n
ffkn .ji^/^"^-
MECHANICAL EXERCISES;
OR, THE
ELEMENTS AND PRACTICE
OF
Carpentrif^ Plasteringy
Joinery^ Painting^
Sricklayinf/^ Smithingy
Masonry^ and
Slating, Turning,
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive
in 2010 with funding from
Lyrasis IVtembers and Sloan Foundation
http://www.archive.org/details/mechanicalexerciOOnich
^la>i^2.
2U^donI^iKs7ie<llMo-ch te.7Snhv jr^yl^^TrS^AIfoao
33
MECHANICAL EXERCISES;
OR, THE
ELEMENTS AND PRACTICE
OF
Carpentry^ Plastering^
Joinery^ Paintingy
Brichlayiny^ Smithing^
Masonry^ and
Slating^ Turning,
CONTAINING A FULL DESCRIPTION OP
THE TOOLS
Belonging to each Branch of Business;
Aud copious Directions for their Use.
WITH AN EXPLANATION OF THE
TERMS USED IN EACH ART;
AND
An Introduction to Practical Geometry.
ILLUSTRATED BY
THIRTY-NINE COPPER ' PLATES.
By peter NICHOLSON,
Author of The Carpenters' Guide : Joiners' Assistant, S,i
LONDON:
PUBLISHED BY J. TAYLOR,
jIT the architectupal library,
59, HIGH HOLBORN.
1812.
Son
•N53
Printed by W. Stratford, Crown Court, Temple Bar.
PREFACE.
MORE than a century has elapsed since
an ingenious and useful work on the
Arts connected with Building was publish-
ed under the title of Mechanical Exercises^
by the celebrated Joseph Moxon : that it
was both useful and popular the various
editions testify, and at this time it is
become scarce and rarely to be met with.
It can be no disparagement to its ingenious
author, to say, that the progress of science,
and the changes in matters of art have
rendered the work obsolete and useless. It
treated on Smithing, Joinery, Carpentry,
Turning, Bricklaying, and Dyalling.
I have followed the excellent plaq of
Moxon and treated each art distinctly :
I have first described the several tools
belonging to each branch of business, next
the methods of performing the various ma-
nual operations or Exercises, to which tliey
are applicable, these are further illustrated
and explair^ed by numerous plates : the de-
scriptions are made as plain and familiar as
possible ; and there are few operations but
will
VI PREFACE.
will be found fully and clearly explained ?
finally to each is added an Index and exr
tensive Glossary of terms used by workmen
in each art, with references also to the
plates : and it has been my endeavour that
ithe description with its definition should be
clear, ajid show the connection between the
science and the art, thereby producing a
pleasing and lasting effect upon the mind.
The arts treated of are as follow:
Carpentrify Joinery^ Bricklaying, AlasQiiry,
Slatingy Plasttring, Pairitingy Smithing, and
Turning, the whole preceded by a slight
introduction to Practical Geometry, and il-
lustrated by thirty-nine copper-plates.
These Exercises commence with those
arts which work in wood, namel}^ Car-?
pentry and Joinery, which are much alike
in their tools and modes of wprking : then
comes Bricklaying, which with Carpentry
are certainly the most essential of all in the
construction of a building.
Masonry and Bricklaying are in reality
branches of the same art, and both founded
upon principles truly Geometrical, yet I
have given the precedence to Bricklaying,
because it is of the most general use in
this
PREFACE. VU
this country ; yet it is generally admitted,
that Masonry is the more dignified art of
the two, or indeed of all the arts con-
cerned in the formation of an edifice. On
that difficult and intricate subject, the
Theory of Ai'ches, I have endeavoured to
give a familiar, and I hope a satisfactory
illustration.
Slating comes next to cover in the build-
ing: then Plastering, which is used in the
finishing of buildings, and furnishes the
interior with elegant decorations, and con-
duces both to the health and comfort of the
inhabitants : Painting is not less useful than
ornamental; it adds to the elegance of
buildings, and tends to the preservation of
the materials, whether wood or plaster.
Smithing or Smithry is extensively
useful in almost every department of art
as well as building ; by it are made the tools
which perform all the operations of the
before-mentioned arts, and therefore, though
last, should not be least in our esteem. The
use of iron also has of late years been very
much extended : in wheels for machinery^
(some of the immense size of seventy feet
diameter.) Iron Bridges (one at Wearmouth
of
vm ■ PREFACE.
of two hundred and thirty six feet span,)
Rail roads, Boats, Roofs, Floors, and va^
rioiis other articles not necessary to enu-
merate here.
Turning is a curious Mechanical Exercise,
and though not absolutely necessary in
building, may be employed with advantage
in many of its decorations. In this article
I have given a legitimate definition of
elliptic turning, b}^ which, its principles are
deduced to be that of the ellipsegraph or
common trammel, and this without enter-
ing into further demonstration. This art is
illustrated by plates, shewing the principles
of the machines, as well as by views of the
machines and tools.
As the practice of the arts here treat-
ed of, is founded in Geometry, and as
the descrijjtions of the materials and of
the tools may be referred to the several
figures of that science, I have prefixed
to the work such definitions as are neces-
sary^ to the comprehension of any draw-
ing or design, which is to be executed,
accompanied by many uteful problems,
which will enable the mechanic to under-
stiind the configuration of its several parts
in
PREFACE. IX
m practice, and to perform many useful
problems upon true scientific principles.
The problems for setting out work upon
the ground, and those for reducing draw-
ings to any scale or proportion, even with-^
out knowing the scale of the original draw-
ing, will be found interesting, and very
useful in practice.
This work, which treats only of the first
rudiments of practice, will be found parti-
cularly interesting and useful to gentlemen
who practise, or are fond of The Mechanical
Exercises, and to young men or apprentices
in any of the professions, though, on some
occasions, the older workmen may be
benefited by a perusal. The terms in-
troduced are those in general use amongst
workmen in London : and on this account
it will be of essential service to young men
coming to the metropolis. An art cannot
be taught but by its proper terms. Many
other branches of art might have been in-
troduced into this work, had space allowed,
but those here treated of are intimately
connected with each other, and have a na-
tural affinity, and will, it is presumed, form,
upon the wdiole, a very interesting work to
young
X PREFACE.
young mechanics ; those who wish for fur-
ther information in the building art, and
particularly on what relates to Geometrical
Construction, may consult my other pub-
lications on Practical Carpentry.
Every art is improved by the emulation
of its competitors : it is therefore the ardent
hope of the author, that the reader may
not be disappointed of meeting with abund-
ance of that information which his mind
may be desirous to obtain.
P.N,
TABLE
( ^ )
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page.
OF PRACTICAL GEOJ^IETRY. 1
Definitions ----- o
Definitions of Solids - - - - 6
Plate L Definitions . - - - 9
Plate II. Solids - - - - II
Plate III. Problems - - - - 12
Prob. 1. From a given point in a given straight
line to erect a perpendicular - 12
Prob. 2t. To let fall a perpendicular froin a
given point to a given straight line 12
Prob. 3. When the point is at or near the end
of the line i method fir St - - 12
Prob. 4. To draw a perpendicular from a point
at the end of the line - - 13
Prob. 5. To bisect a given straight line 13
Prob. 6. To bisect a given angle - - 13
Prob. 7- To male an angle equal to a given
angle - - - - - 14
Prob. 8. Througfi a given point to draw a line
parallel to a given right line - 14
Prob. 9. To draw a line parallel to another at
a given distance - - - - 14
Prob.
xii CONTENTS. [Geometry.
Page.
Prob. 10. Three straight lines ^ of which any
ttvo are greater than the third being
given, to describe a triangle, the sides
of which mil be respectively equal to the
then given lines - - - IS
Plate TV. Problems - - - - 15
Prob. 11. The side of an, equilateral triangle
being given, to desci'ibe the triangle 15
Prob. 12. To describe a square^ the sides of
xvhich shall be equal to a given right
line - - - - - 15
Prob. 13. To describe a hexagon, the sides of
which shall be equal to a given line 16
Prob. 14. To describe any regular polygon, the
sides of which shall be equal to a given
line ----- 15
Prob. 15, To inscribe a polygon in a given circle
17
Prob. \6. A square being given to form an joc-
tagon, of which four of the sides at
right angles to each other, shall be com^
mon to the middle parts of the sides of
the square - - - -• 17
Prob. 17. In a given circle to inscribe a hexa-
gon or an equilateral - - 18
Prob. 18. In a given circle to inscribe a square
or an octagon - - - - 18
Prob. 19. In a given circle to inscribe a penta-
gon - - - -. - \^
Practical
G«oinetry.i CONTENTS. xiH
Piige.
Practical problems performed on the Ground.
Plate V. Practical Problems - - 19
Prob. 1 . To erect a perpendicular from a given
point to a right line^ of a tape or string
19
Prob. 2. To erect a perpendicular at or near
the end of a right line, by means of a
tape - . - . - 20
Prob. 3. Another inethod - - - 20
The same figure - - - 20
Prob. 4. To describe the segment of a circle
to any lengthy and perpendicular height
21
Prob. 5. To describe a semi-elliptic arch to
any length and height with compasses
2.3
Plate VI. Practical problems - - 214
Prob. 6. Any three straight lines being given to
find a fourth, proportional - 24
Prob. 7. To divide a line in the same propor-
tion as another is divided - - 24
Prob. 8 Any distance being given infect and
inches of a part of a drawing, to di-
vide a given length of a similar part
of another drawing into feet and inches,
so as to form a proportional scale
25
Prob. 9. A drawing being given without a scale
to proportion, another having the di-
mension
rtf CONTENTS. [Carpentry.
Page.
niension or extent of some part of the
intended drawing - - - 20
Prob. 10. To draw a diagonal scale - 27
OF CARPENTRY. 2^
Section
1 Definition - - . . . QQf
2 Tools - - - a .. 29
S Of Sazvs - - . ^ - 29
4 The Axe - . - . . ai
5 The Adze . ^ . ^ , si
6 TTie Socket Chissel - - • - S2i
7 77/ 6- Firmer Chissel - ^ - 32
8 77/(f Ripping Chissel - - * 33
9 r/zd> Gimblet , - . - - 33
10 T/^e ^z/^-^r 34
1 1 77i(? 6^«?^«e ^ . ^ ^ . 35
12 r//e Zere-? . - ... so
13 To adjust the Level - - - 38
14 The Plumb Rule ^ - : - - 38
15 7 he Ha miner * - - 40
16 The Mallet - - - - * 41
il The Beetle or Mawl - - - 41
18 The Crow . * - - - 42
19 The Ten foot Bute . - - * 42
20 The Hook Pin ... - 42
21 The Carpenters' Square - * - 44
22 Operation - . ... 45
23. 7b
Carpentry.] CONTENTS. xv
Section Page
23 To join two pieces which arc to form four
angles, and the surface of one piece or both
parallel a?id perpendicular to those of the
other -.---- 46
24 To join one piece of timber to another y to
form two right ajigles with each other, a7id
the surfaces of the one to be parallel and
perpendicidar to those of the other, and to
be quite immoveable, when the standing piece
is pulled in a direction of its length, while
the cross piece is held still - - - 47
25 Another method - - - - 47
W To notch one piece of timber to another, or
join the two, so as to form one right angle,
in order that they may be equally strong, in
respect to each other - - - 48
27 To fix one piece of timber to another, form*
ing two oblique angles, so that the standing
piece cannot he drawn out of tJie transverse
49
28 To cut a rebated notch in the end of a scant-
ling or piece of zvood - - - 49
29 To cut a grooved notch, or socket in a piece
of timber - - - - . 50
SO To cut a tenon - - - - ,50
31 To frame one piece of timber at right angles
to, and at any distance from^ either end of
another, both pieces being of th&same quality
5\
32 To
xxi C O N T E N T S. [Carpentry.
Section Page.
32 To Join two timbers bij Mortice and Tenoui
at a risht an^le, so that the one shall not
pass the breadth of the other - - 54
S3 Of Foundations and Timbers in joisting
and walling - - - - - <^5
34 Stud work and Plaster buildings - 58
35 Description of a Table of Scantling - 60
36 The Table of Bearing Posts - , - 61
yi Observations on the Table - - 61
38 Table of Girders - - - - m
39 Table of Bridging Joists - - 63
40 Table of Binding Joists - - - 64
41 Table of Beams - - - - 64
42 Table of Principal Rafters - ^ 65
43 Table of Purlines - - - - 65
44 Observations ----- 66
45 Table of Small Rafters - -66
Abstract of the Building Act, so far as i^egards
the Carpejiter - - - - 67
Plate I. Tools - - - . 70
II. Dove-tailing, notching, &c. 71
III. Flooring . - , 73
IV. Girder Joists, scarfing, &c. 76
V. Framing for a Wooden House
Index and Explanation of Temns used in Car-
pentry - - - • - - 81
OF
Joinery.] CONTENTS. im
Section Page;
OF JdlNERY.
1 Definition - - - - - 91
2 The Bench ----- 92
3 Joiners' Tools - - - - 9,5
4 Definitions --*.-- 9'5
5 The Jack Plane - - - - 97
6 To grind and sharpen the Iron - 100
7 To fix and unfix the Iron - - 101
8 To use the Jack Plane - - - 103
9 The Trying Plane - - - 102
10 The use of the Trying Plane - 103
U The Long Plane - - - - 103
l!2 The Jointer - - - - 104
IS The Smoothing Plane - - - lO^
14 Bench Planes - - - - 104
15 The Compass Plane - - - 105
16 The Forkstqf Plane . - . - - 105
17 The Straight Block - - - 105
18 The Rebate Plane - - - 106
19 Sijiking Rebating Planes - - 107
20 Of the Moving Fillister - - 107
21 0/ the Sash Fillister in general - 112
S2 The Fillister which thrdlvs the shavings
on the bench - ~ - - - 115
23 Of the Sash Fillister for throwing the
shavings off the bench - - - 116
24 Rebating Planes without a fence - 117
25 Skew mouthed Rebating Plane > 117
Sl6 Square mouthed Rebating Planes - 118
b ^1 Side
xviii CONTENTS. [Joinery.
Section Page.
11 Side Rebating Planes - - - 119
28 The Flough 119
0,9 Dado Groovi?ig Plajie - , - ■* 121
30 Moulding Planes - - - - l^ll
3\ The Bead Plane - - - - 122
32 A Snipe-bill 125
33 Hollows and Rounds - - - 125
3 A Stock and Bits - - - - 126
35 The Centre Bit - - - - 128
36 Countersinks - - - - - 129
37 Rimers - - - - - 129
38 The Taper- Shell Bit - - - 130
39 The Brad Awl - - - - - 130
1^0 Chissels in general - - - 131
41 The Firmer Ch'issel - - - 132
42 The Mortice Chissel - - - 132
-h3 The Gouge. - . - - - - 133
AA The Drawing Knife - - - 133
45 Of Saws in general - - - 134
AQ) The Ripping Saxi) - - _ 134
47 The Half Ripper - - - 135
A'^ The Hand Saw - - - - 135
49 The Pannel Saw - -. - - 135
50 The Tenon Saw - . - - - 135
51 The Sash Saw - - - - 136
52 The Dovetail Sazv - - - 136
53 The Compass Saw . - - 136
54 The Key-hole or Tuniitig Saw - 137
55 The Hatchet - - - - 137
56 The
Joinery.] CONTENTS. xis
Section Page*
56 The Square - - - - 1^7
51 To prove a Square - - - 138
58 The Bevel - - - - * 1^^
59 The Gauge - - - - - 14,0
QO The Mortice Gauge - - - 140
^1 The Side Hook - - - - 141
Q2 The Mitre Box - - - - 1^1
63 r/i^ Shooting Block - - - 142
64 T/ze Straight edge - - - 142
^5 Winding Sticks - - - - 142
66 TAe Mitre Square - - - 142
Plate I. Tools - - - - - l44
II. Tools . - - - 146
III. Mouldings - - - l47
IV. Mouldings - - - 150
V. Mouldings for doors - - 152
VI. Ditto - ... 154
VII. Ditto - - - - 155
VIII. Mouldings for Sashes and Cor-
nices - - - - 157
IX. Dog-leged Stairs - - 181
X. Geometrical Stairs - - 188
71 Definitions - - - - - 158
72 To make a straight edge - - 159
^73 To face a piece of stuff - - l60
74 To shoot the edge of a hoard - - l62
75 To join tzvo boards together - - l62
76 To join any number of boards, edge to
edge^ with glue ^ so as to form one board l63
b2 77 To
M CONTENTS. [Bricklaying.
Section Page.
n To square and try-tip a piece of stuff l63
78 To try-up a piece of stuff all round 164-
79 To rebate a piece of stuff - - 1 65
^ To I'ebate a-cross the grain - - l68
81 To frame two pieces of stuff together l69
82 Boarding Floors - - - - l73
^S Hanging of Shutters to be cut - 1 76
84 Hanging of Doors - - - 177
85 To scribe one piece of board or stuff to
another - - - - - - 177
56 Doors - - - » - . 178
57 Stairs - - - - - - 179
SS Dog-leged Stairs - - - - 181
^9 Bracket Stairs - - - - 186
90 Geometrical Stairs - - - . 188
Index and Explajiation of Terms used in
Joinery - - - - - - 189
OF BRICKLAYING.
\ Defijiilion - ' - - - - 205
2 List of JValling Tools - - - 206
3 List of Tools used in Tiling - - 206
4 The Brick Trowel - - - 207
5 The Hammer - - - - 207
6 The Plumb Rule - - - - 207
7 The Level - - - - - 207
8 The Large Square - - _ 207
9 The Rod - - - - - 207
\0 The Jointing Rule z ' .' 208
11 The
Bricklaying.] CONTENTS.
xxx
Section •
Page.
11 The Jointer -
-
208
12 The Compasses
•
208
13 The Raker -
-
208
14 The Hod -
-
208
15 The Line Pins
-
209
16 The Rammer
-
209
17 The Iron Crow and Pick Axe
209
18 The Grinding Stone
-
209
\^ The Banker
-
210
20 The Camber Slip -
-
210
21 The Rubbing Stone
- .
211
22 The Bedding Stone
-
211
23 The Square -
-
2U
24 The Bevel •
* <•
211
25 TAe Mould -
* , -
211
26 7%e &r/6<f -
* V
212
27 The Tin Saw
-
212
28 The Brick Axe -
•
212
29 The Templet
«
213
SO 77ie Chopping Block
-
213
S\ The Float Stone -
* ^
213
32 Of Cements
«• •
214
33 Description of Bricks
A »
222
34 Of Foundations -
K •
227
35 0/ ^a//^ -
* ai
231
30 Vaulting and Grqining
^
236
Plate
xxli CONTENTS. [Masonry.
Page,
Plate I. Tools - - - - - 240
II. English Bond - r - 241
III. Flemish Bond - - - 243
IV. Arch Work - - - 245
V. Piers and Cornices - r 24?
VI Groins - - - - 249
VII. Niches - - - - 251
VIII. Steening Wells - - 252
Abstract of the Building Act, so far as relates
. to the Bricklaijer - - - - 253
Index and Explanation of Terms 2ised in
Brickbaying - - - r . - - 268
OF MASONRY.
Section
1 Definition - - * - - - 269
2 Masons Tools " - ^ - - - 269
3 Of Marbles and Stones - - 271
4 Stone Walls - t - - 273
5 Stairs - - - - - - 280
Q Geometrical Stairs - - - 28 J
7 A short account of the origin of the arch,
and authors who may be consulted - 283
Plate I. Problems respecting Arches, and
methods of determining Elliptic Arches
2-86
Prob, 1. To render the compass method use-
ful, not only in descinbing the curve ;
but in finding the joints perpendi-
cular
Sjlating.] ^ CONTENTS: xxiii
Page,
cular thereto, so as to form an arch
ivlikh shall not have any sensible varia-
tion in practice from the true Elliptic
Curve, nor hi the perpendicularity of
the joints - - - - 287
Prob. 2. To find the joints of an Elliptic Arch
at right angles to the curve - 289
Prob. 3. To describe the Parabolic Arch, and
thence . to draw the joints at right
angles to the curve - - - 289
Plate II. Strength of Arches - - 291
Index and Explanation of Terms used in
Masonry _ - _ _ _ 294
Section OF SLATING.
I Definition - - - - - SOl
platers' Tools - - - - - SOI
Explanation of Terms used in Slating - 302
OF PLASTERING.
1 Definitions - - - . . so4
2 Plasterers^ Tools - - . _ qq^
3 Materials 304
Explanation of Terms used in Plastering 306
OF PAINTING IN OIL.
Definitions and Tools - - - Si4
The process for painting on new wood ivork 3 1 5
The process for painting on old ivork - 3l7
A List of useful colours for House Painting 3 1 9
OF
xx\r CONTENTS. [Smithing.
Of smithing.
Section Page.
Defifiifion - - - - - 521
1 Description of the Forge - - 32 1
2 The Anvil - - . - - 322
3 The Tongs 322
4- Hammers ----- 323
5 The Vice 323
6 The Hand Vice - - - - 324
7 The Flyers ----- 324
8 Drills - - - - - - 325
9 Screw Plates - - - - 326
10 Shears - - - - "- - . 326
1 1 Sazvs ------ 327
12 Of Forging 327
13 Of Heats 328
1 4 To punch a hole - - r - 330
15 Filing and Polishing - - - 331
16 7b cut thick Iron plate to any figure 332
17 Bivetiing 333
1 8 Tb 7^{vet a pin to a plate or piece of iron 333
19 To rnake small screiv-bolts a7id nuts - 334
20 Of Iron, Steel, cast Steel, 8(c. - 3361
Plate I. Perspective view of a Smith's work-
shop, showing a double Forge, with its
apparatus and some tools in general use
343
Plate II. View of another part of a Smith's
work shop, showing the Work Benches
with the Vices, the Drill in the Act of
Boring
Turning.3
CONTENTS.
XXV
Page.
Boring and a Turning Machine, as
wrought by a Winch and Wheel, as
also by the foot - - _ 345
Index and Explanation of Terms used in
Smithing - - - - - 546
Section OF TURNING.
1 Definition and Historic -
2 Circular Turning -
3 Lathes in ge?ieral -
A The Pole Lathe -
6 The Foot Lathe
6 A Chuck - - -
7 Of Tools - -
8 The Gouge - - -
9 The Chissel - ' -
10 Right Side Tools -
1 1 Left Side Tools
12 Round Tools - -• ' -
13 Point Tools - - -
14 Drills - - - -
15 Inside Tools * - -
16 Screw Tools - - -
\1 Flat Tools -
18 Square Tools
19 Triangular Tools -
^0 Turning Gravers -
21 Parting Tools
22! Calippers - - -
^55
350
358
•358
360
367
367
368
368
369
369
SQ9
370
370
570
370
371
371
371
371
371
371
Plate
xxTi CONTENTS. turning.]
Section Page.
Plate I. Tlie Pole Lathe - - - 372
II. The Foot Lathe - - - 374
24 Elliptic Turning - - - - 375
Plate III. Exhibits the various positions of
the Chuck for turning Elliptical work,
&c. S77
Plate IV. Shows the relations between the
foregoing diagram and the Chuck 380
Plate V. View of a Turning Machine 3&4
VI. Of Tools - - - - 386
•i6 To turn a hollou} Sphere - - 387
21 To turn one Sphe?'e within another - 388
28 Conclusion ----- 389
Index and Explanation of Terms used in
Turning - - - - - 391
A TABLE
A TABLE
Showing the Pages where the Plates are explained, also the
Pages opposite which they are to be placed.
GEOMETRY.
PlaJe.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Plate.
1
2
3
4
5
Plate,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fs explained on
page.
9 to 10
11—12
12—15
15—19
19—24
24—28
To be placed
opposite page
9
11
14
15
19
25
CARPENTRY.
Is explained on
page.
70 to end
71—72
73—75
76—77
78—80
To be placed
opposite page.
70
71
73
76
80
JOINERY.
Is explained j To be placed
on page. opposite page
144tol45
146 — end
147—149
150—151
152—153
154~end
155—156
157— end
181—186
188—194
144
146
147
150
152
15 4
155
157
181
and descrip.
188
and descrip.
Plate.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Plate.
1
2
Plate.
1
2
Plate.
1
2
3
4
5
G
BRICKLAYING.
Is explained
To be placed
on page.
opposite page.
240toend
240
241—243
241
243—244
243
245—246
245
247—248
247
249—250
249
250— end
251
252— end
252
MASON
RY.
Is explained
To be placed
on page.
opposite page.
186to290
287
291—293
291
SMITHI
NG.
Is explained
To be placed
on page-
opposite page.
343 to344
343
345— end
345
TURNir
•fG.
Is explained
To be placed
on page.
opposite page.
372to373
372
374
374
377—379
377
380—383
380
384—385
384
386—
S86
MECHANICAL EXERCISES.
OF
FMACTICAIL GEOMETRY,
fjrEOMETRY is the science of extension and
magnitude : by Geometry the various angles of a
building and the position of its sides are deter-
mined:, as a square, a cube, a triangle, &c. :
Boards and all Tools used by the Carpenter and
Joiner are geometrical constructions : by Geo-
metry all kinds of roofs and various other things
laying in oblique angles are determined : the
proper construction of all sorts of arches and
groins depend entirely upon the principles of
Geometry. I have, therefore, prefaced this work
with an explanation and definition of such geo-
metrical figures aS will frequently occur in carrj'-
ing on of works, and which are therefore neces-
sary to be well known by all artizans and work-
men, as well as by those who may superintend
them : this slight introduction to Geometry will
also be useful to all persons who wish to to under-
stand the practice and descriptions of the handy-
works herein explained.
B Geometry
2 * PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Geometr}? is the science of extension^ and mag-
nitude, and consists of theory and practice.
The theoretical part is founded upon the rea-
soning of self-evident principles; it demonstrates
the construction, and shows the properties of
regularly defined figures. The theory is the
foundation of the practical part; and without a
knowledge of it, no invention to any degree cer-'
tain can be made. The use of Geometry is not
confined only to speculative truths in Mathematics,
but the operations of mechanical arts owe their
perfection to it ; drawing and setting out every
description of work, are entirely dependent up-
on it.
Definitions.
1. A point is that which has position, but not
magnitude.
2. A line is the trace of a point, or that which
would be described by the progressive motion of
a point, and consequently has length only.
3. A superficies has lepgth and breadth.
4. A solid is a figure of three dimensions, hav-
ing length, breadth, and thickness. Hence sur-
faces are extremities of solids, and lines the ex-
tremities of surfaces, and points the extremities
oflines.
If two lines will always coincide, however ap-
plied when any two points in the one coincides,
"with the two points in the other, the two lines
are called straight lines, or otherwise right lines.
A curve
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 3
A curve continually changes its direction be-
tween its extreme points, or has no part straight.
Parallel lines are always at the same distance^
•and will never meet, though ever so far produced.
Oblique right lines change their distance and
would meet, if produced.
One line is perpendicular to another, when it
inclines no more to one side than another.
A straight line is a tangent to a circle, when it
touches the circle without cutting, when both are
produced.
An angle is the^ inclination of two lines towards
one another in the same plane, meeting in a point.
Angles are either right, acute, or oblique.
A right angle is that which is made by one line
perpendicular to another, or when the angles on
each side are equal.
An acute angle is less than a right angle.
An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle.
A plane is a surface with which a straight line
will every where coincide : and is otherwise
called a straight surface.
Plane figures, bounded by right lines, have
names according to the number of their sides, or
of their angles, for they have as many sides as
angles : the least number is three.
An equalateral triangle is that whose three
sides are equal.
An isosceles triangle has only two sides equal.
A scalene triangle has all sides unequal.
B2 Aright
4 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
A right angle triangle has onlj one right angle.
Other triangles are oblique-angled, and are
either obtuse or acute.
An acute angled triangle has all its angles acute.
An obtuse-angled triangle has one obtuse angle.
A figure of four sides, or angles, is called a
quadrilateral, or, quadrangle.
A parallelograna is a quadrilateral, which has
both pairs of its opposite sides parallel, and takes
the following particular names:
A rectangle is a parallelogram, having all its
angles right ones.
A square is an equilateral rectangle, having all
its sides equal, and all its angles right ones.
A rhombus is an equilateral parallelogram
whose angles are oblique.
A rhomboid is an oblique-angled parallelo-
gram, and its opposite sides only are equal.
A trapezium is a quadrilateral, which has
neither pair of its sides parallel.
A trapezoid hath only one pair of its opposite
sides parallel.
Plane figures having more than four sides, are
in general called polygons, and receive other
particular names according to the number of
their sides or angles.
A pentagon is a polygon of five sides, a hexa-
gon of six sides, a heptagon seven, an octagon
eight, an eneagon nine, a decagon ten, an unde-
cagon eleven, and a dodecagon twelve sides.
3 A regular
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. O
A regular polygon has all its sides, and its
angles equal; and if they are not equal, the poly-
gon is irregular.
An equilateral triangle is also a regular figure
of three sides, and a square is one of four ; the
former being called a trigon, and the latter a
tetragon.
A circle is a plane figure, bounded by a curve
line, called the circumference, which is every
where equi-distant, from a certain point within,
called its centre.
The radius of a circle is a right line drawn
from the centre to the circumference.
A diameter of a circle is a right line, drawn
through the centre, terminating on both sides of
the circumference.
An arc of a circle is any part of the circum-
ference.
A chord is a right line joining the extremi-
ties of an arc.
A segment is any part of a circle bounded by
an arc and its chord.
A semicircle is half a circle, or a segment cut
off by the diameter.
A sector, is any part of a circle bounded by an
arc, and two radii, drawn to its extremities.
A quadrant, or quarter of a circle, is a sector
having a quarter part of the circumference for
its arc, and the two radii perpendicular to each
other.
The
6 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
The height or altitude of any figure is a per-
pendicular, let fall from an angle or its vertex,
to the opposite side, called the base.
The measure of any right lined angle, is an
arc of any circle contained between the two
lines which form the angle, the angular point
being the centre.
A solid is said to be cut by a plane, when it
is divided into two parts, of which the common
surface of separation is a plane, and this plane
is called a section.
Definitions of Solids.
A prism is a solid, the ends of which are si-
milar, and equal, parallel planes and the sides
parallelograms.
If the ends of the prism are perpendicular to
the sides, the prism is called a right prism.
If the ends of the prism are oblique to the
sides, the prism is called an oblique prism.
If the ends and sides are equal squares, the
prism is called a cube.
If the base or ends are parallelograms, the
solid is called a parallelopiped.
If the bases and sides are rectangles, the prism
is called a rectangular prism.
If the ends are circles, the prism is called a
cylinder.
If the ends or bases are ellipses^ the prism is
called a cylindroid,
A solid.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 7
A solid;, standing, upon any plane figure for
its base, the sides of which are plane triangles,
meeting in one point is called a pyramid.
The solid is denominated from its base, as a
triangular pyramid, is ojie upon a triangular
base, asquare pyramid one uponasquare base, &c.
If the base is a circle or an ellipses, then the
pyramid is called a cone.
If a solid be terminated by two dissimilar
parallel planes as ends and the remaining surfaces
joining the ends be also planes, the solid is
called aprismoid.
If a part of a pyramid next to the vertex be
cut off by a plane parallel to the base, the por-
tion of the pyramid contained between the cut-
ting plane and the base is called the frustum of a
pyramid.
A solid, the base of which is a rectangle, the
four sides joining the base plane surfaces, and two
opposite ones meet in a line parallel to the base,
is called a cuneus or wedge.
A solid terminated by a surface which is every
where equally distant, from a certain point with-
in it, is called a sphere or globe.
If a sphere be cut by any tvvo planes, the por-
tion contained between the planes is called a
zonC;, and each of the parts contained by a plane
and the curved surface is called a segment.
If a semi-ellipsis, having an axis for its dia-
meter, be revolved round this axis until it come
to
8 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
to the place whence the motion began, the
solid formed bj the circumvolution is called a
spheroid.
If the spheroid be generated round the greater
axis the solid is called an oblong spheroid.
If the solid be generated round the lesser
axis, the solid is called an oblate spheroid.
A solid of any of the above structures, hollow
within, so as to contain a solid of the same struc-
ture is called a hollow solid.
PLATE I.
-^^ome^ju,
a d ^ & r
Tlatel.
E
M
O
Ai
Bi
Ci
P;i
a * <,'
ZondonJiiMs^eJ March 2^.ieu.iyJJ^y7or-:^7,irono,n.
I
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 9
PLATE I.
A an acute angle.
B two lines inclined, and would meet and form
an angle if produced.
C a perpendicular cc? is said to be perpendicu-
lar to ah, and the angles cd!«, cdb are both
right angles.
D several angles meeting at a point, when
this is the case, each is denoted hy three letters,
the right angle is the criterion of judging of
every other angle; dbcis a right angle^ abc
an obtuse angle e be an acute angle.
E a right angle.
F an acute angle being less than a right angle.
G an obtuse angle^ being greater than a right
angle.
H, I, K, L triangles.
H an equilateral triangle all the three sides ab,
b c, ca being equal.
I an isosceles triangle, ab and be being only
equal.
K a scalene triangle all the sides being un-
equal.
L a riffht ang-led triangle.
M, N, O, P, Q, R quadrilaterals or quadran-
gles, MNOPare parallelograms; MN rect-
angles; M an oblong; N a square; O a rhom-
boid ; Pa rhombus; Q a trapezium ; and R a
trapezoid.
T,U,Vpolj-
10 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
T, U,Vpolygons, T a pentagon, U a hexagon,
and V an octagon.
W a circle, a the centre, h a point in the cir-
cumference, rt & a radius.
X a circle, c the centre, d and e points in the
circumference rf e a a diameter, or a chord passing
through the centre.
Y a circle, d and e points in the circumference,
dc 3. chord; dfe the less segment, anddgc
the greater.
A 1, B 1 segments, ach, ach arcs, ab, ab
chords ; B 1 a semicircle.
CI, Dl sectors, D 1 a quadrant, ca, cb
radii at right angles, a b arc.
E 1 a triangle, ab, b d, da the sides, ab the
base, fZc« perpendicular to the base called the
altitude.
PLATE II.
F7:^.2.
Fiff.S.
Tla^e 2.
Fiff.2.
Tic/. 6.
Tiff. 7.
ri(/.4
Ficf.S.
Tiff. a
Tu/Jl
Xiti^ml^iK'Ti'-jfMrrrh 2f>J»n.M:JJ'fiy^"r7fiah Stfhonri
2
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 11
PLATE IL
Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4 are all parallelopipeds and con-
sist of six sides, when two opposite sides are per-
pendicular to the other four, the parallelopiped
is denominated a rectangular prism, and if the
four sides be equal rectangles, the prism is called
a square prism as fig. 1, 2 ; and if all the four
sides are equal squares, the prism is called a cube,
as fig. 1, The reason why called a parallel-
opiped is because each pair of opposite sides are
parallel planes. The structure of a rectangular
prism occurs more frequently in the practice of
carpentry and joinery than any other form what-
ever, all timbers and boards for the use of build-
ing are cut into this form. Doors, shutters, &c.
are thin rectangular prisms, as fig. 4.
Fig. 5 is a cylinder.
Fig. 6 a hollow cylinder.
Fig. 7 the section of a cylinder cut oiF by a
plane parallel to the axis.
Fig. 8 the sector of a cylinder contained by
two planes forming an angle, and the curved sur-
face of the cylinder ; the line of concourse of
the planes being parallel to the ^xis of the cy-
linder.
Fig, 9 a prismoid; the ends of chissels which
contain the cutting part is of this form.
Fig. 10 a wedge ; the end of a chissel contain-
ed by the face and the basil are of this form.
Fig. 10
12 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Fig. 11a square pyramid.
Fig. 12 an octagonal pyramid inverted.
Fig. 13 a cone.
Fig. 14 inverted hollow cone.
Fig. 15 a sphere.
Fig. 16 a spheroid.
Prob, I. From a green point in a given straight
line, to erect a perpendicular. Pl. 3. Fig. 1.
Let F F be the given straight line and C the
given point. Take any two equal distances C a
and C & on each side of the point C : from the
points a and Z> with any equal radii greater than
C a or C b, describe arcs cutting each other in D.
Draw DC and it will be the perpendicular re-
quired.
Prob. ii. To let fall a perpendicular from a given
point to a given straight line. Pl. 3. Fig. 2.
Let C be the given point and E F the given
straight line. From the point C describe an arc
cutting E F at a and b. With any equal radii
greater than the half of ab describe arcs cutting
each other at D. Draw C D and it will be the
perpendicular required.
Prob. hi. When the point is at or near the end
of the line. Method first, Pl. 3. Fig. 3.
Let C be the given pointy, E F the given line.
In E F take any point a and with the radius a C
describe
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 13
describe an arc CD. Take any other point
fc in E F, and with the distance b C describe an
arc, cutting the arc CD, at C and D draw C D
and it is the perpendicular required.
Prob. IV. To draw a perpendicular from a point
at the end of a line. Pl. 3. Fig. 4.
Let E F be the given straight line, and F the
given point. Take any point a above the line
and with the radius a C describe an arc C F 6 cut-
ting E F at &. Draw haC: tljen draw C F and
it will be the perpendicular required.
Prob. v. To bisect a given sti^aight line,
Pl. 3. Fig 5.
Let E F be the given straight line. From E
and F as centres, and with any distance greater
than the half of E F as radii, describe two arcs
cutting each other at A and B. Draw AB cut-
ting E F at C, then E F is bisected in C.
Prob. vi. To bisect a given angle. Pl. 3. Fig. 6.
Let E F G be the given angle.. From the
point F describe an arc a b cutting F E and F G
at the points a and b: also from the points a and
b, with the same radius, or any other equal radii,
describe arcs cutting each other in C. Draw
FC and it will besect the angle as required.
That is, the angle E F G is divided into two
equal angles E F C and CFG.
Prob. vii.
14 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Prob. VII. To make an angle equal to a given
angle. Pl. 3. Fig. 7 and 8.
Let E F G be the given angle.' Dravir the
straight line H I. From the point F. describe an
arc a b cutting E F and F G. at the points a
and b. From H as a centre, with the same
radius, describe an arc cd cutting HI at c.
Make cd equal to ab. Draw HrZGandthe
angle I H G is equal to E F G as required,
Prob. yiii. Tlirough a given point to draw a line
parallel to a given right line. Pl. 3. Fig. 9.
Let A B be the given right line, and D the
given point. Draw any right line DA; in A B
take any point c and make the angle B c E equal
to the angle BAD make cE equal to AD;
draw D E, then D E is parallel to A B.
Prob. ix. To draw a line parallel to another line
at a given distance. Pl. 3. Fig. 10.
Let A B be the given right line, C the given
distance from any two points in A B as A and B
as centres describe two arcs dUe and/ 1 g. Draw
HI to touch the arcs at the points Hand I;
and H I is parallel to A B and at a given dis-
tance (V
Prob.
J>.
Tiffl.
MffZ
^iate 3.
C
E-
"rf 'S\
2?.-
!« c ^Y 31 --... .„-'- r
i>
-f— ^
/ -^>
/ E •
5.
B
E' C
-. ^Z99.
a EH
<? I A
C B
<?-'''/\ "--e J"-'
Tr^JO.
B D
-ije/97/ie/^?*y^ .
J^lute 4-
I H & I.
P X
L.>rid,:i yziM/.^h, ,1 Mnt\;'i 2Hlfai.h\^j1iy7o7'JiiJr7illoU<mi.
J.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 15
pROB. X. Three straight lines , of zvhich any two
are greater than the third heing given, to de-
scribe a triangle, the sides of which xvill be
respectiveli/ equal to the three given lines.
Pl.3, Fig. 11.
Let the three straight lines be ABC: Make
D E equal to C, from D as a centre with the
distance of B describe an arc at F. From E. as
a centre with the distance A describe another arc,
cutting the former at F. Join F D and F E ;
and D E F is the triangle required.
Prob. XI. The side of an equilateral triangle
being given, to describe the triangle.
Pl. 4. Fig. 1.
Let A be the given side. Place A upon any
straight line B C and with the same extent from
the points B and C as centres describe arcs, cut-
ting each other in D. Join D B and D C^ and
B C D is the equilateral triangle required.
Prob. xii. To describe a square, the sides of which
shall be equal to a given right line.
Pl. 4. Fig. 2.
Let A be the given right line, which place up-
on any straight line B C. Make the aqgle C B E
a right angle, and B E equal to B C through
the points E and C. Draw E D arid D C paral-
lel to B C and B E and B C D E is the square
required,
Prob,
16 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Prob, XIII. To describe a hexagon, the sides of
which shall be equal to a given line.
Pl. 4. Fig. 3.
Let A be the given line^ which place upon any
straight line B C. From the points B and C,
with the distance B C describe arcs cutting each
other at I. With the distance IB or I C de-
scribe the circle B C D E F G, then ap ply the side
B C successively to the circumference as chords,
the circumference will be divided into equal
parts, and the hexagon formed as required.
Prob. xiv. To describe any regular polj/^on, the
sides of which shall be equal to a given line.
Pl. 4. Fig. 4.
Set the given line upon any other convenient
line, and with a radius equal to the given line
describe a semicircle upon this line. Divide the
semicircle into as many equal parts as are to be
sides in the polygon; then the half of the diame-
ter is one side of ihe polygon, through the centre
of the semicircle, and through the second division
from the other end of the diameter draw another
right line, which will form an adjoining side
to the former; bisect each of these adjoining
sides by perpendiculars, and the meeting of
these perpendiculars will give the centre of a
circle, which will contain the straight line given.
Fig. 4, is an example of a pentagon.
Fig. 5, is an example of a hexagon.
Fig. 6. is an example of an eneagon.
Prob.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 17
Prob. XV. To inscribe a "polygon in a give?*
circle. Pl. 4. Fig. 7, 8. ^
Draw the diameter of the circle, and another
diameter at right angles^, produce this last dia-
meter so that the part produced shall be three
quarters of the radius ; divide the first diameter
into as many equal parts as the polygon is to
consist of sides : through the second division,
and the extremity of the part produced of the
other diameter, draw a line to cut the circum-
ference without the points^ the chord of the
arc intercepted between the point in the circum-
ference Thus found and the diameter, applied suc-
cessively to the arc, as other chords will form the
polygon required. «
Fig. 7 example in a pentagon. Fig, 8 example
in an octagon.
Prob. xvi. A square being given to form an
octagon, ofwhichfour of the sides at right angles
to each other, shall be commonto the middle parts
of the sides of the square. Pl. 4. Fig. 9.
Let I G K L be the square given. Draw the
diagonals I K and G L cutting each other at m ;
from the centres I, G, K, L and with the radius
I m, ■ or G m, &c, describe arcs G m B, A m D,
C m. F, E m H cutting the sides of the square, at
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H ; Join B C, D E, F G,
H A and ABCDEFGH will be the polygon as
required.
C • Prob.
18 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
pROB. XVII. In a given circle to inscribe a hexa-
gon or an equilateral, Pl. 4. Fig. 10.
Apply the radius successively as chords A B,
BC, CD, DE, EF, FA, and ABCDEFA
will be the hexagon.
From A with the radius A B or A F describe
the arc B F. Join the chord B F. Make B D
equal to B F; and join DF and B F D is the
equilateral triangle required.
Prob. xviii. In a given circle to inscribe a square
or an octagon. Pl. 4. Fig. 11.
Let ABCDEFGHA be the circle. Draw th*
diameters A E and C G at right angles. Join
AC, CE, EG, GAand ACEGA will be the
square required.
Bisect any two adjacent angles by diameters,
and the whole circumference will be divided into
eight equal parts, AB, BC, CD, D E, EF, FG,
GH, HA; the chords of which being joined will
form the octagon ABCDEFGHA as required.
Prob. xix. In a given circle to inscribe a penta-
gon. Pl. 4. Fig. 12.
Let ABCDEA be the given circle. Draw the
diameters Ajfand gh at right angles, cutting
each other in the centre at I : bisect g I at i :
from i as a centre, with the distance i A, describe
an arc A A: cutting g h Sii k : from A as a centre,
with A A" as a radius, describe an arc k E cutting
the circumference at E: Join A E, then apply
A E successively to the circumference as chords,
and ABCDE will be the pentagon required.
Practical
-u.e&7?tetry.
J^lateS.
Jzff.A J.
_/:„r„/,j„7i,7:7iWier/J£,n'A ■"ta'iv.iv^n:\>r-S^7,m'Uo,-n .
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 19
Practical ProUems 'performed on the Ground
pROB. I. To erect a perpendicular from a given
point C to a right line A B, hy means of
a Tape or String. Pl. 5. Fig. I.
Take two equal distances C A and C B, ex-
tend the tape to any length greater than A B,
double it, put a pin in the meeting, open out the
tape ; place one end of the double distance, or
the ring at A, and let another person hold the
other end at B, and a third person take hold of
the stripg at the pin, and stretch it out to D,
then the stake at D, and the point C will be in a
perpendicular to A B. To illustrate this, sup-
pose C A, C B each ten feet, then A B is twenty
feet ; you may extend the line to forty feet, which
being doubled, the division will fall upon twenty
feet, let the ring be put upon A, the division of
forty upon B; let the division of twenty feet
in the middle of the line be extended out to D,
while the ends A and B are held fast : then drive
in the stake D, and it will give the point whence
the perpendicular may be drawn to C, upon the
right line A B.
K. B, Though three persons are mentioned
here, one may accomplish the business by stick-
ing an arrow in at A, and hooking the ring over
itj then take a stake with two cross draughts, and
drive it in at B, hook the line at forty feet round
two of the cross draughts, then extend the mid-
dle at twenty as before.
C % Prob. II.
20 PRAOfTICAL GEOMETRY.
Prob. II. To erect a perpendicular at or near
the end of a right line A B, bi/ means of a Tape,
Pl. 5. Fig 2.
Take any distance DB(sajten feet) extend
the tape to Eny greater length, ( say twenty feet)
fasten the ring at D, and the other end (twenty)
at Bj lay hold of the middle (at ten) and stretch
it out to C, carry the end of the tape B round
to E, until the point E be in a straight line
with C and D, keeping C and D fast, and the
string completely stretched, drive in a stake or
pin at E, then shall the points B and E be in
a straight line, perpendicular to A B as re-
quired.
Prob. hi. Another method hy the Tape.
Pl. 5. Fig. 3.
Suppose the perpendicular erected upon B C.
from B. Take the numbers 3, 4, «& 5 or any mul-
tiple, of these numbers say, 6, 8, and 10; then 6
and 8 make 14, and 10 make 24 ; make B C six feet,
put an arrow in at C, on which hook the ring
of the tape, and fasten the division six feet at B
and twenty four feet again at C ; lay hold of the
line on the division fourteen feet, which carry to
the point A, until both parts of the line become
stretched, then the points A and B will be in a
perpendicular to B C.
The same Figure.
.To do the same thing by means of d. five foot
rod. Make B c three feet, with four feet; and
the
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 21
the end of the rod resting on B, describe an arc
at A, with five feet, and the end of the rod rest-
on C, describe another arc crossing the former at
A ; then shall the points A and B be in a line
perpendicular to B C.
Prob. IV. To describe the segment of a circle to
any length A B and perpendicular height C D.
' Pl. 5. Fig. 4.
Take the middle of A B at C : fix the angle
of a square at C, direct the outer edge of the
stock in the straight line A B, lay a rule upon
the outer edge of the blade, and draw the per-
pendicular D C F. In the same manner take the
middle of the line A D at E, and draw the per-
pendicular E F, the meeting F of the two per-
pendiculars will give the center of the segment :
take a slip of wood, and mark the distance D F
from one end, put a brad-awl or nail through the
rod at the mark, and through the point F, lay
hold of the other end of the rod at D, and with
a pencil at D, carry it round from A to B, press-
ing the pencil gently to the plane, and the point
will describe the arc A B D.
JV*. B. Segments of circles are generally de-
scribed upon a floor ; but when this cannot be
conveniently obtained, a temporary rough board-
ing is laid, which will be sufficient for brick or
stone arches; but if the arc to be drawn is for
joinery^
22 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
joinery, and where different pieces of wood are
to be fitted, the surface would requite to be tra-
vesced and straighted in length and breadth.
The foregoing method may be readily applied
where the space is unlimited, or the radius of a
moderate length : when the radius is very great,
so that a rod of sufficient length cannot be ob-
tained, and where there is sufficient room a wire
may be used for a radius instead of a string,
which cannot be depended upon in such cases,
being liable to stretch ; but if you have an arc
to describe, and are confined to limits, which
the radius would exceed, the most eligible me-
thod will be as follows :
Fig. 5. Let A, B, C be any three points what-
ever, it is required to draw the arc of a circle
through them without making use of the centre.
Prepare two rods, each having one of its
edges straight, and each at least equal to A C the
chord ; lay the edge of one of the rods close to
the points A and B, having one end at B, lay
the straight edge of the other rod to coincide
with the points B and C, having the one end also
at B, notch and fix the rods together at B, and
to keep the angle invariable, nail a strip FG
across the legs B D and B H ; move the whole
round, keeping the edge of the rod B D close
upon the nail, pin, or brad-awl at A, and the
other leg B E close to the nail, pin, or brad-awl
at
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 23
at C ; a pencil placed at their meeting B press-
ing the point gently to the surface, will describe
the arc required.
Prob. v. To describe a semi-elliptic arch to any
length A B and height C D with a pair of com-
passes. Pl. 5. Fig. 6,
Take the height C D and apply to the length
from B to E towards the centre ; divide the dis-
tance E C into three equal parts, set one of them
towards B from E to F. Make CG equal to
C F, and with the distance G F from G de-
scribe a small arc at H, and with the same dis-
tance from F describe another cutting the former
arc H. Draw H G I and H F K. From the
centre H with the distance H D describe the arc
1 K. From the centre G with the distance GI
describe the arc I A. From the centre F with
the same distance, or F B describe the arc K B,
then A I D K B will be the semi-ellipse required.
N. B. This is a mere representation, and can-
not be true; for no part of a circle is to be found
in the mathematical ellipse, since the curvature is
continually varying from one axis to the other.
It is always lame at the junctions, and is only a
make shift, for want of better means. The fol-
lowing method by the trammel is correct, being
derived from geometrical principles.
Fig. 7. The instrument called the trammel,
consists of two pieces of wood joined together at
3 right
24 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
right angles, with a groove in the middle of each;
the trammel rod is a square bar with three points,
or pins, made exactly to fill the grooves, and to
slide easily in them, so that two of the pins must
be made moveable, and to be always in a straight
line with the third, which may be a pencil pass-
ing through a hole. The machine is thus pre-
pared: set the first pin from the pencil to the
height, and the second from the pencil to half
the length, then put the pins in the groves, which
being fixed upon the axis, move the point B
round from A to B, and describe the curve
A B C D, it will be the true ellipse required.
Prob. VI, Any three straight lines heing givenio
Jind a fourth proportional. Pl. 6. Fig. 1.
Let C A, A E be any two straight lines form-
ing an angle. Make A B equal to the first of
the given lines, A C equal to the second, A D
equal to the third. Join B D, and draw C E
parallel to B D, cutting A E produced at E.
Then will A E, be a fourth proportional to A B,
AC, AD, or AB, AC, A D, A E.
Prob. vii. To divide a line in the same propor-
tion as another is divided. Pl. 6. Fig. 2.
Let A E be the given line, divided into the
parts A B, B C, CD, D E and A 1, the line to
be divided, forming any angle with A B. Join
E I, and draw B F, C G and D H, parallel to
EI,
-(j.eYmiet/u
Tiate.6'.
\
Oa7064.'3ii
0 ^
O
" JO
P
\\\ \\\ \^
1
-itt-TJi
•
i
nil 1 1 n
c
t> S 7 ff S 4- -3 21 o
2
9 t
"
M
ZrnJor- JhiFrsAeJ Mrit'i Wjen3, ..7:rm-7e--//{,ahir<nc^
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. ^20
E I, cutting A 1 at F G H, (hen the parts A F,
F G, G H, HI, will be to one another, or to the
whole line A I, as the parts A B, B C, C D,
D E, are to one another, or to the wliole line
AE.
Prob. VIII. Ani/ distance leing given in feet and
inches, of a 'part of one drawing y to divide a
given length of a similar part of another draw-
ing into feet and inches j so as to form a propor-
tional scale.. Fl. 6. Fig. 3.
Let A B represent 57 feet 2 inches, the
length of one drawing, the part between 40 and
A being 7 feet 2 inches, then the distance be-
tween 40 and B will contain 50 feet; and let
C B be the length of another drawing, either of
2:reater or less extent than the former, it is re-
quired to find the scale of the new drawing.
Join A C ; draw 0, 0 : 10, 10 : 20, 20 : 30, 30 :
40, 40, parallel to A C, cutting C B in 0 : 10, 20,
30, 40; then the distance of every two adjacent di-
visions will be 10 feet of the new scale. The first
10 feet may be sub-divided into feet, by divisL^ns
parallel lines in the same manner, and by this
means the scale of a new drawing may be found,
when the whole length, or any part, and the
scale of the original drawing, and the whole
length, or any similar part of the required draw-
ing are given.
Prob.
26 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Prob. IX. A drawixg being given without a scale
to proportionate another, having the dimension
or extent of some part of the intended drawing ^
Pl. 6. Fig. 4.
Draw two lines A B, B C forming any angle
ABC with each other, as before, from the an-
gular point; on one of the lines BC set off the
extent of the part of the required drawing,
from B to C ; from the same point B set the ex-
tent of the corresponding part of the other draw-
ing, from B to A on the other line, and join AC.
Make A B a scale of any number of divisions,
as five, divide B C in the same proportion; sub-
divide one of the extreme parts of AB into tenths,
find the proportionate tenths of the correspond-
ing part of B C; then will AB be a scale for
the original drawing, and B C a corresponding
scale for the required drawing.
Example, Figures 5, 6, 7?
Suppose ABCDA to be an original drawing,
as a plate for a book, and to be of greater length
or height than the page will admit of: then let
the given height be E H, construct two propor-
tional scales, fig. 7, as described in this problem,
then all the dimensions and distances of the dia-
grams of fig. 6 will easily be proportioned to
the corresponding dimensions and distances of
the diagrams, fig. 5. A very accurate method,
where any of the diagrams are very oblique, is
to
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 27
to produce the sides to the boundary lines in the
original drawing, then finding the corresponding
points in the boundary lines of the required
drawing, and by this means the angles of posi-
tion may be had with the greatest correctness.
In circles, the position of their centres must be
found by measuring from the corresponding
boundaries^ and then their radii from the respec-
tife scales. Parallel lines may be drawn by the
parallel ruler.
Prob. X. To draw a diagonal Scale.
Suppose A B to be a scale agreed upon, con-
sisting of 50 feet, the divisions separating each
two adjacent 10 feet, being 0, 10, 20, SO. Draw
the parallel lines AC, .0, 0.. 10, 10.. 20, 20.. 30,
SO..BD. Take any convenient opening of the
compass, run ten parts from A to C, and from
B to D. through the divisions, draw parallels;
then C D being numbered as A B : divide A 0
into 10 equal parts, and also CO; from the
points 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. in A B to the points
1, 2, 3, 4, &c. draw 0, I; 1, 2 : 2, 3:3, 4,
&c. By this means you may obtain the hun-
dredth part of the distance A 0 or CO, accord-
ing to the parallel you measure upon; thus, sup-
pose you required 32 feet, and 4 tenths of a
foot, you must place the foot of your compass
on the fourth division from 30, on the line A B,
in the vertical line SO, SO, and extend the other
leg
28 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
leg along the fourth parallel^ till it fall upon the
diagonal 2, S, and this extent will be equal to
32.4 feet, and thus any extent whatever may be
found.
Draftsmen seldom or never make use of a dia-
gonal scale, as persons in the habit of drawing
will, judge of any small part as nearly by the
eye, as if measured by the best divided diagonal
scale, at least without the assistance of a glass;
and thus employing a common scale will be a
great saving of time. However, in the solution
of a mathematical problem in mensuration, it
may be applyed with advantage where time
would be of less consideration, in order to obtain
the accuracy desired, or to confirm the truth of
St calculation.
MECHA
29
MECHANICAL EXERCISES.
OF CAMFENTMYo ■
§ 1, CARPENTRY in civil architecture, is
the art of eraplojing timber in the construction
of buildings.
The first operation of dividing a piece of tim-
ber into scantlings, or boards, by means of the
pit saw, belongs to sawing, and is previous to
anj thing done in carpentry.
§ 2. The tools employed by the carpenter are
a ripping saw, a hand saw, an axe, an adze, a
socket chissel, a firmer chissel, a ripping chissel,
an auger, a gimblet, a hammer, a mallet, a pair
of pincers, and sometimes pldnes, but as these
are not necessarily used, they are described under
the head of joinery, to which they are absolutely
necessary.
§ 3, Of Saws.
A saw is a thin plate of steel, indented on the
edge, so as to form a series of wedges, with
acute angles, and for the conveniency of hand-
ling, a perforated piece of wood is fixed to one
end, by means of which the utmost power of the
workman may be exerted in using it.
Saws have various names, according to their
use. It is obvious, in order .that the saw should
clear
30 CARPENTRY.
clear its way in the wood, that the plate should
decrease in thickness from the cutting ed^e to-
wards the back, and for this purpose also, be-
sides this additional thickness, most saws have their
teeth bent towards the alternate sides of the plate,
this must always be the case where the plate is
broad; in very narrow plates the cutting edge is
made thicker than usuaL Such saws as are not
intended to cut into the wood their whole
breadth, have strong iron or brass backs, in ordet
to stiffen them, and keep them from buckling or
bending; both external and internal angles of
the teeth of saws are made to contain sixty de-
grees, and the magnitude of the teeth is propor-
tioned to the size of the saw, and accommodated
to its use.
Some saws are used for dividing the wood in
the direction of the fibre, and to any extent of
distance exceeding the breadth of the plate, at
pleasure, others are only employed in cutting in
a direction perpendicular to the fibres, to any
breadth or thickness ; the former case requires
the front edges of their teeth to stand almost per-
pendicular to the line passing through their
angles, in order to cut through, or make a way
through in less time than if set backwards, which
is better adapted to the latter case : for other-
wise, the points of the teeth would run so deep
into the wood, as to prevent the workmen from
pushing the saw forward without breaking it.
The
CARPENTRY. 31
The saws commonly used by the carpenter, are
the ripping saw, and the handsaw; which are
particularly described under the head of joinery,
as well as other saws used in that branch.
§4. The Axe
Is an edged tool, having a long wooden handle,
for reducing timber to a given form or surface,
by paring away slices of unequal thickness, is
used by a reciprocal motion in the arc of a circlcj
generally in a vertical plane, forming the surface
always in the same plane, and has therefore its
cutting edge in a longitudinal plane, passing
through the handle ; the slices cut away are call-
ed chips, the operation is called chopping, and
the surface reduced to its form is said to be chop-
ped ; but among woodmen the operation is call-
ed hewing.
§ 5. The Adze
Is also an edge tool with a long wooden handle
for reducing timber to a given form of surface,
by paring away thin slices of unequal thickness,
by a reciprocal motion in the arc of a circle, and
in a vertical plane ; but its cutting edge is per-
pendicular to alongitudinal plane pavSsing through
the handle. It forms a much more regular and
smooth surface than the axe. The operation is
also called chopping.
The use of the adze is to chop or pare wood in
a horizontal position.
6§
32 CARPENTRY.
§ 6. The Socket Chissel
Is used for cutting excavations ; the lower part
is a prismoid, the sides of which taper in a small
degree upwards, and the edges considerably
downwards : one side consists of steel, and the
other of iron : the under end is ground into the
form of a wedge, forming the basil on the iron
side, and the cutting edge on the lower end of
the steel face. From the upper end of the pris-
nioidal part rises the frustum of a hollow cone,
increasing in diameter upwards; the cavity or
socket contains a handle of wood of the same
conic form: the axis of the handle, the hollow
cone, and the middle line of the frustum are all
in the same straight line. The socket chissel,
most corfimonly used, is about 1|- or 1| inch
broad. It is chiefly used in morticing, and is
the same in carpentry, as what the mortice chissel
is in joinery.
§ 7. The Firmer Chissel
Is formed in the lower part similar to the
socket chissel : but each of the edges above the
prismoidal part falls into an equal concavity, and
diminishes upwards, until the substance of the
metal between the concave narrow surfaces, be-
comes equal in thickness to the substance of the
metal between the other two sides, produced in a
straight line, meet a protuberance projecting
equally on each side : the upper part of the pro-
tuberance
CARPENTRY. 33
tuberance is a flat, or straight surface, from the
middle of which rises a pyramid, to which is
fastened a piece of wood in the form of a frus-
tum of a pyramid, tapering downwards, this
piece of wood is called the handle; the middle
line of the handle, of the pyramids of the con-
cave, and of the prismoidal parts^ are all in the
same straight line.
§ 8. The Ripping Chissel
Is only an old socket chissel used in cutting
holes in walls for inserting plugs, and for sepa-
rating wood that has been nailed together, &c.
§ 9. The GimUet
Is a piece of steel of a cylindric form, having
a tranverse handle at the upper end, and at the
other, a worm or screw; and a cylindric cavity
called the cup above the screw ; forming in its
tranverse section, a crescent. Its use is to bore
small holes ; the screw draws it forward in
the wood, in the act of boring, while it is
turned round by the handle; the angle form-
ed by the exterior and interior cylinders, cuts
the fibres across, and the cup contains the core
of wood so cut : the gimblet is turned round by
the application of the fingers, on alternate sides
of the wooden lever at the top.
D § 10 The
34 CARPENTRY.
§ 10. The Auger
Is the largest of all boring tools^ it has a
wooden handle at the upper end at right angles,
to a long shaft of iron and steel; at the lower end
is a worm or screw of a conic form, for entering
the wood; so far it is similar in construction to
the gimblet : the lower part of the shaft, axis,
or splindie is steel, and is of a prismoidal form,
to a certain distance, from the end upwards.
The edges are nearly parallel, and the sides taper
in a small degree upwards ; the part of the shaft
above the prisaioid is arbitrary ; but it is obvious,
tUat in. order to pass the bore freely, its trans-
verse dimensions must be less than the lovv^er part.
The worm has its axis in the same straight line
with the axis of the shaft? The lower end is
hpllow, or cut into a cavity on one side of the
cone, and forms a projecting edge on the narrow
surface of the prism called the tooth, which is
brought to a cutting edge.
The part of the lower end on the other side of
the cone projects before the face of the pris-
moidal part in the form of a wedge, the line of
concourse of the two sides of the wedge form-
ing a cutting edge. The vertex of the cone is
the greatest extremity of the lower end ; the cut-
ting edge of tlie tooth is something higher or
nearer to the handle, and the cutting edge of
the wedge-like part still nearer to the handle.
Any point being given as the centre of a cylin-
dric
CARPENTRY. 35
dric hole on the surface of a piece of timber, the
vertex of the conic screw is placed in that point;
then keeping the middle line of the shaft perpen-
dicular to, or at the inclination to be given to the
surface of the timber; turn the auger round with
both hands, the screw will draw it downwards
into the wood, and when it has got a certain
depth, the tooth will begin to cut a portion of
the cylindric surface of the hole : when the part
of the cjlindric surface is cut half round the
circumference, or perhaps a little more, the pro-
jecting wedge-like part will begin to cut out the
bottom, and the core will rise in the form of a
spiral shaving, by continuing to turn the handle.
This construction of the augre is of verj late
invention, and is certainly a great improvement.
The lower part of the old form of the auger
is a semi-cylinder on the outside, and the inside
a less portion of a larger cylinder, the bottom of
of the cutting part is formed like a nose-bit : be-
fore this auger can be entered in the wood a
cavity must be first made with a gouge.
