 to 150,000 gallons
per day. It may be remarked again that it is claimed the
cost of maintenance is very small, that it requires but little
care and that the initial cost is practically all that has to be
considered.

A full description of this motor will be found in a valua-
ble paper read before the New England Water-Works
Association Dec. 14, 1892, by Mr. Walter H. Richards,
C. E., Junior Editor of the Association.

Water Mains and Pipe Distribution. That system
of pipe distribution is best where the street mains run at
right angles to each other throughout the city or town
connecting attvery street intersection — "gridironed", so to speak.
This arrangement insures that each pipe will be fed practi-
cally at both ends and will double the feeding capacity.

SIZE. The subsidiary mains passing through the various
streets should, in the business or compact portion, be not less,

WATER-WORKS.

fn any case, than 8 inches in diameter, and in the dwelling:
section not less than 6 inches in diameter. The size should
be liberal in the compact mercantile portion, for the reason
that existing conditions of low or small buildings may, with
the growth of the town, be radically changed by the subse-
quent erection of more dangerous structures. It should be
remembered that faults in the placing of hydrants may, at
any time, be remedied, but mistakes in the size of street
mains are not easy of correction and, keeping in mind the
fact that the cost of excavation, leading of joints and labor
is very nearly as great in the case of small mains as in the
case of larger ones, it is poor economy to lay an inadequate
pipe in the first instance.* Where the district is a large oner
containing large buildings and values, 1 2-inch mains should
be used, at intervals of say a thousand feet, as feeders. The
Boston engineers are at present working toward a system of
12-inch mains, about a fourth of a mile apart, crossing by
gridiron distribution between these with 8 and 10 inch pipes,
in the business section, and 6 and 8 inch pipes in the out-
lying district.

Boston already has 28 $ of its service in 12 inch mains
and New York 25 <f>.

The feeders or larger mains should supply the "gridiron"
from the outside, instead of extending through the centre.
Not only will this insure better service, but the arrangement

*Cast-iron •water- pipe may be purchased at $19.50 per ton, freight
added. Four-inch cast-iron water pipe weighs 20 pounds to the foot,
6-inch 30 Ibs., 8-inch 45 Ibs. and 12-inch 80 Ibs. The difference in
price, therefore, between 6-inch and 8-inch pipe would be, roughly,
about 15 cents per foot, and the cost of laying 5 cents more, in all a
difference of 20 cents per foot, or $20 per hundred feet. ( See page. 10)

The difference in insurance rates in favor of property on the line
of 8-inch mains as compared with 6-inch mains, in the Universal
Schedule, (seeNos. 155, 156, 190, 192) is 1%% on buildings and 5£
on stocks. There would be eight 25-foot "buildings, counting both
sides of the street, on 100 feet length of pipe. It would be a low esti-
mate of value to assume $50,000 insurance on each lot, or $400,000 in
all. If the average insurance rate should be 80 cents per $100 on a
6-inch main, it would be 5 %, or 4 cents per $100 (40 cents per
$1000) less on an 8-inch main, making an annual saving to property-
owners in insurance premium of §\bu for the extra cost "of $20 in a
pipe which would last for fifty years and which the property-owners
would save eight times over in a single year. Could any civic policy
be more stupid or shortsighted from an economic standpoint than
the laying of 6-inch pipes in the compact mercantile portions of cities 1

There is a greater difference still between 8-inch pipe and 4-inch
pipe, the insurance rate being 15 % higher on buildings and 10 % ou
stocks on the line of 4 inch mains as compared with 8-inch mains.

WATER-WORKS.

will respond to future demands upon it as the city increases
in size — an important consideration.

In a seaport city the water main on the water front should
be at least 16 inches with numerous hydrants.

I quote from one of the many valuable treatises on water
•supply by Mr. John R. Freeman, of Boston, the well-known
and able engineer, as follows :

" Within a crowded end valuable metropolitan district ', a diameter of
tight-inches is the smallest that can be recommended for the general net-
work or gridiron of intersecting pipes, having in view the deterioration
in water carrying capacity which occurs in time with nearly all
waters.

For valuable metropolitan districts a f>i/>e so small as eight inches is
suitable only when forming part of a general net- work whose intersections
-are not far apart, say not more than 300 feet in one direction, by 800
feet in the other. 'When the cross connections are smaller than eight
inches or farther than 800 feet apart, a ten inch pipe may be needed.
Along the borders of the gridiron. the size should be larger. This
reinforcement by cross-connections, is of the utmost importance and
if absent it may require a 10 inch pipe to afford the same delivery as
-a gridiron of six-inch pipes.

Within almost any suburban residence district where there are
frequent cross connections, also within compactly built cities of
medium size and even those of large size and of medium hazard,
excellent protection may be afforded by a gridiron of six-inch pipes
along each of those streets running in one direction, intersecting, at
500 feet intervals, with pipes eight inches in diameter, in each trans-
verse street. The maximum of economy in pipe will be secured if
Ihe six-tuck pipe runs lengthwise of the blocks.

For small cities in which the streets run so that frequent cross-
connections are possible, very satisfactory protection can be had by
a net work of pipes none of which exceeds six inches in diameter ; but
along the margin of the gridiron there should be a few main arteries
of larger sizes" and the size of a few of the pipes near any large
hazardous building, as a valuable factory or warehouse, may need to
be increased.

This use of six-inch pipe, however, presupposes that the six-inch pipe
makes a complete circuit about each street block which is to be protected, so
that the water will flow in toward the point vf iieavy draft f row, nearly
all directions,

A block located in the midst of a net-work of 6-inch pipes may
sometimes be much more efficiently served than one past which runs
a single line of 13-inch pipe.

Four inch pipe should never be used for a hydrant main, unless it
be to protect scattered, detached dwellings in situations similar to a
country village or where the closest economy of first cost must be
practiced in order to get any general water works pipe system at all,
and in these cases it should be clearly understood that starting with
say 75 Ibs., a line of four-inch pipe one-half mile Jong so soon as it
becomes old and roughened by rust can only deliver water enough
for a single 100 gallon fire stream three-fourths inch in diameter,
which is too small to extinguish anything more than a dwelling
house fire or to do more than protect the neighbors, while the origin-
al fire is left to burn itself out.

In many New England towns the hills and valleys have compelled
a growth radiating outward in narrow strips or in ways which for-
bid any such reinforcement of the tlow as we have here been con-

WATER-WORKS.

sfderin?, and in these cases much larger pipes will, on computation,
be found necessary to give an equal delivery at the hydrants."

INCH

k ELEVATION 2oo FT 1%

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BUSINESS

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DWELLING

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PLAN or~l r~ "1
WATERWORKS

Where a city is unwilling to pay for 8-inch mains they
should be supplied, at least in part, to carry water from the
outside feeders, the 6-inch being used only for lengthwise
of the blocks, as shown in the foregoing diagram.

It will be observed that in the gridiron form of distribu-
tion shown in the accompanying diagram, every pipe is suppli-
ed at both ends and, in case of fire and a draft upon any
hydrant, water would run to it from all directions. *

WATER-WORKS.

Concentration of water for fire at a given point is of the
utmost importance, and under the gridiron system this can
be secured no matter where that point may be.

It may safely be assumed that while hose lines 500 feet
in length can be used with steamers to force the water, it is
preferable to have short hose lines, not exceeding, in any
case, 300 feet in length. An examination of the preceding
diagram will show that with the gridiron system and a "2 -way"
hydrant at each corner, and street blocks 500 by 200, it
would be possible to supply, in case of a fire in the middle
of any block, 12 streams, each with less than 350 feet of
hose, and a still larger number with 600 feet of hose. Bos-
ton can place 52 steamers within 500 feet of a fire and
supply them with water.