§ n. The Gauge
Is made out of a solid piece of wood notched
with an internal right angle, or consisting of two
narrow planes perpendicular to each other ; one
of- these straight surfaces forms a shoulder, the
other surface has two iron teeth placed in a per-
pendicular to the intersection of the two surfaces,
D2 so
36 CARPENTRY.
o distant from one another as to contain the
thickness of the tenon, or breadth of the mortice,
and the tooth next to tlie shoulder, so far distant
from the intersection, as the tenon is distant from
the face. When you gauge, press the shoulder
close to the wood, and the other surface of the
gauge which contains the teeth, close to the
other surface of the wood to be gauged ; then
draw and pull it backwards and forwards, and
the iron teeih will scratch the wood so as to
make a sharp incision or cut. When carpenters
have occasion to alter their gauge for other work,
they either file away the old teeth and put in new
ones: or if the distance between the old ones
will answer, they cut away a parallel slice
from the shoulder, or put a new piece on be-
fore it.
§ 12. The Level
Consists of a long rule straight on one edge,
about 10 or 12 feet in length, and another piece
fixed to the other edgeof the rule, perpendicular
to, and in the middle of the length, and the sides of
this piece in the same plane as Ihe sides of the
rule; this last piece having a straight line on
one side perpendicular to the straight edge
of the rule. The standing piece is gene-
rally morticed into the other, and firmly braced
on each side, in order to secure it from accidents,
and has its upper end kerfed in three places, one
through
CARPENTRY. 3/
through the perpendicular line, and one on each
side. The straight edge of the transverse piece has
a hole or notch cut out on the under side equal
on each side of the perpendicular lines. A plum-
met is suspended by a string from the middle kerf
at the top of the standing piece, so that when
hanging at length, the bottom of the plummet
may not reach to the straight edge, but vibrate
freeh in the hole or notch. \\ hen the straight
edge of the level is applied to two distant points,
and the two sides placed vertically, the plummet
hanging freely, and coinciding with the straight
line on the standing piece, then these two points
are level ; but if not, let us suppose that one of
the points is at the given height, the other point
must be lowered or heightened according as the
case may require, and the level applied each
time, until the thread is brought to a coincidence
with the perpendicular line. By two points, is
meant two surfaces of contact, as two blocks of
wood or chips, or the upper edges of two dis-
tant beams.
The use of the level in carpentry, is to lay the
the upper edges of joists in naked flooring hori-
zontal, by first levelling two beams as remote
from each other as the length of the level
will allow ; the plummet may then be taken off,
and the level may be used as a straight edge. In
the levelling of joists, it is best to make two re-
mote joists level first in themselves, that is, each
through-
38 CARPENTRY.
out its own length, then the two level with
each other; after this, bring one end of the in-
termediate joists straight with the two levelled
ones, then the other end of the joists in the
same manner, then try the straight edge longi-
tudinally on each intermediate joist, and such as
are found to be hollow, must be furred up
'straight.
§ 13. To adjust the Level.
Place it in its vertical situation upon two
pins or blocks of wood; then, if the plummet
be hanging freely, and settle upon the line on the
standing piece, or if not, one end being raised,
or the other end lowered, to make it do so, turn
the level end for end, and if the plummet fall
upon the line, the level is just; but if not, the
bottom edge must be shot straight, and as much
taken off the one end as you may think necessary ;
then trying the level first one way and then the
other as before, and if a coincidence takes plate
between the thread and the line, the level is ad-
justed ; but if not, the operation must be repeat-
ed till it come true.
§ 14. The Plumh Rule
Is a prismatical piece of wood, with a line
drawn down the middle of one of the sides, pa-
rallel to the two adjacent arrises on the same face.
Its use is to try the vertical position of posts, or
other
CARPENTRY. 39
other work^ perpendicular to the horizon, by
means of a plummet suspended f^om the upper
end of the rule, and a notch cut out at the foot,
in order to allow room for the plummet to vi-
brate freely.
In order to put up a post perpendicular to the
horizon, place the bottom of the post in its situa-
tion, and the sides as nearly vertical as the eye
may direct; if the post stands insulated, it must
be fixed in this position with temporary braces,
at least from two adjoining sides, but if very
heavy, from all the four sides, then try the
plumb rule upon one side, and if the thread co-
incides with the line, that side of the post is al«
ready plumb, "but if not, the top must be moved
forwards or backwards, accordingly as it leans
or hangs, as much as appears to be wanted, by
previously moving the front and rear braces, and
fixing them anew, vihile the other two remain^ to
stay the other sides: apply the plumb rule again
as before, and if there be a coincidence between
the line and the plummet thread, then that face
is perpendicular, but if not, the several similar
operations must be repeated till found to be so.
Proceed in the same manner with the other two
parallel sides of the post,- until these also are
made plumb, and by this means the post will be
get in a true vertical position.
§ 15. The
40 CARPENTRY.
§ 15. The Hammer
Consists of a piece of steel, through which
passes a wooden handle perpendicularlj' ; the
steel is flat at one end, or in a small degree con-
vex. The use of the hammer is for driving nails
into wood hy percusive force. The other end of
the hammer, that is not used for driving nails, is
sometimes made with claws, and sometimes with
a. rounded edge, like a semi-cylinder. The claws
are for laying fast hold of the head of a nail, to
be drawn out of a piece of wood; for this pur-
pose the back of the hammer is rounded, so. that
the hammer, in the act of drawing the nail, may
not penetrate with its other extremity into the
"wood; and this also lessens the distance of the
force to be overcome from the fulcrum, and con-
sequently increases the power employed. When
the hammer is used, place the back of it upon
the wood, and the claws so as to have the nail
fast between them, lay hold of the handle and
pull the contrary way to that side of it on which
the nail is; then, if the force be sufficient, the
nail will be drawn out of the wood, and the nail
thus drawn will come out almost straight. Some
people, instead of pulling the handle of the
hammer the contrary way to the side on which
the nail is on, (and thereby making it describe a
circle in a plane, perpendicular to the surface of
the wood, and through the longitudinal direc-
tion of the head) turn the hammer sideways;
the
CARPENTRY. • 41
Che nail is easier drawn by this way, but then the
surface of" the wood is more injured, as well as
the nail, which is frequently so much bent as not
to be of any more use. Claw hammers are chiefly
used in the country; and those with their other
extremity rounded like a cylinder, are used in
town for clinching and rivetting. In driving a
nail, when the hammer comes in contact with
the head of the nail, if the striking surface is not
perpendicular to the shank of the nail, the nail
will not be driven into the wood, or only in a
small degree, but will be bent sideways towards
an oblique angle, and will thus frequently break
the nail, unless it be well entered, and so strong
as to resist the force acting thus obliquely. The
reader must here observe, that no force can act
with its full effect upon another, unless in a line
perpendicular to the surface of contact.
§ 16. The Malkt
Is similar in its construction to the hammer, but
the head is a thick block of wood, of a structure
in form of the frustum of a pyramid, the side of
this frustum tending to some point in the handle
continued. Its use is for morticing and driving
pins into wood. The object is struck by the nar-
row sides of the mallet.
§ 17. The Beetle, or Maul
Is a large mallet to knock the corners of fram-
ed
42 CARPENTRY.
ed work, and to set it in its proper position, and
is sometimes used for driving short piles into the
ground, where it would be unnecessary to use
greater power. The handle is about three feet
in length, and for these heavy purposes both
hands are employed. This is more used in the
country than in London, where they use a sledge
hammer for the saipe purpose.
§ 18. The €row
Is a large bar of iron, used as a lever to lift
up the ends of heavy timber, in order to lay
another piece of timber, or a roller, under it.
One end of the crow has claws.
§ 19. The Ten Foot Rod
Is a rod about an inch square, divided in its
length into feet and inches, for the purpose of set-
ting out work. The method of raising a per-
pendicular by a ten feet rod, is described in the
Practical Geometry, page, 20, Prob. iii._ In-
stead of a ten feet rod, some use two five feet
rods for the same purpose.
§20. Hook Pin
Is a conical piece of iron, with a hooked head,
declining upwards in the form of a wedge. The
top is flat, for the purpose of driving it down;
and the shoulder which rises from the cone,
stands perpendicular to the axis, and is used for
driving
CARPENTRY. 43
driving it out of a hole, when it is fi"Xed fast.
The hook pins are the same in carpentrj^, as
what the draw bore pins are in joinery^ viz.
they are eir.plojed after the tenons have been en-
tered in the mortice and bored, as shall be pre-
sently shown, in drawing- the shoulders of the
tenons home to their abutments in the mortice
cheeks: When there are several mortices and
tenons in the same frame, as many hook pins
are employed. The method of boring, and
using the hook pins, is thus: bore a hole first
through the mortice cheeks, not very distant
froni the abutments ; enter the tenon, and force
it home to its shoulders as near as you can ; mark
the tenon by the hole, and draw the tenon out of
the mortice. Then pierce a hole through the
tenon, about one third of its diameter nearer to
the shoulder, and enter the tenon again, bring-
ing the shoulder as near to its abutment as pos-
sible ; drive in the hook pin with considerable
force; the convex circumference will bear upon
alternate sides of the mortice and tenon, viz.
upon the farther side of the hole of the tenon,
and upon the nearest side of the mortice from the
joint, the shoulder of the tenon being brought
home to its abutment, the hook pin may be
drawn out of the hole; for this purpose there is
a hole through the upper part of it, by which it
is sometimes drawn out with another hook pin ;
but if driven in very fast, it will require the as-
sistance
44 CARPENTRY.
sistance of a hammer to strike it upon the shoulder
upwards, and two or three smart blows will soon
loosen it; when drawn out, enter the pin, and
drive it home with force, or till it be sufficiently
through and fast, so as not to be driven farther
without breaking.
§21. The Carpenters' Square
Is a square of which both stock and blade con-
sists of an iron plate of one piece; it is in size
and construction thus : one leg is eighteen inches
in length, numbered from the exterior angle,
the bottom of the figures are adjacent to the in-
terior edge of the square, and consequently their
tops to the exterior edge : the other leg is twelve
inches in length, and numbered from the ex-
tremity towards the angle; the figures are read
from the internal angle, as in the other side; each
of the legs are about an inch broad. This imple-
ment is not only used as a square, but it is also
used as a level, and likewise as a rule : its appli-
cation as a square and as a rule is so easy as not
to require any example; but its use as a level,
in taking angles, maybe thus illustrated; sup-
pose it were required to take the angle which
the heel of a rafter makes with the back, apply
the end of the short leg of the square to the heel
point of the rafter, and the edge of the square,
level across the plate, extend a line from the
ridge to the heel point, and where this line cuts
the
CARPENTRY. A5
the perpendicular leg of the square, murk the
inches, and this will show how far it deviates
i
from the square in twelve inches.
§ 22. Operations.
Having now mentioned the principal tools,
and their application, it will here be proper to
say something of the operations of Carpentry,
which may be considered under two general
heads ; one of individual pieces, the other of the
combination of two or more pieces.
Individual pieces undergo various operations,
as sawing, planeing, rebating, and grooving,
or ploughing: the operation of the pit saw is so
well known as hardly to need a description;
planeing, rebating, grooving, or ploughing, are
more frequently employed in Joinery, and will
be there fully described. The other general head
may be sub-divided into two others, viz. that of
Joining one piece of timber to another, in order
to make one, two, or four angles, the other that
of fastening two or more pieces together, in order
to form one piece, which could not be got suf-
ficiently large or long in a single piece ; there are
two methods of joining pieces at an angle, one
by notching, the other by mortice and tenon.
Notching is the most common and simple form
that prevails in permanent works, and in some
cases the strongest for joining two pieces of tim-
ber together, at one, two, or four angles : the
form
46 CARPENTRY,.
form of the joint in this is varied according to the
situation, the positions of the sides of the pieces,
the nuQiber of angles, the position of the pieces,
and the quantity and direction of the force im-
pressed on one or both pieces, or according to
any combin-i-tion of those circumstances. The
most useful are the following:
§ 23. To join two pieces which are to form four
angles, and the surf aces of ' one fiece are both
parallel and perpendicular ^ to those of the
oilier.
A notch may be cut out of one piece, the
breadth of the other, which may be let down on
the first piece, or the two pieces may be recipro-
cally notched to each other, and for further se-
curity, nails, spikes, or pins, may be driven
through both: this form is applicable where
each of the pieces are equally exposed to strain in
any direction : when one piece has to support the
other transversely, the upper piece ma\ have a
notch cut across it to a breadth ; suppose 4 of the
thickness of the piece below, and the lower piece
must have an equal notch cut out on each upper
arris, leaving t of the breadth of the middle en-
tire, by which the strength of the supporting, or
lower piece, is less diminished than if a notch of
much less depth hadlbeen cut the whole breadth :
this mode is applicable to carcass roofing, in
letting the purlines down upon the principal raft-
ers.
CARPENTRY. 4/
ers, and the coramoa rafters again upon these;
also in carcass flooring, it is employed in letting
down the bridging joists upon the binding joists.
§ 24', To join one 'piece of timber to another,
to form two right angles with each oihcr^, and
the surfaces of the one to he parallel and per-
pendicular to those of the other, and to he quite
immoveable, when the standing piece is pulled
in a direction of its length, w'hile the cross
piece is held still.
Dovetail the end of the perpendicular piece^,
that is, form it like a truncated isosceles triangle,
the wide part being on the extremity, make a
corresponding reverse in the other, and if both
these pieces be horizontal, and the former laid
upon the latter, they will answer the ictended
purpose without the addition of nails, spikes, or
pins : in this mode^ if the timlj^r is not suffi-
ciently seasoned, the perpendicular piece may be
drawn out of the transverse piece, to a certain
distance, according to the degree of shrinkino-.
§ 25. Another Mo^e,
Which prevents the perpendicular piece from
being drawn out of the transverse piece, Allow-
ing that the timber should shrink, is to notch
the transverse piece, so as that, if the breadth be
supposed to be divided into five equal parts, and
three of these be notched from one edge, and
one
AS CARPENTRY.
from the other, leaving one part entire, obseft-*
ing that these two notches shonld not be cut
more than t of the thickness through ; then cut
a notch out of the perpendicular, to fit the en-
tire part of the transverse, leaving | entire to-^
wards the estremitj, and when the two pieces
are joined together, the notch and the entire part
of the perpendicular piece will respectively fit
the entire j.art, and the broad notch of 4 of the
transverse piece. If the upper piece press upon
the under piece, by its own weight, or with an
additional force, neither nails, spikes, nor pins,
will be necessary.
These methods of framing a piece of timber, at
right angles to another, are used in cocking down
the beams of a building upon the wall-plate;
but the latter method is more generally employed
than the former, as being more perfect; either
method is infinitely superior to mortice and tenon
for such purpose.
§ 26. To notch one piece of Umber to another^ or
join the two, so as to form one right angle, in
order that they may he eqitaUy strong, in re-
spect to each other.
Notch each piece half through, and nail, spike,
or pin them together; or they may be partly
notched on each other, nnd the inner edge of one
again notched, leaving the substance sufiiciently
thick below each notch, and a part entire at the
inner
CARPENTRY. 49
inner edge; cut the corresponding reverses in the
other piece, and when the two arejoiued, neither
can be drawn out of the other : these two me-
thods of joining a piece of timber to form a right
angle with another, are applied to wall-plates
and bond timbers at the corners of a building;
but wherever the thickness of the walls will ad-
mit, it is much better to make the end of each
piece pass the breadth of the other as much as
possible, so that bj this means four right angles
■will be formed instead of one ; then the two
may be equally notched as in the former case.
§ 27; To fix one Piece of Timber to another, form-
ing two oblique Angles, so that the standing
Piece cannot be drawn out of the transverse.
Cut a dovetail notch in the transverse piece,
keeping the edge straight upon the side next to
the obtuse angle, that is, forming the dovetail
on the side of the acute angle; make the cor-
responding notch upon the piece which has the
two angles on the same side, and nail, spike,
or pin them together if necessary : this form is
particularly applicable to roofing.
§ 28. To cut a rebated JVbtch in the End of a
Scantling, or Piece of Wood.
If the piece is not above three o*- four inches
in either dimension, it may be cross-cut with the
hand-saw to the depth, and the piece may be cut
E longitudinally
50 CARPENTRY.
longitudinally out^ or in the direction of the fibres
with the same: but if the stuff is very broad as a
plank or board, and the notch is to be cut in the
breadth of the board, then you naay cross-cut the
face with the hand-saw as before^ and cut the
piece out with the adze to the depth required; if
it is to be cut from the edge of a board or plank,
you may proceed as at first with the hand-saw
only.
§ 29. To cut a grooved M)tch, or Socket, in a
Piece of Timber.
Cross-cut the t<\ro ends or sides with the hand-
saw to the intended depth ; then, if the notch is
sufficiently long or broad to admit of the breadth
of the blade of the adze, you may cut out the
wood between the two kerfs with the adze ; but
if the width or breadth of the tenoned piece is not
of sufficient extent, you may then cut out the in-
termediate wood between the kerfs with the
socket chissel, and smooth the bottom of the
notch with the paring chissel.
§ 30. To cut a Tenon.
This operation is only a double rebated notch;
and consequently the methods for cutting the
tenon are the same under like circumstances of
size and dimensions. See also the next article.
§31. To
CARPENTRY. 51
§31. To frame one Timber at right Angles
to, and at some Distance from, either End
of another, both Pieces being of the same
Quality.
To do this, the piece of timber which is to
stand perpendicular to the other, must be reduc-
ed of its thickness, by cutting awaj two rectan-
gular prisms from both ends, and leaving another
rectangular prism in the middle of the thickness,
commonly called a tenon, which is made to fit a
corresponding excavation, called a mortice, taken
out of the other piece, so that when both pieces
are joined together, two of the surfaces of the
one piece will be straight with two of the sur-
faces of the other, and the other two remainins:
surfaces of the one piece will be perpendicular to
the other two remaining surfaces of the other,
and if properly joined, the superfices of both
pieces will come in contact with each other, so
as to leave no interstice or cavity.
Before the mortice and tenon is made, it will
be proper to say something of the proportion be-
tween the thickness of the tenon, or breadth of
the mortice, and the thickness of the stuff: Sup-
pose the tenon to be entered in the mortice, and
driven home; and suppose the piece which has
the mortice, to be held still, while a force is ap-
plied to the other end of the tenoned piece, so as
to act transversely to the morticed piece, then
one or other must give way. It is evident that if
E2 the
52 CARPENTRY.
the mortice cheeks are too thin, they will split,
or if the tenon be too thin^ it will break trans-
versely; there is^ therefore, some proportion be-
tween the breadth of the mortice and the thick-
ness of the stufFj so that the one shall be equally
strong with the other^, to resist this kind of strain.
Another thing which will afiect this proportion^
is, whether the junction is to be supported, as
in wall- plates, or unsupported, as in joisting; a
thinner tenon will be required if unsupported,
than if supported; for suppose that the junction
has no support, the surface of both parts lying
horizontally; and suppose a weight or force up-
on the tenoned piece, near to the shoulder, pres-
sing vertically downwards, while the morticed
piece is fixed at both ends, and the tenoned piece
also fixed at its remote end ; likewise suppose
that the width of the mortice is one third of the
thickness of the stuff, it will perhaps be found
that the under cheek of the mortice will split
away, while the tenon will remain unbroken,
the mortice, therefore, requires to be still less ;
but there is another reason, equally powerful,
which corroborates this practice, which is, that
by cutting away one third of the substance, the
morticed piece would be weakened too much
when thus unsupported, as is the casein joisting.
Though we cannot determine with mathematical
accuracy, nor by any result of experiments, com-
mon practice has sanctioned the thickness of the
tenoQ
CARPENTRY. ' 53
tenon to be about one fifth of the thickness of
stuff; this being fixed, we shall now proceed to
the practice.
First square the shoulder, by drawing three
lines, one perpendicular to the thickness of
the tenon, and each of the other two to meet
this line perpendicular to the adjoining arrises,
on which the first line was drawn; then mark the
breadth of the tenon, at the place where the mor-
tice is to be cut, in the length of the morticed
piece, through each extremity draw a line by the
iron square, perpendicular to the arrises on the
one side on which the mortice is to be cut, and
at the intersection of the lines, with one of the
adjoining arris, draw two other lines on the con-
tiguous side : then, where each of these lines meet
the other arris, draw lines in the samemanner upon
the third side ; so that each of the three contigu-
ous sides will have two lines at right angles to
the arrises of that side. Take the guage, describ-
ed in section 11, and guage the tenon trom the
face, and the mortice from the same side, which
is to be flush with it. Then entering the hand-
saw by the lines drawn on the shoulder, cut
the shoulders to the guage lines, and saw off the
tenon cheeks, and thus you have the tenon com-
pleted. Then with the socket chissel and mallet
knock out the core of the mortice ; then draw-
bore your work together with the hook pins, as
in I 20, and the work will be completed.
§32. To
54 CARPENTRY.
§ 32. Tojoifi two Timbers hy Mortice and Tenouj
at a right Angle, so that the one shall not pass
the Breadth of the other.
Let us suppose that each of the pieces to be
framed are of yellow fir, or both of the same
quality of wood. It is evident, that if the mortice
were cut away the whole breadth of the tenon,
and the tenon of the same breadth as the piece it
is formed on, that the one could not make any
resistance to the other without the assistance of a
pin. In order to accomplish this, the mortice
must not be cut to its full breadth, but must want
a certain part of that towards the end of the
tenoned piece; our next enquiry must be the pro-
portion between the length of the mortice, and
breadth of the tenoned piece, as it must be con-
sidered the strain which the mortice is liable to,
is splitting, and that of the tenon, is in breaking
transversely to the fibres ; for there is a certain
proportion between the breadth of the tenon, and
breadth of the piece on which it is cut, so that
the one will resist equally with the ottier. This
is a point that has not been mathematically
ascertained; however, commlDn practice allows
the tenon to be reduced about one third of its
breadth, and consequently the breadth of the
tenon two thirds, and the length of the mortice
two thirds also. As to the thickness of the tenon,
or breadth of the mortice, it is the same as we
mentioned in the preceding case, and will differ
according
CARPENTRY. ' 55
according as it is to lie hollow, or lie upon a
solid. The cutting of the tenon, and taking out
of the mortice, is the same as has been shown in
the preceding case, the pinning the same as in
§ 20.
^33. Of Foundations and Timbers, in joisting
and walling.
The foundations being excavated to the intend-
ed depth, the ground must be examined, hy try-
ing whether it is sufficiently firm in all places, so
as to support the weight of the intended building.
There are several means of securing foundations
without piling, should any artificial means be
required; but as our present subject is carpentry,
and as these do not come under the carpenter's
profession, we will first suppose that the intend-
ed building is to be brick or stone, and that the
foundation is infirm, piles must then be pre-
pared, such, that their thickness may be about
a twelfth part of their length. The distances
which these piles ^ill require to be disposed, and
the momentum required to drive them, will de-
pend on the weight of the building; for the
weight of the ram used in driving them, ought
not to be more than what would be sufficient for
the purpose, as a greater number of men, or
power, would need to be employed, which would
occasion an unnecessary expence. We will now
suppose the piling to be completed, so as to be
sufficient
56 carpe:ntry;
sufficient for supporting the intended building;?
some people lay a level row of cross bearers, called
sleepers, and plank above; but then observe, be-
fore the planking- is laid, that all the interstices
should be levelled up to the top of the sleepers,
with bricks, &c. The planking, however, will not
be necessary, provided that the piling be suffi-
ciently attended to, and thus the ex pence of the
foundation will be materially lessened. All tim-
ber whatever, of which the thickness stands verti-
cal in the building, being liable to shrink, will
also make the building liable to crack, or split,
at the junctions with the return parts. In cases
where the ground is not very soft, a balk is some-
times slit in halves, and these either laid imme-
diately at the bottom, or at the height of two ot
three courses, and this will frequently prevent
settlements, which are occasioned by an unequal
pressure of the piers, and the intermediate
brick-work or masonry, under apertures. Sup-
pose the foundation to be brought up to its
heiiiht, or to the level of the under sides of the
ground joists ; the ground plates must be laid,
and sleepers, at eight or ten feet distance where
the floors are intended to be boarded, these
sleepers are supported upon small pillars or piles
of brick, or by stones, at five, six, or eight {tQ,t
distance, according to the substance of timber
used for the sleepers, and their ends supported
by the walls. The next thing is to lay the
ground
CARPENTRY. 57
ground joists. When the bricklayer has got to
the top of the first windows, the carpenter ma_y
lintel the windows; but if the joisting of the next
floor is laid upon the lintels, the wall-plate and
the lintels will form one continued length of
timber, which will be much stronger than lintles,
having only nine or ten inches bearing upon the
walls. Suppose now the wall-plates laid round
the exterior walls, and returned in flank or party-
walls, except at the flues, andiikewiselaidincross-
walls of brick or stone; or if a timber partition
is required, and the joisting to be supported by
this partition, the partition is seldom carried up,
the joisting is first laid and levelled; instead of
the partition, a plank or other piece of timber is
laid under the joisting at the place, and this sup-
ported by uprights, which are forced up with
wedges, so as to bring the top of the joists to a
level; before the joisting is put down, the trim-
mers of stairs and chimnies must be framed in. If
a double floor is to be laid with girders, be sure
to lay templets, or short pieces of (in)ber, under
the girders, as this will distribute the pressure
over a greater surface, and thereby prevent set-
tlements. The naked flooring being laid, in car-
rying up the second story, bond timbers must be
introduced opposite to all, horizontal moulding*!,
as bases and surfaces. It is also customary to
put a row of bond timber in the middle of the
story, of greater strength than those for the
bases
58 ' CARPENTRY.
bases and surbaces. The work being so far ad-
vanced, we will suppose the builing roofed in
and completed; as there will be immediate oc-
casion for resuming the subject in the description
of a wooden building.
§31. Stud-work, and Plaster Buildings.
The foundation being made secure, and the
several scantlings for ground-plates, principal
posts, posts, bressummers, girders, trimmers,
joists, &c. being prepared and framed, agree-
able to their several situations. Timbers laid in
the foundation, or next to the ground, are gene-
rally of oak, as ground- plates, which should be
about eight inches broad, and six inches verti-
cally. The front and rear plates are to be fram-
ed by mortice and tenon ; the front and rear
plates being morticed, and the flank pieces con-
sequently tenoned. Sometimes the flank pieces
are morticed to receive the joists. The ground
plates are to be bored with an inch and half
auger, and pinned together with oak pins, made
taper towards the point, and so strong as to with-
stand the blows of the mallet, when driven tight
into the hole. As the wood which carpenters
work upon is generally heavy limbers, a block
is laid under the corner to bear the plate off the
foundation, so as to allow room for driving
of the hook pins; when the wooden pins are
driven, remove the blocks, and let the plates bed
firmly
CARPENTRY, 59
firmly on the foundation. But before the pins
are driven, if there be any girders, it must be
fitted in, and all the joisting and trimmers, for
they cannot be got in afterwards. We shall sup-
pose that every thing is got to its birth, and the
work pinned together. Four corner posts, eight
inches by six, viz, of the same scantling as the
ground plates, are erected, presenting their nar-
row sides to the front, and extending the whole
height of the building, till they meet the wall-
plates. These corner posts are called principal
posts, and are morticed and tenoned into the
ground-plates, and also for the purpose of beipg
inserted into the rising-plates. At the height
of the principal story, two mortices must be cut
in each principal post; which being set up, en-
ter the tenons of the next bressummers into the
mortices, and stay the principal posts, by means
of temporary braces, fixed to the framed work
of the floor. Set up the - several intermediate
story posts, or those which are framed into the
interties, and tenon the ends of these posts into
the bressummers or interties, as it may happen
whether there are interties between the bressum-
mers or not. Proceed in like manner with the
bressummers, girder, and joists, of the next
story. It does not always happen that there is a
girder, but if one side of it should prove to be
wainy, that side must be turned upwards, and
the
60 CARPENTRY.
the shoulders of the joists must be scribed upon
the wains.
We shall now suppose, the principal posts,
story posls, or other intermediate posts, bressum-
mers, girders, floor joists, trimn^ers, ^nd trimming
joists, all completely fitted together, you may
proceed to pin the work together, and put on the
raising plates, which are let down upon the
tenons of the principal posts, and then complete
the roof; you may then begin to put up the
truss partitions, if there be such, and fill in the
larger interstices in the outside framing, and in
these partitions with quarters.
§ 35, What now remains to be done belongs to
the joiner, and will therefore be found under the
article. Joinery.
In the description of this wooden fabric, as
there are several particulars respecting the scant-
lings and bearings of timbers, not mentioned, the
following table may be referred to, not only to
supply these wants, but on various other occa-
sions.
In the following tables, the first verticle co-
lumn contains the heights or bearings in the clear
of timbers ; the second, the scantlings in inches
for fir wood ; and the third, the scantlings in
inches for oak wood, the corresponding parts
are to be found in each horizontal row : as is suf-
ficiently plain from the tables.
§ 36. TABLE
CARPENTRY.
§36. TABLE I.
61
BEARING POSTS.
Height.
Fir.
Oak.
Feet.
Inches by inches.
Inches by inches.
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
6 X 10
7 X 11
8 X 12
9 X 13
10 X 14
11 X 13
12 X 16
7 X 12
8 X 13
9 X 14
10 X 15
11 X 16
12 X 17
13 X 18
§ 37. The table of bearing posts here given, is
considered as sufficient only for supporting two or
three stories of a dwelling house, it is impos-
sible to give a table that will be adequate to
every class of building. These scantlings do not
depend upon the height of the building, but
upon the weight with which the several floors
are loaded.
The supporting timbers required for the con-
structiori of a warehouse, ought to be very dif-
ferent from those employed in a common dwel-
ling house. It must be farther observed, that
all bearing posts which stand insulated, ought to
\)e exactly square ; but, as in general they are
stayed sideways by doors, windows^ orinterties;
the sides of the pieces employed are cf unequal
dimensions : giving a greater depth, requires less
timber to make them equally strong, and by
making
62 CARPENTRY.
making them thinner, gives more ample area for
light, which is particularly wanted in shop stories.
Another observation ; the table above is not con-
structed, so as to make the story posts at different
heights equally strong, even under the same cir-
cumstances of weight, as higher posts would be
more liable to accidents than lower ones, so that
there is a continued increase of strength from the
lower to the higher posts. We cannot say posi-
tively, what the exact scantlings for bearing
posts of given heights ought to be, though the
weight which they have to support were known,
as we have no detail of experiments sufficient to
enable us to establish a principle- of calculation.
We have therefore, nothing else to depend upon
but our experience, and what we see commonly
put in practice. Two practical men will not
always exactly agree, in what ought to be a stan-
dard under particular circumstances. The break-
ing of timber by compression, is so intricate of
itself, that men of science have not agreed as to
the general law by which a transverse fracture
is produced. With regard to the difference of
strength between fir and oak, Muchenbreuk as-
serts, on the authority of his own experiments,
that although oak will suspend half as much
again as fir, it will not support as a pillar, two
thirds of the load : upon this authority also^ the
author has ventured to make the oak scantling
larger than the fir.
§38. TABLE
CARPENTRY.
63
§ 38. TABLE II.
' 1
GIRDERS. I
Bearing.
Fir.
Oak.
Feet.
Inches by inches.
Inches by inches.
12
16
23
24
10 X 8
12 X 10
14 X 12
16 X 14
9x7
11 X 9
13 X 11
15 X 13
§39. TABLE III.
1
BRIDGING JOISTS.
Bearing.
Fir.
Oak.
Feet.
Inches by inches.
Inches by inches.
4
6
8
10
4 X 2|
5 X 2|
6 X 2f
7 X 2|
^ X 2i
4^ X 21 '
H X 2|
61 X 2i
§ 40. TABLE
64
CARPENTRY.
§40. TABLE IV.
BINDING JOISTS.
Bearing.
Fir.
Oak.
Feet.
Inches by inches.
Inches by inches.
8
10
12
14
7x4
8x4
9x4
10 x 4
6x4
7x4
8 X 4
9x4
§ 41. TABLE V.
TIE BEAMS
Bearing.
l*ir.
Oak.
Feet.
Inches by inches.
Inches by inches.
20
SO
40
50
60
8x4
10 X 6
12 X 8
14 X 10
16 X 12
7 X 3f
9 X 5|
11 X 7f
13 X 9|
15 X 111
§ 42. TABLE
CARPENTRY.
65
§42. TABLE VI.
PRINCIPAL RAFTERS.
Bearing.
Fir.
Oak.
Feet.
Inches by inches.
Inches by inches.
A2
18
24
SO
36
5 X 3
6i X 4
8x5
9| X 6
li X 7
6| X Si
7i X ^
9|- X 5^
10| X 6|
12| X 7|
§ 43. TABLE VIL
PURLINES.
Bearing.
Fir.
Oak.
Feet.
Inches by inches.
Inches by inches.
6
8
10
12
14
7x4
8x5
9x6
10 X 7
11 X 8
6| X 3i
7| X 4|
81 X 5i
9i X 6|
10| X 7|
§ 44. In
66
CARPENTRY.
§ 44. In table VI. As principal rafters are al-
ways in a state of compression, the oak scant-
lings are increased according to the aforesaid ex-
periments. All ties should therefore be, made of
oak, and all compressed or straining pieces of fir.
§ 45. TABLE VIII.
SMALL RAFTERS. .
Bearing.
Fir.
Oak.
Feet.
Inches by inches.
Inches by inches.
8
10
12
4| X 2|
6 X 2i
7| X 2i
4x2^
5| X 2i
7 X 2i
All beams ought to be cut or forced to a
timber, an inch for every 20 feet : as all framed
work will shrink and sag after being put to-
gether.
Roofs are much stronger when the purlines
ran above the principal, than when framed in.
In all case or tail bays, in floors or roofs, the
bearings of either joists or rafters, ought not to
exceed 12 feet.
K
Abstract
CARPENTRY. 67
distract of the Building Act, as far as regards
the Carpenter, 14 Geo. III. whichrefers only to
London, and the several Parishes within tlic
Bills of Mortality.
Those timber partitions between building and
building, that were erected, or begun to be
erected before the passing of the act, may remain
till one of the adjoining houses is rebuilt, or till
one of the fronts, or two thirds of such fronts,
which abut on such, timber partition, is taken
down to the bressumraer, or one pair of stairs
floor, and rebuilt.
Proprietor of a house or ground to give three
months notice to pull down such wooden parti-
tions when decayed, or of insufficient thickness,
and to be left with the owner or occupier of
such a house, and if empty, such notice to be
stuck up, in and on the front door, or front of
such house.
No timber hereafter to be laid in any party
arch, nor in any party wall, except for bond io
the same; nor any bond timber, within 9 inches
of the opening of a chimnay, nor within 5
inches of the flue, nor any timber within 2 feet
of any oven, stove, copper, still, - boiler, or fur-
nace.
All framed work of wood for chimney breasts,
to be fastened io the said breast with iron work as
hold fasts, wall hooks, spikes, nails, &c. nor
driven more than 3 inches into the wall, nor
F 2 nearer
68 CARPENTRY.
nearer than 4 inches to the inside of the opening
of the chimney.
No timber bearer to wooden stairs let into an
old party wall, must come nearer than 8| inches
to the flue, nor nearer than 4 inches to the inter-
nal finishing of the adjoining building.
No timber to be laid under any hearth to a
chimney, nearer than 18 inches to the upper sur-
face of such hearth.
No timber must be laid nearer than 18 inches
to any door of communication through party
walls, through warehouses or stables.
Bressummers, story posts, and plates thereto,
are only permitted in the ground story, and may
stand fair with the outside of the wall, but must
go no deeper than 2 inches into a party wall,
nor nearer than 7 inches to the centre of a party
wall, where it is two bricks thick, nor nearer
than 4 inches and a half, provided the party
wall does not exceed one brick and a half in
thickness.
Every corner story post must be of oak, at
least 12 inches square, when employed for the
support of two fronts.
Window frames and door frames to the first,
second, third, and fourth rate classes, are to be
recessed in reveals, 4 inches at least.
Doorcases and doors to warehouses only of the
first, second, third or fourth rate classes may
stand fair with the outward face of the wall.
No
CARPENTRY. 69
No external decoration to be of wood, ex-
cept cornices or dressings to shop windows, fron-
tispieces to door- ways of the second, third, and
fourth rate classes, covered ways or porticos to
buildings; but not to project beyond the original
line of the house in any street or way; such Co-
vered way or portico not to be covered with wood.
Nor such cornice, covered way, or the roof of
portico to be higher than the under side of the
cill to the windows of the one pair of stairs floor.
No flat gutter or roof, nor any turret dormer,
or lanthorn light, or other erection placed on
the flat of the roof belonging to the first, se-
cond, third, fourth, and fifth rate classes to be of
wood or timber.
No wooden water trunks must be higher from
the ground, than the tops of the windows of
the ground story.
PLATE I.
70 f CARPENTRY. •
PLATE I.
Fig. 1 the Axe used in chopping timber by a
reciprocal circular motion, generally in a vertical
plane, and with the cutting edge in that plane.
Fig. 2 the Adze used also in chopping timber
by a reciprocal motion, generally in a vertical
plane, but with the cutting edge perpendicular
to the plane, and thereby forming a horizontal
surface.
Fig. 3 the Socket Chissel used in morticing; it
must be observed, that the socket chissel is not
always the breadth of the mortice, but generally
less, particularly when the mortice is very wide.
Fig. 4 Mortice and Tenon Guage.
Fig. 5 the Carpenters' Square,
Fig. 6 the Plumb rule.
Fis:. 7 the Level.
Fig. 8 the Auger.
Fig. 9 a Hook pin for drawboring.
Fig. 10 the Crow.
PLATE n.
a^?yi€ ?t/^tj.
T/ute 1.
Tt^l.
J-z^.d
Ir^.6.
XaruZunJiti&a^eJMaivA X^'jSsfyJ'Tqi^ar.^AMo/lorr/
^lafe ^
Jz^J.
Zo,,Jo!, 2^7.7,s7ie,f2tarfA t/fjSjiJ;, JC^r7or.B^^M.U<r.
&
CARPENTRY. 71
PLATE II.
Fig. 1 the manner of cocking tie beams with
the wall plates fitted together. See § 25. ^
Fig. 2 shews the manner by which the cock-
ing joint is fitted together. No. 1. part of the
end of the tie beam, with the notch to receive
the part between the notches in No. 2, which is a
part of the wall plate ; See § 25.
Fig. 3 dove-tail cocking. No. 1 the male or
exterior dove-tail cut out on the end of the tie
beam : No. 2 the female or interior dove-tail cut
out of the wall plate, to receive the male dove-
tail, See§ 24.
Fig. 4 the manner of joining two pieces to-
gether to form a right angle, so that each piece
will only be extended on one side of the other,
by halving the pieces together, or taking a notch
out of each, half the thickness ; See § 26.
^ Fig. 5 two pieces joined together, forming
four right angles, when one piece only exceeds
the breadth of the other by a very short distance:
No. 2 the socket of one piece, which receives
the neck or substance of the other. This and
the preceding are both employed in joining wall
plates at the angle ; but the latter is preferable,
when the thickness of walls will admit of it.
Fig.
72 CARPENTRY.
Fig. 6 the method of fixing angle ties : No. 1
part of angle tie, with part of the wall plate:
No. 2 the wall plate, shewing the socket or female
dove-tail. Though the angle tie is here shewn
flush with the wall, in order to shew the manner
of connecting the two pieces together; the angle
tie is seldom, or never let down flush, as this
would not only weaken the angle tie, but also
the plate into which it is framed; See § 27.
PLATE III.
J^oluiorLjWAMr,ZMoW,iRlSaiy,/J^f^^^^_g-^ll,g
CARPENTRY. 75
PLATE III.
Fig. 1 plan of a floor where the joists would
Ifeave too great a bearing without a girder, and
where the walls in the middle of the apartment
are perforated with windows below. If there
were rio windows, the place of the girder would
be obviously in the middle of the wall, in order
to make the strongest floor out of timber of given
scantlings, or to make it equally strong with the
least quantity of timber ; but as there is an open-
ing, and if the end of the girder were to be laid
over that opening, it would render the walls
liable to fracture, which would be still a
greater error than the former ; to avoid this evil,
the girder must then lie upon a solid pier, and to
make the best of this circumstance, so as to
be at the least expence in timber, or to make
the strongest floor out of given timbers, the end
of the girder must be placed as near to the
aperture as possible, so as to have a solid bearino*,
and the other end as far distant from the middle
line, upon the alternate side of this line : and
thus the middle of the girder would still be in
the middle of the length. Some objections may
be raised against this method of placing the
girder, as it only divides the centre joists equally;
but the answer to this is, that the greatest stress
upon the floor is always in the middle; and there-
fore
74 CARPENTRY.
fore^ as the joists are equally divided inthe middle,
there is the greatest strength where there is most
occasion for it ; and likewise, taking all circum-
stances together, the middle is not capable of
sustaining the same weight as other parts of the
floor nearer to the extremes are : however, it still
remains as a question, whether a girder placed
in this position, or stronger joists running the
other way, would make the cheapest floor : this
I shall leave, as circumstances in practice may
determine. >^
Fig. 1. Explanation of the Timbers in a single
Floor.
A, A, A, &c. Plan of walls.
B, B, B the Flues of chimnies.
C, C, C the upper side of Wall plates.
D D C irder.
E E Fire-places.
efj eft eft &c. Tail bays of joists framed into
girder.
gh, g h, g h Tail trimmers framed into trim-
ming joists, in order to prevent the ends of the
timbers as much as possible from going into the
wall, according to the Building Act.
I k, i k Hearth trimmers.
m 0 ?L Quarter partition between rooms.
wop a Nine inch wall, inclosing stairs.
Fig.
CARPENTRY. 75
Fig. 2. Explanation of the Timbers in a double
, , Floor.
Ill this, the plans of the walls, flues of chim-
nies, and upper side of wall plates are denoted
by the same letters, as the same things in the pre-
ceding explanation are. The other parts are as
follow :
ah, ab, ab Binding joists.
c d, c d, dc, &c. Bridging joists.
f/ Stair trimmer.
gh single joists framed into stair trimmer.
It may be proper here to observe, in this ex-
planation, that any row or compartment of joist-
ing to which the flooring boards are attached,
whether in a double or single floor, between any
two adjacent supports, is called a bayof joi&t-
ing; a bay of joisting next to the wall, is called
a tail bay: and those between two girders, or
between two binding joists, are called case
bays: thus in fig. 1; the joisting on either side of
the girder is called a tail bay: and in fig. 2 there
are two case bays, and two tail bays.
In the framing of floors, some persons leave
the stair trimmer out until the stairs are put up,
and then the triminer is put up by the stair case
hand, or joiner.
PLATE IV.
76 CARPENTRY.
PLATE IV,
Fig. 1 section of a Double floor, with a girder,
taken transversely to the bridging joists.
A section of Girder.
BC, BC Binding joists.
d^ dy d, &c. ends of Bridging joists.
e, e, e, &c. ends of Cieling joists, chace mor-
ticed int6 binding joists.
Fig. 2 section of a Double floor, taken trans-
versely to the binding joist.
A, A sections of the Binding joists.
B C part of a Bridging joist.
D E Ceiling joists.
E F, E F parts of Ceiling joists.
Figures 3, 4, 5, 6, shows the manner of Scarf-
ing or lengthening of beams.
Fig. 3 an oblique Plain scarf.
Fig. 4 a single oblique Tabled scarf.
Fig. 5 a Parallel scarf keyed together.
Fig. 6 the method of building beams with
small pieces.
The third, fourth, and fifth figures must bc^
firmly bolted with at least two bolts. Fig. 4 and
5 have each an opening for a key to be driven
through, which must be done previously to the
bolting. These beams would be much stronger
at the scarfing, if an iron strap were placed on
each side of it, in order to resist the heads and
nuts
^Z%zzfe z/.
m
2z^.J2.
Tz^.S.
,^z^.4
Tz^.-5
Tz^.G.
Ti^.7
Xo7ulu>J^tbshe<iMiuTh ieUSuiyJJaylo>:.B^Jt3i>Uam .
CARPENTRY. 77
nuts of the screws more effectually than the
wood.
Fig. 7 a truss for a Span roof.
A, A Wall plates.
B C Tie beam
C D King post, crown post, or middle post,
EF, EF Struts.
g h, g h Puncheons.
I G, IG Principal rafters.
K, K Pole plate.
L, L sections of Purlines.
KM, KM Small rafters.
M M Ridge piece section.
PLATE
78 CARPENTRY,
PLATE V.
The framing for a small Wooden House, the
lower storj coustructed of 9 inch brick work, be-
ing more secure against external violence, and the
upper part of 4|^ inch stud work, to be covered
•with lath and plaster. This house is supposed
to be constructed where timber is abundant, and
brick or stone expensive. The ground story.
Fig. 1, consists of a passage, front and back par-
lour; the one-pair story may be a drawing room,
and back room, which may communicate by
means of a pair of folding doors; the upper story
which is partly taken out of the roof, may be di-
vided into bed rooms. If two adjoining houses
were to be built on the present plan, placing the
fire places of the contiguous houses back to back,
so that the same wall, containing the flues, may
be common to both, it would not only be a great
saving, but strengthen the whole. The partition
between the back rooms of the two houses is of
wood, and the fire place is placed in the angle of
each rooili, the brick work being continued from
the front in order to receive it. The end or
gable, is constructed entirely of stud work, to be
lathed and plastered. Not only two contiguous
houses liiay be done in iTu's manner, but any series
of houses forming a street, by constructing every
alternate wall with flues, and every other inter-
vening wall of stud-work. The rear fronts will
'*. consist
CARPENTRY. 79
c&asist entirely of stud work. Wooden houses
ought always to stand upon a stone or brick
found?ition; if, instead of the parlour, the front
room were a shop, and the window extending
from the door to the wall, then there would be
no occasion for ?iny brick work^ and the whole
would be constructed of stud work, excepting the
party wall for the flues. Houses constructed of
wood are forbidden in London, by the building
act: also all interior timbers, within a certain
jdistance of chimnies, as the foregoing abstract
which contains what belongs to the carpen-
ter, shows: however, they are much used in
country towns,, where they are not bound under
such restrictions.
Fig. I Plan.
Fig. 2 Elevation.
" Fig. 3 Gable flank, or division between houses.
AB, BC Ground plates, or ground sills.
BD, BE, CF Principal posts, extending the
whole height of the building, from the ground
plate to the roof plate.
AG, HI, KL Story posts: all intermediate
posts are also called story posts, which extend in
altitude from floor to floor.
GP, IQ, RS, TU Bressummers, supported by
^he story posts; the bressummers RS, TU are
also interties, being framed between posts, which
in this example are principal posts.
MN, DO Fig. 2 the edges, and EP, PF the
liides of the extreme rafters.
All
80 CARPENTRY.
All the oblique pieces, or those which are
placed diagonally within the framing, are called
braces.
The tie beam is not placed at the feet of the
rafters, but higher, in order to give head room,
in consequence of which a brace is extended from
the foot of each story post, adjacent to the mid-
dle, in the upper story, to each rafter foot, and
as these braces perform the ofiSce of ties in this
situation, they ought to be well strapped at the
ends.
Fig. 4 a longitudinal Purline truss.
Fig. 5 a longitudinal Truss, placed Tertically
under the ridge for supporting the intermediate
rafters, and restraining them from descending
down the inclined plane, and thereby preventing
all lateral pressure from the walls: for it is evi-
dent, that if the upper ends of the rafters are held
in their situation, the lower ends would describe
vertical circles, and from their gravity would
descend, and consequently approach nearer to-
gether, and therefore, instead of pushing out the
walls, would rather have a tendency to draw
them in. This principle, as well as trussing the
inclined sides of a roof, was discovered by the
author many years ago, in consequence of a dis-
pute, in which he was chose an arbiter, on be-
half of the architect; but the principle was so
bad, that he was under the disagreeable necessity
of giving judgment in favour of the contractor.
INDEX
JF/^^e ,:.
I 1 I I I M I 1 I I
Ti^.I.
\^^
.^^
Fz^.4.
Ti^.^.
^Z^
Ximdonl^TtblihairMzrcfi tfijStliyJT<!i'7^TnSu^'iffo76en-r, .
21
81
INDEX AND EXPLANATION
OF TERMS USED IN
CARPENTRY.
N. B; This Mark § refers to the preceding Sections
according to the Number.
A;
Adze, § 5.
Axe, § 4.
Auger, § 10.
B.
Back of a Hip is the upper edge of a rafter, between
the two sides of a hipped roof formed to an angle so
as to range with the rafters on each side of it.
Baulk, a piece of foreign fir, or deaJ, being the
trunk of a tree of that species of wood, generally
brought to a square, for the use of building. Jn
London the term is only applyed to small lengths,
from 18 to 25 feet, generally under 10 inches thick,
having a considerable taper, and the wains left,
so that the baulk is not brought to a square. In some
parts of the country these obtain the name of Dram
timber, as coming from the place of that name. In
London the largest pieces of timber, such as Me-
mel, Dantzic, &c. seem to have no common appel-
lation, being familiarly called pieces of timber, and
frequently by the vulgar name of sticks; these ex-
pressions seem to define nothing, as they apply
equally to all sizes. Difierent names seem to ob-
tain in different parts of the country : in some parts
of the north, large pieces of fir wood are called logs;
but in London log is restricted to the largest
pieces of oak or mahogany.
G Beam
82 CARPENTRY.
Beam, a horizontal timber, used . to resist a force, or
weight, as a tie-beam, where it acts as a string, or
chain, by its tension ; as a collar beam, where it
acts by compression ; as a bressummer, where it
resists a transverse insisting weight.
Bearer, any thing used by way of support to another.
Bearing, the distance that a beam or rafter is sus-
pended in the clear : thus if a piece of timber rests
upon two opposite walls, the span of the void is
called the bearing, and not the whole length of the
timber.
Beetle, § 17.
Board, a substance of wood contained between two
parallel planes ; as when the baulk is divided into
several pieces by the pit saw, the pieces are called
boards. The section of boards is sometimes, how-
ever, of a triangular, or rather a trapazoidal form,
that is with one edge very thin : these are called
feather edged boards.
Bond Timber, § 33. page 57.
Brace, a piece of slanting timber, used in truss parti-
tions, or in framed roofs, in order to form a triangle,
and thereby rendering the frame immovable ; when
a brace is used by way of support to a rafter, it is
called a strutt. Braces in partitions, and span roofs,
are always, or should be, disposed in pairs, and
placed in opposite directions.
Breaking DOWN, in sawing, is dividing the baulk in-
to boards or planks ; but if planks are sawed longi-
tudinally through their thickness, the saw-way is
called a ripping cut, and the former a breaking cut.
Bressummer, or Breastsummer, a beam supporting
a superincumbent part of an exterior wall, and run-
ning longitudinally below that part. See Summer.
Bridging
CARPENTRY. 83
Bridging Joists are the smallest beams in naked
flooring, for supporting the boarding for walking
upon. iV^" Plate.
Bring up. See Carry up.
C.
Camber is the convexity of a beam upon the upper
edge, in order to prevent its becoming straight or
concave by its own weight, or by the burden it may
have to sustain, in course of time.
Camber Beams are those used in the flats of truncated
roofs, and raised in the middle with an obtuse angle,
for discharging the rain-water towards both sides of
the roof.
Cantilevers are horizontal rows of timbers, pro-
jecting at right angles from the naked part of a
wall, for sustaining the eaves or other mouldings.
Sometimes they are planed on the liorizontal and
vertical sides, and sometimes the carpentry is rough
and cased with joinei'y.
Carcass of a Building, is the naked walls, and the
rough timber work of the flooring and quarter parti-
tions, before the building is plastered, or the floors
laid.
Carpenter's Square, §21.
Carpentry, § i.
Carry -up, a term used in discourse among builders
and workmen, denoting that the walls, or other
parts, are intended to be built to a certain given
height, as the carpenter will say to the bricklayer,
carry-up that wall ; carry-up that stack of chimnies,
i. e. build up that wall or stack of chimnies.
ClilssELS, § 6, 7, and 8.
Crown Post, the middle post of a trussed roof. See
King Post.
G 2 V^EAL
84 CARPENTIiY.
D.
Deal Timber, the timber of the fir tree, as cut inta
boards, planks, &c. for the use of building.
Discharge, is a post trimmed up under a beam, oi'
part of a building which is weak, or overcharged
by weight.
Dormer, or Dormer Window, is a projecting win-
dow in the roof of a house, the glass frame, or case-
ments being set vertically, and not in the inclined
sides of the roof; thus Dormers are distinguished
from sky-lights, which have their sides inclined to
the horizon.
Dovetail Notch, § 27.
Dragon Beam, the piece of timber which supports
the hip rafter, and bisects the angle formed by the
wall plates.
Draw Bore Pins. See Joinery.
E.
Enter, when the end of a tenon is put into a mortice,
it is said to enter the mortice.
Entertice. See Intertie.
F.
Featheredged Boards. See Board.
FiLLiNG-iN-PiE(iES, sliort timbers, less than the full
length, as the jack rafters of a roof, the puncheons,
or short quarters in partitions, between braces and
, sills, or head-pieces.
Fir Pole, small trunks of fir trees, from 10 to 16
feet in length, used in rustic buildings, and out-
houses.
Firmer Chissel, § 7.
1?L0 or,
CARPENTRY. 85
Floor. See Naked Flooring.
Foundations, § 33.
FuRRiNGS, are slips of timber nailed to joists or rafters,
in order to bring them to a level, and to range them
into a straight surface, when the tinibers are sagged,
either by casting or by a set, which they have ob-
tained by their weight in length of time.
G.
Gain, a term now out of use. See Tusk.
Gauge, § 11.
GiMBLET, § 9. ,
Girder, tlie principal beam in a floor for supporting
the binding joists.
Grooved Notch, § 29. See Plate 2.
Ground Plate, or Sill, is the lowest plate of a
wooden building for supporting the principal and
other posts. See Plate 5.
Hammer, § 15.
Hand Saw, § 3.
Hook Pins, § 20.
Handspike, a lever for carrying a beam, or other
body, the weight being placed in the middle, and
supported at each end by a man.
I.
Intertie, a horizontal piece of timber, framed be-
tween two posts, in order to tie them together.
Jack Timber, a timber shorter than the whole lenoth
of other pieces in the same range.
Jack Rafters, are all those short rafters which meet
th^ hips.
Jack
86 CARPENTRY.
Jack Ribs are those short ribs which meet the angle
ribs, as in groins, domes, &c.
Joggle Piece is a truss post, with shoulders and
sockets for abutting and fixing the lower ends of
the strutts.
Joining of Timbers, § 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27.
Joists are those beams in a floor which support, or are
necessary in the supporting of the boarding or ceil-
ing, as the binding, bridging, and ceiling joists ; gird-
ers are, however, to be excepted, as not being
joists.
JuFFERS, stuff of about four or five inches square, an4
of several lengths. This term is out of use, though
frequently found in old books.
K.
King Post, the middle post of a trussed roof, for sup-
porting the tie-beam at the middle, and the lower
ends of the strutts.
Kerf, the way made by the saw in sawing timber.
L.
Level, an instrument used for leveUing floors,
§ 12.
Lintels, short beams over the heads of doors and
windows, for supporting the inside of an exterior
wall, or the super-incumbent part over doors in
brick or stone partitions.
Luthorn windows. See Dormer. t
M.
Mallet, § 16.
Mortice and Tenon, § 31.
Naked
CARPENTRYo 87
N.
Naked Flooring, the timber work of a floor for sup-
porting the boarding, or ceiUng, or both.
Notching, § 28, 29.
P.
Pitch of a Roof, the inclination which the sloping
sides make with the plane, or level of the wall-plate;
or it is the proportion which arises by dividing the
span by the height. Thus if it is asked what is the
pitch of such a roof, the answer is, |, J., or | ;
when the pitch is |, the roof is a square, which is
the highest that is now in use, or that is neces-
sary in practice.
Plank, all boards above nine inches wide, are
called planks.
Plate, a horizontal piece of timber in a wall, gene-
rally flush with the inside, for resting the ends of
beams, joists, or rafters, and is therefore deno-
minated floor, or roof plates, accordingly.
Plumb Rule, § 14.
Posts, all upright, or vertical pieces of timber, what-
ever, as tjruss posts, door posts, quarters in parti-
tions, &c.
Prick Posts, intermediate posts in a wooden building
framed between principal posts.
Principal Posts, the oornerpostsof a wooden build-
ing. See plate 5.
Pudlaies, pieces of timber to do the oflice of hand-
spikes.
Puncheons, any short post of timber; the small
quarterings in a stud partition above the head of a
door, are called puncheons.
Purlines, the horizontal timbers in the sides of a
roof, for supporting the spars or small rafters.
Quarters,
88 CAUPENTRY.
Q.
Quarters, the timbers to be used in stud partitions,
bond in walls, &c.
Quartering, the stud work of a partition.
R.
Rafters all the inclined timbers in the sides of a roof,
as principal rafters, hip rafters, and common rafters,
which are otherwise called in most countries spars.
Raising Plates, or Top Plates, are the plates en
which the roof is raised
Rebated Notch, § 28.
Ridge, the meeting of the rafters on the vertical angle
of the roof. See Plate 5.
Ripping Chissel. § 3.
Ripping Saw, § 3.
Roof, the covering of a house, but the word is used
jn carpentry for the wood work which supports the
slating, or other covering..
S.
Saw, § 3.
Shaken Stuff, such timber as is rent or split by the
heat of the sun, or by the fall of the tree, is said to
be shaken.
Shingles, thin pieces of wood used for covering in-
stead of tiles, &c.
Shreadings, a term not much used at present. Sec.
Furrings.
Skirts of a Roof, the projecture of the eaves.
Sleepers, pieces of timber for resting the ground
joists of a floor upon, or for fixing the planking to in
a bad foundation. The term was formerly apphed-
to the valley rafters of a roof.
Socket
CARPENTRY. 89
Socket Chissel. § c.
Spars, the term by which the common rafters of a
roof are best known in ahnost every provincial town
in Great Britain, though generally called in Lon-
don common rafters, in order to distinguish them
from the principal rafters.
Stanciieons. See Puncheons.
Struts, pieces of timber which support the rafters,.
9,nd v/hicli are supported by the tjruss posts.
Summer, a large beam in a building, either disposed
in an outside wall, or in the middle of an apart-
ment, parallel to such wall. Whpn a summei: is
placed under a superincumbent part of an outside
wall, it is called a bressummer, as it comes in a
breast with the front of the building.
Stud WORK, § 33.
Templets, § 33, page 57.
Tenon, § 30.
Tie, a piece of timber placed in any position acting
as a string or tie, to keep two things together
which have a tendency to a more remote distance
from each otlier.
Timbers, how joined, § 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27.
Trimmers are joists into whioii other joists are
framed.
Trimming Joists, the two joists into which a trimmer
is framed.
Truncated Roof, is a roof with a fiat on the top.
Truss, a frame constructed of several pieces of
timber, and divided into two or more triangles by
oblique
90 CARPENTRY.
oblique pieces, in order to prevent the possibility
of its revolving round any of the angles of the
frame.
Truss-Post, any of the posts of a trussed roof, as
king post, queen post, or side post, or posts into
which the braces are formed in a trussed partition.
Trussed Roof, is one so constructed within the
exterior triangular frame, so as to support the
principal rafters and the tie beam, at certain given
points.
Tusk, the beveling upper shoulder of a tenon, in
order to give strength to the tenon.
V
Valley Rafter, that which is disposed in the inter--
nal angle of a roof.
W.
Wall Plates, arp the joists plates, and raising
plates ,
MECHA-
( 9\ )
MECHANICAL EXERCISES.
OF JOINEMY.
' § 1. JOINERY is a branch of Civil Arcliitec-
ture, and consists of the art of framing or joining
together wood for internal and external finish-
ings of houses ; as the coverings and linings of
rough walls, or the coverings of rough timbers,
and of the construction of doors, windows, and
stairs.
* • • •
Hence joinery requires much more accurate
and nice workmanship than carpentry, which
consists only of rough timbers, used in support-
ing the various parts of an edifice. Joinery is
used by way of decoration only, and being al-
ways near to the eye, requires that the surfaces
should be smooth, and the several junctions of
the wood be fitted together with the greatest ex-
actness.
Smoothing of the wood is called planing,
and the tools used for the purpose, planes.
The wood used is called stuff, and is previ-
ously formed into rectangular prisms by the saw;
these prisms are denominated battens, boards,
or planks, according to their dimensions in
breadth
92 JOINERY.
breadth or in thickness. For the convenience of
planing", and other operations a rectangular plat-
form is raised upon four legs, called a bench.
§2. The Bench (Pl. 1. Fig. 12.)
Consists of a platform ABCD called the top
supported upon four legs, E, F, G, H. Near to
the further or fore end AB is an upright rectan-
gular prismatic pin a, made to slide stiffly in a
mortice through the top. This pin is called the
bench hook, >\hich ought to be so tight as to be
moved up or down only by a blow of a hammer
or mallet. The use of the bench hook is to
keep the stuff steady, while the joiner, in the
act of planing, presses it forward against the
bench hook. DI a vertical board fixed to the
legs, on the side of the bench next to the work-
man, and made flush with the legs : this is call-
the side board. At the farther end of the side
board, and opposite to it, and to the bench
hook^ is a rectangular prismatic piece of wood
i b, of which its two broad surfaces are parallel
to the vertical face of the side board : this is
made moveable in a horizontal straight surface,
by a screw passing through an interior screw
fixed to the inside of the side board, and is call-
ed the screw check. The screw and screw check
are together called the bench screw ; and for the
sake of perspicuity, we shall denominate the two
adjacent vertical surfaces of the screw check,
and
"JOINERY. 93
and of the side board, the checks of the bench
screw. The use of the bench screw is to fasten
boards between the checks, in order to plane
their edges; but as it only holds up one end of
a board, the leg H of the bench and the side
board are pierced with holes, so as to admit of
a pin for holding up the other end, at various
heights, as occasion raaj require. The screw
check has also a horizontal piece morticed and
fixed fast to it, and made to slide through the
side board, for preventing it turning round, and
is therefore called the guide.
Benches are of various heights, to accommo-
date the height of the workman, but the medium
is about 2 feet 8 inches. They are 10 or IS
feet in length,' and about 2 feet 6 inches in
width. Sometimes the top boards upon the
farther side are made only about 10 feet long,
and that next the workman 12 feet, projecting 2
feet at the hinder part. In order to keep the
bench and work from tottering, the legs not
less than S| inches square, should be well
braced, particularly the two legs on the working
side. The top board next to the workman may
be from 1| to 2 inches thick: the thicker, the
better for the work; the boards to the farther
side may be about an inch or 1|: inch thick. If
the workman stands on the working side of the
bench, and looks across the bench, then the end
on his right hand is called the hind end, and that
on
94 JOINERYo
on his left hand the fore-end. The bench hook
is sometimes covered with ati iron plate, the front
edge of which is formed into sharp teeth for
sticking fast into the end of the wood to be
planed, in order to prevent it from slipping; or,
instead of a plate, nails are driven obliquely
through the edge, and filed into wedge-form-
ed points. Each pair of end legs are gene-
rally coupled together bj two rails dove-tailed
into the legs. Between each pair of coupled
legs, the length of the bench is generally divided
into three or four equal parts, and transverse
bearers fixed at the divisions to the side boards,
the upper sides being flush with those of the
side boards, for the purpose of supporting the
top firmly, and keeping it from bending. The
screw is placed behind the two fore legs, the
bench hook immediately before the bearers of ^ he
fore legs, and the guide at some distance before
^he bench hook. For the convenience of putting-
things out of the way, the rails at the ends
are covered with boards; and for farther ac-
comraodation, there is in some benches a cavity
formed, by boarding the under edges of the side
boards before the hind legs, and closing the ends
vertically, so that this cavity is contained be-
tween the top and the boarding under the side
boards: the way to it is by an aperture made
by sliding a part of the top board towards the
hind end; this deposit is called a locker.