Siamesing Hose. The loss by friction through greater
lengths of hose, as already stated, may be largely saved by
connecting the two lines of hose, through a Siamese coup-
ling, into a single line at a point 50 to 100 feet back from
the nozzle. Strange as it may seem, it has been demon-
strated that there is less friction and a greater supply of water
can be secured in this way than by the use of two steamers,
one pumping into the other. In this way, a Siamese placed
50 feet back from the nozzle so lessens the loss by friction
that with the same steamer pressure a jet will be thrown
with exactly the same force through a thousand feet of hose
as if the steamer were only 287 feet from the nozzle on a
single line of hose. So important a fact should be under-
stood by Fire Departments.

The reason for the difference in results is obvious. Where
the water is carried through two lines of hose instead of be-
ing forced through one the velocity will be only half as
great, and the loss of pressure only one-fourth as much, as
where a single line of hose is used ; and it is unfortunate
that fire departments so frequently over-look the use of a
Siamese coupling to connect two lines of hose from a single
steamer, especially where the steamer has to be distant from
the fire. Two steamers may be frequently seen endeavor-
ing to do with great difficulty what a single steamer with a*
double line of hose could easily accomplish.

Cast-iron pipe, well tarred is preferable for fire pro*
tection to wrought iron, which is sure to rust, or to steelv

WATER-WORKS.

which will probably rust. The tar should be applied by the
best hot process.

It is important to have smooth throatage. The mere
roughening of the inside of a pipe will double the friction
loss even where there is no noteworthy deposit of rust
bunches or tubercles. One great objection to cement-lined
pipe is the thinness of the iron (for cast-iron pipe the iron
shell is commonly eleven times as thick as the wrought iron
shell used in cemented pipe) in addition to the danger of
rusting which, as stated, may be regarded as a certain
expectation in the case of wrought iron.

Cement-lined wrought iron pipe, as already stated, is not
only certain to become leaky after fifteen or twenty years
•of use, whereas cast-iron will last for fifty years or more,
but it is liable to be destroyed by lightning — a casualty which
has happened in Arlington, Woburn, Lynn, Fitchburg and
Winchester, Mass., and other places. The cities of Fitch-
burg, Worcester, Manchester, Spencer, Somerville, Maiden,
and others, have found it necessary to take up the cement-
lined pipe and replace with cast-iron. In Rome, N. Y.,
several years ago, the bursting of a cement-lined pipe dur-
ing a fire led to a property loss of upwards of $200,000.
The objection is to the thinness of the iron, not to the
cement lining, which is in itself an advantage. It would
improve cast iron pipe, by saving frictional head, but the
extra expense, makes its use prohibitory with cast-iron.

The size of mains and pipes should be carefully gauged
by competent experts to insure that too much head is not
lost by friction, taking into account the supply needed for
domestic (household and manufacturing) purposes and fire
extinguishing purposes.

Supply. While the amount needed for fire service, ^te/-
annum, is not large, the amount required for a fire will often
exceed, for a few hours, that for all other purposes. Twenty
hose streams, for example, would require, for each, estimating
only 150 gallons per minute, 3,000 gallons per minute,
(estimating 250 gallons, would require 5,000 gallons per
minute) while the domestic supply for a town of 25,000
population, estimating 75 gallons maximum per capita (a
large estimate) per diem, would not exceed 2,700 gallons
per minute.

WATER-WORKS.

On this basis, Mr. Freeman says :

A single good i ^ inch x ^pounds X 250 gallons fire stream takes as-
much water as would be needed an the average for the ordinary domestic
supply of a population 0/6,000 at 60 gallons per day to each person.

A sufficient fire supply should be provided in addition to the
maximum domestic consumption, and double the average draught
(or whatever ratio of increase the actual record, if there be a record,
may show of the district under consideration) should always be
kept in view as the basis over and above which the fire supply is to be
secured.

The average domestic consumption for household and
manufacturing purposes, per capita, is safely estimated
in small cities with little manufacturing at 50 gallons per
diem, but at certain hours of the day and on certain days
of the week, particularly on Monday, a larger supply is
needed, and a common experience is that, at times, the
maximum draft will be double the average draft. An aver-
age of no gallons per capita daily would probably be
sufficient for both domestic and fire service. In manu-
facturing cities a much greater amount is often used. The
daily consumption in Boston is over 100 gallons per inhabit-
ant per day. The same is true on the other hand of
Nashua, N. H. The use of water per capita is steadily
increasing. Making allowance in planning new water-works
for a growth of a prosperous city or town of 40 per cent,
in a decade, it would probably be found economical to
gauge the reservoir and supply-mains accordingly, unless an
additional reservoir can be constructed afterwards at pro
rata expense, which is not likely. To supply a city of 25,000
population, using 365 cubic feet of water per minute for
domestic service and, in the emergency of a conflagration,
possibly 400 feet more per minute for fire service, would re-
quire a 24-inch supply main from the reservoir. Two of
these as already stated, would be better, and insure against
breakage. To insure protection, the reservoir should al-
ways ( even at 4 o'clock Monday morning ) hold a reserve
for fire of at least two million gallons for any closely built
city up to 75,000 inhabitants, and more if the city is much
larger.

The following figures are based on estimates of Mr. J. T.
Fanning, in his "Treatise on Hydraulic and Water Supply
Engineering" — a work well worthy of the study of under-
writers.

WATER-WORKS.

With a static head of 150 feet and pipes 1,000 feet long,
a 6 in. pipe would supply 40 cu. ft. per min. or 300 gallons.
8 " " " 80 " « 600

10 " " " 120 " " 900 "

12 " " " 220 " " 1,650 "

18 " " " 480 " " 3,600 "

All of these figures as to frictional head and discharge
are for new, clean pipe / if the pipe is old and rusted the loss
of frictional head may be doubled, as hereinbefore explained.
If the subsidiary pipe relied upon is six inches in di-
ameter and supplied at both ends, the fire supply at each
end would be 40 cubic feet, or 300 gallons, per minute, or
a total for both ends of 80 cubic feet, or 600 gallons, per
minute, with the water flowing at a velocity of 3 ^ feet per
second and a loss of frictional head of 9 feet, or 4 Ibs., per
thousand feet of length. In case the water is to be taken
from one end of the pipe only, it would be better to have
the pipe 8 inches in diameter. This would secure about
the same discharge, 640 gallons per minute, at the same
velocity, and with no greater loss of frictional head, viz., 9
feet, or 4 Ibs., per square inch. ( See Tables, pages 8, 9. )

Fire Boats. Where a city has a water front and Fire-
Boats their powerful pumps may be made available for
protecting the compact portion at small expense by running
8-inch pipes ( lo-inch would be better still ) with hydrant
connections from the water front to the mercantile centre.
thus bringing into the heart of conflagration districts a
pressure exceeding that of many steam engines and capable
of forcing water to -the very tops of high, modern fireproof
structures — which, by the way, ought always to be provided
with external standpipes and Siamese connections at the
street, for the use of Fire Departments, even where fire-
boats are not available, so as to save the loss of time of
carrying hose for the upper stories, especially if the elevator
should happen not to be running, as at night. Where pipes
with connections at the water front for the use of fire-boats
are thus extended into the city an intelligent system of rat-
ing should allow 5 % deduction in rate to all buildings on
the line of the pipes or within 500 feet of hydrant connec-
tions, see items Nos. 186 and 221 of the Universal Mercantile
Schedule.

21
WATER-WORKS.

Where the water of the harbor is salt, it may be well to
flush the main after a fire by attaching an engine at the land
end and blowing fresh hydrant water through the pipe, al-
though with a well tarred cast-iron pipe this would probably
be an unnecessary precaution.