§ 3. Joiners*
JOINERY, 95
§ 3. Joiners' Tools.
The Bench Planes are, the jack plane, the fore
plane, the trying plane, the long plane, the
jointer and the smoothing plane; the cylindric
plane, the compass and forkstaff planes; the
straight block, forstraightingshortedges: Rebat-
ing Planes are the moving fillister, the sash fillis-
ter, the common rebating plane, the side rebating
plane: Grooving Planes are the plough and dado,
grooving planes : Moulding Planes are sinking
snipsebills, side snipsebills, beads, hollo\\'« and
rounds, ovolos, and ogees. Boring tools are,
gimblets, brad-awls, stock and bits. Instru-
ments for dividing the wood, are principally the
Ripping Saw, the half ripper, the hand saw, the
pannel saw, the tenon saw, the carcase saw, the
sash saw, the compass saw, the key-hole saw,
and turning saw. Tools used for forming the
angles of two adjoining surfaces, are Squares
and Bevels: Tools used for drawing parallel lines
are Guages. Edge tools, are the Firmer Chissel,
the mortice chissel, the socket chissel, the gouge,
the hatchet, the adze, the drawing knife. Tools
for knocking upon wood and iron are, the Mal-
let and Hammer. Implements for sharpening tools
are the Grinding stone, the rub stone, and the oil
stone or whet stone.
§ 4. Definitions.
If a plane be set with the under surface upon
the wood, it is intended to operate upon, and
placed
96 JOINERY,
placed before the workman, and if four surfaces?
are perpendicular to the under surface, each of
these surfaces is said to be vertical ; the one next
the workman is called the hind end, and the op-
posite one, the fore end, and the two in the di-
rection which the plane works, the sides: the
under surface is called the sole, the side of the
plane next to the workman is called the right
hand side, and the opposite side to that, the left
hand side of the plane.
The depth of a plane is the vertical dimension
from the top to the under surface; the length of
a plane is the horizontal dimension in the direc-
tion in which the plane is wrought; the breadth
or thickness of a plane is the horizontal dimen-
sion at right angles, to the length and depth.
In order to make a distinction between the
tool, the under surface is called the sole of the
plane.
The reason for being so particular in defining
these common place terms which might be
supposed to be known to every one, is, from a
desire of the author to prevent ambiguity ; as in
the term depth, which implies a distance from
you in whatever direction it runs, as the depth
of a well is the vertical or plumb distance; but
the depth of a house is the distance from the
front to the rear wall, and consequently is a
horizontal distance.
§5. llic
JOINERY. 97
§5. The Jack Plane (Pl. 1. Fig. 1.)
Is iispd in taking off the rough and prominent
parts from the surface of the wood, and reducing
it nearly to the intended form, in coarse slices,
called shavings; this plane consists of a block of
wood called the stock, of about 17 inches in
length, 3 inches high, and 3| inches broad. All
the sides of the stock are straight surfaces at
right angles to each other. Through the solid
of the stock, and through two of its opposite
surfaces is cut an aperture, in which is inserted
a thin metal plate called the iron, one side of
the plate consisting of iron, and the other of
steel. The side of the opening which joins the
iron part, is called the bed, which is a plane
surface, making an angle of 45 degrees with the
hind part of the underside of the plane.
The end of the iron next to the bottom is
ground to an acute angle off the iron side, so
as to bring the steel side to a sharp edge, hav-
ing a smiU convexity. The sloping part thus
formed, is called the basil of the iron. The iron
is fixed by means of a wedge, which is let into
two grooves of the same form, on the sides of the
opening; two sides of the wedge are parallel to
each other, and io the vertical side of the plane,
andconsequentlytotwo of the sidesof thegroove;
the two sides of the grooves, parallel to the
vertical sides of the plane are called cheeks, and
the two other sides inclined, to the bed of the iron
H are
9B Joinery.
are called the butments, or abutment sides': the
wedge and the iron being fixed, the opening
must be uninterrupted from the sole to the top,
and must be no more on the^ sole side of the
plane, than what is sufficient for the thickest
shaving to pass with ease ; and as the shaving is
discharged at the upper side of the plane, the
opening through must expand or increase from
the sole to the top, so as to prevent the shavings
from sticking. In conformity to analogy, the
part of the opening at the sole, which first re-
ceives the shaving, is called the mouth. In order
for the shaving to pass with still greater ease,
the wedge (PI. 1. Fig. 5.) is forked or
cut away in the middle, leaving the prongs to
fill the lower parts of the aforesaid grooves. On
the upper part of the plane, behind the iron,
rises a protuberance, called the tote, so formed
to the shape of the hand, and direction of the
motion, as to produce the most power in push-
ing the plane forward.
The bringing of the iron to a sharp cutting
edge is called sharpening. The cutting edge of
the iron must be formed with a convexitj, and
regulated by the stuff to be wrought, whether it
is hard or soft, cross grained or curling, so that
a man may be able to perform the most work, or
to reduce the substance most, in a given time.
To prevent the iron from tearing the wood in
cross
JOINERY. 99
cross grained stuff, a cover is used with a re-
versed basil, (PI. 1. Fig. 4.) and fastened
by means of a screw, the thin part of which
slides in a longitudinal slit in the iron^ and
the head is taken out by a large hole near the
upper end of it. The lower edge of the cover
is so formed, as to be concentric or parallel to
the cutting edge of the iron, and fixed at a small
distance above it, and to coincide entirely with
the steel face. The basil of the cover must be
rounded, and not flat, as that of the iron is. The
distance between the cutting edge of the iron^
and the edge of the cover, depends altogether on
the nature of the stuff. If the stuff is free, the
edge of the cover may be set at a considerable
distance, because the difficulty of pushing the
plane forward becomes .greater, as the edge of
the cover is nearer the edge of the iron, and the
contrary when more remote.
The convexity of the edge of the iion depends
on the texture of the stuff, whether it is free,
cross grained, hard or knotty. If the stuff is
free, it is evident that a considerable projection
may be allowed, as a thicker shaving may be
taken: the extreme edges of the iron must never
enter the wood, as this not only retards the pro-
gress of working, but choaks and prevents the
regular discharge of the shavings at the orifice
of the plane.
H 2 ^ § 6. To
100 JOINERY.
§ 6. To Grind and Sharpen the Iron.
When you grind the iron, place your two
thumbs under it, and the fingers of both hands
above, laying the basil to the stone, and holding
it to the anole vou intend it shall make with the
steel side of it, keeping it steady while the stone
is turning, and pressing the iron to the stone witli
your fingers; and in order io prevent the stone
from wearing the edge of the iron into irregula-
rities, move it alternately from edge to edge of
the stone with so much pressure on the different
parts, as will reduce it to the required convexity;
then lift the iron to see that it is ground to your
mind: if it is not, the operation must be repeat-
ed, and the steel or basil side placed in its former
position on the stone, otherwise the basil will be
doubled; but if in the proper direction it will
be hollow, which will be more as the diameter
of the stone is less. The basil being brought to
a proper angle, and the edge to a regular cur-
vature, the roughness occasioned by the gritty
particles of the grind slone may be taken awaj',
by rubbing on a smooth flat whet stone or Turkey
stone, sprinkling sweet oil on the surface; as the
basil is generally ground something longer than
what the iron would stand, for the quicker dis-
patch of wetting if, you may incline the face of
the iron nearer to the perpendicular, rubbing io
and fro, with the same inclination throughout :
having done it to your mind, it may be fixed.
When
JOINERY. 101
When there is occasion to sharpen it again^ it is
commonly done upon a Sat rub stone^ keeping
theproper angle of position as before^ thentheedge
may be finished on the Turkey stone as before :
and at every time the iron gets dull or blunt, the
sharpening is produced by the rub stone and
Turkey stone, but in repeating this often the
edge g€ts so thick that it requires so much time
to bring it up^ that recourse must be had again
to the grind stone,
§ 7. To Fix and unfix the Iron.
In fixing the iron in the plane^ the projection
of the cutting edge must be just so much be-
yond the sole of the plane, as the workman may
be able to work it freely in the act of planing.
This projection is called iron, and the plane is
said to have more or less iron as the projection is
greater: when there is too much iron, knock
Vrith a hammer on the fore end of the stock, and
the blows will loosen the wedge, and raise the
iron in a certain degree, and the head of the
wedge must be knocked down to make all tight
again : if the iron is not sufficiently raiwSed, pro-
ceed again in the same manner, but if two much,
the iron must be knocked down gently by hitting
the head with a hammer: and thus by trials, you
will give the plane the degree of iron required.
When you have occasion to take out the iroii to
sharpen it strike the fore end smartly, which will
loosen the wedge, and con^quently the iron.
§8. To
102 ' JOINERY. ,
§ 8. To Use the Jack Plane.
In using the jack plane^ lay the stufi" before
you parallel to the sides of the bench, the farther
end against the bench hook ; then beginning at
the hind end of the stuffy bj laying the fore part
of the plane upon it, lay hold of the tote with
the right hand, and pressing with the left upon
the fore end, thrust the plane forward in the di-
rection of the fibres of the wood and length of
the plane, until you have extended the stroke
the whole stretch of your arms, the shaving will
be dischargnd at the orifice : draw back the
plane, and repeat the operation in the next ad-
jacent rough part: proceed in this manner until
you have taken off the rough parts throughout
the whole breadth, then step forward so much
as you have planed, and plane off the rough of
another length in the same manner, proceed in
this way by steps, until the whole length is gone
over and rough planed; you may then return
and take all the protuberant parts or sudden ris-
ings, by similar operations,
§ 9. The Trying Plane. (Pl. 1. Fig. 2.)
Is constructed similar to the jack plane, ex-
cept the tote of the jack plane is single, and that
of the trying plane double, to give greater
strengh; the length of this plane is about 22
inches, the breadth 3 J, and the height Swindles.
Its use is to reduce the ridges made by the jack
plane^
JOINERY, 103
plane, and to straighten the stuff: for this purpose
it is both longer and broader^ the edge of the
iron is less convex^ and set with less projection :
but as it takes a broader though finer shavings it
still requires as much force to push it forward,
§ 10. 71} e Use of the Trying Plane.
The sharpening of the iron, and the operation
of planing is much the same as that of the jack
plane; when the side of a piece of stuff has
been planed first by the jack plane, and after-
wards by the trying plane, that side of the stuff
is said to be tried up, and the operation is called
t^rying.
When the stuff is required to be very straight^,
particularly if the broad or narrow side of an-
other piece is to join it, instead of stopping the
plane at every arm's length, as with the jack plane,
the shaving is taken the whole length, by step-
ping forwards, then returning, and repeating
the operation throughout the breadth, as often as
may be found necessary.
§ 11. The Long Plane
Is used when a piece of stuff is required to
be tried up very straight; for this purpose it is
both longer and broader than the trying plane,
^.nd set with still less iron, the manner of using
it is the same. Its length is 26 inches, its breadth
3|- inches, and depth 3|- inches.
§ 12. The
104 JOINERY.
§ 12. The Jointer
Is still longer than the lona: planC;, and is used
principally for planing straight edges, and the
edges of boards^ so as to make them join to-
gether^ this operation is called shooting, and the
edge itself is said to be shot. The length of
this plane is about 2 feet 6 inches, the depth 3|
inches, and the breadth S^ inches. The shaving
is taken the whole length in finishing the joint,
or narrow surface.
§ 13. The Smoothing Plane.
(Pl. l.FiG.3. )
Is the last plane used in giving the utmost
degree of smoothness to the surface of the wood :
it is chiefly used in cleaning oft" finished work.
The construction of this plane is the same with
regard to the iron wedge and opening for dis-*
charging the shaving, but is much smaller in
size, being in length 7f inches, in breadth 3, and
in depth 2^, and differs in form, on account of
its having convex sides, and no tote.
There is also this difference in giving the iron
a finer set, that you must strike the hind end in-
stead of the fore part.
§ 14. Bench Planes.
The jack p4ane, the trying plane, the long
plane, the jointer and the smoothing plane, are
denominated bench planes.
§ 15. The
- JOINERY. 105
§ 15. The Compass Plane.
Is similar to the smoothing plane in size and
shapC;, but the sole is convex, and the convexity
is in the direction of the length of the plane.
The use of the compass plane is to form a con-
cave cylindrical surface, when the wood to be
wrought upon is bent with the fibres in the di-
rection of the curve, which is in a plane surface
perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Con-
sequently compass planes must be of various sizes,
in order to accommodate different diameters.
§ 16. The Forkstajjr Plane
Is similar to the smoothing plane in every re-
spect of size and shape, except that the sole
is part of a concave cylindric surface, having
the axis parallel to the length of the plane. The
use of the forkstaflf plane is to form cylindric
surfaces, by planing parallel to the axis of the
cylinder. Planes of this description must like-
wise be of various sizes, to form the surface to
various radii : these two last planes are more used
by coach makers than by joiners.
§ 17. The Straight Block
Is used for shooting short joints and mitres,
instead of the iointer, which in such cases would
be rather unhandy; this plane is also made with-
out the tote, and as it is frequently used in
straightening the ends of pieces of wood perpenr-
dicularlj
106 JOINERY.
dicular to the direction of the fibres^ the iron
i? inclined more to the sole of the plane, that is,
il forms a more acute aagle with it : in order that
it may cut clean, the inclination of the basil,
and the face of the iron, is therefore less on this
account: the length of the straight block is 12
inches, its breadth 3^, and depth 2J.
REBATE PLANES IN GENERAL.
§ 18. TJie Rebate Plane
Is used after a piece of stuff has been pre--
viously tryed on one side and shot on the other,
or tryed on both sides, in taking away a part
next to one of the arises of a rectangular or
oblong section, the whole part therefore taken
away is a square prism, and the superfices form-
ed after taken away the prism is two straight
surfaces, forming an internal right angle with
each other ; so that the stuff will now have one
internal angle and two external angles. The
operation of this reducing the stuff is called re-
bating. Rebating is either used by way of or-
nament, as in the sinking of cornices, the sunk
facias of Architraves, or informing a recess for the
reception of another board, so that the edge of
this board may coincide with that side of the
rebate, next to the edge of the rebated piece.
The length of rebating planes is about 9|- inches,
the vertical dimension or depth is about 3|, they
are of various thickness, from 1|; to | an inch.
Rebate
JOINERY 0 107
Kebate planes are of several kinds, some hav^
the cutting edge of the iron upon the bottoiDa
and some upon the side of the plane. Of these
which have the cutting edge on the bottom, some
are used for sinking, and some for smoothing or
cleaning the bottom of the rebate ; and these
'which have the cutting edge upon one side are
called side rebating planes, and are used after
the former in cleaning the vertical side of the
rebate. Rebate planes differ from the bench
planes, before mentioned, in their having no tote ;
the cavity is not open to the top, but the wedge
is made to fit completely, and the shaving is dis-
charged on one side or other, according to the
yse of the plane.
§ 19. SmMng Rehaiing Planes
Are of two denominations, the moving fillister
and sash fillister: the moving fillister is for sink-
ing the edge of the stuff next to you, and the
3ash fillister the farther edge; consequently these
planes have their cutting edges on the under side.
§ 20. Of the fnoving Fillister.
(Pl. 1. Fig. 7.)
Upon the bottom of the moving fillister is a
slip of wood, so regulated by two screws as oneof
the vertical sides of the slip may be fixed parallel
to the edge of the sole; then the breadth be-
tween this side of the slip and the edge of the
sole
108 JOINERY.
sole of the plane is equal to the breadth of the
rebate. This slip is called a fence, and the Ter-
tical side of it next to the stock, the guide ;
as the rebate is made upon the right edge of the
stuff, the fence is alvvajs upon the left side of
the sole. The iron between the guide and
the right hand edge of the sole of the plane must
project the whole breadth of the uncovered part
of the sole, otherwise the plane will not sink, so
long as it is kept in one position; the right hand
point of the cutting edge of the iron must stand
& small degree without the vertical right hand
side of the plane; for if this point of the iron
stood within, the situation of the point would
also prevent the sinking of the rebate; it is also
necessary that the cutting edge of the iron should
gland equally prominent in all parts out of the
sole, otherwise the plane cannot make shavings
of an equal thickness, and consequently instead
of keeping the vertical position, will turn round
and incline to the side on which the shavings are
thickest, and thus the part cut away will not
have a rectangular section, for the bottom of the
rebate will not then be parallel to the upper face
of the stuff; and the side which ought to have
been vertical, will be a kind of a ragged curved
surface, formed by as many gradations or steps
as the depth consists of the number of shavings.
Observe, that whatever regulates any plane
which takes away a portion of the stuff next to
the
JOINEilY. iOi?
the edge^ to cause the part taken a%vay en the
upper face of the stuff from the edge to be of
one breadth, is called a fence: in like manner,
whatever prevents a plane v/orking downwards
bejond a certain distance, is called a stop. There-
fore the fence regulates the horizontal breadth of
what is taken awav, and the stop, the vertical di-
mension or depth, and this is to be understood,
not only of rebate planes, but of moulding planes,
where the moulding is regulated in its horizon-
tal dimension, in the breadth or thickness of the
stuff', and the vertical on the adjacent vertical side.
Returning to the moving fillister, the guide is
the bottom surface of a piece of metal which is
regulated by a screw, so as to move it to the re-
quired distance from the sole. Though the
bottom of this piece of metal is properly the
stop, yet it is altogether called a stop by plane
-makers and carpenters; but to avoid a confu-
sion of words, we shall call the bottom of the
slop the vertical guide. The stop moves in a ver-
tical groove in the side of the fillister, and has a
projection with a vertical perforation, which goes
farther into the groove, or into the solid of the
stock. The stop is placed on the right hand side
of the fillister, between the iron and the fore^end
of the plane, and is moved up and down by a
screw, which is inserted in a vertical perfora-
tion from the top of the plane to the groove, and
passes through the perforation in the projecting
part
1 10 JOINERY.
part of the stop, which has a female, or concave
screw adapted to that cut on the convex screw.
The convex screw is always kept stationary by a
plate of raetalj let in flush with the upper side of
the plane; below this plate, and on the same
solid with the screw, is a collar, and above,
another which projects still farther upwards by
way of a lever, for the ease of turning the screw.
This part which turns round, is called the thumb
screw. It is evident, as the axis of the thumb screw
can neither move up or down as it turns round
its axis, the inclination of the threads will rise or
fall according to the direction of the thumb
screw, and cause the stop to move up and down
in the groove on the side of the plane, and thus
the stop may be fixed at pleasure. In this plane,
the opening for discharging the shaving is upon
the riarht side of the dilister, and in this case the
shaving is said by workmen to be thrown on the
bench, that is, upon the right side of the plane;
but when the orifice of discharge is upon the left,
and consequently the shaving thrown upon the
left, the plane is said to throw the shaving off
the bench, and these expressions are applyed to
all planes which throw the shavings to one side.
In the moving fillister, as well as in several
other planes, the upper part on the sides of the
stock is thinner than the lower part, this part is
called the hand-hold, and the thick part the
body. In the moving fillister, the reduction
made
JOINERY. 1 1 1
tiiade for the hand-hold is equally upon both
sides of the plane, that is, the rebates are of equal
depth. The edges of these rebates, which is the
upper surface of the body, are called shoulders ;
this plane is therefore double shouldered. The
same appellation is given to the iron, when a part
is taken from one or both sides, so as to make
the upper part equally broad, but the sides pa-
rallel to the sides of the bottom part. The part
of the iron so diminished, is called the tang of
the iron, and the broad part at the bottom,
which has the cutting edge, is called the web,
and the upper narrow surfaces of the web are
called the shoulders of the iron, in analogy to
those of the plane. The iron of the moving fil-
lister is only single shouldered. Besides the
above-mentioned parts, the moving fillister has
another, which is a small one-shouldered iron,
inserted in a vertical mortice, through the body,
between the fore end of the stock and the iron.
The web of this little iron is ground with a
round basil, from the left side, so as to bring
the bottom of the narrow side of the iron to a
v«ry convex edge. This little iron is fastened by
a wedge, upon the right side of the hand- hold,
passing down the mortice in the body. The use
of this little iron is principally for cutting the
wood transversely when wrought across the fibres,
and by this means it not only cuts the vertical
side of the rebate quite smooth, but prevents the
iron
11^ JOINERY.
iron from ragging cr tearing the stuff. The
■whole of this little iron is called a tooth, and
the bottom part may be distinguished by the
name of ihe cutter. The cutter must, therefore,
stand out a little farther on the right hand side
of the plane than the iron, but must never be
placed nearer to the fence than the narrow right-
hand side of the iron. In this plane, the steel
side of the iron, and consequently the bedding
side of it, is not perpendicular to the vertical
sides of the plane, but makes oblique angles
therewith, the right hand point of the cutting
edge of the iron being nearer to the fore end of
the plane than the left hand point of the cut-
ting edge. By this obliquity, the bottom of the
rebate is cut smoother, particularly in a trans-
verse direction to the fibres, or where the stuff
is cross grained, than could otherwise be done
when the steel face of the iron is perpendicular
to the vertical sides of the plane. The principal
use is however, to contribute, with the form of
the cavity, to throw the shaving into a cylindri-
cal form, and thereby making it issue from one
side of the plane.
§ 21. Of the Sash Fillister in general,
(Pl. 1. Fig. 6.)
The sash fillister is a rebating plane for re-
ducing the right hand side of the stuff to a re-
bate, and is mostly used in rebating the bars of
3 sashes
JOINERY. 113
sashes for the glass, and is therefore called a
sash fillister. The construction of this plane
differs in several particulars from the moving
fillister. The breadth of the iron is somethingmore
than the whole breadth of the sole, so that the ex-
tremities of the cutting edge are, in a small de-
gree, without the vertical sides of the stock. In
the moving fillister, the fence is upon the bot-
tom of the plane, and always between the two
vertical sides of the stock; but in this it may be
moved to a considerable distance, the limit of
which will be afterwards mentioned. The fence
is not moved, as in the moving fillister, bj screws
fixed in the bottom, but by two bars, which
pass through the two vertical sides of the stock
at right angles to their sides, fitting the two
holes exactly through which they pass in the
stock. Each of the bars which thus passes
through the stock, is called a stem, and are
rounded on the upper side, for the convenience/
of handling. That part of each stem, project-
ing from the left hand side of the plane, has a
projection downwards, of the same thickness as
the parts which pass through the stock ; the bot-
tom sides of these projections are flat surfaces,
parallel to the sole of the plane; the other two
sides of the said projections are also straight sur-
faces, parallel to the vertical sides of the plane,
and are called the shoulders, so that each stem
has three vertical straight surfaces. The left end
I of
114 JOINJERY.
of each stem, viz. the end on the left side of the
stock, opposite to the shoulder, may be of any
fanciful form. The end of each stem which
contains the projection, is called the head of the
stem. To each of the heads of the stem, and
under each of the lower flat surfaces of the pro-
jecting parts, is fixed a piece of wood by iron
pins, passing vertically through each head, and
through this piece; one of the sides of this piece,
next to the stock of the plane, is vertical, and
goes about half an inch lower than the sole. The
small part of each stem, from the head to the
other extremity on the right hand of the stock, is
called the tail. The prismatic part is by work-
men called the fence. That surface of the fence
next to the stock of the plane, and parallel to
the vertical faces, is called the guide of the
fence. The pins which connect the stem and
fence, have their head? on the under side of the
fence; the heads are of a conical form; the up-
per ends of the pins are rivetted upon a brass
plate on the round surface of the stem. These
pins fix the two stems and the fence stiffly to-
gether, but not so much as to prevent either
stem from turning round upon the fence, or to
make oblique angles with the guide. The upper
surface of each stem is rounded, and the two
ends ferruled, to prevent splitting when the ends
are hit or struck with a mallet, in order to move
the guide of the fence either nearer or more re-
mote
(
JOINERY* 115
tiiote from the stock, as may be wanted. On the
most remote opposite, or vertical sides of the
stem, and close to these sides, are cut two small
wedge-formed mortices, in wiiich are inserted
two small tapering pieces of wood called keys;
so that when driven in, or towards the mortice,
they will stick fast, and press against the stem,
?ind keep it fast at all points of the tail, and
thereby regulate the distance of the fence from
the left vertical side of the stock. In order
to prevent the keys from being drawn out, or
loosing, each has a small elliptic nob at the nar-
row end, which is also of greater breadth than
the mortice upon the left vertical side of the stock,
Therearetwo kinds of sash fillisters, one for throw-
ing the shaving or the bench, and the other for
throwing it oft': their construction is the same so
far as have been described.
§ 22. The Fillister which throws the Shavings on
the Bench f Pl. 1 . Fig. 6. )
Has its discharging orifice in course upon the
right hand vertical side of the stock, and the left
extremity of the cutting edge of the iron is nearer
to the fore end of the plane, than the right hand
extremity of the said edge. On the left side of
the stock, and from the sole, is a rebate, the
depth of which is equal to the depth of the re-
bate made on the stutf. The upper side of the
fence ranges exactly with the side of the rebate
I 2 which
116 JOINERY.
which is parallel to the sole of the plane, and bys
this means, the guide of the fence maj be brought
quite close to the vertical side of the rebate, or
as far upon the side of the rebate, parallel to the
sole of the plane, as may be found necessary.
The depth of the rebate to be made in the stuff,
is regulated by a stop, which coincides vertically
with the vertical side of the rebate; the guide of
the stop is parallel to the sole of the plane, and
the stop is moved up and down by a thumb
screw, in the same manner as that of the moving
fillister, but not in a groove on the side of the
plane, but in a mortice : the side of the rebate
parallel to the sole of the plane, is morticed up*
wards, that the guide may be screwed up so as
to be flush with that side of the rebate. The
iron of this plane is single shouldered, and the
projection of the web at the bottom, beyond the
tang, is on the right hand side of the plane, and
consequently the narrow side of the tang and web
parts of the iron are in the same straight line.
§ 23. Of the Sash Fillister for thronoing the
Shavings off" the Bench.
The sash fillister which throws the shavings off
the bench, differs only from the last, in having
no rebate on the left hand side of the plane; the
s^^p slides in a vertical groove on the left hand
vertical side of the stock, in the same manner as
the stop of the moving fillister, and not in a ver-
tical mortice cut in the vertical side of the body
of
JOINERY. 117
of the plane : it has also a cutter on the left side,
in order to cut the vertical side of the rebate
dean. One extremity of the cutting edge of the
iron, on the right hand side of the plane, is
nearer to the fore, end than the other, conse-
quently the steel face of the iron makes angles
with the vertical sides of the plane the contrary
way to the sash fillister, which throws the shav-
ings on the bench.
§ 24. Rebating Planes without a Fence.
Rebating planes which have no fence, are of
two kinds : in both, the cutting edge of the iron
extends the whole breadth of the sole ; ^nd the
upper part of the stock is solid on the two vertical
sides, but the lower part is open on both sides ;
the opening increases from the sole regularly up-
wards, until it comes to a large cavity, which
opens abruptly into a curved form on the side
next to the fore end of the plane. The web of
the iron is equally shouldered on both sides of
the tang.
§ 25. Skew-mouthed Rebating Plane.
The thickest stocks, or broadest sole planes,
of this description, are made with the face of
the iron standing at oblique angles with the ver-
tical sides. The right hand extremity of the
cutting edge of the iron, stands nearer to the
fore end of the plane than the left hand extre-
mity of the said cutting edge, and the large ca-
vity is greater upon the left side of the plane
than
118 JOINERY. .
than upon the right. The shaving is iherefore
thrown off the bench. The use of this plane is
not for sinking the rebate^ but rather for smooth-
ing the bottom, after the moving fillister^ or after
the sash fillister, next to the \ertical edge of the
rebate : In this manner it is used in cleaning the
bottom entirely of rebates which do not exceed
the breadth of its sole ; but where the rebate
exceeds this breadth, it is only used next to the
vertical side of thr rebate as before, and the re-
maining part of the bottom of the rebate is clean-
ed off with the trying and smoothing planes.
When the iron is set at oblique angles to the ver-
tical siJes of the plane, the cutting edge of the
sole is said to stand askew, that is, at oblique
angles with the sides of the plane. This is there-
fore called a skew rebating plane. The thickness
of this rebating plane is about If of an inch.
§ 26. Square-moutlied Rebating Planes.
The common rebating planes have the steel
side of the iron, or the bed, perpendicular to the
vertical sides of the stock, and throw the shav-
ing off the bench, the cavity for the discharge of
the shaving is much the same as the skew rebat-
ing plane, and since the shaving is thrown off the
bench, the widest side of the cavity is on the left
hand side of the stock, to clean the internal
angles of fillets^ and the bottoms of grooves,
&c.
§27. Side
JOINERY. ,119
§ 27. Side Relating Planes.
Are those which have their cutting edge on
one side of the plane, and discharge the shaving
at the other, the lower part of the stock is there-
fore open upon both sides. The use of this plane
is to clean or plane the vertical sides of rebates,
grooves, &c: for this purpose, they are made
both right and left ; a right hand side rebating
plane has its cutting edge on the right hand side
of the plane, and consequently throws the shav-
ing off the bench, and the contrary of the left
hand rebating plane. The side of the plane
containing the mouth, is altogether vertical ; but
the opposite side is only in part so, from the top
downwards to soiiiething more than half the
height, then recessed and bevelled with a taper
to the sole; the orifice of d ;• harge for the
shaving is bevelled. The ire./ 4 lands askew, or
at oblique angles with the mouth side, but per-
pendicular with regard to the sole or top of the
plane, the cutting edge stands nearer to the fore
end, than the opposite edge. The mortice for
the wedge of the iron is without a cavity, as in
the other rebating planes, and the iron shoulder-
ed upon one side. The web is cut sloping to
answer the beveling of the stock.
'§28. The Plough (Pl. 1. Fig. 8.)
Is used in taking away a solid in the form of
a rectangular prism, by sinking any where in the
upper surface, but not close to the edge, and
thereby leaving an excavation or hollow, consist-
ing
120 JOINERY.
ing of three straight surfaces^ forming two in-
ternal right angles with each other, and the two
vertical sides, two external right angles with the
upper surface of the stuff. The channel cut is
called a groove, and the operation is called
grooving or plowing. The plow consists of a
stock, a fence, and a stop. There are two kinds
of plows, one where the fence and stop is im-
rnoveable, and the other which is universal, of
which, both fence and stop are moveable, and
willadmit of eight or ten irons of various breadths,
from J of an inch to ^. This is what I shall
chiefly describe. The fence has two stems with
keys and a stop, moved by a thumb screw, as in
the moving fillister for throwing the shaving on
the bench. The sole of this plane is the bottom
narrow side of two vertical iron plates, which
are something thinner than the narrowest iron.
The wedge and iron are inserted in the same
manner as iu the rebating planes, the fore end
of the hind plate fbrms the lower part of the
bed of the iron, and has a projecting angle in
the middle, and the bed side of each angle has
an external angle adapted to the same. This
prevents the iron from being removed by the re-
sistance of knots or such sudden obstacles : the
fore iron plate is cut with a cavity similar to
the common rebate planes. The stop is placed
between the fence and sole : this plane is in length
about 7| inches, and in depth Sf j and the length
pf each stem 8|,
§29. Dado
JOINERY. 121
§ 29. Dado grooving Plane
Is a channel plane, generally about |. of an
inch broad on the sole, with a double cutter and
and stop, both placed before the edge of the iron
which stands askew, it throws the shaving off the
bench. The best kind of dado grooving planes
have screw stops of brass and iron; the common
sort are made of wood, to slide stiffly in a ver-
tical mortice, and arc moved by the blow of a
hammer or mallet, by striking the head, when
the groove is required to be shallow: but when
required to be deep, and consequently the stop
to be driven back, a wooden punch must be
placed upon the bottom of the stop, and the
head of the punch struck with the hammer or
mallet, until the guide of the stop arrives at the
distance from the sole of the plane that the groove
is to be in depth : the use of this plane is for
tonguing dado at internal angles, for keying cir-
cular dado, grooving for library shelves, or work-
ing a broad rebate across the fibres.
§ 30. Moulding Planes
Are used in forming curved surfaces of many*
various fanciful prismatic sections, by way of
ornament; these surfaces have therefore this pro-
perty, that all parallel sections are similar figures.
Single mouldings or different mouldings in as-
semblage have various names, according to their
iigure, combination, or situation ; mouldings are
formed
122 JOINERY,
formed either by a plane reversed to the intended
section, by a fence and stop on the plane, which
causes them to have the same transverse section
throughout, or otherwise, by several planes
adapted as nearly as possible to the different de-
grees of curvature ; this is called working mould-
ings by hand. All new or fanciful forms are
generally wrought by hand, and particularly in
an assemblage of mouldings, where it would be
too expensive to make planes adapted to the
whole section, or to any particular member or
members of that section. The length of mould-
ing planes is 9| inches, and the depth about 31.
Mouldings are said to be stuck when formed by
planes, and the operation is called sticking. In
mouldings, all internal sinkings which have one
flat side, and one convex curved side, are called
quirks.
§31. Bead Plane
Is a moulding plane of a semi-cylindric con-
tour, and is generally usedin sticking a moulding
of the same name on the edge, or on the side
close to the arris: when the bead is stuck upon
the edge of a piece of stuff, so as to form a
semi-cylindric surface to the whole thickness, the
edge is said to be beaded or rounded. When a
bead is stuck on, and from one edge on the upper
surface of a piece of stuff, so that the diameter
raay be contained in the breadth of that surface^
but
JOINERY, 123
but not to occupy the whole breadth : then the
member so formed has a channel or sinking on
the farther side, called a quirk, and is therefore
called bead and quirk. When the edge of a
piece of stuff has been stuck with bead and
quirk ; then the vertical side turned upwards and
stuck from the same edge in the same manner,
another quirk will bfi formed upon this side, pro-
vided the breadth of this side be equal to that of
the bead ; then the curved surface will be |: of a
cylinder, this is called bead and double quirk or
return bead. The fence is of a solid piece with
the plane. The guide of the fence is parallel to
the sides of the plane, and tangential to the con-
cave cylindric surface, and its lower edge comes
about J or I of an inch below the cylindrical part,
the other edge of the cylindrical part forms one
side of the quirk, and is on a level with the top
of the guide of the fence. The other side of
the quirk is a vertical straight surface, and reaches
as high as the most prominent part of the cylin-
dric surface of the bead. From the upper edge
of this flat side of the quirk, and at right angles
to the vertical sides of the plane, proceeds the
guide of the stop, which prevents the bead from
sinking deeper than the semi-diameter of the cy-
linder, and the guide of the fence prevents the
plane from taking more of the breadth than the
diameter. When one two, or more, contiguous
senai-cylinders are sunk within thesurface of a piece
of
124 JOINERY.
fef wood, with the prominent parts of the curved
surface of each, in the same surface as that from
which they were sunk, this operation is called
reeding, being done in imitation of one or a
bundle of reeds, and each little cylinder is called
a reed. In this case, the axis of the reeds is in
the same straight surface : but this is not always
the case, they are sometimes disposed round a
staff or rod. Bead planes are sometimes so con-r
Etructed, as to have the fence taken off or on at
pleasure, by screws, for the purpose of striking
any series of reeds. When the fence is taken off,
the two sides form quirks, and are exactly simi-
lar and equal to each other.
The least sized bead is about ^ of an inch, the
next Yx> t^6 regular progression stand thus :
h XX' tV h ^3. h h h h i' the first two only
differs -3-^5 the next three ^'^, and from | to 7. of
an inch, they differ by |- of an inch each, the ^
and J inch beads are torus planes as well as bead
planes. The torus only differs from the bead iu
having a fillet upon the outer edge of the stuff:
consequently the torus consists of a fillet and
semi-cylinder. It may be observed, that whethejr
there be one or two semi-cylinders stuck on the
€dp-e of a piece of stuff, that without there is a
fillet upon the edge they only take the name of
beads. Thetorus is in general much larger than the
bead : but when there are two semi-cylinders with
a fillet upon the outer edge, the combination js
called
JOINERY. ' Vlh
called a double torus, and if there is no fillet, it
is called a double bead, even though the one
should be much larger than the other,
§ 32. A SnipesMll
Is a moulding plane for forming a quirk:
snipesbills are of two kinds, one for sinking the
quirk, called a sinking snipesbill, and the other
for cleaning the vertical flat side of the quirky
called a side snipesbill. Each of these two kinds
are right and left.
In the sinking snipesbill the cutting edge is oa
the sole, and the extremity of the iron comes
close to the side of the plane, which forms the
vertical side of the quirk ; the sole consists of
two parts of a cylindric surface of contrary cur-
vature: one next to the edge which forms the
quirk, is concave, and the part more remote,
is convex.
The side snipesbill has its iron placed very
nearly perpendicular, with regard to the sole of
the plane, the top of the iron leaning about five
degrees forward: this plane has its cutting edge
upon one side or the other, according to the side
or to the hand it is made for. The iron stands
askew to the vertical sides of the plane.
§ 33. Hollows and Hounds
Are mouldings for striking convex and concave
cylindrical surfaces^ or any segment or parts of
these
126 JOINERY,
these surfaces; they have therefore their soles
exactly the reverse of what is intended. Hollows
and rounds are not confined to cylindric surfaces^
but will also stick those of cylindirdal forms,
or those which have elliptic sections^ perpendicu-
lar to the direction of the motion by which they
are wrought. Mouldings depressed within the
surface of a piece of wood, or those which form
quirks, must first be sunk by the snipesbill, and
formed into the intended shape by hollows and
rounds. The hollow is only used in finishing a
convex moulding ; the rough is generally taken
off with the jack plane, when there is room to
apply it, if not, with the firmer chissel. In
making of a hollow, a rough excavation is first
made with a gouge, and then finished with the
round, and sometimes with two rounds, of which
the sole of the one that comes first is a little
quicker, and the iron set more rank.
§ 34'. Stock and Bits. ( Pl. 2. Fig. 1. >
The stock is a wooden lever, to be turned
round an axis swiftly by hand, in order to give
the same rotative motion round the axis,
to a piece of steel fixed in the said axis, the
steel being sharpened at the extremity, so as
to cut a cylindric hole, in the same direction as
the axis of the stock.
The axis is continued on both sides of the
handle or winch part; one part of the axis is made
■with
JOINERY. i27
with a broad head, to be placed against the
breast while boring, even when pressing pretty
hard upon the stock, and is so constructed with
a joint, as to be stationary, while all the other
parts are in motion ; the lower part of the stock
is of brass, and is fixed to it by means of a screw
passing through two ears of the brass part, and
through the solid of the wood. The brass part
is called the pad, which is so contrived, as to
admit of different pieces of steel called bits, for
boring and widening holes of various diameters
in wood, and countersinking, both in wood and
iron; that is, forming a cavity er hollow cone oa
the outer side of a cylindric hole to receive the
head of a screw, or the like. The upper part of
each bit inserted in the stock, is the frustrum of
a square pyramid, which goes into a hollow
mortice of the same form, and is secured by
means of a spring fixed in the pad, and which
falls into a notch at the upper end of the bit.
The construction of bits depends upon their
use. Small bits are used for boring of wood, and
have an interior cavity for containing the core,
separated from the wood by the under edge. The
lower part of the cavity is the surface of a cy-
linder, and the upper part where the cavity ends
is a part of a long hollow oblong spheroid, ter-
minated upon the sides of the bit: the exterior
side is also c^-lindrical, as high as that of the
interior, and thence diminishes for a considerable
way
12S JOINERY.
way above the hollow, that it may turn in the
hole with the greater ease. The section of the
bit is the figure of a crescent. The cutting edge
has its basil on the inside^ and stands prominent
in the middle ; this bit is also called a pin or
gouge bit, from its being mostly used in framing:
it bores soft wood, as deal, with greater rapidity
than any other tool,
§ 35. The Cenlre Bit
Is constructed with a projecting conical point
nearly in the middle, called the centre of the
bit ; on the narrow vertical surface, the one most
remote from the centre is a tooth with a cutting
edge. The under edge of the bit on the other
side of the center, has a projecting edge inclined
forward. The horizontal section of this bit up-
wards is a rectangle. The axis of the small
cone in the centre is in the same straight line as
that of the stock ; the cutting edge of the tooth
is more prominent than the projecting edge on
the other side of the centre, and the vertex of
the conic centre, still more prominent than the
cutting edge of the tooth.
The use of the centre bit is to form a cylrndric
excavation, having the upper point of the axis
of the intended hole, given on the surface of the
wood : the centre of the bit is first fixed in this
point, then placing the axis of the stock and bit
in the axis of the intended hole to be bored, with
the
JOINEHY. 129
the head of the stock against your breast, lay
hold of the handle and turn the stock swiftly
round; fhen the hollow cone made by the centre
will cause the point of the tooth to move in the
circumference of a circle, and cut the cylindric
surface progressively as it is turned round, and
the projecting edge upon the other side of the
centre, will cut out the core in a spiral formed
shaving: centre bits are of various sizes in order
to accommodate bores of different diameters.
§ 36. Countersinks
Are bits for v^idening the upper part of a hole
in wood or iron, for the head of a screw or pin,
and have a conical head. Those for wood have
one cutter in the conic surface, and have the cut-
ting edge more remote from the axis of the conei
than any other part of the surface. Countersinks
for brass have 11 or 12 cutters round the conic
surface, so that the horizontal section represents
a circular saw. These are called rose counter-
sinks. The conic angle at the vertex is about 90
degrees. Countersinks for iron have two cutting
edges, forming an obtuse angle.
§ 37. Rimers
Are bits for widening holes : for this purpose
they are of a pyramidal structure, having their
vertical angle about 3| degrees. The hole must
first be pierced by means of a drill or punch ;
K when
130 ^ JOINERY.
when the rimer is put into the stock, and the
point into the hole, and being turned swiftly
round, the edges will cut or scrape off the in-
terior surface of the hole as it sinks downwards,
by pressing upon the head of the stock. Brass
rimers have their horizontal sections of a semi-
circular figure, and those for iron polygonal : of
these some have their sections square, some hexa-
gonal, and some octagonal.
§ 38. The Taper Shell Bit
Is conical both within and without, and the
horizontal section a crescent^ thecuttingedgeisthe
meetingof the exterior and interior conic surface.
The use of this bit is for widening holes in wood.
Besides the above bits, some stocks are pro-
vided with a screw driver for sinking small screws
into wood with greater rapidity than could be
done by hand.
§ 39. The Brad Awl (Pl.2. Fig. 3.)
Is the smallest boring tool, its handle is the
frustum of a cone tapering downwards. The
steel part is also conical, but tapering upwards,
and the cutting edge is the meeting of two basils,
ground equally from each side. A hole is made
by placing the edge transverse to the fibres of
the wood, and pushing the brad awl into the
wood, turning it to and fro by a reciprocal
motion. The core is not brought out as by the
' other
JOINERY. 131
other boring instruments ; but the wood is dis-
placed and condensed around the hole. Brad
awls are used for making a way for brads, and are
of several sizes ; they are not so apt to split the
wood as the gimblet.
^ 40. Chissels in general, (Pl. 2. Figs. 3, 4, 5. )
A chissel is art edge tool for cutting wood,
either by leaning on it, or by striking it with a
mallet. The lower part of the chissel is the
frustum of a cuneus or wedge, the cutting edge
is always on, and generally at right angles to the
side. The basil is o-round entirely from one side.
The two sides taper in a small degree upward^
but the two narrow surfaces taper downwards in
a greater degree. The upper part of the iron
has a shoulder, which is a plain surface at right
angles to the middle line of the chissel. From
this plane surface rises a prong in the form of a
square pyramid, the middle line of which is the
same as the middle line of the cuneus or wedsre:
the prong is inserted and fixed in a socket of a
piece of wood of the same form. This piece
of wood is called the handle, and is generally
the frustum of an octagonal pyramid, the mid-
dle line of which is the same as that of the chis-
sel ; the tapering sides of the handle diminish
downwards, and terminate upwards in an octa-
gonal dome. The use of the shoulder is for pre-
venting the prong from splitting the handle while
being struck with the mallet. The chissel is
K. % made
132 JOINERY.
made stronger from the cutting edge to the
shoulder, as it is sometimes used as a lever^ the
prop being at or near the middle^ and the power
at the handle, and the resistance at the cutting
edge ; some chissels are made with iron ou one
side, and steel on the other, and others consist
entirely of steel.
There are several kinds of chissels, as the
paring chissel, the mortice chissel, the socket
chissel, and the ripping chissel.
§ 41. The Firmer Chissel ( Pl. 2. Fig. 4. )
Is used both by carpenters and joiners in cu^
ting away the superfluous wood by thin chips.
The best are made of cast steel.
When there is a great deal of superfluous
wood to be cut away, sometimes a strong chissel
consisting of an iron back and steel face is first
used, by driving it into the wood with a mallet,
and then a slighter one, consisting entirely of
steel sharpened to a very fine edge, is used in the
finish. The first used is called a firmer, and the
last, a pareing chissel, in working which, only
the shoulder or hand is employed in forcing it
into the wood. ^
^42. The Mortice Chissel (Pl. 2. Fig. 5.)
Is made made exceedingly strong, for cutting
out a rectangular prismatic cavity across the
fibres, quite through or very deep in a piece of
wood.
* JOINERY. 133
wood, for the purpose of inserting a rectangular
pin of the same form on the end of another piece
of wood, and thereby fastening the two pieces
of wood together. The cavity is called a mor-
tice, and the pin inserted, a tenon : and the chis-
sel used for cutting out the cavity is therefore
called a mortice chissel. As the thickness of this
chissel from the face to the back is great, in order
to withstand the percusive force of the mallet :
and as the angle which the basil makes with the
face is about 25 degrees, the slant dimension of
the basil is very great. This chissel is only used
by percusive force, given by the mallet.
§43. The Gouge
Is used in cutting an excavation of a concave
form, and is similar to the chissel, except that
the bottom part is cylindrical both within and
without, the basil is made on the inside ; the best
are those which are made of cast steel.
§ 44. . The Drawing Knife
Is an oblique ended chissel^, or old knife, for
drawing in the ends of tenons, by making a
deep incision with the sharp edge, by the edge
of the tongue of a square : for this purpose a
small part is cut out in the form of a triangular
prism, and consequently the hollow will contain
one interior angle and two sides, one side next
the body of the wood being perpendicular, and
the other inclined. The use of this excavation
is
154
JOINERY.
is to enter the saw, and keep it close to the
shoulder, and to make the end of the rail quite
smooth, for the saw will not only be liable to
get out of its course into a new direction, but
may tear and scratch the wood at the shoulder.
§ 45, 0/ Saws in general.
(Pl. 2. Fig. 6, 7, 8, 9, 13.)
A saw is a thin plate of steel indented on the
edge for cutting, by a reciprocal change in the di-
rection of motion, pushing it from, and drawing it
towards you. The cut which it makes, or the
part taken away in a board, is a thin sjice, con-
tained between parallel planes, or a deep narrow
groove of equal thickness. Saws are of several
kinds, as the Ripping saw, the Half ripper, the
Hand saw, the Pannel saw, the Tenon saw, the
Sash saw, the Dove-tail saw, the Compass saw,
and the Key-hole or turning savy. The teeth of
these saws are all formed so as to contain an
angle of 60 degrees, both external and internal
angles, and incline more or less forward as the
saw is made to cut transverse to, or in the direc-
tion of the fibres: they are also of different
lengths and breadths, according to their use.
The teeth of a saw are bent alternately to each
side, that the plate may clear the wood.
§ 46. The Bipping Saiv
Is used in dividing or slitting wood in the di-
rection of the fibrejj., the teeth are very large,
there
JOINERY. 135
tliere being 8 in 3 inches, and the front of the
teeth stand perpendicular to the line which ranges
with the points : the length of the plate is about
^8 inches.
§ 47. The Half Ripper
Is also used in dividing wood in the direction
of the fibres: the length of the plate of this k
the same as the fornier, but there are only 3
teeth in the inch.
§48. The Hand Saw (Pl. 3. Fig. 6.)
Is both used for cutting the wood in a direc-
tion of the fibres and cross cutting: for this pur-
pose the teeth are more reclined than the two
former saws: there are 15 teeth contained in
4 inches. The length of the plate is 26 inches.
§ 49. The Pannel Saw
Is used for cutting very thin wood, either in a
direction of, or transverse to the fibres. The
length of the plate is the same as that of the
hand saw; but there are only about 6 teeth in the
inch. The plates of the hand saw and pannd
saw are thinner than the ripping saw.
§ 50. The Tenon Saw (Pl. 2. Fig. 7.)
Is generally used for cutting wood transverse
to the fibres, as the shoulders of tenons. The
plates of a tenon saw is from 14 to 19 inches in
length.
136 JOINERY.
length, and the number of teeth in an inch from
8 to 10. As this saw is not intended to cut through
the wood its whole breadth, and as the plate
■would be too thin to make a straight kerf, or to
keep it from buckling, there is a thick piece of
iron fixed upon the other edge for this purpose,
called the back. The opening through the han-
dle for the fingers of this and the foregoing saws
is inclosed all round; and on this account is
called a double handle.
§51. The Sash Saw (Pl. 2. Fig. 8.)
Is used b}' sash makers in forming the tenons
of sashes: the plate is II inches in length. The
inch contains about 13 teeth ; this saw is some-
tirjacs backed with iron, but more frequently with
)}rass.
§ 52. The Dove-tail Saw
Is used in dove-tailing drawers. The length
of the plate is about 9 inches, and the inch con-
tains about 15 teeth. This plate is also backed
with brass. The handles of the two last saws
are onlj single.
§ 53. The Co7ivpass Sazv ( Pl. 2. Fig. 9. )
Is for cutting the surfaces of wood into curved
surfaces: for this purpose it is narrow, with-
out a back, thicker on the cutting edge, as the
teeth have no set. The plate is about an inch
broad.
JOINERY. 137
broad/ next to the handle, and diminishes to
about one quarter of an inch at the other ex-
tremity, here are about 5 teeth in the inch, Tlie
handle is single.
§ 54, The Key-hole or Turning Saw
(Pl.2. Fig. 10.)
Is similar to the compass saw in the plate, but
the handle is long, and perforated from end to
end, so that the plate may be inserted any dis-
tance within the handle. The lower part of the
handle is provided with a pad, through which is
inserted a screw, for the purpose of fastening the
plate in the handle: this saw is used for turning
out quick curves, as key-holes, and is therefore
frequently called a key-hole saw,
§ 55. The Hatchet
Is a small axe, used chiefly in cutting away
the superfluous wood from the edge of a piece
of stuff*, when the part to be cut away ia too
email to be sawed.
§ 56. The Square (Pl. 2. Fig. U.)
Consists of two rectangular prismatic pieces of
wood, or one of wood, and the other, which is
the thinest, of steel, flxed together, each at one
of their extremities, so as to form a right angle
both internally and externally ; the interior right
angle is therefore called the inner square, and the
exterior one the outer square. The side of the
square
138 JOINERY.
square which contains the mortice, or through
which the end of the other piece passes, is made
yerj thick, not only that it may be strong enough
for containing the tenon of the other piece, but
that it should keep steady and fiat when used,
and the piece which contains the tenon is made
thin, in order to observe more clearly whether
the edge of the square and the wood coin-
cide. The thick side of the square is called
the stock or handle, and the narrow surface of
the handle is always applied to the vertical sur-
face of the wood. The thin side of the square
is called the blade, and the inner edge of the
blade is always applied ta tli« horizontal surface
of th« wood. Squares are of different dimen-
sions according to their use : some are employed
in trying-up-wood, and some for setting out
work, the former is called a trying square, and
the latter a setting-out-square ; the blade ought
to be of steel, and always ought to project be-
yond the end of the stock, particularly if made
of wood. The stock is always made thick that
it may be used as a kind of fence in keeping
the blade at right angles to the arris.
§ 57. To 'prove a Square.
Take a straight edged board which has been
faced up, and apply the inner edge of the stock
of the square to the straight edge of the board,
laying
JOINERY. 139
|a_ylng the side of the tongue upon the face of
the board ; with a sharp point draw a line upon
the surface of the board by the edge of the
square: turn the square so that the other side of
the blade may lie upon the face of the board ;
bring the stock close to the straight edge of the
board, then if the edge of the square does not lie
pver the line, or any part of the line, the square
must be shifted until it does, then if the edge
of the tongue of the square and the line coincide,
the square is already true : but if there is an open
space between the farther side of the board and
the straight edge, that is, if the farther end of
the edge of the tongue of the square meets the
farther end of the line from the straight edge,
draw another line by the edge of the tongue of
the square, and these two lines will form an acute
angle with each other, the vertex of which will
be at the farther side of the board, and the open-
ing towards the straight edge : take the mid-
dle of the distance between the two lines at the
arris, and draw a line from the middle point to
the point of concourse of the lines: then the blade
of the square must be shot or made straight,
so as to coincide with this last line. The same,
or a similar operation must be repeated, if the
contrary way.
§ 58. The
i4<^ JOINERY.
§58. The Bevel {Fl. 2. Fig. \2.)
Consists of a blade and handle the same as the
square, except that the tongue is made moveable
on a joint that it may be set to any angle. When
many pieces of stuft' are to be tryed up to a par-
ticular anoxic, an immoveable bevel ought to be
made for the purpose, for unless very great care
be taken in laying down the moveable bevel, it
will be liable to shift.
§ 59. The Gauge (Pl. 2. Fig. 13.)
Is an instrument for drawing a line parallel
to the arris of a piece of stuff, on one or both
of the adjoining surfaces. It consists of a thick
rectangular prismatic part, with a mortice of the
same figure, cut perpendicularly through it be-
tween two of its opposite sides, and this prism is
called the head. In the mortice is inserted an-
other prism exactly made to fill its cavity, this
prism is called the stem ; at one end of the stem is a
steel tooth projecting perpendicularly from the
surface, so that by striking one end or other with
the mallet, the tooth is moved farther or nearer
to the adjacent surface of the head, as the dis-
tance may be wanted between the arris of the
stuff and the line to be marked out by the tooth.
60. The Mortice Gauge
Is constructed similar to the common gauge,
but has two teeth instead of one. One tooth is
stationary
JOINERY. 141
stationary at the end of the stem, and the other
is moveable in a mortice between the fixed tooth
and the head, so that the distances of the teeth
from each other, and of each tooth from the
head may be set in any ratio or proportion to each
other, that the thickness of a tenon or wood may
require. The use of thi^ gauge is as its name
imphes, for gauging mortices and tenons.
§ 61. Tlie Side Hook (Pl. 1. Fig. 11.)
Is a rectangular prismatic piece of wood with
two projecting knobs upon the alternate sides of
it. Every Joiner ought to be provided with at
least two side hooks of equal size. Their use is
to hold a board fast, the fibres of the board run-
ning in the direction of the length of the bench,
while the workman is cutting across the fibres
with a saw or grooving plane, or in travesing the
wood, which is planing in a direction perpendi-
cular to the fibres, or with very little obliquity,
§ 62. The Mitre Box
Is used for cutting a piece of tried-up stuff at
an angle of 45 degrees with two of its surfaces,
or at least to one of the arrises, and perpendicular
to the other two sides, or at least to one of them
obliquely to the fibres. The mitre box consists
of three boards, two, called the sides being fix-
ed at right angles to a third, called the bottom :
the bottom and top of the sides are all parallel:
the
142 JOINEKY.
the sides are of equal height, and cut with a ^arw
in two directions of straight surfaces at right
angles to each other and to the bottom^ forming
an angle of 45 degrees with the sides.
§ 63. The Shooting Block
Is two boards fixed together, the sides of
which are lapped upon each other, so as to form
a rebate for the purpose of making a short joint,
either oblique to the fibres or in their direction.
By this instrument thejoints of pannels for fram-
ing are made, also the joints for the mitres of
Architraves, or the like.
§ 64. The Straight Edge
Is a piece of stuff or board made perfectly
straight on the edge, in order to make other edges
straight, or to plane the face of a board straight.
Straight edges are of different dimensions as
the magnitude of the work may require.
§ 65. Winding Sticks
Are two pieces of wood of equal breadth for
the purpose of ascertaining whether a surface be
straight or not, if not, the surface must be brought
to a straight by trial.
§66. The Mitre Square
Is so called, because it bisects the right
angle, or mitres the square, and is therefore an
immoveable bevel, made to strike an angle af
forty
JOINERY. 143
forty-five degrees with one side or ege of a piece
of s^uff, upon the adjoining side or edge of the
said piece of stuff: it consists of a broad (hiu
board let in, or tongued into a piece on the edge,
called the fence or handle; the fence projects
equally upon each side of the thin piece or blade,
of which one of the edges is made to contain an
angle of 45 degrees with the nearest edge of the
handle, or of that in which the blade is inserted.
The inside of the handle is called the guide ; the
handle may be about an inch thick, 2 inches
broad, the blade about a ^ of an inch, or about
^ and V^. The blade may be about 7 or 8 inches
broad; but mitre squares must be of various
sizes, according to the work, and consequently
of different thicknesses.
To use the mitre square, lay the guide of the
handle upon the arris, slide it along the stuff
until the oblique edge comes to the place re-
quired, then draw a line by this edge ; the angle
of the mitre may be struck either way, according
to the ^direction required, by turning the mitre
square,
§ 67. Explanations
144 JOINERY,
§ 67. Explanations of the Plates in Joineri/^
PLATE I. TOOLS.
Fig. 1 the Jack Plane, a the stocky & the tote
or handle, being a single tote, c the iron, d the
•wedge for tightening the iron, e the orifice or
place of discharge for the shavings.
Fig. 2 the Trying Plane, the parts are the
same as the jack plane, except that the hollow
of the tote is surrounded with wood, and is
therefore called a double tote.
Fig. 3 is the Smoothing Plane without a tote,
the hand-hold being at the hind end of the plane.
Fig. 4 the Iron, No. 1 the cover for breaking
the shaving screwed upon the top of the iron, in
order io prevent the tearing of the wood, in a
front view : No. 2 front of the iron without the
cover, showing the slit for the screw which fastens
the cover to the iron : No. 3 profile of iron and
cover screwed together.
Fig. 5 the Wedge for tightening the iron :
No. 1 longitudinal section of the wedge: No. ^
front, showing the hollow below for the head of
the screw.
Fig. 6 Sash Fillister, for throwing on the
bench, a head of one stem, b tail of the other,
c iron, <:Z wedge, e thumb screw for moving the
stop up and down, ff fence for regulating the
distance of the rebate from the arris.
Fig.
?_>w;'^<^^J^.
J'lat^l.
€
Ti?^.
Zon^mJhiK^/irJMnW, tffJwiv.ZZ^y&aKS^A^olitVTl .
J2
JOINERY. 145
Fig. 7 Moving Fillister for throwing the shav-
ing on the bench: No. 1 right hand side of the
plane, rt brass stop, ftthumbscrewof do, cde tooth,
the upper part c cl on the outside of the neck, and
the part dc passing thiough the solid of the
body with a small part open above, e for the tang
of the iron tooth, ff the guide of the fence :
No. 2 bottom of the plane turned up, a the guide
of the stop, ./y the fence, showing the screws for
regulating the guide, gg the mouth and cutting
edge of the iron.
Fig. 8 the Plow, the same with regard to the
stem fence and stop, and also in other respects
as the sash fillister, except the sole, which is a
narrow iron.
Fig. 9 the Mallet.
Fig. 10 the Hammer.
Fig. 1 1 the Side Hook for cutting the shoulders
of tenons.
Fig. 12 the Work Bench, a the bench hook,
1) b the screw check, c c handle of screw, d end
of guide.
PLATE If.
146 JOINERY.
PLATE 11. TOOLS.
Fig. 1 Stock, into which is fixed a centre bif.
Fig. 2 No. 1 the Girablet: No. 3 the lower
part at full size.
Fig. 3 No. 1 the Brad Awl : No. 2 the lower
end turned edge-wajs: No. 3 the lower end turn-
ed side-wajs.
Fig. 4 No. 1 the Paring Chissel : No. 2 the
lower end turned edge-ways with the basil.
Fig. 5 the Mortice Chissel : No. 1 side of the
chissel: No. 2 front: No. Slower end with the
basil.
Fig. 6 Hand Saw.
Fig. 7 Tenon Saw, with back generally of iron.
Fig. 8 Sash Saw, backed generally with brass.
Fig. 9 Compass Saw for cutting curved pieces
of wood.
Fig. 10 Key-hole Saw a the pad in which are
inserted a spring and two screws, for fixing the ,
saw to any length.
JV. B. The Hand Saw and Tenon Saw have
what are called double handleSj and the Tenon
and Compass Saws single handles. The position
and form of the handle depends on the position
of the working direction of the saw.
Fig. 11 the Square, ah c the outer square, def
the inner square, af?e the stock or handle, bcfe
the blade.
Fig. 12 the Moveable Bevel, n h the stock,
d c the blade.
Fig. 13 the Gauge, a a the stem, b b the head
which moves, c the tooth which marks.
PLATE HI.
J*laie 2.
Fz^J. v%^. Zi^.S. Ti^.4-.
JTz^.^.
M^J^.
Ziv-JonJ^ihtfteifMayrh iBHSu/iyJJaylc.-^^AMaao
13
Fitjf. 3.
Ftff.6.
Fig.l.
D
Tiff. I.
Fi^
O.
X
^ Fzi/.&
ZanAnJ^M'/ifJjW/nr?! tOjtn.fyJJxiiTcr-JSa^ /Mhom .
' JOINERY. 147
PLATE III. MOULDINGS.
§ 68. To draw the several Kinds of ^Mouldings
made hy Joiners.
An Astragal is a moulding of a semi-circular
profile, its construction is so simple that it would
be unnecessary to say any thing concerning it.
Fig. 1.
There are two kinds of Beads, one is call-
ed a cocked bead, when it projects beyond the
surface to which it is attached. See Fig. % ana
the other is called a sunk bead, when the sink-
ing is depressed beneath the surface of the mate-
rial to which it is attached, that is, when the
most prominent part of the bead is in the sante
surface with that of the material. Fig. 3.
A Torus in architecture is a moulding of the
same profile as a bead, the only difference is
when the two are combined in the same piece of
work; the torus is of greater magnitude as fig.
4; in joinery the torus is always accompanied
with a fillet. Fig. 5. single torus moulding.
The Roman Ovolo or quarter round, as called
by joiners, is the quadrant of a circle, fig. 6.
When the projection and height are unequal, as
in Fig. 7, take the height BC, and from the point
B describe an arc at C, and with the same radius
from A, describe another arc cutting the former
at D, with the distance A D or D B describe the
profile A B. This is generally accompanied with
lillets above and below, as in Fig. 7.
L 2 The
148 JOINERY.
The Cavetto is a concave moulding, the rc-^
gular profile of which is the qu;idrant of a circle.
Fig. S, its description is the same as the ovolo.
A Scotia is a concave moulding receding at
the top, and projecting at the bottom, which in
this respect is contrary bo|;h to the ovolo and
cavetto; it is also to be observed, that its profile
consists of two quadrants of circles of different
radii, or it may be considered as a semi-ellipse
taken upon two conjugate diameters. Fig. 9,
To describe the scotia, divide the height -A B
into three equal parts, at the point 2 draw the
line 2 C D, being one third from the top, draw
E C perpendicular to C D with the centre C,
and distance C E describe the quadrant EF; take
the height A 2 and make F D equal to it : draw
D G perpendicular to F D, from D with the
distance D F, describe the arc FG and EFG
will be the profile of the scotia. This mould-
ing is peculiarly applied to the bases of columns,
and makes a distinguishing line of shadow be-
tween the torii.
The Ogee is a moulding of contrary curvature,
and is of two kinds: when the profile of the
projecting part is concave, and consequently, the
receding part convex, the ogee is called a Cima-
recta: Figs. 10 & 11, and when the contrary,
it is then called a Cima-reversa, Fig. 12.
To decribe the cima-recta when the projec-
tion of the moulding is equal to its height, and
when
JOINERY. 149
when required to be of a quick curvature. Fig.
10. Join the projections of the fillets A and B by
the straight line A B : bisect A B at C, draw
E C D parallel to the fillet FA, draw A D and
BE perpendicular to FB: from the point E
describe the quadrant BC, and from the point
D describe the quadrant A C, then B C A is the
profile.
To describe the ciraa-recta when the height
and projection are unequal, and when it is re-
quired to be of a flat curvature. Fig. 11. Join
A B and bisect it in C, with the distance B C or
CA from the point A describe the arc CD from
C with the same radius, describe the arc AD
cutting the former in D, the foot of the compass
still remaining, in C describe the arc B E, from
B with the same radius describe the arc C E,
from the point D describe the arc A C, from the
point E describe the arc C B, then will ACB be
the profile required.
~ The Cima-reversa Fig. 12 is described in the
same manner.
Quirk mouldings sometimes occasion confusion
as to- their figure, particularly when removed
from the eye,^ so as frequently to make one mould-
ing appear as two.
PLATE IV,
150 JOINERY*
§ 69. PLATE IV. MOULDINGS.
The names of mouldings according to their
situation and combination^ in various pieces of
Joiners work.
Fig. 1 Edge said to be rounded.
Fig. 2 Quirked Bead, or bead and quirk.
Fig. 3 Bead and Double Quirk, or return
bead.
Fig. 4 Double Bead, or douljle bead and
quirk.
Fig. 5 Single Torus.
Fig. 6 Double Torus. Here it is to be ob-
served, that the distinction between torus mould-
ings and beads in joinery is, the outer edge of
the former always terminates with a fillet, whether
the torus be double or single, whereas in beads
there is no fillet on the outer edge.
Figs. 7, 8, 9 Single, Double, and Triple reed-
ed mouldings; semi-cylindric mouldings are de-
nominated reedsi either when they are terminated
by a straight surface equally protuberant on both
sides, as in these figures, or disposed longitudi-
nally round the circumference of a jhaft; but if
only terminated on one side with a flush surface,
they are then either beads or torus mouldings.
Fig. 10
J%Z
^/?t
%c>^?ze^/*i^
Tic/. 2.
#^'/!!m^
r
IPla.?re 4-.
Tzq.4-.
// /
/
Z'
S
Tz,^.7. _Z?>.d?. Tz^.&.
L^
/
P
L^
\ \
Fz^JO.
Tz^JI.
) I
( 1
i// J
Tig.Z3.
I //
^'- t
Zi>7iJanJ'iiiKs7u-JMnc7i2azSX/by.Zrn-7,:i?-J£.rAmZf>iyrn.
JOINEHY. 151
Fig. 10 Reeds disposed round the convex sur-
face of a cj'linder.
Figs. 11, 13, 13 Fluted Work. When the
flutes are semi-circular, as in Fig. 11, it is neces-
sary that there should be some distance between
them, as it would be impossible to bring their
junction to an arris; but in flutes, the sections
of which are flat segments, the flutes generally
meet each other without any intermediate straight
surface between them. The reason of this is,
that the light and shade of the adjoining hol-
lows are more contrasted, the angle of their
meeting being more acute, than if of a flat
space were formed between them. See Figures IS
and 13, fluting round the convex surface of a
cylinder.
PLATE V.
152 JOINERY.
PLATE V.
§ 70. Mouldings of Doors, Sgc.
Tiie different denominations of framed doors,
according to their mouldings and pannels^ and
framed work in general. The figures in the
plates to which these descriptions refer to, are
sections of doors, through one of the stiles tak-
ing in a small part of the pannel, or thej may
be considered as a vertical section through the
top rail, showing part of the pannel.
Fig. 1 the Framing is without mouldings, and
the pannel a straight surface on both sides : this
is denominated Doors square and flat pannel on
both sides.
Fig. 2 the Framing has a quirked ovolo, and
a fillet on one side, but without mouldings
on the other, and the pannel flat on both sides:
this is denominated Doors quirked ovolo, fil-
let and flat, with square back.
Fig. 3 differs only from the last in having a
bead instead of a fillet, and is therefore denomi-
nated quirked ovolo, bead and flat pannel, with
square back.
Fig. 4 has an additional fillet on the framing,
to what there is in Fig. 3, and is therefore deno-
minated quirked ovolo bead, fillet and flat pannel
with square back.
J^OtCi
Tz'/. 2.
Tlate ,5.
Ti^. 3.
Tiad.
Tz^.6
y^/////////////////////^^^^^
[mii|m»iiiiimtnHinii»iiiiHiiiituninnHlliiIll]lll]lllIUUIIUIllin?
Tz^.6.
I.i:>Tu1anJU/ilis/ietiMco-rJi26U,'i7lbyJTni7cT-J&/7ijro7J>o
iOiNERY. io^
M)tei When the back is said to be square, as
in Figs. 2, 3, 4, the meaning is, i\\ki there are
no mouldings on the framing and the pannel
is a straight surface on one side of the door.
Fig. 5 the framing struck with quirk ogee
and quirked bead on one side, and square on
the other; the surface of the pannel straight
on both sides, this is called quirked ogee quirk
bead and flat pannel, with square back.
Fig. 6 differs from the last, only in having
the bead raised above the lower part of the
ogee and a fillet. This is therefore denominated
quirked ogee, cocked bead, and flat pannel with
square back.
PLATE VL
154 JOINERY*
PLATE VI.
Mouldings of Doors, ^e.
Fig. 1 is denominated cove, cocked bead, and
flat pannel, with square back.
Fig. 2 is denominated quirked ovolo, bead, fil-
let, and raised pannel on front, with square back.
The rising of the pannel gives strength to the
door, and on this account thej are often employ-
ed in street doors, though the fashion at present
is discontinued in the inside of buildings.
Fig. 3 the framing is the same as the last, but
the pannel is raised in front, and has an ovolo on
the rising. This is therefore denominated quirk-
ed ovolo, bead, and raised pannel, with ovolo on
the rising on front of door, with square back.
Fig. 4 is denominated quirked ogee, raised
pannel, ovolo, and iillet on the rising and astragal
on the flat of pannel in front and square back.
J^'bte, The raised sides of the pannel is al«-
ways turned towards the street.
Fig. 5 is denominated quirked ovolo, bead, fil-
let, and flat pannel, on both sides ; doors of this
description are used between rooms, or between
passages and rooms, where the door is equally
exposed on both sides. When the pannels are
fiat on both sides, or simply champhered on one
side and flat on the other, and the framing of
the door moulded on the side which has the flat
pannels : such doors are employed in rooms
where one side only is exposed, and the other
never but when opened, being turned towards a
cupboard or dark closet.
PLATE VIL
TU^e 6.
Tisf.3.
^^ — "TX
Ti^.4-
lYf^.o.
ZiJ7iJvitJ-UMiWin/JfanA e/tjSyt.h .Krayl<rrSi/7, ffollv
2?
^^ot//ie^i
T^ate 7.
T
Jt^.Z
1-1^.2.
Tzs'S.
Zo7,JonI^h7isheifMatvh26i28ak>.^J5_y^nrS},7,M'/iflm.
JOINERY* 155
\ PLATE VII.
Mouldings for Doors, ^c.
Fig. 1 is denomiaated bead, but, and square,
or more fullj bead and but, front and square
back. In bead and but work, the bead is always
struck on the outer arris of the top or flat of the
pannel in thtf direction of the grain.
Fig. 2 is denominated bead and flush front
and quirked ogee, raised pannel, with ovolo on
the rising, groo\ed on flat of pannel, on back.
Bead and flush, and bead and but work are al-
ways used where strength is required. The
mouldings on the inside are made to correspond
with the other passage or hall doors.
Fig. 3 is a collection or series of mouldings
the same on both sides, and project in part with-
out the framing on each side, the mouldings are
laid in after the door is framed square and put
together. If braded through the sides of the
quirks, the heads will be entirely concealed ; but
observe, that the position of the brads must not
be directed towards the pannels, but into t^ie
solid of the framing. The mouldings of doors
which thus project are termed belection mould-
ings ; belection moulded work is chiefly employ-
ed in superior buildings.
Fig,
156 JOINEHY.
Fig. 4 another form of a Belection Mould-
ing-
The following is a Geometrical description
of Reeded mouldings^ sash bars, and the manner
of springing mouldings.
Fig. 5 to inscribe a circle in a given sector
ABC of a circle, bisect the angle B A C by
G A : produce the sides A B, A C to D and E,
and AG to meet the arc in F, draw D E per-
pendicular to A F, bisect the angle D E A of
the triangle A D E by E G, and G is the centre
of the inscribed circle and G F the radius.
Fig. 6 a Reeded staff, the reeds described as
in Fig. 5.
PLATE VIII.
^z^Z
^Oi/?ze7*
^laie
J^^.2.
fp/''-';'
JFz^.5.
v.../.,. / X^
^z^.Z
.Zz^.S*.
Jz^^lO.
/■oiii/crJ^Mis/iaiMcrr-rTiifySUAi: fZ/iy/, ■r.-ffu/i', ,Vo7/>n
JOINERY, 157
PLATE VIII.
JMouldings for Sashes and Cornices.
Figj. I Simple Astragal or half round bar for
gashes.
Fig. 2 Quirked Astragal bar.
Fig. 3 Quirked Gothic bar.
Fig. 4 another form of a Gothic bar.
Fig. 5 Double Ogee bar, this and the preced-
ing forms are easily kept clean.
Fig. 6 Quirked Astragal and hollow, bars
of this structure have been long in use.
Fig. 7 Double Reeded bar.
Fig. 8 Treple Reeded bar.
Fig. 9 Base Moulding of a room with part of
the skirting. When the base mouldings are very
largC;, they ought to be sprung as in this diagram.
A the base moulding, B part of the plinth.
In order to know what thickness it would require
^ board to be of, to get out a moulding upon the
spring, the best method is to draw the mould-
ing out to the full size, then draw a line pa-
rallel to the general line of the moulding, so as
to make it equally strong throughout its breadth,
and also of sufficient strength for its intended
purpose.
Fig. 10 a Cornice. The part A forming the
corona, is got out of a plank. B is a bracket,
C the moulding on the front spring, D a cover
board forming the upper fillet, E a moulding
sprung below the corona, F a bracket.
^1\. Definitions.
lo8 JOINERY.
§ 71. Definitions.
A piece of stuff is said to be wrought when it
it is planed on one or more sides^ so as to make
a complete finish as far as required by a plane;
hence if it is only planed with the jack plane,
and no farther operation of any other plane re-
quired, in this case it is said to be wrought; and
if the stuff requires to be made straighter with
the trying plane, the stuff is still said to be
wrought.
The operation of planing the fir«t side of a
board or piece of stuff straight, is called facing,
the side so done is called the face, and the board
itself it said to be faced-up.
The operation of planing the edge of a board
straight, is called shooting, and the edge is said
to be shot.
When two adjoining surfaces of a piece of
stuff are planed so as to form a right angle, the
piece of stuff is said to be squared.
When two adjoining surfaces of a piece of
stuff are planed so as to form an acute or obtuse
angle by the inclination of these surfaces, this
piece of stuff is said to be bevelled ; and if one
surface is narrower than the other, the narrower
surface becomes the edge, the edge is thjen said
to be bevelled: but this is only meant in reference
to the face, as the exp^ression could have no mean-
ing, except in the relation of the adjoining sur-
faces. The same is also applied to a piece of
wood
JOINERY. 159
wood that has been squared, the edge is said to
be squared, instead of the adjoining surfaces said
to be squared »
When a line has been drawn on the face or
edge of a piece of stuff parallel to the arris or
line of concourse of the two surfaces that are
planed, that surface is said to be gauged, and is
generally done by means of the iniplement or
tool called a gauge.
When the stuff is planed on one, two, three,
or all the four sides, as may be required, then
the stuff is said to be tried up; the term try-up
ii sometimes applied to facing-, b^H in what fol-
lows, the term facing, is only applied to the side
first wrought.
§ 72. To make a Straight Edge.
Fasten two boards together in the checks of
the bench screw, at one end, and support the
other end with the side pin, inserted in one of
the holes of the side board ; plane the upper
edges as straight as the eye can observe : unscrew
the check board, place one board upon the other,
with the planed edges together, and the faces of
the boards in a straight line with each other ; then
if the edges coincide they are straight, but if not
they will be alike round, or alike hollow ; the
prominent parts must be marked, and the opera-
tion repeated as often as may be found necessary.
Id shooting the edges, the rough is first taken off
with
160 JOINERY.
with the jack plane; in convex places stand still
drawing and pushing the plane to and from you
by the motion of the arms, until the prominent
part or parts have been reduced by repeated
shavings, which will be taken off the wood,
every time the plane is driven forwards: then hav-
ing got the edges very nearly straight, you may
tajte one or two shavings by going the whole
lenffth from the hind to the fore end, without
drawing back the plane: then with the trying or
long plane walk from end to end as before, push-
ing the plane continually forward, and if it take
a shaving of unequal breadth, or uneqnal thick-
ness, or both, repeat the operation again until this
is not the case. If the edges are very long, the
same operation must be performed with the jointer,
viz. by pushing it forward from end to end.
Then, when two edges coincide in working them
together in this manner, you will have two straight
edfi-es. Straight edgres are easier made when the
board has been previously faced. Here the work-
man must keep the definition of a straight line
continually in view.
§ 73. To face a Piece of Sti{jf.
Here the workman must not lose sight of the
definition of a straight surface, viz. it is that
which will every where coincide with a straight
line : apply the edges of a pair of winding sticks
one to the farther end of the surface, and the
other
JOINERY. 161
Other to the nearer; directing the eye* in any
straight line coinciding with the upper edges:
then if by keeping the eye at the same point, and
if straight lines can be directed from it to all
other points in the upper edge of each winding
stick, then the ends of the surface are in a plane.
Draw a line by the edge of each winding stick
on the surface, and if the surface will every
where coincide with a straight line, then it is al-
ready straight, there will be very little to do but
plane the rough away. But if on applying the
edges of the winding sticks to the surface, a
straight line can only be directed from the eye to
one point in the upper edge of each winding
stick, then the surface is said to wind, and is
called a winding surface; in such a case there
will always be two corners of the surfiice higher
than the other two, then with the jack plane re-
duce the surface at the corners until both edges
of the winding sticks are in the same plane,
dr^w a line by the edge of each winding stick on
the surface as before, then with the jack plan§,
reduce all the prominent parts between the lines:
having obtained a surface very nearly straight by
one or several trials by the jack plane; plane off
the ridges which the jack plane has left, with
the trying plane, and apply the winding sticks in
* That is, shutting one eye and observing with the other.
This depends on vision being always performed in' straight
lines,
M the
162 JOINERY.
the same manner : in order to be certain whether
you are keeping the surface true or not.
§ 74. To shoot the Edge of a Board.
First rough plane the side of the board with the
jack plancj or plane the rough off the side of
the board next to the joint. Then setting the
sides of the board in a vertical position, and plac-
ing it in the bench screw, proceed in the same
manner in the operation of planing as in making
a straight edge ; except that there is only one
edge planed at a time in shooting. If the joint
is not very long, it is brought to a straight by the
eye: but if very long, a straight edge must be
used; in shooting the edge, the hand must be
carried regular from end to end.
§ 75. To joint Two Boards together.
Shoot the edge of each board first, or if thejr
arc ^ery thin, they may be shot together, apply
each of the edges together, then if they are quite
close both face and back of the board, and the
faces of the two boards straight with each other,
they may be glued together : but if not, the ope-
ration must be repeated until there is no space
left on either side, and the sides quite straight
with each other : when properly shot, spread the
edges over with strong thin glue of a proper-con-
sistence made very hot, one of the boards being
fixed, the faces adjoining each other, and the
edges
JOINERY. 163
edges straight; then turn the loose board
upon the fixed boards, applying the edges that
are shot together, rub the upper board back-
wards and forv/ards until the two begin to stick
fast, and the glue mostly rubbed out, the faces
must be brought as nearly straight as possible.
§ 76. To join any JViimher of Boards, Edge' to
Edge, with Glue, so as to form One Board.
First shoot the edges of two boards, so as to
bring thenf»to a joint, mark the faces of these
bo£lrds next to the joint, then shoot the other
edge of one of the boards, and another edge of
another board, and bring these to a joint also,
marking them as before, proceed in this manner
until as many boards have been jointed as make
the entire breadth required, always numbering
the boards in regular order. Glue the G.rsi two
together, when sufficiently dry, glue the second
and third board, and so on till all the joints are
glued.
If the boards or planks be very long, the edges
which are to be united, will require to be warmed
before a fire. And in order to keep the faces fair
with each other, three men will be necessary
alsojn helping to rub, one to guide the middle,
and one to guide each end.
§ 77. To square and try-up a Piece of Stuff.
First face the side of the stuff, apply the edge
of the stock of a square to this side, and the edge
M2 of
164 JOINERY.
of the tongue to the other side or edge to be
planed, keeping the stock of the square at right
angles to the arris, try the square in the same
manner in several places, then plane the side or
edge of the stuff, until the inner edge of the
tongue coincide with one side or edge of the
stuff, while the inner edge of the stock coincides
with the face.
§ 78. To try-up a Piece of Stuff all round.
%Vhen the two sides or the face and edge has
been squared, gauge the stuff to its thickness by
the gauge, then plane the other side to the gauge
line opposite to the face, but observe that it must
be planed so as to coincide with the blade of the
square, while the stock coincides with the other
side, on which the gauge line was drawn, both
handle and tongue being at the same time at
right angles to the arris. Having now finished
three sides, set the gauge to the intended breadth,
then apply the guide of the head of the gauge
upon the edge or side that is wrought, and which
adjoins the other two wrought sides, and the
sten5 and tooth upon the side to be gaugod, draw
a line upon that side, turn the stuff over to the
other side, and place the head upon the same
side as before, but not upon the same e^^Q, and
the tooth end of the stem upon the side of the
wood, draw a line upon this side: in gauging,
you must press the head of the gauge pretty hard
agaiast
JOINERY. 165
against the surface of the stuff on which it rests,
otherwise the grain of the wood will be liable
to draw the tooth of the gauge out of its straight
lined course; then by working of the wood be-
tween the gauge lines straight across, the piece
of stuff will be completely tryed-up, and this
last side will be planed up without the use of
the square: and indeed, the third side might also
have been done when the rough edge whence
the gauge line was drawn, is pretty near the
square.
§ 79, To rebate a Piece of Stuff.
First, when the rebate is to be made on the
arris next to you, the stuff must be first tw^ed-up
on two sides, if the rebate is not very large, set
the guide of the fence of the moving fillister to
be within the distance of the horizontal breadth
of the intended rebate; and screw the stop so
that the guide may be something less than the
vertical depth of the rebate from the sole of the
plane; set the iron so as to be sufficiently rank,
and to project equally below the sole of the
plane; make the left hand point of the cutting
edge flush with the left hand side of the plane, the
tooth should be a small matter without the right
hand side of the plane. Proceed now to gauge
the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the re-
bate : begin your work at the fore end of the
stuff, the plaoe being placed before you, lay your
right
166 JOINERY,
right hand partly on the top hind end of the
plane^ your four fingers upon the left side, and
your thumb upon the right, the middle part of
the palm of the hand resting upon the round of
the plane between the top and the end ; lay the
thumb of your left hand over the top of the fore
end of the plane, bending the thumb downwards
upon the right hand side of the plane, while the
upper division of the fore-finger, and the one
next to it goes obliquely on the left side of the
plane, and then bends with the same obliquity to
comply with the fore end of the planC; the two
remaining fingers are turned inwards; push the
plane forward without moving your feet, and a
shaving will be discharged equal to the breadth
of the rebate ; draw the plane towards you again
to the place you pushed it from, and repeat the
operation: proceed in this manner until you
have gone very near the depth of the rebate, move
a step backward, and proceed as before, go on by
several successive steps, operating at each one as
at first until you get to the end, then yop may
take a shaving or two the whole length, or take
down any protuberant parts.
In holding the fillister, care must be taken to
keep the sides vertical, and consequently the sole
level : then clean out the bottom and side of the
rebate with the skew faced rebate plane, that
is, plane the bottom and side smooth, until
you come close to the gauge lines: for this
purpose
JOINERY. 167
purpose the iron must be set very fine, and
equally prominent throughout the breadth of
the sole. ^ ,
If your rebate exceeds in breadth the distance
which the guide of the fence can be set from the
right side of the plane, you may make a narrow
rebate on the side next to you, and set the plow
to the full breadth, and the stop of the plow to the
depth: make a groove next to the gauge line: then
with the firmer chissel, cut off the wood between
the groove and the rebate level with the bottom ;
or should the rebate be very wide, you may
make several intermediate grooves, leaving the
wood between every two adjacent grooves of less
breadth than the firmer chissel, so as to be easily
cut out; having the rebate roughed out, you may
mal^e the bottom a little smoother with the paring
chissel ; then with a common rebate plane, about
an inch broad in the sole, plane the side of the
bottom next to the vertical side, and with the
jack plane take off the irregularities of the wood
left by the chissel : smooth the farther side of the
bottom of the rebate with the skew rebate plane,
as also the vertical side : with the trying plane
smooth the remaining part next to you unt^i the
rebate is at its full depth. If any thing remain
in the internal angle, it may be cut away with a
fine set pariirg chissel; but this will hardly be
qecessary when the tools are in good order.
When
168 JOINERY.
When the breadth and depth of the rebate is
not greater than the depth which the plow can be
set to work, the raost expeditious method of
making a rebate, is by grooving it within the
gauge lines on each side of the arris, and so
taking the piece out without the use of the chis-
sel : then proceed to work the bottom and side
of the groove as before. By these means you
have the several methods of rebating when the
rebate is made on the left edge of the stufl': but
if the rebate is formed from the right hand
arris, it must be planed on two sides, or on
one side and an edge as before; place the stuff
so that the arris of the two planed sides may be
next to you. Set the sash fillister to the whole
breadth of the stuff that is to be left standing,
and the stop to the depth, then you may pro-
ceed to rebate as before.
§ 80. To rebate across the Grain.
Nail a straight slip across the piece to be re-
bated, so that the straight edge may fall upon
the line which the vertical side of the rebate
makes with the top of the stuff], keeping the
breadth of the slip entirely to one side of the re-
bate ; then having set the stop of the dado groov-
ing plane to the depth of the rebate, holding the
plane vertically, run a groove across the wood,
repeat the same operation in one or more places
in
JOINERY. 169
in the breadth of the rebate, leaving each inter-
stice or standing-up part something less than the
breadth of the firmer chissel : then with that
chissel cut away these parts between every two
grooves^ but be careful in doing this that you
do not tear the wood up ; pare the bottom pretty
smooth, or after having cut the rough away with
the chissel, take a rebating plane with the iron
set rather rank, and work the prominent parts
down to the aforesaid grooves nearly. Lastly,
with a fine set screwed rebating plane, smooth
the bottom next to the vertical side of the rebate,
the other parts of the bottom may be taken com-
pletely down with a fine set smoothing plane:
in this manner you may make a tenon of any
breadth.
§ 81. To frame Two Pieces of Stvjf together.
For this purpose it will be necessary to face-
up, and square each of the pieces at least on two
sides; the thickness of the tenon or width of the
mortice ought not to exceed in general one third
of the thickness of the stuff; but this will in
some cases depend upon the work, and whether
the material that are to be framed together be of
the same kind or not, and consequently the pro-
portion greater or less according as the piece on
which the tenon is cut, is of a stronger or weaker
texture than the piece which is to receive it.
If the two pieces are to be joined at aright angle^
and
470 JOINERY.
and the piece which has the mortice project only
on one side of the piece which has the tenon^ you
must then set the mortice a little farther in than
the breadth of the piece which has the tenon, in
order to prevent the piece at the end of the tenon
from splitting : mark the length of your tenon
a little more than the breadth of the morticed
piece; strike a square line through the mark :
then at the place where the line meets the arris
strike another square line : if the work is to be
Tery nicely put together, this will be best done
with the drawing knife; square two pencil lines
on the two sides of the morticed piece opposite
to, or in the same straight line with the inside
of the tenoned piece, strike other two square
pencil lines upon the sides of the morticed piece
next to the end opposite to the outer edge of the
tenoned piece, or in the same straight line with
it, and thus the distance between each pair of
square lines upon each of the sides, will be
equal to the breadth of the tenoned piece ; but
this distance would be too long for the mortice,
as when finished, one piece of stuff does not
pass by the breadth of the other ; therefore if the
mortice came close to the end, there would be
nothing to resist and keep the tenon in its place :
for this reason the mortice must never be cut out
to the extremity, but always at least one fourth
of the wholfe breadth farther in; if the insides
of the pieces are intended to be entirely square,
you
JOINERY. 171
you may make the length of the mortice from the
inside pencil lines equal to, or nearly two thirds of
thebreadth of the tenoned piece. Setthedistanceof
the teeth of the mortice gauge equal to the thick-
ness of the tenon or breadth of the mortice, and
the distance from, and of the nearer tooth to the
head, equal to the thickness of the cheek of the
mortice or shoulder of the tenon, then gauge
both pieces on the inner edges from the face, and
also on the outer edges from the same face, return
the pencil lines upon the outer edge of the mor-
ticed piece. Lay the piece to be morticed upon
the mortice stool, with the side uppermost, which
is to be the inside, and mortice half through :
turn the other edge uppermost, and mortice the
other half; the reason of morticing one half at'
a time is obvious, when it is considered, that the
holding of the mortice chissel at right angles to
the surface is all guess work, the mortice would
therefore be liable to go not only obliquely, but
uneven ; the length of the mortice must be a
little more on the outer edge than on the inner, as
the tenon when it comes to be stationed to its place
is secured, by wedges and glue: the ends of the
mortice must be quite straight, though inclining
towards each other next to the inside or shoulder
of the tenon, the sides of the cheeks of the mor-
tice must be cut smooth with the paring chissel:
and for the purpose of having the width of the
mortice when finished the exact thickness of the
tenon.
172 JOINERY.
tenon, the mortice chissel ought to be rather of
less thickness than that of the tenon.
To form the tenon ; cut the shoulders in with
the drawing knife, place the side hooks at right
angles to the sides of the bench, the knob or
catch of each against the side board: place
the tenoned piece upon the side hooks, and
against the other knobs on the bench, and with
the tenon saw cut the shoulders of the tenon on
one side, and turn the other side up and cut the
other shoulder; take the piece and fix it in the
bench screw, and with a hand saw cut off the
two outside pieces, called the tenon cheeks from
the sides of the tenon, keeping the stuff entire be-
tween the gauge lines, and if the saw is in
good order, it will not be necessar^y to do any
more to the sides: but if the saw has been led
awaj from the draughts, either from carelessness
or from its being in bad order, recourse must be
had to the paring chissel, so as to take away the
superfluous wood to the gauge lines, and lastly to
the skew faced rebate plane. Having finished the
sides of the tenon, it must be reduced from the
outer edge to a breadth equal to the length of
the mortice, this reduction is called haunching,
but it is better to have a little piece to project
beyond the shoulder, and then to cut a shallow
mortice of the same depth close to the farther
end of the mortice piece; this little tenon is call-
ed stump haunchings. Insert the tenon in a mor-
tice.
JOINERY. 173
tice^ driving the end of the tenoned piece with a
mallet^ until the shoulder comes home to the
face of the mortice: then if jour work has been
truly tryed-up and set out^, both shoulders will
be quite close to the inner edge of the morticed
piece; having thus finished the mortice and
tenon^ you may take it out and glue the shoulders
of the tenon and inner edge of the mortice with
very hot glue, then drive the tenoned piece home;
if very stiff, it will be necessary to use a cramp,
however the use of this will be better understood
in making a complete frame.
§ 82. Boarding Floors.
Boarded floors are those covered with boards.
The operation of boarding floors should com-
mence as soon as the windows are in, and the
plaster dry. The preparation of the boards for
this purpose is as follows.
They should first be planed on their best face,
and set out to season till the natural sap is quite
exhausted, they may then be planed smooth, shot
and squared upon one edge; the opposite edges
are brought to a breadth, by drawing a line on
the face parallel to the other edge, with a floor-
ing gauge, they are then gauged to a thickness
with a common gauge, and rebated down on the
back to the lines drawn by the gauge.
The next thing to be done is to try the joists,
whether they be level or not: if they are found
to
174 JOrNERY.
be depressed in the middle, they must he furred
up, and if found to be protuberant, must be re-
duced by the adze. The former is more gene-*
rally the case.
The boards employed in flooring are either
battens or deals of greater breadth. The quality
of battens are divided into three kinds ; the best
is that free of knots, shakes, sap-wood, or cross-
graiued stuflf, and well matched, that is, selected
with the greatest care; the second b'est is, that in
which only small, but sound knots are permitted,
and free of shakes and sap-wood : the most com-
mon kind is that which is left, after taking away
the best and second best.
With regard to the joints of flooring boards,
they are either quite square, plowed and tongued,
rebated, or dowelled: in fixing them they are
nailed either upon one or both edges, they are
always necessarily nailed on both edges, when
the joints are plain or square without dowels.
When they are doweled, they may be nailed on
one or both edges ; but in the best doweled work
the outer edge only is nailed, by driving the brad
obliquely through that edge without piercing
the surface of the board; so that the surface
of the floor, when cleaned off", appears without
blemish.
In laying boarded floors, the boards are some-
times laid one after another^ or otherwise, one is
first laid, then the fourth leaving an interval
some-
JOINERY. 175
somewbat less than the breadth of the second and
third together. The two intermediate boards are
next laid in their places, with one edge upon the
edge of the first board, and the other upon that
of the fourth board; the two middle edges rest-
ing upon each other, and forming a ridge at the
joint; to force down these joints, two or more
workmen jump upon the ridge till they have
brought the under sides of the boards close to
the joints, then they are fixed in their places with
brads. In this last method the boards are said to
be folded. Though two boards are here men-
tioned, the most common way is to fold four at a
timd, this mode is only taken when the boards
are not sufficiently seasoned, or suspected to be
so. In order to make close work, it is obvious
that the two edges forming the joint of the se-
cond and third boards, must form angles with the
faces, each less than a right angle. The seventh
board is fixed as the fourth, and the fifth and
sixth inserted as the second and thirds and so on
till the completion.
The headings are either square, splayed, or
plowed and tongued. When it is necessary to
have a heading in the length of the floor, it
should always be upon a joist. One heading
should never meet another.
When floors are doweled, it is better to place
dowels over the middle of the interjoist, than
over the joists, in order to prevent the edgo of
one
176 JOINERY.
one board from passing that of the other. Wheti
the boards are only braded upon one edge, the
brads are most frequently concealed by driving
them slanting through the outer edge of every
successive board, without piercing the upper sur-
face. In adzing away the under sides of the
boards opposite to the joists, in order to equalize
their thickness, the greatest care should be taken
to chip them straight, and exactly down to the
rebates, as the soundness of the floor depends on
this.
§ 83. Hanging of Shutters to he cut.
Shutters to be cut must first be hung the whole
length, and taken down and cut: but observe
that you do not cut the joint by the range of the
the middle bar, but at right angles to the sides
of the sash frame, for unless this be done, the
ends will not all coincide when folded together.
In order to hang shutters at the first trial, set off
the margin from the bead on both sides, then
take half the thickness of the knuckle of the
hinge, and prick it on each side from the mar-
gin, so drawn towards the middle of the window,
at the places of the hinges, put in brads at these
pricks, then putting the shutter to its place, screw
it fast, and when opened it will turn to the place
intended.
§ 84. Hanging
JOINERY. 177
§ 84. Hanging of Doors.
Doors should be hung so as to rise above the
carpet, for this purpose, the knuckle of the bot-
tom hinge should be made to project the whole
pin beyond the surface of the door, while the
centre of the upper pin comes rather within the
surface. To render this still more effectual, the
floor is sometimes raised immediately under the
door. A door wider at the bottom than at the
top in a trapezoidal form will also have the effect
of clearing the floor: most of the ancient doors
were of this figure.
' § 85. To Scribe one piece of Board or
Stujlf to another.
When the edge end or side of one piece of
stuff is fitted close to the superfices of another,
the former is said to be scribed to the latter.
Thus the skirting boards of a room should be
scribed to the floor. In moulded framing, the
moulding upon the rails if not quirked are scribed
to the styles, and muntins upon rails. To scribe
the edge of a board against any uneven surface :
lay the edge of the board over its place, with the
face in the position in which it is to stand: with
a pair of stiff compasses opened to the widest
part, keeping one leg close to the uneven sur-
face, move or draw the compasses forward, so
that the poiat of the other leg may mark a line
on the board, and that the two points may al-
N wars
178 JOINERY.
ways be in a straight line parallel to the straight
line in which the two points were at the com-
mencement of the motion : then cut away the
wood between this line, and the bottom edge,
and the one will coincide with the other.
•^ 86. Doors.
Doors ought to be made of clean good stuff,
firmly put together, the mitres or scribings
brought together with the greatest exactness,
and the whole of their surfaces perfectly smooth,
particularly those hiade for the best apartments
of good houses. In order to effect this, the
whole of the work ought to be set out and tryed
up with particular care, saws and all other tools
must be in good order, the morticing, tenoning,
plowing, and sticking of the mouldings ought
to be correctly to the gauge lines, these being
strictly attended to, the work will of necessity
when put together, close with certainty : but if
otherwise, the workman must expect a great
deal of trouble in paring the different parts be-
fore the work can be made to appear in any
degree passable: this will also occasion a want
of firmness in the work, particularly if the tenons
and mortices are obliged to be pared.
In bead and flush dooi^, the best way is to
mitre the work square, afterwards put in the
pannels, and smooth the whole off together, then
marking the pannels at the parts ©f the framing
they
JOINERY. 179
they agree to, take the door to pieces, and work
the beads on the stiles, rails, and muntins.
If the doors are double margin, that is, re-
presenting a pair of folding doors, the staff stile
wliich imitates the meeting stiles, must be cen-
tred to the top and bottom of the door, as well
as the hanging; and lock stiles by forking the
ends into notches, cut in the top and bottom rails.
§87. Stairs>
Stairs are one of the most important things to
be considered in a building, not ofily with regard
to the situation, but as to the design and execu-
tion: the convenience of the building depends
on the situation, and the elegance on the
design and execution of the workmanship. A
stair-case ought to be sufficiently lighted, and
the head-way uninterrupted. The half paces
and quarter paces ought to be judiciously dis-
tributed. The breadth of the steps ought never
to be more than 15 inches, nor less than 10, the
height not more than 7 nor less than 5 ; there
are cases however, which are exceptions to all
rule. When you have the height of the story
given in feet, and the height of the step in inches,
you may throw the feet into inches, and divide
the height of the story in inches by the height
of the step; if there be no remainder, or if the
remainder be less than the half of the divisor
the quotient will shew the number of steps: but
N 2 ■ if
180 JOINERY.
if the remainder be greater than the half of the
divisor, jou must take one step more than the
nnmber shewn by the quotient; in the two latter
cases you must divide the height of the story by
the number of steps, and the quotient will give
the exact height of a step : in the first case you
have the height of the steps at once, and this is the
case whatever description the stairs are of. In
order that people may pass freely, the length of
the step ought never to be less than 4 feet, though
in town houses, for want of room, the going of
the stair is frequently reduced to 2| feet.
Stairs have several varieties of structure, which
depends principally on the situation and destina-
tion of the building. Geometrical stairs are
those which are supported by one end being fixed
in the wall, and every step in the assent having an
auxiliary support from that immediately below it,
and the lowest step consequently, from the floor.
Bracket stairs are those that have an opening
or well, with strings and newels, and are supported
by landings and carriages, the brackets mitering
lo the ends of each riser, and fixed to the
string board, which is moulded below like aa
architrave.
Dogleged stairs are those which have no open-
ing or well hole, the rail and balustres of both
the progressive and returning flights fall in the
same vertical planes, the steps being fixed to
strings, Qeweh and carriages, and the ends of the
of
J.imLZort:Pal'lix7ied3fmft2t^:'aihJrrzihmaf/7i^iin>rm
20
JOINERY.
Explanation of PLATE IX.
(^ro /ace Page 181.)
Showing the Construction of a Dog Leg Stair Case.
No. 1 the Plan.
No. 2 the Elevation.
AB No. 2 the lower Newel, the part BC being
turned.
a No. 1 the seat of the Newel on the plan.
GH No. 2 the upper Newel.
^No. 1. its seat on the Plan.
DEand FG No. 2 lower and upper String
Boards framed into the Newels.
KL No. 2 a Joist framed into the Trimmer I.
kl,no,qr, S^c. No. 2 the faces of the Risers^
mn, p q, St the treads of the Cover Boards.
my p, Sy ^c. No. 2 the nosings of Steps.
The dotted lines on the plan represent the faces
of the risers, and the continued lines the nosings
of the steps.
MO and FQ upper and lower Ramps.
The method of drawing the Ramp is as fol-
lows: suppose the upper Ramp to be drawn;
produce the top HM of the rail to P: draw
MN perpendicular to the horizon, and pro-
duce the straight part ON of the pitch of the
rail to meet it in N, making NO equal to NM:
draw OP at a right angle to ON : from P as a
centre describe the arc MO, and then the other
concentric circle, which will complete the Ramp
required.
RS the Storj Rod, a necessary article in fix-
ing the steps, for if put up only by a common
measuring rule, will frequently occasion an ex-
cess or defect in the height, so as to render the
stair extremely faulty, which cannot be the case
if the story rod is applied to every riser, and the
riser regulated thereby. In the aforesaid case^,
the error is liable to multiply.
JOINERY. 181
steps of the inferior kind, terminating only upon
the side of the string, without any housing.
§ 88. Of Dog-leged Stairs,
The first thing is to take the dimensions of the
stair and height of the story, and lay down a
plan and section upon a floor to the full size, re-
presenting all the newels, stringi?, and steps : by
this, the situation of string boards, pitching
pieces, rough strings, long bearers, cross bearers,
and trimmers will become manifest; the quantity
of room allowed for the stairs, the situation of
appertures and passages will determine whether
there are to be quarter paces, half paces, one
quarter or two quarter winders. In this de-
scription, in order to give all the variety possible,
we shall suppose the flight to consist of two
quarter winders.
The strings, rails, and newels being framed
together, they murt then be fixed, first with
temporary supports, the string board will shew
the situation of the pitching piece? which must
be put up next in order, wedging the one end
firmly into the wall, and fixing the other end to
the string board; this being done, pitch up the
rough strings,' and thus finish the carriage part
of the flyers. In dog-leg staircases, as the steps
and risers are seldom glued up, except in cases
of returned nosings: we shall therefore suppose
them to be separate pieces, and proceed to put
up
182 JOINERY.
up the steps: place the first riser to its situation,
having fitted it down so as to be close to the
floor, the top being brought to a level at its
proper height, and at the same time, the face in
its right position, fix it with flat headed nails,
driving them obliquely through the bottom part
of the riser into the floor, and then nailing the
end to the string board ; proceed then to cover
the riser with the first tread, observing to notch
out the farther bottom angle opposite the rough
strings, so as to make it to fit closely down to a
level on the top side, while the under side beds
firmly upon the rough strings at the back edge,
and to the riser towards the front edge : nail
down the tread to the rough strings, driving the
nails from the seat or place on which the next
riser stands, through that edge of the riser into
the rough strings, and then nailing the end to
the string board; begin with the second riser,
having brought it to a breadth, and fitted it
close to the top ^de of the tread, so that the
back edge of the tread below it may entirely lap
over to the back of the riser, while the front side
is in its regular vertical position; nail the head
to this riser, from the under side, taking care
that the nails do not go through the face of the
'riser, for this would spoil the beauty of the
work.
Proceed in this manner as in the last, with
tread and riser alternately^ until the last pa^
* rallel
JOINERY. 183
rallel riser. The face of this riser must stand
the whole projection of the nosing back from
the face of the newel. Then fix the top of
your first bearer for the first winding tread
on a level with the top of the last parallel
riser, so that the farther edge of this bearer
may stand about an inch forward from the back
of the next succeeding riser, for the purpose of
nailing the treads to the risers upwards, as was
done in the treads and risers of the flyers, and
having fitted the end of this bearer against the
back of the riser, and nailed or screwed it fast
thereto; this being done, fix a cross bearer, by
letting it in half its thickness, into the adjacent
sides of the top of the riser, and into the top of
the long bearer, so as not to cut through tbe
horizontal breadth of the long bearer, nor through
the thickness of the riser, for this would weaken
the long bearer, and spoil the look of the riser.
Then fix the riser to the newel, driving a nail
obliquely from the top edge of the riser into the
newel; you may then proceed to put down the
first winding tread, fitting it close to the newel,
in the birds-mouth form, proceed with all the
succeeding risers and heads, always fixing in the
bearers previously to the laying of each successive
tread, until the &teps round the winding part are
entirely completed. Proceed then with the upper
retrogressive range of flyers, as those below.
Fit the brackets into the backs of the risers and
treads.
184 JOINERY.
treadsj so that their edges majjoin each other
upon the sides of the rough strings to which
they are fixed by nails, and thus the work is
completed. There are some workmen who do
not mind the close fitting to the riser; but cer-
tainly it makes the firmest work.
In the best kind of dog-leg stairs, the nosingss
are returned, and sometimes the risers mitred to
brackets, and sometimes mitred with quaker
strings: in this case there is a hollow mitered
round the internal angle of the under side of the
tread, and the face of the riser. Sometimes the
string is framed into the newel, and notched to
receive the ends of the steps, and at the other
end a corresponding notch board, then the whole
flyers are put up as a step ladder.
In order to get the lower part for the turning,
set on the thickness of the capping on the return
string board, and where that falls on the newel
below, is the place of the under limit of the
turning.
To find the section of the cap of the newel for
the turner, draw a circle to its intended diameter,
draw a straight line from the centre to any point
without the circumference, and set half the
breadth of the rail on each side of that line, and
through the point, draw a ]jne parallel to the
middle straight line, then the two extreme lines
will contain the breadth of the rail: draw any
radius of the circle, and set half the breadth of
the
• JOINERY. 185
the rail from the centre towards the circum-
ference, and through the point where this breadth
falls, draw a concentric circle from the point
where this circle cuts the middle line of the rail,
draw two lines to the points where the breadth
of the rail intersects the outer circle, and these
lines will show the mitre. The section may then
be found as shown in The Carpenters Guide, by
tracing it from the section of the rail, which is
the best method.
Another method, after having drawn the out-
I'me of the cap and rail as above, is to take a
small portion of the rail, and cut it to the mitre
as drawn> then take a block of sufficient size
for the cap, and cut out the internal mitre of
the cap to answer the external mitre of the rail:
place the mitre of the rail into its mitre socket,
and draw a line where the surface of the piece
meets the mitre, draw the middle line of the
rail upon both sides of the block, which will
bisect each mitre; take the distance from the
centre of the circle above drawn to the mitre
point, and set it on each side of the block for the
cap upon the middle line of the breadth of the
rail, from the mitre point towards the centre of
the block, pricking the block at the other ex-
tremity of this distance, then these points will
Joe the centres for turning. Fit a piece of wood
to the internal mitre, pare off the top part of
tfiis piece next to the mitre of the cap, so as to
correspond
1 86 JOINERY.
correspond to the line drawn by the top of the
rail, then with weak glue stick in this piece to
its birth, and being so fitted send it to the turner.
In order to eradicate a prevalent false idea
which many workmen entertain, when the outer
edge of the mitre cap is turned so as to have the
same section as that of the rail, they suppose
this to be all that is necessary for the mitering of
the above: but from a very little investigation of
the nature of lines, they will easily be convinced
that the sides of the mitre can never be straight
surfaces or planes, but must be curved, when
this the case.
§ 89. Bracket Staii^s.
The same methods must be observed with re-
gard to taking the dimensions, and laying down
the plan and section, as in dog-leg stairs. lb all
stairs whatever, after having ascertained the num-
ber of steps, take a rod the height of the story,
from the surface of the lower floor to the surface
of the upper floor: divide the rod into as many
equal parts as there are to be risers, then if you
have a level surface to work upon below the
stair, try each one of the risers as you go on, this
will prevent any excess or defect, which even the
smallest difference will occasion, for any error,
however small, when multiplied becomes of con-
siderable magnitude, and even the difference of
an inch in the last riser, being too high or too
low, will not only have a bad effect to the eye,
but
JOINERY. 187
but will be apt to confound persons, not thinkr
ing of any such irregularity. In order to try
the steps properly by the story rod, if you have
not a level surface to work from, the better way
will be to lay two rods or boards, and level their
top surface to that of the floor, one of these rods
being placed a little within the string, and the
other near or close to the wall, so as to be at
right angles to the starting line of the first riser,
or which is the same thing, parallel to the plan
of the string, set off the breadth of the steps
upon these rods, and number the risers, you may
set not only the breadth of the flyers, but that of
the- winders also. In order to try the story rod
exactly to its vertical situation, mark the same
distances on the backs of the risers upon the top
edges, as the distances of the plan of the string
board, and the rods are from each other.
The methods of describing the scroll and all
ramps and knees, are geometrically described in
The Carpenters Guide. This so far relates to
every description of stairs; but to return to the
particulars of this kind of stairs.
As the internal angle of the steps is open to
the end, and not closed by the string, as in com-
mon dog-leged stairs, and the neatness of work-
manship is as much regarded as in geometrical
stairs : the balusters must be neatly dove-tailed
into the ends of the steps, two in every step, the
face of each front baluster must be in a straight
surface
188 JOINERY.
surface with the face of the riser, and as all the
balusters raust be equally divided, the face of
the middle baluster must in course stand in the
middle of the face of the riser of the preceding
step, and the face of the riser of the succeeding
step. The risers and treads are all glued and
blocked previously together; and when put up
the under side of the step nailed or screwed into
the under edge of the riser, and then rough
bracked to the rough strings as in the dog-leged
stairs, the pitching pieces and rough strings being
similar to those. In gluing up the steps, the
best method is to make a templet, so as to fit the
external angle of the steps with the nosing.
§ 90. Geometrical Stairs.
The steps of geometrical stairs ought to be
constructed so as to have a very light and clean
appearance when put up: for this purpose, and
to aid the principle of strength, the risers and
treads when planed up, ought not to be less than
1|^ inch, supposing the going of the stair or
length of the step to be 4 feet, and for every
6 inches in length, you may add J part more ;
the risers ought to be dove-tailed into the cover,
and when the steps are put up, the treads are
screwed up from below to the under edges of
the risers; the holes for sinking the heads of the
screws ought to be bored with a center bit, and
then fitted closely in with wood well matched,
so as to conceal the screws entirely, and to ap-
pear
^o^n^r^
T^.^/'eJO.
X(rntioTKptiMiA-hfctMi^^cA^t>:2^SIhv^Z7^'lty7':^!i/hM'Sf(J77i .
2Z
JOINERY,
Explanation of PLATE X.
( To face Page 188.;
Showing the Construction of (geometrical Stairs.
No. 1 the Plan.
No. 2 the Elevation or Section.
AB No. 1 the Curtail Step^ which must be
first fixed.
C^ C, C &c. Flyers, supported below upon
rough carriages, and partly from the string
board DHEF No. 2. sometimes the ends next to
the wall are housed into a notch board, and the
steps made of thick wood, and no carriages used.
G, G, G &c. Winders fixed to bearers, cross
bearers, and pitching pieces, when (he flyers are
supported upon carriage?: sometimes the winders
are made of strong stuff, firmly wedged into the
wall, the steps screwed together, and the other
-ends of the steps fixed to the string DEHF The
strength of the stair may be powerfully assisted
by a bar of wrought iron made to coincide with
the inside, and screwed to the string immediately
below the steps, this would make a very light
stair, and if well attended to in the work-
manship, will be equal in firmness to one of
stone.
eiK the Wall Line of the soffit of the stair
for winding the part.
LMN part of the rail supported by two ba-
lusters upon every step.
JOINERY. 189
pear as one uniform surface without blemish.
Brackets are raitered to the riser and the nosings
are continued round : in this mode however, there
is an apparent defect, from the brackets, instead
of giving support are themselves unsupported,
depending on the steps, and aie of no other use
in point of strength, than merely tying the
risers and treads of the internal angles of the steps
together;" and from the internal angles being hol-
low, or a re-enterant right angle, except at the
ends, which terminate by the wall at one extremity,
and by the brackets at the other, there is a want of
regular finish. The cavetto or hollow is carried
all round the front of the slip returned at the end,
returned again at the end of the bracket, thence
along the inside of the same, and then along the
internal angle of the back of the riser.
This is a slight imitation of the ancient mode,
which was to make the steps solid all the way,
80 as to have every where throughout its length
a bracket-forme section. This, though more
natural in appearance, would be expensive and
troublesome to execute, particularly when winders
are used, but much stronger.
The best mode however of constructing geome-
trical stairs, is to put up the strings, and to
mitre the brackets to the risers as usual, and
finish the soffit with lath and plaster, which
will form an inclined plane under each flight
and a winding surface under the winders.
In elegant buildings, the soffit may be divided
into
190 JOINERY.
into pannels. If the risers are got out of 2 incll
stuff, it will ffreatly add to the solidity. The
method of drawing and executing the scroll and
other wreathed parts of tfie hand rail, will be
found in The Carpenters Guide,
In order to get a true idea of the twist of the
hand rail, the section of the rail by a plane pass-
ing through the axis of the well hole or cylinder
is every whei^ a rectangle, that is, the plumb or
vertical section, tending to the centre of the
stair. This rectangle is every where of an equal
breadth, but not of an equal vertical dimension
in every part of the rail, unless thart the risers
and treads were every where the same from the
top to the bottom: the height is greatest above
the winders, because the tread is of less breadth
and it is of less height above the flyers ; the
tread being the greatest. If you cut the- rail
after squaring it, perpendicular to any of its
curved sides, the section will not then be a rect-
angle, three of the sides will at least be curved.
Hence two falling moulds laid down in the usual
way^ will not square the rail, though in wide
openings they may do it sufficiently near. Hence
in squaring the rail, the square can never be ap-
plied at right angles to any one of the four
arrises, for the edge of the stock will not com-
ply with the side of the rail, being curved, ihis
would be easily made to appear by making a
wreathed part of a rail of unusual dimensions,
and
JOINERY. 191
and cutting it in both directions. Therefore, to
apply the sq'jare right;, keep the stock to the
plumb of the stair, and to guide the blade pro-
perly, the stock ought to be very thick, and
made concave to the plan so as to prevent the
possibility of its wabbling or turning from
side to side; as a little matter up or a little down
in the direction of the blade would make a great
difference in the rectangling or squaring of the
rail.
All this might easily be conceived from the
cylinder itself, for there is no direction in which a
straight line can be drawn on the surface of a cy-
linder, but one, and this line is in a plane pass-
ing through the axis of the cylinder, and as the
two vertical surfaces of the rail are portions of
cylinders, there can be no straight line upon such
surface, but what must be vertical, all others
from this principle are curves, or the sections of
the rail are bounded by curves, or by a curve on
that side.
In gluing a rail up in thicknesses, it will be
sufficiently near to get out a piece of wood to
the twisted form by two falling moulds, as shown
in The Carpenters Guide, provided the well hole
be not less than 1 foot diameter; the thickness of
this piece, as is there stated, must be equal to
the thickness, or rather the horizontal breadth of
the rail, together with the thickness which the
number oi^ saw kerfs will amount to, and also
the
19^2 JOINERY.
the amount of the substance, taken away by
planing the veneers. We are now supposing the
plan of the rail to be semi-circular, with two
straight parts one above and one below, a plan
more frequently adopted from motives of eco-
nomy, than from any propriety of elegance.
The first thing to be done is to make a cy-
linder of plank to the size of the well hole.
Draw two level lines round the surface of this
cylinder at the top and bottom, upon each of
these lines set off the treads of the steps at the
end next the well hole. Draw lines between
every two corresponding points at the head and
foot, and these lines will be all parallel to the
axis of the cylinder. Upon the two lines where
the cylindric part begins to commence, and also
upon a middle line between these lines, set
the heights of the winders, and the height of
one of the flyers above and below, or as much
as is intended to be taken off the straight of the
rail. Take a pliable slip of wood straight on
one edge, and bend it round, and keep the
straight edge of it upon the three corresponding
points at the height of the last riser of the flyer;
then draw the tread of the first winding step by
the straight edge from the line where the cy-
lindric part commences to the first perpendicular
line on the curved surface ; take the next three
points higher, and draw a line between the se-
cond and third perpendicular lioes> proceed in
like
JOINERY. 193
like manner with the cext three higher points, and
draw a line between the next two adjoining cj-
lindric lines, and the lines so drawn between
each three points will be the section of the treads
of the succeeding winding steps.
Having thus gone through the cylindric part,
draw a step at the top, and another at the bot-
tom, and thus the sections of the steps will be'
completed; draw the hjpothenusal or pitch lines
of the flyer on the lower part, and that of the upper
part, and whatever difference you make in the height
of the rail between the flyers and the winders you
must set it up from the nosings of the steps of
the winders upon two of the perpendicular lines:
draw a line through the two points by bending a
straight edged slip round the cylinder, the straight
edge of the slip coinciding with these points,
this line will represent the top of the rail over
the winders, and the hypothenusal lines at the
bottom and top that of the flyers, then curve off
the angles at the top and bottom where the rail
of the winding parts meets that of the flyers
above and below, then a line being drawn pa-
rallel to this, will form the falling mould. The
reason of making the vertical elevation of the
rail more upon the winders than the flyers is,
that the sudden elevation of the winders dimi-
nishes the height of the rail in a direction per-
pendicular to the raking line, and by this means
persons would be liable to fall over it.
To lay the veneers upon the cylinder, if bed
O screws
194 JOINERY*
screws or wedges are used, you may try the
veneers first upon the cylinder, screwing them
down without glue; prepare several pieces of
wood J to lie from 6 to 12 inches apart, accord-
ing to the diameter of the well hole, with two
holep in each, distant in the clear something more
than the breadth of the rail. Then having mark-
ed the positions of the places of these pieces on
the cylinder, pierce the cylinder with correspond-
ing holes on each side of the depth of the rail.
If the cylinder is made of plank 2 inches thick^
it will be suHlcient for the screws : but if of
thinner stuft' it will be convenient to set it on end
upon stools to get underneath, confiiiing the
top with nu<s. Unscrew one half, three men being
at work, one holding up all the veneers, another
glueing, and the third lay ingthem down successive-
lyoneafterthe otheruntil allare glued; screwthem
down immediately. Unscrew the other half and
proceed in like manner, and the rail will be glued
up. The glue that is used for this purpose ought
to be clear and as hot as possible, the rail ought
likewise to be made hot, as otherwise the glue
will be liable to set before all the veneers are
put down, and ready for the screws : this opera-
tion should therefore be done before a large fire,
the veneers thoroughly heated previous to the
commencement, in order that the heat may be ai
uniformly retained as possible throughout the
process. The glue in the joints of the rail will
take about three weeks to harden in dry weather.
INDEX
( 195 )
INDEX AND EXPLANATION
OF TERMS USED IN
JOINERY.
N. B. This Mark § refers to the preceding Sections,
according to the Number.
A.
Arris, the line of concourse or meeting of two sur-
faces.
B.
Bars for sashes, § 70, Plate 8. figs. I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
Basil, § 5.
Batten, a scantling of stuff from 2 inches to 7 inches
in breadth, and from | inch to If inch thick, § 82.
Beads, § 31, 68, 69. Plate 3, Figs. 2, 3. Plate 4,
Figs. I, 2, 3, 4.
Beaking Joint is the joint formed by the meeting of
several heading joints in one continued line, which
is sometimes the case in folded floors.
Bench, § 2, 67. Plate 1, Fig. 12.
Bench Hook, § 2.
Bench Planes, § 14. Plate l. Figs. I, 2,, 3.
Bench Screw, § 2.
Bevel, one side is said to be bevelled with respect to
another, when the angle formed by these two sides
is greater or less than a right angle.
Bevel, the tool, § 58, 67. Plate 2, Fig. 12.
Bits, § 34. Plate, 2, Fig. i.
Blade is expressed of any part of a tool that is broad
and thin, as the blade of an axe, of an adze, of a
0 2 chissel,
196 JOINERY*
chissel, of a square. The blade of a saw is more
frequently called the plate.
Boarding Floors, § 82.
Bottom Rail, the lowest rail of a door.
Brad, a small nail without any projecting head, except
on one edge. The intention is to drive it within
the surface of the wood, by means of a hammer
and punch, and fill the cavity flush to the surface
with putty.
Brad Awl, § 39, 67. Plate 2, Fig. 3.
Brace and Bits, the same as stock and bits.
Breaking Joint, is, not to allow two joints to come
together.
Casting or Warping is the bending of the surface*
of a piece of wood from their original position,
either by the weight of the wood, or by an unequal
exposure to the weather, or by unequal texture of
the wood.
Cavetto, § 68.
Centre Bits, § 35.
Chissels, §'40. Plate 2, Figs. 3, 4, 5.
Cima-Recta, §68. Plates, Figs. 10, 11.
Cima-Reversa, § 68. Plate 3, Fig. 12.
Clamp, a piece of wood fixed to the end of a board
by mortice and tenon, or by groove and tongue, so
that the fibres of the one piece thus fixed, traverse
those of the board, and by this means prevents it
from casting; the piece at the end is called a clamp,
and the board is said to be clamped
Clear Story Windows are those that have np
transom.
Compass
JOINERY. 197
Compass Pl.\ne, § is.
Compass Saw, § 53. Plate 2, Fig. 9.
Countersinks, § 36.
Cross-grained Stuff, is wood having its fibres run-
ning in contrary positions to the surfaces, and con-
sequently cannot be made perfectly smooth, when
planed in one direction, without turning it or turn-
ing the plane. This most frequently arises from a
twisted disposition of the fibres.
Curling Stuff, is that which is occasioned by the
winding or coiling of the fibres round the boughs
of the tree, when they begin to shoot out of the
trunk. The double iron planes now in use are a
most complete remedy against cross grained and
curling stuff: the plane will nearly work as smooth
against the grain as with it.
D.
Dado Grooving Planes, § 29.
Poor Frame, the surrounding case into, and out of
which the door shuts and opens, copsistlng of two
upright pieces and a head, generally fixed to-
gether by mortice and tenon, and wrought, rebated,
and beaded.
Doors, § 70. Plate 5, 6, 7.
Door Hung, § 84.
PouBLE Torus, § 69. Plate 4.
Dove Tail Saw, § 52.
Praging in the hanging of doors, is a depression or
lowering of the door, so as to make it rub on the
floor, occasioned by the loosening of the hinges, or
the settling of the building.
Draw
198 JOINERY.
Draw Bore Pins, two iron pins with wooden handles
for the purpose of forcing the shoulders of tenons
against the abutments on the cheeks of the mortices,
50 as to make a close joint. Draw bore pins are in
joinery, what hook pins are in carpentry, and used
in a similar manner. See Carpentry, § 20.
Drawing Knife, § 44.
E.
Edge Tools, all tools made sharp so as to cut.
F.
Fence, the guard of a plane which obliges it to work
to a certain horizontal breadth from the arris. All
mouldings planes, except hollows and rounds and
snipesbills, have fixed fences as well as fixed stops,
but in fillisters and plows, the fences are moveable,
§ 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 31.
Fine Set, when the iron has a very small projection
below the sole of the plane, so as to take a very
thin broad shaving, it is said to be fine set.
Firmer Chissel, § 67. Plate 2.
Floors, § 82.
forkstaff plane, § 16.
Framing, §81.
Free Stuff, that which is quite clean or wdthout
knots, and works easily, without tearing.
Frowy Stuff the same as free stuff".
G.
Gauge, § 59, 67. Plate 2, Fig. 13.
Gimblet, § t7. Plate 2, Fig. 2. No. 1 & 2.
GOL'GE,
JOINERY. 199
Gouge, § 43.
Grind Stone, a cylindric stone, which being turned
round its axis, edge tools are sharpened by applying
the basil to the convex surface.
Grinding the Iron, § 6. -
Groove, § 28.
Grooving Planes, See § 28. Plate 1, Fig. 8, ^ 9. § 2.
H.
Hammer, -5(?e Carpentry, § 15.
Hand Saw, § 48, 67. Plate 2, Fig. 6.
Hanging Doors, § 84.
Hanging Shutters, § 83.
Hatchet, ^55.
Hinging Doors and Shutters, § 83, 84
Hollows and Rounds, §33.
Jack Plane, § 5, 8, 67. Plate 1, Fig. L
Jointer, § 12.
K.
Kerf, the way which the saw makes in dividing a
piece of wood into two parts.
Key Hole Saw,, § 54, 67. Plate 2, Fig. 10.
JCnot that part of a branch of a tree where it issues
out of the trunk.
L.
Long Plane, § il.
Lower Rail, the rail at the foot of a door next to
the floor,
Lyinq
200 JOINERY.
Lying Pannel, a pannel with the fibres of the wooci
disposed horizontally. Lying pannels have their
horizontal dimension generally greater than the ver-
tical dimension.
M.
Mallet, See Carpentry, § 16, and Joinery, § 67,
Plate 1, Fig. 9.
Margins or Margents, the flat part of the stiles
and rails of framed work.
Middle Rail, the rail of a door which is upon a
level witli the hand when hanging freely and bend-
ing the joint of the wrest. The lock of the doori^
generally fixed in this rail.
Mitre, when two pieces of wood are formed to equal
angles, or each two sides of each piece at equal in-
clinations, and two sides one of each piece joined
tofrether at their common vertex, so as to make an
anole, or an inclination double to that of either
piece, they are said to be mitred together, and the
joint is called the mitre. The angle which is thus
formed by the junction of the two, is generally a
right angle.
Mitre Square, § %<&.
Mortice Chissels, § 42, 67. Plate 2, Fig. 5.
Mortice and Tenon, § 81.
Mortice Gauge, § 60.
Moulding Planes, § 30.
Mouldings, § 68, 69, 70, Plates 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
Moving Fillister, § 20.
lyiuLLiON, the large bars or divisions of windows.
Munnion, a large vertical bar of a window frame sepa-
rating two casements or glass frames from each
other.
Munnion,
JOINERY, 201
MuNTiNS OR MoNTANTS, the vertical pieces of the
^rame of a door between the stiles.
O.
Ogee, a moulding, the transverse section of which
consists of two curves of contrary flexture. § 68.
Plate 3, Figs. 10, 11, 12.
P.
Pannel, a thin board, having all its edges inserted in
the grooves of a surrounding frame.
Pannel Saw, § 4.9.
Plow, § 28, 67. Plate 1, Fig. 8.
Q.
Quarter Round, § 68. Fig. 7.
R.
Rails, the horizontal pieces which contain the tenons
in a piece of framing, in which the upper and
lower edges of the pannels are inserted.
Raisers, See Risers.
Rank Set, is when the edge of the iron projects
considerably below the sole of the plane, so as to
take a thick shaving.
Rebate, § 18.
Rebating, § 79, 80.
Rebating Planes, § 18, 19, 20,21, 22,23,24,25, 26,
27. also § 67, Plate 1, Figs. 6, & 7.