Milwaukee is provided with two fire-boats, and has near-
ly six miles of fire- boat pipe lines, which vary in length from
•800 to 3,500 feet. These lines are tapped at each corner as
well as in the middle of the block by large hydrants. Six-
inch pipe was found to be too small, and at present all fire-
boat pipe lines being laid are 8 and 10 inch — 10 inches for
a half or two-thirds of the distance, the remainder being
3-inch. Chief Foley states that in a test with a 3,250 ft. line,
using 2 -J inch nozzle, the jet of solid water was 120 feet, or
the height of an ordinary elevator. In another test, with a
2,250 ft. line two leads of 50 feet each, 3 $ inch hose and
2 inch nozzle, solid water was thrown from both to a height
of 1 80 feet ; after which, Siamesing both streams and using
a 3-inch nozzle, water in a solid stream was thrown 198 feet.
The connections at the water front are for six 3 •£ inch leads
for all the long lines. In warm weather the lines are kept
full to save time in starting, but emptied with freezing
weather.

The experience of Milwaukee, proves the great advantage
of having ic-inch pipe, and nothing less than 8-inch, although
the 6-inch does admirable work. The difference in the cost
as compared with 8 and lo-inch is so slight in view of
the great superiority of the larger pipe as to make the false
economy of small pipe extremely shortsighted.

Detroit has a most extensive system, its pipe lines having
been laid in nine streets and varying in length from 700 to
4,000 feet. The long line of 4,000 feet has delivered from
one hydrant four i £ and one 2-inch magnificent fire steams.
The superiority of the streams delivered from the pipe lines
as compared with those of the engine is readily apparent
to the most casual observer. The water comes with greater
force, in a more solid body, and does the most effective
work.

The Detroit lines are provided with a cut-off valve oppo-
site each hydrant, so that in the event of walls falling on
the hydrant the water may be shut off without shutting off

2?
WATER-WORKS.

the entire main, and the pipes are inclined towa*rd the river;
enabling the fire boat to fill them when necessary, while in
cold weather they are immediately emptied by means of a
valve at the foot of the street. In the warmer months they
are allowed to remain filled.

I quote from a valuable paper written by Mr. James E.
Tryon, Secretary of the Fire Commission, Detroit, on the
subject "What a Water Supply Engineer Can Do in the
Fire Department," and read by him at the Convention of
the New England Water- Works Association, in June, 1894:

"The Detroit pipe lines, laid for the purpose of making the fire
boat available for fires at least one-half mile distant from the river,
were planned by and laid under the supervision of the compiler of
this paper, and a brief description of them may not be out of place.
These lines consist of three long lines, two thousand feet each, and
three short lines of one thousand feet each, or nine thousand feet in
all. For these lines the 8-inch steel pipe, such as the Standard Oil
Company uses for piping crude oil from the oil fields to tide water,
was selected. The pipe had been subjected lo a test of one thousand
pounds hydraulic pressure. Connection at the river is made with a
three or a five way Siamese with three and one-half inch openings,
with a clack valve over each, to enable the boat to start its pumps as-
soon as the first connection is made. Hydrants having two 3-inch
and one 4-inch openings are set at intervals along the line with a
manhole opposite each. At the end of the pipe is an air valve loaded
to remain open until the water comes, and a relief valve set at 250
pounds, which will open when the pipe is filled and the recoil renders
it necessary for something to give way.

We have worked through 1,000 feet of 3-inch hose stretched from
a hydrant 2,000 feet from the river, with a pressure of 105 pounds at
the hydrant. These results were obtained with a pressure of 176
pounds at the boat. The friction loss in a line 2,000 feet long work-
ing through two lines, 100 feet each, of 3-inch hose is as follows :

TWO If -INCH STREAMS.

Pressure Pressure Loss

at Boat at Hydrant per Foot.

120 80 .0002

140 90 .0025

160 105 .0275

180 120 .0300

These lines were fully completed during the summer of 1893, and
were tilled repeatedly during the past winter. We have had but
two incidents to mar the sucessful working of this branch, one being
the failure of the air valve to work, owing to the insufficient load,
which made it impossible to till the pipe, and the other was due to
the failure of a relief valve to work, having been set at four hundred
pounds. The damage in this case was the blowing off of the Siam-
ese. The pipes are laid as nearly on a level as possible, the lift
being about 8£ feet in a thousand. The grade is toward the river,
and to prevent the freezing of dead water the pipes are emptied after
each tilling. When the boat responds to an alarm of fire, connection
is made with the most available pipe line and the pumps started just
as a land engine fills its line of hose. When the pipe is filled the
pumps are stopped to await orders. A single wire laid in a pipe in

WATER-WORKS.

the i same trench with the pipe line is run into the engine room, and
# signal code is used, by means oi' a push button, which can be
operated at any hydrant on the line. The boat is signalled by the
use of the following code :

I B e 14— Start pumps.

1 " — Stop pumps.

3 " — Tweaty pounds less pressure.

4 " —Twenty pounds more pressure.
6 " — Pick up.

In this way the pipe line enables the boat to play its part in the
work of extinguishing the tires that may occur in the City of
Detroit."

It would be possible in such cities as Chicago and New
York to make use of their powerful fire-boats not merely
for supplying water but for furnishing pressure and throw-
ing so many powerful streams as to be equal to twenty or
thirty steamers. It seems strange that such precautions
are not taken. It is due to Chiefs Swenie and Bonner that
I should say here that they are not to blame for so serious
an omission. It is estimated that in the territory lying
between Chambers Street and Fourteenth Street, New
York City, the aggregate value of merchandise and build-
ings exceeds five hundred millions of dollars. The entire
loss-paying ability (i. e., capital and net surplus ) of all the
Companies doing business in the State, domestic and
foreign, does not exceed one-fifth of this sum. It is safe
to say that the vacuum in community wealth resulting from
the destruction of even one-fifth of this territory would be
likely to result in commercial disaster which would be felt
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, The simple laying of
mains with hydrant outlets, for the fire-boats which are
already provided, would go far to prevent the possibility of
such a disaster.

On March 12, 1888, in consequence of the blizzard,
engines would have been powerless to get to a fire. Not
so with the hydrants of the fire-boat pipe lines, however;
they could have supplied the needed pressure, and it would
have only been necessary to attach hose to the hydrants.
Such simple precautions should not be neglected in any of
the great cities with a water front.

Water Supply at Harbor Level. At very many
places, especially seaboard towns, not having fire-boats with
pipe-lines, it might be well to use the neighboring water at
its natural level by means of pipes, or systems of pipes,

WA1ER-WORKS.

having both ends immersed to secure a constant circulation,
the fire engines connecting their suctions therewith through
manholes. Cases in point are the tidal drains at Charleston
and the canal and basins system at New Orleans, and at
both places much use could be made of the level flow if
pipes of proper size were laid and kept fairly clean, as they
could be. Much of New York below Canal Street could be
protected by the use of a level system such as suggested.
At Boston and Norfolk, also, probably it could be made of
great service.

Stop-Yalves or Gates. Safety cut-off gates should
be provided at each corner and on each hydrant branch of
the mains, for cutting out any broken pipes, which would
otherwise waste the water and diminish the head. By means
of these the water may be cut off on each side of a break
and a supply secured for a fire in the district or block from
neighboring sub-mains, of which there would probably be at
least two available on a "gridiron" system. Inasmuch as
accidents are liable to happen to pipes, hydrants or gates
from opening streets, etc. , such provisions are very important.
The breaking of a 3-inch or 4-inch service pipe entering a
building will often interfere seriously with the supply. In
consequence of the fall of a building, a hydrant in full play
may be covered with the debris and make it necessary to
cut off the section of pipe to which it is attached. The
breakage of a 6- inch main and discharge of its contents into
the open air would pull down the pressure twenty to thirty
pounds and waste enough water to supply a dozen streams.
The "stop-valves" or "gates" should be located by some
system at a uniform distance from the curb to insure finding
them readily in case of necessity, especially when streets
are covered with snow. If they are not in the centre of
the streets they should be uniformly upon the same geo-
graphical side, as upon the northerly and westerly side,
and at some fixed distance from the centre of the street
and at the same time, exactly on the side line of the
cross street. The location of them can also be indicated
by a sign on the nearest building or fence showing the
direction and number of feet from the curb line.