Reeded Moxjldings, § 69. Plate 4, Figs. 7, 8, 9.
Return,
202 JOINERY.
Return, in any body with two surfaces joining each
other at an angle, one of the surfaces is said to re-
turn in respect of the other; or if standing before
one surface, so that the eye may be in a straight
line with the other, or nearly so ; this last is said
to return.
Rimers, § 37.
Ripping Saw, § 46.
Risers, the vertical sides of the steps of stairs.
Rube Stone, § 6.
S.
Sash Fillisters, § 21, 22. Plate 1, Fig. 6.
Sash Saw, § 51, 67. Plate 2, Fig.
Saws, § 45.
Scantling the transverse dimensions of a piece of
timber, sometimes also the small timbers in roofing
and flooring, are called scantlings.
Scotia, § 68. Plate 3, Fig. 9,
Scribe, § 85.
Shoot, a joint, § 74.
Shooting Block, § 63.
Shutters Hung, § 83.
Side Hook, § 61, 67. Plate 1, Fig. 11.
Side Rebating PlXnes, § 27.
Side Snipesbills, § 32.
Single Torus § 69. Plate 3, Fig. 5. Plate 4. Fig. 5.
Smoothing Plane, § 13, 67. Plate 1, Fig. 3.
Snipsebills, § 32.
Square, § 56, 67. Plate 2, Fig. 11.
Staff, a piece of wood fixed to the external aflgl^
of the two upright sides of a wall for floating
the
JOINERY. 203
fthe plaster to, and for defending the angle against
accidents.
Stiles of a door, are the vertical parts of the framing
at the edges of the door.
Stock and Bits § 34, 67. Plate 2, Fig. l.
Straight Block, § 17.
Straight Edge, § 64.
Stuff, § i.
3urbase, the upper base of a room, or rather the
cornice of the pedestal of the room which serves
to finish the dado, and to secure the plaster against
accidents, as might happen by the backs of chairs
pr other furniture on the sanie level.
T.
Tang of an Iron is the narrow part of it which passes
through the mortice in the stock.
Taper, the form of a piece of wood which arises
from one end of a piece being narrower than the
other.
Tenon Saw, § 50, 67. Plate 2, Fig. 7.
Tooth, a small piece of steel with a cutting edge in
fillisters and gauges.
Torus, § 69. Plate 3, Fig. 5. Plate 4, Figs. 5, 6.
Transom Windows, those which have horizontal
mullions.
Trussels four leged stools for ripping and cross-
cutting timber upon. For this purpose there are
generally two required, and when the timber is
very long, an additional triissel in tlie middle will be
found necessary.
Try, § 78.
Trying, § 78.
Trying
204 JOINERY.
Trying Plane, §9, lo, 67. Plate i, Fig. lo.
Turning Saw, § 54, 67. Plate 2, Fig. 20.
W.
Warp, See Cast.
Web of an Iron is the broad part of it which comes
to the sole of the plane, the upper edge or end of
the web has generally one shoulder, and sometimes
two, where it joins the tang.
Winding Sticks, § 64.
MECHA-
( 205 )
MECHANICAL EXERCISES,
OF BMCKTLAYING,
§ 1. BRICKLAYING is an art by which
bricks are joined and cemented, so as to adhere
as one body.
This art in Londoi? includes the business of
walling, tiling and paving, with bricks or tiles,
and sometimes the bricklayer undertakes the bu-
siness of plastering also: but this is only done by
masters in a small way. In the country brick-
laying and plastering are generally joined, and
not unfrequently the art of masonry also, which
has a nearer affinity to it than that of plastering.
The bricklayer is supplied with bricks and
mortar at his work by a man, called a labourer,
who also makes the mortar.
The materials used are mortar, bricks, tiles,
laths, nails and tile pins; bricks and tiles are of
several kinds, which, as well as other descrip-
tions of work, are treated of under their re-
spective heads, viz. 1st the Tools, 2d of Cements,
3d of Brick-making, and the various sorts of
bricks, 4th the several kinds of Tiles and Laths,
5th the different methods of treating Foundations
according
^06 BRICKLAYING.
according to the quality of the soil, whetlief
of an uniform or mixed texture, 6th Walling,
7th a Description of the Plates, and lastly, an
Explanation of such terms as have not been de-
fined in the course of the work, or such as may
require a farther explanation, with an index to
the principal technical terms used in this art, and
in connection therewith, the terms and index
being placed under an alphabetical arrangement,
as to the former branches of Carpentry and
Joinery.
BRICKLAYING TOOLS DESCRIBED.
§ 2. A List of Walling Tools.
1st a Brick Trowel, 2d a Hammer, 3d a Plumb
Rule, 4th a Level, 5th a Large Square, 6th a
Rod, 7th a Jointing Rule, 8th a Jointer, 9th a
Pair of Compasses, 10th a Raker, 11th a Hod,
12th a Pair of Line Pins, 13th a Rammer, 14th
an Iron Crow, 15th a Pick Axe, 16th a Grind-
ing Stone, 17th a Banker, 18th a Camber Slip,
1 9th a Rubbino^ Stone, 20th a Bedding Stone,
21st a Square, 22d a Bevel, 23d a Mould, 24th
a Scribe, 25th a Saw, 26th, an Axe, 27th a
Templet, 28th a Chopping Block, 29th a Float
Stone.
§ 3. ^ List of Tools used in Tiling.
1st a Lathing Hammer, 2d a Laying Trowel,
3d a Boss, 4th a Pantile Strike, 5th a Scurbage.
Tools
BRICKLAYING. 207
TOOLS FOR WALLING DESCRIBED.
§ 4. The Brick Trowel
Is used for taking up mortar, and spreading
it on the top of the walls, in order to cement
together the bricks which are to be laid, and
also to cut the bricks to anj required lengths,
§ 5. The Hammer
Is used for cutting holes in brick work.
§ 6. The Plumb Rule
Is about four feet long, with a line and plura-
met, in order to C3.iiy the faces of wails up ver-
tically. See also Carpentry, § 14.
§ 7. The Level
Is about 10 or [2 feet long, in order to try
the level of walls at various stages of building,
and particularly at window cills and wall plates.
See also Carpentry, § 12, 13.
§ 8. The Large Square
Is used for setting out the sides of a building
at right angles, which is also obtained by Prob.
1, 2, 3. Geometry, page 19.
§ 9. The Rod
Is either 5 or 10 feet in length, and used for
measuringlengths, breadthsand heights with more
dispatch than could be done by a pocket rule.
§ 10, 77ic
^08 BRICKLAYING.
§ 10. The Jointing Rule '
Is about S or iO feet iong^ according to wbetlief
one or two bricklayers are to use it, and about
4 inches broad. By tbis rule they run the joints
of the brick work.
§ 11. The Jointer
With which, and the jointing rule, the hori"
zontal and vertical joints are marked, it is shaped
like the letter S, and is of iron.
§ 12. The Compasses
Is used for travessing arches and vaults.
\^. The Raker
Is a piece of iron with two knees or angles,
"which divide it into three parts at right angles
to each other ; the two end parts are pointed and
of equal lengths, and stand upon contrary sides
of the middle part. Its use is to pick decayed
mortar out of the joints in old wails, for the
purpose of replacing the same with new mortar.
§ 14. The Hod
Is a wooden trough, shut up at one end and
open at the other, the sides consisting of two
boards at right angles to each other, from the
meeting of the two sides projects a handle at
right angles; this machine is used by the la-
bourer for carrying mortar and bricks, he strews
the
BRICKLAYING. 209
the inner surface over with fine dry sand before
he puts in the mortar, which prevents it sticking
to the wood, then placing it upon his shoulder,
carries the load to the bricklayer.
§15. TJie Line Pifis
Are two iron pins for fastening and stretching
the linCj at proper intervals of the wall, in order
to lay the course of brick work level on the bed,
and straight along the face of the wall. The
line pins have generally a length of 60 fee^t of
line, fastened to each pin.
§ 16. The Rammer
is used for ascertaining whether the ground be
sufficiently solid forbuildingupon, also for beating
the ground to a firm bearing, so as to give it the
utmost degree of compression; for if ground is
built upon in a loose state, in all probability
fractures in the walls would ensue, and endanger
the whole building. See Foundations.
§ 17. The Iron Crow and Pick Axe
Are used in conjunction for cutting or break-
ing through walls, or raising large or ponderous
substances out of the ground, or the like.
§ 18. The Grinding Stone
Is used for sharpening axes, hammers, and
other tools.
P § 19. The
^10 BRICKLAYING.
§ 19. The Banker
Is a bench from 6 to 12 feet in length, ac-
cording to the number of those who are to work
at it, and from 2 feet 6 inches^ to 3 feet in
breadth, and may be an inch thick, and raised
about 2 feet 8 inches from the ground. It is
generally made of an old ledged door, set upon
three or five posts in front, and its back edge
against a wall. It is used for preparing the
bricks for rubbed arches, or other guaged work
upon.
§ 20. 77ie Camler Slip
Is a piece of wood generally about half arj
inch thick, with at least one curved edge rising
about 1 inch in 6 feet, for drawing the sofHt
lines of straight arches, when the other edge is
curved, it rises only abotif one half of the other
viz. about | an inch in 6 feel, for the purpose of
drawing the upper side of the said arch, so as
to prevent it from becoming hollow by the set-
tling of the arch. The upper edge of the arch
is not always cambered, some persons preferring
it to be straight. The bricklayer is always pro-
vided with a camber slip, which being sufficient-
ly long answers to many different widths of open-
ings; when he has done drawing his arch, h^
gives the camber slip to the carpenter, in order
to form the centre to the required curve of the
somt;
BRICKLAYING. 211
§ 21. The Rubbing Stone
Is of a cjiindric form about 20 inches dia-
meter, but may be more or less at pleasure, fixed
at one end of the banker upon a bed of mortar.
Bj this, the bricks which have been previously
axed are rubbed smooth, also the headers and
stretchers in returns, which are not axed, called
rubbed returns, and fubbed headers and stretchers.
§ 23. The Bedding Stone
Consists of a straight piece of marble, not
less than 18 or 20 inches in length, abou»t 8 or
10 inches wide, and of any thickness. Its use is
to try the rubbed side of the brick, which you
must first square, in order to prove whether the
surface of the brick be straight, so as to fit it
upon the leading skew back, or leading end of
the arch.
§ 23. The Square
Is used in trying the bedding of the bricks,
and squaring the soffite across the breadth pf the
said bricks.
§24. The Bevel
For drawing the soffit line on the face of the
bricks.
§ 25. The Mould
Ts used in forming the face and back of the
brick, in order to its being reduced in thickness
P 2 to
212 BRICKLAYING.
its proper taper, one edge of the mould being
brought close to the bed of the brick already
squared ; the mould has a notch for every course
of the arch,
§26. The Scribe
Is a spike or large oail ground to a sharp
point, to mark the bricks on the face and back
by the tapering edges of the mould, in order to
cut them.
§ 27. The Tin Saw
Is used for cutting the soffit lines about |- part
of an inch deep, first by the edge of the bevel
on the face of the brick, then by the edge of the
square on the bed of the brick, in order to enter
the brick axe, and to keep the brick from spal-
tering. The saw is also used in cutting the
ioffit through its breadth, in the direction of the
tapering lines, drawn upon the face and back
edge of the brick, but the cutting is always
made deeper on the face and back of the brick
than m the middle of its thickness, for the said
purpose of entering the axe : the saw is like-
wise used for cutting the false joints of headers
and stretchers.
§ 28. The Brick Axe
Is used for axing off the soffits of bricks to
the saw cuttings, and the sides to the lines drawn
BRICKiAYINC: 2l3
by the scribes. As the bricks are always rubbed
smooth after axing, the more truly they are axed
the less labour there will be in rubbing.
§ 29. The Templet
Is used iu taking the length of the stretcher
and width of the header.
Mote, The last ten articles relate entirely io
the cutting of gauged arches, which are now
the principal things that occur in gauged work.
§ 30. The Chopping Block
Is for reducing the bricks to their intended
form by axing them, and is made of any chance
piece of wood that can be obtained, from 6 to 8
inches square, supported generally upon two 14
inch brick piers, provided only two men be to work
at it, but if four men, the chopping block must be
lengthened and supported by three piers, and so
on according to the number. It is about 2 feet
3 inches in height.
§31. The Float Stone,
fs used for rubbing curved work smooth^ such
as the cylindrical backs and spherical heads of
niches^ so as to take out the axe marks entirely :
but before its application, it must first be brought
to the reverse form of the intended surface,
30 as to coincide with it^ as nearly as possible in
^nishiog.
' 4 32. Of
214 BRICKLAYING.
§ 32. Of Cements.
Calcarious Cements may be classed according
to the three following divisions: name]\, Simple
calcarious Cement^ Water Cement^ Mastichs, or
maltha.
1st Simple calcarious cements includes those
kinds of mortar which are employed in land
building, and consists of lime, sand, and fresh
water.
Calcarious earths are converted into quick lime
by burning, which being wetted with water falls
into an in palpable powder, with great extraca-
tion heat: and if in this state it is beat with sand
and water, the mass will concrete and become a
stony substance, which will be more or less per-
fect according to its treatment, or to the quality
and quantities of ingredients. When carbonated
lime has been thoroughly burnt, it is deprived
of its water, and all or nearly all of its carbonic
acid. Much of the water during the process of
calcination, being carried off in the form of
steam.
Lime stone loses about ^ of its weight, by
burning, and when fully burnt, it falls freely,
^.nd will produce something more than double
the quantity of powder or slacked lime in mea-
sure, that the burnt lime stone consisted of.
Quick lime, by being exposed to the air ab-
sorbs carbonic aci4 with greater or less rapidity,
as its texture is less or more bard, and this by
continued
BRICKLAYING. 215
continued exposure^ becomes unfit for the com-
position of morjtar; and hence it i^ that quick
lime made of chalk, cannot be kept for the same
length of time between the burning and slacking,
as that made from stone.
Marble, chalk, and lime stone, .with respect
to their use in cements, may be divided into two
kinds, simple lime stone, or pure carbonate of
lime, and argillo-ferugenous lime, which contains
from ^^ to ^\ of claj, and oxide of iron, previous
to calcination: there are no external marks by
which these can be distinguished from each other,
but whatever may have been the colour in the
crude state, the former when calcined becomes
white, and the latter more or less of an ochery
tinge. The white kinds are more abundant, and
when made into mortar will admit of a greater
portion of sand than the brown, consequent-
ly, are more generally employed in the com-
position of mortar; ■ but the brown lime is by far
the best for all kinds of cement. If white,
brown, and shell lime recently slacked, be sepa-
rately beat up with a little water into a stiff paste,
it will be found that the white lime, whether made
from chalk, lime stone, or marble, will not ac-
quire any degree of hardness; the brown lime will
become considerably indurated, and the shell lime
will be concreted into a firm cement, which though
it will fall to pieces in water, is well qualified
for interior finishings, where it can be kept dry.
it
216 BRICKLAYING.
It was the opinion of the ancients, and is still
received among our modern builders, that the
hardest lime stone furnishes the best lime for mor-
tar, but the experiments of Dr. Higgins, and
Mr. Smeaton have proved this to be a mistake,
and that the softest chalk lime, if thoroughly
burnt, is equally durable with the hardest
stone lime, or even marble: but though stone
and chalk lime are equally good under this con-
dition, there is a very important practical dif-
ference between them, as the chalk lime absorbs
carbonic acid with much greater avidity; and if
it is Only partially calcined on the application of
water, it will fall into a coarse powder, which
stone lime will not do.
For making mortar, the lime should be im-
mediately used from the kiln, and in slacking it,
no more water should be allowed than what is
just sufficient: and for this purpose Dr. Higgins
recommends lime water.
The sand made use of should be jperfectly
clean; if there is any mixture of clay or mud, it
should be divested, of either orboth, by washing it
in running water. Mr. Smeaton has full}' shovpn
by experiment, that mortar, though of the best
quality, when mixed with a small proportion of
unburnt clay, never acquires that hardness, which
without this addition, it speedily would have at-
tained. If sea sand is used, it requires to be
well washed with fresh water, to dissolve the
saltj
BRICKLAYING. 217
salt, with which it is mixed, otherwise the ce-
ment into which it enters, never becomes tho-
roughly dry and hard, the sharper and coarser
the sand is, the stronger is the mortar, also a less
proportion of lime is necessary. It is therefore
more profitable to use the largest proportion of
sand, as this ingredient is the cheapest in the
composition.
The best proportion of lime and sand in the
composition of mortar is yet a desideratum.
It may be affirmed in general, that no more
lime is required to a given quantity of sand, than
what is just sufficient to surround the particles,
or to use the least lime so as to preserve the ne-
cessary degree of plasticity. Mortar in which
sand predominates, requires less water in pre-
paring, and therefore sets sooner, it is harder
and less liable to crack in drying, for this reason
that lime shrinks greatly in drying, while sand
retains its original magnitude. We are informed
by Vitruvius lib. ii. c. 5. that the Roman builders
allowed three parts of pit sand, or two of river
oi: sea sand to one of lime; but by Pliny (Hist.
JSTat. lib. xxxvi. ) four parts of coarse bharp pit
sand, and only one of lime. The general pro-
portion given by cur London builders is 1| hun-
dred weight, or 37 bushels of lime and 2| loads
of sand, but if proper caution were taken in the
burning the lime, the quality of the sand, and
in tempering the materials, a much greater quan-
tity of sand might be admitted,
Mr.
218 BRICKLAYING.
Mr. Smeaton observes, that there is scarcely
any mortar, that if the lime be well burnt, and
the composition well beaten in the making, but
what will require two measures of sand, to one
of unslacked lime, and it is singular that the
more the mortar is wrought or beat, a greater
proportion of sand may be admitted. He found
that by good beating, the same quantity of lime
would take in one measure of tarras, and three
of clean sand, which seems to be the greatest
useful proportion*
Dr. Higgins found that a certain proportion of
coarse and fine sand improved the composition of
mortar; the best proportion of ingredients ac-
cording to experiment made by him are as follow
by measure.
Lime newly slacked - - 1 part.
Fine sand ----- 3 parts.
Coarse sand - - - - 4 parts.
He also found that an addition of ^ part of
the quantity of lime, of burnt bone ashes, im-
proved the mortar by giving the tenacity, and
rendering it less liable to crack in drying.
The mortar should be made under ground,
then covered up and kept there for a considerr
able length of time, the longer the better, and
when it is to be used, it should be beat up a-
fresh. This makes it set sooner, renders it less
liable to crack, and more hard when dry.
The stony consistence which it requires in dry-
ing
BRICKLAYING, 219
iflg, is owing to the absorption of carbonic acid
and a conmbination of part of the water with the
lime : and hence it is that lime that has been
long kept after burning is unfit for the purpose
of mortar, for in the course of keeping, so much
carbonic acid has been imbibed as to have little
better effect in a composition of sand and water,
than chalk or lime stone reduced to a powder
from the crude state would have in place of it.
Grout is mortar containing a larger proportion
of water than is employed in common mortar, so
as to make it sufficiently fluid to penetrate the
narrow irregular interstices of rough stone walls.
jGrout should be made of mortar that has beenv
long kept and thoroughly beat, as it will then
concrete in the space of a day: whereas if this
precaution is neglected, it will be a long time be-
fore it set, and may even never set.
Mortar made of pure lime sand and water,
may be employed in the linings of reservoirs, and
aqueducts, provided that it has sufficient time to
dry, but if the water be put in while it is wet,
it will fall to pieces in a short time, and conse-
quently, if the circumstances of the building are
such as render it impracticable to keep out the -
water it should not be used : there are, however,
certain ingredients put into common mortar, by
which it is made to set immediately under water,
or if the quick lime contain in itself a certain
pojtion of burnt clay, it will possess this property. *
This
520 BRICKLAYING.
This is all that is necessary to saj under this
head, what relates to mortars employed in aquatic
buildings will be treated of under water cements.
From the friable and crumbling nature of our
mortar, a notion has been entertained by many
persons, that the ancients possessed a process in
making their mortar, which has been lost at the
present day, but the experiments of Mr. Smeaton^
Dr. Higgins, and others have shown this notion
to be unfounded, and that nothing more is wanting
than that the chalk, lime stone or marble be well
burnt and thoroughly slacked immediately, and
to mix it up with a certain proportion of clean
large grain sharp sand, and as small a quantity
of water as will be sufficient for working it; to
keep it a considerable time from the external air,
and to beat it over again before it is used, the
cement thus made will be sufficiently hard.
The practice of our modern builders, is to
spare their labour, and to increase the quantity
of materials they produce, without any regard to
its goodness; the badness of our modern mortar
is to be attributed both to the faulty nature of
the materials, and to the slovenly and hasty me-
thods of using it. This is remarkably instanced
in London, where the lime employed is chalk
lime, indifferently burnt, conveyed from Essex
or Kent, a distance of 10 or 20 miles, then
kept many days without any precaution to pre-
vent the access of external air: now in the course
of
BRICKLAYING. 2'^l
of this time, it has absorbed so much carbonic
acid as nearly to lose its cementing properties,
and though chalk lime is equally good with the
hardest lime stone, when thoroughly burnt, yet
by this treatment, when it is slacked, it falls into
a thin powder, and the core or unburnt lumps
are ground down, and mixed up in the mortar,
and not rejected as it ought to be.
The sand is equally defective, consisting of
small globular grains, containing a large pro-
portion of clay which prevents it from drying,
and attaining the necessary degree of hardness.
These materials being compounded in the most
hasty manner, and beat up with water in this
imperfect state, cannot fail of producing a crumb-
ling and bad mortar. To complete the hasty
hash, screened rubbish, and the scraping of roads
also are used as substitutes for pure sand.
How very different was the practice of the
Romans, the lime which they employed was per-
fectly burnt, the sand sharp, cleaned and large
grained : these ingredients were mixed in due pro-
portion with a small quantity of water, the mass
was put into a wooden mortar, and beat with a
heavy wooden or iron pestle till the composition
adhered to the mortar; being thus far prepared,
they kept it till it was at least three years old.
The beating of mortar is of the utmost conse-
quence to its durability, and it would appear
that the effect produced by if, is owing to some-
thing more than a oiere mechanical mixture.
Water
222 BRICKLAYING,
Water Cements are those which are impervi-
ous to water, generally made of common mor-
tar, or of pure lime and water, with the addition
of some other ingredient which gives it the pro-
perty of hardening under water.
For this purpose there are several kinds of in-
gredients that may be used.
That known by the name of Pozzolana, which
is supposed to consist of volcanic ashes thrown
out of Vesuvius, has been long celebrated from
the early ages of the Romans to the present day.
It seems to consist of a ferrugenous clay, baked
and calcined by the force of volcanic fire, it is a
light, porus, friable mineral of a red colour.
The cement employed by Mr. Smeaton, in con-
struction of the Eddyston light house, was com-
posed of equal parts by measure, of slacked
aberthaw lime and pozzolana; this proportion
was thought adviseable, as this building was
exposed to the utmost violence of the sea: but
for other aquatic works, as locks, basins, canals,
&c. a composition made of lijne, pozzolana,
sand and water in the following proportion : viz.
two bushels of slacked aberthaw lime, one bushel
of pozzolana, and three of clean sand, has been
found very effectual.
§ 33. Description of Bricks.
Bricks are a kind of factitious stone, composed
of argilaceous earth, and frequently a certain
portion of sand and cinders of sea-coal tempered
together
BRICKLAYING?. ^i^J
together with water, dried in the sun, and burnt
in a kilrtj or in a heap or stack called a clamp.
Bricks are first formed from the clay into
rectangular prisms, in a mould of 10 inches ia
length, and 5 in breadth, and when burnt,
usually measure 9 inches long, 4| broad, and
2^ thick: so that a brick generally shrinks 1 inch
in 10; but the degree of shrinking is not always
the same, it depends upon the purity and tem-
pering of the clay, and also upon the burn-
ing-
For brick making, the earth should be of the
purest kind, dug in autumn, and exposed during
the winter's frost ; this allows the air to pene-
trate, and divide the earthly particles, and faci-
litates the subsequent operations of mixing and
tempering.
To make real good bricks the earth should be
dug two or three years before it is used, in order
to pulverize it, and should be mixed with a
due proportion of clay and sand, as too much
argilaceous matter causes the bricks to shrink,
ftnd too much sand renders them heavy and
brittle. The London practice of mixing oi sea
coal ashes, and in the country light sandy earth,
not only makes them work easy and with greater
dispatch, but tends also to save coals or wood
in burning them. The earth should be entirely
divested of stony particles, and should be often
beat or turned over, with as little water as pos-
sible.
224 BRICKLAYING.
sible, in order to incorporate the soil ^ith the
ashes or sand, until the whole be converted into
a uniform paste, and note, that too much water
prevents the adhering of the parts; before the
bricks are burnt, they should be thoroughly dry,
or they will crack and crumble in the burning.
Bricks made of good earth, well tempered,
become solid, smooth, hard, durable and pon-
derous; but require half as much more earth,
also a longer time in drying and burning, them
than common bricks, which are light, spungy,
and full of cracks. Bricks are either burnt in
clamps or kilns, the former is the practice about
London, and the latter in the country ; bricks
burnt in kilns are less liable to waste, require
less fuel, and are sooner burnt than in clamps.
It must be observed that steeping of bricks in
water after once burning, and then burning
them afresh, makes them more than doubly
strong.
There are several kinds of bricks, as Marls,
stocks, and Place bricks. The only difference in
making them is, that marls are prepared and
tempered with greater care, the constructien of
the clamp is the same for each, but for marls
areater care is taken not to over-heat the kiln,
but that it burn equally and moderately, and as
diffusively as possible. The finest kind of marls
called firsts, are selected, and used as cutting
bricks, for arches over doors, windows, and
quoins.
BRICKLAYING. 225
quoins, for which they are gauged and rubbed
to their proper forms. The next best called se-
conds;, are selected and used for principal fronts.
Marls are every way superior to stock bricks,
not only in colour, which is a pleasant pale yel-
low, but also in point of smoothness and dura-
bility. Hence the gray stocks are an inferior kind.
The place bricks, or as they are otherwise called
peckings, and sometimes sandal or semel bricks,
are those that are left of the clamp after taking
away the rubbers and marls, their inferior quality
is occasioned by not being sufficiently and uni-
formly burnt : they also differ from stock bricks
in being of a redder colour, and of a more un-
even texture. Burrs are over-burnt brick, some-
times two or three are quite vitrified and run to-
gether. There are also red stocks, these arc
made in the country, and burnt in kilns,
the best kind are used as cutting bricks, and
are called red rubbers. Fine bricks are made
at Hedgerly, a village near Windsor, and are
therefore also called Windsor bricks. These
are very hard, of a red colour, and will
•tand the utmost fury of the fire ; their length
and breadth are the same as stock bricks, but
their thickness is only about 1| inch. Bricks
are sold by the thousand. Stock and place
bricks made for sale, shall not be less than 8|
inches long, 4 inches wide, and 2^ thick,> when
burnt, by 17 Geo. hi. cap, 69.
Q Besides
226 ^ BRICKLAYING.
Besides the bricks of our own manufacture,
Dutch clinkers are also imported for the pur-
pose of paving j#rds and stables. These are
very hard^, of a brimstone colour, and almost
vitrified in burning. They are about 6 inches
long, 3 broad,, and 1 thick, and look extremely
well when laid herring bone ways.
As a building material, bricks have several
advantages over stone, being lighter, and from
their porus structure they unite better with th«
mortar, and are not so liable to attract damp.
Bricks for paving floors, also called paving
tiles, are of several magnitudes, and are made
of a stronger clay. The largest are about 13
inches square, and 1| in thickness; the second
are about 9 inches square, though called 10
being foraierly so, and 1~ thick; these may btf
rubbed smooth, and when laid diagonally, hav«
a very pleasing eftect. Bricks for paving are
about 9 inches long, 4| broad, and 1| thick.
The chief covering for roofs in and about
London is slate : however, in the interior of the
country, tiles are almost uniformly used for the
roofs of houses, and in some instances on barns ;
tiles for roofs are of several kinds, as pan tiles,
plain tiles, ridge tiles, and hip tiles. Pan tiles-
l(re about 13 inches long, 8 inches broad, and
about I inch thick ; their transvese section is a
figure of contrary curvature, the form of the
tile being two portions of cylindric surfaces on
both
BRICKLAYING. 227
both sides, the part which is of the greatest ra-
dius serves as a channel for discharging the rain
water, and the other part, which is of much less
radius, serves to lap over the edge of the ad-
joining tile: at the upper end of the tile pro-
jects a knob from the under and convex side, for
the purpose of hanging it to the lath. The laths
used for pan tiles are about J of an inch thick,
and 1^ of an inch broad, made of deal. Flemish
tiles are sometimes imported from Holland, they
are very hard and durable, and are glazed of a
leaden colour.
§ 34. Foundations.
Having dug the trenches for the foundations,
the ground must be tried with an iron crow, or
with a rammer, and if found to shake it must be
pierced with a borer, such as is used by well
diggers: then if the ground proves to be gene-
rally firm, the loose or soft parts, if not very
deep, must be excavated until a solid bed ap-
pears; but observe in building up these parts
that the bottom of the excavation must widen
upwards in a gradual slope, in the direction of
the trenchers in form of a series of steps, which
will admit of a firmer bed for the stones, so that
they will have no tendency to slide, as would be
the case if built upon inclined planes: and thus
in wet seasons, the moisture in the foundations
would induce the inclined parts to slide, and
Q 2 descend
22S "BRICKLAYING.
descend by their gravity towards the lowest part?/
and in all probability would fracture the walls^
and endanger the whole fabric.
If the ground proves soft in several places to
a great depth under apertures, and firm upon
the aides on which the piers between the windows
of the superstructure are to be erected, the better
way is to turn inverted arches under the aper-
tures, See Plate 4, and indeed at all times where
there is sufficient height of wall below the aper-
tures to admit of them, it is a necessary pre-
caution.
For the small base of the piers will more
easily penetrate the ground than one continued
base: and as the piers are permitted to descend
in a certain degree, and so long as they can be
kept from spreading, will carry the arch along
with them, and compress the ground, which
Vf'vW therefore re- act against the under sides of
the inverted arch, which, if closely jointed will
not yield, but act with the abutting piers as one
solid body. On the contrary, if no inverted
arches were used, the low piece of walling under
the apertures not having a sutiicient vertical di-
mension would give way from the resistance of
the ground upon its base, and thereby, not only
fracture the spaces of brick work which lies ver-
tical between the aperture, but breaks the cills
of the windows. Where the precaution of in-
verted arches ia omitted, and the building is
weighty.
BRICKLAYING. 229
weighty, the probability of the event of fracturing
the walls is almost certain; the author, who has
had great practice in conducting buildings never
experienced any instance to the contrary, in the
numerous buildings in which he has been cour-
cerned. It is therefore of the utmost conse-
quence to throw these arches with the greatest
care ; they ought not to be less in height than
half tl!\iir width, and as a parabolic curve is very
easily described, it would be still more effectual
in resisting the re-action of the ground than one
of uniform curvature, as the arc of a circle.
The parabolic arch or vault being the form adapt-
ed more nearly to the laws of uniform pressure.
From the equality of the curvature of the cir^-
cle, it is only capable of resisting a uniform
pressure upon all points directed to the centre,
and thus a cylindric vessel surrounded with water
is a proper form of a hollow body to be con*
istructed of the least quantity of materials, or at
the least ex pence.
The bed of the piers ought to be as uniform
as possible, for though all the parts of the bot-
tom of the trenches may be very firm, if there
be any difference, £is they will all sink, the quan-
tity which they wi|l give will Jje according to
the softness of the ground, therefore the piers
erected upon the softer will descend more than
those on the firmer ground, and occasion a ver-
tical frfictu^re in the building.
If
230 BRICKLAYING.
If the hard parts of the foundation are only
to be found under apertures^ then build piers ia
these places, and instead of inverted arches sus-
pend arches between the piers. In the construc-
tion of the arches some attention must be paid to
the breadth of the insisting pier, whether it
will cover the arch or not : for suppose the mid-
dle of the pier? to rest over the middle of the
summit of the aiches, then the narrov/er the
piers, the more curvature the supporting arch
ought to have at the apex. When arches of
suspension are used, the intrados ought to be
clear, so that the arch may have the full effect;
but as observed before, it will also be requisite
here, that the ground be uniformly hard on
"which the piers are erected, for the reasons al-
ready given; but it might be farther observed,
that even where the ground is not very hard under
the piers, if it is but uniform, the parts will
descend equally, and the building will remain un-
injured.
If the foundation be not very insufficient^ it may
be made good by ramming large stones closely
laid with a heavy rammer, of a breadth at the
bottom proportioned to the insisting weight, and
this breadth in ordinary cases may project a foot
on each side of the wall, then another course
may be laid upon this so as to bring the upper
bed of the stones upon a general level with the
trenches^ and to project about 8 inches on each
side
BRICKLAYING. 23!
Side of tbe wallj or to recede 4 inches on each
side within the lower course. In laying of these
courses, care should be taken to chop or hammer-
dress the stones, so as to have as little taper as
possible,, and to make the joints of the one course
fall as nearly to the middle of the stones in the
adjoining course as possible, and this principle
must be strictly adhered to in ali walling what-
ever, and though there are various modes of dis-
posing stones or bricks, the end is to obtaie the
greatest uniform lap upon each other, through-
out the whole.
If the foundation is very bad, the whole must
be piled, as already described in the department
of Carpentry.
§35. Walls.
We shall now suppose that the ground is either
naturally sufficient for building upon, or is pre-
pared for the purpose by means similar to what
have already been described: and the different
qualities of mortar and bricks being also de-
scribed, such materials must be employed in the
construction of the whqle, or in the diiTerent
parts, as are sufficient for the end proposed ; thus,
in places exposed to the weather, more durable
materials must be employed than to those which
are covered ; but in this, some regard must also
be had to the importance of the fabric, or whether
long duration may be required or not.
When
^33 .BRICKLAYING.
When you slack the lime, wet it only with so
much water as is sufficient to reduce it to a pow-
der, and only about a bushel at a time, covering
it over with a lajer of sand, in ifrder to prevent
the gas which is the virtue of the lime from es-
caping. The best proportion of the ingredients
of lime and sand for mortar has been liilly spe-
cified, but in ordinary cases, where time wiil not
permit to prepare the materials to the best ad-
vantage, or where the end proposed would not
be a compeosaiion for the expence, about 2 or
2| measures of sand to 1 of lime may be used ;
but even this proporiion will not always hold,
for some lime will require more and some less
sand ; this being understood, slack the same
quantity of lime alternately, until the whole is
made up: this is a better mode than to slack the
whole at once, as the exposure is less in the
former, than in the latter case.
Beat your mortar with the beater three or
four times over before it is used, so as to incor-
porate the lime and sand, and to break the knots
that pass through the sieve ; this will not only
render the texture uniform, but will make the
mortar much stronger by permitting the air to
enter the pores: and observe here also, as we
have before stated, to use as little water in the
beat'ng as possible. Should the mortar stand
any time after beating it should be beat again,
immediately before it is used, so as to give te-
nacity
BRICKLAYING. ^33
nacity and to prevent labour to the bricklaj'er.
In summer dry hot weather use your mortar
pretty soft, but in winter rather stiff.
If you lay your bricks in dry weather, and if
you require firm work, you must use mortar
prepared in the best way, and before using the
bricks, they must be wetted or dipped in water
as they are laid on the wall, but in moist weather
this will be unnecessary. The wetting of the
bricks causes them to adhere to the mortar,
whereas, if laid dry and covered with sand or
dust, they will never stick, but may be taken
off without the adhesion of a single particle of
mortar.
In winter as soon as the frost or stormy season
begins to set in, the walls must be covered, for
this purpose straw is usually employed, and
sometimes in particular buildings a capping of
weather boarding, in form of a stone coping,
for throwing the water equally to both sides is
used; but even in this case, it would be better
to have straw under the wood, which would be
still a farther proof against frost. There is no-
thing so prejudicial to a building as alternate
rain and frost, if exposed, for the rain makes
way through the pores into the heart of the
stone and mortar, and when the freezing comes
on, the water is converted into ice, which ex-
pands beyond the original bulk with such power,
that no known force of compression is capable of
preventing
234 BRICKMYING.
preventing it from expansion. In consequence
of this, the heaviest stones and even the largest
rocks have been burst. Though this is the cause
why buildings decay in lapse of time, yet the
vertical surfaces exposed to the vreather suffer but
io an incomparably small degree to horizontal
surfaces thus exposed.
In working up the wall it would be proper not
to work more than 4 or 5 feet at a time, for as
all walls immediately after building shrink, the
part which is first brought up will remain sta--
tionary, and when the adjacent part is also brought
up, it will shrink in altitude by itself, and con-
sequently will separate from the other which has
already become fixed. In carrying up any parti-
cular part, the ends should be regularly sloped
off so as to receive the bond of the adjoining
parts on the right and left. There is nothing
that will justify one part of a wall being carried
higher than one scaffold, except it be to forward
the carpenter in some particular part, or the
like.
In brick work there are two kinds of bond,
one in which a row of bricks laid lengthways in
the length of the wall, is crossed by another row
laid with their breadth in the said length, and
thus proceeding to work up the courses in alter-
nate rows, which is called English bond. Tho
courses in which the length of the bricks are
disposed in the length of the wall are called
stretching
BRICKLAYING, 235
stretching courses, and the bricks themselves are
called stretchers. The courses in which the length
of the bricks run in the thickness of the wall are
called heading courses, and the bricks thus dis-
posed are called headers. The other kind of
brick work is the placing of header and stretcher
alternately in the same course ; this disposition
of the bricks is called Flemish bond. This latter
mode, though esteemed the most beautiful is
attended with great inconveniences in the execu-
tion, and in most cases is incapable of uniting
the parts of a wall with the same degree of firm-
ness as the English bond.
To enter into the particular merits of these two
species of bond would carry this department be-
yond its allowed limits; the reader who wishes
farther satisfaction will consult the explanation of
the Plates, and an ingenious tract on Brick Bond,
by Mr. G. Saunders, where the defects of Flemish
bond, and the superiority of the old English
bond, are pointed out in the most satisfactory
manner. However, it may be proper to ob-
serve in general, that whatever advantages are
gained by apy disposition of placing the bricks
in Flemish bond in any particular direction, is
lost in another : thus if an advantage is gained
in tying a wall together in its thickness, it is lost
in the longitudinal bond, and the contrary. In
order to remedy this inconvenience in thick walls^
some place the bricks in the core at an angle of
forty
23d BRICKLAYING.
forty-five degrees, and parallel to each other
throughout the length of each course, so as to
cross each other at right angles in the succeeding
course : hut even the advantages ohtained by
this disposition are not satisfactory, for though
those bricks in the middle of the core have suf-
ficient bond, yet where they join to the bricks
on the sides of the wall, they form triangular
interstices, and therefore the sides must be very
imperfectly tied to the core.
§ 36. yaulting and Groining.
Definitions.
A simple vault is an interior concavity extend-
ed over two parallel opposite walls, or over all
diametrically opposite sides of one circular wall.
The concavity or interior surface of the vault
is called the intrados.
Theintrados of a simple vault is generally form-
ed of the portion of the surface of a cylinder,
cylindroid, or sphere, never greater than that of
half the solid, and the springing lines which
terminate the walls that the vault rises from, are
generally straight lines, parallel to the axis of
the cylinder or cylindroid.
When the vault is spherical, the circular wall
terminates in a level plane at top from which the
vault springs, and forms either a complete hemis^-
phere, or a portion of the sphere less than the
hemisphere.
Conic
BRICKLAYING. 237
Conic surfaces are seldom employed in vault-
ing, but when a conic surface is employed for
the intrados of a vault, it should be semi-conic
with a horizontal axis, or the surface of the whole
cone with its axis vertical.
All vaults which have a horizontal straight
axis, are called straight vaults.
All vaults which have their axis horizontal,
are called horizontal vaults.
A groin is the excavation or hollow formed
by one simple vault piercing another, or a groin
is that in which two geometrical solids may be
transversely applied one after the other, so that
a portion of the groin v/ill have been in contact
with the first solid, and the remaining part ia
contact with the second solid, when the first is
removed. The most usual kind of groining is
one cylinder piercing another, or a cylinder and
cylindroid piercing each other, having their axis
at right angles.
The axis of each simple vault forming the in-
trados of a groin is the same with the axis of
the geometrical solids, of which the intrados of
the groin is composed.
When the breadths of the cross pages or open-
ings of a groined vault are equal, the groin is
said to be equilateral.
When the altitudes of tl?e cross vaults are
equal, the groin is said to be equi-altitudinal.
Groios
238 BRICKLAYING.
Groins have various names, according to the
surfaces of the geometrical bodies, which form
the simple vault.
A cjlindric groin is that vs^hich is formed by
the intersection of one portion of a cylinder with
another.
A cjlindroidic groin is that which is formed
by the intersection of one portion of a sphere
with another,
A spheric groin is that which is formed by the
intersectioa of one portion of the sphere with
another.
A conic groin is that which is formed by the
intersection of one portion of a cone with an-
other.
The species of every groin formed by the in-
tersection of two vaults of unequal heights, is
denoted by two preceding words, the former of
which ending in o, indicates the simple vault
which has the greater height, and the latter end-
ing in ic indicates the simple vault of the less
height.
When a groin is formed by the intersection of
two unequal cylindric vaults, it is called a cy-
lindro-cylindiic groin, and each arch so formed
is called a cjiindro-cyiindric arch.
When a groin is formed by the intersection of
a cylindric vault with a spheric vault, and the
spheric |)ortion being of greater height than the
cylindric portion, the groin is called a sphero-
c}lindric
BRICKLAYING. 239
cvlindric groin^, and each arch forming the groin
is called a sphero-cjlindric arch.
When a groin is formed by the intersection of
a cjlindric vault, with a spheric vault;, and the
spheric portion of less altitude than the cylindric
portion^, it is called a cylindro-spheric groin; and
each arch forming the groin is called a cjlindro-
spheric arch.
When one conic vault pierces another of greater
altitude, the groin formed by the intersection is
called a cono-conic groin, and each arch form-
ing the groin, a cono-conic arch.
A rectangular groin is that which has the axis
of the simple vault in two vertical planes, at
right angles to each other.
A multangular groin is that which is formed
by three or more simple vaults piercing each
other, so that if the several solids which form
each simple vault be respectively applied, only
one at a time to succeeding portions of the groin-
^ed surface, every portion of the groined surface
will have formed successive contact with certain
corresponding portions of each of the solids.
An equi-angular groin is that in which the se-
veral axis of the simple vaults form equal angles,
around the same point, in the same horizontal
plane.
PLATE I.
240 BRICKLAYING.
§ 37. Explanations of the Plates in Bricklaying.
PLATE I.
Fig. 1 the Brick Trowel.
Fig. 2 the Brick Axe.
Fig. 3 the Square.
Fiff. 4 the Bevel.
Fig. 5 the Jointing Rule.
Fig. 6 the Jointer.
Fig. 7 the Hammer.
Fig. 8 the Raker.
Fig. 9 the Line Pins.
Fig. 10 the Rammer.
Fig. 1 1 the Pick Axe.
Fig. 12 the Camber Slip.
Fig. 13 the Banker, with the Rubbing Stone
placed at one end of it.
PLATE XL
^la^e -I.
r'CcAZ!:z/u/yn^.
Tz^.2.
M^.2. -^>^ A^^-
Iz^JO.
Ixa.&.
X^idof\^vi^7i9h^ciM(ifo7i Z€A2BMhv.K7qy7^mSii?7iMi?7Sar-n .
22
t:^/r%C^/^l
TT
Tl^te 2.
Ti^.l.
Tz(/ . 3
Tz(/.4^.
L,t„Jrt,l.:/-'r.'/ini-Mini, :it>jStjfy JJiu/aMiiJi S.lhoi-n .
BRICKLAYING. 241
PLATE IT.
Various specimens of English bond according
to the different thicknesses of walls : in these the
heading and stretching courses mutually cross
each other in the core of the wall, and there-
fore produce an equality of strength.
Fig. 1 shows the Bond of a 9 inch wall, here
as well as in the following it must be observed,
that as the longitudinal extent of a brick is 9
inches, and the breadth 4| inches, in order to
prevent two vertical joints from running over
each other at the end of the first stretcher from
the corner, after placing the return corner
stretcher, which becomes a header in the face
that the stretcher is in below, and occupies half
the length of this stretcher ; a quarter brick is
placed upon the side, so that the two together
extend GJ inches, and leave a lap of 2^ inches
for the next header, which being laid, lies with
its middle upon the middle of the header below,
and ill this manner the bond is continued. The
brick-bat thus introduced next to the corner
header is called a closer, The same effect might
be obtained by introducing a" J bat at the corner
in the stretching course, for then when the corner
header comes to be laid oyer it, a lap of 2^
inches will be left at the end of the stretchers
R below
242 BRICKLAYING.
below for the next header, which being laid,
the joint below the stretchers will coincide with
its middle, and in this manner the bond may be
continued as before.
Fig*. 2 a Fourteen inch or Brick and half
wall. In this the stretching course upon the one
side is so laid, that the middle of the breadth of
the bricks in the heading course upon the oppo-
site side falls alternately upon the middle of the
stretchers, and upon the joints between the
stretchers.
Fig. 3 a Two Brick Wall. In the heading
course, every alternate header is only f a brick
thick on both sides in order to break the joints
in the core of the wall.
Fig. 4 a Two Brick and ^ Wall, bricks laid
as in Fig. 3.
PLATE III.
-^yTt^e^Z^
^laZe 3.
Ti^.I.
O/l^^^n^^:
J^tU/. 2.
XonJonJijais?tedMcav7i 2fi. 7877.!ty XTa}'!o?:J?i^7t.Si>l6o7vl .
24
BRICKLAYING. 243
' PLATE III.
Contains various specimens of Flemish bond
according to the different thicknesses of walls.
The dotted lines show the disposition of the
bricks in the courses iibove.
Fig. 1 a Nine inch Wall where two stretchers
He between two headers, the Icngih of the
headers and the breadth of the stretchers ex^
tending the whole thickness of the wall.
Fig. 2 a Brick and half Wall, one, side being
laid as in Fig. 1, and the opposite side, with a
half header opposite to the middle of the stretcher,
and the middle of the stretcher opposite the mid-
dle of the end of the header.
Fig. 3 another disposition of Flemish Bond
where the bricks are similarly disposed on
both sides of the wall, the tail of the headers
being placed contiguous to each other, so as to
form square spaces in the corner of the wall for
half bricks.
Fig. 4 a Reversed Arch supposed to come
under a window, in order to prevent the frac-
turing of the wall under the lowest window.
Arching under the apertures should never be
omitted in any building whatever, provided there
R2 be
244 BRICKLAYING.
be room, if not, pieces of timbers ought to be
laid, so as to present the most inflexibility to the
ground, and make the wall act longitudinally as
one solid body.
Fig. 5 Supposed to be the case where the
ground stands firm under the apertures, the
weight of the pier is therefore discharged
from the soft part under the piers. In this case if
the bond of the pier is good, there will be very
little danger of the wall fracturing under the
apertures.
PLATE IV.
<L^/?^^x>^yCa^u^/n^.
^Ifz Ire 4
J'-v^.Z
Tz^.Z
Tz^.3.
Tig. 6:
X2 a 4 -f 19 76 9^21
^s#^
-WplM
1
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 '
; 1 '
1
1 1
1 1
1 1 '
1 1 '
1 I '
1
j:afuf,'Ti7'l'Z>/fs/{cJJ£//Wl.?o:jiiIAiv.l/?tt-/,>/.-J/u,?L/ro//w/
BRICKLAYING. 245
PLATE IV.
Fig. 1 Part of the upright of a Wall, at the
return, laid with Flemish bond.
Fig. 2 a Scheme Arch, being 2 bricks high.
Fig. 3 a Semi-circular Arch 2 bricks high.
Fig. 4 a Straight Arch, which is usually the
height of four courses of brick work, the man-
ner of describing it will be shown in the follow-
ing figure.
Fig. 5, To draw the Joints of a Straight Arch,
Let AB be the width of the aperture; describe
an equilateral triangle A B C upon this width;
describe a circle around the point C equal to the
thickness of the brick. Draw DE parallel to
A B at a distance equal to the height of four
courses, and produce C A and CB to D and E.
Lay the straight edge of a rule from C to D, and
with a pair of compasses, opened to a distance
equal to the thickness of a brick, cross the line
D E at F, removing the rule from the points C
and D. Place the straight edge against the
points C and F, and with the same extent, be-
tween the points of the compass cross the line
DE atG: proceed in this manner until you
come to the middle, and as it is usual to have a
brick in the centre to key the arch in, if the last
distance which we will suppose to be H I is not
equaUy
246 BRICKLAYING.
equally divided by the middle point K of DE^
the process must be repeated till it is found 'to
be so.
Though the middle brick tapers more in the
same length than the extreme bricks, it is con-
venient to draw all the bricks with the same
mould, which is a great saving of time, and
though this is not correctly true, the difference
is so trifling as not to affect the practice. It may
however be proper to observe, that the real taper
of the mould is less than in the middle, but
greater than either extreme distance: but even
the difference between this is so small, that either
may be used, or taking half their difference will
come very near the truth. This ditierence might
easily be shown by a trigonometrical calculation,
the middle being an isosceles triangle, of which
the base and perpendicular are given, the base
being a certain part of the top line. In the
triangle upon the sides you have one angle equal
to 60 degrees, and the side D F is given and DC
■=:z ( DK"" -f KC*)| can easily be found, so that
in this triangle the two sides and the contained
angle are given.
Fig. G an Elliptic Arch, the top is divided
into equal parts, and not the underside.
PLATE V.
-Z^late A
^//^
JV?!.
J^2.
Jz^.2.
jr?2.
jsn>2
J7\^.3.
jri.
1Y?2.
Tig.4..
Jif^. 6.
y?2.
JV?Z
i*ififili|iil [I jii iiilili
f
miiiifli 1 miiiiiii 1 u 1 u iiii
iiiiiiiiiii
1 !|I|[JI||I|P
lliiiii
liill 1 !l!: ili;.!llii;/:i,;lMlU::l!:; j"i! i^'] llii.ii'!!:!. ■'•.^/iu.'iiJikUilIji fli \ iili
11
^7 ^ 0
niiiilliiiliii ^'^^iiiiiiiiu'''''iiiiiiiii'""'iiiiiii
'Jill
II
1
1 1
1
J^ulmJ'^ih'JieJMm-Ji -KUSniy. ZJ^n-f.-r-WaTiMTla
BRICKLAYING. 247
PLATE V.
Contains piers of various substances according
to the Flemish bond disposition of bricks, with
designs of Brick Cornices.
Fig. 1 a Pier, 2 brick square : No. 1 the bot-
tom course. No. 2 the upper course.
Fiff. 2 a two and half Brick Pier : No. 1 the
bottom course. No. 2 the upper course.
Fiar. 3 a three Brick Pier: No. 1 the bottom
course. No. 2 the upper course.
Fig. 4 a three and half Brick Pier : No. 1 the
bottom course. No. 2 the upper course.
Ornamental Brick Cornices. -
In the construction of any thing destined to an-
swer a particular end, it frequently happens that
different kind of materials may be employed for
the purpose: it is evident that every distinct
species of material will require its own peculiar
manner of treatment, and the sizes of the parts
which are to compose the thing required, must
depend upon what the material will most con-
veniently admit of: thus brick, wood, stone, or
iron may be employed to construct a body for
any proposed end, the manner of working
these
^4H BRICKLAYING.
these will not only differ, but the sizes of the
things which are to compose the whole, and not
only so, but sometimes a change in the general
form also.
In brick cornices, from the various kinds of
bricks and tiles, a variety, of pleasing symmetry
may be formed by various dispositions of the
bricks, and frequently without cutting, or if cut,
champhering only may be used.
Fig. 5 a Cornice in imitation of the Grecian
Doric.
Fig. 6 a Dentil Cornice, in this last the upper
member is champhered to give it the appearance
of a mouldins:.
PLATE VI.
^:::^ r/^Atau^/na,,
:fz^.i.
Ti^.4-.
Zig.a
Zii'idmTalJis7xta3/aifhtai/iU.i\JJqi-7t!t-Stif/iM^7irt-n.
BRICKLAYING. 249
PLATE VI.
Contains Groins of various kinds.
Fig. 1 a semi-cylindric equi-angular groin, the
centre of one vault being generally boarded
in without any regard to the other, and the other
boarded in afterwards.
Fig. 2 a Cylindroidic-cylindric Groin, being
the intersection of a cylinder with a cylin-
droid.
Fig. 3 a Cylindro-cylindric Groin, being the
intersection of one cylinder with another, and the
cylindro vault being the highest.
Fig. 4 an inaprovement to the common four
sided Groin, by Mr. Tappen, Architect, by raising
the angles from an octagonal pier, instead of a
square one; by this means, the pier may be
made equally strong, by giving it more sub-
stance, and cutting away the angles will be
more commodious for the turning any kind
of goods round the corner ; this may therefore
be looked upon as a very considerable improve-
ment in the vaultings of cellars of warehouses.
This convenience is not the only improvement
which this construction admits of, but the
angles of the groin are strengthened by carry-
ing the band round the diagonals of equal
., breadth
250 BRICKLAYING.
breadth, which affords better bond to the bricks,
which are usually so much cut away, that in-
stead of giving support, are themselves support-
ed by the adjacent filling-in arches.
Fig. 5 the centering for an hexagonal Gothic
Groin, such as are frequently seen in Chapter
houses.
Fig. 6 the Piers of an hexagonal Groin, and
the angles obtunded according to the plan of Mr.
Tappen. This construction is purely Gothic, the
springers would cover the obtunded parts of the
groined angles, and columnar mouldings, those
of the piers.
PLATE VII.
^!:yOy?^^^c^Az
J'/ale 7.
F,\^.2.
Z'ind.niI^,/J^:':/,,,nr.tvh2/Umiv.ZSr,7fr?M^7^iMi^7hr.
•M
BRICKLAYING. 251
PLATE VII.
The method of cutting the bricks for a cylin-
dro cjlindric arch, and two different methods for
the joints of the heads of niches.
Fig. 1 the cjlindro-cylindric arch, with a frame
of wood so constructed, that the two horizontal
pieces having their outer edges in circles con-
centric with the circle of the wall : this is shown
by the plan of the wall No. 2. The edges of the
circular pieces are graduated with divisions per-
pendicularity over each other, A B : No. 2 is a
rule to be moved vertically along the said con-
centric edges, which vertical position is always
known by the corresponding divisions, on the
front edge of the rule is a hook projecting so as
to come to the cylindric surface of the wall, the
hook is shown at No. 3, with a part of th6 rule.
The use of this machine is for drawing the edges
of the bricks in order to cut them to the circle.
Fig. 2 two different methods of forming the
joints for the heads of spherical niches. In the
right hand half the joints run horizontally, but
this is a very bad method, as all the beds are conical,
the bricks at the summit have little or no hold.
In the other half the joints run radially in planes
from the face to the center. The work is not only
more firm when executed by this last method, as
bedding the courses on planes, but much more
easily executed, nothing is more difficult to form
than conical surfaces: and in this both conical and
spherical surfaces occur; whereas when the joints
run radially, only the spheric surface occurs^
which may be formed by one bevel, only one side
being straight and the other circular.
^52 BRICKLAYING,
PLATE VIII.
iShows the method of Steening Wells.
The first thing is to make a centre^ which
consists of a boarding of inch or inch and half
stuff, ledged within with three circular rings. The
bricks are laid between these rings and all headers.
The wide joints next to the boarding are filled
in with tile or broken bricks. Where the soil is
firm, centerings are not necessary, but thev are
requisite in sandy ground. The centering re-
mains permanently with the brick work; as the
■well digger excavates the soil, the first centre
sinks, then a second centre is made, and put
above the first, and built in with brick work in
the same manner: and thus the number of cen-
terings depend on the depth of the well. This
method is that used in London : but in the country
other methods are used. One is with several
rings of timber without the boarding, they first
build upon the first ring, 4 or 5 feet, then a se-
cond ring, and build again, and so on to the depth
of the well. This however is not so good a me-
thod as the foregoing, as the sides of the brick
work are very apt to bulge, particularly if great
care be not taken in filling and ramming the
sides in uniformly, so as to press equally at the
same time.
Abstract
r^^ rf/jA/^ty^ n^.
T^nie S.
I pju/n,. raliis?ia?Jfmc7i fdz^H.fyjrTqvTarJ/iffAJloaa.
^^
BRICKLAYING. 253
Abstract of the Building Act, as far as regards
the Bricklayer, 14 Geo. III. which refers
only to London, and the several Parishes with- '
in the Bills of Mortality.
Every master bricklayer to give 24 hours
notice to the Surveyor of the district from the
1st to the 7th rafe^ concerning the building to he
altered or erected ; but if the building is to be
piled or planked, or begun with wood, it be-
comes the business of the carpenter to give such
notice.
The footings of the walls are to have equal
projections on each side: but where any ad-
joining building will not admit of such projec-
tion to be made on the side adjoining to such
building, to be done as near as the case will ad-
mit according to each of the four rates.
The act calls every front, side or end wall, &c.
(not being a party wall) an external wall.
The timbers in each rate may be supposed to be
girders, beams, or trimming joists, &c. and their
bearing in all cases, and in all the above four
rates, may be as much as the nature of the wall
will admit, provided there is left 4 inches be-
tween the ends of such timber, and the external
surface of the wall.
The joints of the brick work may also be
shewn, and may answer to the express number
of bricks, of which such wall is to be com-
posed.
It
2o4 BRICKLAYING.
It may now be necessary here to say something
farther relative to external walls.
External Walls,
And other external inclosures to the first, se-
cond, third, fourth, and fifth rate of building,
must be of brick, stone, artificial stone, lead, cop-
per, tin, slate, tile, or iron; or of brick, stone,
artificial stone, lead, copper, tin, slate, tile, and
iron together, except the planking, piling, &c.
for the foundation, which may be of wood of
any sort.
If any part to an external wall of the first
and second rate, is built wholly of stone, it is
not to be less in thickness than as follows:
First rate, 14; inches below the ground floor,
9 inches above the ground floor, second rate
9 inches above the ground floor.
Where a recess is meant to be made in an ex-
ternal wall, it must be arched over, and in such
a manner, as that the arch and the back of such
recess shall respectively be of the thickness of
one brick in length : it is therefore plain, that
where a wall is not more than one brick thick, it
cannot have any recess.
No external wall to the first, second, third,
and fourth rate, is ever to become a party-wall,
unless the same shall be of the height and thick-
ness above the footing, as is required for each
party-wall to its respective rate.
Of
BRICKLAYING. 255
■ Of Party Walls,
Buildings of the first, second, third, and fourth
rate, which are not yet designed by the owner
thereof to have separate and distinct side walls,
on such parts as may be contiguous to other
buildings, must have party-walls; and they are
to be placed half and half on the ground of each
owner, or of each building respectively, and
may be built thereon, without any notice being
given to the owner of the other part, that is to
say, the first builder has a right so to do, where
he is building against vacant ground.
Party-walls, chiranies, and chimney shafts
hereafter to be built, must be of good sound
bricks or stone, or of sound bricks and stone to-
gether, and must be coped with stone, tile or
brick.
Party-walls, or additions thereto, must be car-
ried up 13 inches above the roof, measuring at
right angles with the back of the rafter, and 12
inches above the gutter of the highest building,
which gables against it; but where the height of
a party wall so carried up, exceeds the height of
the blocking course or parapet, it may be made
less than 1 foot above the gutter, for the distance
of 2 feet 6 inches from the front of the blockina:
course or parapet.
Where dormers or other erections are fixed in
any flat or roof, within 4 feet of any party wall,
such party wall is to be cttrried up against such
dormer,
256 BRICKLAYING.
dormer, and must extend at least 2 feet wider,
and to the full height of every such dormer or
erection.
No recess is to be hereafter made in any party
wall of the first, second, third, and fourth rate,
except for chimney-flues, girders, &c. and for
the ends of walls or piers, so as to reduce such
wall in any part of it to a less thickness than is
required by the act, for the highest rate of
building to which such wall belongs.
No opening is to be made in any party wall,
except for communication from one stack of
warehouses to another, and from one stable build-
ing to another, all which communications must
have wrought iron doors, and the pannels thereof
are not to be less than ^ of an inch thick, and to
be fixed in stone door cases and cills. But there
may be openings for passages or ways on the
ground, for foot passengers, cattle or carriages^
which must be arched over throughout with brick
or stone, or brick and stone together, of the
thickness of a brick and a half at the least, to
the first and second rate, and 1 brick to the third
and fourth rate. And if there is any cellar or
vacuity under such passage, it is to be arched
over throughout in the same manner as the pas-
sage over it.
No party wall or party arch, or shaft of any
chimney, new or old, must be cut into, other
than for the purposes as follows :
If
BitlCKLAYING. 257
If the fronts of buildings are in a line with
each other^ a recess may be cut, both in the fore
and back front of such buildings, (as may be al-
ready erected) for the purpose of inserting
the end of such other external wall, which is to
adjoin thereto, this recess must not be more
than 9 inches deep from the outward faces of such
external walls, and not to be cut beyond the
centre of the party wall thereto belonging.
And further, for the use of inserting bres-
summers and story posts, that are to be fixed on
the ground floor, either in the front or back
wall, the recess may be cut from the founda-
tion of such new wall to the top of such
bressummer, 14 inches deep from the outward
face of such wall, and 4 inches wide in the
cellar story, and 2 inches wide on the ground
story.
And further, for the purpose of tailing-in
stone steps, or stone landings, as for bearers to
wood stairs, or for laying-in stone corbels for the
support of chimney jaumbs, girders, beams, pur-
lins, binding or trimming joists, or other prin-
cipal timbers.
Perpendicular recesses may also be cut in any
party wall, whose thickness is not less than 13
inches, for the purpose of inserting walls and
piers therein, but they must not be wider than
15 inches, or more than 4 inches deep, and no
such recess is to be nearer than 10 feet to any
other recess.
S Ail
258 BRICKLAYING'. -
All such cuttings and recesses must be imme-
diately made good, and effectually pinned up,
with bricks stone, slate^ tile, shell or iron, bedded
in mortar.
No party wall to be cut for any of the above
purposes, if the same will injure, displace, or
endanger the timbers, chimnies, flues or internal
finishings of the adjoining buildings.
The act also allows the footing to be cut off
on the side of any party-wall, where an inde-
pendent side wall is intended to be built against
such party wall.
When any buildings (inns of courts excepted)
that are erected over gate- ways, or public pas-
sages, or have different rooms and floors, the
property of different owners, come to be rebuilt
they must have a party wall, with a party arch
or arches of the thickness of a brick and half at
least, to the first and second rate, and of one.
brick to the third and fourth rate, between build-
ing and building, or between the different rooms
and floors, that are the property of different
owners. .
All inns of court are excepted from the regu-
lation as above, and are only neccssiated to have
party walls, where any room or chamber com-
municates to each separate and distinct stair-case,
and which are also subject to the same regula-
tions as respect other party walls.
If a building of a lower rate, is situated ad-
joining
BRICKLAYING. 259
joining to a buildiog of a higher rate, and any
addition is intendca to be made thereto, the party
wall must be built in such a manner, as is re-
quired for the rate of such higher rate of build-
ing as adjoining.
When any party wall is raised, it is to be made
the same thickness as the wall is of, in the story
next below the roof of the highest building ad-
ioining, but it must not be raised at all, unless it
can be done with safety to such wall, and the
building adjoining thereto.