Careless workmen frequently break gates while making
repairs, and neglect to report the fact, with the result that

WATER-WORKS.

when the broken gate is left closed the result is felt at a
fire. In Detroit it was found that out of 2,600 gates 400
were broken and closed. A systematic inspection of the
gates should be made by an employee of the department
at stated intervals, and a record kept of his report.

The effect of a broken gate neglected and closed is to
make a dead end of the pipe on which it occurs — a fatal
fact which may not be discovered until a fire occurs ; hence
the necessity of regular and recorded inspections.

Number of Fire Streams Based Upon Population.
Hydraulic experts differ somewhat as to this point from each
other and, especially in the case of smaller towns, from
Underwriters. Mr. Freeman presents "as a rough, general
guide" the following table :

Total population No. of 250 gallon streams which should be avail

of community able simultaneously in addition to

protected : maximum doniestic draft:

1,000 2 tO 3

5,000 4 " 8

10,000 6 " 12

20,000 8 " 15

40,000 12 " 18

60,000 15 "22

100,000 20 " 30

200,000 30 " 50

Ten streams may be recommended for a compact group of large,
valuable buildings irrespective oj a small population.

As a general statement the pipes should be large enough
and the hydrants numerous enough so that at least two-
thirds of the above number of streams could be concentrated
upon any one square in the compact, valuable part of the
city or upon any one extremely large building or special
hazard.

Mr. J. Herbert Shedd presents a formula showing the number
of streams needed, from which the following values are taken:
Population. No. of 200 gallon streams.

5>°°° 5

10,000 7

20,000 10

40,000 14

60,000 17

100,000 22

l8o,OOO 30

26
WATER-WORKS.

From a fire-extinguishing standpoint, it should be borne
in mind always that in gauging the size of pipes and mains
and determining the location of hydrants no general rule
based upon population would be a safe or a wise one. It
might be as necessary for a village of 3,000 inhabitants, by
reason of the grouping of manufacturing or special hazards
or exceptionally high or large area mercantile structures, to
have ten 25o-gallon streams as in the case of a town of
40,000 ; indeed, in the case of the smaller town it might be
more necessary than in the case of the larger.

Pipes below Frost Line. In New England the rule is
that the axis of water pipes should be five feet below the
surface, especially in gravelly or stony ground.

The importance of laying pipes below the frost line ought
not to need emphasis. In some sections of the Northwest
they may be frozen seven feet below the surface.

Where a pipe line is laid in a street which has not been
graded it should be borne in mind that the subsequent
grading of the street may lower the surface to within a
dangerous distance from the pipe. As much as two feet
of the cover may under circumstances be taken off.

Electrolysis. A serious menace to the pipe system of
the country has been discovered in fugitive currents of
electricity which escape from trolley and other wires un-
provided with proper returns in the shape of good copper
wire. In numerous instances pipes have been ruined by
these currents of electricity, and greater vigilance must be
exercised to prevent widespread disaster.

Hydrants. Only "2-way" hydrants should be used in
the business or mercantile section. They should be "stag-
gered" through a territory on alternate sides of the street,
so that at least half of them would be safe from a line of fire,
and they should be so arranged as to be protected from
freezing. The importance of protecting hydrants from
freezing ought not to require argument. There is no ex-
cuse for frozen hydrants as there are many patterns which
with proper care will not freeze. As I write, the entire
business portion of a New York town has been destroy-
ed because its steam fire department was helpless by reason
of the intense cold. It may safely be stated that the
property destroyed in a single winter month of any one

WATER-WORKS.

year, as a consequence of frozen hydrants, would more than
pay for protecting all the hydrants in the country permanent-
ly against the dangers of frost. They should have drains
to the sewer to carry off the water after being used, and be
protected by boxing, etc. There is no excuse for the almost
universal neglect of simple precautions, upon the observance
of which the safety of an entire city may depend. Where
these precautions are not systematically taken, not more
than half the credit for the fire department in rates should
be allowed under the Universal Schedule.

The location of hydrants is an important matter. As a
rule, they should be on the corners of streets, for obvious
reasons, chiefly because they would, at such locations, be
most quickly discovered. It may happen, however, that the
location of a hydrant in too close proximity to a dangerous
risk of large area or height might be injudicious.

Two "2-way" hydrants are preferable to one "4-way"
hydrant, on account of frost and the probability that at least
one may not be frozen.

Hydrants should be liberally distributed ; it is a mistaken
economy to have them too far apart, not alone because of
the loss of frictional head in great lengths of hose — a serious
matter — but by reason of the simple fact that 6-inch cast-iron
pipe can be laid for about the cost of the best 2 -J- inch hose,
with the further important difference, as Mr. Freeman sug-
gests, that the life of the hose will not average more than
five to ten years, while the pipe will last half a century.
The greater length of hose, moreover, is liable to accident
at a critical moment.* In the compact mercantile portion
hydrants should not be over 250 feet apart.

The post hydrant, having a 5 J inch or 6-inch riser, with
rounded corners, is preferable to the flush hydrant, even
where the latter has an extra "4-way" outlet, especially in

*Mr. Freeman says: "More than half the static hydrant pressure
is wasted in overcoming the friction through too long a line of hose
or too small a street main. Good jacketed fire hose now costs about
75 cents per foot. A 6-inch, tar-coated, heavy cast-iron main can be
laid for about 75 cents per foot, cost of pipe, trench, lead and laying
all included. A city can buy a good two-way hydrant for Jess than
the price of 50 feet of good fire department hose and its water de-
partment can buy and put down 100 feet of the best six inch cast
iron water pipe for just about the same price that its fire department
pays for an equal length of hose."

28
WATER-WORKS.

Northern States, where a covering of snow might interfere
with finding the hydrant ; on very narrow streets, however,
the flush hydrant may be better. In Boston, the location
of flush hydrants is indicated by signs on buildings opposite
the hydrants, stating the number of feet and the direction
from the curb line. An eight-inch feed pipe, a six-inch
riser and round corners leading to the hose nipple will be
true economy even for a 2-way hydrant, especially where
the pressure exceeds 75 Ibs. per square inch.

False economy is practised in selecting hydrants having
the main gate and riser only four inches in diameter ; the
4-inch stand-pipe sacrifices too much valuable water pres-
sure to be longer tolerated in new work and should be
discontinued together with the 4-inch water main. For
ordinary purposes of fire protection a standard hydrant
should have a main gate and riser at least five inches in
diameter and be provided with two outlets for hose. It
is not necessary to have independent hose gates on these
outlets, as if one does not happen to be used it may be
covered by a cap or closed by a portable hose gate carried
on the hose wagon and already connected into the rear end
of the hose line, while a second gate is at hand for attach-
ment of the spare nozzle during the time the hose is being
run and before the hydrant gate is open. The standard
hydrant should have a bell for connecting with the water
pipe at least six inches in diameter.

It would seem unnecessary to suggest that when hydrants
are being located they should be attached to the larger of
two available mains, were it not for the fact that in so many
instances as almost to amount to a rule they are placed upon
the smaller of two mains, simply because the connection
costs less money for the pipe laying contractor. This fault
is so common, and the consequences are so serious, that it
should be the rule of any city that no hydrant connection
should be covered up until the Fire Department has had an
opportunity to examine and pronounce it satisfactory. With
the use of modern appliances in the shape of tapping
machines it is possible to connect with the large mains with-
out shutting off water,

The Fire Department should have charge of the location
of hydrants as in Detroit, the only city I believe, where

29
WATER-WORKS.

this is the case. They can be trusted, in all cases, to put a
hydrant on the largest available main.