Every dwelling house to be built, which con-
tains four stories in height from the foundation,
exclusive of rooms in the roof, must have its
party wall built according to the third rate, al-
though such dwelling-house may be of the fourth
rate.
And every dwelling house to be built in future
which exceeds four stories in height, from the
foundations, exclusive of the rooms in the roof,
must have its party wall built according to the
first rate, although such house may not be of
the first rate.
Chimnies, Sgc.
No chimney is to be erected on timber, except
on the piling, planking, &c. of the foundations
cf building.
Chimnies may be built back to back in party
walls: but in that case they must not be less ia
S 2 thickness
^60 BRICKLAYING.
thickness from the centre of such part}' wall than
as follows:
First rate, or adjoining thereto, must be 1
brick thick in the cellar story, and | a brick i»
all the upper stories.
Second, thirds and fourth rate or adjoining
thereto, must be |: of a brick thick in the cellar
story; and | a brick in all the upper stories.
Such chimnies in party walls as do not stand
back to back may be built in any of the four
rales as follows :
From the external face of the party wall to
the inward face of the back of the chimney in
the cellar story, 1 brick and ^ thick, and in the
upper stories, 1 brick thick from the hearth to
12 inches above the mantle.
Those backs of chimnies which are not in
^afty-walls to the first rate, must not be less
than a brick and | thick in the cellar story, and
1 brick thick in every other story, and to be from
the hearth to 12 inches above the mantle.
If such chimney is built against any other
wall, the back may be | a brick thinner than
that which is above described.
Those backs of chimnies which are not in party
walls of the second, third, and fourth rate, must
be in evei"y story 1 brick thick at least, from the
hearth to 12 inches above the mantle.
These backs may be also j a brick thinner,
if such chimney is built against any other wall.
All
BRICKLAYING. 26 1
AH breasts of chimnies, whether they are in
partj walls or not^ are not to be less than 1 brick
thick in the cellar story, and | a brick thick in
every other story.
All withs between flues must not be less than
I a brick thick.
Flues may be built opposite to each other in
party walls, but they must not approach to the
centre of such wall nearer than 2 inches.
All chimney breasts next to the rooms, and
chimney backs also, and ail flues are to be ren^
dered or pargetted.
Backs of chiranies and flues in party walls
against vacant ground must be lime whited, or
marked in some durable manner, but must be
rendered or pargetted as soon as any other build-
ing: is erected to such wall.
No timber must be over the opening of any
chimney for supporting the breast thereof, but
must have a brick or stone arch, or iron bar or
bars.
All chimnies must have slabs or foot paces of
stone, marble, tile, or iron at least 18 inches
broad, and at least 1 foot longer than the open-
ing of the chimney when finished, and such slabs
or foot paces must be laid on brick or stone trim-
mers at least 18 inches broad from the face of
the chimney breast, except there is no room or
vacuity beneath, then they may be bedded on (he
ground.
Prick
262 BRICKLAYING.
Brick funnels must not be made on the outside
of the first, second^ third or fourth rate, next to
any street, square, court, road, or way, so as
to extend beyond the general line of the buildings
therein.
No funnel of tin, copper, iron, or other pipe
for conveying smoak or steam, must hereafter be
fixed near any public street, square, court, or
way, to the first, second, third, or fourth rate
and no such pipe is to be fixed on the inside of
a -• building nearer than 14 inches to any timber.
Of iiiher combustible material whatever.
INDEX
( 263 )
INDEX AND EXPLANATION
OF TERMS USED IN"
BRICKLAYING.
N. B. This Marfi § refers to the preceding Sections,
according to the Nuttier.
A.
Act, Building, p, 243.
Arches, § 37. Plate 3. p. 24L
Arris Ways, tiles laid diagonally.
Axis of a Vault, § 36, p. 236 and 237.
B.
Banker, § 19 ^ 37. Plate i. Fig. 13.
Bed of a Brick, the horizontal surfaces as disposed
in a wall.
Bedding Stone, § 22.
Bevel, § 24 and 37. Plate 1, Fig. 4,
Bond, § 35. p. 234,
Bone Ashes, §32. p. 218.
Borer, § 34. p. 227.
Boss, a short trough for holding mortar, wh<en tiling
the roof: it is hung to the lath.
Brick Axe, § 28 and 37. Plate 1, Fig. 2.
Brick Trimmer, a brick arch abutting upon the
wooden trimmer under the slab of the fire place, to
prevent the communication of fire.
Brick Trowel, § 4 and 37. Plate i. Fig. i.
Bricklaying,
264 BRICKLAYING.
Bricklaying, §1,
Bricks, § 33.
BuiLEJIMG-Acf, §<38. p. 243.
C.
Camber Slip, § 20 and 37. Plate I, Fig. 12.
Cements, § 32. *^
Centering to Groins, Plate 6.
Chopping Block, § 30.
Clamp, § 33. p. 224.
Clinkers, hard bricbs irpported fiom Holland, § 33.
p. 226.
Closer, a brick bat inserted where the distance vv'ili
not permit of a brick in length, Plate 2. p. 241.
Compass, § 12.
Conic Surfaces, § 36. p. 237.
CoNO-coNic Arch, § 36, p. 239.
CoNO-coNic Groin, § 36. p. 239.
Course, a horizontal row of bricks stretching the
length of a wall.
Cross Passages, §36. p. 237.
Cutting Bricks, § 33. p. 224.
Cylindric Groin, § 36, p. 238.
Cylindro-cylindric Arch,,.,§ 36i p..238.,
Cylindro-cylindric Groin, §.36. p. 238,
CYLINDiO-SPHERIC ArCH, § 36. p. 239.
Cylindro-spheric Groin, § 36. p. 239.
CyLI^^DROID, § 36, p. 236.
Cylindroidic Groin, §36, p. 238.
D.
Dutch Clinkers, § 33. p. 226.'
English Bond, §3.5; p.jj?;^;23|. ^.i_
Euui-altitudinal Groin, § 36, p 237.
BRICKLAYING, '265
Equi-angular Groin, § 36. p. 239.
Equi-lateral Groin, § 3e. p. 237.
F.
Flemish Bond, § 35. p. 235, Plate 3,
Flemish Tiles, § 33, p. 227.
Float Stone_, § 31.
Foundations, §34.
G.
Geometrical Solid, § 36. p. 237.
Grinding Stone, § 18.
Grotns, § 36. p. 237.
Grout, § 32. p. 219.
H.
Hammer, § 5 and 37. Plate 1, Fig. 7.
Headers, § 35, p. 234, 235.
Heading Courses, § 35. p. 234, 235, Platq 2.
Hemisphere, § 36, p. 236.
Hexagonal Groin, p. 249. Plate 6.
Hod, § 14.
Horizontal Vault, § 36, p. 237.
I.
IntRADOS, § 36. p. 236.
Inverted Arches, § 34, p. 228.
Iron Crow, § 17.
J.
Jointer, § ll and 37. Plate 1, Fig. 6.
Jointing Rule, § lOand 37. Plate l, Fig. 5.
K.
Kilns, § 33, p. 224.
.(i<)'\
Large
too brickuiying;
L.
Large Square, § 8.
Lath, small slips of wood nailed to rafters for hanging
the tiles or slates upon.
Lathing Hammer, § 3.
Laying Trowel, § 3.
Level, § 7.
Lime, § 32.
Lime Water, § 32. p. 216.
Line Pins, § 15 and 37. Plate 1. Fig. 9.
. M.
Marls, 33. p. 224.
Mortar, § 32.
Mould, §25.
Mult-angular Groin, § 36. p. 239.
O.
Ornamental Cornices, Plate 5.
P.
Pantile, § 33 p. 226, 227.
Pantile Strike, § 3.
Paving Tiles, § 33, p. 226.
Place Bricks, § 33. p. 224, 325.
Plumb Rule, § 6.
Pozzolana, § 32. p. 222.
R.
Raker, § 13 and 37, Plate 1, Fig. 8.
Rammer, § 16 and 37. Plate 1, Fig 10.
Rectangular Groin, § 36, p. 239.
• ■ Rod,
BRICKLAYING, 26?
Rod, § 9.
Rubbing Stone, §21 and 37. Plate 1, Fig, 13.
S.
Sail over, is the overhanging of one or more
courses beyond the naked of the wall.
Saw, §27.
Scribe, § 26,
scurbage, § 3.
Simple Vault, § 36. p. 236.
Skew Back, the sloping abutment for the arched head
of a window.
Sommering, the continuation of the joints of arches
towards a centre or meeting point.
Spheric Groin, § 36. p. 238.
Spheric Vault, § 36. p. 236.
Sphero-cylindric Arch, § 36. p. 238, 239.
Sphero-cylindric Groin, § 36. p. 238, 239,
Springing Lines, § 36. p. 236.
Square, § 23 and 37. Plate 1, Fig. 3,
Steening Wells, Plate 8.
Straight Arches, heads of apertures which have a
straight intrados .in several pieces, with radiating
joints, or bricks tapering downwards.
Straight Vaults, § 36. p. 237.
Stretchers, § 35. p. 234 and 235.
Stretching Coui^ses, § 35. p. 234, 235.
T.
Templet, § 29.
Tin Saw, § 27.
Toothing, bricks projecting at the end of a part of
a wall
268 BRICKLAYING.
a wall, in order to bond a part of the said wall not
yet carrijsd up.
Trimmer, See Brick Trimmer.
Vaulting, § 36„
V.
W.
Walls, § 35.
Water Cements, § 32. p. 222.
Water Table, bricks projecting below the naked
of a wall, in order to rest the upper part firmly.
MECHA-
( '269 )
MECHANICAL EXERCISES.
OF MASOKMY,
§ 1. MASONRY is the art of preparing and
combining stones by such a disposition as to
tooth or indent them into each other, and form
regular surfaces for shelter, convenience, and
defence, as the habitation of men, animals, goods,
fortifications, bridges, separation of property,
&c. and may be said to consist either of walling
or arching.
§2. Masons' Tools.
The tools employed by the mason are different
in different counties, according to the quality of
the stone employed : in some counties of Eng-
land the stone is soft with so little grit as to be
wrought by planes into mouldings, as in joinery
work. The naked surfaces of a building are ge-
nerally finished with an instrument called a drag;
the Bath and Oxfordshire stone is of this de-
scription. In other parts, the stone is so hard as
only to be wrought by a raallet and chissel. In
London the value of stone occasions it to be cut
into slips and scantlings by a saw, the operation is
done
270 MASONRY.
done by a labourer. In those countries where
stone abounds, it is divided into smaller scant-
lings li}' means of wedges. In most descriptions
of stone whether hard or soft, a hammer is em-
ployed in knocking and axeing off the prominent
parts. Hard stono and marble are reduced to a
surface by means of a mallet and chissel. In
roiigh stone from the quarry, where the saw has
not been employed, a narrow chissel called a
point, about a :f of an inch at the entering part
is first used: but the inequalities of sawn stone
if not very prominent, are reduced by means of
an inch chissel, and sometimes more or less ac-
cording to the quantity to be wrought off. Chis-
'sels are from ^ of an inch to 3 inches in breadth
at the cutting part: those of the greatest breadth
are called tools, and employed finally on the sur-
face, which is more regular after having gone over
it, than that left after the operation of a narrow
chissel. When the surface is wrought into narrow
furrows or channels at regular distances, like
small fiutings which completes the finish of the
face, the operation is called tooling, and the sur-
face itself is said to be tooled. When the sur-
face is required to be smoothed, it is done by
rubbing it with a flat stone of the same kind with
sand and water, and the larger the stone, the
more regular will the surface be.
The form of masons chissels is like that of a
wedge, the cutting edge is the vertical angle,
thejr
MASONRY. 271
they are wholly constructed of iron, except the
steel end, which enters the stone. The end which
is struck by the mallet is a fiat portion of a spheric
surface, and projects on all sides beyond the
handling part, which tapers upwards with an
equal concavity on each side. The other tools
used by the mason are a Level> a Plumb Rule,
a Square, a Bevel, a Trowel, a Mallet, a Ham-
mer, and sometimes a pair of Compasses. These
have been sufl&ciently treated under the former
departments of Carpentry and Bricluaying, to
which the reader is referred. The saw as hag
been observed, though an apendage of masonry,
is used by the labourer.
§ 3. Of MarUes and Stones.
Marble is polished by being first rubbed with
grit stone, afterwards with pomice stone, and
lastly with emery or calcined tin. Marbles with
regard to their contexture and variegation of
colour are almost infinite : some are black, some
white, and some of a dove colour; the best kind
of white marble is called statuary, which when
cut into thin slices, becomes almost transparent,
which property the clher kinds do not possess.
Other species of marble are streaked with clouds
and veins. The texture of marble is not alto-
gether understood even by the best workmen,
but they generally know upon sight, whether it
will
272 MASONRY.'
will receive a polish or not. Some marbles arff
easily wrought, some are very hard, other kind&
resist the tools altogether. Artificial marble or
Scagliola is real marble pulverized and mixed
with plaster, and is used for columns, baso re-
lievos, and other ornaments.
The chief kind of stone used in London is
Portland stone, which comes from the island of
Portland in Dorsetshire, it is used for buildings in
general, as strings, window cills, balusters, steps,
copings, &c. but under great weight or pressure
it is apt to splinter, or flush at the joints. When
it is recently quarried, it is soft and works easily^
but acquires great hardness in length of time.
St. Paul's Cathedral and Westminster Bridge are
constructed of Portland stone.
Purbeck stone comes from an island of the
same name, also in Dorsetshire, and is mostly
employed in rough work, as steps and paving.
Yorkshire stone is also. used where strength and
durability are requisites, as in paving and coping.
Ryegate stone is used for hearths, slabs and
covings.
Mortar is used by masons in cementing their
works. This has already been fully handled
under the Bricklaying department, which the
reader may consult. In setting marble or fine
work, they use plaster of Paris, and in water
works, tarras is employed.
Terras
MASONRY. 273
Tarras is a coarse raortarj durable in water,
and in most situations. Dutch tarras is made of
a soft rock stone found near Cologne on the
Rhine. It is burnt like lime, and reduced to
powder bj mills^ from thence carried to Holland,
whence it has acquired the name of Dutch tarras^
It is very dear, on account of the great demand
there is for it in aquatic works.
An artificial tarras is formed of two parts of
lime and one of plaster of Paris: another sort
consists of one part of lime, and two parts of
well sifted coal ashes,
§ 4. Stone Walls
Are those built of stone, with or without ce-
ment in the joints, the beading joints have most
commonly a horizontal position in the fare of
the work, and this ought alwavs (o be the case
when the top of the wall terminates in a hori-
zontal plane or line: in bridge buildings, and in
the masonry of fenced walls upon inclined sur-
faces, the beading joints on the face sometimes
follow the direction of the' top or terminating
surface.
The footings of stone walls ought to be con-
structed of large stones, which if not naturally
nearly square from the quarry, should be re-
duced by the hammer to that form, and to an
equal thickness in the same course, for if the beds
of the stones of the foundation taper, the super-
T structure
274 MASONRY.
structure will be apt to give way, by resting
upon mere angles or points, or upon inclined
surfaces : the courses of the footing ought to be
well beded upon each other with mortar, and
all the upright joints of an upper course should
break joint, that is, they should fall upon the
solid part of the stones in the lower course, and
not upon the joints.
The following are methods practised in laying
the footings of a stone foundation; when the
walls are thin, and stones can be got convenient-
ly, that their length may reach across each
course from one side of the wall to the other, the
setting of each course with whole stones in the
thickness of the wall, is to be preferred. But
when the walls are thicker, and bond stones in
part can only be conveniently procured, then
every other succeeding stone in the course may
be a. whole stone in the thickness of the wall,
and every other interval may consist of two stones
in the breadth, that is, placing the header and
fitretcher alternately, like Flemish bond in 9
inch brick work. Jfut when bond stones can-
not be had conveniently, every alternate stone
should be in length r of the breadth of the
footing upon the same side of the wall, then
upon the other side of the wall a itone of ^ of
the breadth of the footing, should be placed
opposite to one of |, an^ one of | opposite to
one of y : so that the stones may be placed in the
same manner as those of the other side.
In
MASONRY. 275
In broad foundations where the stones cannot
be procured for a length equal to 4 of the foun-
dation, then build them alternately, with the
joints on the upper bed of each footing, so that
the joint of every two stones may fall as nearly
as possible in the middle of the length of one
or of each adjoining stone, observing to dispose
the stones alike on each side of every footing.
A wall which is built of unhewn stone laid
with or without mortar, is called a Rubble wall,
they are of two kinds, coursed and uncoursed ;
the most kind of Rubble is the uncoursed, of
which the greater part of the stones are crude as
they came out of the quarry, and a little hammer
dressed. This kind of walling is very inconve-
nient for the building of bond timbers, but if
they are to be preserved to plugging, the back^
ing must be leveled at every height ia which the
bond timbers are disposed.
The best kind of rubble is the coursed, the
courses are all of accidental thicknesses, adjusted
by a sizing rule, the stones are either hammer
dressed or axed : this kind of work is favourable
for the disposition of bond timbers, but as all
buildings constructed either in whole or in part
of timber are liable to be burnt, strong well
built walls should never be bonded with timber,
but should rather be plugged, for if such acci-
dent take place, the walls will be less liable to
warp.
W^lls faced with squared stones, hewn or rub-
T2 ed
276 MASONRY.
ed and backed with rubble, stone^ or brick, are
called ashlar: the medium size of each ashlar
measures horizontally in the face of the wall
about 28 or 30 inches, in the altitude 12 inches,
and in the thickness 8 or 9 inches. The best
figure of stones for an ashlar facing are formed
like truncated wedges, that is to say, they are
thinner at one end than at the other in the thick-
ness of the wall, though level on the beds, so
that when the stones of one course or part of a
course are shaped in this manner, and alike si-
tuated to each other, the backs of the course will
form an indentation, like the teeth of a joiner's
saw, but more shallow in proportion to the length
of a tooth : the next course has its indentations,
found the same way, and the stones so selected
that the upright joints break upon the solid of
the stones below. By these means the facing
and backing are toothed together, and unques-
tionably stronger than if the back of each ashlar
had been parallel to the front surface of the
wall; as the stones are mostly raised in the
quarries of various thicknesses, in an ashlar fac-
ing it would contribute greatly to the strength of
the work, to select the stones in each course, so
that every alternate ashlar may have broader beds
than those of every ashlar placed in each alter-
pate interval.
In eveiy course of ashlar facing, bond stones
should be introduced, and their number should
be
MASONRY. 277
be proportional to the length of the course; this
should be strictly attended to in long ranges of
stones, both in walls without apertures, and in
the courses that form wide piers, when thej are
wide, every bond stone of one course should
fall in the middle of every two bond stones in the
course below. In every pier where the jambs are
coursed with the other ashlar in front, and also in
every pier where the jambs are one entire height,
every alternate stone next to the aperture in the
former case, and every alternate stone next to the
jambs in, the latter case, should bond through the
wall, and also every other stone should be placed
lengthways in each return of each angle, not less
than the average length of an ashlar. Bond
stones should have no taper in their beds, the end
of every bond stone, as well as the end of every
return stone should never be less than a foot,
there should be no such thing as a closer per-
mitted, unless it bond through the wall. All
the uprights or joints should be square, or at
right angles to the front of the wall, and may
recede about ^ of an inch from the face with a
close joint from thence, gradually widening to
the back, and thereby make hollow wedge form-
ed figures, which will give sufficient cavities for
the reception of packing and mortar. Both the
upper and lower beds of every stone should be
quite level, and not form acute angles as is often
the case; the joints from the face to about J of
an
278 MASONRY.
an inch within the wall, should either be ce-
mented with fine mor:ar, or with a mixture of
oil, putty and white lead : the former is the prac-
tice both in London and Edinburgh, and the lat-
ter in Glasgow. The putty cement will stand
longer than most stones, and will remain promi-
nent when the face of the stones has been coroded
with age. The whole of the ashlar, except that
mentioned of the joints towards the face of the
■wall, the rubble work and the core should be
set and laid in the best mortar, and every stone
should be laid on its natural bed. All wall plates
should be placed upon a number of bond stones,
and particularly those of the roof where there
are no tie beams, by which means they may either
be joggled upon the bonds, or fastened to them
by iron and lead.
In building walls or insulated pillars of very
short horizontal dimensions not exceeding the
length of stones that can be easily procured, every
stone should be quite level on the bed, without
any degree of concavity, and should be one en-
tire piece, between every two horizontal joints.
This should be particularly attended to in piers,
where the insisting weight is great, otherwise the
stones will be in danger of splintering, and crush-
ing to pieces, and perhaps occasion a total de-
molition of the fabric.
Vitruvius has left us an account of the man-
ner of constructing the walls of the ancients,
which
MASONRY. 279
which was as follows : the Riticulated, is that
wherein the joints run in parallel lines, making
angles of 45 degrees each, with the horizon in
contrary ways, and consequently the faces of the
stones form squares, of which one diagonal is
horizontal and the other vertical. This kind of
wall was much used by the Romans in his time.
The locertain wall was formed of stones of which
one direction of the joints was horizontal^ and
the other vertical: but the vertical joints of the
alternate courses were not always arranged in the
same straight line, all that they regarded was, to
make them break joint: this manner of wall-
ing was used by the Romans antecedent to the
time of Vitruvius, who directs that in both
the reticulated and incertain walls, instead of fil-
ling the space between the sides with rubble pro-
miscuously, they should be strengthened with
abutments of hewn stone or brick, or common
flints, built in cross walls 2 feet thick, and bound
to the facing and backing with cramps of iron.
The Emplection consisted of two sides or shells
of squared stone, with alternate joints, and a
rubble core in the middle.
The walls of the Greeks were of three kinds,
named Isodomura, Pseudisodomum and Emplec-
tion. The Isodomum had the courses all of an
equal thickness, and the other called Pseudiso-
domum had the courses unequally thick; in both
these
280 • MASONRY.
these walls^ whenever the squared work wa;S
continued^ the interval or core was filled up with
common hard stones laid in the manner of bricks
with alternate joints. The Emplection was con-
structed wholly of squared stones, in these bond
stones were placed at regular intervals^and the stones
in the intermediate distance were laid with alter-
nate joints in the same manner as those of the
face, so that this manner of walling must have
been much stronger than the Emplection of the
Roman villages. This is a most strong and du-
rable manner of walling, and in modern times it
may be practised with the utmost success, but in
the common run of buildings it would be too
expensive.
§ 5. Stairs.
When stairs are supported by a wall at both
ends, nothing difficult can occur in the construc-
tion, in these the inner ends of the steps may
either terminate in a solid newel, or to be tailed
into a wall surrounding an open newel ; where
elegance is not required, and where, the newel
does not exceed 2 feet 6 inches. The ends of
the steps may be conveniently supported by a
solid pillar, but when the newel is thicker, a thin
wall surrounding the nev/el would be cheaper.
In the stairs of a basement story, where there
are Geometrical stairs above, the steps next to the
newel are generally supported upon a dwarf wall.
§ 6. Geometrical
MASONRY. 281
§ 6. Geometrical Stair's
Have the outer end fixed in the vvall^ and one
of the edges of every step supported bjthe edge
of the step below, and constructed with joggled
joints, so that they cannot descend in the inclined
direction of the plane, nor yet in a vertical di-
rection, the sally of every joint forms an exterior
obtuse atigle, on the lower part of the upper
step, called a back rebate, and that on the upper
part of the lower step of course an interior one,
and the joint formed of these sallies is called a
joggle, which may be level from the face of the
risers, to about 1 inch within the joint. Thus is
the plane of the tread of each step continued I
inch within the surface of each riser, the lower
part of the joint is a narrow surface, perpendi-
cular to the inclined direction or sofSt'of the
stair at the end next to the newel.
In stairs constructed of most kinds of. stone,
the thickness of every step at the thinnest place
of the end next to the newel, has no occasion to
exceed 2 inches, for steps of 4 feet in length,
that is, by measuring from the interior angle of
every step perpendicular to the rake. The thick-
ness of steps at the interior angle should be pro-
portioned to the length of the step : but allow-
ing that the thickness of the steps at each in-
terior angle is sufficient at 2 inches, then will the
thickness of steps at the interior angles be half
the number of inches that the length of the steps
has in feet: thus a step 5 feet long would be Sc-
inches at that place. The
282 MASONRY.
The stoHe platforms of Geometrical stairs, viz.
the landings, half paces and quarter paces, are
constructed of one, two, or several stones, ac-
cording as they can be procured. When the
platform consists of two or more stones, the first
platform stone is laid upon the last step that is
set, and one end tailed in and wedged into the
wall, the next platform stone is joggled or re-
bated into one set, and the end also fixed into
the wall, as that and the preceding steps are,
and every stone in succession, till the platform is
completed. If there is occasion for another
flight of steps, the last platform becomes a spring
stone for the next step, the joint is to be joggled
as well as all the succeeding steps, in the same
manner as the first flight.
Geometrical stairs executed in stone depend
upon the following principle : that every body
must at least Ibe supported by three points placed
out of a straight line, and consequently, if two
edges of a body in different directions be secured
to another body, the two bodies will be im-
moveable in respect to each other. This last is
the case in a Geometrical stair^ one end of a
stair stone is always tailed into the wall, and on9
edge either rests on the ground itself, or on the
edge of the preceding stair stone, whether the
stair stone be a plat or step. The stones forming
a platform are generally of the same thickness as
those forming the steps.
§ 7. ^ sliort
MASONRY. 285 '
§ 7. ^ short Account of the Origin of the Arch
and Authors who may be consulted.
The Arch is perhaps one of the most useful in-
'ventions that ever took place in the art of build-
ing : by it we are enabled to cross the deepest rivers
and valleys, and places which are rendered impass-
able by rocks or precipitous banks. In such
situations, without its aid, goods conveyed by in-
land navigation, or by any other means, could
never obtain the same celerity of transportation,
nor have been conducted at so easy a rate of ex-
pence. By the use of the arch we are enabled to
build apartments secure from fire, to cover aper-
tures where it would be impossible to lintle them
with stone, and to support walls or their tops al-
most to any height.
The theory of the equilibrium of arches de-
pends on the deepest principles of mathematical
science. Those who are desirous of obtaining
the fundamental part of the art of building
arches, will do well to consult the 5th article
of Emerson's Miscellanies, and Hutton's and
Gwilt's Principles of Arches, and for a know-
ledge of the practice, it will be well to
peruse a work in French, by Perronet, which
has gained him great reputation, as containing
the whole result of his experience in the prac-
tice of building bridges and arches: also a work
by Scmple, containing many excellent practical
remarks;
284 MASONRY.
remarks ; there are other authors^ but those here
spoken of, have acquired the most celebrity.
Arches are to be found in the Greek Theatres^
Stadia and Gymnasia, some of them erected pro-
bably 400 years before the Christian £era. The
most ancient arches of which we have any thing
like dates, are the Cloaca at Rome, begun by
Tarquinius Priscus. The emperor Adrian threw
a bridge over the Cephisus between the territo-
ries of Attica and Elusis, on the most frequent-
ed road of Greece. The ancient bridges at Rome
were eight in number: the most considerable of
which vras the Pons iElius, now the bridge of
Santo Angelo. There are several other Roman
bridges in and out of Italy, but the most cele-
brated was that erected over the Danube by
the emperor Trajan, the span of the arches is
supposed to have been 170 feet each: but even
this is considerably surpassed in horizontal ex-
tent by the ancient bridge of Brioude in France,
consisting only of one arch of 181 feet span.
Several of the French bridges are remarkable for
the great extent of the arches. The bridge of
Neuilly, built by M. Perronet over the Seine,
consists of five elliptic arches, each 128 feet
span, composed of eleven arcs of circles, of dif-
ferent radii. The most considerable arch in
Great Britain, is that over the river Taff, near
Llantrissent in Glamorganshire, consisting of one
arch of 140 feet span : the curve is the arc of
a circle
MASONRY. 285
a circle of 175 feet diameter. Sarah or Island
bridge over the Liffey, above Dublin, consists of
one arch of 106 feet span. The bridges at
Westminster, and Blackfriars, London, though
among the boldest and finest undertakings of
modern times, have their arches of less horizon-
tal extension than those above mentioned; the
arches of the former arc semi-circular, the cen-
tral one is 76 feet diameter or span. The arches
of the latter are nearlj elliptic, nine in number,
and the central one is 100 feet wide, and the
arches on each side decrease regularly to the land
piers.
PLATE L
586 MASONRY.
PLATE I.
Observations on the customary Prohlems m Ma-
sonry respecting Arches, and Methods of de-
scribing Elliptic Arches.
The operation of describing an ellipse with a
string, though true in principle, is useless in
practice, as the string stretches in such a degree
as not to be depended on, and the degree of ten-
sion is in proportion to the length of the string,
which is therefore unfit to be used for describing
the curve of an arch of large extent. The tram-
mel or elliptic compass is a very accurate instru-
ment, butitcan onlybeused forworksuponasmall
scale: this method of description will be found
in Problem V, Geometry. The description of an
ellipse with a beam compass may be put in exe-
cution in arches of any e'xfent as has been fully
verified in the practice of that distinguished
French Engineer, M. Perronet. But the com-
mon method with three centres only is extremely
lame, owing to the sudden variation of curva-
ture, which takes place at the junction of two
very different radii.
Prob. I.
^rL€Z,J€>^?^'^
^>-^.
>?^
EX
Jt'/L
%■
x:
z'.-
^__^.
TUlJTTy^
t!Wnr///\
f
; /\ '"
Wi^^
A
c
2 .2 3 4 S C
MASONRY. 287
Paob I. To render the Compass Method useful
not only in describing the Curve, hut in finding
the Joints perpendicular thereto, so as to form
an Arch which shall not have any sensible varia-
tion in Practice from the true BlUptic Curve,
nor in the Perpendicularity of the Joints,
Find a number of points in the curve equi-
distant on each side of the extremity of the con-
jugate axis: find the centre of a circle passing
the middle point, and the other two points one
on each side of it: join the centre with the last
two points of the curve, and describe an arc
through the three points : then to complete the
half curve, join one of the next points of the
curve and the end of the arc by a straight line:
or suppose these two points to be joined, and
and bisect this line by a perpendicular, which
produce until it meet the first of the radii: join
the last point of the curve, and the concourse of
the two last radii: from the point of concourse
describe an arc from the end of the arc last de-
scribed to the next point in the curve ; proceed
in like manner with the next succeeding arcs, if
more than two, until the last arc but one, is de-
scribed: continue the last arc until it meet a
diameter parallel to the transverse axis: draw a
line from the meeting of the arc and diameter
throuvh the extremity of the transverse axis,
and produce this line till it meets the arc; from
the point wher^ the line meets the arc draw a
line
288 MASONRY.
line to the centre of the arc; from the point
where the line so drawn cuts the transverse axis
as a centre, describe an arc from the end of the
arc last described to the extremity of the trans-
verse axis.
Example Fig. 1. Let A B be the transverse
axiS;, and C D the semi-conjugate.
Draw E D parallel to AC and AE parallel to
CD. Divide C A and A E each into three equal
parts at the points/^ g^, h, i. Produce D C to X
making CX equal to CD. Draw X// anda^gAr,
also li k d and i I d, then the points k and / will be
in the curve^ bisect the distance Z D at right
angles by m n meeting D X produced at n. Join
In cutting A C at ^. The points t and u being
on the line or semi-transverse C B, make C t
equal to Cy, and draw n t v. From n with the
distance n D ov nl, describe the arc/Dx). Bi-
sect the distance A" / by a perpendicular op meet-
ing In at p. From p with the distance pi de-
scribe the avclkq. Draw p ^ parallel to A B.
Join q A which produce to meet the arc Ik q in
r : also join rp cutting A B in g. From g with
the distance gr describe an arc r A, and the
half AD and part of the other half Dv o( the
arch will be completed. Make t u equal to fg,
n s equal to up. Draw s u w. From s describe
the arc v w, and from u describe the arc w B
which will complete the other half of the arch.
Prob. II,
MASONRY. 289
Prob. II. To find the Joints of an Elliptic Arch
at right Angles to the Curve.
Fig. 2 Find the centres 71, p, s,g,y, t, u as in
Problem 1,, then radiate the joints between D
and V by the centre n, the joints between v and
w by the centre s, and the joints between w and
B by the centre u, and the other half of the
arch AD in the sanae manner, Oft thus:
If the arch ADB is described xvith a trammel.
Take the semi-transverse AC, and from D de^
scribe an arc cutting C A at F, and another cut-
ting C B at F, then the points F, F are called
the focii. Now to draw a line at right angles to
the curve frpm any point H. Draw HKF and
and HTiF, making HK equal to HL. From
K and L as centres, describe arcs of equal radii
cutting each other at I, and draw I H, which
will be a joint at the required point H. In the
same manner may any other joint ih or as many
as required be obtained.
Prob. hi. To clescrile the Paraholic Arch, and
' thence to draw the Joints at right Angles to
the Curve.
First, to draw the Curve.
Fig. 3. Let C D be the abscissa or height of
the curve, and E B the base or a double ordi-
nate. Draw AE parallel to C D and ED pa-
rallel to A B. Divide C A and A J^ each into
V > the
290 ^ MASONRY.
the like number of equal parts. Draw ia, 2b,
3 c, &c. parallel to C D; also draw ID;, 2D,
3 D, &c. cutting the parallels at a, h, c, &c.
which are points in the curve, then the curve
maj be drawn with a bent rule through the
points, a, b, c, &c. and the other half B D being
drawn in like manner will complete the whole
curve.
Secondly, To find the Joints.
Let it be required to llad a joint to any point E.
Join EB, which bisect atg": (\x2iW glii perpendicu-
lar to AE cutting the curve at h : make h i equal
to hg, and join E i: draw EF at a right angle
with E z and E F will be a joint at right angles
to the curve. In the same manner all other joints
may be obtained.
PLATE IL
^rCajtH7n
^^ute 2
T-
T7/2
I
/
Ir/^
Zo7iiiotiI^ll>h'sheilMnTfi2ajSa.bY,77m-l'?7-^^/t_Bblio
31
MASONRY. 291
PLATE II.
With respect to the power which arches have
of supporting themselves, it depends upon the
load insisting on all points of the arch, it is evi-
dent that there may be such a relation between
the curve and the weight on every point of it,
80 as the weight may have no more tendency to
break or spring the arch in one point than an-
other, and it is evident, that if the materials are
of the same specific gravity, that the wall erected
at a given height upon the arch will obtain a
certain form, so as to keep the arch in cquilibrio,
and that the form of the terminating line of the
wall will depend on the curve of the support-
ing arch.
Fig, 1 If the intrados of the arch be a semi-
circle or semi-elliptic, the extrados or terminat-
ing line of the wall will be a curve running up-
wards at the ends, so as to make the two vertical
lines which are tangents at the extremes of the
arch assmytotes of the curve, and consequently,
neither the semi-circular nor semi-ellyptic arch
are adapted to bridge building; and it maybe
pronounced with safety, that though these curves
are frequently employed in bridge building, were
the materiala only placed in contact without co-
U 2 cohesion
292 MASONRY.
hesion or friction, the mass supported could not
stand when the road way is straight, or a con-
Tex curve through -at the length of the arch,
and that it is only in consequence of friction or
the cementing quality of the mortar in connect-
ing the whole of the materials in one mass that
such arches stand for so many centuries as they
are found to do. However, by employing only
the middle portions of these curves, a road way
or eitrados of tolerable convenient form may be
obtained.
Fig. 3 is an arch of equilibration, the intrados
of which is parabolic, which requires an ex-
trados of the same form and curvature, both
being similar and equal. The vertical heights
between the two are every where eqiial.
Fig 4. is another Equilibrated Arch, the in- '
trades is an hyperbolic curve, and the extrados
requires a curve, such that the vertical lines be-
tween the two curves are continually less from
the crown towards the feet of the arches.
Fig. 5 is another Equilibrated Arch, the in-
trados being a catenarian, or such as would be
formed with a heavy chain suspended at its ex-
tremities from two points at less distance from
each other than the length of the chain, the ex-
trados to this curve may admit of different forms,
it may either be a convex curve, as when the
\¥all erected upon it is low, or a straight sur-
face
MASONRY. 293
face or plane, as when the wall erected on it is
enormously high, or a concave curve, as when
the wall is still higher; neither of the three last
curves are at all adapted to bridge building,
the extrados line at a moderate height of wall
being too rapid in its acclivity and declivity.
Fig. 6 is an Arch of Equilibration, where the
top is a straight line: the intrados at a given
height of wall is calculated to answer thereto,
this arch is therefore well adapted in most si-
tuations for the arch of a bridge.
INDEX
( 294 )
INDEX AND EXPLANATION
OF TERMS USED IN
MASONRY.
N. B. This Mark § refers to the preceding Sections^
according to the Number.
A.
Abutments of a Bridge, the walls adjoining to the
land, which support the ends of the extreme arches
or road way.
Arch in masonry is a part of a building suspended
over a hollow and concave towards the area of the
hollow; the top of the wall or walls which receives
• the first arch stones is called the abutment or spring-
ing, § 7.
Archivolt of the Arch of a Bridge, is the curve
line formed by the upper sides of the arch stones
in the face of the work, or the archivolt is some-
times understood to be the whole set of arch
stones that appear in the face of the work.
Ashlar, § 4.
B.
Banquet, the raised footways adjoining to the parapet
on the sides of a bridge.
Bath Stone, § 2.
Batter, the leaning back of the upper part of the
face
MASONRY. 295
face of a wall, so as to make the plumb line fall
within the base.
Battardeau or Cofferdam, a case of piling with-
out a bottom for building the piers of a bridge.
Beds of a Stone, are the parallel surfaces which in-
tersect the face of the work in hues parallel to the
horizon, § 4.
Bond, is that connection of lapping the stones upon
one another in the carrying up of the work, so as to
form an inseparable mass of* building.
Bond Stones, stones running through the thickness
of the wall in order to bind it.
Bond Timbers, § 4.
Bridge Building, § 4.
Bridge in masonry is an edifice or structure, consist-
ing of one or a series of arches, in order to form a
road way over a river, canal, &c. for passing the
same.
Butments, 5<?e Abutments.
C.
Caisson, a chest or box in which the piers of a bridge
are built, by sinking it as the work advances till it
comes in contact with the bed of the river, and then
the sides are disengaged, being constructed for
the purpose.
Centres, the frames of timber work for supporting-
arches during their erection.
Chest, the same as Caisson.
Chissels, § 2.
Cofferdam, the same as Battardeau,
D.
Drag, a thin plate of steel indented on the edge, like
the teeth of a saw, used in soft stone which have no
grit,
296 MASONRY.
grit, for finishing the surface. A piece of a joiner'^j
hand saw makes a good drag, § 2.
Drift, the horizontal force of an arch, by which it
endeavours to overset tlie piers.
Dutch Tarras, § 3.
E.
Emplection, § 4.
ExTRADOs OF AN Arch, the exterior or convex curve
or the top of the arch stones, the term is opposed
to the intrados or concave side.
ExTRADOS OF A BRIDGE, the cuH'C of the roadway.
F.
Fence Wall, those used to prevent the encroach-
ments of men or animals.
Figure of Stones, § 4.
Footings, projecting courses of stone without the
naked' of the superincumbent part, in order to rest
the wall firmly on its base, § 4.
G.
Geometrical Stairs, § 6.
H.
Headers, stones disposed with their length hori-
zontally in the thickness of the wall.
I. .
Impost or Springing the upper part or parts of a
wall in order to spring an arch.
Incertain, § 4.
Insulated Pillars, § 4.
isodomum, § 4.
Jettee,
MASONRY. 297
J-
Jettee, the border made around the stilts under a
pier.
Joggled Joints, the method of indenting the stones,
so as to prevent the one from being pushed away
from the other by lateral force, § 6.
K.
Key stone of an arch, the stone at the summit of
the arch, put in last of all for wedging and closing
the arch. «•
Key-Stone, the middle Voussoir of an arch over the
centre.
Key Stones, used in some places for bond stones.
L.
Level, horizontal or parallel to the horizon.
Level, an instrument, the same as that used in brick-
laying and carpentry.
M.
Mallet, the implement or tool which gives percusive
force to the chissel ; in figure it approaches to a
hemisphere, with a handle projecting from the mid-
dle or pole of the convex side, § 2.
Marblej § 3.
Masonry, § l.
Mortar, See Bricklaying § 32. and in Masonry, § 3.
N.
Naked of a Wall, is the vertical or battering sur-
face whence all projectures arise.
Off
298 MASONRY.
O.
Off Set, the upj^er surface of a lower part of a wall
left by reducing the thickness of the superincum-
bent part upon one side or the other, or both.
Oxfordshire Stone, § 2.
P.
Parapet^s, the breast walls erected on the sides of
the extrados of the bridge for preventing passen-
gers from falling over.
Paving, a floor or surface of stone for walking upon.
Piers, the insulated parts of a bridge between the
apertures, or arches, for supporting the arches and
road way.
Piers in Houses, the walls between apertures, or be-
tween an aperture and the corner.
Piles, timbers driven into the bed of a river, or the
foundation of a building for supporting a structure.
Plaster of Paris, § 3.
Pitch of an Arch, the height from the springing to
the summit of the arch.
Point, the narrowest of all the chissels, and used in
reducing the rough prominent parts of stone, § 2.
Portland Stone, § 3.
Pseudisodomum, § 4.
PuRBECK Stone. § 3.
Push of an Arch, the same as Drift, which see.
Quarry, the place whence stones are raised.
Random
MASONRY* 299
Random Courses in Paving, unequal courses with-
out any regard to equi-distant joints.
Reticulated Wall, § 4.
Rubble Wall, § 4.
Ryegate Stone, § 3.
Saw, a thin plate of iron of considerable length, re-
gulated by a frame of wood and cording, the ope-
ration is performed by the labourer, § 2.
Shoot of an Arch, the same as drift or push, see
Drift.
Statuary, §3.
Sterlings, a case made about a pier of stilts in order
to secure it.
Stilts, a set of piles driven into the bed of a river,
at a small distance from each other, with a surround-
ing case of piling driven closely together, the tops
of the piles being levelled to low water mark, and
the interstices filled with stones, forms a foundation
for building the pier upon.
Stone Stairs, § 5.
Stone Walls, § 4.
Stretchers, those stones which have their length
disposed horizontally in the length of the wall.
T.
Tarras, § 3.
Through Stones, the term used in some counties
for bond stones, which see
Thrust, the same as Push, Shoot, or Drift, ^ee Drift.
Tooling,
300 MASONRY.
Tooling, §2.
Tools, § 2.
Under Bed of a Stone, the lovirer surface generally
horizontally posited.
Upper Bed of a Stone, the upper surface generally
horizofutall}'^ posited.
Vault, a mass of stones so combined as to support
each other over a hollow.
VoussORS the arch stone in the face or faces of an
arch, the middle one is called the key-stone.
Wall, an erection of stone generally perpendicular
to the horizon, and sometimes battering, in order
to give stability.
Y.
Yorkshire Stone, § 3.
MECHA-
( 301 )
MECHANICAL EXERCISES,
0¥ SJLATING.
§ 1. SLATING is the operation of covering
the top or other inclined parts of a building with
slate.
§ 2. Slaters' Tools
Are a Scantle, a Trowel, a Hammer, a Zax,
a small Hand Pick, a; Hod and Board for mor-
tar. See the following Explanation of Terms.
EXPLANATION
( 302 )
EXPLANATION
OF TERMS IN
SLATING.
B.
Back of a Slate, is the upper side of it.
Backer, is a narrow slate put on the back of a broad
square headed slate, when the slates begin to get
narrow. ,
Bed of a Slate, is the lower side.
Bond or Lap of a Slate, is the distance between
the nail of the under slate, and the lower end of
the upper slate.
C.
Course, is any row of slating, the lower (ends of whiph
are horizontally posited.
E.
Eave, the skirt or lower part of the slating hanging
over the naked of the wall.
H.
Holing, the piercing of the slates for nails.
L.
Lap, See Bond.
M. '
Margin of a Course, those parts of the backs of
the slates exposed to the weather.
Nails,
SLATING, 303
N.
Nails, painted iron or copper of a pyramidal form for
fastenino^ the slates to the lath or boardino:.
p.
PatExMT Slating, large slates used without boarding,
and screwed to the rafters with slips of slates bedded
in putty to cover the joints.
S.
ScANTLE, is a gauge by which slates are regulated to
their proper length.
Slates used in London are of several kind, as West-
moreland, P^ags, Imperial, Dutches', Countess',
Ladies, Doubles. The Westmoreland is the best,
the}^ are from 3 feet 6 inches, to 1 foot in length,
and from 2 feet 6 inches to 1 foot broad. Pags are
the second best, and run nearly of the same size.
The third in order, of inferior quality are the Im-
perials, they run from 2 feet 6 inches long, to 1
foot long. The other kinds will be understood by
the order under which they are named, being in-
ferior in size accordingly.
Sorting is the regulating of slates to their proper
length by means of the scantle.
Squaring, the cutting of the sides and bottom of the
slates.
T.
Tail, the bottom or lower end of the slate.
Trimming, the cutting or pairing of the side and bot-
tom edges, the head of the slate never being cut.
Z.
Zax, the tool for cutting tlie slate.
MECHA-
{ 304 )
MECHANICAL EXERCISES.
OF FJLASTEMNG^.
§ 1. PLASTERING is the art of covering
"walls or ceilings with one, two, or three layers
of any plastic or tena<jious paste, so as to admit
of a smooth and hard surface when the material
is dry, and also of ornamenting walls and ceilings
either bj being run or cast into moulds.
§ 3. Plasterers' Tools.
Tools used by the plasterer, are Plastering
Trowels of several descriptions. Joint Trowels,
and Jointing Rules, a Hawke, a Hand Float, a
Quirk Float, and a Derby. A Scratcher and
wooden Skreeds for running mouldings.
§ 3. Materials
Generally employed are Lime, Hair, Sand,
Plaster of Paris, and these are variously com-
pounded, as the following alphabetical arrange-
ment of Terms will show, which also explains
the tools and their uses.
Walls consisting of brick or stone in the best
houses are always lathed by the plasterer, pre-
vious
MASONRY. 305
vious to the operation of plastering, particularly
interior walls, and it is more requisite to lath
walls constructed of stone, than those constructed
of bri(>k, which is a dry substance, and not liable
to attract damps.
Ceilings are generally plastered upon laths,
particularl}' in. London. In some parts of the
country reeds are employed in their stead : the
reeds are spread out on the ceiling, so as to form
a regular surface, and are confined to their si-
tuation by nailing laths to the joists, the reeds
running transversely between them and the joists.
The reeds are cheaper than laths, but require
more material of plaster and labour : so that
when finished the difference of cost is very trifling.
Other matters in plastering will be seen in the
following Explanation of Terms.
X EXPLA-
( 306 )
EXPLANATION
OF TERMS IN
PL ASTERI NG.
A.
Angle Float, is a float made to any internal angle
to the planes of both sides of the room.
B.
Bastajid Stucco, is three coat plaster, the first ge-
nerally roughing in or rendering, the second
floating as in troweled stucco, but the finishing coat
contains a little hair besides the sand, it is not hand
floated, and the troweling is done with less labour
than what is denominated troweled stucco.
Bay, a strip or rib of plaster between skreeds for
regulating the floating rule. '
Ceiling, the upper side of an apartment opposite to
the floor, generally finished with plastered work.
Ceilings are set in two difterent ways, the best is
where the setting coat is composed of plaster and
putty, commonly called gauge. Common ceilings
have plaster but no hair, this last is the same as the
finishing coat in walls set for paper.
Coarse Stuff, 5^^ Lime and hair.
Coat, a stratum or thickness of plaster work done at
one time.
Derby
PLASTERING. , 307
D.
Derby, a two handed float.
Die, is when plaster loses its strength.
Dots, patches of plaster put on to regulate the float-
ing rule in making skreeds and bays.
Double Fir Laths, are laths |- of an inch thick, single
fir laths being a bare |. All the ceilings on the
entrance and drawing roi^ni floors and best stair
cases should be lathed with double fir laths.
F.
Fine Stuff is made of lime slacked and sifted through
a fine sieve, and mixed with a due quantity of hair,
and sometimes a small quantity of fine sand. Fine
stuff" is used in common ceilings and walls, set for
paper or colour.
Finishing, is the best coat of three coat work, when
done for stucco. The term setting is commonly
vised, when the third coat is made of fine stuff" for
paper.
First Coat of two coat work is denominated laying,
when on lath, and rendering on brick, in three
coat work upon lath it is denominated pricking-up,
and upon brick, roughing-in.
Float, an implement for forming the second coat of
three coat work to a given form of surface. Floats
are of three kinds : namely, the Hand float, the
Quirk float, and the Derby.
Floated Lath and Plaster set fair for paper, is
three coat work, the first pricking up, the second
floating, and the third or setting coat of fine stufli",
understood to be pricked-up, as there is no floated
work without pricking-up.
X 2 Floated,
308 PLASTERING.
Flqate©, rendered and set, this is the common term.
Floated Work, is that which is pricked-up, floated
and set, or roughed-in.
Floating, is the second coat of three coat work.
There is no floating without pricking-up or rough-
ing-in first, and then the finishing or setting.
Floating consists of the same stuff as pricking-up,
but more hair is used in the former than in the
latter. The floating should be brushed with a birch
broom, and in order to rough the surface, for stucco
or setting for paper. Floating is always used in
stuccoed work, walls prepared for paper, and in the
best ceilings.
Floating Skreeds differ from cornice skreeds in this,
that the former is a strip of plaster, and the latter
wooden rules for running the cornice.
Floating Rules are of every size and length.
G.
Gauge, a mixture of fine stuff and plaster, or putty
and plaster, or coarse stuff and plaster, used ia
finishing the best ceilings, and for mouldings, and
sometimes for setting walls.
H.
Hair used in plastering, ought to be long fresh hair.
Hawke, a board with a handle projecting perpen-
dicularly from the under side for holding the plaster.
J.
Joint Rules and Tools are narrow trowels and rules
of wood for making good mitres.
Lath
PLASTERING. 309
L.
Lath Floated and Set Fair. These words bear
the same meaning as lath pricked-up and floated
and set, which see
Lath layed and Set, is two coat work, only the
first coat called laying, is put on without scratching
except it is swept with a broom. This is generally
coloured on walls, and whited on ceilings.
Lath Plastered Set and Coloured, is the same
with lath layed set and coloured, which see
Lath Pricked-up, floated and set for paper is three
coat work, the first is pricking-up, the second float-
ing, and the finishing is fine stuft.
Laying, is the first coat on lath of two coat plaster
or set work, it is not scratched with the scratcher,
but its surface is roughed by sweeping it with a
broom, it diff'ers only from rendering on its applica-
tion. Rendering is apphed to the first coat work
upon brick, whereas laying, is the first of two coat
work upon lath.
Laying on Trowels, the trowels used for laying on
the plaster.
Lime and Hair, is a mixture of lime and hair
used in first coating and floating. It is otherwise
denominated coarse stuff': in floating more hair is
used than in first coatiuir.
M.
Matepjals in plastering are coarse stuff, fine stufl",
stuff", putty, plaster, gauge, and stucco.
Mitering Angles, in making good internal and
external angles of mouldings.
Mouldings, when not very large are first run with
coarse auge tj the mould, then with fine stufl\,
then
310 PLASTERING.
then with putty and plaster, and lastly, run off or
finished with rawputt3^ When mouldings are large
coarse stuff is first put on, then it is filled with tile
heads or hrick bats and run off successively, with
coarse gauge, fine stuff gauge, putty gauge, and
finished with raw putty : in running cornices there
must always be skreeds upon the ceiling, whether
the ceiling is floated or not.
P.
Pale, a vessel for holding water to moisten the plas-
ter.
Plaster, is the material with which ornaments are
cast, and with which the fine stuff of gauge for
mouldings and other ^arts are mixed.
Pricking-up is the first coating of three coat work
upon laths. The material used is coarse stuff, some-
times mixed up in London with road dirt or Thames
sand, and its surface is always scratched with the
scratcher.
Pugging, the stuff laid upon sound boarding, in order
to prevent the transmition of, or deaden the sound
in its passage from one story to another.
Putty, is a very fine cement made of lime only. It
is thus prepared : dissolve in a small quantity of
water, as two or three gallons, so much fresh lime,
(constantly sth-red with a stick) until the lime be
entirely slacked, and the whole becomes of the con-
sistency of mud; so that when the stick is taken
out of it, it will but just drop ; then being sifted
or run tlirough a hair sieve to take out t\\e gross
parts of the lime, it is fit for use. Putty differs from
fine stuff in the manner of preparing it, and in its
being used without hair.
Quirk
PLASTERING. 311
Q
Quirk Float, see Angle float.
R.
Rendered and Floated is three coat work, more
commonly called floated, rendered and set.
Rendered Floated and Set for paper should be
termed roughed-in, floated and setfor paper is three
coat work, the first lime and hair upon brick work,
the second the same stuff with a little more hair
floated with a long rule, the last fine stuff mixed
with white hair.
Rendered and Set, the same as set work, see Set
work. Rendering is the first of two coat work
upon naked brick or stone work whited on walk or
vaults; roughing-in being the first coat of three
work on naked brick, but the compound term prick-
ing-up is used for the first of three coat work upon
lath, or on brick work, which has been previously
rendered. Though the term rendering is some-
times used in three coat work, it is improper. The
material for rendering is the same as that for prick-
mg up.
Rough Cast, is the overlaying of walls with mortar
without smoothing it with any tool whatever.
Rough Rendering, is one coat rough.
Rough Stucco, is that which is finished with stucco
floated and brushed in a small degree with water, .
much used at present.
Roughing-in, is the first coat of three coat work.
Running Mouldings, see Mouldings.
Scratcher,
312 PLASTERING.
S.
ScRATCHER, the instrument for scratching the plaster
as its name impHes.
Second Coat, is either the finishing coat, as in layed
and set, or in rendered and set, or it is the floating,
when the plaster is roughed-in, floated and set for
paper.
Set Fair, is used after roughing-in and floated or
pricked up and floated : it should be well troweled
as it does not answer for colour without.
Set Work, two coat work upon lath, the plasterers
denominate set work by the compound term of lay-
ed and set.
Setting Coat on ceilings or walls in the best work
is gauge or a mixture of putty and plaster, but in
common work it consists of fine stufi^, and when the
work is very dry, a little sand is used. The setting
coat may either be a second coat upon laying or
rendering, or a third coat upon floating; the term
finishing is applied to the third coat when of stucco,
but setting for paper.
Setting, is also the quality that any kind of stuff" ha«
to harden in a short time.
Single Fir Laths are something less than | of an
inch in thickness.
Skreeds are wooden rules for running mouldings.
Skreeds are also the extreme guides upon the
margins of walls and ceihngs for floating, to the
intermediate ones being called bays. In running
cornices, where the ceilings are not floated, there
must always be skreeds.
Stopping, making good holes in the plaster.
Stucco or Finishing is the third coat of three coat
plaster,
PLASTERING. • ^ 313
plaster, consisting of line lime and sand, the best
is twice hand floated and well trowelled, bastard
stucco has a little hair, see Finishing. Rough stucco
is only floated and brushed in a small degree with
water : troweled siucco is accounted the best.
Traversing the skreeds for cornices is putting on
gauge stuff on the ceiling skreeds, for regulating
the running mould of the cornice abore.
Three Coat Work, is that which consists of prick-
ing-up or roughing-in, floating, and a finishing coat.
Troweled Stucco for paint, the same as roughed-in
on brick work, and set or pricked-up, floated and
twice hand floated.
Third Coat is the stucco for paint or setting for
paper.
Two Coat Work, is either layed and set, or render-
ed and set, see these articles.
W.
Work, is the coating of plaster layed and set, and
applied to brick work only where there are two coats.
MECHA-
( 314 )
MECHANICAL EXERCISES.
OF
FAINTING IN OIL.
PAINTING is the art of covering the sur-
faces of wood, iron, &c, with a mucilaginous
substance^ which shall acquire hardness on the
surface, and thereby protect from the weather,
and produce any colour proposed. It is intend-
ed here to treat only of common painting in oil,
which comprehends the mechanical process fpr
preserving and ornamenting stuccoed walls and
wood work of houses: also iron and wooden
rails, &c.
In this branch, the requisite tools are Brushes
of hogs bristles of various sizes, suitable to the
work, a Scraping or Pallet knife. Earthen Pots
to hold the colours, a Tin Can for turpentine, a
Grinding stone and Muller, &c.; the stone should
be hard and close grained, about 18 inches dia-
meter, and sufficiently heavy to keep it steady.
The
PAINTING. 315
The Process for Painting on new Wood Work,
As the Knots in wood (particularly deal) are
a great annoyance in painting, great care is re-
quired in what the painters term killing theni^
and the most sure way of doing this has been
found to be, by laying upon those knots which
retain any turpentine, a great substance of lime,
immediately on its being slacked with a stopping
knife, (this process dries or burns up the tur-
pentine which the knots contain), and when the
lime has remained on about twenty four hours,
scrape it off, then do them twice over with size
knotting, which is made with red and white lead
ground very fine with water on a stone, and mix-
ed with strong double glue size to be used warm,
after which, if you have any doubts of their
not being sufficiently covered, do them over with
red and white lead ground very fine in linseed
oil, and mixed with a portion of that oil, taking
care to rub them down with fine sand paper each
time you do them over, to prevent their appear-
ing more raised than the other parts, by the re-
petition of a greater number of coats than the
other parts of the work will have; when this
is quite dry, lay on your Priming colour, which
is made with white and a little red lead mixed
thin with linseed oil. When the priming is quite
dry, and if the work is intended to be finished
white, mix white lead, and a very small portion
of red with linseed oil, adding a very little spirits
of
316 PAINTING.
of turpentine, and second colour your work; it
is well to let the work remain in this state for
some days to harden, then your care must be
(before you lay on your third coat) to rub it
down with fine sand paper, and stop with oil
putty wherever it may be necessary, observing
particularly if any of the knots show through
your work, in which case take silver leaf, and
lay it upon them with japan gold size; the third
coat is white lead mixed with linseed oil and tur-
pentine in equal portions, and if the work is in-
tended to be finished with four coats, let your
finishing coat be made of good old white lead
and thinned with bleached linseed oil and spirits of
turpentine, of the portion of one of oil and two
of turpentine; a very small quantity of blue
black may be used in the two last coats ; and if
the work is to be flatted dead white, the above
process is prepared to receive it. Dead white is
fine old Nottingham lead, and thinned entirely
with spirits of turpentine.
In painting on Stucco, it is necessary to give
it one coat more than wood work, therefore the
fourth coat should be mixed with half spirits
of turpentine and half oil, and this will receive
the finishing coat of all turpentine or flatting.
But if not to be flatted, then the finishing coat
should be done with one part oil and two of tur-
pentine. As the colours used on stucco walls are
very numerous, it would far exceed my limits to
treat
PAINTING^, • 317
treat of them distinctly: let it therefore suffice
to say, that the same process must be observed
in using them as in white, only that each coat
should incline to the colour they are intended to
be finished.
The Process for Painting on old Work.
Let all the work you intend to paint be well
rubbed down with dry pumice stone, and care-
fully dusted off, and where the work may re-
quire, let any cracks or openings be well stopped
with oil putty, after which mix white lead,
adding a very small portion of red lead and with
turpentine and oil of equal parts, paint your
work (this coat is technically called by painters
second colouring old work) after this is done
and the work dry, mix good old white lead with
half bleached oil and half turpentine, adding a
very small portion of blue black, and finish your
work: or if it is intended to be flatted, the
former process is a proper preparation to receive
the dead white; the same process is to be ob-
served for stuccoed walls, observing that if they
require a greater number of coats, the mixture of
half oil and half turpentine is proper. The more
you mix your colours with oil, and the less with
turpentine for outside work the better, as tur-
pentine is more adherent to water than oil, and
consequently, not so well calculated to preserve
work exposed to the weather; yet as oil will
discolour
t
318 PAINTING.
discolour while, it is necessary to finish that with
a portion of half oil and half turpentine : but
in dark colours, such as chocolate greens, lead
colour, &c. &c. boiled linseed oil and a little
turpentine is the best, or boiled oil only.
White lead is used in all stone colours; white
painting is entirely white lead; lead colours are
white lead and lamp black; pinks and all fancy
colours have a portion of white lead in their
composition: but chocolates, black, brown, and
wainscoats have no portion whatever.
Clear coaling is made of white lead ground in
water and mixed with size : it is used instead of
a coat of paint, but by no means answers the
end, as not possessing a sufficient body, and will
scale off in time, and change the colour, in damp
situations. Clear coaling is rhost useful where
the work is greasy and smoky, as it prepares it
better to receive a coat of paint: but when used
for joiners work where mouldings are concerned,
it destroys the accuracy of the workmanship by
filling up the quirks and mitres of the mouldings.
Clear coaling is not much used at present.
Some colours dry badly, and in damp weather
all colours require something to expedite their
drying, a good dryer may be prepared of equal
parts of copperas and litharge ground very fine,
to be added as wanted.
Putty is made of whiting and linseed oil, well
beaten together.
The
PAINTING. 319
The brushes when done with should be put
into a pan or pot with water, which prevents
their drying and becoming hard; also if any
colour is left, water should be put upon it to
prevents its drying.
Drying oil is made thus: to every gallon of
linseed oil put one pound of red lead, one pound
of umber, and one pound of litharge. The oil
and the materials to be boiled for two or three
hours, ^ote. If the pot in which the oil is
boiled will contain fifteen gallons, it is not pru-
dent to boil more than five gallons at a time, as
the oil and material will swell s.o much as to
endanger boiling over and setting the place on
fire. After having boiled a sufficient time, the
pot may be then filled up with oil, and made
to simmer gently, and then it is finished.
A List of useful Colours for House Painting.
Black -
lamp black
White "
white lead
Yellow -
ochers, also patent yellow
Blue
Prussian blue, and blue black
Red -
red lead, vermilion and purple brown.
or India red.
crimson, lakes, to which add vermilion
or white according to the tone.
Green -
grass, verdigrise.
invisible, dark ocher, blue and a little
black.
Gi^een
Chocolate - -
Lead Colour ' -
Brown - - -
320 PAINTING.
Green - a good, patent yellow and Prussian
blue,
. pea, mineral green.
India red and black.
black and white.
umber raw and burnt,
• mix black, red, and dark och(2r.
Purple - - - mix lake, blue, and white.
Yellow and red lead, make an orajige colour.
Red and blue make a purple and violet colour.
Blue and yellow make a green colour.
Black, blue, white, and a little India red
make a pearl colour.
Light ocher, Prussian blue, and a little black
make an olive colour.
India red and white, make ajlcsh colour.
White and umber, make a stone colour.
MECHA-
( 321 )
MECHANICAL EXERCISES.
OF SMITHING,
SMITHING is the art of UDiting several
lumps of iron into one mass, and of forming anj
lump or mass of iron into any intended shape.
§ 1 . Description of the Forge. ( Pl. 1 . )
The forge consists of a brick hearth raised
about 2 feet 6 inches, or sometimes 2 feet 9
inches from the floor, heavier work requires a
lower forge than lighter work : its breadth must
also depend upon the nature of the work; the
brick-work may be built hollow below for the
purpose of putting things out of the way. The
back of the forge is carried up to the top of
the roof, and is enclosed over the lire in the
form of a funnel to collect and discharge the
smoke into the flue, the funnel is very wide at
its commencement, but decreases rapidly to the
flue, whence it is carried up of a proper
size to take off" the smoke. The wide part is
called the hood or hovel, which in modern
forges, particularly in London, is constructed of
iron. The air drawn in by the bellows is com-
Y municated
322 SMITHING.
municated to the fire hy means of a taper pipe,
the small end of which passes through the back
of the forge, and is fixed into a strong iron
plate, called a tue-iron or patent back, in order
to preserve the bellows and the back of the forge
from the injuries of the fire. A trough for coals
and another for water is placed on one side of
the forge generally extending the whole breadth.