A notable instance of indifference on the part of a Water-
Works Company to avail itself of large mains was discovered
in Detroit. I quote from Chief Tryon's report of it :

"In April, 1893, a fire occurred in one of the buildings forming a
Dart of the plant of a large brewing company in Detroit. The fire
was quite ugly at the outset and the officer in command promptly
sent in a third alarm. Three engineers whose engines were located
on Jefferson avenue in which was a 42-inch supply main, with a
6-inch distributing main alongside, complained of poor water and
proved it by recording a vacuum pressure on their combination
guages. It did not need the guage, however, to tell the story, as by
standing next the hydrant I could hear the suction. I could only
think of a broken gate somewhere on the line, but when the Engi-
neer of the Water Works, set about investigating, he developed one
of the most serious minor defects in our system. It appears to have
been the practice heretofore to lay large and small supply mains
through districts they were intended to supply without connecting
them to cross lines. In this case the engines actually pumped dry a section
covering many acres, and the investigation revealed that while the ^2-inch
and 6- inch mains were laid parallel they were only connected at points
t)t\<v) feet ( nearly a mile} apart, and that the district north ivas supplied
entirely from this b-inch main and all hydrants were connected with it" I

Another fire in March, 1894, developed the fact that
while an 8-inch main had been provided, the hydrant was
on a ^-inch main, from which an engine could not get
sufficient water. I quote from Mr. Tryon's report:

"The supply in this case was an 8-inch main, the hydrants being
on i-inch mains, one just north and the other j ust south of the 8-inch.
An investigation showed that the following conditions existed: The
gate on the north side of Michigan avenue was closed so that the
engine was pumping vut of a <\-inchpipe, having a feed from but one
way and that from a ^-inch pipe. This was in a section which has
been built up a great many years and the pipeage is as old as the
locality. Even had not the gate been closed the pipeage was not
sufficient to feed the large engines as was shown in the case of No. 8.
With one 1 |-inch stream they were all right, but when they came
to add a 1 f-inch stream they were lost."

It may be assumed as a fact that underwriters have no
more important business on hand than that of making proper
rates for such unprotected territory, for it may safely be
said that millions of dollars worth of property located on
inadequate street mains is insured below cost under supposi-
tions of adequate mains which, while provided, at great ex-
pense, in the street, are absolutely useless for fire purposes
owing to the fact that the hydrants are on small pipes.

Hydrants should be painted a bright red, so that the
Fire Department can find them easily. Street sprinklers,
sewer diggers and other inexperienced persons ought not to

WATER-WORKS.

be permitted to use them, as they are liable to get out of
order.

Two and one-half inch openings should be avoided; 4-
inch should be the rule, especially where 3-inch hose can be
handled by the Department.

Hydrants should be reguiarly flushed, to secure reliability
of action and remove the sediment which accumulates in the
short arm leading to each post.

Hose. The best quality of jacketed fire-hose, rubber
lined and perfectly smooth should be used, of 2 -J inches
internal diameter. Attempts have been made to use 3-inch
hose and abandoned, in some cases, because it has been
thought unwieldy. The 3-inch hose, however, is necessary
in compact mercantile districts. Chief Bonner of New York
has 19 companies equipped with 3-inch hose and expects to
equip 20 more soon.

A modern steam engine, using 3-inch hose, with capacity
of 1,200 gallons per minute, can throw one i £ inch and
one i £ inch stream, or, with two short lines of hose, two i J
inch streams can be thrown. Such streams as these do
effectual work. As Mr. Tryon laconically expresses it, they
are "solid streams, that do not break until they reach the
fire, and leave a black mark where they strike."

Uniform Size and Thread. It is remarkable and
inexcusable that a uniform size and pitch of thread for
couplings have not been established for the entire country so
that the apparatus of neighboring towns can be availed of
in case of conflagrations.

The dimensions recommended by the National Associa-
tion of Fire engineers at the 1891 meeting are as follows:

Couplings for 2>£ inch hose, 7>£ threads to the inch, 3 1-16 inch
diameter to top of threads on male coupling.

Couplings for 2% inch hose, 8 threads to the inch, 3 5-16 inches
diameter to top of threads on male coupling.

Couplings for 2% inch hose, 8 threads to the inch, 3^ inches
diameter to top of threads on male coupling.

Couplings for 3-inch hose, 8 threads to the inch, 3^ inches
diameter to the top of threads on male coupling.

Couplings for 3^ inch hose, 8 threads to the inch, 4 1 16 inches
diameter to top of threads on male coupling.

Couplings for 4-inch hose, 8 threads to the inch, 4^ inches
diameter to top of threads on male coupling.

Couplings for 4^ inch hose, 8 threads to the inch, 5^ inches
diameter .0 top of threads on male coupling.

Couplings for 5-inch hose, 8 threads to the inch, 6y& inches
diameter to top of threads on male coupling.

WATER-WORKS.

Couplings for 6-inch hose, 8 threads to the inch, 7 1-16 inches
diameter to top of threads on male coupling.

Mr. Charles A. Landy, in an instructive paper on this
subject recommends, with much reason, it seems to me, the
adoption of a uniform thread of y-J threads to the inch for
the reason that the 7^ swivel part of couplings will connect
with 7 or 8 thread male couplings and, therefore, meet the
majority of existing conditions throughout the country.

The same dimensions should be followed by all mills and
manufactories relying upon the co-operation of the nearest
city or village department in case of fire. It has frequently
happened that such auxiliary aid has been valueless, simply
because hose and hydrant threads would not fit those of the
department, and reducing or expanding couplings had not
been provided to remedy the fault.

This subject of uniform thread and coupling is deserving
of a special convention of Engineers for its consideration.

At present numerous cities capable of helping each other
are powerless to do so.

As early as 1830, Mr. Braidwood, the celebrated English
Fire Engineer, suggested that if uniformity in the structure
and design of apparatus could extend to the most minute
particulars, "a screw or nut of any one engine would fit
every other engine in the kingdom."

Steam Fire Engines. This suggestion of Mr. Braid-
wood as to uniformity in the size of nuts and parts of
machinery is a far reaching one. At present, the situation
in this country is grave from the standpoint that steam
fire engines, probably without exception, are of such delicate
construction that they resemble the machinery ot a watch.
They are liable to breakage, and when broken it is discover-
ed that they must be sent to a distance, to the shop of the
manufacturer, to be repaired, involving the risk of a conflagra-
tion during their absence and outlay for expense because of
the exclusive privilege of repairing. Money is needlessly
spent on nickel-plate, brass finish and gewgaws, which
should be either saved altogether or expended in improving
the working parts, all of which should be of such simple,
strong construction as to be easily repaired by a mechanic
of average ability, to be found in any town. A blacksmith,
for example, should be capable of repairing almost any por-

WATER-WORKS.

lion of a steam fire engine, and the nuts and bolts should
be interchangeable. It is safe to say that the reliability of
steam fire departments is materially impaired by reason of
the faults mentioned, and that the steam fire engine of the
future, when underwriters decide to act upon their present
convictions, will be one whose working parts are not only
so strong as to reduce the breakage risk to the minimum
but of such simple character that they can be easily and
quickly repaired, in most cases by the substitution of du-
plicate parts carried by the engineer himself.

Hose Nozzle, i ^ inch is regarded as better for many
reasons than i ^, although the latter, especially with Siamese
connection, is decidedly preferable where it can be used.
The chances of extinguishing a fire are directly proportional to
the amount of water thrown. Small streams are less efficient,
as a large portion of the stream is evaporated before it reaches
the point of conflagration, and unless water is brought to
the burning surface it has little effect.

I quote from Mr. Freeman — "The efficiency of a waterworks or
fire department, is measured by its ability to control a bad fire be-
fore it becomes a sweeping conflagration, and the design should be
based upon streams suitable for this purpose.

Experience shows that large streams are much more effective on
a fierce fire than small streams. A small stream may be so complete-
ly evaporated into steam as it passes through the flames as to never
reach the seat of the fire.

A tire cannot be extinguished by wetting the flames.

In every fire which makes a flame, there are two processes taking
place — the first process is the roasting out of gas ; the second is the burn-
ing of this ga f .

W ater extinguishes mainly by chilling the ignited surface so no
more gas is given off — the flames then die.

With a large stream, even though half the water be evaporated as
it passes through the flames, there may be enough left to quench the
glowing coals which form the heart of the fire.

Thus we see the reason for the opinion to which many practical fire-
men have been led by experience that given, say, 1,200 gallons of
water per minute under good pressure — this will do more good on a
fierce fire if concentrated into four \\ in. streams of 300 gallons each,
than if used in six 1 in. streams of 200 gallons each, or ten f in.
streams of 120 gallons each.

A 1 £ in. stream is used in many departments and is often better
than the 1 1 inch, if water is plenty and length of hose short. If hose
is long, the friction due to pushing so much water through so small a
pipe leaves the nozzle pressure so small that the stream is too feeble.

Thus from the hydraulic principles involved, we find that with
hydrant pressures of 80 to 100 Ibs., and lengths of hose from 200 to
400 feet, the 1 \ in. nozzle is the size best adapted for all-round use
with 2 \ in. hose.

On the other hand, from the teachings of practice and without any
discussion of scientific principles, the i\ in. smooth nozzle has come
to be the size most common in the best American fire departments."

WATER-WORKS.

In the great Boston fire of 1889, it was safely estimated
that enough water was thrown to flood the district of 3^
acres involved 12 £ feet deep.

A smooth nozzle and rigid pipe are necessary.

Pipe Diagram. An accurate diagram of the pipe
system of the city, showing the size and location of mains
and hydrants, with stop-valves and gates, should be in the
hands of the Fire Department Chief and the Local Board
of Fire Underwriters. In most cities and towns throughout
the country, to-day, the only diagram of this kind is in the
office of the Water- Works or, worse still, in the possession
of some private individual, whose selfish pride in the ex-
clusive possession of it is such that the important secret is
likely to die with him. The writer has found this latter
condition to exist, strange as it may seem, in more towns than

RS2SB8W HVOR.NTS,-

Oj pECTION OJ- STEAM FIRE ENGINES.-^

FlTCH BURG DOTTED LINES SHOW CEMENT LINED PIPES
J JvlASS.

WATER-WORKS.

one. In an important western city, not even the water-
works company knew the location or sizes of the street
mains, and the individual who alone possessed the informa-
tion was trading upon it in order to enjoy a life monopoly
in making repairs.

In making a pipe diagram of the city, it is well to omit
the street lines and show only the pipe lines with the names
of the streets. This system insures greater clearness, and
is the method pursued by Mr. Freeman. The foregoing
diagram shows a section of his pipe diagram of the city of
Fitchburg, Mass. The heavier arteries or feeders are
shown by corresponding heavier lines. The size of the pipe
in inches is clearly legible, and where there is both high
and low service both systems may be shown by tracing
the pipes of the low service in red ink and of the high
service in blue ink. The heights of various levels above
mean sea level are shown in figures, 474, 454 &c.

Expert Management. The system of a city should
be under expert management and the person in charge
should understand hydraulic engineering ; something more
than a knowledge of mechanics is necessary.

Water Works in the Universal Schedule.

It will be observed that the schedule recognizes efficiency
and reliability of water- works in the following order :

1. Gravity, with an "effective head" and "volume" at
the hydrants. For recognition in schedule rating the reser-
voir should contain at least five days' supply for domestic
and fire service which should be maintained and is more re-
liable if supplied by hydraulic pumps, in duplicate, from a
river or other inexhaustible supply, not liable to drought.
If the pumps, whether steam or hydraulic, are arranged to
secure also direct pressure in emergency, as already explain-
ed, both kinds of service may be secured.

2. Hydraulic Pumps in duplicate, with storage reservoir
or tank stand-pipe of ten hours' supply for domestic and
fire service.

3. Steam pumps, in duplicate, with a tank stand-pipe or
storage reservoir of ten hours supply for domestic and fire
service.

WATER-WORKS.

4. Direct pressure from Hydraulic Pumps, in duplicate,
without tank stand-pipe or storage reservoir.

5. Direct pressure from steam Pumps, in duplicate, with-
out tank stand-pipe or reservoir.

A reservoir system is preferable to all others, and insures
uniform pressure in pipes, involving less danger of breakage.
While a large reservoir is desirable for storage purposes,
however, it is not indispensable for fire purposes. A reser-
voir sufficient to hold a supply for both domestic and fire
service of ten hours would probably be ample for ex-
tinguishing any fire. As already stated, one million gallons
storage will supply eleven, standard, 250 gallon, fire streams
for six hours, and for the ordinary city up to 15,000 in-
habitants, a million gallons could be considered an ample
reserve of storage for fire purposes.

Fire-proof Pumping Station. It would seem un-
necessary to state that the building on whose existence the
safety of a city depends should be safe from fire and separ-
ated from dangerous manufacturing or other hazards and
especially from Electric Lighting Stations. It will be
observed that charge is made (item No. 8) for an electric-
light station or other special hazard in the pump-house
or exposing it. It is a grave question if this charge ought
not to be higher, even to the extent of making the "key-
rate" of a city having a direct pressure system, so jeopard-
ized, higher than that of a town without any waterworks at
all, in view first, of the fact that such a town afterwards gets
credit for individual risks in proximity to hydrants to the ex-
tent possibly of 15 % (see Nos. 155, 156) and, second, of the
fact that a company's conflagration line in the direct press-
ure town would have been increased by reason of the
pressure, but all benefit of the system lost if a fire destroy-
ing the pump-house should happen to be coincident with
the raging of a conflagration in the city.

Cisterns. In Detroit, small cisterns or reservoirs, hold-
ing 7,000 gallons or more, are distributed throughout the
city, notwithstanding the pipe system, and would admirably
supplement a broken street main. In some cases they are
of oblong or sewer shape, of cemented brick.

As stated elsewhere, in all cases where dead ends are
necessary in the outskirts of the city, a cistern or reservoir

WATER-WORKS.

is provided at the end, so that in blowing off the dead end
the waste water is husbanded for fire purposes.

CAPACITY OF CISTERNS OR STAND-PIPES IN U. S. GALLONS.

For each 12 inches of depth.

The following table will enable any one to estimate the capacity
of tank stand-pipes or cisterns of cylindrical form in U. S. gallons
for each 12 inches of depth :

leet (

Jiameter,

. 94

teet c

liamel

:er - 711

« ^

- 147

-846

" .

• 2IlJ

• 993

« •

- 288

»4

• •. i 1 I C

« .

- 376

- 1322

-476

- - 2350

' 587i

- - 3672

For example, a cistern 25 feet in diameter would contain
3672 gallons for every foot of depth; and if 10 feet deep,
36720 gallons, or 918 bbls.

A simple rule may be stated as follows : To find the
contents in U. S. standard gallons for each foot of depth of
a cylindrical cistern with a circular base, multiply the square
of the diameter (in feet) by 5J-; the product will be the contents
in gallons.*

For example, a cistern 20 feet in diameter and 10 feet
deep would contain 20X20x5^X10=23500 gallons (see
table above).

*Tho cubic contents In feet of a cylinder like a cistern are obtained by multiply-
Ing the urea of the cirele by the depth in feet. InuHimieh as the area of a circle Is
obtained by multiplying the snuiire of the diameter by 7854, and inasmuch asa cubic
foot of water contains 7.48 gallons, it is only necessary to multiply the square of the
dfameter by the product of 7.48 X .7854,— 0%, to obtain the result in gallons, without
the longer computation.