See the Plate.
The best position of the bellows is on a level
with the fire place, but they are frequently
placed higher for the purpose of getting room
below.
The Tools are as follows :
§ 2. The Anvil (Pl. 1. Fig. G.)
Is formed of a large block or mass of iron
with a smooth horizontal face on the top, ge-
nerally hollowed upon three sides, and on the
fourth has a projecting part of a conic figure,
called a Pike or Beckern, or Beak iron. The
face must be made of steel, so hard as to b$
incapable of being filed. The anvil is fixed upon
^ wooden block in order to keep it steady.
§3. The Tongs (Pl. 1.)
Are of several forms, straight and crooked
nosed : the former is used in short flat work, and
the crooked nosed in the forging of bars. The
chaps.
SMITHING. 323
chaps, or parts which hold the iron are placed
near the joint, and in order to keep it with great-
er firmness, a ring is slipped over the ends of
the handles of the tongs.
§ 4. Hammers
Are of several kinds, as Hand-Hammers, which
are of different sizes, according to the weight
of the work; the Up-hand Sledge is used by
under workmen, when the work is not of the
largest kind in battering, in order to draw it out
to its required dimensions, and for this purpose
both hands are used. The About Sledge is the
biggest of all the hammers, also used by under
workmen in battering the largest work : the
former hammer is only lifted up and down, but
this is slung entirely round with both bands
nearly at the extremity. The Rivetting Hammer
is the smallest of all, it is not used at the forge,
but in rivetting, as its name implies.
§ 5. The Vice (Pl. 2. Fig. B,)
Is used to hold any piece of iron or work for
the purpose of bending, rivetting, filing, polish-
ing, &c. It must be placed firmly and vertically
on the side of the work bench, with its chaps
parallel to the edge of the said bench. The
inner surface of the chaps is roiif^hed with teeth,
and well tempered, there is a spring which act?
Y 2 against
324 SMITHING.
against the screw pin, and opens the chaps, the
screw pin is cut with a square thread, as also the
screw, which is brazed into the nut box.
§ 6. The Hand Vice
Is of two kinds, viz. the Broad Chapt Hand
Vice, and the Square Nosed Hand Vice. The
office of the former is to hold small work in the
act of filing, it is held in the left hand, and the
parts of the iron turned successively to the file
which is used by the right. The Square Nosed
Hand Vice is seldom used^ but in filing small
glob ulcus work.
§7. The Flyers
Are of two kinds. Flat Nosed and Round
Nosed : the former is used to hold small work
while it is fitting to its place, and the latter for
turning or bending wire or small plates.
§8. Drills {Vi^ 2. Fig. E.)
Are used in boring holes which cannot be
punched, owing to the thickness of the iron, or
which require more exactness than can be per-
formed by the punch, which is very apt to set
the work out of order and shape. Drills are
required of various sizes, and to be made of
the best steel. The Drill consistsof a cut-
ting point, a shank, and drill barrel, which
must
SMITHING. 325
must be of a diameter sufficient to turn the
Drill with the required v£locity. The drill
is turned by a bow and string, the string is coiled
round the barrel, the bow goes with a recipro-
cating motion, and causes the drill to perform
several revolutions in each progressive and retro-
gressive motion of the bow, and different kinds
ofVork will require different bows, according to
the force required to turn the drill, for lighter
or stronger work: there is also a Drill plate
or Breast plate, in which the blunt end of the
shank of the drill is inserted, and by which the
drill is pressed to the work.
To make large holes, more force is required
than can be given by the bow and string, instead
of which a brace, similar to that used by joiners
is employed, and the drill itself is fitted in as a
bit, instead of the end of the stock, which re-
mains stationary while the other part is turning,
there is a long tapering spindle of iron, which
is carried round with the brace; the upper end
of this spindle is inserted in the lower horizontal
side of an iron plate, which is fixed to the
under side of a beam, called the drill beam.
The drill beam turns upon a transverse pin hori-
zontally posited at one end, and is drawn down
by a weight at the other, and thus presses the
brace downwards by the ponderosity of the
beam and that of the weight, while the brace is
revolved by hand. A piece of iron being laid
under
326 SMITHING.
under the drill bit, where the hole is intended,
and the drill turned swiftly round will be bored
through, or to any required depth. See Plate
% Fig. E.
§ 9. Screw Plates
Are plates of well tempered steel with several
cylindric holes of different diameters, with screw
threads wrought into square grooves from the
Surface of the interior concavity ; to these plateft
belong as many pins, tapering to their ends, call-
ed taps, which are the frustrums of cones, not
differing materially from cylinders : the convex
surface is threaded in the same manner and made
to fit their respective holes.
§ 10. Shears
Is an instrument for cutting iron, consist-
ing of two equal and similar pieces moveable
round a joint, near to two of the ends, and may
be considered as a double lever, so that when
two of the ends are opened or shut, the other
ends will be opened or shut also. The cutting
edges which meet each other are brought to an
acute angle, and the surfaces of the inner faces
gradually come more and more in contact in
the same plane, as the longer ends which are em-
ployed as handles are brought nearer together.
Shears are used in cutting iron plates and even
bars, and are consequently of various sizes ac-
cording
SMITHING. 527
cording to the stiffness or strength of the iron
to be cut. When the shears are used, one han-
dle is screwed fast in the vice, and the other only
is moveable; the iron to be cut is laid betweea
the edges which close together.
§ 11. Saws
In general have been sufficiently defined in §
45 Joinery. They are used by smiths to cut
pieces of iron or bars of all dimensions, and for
cutting grooves and notches to any required
depth. Shears have an advantage over saws in
cutting with more rapidity, but saws cut with
more exactness, and save the whole or much
labour in filing; and may also be used in cutting
bars or pieces of the greatest dimensions, where
shears cannot be used. Smiths saws must be
very narrow and stiff, with a bow of iron, by
which the ends are made fast, and the plate
stretched by a screw at one end ; the bow has a
projecting part in a straight line with the saw,
which forms the handle.
§ 12. Of Forging,
In forging, the fire must be regulated by the
size of the work, and in heating the iron, beat
the coals round the outside of the fire close to-
gether with the slice, in order to prevent the
heat from escaping as often as the flame begins
to break out, and in order to save fuel, wet or
damp
528 SMITHING.
*
damp the outside of the coals : to know whether
the work takes the heat, draw it a small degree
out of the fire, and thrust it quickly in again
if not hot enough: if the iron be too cold the
hammer will make no impression upon it, or in
the language of Smiths, it will yot batter; if
too hot it will break or crack.
§ 13. 0/ Heats.
Heats are of several kinds, depending on the
destination of the work, as Blood Red Heat,
White Flame Heat, and Sparkling or Welding
Heat. The blood red heat is used when the
shape of the iron is not required to be altered,
and when the surface is only required to be smooth
hammered : this operation is performed by the
hand hammer with light flat blows until the pro-
tuberances and hollows are brought to the re-
quired surface, whether plane or curved, the
■work is then prepared for the file. The ham-
mering of the work to a true surface, will save
much trouble in filing.
The White Flame Heat is used in forming the
iron from one shape to another; in the execu-
tion of this, one, two, or more men must be
employed to batter the work with sledges, until
it acquires nearly its proposed form and size,
afterwards smooth it with the hand hammer.
A Sparkling or Welding Heat is used when
the iron is required to be doubled, or two or
more
SMITHING. 329
more pieces consolidated, in order to make the
piece of the required dimensions. In joining
two or more bars togetherj heat them to that
degree as to be nearlj'- in a state of fusion,
they must then be taken out of the fire with
the utmost dispatch^ and the scales or dirt which
will hinder their incorporation, being scraped
off, put the pieces in contact at the heated part,
and hammer them together until there is no
seam or fissure left: this operation will require
two or more men according to the magnitude of
the bars. If the particles of the iron have not
been sufficiently incorporated by the first heat,
more heats and the operations of hammering
must be repeated until the work is perfectly
sound ; after which it is formed into the shape
proposed, and finished by smoothing, &c. To
make the iron come sooner to a welding heat, stir
the fire with the hearth staff, and throw out the
cinders the iron may have run upon, as they
will prevent the coals from burning; to prevent
the iron melting, throw some sand over it while
in the fire. In this operation care must be taken
to prevent the iron from running, which will
make it so brittle as to prevent its forging, and so
hard as to resist the action of the file. In weld-
ing, some Smiths strew a little sand upon the
face of the anvil, as they conceive it makes the
iron incorporate better. If by ill management
the iron be wrought too thin or too narrow, and
should
530 SMITHING.
should there he siihstance enough to make it
thicker, give it a flame heat, and set the heated
end upright upon the anvil, and hammer uport
the cold end until the heated end be beat to the
feize cr turned into the body of the w^ork, the
^art so beat is said to up-set, and the operation
is called up-setting. When your work is forged,
let it cool gradually, and do not by any meanil
quench it in water, which will harden it too
much.
§ 14. To punch a Hole.
Take a Punch of the size and shape of the hol^
required, the point or narrow end of it must be
hardened without tempering, as the heat of the
iron will soften it sufficiently, and sometimes too
much, and then it must be re-hardened : if the
work is not very large bring the iron to a blood
heat, but if very large, bring it almost to a flame
heat, and lay it upon the anvil : and place the
point of the punch at the spot where the hole
is to be made, then with the hammer punch the
hole. If the work is very heavy fix the punch
in a wooden rod, and place it on the intended
situation of the hole, let another person strike
till the punch is forced about half way through,
then reverse the iron and punch through on the
contrary side; the hole is afterwards smoothed,
and perfected by a mandrill being driven through.
But in punching take care to plunge the punch
into
SMITHING. 331
into water as often as it is heated, or as often as
it changes colour, in order to re-harden it, other-
wise it will spoil both the work and the punch.
§15. Filing and- PoUsliing.
Filing is the operation of cutting or tearing
iron in particles or very small parts, called
filings, by means of an instrument toothed all over
its surface: the instrument itself is called a file.
Files are differently formed, and of various sizes
for different purposes, their sections being either
square, oblong, triangular, or segmental; the
files of these sections are respectively denominat-
ed square, flat, three square, and half round,
they also differ in the magnitude of their teeth,
as the iron may be required to be more or. less
reduced in a given time : it is evident that in
the operation of filing, the surface of the iron will
be full of scratches, and these scratches will be
largeror smaller according as the teeth of the files
are coarser or finer : files have therefore obtained
the following names, according to the number
of teeth cut on the same area : the largest rough
tooth file is called a Rubber, and is used after
the hammer in taking away the prominent part*
on the surface of the iron ; the Bastard Tooth
file is employed to take out the marks made by
the rubber the fine toothed file is employed in
taking out the scratches made by the bastard
toothed file ; and lastly, the smooth toothed file
is
532 SMITHING.
is employed in taking oot the scratches of the
last : the surface is at last made perfectly smooth
by means of emery and tripoli. And whatever
be the surface of the work, whether flat, cylin-
drical or conical, the file must always be made
to describe that surface as near as the hand
and judgement will direct: these matters by
keeping the principle of motion in view, are soon
obtained by practice.
After the surface of the iron has been smooth-
ed by the emery and tripoli, it is then polished
by a piece of very hard and highly polished steel,
called a burnisher, with a handle at one or both
ends, according to the pressure required, which
will depend on the magnitude of the surface. The
sides of the burnisher are cither flat or convex,
according to the surface to be polished.
§ 16. To cut thick Iron Plate to any
required Figure.
Having drawn or scratclied the figure upon
the surface o€ an iron plate, place it on the anvil,
if large, if small, upon the stake: a chissej
being in your left hand, with its edge set upon
the mark, strike it with the hammer till the sub-
stance is nearly cut through, so as to leave a very
thin portion of the thickness below it: observe if
the iron were cut through, the face of the anvil
being steel, will battef or break the edge of the
chissel, and for this reason when the edge comes
very
SMITHING. 333
very near the under side of the plate, strike only
with light blows ; repeat this operation till the
whole of the figure is gone over, the part in-
tended to be taken away, may be broken o(F
with the fingers or with a pair of pljers, or by
pinching the plate in the vice, with the cut part
close to the chaps, and then wriggle it, till it
comes asunder.
§ 17. Rtcetting
Is the art of fixing the end of a pin into a
hole, by battering or spreading the end which
has passed through the hole, so as not only to
fill the hole, but to increase its diameter on the
opposite side, and thereby prevent its being drawn
out again.
^% 18. To rivet a Pin to a Plate or Piece of Iron,
Having formed the shank to the size of the
hole, with a shoulder, and something longer than
the thickness of the plate, file the end of the
shank flat, so that it may batter more easily ; slip
the shank into the hole, and keeping the shoulder
in contact with the surface of the plate; the
fend of the pin abutting upon the stake, and
the pin standing perpendicular, strike the edge
of the end of the shank with light blows, until
it is spread all round, then lay heavier blows,
sometimes with the face and sometimes with the
pen of the hammer, till the end of the shank is
sufficiently
534 SMITHING,
suiBciently battered over the plate : in pcrform-
iDg this operation care must be taken to keep
the pin at right angles to the plate, and the
shoulder close.
§ 19. 7b make small Screw-Bolts and Mits.
Supposing the shank of the screw- bolt to be let
into a square hole, in order to keep it from twist-
ing bj the turning of the nut, take a square bar
or rod of iron near the size of the head of the
screw pin, and bring it to a flame heat ; take as
much of the length of the bar as is equal to
the length of the shank, and lay one side flat
upon the nearer side of the anvil, and hammer
it down to the intended thickness, this will forge
two of the sides at once, the under side being
forged by the anvil, and the upper beat flat with
the hammer; but if the iron get cold before the
forging is finished, it must have another heat.
Then lay one of the unvvrought sides upon the
jiearer side of the anvil, and hammer this side
straight as before, so that the two other side*
will also be made ; then beat in the angles so as to
make it nearly round and of such length as is equal
to the intended length of the screw pin. Hav-
ing forged the shank square, and formed the
head either square or round as may be intended^
file also the screw pin so as to make it taper iqi
a small degree, and to take out the irregularities
of the forge; the conic form makes it enter
more
SMITHING. 355
more easily, and the irregularities being taken
away, makes the screw more exact in the dis-
tances of the threads : the quantity of taper may
be something more than twice the depth of the
threads. Then fix the bolt with the head
downwards into the vice, and with a screw plate
equal to the interior diameter of the cylinder
from which the screw is to project, lay the hole
upon the end of the screw pin, and press it hard
downwards. Then turning the screw plate pa-
rallel to the horizon from right to left with a
uniform pressure round about the pin both pro-
gressively and retrogressively, and the plate will
begin to groove out the channel between the
thread of the screw : proceed with this process
until as much of the screw be formed as is re-
quired.
To make the nut, the hole must be equal to
the diameter of the cylinder from which the
thread is made in the shank of the screw, and
the tap must be made tapering, in order to enter
the hole. Proceed and screw the nut in the vice,
with the axis of the cylindric hole vertical, and
enter the screw tap, which turn by the handle
as before, and it will begin to cut the interior
groove of the nut; proceed working until the
groove between the thread be of its full depth,
the thread and groove in the nut will thus
be made to fit the groove and thread of the screw
pin.
§ 20, Of
536 SMITHING.
• §20. Of Iron.
Iron is a metal of a blueish white colour, of
considerable hardness, but easily formed into any
shape, and is susceptible of a very fine polish.
It is the most elastic of all the metals, and next
to platina, is the most ditlicult of fusion. Its
hardness in some states is superior to that of
any other metal, and it has the additional ad-
vantage of suffering this hardness to be increased
or diminished at pleasure, by certain chemical
processes, without altering its form. Its tena-
city is also greater than that of any other, metal,
except gold; an iron wire, the tenth part of an
inch in diameter has been found capable of sus-
taining more than 5001b weight without break-
ing. Its ductility is such as to allow it to be drawn
into wire as fine as a hair.
Iron ore is found mixed with sand, clay, chalk,
and in many kinds of stones and earths. It is
also found in the ashes of vegetables and the
blood of animals in great abundance. Iron ores
are therefore extremely numerous.
Iron is obtained from the ore by an operation
called smelting, and in this state it is called crude
iron, cast iron, or pig iron, but it is very im-
pure. Cast iron is scarcely malleable at any tem-
perature, it is generally so hard as to resist the
file, and is extremely brittle; however it is
equally permanent in many applications with
wrought
SMITHING. 337
wrought iron, and is less liable to rust, and
being easily cast into various forms by melt-
ing, is much cheaper. Indeed the labour
to wrought iron if applied to many of the
purposes to which cast iron is used would be in-
credible, and in some cases insurmountable. The
use of cast iron is sufficiently obvious in the
wheel work of every department of machinery,
in crane work, in iron bridges, in beams and
pillars for large buildings, and in numerous ar-
ticles of manufacture.
Cast iron is reduced into wrought or bar
iron, or forged iron, by divesting it of seve-
ral foreign mixtures with which it is incor-
porated The varieties of wrought iron are
the following: Hot-short iron is so brittle when
heated, that it will not bear the -weight of a
small hammer without breaking to atoms, but is
malleable when cold, and very fusible in a
high temperature; Cold-short iron possesses the
opposite qualities, and is with difficulty fusible in
a strong heat, and though capable while hot of
being beaten into any shape, is when cold very
brittle, and but slightly tenacious. The iron in
general use, which though in a chemical point of
view is not entirely pure, is so far perfect that it
possesses none of these defects ; its principal pro-
perties are the following: 1st When applied to
the tongue it has a styptic taste, and emits a pe-
culiar smell when rubbed : 2d Its specific gravity
varies from 76 to 7*8; a cubic foot of it weighs
Z about
338 SMITHING.
about 5801b avoirdupoise : 3d It is attracted by
the magnet or load stone^ and is itself one of its
ores, the substance which constitutes the load
stone. It is also capable of acquiring itself the
attraction and polarity of the magnet in various
ways; iron, however^ that is perfectly pure re-
tains the magnetic virtue only a very short time :
4th It is malleable in every temperature, which
as it rises, increases the malleability. It cannot
however, be hammered out so thin as gold or
silver, or even copper. Its ductilitj^ is very
great, and its tenacity is such, that an iron wire
something less than the twelfth of an inch in dia-
meter is capable of supporting without break-
ing 54r9:|:lb avoirdupoise: 5th, it melts at about
158* of Wedgewood : 6th, it combines very
readily with oxigen; when exposed to the air
its surface is soon tarnished, and is gradually
changed into a brown or yellow colour, usually
called rust : this change takes place more rapid-
ly, as it is more exposed to moisture.
To preserve iron from rust, particularly when
polished, various methods have been tried
with more or less success : among others, the
partial oxidation, known by the term blueing
has been adopted ; the slightest coat of grease is
sufficient to prevent rust.
Iron is the most useful and the most plenti-
ful of all metals. It requires a very intense
heat to fuse it, on which account it can only be
brought
SMITHING. 339
brought into shape of tools and utensils by ham-
mering : this high degree of infusibilitj would
prevent the uniting of several masses into one,
were it not from its being capable of welding, a
property which is found in no other metal ex-
cept platina. In a white heat, iron appears as
if covered with a kind of varnish, and in this
state, if two pieces be applied together, they
will adhere, and may be perfectly united by
forging.
Steel is made of the purest malleable iron by
an operation called cementation, by which it ac-
quires a small addition to its weight, amounting
to about the hundred and fiftieth or two hun-
dredth part. In this state it is much more
brittle and fusible than before. It may be weld-
ed like bar iron, if it has not been fused or
over cemented; but its most useful and advan-
tageous property is, that of becoming extremely
hard when heated and plunged into cold water; the
hardness which it thus acquires is greater, as the
steel is hotter and the water colder. The sign
which direct the mechanic in the tempering of
steel, is the variation of colour which appears
on its surface. If the steel be slowly heated the
colours which it exhibits are a yellowish white,
yellow, gold colour, purple, violet, deep blue.
If the steel is too hard, it will not be proper for
tools which are intended to have a fine edge,
as it will be so brittle that the edge will soon be-
Z 2 come
340 SMITHING.
come notched: and if it is too soft the edge will
soon turn aside^ even by very slight usage. Some
artists heat their tools and plunge them into
cold water, after which they brighten the sur-
face of the steel upon a stone; the steel being
then laid upon hot charcoal, or upon the surface
of melted lead, or placed on a bar or piece of hot
iron, gradually acquires the desired colour, and
at this instant it must be plunged into water. If
a hard tamper is required, as soon as a yellow
tinge appears, the piece is dipped again and
stirred about in the cold water. In tempering of
tools for working upon metals, it will be proper
to bring it to a purple tinge before the dipping.
Springs are tempered by bringing the surface to
a blue tinge. This temperature is also desirable
for tools employed in cutting soft substances,
such as cork, leather and the like; but if the
steel be plunged into water when its surface has
acquired a deep blue, its hardness will scarcely
exceed the temperature of iron. When soft
steel is heated to any one of these colours, and
then plunged into water, it does not acquire so
great a degree of hardness as if previously made
quite hard. The degree of heat required to
harden steel is different in the different kinds.
The best kinds require only a low red heat; the
harder the steel the more coarse and granulated
its fracture will be. Steel when hardened has
less specific gravity than when soft; the texture
of
SMITHING. 341
of steel is rendered more uniform by fusing it
before it is made into bars, and in this state it is
called cast steel, which is wrought with more
difficulty thanccoraraon steel, because it is more
fusible, and will disperse under the hammer if
heated to a white heat. Every species of iron is
convertable into steel by cementation; but the
best steel can be made only from iron of the
best quality, which possesses stiffness and hard-
ness as well as malleability. Swedish iron has
been long remarked as the best for this purpose.
The Cast Steel of England is made as follows :
a crucible about 10 inches high, and 7 inches in
diameter is filled with ends and fragments of the
crude steel of the manufactories, and the filings
and fragments of steel works; they add a flux,
the component parts of which are usually con-
cealed. It is probable, however, that the suc-
cess does not much depend upon the flux. This
crucible is placed in a wind furnace, like that of
the founders, but smaller, because intended to
contain but one pot only. It is likewise sur-
mounted by a cover and chimney to increase the
draught of air; the furnace is entirely filled with
coke, or charred pit coal. Five hours are requir-
ed for the perfect fusion of the steel. It is then
poured into long, square, or octagonal moulds,
each composed of two pieces of cast iron fitted
together. The ingots when taken out of the
mould have the appearance of cast iron. It is
then
342 SMITHING.
then forged in the same manner as other steel,
but with less heat and more precaution. Cast
steel is almost twice as dear as other good steel;
it is excellent for razors, knives, joiners' chissels,
and for ail kinds of small work that require an
exquisite polish: its texture is more uniform than
common steel, which is an invaluable advantage.
It is daily more and more used in England, but
it cannot be employed in works of great magni-
tude, on account of the facility with which it is
degraded in the fire, and the difficulty of weld-
ing it.
To conclude: British cast iron is excellent for
all kinds of castings; our wrought iron also of
late has been much improved in the manufacture,
and by many persons is thought not to be inferior
to that of Sweden, which till lately had a de-
cided preference, and is to be attributed to the use
of charcoal in the process of smelting, which
can not be procured in sufficient quantity in
England, where pit coal has of necessity been
substituted. The Navy Board and East India
Company, however^ now contract for British
iron only.
PLATE I.
I^ late I.
'////r/// ////.
y.
_^ciiui^iSiiii's7ieiiMi7-r/iiei7'S'7zl;y^Z2?iyio?rJRi//iIFiii6or7i .
SMITHING. 343
PLATE L
Perspective View of a Smith's Work Shop, sJiow-
ing a double Forge with its Apparatus, and
some Tools in general Use.
A Back of the Forge.
B the Hood.
C Bradley's Patent Back^ showing the nozel
or the iron of the bellows.
D end of Forge.
E Bellows with the rock staff.
F Troughs for coals and water.
G Anvilj shewing the Beak Iron, and a hole
for holding the tools on the top. The Anvil
being supported upon a wooden block.
H a strong stool for supporting the Chasing
Tool I.
I the Chasing Tool for rounding bolts, and
punching holes in iron, the holes are called
Bolsters, and those upon the sides are called
rounding tools, the whole is called generally a
Bolster.
K a Sledge Hannmer.
Near D is a horse to hold up long pieces of
iron at the end of the forge, when found ne-
cessary.
The
344 SMITHING.
The square hole near A is used for discharging
the ashes, which slide down a hollow, and
comes out at the bottom of the front.
The coal trough is placed next to the forge,
and the water trough next to the front. The
tongs are shown in the water trough, and a pair
of lip and straight tongs are shown on it.
In smiths shops, where heavy articles are ma-
nufactured, cranes are employed for taking the
work out of the fire.
PLATE 11.
SMITHING. 345
PLATE II.
View of another Part of a Smith's Work Shop,
showing the Work Benches , with the Vices,
the Drill in the Act of Boring, and a Turning
Machine, as wrought bt^ a Winch and Wheels,
as also hy the Foot.
A, A Work Benches.
B, B, B Vices.
C the Bench Anvil.
D, E, F, G various parts of a Drill Machine.
D the Drill Block.
E the Drill and Brace.
F the Drill Beam, shewing the lever to pull
it up.
G a rod to hang a larger or smaller weighty
for giving more or less power to the Drill, as
may be required in boring a greater or less hole.
H, I, K, L parts of the Turning Lath.
H Handle to turn the Large Wheel.
I the Large Wheel.
K PuUies for the Cord.
L Pupets, Rest, Collar and Mandril.
N Wheel and crank for revolving the Man-
dril by the foot, &c.
INDEX
( 346 )
INDEX AND EXPLANATION
OF TERMS USED IN
S M I T H I N G.
N. B. This Mark § refers to the preceding Sections,
according to the Nu7nber.
About Sledge, the largest hammer used by smiths,
it is slung round near the extremity of the handle,
generally used by under workmen, § 4.
Anvil, a large block or mass of iron with a very hard
smooth horizontal surface on the top, and a hole at
one end of the surface, for the purpose of insert-
ing various tools, and a strong steel chissel, on
which a piece of iron may be laid and cut into two.
Anvils are sometimes made of cast iron, but the
best are those which are forged, with the upper
face made of steel. Small anvils are also used in
more delicate parts of the business, § 2. Plate 1,
fig. G. Plate 2, fig. C.
B.
Bar Iron, long prismatic pieces of iron, being rect-
angular parallepipeds, prepared from pig iron, so as
to be malleable for the use of blacksmiths. For'
the method of joining bars, see § 13.
Bastard Cut, § 15.
Bastard Toothed File, that employed after the
rubber, § 15.
Batter,
SMITHING, 347
Batter, to displace a portion of tlie iron of any bar
or other piece by the blow of a hammer, so as to
flatten or compress it inwardly, and spread it out-
wardly on all sides around the place of impact.
Beak Iron, the conic part of the anvil, with its base
attached to the side, and its axis horizontal, § 2,
Plate 1, fig. G.
Bellows, the instrument for blowing the fire, with
an internal cavity, so contrired as to be of greater
or less capacity by reciprocating motion, and to
draw in air at one place while the capacity is upon
the increase, and discharge it by another while
upon the decrease. The bellows are placed be-
hind the forge, with a pipe of communication
through the back to the fire, and are worked by
means of a lever, called a rocker, Plate 1. fig. E.
Bench, an injmovable table, to which one or more vices
are fixed, for filing, drilling, and putting work to-
gether, Plate 2.
Blood-red Heat, the degree of heat which is only
necessary to reduce the protuberances of the iron
by the hammer, in order to prepare it for the file,
the iron being previously brought to its shape. This
heat is also used ih punching small pieces of
iron, § 13,
Bolster, a tool used for punching holes, and for
making bolts. Plate 1, fig. I.
Brace, an instrument into which a rimer is fixed, also
part of the press drill.
Breast Plate, that in which the end of the drill op-
posite the boring end is inserted, § 8,
Brittleness in iron is a want of tenacity or strength,
so as to be easily broken by pressure or impact.
When iron is made too hot, so as to be nearly in a
state
348 SMITHING.
state of fusion, it becomes so brittle as to prevent
forging, and so hard as to resist the action of the
file. Tliis is also the disposition of cast iron.
Broad Chapt Hand Vice, § 6.
Burnisher, an instrument used in polishing, § 15.
C.
Callipers, a species of compasses with legs of a
circular form used to take the thickness or diameter
of work either circular or flat, used also to take the
interior size of holes.
Cast Iron, § 20,
Cast Steel, § 20.
Cementation, is the process of converting iron into
steel, which is done by stratifying bars of iron in
charcoal, igniting it, and letting it continue in a
kiln in that state for five or six days, by which the
carbon of the charcoal is absorbed by the iron, and
causes it to become steel.
Chaps, the two planes or flat parts of a vice or pair
of tongs or plyers, for holding any thing fast, which
are generally roughed with teeth.
Chissel, a tool with the lower part in the form of a
wedge, for cutting iron plate or bar, and witii the
upper part flat, to receive the blows of a hammer
in order to force the cutting edge through the sub-
stance of the iron, for its use see § 16.
Cold Short Iron, iron in an impure state, § 20.
Compasses, an instrument with two long legs, work-
ing on a centre pin at one extremity; used for
drawing circles, measuring distances, setting out
work, &c.
Counter-sink, a tool used to make the necessary
bevel.
SMITHING. 349
bevel, to admit the head of a screw, rivet, &c. See
Joinery, § 36.
Crooked Nosed Tongs, § 3.
D.
Draw, to draw is the act of lengthening a bar of
iron by hammering, also wire reduced from any
size to a smaller is said to be drawn.
Drill, a boring tool which forms a cylindric hole with
the greatest exactness. Drills are particularly used
where the substance is too great for the operation
of the punch, or where very exact cylindric holes
are required, § 8.
Drill Bow, § 8.
E.
Emery, a very fine powder, prepared from iron, used
in polishing, § 15.
F.
File, § 15.
Filing, § 15.
Fine Toothed File, § 15.
Flame Heat, is that which is required in forming
the iron from its original shape. This degree of
heat is also required in up-setting, § 13.
Flux, any substance which mingled with a body ac-
celerates its melting. Fluxes are salt, bone ash,
charcoal, lime stone, borax, &c.
Forge, to form a piece of iron into any required
figure or shape, by means of heat and the hammer,
or to weld several pieces of iron, § 13.
Forge,
350 SMITHING.
Forge, the furnace for heating the iron so as to be-
come malleable, and thence prepare it for forg-
ing, § 1
G.
Gauge, an instrument for taking the size of any bar,
&c. made from ~ of an inch to any size, is a piece
of iron Avith regular notches of the sizes required.
, Grind Stone, used for sharpening tools, &c. used
also previous to the file in many cases.
H.
Hammers used by smiths are of four kinds, viz. the
the hand-hammer, the up-hand sledge, the about
sledge, and the rivetting hammer, § 4.
Hand Hammer, that which is held by one hand while
the iron is held by the other, for smoothing work.
Hand hammers are of different sizes, § 4.
Hand Vice, used for turning about small pieces of
iron, while filing on the large vice, which would
otherwise be too small for the hand to command
with sufficient power, § 6,
Hearth Staff, a bar or poker of iron for stirring
the fire.
Heats, the several degrees or intensities of heat ne-
cessary for performing certain operations of forging.
Heats are of three kinds, viz. Blood Red Heat,
White Flame Heat, Sparkling or Welding Heat,
§13.
Hood, the lower part of the chimney, expanding in
its horizontal dimension downwards from the flue
to its mouth, which is considerable above the hearth
of the forge. Plate I, fig. B.
Hot Short Iron, iron in an impure state, § 20. -
Hovel, the same as hood.
Ingot,
SMITHING. 351
I.
Ingot, a mass of metal.
Iron, the material used by smiths, § 20. Ornamental
work, such as brackets and lamp irons, is charged at
least one third more than plain hammered work,
such as rails, window bars, &c. and sometimes more
than twice the sum, according to the quantity of
ornament.
L.
Lathe, an instrument used in turning rounds, ovals,
&c., Plate 2, fig. H.
M.
Mandril, a cylindric pin of iron, used to perfect a
hole after the punch ; also a conical tool of iron 3
or 4 feet high, used for making rings, or other
circular work j also a part of the turning lathe.
N.
Nippers, an instrument like a pair of pinchers, with
sharp edges, used to cut iron wire, &c.
Nut of a Screw, a piece of iron pierced with a
cylindric hole, the circumference of which contains
a spiral groove. Tlie internal spiral of the nut
is adapted to an external cylindric spiral on the
end of a bolt. The use of the bolt and nut is to
screw two bodies together, a head being wrought on
one end of the bolt in order to counteract the action
of the nut. By this means the two bodies are held
together by compression, and the bolt between the
head and the nut becomes a tie, § 19..
P. .
Pig Iron, short thick bars of iron, in the state in
which it comes from the smelting furnace.
Plate
35'2 SMITHING.
Plate or Sheet Iron, plates of iron flattened by a
roller, of various size and thickness.
Plyers, small tongs for holding small pieces of iron,
§7.
Punch, a kind of chissel with two flat ends for pierc-
ing iron by a hammer, one end which has the
greater area receives the blows of the hammer, and
the other, which has the less, makes its way through ,
the iron and forms a hole, § 14.
R.
Red Sear, is when the iron is made so hot as to crack
by the hammer.
RiMer, a tapering instrument, square, triangular, &c.
used to enlarge holes, see Joinery, § 37.
Rivet, to fasten the end of a pin or bolt by battering
the end of it.
Rock Staff or Rocker, the lever which gives mo-
tion to the bellows.
Rod Iron, small bars of iron, square, round or fiat.
Rounding Tool, a tool used for rounding a bar of
iron, of two pieces, each with a semi-circular ca-
vity, according to the size wanted, one piece is
fixed into the anvil, while the other held by a rod
or handle, is applied over the iron, and is struck
with a hammer.
Rubber, the file which is first used upon the iron in
reducing the protuberant parts left by the hammer;
it has fewer teeth on the same area than any other ^
file, § 15.
S.
Saws, § ll.
Scales, the laminated parts accumulvited on the sur-
face of the iron by heat.
Screw,
SMITHING. 553
Screw, a pin with a spiral groove cut within the
surface of a cylinder, and with a nut having a hole
adapted thereto, § 19.
Screw Driver, a tool used to turn screws into their
places.
Screw Plate, that which cuts the spiral groove
within the cylindric surface of the pin, § 9.
Screw Threads, the parts which are left standing
between the spiral grooves of the screw.
Side Set, a hammer used to set shoulders of rivets
to a true square or bevel, as required.
Shears, § lo.
Shut, the same as weld, which 5^^.
Slice, the instrument for beating the fire close.
Smooth Toothed File, the finest of all the files,
and the last used in polishing the surface, § 15.
Sparkling Heat, the intensity necessary in welding
two or more pieces of iron together, § 13.
Square, an instrument used to examine if the work
be done to a right angle, for a particular descrip-
tion, see Joinery, § 36. The smith's square is all
iron.
Square-Nosed Hand Vice, § 6.
Steel, § 20, p. 339
Swages, all instruments used to give the form or con-
tour of any moulding, &c. used in the same man-
ner as the rounding tool.
T.
Tap, a tapering pin of the form of a conic frustum,
approaching very nearly to a cylinder, with a
spiral groove cut on its surface, for making the
interior or female spirals of a screw nut, § 9.
Tap-Wrench, an instrument used to turn t}ie tap in
making screws.
A a TuE
35A SMITHING*
TuE Iron, the plate on the back of the forge, which
receives the small end of the taper pipe, whicli
comes from the bellows for conveying the stream of
air to the fire.
Tongs, an instrument with long handles, used for
holding pieces of hot iron in the operation of forg-
ing. Some are straight nosed, others crooked nosed.
Tripoli, a species of argilaceous earth, reduced to a
very fine powder, and used in polishing the finest
works, is also used in polishing marbles, mine-
rals, &c.
U.
Up-Hand-Sledge, §4.
Up-Setting, § 13.
V.W.
Vice, an instrument for holding any thing fast, § 5.
Washer, the instrument for damping the fire.
Washer, a piece of flat iron, with a hole, placed
between the nut of a screw and the wood, to pre-
vent the wood being gulled.
Welding, is that intimate union produced between
the surfaces of two pieces of malleable metal when
heated almost to fusion and hammered. This union
is so strong, that when two bars of metal are pro-
perly welded, the parts thus joined are relatively as
strong as any other part. Only two of the old me-
tals were capable of a firm union by welding-
namely, platina and iron, the same property be-
longs to the newly discovered metals. Potassium and
Sodium.
Welding Heat, the same as sparkling heat, § 13.
White Flame Heat, the intensity necessary in form-
ing a piece of iron into another shape, § 13.
Wrench, a forked instrucaent used in screwing up
of nuts.
MECHA-
{, 355 )
MECHANICAL EXERCISES.
OF TUMMNGo
§ 1. TURNING in general is the art of re^
ducing any material to a certain required form,
hy revolving the material according to a given
law, in a machine called a lathe, and cutting
away the superfluous substance with a gouge or
chissel, which is held steady upon a rest, until
the surface be sufliciently reduced: sometimes
pressing the cutting edge gently forwards, and
sometimes side ways according to the design,
until it has obtained the figure and dimension?
required.
The art cf turning is of very remote date.
The invention is ascribed by Diodorus Siculus to
Talus a grandson of Dasdalus; but Pliny says it
was invented by Theodore of Samos, and men-
tions one Thericles as being; famed for his dex-
terity in this art. By means of the lathe the
ancients formed vases, which they enriched with
figures and ornaments in basso relievo.
The Greek and Latin authors make frequent
mention of the lathe, and it was a proverb
Aa2 among
356 TURNING.
among them to say a thing was formed by -it
when the parts were delicate, and their propor-
tions correct.
Turning is performed either by the body being
continually revolved, or by the rotation being
made backwards and forwards : but the latter
mode is attended with a loss of time.
The materials employed in turning are wood,
ivory, brass, iron, stone, &c.
Turning is also of different kinds, as Circular
Turning, Elliptic Turning, and Szvash Turning,
these may be said to be the simple movements of
ihe machine according to geometrical principles,
but by means of moulds an indefinite number
of things may be formed in this way; but in
all of them, suppose for a single revolution of
the machine, the cutting edge of the instrument
is held immoveable to the same point of space,
and the machine is so regulated, as to bring the
different parts of the intended surface to the
cutting edge in its revolution. In practice, in-
stead of the cutting edge of the instrument being
exactly at the same place when a considerable
surface is to be wrought, it is made to traverse
the surface, that is, to have a slow lateral move-
^, ment in the direction of the intended form, and
by this means to shave off spiral turnings.
§ 2. Circular Turning
Is the art of forming bodies of wood, ivory,
metal, stone, &c. by revolving the body upon a
given
TURNING. 357
given straight line as an axis in a machine, while
the cutting edge of a tool is held at such dis-
tance as to cut or shave off the prominent parts
in thin slices, as the body revolves, until it ac-.
quires the intended form.
From the definition here given, it is evident,
that all points of the solid in the act of turning
will describe the circumference of circles in
planes, perpendicular to the axis, which will
pass through their centres.
Every section passing through the axis of the
turned body will have the two parts on each side
of the axis equal and similar figures : and any
straight line perpendicular to the axis, and ter-
minated by the sides of the section would be bi-
sected by the said axis.
For the sake of perspicuity, we shall call
any section through the axis, the axal section,
that is a section of the body in which the axis
would be entirely in its plane; the design of
the turning depends entirely upon this section,
which if it be a circle, the body when turned
will be a sphere, and if an ellipse it will be a
spheroid, &c. This is the most useful of all
kinds of turning, and essential in the construc-
tion of many kinds of engines and machinery,
where every other method would fail, as not
being sufficient to give the desired accuracy. Its
uses in fancy work is beyond description, and the
labour thereby rendered easy. The practice will
be
358 TURNING.
be obtained better from actual practice of the
business^ than from any description.
The following are the descriptions of the most
useful wood lathesj which have the same princi-
ples in common with those for turning metals,
§ 3. Lathes in general.
Lathes are of several kinds, as the Pole Lathe,
the Foot Lathe, and the Wheel Lathe, which is
vised in very large work, and is revolved by ma-
nual strength. It consists of a great wheel with a
"winch handle at the end of its axle, by which the
force is communicated. There are other lathes
used for very large work, driven either by steam
engines, water wheels, or by horse power. All
these ought to be so contrived, that the works
may be stopped, even though the power be still
exerted.
■ § 4. The Pole Lathe.
The pole lathe consists of the following parts,
several of which are common to every other de-
scription, the legs or stiles for supporting it,
the shears horizontally fixed with a parallel ca- .
■w'iiy between them for conducting the puppets,
the puppets sit vertically, and are made to slide
between the cheeks of the shears, the one being
made to receive the screw, and the other to re-
ceive the conical poinfc, which is fixed horizon-
tally in one puppet for supporting one end of
the piece to be turned in its axis, the screw with
another
TURNING. 359
another point supporting the other end of the
piece to be turned, by means of the screw the
body may be fastened or slackened at pleasure;
the rest for the tool fixed horizontally to the
puppets, and parallel to the cheeks, the tenons
made on the lower end of the puppets in order to
form a shoulder for re-acting against the wedges
below, the wedges for fastening the puppets so
as to regulate them to any distance; the treadle
and cross treadle for the foot, in order to give a
reciprocal rotation to the body to be turned, by
means of a string, coiled round it, and an elastic
pole which re-acts against the string and the
pressure of the foot; the pole for pulling up
the treadle and acting reciprocally against the
pressure of the foot, the string for turning round
the body by the pressure of the foot downwards,
and the re-action of the pole upwards.
The legs or stiles may be about 2 feet 10
inches high, and are tenoned into the cheeks at
their upper ends, and fixed by pins or screws,
the latter is preferable. In turning large work
it will be necessary to brace the leg's and cheeks
to the floor or ceiling, as may be found conve-
nient, otherwise the work will be liable to trem-
ble. The puppets are pieces of a square section,
and ought to be sufficiently strong to answer
every description of work.
The Pole lathe is used in turning heavy or
long work, the string is coiled round the ma-
terial
360 TURNING.
terial^ which performs the office of a mandrel :
but for general use this kind of lathe is not so
convenient as that which is called the foot lathe^
and besides this there is a loss of time in making
the alternate revolutions. The pole lathe is
now but little used. It is sometimes as well
as other lathes^ tightened with a screw and
"washer.
This lathe has two puppets with a pin or
centre in each, the right centre is moveable by a
screw, but the left puppet with the centre is ge-
nerally stationary, and the work is supported
upon the centres. The rest is moveable between
the shears, and fastened by means of a screw
bolt. In beginning to operate with this ma-
chine, there must be a small part turned in order
to act as a pully.
§ 5. Foot Lathe.
The Foot lathe consists of machinery and a
frame for sustaining it. The parts of the ma-
chinery are the treadle, the crank hook, the
great wheel or fly, the band, and the mandrel :
the parts of the frame are the ^eet^ the legs, the
back board or bench, the pillars, the puppet bar
or bed, the puppets, and the rest.
The treadle or foot board is put into alternate
motion by the pressure of the foot downwards,
and the momentum of the fly wheel upwards,
the
TURNING. 361
the board or frame of the treadle is screwed to
an axle, on which it turns.
The connecting rod or crank hook is hooked
into a staple in the middle of the treadle board,
and may be lengthened or shortened at pleasure
by screwed hooks, it may either be constructed
of iron or brass, but is most frequently of iron,
and even sometimes of leather.
The foot wheel or fly is put into motion by
means of the treadle and a crank on the arber
of the wheel : the motion is communicated from
the treadle by the crank hook or connecting rod:,
and fastened to the crank of the wheel by a
collar, embracing and turning round at the upper
end. The foot pushes down the treadle., and
gives the wheel a rotative motion, and when the
crank has been drawn to the lowest point, the
momentum which the wheel has thus acquired
draws up the treadle, and thus by the alternate
pressure of the foot, and the momentum of the
wheel, the motion is continued. The wheel was
formerly constructed of wood, but novi^ gene-
rally of cast iron ; the general, surface of the
exterior side of the rim is sometimes conical, and
cut with three or four annular grooves, which
are best when recessed with an ang-le, so as not
to have a flat bottom, this form is advantageous
on account of the band having more power to
turn the wheel. Some wlieels have two or
more rims, in order to give different degrees of
velocity
362 TURNING.
velocity, or to increase the power. The axle oF
the wheel is made of wrought iron^ except the
centres, and bent in the middle, to form the
crank : the centres at the ends are made of hard
steel, welded to the iron part of the axle. The
band connects the fly and mandrel, and is mostly
made of cat-gut of such thickness as the nature
of the work may require. It is either spliced
at the joining, or the two ends fastened together
by hooks and eyes ; the band may be either
tightened by grooves in the great wheel, or in
the pulley of the mandrel, or by sliding pieces
in the legs.
The mandrel consists of an axle and pulley.
The axle is constructed of wrought iron, except
the part which turns in the collar, and which
ought to be of hardened steel welded round the
iron part. The whole of the axle of the man-
drel ought to be turned true in a lathe. It re-
ceives a supply of oil from a small hole drilled
down from the top of the puppet and through
the steel collar.
The manner of holding the work is very dif-
ferent and various, almost in every instance. In
general it is held in pieces of wood called chucks,
which are screwed or cemented upon the nose of
the mandrel. The socket for the mandrel to
work in has been generally made in the back
screw, but some experienced workmen prefer it
to be in the mandrel. The mandrel is sustained
at
TUKNING. S63
at one end by the back centre, and at the other
end by the steel collar in the noiddle of the
puppet head: the right hand extremity, called
the nose projects over the puppet, and terminates
in a screw, which is sometimes convex, some-
times concave, and sometimes both : but if there
is only one, the convex or male screw is generally
preferred. The pulley has generally three or
sometimes four grooves of different sizes to re-
ceive the band, and by this means it may be
turned with different degrees of velocity, and
made to accommodate the length of the band.
The edge of the pulley is bevelled in the same
degree as the edge of the fly wheel, and with
the same number of grooves, but the lesser dia-
meter of the pulley is upon the same side as the
greater diameter of the fly wheel, and conse-
quently, the greater diameter of the pulley upon
the same side as the lesser diameter of the fly
■wheel.
The parts of the frame are as follows : the two
feet are screwed to the floor, and morticed to re-
ceive the legs, which are fixed thereon. Some-
times there is only one leg to each foot, but in
the best constructed lathes there are two; the
top of the legs are tenoned, which are received
by the mortices in the bearers at the top, arid
fixed therein.
The back board is fixed to the bearers, and
support? two pillars which are screwed to it, one
being
564 » TURNING.
being at each end in a vertical plane with each
leg or pair of legs. The puppet bar or bed or
bearer is fastened ait each end into each pillar,
•with mortice and tenon^ the common foot lathes
have no back board, and the bed consists of two
parallel parts, called by some shears, the vertical
sides of which form a cavity between them. The
piuppets are so constructed as to be moveable
upon, and fastened to the bar at pleasure, by
means of a screw below the bed ; they are gene-
rally three in number, the two extreme ones of
which have pins with centres, and the middle
one has a collar for receiving the ends of the
mandrel. In turning of light work, not very
long, the right hand and middle puppets are
used, and the work is sustained by a chuck fas-
tened to the end or nose of the mandrel. In
the common lathes the puppets are made of wood
and tenoned below to fit the hollow between the
shears or bed, and the tenons are made sufficient-
ly long to come below, so as to receive wedges
through a mortice cut therein, and by this
means to fix them. In the best constructed
lathes the puppets arc made of cast iron, and
moveable also upon a cast iron bearer, and fixed
to the required distance by a vertical screw un-
derneath, which comes in contact with a hori-
zontal plate or washer below the said bar. The
puppet which receives the end of the mandrel
for holding the work has a cylindric hole with a
conic
TURNING. 365
conic shoulder through its upper end, and with
the axis is directed to the centres in the other
puppet. The fore puppet has a cylindric hole
through its top to receive a polished pointed rod
which is moved by a screw working in a collar.
The puppets are made so as to take off the bar
at pleasure, they are made forked below and
saddled upon the two upper sides of the bar.
The sides or prongs are made very stout, and
morticed to receive a^hort iron bar, which en-
closes the lower part. Through the middle of
this bar a screw passes underneath, and comes in
contact with a thin washer or plate on the under
side of the bed to prevent bruising it. In order
to move the puppets freely, and to support them
firmly, the bed ought to be made very straight,
and of sufficient strength to preserve its figure.
The rest is made so as to be moveable round
the work, and fixed in any position, and may be
conducted and fastened to any part of the bed.
The framing and the machinery are thus con-
nected : the treadle is fixed into the feet or in
brackets, fixed in the back angles formed by the
legs and the feet; the fly is sustained at each end
^ by a transverse piece moveable up and down in
a frame, and made stationary in any part it is
moved to, and thus it may either accommodate
the length of the band or the crank hook. The
mandrel is sustained at one end by the back
centre.
36d TURNING.
centre, which is fastened into the head of the
left puppet, and the other into the steel collar as
before mentioned.
The machinery is thus put in motion. Sup-
pose the crank to be raised about half a revo-
lution from the bottom, then with considerable
force pressing the treddle downwards, the fly
wheel wjll be put in motion, but if the force
communicated is not sufficient to carry it round,
it must be pressed down in the act of descending
as often as may be sufficient to put it in rotation,
in the required direction of motion, at every
time the treadle begins to descend, press with
the foot. The momentum which the fly has thus
acquired will be sufficient to carry it round even
though retarded in a certain degree by an ob-
stacle until it receive an additional impulse by
the foot acting upon the treadle, then by this
momentum and the continued impulses the mo-
tion is continued, even though the force of the
tool is continually acting upon the body in the
act of working, and therefore continually destroy-
ing a part of the force exerted upon the machine,
but the part thus destroyed is always renewed
by an equivalent. The motion being continued,
the band communicates the rotation to the man-
drel, and the mandrel to the body, which is
fastened to the end of the spindle in the manner
before described.
§ 6. ^ Chiiclc
TURNING. 567
§ 6. A Chuck
Is a piece of wood or metal made to fasten
on the end of the mandrel, and to sustain the
material while it is being turned. Chucks are
variously constructed, according to the design of
the thing required to be turned. They are some-
times made of wood, and sometimes of metal,
particularly of brass. Wooden chucks have a
cylindric hole, in which the end of the work to
be turned is inserted, and are hooped in order
to prevent splitting when the work is driven into
the cavity ; this kind of chuck is that which is
most frequently used. The work is also some-
times cemented to the chuck, and sometimes
screwed to it, as the ^figure of the thing to be
turned may require. The end of the chuck
which is screwed upon the nose of the mandrel
is sometimes a concave and sometimes a convex
cylinder, the superfices being concentric, or hav-
ing the same axis. In turning small work, such
as snuff boxes, the material is fastened upon a
hollow chuck. It is probable, that the name
chuck has originated from the work being driven,
jammed, or chocked into it.
§ 7. Of Tools.
The principal tools employed in turning ace
gouges, chissels, right side tools, left side tools,
round tools, point tools, drills, inside tools, screw
tools^
368 TURNING.
tools, flat tools, square tools, triangular tools^
turning gravers, parting tools, callippers, &c.
§8. The Gouge (Pl. 6. Fig. 1.)
Is used for roughing wood into its intended
form, also in finishing hollows; the cutting edge
is rounded. In turning, the gouge must be held
with an inclination, and the handle considerably
depressed, so that the side or basil of the gouge
comes very nearly in a tangent to the circum-
ference^ of the work, or in the tangent of a
less circle, and consequently the cutting edge of
the gouge will be above the axis. In the use of
this tool, the rest is generally upon a level with
the axis. Gouges are of various sizes, accord-
ing to the work. ' .
- § 9. The Chissel ( Pl. 6. Fig. 2. )
Is used after the work is roughed into form by
the gouge to finish cylindric, conic, or convex
bodies. In the use of this tool, the bank or
horizontal part of the rest is raised considerably
above the centre of the work, so as to be nearly
upon a level with the surface, and the cutting
edge must stand oblique to the axis of the cylin-
der, so as to prevent either angle from running
into the work ; the chissel ought to traverse the
work gradually, but not too fast, as otherwise it
will leave a roughness on the surface. This tool
is used principally for soft wood. The basil
must
TURNING. 569
must be made from both sides. Chissels are of
various sizes from a ;|: of an inch to 2| inches :
these are convenient in running mouldings and
cleaning the bottoms of grooves.
§ 10. Right Side Tools (Pl.6. Fig. S.)
Are used for turning of cavities of hollov^r
cj^linders, or those hollows v^^hich have onlj' one
internal angle in turning both the bottom and
the side : for this purpose the tool is made to
cut both by its end and side edge^ so that these
t\vo cutting edges form an angle with each other
rather acute. This tool must be held on a level
with the axis of the work. Side tools are made
of different widths to suit various cavities. The
basil is only made from one side of the tool.
The flat side is upwards^ and consequently, the
basil downwards.
§11. Left Side Tools
Are not used in internal work, as the right
side tools, but up the left side of convex sur-
faces, such as spheres, torus mouldings, ovolos,
&c. The acute angle is upon the contrary side
of this tool to the other. Left side tools are also
made to various widths.
§ 12. Bound Tools (Pl.6. Fig. 4.)
Are used for turning concave mouldings, and
are of various widths to adapt themselves thereto,
B b § 13. Point
370 TURNING.
§ 13. Point Tools (Pl. 6. Fig. 5.)
Are used for various purposes, as turning of
mouldings, the shoulders of screws, for which
thej are particularly useful ; thej are sometimes
empjojed in turning the flat ends of work.
§14. Drills (Pl. 6. Fig. 6.)
Are used for making holes, the work is fixed
upon a chuck, but previous to this, the com-
mencement of the hole is made with a point
tool, the point of the drill is presented to this;
small cavitj, and held in the line of the axis,
then by pressing forward while the lathe is turn-
ing, the hole will be bored to any required depth;
the drill should be drawn out once or several
times, or the core will clog it, and prevent it from
operating.
§ 15. Inside Tools (Pl. 6. Fig. 7, 8, 9.)
Are employed for turning out hollows and
(Cups of all descriptions, and have various forms,
Siccording to the curvature or angles of the work.
§ 16. Screw Tools (Pl. 6. Fig. 10, 11.)
Are employed in cutting of screws of various
sizes of threads. The work must first be turned
truly cylindrical, then by applying the tool to
the end, and pressing gradually with a uniform
motion in the length of the axis, the screw will
be produced,
§ 17. Flat
TURNING. 371
§ 17. Flat Tools (Pl. 6. Fm. 12.)
Are used for turning cylindric or conic surfaces.
§ 18. Square Tools
Are intended for brass turning only. In these
the cutting edges always terminate with right
angles.
§ 19. Triangular Tools
Are used for turning iron and steel. They are
of a triangular section, with three cutting edges,
and are employed in turning planes or flat ends,
also in the concave surface of the hollow bodies,
as in cylindric and conic cavities.
§ 20. Turning Gravers ( Pl. 6. Fig. IS. )
Are used for turning steel and iron, in rough-
ing out the work, though some works may be
entirely finished by them. They are nearly the
same shape as the tool used by engravers upon
copper.
§21. Parting Tools (Pl. 6. Fig. 14.)
Are used for making deep incisions, for cutting
off a part of work, grooving, &c.
AH these tools are beveled or basiled from one
side, except the chissel for soft wood, which is
basiled from each side, and are all held upon pl
level with the axis, except the chisel.
§ 22. CalHppers
Are used for taking the diameters of rotund
bodies.
B b 2 PLATE I.
372 TURNING.
§ 23. Description of the Plates, with the Me-
thods of Turning Elliptic Boards, Swash and
other Kinds of Work.
PLATE I. The Pole Lathe
Fig. 1 represents the Pole Lathe, as seen frooi
the back.
A end of the Foot Board or Treadle.
A B the string to be coiled round the wood to
be turned.
D E one of the Legs, the other being hid in
the view.
E F the Shears or bed of the Lathe fornied of
two pieces, with a parallel space between.
GH, IK the Puppets, made moveable in the
parallel space,^ and fixed below with wedges to
any required distance, GH containing the fore
centre, and IK that of the back centre. These
centres are tightened by means of screws.
LM the Rest.
Fig. 2 large Boring Collar with seven holes^
from J an inch to 3| inches diameter.
Fig. S a Boring Collar for small work. The;
holes ABC may be contracted at pleasure, by
means of a sliding piece inserted in a slip or
groove parallel to the faces. The sliding piece
is moved by means of a thumb screw at D. The
figure
^^ateJ.
JR'(/.2.
7:o7,<io)iJ^6a.shaijrcz7-th2^.ra//.dv.r^>l%:'.^2m!;/^iBhnorvi.
34
TURNING. 373
figure of the perforation is an equilateral triangle,
the lower part of the slider forming the base of
the said triangle; then as a circle may be in-
scribed in an equilateral triangle, the collar will
fit all sizes of cylindrical bodies, from the great-
est si^e the perforation will contain, to the least,
and touch the body to be turned always in three
points, which are all that are necessary to steady
the work in its revolution. This machine is ge-
nerally constructed of iron,
PLATE II.
574 TURNING.
PLATE II.
The Foot Lathe in its general Construction.
AB the Treadle or Foot Board.
a the manner of fixing theTreadle to the floor.
C the Crank Hook, hooked into a staple, and
the end of the piece A.
D the Crank for turning the Fly with the
upper part of the crank hook formed into a collar
embracing the Crank.
E the Fly Wheel with several angular grooves
cut in its circumference, in order to hold the
band and keep it from sliding.
F the Pillar for supporting the end of the
Mandrel.
G the Puppet supporting the end of the Man-
drel, which holds the Chuck.
Hthe Right Hand Puppet, containing the fore
centre which is tightened by means of a screw.
I, K the Legs, the Fly being supported by that
of I, the other end is supported by an upright
between the legs.
L the Mandrel, shewing the end of the Spin-
dle projecting over the Puppet G in order to re-
ceive 4he Chuck.
M the Rest, tightened below by means of a
screw, and made so as to be fixed in any position
to the Chuck.
N a Foot Board.
O several of the most useful tools employed in
Turning.
• § 24, ELLIPTIC
'^-^/i^^r'?z6<?'i^
J^lcti^e ^ .
XonJonJ^tili/he/fMaTr7i gG-J,<iM 7_,y.rj?,i7or-m,/7iJR7hom . \
33
TURNING. 375
§ 24. ELLIPTIC TURNING.
Definition.
If there be a plane with any indefinite outlinea
and two inflexible right lines at right angles to
each other, and if the plane be fixed to an axis
at right angles therewith, and if the two in-
flexible lines be made to coincide with the planCi
and be so moveable on its surface, that one of
them, which we shall call the primary line, may
always pass through two fixed points in the
plane, and through the point where the plane is
intersected by the axis, and if the other trans-
verse line be made to pass or slide along a given
point, which is not attached to the plane, but
would remain stationary, even though the plane
were in motion ; and if a secondary plane be fixed
to the inflexible lines parallel to the primary
plane, then if the axis be carried round while
the point in the transverse line is at rest, the pri-
mary plane will also be carried round, and every
point in it will describe the circumference of a
circle : the secondary plane will likewise be
carried round, and will perform its revolutions
in the same time as the primary plane and the
axis, but being immoveably fixed to the rect-
angular lines, they will cause it to have both a
progressive and retrogressive motion in the direc-
tion of the primary line in each revolution ; and
lastly, if another point at rest be held to the sur-
face of the secondary plane while in motion, it
will
376 TURNING. /
will either describe an ellipse, a circlcj or a
straight line. Hence the describing point will
always be at the same distance from the ceritre
or point, where the axis intersects the primary
plane.
The eccentricit)? of the ellipse, or the difference
of the axis will be double the distance between
the stationary point in the transverse line and the
axis.
Instead of the stationary point, a circle may be
placed with its centre in this point, and its plane
perpendicular to the axis, and instead of the in-
flexible line moving to and fro along two fixed
points in the plane, the diametric all}' opposite
parts of the circumference may always touch a
pair of parallel lines on the revolving plane*
PIATE III.
^^/Vi?,
iTa-Te 3.
Ji^2.
^
Xc>ncicm.jPal>Zis7iaiMarr/i 26:.t0t7 by.JlTa}'!cr-^irKSoZl>o
TURNING. 377
PLATE III.
Illustrations. This Plate exhiiits the various
Positions of the Chuck for turning of Elliptical
Work at every Eighth of a Revolution, ac-
cording to the foregoing Definition.
Let AB and EF, No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, be
the two inflexible lines intersecting each other in
I, at right angles, and let C, D be the two fixed
points. Let A B be denominated the primary
line, and EF the secondary line/ and let the
lines AB and EF at right angles taken as a
whole be called a transverse; also let C repre-
«ent a primary point, and let the describing point
be taken at G in the line drawn through C D
produced; now in all positions of the chuck the
primary line AB is always upon the point C,
and EF upon D; having premised this in gene-
ral, suppose before the machine begins to start,
that E F, No. 1. the secondary line coincides
with EG, and the point G with o, o being in the
plane of the figure to be described, then because
AB always passes through C, the points I and C
will be coincident, AB being then at right angles
to EF. Let us now suppose the motion to com-
mence, and let it perform an eighth part of a
revolution as at No. 2, the describing point G
still remaining in the same position with respect
to
378 TURNING.
to C and D, viz. in the right line to CDG, then
the point o will now be at a distance from the
point G, and a part G o of the curve will be de-
scribed by the fixed point G, also the point I
will be^bove the line CDG : now let the motion
proceed^ and describe another eighth as at No. 3,
then the point o being always in the line EF
produced, E F will be at a right angle with the
fixed line CDG, and AB coincident with CDG,
and the point which was last at G will now be at
I. In like manner, when another eighth has been'
performed as at No. 4, the point o has perform-
ed three eighths of a revolution, the point 1 is
in a line drawn from the point C perpendicular
to the fixed line CDG, and the point 2 which
was at G in No. 3 is situated between 1 and G.
In this manner, by continuing the motion the
whole curve will be generated. No. 5 shows
the curve, when half a revolution has been de-
scribed. No. 6 five eighths. No. 7. six eighths
or three quarters, and No. 8, seven eighths.
Here it may be proper to observe, that the
angles performed by the revolution of the ma-
chine are very different from the corresponding
angles, formed by lines drawn from the centre of
the ellipse to the describing point, and to the
extremity of the curve at its commencement.
From what has been said, it is easy to conceive
that the operation of elliptic turning is nothing
more than that of the ellipsegraph or common
trammel.
TURNING. 379
trammel, with this difference, that in the opera-
tion of turning, the ellipse is described by moving
the plane, and keeping the point steady, but in
forming the curve hy the ellipsegraph, the plane
or description is kept steady while the point is
in motion. The transverse ABEF is the same
as the grooves in the trammel cross, and the line
CDG the trammel rod: here the cross and plane
of description move round together, but fixed to
each other, and the trammel rod CDG is held
still or immoveably confined: in the trammel the
board and cross are fixed together, and held while
the trammel rod CDG moves with the points C
and D in the grooves.
To set this machine therefore, it is only to
make CD equal to the difference of the axis.
PLATE IV.
380 TURNING.
PLATE IV.