INDEX.

Air valves in pipes, 11.
Auxiliary pumps, 2.

Bends in pipes, 9.

Blizzard_23.

Blow-off Valves, 11, 12.

Boston, 14.

Broken Mains, 24.

Capacity of pipes, 7, tables, 8, 9.
Cast-iron pipe, 17, 18.
Cement lined pipe, 2, 18.
Cisterns, Capacity of 85, in

Detroit, 7.

Couplings, Uniform 80.
Cost of pipes, 10, 14.
Cubic foot of water, Weight of 3.
Curves in Pipes, 9.

Dead ends, 6, 7.

Delivery Mains, 1.

Detroit fire-boats, 21, 28, 29.

Diagram, pipes, reservoir, Ac.,

16, 88.
Diameter of Pipes, 8, 9,

Direct pressure, 2, 8.

Distribution, 18.

Domestic Draft or consumption;

9, 11, 19.
Dry-goods District of N. Y., 28.

Electrolysis, 26.
Expert management of Water

System, 84.
Extinction of Fire, Process of 82.

Fire, Process of extinguishing 32.

Fire-bouts, 20.

Fire Engines, Stonm 31.

Fire-proof pumping station, 85.

Fire streams possible on gridiron
system, 17, based on popula-
tion, 25.

Flowing pressure, 6.

Force Mains, 1.

Freeman, John R. 15, 25.

Frictional Head, 6, 7, 8, 9.

Friction in hose, 4, in pipes, 5, 7,
from bends, &c., 9, 17.

Frost line, 26.

Frozen Hydrants, 26.

Gallon of water, Weight of 8.

INDEX.

Gates, 24, broken, 25.
Grade line, Hydraulic 12.
Gravity pressure, Advantage of 1.
Gridiron System, 13, 15, 24.

Hammer, Water 3, 11.

Harbor level, Water at 23.

Head or Pressure, 3, 4.

High and Low Service, 12.

Holly System, 3.

Hose, 4, 30, Friction in 4, 27,
Short hose lines, 4, 17, 27,
Three-inch, 30, Hose Nozzle,
82.

Hydrants, 26, Frozen, 26, Locat-
ing 27, 28, 29, Size of Riser, 28,
on small mains, 29, should be
painted red, 29.

Hydraulic grade line, 12.

Insurance rates, 14, 20.

Lightning destroys Cement-lined

pipe, 2, 18.
Level, Water supply at 23.

Mains and pipe distribution, 13.
Manufacturing Cities, 19, 20.
Mercantile Schedule, 14, 20, 34.
Milwaukee fire- boats, 21.
Monday, Domestic draft on 9, 19.
Motor, Water ( New London, Ct. )

13.

New London, Ct., Water Motor,

13.
New York, 14.

Pipes below frost line, 26, Size

of 10, Cost of 10, Distribution,

13.

Pipes, Diameter of 8, 9.
Pipe Diagram, 33.
Population, No. of fire streams

based on 25.
Pressure, 3, 4, Conversion of feet

head into Ibs., 5, Test of 5, 6.
Pressure, Flowing 6.

Static, 5.
Pumping Station, 35.

Rate of Insurance, 14, 2ft
Relative cost of pipes, 10.
Richards, W. II. 13.
Rome, N. Y. Fire in 18.
Rust in Pipes, 8, 17, 18.

S.
Salt Water, 21.

Sea- port Cities, Size of Main 15*
23.

Siamesing hose, 4, 17.
Shedd, J. Herbert 25.
Signals for fire-boats, 23.
Six-inch Mains, 14.
Size of Pipes, 10, 13. 14.
Skin Friction, 7, 18.
Small Mains, Folly of 14, 29
Stand-pipes, 10.
Static Head, 1, 5.
Static pressure, 1, 5.
Steam Fire Engines, 31.
Stop- valves and Gates, 24.
Supply, 18.

Table showing capacity of pipes

&c., 8, 9.
Tarred Pipe, 18.
Test of Water Pressure, 5, 6,
Thread, Uniform 30.
Tryon, Jas. E. Report on fire

boats, 22.

Uniform size of thread, coup-
lings, &c., 30.

Universal Mercantile Schedule,
14, 20, 34.

Vacuum Valves, 11.
Velocity, 6, 8, 9.

Water, Cubic foot of 3.
Water Front, Size of Main on 15,
Water-hammer, 3, 11.
Water Motor, 13.
Water-shed, 2.

Water- works in Universal Sched
ule, 34.

Weston's Tables, 9.
Wrought iron Pipe, 2, 18.

Insurers or intending insurers in the CONTINENTAL are
entitled to a copy of any of the publications listed below
-without charge. Make request through our Agent, or, if he
cannot be conveniently reached, write us direct.

NOW TO BUJLD A HOME.-F. C, Moore.

Suggestions as to safety to health, comfort, convenience and
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Contract, etc. 150 pages, cloth, $1.00, paper 50 cents.

«OW TO BUILD FIREPROOF AND SLOW-BURNING.-F. C. Moore.
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132 pages, paper 50 cents.

PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR ECONOMICAL DWELLINGS, ETC.
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plying particularly to farm property. 75 pages, with plans,
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•WATER WORKS AND PIPE DISTRIBUTION. - F. C. Moore.

For those having in charge erection of water works. Particulars
as to best methods of construction of plant, laying of water
mains, etc. 38 pages, paper 25 cents.

MODEL FORM OF BUILDING LAW FOR CITIES.

Drafted by Commission appointed by N. Y Legislature. 64 pp.

iFIRE INSURANCE.

An explanation of the principles and methods of the business of
fire insurance, ami its importance and relation to the community
at large. 32 pages, paper.

FIRE DOORS AND SHUTTERS.— Instructions for Construction. 20pp.

MODEL FORM OF LOCAL LAW REGULATING CONSTRUCTION OF
FLUES, ETC.-LcaJiet.

AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER EQUIPMENTS.

Suggestions for owners of sprinkled risks and others. Leaflet.

FAULTS OF MANAGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION.

Suggestions how to guard against fires from gas brackets, ashes,
rubbish and carelessness in general.

EXPLANATION CF THE CO-INSURANCE CLAUSE.-Leaflet.

SAFETY FUND LAW Of NEW YORK STATE.

Leaflet explaining advantage to policy holders of this law, under
which the CONTINENTAL transacts its business.

EXPLANATION OF RENT INSURANCE WITH SAMPLE FORMS.

If your building burns the rent stops unless y«u have a rent
policy. Leaflet.

Do you want to know whether Tornado Insurance is worth paying
for ? Ask for Tornado circular.

A CONTINENTAL Expiration Book helps you keep track of ex-
piring insurance.

THE GORIIffiML FIRE HHIKE COIMIT.

Principal Office, Continental Building, 46 Cedar St., N. Y.
Western Department. Rialto Building, Chicago, Ills.

THE RENT STOPS WHEN

THE BUILDING BURNS.

You lose your income from
that building till the destroyed
property can be rebuilt and put
in shape for rental.

Ordinary insurance only cov-
ers the actual damage by fire.
It does not make good the rent
you lose during rebuilding. If
you insure in The CONTINENTAL,
a small additional premium ef-
fects rent insurance, and secures
a continuous rental income.

"Insure in an American Company."
CONTINENTAL FIRE INS. CO.,

46 Cedar Street, New York.

Rialto Building, Chicago, Ills,

<COPY.)

INSURANCE DEPARTMENT

State of New York.