Shows the relation between the foregoing
diagrams and the chuck. Let KLMN be the
face of a board representing the plane^, which
is fixed to the axis of the machine. And let
OPQR be another board made to slide in the
board KLMN, each two points O and K^ L and
P, M and Q, N and R coinciding at this moment :
KLMN will therefore represent a wide groove
in the board; as this groove may be of any
width, we may conceive the breadth to be very
small or nothing, and may therefore be represent-
ed by a groove or by the line AB parallel to KN
and LM, and in the middle of the distance be-
tween them. Instead of supposing the point D
always moving to and fro in the line EF^ we
may suppose a circle, or the end of a large cylin-
dric pin moving in a very wide groove TUVW
across the slider OPQR. Now therefore all the
differences between these diagrams and those in
the former plate, are only wide grooves in place
of lines passing longitudinally through the mid-
dle : for the line AB is always conceived to move
reciprocally from the one side to the other of the
board KLMN: now it is the same thing whether
one straight line slide longitudinally upon an-
other fixed line, or whether a bar of any breadth
move
'^:^^^u
-Flat^
y.''4.
Zone i, '!iFliJ>li.v/u-dJf,xrvA2&./87f.iyJJUilcr\ffi<77iJff>Thorrt .
TUENING. 381
ttiove in a groove of the same breadth, or whether
a straight line in reciprocal motion always pass
through two fixed points.
No. 1 shows the chuck, as in the first diagram
of the last plate: No. 2 as No. 2, No. 3 as
No. S, and No. 4 as No. 4 of the said plate.
Any farther explanation is conceived as unneces-
sary. It now remains to explain how the chuck
is connected with the machine, and how the
parts are connected with each other.
The end of the spindle of the mandrel passes
through a stout upright, and projects over it
with a convex or male screw, to which is fixed
the board KLMN with the faces at right angles
to the axis: a circular ring or end of a very
large pin is attached to the said side of the up-
right, so that the ring or pin may be fixed at any
required distance from the axis of the spindle,
and that its axis and the axis of the mandrel
may always be in the same horizontal line or
plane.
The wide groove KLMN is made on the in-
side of the board next to the face of the up-
right, and equal in breadth to the diameter of
the cylindric pin, and the slider may either move
in a groove upon one side or the other, or move
in mortices, but in whatever mode the reciprocal
motion of the slider is performed, the groove in
the slider must always be made from the inside,
so that the board which is fixed to the axis must
be
382 TURNING.
be cut away for that purpose, in order that it
may fit upon the ring or pin, and since the work
to be turned is fixed upon the outside of the
slider, the slider must be flush both outside and
inside, or the slider may project on the outside.
It has been mentioned, that it is of no con-
sequence what the boundary line of the board
is, neither does it signify what the combination
of the parts are that form the chuck, so that the
same principle of motion is performed. The
parts exhibited in this plate show the most
simple form of the principle, and therefore the
diagrams are better calculated to afford instruc-
tion. In some chucks, the principle is almost con-
cealed by a complication of parts, which, though
not necessary in forming the motion, are essential
in the practice: for this reason, by continual
working, if the parts were only of the most
simple forms when the grooves and pins wear,
the truth of the motion would be destroyed with-
out any remedy to rectify it. In the best con-
structed chucks, the board which is screwed upon
the end of the mandrel is a frame, which is va-
riously constructed by different people, but the
parts of it which form the sides of the grooves may
be brought nearer together by means of screws
and thus the sliders and the cylindric ring or pin
may move exactly in the grooves.
The drawing of the chuck, and the manner in
which it is connected with the machine is ex-
hibited
TURNING. 383
bibited in Plate 5. to the explanation of which
we must refer our reader for further information,
the geometrical principle, and the manner in
which it is combined with, and their relation to
the parts in practice, being all that is intended to
be explained in this place ; and indeed this is
almost the whole that can be done. The prac-
tice can never be obtained from any written de-
scription, but only from the actual exercise of
the art itself, so that any farther attempt besides
the uses of the tools, which we have already
given would be needless, one thing only is to be
observed, that in turning several ellipses, the
circumferences will be nearly parallel, as the dif-
ference in their several axis is the same.
PLATE V.
584 TURNING|^
PLATE V.
Fig. 1 is a view of the end of the machine,
the principal parts shown in this view are
A the Pulley of the Mandrel.
B and C sides of the frame supporting the
Pulley.
D Frame for the Rest to slide in.
E and F Legs supporting the Frame D.
G and H continuation of B and C below the
Frame of the Rest.
I Nut and Screw under the Frame of the Rest.
K the Elliptic Chuck with two grooves,
through which the knobs of the Slider pass,
and are connected on the outside by a strong bar
of iron, which is screwed upon their ends. This
also shows the screw for fastening the board to
-which the work is fixed. This frame is strongly
braced to the roof, in order to keep it steady.
P the Rest.
Q the piece by which the Rest is fastened.
Fia:. 3. a view of the inside of the Chuck,
containing the parts N and O : this side of the
Chuck being placed against the side C of the
Frame, fig. L
N the board containing the slider O, showing
the
Vi^^y^y^
JPZaZ'e
■^"^•-^o'l.^i'i&^^.iJiUroA^&./anf.v.ZZayiox-.M^AJS^lia
TURNING* 385
liie end of the screw which is fixed in the Man-
drel; the board N revolves round a centre, while
the slider O not onlj moves round, but has a
longitudinal motion to and fro in the part N.
Fiff; 3 a view of the outside of the Mandrel
Frame, showing the parts L and M.
L a part of the side C of the Mandrel Frame
showing the ring M which is fastened to it, and
which causes the reciprocal motion of the slider
O in fig. %
Cc PLATE VL
386 TURNING.
PLATE VI. Tools.
Fig. 1 the Gouge for roughing and traversing
the work.
Fig. 2. the Chissel used in smoothing cylindric,
conic and convex surfaces after the Gouge.
Fig. 3 Right Side Tool.
Fig. 4 Round Tool.
Fig. .5 Point.
Fig. 6 Drill.
Fig. 7 Inside Tool for angular work, all the
Vides being made to cut occasionally as well as
the upper side of the hooked part.
Fig. 8. Inside Tool for concave curved work.
Fig. 9 Inside Tool for turning a solid sphere
within a hollow one.
Fig. 10 Screw Tool for the convex or male
part.
Fig. 1 1 Screw Tool for the concave or female
part.
Fig. 12 Flat Tool.
Fig. 13 Turning Graver.
Fig. 14 Parting Tool.
For the particular properties and uses of these
tools, see articles where thej are particularly de-
scribed.
§26. To
'.^/^?z^n
T-
JVal^ 6.
T-i^.2. Ti^.3. Tz^.4. Ti^-^- J^i^.&. .^>^
r
P
Ti.^.8. ^z^.& JFz^M J^z^R J^z^^J£ 7u:^^J3. 7i^7J4.
l^em^enJ^i^z'sAei^JfaTvi'i sd/dniyJ-Zavlo?: St/A S^ff'/^7V>.
1
TURKING. 387
§ 26. To turn a Hollow Spiiere.
First turn the convex surface, on which draw
Iwo great circles at right angles to each other,
then the line joining the intersection of these
circles is an axis of the sphere, which will di-
vide each circle into two equal parts or into half
circles: divide each semicircle into two equal
parts, and each circle will be divided into qua-
drants. Upon each of the intersections or poles
with a centre bit, bore a cjlindric hole with
its axis tending to the centre of the sphere ; to
such a depth as to leave the solid space between
the two bores equal to the diameter of the cy-
lindrical bores, or something less, with the same
centre bit upon the division of each semicircle;
bore holes tending to the centre as at firstj and
of the same depth : there will be now six holes,
then if the axis of any two be fixed in a straight
line with that of the mandrel with the convex
surface of the sphere in a hollow chuck, then
the interior surface may be turned out to a cer-
tain extent, and formed by means of the instru-
ment shown plate 6. fig. 8 : take the sphere out
of the chuck, and place the hollow part thus
turned in the chuck, fixing it fast therein with
the axis in the same straight line with that of the
mandrel, then turn the opposite hole in like man-
ner. Proceed in like manner with each two re-
maining pairs of opposite holes : in turning, the
hollows must be so large as to penetrate each
C c 2 other
3^ TURNING.
other, and leave only so much of tlie solid t&
connect the sphere with the core as is sufficient
to support the latter: then each of the eight
connecting parts must be sawn through close to
the core, and as the core is less than either of the
holes it maj be taken out, and the connecting
pieces may be sawn oflf with a bent saw close to
the concave surface, and thus you will have the
hollow sphere required.
§27. To turn one Sphere witliin anotJier.
Find the centres of the cylindrical holes as be-
fore, then bore each of the holes to an equal
depth, so that its axis may tend to the centre of
the sphere, and that the thickness between each
pair of opposite holes may be equal to, or some-
thing more than the diameter of the required in-
terior sphere; then fixing the axis of each hole
in the axis of the mandrel, with the tool repre-
sented in plate 6. fig. 8. turn a part of the in-
terior surface of the outer sphere, and a part of
the convex surface of the interior sphere, and
thus leave eight connecting parts, which are each
to be cut with a bent saw close to the convex
surface of the interior sphere, and to the concave
surface of the exterior sphere.
If the cylindrical holes are perforated or bored
quite through, a series of spheres may be turned
within each other by the same means, but the
diameter of the least must be greater than that
of
TURNING. SfeO
of the bore ; it would be best to begin the opera-
tion with the most interior sphere, and after this
the next, and thus in succession till the one next
the, exterior one be loosened. In perforating,
the cylindrical excavations, the diameter of each
hole may be continually less, and in proportiou
to the diameter of each of the internal spheres.
In the same manner may a cube be turned with-
m a sphere, instead of turning the surface of the
interior solid spherical, it is only turning it fiat
by means of an inside tool, which has its cutting
edge straight, and at a right angle with it.
§ 28. Conclusion.
Many kinds of turning may be performed by
making the axis of the work to be turned to slide
progressively, or with a reciprocal motion through
two collars, as given points according to a cer-
tain law, while the body continues to revolve
uniformly. If the axis proceed with a uniform
motion, and a tool be pressed to the surface, the
tool will cut a spiral line on the said surface.
If a single crank be fixed to the end of the
mandrel, and the end of the crank made to touch
an inclined plane while the body is in motion the
point of a sharp tool being pressed upon the
surface, and kept stationary by means of the rest,
a line will be cut or described on the furface of
the wood, and this line will be the circumference
or perimeter of an ellipse^ which will have the
proportioa
390 TURNING,
proportion of its axes in the ratio of radius to
the sine of the plane's inclination. If the sur-
face of the body to be turned be straight, and
the cuttins; edge of the tool be always held equi-
distant from the axis, the body itself will be
turned into a cylinder, and all its sections per-
pendicular to the axis will consequently be
circles.
If the surface of the body be turned into
mouldings, the work is denominated swash work,
which was much in request in former times, for
bodies standing upon the rake, or upon an in-
clined plane, as in the balusters of staircases,
but is now entirely laid aside.
An indefinite variety of subjects or figures may
be obtained by turning, by different regulations of
the mandrel, by making the crank slide upon va-
rious surfaces, or by other methods of regulating;
the axis in a direction of its length.
IxNDEX
{ 391 )
INDEX AND EXPLANATION
OF TERMS USED IN
TURNING.
N. B. This Mark § refers to the preceding Sections,
according to the Number.
A.
Axis, an imaginary line passing longitudinally through
the middle of the body to be turned, from one
point to the other of the two cones, by which the
work is suspended, or between the back centre and
the centre of the collar of the puppet, which sup-
ports the end of the mandrel at the chuck.
B.
Back Board, that part of the lathe which is sustain-
ed by the four legs, and which sustains the pillars
that support the puppet bar. The back board is
only used in the best constructed lathes. In the
common lathes the shears or bed are in place
of the back board, § 5.
Back Centre, see Centres and § 5,
Band, § 5. See also Cat gut.
Bearer, that part of the lathe which supports the
puppets, § 5.
Bed of the Lathe, the same as bearer, which see.
Boring Collar is a machine having a plate with
conical holes of different diameters j the plate is
moveable
592 TURNING.
moveable upon a centre, which is equidistant
from the centres or axis of the conic holes, the
axes are placed in the circumference of a circle.
The use of the boring collar is to support the end
of a long body that is to be turned hollow, and
which would otherwise be too long to be supported
by a chuck, Plate 1, Fig. 2.
C.
Callipers, compasses with each of the legs bent
into the form of a curve, so that when shut the
points are united, and the curves being equal and
opposite enclose a space. The use of the callipers
is to try the work in the act of turning, in order to
ascertain the diameter or the diameters of the various
parts. As the points stand nearer together at the
greatest required diameter than the parts of tlie
legs above, the callipers are well adapted to the
use intended.
Cat Gut, the string which connects the fly and the
mandrel, § 5.
Centres are the two cones with their axis horizon-
tally posited for sustaining the body while it is
turned, § 5.
Cheeks, the shears or bed of the lathe as made vyith
two pieces for conducting the puppets, § 5.
Chissel, a flat tool skewed in a small degree at the
end, and bevelled from each side, so as to make
the cutting edge in the middle of its thick-
ness, § 9.
Chuck, a piece of wood or metal fixed on the end
of the mandrel for keeping fast the body to be
turned, § 6.
Circular
TURNINOi 393
Circular Turning, § 2.
Collar a ring inserted in the puppet for holding the
end of the n'landrel next tiie ciiuck^ in order to
make the splindle run freely and exactly, § 5.
Collar Plate, see Boring collar.
Connecting Rod, ^e^? Crank hook.
Conical Points, the cones fixed in the pillars for
supporting the body to be turned, that on the right
hand is called the fore centre, and that on the
left hand, the back centre, § 5.
Crank Hook, sometimes also called the connectinp'
rod, as it connects the treadle and the fly, § 5.
Crank, the part of the axle of the fly, which is
bent into three knees or right angles, and three
projecting parts, one of the parts is parallel to
the axis, and has the upper part of the crank hook
collared round it, § 5.
D.
Drill, § 14.
E.
Elliptic Turning, § 25.
F.
Feet the horizontal pieces on the floor which support
the legs of the lathe, § 5.
Flat Tools, § 17.
Fly Wheel, § 5,
Foot Lathe, § 5.
Foot Wheel or Fly, the wheel or reservoir for
preserving and continuing the motion when the
force applied by the foot is not acting, § 5.
Fore
394 TURNING,
Fore Centre, that on the right hand. See, cen-
tres, § 5.
G.
Gouge, the tool for roughing out the work, § 8
I.
Inside Tools, § 15.
L.
Lathe the machine for holding and giving motion to
the body to be turned, when the requisite force is
applied.
Lathes in general use, § 3.
Left Side Tools, § ll.
Legs, the uprights morticed into the feet for sustain-
ing the upper part of the lathe, § 4 & 5.
M.
Mandrel, that part of the lathe which revolves the
body when turned in a chuck, the pole lathe has
no mandrel, § 5.
Mandrel Frame are the two puppets which hold the
mandrel, a hardened steel collat being fastened in
the fore puppet, and a screw with a conical point
in the back puppet.
Nose, that part of the spindle of the mandrel which
projects over the puppet to receive the chuck, § 5*
O.
Oval Chuck, § 25.
P.
Parting Tools, § 21.
Pikes, 'now called conical points, which sec.
Pillars,
TURNING. 395
Pillars, tlie uprights fixed at the ends of the back
board for supporting the bed of the lathe or puppet
bar, § 5.
Pitched, is the placing of the work truly upon the
centres.
Point Tool, § 13.
Pole, an elastic rod fixed to the ceiling of the turners
shop for re-acting by means of the string upon the
treadle against the pressure of the foot; the foot
draws the string downwards, and the pole exerts its
force in drawing it upwards, and consequently,
should have no more elasticity than what is suf-
cient for this purpose, as the overplus would only '
tire the workman, § 4.
Pole Lathe, § 4.
Pulley, § 5.
Puppet Bar, see Bearer.
Puppets, the upright parts for supporting the man-
drel, the one on the right being called the fore
puppet, and that on the left the back puppet, the
screw is fixed on the one, and the mandrel collar
on the other puppet, § 5.
R.
Rest, the part of the lathe which sustains the tool
while turning, § 4 & 5.
Right Side Tools, § 10.
Roughing out, is the reducing of the substance by-
means of the gouge, to prepare the surface of the
body for smoothing.
Round Tools, § 12.
S.
Screw, the conical points or centres as made with a
screw, in order to tighten the work; the screw or
screws
:596 TURNING,
screws ought to be kept so tight that there should
be no play, otherwise the work may be in danger
of flying out, § 5.
♦Screw Tools, § 16.
Sheers, see ciieeks or bed of the lathe.
Slider, § 25.
Square Tools, § IS.
String, that which connects the treadle and the pole
in the pole lathe, and in the foot lathe it passes
round the fly wheel and the pulley of the mandrel
in order to turn the latter.
Swash Work, § 29.
t.
Tools, § 7.
Traversing, is moving the gouge to and fro in
roughing out the work.
Treadle, the part of the lathe by whicli the foot
communicates its force, and gives motion to all the
other moveable parts, § 5.
Triangular Tools, § 19.
Turning in genekal, § 1.
Turning Gravers, § 20.
W.
Wabble is the shaking of the work in the act of
turning, because it is not fixed truly upon the
centres.
There are several other terms which are common to
Smithing and Turning, see the Index'and Explana-
tion of the Terms to those articles.
FINIS.
Printed by W. Stratford, Crown Court, Temple Bar,
*1 ^*l
ERRATA.
ybr section reod segment.
for octagon read heptagon.
instead ofAB, AC, AD, AE, readAE ; AC : : AD : AE,
instead of m a longitudinal plane passing through the
handle read and handle in the plane of the circle.
instead of but its cutting edge is perpendicular to a
longitudinal plane passing through the handle, read
and has its cutting edge perpendicular to the plane
of the circle.
for tenon read sash.
for pages read passages.
for X g k read X g k.
Omitted in the Index of the article Joinery, Stairs and
Newel.
For Stairs see section 87.
The Newel in Joinery is the post in dog-leg stairs where
the winders terminate, and to which the adjacent string
boards are fixed.
P^ge-
line.
11
18
17
17
24
22
*
12 3
13;
31
23}
24>
25^
"l46
22
237
25
287
11
MODERN BOOKS
o M
ARCHITECTURE,
Theoretical, Pra6tical, and Ornamental;
VIZ. ,
BOOKS OF PLANS AND ELEVATIONS
FOR COTTAGES, FARM-HOUSES, MANSIONS, Isc.
TEMPLES, BRIDGES, ^c.
OfOvnatnentsfor Internal Decorations^ Foliage for Carvers^ S(c.
ON PERSPECTIVE.
Books of Use for Carpenters, Bricklayers, and
WORKMEN IN GENERAL, isfc. £s*r.
>Vhich, with the best ANCIENT AUTHORS, are constantly
on SALE at
J. TAYLOR'S
ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY^
—No. 59—
HIGH HO L BORN, LONDON.
WHERE MAY BE HAD,
the WORKS of the inost celebrated
FRENCH ARCHITECTS and ENGINEERS.
CATALOGUE, &c.
THE Antiquities of Athens ; measured and delineated, by James
S/uatt, F. R. S. and F. S. A. and Nicholas Ke'vett, P;.'nters
and Architects, in three large Volumes Folio, Price 17/. 1 7J. in
boards. The third Volume may be had separate to complete Sets.
Price 6/. 13J. in boards — This.JVork contai,:s 281 Plates, engraved by
the best Artists, of Fieivs, Architecture, Plans, &'c. luith Letter-press,
Historical and Descripti've, ilbistratijig by a Research of many Years
Labour and -great Exigence, the purest Examples pf Grecian Archi-
tecture, tnany of ^v.'^ch no longer exist, and the Traces of them can be
found only in this Work.
Contents of the Work.
Doric Portico at Aihcri). /onic Temple on the l/issus, Octagon Totver of
Andronicus Cyrrestcs, Lanthorn of Demosihenesy Stoa, or Portico at
Athens: And a large I'ie'u; of the Acropolis. Temple of Miner'va,
Temple of Ereciheus, Theatre of Bacchus, Chora gic Monut/.ent of
Thrasyllus, Cfc, Prcpylea: And a large Fienu, and a Plan of the
Acrotolis. Temple of Theseus, Temple of Jupite-r, Arch of Theseus,
Aqueduct of Hadrian, Monument of Philopappus, Temple of Corinth,
Bridge of the Uissus, Odeum of Regiila, Ruin^s at Sa/ouica, Antiquities
on the Island of Delos, &c. — Also a large Map' of Greece — Map of
Attica — Plan of Athens, &c.
AFourtii Vol. is in Preparation, wfiicli will contain all the remain-
ing Sculpture of the Temple of l^/Iinerva at Athens, with
sundry "Fragments found in the Greek Islands: else (he entire
Details of the Antiquities at Pola, in Isiria, from the Drawings
left by Mr. Stuart. Subscrlbem Kamts are recehed. ■
The Ancient Buildings of Rome, acc\irately measured and delineated, by
>^k£o«>' jDi?-f^o<^f/2;, with Explanations in French and English; the
Text translated, and the Plates engraved, by the late Mr. George
Marshall, Architect, 2 vols, iirperial folio, with 137 Plates, Price
5I. 1 ss. 6d. sewed ; or 61. 16s. 6d. half bound.
Plans, Elevations, Sections and Views of the Church of Batalhn, hi
the Province of Estremadura, in Portugal, with avi History and
Description, by Father Luis de Sousa, with Remarks, to which is
piefixed an Introductory Discourse upon the Principles of Gothic
Architecture, by Jar/ies Murphy, Architect. Illustrated with 27
elegant Plates,_ printed on Imperial Folio, and hot-pressed, Price
4I. 14s. 6d, half-bound
Specimens of Gothic Architecture, select; J from the Parish Church of
Lavenham, in Suffolk, on 40 Plates ^uaito. Price iSs. half bound,
on large Paper, j1. 5s.
Dickinson'' s Ar; ! .itectural Antiquities of Southwell, ' &c. Two Parts,
Quarto, with 23 elegant Plates, 11. Is. Boards*
Views
( 3 T
Views of the Collegiate Chapel of .Jr. George^ at Windsor, on 9 very
large Plates, in Aquatinta, by F. Nash, Price 4-I. 4s.
Buckler''s Views of the Cathedrals in England, elegantly engraved in
Aqua-tinta, il. is. each.
Cothic Ornaments of the Cathedral Church of York, by J. Halfpenny,
105 Plates, large Qaarto, 61. 6s.
Fr^.gmenta Vetusia, or the Ancient Buildings of York, by J. Half.
penny, 34 Plates, large Quarto, 3J. 3s.
The Rudiments of Ancient Architecture, containing an Historical Account
of the Five Orders, with their Proportions, and Examples of each
from Antiques: Also, Extracts from Vitrwvius, Plmy, Sec. relative
to the Buildings of the Antients. Calculated for the Use of those
who wish to attain a summary Knowledge of the Science of Archi-
tecture ; with a Dictionary of Terras: illustrated with 11 Plates.-
The Fourth Edition, Boards, 8s.
Essays on Gothic Architecture, by the Rev. T. Warton, Rev. J. Bentham,
Capt. Grose, and Rev. J. Millner. Illustrated with 12 Plates of Or-
naments, &c. selected from Ancient Buildings; calculated to exhibit
the various Styles of different Periods. The third Edition, with
a List of the Cathedrals of England and their Dimensions. Octavo,
10s. 6d. Boards.
An Historical Survey of the Ecclesiastical Antiquities of France, with a
View to illustrate tjie Rise and Progress ot Gothic Architecture in
Europe. By the late Rev. G. D. Whittington, of Cambridge.
Elegantly printed in Royal 8vo. With a Frontispiece of the Facads
of the Cathedral Church at Rheimes. 12s. Boards.
A Treatise on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of England, during the
middle Ages, with 10 illustrative Copper Plates, by the Rev. 7,
Milner, D. D. F. S. A. Rnyal Octavo. 15s. Boaids.
The Builder'' s Price Book ; containing a correct List of the Prices alloijued
by the most eminent Surveyors in London to the several Artificers
concerned in Building : including the Journeymeti's Prices. A
new Edition, corrected} by ;in Experienced Surveyor. Sewed, 3s. 6d,
The Nenxj Flfruvius Britannicus, consisting cf Plans and Elevations of
modern Buildings, public and private, erected in Great Britain by
the most celebrated Architects, engraved on 142 Plates, fiom original
Drawings, By G. Richardson, Architect. Two Vols. Imperial
Folio, half bound, iil. us.
Sketches for Cottages, f^iilas, &c. with their Plans and appropriate
Scenery, by John Soane; to which is added six Designs for improving
and embellishing Grounds, with Explanations, hy zn Amateurj on 54
Plates, elegantly engraved in Aquatinta. Folio, 2I. 12s. 6d, half
bound.
Plans, Elevations, and Sections of Buildings, e:?ecuted in tlie Counties
of Norfolk, Suffolk, Yorkshire, Wiltshire, IVarvoickshire, Staffordshire
Somersetshire, &c» by John Scane, Architect, on 47 Fplio Plates,
si. I2S. 6d,
A z Plam
( 4 )
Plans, Ele'Vaiidns, and Sections, of Noblemen's and Gentlemen'*
Houses, Stabling, Bridges public and private, Temples, and
other Garden Building, executed in the Counties of Derby,
Durham, Middlesex, Northumberlnnd, Nottingham, York, Essex,
Wilts, Hertford, Suffolk, Salop, and Surrey; by Jairics Paine
Architect, Two Vols, with 176 very large Folio Plates, 61. i6s. 6d.
half bound.
The Designs oi Inigo Jones, consisting of Plans and Elevations for
Public and Private Buildings;' including the Det:iil of the intended
Palace at Whitehall: published by W. Ke>it.\\\t]\ some additional
Designs. 2 Vols. Imperial Folio, 4I. 4s. in Sheets; or half bound,
4I. 14s. 6d.
Plans, Elevations, and Sections of Hot-Houses Green-Houses, an
Aquarium, Ccnser'vatories, &c. recently built in different Parts of
England for various Noblemen and Gentlemen, by G. Tod, Sur-
veyor and Kot-House Builder; including a Hot-Kouse aad a
Green-House in htr Majesty's Gardens at Frogmore, on 27 Plates,
elegantly coloured, with proper Descriptions. Folio, 2I. izs. 6d.
in Boards. •
DesigTU for Vilhs and other Rural Buildings, by Edmund Aitin,
Architef*:; with Plans and Explanations. Together with an Intro-
ductory Essay, containing Remarks on the prevailing Defeits of
Modern Archite(5lure, and an Investigation of the Style best adapted
to the Dwellings of the present T>mes ; engraved on 31 Plates large
Quarto, Price il. us. 6d. in Boards.
A Series of Designs for Villas and Country Houses. Adapted with
Economy to the Comforts and to the Elegancies of Modern Life ;
with Plans and Explanafions to each. To which is prefixed, an
Essay on Modern Architeftural Taste. By C. A. Busby, ArchiteSf.
Engraved in Aqua-tinta, on 44 Plates, large Quarto, in Boards,
il. 5s.
'Architectural Designs, for Rustic Cottages, Picturesque Duuellings, Villas,
&c, with appropriate Scenery, Pb.ns and Descriptions ; to which
are prefixed some critical Observations on their Style and Charac-
ter; and also of Castles, Abbies, and ancient English Houses.—
Concluding with Practical Remarks on Building, and the Causes
of the Dry Rot. By /^, F. Pocock, Architect. Elegantly en-
graved en 33 Plates, Royal Quarto, Price i\. i is. 6d. in Boards.
Designs for Lodges, and Entrances to Parks, I'addocks, and Pleasure
Grounds, in the Gothic, Cottage, and Fancy Styles, with charac-
teristic Scenery and Descriptions in Letter-press, by T'.D. W. Dearn,
elegantly engi^aved on 20 Plates, large 'Q^uarto, U. Us. 6d. Boards.
Sketches in Architecture, consisting of original Designs for Cottage^
and Rural Dwellings, suitable to Persons of moderate Fortuno.
and for convenient Retirement j with PLms and appropriate
Scenery to each ; also some general Observations. By 7. D. W.
Dearn, Architect to his Royal Highness the Duke of Clarence.
Elegantly engraved on ao Plates, large Quarto, Price i-I. 7s. in
Boafds.
Flanr
( 5 )
flans and Fieivs of Build-ngs executed in England and Scotland in
the Castellated and other Styles. By R. Lugar, Architect, on 31
PJates Royal Quarto with desciiptive Letter-press, Price zl. is. in
boards.
Architectural Sketches iovQottzge^, Rural Dwellings, and Villas: with
Plans, suitable to Persons of genteel Life and inoderate Fortune :
proper lor Picturesque Buildings, by R. Lugar, Architect and
Land Surveyor; elegantly engraved in Aquatinta, on 38 Plates
Boards, j 1. us. 6u
The Country Gentleman's A-chitect-, containing a Variety of Designs for
Farm Houses and Farm - ards of Different Magnitudes, arranged on
the most approved Principles for Anble, Grazing, Feeding and
Dairy Farn-.s, with Plans and Sections, siiewing at lar^,e the Construe- .
tion of Cottages, Barns, Stables, Feeding Houses, Dairies, Brew-
house, &c. with Plans for Stables' and Dog-kenneis. and some De-
signs for Labourers Cottages and small Villas. Ti'.e whole adapted
to the Use of Country Gentlemen about to build or to alter. En-
graved on 21 Plates, with some GeneralOb ^ vations, and full Expla-
nations to each. By /?. Lugar, Quarto, 1!. 5^, in Boards.
Designs for Small Picturesque Cottages, Hunting Boxes, Park Entrances,
Sec. by E. Gyfford, Architect. Part J. Engraved in Aquatinta, 011
20 Plates, Qu^arto, il. is. Boards.
Designs for Elegant Cottages, and small Villas, calculated for the com-
fort and Convenience of Persons of moderate and of ample For-
tune, carefully studied a; thrown into Perspective, witl: General
Estimates, by E. Gyfford, Architeft Part II, Engraved ia Aqua-
tinta on 26 Plates, Quarto il. Jis. 6d. boards.
Hints Jor Divellings, consisting of Original Designs for Cottages
Farm-houses, Villas, &c. plain and ornamental ; with Plans
to each, in which strict Attention is paid to unite Convenience
and Elegance with Economy. Including some Designs for Town-
houses. By D. Laing, Architect, and Surveyor. Elegantly en-
graved on 34 Plates in Aquatinta, with appropriate Scenery.
Quarto, il. 5s. in boards.
Sketches for Country Houses, Fillas, and Rural D-ivellings ; calculated
for Persons of moderate Income, and for comfortable Retirement.
Also some Designs for Cottages, which may be constructed of the
simplest Materials ; with Plans and general Estimates. By John
Plaiu. Elegantly engraved in Aquatinta on 42 Plates, Quarto,
il. JIS. 6d. in Boards.
Eerme Ornee, or Rural lmpro<vements., a Series of Domestic and Orna-
mental Designs, suited to Parks, Plantations, Rides, Walks, Rivers,
Farits, &c. consisting of Fences, Paddock House, a Bath, Dog-
kennels, Pavilions, Farm-yards, Fishing houses, Sporting-Boxe-j,
Shooting-lodges, Single and Double Cottages, &c. calculated for
Landscape and Picturesque Eirects. By juhn Ph'U'^ Architect.
Engraved in Aquatinta on 38 Plates, with appropriate Scener:-^
Plans, and Explanations. Quarto. In Boards, il, us. 6d.
KurJ
-Rural Architecture, or Designs from the Simple Cottage to the
decorated Villa, including some which have been executed.
By John Planx}. On 6a Plates, with Scenery, in Aquatinta.
Half Bound, 2I- as.
An Essay on British Cottage Architecture, exemplified by fourteert
Designs, with their Plans, &c. on 23 Plates, designed and exe-
cuted by Ja7nes Malioti. The Second Edition, with two additional
Plates, large Quarto, Boards, il. iis. 6d.
A Collection of j-lrchitectural Di' signs, for Villas, Casinos, Mansions,
Lodges, and Cottages, from original Drawings, by "garnet
Randall, Architect, engraved in Aquatinta, on 3+ Plates, Folio,
al. izs. 6d.
7he Architect and Builder^ s Miscellany, or Pocket Library ; containing
original Picturesque Designs in Architecture, for Cottages, Farm,
Country, and Town Houses, Public Buildings, Temples, Green-
Houses, Bridges, lodges and Gates for Entrances to Parks and
Pleasure Grounds, Stables, Monumental Tombs, Garden Seats, &c.
By Charles Middleton, Architect. On 60 Plates j coloured, il. is,
bound.
Familiar Architecture : consisting of Original Designs of Houses for
Gentlemen and Tradesmen, Parsonages, and Summer Retreats j
with Ba- -fronts, Sections, &c. together with Banqueting Rooms,
andCli.rrhes. To which is added, The Masonry of the Semicir-
cular and Elliptical Arches, with Practical Remarks. By the late
Tho.nas Ra-wlins, Architect. On 51 Plates, Royal Quarto, il. is.
Crundtn's Con'venient and Ornamental Architecture ; consisting of Origi-
nal Designs for Plans, Elevations and Sections, oeginning with the
Farm-house, and regularly ascending to the most grand ;;nd magni-
dcent Villa ; calculated both for Town and Country, with Expla-
nation in Letter-press, and exact Scales. Engraved on 70 Cop-
per-plates, 16s. Boards
A Series of Plans, for Cottages or Habitations for the Labourer, either in
Hiisbandry or the Mechanic Arts, a.lipted as well to Towns as
to the Country. To which is pdded, an Introduction, containing
many irseful Observations on t!iis Class of building, tending to the
Con^fortof the Poor, and Advantage of the Builder ; with Calcula-
tioui of Expences, By the late Mr. J. IVood, of Bath, Architect.
A new Edition, corrected to the present Time, with 30 Plates, large
4.to. il. IS.
*I'he Country Gentlemati^s Architect, in a great Variety of New Designs
for Cottai^es, Farm- houses. Country-houses, Villas, Lodges for
Park Oi Garden Entrances, and ornamental wooden Gates, with
Plan:, of the Offices belonging to each Design ; distributed with
a stiicr Attention to Convenience, Elegance and Economy.
On 3a Quarto Plates. By f. Miller. Architect. Sewed, los. 6d.
Essays of the London Architectural Society. Octavo, 4 Plates. 7s,
Boards. Also the Second Part, 4 Plates, 8s. 6d.
Aikin's Essay on the Doric Order, 7 Plates, large Folio. 11. 5s.
Boards.
Fasi't
( 7 )
Fast's View of Rome, on 12 Sheets, 3I. 13s. 6d.
atrwvtus Entannicus, 3 Vols.
The Continuation to ditto, 2 Vols.
Cha^nber's (Sir fVilUam) Treatise on Civil Architecture, 3d. Edit.
Half bound, 4I. 4s.
Cbamber^s Buildings and Views of Kew Gardens. Half bound,
2I. lOS,
Chambers^s Designs for Chinese Buildings, Sec. Half bound, iL 11s. 6di
Chambers'' s Dissertation on Oriental Gardening, 4t;o. 9s.
^^^^0 Jones'^s Designs, by Kent, 2 vols, folio.
Giuilt on Arches, 8vo. Plates. C.
If^are on Arches, and their abutment Piers, octavo, 19 Plates. 18s.
ff^are^sRemaxiis on Theatres, octavo. 3 Plates. 7s.
Ativood on Arches, quarto, Two Parts. Plates j 8s.
Malion (James) Perspective, Quaito il. is.
Wood's Lectures on Perspective, vrith an Apparatus, il. 16s.
Fatness Plans, Elevations, &c. of Noblemen's Seats, &c. folio, » vols.
Half bound, Si. 8s.
The Archiuctiiral Antiquities of Athens, by Stuart, 3 vols, cf Rome,
Balbec, Palmyra, Poestum, Jonia, de la Grece, par Le Roy. Sec. &c,
NevJtans" Translation of Vitrwuius, 2 vols, folio.
NicbolsoH^s Frinciplrs of /Architecture, 3 vols. 8vo. 3I. 3s. boards.
A Treatise on 'iis-itres, including some Experiments on Hound, by C*
Saunders, Architect, with Plates, 4to. boards, i ^s.
SmeatorCs Description of the Edystone Lighthouse, Plates, folio.
Reports, by J Smeaton, Civil Engineer, 410. Vol. I, Boards, i8s»
Smeaton on Mills, Plates.
Gray'j Experienced Millwright. Folio, 44 Plates. 2I. as.
Imison^s Elements of Science and Art. a Vols. il. 5s.
Gregory's Treatise on Mechanics, 3 Vols, il, i6s.
Hutton's Course of Mathematics. 3 Vols. il. iis. 6d.
Pap-worth on the Dry Rot, 3s.
/?a«i^a// on the Dry Rot, 3s. *
Smart's Tables of Interest, Discount, Annuities, ^c. by Brandy
Quarto 12S.
Perronet sur les Fonts, 2 Tom.
Belidor, /' Architecture Hjdraulique, 4 Tom. Quarto.
Nowvelle Arch. Hydr antique, par Frony, 2 Tom.
Leupold Theairum Machinarum, 9 Parts, in 5 Vols. FoIio»
Piranesi's IVorks, complete, 23 Vols, large Folio.
R^afad's Ornaments of the Vatican, 3 Parts, Folio.
DuiiOJia'ir^
( 8 )
pictionaire d' Architecture, Civile, Militaire el Navale, f<tt Roland, i
Tom. Quarto, with loo Plates, al. izs. 6d.
Plans, Coupes, et Elevations des plus belles Maisons et des Hotels, i
Paris, et dans les Environs, avec des Ornaments, Folio, 120
Plates.
Durand Legons d" Architecture, Siuarto.
Durand Recueil et Parallele des Edifices Anctens et Modern^s. 9a very
large folio Plates.
IJenu Principles of Linear Perspective, or the Art of Designing on a
Plane, the representation of all Sorts of Objects in a more general
and simple Method than has been hitherto done, Illustrated by i j
Quarto Plates. By Dr. Brook Taylor, LL. D. and R. SS. The
Fourth Edition in 8vo. Price 14s. in boards.
Dr. Brook Taylor^ s Method of Perspective made easy both in Theory and
PraSiice ; in two Books : being an Attempt to make the Art of
Perspective easy and familiar, to adapt it entirely to the Arts of
Design, and to make it an entertaining Study to any Gentleman who
shall choose so Polite an Amusement. By Joshua Kirby. Illus-
trated with 35 Copper-plates. The third Edition, with several
Additions and Improvements. Elegantly printed on Imperial
Paper. Half Bound, 2I. 12s. 6d.
The Perspective of Architecture, a Work entirely new ; deduced from
the Principles of Dr. Brook Taylor, and performed by two Rules
of universal Application. Illustrated with 73 Plates. Begun by
Command of his present Majesty when Prince of Wales. By Joihua
Kirby. Elegantly printed on Imperial Paper. 3I. 3s. half bound.
The Description and Use of a neiv Instrument called the Architectonic See-
tor, by which any Part of Architecture may be drawn with Facility
and Exactness. By Joshua Kirby. Illustrated with 25 Plates j
elegantly printed on imperial Paper. Half bound, il. 16s.
The two Frontispieces, by Hogarth, to Kirby's Perspective, may be
had separate, each 5s.
Modern Finishings for Roo?ns, a Series of Desis;ns for Vestibules, Halls,
Stair Cases, Dressing Rooms, Boudoirs, L'braries, aud Drawing
Rooms, with their Doors, Chimney Pieces, and other finishings to
a large Scale, and the several Mouldmgs and Cornices at full Size,
showing their Construction and relative Proportions: to which are
added some Designs foi- Villas and Poi icos, with the Rules for
clrswing the Columns, &c. at large. The whole adapted for the
Use and Direction of every Person engaged in the practical Parts of
Building, by IV. F. Pocock, Architect, on 86 Plates, quarto, 2I. 2s.
bound.
'$he Studcvfs Instructor, in drawing and working the Five Orders of
Architecture ; fully explaining the best Methods of striking regular
and quirked Mouldings, tor diminishing and glueing of Columns
and Capitals, for Ending the true Di:i meter of an Order to any given
Height, for striking the Ionic Volute circular and elliptical, with
0nished Examples, on a large Scale, of the Orders, their Planceerss,
&c»
( 9 )
Bee. and some Designs for Door Cases, by Peter Nicholson, engraved
on ^ 1 Plates octavo, los. <>d. bound. A new Edition corrected
ana <ucii enlarge;!.
^he Carpenter'' s Neiv Guide, being a complete Book of Lines for Car-
pentry and Joinery, treating fully on Practi-al Geometry, Soffits,
Lines for Rofs and Domes, with a treat Variety of Designs for
Roofs, Trussed Girders, Floors, Dciies, B idges, &c. Stair-cases
and Han^-railsof various Constructions. Angle- Bars for Shop
Fronts, and Raking Mouldings, with many other Things entirely
new: the Whole foun 'ed ontr le Geometrical Principles, the The-
ory and Practice well explained and fully exemolified on 78 Copper-
Plates; iiici'i. ling sonv' Piactical Observations and Calculations on
the Strength of Timber, by P. Nicholson, 4to. 15s.
fbe Carpenter and Joiner^ s Assistant, containing Practical Rules for
making all Kinds of Joints, and various Methods of Hingeing them
together ; for hanging of Doors on strait or circular Plans ; for fit-
ting up Windows and Shutters to answer various Purposes, with
Rules for hanging them ; for the Construction of Floors, Partitions,
Soffits, Groins, Arches for Masonry : for constructing Roofs in
the best Manner from a given Quantity of Timber ; for placing of
Bond-Timbers ; with various Methods for adjusting Raking Pedi-
ments, enlarging and dimini--hing of Mouldings, taking Dimensions
for Joinery, and for setting out Shop Fronts ; with a new Scheme
for constructing Stairs and Hand-rails, and foi Stairs having a coni-
cal Well-hole, 6cc. &c. To which are added, Examples of Various
Roofs executed, with the Scantlings from actual Measurements,
with Rules for Mortices and Tenons, and for fixing Iron Straps, &c.
Also Extracts from M. Belidor, M. du Hamel, M. de Buifon, Sec,
on the Strength of Timber, with practical Observations. Illustra-
ted with 79 Plates, and copious Explanations, Ey Peter Nicholson'
Quaito il. is. bound. The third Edition, revised and corrected.
Paints British Palladia, or Builder^ s general Assistant ; demonstrating
in the most ea^y and practical Method, all the principal Rules of
Architecture, t; r; the Gn jnd Plan to the Ornamental Finish.
lliustnted with several new and useful Designs of Houses, with their
Plans, Elevations, ar.d Sections. Also clear and ample Instructions
annexed to each subject in Letter-press; with a List ot Prices for
Materials and Labour, and J>abour only. This Work ivill be uni-
tjersally useful to all Carpenters, Bricklayers, Masons, "Joiners, Plas-
terers, and others concerned in the se'veral Branches of Building, Sic.
The whole correctly engraved on 4.2 folio Copper-plates, from the
original Designs of fy'dliam and James Pain. Bound, 16s.
The Practical House Car/enter or Youth" s Instructor ; containing a great
Variet" (.' viseful Designs in Carpentry and Architecture ; as Cen-
tering for Groins, Niches, &c. Examples for Roofs, Sky-lights,
&c. The Five Or 'ers laid down by a New Scale. Mouldings, &c.
at large, witli their Enrichments. Plans, Elevations, and Sections
pf I'-^uses for .'own ;ind Countr)', Lodges, Hot-houses, Green-
houses, Stables, Sec. Design for a Church, with Plan, Elevation, and
, two Sections} an Altar-piece, and fulpit. resigns for Chimney-
pieces,
( 10 )
pieces. Shop Fronts, Dcior Cases. Section of a Dining-room srid
Library. Variety of Stair Cases, with many other important Articles
and useful Embellishments. To which is added, a List of Prices
for Materials and Labour, Labour only, and Bay Prices. The whole
iilustr.-itLc! and made perfectly easy by 14S quarto Copper-plates^
•with Explanations to each. By r/illiam Pain. The sixth Edi-
tion, with large Additions. i8s. bound.
N, B. This is PAII^^'s last Work.
The Carpenter's Pocket Directory: containing the best Methods of
framing Timbers of all Figures and Dimensions, with their several
Parts 5 as Floors, Kcofs in Ledgements, their Length and
Backings; Trussed Ro;f:, Spires, and Domes, Trussing Girders,
Partitions, ardBridr-i, with Abutments; Centering for Arches,
Vaults, &c. cutting Scone Ceilings, Groins, &c. with their
Moulds : Ceiitres for drawing Gothic Arches, Ellipses, &c. With
the Plan and Sections of a Barn. Engraved on 24 Plates, with
Explanations. By JV. Pain, Architect and Carpenter. Bound 5s.
^he Builder'' s Complete Assistant, or, a Library of Arts and Sciencesy
absolutely necessary to be understood by Builders and Workmen
in general, viz. 1. Arithmetic, vulgar and decimal, in whole Num-
bers and Fractions. 2. Geometry, Lineal, Superficial and Solid.
3. Architecture, universal. 4.. M nsuration. 5. Plain Trigono-
metry. 6. Surveying of Land, &c. 7. Mechanic Powers. 8.
Hydrostatics. Illustrated by above Thirteen Hundred Examples
of Lines, &c. also Methods for raising heavy Bodies, by the Force of
Levers, Pulleys, Axes in Peretrochio, Skrews, and Wedges ; as
also Water, by the common Pump, Crane, &c. wherein the Pro-
perties and Pre-sure cf the A'r on Water, &c. are explained.
Exernplified on 77 large 4.to Plates, by Batty Langley. The fourth
Edition, 2 Vols, royal Octavo. Bound 153.
Decorrtio/is for Parks and Gardens; Designs for Gates, Garden Seats,
Alcoves, Temples, Baths, Entrance Gates, Lodges, Facades,
Prospect Tf'Af'r?, Cattle SLeds, Ruins, Bridges, Green-houses,
&c. Sec. Also a He' -house, and Hot-wall, with Plans and Scales j
neatly engvavs don 35 Plates, octavo. 10s. 6d. sewed.
Designs iu Architecture consisting of Plans, Elevations, and Sections
for Temples, Baths, Cassinos, Pavilions, Garden Seats, Obelisks,
and o:;5,i Buildings; for decorating Pleasure-grounds, Parks,
Torests, &ic. Sec. hy John Soane, Engraved on 38 Copper- plates,
8vo. Sewed 6s.
■)
Grotesque Architecture, or Rural Amusement ; consistmg of Plans,
and Elevations, for Huts, Hermitages, Chinese, Gothic and Na-
tural Grottos, Moresque Pavillions, &c. many of which may be
executed with Flints, irregular Stones, rude Branches and Roots
of Trees ; containing 28 Designs, By IV. IFright, Octavo. Sewed,
4-3. 6d.
Ideas for Rustic Furniture, proper for Garden Chairs, Summer HoOses,
Hermitages, Cottages, &;c, engraved on 2 5 Plates, Octavo. Price 4.5,
Designs
(II)
Designs for Gates and Rai! , suitable to Parks, Pleasure- Grounds
Balconies. &c. Also 5 i,ie Designs for Trellis Work. On 27
Plates. By C. Mtddleton. Octavo, 6s.
The Carpenter's Treasure: a Collection of Designs for Temples, with
their Plans ; Gates, Doors, Rails, and Bridges, in the Gothic
Taste, with Centres st large for striking Gothic Curves and
Mouldings, and some Specimens of Rails in the Chinese Taste»
forming a complete System for Rural Decorations by N. IVallis,
Architect. j6 Plates, Octavo. Sew-d, as. 6d.
Gothic Architecture impro'ved, by Rules and Proportions in many grand
Designs of Ccdumns, Doers, Windows, Chimney-Pieces, Arcades,
Colonnades, Porticos, Umbrellas, Temples, Pavillions, &c. with
Plans, Elevations, and Profiles, geometi'icallv exemplJried. By
£. & T. Larigley. To which is added, an Historical Discourse on
Gothic Architecture. On 64 Plates Quarto. Bound 1 5s.
Thirty Capitals of Columns, with six Prises, from the 'Atiiique. En-
graved in Aquatinta by G. Richardson, on 18 Plates. 4.10. 15s.
Designs for Shop Fronts and Djor Cases, on 27 Plates. 4X0, los. 6d.
Designs for Monuments, including Gra<ve -stones, Compart mejits. Wall-
pieces, and Tombs. Elegantly engraved on 40 quarto Plates. Half
bound, i6s.
Designs for Chimney-Pieces, with Mouldings and Bases at large on 27
quai to Plates, los. 6d.
Outlines of Designs for Shop Fronts and Door Cases, with the
Mouldings at large, and Enrichments to each Design. Engraved
on 24 Plates. Quarto, 5s.
The Builder's Pocket Treasure, in which not only the Theory, but the
PiacT cal Parts of Architecture are carefully explained, and cor-
rectly engraved on 55 Copper Plates, with printed Explanations to
each, by William Pain ; Octavo, Bound, 6s.
Langleys Builder's Directory, or Bench Mate ; being a Pocket
Treasury of the Grecian, Roman, and Gothic Orders of Archi-
tecture, made easy to the meanest Capacity, by near 500
Examples, engraved on 1 84 Copper Plates izmo. Bound, 4s. 6d.
Lan^ley's Builder's Jeivel, Bound, 5s.
Hanvney's Complete Measurer, a new Edition, much improved, 4s. 6d,
Hoppus's Measurer. Tables ready cast. 3s. 6d.
Plate Glass Book. 4s.
The Joiner and Cabinet-maker's Darling; containing sixty different
Designs for all Sorts of Fr.;ts, Friezes, &c, Stwed 3s.
The Carpmtef s Companion; containing 33 Designs for all Sorts of
Chinese Railing and Gates. Octavo. Sewed, as.
The Carpenter's Complete Guide to the wliole System of Gothic
Raii.ngj containing 32 Designs, with Scales to each. Octavo
§ewed, 2s,
A Geometrical
_f 12 )
A Geometrical Fie-iv of ibs Five Orders of Columns in Architecture
adjusted by aliquot Parts ; whereby the meanest Capacity, by-
Inspection, may delineate and work an entire Order, or any Part,
of any Magnitude required. On a large Sheet, is.
Elevation of the Ne=w Bridge at Black Friars, with the Plan of the
Foundation and Superstructure, hy R. Baldzui/z; jz Inches by
48 Inches, 5s.
flctns. Elevations, and Sections of the Machines and Centering used
in erecting Black Friars Bridge; drawn and engraved by R.
Baldujin, Clerk of the Work 5 on 7 large Plates, with Explanations,
JOS. 6d.
Elevation of the Stone bridge built over the Severn at Shretvsbury 5
with the Plan of the Foundation and Superstructure, elegantly
engraved by Rooker. is. 6d.
A Treatise on Building in V/aier. By G. Semple. Quarto, with 63
Plates. Sewed i6s.
Plans, Elevation and Sections of the curious Wooden Bridge at
Schafhausen in Switzerland, built in 1760 bv Ulric Grubenman^
and lately destroyed by the French. 19 Inches by 29, Price I2S»
coloured, witli a descriptive Account in Letter-Piess.
Perspective View of the proposed Iron Bridge at London, of
600 Feet Span ; by Teford. Size 4 Feet by 2 Feet, Coloured 2I. as.
London and Westminster Improved. Illustrated by Plans. By John
Gv;j7in, Architect. Boards 6s.
Observations on Brick Bond, as practised at various periods ; con-
taining an Investigation of the best Disposition of Bricks in
a Wall, for profring the greatest possible Strength j with
Figures represT.tin;^ the dilTerent Modes of Construction, Octavo is.
Ihe Bricklayer s Guide to the Mensuration of all Sorts of Brick Work,
according to tlie London Practice : With Observations on the Causes
and Cure of Siro^ky Chimnies, the Formation of Dniins, and the
best Construction of Ovens, to be heated with Coals. Also, a
Variety of Practical and Useful Information on this important
Branch of the Building Art. Illustrated by various Fis-^ires and
Nine Copper Plates. By T. W. Dearn, Architect. Octavo,
7s. Ika.'d-.
Tables -y)- ibe Purchasing of Estates, Freehold, Copyhold, or Lease-
hold, Annuities, &c. and for the renewing of Leases held under
Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or other Corporate Bodies, for
Terms or Years certain, and for Lives. Together with several
useful and interesting Tables, connected with the subject. Also
the Five Tables of compound Interest. By W. Invjood, Architect
and Surveyor. In small Octavo for a Pocket Book, Price 7s.
sewed, or in Boards.
B00K5
( 13 )
BOOKS OF ORNAMENTS, &c.
jI ColleSiioK of Designs for Modern Embellishments suitable to Par-
lours, Dining and Drawing Rooms, Folding Doors, Chimney
Pieces, Varandas, Frizes, &c. By C. A. Busby, Archiie£i ; neatly
engraved on 24 Plates, 14. of which are elegantly coloured ; large
Quarto. Price il. us. 6d,
Designs for the Decoration of Rooms in the various Styles of
modern Embellishment. With Pilasters and Frizes at large. On
20 folio Plates, Drawn and Etched by G. Cooper, Draftsman and
Decorator, il. is.
Some Copies coloured according to the original Drawings shew
the full Effect of the Rooms when finished. 4I. 4s.
Ornaments Displayed, on a full Size for working, proper for all Car-
vers, Painters, &c. containing a Variety of accurate Examples of
Foliage and Frizes, elegantly engraved in the Manner of Chalks,
©n 33 large Folio Plates. Sewed 15s.
A Nenu Book of Ornaments ; containing a Variety of elegant Designs
for modern Pannels, commonly executed in Stucco, Wood, or
Painting, and used in Decorating pnacipai Rooms. Drawn and
etched by P. Columbani. Quarto. Sewed, 7s. 6d.
A Variety of Capitals, Frizes, and Cornices } how to increase or decrease
them, still retaining the same Proportion as the Original. Like-
vvise l^ Designs for Chimney-pieces: On 12 Plates, drawn and
etched by P. Columbani. Folio, Sewed, 63.
Tbe Principles of draaving Ornaments made easy, by proper Examples
of Leaves for Mouldings, Capitals, Scrolls, Husks, Foliage, &c.
Engraved in Imitation of Drawings, on 1 6 Platen, with Instruc-
tions for learning without a Master. Particularly useful to Carvers,
Cabinet- makers^ Stucco-workers, Painters, Smiths, and every one
concerned in Ornamental Decorations. By an Artist. Quarto.
Sewed, 4s. 6d.
Ornamental Iron Work, or Designs in the present Taste, for Fan-
lights, Stair-Case Railing, Window Guard irons, Lamp-Irons,
Palisades, and Gate:. Wirh a Scheme for adjusting Designs witk
Facility and Accurncy to any Slope. Engraved on 21 Plates.
Quarto. Sewed 6s.
A neiu Book of Ornaments, by S. Aiken, on 6 Plates, sewed, %s. 6d.
Lainfs new Book of Ornaments. Sewed, 2s.
*sA Book of Vases, by T, La'vo. Sewtd, is.
•*A Book of Vases, by P. Columbani. Sewed, 2s.
A new Book of Eighteen Vases, Modern and Antique, zs.-
A Book of Vases from the Antique, on 12 Plates, 2s.
An interior View of Durham Cathedral, and a View of the elegant
Gothic Sbritie in the same. Elegantly engraved on two large Sheets.
Size 19 by 22. The Pair 12s.
^n exterior and interior Vii;W of St. Giles's Church in th^ Fields^
engraved by Walker. Size 18 Inches by 15. The Pair 5s.
A north-
( 14 )
A north-west View of Greenwich Church, is.
An elegant engraved View of Shoreditch Church, 38 Inches by
ao, 3s.
An elegant engraved View of the Momimetit at London, with the
Parts geometrically; Size 21 by 33 Inches, from an Original,
by Sir C. Wren, 7s. 6d.
Sir Chr'utopher Wren's Plan for rebuilding the City of London after the
great Fire, 1666. is.
West Elevation of York Minster, elegantly engraved from a Draw-
ing by Janies Malton, Price 15s.
The Building Act of the \.\th Geo, III. with Plates shewing the proj>er
Thickness of Party Walls, External V/ails, and Chimneys. A
compltce Index, List of Surveyors and their Residence, Sec. In a
small Pocket Size. Sewed, 3s. _
>I. B. The Notice and Certificate required by the above Afl-,
may be had printed with blank Spaces for filling up. Price 2d. each
or 13 for as.
Curr's Coal Viewer and Engine Builder's Practical Companion.
Qu^arto al. 12s. Gd.
Sn!eato?i's Experiments on Under shot ar,d Over-shot Water Wheels,
Sec. Octavo, with five Plates. Boards.
Exoerimental Enquiries concerning the Principle of the lateral
Communication of Mation in Fluids ; applied to the Explanation
of vailous Hydraulic Phenomena. By J. P. (''entiiri. Translated
from the French, by IV. Nlchshcn, with Plates, 3s.
A Treatise on the Teetb of IVkeels, Pinions, &c. ^lemonftrating the
best Form which can be given them for the various Purposes of Ma-
chinery; such as Mill-work, Clock- work. Sec, and the Art of finding
their Numbers, translated from the French of M. Camus, with Addi-
tions, illustrated by 15 Phtes, Octavo, iss. 6d.
Experiments and Observations made with a View of improving the
Art of composing and applying Calcareous Cements, and of preparing
Quick Lime; wi'ih the Theory of these Arts. By£. Higgins, M. D.
Price 5s. Boards.
A General History of Inland Na'vigatio^i, Foreign a;hi Domestic ; containing
a Coniple'e Account of the Canals already executed in England; nxitb
Ccnvi derations ontkcse projeSied, to ivliich are added. Practical Obser-
ijations. AneivEdit. Octavo los. Cd. Boards.
A Map of England, shewing the Lines of the Canals executed,
those proposed, and the navigable Pavers, coloured. On a large
Sheet, 5s.
ji Treatise on the Improvement of Canal Navigation, exhibiting the nu-
merous Advantages to be derived fiom Small Canals and Boats
of two to five Feet wide, contaming from two to five Tons
Burthen ; with a Description of the Machinery for facilitating
Conveyance by Water, through the most mountainous Countries,
independem of Locks and Aqueducts j including Observations
- f«-
( 15 )
on the great Importance of Water Communications ; with
Thoughts on, and Designs for, Aqueducts and Bridges of Iron
and Wood. By R. Fuliofi, Engineer. With 17 Plates. Qu^arto
Boards, 18s.
Ohserziatiotis on the various Systems of Cnncd Na^u'i^ation, with In«"
ferences practical and mathematical, in which Mr. Falton''s Plaa
of Wheel Boats, and the Utility of subterraneous and small
Canals are particularly investigated ; including an Account of the
Canals and inclined Planes of China, with 4. Plates. By W, Cha^^maiit
Civil Engineer. Quarto. 6s. sewed.
Remarkal:>le Ruins and Romantic Prospects of North Brit?.i<i, with
ancient Monuments and singular Subjects of Natural History,
bythe/?^'z^. C.Cordiner, of Banif, with soo Plates, elegantly en-
graved by Mazeil. 2 Vols. Quarto. 5I. 5s. Boards.
A new Collection of loo Views in Rome and its Vicinity, neatly
engraved by Pronti, Quarto, Price il. is.
A Treatise on Painting, by Leonardo da Find. Faithfully translated
from the original Italian, and now first digested under proper
Heads, By J. F. Rigaud, Esq. R. A. Illustrated with 23 Copper
Plates and other Figures. To which is piehxsd, a r.ew Life of the
Author, drawn up from authentic Materials till now inaccessible,
by J. S. Haivkins, Esq^ F. A. S. Octavo; 9s. 6d. Boards j on
Royal Paper, 1 3s. GA. Boards.
Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape -Gardeuingf
including some Remarks on Grecian and Gothic Architecture ;
collected from various Manuscripts in the Possession of the dif-
ferent Noblemen and Gentlemen for whose Use they were originally
written. The whole tending to establish fixed Principles in the re-
speftive Arts. By//. Repton, Esq. Elegantly printed in large Quarto
and illustrated with many Plates.
An Enquiry into the Changes of Taste in Landscape Gardening,
to which are added some Observations on its Theory and Practice
including a Defence of the Art. By H. Repton, Esq. Octavo 5s.
•Hitits for Picturesque Improvements in Ornamented Cottages and
their Scenery ; including some Observations on the Labourer and
his Cottage. Illustrated by Sketches, by E. Bartetl, Juit, large
Octavo, Boards, los. 6d.
Cromer considered as a watering Place, with Observations on the
Picturesque Scenery in its Neighbourhood, by E, kartell, Jun. with
two Views and a Map. 0«il:avo 8s. Boards.
The Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, displayed in a Series of
Select Engravings, representing the most beautiful, curious, and in-
tereftiiig ancient Edifices la this Country, with an historical and
descriptive Account of each Subject, by John Brition.
Of thisVV^ork, one Part, contau.ing 7, or 8 Plates, will be published
every 3 Months, in Qiuarto, Price los, 6d j on large Paper i6s.
Twenty-seven Parts are published.
The Fine Arts of ihc English School, comprising a Series of highly
finished Engravings from paintings, Sculpture, and Architecture,
f "5 ^ .
by the most eminent English Artists, with Historical, Critical,' and
Biographical Letter-press, edited by /. Britton, F. S. A. price each
Part containing 5 Plates, on Elephant, quarto, il. is, on Atlas,
quarto, il. 16s. Two Parts are published.
Ohservations on English /Irchitecture, Military, Ecclesiastical, artd
Civil, compared with similar Buildings on the Continent ; including
a critical Itinerary of 0;^or</ and Cambridge: also Historical Notices
of Stained Glass, Ornamental Gardening, &c. with Chronological
Tables, and Dimensions of Cathedrals and Conventual Churches,
by the Rev, James Dallawaj, M. B. F. S, A* Royal Octavo^
22s. Boards.
A COLLECTION of DESIGNS for Household Furniture and
interior Decoration, in the most approved and elegant Taste, viz.
Curtains, Draperies, Beds, Cornices, Chairs and Sofas for Parlors,
Libraries, Drawing Rooms, &c. Library Fauteuils, Seats, Ottomans,
Chaise Longue, Tables for Libraries, Writing, Work, Dressing, Scd
Sideboards, Celerets, Book-cases, Screens, Candelabri, Chiffoniers,
Commodes, Pier Tables, Wardrobes, Pedestals, Glasses, Mirrors,
Lamps, Jariliniers, &c. with various Designs for Rooms, Geometri-
cal and in Perspective, shewing the Decorations, Adjustment of the
Furniture, and also some ger^ral Observations, and a Description of
each Plate. By George ^jmith, Upholder Extraordin ry to his
Royal Highness the Prince of Wales. Elegantly engraved on 158
Plates, with Descriptions. Royal Quarto, Price 4.I. 14s. 6d. in
Boards, and elegantly coloured 7I. 17s. 6d.
The Parts may be had Separate, each containing 50 Plates, price
il. lis. 6d. each, or elegantly colouied 2I. 12s. (id.
Designs for Household Furniture, exhibiting a Variety of Elegant and
Useful Patterns, in the Cabinet, Chair, and Upholstery Branches,
By the late T. Sheraton. On 84 Plates, F'ilio.
Mechanical Exercises j or, the Elements and Practice of Carpentry*
Joinery, Bricklaying, Masonry, Slating, Plastering, Painting,
Smithing, and Turning. Containing a full Description or' the
Tools belonging to each Branch of Business, and copious Directions
for their Use : with an Explanation of the Terms used in each Art j
and an Introduction to Practical Geometry. Illustrated by J9f,
Plates. By Peter Nicholson. Octavo, 18s. Boards, 21 s» Bound.
FINIS.
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11