1 1 Broadway, New York, Feb'y 7.1901
Hon. Francis Hendricks,

Superintendent of Insurance,

Albany, N. Y.
Sir:

I beg to report that I have concluded the investigation into the condition of THE
CONTINENTAL INSURANCE COMPANY of New York, made for the purpose of verifying
the correctness of its Annual Statement for the year 1 900, now on file in the Insurance
Department, and ordered by your appointment No. 1 403. The result of the exam 8 na-
tion establishes conclusively the accuracy of the figures given in said statement as
representing the condition of the Company on December 31st. 1900. In it, the values
at which the company inventories its securities consisting of bonds and stocks, are, as
will be seen, very considerably less than the current market quotations of these items
on December 3 1 st last. The inventoried prices given in the statement are in line with
a conservative policy heretofore adopted by the company for the purpose of extending
these assets in its annual statements at figures well within the possibility of any prob-
able future depreciation likely to occur therein from any unforeseen cause, thus ren-
dering more certain the prompt payment of obligations to policyholders In the event of
any contingency arising necessitating a quick conversion of these assets Into cash for
the payment of extraordinary losses.

The figure representing the liability for premiums unearned was found to be
somewhat in excess of the statutory requirement regulating this charge, due to the
fact that the company does not deduct from its liabilities, as it might, the unexpired
reserve on the premiums past due and which have been deducted from its assets.

A liberal verification of a portion of the unearned premium fund was made by
checking in detail the writings, cancellations and re-insurances, and separately
scheduling them from original data, and the items of premiums in course of collection
and losses outstanding were similarly investigated and verified.

THP result shows that tfrp annual statement of the company for the year 1 900.
now on file in the Insurance Department nf New York, meets all leyal requirements,
the surplus set forth therein being even greater than that claimed by the company, by
reason of the facts above stated.

Respectfully submitted,

ISAAC VANDERPOEL,

Chief Examiner

TORNADO INSURANCE.

"THE POPULOUS REGION OF THE UNITED STATES IS FOREVER
DOOMED TO THE DEVASTATION OF THE TORNADO."— Lieut. John
P. Finley, Signal Cwps, U. S. Army.

TWELYE MILLION DOLLARS BLOWN AWAY

IN LESS THAN HALF AN HOUR
AT ST. LOUIS IN MAY 1896.

ASK FOR A CONTINENTAL TORNADO POLICY AND

YOU ARE SURE TO SECURE ABSOLUTE

INDEMNITY AT FAIR RATES.

"Insure in an American Company."

THE CONTINENTAL INSURANCE CO.,

NEW YORK.

RENT INSURANCE. FIRE INSURANCE.

AGENTS EVERYWHERE.

SOME DESTRUCTION FOLLOWS EVERY STORM.

Ask the Agent of the Continental to explain to you
the importance of

THE SAFETY FUND LAW OF NEW YORK,

under which this Company conducts its business.

It is optional with a Company as to whether or not it
will voluntarily place its business under the restrictions
of this law, but once having done so, it cannot withdraw
and must ever thereafter restrict its dividends in ac-
cordance therewith.

It was the first and largest Company to comply with
the act. The Safety Fund Law provides a Special Re-
serve Fund for a new Capital, deposited with the In-
surance Department of the State of New York, now
amounting in the case of the Continental to $600,000,
which together with its reserve for policies in force,
amounting to $4,806,903 is set aside for the protection
of all policy-holders not involved in the burning of a
city. Over one hundred Companies failed by the great
fires of Chicago and Boston, thirteen months apart; it is
therefore very important to property-owners to be in-
sured in a large Safety Fund Company. If they happen
to be involved in a sweeping city fire they will receive
more under this law than under any other; and if not
so involved, are absolutely secure and will be as fully in-
sured as if no such great fire had happened. In addition
to this fact the Continental has so regulated its confla-
gration lines in cities as to have less than its Net Surplus
involved anywhere; so that, in case of the burning of any
city, it would have an unimpaired capital for the pro-
tection of its unburned policy-holders.

A Safety Fund Policy costs no more than any
other.

UNSURE WITH AN AMERICAN COMPANY.

THE CONTINENTAL FIRE INSURANCE CO.,

46 Cedar Street, New York.

STATEMENT. JANUARY 1st, t902>

Cash fn Banks and on hand, - . -• . $ S30,050.1(>

Loans on Bond and Mortgage, - - : ; . ., 50,910.00

TJ. S. and other Stocks and Bonds owned by Co.,, 8,802,020.00

Real Estate owned by the Company, - - - 1,106,250.00

Premiums in course of collection, * - - 734,136.11

Interest and Dividends (due and accrued) -:...'- 74,086.90"

Rents accrued, ...... . 1,558.64

Total Assets, - - $11,599,011.81

Reserve for Insurance in force, - - $4,80<>,903.6O

Reserve for Losses, 407,469.41

Reserve for Commission, Taxes and all claims, 183,310.68-
Reserve for Contingencies, .... 300,000 OO
Cash Capital, 1,000T000.0(>

Net Surplus, - - - •> ;j • - - 4,901,328.12

DIRECTORS,

WILLIAM L. ANDREWS. WILLIAM G. Low.

SAMUEL D. BABCOCK. RICHARD A. McCuRDY

GEO. F. BAKER. F. C. MOORE.

CLARENCE W. BOWEN, CHAS. A. MOORE.

HENRY EVANS. ALEXANDER E. ORR,

AURELIUS B. HULL. F. P. OLCOTT.

JAMES H. HYDE. CYRUS PECK.

GEORGE E. KLINE. WILLIAM A. READ.

H. H. LAMPORT. JOHN L. RIKER.

EDWARD LANNING. ELIHU ROOT.
THEO. F. VAIL.

F. C. MOORE, President.

HENRY EVANS, Vice-President.

EDWARD LANNING, Secretary.
J. E. LOPEZ,
E. L. BALLARD, Ass>t Secretaries.

Western Pep* t»Rialto Building. Chicago, Ills.

GEO. E. J^^f^^i5er5Nyianager.

Vt Gen'l Manager.

WHY TO INSURE IN AN AMERICAN COMPANY.

AMERICAN COMPANIES ARE THE LARGEST;

of the six companies (including the "Continental")
reporting OVER TEN MILLION DOLLARS IN ASSETS,
only one is foreign, and its U. S. assets are less than
those of the "Continental".

AMERICAN COMPANIES ARE THE STRONGEST;

of the five companies (including the "Continental")
whose reports show a surplus to policyholders EXCEED*
ING FIVE MILLION DOLLARS, none are foreign.

COSTS NO MORE.

Why patronize foreigners when you can get the same
thing at the same price from fellow-countrymen?

GIVES BUSINESS TO THOSE WHO GIVE YOU BUSINESS;

Stockholders of the American Companies are their part-
ners and as they are distributed throughout the United
States, they are doing business with you.

PROFIT, IF ANY, REMAINS IN THIS COUNTRY,

contributing to the general prosperity, which in turn
benefits YOU.

THE

CONTINENTAL
INSURANCE

COMPANY

of New York.

WHY TO INSURE IN THE CONTINENTAL

Is an American Company, owned by Americans and managed by
Americans.

Does business under the Safety Fund Law, making its policy
"Conflagration Proof."

Assets (11,599,011.) and surplus (5,901,328.) to policy-
holders are larger than those in the U. S. of any foreign
company.

Paid in full all losses incurred in the great Chicago and Boston
conflagrations.

Since organization its loss payments to policyholders exceed
Forty-Seven Millions of Dollars.

You secure, if desired, the advantage of inspection by experi-
enced men, and will be furnished on request with in-
formation regarding safe construction of buildings, etc.

Prompt attention to loss adjustments ensured by the organized
force of travelling men which the Company's large busi-
ness enables it to maintain to cover every section of the
country and which a smaller company could not afford, j

Organized In 1 852, its fifty years of successful business prove

its financial strength, conservative management and |
fair treatment of poiicyholders.

195SW

rsl6)476

INSURE IN AN AMERICAN

RENT INSURANCE. TORNADO INSURANCE.

YC 12927

1 1 2090
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